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r 


THE 


ENCYCLOPEDIA  BRITAXXICx\ 


DICTIONARY 


OF 


Arts,  Sciences,  and  General  Literature 


(  1 
.^ ' 


THE  R.  S.  PEALE  REPRINT 

WTTTI  NSW  MAPS  AND  ORIGINAL  AMERICAN  ARTICLES  BY  EMINENT  WRITERS 


WITH  AMERICAN  REVISIONS  AND  ADDITIONS 

By  W  H.  DePUY,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
Bringing  Each  Voltme  L'p  to  Date. 


\'OLUME  III 


OHICAGO 
R."  S.  PEALE  COMPANY 

1892. 


» 


to 

f 


708G66 


Encyclopaedia    Britannica. 

Vol.  ,  III. — (ATH-BOi). 

Total  number  of  Articles,  980. 

PRINCIPAL    CONTENTS. 

ATHENS.     Rev.  Edwakd  L.  Hicks,  M.A.,  Fellow  of  Corpas  Christ!  College,  Oxford. 

ATHLETIC  SPOKTS.     H.  F.  Wilkin.son,  one  of  the  Editors  of  "The  Field." 

ATLANTIC.     William  B.  Cakpentek,  M.D.,  C.B.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

ATMOSPHERE.     Alex.  Bucuan,  Secretary  of  the  Meteorological  Society  of  Scotland. 

ATOM.     J.  Clerk  MAXwr.].!.,  D.C.L.,  E.R.S.,  late  Professor  of  Experimental  Pliysics,  University  of  Cambridge, 

ATTICA.     Rev.  Uenky  F.  Tozeb,  M.  A.,  F.B.G.S.,  Author  of  "  Geography  of  Greece." 

ATTRACTION.     Prof.  G.  Clerk  Maxwell. 

AUGUSTAN  HISTORY.     Richard  GAn.NEjT,  LL.D. 

AUGUSTINE.     Very  Kev.  Principal  Tulloof 

AUGUSTUS.     Very  Rev.  Charles  Merivale,  D.C.L.,  D.D.,  Dean  of  Ely. 

AUSTRALIA.     R.  Acton. 

AUSTRIA.     David  Kay,  F.R.G.S.. 

AXIOM.     G.  Croom  Robertson,  Professor  of  Logic,  University  College,  London. 

BABYLONIA.     Rev.  A.  H.  Sayce,  M.A.,  Deputy  Professor  of  Comparative  Philology,  University  of  Oxford. 

BACON.     Robert  Adamson,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Political  Economy,  Owens  College,*Manche3ter. 

BAGHDAD.    Major-General  Sir  IIfnuy  C.  Rawlinson,  K.C.B.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 

BAKING.      James  Paton,  Corporation  Galleries  of  Art,  Glasgow. 

BALANCE.     William  Dittmar,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  Anderson's  College,  Glasgow. 

BALANCE  OF  POWER.     Henbv  Reeve,  C.B.,  Registrar  of  H.M.  Privy  Council. 

BALLADS      Andrew  Lang,    Author  of  "  Helen  of  Troy." 

BALLOT.     W.  C.  Smith,  LL.B.,  Advocate. 

BALTIC.     Dr  Carpenter,  C.B. 

BANKING.     Leonard  H.  Courtney,  M.P. 

BANKRUPTCY.     Edijund  Robertsou,  LL.D.,  M.P.,  Professor  of  Roman  Law,  University  College,  Loudon  ; 
(American  Law)  J.  Lowell. 

BAPTISM.     Prof:  T.  M.  Lindsay,  D.D 

BAPTISTS.     Rev.  F.  W.  Gotoh,  LL.D. 

BARB.iDOS.     J.  L.  Ohlson,  Secretaiy  to  West  India  Committee,  London. 

BAROMETER.     Alex.  Buchan,  F.R.S.E. 

BARRACKS.     CoL  Chas.  B.  Ewabt.  C.B.,  Deputy  Director  of  Works  for  Barracks. 

BASILICA.     Rev.  Canon  Venables. 

BATHS.     Dr  John  Maopherson,  Author  of  "  Baths  and  Wells  of  Europe." 

BATTLE.     Col.  Charles  Chesney,  R.E. 

BEARD.     John  Doran,  Ph.D.,  late  Editor  of  "  Notes  and  Queries." 

BEAUMONT  and  FLETCHER.     Algernon  Charles  Swinburne. 

BECHWANA.     Rev.  Dr  Moffat. 

BEE.     John  Hunter,  late  Hon.  Secretary  British  Bee-Keeper's  Association. 

BEETHOVEN.     F.  Huefker,  Author  of  "  Wagner  and  the  Music  of  the  Future.' 

BELGIUM.     David  Kay,  F.R-G.S. 

BELL.     Rev.  H.  R.  Haweis,  M.A.,  Author  of  "  Music  and  Morals." 

BELLINI.     Prof.  Sidkby  Colvin,  University  of  Cambridge. 

BELLOWS.-    A.  B.  MacDo-.vall,  London. 

BENGAL.     Hon.  W.  W.  Hunter,  LL.D.,  Director-General  of  Statistics  to  the  Government  of  India. 

BENTHAJI.     T.  E.  Holland,  M.A.,  B.C.L.,  Chiehele  Professor  of  International  Uw  Oxford. 

BENTLEY.     Rev.  Mark  Pattison,  late  Rector  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford. 

BERKELEY.     Prof  I^obert  Adamson,  Owens  College,  Manchester. 

BERLIN.     Rev.  G.  P.  Davies. 

BEZIQUE     Henry  Jones  ("  Cavendish  "). 

BIBLE.      Professor  W.  Robertson  Smith,  LL.D. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.     E.  Fairfax  Taylor. 

BILLIARDS.     G.  F.  Pardon  ("Capt  Crawley"). 

BIOLOGY.     Prof.  Huxley  and  W.  T.  Thistleton  Dyer,  F.R.S. 

BiTlDS.     Prof.  W.  K.  Parker,  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  Loudon  ;  and  Prof.  Alvkku  Ni'.votok 

BIRMINGHAM.     J.  T.  Bunce,  Editor  "  Birmingham  Daily  Post" 

BISHOP.     Sir  Travers  Twiss,  Q.C. 

BISMUTH.     H.  Bauerman,  Fellow  of  the  Geological  Society. 
\'1LACK  SEA.     Dr  Carpenter,  C.B. 
BL^i,'^CHINO.    -James  Paton. 
BUND    '     ^'  '''  Campbeli.,  fioyal  Normal  College  for  the  Blind. 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA    BRITANNICA. 


ATHENS 


ATHENS  ('A^^iai,  AniENyE)  was  the  name  of  as  many 
as  nine  towns  in  various  parts  of  the  Grecian  world, 
among  which  AthencE  Diades,  in  the  N.W.  of  Euba'a,  a 
town  belonging  to  the  Athenian  confederation,  is  worthy  of 
mention.  But  it  was  the  capital  of  Attica  which  invested 
Hie  name  of  Athens  with  an  undying  charm  for  the  poet, 
the  artist,  the  philosopher,  the  historian,  for  all  time.  It 
13  situated  in  long.  23°  44'  E,,  lat.  37°  58'  N.,  towards  the 
south  of  the  central  plain  (Tnhiov)  of  Attica,  about  4J 
miles  from  the  harbour  of  Pira?eu3,  and  nearly  4  from 
the  Day  of  Phalerum.  The  survey  of  Pausanias  (i.  2-30), 
when  compared  with  existing  remains,  and  supplemented 
by  the  numerous  incidental  notices  of  ancient  authors, 
enables  us  to  form  a  more  perfect  conception  of  the  topo- 
praphy  of  ancient  Athens  than  of  any  other  Greei:  c'ty. 
Iiocent  excavations  have  added  greatly  to  our  knowledge 
of  it,  and  the  literature  of  the  subject  is  very  extensive  (tee 
p.  1 1,  infra).  Our  object  in  this  irticle  will  be  to  treat  of 
the  topography  of  Athens  from  an  historical  point  of  view, 
and  to  show  how  the  rise,  the  greatness,  the  decline  of  t'ae 
city  may  be  read  in  the  history  of  its  buildings. 

There  seems  little  reason  to  doubt  that  the  earliest  setl  le- 
nient on  Athenian  soil  was  upon  the  cliff  afterwards  famous 
as  the  Acropolis.  Such  is  the  e.xrress  statement  of 
Thucydides  (ii.  15),  who  observes  that  the  Acropolis  v^as 
commonly  termed  at  Athens  /}  x-o'Xi?,  much  as  the  oldest 
part  of  London  is  styled  "  The  City."  The  earliest  inhabi- 
tants appear  to  have  been  Pelasgians  ;  and  though  it  was 
the  boast  of  the  Athenians  that  they  alone  of  all  Greek 
states  were  indigenous  {avT6\0ovt>i),  yet  their  town  would 
from  the  first  have  received  accessions  from  various  parts 
of  the  continent,  the  peaceful  poverty  of  Attica  aflbrding 
a  welcome  refuge  in  those  early  and  unsettled  times 
(Thucyd.,  i.  2).  The  most  accessible  portion  of  the  Acro- 
polis is  the  western  side,  where  it  is  joined  by  a  neck  of 
hill  to  the  Areopagus.  On  this  side  there  existed  down 
to  later  times  the  remains  of  fortifications  built  by  the 
earliest  inhabitants,  with  nine  doorways,  one  within  the 
other,  called  to  IlfXao-yiKoi-,  or  to  'EmaTrvXav.  This  fort 
protected  the  only  entrance  to  the  citadel,  which  waa 
surrounded  by  a  wall,  and  artificially  levelled  for  the  recep- 
tion of  buildings.  Within  this  fortified  enclosure  stood  the 
ihfiiic  of  Athena  I'^l.a^  (Homer,  Ili'jui,  ii.   440  ;    Odyssey, 

i     1 


vii.  81),  afterwards  known  as  the  Erechtheium, — and  an 
altar  of  Zeus  Polieus,  where  the  strange  sacrifices  of  the 
Dipolia  were  celebrated.  A  Prytaneium,  containing  the 
hearth-fire  of  the  state,  and  seri-ing  as  the  residence  of  the 
king,  would  bo  another  indispensable  feature  in  the 
primitive  town.  But  while  the  king  and  some  of  the  most 
sacred  families  probably  had  dwellings  within  the  fortress 
itself,  Thucydides  (ii.  15)  points  Out  that  a  great  part  of 
the  early  population  dwelt  outside  its  Walls,  under  tlie 
south  side  of  the  cliff,  p,robably  without  fortification,  but 
retiring  to  the  citadel  in  times  of  peril.  In  this  quarter, 
towards  the  Ilissus,  stood  the  oldest  Athenian  sanctuary 
of  Dionysus,  in  a  region  called  Ai'/zfoi,  from  having  btrn 
literally  a  marsh  in  early  times.  Not  far  off,  and  nearer 
the  stream,  stood  the  temple  of  Zeus  Olympius,  said  to 
be  founded  by  Deucalion  (Pausan.,  i.  18),  of  which  mere- 
will  be  said  presently,  the  precinct  of  Gsea  Olympia,  and 
other  sacred  places.  Here  also  -was  the  fountain  cf 
Callirrhoe,  afterwards  ornamented  by  the  Pisistratids,  a:.'i 
called  Enneacrunus,  the  water  of  which  was  sought  for 
sacred  purposes  long  after  the  city  had  outgrown  thes» 
early  limits  (Thucyd.,  ii.  15).  The  region  we  have  beea- 
describing  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  later  city,  and 
thereft)re,  at  the  subdivision  of  all  Attica  into  demcs,  this 
quarter  was  distinguished  by  the  name  Ki;8a(?>}iaioi'. 

To  the  west  of  the  Acropolis  there  extends  from  N.  to 
S.  a  range  of  hills,  the  three  most  prominent  heights  of 
which  are  commonly  known  respectively  as  the  Hill  of  the 
Nymphs,  the  Pnyx,  and  the  Museium, — the  Nymphs'  Hill 
being  separated  from  the  Acropolis  by  the  Areopagus, 
which  intervenes  between.  Everywhere  upon  the  slopes  Early  rork- 
of  the  hills  just  mentioned  traces  have  lately  been  dis-  d»c'J:oga. 
covered  of  ancient  dwellings  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock. 
But  while  all  these  rock-dwellings  are  extremely  ancient, 
yet  some  appear  less  primitive  than  others;  it  is  remarked 
that  those  which  exist  on  the  Areopagus  and  on  the  hill- 
sides nearest  to  the  Acropolis  are  of  a  smaller  and  ruder 
type,  those  more  distant  from  the  citadel  being  somewhat 
more  convenient  in  plan  and  extent.  Legend  declares  tho' 
Athenians  to  have  originally  dwelt  in  rock-hewn  caves 
(Dyer's  Alhenn,  ch.  i.),  and  it  would  seem  that  primitive. 
Athens  gradually  extended. itself  from  the  Acropolis  in; 
this  W.  and  S.W.  direction.     This  quirtPi-  wa"  afterwards 


ATHENS 


Tliesean 
Mis, 


Altar  of 
tbeSemix 


I.eocorium. 


Early  city 
wall 


The  Pi«U- 
tratida. 


Olympium 


tTiown  as  tlie  intramural" deme  of  Melit«,  a  name  derived, 
j>erhaps,  from  the  balm  which  then  grew  there  (the  cvuJJt;! 
^itAiVtia  of  Theocr.,  iv.  25).'  The  histtirian  £  Curtius 
{Attisclie  Studien,  pt.  i.)  has,  indeed,  gone  so  far  as  to 
regard  these  rock-dwellings  as  earlier  than  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  Acropolis  itself^  But  the  contrary  opinion  of 
Thucydides  is  worth  sometjiing,  and  the  natural  strength 
of  the  Acropolis  would  make  it  the  most  obvious  spot  for 
primitive  occupation.  Accordingly,  we  shall  not  be  giving 
too  free  a  licence  to  our  imagination  if  we  conceive  of 
primitive  Athens  as  a  twofold  settlement,  partly  on  the 
Acropolis  and  the  low  ground  at  its  southern  foot,  and 
partly  upon  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  hills  on  the  west.  It 
may  even  have  been  the  consolidation  of  these  two  villages 
into  one  township  that  gave  rise  to  the  legend  ascribing  to 
Theseus  the  cnii'oiK«r/xd5  or  consolidation  of  Attica.  It 
would  be  natural  for  legend  to  assign  to  one  definite  time, 
and  connect  with  one  great  mythical  name,  that  process  of 
unification  which  probably  was  as  gradual  as  it  was 
spontaneous.  As  the  population  of  the  early  town  con- 
tinued to  increase,  two  more  districts  seem  to  have  been  in- 
corporated— CoUytus,  extending  from  the  east  of  Melite, 
between  the  Acropolis  and  Areopagus,  and  Cerameicus,  or 
the  "  Potters' quarter  "  ("Tuileries"),  which  extended  from 
the  fame  two  hills  towards  the  north  and  north-west.  The 
regions  we  have  now  described  appear  to  have  made  up 
the  Athens  of  Solonian  times.  The  earliest  historical 
event  which  illustrates  Athenian  topography  is  the  rising 
of  Cylon  (Herod.,  v.  71  ;  Thucyd.,  i.  126  ;  Pausa'h.,  i.  28). 
The  narratives  of  that  event  imply  that  the  Acropolis  was 
already  fortified  by  the  Enneapylum,  that  the  Areopagus 
~as  already  the  seat  of  the  court  which  bore  its  name  (see 
AreopagCo),  and  that  near  the  entrance  of  the  citadel 
stood  ah  altar  of  the  Semnse,  or  Furies,  at  which  Cylon 
and  his  partisans  were  slain.  This  altar  has  been  immor- 
talised by  jEschylus  in  the  splendid  conclusion  of  the 
Eumenides.  Another  sacred  spot  in  early  Athens  must 
have  been  the  Leocorium,  where  Hipparchus  was  assassin- 
ated (Thucyd.,  i.  20  ;  vi.'  57).  This  was  a  shrine  erected  in 
honour  of  the  daughters  of  Leo,  who  were  sacrificed  by 
their  father  to  Athena,  in  order  to  avert  a  pestilence. 
■The  nature  of  the  legend  testifies  to  the  antiquity  of  the 
site.  The  words  of  Thucydides  respecting  Cylon  imply 
that  the  early  city  was  already  surrounded  by  a  ring-wall, 
and  this  probably  remained  intact  until  the  invasion  of  the 
Persians,  although  the  buildings  within  the  walls  under- 
vrent  great  alteration  and  improvements  under  the  govern- 
li:ent  of  Pisistratus  and  his  sons. 

The  reign  of  the  Pisistratids  was  recognised  by  the 
ancients  as  marking  an  important  era  in  Athenian  topo- 
f-raphy.  We  have  already  mentioned  the'  fountain  of 
Enneacrunus  as  being  built  by  them.  It  was  Pisistratus 
who  laid  the  foundations  of  the  great  temple  of  Zeus 
Olynipius  upon  the  ancient  site  above  mentioned.  His 
magnificent  design  had  an  eventful  history  :  left  unfinished 
by  its  author,  the  Athenians,  perhaps  from  dislike  to 
the  "tyrant,"  made  no  effort  to  complete  it  At  length, 
after  receiving  additions  from  various  foreign  princes,  it 
was  completed  by  Hadrian  (c.  130  a.d.),  and  formed  the 
grandest  edifice  in  the  region  of  the  city  which,  in  acknow- 
ledgment of  the  imperial  munificence,  was  called  Uadrian- 
opolis.  The  Olympium  was  one  of  the  largest  temples  in 
the  world  ;  but  of  its  124  Corinthian  columns  only  15  are 
now  standing.     The  Pythium,  or  sanctuary  of  the  Pythian 

'  Many  of  tlio  nnmen  of  the  Attic  dcmes,  and  Indeed  of  Greek  local 
ramM  eT«rywhcre,  were  derived  from  planta  and  llowora  ;  ace  Toier'a 
LtctuTtM  m  th4  Ongraphy  of  Oretce,  p.  388 :  "  The  most  plausible 
<)erlJation  that  ha«  been  luggtited  for  the  name  'ASSn"  l»  from  46-, 
tne  mot  of  iivBot,  a  flower  ;  and  Lobeclc  proposed  to  traDsiato  it  by 
'.nor^,(ia.'"_tV6,<i,,p.  icn. 


Apallo  near  the  Olympium,  was  also  ascribed  to  Pisis- 
tratus, whose  grandson  and  namesake  dedicated  an  altai 
within  it  (Thucyd.,  vL  54).  To  Pisistratus  was  ascribed 
the  founding  of  the  Lyceium,  or  temple  of  ApoUoLyceius,  i.r^r. 
which  stood  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ilisaus,  &  short 
distance  from  the  city.  The  names  both  of  "Pericles  and 
Lycurgus  the  orator  are  also  associated  with  this  boilding ; 
yet  it  is  net  known  who  added  the  g)Tnnasium  close  by, 
which  afterwards  became  famous  as  the  favourite  haunt  of 
Aristotle,  and  the  birthplace  of  the  Peripatetic  philosophy. 
The  yet  more  famous  seat  of  the  rival  philosophy  seems 
also  to  have  owed  something  to  the  Pisistratids,  for 
Hipparchus  was  said  to  have  enclosed  the  Academy  with  a  Ai^iemy 
wall.  This  was  a  gymnasium  surrounded  by  pleasant 
gardens  lying  to  the  N.  of  the  city,  about  a  mile  from 
the  Dipylum  gate.  It  owes  aU  its  fame,  of  course,  to  its 
connection  with  Plato,  who  lived,  taught,  and  was  buried 
there.  This  site,  so  full  of  glorious  memories,  cannot  now 
be  identified  with  certainty.  Its  trees,  like  those  of  the 
Lyceium,  were  despoiled  by  Sulla  to  make  implements  of 
war.  The  name  of  Pisistratus  is  connected  with  another  Tie  Agor» 
important  site.  Professor  E.  Curtius  [Attische  S/udim,  pt. 
2),  supposes  that  the  most  ancient  Athenian  market  lay  on 
the  S.  of  the  Acropolis,  and  that,  the  Pisistratids  superseded 
it  by  a  new  market  at  the  northern  foot  of  the  Areopagus. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  we  are  sure  that,  as  early  as  their  times, 
this  site  formed  the  centre  of  Athenian  commercial  and 
civic  life.  The  narrow  valley  between  the  Pn}'x  Hill  and 
the  Areopagus,  where  older  topographers  placed  the 
Agora,  is  not  a  spacious  enough  site  for  the  purpose.  The 
obviotis  locality  for  an  Agora  would  be  the  rectangular 
space  enclosed  by  the  Areopagus  on  the  S.,  by  the 
Acropolis  on  the  E.,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  eminence 
occupied  by  the  Theseium.  To  the  N.  and  N.E.  no  barrier 
existed  ;  accordingly,  the  entrance  was  from  the  Dipylum 
gate  on  the  N.W.,  and  on  the  N.E.  the  market  received 
extension  in  Roman  times.  The  Agora  thus  stood  in  the 
region  known  as  Cerameicus.  But  as  the  Cerameicus 
extended  for  some  miles  in  a  N.W.  direction,  it  becama 
divided  by  the  city  wall  into  the  outer  and  the  inner  Outer  and 
Cerameicus.  The  enter  Cerameicus  was  an  agreeable  ^"'^^  Cera 
suburb,  lying  on  the  road  to  the  Academy  and  Colonus,  '°^'™^- 
the  home  of  Sophocles  ;  and  it  was  here  that  citizens  who 
died  in  their  country's  wars  received  a  public  burial. 
Through  gate  Dipylum  one  passed  into  the  inner  Ceramei- 
cus, the  most  important  quarter  of  which  was  naturally  the 
Agora  itself ;  and  so  it  was  common  to  speak  of  the  Agora 
as  "  The  Cerameicus."  How  much  this  market-place 
may  have  owed  to  the  designs  of  the  Pisistratids  we 
cannot  now  determine.  The  statues  of  Harmodius  and 
Aristogiton  formed  a  conspicuous  ornament  of  the  south 
portion,  and  Thucydides  ^vi.  64)  informs  us  that  the 
grandson  and  namesake  of  Pisistratus  adorned  the  Agora 
by  building  the  altar  of  the  twelve  gods.  If  the  Agora 
belongs  to  the  age  of  Pisistratus,  some  of  the  civic  build- 
ings within  it  would  also  be  coeval  with  him.  Such  were 
the  Stoa  Basileius,  or  Portico,  where  the  archon  basileius 
presided  ;  the  BoiUeuterium,  where  the  senate  of  500  held 
its  sittings ;  the  Tholus  close  by  it,  where  the  Prytanes  cf 
the  senate  sacrificed — a  circular  building  with  a  dome  of 
stone,  from  whence  it  gained  its  name  ;  and  the  Prytan 
eium,  said  to  bo  founded  by  Theseus  (Thucyd.,  iL  15), 
which  contained  the  hearth-fire  of  the  state,  and  where 
the  Pr}'tanes  and  public  benefactors  had  the  privilege  of 
dining  at  the  public  expense.  The  statues  of  the  ten 
heroes  (cponjnni),  who  gave  their  names  to  the  Athenian 
tribes,  decorated  the  Agora  probably  from  the  first : 
against  these  statuna  were  affixed  public  notices  and 
proclamations.  Other  buildings  in  the  Agora  of  later  and 
accertained  dates  wifl  b«  enumerated  in  their  proper  p]ac& 


ATHENS 


Ciisihe-  I'he  revolution  which  expelled  the  Pisistratids  (510  B.C.), 

'•""  ^S*-  and  gave  Athens  a  free-government,  left  its  mark  upon  the 
Tiie  Pelas-  topography  of  the  city.  The  old  Pelasgio  fortress  (to 
gicuni.  'EwcaTrvKov),  in  which  "  the  tyrants  "  had  for  a  time  held 
out,  was  now  broken  down,  and  the  site  occupied  hy  its 
ruins  was  devoted  by  the  Delphic  oraolB  to  eternal 
desolation.  Only  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  when  the 
country  population  was  crowded  within  the  city  walls,  do 
we  read  of  this  spot  being  occupied  by  dwellings  (Thucyd., 
ii.  17).  Another  work  which  may  probably  be  assigned 
to  the  age  of  Clisthenes  is  the  first  arrangement  of  the 
The  Pnyx.  Pnyx,  or  place  of  public  assembly.  The  hill  that  is 
commonly  known  as  the  Pnyx  Hill  contains  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  ruins  in  Athens ;  the  silence,  however, 
of  Pausanius  resjiocting  what  was  probably  in  his  day 
already  a  mere  ruin  has  occasioned  some  doubt  concerning 
its  proper  identification.  The  spot  in  question  consists  of 
two  terraces  sloping  down  the  hill  towards  the  Areopagus, 
from  S.W.  to  N.E.  The  upper  terrace,  indeed,  does  not 
slope,  but  is  levelled  out  of  the  solid  rock  near  the  summit 
of  the  hill,  being  about  Co  yards  in  length  (E.  to  W.), 
and  about  43  in  breadth  at  its  broadest  part  (N.  to  S.) 
It  is  bounded  a,t  the  back  (S.)  by  a  rock-wall,  and  at  the 
\V.  end  there  stands  a  cubical  block,  allowed  to  rise  out 
of  the  solid  rock  when  this  upper  terrace  was  levelled. 
There  is  good  reason  for  considering  this  as  the  altar  for 
the  sacrifices  (ri  TzepitTTia)  with  which  every  assembly  of  the 
ecclesia  was  opened  (Bursian,  Philologus,  1854,  p.  3G0,  foil.; 
Dyer,  Athens,  p.  462).  The  lower  and  considerably  larger 
terrace  is  separated  from  the  upper  terrace  by  another  wall 
cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  Tuis  wall,  which  is  nearly  126 
yards  long,  is  not  quite  straight,  but  encroaches  slightly  upon 
the  upper  terrace,  and  forms  at  the  centre  a  very  obtuse  angle. 
At  this  point  there  rises,  projecting  from  the  wall,  a  large 
cubical  mass,  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  resembling  somewhat, 
though  on  a  larger  scale,  the  altar  described  above.  It  is 
itself  1 1  feet  square  and  5  feet  high,  and  stands  on  a  plat- 
form consisting  of  three  very  massive  steps.  This  remarkable 
monument  has  been  recognised  by  tradition  as  the  crKoXa  tov 
ATj/zocrflfi/eo!,  and  almost  every  traveller  since  Chandler's 
time  has  regarded  it  as  no  other  than  the  famous  bema  of 
the  ancient-Athenian  assembly.  The  rock-wall  from  which 
it  projects  forms  the  chord  of  a  vast  semicircular  space,  the 
enclosure  of  its  arc  being  a  wall  of  "  Cyclopean  "  masonry. 
The  radius  of  the  semicircle  measures  between  76  and  77 
yards  from  this  outer  wall  to  the  bema.  Here,  then,  was 
the  auditorium  of  the  Pnyx.  But  several  difliculties  beset 
the  identification.  Towards  the  bottom  of  the  lower  bema 
Prof.  E.  Ciirtius- {AUiscke  Sludien,  pt.  L)  has  discovered 
another  similar  though  smaller  bema.  Again,  Plutarch 
asserts  that  the  bema  which  had  originally  faced  towards 
the  sea  was  by  the  Thirty  Tyrants  turned  round  the  other 
way,  in  their  hatred  of  the  maritime  democracy.  More- 
over, if  the  block  of  marble  above  mentioned  be  rightly 
identified  as  the  bema,  then  it  would  hav«  the  auditorium 
sloping  downwards  from  it,  an  arrangement  ill  suited  for 
addressing  a  tumultuous  popular  assembly.  Dr  Curtius 
accordingly  pronounces  the  entire  identification  to  be  a 
mistake,  and  would  regard  this  spot  as  a  primitive  precinct 
and  rock-altar  of  the  Most  High  Zeus.  It  woul<f  not  be 
difficult,  if  space  allowed,  to  disprove  Dr  Curtius's  theory. 
Far  more  reasonable  is  the  view  of  Dr  Dyer  (Athens,  App. 
!ii.)  He  thinks  that  the  lower  and  smaller  bema  dis- 
covered by  Dr  Curtius  was  the  bema  of  Clisthenes,  which 
did  (however  much  Plutarch's  statement  is  discredited  by 
his  own  absurd  explanation)  face  in  the  direction  of  the 
eea.  The  orator  would  thus  speak  from  the  arc  of  the 
eemicirclo,  having  the  audience  above  him.  The  Thirty 
may  well  have  defaced  the  Pnyx,  and  it  would  have  been 
natural  for  Thrasybulus  after  the  anarchy  to  restore  it  on 


a  large  scale,  hewiug  out  what  is  still  known  as  the  benia. 
giving  the  semicircular  wall  a  wide»  sweep,,  and  raising 
the  tiers  of  seats  at  least  to  a  level  with  the  new  bema, 
if  not  above  it.  For  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
the  surface  of  the  lower  terrace  has  undergone  no  change 
in  the  lapse  of  centuries,  or  that  the  "  Cyclopean"  wall 
surrounding  it  never  exceeded  i»e  present  height 

A  building  of  greater  architectural  importance  and  of  The  Diony 
equal  interest  belongs  to  this  same  period.  Dramatic  sli'thealrt. 
performances  at  Athens  originally  took  place  in  wooden 
theatres  extemporised  for  the  occasion ;  but  the  fall  ot 
one  of  these  led,  in  the  year  000  B.C.,  to  the  erection  of 
the  marble  theatre  on  a  site  already  consecrated  to 
Dionysus  as  the  Lcnaium,  upon  the  S.E.  slope  of  the 
Acropolis.  (Suidas,  s.  v.  IIpaTiVos.)  We  may  be  sure 
that  the  first  stone  theatre  was  comparatively  simple  in 
construction,  consisting  of  a  KoiXov  or  auditorium,  with 
tiers  of  rock-hewn  seats,  and  an  opxyjirrpa,  or  space  for-the 
chorus,  while  the  stage  itself  and  its  furniture  were  of 
wood.  The  excavation  of  the  Dionysiac  theatre  in  1862 
has  made  every  one  familiar  with  the  row  of  marble 
thrones  for  the  various  priests  and  ofEcers  of  state,  the 
elaborate  masoniy  of  the  stage,  the  orchestra  floor,  and 
other  features.  But  these  and  other  interesting  decora- 
tions of  the  theatre  belong  to  a  later  age.  It  was  under 
the  administration  of  Lycurgus'  the  orator  (337  B.C.)  that 
the  building  was  first  really  completed ;  and  many  of  the 
sculptures  which  have  been  lately  brought  to  light  belong 
to  a  restoration  of  the  theatre  in  the  2d,  or  perhaps  even 
in  the  3d,  century  A.D.' 

Enough  has  now  been  said  of  the  condition  of  Athens, 
before  the  Persian  War.     It  was  surrounded  by  a  ring-wall  TTn-scaD 
of  narrow  circuit,  some  doubtful  traces  of  which  are  sup-  "■^" 
posed  to  remain.    At  its  centre  stood  the  Acropolis,  already 
crowded  with  temples  and  sanctuaries,   some  upon   the 
summit,  some  built  at  its  foot,  and  others — like  the  famous 
grotto  of  Pan,  on  the  N.W  slope — mere  caves  in  its  rocky  Grotto  of 
sides.  Pan. 

The  Persian  invasion,  which  forced  the  Athenians  to  take  After  the 
refuge  in  their  "  wooden  waUs,"  and  to  leave  their  city  at  Persitn 
the  mercy  of  the  barbarian,  marked  an  important  epoch  in  "*•■• 
the  annals  of  Athenian  building.     Upon  the  retreat  of  Mar- 
donirip,  the  Athenians  returned  to  Attica  to  find  their  city 
virttdlly  in  ruins.     Its  fortifications  and  public  buildings 
had  been  destroyed  or  burnt,  and  the  private  dwellings 
had  been  wantonly  difaced  or  ruined  by  neglect.     Amid 
the  enthusiasm  of  hope  which  followed  upon  the  great 
deUverance  of  Greece,  a  natural  impulse  led  the  Athenians 
to  rear  their  city  more  glorious  from  its  ruins.     Themis 
tocles   fanned   their   patriotism  with   the   foresight  of  s 
statesman,  and  Athens  rose  again  with  marvellous  rapidity. 
This  haste,  however,  though  creditable  to  their  patriotism, 
and,  indeed,  necessary  in  order  to  forestall  the  jealous  op- 
position of  Sparta,  was  not  without  its  evils.     'The  houses 
were  rebuilt  on  their  old  sites,  and  the  lines  of  the  old 
streets,  narrow  and  irregular  as  they  had  been,  were  too 
readily  followed.    A  similar  haste  marked  the  rebuilding  of 
the  city  walls,  a  work  in  which  men  and  women,  old  and 
young,  took  zeabus  part,  not  scrupling  to  dismantle  any 
building  or  monument,  private  or  public,  which  could  sup- 
ply materials  for  the  building.     But  in  rebuildiwg  the  walls  Rebuilduj 
Thcmistncles  gave  them  a  wider  circuit,  especially  towards  °f ''" 
the  N.  and  N.E  (Thucyd.,  i.  90,  93).     At  the  same  time  '»"»• 
he  determined  to  construct  new  harbours,  and  to  fortify 
the  Pineus,  regarding  the  navy  of  Athens  as  her  principal 
source  of  strength.     I*  is  doubtful  whether  the   "Long 
Walls "  formed  a  distinct  portion  of  his  designs  ;  but  he 
may  certainly  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  greatness 

1  Tlio  best  account  yd  given  of  the  Dionysi*c  theatre  is  to  be  fotud 
in  t>r  Ujcr'a  recent  work  on  Atbent. 


ATHENS 


of  Athens,  the  works  and  embellishments  carried  cut  by 
Pericles  being  only  a  fulfilment  of  the  far-sighted  aims  of 
Themistocles.  Thucydides  (ii  1 3)  makes  the  circuit  of  the 
city  wall  to  be  43  stades  (about  5i  miles),  exclusive  of  the 
unguarded  space  between  walls ;  this  is  found  to  correspond 
accurately  enough  with  the  existing  remains.  In  tracing 
the  circuit  of  the  ancient  walls,  we  may  take  our  start  from 
the  N.W.  side  of  the  city,  at  the  -one  gate  whose  site  is 
absolutely' certain,  the  Thriasian  gate  (called  also  the  Sacred 
gate,  aa  opening  upon  the  saored  way  to  Eleusis,  and  also 
roj^imiXov,  as  consisting  of  two  gates,  perhaps  one  within 
the  other),  which  is  marked  by  tha  modern  church  of  the 
Holy  Trinity,  'a  little  N.  of  the  bottom  of  Hermes  Street — 
aspot  attractive  to  the  modern  tourist  through  the  beautiful 
"  street  of  tombs  "  here  laid  bare  by  recent  excavations. 
From  the  Thriisian  gate  tha  wall  of  Themiatocles  ran  due 
E.  for  some  distance ;  thence,  skirting  the  modera-theatre, 
it  ran  N.E.,  parallel  to  the  modern  Pirseeua  Street  as  far  as 
tha  Bank,  when  it  returned  in  a  S.E.  direction  across  the 
site  of  the  present  Mint,  as  far  as  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
Thence  to-^^ards  the  S.E.  it  included  nearly  all  the  modem 
Royal  Gardens,  and  then  ran  S.W.,  following  the  zig-zag 
of  the  hills  above  the  north  bank  of  the  luasus,  until 
westwards  by  a  straight  course  parallel  with  the  Acropolis 
it  reached  the  JIuseium  Hill.  Thence  it  may  be  traced  in 
a  direction  N.W.  and  N.,  following,  more  or  less  the  contour 
of  the  hdls,  until  we  return  to  our  starting-point  at  the 
C.'.tca.  Dipylum  gate.  Eight  other  gates  (exclusive  of  wickets, 
miXiSe';,  which  must  have  existed)  are  mentioned  by  an- 
cient authors — the  Piraean,  Hippades,  Melitides,  Itonian, 
Diomeian,  Diocharis,  Panopis,  and  Acharnian.  Their  exact 
sites  cannot  be  certainly  fixed,  but  some  of  them  may 
be  determined  within  narrow  limits,  such  as  the  Pircean 
gate,  which  led  out  of  the  Agora,  and  opened  upon  the  long 
walls.  Having  completed  the  defences  of  the  city  proper, 
among  which  must  be  included  tha  building  of -the  north 
wall  of  the  Acropolis  (Dyer,  p.  121),  Themistocles  pro- 
ceeded to  fortify  the  Piraeus. 

Athens,  like  most  of  the  old  Greek  towns,  was  built,  for 
Piraeus  greater  security,  e*  a  distance  from  the  coast,  and  only 
b'lldTca  when  more  settled  times  brought  her  greater  prosperity 
waa  a  harbour  formed  at  the  nearest  bay  of  Phalerum, 
near  the  modem  church  of  St  George.  It  is  said  that 
ThemLstoclea  wotJd  gladly  have  transported  the  Athenian 
population  bodily  from  the  upper  city  to  the  coast,  there 
to  form  a  great  maritime  state.  Though  this  was  impos- 
sible, yet  ho  could  strengthen  Athens  on.  the  seaward  side. 
The  isthmus  of  Pirseeus,  though  somewhat  more  distant 
than  Phalemm,  presented  obvious  advantages  as  a  sea- 
port. It  formed  on  its  north  side  the  spacious  and 
secure  basin  of  Pirseeu.?  (now  Port  Drako),  the  north  and 
south  shores  of  which  towards  the  entrance  fall  back  into 
two  smaller  bays — harbours  within  the  harbour — known 
respectively  as  the  Koj<f>o<!  Xi/i^i/  and  Kcifdapo^.  The  neck 
of  the  isthmus  on  the  south  is  formed  by  Port  Zca  (now 
I'hanari),  the  entrance  of  which  was  secured  by  Phreattys, 
the  headland  of  Munychia.  Eound  to  the  east  of  the 
district  of  Munychia,  again,  and  facing  Phalerum,  was 
the  harbour  known  anciently  as  Munychia,  and  now 
as  Port  Stratiot;ki.  Themistocles  thus,  in  giving  up  Port 
Phalerum,  gave  Athens  three  harbours  instead  of  one. 
The  fortiBcations  of  Piru!eu3  were  conceived  on  a  grand 
sjale,  and  carried  out  with  no  .sign  of  hurry.  The  whole 
circuit  of  Pirseeus  and  of  the  town  of  Munychia  was 
/D/.closed  alike  on  the  sea  and  land  sides  by  watls.gf  immense 
thickness  and  strength,  which  wei»  carri^l  up  to  $  height 
of  mora  than  GO  feet — thi.i  being  only  half  the  height 
intended  by  Thcrnistoclos!  (see  Orote,  Hist.  Grei-ce,  c.  xliv.) 
Tlio  laying  out  of  the  new  seaport  belonged  rather  to  the 
regime  of   Pericles  (Orotc,   c.   xh-ii.)     It  was   then   that 


Hippodamus,  the  eccentric  architect,  planned  the  Agora 
which  bore  his  name ;  and  the  various  public  buildings 
V-  aich  adorned  Pirseeus  doubtless  arose  with  growth  of 
Athenian  conimerce.  The  harbour  basin  was  lined  nith 
porticoes,  which  served  as  warehouses  and  bazaars.  Two 
theatres  existed  in  the  town,  and  numerous  temples. 
The  local  deity  was  Artemis  Munychia;  but  the  large 
"number  of  foreigners  (ixItuikoi)  who  became  naturalised  at 
this  port  led  to  the  introduction  of  many  foreign  forms  of 
worship.  Artemis  herself  came  to  be  identified  with  the 
Thracian  Bendis,  and  her  festival  (ra  BtvSi'Sfia)  is  referred 
to  in  the  immortal  opening  of  Plato's  EepubUc. 

Jf  not  a  part  of  the  original  designs  of  Themistocles,  it  Lcngw.': 
was  at  least  a  natural  development  of  them,  to  carry  "  Long 
Wafis  "  from  the  newly-fortified  Pirreeus  to  the  upper  city, 
and  thus  combine  them  both  into  one  grand  system  of 
fortification.  The  experiment  of  connecting  a  tawn  by 
long  walls  with  its  port  had  been  already  tried  between 
Megara  and  Nisasa  (Grote,  Hist.  Greece,  c.  xlv.),  and  it  was 
now  repeated  on  a  grander  scale  under  Cimon.  From  the 
portion  of  the  city  wall  between  the  Museium  and  the 
Nymphs'  Hill  a.  sort  of  bastion  was  thrown  out  to  S.W.  so 
as  to  form  an  irregular  triangle,  from  tie  apex  of  which  a 
"  long  wall,"  about  4  miles  long,  was  carried  down  to  the 
N.  portion  of  the  Pirjeean  fortifications ;  this  was  termed 
TO  /3op«ov  T£[;(os.  Another  "  long  wall "  of  somewhat 
shorter  length  ran  down  to  the  wall  of  Phalerum,  which 
had  hitherto  served  as  the  port  of  Athens  ;  this  was  to 
^a\-qpLKov  Tti^xos.  A  third  wall,  between  the  two,  parallel 
to  the  first,  and  but  a  few  yards  from  it  (to  votiov  r(X)(p<s, 
TO  Sia  filcrov  Tii-}(o^),  was  afterwards  added  by  Pericles,  and 
the  maritime  fortifications  of  Athens  became  complete. 
But  the  city  owed  still  more  to  the  munificence  of  Cimon. 
Out  of-the  spoils  of  his  Persian  campaign  he  fortified  the 
S.  side  of  the  Acropolis  with  a  remarkably  solid  wall, 
which  terminated  in  a  sort  of  bastion  at  the  V/.  end.  Here 
he  reared  a  little  temple  of  Athena  Nike  (otherwise  called 
the  Wingless  Victory),  although  the  existing  sculptures  of  Wingless 
the  frieze'  are  pronounced  on  account  of  their  style  to  Victory, 
belong  to  a  somewhat  later  date  (Pausan^L  28,  3;  Com. 
Nep.,  Cimon,  ii;  Plutarch,  Cimon,  xiii.)  It  was  Cimon 
who  first  set  the  example  of  providing  the  citizens  with 
agreeable  places  for  promenade  (Plutarch,  ibid.),  by  plant- 
ing the  Agora  vrith  plane  trees,  and  laying  out  the  Aca- 
demy vrith  trees  and  walks.  It  is  probable  that  some  of 
the  porticoes  in  the  Agnra  were  built  by  Cimon ;  at  all 
events,  the  most  beautiful  ono  amongst  tbera  was  feared  by  stoa 
Pisianax,  his  brother-in-law,  and  the  paintings  with  which  Poedle. 
Polygnotus,  his  sister's  lover,  adorned  it  (representing 
scenes  from  the  military  history  of  Atbens,  legendary  and 
historical)  made  it  ever  famous  as  the  Stoq  voiKiXirj.  One 
more  building,  the  most  perfect  existing  relic  of  ancient 
Athens,  was  also  built  by  Cimon.  The  Theseimn  (as  we  T!:>stiuni 
still  may  ventur6  -to  call  it,  in  spite  of  the  doubts  lately 
cast  upon  its  identification)'  is  alexastyle  Doric  temple 
standing  on  an  eminence  due  N.  of  the  Areopagus,  and  is 
the  first  object  which  meets  the  eye  of  the  tourist  who 
approaches  the  city  from  the  Pineeus.  Having  served  in 
Byzantine  times  for  a  Christian  church,  it  is  now  a  muscu'.n 
of  antiquities,  and  contains  some  of  the  choicest  treasures 
discovered  by  recent  excavations. 
.  We  have  now  brought  this  sketch  of  Athenian  topography  Pcriclcw 
down  to  the  most  distinguished  period  of  Athenian  history  era. 
and'Aihenian  architecture — the  era  of  Pericles.  As  the 
rhnmpion  of  Hellenic  freedom  against  the  Persians,  as  the 
head  of  the  lonic'confcdcration,  Athens  had  suddenly  grown 
to  be  the  foremost  city  in  Greece.  But  when  one  by  ono 
the  confederate  states  sank  into  the  position  of  subject- 

'  See  Dyer,  Alhmi,  p.  230,  /oil.,  who  thinks  it  Is  really  the  tempi* 
nt  '.he  Amazoos. 


ATHENS 


Ddeinm. 


St5tue  of 
At'.ieiia 
I'roraa- 
cbus. 


allies;  when  the  fiytfiovia  of  Athens  passed  insensibly  into  a 
nipaiTi's  (ThucJ^i.,  ii.  C3);  when  the  contribution  of  ships  and 
men  was  commuted  in  most  cases  for  a  money  payment, 
aod  the  funds  of  the  confederation  were  transferred  from 
the  ApoUonium  at  Delos  to  the  Athenian  Acropolis, — an 
enormous  revenue  became  at  the  disposal  of  the  Athenian 
Government.  It  is  to  their  credit  that  so  little  of  it  found 
its  way  into  private  pockets.  It  was  natural  for  the 
thoughts  of  a  Greek,  especially  of  an  Athenian,  to  turn  to 
the  decoration  of  his  city  ;  it  was  politic  that  the  central 
city  of  the  Ionian  confederacy  should  be  adorned  with  a 
beauty  equal  to  her  prestige.  The  buildings  connected 
with  the  name  of  Cimop  had  been  chiefly  for  utility  or 
defence  ;  those  of  Pencles  were  mainly  ornumentaL  The 
first  edifice  completed  by  him  seems  to  have  been  the 
Odeium,  on  the  E.  of  the  Dionysiac  theatre,  to  serve  as  a 
place  for  recitations  by  rhapsodists,  and  for  musical  per- 
formances. It  was  burnt  by  Aristion  during  Sulla's  siege 
of  Athens,  but  afterwards  rebudt.  Mentiou  has  already 
been  made  of  the  building  of  the  Long  WalLs  and  the  laying 
out  of  the  Piraeeus  by  Pericles  ;  but  it  was  the  Acropolis 
itself  which  witnessed  the  greatest  splendours  of  his 
administration.  Within  its  limited  area  arose  buildings 
and  statues,  on  which  the  genius  of  Phidias  the  sculptor, 
of  Ictinus  and  Mnesicles  the  architects,  -ucre  employed  for 
years;  while  multitudes  of  artists  and  craftsmen  of  all  kinds 
were  busied  in  carrying  out  their  giand  designs.'  The 
spoik  of  the  Persian  War  had  already  been  consecrated 
under  Cimon  to  the  honour  of  the  national  goddess,  in  the 
erection  of  a  colossal  statue  of  Athena  by  Phidias  between 
the  entrance  of  the  Acropolis  and  the  Erechthoiura  ;  her 
warlike  attitude  gained  her  the  title  of  npo/ia;(05,  and  the 
gleam  of  her  helmet's  plume  and  uplifted  spear  was  haded 
by  tha  homeward  seaman  as  he  doubled  Cape  Suniura 
(Pausan.,  L  28).  But  the  national  deity  was  to  receive  yet 
greater  honours  at  the  hand  of  Pericles.  That  an  old 
temple  stood  on  the  site  afterwards  occupied  by  the  Par- 
thenon is  proved,  less  by  the  doubtful  expressions  of  Hero- 
dotus (viii.  51,  55),  and  the  testimony  of  later  compilers 
like  Hesychius,  than  by  recent  excavations,  which  reveal 
that  a  large  temple  must  have  been  at  least  begun  upon 
this  spot  when  the  Persian  invaders  destroyed  the  old 
buildings  of  the  Acropolis  by  fire.  Here,  then,  Pericles 
proceeded  to  rear  what  has  ever  since  been  known  as  the 
Parthenon.  The  designer  of  this  masterpiece  of  architecture 
Kirthenon.  ^^  Ictinus;  the  foundations  of  the  old  temple  were  at  his 
suggestion  extended  in  length  and  breadth,  and  thus  arose 
upon  the  S.  side  of  the  Acropolis  a  magnificent  temple  of 
the  virgin  goddess.  It  was  completed  in  the  year  438 
B.C.  It  stood  upon  the  highest  platform  of  the  Acropolis, 
80  that  the  pavement  of  the  peristyle  of  the  Parthenon  was 
on  a  level  with  tho  capitals  of  the  columns  of  the  east 
portico  of  the  Propylaea.  The  temple  was  built  entirely  of 
white  marble  from  the  quarries  of  Mount  Pentelicus. 
Ascending  a  flight  of  three  steps,  you  passed  through  tho 
great  east  entrance  into  the  Pronaos,  wherein  was  stored  a 
large  collection  of  sacred  objects,  chiefly  of  silver.  From 
the  Pronaos  a  ma»sive  door  led  into  the  cella,  call^ 
Hecatompedos  (vtut  6  'EKaTo/ijreSo5),  because  it  measured 
in  length  100  Attic  feet.  The  treasur5  here  bestowed 
consisted  chiefly  of  chapleta  and  other  objects  of  gold. 
The  west  portion  of  the  cella  was  railed  ofi"  (by  Kiy)(\iSe^), 
and  formed  the  Parthenon  proper,  i.e.,  the  adytum  occupied 
by  the  chryselephantine  statue  by  Phidias  of  Athena 
Parthenos, — a  work  which  yielded  the  pre-eminence  only 
to  one  other  statue  by  the  same  artist,  viz.,  the  Zeus  at 
Olynnpia.  In  this  adytum  were  stored  a  number  of  silver 
bowls  and  other  articles  employed  at  tho  Panathenaic  festi- 


Tha 


1  Sec  the  animated  description  in  Plutarch,  PericUt,  12, 


fott. 


vals.  The  westernmosl  compartment  at  the  rear  of  tha 
cella  was  the  Opisthodomus,  which  served  as  the  nation^;! 
treasury ;  hither  poured  in  the  tribute  of  the  Athenian 
allies.  It  is  important  to  remember  that  the  Parthenon 
was  never  intended  as  a  temple  of  worship  ;  for  this  pur- 
pose there  already  existed  another  temple,  presently  to  be 
described  as  the  Erechtheium, — standing  upon  the  primeval 
site  of  that  contest  between  Athena  and  Poseidon  which 
established  the  claim  of  the  goddess  to  the  Attic  citadel 
and  soil  Tho  Parthenon  was  simply  designed  to  be  the 
central  point  of  the  Panathenaic  festival,  and  the  storehouse 
for  the  sacred  treasure.  The  entire  temple  should  be 
regarded  as  one  vast  avaOrifia  to  the  national  deity,  not  as  a 
place  for  her  worship.  Thus  directly  in  front  of  her  statue 
in  the  cella  there  stood  an  erection,  which  has  been  mistaken 
for  an  altar,  but  which  is  more  probably  to  be  regarded 
as  the  platform  which  the  victorious  competitors  in  the 
Panathenaic  contests  ascended  to  receive,  as  it  were  from  the 
hand  of  tho  goddess,  the. golden  chaplete  and  vases  of  olive 
oil  that  formed  the  pHzes  (see  Michaelis's  Parthenon,  p.  31). 
This  consideration  lends  significance  to  the  decorations  of 
the  building,  which  were  the  work  of  Phidias.  Within 
the, outer  portico,  along  the  outside  of  the  top  of  the  wall 
of  the  building,  ran  a  frieze  3  feet  4  inches  in  height,  and 
520  feet  in  total  length,  on  which  were  sculptured  figures 
in  low  relief  -,  representing  the  Panathenaic  procession. 
Nearly  all  of  these  sculptures  are  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  the  entire  series  has  been  recently  made  complete  by 
casts  from  the  other  fragments,  and  arranged  in  the  order  ol 
the  original  design.  The  marvellous  beauty  of  these  reliefs, 
which  was  heightened'originally  by  colour,  has  been  long 
familiar  to  all  the  world  from  numerous  illu.'trated  descrip- 
tions. The  procession  of  youths  and  maidens,,  of  priests 
and  magistrates,  of  oxen  for  sacrifice,  of  flute-players  and 
singers,  followed  by  the  youthful  chivalry  of  Athens  ou 
prancing  steeds— is'iepresonted  as  wending  its-  -way  from 
the  west  towards,  the  eastern  entrance.'  Outside  of  tho 
building,  on  the  N.  and  S.  sides,  the  metopes  between  the 
Doric  trig!)-phs  were  fiUod  with  sculptures  representing 
scenes  from  the  mythical  history  of  Athens.  But  the 
glory  of  the  Parthenon  were  the  s««lptures  of  the  E.  and 
W.  pediments.  Unhappily  but  a  few  figures  remain,  and 
none  are  v/hoUy  perfect,  of  the  statues,  which  formed  these 
groups  ;  and  Pausanias  appears  to  have  thought  it  super- 
fluous to  give  a  minute  description  of  objects  so  familiar  to 
every  connoisseur  and  traveller.  Tho  sculptures  on  the 
eastern  pediment  related  to  the  birth  of  Athena  ;  the  cen- 
tral group  was  early  destroyed  by  the  Byzantine  Christians 
in  converting  tlie  Parthenon  into  a  church,  with  tho  Pronaos 
for  its  apse.  But  nearly  all  the  subordinate  figures  aie 
preserved  in  a  more  or  less  injured  condition  in  the  British 
Museum.  The  noble  head  of  the  horseof  the  car  of  Night, 
the  seated  female  figures  of  "  The  Fates,"  and  the  grand 
torso  commonly  known  as  the  "  Theseus,"  are  familiar  to 
us  all.  It  would  be  out  of  place  here  even  to  enumerate 
the  many  attempts  that  have  been  made  to  reconstruct  the 
groups  of  either  pediment.  The  sculptures  on  the  W. 
represented  the  contest  between  Athena  and  Poseidon  for 
the  possession  of  Attica ;  and  although  scarcely  any  po^ 
tions  of  these  figures  are  now  exis-ting,  yet  they  are  better 
known  to  us  than  the  E.  pediment  by  means  of  the  faithful 
(if  clum.sy)  sketches  made  by  tho  Frenchman  Carrey  in 
1G74,  when  they  were  in  a  comparatively  perfect  state. 
Those  who  desire  to  know  all  that  is  to  be  known  concern- 
ing the  sculptures  of  tho  Parthenon  should  consult  tha 
beautiful   work  of  Michaslis,   Der  Parthenon,  while  the 

'  See  the  remarks  of  Mr  Rusfctn,  Aralra  Pcntelica,  p.  174. 

'  Ho  who  desires  to  enjoy  thcso  sculpture",  should  come  from  ■ 
perusal  of  Michaelis's  eloquent  work  Dcr  Parthenon,  and  spend  a  day 
iu  tho  British  Museum  with  the  guiile-book  in  his  band. 


A.  T  H  E  N  S 


■ineas\irfments  and  architeciural  details  of  the  edifice  have 
never  heeu  so  splendidly  given  as  by  our  countryman 
Penrose,  in  hja  Principles  of  Athenian  Architecture. 

We  will  turn  now  to  the  other  buildings  of  the  Acropolis, 
none  of  which,  however,  are  so  full  of  significance  as  the 
Parthenon  itself.  For,  indeed,  standing  as  it  does  on  the 
highest  point  of  Athenian  soil,  its  erection  marked  the 
culminating  point  of  Athenian  history,  literature,  politics, 
and  art.  The  "  Birth  of  Athena,"  over  the  eastern  entrance, 
may  symbolise  to  us  the  sudden  growth  of  Athenian  great- 
ness, while  in  the  contest  between  the  armed  goddess  of 
peaceful  wisdom  and  the  violent  god  of  sea,  which  adorned 
the  western  front,  we  may  see  an  allegory  of  the  long 
Struggle  between  the  agricultural  and  the  maritime  interests 
which  forms  the  central  thread  of  Athenian  history. 

Opposite  to  the  Parthenon,  on  the  northern  edge  of  the 
Acropolis,  stands  another  remarkable  temple,  far  smaller 
in  size,  and  built  in  the  mest  graceful  forms  of  the  Ionic 
order.  The  Erechtheium  appears  to  be  designed  expres.'tly 
to  contrast  with  the  severe  sublimity  of  the  Parthenon  , 
and  on  the  side  which  confronts  those  mighty  Doric  shafts, 
the  columns  of  the  smaller  building  are  allowed  to  trans- 
form themselves  into  Canephori.  The  temple  of  Athena 
Polias,  which  contained  the  ancient  wooden  image  of  the 
goddess,  and  formed  the  centre  of  het  worship,  suffered 
from  fire  in  the  Persian  War  (479  B.C.)  A  building  so 
eacred  would  hardly  have  been  allowed  to  remain  for  long 
in  ruins ;  'but  it  was  reserved  for  Pericles  to  set  about  a 
Complete  restoration  of  it.  However,  the  Peloponnesiail 
War  seems  to  have  interrupted  his  designs,  and  in  the  year 
409  B.C.  the  edifice  was  still  unfinished,'  and  soon  after 
this  it  was  totally  destroyed  by  fire.  But  soon  afterwards 
it  iliust  have  been  rebiidt,  without  doubt  retaining  all  its 
original  features.  The  temple  in  its  present  state  consists 
of  an  oblong  cella  extending  fom  E.  to  W.  From  each 
side  of  the  W.  end  of  the  cella  projects  a  portico,  forming  a 
6ort  of  transept.  The  eastern  portico  formed  the  temple  of 
Athena  Polias,  upon  the  site  of  Ler  ancient  contest  with 
Poseidon.  The  west  portion  w.as.the  Pandroseium,  dedicated 
to  Athena  Pandrosus.  Tlio  budding  thus  formed  two 
temples  in  one,  and  is  styled  by  Pau.sanias  a  SnrXuvv  oLKrjfia. 
It  seems  at  a  later  time  to  have  been  commonly  called  the 
Erechtheium,  becaujc  of  a  tradition  that  Ercchtheus  was 
buried  on  this  site. 

Among  the  many  glories  of  the  Acropoli?,,  the  Propylsea 
are  described  by  Pausanias  as  being  exceptionally  magni- 
ficent (i.  22),  They  rivalled  even  the  Parthenon,  and 
were  the  most  splendid  of  all  the  building.'*  of  Pericles 
The  westffrn  end  of  the  Acropolis,  which  furnished,  niUl 
stUl  furnishes,  the  only  access  to  the  summit  of  the  Irill, 
was  abo\it  1 00  feet  in  breadth, — a  frontage  so  narrow,  that 
to  the  artists  of  Pericles  it  appeared  practic;iblo  to  till  up 
iho  space  with  a  single  budding,  which,  iu  sefvins  the 
main  purpose  of  a  gateway,  should  contribute  to  adorn  as 
well  as  togflaid  the  citadel.  This  work,  which  rivalled  the 
Parthenon  in  felicity  of  exocutwn,  and  surpassed  it  in 
boldness  and  originality  of  design,  w.i3  begun  in  the 
archonship  of  Euthyiuenes,  in  the  year  437  B.C.,  and  com- 
jilctcd  in  five  years,  under  the  directions  of  the  architect. 
Mncsicles.  Of  the  space  which  formed  the  natural  entrance 
to  the  Acropolis,  08  feet  near  the  centre  were  left  for  the 
grand  entrance,  and  the  remainder  on  cither  side  was 
occupied  by  wings  projecting  32  feet  in  front  of  the  ceiftral 
colonnade.  The  entire  building  received  the  name  of 
Propylfa  from  its  forming  the  vestibule  to  the  five  door- 


•  An  important  Inscription  in  tlio  Britisli  MMstura  gives  >  survey  of 
lh«  worlo  M  Ibey  «lood  in  that  yc.ir,  (Irawn  up  by  a  coininission  on- 
pointed  for  llic  purpose  See  Oretk  Intcriftians  in  Iht  Dritiih  itu- 
mm,  vol.  i.  Na.  3S, 


ways,  still  in  existence,  by  which  the  citadel  was  entered. 
The  wall  in  which  these  doors  were  pierced  was  thrown 
back  about  50  feet  from  the  front  of  the  artificial  opening 
of  the  hill,  and  the  whole  may  therefore  be  said  to  have 
resembled  a  modern  fortification,  although,  in  fact,  the 
Propyhca  w.is  designed,  not  for  defence,  but  for  decoration. 
The  whole  building  was  of  Pentelic  marble.  The  Megaron 
or  great  vestibule  in  the  centre  consisted  of  a  front  of  six 
Quted  Doric  columns,  mounted  upon  four  steps,  which 
supported  a  pediment,  and  measured  5  feet  in  diameter  and 
nearly  29  in  height,  with  an  intcrcolumniation  of  7  feet, 
except  between  the  two  central  columns,  which  were  13 
feet  apart,  in  order  to  furnish  space  for  a  carriage-way. 
Behind  this  Doric  colonnade  was  a  vestibule  43  feet  in 
depth,  tho  roof  of  which  was  sustained  by  sis  inner  columns 
in  a  double  row,  so  as  to  divide  the  vestibuie  into  three 
aisles  or  compartments ;  and  these  columns,  although  only 
three  feet  and  a  half  in  diameter  at  the  base,  were,  includ- 
ing the  capitals,  nearly  34  feet  in  height,  their  architraves 
being  on  the  same  level  with  the  frieze  of  the  Doric 
colonnade.  The  ceiling  was  laid  upon  marble  beams, 
resting  upon  the  lateral  walls  and  the  architraves  of  the 
two  rows  of  Ionic  columns, — .those  covering  the  side  aisles 
being  22  feet  in  length,  and  those  covering  the  central 
aisles  17  feet,  with  a  proportional  breadth  and  thickness. 
Enormous  masses  like  these,  raised  to  the  roof  of  a  building, 
standing  upon  a  steep  hill,  and  covered  with  a  ceiling 
which  all  the  resources  of  art  had  been  employed  ta 
beautify,  might  well  overcome  the  reserve  of  a  matter-of- 
fact  topographer  like  Pausanias,  and  at  once  account  for 
and  justify  the  unusual  warmth  of  his  language  when  he  is 
speaking  of  the  roof  of  the  Propyh-ea  (L  22).  Of  the  five 
doors  at  the  extremity  of  the  vestibule,  th-e  width  of  the 
central  and  largest  was  equal  to  the  space  between  the  two 
central  columns  of  the  Doric  portico  in  front,  and  the  same 
also  as  thatbetween  the  two  rows  of  Ionic  columns  in  th.o 
vestibule  ;  but  the  d.oors  on  either  side  of  the  principal  ona 
were  of  diminished  height  and  breadth^and  the  two  beyond 
these  again  were  still  smaller  in  both  dimensions.  These 
five  gates  or  doors  led  from  the  vestibule  into  a  back  portico 
18  feet  in  depth,  which  was  fronted  with  a  Doric  colonnade 
and  pediment  of  the  same  dimensions  as  those  of  the 
western  or  outer  portico,  but  placed  on  a  higher  level,  there 
being  five  steps  of  ascent  from  the  western  to  the  level  of 
the  eastern  portico.  From  the  latter  or  inner  portico 
there  was  a  descent  of  one  step  into  the  adjacent  part  of 
the  platform  of  the  Acropobs. 

The  wings  of  the  PropyUea  were  nearly  ."lymmetrical  in 
front,  each  presenting  on  this  side  a  wall  adorned  only  with 
a  frieze  of  triglyphs,  and  with  anta;  at  the  extremities. 
The  inner  or  southernmost  colninn  of  each  wing  stood  in 
a  line  with  the  great  Doric  columns  of  the  Megaron  ;  and 
as  both  these  columns  and  tho.io  of  the  wings  were  upon 
the  same  level,  the  three  porticoes  were  all  connected 
together,  and  the  four  steps  which  ascended  to  the  Megaron 
were  continued  also  along  the  porticoes  of  the  two  wing^. 
But  here  the  symmetry  of  the  building  ended  ;  for,  in 
regard  to  interior  size  and  distribution  of  parts,  the  wings 
were  exceedingly  dissimilar.  In  the  northern  or  left  wing, 
a  porch  of  12  feet  in  depth  condu<?ted  by  three  doors 
into  a  chamber  of  34  feet  by  20,  the  porch  and  chamber 
thus  occupying  the  entire  space  behind  the  western  wall  of 
that  wing  ,  whereas  the  suulliern  or  right  wing  consisted 
only  of  a  porch  or  gallery  of  20  feet  by  10,  which,  on  the 
S.  and  E.  sulc-'^,  was  formed  by  a  wall  connected  with 
and  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  lateral  wall  of  the 
Megaron,  and,  on  the  W.  side,  bad  its  roof  .supported  by 
a  narrow  pilaster,  standing  between  tho  N.W.  co)unui 
of  the  wing  and  an  aula,  which  terminated  its  soiitherti 
wall     In    front   of   the  southern   or   ri^ht  wing  of  the 


ATHENS 


Propylaea  there  stood,  so  late  as  the  year  1676,  the  small 
Ionic  temple  dedicated  to  Athena  Nike,  and  commonly 
known  by  the  ancients  as  the  temple  of  the  Wingless 
Victory  (Ni'ct;  ujircpo?),  which  has  already  been  mentioned 
as  probably  one  of  the  buildings  of  Cimuu.  Perhaps 
before  the  18th  century  this  building  was  pulled  domi  by 
the  Turks,  and  the  only  remains  of  it — parts  of  the  frieze 
built  into  a  wall — which  were  known  in  his  day  were  carried 
off  by  Lord  Elgin,  and  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
In  1835  careful  excavations  were  made  under  the  directions 
of  Professor  Ross,  when  not  only  were  the  remains  of  the 
Propylsea  opened  up  far  more  clearly  than  before,  but  also 
nearly  all  the  fragments  of  this  little  temple  of  Victory  were 
discovered ;  they  had  been  used  for  building  a  Turkish 
battery,  and  so  preserved.  Thus  the  temple  was  at  once 
restored  by  a  reconstruction  of  the  original  fragments. 
Few  quarters  of  ancient  Athens  have  received  more  advan- 
tage from  judicious  excavation  in  recent  years  than  this 
western  end  of  the  Acropolis. 

From  the  disastrous  termination  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war  to  the  yet  more  fatal  defeat  at  Chisroncia,  the  architec- 
tural history  of  Athens  is  a  blank,  only  interrupted  by  the 
restoration  of  the  Long  Walls  and  the  rebuilding  of  the 
fortifications  of  Pir>Eeus  by  Conon,  both  of  which  had  been 
destroyed  by  Lysander.  The  financial  genius  of  the  orator 
Lycurgus,  whose  administration  lasted  from  338  to  325  B.C., 
replenished  to  some  extent  the  exhausted  resources  of  his 
country.  He  reorganised  her  finance,  he  catalogued  and 
rearranged  the  sacred  and  national  treasuries,  and  brought 
order  and  efficiency  into  every  department  of  state.  This 
new  impulse  made  itself  felt  in  building  activity.  The 
Dionysiac  theatre  was  now  first  completed  ;  and  though,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  many  of  the  sculptures  and  other 
marbles  recently  uncovered  on  its  site  are  the  restorations 
of  a  very  much  later  age,  yet  we  may  confidently  assume 
that  in  all  material  points  the  theatre  as  we  are  now  able 
to  view  it  represents  the  condition  of  the  building  as  it 
stood  in  the  time  of  Lycurgus.  Another  remarkable  work 
which  signalised  his  administration  was  the  Panathenaic 
Stadium.  On  the  southern  side  of  the  Ilissus,  at  right 
angles  to  the  stream,  a  hollow  space  was  scooped  out  of 
the  soil,  some  680  feet  in  length  and  130  in  breadth.  It 
is  possible  that  the  site  had  been  used  for  gymnastic  contests 
before  the  orator's  time  ;  it  was  he,  however,  who  first 
undertook  to  level  it  properly  and  lay  it  out.  But  it  was 
reserved  for  the  munificence  of  Herodes  Atticus  finally  to 
complete  it.  Fie  furnished  the  place  with  magnificent  seats 
of  Pentelic  marble,  tier  upon  tier,  capable  of  accommodat- 
ing, at  the  very  least,  40,000  spectators.  An  attempt  was 
recently  made  to  excavate  the  Stadium,  but  it  was  found 
that  every  trace  of  antiquity  had  been  destroyed,  the 
marble  having  been  used  as  a  quaiTy  for  building  pur- 
poses. 

The  administration  of  Lycurgus  is  an  important  era  in 
Athenian  architecture  ;  for  after  his  time  we  never  seem 
to  hear  of  any  more  buildings  having  been  reared  by  the 
Athenian  Government.  The  best^known  extant  edifices  of 
the  period  immediately  following  were  the  work  of  wealthy 
private  persons.  Round  the  eastern  end  of  the  Acropolis, 
starting  from  the  eastern  entrance  of  the  Dionysiac  theatre, 
then  leaving  the  Odeium  of  Pericles  to  the  left,  and  thence 
6.veeping  westward  to  the  Agora,  there  ran  a  street  which 
formed  a  favourite  promenade  in  ancient  Athens,  commonly 
known  as  the  "Street  of  Tripods."  It  gained  this  name 
frrvm  the  small  votive  shrines  which  adorned  it,  supporting 
*pon  their  summit  the  bronze  tripods  which  had  been 
obtained  as  prizes  in  the  choragic  contests.  The  tripods 
thus  mounted  often  themselves  served  as  a  frame  to  some 
masterpiece  of  .sculpture,  such,  for  example,  as  the  famous 
satyr  of  Praxiteles.     It  had  early  become  the  custom  to 


dedicate  the  prize  tripods  within  the  sacred  precincts  of 

the  theatre  ;  but  when  this  space  was  filled,  they  gradually 

extended  all  along  this  street,  and  their  erection  was  made 

more  and  more  a  matter  of  private  display.     One  of  these 

shrines  still  stands,  ancf  is  well  known  as  the  monument  of  .Vom-raenj 

Lysicrates.     It  bears  the   following   inscription  upon   its  "f  ^y-i- 

architrave  : — "  Lysicrates,  son  of  Lysithcides,  of  the  deme  '^"'•■^■ 

Cicynna,  was  choragus;  the  tribe  Acamantis  gained  the 

prize,  with  a  chorus  of   boys ;  Theon  accompanied   them 

upon  the  flute;  Lysiades  of  Athens  taught  them;  Eusenetus 

was  archon."     In  other  words,  the  date  of  this  monument 

was  335  B.C.     Fifteen  years  after  that  a  somewhat  similar 

shrine  was  reared  at  the  topmost  summit  of  the  back  of 

the  great  theatre,  where  an  ancient  grotto  was  by  Thrasyllus  Monamew 

converted   into   a    choragic   monument.     The   Byzantine  °f  Thra- 

Christians  transformed  the  building  into  a  chapel  of  the  ^J'^"** 

Virgin,  under   the  title  of   Panaghia  Spiliotissa,  or   Our 

Lady  of  the  Grotto.     Early  travellers,  describe  this  little 

shrine  as  consisting  of  three  'pilasters  engaged  in  a  plain 

wall,  surmounted  by  an  inscribed  architrave ;  above  was 

supported  a  figure  of  Dionysus,  now  _  preserved,  but  in  a 

much  injured  state,  in  the  British  Museum.     On  the  top 

of  the  statue  originally  rested  the  tripod  that  formed  the 

prize  of  Thrasyllus. 

The  Macedonian  period  again  marks  a  new  epoch  in  the  Maw- 
history   of   Athenian  topography.     Henceforward   almost  donian 
every  embellishment  Athens  received  was  at  the  hands  of  period, 
the  various  foreign  princes,  whose  tastes  inclined  them  to 
patronise  a  city  so  rich  in  historical  associations,  and  so 
ready  to  reward  each  new  admirer  with  an  equal  tribute 
of  servile  adulation.     But  whatever  decoration  the   city 
might  owe  to  royal  vanity  or  munificence,  her  connection 
with  these  foreign  potentates  brought  her  far  more  of  injury 
than  advantage.     She  became  entangled  in  their  wars,  and 
usually  found  herself  upon  the  losing  side. 

Upon  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Athenians  claimed 
their  liberty,  but  they  at  once  had  to  submit  to  Antipater 
(322  B.C.),  who  placed  a  garrison  in  Munychia.  It  perhaps 
was  he  who  defaced  the  ancient  Pnyx ;  at  all  events,  from 
this  time  forward  the  political  oratory  of  Athens  became 
silent  for  ever.  In  318  B.C.  Demetrius  the  Phalerean  was 
made  governor  of  Athens  by  Cassander,  and  received  every 
kind  of  homage  from  his  servile  subjects.  But  as  soon 
as  the  other  Demetrius,  sumamed  Poliorcetes,  appeared 
in  the  Piraeeus,  the  Athenians  welcomed  him  with  open 
arms.  For  restoring  to  them  the  forms  of  democracy 
he  was  extoUed  with  abject  adulation,  and  had.assigned  to 
•him  a  residence  in  the  Opisthodomus  of  the  Parthenon 
itself,  where  he  profaned  the  sanctuary  of  the  virgin 
goddess  with  unbridled  sensuality.  Upon  the  defeat  of 
Autigonus  at  Ipsus  (301  B.C.),  Demetrius  fled  from  Athens, 
and  under  Lachares,  the  leading  demagogue  of  the  time, 
the  city  enjoyed  the  shadow  of  independence.  But  the 
demagogue  soon  devehjped  into  a  tyrant,  and  when 
Demetrius  reappeared  in  296  B.C.  and  besieged  the  city, 
Lachares  had  to  fly  from  tlie  indignation  of  the  citizens, 
taking  with  hJTn  the  golden  sluelds  that  adorned  the  eastern 
frobt  of  the  AcropoUa,  and  iiaving  rifled  the  chryselephan- 
tine statue  itself.  Again,  in  268  B.C.,  Athens  endured  a 
long  siege  from  Antigonus  Gonatas,  who  laid  waste  the 
surrounding  coimtry.  Still  more  disastrous  was  the  in- 
cfl"ectual  siege  by  Philip  V.  in  200  B.C.,  who,  pitvJhing  his 
camp  at  Cynosargcft,  destroyed  everything  that  lay  around — 
the  temple  of  Heracles,  the  gymnasium  there,  and  the 
Lyceium  as  well  At  length,  in  146  b.c.,  Greece  became 
a  Roman  province,  and  Athens  succumbed  peacefully  to 
the  Roman  yoke. 

During  the  inglorious  period  of  Athenian  history  which 
has  just  been  sketched,  several  new  buildings  were  reared  by 
the  munificence  of  foreign  princes.     Ptolemy  Philadelphufl. 


8 


ATHENS 


gav?  his  name  to  a  laTgc  gymnasium — the  Ptolemseum — 
built  by  him  near  the  Theseium-  Attalus  I  ,  king  ot 
Pergamus.  erected  a  stoa  on  the  north-east  of  the  Agora, 
and  laid  out  a  garden  in  the  Academy.  His  successor, 
Eumenes  11  (197-159  Bc),  built  another  stoa  near  the 
great  theatre.  Antiochus  Epiphanea  designed  the  comple- 
tion of  the  Olympitim.  a  work  which  was  interrupted  by 
his  death, 
■(wnaii  Under   the  rule   of  tht    Romans  Athens  enjoyed    the 

»!riod  privileges  of  a  libera  cwUas,  i.e  ,  no  garrison  was  intro- 
duced into  the  town,  no  tribute  was  levied  upon  it,  and 
the  constitution  was  nominally  left  unaltered.  The 
Areopagus,  indeed,  under  EomaB  influence,  recovered 
some  of  its  ancient  power,  and  was  made  to  take  pre- 
cedence of  the  more  democratic  assemblies  of  the  Boiile  and 
Ecclesia.  The  revision  also  of  the  laws  by  Hadrian 
would,  of  course,  introduce  some  changes  Yet  it  may 
surely  be  maintained  that  Athens  under  the  Roman 
dominion  was  in  a  far  better  position  than  in  the  days  be- 
fore the  taking  of  Corinth  by  Mummius,  when  she  had  been 
at  the  mercy  of  each  successive  Macedonian  pretender. 
The  Romans  'appear  to  have  shown  a  remarkable  respect 
for  the  feelings  of  the  Athenian  people.  It  would  be 
superfluous  here  to  recall  the  warm  expressions  of  admira- 
tion which  fall  from  Cicero  and  Horace  when  speaking  of 
Athens,  A  visit  to  Athens  was  regarded  by  the  educated 
jt  Roman  as  a  kind  of  pilgrimage.'  One  great  disaster 
u-it  Athens  did  indeed  undergo  at  the  hands  of  Rome ;  this 
was  the  siage  and  plunder  of  the  city  by  Sulla  in  the 
Mithridatic  War.  Yielding  to  the  threats  of  the  king  and 
the  representations  of  the  villainous  Aristion,  the  Athenians 
had  joined  the  cause  of  the  king  of  Pontus,  and  Sulla 
deliberately  resolved  to  gratify  his  revenge  (Athensus,  v. 
i'./olL,  Plut.,  Sulla,  12).  After  a  protracted  siege,  in 
which  the  inhabitants  suff'ered  the  extreme  of  famine, 
mocked  at  once  by  the  insolence  of  Aristion  within,  and 
pressed  by  a  remorseless  foe  without,  Athens  at  length 
was  taken  on  March  1,  86  B.C.  Many  of  the  public 
buildings  (happily  not  the  most  important)  were  over- 
thrown, much  of  the  sacred  treasure  was  rifled  by  the 
soldiers,  aud  many  works  of  art,  together  with  the  library 
of  Apellicon,  containing  the  collections  of  Aristotle  and 
Theophrastus,  were  carried  oS'  by  the  cultivated  Sulla. 
The  loss  of  life  was  also  great :  large  numbers  were 
butchered  by  the  soldiery,  and  the  Agora  of  Cerameicus 
flowed  with  blood.  We  are  told  that  Sulla  was  wont  to 
take  credit  for  having  "spared  Athens."  He  did  not 
indeed  destroy  it,  but  his  conduct  on  this  occasion  alone 
would  suffice  to  fix  an  indelible  stain  upon  his  memory. 
With  thb  disastrous  exception,  Athens  prospered  under 
the  Roman  rule,  and  students  from  all  parts  of  the  Grseco- 
Roman  world  flocked  thither  to  attend  the  lectures  of  the 
philosophers  and  rhetoricians,  or  to  view  the  countless 
works  of  art  that  adorned  the  city.  Athenian  society  grew 
more  and  more  academic.  The  current  tone  of  educated 
circles  was  antiquarian  even  to  pedantry.^  The  inscriptions 
relating  to  the  Roman  period  clearly  reveal  to  us  the  chief 
interests  of  contemporary  Athenian  life.  Epitaphs  in 
abundance  testify  to  the  Sdo-i&u^oi-i'a  which  delighted  in 
proper  names  derived  from  deities  and  religious  ceremonies,' 
and  the  pride  of  genealogical  pedantry.  Honorary  decrees 
abound  to  justify  the  charge  of  adulation  which  was  the 
reproach  of  the  later  Athenians  But  the  commonest  class 
of  monuments  are  the  gymnastic  inscriptions,  which  give 

*  Thd  beautiful  elegy  of  ^Propertius,  baginning  **  Ma^nm  iter  ad 
doctAS  proficisd  cogor  Athenas"  (iv.  21),  is  worth  referring  to. 

*  See  note  is  No.  81  of  OTtek  Jnscriptwm  in  (he  BrUish  Musevm, 
alw  No.  93 

*  C/  ihiit..  No.  47  ,  ari'l  Cuiuauudcs,  'tirtypatpal  'Att»c7jj  ^Tirifu- 
fiiai,  pasnr. 


us  lists  of  the  students  from  all  quarters  who,  while  pursu- 
ing their  studies  at  Athens,  enrolled  themselves  at  a 
gymnasium,  and  there  had  the  advantage  of  a  social  life 
aud  regular  discipline,  which  reminds  one  somewhat  of  the 
college  system  in  the  English  universities.' 

But  enough  has  now  been  said  of  the  eonditien  of 
Athenian  society  under  the  Roman  rule ;  it  is  time  to 
enumerate  the  embelhshments  which  the  city  received 
during  this  period.  It  is  uncertain  at  what  exact  date  the 
Horolugium  of  Andronicus  of  CjTrhus  was  erected,  which  Eoro. 
IS  generally  known  as  the  Tower  of  the  Winds.  It  is  first 'opum  of 
mentioned  by  Varro  {De  Re  Rust,  iii.  5,  17),  and  is  there--''-^''''^"*" 
fore  older  than  35  B.C.,  though  certainly  not  earlier  than*'"^ 
the  Roman  conquest.  This  monument,  so  familiar  to 
every  scholar,  is  described  by  Yitruvius  (i.  6,  4)  as  an 
octagonal  tower  of  marble.  It  stands  at  what  anfiently 
formed  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Roman  Agora, 
presently  to  be  described.  On  each  face,  beneath"  th^ 
cornice,  is  sculptured  the  figure  of  the  wind  which  blew 
from  the  corresponding  quarter ;  on  the  top  of  the  roof 
was  a  pedestal  supporting  a  bronze  triton  (now  destroyed}, 
which  was  constructed  to  turn  with  the  wind,  and  to  point 
out  the  wind's  quarter  with  a  waud  which  he  held  in  his 
hand.  The  sculptured  figures  of  tlie  winds  are  in  good 
preservation,  though  of  a  declining  period  of  art.  They 
represent  the  four  cardinal  points  and  the  intermediate 
quarters  between  these.  Each  has  his  emblems :  Boreas, 
the  north  wind,  blows  his  noisy  conch ;  Notus,.  the  rainy 
south  wind,  bears  his  water-jar ;  Zephynis,  the  west  wind, 
has  his  lap  full  of  flowers,  and  so  on.  Under  each  figure 
are  the  remains  of  a  sun-dial ;  and  besides  all  these  external 
features,  the  interior  was  constructed  to  form  a  water-clock, 
supplied  with  water  from  the  spring  at  the  Acropolis  called 
Clepsydra.  Thus  in  cloudy  weather  a  substitute  was  pro- 
vided for  the  dial  and  the  sun. 

The  Agora  in  Cerameicus  has  already  been  described, 
and  it  was  there  noticed  that  the  name  Ceramejjcus  often 
appears  to  be  employed  alone  to  denote  the  Agora.  This 
may  be  easily  accounted  for.  By  the  munificence  of 
Julius  Caisar  and  -of  Augvistus,  a  propylseum  of  four 
Doric  columns,  which  still  exist,  was  reared  at  the  N.R 
extremity  of  the  Cerameicus  Agora.  The  space  between 
the  central  columns  is  about  12  feet,  between  the  side 
columns  not  quite  5  feet.  Over  the  pediment  is  a 
pedestal,  with  an  inscription  in  honour  of  Lucius  Caesar, 
the  grandson  cf  Augustus,  whose  equestrian  statue  it 
appears  to  have  supported.  This  propylaeum  has  by 
some  archaeologists  been  regarded  as  a  portico  cf  a  temple 
to  Athena  Archegetis,  to  whom  we  learn,  from  an  inscrip- 
tion on  the  architrave,  that  the  building  was  dedicated  out 
of  the  moneys  given  by  Julius  and  Augustus.  But  there 
can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  these  columns  formed 
the  entrance  into  a  new  Agora,  dedicated  to  Athena  New  ot 
Archegetis,  just  as  it  was  customary  with  the  Romans  fioman 
to  dedicate  a  forum  to  some  deity,  and  intended  chiefly,  -^sof*- 
it  would  seem,  for  the  sale  of  the  olive  oil  which  formed 
so  large  and  characteristic  an  export  from  Athens.  This 
apjiears  to  be  proved  by  the  lengthy  inscription  (sea 
Bockh,  Corp.  Inscr.  Gra-c,  No.  355)  which  exists  immedi- 
ately within  the  entrance,  and  contains  an  edict  of  the 
Em]>cror  Hadrian  regulating  the  sale  of  oil  and  the 
duties  payable  upon  it.  It  is  easy  to  understand  how, 
after  the  erection  of  the  Roman  Agora,  the  old  market 
would  be  styled  jj  oyopa  iv  Kepa/itiKw  or  Simply  Cerameicus, 
while  .the  new  oil-market  would  be  distinguished  as  the 

*  S«e  Oreek  Inscripticms  in  the  British  Museum,  No.  39,  and/oUL 
The  best  account  of  the  condition  of  Atheu?  under  the  Romans  may 
be  found  in  a  dissertation  by  H.  L.  Alirena.  De  Athenarum  statu 
potilico,  &c.,  and  anotlier  by  Professor  Diltenbcrger,  De  Sfhebia 
ACtica. 


A    r  HENS 


Agora.'  TLie  "Toivej  of  tin/  Winds,"  .ducli  Lad  prenously 
been  erected,  formed,  with  its  useful  timepieces,  an  appro- 
priate embelhshineiit  a(  ibe  ncirtti-eastcrn  extremity  The 
market  was  cncl6sed  by  a  wall,  ai^d  it  was  reserved  for 
Hadrian  to  complete  its  decoration  by  building  a  magnificent 
etoa  on  its  northeni  side.  Augustus  himself  received  the 
honour  of  a  small  circular  shrine  upon  the  Acropolis, 
dedicated  to  Augustus  and  Roma.  His  son-in  law  Agrippa 
was  honoured  by  an  equestrian  statue  in  front  of  the  Pro- 
pylaoa,  the  pedestal  of  which  still  e.xists.  The  Agrippeium 
was  a  theatre  erected  by  Agrippa  in  the  Cerameicus.  It 
is  possible,  moreover,  that  the  Diogeneium — the  only 
gymnasium  mentioned  in  the  Ephebic  inscriptions  of  the 
imperial  period — was  built  about  tliis  time.  Its  site  has 
recently  been  thought  to  have  been  discovered  about  200 
yards  east  of  the  Tower  of  the  Winds.  Whatever  licen- 
tiousness and  misgovernment  might  mark  the  reign  of 
succeeding  emperors,  they  at  all  events  refrained  from  doing 
injury  to  Athens.  It  had  been  proposed  to  6nish  the  great 
temple  of  Zeus  Oljinpius  in  honour  of  Augustus,  but  the 
design  fell  through^  and  it  was  reserved  for  Hadrian  to 
finally  complete  the  building  of  this  magnificent  temple, 
some  SIX  centuries  from  the  tmie  when  the  first  stone  was 
Idid. 

The  reign  of  Hadrian  made  literally  a  new  era  in  the 
history  of  Athens.^  For  Greece,  and  especially  for  Athens, 
this  emperor  entertained  a  p;issionate  admiration.  He 
condescended  to  hold  the  office  of  archon  eponymus ,  lu 
his  honour  a  thirteenth  tribe,  Harfnanis,  was  instituted  ; 
and  the  emperor  shared  with  Zeus  the  title  of  Olympius, 
and  the  honours  of  the  newly-finished  temple.  While, 
however,  many  portions  of  the  city  bore  witness  to  his 
munificence,  it  was  in  the  southeastern  quarter  that  most 
of  his  new  buildings  arose,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Olympium.  This  suburb  was  accordingly  styled  Had- 
rianopolis,  or  New  Athens,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  old 
city  of  Theseus  and  of  Themistocles.  The  arch  of  Hadrian 
still  stands  in  a  fairly  perfect  state,  and  marks  the  boundary 
between  the  ancient  town  and  the  new  suburb  embellislied 
by  Hadrian.  On  the  northwestern  front  of  the  architrave 
is  the  inscription  aiS'  utr'  'A^^i  at  &-q<T<w^  ?;  Trplv  ttoXis  ', 
on  the  other  front,  aiS'  ftV*  'ASpiai-oZ  kol  oi*;^!  Ov^o-tw?  n-dXts. 
At  the  same  time  many  of  the  older  buildings  underwent 
restoration  at  h>s  command.  Nor  was  his  bounty  shown 
in  works  of  building  alone.  He  ceded  to  the  Athenians 
the  island  of  Cephallenia,  and  bestowed  upon  them  large 
presents  of  money,  and  an  anuual  largess  of  corn. 

The  immediate  successors  of  Hadrian  were  guided  by 
bis  example.  Antoninus  Puis  completed  an  aqueduct 
which  Hadrian  had  commenced  for  bringing  wafer  into'the 
town  from  the  Cephisu.s.  Marcus  Aurelius  visited  Athens 
for  the  purpose  of  initiation  at  the  Eleusinian  mystenes. 

The  list  of  distinguished  persons  who  made  themselves 
famous  as  benefactors  of  Athens  may  be  .said  to  close  with 
the  name  of  Herodes  Atticus  the  rhetorician.  Herodes 
had  counted  Marcus  Aurelius  amongst  his  pupils,  and  w.is 
sure  of  a  distinguished  career  at  Rome  ,  hut.  like  the 
friend  of  Cicero,  he  preferred  the  more  peaceful  atmosphere 
of  Greece  and  took  the  surname  of  Atticus.  His  ambition 
was  to  excel  as  a  sophist,  but  he  owed  his  fame  yet  more 
to  the  enormous  wealth  he  inherited  from  his  father, 
which  he  spent  in  works  of  public  munificence  Various 
towns  of  Greece  and  even  of  Italy  were  enriched  by  his 
bounty,  but  Athens  raost  of  all.  In  addition  to  his 
many  other  benefactions,  two  architectural  works  in  parti- 

'  The  name  Ceraraeious  is  never  used  by  writera  of  pw-  Roman  tiir-.ea 
for  llie  old  nmrket ;  they  always  ftpeak  of  '*  ttie  Agora"  Patuaniaa 
uses  botli  words  in  their  more  modem  mean'ings  re.tpectively 

'  Many  innrnbed  documents  are  found,  dated  "  from  Hadrian's  first 
TiaiU  ■     See  Dillcnbcrger  in  the  t/crmcs,  1872,  p   213 


cular  iijimortalLsed  his  name.  One  wHs  the  Stadium, 
which  he  adorned  with  magnificent  marWe  seats.  The 
other  was  the  Odeium  (see  J'ausan.,  ^^L  20),  the  ruin.«  of 
which  are  still  to  be  seen  under  the  south-west  of  *.he 
Acropolis  An  odeiom  resembled  a  theatre  in  its  general 
jdan  and  the  purposes  it  served  it  diflered  apparently  in 
being  roofed  la  The  ancient  theatres  were  open  to  the 
sky  .  but  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  this  odeiuiu,  built 
by  Herodes  in  honour  of  his  decea.sed  wife  Regilla,  was 
Its  roof  of  cedar,  fragments  of  wliich  were  actually  dis- 
covered in  the  excavations  made  upon  this  site  in  IS.'iV 

It  IS  a  fortunate  circumstance  that  the  best  and  only  Tour  o' 
extant  account  of  ancient  Athens  came  from  the  pen  of  a  Pauium-u 
traveller  who  visited  the  city  just  at  the  time  when  the 
munificence  of  Hadrian  and  of  Herodes  had  left  nothing 
more  to  be  added  to  its  embellishment.  The  Odeium  of 
RegiUa,  indeed,  had  not  been  commenced  when  Pausanias 
visited  Athens,  and  he  describes  it  latei  on  in  his  Seventh 
book.  We  may  place  his  tour  through  Athens  about  the  year 
170  A.D  His  manner  of  descrijjtion  is  as  methodical  as  a 
modern  guide-book,  and  his  very  knowledge  and  appreciation 
of  the  endless  masterpieces  of*  Grecian  art  prevent  him 
from  covering  his  page-s,  like  some  modem  tourists,  with 
rapturous  word-painting  and  expressions  of  delight.  Ho 
begins  his  account  of  Athens  (bk.  i.  ch.  i.-iL  §  1)  with  a 
description  of  the  Pif.'eeus  and  the  harbours,  and  his  first 
tour  is  along  the  road  from  Phak-ruin  to  the  city,  where  he 
enters  by  the  Itonian  gate,  within  which  he  finds  a 
monument  to  the  Amazon  Antiope.  In  his  next  tour  (ch. 
ii.  §  2-x'h.  V  )  he  supposes  us  to  start  again  from  Pir.Teus, 
and  approach  the  city  along  the  remains  of  the  Long  Walls. 
Thus  entering  the  city  by  the  Pira/an  gate,*  be  conducts 
us  along  the  southern  side  of  the  old  Agora  (which  ho 
styles  the  Cerameicus),  describing  all  the  buildings  that 
occur  upon  the  way,  from  the  Stoa  Basileius  and  another 
stoa  near  it,  adorned  with  a  statue  of  Zeus  Eleutherius,  in 
an  eastward  direction  [lasl  the  temple  of  Apollo  Patrons, 
the  Mctroum,  the  Eouleutcnum,  and  Tholus,  and  other 
buildings,  which  lay  at  the  northern  and  north-eastern  foot 
of  the  Areopagus  This  walk  ends  with  the  niention  of 
the  temple  Eucleia  and  the  Eleusinium.  It  is  not  easy  to 
see  why  Fau.sanias  here  introduces  an  account  of  the  foun- 
tain Enneacrunus  and  the  temple  of  Demeter  and  Core, 
which  every  archaeologist  hitherto  has  placed  near  the 
Ilissus,  m  the  south  eastern  extremity  of  the  city.'  In  his 
next  walk  (ch  xiv  §5-xvm  §  3),  having  already  dcseribed 
the  south  side  of  the  Cerameicus  Agora,  he  starts  again 
from  the  Stoa  Basileius,  describes  the  buildings  on  the 
west  and  north  of  the  Agora,  and  then  enters  the  new  of 
Roman  Agora.  In  this  tour  he  mentions  the  altar  ol 
Mercy,  the  gymnasium  of  Ptolemy,  the  Thcseium,  the 
temple  of  Aglaunis,  and  the  Prj'taneium.  In  his  next 
walk  he  starts  from  the  Prytaneuim.  and  proceeding  eaat^ 
ward  (ch.  xviii  §  4,  xu.),  he  mentions  the  temples  of 
.'Narapis  and  of  Ileithuia,  until,  leaving  the  eastern  end  of 
the  Acropolis  at  some  distance  on  his  right  hand,  he  passes 
through  the  arch  of  Hadrian,  aud  describes  the  Olympium 
imd  the  other  buildings  of  that  emperor.  This  tour  included 
the  temple  of  Aphrodite  «V  Ki/rois,  the  Cynosarpes,  the 
Stadium,  and  other  buildings  on  both  sides  of  the  Ilissus. 
For  his  next  walk  he  returns  again  to  the  Prytaneium  (ch. 
XX  -xxviii.  §  3),  and  enters  the  Street  of  Tripod.i,  which 
leads  him  to  the  temple  and  theatre  of  Dionysus,  which  he 
describes.     Thus  he  at  length  reaches  the  western  extremity 

*  Curdus  and  others  are  probably  rnistalten  in  supposing  the  Dipy- 
Tuili  to  be  the  gate  intended  by  rausanuis. 

*  Dr  Dyer,  in  his  recent  work  on  Alliens,  Appendix  I.,  endeavours 
to  explain  this  difficulty  by  aesirming  the  el^istance  of  two  fountains 
called  Callirrfaoe,  one  of  which  (CnneacniDus)  be  places  on  the  north- 
west of  the  AiTopolis. 


10 


ATHENS 


of  tlie  Acropolis,  and  enteiing  through  the  Propylsea,  he 
describes  in  order  each  object  which  adorned  the  summit, 
with  an  accuracy  fully  borne  out  by  recent  excavations. 
His  last  walk  in  Athens  (ch.  sxviii.  ^  4,  xxLx.  §  1)  con- 
ducts us  through  the  various  buildings  at  the  western  base 
of  the  Acropolis.  From  the  temple  of  the  Semnae  he  passes 
to  the  comt  of  the  Areopagus,  and  the  mention  of  this 
leads  him  to  speak  of  the  other  judicial  courts  of  Athens. 
The  rest  of  his  first  book  is  occupied  with  an  account  of 
the  suburbs  of  Athens — the  Academy,  the  sacred  way  to 
Eleusis,  &c.,  and  the  topography  of  Attica  in  general. 
Subsequent  A  few  words  may  suffice  to  describe  the  ultimate  fate  of 
history  of  Athens.  In  the  reign  of  Valerian  the  northern  barbarians 
°'"'  first  appeared  in  the  north  of  Greece,  where  they  laid  siege 
to  Thessalonica.  This  extraordinary  apparition  having 
alarmed  all  Greece,  the  Athenians  restored  their  city  wall, 
which  Sulla  had  dismantled,  and  otherwise  placed  the  town 
in  a  state  of  defence  sufficient  to  secure  it' against  a  coup- 
de-main.  But  under  GaUienus,  the  next  emperor,  Athens 
was  besieged,  and  the  archonship  abolished,  upon  which 
the  strategos  or  general,  who  had  previously  acted  as 
inspector  of  the  Agora,  became  the  chief  magistrate. 
Under  Claudius  the  city  was  taken,  but  recovered  soon 
afterwards.  Constantino  the  Great  gloried  in  the  title  of 
General  of  Athens,  which  had  been  conferred  upon  him, 
and  expressed  high  satisfaction  on  obtaining  from  the 
people  the  honour  of  a  statue  with  an  inscription, — a  dis- 
tinction, which  he  acknowledged  by  sending  to  the  city  a 
yearly  gratuity  of  grain.  He  also  conferred  on  the  governor 
of  Attica  and  Athens  the  title  of  Me'yas  AoC|,  or  Grand 
Diike,  whkh  soon  became  hereditary  ;  and  hig  son  Coustaus 
bestowed  several  islands  on  the  city,  in  order  to  supply  it 
with  corn.  In  the  time  of  Theodosius  I.,  that  is,  towards 
the  end  of  the  4th  century,  the  Goths  laid  waste  Thessaly 
and  Epirus ;  but  Theodoras,  general  of  the  Greeks,  acted 
with  so  much  prudence,  th.s\  he  saved  the  Greek  cities  from 
pillage  and  the  inhabitants  from  captivity,  a  service  which 
was  most  gratefully  acknowledged.  But  this  deliver- 
ance proved  only  temporary.  The  fatal  period  was  now 
fast  approaching,  and,  in  a  real  barbarian,  Athens  was 
doomed  to  experience  a  conqueror  yet  more  remorseless 
than  Sulla.  This  was  Alaric,  king  of  the  Goths,  who, 
under  the  Emperors  Arcadius  and  Honorius,  overran  both 
Italy  and  Greece,  sacking,,  pillaging,  and  destroj-ing. 
Never,  indeed,  did  the  fury  even  of  barbarian  conquest- 
discharge  itself  in  a  fiercer  or  more  desolating  tempest. 
The  Peloponnesian  cities  were  overturned  ;  Arcadia  and 
LaccdiEmon  were  both  laid  waste ;  the  gulfs  of  Lepanto 
and  .lEgina  were  illuminated  w'th  the  flames  of  Corinth  ; 
and  the  Athenian  matrons  were  dragged  in  chains  to  satisfy 
the  brutal  desires  of  the  barbarians.  The  invaluable 
treasures  of  antiquity  were  removed ;  stately  and  magni- 
ficent structures  were  reduced  to  heaps  of  ruin  ;  and  Athens, 
stripped  of  the  monuments  of  her  ancient  splendour,  was 
compared  by  Synesius,  a  writer  of  that  age,  to  a  victim  of 
which  the  body  had  been  consumed,  and  the  skin  only 
remained. 

After  this  dreadful  visitation  Athens  sank  into  insigni- 
Scance,  and  became  as  obscure  as  it  had  once  been  illustrious. 
Wo  are  indeed  informed  that  the  cities  of  Hellas  were  put 
in  a  state  of  defence  by  Justinian,  who  rcpaiied  the  walls 
of  Corinth,  which  had  been  overturned  by  an  earthquake, 
and  those  of  Athens,  which  had  fallen  into  decay  through 
age.  But  from  the  time  of  this  emperor  a  chasm  of  nearly 
Bevcn  centuries  ensues  in  its  history ;  except  that,  about 
the  year  1130,  it  furnished  Roger,  tie  first  king  of  Sicily, 
with  a  number  of  artificers,  who  there  introduced  the 
culture  of  silk,  which  afterwards  passed  into  Italy.  The 
worms,  it  seems,  had  been  brought  from  India  to  Con- 
•tnntinoplo  in  the  reign  of  Justinian. 


Doomed,  apparently,  to  become  the  prey  of  every  spoiler, 
Athens  again  emerges  from  oblivion  in  the  13th  century, 
under  Baldwin  and  his  crusaders,  at  a  time  when  it  was 
besieged  by  a  general  of  Theodoras  Lascaris,  the  Greek 
emperor.  lu  1 427  it  was  taken  by  Sukan  Amurath  IL ;  but 
some  time  afterwards  it  was  recovered  from  the  infidels  by 
another  body  of  cmsaders  under  the  marquis  of  Montferrat, 
a  powerful  baron  of  the  West,  who  bestowed  it,  along  with 
Thebes,  on  Dtllo  de  la  Roche,  one  of  his  principal  followers. 
For  a  considerable  time  both  cities  were  governed  by  Otho 
and  his  descendants,  with  the  title  of  dukes ;  but  being 
unable  to  maintain  themselves  in  their  Greek  principality, 
they  were  at  length  succeeded  by  NValter  of  Brienne,  who, 
soon  after  his  succession,  was  expelled  by  his  new  subjects, 
aided  by  the  Spaniards  of  Catalonia.  The  next  rulers  of 
Athens  were  the  Acciajuoli,  an  opulent  family  of  Florence, 
in  whose  possession  it  remained  until  1455,  when  it  was 
taken  by  Omar,  a  general  of  Mahomet  II.,  and  thus  feU  a 
second  time  into  the  hands  of  the  barbarians.  The 
victorious  sultan  settled  a  Mahometan  colony  in  his  new 
conquest,  which  he  incorporated  with  the  Ottoman  empire  ; 
and  Athens,  as  well,  as  Greece,  continued  to  form  an 
integral  part  of»the  Turkish  dominions,  until  the  treaty 
of  Adrianople  in  1829,  following  up  the  provisions  and 
stipulations  of  the  treaty  of  London,  7th  July  1827,  estab- 
hshed  within  certain  limits  the  new  state  Qf  Greece,  of 
which  Athens  is  now  the  capital 

From  the  period  of  the  Ottoman  conquest  to  the  com-  Modern 
mencement  of  the  insurrection  in  1S21,  Athens  was  only  eiegea. 
known  in  history  by  two  attempts,  on  the  part  of  the 
Venetians,  to  expel  the  Turks  and  make  themselves  masters 
of  the  city.  The  first  of  these  took  place  in  1464,  only 
nine  years  after  its  capture  .by  the  Osmanlis,  and  proved 
an  entire  failure.  But  the  second,  which  was  undertaken 
in  1687,  more  than  two  centuries  later,  ,was  crowned  with 
a  temporary  and  fatal  success.  In  the  month  of  September 
of  that  year,  Count  Konigsmark,  a  Swede  in  the  service 
of  Venice,  having  disembarked  at  the  Pirseeus  a  force  of 
8000  foot  and  S70  horse,  forming  part  of  the  armament 
under  Francesco  Morosini,  afterwards  doge,  marched  to 
Athens,  and  having  summoned  the  citadel  without  effect, 
he  erected  a  battery  of  hea-vy  ordnance  on  the  hill  of  the 
Piiyx,  and  placing  two  mortars  near  the  Latin  convent  at 
the  western  foot  of  the  Acropolis,  bombarded  it  for  several 
days.  The  fire  of  the  cannon  was  chiefly  directed  against 
the  Propyljea,  and  the  modern  defences  below  that  edifice, 
whilst  the  mort-ars  continued,  without  intermission,  to 
throw  shells  into  the  citadel  The  consequence  was,  that 
the  beautiful  little  temple  of  Nike  Apteros,  the  frieze  of 
which  is  now  in  the  British  Museum,  was  completely 
destroyed  by  the  breaching  battery ;  and  the  Parthenon, 
be.-iides  being  greatly  injured  by  the  bursting  of  the  shells, 
was,  towards  the  close  of  the  attack,  almost  rent  in  pieces 
by  the  explosion  of  a  powder  magazine,  which  reduced  the 
middle  of  the  temple  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  threw  down  the 
whole  of  the  wall  at  the  eastern  extremity,  and  precipitated 
to  the  ground  every  statue  on  the  eastern  pediment.  The 
western  extremity  was  fortunately  less  injured,  and  a  part 
of  the  Opisthodomos  was  still  loft  standing,  together  vrith 
some  of  the  lateral  columns  of  the  peristyle  adjoining  to 
the  cell.  But  the  shock  was  nevertheless  .abundantly 
disastrous ;  and  when  the  Turks  afterwards  regained 
possession  of  the  citadel  (from  which,  on  this  occasion, 
they  were  expelled),  they  did  all  in  tlicir  power  to  complete 
the  destruction  which  the  Venetians  had  so  vigorously 
begun,  by  defacing,  mutilating,  or  burning  for  lime  every 
fragment  of  the  edifice  within  their  reach. 

In  the  course  of  the  revolutionary  war  Athens  sus 
fained  three  sieges.  The  first  was  laid  by  the  Greeks 
in  1822.     Having  carried  the  town  by  storm,  and  driveo 


A  T  H-A  T  H 


11 


tho  Turks  into  the  citadel,  they  established  a  strict  blockade 
of  tho  fortress,  which  was  continued  until  the  advance  of 
the  Pasha  at  the  head  of  4000  men  induced  them  to 
abandon  their  enterprise,  and  fly,  with  tho  Athenians,  to 
Salamis  and  yEgina.  Two  months  afterwards,  the  Pasha 
having  left  Athens  to  the  defence  of  1500  men,  the  Greeks 
again  ventured  to  attack  the  town,  and  succeeded  in 
obliging  the  Turks  to  seek  refuge  in  the  citadel,  which  they 
forthwith  determined  to  besiege  ;  but,  from  ignorance  and 
want  of  means,  no  progress  whatever  was  made  in  tho 
operation  until  they  obtained  possession  of  the  well  which 
supplied  the  garrison  with  water,  when  the  Turks  agreed  to 
capitulate  upon  condition  of  being  immediately  embarked 
with  their  families  and  sent  to  Asia  Minor.  On  various 
pretences,  however,  embarkation  was  delayed  from  time  to 
time  ;  and  when  intelligence  at  length  arrived  that  a  lirge 
Turkish  force  was  advancing  upon  Athens,  the  Palicari, 
instead  of  manning  the  walls  and  preparing  for  a  vigorous 
defence,  rushed  in  a  body  to  the  houses  where  the  prisoners 
Vere  confined,  and  commenced  an  indiscriminate  massacre. 
For  this  atrocity  it  is  no  palliation  to  remember  that  the 
Greek  character  had  morally  suffered  from  centuries  of 
servitude,  and  that  they  had  terrible  arrears  of  vengeance 
to  e.xact  The  third  siege  was  laid  by  the  Turks  in  1826. 
The  Greeks  had  left  a  strong  garrison  in  the  Acropolis, 
with  provisions  for  several  months;  and  o  spring  of  water 
having  been  discovered  inrtho  cave  of  Pan,  and  enclosed  by 
Odysseus  within  tho  defences  of  the  citadel,  there  was  no 
danger  of  its  being  starved  iato  a  surrender.  But  the 
Turks  having  established  batteries  near  the  Pnyx  and  on 
the  hill  of  tha  Museium,  and  having;  drawn  a  line  of 
trenches  round  the  citadel,  with  the  view  of  intercepting 
all  communication  between  the  besieged  and  tho  Greek 
army,  the  garrison  was  hard  pressed  ;  and  although  Colonel 
Fabvier.succeeded  in  forcing  his  way  through  tho  Turkish 
lines  with  500  men  and  a  supply  of  animunition,  and  thus 
offording  immediate  relief,  yet  the  total  defeat  of  the  Greek 
army  under  General  Church  at  the  battle  of  Athens,  fought 
in  the  hope  of  raising  the  siege,  led  soon  afterwards  to  the 
surrender  of  the  Acropolis,  which  remained  in  the  hands  of 
the  Turks  until  the  termination  of  the  revolutionarj'  war. 

In  1812  Athens  could  boast  of  a  population  of  12,000 
souls,  but  during  the  war  the  greater  part  of  the  city  was 
laid  in  ruins,  and  most  of  the  inhabitants  were  dispersed. 
In  1831  it  was  declared  the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom 
of  Greece.  Great  exertions  have  been  made  since  then  to 
restore  the  city ;  streets  have  been  opened,  levelled, 
widened ;  the  ancient  sewers  have  been  cleared  and 
repaired,  and  the  marshes  of  Cephisus  drained.  E.xcava- 
lions  of  ancient  sites  and  buildiiigs  have  been  carried  out, — 


chiefly  through  the  efforts  of  th«  Archaeological  Society  of 
Athens,  but  the  antiquaries  and  scholars  of  all  Europe 
have  anxiously  w.-vtchcd  their  endeavours,  and  France  and 
Prussia  have  vied  with  Great  Britain  in  the  prosecution  of 
Athenian  discovery.  The  Theseiumlias  become  a  treasury  of 
ancient  sculpture,  and  a  new  archaeological  museum  has  been 
also  erected  to  contain  tho  ever-increasing  stores  of  ancient 
inscriptions  and  sculptures.  Tho  royal  palace  is  a  large 
building  of  Pentclic  marble,  situated  in  the  eastern  quarter 
of  the  city,  on  tho  highest  part  of  the  gentle  eminence 
which  rises  from  the  level  of  the  Ilissus  and  Cephisus 
towards  Lycabettus.  The  University  (irai/tirio-T^/iiov)  was 
founded  in  1837,  and  numbers  over  1200  students,  while 
its  slaflf  of  52  professors  includes  the  names  of  some  of  the 
most  learned  Greek  archaeologists  in  Europe.  In  fact, 
the  schools  and  other  educational  institutions  of  Athens  are 
very  numerous,  and  thoroughly  efficient  The  archjeo- 
logiT;aI  journals  of  Athens  are  full  of  information  concern- 
ing the  progress  of  excavations,  and  pubUsh  the  texts  of 
newly -discovered  inscriptions.  The  population  in  1871 
was  over  48,000,  exclusive  of  the  population  of  the  Piraeus, 
which  would  bring  the  total  up  to  about  60,000.  Tho 
harbour  is  visited  by  ships  of  all  nations.  A  railway 
connects  the  Piraeeus  with  the  city,  iwid  enters  tho  ancient 
town  about  half-way  between  the  site  of  the  Dipylum  and 
Pirsean  gates.  The  terminus  stands  in  the  midst  of  what 
once  was  the  Agora  in  Cerameicus.  The  principal  street 
is  Hermes  Street,  running  from  west  to  east,  a  little  north 
of  the  terminus,  until  it  reaches  the  royal  palace.  Two 
other  good  streets,  Athena  Street  and  jEolus  Street,  traverse 
this  at  right  angles.  Tho  other  streets,  with  tho  exception 
of  Stadium  Street  on  the-N.E.,  between  the  chamber  of 
deputies  and  the  University,  are  generally  narrow  and 
winding.  Altogether,  Athens,  like  the  rest  of  Greece,  is 
in  a  condition  of,  increasing  prosperity,  and  reaps  tho 
blessings  of  freedom.  It  is  true  that  in  oar  own  country 
the  ardent  philhellenism  of  forty  years  ago  has  cooled 
down,  and  Greece  is  no  longer  an  object  of  popular  and 
sentimental  admiration.  Yet  never  did  the  scholars  of 
Europe  turn  with  keener  zest  to  the  study  of  her  ancient 
monuments ;  and  if  Attica  were  cleared  for  ever  of 
brigands,  and  furnished  with  satisfactory  roads,  then  in 
numbers  tenfold  greater  than  now  would  reverent  travellers 
from  the  west  of  Ji)urope  delight  to  make  their  pilgrimage 
to  the  birthplace  of  philosophy,  literature,  and  art. 

The  following  arc  'some  of  the  most  important  works  on  th» 
sul'joct ; — Lcako'a  Topocp-apky  of  Athens ;  "Wordsworth's  Athens 
and  AUien ;  liur^ian's  Oeographie  von  Orieckailand,  and  article 
"Alhense"  in  Pauly's  lital-EncycIopddie,  2d  ed.  ;  E.  Curlius's 
Allische  Stiuiien;  Dyer's  Ancient  A  them  ;  Wachsmuth's  Die  Stadl 
.kWen  in  Aitcrlhum.  (E.  L.  U.l 


ATHENS,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  tho  chief  of  which  are  the  following : — 
(1.)  The  capital  of  a  county  of  the  same  narno  in  the  S.E. 
of  the  state  of  Ohio,  finely  situated  on  the  Hocking  River. 
tt  is  the  seat  of  the  Ohio  university,  which  was  founded  in 
1804.  Population  of  county,  23,768.  (2.)  The  ca'pital  of 
Clarke  county,  Georgia,  o'n  the  W.  bank  of  the  Oconee  River. 
It  is  the  seat  of  tho  Georgia  university,  which  was 
fbu«ded  Ib  1801,  and  the  central  town  of  a  large  cotton- 
growing  district.  Population  in  1870,  4251,  of  whom 
1967  were  coloured. 

ATIIERTON,  or  CnowBENT,  a  township  in  the  parish 
of  Leigh  and  hundred  of  West  Derby,  in  Lancashire,  200 
miles  from  London.  It  is  one  of  those  places  which  have 
grown  to  wealth  and  populousness  through  the  extension 
of  the  cotton  trade.  Besides  its  factories,  it  has  coUieries 
and  ironworks     Population  in  1871,  7531. 


ATHIAS,  JosBPH,  a  celebrated  rabbi  and  printer  at 
Amsterdam,  whoso  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  are  noted 
for  the  general  correctness  of  the  text  Although  ho  was  a 
learned  Hebraist,  there  are  occasional  errors  in  tho  points, 
especially  in  tho  edition  of  1661,  but  many  of  these  were 
corrected  in  that  of  1667.  He  abo  printed  several  editions 
of  the  Bible  in  the  corrupted  Hebrew  spoken  by  the  Jews 
of  Spain,  Germany,  Poland,  and  England.  He  died  in 
1700. 

ATHLETiE  (iOKriraC),  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
was  the  designation  of  persons  who  contended  for  prizes 
{HOKa)  in  the  public  games,  exclusive  of  musical  and  other 
contests,  where  bodily  strength  was  not  called  into  play, 
though  here  also  the  word  was  sometimes  applied,  and  it  was 
even  extended  to  horses  which  had  won  a  race,  and  agair 
metaphorically,  e^.,  to  persons  who  had  exerted  themselves 
in  good  deeds  (uSXijrat  Tic  xaXuv  (pyui).     On   the  otboj 


12 


A  T  H  —  A  T  H 


hand,  the  term  was  restricted  so  as  to  exclude  those  who, 
for  mere  exercise,  without  the  incentive  of  a  prize,  prac- 
tised in  the  daily  gymnastic  competitions.  For  such  the 
name  was  eytui'toT-cu,  and  this  distinction  was  the  more 
necessary  in  the  later  period  of  Greek  history,  when 
trained  athletes  became  a  professional  class  (400-300  B.C.) 
Yet  it  was  -not  the  value  of  the  prizes  themselves  which 
led  men  to  devote  their  lives  to  athletic  exercises.  That 
was  at  most  very  insignificant.  But  from  the  heroic 
legends  of  competitions  for  prizes,  such  as  those  at  the 
obsequies  of  Patroclus  (Iliad,  xxiii.  257,  foil.),  from  the 
great  antiquity  of  the  four  national  games  of  Greece  (the 
Olympian,  Pythian,  Nemean,  and  Isthmian,  with  the  local 
Panathenaea  at  Athens),  and  from  the  high  social  position 
of  the  competitors  in  early  times,  there  gradually  became 
attached  to  victory  in  one  of  these  games  so  much  glory, 
that  the  townsmen  of  a  victor  were  ready  to,  and  frequently 
did,  erect  a  statue  to  him,  receive  him  in  triumph,  and 
care  for  him  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  Against  specially 
trained  athletes  the  better  class  of  citizens  refused  to 
compete,  and  the  lists  of  the  public  games  being  thus  left 
practically  open  only  to  professionals,  training  became 
more  a  matter  of  system  and  study,  particularly  in  regard 
to  diet,  which  was  rigorously  prescribed  for  the  athletes 
\>y  a  public  functionary,  styled  the  Aleiptes,  who  also  had 
to  salve  their  bodies  when  practising.  At  one  time  their 
principal  food  consisted  of  fresh  cheese,  dried  figs,  and 
wiieaten  bread.  Afterwards  meat  was  introduced,  gene- 
rally beef  or  pork ;  but  the  bread  and  meat  were  taken 
separately,  the  former  at  breakfast  {apurrov),  the  latter  at 
dinner  (iiim'ov).  Except  in  wine,  the  quantity  was 
unlimited,  and  the  capacity  of  some  of  the  heavy  weights 
(/Saptls  aOXrjTai)  must  have  been,  if  such  stories  as  those 
about  Milo  are  true,  enormous.  Cases  of  death  from 
apoplexy  are  not  unknown  among  them.  The  Tarentine 
Iccus  was  an  example  of  the  strictest  abstinence.  Their 
instruction  consisted,  besides  the  ordinary  gymnastic 
exercises  of  the  palaestra,  in  carrying  heavy  loads,  lifting 
weights,  bending  iron  rods,  striking  at  a  suspended  leather 
Back  (xoipvKos)  filled  with  sand  or  flour,  taming  bulls,  ic. 
Boxers  had  to  practise  delving  the  ground,  to  strengthen 
their  upper  limbs.  The  competitions  open  to  athletes 
were  in  running,  leaping,  throwing  the  discus,  wrestling, 
boxing,  and  the  Pancratium,  or  combination  of  boxing  and 
wrestling.  Victory  in  this  last  was  the  highest  achieve- 
ment of  an  athlete,  and  was  reserved  only  /or  men  of 
extraordinary  strength.  The  competitors  were  naked, 
haying  their  bodies  salved  with  oil.  Boxers  wore  the 
cteslus,  i.e.,  straps  of  leather,  round  the  wrists  and  fore- 
arms, with  a  piece  of  metal  in  the  fist,  which  was  some- 
times employed  with  great  barbarity.  An  athlete  could 
begin  his  career  as  a  boy  in  the  contests  set  apart  for  boys. 
He  could  appear  again  as  a  youth  against  his  equals,  and 
though  always  unsuccessful,  could  go  on  competing  till  the 
Qge  of  35,  when  he  was  debarred,  it  being  assumed  that 
after  this  period  of  life  he  could  not  improve.  It  some- 
times happened  that  an  athlete  would  agree  to  allow  his 
rival  to  win  ;  but  for  that  and  other  cases  of  dishonesty  a 
fine  was  imposed,  and  the  money  expended  in  erecting 
statues,  called  Zavcs,  with  warninginscriptions.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  Greek  athletes  whose  names  have  been 
handed  down  are  Milo,  Uipposthencs,  Polydamas,  Proma- 
chus,  and  Glaucus.  Cyrene,  fiMuous  in  the  time  of  Pindar 
for  its  athletes,  appears  to  have  still  maintained  its  reputa- 
tion to  at  least  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  for  in 
the  British  Museum  are  lo  be  seen  six  prize  vases  carried 
off  from  the  games  at  Athens  by  natives  of  that  district. 
These  vases,  found  in  the  tombs,  probably,  of  the  winners, 
are  made  of  clay,  and  painted  on  one  side  with  a  ropre- 
eentatio'n  of  the  content  lu  which  they  v.  ere  won,  and  on 


the  other  side  with  a  figure  of  Pallas  Athena,  with  an 
inscription  telling  where  they  were  gained,  and  in  some 
cases  adding  the  name  of  the  eponymous  magistrate  of 
Athens,  from  which  the  exact  year  can  be  determined. 
Among  the  Romans,  fond  as  they  were  of  exhibitions  of 
physical  skill  and  strength,  the  profession  of  athletes  was 
entirely  an  exotic,  and  was  even  under  the  empire  with 
difficulty  transplanted  from  Greece.  The  system  and  the 
athletes  themselves  were  always  purely  Greek,  (a.  s.  m.) 
ATHLETIC  SPORTS.  Although  this  term  is  un- 
doubtedly derived  from  the  ancient  aBX-qrai,  the  derivation 
does  not  exactly  indicate  its  present  meaning,  inasmuch 
as  our  modern  athletes  are  distinctly  defined  to  be  amateurs, 
in  contradistinction  to  professionals.  In  fact,  the  former 
pursue  the  agonistic  art,  and  should  be  styled  "  agonistics," 
if  we  may  be  allowed  to  invent  such  a  word,  rather  than 
athletes.  How  the  pastime  came  to  be  thus  named  in 
Britain  some  fifteen  years  ago  it  is  hard  to  say.  Till  about 
1860,  all  exercises  wherein  the  feet  played  the  principal  part 
were  rightly  styled  "pedestrianism."  Up  to  that  period  all 
prizes,  whether  contended  for  by  amateurs  or  professionals, 
were  invariably  in  money.  As  the  practice  of  the  pastime, 
however,  rapidly  spread  acongst  the  former,  it  was  naturally 
found  they  were  loth  to  compete  on  the  same  terms  with,  and 
for  similar  trophies  as,  t  ae  latter.  Hence  arose  the  modern 
definition  of  an  amateur  athlete,  viz.,  "  Any  person  who 
has  never  competed  in  an  open  competition,  or  for  public 
money,  or  for  admission  money,  or  with  professionals  for  a 
prize,  pubUc  money,  or  admission  money ;  nor  has  ever  at 
any  period  of  his  life,  taught,  or  assisted  in  the  pursuit 
of  athletic  exercises  as  a  means  of  livelihood  ;  nor  is  a 
mechanic,  artisan,  or  labourer."  The  moment  this  defini- 
tion was  brought  into  force  a  \vide  barrier  arose  between 
the  two  classes,  and  amateurs  ceased  to  compete  for  money 
prizes  amongst  themselves,  or  against  professionals,  on  any 
terms,  unless  they  were  willing  to  forfeit  their  status.  A 
generic  term  was  required  for  the  new  pastime,  and  in  lieu 
of  a  better  it  was  entitled  "  athletic  sports,"  and  its  votaries 
"athletes."  Hence  the  haphazard  origin  of  the  name.  The 
birthplace  of  the  modern  pastime  was  undoubtedly  the  great 
universities  and  the  mihtary  and  public  schools.  Cricket 
has  always  been  justly  considered  the  nation.al  game  of 
Great  Britain  during  the  summer  months,  and  football. fills 
the  same  position  in  the  winter.  For  a  month  or  six  weeks 
in  spring  and  autumn  the  weather  and  condition  of  the 
ground  aie  in  a  transition  state,  and  fit  for  neither  of  these 
pastimes,  and  athletic  sports  step  in  and  appropriately  fill 
the  vacuum.  About  the  year  1812  the  Royal  Military 
College  at  Sandhurst  inaugurated  modern  athletic  sports; 
but  the  example  was  not  followed  till  about  1S40,  when 
Rugby  School,  Eton  College,  Harrow  School,  Shrewsbury 
Royal  School,  and  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Woolwich, 
came  to  the  front.  Fifteen  years  later  college  meetings  had 
become  pretty  general  both  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 
Kensington  Grammar  School  had  founded  the  first  annual 
series  of  gatherings  held  in  London,  whilst  Cheltenham 
College  led  the  van  amongst  English  public  scho.ols.  A/ler 
a  few  months'  negotiations  the  first  Oxford  v.  Cambridge 
annual  meeting  was  held  in  lSG-1,  and  is  justly  considered 
the  premier  reunion  of  the  whole  year,  the  interest  shown 
and  the  attendance  of  spectators  being  little,  if  anything, 
less  than  at  the  annual  boat  race  between  the  same  two  seals 
of  learning.  Two  years  later  the  annual  amateur  cham- 
pionship meeting  was  founded  in  Laiidon,  when  the  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  victors  meet  representatives  from  all  parts 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  contend  for  the  "blue 
ribands  "  of  the  \-arious  events.  The  principal  athletic 
society  at  present  in  existence  is  undoubtedly  the  "London 
Athletic  Club."  which  takes  the  lead  in  all  matters  per- 
taining to  athletics  throuirhout  the  United   Kingdom.     In 


A  T  H  —  A  T  H 


13 


England,  moreorer,  there  is  now  scarcely  a  country  town, 
seirside  watering-place,  cricket,  rowing,  or  football  club  of 
importance,  and  probably  not  a  single  university  or  school, 
which  does  not  hold  its  annual  gathering  for  athletic  pur- 
poses. Across  the  border  the  professional  still  far  eclipses 
the  amateur  element,  and  there  is  no  meeting  of  amateurs 
which  can  by  any  means  be  compared  with  the  autumn 
Highland  gatherings  at  Braemar  and  elsewhere.  Until 
recently  the  two  classes  contended  indiscriminately  together, 
and  the  prowess  displayed  by  such  amateurs  as  the  late 
Professor  Wilson  affords  ample  testimony  that  gentlemen 
were  quite  capable  of  holding  their  own  agaiast  profes- 
sionals The  number  of  annual  amateur  gatherings  held 
in  Scotland  is,  however,  extremely  limited,  and  scarcely 
extends  beyond  tie  universities  and  chief  schools  connected 
with  Edinburgh,  St  Andrew  3,  Glasgow,  and  Aberdeen.  Id 
Ireland  the  origin  of  the  pastime  is  again  attributable  to 
the  leading  university,  viz.,  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where 
the  decision  of  isolated  events,  from  about  the  year  1845, 
has  given  rise  to  the  meetings  now  aanually  held  in  the 
picturesque  College  Park  at  Dublin.  The  Irish  civil  service 
meeting  was  inaugurated  in  1867,  since  which  time  the 
pastime  has  made  marvellous  sft-ides  in  the  island,  as  is 
testiBed  by  important  meetings  now  held  annually  in 
Belfast,  Cork,  and  Galway ;  whilst  the  recently  formed 
Irish  Champion  Athletic  Club  takes  the  lead,  and  stands 
in  the  same  relation  to  Ireland  as  the  London  Athletic 
Club  does  to  the  whole  of  Great  Britain.  Athletic  sports 
are  also  now  extending  on  the  Continent,  at  many  great 
watering-places  where  Englishmen  are  in  the. habit  of  con- 
gregating. Our  great  colonies  of  India,  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  and  Canada,  too,  as  well  as  the  United  States  of 
America,  Buenos  A)Tes,  China,  and  even  Japan,  are  not 
without  their  annual  gathermgs  for  competitors  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  race.  The  contests  now  classified  under  the 
name  "  athletic  sports "  are,  walking,  running,  leaping, 
throwing  the  hammer,  and  putting  the  weight.  Leaping 
and  running  are  respectively  identical  with  the  oA/ia  and 
8pd/io!  of  the  ancient  pentathlon;  whereas  throwing  the 
hammer  and  putting  the  weight  bear  some  resemblance  to 
throwing  the  S«r<co9.  Spear-hurling,  aKovnov,  is  never 
practised  but  by  a  few  gymnastic  societies ;  and  wrestUng, 
a-oXn,  between  amateurs  is  rarely  witnessed.  Running  and 
leaping,  however,  are  nearly  alwaj's  combined  on  every 
occasion  in  two  descriptions  of  contests,  viz.,  steeplechasing 
and  hurdle-racing.  Race-walking  finds  most  votaries  in 
London,  the  northern  counties  of  England,  and  in  Ireland, 
all  distances,  from  1  mile  to  7,  being  in  vogue  amongst 
amateurs.  Running  comprises  all  distances  from  100  yards 
up  to  4  miles.  Leaping  may  be  divided  into  three  principiJ 
heads,  viz.,  running  high-leaping,  running  wide-leaping, 
and  running  pole-leaping,  which  are  found  to  be  included 
in  nearly  every  athletic  prognimme.  Adjuncts  to  these  are 
the  running  hop-step-and-jump,  standing  high-leaping,  and 
standing  wide-leaping,  all  of  which  are  favourite  pastimes 
in  the  northern  and  midland  counties  of  England.  Vault- 
ing, too,  is  sometimes  practised,  but  belongs  rather  to  the 
gymnasium  than  outdoor  athletic  arena.  Steeplechasing 
proper  can  only  be  practised  over  natural  courses  across 
country.  Its  home  is  to  be  found  at  Rugby  School,  and 
amongst  members  of  hare-andhounds'  clubs,  who  keep 
themselves  in  exercise  thereby  during  the  winter  months. 
Artificial  steeplccha.se  courses  are  often  made  on  athletic 
grounds ;  but  the  leaps  are  generally  far  too  sensational, 
and  constructed  rather  to  afford  merriment  to  the  spec- 
tators than  a  fair  test  of  the  competitors'  leaping  powers. 
A  prettier  sight  than  a  well-contested  hurdle  race  can 
scarcely  bo  imagined ;  but  few  first  class  hurdle  racers  are 
met  with  outside  the  universities  and  public  schools.  Scot- 
land is  undoubtedly  the  birthplace  both  of  hammer  throw- 


ing and  putting  the  weight,  yet  they  arc  now  practised  at 
nearly  every  Engh.sh  and  Irish  meeting.  IG  lb  is  the  usual 
weight  of  the  mi,ssile  except  in  Ireland,  where  a  42  ft>,  and 
sometimes  a  56  C)  weight  are  put,  though  in  a  very  un- 
satisfactory fashion.  Athletic  sports  may  be  practised  in 
a  well  rolled  grass  field,  but  the  best  arena  is  an  enclosure, 
with  a  regularly  laid  down  running  track,  the  foundation 
made  of  clinkers  and  rubble,  and  the  surface  of  well-rolled 
fine  cinder  ashes.  (h.  f.  w.) 

ATHLONE,  a  market-town  and  parliamentary  borough 
of  Ireland,  lying  partly  in  West  Meath  and  partly  in 
Roscommon,  76  miles  VV.  of  Dublin.  The  Ri»er  Shannon 
divides  the  town  into  two  portions,  which  are  connected 
by  a  handsome  new  bridge,  opened  in  1844.  The  rapids 
of  the  Shannon  at  this  point  are  obviated  by  means  of  a 
canal  about  a  mile  iong,  ■which  renders  the  navigation  of 
the  nver  practicable  for  71  miles  above  the  town.  In 
the  war  of  1 688  the  po.ssession  of  Athlone  was  considered 
of  the  greatest  importance,  and  it  consequently  sustained 
two  sieges,  the  first  by  William  III.  in  person,  which 
failed,  and  the  second  by  General  Gmkell,  who,  in  the  face 
of  the  Irish,  forded  the  river  and  took  possession  of  the 
town,  with  the  loss  of  only  fifty  men.  At  the  time  of  the 
last  war  with  France  it  was  strongly  fortified  on  the  Roscom- 
mon side,  the  works  covering  15  acres  and  containing  two 
magazines,  an  ordnance  store,  an  armoury  with  15,000 
stand  of  arms,  and  barracks  for  1500  men.  There  are  two 
parish  churches,  two  Roman  Cathohc  parochial  chapels,  a 
Franciscan  and  Augustinian  chapel,  Presbyterian,  Baptist, 
and  Methodist  meeting-houses,  a  court-house,  bridewell,  a 
union  work-house,  and  two  branch  banks.  It  has  a 
woollen  factory,  as  well  as  other  industries,  and  an  active 
trade  is  carried  on  with  Shannon  harbour  and  Limerick  by 
steamers,  and  with  Dublin  by  the  Grand  and  Royal  Canals 
and  several  railway  lines,  while  the  importance  of  its  fairs 
and  markets  is  increasing.  There  is  also  a  valuable 
fishery  in  the  river.  Market-days,  Tuesday  and  Saturday. 
The  borough  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  Popula- 
tion in  1871,  6566;  constituency  in  1873,  336. — Thom's 
fnsh  Almanac  for  1875. 

ATHOR,  Athyr,  Hathor,  the  name  of  the  Egyptian 
divinity  corresponding  to  Aphrodite  or  Venus.  Her  name 
meant  "  the  abode  of  Hor "  or  Horns,  and  she  was  the 
mother  of  that  deity  in  some  of  his  types,  and  as  such  a 
form  of  Isis,  of  whom  she  was  a  higher  or  celestial  mani- 
festation. Her  name  occurs  as  «arly  as  the  4th  dynasty, 
when  she  is  styled  the  mistress  of  the  tree,  or  sycamore, 
neha,  or  the  tree  of  the  south.  Besides  the  local  titles  of 
i])e  diflerent  cities  over  which  she  presided,  she  was  entitled 
regent  of  the  gods,  living  mistress  of  the  upper  and  lower 
world,  mistress  of  the  heaven  and  regent  of  the  West,  and 
pupil  or  eye  of  Ra,  or  the  Sun,  with  whom  she  was  con- 
nected. In  her  celestial  charactershe  is  represented  as  an 
Eg)'ptian  female  holding  a  sceptre,  her  head  surmounted 
by  the  sun's  disk,  horns,  and  urasus,  and  her  flesh  coloured 
blue,  the  colour  of  the  heaven,  or  yellow,  that  of  gold  and 
beauty  (according  to  Egyptian  notions),  a  term  also  applied 
to  Aphrodite  in  Greek  mythology.  In  her  terrestrial  char- 
acter she  was  the  goddess  who  presided  over  sports  and 
dancing,  music  and  pleasure,  like  the  Greek  Aphrodite,  the 
goddess  of  love  ;  but  her  particularly  special  type  was  the 
white  or  spotted  cow,  the  supposed  mother  of  the  sun. 
The  solar  deities  Shu  and  Tefnut  were  her  children.  In 
certain  legends  she  is  mentioned  as  the  seven  cows  of 
Athor,  which  appear  in  the  Ritual  or  Book  of  the  Dead. 
These  cows,  like  the  Moires,  or  fates  of  Greek  mythology, 
appeared  at  the  births  of  legendary  persons,  and  predicted 
the  course  an  .  events  of  their  lives.  It  is  in  this  capacity 
that  Athor  is  connected  with  Ptah,  or  the  Egjptian 
Hephsestus,  and  is  allied  to  Sekhet  or  Bast,  called  the  wifa 


14 


A  T  H  — A  T  H 


or  mistress  of  Ptah,  the  seven  cows  being  the  mystical 
companions  of  the  Apis,  the  second  life  or  incarnatian  of 
the  god  of  Memphis.  She  was  also  represented  under  the 
attributes  and  with  the  titles  of  the  goddess  Nut,  or  the 
Egyptian  Rhea.  The  cow  of  Athor  wore  on  its  head  the 
solar  disk,  and  hawk  feather  plumes,  like  Amen  Ra ;  and  in 
this  character  as  the  great  cow  she  has  on  some  monuments 
her  human  head  replaced  by  that  of  a  cow  wearing  a  disk, 
or  the  disk  and  plumes.  This  emblem  also  appears  in  her 
t}-pe  at  a  later  period,  when  her  heud  is  represented  with 
long  tresses  curled  into  a  spiral  at  the  end,  and  she  has 
the  ears  of  a  cow  instead  of  human  ears.  Her  head  is 
then  surmounted  by  a  doorway  or  its  cornice,  emblem  of 
the  abode  of  the  sun,  which  she  represented.  This  is 
sometimes  surmounted  by  the  disk  and  horns.  The 
handle  of  the  sistrum,  a  musical  instrument  -R-ith  bars, 
was  generally  made  in  shape  of  this  head  and  cornice,  as 
were  also  the  capitals  of  the  columns  of  Abusimbel,  Den- 
derah,  and  other  temples,  and  the  jegis  and  prows  of  certain 
arks'!  As  the  goddess  of  beauty  and  youth,  many  of  the 
queens  of  Egypt  assumed  her  t3'pe  and  attributes,  and  young 
females  after  death,  at  the  Ptolemaic  and  subsequent  periods, 
had  their  names  preceded  by  that  of  the  goddess,  as  both 
sexes  had  "Osiris"  from  the  period  of  the  19th  dynasty, 
that  of  Athor  being  a  later  substitute,  and  for  females 
only.  The  third  month  of  the  Egj^ptian  year  was  named 
Athor  after  her,  and  the  fish  aien  or  latus,  a  kind  of  carp, 
was  sacred  to  her.  The  names  and  titles  of  Athor  were  very 
numerous,  and  she  is  named  in  the  inscriptions  the  lady  or 
mistress  of  Silsilis,  Abusimbul,  Pselcis,  Ombos,  Hermonthis, 
ApoUonopoUs  Magna,  and  Heliopolis ;  but  the  chief  site 
of  her  worship  was  Denderah,  or  TentyTis,  where  she.is 
mentioned  under  many  names,  and  all  the  dififerent  festi- 
vals held  in  her  honour  are  recorded  in  tile  calendar  of  the 
temple.  Athor  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  Egyptian  deities, 
and  her  worship  continued  till  the  fall  of  Pantheism  and 
substitution  of  Christianity.  Her  worship  passed  from 
Egypt  to  the  neighbouring  isles,  cow-headed  figures  of  the 
goddess  having  been  discovered  in  Cyprus.  Her  figures 
and  representation  are  common.  Jablonski,  Panth. ;  Wil- 
kinson, Manners  and  Customs,  iv.  387 ;  Birch,  Gall. 
Antiq.,  p.  25;  Duemichen,  Bauurkunde  der  Dendera,'Le\f. 
1865.  (s.  B.) 

ATHOS  is,  strictly  speaking,  the  terminal  peak  of  the 
most  eastern  of  the  three  peninsular  promontories  which 
stretch  south'  from  the  coast  of  Turkey  (Macedonia),  like 
the'  prongs  of  a  trident,  into  the  Archipelago.  The  name 
is,  however,  frequently  extended  to  the  whole  peninsula 
which  was  formerly  known  as  Acte.  The  peak  rises  Uke 
a  pyiamid,  with  a  steep  summit  of  white  marble,  to  a 
height  of  6780  feet,  and  can  be  seen  at  sunset  from  the 
plain  of  Troy  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  from  the 
slopes  of  Olympus.  The  whole  peninsula  is  remarkable 
for  the  -beauty  of  its  scenery,  with  rocky  heights  and  richly- 
wooded  flanks,  ravines  "embowered  from  the  light,"  and 
glimpses  or  free  outlook  over  the  surrounding  sea.  The 
climate  is  for  the  most  part,  healthy  and  pleasant,  though 
the  western  side  is  perhaps  too  much  exposed  to  the  heats 
of  summer  ;  and  Lucian  assures  us  that  in  ancient  times 
the  inhabitants  were  famous  for  longevity.  Several  towns, 
such  as  Sane,  Dium,  Olophyxus,  Cloonie,  are  mentioned  by 
Greek  and  Latin  writers  as  existing  in  the  Peninsula ;  but 
none  of  them  seem  to  have  attained  any  great  importance, 
and  the  most  remarkable  event  in  the  ancient  history  of 
Athos  is  the  construction  by  Xerxes  of  a  ship-canal  across 
the  isthmus  between  the  outer  sea  and  the  Singitic  gulf. 
Traces  of  this  canal,  which  was  regarded  by  Juvenal  as  a 
Greek  myth,  have  been  found  almost  right  across  the  neck 
of  land,  and  leave  no  doubt  of  the  truth  of  the  story.  In 
more  modern  times  the  district  of  Athos  has  been  famous  for 


the  number  of  hermits  and  monks  that  have  found  shelter 
in  its  retreats.  No  fewer  ttan  935  churches,  chapels,  and 
oratories  are  said  to  exist,  and  many  of  the  communities 
possess  considerable  wealth.  It  is  believed  that,  with  the 
exception  of  the  dwellings  of  Pompeii,  some  buildings  it 


y£    G   .'E    A    N 
SEA 


Sketch  Map  of  Athos. 


C^p■  S?  Cni^ 


Athos  are  the  oldest  specimens  of  domestic  architecture  in 
Europe ;  the  shrines  are  in  many  cases  richly  decorated 
with  goldsmith's  work  of  great  antiquity;  the  wealth 
of  the  maaastio  libraries  in  illuminated  manuscripts  has 
long  been  celebrated ;  and  nowhere,,  according  to  Mr 
Tozer,  can  the  Byzantine  school  of  painting  be  studied 
with  equal  advantage.  The  date  of  the  oldest  religious 
foundation  in.  the  peninsula  is  not  clearly  ascertained,  and 
the  traditional  chronology  of  the  monks  themselves  can 
hardly  be  trusted.  A  bull  of  Romanus  Lecapenus  speaks 
of  the  restoration  of  the  monastery  of  Xeropotamu  in  924, 
and  as  early  as  885  a  rescript  of  Basil  the  Macedonian 
forbids  the  molestation  of  the  "  holy  hermits."  Lavra,  on 
Mount  Athos  proper,  was  founded  by  St  Athanasius  in 
960  ;  the  village  of  Caryes  or  "  The  Hazels,  "  was  appointed 
as  the  seat  of  government  about  the  same  time  ;  and 
shortly  afterwards  there  followed  the  establishments  Iveron 
(tuv  'I/3>Jpuv),  Vatopedi  (/Sotottc'Siov),  and  Sphigmenu  (toS 
'E<r(/>iy/xevov).  The  family  of  the  Comneni  (1050-1204) 
bestowed  great  privileges  on  the  existing  monastaries,  and 
added  to  their  number.  In  the  reign  of  Alexius  the  first 
purely  Slavonic  monaster  (that  of  Chilandari)  was  founded 
by  the  Servian  prince  Stephen  Nemenja.  The  taking  of 
Coastantinople  by  the  Latins  in  1204  brought  persecution 
and  pillage  on  the  monks ;  this  reminded  them  of  earlier 
Saracenic  invasions,  and  led  them  to  appeal  for  protection 
to  Pope  Innocent  III  ,  who  gave  them  a  favourable  reply. 
Under  the  Pal.-eologi  they  recovered  their  prosperity,  and 
were  enriched  by  gifts  from  various  sources.  In  the  Hth 
century  the  peninsula  became  the  chosen  retreat  of  several 
uf  the  emperors,  and  the  monasteries  were  thrown  into 
commotion  by  the  famous  dispute  about  the  mj-stical 
Ilesychasts.  Their  numbers  were  gradually  increased  by 
the  foundation  of  St  Dionysius,  Simopetra,  Constamonitu, 
Russico,  St  Paul  In  the  15th  century  the  monks  made 
terms  with  the  Turkish  conqueror  Amurath,  and  have 
since  been  molested  by  none  of  the  sultans,  except  Soliuun 
the  Magnificent,  who  laid  waste  some  parts  of  the  peninsula. 
In  15'15  StavToniccta,  the  last  monastery,  w.as  added  to  the 
list.  The  hospodars  of  Wallachia,  who  were  recognised 
as  the  protectors  of  Athos,  enriched  the  communities  with 
lands ;   but  a  process  of  secularisation  was  commenced  by 


A  T  H  — A  T  L 


15 


Capodistrias,  who  confiscaled  their  holdings  in  Greece ; 
diid  more  recently  they  Lave  been  sjripped  of  their 
possessions  in  the  Danubian  principalities.  They  still 
retain  some  property  in  parts  of  the  Archipelago.  A 
Turkish  official  resides  at  Caryes,  and '00116013  the  taxes, 
which  amount  to  about  ten  shillings  a  heaxi ;  but  for  the 
most  part  the  peninsula  is  autonomous,  being  governed  by 
an  administrative  body  of  four  presidents  (tTriorciTai),  one 
of  whom  bears  the  title  of  "  First  Man  of  Athos,"  and  a 
representative  body  called  the  Holy  Synod,  which  consists 
of  twenty  members,  one  from  each  of  the  monasteries 
proper.  These  twenty  communities  arc  partly  Ccenobitic, 
with  a  common  stock  and  a  warden,  and  partly  Idiorrhyth- 
mic,  with  a  kind  of  republican  government  and  great 
individual  liberty.  Besides  these  regular  monasteries, 
there  are  a  number  of  do-iojr);pta,  or  sketes,  which  consist  of' 
several  small  associations  gathered  round  a  central  church, 
and  numerous  little  communities  known  as  KaGlo-fiaja,  or 
retreats,  as  well  as  genuine  hermitages.  Harmony  is  not 
always  maintained  between  the  different  establishments,  as 
was  shown  by  a  bitter  dispute  about  a  wafer-course  between 
Cutlumusi  and  Pantocratoros,  which  led  to  the  interference 
of  tLo  British  consuls  of  Salonica  and  Cavalla,  iu  answer 
to  aa  appeal  from  some  Ionian  monks  who  were  British 
subjects  (1853).  For  the  most  part,  however,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Athos  are  quiet  and  moderately  industrious.  They 
are  said  to  number  about  3000,  all  men  ;  for  no  female, 
even  of  the  lower  animals,  is  permitted  to  desecrate  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  Holy  Mountain. 

"Descriptio  Montis  Athoet  xxii.  cjusMora3t.,"by  Jo.  Comnenuain 
Uontfaucon's  PaJceographia  Qftxca;  Georgirenes,  JDescTiption  of  Prz- 
$tni  Stall  of  Samos,  Patmos,  Nicaria,  and  Mount  Athos^  Lond.  1678 ; 
Lieut  Webber  Smith,  "On  Mount  Athos,"  &c.,  in  Joum.  Ho;/. 
Oiog.  Soe.t  1837  ;  Curzon,  Vunts  to  Monasteries  in  the  Livdnt^  1849; 
Fallmerayer,  Fragmenta  aus  dcm  Orient^  1845  ;  Gaas,  Commen- 
latio  Hieti/rica,  &c.,  and  Zur  Or.schidUe,  tc,  1866;  Ramner'a  Hist. 
Tascheniuch,  1860  {art.  by  Pischon) ;  Report  by  M.  Minoide 
Minas,  1846  ;  J.  Miiller,  V^nkmalcr  in  den  Klt'St^m  vvti  Athos; 
Langlois,  Jthos,  &c. ;  Didron's  Iconographie  Chr^tien^e^  1844; 
Journal  Asiatique,  1867;  Tazx^'a  Highlands  of  Turkey,  1869. 

ATHY,  a  market-town  of  Ireland,  county  of  Kildare, 
34  miles  S.VV.  of  Dublin.  It  is  a  station  on  the  Great 
Southern  and  Western  Railway,  and  is  intersected  by  the 
river  Barrow,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  five 
arches.  It  has  a  church,  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel,  a 
Presbyterian  and  a  Methodist  meeting-house,  court-house, 
jail,  two  banks,  hospital,  dispensary,  barracks,  ic.  Adjoin- 
ing the  town  is  a  small  chapel,  an  ancient  cemetery,  and  a 
Small  Dominican  monastery.     Previous  to  the  Union  it 


returned  two  members  to  the  Irish  parliament.  The 
principal  trade  is  in  corn,  whieh  is  ground  at  the  neigh- 
bouring mills.     Population  in  1871,  4510. 

ATINA,  a  town  of  Naples,  province  Of  Terra  cli  Lavoro, 
near  the  Melfa,  and  12  miles  S.E.  of  Sora.  It  has  n 
cathedral,  convent,  and  hospital,  with  about  5000  ir.h:..  .- 
tants ;  but  it  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  ancijsnt  remains, 
consisting  of  portions  of  its  walls,, the  ruins  of  an  exte:.oivo 
aqueduct,  and  numerous  other  structures,  besides  monu- 
ments and  inscriptions.  The  city  is  of  great  antiquily, 
and  was  a  place  of  importance  down  to  the  days  of  t!i6 
Roman  empire.  It  is  remarkable  now,  as  of  old,  for  tho 
exceptional  coolness  of  its  situation. 

ATITLAN,  a  lake  in  the  department  of  Solola,  in 
G\iatemala,  20  miles  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  t* 
mOes.  It  seems  to  occupy  tho  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano, 
and  its  depth  is  reported  to  be  very  great.  The  scenery  in 
the  neighbourhood  is  striking  and  picturesque,  the  volcano 
of  Atitlan  rearing  its  head  12,500  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  A  little  Indian  town,  Santiago  de  Atitlan,  nestles 
at  the  foot  of  the  mountain. 

ATLANTA,  the  capital  of  Georgia,  one  of  the  United 
States  of  North  America,  is  situated  about  7  miles  to  the 
S.E.  of  tho  Chattahoochee  River,  at  an  elevation  of  1100 
feet  above  the  sea.  Laid  out  in  1845,  and  incorporated  as 
t  city  in  1847,  it  has  since  rapidly  increased.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  large  trade  in  grain  and  cotton,  and  has 
e.xtensiv6  railway  communication  in  aU  directions.  En- 
gineering work  of  various  kinds  is  carried  on,  as  well  as  the 
manufacture  of  cast-iro:;,  flour,  and  tobacco.  There  are 
two  national  and  two  savings  banks.  Educational  institu- 
tions are  numerous,  and  comprise  the  North  Georgia 
Female  College,  Oglethorpe  College,  a  medical  college,  a  uni- 
versity for  men  of  colour,  and  a  variety  of  schools.  The 
state  library  contains  upwards  of  16,000  volumes.  There 
are  about  thirty  churches  of  different  denominations,  tie 
Methodists  bejng  most  largely  represented,  and  one  of  their 
churches  ranking  among  the  finest  buildings  in  the  city. 
During  tho  war  Atlanta  was  the  centre,  of  important 
militarj'  operations,  and  suffered  greatly  in  consequence 
(1864).  It  was  strongly  fortilied  by  the  Confederates,  and 
defended,  first  by  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston,  and  theu 
by  General  Hood,  against  the  attack  of  General  Sherman. 
Hood  was  compelled  to  evacuate  the  city,  and  Sherman 
afterwards  retired  to  Chattanooga, — movements  which 
occasioned  the  destruction  by  lire  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
buildings,  both  public  and  private.  Population — (1860), 
9554;  (1870),  21,789. 


ATLANTIC   OCEAN 


THE  designation  Atlantic  Ocean,  originally  given  to  tho 
sea  that  lies  beyond  the  great  range  of  Atlas  in 
North-western  Africa,  has  come  to  bo  ai)plied,  with  the 
extension  of  geographical  knowledge,  to  the  whole  of  that 
vast  ocean  which  occupies  tho  wide  and  deep  trough  that 
separates  the  New  from  the  Old  World.  Its  limits  are 
variously  defined ;  some  geographers  regarding  it  as 
extending  from  polo  to  pole,  whilst  others  consider  it  as 
bounded  at  its  northern  and  southern  extremities  by  tho 
Arctic  and  Antarctic  circles  respectively.  As  the  peculiarity 
of  tho  physical  conditions  of  the  Polar  Seas  renders  it  on 
every  account  more  appropriate  to  describe  them  under  a 
separate  head  (Polar  Regions),  tho  Atlantic  will  be  hero 
treated  as  bounded  at  the  north  by  tho  Arctic  circle,  which 
nearly  corresponds  with  the  natural  closingin  of  its  b.isin 
by  the  approach  of  the  coasts  of  Norway  and  Greenland 
with  Iceland  lying  between  then) ;  while  at  the  south,  where 
the  basin  is  at  its  widest,  its  only  boandary  is  the  Antarctic 


circle.  Tho  lino  which  separates  its  southern  extension 
from  the  Indian  Ocean  may  be  considered  to  be  the 
meridian  of  Cape  Agulhas,  tho  southenimost  point  of  tho 
African  continent ;  whilst  the  boundary  between  the  South 
Atlantic  and  South  Pacific  would  be  formed  in  like  manner 
by  tho  meridian  of  Cape  Horn.  Although  the  Baltic  and 
the  Mediterranean  are  commonly  regarded  as  appendages 
to  the  Atlantic,  yet  their  physical  conditions  are  so  peculiar 
as  to  require  separate  treatment.  (See  Baltic  and  Medi- 
terranean.) 

Every  physical  gcoCTaphar  who  has  WTittcn  upon  the 
Atlantic  has  noticed  the  curious  parallelism  between  its 
eastern  and  its  western  borders, — their  salient  and  retiring 
angles  corresponding  very  closely  to  each  other.  Thus, 
beginning  at  the  north  we  see  that  the  projection  formed  by 
the  British  Islands  (which  extends  irmch  further  westwards 
at  100  fathoms  below  the  surface  than  it  does  above  the 
sea-level). 'answers  to  the  wide  entraoce  to  Baffin's  Bay; 


16 


ATLANTIC 


whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  projection  of  the  Ameriean 
coast  at  Newfoundland  answers  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 
Further  south,  the  great  rounded  prominence  of  Northern 
Africa  corresponds  with  the  vast  bay  that  stretches  from 
Nova  Scotia  to  St  Thomas ;  whilst  the  angular  projection 
of  South  America  towards  the  east  corresponds  with  that 
receding  portion  of  the  mid-African  coast-line  which  is 
known  as  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 

This  correspondence  suggested  to  Humboldt  the  idea  that 
the  Atlantic  basin  was  originally  excavated  by  a  very 
violent  rush  of  water  from  the  south,  which,  being  rspulsed 
by  the  mountain  ranges  of  Brazil,  was  directed  by  them 
towards  the  coast  of  Africa,  and.  formed  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea;  being  there  checked  and  turned  to  the  west  by 
the  mountains  of  Upper  Guinea,  the  stream  excavated  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ;  and  issuing 
thence,  it  ran  between  the  mountains  of  North  America 
and  Western  Europe,  until  it  gradually  diminished  in 
velocity  and  force,  and  at  length  subsiJed.  Another  writer 
speaks  of  the  basin  of  the  Atlantic  as  an  immense  rift,  made 
by  some  terrible  force,  which  rent  the  surface-land  asunder, 
but  left  the  edges  of  the  ravine  to  show  by  their  form  that 
they  had  once  been  connected.  For  neither  of  these  specula- 
tions, however,  is  there  the  smallest  foundation  in  fact.  What 
has  to  be  accounted  for,  indeed,  in  regard  to  either  of  the 
great  areas  at  present  covered  by  water,  is  not  so  much  the 
excavation  of  its  sea-bed,  as  its  segregation  from  an  ocean 
originally  uhiversal  by  the  boundaries  that  now  enclose  it ; 
in  other  words,  not  so  much  the  depression  of  the  bottom 
of  its  basin  as  the  elevation  of  its  sides.  Not  only  is  the 
proportion  of  the  land -surface  of  the  globe  to  its  water- 
surface  scarcely  more  than  one-third  (being  as  1  to  278), 
but  the  entire  mass  of  the  land  which  thus  covers  little 
more  than  one-fourth  of  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  quite 
insignificant  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  water  which 
covers  the  remaining  three-fourths.  Tor  whilst  the  average 
elevation  of  the  whole  land  is  certainly  less  than  one-fifth 
of  a  mile,  giving  from  9  to  10  millions  of  cubic  miles  as 
the  total  ma.'is  of  land  that  rises  above  the  sea-level,  the 
average  depth  of  the  sea  (so  far  as  at  present  known)  may 
be  taken  at  about  2  miles,  giving  a  total  of  nearly  290 
millions  of  cubic  miles  of  water,  which  is  therefore  about 
thirty  times  the  mass  of  the  land.  From  the  computation 
of  Keith  Johnston,  it  appears  that,  "  if  we  conceive  an 
equalising  line,  which,  passing  around  the  globe,  would 
leave  a  mass  of  the  earth's  cru.st  above  it,  just  sufficient  to 
611  up  the  lx-)llow  which  would  be  left  below  it,  this  line 
would  then  fall  nearly  a  mile  below  the  present  level  of 
the  sea."  This  is  tantamount  to  saying  that,  if  the  solid 
crust  of  the  earth  could  be  conceived  to  be  smoothed  down 
to  one  uniform  level,  its  entire  surface  would  be  covered 
with  water  to  the  depth  of  about  a  mUo.  Hence  it  is 
obvious  that  as  the  elevation  of  that  crust  into  land  over 
certain  areas  must  be  accompanied  by  a  corresponding 
depression  of  the  .sea-bed  over  other  areas,  such  depression, 
augmenting  in  those  areas  the  previous  depth  of  the  aqueous 
covering  of  the  globe,  would  be  (juite  sufficient  to  account 
for  the  existence  of  the  great  oceanic  basins,  without  any 
cxcivating  action.  And  a  confirmation  of  this  view  is 
found  in  the  fact,  ascertained  by  recent  soundings,  that  the 
deepest  local  depressions  of  the  sea-bed  are  mot  with  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  islands  that  have  been  raised  by 
volcanic  agency.  Further,  as  the  quantity  of  solid  mat- 
ter that^  must  have  been  removed  (on  Humboldt's  hypo- 
thesis) in  the  excavation  of  the  Atlantic  valley  must 
have  been  nearly  four  times  as  great  as  that  which  forms 
the  whole  known  land  of  the  globe,  and  as  It  is  impos- 
sible to  conceive  of  any  mode  in.«hicli  such  a  mass  can 
have  been  disposed  of,  we  may  dismi.is  that  hypothesis 
»s  not  only  uotenable  in  regard  to  the  Atlantic  basin,  but 


as  equally  inapplicable  to  any  other  valley  of  similar  width 
ffnd  depth.' 

The  general  direction  of  geological  opinion,  indeed,  has 
of -late  been,  on  physical  grounds,  towards  the  high  anti- 
quity of  the  great  oceanic  basins,  not  exactly  as  at  present 
bounded,  but  as  areas  of  depression  having  the  same  rela- 
tion as  they  have  now  to  the  areas  of  elevation  which  form 
the  great  continents.  Thus  Sir  Charles  Lyell  was  strongly 
impressed  by  the  fact  that  the  mean  depth  of  the  sea  is 
not  improbably  fifteen  times  as  great  as  the  mean  height 
of  the  land  ;  and  that  depressions  of  the  sea  bottom  to  a 
depth  of  three  miles  or  more  extend  over  wide  areas,  whilst 
elevations  of  the  land  to  similar  height  are  confined  to  a 
few  peaks  and  narrow  ridges.  Hence,  he  remarked,  "  while 
the  effect  of  vertical  movements  equalling  1000  feet  in 
both  directions,  upward  and  downward,  is  to  cause  a  vast 
transposition  of  land  and  sea  in  those  areas  which  are  now 
continental,  and  adjoining  to  which  there  is  much  sea  not 
exceeding  1000  feet  in  depth,  movements  of  equal  amount 
would  have  no  tendency  to  produce  a  sensible  alteration 
in  the  Atlantic  or  Pacific  Oceans,  or  to  cause  the  oceanic 
and  continental  areas  to  change  places.  Depressions  of 
1000  feet  would  submerge  large  areas  of  the  existing  land; 
but  fifteen  times  as  much  movement  would  be  required  to 
convert  such  land  into  an  ocean  of  average  depth,  or  to 
cause  an  ocean  three  miles  deep  to  replace  any  one  of  the 
existing  continents."^  And  Professor  Dana, -who,  more 
than  any  other  geologist,  has  studied  the  structure  of  the 
existing  continents  and  the  succession  of  changes  concerned 
in  their  elevation,  has  been  led,  by  the  considCTation  of  the 
probable  direction  of  the  forces  by  which  that  elevation  was 
efi'ected,  to  conclude  that  the  defining  of  the  present  con- 
tinental and  oceanic  areas  began  with  the  commencement 
of  the  sohdification  of  the  earth's  crust.  "  The  continental 
areas  are  the  areas  of  least  contraction,  and  the  oceanic 
basins  those  of  the  greatest,  the  former  ha^-ing  earliest  had 
a  solid  crust.  After  the  continental  part  was  thus  stiffened, 
and  rendered  comparatively  unyielding,  the  oceanic  part 
went  on  cooling,  solidifying,  and  contracting  throughout ; 
consequently,  it  became  depressed,  with  the  sides  of  the 
depression  somewhat  abrupt.  The  formation  of  the  oceanic 
basins  and  continental  areas  was  thus  due  to  'unequal 
radial  contraction.' "  In  the  opinion  of  Professor  Dana, 
there  has  never  been  any  essential  change  in  the  relations 
of  thei^e  great  features.  "  It  is  hardly  possible,"  he  says, 
"to  conceive  of  any  conditions  of  the  contracting  forces  that 
should  have  allowed  of  the  continents  and  oceans  in  after 
time  changing  places,  or  of  oceans,  as  deep  nearly  as  exist- 
ing oceans,  being  made  where  are  now  the  continental  areas; 
although  it  is  a  necessary  incident  to  the  system  of  things 
that  the  continental  plateaus  should  have  varied  greatly 
in  their  outline  and  outer  limits,  and  perhaps  thousands  of 
feet  in  the  depths  of  some  portions  of  the  overlying  seas, 
'and  also  that  the  oceans  should  have  varied  in  the  extent 
of  their  lands."  ..."  The  early  defining,  even  in  Archaean 
times,  of  the  final  features  of  North  America,  and  the  con- 
formity to  one  system  visibly  marked  out  in  every  event 
through  the  whole  history— in  the  positions  of  its  outlines 
and  the  formations  of  its  rocks,  in  the  character  of  its 
oscillations,  and  the  courses  of  the  mountains  from  time  to 
time  raised^su.st.ain  the  statcnu'iit  that  the  American  con- 
tinent is  a  regular  growth.  The  .same  facts  also  make  it 
evident  that  the  oceanic  areas  between  which  the  continent 

'  Tlio  case  of  sucli  n  slmllow  trough  ns  tlint  of  llic  English  Channel, 
of  tlic  former  continuity  of  wliosc  sidca  there  is  atuplo  evidence,  whilst 
it-i  lioltoni  is  noivhero  500  feet  beneath  the  surface,  is  ohviously  «Ito- 
petlier  dilTcrenl.  The  extraordinary  deiiUi  of  IhJ  Mediterranean  t)asin, 
on  the  other  hand,  ofTords  strong  ^easo^  for  regarding  it  as,  like  tho 
Atlantic,  a  portion  of  the  original  area  uf  depression,  circumscribed  hy 
the  elevation  of  its  borders. 

'  I'ritinplri  0/ <!t:otofiy,  1  Uh  ed.  vol.  i.  p.  269. 


mi.  Ill 


ATI.AXTIC    orr.AX 


PLATE  I 


ENCTClOP/fOUlRIIANHICA.  HIHIH    (DItlON. 


ATLANTIC 


17 


lies  have  been  chief  among  the  regions  of  the  earth's  crust 
that  have  used  the  pent-up  force  in  the  contracting  sphere 
to  carry  forward  tho  continental  developmcnte.  If  this 
was  true  of  the  North  American  continent,  the  same  in 
principle  was  law  for  all  continents."' 

Dimaisions  o/i/te  Atlantic. — The  length  of  the  Atlantic 
basin,  considered  as  extending  from  the  Arctic  to  the 
Antarctic  circle,  is  nearly  8000  geographical  miles.  The 
nearest  approach  of  its  boundaries  is  between  Greenland 
and  Norway,  whose  coasts  are  only  about  800  miles  apart. 
They  thence  recede  from  each  other  towards  the  south, 
as  far  as  the  parallel  of  30°  N.  lat.,  where,  between  tho 
peninsula  of  Florida  and  the  western,  coast  of  Marocco, 
there  is  an  interval  of  70°  of  longitude,  or  about  3600 
geographical  miles.  The  channel  then  rapidly  narrows  as 
it  passes  southward,  so  that  between  Cape  St  Roque  in 
Brazil  (5°  S.  lat.)  and  the  coast  of  Sierra  Leono  (between 
6°  and  8°  N.  lat.)  the  African  and  American  continents 
approach  within  1500  miles  of  each  other.  The  sudden 
eastward  recession  of  the  African  ccast  as  it  approaches  <the 
equator,  and  the  westward  trend  of  the  South  American 
coast-iine  between  Cape  St  Roque  and  Cape  Horn,  widen 
out  the  South  Atlantic  basin  to  the  same  breadth  as  that 
of  tlie  North  Atlantic  in  the  parallel  of  30°  N., — the 
interval  between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  estuary 
of  La  Plata,  in  the  parallel  of  35°  S.,  being  no  less  than 
73J°  of  longitude,  or  about  3600  geographical  miles. 

The  depth  of  the  North  Atlantic  has  been  more  care- 
fully and  systematically  examined  than  that  of  any  other 
oceanic  basin  ;  and  the  general  contours  of  its  undulating 
sea-bed  may  now  be  regarded  as  pretty  well  determined. 
Putting  aside  the  older  soundings  as  utterly  untrust- 
worthy, and  accepting  only  those  taken  by  the  modern 
methods,  whose  reliability  has  been  amply  tested  by  the 
accordance  of  diversified  experiences,  we  can  now  assert 
with  confidence  that  scarcely  any  portion  of  its  floor  has 
a  depth  exceeding  3000  fathoms,  or  about  3 '4  miles,  the 
greatest  depth  determined  bythe  recent  "Challenger"  sound- 
ings, which  was  that  of  a  limited  depression  about  a 
hundred  miles  to  the  north  of  St  Thomas,  having  been 
3875  fathoms,  or  about  44  miles.  Except  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  its  coost-lincs,  and  in  certain  shaDower  areas 
to  be  presently  specified,  the  floor  of  the  basin  at  its 
widest  part  seems  to  lie  at  a  depth  of  from  2000  to  3000 
fathoms,  its  slopes  being  extremely  gradual  The  central 
portion  of  the  principal  basin  of  the  North  Atlantic, 
however,  is  occupied  by  a  plateau  of  irregular  shape,  of 
which  a  considerable  part  lies  at  a  less  depth  than  2000 
fathoms.  Of  this  plateau  the  Azores  may  be  regarded  as 
the  culmination ;  and  that  group  being  taken  as  its  centre, 
it  may  be  said  to  extend  to  the  north  as  far  as  lat.  50°,  and 
to  the  south-west  as  far  as  the  tropic  of  Cancer.  The 
northern  extension  of  this  pkteau  narrows  out  into  a  sort 
of  isthmus,  which  connects  it  with  the  plateau  that  occupies 
a  great  pirt  of  the  Atlantic  basin  to  the  north  of  50°  N. 
lat.  ;  and  it  is  across  this  isthmus,  and  along  the  bottom 
of  the  deep  narrow  valley  on  either  side  of  it,  that  the 
telegraph  cables  are  laid  between  Ireland  and  Newfound- 
land. Whether  its  south-western  prolongation,  known  as  the 
"Dolphin  Rise"  (fig.  1,  infra)  extends  to  the  equator,  so  as 
to  become  continuous  with  the  elevated  area  wliich  cul- 
minates in  St  Paul's  rocks,  and  by  a  further  southward  ex- 
tension becomes  continuous  either  with  the  volcanic  elevation 
of  St  Helena  and  Ascension  Island,  or  with  the  elevation 
in  tho  middle  of  the  South  Atlantic  which  culminates  in 
the  island  of  Tristan  da  Cunha  (fig.  2),  has  not  yet  been 
ascertsiied.  According  to  tho  view  already  suggested  as 
to  the  formation  of  the  Atlantic  basin,  tlie  plateau  might 

'  "On  aome  Results  of  tho  Earth'i  Contraction  from  Cooling,"  in 
Amrr,  •Jimnf. df  Snmu,  June  1873. 

i—i 


be  regarded  as  representing  the  original  sea-bed  (from 
which  the  Azores  have  been  lifted  up  by  volcanic  action), 
whilst  the  f'.cep  valleys  on  either  side  of  it  are  "  areas  of 
subsidence  "  answering  to  the  "  areas  of  elevation  "  of  the 
land  that  borders  them. 

Generally  speaking,  the  depths  of  these  valleys  increase 
pretty  rapidly  with  tho  distance  from  the  shore-line,  so 
that  tho  contour-lines  of  one  and  two  r'niles  follow  the. 
shore-lines  pretty  closely.  But  there  are  two  localities  in 
which  shallow  water  extends  to  a  much  greater  distance 
from  land  than  it  appears  to  do  elsewhere.  One  of  these 
lies  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  British  Isles.  For  a  dis- 
tance of  about  230  miles  to  the  westward  of  Ireland  there 
is  a  slope  of  only  about  6  feet  in  a- mile  ;  but  in  the  next 
20  miles  there  is  a  fall  of  9000  feet,  after  which  there  is 
little  change  of  level  for  1200  miles.  -Hence  as  the  depth 
of  the  sea  immediately  surrounding  the  British  Isles  is 
nowhere  100  fathoms  (so  that  an  elevation  of  their  whole 
area  to  that  amount  would  unite  these  islands  not  only  to 
each  other  but  also,  to  the  contineirt  of  Europe),  it  is 
obvious  that  the  platform  on  which  they  rest  is  really, 
although  now  submerged,  a  part  of  the  land-mass  ■  of 
Europe.  Another  of  these  extensive  shallows  is  that  of 
which  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland  form  the  highest  part  ; 
and  of  the  existence  of  tiis  a  probable  explanation  may 
he  found  in  the  accumulation  of  tho  rock-masses  that  are 
brought  down  by  icebergs  every  summer  from  the  coasts 
of  Greenland  and  Labrador.  For  it  is  now  generally 
admitted  that  these  icebergs  are  really  pirts  of  glaciers,  that 
were  originaDy  formed  on  the  mountain-slopes  of  Greenland 
and  Labrador,  and  then  descended  valleys  which  open  out 
on  their  coasts,  so  as,  on  arriving  at  the  mouths  of  these 
valleys,  to  detach  themselves  and  float  away,  being  borne 
southwards  by  the  Polar  Current  to  be  presently  described. 
Most  Arctic  icebergs  of  which  a  near  view  can  be  obtained 
are  observed  to  have  upon  them  a  considerable  number  of 
pieces  of  rock,  sometimes  of  a  very  considerable  size ;  and 
these  are  of  course  deposited  on  the  sea-bed  when  the 
icebei-gs  melt  (wliich  they  usually  do  on  the  borders  of  the 
Gulf  Stream),  thus  forming  a  vast  conglomerate  bed,  to 
which  parallels  are  not  improbably  to  be  found  in  various 
geological  epochs. 

Geological  Age  of  the  Atlantic  Basin. — Guided  by  the 
principle  that  great  oceanic  basins  are  to  be  considered 
rather  as  original  marine  areas  th't  have  been  limited  by 
the  elevation  of  their  boundaries,  than  as  having  been 
formed  by  the  excavation  of  terrestrial  areas,  we  have  to 
inquire  what  evidence  there  is  that  the  basin  of  the  Atlantic 
has  undergone  any  considerable  change  within  a  compara- 
tively recent  period. 

As  has  been  pointed  oUt  by  Prof.  Wy^-ille  Thomson 
(Depths  of  the  Sea,  p.  473),  it  is  difficult  to  showJ.hat  any 
oscillations  have  occurred  in  the  north  of  Europe  since  the 
termination  of  the  Secondary  period,  to  a  greater  extent  than 
from  4000  to  5000  feet, — this  being  the  extreme  vertical 
depth  between  the  base  of  the  Tertiaries  and  the  highest 
point  at  which  Tertiary  or  post-Tertiary  shells  are  found  on 
the  slopes  and  ridges  of  mountains.  Such  oscillations,  while 
considerably  modifying  the  boundaries  of  the  Atlantic,  would 
not  seriously  afi^ct  the  condition  of  tho  deeper  parts  of  its 
sea-bed  ;  and  hence  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  two  deep 
valleys,  one  on  the  European  side  of  the  modern  volcanic 
platform  of  the  Azores;  and  the  other  on  the  American, 
each  having  a  width  of  600  or  700  miles,  and  an  average 
depth  of  15,000  feet,  could  neither  have  been  formed  by 
such  oscillations,  nor  could,  when  once  formed,  have  been 
converted  into  dry  land.  It  will  be  presently  shown  that 
this  idea  of  tho  existence  of  an  Atlantic  basin  correspond- 
ing generally  to  that  now  existing,  as  far  back  as  the  later 
Secondary  period,  is  strongly  supported  by  the  evidence 


18 


ATLANTIC 


recently  obtained  of 'the  continuity  of  animal  life  on  the 
Atlantic  sea-bed  from  the  Cretaceous  epoch  to  the  present 
time. 

Important  information  as  to  the  changes  which. the  sea- 
bed of  the  Atlantic  has  undergone  within  the  later  geolo- 
gical periods,  Miay  be  gathered  from  the  structure  of  the 
islands  which  lift  themselves  above  its  surface.  Along  its 
eastern  border,  at  no  considerable  distance  from  the  coast 
of  North  Africa,  there  are  three  principal  groups, — the 
Madeiras,  Canaries,  and  Cape  Verd, — all  of  which  have  an 
evidently  volcanic  origin,  and  rise  up  from  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  basin,  where  it  is  progressively  shallowing 
towards  its  continental  shore-line.  Further  out,  in  mid- 
ec«an,  lies  the  group  of  the  Azores,  which  also  is  volcanic, 
and  rises  from  the  plateau  already  spoken  of ,  but  between 
this  area  and  the  slope  from  which  the  Madeiras  and 
Canaries  are  based  is  a  verj'  deep  channel,  ranging  down- 
wards to  at  least  15,000  feet;  and  a  like  depth  is  also 
found  between  the  Azores  and  the  coast  of  Portugal.  The 
structure  of  all  these  groups  of  islands  gives  obvious 
indications  of  their  formation  by  separate  igneous  eruptions 
in  a  sea  of  great  depth  ;  and  the  earliest  of  these  eruptions 
seems  to  have  taken  place  in  the  later  Miocene  period. 
As  soon  as  the  first  solid  lavas  raised  their  heads  above 
water,  and  were  thus  e.xposed  to  the  action  of  the 
waves,  fragments  were  detached  and  rounded  on  the 
shore ;  and  these  being  swept  off,  with  the  debris  resulting 
from  their  attrition,  formed  deposits  of  various  kinds  upon 
the  slope  of  the  cone,  in  which  corals,  shells,  kc,  were 
embedded.  These  fossihferous  deposits  have  been  subse- 
quently elevated  to  heights  of  from  1500  to  2000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sid,  showing  a  rise  of  the  base  of  the 
craters ;  progressive  additions  have  been  made  to  their 
upper  part  by  the  piling  up  of  basaltic  and  trachytic  lavas.' 
That  this  state  of  activity  still  continues  is  proved  by  the 
fact  that  in  1811  a  new  island  was  temporarily  formed  in 
the  Azores  group,  off  St  Michael,  by  the  throwing-up  of 
ashes,  and  the  formation  of  a  cone  about  300  feet  high, 
with  a  crater  in  the  centre.  This  island,  to  which  the 
name  Sabrina  was  given,  was  soon  washed  away  by  the 
waves.  And  only  a  few  years  since,  another  submarine 
eruption  in  this  neighbourhood  was  indicated  by  earth- 
quakes, jets  of  steam  and  columns  of  smoke,  and  floating 
masses  of  scoria;.  All  these  considerations  concur  (as  Sir 
Charles  Lyell,  loc.  cit.,  justly  urges)  to  negative  on  geolo- 
gical grounds  the  hypothesis  which  has  been  advocated  by 
some  eminent  naturalists,  that  the  Azores,  Madeiras,  and 
Canaries  are  the  last  remaining  fragments  of  a  continuous 
area  of  land  which  once  connected  them  with  the  west  of 
Europe  and  North  Africa. 

Proceeding  to  the  south  of  the  equator,  we  meet  with 
similar  evidence  of  volcanic  activity  in  the  structure  of  the 
only  two  islands.  Ascension  and  St  Helena,  which  lie  near 
the  line  stretching  from  the  Cape  Verd  group  to  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  ;  and  these  also  arise  from  a  plateau  of 
considerably  less  depth  than  the  circumjacent  area  whose 
cistern  slope  graduaUy  shallows  to  the  coast  of  South  Africa. 
This  plateau  stretches  in  a  north-westerly  direction  towards 
the  equator,  so  as  to  meet  it  in  from  20°  to  22°  VV.  long. ; 
and  here  indications  of  volcanic  activity  —  earthquakes, 
troubled  water,  floating  scoria;,  and  columns  of  smoke — 
have  been  several  times  observed  since  the  middle  of  the 
last  century,  betokening  the  probable  formation  of  an  island 
or  nn  archipelago  in  that  locality. 

Nearly  midway  between  the  southern  prolongations  of 
the  African  and  American  continents,  the  solitary  peak 
of  Tristan  da  Cunha  (fig.  2)  lifts  itself  above  the  ocean  ; 
this  also  is  volcanic,  and  seems  to  rise  from  a  broad  base 

'  S«cSir  C.  Lyell'8  BccouQt  of  them  luhia  Principles  of  Ofo!o^f/,  llth 
*d.  p.  407.  <(}. 


of  general  elevation,  resembling  the  plateau  of  the  North 
Atlantic. 

The  entire  chain  of  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Antilles,  which 
stretches  from  the  delta  of  the  Orinoco  to  the  peninsula 
of  Florida,  and  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  seems  to  have  been  in  like  manner  elevated  by  \ol- 
came  action.  That  this  elevation,  like  that  of  the  groups 
of  islands  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Atlantic,  took  place 
for  the  most  part  during  the  later  Tertiary  period,  is  shown 
by  the  occurrence  of  shells,  corals,  <ic.,  of  upper  MioAne 
age,  in  the  upraised  sedimentary  beds  of  several  of  the 
islands ;  whUe  the  presence  of  "  fringing  reefs  "  of  coral 
around  the  shores  of  many  of  the  West  India  islands  is  an 
indication  that  they  he  in  an  area  in  which  elevation  is 
stdl  proceeding.  The  channels  by  which  they  are  separated 
are  so  deep  as  to  render  it  very  unlikely  that  there  was 
ever  a  continuity  of  land  between  them  ,  and  the  occa- 
sional recurrence  of  earthquakes  and  volcanic  eruptions  at 
difl'erent  points  of  this  "  line  of  fire,"  shows  that  the  plutonic 
action  by  which  the  islands  were  raised  is  still  going  on 
beneath. 

The  case  ia  very  different,  however,  in  regard  to  the 
Bernjuda  group,  which  constitutes  a  singular  exception  to 
the  general  fact  of  the  absence  in  the  Atlantic  of  those 
coral  islands  that  are  so  numerous  in  the  Pacific.  This 
group  consists  of  about  300  islands,  of  which,  however, 
only  five  are  of  any  considerable  size ;  and  these  rise  from 
a  shoal  or  platform  of  about  23  miles  long  by  13  miles 
broad,  the  channels  between  the  islands  being  very  shallow, 
while  at  a  small  distance  from  the  edge  of  the  shoal,  the 
bottom  rapidly  deepens  to  15,000  feet.  The  islands  are 
entirely  composed  of  upraised  beds  of  poral,  shells,  i-c. 
(the  highest  elevation  being  only  about  180  feet  above  the 
sea-level) ;  and  the  shoal  itself  appears  to  have  the  like 
structure  throughout,  no  traces  of  any  other  rock  than  a 
limestone  formed,  by  the  metamorphoses  of  coral  being 
anywhere  met  with.  Hence,  as  this  insular  platform 
proves  to  be  the  summit  of  a  submarine  column  of  15,000 
feet  high,  rising  from  a  very  small  base,  and  as  nothing  we 
know  of  the  structure  of  mountains — volcanic  or  other — 
would  justify  us  in  supposing  that  a  column  of  such  a 
height  could  be  formed  in  any  other  way  than  by  coral 
growth,  the  structure  of  the  Bermuda  group  would  seem 
to  indicate  a  progressive  subsidence  of  the  bed  of  this 
part  of  the  Atlantic  during  its  formation,  corresponding 
to  that  which  (according  to  the  well-known  views  of  Mr 
Darwin)  is  at  present  in  progress  over  a  large  area  of  the 
Pacific.  It  is  probable  that  this  coral  growth  was  deter- 
mined in  the  first  instance  by  the  existence. of  a  submarine 
mountain,  of  which  the  summit  lay  near  the  surface,  or 
lifted  itself  above  it  ;  that  as  soon  as  this  came  to  be 
submerged,  the  coral  formation  commenced ;  and  that  by 
its  continued  growth  at  the  summit,  at  a  rate  equal  to 
that  of  the  subsidence  of  its  base,  the  platform  has  been 
kept  up  to  the  sea-level.  The  slight  elevation  which  has 
rai.sed  its  highest  portion  above  that  level  may  not  impro- 
bably have  taken  place  in  connection  with' the  much  larger 
recent  elevations  already  referred  to 

Thus,  then,  wo  have  evidence  of  considerable  recent 
local  modifications  .in  the  level  of  the  Atlantic  seabed, 
without  any  such  change  as  would  affect  its  general  cha- 
racter as  an  ocean  basin  ;  while  all  geological  probability 
seems  in  favour  of  the  remoteness  of  the  principal  depres- 
sion of  the  Atlantic  area,  even  if  we  do  not  regard  it  as 
dating  back  to  the  period  when  the  surface  of  the  globe 
was  first  undergoing  solidification. 

Currents  of  the  Allanlic.^iy  ttic  term  "  current  "  will 
be  here  meant  that  sensible  movement  of  ocean  water  in 
particular  directions  which  can  bo  generally  traced,  directly 
or  indirectly,  to  the  action  of   wind  upon  its  surface.     A 


ATLANTIC 


19 


cnrrent  thus  directly  impelled  by  wind  is.  termed  a  "  drift- 
current,"  whilst  a  current  whoso  onward  movement  is 
sustained  by  the  vis  a  tergo  of  a  drift-current  is  called  a 
"stream-current."  But  there  is  anothfir  source  of  current- 
movement,  which  has  been  overlooked  by  most  writers  on 
this  subject,  namely,  the  indraught  which  necessarily  takes 
place  to  keep  up  the  level  of  any  area  from  which  the 
8urfa»e-water  is  constantly  being  drifted  away.  Such  cur- 
rents, which  may  be  designated  as  "  indraught "  or  "  supply 
currents,"  complete  the  "  horizontal  circulation  "  that  must 
necessarily  take  place  in  any  oceanic  area  of  which  one  part 
is -subjected  to  the  action  of  a  -wind  almost  constantly 
blowing  in  the  same  direction.  Of  such  a  circulation  we 
have  a  very  characteristic  example  in  the  South  Atlantic, 
the  principal  currents  of  which  we.  shall  see  to  be  very 
easily  accounted  for. 

The  initial  movement  of  the  current-system,  alike  of  the 
North  and  of  the  South  Atlantic,  is  given  by  the  trade- 
winds,  which  are  continually  driving  the  water  of  the  inter- 
tropical region  from  the  African  towards  the  American  side 
of  the  basin,  so  as  to  produce  what  is  known  as  the  Equor 
torial  Current.  The  position  of  the  northern  and  southern 
boundaries  of  this  current  shifts,  like  the  area  of  the  trade- 
i*'ind3,  in  accordance  mth  the  northward  and  southward 
declination  of  the  sun  ; — a  steady  westward  drift  being 
generally  met  with  to  the  north  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer  in 
the  summer  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  to  the  south 
of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  in  the  summer  of  the  southern, 
whilst  in  the  winter  of  each  hemisphere  the  border  of  the 
drift  lies  within  the  tropic  of  that  hemisphere.  But  as  the 
thermal  equator  lies  from  two  to  three  degrees  to  the  north 
of  the  geographical  equator,  the  entire  zone  of  the  trade- 
winds,  and  of  the  Equatorial  Current  propelled  by  them,  is 
wider  on  the  northern  than  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
latter ;  and  while  the  northerly  trade  often  reaches  30° 
N.  in  July,  and  rarely  extends  south  in  January  within  2° 
or  3°  of  the  geographical  equator,  the  southerly  trade  does 
not  extend  farther  than  25°  S.  in  January,  and  generally 
crosses  the  equator  in  July,  even  extending  occasionally  as 
far  as  6°  N.  As  between  the  northerly  and  southerly 
trades  there  is  a  region  of  "  equatoria'  calms,"  so  there  is  a 
corresponding  interval  between  the  northern  and  southern 
divisions  of  the  Equatorial  Current  ;  and  in  this  interval 
there  is  a  counter-current  (resembling  the  "back-water" 
often  to  be  noticed  in  a  stream  that  is  flowing  rapidly  past 
gome  obstacle,  such  as  a  vessel  at  anchor,  or  a  projecting 
angle  of  a  rivet-bank),  that  runs  eastwards,  sometimes  with 
considerable  velocity,  towards  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  which 
may  be  considered  the  "  head-water "  of  the  Equatorial 
Current.  From  the  recent  observations  of  Capt  Nares  in 
the  "Challenger,"  it  ajipears  that  the  Equatorial  Current, 
like  other  drift^currents,  is  very  shallow,  its  depth  being  not 
much  greater  than  50  fathoms.  He  estimates  its  rate  at 
the  surface  to  be  about  075  miles  per  hour,  or  18  miles' per 
day,  whilst  at  50  fathoms  it  only  moves  at  about  half  that 
rate.'  Its  surfa(?e  temperature  generally  ranges  between 
75°  and  80°  ;  but  the  thermometer  falls  to  60°  at  a  depth 
of  little  more  than  100  fathoms, — the  temperature  of  this 
belt  of  water,  as  will  be  hereafter  shown,  being  kept  down 
by  the  continual  rising  of  polar  water  from  below. 

The  Equatorial  Current  passes  directly  across  the  Atlantic 
towards  the  chain  of  the  Antilles  and  the  coast  of  South 
America ;  and  as  not  only  the  whole  of  the  northern  divi- 
sion, but  a  considerable  part  of  the  southern,  strikes  the 
American  roast-line  to  the  north  of  the  salient  angle  of 
Cape  St  Roque  (about  5°  S.  lat.),  the  portion  of  the  current 
which  is  deflected  into  the  northern  hemisphere  is  much 
greater  than  that  which  is  turned  to  the  southward.     It  is 

'  Mr  Lnughton,  howerer,  states  the  irtrage  velocity'  to  b*  bcttjcen 
20  isd  30  miles  pec  (Ujr. 


a  general  fact,  that  where  a  current  encounters  any  partial 
obstmction, — such  as  a  coast-line  meeting  it  obhquely,  a 
narrowing  of  its  channel,  the  lateral  pressure  of  another 
current,  or  even  that  of  a  mass  of  stationary  water, — its 
velocity  increases ;  and  so  the  portion  of  the  Equatorial 
Current  that  is  pressed  to  the  northward  by  the  coas^line 
between  Cape  St  Roque  and  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco 
(known  in  the  first  part  of  its  course  as  the  Capt  St 
Roque  Cvrrent,  and  afterwards  as  the  Guiana  CumrerU) 
acquires  a  greatly  augmented  rat£,  running  ordinarily  at 
the  rate  of  from  30  to  50  miles,  and  occasionally  at 
a  rate  of  80  miles,  in  the  24  hours.  Entering  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  it  is  reinforced  by  the  portion  of  the  Equatorial 
Current  which  flows  in  between  the  Lesser  Antilles ;  and  it 
then  passes  westwards  along  the  northern  coast  of  South 
America,  until  it  is  deflected  northwards  by  the  coastrline 
of  Central  America,  and  driven  between  the  peninsula  of 
Yucatan  and  the  western  extremity  of  Cuba  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  at  the  rate  of  from  30  to  60  miles  per  day.  A  por' 
tion  of  it  passes  direct  to  the  N.E.  along  the  northern  shore 
of  Cuba;  but  by  far  the  larger  part  sweeps  round  the  gulf, 
following  the  course  of  its  coast-line,  and  approaches  the 
coast  of  Cuba  from  the  N.W.  as  a  broad  deep  stream  of  no 
great  velocity,  seldom  running  at  more  than  30  miles  per 
day.  The  reunited  current,  being  met,  by  the  Equatorial 
Current  from  the  outside,  which  is  pressing  to  the  west 
along  the  north  coast  of  Cuba  and  between  the  Bahama 
isles,  is  deflected  northwards  through  the  passage  termed 
the,  Florida  Channel,  which  is  bounded  on  the  one  side  by 
the  southern  extremity 'of  the  peninsula  of  Florida,  and  on 
the  other  by  the  coast  of  Cuba  and  the  Bahamas.  The  rate 
of  movement  of  the  powerful  current  that  flows  through 
this  channel,  henceforth  known  as  the  Gulf  Stream,  is  con- 
siderably augmented  in  its  narrowest  part,  which  is  also 
its  shallowest ;  but  although  its  velocity  sometimes  reaches 
4  (nautical)  miles  per  hour,  or  even  more,  its  average  rate 
through  the  whole  year  may  be  confidently  stated  at  not 
more  than  2  miles  per  hour,  or  48  miles  per  day.^ 

The  Gulf  Stream  current,  however,  does  not  by  any 
means  occupy  the  whole  of  the  sectional  area  of  the  Florida 
Channel ;  for  it  is  separated  from  the  American  coast  by  a 
band  of  cold  water,  which  occupies  about  three-eighths  of 
its  total  breadth  of  40  miles,  and  -which  also  dips  under  the 
outflowing  current.  The  movement  of  the, cold  superficial 
band. is  perceptibly  inwards,  and  that  of  the  cold  under- 
stratum is  presumably  so  ;  and  it  is  the  opinion  of  the 
American  surveyors  that  the  depth  of  the  warm  Outward 
current  is  not  more  than  one-third  of  that  of  the  channel 
through  which  it  flows.  It  is  probable  that  the  rate  of 
movement  decreases  from  the  surface  downwards  ;  but  upon 
this  point  we  have  as  yet  no  certain  information.  The 
meaning  of  the  cold  inflow  will  hereafter  become  apparent 

The  course  taken  by  the  Gulf  Stream  in  the  first  in- 
stance is  nearly  parallel  to  the  line  of  the  United  States 
coast,  from  which  it  is  everywhere  separated  by  a  band  of 
cold  water, — the  boundary  line  between  the  two  being  so 
distinct  as  to  be  known  as  the  "  cold  wall  "  It  does  not 
show  for  some  time  any  great  disposition  to  spread  itself 
out  laterally,  though  a  division  into  alternate  bands  of 
warmer  and  colder  water,  the  cause  of  »hich  seems  to  lie 
in  the  contour  of  the  bottom  of  the  Florida  Channel,  be- 
comes perceptible  before  it  reaches  Charleston,  and  is  very 
marked  ofl'  Cape  Hatteras.  The  Stream  there  presents  the 
form  of  a  fan,  its" three  warm  bands  spreading  out  over  the 
Atlantic  surface  to  an  aggregate  breadth  of  167   miles, 

'  This  »i»l«nicnt,  which  is  much  lower  than  that  adopted  by  idosI 
writers  on  the  Gulf  Stream,  is  based  on  the  entire  aggregate  of  observa- 
tions collected  by  the  Meteorological  Department,  which  farther  show 
that,  for  six  months  of  the  year,  the  monthly  mean  averages  only  1  -4 
miles  per  hour,  or  34  miles  {>er  day,  whilst  for  the  o»her  six  months  tl 
only  averages  24  miles  an  hour,  or  60  miles  per  day. 


20 


ATLANTIC 


whilst  two  cold  bands  of  an  aggregate  breadth  of  52  miles 
are  interposed  between  them.  The  innennost  wann  band 
is  the  one  which  exhibits  the  highest  -  temperature  and 
greatest  rate  of  fioW,  its  velocity  being  greatest  where  it  is 
pressed  on  laterally  by  the  Arctic  Current,  so  that  a  rate  of 
4  miles  per  hour  is  occasionally  observed.  Capt.  Nares 
estimates  the  depth  of  the  Stream  in  this  part  of  its  course 
at  about  100  fathoms,  and  its  rate  of  flow  in  the  line  of 
most  rapid  movement  at  3  miles  per  hour.  The  outermost 
band,  on  the  other  hand,  graduates  insensibly,  both  as  to 
temperature  and  rate  of  movement,  into  the  general  sur- 
face-water of  the  Atlantic.  It  is  when  passing  Sandy 
Hook  that  the  Gulf  Stream  takes  its  decided  turn  east- 
wards,— this  change  in  its  direction  being  partly  due  to  the 
eastward  bend  of  tlie  United  States  coast-line,  and  partly 
to  the  excess  of  easterly  momentum  which  it  brings  from 
tlie  lower  latitude  in  which  it  issued  from  the  Florida 
Channel.  Its  general  rate  of  flow  past  Nantucket  seems 
not  to  exceed  1  mile  per  hour,  and  to  be  frequently  less  , 
but  several  degrees  to  the  eastward  of  this,  the  current  has 
been  found  occasionally  running  at  the  rate  of  4  miles  an 
hour, — this  acceleration  being  probably  due  to  the  lateral 
pressure  of  the  Arctic  Current,  which,  during  the  early 
months  of  the  year,  is  driven  southwards  at  the  rate  of  10 
or  12  miles  per  day  by  the  N.  and  N.W.  winds  then  pre- 
vailing along  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  which,  turning 
westwards  round  the  south  of  Newfoundland,  keeps  close 
to  the  coast  of  the  United  States  (being  left  behind  in  the 
rotation  of  the  earth,  in  consequence  of  its  deficiency  of 
easterly  momentum),  and  follows  it  southwards,  every- 
where separating  it  from  the  Gulf  Stream. 

By  the  gradual  thinning-out  and  expansion  of  the  Gulf 
Stream  after  pa.ssing  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  by  the 
progressive  reduction  of  its  rate  of  movement,  and  by 
the  loss  of  that  excess  of  temperature  which  previously 
distinguished  it,  as  well  as  of  its  peculiar  blue  colour  (which 
probably  depends  on  its  holding  in  suspfension  the  finest 
particles  of  the  river-silt  brought  down  by  the  Mississippi), 
this  remarkable  current  so  far  loses  aU  it3  special  attri- 
butes, as  to  be  no  longer  recognisable  to  the  east  of  the 
meridian  of  30°  W.  long., — there  degenerating  into  the 
general  easterly  drift  of  that  region  of  the  Atlantic  which 
is  kept  up  by  the  prevalence  of  westerly  winds,  some- 
limes  called  "  anti-trades."  Where  the  Florida  Current 
or  true  Gulf  Stream  can  last  be  distinctly  recognised,  it 
forms  a  stratum  not  more  than  50  fathoms  in  thickness  ; 
and  it:i3  there  flowing  almost  due  east,  at  a  rate  which 
would  require  about  100  days  to  bring  it  to  the  Land's 
End.  The  only  valid  evidence  of  the  extension  of  any 
part  of  it  to  the  western  shores  of  Europe  (the  ameliora- 
tion of  their  temperature  being  otherwise  accounted  for, 
while  the  transport  of  trunks  of  trees,  drift-timber,  fruits, 
shells,  itc,  to  the  Western  Hebrides,  the  Orkney,  Shetland, 
and  Faroe  islands,  and  the  coast  of  Norvyay,  may  be 
fairly  set  down  to  the  surface-drift  sustained  by  the  pre- 
valence of  S.W.  winds)  is  afforded  by  the  variable  current 
known  as  Rennell's,  which,  flowing  ca-stwards  into  the 
southern  part  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  is  deflected  in  a  N.W, 
direction  by  the  trend  of  its  coast-line,  so  as  to  cross  the 
British  Channel  towards  the  Scilly  Islands,  whence  it 
passes  to  the  S.W.  coa-st  of  Ireland,  its  strength  mainly 
depending  on  the  continued  prevalence  of  the  westerly 
iuititrade.i.     (Sec  Plate  I.) 

Of  the  whole  mass  of  water,  on  the  other  hand,  that  is 
brought  into  the  mid-Atlantic  by  the  Gulf  Stream,  it  may 
be  stated  with  confidence  that  the  larger  proportion  turns 
southward  to  the  cast  of  the  Azores,  and  heljis  to  form  the 
North  AJriran  Current ,  the  other  tributary  of  which  may 
be  considered  as  originating  as  far  north  as  Cape  Finisterre, 
under  the  influence  of  the  northerly  winds  wbich  prevail 


along  the  coast  of  Portugal.  As  this  current  flows  past  th« 
entrance  to  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  a  part  of  it,  forming 
what  is  known,  as  the  Gibraltar  Current,  is  drawn  in  to 
keep  up  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  which  would  other- 
wise be  reduced  by  the  excess  of  evaporation  from  its  sur- 
face; but  the  greater  part  keeps  its  course  southwards  along 
the  Marocco  coast,  reinforcing  the  south-flowing  extension 
of  the  Gulf  Stream.  On  arriving  at  the  border  of  the 
northerly  trade,  the  North  African  Current  divides  into  two 
parts, — the  western  division  being  at  once  carried  into  the 
course  of  the  equatorial  drift,  whilst  the  eastern,  which 
may  be  considered  as  essentially  an  indraught  or  supply 
current,  follows  the  African  coast-line,  and  turns  eastward 
into  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  forming  the  Guinea  Current, 
which,  coalescing  with  the  eastward  "  -back-water  "  already 
mentioned,  flows  pretty  constantly,  sometimes  with  con- 
siderable rapidity,  towards  the  Bight  of  Biafra.  There  it 
meets  the  South  African  Current,  which  forms  the  other 
great  feeder  of  the  Equatorial  Current;  and  the  circulation 
thus  completed  may  be  considered  as  recommencing  from 
this  "  head-water."  The  large  area  of  comparatively  still 
water  which  lies,  in  the  interior  of  this  North  Atlantic 
circulation  is  called  the  Sargasso  Sea, — a  corruption  of  the 
name  (Mar  de  Sarga<;o)  which  it  received  from  Columbus 
and  the  early  Spanish  navigators,  on  account  of  the  quantity 
of  sea-weed  that  floats  on  its  surface.  The  boundaries  of 
this  area,  whict  is  of  an  irregularly  elliptical  shape,  and 
nearly  equals  that  of  Continentri  Europe,  are  somewhat 
variable ;  but  it  may  be  considered  to  lie  between  the 
parallels  of  20°  and  35°  N.,  and  between  the  meridians 
of  30°  and  60°  W.  Into  it  is  collected  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  drift  or  wreck  which  floats  about  the  North 
Atlantic. 

Proceeding  now  to  the  South  Atlantic,  we  meet  with  a 
circulation  of  the  same  kind,  uncomplicated  by  any 
embaying  of  the  Equatorial  Current.  The  smaller  division 
of  this  current,  which  strikes  the  coast  of  South  America 
to  the  south  of  Cape  St  Roque  flows  along  the  coast  of 
Brazil  at  the  rate  of  from  12  to  20  miles  a  day,  forming 
the  Brazil  Current,  which,  however,  is  separated  from  the 
land  by  an  intervening  band  of  lower  temperature,  that 
has,  during  the  winter  months,  a  distinct  flow  towards  the 
equator.  The  Brazil  Current  can  be  traced  southwards,  by 
its  temperature  rather  than  by  its  movement,  .is  far  as  the 
estuary  of  the  La  Plata,  before  reaching  which,  however, 
a  great  part  of  it  takes  an  easterly  direction,  and  crosses 
the  Atlantic  towards  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  forming 
what  is  known  as  the  Southern  Connecting  Current.  The 
easterly  movement  of  this  current  seems  to  be  jiartly  due 
to  the  westerly  anti-trades,  and  partly  to  the  excess  of 
easterly  momentum  which  is  retained  by  the  Brazil  Current 
in  its  southward  course  from  Cape  St  Koquc  ;  whilst  it 
partly  depends  also  on  the  junction  of  an  Antarctic  current 
that  flows  N.E.  from  Cape  Horn,  meeting  the  Brazil 
Current  off  the  estuary  of  La  Plata,  just  as  the  Arctic 
Current  meets  the  Gulf  Stream  off  Newfoundland, — dense 
fogs  being  produced,  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other,  through 
the  precipitation  of  the  vapour  overlying  the  Equatorial 
Current,  by  the  colder  air  that  overlies  the  Polar.  On 
meeting  the  coast  of  South  Africa,  the  Southern  Connecting 
Current  turns  northwards,  and  runs  towards  the  Bight  of 
Biafra,  forming  the  South  African  Current,  the  movement 
of  which  js  partly  sustained  by  the  .southerly  winds  which 
prevail  along  that  coast,  but  i.s  partly  attributable  to  the 
indraught  set  up  to  supply  the  efllux  of  the  Equatorial 
Current.  In  its  pa-isago  thither,  however,  the  part  of  it 
most  distant  from  the  land  is  draughteil  westwards  by  the 
southern  trade,  forming  the  most  southerly  portion  of  the 
eciuatorial  drift.  Between  this  and  the  Southern  Con- 
necting  Current   is  a  central   tl^iace,   lying  between  the 


A  T  L  A  N  T  I  C 


21 


paralleb  of  20°  and  30°  S.,  and  the  meridians  of  0°  and 
25°  W.,  over  which  there  are  no  regular  currents ;  and  to 
this  the  name  Sargasso  Sea  is  sometimes  applied  by  analogy, 
although  its  surface  liaa  no  covering  of  sea-weed.  (See 
Plato  L) 

Texnperature  of  the  Atlanlic. — The  distribution  of  surfaca 
temperature  over  the  area  of  the  Atlantic  has  now  been 
made  out  with  considerable  accuracy  ;  and  it  corresponds 
closely  with  what  has  been  already  stated  as  the  course  of 
the  surface  currents.  There  is,  -of  course,  a  seasonal 
change,  alike  in  its  northern  and  in  its  southern  division, 
this  change  being  more  and  more  marked  as  we  recede 
from  the  equator.  Following  the  course  of  the  mean  annual 
isotherms,  however,  we  find  that  they  cross  the  South 
Atlantic  at  nearly  regular  intervals,  in  an  east  and  west 
direction,  the  principal  departure  from  that  direction  being 
shown  at  their  Vfestern  end  in  the  bend  they  take  towards 
the  south  under  the  influence  of  the  ;varm  Brazil  Current, 
and  at  their  eastern  in  the  stUl  stronger  bend  they  take 
towards  the  north  under  the  influence  of  tlie  cold  South 
African  Current,  which  reduces  to  about  75°  the  temperature 
of  the  southern  equatorial  that  flows  alongside  the  Guinea 
Current,  whose  temperatureis  82°  In  the  North  Atlantic, 
however,  the  influence  of  the  movement  of  oceanic  water  on 
the  surface-temperature  is  very  much  more  marked.  The 
annual  isotherms,  which  cross  the  Sargasso  Sea  with  nearly 
regular  parallelism,  and  on  the  African  side  tend  somewhat 
to  the  south,  where  they  meet  the  colder  water  of  the 
North  African  Current,  show  a  strong  northward  bend  on 
the  American  side,  along  the  early  course  of  the  Gulf 
Stream ;  but  as  its  excess  of  temperature  above  that  of  the 
Atlantic  generally  diminishes  as  we  trace  it  towards  the 
Banks  of  Newfoundland,  this  northward  deflection  progres- 
eively  becomes  less.  The  marked  contrast  in  temperature 
which  is  often  there  exhibited  between  two  contiguous  bands 
•f  water, — a  thermometer  hanging  from  a  ship's  bow  show- 
ing a  temperature  of  70°,  whilst  another  hanging  from  the 
stern  shows  only  40°, — is  due  not  so  much  to  the  elevation 
produced  by  the  Gulf  Stream  as  tothp  depression  produced 
by  the  Arctic  Current.  This  depression  manifests  itself 
in  the  southward  bend  given,  on  the  American  side,  alike 
to  the  summer  and  the  winter  isotherms  (see  Plate),  beyond 
the  siunmer  isotherm  of  70°  and  the  winter  i-sotherm  of 
60°,  which  may  be  considered  as  having  nearly  their  normal 
position ;  whilst  the  northward  tendency  of  these  same 
isotherms  on  the  European  side  not  less  conspicuously 
indicates  a  flow  of  warm  water  towards  the  western  coasts 
of  the  Britisb  Isles,  Norway,  and  even  Iceland  and 
Spitzbergen.  It  has  been  customary  to  regard  this-flow  as 
an  extension  of  the  Gulf  Stream  ;  but  if  that  term  be 
limited  (as  it  ought)  to  the  current  that  issues  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  through  the  Florida  Channel,  the  hj-pothesis 
is  found  to  be  untenable  so  soon  as  the  thermal  phenomena 
of  that  current  are  carefully  examined.  For,  in  the  fir.st 
place,  the  popular  idea  that  the  Gulf  Stream  retains  its 
high  temperature  with  littl»  diminution  during  its  passage 
first  northwards  and  then  eastwards  is  clearly  disproved 
by  observation,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  table  of- 
average  temperatures  taken  at  different  seasons  in  the 
warmest  of  its  bands  : — 


a 

a 

a 

1 

B 

E 

e 

a 
a 

FlorkUChnnnel... 

25  N. 
33  N. 
35  N. 
35  N. 
35  N. 

77 
75 
72 
67 
02 

7°8 
77 
73 
68 
67 

83 
82 
80 
80 

78 

82 
81 
76 
72 
69 

OfTCarn  Ilattcras 

S.E.  of  Nantucket  Shoals 

From  this  it  appears  that,  while  the  high  surface-tempera- 


ture with  which  the  Gulf  Stream  leaves  the  Florida  Channel 
is  retained  in  summer  with  only  5°  reduction  as  far  as  Nova 
Scotia,  there  is  a  reduction  of  5"  in  winter  during  its  north- 
ward passage  to  Cape  Hatteras,  and  a  further  reduction 
of  no  less  than  10°  during  its  eastward  passage  from  Cape 
Hatteras  to  Nova  Scotia,  making  a  total  reduction  of  15°. 
In  spring,  again,  there  is  a  total  reduction  of  11°,  and  io 
autumn  of  13°;  and  in  both  cases  the  reduction  during 
the  eastward  flow  under  the  parallel  of  35°  N.  is  greater 
than  the  reduction  in  the  northward  flow  from  25°  N. "td 
35°  N.  The  explanation  of  this  is  plainly  to  be  found  in 
the  fact  that  in  the  early  part  of  the  course  of  the  Gulf 
Stream  its  superheated  stratum  ir  a  thick  one,  so,  that  when 
its  superficial  film  is  cooled  down  by  a  superincumbent 
atmosphere  of  lower  temperature,  it  is  replaced  by  the 
uprising  of  a  deeper  stratum  haiing  nearly  ita  original 
temperature.  But  as  the  stream  spreads  out  superficially, 
its  superheated  stratum  becomes  proportionally  thinner, 
and  will  consequently  be  more  and  more  rapidly  cooled 
down  by  the  superincumbent  atmo.sphere.  Even  supposing, 
therefore,  that  it  were  not  subjected  to  any  special  cooling 
influence,  it  appears  certain  that,  as  the  rate  of  the  current 
slackens  and  its  depth  diminishes,  the  cooling  process  must 
continue  at  an  increased  rate,  so  as  to  bring  down  the 
surface-temperature  of  the  stream  to  the  normal  isotherm 
of  the  locality,  long  before  it  could  reach  the  shores  of 
Europe.  But  it  has  been  shown  that  when  it  passes 
Newfoundland  the  Gulf  Stream  w  subjected  to  a  special 
cooling  influence — that  of  the  Labrador  Current  with  its 
fleet  of  icebergs,  which  melt  away  when^borne  into  it ;  and 
this  produces  such  an  immediate  reduction  of  its  surface- 
temperature,  that  it  thenceforth  shows  very  Lttle  excess, 
although  its  sub-surface  stratum  still  appears  to  be  warmer 
than  that  of  the  ocean  through  which  it  flows. 

But,  further,  the  Gulf  Stream,  where  it  13  last  recog- 
nisable as  a  current,  is  flowing  due  east,  and  its  southern 
portion  turns  first  south-east  and  then  south,  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  course  of  the  isothermal  lines  (see  Plate) 
clearly  shows  that  the  flow  of  warm  water  which  carries 
them  northward  spreads  across  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
Atlantic,  from  the  British  Isles  to  Labrador,  even  extending 
up  to  the  west  of  north  into  Baffin's  Bay.  When  we 
contrast  tkis  immense  body  of  north-moving  water  with 
the  thinned-out  film  of  what  is  by  comparison  a  mere 
rivulet,  it  becomes  obvious  (1)  that  its  northward  flow 
cannot  be  attributable  to  the  vU  a  tergo  of  the  Florida 
Current,  whilst  (2)  it?  convection  of  heat  to  the  Arctic  Sea 
cannot  be  accounted  for  by  any  amount  of  excess  of 
temperature  that  is  limited  to  a  small  depth,  since  the 
temperature  of  such  a  stratum,  moving  north-east  at  a  rate 
of  (at  most)  4  or  5  miles  per  day,  must  soon  be  brought 
down  to  that  of  the  atmosphere  above  it. 

Influenced  by  these  considerations,  several  eminent 
hydrographers,  both  British  and  American,  have  been 
disposed  to  deny,  not  only  that  the  temperature  of  the 
North  Atlantic  is  modified  in  any  considerable  degree  by 
the'  true  Gulf  Stream,  but  that  any  other  agency  than  that 
of  warm  S.W.  winds  is  concerned  in  producing  the  climatic 
amelioration  popularly  attributed  to  it.  They  maintained, 
in  fact,  that  the  surface-temperature  of  the  North  Atlantic 
and  Arctic  Seas  follows  that  of  the  superincumbent  air, — 
the  atmospheric  temperature  not  being  in  any  degree  raised 
by  that  of  warmer  water  beneath.  This  doctrine,  however, 
is  found  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  results  of  careful  com- 
parisons recently  instituted  between  mai;ine  and  atmospheric 
teraperatoires"  along  the  western  coasts  of  Scotland,  the 
Orkney,  Shetland,  an4  Faroe  Islands,  and  especially  with 
those  obtained  along  the  western  coast  of  Norway.  For  it 
is  found  that  during  the  winter  months  there  is  a  constant 
excess  of  sea-temperature  above  that  of  the  air,  averaging 


22 


ATLANTIC 


6''"2  Fahr.  along  the  western  coast  of  Scotland  and  its 
islands,  and  rising  to  14°'5  at  Fruholm  near  the  North  Cape. 
And  it  19  also  a  very  significant  fact  (ascertained  by  the  care- 
ful inquiries  of  Mr  Buchau),  that  while  the  summer  isotherms 
cross  the  British  Islands  nearly  east  and  west  (the  tempera- 
ture diminishing  pretty  regularly  from  south  to  north),  the 
■vrinter  isotherms  traverse  them  nearly  north  and  south  (the 
temperature  diminishing  from  west  to  east)  ;  whilst  in 
.Ireland  the  isotherms  seem  to  envelope  the  islands  in  their 
folds,  which  increase  in  warmth  from  the  centre  of  the 
island  to  its  sea-board.  So  in  Norway  the  isothermal  lines 
run  parallel  to  the  coast-line,  and  this  ahke  in  summer  and 
in  winter, — the  temperature  falling  in  winter,  and  rising 
in  summer,  with  the  increase  of  distance  from  the  sea. 
Nothing  could  prove  more  conclusively  than  such  facts  as 
these  (taken  in  connection  with  the  absence  of  ice  in  the 
harbours  of  Norway,  eveL  as  far  north  as  Hammerfest, 
through  the  whole  winter)  the  dependence  of  the  mild 
winter  climate  of  the  north-western  coasts  of  Europe 
upon  the  proximity  of  a  sea  which  is  warmer  than  the 
superincumbent  atmosphere  ;,  and  we  have  now  to  inquire 
iow  this  great  N.  E.  movement  of  a  stratum  of  warm  water 
sufficiently  thick  to  retain  a  surface-temperature,  con- 
siderably higher  than  that  of  the  air  above  it  is  to  be 
accounted  for. 

The  solution  of  the  problem  seems  to  be  afforded  by  the 
doctrine  of  a  General  Oceanic  Circulation,  sustained  by 
opposition  of  temperature  only,  which  was  first  distinctly 
propounded  in  1845  by  Professor  Lenz  of  St  Petersburg, 
oa  the  basis  of  observations  made  by  him  during  the 
second  voyage  of  Kotzebne  (1825-1828).  Others  had 
been  previously  led  to  surmise  that  "  Polar  Currents"  fiow 
along  the  floors  of  the  great  oceans,  even  as  far  as  the 
equator,  balancing  the  superficial  counfor-currents  which 
are  observable  in  the  opposite  direction.  But  Lenz  was 
led  to  conclude  that  the  whole  of  the  deeper  portion  of  the 
great  ocean-basins  in  communication  with  the  polar  areas 
is  occupied  by  polar  water,  which  is  constantly,  though 
slowly,  flowing  towards  the  equator  ;  whilst  coflversely 
the  whole  upper  stratum  of  equatorial  water  is  as  con- 
stantly, though  slowly,  flowing  towards  one  or  both  of  the 
poles.  And  he  particularly  dwelt  on  the  existence  of  a 
belt  of  water  under  the  equator,  colder  than  that  which 
lies  either  north  or  south  of  it,  as  an  evidence  that  polar 
.water  is  there  continually  rising  from  beneath  towards 
.the  surface, — a  phenomenon  which,  he  considered,  admits 
of  no  other  explanation.  He  further  adduced  the  low 
salinity  of  equatorial  water  (previously  noticed  by  Hum- 
boldt, and  oonfirmad  by  his  own  observations),  compared 
with  that  of  tropical  water,  as  evidence  that  the  equatorial 
water  of  the  surface  is  derived  from  the  polaV  underflow 
And  he  attributed  the  maintenance  of  this  circulation  to 
the  continually  renewed  disturbance  of  equilibrium  between 
the  polar  and  equatorial  columns, — the  greater  lateral 
(because  downward)  pressure  of  the  former'  causing  a 
bottom  outflow  of  polar  water  in  the  direction  of  the 
Utter,  whilst  the  reduction  of  level  thus  occasioned  will 
produce  a  surface  indraught  from  the  wariner  towards 
the  colder  aTeas. 

The  doctrine  of  Lenz,  so  far  from  meeting  with  the 
general  acceptance  to  which  it  had  a  fair  claim, — alike  on 
theoretical  grounds  and  from  its  accordance  with  the  facts 
oscertained  by  careful  observation, — seems  to  have  been  put 
aside  and  forgotten,  a  preference  being  given  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  prevalence  of  a  uniform  deepsca  temperature 
of   30',   which   was  supposied  to  be   established    by   the 

'.  It  mu9t  be  bome  tn  mind  that  sea  water  does  not  expand  like 
fresh  water  in  cooling  below  39*  2,  but  continues  to  contract  down  to 
its  freezing  point,  which  lies  between  27°  and  25°  Fahr.,  accorJiiig  as 
U  i<  itUl  or  agitated. 


thermometric  observations  made  in  the  voyages  of  D'Urville 
and  Sir  James  Koss.  No  such  xireoaution  was  taken, 
however,  in  these  observations  as  that  to  which  Lenz  had 
recourse,  to  obviate  the  effects  of  the  tremendous  pressure 
( 1  ton  per  square  inch  ior  every  800  fathoms  of  depth)  to 
which  deep-sea  thermometers  are  exposed,  and  it  is  now 
certain  that  the  temperatures  at  great  depths  recorded  by 
D'Urville  and  Ross  were  several  degrees  too  high. 

It  was  in  entire  ignorance  of  the  doctrine  of  Lenz,  and 
under  the  influence  of  that  of  D'Urville  and  Ross,  which 
had  been  stamped  with  the  great  weight  of  Sir  John 
Herschel's  weight  of  authority,-  that  Dr  Carpenter  com- 
menced in  186B  (in  concert  with  Professor  Wyville  Thom- 
son) a  course  of  inquiry  into  the  thermal  condition  of 
the  deep  sea,  which  at  once  convinced  him  of  the  fallacy 
of  the  uniform  39°  doctrine,  and  led  him  to  conclusions 
essentially  accordant  with  those  of  Lenz.  For  in  the 
channel  of  from  500  to  600  fathoms'  depth  between  the 
north  of  Scotland  and  the  Faroe  Islands,  they  found  the 
deeper  half  to  be  occupied  by  a  stratum  of  glacial  water, 
whose  temperature  ranged  downwards  from  32°  to  29°'5  , 
whilst  the  upper  half  was  occupied  by  a  stratum  warmer 
than  the  normal  temperature  of  the  latitudes.  This 
phenomenon  was  interpreted  by  Carpenter  as  indicate 
ing  a  deep  glacial  flow  from  N.E.  to  S.W.,  and  a  warm 
upper  fiow  from  S.W.  to  N.E.;  and  finding  that  to  the 
west  of  this  channel,  on  the  border  of  the'  deep  Atlantic 
basin,  the  excess  of  warmth  extended  to  a  depth  of  more 
than  500  fathoms,  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
north-moving  stratam  which  brought  it  could  not  be  an 
extension  of  the  true  GuK  Stream,  but  must  'be  urged  on 
by  some  much  more  general  force.  A  series  of  tempera- 
ture-soundings taken  along  the  west  of  Ireland,  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  and  the  coast  of  Portugal,  confirmed  him  in  this 
view,  by  showing  that  the  division  between  an  upper  warm 
stratum  and  a  cold  under-stretum  exists  in  the  North 
Atlantic  at  a  depA  of  from  700  to  900  fathoms,  the  ■whole 
mass  of  water  below  this  ha\'ing  either  flowed  into  the 
basin  from  the  polar  area,  or  having  had  its  temperature 
brought  down  to  from  39°  to  36°'5  by  mixture  with  the 
polar  inflow.  And  this  conclusion  was  confirmed  by  the 
resiilt  of  temperature-soundings  taken  at  corresponding 
depths  and  under  the  same  parallels  of  latitude  in  the 
Mediterranean  ;  for  as  they  showed  a  uniform  temperature 
of  front  54°  to  5G°,  from  beneath  the  stratum  of  100 
fathoms  that  was  superheated  by  direct  insolation,  to  the 
very  bottom,  it  became  clear  that  depth  per  se  could  have 
no  effect  in  reducing  the  bottom-temperature ;  and  that 
the  cause  of  the  excess  of  temperature  in  the  mass  of  water 
occupying  ,the  Mediternuiean  basin  above  that  of  Atlantic 
water  at  the  same  depths,  lies  in  the  seclusion  of  the  former 
from  the  polar  underflow  which  brings  down  the  deep 
temperature  of  the  latter.  This  conclusion  hanng  received 
marked  confirmation  from  temperature-soundings  taken  in 
the  Eastern  seas,  was  put  forward  by  Carpenter-as  justify- 
ing the  doctrine  of  a  vertical  oceanic  circulation  sustained 
by  opposition  of  temperature  only,  quite  independent  of 
and  distinct  from  the  horizontal  circulation  produced  by 
wind, — which  doctrine  he  expressed  in  terms  closely  cor- 
responding with  those  that  had  been  used  by  Lenz.  And 
the  collection  of  data  for  the  establishment  or  confutation 
of  this  doctrine  was  one  of  the  objects  of  the  "  Challenger" 
expedition,  which  Ims  already  made,  in  the  determination 
of  the  thermal  stratification  of  the  Atlantic  between  38° 
N  lat.  and  38°  S.  lat.,  what  may  be  fairly  characterised  as 
the  grandest  single  contribution  ever  yet  made  to  terrestrial 
physics. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  of  the  facts  thus 

'  See  his  Physical  Otography  of  the  Oleic,  origin.nlly  published  in 
the  eighth  edition  of  this  Encychjxcdia. 


ATLANTIC 


23 


established  : — Of  the  water  which  filla  the  deep  trough  of  I  and  St  Thomas  (lat.  18J°  N.),  divided  by  the  "  Dolphin 
the  North  Atlantic  (6g.  1)  between  Tenerilfe  (Lit.  28 J°  N.)  |  rise"  into  an  eastern  and  western  basin,  by  far  the  large; 


HoiAxoaul  Seal;  of  I4«uui  »*    ■  -    ■ 

Fm.  1. — SectiOB  of  North  Atlantic  Ocean  between  St  Thonuu  and  TenerilTe. 


mass  has  a  temperature  ranging  from  40°  downwards,  in 
the  eastern  basin,  to  a  bottom-temperature  of  35J°,  whilst 
in  the  western  basin — apparently  under  the  influence  of 
the  Antarctic  underflow — the-  bottom-temperature  sinks  to 
34°'4.  A  tolerably  regular  descent  is  ehown  in  this  sec- 
tion, from  a  surface-temperature  rising  near  St  Thomas  to 
75°,  to  the  bathymotrical  isotherm  of  45°,  which  lies  be- 
tween 400  and  600  fathoms'  depth  ;  there  is  then  a  stratum 
between  45°  and  40°,  of  which  the  thickness  varies  from 
about  250  to  450  fathoms,  the  isotherm  of  40°  lying  at 
between  750  and  1000  fathoms'  depth,  while  below  this, 
down  to  the  bottom  at  between  2000  and  3000  fathoms, 
the  further  reduction  to  34°-4  is  very  gradual. 

The  same  general  condition  prevails  in  the  South 
Atlantic  (fig.  2),  between  Abrolhos  Island  (lat.  18°  S.)  on 
the  coast  of   Brazil,  and  the  Cape  of   Good  Hope  (lat. 


34^°  S.),  this  trough  also  being  divided  into  two  basins  bj 
the  elevation  of  the  bottom  which  culminates  in  the  island 
of  Tristan  da  Cunha.  The  temperature  of  the  water  that 
occupies  it,  however,  is  lower  through  its  whole  vertical 
range  than  that  of  the  J^orth  Atlantic.  The  stratification 
is  nearly  uniform  from  the  surface  downwards  to  the 
isotherm  of  40°,  which  hcs  at  from  300  to  450  fathoms' 
depth,  the  isotherms  of  39°  and  38°  also  lying  within 
about  BOO  fathoms ;  there  is  then  a  slower  reductiou 
down  to  the  isotherm  of  35°,  which  lies  between  1400 
and  1800  fathoms ;  while  the  whole  sea-bed  is  covered  by 
a  stratum  of  about  600  fathoms'  thickness,  whoso  tempera- 
ture ranges  downwards  from  35°  to  33°.  The  whole  of 
this  deepest  stratum  is  colder  than  any  water  that  is  found 
in  the  corre.sponding  portion  of  the  North  Atlantic,  excep> 
near  St  Thomas. 


Fio.  2— Section  of  South  All.inlic 


It  is  not  a  little  remark.ible  that  the  sub-surface  stratum 
of  water,  having  a  tem[K;raturo  above  40°,  is'  thinner  under 
the  equator  than  it  is  in  any  other  part  of  the  Atlantic 
n-om  the  Faroe  Islands  to  the  Capo  of  Good  Hope.  Not- 
withstanding the  rise  of  the  surface-temperature  to  76°-80°, 
the  thermometer  descends  in  the  first  300  fathom.'i  more 
rapidly  than  anywhere  else  ;  so  that  polar  water  is  met 
with,  OS  shown  in  fig.  3.  at  a  much  less  depth  than  in  the 


North  Atlantic  (fig  I),  and  100  fathoms  nearer  to  thb 
surface  than  even  in  the  colder  South  Atlantic  (fig.  2); 
whilst  the  temperature  of  the  bottom  is  but  httle  above 
32°  Thus  the  influence  of  the  polar  underflow  is  mors 
pronounced  under  the  equator  than  it  is  elsewhere ;  as  is 
distinctly  seen  in  the  section  shown  in  fig.  4,  which  is 
taken  in  a  north  and  south  direction  ,10  as  to  exhibit  the 
relation  of  the  thermal  stratification  of  the  N^rth  to  that 


24 


ATLANTIC 


of  the  South  Atlantic,  and  of  both  to  that  of  the  equatorial 

i;  r.^-i|^,^5tCTI0IJ.0=  EOUaTORlAl  «TUNTIC 


«Q0       300        400        UO       000        'UC       SOO        BOO       lOOO       IaJO      L^      UOO  '   bM 

Hiffuon^  5cilr  of  NEDAical  Uilei 

FlQ.  3. — Sectiou  of  Equatorial  Atlantic 
belt.     The  isotherm  of  40°,  which  in  lat.  22°  N.  lies  at  a 


depth  of  about  700  fjthoms,  gradually  rises  as  the  equator 
IS  approached  ;  and  it  is  between  the  equator  and  7^  S., 
where  the  surface-temperature  rises  to  nearly  80°,  that  cold 
water  is  soonest  reached,— the  isotherm  of  40°  rising  to 
within  300  fathoms  of  the  surface,  while  that  of  55°,  which 
in  lat.  3S°  N.  lies  at  nearly  400  fathoms'  depth,  and  in  lat. 
22°  N  at  about  250  fathoms,  actually  comes  up  under  tlio 
equator  wiLhin  100  fathoms  of  the  surface.  At  the  same 
time,  whilethe  bottom-temperature  under  the  equator  is  the 
lowest  anywhere  met  with,  namely,  32°-4,'  the  thickness  of 
the  stratum  beneath  the  isotherm  of  35°  is  not  less  than 
GOO  fathoms.  Jn  passing  southwards,  the  superficial  iso- 
therms are  observed  to  separate  again  from  each  other, 
partly  by  the  reduction  of  the  surface-temperature,  and 
partly  by  the  descent  of  the  isotherm  of  40°  to  a  depth  o( 
something  less  than  400  fathoms,  which  it  keeps  with  littU; 
reduction  as  far  south  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Th: 
significance  of  these  facts  becomes  more  remarkable,  when 
ne  consider  that  if  a  portion  of  the. oceanic  area  under  the 
equator  were  to  be  secluded,  like  the  Mediterranean  or  the 


BOO      BOO      «00      SOO       euO       rOO      800     0«X>     IDOO     UDO      I2ij0    UOO      l9uO  liOO     1£00      DtX)    UO«   1500     3000    SAO     3100 
Honxcsit^    ^>Cdlo  of  .N^ulical  AblAk 

Fio.  i. — SectloD  or  Mid  AllaolJC,  takeo  nearly  cortb  and  south. 


Red  Sea,  from  all  but  local  infiuences,  the  temperature  of 
its  water  from  the  sub-surface  stratum  downwards  to  the 
biittom — whatever  its  depth — -would  be  its  isocheimal  or 
mean  winter-temperature,  which,  in  the  equatorial  zone, 
would  be  certainly  not  below  75° 

Nothing,  Dr  Carpenter  contends,  could  more  conclu 
sively  support  the  general  doctrine  of  a  Vertical  Oceanic 
Circulation  sustained  by  opposition  of  temperature,  than 
the  precise  conformity  of  the  facts  thus  determined  by 
observation  to  the  predictions  which  his  confidence  in  the 
theory  had  led  him  to  put  fcrth.  These  predictions  were 
es.sentially  as  follows  — 

"1.  That  iiisttad  of  the  local  depressions  of  bottoni-temperature 
lni[)uted  by  previous  writers  to  polar  currents,  the  tt'Oiperature  of 
ev'  ry  part  of  the  deep  sea-bed  in  coniaiiinication  with  either  of  the 
polar  areas  vould  be  not  many  degrees  above  that  of  the  polar 
area.i  themselves. 

"2.  That  this  general  depression  of  bottom  temperature  would 
bo  fouDd  to  depend,  i>ot  upon  such  a  shallow  glacial  stream  as  niiKht 
be  maintained  to  be  a  return  from  the  polar  areas  of  water  propelled 
ttiwards  them  by  wiDd-currents,  but  upon  a  creeping  flow  of  the 
whole  undcr-stratura,  having  a  thickness  of  from  1000  to  2000 
till  horns. 

"3.  Tliat  as  the  depression  of  bottom  temperature  in  any  part 
of  the  general  oceanic  basin  would  be  pioportioiial  to  the  freedom 
of  communication  between  its  deeper  portion  and  that  of  one  or 
other  of  the  polar  ore.i3,  the  bottom-temperature  of  the  Smith  Atlan- 
tic would  probably  range  downwards  to  32",  while  that  of  the  North 
Atlantic  would  not  be  below  3.')",  except  where  it  first  receives  the 
Arctic  flow,  or  comes  under  the  inlluenreof  the  Antarctic  underflow-, 
which  would  vei^  probably  extend  itself  to  the  north  of  theequator- 

•*  4.  That  as  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  underflows  must  meet  at  or 
near  the  equstor.  whilst  the  surface-stratum  is  there  continually 
beinx  draughted  off  th'-nce  towards  either  pole,  there  would  be  a 


continual  ascent  of  glacial  water  under  the  line,  showing  itself  by 
a  nearer  approach  of  cold  water  to  the  surface  in  the  ift^er-tropical 
than  in  the  ex^ra-lropical  zone." 

It  was  further  pointed  out  by  Lenz,  and  more  recently 
(in  ignorance  of  his  doctrine)  by  Carpenter,  that  additional 
evidence  of  siich  ascent  is  furnished  by  the  low  salitkity 
of  the  surface  water  of  the  equatorial  belt  corresponding 
wilh  that  of  polar  water.  For,  as  was  originally,  observed 
by  Humboldt,  then  by  Lenz- himself,  and  subsequently  by 
many  other  voyagers,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  surface- 
water  of  the  Atlantic  gradually  increases  as  either  tropic  is 
approached  from  the  polar  side  of  its  own  hemisphere, 
reaches  its  maximum  a  little  nearer  the  equator,  and  then 
rapidly  diminishes,  coming  down  under  the  equator  to  the 
standard  of  polar  water.  Thus  a  mean  of  eight  observations 
taken  in  the  "Challenger"  expedition  between  Bermuda 
(32°  N.)  and  St  Thomas  (1?^°  N.)«gave  1027'2  as  the 
sp.  gr.  of  eur/acetmter,  whilst  a  mean  of  seventeen  observa- 
tions between  the  Cape  Vord  Islands  (1GJ°  N.)  and  Bahia 
(13°  S  )  gave  asp.  gr.  of  only  102G3.  Now,  since  between 
St  Thomas  and  Bermuda  the  eight  "  Challenger''  observa- 
tions of  bottom  (polar)  water  gave  a  mean  sp.  gr.  of  1026'3, 
whilst  between  Cape  Verd  and  Bahia  the  mean  sp.  gr.  ol 
the  bottom-water  was  even  slightly  lower  (the  results  being 

*  Tliat  the  bottom-lemTicrature  beneath  the  equator  wa.-;  lower  than 
any  that  was  met  with  in  the  South  Atlantic,  is  attnbiitiible  to  the  cir- 
cunist*uce  that,  in  consequence  of  uofavourahle  weather,  the  tempera* 
turc-soundings  were  taken  at  intervals  too  wide  to  detect  tlie  deep 
channel  thruuj^h  which  the  coldctl  Antarctic  water  doubtless  (lowed  to- 
wiinis  the  equator 


A  T  L  A  .\   T  1  (.; 


in  all  cases  expressed  according  to  a  common  standard  of 
temperature),  such  a  close  confurmity  subsists  between  the 
salinity  of  the  equatorial  water  of  the  surface  and  that  of 
the  polar  waters  of  the  bottom,  as  can  scarcely  be  accounted 
for  in  any  other  way  than  by  the  continual  and  tolerably 
rapid  ascent  of  the  latter. 

Another  indication  of  this  ascent  is  given  by  the  moder 
ation  of  the  surface-temperature  of  oceanic  water,  even 
under  the  equator.  If  there  were  no  ascent  of  colder 
water  from  beneath,  there  seems  no  reason  why  the  constant 
powerful  insolntion  to  which  crnatorial  water  is  subjected 
should  not  raise  the  temperature  of  its  surface  to  the 
highest  possible  elevation.  The  Kmit  to  that  elevation, 
which  is. obviously  set  by  the  cooling  influence  of  evapora- 
tion, is  probably  that  which  is  met  with  in  the  Red  Sea, 
where  the  monthly  average  for  August  risea  to  S6J'  and 
for  September  to  88°,  whilst  the  maxima  ri.se  much  higher, 
temperatures  of  100°,  106°,  100°,  and  9G°  having  been 
noted  on  four  consecutive  days.  Moreover,  along  the  Guinea 
Coast,  and  especially  in  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  the  surface- 
temperature  is  stated  to  range  as  high  as  90°.  But  in 
these  cases  there  is  no  reduction  of  surface-temperature  by 
the  upward  movement  of  polar  water  ;  for  this  is  altogether 
excluded  from  the  Red  Sea  by  the  shallowness  of  the 
Strait  of  Babelmandeb,  whilst  the  depth  of  the  bottom 
along  the  Guinea  Coast  is  too  small  to  allow  of  its  being 
overflowed  by  the  glacial  stratum.  Now,  over  the  deeper 
parts  of  the  equatorial  Atlantic  the  surface-temperature 
usually  ranges  between  75°  and  80°;  and  this  is  its  ordi- 
nary range  in  the  Mediterranean  during  the  months  of 
August  and  September.  That  the  temperature  of  an  equa- 
torial ocean  should  be  thus  kept  down  to  that  of  a  sea  of 
which  the  greater  part  lies  between  the  parallels  of  40°  and 
35°,  can  scarcely  be  accounted  for  in  any  other  way  than 
by  the  continual  uprising  of  polar  waters  from  beneath. 

The  same  principle,  once  admitted,  fully  accounts  for 
that  amelioration  of  the  cold  of  north-western  Europe, 
which  (as  already  shown)  cannot  be  fairly  attributed  to 
the  Florida  Current  or  true  Gulf  Stream.  For  it  is  obvious 
that  a  continual  eSlux  of  the  lower  stratum  from,  tke  polar 
areas  towards  the  equatorial  must  involve  a  continual 
indraught  of  the  upper  stratum  towards  the  polar  areas , 
and  this  indraught  will  be  much  more  marked  in  the 
Northern  than  in  the  Southern  Atlantic,  on  account  of  the 
progressive  narrowing  of  the  former,  whilst  the  latter 
progressively  widens  out.  Of  such  a  slow  northerly  set  of 
a  stratum  of  water,  extending  downwards  to  a  depth  of  at 
least  COO  fathoms,  we  have  evidence  in  a  comparison  of  the 
temperature-soundings  taken  in  the  "  Porcupine "  cxpedi- 


Fia.  5— Section  vf  North  AtUntic,  taken  nearly  north  and  south. 

tions  of  18C9  and  1870,  between  the  coast  of  Portugal 
(34°  N.)  and  the  Faroe  Islands  (59^-°  N.),  from  which 
|the  section  fig.  5,  has  been  worked  out.     For  it  is  there 


seen  that,  although  the  surface-temperature  is  reduced 
by  the  thinning-out  of  the  superficial  stratum,  there  is 
but  a  slight  change  in  the  position  of  the  bathjTn-etrical 
isotherms  of  45°  and  40° ,  so  that  there  is  an  obvious 
continuity  of  a  stratum  of  many  hundred  fathoms'  thick- 
ness between  these  two  points,  notwithstanding  their  sepa- 
ration by  25i°  of  latitude.  The  contrast  'between  the 
position  of  the  isotherm  of  40°  at  800  fathoms'  depth  off 
the  Faroes,  and  its  position  at  less  than  300  fathoms' 
depth  under  the  equator,  is  most  remarkable.  We  have 
seen  that  the  isocheimal  in  the  latter  area  would  not  be 
below  75°,  and  yet  we  find  water  colder  than  40°  lying 
at  within  300  fathoms 'of.  the  surface;  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  normal  isocheimal  at  59J°  N.  would 
certainly  be  below  40°  (probably  no  more  than  35°),  and 
yet  we  find  water  above  43°  extending  downwards  to  600 
fathoms,  and  water  above  40'  to  800  fathomsi  Thus  the 
vertical  oceanic  circulation  carries  a  vast  mass  of  water 
which  is  beh>c  the  normal  off  the  coast  of  Portugal,  into  a 
region  where  it  is  above  the  normal,  with  very  little  loes  of 
heat  by  the  way,  except  in  its  surface-film  ;  and  a  little 
consideration  will  show  that  such  a  movement  must  be 
much  more  effectual  as  a  heater  than  a  corresponding  rhove- 
ment  of  a  thin  stratum  of  much  warmer  watet  For  the 
latter,  when  it  passes  beneath  an  atmosphere  much  colder 
than  itself,  will  soon  be  brought  down  to  a  like  standard, 
not  having  wanner  water  from  below  to  take  its  place  when 
it  has  been  cooled  down  ,  whilst  in  the  former,  each  sur- 
face-layer, when  cooled  below  the  temperature  of  the  w^mer 
stratum  beneath,  will  sink  and.be  replaced  by  it.'  Now 
since  the  true  Gulf  Stream,  when  we  last  know  it,  has  been 
so  thinned  out  that  it  could  not  long  retain  any  excess  of 
temperature,  it  seems  inconceivable  that  it  should  exert  any 
decided  effect  on  the  temperature  of  the  Faroes  and  the 
coast  of  Norway,  unless  (as  supposed  by  Dr  Petermann  and 
Professor  'Wyville  Thomson)  its  thickness  undergoes  an 
increase  from  less  than  100  fathoms  to  600.  But  since  tha 
course  of  Dr  Petermann's  isotherms  shows  that  the  nortfc 
ward  flow  extends  across  the  whale  breadth  of  the  Atlantic 
between  Newfoundland  and  the  British  Isles — a  distance 
of  about  2000  miles — we  are  required  to  believe  that  a 
rivulet  (for  such  it  is  by  comparison)  of  60  miles'  breadth 
and  100  fathoms'  depth  (see  section,  fig.  5),  of  which  the 
greater  part  turns  southwards  round  the  Azores,  and  of 
which  the  remainder  is  flowing  due  east  when  we  last 
recognise  it,  is  able  to  impart  a  northerly  movement  to  a 
stratum  of  2000  miles  in  breadth,  and  at  least  600  fathoms' 
depth.  On  the  other  hand,  the  eastward,  set  of  this 
stratum,  considered  as  a  northward  indraught  into  the 
polar  area,  is  readily  accounted  for  by  the  excess  of  easterly 
momentum  which  it  derives  from  the  earth's  rotation,  this 
being  only  half  as,  rapid  in  lat.  60°  as  it  is  under  the 
equator ;  and  since  there  is  a  still  more  rapid  reduction  in 
the  rate  of  this  rotation  in  yet  higher  latitudes,  the  con- 
tinually increasing  excess  of  easterly  momentum  will  give  to 
the  northward  flow  a  progressively  stronger  eastward  set.' 
On  the  other  hand,  the  deficiency  of  easterly  momentum 
in  the  cold  underflow  .coming  from  the  pole  towards  the 
equator  will  tend  to  produce  a  lagging-behind,  of  westward 
set  of  that  underflow  ,  and  this  has  been  shown  by  the 
"  Challenger"  temperature-soundings  to  be  the  case, — the 
cold  deep  strata  of  the  Western  Atlantic  surging  upwards 
along  the  slope  of  the  North  American  coast-line,  as  is 
shown  in  fig.  6,  where  wo  see  not  only  the  bathymetrical 
isotherms  of  60°,  55°,  and  50°,  but  the  yet  deeper  isotherms 
of  45°  and  40°,  successively  nsing  to  the  surface  as  wo 
approach  the  land  ;' while  at  a  depth  of  only  83  fathoms, 
a  temperature  of  35°  was  encountered,  which,  at  no  great 
distance  to  the  south,  would  only  bo  found  at  a  depth  of 
2000  fathoms      That  the  cold  water  should  thus  rud  up- 


26 


ATLANTIC 


0    loo    200   800   400    600   400    T( 

Horlionul  Seale  or  N»utlcAl  Uklei. 

Fio.  6. — Section  from  Bermuda  to  Halifax. 


hill  is  quite  conformable  to  wiat  we  see  in  other  cases^  in 
which  a  heavier  under-stratum  has  a  definite  set  towards  a 
slope;  and  whilst  m-,- 

the  existence  of  £;  i 

such  a  westerly 
set  is,  ex  kypo- 
(A^si,  a  necessary 
consequence  of  ' 
the  southerly  « 
movementofthe  , 
Arctic  under-  a  , 
flow,  no  other  -s 
explanation  of !;: ' 
it  has  been  sug-  i" 
gested.  We  now  £  i  > 
sue  that  the  cold  |j, 
Labrador  Cur- 1 
rent  overlies  a 
band  of  water  as  '" 
cold  as  itself ;  « ' 
and  the  south-  i, 
ward  extension  ^^ 
of  this  cold  band, 
far  beyond  that 
of  any  definite 
current  -  move- 
ment, and  its 
entrance  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  through  tlie  Florida 
Channel,  at  the  side  of  and  beneath  the  outflowing  Gulf 
Stream,  are  thus  accounted  for. 

The  remarkable  accordance  of  so  many  facts  of  actual 
observation,  in  the  Atlantic  area,  with  the  probabilities 
■  deducible  from  a  theory  whose  soundness  can  scarcely  be 
disputed,  seems  now  to  justify  the  admission  of  the  general 
(vertical)  oceanic  circulation  sustained  by  opposition  of 
temperature  as  an  accepted  doctrine  of  terrestrial  physics. 

Distribution  of  Organic  Life. — All  that  will  be  attempted 
under  this  head  will  be  to  indicate  the  general  conditions 
that  seem,  from  recent  researches,  to  have  the  greatest 
influence  on  the  distribution  of  plants  and  animals  through 
this  great  oceanic  basin, 

The  distribution  of  marine  plants  seems  mainly  deter- 
mined by  light,  temperature,  and  depth,— a  further  influence 
being  exerted  by  the  character  of  the  shores.  The  diminu- 
tion of  light  in  its  passage  through  sea-water  is  so  rapid, 
that  the  quantity  which  penetrates  to  a  depth  of  250  or 
300  fathoms  may  be  regarded  as  almost  infinitesimal  ;  and 
in  conformity  with  this  we  find  a  very  rapid  diminution 
of- Algal  life  below  the  depth  of  100  fathoms.  The  upper 
stratum  is  occupied  for  the  most  part  by  the  larger  and 
coarser  forms  of  the  Fucacece,  or  olive-green  sea-weeds, 
whilst  the  more  delicate  Ceramiaceoe,  or  red  seaweeds,  fre- 
quent deeper  waters;  and,  as  it  appears  from  experiments 
made  in  aquaria  that  the  latter  do  not  flourish  in  full  light, 
but  grow  well  in  shadow,  it  may  be  concluded  that  their 
preference  for  a  moderate  depth  is  rather  for  reduced  light 
and  stillness  than  for  depth  per  se.  At  a  depth  of  150 
fathoms  very  few  ordinary  sea-weeds  maintain  their  ground ; 
and  below  this  we  seldom  find  any  Algse,  save  the  Coral- 
lines and  NuUijiurcs  consolidated  by  calcareous  deposit. 
The  distribution  of  particular  types  over  different  parts  of 
the  Atlantic  area  aj)pcars  to  be  mainly  regulat<;d  by  tem- 
perature ;  and  this  would  seem  to  bo  remarkably  the  case 
with  the  floating  Diatomaceae,  which,  though  they  form 
green  bands  in  the  surface-water  of  polar  sca-s,  have  not 
been  encountered  in  like  abundance  in  the  Atlantic,  and  do 
not  contribute  largely,  by  the  subsidence  of  their  siliceous 
loriccE,  to  the  composition  of  its  bottom-deposit.  Although 
it  is  the  habit  of  the  larger  Alga;  to  grow  from  a  base  of 
attachment  ^their  roots  serving  no  other  purpose  however, 


than  that  of  anchorage),  the  enormous  mass  of  Gulf-weed 
found  in  the  Sargasso  Sea  seems  quite  independent  of  any 
such  attachment.  It  was  at  one  time  supposed  that  this 
originally  grew  on  the  Bahama  and  Florida  shores,  and 
was  torn  thence  by  the  powerful  current  of  the  Gulf 
Stream  ;  but  it  seems  certain  that  if  such  was  its  original 
source,  the  "  Gulf-weed  "  now  lives  anU  propagates  whilst 
freely  floating  on  the  ocean-surface,  having  become  adapted 
by  various  modifications  to  its  present  mode  of  existence. 

The  distribution  of  the  anftnals  that  habitually  live  in  that 
upper  stratum  of  the  ocean  whose  degree  of  warmth  varies 
with  the  latitude,  seems  mainly  determined  by  temperature. 
Thus  the  "right  whala"  of  Arctic  seas,  and  its  representative 
in  the  Antarctic,  seems  neve  to  enter  the  inter-trQpical  area, 
generally  keeping  away  from  even  the  temperate  seas,  whilst, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  sperm-whale  ranges  through  the  parts 
of  the  ocean  where  the  "  right  whales  "  are  never  seen. 

The  distribution  of  fishes  seems  generally  to  follow  the 
same  rule ;  as  does  also  that  of  floating  mollusks.  Thus 
the  little  Clio  (a  Pteropod  moUusk),  which  is  a  principal 
article  of  the  food  of  the  "  right  whales  "  in  polar  seas,  is 
rarely  met  with  in  the  Atlantic,  where,  however,  other 
pteropods,  as  Hyalcea,  present  themselves  in  abundance. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  warmer  parts  of  its  area  swarm  with 
Salpa-chains,  which  are  not  frequent  in  higher  latitudes ; 
and  the  few  representatives  of  the  Nautiloid  Cephalopods, 
that  were  so  abundant  in  Cretaceous  seas,  are  now  restricted 
to  tropical  or  Bub-tropical  areas.  And  the  distribution  of  the 
moUusks,  ecliinoderms,  and  corals,  which  habitually  live  on 
the  bottom,  seems  to  be  determined,  within  certain  limits 
at  least,  by  temperature  rather  than  by  depth. 

The  bathymetrical  range  to  which  animal  life  of  any 
higher  type  than  the  Rhi^opodal  might  extend,  was  until 
recently  quite  unknown;  but  the  researches  initiated  by 
Prof.  Wyville  Thomson  and  Dr  Carpenter  in  1868,  and  since 
prosecuted  by  the  "Challenger"  expedition,  have  fully 
established  the  existence  of  a  varied  and  abundant  fauna  i> 
ocean-depths  ranging  downwards  to  2000  fathoms.  And 
these  researches  have  further  established  that  the  distribu- 
tion of  this  fauna  is  mainly  determined  by  the  temper&- 
tufe  of  the  sea-bed  ;  so  that  whilst  in  the  channel  between 
the  north  of  Scotland  and  the  Faroes  there  were  found  at 
the  same  depths,  and  within  a  few  miles  of  each  other,"  two 
faunffi  almost  entirely  distinct — one  a  boreal  and  the  other 
a  warmer-temperate — on  sea-beds  having  respectively  the 
temperatures  of  30°  and  43°,  various  types  to  which  a  low 
temperature  is  congenial  are  traceable  continuously  along 
the  whgle  abyssal  sea-bed  that  intervenes  between  those 
northern  and  southern  polar  areas  within  which  they 
present  themselves  at  or  near  the  surface.  And  hence  it 
1:>ccomes  clear  that,  since  glacial  tj^ies  are  even  now  being 
embedded  in  the  strata  which  are  in  process  of  formation 
beneath  the  equator,  no  inferences  as  to  terrestrial  climate 
can  be  drawn  from  the  character  of  marine  deposits. 

One  very  remarkable  feature  which  presents  itself  over 
a  large  proportion  of  the  Atlantic  basin  is  the  abuiid- 
anc?  of  the  minute  Globigerince  and  other  Foraminifera, 
the  accumulation  of  whose  shells,  and  of  their  disintegrated 
remains,  is  giving  rise  to  a  calcareous  deposit  of  unknown 
thickness,  that  corrnaponds  in  all  essential  particulars  to 
Chalk.  This  deposit,  in  some  parts  of  the  North  Atlantic, 
is  replaced  by  an  Arctic  drift  of  fine  sand,  whilst  in  other 
parts  there  is  a  mixture  of  arenaceo^o  and  of  calcareous 
components,  such  as  is  found  in  certaic  beds  of  the 
Cretaceous  formation.  Now  on  the  surface  of  thir  deposit 
there  have  been  found  so  many  living  tyjies,  cspeciaj)' 
belonging  to  the  groups  of  Echiiiodcrnis,  Corals,  Silicecc* 
Sponges,  and  Foraminifera,  which  closely  correspond  witlj 
types  hitherto  regarded  as  characteristic  of  the  Cretaceous 
epoch,  that  the  question  naturally  suggests  itself  whether 


A  'J'  L  —  A  T  L 


27 


the  eskting  are  not  the  lineal  descendants  of  tho  fo&sil 
types, — the  differences  they  present  being  not  greater  than 
may  be  fairly  attributed  to  the  prolonged  action  of 
differences  of  temperature,  food,  pressirre,  io.  And  when 
these  facts  are  taken  in  connection  with  those  previously 
stated  as  to  the  probable  remoteness  of  the  period 
when  (if  ever)  tho  present  sea-bed  of  the  Atlantic  was 
dry  land,  the  doctrine  first  put  forth  by  Prof.  VVyville 
Thomson,  that  there  has  been  a  continuous  formation  of 
OioDigerina-mud  on  the  bottom  of  the  Atlantic  from 
the  Cretaceous  epoch  to  the  present  time — or,  in  other 
words,  that  the  formation  of  chalk  on  the  sea-bed  of  the 
Atlantic  did  not  cease  with  the  elevation  of  the  European 
area,  but  has  been  going  on  through  the  whole  Tertiary 
period, — must  be  admitted'  as  (to  say  the  least)  a  not 
improbable  hypothesis.  That  some  considerable  change 
took  place  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Cretaceous  epoch,  by 
which  the  temperature  of  the  upper  stratum  was  lowered, 
80  as  to  be  no  longer  compatible  with  the  existence  of  the 
fishes  and  chambered  cephalopods  characteristic  of  the 
Cretaceous  fauna,  may  be  fairly  assumed  from  their  disap- 
pearance; but  this  would  not  so  much  affect  the  deeper 
part  of  the  basin,  in  which  those  lower  types  that  seem 
more  capable  of  adapting  themselves  to  changes  in  external 
conditions  would  continue  to  hold  their  ground.  Thut  the 
like  conditions  had  prevailed  also  through  long  previous  geo- 
logical periods,  may  be  surmised  from  the  persistence,  over 
various  parts  of  the  Atlantic-  sea-bed,  of  the  Apiocrinite 
type,  which  carries  us  back  to  the  Oolitic  formation,  and  of 


the  Pt-nfacrinu!  type,  which  has  copiedown  with  very  little 
alteration  from  the  Liassic;  '"hilst  many  existing  Tere- 
brolulidie  do  not  differ  more  from  Oolitic  types  than  the 
latter  differ  among  each  other.  Going  back  still  further, 
we  6nd  in  the  persistence  of  certain  Foraminiferal  types 
from  the  Carboniferous  limestone  to  the  present  time,  and 
in  the  character  of  its  deep-sea  beds,  a  strong  indication 
that  they  originated  in  a  Foraminiferal  deposit,  represent- 
ing in  ail  essential  particulars  that  which  is  now  going  on  ; 
while  the  persistence  of  the  Lin^ula  from  the  early 
Silurian  strata  to  the  present  time  suggests  the  question 
whether  certain  oceanic  areas  may  not  have  remained  in 
the  condition  of  deep  sea  throughout  the  whole  subsequent 
succession  of  geological  changes. 

Bibliography. — In  addition  to  the  ordinary  sources  of 
information,  the  following  publications  may  be  specially 
referred  to  for  recent  information  in  regard  to  the  physical 
geography  of  the  Atlantic : — "  Reports  of  the  Deep-Sea 
Explorations  carried  on  in  H.M.  Steam-vessels  '  Lightning,' 
'  Porcupine,'  and  '  Shearwater,'  "  in  Proceeding!  of  the  Roval 
SodetyhT  1868,  18C9,  1870,  and  1872;  "  On  the  Gibraltar 
Current,  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  the  General  Oceanic  Circula- 
tion," in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  for 
1871;  and  "Further  Inquiries  on  Oceanic  Circulation" 
(containing  a  summary  of  .the  "  Challenger"  Temperature 
Survey  of  the  Atlantic),  in  the  same  journal  for  1S74; 
Currents  and  Surfaot-Temperature  of  the  North  and  Sinitli 
Atlantic,  published  by  the  Meteorological  Committee;  and 
rA«  Z>e;)(/ts  o/VA«  5ea,  by  Prof.  Wyville  Thomson,    (w.b.c.)    ■ 


ATLANTIS,  Atalantis,  or  Atlantica,  an  island  men- 
tioned by  Plato  and  other  classical  writers,  concerning  the 
real  existence  of  which  many  disputes  have  been  raised. 
In  the  Tiniocus,  Critias  relates  how  his  grandfather  Critias 
had  been  told  by  Solon  some  remarkable  events  in  early 
Athenian  history  which  he  had  learned  from  the  Egyptian 
priests  at  Sais,  whose  records  went  much  further  back 
than  the  native  accounts.  "  The  most  famous  of  all  the 
Athenian  exploits,"  Solon  had  been  told,  "was  the  overthrow 
of  the  island  Atlantis.  This  was  a  continent  lying  over 
against  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  in  extent  greater  than 
Libya  and  Asia  put  together,  and  was  the  passage  to  other 
islands  and  to  another  continent,  of  which  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  was  only  the  harbour ;  and  within  the  pillars 
the  empire  of  Atlantis  reached  to  Egypt  and  Tyrrhenia. 
This  mighty  power  was  arrayed  against  Egypt  and  HeUas 
and  all  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 
Then  did  your  city  bravely,  and  won  renown  over  the 
"whole  earth.  For  at  the  peril  of  her  own  existence,  and 
when  the  other  Hellenes  had  deserted  her,  she  repelled 
the  invader,  and  of  her  own  accord  gave  liberty  to  all  the 
cations  within  the  pillars.  A  little  while  afterwards  there 
was  a  great  earthquake,  and  your  warrior  race  all  sank  into 
the  earth  ;  and  the  great  island  of  Atlantis  also  di.^appeared 
in  the  sea.  This  is  the  explanation  of  the  shallows  which 
are  found  in  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  ocean." — (Jowett's 
Introduction  to  the  Timceus.)  Such  is  the  main  substance 
of  the  principal  account  of  the  island  furnished  by  the 
ancients, — an  account  which,  if  not  entirely  fictitious, 
belongs  to  tho  most  nebulous  region  of  history.  The  story 
may  embody  some  popular  legend,  and  the  legend  may  have 
rested  on  certain  historical  circumstances;  but  what  these 
were  it  is  (as  the  numerous  theories  advanced  on  tho  subject 
may  be  held  as  proving)  impossible  now  to  determine. 

ATLAS  ('ArXa?),  in  Greek  Myth/ilogy,  called  sometimes 
a  son  of  Japetus  and  the  nymph  Asia,  or  of  Uranus  and 
Oaia,  and  at  other  times  traced  to  a  different  parentage, 
but  always  known  as  the  being  who  supported  on  his 


shoulders  the  pillars  on  which  the  sky  rested.  He  kncv 
the  depths.of  the  sea  (Odyssey,  vii  245),  and  in  tho  first 
instance  seems  to  have  been  a  marine  creation.  The  pillars 
which  he  supported  were  thought  to  rest  in  the  sea, 
immediately  beyond  the  most  western  horizon.  But  by 
the  time  of  Herodotus  (iv.  161),  a  mountain  is  suggested 
as  best  suited  to  hold  up  the  hearcns,  and  the  name  of 
Atlas  is  transferred  to  a  hill  in  the  N.W.  of  Africa.  Then 
the  name  is  traced  to  a  king  of  that  district,  rich  in  jlo;k.i 
and  herds,  and  owning  the  garden  of  the  Hesperidc?. 
Fidally,  Atlas  was  explained  as  the  name  of  a  primitive 
a.stronomer.  He  was  tho  father  of  tho  Pleiades  and 
Hyades.  Perseus  encountered  him  when  he  searched  for 
Medusa.  Heracles  took  the  burden  of  the  sky  from  his 
shoulders,  but  cleverly  contrived  to  replace  it.  Atlas  bear- 
ing up  the  heavens  is  mentioned  as  being  reprcsentedon  early 
works  of  art,  e.^.,  on  the  chest  of  Cypselus  (Pausan.,v.  18,1), 
and  on  the  throne  of  Apollo  at  AmyclxE  (Pausan.,  iii.  18,  7); 
and  this  subject  occurs  on  several  existing  works  of  art. 

ATLAS,  a  mountain-chain  of  Northern  Africa,  between 
the  great  desert  of  the  Sahara  and  the  Mediterranean.  Tho 
range  has  been  but  partially  explored,  and  geograpihers  ditVer 
as  to  its  extent,  some  considering  it  to  reach  from  Capa  Ghir 
on  the  Atlantic  to  Cape  Bon,  the  north-east  point  of  Tur.i.", 
while  others  include  under  the  name  the  whole  mountain 
system  between  Cape  Nun  and  the  greater  Syrtis.  In 
this  latter  sense  it  forms  the  mountain-land  of  the  countries 
of  Marocco,  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli  It  is  composed 
of  ranges  and  groups  of  mountains,  enclosing  well-waferi  d 
and  fertile  valleys  and  plains,  and  having  a  general 
direction  from  W.  to  E.  "Tho  highest  peaks  arc  supposed 
to  attain  an  elevation  of  nearly  15,000  feet;  and  although 
none  of  them  reach  the  height  of  perpetual  snow,  some  of 
their  loftiest  summits  are  covered  with  snow  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year.  Mount  Miltsin,  27  miles  S.E. 
of  the  city  of  Marocco,  was  ascertained  by  Captain  Wa.'h- 
ington  to  be  11,400  feet  high.  The  greatest  heights  are 
in  Marocco,  from  which  point  they  appear  to  diminish  ia 


28 


A  T  M  -  A  T  M 


elevation  as  ttey  extend  towardsibe  E.  These  mountains, 
except  the  loftier  summits,  are,  for  the  inost  part,  covered 
with  thick  forests  of  pine,  oak,  cork,  white  poplar,  wild 
olive,  and  other  trees.  The  inferior  ranges  seem  to  be 
principally  composed  of  Secondary  limestone,  which,  at  a 
greater  elevation,  is  succeeded  by  micaceous  schist  and 
quartz-rock ;  and  the  higher  chains  are  said  to  consist  of 
granite,  gneiss,  mica-slate,  and  clay-slate.  The  Secondary 
and  Tertiary  formations  are  frequently  disturbed  and 
upraised  by  trap-rocks  of  comixiratively  modern  date. 
Lead   iron  copper,  antimony,  sulphur,  and  rock-salt  occur 


frequently  ,  and  in  the  Marocco  portion  of  the  range  gold 
and  silver  are  said  to  exist.  In  the  Algerian  division  aro 
mines  of  copper,  lead,  silver,  and  antimony.  The  bon, 
hyena,  boar,  and  bear  are  common  throughout  the  mouc 
tains.  None  of  the  rivers  which  take  their  rise  in  the  sys- 
tem are  of  any  greit  importance.  The  Tafilet  is  absorbed 
in  the  sands ,  the  Tensilt  and  Draa  flow  into  the  Atlantic; 
and  about  five  or  six  find  their  way  to  the  Mediterranean. 
Dr  Hooker  Las  explored  the  botany  of  many  parts  of  the 
range,  and  the  travels  of  Rohlfs  Lave  added  largely  to  our 
general  knowledge  of  it. 


ATMOSPHERE 


ATMOSPHERE  is  the  name  applied  to  the  invisible  elas- 
tic envelope  which  surrounds  the  earth,  the  gaseous 
matter  of  which  it  is  composed  being  usually  distinguished 
by  the  name  of  air.  Storms  and  weather  generally,  solar 
and  terrestrial  radiation,  the  disintegration  of  rocks,  animal 
and  vegetable  life,  twilight,  and  the  propagation  of  sound, 
are  some  of  the  more  striking  phenomena  which  are  either 
to  a  large  extent  or  altogether  dependent  on  the  atmo- 
sphere. That  air  possesses  weight  may  be  shown  by  the 
simple  experiment  of  taking  a  hcllow  globe  filled  with 
air  and  weighing  it ;  then  removing  the  contained  air 
by  means  of  an  air-pump,  and  again  weighing  the  globe, 
when  it  will  be  found  U>  weigh  less  than  at  first.  The 
.difference  of  the  two  results  is  the  weight  of  the  air  which 
has  been  removed.  From  Regnault's  experiments,  100 
cubic  inches  of  dry  air,  or  air  containing  no  aqueous  vapour, 
under  a  pressure  of  30  English  inches  of  mercury,  and  at 
a  temperature  of  60°  Fahr.,  weigh  3103529  grains;  and 
since  100  cubic  inches  of  di.slilled  water  at  the  same 
pressure  and  temperature  weigh  25,252|  grains,  it 
follows  that  air  is  813'67  times  lighter  than  water. 

Air  as  an  elastic  fluid  exerts  pressure  upon  the  earth  or 
any  substance  on  which  it  rests,  the  action  of  a  boy's 
sucker  and  of  a  water-pump  being  familiar  instances 
showing  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  When  air  is 
removed  from  a  water-pump,  the  water  rises  in  the  pump 
only  to  a  certain  height;  for  a?  soon  as  thewoterhas  risen 
to  such  a  height  that  the  wp'ght  of  the  column  of  water  in 
the  pump  above  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the 
well  just  balances  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  atmosphere 
on  the  surface  of  the  well,  it  ceases  to  rise.  If  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  be  increased,  the  water  will  rise 
higher  in  the  pump  ;  but  if  diminished,  the  level  of  the 
water  will  sink.  The  height  to  which  the  water  rises 
within  the  pump  thus  varies  with  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere,  the  height  being  generally  about  34  feet. 
Since  a  given  volume  of  mercury  weighed  m  racuo  at  a 
temperature  of  62°  Fahr.  is  13'5G9  times  heavier  than  the 
same  volume  of  water,  it  follows  that  a  column  of  mercury 
will  rise  in  vaaio  to  a  height  13569  times  less  than  a 
column  of  water,  or  about  30  inches.  If  wesuppose,  then, 
the  height  of  the  mercurial  column  to  be  30  inches,  which 
18  probably  near  the  average  height  of  the  barometer  at 
sea-level,  and  its  base  equal  to  a  sqiurc  inch,  it  will  contain 
30  cubic  inches  of  mercury  ;  and  since  one  cubic  inch  of 
mercury  contains  34267  grains,  the  weight  of  30  cubic 
inches  will  bo  nearly  147304  lb  avoirdupois.  Thus  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  generally,  at  least  in  these 
latitudes,  at  scalevel  equal  to  14 '7 304  D)  on  each  square 
inch  of  the  earth's  surface.  Sir  John  Herschel  has 
calculated  that  the  total  weight  of  an  atmosphere  averaging 
30  inches  of  pressure  is  about  11§  trillions  of  pounds; 
nnd  that,  making  allowance  for  the  space  occupied  by  the 
land  above  the  sea,  the  ma.'s  of  such  an  atmosphere  is  about 
•nvlvrm  P*"^  of  i''^'  "f  'l>e  oarth  itself.     This  enormous 


pressure  is  exerted  on  the  human  frame  in  common  vrilh 
all  objects  on  the  earth's  surface,  and  it  is  calculated  that 
a  man  of  the  ordinary  size  sustains  a  pressure  of  about  14 
tons  ;  but  as  the  pressure  is  exerted  equally  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  permeates  the  whole  body,  no  inconvenience 
arises  '".  consequence  of  it. 

A  pressure  agreeing  approximately  with  the  average 
atmospheric  pressure  at  sea-level  is  often  used  as  a  unit 
of  pressure  This  unit  is  called  an  atmosphere,  and  is 
employed  in  measuring  pressures  in  steam-engines  and 
boilers.  The  value  of  this  unit  which  has  been  adopted, 
in  the  metrical  system,  is  the  pressure  of  760  millimetres 
(29  922  Eng.  inches)  of  the  mercurial  column  at  0°  C.  (32° 
Fahr.)  at,  Paris,  which  amounts  in  that  latitude  to  r033 
kilogrammes  on  the  square  centimetre.  In  the  English 
system,  an  atmosphere  is  the  pressure  due  to  29'905 
inches  of  the  mercurial  column  at  32°  Fahr.  at  London, 
amounting  there  to  nearly  14J  B)  weight  on  the  square 
inch.  The  latter  atmosphere  is  thus  0  999C8  of  that  of 
the  metrical  system. 

As  regards  the  distribution  of  atmospheric  pressure  over 
the  globe,  there  was  little  beyond  conjecture,  drawn  from 
theoretical  considerations  and  for  the  most  part  erroneous, 
till  the  publication  in  1868  of  Buchan's  memoir  "On  Iho 
Mean  Pressure  of  the  Atmosphere  and  the  Prevailing 
Winds  over  the  Globe."'  By  the  monthly  isobaric  charts 
and  copious  tables  which  accompanied  the  memoir,  this 
important  physical  problem  was  first  approximately  solved. 
Since  then  the  British  Admiralty  has  published  charts 
showing  the  mean  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  over  the 
ocean.^  The  more  important  general  conclusions  regarding 
the  geographical  distribution  of  atmospheric  pressure  are 
the  following : — 

There  are  two  regions  of  high  pressure,  the  one  north 
and  the  other  south  of  the  equator,  passing  completely 
round  the  globe  as  broad  belts  of  high  pressure.  They 
enclose  between  them  the  low  pressure  of  tropical  regions, 
through  the  centre  of  which  runs  a  narrower  belt  of  still 
lower  pressure,  towards  which  the  north  and  south  trades 
blow.  The  southern  belt  of  high  pressure  lies  nearly 
parallel  to  the  equator,  and  is  of  nearly  uniform  breadth 
throughout ;  but  the  belt  north  of  the  equator  has  a  very 
irregular  outline,  and  great  differences  in  its  breadth  and  in 
its  inclination  to  the  equator, — these  irregularities  being  duo 
to  the  unequal  distribution  of  land  and  water  in  the 
northern  hemisphere.  Taking  a  broad  view  of  the  subject, 
there  aro  only  three  regions  of  low  pressure, — one  round 
each  pole,  bounded  by  or  contained  within  the  belts  of 
high  pressure  just  referred  to,  and  the  equatorial  belt  of 
low  pressure.  The  most  rcmark.ible  of  these,  in  so  far  as 
yet  known,  is  the  region  of  low  pressure  surrounding  tho 
south    pole,    which   appears   to   remain    pretty   constant 

'  Tmns.  Roy.  Sue.  Edin  ,  i6\.  iiv.  p.  575. 

'  I'hytical  Charit  oj  the  Pacific,  A  (6m(i>,  and  Indian  Oceans,  I»od. 
1872 


ATMOSPHERE 


29 


during  the  whole  year.  The  depression  round  the  north 
pole  is  divided  into  two  distinct  centres,  at  each  of  which 
\here  is  a  diminution  of  pressure  greatly  lower  than  the 
average  north  poLir  depression.  These  two  centres  he  in 
•  the  north  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  respectively. 
The  distribution  of  pressure  in  the  different  months  of  the 
year  differs  widely  from  the  annual  average,  particularly  in 
January  and  July,  the  two  extreme  months.  In  January 
the  highest  pressures  are  over  the  continents  of  the  nor- 
thern hemisphere, — and  the  larger  the  continental  mass 
the  greater  the  pressure, — and  the  lowest  pressures  are 
over  the  northern  portions  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific, 
South  America  and  South  Africa,  and  the  Antarctic  Ocean. 
In  the  centre  of  Asia  the  mean  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
in  this  month  is  fully  30-100  inches,  whereas  in  the  North 
Atlantic,  round  Iceland,  it  is  only  29  340  inches,  or 
upwards  of  an  inch  lower  than  in  Central  Asia.  The  area 
of  high  barometer  is  continued  westwards  through  Central 
and  Southern  Europe,  the  North  Atlantic  between  5°  and 
45°  N.  lat..  North  Ainerica,  except  the  north  and  north-west, 
and  the  Pacific  for  some  distance  on  either  side  of  15° 
N.  lat.  It  is  thus  an  exaggerated  form  of  the  high  belt  of 
annual  mean  pressure,  spreading,  however,  ovei:  a  much 
greater  breadth  in  North  America,  and  a  stLU  gre'ater 
breadth  in  Asia. 

In  July,  on  the  other  hand,  the  mean  pressure  of  Central 
Asia  is  only  29'4G8  inches,  or  nearly  an  inch  lower  than 
during  January ;  or,  putting  this  striking  result  in  other 
words,  about  a  thirtieth  of  the  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere is  removed  from  this  region  during  the  hottest 
months  of  the  year  as  compared  with  tha  winter  season. 
The  lowest  pressures  of  the  northern  hemisphere  are  now 
distributed  over  the  continents,  and  the  larger  the  con- 
tinental mass  the  greater  is  the  depression.  At  the  same 
time,  the  highest  are  over  the  ocean  between  50°  N.  and 
50°  S.  lat.,  particularly  over  the  North  Atlantic  and  the 
North  Pacific  between  25°  and  40°  N.  lat.,  and  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  over  the  belt  of  high  mean  annual 
pressure,  Tvhich  in  this  month  reaches  its  maximum  height. 
Pressure  is  high  in  South  Africa  and  in  AustraUa,  just  as  in 
the  winter  of  the  northern  hemisphera-  pressures  are  high 
over  the  continents. 

Over  the  ocean,  if  Tve  except  the  higher  latitudes, 
atmospheric  pressure  is  more  regular  throughout  the 
year  than  over  the  land.  In  the  ocean  to  westwards 
of  each  of  the  continents  there  occurs  at  all  seasons  an  area 
of  high  pressure,  from  010  inch  to  0'30  inch  higher  than 
what  prevails  on  the  coast  westward  of  which  it  lies.  The 
distance  of  these  spaces  of  high  pressure  is  generally  about 
30°  of  longitude  ;  and  their  longitudinal  axes  he,  roughly 
speaking,  about  the  zones  of  the  tropics.  The  maximum 
is  reached  during  the  winter  months,  and  these  areas  of 
high  pressure  are  most  prominently  marked  west  of  those 
.continents  which  have  the  greatest  breadth  in  30°  lat.,  and 
the  steepest  barometric  gradients  are  on  their  eastern  sides. 
It  is  scarcely  possible  to  over-estimate  the  iuiportanco  of 
thesq  regions  of  high  and  low  mean  pressures,  from  their 
intimate  bearing  on  atmospheric  phy.-iics,  but  more  par- 
ticularly from  their  vital  connection  with  prevailing  winds 
and  the  general  circulation  of  the  atmos[)licre.  This  rela- 
tion will  be  apprehended  when  it  is  considered  that  winds 
are  simply  the  flowing  away  of  the  air  from  regions  where 
khero  is  a  surplus  (regions  of  high  pressure)  to  where  there 
is  a  deficiency  of  air  (regions  of  low  pressure).  Every- 
where over  the  globe  this  transference  takes  place  in  strict 
accordance  with  Buys-Ballot's  "Law  of  the  Winds,"  which 
nay  bo  thus  expressed : — The  wind  neither  blows  round 
the  space  of  lowest  pressure  in  circles  returning  on  them- 
selves, nor  does  it  blow  directly  toward  that  space  ;  but  it 
takes  a  direction  intermediate,  approaching,  however,  more 


nearly  to  the  direction  and  course  of  circular  curves  than 
of  ndii  to  a  centre.  More  exactly,  the  angle  is  not  a  right 
angle,  but  from  45°  to  80°  Keeping  this  relation  between 
wind  and  the  distribution  of  pressure  in  mind,  the  isobaric 
lines  give  the  proximate  causes  of  the  prevailing  winds 
over  the  globe,  and  through  these  the  prominent  features 
of  climates.  As  regards  the  ocean,  the  prevailing  winds 
indicate  the  direction  of  the  driftrcurrents  and  other  sur- 
face-currents, and  thereby  the  anomalous  distribution  of 
the  temperature  of  the  sea  as  seen  in  the  Chili,  Guinea,  and 
other  ocean  currents,  and  the  peculiarly  marked  chmates  of 
the  coasts  past  which  these  currents  flow,  are  explained;  for 
observations  have  now  proved  that  the  prevailing  winds  and 
sui'face-currents  of  all  oceansareall  but  absolutely  coincident. 

As  regards  the  annual  march  of  pressure  through  the 
months  of  the  year,  curves  representing  it  for  the  different 
regions  of  the  earth  differ  from  each  other  in  every  con- 
ceivable way.  It  is  only  when  the  results  are  set  down 
in  their  proper  places  on  charts  of  the  globe  that  tlie 
su'bject  can  be  well  understood.  When  thus  dealt  with, 
many  of  the  results  are  characterised  by  great  beauty  and 
simplicity  Thus,  of  all  influences  which  determine  the 
barometric  fluctuation  through  the  months,  the  most  impor- 
tant are  the  temperature,  and  through  the  temperature  the 
humidity  Comparing,  then,  the  average  pressure  in 
January  with  that  in  July,  which  two  months  give  the 
greatest  possible  contrasts  of  temperature,  the  following  is 
the  broad  result  :-^ 

The  January  exceeds  the  July  pressure  over  the  whole 
of  Asia  except  Kamtchatka  and  the  extreme  north-east, 
the  greatest  excess  being  near  the  centre  of  the  continent ; 
over  Europe  to  south  and  east  of  a  line  drawn  from  the 
White  Sea  south-westward  to  the  Naze,  thence  southward 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Wcser,  then  to  Touis,  Bordeaux,  and 
after  passing  through  the  north  of  Spain,  out  to  sea  at 
Corufia  ;  over  North  America,  except  the  north-east  and 
north-west.  On  the  other  hand,  the  July  exceeds  tho 
January  pressure  generally  over  the  whole  of  the  southern 
hemisphere,  over  the  northern  part  of  the  North  Atlantic 
and  regions  immediately  adjoining  (the  excess  amounting 
in  Iceland  to  0"397  inch),  and  over  the  northern  part  of 
the  North  Pacific  and  surrounding  regions.  Thus  the  pres- 
sure which  is  so  largely  removed  from  the  Old  and  New 
Continents'  of  the  northern  hemisphere  in  July  is  trans- 
ferred, partly  to  the  southern  hemisphere,  and  partly  to  the 
northern  portions  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans. 

Atmospheric  pressure  is  more  uniformly  distributed  over 
the  globe  in  April  and  October  than  in  any  of  the  other 
months.  In  May  and  November,  being  tho  months 
immediately  following,  occur  the  great  annual  rise  and 
fall  of  temperature  ,  and  since  these  rapid  changes  take 
place  at  very  different  rates,  according  to  tho  relative 
distribution  of  land  and  water  in  each  region,  a  comparison 
of  the  geographical  distribution  of  May  with  that  for  tho 
year  brings  out  in  strong  rehef  the  more  prominent  causes 
which  inlluence  climate,  and  some  of  the  more  striking 
results  of  these  causes.  This  comparison  shows  a  diminu- 
tion of  pressure  in  May  over  tropical  and  sub-tropicd 
regions,  inclu<ling  nearly  tho  whole  of  Asia,  the  southern 
half  of  Europe,  and  tho  United  States.  An  excess  prevails 
over  North  America  to  the  north  of  the  Lakes,  over  Arctic 
America,  Greenland,  the  British  Isles,  and  to  the  north  of 
aline  passing  through  tho  English  Channel  in  a  norllv 
easterly  direction  to  the  Arctic  Sea.  The  excess  in  tho 
southern  hemisphere  includes  tho  southern  half  of  south 
America  and  of  Africa,  the  whole  of  Australia,  and  adjacent 
parts  of  the  ocean.  The  influence  of  tho  land  of  tho 
southern  hemisphere,  which  in  this  month  is  colder  than 
the  surrounding  seas,  brings  about  an  excess  of  pressure  ; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  influeiice  of  land  over  those  legioni 


30 


ATMOSPHERE 


■which  are  tnore  immedutely  under  the  sun  brings  about  a 
lower  pressure,  interesting  examples  of  which  occur  in 
India,  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  and  the  Mediterranean, 
Black,  and  Caspian  Seas.  In  many  cases  the  lines  of 
pressure  follow  more  or  less  closely  the  contours  of  the 
coasts.  Thus  the  diminution  is  greater  over  Italy  and 
Turkey  than  over  the  Adriatic  and  Black  Seas.  The 
greatest  diminution  occurs  in  Central  Asia,  where  it  exceeds 
0200  inch,  and  the  greatest  excess  round  Iceland,  where  it 
exceeds  0  200  inch.  It  is  to  the  position  of  Great  Britain, 
with  reference  to  the  deficiency  of  pressure  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  excess  on  the  other,  that  the  general  prevalence 
of  east  winds  at  this  season  is  due.  These  easterly  winds 
prevail  over  the  whole  of  Northern  Europe,  as  far  south  as 
a  line  drawn  frooa  Madrid  and  passing  in  a  north-easterly 
direction  through  Geneva,  Munich,  ic.  To  the  south  of 
this  line  the  diminution  of  pressure  is  less,  and  over  this 
region  the  winds  which  are  in  excess  are  not  easterly,  but 
southerly.  Crossing  the  Mediterranean,  and  advancing  on 
Africa,  we  approach  another  region  of  lower  pressure, 
towards  which  easterly  and  north-easterly  winds  again 
acquire  the  ascendency,  as  at  Malta,  Algeria,  <tc. 

This,  in  many  cases  great,  variation  of  the  pressure 
in  the  different  months  of  the  year  must  be  kept  carefully 
in  view  in  deducing  heights  of  places  from  observations 
made  by  travellers  of  the  pressure  of  atmosphere,  by  the 
barometer  or  the  temperature  of  boiling  water.  In 
reducing  the  observations,  it  is  necessary  to  assume  a  sea- 
level  preesure  if  the  place  is  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
any  meteorological  observatory.  Previous  to  the  publica- 
tion of  Buchan's  Mean  Pressure  of  the  Atmosphere,  it 
appears  that  a  mean  sea-level  pressure  of  29  92  or  3000 
inches  was  in  such  cases  universally  assumed.  The  mean 
pressure  at  Barnaul,  Siberia,  being  29536  inches  in  July, 
30'293  inches  in  January,  and  29954  inches  for  the  year, 
it  follows  that,  by  the  former  method  of  calculating  the 
heights,  observations  made  in  January  to  ascertain  the 
height  of  Lake  Balkash  would  make  the  lake  350  feet  too 
high,  and  observations  made  in  July  would  make  it  330 
feet  too  low,— the  difference  of  the  two  observations,  each 
Bet  being  supposed  to  be  made  under  tlie  most  favourable 
circumstances,  and  with  the  greatest  accuracy,  being  C80 
feet.  This  illustration  will  serve  to  account  for  many  of 
the  discrepancies  met  with  in  books  regarding  the  heights 
of  mountains  and  plateaus 

Of  the  periodical  variations  of  atmospheric  pressure,  the 
most  marked  is  the  daily  variation,  which  in  tropical  and 
eub-tropical  regions  is  one  of  the  most  regular  of  recurring 
phenomena.  In  higher  latitudes  the  diurnal  oscillation  is 
masked  by  the  frequent  fluctuations  to  which  the  pressure 
is  subjected.  If,  however,  hourly  observations  be  rogularly 
made  for  some  time,  the  hourly  oscillation  will  become 
apparent.  The  results  show  two  maxima  occurring  from 
9  to  11  A.M.  and  9  to  11  p.m.,  and  two  minima  occurring 
from  3  to  6  a.m.  and  3  to  6  p.m.  The  following  are  the  ex- 
treme variations  for  Janu.ary,  April,  July,  and  October 
from  the  daily  mean  pressure  at  Calcutta,  deduced  from 
the  observations  made  during  six  years,  viz.,  1857-02: — 


AM. 

PU. 

MIn. 

Dour. 

Mai. 

Hour, 

MIn. 

Hour, 

Max. 

nour. 

Jann.ory  .  ... 

April 

July 

Inch 
-•023 
-•020 
-019 
-•026 

3 
3 
3 
3 

Inch 

-^■079 

+  070 
+  040 
+  004 

10 
9 

10 
9 

IDCI). 

-063 
-071 
-•051 
-047 

Inrli. 
+  010 

+  -ni« 
+  O-iS 
+  018 

10 
10 
10 
10 

October  ...  . 

AJl. 

P.M. 

Min. 

Hour. 

Uu. 

Boar. 

Min. 

Hour. 

Max. 

Hour 

January 

April  

July   

October  

locli. 
-•008 
-•003 
+  •003 
-•010 

6 
5 
3 
6 

Inch. 

+  •018 
+  •021 
+  •022 
+  •020 

10 

10 

9 

10 

Inch. 

-  -020 

-  027 

-  ^028 
-•015 

3 
5 
5 

4 

Inch. 
+  012 
+  ■014 
+  •009 
+  008 

10 

11 
u 

10 

Similarly  th;  maxima  and  minima  at  Vienna,  with  the 
hour  of  their  occurrence,  are  as  follows-: 


These  two  illustrations  may  be  regarded  as  typical,  to 
a  large  extent,  of  the  diurnal  barometric  oscillations  in 
tropical  and  temperate  regions.  At  Calcutta  the  amounts 
are  large,  and  the  dates  of  the  occurrence  of  the  maxima 
and  minima  very  regular  from  3  to  4  and  9  to  10  A.M.  and 
P.M.  respectively.  On  the  other  hand,  the  oscillations  at 
Vienna  are  much  smaller  and  more  variable  in  amount, 
and  the  dates  of  occurrence  of  the  critical  phases  take  place 
through  a  wider  interval,  viz.,  from  3  to  6  and  9  lo  11 
A.M.  and  P.M.  respectively. 

Though  the  diurnal  barometric  oscillations  are  among 
the  best-marked  of  meteorological  phenomena,  at  least  in 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions,  yet  none  of  these  pheno- 
mena, except  perhaps  the  electrical,  could  be  named 
respecting  whose  geographical  distribution  so  little  is  really 
known,  whether  as  regards  the  amount  of  variation,  the 
hour  of  occurrence  of  the  critical  phases,  or,  particularly, 
the  physical  causes  on  which  the  observed  differences  de- 
pend. This  arises  chiefly  from  the  want  of  a  sufficient 
number  of  ascertained  facts ;  and  to  remedy  this  deficiency, 
observations  have,  in  the  preparation  of  this  present  article, 
been  collected  and  calculated  from  upwards  of  250  places  in 
different  parts  of  the  globe,  and  the  data  set  down  on  charts. 
The  chief  results  of  this  inquiry  are  the  following,  attention 
being  entirely  confined  to  the  chief  oscillation,  viz.,  that 
occurring  from  the  A.M.  maximum  to  the  p.m.  minimum. 

The  A.M.  Maximum. — In  January  this  occurs  from  9  to  10 
in  tropical  and  temperate  regions  as  far  as  50°  N.  lat. ;  in 
higher  latitudes  the  time  of  occurrence  varies  from  8  a.m. 
to  noon.  Tn  July  it  occurs  from  9  to  10  everywhere  only 
as  far  as  about  40°  N.  lat.;  the  time  at  Tiflis  (41°  42'  N. 
lat.)  being  between  7  and  8  a.m.  In  higher  latitudes  the 
time  varies  from  8  to  1 1  A.M.,  the  last  hour  being  general 
in  north-western  Europe. 

The  p.m.  Minivium. — In  January  this  occurs  from  3  to  4 
P.M.  nearly  everywhere  over  the  globe,  a  few  exceptions 
occurring  in  north-western  Europe,  the  extremes  being 
2  p.m.  at  Utrecht  and  6  p.m.  at  St  Petersburg.  It  is  quite 
different  in  July,  when  the  time  from  3  to  4  p.m.  is  regu- 
larly kept  as  far  north  as  about  40°  N.  lat.  In  higher 
latitudes  the  hour  is  very  generally  5,  but  at  some  places 
it  is  as  early  as  4  P.M.,  and  at  others  as  late  as  6  P.M. 

In  the  northern  hemisphere,  in  summer,  the  afternoon 
niiiimum  falls  to  a  greater  extent  below  the  mean  of  the 
day  than  the  forenoon  maximum  rises  above  it,  at  82  per 
oont.  of  the  stations;  but  in  winter  the  percentage  is  only 
fil.  In  the  southern  hemisphere  the  same  relation  is 
observed  in  the  summer  and  winter  mouths,  thus  showing 
that  in  the  summer  of  both  hemispheres  the  influence  of 
the  sun  tends  to  Iowt  the  minimum  at  3  to  4  p.m.  to  a 
greater  extent  than  to  raise  the  9  to  10  a.m.  maximum. 

Decrease  beltfeen  Mor.'ing  Maximum  and  Afti-moon 
Minimum.—  0\  the  four  daily  oscillations,  this  is  the  most 
important.  When  the  amounts  at  different  places  are 
entered  on  charts  of  the  globe,  it  is  seen  that  the  ampUtude 
of  this  fluctuation  is,  speaking  generally,  greatest  in  the 
tropics,  diminishing  as  we  advance  .'nto  higher  latitudes; 
greater  over  the  land  than  over  the  sea,  increasing  greatly 
on  proceeding  inland;  nearly  always  greater  with  a  dry 
than  with  a  moist  atmosphere;  and  generally,  but  by 
no  mean.i  always,  it  is  greatest  in  the  nr.ionth  of  highest 


A  T  iM  0  S  P  H  E  R  E 


31 


temperiituro  and  ^satest  dr}-ncs3  combined.  The  regions 
of  largest  amplitude  include  the  East  India  Islands,  Eastern 
Peninsula,  India,  Arabia,  tropical  Africa,  and  tropical  South 
and  Central  America,  where  it  either  closely  approaches 
or  exceeds  0100  inch.  At  Silchar,  m  Assam,  it  is  0133 
inch.  In  the  tropical  parts  of  the  ocean  the  oscillation  is 
from  0020  to  0030  inch  less  than  on  land.  The  intiuenco 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  in  lessening  the  amount  over  all 
regions  bordering  it  is  very  strongly  marked.  The  hue 
showing  en  oscillation  of  0050  inch  crosses  North 
America  about  lat.  41°,  curves  southward  at  some  distance 
from  the  east  coast  to  lat.  23^,  then  north-eastward  along  the 
coast  of  Africa,  passes  eastwards  near  the  north  coast  of  that 
continent,  thence  strikes  northwards,  cutting  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  eastward  acroas  the  Caspian  to 
a  point  to  northward  of  Peking,  ahd  then  bends  southward 
to  the  Loo  Choo  Islands.  The  line  of  0020  inch  cuts  the 
N'  W.  of  Spain  and  N.W.  of  France,  and  runs  northward 
through  Great  Britain  as  far  as  the  Tweed,  thence  to 
Christiania,  then  southwards  to  Copenhagen  and  to  Cracow, 
the  latitude  of  which  it  follows  eastward  through  A^sia 

The  mqre  marked  seasonal  changes  are  these: — In  India 
the  oscillations  during  the  dry  and  wet  seasons,  or  in 
January  and   July,  respectively,  are — Bombay,  01 20  and 

0  067  inch  ;  Poonah,  01 33  and  0  059  iiich  ,  and  Calcutta, 
0132  and  0  091  inch.  At  Madras,  where  the  rain-bringing 
characters  of  the  monsoons  are  reversed,  the  numbers  are 

01  14  and  0115  inch,  and  at  Roorkee,  where  rain  falls  all 
the  year  round,  0  088  and  0079.  Again,  at  Aden,  in 
Arabia,  where  the  weather  of  July  is  peculiarly  hot  and 
dry,  the  oscillation  in  December  is  01U6,  but  in  July  it 
rises  to  0137  inch.  The  point  to  be  insisted  on  here  is, 
that,  whatever  bo  the  cause  or  causes  to  which  the  daily 
barometric  oscillation  is  due,  the  absolute  amount  is  largely 
dependent  on  comparatively  local  influences. 

While  illustrations  similar  to  the  above  may  be  adduced 
from  many  other  parts  of  the  globe,  showing  the  influence 
in  tjie  same  direction  of  prevailing  dry  or  wet,  hot  or  cold 
seasons  on  the  amplitude  of  the  oscillation,  the  North 
Atlantic  and  regions  adjoining  present  an  apparent  excep- 
tion to  the  law  which  seems  to  be  indicated  by  these 
results.  The  whole  of  the  North  Atlantic,  particularly 
north  of  lat.  20°,  and  the  seaboards  which  bound  it,  to 
which  the  Mediterranean  and  its  immediate  sea-board  may 
be  added,  are  strikingly  characterised  by  a  small  summer 
oscillation ;  and  this  diminution  is  most  strongly  marked 
along  the  eastern  part  of  the  ocean.  Thus,  in  July,  at  Ponta 
Delgada,  in  the  Azores,  the  oscillation  is  only  006  inch ,  at 
Angra  do  Heroisma,  also  in  the  Azores,  0010  inch;  at 
Funchal,  Madeira,  0011  inch,  at  Oporto,  0018;  Lisbon, 
0-030;  and  Lagos,  0021  ,  at  Naples  and  Palermo,  0008, 
and  at  Malta,  0020  inch.  Now,  with  reference  to^  this 
extensive  region,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  rainfall  of  July 
is  either  zero  or  very  small ;  and  yet  with  this  dry  state 
of  the  atmosphere  and  high  temperature  (the  annual  maxi- 
mum occurring  at  the  time),  this  oscillation  is  extraor- 
dinarily diminished,  being  exactly  the  reverse  of  what  takes 
place  during  the  dry  and  wet  seasons  in  India.  The 
diminution  on  the  western  half  of  the  Atlantic,  though 
not  ao  great,  is  also  striking,  the  January  and  July  oscilla- 
tions being  0  056  and  0  036  inch  in  Barbadoes,  0080 
and  0056  at  Jamaica,  0082  and  0054  at  Havanna, 
Q053  and  0  024  in  the  Bahamas,  and  0054  and  0022  in 
Bermuda.  Over  the  whole  of  the  region  here  indicated  the 
rainfall  of  July  is  largely  in  excess  of  that  of  January. 
The  apparently  exceptional  character  of  this  region  is  pro- 
bably due  to  the  circumstance,  that  at  this  time  of  the  year 
the  sun's  rays  fall  perpendicularly  over 'a  more  diversified 
surface  of  the  earth,  that  is,  on  a  greater  extent  of  land, 
than  at  any  other  season.     At  this  time  the  Mediterranean, 


•which  IS  completely  shut  in  by  land,  ^iM  the  Atlantic, 
wjiich  13  bounded  hy  two  great  continents,  show  a  much 
smaller  oscillation  than  prevails  over  the  land  adjoining 
tlaiii,  and  the  lines  of  equal  oscUbtion  now  attain  their 
annual  maxiniuin.  On  the  other  hand,  in  January,  when 
the  sun's  rays  fall  perpendicularly  over  the  most  unifonc 
surface,  or  over  the  mnTiinnm  extent  of  ocean,  the  Imes  are 
ahiiust  everywhere  parallel  with  the  parallels  of  latitude. 

Again,  on  advancing  inland  from  the  Atlantic,  the 
effects  of  comparatively  local  influences  are  very  striking, 
as  the  following  mean  July  oscillations,  from  places 
situated  in  lines  ninnmg  in  difl'erent  directions,  show  ; — 
Dublin,  0012,  Oxford,  0022;  Ostend,  0009;  Brussels, 
0019  ;  Vienna,  0049  ,  Odessa,  0  024  ;  and  Tiflis,  0077  : 
Limerick,  0010;  HeUt«n,  0007  ;  Paris,  0  020 ;  Geneva, 
0  045  ,  Turin,  0  052  ,  Rome,  0036  ,  Palermo,  0008.;  and 
Malta,  0-020.  But  the  most  remarkable  illustration  is  the 
following,  the  places  being  all  situated  between  38°  and 
42°N.kt.  .  San  Francisco,  0068,  Fort  Churchhill,  0091 ; 
\V'a,shington,  0063,  Angra  do  Heroisma,  0006;  Lisbon, 
0  030,  Campo  Maior,  0  054;  Palermo,  0  008,  Tiflis, 
0  077  ,  and  Peking,  0060. 

It  follows  from  what  his  been  stated  that  much  which 
has  been  written  regarding  these  fluctuations,  and  in  ex- 
planation of  them,  does  not  rest  on  facts ;  and  nearly 
everj-thing  yet  requires  to  be  done  in  the  way  of  collect- 
ing data  towards  the  representation  and  explanation  cf 
the  daily  oscillations  of  atmospheric  pressure  which  are, 
as  regards  two-thirds  of  the  globe,  perhaps,  as  already 
stated,  the  most  regular  of  reourring  pbendmena,  and 
an  explanation  of  which  cannot  but  throw  much  light  ou 
many  of  the  more  important  and  difficult  problems  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  data  Chiefly  required  are — barometric 
data  from  which  the  amplitude  of  the  four  daily  oscillations 
can  be  represented  in  their  distribution  and  times  qt 
occurrence  for  each  of  the  months  ;  temperature  data/com- 
parable inter  te,  from  which  the  diurnal  march  of  tempera- 
ture for  each  month  can  be  ascertained  ;  hygrometric  data 
for  hourly  values ,  rain  data  also  for  the  hours ;  wind 
observations  conducted  on  a  satisfactory  and  uniform  plan  ; 
together  with  magnetic  and  electrical  observations.  It  is 
singularly  unfortunate  that  the  disposition  of  meteorologists 
of  recent  years  has  been  to  recommend  as  hours  of  observa- 
tions for  places  which  observe  only  twice  or  thrice  daily, 
hours  which  do  not  correspond  with  the  times  vrhen  the 
great  barometric  and  thermometric  daily  phases  occur ; 
hence  these  phases  cannot  be  noted  except  at  the  great 
observatories,  which  are  too  few  and  far  apart  to  give 
sufficient  data  for  the  proper  discussion  of  many  of  those 
questions. 

Since  the  t^PO  maxitaa  of  daily  pressure  occur  when  the 
temperature  is  about  the  mean  of  the  day,  and  the  two 
minima  when  it  is  at  its  highest  and  lowest  respectively,  there 
is  thus  suggested  a  connection  between  the  daily  barometric 
oscillations  and  the  daily  march  of  temperature ;  and 
similarly  a  connection  with  the  daily  march  of  the  amount 
of  vapour  and  humidity  of  the  air.  The  view  enter- 
tained by  many  of  the  causes  of  the  daily  oscillations  may 
be  thus  stated  : — The  forenoon  maximum  is  conceived  to  be 
due  to  the  rapidly  increasing  temperature,  and  the  rapid 
evaporation  owing  to  the  great  drjTicss  of  the  air  at  this 
time  of  the  day,  and  to  the  increased  elasticity  of  the 
lowermost  stratum  of  air  which  results  therefrom,  until  a 
steady  ascending  current  has  set  in.  As  the  day  advances, 
the  vapour  becomes  more  equally  diffused  upwards  through 
the  air,  an  ascending  current,  more  or  less  strong  and 
steady,  is  set  in  motion,  a  diminution  of  elasticity  follows, 
and  the  pressure  falls  to  the  aftrmoon  minimum.  From 
this  point  the  temperature  declines,  a  system  of  descending 
currents   set   in,  and   the  air  of  the  lowermost   stratum 


32  ,  A  T  M  0  S 

approaches  more  nearly  the  point  of  saturation,  and  from 
the  increased  elasticity,  the  pressure  rises  to  the  evening 
maximum.  As  the  deposition  of  dew  proceeds,  and  the  fall  of 
temperature  and  consequent  downward  movement  of  the  air 
are  arrested,  the  elasticity  is  again  diminished,  and  pressure 
falls  to  the  morning  minimum.  Since  the  view  propounded 
some  years  ago,  that  if  the  elastic  force  of  vapour  be  sub- 
tracted from  the  whole  pressure,  what  remains  will  show 
only  one  daily  maximum  and  minimum,  has  not  been  con- 
firmed by  observation,  it  follows  that  the  above  explanation 
is  quite  insufficient  to  account  for  the  phenomena ;  indeed, 
the  view  can  be  regarded  in  do  other  light  than  simply  as 
a  tentative  hypothesis. 

Singularly  enough,  Lamont  and  Broun,  a  few  years  ago, 
were  led,  independently  of  each  other,  to  form  an  opinion 
that  the  daily  barometric  oscillations  were  due  to  the 
magneto-electric  influence  of  the  sun.  It  admits  of  no 
doubt,  looking  at  the  facts  of  the  case  so  far  as  they  have 
been  disclosed,  that  the  daily  barometric  oscillations 
originate  with  the  sun,  and  that  more  than  the  sun's 
influence  as  exerted  on  the  diurnal  march  of  the  tempera- 
ture and  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  is  concerned  in 
bringing  them  about.  But  from  the  facts  adduced,  it  is 
equally  certain  that,  be  the  originating  cause  what  it  may, 
its  eflfects  are  enormously  modified  by  the  distribution  of 
land  and  water  over  the  globe,  by  the  wind,  and  by  the 
absolute  and  relative  humidity  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
smallness  of  the  amount  of  the  summer  oscillation  from  the 
forenoon  maximum  to  the  afternoon  minimum  over  the 
North  Atlantic  as  far  south  as  lat.  30°,  and  its  diminLshed 
amount,  as  far  south  at  least  a,s  the  equator,  will  no  doubt 
play  an.  important  part  in  the  unravelling  of  this  difficulty. 

One  of  the  most  important  steps  that  could  be  taken 
would  bs  an  extensive  series  of  observations  from  such 
sountries  as  India,  which  offers  such  splendid  contrasts  of 
climate  at  all  seasons,  has  a  surface  covered  at  one  place 
with  the  richest  vegetation,  and  at  others  with  vast  stretches 
of  sandy  deserts,  and  presents  extensive  plateaus  and 
sharp  ascending  peaks — all  which  conditions  are  indis- 
pensable in  collecting  the  data  required  for  the  solution  of 
tbi.i  vital  problem  of  atmospheric  physics. 

The  ancients  thought  that  air  was  one  of  the  four  elements 
from  which  all  things  originated,  and  this  doctrine  continued 
to  prevail  tdl  1774,  when  Priestley  discovered  oxygen  gas, 
and  showed  it  to  be  a  constituent  part  of  air.  Nitrogen, 
the  other  constituent  of  air,  first  called  azote,  was  discovered 
soon  after,  and  the  marked  difi"erences  between  these  two 
gases  could  not  fail  to  strike  the  most  careless  observer. 
It  is  remarkable  that  Scheelo  mdependently  discovered 
both  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  and  was  the  first  to  enunciate 
the  opinion  that  air  consists  essentially  of  a  mixture  of 
these  two  gases.  From  experiments  made  by  him  to  ascer- 
tain their  relative  volumes  he  concluded  that  the  propor- 
tions are  27  volumes  of  oxygen  and  73  volumes  of  nitrogen. 
It  was  left  to  Cavendish  to  show  from  500  analyses  that 
the  relative  proportions  were  practically  constant,  and  that 
the  proportion  is  20'833  per  cent,  of  oxygen.  The  results 
obtained  by  Cavendish,  though  not  attended  to  for  many 
years  after  they  were  published,  have  been  shown  by  recent 
and  more  refined  analyses  to  be  wonderfully  exact.  The 
most  recent  analyses  of  specimens  of  air  coUscted  under 
circumstances  which  ensure  that  it  is  of  average  purity, 
give  as  a  mean  result  tie  following : — 

VoJnme. 

Oxygen 2096  per  cent 

Nitrogen... 7900 

Carbonic  acid 004       „ 


P  H  E  R  E 

and  the  other  gases  and  substances  v;hich  are  found  in  the 
air   will  be  afterwards  adverted  to. 

Besides  these  three  constituent's  of  air,  there  is  a  fourth, 
V12.,  the  vapour  of  water,  from  which  no  air,  even  at  the 
lowest  temperatures  yet  observed,  is  wholly  free,  so  that 
absolutely  dry  air  does  not  exist  in  the  free  atmosphere. 
The  dry  air  of  the  atmosphere — oxygen  (mclusive  of  ozone), 
nitrogen,  and  carbonic  acid — 13  always  a  gas,  and  its  quantity 
is  constant  from  year  to  year ;  but  the  vapour  of  water 
does  not  always  remain  in  the  gaseous  state,  and  the 
quantity  present  in  the  atmosphere  is,  by  the  processes  of 
evaporation  and  condensation,  varying  every  instant.  Water 
evaporates  at  all  temperatures,  even  the  lowest,  and  rises 
into  the  air  in  the  form  of  an  invisible  elastic  gas  called 
aqueous  vapour.  The  elasticity  of  vapour  varies  with  the 
temperature.  At  0'  Fahr.  it  is  capable  of  sustaining  a  pres- 
sure equal  to  0'044  inch  of  the  mercurial  barometer,  as  calcu- 
lated from  Regnaylt's  experiments,  at32''  (freezing),  0181 
inch;  at  60°,  0'518  inch,  at  80°,  1  023  inch,  and  at 
100°,  19 18  inch,  being  nearly  .^^  the  average  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere. 

In  investigating  the  hygrometry  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
chief  points  to  be  ascertained  are — (1),  the  temperature  of 
the  air;  (2),  the  dew-point,  (3),  the  elastic  force  of  vapour, 
or  the  amount  of  barometric  pressure  due  to  the  vapour 
present ;  (4),  the  quantity  of  vapour  m,  say,  a  cubic  foot  of 
air;  (5),  the  additional  vapour  required  to  saturate  a  oubic 
foot  of  air;  (6),  the  relative  humidity;  and  (7),  the  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot  of  air  at  the  pressure  at  the  time  of  obser- 
vation. The  vapour  of  the  atmosphere  js  observed  by  means 
of  the  hygrometer  (see  Hygrometer),  of  which  it  is  only 
necessary  here  to  refer  to  Regnault's  as  the  most  exact,  and 
August's  as  the  most  convenient,  and,  consequently,  the 
one  in  most  general  use.  August's  hygrometer  consists  of  a 
dry  and  a  wet  bulb,  with  which  are  observed  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  and  the  temperature  of  evaporation.  Of 
these  two  observed  data,  the  formula  of  reduction,  as 
deduced  from  Apjohn's  mvestigatious,  is  as  follows  : — Let 
F  be  the  elastic  force  of  saturated  vapour  at  the  dew-point, 
/the  elastic  force  at  the  temperature  of  evaporation,  d  the 
difference  between  the  dry  and  wet  bulb,  and  i  the 
barometric  pressure,  then 

"     ■>      88       30 
when  the  reading  of  the  wet  bulb  is  above  32°,  and 

£      A 
96  "  30 


100  00 
The   circumstancea   under  which  these  proportions  vary, 


F=/- 


when  below  it  From  Regnault's  values  of  the  elastic  force 
of  vapour,  /  is  found,  and  d  and  b  being  observed,  F  is 
calculated.  From  F  the  dew-point  is  found.  In  calculat- 
ing relative  humidity,  saturation  is  usually  assumed  to  be 
100,  perfectly  dry  air  0.  The  humidity  b  found  by  divid- 
ing the  elastic  force  at  the  dew-point  by  the  elastic  force 
at  the  temperature  of  the  air,  and  multiplying  the  quotient 
by  100. 

The  elastic  force  may  be  regarded  as  representing 
approximately  the  absolute  quantity  of  vapour  suspended 
in  the  air.  It  may  bo  termed  the  absolute  humidity  of 
the  atmosphere.  Since  the  chief  disturbing  influences  at 
work  in  the  atmosphere  are  the  forces  called  into  play  by 
its  aqueous  vapour,  a  knowledge  of  the  geographical  distri- 
bution of  this  constituent  through  the  months  of  the  year 
is  of  the  utmost  possible  importance.  Hence  every  effort 
ought  to  be  made  to  place  the  observation  of  the  hygrometry 
of  the  aij,  and  the  reduction  of  the  observed  data,  on  a 
sounder  basis  than  has  yet  been  done.  As  regards  geogra- 
phical distribution,  the  elastic  force  is  grcatect  within  the 
tropics,  and  diminishes  towards  the  poles ;  it  is  greater  over 


A  T  M  0  S  r  H  E  R  E 


33 


the  ocean,  and  decreases  on  advancing  inland  ,  greater  in 
summer  than  in  winler  ,  and  greater  at  midday  than  in  the 
learning.  It  dimimshus  wiib  the  height  genorally  ,  but  in 
[jartioular  cases,  ditTcrent  slraia.  ar«  superimposed  on  each 
other,  dilTering  widoly  as  regards  dryness  and  humidity, 
and  the  transitions  from  the  one  to  the  other  are  often 
eharp  and  sudden. 

The  relative  humidity  of  the  air  may  be  regarded  as  the 
degree  of  approach  to  saturation.  It  is  greatest  near  the 
surface  of  the  earth  during  night,  when  the  temperature, 
being  at  or  near  the  daily  mmiiuuni,  approaches  the  dew- 
point  ;  it  is  also  great  in  the  morning,  when  the  sun's  rays 
have  evaporated  the  dew,  and  the  vapour  is  as  yet  only 
diffused  a  little  way  upwards ,  and  il  is  leaot  during  the 
greatest  heat  of  the  Jay 

Between  the  humidity,  both  absolute  and  relative,  of  the 
air  and  the  temperature  there  is  a  vital  and  all-important 
connection.  Observation  shows  that  when  the  quantity  of 
vapour  m  the  air  is  great,  and  also  when  the  relative 
humidity  is  high,  temperature  falls  little  during  the  night, 
even  though  the  sky  be  perfectly  clear,  but  when  the 
quantity  of  vapour  is  small,  or  the  relative  humidity  is  low, 
temperature  rapidly  falls.  On  the  other  hand,  during  the 
day  the  temperature  rises  slowly,  when  the  quantity  of 
vapour  is  great,  or  relative  humidity  high,  even  though  the 
tkj  bo  clear  but  when  the  quantity  of  vapour  is  small,  and 
humidity  lo*',  temperature  rapidly  rises  These  facts  are 
explained  by  the  circumstance  that  perfectly  dry  air  is 
diathermanous,  that  la,  it  allows  radiant  heat  to  pass  through 
it  without  being  sensibly  warmed  thereby.  Add  vapour 
to  this  air,  and  its  diathermancy  is  diminished.  The  dia- 
thermancy 13  also  reduced  if  the  temperature  approach 
nearer  to  the  dew-point ,  in  other  words,  if  the  relative 
humidity  be  increased.  Hence,  with  an  increase  of 
vapour  or  with  increased  humidity,  the  effects  of  both  solar 
end  terrestrial  radiation  are  much  less  felt  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth — the  vapour  screen  performing,  in  truth,  one  of  the 
Host  important  conservative  functions  of  the  atmosphere. 
■  -Since  ascending  currents  fall  in  temperature  as  they 
Bscend,  through  diminished  pressure  and  consequent  dilata- 
tion, they  increase  their  relative  humidity ,  and  since 
descending  currents  increase  in  temperature,  and  conse- 
quently reduce  their  relative  humidity,  it  foUotvs  tlllit, 
over  a  region  from  which  ascending  currents  rise,  solar  and 
terrestrial  radiation  is  very  considerably  obstructed,  but 
over  a  region  upon  which  currents  descend,  radiation  is 
much  less  obstructed.  Most  of  our  exceptionally  hot 
eummer  and  cold  winter  weather  is  to  be  explained  in  this 
w<iy,  on  which  occasions  there  is  generally  observed  a  high 
barometric  pressure  overspreading  a  comparatively  limited 
region,  on  which  a  slow  downward  movement  of  the  air 
proceeds. 

Of  the  solar  heat  which  reaches  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  that  part  which  falls  on  the  land  may  be  regarded 
OS  wholly  absorbed  by  the  thin  superficial  layer  exposed 
to  the  heating  rays ,  and  since  there  is  no  mobiljty  in 
the  particles  of  the  land,  the  heat  can  be  communicated 
downwards  only  by  conduction.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
•olar  heat  which  falls  jOd  water  is  not,  as  m  the  case  of 
land,  arrested  at  the  surface,  but  penetrates  to  a  con- 
siderable depth,  the  heating  effect  being  in  the  case  of  clear 
water  appreciably  felt  at  a  depth  of  from  500  to  600  feet. 
Since  the  heat  daily  received  by  the  ocean  from  the  sun  is 
lilfii^ed  dcwnwards  through  a  very  considerable  dtpth, 
the  surface  of  the  ocean  on  which  the  atmosphere  rests  is 
much  less  heated  during  the  day  than  is  the  surface  of  the 
land,  Similarly  it  is  also  less  cooled  during  the  night  by 
terrestrial  radiation. 

This  points  to  a  chief  acting  force  on  which  the  great 
movements  of  the  atmosphere  depend,  viz.,  simultaneous 


local  irregularities  in  the  distribution  of  temperature  in 
the  atmosphere.  The  local  expansion  of  the  atmosphere  by 
heat  during  the  day  is  greatest  over  land,  where  the  air  is 
clear,  dry,  and  comparatively  cahn,  and  least  over  the 
ocean,  where  the  sky  is  clouded,  and  the  air  loaded  with 
moisture.  On  the  other  hand,  the  local  contraction  by 
cold  during  night  is  greatest  over  land,  where  the  air  is 
clear,  dry,  and  calm,  or  nearly  so,  and  least  over  the 
ocean,  where  the  air  is  clouded,  and  loaded  with  moisture. 
Aa  familiar  illustrations  of  atmospheric  movements  result- 
ing from  local  expansions  by  heat  and  contractions  by  cold, 
we  may  refer  to  the  hind  and  sea  breezes,  and  what  de- 
pend upon  exactly  the  same  principle,  the  dry  and  rainy 
monsoons  in  different  parts  of  the  globe.  But  the  illustra- 
tion of  the  pnnciple  on  the  broadest  -scale  is  the  system  of 
atmospheric  circulation  known  as  the  equatorial  and  polar 
currents  of  the  atmosphere,  which  originate  m  the  unequal 
heating  by  the  sun  of  the  equatorial,  temperate,  and  polar 
regions. 

The  other  principal  motive  force  in  atmospheric  circula- 
tion depencb  on  the  aqueous  vapour.  The  many  ways 
in  which  this  element  acts  as  a  motive  force  will  be  seen 
when  it  is  considered  that  a  large  quantity  of  sensible 
heat  disappears  in  the  process  of  evaporation,  and  reappears- 
in  the  process  of  condensation  of  the  vapour  into  rain  or 
cloud  ;  that  saturated  air  is  specifically  lighter  than  dry 
air;  and  that  the  absolute  and  relative  amount  of  the 
vapour  powerfully  influences  both  solar  and  terrestTial 
radiation.  The  question  to  be  carefully  considered  here  is, 
how  in  these  ways  the  vapour  produces  local  irregularities 
in  the  distribution  of  atmospheric  pressure,  thus  giving  rise 
to  aerial  movements  which  set  in  to  restoie  the  equili- 
brium that  has  thus  been  disturbed. 

It  is  from  these  local  irregularities — using  the  worJ 
local  in  a  very  wide  sense — in  the  distribution  of  atmos- 
phenc  pressure,  whether  the  irregularities  originate  in  the 
temperature  or  aqueous  vapour,  that  all  winds,  from  the 
lightest  breeze  to  the  most  destnictive  hurricane,  take  their 
nse ,  for,  as  already  stated,  wind  is  merely  the  flowing 
away  of  the  air  from  where  there  is  a  surplus  of  it  to 
where  there  is  a  deficiency. 

In  examining  weather  charts  embracing  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  such,  for  instance,  as  those 
pubhshed  in  the  Journal  of  (he  Scottish  AfeteoroloyicaC 
Society,  voL  ii.  p.  I9tt,  which  include  a  large  part  of  the 
northern  hemisphere,  there  are  seen  two  diti'erent  systems 
of  pressure  changing  their  forms  and  positions  on  the  globe 
from  day  to  day — one  set  being  systems  of  low  pressure 
marked  ofi'  by  concentric  isobarics  enclosing  pressures 
successively  lower  as  the  central  space  is  approached,  and 
the  other  set  being  systems  of  high  pressure  marked  ofl'  by 
roughly  concentric  isobarics  bounding  pressures  succes- 
sively higher  towards  their  centres.  These  two  systems 
are  essentially  distinct  from  each  other,  and  without  soma 
knowledge  of  them  the  circulation  of  the  atmosphere  can- 
not be  understood  , 

1.  Areas  of  Low  Pressure,  or  Cyclones — The  annexed 
woodcut,  fig.  1,  is  a  good  representation  of  a  cyclone 
which  passed  over  north  western  Europe  on  the  inommg 
of  2d  November  1 863.  The  pressure  in  the  central  space 
is  28  9  inches,  from  which  it  rises  successively,  as  shown 
by  the  isobarics,  to  291,  293,  29  5,  29  7,  and  29  9  inches. 
The  arrows  show  the  direction  and  force  of  the  wind,  the 
force  rising  with  the  number  of  feathers  on  the  arrows. 
The  two  chief  points  to  be  noted  are  the  following  : — (I.) 
The  direction  of  the  arrows  shows  a  vorticose  motion  of 
the  air  inwards  upon  the  space  of  lowest  pressure,  the 
motion  being  contrary  to  that  of  the  hands  of  a  watch.  U 
will  be  observed  that  the  winds  blow  in  conformity  with 
nhat  is  known  as  Buys- Ballot's  "Law  of  the  Winds,"  alrcfti'./ 


34 


ATMOSPHERE 


referred  to,  but  which  may  be  otherwise  thus  put : — Stand 
with  your  back  to  the  wind,  and  the  lowest  barometer,  or 
centre  of  depression,  will  be  to  your  left  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  (in  the  southern  hemisphere  to  the  right) ,  this 
rule  holds  universally. 
(2.)The/orceof  the  wind 
is  proportional  to  the 
barometric  gradient,  or 
the  quotient  of  the  dis- 
tance between  two  places 
stated  in  miles  by  the 
diiference  of  pressure 
stated  in  inches  of 
mercury  as'  observed  at 
the  two  places.  Hence, 
in  the  Channel,  where 
the  isobarios  are  close 
together,  winds  are  high, 
but  in  the  north  of 
Scotland,  where  the 
isobarics  are  far  apart, 
winds  are  light.  This 
rule  also  holds  uni- 
versally, though  the 
exact  relation  requires  still  to  be  worked  out  by  observa- 
tion. As  regards  the  important  climatic  elements  of  tem- 
perature and  moisture,  the  air  in  the  S.S.E.  half  of  the 
cyclone  is  mild  and  humid,  and  much  rain  fall.i ;  but  in 
the  other  half  it  is  cold  and  dry,  and  little  1-ain  falls.  A 
succession  of  low  pressures  passing  eastward,  in  a  course 
lying  to  northwards  of  Great  Britain,  is  the  characteristic 
of  an  open  winter  in  Great  Britain ;  on  the  other  hand,  if 
the  cyclones  follow  a  course  lying  to  the  southward,  the 
winters  are  severe.  This  is  a  chief  point  of  climatic  impor- 
tance connected  with  the  propagation  eastward  of  these 
cyclonic  areas. 

2.  Areat  of  High  Pressures,  or  Anturydones — The  accom- 


Fio:  1,— Weatherchart,  sbowingcyclone. 


Fro.  2. — Weather  chart,  ehowiDg  antlcyclune. 

panying  weather  chart,   fig.   2,  for  2-4lh  August  1868, 
represents  an  «nticylone  or  region  of  liigh  pressure,  which 


gveispread  the  greater  part  of  Europe  at  that  time.  Here 
the  highest  pressure  is  in  the  centre  of  the  system,  and,  as 
usually  happens,  the  isobarics  are  less  symmetrical  than 
those  near  the  centre  of  a  cyclone.  The  winds,  as 
usual  in  anticyclones,  are  light ;  this,  however,  is  the 
essential  point  of  difference — the  winds  do  not  flow 
inwards  upon  the  centre,  but  outwards  from  the  region  of 
high  pressxire  j  and  it  will  be  observed  that  in  many  cases 
■they  cut  the  isobarics  at"  nearly  right  angles.  Another 
important  point  of  difference  is  in  the  air  over  the  region 
covered  by  the  anticyclone  being,  particularly  in  its  central 
portion,  very  dry,  and  either  clear  or  nearly  free  from 
clouds. 

Climatically,  the  significance  of  the  anticyclone  consists 
in  the  space  covered  for  the  time  by  it  being,  on  account 
of  its  dryness  and  -clearness,  more  fully  under  the  influence 
of  both  solar  and  terre-tnal  radiarion  ;  and  consequently 
in  winter  it  is  accompanied  with  great  cold,  and  in.  summer 
with  great  heat.  As  shown  by  Buchan,  in  reviewing  the 
weather  of  north-western  Europe  for  1868,'  the  intense 
heat  which  prevailed  in  Great  Britain  during  2-4th  August 
of  that  yp^r  was  due  to  the  high  barometric  pressure 
accompanying  this  anticyclone,  the  comparative  calmness 
of  the  atmosphere,  the  clearness  of  the  sky,  the  dryness  of 
the  air,  and  the  strong  insolation  which  took  place  under 
these  circumstances. 

Thus,  then,  the  tendency  of  the  winds  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth  is  to  blow  round  and  in  upon  the  space  where 
pressures  are  low  and  out  of  the  space  where  pressures  are 
high.  Now,  since  vast  volumes  of  air  are  in  this  way 
poured  into  the  space  where  pressure  is  low,  without 
increasing  that  pressure,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  vast 
volumes  flow  out  of  the  space  where  pressure  is  high, 
vrithout  diminishing  that  pressure,  it  necessarily  follows 
that  the  air  poured  in  is  not  allowed  to  accumulate  over 
this  space,  but  must  escape  into  other  regions ;  and  also 
that  the  air  which  flows  out  from  the  anticyclonic  region 
must  have  its  place  supplied  by  fresh  accessions  from  above. 
In  other  words,  the  centra^  space  of  the  cyclone  is  occupied 
by  a  vast  ascending  current,  which  after  rising  to  a  con- 
siderable height 'flows  away  as  upper  currents  into  sur- 
rfjunding  regions  ;  and  the  central  space  of  the  anticyclone 
is  filled  by  a  slowly  descending  current,  which  is  fed  from 
upper  currents,  blowing  towards  it  from  neighbouring 
regions.  When  the  area  of  observation  is  made  sufficiently 
widp,  cyclones  are  seen  to  have  one,  or  sometimes  more, 
anticyclones  in  proximity  to  them,  the  better  marked 
anticyclones  having  two,  and  sometimes  more,  cyclones  in 
their  vicinity.  In  fig.  2,  a  part  of  a  cyclone  in  Iceland 
is  seen,  and  .another  cyclone  in  the  Crimea  accompanied 
the  anticyclone  there  figured.  Hence  the  cyclone  and  the 
anticyclone  are  properly  to  be  regarded  as  counterparts, 
belonging  to  one  and  the  same  great  atmospheric  disturb- 
ance. 

From  this  it  follows  that  observations  of  the  winds 
cannot  be  conducted,  and  the  results  discussed,  on  the 
supposition  that  the  general  movement  of  the  winds  felt  on 
the  earth's  surface  is  horizontal,  it  being  evident  that  the 
circulation  of  the  atmosphere  is  effected  largely  through 
systems  of  ascending  and  descending  currents.  The  only 
satisfactory  way  of  discussing  the  winds,  viewed  especially 
in  their  climatic  relations,  is  that  recently  proposed  by 
Koppen  of  St  Petersburg,  and  applied  by  him  with  very 
fruitful  results  in  investigating  the  weather  of  that  place 
during  1872  and  1873.  In  attempting  an  explanation  of 
these  phenomena,  we  are  met  with  several  as  yet  insuper- 
able obstacles: — (1.)  An  imperfect  knjwicdge  of  the  mode 

'  Atltu  S/tUoTologique  eCe  rObserwtvirt  tmptnal^  Add£«  1'48L 
D.  39. 


ATMOSPHERE 


35 


of  (ormalloD  and  propagation  of  low  pressure  systems;  (2.) 
Imperfect  knowledge  of  the  relations  of  the  formation  of 
cloud  and  aqueous  precipitation  to  barometric  fluctuations; 
(3.)  A  want  of  information  with  reference  to  the  merely 
mechanical  effects  of  ascending,  descending,  tind  horizontal 
currents  of  air  on  the  barometric  pressure  ;  in- other  words, 
we  do  not  know  how  far  the  barometric  pressure  is  an 
indication  of  the  mass  of  air  in  the  column  vertically  over 
it,  when  that  column  is  traversed  by  air-currents,  (4.) 
An  almost  total  absence  of  really  good  wind  observations  ; 
and  (5.)  Deficient  information  in  nearly  everything  that 
respects  aqueous  vapour — its  relation  to  radiant  heat, 
both  solar  and  terrestrial  ;  its  mode  of  diffusion  vertically 
and  horizontally  in  the  ^ree  atmosphere,  especially  from  an 
evaporating  surface  ;  the  influence  which  its  condensation 
into  cloud  and  rain  exerts  on  aerial  currents, — in  regard  to 
all  which  more  satisfactory  methods  of  observing  this  vital 
element,  and  discussing  the  results  of  observation,  are 
greatly  to  be  desired.  There  are  here  large  important 
lields  of  inquiry  awaiting  experimental  and  observational 
physicists. 

The  law  of  the  dilatation  of  gases,  known  as  the  "Law  of 
Boyle"  or  "Law  of  Mariotte,"  is  this:  The  volume  occupied 
by  a  gas  is  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  pressure  under  which  it 
exists,  if  the  temperature  remains  the  same;  or  the  density  of 
a  gas  is  proportioned  to  its  pressure.  Consequently,  air 
under  a  pressure  equal  to  that  of  two  atmospheres  will  occupy 
only  half  the  volume  it  occupied  under  the  pressure  of  one 
atmosphere  ;  under  the  pressure  of  three  atmospheres,  one- 
third  of  that  volume,  ic.  By  doubling  the  pressure  wo 
double  the  elasticity.  If,  however,  the  temperature  bo 
increased,  aTid  the  air  occupy  the  same  space,  the  pressure 
■will  be  increased  ;  but  if  the  pressure  is  to  remain  the  same, 
the  air  must  occupy  a  larger  space.  From  Regnault's 
experiments,  it  is  concluded  that  the  coefficient  which 
denotes  increase  of  elasticity  for  1°  Fahr.  of  air  whose 
Tolume  is  constant  equals  '002030 ;  and  that  the  co- 
efScient  which  denotes  increase  of  volume  for  1°  Fahr.  of 
air  whose  elasticity  is  constant  equals  002039. 

Those  portions  of  the  atmosphere  in  contact  with  the 
earth  are  pressed  upon  by  all  the  air  above  them.  The  air 
at  the  top  of  a  mountain  is  pressed  upon  by  all  the  air 
above  it,  while  all  the  portion  below  it,  or  lying  between 
the  top  of  the  mountain  and  the  surface  of  the  sea,  exerts 
no  pressure  whatever  upon  it.  Thus  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  constantly  diminishes  with  the  height.  If, 
then,  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  at  two  heights  be 
observed,  and  if  at  the  same  time  the  mean  temperature 
and  humidity  of  the  whole  stratum  of  air  lying  between 
the  two  levels  were  known,  the  difference  in  height  between 
the  two  plp.ces  could  be  calculated.  For  the  development 
of  this  principle,  see  Barometric  Measurements  op 
HEionTS. 

The  air  thus  diminishing  in  density  as  we  ascend,  if  it 
consists  of  ultmiate  atoms,  as  is  no  doubt  the  case,  it  follows 
that  the  limit  of  the  atmosphere  will  be  reached  at  the 
height  where  the  force  of  gravity  downwards  upon  a  single 
particle  is  equal  to  the  resisting  force  arising  from  the 
repulsive  force  of  the  particles.  It  was  long  supposed, 
from  the  results  of  observations  on  the  refraction  of  light, 
that  the  height  of  the  atmosphere  did  not  exceed  45  miles  ; 
but  from  the  observations  of  luminous  meteors,  whoso  true 
character  as  cosmical  bodies  was  established  a  few  years 
ago,  it  is  inferred  that  the  height  of  the  atmosphere  is  at 
least  120  mi^,  and  that,  in  an  extremely  attenuated  form, 
it  may  even  reach  200  miles. 

Though  there  are  considerable  differences  in  the  specific 
gravities  of  the  four  constituent  gases  of  the  atmosphere, 
viz.,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  ciirbonic  acid  gas,  and  aqueous 
■vapour,  there  is  yet  no  tendency  to  separation  among  them, 


owing  to  the  law  of  diffusion  obtaining  among  elaslic  fluids 
mixed  together.  While  the  proportion  of  these  gases  ia  io 
a  general  sense  constant,  there  are,  however,  consistent 
differences  in  the  amounts  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  the 
air  of  unwholesome  places,  as  first  shown  by  Regnault 
The  following  figures,  showing  the  volume  per  cent  of 
oxygen,  rest  on  the  authority  of  Dr  Angus  Smith,  who  has 
given  much  attention  to  this  subject : — Sea-shore  of  Scot- 
land and  Atlantic  (lat.  43°  5'  N.,  long.  17°  12'  W.),  2099  ; 
tops  of  Scottish  hiU.s,  2098  ;  in  sitting-room  feeling  close 
but  not  excessively  so,  2089  ;  backs  of  houses  and  closets, 
2070 ;  under  shafts  in  metalliferous  mines,  20'424  ;  when 
candles  go  out,  1850;  when  it  is  very  diflicult  to  remain  in 
the  air  many  minutes,  1 7  20.  The  variations  in  the  amounts 
of  carbonic  acid  in  different  situations  are  great ;  thus — in 
the  London  parks  it  is  0301 ;  on  tte Thames,  0343;  where 
fields  begin,  '0309  ;  in  London  streets  in  summer,  '0380  , 
during  fogs  in  Manchester,  0679  ;  in  workshops  it  rises  to 
■3000,  and  in  the  worst  parts  of  theatres  to  3200 ;  and 
the  largest  amount,  found  in  Cornwall  mines,  is  25000. 

Great  differences  have  been  observed  by  Dr  A.  Smith 
between  country  rain,  and  town  rain :  country  rain  is 
neutral ;  town  rain,  on  the  other  hand,  is  acid,  and  cor- 
rodes metals  and  even  stones  and  bricks,  destroying  mortar 
rapidly,  and  readily  spoiling  many  colours.  Much  infor- 
mation has  been  obtained  regarding  impurities  in  the  air  of 
towns  and  other  places  by  examining  the  rain  collected  in 
different  places.  The  air  freest  from  ilhpurities  is  that 
collected  at  the  sea-coast  and  at  considerable  heights. 
Again,  ammonia  is  found  to  diminish,  while  nitric  acid 
increases,  in  dsocnding  to,  at  least,  habitable  heights.  As 
regards  organic  matter  in  the  air,  it  corresponds  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  with  the  density  of  the  population.  As 
might  have  been  supposed  from  the  higher  temperature, 
more  nitric  acid  is  contained  in  rain  collected  on  tho 
Continent  than  in  the  British  Islands.  .  This  inquiry,  which 
is  only  yet  in  its  infancy,  will  doubtless  continue  to  be 
vigorously  prosecuted,  particularly  since  we  may  hope 
thereby  to  arrive  at  the  means  of  authoritatively  defining 
the  safe  Limits  of  the  density  of  population,  and  the  extent 
to  which  manufactures  may  bo  carried  on  within  a  given 
area.  The  influence  of  atmospheric  impurities  on  the 
public  health  has  received  a  good  deal  of  attention. 

The  relation  of  weather  to  mortality  is  a  very  important 
inquiry,  and  though  a  good  deal  has  been  known  regarding 
the  question  for  some  time,  yet  it  has  only  recently  been 
systematically,  inquired  into  by  Dr  Arthur  Mitchell  and 
Mr  Buchan,  the  results  of  the  investigation  which  deals 
with  the  mortaUty  of  London  being  published  in  the 
Jourital  of  the  Scottish  Meteorologxcal  Society  (New  Series, 
Nos.  43  to  46).  Considering  the  weather  of  the  year  as 
made  up  of  several  distinct  climates  differing  from  each 
other  according  to  temperature  and  moisture  and  their 
relations  to  each  other,  it  may  be  divided  into  six  distinct 
climates,  characterised  respectively  by  cold,  cold  with  dry- 
ness, dryness  with  heat,  heat,  heat  with  moisture,  and  cold 
with  moisture.  Each  of  these  six  periods  has  a  peculiar 
influence  in  increasing  or  diminishing  the  mortality,  and 
each  has  its  own  group  of  diseases  wliich  rise  to  the  maxi- 
mum, or  fall  to  the  minimum  mortality,  or  are  subject  to  o 
rapid  increase  or  a  rapid  decrease.  The  mortality  from  all 
causes  and  at  all  ages  shows  a  largo  excesss  above  the 
average  from  the  middle  of  November  to  the  middle  ol 
April,  from  which  it  falls  to  the  minimum  in  the  end  of 
May  ;  it  then  slowly  rises,  and  on  the  third  week  of  July 
suddenly  shoots  up  ahmost  as  high  as  the  winter  maximum 
of  the  year,  at  which  it  remains  till  the  second  week  of 
August,  falling  thence  as  rapidly  as  it  rose  to  a  secondary 
minimum  in  October.  Regarding  the  summer  excess, 
which  is  so  abrupt  in  its  rise  and  faU,  it  is  almost  altogether 


36 


ATM  —A  T  O 


due  to  the  enormous  increase  of  the  mortality  among  mere 
infanta  under  one  year  of  age ;  and  this  increase  is  due 
not  only  to  deaths  at  one  age,  but  to  deaths  from  one 
class  of  diseases,',  viz.,  bowel  complaints.  If  the  deaths 
from  bowel  complaints  be  deducted  from  the  deaths  from 
all  causes,  there  remains  an  excess  of  deaths  in  the  cold 
months,  and  a  deficiency  in  the  warm  months.  In  other 
words,  the  curve  of  mortality  is  regulated  by  the  large 
number  of  deaths  from  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs. 
The  curve  of  mortality  for  London,  if  mere  infants  be 
excepted,  has  thus  an  inverse  relation  to  the  temperature, 
rising  as  the  temperature  falls,  and  falling  as  the  tempera- 
ture rises.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Victoria,  Australia, 
where  the  summers  are  hotter  and  the  winters  milder,  the 
curves  of  mortality  and  temperature  are  directly  related'to 
each  other — mortality  and  temperature  rising  and  falling 


together ;  the  reason  being  that  in  Victoria  deaths  froii 
bowel  complaints  are  much  greater,  and  those  from  diseasei 
of  the  respiratory  organs  much  less  than  in  London. 

The  curves  show  that  the  maximum  annual  mor- 
tality from  the  diflFerent  diseases  groups  around  certaia 
specific  conditions  of  temperature  and  moisture  combined 
Thus,  cold  and  moist  weather  is  accompanied  with  a  higk 
death-rate  from  rheumatism,  heart  diseases,  diphtheria,  an<£ 
measles ;  coW  weather,  with  a  high  death-rate  from  bron- 
chitis, pneumonia,  «tc. ;  cold  and  dry  weather,  with  a  tigk 
death-rate  from  brain  diseases,  whooping-cough,  convul- 
sions ;  warm,  and  dry  weather,  ■with  a  high  death-rate  ft«ii! 
suicide  and  small-pox  ;  hot  weather,  with  a  high  death-rate 
from  bowel  complaints ;  and  warm  moist  weather  with  s 
high  death-rate  from  scarlet  and  typhoid  fevers.  (Se« 
Climate.)  (i.  c) 


ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY,  a  railway  in  which  the 
pressure  of  air  is  used  directly  or  indirectly  to  propel  car- 
nages, as  a  substitute  for  steam.  It  was  devised  at  a  time 
when  the  principles  of  propulsion  were  not  so  well  under- 
stood as  they  are  now,  and  when  the  dangers  and  inconveni- 
ences attendant  on  the  use  of  locomotives  were  very  much 
exaggerated.  It  had  been  long,  known  that  small  objects 
could  be  propelled  for  great  distances  through  tubes  by  air 
pressure,  but  a  Mr  Vallance,  of  Brighton,  seems  to  have  been 
the  first  to  propose  the  application  of  this  system  to  passenger 
traBBc.  He  projected  (about  1825)  an  atmospheric  railway, 
consistingof  a  wooden  tube  about  6  feet  6  inches  in  diameter, 
with  a  carriage  running  inside  it.  A  diaphragm  fitting  the 
tube,  approximately  air-tight,  was  attached  to  the  carriage, 
and  the  air  exhausted  from  the  front  of  it  by  a  stationary 
engine,  so  that  the  atmospheric  pressure  behind  drove  the 
carriage  forward.  Later  inventors,  commencing  with  Henry 
Pinkus  (1835),  for  the  most  part  kept  the  carriages 
altogether  outside  the  tube,  and  connected  them  by  a  bar 
with  a  piston  working  inside  it,  this  piston  being  moved 
by  atmospheric  pressure  in  the  way  just  mentioned.  The 
tube  was  generally  provided  with  a  slot  upon  its  upper 
side,  closed  by  a  continuous  valve  or  its  equivalent,  and 
arrangements  were  made  by  which  this  valve  should  be 
opened  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  driving  bar  without 
permitting  great  leakage  of  air.  About  1840,  Messrs 
Clegg  h  Samuda  made  various  experiments  with  an 
atmospheric  tube  constructed  on  this  principle  upon  a 
portion  of  the  West  London  Railway,  near  Wormwood 
Scrubs.     The  apparent  success  of  these  induced  the  Dublin 


and  Kingstown  Railway  to  adopt  Clegg  k  Samuda's  scheme 
upon  an  extension  of  their  line  from  Kingstown  to  Dalkey, 
where  it  was  in  operation  in  1844.  Later  on,  the  same 
system  was  adopted  on  a  part  of  the  South  Devon  line  and 
in  several  other  places,  and  during  the  years  1844—1848 
the  English  and  French  patent  records  show  a  very  largs 
number  of  more  or  less  practicable  and  ingenious  schemet 
for  the  tubes,  valves,  and  driving  gear  of  atmospheric- 
railways.  The  atmospheric  system  was  nowhere  pci^ 
manently  successful,  but  in  all  cases  was  eventually 
superseded  by  locomotives,  the  last  atmospheric  line  being 
probably  that  at  St  Germains,  which  was  worked  until 
1862.  Apart  from  difficulties  in  connection  with  tb« 
working  of  the  valve,  the  maintenance  of  the  vacuum,  &c., 
other  great  practical  difficulties,  which  had  not  bees 
indicated  by  the  experiments,  soon  made  themselves  known 
in  the  working  of  the  lines.  Above  all,  it  was  found  that 
stationary  engines,  whether  haubng  a  rope  or  exhausting  x 
tube,  could  never  work  a  railway  with  anything  like  th» 
economy  or  the  convenience  of  locomotives,  a  point  which 
is  now  regarded  as  settled  by  engineers,  but  which  was  not 
so  thoroughly  understood  thirty  years  ago.  Lately,  the 
principle  of  the  atmospheric  railway  has  been  applied  on  a 
very  large  scale  in  London  and  elsewhere,  under  the  name 
of  "  Pneumatic  Despatch  "  {q.v),  to  the  transmission  of 
small  parcels  in  connection  with  postal  and  telegraph  work, 
for  which  purpose  it  has  proved  admirably  adapted.  (See 
paper  by  Prof.  Sternberg  of  Carlsruhe  in  Hensinger  tor 
Waldegg's  Handbuchfur  specielU  Eisenbahntechnik,  vol.  i. 
pt.  2,  cap.  xviL 


ATOM 


ATOM  (aro/xo?)  is  a  body  which  cannot  bo  cut  in  two. 
The  atomic  theory  is  a  theory  of  the  constitution  of 
bodies,  which  asserts  that  they  are  made  up  of  atoms.  The 
opposite  theory  is  that  of  the  homogeneity  and  continuity 
of  bodies,  and  asserts,  at  least  in  the  case  of  bodies  having 
no  apparent  organisation,  such,  for  instance,  as  water,  that 
as  we  can  divide  a  drop  of  water  into  two  parts  which  are 
each  of  them  drops  of  water,  so  we  have  reason  to  believe 
that  the.so  smaller  3fo'ps  can  bo  divided  again,  and  tho 
theory  goes  on  to  assert  thati  there  is  nothing  in  the  nature 
of  things  to  binder  this  pr\)ces3  of  division  from  being 
repeated  over  and  over  again,  times  without  end.  This  is 
the  doctrine  of  the  infinite  divisibility  of  bodies,  and  it  is 
in  direct  contradiction  with  tho  theory  of  atoms. 

The  atomists  assert  that  after  a  certain  number  of  such 
divisions  the  parts  would  be  no  longer  divisible,  because 
each  of  them   would  be  an  atom.     The  advocates  of  tho 


continuity  of  matter  assert  that  the  smallest  conceivabls 
body  has  parts,  and  that  whatever  has  parts  may  b< 
divided. 

In  ancient  times  DcmoOritus  was  the  founder  of  the 
atomic  theory,  while  Ana.vagoras  propounded  that  of  con- 
tinuity, under  the  name  of  the  dnctrino  of  homa;omeri» 
('Ofiowfiipia),  or  of  the  similarity  of  the  parts  of  a  body  to 
the  whole.  The  arguments  of  the  atomists,  and  their 
replies  to  the  objections  of  Anaxagoras,  are  to  be  found  in 
Lucretius. 

In  modern  times  the  study  of  nature  has  brought  te 
light  many  properties  of  bodies  which  appear  to  depend  oa 
the  magnitude  and  motions  of  thejr  ultimate  con.stituents, 
and  the  question  of  tho  existence  of  atom.'i  has  once  more 
become  conspicuous  among  scientific  inquiries. 

We  shall  begin'by  stating  the  opposing  doctrines  of  atoms 
and  of  continuity  before  giving  an  outline  of  the  state  <tf 


ATOM 


37 


notecular  acience  as  it  now  cxisU.  la  the  earliest  times 
)ho  most  ancient  philosophers  whose  speculations  are 
inowQ  to  us  seem  to  have  discussed  the  ideas  of  number 
iod  of  continuous  magnitude,  of  space  and  time,  of  matter 
ind  motion,  with  a  native  power  of  thought  which  has 
iprobably  never  been  surpassed.  Their  actual  knowledge, 
iowever,  and  their  scientiGc  experience  were  necessarily 
Jimited,  because  in  their  days  the  recorus  of  human  thought 
ifere  only  beginning  to  accumulate.  It  is  probable  that 
iha  first  exact  notions  of  quantity  were  founded  on  the 
tonaidcration  of  number.  It  is  by  the  help  of  numbers 
thart  concrete  quantities  aro  practically  measured  and 
talculated.  Kow,  number  b  discontinuous.  We  pass 
from  one  number  to  the  next  per  solium.  The  magnitudes, 
•n  the  other  hand,  which  we  meet  with  in  geometry,  are 
tssentially  continuous.  The  attempt  to  apply  numerical 
nethods  to  the  comparison  of  geometrical  quantities  led  to 
the  doctrine  of  incommensurables,  and  to  that  of  the  infinite 
divisibility  of  space.  Jleanwhile,  the  same  considerations 
lad  not  been  applied  to  time,  so  that  in  the  days  of  Zeno 
»f  Hea  time  was  still  regarded  as  made  up  of  a  finite 
number  of  "  moments,"  while  space  was  confessed  to  be 
iivisible  without  limit.  This  was  the  state  of  opinion 
when  the  celebrated  arguments  against  the  possibility  of 
motion,  of  which  that  of  Achilles  and  the  tortoise  is  a 
Specimen,  were  propounded  by  Zeno,  and  such,  apparently, 
continued  to  be  the  state  of  opinion  till  Aristotle  pointed 
•at  that  time  is  divisible  without  limit,  in  precisely  the 
aame  sense  that  space  is.  And  the  slowness  of  the  devclop- 
taent  of  scientific  ideas  may  bo  estimated  from  the  fact  that 
£ayle  does  not  see  any  force  in  this  statement  of  Aristotle, 
but  continues  to  admire  the  paradox  of  Zeno.  (Bayle's 
Dictionary,  art.  "Zeno").  Thus  the  direction  of  true 
icientific  progress  was  for  many  ages  towards  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  infinite  divisibility  of  space  and  time. 

It  was  easy  to  attempt  to  apply  similar  arguments  to 
matter.  If' matter  is  extended  and  fills  space,  the  same 
aiental  operation  by  which  we  recognise  the  divisibility  of 
space  may  be  applied,  in  imagination  at  least,  to  the  matter 
which  occupies  space.  From  this  point  of  view  the  atomic 
doctrine  might  be  regarded  as  a  relic  of  the  old  numerical 
way  of  conceiving  magnitude,  and  the  opposite  doctrine  of 
the  infinite  divisibility  of  matter  might  appear  for  a  time 
4he  most  scientific.  The  atomists,  on  the  other  hand, 
isserted  Tery  strongly  the  distinction  between  matter  and 
space.  The  atoms,  they  said,  do  not  fill  up  the  universe ; 
there  are  void  spaces  between  them.  If  it  were  not  so, 
Lucretius  tells  us,  there  could  be  no  motion,  for  the  atom 
which  gives  way  first  must  have  some  empty  place  to 
vove  into. 

"'  Quaproptcr  locus  est  intactus,  inane,  vacansquo 
Quod  6i  Don  csaet,  nulla  ratione  moveri 
Kes  posaetit ;  namqno,  officium  quod  corporis  exstat, 
Officero  atque  obstare,  id  in  omni  tempore  adessct 
Omnibus  ;  baud  igitur  quict^uam  procedere  posset, 
PriDcipium  quoDtam  ccdcndi  nulla  darct  res." 

— De  Rcrum  Naiura,  i.  335. 

The  opposite  school  maintained  then,  as  they  have  always 
ione,  that  there  is  no  vacuum — that  every  part  of  space  is 
full  of  matter,  that  there  is  a  universal  plenum,  and  that 
ill  motion  is  like  that  of  a  fish  in  the  water,  w4iich  jnelds 
in  front  of  the  fish  because  the  fish  leaves  room  for  it 
behind. 

*'  Cederc  Bouamigcris  laticcs  nitcntiMis  aiunt 
Et  liquifisa  apcriro  Was,  quia  post  loca  pisccs 
LinqL'ant,  quo  possiut  ccdentes  conTjiero  und."e. " 

— i.  373. 

In  modem  times  Descartes  held  that,  as  it  is  of  the 
essence  of  matter  to  be  extended  in  length,  breadth,  and 
thickness,  so  it  is  of  the  essence  of  extension  to  bo  occu- 


pied by  matter,  for  extension  cannot  be  an  extension  of 
nothing. 

"  Ac  proinde  si  quxratur  quid  Set,  si  Dera  aufenit  omne  corpus 
quod  ia  aliquo  vase  coDtinctur,  et  duIIuid  aliud  ia  ablati  locum 
venire  peruittatt  respondendum  est,  vasis  latera  Bibi  inviccm  hoo 
ipso  fore  cootigua.  Cum  enim  inter  duo  corpora  nihil  interjacet, 
neccsse  est  ut  se  mutuo  tan^ant,  ac  manifeste  repugnat  ut  distent, 
sive  ut  inter  ipsa  sit  distantia,  ct  tamen  ut  ista  distantia  sit  nihil  ; 
quia  omnis  distantia  est  modus  extensionis,  et  ideo  sine  substantia 
extcnsa  esse  non  potest. " — Prindpia,  ii.  18. 

This  identification  of  extension  with  substance  runs 
through  the  whole  of  Descartes's  works,  and  it  forms  one  of 
the  ultimate  foundations  of  the  system  of  Spinoza.  Des- 
cartes, consistently  with  this  doctrine,  denied  the  existence 
of  atoms  as  parts  of  matter,  which  by  their  own  nature  aro 
indi\-isible.  He  seems  to  admit,  however,  that  the  Deity 
might  make  certain  particles  of  matter  indivisible  in  this 
seBse,  that  no  creature  should  be  able  to  divide  them. 
These  particles,  however,  would  be  stiU  divisible  by  their 
own  nature,  because  the  Deity  cannot  diminish  his  own 
power,  and  therefore  must  retain  his  power  of  dividing 
them.  Leibnitz,  on  the  other  hand,  regarded  his  monad 
as  the  ultimate  element  of  everything. 

There  are  thus  two  modes  of  thinking  about  the  consti- 
tution of  bodies,  which  have  had  their  adherents  both  in 
ancient  and  in  modern  times.  They  correspond  to  the 
two  methods  of  regarding  quantity — the  arithmetical  and 
the  geometrical  To  the  atomist  the  true  method  of 
estimating  the  quantity  of  matter  in  a  body  is  to  count  the 
atoms  in  it.  The  void  spaces  between  the  atoms  count 
for  nothing.  To  those  who  identify  matter  with  extension, 
the  volimie  of  space  occupied  by  a  body  is  the  only  measure 
of  the  quantity  of  matter  in  it. 

Of  the  different  forms  of.  the  atomic  theory,  that  of 
Boscovich  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  the  purest 
monadism.  According  to  Boscovicb  matter  is  made  up 
of  atoms.  Each  atom  is  an  indivisible  point,  having 
position  in  space,  capable  of  motion  in  a  continuous  path, 
and  possessing  a  certain  mass,  whereby  a  certain  amount  of 
force  is  required  to  produce  a  given  change  of  motion. 
Besides  this  the  atom  is  endowed  with  potential  force, 
that  is  to  say,  that  any  two  atoms  attract  or  repel  each 
other  with  a  force  depending  on  their  distance  apart.  The 
law  of  this  force,  for  all  distances  greater  than  say  the 
thousandth  of  an  inch,  is  an  attraction  varying  as  the 
inverse  square  of  the  distance.  For  smaller  distances  the 
force  is  an  attraction  for  one  distance  and  a  Repulsion  for 
another,  according  to  some  law  not  yet  discovered.  Bos- 
covich himself,  in  order  to  obviate  the  possibility  of  two 
atoms  ever  being  in  the  same  place,  asserts  that  the  ulti- 
mate force  is  a  repulsion  which  increases  without  limit  ae 
the  distance  diminishes  without  limit,  so  that  two  atoms 
can  never  coincide.  But  this  seems  an  unwarrantable 
concession  to  the  vulgar  opinion  that  two  bodies  cannot 
co-exist  in  the  same  place.  This  opinion  is  deduced  from 
our  experience  of  the  behaviour  of  bodies  of  sensible  size, 
but  wo  have  no  experimental  evidence  that  two  atoms  may 
not  sometimes  coincide.  For  instance,  if  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  combine  to  form  water,  we  have  no  experimental 
evidence  that  the  molecule  of  oxygen  is  not  in  the  very 
same  place  with  the  two  molecules  of  hydrogen.  Many 
persons  cannot  get  rid  of  the  opinion  that  all  matter  ia 
extended  in  length,  breadth,  and  depth.  This  is  a  pre- 
judice of  the  same  kind  with  the  last,  arising  from  our 
experience  of  bodies  consisting  of  immense  multitudes  of 
atoms.  The  system  of  atoms,  according  to  Boscovich, 
occupies  a  certain  region  of  space  in  virtue  of  the  forces 
acting  between  the  component  atoms  of  the  system  and 
any  other  atoms  when  brought  near  them.  No  other 
system  of  atoms  can  occupy  the  same  region  of  spare  al 
the  same  time,  because,  before  it  could  do  so  the  mutual 


38 


ATOM 


action  of  the  atoms  would  bave  caused  a  repulsion  between 
the  two  systems  insuperable  by  any  force  which  we  can 
command.  Thus,  a  number  of  soldiers  with  firearms  may 
occupy  an  extensive  region  to  the  exchision  of  the  enemy's 
armies,  though  the  space  filled  by  their  bodies  is  but  small. 
In  this  way  Boscovich  explained  the  apparent  extension  of 
body  consisting  of  atoms,  each  of  which  is  devoid  of 
extension.  According  to  Boscovich's  theory,  all  action 
between  bodies  is  action  at  a  distance.  There  is  no  such 
thing  in  nature  as  actual  contact  between  two  bodies. 
When  two  bodies  are  said  in  ordinary  language  to  be  in 
contact,  all  that  is  meant  is  that  they  are  so  near  together 
that  the  repulsion  between  the  nearest  pairs  of  atoms 
belonging  to  the  two  bodies  is  very  great. 

Thus,  in  Boscovich's  theory,  the  atom  has  continuity  of 
existence  in  time  and  space.  At  any  instant  of  time  it  is 
at  some  point  of  space,  and  it  is  never  in  more  than  one 
place  at  a  time.  It  passes  from  one  place  to  another  along 
a  continuous  path.  It  has  a  definite  mass  which  cannot  be 
increased  or  diminished.  Atoms  are  endowed  with  the 
power  of  acting  on  one  another  by  attraction  or  repulsion, 
the  amount  of  the  force  depending  on  the  distance  between 
them.  On  the  other  hand,  the  atom  itself  has  no  parts  or 
dimensions.  In  its  geometrical  aspect  it  is  a  mere  geo- 
metrical point.  It  has  no  extensior  in  space.  It  has  not 
the  so-called  property  of  Impenetrabdity,  for  two  atoms  may 
exist  in  the  same  place.  This  we  may  regard  as  one 
extreme  of  the  various  opinions  about  the  constitution  of 
bodies. 

The  opposite  extreme,  that  of  Anaxagoras — the  theoiy 
that  bodies  apparently  homogeneous  and  continuous  are  so 
in  reality — is,  in  its  extreme  form,  a  theory  incapable  of 
development  To  explain  the  properties  of  any  substance 
by  this  theo.y  is  impossible.  We  can  only  admit  the 
observed  properties  of  such  substance  as  ultimate  facts. 
There  is  a  certain  stage,  however,  of  scientific  progress  in 
which  a  method  corresponding  to  this  theory  is  of  service. 
In  hydrostatics,  for  instance,  we  define  a  fluid  by  means  of 
one  of  its  known  properties,  and  from  this  definition  we 
make  the  system  of  deductions  which  constitutes  the  science 
of  hydrostatics.  In  this  way  the  science  of  hydrostatics 
may  be  built  upon  an  experimental  basis,  without  any  coa- 
eideration  of  tUe  constitution  of  a  fluid  as  to  whether  it  is 
molecular  or  continuous.  In  like  manner,  after  the  French 
mathematiciahs  had  attempted,  with  more  or  less  ingenuity, 
to  construct  a  theory  of  elastic  solids  from  the  hypothesis 
that  they  consist  of  atoms  in  equilibrium  under  the  action 
of  their  mutual  forces,  Stokes  and  others  showed  that  all 
the  results  of  this  hy^jothesis,  so  far  at  least  as  they  agreed 
with  facts,  might  be  deduced  from  the  postulate  that  elastic 
bodies  exist,  and  from  the  hypothesis  that  the  smallest 
portions  into  which  we  can  divide  them  are  sensibly  homo- 
geneous. In  this  way  the  principle  of  continuity,  which 
is  the  basis  of  the  method  of  Fluxions  and  the  whole  of 
modern  mathematics,  may  be  applied  to  the  analysis  of 
problems  connected  with  material  bodies  by  assuming  them, 
for  the  purpose  of  this  analysis,  to  be  homogeneous.  All 
that  is  required  to  make  the  resulta  applicable  to  the  real 
case  is  that  the  smallest  portions  of  the  substance  of  which 
we  take  any  notice  shall  be  sensibly  of  the  s<tm6  kind. 
Thus,  if  a  railway  contractor  has  to  make  a  tunnel  through 
a  hill  of  gravel,  and  if  one  cubic  yard  of  the  gravel  is  so 
like  another  cubic  yard  that  for  the  purpases  of  the  contract 
they  may  bo  taken  as  equiv.alont,  then,  in  estimating  the 
work  required  to  remove  the  gravel  from  the  tunnel,  ho 
may,  without  fear  of  error,  make  his  calculations  as  if  the 
gravel  wore  a  continuou'i  substance.  But  if  a  worm  has  to 
make  his  way  through  the  gravel,  it  makos  the  greatest 
possible  difference  to  him  whether  he  tries  to  push  right 
•gainst  a  piece  of  gravel,  or  directs  his  course  through 


one  of  the  intervals  between  the  pieces ,  to  him,  therefore 
the  gravel  b  by  no  means  a  homogetieous  and  coutinnous 
substance. 

In  the  same  way,  a  theory  that  some  particular  substance, 
say  water,  is  homogeneous  and  continuous  may  be  a  good 
working  theory  up  to  a  certain  point,  but  may  fail  when 
we  come  to  deal  with  quantities  so  minute,  or  so  attenuated 
that  their  heterogeneity  of  structure  comes  into  prominence. 
Whether  this  heterogeneity  of  structure  is  or  is  not  con- 
sistent with  homogeneity  and  continuity  of  substance  is 
another  question. 

The  extreme  form  of  the  doctrine  of  continuity  is  that 
stated  by  Descartes,  who  maintains  that  the  whole  universe 
is  equally  full  of  matter,  and  that  this  matter  is  aU  of  one 
kind,  having  no  essential  property  besides  that  of  extension. 
All  the  properties  which  we  perceive  in  matter  he  reduces  to 
its  parts  being  movable  among  one  another,  and  so  capable 
of  all  the  varieties  which  wo  Can  perceive  to  follow  from 
the  motion  of  its  parts  {Principia,  ii.  23).  Descartes'a  own 
attempts  to  deduce  the  different  qualities  and  actions  of 
bodies  in  this  way  are  not  of  piuch  value.  More  than  a 
century  was  required  to  invent  methods  of  investigating 
tho  conditions  of  the  motion  of  systems  of  bodies  such  as 
Pescartes,  imagined.  But  the  hydrodynamical  discovery  of 
Helmholtz  that  a  vortex  in  a  perfect  liquid  possesses  certain 
permanent  characteristics,  has  been  applied  by  Sir  W. 
Thomson  to  form  a  theory  of  vortex  atoms  in  a  homo- 
geneous, incompressible,  and  frictionless  liquid,  to  which 
we  shall  return  at  the  proper  time. 

Outline  of  Modeen  Molecular  Science,  and  in  pab- 

TICULAE  OF  THE  MOLECULAE  ThEOEY  OF  QaSES. 

We  begin  by  assuming  that  bodies  are  inade  up  of  parts, 
each  of  which  is  capable  of  motion,  and  that  these  parts 
act  on  each  other  in  a  manner  cousistent  with  the  principle 
of  the  conservation  of  energy.  In  making  these  assump- 
tions, we  are  justified  by  the  facts  that  bodies  may  be 
divided  into  smaller  parts,  and  that  all  bodies  with  which 
we  are  acquainted  are  conservative  systems,  which  would 
not  be  the  case  unless  their  parts  were  also  conservative 
systems. 

We  may  also  assume  that  these  small  parts  are  in  motion. 
This  is  the  most  general  assumption  we  can  make,  for  it 
includes,  as  a  particular  case,  the  theory  that  tho  small 
parts  are  at  rest.  The  phenomena  of  tho  diS'usion  of  gasea 
and  liquids  through  each  other  show  that  there  may  be  a 
motion  of  the  small  parts  of  a  body  which  is  not  perceptible 
to  us. 

We  make  no  assumption  with  respect  to  the  nature  of 
the  small  parts— whether  they  are  all  of  one  magnitude. 
We  do  not  even  assume  them  to  have  extension  and  figure. 
Each  of  them  must  be  measured  by  its  mass,  and  any  two 
of  them  must,  like  visible  bodies,  have  the  power  of  acting 
on  one  another  when  they  come  near  enough  to-do  so.  The 
properties  of  tho  body,  or  medium,  are  determined  by  the 
configuration  and  motion  of  its  smaU  parts. 

The  first  step  in  tho  investigation  is  to  determine  tho 
amount  of  motion  which  exists  among  tho  small  patts, 
independent  of  tho  visible  motion  of  the  medium  as  a 
whole.  For  this  purpose  it  is  convenient  to  make  use  of  a 
general  theorem  in  dynamics  due  to  Clausius. 

When  tho  motion  of  a  material  system  is  such  that  the 
time  average  of  the  quantity  2(mx-)  remains  constant,  the 
state  of  tho  system  is  said  to  bo  that  of  stationary  motion. 
When  tho  motion  of  a  material  system  is  such  that  the 
sum  of  tho  moments  of  inertia  of  the  system,  about  three 
axes  at  right  angles  through  its  centre  of  ma-^ss,  never  varies 
by  Dioro  than  small  quantities  from  a  constant  value, 
the  system  is  said  to  bo  in  a  state  of  stationary  motion. 


ATOM 


39 


The  kinetic  energy  of  n  particle  b  half  the  product  of 
ita  mass  into  the  square  of  its  velocity,  and  the  kinetic 
energy  of  a  system  is  the  sum  of  the  kinetic  energy  of  all 
its  parts. 

When  an  attraction  or  repulsion  exists  between  two 
points,  half  the  product  of'  this  stress  into  the  distance 
between  the  two  points  is  called  the  virial  of  the  stress. 
End  is  i-eckoned  positive  when  the  stress  is  an  attraction, 
and  negative  when  it  is  a  repulsion.  The  virial  of  a  system 
is  the  sum  of  the  virials  of  the  stresses  which  exist  in  it. 
If  the  system  is  subjected  to  the  external  stress  of  the 
pressure  of  the  sides  of  a  vessel  in  which  it  is  contained, 
this  stress  will  introduce  an  amount  of  virial  j/jV,  where 
p  is  the  pressure  on  unit  of  area  and  V  is  the  volume  of 
the  vessel 

The  theorem  of  Clausius  may  now  he  stated  as  follows  : — 
In  a  material  system  in  a  state  of  stationary  motion  the 
time-average  of  the  kinetic  energy  is  equal  to  the  time- 
average  of  the  viriaL  In  the  case  of  a  fluid  enclosed  in  a 
vessel  _ 

J2(W)  =  3;.V+i2S(Rr), 

where  the  tirst  term  denotes  the  kinetic  energy,  and  is  half 
the  sum  of  the  product  of  each  mass  into  the  mean  square 
of  its  velocity.  In  the  second  term,  p  is  the  pressure  on 
unit  of  surface  of  the  vessel,  whose  volume  is  V,  and  the 
third  term  expresses  the  virial  due  to  the  internal  actions 
between  the  parts  of  the  system.  *A  double  symbol  of 
summation  is  ilsed,  because  every  pair  of  parts  be'.ween 
which  any  action  exists  must  be  taken  into  account.  We 
have  next  to  show  that  in  gases  the  principal  part  of  the 
pressure  arises  from  the  motion  of  the  small  pa.rt3  of  the 
medium,  and  not  from  a  repulsion  between  them. 

In  the  first  place,  if  the  pressure  of  a  gas  arises  from  the 
repukion  of  its  parts,  the  law  of  repulsion  must  be  inversely 
as  the  distance.  For,  consider  a  cube  filled  with  the  gas 
at  pressure  p,  and  let  the  cube  expand  till  each  side  is  n 
times  its  former  lengtL     The  pressure  on  unit  of  surface 

according  to  Boyle's  law  is  now  -^,  and  since  the  area 

of  a  face  of  the   cube  is  n'  times  what  it  was,  the  whole 

pressure  on  the  face  of  the  cube  is  -  of  its  original  value. 

But  since  everything  has  been  expanded  symmetrically,  the 
distance  between  corresponding  parts  of  the  air  is  now  n 
times  what  it  was,  and  the  force  is  n  times  less  than  it  was. 
Hence  the  force  must  vary  inversely  as  the  distance. 

But  Newton  has  shown  (Principia,  bk.  i.  prop.  93)  that 
this  law  is  inadmissible,  as  it  makes  the  effect  of  the  dis- 
tant parts  of  the  medium  on  a  particle  greater  than  that  of 
the  neighbouring  parts.  Indeed,  we  should  arrive  at  the 
conclusion  that  the  pressure  depends  not  only  on  the  density 
of  the  air  but  oh  the  form  and  dimensions  of  the  vessel 
which  contains  it,  which  we  know  not  to  be  the  case. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  suppose  the  pressure  to  arise 
entirely  fr&m  the  motion  of  the  molecules  of  the  gas,  the 
interpretation  of  Boyle's  law  becomes  very  simple.  For, 
in  this  case  _ 

The  first  term  is  the  product  of  the  pressure  and  the  volume, 
•which  according  to  Boyle's  law  is  constant  for  the  same 
quantity  of  gas  at  the  same  temperature.  The  second  term 
is  two-thirds  of  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  system,  and  we 
have  every  reason  to  believe  that  in  gases  when  the 
temperature  is  constant  the  kinetic  energy  of  unit  of  mass 
is  also  constant  If  ■we  admit  that  thd  kinetic  energy  of 
unit  of  mass  is  in  a  given  gaa  proportional  to  the  absolute 
temperature,  this  equation  is  the  expression  of  the  law  of 
Charles  as  well  as  of  that  of  Boyle,  and  may  be  written — 


where  0  is  the  temperature  reckoned  from  absoluto  zero, 
and  R  is  a  constant  The  fact  that  this  equation  expresses 
with  considerable  accuracy  the  relation  between  the  volume, 
pressure,  and  temperature  of  a  gas  when  in  an  e;rtremely 
rarified  state,  and  that  as  the  gas  is  more  and  more  com- 
pressed the  deviation  from  this  equation  becomes  roorfl 
apparent,  shows  that  the  pressure  of  a  gas  is  due  almost 
entirely  to  the  motion  of  its  molecules  when  the  gas  is  rare, 
and  that  it  is  only  when  the  density  of  the  gas  is  consider- 
ably increased  that  the  efiect  of  dii'ect  action  between  the 
molecules  becomes  apparent. 

The  effect  of  the  direct  action  of  the  molecules  on  each 
other  depends  on  the  number  of  pairs  of  molecules  which 
at  a  given  instant  are  near  enough  to  act  on  one  another. 
The  number  of  such  pairs  is  proportional  to  the  square  of 
the  number  of  molecules  in  unit  of  volume,  that  is,  to  the 
square  of  the  density  of  the  gas.  Hence,  as  long  as  the 
medium  is  so  rare  that  the  encounter  between  two  molecules 
is  not  afi'ected  by  the  presence  of  others,  the  deviation  from 
Boyle's  law  will  be  proportional  to  the  square  of  tha 
density.  If  the  action  between  the  molecules  is  on  the 
whole  repulsive,  the  pressure  will  be  greater  than  that  given 
by  Boyle's  law.  If  it  is,  on  the  whole,  attractive,  the 
pressure  will  be  less  than  that  given  by  Boyle's  law.  It 
appears,  by  the  experiments  of  Regnault  and  others,  that 
the  pressure  does  deviate  from  Boyle's  law  when  the 
density  of  the  gas  is  increased.  In  the  case  of  carbonic 
acid  and  other  gases  which  are  easily  liquefied,  this  devia- 
tion is  very  great.  In  all  cases,  however,  except  that  of 
hydrogen,  the  pressure  is  less  than  that  given  by  Boyle's 
law,  showing  that  the  virial  is  on  the  whole  due  to 
attractive  forces  between  the  molecules. 

Another  kind  of  evidence  as  to  the  nature  of  the  action 
between  the  molecules  is  furnished  by  an  experiment  made 
by  Dr  Joule.  Of  two  vessels,  one  was  exhausted  and  the 
other  filled  with  a  gas  at  a  pressure  of  20  atmospheres; 
and  both  were  placed  side  by  side  in  a  vessel  of  water, 
which  was  constantly  stirred.  The  temperature  of  the 
whole  was  observed.  Then  a  communication  was  opened 
between  the  vessels,  the  compressed  gaa  expanded  to 
twice  its  volume,  and  the  work  of  expansion,  which  at 
first  produced  a  strong  current  in  the  gas,  was  soon  con- 
verted into  heat  by  the  internal  friction  of  the  gas.  When 
all  was  again  at  rest,  and  the  temperature  uniform,  the 
temperature  was  again  observed.  In  Dr  Joule's  original 
experiments  the  observed  temperature  was  the  same  as 
before.  In  a  series  of  experiments,  conducted  by  Dr  Joule 
and  Sir  AV.  Thomson  on  a  different  plan,  by  which  the 
thermal  effect  of  free  expansion  can  bo  more  accurately 
measured,  a  slight  cooling  effect  was  observed  in  all  the 
gases  examined  except  hydrogen.  Since,  the  temperature 
depends  on  the  velocity  of  agitation  of  the  molecules,  it 
appears  that  when  a  gas  expands  without  doing  external 
work  the  velocity  of  agitation  is  not  much  affected,  but 
that  in  most  cases  it  is  slightly  diminished.  Now,  if  the 
molecules  during  their  mutual  separation  act  on-each  other, 
their  velocity  will  increase  or  diminish  according  as  the 
force  is  repulsive  or  attractive.  It  appears,  therefore,  from 
the  experiments  on  the  free  expansion  of  gases,  that  the 
force  between  the  molecules  is  small  but,  on  the  whole, 
attractive. 

Having  thus  justified  the  hypothesis  that  a  gas  consists 
of  molecules  in  motion,  which  act  on  each  other  only 
when  they  come  very  clos6  together  during  an  encounter, 
but  which,  during  the  intervals  between  their  encounters 
which  constitute  the  greater  part  of  their  existence,  are 
describing  free  paths,  and  are  not  acted  on  by  any  mole- 
cular force,  we  proceed  to  investigate  the  motion  of  such  a 
system. 

The  mathematical  investigation  of  the  properties  of  such 


40 


ATOM 


a  system  of  molecules  in  motion  is  the  foundation  of  mole 
cular  science.  Clausing  was  tbe  first  to  express  the 
relation  between  the  density  of  the  gas,  the  length  of  the 
free  paths  of  its  molecules,  and  the  distance  at  which 
they  encounter  each  other.  He  assumed,  however,  at  least 
in  his  earlier  investigations,  that  the  velocities  of  all  the 
molecules  are  equaL  The  mode  in  which  the  velocities  are 
distributed  was  first  investigated  by  the  present  writer, 
who  showed  that  in  the  moving  system  the  velocities  of 
the  molecules  range  from  zero  to  mfinity,  but  that  the 
number  of  molecules  whose  velocities  lie  within  given 
limits  can  be  expressed  by  a  formula  identical  with  that 
wliich  expresses  in  the  theory  of  errors  the  number  of 
errors  of.  observation  lying  within  corresponding  limits. 
The  proof  of  this  theorem  has  been  carefully  investigated 
by  Boltzmann,'  wUd  has  strengthened  it  where  it  appeared 
wealc,  and  to  whom  the  method  of  taking  into  account  the 
action,  of  esfernal  forces  is  entirely  due. 

The  mean  kinetic  energy  of  a  molecule,  however,  has  a 
definite  value,  which  is  easily  expressed  in  terms  of  the 
quantities  which  enter  into  the  expression  for  the  distribu- 
tion'of  velocities.  The  most  important  result  of  this  investi- 
gation is  that  w"hen  several  kinds  of  molecules  are  in  motion 
and  aiting  on  one  another,  the  mean  kinetic  energy  of  a  mole- 
cule is  the  same  whatever  be  its  mass,  the  molecules  of 
greater  mass  having  smaller  mean  velocities.  Now,  when 
gases  are  mixed  their  temperatures  become  equaL  Hence 
we  conclude  that  the  physical  condition  which  determines 
that  the  temperature  of  two  gases  shall,  be  the  same  is  that 
the  mean  kinetic  energies  of  agitation  of  the  individual  mole- 
cules of  the  two  gases  are  equal.  This  result  is  of  great 
importance  in  the  theory  of  heat,  though  we  are  not  yet 
able  to  establish  any  similar  result  for  bodies  in  the  liquid 
or  solid  state. 

In  the  next  place,  we  know  that  in  the  case  in  which  the 
whole  pressure  of  the  medium  is  due  to  the  motion  of  its 
molecules,  the  pressure  on  unit  of  area  is  numerically 
equal  to'  two-thirds  of  the  kinetic  energy  in  unit  of  volume. 
Hence,  if  equal  volumes  of  two  gases  are  at  equal  pressures 
the  kinetic  energy  is  the  same  in  each.  If  they  are  also 
at  equal  temperatures  the  mean  kinetic  energy  of  each 
molecule  is  the  same  in  each.  If,  therefore,  equal  volumes 
of  two  gases  are  at  ecjual  temperatures  and  pressures,  the 
number  of  molecules  in  each  is  the  same,  and  therefore, 
the  masses  of  the  two  kinds  of  molecules  are  in  the  same 
ratio  as  the  densities  of  the  gases  to  which  they  belong. 

This  statement  has  been  believed  by  chemists  since  the 
time  of  Gay-Lussac,  who  first  established  that  the  weights 
of  the  chemical  equivalents  of.  different  substances  are 
proportional  to  the  densities  of  these  substances  when  in 
the  form  of  gas.  Tlie  definition  of  the  word  molecule, 
however,  as  employed  in  the  statement  of  Gay-Lussac's  law 
is  by  no  means  identical  with  the  definition  of  the  same 
word  as,  in  the  kinetic  theory  of  gasei  The  chemists 
ascertain  by  experiment  the  ratios  of  the  masses  of  tlie 
different,  substances  in  a  compound.  From  these  they 
deduce  the  chemical  equivalents  of  the  different  substances, 
that  of  a  particular  substance,  say  hydro.i^en,  being  taken 
a3  unity.  The  only  evidence  made  use  of  is  that  furnished 
by  chemical  combination.s.  It  is  also  assumed,  in  order  to 
aecQunt  for  the  facts  of  combination,  that  the  reason  why 
Bubstances  combine  in  dcnnite  ratios  is  that  the  molecules 
of  the  substances  are  in  the  ratio  of  their  ehemicil  equiva- 
lents, and  that  what  we  eall  combination  is  an  action 
which  takes  place  by  a  union  oi  a<  molecule  of  one  substance 
to  a  molecule  of  the  other. 

This  kind  of  reasoning,. when  presentedjn  a  proper  form 
and  sustained  by  proper  evidence,  Las  a  high  degree  of 

>  SUzunqAeriehte  der  K.  K.  Akad.,  ^icn,  8lh  Oct  1863. 


cogency.  But  it  is  purely  chemical  reasoning ;  it  is  not 
dynamical  reasoning.  It  is  founded  on  chemical  experi- 
ence, not  on  the  laws  of  motion. 

Our  definition  of  .a  molecide  is  purely  dynamical  A 
molecule  is  that  minute  portion  of  a  substance  which  moves 
about  as  a  whole,  so  that  its  parts,  if  it  has  any,  do  not  part 
company  during  ihe  motion  of  agitation  of  the  gas.  The 
result  of  the  kinetic  theory,  therefore,  is  to  give  us  informa- 
tion about  the  relative  masses  of  molecules  considered  as 
moving  bodies.  The  consistency  of  this  information  with 
the  deductions  of  chemists  from  the  phenomena  of  com- 
bination, greatly  strengthens  the  evidence  in  favour  of  the 
actual  existence  and  motion  of  gaseous  molecules. 

Another  confirmation  of  the  theory  of  molecules  is 
derived  from  the  experiments  of  Dulong  and  Petit  on  the 
specific  heat  of  gases,  from  which  they  deduced  the  law 
which  bears  their  name,  and  which  asserts  that  the  specific 
heats  of  equal  weights  of  gases  are  inversely  as  their  com- 
bining weights,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  capacities  for 
heat  of  the  chemical  equivalents  of  different  gases  are 
equal.  We  have  seen  that  the  temperature  is  determined 
by  the  kinetic  energy  of  agitation. of  each  molecule.  The 
molecule  has  also  a  certain  amount  of  energy  of  internal  mo- 
tion, whether  of  rotation  or  of  vibration,  but  the  hypothesis 
of  Clausius,  that  the  mean  value  of  the  internal  energy 
always  bears  a  proportion  fixed  for  each  gas  to  the  energy 
of  agitation,  seems  highly  probable  and  consistent  with 
experiment.  The  whole  kinetic  energy  is  therefore  equal 
to  the  energy  of  agitation  multiplied  by  a  certain  factor. 
Thus  lie  energy  communicated  to  a  gas  by  heating  it  is 
divided  in  a  certain  proportion  between  the  energy  of  agita- 
tion and  that  of  the  internal  motion  of  each  molecule.  For 
a  given  rise  of  temperature  the  energy  of  agitation,  say  of  a 
million  molecules,  is  increased  by  the  same  amoimt  what- 
ever be  the  gas.  The  heat  spent  in  raising  the  temperature 
is  measured  by  the  increase  of  the  whole  kinetic  energy. 
The  thermal  capacities,  therefore,  of  equal  numbers  of 
molecules  of  different  gases  are  in  the  ratio  of  the  factors 
by  which  the  energy  of  agitation  must  be  multiplied  to 
obtain  the  whole  energy.  As  this  factor  appears  to  be 
nearly  the  same  for  all  gases  of  the  same  degree  of  atomicity, 
Dulong  and  Petit's  law  is  true  for  such  gases. 

Another  result  of  this  investigation  is  of  considerable 
importance  in  relation  to  certain  theories,-  which  assume  the 
existence  of  others  or  rare  media  consisting  of  molecules 
very  much  smaller  than  those  of  ordinary  gases.  According 
to  oilr  result,  such  a  medium  would  be  neither  more  nor 
less  than  a  gas.  Supposing  its  molecules  so  small  that 
they  can  penetrate  between  the  molecules  of  solid  substances 
such  as  glass,  a  so-called  vacuum  would  be  fuU  of  this  rare 
gas  at  the  observed  temperature,  and  at  the  pressure,  what- 
ever it  may  be,  of  the  letherial  medium  in  space.  The 
specific  heat,'  therefore,  of  the  medium  in  the  ao-called 
vacuum  will  be  equal  to  that  of  the  same  volume  of  any 
other  gas  at  the  same  temperature  and  pressure.  Now,  the 
purpose  for  which  this  molecular  ajther  is  assumed  in  these 
theories  is  to  act  on  bodies  by  its  pressure,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  pressure  is  generally  assumed  to  bo  very  great. 
Hence,  according  to  these  theories,  we  should  find  the 
specific  heat  of  a  so-called  vacuum  very  considerable  com- 
pared with  that  of  a  quantity  of  air  filling  the  same  space. 

We  have  now  made  a  certain  definite  amount  of  progress 
towards  a  complete  molecular  theory  of  gases.-  We  know 
the  mean  velocity  of  the  molecules  of  each  gas  in  metres 
per  second,  and  wo  know  the  relative  masses  of  the  molecules 
of  ditferent  gases.  Wo  also  know  that  the  molecules  of 
one  and  the  same  gas  are  all  equal  in  mass.     For  if  they 

'  Sec  Oustav  Uansemann,  Die  Atopit  und  iltre  Bmegungm.  1871. 
(H.  G    Majer.) 


A  T  O  M 


41 


are  not,  the  method  of  dialysU,  as  employed  by  Graham, 
would  enable  us  to  separate  the  molecules  of  smaller  mass 
from  those  of  greater,  as  they  would  stream  through  porous 
substances  with  greater  velocity.  We  should  thus  be  able 
to  separate  a  gas,  say  hydrogen,  into  two  portions,  having 
different  densities  and  other  physical  properties,  different 
combining  weights,  and  probably  different  chemical  pro- 
perties of  other  kinds.  As  no  chemist  has  yet  obtained 
specimens  of  hydrogen  differing  jn  this  way  from  other 
specimens,  we  conclude  that  all  the  molecules  of  hydrogen 
are  of  sensibly  the  same  mass,  and  not  merely  that  their 
mean  ma-ss  is  a  statistical  constant  of  great  stability. 

But  as  yet  we  have  not  considered  the  phenomena  which 
enable  us  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  actual  mass  and 
dimensions  of  a  molecule.  It  is  to  Clausius  that  we  owe 
the  first  definite  conception  of  the  free  path  of  a  molecule 
and  of  the  mean  distance  travelled  by  a  molecule  between 
successive  encounters.  Ho  showed  that  the  number  of 
encounters  of  a  molecule  in  a  given  time  is  proportional  to 
the  velocity,  to  the  number  of  molecules  in  unit  of  volume, 
and  to  the  square  of  the  diatince  between  the  centres  of 
two  molecules  when  they  act  on  one  another  so  as  to  have 
an  encounter.  From  this  it  appears  that  if  we  call  this 
distance  of  the  centres  the  diameter  of  a  molecule,  and  the 
volume  of  a  sphere  having  this  diameter  the  volume  of  a 
molecule,  and  the  sum  of  the  volumes  of  all  tlie  molecules 
the  molecular  volume  of  the  gas,  then  the  diameter  of  a. 
molecule  is  a  certain  multiple  of  the  quantity  obtained  by 
diminishing  the  free  path  in  the  ratio  of  the  molecular 
volume  of  the  gas  to  the  whole  volumo  of  the  gas.  The 
numerical  value  of  this  midtiple  dilT-irs  slightly,  according 
to  the  hypothesis  we  assume  about  the  law  of  distribution 
of  velocities.  ■  It  also  depends  on  the  definition  of  an 
encounter.  When  the  molecules  arc  regarded  as  elastic 
spheres  we  know  what  is  meant  by  an  encounter,  but  if 
they  act  on  each  other  at  a  distance  by  attractive  or  repul- 
sive forces  of  finite  magnitude,  the  distance  of  their 
centres  varies  during  an  encounter,  and  is  not  a  definite 
quantity.  Nevertheless,  the  above  statement  of  Clausius 
enables  us,  if  we  know  the  length  of  the  me,in  path  and 
the  molecular  volume  of  a  gas,  to  form  a  tolerably  near 
estimate  of  the  diameter  of  the  sphere  of  the  intense  action 
of  a  molecule,  and  thence  of  the  number  of  molecules  in 
unit  of  volume  and  the  actual  mass  of  each  molecule.  To 
complete  the  investigation  we  have,  therefore,  to  determine 
the  mean  path  and  the  molecular  volume.  The  first 
numerical  estimate  of  the  mean  path  of  a  gaseous  molecule 
was  made  by  the  present  writer  from  data  derived  from  the 
internal  friction  of  air.  There  are  three' phenomena  which 
depend  on  the  length  of  the  free  path  of  the  molecules  of  a 
gas.  It  is  evident  thijt  the  greater  the  free  path- the  more 
rapidly  will  the  molecules  travel  from  one  part  of  the 
medium  to  another,  because  their  direction  will  not  bo  so 
often  altered  by  encounters  with  other  molecules.  If  the 
molecules  in  different  parts  of  the  medium  are  of  different 
kinds,  their  progress  from  one  part  of  the  medium"  to 
another  can  bo  easily  traced  by  analysing  'portions  of  the 
medium  taken  from  different  pLicea.  The  rate  of  diffu- 
sion thus  found  furnishes  one  method  of  estimating  the 
length  of  the  free  path  of  a  molecule.  This  kind  of 
diffusion  goes  on  not  only  between  the  molecules  of 
different  gases,  but  among  tho  mo)ec\Ue3  of  the  same  gas, 
only  in  the  latter  case  tho  results  of  the  diffusion  cannot 
be  traced  by  analysis.  But  the  diffusing  molecules  carry 
with  them  in  their  free  paths  the  momentum  and  the  energy 
which  they  happen  at  a  given  instant  to  have.  The 
diffusion  of  momentum  tends  to  equalise  the  apparent 
motion  of  different  parts  of  the  medium,  and  constitutes 
the  phenomenon  called  the  internal  friction  or  vi.scosity  of 
gases.     Tho  diffusion   of   energy   tends   to   equalise   the 

3— 4« 


temperature  of  different  parts  of  the  medium,  and  cocslitutes 
the  phenomenon  of  the  conduction  of  heat  in  gases. 

These  three  phenomena — the  diffusion  of  matter,  of 
motion,  and  of  heat  in  gases — have  been  experimentally 
investigated, — the  diffusion  of  matter  by  Graham  and 
Loschmidt,  the  diffusion  of  motion  by  Oscar  Meyer  and 
Clerk  Maxwell,  and  that  of  heat  by  Stefan. 

These  three  kinds  of  experiments  give  results  which  in 
the  present  imperfect  state  of  the  theory  and  the  extreme 
difficulty  of  the  experiments,  especially  those  on  the  con- 
duction of  heat,  may  be  regarded  as  tolerably  consistent 
with  each  other.  At  the  pressure  of  our  atmosphere,  and 
at  the  temperature  of  melting  ice,  the  mean  path  of  a 
molecule  of  hydrogen  is  about  the  10,000th  of  a  milli- 
metre, or  about  the  fifth  part  of  a  wave-length  of  green  light. 
The  mean  path  of  the  molecules  of  other  gases  is  shorter 
than  that  of  hydrogen. 

The  determination  of  the  molecular  volume  of  a  gas  is 
subject  as  yet  to  considerable  uncertainty.  The  most 
obvious  method  is  that  of  compressing  the  gas  till  it 
assumes  the  liquid  form.  It  seems  probable,,  from  the  great 
resistance  of  liquids  to  compression,  that  their  molecules 
are  at  about  the  same  distance  from  each  other  as  that  at 
which  two  molecules  of  the  same  substance  in  the  gaseous 
form  act  on  each  other  during  an  encounter.  If  this  is  the 
case,  the  molecular  volume  of  a  gas  is  somewhat  less  than 
the  volume  of  the  liquid  into  which  it  would  bo  condensed 
by  pre-ssure,  or,  in  other  words,  the  density  of  the  molecules 
is  somewhat  greater  than  that  of  the  liquid. 

Now,  we  know  the  relative  weights  of  different  molecules 
with  great  accuracy,  and,  from  a  knowledge  of  the  mean 
path,  wo  can  calculate  their  relative  diameters  approxi- 
mately. From  these  we  can  deduce  the  relative  densities 
of  different  kinds  of  molecules.  The  relative  densities  so 
calculated  have  been  compared  by  Lorenz  Meyet'_with  the 
observed  densities  of  the  liquids  into  which  the  gases  may 
be  condensed,  and  he  finds  a  remarkable  correspondence 
between  them.  There  is  considerable  doubt,  however,  as 
to  the  relation  between  the  molecules  of  a  liquid  and  those 
of  its  vapour,  so  that  till  a  larger  number  of  comparisons 
have  been  made,  we  must  not  place  too  much  rehance  on 
the  calculated  densities  of  molecules.  Another,  and  perhaps 
a  more  refined,  method  is  that  adopted  by  M.  Van  dec 
Waals,  who  deduces  the  molecular  volume  from  the  dena- 
tions  of  the  pressure  from  Boyle's  law  as  the  gas  is  com- 
pressed. 

The  first  numerical  estimate  of  the  diameter  of  a  molecule 
was  that  made  by.  Loschmidt  in  18C5  from  the  mean  path 
and  the  molecular  volume.  Independently  of  him  and  of 
each  other,  Mr  Stoney,  in  1868,  and  Sir  "W.  Thomson,  in 
1870,  published  resultsof  a  similar  kind — those  of  Thomson 
being  deduced  not  only  in  this  way,  but  from  considerations 
derived  from  the  thickness  of  soap  bubbles,  and  from  the 
electric  action  between  zinc  and  copper. 

The  diameter  and  the  mass  of  a  molecule,  as  estimated 
by  these  methods,  are,  of  course,  very  ^mall,'but  by  no 
means  infinitely  sa  About  two  milUons  of  molecules  of 
hydrogen  in  a  row  would  occupy  a  millimetre,  and  about 
two  hundred  mdlion  million  million  pf  them  would  weigh 
a  milligramme.  These  numbers  must  be  considered  as 
exceedingly  rough  guesses  ;  they  must  be  corrected  by  more 
extensive  and  accurate  experiments  as  science  advances ; 
but  the  main  result,  which  appears  to  be  well  established, 
is  that  the  determination  of  tho  mai=s  of  a  molecule  is  a 
legitimate  object  of  scientific  research,  and  that  this  mass 
is  by  no  means  immeasurably  small. 

Loschmidt  illustrates  the.ie  molecular  measurements  by 
a  comparison  with  the  smallest  magnitudes  visible  by  means 
of  a  microscope.  Nobert,  he  tells  us,  can  draw  4000  line* 
in   the  breadth   of  a  jnillimctro.     The  intervals  between 

in.  —  6 


42 


ATOM 


these  lines  can  be  observed  with  a  good  microscope.  A 
cube,  whose  side  is  the  4000th  of  a  miflimetre,  may  be  taken 
as  the  minimum  visibile  for  observers  of  the  present  day. 
Such  a  cube  would  contain  from  60  to  1 00  million  molecules 
of  oxygen  or  of  nitrogen  ;  but  since  the  molecules  of 
organised  substances  contain  on  an  average  about  50  of  the 
more  elementary  atoms,  we  may  assume  that  the  smallest 
organised  particle  visible  under  the  microscope  contains 
about  two  million  molecules  of  organic  matter.  At  least 
half  of  every  living  organism  consists  of  water,  so  that  the 
smallest  living  being  visible  under  the  microscope  does  not 
contain  more  than  about  a  million  organic  molecules.  Some 
exceedingly  simple  organism  may  be  supposed  buUt  up  of 
not  more  than  a  million  similar  molecules.  It  is  impossible, 
however,  to  conceive  so  small  a  number  sufficient  to  form 
a  being  furnished  with  a  whole  system  of  specialised 
organs. 

Thus  molecular  science  sets  us  face  to  face  with  physiolo- 
gical theories.  It  forbids  the  physiologist  from  imagining 
that  structural  details  of  infinitely  small  dimensions  can 
furnish  an  explanation  of  the  infinite  variety  which  exists 
in  the  properties  and  functions  of  the  most  minute  organ- 
isms. 

A  microscopic  germ  is,  we  know,  capable  of  development 
into  a  highly  organised  animal.  Another  germ,  equally 
microscopic,  becomes,  when  developed,  an  animal  of  a 
totally  different  kind.  Do  all  the  differences,  infinite  in 
number,  which  distinguish  the  one  animal  from  the  other, 
arise  each  from  some  difference  in  the  structure  of  the 
respective  germs  1  Even  if  we  admit  this  as  possible,  we 
shall  be  called  upon  by  the  advocates  of  Pangenesis  to 
admit  still  greater  marvels.  For  the  microscopic  germ, 
according  to  this  theory,  is  no  mere  individual,  but  a  repre- 
sentative body,  containing  members  collected  from  every 
rank  of  the  long-drawn  ramification  of  the  ancestral  tree, 
the  number  of  these  members  being  amply  sufficient  not 
only  to  furnish  the  hereditary  characteristics  of  every  organ 
of  the  body  and  every  habit  of  the  animal  from  birth  to 
death,  but  also  to  aflford  a  stock  of  latent  gemmules  to  be 
passed  on  in  an  inactive  state  from  germ  to  g^rm,  till  at 
last  the  ancestral  pecuUarity  which  it  represents  is  revived 
in  some  remote  descendant 

Some  of  the  exponents  of  this  theory  of  heredity  have 
attempted  to  elude  the  difficulty  of  placing  a  whole  world 
of  wonders  within  a  body  so  small  and  so  devoid  of  visible 
structure  as  a  germ,  by  using  the  phrase  structureless 
germs.*  Now,  one  mattvial  system  can  differ  from  another 
only  in  the  configuration  and  motion  which  it.  has  at  a 
given  instant.  To  explain  differences  of  function  and 
development  of  a  germ  without  assuming  differences  of 
structure  is,  therefore,  to  admit  that  the  properties  of  a  germ 
are  not  those  of  a  purely  material  system. 

The  evidence  as  to  the  nature  and  motion  of  molecules, 
with  which  we  have  hitherto  been  occupied,  has.  been 
derived  from  experiments  upon  gaseous  media,  the  smallest 
sensible  portion  of  which  contains  millions  of  millions  of 
molecules.  The  constancy  and  uniformity  of  the  properties 
of  the  gaseous  medium  is  the  direct  result  of  the  incon- 
ceivable irregularity  of  the  motion  of  agitation  of  its 
molecules.  Any  cause  which  could  introduce  regularity 
into  the  motion  of  agitation,  and  marshal  the  molecules 
into  order  and  method  in  their  evolutions,  might  chbck  or 
even  reverse  that  tendency  to  diffusion  of  matter,  motion, 
and  energy,  which  is  one  of  the  most  invariable  phenomena 
of  nature,  and  to  which  Thomson  has  given  the  name  of 
the  dissipation  of  energy. 

Thus,  when  a  soundwave  is  passing  through  a  mass  of 

'  Sr(?  F.  Oalton,  "  On  Blood  Rclollonship,"  Pt(K.  Jtoji.  See.,  Jnne 
13. 1872. 


air,  this  motion  is  of  a  certain  definite  type,  and  if  left  to 
itself  the  whole  motion  is  passed  on  to  other  masses  of  air, 
and  the  sound-wave  passes  on,  leaving  the  air  behind  it 
at  rest.  Heat,  on  the  other  hand,  never  passes  out  of  a 
hot  body  except  to  enter  a  colder  body,  so  that  the  energy 
of  sound-waves,  or  any  other  form  of  energy  which  is  pro- 
pagated so  as  to  pass  wholly  out  of  one  portion  of  the 
medium  and  into  another,  cannot  be  called  heat. 

We  have  now  to  turn  our  attention  to  a  class  of  molecular 
motions,  which  are  as  remarkable  for  their  regularity  as  the 
motion  of  agitation  is  for  its  irregularity. 

It  has  been  found,  by  means  of  the  spectroscope,  that 
the  light  emitted  by  incandescent  substances  is  different 
according  to  their  state  of  condensation.  When  they  are 
in  an  extremely  rarefied  condition  the  spectrum  of  their 
light  consists  of  a  set  of  sharply-defined  bright  lines.  As 
the  substance  approaches  a  denser  condition  the  spectrum 
tends  to  become  continuous,  either  by  the  lines  becoming 
broader  and  less  defined,  or  by  new  lines  and  bands  appear- 
ing between  them,  till  the  spectrum  at  length  loses  all  its 
characteristics  and  becomes  identical  with  that  of  solid 
bodies  when  raised  to  the  same  temperature. 

Hence  the  vibrating  systems,  which  are  the  source  of  the 
emitted  light,  must  be  vibrating  in  a  difi'erent  manner  in 
these  two  cases.  When  the  spectrum  consists  of  a  number 
of  bright  lines,  the  motion  of  the  system  must  be  com- 
pounded of  a  corresponding  number  of  types  of.  harmonic 
vibration. 

In  order  that  a  bright  line  may  be  sharply  defined,  the 
vibratory  motion  which  produces  it  must  be  kept  up  in  a 
perfectly  regular  manner  for  some  hundreds  or  thousands 
of  vibrations.  If  the  motion  of  each  of  the  vibrating 
bodies  is  kept  up  only  during  a  small  number  of  vibrations, 
then,  however  regular  may  be  the  vibrations  of  each  body 
while  it  lasts,  the  resultant  disturbance  of  the  luminiferous 
medium,  when  analysed  by  the  prism,  will  be  found  to 
contain,  besides  the  part  due  to  the  regular  vibrations, 
other  motions,  depending  on  the  starting  and  stopping  of 
each  particular  vibrating  body,  which  will  become  manifest 
as  a  diffused  luminosity  scattered  over  the  whole  length  of 
the  spectrum.  A  spectrum  of  bright  Unes,  therefore, 
indicates  that  the  vibrating  bodies  when  set  in  motion  are 
allowed  to  vibrate  .in  accordance  with  the  conditions  of 
their  internal  structure  for  some  time  before  they  are  again 
interfered  with  by  external  forces. 

It  appears,  therefore,  from  spectroscopic  evidence  that 
each  molecule  of  a  rarefied  gas  is,  during  the  greater  part 
of  its  existence,  at  such  a  distance  from  all  other  molecules 
that  it  executes  its  vibrations  in  an  undisturbed  and  regular 
manner.  This  is  the  same  conclusion  to  which  we  were 
led  by  considerations  of  another  kind  at  p.  39. 

We  may  therefore  regijrd  the  bright  lines  in  theispectrum 
of  a  gas  as  the  result  of  the  vibrations  executed  by  tlie 
molecules  while  describing  their  free  paths.  When  two 
molecules  separate  from  one  another  after  an  encounter, 
each  of  them  is  in  a  state  of  vibration,  arising  from  the 
unequal  action  on  different  parts  of  the  same  moleculo 
during  the  encounter.  Hence,  though  the  centre  of  mass 
of  the  molecule  describing  its  free  path  moves  with  uniform 
velocity,  the  parts  of  the  molecule  have  a  vibratory  motion 
with  respect  to  the  centre  of  mass  of  the  whole  uiolccule, 
and  it  is  the  disturbance  of  the  luminiferous  medium  com- 
municated to  it  by  the  vibrating  molecules  which  constitutes 
the  emitted  light.  *    ' 

We  may  compare  the  vibrating  molecule  to  af  bell. 
■V\Tien  struck,  the  bell  is  set  in  motion.  This  motion  is 
compounded  of  harmonic  vibrations  of  ni;iny  different 
periods,  each  of  which  acts  on  the  air,  producing  notes  of 
as  many  different  i>itches.  As  the  boll  cominunieatcs  its 
motion  to  the  air,  these  vibrations  nccrasarily  decay,  soma 


ATOM 


43 


of  them  faster  tliao  others,  so  that  the  sound  contains  fewer 
and  fewer  notes,  till  at  last  it  is  reduced  to  the  fundamental 
note  of  the  bell.'  li  we  suppose  that  there  are  a  great 
many  bella  precisely  similar  to  each  other,  and  that  they 
are  struck,  first  one  and  then  another,  in  a  perfectly 
irregular  manner,  yet  so  that,  on  an  average,  as  many 
bells  are  struck  in  one  second  of  time  as  in  another,  and 
also  in  such  a  way  that,  on  an  average,  any  one  bell  is  not 
again  struck  till  it  has  ceased  to  vibrate,  then  the  audible 
result  will  appear  a  continuous  sound,  composed  of  the 
sound  emitted  by  bells  in  all  states  of  vibration,  from  the 
clang  of  the  actual  stroko  to  the  final  hum  of  the  dying 
fundamental  tone. 

But  now  let  the  number  of  bells  be  reduced  while  the 
same  number  of  strokes  are  given  in  a  second.  Each  bell 
will  now  bo  struck  before  it  has  ceased  to  vibrate,  so  that 
in  the  resulting  sound  there  will  be  leis  of  the  fundamental 
tone  and  more  of  the  original  clang,  till  at  last,  when  the 
peal  is  reduced  to  one  bell,  on  which  innumerable  hammers 
are  continually  plying  their  strokes  all  out  of  time,  the 
sound  will  become  a  mere  noise,  in  which  no  musical  note 
can  be  distinguished. 

In  the  case  of  a  gas  we  have  an  immense  number  of 
molecules,  each  of  which  ^is  set  in  vibration  when  it 
encounters  another  molecule,  and  continues  to  vibrate  as 
it  describes  its  free  path,  ^he  molecule  is  a  material 
system,  the  parts  of  which  are  connected  in  some  definite 
way,  and  from  the  fact  that  the  bright  lines  of  the 
emitted  light  have  always  the  same  wave-lengths,  we  learn 
that  the  vibrations  corresponding  to  these  lines  are  always 
executed  in  the  same  periodic  time,  and  therefore  the  force 
tending  to  restore  any  part  of  the  molecule  to  its  position 
of  equilibrium  in  the  molecule  must  be  proportional  to  its 
displacement  relatire  to  that  position. 

From  the  mathematical  theory  of  the  motion  of  such  a 
system,  it  appears  that  the  whole  motion  may  be  analysed 
into  the  following  parts,  which  may  be  considered  each 
independently  of  the  others: — In  the  first  place,  the  centre 
of  mass  of  the  system  moves  with  uniform  velocity  in  a 
straight  linB.  This  velocity  may  have  any  value.  In  the 
second  place,  there  may  be  a  motion  of  rotation,  the  angular 
momentum  of  the  system  about  its  centre  of  mass  remain- 
ing during  the  free  path  constant  in  magnitude  and  direc- 
tion. This  angular  momentum  may  have  any  value 
whatever,  and  its  axis  may  have  any  direction.  In  the 
third  place,  the  remainder  of  the  motion  is  made  up  of  a 
number  of  component  motions,  each  of  which  is  an 
hirmoaic  vibration  of  a  given  type.  In. each  type  of 
vibration  the  periodic  time  of  vibration  is  determined  by 
the  nature  of  the  sj'stem,  and  is  invariable  for  the  same 
system.  The  rclativeamount  of  motion  in  different  parts 
of  the  system  is  also  determinate  for  each  type,  but  the 
absolute  amount  of  motion  and  the  phase  of  the  vibration 
of  each  type  are  determined  by  the  particular  sircumstanccs 
of  the  last  encounter,  and  may  vary  in  any  manner  from 
one  encounter  to  another. 

The  values  of  the  periodic  times  of  the  different  tj-pes  of 
vibration  are  given  by  the  roots  of  a  certain  equation,  the 
form  of  which  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  connections  of 
the  system.  In  certain  exceptionally  simple  cases,  as,  for 
instance,  in  thatof  a  uniform  string  stretched  between  two 
fixed  points,  the  roots  of  the  equation  are  connected  by 
simple  arithmetical  relations,  and  if  the  internal  structure 
of  a  molecule  had  an  analogous  kind  of  simplicity,  wo 
might  expect  to  find  in  the  spectrum  of  the  molecule  a 

'  Part  of  the  «neTKy  of  motion  is,  in  the  caso  of  the  bell,  dinipiited 
(n  tbo  substance  of  the  bell  in  virtue  of  the  viscosity  of  the  metal,  and 
assumes  the  form  of  beat,  but  it  is  not  necessary,  for  the  purpose 
of  illustration,  to  take  this  cause  of  the  decay  of  vibralions  into 

ttOCOUDl, 


series  of  bright  lines,  whose  wave-lengths  are  in  simple 
arithmetical  ratios. 

But  if  we  suppose  the  molecule  to  be  constituted  accord- 
ing to  some  different  type,  as,  for  instance,  if  it  is  an 
elastic  sphere,  or  if  it  consists  of  a  finite  number  of  atoms 
kept  in  their  places  by  attractive  and  repulsive  forces,  the 
roots  of  the  equation  will  not  be  conuected  with  each  other 
by  any  simple  relations,  but  each  may  be  made  to  vary 
independently  of  the  others  by  a  suitable  change  of  the 
connections  of  the  system.  Hence,  we  have  no  right  to 
expect  any"  definite  numerical  relations  among  the  wave- 
lengths of  the  bright  lines  of  a  gas. 

The  bright  lines  of  the  spectrum  of  an  incandescent  gas 
are  therefore  due  to  the  harmonic  vibrations  of  the  mole- 
cules of  the  gas  during  their  free  paths.  The  only  effect 
of  the  motion  of  the  centre  of  mass  of  thi  Tioleciile  is  to 
alter  the  time  of  vibration  of  the  light  as  received  by  a 
stationary  observer.  When  the  molecule  is  coming  towards 
the  observer,  each  successive  impulse  will  have  a  shorter 
distance  to  travel  before  it  reaches  his  eye,  and  therefore 
the  impulses  will  appear  to  succeed  ach  other  more  rapidly 
than  if  the  molecule  were  at  rest,  and  the  contrary  will  be 
the  case  if  the  molecule  is  receding  from  the  observer. 
The  bright  line  corresponding  to  the  vibration  will  there- 
fore be  shifted  in  the  spectrum  towards  the  blue  end  when 
the  molecule  is  approaching,  and  towards  the  red  end  when 
it  is  receding  from  the  observer.  By  observations  of  the 
displacement  of  certain  Lnes  in  the  spectrum,  Dr  Huggins 
and  others  have  measured  the  rate  of  approach  or  of 
recession  of  certain  stars  with  respect  to  the  earth,  and  Mr 
Lockyer  has  determined  the  rate  of  motion  of  tornadoes  in 
the  sun.  But  Lord  Rayleigh  has  pointed  out  that  accord- 
ing to  the  dynamical  theory  of  gases  the  molecules  are 
moving  hither  and  thither  with  so  great  velocity  that, 
however  narrow  and  sharply-defined  any  bright  line  due  to 
a  single  molecule  may  be,  the  displacement  of  the  line 
towards  the  blue  by  the  approaching  molecules,  and 
towards  the  red  by  the  receding  molecules,  will  produce  a 
certain  amount  of  widening  and  blurring  of  the  line  in  the 
spectrum,  so  thai  there  b  a  limit  to  the  sharpness  of  de- 
finition of  the  lines  of  a  gas.  The  widening  of  the  lines 
due  to  this  cause  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  velocity  of 
agitation  of  the  molecules.  It  will  be  greatest  for  the 
molecules  of  smallest  mass,  as  those  of  hydrogen,  and  it  will 
increcje  with  the  temperature.  Hence  the  measurement 
of  the  breadth  of  the  hydrogen  lines,  such  as  C  or  F  in 
the  spectrum  of  the  solar  prominences,  may  furnish 
evidence  that  the  temperature  of  the  sun  cannot  exceed  & 
certain  value. 

On  the  Theory  op  Vortex  Atoms. 

The  equations  which  form  the  foundations  of  the 
mathematical  theory  of  fluid  motion  were  fully  laid  down 
by  Lagrange  and  the  great  mathematicians  of  the  end  of 
last  century,  but  the'DTrtnbcr  of  solutions  of  cases  of  fluid 
motion  which  had  been  actually  worked  out  remained  very 
small,  and  almost  aU  of  these  belonged  to  a  particular  type 
of  fluid  motion,  which  has  been  since  named  the  irrota- 
tional  type.  It  had  been  shown,  indeed,  by  Lagrange, 
that  a  perfect  fluid,  if  its  motion  b  at  any  time  irrotational, 
will  continue  in  all  time  coming  to  move  in  an  irrotational 
manner,  so  that,  by  assuming  that  the  fluid  was  at  one 
time  at  rest,  the  calculation  of  its  subsequent  motion  may 
be  very  much  simphficd. 

It  was  reserved  for  HelmhoUz  to  point  out  the  very 
remarkable  properties  of  rotational  motion  in  a  homo- 
geneous incompressible  fluid  devoid  of  all  viscosity.  We 
must  first  define  tho  physical  properties  of  such  a  fluid.  In 
the  first  place,  it  is  a  material  substance.     Its  motioo  is 


44 


ATOM 


continuous  in  space  and  time,  and  if  we  follow  any  portion 
of  it  as  it  moves,  the  mass  of  that  portion  remains  invari- 
able. These  properties  it  shares  with  all  material  sub- 
stances. In  the  next  place,  it  is  incompressible.  The 
form  of  a  given  portion  of  the  fluid  may  change,  but  its 
volume  remains  invariable ;  in  other  words,  the  density  of 
the  fluid  remains  the  same  during  its  motion.  Besides' this, 
the  fluid  is  homogeneous,  or  the  density  of  all  parts  of  the 
fluid  is  the  same.  It  is  also  continuous,  so  that  the  mass 
of  the  fluid  contained  within  any  closed  sifrface  is  always 
exactly  proportional  to  the  volume  contained  within  that 
surface.  This  is  equivalent  to  asserting  that  the  fluid  is 
not  made  up  of  molecules  ;  for,  if  it  were,  the  mass  would 
vary  in  a  discontinuous  manner  as  the  volume  increases 
continuously,  because  first  one  and  then  another  molecule 
would  be  included  within  the  closed  surfaca  Lastly,  it  is 
a  perfect  fluid,  or,  in  other  words,  the  stress  between  one 
portion  and  a  contiguous  portion  is  always  normal  to  the 
surface  which  separates  these  portions,  and  this  whether 
the  fluid  is  at  rest  or  in  motion. 

We  have  seen  that  in  a  molecular  fluid  the  interdiffusion 
of  the  molecules  causes  an  interdiffusion  of  motion  of 
diiferenf  parts  of  the  fluid,  so  that  the  action  between 
contiguous  parts  is  no  longer  normal  but  in  a  direction 
tending  to  diminish  their  relative  motion.  Hence  the 
perfect  fluid  cannot  be  molecular. 

All  that  is  necessary  in  order  to  form  a  correct  mathe- 
matical theory  of  a  material  system  is  that  its  properties 
shall  be  clearly  defined  and  shall  bo  consistent  with  each 
other.  This  is  essential ;  but  whether  a  substance  having 
such  properties  actually  exists  is  a  question  which  comes  to 
be  considered  only  when  we  propose  to  make  some  practi- 
cal application  of  the  results  of  the  mathematical  theory. 
The  properties  of  our  perfect  liquid  are  clearly  defined  and 
consistent  with  each  other,  and  from  the  mathematical 
theory  we  can  deduce  remarkable  results,  some  of  which 
may  be  illustrated  in  a  rough  way  by  means  of  fluids 
which  are  by  no  means  perfect  in  the  sense  of  not  being 
viscous,  such,  for  instance,  as  air  and  water. 

The  motion  of  a  fluid  is  said  to  be  irrotational  when  it 
ia  such  that  if  a  spherical  portion  of  the  fluid  were  sud- 
denly solidified,  the  solid  sphere  so  formed  would  not  be 
rotating  about  any  axis.  \\'Tien  the  motion  of  the  fluid  is 
rotational  the  axis  and  angular  velocity  of  the  rotation  of 
any  small  part  of  the  fluid  are  those  of  a  small  spherical 
portion  suddenly  solidified. 

The  mathematical  expression  of  these  definitions  is  as 
follows; — Let  «,  «,  w  bo  the  components  of  the  velocity  of 
the  fluid  at  the  point  (x,  y,  z),  and  let 

_  dv     dw       -  _  dw     du        _dti     dv         ... 
°'^'da~dy''^"dx~dx''^^ly~.dx        ^'' 
then  a,  P,  y  are  the  components  of  the  velocity  of  rotation 
of  the  fluid  at  the  point  (x,  y,  z).      The  axis  of  rotation 
ia  in  the  direction  of  the  resultant  of  a,  /S,  and  y,  and 
the  velocity  of  rotation,  w,  is  measured  by  this  re.sultant. 

A  line  drawn  in  the  fluid,  so  that  at  every  point  of  the 
line 

cL   di       fi  d»      •/  d»      u    '       '       ^'''' 

where  i  ia  the  length  of  the  Une  up  to  the  point  x,  y,  z,  ia 
called  a  vortex  Une.  Its  direction  coincides  at  every  point 
with  that  of  the  axis  of  rotation  of  the  fluid. 

Wo  may  now  prove  tho  theorem  of»  Flelmboltz,  that  the 
points  of  tho  fluid  which  at  any  instant  lie  in  the  same 
vortex  line  continue  to  lie  in  tho  same  vortex  line  during 
tho  whole  motion  of  the  fluid. 

The  equations  of  motion  of  a  fluid  arc  of  the  form 

Jit     dp       dV     -  ,„, 


when  p  is  the  density,  wbich  in  the  case  df  ourhomogene. 
ous  incompressible  fluid  we  may  assume  to  be  unity,  tht 

operator  c-  represents  the  rate  of  variation  of  the  symbol  ts 

which  it  is  prefixed   at  a  point  which  is  carried   forivariJ 
with  the  fluid,  so  that 


on     du     .  du       du 


du 


It      dt        dz        dy        dz 


(1). 


p  is  the  pressure,  and  V  is  the  potential  of  external  forcp.v 
There  are  two  other  equations  of  similar  form  in  y  and  i 
Differentiating  the  equation  in  y  with  respect  to  ?,  anil 
that  in  j  with  re,<;pect  to  y,  and  subtracting  the  second  froa 
the  first,  we  find 

dz  It     dy  lt~  •       •       \^'- 

Performing  the  differentiation.s  and  remembering  equa- 
tions (1)  and  also  the  condition  of  incompressibility, 

du,     ir-     dw     . 

di+d-,+  dJ  =  o    •     •     •    («)• 

we  find 

Sec        du      „  di4        du  ,>, 

Tt^^dx-^^d-y^yd.       ■       ■       (')■ 

Now,  let  us  suppose  a  vortex  line  drawn  in  the  fluid  sc 
as  always  to  begin  at  the  same  particle  of  the  fluid.  The 
components  of  the  velocity  of  this  point  are  u,  v,  w.  Let 
us  find  those  of  a  point  on  the  moving  vortex  line  at  ^ 
distance  ds  from  this  point  where 

ds  =  wd{T  .       ,       .       (8). 

The  co-ordinates  of  this  point  are 

X  +  ad(T  ,  y  +  (id(j  ,  2  +  yd<r  .       .       (9)^ 

and  the  components  of  its  velocity  are 


u  +  -^d<r  .  v  +  ^^d<r  ,  u,  +  j^d<r 


(10). 


Consider  the   first   of   these   components.     In    virtue   of 
equation  (7)  we  may  write  it 


du     ,        du  „ ,        du    J 
u-\-—  adir  -(-  -y  parr  -H  -j-^  yda 


dx 


dy^ 


& 


du  dx  ,     ■  du  dy  J        du  dx   . 
«t-hT-  T-"0•-^3-  T-a<r -1--T-  -r  d<r 

dx  do  dy  do  dz  du 


du  , 
u^-  —  d<t 

Otf 


(H). 


(12). 


(13). 


But  this  represents  the  value  of  tho  component  u  of  tht 
velocity  of  the  fluid  itself  at  the  same  point,  and  the  samt 
thing  may  be  proved  of  the  other  components. 

Hence  the  velocity  of  the  second  point  on  the  vortex  lin« 
is  identical  with  that  of  the  fluid  at  that  point.  In  other 
words,  the  vortex  line  swims  along  with  the  fluid,  and  if 
always  formed  of  the  same  row  of  fluid  particles.  Tht 
vortex  line  is  therefore  no  mere  mathematical  symbol,  but 
has  a  physical  existence  continuous  in  time  and  space. 

By  differentiating  equations  (1)  with  respect  to  x,  y,  ano 
z  respectively,  and  adding  tho  results,  we  obtain  the  equ» 
tion — 


dx     dy     dz 


(14). 


This  ia  an  efiuation  of  the  same  form  with  (G),  whick 
expresses  tho  condition  of  flow  of  a  fluid  of  invariable 
density.  Hence,  if  we  imagine  a  fluid,  quite  iuJepondenl 
of  tho  original  fluid,  whoso  components  of  velocity  are  o, 
P,  y,  this  imaginary  fluid  will  flow  without  filtering  iti 
density. 

Now,  consider  s  closed  curve  in  sjiace,  and  let  »ortci 


ATOM 


45 


Inrs  be  drawn  in  both  directions  from  every  point  of  tliis 
>urve.  These  vortex  lines  will  form  a  tubular  surface, 
which  13  called  a  vortex  tube  or  a  vortex  filament  Since 
the  imaginary  fluid  flows  along  the  vortex  lines  without 
thange  of  density,  the  quantity  which  in  unit  of  time 
ilons  through  any  section  of  the  same  vortex  tube  must  he 
the  same.  Hence,  at  any  section  of  a  vortex  tube  the 
product  of  the  area  of  the  section  into  the  mean  velocity  of 
rotation  is  the  same.  This  quantity  is  called  the  strcmjth 
•f  the  vortex  tube. 

A  vortex  tube  cannot  begin  or  end  within  the  fluid  ,  for, 
if  it  did,  the  imaginary  fluid,  whose  velocity  components 
»re  a,  /9,  y,  would  he  generated  from  nothing  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  tube,  and  reduced  to  nothing  at  the  end  of  it. 
Hence,  if  the  tube  has  a  beginning  and  an  end,  they  must 
lie  on  the  surface  of  the  fluid  mass.  If  the  fluid  is  infinite 
the  vortex  tube  must  bo  inhnite,  or  else  it  must  return 
into  itself. 

We  have  thus  arrived  at  the  following  remarkable 
theorems  relating  to  a  finite  vortex  tube  in  an  infinite 
Suid  : — (1.)  It  returns  into  itself,  forming  a  closed  ring. 
We  may  therefore  describe  it  as  a  vortex  ring.  (2.)  It 
ilways  consists  of  the  same  portion  of  the  fluid.  Hence 
its  volume  is  invariable.  (3  )  Its  strength  remains  always 
the  same.  Hence  the  velocity  of  rotation  at  any  section 
Taries  inversely  as  the  area  of  that  section,  and  that  of  any 
legment  varies  directly  as  the  length  of  that  segment.  (4.) 
Ko  part  of  the  fluid  which  is  not  onginally  in  a  state  of 
rotational  motion  can  ever  enter  into  that  state,  and  no  part 
«f  the  fluid  whose  motion  is  rotational  can  ever  cease  to  move 
totationally.  (5.)  No  vortex  tube  can  ever  pass  through 
•ny  other  vortex  tube,  or  through  any  of  its  own  convolu- 
tions Hence,  if  two  vortex  tubes  are  linked  together, 
they  can  never  be  sejiarated,  and  if  a  single  vortex  tube  is 
knotted  on  itself;  it  can  never  become  untied.  (6.)  The 
motion  at  any  instant  of  every  part  of  th«  fluid,  including 
the  vortei  rings  themselves,  may  be  accurately  represented 
Vy  conceiving  an  electric  current  to  occupy  the  place  of 
tach  vortex  ring,  the  strength  of  the  current  being  pro- 
portional to  that  of  the  ring.  The  magnetic  force  at  any 
point  of  space  will  then  represent  in  direction  and  magni- 
tude the  velocity  of  the  fluid  at  the  corresponding  point  of 
the  fluid. 

These  properties  of  vortei  rings  suggested  to  Sir  William 
Thomson'  the  possibility  of  founding  on  them  a  new  form 
of  the  atomic  theory.  The  conditions  which  must  be 
latisfied  by  an  atom  are — permanence  in  magnitude,  capa- 
bility of  internal  motion  or  vibration,  and  a  sufficient 
imount  of  possible  characteristics  to  account  for  the  difl'er- 
tnce  between  atoms  of  different  kinds. 

The  small  hard  body  imagined  by  Lucretius,  and  adopted 
by  Newton,  was  invented  for  the  express  purpose  of  ac- 
tounting  for  the  permanence  of  the  properties  of  bodies 
But  it  fails  to  account  for  the  vibrations  of  a  molecule  as 
revealed  by  the  spectroscope.  We  may  indeed  suppose 
the  atom  elastic,  but  this  is  to  endow  it  with  the  very  pro- 
perty for  the  explanation  of  which,  as  exhibited  in  aggre- 
jate  bodies,  the  atomic  corstitution  was  originally  assumed. 
The  massive  centres  of  force  imagined  by  Boscovich  may 
iavo  more  to  recommend  them  to  the  mathematician,  who 
kas  no  scruple  in  supposing  them  to  be  invested  with  the 
power  of  attracting  and  repelling  according  to  any  law  of 
the  distance  which  it  may  please  him  to  assign.  Such 
centres  of  force  are  no  doubt  in  Vheir  own  nature  indivisible, 
but  then  they  are  also,  singly,  incapable  of  vibration.  To 
obtain  vibrations  we  must  imagine  molecules  consisting  of 
many  such  centres,  but,  in  so  doing,  the  possibility  of  these 
tentrcs  being   separated   altogether   is   again   introduced. 

v>Od  Voltes  Atoms,"  Pne  Roy  Sot   e(fin.,  IBtk  February  1867 


Besides,  it  is  in  questionable  scientific  taste,  after  using 
atoms  so  freely  to  get  rid  of  forces  acting  at  sensible  dis- 
tances, to  make  the  whole  function  of  the  atomt  on  action 
at  insensible  distances. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  vortex  ring  of  Ilelmholti, 
imagined  as  the  true  form  of  the  atom  by  Thomson,  satisfies 
more  of  the  conditions  than  any  atom  hitherto  imagined. 
In  the  first  place,  it  is  quantitatively  f'Crmanent,  as  regards 
its  volume  and  its  strength, — two  independent  quantities. 
It  is  also  qualitatively  permanent  as  regards  its  degree  of 
implication,  whether  "  knottedness  "  on  itself  or  "bnked- 
ncss"  with  other  vortei  rings.  At  the  same  time,  it  is 
capable  of  infinite  changes  of  form,  and  may  execute 
vibrations  of  different  periods,  as  we  know  that  niolecules 
do.  And  the  number  of  essentially  diflTerent  implications 
of  vortex  rings  may  be  very  great  without  supposing  the 
degree  of  implication  of  any  of  them  very  higL 

But  the. greatest  recommendation  of  this  theory,  from  a 
philosophical  point  of  view,  is  that  its  success  in  cxjilaining 
phenomena  does  not  depend  on  the  uigenuity  with  which 
its  contrivers  "  save  appearances,"  by  introducing  first  one 
hypothetical  force  and  then  another.  When  the  vortex 
atom  is  once  set  in  motion,  all  its  properties  are  absolutely 
fixed  and  determined  by  the  laws  of  motion  of  the  primitive 
fl  uid,  which  are  fully  expressed  in  the  fundamental  equations. 
The  disciple  of  Lucretius  may  cut  and  carve  his  solid 
atoms  in  the  hope  of  getting  them  to  combine  into  worlds; 
the  follower  of  Boscovich  may  imagine  new  laws  of  force  t« 
meet  the  requirements  of  each  new  phenomenon  ;  but  he 
who  dares  to  plant  his  feet  in  the  path  opened  up  by 
Hehnholtz  and  Thomson  has  no  such  resources.  His 
primitive  fluid  has  no  other  properties  than  inertia,  invari- 
able density,  and  perfect  mobility,  and  the  method  by  which 
the  motion  of  this  fluid  is  to  be  traced  is  pure  mathematical 
analysis.  The  difficulties  of  this  method  are  enormous,  but 
the  glor)'  of  surmounting  them  would  be  unique. 

There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  an  encounter  between 
two  vortex  atoms  would  be  in  its  general  character  similar 
to  those  which  we  have  already  described.  Indeed,  the 
encounter  between  two  smoke  rings  in  air  gives  a  very 
lively  illustration  of  the  elasticity  of  vortei  rings. 

But  one  of  the  first,  if  not  the  very  first  desideratum  in 
a  complete  thcor)'  of  matter  is  to  explain — first,  mass,  and 
second,  gravitation.  To  explain  mass  may  seem  an  absurd 
achievement.  We  genel-ally  sui)pose  that  it  is  of  the 
essence  of  matter  to  be  the  receptacle  of  momentum  and 
energy,  and  even  Thomson,  in  his  definition  of  his  primi- 
tive fluid,  attributes  to  it  the  possession  of  mass.  But 
according  to  Thomson,  though  the  primitive  fluid  is  the 
only  true  matter,  yet  that  which  wo  call  Tuatter  is  not  the 
primitive  fluid  itself,  but  a  mode  of  motion  of  that  primi- 
tive fluid.  It  is  the  mode  of  motion  which  constitutes  the 
vortex  rings,  and  which  furnishes  us  with  examples  of  that 
permanence  and  continuity  of  existence  which  we  aro 
accustomed  to  attribute  to  matter  itself.  The  primitive 
fluid,  the  only  true  matter,  entirely  eludes  our  perceptions 
when  it  is  not  endued  with  the  mode  of  motion  which 
converts  certain  portions  of  it  into  vortei  rings,  and  thus 
renders  it  molecular. 

In  Tliomson's  theory,  therefore,  the  mass  of  bodies 
requires  explanation.  We  have  to  explain  the  inertia  of 
what  is  only  a  mode  of  motion,  and  inertia  is  a  property  of 
matter,  not  of  modes  of  motion.  It  is  true  that  a  vortex 
ring  at  any  given  instant  has  a  definite  momentum  and  a 
definite  energy,  but  to  show  that  bodies  bitilt  up  of  vortex 
rings  would  have  such  momentum  and  energy  as  we  know 
thcnvto  have  is,  in  the  present  state  of  the  theory,  a  very 
difficult  task. 

It  may  seem  hard  to  say  of  an  infant  theory  that  it  is 
bound  to  explain  gravitation      Since  the  time  of  Newton. 


46 


ATOM 


the  doctrine  of  gravitation  has  been  admitted  and  ex- 
pounded, till  it  has  gradually  acquired  tie  character  rather 
of  an  ultimate  fact  than  of  a  fact  to  be  explained. 

It  seems  doubtful  whether  Imcretius  considers  gravita- 
tion to  be  an  essential  property  of  matter,  as  he  seems  to 
assert  in  the  very  remarkable  Lines — - 

"  Nam  Bi  tantundem  eat  in  lan:e  gloruere,  quantum 
Corporb  in  plurabo  est,  tantundem  pendere  par  est 
Corporis  officium  est  quoniam  premere  omnia  deorsum." 
—  De  RcTum  Katura,  i.  361. 

If  this  is  the  true  opinion  of  Lucretius,  and_  if  the  down- 
ward flight  of  the  atoms  arises,  in  his  view,  from  their  own 
gravity,  it  seems  very  doubtful  whether  he  attributed  the 
weight  of  sensible  bodies  to  the  impact  of  the  atoms. 
The  latter  opinion  is  that  of  Le  Sage,  of  Geneva,  pro- 
pounded in  his  L/ucrece  Newtonien,  and  in  his  Traite 
lie  Physique  Mecanique,  published,  along  with  a  second 
treatise  of  his  own,  by  Pierre  Prevost,  of  Geneva,  in 
1818.^  The  theory  of  Le  Sage  is  that  the  gravitation 
of  bodies  towards  each  other  is  caused  by  the  impact  of 
streams  of  atoms  flying  in  all  directions  through  space. 
These  atoms  he  calb  ultramundane  corpuscules,  because  he 
conceives  them  to  come  in  all  directions  from  regions  far 
beyond  that  part  of  the  system  of  the  world  which  is  in 
any  way  known  to  us.  He  supposes  each  of  them  to  be  so 
small  that  a  collision  with  another  ultramundane  corpus- 
cule  is  an  event  of  very  rare  occurrence.  It  is  by  striking 
against  the  molecules  of  gross  matter  that  they  discharge 
their  function  of  drawing  bodies  towards  each  other.  A 
body  placed  by  itself  in  free  space  and  exposed  to  the 
impacts  of  these  corpuscules  would  be  bandied  about  by 
them  in  all  directions,  but  because,  on  the  whole,  it 
receives  as  many  blows  on  one  side  as  on  another,  it  cannot 
thereby  acquire  any  sensible  velocity.  But  if  there  are 
two  bodies  in  space,  each  of  them  will  screen  the  other 
from  a  certain  proportion  of  the  corpuscular  bombardment, 
60  that  a  smaller  number  of  corpuscules  will  strike  either 
body  on  that  side  which  is  next  the  other  body,  while  the 
number  of  corpuscules  which  strike  it  in  oth^r  directions 
remains  the  same. 

Each  body  will  therefore  be  urged  towards  the  other  by 
the  effect  of  the  excess  of  the  impacts  it  receives  on  the 
side  furthest  from  the  other.  If  we  take  account  of  the 
impacts  of  those  corpuscules  only  which  come  directly  from 
infinite  space,  and  leave  out  of  consideration  those  which 
have  already  struck  mundane  bodies,  it  is  easy  to  calculate 
the  result  on  the  two  bodies,  supposing  their  dimensions 
small  compared  with  the  distance  between  them. 

The  force  of  attraction  would  vary  directly  as  the  product 
of  the  areas  of  the  sections  of  the  bodies  taken  normal  to 
the  distance  and  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance 
between  them 

Now,  the  attraction  of  gravitation  varies  as  the  product 
of  the  masses  of  the  bodies  between  which  it  acts,  and 
inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance  between  them. 
If,  then,  we  can  imagine  a  constitution  of  bodies  such  that 
the  effective  areas  of  tho  bodies  are  proportional  to  their 
masses,  we  shall  make  the  two  laws  coincide.  Here,  then, 
eeems  to  bo  a  path  leading  towards  an  explanation  of  the 
law  of  gravitation,  which,  if  it  can  be  shown  to  bo  in  other 
respects  consistent  with  facts,  may  turn  oiit  to  bo  a  royal 
road  into  the  very  arcana  of  science. 

Lo  Sage  himself  shows  that,  in  order  to  make  the  effec- 
tive area  of  a  body,  in  virtue  of  which  it  acts  as  a  screen 
to  tho  streams  of  ultramundane  corpuscules,  proportional  to 
the  mass  of  tlio  body,  whether  tho  body  be  large  or  small, 
we  must  admit  that  tho  size  of  the  solid  atoms  of  the  body 
13  exceedingly  small  compared  with  the  distances  between 

'  ao«  llso  CoTUtilulUm  de  la  Matihe,  4e.,  par  le  P  Loray,  raria, 
1869. 


them,  so  that  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  corpuscules 
are  stopped  even  by  the  densest  and  largest  bodies.  "We 
may  picture  to  ourselves  the  streams  of  corpuscules  coming 
in  every  direction,  like  light  from  a  uniformly  iJlumjnated 
sky.  We  may  imagine  a  material  body  to  consist  of  a  con- 
geries of  atoms  at  considerable  distances  from  each  other, 
and  we  may  represent  this  by  a  swarm  of  insects  flying  in 
the  air.  To  an  observer  at  a  distance  this  swarm  will  be 
visible  as  a  slight  darkening  of  the  sky  in  a  certain  quarter. 
This  darkening  will  represent  the  action  of  the  material 
body  in  stopping  the  flight  of  the  corpuscules.  Now,  if  the 
proportion  of  light  stopped  by  the  swarm  is  very  small,  two 
such  swarms  will  stop  nearly  the  same  amount  of  light, 
whether  they  are  in  a  line  with  the  eye  or  not,  but  if  one 
of  them  stops  an  appreciable  proportion  of  light,  there  will 
not  be  so  much  left  to  be  stopped  by  the  other,  and  the 
effect  of  two  swarms  in  a  line  with  the  eye  will  be  less 
than  the  sum  of  the  two  effects  separately. 

Now,  we  know  that  the  eS'ect  of  the  attraction  of  the  sun 
and  earth  on  the  moon  is  not  appreciably  different  when 
the  moon  is  eclipsed  than  on  other  occasions  when  full 
moon  occurs^  without  an  eclipse.  This  shows  that*  the 
number  of  the  corpuscules  which  are  stopped  by  bodies  of 
the  size  and  mass  of  the  earth,  and  even  the  sun,  is  very 
small  compared  with,  the  number  which  pass  straight 
through  the  earth  or  the  sun  without  striking  a  single 
molecule.  To  the  streams  of  corpuscules  the  earth  and  the 
sun  are  mere  systems  of  atoms  scattered  in  space,  which 
present  far  more  openings  than  obstacles  to  their  rectilinear 
flight. 

Such  is  the  ingenious  doctrine  of  Le  Sage,  by  which  he 
endeavours  to  explain  universal  gravitation.  Lot  us  try  to 
form  some  estimate  of  this  continual  bombardment  of 
ultramundane  corpuscules  which  is  being  kept  up  on  all 
sides  of  us. 

We  have  seen  that  the  sun  stops  but  a  very  small  frac- 
tion of  the  corpuscules  which  enter  it.  The  earth,  being  a 
smaller  body,  stops  a  still  smaller  proportion  ot  them. 
The  proportion  of  those  which  are  stopped  "by  a  small 
body,  say  a  1  B>  shot,  must  be  smaller  still  in  an  enormous 
degree,  because  its  thickness  is  exceedingly  amall  compared 
with  that  of  the  earth. 

Now,  the  weight  of  the  ball,  or  its  tendency  towards  the 
earth,  reproduced,  according  to  this  theory,  by  the  excess 
of  the  impacts  of  the  corpuscules  which  come  from  above 
over  the  impacts  of  those  which  come  from  below,  and 
have  passed  through  the  earth.  Either  of  these  quantities 
is  an  exceedingly  small  fraction  of  the  momentum  of  the 
whole  number  of  corpuscules  which  pass  through  the  ball 
in  a  second,  and  their  difference  is  a  small  fraction  of 
either,  and  yet  it  is  equivalent  to  the  weight  of  a-  pound. 
The  velocity  of  the  corpuscules  must  be  enormously  greater 
than  that  of  any  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  othenvise,  as  may 
easily  bo  shown,  they  would  act  as  a  resisting  medium 
opposing  the  motion  of  the  planets.  Now,  tho  energy  of  a 
moving  system  is  half  tho  produqt  of  its  momentum  into  its 
velocity.  Hence  the  energy  of  the  corpuscules,  which  by 
their  impacts  on  the  ball  during  one  second  urge  it  towards 
the  earth,  must  be  a  nmnber  of  foot-pounds  equal  to  tlie 
number  of  feet  over  which  a  corpusdulo  travels  in  a  second, 
til  it  is  to  say,  not  less  than  thousands  of  millions.  But 
thi.i  is  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  energy  of  all  the  impacts 
which  tho  atoms  of  tho  ball  receive  from  the  innumerable 
strttims  of  corpuscules  which  fall  upon  it  in  all  directions. 
Hence  the  rate  at  which  tho  energy  of  the  corpuscules 
is  "pent  in  order  to  maintain  the  gravitating  property  of  a 
single  pound,  is  at  least  millions  of  millions  of  foot-pounds 
jier  second. 

What  becomes  of  this  enormous  quantity  of  energy?  If 
the  corpuucnlca,  after  striking  tho   atoms,  fly  off  »itli  » 


ATOM 


47 


veJooty  eqaal  to  that  wt-reii  they  had  before,  they  irill 
carry  iheir  energy  away  with  them  into  the  ultranikiCKLiae 
Mgioiu.  But  if  thi3  be  t^  case,  then  the  corpusculea 
rebouoding  from  the  body  in  any  given  diroctiua  will  be 
both  in  number  and  in  velocity  exactly  equivalent  to  those 
which  are  prevented  froea  proceeding  m  that  direction  by 
being  deflected  by  the  body,  and  it  may  be  shown  that  this 
will  be  the  case  whatever  be  the  shape  of  the  body,  and 
however  many  bodies  oay  be  present  in  tLo  field.  Thus,  the 
rebounding  corpuscuJes  exactly  make  up  for  those  which 
are  deflected  by  the  body,  and  there  will  be  no  excess  of 
the  impacts  on  any  other  body  m  one  direction  or  another. 

The  explanation  of  gravitation,  therefore,  falls  to  the 
ground  if  the  corpuscules  are  like  perfectly  elastic  spheres, 
and  rebound  with  a  velocity  of  separatioa  equal  to  that  of 
approach.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  they  rebound  with  a 
smaller  velocity,  the  tlfect  of  attraction  between  the  bodies 
will  no  doubt  be  produced,  but  then  we  have  to  find  what 
becomes  of  the  energy  which  the  molecules  have  brought 
with  them  but  have  not  carried  away. 

If  any  appreciable  fraction  of  this  energy  is  communicated 
to  the  body  in  the  form  of  heat,  the  amount  of  heat  so 
generated  would  in  a  few  seconds  raise  it,  and  in  like 
manner  the  whole  malenal  universe,  to  a  white  heat. 

It  has  been  suggested  by  Sir  \V  Thomson  that  the 
corpuscules  may  be  so  constructed  so  to  carry  oflF  their 
energy  with  them,  provided  that  part  of  their  kinetic  energy 
is  transformed,  during  impact,  from  energy  of  translation 
to  energy  of  rotation  or  vibration.  For  this  purpose  the 
corpuscules  must  be  material  systems,  not  mere  points. 
Thomson  suggests  that  they  are  vortex  atoms,  which  are 
Bet  inti  a  state  of  vibration  at  impact,  and  go  off  with  a 
emaller  velocity  of  translation,  but  m  a  state  of  violent 
vibration.  He  has  also  suggested  the  possibility  of  the 
vortex  corpuscule  regaiuing  its  swiftness  and  losing  part 
of  its  vibratory  agitation  by  communioa  vith  its  kindred 
corpuscules  in  infinite  space. 

We  have  devoted  more  space  to  this  theory  than  it  seems 
to  deserve,  because  it  is  ingenious,  and  because  it  is  the 
only  theory  of  the  cause  of  gravitation  which  has  been  so 
far  developed  as  to  be  capable  of  being  attacked  and 
dcfi'nded  It  does  not  appear  to  us  that  it  can  account  for 
the  temperature  of  bodies  remaining  moderate  while  their 
atoms  are  exposed  to  the  bombardment.  The  temperature 
o(  bodies  must  tend  to  approach  that  at  which  the  average 
kinetic  energy  of  a  molecule  of  the  body  would  be  equal  to 
the  average  kinetic  energy  of  an  ultramundane  corpuscule. 

Now,  suppose  a  plane  surface  to  exist  which  stops  alt  the 
corpuscules.  The  pressure  on  this  plane  will  be  /)  =  NMu' 
where  M  is  the  mass  of  a  corpuscule,  N  the  numlier  in 
unit  of  volume,  and  u  it&  vehicity  normal  to  the  plane. 
Now,  we  know  that  the  very  greatest  pressure  existing  in 
the  universe  must  be  jnuch  less  than  the  pressure  p,  which 
would  be  exerted  against  a  body  which  stops  aU  the 
corpuscules.  Wo  are  also  tolerably  certain  that  N,  the 
number  of  corpuscules  which  are  at  any  one  time  within 
unit  of  volume,  is  small  compared  with  the  value  of  N  fur 
the  molecules  of  ordinary  bodies.  Henoe,  Mu'  must  be 
enormous  compared  with  the  corresponding  quantity  for 
ordinary  bodies,  and  it  follows  that  the  impact  of  the 
corpuscules  would'  raise  all  bodies  to  an  enormous  tempera- 
ture. We  may  also  observe  that  according  to  this  theory 
the  habitable  universe,  which  we  are  accustomed  to  regard 
as  the  scene  of  a  magnificent  illustration  of  the  conservation 
of  energy  as  the  fundamental  phAciple  of  all  nature,  is  in 
reality  maintained  in  working  order  onlyliy  an  enormous 
expenditure  of  external  power,  which  would  be  nothing 
less  ihaT  ruinous  if  the  supply  were  drawn  from  anywhere 
else  than  from  the  infinitude  of  apace,  and  which,  if  the 
contrivances  of  the  most  eminent  mathematicians  should  be 


found  in  any  twpect  defective,  might  at  any  moment  tear 
the  whole  umrerse  atom  from  atom. 

We  must  now  leave  these  speculations  ibout  the  natifre 
of  molecules  and  the  cause  of  gravitation,  and  couleraplata 
the  material  universe  as  made  up  of  molecules.  Every 
molecule,  so  far  as  we  know,  belongs  to  one  of  a  definite 
number  of  species.  The  list  of  chemical  elements  may  bo 
taken  as  representing  the  known  species  which  have  been 
examined  in  the  laboratories.  Several  of  these  have  been 
discovered  by  means  of  the  spectroscope,  and  more  may 
yet  remain  to  be  discovered  in  the  same  way.  The  spec- 
troscope has  also  been  applied  to  analyse  the  light  of  the 
sun,  the  brighter  stars,  and  some  of  the  nebuhe  and  comets, 
and  has  shown  that  the  character  of  the  light  emitted  by 
these  bodies  is  similar  in  some  cases  to  that  emitted  by 
terrestrial  molecules,  and  m  others  to  light  from  which  the 
molecules  have  absorbed  certain  rays.  In  this  way  a 
considerable  number  of  comcidences  have  been  traced 
between  the  systems  of  lines  belonging  to  particular 
terrestrial  substances  and  corresponding  lines  in  the  spectra 
of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

The  value  of  the  evidence  famished  by  such  coiucidence? 
may  be  estimated  by  considering  the  degree  of  accuracy 
with  which  one  such  coincidence  may  be  observed.  The 
interval  between  the  two  lines  which  form  Frauuhofer'a 
line  D  is  about  the  five  hundredth  part  of  the  interval 
between  B  and  G  on  Kirchhoff's  scale.  A  discordanca 
between  the  positions  of  two  lines  amounting  to  the  tenth 
part  of  this  interval,  that  is  to  say,  the  five  thousandth 
part  of  the  length  of  the  bright  part  of  the  spectrum, 
would  be  very  perceptible  in  a  spectroscope  of  moderata 
power.  We  may  define  the  power  of  the  spectroscope  to 
bo  the  number  of  times  which  the  smallest  roepsurable 
interval  is  contained  m  the  length  of  the  visible  spectrum. 
Let  us  denote  this  by  p.  In  the  case  we  have  supposed  p 
will  be  about  5000. 

If  the  spectrum  of  the  sun  contains  n  lines  of  a  certain 
degree  of  intensity,  the  probability  that  any  one  line  of  the 
spectrum  of  a  gas  will  coincide  with  one  of  these  n  lines  is 

'-('-3=J('-T-']--). 

and   when   p  is   large  compared  with   n,   this  becomes 


nearly 


If  there  are  r  lines  in  tho  spectrum  of  tha 


gas,  the  p:--bability  that  each  and  every  one  shall  coincide 

with  a  hne   in   the  solar  spectrum    is  approximately  — / 

Hence,  in  the  case  of  a  gas  whose  spectrum  contains  several 
bnes,  we  have  to  compare  the  results  of  two  hypotheses. 
If  a  large  amount  oi  the  gas  exists  in  the  sun,  we  have  the 
strongest  reason  for  expecting  to  find  all  the  r  lines  in  the 
solar  spectrum.' ■ 'Jf  it  does  not  exist,  the  probability  that 
r  lines  out  of  the  n  observed  lines  shall  coincide  with  the 
lines  of  the  gas  is  exceedingly  small.  If,  then,  we  find  all 
the  r  lines  in  their  proper  places  in  the  solar  spectnim,  we 
have  very  strong  grounds  for  believing  that  the  gas  exists 
in  the  sun.  The  probability  that  the  gas  exists  in  the  sun 
is  greatly  strengthened  if  the  character  of  the  lines  as  to 
relative  intcn?  ty  and  breadth  is  found  to  correspond  la 
the  two  spectra. 

The  absence  of  one  or  more  lines  of  the  gas  in  the  solar 
spectrum  tends  of  course  to  weaker  the  probability,  but 
the  amount  to  be  deducted  from  the  probability  must 
depend  on  what  we  know  of  the  variation  in  the  relative 
intensity  of  the  Lncs  when  the  temperature  and  the  pres- 
sure of  the  gas  are  made  to  vary. 

Coincidences  observed,  in  the  case  of  several  terrestrial 
substances,  with  several  systems  of  lines  in  the  spectra  of 
the  heavenly  bodes,  tend  to  increase  the  evldenct  for  the 


48 


ATOM 


doctrise  that  tftfrestrial  substances  exist  in  tlie  heavenly 
bodies,  while  the  discovery  of  particular  lines  in  a  celestial 
spectrum  which  do  not  comcide  with  any  line  in  a  terres- 
trial spectrum  does  not  much  weaken  the  general  argument, 
but  rather  indicates  either  that  a  substance  exists  in  the 
heavenly  body  not  yet  detected  by  chemists  on  earth,  or  that 
the  temperature  of  the  heavenly  body  is  such  that  some 
substance,  undecomposable  by  our  methods,  is  there  split 
up  into  components  unknown  to  us  in  their  separate  state. 

We  are  thus  led  to  believe  that  in  widely  separated  [.larts 
of  the  visible  universe  molecules  exist  of  various  kinds,  the 
molecules  of  each  kind  having  their  various  periods  of 
vibration  either  identical,  or  so  nearly  identical  that  our 
spectroscopes  cannot  distinguish  them.  We  might  argue 
from  this  that  these  molecules  are  alik'e  in  all  other 
respects,  as,  for  instance,  in  mass.  But  it  is  sufficient  for 
our  present _  purpose  to  observe  that  the  same  kind  of 
molecule,  say  that  of  hydrogen,  has  the  same  set  of  periods 
of  vibration,  whether  we  procure  the  hydrogen  from  water, 
from  coal,  or  from  metewric  iron,  and  that  light,  having  the 
same  set  of  periods  of  vibration,  comes  to  us  from  the  sun, 
from  Sirius,  and  from  Arcturus. 

The  same  kind  of  reasoning  which  led  us  to  believe  that 
hydrogen  exists  in  the  sun  and  stars,  also  leads  us  to  believe 
that  the  molecules  of  hydrogen  in  all  these  bodies  had  a 
common  origin.  For  a  material  system  capable  of  vibra- 
tion may  have  for  its  periods  of  vibration  any  set  of 
values  whatever.  The  probability,  therefore,  that  two  mate- 
rial systems,  quite  independent  of  each  other,  shall  have, 
to  the  degree  of  accuracy  of  modern  spectroscopic  measure- 
ments, the  same  set  of  periods  of  vibration,  is  so  very  small 
that  we  are  forced  to  believe  that  the  two  systems  are  not 
independent  of  each  other.  When,  instead  of  two  such 
systems,  we  have  innumerable  multitudes  all  having  the 
same  set  of  periods,  the  argument  is  imnaensely  strength- 
ened. 

Adnutting,  then,  that  there  is  a  real  relation  between 
any  two  molecules  of  hydrogen,  let  us  consider  what  this 
relation  may  be. 

We  may  conceive  of  a  mutual  action  between  one  body 
and  another  tending  to  assimilate  them.  Two  clocks,  for 
instance,  wiU  keep  time  with  each  other  if  connected  by  a 
wooden  rod,  though  they  have  different  rates  if  they  were  dis- 
connected. But  even  if  the  properties  of  a  molecule  were  as 
capable  of  modification  as  those  of  aclock,  there  is  no  physical 
connection  of  a  sufficient  kind  between  Sirius  and  Arcturus. 

There  are  also  methods  by  which  a  large  number  of 
bodies  differing  from  each  other  may  be  soiled  into  sets,  so 
that  those  in  each  set  more  or  less  resemble  each  other. 
In  the  manufacture  of  small  shot  this  is  done  by  making 
the  shot  roll  down  an  inclined  plane.  The  largest  specimens 
acquire  the  greatest  velocities,  and  are  projected  farther 
than  the  smaller  ones.  In  this  way  the  various  pellets, 
which  differ  both  in  size  and  in  roundness,  are  sorted  into 
different  kinds,  those  belonging  to  each  kind  being  nearly 
of  the  same  size,  and  those  which  are  not  tolerably  spherical 
being  rejected  altogether. 

If  the  molecules  were  originally  as  various  as  these  leaden 
pellets,  and  wdre  afterwards  sorted  into  kinds,  we  should 
have  to  account  for  the  disappearance  of  all  the  molecules 
which  did  not  fall  under  one  of  the  very  limited  number 
of  kinds  known  to  us ;  and  to  get  rid  of  a  number  of 
indestructible  bodies,  exceeding  by  far  the  number  of  the 
molecules  of  all  the  recognised  kinds,  would  be  one  of  the 
severest  labours  ever  projiosed  to  a  cosmogcnist. 

It  is  Well  known  that  living  beings  may  be  grouped  into 
a  certain  nunibvr  of  species,  defined  with  more  or  lees  preci- 
sion, and  that  tt  is  dillicult  or  impossible  to  find  a  series  of 
individuals  forming  the  links  of  a  continuous  chain  between 
oae  species  and  another.     In  the  case  of  Uving  beings, 


however,  the  generation  of  individuals  is  always  going 
on,  each  individual  differing  more  or  less  from  its 
parents.  Each  indnidual  during  its  whole  life  is  under- 
going modification,  and  it  either  survives  and  props- 
gates  its  species,  or  dies  early,  accordingly  as  it  is  more 
or  less  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  its  environment. 
Hence,  it  has  been  found  possible  to  frame  a  theory  of 
the  distribution  of  organisms  into  species  by  means  of 
generation,  variation,  and  discriminative  destruction.  But 
a  theory  of  evolution  of  this  kind  cannot  be  applied  to  the 
case  of  molecules,  for  the  individual  molecules  neither  are 
born  nor  die,  they  have  neither  parents  nor  offspring,  and 
so  far  from  beipg  modi6ed  by  their  envii-onment,  we  find 
that  two  molecules  of  the  same  kind,  say  of  hydrogen,  havo 
the  same  properties,  though  one  has  been  compounded 
with  carbon  and  buried  in  the  earth  as  coal  for  untold 
ages,  while  the  other  has  been  "occluded"  in  the  iron 
of  a  meteorite,  and  after  unknown"  "wanderings  in  the 
heavens'has  at  last  fallen  into  the  hands  of  some  terrestrisJ 
chemist. 

The  process  by  which  the  molecules  become  distributed 
into  distinct  species  is  not  one  of  which  we  know  any 
instances  going  on  at  present,  or  of  which  we  have  as  yet 
been  able  to  form  any  mental  representatiotL  If  we  suppose 
that  the  molecules  known  to  us  are  built  up  each  of  some 
moderate  number  of  atoms,  these  atoms  being  all  of  them 
exactly  alike,  then  we  may  attribute  the  limited  number  of 
molecular  species  to  the  limited  number  of  ways  in  which 
the  primitive  atoins  may  be  combined  so  as  to  form  a 
permanent  system. 

But  though  this  hypothesis  gets  rid  of  the  difficulty  of 
accounting  for  the  independent  origin  of  different  species 
of  molecules,  it  merely  transfers  the  difficulty  from  the 
known  molecules  to  the  primitive  atoms.  How  did  the 
atoms  come  to  be  all  ahke  in  those  properties  which  are  in 
themselves  capable  of  assuming  any  value? 

If  we  adopt  the  theory  of  Boscovich,  and  assert  that  the 
piimitive  atom  is  a  mere  centre  of  force,  having  a  certain 
definite  mass,  we  may  get  over  the  difficulty  about  the 
equality  of  the  mass  of  all  atoms  by  laying  it  down  as  a 
doctrine  which  cannot  be  disproved  by  experiment,  that 
mass  is  not  a  quantity  capable  of  continuous  increase  or 
diminution,  but  that  it  is  in  its  own  nature  discontinuous, 
like  number,  the  atom  being  the  unit,  and  all  masses  being 
multiples  of  that  unit.  We  have  no  evidence  that  it  is 
possible  for  the  ratio  of  two  masses  to  be  an  incommensur- 
able quantity,  for  the  incommensurable  quantities  in 
geometry  are  supposed  to  be  traced  out  in  a  continuous 
medium.  If  matter  is  atomic,  and  therefore  discontinuous, 
it  is  unfitted  for  the  construction  of  perfect  geometrical 
models,  but  in  other  respects  it  may  fulfil  its  functions. 

But  even  if  we  adopt  a  theory  which  makes  the  equality 
of  the  mass  of  different  atoms  a  result  depending  on  the 
nature  of  mass  rather  than  on  any  quantitative  adjustment, 
th?  correspondence  of  the  periods  of  vibration  of  actual 
molecules  is  a  fact  of  a  different  order. 

We  know  that  radiations  exist  having  periods  of  vibration 
of  every  value  between  those  corresponding  tft  the  limits 
of  the  visible  spectrum,  and  probably  far  beyond  these 
limits  on  both  sides.  The  most  powerful  spectroscope  can 
detect  no  gap  or  discontinuity  in  the  spectrum  of  the  light 
emitted  by  incandescent  lime. 
*The  period  of  vibration  of  a  luminous  pauicle  is  therefore 
a  quantity  which  in  it.«elf  is  capable  of  assuming  any  one 
of  a  series  of  values,  which,  if  not  mathematically  coiv 
tinuous,  is  such  that  consecutive  observed  values  differ 
from  each  other  by  less  than  the  ten  thousandth  part  of 
either.  There  is,  therefore,  nothing  in  the  nature  of  time 
itself  to  prevent  the  period  of  vibration  of  ajnolccule  from 
assuming  unj  ODO  of  many  thousand  different  observable 


A  T  0  — A  T  K 


49 


values.  That  wLioh  determines  tlie  period  of  any  partii-ular 
kind  of  vibration  is  the  rulation  wUich  subsists  belween  the 
corresponding  type  of  dis[ilacea>eiit  and  the  force  of  restitu- 
tion thereby  called  into  play,  a  relation  involving  constants 
of  space  and  time  03  well  as  of  mass. 

It  is  the  equality  of  these  space-  and  timeconstanls 
for  all  molecules  of  the  same  kind  which  we  have  neit  to 
consider.  We  have  seen  that  the  very  different  circum- 
stances in  whioh  difl'erent  molecules  of  the  same  kind  have 
been  placed  have  not,  even  in  the  course  of  many  ages, 
produced  any  appreciable  difference  in  the  values  of  these 
constants.  If,  then,  the  various  processes  of  nature  to 
which  these  molecules  have  been  subjected  since  the  world 
began  have  not  been  able  in  all  that  time  to  produce  any 
appreciable  difference  between  the  constants  of  one  mole- 
cule and  those  of  another,  we  are  forced  to  conclude  that  it 
is  not  to  the  operation  of  any  of  these  processes  that  the 
uniformity  of  the  constants  is  due. 

The  formation  of  the  molecule  is  therefore  an  event  not 
belonging  to  that  order  of  nature  under  which  we  live. 
It  is  an  operation  of  a  kind  which  is  not,  so  far  as  we  are 
aware,  going  on  on  earth  or  in  the  sun  or  the  stars, 
either  now  or  since  these  bodies  began  to  be  formed. 
It  must  be  referred  to  the  epoch,  not  of  the  formation  of 
the  earth  or  of  the  solar  system,  but  of  the  establishment 
of  the  existing  order  of  nature,  and  till  not  only  these 
worlds  and  systems,  but  the  very  order  of  nature  itself  is 
dissolved,  we  have  no  reason  to  expect  the  occurrence  of 
any  operation  of  a  similar  kind. 

In  the  present  state  of  science,  therefore,  we  have  strong 
reasons  for  believing  that  in  a  molecule,  or  if  not  in  a 
molecule,  in  one  of  its  component  atoms,  we  have  something 
which  has  existed  either  from  eternity  or  at  least  from 
times  anterior  to  the  existing  order  of  nature.  But  besides 
this  atom,  there  are  immense  numbers  of  other  atoms  of 
the  same  kind,  and  the  constants  of  each  of  these  atoms 
are  incapable  of  adjustment  by  any  process  now  io  action. 
Each  is  physically  independent  of  all  the  others. 

WTiether  or  not  the  conception  of  a  multitude  of  beings 
existing  from  all  eternity  is  in  itself  .self  contradictory,  the 
conception  becomes  palpably  absurd  when  we  attribute  a 
relation  of  quantitative  equality  to  all  these  l^eings.  We  are 
then  forced  to  look  beyond  them  to  some  common  cause  or 
common  origin  to  explain  why  this  sing\)lar  relation  of 
equality  exists,  rather  than  any  one  of  the  inCnite  number 
of  possible  relations  of  inequality. 

Science  is  incompetent  to  reason  upon  the  creation  of 
matter  itself  out  of  nothing.  Wo  have  reached  the  utmost 
limit  of  our  thinking  faculties  when  we  have  admitted  that, 
because  matter  cannot  be  eternal  and  self-existent,  it  must 
have  been  created.  It  is  only  when  we  contemplate  not 
matter  in  itself,  but  the  form  in  which  it  actually  exists, 
that  our  mind  finds  something  on  which  it  can  lay  hold. 

That  matter,  as  such,  should  have  certain  fundamental 
properties,  that  it  should  have  a  continuous  existence  in 
space  and  time,  that  all  action  should  be  between  two 
portions  of  matter,  and  so  on,  arc  truths  which  may,  for 
aught  we  know,  be  of  the  kind  which  metaphysicians  call 
oecessary.  We  may  use  our  kriowledge  of  such  truths  for 
purposes  of  deduction,  but  we  have  no  data  for  speculating 
»D  their  origin. 


But  the  equality  of  the  constants  of  the  molecules  is  a 
fact  of  a  very  different  order.  It  arises  from  a  particular 
distribution  of  matter,  a  collocation,  to  use  the  expression 
of  Dr  Chalmers,  of  things  which  we  have  no  difficulty  in 
imagining  to  have  been  arranged  otherwise.  But  maiiy  of 
the  ordinary  instances  of  collocation  are  adjustments  of 
constants,  which  are  not  only  arbitrary  in  their  own  nature, 
but  in  which  variations  actually  occur  ;  and  when  it  is 
pointed  out  that  these  adjustments  are  beneficial  to  living 
being.-i,  and  are  therefore  instances  of  benevolent  design,  it 
is  replied  that  those  variations  which  are  not  conducive  to 
the  growth  and  multiplication  of  living  beings  tend  to  their 
destruction,  and  to  the  removal  thereby  of  the  evidence  of 
any  adjustment  not  beneficial 

The  constitution  of  an  atom,  however,  is  euch  as  to 
render  it,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  independent  of  all  the 
dangers  arising  from  the  struggle  for  existence  Plausible 
reasons  may,  no  doubt,  be  assigned  for  believing  that  if  the 
constants  had  varied  from  atom  to  atom  through  any 
sensible  range,  the  bodies  formed  by  aggregates  of  such 
atoms  would  not  have  been  so  well  fitted  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  world  as  the  bodies  which  actually  exist.  But 
as  we  have  no  experience  of  bodies  formed  of  such  variable 
atoms  this  must  remain  a  bare  conjecture. 

Atoms  have  been  compared  by  Sir  J.  Herschel  to 
manufactured  articles,  on  aecount  of  their  uniformity. 
The  uniformity  of  manufactured  articles  may  be  traced  to 
very  difl'erent  motives  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturer. 
In  certain  cases  it  is  found  to  be  less  expensive  as  regards 
trouble,  as  well  as  cost,  to  make  a  great  many  objects 
exactly  alike  than  to  adapt  each  to  its  special  requirements. 
Thus,  shoes  for  soldiers  are  made  in  large  numbers  without 
any  designed  adaptation  to  the  feet  of  particular  men.  In 
another  class  of  cases  the  uniformity  is  intentional,  and  \» 
designed  to  make  the  manufactured  article  more  valuable. 
Thus,  Whitworth's  bolts  are  made  in  a  certain  number  of 
sizes,  80  that  if  one  bolt  is  lost,  another  may  be  got  at  once, 
and  accurately  fitted  to  its  place.  The  identity  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  words  in  the  different  copies  of  a  document 
or  book  is  a  matter  of  great  practical  importance,  and  it  is 
more  perfectly  secured  by  the  process  of  printing  than  by 
that  of  manuscript  copying. 

In  a  third  class  not  a  part  only  but  the  whole  of  the 
value  of  the  object  arises  from  its  exact  conformity  to  a 
given  standard.  Weights  and  measures  belong  to  this 
class,  and  the  existence  of  many  well-adjusted  material 
standards  of  weight  and  measure  in  any  country  furnishes 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  system  of  law  regulating  the 
transactions  of  the  inhabitants,  and  enjoining  in  all  pro- 
fessed measures  a  conformity  to  the  national  standard. 

There  are  thus  three  kinds  of  usefulness  in  manufactured 
articles — cheapness,  serviceableness,  and  quantitative  accu- 
racy. Which  of  these  was  present  to  the  mind  of  Sir  J. 
Herschel  we  cannot  now  positively  affirm,  but  it  was  at 
least  as  likely  to  have  been  the  last  as  the  first,  though  it 
seems  more  probable  that  he  meant  to  assert  that  a  number 
of  exactly  similar  things  cannot  be  each  of  them  eternal 
and  self-existent,  and  must  therefore  have  been  made,  and 
that  he  used  the  phrase  "  manufactured  article  "  to  suggest 
the  idea  of  their  being  made  in  great  numbers. 

(j.  c.  M.) 


ATOOI,  one  of  the  larger  Sandwich  Islands,  in  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean.  Towards  the  N  E.  and  N.W.  the 
country  is  rugged  and  broken,  but  to  the  southward  it  is 
more  level.  The  hills  ri.ic  from  the  sea  with  a  gentle 
acclivity,  and,  at  a  little  distance  back,  are  covered  with 
wood  ;  the  central  peaks  attain  an  elevation  of  7000  feet 


The  chief  ports  are  Waimca  and  Hanalel  The  island  was 
one  of  the  stations  chosen  for  the  observation  of  the  transit 
of  Venus  in  1874.  It  is  nearly  40  miles  in  length,  and 
contains  about  10,000  inhabitants.  Long.  159°  40  W., 
lat.  21°  57'  N. 
ATRATO,  a  river  of  Colombia,  South  Americs.   which. 


50 


A  T  R  —  A  T  R 


after  a  course  of  250  miles,  almost  due  N.,  for  the  most 
part  through  a  low  and  swampy  region,  falls  into  the  Gulf 
of  Uraba  or  Darieo.  The  gold  and  platinum  mines  of 
Choco  were  on  some  of  its  affluents,  and  its  sands  are  stiU 
auriferous.  The  river  has  attracted  considerable  attention 
in  connectien  with  schemes  for  the  construction  of  a  ship- 
canal  across  the  isthmus.  It  is  navigable  for  small  vessels 
for  about  140  miles. 

ATREK  or  Attrdck,  a  river  which  rises  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Khorasan,  and  flows  W.  along  the  borders  of  Persia 
and  the  Russian  possessions,  till  it  falls  in  the  south-eastern 
corner  of  the  Caspian,  a  short  distance  to  the  N.  of 
Ashurada. 

ATREUS,  in  Greek  Legmd,  a  eon  of  Pelops,  had,  with 
his  brother  Thyestes,  settled  in  Mycens,  where  he  succeeded 
Eurystheus  in  the  sovereignty,  in  which  he  was  secured 
by  the  possession  of  a  lamb  or  ram  with  a  golden  fleece. 
His  wife  Aerope,  a  daughter  of  Minos,  bribed  by  Thyestes, 
assisted  the  latter  to  carry  off  the  ram.  But  Zeus,  in  the 
interest  of  Atreus,  wrought  a  miracle,  causing  the  sun 
which,  before  had  risen  in  the  west  to  rise  in  the  east. 
Thyestes  was  driven  from  Mycens,  but  returned  to  his 
brother  begging  to  be  forgiven.  Atreus,  appearing  to 
welcome  him,  invited  him  to  a  banquet  to  eat  of  his  own 
son,  whom  he  had  slain.  From  this  crime  followed  the  ilb 
which  befel  Agamemnon,  the  son  of  Atreus  (.^Eschylus, 
Agam.  \583,  foil.) 

ATRI  or  Atria,  the  ancient  Eadria,  a  town  of  Naples, 
in  the  province  of  Abruzzo  Ulteriore  I.,  situated  on  a  steep 
mountain  5  miles  from  the  Adriatic,  and  18  miles  S.E.  of 
Teramo.  It  is  the  set  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  cathedral,  a 
parish  church,  and  several  convents  and  hospitals.  It  con- 
tains 9877  inhabitants.  Remains  of  the  ancient  city  have 
been  discovered  to  the  S.  of  the  present  site,  consisting  of 
the  ruins  of  a  theatre  and  baths,  with  pavements,  and  vases 
of  Greek  manufacture.  It  was  a  very  flourishing  commercial 
port  at  an  early  period,  but  had  declined  into  a  small  town 
in  the  time  of  Strabo.  Its  modern  revival  has  been 
furthered  by  the  excavation  of  new  canals. 

ATRIUM,  the  principal  apartment  in  a  Roman  house, 
was  entered  through  the  ostium  or  janua,  which  opened 
off  the  vestibulum,  a  clear  space  between  the  middle  of  the 
house  and  the  street,  formed  by  the  projection  of  the  two 
sides.  It  was  generally  quadrangular  in  shape,  and  was 
roofed  all  over,  with  the  exception  of  a  square  opening, 
called  eompluvium,  towards  which  the  roofs  sloped,  and  by 
which  the  rain-water  was  conducted  down  to  a  basin 
(impluvium)  fixed  in  the  floor.  The  opening  in  the  roof 
seems  sometimes  to  have  been  called  impluvium  (Terence, 
JSun.,  iii.  -  5  ;  Phorm.,  \v.  4).  In  the  early  periods  of 
Roman  civilisation,  the  atrium  was  the  common  public  apart- 
ment, and  was  used  for  the  reception  of  visitors  and  clients, 
and  for  ordinary  domestic  purposes,  as  cooking  and  dining. 
In  it  were  placed  the  ancestral  pictures,  the  marriage-cguch, 
the  focus,  or  hearthr  and  generally  a  small  altar.  Here, 
too,  were  kept  the  looms  at  which  the  mistress  of  the  house 
sat  and  span  with  her  maid-servants.  At  a  somewhat  later 
period,  and  among  the  wealthy,  separate  apartments  were 
built  for  kitchens  and  dining-rooms,  and  the  atrium  was 
kept  as  a  general  reception  room  for  clients  and  visitors. 
It  appears  sometimes  to  have  been  called  cavcedium,  but 
the  relation  of  these  two  is  somewhat  obscure.  According 
to  some  authorities,  the  cavcedium  was  simply  the  open 
space  formed  when  the  impluvium  was  surroimded  with 
pillars  to  support  the  roof  ;  according  to  others,  the  cavce- 
dium was  really  the  principal  room,  to  which  the  atrium 
served  as  an  aniochamber. 

Atrium,  in  Ecclesiastical  Anti^uiliei(  deaoiea  an  open 
place  or  court  before  a  church.  It  consisted  of  a  large  area 
or  square  plat  of  ground,  surrounded   with  a  portico-  or 


cloister,  situated  between  ths  porch  or  veitibule  and  the 
body  of  the  church.  In  the  centre  was  placed  a  fountain, 
wherein  the  worshippers  washed  their  hands  before  enter- 
ing church.  In  the  atrium  -  those  who  were  not  suffered 
to  advance  farther,  and  more  particularly  the  first  class  of 
penitents,  stood  to  solicit  the  prayers  of  the  faithful  as 
they  went  into  the  church.  It  was  also  used  as  a  burying- 
ground,  at  first  only  for  distinguished  persons,  but  after- 
wards for  all  believers. 

ATROPHY  (a  priv,,  rpotfiTi,  nourishment),  a  term  in 
medicine  used  to  describe  a  state  of  wasting  due  to  somo 
interference  with  the  function  of  healthy  nutrition.  In 
the  living  organism  there  are  ever  at  work  changes  involv- 
ing the  waste  of  its  component  tissues,  which  render  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  the  preservation  of  life,  the  supply  and 
proper  assimilation  of  nutritive  material.  It  is  also  essen- 
tial for  the  maintenance  of  health  tnat  a  due  relation  exist 
between  these  processes  rof  waste  and  repair,  so  that  the 
one  may  not  be  in  excess  of  the  other.  When  the  appro- 
priation of  nutriment  exceeds  the  waste,  hypertrophy  or 
increase  in  bulk  of  the  tissues  takes  place.  (See  Hypek- 
TROPHY. )  When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  supply  of  nutritive 
matter  is  suspended  or  diminished,  or  when  the  power  of 
assimilation  is  impaired,  atrophy  or  wasting  is  the  result. 
Thus  the  whole  body  becomes  atrophied  in  many  diseases  ; 
and  in  old  age  every  part  of  the  frame,  with  the  single 
exception  of  the  heart,  undergoes  atrophic  change.  Atrophy 
may,  however,  affect  single  organs  or  parts  of  the  body, 
irrespective  of  the  general  state  of  nutrition,  and  this  may 
be  brought  about  in  a  variety  of  ways.  One  of  the  most 
frequently  observed  of  such  instances  is  atrophy  from 
disuse,  or  cessation  of  function.  Thus,  when  a  limb  is 
deprived  of  the  natural  power  of  motion,  either  by  paralysis 
or  by  painful  joint  disease,  the  condition  of  exercise  essen- 
tial to  its  nutrition  being  no  longer  fulfille'1,  atrophy  of  all 
its  textures  sooner  or  later  takes  place.  The-  brain  in 
imbeciles  is  frequently  observed  to  be  shrivelled,  and  in 
mady  cases  of  blindness  there  is  atrophy  of  the  optic  nerve 
and  optic  tract.  This  form  of  atrophy  is  hkewise  well 
exemplified  in  the  case  of  those  organs  and  structures  Of 
the  body  which  subserve  important  ends  during  fcetal  life, 
but  which,  ceasing  to  be  necessary  after  birth,  undergo  a 
sort  of  natural  atrophy,  such  as  the  thymus  gland,  and 
certain  vessels  specially  concerned  in  the  foetal  circulation. 
The  uterus  after  parturition  undergoes  a  certain  amount 
of  atrophy,  and  the  ovaries,  after  the  child-bearing  period, 
become  shrunken.  Atrophy  of  a  part  may  also  be  caused 
by  interruption  to  its  normal  blood  supply,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  ligature  or  obstruction  of  an  artery.  Again,  long 
standing  disease,  by  affecting  the  nutrition  of  an  organ  and 
by  inducing  the  deposit  of  morbid  products,  may  result  in 
atrophy,  as  frequently  happens  in  affections  of  the  liver 
and  kidneys.  Parts  that  are  subjected  to  continuous  pres- 
sure are  liable  to  become  atrophied,  as  is  sometimes  seen 
in  .internal  organs  which  have  been  pressed  upon  by 
tumours  or  other  morbid  growths,  and  is  well  illustrated  in 
the  case  of  the  feet  of  Chinese  ladies,  which  are  prevented 
from  growing  by  persistent  compression  exercised  from 
birth.  Atrophy  may  manifest  itself  simply  by  loss  of  sub- 
stance ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  often  found  to  co-exist 
with  degenerative  changes  in  the  textures  affected  and  the 
formation  of  adventitious  growth,  so  that  the  part  may  not 
be  reduced  in  bulk  although  atrophied  as  regards  its  proper 
structure.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  the  heart,  when  affected 
with  fatty  degeneration,  there  is  atrophy  of  the  proper 
muscular  texture,  which,  however,  being  largely  replaced 
by  fatty  matter,  the  organ  may  undergo  no  diminution  in 
volume,  but  may,  on  the  contrary,  be  increased  in  size. 
Atrophy  is  usually  a  gradual  and  slow  process,  but  some- 
times it  proceeds  rapidly.     In  the  disease  known  by  tb" 


A  T  R  —  A  T  T 


51 


oame  o(  aaUe  yellow  atrophy  of  the  liver,  that  organ  under- 
goes such  rapidly  destructive  change  aa  results  in  its 
shrinking  to  half,  or  one-third,  of  ita  normal  size  in  the 
course  of  a  few  days. 

The  term  progresrive  muacuiar  atrophy  (synoDyms, 
waiting  or  creeping  palsy)  is  applied  to  un  affection  of  the 
muscular  eystem,  which  is  characterised  by  the  atrophy 
and  subsequent  paralysis  of  certain  muscles,  or  groups  of 
muscles,  and  is  associated  with  morbid  changes  in  the 
anterior  roots  of  the  nerves  of  the  spinal  cord.  This 
disease  begins  insidiously,  and  is  often  first  observed  to 
affect  the  muscles  of  one  hand,  generally  the  right  The 
attention  of  the  sufferer  is  first  attracted  by  the  power  of 
the  hand  becoming  weakened,  and  then  there  is  found  to 
be  a  wasting  of  certain  of  its  muscles,  particularly  those  of 
the  ball  of  the  thumb.  Gradually  other  muscles  in  the 
arras  and  legs  become  affected  in  a  similar  manner,  their 
atrophy  being  attended  with  a  corresponding  diminution  in 
power.  Although  sometimes  arrested,  this  disease  tends 
to  progress,  involving  additional  muscles,  until  in  course 
of  time  the  greater  part  of  the  muscular  system  is  impli- 
cated, and  a  fatal  result  ensues.  (j.  o.  a.) 

ATROPOS  (o  priv.,  and  rptVeiv,  to  turn),  the  eldest  of  the 
three  Moirai,  Parcae,  or  Fates.  Her  name,  The  Unalter- 
able, indicates  the  part  generally  played  by  her,  viz.,  that  of 
rendering  the  decisions  of  her  sisters  irreversible  or  immut- 
able. This  is  the  function  ascribed  to  her  by  Plato  (Rep., 
X.  620),  who  also  assigns  to  her  supremacy  over  future 
events  (617).  Ancient  authorities,  however,  are  not 
unanimous  in  their  distribution  of  the  parts  of  the  three 
sisters.  Atropos  is  most  frequently  represented  with  scales, 
a  sun-dial,  or  a  cutting  instrument,  the  "  abhorred  shears," 
with  which  she  slits  the  thin-spun  thread  of  life  that  has 
been  placed  on  the  spindle  by  Clotho  and  drawn  off  by 
Lachcsis.      See  Parc^. 

ATTACHMENT,  in  English  Law,  is  a  process  from  a 
court  of  record,  awarded  by  the  justices  at  their  discretion, 
on  a  bare  suggestion,  or  on  their  own  knowledge,  and  is 
properly  grantable  in  cases  of  contempt.  It  differs  from 
arrest,  in  that  he  who  arrests  a  man  carries  him  to  a  person 
of  higher  power  to  be  forthwith  disposed  of  ;  but  he  that 
attaches  keeps  the  party  attached,  and  presents  him  in 
court  at  the  day  assigned,  as  lappears  by  the  words  of  the 
writ.  Another  difference  is,  that-arrest  is  only  upon  the 
body  of  a  man,  whereas  an  attachment  is  often  upon  his 
goods.  It  is  distyiguished  from  distress  in  not  extending 
to  lands,  as  the  latter  does  ,  nor  does  a  distress  touch  the 
body,  as  an  attachment  does.  Every  court  of  record  has 
power  to  fine  and  imprison  for  contempt  of  its  authority. 
Attachment  Being  merely  a  process  to  bring  the  defendant 
before  the  court,  is  not  necessary  in  cases  of  contempt  in 
the  presence'  of  the  court  itself  Attachment  will  be 
granted  against  peers  and  members  of  Parliament,  only  for 
BUch  grosscbntempts  as  rescues,  disobedience  to  the  Queen's 
writs,  and  the  like.  Attachment  will  not  lie  against  a 
corporation.  The  County  Courts  in  this  respect  are  regu- 
lated by  the  9  and  10  Vict.  c.  95,  §  113,  and  the  12  and 
13  Vict.  c.  101,  §  2.  They  can  only  punish  for  contempts 
committed  in  presence  of  the  court  (See  Contempt  of 
Couby)  Attachments  are  granted  on  a  rule  in  the  first 
Instance  to  show  cause,  which  must  be  personally  served 
before  it  can  bo  made  absolute,  except  for  non-payment  of 
costs  on  a  master's  allocatur,  and  against  a  sheriff  for  not 
obeying  a  rule  to  return  a  writ  or  to  bring  in  the  body. 
The  offender  is  then  arrested,  and  when  committed  will  be 
compelled  to  answer  interrogatories,  exhibited  against  him 
by  the  party  at  whose  instance  the  proceedings  have  been 
had  ;  end  the  examination  when  taken  is  referred  to  the 
m.ister,  who  reports  thereon,  and  on  the  contempt  being 
reoortcd,  thft  court  gives  judgment  according  to  its  dis- 


cretion, in  the  same  manner  as  upon  a  conviction  for  a 
misdemeanour  at  common  law.  Sir  W.  Blackslone  observes 
that  "  this  method  of  making  the  defendant  answer  upon 
oath  to  a  criminal  charge  is  not  agreeable  to  the  genius 
of  the  common  law  m  any  other  instance,"  and  it  may 
be  added  that  the  elasticity  of  the  legal  definitions  of 
contempt  of  court,  especially  with  respect  to  com- 
ments on  judicial  proceedings,  is  the  subject  of  much  com- 
plaint. 

Attachment  out  op  Chancery  enforced  answon 
and  obedience  to  decrees  and  orders  of  that  court,  now 
merged  in  the  High  Court  of  Justice  under  the  Judicaturt 
Act,  1873,  and  was  made  out  without  order  upon  an  affi- 
davit of  the  due  service  of  the  process,  ic,  with  whose 
requirements  compliance  was  sought.  A  corporation,  how- 
ever, is  proceeded  agamst  by  distringas  and  not  by  attach- 
ment. It  was  formerly  competent  to  the  plaintiff  to 
compel  the  appearance  of  a  defendant  in  Chancery  by 
attachment^  but  the  usual  course  was  to  enter  appearance 
for  him  in  case  of  default.  By  the  proposed  rules 
■under  the  Judicature  Act,  1873,  a  writ  of  attachment  is 
to  have  the  same  force  apd  effect  as  the  old  attachment 
out  of  Chancery  It  is  one  of  the  modes  of  execution 
allowed  for  the  recovery  of  property  other  than  land  or 
money. 

Attachment  of  the  Fokest  is  the  proceeding  in  the 
Courts  of  Attachments,  Woodmote,  or  Forty  Days'  Courts. 
These  courts  have  now  fallen  into  absolute  desuetude.  They 
were  held  before  the  verderers  of  the  royal  forests  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  kingdom  once  in  every  forty  days,  for 
the  purpose  of  inquiring  into  all  offences  against  "  vert 
and  venison."  The  attachment  is  by  the  bodies  of  the 
offenders,  if  taken  in  the  very  act  of  killing  venison,  or 
stealing  wood,  or  preparing  so  to  do,  or  by  fresh  and 
immediate  pursuit  after  the  act  is  done  ;  else  they  must  bo 
attached  by  their  goods.  These  attachments  were  received 
by  the  verderers  and  enrolled,  and  certified  under  their 
seals  to  the  Court  of  Justice  seat,  or  Sweinmote,  which 
formed  the  two  superior  of  the  forest  courts. 

Attachment,  Foreign,  is  an  important  custom  prevailing 
in  the  city  of  London,  whereby  a  creditor  may  attach  money 
:0wing  to  his  debtor,  or  j.  roperty  belonging  to  him  in  the 
possession  of  third  parties.  The  person  holding  the  pro- 
perty or  owing  the  money  must  be  within  the  city  at  the 
time  of  being  served  with  the  process,  but  all  persons  are 
entitled  to  the  benefit  of  the  custom.  The  plaintiff  having 
commenced  his  action,  and  made  a  satisfactory  affidavit  of 
his  debt,  is  entitled  to  issue  attachment,  which  thereupon 
affects  all  the  money  or  property  of  the  defendant  in  tho 
hands  of  the  third  party,  who  in  these  proceedings  is  called 
the  garnishee.  The  garnishee,  of  course,  has  as  against  the 
attachment  all  the  defences  which  would  be  available  to 
him  against  the  defendant,  his  alleged  creditor.  The 
garnishee  may  plead  payment  under  tho  attachment,  if 
there  has  been  no  fraud  or  collusion,  in  bar  to  an  action 
by  the  defendant  for  his  debt  or  property.  Tho  court  to 
which  this  process  belongs  is  the  Mayor's  Court  of  London, 
the  procedure  in  which  is  regulated  by  20  and  21  Vict,  c 
157  This  custom,  and  all  proceedings  relating  thereto, 
are  expressly  exempted  from  the  operation  of  the  Debtor's 
Act,  1869.  SimUar  customs  exist  in  Bristol  and  a  few 
other  towns  in  England,  and  also  in  Scotland.  Sea 
Arrest  and  Aerestment. 

Attachment  of  Debts. — It  was  suggested  by  the 
common  law  commissioners  in  1853  that  a  remedy 
analogous  to  that  of  Foreign  Attachment  might  be  made 
available  to  creditors,  after  judgment,  against  debts  duo  to 
their  debtors.  Accordingly,  the  Common  Law  I'rocedura 
Act,  1854,  enacted  that  any  creditor,  having  obtained 
judgment  in  the  superior  courts,  should  have  an  ord»»  that 


52 


A  T  T  — A  T  T 


fhe  judgment  debtor  might  be  examined  as  to  any  debts 
due  and  owing  to  him  before  a,  master  of  the  court.  Ou 
affidavit  that  the  judgment  was  still  unsatisfied,  and  that 
any  other  person  within  the  jurisdiction  was  indebted  to 
the  judgment  debtor,  the  judge  was  empowered  to  attach 
all  debts  due  from  such  third  person  (called  the  garnishee) 
to  the  judgment  debtor,  to  answer  the  judgment  debt. 
This  order  binds  the  debts  in  the  hands  of  the  garnishee, 
and  if  he  does  not  dispute  his  liability  execution  issues 
against  him  at  once.  If  he  disputes  his  liability  the 
question  must  be  tried.  Payment  by  the  garnishee  or 
execution  against  him  is  a  complete  discharge  as  against 
the  judgment  debtor.  These  provisions  were,  by  an  order  in 
Council  of  18th  Nov.  1867,  extended  to  the  County 
Courts.  (By  33  and  34  Vict.  c.  30,  it  is  enacted  that  no 
order  for  the  attachment  of  the  wages  of  any  servant, 
labourer,  or  workman  shall  be  made  by  the  judge  of  any 
court  of  record  or  inferior  court.)  The  proposed  rules  and 
regulations  under  the  Judicature  Act,  1873,  retain  the 
process  for  attachment  of  debts  as  established  by  the  Pro- 
cedure Act  of  1854. 

ATTAINDER,  in  the  Law  of  England,  was  the  imme- 
diate and  inseparable  consequence  from  the  common  law 
upon  the  sentence  of  death.  When  it  was  clear  beyond  all 
dispute  that  the  criminal  was  no  longer  fit  to  live,  he  was 
called  attaint,  aitinclus,  stained  or  blackened,  and  could 
not,  before  the  6  and  7  Vict.  c.  8D,  §  1,  be  a  witness  in 
any  court.  This  attainder  took  place  after  judgment  of 
death,  or  upon  such  circumstances  as  were  equivalent  to 
judgment  of  death,  such  as  judgment  of  outlawry  on  a 
capital  crime,  pronounced  for  absconding  from  justice. 
Conviction  without  judgment  was  not  followed  by  attainder. 
The  consequences  of  attainder  were — \st,  Forfeiture;  2rf, 
Corruption  of  blood.  On  attainder  for  treason,  the  criminal 
forfeited  to  the  Crown  his  lands,  rights  of  entry  on  lands, 
and  any  interest  he  might  have  in  lands  for  his  own  life 
or  a  term  of  years.  For  murder,  the  offender  forfeited  to 
the  Cro\vn  the  profit  of  his  freeholds  during  life,  and  in  the 
case  of  lands  held  in  feesimple,  the  lands  themselves 
for  a  year  and  a  day ;  subject  to  this,  the  lands  escheated 
to  the  lord  of  the  fee.  These  forfeitures  related  back  to 
the  time  of  the  offence  committed.  Forfeitures  of  goods 
and  chattels  ensued  not  only  on  attainder,  but  on  conviction 
for  a  felony  of  any  kind,  or  on  flight  from  justice,  and  had  no 
relation  backwards  to  the  time  of  the  offence  committed. 
By  corruption  of  blood,  "  both  upwards  and  downwards," 
the  attainted  person  could  neither  inherit  nor  transmit 
lands.  The  lands  escheated  to  the  lord  of  the  fee,  subject 
to  the  Crown's  right  of  forfeiture.  The  doctrine  of 
attainder  has,  however,  ceased  to  be  of  much  importance. 
By  the  33  and  34  Vict.  c.  23,  it  is  enacted  that  henceforth 
no  confession,  verdict,  inquest,  conviction,  or  judgment  of 
or  for  any  treason  or  felony,  or  felo  de  se,  shall  cause  any 
attainderor  corruption  of  blood,  or  any  forfeiture  or  escheat. 
Sentence  of  death,  penal  servitude,  or  imprisonment  with 
hard  labour  for  more  than  twelve  months, after  conviction  for 
treason  or  felony,  disqualifies  from  holding  or  retaining  a 
fleat  in  Parliament,  public  offices  under  the  Crown  or  other- 
*i3e,  right  to  vote  at  elections,  &e.,  and  such  disability  is  to 
remain  until  the  punishment  has  been  suffered  or  a  pardon 
obtained.  Provision  is  made  for  the  duo  administration  of 
convicts'  estates,  in  the  interests  of  themselves  and  their 
families.  Forfeiture  consequent  ou  outlawry  b  exempted 
from  tho  provi.Hions  of  the  Act. 

JiilU  of  Attainder  in  Parliament  ordinarily  commence 
tn  the  House  of  Lords ;  the  proceedings  are  the  same  as 
on  other  bills,  but  the  parties  affected  by  them  may  appear 
ty  counsel  and  witnesses  in  both  Houses.  In  the  case  of 
an  impeachment,  the  House  of  Commons  is  prosecutor  and 
'►■«  Housp  "f  Lords  judge,   but  proceedings  by  Bill  of 


Attainder  are  legislative  in  form,  anL  the  consent  of  Crown, 
Lords,  and  Commons  is  therefore  necessary. 

ATTAIIA,  an  ancient  city  of  Pamphyha,  which  de- 
rived its  name  from  Attains  II.,  king  of  Pergamus.  It 
seems  to  have  been  a  place  of  considerable  importance, 
and  is  most  probably  to  be  identified  with  the  modern 
Adalia,  Antalia,  or  Sataliah,  as  it  is  variously  called.  See 
Sataliah. 

ATTAR,  or  Otto,  of  Roses,  a  well-known  perfume  o( 
great  strength,  is  an  essential  oil  of  roses,  prepared  chiefly 
in  Hindustan  and  Persia,      See  Oils  and  Perfumeky. 

ATTENTION,  in  Psychology,  may  be  defined  as  the 
concentration  of  consciousness,  or  the  direction  of  mental 
energy  upon  a  definite  object  or  objects.  By  means  of  it 
we  either  bring  within  the  circle  of  our  conscious  life  per- 
ceptions and  ideas  which  would  not  otherwise  have  risen 
from  their  obscurity,  or  render  clearer  and  more  distinct 
some  of  those  already  under  notice.  Its  mode  of  operation 
and  the  effects  produced  by  it  may  be  compared  Vrith  the 
concentration  of  visual  activity  on  some  definite  part  of 
the  field  of  vision,  and .  the  clearer  perception  of  the 
limited  portion  which  is  thereby  attained.  In  both 
cases  the  result  is  brought  about,  not  by  effecting  any 
change  in  the  perceptions  themselves,  but  simply  by  isolat- 
ing them,  and  considering  them  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
other  objects.  Since  all  consciousness  involves  discrimina- 
tion, i.e.,  isolation  of  one  object  from  others,  it  involves 
attention,  which  might  therefore  be  defined  as  the  neces- 
sary condition  of  consciousness.  Such  a  definition  is, 
however,  too  general,  and  throws  no  light  upon  the  nature 
of  the  process  whereby  our  mental  energy  is  strengthened 
in  particular  cases.  "  This  increase  of  force,  when  conscious- 
ness is  directed  to  any  one  object  to  the  exclusion  of  others, 
is  partly  to  be  explained  by  reference  to  the  general  law 
that,  as  the  amount  of  intellectual  energy  at  our  disposal  is 
limited,  the  greater  the  number  of  objects  over  which  it  is 
spread,  the  less  will  each  receive,  pluribus  intentus,  minor 
est  ad  singula  sensus;  and  conversely,  the  greater  the  con- 
centration, the  fewer  must  be  the  objects  attended  to. 
In  addition  to  this  general  law  of  limitation,  there  are 
special  circumstances  which  determine  the  amount  of 
consciousness  we  shall  bestow  on  any  object.  In  the  first 
place,  there  are  certain  mechanical  influences  only  partly 
subject  to  the  wUl,  such  are  the  force  or  vividness  of  the 
impression,  the  interest  attaching  to  an  object,  the  trains 
of  associated  ideas  excited,  or  the  emotions  roused  by 
its  contemplation.  There  is,  secondly,  an  exercise  of  voli- 
tion employed  in  fixing  the  mind  upon  some  definite 
object ,  this  is  a  purely  voluntary  act,  which  can  be 
strengthened  by  habit,  is  variable  in  different  individuals, 
and  to  which,  as  being  its  highest  stage,  the  pame  Atten- 
tion is  sometimes  restricted.  The  general 'law  of  the 
limitiition  of  conscious  activity,  pointed  out  above,  throws 
considerable  light  on  the  nature  of  abstiafction  and  it» 
relation  to  Attention.  It  is  clear  that  concentration  of 
consciousness  upon  any  one  attribute  or  attrioutes  of  an 
object  involves  withdrawal  of  consciousness  from  all  othei 
attributes.  This  withdrawal  is,  logically  and  etjmologically, 
Abstraction,  which  is  thus  the  negative  side  of  Attention, 
or,  as  Hamilton  expresses  it,  the  two  proct^ses  form  thb 
negative  and  positive  poles  of  the  same  mental  act. 

ATTERBOM,  Pek  Daniel  Amadeus,  a  Swedish 
poet,  was  born  in  Ostergiithland  in  1790,  studied  in  the 
University  of  Upsalafrom  1805  to  1815,  became  Professor 
of  Philosophy  therein  1828,  and  died  in  1855.  Ho  was  the 
leader  in  the  great  romantic  movement  v/hioh  revolutionised 
Swedish  literature.  In  1807,  when  in  his  17lh  year,  be 
founded  at  Upsala  an  artistic  society,  called  the  Aurora 
League,  the  members  of  which  included  Palmblad,  Elgstriim, 
Hcdboru,  and  other  youths,  whose  namf;3  were  destined  to 


A   T  T  —  A  T  T 


53 


take  a  luremost  rank  io  the  belles-lettres  of  their  generation. 
Their  first  newspaper,  Poli/xtm,  was  a  crude  effort,  soon 
abandoned,  but  in  1810  there  began  to  appear  a  journal, 
FoifoTus,  edited  by  Atterbom,  which  lasted  for  a  consider- 
able time,  and  finds  a  place  m  classic  Swedish  literature. 
It  consisted  entirely  of  poetry  and  aesthetico-polemical 
essays  ;  it  introduced  the  study  of  the  newly-arisen 
Romantic  school  of  Germany,  and  formed  a  vehicle  for  the 
early  works,  not  of  Atterbom  only,  but  of  Hammarskold, 
Dahlgren,  Palmblad,  and  other  eminent  poets.  Among 
Atterbom's  independent  works  the  most  celebrated  is 
Lycksalighetens  6  (The  Fortunate  Island),  a  romantic  drama 
of  extraordinary  beauty,  published  in  1823.  Before  this 
ho  had  published  a  cycle  of  lyrics.  The  Flowers,  of  a 
mystical  character,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  Novalis. 
Of  a  great  drama,  Fo(^el  bla  (The  Blue  Bird),  only  a 
fragment  is  preserved,  but  what  exists  is  among  the  most 
exquisite  of  his  writings.  As  a  purely  lyrical  poet  he  has 
not  been  excelled  in  Sweden,  but  his  popularity  has  been 
endangered,  partly  by  his  weakness  for  allegory  and 
symbolism,  partly  by  his  consistent  adoption  of  the 
mannerisms  of  Tieck  and  Novalis.  His  renoivn  during 
his  lifetime  was  unbounded. 

ATTEKBUKy,  Francis,  a  man  who  holds  a  con- 
spicuous place  in  the  political,  ecclesiastical,  and  literary 
history  of  England,  was  born  in  the  year  1662,  at  Middle- 
ton  in  Buckinghamshire,  a  parish  of  which  his  father  was 
rector.  Francis  was  educated  at  Westminster  School, 
and  carried  thence  to  Christ  Church  a  stock  of  learning 
which,  though  really  scanty,  he  through  life  exhibited  with 
such  judicious  ostentation  that  superficial  observers  believed 
his  attainments  to  be  immense.  At  Oxford,  his  parts,  his 
taste,  and  his  bold,  contemptuous,  and  imperious  spirit 
Boon  made  him  conspicuous.  Here  he  published,  at  twenty, 
bis  first  work,  a  translation  of  the  noble  poem  of  Absalom 
and  Skithophel  into  Latin  verse.  Neither  the  style  nor  the 
versification  of  the  young  scholar  was  that  of  the  Augustan 
age.  In  English  composition  he  succeeded  much  better. 
In  1687  he  distinguished  himself  among  many  able  men 
who  wrote  in  defence  of  the  Church  of  England,  then 
persecuted  by  James  II.,  and  calumniated  by  apostates  who 
had  for  lucre  quitted  her  communion.  Among  these 
apostates  none  was  more  active  or  malignant  than  Obadiah 
Walker,  who  was  master  of  University  College,  and  who 
had  set  up  there,  under  the  royal  patronage,  a  press  for 
printing  tracts  against  the  established  religion.  In  one  of 
these  tracts,  written  apparently  by  Walker  himself,  many 
aspersions  were  thrown  on  Martin  Luther.  Atterbury 
undertook  to  defend  the  great  Saxon  Reformer,  and  per- 
formed that  task  in  a  manner  singularly  characteristic. 
Whoever  e.Taminea  his  reply  to  Walker  will  be  struck  by 
the  contrast  between  the  feebleness  of  those  parts  which 
are  argumentative  and  defensive,  and  the  vigour  of  those 
part3  which  are  rhetorical  and  aggressive.  The  Papists 
were  so  much  galled  by  the  sarcasms  and  invectives  of  the 
young  polemic,  that  they  raised  a  cry  of  trca-son,  and 
accused  him  of  having,  by  implication,  called  King  James 
a  Judas. 

After  the  Revolution,  Atterbury,  though  bred  in  the 
doctrines  of  non-resistance  and  passive  obedience,  readily 
Bwore  fealty  to  the  new  Government.  In  no  long  time  ho 
took  holy  orders.  He  occasionally  preached  in  London 
with  an  eloquence  which  raised  his  reputation,  and  soon 
had  the  honour  of  being  appointed  one  of  the  royal 
chaplains.  But  he  ordinarily  resided  at  Oxford,  where  he 
took  an  active  part  in  academical  business,  directed  the 
dassical  studies  of  the  undergraduates  of  his  college,  and 
was  the  chief  adviser  and  assistant  of  Dean  Aldrich,  a 
divine  now  chiefly  remembered  by  his  catches,  but  renowned 
among  his  contemporaries  as  a  scholar,  a  Tory,  and  a  High- 


Churchman.  It  was  the  practice,  not  a  very  judicious 
practice,  of  Aldrich,  to  employ  the  most  promising  you'.Us 
of  his  college  in  editing  Greek  and  Latin  books.  Among 
the  studious  and  well-disposed  lads  who  were,  unfortunately 
for  themselves,  induced  to  become  teachers  of  philology 
when  they  should  have  been  content  to  be  learners,  was 
Charles  Boyle,  son  of  the  earl  of  Orrery,  and  nephew  of 
Robert  Boyle,  the  great  experimental  philosopher.  The 
task  assigned  to  Charles  Boyle  was  to  prepare  a  new  edition 
of  one  of  the  most  worthless  books  in  existence.  It  was  a 
fashion  among  those  Greeks  and  Romans  who  culti%-ated 
rhetoric  as  an  art,  to  compose  epistles  and  harangues  in  the 
names  of  eminent  men.  Some  of  these  counterfeits  are 
fabricated  with  such  exquisite  taste  and  skill,  that  it  is 
the  highest  achievement  of  criticism  to  distinguish  thein 
from  originals.  Others  are  so  feebly  and  rudely  executed, 
that  they  can  hardly  impose  on  an  intelligent  schoolboy. 
The  best  specimen  which  has  come  down  to  us  is  perhaps 
the  Oration  for  Marcellas,  such  an  imitation  of  TuUy's 
eloquence  as  Tully  would  himself  have  read  with  wonder 
and  delight.  The  worst  specimen  is  perhaps  a  collection  of 
letters  purporting  to  have  been  written  by  that  Phalaris  who 
governed  Agrigentum  more  than  500  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  The  evidence,  both  internal  and  external, 
against  the  genuineness  of  these  letters  is  overwhelming. 
When,  in  the  ISthcentur}',  they  emerged,  in  company  with 
much  that  was  far  more  valuable,  from  their  obscurity, 
they  were  pronounced  spurious  by  Politian,  the  greatest 
scholar  of  Italy,  and  by  Erasmus,  the  greatest  scholar  on 
our  side  of  the  Alps.  In  truth,  it  would  be  as  easy  to 
persuade  an  educated  Englishman,  that  one  of  Johnson's 
Ramblers  was  the  work  of  William  Wallace,  as  to  persuade 
a  man  like  Erasmus,  that  a  pedantic  exercise,  composed 
in  the  trim  and  artificial  Attic  of  the  time  of  Julian,  was 
a  despatch  written  by  a  crafty  and  ferocious  Dorian,  who 
roasted  people  alive  many  years  before  there  existed  a 
volume  of  prose  in  the  Greek  language.  But  (hough 
Christ  Church  could  boast  of  many  good  Latinists,  of 
many  good  English  writers,  and  of  a  greater  number  of 
clever  and  fashionable  men  of  the  world  than  belonged  to 
any  other  academic  body,  there  was  not  then  in  the  college 
a  single  man  capable  of  distinguishing  between  the  infancy 
and  the  dotage  of  Greek  literature.  So  superficial,  indeed, 
was  the  learning  of  the  rulers  of  this  celebrated  society, 
that  they  were  charmed  by  an  essay  which  Sir  William 
Temple  published  in  praise  of  the  ancient  writers.  Jt  now 
seems  strange,  that  even  the  eminent  public  services,  the 
deserved  popularity,  and  the  graceful  style  of  Temple, 
should  have  saved  so  silly  a  performance  from  universal 
contempt.  Of  the  books  which  he  most  vehemently 
eulogised,  his  eulogies  proved  that  he  knew  nothing.  In 
fact,  he  could  not  read  a  line  of  the  language  in  which 
they  were  written.  Among  many  other  foolish  things,  he 
said  that  the  letters  of  Phalaris  were  the  oldest  letters  and 
also  the  best  in  the  world.  A\Tiatever  Temple  wrote 
attracted  notice.  People  who  had  never  heard  of  the 
Epistles  of  Phalaris  heg^rt  to  inquire  about  them.  Aldrich, 
who  knew  very  little  Greek,  took  the  word  of  Temple  who 
knew  none,  and  desired  Boyle  to  prepare  a  new  edition  of 
these  admirable  compositions  which,  having  long  slept  in 
obscurity,  had  become  on  a  sudden  objects  of  general 
interest 

The  edition  was  prepared  with  the  help  of  Atterbury, 
who  was  Boyle's  tutor,  and  of  some  other  members  of  the 
college.  It  was  an  edition  such  as  might  be  expected 
from  people  who  would  stoop  to  edit  such  a  book.  The 
notes  wcrt:  worthy  of  the  text ;  the  Latin  version  worthy 
of  the  Greek  original.  The  volume  would  have  been 
forgotten  in  a  month,  had  not  a  misunderstanding  about  o 
manuscript   arisen   between    the   young   editor  -vnd   tho 


54 


ATTERBURY 


greatest  scholar  that  had  appeared  in  Europe  since  the 
revival  of  letters,  Richard  Bentley.  The  manuscript  was 
in  Bentley's  keeping.  Boyle  wished  it  to  be  collated.  A 
mischief-making  bookseller  informed  him  that  Bentley  had 
refused  to  lend  it,  which  was  false,  and  also  that  Bentley 
had  spoken  contemptuously  of  the  letters  attributed  to 
Phalaris,  and  of  the  critics  who  were  taken  in  by  such 
counterfeits,  which  was  perfectly  true.  Boyle,  much 
provoked,  paid,  in  his  preface,  a  bitterly  ironical  compli- 
ment to  Bentley's  courtesy.  Bentley  revenged  himself  by 
a  short  dissertation,  in  which  he  proved  that  the  epistles 
were  spurious,  and  the  new  edition  of  them  worthless  ; 
but  he  treated  Boyle  personally  with  civility  as  a  young 
gentleman  of  great  hopes,  whose  love  of  learning  was  highly 
commendable,  and  who  deserved  to  have  had  better 
instructors. 

Few  things  in  literary  history  are  more  extraordinary 
than  the  storm  which  this  little  dissertation  raised. 
Bentley  had  treated  Boyle  with  forbearance  ;  but  he  had 
treated  Christ  Church  with  contempt;  and  the  Chrbt 
Churchmen,  wherever  dispersed,  were  as  much  attached  to 
their  college  as  a  Scotchman  to  his  country,  or  a  Jesuit  to 
his  order.  Their  influence  was  great.  They  were  dominant 
at  Oxford,  powerful  in  the  Inns  of  Court  and  in  the  College 
of  Physicians,  conspicuous  in  Parliament  and,  in  the 
literary  and  fashionable  circles  of  London.  Their  unani- 
mous cry  was  that  the  honour  of  the  college  must  be 
vindicated,  that  the  insolent  Cambridge  pedant  must  be  put 
down.  Poor  Boyle  was  unequal  to  the  task,  anddisinclined 
to  it.     It  was,  therefore,  assigned  to  his  tutor  Atterbury. 

The  answer  to  Bentley,  which  bears  the  name  of  Boyle, 
but  which  was,  in  truth,  no  more  the  work  of  Boyle  than 
the  letters  to  which  the  contro'sersy  related  were  the  work 
of  Phalaris,  is  now  read  only  by  the  curious,  and  will  in  all 
probability  never  be  reprinted  again.  But  it  had  its  day 
of  noisy  popularity.  It  was  to  be  found  not  only  in  the 
studies  of  men  of  letters,  but  on  the  tables  of  the  most 
brilliant  drawing-rooms  of  Soho  Square  and  Covent  Garden. 
Even  the  beaux  and  coquettes  of  that  age,  the  Wddairs 
and  the  Lady  Lurewells,  the  Mirabells,  and  the  Millamants, 
congratulated-  each  other  on  the  way  in  which  the  gay 
young  gentleman,  whose  erudition  sate  so  easily  upon  him, 
and  who  wrote  with  so  much  pleasantry  and  good  breed- 
ing about  the  Attic  dialect  and  the  anapjestic  measure, 
SicQian  talents  and  Thericlean  cups,  had  bantered  the 
queer  prig  of  a  doctor.  Nor  was  the  applause  of  the 
multitude  undeserved.  The  book  is,  indeed,  Atterbury's 
masterpiece,  and  gives  a  higher  notion  of  his  powers  than 
any  of  those  works  to  which  he  put  his  name.  That  he 
was  altogether  in  the  wrong  on  the  main  question,  and  on 
all  the  collateral  questions  springing  out  of  it,  that  his 
knowledge  of  the  language,  the  literature,  and  the  history 
of  Greece,  was  not  equal  to  what  many  freshmen  now 
bring  up  every  year  to  Cambridge  and  Oxford,  and  that 
some  of  his  blunders  seem  rather  to  deserve  a  flogging 
than  a  refutation,  is  true  ;  and  therefore  it  is  that  his 
performance  is,  in  the  highest  degree,  interesting  and 
valuable  to  a  judicious  reader.  It  is  good  by  reason  of  its 
exceeding  badness.  It  is  the  most  extraordinary  instance 
that  exists  of  the  art  of  making  much  show  with  little 
substance.  There  is  no  diSiculty,  says  the  steward  of 
Molifero's  miser,  in  giving  a  fine  dinner  with  plenty  of 
money :  the  really  great  cook  is  he  who  can  set  out  a 
banquet  with  no  money  at  all.  That  Bentley  should  have 
written  excellently  on  ancient  chronology  and  geography, 
on  the  development  of  the  Greek  language,  and  the  origin 
of  the  Greek  drama,  is  not  strange.  But  that  Atterbury 
should,  during  some  years,  have  been  thought  to  have 
treated  these  sul'j'.cfs  much  better  than  Bentlry,  is  strange 
iDHoed.     It  L)  true  that  the  champion  nf  Christ  Church 


had  all  the  help  which  the  most  celebrated  members  of 
that  society  could  give  him.  Smalridge  contributed 
some  very  good  wit ;  Friend  and  others  some  very  bad 
archasology  and  philology.  But  the  greater  part  of  the 
volume  was  entirely  Atterbury's :  what  was  not  his  own 
was  revised  and  retouched  by  him  ;  and  the  whole  bears 
the  Inark  of  his  mind — a  mind  inexhaustibly  rich  in  all  the 
resources  of  controversy,  and  familiar  with  ail  the  artifices 
which  make  falsehood  look  like  truth,  and  ignorance  like 
knowledge.  He  had  little  gold ;  but  he  beat  that  little 
out  to  the  very  thinnest  leaf,  and  spread  it  over  so  vast  a 
surface,  that  to  those  who  judged  by  a  glance,  and  who 
did  not  resort  to  balances  and  tests,  the  glittering  heap  of 
worthless  matter  which  he  produced  seemed  to  be  an 
inestimable  treasure  of  massy  bullion.  Such  arguments  as 
he  had  he  placed  in  the  clearest  light.  Where  he  had  no 
arguments,  he  resorted  to  personalities,  sometimes  serious, 
generaUy  ludicrous,  always  clever  and  cutting.  But, 
whether  he  was  grave  or  merry,  whether  he  reasoned  or 
sneered,  his  style  was  always  pure,  polished,  and  easy. 

Party  spirit  then  ran  high  ;  yet,  though  Bentley  ranked 
among  Whigs,  and  Christ  Church  was  a  stronghold  of 
Toryism,  Wnigs  joined  with  Tories  in  applauding  Atter- 
bury's volume.  Garth  insulted  Bentley,  and  extolled 
Boyle  in  lines  which  are  now  never  quoted  except  to  be 
laughed  at.  Swift,  in  his  Battle  of  the  Books,  introduced 
with  much-  pleasantry  Boyle,  clad  in  armour,  the  gift  of  all 
the  gods,  and  directed  by  Apollo  in  the  form  of  a  human 
friend,  for  whose  name  a  blank  is  left  which  may  easily  be 
filled  up.  The  youth,  so  accoutred  and  so  assisted,  gains 
an  easy  victory  over  his  uncourteous  and  boastful  antago- 
nist. Bentley,  meanwhile,  was  supported  by  the  conscious- 
ness of  an  immeasurable  superiority,  and  encouraged  by 
the  voices  of  the  few  who  were  really  competent  to  judge 
the  combat.  "  No  man,"  he  said,  justly  and  nobly,  "  was 
ever  written  down  but  by  himself."  He  spent  two  years 
in  preparing  a  reply,  which  will  never  cease  to  be  read  and 
prized  while  the  literature  of  ancient  Greece  is  studied  in 
any  part  of  the  world.  This  reply  proved  not  only  that 
the  letters  ascribed  to  Phalaris  were  spurious,  but  that 
Atterbury,  with  all  his  wit,  his  eloquence,  his  skill  in  con- 
troversial fence,  was  the  most  audacious  pretender  that 
ever  wrote  about  what  he  did  not  understand.  But  to 
Atterbury  this  exposure  was  matter  of  indifference.  He 
was  now  engaged  in  a  dispute  about  matters  far  more 
important  and  exciting  than  the  laws  of  Zaleucus  and  the 
laws  of  Charondas.  The  rage  of  religious  factions  was 
6.i.treme.  High  Church  and  Low  Chvu'ch  divided  the 
nation.  The  great  majority  of  the  clergy  were  on  the 
High  Church  side  ;  the  majority  of  King  William's  bishops 
were  inclined  to  latitudiuarianism.  A  dispute  arose  be- 
tween the  two  parties  touching  the  extent  of  the  powers 
of  the  Lower  House  of  Convocation.  Atterbury  thrust 
himself  eagerly  into  the  front  rank  of  the  High  Churchmen. 
Those  who  take  a  comprehensive  and  impartial  view  of  his 
whole  career  will  not  be  disposed  to  give  him  credit  for 
religious  zeal.  But  it  was  his  nature  to  be  vehement  and 
pugnacioiLS  in  the  cause  of  every  fraternity  of  which  he 
was  a  member.  Ho  had  defended  the  genuineness  of  a 
spurious  book  simply  because  Christ  Church  had  put  forth 
an  edition  of  that  book ;  he  now  stood  up  for  the  clergy 
against  the  civQ  power,  simply  because  he  wis  a  clergy- 
man, and  for  the  priests  against  the  episcopal  order,  simply 
because  ho  was  as  yet  only  a  priest.  He  a.sscrted  the 
pretensions  of  the  class  to  which  he  belonged  in  several 
treatises  written  with  much  wit,  ingenuity,  audacity,  and 
acrimony.  In  this,  as  in  his  Qtsi  controversy,  he  was 
opposed  to  antagonists  whoso  knowledge  of  the  subject  in 
dispute  was  far  superior  to  his;  but  in  this,  as  in  his  first 
controversy,  he  imposed  on  the  multitude  by  bold  asscvlii'n, 


A  T  T  E  R  B  U  R  Y 


55 


t>>  sarcasm,  by  declamation,  and,  above  all,  by  his  peculiar 
knack  of  exhibiting  a  little  erudition  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  make  it  look  like  a  great  deal.  Having  passed  himself 
off  on  the  world  as  a  greater  master  of  classical  learning 
than  Bentley,  ho  now  passed  himself  off  as  a  greater 
master  of  ecclesiastical  learning  than  Wake  or  Gibsou. 
8y  the  great  body  of  the  clergy  ho  was  regarded  as  tbo 
ablest  and  most  intrepid  tribune  that  had  ever  defended 
their  rights  against  the  oligarchy  of  prelates.  The  Lower 
House  of  Convocation  voted  him  thanks  for  his  services ; 
the  University  of  Oxford  created  him  a  doctor  of  divinity ; 
and  soon  after  the  accession  of  Anne,  while  the  Tories  still 
had  the  chief  weight  in  the  Government,  ho  was  promoted 
10  the  deanery  of  Carlisle. 

Soon  after  he  had  obtained  this  preferment  the  Whig 
parly  rose  to  ascendency  in  the  state.  From  that  party 
he  could  expect  no  favour.  Six  years  elapsed  before  a 
change  of  fortune  took  place.  At  length,  in  the  year  1710, 
the  prosecution  of  Sacheverell  produced  a  formidable 
explosion  of  High  Church  fanaticism  At  such  a  moment 
Atterbury  could  not  fail  to  be  conspicuous.  His  inordinate 
zeal  for  the  body  to  which  he  belonged,  his  turbulent  and 
aspiring  temper,  his  rare  talents  for  agitation  and  for 
controversy,  were  again  signally  displayed.  Ho  bore  a 
chief  part  in  framing  that  artful  and  eloquent  speech 
which  the  accused  divine  pronounced  at  the  bar  of  the 
Lords,  and  which  presents  a  singular  contrast  to  the  absurd 
and  scurrilous  sermon  which  had  very  unwLscly  been 
honoured  with  impeachment.  During  the  troubled  and 
anxious  months  which  followed  the  trial,  Atterbury  was 
among  the  most  active  of  those  pamphleteers  who  inflamed 
the  nation  against  the  Whig  ministry  and  the  Whig  Parlia- 
ment. When  the  ministry  had  been  changed  and  the 
Parliament  dissolved,  rewards  were  showered  upon  him. 
The  Lower  House  of  Convocation  elected  him  prolocutor. 
The  Queen  appointed  him  dean  of  Christ  Church  on  the 
death  of  his  old  friend  and  patron  Aldrich.  The  college 
would  have  preferred  a  gentler  ruler.  Nevertheless,  the 
new  head  was  received  with  every  mark  of  honour.  A 
congratulatory  oration  in  Latin  was  addressed  to  him  in 
the  magnificent  vestibule  of  the  hall ;  and  he  in  reply 
professed  the  Warmest  attachment  to  the  venerable  house 
in  which  he  had  been  educated,  and  paid  many  gracious 
compliments  to  those  over  whom  he  was  to  preside.  But 
it  was  not  in  his  nature  to  be  a  ibild  or  an  eqviitable  gover- 
nor. He  had  left  the  chapter  of  Carlisle  distracted  by 
quarrels.  He  found  Christ  Church  at  peace ;  but  in  three 
months  liis  despotic  and  contentious  temper  did  at  Christ 
Church  what  it  had  done  at  Carlisle.  He  was  succeeded 
in  both  his  deaneries  by  the  humane  and  accomplished 
Smalridge,  who  gently  complained  of  the  state  m  which 
both  had  been  left  "  Atterbury  goes  before,  and  sets 
everything  on  fire.  I  come  after  him  with  a  bucket  of 
water."  It  was  said  by  Atterbury's  enemies  that  he  was 
made  a  bi.shop  because  he  was  so  bad  a  dean.  Under  his 
administration  Christ  Church  was  in  confusion,  scandalous 
lltercations  took  place,  opprobrious  words  were  exchanged  ; 
and  there  was  reason  to  fear  that  the  great  Tory  college 
would  bo  ruined  by  the  tyranny  of  the  great  Tory  doctor. 
He  was  soon  removed  to  thi  bishopric  of  Rochester,  which 
Vas  then  always  united  with  the  deanery  of  Wcstiuiiisler. 
Still  higher  dignities  seemed  to  be  before  him.  For, 
though  there  were  many  able  men  on  the  Episcopal  bench, 
there  were  none  who  equalled  or  approached  him  in  parlia- 
mentary talents.  Had  his  party  cortinucid  in  power  it  is 
not  improbable  that  he  would  have  been  raised  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Canterbury.  The  more  splendid  hia 
prospects  the  more  reason  ho  had  to  dread  the  accession  of 
a  family  which  was  well  known  to  be  partial  to  the  Whigs. 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  ha  was  one  of  loose 


politicmns  who  hoped  that  they  might  be  able,  during  the 
life  of  Anno,  to  prepare  matters  in  such  a  way  that  at  her 
decease  there  might  be  little  difficulty  in  setting  aside  the 
Act  of  Settlement  and  placing  the  Pretender  on  the  throne. 
Her  sudden  death  confounded  the  projects  of  these 
conspirators,  Atterbury,  who  wanted  no  kind  of  courage, 
implored  his  confederates  to  proclaim  James  IIL,  and 
offered  to  accompany  the  heralds  in  lawn  sleeves.  But  he 
found  even  the  bravest  soldiers  of  his  party  irresolute, 
and  exclaimed,  not,  it  is  said,  without  interjections  whi^h 
ill  became  the  mouth  of  a  father  of  the  church,  that  the 
best  of  all  causes  and  the  most  precious  of  all  moments  had 
been  pusillanimously  thrown  away.  He  acquiesced  in 
what  he  could  not  prevent,  took  the  oaths  to  the  House  of 
Hanover,  and  at  the  coronation  officiated  with  the  outward 
show  of  zeal,  and  did  hia  best  to  ingratiate  himself  with 
the  royal  family.  But  his  servility  was  requited  with 
cold  contempt  No  creature  is  so  revengeful  as  a  proud 
man  who  has  humbled  himself  in  vain.  Atterbury  became 
the  most  factious  and  pertinacious  of  all  the  opponents  of 
the  Government  In  the  House  of  Lords  his  oratory, 
lucid,  pointed,  lively,  and  set  off  with  every  grace  of  pro- 
nunciation and  of  gesture,  extorted  the  attention  and 
admiration  even  of  a  hostile  majority.  Some  of  the  most 
remarkable  protests  which  appear  in  the  journals  of  the 
peers  were  drawn  up  by  him  ;  and,  in  some  of  the  bitterest 
of  those  pamphlets  which  called  on  the  English  to  stand 
up  for  their  country  against  the  aliens  who  had  come  from 
beyond  the  seas  to  oppress  and  plunder  her,  critics  easily 
detected  his  style.  When  the  rebellion  of  1715  broke  out, 
he  refused  to  sign  the  paper  in  which  the  bishops  of  the 
province  of  Canterbury  declared  their  attachment  to  the 
Protestant  succession.  He  busied  himself  in  electioneering, 
especially  at  Westminster,  where  as  dean  he  possessed 
great  influence  ;  and  was,  indeed,  strongly  suspected  of 
having  once  set  on  a  riotous  mob  to  prevent  his  Whig 
fellow-citizens  from  polling. 

After  having  been  long  in  indirect  communication  with 
the  exiled  family,  ho,  in  1717,  began  to  correspond 
directly  with  tho  Pretender.  The  first  letter  of  the  cor- 
respondence is  extant.  In  that  letter  Atterbury  boasts  of 
having,  during  many  years  past,  neglected  no  opportunity 
of  serving  tho  Jacobite  cause.  "  My  daily  prayer,"  h» 
says,  "  is  that  you  may  have  success.  May  I  live  to  see 
that  day,  and  live  no  longer  than  I  do  what  is  in  my 
power  to  forward  it"  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  he 
who  wrote  thus  was  a  man  bound  to  set  to  the  church  of 
which  ho  was  overseer  an  example  of  strict  probity  ;  that 
he  had  repeatedly  sworn  allegiance  to  the  House  of  Bruns- 
wick ;  that  he  had  assisted  in  placing  the  crown  on  the 
head  of  George  I.,  and  that  he  had  abjured  James  III., 
"  without  equivocation  or  mental  reservation,  on  the  true 
faith  of  a  Christian." 

It  is  agreeable  to  turn  from  his  public  to  his  private 
life.  His  turbulent  spirit,  wearied  with  faction  and 
treason,  now  and  then  required  repose,  and  found  it  in 
domestic  endearments,  and  in  tho  society  of  the  most 
illustrious  of  the  living  and  of  the  dead.  Of  his  wife  little 
is  known;  but  between  him  and  his  daughter  there  was 
an  affection  singularly  close  and  tender.  The  gentleness 
of  his  manners  when  he  was  in  the  company  of  a  few 
friends  was  such  as  seemed  hardly  credible  to  those  who 
know  him  only  by  his  writings  and  speeches.  The  charm 
of  his  "  softer  hour  "  has  been  commemorated  by  one  of 
those  friends  in  imperishable  verse.  Though  Atterburj-'s 
classical  attainments  were  not  great,  Lis  taste  in  English 
literature  was  excellent  ;  and  his  admiration  of  genius  was 
so  strong  that  it  overpowered  even  his  political  and 
religious  antipathies.  His  fondness  fur  Milton,  the  mortal 
enemy  of  the  Stuarts  and  of  the  church,  was  such  c-i  to 


56 


ATTERBURY 


many  Tories  seemeJ  a  crime.  Oq  tlie  sad  night  on  which 
Addison  was  laid  in  the  chapel  of  Henry  VII.,  the  West- 
minster boys  remarked  that  Atterbury  read  the  funeral 
Bervice  with  a  peculiar  tenderness  and  solemnity.  The 
favourite  companions,  however,  of  the  great  Tory  prelate 
v^ere,  as  might  have  been  e.tpected,  men  whose  politics 
had  at  least  a  tinge  of  Tovjisra.  He  lived  on  friendly 
terms  with  Swift,  Arbuthnot,  and  Gay.  With  Prior  he 
had  a  close  intimacy,  which  some  misunderstanding  about 
pTiblic  affairs  at  last  dissolved.  Pope  found  in  Atterbury 
aot  only  a  warm  admirer,  but  a  most  faithful,  fearless, 
and  judicious  adviser.  The  poet  was  a  frequent  guest  at 
the  episcopal  palace  among  the  elms  of  Bromley,  and 
entertained  not  the  slightest  suspicion  that  his  host,  now 
declining  in  years,  confined  to  an  easy  chair  by  gout,  and 
apparently  devoted  to  literature,  was  deeply  concerned  in 
criminal  and  perilous  designs  against  the  Government. 

The  spirit  of  the  Jacobites  had  been  cowed  by  the  events 
of  1715.     It  re\-ived  in  1721.     The  failure. of  the  South 
Sea  project,  the  panic  in  the  money  market, .  the  downfall 
of  great  commercial  houses,  the  distress  from  which  no 
part  of  the  kingdom  was  exempt,  had  produced  general 
discontent.     It   seemed  not  improbable   that   at   such  a 
moment  an  insurrection  migTit  be  successful     An  insur- 
rection was  planned.     The  streets  of  London  were  to  be 
barricaded  ;  the  Tower  and  the  Bank  were  to  be  surprised  ; 
King  George,  his  family,  .and  his  chief  captaips  and  coun- 
cillors were  to  be  arrested,  and  King  James  was  to  be 
proclaimed.     The  design  became  known  to  the  duke  of 
Orleans,  regent  of  France,  who  was  on  terms  of  friendship 
with  the  house  of  Hanover.     He  put  the  English  Govern- 
ment on  its  guard.     Some  of  the  chief  malcontents  were 
committed  to  prison  ;   and  among  them  was  Atterbury. 
Xo  bishop  of  the  Church  of  England  had  been  taken  into 
custody  since  that  memorable  day  when  the  applauses  and 
prayers  of  aU  London  had  followed  the  seven  bishops  to 
the  gate  of  the  Tower.     The  Opposition  entertained  some 
ho(»e  that  it  might  be  possible  to  excite  among  the  people 
an  enthusiasm  resembling  that  of  their  fathers,  who  rushed 
into  the  waters  of  the  Thames  to  implore  the  blessing  of 
Sancroft.     Pictures  of  the  heroic  confessor  in  his  cell  were 
exhibited  at  the  shop  windows.     Verses  in  his  praise  were 
BUflg  about  the  streets.     The  restraints  by  which  he  was 
prevented  from  communicating  with  his  accomplices  were 
represented  as  cruelties  worthy  of  the  dungeons  of   the 
Inquisition.     Strong  appeals  were  made  to  the  priesthood. 
Would  they  tamely  permit  so  gross  an  insult  to  be  offered 
to  their  cloth  1     Would  they  suffer  the  ablest,  the  most 
eloquent  member  of  their  profession,  the  man  who  had  so 
often  stood  up  for  their  rights  against  the  civil  power,  to 
be  treated  like  the  vilest  of  mankind  1    There  was  con- 
piderable  excitement :   but  it  was  allayed  by  a  tempefate 
and  artful  letter  to  the  clergy,  the  work,  in  all  probability, 
of  Bishop  Gibson,  who  stood  high  in  the  favour  of  VValpole, 
and  shortly  after  became  minister  for  ecclesiastical  affairs. 
Atterbury  remained  in  clos^  confinement  during  some 
months.     He  had  carried  on  his  correspondence  with  the 
exiled  family  so  cautiously  that  the  circumstantial  proofs 
of  his  guilt,  though  sufficient  to  produce  entire  moral  con- 
viction, were  not  sutlicient  to  justify  legal  Conviction.     He 
could'  be  reached  only  by  a  bill  of  pains  and  penalties. 
Such  a  bill  the  Whig  party,  then  decidedly  predominant 
in  both   Houses,  was  quite  prepared  to  support.     Many 
hot-headed  members  of  that  party  were  eager  to  follow  the 
pr«cedent   which  had  been  set  in  the  case  of  Sir  John 
Fenwick,  and  to  pass  an  act  for  cutting  off  the  bishop's 
head,      Cadogan,    who   commanded    the   army,   a  brave 
ooldier,  but  a  headstrong  politician,  is  said  to  have  exclaimed 
with  great  vehemence,   "  Fling  him  to  the  lions  in  the 
Tower."     But  the  wiser  and  more  humane  Walpole  was 


always  unwilling  to  sh«d  blood,  and  his  influence  prevailed 
When  Parliament  met,  the  evidence  against  the  bishop  was 
laid  before  committees  of  both  Houses.  Those  committees 
reported  that  his  guUt  was  proved.  In  the  Commons  a 
resolution  pronouncing  him  a  traitor  was  carried  by  nearly 
two  to  one.  A.  bdl  was  then  introduced  which  provided 
that  he  should  be  deprived  of  his  spiritual  dignities,  that 
he  should  be  banished  for  life,  and  that  no  British  sub- 
ject should  hold  any  intercourse  with  him  except  by  th 
royal  permission.  This  bill  passed  the  Commons  with 
little  difficulty ;  for  the  bishop,  though  invited  to  defend 
himself,  chose  to  reserve  his  defence  for  the  assembly  of 
which  he,  was  a  member.  In  the  Lords  the  contest  was 
sharp.  -The  young  duke  of  \\Tiarton,  distinguished  by  his 
parts,  his  dissoluteness,  and  his  versatility,  spoke  for 
Atterbury  with  great  effect;  and  Atterbury's  own  voice 
was  heard  for  the  last  time  by  that  unfriendly  audience 
which  had  so  often  listened  to  him  with  mingled  aversion 
and  delight.  He  produced  few  witnesses,  nor  did  those, 
witnesses  say  much  that  could  be  of  service  to  him. 
Among  them  was  Pope.  He  was  called  to  prove  that, 
while  he  was  an  inmate  of  the  palace  at  Bromley,  the 
bishop's  time  was  completely  occupied  by  literary  and 
domestic  matters,  and  that  no  leisure  was  left  for  plotting. 
But  Pope,  who  was  quite  unaccustomed  to  speak  in  public, 
•lost  his  head,  and,  as  he  afterwards  owned,  though  he  had 
only  ten  words  to  say,  made  two  or  three  blunders. 

The  bill  finally  passed  the  Lords  by  eighty-three  votes  to 
forty-three.  The  bbhops,  with  a  single  exception,  were  in 
the  majority.  Their  conduct  drew  on  them  a  sharp  taunt 
from  Lord  Bathurst,  a  warm  friend  of  Atterbury  and  a 
zealous  Tory.  "  The  wild  Indians,"  he  said,  "  give  no 
quarter,  because  they  believe  that  they  shall  inherit  the 
skill  and  prowess  of  every  adversary  whom  they  destroy. 
■Perhaps  the  animosity  of  the  right  reverend  prelates  to 
their  brother  may  be  explained  in  the  same  way." 

Atterbury  took  leave  of  those  whom  he  loved  with  a 
dignity  and  tenderness  worthy  of  a  better  man.  Three 
fine  lines  of  his  favourite  poet  were  often  in  his  mouth — 

*'Some  natural  tears  be  dropped,  but  wiped  tbem  soon: 
-The  world  was  aU.before  him,  where  to  cliuse 
His  place  of  rest,  and  Providence  his  guide." 

At  parting  he  presented  Pope  with  a  Bible,  and  said, 
with  a  disingenuousness  of  which  no  mail  who  had  studied 
the  Bible  to  much  purpose  would  have  been  guilty,  "  If 
ever  you  learn  that  I  have  any  dealings  with  the  Pretender, 
I  give  you  leave  to  say  that  my  punishment  is  just." 
Pope  at  this  time  really  believed  tno  bishop  to  be  an 
injured  man.  Arbuthnot  seems  to  have  been  of  the  same 
opinion.  Swift,  a  few  months  later,  ridiculed  with  great 
bitterness,  in  the  Voyage  to  La/mtf,  the  evidence  which 
had  satisfied  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament.  Soon,  however, 
the  most  partial  friends  of  the  banished  prelate  ceased  to 
assert  his  innocence,  and.  contented  themselves  with  lament- 
ing and  excusing  what  they  could  not  defend.  After  a 
short  stay  at  Brussels  he  had  taken  up  his  abode  at  Paris, 
and  had  become  the  leading  man  among  the  Jacobite 
refugees  who  were  assembled  there.  He  was  invited  to 
Rome  by  the  Pretender,  who  then  held  his  mock  court 
under  the  immediate  protection  of  the  Pope.  But  Atter- 
bury felt  that  a  bishop  of  the  Church  of  England  would 
be  strangely  out  of  place  at  the  Vatican,  and  declined 
the  in\'itation.  During  some  months,  however,  ho  might 
flatter  himself  that  ho  stood  high  in  the  good  graces 
of  James,  The  correspondence  between  the  master 
and  the  servant  was  constant.  Atterbury's  merits  were 
warmly  acknowledged,  his  advice  was  respectfully  re- 
ceived, and  he  was,  as  Boliagbroke  had  been  before 
him,  the  prime  jQiai.<:ter  of  a  king  without  a  kingd'^cc. 


A  T  T  —  A  T  T 


57 


But  the  new  favourite  fouiid,  as  Bolingbroke  had  found 
before  him,  that  it  was  quite  as  hard  to  keep  the  shadow 
of  power  under  a  vagrant  ami  mendicant  prince  as  to 
keep  the  reality  of  power  at  Westminster.  Though  James 
had  neither  territories  nor  revenues,  neither  army  nor  navy, 
there  was  more  faction  and  more  intrigue  among  his 
courtiers  than  among  those  of  his  successful  rival.  Atter- 
bury  soon  perrnived  that  his  counsels  were  disregarded,  if 
not  distrusted,  llis  proud  spirit  was  deeply  wounded. 
He  quitted  Paris,  fixed  his  residence  at  Montpcllier,  gave 
up  politics,  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  letters.  In  the 
eixth  year  of  his  cxde  he  had  so  severe  an  illness  that  his 
daughter,  herself  in  very  delicate  health,  determined  to  run 
all  risks  that  she  might  see  him  once  more.  Having 
obtained  a  Licence  from  the  English  Government,  she  went 
by  sea  to  Bordeaux,  but  landed  there  in  such  a  state  that 
she  could  travel  only  by  boat  or  in  a  litter.  Her  father, 
in  .spite  of  his  infirmities,  set  out  from  Montpcllier  to  meet 
her ;  and  she,  with  the  impatience  which  is  often  the  sign 
of  approaching  death,  hastened  towards  him.  Those  who 
were  about  her  in  vain  implored  her  to  travel  slowly. 
She  said  that  every  hour  was  precious,  that  she  only  wished 
to  see  her  papa  and  to  die.  She  met  him  at  Toulouse, 
embraced  him,  received  from  his  hand  the  sacred  bread 
and  wine,  and  thanked  God  that  they  had  passed  one  day 
in  each  other's  society  before  they  parted  for  ever.  She 
died  that  night. 

It  was  some  time  before  even  the  strong  mind  of  Atter- 
bury  recovered  from  this  cruel  blow.  As  soon  as  he  was 
himself  again  he  became  eager  for  action  and  conflict ;  for 
grief,  which  disposes  gentle  natures  to  retirement,  to  inac- 
tion, and  to  meditation,  only  makes  rc-itless  spirits  more 
restless.  The  Pretender,  dull  and  bigoted  as  he  was,  had 
found  out  that  he  had  not  acted  wisely  in  parting  with 
one  who,  though  a  heretic,  -was,  ia  abilities  and  accom- 
plishments, the  foremost  man  of  the  Jacobite  party.  The 
bishop  was  courted  back,  and  was  without  much  difficulty 
induced  to  return  to  Paris,  and  to  become  once  more  the 
phantom  minister  of  a  phantom  monarchy.  But  his  long 
and  troubled  life  was  drawing  to  a  close.  To  the  last, 
however,  his  intellect  retained  all  its  keenness  and  vigour. 
He  learned,  in  the  ninth  year  of  his  banishment,  that  ho 
had  been  accused  by  Oldmixon,  as  dishonest  and  malignant 
a  scribbler  as  any  that  has  been  saved  from  oblivion  by 
the  Dunciad,  of  having,  in  concert  with  other  Christ 
Churchmen,  garbled  Clarendon's  History  of  the  ReMlion. 
The  charge,  as  respected  Atterburj',  had  riot  the  slighte.st 
foundation;  for  he  was  not  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
Uiitory,  and  never  saw  it  till  it  was  printed.  He 
published  a  short  vindication  of  himself,  which  is  a  model 
\n  its  kind,  luminous,  temperate,  and  dignified.  A  copy 
of  this  little  work  he  sent  to  the  Pretender,  with  a  letter 
singularly  eloquent  and  graceful.  It  was  impossible,  the 
old  man  said,  that  ho  should  write  anything  on  such  a 
subject  without  being  reminded  of  the  resemblance  between 
his  own  fate  and  that  of  Clarendon.  They  were  the  only 
two  English  subjects  that  had  ever  been  banished  from 
their  country  and  debarred  from  all  communication  with 
their  friends  by  Act  of  Parliament.  But  here  the  resem- 
blance ended.  One  of  the  exiles  had  been  so  happy  to 
bear  a  chief  part  in  the  restoration  of  the  royal  house.  All 
that  the  other  could  now  do  was  to  die  asserting  the  rights 
of  that  house  to  the  last.  A  few  weeks  after  this  letter 
was  written  Atterbury  died.  He  had  just  completed  Lis 
seventieth  year. 

His  body  was  brought  to  England,  and  laid,  with  great 
privacy,  under  the  nave  of  Westminster  Abbey.  Only 
three  mourners  followed  the  coffin.  No  inscription  marks 
the  grave.  That  the  epitaph  with  which  Pope  honoured 
tho  memory  of  his  friend  docs  not  appear  on  the  walls  of 


the  groat  national  cemetery  is  no  subject  of  regret,  for 
nothing  worse  was  ever- written  by  Colley  Gibber. 

Those  who  wish  for  more  complete  inrormation  Rbont  Atttrburv 
may  ea-sily  collect  it  from  hia  sermons  auj  Lis  controversial  writings, 
from  the  report  of  tho  parliamentary  proceedings  against  hLn, 
which  will  be  found  in  the  State  Trials  ;  from  the  fiVe  volumps  of 
his  correspondence,  edited  by  Mr  Nichols,  and  from  the  first  to1jti» 
of  tho  Stuart  papers,  edited  by  Mr  Glover.  A  very  indulgent  lut 
a  very  interesting  account  of  the  bishop's  jolitical  career  will  be 
found  iu  Lord  Stanhope's  valuable  If  isfory  of  England.  (M.) 

ATTICA,  the  most  famous  district  of  ancient  Greece,  L» 
a  tnangular  piece  of  ground  projecting  in  a  south-easterly 
direction  into  the  jEgean  Sea,  tho  base  line  being  formed 
by  the  continuous  chain  of  Mounts  Cithafon  and  Parnes, 
the  apex  by  the  promontory  of  Sunium.     It  is  washed  on 


Sketch  Map  ot  Attica. 

two  sides  by  the  sea,  and  this  feature  seems  to  have  given 
rise  to  the  name;  for,  notwithstanding  the  unusual  letter- 
change,  'Attikt}  probably  stands  for  'Aktiki),  since  Strabo 
and  other  ancient  writers  inform  us  that  the  country  origi- 
nally bore  toth  this  name  and  that  of  'AkttJ.  The  latter 
designation  Tvas  frequently  used  by  the  Greeks  to  describe 
an  extensive  tract  reaching  into  the  sea,  especially  when, 
as  in  the  case  of  Attica  and  the  Argolic  Acte,  it  was  joined 
to  the  continent  by  *  broad  base.  The  coast  is  broken  up 
into  numerous  small  bights  and  harbours,  which,  however, 
are  with  few  exceptions  exposed  to  the  south  wind ;  the 
irregularity  of  theoutline  accounts  for  its  great  length  in  com- 
parison of  the  superficial  area  of  the  country.  The  surface 
of  Attica,  as  of  the  rest  of  Greece,  is  very  mountainous,  and 
between  the  mountain  chains  lie  several  plains  of  no  great 
size,  open  on  one  side  to  the  sea.  On  the  west  its  natural 
boundary  is  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  so  that  it  would  include 
the  district  of  Megaris ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  before  the 
Dorian  invasion,  wliich  resulted  in  the  foundation  of 
Megara,  the  whole  of  this  countiy  was  politically  one, 
being  in  the  hands  of  tho  Ionian  race.  This  is  proved  by 
the  column  which,  as  we  learn  from  Strabo,  once  stood  on 
the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  bearing  on  one  side  the  inscriptitjn, 
"  This  land  is  Peloponnesus,  not  Ionia  " — 

and  on  the  other,  "  Thia  land  is  not  Peloponnesus,  but 
Ionia"  — 

IIL    —    8 


58 


ATTICA 


Ontral  Tie  central  position  of  Attica  in  Greece  was  one  main 

pnsitioa.  cause  of  its  historical  importance.  When  K..  O.  MiiUer 
compares  Greece  to  a  body,  whose  members  are  different  in 
form,  while  a  mutual  connection  and  dependence  naturally 
exist  between  them,  he  speaks  of  Attica  as  one  of  the 
extremities  which  served  as  the  active  instruments  of  the 
body  of  Greece,  and  by  which  it  was  kept  in  constant  con- 
nection with  other  countries.  Hence  in  part  arose  the 
maritime  character  of  its  inhabitants;  and  when  they  had 
once  taken  to  the  sea,  the  string  of  neighbouring  islands, 
Ceos,  Cythnos,  and  others,  some  of  which  lay  within  sight 
of  their  coasts,  and  from  one  to  another  of  which  it  was 
possible  to  sail  without  losing  sight  of  land,  served  to 
tempt  them  on  to  further  enterprises.  Similarly  on  land, 
the  post  it  occupied  between  Northern  Greece  and  the 
Peloponnese  materially  influenced  its  relation  to  other  states, 
both  in  respect  of  its  alliances,  such  as  that  with  Thessaly, 
towards  which  country  it  was  drawn  by  mutual  hostility  to 
Boeotia,  which  lay  between  them, — a  friendship  of  great 
•service  to  Athens,  because  it  brought  to  her  aid  the  Thes- 
salian  cavalry,  an  arm  with  which  she  herself  was  feebly 
provided ;  and  also  in  respect  of  offensive  combinations  of 
other  powers,  as  that  between  Thebes  and  Sparta,  which 
throughout  an  important  part  of  Greek  history  were  closely 
associated  in  their  politics,  through  mutual  dread  of  their 
powerful  neighbour, 
tlonntaln.s.  Xhe  mountains  of  Attica,  which  form  its  most  character- 
istic feature,  are' to  be  regarded  as  a  continuation  of  that 
chain  which,  starting  from  Mount  Tymphrestus  at  the 
Bouthem  extremity  of  Pindus,  passes  through  Phocis  and 
Boeotia  under  the  well-known  names  of  Parnassus  and 
Helicon  ;  from  this  proceeds  the  range  which,  as  Citha^ron 
in  its  western  and  Pames  in  its  eastern- portion,  separates 
Attica  from  Bceotia,  throwing  off  spurs  southward  towards 
the  Saronic  Gulf  in  yEgaleos  and  Hymettus,  which  bound 
the  plain  of  Athens.  Again,  the  eastern  extremity  of 
Pames  is  joined  by  another  lineof  hills,  which,  separating 
from  Mount  Qita,  skirts  the  Euboic  Gulf,  and,  after  enter- 
ing Attica,  throws  up  the  lofty  pyramid  of  Pentelicus,  over- 
looking the  plain  of  Marathon,  and  then  sinks  towards  the 
sea  at  Sunium  to  rise  once  more  in  the  outlying  islands. 
Finally,  at  the  extreme  west  of  the  whole  district,  Cithjeron 
is  bent  round  at  right  angles  in  the  direction  of  the  isthmus, 
at  the  northern  approach  to  which  it  abuts  against  the 
mighty  mass  of  Mount  Gcraneia,  which  is  interposed  be- 
tween the  Corinthian  and  the  Saronic  Gulf.  The  elevation 
reached  by  some  of  these  is  considerable,  both  Cithoeron 
and  Pames  being  about  4  GOO  feet,  Hymettus  3360,  and 
PenteUcus  2560,  while  jEgaleos  does  not  rise  higher  than 
1536  feet.  At  the  present  day  they  are  extremely  bare, 
and,  to  one  who  is  accustomed  to  Italian  scenery,  their 
severity  ia  apt  at  first  to  be  almost  repellent ;  but  after  a 
time  the  eye  is  delighted  with  the  delicacy  of  the  outlines, 
the  minute  articulation  of  the  minor  ridges  and  valleys,  and 
the  symmetrical  way  in  which  nature  has  grouped  the 
several  mountains  so  as  to  form  a  balance  between  them. 
The  appearance  thus  produced  can  be  best  described  as 
classical. 

The  soil  of  Attica  is  light  and  thin,  and  requires  very 
careful  agriculture  to  develop  its  produce.  This  feature 
belongs  not  only  to  the  rocky  mountain  sides,  but  to  some 
extent  also  to  the  maritime  plains,  and  had  considerable 
influence  on  the  development  of  the  inhabitants,  both  by 
enforcing  industrious  habits,  and  in  leading  them  at  an 
early  period  to  take  to  the  sea.  Still,  the  level  ground  was 
sufficiently  fertile  to  form  a  marked  contrast  to  the  rest  of 
the  district,  and  this  fact  is  represented  in  the  mythical 
genealogy  of  the  early  kings,  which  embodies  several  geo- 
graphical features.  Thus,  while  first  we  find  the  name' of 
/  ctius  or  ActxpD,  who  represents  the  oktiJ  or  seorcoast. 


later  on  occurs  Cranaus,  a  personification  of  the  rocky 
ground,  whence  both  Pindar  and  Aristophanes  apply  the 
epithet  Kpavaa!  to  Athens ;  and  further  we  meet  with 
Erichthonius,  whose  name  .is  inteuded  to  express  the  fmit- 
ful  plains.  Thucydides  attributes  to  the  nature  of  the  thin 
soil  (i.  2,  TO  XcTTToycuy),  which  presented  no  attraction  to. 
invaders,  the  permanence  of  the  same  inhabitants  in  the 
country,  whence  arose  the  claim  to  indigenousness  oB 
which  the  Athenians  so  greatly  prided  themselves;  while  at 
the  same  time  the  richer  ground  fostered  that  fondness  for 
country  life,  which  is  proved  by  the  enthusiastic  terms  in 
which  it  is  always  spoken  of  by  Aristophanes,  and-  by  the 
discontent,  of  the  people  of  Attica  at  being  forced  to  betake 
themselves  to  the  city  at  the  commencement  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War.  That  we  are  not  justified  in  judging  of 
the  ancient  condition  of  the  soil  by  the  aridity  which  pre- 
vails at  the  present  day,  is  shown  by  thfe  fact  that  out  of 
the  174  demes  into  which  Attica  was  divided,  at  least  one- 
tenth  were  named  from  trees  or  plants. 

But  whatever  drawbacks  the  people  of  Attica  experienced  Climats. 
in  respect  of  the- soil  were  more  than  compensated  by  the 
fineness  of  the  climate.  In  this  point  they  enjoyed  a  great 
advantage  over  their  neighbours  the  Boeotians ;  and  while 
at  the  present  day  travellers  speak  of  the  excessive  heat  in 
summer  and  cold  in  winter  which  they  have  experienced 
in  Boeotia,  Attica  has  always  been  famous  for  its  mildness. 
In  approaching  this  district  from  the  north,  a  change  of 
temperature  is  felt  as  soon  as  a  person  descends  from 
Cithseron  or  Pames,  and  the  sea  breeze,  which  in  modern 
times  is  called  o  infid-nj';,  or  that  which  sets  towards  shore, 
moderates  the  heat  in  summer.  Both  the  Attic  comedians 
and  Plato  speak  with  enthusiasm  of  their  native  climate, 
and  the  fineness  of  the  Athenian  intellect  was  attributed 
to  the  clearness  of  the  Attic  atmosphere.  It  was  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Athens  itself  that  the  air  was  thought 
to  be  purest.  This  is  what  Euripides  refers  to  in  the 
well-known  passage  where  he  describes  the  inhabitants  as 
"ever  walking  gracefully  through  the  most  luminous 
a;ther"  {Med.,  829);  and  Milton,  who  is  always  aa 
admirable  exponent  of  Greek  literature,  in  like  manner 
says — 

"  "Where,  on  the  .^Egean  shore,  a  city  stands, 
Built  nobly,  pure  the  air,  and  light  the  soil, — 
Athens,  the  eye  of  Greece." 

Thus  it  is  hardly  hyperbole  in  Xeno'phon  to  say  "one 
would  not  err  in  thinking  that  this  city  is  placed  near  the 
centre  of  Greece — nay,  of  the  civilised  world,— because,  the 
farther  removed  persons  are  from  it,  the  severer  is  the  cold 
or  heat  they  meet  with  "  ( Vedigal.,  i.  6).  To  the  clearness 
of  the  atmosphere  must  be  referred  the  distinctness  jrith 
which  distant  objects  can  be  discerned,  for  from  the 
Acropolis  the  lines  of  white  marble  that  streak  the  sides  of 
Pentelicus  are  visible,  and  also  the  briUiant  colouring 
which  is  so  conspicuous  in  an  Athenian  sunset.  Thu- 
Dean  Stanley  speaks  of  "  the  flood  of  fire  with  which  the 
marble  columns,  the  mountains,  and  the  sea  are  all  bathed 
and  penetrated;"  "the  violet  hue  which  Hymettus  assumes 
in  the  evening  sky,  in  contrast  to  the  glowing  furnace  of 
tlie  rock  of  Lycabettus,  and  the  rosy  pyramid  of  Pentelicus." 
And  M.  Bursian  says — "  Amongst  the  most  beautiful 
natural  scenes  that  I  have  beheld  I  reckon  the  sight  of 
Hymettus  from  Athens  at  sunset,  whibt  the  entire  range, 
as  soon  as  the  sun  begins  to  sink,  quivers  with  the  loveliest 
rosy  red,  which  gradually  passes  through  the  most  varied 
gradations  into  the  deepest  violet.  No  one  who  has  not 
enjoyed  this  spectacle  can  understand  the  purpureas  collet 
fluri'nlis  Hymetti  of  Ovid."  This  otherwise  jierfect  climate 
is  slightly  marred  by  the  prevalence  of  the  notlh  wind. 
This  is  expressed  on  the  Uorologium  of  Antonius  Cyr- 
rhestes,  called  the  Temple  or  Tower  of   the  Winds,  at 


ATTICA 


59 


Athens,  nLere  Boreas  is  represented  as  a  bearded  man  of 
Btero  aspect,  tbicLly  clad,  and  wearing  strong  buskins  ;  he 
blows  into  a  conch  shell,  which  he  holds  in  his  hand  as  a 
tfign  of  his  tempestuous  character.  This  also  explains  the 
close  connection  between  huii  and  this  country  in  mytho- 
logy, especially  in  the  legend  of  Orithyia,  who  is  the 
daughter  of  the  Cephisus,  thus  representing  the  mists  that 
rise  from  the  streams,  and  whom  he  carries  off  with  hira 
ao4-makes  his  wife.  One  of  their  offspring  is  called  Chione, 
or  the  Snow  Maiden. 
Vegetation.  When  we  turn  to  the  vegetation  of  Attica,  the  olive  first 
calls  for  our  attention.  This  tree,  we  learn  from  Hero- 
dotus (v.  82),  was  thought  at  one  time  to  have  been  found 
in  that  county  only ;  and  the  enthusiastic  praises  of 
Sophocles  {(EJ.  Col.,  700)  teach  us  that  it  was  the  land  in 
which  it  flourished  best.  So  gieat  was  the  esteem  in  which 
It  was  held,  that  in  the  early  legend  of  the  struggle  between 
the  gods  of  sea  and  land,  Poseidon  and  Athena,  for  the 
patronage  of  the  country,  the  seagod  is  represented  as 
having  to  retire  vanquished  before  the  giver  of  the  olive ; 
and  at  a  later  penod  the  evidences  of  this  contention  were 
found  in  an  ancient  olive  tree  in  the  Acropolis,  together 
with  three  holes  in  the  rock,  said  to  have  been  made  by 
the  trident  of  Poseidon,  and  to  be  connected  with  a  salt 
well  hard  by.  The  fig  also  found  its  favourite  home  in 
ikis  country,  for  Demeter  was  said  to  have  bestowed  it  as 
a  gift  on  the  Eleusinian  Phytalus,  i.e.,  "  the  gardener." 
Both  Cithsron  and  Parnes  must  have  been  wooded  in 
former  times  ;  for  on  the  former  are  laid  the  picturesque 
eilvan  scenes  in  the  Bacchm  of  Euripides,  and  it  was  from 
the  latter  that  the  wood  came  which  caused, the  neighbour- 
ing deme  of  AcharnsB  to  be  famous  for  its  charcoal — the 
a.v6paK(<;  napnjcrtoi  of  the  Achamianiol  Aristophanes  (348). 
It  was  the  thymy  slopes  of  Hyraettus,  too,  from  which 
ftTarrsIt.  came  the  famous  Uymettian  honey.  Among  the  other 
products  we  must  notice  the  marble — both  that  of  Pen- 
telicus,  which  afforded  a  material  of  unrivalled  purity  and 
whiteness  for  building  the  Athenian  temples,  and  the  blue 
marble  of  Uymettus — the  trabes  Hymetlice  of  Horace — 
which  used  to  be  transported  to  Rome  for  the  construction 
of  palaces.  But  the  richest  of  all  the  sources  of  wealth  in 
Attica  was  the  silver  mines  of  Laureium,  the  yield  of  which 
was  so  considerable  as  to  render  silver  the  principal  medium 
of  exchange  in  Greece,  so  that  "  a  silver  piece  "  (apyxpiov)  was 
the  Greek  equivalent  term  for  money.  Hence  iEschylus 
Bpeaks  of  the  Athenians  as  possessing  a  "  fountain  of  silver" 
{Peri.,  235),  and  Aristophanes  makes  his  chorus  of  birds 
promise  the  audience  that,  if  they  show  him  favour,  owls 
from  Laureium,  i.e.,  silver  pieces  with  the  emblem  of 
Athens,  shall  never  fail  them  (.^r.,  1 106).  In  Strabo's  time, 
though  the  mines  had  almost  ceased  to  yield,  silver  was 
obtained  in  considerable  quantities  from  the  scoris ;  and 
at  the  present  day  a  large  amount  of  lead  is  obtained  in 
the  same  way,  the  value  of  what  was  exported  in  1809 
having  been  £177,000  sterling, 
i-.merel  Having  thus  noticed  the  general  features  of  the  country, 

•i<«.nptioa  let  us  proceed  to  examine  it  somewhat  more  in  detail  It 
has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  base  line  is  formed  by 
the  chain  of  Cithiron  and  Parnes,  running  from  west  to 
east ;  and  that  from  this  transverse  chains  run  southward, 
dividing  Attica  into  a  succession  of  plains.  The  western- 
rioio  of  most  of  these,  which  is  separated  from  the  innermost  bay 
M -irirm.  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  called  the  Mare  Alcyonium,  by  an 
offshoot  of  Cith.x^ron,  and  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  a 
ridge  which  ends  towards  the  Saronic  Gulf  in  a  striking 
two-homed  peak  called  Kerata,  is  the  plain  of  Mega.-a.  It 
IS  only  for  geographical  purposes  that  we  include  this 
distnct  under  Attica,  for  both  the  Dorian  race  of  the  in- 
habitants, and  its  dangerous  proximity  to  Athens,  caused 
■.t  li>  Ht>  at  parpetual  feud  with  that  city ,  but  its  position 


as  an  outpost  for  the  Peloponnesians,  together  with  the 
fact  of  its  having  once  been  Ionian  soil,  sufficiently  explnfns 
the  bitter  hostility  of  the  Athenians  towards  the  Megarians. 
The  great  importance  of  Megara  arose  from  its  commanding 
all  the  passes  into  the  Peloponnese.  These  were  three  m 
number :  one  along  the  shores  of  the  Cormthian  Gulf, 
which,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  ground,  makes  a  long 
detour ;  the  other  two  starting  from  Megara,  and  passing, 
the  one  by  a  lofty  though  gradual  route  over  the  ridge  of 
Geraneia,  the  other  along  the  Saronic  Gulf,  under  the 
dangerous  precipices  of  the  Scironian  rocks.  The  town  of 
Megara,  which  was  built  on  and  between  two  low  hills 
rising  out  of  the  plain  rather  more  than  a  mile  from  the 
sea,  had  the  command  of  both  gulfs  by  means  of  its  two 
porta — that  of  Pegae  on  the  Cormthian,  and  that  of  Nicaa 
on  the  Saronic.  The  necessities  of  the  case  occasionally 
brought  the  Megarians  and  their  powerful  neighbours 
together ;  for  the  former  greatly  depended  on  Athens  for 
their  supplies,  as  we  see  from  their  famished  state, "aa 
described  by  Aristophanes  in  the  Acharnians  (729  teg.}, 
when  excluded  from  the  ports  and  markets  of  that 
country. 

To  the  east  of  the  plain  of  Megara  lies  that  of  Eleusis, 
bounded  on  the  one  side  by  the  chain  of  Kerata,  and  on 
the  other  by  that  of  jEgaleos,  through  a  depression  in 
which  was  the  line  of  the  sacred  way,  where  the  torchlight 
processions  from  Athens  used  to  descend  to  the  coast,  th» 
"  brightly  gleaming  shores  "  (Xa/iTrdRti  axrm)  of  Sophocles 
{(Ed.  Cut.,  1049).  Here  a  deep  bay  runs  into  the  hind, 
opposite  to  which,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  strait,  which 
forms  a  succession  of  graceful  curves,  was  the  rocky  island 
of  Salamis,  at  fU  times  an  important  possession  to  tha 
Athenians  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  their  city.  The 
scene  Of  the  battle  of  Sahimis  was  the  narrowest  part  of 
this  channel,  where  the  island  approaches  the  extremity  of 
.£galeo3 ;  'and  it  was  on  the  last  dechvities  of  that  moun- 
tain that — 

"  A  king  sate  on  the  rocky  brow 
Which  looks  o'er  sea-born  Salamis." 

The  eastern  portion  of  this  plain  was  aiUed  the  TLriasiaa 
plain,  and  the  city  of  Eleusis  was  situated  in  the  recesses 
of  the  bay.  The  coast-line  of  this  part,  between  tho 
sanctuary  of  Poseidon  at  the  isthmus,  which  waa  originally 
Ionian,  and  Athens,  is  the  principal  scene  of  the  achieve- 
ments of  Theseus,  a  hero  who  holds  the  same  relation  to 
the  lonians  of  Greece  proper  as  Hercules  does  to  tho 
Greeks  at  large,  viz.,  that  of  being  the  great  author  of 
improvements  in  the  country.  In  this  instance  his  feata 
seem  to  describe  tho  establishment  of  a  safe  means  of 
communication.  On  the  isthmus  itself  ho  destroys  tho 
monster  Sinia,  the  "ravager,"  otherwise  called  Pityocamptes, 
or  the  "  pine-bender,"  which  names  imply  that  he  is  the 
embodiment  of  a  violent  wind,  though  the  legend  grew  up 
that  he  fastened  his  victims  to  the  bent  branches  of  two 
pines,  by  the  rebound  of  which  they  were  torn  in  sunder. 
Uis  next  exploit  is  near  Crommyon,  where  he  destroys  a 
wiW  sow,  called  Pha;a,  or  "the  dusky,"  which  probably 
means  that  he  checked  a  torrent,  smce  violent  water- 
courses are  often  represented  by  that  animal  in  Greek 
mjlhology.  Then  follows  the  struggle  with  the  brigand 
Sciron,  who  sigmfias  the  dangerous  wind,  which  blows  with 
such  violence  in  thia  district  that  at  Athens  the  northwest 
wind  received  tho  name  of  Sciron  from  the  neighbouring 
Scironian  rocks  ;  the  pa.ss,  which  skirts  the  sea  at  the  baao 
of  the  clilTs,  is  now  known  by  the  ill-omened  title  of  Kake 
Scala,  and  ia  still  regarded  as  a  perilous  transit.  Finally, 
between  Elcusis  and  Alliens,  Theseus  overcomes  Procrustes, 
or  "  the  racker,"  who  apparently  represents  the  dangers  of 
the  pass  between  Eleusis  and  Athens,  now  called  Daphne; 
for  the  ridge  of  Mount  jEgaleos  hard  by  was  in  amuent 


60 


ATTICA 


times  called  Corydallns,  and  this,  we  are  told  by  Diodorus 
(iv.  59),  was  .the  scene  of  the  contest. 

Next  in  order  to  the  plain  of  Eleusis  came  that  of 
Athens,  which  is  the  most  extensive  of  aU,  reaching  from 
the  foot  of  Parnes  to  the  sea,  and  bounded  on  the  west  by 
./Egaleos,  and  oa  the  east  by  Hyraettus.  Its  most  con- 
spicuous feature  is  the  broad  line  of  dark  green  along  its 
western  side,  formed  by  the  olive-groves  of  Colonus  and 
the  gardens  of  the  Academus,  which  owe  their  fertility  to 
the  waters  of  the  Cephisu^,  by  which  they  are  irrigated. 
This  river  is  fed  by  copious  sources  on  the  side  of  Mount 
Parnes,  and  thus,  unlike  the  other  rivers  o"f  Attica,  has  a 
constant  supply  of  water ;  but  it  does  not  reach  the  sea, 
nor  did  it  apparently  in  classical  times,  having  been 
diverted,  then  as  now,  into  the  neighbouring  plantations ; 
for  this  i»  what  Sophocles  means  when  he  speaks  of  "  the 
sleepless  fountains  of  Cephisus,  Which  stray  forth  from 
their  channels"  (Qid.  Col.,  685  seq.)  The  position  of 
Colonus  itself  is  marked  by  two  bare  knolls  of  light- 
coloured  earth,  which  caused  the  poet  in  the  same  chorus 
to  apply  the  epithet  "white"  (apylp-a)  to  that  place.'  On 
the  opposite  side  of  the  plain  runs  the  other  river,  the  Ilissus, 
which  rises  from  a  beautiful  fountain  in  Mount  Hymettus, 
and  skirts  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  city  of  Athens ;  but 
this,  notwithstanding  its  celebrity,  is  a  mere  brook,  which 
stands  in  pools  a  great  part  of  the  year,  and  in  summer  is 
completely  dry.  The  situation  of  Athens  relatively  to  the 
surrounding  objects  is  singularly  harmonious ;  for,  while  it 
forms  a  central  point,  so  as  to  be  the  eye  of  the  plain,  and 
while  the  altar-rock  of  the  Acropolis  and  the  hiUs  by  which 
it  is  surrounded  are  conspicuous  from  every  point  of  view, 
there  is  no  such  exactness  in  its  position  as  to  give  for- 
mality, since  it  is  nearer  to  the  sea  than  to  Parnes,  and 
nearer  to  Hymettus  than  to  ./Egaleos.  The  most  striking 
summit  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city  is  that  of  Lyca- 
bettus,  now  Mount  St  George,  on  the  north-eastern  side ; 
and  the  variety  is  still  further  increased  by  the  continua- 
tion of  the  ridge  which  it  forms  for  some  distance  north- 
wards through  the  plain.  Three  roads  lead  to  Athens 
from  the  Bceotian  frontier  over  the  intervemng  mountain 
barrier — the  easternmost  over  Fames,  from  D'elium  and 
Oropus  by  Deceleia,  which  was  the  usual  route  of  the  in- 
vading Lacedaemonians  during  the  Peloponnesian  War;  the 
westernmost  over  Cithaeron,  by  the  pass  of  Dryoscephalae, 
or  the  "  Oakheads,"  leading  from  Thebes  by  Plata;a  to. 
Heusis,  and  so  to  Athens,  which  we  hear  of  in  connection 
with  the  battle  Df  Platsea,  and  with  the  escape  of  the 
PlatJeans  at  the  time  of  the  siege  of  that  city  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian War ;  the  third,  midway  between  the  two,  by 
the  pass  of  Phyle,  -near  the  summit  of  which,  on  a  rugged 
height  overlooking  the  Athenian  plain,  is  the  fort  occupied 
by  Thrasybidus  in  the  days  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  On 
the  sea-coast  to  the  south-west  of  Athens  rises  the  hill  tt 
Munychia,  a  mass  of  rocky  ground,  forming  the  acropolVs 
of  the  town  of  Pira;eus,  which  was  once  separated  from  the 
mainland;  for  Strabo  (i.  3,  §  18)  speaks  of  it  as  hai^ng 
been  formerly  an  island.  On  one  side  of  this,  towards 
Hymettus,  lay  the  open  roadstead  of  Phalerum,  on  the 
other  the  harbour  of  Piraeeus,  a  completely  land-locked  inlet, 
«afe,  deep,  and  spacious,  the  approach  to  which  was  still 
flirther  narrowed  by  moles.  The  eastern  side  of  the  hill 
was  further  indented  by  two  small  but  commodious  havens, 
which  were  respectively  called  Zea  and  Munychia. 

The  north-eastern  boundary  of  the  plain  of  Athens  is 
formed  by  tho  graceful  pyramid  of  Pentelicus,  which  re- 
ceived its  name  from  tho  deme  of  Pentelo  at  its  foot,  but 
was  far  more  Commonly  known  as  Brilessus  in  ancient  times. 
This  mountain  did  not  form  a  continuous  chain  with  Hy- 
mettus, for  between  them  intervenes  a  level  space  of  ground 
two  jnilea  in  width,  which  formed  the  entrance  to  tho 


Mesogsa,  an  elevated  undulating  plain  m  the  midst  of  tbo 
mountains,  reaching  nearly  to  Sunium.  At  the  extremity 
of  Hyraettus,  where  it  projects  into  the  Saronic  Gulf,  was 
the  promontory,  of  Zoster,  or  "  the  Girdle,"  which  was  so 
called  because  it  girdles  and  protects  the  neighbouring 
harbour,  but  in  consequence  of  the  name,  a  legend  was 
attached  to  it,  to  the  effect  that  Latona  had  loosed  her  girdle 
there.  From  this  promontory  to  Sunium  there  runs  a  lower 
line  of  mountains,  and  between  these  and  the  sea  a  fertile 
strip  of  land  intervenes.  Which  was  called  the  Paraha. 
Beyond  Sunium,  on  the  eastern  coast,  were  two  safe  ports, 
that  of  Thoricus,  which  is  defended  by  the  island  of  Helene, 
forming  a  natural  breakwater  in  front  of  it,  and  that  of 
Prasice,  now  called  Porto  Raphti,  or  "  the  Tailor,"  from  a 
statue  at  the  entrance  to  which  the  natives  have  given  that 
name.  But  it  stiU  remains  to  mention  the  most  famous 
spot  of  ground  in  Attica,  the  little  plain  of  Marathon,  which 
lay  in  the  north-east  comer,  encircled  on  three  sides  by 
Pames  and  Pentelicus,  while  the  fourth,  faces  the  sea  and 
the  opposite  coast  of  Eubcea.  It  was  on  the  mountain 
slopes  that  the  Greeks  were  stationed,  while  .the  Persians 
with  their  ships  occupied  the  coast ;  and  on  the  two  sides 
the  marshes  may  still  be  traced  by  which  the  movements 
of  the  invader's  host  were  impeded.  The  mound,  which 
at  once  attracts  the  eye  in  the  centre  of  the  level  plain,  is 
probably  the  burial-place  of  the  Athenians  who  fell  in  the 
battle.  The  bay  in  front  is  sheltered  by  Euboea,  and  is 
still  more  protected  from  the  north  by  a  projecting  tongue 
of  land,  called  Cynosura.  The  mountains  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood wiere  the  seat  of  one  of  the  political  parties  in 
Attica,  the  Diacrii  or  Hyperacrii,  who,  being  poor  moun- 
taineers, and  having  nothing  to  lose,  were  the  principal 
advocates  of  change ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Pedieis, 
or  inhabitants  of  the  plains,  being  wealthy  landholders, 
formed  the  strong  conservative  element,  and  the  Parali,  ot 
occupants  of  the  sea-coast,  representing  the  mercantile  in- 
terest, held  an  intermediate  position  between  the  two. 
Finally,  there  was  one  district  of  Attica,  that  lay  without 
its  natural  boundaries,  the  territory  of  OropuS,  which  pro- 
perly belonged  to  Boeotia,  as  it  was  situated  to  the  north 
of  Pames ;  but  on  this  the  Athenians  always  endeavoured 
to  retain  a  hrm  hold,  because  it  facilitated  their  communi- 
cations with  Eubcea.  The  command  of  that  island  was  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  them ;  for,  if  ./Egina  could  rightly 
be  called  "  the  eyesore  of  the  Pira;eus,"  Euba;a  was  quite  as 
tmly  athom  in  the  side  of  Attica;  for  we  learn  from  Demos- 
thenes (De  Cor.,  p.  307)  that  at  one  period  the  pirates  that 
made  it  their  headquarters  so  infested  the  neighbouring 
sea  as  to  prevent  all  navigation. 

Ot  the  condition  of  Attica  in  mediaeval  and  modem  times 
little  need  be  said,  for  it  has  followed  for  the  most  part 
I  the  fortunes  of  Athens.  The  population,  however,  has 
imdergono  a  great  change;  independently  of  the  largo  ad- 
jrixture  of  Slavonic  blood  that  has  afl'ccted  tho  Greeks  of 
tho  mainland  generally,  by  tho  imhiigration  of  Albanian 
colonists,  who  now  occupy  a  great  part  of  tho  country. 
The  most  important  of  the  cl;issic;)l  ruins  that  remain  out- 
side Athens  are  those  of  the  temple  of  Athena  at  Sunium, 
which  form  a  conspicuous,  object  as  they  sunuount  the 
headland,  and  gave  rise  to  tho  name  which  it  bore,  until 
lately,  of  Cap'6  Colonnai ;  it  is  in  tho  Doric  style,  of  white 
marble,  and  13  columns  of  tho  tenqilo  and  a  pihister  are 
now  standing.  At  Eleusis  the  foundations  of  the  propy- 
liea  of  tho  great  temple  of  Dcmcter  and  other  buildings 
have  been  laid  bare  by  excavation  ;  at  Thoricus  thero  are 
remains  of  an  ancient  theatre  ;  and  at  lUuimnua,  northward 
from  Marathon,  at  a  lilllc  distance  from  the  sea,  are  the 
baaemeuts  and  some  of  the  columns  of  two  temples  in  tho 
same  enclosure,  which  were  dedicated  to  Nemesis  and 
Themis,  <p.  P.  T.) 


A  T  T  — A  T  T 


61 


ATTICUS,  Titus  PosiroNius,  the  tiiend  of  Cicero,  wa3 
one. of  the  most  distinguLsbed  men  during  the  period  of  the 
deciioe  and  fall  of  the  Roman  republic.  Ui3  life  gives  an 
admirable  picture  of  the  classical  man  (jf  culture,  who, 
withdrawing  from  the  stir  of  political  aflfairs,  devoted 
himsclT  to  literary  and  artistic  pursuits.  He  was  born  at 
Rome  109  b.c,  aud  was  thus  three  years  older  than  Cicero, 
along  witkwhom  he  and  the  younger  Marius  were  educated. 
His  family  is  said  to  have  been  of  noble  and  ancient 
desceut ;  his  father  belonged  to  the  equestrian  order,  and 
was  very  wealthy.  When  Pomponius  (who  afterwards 
received  the  surname  Atticus,  on  account  of  his  long  resi- 
dence at  Athens,  and  his  intimate  acquaintance  with  Greek 
literature)  was  still  a  young  man,  his  father  died,  and  he 
at  once  took  the  prudent  resolution  of  transferring  himself 
and  bia  fortune  to  Athens,  in  order  to  escape  the  dangers 
of  the  civil  war,  in  which  he  might  have  been  involved 
through  his  connection  with  the  murdered  tribune  Sulpiciu.s 
Rufus.  Here,  in  retirement,  he  contrived  to  keep  himself 
free  from  the  entanglements  of  faction,  while  preserving 
friendly  relations  with  all  parties.  Sulh,  who  urged  him 
to  come  to  Rome  and  join  his  party,  took  no  otfence  at  his 
refusal,  but  treated  him  with  marked  kindness.  He 
assisted  the  younger  Marius  and  Brutus  with  money  when 
they  were  fleeing  from  their  enemies,  and  remained  on  the 
most  cordial  terms  with  Caesar  and  Pompey,  Antony  and 
Octavianus.  His  most  intimate  friend,  however,  was  Cicero, 
whose  correspondence  with  him  extended  over  many  years, 
and  who  seems  to  have  found  his  prudent  counsel  and 
sympathy  a  remedy  for  all  his  many  troubles.  His  private 
life  was  tranquil  and  happy.  He  did  not  marry  till  he  was 
53  years  of  age,  and  his  only  child  became  the  wife  of 
Vipsaaius"Agrippa,  the  distinguished  minister  of  Augustus. 
His  large  fortune  was  increased  on  the  death  of  his  uncle, 
L.  Caeciluis,  who  bequeathed  to  him  the  greater  part  of  his 
property.  He  formed  a  large  library  at  Athens,  and  kept 
1  staff  of  slaves  engaged  in  making  copies  of  valuable  works. 
He  probably  derived  considerable  profits  from  the  sale  of 
these  books.  In  32  B.C.  he  was  seized  with  an  illness 
believed  to  be  incurable.  He  resolved  not  to  protract  a 
painful  and  hopeless  struggle,  and  died  after  five  days  of 
voluntary  starvation.  As  might  have  been  expected  from 
his  easy  temper  and  equable  disposition,  Atticus  professed 
a  mild  Epicureanism,  but  philosophical  problems,  as  such, 
do  not  seem  to  have  had  much  interest  for  him ;  he  was 
emphatically  a  man  of  literature.  Of  bis  writings  none  are 
extant,  but  wo  have  notices  of  two,  one  a  Greek  history 
of  Cicero's  consubhip,  the  other,  in  Latin,-'  on  Roman 
ftnnals,  a  subject  to  which  he  had  given  much  attention. 
This  work  was  highly  commended  for  its  minute  exactness, 
chronological  accuracy,  and  simple  styla 

ATTICUS  HERODES,  Tiberius  Claudius,  a  very 
wealthy  citizen  of  Athens,  was  born  about  104  a.d.  His 
grandfather's  estates  had  been  confiscated  for  treachery,  but 
the  fortunes  of  the  family  had  been  restored  by  the 
discovery  in  his  father's  house  of  an  enormous  sum  of 
money,  which  the  Emperor  Nerva  permitted  them  to  retain. 
This  great  wealth  Herodcs  afterwards  increased  by  his 
marriage.  He  received  a  careful  education  under  the  most 
distinguished  masters  of  the  time,  and  specially  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  oratory,  to  excel  in  which  seems  to 
have  been  the  ruling  motive  of  his  life.  While  very  young 
ho  delivered  a  speech  before  one  of  the  emperors ;  but  it 
was  30  ill  received  that  he  was  with  di'fllcuUy  restrained 
from  throwing  himself  into  the  Danube.  He  ultimately 
attained  to  great  celebrity  as  a  speaker  and  as  a  teacher 
of  rhetoric.  Among  his  pupils  were  Marcu.s  Aurclius  and 
Lucius  Verus.  He  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  Antonincs, 
p\rticul&rly  by  Aurclins,  and  received  many  marks  of 
lavcur,  among  othera  the  arclionahip  at  Athens  and  the 


consulate  at  Rome.  Atticus  is  principally  celebrated, 
however,  for  the  vast  sums  be  expended  on  public  purposes. 
He  bnilt  at  Athens  a  great  race-course  of  marble  from 
Pentelicus,  and  a  splendid  musical  theatre,  called  the  Odeum. 
At  Corinth  he  iuilt  a  theatre,  at  Delphi  a  stadium,  at 
Thermopylas  hot  baths,  at  Canusium  in  Italy  an  aqueduct. 
He  even  contemplated  cutting  a  canal  through  the  Isthmus 
of  Corinth,  but  it  is  said  did  not  dare  to  carry  out  his  plan 
because  the  same  thing  had  been  unsuccessfully  attempted 
before  by  the  Emperor  Nero.  Many  of  the  partially 
ruined  cities  of  Greece  were  restored  by  Atticus,  and 
numerous  inscriptions  testify  their  gratitude  to  their  bene- 
factor. His  wealth,  ami,  it  is  reported,  some  disagreement 
with  regard  to  one  of  the  provisions  of  his  father's  will, 
roused  up  the  enmity  of  .tlie  Athenians  against  him.  He 
withdrew  from  Athens,  and  resided  at  his  villa  near 
Marathon,  where  he  died  about  180  a.d.  None  of  his 
writings  are  extant. 

ATTILA,  or  ErziC,  the  famous  leader  of  the  Huna,  Bur- 
named  the  "  Fear  of  the  World,"  or  the  "  Scourge  of  God," 
was  born  probably  about  406  a.d.  His  father  Mundzuk, 
king  of  the  Huns,  was  succeeded  by  his  brothers  Octar  and 
Rhuas  ;  and  on  the  death  of  Rhuas,  in  434,  Attila  and  his 
brother  Bleda  together  ascended  the  throne.  They  ruled 
not  only  over  the  Huns,  but  over  nearly  all  the  tribes  north 
of  the  Danube  and  the  Black  Sea ;  under  their  banners 
fought  Ostrogoths,  Gepidse,  Alani,  Heruli,  and  many  other 
Teutonic  peoples.  Their  dominions  ate  said  to  have 
extended  from  the  Rhine  to  the  frontiers  of  China. 
Attila  was  superstitiously  reverenced  by  his  countrymen  ; 
he  was  said  to  possess  the  iron  sword  of  the  wargod,  Mars, 
and  ho  proclaimed  himself  to  be  the  man-child  born  at 
Engaddi,  who  was  destined  to  rule  over  the  whole  world. 
In  441  and  442  the  brothers  ravaged  Thrace  and  Dlyria, 
defeated  the  troops  of  the  Eastern  Empire  i"  threft  great 
battles,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  Thermopylae.  Peace  waa 
made  on  the  Romans  agreeing  to  pay  a  hca-.7  tribute. 
About  this  time  Attila  contrived  to  make  away  with  his 
brother  Bleda,  and  thus  secured  undivided  supremacy. 
In  445  and  the  following  years,  he  again  directed  hia 
attacks  against  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  laid  waste  the 
whole  country  round  Constantinople.  Nowhere  did  ho 
meet  with  resistance  save  from  the  bravo  little  town  of 
Azimus.  The  empire  seemed  about  to  succumb,  when 
Thebdosius  entered  into  negotiations  and  made  terms  with 
his  conqueror.  WTiile  matters  were  being  arranged,  a  plot 
was  laid  to  assassinate  Attila,  in  which  the  emperor  waa 
implicated.  The  conspiracy  was  discovered,  and  the 
barbarian  upbraided  the  Christian  monarch  with  his  want 
of  honour  and  manly  courage.  Theodosius  died  soon  after, 
and  his  successor,  Marcian,  returned  a  firm  refusal  to 
Attila's  demands  for  tribute.  War  seemed  inevitable  ;  but 
at  this  time  the  attention  of  the  Hun  was  drawn  to  the 
Western  Empire.  It  is  said  that  the  Princess 'Honona, 
sister  of  Valentinian,  tired  of  her  life  of  enforced  celibacy, 
sent  her  ring  and  an  ofl^er  of  her  hand  to  Attila,  who  upon 
this  grounded  his  claim  to  a  part  of  the  empire.  It  it 
probable,  however,  that  he  merely. used  this  as  a  pretext, 
and  that  hia  real  designs  were  more  comprehensive.  He 
evidently  thought  it  a  favourable  opportunity  fur  taking 
advantage  of  the  enmity  between  the  Romans  and  the 
Visigoths  ;  and  to  this  plan  he  was  also  induced  by  the 
proposals  of  Genseric,  king  of  the  Vandals,  who  ofTcrcd  to 
unite  with  him  against  his  rival,  Theodoric,  king  of  the 
Visigoths.  'In  451  Attila.  assembled  his  forces,  it  is 
said  700,000  strong,  led  them  through  the  centre  of  Ger- 
many, probably  by  Franconia,  and  crossed  the  Rhine,  at 
what  place  cannot  bo  determined.  He  defeated  the 
Burgundians,  and  pushed  on  through  the  heart  of  Gau), 
until  his  centre  was  checked  by  the  valiant  resistance  offered 


62 


A  T  T  — A  T  T 


by  Orleans.  Meanwhile,  Theodoric  and  Aetius,  the  Roman 
general,  had  collected  and  united  their  iorces,  and  marching 
with  all  speed,  arrived  in  time  to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans. 
Attila  retreated  to  a  position  in  the  plam  of  Chalons,  and 
there  concentrated  his  forces  for  a  great  engagement.  A 
tremendous  battle  ensued — one  of  the  most  gigantic  as 
well  as  most  important  contests  recorded  in  history.  The 
Romans,  who  formed  one  wing,  were  driven  back,  and 
although  they  kept  together,  and  at  nightfall  retired  to 
the  camp  of  the  Visigoths,  Aetius  had  given  up  the  day  as 
lost.  The  Visigoths,  who  were  on  the  other  wing,  had 
also  been,  repulsed,  and  were  discouraged  by  the  fall  of 
their  leader  Theodoric.  But  the  fortune  of  the  day  was 
changed  by  the  impetuous  bravery  of  Thori^mund,  Theo- 
Uoric'e  son,  who,  burning  to  avenge  his  father's  fall,  led  on 
the  infuriated  Visigoths,  and  drove  Attila  back  to  his  camp. 
He  even  penetrated  into  the  fortifications,  but  was  wounded 
and  thrown  from  his  horse,  and  his  foUowers  with  difficulty 
carried  him  off.  Next  day,  Attila  remained  in  his  camp  in 
expectation  of  an  attack,  and  having  thrown  all  his  baggage 
into  a  gigantic  pile  in  the  centre  of  the  camp  to  be  burned 
in  case  of  defeat,  resolved  to  sell  his  life  dearly.  But  no 
attack  was  made  ;  for  Thorismund  was  persuaded  by  Aetius 
to  march  to  Toulouse  in  order  to  obtain  his  father's  king- 
dom. Attila  was  thus  enabled  to  retire  in  perfect  security. 
Next  year  he  poured  his  forces  through  the  defiles  of  the 
Alps,  and  laid  waste  the  whole  north  of  Italy.  Rome 
itself  seemed  likely  to  fall  before  the  invader,  when  his 
course  was  arrested  by  an  embassy  headed  by  Pope  Leo. 
Attila  at  once  withdrew  from  Italy,  but  the  motive  which 
led  him  to  act  thus  is  not  known.  At  the  time  his  retreat 
was  ascribed  to  a  miraculous  interposition  of  Providence, 
Peter  and  Paul  having'appeared  in  the  camp  of  the  Huns 
along  with  the  embassy.  The  whole  matter  is  rather 
obscure  ;  and  scarcely  more  credible  is  the  story  told  by 
Jornandes  that  Attila  invaded  Gaul  a  second  time  and  was 
completely  defeated  by  Thorismund.  No  other  historian 
mentions  this  circumstance.  In  the  year  453,  Attila  died 
from  the  bursting  of  a  blood-vessel  on  the  night  of  his  mar- 
riage with  a  beautiful  Qothic  maiden,  called  Udiko,  or 
Hilda.  He  was  buried  by  his  followers  with  great  pomp 
and  lamentation.  Tke  vast  empire  over  which  he  hail 
ruled  broke  np  immediately  after  his-  death,  no  one  chief 
being  powerful  enough  to  seize  the  supremacy.  In  person 
AttUa  is  described  as  having  been  of  true  Hunoish  type, 
short,  but  strongly  made,  with  a  large  head,  flat,  wide- 
spread  nostrils,  and  small  glittering  eyes.  His  presence 
was  majestic  and  imposing,  and  he  excelled  all  his  followers 
in  military  exercises.  , 

ATTOCK,  a  town  and  fort  of  British  India,  in  the 
PanjAb,  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Indus,  in  33° 
54'  N.  lat.,  and  72°  20'  E.  long.  The  place  is  both  of 
political  and  commercial  importance,  as  the  Indus  is  here 
crossed  by  the  military  and  trade  route  through "  the 
Khaibar  Pass  into  AighAnistin.  Alexander  the  Oreat> 
Tamerlane,  and  Nidir  ShAh,  are  believed  to  have  sac- 
ccssively  crossed  the  Indus  at  or  about  this  spot  in  their 
respective,  invasions  of  India.  The  river  runs  past  Attock 
in  a  deep  rapid  channel  about  200  yards  broad,  but  is 
easily  crossed  in  boats  or  on  inflated  skins  of  oxen.  A 
bridge  of  boats  is  maintained  for  a  considerable  part  of 
the  year,  but  withdrawn  in  the  summer  as  soon  as  the 
loelting  of  the  snowi  in  the  northern  mountains  endangers 
it  The  fort  of  Attock  was  built  by  the  Emperor  Akbar 
in  1581,  on  a  low  hillock  beside  the  river.  The  walls  are 
of  polished  stono,  and  the  whole  structure  is  handsome ; 
but  from  a  military  point  of  view  it  is  of  little  importance, 
being  commanded  by  a  hill,  from  which  it  is  divided  only 
by  a  ravine.  Tlie  town  was  formerly  a  place  of  importance, 
but  has  now  fallen  iuto  decay      On  the  opposite  side  of 


the  river  is  the  village  of  Khairib4d,  with  a  fort,  also 
erected  by  Akbar  according  to  some,,  or  by  N4dir  Shih 
according  to  others. 

ATTORNEY,  in  English  Law,  signifies,  in  its  widest 
sense,  any  substitute  or  agent  appointed  to  act  in  "  the 
turn,  stead,  or  place,  of  another."  The  term  is  now  com- 
monly confined  to  a  class  of  qualified  agents  who  undertake 
the  conduct  of  legal  proceedings  for  their  clients.  By  the 
common  law  the  actual  presence  of  the  parties  to  a  suit 
wasconsidered.indispensable,  but  the  privilege  of  appearing 
by  attorney  was  conceded  in  certain  cases  by  special  dis- 
pensation, until  the  statute  of  Merton  and '.subsequent 
enactments  made  it  competent  for  both  parties  in  'all  j»di- 
ci^l  proceedings  to  appear  by  attorney.  Solicitors  appear 
to  have  been  at  first  distinguished  from  attorneys,  as  not 
having  the  attorney's  power  to  bind  their  principals,  but 
latterly  the  distinction  has  been  between  attorneys  as  the 
agents  formally  appointed  in  actions  at  law,  and  solicitors 
who  take  care  of  proceedings  in  Parliament,  Chancery,  Privy 
Council,  <fec.  In  practice,  however,  and  in  ordinary  lan- 
guage, the  terms  are  synonymous.  Regulations  regarding 
the  qualifioation  of  attorneys  are  found  as  far  back  as  the 
20  Edward  I.,  which  required  the  judges  to  select  in  each 
county  the  most  learned  and  able  attorneys  and  apprentices 
to  do  service  in  the  courts.  By  the  6  and  7  Vict  c.  73, 
and  other  statutes,  the  qualifications  necessary  for  admis- 
sion on  the  rolls  of  attorneys  and  solicitors  are  : — 1st,  The 
due  execution  of  a  proper  contract  in  writing  with  some 
practising  attorney  or  solicitor  for  the  term  of  five  years, 
or  of  three  years  if  the  clerk  be  a  graduate  of  the  universi- 
ties of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Dublin,  London,  or  Durham,  or 
of  the  Queen's  University,  Ireland,  or  if  ne  have  been  a 
member  of  the  bar,  a  writer  to  the  signet,  a  solicitor  before 
the  supreme  courts  in  Scotland,  or  for  ten  years  bona  fide 
managing  clerk  to  an  attorney ;  2d,  The  payment  of  the 
stamp  duty  on  such  contract,  amounting  to  £80 ;  3d,  The 
registry  or  enrolment  of  the  contract  within  six  calendar 
months ;  4th,  Actual  sendee  for  the  prescribed  period  in 
the  proper  business  of  an  attorney  and  solicitor ;  but  one 
year  may  be  served  with  the  London  agent,  and,  where  the 
service  is  for  five  years,  another  year  with  a  barrister  or 
certificated  special  pleader  ;  5th,  Due  notices  of  the  applica- 
tion to  be  adJnitted  ;  6th,  Fitness  and  capacity  ascertained 
upon  examination,  and  certified  by  the  examiners  ;  7th, 
Taking  the  prescribed  oaths,  and  being  admitted  and 
enrolled  ;  8th,  The  certificate  of  the  registrar  of  attorneys 
that  he  is  duly  enrolled,  and  the  stamped  certificate  of  the 
annual  payment  of  the  duty.  Attorneys  duly  admitted  in 
any  of  the  superior  courts  have  a  right  to  be  admitted  and 
to  practise  in  any  of  the  courts  in  the  kingdom,  and  this 
right  miy  be  enfofced  by  mandamus.  They  may  act  as 
advocates  in  certain  of  the  inferior  courts.  Conveyancing, 
formerly  considered  the  exclusive  business  of  the  bar,  is 
now  often  performed  by  attorneys.  Barristers  are  under- 
stood to  require  the  intervention  of  an  attorney  in  all  cases 
that  come  before  them  professionally,  although'  in  criminal 
coses  the  prisoner  not  unfrequently  engages  a  counsel 
directly  by  giving  him  a  fee  in  open  court.  The  relation 
of  attorney  and  client  disqualifies  the  former  from  dealing 
with  his  client  on  his  own  behalf,  while  it  gives  him  a  lien, 
on  professional  services,  over  the  deeds,  ic,  of  the  client 
in  his  possession.  An  attorney  may  be  struck  off  the  rolls 
for  professional  or  other  misconduct,  on  application  by 
counsel  at  the  instance  of  an  injured  party,  or,  as  the  case 
generally  is,  of  the  Incorporated  Law  Society  as  representing 
the  profession. 

A  letlet  or  pouter  of  Attorney  is  an  authority  under  hand 
and  seal,  empowering  the  person  named  therein  to  do  some 
act  on  behalf  of  the  principal,  which  otherwise  could  only  be 
done  by  the  principal  himself.     It  expires  with  death  of  the 


A  T  T  —  A  T  T 


63 


priccipal,  and  is  revocable  at  bis  will,  -unless  it  has  been 
given  for  a  valuable  consideration.  A  warrant  of  Atlomey 
is  an  authority  to  one  or  more  attorneys  to  appear  for  the 
party  executing  it,  in  a  court  of  record,  at  the  suit  of  the 
person  for  whose  benefit  it  is  given,  and.to  suffer  judgment 
summarily  to  pass  ii^  his  favour.  It  is  usually  given  as  a 
security  to  creditors  for  the  summary  recovery  of  money 
lent,  or  sums  certain,  but  may  be  used  in  other  cases  also. 

ATTORNEY -GENKRAL,  the  chief  kw  officer  ap- 
pointed to  manage  all  the  legal  affairs  and  suits  in  which 
the  Crown  is  interested.  Ue  is  appointed  by  patent, 
authorising  him  to  hold  office  during  the  Queen's  pleasure. 
He  is  ex  officio  the  leader  of  the  bar,  and  only  counsel  of 
the  highest  eminence  are  appointed  to  the  office.  The 
royal  mandate  of  14th  December  1814  gives  hflil  precedence 
in  all  the  courts,  and -it  is  now  settled  that  in  the  House 
of  Lords  be  has  precedence  of  the  Lord  Advocate,  even  in 
Scotch  appeals.  He  is  a  necessary  party  to  all  proceedings 
affecting  the  Crown,  and  has  extensive  powers  of  control  in 
matters  relating  to  charities,  lunatics'  estates,  criminal  pro- 
secutions, <tc  His  assistant,  also  appointed  by  patent,  is 
the  Solicitor-General,  who  has  full  power  to  act  in  the 
absence  of  his  poncipal,  and  by  almost  invariable  uiage, 
succeeds  to  his  office  when  it  becomes  vacant  The  income 
attached  to  these  offices  has  hitherto  been  derived  in  great 
part  froin  fees  on  patents  for  inventions,  but  by  a  recent 
arrangement  the  Attorney-General  and  Solicitor-General 
receive  a  salary  of  XiOOO  and  £6000  respectively,  exclusive 
of  such  fees  as  they  may  receive  for  any  litigious  business 
they  may  conduct  on  behalf  of  the  Crown. 

ATTRACTION.  That  the  different  parts  of  a  material 
system  influence  each  other's  motions  is  a  matter  of  daily 
observation.  In  some  cases  we  cannot  discover  any 
material  connection  extending  from  the  one  body  to  the 
ether.  We  call  these  cases  of  action  at  a  distance,  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  those  in  which  we  cm  trace  a  con- 
tinuous materia)  bond  of  union  between  the  bodies.  The 
mutual  action  between  two  bodies  is  called  stress.  When 
the  mutual  action  tends  to  bring  the  bodies  nearer,  or  to 
prevent  them  from  separating,  it  is  called  tension  or  attrac- 
tion. AVhen  it  tends  to  separate  the  bodies,  or  to  prevent 
them  from  approaching,  it  is  called  pressure  or  repulsion. 
The  names  tension  and  pressure  are  iised  when  the  action 
is  seen  to  take  place  through  a  medium.  Attraction  and 
repulsion  are  reserved  for  cases  of  action  at  a  distance. 
The  configuration  of  a  material  system  •  can  always  be 
lefined  in  terms  of  the  mutual  distances  of  the  parts  of 
the  system.  Any  change  of  configuration  must  alter  one 
or  tnore  of  these  distances.  Hence  the  force  which  pro- 
duces or  resists  such  a  change  may  be  resolved  into  attrac- 
tions or  repulsions  between  those  parts  of  the  system  whose 
distance  is  altered. 

There  has  been  a  great  deal  of  speculation  as  to  the 
cause  of  such  forces,  one  of  them,  namely,  the  pressure 
beti^een  bodies  in  contact,  being  supposed  to  be  more 
easily  conceived  than  any  other  kind  of  stress.  JIany 
attempts  have  •  therefore  been  made  to  resolve  cases  of 
apparent  attraction  and  repulsion  at  a  distance  into  cases 
of  pressure.  At  one  time  the  possibility  of  attraction  at  a 
distance  was  supposed  to  be  refuted  by  asserting  that  a 
body  cannot  act  where  it  is  not,  and  that  therefore  all 
action  between  different  portions  of  matter  must  be  by 
direct  contact.  To  this  it  was  replied  that  we  have  no  evi- 
dence that  real  contact  ever  takes  place  between  two  bodies, 
and  that,  in  fact,  when  bodies  are  pressed  against  each  other 
aad  in  apparent  contact,  we  may  sometimes  actually  measure 
the  distance  between  them,  as  when  one  piece  of  glass  is 
laid  on  another,  in  which  case  a  considerable  pressure  must 
be  applied  to  bring  the  surfaces  near  enough  to  show  the 
black  spot  of  Newton's  rings,  which  indicates  a  distance  of 


about  a  ten  thousandth  of  a  millimetre,  li,  in  order  to 
get  rid  of  the  idea  of  action  at  a  distance,  we  imagine  a 
material  medium  through  which  the  action  is  transmitted, 
all  that  we  have  done  is  to  substitute  for  a  single  action  at 
a  great  distance  a  series  of  actions  at  smaller  distances 
between  the  parts  of  the  medium,  so  that  we  cannot  even 
thus  get  rid  of  action  at  a  distance. 

The  study  of  the  mutual  action  between  the  parts  of  a 
material  system  has,  in  modern  times,  been  greatly  simplified 
by  the  introduction  of  the  idea  of  the  energy  of  the  system. 
The  energy  of  the  system  is  measured  by  the  amount  of 
work  which  it  can  do  in  overcoming  external  resistances. 
U  depends  on  the  present  configuration  and  motion  of  the 
system,  and  not  on  the  manner  in  which  the  system  has 
acquired  that  configuration  and  motion.  A  complete 
knowledge  of  the  manner  in  which  the  energy  of  the  system 
depends  on  its  configuration  and  motion,  is  sufficient  to 
determine  all  the  forces  acting  between  the  parts  of  the 
system.  For  instance,  if  the  system  consists  of  two  bodies,- 
and  if  the  energy  depends  on  the  distance  between  them, 
then  if  the  energy  increases  when  the  distance  increases, 
there  must  be  attraction  between  the  bodies,  and  if  the 
energy  diminishes  when  the  distance  increases,  there  must 
be  repulsion  between  them.  In  the  case  of  two  gravitating 
masses  m  and  m  at  a  distance  r,  the  part  of  the  energy 

which  depends  on  r  is We  may  therefore  express 

the  fact  that  there  is  attraction  between  the  two  bodies  by 
saying  that  the  energy  of  the  system  consisting  of  the  two 
bodies  increases  when  their  distance  increases.  The  ques- 
tion, therefore.  Why  do  the  two  bodies  attract  each  other  1 
may  be  expressed  in  a  different  form.  Why  does  the 
energy  of  the  system  increase  when  the  distance  increases! 

But  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  scientific  or  science- 
producing  value  of  the  efforts  made  to  answer  these  old 
standing  questions  is  not  to  be  measured  by  the  prospect 
they  afford  us  of  ultimately  obtaining  a  solution,  but  by 
their  effect  in  stimulating  men  to  a  thorough  investigation 
of  nature.  To  propose  a  scientific  question  presupposes 
scientific  knowledge,  and  the  questions  which  exercise  men's 
minds  in  the  present  state  of  science  may  very  likely  be  sucli 
that  a  little  more  knowledge  would  show  us  that  no  answer 
is  possible.  The  scientific  value  of  the  question,  How  do 
bodies  act  on  one  another  at  a  distance  1  is  to  be  found 
in  the  stimulus  it  has  given  to  investigations  into  the  pro- 
perties of  the  intervening  medium. 

Newton,  in  his  Principia,  deduces  from  the  observed 
motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  the  fact  that  they  attract 
one  another  according  to  a  definite  law.  This  he  gives  as 
a  result  of  strict  dynamical  reasoning,  and  by  it  he  shows 
how  not  only  the  more  conspicuous  phenomena,  but  all  the 
apparent  irregularities  of  the  celestial  motions  are  the 
calculable  results  of  a  single  principle.  In  his  Principia 
he  confines  himself  to  the  demonstration  and  development 
of  this  great  step  in  the  science  of  the  mutual  action  of 
bodies.  He  says  nothing  there  about  the  means  by  which 
bodies  gravitate  towards  each  other.  But  his  mind  did 
not  rest  at  this  point  We  know  that  he  did  not  believe 
in  the  direct  action  of  bodies  at  a  distance. 

"  It  is  inconceivable  that  inanimate  brute  matter  should,  withont 
the  mediation  of  something  else  which  is  not  materia), operate  upon 
and  affect  other  matter  without  mutual  contact  aa  it  must  do  if 
(gravitation  in  the  senseof  Epicurus  be  essential  and  inherent  in  it  .  .. 
That  gravity  should  be  innate,  inherent,  and  essential  to  matter, 
so  that  one  body  can  act  upon  anotlier  at  a  distance,  through  a 
vacuum,  without  the  mediation  of  anything  else,  by  and  through 
which  their  action  and  force  may  be  conveyed  from  one  to  another, 
is  to  me  so  great  an  absurdity,  that  I  believe  no  man,  who  has  in 
philosophical  matters  a  comprtcDt  faculty  ef  thinking,  can  ever  fall 
into  it." — JMtcT  to  BmtUy. 

And  we  also  know  that  he  sought  for  the  mechanism  of 


64 


ATTRACTION 


gravitation  in  the  properties  of  an  a;thereal  medium  diffused 
over  the  universe. 

"  It  appears,  from  his  letters  to  Boyle,, that  this  was  his  opinion 
early,  and  if  he  did  not  publish  it  sooner  it  proPtedcd  from  hence 
only,  that  be  found  he  was  not  able,  from  experiment  and  observa- 
tion, to  gi^e  a  satisfactory  account  of  this  medium  and  the' manner 
of  its  operation  in  producing  the  chief  phenomena  of  nature.'"  ^ 

In  his  Optical  Queries,  indeed,  he  shows  that  if  the 
pressure  of  this  medium  is  less  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
dense  bodies  than  at  great  distances  from  them,  dense 
bodies  will  be  drawn  towards  each  other,  and  that  if  the 
diminution  of  pressure  is  inversely  as  the  distance  from 
the  dense  body  the  law  wiU  be  that  of  gravitation.  The 
next  step,  as  he  points  out,  is  to  account  for  this  inequality 
of  pressure  in  the  medium ,  and  as  he  was  not  able  to  do 
this,  he  left  the  explanation  of  the  cause  of  gravity  as  a 
problem  to  succeeding  ages.  As  regards  gravitation  the 
progress  made  towards  the  solution  of  the  problem  since 
the  time  of  Newton  has  been  almost  imperceptible. 
Faraday  showed  that  the  transmission  of  electric  and 
magnetic  forces  is  accompanied  by  phenomena  occurring 
in  every  part  of  the  intervening  medium.  He  traced  the 
lines  of  force  through  the  medium  ;  and  he  ascribed  to  them, 
a  tendency  to  shorten  themselves  and  to  separate  from  their 
neighbours,  thus  introducing  the  idea  of  stress  in  the 
medium  in  a  different  form  from  that  suggested  by  Newton ; 
for,  whereas  Newton's  stress  was  a  hydrostatic  pressure  in 
every  direction,  Faraday's  is  a  tension  along  the  lines  of 
force,  combined  with  a  pressure  in  all  normal  directions. 
By  showing  that  the  plane  of  polarisation  of  a  ray  oflight 
passing  through  a  transparent  medium  in  the  direction  of 
the  magnetic  force  is  made  to  rotate,  Faraday  not  only 
demonstrated  the  action  of  magnetism  on  light,  but  by 
tising  light  to  reveal  the  state  of  magnetisation  of  the 
medmm,  he  "  illuminated,"  to  use  his  own  phrase,  "  the 
lines  of  magnetic  force." 

From  this  phenomenon  Thomson  afterwards  proved,  by 
strict  dynamical  reasoning,  that  the  transmission  of  mag- 
netic force  is  associated  with  a  rotatory  motion  of  the  small 
parts  of  the  medium.  He  showed,  at  the  same  time,  how 
the  centrifugal  force  due  to  this  motion  would  account  for 
magnetic  attraction. 

A  theory  of  this  kind  is  worked  out  in  greater  detail  in 
Clerk  MaxweU's  Treatise  on  Electricity  and  Magnetism. 
It  is  there  shown  that,  if  we  assume  that  the  medium  is  in 
a  state  of  stress,  consisting  of  tension  along  the  lines  of 
force  and  pressure  in  all  directions  at  right  angles  to  the 
lines  of  force,  the  tension  and  the  pressure  being  equal  in 
numerical  value  and  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
intensity  of  the  field  at  the  given  point,  the  observed 
electrostatic  and  electromagnetic  forces  will  be  completely 
accounted  for. 

The  next  step  is  to  account  for  this  state  of  stress  in  the 
medium.  In  the  case  of  electromagnetic  force  we  avail 
ourselves  gf  Thomson's  deduction  from  Faraday's  discovery 
stated  above.  We  assume  that  the  small  jiarts  of  the 
medium  are  rotating  about  axes  parallel  to  the  lines  of 
force.  The  centrifugal  force  due  to  this  rotation  produces 
the  excess  of  pressure  perpendicular  to  the  liues  of  force. 
iTho  explanation  of  electrostatic  stress  i.s  less  satisfactory, 
but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  path  is  now  open  by 
which  wo  may  trace  to  the  action  of  a  medium  all  forces 
which,  like  the  electric  and  magnetic  forces,  vary  inversely 
as  the  square  of  the  distance,  and  are  attractive  between 
bodies  of  different  names,  and  repulsive  between  bodies  of 
the  same  names. 

The  force  of  gravitation  i.s  also  inversely  tm  the  square 
of  the  distance,  but  it  differs  from  the  electric  and 
magnetic  forces  in  this  respect,  that  the  bodies  between 

'  Maclaurin's  account  of  Sir  Isaac  NcwtoD*a  difcoverics. 


which  It  acts  cannot  be  divided  into  two  opposite  kinds, 
one  positive  and  the  other  negative;  but  are  in  respect 
of  gravitation  all  of  the  same  kind,  and  that  the  force 
between  them  is  in  every  case  attractive.  To  account 
for  such  a  force  by-  means  of  stress  in  an  intervening 
medium,  on  the  plan  adopted  for  electric  and  magnetic 
forces,  we  must  assume  a  stress  of  an  opposite  kind  from 
that  already  mentioned.  We  must  suppose  that  there  is 
a  pressure  .in  the  direction  of  the  lines  of  force,  combined 
with  a  tension  in  aU  directions  at  right  angles  to  the  lines 
of  force.  Such  a  state  of  stress  would,  no  doubt,  account 
for  the  observed  effects  of  gravitation.  We  have  not, 
however,  been  able  hitherto  to  imagine  any  phj'sical  cause 
for  such  a  state  of  stress.  It  is  easy  to  calculate  the 
amount  of  this  stress  which  would  be  required  to  account 
for  the  actual  effects  of  gravity  at  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
It  would  require  a  pressure  of  37,000  tons'  weight  on  the 
square  inch  in  a  vertical  direction,  combined  with  a  tension 
of  the  same  numerical  value  in  all  horizontal  directions. 
The  state  of  stress,  therefore,  which  we  must  suppose  to 
exist  in  the  invisible  medium,  is  3000  timoe  greater  than 
.that  which  the  strongest  steel  could  support. 

Another  theory  of  the  mechanism  of  gravitation,  that 
of  Le  Sage,  who  attributes  it  to  the  impact  of  "  ultramun- 
dane corpuscules,"  has  been  already  discussed  in  the  article 
Atom,  supra,  p.  46. 

Sir  William  Thomson-  ias  shown  that  if  we  suppose 
all  space  filled  with  a  uniform  incompressible  fiuid,  and 
if  we  further  suppose  either  that  material  bodies  are  always 
generating  and  emitting  this  fluid  at  a  constant  rate,  the 
fluid  flowing  off  to  infinity,  or  that  material  bodies  are 
always  absorbing  and  annihilating  the  fluid,  the  deficiency 
flowing  in  from  infinite  space,  then,  in  either  of  these 
cases,  there  would  be  an  attraction  between  any  two  bodies 
inversely  as  the  square  of  the  ilistance.  If,  however,  one 
of  the  bodies  were  a  generator  of  the  fluid  and  the  other 
an  absorber  of  it.  the  bodies  would  repel  each  other. 

Here,  then,  we  have  a  hydrodynamical  illustration  of 
action  at  a  distance,  which  is  so  far  promising  that  it  shows 
how  bodies  of  the  same  kind  may  attract  each  other.  But 
the  conception  of  a  fluid  constantly  flowing  out  of  a 
body  without  any  supply  from  without,  or  flowing  into  it 
without  any  way  of  escape,  is  so  contradictory  to  all  our 
experience,  that  an  hypothesis,  of  which  it  is  an  essential 
part,  cannot  be  called  an  explanation  of  the  phenomenon  of 
gravitation.       ' 

Dr  Robert  Hookc,  a  man  of  singular  inventive  power, 
in  1G71  endeavoured  to  trace  the  cause  of  gravitation  to 
waves  propagated  in  a  me<lium.  Ho  found  that  bodies 
floating  on  water  agitated  by  waves  were  drawn  towards  the 
centre  of  agitation.^  "He  does  not  appear,  however,  to  have 
followed  up  this  observation  in  such  a  way  as  to  determine 
completely  the  action  of  waves  on  an  immersed  body. 

Professor  Challis  has  investigated  the  mathematical 
theory  of  the  effect  of  waves  of  condensation  and  rarefac- 
tion in  an  clastic  fluid  on  bodies  immersed  in  the  fluid. 
He  fwund  the  diflicultics  of  the  investigation  to  be  So  great 
that  he  kas  not  been  able  to  arrive  at  numerical  results.  He 
concludes,  however,  that  the  ofl'ect  of  such  waves  would  bo 
to  attract  the  body  towards  the  centre  of  agitation,  or  to 
repel  it  from  that  centre,  according  as  the  wave's  length  is 
very  largo  or  very  small  compared  ^vith  the  dimensions  of 
tlie  body.  Practical  illustrations  of  the  effect  of  such  waves 
have  boon  given  by  G'uyot,  Schellbach,  Guthrie,  and 
Tliorason.* 

A  tuning-fork  js  set  in  vibfation,  and  brought  near  a 
delicately  suspended  light  body.     The  body  is  immediately 

'  Proccrdings  of  the  Rm/al  Soeiel}/  of  Edinburgh,  7th  Feb.  IS'* 
'  Posthumoxu  tfoi-Aa,.  etiited  \>j  R'  Waller,  pp.  x\m  (Uld  IM. 
*■  Vhtlotophical  Mnijitiine^Jmii  1S7L 


A    r  T  —  A   U   B 


65 


iittraotcd  towards  the  luiun^  fork  If  tin'  tuning  fork  is 
itself  suspended,  it  is  scc[i  to  be  atlraeled  towards  aii^  bwly 
placed  near  it. 

Sir  \V.  Tliomson  lias  sliown  lliat  this  action  can  in  all 
cases  be  explained  by  the  general  principle  that  in  lluid 
motion  'the  average  pressure  is  least  where  the  average 
energy  of  motion  is  greatest.  Now,  the  wave  motion  is 
greatest  neaicst  the  tuning-fork,  the  pressure  is  therefore 
least  there ;  and  the  suspended  body  being  pressed 
uncquallyon  opposite  sides,  moves  from  Iha  side  of  greater 
pressuro  to  the  side  of  less  pressure,  that  is  towards  the 
■jningfork.  He  has  also  succeeded  in  producing  repul- 
lOn  in.t^e  case  of  a  small  body  lighter  than  the  surround-^' 
iiig  medium. 

It  is  remarkable  that  of  tlie  three  hypotheses,  whicli  go 
some  way  towards  a  physical  explanation  of  gravitation, 
every  one  involves  a  constant  expenditure  of  work.  Le 
Sage's  hypothesis  of  ultramundane  corpusculcs  does  so,  as 
we  have  shown  in  the  article  Ato.m.  That  of  the  genera- 
tion or  absorption  of  fluid  requires,  not  only  constant 
c.tpenditure  of  work  in  emittirii;  fluid  under  pressure,  but 
actual  creation  and  destruction  of  matter.  That  of  waves 
roi]iiires  some  agent  in  a  remote  part  of  the  universe  capable 
i>f  generating  the  waves. 

According  to  such  fayiiolhescs  we  must  regard  the 
processes  of  nature  not  as  illustrations  of  the  great  principle 
of  the  conservation  of  energy,  but  as  instances  in  which,  by 
a  nice  adjust.iuent  of  powerful  agencies  not  subject  to  this 
(irinciple,  an  a[iparcnt  conservation  of  energy  is  maintained. 
Hence,  we  are  forced  to  conclude  that  the  explanation 
of  the  cause  of  gravitation  is  not  to  be  foMnd  in  any  of 
these  hypotheses. 

For  the  mathematical  theory  of  attraction  and  attraction 
of  ellipsoids,  see  Potential  ;  for  attraction  of  gravitation, 
capillary  attraction,  and  attraction  of  cohesion,  see  respec- 
tively Gr.witatio.s,  Cai-illary  Attraction,  and  Con- 
stitution OF  Bodies.  (j,  c.  m  ) 

ATTW'OOD,  Thomas,  musical  composer,  was  born  in 
London  in  1767.  As  one  of  the  boy  choristers  in  the 
chapel  royal  he  received  his  early  instruction  in  music 
from  Nares  and  Ayrton.  In  178^1  he  was  sent  to  study 
abroad  at  the  espense  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  who  had 
been  favourably  impressed  by  his  skill  as  a  performer  on 
the  harpsichord.  After  spending  two  years  at  Naples, 
Attwood  proceeded  to  Vienna,  where  he  became  a  favourite 
pupil  of  iMoiart.  On  hio  return  to  London  he  held  for  a 
short  time  an  appointment  as  one  of  the  chamber  musicians 
to  the  prince  of  Wales.  In  1795  he  was  chosen  organist 
of  St  Paul'ii,  and  in  the  following  year  he  succeeded  Dr 
Diipuis  as  composer  to  the  chapels  royal.  His  court  con- 
nection wa«  further  eonlirmed  by  his  appointment  as 
musical  instructor  to  the  duchess  of  York  and  afterwards 
to  the  process  of  Wales.  For  the  coronation  of  George 
IV.  he  composed  the  anthem,  The  King  shall  licjoice, 
a  work  of  high  merit.  The  king,  who  had  neglected  hiiii 
for  some  years  on  account  of  his  connection  with  the 
princess  of  Wales,  now  restored  him  to  favour,  and  in  1821 
appointed  him  organist  to  his  private  chapel  at  Brighton. 
Soon  after  the  institution  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music, 
Attwood  was  chosen  one  of  the  professors.  He  wrote  the 
anthem,  O  Lord,  grant  the  King  a  Long  Life,  which  was 
performed  at  the  coronation  of  William  IV.,  and  he  was 
ciimposmg  a  similar  work  for  the  coronation  of  Queen 
Victoria  when  he  died  (March  24,  1838).  Attwood's  com- 
positions are  favourable  specimens  of  the  English  school. 
His  services  and  anthems  were  published  in  a  .collected 
form  Hiter  his  de-th  by  his  pupil  Walmesley,  and  are  fre- 
quently used  m  cathedral  worship.  Of  his  secular  composi- 
tions several  songs  and  glees  are  well  known  and  popular. 
The  oper.as  which  he  composed  in  early  life  are  now  almost 
3-6 


forgotten,  belonging,  as  they  do,  to  a  pciiod  when  Englisb 
music  was  at  its  lowest  ebb. 

ATWOOD,  Ueoroe,  an  author  celebrated  for  the  accuracy 
of  his  mathematical  and  mechanical  investigations,  and 
considered  particularly  happy  in  the  clearness  of  his  explana- 
tions, and  the  elegance  of  his  experimental  illustrations, 
was  born  in  the  early  part  of  the  year  174G.  He  was 
educated  at  Westminster  school,  to  which  he  was  admitted 
in  17,'J9.  Six  years  afterwards  he  was  elected  of  to  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  He  took  his  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Arts  in  17C9,  with  the  rank  of  third  wrangler  and  first 
Smith's  prizeman.  These  distinctions  were  amply  sufficient 
to  give  him  a  claim  to  further  advancement  in  his  own 
college.  In  due  time  he  obtained  a  fellowship,  and  was 
afterwards  one  of  the  tutors  of  the  college.  He  became 
Master  of  Arts  in  1772,  and  in  1776  was  elected  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  In  the  year  1784  he 
cea.sed  to  reside  at  C;imbridge,  and  soon  afterwards  received 
from  Mr  Pitt  a  patent  ottice,  which  required  but  little  of 
his  attendance,  and  enabled  him  still  to  devote  a  consider- 
able portion  of  his  time  to  his  special  studies.  He  died  in 
1807.  Atwood's  published  works,  exclusive  of  papers 
contributed  to  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  for  one  of 
which  he  obtained  the  Copley  medal,  are  as  follows  : — (1.) 
Analysis  of  a  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Principles  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  Cambridge,  1784.  (2.)  Treatise  on  the 
Rectilinear  Motion  and  Rotation  of  Bodies,  Cambridge, 
1784,  which  contains  a  good  account  of  the  elementary 
principles  of  mechanics,  though  it  is  deficient  in  the  appli- 
cation of  higher  mathematical  analysis.  It  also  gives  some 
interesting  experiments,  by  means  of  which  mechanical 
truths  can  be  ocularly  exhibited  and  demonstrated,  and 
describes  the  machine,  since  called  by  Atwood's  name, 
for  verifying  experimentally  the  laws  of  simple  acceleration 
of  motion.  (3.)  Review  of  the  Statutes  aJtd  Ordinances  of 
Assize  which  have  been  established  tn  England  from  the  itli 
year  of  King  John,  1202,  to  the  37  th  of  his  present  Majesty, 
London,  1801,  a  work  of  some  historical  research.  (4.) 
Dissertation  on  the  Construction  and  Properties  of  Arches, 
London,  1801,  with  supplement,  pt.  i.  1801,  pt.  ii.  1804, 
an  elaborate  and,  in  its  time,  valuable  work,  tliough  it  is 
now  completely  superseded. 

ATYS,  Attis,  or  Attes,  in  the  Phrygian  and  Lydiun 
Mythology,  a  youth  beloved  for  his  beauty  by  the  goddess 
Rhea,  there  called  Agdistis.  Like  Adonis,  he  was  a  per- 
sonification of  the  changes  in  nature,  from  the  beauty  of 
spring  and  summer  to  the  severity  and  darkness  of  winter. 
The  story,  as  told  at  Petssinus,  the  centre  of  the  worship 
of  the  goddess,  was  that  she  had  born  to  Zeus  a  being  both 
male  and  female  ;  that  the  gods,  displeased,  had  transformed 
this  being  into  a  tree,  from  the  fruit  of  which  the  daughter 
of  the  river-god  Sangarius  bore  a  boy,  who  grew  up 
among  herdsmen  marvellous  in  his  beauty,  so  as  to  win  the 
love  of  Agdistis.  This  was  Atys,  and  he  was  about  to  be 
married  to  the  king's  daughter  of  Pessinus,  when  the  god- 
dess appeared  among  the  guests,  terrified  them,  and  caused 
Atys  to  run  to  the  woods,  where  he  maimed  himself  and 
was  transformed  into  a  pine  tree  ;  from  his  blood  sprang 
violets.  Agdistis  begged  Zeus  to  restore  him,  but  he  could 
only  assure  her  that  the  youth  would  never  decay,  and  that 
his  hair  would  alw.ays  grow.  She  conveyed  the  pine  to  her 
cave  at  Pessinus,  and  gave  herself  uji  to  giief. 

AUBAONE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Bouchesdu-Rhone,  with  a  population  of  7408,  who  carry 
on  the  manufacture  of  wine,  pottery,  leather,  coarse  cloth. 
<tc.  The  only  remarkable  monument  is  a  fountain  to  the 
memory  of  the  Abb6  BarthClemy,  whose  family  was  lotig 
connected  with  the  town. 

AUBE,  a  department  of  France,  bounded  on  the  N  by 
(he  dejiartnient  of   Marue,  N.W     by  Seineet-Marnc,    Wj 


6Q 


A  U  B  — A  U  B 


by  YoDne,  S  by  Cote-d'Or,  and  E.  by  Haute-Marne.  It  con- 
sists of  a  portion  of  Champagne  and  Vailage,  witli  a  small 
part  of  Burgundy,  and  has  an  area  of  2317  square  miles. 
It3  general  indiuation  from  S.E.  to  N.W.  .presents  little 
variety  of  surface,  the  only  elevations  being  a  double  line 
of  hills  along  the  course  of  the  Seine,  never  exceeding  1 150 
feet  in  height.  The  department  belongs  to  the  Seine 
basin,  and  is  watered  by  that  river  aud  its  tributaries,  the 
Ource,  the  Sarce,  the  Melda,  and  the  Aubc,  &c.  The 
climate  is  comparatively  mild,  but  damp.  Heavy  rains  fall 
at  the  beginning  of  winter.  In  the  N.  and  N.W.  the  soil 
is  dry  and  sterile ;  but  the  S.  and  E.  districts  are  very 
fertile,  particularly  the  valleys,  which  are  admirably  adapted 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  vine.  About  two-thirds  of  the 
6U-rface  consists  of  arable  land,  and  the  agricultural  con- 
dition of  the  countr)'  is  improving.  The  principal  produc- 
tions are 'wheat,  rye,  oats,  potatoes,  and  wine,  of  which  last 
about  one-half  is  exported,  In  minerals.  Aube  is  one  of 
the  poorest  departments  in  Prance  ;  a  few  iron  mines  have 
been  worked,  but  with  insignificant  results.  Chalk  and 
clay  are  abundant ;  and  there  are  aUo  quarries  of  marble, 
lithographic  stone,  and  building  stone.  The  principal 
manufacture  is  hosiery;  but  the  department  also  produces 
glass,  earthenware,  paper,  sugar,  and  ropes,  and  has  a  large 
number  of  distilleries,  tile-works,  and  dye-works,  and  an 
oil  factory.  Among  the  celebrated  men  connected  with 
Aube  are  Villehardouin,  Pope  Urban  TV.,  Mignard,  Danton, 
lieugnot,  and  Ulbach.  The  capital  is  Troyes,  aud  the 
arrondissements  are  Troyes,  Arcis-sur-Aube,  Nogent-sur- 
Seine,  Bar-sur-Aube,  and  Bar-sur-Seine.  Population  in 
1872,  255,687. 

AUBENAS,  a  town  of  France,  department  of  Ard^che, 
near  the  river  of  that  name,  14  miles  S.W.  of  Privas.     It, 
is  beautifully  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  but  its  streets 
generally  are  crooked  and  narro%v.     It  is  surrounded  by  a 
ruinous  wall'  flaiiked  with  towers,  and  has  an  old  Gothic 
castle,  now  occupied  by  the  municipal  authorities.     As  the 
centre  of  the  silk  trade  of  ihe  surrounding  district,  it  is  a 
place  of  considerable  traffic,  and  there  is  besides  a  large  local 
manufacture  of  silk  and  woollen  goods.    Population,  7694. 
AUBER,  Daniel  Francois  Espeit,  mus'cal  composer, 
the  chief  representative  of  the  French  school,  was  the  son 
of  a  Paris  printseller.     He  was  born  at  Caen,  in  Normandy, 
on  the  2ytn  January  1782,  while  his  mother  was  on  a  viiit 
to  that  town.     Destined  by  his  father  to  the  pursuits  of 
trade,  he  was  allowed,  nevertheless,  to  indulge  his  fondness 
lor  music,  and  learnt  to  play  at  an  early  age  on  several 
instruments,  his  first  teacher  being  the  Tyrolean  composer, 
Ladurner.     Sent  at  the  age  of  twenty  to  London  to  com- 
plete his  business  training,  he  returned  after  the  rupture 
of   the   peace   of    Amiens.      He   had   already  attempted 
musical  composition,  and  at  this  period  produced  several 
concertos  pour  basse,  in  the  manner  of   the  violoneellist, 
Lainare,  in  whose  name  they  were  published.     The  praise 
given  to  his  concerto  for  the  viulin,  which  was  played  at 
the  Conservatoire  by  Mazas,  encouraged  him  to  undertake 
the  resetting-  of  the  old  comic  opera,  Julie.     Conscious  by 
this  time  of  the  need  of  regular  study  of  his  chosen  art,  he 
placed  himself  under  the  severe  training  of  Cherubini,  by 
which    the  special  qualities  of  the  young  composer  were 
admirably  developed.     In  1813  he  made  his  debut  in  an 
opera  in  one  act,  *hc  Sijour  Militaire,  the  unfavourable 
reception    of   which    put   an  end  for   some  years  to   his 
attempts  as  composer.      But  the  failure  in  business  and 
death  of   his  father,  in  1819,   compelled  him   once  more 
to  turn  to  music,  and  to  make  that  which  had  been  his 
paitmic  the  serious  employment  of  his  life.     He  pniduccd 
another  opem,  the  TestaneiU  el  tes  Bitletsdoiuc,  which  was 
ao  better  received  than  the  former.     But  he  persevered, 
•jicl  the  ncit  year  was  rewarded  by  the  coniplulc  success 


of  his  Bergere  Chdtelaine,  an  opera  in  three  acts.  This 
was  the  first  in  a  long  series  of  brilliant  successes,  terminat- 
ing only  in  the  eighty-sixth  year  of  his  sge.  In  1821' 
began  his  long  association  with  M.  Scribe,  who  shared- with 
him,  as  librettist,  the  success  and  growing  popularity  of  his 
compositions.  The  opera  of  Leicesler,  in  which  they  first 
worked  together  (1823),  is  remarkable  also  as  showing 
the  first  evidences  of  the  influence  of  Rossini  on  Auber's 
style.  This  style  was,  however,  distinctly  original,  and 
was  easily  recognisable.  A  phrase  of  Auber,  said  his  friend 
Theodore  Gautier,  is  not  the  phrase  of  any  one  else.  His 
characteristics  are  lightness  and  facility,  sparkling  vivacity, 
grace  and  elegance,  clear  and  piquant  melodiousness, — these 
marking  him  out  as  a  true  son  of  France,  and  making  him 
her  darling  singer.  Depth  of  thought,  elevation  of 
sentiment,  intensity  of  passioR,  inspiration  which  grasps 
the  sublime  and  the  infinite — these  are  not  in  Auber. 

Devoted  by  preference  to  the  comic  opera,  as  the  most 
fitting  field  for  his  talents,  he  ventured  on  more  than  one 
occasion  to  pass  into  the  field  of  grand  opera,  and  in  his 
La  Muetle.de  Portici,  familiarly  known  as  Masaniello,  he 
achieved  his  greatest  musical  triumph.  Produced  at  Pans 
in  1828,  it  rapidly  became  a  European  favourite,  and  its 
overture,  songs,  aiA  choruses  were  everywhere  heard.  The 
duet.  Amour  sacri  de  la  patrie  was  welcomed  like  a  new 
Marseillaise;  sung  by  Nourrit  at  Brussels  in  1830,  it 
became  the  signal  lor  the  revolution  which  broke  out  there. 
Among  his  other  works,  about  fifty  in  all,  the  more 
important  are — Fra  Diavolo  (1830),  •  Lestocq  (1834), 
L' Ambassadrice  (1836),  Le  Domino  A'oir  (1837),  Le  Lac 
des  fees  (1839),  Les  Diamants  de  la  Courmine  (1841), 
Bar/dee  (1847),  Marco  Spada  (1853),  and  La  Fiancee  da 
roi  de  Garbe  (1864).  Official  and  other  dignities  testi- 
fied the  public  appreciation  of  Auber's  works,  la  1829  he 
was  elected  member  of  the  Institute,  in  1830  he  was  named 
director  of  the  court  concerts,  and  in  1842  he  succeeded 
Cherubini  as  director  of  the  Conservatoire.  He  was  also  a 
member  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  from  1825,  and  attained 
the  rank  of  commander  in  1847.  One  of  Auber's  latest 
compositions  was  a  march,  written  for  the  opening  of  the 
International  Exhibition  in  London  in  1862.  His  fascinat- 
ing manners,  his  witty  sayings,  and  his  ever  ready  kindness 
and  beneficence  won  for  him  a  secure  place  in  the  respect 
and  love  of  his  fellow-citizens.  He  remained  in  his  old 
home  during  the  German  siege  of  Paris,  1870-71,  but  the 
miseries  of  the  Communist  war  which  followed  sickened  hi* 
heart,  and  he  at  last  refused  to  touch  his  beloved  instru- 
ment, or  to  take  food.    He  died  May  13,  1871.       (w.l.b.c.) 

AU  BIN,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart.ment  of  Aveyron 
and  arrondissement  of  'ViUefranche,  principally  remarkable 
for  its  extensive  luines  of  coal,  sulphur,  and  alum.  It  also 
carries  on  an  active  trade  in  sheep,  iron  goods,  ic.  A 
church  of  the  1 2th  century,  with  some  remarkable  sculpture, 
and  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  the  counts  of  Rouergue,  are 
still  in  existence.     Population,  8863. 

The  name  Aubin,  or  St  Aubin,  is  one  of  the  most  fre- 
quent in  France,  being  borne  by  upwards  of  fifty  villages 
from  the  Pyrenees  to  Jersey. 

AUBURN,  the  capital  of  Cayuga  county,  in  the  stale 
of  New  York,  on  the  railway  between  Albany  and  Buffalo, 
174  miles  W.  of  the  former.  The  irregularity  of  the 
surface  on  which  the  city  is  built  has  prevented  the  com- 
I)leto  carrying  out  of  the  rectangular  arrangement  of 
streets,  which  is  so  much  in  favour  in  the  United  States, 
but  the  thoroughfares  are  wide  and  lined  with  trees,  and 
the  houses  for  the  most  part  well  built.  The  principal 
public  buildings  arc  in  Genesee  Street.  The  most  remark- 
able of  the  institutions  is  the  state  prison,  founded  in  1810, 
which  is  conducted  on  the  "silent  system,"  and  usually  con- 
tains upwards  of  1000  prisouors,  v  ho  are  employed  each  in 


A  U  B  — A  U  C 


67 


the  work  to  which  he  has  been  trained.  Auburn  also 
possesses  a  Presbyterian  theological  seminary,  founded  in 
IS.'  1,  an  academy,  five  public  free  schools,  sixteen  churches, 
an  orphan  asylum,  two  opera  houses,  and  several  news- 
papar  offices.  The  water-power  supplied  by  the  outlet  of 
the  neighbouring  lake  of  Owasco  is  utilised  in  a  number 
of  manufactories.  Cotton  and  woollen  goods,  carpets, 
n^ricultural  implements  and  other  tools,  paper,  flour,  and 
beer  are  the  principal  products. 

AUBUSSON,  a  town  of  France,  situated  in  a  picturesque 
valley  on  the  banks  of  the  Creuse,  in  the  department  to 
which  that  river  gives  its  name.  It  is  said  to  have  owed 
its  origin  to  a  number  of  Saracens,  who,  having  escaped 
from  the  battle  in  which  their  nation  was  defeated  by 
Charles  Martel,  were  enticed  by  the  beauty  and  conveni- 
ence of  the  spot  to  establish  themselves  permanently  there. 
It  has  long  been  famous  for  its  carpets  and  tapestry,  the 
art  of  weaving  which  was  probably  derived  from  those 
Eastern  settlers,  and  it  also  manufactures  common  cot- 
ton and  wooUeu  goods,  leather,  tobacco,  itc  Population, 
C625. 

AUCH,  the  ancient  Climhemim  or  Aujusta  Auscnrum, 
one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  France,  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Oors.  In  Cajsar's  time  this  was  the  chief  town 
of  the  Ausci.  In  the  8th  century  it  became  the  capital  of 
Gascony;  and  when  that  district  was  divided  intocountships, 
was  the  capital  of  Armagnac.  The  site  of  the  modern  town 
does  not  exactly  coincide  with  that  of  the  ancient,  being 
on  the  opposite  (the  left)  bank  of  the  river  Gers.  Aucb 
was  probably  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  about  724  ad, 
and  was  afterwards  rebuilt  in  its  present  picturesque  situa- 
tion on  the  slope  of  a  hill.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river,  and  occupying  the  site  of  the  ancient  city,  is  a  con- 
sidecable  suburb,  which  is  connected  with  the  town  by  a 
bridge ;  and  communication  between  the  lower  and  the  upper 
town  is  afforded  by  long  flights  of  steps.  The  streets, 
though  narrow,  are  generally  well  built,  and  a  fine  pro- 
menade in  the  upper  part  of  the  town  gives  a  magnificent 
view  of  the  surrounding  country.  Auch  is  the  seat  of  an 
archbishopric,  which  was  founded  in  the  4th  century,  and 
give,  till  the  Revolution,  the  title  of  Primate  of  Aquitania 
to  the  holder  of  the  see.  It  has  tribunals  of  commerce 
and  primary  jurisdiction,  a  royal  college,  an  agricultural 
society,  a  theological  seminary,  with  a  museum  and  an 
extensive  library,  a  theatre,  «tc.  The  cathedral  of  St  Mary, 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  in  France,  was  commenced  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  VIII.  (1489),  and  finished  in  that  of 
Louis  XV.  It  exhibits  several  styles  of  architecture, 
cimtains  many  elegant  monuments,  and  is  adorned  with 
fine  staincdgla,ss  windows  and  carved  woodwork.  The 
jtreftcture,  formerly  the  archiepiscopal  palace,  is  a  vast  and 
noble  edifice.  The  principal  manufactures  are  hats,  various 
kinds  of  linen  and  cotton  stuffs,  leather,  itc,  and  there  is 
a  considerable  trade,  especially  id  the  brandies  of  Annagnac. 
Population  in  1872,  l.'?,087. 

AUCHTERARDER,  a  town  and  parish  of  Scotland, 
county  of  Perth,  15  miles  \V  S  W.  of  Perth.  The  town 
consists  of  a  single  street  about  a  mile  in  length.  It  was 
formerly  a  royal  burgh,  but  is  now  disfranchised.  Near  it 
IS  an  ancient  castle,  said  to  have  been  a  hunting-seat  of 
Malcolm  Canmore.  It  was  in  connection  with  this  parish 
that  the  ecclesiastical  dispute  arose  which  led  to  the  Dis- 
ruption in  the  (.hurchof  Scotland  in  1843.  Population  of 
town  in  1871,  2599 

AUCnTERMUCnTY,  a  royal  burgh  and  parish  of 
Scotland,  county  of  Fife,  8  miles  W.S  W  of  Cupar.  The 
town  is  irregularly  built  on  an  elevated  site,  and  is  divided 
by  the  Levcrspool,  a  rapid  streamlet  which  runs  down  its 
centre  The  m.inufacture  o(  linen  is  carried  oa.  Popula- 
tion of  burgh  HI  187I     lOR"' 


AUCKLAND,  a  province  of  New  Zealand,  coosHting 
of  the  northern  portion  of  North  Island,  and  bounded  for 
the  most  part  on  the  S.  by  the  39lh  parallel  of  latitude.  In 
the  N.W.  it  runs  out  into  a  peninsula  between  200  and  300 
miles  in  length,  with  a  very  irregiilar  coast-line,  especially 
on  the  eastern  side.  The  total  area  of  the  province  is 
about  17,000,000  acres,  of  which  nearly  11,275,0(10  are 
still  in  possession  of  the  Maoris,  who  are,  however,  con- 
tinually disposing  of  their  claims  to  the  Government.  The 
surface  of  the  province  is  of  a  very  varied  character,  pre- 
senting wide  and  fertile  plains,  stretches  of  fern-heath 
and  swamp,  mountain  ranges  and  isolated  peaks,  tracts 
of  richly-wooded  jungle,  rocky  plateaus,  and  districts  of 
strange  volcanic  activity.  All  round  the  coast  there  are 
a  large  number  of  natural  harbours,  and  the  most  of  the 
interior  is  traversed  by  navigable  streams.  The  principal 
rivor-system  is  that  of  the  Waikato  (or  Rushing  Water), 
which  rises  in  theTaupo  Lake,  in  the  south  of  the  province, 
forces  its  way  though  an  extensive  rocky  table-land,  flows 
onwards  for  about  35  miles  through  a  rich  but  marshy 
basin,  joins  its  waters  with  the  Waipa  (or  Peaceful  Water), 
its  largest  tributary,  cuts  a  passage  through  the  Taupiri 
range,  and  after  traversing  the  fertile  expanse  of  its 
lower  basin,  turns  abruptly  to  the  W.  and  falls  into  the 
sea  about  35  miles  S.  of  the  city  of  Auckland.  The  value 
of  the  Waikato  as  a  commercial  highway  is  greatly  lessened 
by  its  mouth  being  encumbered  with  sandbanks,  that 
prevent  the  entrance  of  ships.  To  the  E,  of  this  river  lies 
the  valley  of  the  Thames,  fertile  and  well  watered  by 
several  streams,  and  still  further  eastward  extends  the 
versant  of  the  Bay  of  Plenty.  The  course  of  settlement  haa 
hitherto  advanced  for  the  most  part  along  the  valleys  of 
the  Waikato  and  the  Thames, — Cambridge,  about  104 
miles  S.  of  the  city  of  Auckland,  being  the  frontier  station 
in  the  former,  and  Tapapa,  a  little  further  to  the  S.  in 
the  latter.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  N.W.  peninsula  i« 
occupied  by  a  scattered  population,  and  various  flourishing 
townships  are  situated  along  the  coast  on  all  sides.  In 
1873  there  were  3842  holdings  in  the  province,  and  about 
225,000  acres  had  been  broken  up.  Hitherto  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  cereals  has  not  proved  sufficiently  remunerative, 
though  climate  and  soil  are  equally  favourable,  and  the 
attention  of  the  farmer  has  principally  been  turned  to  the 
rearing  of  the  various  descriptions  of  live  stock,  mora 
especially  sheep.  The  natural  wealth  of  the  province 
consists  principally  in  its  gold  and  timber.  Coal  has  been 
found  in  several  districts,  and  a  few  mines  have  been 
successfully  worked,  as  Kawakawa  (at  the  Bay  of  Islands), 
Drury,  and  Whangarei;  but  the  most  important  deposits  are 
comparatively  undisturbed.  It  is  believed  that  iron  may 
eventually  be  found  in  considerable  quantities,  and  various 
minerals  have  been  pointed  out  in  the  interior  by  scientific 
travellers.  The  chief  scats  of  the  gold-diggings  are  the 
Coromandel  peninsula  and  the  Thames  valley.  The 
quantity  exported  in  1871  «as  valued  at  £1,888,708.  The 
most  important  timber  tree  is  the  kauri-pine,  which  is 
peculiar  to  Auckland,  and  does  not  grow  further  south  than 
37°  30'.  It  is  of  magnificent  dimensions,  and  valuable,  not 
only  as  the  most  extensively  used  building  material,  but  on 
account  of  the  fossil  gum  which  is  found  wherever  the 
kauri  forest  has  been.  This  gum  forms  one  of  the  chief 
articles  of  export,  about  14,277  tons  being  the  amount  in 
the  three  yeare  1870,  1871,  and  1872.  There  are  vari- 
ous other  trees  of  consider.ible  value,  such  as  the  rimu, 
the  kahikatca,  and  the  totara  The  timber  trade,  both 
domestic  and  foreign,  is  increasing  in  importance,  and 
shipbuiMing  is  extensively  carried  on.  There  nro  large 
districts  overgrown  with  the  p/wrmium  or  New  Zealand 
flax,  and  the  right  to  cut  it  on  the  waste  lands  is  granted 
bj*  the  Government  at  a  low  price.     In   1873.   1497  tons 


68 


A  U  C  —  A  U  C 


of  the  prepared  fibre,  valued  at  £27,783,  wei'e  exported, 
besides  a  considerable  quantity  of  manufactured  rope. 
Those  great  necessities  of  commerce,  roads  and  railways, 
tsre  being  constructed  in  vanous  directions.  A  Lne  is  in 
course  of  formation  from  Auckland  up  the  valley  of  the 
Waikato,  as  far  as  Newcastle,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Waipa,  and  a  survey  has  been  made  for  about  20  miles 
further.  A  road  runs  from  Bowen,  on  the  Bay  of  Plenty, 
across  the  country,  through  the  wonderful  lake  district, 
with  its  boiUng  fountains,  steam  geysers,  and  mud-baths, 
round  by  the  east  coast  of  Taupo  Lake,  and  over  the 
highlands  to  Napier,  in  Hawke's  Bay  province.  The  history 
of  Auckland  was  for  long  the  history  of  New  Zealand, 
and  will  be  fully  treated  under  that  heading.  (See  New 
Zealand.) 

I'or  a  descriptive  account  of  a  large  part  of  the  province, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Dr  Hochstetter's  valuable  works, 
especially  to  his  New  Zealand,  1863.  A  very  graphic 
sketch  of  some  of  the  natural  curiosities  is  furnished  by 
Anthony  TroUope  in  his  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  vol,  ii. 

Auckland,  the  capital  of  the  above  province,  is  finely 
situated  on  an  isthmus  in  the  N.W.  peninsula,  on  the  S. 
shore  of  the  Waitemata  harbour,  which  is  formed  by  an  inlet 
«i(  the  Hauraki  Gulf.  Lat.  36°  51'  S.,  long.  174°  50'. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  isthmus  lies  the  harbour  and 
town  of  Manukau,  which  serves  as  a  supplementary  port 
to  the  city.  Auckland  was  founded  in  1840  by  Governor 
Hobson,  and  became  a  burgh  in  1851  It  was  till  1865  the 
scat  of  the  Government,  which  is  now  situated  at  Welling- 
ton. The  city  has  a  fine  appearance,  especially  from  the 
liarbour,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  number  of  flourishing 
suburban  villages,  with  several  of  which  it  is  connected  by 
railway.  Among  the  public  buildings  in  the  city  and  neigh- 
bourhood may  be  mentioned  the  governor's  house,  the 
cathedral,  St  John's  Episcopal  college,  about  4  miles  distant, 
the  Auckland  college  and  grammar  school,  the  Episcopal 
grammar  school,  in  the  suburb  of  Parnell,  the  provincial 
hospital,  the  provincial  lunatic  asylum,  and  the  orphanage 
at  ParnelL  A  wharf,  1690  feet  in  length,  has  been  built 
opposite  the  centre  of  the  city,  and  afl^ords  excellent 
accommodation  for  the  grtidually  increasing  traffic  of  the 
harbour  In  1872.  170  non-colonial  vessels,  with  a 
tonnage  ol  54,257  tons,  entered  the  port,  besides  a  large 
number  of  coasting  ships  There  are  registered  at  Auck- 
land 167  sailing  vessels  and  20  steamships,  most  of  them 
of  provincial  build  The  population,  which  was  7981)  in 
1862.  had  increased  by  1871  to  12,'J37  (with  the  suburbs 
to  18,000),  and  is  now  estimated  at  about  21,000. 

AUCKLAND  ISLANDS,  a  group  discovered  in  1806 
by  Captain  Briscoe,  of  the  English  whaler  "  Ocean,"  about 
180  miles  S  of  New  Zealand,  in  lat.  50'=  24',  long.  166" 
7'  E,  The  islands,  of  volcanic  origin,  are  very  fertile,  and 
iire  covered  with  forest.  They  were  granted  to  the  Messrs 
Knderby  by  the  British.  Government  as  a  whaling  station, 
but  the  establishment  way  abandoned  in  1852.  (See  Ray- 
nal's  Auckland  Islands.  Iti74.) 

AUCKLAND,  William  Ehen,  Baron,  an  eminent 
diplomatist  and  [lohtician,  third  son  of  Sir  Robert  Eden, 
Bart.,  of  West  Auckland,  was  born  in  1744.  lie  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and  adopted  the  professioii  of  the 
law.  At  the  age  of  twenty-seven  he  resigned  his  practice  at 
the  bar,  and  engaged  in  pulitical  life  as  nnder-secrctary  to 
Lord  SnOTulk.  By  the  favour  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough, 
he  obtained  a  seat  for  Woodstock,  and  soon  gave  jiroof  of  his 
ability  in  the  House.  He  attacjicd  liimscif  to  Lord  North's 
parly,  aud  after  serving  under  Lord  Carlisle  on  the  unsuc- 
cessful coniniission  to  tlic  colonists  in  America,  acted  as 
secretary  to  that  nobleman,  when  he  held  the  post  of 
viceroy  in  Ireland.  During  this  time  he  had  obtained  the 
afliccsof  director  atid  auditor  of  Greenwich  Hospital,  which 


probably  yielded  him  an  income  sufficient  for  carrying  on 
his  political  career.  In  1783  he  took  a  leading  pan  in 
negotiating  the  remarkable  coalition  between  North  and 
Fox,  and  was  rewarded  by  being  made  vice-treasurer  of 
Ireland.  In  1784  he  opposed  Pitt's  proposal  for  commercial 
reciprocity  ■with  Ireland,  but  in  so  doing  contrived  to 
separate  himself  to  some  extent  from  his  own  party,  and 
shortly  after  accepted  from  Pitt  the  office  of  plenipotentiary 
at  Pans.  Here  he  successfully  negotiated  the  important 
commercial  treaty  with  France;  and  after  his  appointment 
as  ambassador  to  Spain,  he  rendered  valuable  service  in 
settling  the  dispute  between  the  British  and  French 
Governments  with  regard  to  the  affairs  of  Holland.  In 
1789  he  was  made  an  Irish  peer,  with  the  title  of  Baron 
Auckland,  and  in  1793  he  was  raised  to  the  British  peerage 
as  Baron  Auckland,  of  West  Auckland,  Durham.  For 
three  years,  1798-1801,  he  held  olhceas  postmaster-general. 
He  died  suddenly  in  1814.  In  1776  he  married  the 
sister  of  the  first  earl  of  Minto,  by  whom  he  had  a  large 
family.  Besides  numerous  pamphlets  on  political  mat- 
ters of  the  day.  Lord  Auckland  wrote  a  treatise  on  the 
I'rinapks  of  the  Penal  Law,  1771.  His  political  con- 
duct hag  been  frequently  censured;  he  was  a  skilful 
diplomatist,  and  as  a  statesman  was  specially  remarkable 
for  his  clear  grasp  of  economic  principles.  His  Jonnmt 
and  Correspoyidence,  4  vols.  1860-1862,  published  by  his 
son,  the  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  throws  considerable 
light  on  the  political  history  of  his  time. 

AUCKL.'VND,  George  Epex,  Earl  of,  Governor- 
General  of  India,  born  20tb  August  1784,  was  the  second 
son  of  the  subject  of  the  preceding  notice.  ,  He  completed 
his  education  at  O.'cford,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1809  His  elder  brother  was  drowned  in  the  Thames  in 
the  following  year;  and  in  1814,  on  the  death  o'f  his 
father,  he  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  as  Baron 
Auckland.  He  supported  the  Reform  party  steadily  by  his 
vote,  and  in  1830  was  made  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
and  master  of  the  Mint.  In  1834  he  held  office  for  a  few 
months  as  first  lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  in  1835  he  was 
appointed  Governor-General  of  India.  He  proved  himself 
to  be  a  painstaking  and  laborious  legislator,  and  devoted 
himself  specially  to  the  improvement  of  native  schools,  and 
the  c.\pansion  of  the  commercial  industry  of  the  nation 
committed  to  his  care.  These  useful  labours  were  inter- 
•rupted  in  1838  by  the  hostile  movements  of  the  Persians, 
which  excited  the  fears  not  only  of  the  Anglo  Indian 
Government  but  of  the  home  authorities.  Lord  Auckland 
resolved  to  enter  upon  a  war  in  Afghanistan,  and  on  liie 
1st  October  1838,  published  at  Simla  his  famous  manifesto. 
The  early  operatiuns  were  crowned  with  success,  and  the 
Governor-General  received  the  title  of  Earl  of  Auckland. 
But  reverses  followed  quickly,  and  in  the  ensuing  cam- 
paigns the  British  troops  sulTered  the  most  severe  disasters. 
Lord  Auckland  had  the  double  mortification  of  seeing  his 
policy  a  complete  failure,  and  of  being  superseded  before 
his  errors  could  be  rectified.  In  the  autumn  of  1841  he 
was  succeeded  in  office  by  Lord  Ellenborough,  and  returned 
to  England  in  the  following  year.  In  1846  he  was  made 
first  lord  of  the  Admiialty,  which  olllce  he  held  until  Ins 
death,  1st  January  1849.  He  died  unmarried,  and  the 
carhlom  became  extinct. 

AUCTION,  a  mode  of  selling  property  by  offerinc  it 
to  the  highest  bidder  in  a  public  competition.  By  8  Vict, 
c.  15,  the  uniform  duty  of  £10  per  annum  is  imposed  on 
every  licence  to  carry  on  the  bu.<iness  of  auctioneer,  but 
duties  on  sales  by  auction  arc  abolished.  It  is  the  duty 
of  an  auctioneer  to  sell  for  the  best  price  ho  can  obtain,, 
and  his  authority  cannot  be  delegated  to  another  unless  by 
special  permission  of  his  employer.  The  auctioneers  name 
must  bo  exhibited  on  some  conspicuous  pUcc  during  the 


A  U  D  — A  U  D 


69 


er.I?,  under  a  penalty  of  £20.  Sales  by  auction  usually 
take  place  under  certain  couditious,  which  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  auctioneer  to  read  to  the  bidders  before  the  sale 
begins.  To  complete  a  sale  by  auction  there  must  be  a 
bidding  by  or  on  behalf  of,  a  person  capable  of  making 
a  contract,  and  an  acceptance  thereof  by  the  auctioneer,  and 
until  the  bidding  is  accepted  both  vendor  and  bidder  are 
free,  and  may  retract  ii  they  choose.  If  due  notice  is 
given,  an  agent  may  bo  employed  to  bid  on  behalf  of  the 
seller,  but  the  employment  of  several  bidders  is  improper, 
and  if  the  sale  is  declared  to  be  without  reserve,  any  bidding 
on  the  behalf  of  the  seller  will  vitiate  the  sale.  Puffing, 
it  has  been  said,  is  illegal,  even  if  there  be  only  one  puller. 
Oil  the  other  hand,  any  hindrance  to  a  free  sale,  either  by 
a  bidder  deterring  competitors  from  offering  against  him, 
or  by  an  cngagemeut  among  the  competitors  to  refrain 
from  bidding,  in  order  to  keep  down  the  price  of  the  goods 
and  then  share  the  profit,  is  a  fraud  upon  the  vendor.  Two 
persons,  however,  may  agieo  not  to  bid  against  each  other. 
Auctioneers  are  entitled  by  their  licence  to  act  as  appraisers 
also. 

AUD.,f;US,  or  AuDins,  a  reformer  of  the  4th  century, 
by  birth  a  Mesopotamian.  He  suffered  much  persecution 
from  the  Syrian  clergy  for  his  fearless  censure  of  their 
irregular  lives,  and  was  expelled  from  the  church.  He 
was  afterwards  banished  into  Scythia,  where  he  gained 
many  followers  and  established  the  monastic  system.  Ho 
died  there  at  an  advanced  age,  about  370  a.d.  The 
Audxans  celebrated  the  feast  of  Easter  on  the  same  day 
as  the  Jewish  Passover,  and  they  were  also  charged  with 
attributing  to  the  Deity  a  human  shape.  They  appear  to 
have  founded  this  opinion  on  Genesis  i.  2G. 

AUDE,  a  southern  department  of  Franco,  forming  part 
of  the  old  province  of  Languedoc,  bounded  on  the  E.  by 
the  Mediterranean,  N.  by  the  departments  of  Hdrault  and 
Tarn,  N.W.  by  Upper  Garonne,  W.  by   Ari^ge,  ajid  S.  by 
that  of  Eastern  Pyrenees.     It  lies  between  lat.  AT  40'  and 
34'  30'  N.,  and  is  80  miles  in  length  from  E.  to  W.,  and  GO 
mibs  in  breadth  from  N.  to  S.     Area,  2341  square  miles. 
The   department   of  -Audo   is   traversed   on   its   western 
br'undary  from  S.  to  N.  by  a  mountain  range  of  medium 
height,    which   unites  tho   Pyrenees   with   the   Southern 
Cevennos  ;   and  its  northern  frontier  is  occupied  by  the 
Black  Mountains,  the  most  western  part  of  the  Cevenncs 
cham.     The  Corbi^res,  a  branch  of  the  Pyrenees,-  runs  in 
a    S.W.  and    N.E.  direction  along  tho  southern  district. 
The  Aude,  its  principal  river,  has  almost  its  entire  course 
in  the  department.     Its  principal  affluents  on  the  left  are 
the  Fresquel,  Orbiel,  Argent-Double,  and  Cesse;   on  the 
right,  the  Guette,  Salse,  and  Orbieu.     The  canal  of  Lan- 
guedoc, which  unites  the  Atlantic  with  the  Mediterranean, 
traverses  the  department  from  E.  to  W.     The  lowness  of 
the  coast  causes  a  series  of  large  lagunes,  the  chief  of  which 
are  those  of  Bages.  Sigean,  Narbonne,  Palme,  and  Leucate. 
The  climate  b  variable,  and  often  sudden  in  its  alterations. 
The  wind  from  the  N.W.,  known  as  the  Cera,   blows  with 
great  violence,  and  the  sea  breeze  is  often  laden  with  pesti- 
lential effluvia  from  the  lagunes.     Various  kinds  of  wild 
animals,  a?  tho  chamois,  bear,  wild  boar,  wolf,  fox,  and 
badger,  inhibit  tho  mountains  and  forests  ;   game  of  all 
kinds  is  plentiful ;   and  the  coast  and  lagunes  abound  in 
tish.    .  Mines  of  iron,  copper,  lead,  manganese,  cobalt,  and 
antimony  exist  in  the  department ;  and,  besides  the  beauti- 
ful marbles  of  Cascastcl  and  Cannes,  there  are  quarries  of 
lithographic   stone,    gypsum,    limestone,    and  slate.     The 
coal  mines  are  for  the  most  part  abandoned.     The  moun- 
tains contain  many  mineral  springs,  both  cold  and  thermal. 
Tho  agriculture  of  tho  department  is  in  a  very  flourishing 
condition.     The  meadows  are  extensive  and  well  watered, 
and  are  pastured  by  nuinerou';  flnrky  and  herds.     The  grain 


produce,  consisting  mainly  of  wheat,  oafs,  ryo,  and  Indian 
corn,  considerably  exceeds  the  consumption,  and  the  vine- 
yards yield  an  abundant  supply  of  both  white  and  red 
wines.  Olives  and  almonds  are  also  extensively  cultivated, 
and  the  honey  of  Aude  is  much  esteemed.  Besides  impor- 
tant manufactures  of  woollen  and  cotton  cloths,  combs,  jet 
ornaments,  and  casks,  there  are  paper-mills,  distilleries, 
tanneries,  and  extensive  iron  and  salt  works.  The  chief 
town  is  Carcassonne,  and  the  department  is  divided  into 
the  four  arrondissements  of  Carcassonne,  Linioux,  Nar- 
bonne, and  Castelnaudary.     Popidation  in  1872,  285,927 

AUDEBERT,  Jean  B.\ptiste,  a  distinguished  French 
naturalist  and  artist,  was  born  at  Piochcfort  in  1759.  Ho 
studied  painting  and  drawing  at  Paris,  and  gained  con- 
siderable reputation  as  a  miniature  jiainter.  In  1787  he 
was  employed  to  make  drawings  of  some  objects  in  a 
natural  history  collection,  and  was  also  a  contributor  in 
the  preparation  of  tho  plates?  for  Olivier's  Ilistoire  dea 
Insectcs.  Ho  thus  acquired  a  taste  for  the  study  of  natural 
history,  and  devoted  himself  with  great  eagerness  to  the 
new  pursuit.  In  1800  appeared  his  first  original  work, 
L'llistoire  Naturelle  des  Singes,  del  Malcis,  el  Jes  Galcopi- 
tkcgues,  illustrated  by  62  folio  plates,  drawn  and  engraved 
by  himself.  The  colouring  in  these  plates  was  unusually 
beautiful,  and  was  laid  on  by  a  method  devised  by  tha 
author  himsoli.'  Audebert  died  in  1800,  but  he  had  left 
complete  materials  for  another  great  work,  Ilistoire  des 
Colibris,  des  Oiseaux-Mouchcs,  des  JoLamares,  el  des  Pro- 
merops,  which  was  published  in  1802.  200  copies  were 
printed  in  folio,  100  in  large  quarto,  and  15  were  printed 
with  tho  whole  text  in  letters  of  gold.  Another  work,  left 
unfinished,  was  also  published  after  the  author's  death, 
L'Uistoire  des  Onmpereaux,  et  des  Oiscaux  de  Paradts. 
The  last  two  works  also  appeared  together  in  two  volumes 
with  the  title  Oiseaux  dores  ou  A  refiets  metalliquea, 
1802. 

AUDITOR,  a  person  appointed  to  examine  the  accounts 
kept  by  tue  financial  officers  of  the  Crown,  public  corpora- 
tions, or  private  persons,  and  to  certify  as  to  their  accuracy. 
Tho  multifarious  statutes  regulating'  the  audit  of  public 
accounts  have  been  superseded  by  the  29  and  30  Vict,  c 
39,  which  gives  power  to  the  Queen  to  appoint  a  "comp- 
troller and  auditor-general,"  with  the  requisite  staff  to 
examine  and  verify  the  accounts  prepared  by  the  different 
departments  of  the  public  service.  In  examining  accounts 
of  the  appropriation  of  the  several  supply  grants,  the  comp- 
troller and  auditor-general  "shall  ascertain  first  whether 
the  payments  which  the  account  department  has  charged 
to  the  grant  are  supported  by  vouchers  or  proofs  of  pay- 
ments ;  and  second,  whether  the  money  expended  has  been 
applied  to  the  purpose  or  purposes  for  which  such  grant 
was  intended  to  provide."  The  Treasury  may  also  submit 
certain  other  accounts  to  the  audit  of  the  comptroller- 
general.  -  All  public  moneys  payable  to  the  Exchequer  are 
to  be  paid  to  tho  "  account  of  Her  Jlajestys  Exchequer  " 
at  the  Bank  of  England,  and  daily  returns  of  such  payments 
must  be  forwarded  to  the  comptroller.  Quarterly  accounts 
of  the  income  and  charge  of  the  consolidated  fund  are  to 
be  prepared  and'  transmitted  to  the  comptroller,  who,  in 
case  of  any  deficiency  in  the  consolidated  fund,  may  certify 
to  the  bank  to  make  advances.  Tho  accounts  of  local 
boards,  poor-law  unions,  ic,  must  be  passed  in  a  similar 
manner  by  an  ofTicial  auditor.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  auditor 
to  disallow  all  illegal  payments,  and  surcharge  them  upon 
the  person  making  or  authorising  them  ;  but  such  disallow- 
ances may  be  removed  by  certiorari  into  the  Court  of 
Queen's  Bench,  or  an  appeal  may  be  made  to  tlie  loc.n! 
Government  Board.  In  municipal  corporations  t«o 
burgesse-i  must  be  chosea  amiually  as  auditors  of  the 
accounts,  ~ 


70 


A  U  D  — A  U  D 


AUDOUIN',  JeajJ  Victok,  a  distinguished  French 
eiitomologist,  was  born  at  Paris,  April  27,  1797.  He  began 
the  study  of  law,  but  was  diverted  from  it  by  his  strong 
predilection  for  natural  history,  which  subsequently  led 
him  to  enter  the  medical  profession.  In  1824  he  was 
appointed  assistant  to  Latreille  in  the  entomological  chair 
at  the  Paris  museum  of  natural  history,  and  succeeded  him 
in  1833.  He  established  in  1824,  in  conjunction  with 
Dumas  and  Adolphe  Brongniart,  the  Annates  des  Hciences 
Naturelles,  to  which  he  made  numerous  valuable  contribu- 
tions, generally  in  co-opera!tion  with  M.  Milne-Edwards. 
The  greater  part  of  his  other  papers  are  contained  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  Entomological  Society,  of  which 
he  was  one  of  the  founders,  and  for  many  years  president. 
In  1838  he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  died  in  1841,  more  from  the  effects  of  mental  than  of 
bodily  exhaustion  His  principal  work,  Hislo-ire  des 
Insectes  nvisibles  ct  la  ^^igne,  was  contmued  after  his  death 
by  Milne-Edwards  and  Blanchard,  and  published  in  1842. 

AUDR.A.N,  the  name  of  a  family  of  French  artists  and' 
engravers,  who  for  several  generations  were  distinguished 
in  the  same  line.  The  first  who  devoted  himself  to  the 
art  of  engraving  was  Claude  Audran,  born  1592,  and  the 
last  was  Benoit,  Claude's  great-grandson,  who  died  in 
1712.  The  two  most  distinguished  members  of  the  famdy 
are  the  following  : — 

AuDEAN,  Gerard,  or  Gieard,  the  most  celebrated 
French  engraver,  was  the  third  son  of  Claude  Audran,  and 
■was  born  at  Lyons  in  1640.  He  was  taught  the  first 
principles  of  design  and  engraving  by  his  father ;  and, 
following  the  example  of  his  brother,  went  to  Paris  to 
perfect  himself  in  his  art.  He  there,  in  1666,  engraved 
for  Le  Brun  Constantine's  Battle  with  Maxentius,  his 
Triumph,  and  the  Stoning  of  Stephen,  which  gave  great 
satisfaction  to  the  painter,  and  placed  Audran  in  the  very 
first  rank  of  engravers  at  Paris.  Next  year  he  set  out  for 
Rome,  where  he  resided  three  years,  and  engraved  several 
tine  plates.  That  great  patron  of  the  arts,  M.  Colbert,  was 
80  struck  with  the  beauty  of  Audran's  works,  that  he  per- 
suaded Louis  XIV.  to  recall  him  to  Paris.  On  his  return 
he  applied  himself  assiduously  to  engraving,  and  was 
appointed  engraver  to  the  king,  from  whom  he  received 
great  encouragement.  In  the  year  1681  he  was  admitted 
to  the  council  of  the  Royal  Academy.  Ho  died  at  Paris  in 
1703.  His  engravings  of  Le  Brun's  Battles  of  Alexander 
are  regarded  as  the  best  of  his  numerous  works  "  He 
was,"  says  the  Abbd  Fontenai,  "  the  most  celebrated 
engraver  that  ever  existed  in  the  historical  line.  We  have 
several  subjects,  which  he  engraved  from  his  own  designs, 
that  manifested  as  much  taste  as  character  and  facility. 
But  in  the  Battles  of  Alexander  he  surpassed  even  the 
expectations  of  Lo  Brun  himself."  G6rard  published  in 
1683  a  work  entitled  Les  proportions  du  corps  humain 
meaurees  svr  les  plus  belles  figures  de  Vanliquite,  which  has 
been  translated  into  English. 

AoDRAN,  Jean,  nephew  of  Ci5rard,  was  born  at  Lyons  in 
1G67.  After  having  received  instructions  from  his  father, 
ho  went  to  Paris  to  perfect  himself  in  the  art  of  engraving 
under  his  uncle,  next  to  whom  he  was  the  most  distin- 
guished member  of  his  family.  At  the  age  of  twenty  his 
genius  began  to  display  itself  in  a  surprising  manner ;  and 
lii.<)  subsequent  success  was  such,  that  in  1707  he  obtained 
the  title  of  engraver  to  the  king,  Louis  XIV.,  who  allowed 
him  a  pension,  with  apartments  in  the  Gobelins;  and 
the  following  year  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  He  was  eighty  years  of  age  before  ho  quitted 
the  graver,  and  nearly  ninety  when  he  died.  The  best 
prints  of  this  artist  are  those  which  appear  not  so  pleasing 
to  the  eye  at  first  .light.  In  these  the  etching  constitutes 
a  great  part ;  and  he  has  finished  tlicm  in  a  bold,  rough 


style.     The    Rape  of  the  Salines,  after  Poussin,  is  coa- 
sider'ed  his  masterpiece. 

AUDUBON,  John  James,  a  well-known  naturalist,  was 
bom  in  1781  in  Louisiana,  where  his  parents,  who  were 
French  Protestants,  had  taken  up  their  residence  while  it 
was  still  a  Spanish  colony.  They  afterwards  settled  in 
Pennsylvania.  From  his  eariy  years  he  had  a  passion  for 
observing  the  habits  and  appearances  of  birds,  and  attempt- 
ing delineations  of  them  from  nature.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
he  was  sent  to  Paris,  and  remained  there  about  two  years, 
when  among  other  studies  he  took  some  lessons  in  the 
drawing-school  of  David.  On  returning  to  America  his 
father  established  him  in  a  plantation  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
he  soon  after  married.  But  nothing  could  damp  his  ardour 
for  natural  history.  For  fifteen  years  he  annually  explored 
the  depths  of  the  primeval  forests  of  America  in  long  and 
hazardous  expeditions,  far  from  his  family  and  his  home. 
In  these  excursions  he  acquired  the  facility  of  making  those 
spirited  drawings  of  birds  that  gives  such  value  to  his 
magnificent  work.  The  Birds  of  America.  At  that  period 
he  had  not  dreamed  of  any  publication  of  his  labours ;  as 
he  informs  us,  "  it  was  not  the  desire  of  fame  that 
prompted  to  those  long  exiles  ;  it  was  simply  the  enjoyment 
of  nature."  He  afterwards  removed  with  his  family  to  the 
village  of  Henderson  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  where  he 
continued  his  researches  in  natural  history  for  several  years, 
and  at  length  set  out  for  Philadelphia  with  a  portfolio 
containing  200  sheets  filled  with  coloured  delineatior.s 
of  about  1000  birds.  Business  obliged  him  to  quit  Phila- 
delphia unexpectedly  for  some  weeks,  and  he  deposited  his 
portfolio  in  the  warehouse  of  a  friend ;  but  to  his  intense 
dismay  and  mortification  he  found,  on  his  return,  that  tke.se 
precious  fruits  of  his  wanderings  and  his  labours  had  been 
totally  destroyed  by  rats.  The  shock  threw  him  into  a 
fever  of  several  weeks'  duration,  that  well-nigh  proved 
fatal.  But  his  native  energy  returned  with  returning 
health ;  and  he  resumed  his  gun  and  his  game-bag,  his 
pencils  and  his  drawing-book,  and  plunged  again  into  the 
recesses  of  the  backwoods.  In  about  three  years  he  had 
again  filled  his  portfolio,  and  then  rejoined  his  family,  who 
had  in  the  meantime  gone  to  Louisiana.  After  a  short 
sojourn  there  he  set  out  for  the  Old  World,  to  exhibit  tc 
the  ornithologists  of  Europe  the  riches  of  America  in  that 
department  of  natural  history. 

In  1826  Audubon  arrivedatLiverpool,  where  the  merits  of 
his  spirited  delineations  of  American  birds  were  immediately 
recognised.  An  exhibition  of  them  to  the  public  in  the  gal- 
leries of  the  Royal  Institution  of  that  town  was  so  successful 
that  it  was  repeated  at  Manchester  and  at  Edinburgh,  where 
they  were  no  less  admired.  When  he  proposed  to  publish  a 
work  on  the  birds  of  America,  several  naturalists  advised 
him  to  issue  the  work  in  large  quarto,  as  the  most  useful 
sizo  for  the  lovers  of  natural  history,  and  the  most  likely 
to  afford  him  a  sufficient  number  of  subscribers  to  remu- 
nerate his  labours.  At  first  he  yielded  to  this  advice,  and 
acknowledged  its  soundness ;  but  finally  ho  decided  that 
his  work  should  eclipse  every  other  ornithological  publica- 
tion. Every  bird  was  to  be  delineated  of  the  size  i.f  life, 
and  to  each  species  a  whole  page  was  to  be  devoted  ;  con- 
sequently, tne  jargesE  elephant  folio  paper  was  to  receive 
the  impressions.  This  necessarily  increased  the  expense 
of  the  work  so  much  as  to  put  it  beyond  the  reach  of 
most  scientific  naturalists — which  accounts  for  the  small 
number  of  persons  who,  for  a  considerable  lime,  could  be 
reckoned  among  his  supporters  in  the  gigantic  under- 
taking. The  exceptionally  hi<:h  character  of  the  work, 
however,  gradually  became  known  ;  and  a  sufficient 
number  of  subscribers  was  at  length  obtained  in  Great 
Britain  and  .\merica,  during  the  ten  or  twelve  years  llial 
the  work  w,i3  going  througli  the  press,  to  indemnify  huu 


A  U  G  —  A  U  G 


71 


for  the  greaf  cost  of  the  publication — leaving  him,  however, 
a  very  iDidequate  compensation  for  his  extraordinary  in- 
dustry and  skill.  The  first  volume  was  published  at  New 
Vork  in  the  end  of  the  year  1830,  the  second  in  183-t,  the 
third  in  1837,  and  the  fourth  and  last  in  1 839.  The  whole 
consists  of  435  coloured  plates,  containing  1055  figures  of 
birds  the  size  of  life.  It  is  certainly  the  most  magnificent 
work  of  the  kind  ever  given  to  the  world,  and  is  well  char- 
acterised by  Cuvier,  "  C'est  le  plus  magnifiquo  monument 
que  I'Art  ait  encore  ihvi  k  la  Nature." 

During  the  preparation  and  publication  of  his  great  work 
Audubon  made  several  eicursions  from  Great  Britain. 
In  the  summer  of  1828  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Cuvier,  Humboldt,aud  other  celebrated 
naturalists,  and  received  from  them  every  mark  of  honour 
and  esteem.  The  following  winter  he  passed  in  London. 
In  April  of  1830  he  revisited  the  United  States  of  America, 
and  again  explored  the  forests  of  the  central  and  southern 
federal  territories.  In  the  following  year  he  returned  to 
London  and  Edinburgh,  but  the  August  of  1831  found  him 
again  in  New  York.  Tke  succeeding  winter  and  spring 
bo  spent  in  Florida  and  South  Carolina  ;  and  in  the  summer 
of  1*32  he  set  out  for  the  Northern  States,  with  an  inten- 
tion of  studying  the  annual  migrations  of  birds,  particularly 
of  the  passenger  pigeon,  of  which  Le  baa  given  a  striking 
description;  but  his  career  wis  arrested  at  Boston  by  a 
severe  attack  of  cholera,  which  detained  him  there  till  the 
middle  of  August.  After  that  he  explored  the  coasts, 
lakes,  rivers,  and  mountains  of  North  America,  from 
Labrador  and  Canada  to  Florida,  during  a  series  of 
laborious  journeys,  that  occupied  him  for  three  years. 
From  Charleston,  accompanied  by  his  wife  and  family,  he 
took  his  third  departure  for  Britain.  During  his  earlier 
residence  in  Edinburgh  he  had  begun  to  publish  his  Ameri- 
can Ornithological  Biography,  which  at  length  filled  five 
large  octavo  volumes.  The  first  was  issued  there  by  Adam 
Black  in  1831  ;  the  last  appeared  in  1839.  This  book  is 
admirable  for  the  vivid  pictures  it  presents  of  the  habits  of 
the  birds,  and  the  adventures  of  the  naturalist.  The 
descriptions  are  characteristically  accurate  and  interesting. 

In  1839  Audubon  bade  a  final  adieu  to  Europe;  and 
returning  to  his  native  country,  he  published,  in  a  more 
popular  form,  his  Birds  of  America,  in  seven  octavo 
volumes,  the  last  of  which  appeared  in  1844.  His  ardent 
love  of  nature  still  prompted  him  to  new  enterprises,  and 
he  set  out  on  fresh  excursions  ;  but  in  these  he  was  always 
accompanied  by  his  two  sons,  and  one  or  two  other  natural- 
ists. The  result  of  these  excursions  was  the  projection 
of  a  new  work,  The  Quadrupeds  of  America,  in  atlas  folio, 
and  also  a  Biography  of  Avierican  Quadrupeds,  both  of 
which  were  commenced  at  Philadelphia  in  1840.  The 
latter  was  completed  in  1850,  and  is,  perhaps,  even  superior 
to  his  Ornithological  Biography. 

To  great  intelligence  in  observing,  and  accuracy  in 
delineating  nature,  to  a  vigorous,  handsome  frame,  and 
pleasing  expressive-  features,  Audubon  united  very 
estimable  mental  qualities,  and  a  deep  sense  of  religion 
without  a  trace  of  bigotry.  His  conversation  was  animated 
and  instructive,  his  manner  unassuming,  and  he  always 
spoke  with  gratitude  to  Heaven  for  the  very  hajipy  life  ho 
had  been  permitted  to  enjoy.  He  died,  after  a  short  illness, 
in  his  own  residence  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson,  at  New 
York,  on  the  27th  of  Januiry  1851.  See  Life  and  Adven- 
tures of  J.  J.  Audubon  the  Naturalist,  edited,  from  materials 
supplied  by  his  widow,  by  Robert  Buchanan,  London,  1 8G8. 

AUGEIAS  (Auyfi'a?,  Ai^c'at,  cf  ^Xi'ou  auyij),  in  Greek 
Legend,  a  son  of  Helios,  the  sun.  Hd  was  a  prince  of 
Elis,  and,  consistently  with  his  being  a  descendant  of  the 
»un-god,  had  an  immense  wealth  uf  herds,  including  twelve 
bull*  sacred  to   Helios,   and   white  as  swans.     He  lived 


beside  the  stream  Menios  (Miji-  =  moon) ;  and  his  daughter 
Agamede  was,  like  Medeia  and  Circe,  skilled  in  witchcraft, 
and  connected  with  the  moon  goddess.  The  task  of 
Hercules  was  to  clear  out  all  his  stalls  in  one  day,  and 
without  help.  This  he  did  by  making  an  opening  in  the 
wall  and  turning  the  stream  through  tliem.  Angelas  had 
prombed  him  a  tenth  of  the  herd,  but  refused  this, 
alleging  that  Hercules  bad  acted  only  in  the  service  uf 
Eurystheus. 

AUOEREAU,  PiERKE  Francois  Charles,  Duke  of 
Castiglione,  was  the  son  of  ob-icure  parents,  and  born  in 
1757.  After  serving  for  a  short  period  in  the  armies 
of  France,  La  entered  the  Neapolitan  service,  and  for 
some  time  supported  himself  by  teaching  fencing  at  Naples. 
In  1792  he  joined  the  Republican  army  that  watched  the 
movements  of  Spain.  He  rose  rapidly  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general,  and  commanded  a  division  in  the  army 
of  Italy.  Here  he  distinguished  himself  in  numerous 
engagements  by  his  energy,  skill,  and  vigorous  rapidity  of 
action.  To  him  were  due  in  great  measure  the  brilliant 
victories  of  Millesimo,  Dego,  and  Castiglione,  and  he  led 
the  decisive  charges  at  the  bloody  combats  of  Lodi  and 
Areola.  In  1797  he  took  part  with  Barras  and  the 
Directory,  and  was  an  active  agent  in  the  revolution  of  the 
18th  of  Fructidor;  but  his  jealousy  of  his  former  com- 
rade, Bonaparte,  prevented  their  intimacy ;  and  he  was 
one  of  the  general  oflBcers  not  privy  to  the  noted  revolution 
of  the  18th  of  Brumaire  (Nov.  9)  1799.  He  received, 
however,  the  command  of  the  army  of  Holland  and  the 
Lower  Rhine,  but  was  superseded  in  1801.  From  that 
time  he  lived  in  retirement,  till  1804,  when  he  was  made  a 
marshal  of  the  French  empire,  and  in  the  following  year  he 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  expedition  against  the 
Vorarlberg,  which  he  quicklysubdued.  Healsodistingxiished 
himself  greatly  in  the  battles  of  Jenaand  Eylau.  Inl809-10 
he  commanded  the  French  in  Catalonia,  and  txirnished 
his  laurels  by  Lis  great  cruelty  to  the  Spaniards ,  but  he 
was  again  more  honourably  conspicuous  in  the  campaign 
of  1813,  especially  in  the  terrible  battle  of  Leipsic.  In 
1814  he  had  the  command  of  a  reserve  army  at  Lyons,  and 
might  have  made  a  diversion  in  favour  of  Napoleon,  but 
he  preferred  to  submit,  and  retained  a  command  under  the 
Bourbons.  In  the  following  year  he  at  first  refused  to  join 
Napoleon  on  his  escape  from  Elba,  and  when  he  would 
afterwards  have  accepted  a  command  his  services  were 
declined.  He  also  failed  to  obtain  military  oflice  under 
the  new  dynasty,  and  after  having  had  the  painful  task 
of  being  one  of  the  commission  on  the  trial  of  Ney,  he 
returned  to  his  estates,  where  Le  died  of  dropsy  in  181C. 

AUGSBURG,  a  celebrated  city  of  Germany,  capital  of 
the  circle  of  Swabia  and  Neuburg  in  Bavaria,  the  principal 
seat  of  the  commerce  of  South  Germany,  and  of  commer- 
cial transactions  with  the  south  of  Europe.  It  derives 
its  name  from  the  Roman  Enii)eror  Augustus,  who,  on  the 
conquest  of  Rha-lia  by  Drusus,  established  a  Roman  colony 
namnA  Augusta  Vmdehcorum  (about  14  BC)  In  the  5lh 
century  it  was  sacked  by  the  Huns,  and  afterwards  cac;2 
under  the  power  of  the  prankish  kings.  It  was  almost 
entirely  destroyed  in  the  war  of  Charlemagne  against 
Thassilon,  duke  of  Bavaria  ,  and  after  the  dissoluiion  aii''. 
division  of  that  eni[)ire,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  dukrs 
of  Snabia.  After  this  il  rose  rapidly  into  importance  as  i. 
manufacturing  and  commerci.al  town,  and  its  merchant 
princes,  the  Puggcrs  and  AVclsois,  rivalled  the  Mralici  I'f 
Florence  ;  but  the  alterations  produi  oil  in  the  currents  of 
trade  by  the  discoveries  of  the  ISth  and  IGth  centuries 
occasioned  a  great  decline.  In  127C  it  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  a  free  imperial  city,  which  it  retained  with  many 
changes  in  its  internal  constitution,  till  1806,  when  it  was 
aniic.\ed  to  the  kingdom  of  Bavn'ia       ""•rnnhilc,   it  was 


72 


A  U  G  —  A  U  G 


t&e  scene  of  munerons  events  of  historical  importance. 
It  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Gustavus  Adolphua  in  1632, 
and  in  1635  it  snrrendered  to  the  imperial  forces;  in  1703 
it  was  bombarded  by  the  electoral  piiuce  of  Bavaria,  and 
forced  to  pay  a  contribution  of  400,000  dollars ;  and  in 


A.  St  St«pban's  Piatt. 
K  CaroliQen  Plotx. 

C,  Fi-nlt  Market. 

D.  Metzger  Plata. 

E,  Pciiachthurm. 

F.  Lodwlgs  Platx. 
O.  FIsb  Market. 

H.  Horse  Haiket. 
J,  St  Aooa  Plalz. 


Sketch  Plan  of  Augsburg 

K,  MaxImlUan's  Flatz 
l.CatheijTal. 

2.  Frohnhof. 

3.  Palace- 

4.  Court  Garden. 
6.  Barefoot  Church. 

6.  Sliamblea. 

7.  TowQ-Hall. 

8.  Eachange  (BiirM). 


9    Police. 
10    Flrehouse. 
11.  St  Morlii  Chnrch. 

13.  St  Katherlnee   Nun- 
nery. 

14.  St  Ulrlcti's  Churcli. 

15.  Mliitai7  Stables. 

16.  Holy  Cbost  Hospital. 


the  war  of  1803  it  suffered  severely.  Of  its  conventions  the 
most  memorable  are  those  which  gave  birth  to  the  Augs- 
burg confession  (1530)  and  to  the  Augsburg  alliance  (1680). 
The  city  is  pleasantly  situated  in  an  extensive  and 
fertile  plain,  betvpcen  the  rivers  Wertach  and  Lech,  36 
miles  W.N.W.  of  Munich,  lat.  48°  21'  44'  N.,  long.  10-54' 
42*  R  Its  fortifications  were  dismantled  in  1703,  and 
have  since  been  converted  into  public  promenades.  Maxi- 
milian Street  is  remarkable  for  its  breadth  and  architectural 
magnificence.  One  of  its  most  interesting  edifices  is  the 
Fugger  House,  of  which  the  entire  front  is  painted  in 
fresco.  Among  the  public  buildings  of  Augsburg  most 
worthy  of  notice  is  the  town-hall,  said  to  be  one  of 
the  finest  in  Germany,  built  by  Elias  Holl  in  1616-20. 
One  of  its  rooms,  callc-d  the  "  Golden  Hall,"  from  the 
profusion  of  its  gilding,  is  1 13  feet  long,  59  broad,  and  53 
high.  The  palace  of  the  bishops,  where  the  memorable 
Confession  of  Faith  was  presented  to  Charles  V.,  is  now 
used  for  Government  offices.  The  cathedral  dates  in  its 
oldest  portions  from  the  10th  century.  There  are  also  vari- 
ous churches  and  chapels,  a  school  of  arts,  a  polytechnic 
institution,  a  picture  gallery  in  the  former  monastery  of  St 
Catherine,  a  museum,  observatory,  botanical  gardens,  an 
exchange,  gymnasium,  deaf-mute  institution,  orphan 
asylum,  public  library,  several  remark.ible  fountains  dating 
from  the  16th  century,  ic.  The  "  Fiiggerci,"  built  in 
1619  by  the  brothers  Fiipger,  consists  of  106  small  houses, 
let  to  indigent  Roman  Catholic  citizens  at  a  merely  iioitiinal 


rent.  The  manufactures  of  Augsburg  are  various  and 
important,  consisting  of  woollen,  linen,  coiton,  and  silk 
goods,  watches,  jewellery,  and  goldsmith  work,  mathema- 
tical instruments,  machinery,  leather,  paper,  chemical 
stuffs,  tj-pes,  itc.  Copper-engraving,  for  which  it  was 
formerly  noted,  is  no  longer  carried  on  ,  but  printing,  litho- 
graphy, and  publishing  have  acquired  a  considerable  de- 
velopment, one  of  the  best-known  Continental  newspapers 
being  the  AUgemelne  Zeitung  or  Augsburg  Gazette.  Augs- 
burg is  an  important  railway  junction.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  river,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  bridge,  lies 
the  little  village  of  Lechhausen.  Population  in  187 J, 
51,270. 

AUGSBURG  CONFESSION.     See  Ceeeds. 

AUGURS,  in  Roman  Antiquities,  a  college  or  board 
appointed  to  interpret,  according  to  the  books  {libri 
augurales)  in  which  the  science  of  divination  was  laid 
down,  the  auspicia  or  signs  of  approval  or  disapproval 
sent  by  Jupiter  on  the  occasion  of  any  public  transaction. 
At  first,  it  is  said,  there  were  only  two  augurs,  one  from 
each  of  the  tribes  Ramnes  and  Titles.  Two  more  were 
added  by  Numa,  and  again  other  two  for  the  third  tribe 
of  Luceres,  that  is  six  altogether.  But  in  the  year  300 
B.C.  it  is  certain  that  there  were  only  four,  to  nhicU 
number  five  plebeian  places  were  added  by  the  lex  Ogutnia. 
Sulla  increased  the,  number  to  fifteen,  at  which  it  con- 
tinued, with  the  epiception  that  Cssar  appointed  a 
sixteenth,  and  the  emperors  frequently  added  as  supra 
numerum  persons  of  distinction,  or  of  their  own  family. 
An  augur  retained  his  ofiice  and  sacred  character  for  life. 
The  college  had  the  right  of  election  of  new  members. 
The  insignia  of  their  office  were  the  lituns,  or  crook,  and 
the  dress  called  trabea.  The  natural  region  to  look  to  for 
signs  of  the  will  of  Jupiter  was  the  sky,  where  lightning 
and  the  flight  of  birds  seemed  directed  by  him  as  counsel 
to  men.  The  latter,  however,  was  the  more  difficult  of 
interpretation,  and  upon  it,  therefore,  mainly  hinged  the 
system  of  divination  with  which  the  augurs  were  occupied, 
and  which  is  expressed  in  the  terms  auguriitm  and  auspi- 
cium  (aves  gerere,  aves  spicere).  The  presence  of  augurs 
was  required  only  in  observing  signs  in  the  sky,  where  their 
first  duty  was  to  mark  out  with  the  lituus  a  space  or 
templum  in  the  sky  within  which  the  omen  must  occur. 
Such  observations  being  properly  made  only  in  the  city  of 
Rome,  augurs  are  not  found  elsewhere.  Signs  of  the  will 
of  the  gods  were  of  two  kinds,  either  in  answer  to  a  request 
[nuspicia  impetrativa),  or  incidental  (auspicia  oblativa). 
Of  such  signs  there  were  five  classes: — (1.)  Signs  in  the 
sky  (coslestia  auspicia),  consisting  chiefly  of  thunder  and 
lightning,  but  not  excluding  falling  stars  and  other  pheno- 
mena. Lightning  from  left  to  right  was  favourable,  from 
right  to  left  unfavourable  ;  and  this  being  a  very  direct  and 
impressive  token  of  the  will  of  Jupiter,  the  observation  of 
it  was  held  to  apply  to  all  public  transactions  fixed  for  the 
day  on  which  it  occurred.  Whether  favourable  or  the 
reverse  in  its  direction,  the  appearance  of  lightning  was 
held  as  a  voice  of  the  god  against  business  being  done  in 
the  public  assemblies.  But  since  the  person  charged  to 
take  the  auspices  {de  ccelo  strvasse)  for  a  certain  day  was 
constitutionally  subject  to  no.  other  authority  who  could 
test  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  his  statement  that  he  had 
observed  lightning,  it  happened  that  this  became  a  favourite 
means  of  putting  off  meetings  of  the  public  assembly. 
Restrictions  were,  however,  imposed  on  it  in  the  ktcr  times 
of  the  republic.  Wlien  a  new  consul,  prjetor,  or  quaestor 
entered  on  his  first  day  of  oflicc  and  prayed  the  gods  for 
good  omens,  it  was  a  matter  of  custom  to  report  to  him 
that  lightning  from  the  left  had  been  seen.  (2.)  Sigm 
from  birds  {signa  ex  avibus),  with  reference  to  the  direction 
i>f  their  fliglit,  and  also  to  their  singing,  or  uttering  other 


I 


A  U  G  —  A  U  G 


73 


Bounds.  In  matters  of  ordinary  life  on  wLi.-h  divine 
counsel  was  prayed  for,  it  was  usual  to  have  recourse  to 
this  form  of  divination.  For  public  affairs  it  was,  by  the 
time  of  Cicero,  superseded  by  tne  tictitious  observation  of 
lightning.  (3.)  Feeding  of  birds  (auspicia  ex  tripudiis), 
which  consisted  in  observing  whether  a  bird, — usually  a 
fowl, — on  grain  being  thrown  before  it,  let  fall  a  particle 
from  its  mouth  {iripudium  solislimum).  If  it  did  so,  the 
w:ll  of  the  gods  was  in  favour  of  the  enterprise  in  question. 
The  simplicity  of  this  ceremorry  recommended  it  for  very 
generil  use,  particularly  in  the  army  when  on  service.  The 
fowls  were  kept  in  cages  by  a  servant,  styled  pullarius. 
In  imperial  times  are  mentioned  the  decuriales  pullarii. 
(4.)  Signs  from  animals  (pedeslria  atispicia,  or  ex  quadru- 
pedibus),  i.e.,  observation  of  the  course  of,  or  sounds 
uttered  by,  quadrupeds  and  serpents  within  a  fi.xed  space, 
corresponding  to  the  observations  of  the  flight  of  birds,  but 
much  less  frequently  employed.  It  had  gone  out  of  use  by 
the  time  of  Cicero.  (5.)  Warnings  {signa  ex  diris),  con- 
sisting of  all  unusual  phenomena,  but  chiefly  such  as 
boded  ill.  Being  accidental  in  their  occurrence,  they 
belonged  to  the  auguria  oblativa,  and  their  interpretation 
was  not  a  matter  for  the  augurs,  unless  occurring  in  the 
course  of  some  public  transaction,  in  which  case  they 
formed  a  divine  veto  against  it.  Otherwise,  reference  was 
made  for  an  interpretation  to  the  Pontifices  in  olden  times, 
.-afterwards  frequently  to  the  Sibylline  books,  or  the  Etruscan 
haruspices,  when  the  incident  was  not  already  provided  for 
by  a  rule,  as,  for  example,  that  it  was  unlucky  for  a  person 
leaving  bis  house  to  meet  a  raven,  that  the  sudden  death 
of  a  person  from  epilepsy  at  a  public  meeting  was  a  sign  to 
break  up  the  assembly,  not  to  mention  other  instances  of 
adverse  omens.  A  Koman,  however,  did  not  necessarily 
regard  a  warning  as  binding  unless  it  was  cWrly  appre- 
hended. Not  only  could  an  accidental  oversight  render  it 
useless,  but  to  some  extent  measures  could  be  taken  to 
prevent  any  warning  being  noticed.  At  sacrifices,  for 
instance,  the  flute  was  played  ne  quid  atiud  exaudiolur 
(Pliny,  ;Vo«.  IJist.,  ixviii.  2,  11). 

Among  the  other  means  of  discovering  the  will  of  the 
gods  were  casting  lots,  oracles  of  Apollo  (in  the  hands  of 
the  college  sacris  faciundis),\)\ii  chiefly  the  examination  of 
the  entrails  of  animals  slain  for  sacrifice.  Anything 
abnormal  found  there  was  brought  under  the  notice  of 
the  augurs  as  warnings,  but  usu.illy  the  Etruscan  haruspices 
were  employed  for  this.  The  persons  entitled  to  ask  for 
an  expression  of  the  divine  will  on  a  public  affair  were  the 
magistrates.  To  the  highest  offices,  including  all  persons 
of  consular  and  prxtorian  rank,  belonged  the  right  of  taking 
au.^j'icia  maxima ;  to  the  inferior  offices  of  Kdile  and 
quEstor,  the  auspicia  minora,  the  differences  between 
these,  however,  must  have  been  small.  The  subjects  for 
which  aii.'picia  publica  were  always  taken  were  the  elec- 
tion of  nragistratcs,  their  entering  on  office,  the  holding  of 
a  public  assembly  to  pass  decrees,  the  setting  out  of  an 
army  for  war.'  They  could  only  be  taken  in  Home  itself , 
and  in  case  of  a  commander  having  to  renew  his  auspicia, 
he  must  cither  return  to  Rome  or  select  a  spot  in  the  foreign 
country  to  represent  the  hearth  of  that  city.  The  time  for 
observing  auspices  was,  as  a  rule,  between  midnight  and 
dawn  of  the  day  for  which  the  transaction  was  fixed  about 
which  they  were  desired.  But  whether  it  was  so  ordered 
in  the  ritual,  or  whether  this  was  to  leave  the  whole  day  free, 
is  not  known.  In  military  affairs  this  course  was  not 
always  possible,  as  in  the  cisc  of  taking  auspices  before 
crossing  a  river.  The  founding  of  colonics,  the  beginning 
of  a  battle,  before  calling  together  an  army,  before  sittings 
of  the  senate,  at  decisions  of  peace  or  war,  were  occasions, 
not  c'— ivs  but  frequently,  for  taking  auspices.  The  place 
wiiiTr  the  ceremony  was  performed  was  not  fixed  bul 
3— 5» 


varied,  so  as  to  Lave  a  close  relation  to  the  object  to  which 
it  referred.  A  spot  being  selected,  the  oflBcial  charged  to 
make  the  observation  (spectio)  pitched  his  tent  there  some 
days  before.  A  matter  postponed  through  adverse  signs 
from  the  gods  could  on  the  following  or  some  future  day 
be  again  brought  forward  for  the  auspices  (rcpeiere 
auspicia).  If  an  error  (vitium)  occurred  in  the  auspices, 
the  augurs  could,  of  their  own  accord  or  at  the  request  of 
the  senate,  inform  themselves  of  the  circumstances,  and 
decree  upon  it.  A  consul  could  refuse  to  accept  their 
decree  while  he  remained  in  oflice,  but  on  retiring  he 
could  be  prosecuted.  Auspicia  oUativa  referred  mostly  to 
the  comitia.  A  magistrate  was  not  bound  to  take  notice 
of  signs  reported  merely  by  a  private  person,  but  he  c8uld 
not  overlook  such  a  report  from  a  brother  magistrate.  For 
example,  if  a  qua;stor  on  his  entry  to  office  observed  light, 
ning  and  announced  it  to  the  consul,  the  latter  must  delay 
the  public  assembly  for  the  day.  (a.  s.  m  ) 

AUGUST,  originally  ScxlUis,  as  being  the  sixth  month 
in  the  pre-Juliau  Roman  year,  received  its  present  name 
from  the  Emperor  Augustus.  The  preceding  month, 
Quiniilis,  had  been  called  July  after  the  great  Julius 
■  Cajsar,  and  the  senate  thought  to  propitiate  the  crajjeror  by 
conferring  a  similar  honour  upon  him.  Avigust  was 
selected,  not  as  being  the  natal  month  of  Augustus,  but 
because  in  it  his  greatest  good  fortune  had  happened  to 
him.  In  that  month  he  bad  been  admitted  to  the  con- 
sulate, had  thrice  celebrated  a  triumph,  had  received  the 
allegiance  of  the  soldiers  Stationed  on  the  Janiculum,  had 
concluded  the  civil  wars,  and  had  subdued  Egypt.  As 
July  contained  thirty-one  days,  and  August  only  thirty,  it 
was  thought  necessary  to  add  another  day  to  the  lalier 
month,  in  order  that  Augustus  might  not  b^  in  any  respect 
inferior  to  Julius. 

AUGUSTA,  the  capital  of  the  State  of  Maine,  and  seat 
of  justice,  is  situated  on  the  Kennebec  River  (in  Kennebec 
county),  43  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  lat.  44°  19  N.,  long. 
G9°  50'  \V.  The  city  lies  mainly  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Kennebec  River,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  520  feet 
long.  The  business  portion  of  the  city  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1SC5,  but  has  since  been  rebuilt.  Its  principal 
public  buildings  are  the  State  house,  State  insane  asylum, 
and  United  Stales'  arsenal.  It  has  several  banks,  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers,  and  numerous  churches.  The  popula- 
tion of  Augusta,  by  the  census  of  1S70,  w.is  7808. 

AUGUSTA,  a  city  of  Georgia,  in  the  United  States  u( 
America,  the  capital  of  the  county  of  Richmond.  It  is 
situated  in  a  beautiful  plain,  on  the  Savannah  River,  231 
miles  from  its  mouth,  and  has  extensive  railway  communi- 
cation. Like  other  American  cities  it  is  spacious  and 
regular  in  its  plan,  Greene  Street,  for  example,  being  1C8 
feet  in  width,  with  a  row  of  trees  extending  along  each 
side.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  city  hall,  a  masonic 
hall,  an  oddfellows'  hall,  the  Richmond  academy,  the 
Georgia  medical  college,  the  opera-house,  and  an  orphan 
asylum.  Besides  these,  the  city  possesses  an  arsenal, 
water-works,  a  number  of  banks,  newsjiaper  ofliccs,  exten- 
sive cotton  factories  and  flour  mills,  several  foundries,  two 
tobacco  factories,  <tc.  Water  power  is  alnindantly  supplied 
from  the  river  by  the  Augusta  canal,  nhich  was  con- 
structed in  18-15.  Augustawasan  imporlaiit  placeduring 
the  revolutionary  war,  and  continued  to  flourish  amazingly 
till  the  opening  of  the  Georgia  railway.  A  temporary 
decline  then  took  place,  owing  to  the  change  in  the 
methods  of  traflic,  but  a  new  current  of  prospcriiy 
speedily  set  in,  which  still  continues.     Population  in  187t), 

AUGUSTAN  HISTORY  is  the  title  bestowed  upon  a 
collection  of  the  biogmpliies  of  the  Roman  emperors,  from 
Hndri.Tn  to  Carinus,  written  under  Pioclelian  and  C'onitaa- 


74 


AUGUSTAN    H  I  S  T  0  ]i  Y 


tine,   and   usually   regarded   as   the   composition   of    six 
authors, — MUui    Spartianns,    Julius    Capitolinus,    i£liu3 
l.ampriJius,  Vulcatius   Gallicaaus,  Trebellius   Pollio,  and 
Klaviua   Vopiscus.      Upon   investigation,    however,    there 
appears  good    reason    for  reducing  these  writers  to  four. 
The  distribution  of  the  respective  biographies  among  them, 
according  to  the  arrangement  of  the  MSS.,  is  supported  by 
no  extraneous  authority,  and  depends  upon  no  intelligible 
|)rincipla.     Without  entering  into  detail,  for  which  space 
fails  us,  it  must  suffice  to  state  that  up  to  and  including 
the  biography  of  Alexander  Severus,  the  authorship  of  the 
various  memoirs  is  interchanged  among  Spartianus,  Lam- 
pridius,  and  Capitolinus,  in  a  manner  only  explicable  upon 
th!  hypothesis  of  a  division  of  labour  among  these  writers, 
or  on  that  of  their  having  selected  their  subjects  entirely  at 
random.     The  latter  is  contradicted  by  their  own  affirma- 
tions, and  no  trace  of  any  mutual  concert  is  discoverable, 
neither  is  there  any  perceptible  difference  of  style.     When, 
therefore,  we  find  the  excerpts  in  the  Palatine  MS.  assigning 
all  the  biographies  preceding  that  of  Maximin  to  Spartianus 
alone,  and  remark  that  his  prsenomen  and  that  of  Lam- 
pridius  are  alike  given  as  jElius,  we  cannot  avoid  suspecting 
with  Casaubon  and  Salmasius  that  the  full  name  was  .<Eliu3 
LampriJius  Spartianus,  and  that  two  authors  have  been 
manufactured   out  of  one.     Wa   further   find  Spartianus 
observing,  at  the  commencement  of  his  life  of  iElius  Verus, 
that  having  written  the  lives  of  all  the  emperors  who  had 
borne  the  title  of  Augustus  from  Julius  Caesar  down  to 
Hadrian,  he   purposes  from  that  point   to  comprise   the 
C^sars  ai'O.     This  excludes  the  idea  of  his  having  written 
without  a  plan,  or  in  concert  with  any  colleague.     His 
biographies  are  regularly  dedicated  to  Diocletian  down  to 
that  of  Pescennius  Niger,  after  which,  with  one  exception, 
probably  due  to  the   corruption  of  the  MSS.,  they  are 
inscribed  to  Constantine,  as  would  naturally  be  the  case 
with  a  work  continued  under  this  prince's  reign  after  having 
been  commenced  under  his  predecessor's.     We  may  also 
with  probability  ascribe  to  Spartianus  the  life  of  Avidius 
Cassius,  attributed  in  the  MSS.  to  Vulcatius  Gallicanus, 
but    whose   author   describes   his  undertaking   in.  terms 
almost  identical  with  those  employed  by  Spartianus.     No 
biography  subsequent  to   that   of   Alexander   Ssverus   is 
attributed  to  Spartianus  by  any  MS.,  and  the  next  series, 
comprising  the  Maximins,  the  Oordians,  and  M.aximus  and 
Balbinus,  is  undoubtedly  the  production  of  Jilius  Capi- 
tolinus, who  addresses  his  work  to  Constantint    and  pro- 
fessedly proceeds,  in  some  respects,  upon  a  diSerent  plan 
from  his  predecessor.     The  work  of  Spartianus  must  have 
remained  incomplete,  and  Capitolinus  must  have  proposed 
to  fill  up  the  interval  between  him  and  Trebellius  PoUio, 
who  dedicates  his  life  of  Claudius  Gothicus  to  Constantius 
Chlorus,   and    whom    wo   know,  from   the   testimony   of 
Vopiscus,  to  have  written  the  lives  of  the  Philippi  and  their 
successors  up  to  Claudius,  some  years  before  303  a.d.     In 
that  year  (and  not  291  A.D.,  as  supposed  by  Salmasius  and 
Clinton)  Vopiscus  was  solicited  by  the  urban  prefect,  Junius 
Tiberianus,  to  undertake  the  Hfe  of  Aurclian ;  this  biography 
ajipcars  from  internal  evidence  to  have  been  published  by 
307  A.D.,  and  the  lives  of  Aurelian's  successors  down  to 
Carinus  were  added  before  the  death  of  Diocletian  in  313. 
We  may  therefore  reduce  the   Augustan  historians   from 
six  to  four,  and  assign  their  respective  shares  as  follows  : 
To   Spartianus,    the    biographies   from   Julius   CEsar    to 
Alexander  Severus,  all  anterior  to  Hadrian  being  lost  ;  to 
Capitolinus,  those  from  Maximin  to  the  younger  Gordian  ; 
to  Trebellius  Pollio,  the  lives  of  Valerian,  Gallienus.  the 
"  Thirty  Tyrants,  "  and  Claudiui  Gothicus,  those  of  the 
Philippi,  the  Decii,  Gallu?,  ilimilianua,  and  part  of  Vale 
rian's  being  lost  ;  to  Vopiscus,  the  remainder,  fruin  Aurclian 
'  (^ftrinus.    .Some  difficulty  is  crcjtcd  by  the  nvnti^n  of 


Capitolinus,  the  latest  biographer  in  order  of  compositii^. 
by  his  predecessor  Vopiscu.s,  but  the  passage  may  be  an 
interpolation,  or  may  refer  to  some  other  work. 

The  importance  of  the  Augustan  history  as  a  repertory  of 
information  is  very  considerable,  but  its  literary  pretensions 
are  of  the  humblest  order.  The  writers'  standard  was  con- 
fessedly low.  ''My  purpose,"  says  Vopiscus,  "  has  been 
to  provide  materials  for  more  eloquent  persons  than 
myself."  Considering  the  perverted  taste  of  the  age,  it  is 
perhaps'  fortunate  that  the  task  fell  into  the  hands  of  no 
showy  declaimer,  .who  measured  his  success  by  his  skill  in 
making  surface  do  duty  for  substance,  but  of  homely, 
matter-of-fact  scribes,  whose  sole  concern  was  to  record 
what  they  knew.  Their  narrative  is  most  unmethodical 
and  inartificial ;  their  style  b  tame  and  plebeian  ;  their 
conception  of  biography  is  that  bf  a  collection  of  anecdotes  ; 
they  have  no  notion  of  arrangement,  no  measure  of  prc>- 
portion,  and  no  criterion  of  discrimination  between  the  im- 
portant and  the  trivial ;  they  are  equally  destitute  of  critical 
and  of  historical  insight,  unable  to  sift  the  authorities 
on  which  they  rely,  and  uftsuspicious  of  the  stupendous 
social  revolution  comprised  within  the  period  which  they 
undertake  to  describe.  Their  value,  consequently,  depends 
very  much  on  that  of  the  sources  to  which  they  happen  to 
have  recourse  for  any  given  period  of  history,  and  on  the 
fidelity  of  their  adherence  to  these  when  valuable.  Marius 
Maximus  and  Junius  Cordus,  to  whose  qualifications  they 
themselves  bear  no  favourable  testimony,  were  their  .chief 
authorities  for  the  eailier  Lives  of  the  series.  For  the  later 
they  have  been  obliged  to  resort  more  largely  to  public 
records,  and  have  thus  preserved  matter  of  the  highest 
importance,  rescuing  from  oblivion  many  imperial  rescripts 
and  senatorian  decrees,  reports  of  ofBcial  proceedings  and 
speeches  on  public  occasions,  and  a  number  of  interesting 
and  characteristic  letters  from  various  emperors.  Their 
incidental  allusions  sometimes  cast  vivid  though  undesigned 
light  on  the  circumstances  of  the  age,  and  they  have  made 
large  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  imperial  jurisprud- 
ence in  particular.  Even  their  trivialities  have  their  use  ; 
their  endless  anecdotes  respecting  tie  personal  habits  of 
the  subjects  of  their  biographies,  if  valueless  to  the  historian, 
are  most  acceptable  to  the  archseologist,  and  not  unimpor- 
tant to  the  economist  and  moralist.  Their  errors  and 
deficiencies  may  in  part  be  ascribed  to  the  contemporary 
neglect  of  history  as  a  branch  of  instruction.  Education 
was  in  the  hands  of  rhetoricians  and  grammarians ; 
historians  were  read  for  their  style,  not  for  their  matter, 
and  since  the  days  of  Tacitus,  none  had  arisen  worth  a 
schoolmaster's  notice.  We  thus  find  Vopiscus  acknowledg- 
ing that  when  he  began  to  write  the  life  of  Aurelian,  he 
was  entirely  misinformed  respecting  the  latter'e  competitor 
Finnus,  and  implying  that  he  would  not  have  ventured  on 
Aurelian  himself  if  he  had  not  had  access  to  the  MS.  of  the 
emperor's  own  diary  in  the  Ulpian  library.  The  writers' 
historical  estimates  are  superficial  and  conventional,  but 
report  the  verdict  of  public  opinion  with  substantial 
accuMcy.  The  only  imputation  on  the  integrity  of  any  of 
them  lies  against  'Trebellius  Pollio,  who,  addressing  his 
work  to  a  descendant  of  Claudius,  the  successor  and  pro- 
bably the  assassin  of  Gallienus,  has  dwelt  upon  the  Inllcr 
versatile  sovereign's  carelessness  and  extravagance  without 
acknowledgment  of  the  elastic  though  fitful  energy  ho  so 
frequently  displayed  in  defence  of  the  empire.  The  caution 
of  Viipiscas's  references  to  Diocletian  cannot  be  made  » 
reproach  to  him. 

No  biographical  particulars  are  recorded  respecting  any 
of  these  writers.  From  their  acquaintance  with  I.atin  and 
Greek  literature  they  must  have  been  men  of  letters  by 
profession,  and  very  probably  secretaries  or  bbrarians  to 
persons  of  distinction.     They  npponr  particularly  versed  Id 


A  U  G  —  A  U  Ci 


law.  Spartianus's  reference  to  Liinsclf  as  "Diocletian's 
own  "  seems  to  indicate  tbat  he  was  a  domestic  iu  the 
irrperial  household.  They  address  their  patrons  with 
deference,  acknowledging  their  own  deficiencies,  and  seem 
painfully  conscious  of  the  profession  of  literature  having 
fallen  upon  evil  days. 

Tlie  first  eilition  of  the  Augnstan  JTistory  iras'  printed  ct  Milan 
in  1475,  by  Bonus  Accursius,  along  with  Suetonius.  Being  based 
upon  the  best  MSS.  it  is  superior  to  any  of  its  aucccssors  until 
Casauboo'a  (16031.  Casaubon  manifested  great  critical  ability  in  his 
notes,  but  for  want  of  a  good  MS.  left  the  restoration  of  tlie  test  to 
Salmasius  (1620),  whose  notes  are  a  most  remarkable  mouumeut  of 
erudition  combined  witb  acuteuess  in  verbal  criticism  and  general 
vigour  of  intellect.  Little  has  since  been  done  for  the  improvemeut 
ol  the  text,  which  is  still  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  state.  The  most 
ociur.ite  edition  is  that  by  Jordan  and  Eyssenhardt  (Berlin,  1863), 
^rournled  on  &  collation  of  the  Bamberg  MS.  with  the  Palatine  (now 
the  \'dtican)  used  by  Salmaaius.  The  most  im^Kirtant  separate  dis- 
sertittions  on  tbe  Augustan  historians  are  that  on  the  sixth  volume 
of  Heine's  Opuscula  Philotogka :  Brocks's  essay  on  the  first  four  of 
them  (Konigsberg,  1869);  Dirksea's  elucidation  of  their  references 
to  R.-.man  jurisprudence  (Leipsic,  1842);  Peter's  critical  emenda- 
tion- (Posen,  1863);  Brunuer'a  monograph  on  'Vopiscus  in  the 
flixon  i  volume  of  Biidinger's  [/ntersuchungcn  rur  Rdmischen  Kaiser- 
gtsd.iihte^  and  J.  filuller'a  disquisitiou  io  the  third  (Leipsic, 
lSiJ3-';9^.     There  is  no  English  translation.  (R.  G.) 

AUGUSTI,  John  Christian  William,  a  distinguished 
German  theologian,  was  born  at  Eschenbcrga,  near  Gotha, 
in  1772.  He  was  of  Jewish  descent,  his  grandfather 
having  been  a  rabbi  who  had  been  converted  to  the 
(Christian  faith.  His  early  education  he  received  partly 
from  Moller,  pastor  of  Oierstadt,  who  introduced  him  to 
tha  study  of  Hebrew,  and  partly  at  the  gymnasium  at 
Gotha.  He  then  proceeded  to  the  university  of  Jena,  and 
completed  his  studies  there  in  1793.  In  1708  he  obtained 
a  post  as  privat-docent,  or  university  lecturer  on  philosophy, 
and  began  to  turn  his  attention  chiefly  to  Oriental  subjects. 
In  ISOO  he  w-as  made  professor  extraordinary  of  philo- 
Rophy,  and  three  years  after  was  appointed  to  the  chair 
of  Oriental  languages.  In  1808  he  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  theology,  and  in  1812  accepted  a  call  to  the  chair 
of  theology  at  the  recjently  renovated  university  of  Breslau. 
During  the  troubled  years  1813  and  1814  he  acted  as 
rector,  and  received  great  praise  for  his  firm  and  judicious 
conduct.  In  1819  ho  was  transferred  to  the  university  of 
Bonn,  and  in  1828  ho  united  with  his  professorship  the 
filTice  of  director  of  the  consistory.  He  died  at  Coblentz  in 
1S41.  August!  had  little  sympathy  with  the  modern 
philiisophical  interpretations  of  dogma,  and  although  he 
t"ok  up  a  position  of  free  criticism  with  regard  to  the 
Liblical  narratives,  he  yet  held  fast  to  the  traditional  faith. 
His  woiks  on  theology  (History  of  Dogma,  1805,  and 
System  o/  Doymaiics,  1809)  are  simple  statements  of  fact, 
and  do  not  attempt  a  speculative  treatment  of  their  subjects. 
In  addition  to  several  exegetical  works,  his  most  impor- 
tant writings  are  the  Denhwiirdigkeiten  aus  der  Christlichcn 
Archaologie,  12  vols.,  1817-31,  a  partially  diges'ed  mass  of 
materials,  and  the  Handbuch  der  Christ.  Archaologie,  3  vols., 
183G-7,  which  gives  the  substance  of  the  largei  work  in  a 
more  compact  and  systematic  form. 

AUGUSTINE  (.\uRELiU3  Aijoustinus),  cne  of  the 
four  great  fathers  of  the  Latin  Church,  and  admittedly  the 
greatest  of  the  four,  more  profound  than  Ambrose,  his 
spiritual  father,  more  original  and  systematic  than  Jerome, 
Lis  contemporary  and  correspondent,  and  intellectually  far 
more  distinguished  than  Gregory  the  Great,  the  last  of  the 
series.  The  theological  position  and  influence  of  Augustine 
may  be  said  to  be  unrivalled.  No  single  name  has  ever 
exercised  such  power  over  the  Christian  church,  and  no  one 
rainil  ever  made  such  an  impression  upon  Christian  thought. 

Aurelius  Anguslinua  was  born  at  Tagasto  (Tajelt),  a  town 
of  Numidia,  on  the  13th  of  November  354  a.d.  His 
father.  Palricins,  w-ij  a  biir<;o.\'>  of  this  town,  and  was  still  a 


pagan  at  the  time  of  his  son's  tiirth.  His  mother,  Monica, 
was  not  only  a  Christian,  but  a  woman  of  the  most  elevated, 
tender,  and  devoted  piety,  whose  patient  prayerfulness  for 
both  her  husband  and  son  (at  length  crowned  with  success 
in  both  cases),  and  whose  affectionate  and  beautiful  enthu- 
siasm, have  passed  into  a  touching  type  of  womanly  saintli- 
ness  for  all  ages.  She  ear  y  instructed  her  son  in  the  faith 
and  love  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  for  a  timo  her  instruction 
seems  to  have  impressed  his  youthful  mind.  Falling  ill  he 
wished  to  be  baptised ;  but  when  the  danger  was  past,  the 
rite  was  deferred,  and,  notwithstanding  all  his  mother's 
admonitions  and  prayers,  he  grew  up  without  any  profes- 
sion of  Christian  piety,  or  any  devotion  to  Cliristian 
principles.  Inheriting  from  his  father  a  vehement  and 
sensual  disposition,  he  early  gave  way  to  the  unbridled 
impulses  of  passion,  and  while  still  a  mere  youth,  formed 
a  connection,  common  enough  at  ths  time,  but  at  variance 
with  the  principles  of  Christian  morality.  As  the  result  of 
the  connection  he  became  the  father  of  a  son,  whom  he 
named  Adeodatus  in  a  fit  of  pious  emotion,  and  to  whom 
he  was  passionately  attached. 

In  the  midst  of  all  his  youthful  pleasures  Augustine 
was  an  earnest  student.  His  father,  observing  the  early 
development  of  his  talents,  formed  the  ambition  of  training 
him  to  the  brilliant  and  lucrative  career  of  a  rhetorician, 
and  he  seems  to  have  spared  no  expense  to  equip  him  for 
this  career.  The  youth  studied  not  only  at  his  native  town, 
hut  at  Madaura  and  Carthage,  and  especially  devoted 
himself  to  the  Latin  poets — many  traces  of  his  love  for 
which  are  to  be  found  in  his  writings.-  His  acquaintance 
with  Greek  literature  was  much  more  limited,  and,  indeed, 
it  has  ieen  doubted  whether  he  could  use,  in  the  original, 
either  the  Hebrew  or  Greek  Scriptures.'  Apparently,  he 
was  in  the  habit  of  using  translations  of  Ilato  (Confess., 
viiL  2),  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Greek  words  frequently 
occur  in  his  writings  correctly  rendered  and  discriminated  ; 
and  he  speaks  in  one  of  his  epistles  to  Marcellinus  (LIX. 
torn.  ii.  294)  of  referring  to  the  Greek  Psalter  and  finding, 
in  reference  to  certain  difficulties,  that  it  agreed  with  the 
■Vulgate.  Clausen,  who  has  particularly  investigated  the 
point,  sums  up  the  evidence  to  the  effect  that  Augustine 
was  "  fairly  instructed  in  Greek  grammar,  and  a  subtle 
distinguisher  of  words,"  but  that  beyond  this  his  knowledge 
was  insufficient  for  a  thorough  comprehension  of  Greek 
books,  and  especially  for  those  in  the  Hellenistic  dialect. 

While  a  student  at  Carthage  he  was  particularly  attracted 
by  the  theatre,  the  spectacles  at  -which  were  of  unusual 
magnificence.  To  his  enthusiastic  and  sensuous  spirit  they 
were  irresistible,  and  the  extent  to  which  he  seems  to  have 
yielded  to  the  fascination  is  sufficient  proof  of  his  active 
alienation  from  Christianity  at  this  period.  The  Christian 
church,  as  it  has  been  said,  "abhorred  the  pagan  theatre. 
The  idolatrous  rites,  the  lascivious  attitudes,  the  gladiatorial 
shows,  which  were  its  inscp.ir3blo  accompaniments,  were 
equally  opposed  to  the  dogmatic  monotheism,  to  the  piety, 
and  to  the  mercy  of  the  gospel."  One  of  the  most  signi- 
ficiint  signs  of  a  man  having  become  a  Christian  was  his 
habitual  absence  from  the  theatre.  No  one  was  more 
emphatic  on  this  point  afterwards  than  Augustine  himself, 
and  as  the  result  of  his  own  experience,  ha  seems  to  have 
doubted,  opart  from  the  gross  immoralities  of  the  pagan 
sta''e,  whether  tho  indulgence  in  fictitious  joys  and  woca 
is  a  warrantable  excitement  (Confess.,  iii.  2). 

Cicero's  Jlortensins,  which  he  read  in  his  nineteenth  year, 
first  awakened  in  Augustine's  mind  tho  spirit  of  specul.v 

'  "Augiistinus  extilit,  ut  alii,  EbrxiB  «c  Graca;  lingu^s  ijnanis  ' 
(Walch,  liibt.  Palrist.,^.  352.)  "  Imperilus  non  tnnlura  HebranESt-' 
cti.irn  Gr.-ec.T  lingua;,  ipsos  foiitcs  adirc  non  potuit,  Red  .wlam  fcrt  Inri:- 
lationem  Latluam  explirarc  conatus  est."— (HoscnmUllcr,  Uitt.  lair- 
prtl ,  iii.  40.) 


76 


AUGUSTINE 


lion.  IIo  engaged  restlessly  in  philosopliical  studies,  and 
passed  from  one  phase  of  thought  to  another,  unable  to 
find  satisfaction  in  any.  Manicha;ism  first  enthralled  him. 
Its  doctrine  of  two  principles,  one  of  good  and  one  of  evil, 
seemed  to  answer  to  the  wild  confusion  of  iis  own  heart, 
•ind  the  conflict  of  higher  and  lower  impulses  which  raged 
within  him.  It  seemed  to  solve  the  mysteries  which  per- 
plexed him  in  his  own  experience  and  in  the  world.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  sect,  and  entered  into  the  class  of 
auditors.  His  ambition  was  to  be  received  among  the 
number  of  the  Elect,  and  so  get  to  the  heart  of  what  he 
believed  to  be  their  higher  knowledge.  But  falling  in  with 
Faustus,  a  distinguished  Manichsean  bishop  and  disputant, 
and  entering  into  discussion  with  him,  he  was  greatly  dis- 
appointed. The  system  lost  its  attraction  for  him  ;  he 
gradually  became  disgusted,  and  abandoned  it.  But  before 
this  he  had  left  Carthage,  shocked  with  the  licence  of  the 
students,  and  had  betaken  himself  for  a  time  to  Rome  in  the 
pursuit  of  his  profession.  There  he  also  soon  became  dis- 
satisfied, and  accepted  an  invitation  to  proceed  to  Milan, 
where  the  people  were  in  search  of  a  teacher  of  rhetoric. 
He  travelled  thither  at  the  public  expense,  and  was 
welcomed  by  friends  who  already  seem  to  have  recognised 
his  distinction  {Confess.,  i.  16). 

At  Milan  the  conflict  of  his  mind  in  search  of  truth  still 
continued.  He  was  now  in  his  thirtieth  year,  and  for 
eleven  years  he  had  been  seeking  for  mental  rest,  unable  to 
find  it.  "  To-morrow,  "  he  said  to  himself,  "  I  shall  find 
it:  it  will  appeir  manifestly,  and  I  shall  grasp  it"  (Con- 
fiss:.  vi,  18).  But  it  still  eluded  his  grasp,  and  he  sunk 
back  again  into  despondency.  The  way,  however,  was 
being  prepared  for  his  conversion.  Ambrose  was  bishop 
of  Milan,  and,  although  he  had  a  weak  voice,  was  noted 
for  his  eloquence.  Augustine  was  attracted  by  his  reputa- 
tion, and  went  to  hear  the  famous  Christian  preacher  in 
order,  as  he  himself  relates  {Confess.,  v.  23),  "  to  see 
whether  his  eloquence  answered  what  was  reported  of  it. 
I  hung  on  his  words  attentively,  "  he  adds,  "but  of  the 
matter  I  was  but  an  unconcerned  and  contemptuous  hearer." 
He  confesses  his  delight  so  far  :  "  The  bishop's  eloquence 
was  more  full  of  knowledge,  yet  in  manner  less  pleasurable 
snd  soothing,  than  that  of  Faustus."  He  wished  an 
opportunity  of  conversation  with  him,  but  this  was  not 
easily  found.  Ambrose  had  no  leisure  for  philosophic 
discussion.  He  was  accessible  to  all  who  sought  him,  but 
never  for  a  moment  free  from  study  or  the  cares  of  duty. 
"Augustine  used  to  enter,  as  all  persons  might,  without 
being  announced  j  but  after  staying  for  a  while,  afraid  of 
interrupting  him,  he  departed  again"  He  continued, 
fcioweTer,  to  hear  Ambrose  preach,  and  gradually  the 
Eospel  of  divine  truth  and  grace  was  received  into  his 
neart,  First  Plato  and  then  St  Paul  opened  his  mind  to 
higher  thoughts,  and  at  length  certain  words  of  the  latter 
were  driven  homo  with  irresistible  force  to  his  conscience. 
He  was  busy  with  his  friend  Alypius  in  studying  the 
Paulino  epistles.  His  struggle  of  mind  became  intolerable; 
the  thought  of  divine  purity  fighting  in  his  heart  with  the 
love  of  the  world  and  of  the  flesh.  Ho  burst  into  an  incon- 
trollable  flood  of  tears  and  rushed  out  into  his  garden, 
flinging  himself  under  a  fig  tree  that  he  might  allow  his 
tears  to  have  full  vent,  and  pour  out  his  heart  to  God. 
Suddenly  he  seemed  to  hear  a  voice  calling  upon  him  to 
consult  the  divine  oracle,  "  Take  up  and  read,  take  up  and 
read."  He  left  off  weeping,  rose  up,  and  sought  the  volume 
where  Alypius  was  sitting,  and  opening  it  read  in  silence 
the  following  passage  :  "  Not  in  rioting  and  drunkenness, 
not  in  chambering  and  wantonness,  not  in  strife  and 
envying.  But  put  ye  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  ajid  make 
not  provision  for  the  flesh  to  fulfil  the  lusts  thereof"  (Rom. 
KiiL  13,  14).     He  odds,  "  I  had  neither  desire  nor  need  to 


read  farther.  As  I  finished  the  sentence,  as  thougli  the 
light  of  peace  had  been  poured  into  my  heart,  all  the 
shadows  of  doubt  dispersed.  Thus  hast  Thou  converted 
me  to  Thee,  so  as  no  longer  to  seek  either  for  wife  or  other 
hope  of  the  world,  standing  fast  in  that  rule"  of  faith  in 
which  Thou  so  many  years  before  hadst  revealed  me  to  my 
mother"  {Covfess  ,  viii.  30). 

After  his  conversion,  which  is  supposed  to  have  occurred 
in  the  summer  of  386,  Augustine  gave  up  his  profession  as 
n  teacher  of  rhetoric,  and  retired  to  a  friend's  house  in  the 
country,  in  order  to  prepare  himself  for  baptism.  His 
religious  opinions  were  still  to  some  extent  unformed,  and 
even  his  habits  by  no  means  altogether  such  as  his  great 
change  demanded.  He  mentions,  for  example,  that  during 
this  time  he  broke  himself  off  a  habit  of  profane  swearing, 
and  in  other  ways  sought  to  discipline  his  character  and 
conduct  for  the  reception  of  the  sacred  rite.  He  received 
baptism  in  Easter  following,  in  his  thirty-third  year;  and 
along  with  him  his  son  Adeodatus  and  his  friend  Alypius 
were  admitted  to  the  Christian  church.  Monica,  his  mother, 
had  rejoined  him,  and  at  length  rejoiced  in  the  fulfilment 
of  her  prayers.  Dying  before  his  return  to  his  native 
country,  her  last  hours  were  gladdened  by  his  Christian 
sympathy.  She  implored  him  to  lay  her  body  anywhere, 
but  wherever  he  might  be  to  remember  her  "at  the  altar 
of  the  Lord,"  a  devout  duty  which  he  invites  others  to  share 
with  him,  so  that  her  last  request  may,  "through  the  prayers 
of  many,"  receive  a  more  abundant  fulfilment. 

Augustine  went  back  to  Rome  for  a  short  period  ard 
then  returned  to  bis  native  city,  where  he  took  up  his  abod^i 
in  retirement,  forming,  with  some  friends  who  joined  him 
in  devotion,  a  small  religious  community,  which  looked  to 
him  as  its  head.  They  had  all  things  in  common,  as  in  the 
early  church,  and  fasting  and  prayer.  Scripture  reading  and 
almsgiving,  formed  their  regular  occupations.  Their  mode 
of  life  was  not  formally  monastic  according  to  any  special 
rule,  but  the  experience  of  this  time  of  seclusion  was, 
no  doubt,  the  basis  of  that  monastic  system  which  Augus- 
tine afterwards  sketched,  and  which  derived  from  him  its 
name.  Solitary  monasticism  had  sprang  up  in  the  Egyptian 
deserts  before  this.  The  life  of  St  Anthony  by  Athanasius 
had  widely  difl'used  the  fervour  for  religious  solitariness, 
and  greatly  touched  Augustine  at  this  period  of  his  pro- 
fession. It  did  not  remain  for  him,  therefore,  to  originate 
the  monastic  idea  ;  but  the  association  of  monks  in  com- 
munities under  a  definite  order  and  head  received  a  special 
impulse  both  from  Ambrose  and  his  illustrious  convert. 
As  may  be  imagined,  the  fame  of  such  a  convert  in  such  a 
position  soon  spread,  and  invitations  to  a  more  active 
ecclesiastical  life  came  to  him  from  many  quarters.  He 
shrank  from  the  responsibility,  but  his  destiny  was  not  to 
be  avoided.  After  three  years  spent  in  retirement  ho  took 
a  journey  to  Hippo,  to  see  a  Christian  friend,  who  desired 
to  converse  with  him  as  to  his  design  of  quitting  the  world 
and  devoting  himself  to  a  religious  life.  He  was  the  less 
reluctant  to  make  this  journey,  because  there  being  already 
a  bishop  at  Hippo  he  hoped  to  escape  all  solicitation.  But 
although  the  Chrisfiafi  community  there  had  a  bishop,  they 
wanted  a  presbyter ;  and  Augustine  being  present  at  the 
meeting  called  to  choose  a  presbyter,  the  people  unani- 
mously chose  him.  He  burst  into  tears,  and  would  fain 
have  escaped  ;  but  the  church  could  not  spare  his  services. 
Ho  was  ordained  to  the  presbyternte,  and  in  a  few  years 
afterwards  he  was  made  coadjutor  to  the  bishop,  and  finally 
became  sole  bishop  of  the  see. 

Henceforth  Augustine's  life  is  filled  up  with  his  ecclesias- 
tical labours,  and  is  more  marked  by  the  series  of  his 
numerous  writings  and  the  groat  controversies  in  which  they 
engaged  him  than  by  anything  else.  Already  ho  had 
dLsti-isniished  himself  as  an  author.     He  bad  written  several 


A  U  G  U  S  T  I  X  E 


77 


lihilosopliical  treatises  ;  he  had  combated  the  scejiticism  of 
tlie  New  Academy  {Contra  AcaiU-micos libri  tres,  386  A.D.); 
he  had  treated  of  the  "  Blessed  Life"  (De  vita  beata,  38G) 
aad  of  the  "  Iiiunortality  of  the  Soul"  ( D^  Immortalitate 
AnimcE,  3S7) ;  he  had  defended  the  church  against  the 
Manichxans,  whose  doctrines  he  had  formerly  professed. 
"  When  I  was  at  Rome,"  he  says  (Retract.,  i.  7),  "  after  my 
baptism,  and  could  not  hear  in  silence  the  vaunting  of  the 
Manichxans  over  true  Christians,  to  whom  they  are  not  to 
be  compared,  I  wrote  two  books,  one  on  The  Morals  of  the 
Catholic  Churc!L,and  the  other  on  i'/ii;  Morah  of  the  Mani- 
chceaiis."  These  tracts  or  pamphlets,  for  they  are  little  more, 
were  written  in  the  year  3S8,  about  two  years  after  his 
conversion.  Later,  in  395,  and  again  in  400,  he  pursued 
the  controversy  with  the  Manichxans,  making  an  elaborate 
reply,  in  the  latter  year,  to  his  old  a.ssociate  and  friend 
Faustus.  The  reply  was  provoked  by  an  attack  made  by 
I'austus  on  the  Catholic  faith,  which  tho  "  brethren " 
invited  Augustine  to  answer.  This  he  did  characteristically 
and  energetically  by  giving  in  succession  "  the  opinions  of 
Faustus,  as  if  stated  by  himself,"  and  his  own  in  response. 
It  was  natural  that  the  SLinichxan  heresy,  which  had  so 
long  enslaved  his  own  mind,  should  have  first  exercised 
Augustine's  great  powers  as  a  theological  thinker  and 
disputant.  Ue  was  able  from  his  own  experience  to  give 
force  to  his  arguments  for  the  unity  of  creation  and  of 
spiritual  life,  and  to  strengthen  the  mind  of  the  Christian 
'•hurch  in  its  last  struggle  with  that  dualistic  spirit  which 
had  animated  and  moulded  in  succession  so  many  forms  of 
thought  at  variance  with  Christianity. 

But  the  time  was  one  of  almost  universal  ecclesiastical 
and  intellectual  excitement ;  and  so  powerful  a  mental 
activity  as  his  was  naturally  drawn  forth  in  all  directions. 
Following  his  writings  against  the  Manichxans  come  those 
against  the  Donatists.  This  controversy  was  one  which 
strongly  interested  him,  involving  as  it  did  the  whole 
ouestion  of  the  constitution  of  the  church  and  the  idea  of 
catholic  order,  to  which  the  circumstances  of  the  age  gave 
special  prominence.  The  Donatist  schism  sprang  out  of 
the  Diocletian  persecutions  in  the  beginning  of  the  century. 
A  party  in  the  Church  of  Carthage,  fired  with  fanatical 
zeal  on  behalf  of  those  who  had  distinguished  themselves 
by  resistance  to  the  imperial  mandates  and  courted 
inartyrdom,  resented  deeply  the  appointment  of  a  bishop 
of  moderate  opinions,  whose  consecration  had  been  per- 
formed, they  alleged,  by  a  traditor.  They  set  up,  in  con- 
sequence, a  bishop  of  their  own,  of  the  name  of  Majorinas, 
succeeded  in  315  by  Donatus.  The  party  made  great  pre- 
tensions to  purity  of  discipline,  and  rapidly  rose  in  popular 
favour,  notwithstanding  a  decision  given  against  them 
both  by  the  bishop  of  Rome  and  by  the  Euiperot  Con- 
tatitine,  to  whom  they  personally  appealed.  Augustine 
was  strongly  moved  by  the  lawlessness  of  Uie  party,  and 
launched  forth  a  series  of  writings  against  them,  the 
most  important  of  which  survive,  though  some  are  lost. 
Amongst  these  are  Sei-en  Books  on  Baptism,  and  a 
lengthened  answer,  in  three  books,  to  Petilian,  bishop  of 
Cirta,  who  was  tho  most  eminent  theologian  amongst 
the  Donatist  divines.  At  a  somewhat  later  period,  about 
•117,  he  wrote  a  treatise  concerning  the  correction  of 
tho  Donatists  (De  Correctione  Doitatistarum),  "for  the 
sjkc  of  those,"  he  says  in  his  Hitractatinns,  ii  c.  48,  "  who 
were  not  willing  that  the  Donatists  should  be  subjected  to 
tlie  correction  of  the  imperial  laws."  In  these  writings, 
while  vigorously  maintaining  the  validity  of  the  Catholic 
Cliurch  as  it  then  stood  in  tho  Roman  world,  and  the 
necessity  for  moderation  in  the  exercise  of  church  discipline, 
Augustine  yet  gave  currency,  in  his  zc.il  against  the 
Donati.'ts,  to  certain  maxima  as  to  the  duty  of  the  civil 
|)Owcr  to  control  schism,  which  were  of  evil  omen,  and 


have  been  productive  of  much  disaster  in  the  histcy  of 
Christianity. 

The  thud  controversy  in  which  Augustine  engaged  was 
the  most  important,  and  tho  most  intimately  associated 
with  his  distinctive  greatness  as  a  theologian.  As  may  be 
supposed,  from  the  coiithcts  through  which  he  had  pa&sed, 
the  bishop  of  Hippo  was  inttnsely  interested  in  what  may 
be  called  the  anthropological  aspects  of  the  great  Christian 
idea  of  redemption.  He  had  himself  been  brought  out  of 
darkness  into  "  marvellous  light,"  only  by  entering  into  the 
depths  of  his  own  soul,  and  finding,  after  many  struggles, 
that  there  was  no  power  but  divine  grace,  as  revealed  in  the 
life  and  death  of  the  Son  of  God,  which  could  bring  rest 
to  human  weariness,  or  pardon  and  peace  for  human  guilL 
He  had  found  human  nature  in  his  own  case  too  weak 
and  siuful  to  find  any  good  for  itself.  In  God  alone  be 
had  found  good.  This  deep  sense  of  human  sinfulness 
coloured  all  his  theology,  and  gave  to  it  at  once  its  depth 
— its  profound  and  sympathetic  adaptation  to  all  who  fee) 
the  reality  of  sin — and  that  tinge  of  darkness  and  exaggera- 
tion which  as  surely  have  repelled  others.  \Vhcn  the  cxprcS' 
sion  Augustinianism  is  used,  it  points  especially  to  those 
opinions  of  the  great  teacher  which  were  evoked  in  the 
Pelagian  controversy,  to  which  he  devoted  the  most  mature 
and  powerful  period  of  his  life.  His  opponents  in  this 
controversy  were  Felagius,  from  whom  it  derives  its  name 
and  Coelestius  aud  Julianus,  pupils  of  the  former.  Fela- 
gius was  a  British  monk.  Augustine  calls  him  Brito  . 
and  Jerome  points  to  his  Scottish  descent,  in  such  terms, 
however,  as  to  leave  it  uncertain  whether  he  was  a  native 
of  Scotland  or  Ireland  (habet  progemem  Scotice  gentis  d< 
Britannorum  vicinia).  Ue  was  a  man  of  blaweleas  char- 
acter, devoted  to  the  reformatiqp  of  society,  full  of  enthu 
siasm,  and  that  confidence  in  the  natural  impulses  ol 
humanity  which  often  accompanies  philanthropic  enthu 
siasm.  Travelling  to  Rome  about  the  beginning  of  the  f  th 
century,  he  took  up  his  abode  for  a  time  there,  and  sooc 
made  himself  conspicuous  by  his  activity  and  opinions 
His  pupil  Coelestius  carried  out  the  views  of  his  master  with 
a  more  outspoken  logic,  and  was  at  length  arraigned  before 
the  bishop  of  Carthage  for  the  following,  amongst  other, 
heretical  opinions  : — (1.)  That  Adam's  sin  was  purely 
personal,  and  affected  none  but  himself ;  (2.)  That  each 
man,  consequently,  is  born  with  powers  as  incorrupt  as 
those  of  Adam,  and  only  falls  into  sin  under  the  force  ol 
temptation  and  evil  example  ;  (3.)  That  children  who  die 
in  infancy,  being  untainted  by  sin,  are  saved  withoul 
baptism.  Views  such  as  those  were  obviously  in  conflict 
with  the  whole  course  of  Augustine's  experience,  as  well 
as  with  his  interpretation  of  the  catholic  doctrine  of  the 
church.  And  when  his  attention  was  drawn  to  them  by 
the  trial  and  excommunication  of  Ca'Icstius,  he  undertook 
their  refutation,  first  of  all,  in  three  books  on  Foryufueu 
of  Sins  attd  Baptism,  addressed  to  his  friend  Manellinus, 
in  which  he  vindicated  the  necessity  of  the  baptism  of 
infants  because  of  original  sin  and  the  grace  of  God  by 
which  we  are  justified  (Betract.,  ii  c.  23).  This  was  in  412 
In  the  same  year  he  addressed  a  further  treatise  to  the 
same  person,  "  My  beloved  son  Marcellinus,"  on  2'he  Spirit 
and  the  Letter.  "Three  years  later  he  composed  two  ftirlbcr 
treatises  on  Kature  and  Grace,  and  the  relation  of  the 
Human  to  the  Dicine  Bfjhieousness.  The  controversy  was 
continued  during  many  ye.'.rs  in  no  fewer  than  fifteen 
treatises.  Upon  no  subject  did  Augustine  bestow  more 
of  his  intellectual  strength,  ai)d  in  relation  to  no  oilier  have 
his  views  so  deeply  and  perinanently  affected  the  cmirbc  of 
Christian  thought.  Even  those  wlio  most  usiiall^a-jrco 
with  his  theological  standpoint  will  li.irdly  deny  timt,  while 
he  did  much  in  these  wrilings  fo  vindicate  duinc  truth  and 
to  expound  the  true  relatiuus  of  the  divine  and  huuiau, 


78 


A  U  G  —  A  'U  G 


he  also,  here  as  elsewhere,  was  lium'ed  into  extreme  ex- 
pressions as  to  the  absoluteness  of  divine  grace  and  the 
extent  of  human  corruption.  Like  his  great  disciple  in  a 
later  age — Luther — Augustine  was  prone  to  emphasise 
the  side  of  truth  which  ha  had  most  realised  m  his  own 
experience,  and,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Pelagian 
exaltation  of  human  nature,  to  depreciate  its  capabilities 
beyond  measure.  There  are  few  thoughtful  minds  who 
would  not  concede  the  deeper  truthfulness  of  Augustine's 
ipiritual  and  theological  analysis,  in  comparison  with 
ilhat  of  his  opponent,  as  well  as  its  greater  consistency 
'.with  Scripture  ;  but  there  are  also  few  who  would  now 
ha  disposed  to  identify  themselves  with  the  dogoiatism  of 
the  orthodox  bishop  any  more  than  with  the  dogmatism  of 
the  heretical  monk.  And  on  one  particular  point,  which 
more  or  less  runs  through  all  the  controversy — the  salvation 
iif  infants — the  Christian  consciousness,  in  its  later  and 
higher  growth,  may  be  said  to  have  pronounced  itself  de- 
cisively on  the  side  of  the  monk  rather  than  of  the  bishop. 
In  addition  to  these  controversial  writings,  which  mark 
the  great  epochs  of  Augustine's  life  and  ecclesiastical 
activity  after  his  settlement  as  a  bishop  at  Hippo,  he  was 
the  author  of  other  works,  some  of  them  better  known  and 
even  more  important.  His  great  work,  the  most  elaborate, 
and  in  some  respects  the  most  significant,  that  came  from 
his  pen,  is  The  City  of  God.  It  is  designed  as  a  great 
apologetic  treatise  in  vindication  of  Christianity  and  the 
Christian  church, — the  latter  conceived  as  rising  in  the  form 
of  a  new  civic  order  on  the  crumbling  ruins  of  the  Roman 
empire, — but  it  is  also,  perhaps,  the  earliest  contribution  to 
the  philosophy  of  history,  as  it  is  a  repertory  throughout  of 
his  cherished  theological  opinions.  This  work  and  his  Con- 
fesaiona  are,  probably,  those  by  which  he  is  best  known, 
the  one  as  the  highest  expression  of  bis  thought,  and 
the  other  as  the  best  monument  of  his  living  piety  and 
Christian  experience.  The  City  of  God  was  begun  in  413, 
and  continued  to  be  issued  in  its  several  portions  for  a 
period  of  thirteen  years,  or  tdl  426  The  Confessions  were 
written  shortly  after  he  became  a  bishop,  about  397,  and 
give  a  Tivid  sketch  of  his  early  career.  To  the  devout 
utterances  and  aspirations  of  a  great  soul  they  add  the 
charm  of  personal  disclosure,  and  have  never  ceased  to 
excite  admiration  in  all  spirits  of  kindred  piety.  His 
systematic  treatise  on  The  2'rinity,  which  extends  to  fifteen 
books,  and  occupied  him  for  nearly  thirty  years,  must  not 
be  pa.'sscd  over.  "  I  began,"  he  says  (Retract ,  iL  15), 
"  as  a  very  young  man,  and  have  published  in  my  old  ago 
Bomo  books  concerning  the  Trinity."  This  important 
dogmatic  work,  unlike  most  of  his  dogmatic  writings,  was 
not  provoked  by  any  ,■>.  ecial  controversial  emergency,  but 
grew  up  silently  during  this  long  period  in  the  author's 
mind.  This  has  given  it  something  more  of  completeness 
and  organic  arrangement  than  is  usual  with  him,  if  it  has 
also  led  him  into  the  prolqjiged  discussion  of  various 
analogies,  more  curious  than  aot  in  their  bearing  on  the 
doctrine  which  he  expounds.  The  exegeticul  writings  of 
Augustine, — his  lengthened  Commentary  on  St  John  and 
on  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  ic, — and  then  his  Letters, 
remain  lo  be  mentioned.  The  former  have  a  value  from 
his  insight  into  the  deeper  spiritual  meanings  of  Scrip- 
ture, but  hardly  for  their  excgotical  characteristics.  The 
latter  are  full  of  interest  in  reference  to  many  points  in 
tha  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  time,  and  his  relation 
to  contemporary  theologians  like  Jerome.  They  have 
neither  the  liveliness  nor  variety  of  interest,  however, 
which  belong  to  the  letters  of  Jpromo  himself.  The 
closing  years  of  the  great  bishop  were  full  of  sorrow.  The 
Vandals,  who  had  been  gradually  enclosing  the  Roman 
empire,  appeared  before  the  gates  of  Hippo,  and  laid  siege 
to  it.     Augustine  was  ill  with  his  hst  illness,  and  could 


only  pray  for  his  fellow-citizens.  lie  passed  away  donng 
the  progress  of  the  siege,  on  the  2Sth  of  Augi'-St  430.  at 
the  age  of  seventy-five,  and  was  spared  the  indignity  of 
seeing  the  city  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

The  character  'Of  Augustine,  both  as  a  man  and  a 
theologian,  has  been  briefly  indicated  in  the  course  of  our 
sketch.  Little  remains  to  be  added  tvithout  entering  into 
discussions  too  extended  for  our  space.  None  can  deny 
the  greatness  of  Augustine's  soul— his  enthusiasm,  his 
unceasing  search  after  truth,  his  affectionateness,  his  ardour, 
his  self-devotion  And  even  those  who  may  doubt  the 
soundness  or  value  of  soma  of  his  dogmatic  conclusions, 
cannot  hesitate  to  acknowledge  the  depth  of  his  spiritual 
convictions,  and  the  strength,  solidity,  and  penetration 
with  which  he  handled  the  most  difficult  questions,  and 
wrought  all  the  elements  of  his  experience  and  of  his 
profourld  Scriptural  knowledge  into  a  great  system  of 
Christian  thought. 

The  best  complete  edition  of  Augustine's  writings  is  thiit  of  the 
Benedictines,  in  U  vols,  folio,  published  at  Paris,  1679-16U0,  and 
reprinted  in  1836-38  in  22  half-volumes.  TiUeraont,  in  his  Ecclai- 
astical  History,  has  devoted  a  quarto  volume  to  his  life  and  writ- 
ings. Two  extensive  monoCTaphs  have  appeared  on  him  ;  the  one 
by  Klotb,  a  Roman  Catholic  (Aachen,  1840),  and  the  other  by 
Bindemann,  a  Protestant  (Berlin,  1844,  1856).  See  also  Hitter's 
Hist,  of  Christian  Philosophy,  vol.  i. ;  Bdhringer's  Hist,  of  lh» 
Church;  Dr  P.  SchafTs  St  Aurjustim  (Beilin,  New  York,  and  Lon- 
don, 1854)  •  Nourrisson,  Xn  Phihsophie  de  S.  Augustine  (Pan-*, 
1866);  A.  Domer,  Augustinus  (Berlin,  1872);  Neander's  Church 
History;  Mozley's  Augustinian  Doctrine  of  Predestinalum,  1855  , 
Jameson's  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art.  I.  T  ) 

AUGUSTINE,  or  Austin,  St,  the  first  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  was  originally  a  monk  in  the  BenecLctine 
convent  of  St  Andrew  at  Rome,  and  was  educated  under 
the  famous  Gregory,  afterwards  Pope  Gregory  I.,  by  whom 
he  was  sent  to  Britain  with  forty  monks  of  the  same 
order,  to  carry  out  the  favourite  project  of  converting  the 
English  to  Christianity.  The  missionaries  set  out  with 
much  reluctance,  for  the  journey  was  long  and  perilous, 
and  on  the  way  they  endeavoured  to  persuade  the  Pope  ia 
allow  them  to  return.  His  orders,  however,  were  peremp- 
tory ;  they  proceeded,  therefore,  on  their  journey,  and  at 
last  landed,  some  time  iii  the  year  59(3,  on  the  isle  of 
Thanet  Having  sent  interpreters  to  explain  their  mission 
to  King  Etbelbert,  whose  queen.  Bertha,  was  a  Chris- 
tian, they  received  from  him  permission  to  preach  and  to 
make  converts.  He  treated  them  with  great  favour,  held 
a  public  conference  with  them,  and  assigned  them  a  re- 
sidence at  Durovernum,  now  Canterbury.  His  own  conver- 
sion to  the  Christian  faith,  which  took  place  shortly  after- 
wards, had  a  powerful  influence  with  his  subjects,  who 
joined  the  new  church  in  great  numbers.  .Augustine,  seeing 
the  success  of  his  labours,  crossed  to  France,  and  received 
consecration  at  Aries.  He  then  despatched  messengers  to 
the  Pope  to  inform  him  of  what  had  been  done,  and  to  pro 
pose  for  his  consideration  certain  practical  ditficulties  that 
had  arisen.  They  brought  back  the  pallium.,  with  «hicL* 
Augustine  was  consecrated  as  first  archbishop  of  Cantcrburj', 
and  certain  vestments  and  utensils  for  the  new  churches- 
Gregory  also  gave  most  prudent  counsel  for  dc;iling  with 
the  new  converU",  strongly  advising  the  archbishop  to  makfr 
the  change  of  faith,  so  far  as  ceremonial  went,  as  gradual 
as  possible,  and  not  on  any  account  to  wound  the  feeling* 
of  the  people  by  destroying  their  temples,  but  rather  to  con- 
secrate them  afresh,  and  use  them  for  Christian  worship. 
Augustine  passed  the  remainder  of  his  lifi'  principally  at 
Canterbury,  where  ho  died,  probably  in  CO",  on  the  CGlh 
May.  See  Lives  of  the  English  Saints,  No.  III.  1847,  and 
Mrs  Jameson's  Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders. 

AUOUSTINIANS,  a"  monastic  order  of  the  ri.man 
Catholic  Church,  claiming  to  have  received  its  rule  from 
St  Augustine.     Sec  Abdev  and  Mo.vasticism. 


A  U  G  -  A  U  G 


79 


AUGUSTOVO,  a  city  ia  Roisiia  Poland,  in  the  govera- 
mcnt  of  Suvalki.  situated  on  the  river  Netta,  near  a  lake, 
which  abounds  in  fish.  It  was  founded  in  1557  by 
Si^isoBuud  II.  (Augustus),  and  is  laid  out  in  a  very  regular 
manner,  with  a  large  market-place.  It  carries  on  a  large 
trade  in  cattle  and  horses,  and  manufactures  lioen  and 
huckaback.  .  Population,  9383. 

AUGUSTDS  Ajn>  tqe  AacusTiN  Ace.  The  name  of 
Augiislos  was  the  title  of  honour  given  by  the  Romans 
to  the  emperor  Caius  Julius  Csesar  Octavianus,  or,  as  be 
was  originally  designated,  Caius  Octavius.  This  title 
was  intended  to  be  hereditarj*  in  his  family,  but  all  the 
succeeding  Caesars  or  emperors  of  Rome  continued  to  adopt 
it,  long  after  they  had  ceased  to  be  connected  with  the 
first  Augustus  by  blood.  The  era  of  Augustus  formed  an 
illustrious  epoch  in  Roman  histon.',  and  was  distinguished 
for  its  splendid  attainments  in  arts  and  arms,  and  more 
especially  in  literature.  The  Romans  in  later  times  looked 
back  to  the  age  of  Augustus  with  great  complacency,  as 
the  most  prosperous  and  the  most  distinguished  in  their 
annals.  The  name  of  the  "Augustan  Age"  has-been 
specially  applied  to  it  in  modern  times,  and  the  same  title 
bis  been  given,  with  more  or  less  justice,  to  certain  epochs 
in  modern  history  as  the  highest  compliment  to  their  glory. 
The  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  is  called  the  Augustan  age  of 
France;  the  reign  of  Anne,  the  Augustan  age  of  England. 
P»rjc.n»i  Caius  Octavius  was  the  son  of  a  noble  Roman  of  the  same 

'■"■'■>  0*  name,  of  the  plebeian  order.  The  father  had  married 
-ua.us.  ^[jj^  fljg  daughter  of  Julia,  sister  to  the  great  C.  Julius 
Caesar,  who  was  accordingly  great-uncle  to  the  young 
Octavius.  Caesar,  the  dictator,  having  no  son  of  his  own, 
took  an  interest  in  this  youth,  caused  him  to  be  enrolled 
among  the  Patricians,  and  bred  him  v.iih  a  view  to  the 
highest  honours  of  the  republic.  Already,  in  his  eighteenth 
year,  he  had  chosen  him  for  his  "  master  of  the  horse,"  but 
this  was  a  merely  nominal  distinction.  The  young  mon 
was  sent  to  carry  on  his  education  at  the  camp  at  ApoUonia 
in  lUyricum,  and  there,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  he  heard  of 
bis  great  kinsman's  ass.assination  (44  ac.)  He  bad  already 
become  a  favourite  with  the  soldiers,  who  offered  to  escort 
him  to  Rome,  and  follow  his  fortunes.  But  this  he  declined, 
and  crossed  over  alone  to  Italy.  On  landing  he  learnt  that 
Caesar  had  made  him  his  heir  and  adopted  him  into  the 
Julian  gens,  whereby  he  acquired  the  .designation  of  C. 
Julius  Caesar  Octavianus.  The  inheritance  was  a  periluus 
one ;  his  mother  and  others  would  have  dissuaded  him  from 
accepting  it,  but  he,  confident  in  his  abiUties,  declared  at 
once  that  he  would  undertake  its  obligations,  and  discharge 
the  sums  bequeathed  by  the  dictator  to  the  Roman  people. 
M.  Antonius  had  possessed  himself  of  Caesar's  papers  and 
effects,  and  made  light  of  his  young  nephew's  pretensions. 
The  liberators  paid  him  little  regard,  and  dispersed  to  their 
respective  provinces.  Cicero,  much  charmed  at  the  altitude 
of  Antonius.  hoped  to  make  use  of  him,  and  flattered  him 
to  the  utmoet,  with  the  expectation,  however,  of  getting  rid 
of  him  as  soon  as  he  bad  served  his  purpose.  Octavianus 
conducted  himself  with  consummate  adroitness,  making 
use  of  all  competitors  for  power,  but  assisting  none.  Con- 
Eidorable  forces  attached  themselves  to  him.  The  senate, 
when  it  armed  the  consuls  against  Antonius,  called  upon 
him  for  assistance  ;  and  he  took  part  in  the  campaign  in 
iWiich  Antonius  was  defeated  at  >Iutina,  but  both  the  con- 
suls, Hirtius  and  Pansa,  slain.  The  soldiers  of  Octavianus 
demanded  the  consulship  for  him,  and  the  senate,  though 
now  much  alarmed,  could  not  prevent  his  election.  He 
now  effected  a  junction  with  Antonius,  who  quickly  over- 
threw the  power  of  the  republican  party  in  their  stronghold, 
the  Cisalpine  provinces,  with  the  death  of  Decimus  Brutus, 
the  ablest  of  the  liberator.^  Thereupon  Octavianus  and 
Antonius,  taking  Lepidus  into  union  with  them,  met  on 


the  river  Rbenus  near  Cunonia,  and  priclaim^id  tlemselvcs 

a  triumvirate  for  the  reconstitution  of  the  commonwealth. 
They  divided  the  western  provinces  among  them,  the  east 
being  held  for  the  republic  by  JL  Brutus  and  Cassius. 
They  drew  up  a  list  of  proscribed  citizens,  entered  Rome 
together,  and  caused  the  assassination  of  three  hundred 
senators  and  two  thousand  knights.  They  further  cou- 
fiscated  the  territories  of  many  cities  throughout  Italy,  and 
divided  them  among  their  soldiers.  Cicero  was  murdered 
at  the  demand  of  Antonius.  The  remnant  of  the  republican 
party  took  refuge  either  with  Brutus  and  Cassius  in  the 
East,  or  with  Scxtus  Pompeius,  who  had  made  himself 
master  of  the  seas. 

Octavianus  and  Antonius  crossed  the  Adriatic  iu  4  2 
B  c.  to  reduce  the  last  defenders  of  the  republic.  Brutus 
and  Cassius  were  defeated,  and  fell  at  the  battle  of  Philippi. 
War  soon  broke  out  between  the  victors,  the  chief  incident 
of  which  was  the  siege  and  capture  by  famine  of  Perusia, 
and  the  alleged  sacrifice  of  three  hundred  of  its  defenders 
by  the  young  Cssar  at  the  altar  of  his  uncle.  But  peace 
was  again  made  between  them.  Antonius  married  Oclavia, 
his  rival's  sister,  and  took  for  himself  the  eastern  half  of 
the  empire,  leaving  the  west  to  C.iesar.  Lepidus  was 
reduced  to  the  single  province  of  Africa.  Meanwhile  Scxtus 
Pompeius  made  himself  formidable  by  cutting  off  ths 
supplies  of  grain  from  Rome.  The  triumvirs  werfl  obliged 
to  concede  to  him  the  islands  in  the  western  Mediterranean. 
But  Octavianus  could  not  allow  the  capital  to  be  kept  in 
alarm  for  its  daily  sustenance.  He  picked  a  quarrel  with 
Sextus,  and  when  his  colleagues  failed  to  support  hi.Ti, 
undertook  to  attack  him  alone.  Antonius,  indeed,  came 
at  last  to  his  aid,  in  return  for  military  assistance  in  the 
campaign  he  meditated  in  the  East.  But  Octavianus  was 
well  served  by  the  commander  of  his  fleet,  M.  Vipsanius 
Agripp,i.  Sextus  was  completely  routed,  and  driven  iatu 
Asia,  where  he  perished  soon  afterwards.  Lepidus  was  an 
object  of  contempt  to  all  parties,  and  Octavianus  and 
Antonius  remained  to  fight  for  supreme  power. 

The  alliance  of  Antonius  with  Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt, 
alienated  the  Romans  from  him.  They  now  gladly 
accepted  the  heir  of  Ca;;ar  as  the  true  successor  of  tha 
most  illustrious  of  their  heroes.  It  was  felt  almost  uni- 
versally that  the  empire  required  a  single  head,  and  that 
repose  could  only  be  assured  by  the  sovereignty  of  the  chief 
of  its  armies.  The  battle  of  Actium,  followed  by  th» 
death  of  Antonius,  31  B  c,  raised  the  victor  to  Universal, 
empire.  Nevertheless,  Octavianus  did  not  hasten  to  assume 
his  position.  He  first  regulated  the  affairs  of  Egypt,  which 
he  annex'd  to  the  Roman  dominions,  then  lingered  for  a 
time  in  Greece,  and  entered  upon  a  fifth  consulship  at 
Samos,  29  B.C.  On  his  return  to  Rome  he  dislrrbuted  the 
vast  sums  ho  had  accumulated  among  the  people  and  the 
soldiers,  while  he  soothed  the  pride  of  the  nobles  by 
maintaining  unchanged  the  outward  show  of  republican 
government.  Of  his  personal  history  from  this  period 
there  remains  little  to  be  said.  He  continued  to  reside 
almost  constantly  at  Rome  and  iu  the  neighbourhood, 
making  one  expedition  into  Spain,  27  B.C.,  and  a  journey 
through  Greece  in  21,  on  which  occasion  he  advanced  into 
Syria,  and  received  back  the  standards  taken  by  the 
Parthians  from  Crassus.  In  15  B.C.  ho  went  to  Goul  to 
regulate  the  affairs  of  that  province,  an  expedition  which 
he  repealed,  9  B.C.  But  from  thenceforth  he  intrusted  tho 
defence  of  the  position  to  bis  lieutenants,  and  more 
especially  to  the  young  princes  of  his  own  family.  The 
empire  continued  to  enjoy  profound  internal  tranquillity. 
More  than  one  plot  was  formed  against  the  head  of  the 
slate  by  some  of  tho  discontented  nobility,  but  these  were 
discovered  and  disconrerted;  and  when  it  was  evident  thirt 
they  met  with  no  favour  from  th«  pcopI6  generally,  he 


80 


AUGUSTUS 


could  afford  to  treat  them  with  a  signal  clemency,  which 
Bccms  to  have  secured  him  from  any  further  attempts. 
The  serenity  and  placability  which  he  displayed  in  his 
latter  years  forms  a  marked  contrast  to  his  jealousy  and 
ferocity  at  an  earlier  period ;  and  the  character  of  the 
Emperor  Augustus  Casar  has  been  a  problem  to  historians 
in  consequence.  The  life  of  the  emperor  was  prolonged  to 
the  year  14  A.D.  He  died  at  Nola  in  his  seventy-fifth 
year,  after  holding  supreme  power  in  the  state  for  nearly 
half  a  century. 

During  the  years  which  had  intervened  between  his 
accepting  the  inheritance  of  Ca!sar,  and  hia  attaining  to 
Csesar's  undivided  sovereignty,  the  young  aspirant  had  been 
meditating  how  to  secure  the  retention  of  his  power.  At 
first,  excited  by  fears  for  his  own  personal  safety,  and 
urged  by  the  examples  of  party  leaders  around  him,  and 
of  others  who  had  gone  before  bim,  he  plunged  into  a 
career  of  wholesale  bloodshed,  and  cut  off  without  scruple 
every  public  man  from  whose  principles  or  whose  passions 
he  might  have  cause  of  apprehen.sion.  ,  A  large  proportion, 
perhaps,  of  the  senators  and  nobles  had  perished  in  the 
proscriptions  and  bloody  wars  of  the  triumvirate.  Still  it 
could  not  be  expected  that  the  germs  of  republican  sentiment 
would  ever  be  wholly  eradicated.  The  sense  of  patriotism 
and  the  sense  of  interest  would  not  fail  to  raise  up  enemies 
to  the  sovereign  ruler  of  the  Roman  commonwealth.  The , 
conqueror's  first  object  was  to  protect  himself  by  force  of 
arms,  his  next  to  soothe  the  passions  of  the  class  from 
whose  resentment  he  had  most  cause  of  fear,  and  after  that 
to  raise  up  another  class  in  direct  sympathy  with  himself 
to  balance  the  power  which  the  first  must  necessarily  retain 
in  a  well-ordered  government.  It  was  to  the  attainment 
of  these  three  objects  that  Octavianus  directed  his  organisa- 
tion of  the  commonwealth. 

The  powers  of  the  imperator  or'  commander  of  the 
Roman  army  ceased  on  his  return  to  the  city.  He  then 
became  once  more  a  plain  citizen.  If  war  again  arose  he 
must  Beek  his  reappointment  to  command  with  the  usual 
forma.  CEesar  had  not  trusted  his  countrymen  so  far. 
He  had  claimed  from  them  the  title  of  imperator  in  per- 
petuity. With  this  title  prefixed  to  his  name,  he  continued 
to  be  still  the  commander  of  the  legions,  whether  in  the 
city  or  in  the  provinces.  With  this  power  his  successor 
dared  not  dispense.  On  his  arrival  at  Rome  from  the 
East  he  at  once  required  the  senate  to  accord  it  .to  him,  as 
to  his  uncle  before  him  ;  but  he  pretended  only  to  ask 
it  for  a  limited  period  of  five  years.  At  the  expiration  of 
that  term,  howevfer,  he  assumed  it  again  and  again,  though 
each  time  for  ten  years  only,  but  never  actually  reUn- 
quished  it  to  the  end  of  his  career.  He  thus  received 
authority  to  command  the  whole  force  of  the  state  in  chief, 
and  the  officers  who  acted  under  him  became  simply  his 
lieutenants.  If  they  gained  victories,  the  honours  of  the 
triumph  were  reserved  for  the  imperator  "  under  whose 
auspices"  they  were  reputed  to  have  served.  It  followed 
that  all  the  provinces  on  the  frontiers,  or  in  which  armies 
were  maintained,  were  placed  under  the  emperor's  direct 
authority,  while  it  was  only  tlie  central  and  peaceful  por- 
tions of  the  empire  that  were  handed  over  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  senate.  The  imperial  provinces  were  adminis- 
tered by  the  Icgati  Cscsaris,  the  senatorial  by  proconsuls. 

The  person  of  the  emperor  was  thus  secured  as  far  as 
the  power  of  the  sword  could  secure  it.  But  he  was  anxious 
that  the  source  of  this  power  should  not  be  £00  apparent. 
The  second  Cocsar  wished  to  maintain  the  appearance  at 
least  of  government  by  the  constitutional  powers  of  the 
republic.  The  senate  had  once  been  practically  the  ruling 
power,  as  far  as  it  was  not  actually  controlled  by  the 
masters  of  the  legions.  Ho  would  not  degrade  it  in  its 
own  estimation,  or  in  the  estimation  of  the  people,  any 


further,  at  least,  than  might  be  necessary  lor  his  main  object 
He  caused  himself  to  be  appointed  censor,  not  for  one  but 
for  five  years,  in  order  to  give  him  full  time  to  revise  the 
list  of  senators,  to  supply  the  fearful  gaps  in  the  ranks  of 
the  old  nobilit}',  and  to  expel  such  members,  and  many 
they  were,  who  seemed  unworthy,  from  their  foreign  ex- 
traction, their  low  birth,  their  scanty  means,  or  their  bad 
character,  to  have  a  place  in  that  august  assembly;     The  ) 

irregularities  of  the  epoch  whlA  he  hoped  now  to  close 
had  filled  its  benches  with  personages  who  degraded  thC' 
order  in  the  eyes  of  genuine  citizens.  The  nobles  and  good 
citizens  generally  hailed  this  revision  with  deep  satisfaction. 
It  accorded  with  the  national  taste  as  well  as  with  historical 
traditions.  From  the  individual  resentments  it  provoked, 
it  was  an  act  of  some  personal  danger  to  the  censor ;  but 
the  danger  was  more  than  repaid  by  the  popularity  attend- 
ing upou  it,  iwhich  was  enhanced  to  the  utmost  by  tho 
liberality  with  which  provision  was  made  for  raising  soma 
of  the  poor  but  honourable  members  of  the  order  to  the 
standard  of  property  now  to  be  required  of  them. 

The  emperor  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  this  reconsti-  Prinrep» 
tuted  body,  by  assuming  the  office  and  title  of  Princeps  Stnatus. 
Senatus.  The  office  was  indeed  little  more  than  nomin.il ; 
it  gave  the  right  of  proposing  measures  and  of  speaking 
first  in  the  highest  legislative  assembly  of  the  state,  and 
having  been  borne  in  earlier  times  by  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  Roman  patriots,  it  carried  with  it  the  re- 
spect and  affection  of  the  people.  The  titular  precedence  it 
gave  was  all  tho  more  valuable,  inasmuch  as  it  might  be 
conceded  without  a  blush  by  the  sturdiest  republican  in 
the  senate.  But  it  was  the  consul  who  possessed  practically 
the  chief  authority  in  the  assembly.  OctaN-ianus  had  been 
already  five  times  consul,  and  he  shrank  from  seizing  in 
perpetuity  an  office  which,  according  to  Roman  ideas, 
differed  in  nothing  from  royalty,  except  that  it  was  elective, 
and  that  it  was  limited  to  the  tenure  of  a  single  year. 
Yet  he  could  hardly  afford  to  yield  it  to  the  citizen  whom 
the  people  might  at  any  time  elect  to  thwart  or  to  rival 
him.  What  should  he  do?  He  took  what  was  certainly  a 
bold  step.  It  was  a  manifest  innovation  aipon  the  forms  , 
of  the  free  state  when  he  required  from  the  citizens  the  Assump- 
perpetual  "  ixifestas,"  or  power  of  the  consulship,  at  the  '"'"  "^ 
same  moment  that  he  resigned  the  office  itself,  and  suffered  P"'^^'" 
consuls  to  be  annually  elected  to  sit,  one  on  each  side  of 
him,  in  the  senate.  The  potestas  which  was  thus  conceded 
to  him  ren,dcred  him  the  head  of  the  state,  both  in  its  legis- 
lative and  executive  departments.  When  he  quitted  the 
city  he  carried  with  him  into  the  provinces  a  proconsular 
authority,  and  became  to  all  intents  and  purposes  king  for 
life  of  the  Romans  and  of  their  subjects.  Even  in  the 
senatorial  provinces  he  was  now  recognised  as  supreme ; 
and  thus  it  was  that  in  him  were  centred  all  the  great 
political  functions  which  had  been  hitherto  divided  by  the 
great  a.ssembly  of  the  Roman  magnates. 

But  the  emperor  did  nut  limit  his  views  to  becoming  the 
chief  of  tho  nobles.  It  was  the  part  of  a  wary  statesman 
to  associate  himself  not  less  intimately  with  tho  opposite 
faction,  which,  under  the  name  of  tho  plebeians,  bad 
aimed  at  securing  co-ordinate  power  with  tho  patricians. 
The  original  meaning  of  these  designations  had  indeed 
long  been  lost  The  plebeians  could  boast  many  families 
as  eminent  both  for  honours  and  possessions  as  their 
haughty  rivals.  Step  by  step  they  had  won  an  equal 
share  with  them  in  political  privileges.  But  tho  class 
which  still  boro  tho  title  of  plebeian  was  much  more 
widely  extended,  and  embraced  tho  great  mass  of  the 
knights  and  men  of  busmcss  Ln  the  city,  and  also  of  the 
citizens  settled  throughout  the  provinces.  This  large  class 
had  for  more  than  a  century  contended  with  the  nobles  for 
the  perquisites  of  ofEce,  and  their  mutual  rivalry  had 


AUGUSTUS 


81 


J  Armed  Sulla  against  Marius  and  Cscsar  against  Pumpeius. 

The  bcir  of  Ciesar  iuheritcd  the  favour  of  the  plebeians, 
and  was  bound  to  requite  it  by  distinguished  patronage. 
The  plebeians  wore  still  the  electors  to  the  tribunate,  and 
still  regarded  the  tribunes  as  their  protectors  against  the 
encroachments  of  the  patricians  represented  by  the  senate. 
The  tribunes  had  proved  themselves  most  useful  allies  to 
Cajsar,  and  might  yet  again  array  themselves  in  support  of 
the  faithful  inheritor  of  his  principles.  The  emperor  pro- 
posed to  balance  the  consular  potestas  by  assuming  at  the 
same  time  a  tribunician  potestas  also.  He  thus  endowed 
himself  with  the  authority  of  the  tribune  for  life,  and 
assured  the  commons  of  the  city  and  empire  that  he  could 
at  any  time  exercise  the  formidable  veto  upon  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  consuls  which  had  served  them  so  well,  even 
down  to  recent  times.  Thus  did  he  become  emperor 
indeed, — the  sovereign  both  of  the  nobles  and  the  people 
in  the  city,  as  well  as  the  commander  'of  the  army  in  the 
field  and  in  the  provinces. 

There  remained  yet  another  sovereign  authority  in  the 
state,  namely,  that  which  the  chief  pontiff  exercised  over 
the  affairs  of  religion.  However  much  the  religious 
sentiment  had  been  weakened  throughout  the  Roman 
world,  there  v/as  yet  enough  superstition  left  among  the 
citizens- to  confer  great  and  sometimes  overwhelming 
influence  upon  the  legitimate  interpreter  of  divine  things 
to  the  nation.  The  senate  had  exercised  this  power  with 
great  effect,  as  long  as  the  appointment  to  the  chief  ponti- 
ficate rested  with  the  patrician  curise.  Of  late  years, 
however,  this  important  dignity  had  been  thrown  open  to 
the  commons  also.  Octavianus  was  well  pleased  to  accept 
it  on  the  nomination  of  the  whole  people  combined.  Ho 
Chief  allowed,  indeed,  his  former  colleague  Lepidus  to  retain  it 

pontiff.  unmolested  during  his  lifetime,  but  upon  his  death  he 
assumed  himself  the  exalted  position  which  he  might 
hesitate  to  intrust  to  any  other.  With  lAis  last  addition 
to  hia  prerogatives  the  emperor  might  well  be  content. 
The  name  of  king  he  had  from  the  first  utterly  repudiated. 
The  office  of  dictator  approached  too  near  to  that  of  a  king 
to  be  acceptable  to  a  ruler,  who  studied  to  confine  himself 
within  the  limits  of  the  republican  constitution.  Yet  there 
still  lacked  some  general  appellative  which  might  reflect  in 
a  single  word  the  full  dignity  and  power  resulting  from  the 
combination  of  so  many  honours  and  prerogatives.  The 
emperor  proposed  at  first,  it  is  said,  to  assume  the  name  of 
jiomului ,  but  Romulus  had  been  a  king;  and  further, 
Romulus  had  been  destroyed,  acoorping  to  the  tradition. 
The  litlo  by  the  senate,  just  as  Cxsar  had  been  in  later  times.  Such 
Augu3iu3.  associations  were  ominous.  At  last  he  fixed  upon  the 
epithet  Augustus,  a  name  which  no  man  had  borne  before, 
and  which,  on  the  contrary,  had  been  applied  to  things 
the  most  noble,  most  venerable,  and  most  sacred.  The 
rites  of  the  gods  vcro  called  august  ;  their  temples  were 
august.  The  word  itself  was  derived  from  the  holy 
auyuries ;  it  was  connected  in  meaning  with  the  abstract 
term  aiUhonty,  and  with  all  that  increases  and  flouri.shes 
upon  earth.  The  use  of  this  glorious  title  could  not  fail  to 
smooth  the  way  to  the  general  acceptance  of  the  divine 
character  of  the  mortal  who  was  deemed  .worthy  to  bear  it. 
The  senate  had  just  decreed  the  divinity  of  the  defunct 
CiEsar  ;  the  courtiers  were  beginning  now  to  insinuate  that 
his  successor,  while  yet  alive,  enjoyed  an  eflluence  from 
deity  ;  the  poets  were  even  suggesting  that  altars  should 
be  raised  to  Bim  ;  and  in  the  provinces,  among  the  subjects 
of  the  state  at  least,  temples  to  his  divinity  woro  actually 
rising,  and  the  cult  of  Augustus  was  beginning  to  assume 
a  name,  a  ritual,  and  a  priesthood. 
.;;;  lid  Augtistus,  as  we  may  now  call  him,  viewed  all  this  with 
^d  111"'""''-  ^'^^'^^  satisfaction.  It  was  one  of  his  first  objects,  indeed, 
"^  '4;«-  to  restore  the  outward  show  at  least  of  reverence  for  divine 


things,  and  re-establish  the  old  Roman  religion  on  its  firm 
political  basis.  It  was  easy  to  rebtiild,  or  cause  to  be 
rebuilt,  the  fallen  or  dilapidated  temples  of  the  national 
gods.  The  nobles  paid  their  court  to  their  master  by 
seconding  his  efforts  in  this  direction.  The  Pantheon,  the 
temple  of  all  the  gods,  if  such  was  its  original  destination, 
remains  still  as  a  monument  of  his  minister  Agrippa's 
munificence ;  but  Virgil  would  assure  us  that  not  less  than 
three  hundred  "grand"  temples  were  erected  throughout 
the  city.  Perhaps,  indeed,  these  were  mostly  the  sacella 
or  chapels  of  the  L.ares,  which  are  placed  at  the  corners  of 
the  streets.  Augustus  took  the  sentiment  of  the  people,  at 
a  favourable  moment.  They  were  thoroughly  sickened  by 
the  miseries  of  the  civil  wars ;  they  were  ashamed  of  the 
crimes  for  which  the  whole  nation  were  more  or  less 
responsible ;  they  were  eager  to  rush  into  any  scheme  of 
expiation  and  reparation  that  should  be  offered  to  them, 
and  lend  their  hands  to  the  material  work  of  restoring  at 
least  the  outward  semblance  of  penitence  for  sin,  and 
thankfulness  for  the  mercy  vouchsafed  them.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  conscience  of  the  nation  was 
awakened  to  a  sense  of  the  divine  retribution  under  which 
they  had  suffered,  but  which  had  been  at  last  averted 
under  the  blessed  influence  of  the  ruler  whom  they  bad  at  last 
chosen.  The  Romans  had  not  lost  their  belief  in  a  divine 
Providence,  which  oppressed  them  with  anxiety  and  terror, 
however  little  they  connected  it  with  a  sense  of  moral  duty. 

The  spu'it  of  materialistic  philosophy  had,  however,  been 
rife  among  them,  and  during  the  past  century  the  anti- 
religious  dogmas  of  Epicurus  had  sapped  the  belief  of  the 
educated  and  literary  classes.  The  patrician  youth  of 
Rome  had  been  trained  in  the  schools  of  Greece,  and 
especially  at  Athens,  or  had  been  placed  under  the  teaching 
of  Greek  instructors  at  home  ;  and  of  the  throe  contending 
schools,  the  Stoics,  the  Epicureans,  and  the  Academics,  the 
second  was  that  which  had  carried  off  far  the  greater 
number  of  disciples.  The  men  of  books  or  of  speculative 
character  might  be  generally  Academics,  and  claim  Cicero 
as  their  noblest  leader ;  the  men  of  imagination  and 
deep  religious  fervour  might  follow,  with  C'ato  and 
Brutus,  the  teaching  of  the  Stoics ;  but  the  practical 
men,  the  men  of  arts  and  arms  and  business,  if  they 
adhered  to  any  school  of  thought  at  all,  were  almost  all, 
like  Caesar  himself  and  his  associates  generally,  addicted 
to  the  easy  precepts  and  still  laier  morahty  of  Epicurus. 
This  philosophy  was  noted  for  its  utter  denial  of  Providence 
and,  for  all  practical  objects,  of  divinity  altogether.  None 
of  these  rival  systems,  whatever  degrees  of  right  sense  and 
reason  they  might  embrace  respectively,  could  sanction  any 
real  belief  in  the  still  current  mythology  of  the  national 
worship,  which  was  assailed  and  derided  on  all  sides. 
Nevertheless,  such  was  the  pertinacious  adherence  of  the 
Roman  people  to  their  ancient  forms,  especially  where  they 
had  any  connection  wilh  their  national  polity,  that  the 
outward  ritual  of  their  religion  was  still  maintained,  though 
a  mere  shadow  of  its  former  substance.  Statesmen,  indeed, 
had  invented  a  formula  for  reconciling  their  actual  unbeUef 
witli.  their  outward  profession.  V'arro  had  said,  and  the 
dictum  was  favourably  accepted,  that  the  ancient  beliefs 
were  to  be  u[)hcld  as  a  matter  of  public  policy.  Such,  no 
doubt,  was  the  principle  on  which  Augustus,  who  was 
himself  neither  a  believer  nor  a  philosopher,  but  a  politician 
only,  proceeded,  when  he  assumed  the  part  of  a  restorer  of 
the  national  religion.  He  touched,  with  great  sagacity,  a 
chord  which  vibrated  to  the  heart  of  the  people,  who  firmly 
believed  that  the  destinies  of  the  city  were  bound  up  wilh 
the  due  observance  of  the  ancient  rites,  and  statesmen 
looked  on  with  decorous  acquiescence  at  shows  and  cere- 
monies to  which  they  attached  do  significance  whatever. 

The  world  "  composes  its  countenance  to  the  expression 


82 


AUGUSTUS 


Msumed  by  the  king."  Such  was  the  aphorism  of  the  man 
of  the  world,  and  m  this  particular  Augustus  was  a  king 
indeed.  The  Romans  rushed  forward  in  the  course  he 
marked  out  for  them.  His  word  dictated  the  fashions  of 
the  day,  not  in  sentiment  only,  but  in  many  particulars  of 
external  conduct.  He  was  anxious  to  restore  the  dignity 
of  the  Roman  citizen,  as  one  of  the  conquering  race  which 
ruled  its  subjects  as  much  by  the  prestige  of  its  character 
as  by  Its  arms,  and  he  resented  all  relaxation  from  the 
strait-laced  discipline  oi  the  ancients,  even  to  the  petty 
matters  of  their  dress  and  deportment.  He  marked  his 
sovereign  displeasure  at  the  degenerate  Romans  who 
indulged  in  the  loose  habiliments  of  Greece.  "  Are  these," 
he  exclaimed,  in  the  language  of  VirgU,  "  the  rulers  of  the 
world,  the  nation  of  the  gown?"  And  in  order  to  keep  up 
the  high  distinction  of  Roman  citizenship  at  a  period  when 
provincials  from  all  sides  were  crowding  into  it,  he  reversed, 
in  this  single  instance,  the  policy  of  Caesar,  and  was  very 
sparing  in  granting  admission  to  the  Roman  franchise. 
He  was,  indeed,  extremely  careful  in  striking  a  balance 
between  the  tendency  of  the  age  to  a  general  fusion  of 
castes  and  privileges  and  the  ancient  spirit  of  exclusion,  in 
which  he  thought  the  strength  of  the  republic  still  really 
reposed.  The  policy  of  Augustus  was  one,  on  the  whole, 
of  cautious  and  moderate  reaction.  He  made  an  effort  to 
stay  the  process  of  disintegration,  which  he  found  so  rife 
throughout  the  vital  forces  of  the  empire.  The  lawlessness 
of  his  own  usurpation  did  indeed  combine  with  the  gross 
selfishness  of  his  personal  character  to  sap  the  moral 
principles  of  society,  and  render  its  ultimate  dissolution 
inevitable  ;  but  he  made  a  vigorous  effort  to  stem  the 
tide,  and  succeeded  in  giving  the  Roman  world  a  period 
of  rest  in  the  downward  path  which  it  was  generally 
pursuing, 
of'thease  '^^^  character  of  the  period,  however,  as  an  epoch  of 
rest  for  reflection  and  self-control,  was  chiefly  marked  in 
the  literature,  which,  more  than  anything  else,  has  con- 
tributed to  give  It  the  name  of  the  Augustan  Age.  The 
religious  sentiment  which  has  been  described,  resting  as  it 
did  upon  a  deep  sympathy  with  historical  antiquity, 
coloured  by  a  bold  and  vigorous  imagination,  is  reflected 
in  the  poetry  of  Virgil,  and  more  particularly  in  the  spirit 
of  his  great  epic,  the  £uexd.  No  doubt,  both  depth  and 
tenderness  of  feeling  may  be  traced  even  in  the  eclogues 
of  the  same  master,  however  slight  for  the  most  part  their 
subjects,  and  however  imitative  their  treatment.  The 
Gcvrgic3  present  us  with  more  serious  and  dignified 
characteristics,  and  though  these  pieces  are  directed  mainly 
to  the  practical  treatment  of  practical  operations,  they 
admit  of  high  moral  as  well  as  religious  colouring.  They 
recall  the  Roman  reader  to  the  moral  foundations  of  the 
national  character,  its  honest  simplicity,  its  love  of  nature, 
its  devotion  to  labour,  its  conviction  that  industry  is  the 
appointed  path  to  virtue  and  to  honour.  But  this  moral 
feeling  is  elevated  by  a  sense  of  the  divine  within  man  and 
around  him.  The  Roman  husbandman,  the  breed  of 
heroes,  is  never  suffered  to  forget  that  there  is  a  God  and 
a  Providence,  or  that  the  favour  of  the  divine  power  h.is 
always  fallen  upon  the  industrious  and  the  virtuous. 
"Thus  it  IS  that  Etnina  of  old,  and  Rome  in  later  times, 
waxed  illustru'ua  and  mighty  ;  thus  that  the  city  on  the 
seven  hills  became  the  fairest  object  of  creation."  The 
Oforgics  are  undouhteiily  animated  throughout  with  a 
religious  sentiment,  and  bespeak  the  high  religious  purpose 
of  their  author.  I!ut  in  the  JCneul  this  religious  sentiment 
and  [lurpose  are  botli  still  more  di.stinctly  proclaimed  to  us. 
The  great  epic  of  Virgil,  the  national  epic  of  the  Roman 
peo|ilc,  glorifies  the  divine  Hrovidr'nce  which  founded  Koine 
in  the  beginning,  and  earned  her  through  all  her  triumphs  to 
the  constiramation  of  her  greatness  in  the  era  of  Augustus. 


\''  >{il. 


It  begins  with  the  divine  ^neas,  and  it  leads  us  on  to  l!ie 
divine  Csesar.  The  greatness  and  the  weakness  of  the 
hero  of  the  poem  equally  tend  to  this  one  end,  the  illustra- 
tion of  the  Providence  which  has  educed  strength  out  of 
weakness,  and  overruled  everything  to  the  glory  of  the 
Roman  people.  The  moral  to  be  deduced  from  the  story 
of  /Eneas  is  too  plain  for  any  Roman  to  mistake.  The 
divinity  which  protects  Rome  is  the  Lord  of  heaven  and 
earth  and  all  that  is  therein.  There  is  no  God  or  Lord 
like  unto  Him.  Blessed  are  the  Romans  who' have  this 
Lord  for  their  God.  The  majesty  of  the  Roman  empire, 
now  at  the  crowning  summit  of  its  progress,  is  the 
immediate  efHux  of  this  sovereign  power,  and  the  one  is 
for  ever  bound  up  with  the  other.  If  such  was  the  doctrine 
sung  by  Virgil,  surely  none  could  be  more  grateful  to 
Augustus,  the  sovereign  ruler  of  an  empire  so  guided  and 
psotected. 

The  names  of  Vfrgil  and  Horace  are  famiUarly  united  in  H  ,ate 
every  review  of  the  age  of  Augustus  ;  yet  no  two  men 
can  stand  more  in  contrast  one  with  the  other  in  their  per- 
sonal character,  in  the  scope  of  their  writings,  and  in  the 
influences  they  respectively  exercised  upon  their  contem- 
poraries. Horace,  as  is  well  known,  had  been  a  republican 
in  his  youth  ;  he  had  espoused  the  cause  of  Brutus  and 
Cassius,  and,  while  yet  a  student  in  the  schools  at  Athens, 
had  obtained  a  commission  in  their  army  He  fought  in 
person  in  the  battle  of  FhUippi,  and,  as  he  tells  us  himself, 
threw  away  his  shield  in  his  rapid  flight  from  the  swords 
of  the  Caesarians.  From  that  time  he  abjured  the  losing 
xause,  and  obtained,  perhaps  without  seeking  it,  the  advice 
of  the  minister  Mfccenas,  by  whom  he  was  taken  into  favour 
and  introduced  to  Augustus  himself.  However  agreeable 
might  be  his  temper  and  manners,  it  is  not  likely  that  the 
politic  tisurper  would  distinguish  a  mere  upstart  with 
admission  to  his  society  without  at  least  tacitly  exacting 
some  return.  The  character  of  this  poet's  compositions, 
both  in  his  lyncs  and  his  satires  and  epistles,  seems  pretty 
clearly  to  betray  the  inspiration  of  the  emperor  and  his 
astute  associates.  The  most  animated  and  imaginative  of 
his  pieces  are  almost  invariably  employed  in  sounding  the 
praises  of  the  Ctesar  and  his  family  When  he  descends 
from  his  highest  flights  of  poetry,  he  finds  congenial  matter 
for  his  muse  m  delicate  flattery  of  Ma;cena3  and  other 
magnates  of  the  court.  But  it  will  be  observed  that  he 
seldom,  if  ever,  addresses  the  haughty  nobles  of  Rome 
except  m  a  strain  of  prudential  advice,  soothing  their  pride, 
but  lowering  their  ambition,  and  directing  them  to  seek 
contentment  and  happiness  not  in  objects  of  public  interest, 
but  in  the  tranqud  enjoyment  of  ease,  which  he  dignifies 
with  the  name  of  philosophy.  The  poetry  of  Horace  is 
full  of  pleasing  sentiments,  but  it  contains  perhaps  no 
single  strain  of  generous  and  ennobling  enthusiasm.  Such 
feelings  it  was  the  policy  of  Augustus  to  discourage,  and 
the  pobcy  of  Augustus  is  faithfully  represented  in  the 
utterances  of  his  courtly  flatterer.  But  there  was  another 
task  imposed  upon  him,  and  it  is  to  this  that  his  satires 
and  epistles  are  more  commonly  directed,  namely,  to  put 
out  of  countenance  the  offensive  self-assertion  of  the  "  new 
men"  of  the  empire,  the  men  whom  the  fortunes  of  the  civil 
war  had  suddenly  raised  from  their  native  obscurity,  and 
enriched  or  eniuiblcd,  notwithstanding  the  barrenness  of 
their  origin  and  the  viUganty  of  their  breeding.  Augustus 
wanted,  no  doubt,  to  tame  the  aspiring  spirits  of  his 
genuine  nobles,  but  he  shrank  from  driving  them  to 
desperation  by  swamping. them  with  an  inundation  of  base- 
born  inferiors,  perhaps  their  own  former  chents  and  freed- 
men.  It  was  part  of  Horace's  oflicc,  as  a  gentleman  usher 
at  court,  to  discountenance  all  sueh  undue  pretensions,  and 
shut  the  door  with  consummate  urbanity  upon  the  most 
disagreeable  or  the  most  importunate  of  the  courtiers.     n» 


AUGUSTUS 


83 


{Kjsscssca  in  pcrfccr'.ion  both  the  delicate  irony  atul  tUo 
graceful  amenity  which  are  cssuntial  to  tlio  pcrfurinancc  of 
a  task  so  critical.  Doubtless  Horace,  in  bis  own  peculiar 
Jino,  exercised  as  great  an  influence  in  Roman  society  as 
VirgiL  The  laughing  philosopher  was  no  less  a  power 
among  liis  contemporaries  than  the  religious  devotee.  Each 
of  them,  in  his  several  way,  performed  an  immense  service 
to  the  governoacnt  under  which  he  enjoyed  favour  and 
reward  ;  nor  can  wo  deny  that,  considering  how  necessary 
the  government  of  Augustus  was  to  the  bleeding  common- 
wealth, each  in  his  several  way  did  an  invaluable  service 
to  his  country. 

Nor,  though  wc  may  admit  that  irony  and  persiflage  were 
Horace's  foHe,  should  we  do  him  justice  if  we  supposed 
that  he  had  no  feelings  of  genuine  tenderness  and  earnest- 
ness."   Even  Horace  had  his  instinctive  sense  of  religious 
\  duty,  which  peeps  out  occasionally  from  under  the  robe  of 

[  his  pretended  philosophy,  and  shows  that  he  recognised  a 

I  principle  of  duty,  and  felt  ill  at  ease  in  the  consciousness 

of  his  own  deficiencies.  We  may  recognise  in  many  of  his 
later  compositions  his  growing  dissatisfaction  with  tho 
worldly  views  of  lifo  which  ho  bad  been  WDnt  to  recom- 
mend, and  some  efforts  at  the  attainment  of  higher  sources 
of  satisfaction.  Both  Virgil  and  Horace  were  cut  off  in 
middle  lifo,  but  both,  we  imagine,  had  already  entered  into 
the  cloud,  and  were  painfully  conscious  that  the  common- 
wealth they  loved  had  fallen  into  its  decline,  and  that  their 
own  attempts  to  invigorate  or  to  soothe  it  were  little  likely 
to  prove  availing.  If  Virgil  deserves  our  admiration, 
Horace  too  is  not  unworthy  of  our  sympathy ;  and  it  is 
well  that  we  can  part  in  such  good  temper  from  the  two 
most  perfect  artists  of  the  Roman,  or  perhaps  of  the  ancient, 
world  altogether. 
0>id.  Of  Ovid,  the  third  great  poet  of  the  Augustan  Age,  we 

can  hardly  think  or  speak  so  favourably.  Ovid,  too,  was 
a  genuine  representative  of  bis  epoch,  which  occupied, 
however,  the  latter  part  of  the  career  of  Augustus,  when 
the  character  of  the  age  bad  begun  to  show  manifest  signs 
of  deterioration.  In  the  character  of  this  poet,  which  may 
be  abundantly  gathered  from  bis  numerous  works,  there 
appears  no  religious  feeling  and  no  moral  purpose.  Never- 
theless, his  writings  reflect,  in  some  important  particulars, 
tho  social  tendencies  of  the  epoch,  and  afford  valuable 
illustrations  of  tho  genius  of  the  Augustan  Age.  To  the 
historian  and  archaeologist  the  Fasti  presents  a  store  of 
interesting  information  ;  but  in  this  poetical  account  of  the 
Roman  calendar  the  writer  undoubtedly  proposed  to  meet 
a  social  want  of  the  time.  The  work  is  in  fact  a  ralionale 
of  tho  divine  "ofEces,  and  expounds  to  the  nation  the 
"seasons  and  tho  reasons  (lanpora  cum  causis)"  of  the 
religious  services  which  the  emperor  recommended  to  their 
pious  attention.  Minute  and  manifold  as  were  the 
memorials  of  their  post  history,  or  of  their  accredited 
mythology,  which  the  cult  of  the  Roman  tcmplos  enshrined, 
Tv'e  can  imagine  how  much  they  must  have  faded  away 
from  the  recollection  of  tbo  people  generally  during  the 
century  of  confusion  from  which  they  had  just  emerged, 
and  bow  even  the  priests  and  (lamcns  of  the  national 
divinities  must  have  stood  in  need  of  a  learned  intciprctcr 
of  tbo  ritps  which  they  mechanically  performed.  The 
Fasti  is  rrmarkable  as  a  speaking  witness  to  tbo  fact  of 
the  ceremonial  revival  of  the  Augustan  Age. 

The  'generally  im.noral  tendency  of  a  great  part  of  Ovid's 
poetry  is  well  known  ;  and  it  speaks  nil  the  worse  for  the 
character  of  the  age  that  tho  writer  could  declare,  and  pro- 
bably not  without  justice,  that  his  personal  conduct  waS 
purer  than  the  sentiments  with  which  he  sought  to  please 
the  public.  The  deterioration  of  sentiment  between  Virgil 
and  Ovid  is  nuiked  in  the  tone  with  which  they  speak 
in  the  higher  8ighu  of  their  rcsi>cc£ive  poetry.     The  ^riicr 


of  the  J^neid  fully  maintains  the  pure  standard  of  thought 
and  expression  which  bo  received  as  a  tradition  froni 
Homer,  and  which  had  been  respected  by  the  epic  puds 
generally;  but  Ovid,  in  his  Metamorplioscs,  an  heroic,  if  not 
an  epic,  composition,  allows  himself  to  descend  far  below 
this  exalted  level,  and  is  not  only  licentious  in  his  language, 
but  seems  to  choose,  and  of  set  purpose,  the  most  licen- 
tious of  the  stories..wbich  his  varied  subject  oilers.  Again, 
though  Horace  adopts  the  lighter  tone  and  looser  phraseology 
of  the  lyric  poets  of  Greece,  there  is  at  least  nothing 
meretricious  in  bis  style ;  he  was  not  a  corrupter  of  youth 
himself,  ncr  were  the  models  such  which  he  proposed  for 
adaptation.  But  Ovid  descends  to  the  imitation  of  a  more 
wanton  kind  of  poetry.  He,  too,  socks  his  moH'is  for  the 
most  part  from  among  the  Greeks,  but  they  are  the  Greeks 
of  a  more  degenerate  age — the  Greeks  of  tbe  court  of  Alex- 
andria, who  pandered  to  the  vicious  tastes  of  a  corrupt  and 
degraded  society.  But,  imitator  as  be  doubtless  was,  Ovid 
had  a  strong  personal  individuality,  and  all  his  poetry  is 
marked  with  the  genuine  sentiment  of  his  age  and  country. 
Perhaps  we  trace  more  of  the  real  man  in  his  Tristia  and 
£jc  J'onto,  in  which  he  is.  thrown  entirely  on  his  own 
resources,  though  in  tho  dc[)th  of  bis  affliction  and  tbe 
decline  of  his  powers,  than  in  the  abler  and  mure  interesting 
works  in  which  he  owed  we  know  not  how  much  to  the 
Greeks  before  him. 

We  have,  besides  these,  the  remains  of  other  poets,  such 
as  Tibullus  and  Propertius,  who  also  hold  up  the  mirror  to 
their  times,  and  assist  us  in  scanning  its  character  on  all 
sides.  But  it  will  be  well  to  pass  them  over  in  this  brief 
sketch,  and  bring  our  review  of  the  literature  of  the 
Augustan  Age  to  a  close  with  a  notice  of  tbe  great 
historian  I.ivy.  The  consummate  excellence  in  form  and 
style  of  the  work  to  which  we  refer  bears  witness  to  tbo 
intellectual  accomplishments  of  the  epoch.  No  doubt  the 
Romans  did  much  at  a  later  period  to  improve  their  method 
of  teaching,  and  to  extend  tbcir  acquaintance  with  the 
highest  models  of  literary  excellence.  An  age  succeeded  in 
which  Rome  was  formed  into  an  academy,  like  that  of 
Athens  or  Alexandria,  when  all  the  arts  and  sciences  of  the 
time  were  taught  or  practised  under  the  direct  instruction 
of  approved  professors.  Great  were  the  merits  of  tbe 
historical  literature  of  Rome  at  a  later  age,  and  illustrious 
are  some  of  the  men  who  distinguished  themselves  in  its 
exercise.  But,  on  the  whole,  a  reasonable  criticism  will 
award  to  Livy  tho  palm  of  merit  at  least  in  the  two  par- 
ticulars just  specified, — a  palm  which  he  may  well  contest 
even  with  the  masters  of  the  art  in  Greece.  The  form  of 
Livy's  history  partakes  in  exquisite  proportion  of  tbe 
descriptive,  the  narrative,  and  tbe  dramatic  ;  it  is  replete 
with  personal  characteristics,  which  bring  us  into  direct 
acquaintance  with  tbe  individuals  of  whom  it  treats  ;  it 
abounds,  moreover,  in  mattef  of  antiquarian  interest,  which 
we  who  read  it  at  a  distance  of  nineteen  centuries  feel  to 
bo  specially  valuable,  and  wiiich  did  not  fail  to  attract  tbr 
sympathy  even  of  the  writer's  own  contemporaries.  The 
Romans  in  tbe  time  of  Augustus  were  just  beginning  to  bo 
keenly  self-conscious.  They  felt  that  they  bad  attained  to 
such  a  position  in  tho  world's  history  as  no  people  before 
them  had  acquired.  They  wcro  led  by  all  tbe  traditions 
of  'lieir  youth  to  attribute  their  splcndiil  success  to  the 
ex-impifca  of  national  virtue  paraded  '-fore  them.  They 
were  sensible  of  the  deep  debt  they  owed  to  their  anccstr 
and  they  wanted  to  know  who  their  nn';rslors  were  ;  tbiv 
wanted  to  trace  the  features  of  their  own  character  in  tbe 
lineaments  of  the  great  men  who  bad  gone  before  tbcm. 
Of  tlieso  ancient  heroes  of  the  commonweallh  they  had 
hitherto  imbibed  a  faint  and  vague  conception  from  songs 
and  poems  and  family  or  nnlionil  traditions.  Tho 
legends  connected   with  their  ritual   and   their  laws  ap4 


Livy 


84 


A  U  G  —  A  U  G 


institutions  assumed  the  existence  of  those  heroes,  and  the 
reality  of  the  deeds  imputed  to  them ;  but  the  men  and 
their  deeds  were  for  the  most  part  wrapped  in  obscurity, 
or  presented  under  dubious  colours.  The  voice  of  I-ivy's 
contemporaries  muttered  around  him  that  of  all  their 
compatriots  he  should  be  held  most  in  honour  among 
them,  who  should  bring  these  traditions  of  the  past  into 
the  li^ht  of  day,  and  make  them  pass  among  a  generation, 
willing  so  to  accept  them,  as  genuine  and  accredited  history. 
The  history  of  Livy  was  the  true  product  of  the  age, 
inasmuch  as  it  answered  to  the  call  of  the  age.  It  pre- 
sented Roman  history  to  the  Romans  much  as  Shakespeare's 
dramas  presented  English  history  to  the  English ;  the 
history  iu  both  cases  was  just  what  the  people  wished  to  be- 
lieve, and  from  thenceforth  they  so  accepted  and  believed  it. 

As  regards  the  style  of  Livy's  composition,  it  is  enough 
to  say  that  it  is  generally  regarded  as  the  most  perfect 
specimen  of  the  Latin  prose  writing  that  we  possess,  and 
we  may  be  pretty  confident  that  if  anything  better  had 
been  written,  posterity  would  not  have  suffered  it  to  perish. 
It  holds  the  middle  place  between  the  oratorical  exuberance 
of  Cicero  and  the  philosophic  sententiousness  of  Tacitus. 
\V^hile  sentence  follows  sentence  throughout  in  logical 
saquence,  so  that  the  thread  of  meaning  and  argument  is 
never  lost  under  a  mass  of  verbiage,  yet  we  are  beguiled  in 
our  lengthened  study  by  the  repeated  recurrence  of  passages 
of  highly-imaginative  colouring  ;  we  feel  that  if  the  histo- 
rian sometimes  deviates  into  poetry,  he  never  misleads  us 
with  a  show  of  empty  rhetoric.  The  Roman  people,  as 
represented  by  Livy,  retained  the  genuine  strength  and 
bluntness  of  their  character.  The  teaching  of  their  Greek 
instructors  had  had  as  yet  little  eflfect  in  seducing  them 
into  the  conceits  and  aflfectations  of  the  more  frivolous 
people  they  had  conquered.  The  history  of  Livy  remains 
the  noblest  monument  of  the  Somanus  honos,  the  national 
dignity,  which  his  countrymen  so  proudly  contrasted  with 
the  Graia  licentia,  which  was  gradually  enervating  and 
degrading  them.  The  spirit  of  the  Augustan  Age  is  set 
forth,  perhaps  at  its  best  and  brightest,  in  the  illustrious 
history  of  Livy. 

It  is  probable  that  Livy,  who  had  been  a  republican  in 
his  heart,  lived  for  the  most  part  the  retired  life  of  a 
student,  though  he  is  said  to  have  been  employed  in  the 
education  of  some  of  the  princes  of  the  imperial  family. 
He  reflects  the  character  of  the  earlier  generation,  among 
whom  he  was  born,  rather  than  of  the  later,  in  which  he 
died,  at  an  advanced  age,  in  the  fourth  year  of  Tiberius. 
All  the  great  poets  above  mentioned  met  an  early  death 
about  the  middle  of  the  principato  of  Augustus,  except 
Ovid,  who  survived  to  the  eighth  year  of  his  successor. 
Accordingly,  it  is  in  Ovid,  as  might  be  expected,  that  we 
trace  the  first  marks  of  degeneracy  from  the  high  standard 
of  the  Augustan  literature — the  Golden  Age  or  Latin 
composition.  The  decline  of  Rome,  both  in  intellect  and 
morals,  was  becoming  rapidly  apparent.  Tlie  splendid 
promise  of  tho  Augustan  Ago  was  quickly  exhausted. 
The  spirit  of  freedom  evaporated  under  the  influences  of 
tho  time,  and  tho  spurious  appearances  which  tlio  emperor 
kept  up  had  no  power  to  impart  real  vigour  to  the  national 
constitution.  Just  in  the  same  manner  it  is  abundantly 
clear  that  the  fame  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.  in  Franco  is 
founded  on  the  excellence  of  the  men  who  wore  actually 
born  and  bred  in  an  earlier  epoch  and  under  a  healthier 
regime.  Neither  the  ago  of  Augustus  nor  that  of  Louis 
produced  the  men  who  have  rendered  it  illustrious.  But 
the  decline  of  Rome  was  becoming  marked  before  tho 
death  of  Augustus  in  other  respects  also.  Although 
internal  dissen.sions  had  been  appeased,  and  private  ambi- 
tion quelled,  tho  external  relations  of  the  empire  were 
insecure,  and  caused  vivid  apprehensions.     Tho  frontiers 


of  the  Rhme  and  Danube  were  constantly  harassed  by  the 
indomitable  spirit  of  the  barbarians  beyond  them.  On  the 
Danube  thi  Roman  arms  seem  to  have  been  crowned  with 
a  sufficient  measure  of  success,  but  on  the  Rhine  the  great 
disaster  of  Varus,  and  the  loss  of  three  legions,  left  a  deep 
impression  of  gloom  upon  the  feelings  of  the  age.  Augiistus 
himself  suffered  a  succession  of  disappointments  in  the 
premature  death  of  his  nearest  kindred,  and  in  the  loss  of 
his  trustiest  advisers.  Though  he  maintained  to  the  last 
an  outward  serenity  almost  touching,  he  appears  to  have 
been  painfully  conscious  of  the  substantial  failure  of  the 
great  pacification  he  had  accomplished,  and  to  have 
augured  nothing  but  evil  from  the  character  of  the  stepson, 
to  whom,  at  the  last  moment,  he  was  content  to  leave  his 
inheritance.  A  general  foreboding  of  evil  was  creeping 
over  the  minds  of  his  people.  The  age  of  Augustus,  which 
lasted  nearly  fifty  years,  was  indeed  a  long  day  even  in  the 
life  of  a  nation,  but  its  sun  was  manifestly  hastening  to  its 
setting,  and  the  night  was  coming,  slowly,  gradually,  but 
surely.  (c.  M.) 

AUGUSTUS  II.  (also,  and  more  accurately,  designated 
Fredeeick  Augustus  L),  Elector  of  Saxony  and  King 
■  of  Poland,  second  son  of  John  George  III.  of  Saxony,  was 
born  at  Dresden,  12th  May  1670.  HLs  personal  beauty 
was  remarkable,  and  from  his  great  physical  strength  he 
received  the  surname  of  The  Strong,  by  which  he  is  com- 
monly distinguished.  He  was  very  carefully  educated, 
and  spent  several  years  travelling  ill  Europe,  visiting  most 
of  the  courts,  and  taking  part  in  some  campaigns  against 
the  French.  In  1694  he  succeeded  his  elder  brother  as 
elector  of  Saxony,  and  shortly  after,  having  entered  into 
alliance  with  Austria,  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  imperial  forces  against  the  Turks.  In  1697,  after 
having  suffered  a  defeat  at  Olasch,  he  resigned  this  office, 
and  proceeding  to  Vienna,  entered  into  negotiations  with 
regard  to  the  throne  of  Poland,  left  vacant  by  the  death  of 
John  Sobieski  in  1696..  As  a  preliminary  step  in  his 
candidature,  Augustus  renounced  the  Protestant  faith,  and 
proclaimed  himself  a  Catholic.  Among  his  rivals  the 
most  forniidable  was  the  French  prince  of  Conti.  Both 
expended  enormous  sums  in  buying  over  the  Polish  nobles, 
and  both  claimed  to  be  elected  at  the  general  diet.  Conti, 
however,  was  not  on  the  spot,  and  Augustus,  marching 
into  Poland  with  his  Saxon  forces,  gained  possession  of  the 
kingdom.  Scarcely  was  he  settled  on  the  throne,  when  he 
entered  into  alliance  with  Russia  and  Denmark  against 
the  young  king  of  Sweden,  and  with  his  Saxon  troops 
(for  tho  Poles  would  not  unite  with  hini)  invaded  Livonia. 
In  the  campaigns  which  followed  (1700-1704),  he  was 
completely  worsted  by  tho  extraordinary  military  genius 
of  his  opponent,  the  celebrated  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  ; 
he  was  driven  from  Poland,  and  Stanislaus  Leszczinski  was 
crowned  in  his  place.  The  Swedes,  following  up  their 
victories,  invaded  Saxony,  and  in  1706,  at  Altranstiidt, 
Augustus  was  compelled  to  make  peace,  to  j'cpay  the 
expenses  of  the  Swedish  army,  to  acknowledge  Stanislaus 
as  king  of  Poland,  and  to  congratulate  him  on  his  accession. 
After  these  reverses  he  spent  some  time  as  a  volunteer  in 
tho  Netherlands,  but  the  defeat  of  Charles  at  Pultowa 
(1709)  again  raised  his  hopes.  lie  at  once  declared  the 
Altraust.idt  treaty  null  and  void,  and  having  received 
promises  of  assistance  from  Russia,  entered  Poland,  drove 
out  Stanislaus,  and  was  a  second  time  proclaiincd  king. 
During  the  following  years  he  continued  to' carry  on  the 
war  with  Sweden,  while  at  the  same  time  his  kingdom  was 
distracted  by  tho  jealousy  with  which  tho  Poles  regarded 
tho  Saxon  troops,  who  were  compelled  to  leave  Poland  in 
1717.  In  1718  Charles  XII.  was  killed  at  FrcdcricshoU, 
and  fr.on  that  time  tho  reign  of  Augustus  was  marked  by 
no  important  event.     His  court  became  celebrated  as  the 


A  U  G  —  A  U  N 


85 


most  ezti-avagsnc  and  luxuiious  in  Europe,  and  he  himself 
i3  the  most  dissolute  and  majiiiricent  of  princes.  Uis  lavish 
expenditure,  though  it  enriched  his  capital  with  treasures 
of  art,  ini[H)vorishcd  both  Pobnd  and  Saxony,  and  laid  the 
foundatiiias  for  the  future  misfortunes  of  those  countries. 
He  died.  Isl  February  1733,  from  mortification  of  an  old 
vound.  Of  his  numerous  natural  cliildren,  the  most 
famous  was  the  distinguished  general,  Maurice  of  Saxony. 

AUUUdTUS  HI  ,  or  Frederick  Augdstus  II  ,  Elector 
of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland,  only  legitimate  son  of 
Augustus  the  Strong,  was  born  at  Dresden,  7th  October 
IC'JG.  Mo  was  brought  up  in  the  Protestant  faith,  but  in 
1712,  whUo  oa  his  travels,  he  entered  the  Church  of  Rome, 
though  his  change  of  opinion  was  not  publicly  known  till 
1717.  In  1733  he  succeeded  his  father  as  elector  of 
Saxony,  and  put  forward  claims  to  the  kingdom  of  Poland. 
The  Polish  nobles,  however,  had  become  dissatisfied  with 
foreign  rule,  and  endeavourei  to  reinstate  Stanislaus  Lesz- 
czlnski,  whose  daughter  was  married  to  Louis  XV.  of  France. 
Russia  and  Austria,  probably  bribed,  but  certainly  dread- 
ing French  influence  in  Poland,  supported  Augustus,  who 
was  elected,  though  in  an  informal  manner,  and  by 
their  aid  established  himself  in  the  kingdom.  On  the 
death  of  Charles  of  Austria  in  1740,  Saxony  at  first 
joined  the  league  agniust  Maria  Theresa,  but  jealousy  of  the 
Prussian  successes  in  the  first  campaign  caused  Augustus 
to  unite  with  the  empress  when  war  broke  out  a  second 
tims  in  1744.  Uis  forces  were  completely  defeated  hy 
Frederick,  and  Saxony  was  overrun  and  pillaged  by  the 
Prossian  troops.  Eleven  years  later  Augustus  joined  the 
alliance  against  Frederick,  which  gave  rise  to  the  Seven 
Years'  War.  lie  was  ag^iin  unfortunate;  the  whole  Saxon 
army  was  surrounded  and  compelled  to  surrender  at  Pima 
in  1750,  and  during  the  remainder  of  the  war  Saxony  and 
Pobnd  were  the  seats  of  operations,  and  suffered  severely. 
Augustus  died  5th  October  1763,  surviving  only  by  a  few 
months  the  f>eaco  of  llubcrtsburg.  During  his  reign 
considerable  additions  were  made  to  the  collections  of  art 
treasures  formed  by  his  father,  and  L'resden  began  to  be 
celebrated  throughout  Europe  for  its  china  and  piotmes. 

AUK,  a  name  common  to  several  species  of  sea  fowl 
belonging,  with  one  exception,  to  the  family  Alcidoe  Of 
these,  special  interest  attaches  to  the  Great  Auk,  or  Gere- 
fowl  (Alca  impennis),  from  the  circumstance  that  there  is 
DO  nulliciilic  record  of  its  having  been  taken,  or  even  seen 
olive,  for  more  than  a  qu.irler  of  a  century.  In  the  autumn 
of  1821  Dr  Fleming,  while  on  a  cruise  through  the  Hebrides, 
observed  and  described  one  which  had  been  taken  alive 
ill  the  sea  otT  St  Hilda  a.  d  put  on  board  the  yacht.  With 
a  rope  attached  to  one  of  its  legv,  this  specimen  was 
occasionally  allowed  to  disport  itself  in  its  native  element, 
where  it  astonished  every  one  by  the  rapidity  with  which 
it  swam  under  water.  Ou  one  of  these  occasions  it  gi>t 
loose  from  itsboBd.s,  and  was  soon  beyond  reach  of  pursuit 
Another  specimen  had  been  observed  a  few  years  before  off 
Papa  \Ve.«lra,  one  of  the  Orkney  Islands,  but  in  spite  of 
the  exertions  of  the  crew  of  a  six-oared  boat,  continued  for 
several  hours,  the  auk  could  not  bo  overtaken.  This 
fpecimen,  however,  was  afterwards  scoured,  and  is  now  in 
the  British  Museum.  The  Great  Auk  measures  about  three 
feet  in  length,  has  a  large  bill,  but  wings  so  small  as  to  be 
totally  useless  for  flying,  serving  however,  as  powerful 
swimming  organs  It  is  said  to  have  laid  a  single  egg  on 
the  b.>rc  rock,— usuallv,  from  the  inability  of  the  bird  to 
ii'e  on  wing  to  the  higher  c!llT^<,  close  to  the  water  e<lgc 
lu  food,  according  to  Fabricius,  consisted  of  the  Uuup- 
eucker  and  other  fishes  of  a  similar  size.  From  the  earliest 
eiisting  accouot.i,  the  Great  Auk  does  not  appear  to  have 
enrer  been  more  than  an  occasion.al  visitant  to  the  British 
Islts,  and  then  chioMy  to  the  sea  around  St  Kilda  and  the 


Orkneys,  while  Iceland,  the  Faroes,  and  the  islets  about 
Newfoundland,  appear  to  have  been  its  propoi  homo.  The 
probability  that  this  bird  is  now  totally  extinct  gives 
special  value  to  the  remains  of  it  now  existing.  Ihese, 
according  to  Professor  New  ion,  arc  as  follows  : — 71  or  72 
skins,  9  skeletons,  33  or  41  detached  bones  of  difTerent 
birds,  and  05  eggs.  The  other  Aiilis  are  the  Puffin,  the 
KazorbJI,  and  the  Little  Auk,  all  widely  distributed  along 
the  northerntemperale  and  Arctic  coasts. 

AL'LIC  COU.N'CIL  (from  the  Latin  aula,  a  hall,  in 
German,  ReicMiufrath),  oue  of  the  two  supreme  courts 
of  the  old  Germanic  empire,  the  other  being  the  imperial 
chamber  (7?ficA,'!i(inimfii/enc/(().  It  was  called  into  exist- 
ence in  1501  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  and  was  by 
him  intended  to  counterbalance  the  inllucnce  of  the  im- 
perial chamber,  which  he  had  been  compelled  to  for»n  by 
the  states  six  years  before.  The  Aulic  Council  had  in 
many  respects  equal  power  with  the  chamber;  from  its 
decisions  there  was  no  appeal,  and  under  its  special  juris- 
diction were  included  the  consideration  of  the  imperial 
reserved  rights,  fees,  and  privileges,  the  settlement  of 
disputes  as  to  precedence  among  the  several  states,  and 
the  arrangement  of  matters  relating  to  the  Italian  posses- 
sions of  the  empire.  All  questions  of  law  could  be  sub- 
mitted either  to  this  council  or  to  the  chamber.  The 
msmbcrs  were  at  first  appointed  by  the  emperor,  at  whose 
death  the  court  dissolved,  and  new  appointments  were  made 
by  bis  successor.  The  power  of  the  council  increased 
under  several  of  the  emperors  ;  it  was  formally  recognised 
as  coequal  with  the  imperial  chamber ;  and  after  the  peace 
of  Westphalia  its  organisation  was  altered  so  as  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  time.  It  then  and  afterwards  consisted 
of  a  president,  vice-president,  and  eighteen  councillors,  all 
selected  and  paid  by  the  emperor,  and  of  a  vice  chancrllor, 
whose  appointment  rested  with  the  electorate  of  Mainz. 
Six  members  were  Protestants,  and  the  votes  of  these  s-ix, 
when  unanimous,  could  not  be  overturned  by  any  majority 
of  the  others.  The  councillors  were  divided  into  two 
parties — the  first  consisting  of  the  counts  and  barons,  the 
second  of  the  men  of  learning,  who  possessed  equal  rights 
with  the  nobles,  but  were  more  highly  paid.  At  the 
dissolution  of  the  old  Germanic  imperial  system  in  1806, 
the  Aulic  CouDcd  in  its  former  signification  came  to  an 
end,  though  au  Austrian  court  bearing  the  same  title  still 
continued  to  sit  in  Vienna. 

AULIS,  a  town  in  Bccotia,  supposed  to  have  been 
situated  on  a  rocky  peninsula  between  two  b.iys,  abont 
three  miles  S.  of  Chalcis.  During  the  Trojan  war  it  was 
the  rendezvous  of  the  Greek  fleet,  and  has  obtained  cele- 
brity as  the  scene  of  the  sacrifice  of  Ipliigeuia  Pausaniai 
states  that  in  his  day  there  was  still  to  be  seen  here  the 
temple  of  .Artom'is  ascribed  to  Agamemnon 

ALJMALE,  formerly  Aldemarle,  from  the  Latin  Aiha. 
^fail'j,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depiutnient  of  Seiue 
Inferieure,  on  the  banks  of  the  Bresle.  35  miles  N  E  of 
Rouen.  Grain  and  hemp  are  cultivated  in  ihe  neighbour 
hood  ;  cloth  is  manufactured  ;  and  Ihe  town  has  a  trade  in 
wool  and  cattle.  Population,  '2229.  Auinile  was  orette.i 
by  William  the  Conqueror  into  a  countsliip,  which  was 
aflerwaids  held  in  succession  by  the  houses  of  CastiU-. 
Dammarlin,  Ilareourt,  and  Lorraine;  and  in  1547  it  w,n 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  dukedom  in  favour  of  Francis  of 
Lorraine.  It  afterwards  passed  to  the  bouse  of  Savoy, 
from  whom  it  was  purchased  in  1C75  by  Louis  XIV.,  who 
conferred  it  as  an  apanage  on  one  of  his  natural  sons.  In 
17Cy  it  came  into  possession  of  the  house  of  Orleans.  The 
carl  of  AUicmarh',  in  the  British  peerage,  derives  his  title 
from  AuiiKile. 

AUNGERVVLE,  RicnARD,  commonly  known  by  tbo 
raii:e  of  Huhaid  Je  liniy.  was  born   iu    1-Sl,  at  Euiy  St 


86 


A  U  R  —  A  U  R 


Edmund's  in  Suffolk^  and  educated  at  the  university  of 
Oxford.  He  entered  the  order  of  Benedictine  monks,  but 
■was  shortly  afterwards  appointed  tutor  to  the  prince  of 
Wales.  On  the  accession  of  his  pupd  to  the  throne  as 
Edw.ird  III.,  he  was  promoted  to  various  olBces  of  dignity, 
and  was  finally  made  bishop  of  Durham,  as  well  as  lord 
high-chancellor  and  treasurer  of  England.  He  was  several 
times  engaged  in  embassies  on  the  Continent,  and  became 
acquaint&d  with  many  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  the 
time,  particularly  with  the  poet  Petrarch,  A  portion  of 
his  correspondence  with  the  latter  has  been  preserved. 
At  Oxford  he  founded  a  library  for  the  use  of  the  students, 
wLich  be^  furnished  with  the  best  collection  of  books  then 
in  England,  and  appointed,  five  keepers,  to  whom  he 
granted  yearly  salarie.s.  He  died  at  his  manor  of  Auck- 
land, 24th  April  1345,  and  was  buried  in  the  cathedral 
church  of  Durham.  His  works  are — (I.)' Philobiblon,  con- 
taining directions  for  the  management  of  hi.s  library  at 
Oxford,  and  an  elaborate  eulogy  of  learning,  written  in 
very  bad  Latin, — first  printed  at  Cologne  1473,  then  at 
Spires,  1483,  and  Bnally  at  Oxford,  1599;  (2.)  Epistolae 
Firniliariitm,  some  of  which  are  addressed  to  Petrarch  ; 
(3.)  Orationes  ad  Principes,  mentioned  by  Bale  and  Pits. 

AURAY,  a  small  town  of  France,  situated  on  the  slope 
of  c  hill  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  in 
the  department  of  Morbihan,  10  miles  W.  of  Vannes.  Its 
port  is  greatly  frequented  by  coasting  vessels  ;  and  it 
carries  on  a  considerable  industry  ,in  stocking-weaving, 
silk-spinning,  tanning,  shipbuilding,  &c.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  church  of  St  Esprit  (13th  century), 
which  is  DOW  transformed  into  a  college,  the  church  of  St 
Gildas,  the  town-houae  (17th  century),  and  the  Chartreuse, 
which  -marks  the  site  of  the  battle  of  1364,  in  which 
Charlfes  of  Blois  was  defeated  by  John  de  Montfort.  In 
the  neighbourhood  is  the  church  of  Sainte  Anne  d'Auray, 
one  of  the  principal  places  of  pilgrimage  in  Brittany. 
Population,  4542.  (See  Palliser's  Brittart?/  and  its  Bye- 
way3,  1869.) 

AURELIA14US,  C^xiDS,  a  celebrated  Latin  physician, 
bom  probably  at  Sicca  in  Numidia,  but  regarding  whose 
life  sca,rcely  anything  is  known.  The  very  date  at  which  he 
flourished  is  quite  uncertain.  In  his  books  he  refers 
fsequently  to  Soranus,  and  does  not  mention  Galen,  from 
which  it  has  been  inferred  that  he  Lved  at  a  period  inter- 
mediate between  these  two  writers,  i.e.,  during  the  2d 
ce;itury  ad  But  if  the  writings  under  his  name  are,  as 
seems  at  least  probable,  translations" or- paraphrases  from 
Soranus,  the  absence  of  any  refejf^nce  to  Galen  can  easily 
be  understood.  Again,  Galen  does  not  mention  Aurelianus, 
though  he  notices  many  minor  physicians  ;  from  which 
fact,  together  with  the  corrupt  Latin  style  of  his  extant 
works,  it  has  been  supposed  by  several  authorities  that  the 
more  correct  date  is  the  5th  century  a  d  The  writings  of 
Aurelianus,  which  are  composed  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  methodical  school,  and  show  considerable  practical  skill 
iu  the  diagnosis  of  ordinary  and  even  of  exceptional 
diseases,  consist  of  the  following: — (1  )  A  treatise,  in  three 
books,  on  acute  diseases  (/loi^rum  or  Ceterum  Passiort'jm), 
Paris,  1533  and  1826.  (2)  A  treatise,  in  five  books,  on 
chronic  diseases  {Tardarum  ov  Chronicarum  Pannonum), 
Basle,  1529  Both  those  treatises  were  published  together 
III  1566,  and  frequently  since.  (3.)  Fragments  of  a  com- 
prehensive treatise  on  medical  science  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue  (MedicinaUs  Kesponsiones),  referred  to  ui  the 
preface  to  the  work  on  acute  diseases,  have  been  discovered 
and  published  by  VaL  Rose  in  hia  Anecdota  Grceca  et  Grata- 
Latina.  vol.  il  1871. 

AURELIUS  ANTONINUS,  Marcus,  the  noblest  of 
jiagans,  the  crown  and  flower  of  Stoicism,  was  born  at  Rome 
121  ^  r>  .  the  dat>;  of  his  birth  lining  variously  staled  as  the 


2ist.  and  the  26th  Apnl  His  original  name  was  Marcus 
Annius  Verus.  His  father,  Annius  Verus,  died  while  he 
was  prstor ;  his  mother,  who  survived  her  husband,  was 
Domitia  Calvilla  or  Lucilla.  By  both  his  parents  he  was 
of  noble  blood,  his  mother  being  a  lady  of  consular  rank, 
and  his  father  claiming  descent  from  Numa  Pompilius. 
Marcus  was  an  infant  when  his  father  died,  and  was  there- 
upon adopted  by  his  grandfather.  The  latter  spared  no 
pains  upon  his  education,  and  the  moral  training  which  he 
received,  both  from  his  grandfather  and  from  his  mother, 
and  to  which  he  alludes  in  the  most  grateful  and  graceful 
terms  in  his  Meditations,  must  have  been  all  but  perfect. 
The  noble  qualities  of  the  child  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
Emperor  Hadrian,  who,  playing  upon  the  name  Verus,  said 
that  it  should  be  changed  to  Verissimus.  WTien  Marcus 
reached  the  age  of  seventeen,  Hadrian  adopted,  as  his  suc- 
cessor, Titus  Antoninus  Pius  (who  had  married  AnniaGaleria 
Faustina,  the  sister  of  Annius  Verus,  and  was  consequently 
the  uncle  of  Marcus),  on  condition  that  he  in  turn  adopted 
both  his  nephew  and  Lucius  Ceionius  Commodus,  the  son 
of  JE\iua  CiEsar,  whom  Hadrian,  being  childless,  had  origin- 
ally Intended  as  his  successor,  but  who  had  died  before 
him.  It  is  generally  believed  that,  had  Marcus  been  old 
enough,  Hadrian  would  have  adopted  him  directly.  ' 

After  the  death  of  Hadrian,  and  the  accession  of 
Antoninus  Pius  to  the  throne,  it  became  at  once  apparent 
that  a  distinguished  future  was  in  store  for  Marcus.  He 
had  been,  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  betrothed  to  the  sister  of 
Commodus ;  the  engagement  was  broken  oS'  by  the  new 
emperor,  and  he  was  instead  betrothed  to  Faustina,  the 
daughter  of  the  latter.  In  139  a  D  the  title  of  Csesar 
was  conferred  upon  him,  and  he  dropped  the  name  of 
Verus.  The  full  name  he  then  bore  was  Marcus  .ZElius 
Aurehus  Antoninus,  /Elius  coming  from  Hadrian's  family, 
and  Aurelius  being  the  original  name  of  Antoninus  Pius. 
He  is  generally  known  as  Marcus  Aurelius  or  Marcus 
Aurelius  Antoninus.  In  140  ad.  he  was  made  consul, 
and  entered  fully  upoh  public  life.  ; 

The  education  of  Aurelius  in  his  youth  was  so  minute, 
and  has  been  so  detailed  by  himself,  that  it  ought  not  to 
be  passed  over  without  notice.  Professor  Long  says,  with 
perfect  truth,  apparently,  of  the  trainers  and  the  trained, 
"Such  a  body  of  teachers,  distinguished  by  their  acquire 
ments  and  their  character,  will  hardly  be  collected  again, 
and  as  to  the  pupil  we  have  not  had  one  like  him  since" 
We  have  already  alluded  to  the  care  bestowed  upon  him 
in  youth  by  his  mother  and  grandfather  ;  a  better  guardian 
than  that  thoroughly  good  man  and  prudent  ruler, 
Antoninus  Pius,  could  not  be  conceived.  Marcus  himself 
says,  "To  the  gods  I  am  indebted  for  having  good  grand- 
fathers, good  parents,  a  good  sister,  good  teachers,  good 
associates,  good  kinsmen  and  friend.s,  nearly  leverj'thing 
good "  He  never  attended  any  of  the  Roman  public 
schools,  and  this  he  makes  a  matter  for  self -congratulation 
He  was  trained  by  tutors,  in  whom,  particularly  in  RusticuB, 
he  appears  to  have  been  very  fortunate,  and  to  whom  he 
showed  gratitude  when  he  reached  the  throne  by  raising 
them  to  the  highest  dignities  of  the  state  Like  most  of 
the  young  Hoiiians  of  the  day,  he  began  his  studies  with 
rhetoric  and  poetry,  his  teachers  being  Herodes  Atticus 
and  M  Cornelius  Fronto.  But,  at  the  early  ago  of  eleven, 
he  entered  upon  another  course  of  study,  in  which  he  may 
bo  said  to  have  continued  more  or  loss  till  the  end  of  his 
life  He  became  acquainted  with  Diognctus  the  Stoic, 
was  fascinated  by  the  philosophy  ho  taught,  assumed  the 
dress  of  his  sect,  and  ultimately  abandoned  rhetoric  and 
poetry  for  philosophy  and  law,  having  among  his  teachers 
of  the  one  Sextus  of  ChaTonoa,  and  of  the  other  L 
Voluaianus  Marcianu.^.  a  distinguished  jurist.  He  went 
thoroughly  and   heartily  into  tli"   pr.iclice  as   well   as   the 


A  U  R  E  L  I  U  S 


87 


theory  of  Stoicism,  and  lived  so  abstemious  and  laborious 
a  life,  that  he  injured  his  health.  It  vas  from  his  Stoical 
teachers  that  he  learned  so  many  admirable  lessons, — to 
work  hard,  to  ^eny  himself,  to  avoid  listening  to  slander, 
to  endure  misfortunes,  never  to  deviate  from  his  purpose, 
to  be  grave  without  affectation,  delicate  in  correcting 
others,  "  not  frequently  to  say  to  any  one,  nor  to  write  in 
a  letter,  that  I  have  no  leisure,"  nor  continually  to  excuse 
the  neglect  of  ordinary  duties  by  alleging  urgent  occujja- 
tions.  Through  all  his  Stoical  training,  Aurelius  pre- 
servgd  the  natural  sweetness  of  his  nature,  so  that  he 
emerged  from  it  the  most  lovable  as  well  as  the  saintliest 
of  Pagans. 

Antoninus  Pius  reigned  from  138  to  ICl  a.d.,  and  the 
concord  between  him  and  his  destined  heir  was  so  com- 
plete, that  it  is  recorded  that  during  these  twenty-three 
years  Marcus  never  slept  oftener  than  twice  away  from 
the  house  of  Pius.  It  is  generally  believed  that  Aurelius 
married  Faustina  in  146,  at  all  events  a  daughter  was  boru 
to  him  in  147.  The  two  noblest  of  imperial  Romans  were 
associated  both,  in  the  administration  of  the  state  and  in 
the  simple  country  occupations  and  amusements  of  the 
sea-side  villa  of  Loripm,  the  birthplace  of  Pius,  to  which  he 
loved  to  retire  from  the  pomp  and  the  wretched  intrigues 
of  Rome. 

Antoninus  Pius  died  of  fever,  IGl  a.d.,  at  his  villa  of 
Lorium  at  the  age  of  seventy-five.  As  his  end  approached, 
he  summoned  his  friends  and  the  leading  men  of  Rome 
to  his  bedside,  and  recommended  to  them  ilarcus,  who 
■was"  then  forty  years  of  age,  as  his  successor,  without  men- 
tiouing  the  name  of  Coinmodus,  his  other  adopted  son, 
commonly  called  Lucius  Verus.  It  is  believed  that  the 
senate  agreed  with  what  appeared  to  be  the  wishes  of  the 
dj-ing.  emperor,  and  urged  AureUus  to  take  the  sole  ad- 
ministration of  the  empire  into  his  hands.  But  at  the  very 
commence.ueut  of  hissjceign,  Marcus  showed  the  magnani- 
jnity  of  his  nature  by  admitting  Yerus  as  his  partner 
■in  the  empire,  giving  him  the  tribunitian  and  proconsular 
powers,  and  the  titles  Cssar  and  Augustus.  This  was 
the  first  time  that  Rome  had  two  emperors  as  colleagues. ' 
Verus  proved  to  be  a  weak,-  self-indulgent  man ;  but  he 
had  a  high  respect  for  his  adoptive  brother,  and  deferred 
uniformly  to  his  judgment.  Although  apparently  ill- 
assorted,  they  lived  in  peace ;  and  Verus  married  Lucilla, 
the  daughter  (if  Aurelius.  In  the  first  year  of  his  reign 
Faustina  gave  birth  to  twins,  one  of  whom  survivec'  to 
become  the  infamous  Emperor  Commodus. 

The  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Aurelius  was  clouded  by 
various  national  mi.sfcrtunes  :  an  inundation  of  the  Tiber 
swept  away  a  large  pp.rt  of  Rome,  destroying  fields,  drowning 
cattle,  and  ultimately  causing  a  famine  ;  then  came  carth- 
ijuakes,  fires,  and  plagues  of  insects ;  and  finally,  the 
unruly  and  warliko  Parthians  resumed  hostilities,  and 
under  their  king,  Vologeses,  defeated  a  Roman  army  and 
devastated  Syria.  Verus,  originally  a  man  of  considerable 
physical  courage  and  even  mental  ability,  went  to  oppose 
the  Parthians,  but,  having  escaped  from  the  control  of  his 
colleague  in  the  pur{)le,  he  gave  himself  up  entirely  to 
sensual  excesses,  and  the  Roman  cause  in  Armenia  would 
have  been  lost,  and  the  empire  itself,  perhaps,  imperilled, 
had  VeniB  not  had  under  him  able  generals,  the  chief  of 
whom  was  Avidius  Ca-ssius.  Cy  them  the  Roman  prestige 
was  vindicated,  and  the  Parthian  war  brought  to  a  con- 
clusion in.l6fi,  the  two  emperors  having  a  triumph  for 
their  victory  in  the  year  following.  Verus  and  his  army 
brought  with  them  from  the  East  a  terrible  pestilence, 
which  spread  through  the  whole  empire,  and  added  greatly 
to  tho  horrors  of  the  time.  The  people  of  Rome  seem  to 
have  been  cumpk^ty  unnerved  by  the  universal  distress, 
and  to  have  thoui^ht  that  the  last  dava  of  the  empire  had 


come.'  Nor  were  their  fears  without  cause.  Tho  Parthians 
had  at  tho  best  been  beaten,  not  subdued,  the  Britons 
threatened  revolt,  while  signs  appeared  that  various  tubes 
beyond  the  Alps  intended  to  break  into  Italy.  Indeed, 
the  bulk  of  the  reign  of  Aurelius  was  spent  in  efforts  to 
ward  off  from  the  empire  the  attacks  of  the  barbarians. 
To  allay  the  terrors  of  the  Romans,  he  went  himself  to 
the  wars  with  Verus,  his  headquarters  being  Carnuntum 
on  the  Danube.  Ultimately,  the  Marcoman;ii,  the  fiercest 
of  tho  tribes  that  inhabited  the  country  between  Illyria  and 
the  sources  of  tho  Danube,  sued  for  peace  in  lOS.  The 
following  year  Verus  died,  having  been,  it  is  said,  cut  off 
by  the  pestilence  which  he  had  brought  from  Syria,  although 
in  that  wicked  age  there  were  not  wanting  gossips  malig- 
nant enough  to  say  even  of  Marcus  that  he  hastened  hi: 
brother's  death  by  poison. 

Aurelius  was  thenceforth  undisputed  mister  of  the 
Roman  empire,  during  one  of  the  most  troubled  periods  of 
its  history.  Mr  Farrar,  in  his  Seekos  n/ter  God,  thus 
admirably  describes  the  manner  in  which  he  discharged  his 
multifarious  duties  : — "  lie  regarded  himself  as  being,  in 
fact,  the  servant  of  all.  It  was  his  duty,  like  that  of  the 
bull  in  the  herd,  or  the  ram  among  the  llocks,  to  confront 
every  peril  in  his  own  person,  to  be  foremost  in  all  the 
hardships  of  war,  and  most  deeply  immersed  in  all  the  toils 
of  peace.  The  registry  of  the  citizens,  the  suppression  of 
litigation,  the  el(^'ation  of  public  morals.the  care  of  nrinor.«, 
the  retrenchment  of  public  expenses,  the  limitation  of 
gladiatorial  games  .and  shows,  the  care  of  roads,  the  restora- 
tion cf  senatorial  privileges,  the  appointment  of  none  but 
worthy  magistrates,  even  the  regulation  of  street  traffic, 
these  and  numberless  other  duties  so  completely  absorbed 
his  attention,  that,  in  spite  of  indifferent  health,  they  often 
kept  him  at  severe  labour  from  early  morning  till  long  after 
midnight.  His  position,  indeed,  often  necessitated  hi.* 
presence  at  games  and  shows,  but  on  these  occasions  he 
occupied  himself  either  in  reading,  in  being  read  to,  or  in 
writing  notes.  He  was  one  of  those  who  held  that  nothing 
should  be  done  hastily,  and  that  few  crimes  were  worse 
than  the  waste  of  time.'' 

Peace  was  not  long  allowed  the  empeior.  The  year  after 
the  death  of  his  partner,  two  of  the  German  tribes,  the 
Quadi  and  the  Marcomanni,  renewed  hostilities  with  Rome, 
and,  for  three  years,  Aurelius  resided  almost  constantly 
at  Carnuntum,  that  he  might  effectually  watch  them.  In 
the  end,  the  Marcomanni  were  driven  out  of  Paiinonia. 
and  were  almost  destroyed  .in  their  retreat  across  the 
Danube.  In  174  Aurelius  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  Quadi,  to  which  a  superstitious  interest  is  attached, 
and  which  is  commemorated  by  one  of  the  sculptures  on 
the  Column  of  Antonine.  The  story  is  that  the  Roman 
army  had  been  entangled  in  a  defile,  from  which  they 
were  unable  to  extricate  themselves,  while  at  the  same  time 
they  (suffered  intensely  from  thirst.  In  this  extremity  a 
sudden  storm  gave  them  abundance  of  rain,  while  the  hail 
and  thunder  which  accompanied  the  rain  confounded  their 
enemies,  and  enabled  the  Romans  to  gain  an  easy  and 
complete  victory.  This  triumph 'was  universally  con- 
sidered at  the  time,  and  for  long  afterwards,  to  have  been 
a  miracle,  and  bore  the  titk  of  "  The  Miracle  of  the 
Thundering  Lcgiun."  The  Gentile  writers  of  the  period 
ascribed  tho  victory  to  their  gods,  while  the  Christians 
attributed  it  to  the  prayers  of  their  brethren  in  a  legion  to 
which,  they  afTirmcd,  the  emperor  then  gave  the  nar-.e  of 
Thundering.  Dacier,  however,  and  others  who  adhere  to 
the  Christian  view  of  the  miracle,  admit  that  the  appel- 
lation of  Thundering  or  Lightning  («paiio/?oAo5,  or 
K(pavi'o4>6po<:)  was  not  given  to  the  legion  because  the 
Quadi  were  struck  with  lightning,  but  because  thcie  was 
a   figure  of  lightning  on  their  shields.     It  has  also  been 


68 


^  U  R  E  L  I   U  S 


rirtually  proved  that  it  had   ihc  title  even  in  the  rei^n  of 
Augustus. 

Even  after  this  Aurelius  was  not  allowed  to  rest.     From 
Rome,  to  which  he  had  returned,  he  inarched  to  Germany 
to  carry    od   the    war  against  the  tribes  which  harassed 
the  empire.      There  the  alarming  news  reached  him  that 
Avidius   Cassius,   the  brave  and  e.Kperienced  commander 
of  the  Roman  troops  in  Asia,  had  revolted  and  proclaimed 
himself  emperor.      But  the  rebellion   did  not   last  long. 
Cassiua    had   only  enjoyed  his  self-conferred  honour   for 
three  months,  wheu  he  was  assassinated,  and  his  head  was 
brought    to    Marcus.     With    characteristic    magnanimity, 
^^a^cu3  did  not  thank  the  assassins  for   what   they   had 
done ;    on  the  contrary,  he  begged  the  senate  to  pardon 
all  the  family  of  Cassius,  and  to  allow  his  hfe  to  be  the 
only  one  forfeited  on  account  of  the  civil  war.     This  was 
agreed  to,  and  it  must  be  considered  as  a  proof  of  the 
wisdom  of  Aurelius's  clemency,  that  he  had  little  or  no 
trouble  in  pacifying  the  provinces  which  had  been  the  scene 
iif  rebellion.     He  treated  them  all  with  forbearance,  and  it 
is  said  that  when  he  arrived  in  Syria,  and  the  correspond- 
ence of  Cassius  was  brought  him,  he  burnt  it  without 
reading  it.     During  this  journey  of  pacification  his  wife 
Faustina,  who  had  borne  him  eleven  children,  died.     The 
gossiping  historians  of  the  time,  particularly  Dion  Cassius 
and  Capitolinus,  charge  Faustina  with  the  most  shameless 
infidelity  to  her  husband,   who  is  even  blamed  for  not 
paying  heed  to  her  crimes.     But  none  of  these  stories  rest 
on  evidence  which  can  fairly  be  considered  trustworthy  ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever 
that  Aurelius  loved  his  wife  tenderly,  and  trusted  her  im- 
plicitly while  she  lived,  and  mourned  deeply  for  her  loss. 
It  would  seem  that  Aurelius,  after  the  death  of  Faustina 
and  the  pacification  of  Syria,  proceeded,  on  his  return  to 
Italy,  through  Athens,  and  was  initiated  in  the  Eleusinian 
mysteries,  the  reason  assigned  for  his  doing  so  being,  that 
it  was  his  custom  to  conform  to  the  established  rites  of 
any  country  in  which  he  happened  to  find  himself.     Along 
with  his  son   Commodus  he  entered  Rome  in  176,  and 
obtained   a  triumph  for  victories  in  Germany.     In   177 
occurred    that   persecution    of    Christians,    the   share    of 
Aurelius  in  which  has  caused  great  difference  of  opinion, 
and  during  which  Attalus  and  others  were  put  to  death. 
Meanwhile  the  war  on  the  German  frontier  continued,  and 
the  hostile  tribes  were  defeated  as  on  former  occasions.     In 
this  campaign  Aurelius  led  his  own  forces ;  and,  probably 
on  that  account,  he  was  attacked  by  some  infectious  disease, 
which  ultimately  cut  him  off,  after  a  short  illne.ss,  accord- 
ing to  one  account,  in  his  camp  at  Sirmiura  (Mitrovitz)  on 
the  Save,  in  Lower  Pannonia,  and,  according  to  another, 
at  Vindobona  (Vienna),  on  the  17th  March  180  a.d.,  in 
the  fiity-ninth  year  of  his  ago.     His  ashes  (according  to 
some  authorities,  his  body)  were  taken  to  Rome,  and  he 
was  deified.     Those  who  could  afford  the  cost  obtained  his 
statue  or  bust,  and,  for  a  long  time,  statues  of  him  held  a 
place  among  the  Penates  of  the  Romans.     Commodus,  who 
was  with  his  father  when  he  died,  created  to  his  memory 
the  Antoninc  Column  (now  in  the  Piazza  Colonna  at  Rome), 
round   the  shaft  of   which  are  sculptures  in   relief  com- 
memorating the   miracle  of  the  Thundering  Legion  and 
the  various  Yictories  of  Aurelius  over  tho  Quadi  and  the 
Marcomanni. 

Tho  ono  blemish  jn  the  life  of  Aurelius  is  his  hostility 
to  Christianity,  wbictis  the  more  remarkable  that  his 
morality  conies  nearer  than  any  other  heathen  system  to 
that  of  the  New  Testament.  Attempts  have  been  made  to 
show  that  ho  was  not  responsible  for  tho  atrocities  with 
which  his  reign  is  credited,  but  tho  evidence  of  Jnstin,  of 
Athcnagoras,  of  ApoUinaris,  and  above  all,  of  Melito,  bishop 
of  Sardis,  and  of  the  Church  of  Smyrna,  is  overwhelmingly 


to  the  effect  that  not  only  were 'there  severe  persecutions 
of  Christians,  in  which  men  like  Polycarp  and  Jostiu 
perished,  but  that  the  foundation  of  these  persecutions 
was  certain  rescripts  or  constitutions  issued  by  Aurelius  as 
supplementary  to  the  riiilder  decrees  of  his  predecessors- 
Hadrian  and  Antoninus  Pius.  In  explanation,  however,  if 
not  in  e.xtenuation,  of  the  attitude  of  Aurelius  towards 
Christianity,  several  circumstances  should  be  taken  into 
consideration.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  evident  that  he  knew 
little  of  the  Christians,  and  absolutely  nothing  of  Christian 
ethics.  In  his  Meditations  he  makes  only  one  reference 
(xi.  3)  to  the  adherents  of  the  new  creed,  and  that  of  the 
most  contemptuous  character,  showing  that  he  confounded 
them  all  with  certain  fanatics  of  their  number,  whom  even 
Clemens  of  Alexandria  compares,  on  account  of  their  thirst 
for  martyrdom,  to  the  Indian  gymnosophists.  How  far 
this  ignorance  was  culpable  it  is  impossible  at  so  remote 
a  date  to  say.  Further,  it  should  be  noted,  in  regard  to  the 
rescripts  upon  which  the  persecutions  were  founded,  that, 
although  they  were  in  the  name  of  the  emperor,  they  may 
not  have  proceeded  directly  from  him.  There  "!a  no  evidence 
that  he  was  an  active  persecutor,  except  a  passage  in  Orosius 
to  the  effect  that  there  were  persecutions  of  the  Christians 
in  Asia  and  Gallia  "under  the  orders  of  Marcus;"  and  it 
should  not  be  kept  out  of  consideration  that  he  was  to 
some  extent  a  constitutional  monarch,  and  had  to  pay 
deference  both  to  the  cunsulta  of  the  senate  and  the  pre- 
cedents of  previous  emperors.  At  the  time  there  was  a  great 
popular  outcry  against  the  Christians  on  social  and  political, 
even  more  than  on  religious,  grounds ;  and  Aurelius  may 
have  been  as  much  at  the  mercy  of  intriguers  or  fanatic* 
when  he  gave  his  sanction  to  the  butcheries  of  Christians 
in  .Asia  Minor,  as  William  III.  was  at  the  mercy  of  Stair 
and  Breadalbane,  the  real  authors  of  the  massacre  of  Glen- 
coe.  Finally,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that,  in  the  reiga 
of  Aurelius,  the  Christians  had  assumed  a  much  bolder 
attitude  than  they  had  hitherto  done.  Not  only  had  they 
caused  first  interest  and  then  alarm  by  the  rapid  increase 
of  their  numbers,  but,  not  content  with  a  bare  toleration  io 
the  empire,  they  declared  war  against  all  heathen  rites, 
and,  at  least  indirectly,  against  the  Government  which  per- 
mitted them  to  exist.  In  tho  eyes  of  Aurelius  they  were 
atheists  and  foes  of  that  social  order  which  he  considered 
it  the  first  of  a  citizen's  duties  to  maintain,  and  it  is  quito 
possible  that,  although  the  most  amiable  of  men  and  of 
rulers,  he  may  have  conceived  it  to  be  -his  duty  to  sanction 
measures  for  the  extermination  of  such.^vretches.  Still  his 
action  at  the  time  must  be  considered,  as  John  Stuart  Mill 
puts  it,  as  "  one  of  the  most  tragical  facts  in  all  history." 

The  book  which  contains  the  philosophy  of  Aurelius  is 
known  by  the  title  of  his  Ileflections,  or  his  Meditations, 
although  that  is  not  tho  name  which  he  gave  to  it  him- 
self, and  of  the  genuineness  of  the  authorship  no  doubts 
are  now  entertained.  It  is  believed  that  the  emperor  also 
wrote  an  autobiography,  which  has  perished  with  other 
treasures  of  antiquity.  The  Meditations  were  written, 
it  is  evident,  as  occasion  offered, — in  tho  midst  of  publir, 
business,  and  even  on  tho  cvo  of  battles  on  which  the  fate 
of  the  empire  depended, — hence  their  fragmentary  appear- 
ance, but  hence  also  much  of  their  practical  value  and  even 
of  their  charm.  It  is  believed  by  many  critics  that  they 
were  intended  for  the  guidance  in  life  of  Aurelius's  son, 
Commodus.  If  so,  history  records  how  lamentably  they 
failed  in  accomplishing  their  immediate  effect,  for  Com- 
modus proved  ono  of  the  greatest  sensualists,  buffoons, 
and  tyrants  that  disgraced  even  the  Roman  purple.  But 
they  have  been  considered  aa  one  of  tho  most  precious  of 
the  legacies  of  antiquity, — as,  in  fact,  tho  best  of  non. 
inspired  reflections  on  practical  morality-.  They  have  betr. 
recugniscd  as  among  the  most  effectual  stimuli  to  struggle:^ 


A    IJ    K  -   A    Ij'   It 


89 


to  life,  of  nUaievcr  class  and  in  whatever  position,  in  tbe 
6eld  of  speculation  as  in  tbatof  action.  The  Meditations 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  were,  with  Machiavelli's  Art  of  War, 
the  daily  study  of  Cai'tain  John  Smith,  tbe  real  founder 
of  the  United  States.  They  are  placed  by  Mr  Mill 
in  his  postiumous  essay  on  the  Utility  oj  Religion  as 
almost  equal  in  ethical  elevation  to  tbe  Sermon  on  the 
Mount. 

Aurelius  eaily  embraced,  and  throughout  life  adhered 
to,  the  Stoical  philosophy,  probably  because  he  considered 
it  as  the  sternest  and  most  solid  systecn  to  oppose  to  the 
corruption  of  his  time.  But,  as  Tenneman  says,  he  im- 
parted to  it  "a  character  of  gentleness  and  benevolence,  by 
making  it  subordinate  to  a  love  of  mankind,  allied  to 
religion  "  In  the  Miditatioru  it  is  difficult  to  discover 
anything  like  a  systematic  philosophy,  which,  indeed, 
means,  as  ho  used  the  word,  tranquillity,  or  a  serene  habit 
of  mind  From  the  manner,  however,  in  which  he  seeks 
to  distinguish  between  matter  (v\ri)  and  cause  or  reason 
(aiTi'a,  Xoyos),  and  from  the  Carlylean  earnestness  with 
which  he  advises  men  to  examine  all  the  impressions  on 
their>-mind3  (^ai^aami),  it  may  be  inferred  that  he  held 
the  view  of  Anaxagoras — that  God  and  matter  exist 
independently,  but  that  God  governs  matter  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  Aurelius  believed  in  a  deity,  although 
Schultz  is  probably  right  in  maintaining  that  all  his 
theology  amounts  vo  thi.^,  —  the  soul  ol  man  is  most 
intimately  united  to  his  body,  and  together  they  make  one 
animal  which  we  call  man  ,  and  so  the  deity  is  most 
intimately  united  to  the  world  or  the  material  universe,  and 
together  they  form  one  whole  We  find  in  the  MeJila 
(ions  no  speculations  on  the  absolute  nature  of  the  deity, 
and  no  clear  expressions  of  opinion  as  to  a  future  state 
We  may  also  obsene  here  that,  like  E[iictetiis,  he  is 
by  no  means  so  decided  on  the  subject  of  suicide  as  the 
older  Stoics  Aurelius  is,  above  all  things,  a  practical 
moralist.  The  goal  in  life  to  be  aimed  at,  according  to  him, 
IS  not  happiness,  but  tranquillity,  or  equanimity  This 
condition  of  mind  can  be  attained  only  by  "  living  con 
formably  to  nature,"  that  is  to  say,  one's  whole  nature,  and 
as  a  means  to  that,  man  must  cultivate  the  four  chief 
virtues,  each  of  which  has  its  distinct  sphere— wisdom,  or 
the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil,  justice,  or  the  giving  to 
every  man  his  due  ;  fortitude,  or  the  enduring  of  labour 
and  pain  ,  and  temperance,  or  moderation  in  all  things. 
It  IS  no  "fugitive  and  cloistered  virtue"  that  Aurelius 
seeks  to  encourage  ,  on  the  contrary,  man  must  lead  the 
"  life  of  the  social  animal,"  must  "live  as  on  a  mountain  ," 
and  "  he  is  an  abscess  on  the  universe  who  withdraws  and 
separates  himself  from  the  reason  of  our  common  nature 
through  being  displeased  with  the  things  which  happen  " 
While  the  prime  pnncijile  in  man  is  the  social,  "  the  next 
in  order  is  not  to  yield  to  the  persuasions  of  the  body, 
when  they  are  not  conformable  to  the  rational  principle 
which  must  govern  "  This  "  divinity  within  a  man,"  this 
"  legislating  faculty  "  (lo  ijytiioiiitov)  which,  looked  at  from 
one  point  of  view,  13  conscience,  and  from  another  is  reason, 
oiK.'t  be  implicitly  obeyed.  Ue  who  thus  obeys  it  will 
nttain  tranquillity  of  mind  ;  nothing  can  irritate  him,  for 
evcrjlhing  is  according  to  nature,  and  death  itself  "  is  such 
«.»  generation  is,  a  mys-tery  of  nature,  a  composition  out  of 
the  same  elements,  and  a  decomposition  into  the  same,  and 
ftitf.gether  not  a  thing  of  which  any  man  should  be  ashamed, 
'or  it  IS  not  contrary  to  the  nature  of  a  re;isonable  animal, 
and  not  contrary  to  the  reason  of  our  constitution  " 

The  morality  of  Marcus  Aurs:biis  cannot  be  said  to  have 
been  new  wh-.u  11  was  given  to  the  worlil,  far  less  can 
it  be  said  to  Im  systematic  Compared,  indeed,  with 
•laborate  tfeatncs  on  ethics,  the  Medit.ilions  of  Marcus 
iurelius  are  as    tjoic   me<licine  to  BUC(ulent    fi>iHl      Tlip 


charm  of  his  morality  lies  in  its  exquisite  accent  and  its 
infinite  tenderness  Where  can  the  connoisseur  in  morals 
find  anything  finer  than  such  sentences  as  this  1 — "The 
pnde  which  is  proud  of  its  want  of  pride  is  the  most 
intolerable  of  all  ."  or  where  can  a  more  delicate  rebuke  to 
the  Pharisaism  which  lurks  in  the  breast  of  every  man  be 
obtained  than  this  1 — "  One  man,  when  he  has  done 
a  service  to  another,  is  ready  to  set  it  down  to  his  account 
as  a  favour  conferred  Another  is  not  ready  to  do  this, 
but  still,  in  his  own  mind,  he  thinks  of  the  man  as  his 
debtor,  and  he  knows  what  he  has  done  A  third  in  a 
manner  does  not  even  know  what  he  has  done,  but  he  is 
like  a  vine  which  has  produced  grapes,  and  seeks  for 
nothing  more  after  it  h.^3  once  produced  its  proper  fiuit. 
So  a  man  when  he  has  done  a  good  act,  does  not  call  out 
for  others  to  come  and  sec,  but  he  goes  on  to  another  act 
as  a  vine  goes  on  to  produce  again  the  grapes  in  season  " 
But  above  all,  what  gives  the  sentences  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
their  enduring  value  and  fascination,  what  renders  them 
superior  to  the  utterances  of  other  moralists  of  the  sinie 
school,  such  as  Epictetus  and  Seneca,  is  that  they  are  the 
gospel  of  his  life.  Uis  practice  was  in  accordance  «ilh 
his  precepts,  or  rather  his  precepts  are  simply  the  records 
of  his  practice  To  the  saintliness  of  the  cluisler  he  added 
the  wisdom  of  the  man  of  the  world  ,  constant  in  inisfurtune, 
not  elated  by  prosperity,  never  "carrying  things  to  the 
sweating  point  ,"  preserving,  in  a  time  of  universal  corrujK 
tion,  iinicality,  and  self  indulgence,  a  nature  sweet,  pure, 
self-denying,  uiiafTectcd,  Marcus  Aurelius  has  given  to  the 
world  one  of  the  finest  examples  of  the  possibdilics  of 
humanity 

The  Meditations  of  Marcus  Aurelins  have  been  translated 
into  English,  German,  French,  Spanish,  and  Italian.  The 
two  chief  English  translations  are  those  of  Jeremy  Collier 
(1702)  and  of  George  Long,  the  last  may  be  considered 
final.  The  text  most  coniiiionly  used  is  the  Greek  one 
edited  by  J  M  Schult7,(republished  by  Tauihnitz  in  1S2I ). 
Many  books  have  been  written  on  the  life  and  times  of 
Aurelius,  and  the  essays  on  his  Meditations  are  iijnumer- 
able.  One  of  tbe  best  estimates  of  him  is  contained  in  Mr 
F  W  Fdrrar's  Seekers  after  God,  ]SCS  A  scholarly  ^I'lk 
issued  in  1874  by  M  Gaston  Boissin,  entitled  La  liiliQiun 
Romaine  d'Auguste  am  Aytlonines.  gives,  pcrha])s.  the  most 
interesting  existing  account  of  the  state  of  society  under 
tho  Antonines. 

AUREOLA,  Aureole,  the  radiance  or  luminous  cloud 
which,  in  paintings  of  sacred  personages,  is  represented  as 
surrounding  the  whole  figure  In  the  earliest  periods  of 
Christian  art  this  splendour  was  confined  to  the  figures  of 
the  persons  of  the  Godhead,  but  it  was  afterwards  extended 
to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  to  several  of  the  saints  The 
aureola,  when  enveloping  the  whole  body,  is  generally 
oval  or  »)liptical  in  furni,  but  is  occasionally  circular  or 
quatrefoil  When  it  is  merely  a  luniiiKnis  disk  round  the 
head,  it  is  called  specifically  a  nimbus,  while  the  combination 
of  nimbus  and  aureole  is  called  a  glory  The  strict  dis- 
tinction between  nimbus  and  aureole  is  uot  commonly 
maintained,  and  the  latter  term  is  most  frequently  used  to 
denote  the  radiance  round  the  heads  of  saints,  angels,  or 
persons  of  the  CoJhcail 

AUIUCH,  a  town  tif  rrnssia,  in  ihi  province  of  nanovcr, 
situated  on  the  Trccklief  canal  It  13  regularly  built  ; 
possesses  a  castle  which  was  fMriiiei'y  the  residence'  of  the 
prince  of  Eiist  Fneslaiid.a  lyceum  and  fnur  libraries  ,  and 
carries  on  the  manufacture  of  leather,  ['sper,  pottery,  ani 
tobacco  The  famous  meeting  place  of  the  East  Fries 
landers,  t/«(a«/j6oom,  19  in  tbe  neighbourhood  Population 
42fiJ 

AURIFABER  (the  Latinised  form  of  the  name  Gold- 
s.'MMiDTl  loAXNBS,  a  Lutheran  divinccclebrattd as ;".ie 


no 


A  U  R  —  A  U  R 


friend  of  Luther  and  as  one  of  the  editors  of  his  works, 
was  born  in  1519  m  the  county  of  Mansfeldt,  or,  more 
probably,  in  the  town  of  Weimar.  Alter  completing  his 
education  at  the  university  of  Wittenberg,  where  he  heard 
the  lectures  of  Luther,  he  became  tutor  to  Count  Mansfeldt, 
and  in  the  war  of  1544-5  accompanied  the  xixmy  as 
field-preacher.  For  some  months  afterwards  he  resided 
with  Luther  as  hiafamutut  or  private  secretary,  and  was 
present  at  his  death  in  1546.  In  the  following  year  he 
spent  six  months  in  prison  along  with  John  Frederick,  elector 
of  Saiony,  who  had  been  captured  by  the  emperor,  Charles 
v.  He  held  for  some  years  the  office  of  court-preacher  at 
Weimar,  but,  owing  to  theological  disputes,  was  compelled 
to  resign  this  office  in  1-561.  In  1566  he  was  appointed 
to  the  Lutheran  church  at  Erfurt,  which  post  he  held, 
though  not  without  serious  differences  with  his  feUow- 
clergymen,  till  his  death  in  1575.  Besides  taking  a  share 
in  the  first  collected  or  Jena  edition  of  Luther's  works, 
Aurifaber  sought  out  and  published  at  Eisleljen  in  1564-5 
several  writings-  not  included  in  that  edition.  He  also 
published  Luther's  Utters  (1556,  1565),  and  Table  Talk 
(1566). 

AURIFaBER,  Joannes,  a  Lutheran  divine,  born  at 
Breslau  in  1517.  He  was  educated  at  Wittenberg,  and 
was  there  specially  attracted  to  Melanchthon,  with  whom 
he  ever  afterwards  remained  on  terms  of  close  friendship. 
After  graduating  in  1538  he  spent  twelve  years  as  decent 
at  the  university,  and  having  then. received  his  doctorate  of 
divinity,  was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  and  pastor  of 
the  church  of  St  Nicholas  at  Rostock.  He  distinguished 
himself  by  his  prudence  and  conciliatory  disposition, 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  composition  of  the  regulations 
(or  the  Mecklenburg  Church,  and  was  successful  in  allay- 


ing some  religious  disputes  in  the  town  of  Liibeck.  The- 
Grand-duke  Albert  of  Prussia,  who  was  very  desirous  of 
healing  the  differences  in  the  Prussian  Church  caused  by 
the  discussion  of  Osiander's  doctrines,  was  attracted  by 
Aurifaber,  invited  him  to-Kiinigsberg  in  1553,  and  in  the 
following  year  appointed  him  to  the  professorship  of 
divinity  in  that  university,  and  to  the  presidency  of  the 
Samland  diocese.  Aurifaber,  however,  found  it  impossible' 
to  conciliate  all  parties,  and  in  1565  returned  to  Breslau, 
where,  for  the  three  remaining  years  of  his  life,  he  dis- 
charged the  joint  offices  of  pastor  in  the  church  of  St 
Elizabeth  and  director  of  the  Lutheran  Church  and 
schools.     He  died  19th  October  156S. 

ALIRILLAC,  the  capital  of  ithe  department  of  Cantal, 
France,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jourdanne, 
which  is  here  crossed  by  a  handsome  bridge.  It  contains 
tribunals  of  primary  instance  and  commerce,  a  communal 
college,  societies  of  agriculture,  arts,  and  commerce,  a 
public  library,  and  a  museum.  Most  of  the  town  is  of 
comparatively  modern  construction,  its  more  ancient  build- 
ings having  suffered  severely  in  the  religious  wars  of  the 
16th  century.  Of  highest  claims  to  antiquity  are- portions 
of  the  castle  of  St  Etienne,  the  church  of  St  G<iraud,  and  a- 
Benedictine  abbey,  which  is  regarded  by  many  as  the 
original  nucleus  round  which  Aurillac  gathered.  There  is 
a  statue  of  Sylvester  IL,  who  was  a  native  of  the  town, 
and  was  educated  in  the  abbey,  which  soon  afterwards 
became  one  of  the  most  famous  schools  of  France.  The 
manufactures  consist  of  tapestry,  lace,  cutlery,  paper, 
leather,  (fee,  and  a  considerable  niunber  of  horses  are 
bred.     Population  in  1872,  11,098. 

AURORA,  the  Roman  personification  of  the  dawn  ot 
day,  corresponding  to  the  Greek  goddess  Eos  (q.v.). 


AURORA       POLARIS 


AURORA  POLARIS,  AtJBORA Bore AiisandAusTEiLis, 
Polar  Light,  Northern  Lights,  or  Streamers, 
an  electrical  meteor,  appearing  most  frequently  in  high  lati- 
tudes, in  the  form  of  luminous  clouds,  arches,  and  rays,  of 
which  the  latter  sometimes  meet  at  a  point  near  the  zenith, 
and  form  what  is  called  a  boreal  crown.     The  arches  are 
sometimes  single ;  sometimes  several  concentric   ones  are 
seen,  and   they   are   usually  nearly  stationary,   or  move 
slowly  southward.     They  cross  the  magnetic  meridian  at 
right  angles,  and,  therefore,  in  England,  have  their  centres 
nearly  N.N.-W.     The  rays  rise  perpendicularly  from  the 
arches,  but  are  sometimes  seen  detached,  or  when  the  arch 
is  below  the  horizon.     They  are  parallel  to  the  dipping 
needle,  or,  in  other  words,  to  the  curves  of  magnetic  force  ; 
and  the  boreal  crown,  at  which  thoy  appear  to  meet,  is 
merely  an  effect  of  perspective.     This  point  is  in  England 
about  70°  in  altitude,  and  nearly  S.S.E.    of  the  zenith. 
The  rays  are  seldom  stationary,  but  appear  and  disappear 
suddenly, -shooting  with  great  velocity  up  to  the  zenith, 
and  moving  slowly  eastward  or   westward,  but  most  com- 
monly the  latter.     They  sometimes  cover  the  whole  sky, 
and  frequently  have  a  strong  tremulous  motion  from  end 
to  end.     This  tremulous  motion  is  sometimes  seen  also  in 
the  arches  when  near  the  zenith ;  and  Benjamin  V.  Marsh 
mentions  a  case  in  which  the  matter  of  the  arch  had  the 
appearance  of  a  rapid  torrent  flowing  from  east  to  west. 
A  rare  form  of  aurora  is  that  in  which  the  rays  appear  to 
hang  from  the  sky  like  fringes  or  the  folds  of  a  mantle. 
The  ordinary  colour  of  the  aurora  is  a  pale  greenish-yellow, 
but  crimson,  violet,  and  steul-colour  are  not  uncommon. 
Crimson  aurojas  have  often  been  imagined  by  the  super- 
stitious to  be  omens  of  war,  pestilence,  and  famine  ;   and 
lively  imaginations  have  seen  in  their  motions — 


"  Fierce  fiery  warriors  fight  upon  the  clouds 
In  ranks,  and  squadrons,  and  right  fonn  of  war  " 

They  were  called  by  the  ancients  chasmata,  bolides,  and 
trabes,  according  to  their  forms  and  colours.  In  Shetland, 
where  they  are  very  frequent,  and  in  the  north  of  Scotland, 
they  are  k  no wn  as  the  "  merry  dancers  "  (perhaps  the  ancient 
caprce  aaltantes) ;  while,  from  a  curious  passage  in  Sirr's 
Ceylon  and  the  Cingalese,  vol.  ii.  p.  117,  it  seems  that  the 
aurora,  or  something  like  it,  is  occasionally  visible  in  Ceylon, 
and  that  the  natives  call  it  the  Buddha  lights.  Mr  Jansen 
says,  however,  that  the  great  aurora  of  4th  February  1872, 
which  wafi  seen  at  Bombay,  was  not  visible  in  Ceylon.  In 
many  parts  of  Ireland  a  scarlet  aurora  is  supposed  to  be  a 
shower  of  blood,  and  under  this  name  is  not  unfrequently 
mentioned  in  the  old  annuls,  always  in  connection  with 
some  battle  or  the  murder  of  a  great  chief.  The  earliest 
mentioned  was  in  688,  in  the  Annals  of  C loon-mac-noise, 
after  a  battle  between  Lcinsler  and  Munster,  in  which 
Foylcher  O'Moyloyer  was  slain.  It  was  observed  at  Edessa 
in  502,  and  in  Syria  in  1097,  1098,  and  1117. 

The  only  thing  resembling  a  distinct  history  of  this 
phenomenon  is  that  which  has  been  given  by  Dr  Hallcy, 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  Na  347  The  first 
account  ho  gives,  taken  from  a  book  entitled  A  Descriptio'i 
of  Meteors,  by  W.  F.,  D.I).,  reprinted  at  London  in  1654, 
describes  the  appearance  of  what  is  called  by  him  burnitig 
spears,  which  were  seen  at  Loudon  on  the  30th  January 
1500.  The  next  appearance,  according  to  the  testimony 
of  Stow,  was  ou  tho  7th  October  1564.  In  1574  also, 
according  to  Camden  and  Stow,  an  aurora  horeaJis  waa 
observed  two  nights  successively,  viz.,  on  tho  14th  au'l 
15th  of  November,  having  much  the  sumo  appearances  83 
that  described  by  Pr  Ilalley  in  1710.     Again,  an  aurore 


AURORA 


01 


wis  c«-icc  seen  in  Brabant,  io  the  year  \'i75,  viz  ,  vu  the 
I3lh  of  February  and  28th  of  September,  lioth  appear^ 
unces  were  described  by  Cornelius  Oemm,  professor  of 
medicine  at  Louvain,  who  cutnp<ire&  them  to  spears, 
fortified  cities,  and  armies  Bghting  in  the  air.  Michael 
Mie^tlio,  tutor  to  Kepler,  etiites  that  at  Backnang  in 
Wiirtomberg  these  phenomena,  which  he  styles  chasmata, 
were  seen  by  himself  no  less  than  seven  times  in  1580. 
In  15BI  they  again  appeared  in  gre^t  eplendour  in  April 
and  Snptcmbcr,  and  in  a  less  dtgree  in  some  other  months 
of  the  simo  year.  In  L'eptember  1621,  a  similar  pheno- 
menon was  observed  oil  over  France,  and  described  by 
Oassendi,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  aurora  borealis ;  yet 
neither  this,  nor  any  similar  appearance  posterior  to  l.'i74, 
ia  described  by  English  writers  till  the  year  1707.  From 
IG'21  to  1707,  indeed,  there  is  no  mention  made  of  an 
aurora  borealis  having  been  seen  at  all  ;  and,  considering 
the  number  of  astronomers  who  during  that  period  were 
continually  scanning  the  heavens,  it  might  almost  be  sup- 
posed that  nothing  ol  the  kind  really  made  its  appear- 
ance until  after  an  interval  of  eighty-six  years.  A  email 
one  was  seen  in  November  1707  .  and  during  that  and  the 
following  year  the  sain'  a|ipearancos  were  rejieated  five 
times.  The  next  on  record  is  thut  mentioned  by  Dr  Halley 
iu  March  Hlfi,  which  from  its  brilliancy  attract.^d  universal 
attention,  and  was  consi'.icrcd  by  the  common  people  as 
marking  the  intn^duction  of  a  foreign  race  of  princes. 
Since  that  time  iheso  uioteors  have  been  much  more 
frequent,  and  most  of  o'lr  readers  must  have  seen  the 
brilliant  displays  within  the  last  fe>7  years  which  have  been 
visible  over  the  v.  hole  of  Europe. 

Ona  singiiiar  phenomenon  which  .-e:'Ts  to  be  connected 
with  the  aurora  is  that  of  a  dark  bani:  of  cloud  below  the 
orches,  and  usually  just  abovo  ths  northern  horizon. 
Although  this  appears  decidedly  darker  than  the  ■ncnvered 
portiou  of  the  sky,  it  is  of  so  thin  a  char.u-ter  ihat  stars  c;in 
be  seen  through  it,  as  well  as  through  I  be  aurond  arches 
and  rays,  with  but  little  diminution  of  brightness.  It  is, 
howvor,  quite  possibl.'!  that  this  cloud  i-j,  only  the  somewhat 
misty  open  sky  near  the  horizon,  which  appears  darker  by 
contrast  with  the  bright  arch  above  it 
<•-  -nlM  It  has  been  repeatedly  affirmed  that  cracking,  hissing,  or 

whizzing  sounds  have  been  heard  proceeding  from  the 
■ri  polar  lights,  aud  the  natives  of  high  latitudes  are  almost 
unanimous  in  alleging  that  this  is  sometimes  the  casa 
Scoresby,  Richardson,  Franklin,  Parry,  Hood,  and  later 
observers  seem  to  have  listened  in  vain  for  such  noises,  and 
it  seems  that  in  the  intense  cold  of  the  Arctic  night  the 
contraction  of  the  ii;e,  or  its  cleavage  under  the  pressure  of 
approaching  tcmpesta,  produces  sounds  exactly  such  as  are 
described.  Still,  mere  negative  evidencfi  must  bo  received 
with  caution,  aud  it  is  very  possible  that  in  high  latitudes 
euch  sounds  may  occasionally  bo  heard,  since  the  electric 
discharge  seems  to  originate  near  the  polos.  The  anrora, 
too,  seems  to  vary  greatly  in  height,  and  in  lower  latitudes 
is  usually  at  such  an  altitude  that  audible  sounds  from  it 
are  quite  impossible.  Musschenbroeck  says  that  the  Orcon- 
lind  fiahers  in  his  time  nsaurod  him  that  they  had  frequently 
hoard  noises  proceeding  from  the  aurora  borealis,  and  his 
testimony  is  confirmed  by  that  of  many  others.  There  is 
no  a  prirri  improbabilrty  of  such  sounds  being  occasionally 
hoard,  since  a  somewhat  similar  phenomenon  accompanies 
the  bru;  h  discharge  of  the  electiio  machine,  to  which  the 
aurora  bears  considerable  resemblance, 
rvivliglit  Numerous  observers  {Naturi,  iv.  27,  47)  have  attested 

*""••»•  the  occasional  visibility  of  aurora  by  daylight.  In  the 
Transactions  of  t/ie  Royal  Irish  Academtj,  1788,  Dr  H. 
Ussher  notices  that  aurora  makes  the  stars  "  flutter"  very 
much  in  the  telescope,  and  state  that,  having  noticed  this 
dive t  strongly  one  day  at  tl  a.m.,  he*  'iinincd  the  sty  ;nd 


saw  an  auroral  corona  with  rays  to  tLe  horizon.  J.  Qlai^  ''.er, 
Franklin,  and  others,  have  also  observed  the  phenomcuon. 
It  is  scarcely,  possible  that  a  light  so  faint  as  not  even  to 
obscure  the  stjrs  should  be  visible  in  sunlight,  and  3U',h 
facts  would  seem  to  suggest  that  the  auroral  light  is  deve- 
loped in  cloud  or  mist  of  some  sort,  which  may  become 
visible  by  reflected  light,  as  well  as  by  its  own.  Frankbn 
says,  "  Upon  one  occasion  the  aurora  was  seen  immediately 
after  sunset,  while  bright  daylight  was  still  remaining.  A 
circumstance  to  whith  1  attach  some  importance  must  not 
be  omitted.  Clouds  have  sometimes  been  observed  during 
the  day  to  assume  the  forms  of  aurorti,  and  I  am  inclined 
to  connect  with  these  clouds  the  deviation  of  the  needle, 
which  was  occasionally  remarked  at  such  times."  The 
writer  has  seen  auroftv  which  could  not  be  distinguished 
from  clouds,  till  the  further  development  of  the  display 
made  their  real  nature  evident  Dr  Richardson  thinks  iic 
has  observed  a  polarity  in  the  masses  of  cloud  belonging 
to  a  certain  kind  of  cirro-stratus  approaching  to  cirrus,  by 
which  their  long  diameters,  having  all  the  same  direction, 
were  made  to  cross  the  niagnetic  meridian  nearly  at  right 
angles  But  the  apparent  convergence  of  such  masses  of 
cloud  towards  the  opposite  points  of  the  horizon,  which 
have  been  so  frequently  noticed  by  meteo.ologists,  is  an 
optical  deception,  produced  when  they  are  situated  in  i 
plane  parallel  to  that  on  which  the  observer  stands.  The.sa 
circumitances,  says  Dr  Richardson,  are  here  noticed,  because 
if  it  shall  hereafter  be  proved  that  the  aurora  depends  upon 
the  existence  of  certain  clouds,  its  apparent  polarity  may, 
perhaps,  with  mors  propriety,  be  ascribed  to  the  cloudi 
themselves  which  emit  the  lij.'ht  ,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
clouds  m:\y  a.ssume  their  peculiar  arrangement  througli  the 
operation  uf  one  cause  (magnetism,  for  example),  while  the 
emission  of  light  may  bo  produced  by  another,  namely,  a 
change  in  their  internal  constitution,  perhaps  connected 
with  a  motion  of  the  electrical  fluid.  D.  hovr  (Nat.,  iv 
121)  slates  that  he  h.is  witnessed  as  complete  a  display 
of  auroral  motions  in  the  cirrus  cloud  as  he  ever  beheld 
in  a  midnight  sky.  "He  thinks  that  aU  clouds  are 
subject  to  magnetic  or  diamagnetic  polarisation,  and  states 
that  when  the  lines  converge  towards  the  magnetic  pole, 
fine  weather  follows ;  when  they  are  at  right  angle.' 
to  this  position,  wet  and  stormy  The  aurora  appears 
in  these  latitudes  usually  to  occur  at  a  height  much 
greater  than  that  of  ordinary  clouds.  Dr  Richardson's 
observations  (Franklin  and  Richardson's  Journey  to  tff- 
A'AoTM  of  the  Polar  Stvi)  seem  to  show,  however,  that,  in 
the  Arctic  regions,  the  aurora  is  occasionally  seated  in  a 
region  of  the  atmosphere  below  a  kind  of  cloud  whith 
Li  known  to  possess  no  great  altitude,  namely,  that  modi- 
fication of  cirro-stratus  which,  desceniling  low  in  the 
atmosphere,  produces  a  hazy  sheet  of  cloud  over  head,  or  a 
fogbank  in  the  horizon.  Indeed,  Dr  Richardson  is  inclined 
to  infer  that  the  aurora  borealis  is  constantly  accompanied 
by,  or  immediately  precedes,  the  formation  of  one  or  other 
of  the  forms  of  cirro-stratus  On  the  Kith  of  November 
and  18th  December  1826,  at  Fort  Enterprise,  its  connec- 
tion with  a  clond  intermediate  between  cimis  and  cirro- 
Btratus  is  mentioned  ;  but  the  most  vivid  coruscations  of 
the  aurora  were  observed  when  there  were  only  n  few  thin 
attenuated  shoots  of  cirro-stratus  floating  in  the  air,  or 
when  that  cloud  was  so  rare  that  its  existence  was  onlv 
known  by  the  production  of  a  halo  round  the  mooB.  The 
nativos  of  the  Arctic  regions  of  North  Amenca -pretend  to 
foretell  wind  by  the  rapidity  of  the  motions  of  the  aurora  , 
and  they  say  that  when  it  spreads  over  the  sky  in  a  uniform 
sheet  of  light,  it  is  followed  by  fine  weather,  and  that  the 
changes  thus  indicated  are  more  or  less  speedy,  according 
as  the  appearance  of  the  meteor  is  early  or  late  in  the 
evening, — an  opinion  not  improbable,  when  it  is  recollected 


92 


AURORA 


that  certain  kinds  of  cirro-stratus  are  also  regarded  by 
meteorokigista  as  sure  indications  of  rain  and  wind.  Dr 
Kicliardion  frxjuently  obsen-ed  the  lower  surface  of 
nebulous  masses  illuminated  by  polar  lights, — a  fact  illus- 
trative of  the  comparatively  low  situation  of  these  aurorae. 
Biot,  also,  in  the  island  of  Unst,  observed  many  aurora 
that  could  not  be  higher  than  the  region  of  clouds.  Sir 
John  Franklin  in  like  manner  observed  low  aurors.  "  The 
important  fact,"  says  he,  "  of  the  existence  of  the  aurora 
at  a  less  elevation  than  that  of  dense  clouds  was  evinced 
on  two  or  three  occasions  this  night  (13th  February  1821, 
at  Fort  Enterprise),  and  particularly  at  11  hours  50  min., 
when  a  brilliant  mass  of  light,  variegated  with  the  prismatic 
colours,  passed  between  a  uniform  steady  dense  cloud  and 
the  earth,  and  in  its  progress  completely  concealed  that 
portion  of  the  cloud  which  the  stream  of  light  covered, 
until  the  coruscation  had  passed  over  it,  when  the  cloud 
appeared  as  before."  Captain  Parry,  as  stated  in  his  third 
voyage,  observed  auroroe  near  to  the  earth's  surface.  It  is 
said  that  while  Lieutenants  Scherer  and  Ross  and  Captain 
Parry  were  admiring  the  extreme  beauty  of  a  polar  light, 
they  all  simultaneously  uttered  an  exclamation  of  surprise 
at  seeing  a  bright  ray  of  the  aurora  shoot  suddenly  down- 
ward from  the  general  mass  of  light,  and  between  them 
and  the  land,  which  was  only  3000  yards  distant.  The 
ray  or  beam  of  the  polar  light  thus  passed  within  a  distance 
of  3000  yards,  or  less  than  2  miles,  of  them.  Further,  Mr 
Farquharson  observed  in  Aberdeenshire  an  aurora  borealis 
not  more  than  4000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Fitzroy  believed  that  aurora  in  northern  latitudes  indicates 
and  accompanies  stormy  weather  at  a  distance,  and  that 
straining  and  cracking  of  the  ice  may  cause  the  liissing  and 
whizzing  sounds. 

M.  Silbermann  {Comptes  Rendus,  Ixviii.  p  1051)  notes 
facts  which  strongly  confirm  the  connection  of  aurora 
with  some  form  of  cirrus  cloud  He  says  (of  the  aurora 
of  iJth  April  1869),— "At  11  hours  16  min.  the  pheno- 
menon disappeared  in  a  singular  fashion.  It  appeared  as 
if  the  columns  of  the  aurora  wfere  still  visible,  but  the 
stars  were  hidden,  and  it  soon  became  obvious  that  fan-like 
cirrus  clouds,  with  their  point  of  divergence  in  the  north, 
had  taken  the  place  of  the  aurora.  Between  1  and  2  in 
the  morning  these  clouds  had  passed  the  zenith,  and  let 
fall  a  very  fine  rain.  On  stretching  out  the  back  of  the 
hind  one  felt  a  pricking  of  cold,  and  now  and  then  there 
ware  minute  scintillations  in  the  nearest  strata  of  air,  like 
a  hail  of  tiny  crj-stals  of  ice,  which  afterwards  turned  to  a 
ram  of  larger  and  larger  drops.  At  4  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing the  cirrus  of  the  false  aurora  was  still  visible,  but 
deformed  towards  the  top,  and  presenting  a  flaky  aspect. 
One  interesting  point  is,  that  the  cirrus  never  appeared  to 
replace  the  aurora  either  from  the  right  or  the  left,  but 
to  substitute  itself  for  it,  like  the  slow  changes  of  a 
dioramic  view."  "  I  had  previously  observed  a  fall  of 
small  ice  crystals  on  the  30th  April  1865.  At  6  P.M. 
Pans  seemed  enveloped  in  a  cirrus  of  vertical  fibres,  recall- 
ing those  of  amianthus,  and  more  or  less  wavy.  It  was 
a  rain  of  little  sparkling  prisms.  At  the  same  time  I  heard 
a  ru.illing  or  crepitation,  and  on  extending  my  hand  I  felt 
a  pricking  sensation  of  cold,  and  distinguished  the  crystals 
which  foil  and  melted  immediately." 

In  a  later  memoir  (/Wrf.,  p.  1120)  he  remarks  that  many 
etorm-clouds  throw  out  tufts  of  cirri  from  their  tops,  which 
extend  over  a  great  portion  of  the  sky,  and  resolve  them- 
selves into  a  very  fine  and  cold  drizzle,  which  frequently 
degenerates  into  a  warmer  and  more  abundant  rain. 
Usually  the  fibres  are  more  or  less  sinuous,  but  in  mucli 
rarer  cases  they  become  perfectly  rectilinear,  and  surround 
the  cloud  like  a  glory,  and  occasionally  shine  with  a  sort  of 
phosphorescence      As  an  illustration  he  quotes  liis  obser- 


vations on  the  night  of  the  Gth  September  1865: — "A 
stormy  cloud  was  observed  about  11  P.M.  in  the  N.N.  W., 
and  lightning  was  distinctly  visible  in  the  dark  cumulous 
mass.  Around  this  mass  extended  glories  of  a  phos- 
phorescent whiteness,  which  melted  away  into  the  darkness 
of  the  starry  sky.  Round  the  cloud  was  a  single  and  unin- 
terrupted corona,  and  outside  this,  two  fainter  corona" 
broken  by  rifts  which  corresponded  with  each  other. 
After  the  cloud  iiad  sunk  below  the  horizon  the  gloriei 
were  stiU  visible.  The  light  could  not  have  been  due  to 
the  moon  or  any  foreign  cause.  The  rays  showed  great 
mobility,  and  a  sort  of  vibration  intermediate  between 
that  of  the  aurora  and  the  '  brush  discharge '  of  the  alcctric 
machine."     He  goes  on  to  say  that^— 

"  Luminous  clouds  have  been  frequently  ot^erved.  There  are 
many  examples  in  Gilbert's  Annals^  and  we  may  recall  also  tbo 
observations  of  Becaria,  Deluc,  the  Abb^  Rozier,  Nicholson,  and 
Colla.  filisls  also  are  occasionally  luminous,  as,  for  instance,  tLat 
observed  by  Dr  Verdeil  at  Lausanne  in  1753,  and  by  Dr  Robinson 
in  Ireland." 

A  still  more  curious  fact  is  mentioned  by  Sabine,  who, 
during  his  magnetic  survey,  anchored  some  days  at  Loch 
Scavaig  in  Skye.  This  loch  is  surrounded  by  high  and 
bare  mountains,  one  of  which  was  nearly  always  enveloped 
iu  a  cloud,  resulting  from  the  vapours  which  almost 
constant  west  winds  brought  from  the  Atlantic.  This 
cloud  at  nights  was  permanently  self-luminous,  and  Sabine 
frequently  saw  rays  similar  to  those  of  the  aurora.  He 
entirely  repudiates  the  idea  that  the  rays  could  be  due 
to  aurors  beyond  the  mountain,  and  is  sure  that  these 
phenomena,  whatever  their  nature,  were  produced  in  the 
cloud  itself. 

Silbermann  asserts  that  aurora  are  preceded  by  the 
same  general  phenomena  as  thunderstorms,  and  concludes 
that  everything  had  happened  as  if  the  aurora;  of  1859 
and  1869  had  been  storm-clouds,  which,  instead  of  burst- 
ing in  thunder,  had  been  drawn  into  the  upper  parts  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  their  vapour  being  crystallised  in 
tiny  prisms  by  the  intense  cold,  the  electricity  had  become 
luminous  in  flowing  over  these  icy  particles,  This  view  is 
very  strongly  supported  by  the  observation  of  Professor 
Piazzi  Smyth  that  the  monthly  frequency  of  aurora  varies 
inversely  with  that  of  thunderstorms.  "The  following  are 
his  numbers  of  relative  frequency,  the  means  of  all  observa- 
tions of  the  Scottish  Meteorological  Society  prior  to  1871  :— 


January 

February... 

March  

April 

May 

June  ....'.... 

July 

Aogust..  ... 
September 

October 

November ., 
December... 


Llghmlng. 

Awora. 

24  0 

29-7 

144 

42-6 

7-0 

S5  0 

15-4 

27-5 

37^4 

4-8 

48-0 

0  0 

53-2 

0-5 

33-4 

12-6 

22-4 

86-6 

20-8 

49-4 

15-0 

S2-4 

150 

28-8 

Mean  of  whole  year...        24  0  201 

It  must,  however,  bo  r2n)embered  that  the  obser.'cd 
frequency  of  aurone  is  much  affected  ia  Scotland  by  the 
continuous  twUight  during  the  summer  months.  If  there 
be  this  connection  between  thunder-clouds  and  aurone,  it  is 
not  improbable  that  the  "  dark  eogmeut"  is  sometimes  a 
real  cloud  or  mist,  situated  at  a  height  where  the  density 
of  the  air  is  too  great  for  luminous  discharge ;  and  in 
several  cases  Silbermann  has  seen  auroral  rays  rise  from 
small  clouds,  which  gradually  melted  entirely  away,  or  left 
a  small  non  luminous  nucleus  when  their  clectjicity  wiis 
discharged. 

If,  as  would  certainly  be  the  case  Ln  a  mwt,  ony  portit^o 


AURORA 


93 


of  the  auroral  liglit  is  rcQecfed,  whotlier  it  be  its  owd  or 
derived  from  some  other  body,  it  should  be  polarised ;  but 
BO  far  polariscope  observations  are  deficient,  and  give  uo 
oertaia  information.  It  is  difEcult  to  separate  the  proper 
polarisation  of  the  aurora  from  the  mere  atmospheric  polari- 
Baiion  of  the  sky.  Mr  Ranyard,  who  appears  to  have  used 
a  double-imaged  prism  and  Sa\art  during  the  great  aurora 
of  Feb.  4,  1872,  and  also  to  have  made  some  observations 
on  that  of  Nov.  1 1,  1871,  did  not  detect  polarisation.  On 
the  other  hand,  Prof.  Stephen  AlexandDr,  in  his  report  on 
his  expedition  to  Labrador  (A  pp.  21,  U.  S.  Coast  Survey 
Rfp.,  1860),  found  strong  polarisation  with  a  Savart,  and, 
singularly  enough,  thought  it  strongest  in  the  dark  parts  of 
the  aurora.  The  observations  were  made  in  lat.  about  60", 
in  the  beginning  of  July,  and  near  midnight,  but  he  does  not 
state  whether  there  was  twilight  or  any  trace  of  air  polari- 
sation at  the  time,  nor  does  he  give  the  plane  of  polarisation. 
With  regard  to  the  height  of  aurora;.  Sir  \V.  R.  Grove 
{Nature,  vol.  iii.  p.  28)  states  that  he  saw  an  aurora  some 
years  ago  at  Chester  in  which  the  rays  came  between  him 
and  the  houses  ;  and  Mr  Ladd  observed  a  similar  case  in 
which  the  lighthouse  at  Margate  was  visible  through  a  ray. 
The  evidence,  however,  appears  strong  tliat  aurora  is  usually 
at  a  very  great  height.  Dalton  calculated  the  height  of  an 
auroral  arch,  which  was  seen  as  far  north  as  Edinburgh, 
and  as  far  south  as  Doncaster,  and  at  most  intermediate 
places,  from  its  apparent  altitude,  as  measured  by  its  posi- 
tion in  relation  to  the  stars  as  seen  from  Kendal  and  War- 
rington, 83  miles  apart.  The  resulting  height  was  about 
100  miles,  and  the  position  slichtly  south  of  Kendal.  An 
observation  at  Jedburgh  confirmed  this,  but  some  taken  at 
Edinburgh  placed  it  above  Carlisle  at  a  height  of  150  miles. 
Ualton,  however,  considered  the  former  reckoning  the  more 
trustworthy.  Backhouse  has  mado  many  calculations,  and 
considers  that  the  average  height  of  aurorse  ranges  from  50 
to  100  miles,  and  numerous  other  observers  have  calculated 
similar  heightc.  All  these  observations,  however,  are  liable 
to  the  objection,  that  different  observers  may  really  have 
seen  different  arches,  of  which,  as  has  been  remarked,  there 
are  often  several  concentric  ones.  It  is  not  likely  that  this 
was  really  the  case  in  most  instances,  but  it  has,  no  doubt, 
eometimea  occurred,  and  may  account  for  the  heights  of 
500  to  1000  miles  calculated  by  early  observers.  This 
difficulty  is  met  by  a  method  proposed  by  Frof.  H.  A. 
Newton  {Sill.  Jour,  of  Sc,  2d  ser.  vol.  xxxix.  p.  286)  for 
calculating  the  height  by  one  observation  of  altitude  and 
amplitude  of  an  arch.  It  seems  almost  certain  that  the 
auroral  arches  are  arcs  of  circles,  of  which  the  centre  is  the 
magnetic  axis  of  the  earth  ;  or,  at  least,  that  they  are  nearly 
parallel  to  the  earth's  surface,  and  probably  also  to  the 
narrow  belt  or  ring  surrounding  the  magnetic  and  astro- 
nomical poles,  and  passing  through  Faroe,  the  North  Cape, 
and  the  north  of  Nova  Zembla,  which  Loomis  and  Fritz  have 
found  to  bo  the  region  of  most  frequent  aurorx  This  being 
assumed,  Prof.  Newton  finds  that,  d  being  the  distance  from 
the  observer  to  the  centre  of  curvature  of  the  nearest  part 
of  this  belt  (which  for  England  is  situated  about  75"  N. 
lat.,  50'  W.  long.),  h  the  apparent  altitude  of  the  arch,  2a 
its  amplitude  on  the  horizon,  x  its  height,  R  the  earth's 
radius,  and  c  the  distance  of  the  observer  from  the  ends 
of  the  arch, — 


and 


sin.  <fi  =  sin.  (/.  cos.  a  cosec.  (J  - 
ton.  c  =  2  sin.  h  sin.  4>  sec.  ^.ji 
I  —  R  (sec.  c  -  1)  . 


■k) 


(1). 
(2). 
(3). 


lie  gives  the  heights  of  twenty-eight  auror.-c  calculated  by 
this  mothod,  ranging  from  33  to  2S1  miles,  with  a  mean  of 
1 30  miles.  The  method,  of  course,  rests  on  the  assumption 
that  auroral  arches  are  arcs  of  circles,  but  it  is  decidedly 
confirmatory  both  of  this  assumi.tion  and  of   the  heights 


calculated  by  other  methods.  It  cannot  well  be  objected 
that  such  altitudes  are  beyond  the  limits  of  our  atmcephere, 
since  Prof.  A.  S.  Herschel  (Nature,  vol.  iv.  504)  gives  the 
height  of  twenty  meteors  varying  from  40  to  118  miles, 
with  an  average  of  about  70  miles,  and  it  is  almost  certain 
that  these  bodies  are  rendered  incandescent  by  atmosphonc 
friction.  Assuming  0°  C.  as  the  temperature  at  the  earth's 
surface,  and  the  absolute  zero,  -  273'  C,  as  a  minimum 
for  the  auro-al  region,  the  pressure  would  be  about  02 
millimetre  (00078  inch)  at  a  heij,ht  of  100  kilometres  (G2 
miles)  above  the  earth's  surface.  This  result,  of  course, 
a-ssumes  a  good  deal,  but  if  correct,  it  implies  a  vacuum 
attainable  with  difficulty  even  with  the  Sprengcl  pump. 
The  pressure  may,  however,  be  much  greater  in  the  path  of 
the  auroral  beams,  since,  as  Prof.  A.  S.  Hci-schel  suggests, 
electrical  repulsion  may  carry  air  or  other  matter  up  to  a 
great  height.  A  similar  effect  is  observed  in  the  so-called 
vacuum  tubes,  in  which  the  pressure  becomes  much  greater 
in  the  narrow  central  part,  while  the  discharge  is  passing. 
It  is  found  that  the  apparent  altitude  of  the  auroral  corona 
is  always  a  little  less  than  that  indicated  by  the  dipping 
needle,  owing  to  tho  curvature  of  the  lines  of  magnetic 
force,  or,  in  other  words,  because  its  altitude  corresponds 
with  the  inclination  of  the  parallel  of  latitude  over  which 
it  is  actually  situated;  and  Galle  has  suggested  (Pogg.  Avn., 
c.\ivi.  133),  that  from  this  divergence  the  height  may  bo 
calculated,  and,  indeed,  gives  a  series  of  heights  so  deter 
mined,  which  do  not  differ  materially  from  Prof.  Newton's 
It  is,  however,  doubtful  if  the  position  of  these  coronae, 
and  consequently  the  value  of  the  small  angle  (not  more 
than  4°  or  5°),  admit  of  sufficiently  accurate  determination 
for  such  a  use. 

Early  observers,  and  especially  Mr  Canton,  conjectured  Spectw 
that  the  aurora  was  an  electric  discharge  in  the  rarefied  scoijic 
upper  atmosphere,  and  the  resemblance  between  it  and  the  °''^""»" 
phenomena  exhibited  by  discharges  in  an  air-pump  vacuum  *'°°*' 
confirmed   the   idea.      Recent   spectroscopic   observations 
have  thrown  some  little  doubt  on  this  conclusion,  or  at  least 
have  shown  that  tliere  is  still  a  mystery  left  unexplained. 
When  tho  light   of  any  glowing  gas   is  analysed  by  the 
prism,  it  is  found  to  consist  of  a  series  of  coloured  lines 
and  bands,  of  which  the  number  and  position  is  dependent 
on  the  nature  of  the  gas,  and  which  is  called  its  spectrum. 
Tho  light  of  the  aurora  gives  a  spectrum  usually  consist- 
ing of  a  single  line  in  the  greenish  yellow,  which  does 
not  coincide  with  a  principal  line  of  any  known  substance, 
— a  spectrum  totally  dill'erent  from  those  of  the  gases 
of  tho  atmosphere.     Besides  this  line  there  is  occasionally 
visible  a  sharp  line  in  the  red,  and  several  fainter  and  more 
refrangible  bands.     The  following  table  includes  most  of 
the  principal   determinations  of  the  auroral  hnes,  which 
have  hitherto  been  published  : — 


WL. 

Obsnrer. 

1  Rcmnrlu. 

MCAQ 

WL. 

rrob. 
Error. 

r6297 

Yt' 

±14.    BrightTcdlSrc 

, 

6279 

Zollner 

only      occasionally 

!• 

6350 

Ellory 

visi'olo 

6303 

±8  1 

6290 

Oettingcn 

±40 

1 

.6300 

C.  Pia22i  Smytli 

] 

r55C7 

Angstrom 

1 

6069) 
6571  i 

Vogel                  j 

±2 
±0-92 

5570 

Winlock 

5548 

Oettingen 

±30 

2 

5545 

Stnivc 

6569 

N.  Gcrmnn  Pol.ir 
KxpedilioD 

55G9 

±2  9 

6570 

Pcirce 

5578 

Rranighi 

C.  PiMzi  Smrth 

657» 

_ 

16600 

Ellory 

94 


AURORA 


WU     J 

OSserver. 

Rams&i. 

Moan     Plot). 
WL.    |Eiror. 

(5440 
,  )  6300 

(  S320 

Wwilock 

.5342  ±16 

Vogel 

PeircB 

( 

Alvan  Cimk 

) 

:'i33 

Vogfl 

±9 

1 

1          SIOJ 

Feirce 

5-2.J0 

Wir.loclt 

5214 

±5  4 

■*  ■  5200 

C.  l-'iazzi  Smyth 

5235' 

Lemsirom 

t5:;iu 

Angsirora 

I  5 lay 

)6I20 

Vo^tjl 

Oettiiigen 

±22 

>  51C1 

±9  7 

'  1  51rt5 

(  5i;d 

Backhouse 

Barker 

C  50ft.4 
4930 

Vogel 

±3 

Oettingen 

±21 

,   6J'°'^ 

Backhouse 

'  4984 

±11 

502U 

4950 

Barker 

14990 

1  4S70 
.  1  4S0O 

Angstrom 

C.  Piazzi  Smyth 

4S23 

±93 

f  4320 

Clark 

Barker 

4694  1 

1 

Broad     band      some- 

4663  \ 

Vogel                 < 

wh'it  faiater  m  the 

4029  ) 

( 

middle.     ±3 

4640 

C.  Piazzi  Smyth 

S 

4705 
4720 
4694 

Barker 

Angstrom 

Leiustroia 

4667 

±9  8 

46fiO 

Oettingen 

±25 

4625 

Backhouse 

.4640 

Peirce 

f  4310 

Peirce 

4240 

Oettingen 

4305 

Backliou3o 

y 

4350 

Clark 

4299 

±03 

:  4310 

Barker 

4262 

Lerastrom 

4320 

C.  Piazzi  Smyth 

L4110 

Lemstrom 

Vogel  remarks  that  the  line  at  5569,  which  is  often  the 
only  one  visible,  as  well  as  the  faint  band  at  4667,  become 
noticeably  fainter  when  the  red  line  is  visible,  while  under 
the  same  circumstances  tliat  near  5189,  as  well  as  the  red 
line,  is  very  brilliant.  This  fact,  which  has  also  been 
noted  by  other  observers,  makes  it  almost  certain  that  the 
auroral  spectrum  is  not  a  simple  one,  but  is  derived  either 
from  two  or  more  sources,  or  from  the  same  source  under  very 
varying  conditions.     Angstrom  says  (Sature,  x.  211) — 

'*  It  may  be  assumed  that  the  apcctrum  of  the  aurora  u  composed 
of  two  ditferent  spectra,  which,  even  allhouRh  appcanng  sometimes 
eimultaoeoualy,  have  in  all  probability  different  ongios.  The  one 
spectrum  consists  of  the  homogeneou.s  yellow  light  which  is  so  charac- 
tf-nstic  of  the  aurora,  and  which  is  found  even  in  its  weakest  mani- 
l'estati6n.  The  other  spectrum  consists  of  extremely  feeble  bands 
of  *ight,  which  only  in  the  stronger  aurora  attain  such  intensity  as 
cni.bles  one  lo  fii  their  position  even  approximately.  As  to  tlie 
yellow  line  in  the  aurora,  or  the  one-coloured  spectrum,  we  are  as 
little  able  now  as  when  it  was  first  observed  to  point  out  a  corre- 
8|ioMdiiiB  line  in  any  known  spectrum.  True,  Piazzi  Smyth  (Compics 
Jteruius,  Ixmv.  597)  has  asserted  that  it  corresponds  to  one  of  the 
bands  in  the  spectrum  of  hydrocarbons  ;  but  a  more  exact  observa- 
tion shows  that  the  line  falls  into  a  group  of  shaded  bands,  which 
belong  to  the  spectrum,  but  almost  midway  between  the  second 
and  third.  Herr  Vogel  has  observed  that  this  hue  corresponds  to  a 
band  in  the  spectrum  of  rarefied  air  i/'orjg.  Ann.,  cvlvi.  5!52).  This 
IS  quite  true,  but  in  Angstroms  opinion  is  founded  on  a  pure  mis- 
conception.  The  spectrum  of  rarefied  air  h-as  in  the  yellow-green 
part  seven  bands  of  nearly  equal  strength,  and  that  the  auroral  line 
corresponds  with  the  margin  of  one  of  these  bauds,  which  is  not 
even  the  strongest,  cannot  be  anything  else  than  merely  accidental." 

Angstrom's  own  view  is  that  this  line  is  due  to  fluores- 
cence or  phosphorescence,  and  he  remarks  that  "  since 
fluorescence  is  produced  by  the  ultra-violet  rays,  an  electric 
diacnargc  may  easily  be  imagined,  which  though  in  itself 


of  feeble  light,  may  be  rich  in  ultra-violet  rays,  and  thcr« 
fore  in  a  condition  to  cause  a  suDSciently  strong  fluorescence. 
It  is  also  known  that  oxygen  is  phosphorescent,  as  also 
several  of  its  compounds. "  We  are,  however,  just  as 
ignorant  of  any  body  which  would  give  such  a  light  by 
phosphorescence  or  fluorescence  as  by  ignition,  and  it  seems 
more  probable  that  the  light  may  be  due  to  chemical  action. 
It  is  assumed  by  Angstrom  that  water  vapour  is  necessarily 
absent  in  the  higher  atmosphere  on  account  of  the  cold, 
but  when  we  remember  that  its  molecular  weight  is  lighter 
than  that  of  oxygen  in  the  proportion  of  9  to  16,  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  it  may  attain  great  elevations  under  the  very 
low  tensions  that  prevail  at  such  heights,  and  it  is  possible 
also  that  both  it  and  other  bodies  may,  by  electric  re- 
pulsion in  the  auroral  beams,  be  carried  up  much  above  the 
level  which  they  would  attain  by  gravity.  If,  then,  electnc 
discharges  take  place  between  the  small  sensible  particles 
of  water  or  ice  in  the  form  of  mist  or  cirrus,  as  Silbermann 
has  shown  to  be  likely,  surface  decomposition  would  ensue, 
and  It  is  highly  probable  that  the  nascent  gases  -would 
combine  with  emission  of  light.  It  has  been  almost  proved 
in  the  case  of  hydrogen  phosphide  that  the  very  character- 
istic spectrum  produced  by  its  combustion  is  due  neither  to 
the  elements  nor  to  the  products  of  combustion,  but  to  some 
peculiar  action  at  the  instant  of  combination,  and  it  is  quite 
possible  that,  under  such  circumstances  as  above  described, 
water  might  also  give  an  entirely  fresh  spectrum. 

It  is,  perhaps,  proper  to  mention  that  H.  II.  Procter 
found  an  apparent  coincidence  by  often  repeat«d  direct 
comparison  with  a  band  frequently  seen  both  in  air  and 
oiygen  tubes,  which  he  eventually  succeeded  in  tracing 
with  tolerable  certainty  to  some  form  of  hydrocarbon.  The 
comparison  spectroscopes  were  only  of  low  dispersion,  but 
on  more  accurate  measurement  of  the  carbon  band  it  was 
found  that,  though  more  refrangible  than  the  first  band  of 
citron  acetylene  (candle-flame),  it  was  still  less  so  than 
careful  measurement  assigns  to  the  aurora.  In  addition, 
the  band  was  shaded  towards  the  violet,  which  is  not  the 
case  with  that  of  the  aurora,  though  with  feeble  light  it 
seemed  like  a  line. 

If,  leaving  the  citron  hue,  we  pass  on  to  the  feeble 
spectrum  towards  the  violet,  we  shall  obtain  more  hope- 
ful coincidences.  Angstrom  thinks  that  three  of  the  bands 
correspond  with  the  three  brightest  bands  of  the  violet 
aurora  of  the  negative  pole  in  rarefied  air,  and  has  tried 
to  reproduce  the  conditions  of  the  aurora  on  a  small  scale. 
He  says — 

"Into  a  flask,  the  bottom  of  which  is  covered  with  a  lavei  ..f 
phosphonc  anhydride,  the  platlnutn  wires  are  introduced,  and  tlie 
air  is  pumped  out  to  a  tension  of  only  a  few  millimetres.  If  tlie 
inductive  current  of  a  Ruhmkorff  coil  bo  then  sent  through  the 
flask,  the  whole  flask  will  be  filled,  as  it  were,  with  the  violet  light, 
which  otherwise  proceeds  only  Irom  the  negative  [wle,  and  Iroiu 
both  electrodes  a  spectrum  is  obtained  consisting  cliielly  of  sliadcd 
violet  liands.  If  this  spectnim  be  comp,ircd  with  ihatot  the  aurora. 
Angstrom  thinks  the  agreement  between  the  former  and  some  of  tl.e 
best  established  bands  of  the  latter  is  satisfactory. 


C  according  to  Barkir, 
Of  the  aurora  1 


spectrum. 


Vogel, 

Angstrom, 

l4.'ni.\trolii. 


Wave  Length!. 

431  470-5 

469<       523  3 
472  521 

426-2        469  4        523.' 


Mean,      4--'-j  6       470-3       522-fi 
Of  ihe  spectrum  of  the  violet  light,         4272       470-7       5'2i  7 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  line  4094  Ilcrr  Vogel  has,  wte^ 
over,  obatrvcd  t»o  weak  light-hands,  466  3  and  462  9(')-  '  li« 
spectrum  of  the  violet  has  oiso  two  corresponding  shaded  tmiids, 
4ii5  4  and  460-1. 

"Should  the  aurora  be  flamy,  and  shoot, out  .like  ra)s,  there  is 
good  reason  lor  assuming  a  disruptive  discharge  of  eleclricity,  and 
then  there  ouglit  to  ap[Tar  the  strongest  line  in  the  sprctnim 
of  the  4ir.  the  green,  whose  wavtjength  is  500  3.  Precisely  thu 
has  actuallv  been  observed  by  Vi.gel,  and  has.  root.-over.  b«.-<-n  nctll 


AURORA 


95 


hy  Angstrdm  and  others  Fmallj,  ghoald  the  aorom  be  oWrved 
13  it  app>'ars  at  a  less  height  in  the  atinospliere,  then  are  recognised 
lK)th  the  hydrojjen  lines  and  also  the  strongest  of  the  bands  of  the 
dark-banded  air-spectrum.  There  are  found  aUo  again  nearly  all 
the  lines  and  bgUt-bands  of  the  weak  aurora  spectrum  whose  posi- 
tion has  ^rtth  any  certaintj  been  observed." 

With  regartl  to  the  red  line,  which  is  sometimes  perfectly 
sharp  and  well  defined,  and  occasiouaUy,  though  very 
rarely,  even  as  bright  as  the  citron  line,  scarcely  even  a 
plausible  theory  has  been  hazarded.  That  it  is  not  the  C 
lino  of  hydrogen  is  certain,  as  they  have  been  directly 
compared,  and  are  widely  separated  ;  and  none  of  the 
air  lines  near  its  position  are  at  all  comparable  to  it  in 
brightness.  Vogel  thinks  it  may  "  correspond  with  the 
first  system  of  lines  in  the  spectrum  of  nitrogen  (0620  to 
6213),  and  that  probably  only  the  bright  part  of  this 
group  of  lines  is  visible  on  account  of  the  extreme  faint- 
iiess  of  the  aurora."  This,  however,  cannot  be  the  case, 
since  the  present  writer  has  seen  it  both  bright  and 
sharp.  Vogel  points  out  that  the  line  near  5189  closely 
corresponds  to  an  oxygen  line  of  that  wave-length  which 
IS  bright  and  constant  under  very  different  conditions  of 
pressure  and  temperature.  He  states  that  the  faint  line 
near  5390  corresponds  in  like  manner  to  a  nitrogen  line. 
He  pomts  out  that,  though  the  correspondences  with  the  iron 
lines  are  very  striking,  but  little  weight  can  be  laid  on  the 
fact,  since  many  of  the  brightest  lines  of  the  iron  spectrum 
do  not  appear.  The  following  table  gives  the  principal 
iron  lines  (Thalen)  and  the  auroral  ones  ;  and  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  former  are  so  abundant  that  coincidences 
could  scarcely  fad: — 


Iroo.  BrlghtDCsa.  Aurora. 

Iron.  Brlgbtncaa. 

A»ir-  ra 

'Iron  Brlgbtoess 

Aurora. 

6490 

6 

5546 

10 

5167 

8 

6161 

6399 

10 

5429 

10 

SIS9 

8 

63o0 

6 

6303 

5405 

8 

6061 

8 

624S 

8 

5403 

8 

6049 

8 

6230 

8 

5396 

8 

4967 

10 

4984 

«190 

8 

6392 

8 

4920 

10 

6136 

8 

6371 

10 

4918 

8 

60J5 

8 

6346 

8 

6342 

4S90 

10 

6653 

10 

5339 

8 

4S71 

8 

6614 

10 

5327 

10 

4870 

8 

4S23 

5602 

10 

5323 

8 

4415 

10 

4667 

«597 

10 

5283 

8 

4404 

10 

5591 

3 

5269 

10 

4383 

10 

5586 

10 

6268 

10 

4325 

10 

6575 

8 

5266 

8 

4307 

10 

4289 

6572 

10 

5232 

10 

4271 

10 

6569 

8 

55G9 

5226 

10 

5214 

4231 

10 

6545 

10 

5192 

8 

4250 

10 

Angstrom  asserted  some  years  since  that  he  had  detected 
the  principal  line  of  the  aurora  in  the  spectrum  of  tbft 
iodiacal  light,  but  he  appears  to  have  been  misled  by  a 
faint  aurora,  for  more  recent  observers,  and  notably  Prof. 
C.  Piazzi  Smyth,  Mr  Backhouse,  and  A  W.  Wright  {StH. 
Jour,  of  Sc,  vuL  39),  have  found  that  the  spectrum  of  the 
aodiacal  light  is  continuous  and  quite  analogous  to  that  of 
twilight  or  faint  starshine,  and  polarificope  observations 
prove  that  it  is  mostly  reflected.  The  very  faint  line 
positioned  by  Alvan  Clark  at  5320  has  been  said  by 
AVinlock  to  coincide  with  the  principal  coronal  line  5322. 
The  position  of  the  auroral  line  is  uncertain,  and  even 
if  it  were  accurate,  a  single  doubtful  coincidence  with  a 
faint  line  is  not  the  least  proof  of  identity. 

We  have  already  remarked  the  manifest  relation  between 
the  forms  and  position  of  aurorae  and  the  earth's  lines  of 
magnetic  force,  and  io  addition  to  this  have  noted  the 
disturbance  of  ihe  magnetic  needle  during  auroral  dis- 
plays. It  is  not,  however,  at  such  times  only  that  the 
magnetic  elements  are  subject  to  variation  ,  the  total  force, 
declination,  and  inclination,  all  are  constantly  varjing  both 
regularly  with  the  hours  of  the  day  and  the  seasons  of  the 
year,  and    irregularly  at   uncertam  times.     The  irrotr"lar 


oscillations  when  violent  are  called  magnetic  storms,  and 
it  must  be  noted  that  auroral  display  never  takes  place 
except  during  such  disturbances,  although  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  most  remarkable  magnetic  stomas  are  unaccom- 
panied by  visible  aurorai. 

Franklin,  who  was  one  of  the  first  observers  of  thi.s 
relation  (at  Fort  Enterprise,  64°  30'  N.,  1 13**  10'  W  ),  says 
of  the  magnetic  needle, — "  The  motion  communicated  to  it 
was  neither  sudden  nor  vibratory.  Sometimes  it  was 
simultaneous  with  the  formation  of  arches,  prolongation  of 
beams,  or  certain  other  changes  of  form  or  action  of  the 
aurora.  But  generally  the  effect  of  these  phenomena  upon 
the  needle  was  not  visible  immediately,  but  m  about  half 
an  hour  or  an  hour  the  needle  had  attained  its  maximum 
of  deviation.  From  this  its  return  to  its  former  position 
was  very  gradual,  seldom  regaining  it  before  the  following 
morning,  and  frequently  not  until  the  afternoon,  unless  it 
was  expedited  by  another  arch  of  the  aurora  operating  m 
a  direetion  different  from  the  former  one." 

*'  The  arches  of  the  aurora,"  he  adds,  "  most  commonly  traverse 
the  aky  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  magoetio  merikiian,  but  devia* 
tions  from  this  djrecUon,  &s  has  already  been  stated,  were  not  rare ; 
and  I  am  inclined  to  consider  that  the»e  different  positions  of  the 
aurora  have  considerable  influence  on  the  direction  of  the  needle. 
When  an  arch  was  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  magnetic  mehdiin. 
the  motion  of  the  needle  waa  towards  the  west.  This  westward 
motion  was  still  greater  when  one  extremity  of  the  arch  Lore  Zifl', 
or  about  59°  to  tne  west  of  the  magnetic  north,  that  is,  when  the 
extremity  of  the  arch  approached  from  the  west  to^vards  the  magnetic 
north.  A  westerly  motion  also  took  place  when  the  extremity  of  an 
arch  was  in  the  true  north,  or  about  3fi'  to  the  west  of  the  inaguct.c 
nor^h,  but  not  in  so  gre4t  a  degree  as  when  its  bearing  wa&  about 
301".  A  contrary  effect  was  produced  when  the  same  end  of  an  arch 
originated  to  the  southward  of  the  magnetic  west,  viz.,  when  it 
bore  from  245°  to  234°,  and  of  course  when  its  opposite  extremity 
approached  nearer  to  the  magnetic  north.  In  these  cases  the  motion 
01  the  needle  was  towards  the  east  In  one  case  only  a  complete 
arch  was  formed  in  the  magnetic  mcndian,  in  anotlitr  the  beam 
shot  up  from  the  magnetic  north  to  the  zenith  ;  and  m  both  these 
cases  the  needle  moved  towards  the  west. 

'*  The  needle  was  most  disturbed  on  February  13th,  p.m.,  at  a 
time  when  the  aurora  was  most  distinctly  seen  passing  between  a 
stratum  of  clouds  and  the  earth,  or  at  least  illuminating  the  face  of 
the  clouds  opposed  to  the  observer.  This  and  several  other  appear- 
ances induced  me  to  infer  that  the  distance  of  the  aurora  from  the 
earth  varied  on  different  nights,  and  produced  a  proportionate  effect 
on  the  needle.  When  the  licht  shone  through  a  dense  hazy  atmo- 
sphere, when  there  was  a  halo  round  the  moon,  or  when  a  small 
snow  was  falling,  the  disturbance  was  generally  considerable,  and 
on  certain  hazy,  cloudy  nights  the  needle  frequently  deviated  in  a 
considerable  degree,  although  the  aurora*  was  not  visible  at  the  time. 
Our  observations  do  not  enable  us  to  decide  whether  this  ought  to 
bo  attributt'd  to  nn  aurora  concealed  by  a  cloud  or  haze,  or  entirely 
to  the  slate  of  the  atmosphere.  Similar  deviations  ha^'e  been 
observed  in  the  day-titue,  both  in  a  clear  and  cloudy  state  of  the 
:ky,  but  more  frequently  in  the  latter  case.  An  aurora  sometimes 
approached  the  zenith  without  producing  any  change  in  the  position 
of  the  needle,  as  was  more  generally  the  case  .  whilst  at  other  times 
a  considerable  alteration  took  place  although  the  beams  or  arches 
did  not  come  near  the  zenith.  The  aurora  was  frequently  seen 
without  producing  any  perceptible  effect  on  the  needle.  At  such 
times  Its  nppc^irance  was  that  of  an  arch,  or  au  honzoDUl  stream  ot 
dense  yellowish  light,  with  little  or  no  internal  motion  The  dis 
turbance  in  the  niredle  was  not  always  proportionate  to  the  atjiU-lion 
of  the  aurora,  but  it  was  always  greater  when  the  quick  niotlon  and 
vivid  light  wiTo  observed  to  take  place  in  a  hazy  utmospbcre  In  • 
few  instances  the  motion  of  the  needle  waa  obser\'ed  tu  comment  e 
at  the  instAiit  a  beam  darted  upwards  fruiu  the  honzoii ,  and  ns 
former  position  was  more  quickly  or  slowlj  regained  according  t( 
circumstances.  If  an  arch  was  formed  imoiediately  aftervurd^, 
having  its  extremities  placed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  raagnctK  nurtl 
and  south  to  the  former  one,  the  return  of  the  oeidlu  was  nior- 
speedy,  and  it  generally  went  beyond  the  pouit  from  whence  ittus' 
started." 

Speaking  of  the  aurora  of  May  13.  1 809,  M.  Lament  o1 
Munich  says  {CompUs  Hendus,  Uvul  1201)— 

*'  1  During  40  yearn  I  have  only  seen  seven  or  eight  aurortc  *• 
Munich,  and  this  small  number  la  uisufiicient  for  a  study  of  tl  t 
cham>tcrs  of  tb"  phcnomennu. 

"'2.  Aurone,  whether  visible  «t  Munitb  or  not,  *ie  ajwiy.s 
accouii>uiiMl  by  magnptJc  periurbationx. 


9G 


AURORA 


Elottr;- 
of  ^• 


"3  In  the  perturbations  of  deolioation  wliich  I  hrvve  observed 
for  28  years,  1  have  been  unable  to  recognise  any  general  law. 

"4."  The  perturbations  of  horizontal  intensity  comtoence  in 
general  by  an  increase  of  that  force,  and  finish  always  by  a  dimina- 
tion,  which  lasts  for  two  or  three  days 

"  5.  in  all  perturbations  there  is  a  constant  relation  between 
cUangea  of  inclination  and  the  bimultaneous  chringes  of  horizontal 
intensity,  such  that  an  augmentation  of  intensity  of  jTroini  cone- 
Bponds  to  a  diminution  of  inclination  of  8° '28  (for  Munich). 

"  6.  In  telegraphic  wires  we  cannot  observe  the  existence  of  a 
constant  terrestrial  current,  since  the  conductivity  of  the  soil  is 
infinitely  greater  than  that  of  the  telegraphic  wire,  and  it  is  only 
sudden  change.t  that  manifest  themselves.  In  consequence,  during 
magnetic  perturbations  in  the  galvanometer  of  a  telegraphic  wire, 
we  only  see  irregular  deflections  to  right  or  left,  succeeding  each 
othy  at  intervals  of  a  few  minutes. 

la  1850  and  1851  we  made  electrical  observations  from  hour 
to  hour,  from  7  A.M.  to  6  p.m.,  without  being  able  to  see  any 
connection  between  the  atmospheric  electricity  and  the  magnetic 
perturbations.  Later  I  abandoned  these  observations,  because  the 
indications  of  the  electrometers  depended  too  much  on  local  and 
accidental  circumstances." 

It  should  be  noted  here  that  the  horizontal  component  of 
magnetic  force  varies  with  the  inclination  as  well  as  with 
the  intensity  of  the  total  force,  and  the  ratio  noted  above 
is  almost  exactly  that  wliich  would  be  produced  by  a 
change  in  the  inclination  alone ;  and  it  would  appear  as  if 
the  actual  horizontal  force,  independent  of  the  inclination, 
was  subject  to  comparatively  little  variation.  This  is  not 
improbable,  since  variations  in  the  horizontal  force  could 
correspond  only  to  electro-magnetic  easterly  or  westerly 
currents,  while  changes  in  declination,  inclination,  and 
vertical  force  mijht  correspond  to  currents  from  the  mag- 
netic north  and  south,  -which  there  is  reason  to  believe  are 
most  frequent  in  auroral  displays. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  magnetic  perturba- 
tions, we  may  mention  that  during  the  aurora  of  13th  May 
1869,  the  declination  at  Greenwich  varied  1°  25',  while  the 
vertical  force  experienced  four  successive  maxima,  and  the 
greatest  oscillation  amounted  to  0'0-t  of  its  total  mean 
value.  The  horizontal  force  at  the  same  time  only  varied 
0014  of  its  mean  value.  During  the  aurura  of  the  15th 
April  of  the  same  year  the  dcclir.ation  at  Stonyhurst  varied 
2°  23'  14"  in  nine  minutes. 

The  electric  currents  produced  at  such  times  in  telegraph 
wires,  though  transient,  are  often  very  powerful.  Loomis 
(Sitl.  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii. )  mentions  cases  where  '^•ires  had  been 
ignited,  brilliant  Sashes  produced,  and  combustible  materials 
kindled  bytheirdischarge.  Itoftcn  happens  that  the  ordinary 
signals  are  completely  interrupted  during  their  continuance. 
In  addition  to  the  resemblance  between  the  auroral 
phenomena  and  those  of  electric  discharges  in  rarefied 
gases  which  we  have  already  mentioned,  we  have  seen  that 
auroral  displays  are  accompauied  by  marked  disturbances 
both  in  the  direction  and  force  of  terrestrial  magnetism. 
This  fact  is  in  itself  almost  proof  of  their  electrical 
character,  and,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  strong 
"  earth-currents  "  which  are  at  such  times  produced  in  lines 
of  telegraph,  and  with  the  manifest  polarisation  of  the 
arches  and  rays  with  regard  to  the  magnetic  meridian,  may 
be  considered  as  conclusive  that  the  aurora  is  some  sort  of 
electric  discharge.  There  are  still  some  points  with  regard 
to  the  origin  of  this  electricity  which  are  unexplained,,  and 
it  is  uncertain  whether  the  magnetic  disturbance  causes  the 
electrical  phenomena,  or  vice  versa.  It  has  been  shown  by 
Prof.  Pliicker  that  when  an  electric  discharge  takes  place 
through  rarefied  gas  in  the  field  of  a  magnet,  it  is  concen- 
trated in  the  magnetic  curves,  which  are  the  only  paths  in 
which  it  can  move  without  being  disturbed  by  the  magnet. 
This  is  well  showu  in  De  la  Rive's  well-known  experiment, 
in  wliich  an  electro-magnet  is  enclosed  in  an  electric  egg. 
As  soon  as  the  magnet  is  set  in  action,  the  discharge, 
which  had  before  filled  the  egg,  is  concentrated  into  a 
defined  band   of  light,  which   rotates  steadily  round   the 


magnet, — the  direction  of  its  rotation  boing  changed  hy 
reversal  either  of  the  current  or  of  the  polarity  of  the  mag- 
net Lf  we  suppose  that  the  aurora  is  an  electric  di3char;;e 
passing  from  one  magnetic  pole  to  the  other,  and  following 
the  terrestrial  magnetic  curves,  we  shall  find  that  the  theory 
agrees  with  observed  facts  even  in  its  lesser  details.  In 
these  latitudes  the  magnetic  curves  are  sensibly  straight 
and  parallel,  and  are  inclined  S.E.  at  an  angle  of  about  TC 
from  the  perpendicular,  and,  by  the  well-known  laws  of 
perspective,  will  appear  to  converge  towards  this  point, 
as,  in  fact,  the  auroral  streamers  do.  The  streamer.s 
should  move  from  ea»t  to  west,  or  frcm  west  to  east, 
according  as  the  discharge  is  frr)m  north  to  south,  or  vice 
versa,  and,  in  fact,  they  are  in  constant  motion.  Professor 
Loomis  {Sill.  Jour,  of  Sc,  xxsiv.  45)  gives  a  catalogue 
of  forty-six  cases  of  such  movement,  of  which  thirty- 
one  were  from  E.  to  W.  and  only  fifteen  in  the  opposite 
direction  ;  and  as  part  of  these  apparent  motions  are  duo 
to  a  real  motion  from  N.  to  S.,_he  concludes  that  the  actual 
motion  of  the  streamers  is  from  about  N.N.E.  to  S.S.W. 
This  would  make  the  north  pole  the  negative  electrode, 
which  is  most  likely  usually  the  case.  Prof.  Loomis  has 
shown  that  during  auroral  displays  electrical  currents  tra- 
verse the  earth's  surface  in  the  same  general  direction, 
though  subject  to  great  variation  in  intensity  and  even  to 
reversal.  Waves  of  magnetic  disturbance  are  also  propa- 
gated in  the  same  direction  {ibid.,  xxjcii.  318). 

With  regard  to  the  arches  it  is  evident  that  they  are 
generally  circles  concentric  to  the  magnetic  pole,  and  it  is 
very  probable  that  they  are  analogous  to  the  stri«  often 
seen  in  discharges  in  rarefied  gases.  Gassiot,  quoted  by  B. 
V.  Marsh  {Sill.  Jour.,  xxxi.  31G,  and  Roi/.  Sot:  Proc.,  vol.  x. 
Nos.  38  and  39),  describes  an  experiment  with  his  great 
Grove's  battery  of  400  cells,  in  which  the  exhausted 
receiver  was  placed  between  the  poles  of  the  large  electro- 
magnet of  the  Royal  Institution  : — "  On  now  exciting  the 
magnet  with  a  battery  of  ten  cells,  effulgent  strata  were 
drawn  out  from  the  positive  pole,  and  passed  along  the 
under  or  upper  surface  of  the  receiver  according  to  the 
direction  of  the  current.  On  making  the  circuit  of  the 
magnet  and  breaking  it  immediately,  the  luminous  strata 
i-ushed  from  the  positive,  and  then  retreated,  cloud  following 
cloud  with  a  deliberate  motion,  and  appearing  as  if  swal- 
lowed up  by  the  positive  electrode."  This,  as  Jlr  Marsh 
remarks,  bears  a  very  considerable  resemblance  to  the 
conduct  of  the  auroral  arches,  which  almost  invariably 
drift  slowly  southward  ;  and  we  cannot  do  better  than  sum 
up  his  theory  in  his  own  words: — "The  foregoing  con- 
siderations seem  to  render  it  probable  that  the  aurora  is 
essentially  an  electric  discharge  between  the  magnetic  poles 
of  the  earth  leaving  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  north 
magnetic  pole  in  the  form  of  clouds  of  electrified  matter, 
which  float  southward  through  the  atmosphere  at  a  height 
of  40  miles  or  more  from  the  earth,  sonictimcs  to  a  distance 
of  more  than  30°  from  the  pole ;  that  whilst  they  are 
thus  moving  forward,  with  a  comparatively  slov;  and  steady 
motion,  or  sometimes  even  remaining  almost  stationary  for 
a  long  time,  bright  streams  of  electricity  are  from  time  to 
time  suddenly  shot  out  from  them  in  a  nearly  vertical 
direction,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  magnetic  curves  correspond- 
ing to  the  points  from  which  they  originate  ;  that  thesa 
curves,  ascending  to  a  great  height  beyond  the  atmosphere, 
then  bending  more  and  more  southward  and  downward 
until  they  finally  reach  corresponding  points  in  the  soufhcru 
magnetic  hemisphere,  are  the  pathways  by  which  the 
electric  currents  pass  to  their  destination  ;  and  that  for 
several  hundred  miles  from  the  earth  these  curves  are  thus 
'traced  through  space  and  ilKimiiialcd  with  bright  electric 
light;'  and  further,  that  the  magnetism  of  the  earth  also 
causes  these  luminous  currents  and  the  electrified  matter 


AURORA 


97 


•.•omposing  the  arch  to  revolve  rouad  the  magnetic  pole  of 
'-ba  earth,  giving  th>^ra  the  motion  from  cast  to  west,  or 
frum  west  to  east,  which  the  components  of  the  arch  are 
observed  to  have." 

The  principal  difBcultiea  and  deficiencies  of  this  hypo- 
'heais,  which  was  first  suggested  by  Do  la  Pavo,  are  that 
it  makes  no  atf.cnipt  to  account  for  the  origin  of  such  an 
electrical  discharge,  and  that  it  is  difficult  to  understand 
how  an  electric  correut  can  traverse  vast  epaces  of  the 
almost  perfect  vacuum  which  must  exist  at  the  disUmco 
from  the  earth  (many  hundreds  of  n;iles)  which  is  attained 
by  the  magnetic  curves,  since,  in  the  best  vacuums  of  our 
Sprengel  luimps,  discharge  will  not  take  place  even  across 
the   interval  of   a  few  cimtimetres.     It   is  not,  however, 
certain  that  stellar  space  is  an  insulator,  and  it  is  possible, 
moreover,  that   the   auroral   currents  do   not  follow  the 
magnetic  curves  through  their  whole  course,  since  electric 
discharge  w  always  in  the  path  of  loast  resistance,  and  this 
is   modified   not   only   by   the   magnetic   forces,  but  by 
atmospheric  density,  and  it  is  possible  that  on  attaining  a 
certain  height  the  current  may  proceed  horizontally  on  a 
stratum  of  least  resistance.     It  need  create  no  surprise  that 
the  dischar::e  is  generally  invisible  in  the  intermediate  zone 
of  low  latitudes,  since  this  is  well  accounted  for  not  only 
by  the  large  surface  over  which  it  is  spread  at  great  heights, 
but  because  this  part  of  its  course  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
line  of   sight,  while  in  higher  latitudes  we   look  at  the 
streamers  almost  "  end-on,"  and  thus  have  before  our  eyes 
a. very  great   depth  of   luminous  gases.     It  is  common 
enough,  too,  in  discharges  in  rarefied  gases  to  see  the  two 
poles  surrounded  by  luminous  aune,  while  the  intermediate 
•pace  IS  almost  or  quite  dark,  or  consists  of  luminous  disks 
or  strise  separated  by  daik  spaces.     It  seems  probable  that 
this  "  glow "  discharge  in  rarefied  gases  is  really  a  sort 
of  electrical  convection,  which  Li  propagated  comparatively 
slowly,  and  from  particle  to  particle ;  and  that  the  strise  are 
siu-faces  at  which  the  difference  of  potential  of  the  moving 
molecules  is  so  great  as  to  cause  discharge  between  them, 
while  in  the  intermediate  dark  spaces  the  electric  force  is 
carried  mechanically  and  sUently  by  the  particles  moving 
m  regular  currents  under  the  repulsive  and  attractive  forces 
of  electrification.     On  this  hypothesis  the  auroral  discharge 
becomes  comprehensible,  since  wo  have  only  to  suppose  that 
the  electricity  is  carried  mechanically,  as  it  were,  through 
the   vacuous   spaces,    which,   if   they   contain  no  matter 
to  conduct    electricity,  can  contain  none  to    impede  the 
motion  of  the  molecules.     It  i.i,  moreover,  by  no  means 
certain  that  the  bright  rays  indicate  actual  currents.     They 
may  simply  consist  of  matter  rendered   luminous  in  the 
arches,  and  projected  by  magnetic  or  electrical  repulsion 
in  the  curves  of  magnetic  force,  since  Varley  (Ro!/.  Soc. 
Proc,  six.  236)  shows  that  when  a  glow  discharge  in  a 
'acuum  tube  is  brought  within  the  field    of  a  powerful 
magnet,  the  magnetic  curves  are  illuminated  beyond  the 
','Iectrodes  between  which  the  discharge  is  taking  place  as 
well  as  within  the  path  of  the  current ;  and  also  that  this 
Ulumination  is  caused  by  moving  particles  of  matter,  since 
it  deflected  a  balanced  piate  of  talc  on  which  it  was  caused 
to  impinge.     It  Las  also   been  shown  that  m   electrical 
discharges  in  air  at  ordinary  pressures,   while  the  spark 
itself  was  unaffected  by  the  magnet,  it  was  surrounded  by 
a   luminous  cloud  or  aura,  which    was   drawn    into    the 
magnetic  curves,  and  which  might  also  be  separated  from 
the  spark  by  blowing  upon  it.     It  is  e^^dent,  therefore, 
that  any    mechanical   force   may   separate   the   luminous  • 
particles  from  the  electric  discharge  which  produces  them. 

With  rfgard  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  aurora, 

Trof.  Lcomia  {Silt.  Jour.,  xxzx.)  has  hid  down  a  scnes 

of  zones  of  equal  auroral  frequency,  and  m  Petermann's 

''  ■'leilvngtn  for  October  1874,  Prof.   Fritz  has  givp"  " 

rj-o 


chart  embodying  the  results  of  his  exLusive  researches  on 
the  same  subject.  He  iinds,  like  Prof.  Loomis,  that  the 
fl-equency  of  auroral  display  does  not  continue  to  increase 
to  the  pole,  but  reaches  a  maximum  in  a  zone  which,  for 
the  northern  hemisphere,  passes  through  the  Faroe  Islands, 
reaches  its  most  southern  point,  about  57^,  nearly  south  of 
Greenland,  passes  over  Nain  on  the  Labrador  coast,  then 
tends  northwards,  across  Hudson's  Bay  (CO^  N.  lat.),  and 
through  great  Bear  Lake,  and  leaves  the  American  con- 
tinent slightly  south  of  Point  Barrow.  It  then  skirts  the 
northern  coast  of  Asia,  reaching  its  most  northerly  point, 
about  76°  N.,  near  Cape  Taimyr,  passing  through  tht> 
north  of  Xova  Zcrabla,  and  skirting  the  N.W.  coast  of 
Norway.  Not  oniy  are  auroral  displays  less  frequent  in 
Iceland  and  Greenland  than  further  south,  but  it  is  found 
that  while  south  of  this  zone  aurorjB  appear  usually  to  the 
north  of  the  observer,  north  of  it  they  are  generally  to  the 
south,  and  within  it,  north  or  south  inditfereutly.  South  of 
this  lie  other  zones  approximately  parallel  to  it.  and  of 
constantly  diminishing  frequency.  That  in  which  the 
average  yearly  number  of  aurora  is  100  passes  through  the 
Drontheim,  the  Orkneys,  and  the  Hebrides,  and  reaches  the- 
American  coast  just  north  of  Netvfoundland.  South  of 
this  the  frequency  diminishes  rather  rapidly.  At  Edin- 
burgh the  annual  average  is  30,  at  York  10,  in  Normandy 
6  ;  while  at  Gibraltar  the  average  is  about  1  in  ten  years. 

These  curves,  which  Prof.  Fritz  calls  isockasmen,  are 
nearly  normal  to  the  magnetic  meridians,  and  bear  a  close 
relation  to  the  curves  of  equal  magnetic  inclination,  especi- 
ally with  those  laid  down  by  Hansteen  in  1730,  while  th^ 
noticeably  diverge  in  some  places  from  those  of  Sabine  of 
1840.  They  also  approximate  to  the  isobaric  cun'cs  of 
Schouw,  and  Prof.  Fritz  remarks  that  the  curves  of  greater 
frequency  tend  towards  the  region  of  lowest  atmospheric 
pressure.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  there  may  be  such  a. 
connection,  since  Prof.  Airy  has  showed  a  relation  between 
barometric  and  magnetic  disturbances. 

It  wdl  bo  noticed  that,  eastward  from  England,  the 
isochasmic  curves  tend  rapidly  northward.  Archangel  being 
only  on  the  same  auroral  parallel  as  Newcastle.  Prof, 
fritz  points  out  that  they  bear  some  relation  to  the  limit 
of  porpetual  ice,  tending  most  southward  where,  as  in 
North  America,  the  ice  limit  comes  furthest  south.  He 
also  endeavours  to  estabUsh  some  connection  between  the 
periods  of  maximum  of  aurone  and  those  of  the  formation 
of  ice,  and  considers  ico  as  one  of  the  most  important  local 
causes  which  influence  their  distribution.  He  quotes  L 
curious  fact  mentioned  by  several  Arctic  voyagers,  that 
aurora  was  most  frequently  seen  when  open  water  was  i.i 
sight,  and  usually  rather  in  the  direction  of  the  water  tha:) 
of  the  magnetic  north.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  wel' 
to  remind  our  readers  that  the  water  of  the  Arctic  regioi " 
is  always  warmer  than  the  ico  fields,  and  must  caus . 
upward  currents  of  damp  air.  Forthe  southern  hemisphere 
theru  are  not  yet  sufficient  observations  to  make  any 
determination  of  geographical  distribution. 

With  regard  to  distribution  in  time  Loomis  and  Fritz 
and  Wolf  have  shown  that  there  are  periodical  m.aiij"i.i 
about  every  ten  or  eleven  years,  and  that  these  max; .:  i 
coincide  both  with  those  of  sun  spots,  and  of  magnet.  • 
disturbance.  The  following  are  Fritz  and  Wolfn  dates  of 
maxima  : — 


3un  Spou 

Aurori*. 

6<m  Spolf 

Auror* 

1-06 

1707 

1788 

1788 

1718 

1721 

1804 

1804 

1728 

1728 

1817 

1818 

1739 

1738 

1830 

1830 

1750 

174D 

1837 

1839 

1701 

176» 

1848 

\mr. 

1770 

17  lift 

1860 

181.0 

1779 

1779 

1871 

)r.t 

98 


AURORA 


The  annexed  ch.irt  from  Prof.  Loomis's  paper  (Silt. 
Jour.,  April  1873)  shows,  in  a  very  striking  manner,  the 
•correspoDdence  of  auror^e,  magnetic  variation,  and   sun- 


spot  area  since  177G.  It  is  not  improbable  that  there  may 
also  be  changes  of  longer  period  which  out  observatioas 
are  yet  insufficient  to  determine. 


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Diagram  showing  CorrespopdeDce  of  Aurora,  Magnetic  Variation,  and  Sun  Spots. 


inonal  dii-  It  has  frequently  been  stated  that  the  aurora  returned 
ributioD.  periodically  on  certain  days  in  the  saOie  manner  as  meteors. 
On  the  3d  of  February  brilliant  aurorx  occurred  in 
1750  and  1869,  and  on  the  4th  in  1869,  1870,  1871, 
1872,  1873,  and  1874  ;  on  the  13th  February  in  1575, 
1821,  1822,  1865,  and  1867  ;  on  the  6th  March  in  1716, 
1777,  1843,  1867,  and  1868;  on  the  9th  September  in 
1776,  1827,  1835,  1866,  1868,  1872,  and  on  the  29th  in 
1828,'  1840,  1851,  1852,  1870,  and  1872.  This  conclu- 
sion, however,  is  not  supported  by  systematic  investigation. 
A  considerable  catalogue  of  aurorse  was  divided  into  decen- 
nial periods,  and  it  was  found  that  the  maxima  of  one 
period  rarely  coincided  with  those  of  others,  and  that  the 
larger  the  number  of  years  taken  into  account  the  less 
prominent  the  maxima  appeared, — evident  proof  that  they 
were  only  accidental.  It  may  be,  however,  that  if  only 
prominent  aurorae  had  been  considered,  more  periodicity 
•night  have  been  found,  or  that  the  periodicity  is  constant 
for  very  short  periods  only. 

Although  no  daily  periodicity  can  be  affirmed,  there  are 
two  well-marked  annual  maxima  in  March  and  October, 
of  which  the  latter  is  the  greater,  and  two  minima — the 
greater  in  June  and  the  less  in  January.  In  this  respect 
•  the  aurora  differs  from  the  sporadic  meteors,  which  have  a 
maximum  in  autumn  and  a  minimum  in  spring.  It  also 
differs  from  meteors  in  the  hours  of  its  appearance,  the 
former  being  most  frequent  before  and  the  latter  after 
midnight. 
■MtUorio  Although  the  electric   hypothesis  is  the  one  generally 

*jrpothe«l».  accepted  by  scientific  men,  it  is  only  fair  to  allude  to  one 
that  has  been  recently  proposed  independently  by  Dr 
Zehfuss  (Physikalische  Theorie,  Adclman,  Frankfort)  and 
by  £1.  J.  H.  Groneman  of  Oroningen  (Astronomisrhe 
Nachrichten,  No.  2010-2012).  According  to  thiffvicw,  the 
light  of  the  aurora  is  caused  by  clouds  of  fomiginous 
meteoric  dust,  which  13  ignited  by  friction  with  the 
.'itmospherc,  Oroneman  has  shown  that  the.'C  Jiiight  bo 
arranged  along  the  magnetic  curves  by  action  of  the  earth's 
xnjignctic   force   during  their  descent,  and  that  their  in- 


fluence might  produce  the  observed  magnetic  disturbances 
The  arches  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  effects  of  perspet 
five  on  columns  suddenly  terminated  at  a  uniform  heigh' 
by  increase  of  atmospheric  density,  while  the  correspond 
ences  with  iron  lines  in  its  spectrum  are  sufliciently  close 
to  favour  the  idea.  Ferruginous  particles  have  been  found 
in  the  dust  of  the  Polar  regions  (E.  A.  Nordenskiold,  Ast 
Nach.,  1874,  §  154),  but  whether  they  are  derived  from 
steDar  .space  or  from  volcanic  eruption  is  uncertain.  The 
yearly  and  eleven-yearly  periodicity  of  atfroras  tends  to 
support  the  theory,  but  it  is  a  formidable  difficulty  that, 
while  shooting  stars  are  more  frequent  in  the  morning,  or 
on  the  face  of  the  earth  which  is  directed  forwards  in  its 
orbit,  the  reverse  is  the  case  with  aurone.  Groneman 
meets  this  difficulty  by  supposing  that. in  the  first  case  the 
velocity  may  be  too  great  to  allow  of  arrangement  by  the 
earth's  magnetic  force,  and  that,  consequently,  only  diflused 
light  can  be  produced.  He  accounts  for  its  unfrequency 
in  equatorial  regions  by  the  weakness  of  the  earth's 
magnetic  force,  and  the  fact  that,  when  it  does  occur,  the 
columns  must  be  parallel  to  the  earth's  surface.  Without 
pronouncing  in  favour  of  this  hypothesi.'i,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  it  furnishes  a  plausible  explanation  of  the 
phenomenon,  although  we  have  no  evidence  that  meteoric 
dust,  even  if  it  exists,  would  produce  the  observed  spectrum, 
and,  as  has  been  already  remarked,  the  iron  coincidences 
are  of  little  weight. 

Although  wo  must  confess  that  the  causes  of  the  aurora 
are  very  imperfectly  ctplaincd,  we  may  Lope  that  the  rapid 
progress  which  the  last  few  years  have  witnessed  in  bringing 
terrestrial  magnetism  under  the  domain  of  cosmical  laws 
may  soon  be  extended  to  the  aurora,  and  that  we  shall  see 
in  it  fresh  evidence  that  the  same  forces  which  cause 
hurricanes  in  the  solar  atmosphere  thrill  sympathetically 
to  the  furthest  planets  of  our  system  in  waves,  not  only  of 
light  and  heat,  but  of  magnetism  and  electricity 

The  following  is  nlist  of  the  most  importiint  papers,  trrnliaes,  and  Bibllo- 
wor'^s  on  this  suhiect:— /(fr/in  M,m.  1710,  i.  131  ;  HiiHev.  Phil.  graphT, 
rra«.  iriO,  17iy,  xxix.  400  kii.  lii  ;  Hcarnc,/'/iiV.  Tru'ns  ,\zj. 


A  U  li--A  U  R 


9S) 


^107  i  Langworth.  Iluxliam.  II;iIlot.  and  Callcndrini,  Fhil.  Tra-ru. 
jxxiv.  132,  1 JO  ;  Mair.in,  TraUi  dc  VAurorc  Bjrtalt,  1733,  1754  ; 
WeiJler,  Dt  AuTora,  lioriati,  4to  ;  Wargeiitiu,  Phil.  Trans.  1751,  p. 
I2«,  1752,  p.  169,  1753,  p.  85  ;  UfrgmaDn,  Schw.  Abh.,  200,  251 ; 
\VMe\>'iT^,Uebir  die  KordliclUcr,  8vo,  Juna,  1771  ;  Hupsch,  UiUcr- 
fuchuug  dis  Nordlichts^  8vo,  Cologne,  1778  ;  Van  Swimlen,  lUcueil 
d'  Mtmoirts,  Hague,  1784;  Cavallo,  Phil.  Trans.  1781,  p.  329; 
^Viike,  "  Vou  doii  Ntiuestea  Krklaruni^en  de3  Nordlicbts,  i^chii'cd- 
4jcJus  Mus.,Svo,  W'isniar,  1783;  Hey,  Wollaston,  Hutchinson.  Frank- 
lin. I'isott.  and  Cavendish,  Phil.  Trans.  1790,  pp.  32,  47,  !U1  ; 
Dallou'd  MtUorologiail  Observations,  1793,  pp.  54, 153  ;  Chiminello, 
"Oau  Luminous  Arch.,"  .Soc.  Ital.^vW.  153;  Loomis,  *' Elet:trical 
and  Magnetic  Relations,"  Silt.  Jour.  2d  scr.,  lixii.  324,  xixiv.  34, 
Sept.  1S70;  on  "Catalogue,  Geog  dist..  Sun  spots,"  tc.,  iuid.,  3d 
«r.  V.  245,  itc.  I  B.  V.  Marsh,  "Electrical  Theory,"  ibid.  3d.  scr., 
xxxi.  311  ;  Oettingen  and  Vogel  on  "  Spectrum,"  Pogg,  Ann.,  cxlvi. 


284,  569;  Galle  and  Sirks  on  "Crown,"  ibid.,  ciWi  133,  cxlix. 
112;  Silbermann,  Comjitcs  Rendus,  Uvui.  1049,  1120,  lUO,  llCl 
I'rof.  Fritz,  "Geog.  Distrib,"  PdcrinAr.nsiliU.,  Oct,1674  ;  Zehfua.. 
Physikalisthc  Theorie,  Adelman,  Frankfort;  BalTour  Stewart,  Phil 
Mag.  4th  ser.,  xxiix.  59;  A,  S.  Davis,  ibid.,  xl.  33;  C.  Piazc 
Smjlh,  Ed.  Ait.  Obsircationa,  liii.  K.  85,  Phil.  Mag  ,  4th  scr., 
ilix.,Jan.  1S75;  A.  S  Hcrschel,  A'a<.,  iii.  6  ;  Sir  \V,  R.  GroTcond  j: 
K.Capron,  ibid.,  28;  Webb,  Glaisher,  ic,  "  Daylight  Aurori)e,"tiirf. 
104,  126,  343,  510,  iv.  209,  &o  ;  Heis,  "Auroras  at  Melbourne," 
ibid.,  iv.  213;  i'rof.  C.  A.  Youn",  iiii.i.,  iv.  345  ;  Kirkwood,  "Perio- 
dicity," ibid.,  iv.  505  ;  H.  R.  Procter,  t'Jiii.,  iii.  7,  346,  &c.  ;  P 
E.  Chase,  "On  AuTor.TS  and  Gravi|]ating  Currents,"  ibid.,  iv 
497;  H.  A.  Newton,  "  Height,"  Si«.  Jour.  2d  ser.,  xixLi.  266. 
371;  Angstrom,  Pogg.  Ann.  ("  Jubelband ")  and  Nat.,  i.  211 
J.  R.  Caprou,  "Si'cctrum,"  Phil.  Mag.,  4lh  3cr.,  xlix .  Apri 
1S75.  ill.  K.P.) 


AURUNG.\B.\D,  or  Alranga'b.^d,  a  city  of  India,  in 
the  native  state  of  IlaiJarib.'ld,  or  the  Nizam's  dominions, 
situated  in  19°  51'  N.  ht.,  and  75°  21'  E.  long.,  138  miles 
■from  Puna,  207  from  Bumb.ay  via  Puna,  and  270  from 
Uaidaribid.  It  was  founded  about  the  year  1620,  under 
the  name  of  Gurka,  by  Malik  Ambar,  an  Abyssinian,  who 
had  risen  from  the  condition  of  a  slave  to  great  influence. 
Subsequently  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Moghul  conquests 
in  the  south  of  Indix  Aurungzebeniade  it  the  seat  of  his 
government  during  his  viceroyalty  of  the  Deccan,  and  gave 
it  the  name  of  AurungAb,id.  It  thus  grew  into  the  prin- 
<ipal  city  of  an  extensive  province  of  the  same  name, 
stretching  westward  to  the  sea,  and  comprehending  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  territory  now  comprised  within  the  northern 
•division  of  the  presidency  of  Bombay.  AurungibAd  long 
continued  to  be  the  capital  of  the  succession  of  potentates 
bearing  the  modern  title  of  Nizim,  after  those  chiefs  be- 
came independent  of  Dehli.  They  abandoned  it  subse- 
<iuent!y,  and  transferred  their  capital  to  Haidardb.W, 
when  the  town  at  once  began  to  decline.  It  is  now  greatly 
fallen  from  its  ancient  grandeur.  .  The  city  is  but  half- 
peopled,  and  is  half  in  ruins,  presenting  everywhere  the 
melancholy  appearaiices  of  desertion  and  decay.  The  popu- 
lation is,  however,  still  considerable,  and  in  the  bdz.'ir, 
which  is  very  extensive,  various  rich  commodities,  particu- 
larly silks  and  shawls,  are  exposed  for  sale.  The  waUs  t>f 
the  town  are  similar  in  their  construction  to  those  of  all 
the  other  cities  in  this  quarter  of  India,  being  rather  low, 
^viih  round  towers. 

AUnUNG'ZEBE,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Moghul 
€niperors  of  Hindustan,  was  the  third  son  of  Shah  Jehan, 
and  was  born  in  October  1018.  His  original  name, 
Mahomet,  was  changed  by  his  father,  with  whom  he  was 
a  favourite,  into  Aurungzebe,  meaning  ornament  of  the 
throne,  and  at  a  later  time  he  assumed  the  additional  titles 
of  Mohi-eddin,  reviver  of  religion,  and  Alam-gir,  conqueror 
'of  the  world.  At  a  very  early  age,  and  throughout  his 
whole  life,  he  manifested  profound  religious  feeling,  perhaps 
instilled  into  him  in  the  course  of  his  education  under  some 
of  the  strictest  Mahometan  doctors.  Uo  was  employed, 
while  very  young,  in  some  of  his  father's  expeditions  into 
the  country  beyond  the  Indus,  gave  [fomise  of  considerable 
mihtary  talents,  and  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  an 
army  directed  against  the  Usbeks.  In  this  campaign  he 
was  not  completely  successful,  and  soon  after  was  trans- 
ferred to  Iho  anriy  engaged  in  the  Deccan.  Here  he 
gained  several  victories,  and  in  conjunction  with  the 
famous  general,  Meer  jumla,  who  had  deserted  from 
the  king  of  Oolconda,  he  seized  and  plundered  the  town 
of  Uaidaribid,  which  belonged  to  that  monarch.  His 
father's  express  orders  prevented  Aurungzebe  from  fullow- 
ing  up  this  success,  and,  not  long  after,  the  sudden  and 
Alarming  illness  of  Sbah  .Tchan  turned  his  thoughts  in 
JDnihcr  direction.     Of  Sbah  Jehan's  four  sons,  the  ehicif, 


Dara,  a    brave  and    honourable  prince,  but    disliked  by 
the  Mussulmans  on  accouat  of  his  liberality  of  thought,  had 
a  natural  right  to  the  throne.     Accordingly,  on  the  illness 
of  his  father,  he  at  once  seized  the  reins  of  government  and 
established  himself  at  DeLli.      The  second  son,   Soojah, 
governor  of  Bengal,  a  dissolute  and  sensual  prince,  was  dis- 
satisfied, and  raised  an  army  to  dispute  the  throne  with  Dara. 
The  keen  eye  of  Aurungzebe  saw  in  this  conjuncture  of 
events  a  favourable  opportunity  for  realising  his  own  am- 
bitious schemes.     His   religious   exercises   and  temperate 
habits  gave  him,  in  popular  estimation,  a  great  superiority 
over  his  brothers,  but  he  was  too  politic  to  put  forward  his 
claims  openly.     He  made  overtures  to  his  younger  brother 
Murad,  governor  of  Guzerat,  representing  that  neither  of 
their  elder  brothers  was  worthy  of  the  kingdom,  that  ha 
himself  had  no  temporal  ambition,   and  desired  only  to 
place  a  fit  monarch  on  the  throne,  and  then  to  devote 
himself  to  religious  exercises  and  make  the  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca.     He  therefore  proposed  to  unite  his  forces  to  those 
of  Murad,  who  would  thus  have  no  difficulty  in  making 
himself  master  of  the  empire  while  the  two  elder  brothers 
were  divided  by  their  own  strife.     Murad  was  completely 
deceived    by    these   crafty    representations,    and   at    once 
accepted  the  ofler.     Their  united  armies  then  moved  neith- 
ward.     Meanwhile  Shah  Jehan  had  recovered,  and  though 
Dara  resigned  the  crown  he  had  seized,  the  other  brothers 
professed  not  to  believe  in  their  father's  recovery,  and  still 
pressed  on.     Soojah  was  defeated  by  Dara's  son,  but  the 
imperial  forces  under   Jesswunt   Singh   were   completely 
routed  by  the  united  armies  of  Aurungzebe  and   Murad. 
Dara  in  person  took  the  field  against  his  brothers,  but  was 
defeated  and  compelled  to  fly.     Aurungzebe  then,  by  a 
clever  stroke  of  policy,  seized  the  person  of  his  father,  and 
threw  him  into  confinement,  in  which  he  was  kept  for  the 
remaining  eight  years  of  his  life.     Murad  was  soon  removed 
by  assassination,  and  the  way  being  thus  cleared,  Aurung- 
zebe,   with   atTectcd  reluctance,  ascended   the   throne   in 
August  1658.     He  quickly  freed  himself  fiom  all  other 
competitors  for  the  imperial  power,     Dara,  who  again  in- 
vaded Guzerat,  was  defeated  and  closely  pursued,  and  was 
given  up  by  the  native  chief  with  whom  he  had  taken  refuge. 
He  was  brought  to  Dehli,  exhibited  to  the  people,  and 
assassinated.     Soojah,  who  had  been  a  second  time  defeated 
near  Allahabad,  was  attacked  by  the  imperial  forces  under 
Meer  Jumla  and  Mahomet,  Aurungzcbe's  eldest  son,  who, 
however,    deserted   and  joined   bis    uncle.      Soojah    was 
defeated  and  fled  to  Aracan,  where  he  perished  ;  Mahomet 
was  captured,  thrown  into  the  fortress  of  Gwalior,  .and  died 
after  seven  years'  confinement.     No  similar  contest  dis- 
turbed Aurungzcbe's  long  reign  of  forty-six  year.'',  which 
has  been  celebrated,  though  with  doubtful  justice,  as  the 
most  brilliant  period  in  the  history  of  Hindustan.     The 
empire  certainly  was  wealthy  and  of  enormous  extent,  fi>r 
there  were  successively  added  to  it  the  rich  kingdoms  cf 


H)0 


A    US-  A   U  tS 


BaJAjwre  and  Oulconda,  and  th&  liarrefi  pfuvincc  of  Assam, 
but  it  was  ititernall^  decaying,  and  ready  to  crumble  away 
before  !lio  fir^t  vigorous  assault  T«o  causes  [.linciially 
had  tended  to  weaken  the  Moghul  power.  The  one  was  llio 
intensa  biyotry  aud  intolerant  policy  of  Auruiigzebe,  wbich 
had  alienated  the  Hindos  and  roused  the  6eroe  aniniosily 
of  the  haughty  Rajputs  The  olhcj-  wis  the  rise  and  rapid 
growth  of  the  Mahratta  power.  Under  (heir  able  leader, 
Sevaji,  those  daring  freebooters  i/lundectJ  in  every  dircc 
tioD,  nor  could  all  Aurungzebe's  efTo'^ts  avail  to  subdue 
them.  At  the  close  of  the  long  contests  between  them,  the 
Moghul  power  was  wciker,  th*"  -Mahratta  stronger  llian  at 
first.  Still  the  personal  ability  aud  influence  of  the 
nmpcror  were  sutlieient  to  keep  his  realms  intact  during 
his  own  life.  His  last  years  were  embilteied  by  lenioise, 
by  gloomy  forebodings,  and  by  constant  sus[iicion,  for  he 
had  always  been  in  the  habit  of  employing  a  system  of 
espionage,  and  only  then  experienced  its  evil  effects.  Ho 
died,  on  the  2l3t  February  17U7,  at  Ahmadnagar,  while 
fiigaged  on  an  extensive  but  unfortunate  expedition  again.st 
the  Mahrat'as. 

AUSCHWITZ,  or  Oswikcim,  a  town  iu  Galicia,  Austria, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sola,  a  tributary  of  the  Wechsel, 
33  miles  W  S  W.  of  Cracow.  It  has  a  population  of  up 
wards  of  3S00,  and  carries  on  a  trade  in  salt.  Previous  to 
the  first  partition  of  Poland  in  1773,  it  was  the  seat  of  a 
dukedom,  which  bad  been  united  by  Sigisniund  Augustus 
with  the  duchy  of  Zator  in  lfiG4. 

AUSCULTATION  {auscu/fmr.  to  listen),  a  term  in 
medicine,  applied  to  the  method  employed  by  physicians 
for  determining,  by  the  sense  of  hearing,  the  condition  of 
certain  internal  organs.  The  ancient  physicians  appear  to 
have  practised  a  kind  of  auscultation,  by  which  they  were 
able  to  detect  the  presence  of  air  or  fluids  in  the  cavities 
of  the  chest  and  abdomen.  Still  no  general  application 
of  this  method  of  investigation  was  resorted  to,  or  was 
indeed  possible,  till  the  advance  of  the  study  of  anatomy 
led  to  correct  ideas  regarding  the  locality,  structure,  and 
uses  of  the  various  organs  of  the  body,  and  to  the  alteia 
tions  produced  in  thein  by  disease.  In  17G1  Auenbrugger 
of  Vienna  introduced  the  art  of  percussion  in  reference 
more  especially  to  diseases  of  the  chest  This  consisted 
ID  tap[iing  with  the  fingers  the  surface  of  the  body,  so  as 
to  elicit  sounds  by  which  the  comparative  resonance  of  the 
subjacent  parts  or  organs  might  be  estimated,  Aueii- 
brugger's  method  attracted  but  little  attention,  till  Corvisart, 
in  1803,  demonstrated  its  great  practical  im(>ortance ; 
and  then  its  employment  in  the  diagnosis  of  affections  of 
the  chest  soon  bocariie  general.  Percussion  was  originally 
practised  in  the  manner  above  mentioned  {immediate  per- 
cussion), but  subsequently  the  method  of  mediate  percus- 
sinn  was  introduced  by  Piorry,  and  is  that  now  largely 
adopted  It  is  accomplished  by  placing  upon  the  spot  to 
be  examined  some  solid  substance  named  a  pleximeler 
(stroke  measurer),  upon  which  the  percussion  strokes  are 
made  either  with  the  fingers  or  with  a  small  hammer  tii)ped 
with  India  rubber.  Tlio  pleximeler  consists  of  a  thin  oval 
pieco  of  ivory  ;  but  one  or  more  fingers  of  the  left  hand 
applied  flat  upon  the  part  answer  equally  well,  and  thia  is 
the  method  which  must  phy.-iuans  adopt.  Percussion  must 
he  regarded  a.s  a  necessary  part  of  ausculUition,  particu- 
larly in  relation  to  th«  cxaininatiim  of  the  chest  ;  for 
the  physician  who  h.is  .made  himself  acquainted  with  the 
normal  condition  of  that  pa't  of  the  body  in  reference  to 
percussion  is  thuv  able  to  recognise  oy  the  ci'  nlterations 
of  resonance  produced  by  disease.  But  percnssioc  nione, 
however  importimt  in  diagnosis,  could  nianifestl)  coccy 
only  limited  and  iiii|iprfect  information,  for  it  could  nevu" 
indicate  the  n.iluri'  or  extent  of  functional  disturbance.  ..r 
dislinguiuh    bei"'f'cn   dil^"r<-iit     ftirrii<    tif    Hiscri'je,   c^'en    in 


those  organs  which  it  had  proved  to  be  in  an  abnunrisi 
condition,  while  in  other  cases,  and  notably  in  many  ali'ec- 
tions  of  the  heart,  it  could  afford  no  assistance  whatever. 

In  1819  the  distinguished  French  physician,  Laenncc, 
introduced  the  method  of  auscultation  by  means  of  the 
Btctlioscopo  (TT^f^os,  the  chest,  aud  (tkot^iu;  to  c.tamine), 
with  which  Lis  name  stands  peinianently  associated.  For 
some  time  pre\ijusly,  jihysicians,  more  especially  iu  th» 
hosj'itals  of  Paris,  had  been  in  the  habit  of  applying  the- 
car  over  the  region  of  the  heart  for  the  pur[)oso  of  listening: 
to  the  sounds  of  that  organ,  and  it  was  in  the  employment 
of  this  method  that  Laeiiiiec  conceived  the  idea  that  lln-.«ir 
Sounds  might  be  better  conveyed  through  the  medium  •■<: 
Some  solid  body  interposed  between  his  e.ir  aud  ili- 
[■atieiifs  chest.  He  accordingly,  by  way  of  ciiicriinent, 
lulluJ  up  a  quive  of  [laper  into  the  form  of  a  cylinder  ami 
apiilied  it  in  the  manner  just  mentioned,  when  he  found, 
as  he  states,  that  ho  was  able  to  perceive  the  acimu  of  the 
heart  more  distinctly  than  he  had  ever  been  able  to  do  by 
the  immediate  application  of  his  car.  He  thence  inferre^l 
that  not  merely  the  heart's  sounds,  but  also  those  of  other 
organs  of  the  chest  might  be  brought  witliin  reach  of  the 
ear  by  some  such  instrument,  and  he,  therefore,  had  con- 
structed the  wooden  cylinder,  or  stethoscope,  which  bears 
bis  name.  This  consisted  of  a  cylindrical  piece  of  wood, 
about  12  inches  long,  with  a  narrow  perforation  from  end 
to  end,  the  extremity  for  applying  to  the  chest  having  a 
movable  piece  of  conical  form  fitting  into  the  cylinder, 
which  w,is  withdrawn  by  the  physician  while  listi-ning  to 
the  sounds  of  respiration,  tlic  conqilete  instrument  being 
used  for  examining  the  sounds  of  the  voice  and  those  of 
iheheait  This  instrument,  though  rendered  portable  by 
beiug  made  to  screw  into  two  halves,  was  inconveniently 
large  and  heavy,  aud  w-as  subs,6quently  modified  by  Piorry 
to  the  form  now  generally  used  of  a  thin  narrow  cybndcr 
of  about  7  inches  long,  with  an  esp'aruiion  at  one  end  for 
ai'iilymg  to  the  chest,  and  a  more  or  less  Hattoned  surface 
at  the  other  for  the  ear  of  the  listener.  Having  ascertained 
by  carcfid  observation  the  sounds  elicited  on  aiiscultatiou 
of  the  healthy  chest,  Laenncc  studied  the  modifications  of 
these  as  produced  by  disease  ;  and  by  comparing  cases- 
with  one  another,  and  especially  by  investigating  the  state 
of  the  alTccted  paits  after  death,  ho  was  able,  in  his  cele- 
brated J'raite  de  t'Aitscultalion  mediate,  'o  lay  the  founila- 
lion  for  a  rational  system  of  diagnosis  of  the  great  classes- 
'if  pulmonary  and  heart  complaints.  It  does  not,  how- 
ever, appear  to  be  the  case,  as  Laennec  supposed,  that 
mfdia'.e  auscultation,  by  the  stethoscope  is  superior  in  an 
acoustic  point  of  view  to  immediate  avscullatn'n  by  th& 
unaided  car.  On  the  contrary,  sounds  are  lieard  louder  by 
the  latter  than  by  the  former  method.  Nevertheless,  the 
stethoscope  possesses  special  advantages,  among  the  chief 
of  whicli  are  that  by  its  use  particular  areas  can  be  ex- 
nmined  and  compared  with  greater  accuracy  ;  that  it  cal^ 
be  applied  to  all  parts  of  the  chest,  and  that  it  can  be  used 
in  all  cases  where,  from  the  sex  or  the  bodily  condition  of 
the  patient,  the  direct  application  of  the  ear  is  inadmissible 
On  the  other  liaod,  immediate  auscultation  is  to  be  prefcrreil 
in  the  examination  of  young  children,  who  are  readily 
frightened  by  the  eight,  and  still  more  by  the  pre.s^ure 
upon  them,  of  the  stethoscope. 

The  whole  subject  of  auscullatioii  has  been  greatly 
elaborated  .since  the  time  of  Lac u nee,  and  while  some  of 
his  ojiinions  have  been  found  to  require  modification,  con- 
tinuod  iuvcsstigation  only  serves  more  clearly  to  demonstralo 
the  value  of  this  niethnd  of  diagnosis,  and  to  elicit  fre.«h 
and  morn  nccurate  results  from  its  emuloymcnt-  Although 
iiuich  remains  to  Iw  done  in  '.he  way  of  the  correct  inter- 
pietation  of  the  phenunicna  observed  in  auscultation,  yet 
II. c  fads  already  ctlal.lish'.'d  ar.- iTiiong  the  most  important 


A  U  S-  A  U  S 


101 


«cqui:<iti.jn9  in  ibe  whole  domain  of  practical  medicine. 
1 1.e  numerous  diseases  affecting  tho  lungs  can  DOW  be 
fecognised  and  discriminated  from  each  otber  with  a 
precision  nhicb,  but  for  auscultation  and  tbc  stethoscope, 
vouid  have  bet-n  altogether  UDaltainable,  a  point  which 
be;i'S  most  intimately  upon  the  treatment  of  this  great  and 
common  class  of  ailments.  The  same  holds  good  in  tbc 
mie  of  Ibe  heart,  whose  varied  and  often  romples  forms  of 
disease  can,  by  auscultation,  be  ideiili6ed  with  striking 
accuracy  But  in  addition  to  these  its  main  uses,  auscuJ 
tatiou  IS  found  to  render  great  assistance  in  the  investiga- 
tion of  many  obscure  internal  affections,  such  as  aneurisms 
•ind  certain  diseases  of  the  a?sophagu3  and  stomach.  To 
the  accoucheur  the  stethoscope  yields  valuable  aid  in  the 
'ictectiou  of  some  forms  of  uterine  tumours,  and  especially 
jn  the  diagnosis  of  pregnancy, — the  auscultatory  evidence 
alfordcd  at  a  particular  stage  by  the  sounds  of  the  foetal 
heart  being  by  far  the  most  reliable  of  the  many  signs  of 
<hit  condition.  (j.  o.  a.) 

AUSONIUS,  Decimi'3  Mag.vus,  a  Roman  poet  of  the 
4th  century,  was  the  son  of  an  eminent  physician,  and  born 
4t  Burdigjia  (Bordeaux)  about  310  a.d  His  education 
was  conducted  with  unusual  care,  either  because  his  genius 
was  very  promising,  or  because  the  scheme  of  his  nativity, 
which  had  been  cast  by  his  maternal  grandfather,  was 
found  to  promise  great  fame  and  advancement.  He  made 
«itraordinary  progress  in  classical  learning  ;  and,  after 
completing  his  studies  at  Toulouse,  he  practised  for  a  time 
at  the  bar  in  his  native  place.  At  the  age  of  thirty  he 
}jecame  a  teacher  of  grammar,  and  soon  afterwards  was 
{.■ronioted  to  the  professorship  of  rhetoric.  In  this  office  he 
acquired  so  great  a  reputation  that  he  was  appointed  pre- 
ceptor to  Gratian,  the  Emperor  Valentiniau's  son.  The 
iewards  and  honours  conferred  on  him  for  tho  faithful 
-discharge  of  his  duties,  prove  the  truth  of  Juvenal's 
maiim — that  when  Fortune  pleases  she  can  raise  a  man 
from  the  humble  rank  of  rhetorician  to  the  dignity  of 
consul.  He  was  appointed  consul  by  the  Emperor  Gratian 
10  the  year  379,  after  having  filled  other  important  offices  ; 
for  besides  the  dignity  of  qucestor,  to  which  he  had  been 
■nominated  by  Valentinian,  he  was  made  praefectof  Latiuni, 
of  Libya,  and  of  Gaul,  after  that  prince's  death.  His 
speech,  returning  thanks  to  Gratian  on  his  promotion  to  the 
consulship,  is  a  good  specimen  of  high  flown  rhetorical 
(lattery.  The  time  of  his  death  is  uncertain,  but  he  was 
alive  in  388,  and  probably  survived  till  about  394.  From 
references  in  his  works  he  appears  to  have  been  a  convert 
to  Christianity. 

Of  Ma  prose  writings,  there  art)  extent  \\ie  Actio  ad  Gratianum. 
iSo  Pinocfue  (or  stiniuiaries)  in  Iliadcm.  el  Odyascam^  and  one  or  two 
of  the  Efjistolce.  The  priocipal  pieces  in  verse  are  the  Epigrammata, 
*ome  of  which  are  e.xtrcmeiy  felicitous ;  the  Parentalia  and  Com- 
numoratio  Pro/cssorum  Bitrdigaicnsium,  which  give  interesting 
det^iilj  concernios  his  rcl^ilions  and  literary  friends  ;  the  EpisiotiE  ; 
and,  6nally,  Iho  IdtjllSa,  a  collection  of  twenty  small  poems,  the  most 
famous  of  which  are  tho  Cento  ^^ptialis,  an  obsconcsclcctionof  lines 
/too  Virgil,  and  the  Afosella,  a  descriptive  poem  on  the  river 
Moselle,  containing  some  good  passages.  Ausonius  was  rather  a 
roan  of  letters  than  a  poet ;  his  wiilo  reading  supplied  him  with 
tu.Atcrials  for  verse,  but  his  works  exhibit  no  traces  of  a  true  poetic 
•pirit;  even  his  versificalion,  though  ingenious,  is  frequently  defec- 
tive. Tlie  best  editions  of  his  works  arc  those  of  Tollius  (Amster- 
dam, 1669),  and  Souchay  (Paris,  1730),  and  the  Diponliuc  (1785). 
The  Mosdla  has  been  edited  separately  by  Docking  (1S28,  18J2). 

AUSPICLV    Sec  Augurs. 

AUSSIG,  AfssvENAD,  or  Labem,  a  town  of  Austria,  in 
Bthemia,  situated  in  a  mountainous  district,  at  the  con- 
Jlu.;nce  of  tlio  Cila  and  the  Elbe.  It  carries  on  a  large 
mnnufacturo  of  woollen  wares,  linen,  paper,  4c  Its  chcmi- 
-cal  works  olouo  give  employment  to  500  operafives,  and 
«bout  600  boats  are  auuually  built  in  its  yards.  Besides 
.»  coMidcmblo  trade  in  grain,  fruit,  mineral-waters,  and 


wood,  there  is  a  large  export  of  coal  from  the  neighbourir  r 
mines.  Aussig,  once  strongly  fortified,  was  destroyed  1  >• 
the  Hussites  in  1420,  burned  down  in  1583,  and  capture! 
by  the  Swedes  in  1639.     Population,  10,933. 

AUSTEN,  Jane,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  modern 
British  novelists,  was  bom  December  13,  1775,  at  th-< 
parsonage  of  Steventon,  in  Hampshire,  of  which  place  her 
father  was  for  many  years  rector.  Her  life  was  singularlv 
tranqud  and  void  of  incident,  so  that  but  few  facts  ari- 
known  concerning  her  from  which  an  idea  of  her  characler 
can  be  formed.  She  was  tall  and  attractive  in  person,  and 
of  an  extremely  kind  and  gentle  disposition.  Under  her 
father's  care  she  received  a  sound  education,  though  she 
had  few  of  the  modern  accomplishments.  She  had  a  fair 
acquaintance  with  English  literature,  her  favourite  authors 
being  Richardson,  Johnson,  Cowper,  and  Crabbe  ;  she 
knew  French  well  and  Italian  slightly,  had  some  taste  for 
music,  and  was  noted  for  her  skill  in  needlework.  She 
was  a  particular  favourite  with  all  her  younger  relatives, 
especially  on  account  of  her  wonderful  power  of  extern 
porising  long  and  circumstantial  narratives.  At  a  very 
early  age  she  seems  to  have  begun  to  exercise  her  faculty 
for  composition,  and  wrote  several  short  tales  and  frag- 
ments of  larger  works,  some  of  which  have  been  found 
among  her  papers  These  first  essays  are  written  in  a 
remarkably  pure  and  vigc-ous  style,  and  are  not  unworthy 
of  her  later  reputation.  In  1796  her  first  large  work. 
Pride  and  Prejudice,  was  begun  and  completed  in  about 
ten  months  ;  Sense  and  Seiisibitili/  and  Northangcr  Abbey 
were  written  soon  after,  during  1797  and  1798.  Many 
years  elapsed  before  these  works  were  published,  for  the 
first  attempts  to  introduce  them  to  the  public  were  badly 
received.  Pride  and  Prejudice  was  summarily  rejected 
by  Mr  Cadell  ;  Northanger  Abbey  was  sold  for  £.10  to  a 
Bath  publisher,  but  was  never  printed,  and,  many  years 
after,  was  bought  back  by  the  author.  From  1801  tc 
1805  the  Austen  family  resided  in  Bath,  they  then  removed 
to  Southampton,  and  finally,  in  1809,  settled  at  Chawton 
There  Miss  Austen,  who  for  some  years  had  written 
nothing,  resumed  her  pen,  and  began  to  prepare  for 
publication  her  early  novels.  Sense  and  Sensibility  was 
published  in  1811,  Prideand  Prejudice  in  1813,  ManfMd 
PnrkXn  1814,  Emmain  1810.  These  four  were  anonymous. 
Northanger  Abbey  and  Persuasion  appeared  together  under 
Miss  Austen's  name  in  1818,  after  her  death.  Early  in 
1810  her  health  had  begun  to  give  way;  her  strength 
gradually  declined,  and  on  tho  ISth  July  1817,  she  died  al 
Winchester,  whither  she  had  removed  for  change  of  air  and 
scenery.     She  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  of  that  town. 

Miss  Austen's  works  at  the  time  of  their  appearance 
were  on  the  whole  well  received,  and  brought  her  consider- 
able reputation, — more,  indeed,  than  she  had  herself  antici- 
pated ;  but  their  full  merits  were  not  tten  so  generally  re- 
cognised as  they  have  since  been.  The  novels  most  popular 
at  that  time  belonged  to  the  class  of  which  Mrs  Kadcliffe'a 
Cdolpho,  Godwin's  St  Leon  or  Caleb  Williams,  and  Lewis's 
Monk  are  the  best  known  representatives.  Against  thi.i 
style  of  fiction  Miss  Austen  from  the  first  set  her  face  , 
she  had  a  remarkably  keen  sense  of  humour,  and  the 
ludicrous  aspect  of  these  thrilling  incidents,  mysterious 
situations,  and  unnatural  characters,  presented  itself  very 
strongly  to  her  mind.  Northanger  Abbey,  one  of  hor 
earliest  productions,  is  a  clever  and  well-sustained  parody 
on  romances  of  this  type.  She  did  not,  however,  confine 
herself  to  mero  negative  criticism,  but  resolved  to  shew 
that  the  interest  of  readers  could  bo  roused  and  sustained 
by  a  story  absolutely  free  from  tho  whole  machinery  of 
romance  and  exaggerated  sentiment,  but  presenting  no 
accurately-drawn  picture  of  quiet,  natural  life.  This  ta;U 
she  accomplished  with  complete  success ;  she  was  (be  Cret 


102 


A  U  S  — A  U  S 


to  intrdace  the  novel  of  domestic  life,  and  her  writings  are 
stiU  the  best  specimens  of  ihjt  class  of  fiction.  It  could 
hardly  be  expected  that  such  works  would  become  imme- 
diately popular  ;  the  characters,  the  motives  of  action,  and 
the  plot  itself  were  too  ordinary,  one  may  say  too  common- 
place, to  appeal  strongly  to  the  sympathiis  of  the  general 
mass  of  readers.  Her  colours  were  not  BDOwy  enough  to 
strike  the  vulgar  eye.  It  is  probsbie,  indeed,  that  her 
admirers  will  always  be  few  in  number;  for  not  only  does 
it  require  a  somewhat  cultivated  taste  to  appreciate  the 
rare  skill  with  which  the  scanty  materials  of  her  tales  are 
handled,  but  the  author's  experience  of  life  was  so  limited 
that  her  works  are  entirely  wanting  in  certain  elements-  — 
such  as  depth  of  feeling  and  breadth  of  sympathy — wh.ch 
are  indispensable  before  a  work  of  fiction  can  exercise  anv 
considerable  infiuence  on  the  public  mind. 

The  framework  in  nearly  aU  Miss  Austen's  novels  is  the 
same,  taken  as  they  are  from  ordinary  English  middle-class 
life  ;  her  characters  are  in  no  way  distinguished  by  any 
remarkable  qualities,  they  are  such  persons  as  one  would 
readily  expect  to  meet  in  every -day  life  ;  the  plot  is  exceed- 
ingly simple,  and  the  incidents,  never  rising  above  the  level 
of  the  most  common-place  occurrences,  flow  naturally  from 
the  characters  of  the  actors.  In  the  hands  of  most  writers 
such  materiab  would  infallibly  become  monotonous  and 
tiresome  ;  but  from  any  danger  of  this  Miss  Austen  is  com- 
pletely freed  by  her  wonderful  power  of  exciting  interest 
in  the  "involvements  and  feelings  of  ordinary  life,"  and 
the  skill  with  which,  by  a  series  of  imperceptible  but 
effective  touches,  she  discriminates  her  characters,  rounds 
them  off.  and  makes  them  stand  out  from  the  canvas  real 
and  living  personages  Her  gallery  of  portraits  is  certainly 
small,  and  the  same  character  appears  over  and  over  again, 
but  each  figure  is  Bo  distinctly  drawn,  and  has  such  marked 
individuality,  that  one  is  never  struck  with  a  sense  of 
repetition  A  warm  admirer  of  her  works.  Archbishop 
Whately,  has  compared  them  to  the  carefully-executed 
pictares  of  the  Dutch  school  ;  perhaps  the  analogy  of 
miniature  painting,  suggested  by  the  author  herself,  is 
more  happy  and  expressive. 

Miss  Austen's  life  has  been  written  by  her  nephew.  Rev 
J  Austen  Leigh  (1870,  2d  ed  ,  1871),  who  has  also  pub- 
lished gome  extracts  from  her  papers,  including  a  short 
tale.  Lady  Susan,  wjitten  in  the  form  of  letters;  a  frag- 
ment of  a  larger  work  called  fTu  JVaCsom ;  the  first  draft 
of  a  chapter  in  Persuasion ;  and  the  beginning  of  a  novel, 
OD  which  she  was  engaged  at  the  time  of  her  death. 

AUSTERLITZ,  a  smaU  town  of  Moravia,  12  miles 
E.SE  of  Briinn,  containing  a  magnificent  palace  belonging 
to  the  prince  of  ■'aunitzRietberg,  and  a  beautiful  church. 
It  has  been  rendered  memorable  by  the  great  ■  ictory  ob- 
tained in  its  vicinity,  on  the  2d  December  1805,  by  the 
French  under  Napoleon,  over  the  united  forces  of  Austria 
and  Russia  under  their  emperors.     Population,  3150, 

AUSTIN,  John,  one  d  the  ablest  English  writers  on 
jurisprudence,  was  born  on  the  3d  March  1790  At  an 
early  age  he  entered  the  army,  and  passed  five  years  in 
military  service  lie  then  retired,  appUed  himself  to  the 
study  of  law,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1814  His 
powers,  though  admirably  adapted  for  grasping  the  fumkt 
mental  prlnci(ilcs  of  law,  were  not  of  a  nature  to  render 
liim  successful  in  legal  practice.  His  health,  too,  was 
delicate,  and  in  1825  he  resigned  active  employment  at  the 
bar.  In  the  following  year,  however,  he  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  jurisprudence  in  tho  newly  foundod  London 
university  lie  immediately  crossed  (jvcr  to  CJeruiany  to 
prepare  himself  for  his  new  duties,  and  at  Conn  became 
jC'piiinted  with  some  <if  the  most  cnimeiit  German  jurists. 
Ills  k'dures  were  at  fir.st  attended  by  a  numbei  and  a  cl.iss 
uf   atudrnta   quite  boy.md   his    oiilii'ipnli"iis       Anum^    ],\% 


hearers  were  such  men  as  Lord  llomilly,  i^ir  C.  C.  Li-«iSi. 
and  J.  S.  Mill.  Krc'in  Mill's  notes  sumo  o'  the  kctures- 
were  afterwards  piibiished,  and  he  has  given  an  admirable 
account  of  Austin  in  his  Dissertations  (vol.  iii  )  But  it 
soon  became  apparent  that  there  would  be  no  steady  demand 
for  training  in  the  science  of  law,  which,  though  useful,  was- 
not  of  immediate  utility  in  practice.  Under  these  circum 
stances  Austin,  who  was  almost  too  conscientious  in  re;,;ard 
to  his  own  work,  thought  it  right  to  resign  the  chair  iit 
I8J2.  An  attempt  to  institute  lectures  at  the  i(j.ner 
Temple  also  failed,  and,  as  his  health  was  dclic.to,  ho 
retired  to  Boulogne,  where  he  remained  for  neaily  twff 
yearsi  In  1837  he  acted  as  royal  commissioner  in  Malta^ 
and  discharged  the  duties  of  that  office  most  cfTicicntly. 
The  next  ten  years  were  spent  in  travelling  on  the  Coii« 
titrent,  as  the  state  of  his  health  hardly  ptnnitted  him  Uf 
reside  in  England.  The  Revolution  of  181S  drove  liim 
from  Paris,  and  on  his  return  to  England  he  settled  at 
Weybridge,  in  Surrey,  where  he  remained  till  his  death  in- 
December  1859.  Austin  wrote  one  or  two  pamphlets,  but 
the  chief  work  be  published  was  his  Provinct  of  Jurisjrru- 
dence  Determined  [X^'i'l),  a  treatise  on  the  relation  bel«eeiv 
ethics  and  law,  which  gives  a  clear  analysis  of  the  notion 
of  obligation,  and  an  admirable  statement  of  utilitarianism, 
the  ethical  theory  adopted  bytheauthor.  After  his  death,  his- 
widow,  Mrs  Sarah  Austin,  published  liis  Lectures  on  Juris- 
prudence;  or,  Tlie  Philosophy  o/  J'vsilive  Law.  These,  com- 
bined with  tho  Province,  have  becu  edited,  under  the  .same- 
title,  by  Mr  R  Campbell,  and  reached  in  1875  a  fifth  edition. | 

AUSTIN,  Sarau  Taylor,  translator  and  niiscellancou.s- 
wriler,  was  born  in  1793  She  was  one  of  the  Taylor 
family  of  Norwich,  several  of  whose  members  had  distiii-j' 
guished  themselves  in  the  fields  of  literature  and  science  . 
She  was  the  youngest  child  of  her  family,  received  a  liberat> 
and  solid  education  at  home,  chiefly  from  her  mother,  andi 
ha^  the  advantage,  too,  of  enjoying  in  her  father's  house- 
much  intellectual  society.  She  grew  up  a  beautiful  and 
cultivated  woman,  and  in  1820  became  the  wife  of  Johif 
Austin,  noticed  above.  They  settled  in  London,  amti 
among  the  familiar  visitors  of  their  house  were  Benlliam,, 
the  Mills  (father  and  son),  the  Grotes,  Romilly,  Buller,, 
Sydney  Smith,  and  other  eminent  men.  She  accompanied 
her  husband  in  1827  to  Bonn,  where  they  spent  soma 
months,  and  made  acquaintance  with  Niebubr,  Schlegel, 
Arodt,  aod  other  distinguished  Germans.  She  afterward*, 
lived  some  years  in  Germany  and  France,  and  was  left  a. 
widow  in  December  1859.  Mrs  Austin  is  best  known  a«- 
a  singularly  skilful  translator  of  Germa'n  and  French 
works;  In  1832  appeared  her  version  of  the  Travels  nf 
Prince  Puckler  Muikau.  This  was  followed  by  Character 
istict  of  Goethe  ftom  the  German  of  Folk,  History  c^f- 
the  Reformation  in  Germany  aiul  History  of  the  I'opfs. 
from  the  German  of  Ranke,  and  Dr  Carove's  Story  vith  , 
out  an  End.  She  contributed  "Travelling  Letters"  and 
critical  and  obituary  notices  to  tho  Alhenizutn,  edited  the 
Memoir  of  Sydney  ^Smilh  and  her  daughter  Lady  Oufl 
Gordon's  Letters  from  FjypI,  and  for  some  years  ol  hot 
nidowhoo;!  wis  occupied  in  arranging  for  publication  her 
husband's  Lectures  on  ./urisprudnice.  She  was  also  author 
of  Germany  from  1700  to  1814,  National  Education,  and 
Letters  on  Gi'h'  Schools.  Mrs  Austin  died  .at  \Vcybridj;e- 
i-n  Surrey,  8tli  August  1SC7. 

AUSTRALASIA,  one  of  the  six  great  geographical: 
divisions  of  tho  globe,  is  situated,  as  its  name  iiidiiales, 
south  of  Asia,  between  the  equator  and  50'  S.  lat  ,  and  I  1 0' 
ond  180'  E.  long.  It  comprises  the  island -ccmtinents  uf 
New  Guinea,  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand,  and 
the  cuntcnninous  nrcliipclagoes  of  New  Britannia.  Sol. ■inoik 
Islands,  New  Hebrides,  Loyalty  Islands,  and  New  (,'ule-. 
douia    which  will  tie  Irealed  oi  urnlcr  .»[  irul  headings. 


103 


AUSTRALIA 


AUSTRALIA  or  New  Holland,  the  largest  island- 
contineut  of  Australasia,  is  situated  witliin  10°  47' 
and  3'J°  11'  a  bt.  and  113=  and  U3'  30'  E  lung.  It 
measures  2000  miJes  in  length  from  west  to  east,  by  1950 
miles  in  breadth  from  north  to  south,  and  contains  an  area 
of  about  3,000,000  square  miles — nearly  the  same  as  that 
of  the  United  Stales  of  America,  exclusive  of  Alaska.  It 
is  surroanded  on  the  west  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  on  the 
east  by  the  South   Pacific.      In  the  north  it  is  sepurated 


Cl^tH)       ,,,0 


,-^ 


CJ^i^  »•    130  cnut»\ct*   140 


Sketch  Map  of  Australia. 

from  New  Ouinea  by  Torres  Strait,  which  is  80  miles 
broad,  and  from  the  Eastern  Archipelago  by  Arafura 
Sea  J  while  on  the  south  Bass  Strait,  140  miles  wide, 
eejiarates  it  from  Tasmania.  The  neighbouring  colony  of 
New  Zealand  lies  1200  miles  opposite  it.i  south-east  coast 

Owing  to  its  position  at  the  antipodes  of  the  civilised 
world,  Australia  has  been  longer  a  terra  incognita  than 
any  other  region  of  the  same  extent.  Its  first  discovery 
IS  involved  in  considerable  doubt,  from  confusion  of  the 
names  which  were  applied  by  the  earlier  navigators  and 
geographers  to  the  Australasian  coasts. 

The  ancients  were  somehow  im[jrcsscd  with  the  idea  of 
a  Terra  Australis  which  was  one  day  to  be  revealed.  The 
Phoenician  manners  had  pushed  through  the  outlet  of  the 
Red  Sea  to  eastern  Africa,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  coasts 
of  India  and  Sumatra.  But  the  geographer  Ptolemy,  in 
the  2d  century,  still  conceived  the  ludian  Ocean  to  bo  an 
inland  sea,  bounded  on  the  south  by  an  unknown  land, 
which  connected  the  Ciersonesui  Aurea  (Malay  Peninsula) 
with  the  promontory  of  Prasum  in  eastern  Africa.  This 
erroneous  notion  prevailed  in  mediicval  Europe,  although 
»ome  travellers  like  Marco  Polo  heard  rumours  in  China 
of  large  insular  countries  to  the  southeast 

The  investigations  of  Mr  R.  H.  Major  make  it  appear 
probable  that  the  Australian  mainland  was  known  as  "Great 
Java"  to  the  Portugu&se  early  in  the  16th  century  ;  and 
the  following  jiassage  in  the  Descripticnu  PloUmaica: 
Augmenlum  of  Cornelius  Wylfliet,  printed  at  Louvain  in 
1093,  is  perhaps  the  first  distinct  account  that  occurs  of 
the  country  : — "  The  Australis  Terra  is  the  most  southern 
of   all  lands,   n:id   is  separated   from    New   Guinea  by  a 


narrow  strait.  Its  sbores  are  hitherto  btit  little  kooini, 
since,  after  one  voyage  and  another,  that  route  has  been, 
deserted,  and  seldom  is  the  country  visited,  unless  when- 
sailors  ore  driven  there  by  storms.  The  Auslrali-i  Terras 
begins  at  one  or  two  degrees  from  the  equator,  and  is. 
ascertained  by  some  to  be  of  so  great  an  extent,  that  if  it 
were  thoroughly  explored  it  would  be  regarded  as  a  fiftU 
part  of  the  world." 

It  was  in  1C06  that  Torres,  with  a  ship  commissioned 
by  the  Spanish  Government  of  Peru,  parted  from  his  com- 
panion Quiros  (after  their  discovery  of  Ejpiritu  Santo  and. 
the  New  Hebndes),  and  sailed  from  cast  to  west  through, 
the  strait  which  bears  his  name  ;  while  in  the  same  year 
the  peninsula  of  Cape  York  was  touched  at  by  a  vessel! 
called  the  "  Duyfhen"  or  "  Dove"  from  the  Dutch  colony  of 
Bautam  in  Java,  but  this  was  understood  at  the  time  to 
form  a  part  of  the  neighbouring  land  of  New  Guinea-. 
The  Dutch  continued  their  atteupts  to  explore  the  un- 
known land,  sending  out  in  1C16  the  ship  "  Endraght,"  com- 
manded by  Dirk  Hartog,  which  sailed  along  the  west  coast 
of  Australia  from  lat.'"2G'  30'.  to  23°  S.  This  expedi- 
tion left  on  an  islet  near  Shark's  Bay  a  record  of  its  w-.it- 
engraved  on  a  tin  plate,  which  was  found  there  in  1801. 
The  "  Pera  "  and  "  Arnhem,''  Dutch  vessels  from  Amboyna,. 
in  1618  explored  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  giving  to  its  west- 
ward peninsula,  on  the  side  opposite  to  Cape  York,  the 
name  of  Arnhem  Land.  The  name  of  Carpentaria  was- 
also  bestowed  on  this  vast  gulf  in  compliment  to  Peter 
Carpenter,  then  governor  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Com- 
pany. In  1027  the  "  Guldene  Zeepard,"  carrying  Peter 
Nuyta  to  the  embassy  in  Japan,  sailed  along  the  soutti. 
coast  from  Cape  Leeuwin,  and  sighted  the  whole  shore  of  the- 
Great  Bight  But  alike  on  the  northern  and  southern  sea- 
board, the  a.spect  of  New  Holland,  as  it  was  then  called, 
presented  an  uninviting  appearance. 

An  important  era  of  discovery  began  with  Tasman'a- 
voyage  of  1642.  He,  too,  sailed  from  Batavia ;  but,  first 
crossing  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  Mauritius,  he  descended 
to  the  44th  parallel  of  S.  lat,  recrossing  that  ocean  to  the- 
east  By  taking  this  latter  course  he  reached  the  ishuid 
which  now  bears  his  name,  but  which  he  called  Van. 
Diemen's  Land,  after  the  Dutch  governor  of  Batavia,  In 
1644  Tasman  made  another  attempt,  when  he  explored, 
the  north-west  coast  of  Australia,  from  Arnhem  Land  Ic- 
the  22d  degree  of  latitude,  approaching  the  locality  of 
Dirk  Hartog 's  discoveries  of  IGIG.  Ho  seems  to  have- 
landed  at  Cape  Ford,  near  Victoria  River,  also  in  Roebuck; 
Bay,  and  again  near  Dampier's  Archipelago.  But  the- 
hostile  attitude  of  the  natives,  whom  he  denounced  as  a. 
malicious  and  miserable  race  of  savages,  prevented  his  see- 
ing much  of  the  new  country;  and  for  half  a  century  after 
this  no  fresh  discoveries  were  made. 

The  English  made  their  first  appearance  on  the  Austra- 
lian coast  in  1688,  when  the  north-western  shores  were- 
visited  by  the  famous  buccaneer  Captain  William  Dampier„ 
who  spent  five  weeks  ashore  near  Roebuck  Boy.  A  few  years. 
later  (1697)  the  Dutch  organised  another  expedition  under 
Vlamingh,  who,  first  touching  at  Swan  River  on  the  west 
coast,  sailed  northward  to  Shark's  Bay,  where  Hartog  Lad 
been  in  1616.  Dampier,  two  years  later,  visited  the  same- 
place,  not  now  as  a  roving  adventurer,  but  with  a  commis- 
sion from  the  English  Admiralty  to  pursue  his  Australiarji 
researchca  This  enterprising  navigator,  in  iho  nnrrntive- 
of  his  voyages,  gives  an  account  of  the  trees,  birds,  and 
reptiles  he  observed,  and  of  his  encounters  with  llic  native*. 
Bi>t  be  found  nothing  to  invite  s  long  ;'.3y.     There  waa 


104 


A  U  S  T  R  A  L  I  A 


'EARLY    EXPLORATIOI. 


yet  nnother  Dutch  'exploring  squadron  on  that  coast   in 
170J,  bat  the  results  were  of  little  importance. 

It  was  Captain  Cook,  in  his  voyages  from  17C9  to  1777, 
who  communicated  the  most  important  discoveries,  and 
Crst  opened  to  European  enterprise  and  settk-ment  the 
Australasian  coasts.  In  command  of  the  bark  "  Endeavour," 
370  tons  burden,  and  carrying  85  persons,  amongst  whom 
were  Sir  Joseph  Banks  and  Dr  Solander,  returning  from 
the  Royal  Society's  expedition  to  observe  the  transit  of 
Venus,  Cook  visited  both  New  Zealand  and  New  South 
Wales.  He  came  upon  the  Australian  mainland  in  April 
1770,  at  a  point  named  after  Lieutenant  Hicks,  who  first 
sighted  it,  on  the  shore  of  Gipps'  Land,  Victoria,  S.  lat. 
38',  E.  long.  148'  53'.  From  this  point,  in  a  coasting 
voyage  not  without  peril  when  entangled  in  the  barrier 
reefs  of  coral,  the  little  vessel  made  its  way  up  the  whole 
length  of  the  eastern  side  of  Australia,  rounding  Cape 
York,  and  crossing  Torres  Strait  to  New  Guinea.  In  his 
second  expedition  of  Australasian  discovery,  which  was  sent 
out  in  1773,  Cook's  ship,  the  "Resolute,"  started  in  com- 
pany with  the  "  Adventure,"  commanded  by  Captain  Fur- 
neaux.  The  two  vessels  separated,  and  Cook  went  to  New 
Zealand,  while  Furneaux  examined  some  parts  of  Tasmania 
and  Bass  Strait  The  third  voyage  of  Cook  brought  him, 
in  1777,  both  to  Tasmania  and  to  New  Zealand. 

Next  to  Cook,  twenty  or  thirty  years  after  his  time,  the 
names  of  Bass  and  Flinders  are  justly  honoured  for  con- 
tinuing the  work  of  maritime  discovery  he  had  so  well 
begun.  To  their  courageous  and  persevering  efforts,  begun 
at  their  private  risk,  is  due  the  correct  determination 
of  the  shape  both  of  Tasmania  and  the  neighbouring 
continent.  The  French  admiral  Entrecasteaux,  in  1792, 
had  made  a  careful  examination  of  the  inlets  at  the  south 
of  Tasmania,  and  in  his  opinion  the  opening  between 
Tasmania  and  Australia  was  only  a  deep  bay.  It  was 
Bass  who  discovered  it  to  be  a  broad  strait,  with  numerous 
small  islands.  Captain  Flinders  survived  his  friend  Bass, 
having  been  associated  with  him  in  179S  in  this  and  other 
useful  adventures.  Flinders  afterwards  made  a  complete 
survey  in  detail  of  all  the  Australian  coasts,  except  the 
west  and  north-west.  He  was  captured,  however,  by  the 
French  during  the  war,  and  detained  a  prisoner  in  Mauri- 
tius for  seven  years. 

The  shores  of  what  is  now,  the  province  of  Victoria  were 
explored  in  1800  by  Captain  Grant,  and  in  18(12  by 
Lieutenant  Murray,  when  the  spacious  land-locked  bay  of 
Port  Phillip  was  discovered.  New  South  ^Va!es  had  already 
been  colonised,  and  the  town  of  Sydney  founded  at  Port 
Jackson  in  1783.  West  Australia  bad  long  remained 
neglected,  but  in  1837,  after  the  settlement  at  Swan 
River,  a  series  of  coast  surveys  was  commenced  in  IIM.S. 
"Beagle."  These  were  continued  from  1839  to  1843  by 
Mr  Stokes,  and  furnished  an  exact  knowledge  of  the 
western,  north-western,  and  northern  shores,  including  four 
large  rivers. 

Inland  Exploration. — The  geographical  position  of  the 
Australian  continent  had  now  been  suCRciently  determined, 
end  what  remained  for  discovery  was  sought,  not  as  hitherto 
by  coasting  along  its  shores  and  bays,  but  by  striking  into 
the  vast  tract  of  terra  incognita  that  occupied  the  interior. 
The  colony  of  Now  South  Wales  had  been  founded  in 
1788,  but  for  twenty-five  years  its  settlers  were  acquainted 
only  with  a  strip  of  country  50  miles  wide,  between  the 
Blue  Mountaip^  and  the  sea-coast,  for  they  scarcely  ever 
ventured  far  inland  from  tlio  inlets  of  Port  Jackson  and 
Botany  Bay.  Mr  Bass,  indeed,  once  while  waiting  for  hia 
vessel,  made  an  attempt  to  cross  the  Blue  Mo\ititain3,  and 
succeeded  in  discovering  the  River  Grove,  a  tributary  of  the 
Hawkesbury,  but  did  not  proceed  further.  An  expedition 
_  was  also  conducted  by  Governor  Hunter  along  the  Ncpean 


Ilivtr  west  of  the  settlen.cut,  while  Lieutenant  Bareiller.  il 
ISO'3,  and  Mr  Caiey,  a  year  or  two  later,  failed  in  their 
endeavour  to  surmount  the  Blue  Mountain  range.  This 
formidable  ridge  attains  a  height  of  3400  feet,  and  being 
intersected  with  precipitous  ravines  1500  feet  deep,  pre- 
sented a  bar  to  these  explorers'  passage  inland.  At  last, 
in  1813,  when  a  summer  of  severe  drought  had  made  it  of 
vital  importance  to  find  new  pastures,  three  of  the  colonists, 
Messrs  Wentworth  and  Blaxland  and  Lieutenant  Lawion, 
crossing  the  Nepean  at  Emu  Plains,  gained  sight  of  au 
entrance,  and  ascending  the  summit  of  a  dividing  ridge, 
obtained  a  view  of  the  grassy  valley  of  the  Fish  River 
This  stream  runs  westward  into  the  Macquarie,  v.hich  was 
discovered  a  few  months  afterwards  by  Mr  Evans,  whi^ 
followed  its  course  across  the  fertile  plains  of  Balhurst. 

In  1816  Lieutenant  Oxley,  R.N.,  accompanied  by  Mr 
Evans  and  Mr  Cunningham  the  botanist,  conducted  ar. 
expedition  of  great  interest  dowxi  the  Lachlan  River,  Sun 
miles  to  the  north  west,  reaching  a  point  34°  S.  bt,,  anJ 
144°  30'  K.  long.  On  his  return  journey  Oxley  agau. 
struck  the  Macquarie  River  at  a  place  he  called  Welliugton. 
and  from  this  place  in  the  following  year  he  organised  a 
second  expedition  in  hopes  of  discovering  an  inland  sea. 
He  was,  however,  disappointed  in  this,  as  after  descending 
the  course  of  the  Macquarie  below  Mount  Harris,  he  found 
that  the  river  ended  in  an  immense  swamp  overgrown  with 
reeds.  Oxley  now  turned  aside^led  by  Mr  Evans's  report 
of  the  country  eastward — crossed  the  Aibuthnot  range, 
and  traversing  the  Liverpool  Plains,  and  ascending  the 
Peel  and  Cockburn  Rivers  to  the  Blue  Mountains,  gained 
sight  of  the  open  sea,  which  he  reached  at  Port  Macquarie 
A  valuable  extension  of  geographical  knowledge  h.-id  beer, 
gained  by  this  circuitous  journey  of  more  than  800  miles 
Vet  its  result  was  a  disappointment  to  those  who  had 
looked  fur  means  of  inland  navigation  by  the  Macquarie 
River,  and  by  its  supposed  issue  in  a  Mediterranean  sea 

During  the  next  two  or  three  years  public  attention  was 
occupied  with  Captain  King's  maritime  explorations  of  the 
north-west  coast  in  three  successive  voy.iges,  and  by  ex- 
plorations of  West  Australia  in  1821.  These  steps  were 
followed  by  the  foundation  of  a  settlement  on  Melville 
Island,  in  the  extreme  north,  which,  however,  was  soon 
abandoned  In  1823  Lieutenant  Oxiey  proceeded  to 
Moreton  Bay  and  Port  Curtis,  the  first  place  7'  north  ol 
Sydney,  the  other  10°,  to  choose  the  site  of  a  new  penal 
establishment.  From  a  shipwrecked  English  sailor  he  met 
with,  who  had  lived  with  the  savages,  ho  heard  of  the  ri\er 
Brisbane.  About  the  same  time,  in  the  opposite  direction, 
south-west  of  Sydney,  a  large  extent  of  the  interior  was 
revealed.  The  River  Murrumbidgee— which  unites  with 
the  Lachlan  to  join  the  great  River  Murray— was  traced  Ly 
Mr  Hamilton  Hume  and  Mr  HoveU  into  the  counto'  lying 
north  of  the  province  of  Victoria,  through  which  they  made 
their  way  to  Port  Phillip.  In  1827  and  the  two  following 
years,  Mr  Cunnincihara  prosecuted  his  instructive  c.jplora 
tions  on  both  sides  of  the  Liverpool  range,  between  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Hunter  and  those  of  the  Peel  and  othe 
tributaries  of  the  Brisbane  north  of  New  South  Wales, 
Some  of  his  discoveries,  including  those  of  Pandora's  Pass 
aii'l  the  Darling  Downs,  were  of  great  practical  utihty. 

I'.y  this  time  much  had  thus  been  done  to  obtain  au 
acfiuaintanco  with  the  eastern  parts  of  the  Australian  con- 
tinent, although  the  problem  of  what  could  become  of  the 
large  rivers  flowing  north-west  and  south  west  into  the 
interior  was  still  unsolved.  With  a  view  to  determine  this 
question.  Governor  Si'  Ralph  Darbng,  ui  the  year  1828, 
sent  out  the  expedition^DT!!?-!  Captain  Charles  Sturt,  who 
proceeding  first  to  tho  marg-'.-^s  at  the  end  of  tlie  Mat- 
quarie  River,  found  his  progress  checked  by  the  dti.se  mass 
of  reeds  in  that  quarter      lie  therefo'c  luci.cd  westward, 


f  KPLor.AXios,  1S28-1$00  ] 


A  U  S  T  R  A  L  I  A 


105 


-  r.d  struck  a  larje  river,  with  many  affluents,  to  which  he 
^-ive  the  name  of  the  Darling.  This  river,  Uowing  from 
north-east  to  south  west,  drains  the  marshes  in  which  the 
Macfiuaria  and  other  strcims  from  the  south  appeared  to 
lie  lost.  The  course  of  the  Muirumbidgec,  a  deep  and 
rapid  river,  was  followed  by  the  same  eminent  e.^cplorer  in 
his  second  expedition  in  1831  with  a  more  satisfactory 
result.  He  travelled  on  this  occasion  nearly  2000  miles, 
and  di.^covered  that  both  the  Murrumbidgce,  carrnng  with 
it  the  waters  of  the  Lachlan  morass,  and  likewise  the 
D.irUn:.',  from  a  more  northerly  region,  finallyjoined  another 
and  larger  river.  This  stream,  the  Jlurray,  in  the  upper 
part  of  Its  course,  runs  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  but 
afterwards  turning  southwards,  almost  at  a  riglit  angle, 
cipands  into  Lake  Alexandrina  on  the  south  coast,  about 
CO  miles  3.E.  of  the  town  of  Adelaide,  and  finally  enters 
the  sea  at  Encounter  Bay  in  E.  long.  1 39°. 

After  gaining  a  practical  solution  of  the  problem  of  the 
destination  of  the  westward-flowing  rivers.  Sir  Thomas 
Mitchell,  in  1S35,  led  an  e.\pedition  northward  to  the 
up|)er  branches  of  the  Darling;  but  the  party  meeting 
with  a  sad  disaster  in  the  death  of  Mr  Cunningham,  the 
eminent  botanist,  who  was  murdered  by  the  natives  on  the 
Dogan  River,  further  exploration  of  that  region  was  left  to 
be  undertaken  by  Dr  Leicliardt,  nine  years  later,  and  by 
the  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Mitchell  Mcactime,  from  the  new 
colony  of  Adelaide,  South  .Australia,  on  tho  shores  of  Gulf 
St  Vincent,  a  series  of  adveut'irous  journeys  to  the  north 
and  to  the  west  was  commenced  by  .Mr  Eyre,  who  explored 
3.  country  much  more  difficult  of  access,  and  more  forbid- 
ding in  aspect,  than  the  "  lliverina "  of  the  eastern  prc^- 
vinces.  He  performed  in  lS-10  a  feat  of  extraordinary  per- 
a^iiial  daring,  travelling  all  the  way  along  the  barren  sea- 
ciiast  of  the  Groat  Australian  Bight,  from  Spencer  Gulf  to 
King  George's  Sound.  Mr  Ejtc  also  explored  the  interior 
north  of  tho  head  of  Spencer  Gulf,  where  he  was  misled, 
iMWcver,  by  appearances  to  form  an  erroneous  theory  about 
tho  water-surfaces  named  Lake  Torrem.  It  was  left 
to  tho  veteran  explorer,  Sturt,  to  achie\o  the  arduous 
enterprise  cf  penetrating  from  the  Darlio^  northward  to 
the  very  centre  of  tho  continent  Taia  was  in  1845,  tho 
rout';  lying  for  the  most  part  ov^r  a  stony  desert,  where 
the  heat  (reaching  131°  Fair),  with  scorching  winds, 
caused  much  suffering  to  thj  .arty.  The  mo.";!  northerly 
p'lint  reached  by  Sturt  on  thii  occasion  was  about  S  lat. 
24°  25'.  His  unfortunate  suicesiors,  Burke  and  Wills, 
travelled  through  the  same  distjct  sixteen  years  later;  and 
o'-her  expeditions  were  organisc>i  both  from  the  norlh  and 
from  the  south,  which  aimed  it'.nrning  the  fate  of  these 
traveUerj,  as  well  as  that  of  Dr  LciJiardt.  The  e  efforts 
completed  our  knowledge  of  different  mOos  ^  ross  the 
entire  breadth  of  Australia,  in  the  longitude  <rf  the  Gulf 
of  Carpentaria;  while  the  c.^rprising  journeys  of  Mac- 
Douall  Stuart,  a  companioil  of  6turt,  obtained  in  18G2  a 
direct  passage  from  South  Australia  northward  to  tho 
(.hores  of  the  Malayan  Sea.  Thi.-t  route  has  been  utilLsod 
by  the  construction  of  an  overland  telegraph  from  Adelaide 
to  the  northern  coast. 

.\  military  station  havinj  been  fixed  by  the  British  Go- 
vernrasnt  at  Port  Victoria,  on  the  coast  of  Arnhein  Land, 
for  the  protection  of  shipvrecked  mariners  on  tho  north 
coast,  it  was  thouirht  desiriVile  tc  find  an  overland  route 
between  this  sottl'-'inent  a!»l  Moreton  I'.r.y,  in  what  then 
was  the  northern  portion  o(  N'ew  South  Wales,  now  called 
Quceu.-land.  This  wa-s  the  object  of  Dr  Lcichardt's  expe- 
dition in  1814,  whi'  \i  proceeded  first  alir..;  the  banks  of 
the  Dawson  and  ih;  .\lack(i>zie,  tributaries  of  the  Fitrroy 
lliver,  in  Queensland.  It  thence  pa.<jed  farther  north  to 
the  Burdokia,  a.scending  to  'be  source  of  that  river,  and 
turned  westward  across  a  tahlc-laud,  from  which  thero  was 


an  easy  descent  to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria.  Skirling  th? 
low  shores  of  this  gulf,  all  the  way  round  its  upper  half  to 
the  Roper,  Lcichardt  crossed  Arnhem  Land  to  the  Alli- 
gator River,  which  he  descended  to  the  western  shore  of 
the  peninsula,  and  arrived  at  Port  Victoria,  otherwise  Port 
Eismgton,  after  a  journey  of  3000  miles,  performed  wiihiji 
a  year  and  throe  months.  In  1847  Leichardt  undertook  a 
much  more  formidable  task,  that  of  crossing  the  entire 
continent  from  east  to  west.  His  starting  point  was  on  the 
Fitzroy  Downs,  north  of  the  River  Condaminc,  in  Queens- 
hind,  between  the  2Gth  and  27th  degrees  of  S.  latitude. 
But  this  cnunent  explorer  h-ad  not  j  rocceded  far  into  the 
interior  before  he  met  his  death,  his  last  despatch  dating 
from  the  Cotjoon,  April  3,  1843.  In  the  same  region,  froin 
1845  to  1847,  Sir  Thomas  Mitchell  and  Mr  E.  B.  Ken- 
nedy explored  the  northern  tributaries  of  the  Darling,  and 
a  river  in  S.  lat.  24°,  named  the  Barcoo  or  Victoria,  which 
flows  to  the  sout^i-wcst.  This  river  •-"■as  more  thoroughly 
examined  by  Mr  A.  C.  Gregory  in  1858.  Mr  Kennedy 
lost  his  life  in  1843,  being  killed  by  the  natives  while 
attempting  to  explore  the  penir^tda  of  Cape  York,  from 
Rockiiigham;Bay  to  W^cyraouth  Bay. 

Amoi'g  the  performances  of  less  renown,  but  of  much 
practical  utility  in  survc)ing  and  opening  new  paths  through 
the  country,  we  may  mention  that  of  Captain  Banister, 
showing  the  way  arj-oss  the  southern  part  of  West  Australia, 
from  Swan  River  to  King  George's  Sound,  and  that  of 
Messrs  Robinson  and  G.  H.  Haydon  in  1844,  making  good 
tho  routo  from  Port  Phillip  to  Gipps'  Land  with  loaded 
drays,  through  a  dense  tangled  scrub,  which  had  beea 
described  by  Strzelecki  as  his  worst  obstacle.  Again,  in 
West  Australia  there  were  the  explorations  of  the  Arrow- 
Bmith,  tho  Murchison,  the  Gascoyne,  and  the  Ashburton 
Rivers,  by  Captain  Grey,  Mr  Roe,  Governor  Fitzgerald,  Mr 
R.  Austin,  and  tho  brothers  Gregor)-,  whose  discoveries 
have  great  importance  from  a  geographical  point  of  view.  ■ 

These  local  researches,  and  the  more  comprehensive 
attempts  of  Lcichardt  and  Mitchell  to  solve  tho  chief  prob- 
lems of  Australian  geography,  must  yield  in  imnortanco 
to  the  grand  achievement  of  Mr  Stuart  in  1862.  The  first 
of  his  tours  independently  performed,  in  1858  and  1859, 
were  around  the  South  Austrahan  lakes,  namely,  Lako 
Torrens,  Lake  Ejtc,  and  Lake  Gairdncr.  These  waters 
had  been  erroneously  taken  for  parts  of  one  vast  horse- 
shoo  or  sickle-shaped  lake,  only  some  twenty  mdes  broad, 
believed  to  encircle  a  large  portion  of  the  inland  country, 
with  drainage  at  one  end  by  a  marsh  into  Spencer  Gulf. 
The  mistake,  shown  in  all  the  old  maps  of  Australia,  had 
originated  in  a  curious  optical  illusion.  When  Mr  Eyro 
viewed  the  country  from  Mount  Deception  in  1840,  look- 
ing betweon  Lake  Torrens  and  the  lake  which  now  bears 
his  own  name,  tho  refraction  of  light  from  tho  glittering 
crust  of  salt  that  covers  a  large  space  of  stony  or  sandy 
ground  produced  an  appearance  of  water.  Tho  error  was 
discovered,  after  eighttcn  years,  by  the  explorations  of  Jdr 
Babbagc  and  Major  Warburton  in  1858,  while  Mr  Stuart, 
about  the  same  time,  gained  a  more  complete  knowledge 
of  the  same  district. 

A  reward  of  £10,000  having  been  offered  by  tho  Legis- 
lature of  South  Australia  to  the  first  man  who  should 
traverse  the  whole  continent  from  south  to  north,  starting 
from  the  city  of  Adelaide,  Mr  Stuart  resolved  to  make 
the  attempt.  He  started  in  March  ISCO,  passing  Lake 
Torrens  aiid  Lake  Eyre,  beyond  which  he  found  a  pleasant, 
fertile  country  till  he  crossed  the  M'Donnell  range  of  moun- 
tains, just  under  tho  line  of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  Oa  the 
23d  of  April  he  reached  a  mountain  in  S.  lat.  nearly  22°, 
and  E.  long,  nearly  134°,  which  is  the  most  central  m.irkeJ 
point  of  the  Australian  continent,  and  has  been  named  Cen- 
tral ^k.jnt  Stuart.     Mr  Stuart  did  not  finish  his  ta.;k  on 


i06 


AUSTRALIA 


[r.ECENT    EXPLORATIOW. 


cibis  occasion,  on  account  of  indisposition  and  ottier  causBs. 
;But  the  18tb  degree  of  latitude  iiad  been  reached,  where 
'the  watershed  divided  the  rivers  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria 
"irora  the  Victoria  River,  flowing  towards  the  north-west 
■coast.  He  had  also  proved  that  the  interior  of  Australia 
-was  not  a  stony  desert,  like  the  region  visited  by  Start  in 
18451  On  the  first  day  of  the  next  year,  1861,  MrStuart 
:again  started  for  a  second  attempt  to  cross  the  continent, 
•which  occupied  him  eight  months.  He  failed,  however,  to 
Jidvance  further  than  one  geographical  degree  north  of  the 
jjoint  reached  in  1860,  his  progress  being  arrested  by  dense 
scrubs  and  the  want  of  water. 

Meanwhile,  in  the  province  of  Victoria,  by  means  of  a 
iund  subscribed  among  the  colonists  and  a  grant  by  the 
Legislature,  the  ill-fated  expedition  of  Mcssi-s  Burke  and 
Wills  was  started.  It  made  for  the  Barcoo,  with  a  view 
to  reach  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  by  a  northerly  course 
midway  between  Start's  track  to  the  west  and  Leichardt'a 
to  the  east.  The  leading  men  of  the  party  were  Mr 
Hobert  O'Hara  Burke,  an  officer  of  police,  and  Mr  William 
John  Wills,  of  the  Melbourne  observatory.  Messrs  Burke 
and  Wills,  with  two  men  named  Gray  and  King,  left  the 
others  behind  at  the  Barcoo  on  16th  December  1860,  and 
proceeded,  with  a  horse  and  six  camels,  over  the  desert 
traversed  by  Sturt  fifteen  years  before.  They  got  on  in 
epite  of  great  difficulties,  past  the  M'Kinlay  range  of 
•mountaini*,  S.  lat.  21°  and  22°,  and  then  reached  the 
Tlinders  River,  which  flows  into  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
•Carpentaria.  Here,  without  actually  standing  on  the  sea- 
■beach  of  the  northern  shore,  they  met  the  tidal  waters  of 
the  sea.  On  February  23,  18C1,  they  commenced  the 
return  journey,  having  in  effect  accomplished  the  feat  of 
•crossing  the  Australian  continent.  Unhappily,  three  of 
■the  party  perished  on  the  road  home.  Gray,  who  had 
fallen  ill,  <iied  on  the  16th  of  April.  Five  days  later, 
Burke,  Wills,  and  King  had  repassed  the  desert  to  the 
place  on  Cooper  Creek  (the  Barcoo,  S.  lat.  27°  40',  E. 
3ong.  140°  30'),  where  they  had  left  the  depot,  with  the 
Test  of  the  expedition.  Here  they  experienced  a  cruel  dis- 
appointment. The  depot  was  abandoned ;  the  men  in 
•charge  had  quitted  the  place  the  same  day,  be'icving  that 
Burke  and  those  with  him  were  lost.  The  main  body  of 
the  expedition,  which  should  have  been  led  up  by  a  Mr 
Wright,  from  Menindie,  on  the  Darhng,  was  miscon- 
ducted and  fatally  delayed.  Burke,  Wills,  and  King, 
•when  they  found  themselves  so  fearfully  left  alone  and 
unprovided  in  the  wilderness,  wandered  about  in  that 
■district  till  near  the  end  of  June.  They  subsisted  miser- 
ably on  the  bounty  of  some  natives;  and  partly  by  feeding 
on  the  seeds  of  a  plant  called  nardoo.  At  last  both  Wills 
4ind  Burke  died  of  starvation.  King,  the  sole  survivor, 
was  saved  by  meeting  the  friendly  blacks,  and  was  found 
alive  in  September  by  Mr  A.  \V.  Hewitt's  party,  sent  on 
purpose  to  find  and  relieve  that  of  Burke. 

Four  other  parties,  besides  Howitt's,  were  sent  out 
•that  year  from  different  Australian  provinces.  Three  of 
them,  respectively  commanded  by  Mr  Walker,  Mr  Lands- 
"borough,  and  Mr  Norman,  sailed  to  the  north,  where  the 
latter  two  landed  on  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria, 
■while  Mr  Walker  marched  inland  from  Rockhampton.  The 
fourth  party,  under  Mr  J.  M'Kinlay,  from  Adelaide,  made 
for  the  Barcoo  by  way  of  Lake  Torrens.  By  these  means, 
the  unknown  region  of  Mid  Australia  was  simultaneously 
entered  from  the  north,  south,  east,  and  west,  and  importaTit 
^additions  were  made  to  geographical  knowledge.  Lands- 
tiorough  crossed  the  entire  continent  from  north  to  south, 
lietween  February  and  .June  18C2;  and  M'Kinlay,  from 
■fouth  to  north,  before  tlie  end  of  August  in  that  year. 
The  interior  of  New  Soulh  Wales  and  Queensland,  all 
chat  li<'a  east  of  the  140th  degree  of  longitude,  was  i  x- 


amined.  The  Barcoo  and  its  tribiJary  streams  were  traced 
from  the  Queensland  mountains,  holding  a  south-westerly 
course  to  Lake  Eyre  in  South  AustraUa;  the  Flinders, 
the  Gilbert,  the  Gregory,  and  other  northern  rivers  water- 
ing the  country  towards  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  were  also 
explored.  These  valuable  additions  to  Australian  geography 
were  gained  through  humane  efforts  to  relieve  the  lost; 
explorers.  The  bodies  of  Burke  and  Wills  were  recovered 
and  brought  to  Melbourne  for  a  solemn  public  funeral,  and 
a  noble  monument  has  been  erected  to  their  honour.. 

Mr  Stuart,  in  1862,  made  his  third  and  final  attempt  to 
traverse  the  continent  from  Adelaide  along  a  central  line, 
which,  inclining  a  little  westward,  reaches  the  north  coast 
of  Arnhem  Land,  opposite  Melville  Island.  He  started  ia 
January,  and  on  April  7  reached  the  farthest  northern 
point,  near  S.  lat.  17°,  where  he  had  turned  back  in  May 
of  the  preceding  year.  He  then  pushed  on,  through 
a  very  thick  forest,  •with  scarcely  any  water,  tUl  he  came 
to  the  streams  which  supply  tie  Roper,  a  river  flowing 
into  the  western  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria.  Having 
crossed .  a  table-land  of  sandstone  which  di-vides  these 
streams  from  those  running  to  the  •n'estern  shores  of 
Arnhem  Land,  MrStuart,  in  the  month  of  July,  passed  down 
what  is  called  the  Adelaide  River  of  North  Australia.  Thus 
he  came  at  length  to  stand  on  the  verge  of  the  Indian 
Ocean ;  "  gazing  upon  it,"  a  writer  has  said.  "  with  as 
much  delight  as  Balboa,  when  he  had  crossed  the  Isthmus 
of  Darien  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific."  The  lino 
crossing  Australia  •nhich  was  thus  explored  has  since  beeo 
occupied  by  the  electric  telegraph  connecting  Adelaide, 
Melbourne,  Sydney,  and  other  Australian  cities  with 
London. 

A  third  part,  at  least,  of  the  interior  of  the  whole  con- 
tinent, between  the  central  line  of  Stuart  and  the  known 
parts  of  West  Australia,  from  about  120°  to  134°  E.  long., 
an  extent  of  half  a  million  square  miles,  still  remained  a 
blank  in  the  njap.  But  the  two  expeditions  of  1873, 
conducted  by  Ji^r  Gosse  and  Colonel  Egerton  Warburton, 
have  made  a  Veginning  in  the  exploration  of  this  trrra 
incognita  west  ol  the  central  telegraph  route.  That  line 
of  more  than  1800  miVs,  havii.g  its  southern  extremity  at 
the  head  of  Spencer  Guf.,its  northern  at  Port  Darwin,  in 
Arnhem  Land,  passes  Centrd  Mount  Stuart,  in  the  middle 
of  the  continent,  S.  lat.  2:°,  E.  long.  134°.- •  Mr  Gosse, 
with  men  and  horses  provided  by  the  So  ith  Australian 
Government,  started  on  AprI  21  from  the  t(  legraph  station 
fifty  miles  south  of  Central  Mount  Stuart,  to  strike  into 
West  Australia.  He  passql  the  leynolds  lange  and  Lake 
Amadeus  in  that  direrton,  but  was  conpelled  to  turn 
south,  where  he  fount  a  tract  of  nell-wateied  grassy  land. 
A  singuJiir  roi-.k  of  conglomerate  2  milo's  long,  1  mile 
wide,  and  1100  feet  high,  «-ith  t  spring  of  water  in  its 
centre,  struck  his  attention.  'The  country  was  mostly  poor 
and  barren,  sandy  hillocks,  wit.i  scanty  grcwth  of  spinifex. 
Mr  Gosse,  having  travelled  above  COO  miles,  and  getting 
to  26°  32'  S.  lat.  and  127°  E.  long.,  twc  degrees  within 
the  West  Australian  boundary,  was  fcrced  to  return. 
Meantime  a  more  successful  aitempt  to  reach  the  western 
coast  from  the  centre  of  Australia  hai  been  made  by 
Colonel  Warburton,  with  thirty  camels,  p-ovided  by  Mr  T. 
Elder,  ML  C,  of  South  Austrslla.  Leaving  the  telegraph 
line  at  Alice  Springs  (23'  40'  S.  lat.,  133°  14'  E.  long.), 
1120  mili-.<  imrth  of  Adelaide  city,  Watburton  succeeded 
in  makini;  his  way  to  the  De  I3rcy  River,  West  Australia. 
Overland  routes  have  now  bfcn  found  ]iossible,  though 
scarcely  convenient  for  traffic,  between  all  tho  widely 
separated  Australian  provinces.  In  Northern  Queensland, 
also,  there  have  been  acvcnil  recent  explorations,  with 
results  of  eomo  interest.  That  performed  by  Mr  W. 
llann,  with  Messrs  Warner,  Tate,  and  Taylor,  ia  1873, 


PUVSICAL   KEAtUl'.ES.] 


A  U  S  T  11  xV  L  I  A 


107 


related  to  the  country  north  of  the  Kirohacr  range, 
■watered  by  the  Lynii,  the  Mitchell,  the  V/alsh,  and  the 
I'alnicr  Elvers,  ou  the  cast  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria. 
The  coasting  expedition  of  Mr  G.  Elphinstone  DalrjTiiple, 
with  Messrs  Hill  and  Johnstone,  finishing  in  December 
1873,  effected  a  valuable  survey  of  the  inlets  and  navij;able 
•rivers  in  the  Cape  York  peninsula.  The  Endeavour  liiver, 
in  S.  lat  16°,  which  was  visited  by  Captain  Cook  a 
hundred  years  ago,  seems  capable  of  being  used  for  communi- 
•cation  with  the  country  inland.  A  newly  discovered  river, 
the  Johnstone  or  Glady.?,  is  said  to  flow  through  a  very 
rich  land,  producing  tho  finest  ccJars,  with  groves  of 
bananas,  nutmeg,  ginger,  and  other  tropical  plants.  The 
colonial  geologists  predict  that  the  north-east  corner  of 
Australia  will  be  found  to  possess  great  mineral  treasures. 
At  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  continent,  its  south-west 
corner,  a  tour  lately  made  by  Mr  A.  Forrest,  Government 
luri'eyor,  from  tho  Swan  River  eastward,  and  thence 
<iown  to  the  south  coast,  has  shown  the  poorness  of  that 
region.  The  vast  superiority  of  eastern  Australia  to  all 
the  rest  is  tho  most  important  practical  lesson  taught  by 
the  land-exploring  labours  of  the  last  half  century. 

Phyfical  Descripiion. — The  continent  of  Australia,  with 
a  circumference  of  nearly  8000  miles,  presents  a  contour 
wonderfully  devoid  of  inlets  from  the  sea,  except  upon  its 
northern  shores,  where  the  coast  line  is  largely  indented. 
The  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  situated  in  the  north,  is  enclosed 
on  the  east  by  the  projection  of  Cape  York,  and  on  the 
■west  by  Arnhem  Land,  and  forms  the  principal  bay  on 
•the  whole  coast,  measuring  about  G"  of  long,  by  C  of  lat. 
Further  to  tho  west.  Van  Diemen's  Gulf,  though  much 
smaller,  forms  a  better  protected  bay,  having  Melville 
Island  between  it  and  the  ocean ;  while  beyond  this 
Queen's  Channel  and  Cambridge  Gulf  form  inlets  about  S. 
lat.  ll"  50'.  On  the  north-we.st  of  the  continent  the  coast 
line  is  much  broken,  the  chief  indentations  being  Admiralty 
Gulf,  Collier.  Bay,  and  King  Sound,  on  the  shores  of 
Tasman  Land.  Western  Australia,  again,  is  not  favoured 
■with  many  inlets — Exmouth  Gulf  and  Shark  Bay  being 
-the  only  bays  of  any  size.  The  same  remark  may  be 
made  of  the  rest  of  the  sea-board  ;  for,  with  the  exception 
-of  Spencer  Gulf,  tie  Gulf  of  St  Vincent,  and  Port  Phillip, 
-on  the  south,  and  Moreton  Bay,  Hervey  Bay,  and  Broad 
•Sound,  in  the  east,  the  coast  lino  is  singularly  uniform. 

The  conformation  of  the  interior  of  Australia  is  very 
p;cuUar,  and  may  perhaps  be  explained  by  the  theory  of 
t  le  land  having  been,  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  the 
bjd  of  an  ocean.  The  mountain  ranges  parallel  to  the 
«ist  and  west  coasts  would  then  have  existed  as  the  cUffs 
and  uplands  of  maiy  groups  of  islands,  in  widely  scat- 
tered archipelagoes  resembling  those  of  the  Pacific.  The 
3  ngular  positions  a  id  courses  of  some  of  the  rivers  lend 
i  irce  to  this  supposition.  The  Murr.ay  and  its  tributaries,  the 
Murrumbidgee,  the  Laclilan,  and  the  Darling,  rising  from 
-tjo  mountains  oil  the  east  coast,  flow  inwards  so  far  that 
they  were  a)  one  time  supposed  to  issue  in  a  central  sea. 
They  do,  in  fact,  spend  their  waters  in  a  largo  shallow  lake; 
but  this  is  not  far  from  tho  south  coa.st,  and  is  provided 
with  an  outlet  to  the  ocean.  The  Macquarie  and  the 
Lachlan  merge  in  extensive  swamps,  and  their  bods  in  the 
•dry  season  become  a  mere  chain  of  ponds.  This  agrees 
■with  the  idea  that  the  whole  country  was  a  sea-bottom, 
which  has  scarcely  yet  assumed  the  character  of  permanent 
•dry  land,  while  another  proof  consists  in  the  thinness  and 
sterility  of  the  soil  in  the  lowlands. 

.tVlong  tho  entire  line  of  the  east  coast  there  extendi  a 
isueccssion  of  mountain  ranges  from  Portland,  in  Victoria, 
:o  Capo  York  in  tho  extreme  north,  called  in  different  parts  ^ 
Ihe  Australian  Grampians,  the  Australian  Alps,  the  Blue 
^Mountains,  the  Liverpool  Range,  and  other  names.'    These 


constitute,  like  the  Andes  of  South  America,  a  regular 
Cordillera,  stretching  from  north  to  south  1700  miles  in 
length,  with  an  average  height  of  1500  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  rivers  flowing  down  the  eastern  slope,  having  but 
short  courses  before  they  reach  the  sea,  are  of  a  mor» 
determined  character  than  those  waich  take  a  westerly  and 
iidand  direction.  They  cut  their  way  through  the  sand- 
stone rocks  in  deep  ravines ;  but  Irom  their  tortuous  and 
violent  course,  and  from  the  insilflicicnt  volume  of  water, 
they  are  uuiit  for  navigation.  Very  few  of  them  traverse 
more  than  "200  miles,  inclusive  of  windiugs,  or  pass  through 
any  district  extending  more  than  50  miles  inland.  It  is 
dilfercnt  with  the  Murray,  flowing  westward,  which  has  a 
course  of  1100  miles,  traversing  a  space  from  e»st  to  west 
measuring  8°  of  longitude.  The  Murray  is  navigable  • 
during  eight  months  of  the  year  along  a  great  part  of 
its  course.  This  great  river,  with  its  tributaries,  drains 
a  basin  the  area  of  which  is  reckoned  at  half  a  million  of 
square  miles.  Yet  it  has  no  proper  outlet  to  the  sea,  de- 
bouching into  a  lagoon  called  Lake  Alexandrina,  on  the 
sea-coast  of  Encounter  Bay.  Go  the  opposite  or  north- 
western part  of  the  continent  there  are  several  important 
water-courses.  One  river,  the  Victoria,  which  rfees  some- 
where about  18°  or  19°  S.  lat.  and  131°  E.  long,,  flows 
northward  to  15°  30'  S.  lat.,  where  it  turns  westward. 
Its  bed  forms  a  deep  channel  through  the  sandstone  table- 
land, with  clifTs  300  feet  high,  while  in  width  it  sometimes 
extends  to  half  a  mile,  its  depth  varj-ing  from  50  feet 
to  as  many  fathoms.  The  Victoria  debouches  into  Cam- 
bridge Gulf,  14°  U'  S.  lat.  and  120°  30'  E.  long.,  an 
estuary  20  miles  broad,  with  a  depth  of  8  ordO  fathoms. 
To  the  westward  of  this  district  run  two  other  large  rivers, 
the  Prince  Regent  and  the  Glenelg,  tho  latter  being  navi- 
gable, with  a  fertile  country  on  its  banks.  The  Roper,  a 
navigable  stream  in  Arnhem  Land,  has  a  width  of  500 
to  800  yards  40  or  50  miles  from  its  mouth,  which  is  at  the 
Limmen  Bight  in  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria.  In  the  more 
settled  and  inhabited  provinces  of  Australia  there  arc  the 
Brisbane,  the  Fitzroy,  and  the  Burdekin,  rivers  of  Quccn.'i- 
land  ;  the  Glenelg  River,  of  Victoria ;  and  the  Swa"n  River, 
of  West  Australia.  But  this  continent  cannot  boast  of  a 
NQe,  an  Indus,  or  a  Jfississippi,  and  the  interior  suffers 
from  thtf  want  of  water  communication. 

Gcolor/y. — The  interior  plain  of  Australia,  enclosed  by 
the  coast  mountain  ranges,  is  a  vast  concave  table  of  sand- 
stone, with  a  surface  area  of  1,500,000  square  miles.  The 
sedimentary  rock,  in  some  parts,  has  been  washed  away  or 
scooped  out ;  but  in  the  opinion  of  Mr  W.  H.  L.  Ranken 
(Dominion  of  Avstralia,  1874),  the  edges  of  the  plateau, 
where  highest  and  least  reduced  by  denudation,  are  act.ually 
formed  of  this  sediment.  While  the  southern  margin  of 
the  plain  consists  of  walls  of  sandstone  cliffs,  extending 
along  the  scacoast,  the  plateau  on  the  cast,  south-east,  the 
west,  and  partly  on  the  north,  is  bordered  by  terraced 
ramparts  of  mountains.  These  elevations  consist  of  granite 
and  syenite  on  tho  west  side,  rising  from  1000  to  3000 
feet  in  height.  On  the  east  side,  in  New  South  Wales  and 
Gipps'  Land,  they  rise  to  a  much  greater  height,  attaining 
7000  fest  at  the  south-cast  comer  in  the  Australian  Alps. 
Here,  too,  the  sandstone  masses  are  often  \-iolently  rent 
asunder,  and  mingled  with  the  overflows  of  igneous  matter, 
forming  basalt  and  trap.  On  tho  north  side  of  the  con- 
tinent, except  around  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  the  edge  of 
the  sandstone  table-land  has  a  great  elevation;  it  is  cut  by 
the  Alligator  River  into  gorges  3800  feet  deep. 

In  examining  more  particularly  the  geobgical  structure 
of  eastern  Australia,  we  must  take  into  account  the  neigh- 
bouring island  of  Tasmania.  The  lato  Count  Strzeleeki, 
author  of  the  first  scientific  c.ssay  upon  the  subject,  in 
lS15j  after  minutely  describing  all  tho  mountain  ranges  of 


108 


A  U  S  T  R  A  L  I  A 


GEOLOCr. 


New  South  Wales,  passes  on  to  Wilson  rromontory,  the 
most  southerly  point  of  Australia,  whence  he  looks  sea- 
ward at  the  islands  in  Bass's  Strait.  As  he  there  observes  the 
Tasinanian  mountains,  with  which  he  is  equally  familiar,  it 
occurs  to  hira  that  the  whole  is  the  result  of  identical  forces, 
operating  in  a  direction  from  north-east  to  south-west. 
Such  phenomena  he  ascribes  to  a  series  of  "  volcanoes  of 
elevation,"  along  a  vast  fissure  of  the  earth,  upon  the  line, 
regarded  by  hira  as  "the  Australian  eastern  a>QS  of  pertur- 
batiorL"  These  forces  he  bc-lieves  to  have  been  e.'certed,  with 
different  degrees  of  intensity,  at  four  several  epochs,  which 
are  indicated  by  the  character  of  the  sedimentary  rocks, 
broken  through  or  contorted  by  the  eruptive  greenstone  and 
basalt.  That  eruptive  action  is  seen  in  the  ra-vines  and 
precipices  of  the  Blue  Mountains  near  Sydney ;  in  the 
Grose  valley,  below  Mount  Hay  and  its  neighbours,  Mount 
King  George  and  Mount  Tomah ;  but  still  morecremark- 
ably  in  the  mountains  of  Tasmania,  viewed  from  Ben 
Lomond,  within  30  miles  of  Launceston.  The  sedimentary 
deposits  of  the  first  epoch  are  characterised  by  the  presence 
of  mica  slate,  aud  of  argillaceous  and  siliceous  slate,  as  well 
as  by  the  absence  of  gneiss.  Those  of  the  second  epoch 
are  found  to  be  arenaceous,  calcareous,  or  argillaceous 
stratified  deposits.  The  third  epoch  includes  the  coal 
deposits,  with  their  intervening  shales  and  sandstones, 
including  many  fossils;  while  the  fourth  and  last  epoch  is 
marked  by  the  occurrence  of  elevated  peaks,  and  by  the 
remains  of  land  animals  found  in  the  limestone  caves  or  in 
alluvial  deposits. 

The  Rev.  W.  B.  Clarke,  of  Sydney,  again,  in  a  revised 
treatise  published  in  1S71,  expresses  a  doubt  whether  the 
southern  range  of  mountains,  extending  to  Wilson's  Pro- 
montory, be  really  a  continuation  of  the  main  Cordillera  of 
New  South  Wales.  He  rather  considers  this  to  be  pro- 
longed in  a  westerly  direction,  taking  a  bend  that  way  at 
the  Warragong  or  Snowy  Alps,  and  to  be  continued  within 
CO  miles  of  the  border  of  South  Australia,  which  is  on  the 
Hist  meridian  of  E.  long.  Tho  subject  is  further  dis- 
cussed by  Mr  R.  Brough  Smith,  of  Melbourne,  in  his  essay 
of  1S72  on  the  mineralogy  and  rock  formations  of  Victoria. 
This  geologist  has  also  remarked  that  the  JIurray,  which 
must  have  repeatedly  shifted  its  bed  and  changed  its  out- 
let, may  have  once  been  a  far  more  powerful  stream,  flood- 
ing a  vast  tractof  the  interior,and  thus  becoming  an  effective 
agent  in  the  geological  formations  of  all  south-east  Aus- 
tralia, It  has  produced,  in  Victoria  more  especially,  the 
Tertiary  stratifications  which  are  equivalent  to  the  Pliocene 
rocks  of  Europe. 

Throughout  the  whole  of  eastern  Australia,  including 
New  South  Wales  and  Queensland,  while  no  tertia^-  marine 
deposits  have  been  fo\u;d,  there  occur  many  remarkable 
beds  of  siliceous  sandstone,  bearing  impre.sjions  of  ferns 
and  leaves  of  trees,  which  are  referred  to  the  Tertiary  epoch. 
An  interesting  theorj-  is  advanced  by  Mr  Clarke  to  account 
for  the  absence  of  Tertiary  deposits  on  the  eastern  coast, 
when  they  arc  found  on  the  western  and  southern  coasts 
of  Australia.  In  t'ne  islands  of  New  Caledonia  and  other 
Australasian  groups,  from  the  Louisiade,  near  New  Guinea, 
to  New  Zealand,  there  is  a  repetition  of  Australian  geo- 
logical formations,  and  tliere  are  abundant  Tertiary  deposits; 
and  this  may  confirm  the  supposition  that  the  Australian 
continent  at  some  period  extended  farther  to  the  east, 
and  that  a  vast  portion  has  disappeared  under  the 
ocean.  To  tho  same  lij-pothotieal  cause  Mr  Darwin 
ascribes  tho  formation  of  the  Great  Barrier  Reef,  stretch- 
ing along  the  cast  co.^st  from  S.  lat.  22°  23'  to  Torres 
Strait,  with  an  interval  between  it  and  the  land  varying 
from  12  to  140  milc.=!. 

'With  regard  to  the  more  remote  geological  epochs,  Aus- 
tralia presents  fewer  materials  for  study  than  the  other 


continents  of  our  globe.  Mr  Clarke  doubts  the  origin  of 
some  of  the  more  ancientslates mentioned  in  the  "first  epoch" 
of  Count  Strzelecki,  and  does  not  find,  either  in  eastern  or 
in  southern  Australia,  sufficient  proof  that  these  regions 
contain  azoic  and  metamorphic  rocks.  Large  masses  of 
granite  occur  along  the  coast,  and  more  extensively  in 
Western  Australia.  Of  the  lower  Palaeozoic  there  is  a  great 
deal  of  Upper  Silurian  rock  in  New  South  Wales  and 
Queensland,  and  some  in  Tasmania.  It  is  in  the  Lower 
Silurian  formation,  as  Sir  Roderick  Murchison  predicted, 
that  gold  deposits  are  chiefly  found.  Rocks  of  tho  Devonian 
period  are  not  yet  proved  to  exist  anyn-here  in  Australia, 
and  it  is  doubtful  if  any  true  Permian  or  Trias,  so  common 
elsewhere,  have  been  met  with  in  this  continent.  The 
great  Carboniferous  series  is  very  prominent  in  New  South 
Wales  and  in  parts  of  Queensland ;  it  prevails  less  in 
Victoria.  Coal-beds,  of  thickness  varying  from  3  feet  to 
30  feet,  are  found  associated,  both  above  and  below,  with 
fossils  resembling  those  of  the  Carbouiferous  strata  in 
Ireland.  Their  antiquity  is  proved  beyond  question,  in 
some  districts,  as  in  the  valley  of  the  Hawkesbury,  where 
they  are  overlaid  with  beds  of  sandstone,  shale,  and  con- 
glomerate, 1000  feet  thick.  It  has  been  shown  by  Mr 
Daintree  that  there  is  a  very  extensive  distribution  of  the 
Secondarj'or  Mesozoic  rocjis  in  Queensland — the  Cretaceous 
strata,  both  there  and  in  Western  Australia,  covering  a  large 
area.    The  Oolitic  are  more  abundant  in  Western  Australia. 

The  great  plains  of  the  interior,  and  the  slopes  of  the-« 
inner  mountain  ranges,  consist  largely  of  deposits  of  tho 
Tertiary  epoch.  They  occupy  an  immense  area  in  Victoria, 
and  New  South  Wales,  including  the  Riverina  district, 
which  was  probably,  as  Jlr  Brough  Smith  considers, 
levelled  and  planed  down  by  the  ancient  vast  expansion  of 
the  Murray.  "  The  waves  of  the  sea,"  he  remarks,  "  and 
the  waters  of  this  river,  have  eaten  away  mountains  of 
granite  and  great  hills  of  schist  in  past  times,  and  placed 
instead  of  them  a  smooth  covering  of  sands  and  clays." 
The  ^eat  basin  east  of  Port  Pliillip,  connected  with 
another  basin  about  Westernport,  is  underlaid  with  Mesozoic 
carbonaceous  rocks,  ujjper  jNIiocene,  a  nodular  basalt,  and 
decomposed  amygdaloid  of  older  volcanic  origin,  the 
quartzose  drift  of  the  first  Pliocene  formations,  and  some 
volcanic  products  of  more  recent  date.  Here  the  Miocene 
beds  abound  with  fossil  leaves  of  plants  belonging  to  that 
age.  The  sands,  clays,  and  gravels  of  later  periods,  in  the 
ancient  beds  of  the  streams  within  the  Silurian  areas,  are 
more  or  less  auriferous.  Some  of  the  deeper  "  leads  "  of 
the  gold-miner  contain  fossil  fruits  and  the  trunks  and 
branches  of  trees,  which  are  described  by  Baron  von 
MiiUer  in  the  Melbourne  ofiicial  reports  of  the  mining 
surveyors.  In  the  Ballarat  gold-fields  tho  auriferous  quart- 
zo.se  gravels  are  overlaid  by  flows  of  lava  and  vesicular 
volcanic  rocks,  while  in  a  neighbouring  district  south  of 
Ballarat,  pebbles  and  sand  are  cemented  by  ferruginous- 
matter  into  an  extremely  hard  conglomerate. 

In  eastern  AustraUa,  where  no  Tertiary  marine  deposits 
are  met  with,  there  are  deep  accumidations  of  drift,  such  as 
transmuted  beds  of  the  Carboniferous  formation,  porphyry, 
and  b.asalt,  and  other  igneous  rocks,  and  fragments  of  the 
older  Pah-eozoic  strata.  Many  of  the  drift  streams  are  not 
only  highly  auriferous,  but  contain  gems  of  all  kinds. 
Diamonds,  though  of  .small  size,  have  been  t;iken  from  the 
Cudgcgong  River,  near  Mudgee,  in  New  South  Wales,  and 
likewise  from  tho  Macquarie  River. 

In  the  eastern  plains  of  the  interior,  embedded  in  black 
muddy  trappcan  soil,  are  found  tho  bones  of  enormous 
animals  of  the  marsupial  or  kangaroo  order,  as  well  as- 
birds,  fishes,  and  reptiles.  The  accumulations  of  bones  in 
caverns  at  Wellington,  New  South  Wales,  and  on  the  rivers. 
Colo,  Maclcay,  and  Coodradigbce,  are  of  great  interest. 


VLIMATK.] 


AUSTRALIA 


100 


A  femur  bone  of  the  dinornis,  the  gigantic  extinct  bird  of 
S'ew  Zealand,  has  becii^jdiscoveroJ  in  tlic  drift  on  Peak 
Uowns  in  eastern  Australia,  at  the  depth  of  1S3  feet;  and 
this  would  lead  to  the  belief  that  land  once  existed  where  now 
the  Pacific  Ocean  scjarates  by  a  thousand  miles  two 
countries  of  Australasia,  whose  prescno  animal  and  vege 
table  races  have  so  liltle  in  common. 

Minerals. — The  useful  and  precious  nietids  exist  in 
considerable  quantities  in  each  of  the  five  provinces  of 
Australia.  New  South  Wales  has  abundance  of  gold, 
copper,  iron,  and  coal,  as  well  as  silver,  lead,  and  tin. 
The  mineral  riches  of  Victoria,  though  almost  confined  to 
gold,  have  been  the  main  cause  of  her  rapid  j^rogrcss. 
.South  Australia  possesses  the  most  valuable  copper  uiines. 
Queensland  ranks  next  to  the  la.stnamed  province  for  cop- 
per, and  e.^cels  her  neighbours  iu  the  production  of  tin, 
while  gold,  iron,  and  coal  are  also  found  in  considerable 
quantities.  In  Western  Australia  mines  of  lead,  silver,  and 
copper  have  been  opened  ;  and  (here  is  much  ironstone. 

The  discovery  of  gold  in  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria 
took  place  in  1851,  and  during  the  next  twenty  years  Vic- 
toria exported  40,750,000  oz.  of  the  precious  metal,  while 
New  South  Wales,  from  1851  to  1871,  exported  nearly 
10,000,000  ounces.  The  Queensland  gold  mines,  since 
IStJO,  hi.ve  displayed  increasing  promise;  up  to  the  end 
of  1873  they  had  yielded  rather  less  than  1,000,000 
ounces ;  but  much  was  expected,  at  a  more  recent  date, 
from  the  Palmer  River  and  other  districts  of  the  north. 
The  yearly  value  of  the  aggregate  gold  exports  of  Australia, 
on  the  average  of  fifteen  years,  has  been  X 1 0,000,000.  Vic- 
toria alone  has  produced  gold  to  the  value  of  £170,000,000. 
The  alluvial  gold-fields,  in  which  the  early  diggers,  with 
the  simplest  tools,  obtained  for  a  short  time  hirge  quantities 
of  the  coveted  ore,  seem  now  to  be  mostly  exhausted.  It 
is  in  the  quartz  formations  of  the  mountain  ranges, 
or  in  those  at  a  great  depth  underground,  reached  by 
the  sinking  of  shafts  and  regular  mining  operations, 
that  Australian  gold  is  henceforth  to  be  chiefly  procured. 
There  are  mines  in  Victoria  1000  feet  deep,  as  at  Clunes, 
and  many  others  from  300  to  600  feet. 

The  copper  mines  of  Burra  Curra,  in  South  Australia, 
proved  very  profitable  some  twenty-five  years  ago,  yielding 
in  a  twelvemonth  ore  to  the  value  of  £350,000,  and  the 
Moonta  mines,  in  1872,  were  ■  scarcely  less  productive. 
The  province  of  South  Australia,  in  that  year,  exported 
copper  to  the  amount  of  £800,000.  Queensland,  in  1873, 
produced  one-fourth  that  quantity.  Tin,  an  article  of 
great  mercantile  interest,  is  divided  between  Queensland 
and  New  South  Wales  in  a  frontier  district,  two-thirds  of 
the  extent  of  which  belongs  to  the  Darling  Downs,  witliiu  the 
last-mentioned  province.  There  is  a  little  tin,  also,  in  some 
parts  of  Victoria.  Le.ad,  silver,  and  cinnabar  have  been 
obtained  not  only  in  New  South  Wales,  but  Ukewise  in 
Western  Australia. 

The  abundance  of  good  iron  ore,  in  convenient  vicinity 
to  thick  beds  of  excellent  coal,  ensures  a  future  career  of 
manufacturing  prosperity  to  New  South  Wales,  and  not 
less  to  Queensland.  The  country  north  and  south  c>f  Syd- 
ney, and  west  of  that  city  100  miks  inland  to  the  diWding 
range  of  mountains,  is  all  of  Carboniferous  formation.  At 
the  mouth  of  the  Hunter  River,  from  the  port  and  town 
of  Newcastle,  coal  was  exported  in  1873  to  the  v.alue  of 
£1,000,000  sterling.  The  collieries  there  taken  up  have 
an  extent  of  35,000  acres,  but  the  area  of  the  coal  field  is 
ollicially  estimated  at  10,000,000  acres,  and  the  seams 
are  9  feet  to  1 1  feel  thick.  The  quality  of  this  coal  is  said 
to  bo  equal  to  that  of  Great  Britain  for  most  fun.ace  pur- 
;'o.scs,  and  it  is  generally  used  by  steamships  in  the  Pacific 
•rd  Chincso  navigation.  Next  in  importance  are  the 
■  oUongong   collieries,   8outb   of    Sydney,   and   those   of 


Hartley,  Maitland,  and  Derrima,  now  connected  by  railway 
v.-ith  the  capital. 

In  each  of  the  places  above  named  there  is  iron  of  a 
superior  quality,  the  working:  of  which  tu  advantage  canr.ot 
be  long  delayed.  On  the  lllawarra  coast  it  is  found  close 
to  the  finest  bituminous  coal,  and  to  limestone.  The  iron 
of  New  South  Wales  is  n.ostly  ha?raatite,  and  the  ironstone 
contains  from  GO  to  70  per  cent,  of  ore. 

Among  other  mineral  products  of  the  same  region  are 
cannel  coal  and  shale  yielding  kerosene  oil.  This  is  a  re- 
cognised ariicio  of  export  from  New  South  Wales  to  the 
other  colonies.  It  is  hardly  worth  whde  to  speak  of  dia- 
monds, opals,  and  precious  stones,  Ijut  they  are  often  picked 
up,  though  of  small  size,  along  the  Mudgee  and  Aber- 
erombie  Hivers,  and  at  Becchworth  and  Daylesford,  in  Vic- 
toria. 

Climate.  —  The  Australian  continent,  extending  over 
28'  of  latitude,  might  be  expected  to  show  a  consider- 
able diversity  of  climate.  In  reality,  however,  it  experi- 
ences fewer  climatic  variations  than  the  other  great  con- 
tinents, o\^ing  to  its  distan;e  ("28°)  from  the  .'\utarctic  circle 
and  (11°)  from  the  equator.  There  is,  besides,  a  powerful 
determining  cause  in  the  uniform  character  and  undivided 
extent  of  its  dry  interior  plain.  On  this  subject  Mr 
llanken,  in  his  Dominion  of  Australia,  remarks— "A, 
basin  having  its  northern  portion  in  the  tropics,  it  acts  like 
an  oven  under  the  daily  sun.  It  becomes  daily  heated  ; 
then  its  atmosphere  exjiaiids ;  but  such  is  its  immensity 
that  no  suflicient  supply  of  moist  sea  air  from  the  neigh- 
bouring oceans  can  reach  it,  to  supply  the  vacancy  caused 
by  this  expansion.  Of  an  almost  perfectly  flat  surface, 
there  is  no  play  for  currents  of  air  upon  it ;  only  the  heat 
is  daily  absorbed  and  nightly  radiated.  .  Such  is  the  heat, 
that  in  the  summer  the  soil  is  more  like  a  fire  than  an  oven ; 
the  air,  if  it  moves,  is  like  a  furnace  blast;  and  such  its  ex- 
tent and  sameness,  that  as  great  heat  may  prevail  hundreds 
of  miles  south  as  north  of  the  tropics."  This  continual 
radiation  of  heat  is  sometimes  relieved — though  not  with 
the  regularity  of  an  annual  season,  indeed  rather  at  uncer- 
tain inten-ala  of  several  years — by  the  admission  of  masses 
of  vapour,  drawn  in  from  the  Pacific  or  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Great  masses  of  clouds,  after  labouring  many  months  to 
reach  the  interior  from  the  sea,  succeed  in  passing  over  the 
sea-bound  mountains,  and  spread  themselves  in  floods  of 
rain  upon  the  inland  country.  The  north-west  shore,  and 
that  of  Carpentaria,  are  favoured  with  an  annu.il  visitation 
of  the  monsoons,  from  December  to  March,  penetrating  as 
far  as  500  miles  into  the  continent,  where  the  sands  of  the 
desert  are  driven  in  wa\7  heaps  by  the  force  of  this  wind. 
But  South  Australia,  though  it  feels  a  cool  sea  breeze  from 
the  south-west,  gets  little  rain,  for  lack  of  any  mountain 
range  parallel  with  the  coast  to  arrest  and  condense  the 
passing  vapours.  The  yearly  rainfall  at  Adelaide  and 
Gawler  is  therefore  not  more  than  15  or  20  inches,  while 
at  the  head  of  Spencer  Gulf  itis  but  6  or  8.  ,  In  Victoria 
and  in  New  South  Wales,  on  the  contrary,  where  a  wall 
of  mountain  fronts  the  ocean,  most  places  on  the  sea-board 
enjoy  a  fair  allowance  of  rain.  It  is  32  inches  at  Portland, 
nearly  2G  inches  at  Melbourne ;  at  Sydney  and  Newcastle, 
on  the  east  coast,  as  much  as  48  and  4  4  inches  in  the  year. 
But  at  Brisbane,  in  Queensland,  farther  north,  it  amounts 
to  50  inches  ;  at  Rockingham  Bay,  in  latitude  18°  S.,  where 
the  hills  are  covered  with  dense  forests,  the  rainfall  in  1871 
w,is  no  less  than  00  inches.  In  every  part,  hewevor,  of 
this  magnificent  highland  region,  thftEU]>iily  of  moisture  is 
rapidly  diminished  by  passing  inland  ;  so  that  verj'  little 
remains  to  fall  on  the  interior  or  western  slopes  of  the  coast 
ranges,  and  to  irrigate  the  interior  plains. 

With  regard  to  the  temperature,  the  northern  regions  of 
the  continent  being  situated  within  the  tropic  of  CapriciTn, 


110 


A  U  S  T  R  A  L  I  A 


resemble  the  parts  of  South  America  and  South  Africa, 
that  are  situated  in  corresponding  latitudes.  The  sea- 
ward districts  of  New  South  Wales  seem  in  this  respect 
to  bo  like  Southern  Europe.  The  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture of  Sydney  is  C2°  i'  Fahr.,  almost  equal  to  that  of 
Lisbon  in  Portugal.  The  inland  plains  of  this  colony,  how- 
ever, west  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  which  suffer  much  from 
evaporation,  experience  in  summer  a  heat  which  rises 
to  100°  Fahr.  in  the  shade,  and  sometimes  as  high  as 
140°.  There  are  highland  districts,  on  the  contrary,  such 
as  Kiandra,  4C40  feet  above  the  sea-level,  where  frost, 
snow,  and  hail  are  endured  through  the  winter.  On  the 
Australian  Alps,  cold  being  more  intense  in  the  dry  air, 
the  limit  of  perpetual  snow  comes  down  to  7145  feet.  The 
days  on  which  rain  falls  in  the  coast  regions  of  New  South 
Wales  average  from  100  to  IDO  in  the  year,  and  the  amount 
from  20  inches  to  50  inches,  decreasing  generally  farther 
inland. 

In  winter,  in  New  South  Wales,  the  prevalent  winds 
blow  from  the  west,  with  occasional  storms  of  wind  and 
rain  from  the  eastward  ;  while  the  autumn  months  have 
much  cloudy  weather,  not  accompanied  by  rain.  January 
and  February  are  the  hottest  months  of  summer,  and  July 
the  coldest  month  of  winter. 

With  regard  to  the  climate  of  Victoria,  Mr  Robert  EUery, 
Oovernment  astronomer  at  Melbourne,  in  his  .report  of 
187  2,  furnishes  exact  information.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  at  Melbourne  during  fourteen  years  was  57°'6, 
and  that  of  the  whole  pronnce  5G°'S,  including  stations 
2000  feet  or  1400  feet  above  the  sea-level  at  Daylesford 
and  Ballarat.  This  is  equivalent  to  the  mean  annual 
temperature  of  Marseilles  and  Florence,  in  the  northern 
hemisphere,  but  the  climate  of  Melbourne  is  much  more 
equable  than  that  of  the  Mediterranean  shores.  The 
lowest  temperature  yet  recorded  has  been  27°,  or  5°  below 
the  freezing  point ;  the  highest,  1 1 1°  in  the  shade,  occurring 
during  one  of  the  hot  winds,  called  "  brickfielders,"  which, 
loaded  with  dust,  occasionally  blow  for  a  few  hours  in 
summer.  At  Sandhurst,  778  feet  above  the  sea,  the  greatest 
extremes  of  temperature  yet  observed  were  117°  and  27°'5 ; 
at  Ballarat  the  e.xtrcme  of  winter  cold  was  10°  below 
freezing. 

The  amount  of  humidity  in  the  air  is  liable  to  great 
and  rapid  variations  in  the  summer  months.  Tt  is  some- 
times reduced  as  much  as  GO  per  cent,  within"' a  few 
.  hours,  by  the  effect  of  hot  dry  winds.  But  this  is  com- 
pensated by  an  access  of  moisture  upon  a  change  of  wind. 
The  annual  average  rainfall  at  Melbourne,  which  for 
thirty  years  is  stated  ^t  2o'G0  inches,  does  not  seem  less 
than  that  of  places  in  similar  latitudes  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  Yet  it  proves  inadequate,  because  of  the  groat 
amount  of  evaporation,  estimated  by  Professor  Neumayer 
at  42  inches. 

The  spring  season  in  Victoria,  consisting  of  the  months 
of  September,  October,  and  November,  is  .genial  and 
pleasant,  with  some  rain.  The  summer — December,  January, 
and  February — is  generally  hot  and  dry,  though  nts  fir.st 
month  is  sometimes  broken  by  storms  of  cold  wind  and 
heavy  rain.  In  February  the  north  winds  assume  the 
character  of  siroccos,  and  bush-fires  often  devastate  the 
grassy  plains  and  forests  of  the  inland  country.  The 
autumn  months — March,  April,  and  Jlay— are,  in  general, 
the  most  agreeable ;  and  at  this  season  vegetable  life  is 
refreshed,  and  puts  forth  a  growth  equal  to  that  of  the 
spring.  The  winter  is  June,  July,  and  August,  with  strong, 
dry,  cold  winds  from  the  north,  alternating  with  frequent 
ruin  from  the  opposite  quarter  ;  ther<!  is  little  ice  or  snow, 
except  in  the  mountain  districts. 

Botany. — A  probable  computation  of  the  whole  number 
i5  distiucti  vegetable  species  indigenous  to  Australia  and 


Tasmania  has  been  made  by  Baron  Ferdinand  von  Miiller,. 
the  Government  botanist  at  Melbourne.  He  believes  that, 
omitting  the  minute  fungi,  there  will  not  be  found  above 
10,000  species  of  Australian  plants.  The  standard  authority 
upon  this  subject,  so  far  as  it  could  be  known  sixty  years 
ago,  but  now  requiring  to  be  completed  and  extended,  was 
Xhe Prodromus  F/ur(e S'ov(^ IIolla7idia;,'puhlished  in  1810  by 
Mr  Robert  Brown  of  the  British  Museum.  Tjesides  making 
personal  observations  from  1802  to  1805,  he  had  classified 
the  collections  procured  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks  when  Captain 
Cook's  ship  visited  the  eastern  shore.  Upon  that  occasion, 
in  1769,  the  name  of  Botany  Bay  was  given  to  an  inlet 
near  Port  Jackson,  from  the  variety  of  new  specimens 
found  there.  B.iron  von  MUller's  Report  of  1857  on  the 
researches  made  by  him  alone  in  the  N6rth  Australian 
exploring  expedition  under  Mr  Gregory,  exhibits  2000 
new  species,  representing  more  than  800  genera,  which 
belong  to  IGO  diti'erent  orders.  He  could  discover  no  new- 
natural  order,  or  fundamental  form  of  the  vegetable  kirrg- 
dom,  in  a  minute  examination  of  the  flora  of  Arnhem 
Land,  the  country  around  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  and  the 
Victoria  River,  but  GO  genera  were  found  that  had  not  been 
noticed  by  any  earlier  Australian  botanist. 

The  eastern  parts  of  this  continent,  New  South  Wales, 
and  Queensland,  are  very  much  richer,  both  in  their  botany 
and  in  their  zoology,  than  any  other  parts  of  Australia. 
Much  was  done  here  for  the  former  science,  half  a  century 
ago,  by  Mr  AUan  Cunningham,  whose  monumental  obelist 
fitly  stands  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Sydney.  In  general, 
the  growth  of  trees  on  the  north  and  north-west  coasts  is- 
wanting  in  size  and  regularity,  compared  with  their  growth, 
in  eastern  Australia.  To  the  last-mentioned  region,  for 
instance,  the  pines  are  entirely  confined  ;  here  the  Moretoa 
Bay  pin^.*"!!  Bunya  Bunya  pine,  of  the  genus  Aiawaria, 
growing  (J  IfK)  feet  in  height,  yield  excellent  timber.  Tho 
red  cedaV  tha  'ron  bark,  the  blue  gum-tree,  and  others 
useful  to  the  carpenter,  belong  likemse  to  the  eastern 
highlands.  The  Casuarina,  or  she-oak,  is  found  on  the 
shores  of  Carpentaria  and  in  the  interior,  but  not  on  the 
banks  of  the  Victoria  River  to  the  north-west.  Of  the 
Eucalijptus,  or  gum-tree,  Australia  has  400  species;  but  the 
one  most  uniformly  distributed  is  the  Eucaltiptu^  rostrala 
or  acuminata,  called  the  .looded  gum-tree ;  its  timber  i» 
durable,  and  takes  a  fine  polish.  Rosewood,  tulip-wood, 
sandal-wood,  and  satin-wood,  with  other  materials  for  the 
cabinetmaki.s  ornamental  work,  abound  in  the  forests  of 
Queensland.  The  forest  scenery  of  the  more  northerly 
districts,  within  the  tropics,  and  onwards  to  Rockingham 
Bay,  is  described  as  of  great  luxuriance.  It  consists  of 
many  kinds  of  large  umbrageous  trees,  some  of  an  Indian 
type,  intermixed  with  noble  arautari.is,  all  matted  together 
in  an  impervious  thicket  by  hanes  of  the  convolvulus,  the 
calamus,  arid  other  plants,  climbing  or  pendent,  harbouring 
in  their  shade  many  parasitical  orchids  and  ferns.  Such 
forests  overhang  the  seaward  sides  of  the  mountain  ranges, 
where  thoy  inhale  abundant  moisture  from  the  winds  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  feed  upon  a  congenial  soil  from  the 
decomposition  of  schistose  rocks. 

A  striking  contrast  is  ottered  to  the  view  beyond  the  coast 
ranges.  The  interior  of  Queensland  presents  either  high- 
land downs  of  basaltic  origin,  almost  bare  of  trees,  but 
with  abundant  herbaceous  vegetation,  good  pasture  grass, 
and  an  immense  quantity  of  vervain,  or  the  Brigalow 
scrub,  merely  shrubs  and  small  trees,  on  a  soil  of  argiiiace- 
ous  sandstone.  The  sandstone  t.ible-lands,  again,  naked 
and  dry,  produce  but  a  few  diminutive  eucalypti,  and 
sparse  tufts  of  uneatable  grosses,  while  the  inland  deserts 
have  only  the  acacia  to  break  the  monotony  of  the  scene. 
The  character  of  the  inland  tlora  adds  confirmation  to  the 
belief  that  the  interior  was  formerly  a  mariac  soil,  whicb 


zuoLocy.] 


A  U  S  T  K  ALIA 


11/ 


Ills  not  yet  been  deprived  of  its  saline  properties.  In  the 
■listricts  farlbest  remuvod  fr^in  the  action  of  fresh  water, 
hundreds  of  miles  are  covered  with  such  plants  as  will 
grow  on  the  seashore,  e-.j.,  the  niesembryauthemum  called 
pig's  face  or  Hottentot  ti^.  .  Other  species  belonging  to 
the  coastward  uplands  seem  to  have  been  conveyed  into  the 
intcriur  by  the  actiwii  of  water,  as  the  belts  of  timber,  and 
of  pine  or  cypre.-«  scrub,  are  always  found  to  e!:tend  along 
the  line  of  direction  taken  by  floods.  They  grow  on  sandy 
ridges,  alongside  of  hollows,  or  d<^re3sed  channels.  On 
the  north  coast,  so  much  of  which  is  llat,  and  often  swampy 
or  sandy,  the  mangrove  flourishes  as  m  other  tropical 
regions. 

From  the  extreme  aridity  of  the  climate  in  most  parts  of 
northern  Australia,  there  is  a  singular  absence  of  mosses 
and  lichens.  North-west  AustraUa  possesses,  in  the^(/a«- 
tonia  Greyorii,  or  gouty-stem  tree,  a  counterpart  of  the 
West  African  baobab,  or  monkey-bread  tree.  It  is  worthy 
of  remark  that,  wi-.h  a  few  exceptions,  the  Australian 
trees  are  evergreens.  They  also  show  a  peculiar  reverted 
position  of  their  leaves,  which  hang  vertically,  turning 
their  edg-23  instead  of  their  sides  towards  the  sun  ;  and 
the  eucalypti  have  the  peculiarity  of  shedding  their  bark 
annually  instead  of  their  leaves.  In  Australia  the  native 
species  of  lily,  tulip,  and  honeysuckle  appear  as  standard 
trees  of  considerable  size.  The  native  grasses  do  not  form 
a  continuous  and  even  greensward,  as  in  Europe,  but  grow 
in  detached  clumps  or  tufts.  None  of  the  cereal  plants 
are  indigenous,  and  very  few  of  the  fruits  or  roots  that 
supply  human  f..od;  but  many  Australian  plants  are  likely 
to  be  valuable  for  medicinal  or  chemical  manufactures. 

This  continent,  as  might  be  expected,  has  some  of  the 
same  botanicali families  that  occupy  South  Africa,  Poly- 
nesia, and  South  America.  Its  relations  in  that  respect  to 
Europe  arc  shown  by  Alphonse  de  Candollc's  tabular 
statements  in  the  Gioyrapkie  liotanique  liaisonne.'.  He 
gives  the  exact  number  ef  species  common  to  Australia 
and  to  France  in  each  ai  the  principal  families  or  natural 
orders.  It  appears  that  of  3S1 4  species  of  phanerogamic 
plants  in  France,  only  45  belong  to  Australia.  But  it 
will  be  sutficieiit,  without  citing  the  numerical  detads, 
to  quote  Baron  von  Miiller's  list  of  the  natural  orders 
having  the  most  numerous  species  of  indigenous  growth  in 
South  Australia.  They  are  here  arranged  in  succession, 
according  to  their  comparative  amounts  of  specific  diver- 
sity, those  which  have  the  greatest  number  of  species  being 
mentioned  fir.'st.  Of  the  phanerogamic  series,  the  legumin- 
ous and  the  composite  families  united  form  nearly  one- 
fourth.  Indeed,  the  half  of  the  dicotyledonous  plants, 
or  e.Togens,  that  exist  in  the  sub-tropical  districts  belong 
to  these  two  orders.  Next  come  the  myrtaceous  plants, 
tUe  ferns,  and  the  grasses ;  the  Proteace.-E,  which  form  a 
conspicuous  feature  of  Australian  botany;  the  Orchidaceae, 
the  epacrid  family,  and  the  parsley  family,  or  Umbellifers; 
the  Diosmea;,  a  sub-order  of  the  Rutacea;  or  rue  family; 
the  Liliaceae,  the  Liibiatje  or  mint  famdy,  the  Goodenioe, 
the  Scrophulariaceaj  or  figworts,  and  the  Salsolaceoe.  The 
Ranunculacea,  the  geranium  family,  the  rosaceous  plants, 
ind  the  epacrid  group,  are  not  found  in  .\ustralia  north  of 
the  tropical  line. 

Animals. — The  zoology  of  Australia  and  Tasmania  pre- 
lents  a  very  conspicuous  point  of  dilTerence  from  that  of 
other  regions  of  the  globe,  in  the  prevalence  of  non-placcutal 
mammalia.  The  vast  majority  of  the  mammalia  are  pro- 
vided with  an  organ  in  the  uterus,  by  which,  before  the 
birth  of  their  young,  a  vascular  connection  is  maintained 
between  the  embryo  and  the  parent  animal.  There  are 
two  orders,  the  Marsupialia  and  the  Monotrcmata,  which  do 
uot  possess  this  organ.  Both  these  are  found  in  Australia, 
to  which  region  indeed  they  are  not  absolutely  confined  ; 


but  the  marsupials  alone  constitute  two-thirds  of  all  the 
Australian  species  of  mammals.  It  is  the  wellknowr^ 
peculiarity  of  this  order  that  the  female  has  a  pouch  or 
fold  of  skin  upon  her  abdomen,  in  which  she  can  place  the 
young  for  sucixiiug  within  reach  of  her  teats.  The  opossum, 
of  America  is  the  only  species  out  of  Australasia  which  is 
thus  provided.  -"Australia  is  inhabited  by  at  least  llO 
difi'ercnt  species  of  marsupials,  which  have  been  arranged  in 
five  tribes,  according  to  the  food  they  eat,  viz.,  the  root- 
eaters  (wombats),  the  fruit-eaters  (phalaiigers),  the  grass- 
eaters  (kangaroos),  the  insect-eaters  (bnjidiccots),  and  the 
flesh  eaters  (native  cats  and  rats).  Of  these  tribes  the 
wombats  are  closely  allied  to  the  phalangers,  represented 
by  the.  opossums  and  flying  squirrels,  with  the  native  bear» 
while  fossil  remains  of  twenty  extinct  species  have  also  been 
found.  Of  wombats  now  existing  there  are  four  species,  all 
of  nearly  the  same  size,  seldom  exceeding  100  lb  in  weight. 
They  all  burrow  in  the  ground,  and  their  habitat  is  iit 
New  South  Wales,  Tasmania,  and  South  Australia.  There- 
is  but  one  species  of  the  singular  animal  miscalled  thfr 
native  bear,  which  is  more  like  a  sloth -in  its  habits.  Three- 
varieties  of  brush-tailed  opossum  are  found,  but  one  of 
them  exists  only  in  Tasmania;  and  there  are  three  ring- 
tailed  varieties  in  almost  every  part  of  Australia.  Tha 
great  flying  phalanger  (Petaurista)  js  nearly  allied  to  tb& 
last-mentioned  genus  ;  it  exists  only  in  East  Australia;  aa. 
does  the  small  fljing  phalanger  (Belideus),  which  is  re- 
stricted to  mountain  districts.  ,The  interior  of  Australia, 
and  the  west  coast  are  wanting  in  these  species,  but  two- 
or  three  of  them  occur  on  the  north  coast.  The  smallest, 
phalanger  {Acrohata  pygrruza)  is  less  than  a  mouse,  and 
has  a  feathery  tail.  The  little  Tarsijxs  roslratus  is  almost 
toothless,  but  has  a  long  hairy  tongue,  which  it  thrusts- 
into  flowers  to  suck  their  sweetness. 

The  kangaroo  (Macropus)  and  most  of  its  congeners- 
show  an  extraordinary  disproportion  of  the  hind  limbs  tcK 
the  fore  part  of  the  body.  The  rock  wallabies  again  have 
short  tarsi  of  the  hind  legs,  with  a  long  pliable  tad  for 
climbing,  like  that  of  the  tree  kangaroo  of  New  Guinea,  or 
that  of  the  jerboa.  Of  the  larger  kangaroos,  which  attain, 
a  weight  of  200  lb  and  more,  eight  species  are  named,  only 
one  of  which  is  found  in  West  Australia.  There  arc  some 
twenty  smaller  species  in  Australia  and  Tasmania,  besides- 
the  rock  rallabies  and  the  hare  kangaroos ;  these  last  are- 
wonderfully  swift,  making  clear  jumps  eight  or  ten  feethigh.  ■ 
To  this  agility  they  owe  their  preservation  from  the  prairie- 
fires,  which  are  so  destructive  in  the  interior  during  seasons, 
of  drought.  In  the  rat  fangaroo  there  is  not  the  ^ame 
disproportion  of  the  limbs ;  it  approaches  more  nearly- 
to  the  bandicoot,  of  which  seven  species  exist,  from  the 
size  of  a  rat  to  that  of  a  rabbit  The  carnivorous  tnbe  of 
marsupials,  the  larger  species  at  any  rate,  belong  more  to- 
Tasmania,  which  has  its  "  tiger "  and  its  "  devjL"  But 
the  native  cat,  or  dasyurus,  is  common  to  every  part  of 
Au:;tralia.  Several  different  species  of  pouched  rats  and 
mice,  one  or  two  hving  in  trees,  aro  reckoned  among  the 
flesh-eaters.  Fossd  bones  oi  extinct  kangaroo  species  are 
met  with,  which  must  have  been  of  enormous  size,  twice  or 
ithrice  that  of  any  species  now  living. 

We  pass  on  to  the  other  curious  order  of  non-placent.nt 
mammals,  that  of  the  Monotreniata,  so  called  from  the 
structure  of  their  organs  of  evacuation  with  a  single  orifice, 
as  in  birds.  Their  abdominal  bones  are  like  those  of  the 
marsupials ;  and  they  are  furnished  with  pouches  for  their 
young,  but  have  no  teats,  the  milk  being  distilled  int»- 
their  pouches  from  the  mammary  glands.  Australia  and 
Tasmania  possess  two  animals  of  this  order, — the  echidna^ 
cr  spiny  ant-eater  (hairy  in  Tasmania),  and  the  I'lalypua- 
anatinuf,  the  duck-billed  water-mole,  otherwise  named  the 
Ornit/ior/iynchus  paraJoxui.     This  odd  animal  is  provided; 


ir: 


AUSTRALIA 


i  ZOOLOGY. 


v.-ith  a  bill  or  beak,  wtich  13  not,  like  that  of  a  bird,  affixed 
to  the  skeleton,'  but  is  merely  attaclied  to  the  skin  aud 
muscles. 

Australia  has  no  apes,  monkeys,  or  baboons,  and  no  rumi- 
nant beasts.  The  comparatively  few  indigenous  placental 
maminals,  besides  the  dingo,  or  ■wild  dog — which,  however, 
'  may  have  come  from  the  islarwls  north  of  this  continent — 
are  of  the  bat  tribe  and  of  the  rodent  or  rat  tribe.  There  are 
four  species  of  lar^e  fruit-eating  bats,  called  flying  foxes, 
twenty  of  insect-eating  bats,  above  twenty  of  land-rat-s,  and 
five  of  water-rats.  The  sea  produces  three  difl'erent  seals, 
which  often  ascend  rivers  from  the  coast,  and  can  live  in 
lagoons  of  fresh  water  ;  many  cetaceans,  besides  the  "  right 
whale  "  and  sperm  whale  ;  and  the  dugoug,  found  on  the 
northern  shores,  which  yields  a  valuable  medicinal  oil 

The  birds  of  Australia  in  their  number  and  variety  of 
species  (reckoned  at  690)  may  be  deemed  some  compen.sa- 
tion  for  its  poverty  of  mammals  ;  yet  it  will  not  stand  com- 
parison in  this  respect  with  regions  of  Africa  and  South 
America  in  the  same  latitudes.  The  black  swan  of  West 
Australia  was  thought  remarkable  when  discovered  as 
belying  an  old  Latin  proverb.  There  is  also  a  white  eagle. 
The  vulture  is  wanting.  Sixty  species  of  parrots,  some  of 
them  very  handsome,  are  found  in  Australia.  The  emu,  a 
large  bird  of  the  order  Cursores,  or  runners,  corresponds 
with  the  African  and  Arabian  ostrich,  the  rhea  of  South 
America,  and  the  cassowary  of  the  Moluccas  and  New 
Guinea.  In  New  Zealand  this  order  is  represented  by  the 
apteryx,  as  it  formerly  was  by  the  gigantic  moa,  the  remains 
of  which  have  been  found  likewise  in  Queensland.  Of  the 
same  species  as  the  birds  of  paradise  is  the  graceful  Mccnura 
superba,  or  lyre  bird,  with  its  tail  feathers  spread  in  the 
sliape  of  a  lyre.  The  mound-raising  megapodes,  the  bower- 
building  satiD-birds,  and  several  others,  display  pecuUar 
habits.  The  honey-eaters  present  a  great  diversity  of 
plumage.  There  are  also  many  kinds  of  game  bii-ds, 
pigeons,  ducks,  geese,  plcvers,  and  quails. 

The  ornithology  of  New  South  Wales  and  Queensland 
is  more  varied  and  interesting  than  that  of  the  other  pro- 
vinces. 

As  for  reptiles,  Australia  has  a  few  tortoises,  aU  of  one 
liriiily,  and  not  of  great  size.  The  '.'leathery  turtle," 
which  is  herbivorous,  and  j-ields  abundance  of  oil,  has  been 
caught  at  sea  ofl'  the  Illanarra  coast  so  large  as  9  feet  in 
length.  The  saurians  or  liz.-trds  are  numerous,  chiefly  on 
dry  sahdy  or  rocky  ground  in  the  tropical  region.  The 
great  crocodile  of  Queensland  is  30  feet  long ;  there  is  a 
smaller  one,  G  feet  long,  to  be  met  with  in  the  shallow 
lagoons  of  the  interior.  The  monitor,  or  fork-longued 
lizard,  which  burrows  in  the  earth,  chmb3,and  swims,  is 
said  to  grow  to  a  length  of  8  or  9  feet.  This  species,  aud 
many  others,  do  not  extend  to  Tasmania.  There  are  about 
twenty  kinds  of  night-lizards,  and  many  which  hibernate. 
One  species  can  utter  a  cry  when  pained  or  alarmed,  and 
the  tall-standing  frilled  lizard  can  lift  its  forelegs,  and 
tquat  or  hop  like  a  kangaroo.  There  is  also  the  Moloch 
horridus  of  South  and  West  Australia,  covered  witli  tuber- 
cles bearing  large  spines,  which  give  it  a  very  strange 
ospoct.  This  and  some  other  lizards  have  powei'to  change 
their  colour,  not  only  from  light  to  dark,  but  in  some  parts 
from  yellow  to  gray  or  red.  Dr  Gray,  of  the  British 
Wujcum,  has  described  fifty  species  of  Australian  li.-.ard. 

The  snakes  aro  reckoned  at  sixty-three  species,  of  which 
forty-two  aro  venomous,  but  only  five  dangerou&.  North 
<Jueen8land  has  many  harmless  pythons.  There  are  forty 
or  fifty  different  sorts  of  frogs ;  t!io  commonest  is  distin- 
guished by  its  blue  legs  and  bronzo  or  gold  back  ;  the 
largest  is  bright  green  ;  while  the  tree-frog  has  a  loud  shrill 
voice,  nlwajj  heard  during  rain. 

The  Australian  seas  and  rivers  are  inhabited  by  many 


fishes  of  the  same  genera  as  ejcist  m  the  southern  parts 
of  Asia  and  Africa.  Of  those  peculiar  to  h  ustralian  waters 
may  be  mentioned  the  arripis,  represented  by  what  is  called 
among  the  colonists  a  sahnon  trout.  A  very  fine  fresh- 
water fish  is  the  ilurray  cod,  which  sometimes  weighs  100 
ft  :  and  the  golden  perch,  found  in  the  same  river,  has  rare 
beauty  of  colour.  Among  the  sea  fish,  the  snapper  is  of 
great  value  as  an  article  of  food,  and  its  weight  comes  up 
to  50  lb.  This  is  the  Pagrus  miicolor,  of  the  family  of 
Sparidfe,  which  includes  also  the  bream.  Its  colours  are 
beautiful,  pink  and  red  with  a  silver}-  gloss ;  but  the  male 
as  it  grows  old  takes  on  a  singular  deformity  of  the  head, 
with  a  swelUng  in  the  shape  of  a  monstrous  human-like 
nose.  These  fish  are  caught  in  numbers  outside  Pon 
Jackson  for  the  Sydney  market.  Two  species  of  mackerel, 
differing  somewhat  from  the  European  species,  are  also 
caught  on  the  coasts.  The  so-caUed  red  garnet,  a  pretty 
fish,  mth  hues  of  carmine  and  blue  stripes  on  its  head,  is 
much  esteemed  for  the  table.  The  Trigla  polyommata,  or 
flying  garnet,  is  a  greater  beauty,  with  its  body  of  crimson 
and  silver,  and  its  large  pectoral  fins,  spread  hke  wings,  of 
a  rich  green,  bordered  with  purple,  and  relieved  by  a  bkck 
and  white  spot.  WTaiting,  mullet,  gar-fish,  reck  cod,  and 
many  others  known  by  local  names,  are  in  the  Lists  of 
edible  fishes  belonging  to  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria. 
Much  interesting  and  valuable  information  upon  Australian 
zoology  will  be  found  in  a  recent  essay  by  Mr  Gerard  Kreff't, 
curator  and  secretary  of  the  museum  at  Sydney,  and  in 
the  Count  de  Castelnau's  report  on  the  fishes  of  Victoria 
at  the  International  Exhibition  of  1873. 

Aborigines. — The  Papuan,  Melanesian,  or  Australasian 
aborigines  exhibit  certain  peculiarities  which  are  not  found 
in  the  African  negro,  to  which  race  they  otherwise  present 
some  similarity.  In  the  Australasian  the  forehead  is 
higher,  the  uuder  jaw  less  projecting,  the  nose,  though 
flat  and  extended  compared  with  that  of  the  European,  is 
less  depressed  than  in  the  African.  His  lips  are  thick,  but 
not  protuberant ;  and  the  eyes  are  sunken,  large,  and  biack. 
The  colour  of  his  skin  is  Ughter — of  a  dusky  hue — than 
that  of  the  Ne,:;ro.  In  stature  he  equals  the  aver.ige 
European,  but  tall  men  are  rare,  except  in  North  Queens- 
land ;  his  body  and  limbs  are  weU  shaped,  strongly  jointed, 
and  highly  muscular.  The  hind  parts  are  not,  as  in  the 
African,  excessively  raised ;  and  while  the  calf  of  the  leg 
is  deficient,  the  heel  is  straight.  The  natives  of  Papua  have 
woolly  spirally-twisted  hair.  Those  of  Tasmania,  now  exter- 
minated, had  the  same  peculiarity.  But  the  natives  of  the 
Australian  continent  have  straight  or  curly  black  hair. 
The  men  wear  short  beards  and  whiskers. 

Their  mental  faculties,  though  probably  inferior  to  those 
of  the  Polynesian  copper-coloured  race,  are  not  contemptible. 
They  have  much  acuteness  of  perception  for  the  relations 
of  individual  objects,  but  little  power  of  generalisation. 
No  wcrd  exists  in  their  languago  for  the  general  terms 
tree,  bird,  or  fish  ;  yet  they  have  invented  a  name  for 
every  species  01  vegetable  and  anim.al  tboy  know.  The 
grammatical  structure  of  some  North  Australian  langu.iges 
has  a  considerable  degree  of  rcSuemeut.  The  verb  presents 
a  variety  of  conjugations,  cxi)rcssing  nearly  all  the  moods 
and  tenses  of  the  Greek.  There  is  a  dual,  as  well  as  n 
plural  form  in  the  declension  of  verbs,  nouns,  pronouns, 
and  adjectives.  The  distinction  of  genders  is  not  marked, 
except  in  proper  names  of  men  and  women.  All  parts  of 
speech,  except  adverbs,  .arc  declined  by  terminational  inllec- 
tions.  There  arc  words  for  the  clomontary  numbers,  one, 
two,  three;  but  "four"  is  usually  expressed  by  "two- 
two;"  then  "five"  by  "two-three,"  and  so  on.  They 
have  no  idea  of  decimals.  The  number  and  diversity 
of  ocpaiato  languages,  not  mere  dialects,  is  truly  bowi'drr- 
in:^.     /Hb.-".'  of  a  few  hundred  jjeople,  living  T\'ithiii  a  lew 


AUOKIOINt_.J 


A   U   S  T   K   A   L  1   .-. 


113 


riilirs  of  cacli  otber,  have  often  scarcely  a  phrase  in  com- 
mon. This  is  more  especially  observed  in  New  South 
Wales,  a  country  much  intersected  by  dividing  mountain 
ringes.  But  one  language  is  spoken  all  along  the  Rivers 
Murray  and  Darling,  while  the  next  neighbours  of  the 
Murray  tribes,  on  bot!i  sides,  are  unable  to  converse  with 
tuem. 

It  is,  nevertheless,  tolerably  certain  that  all  the  natives 
of  Australia  belong  to  one  stocL  There  appears  reason 
to  believe  that  their  progenitors  originally  landed  on 
the  northwest  coast,  that  of  Cambridge  Gulf  or  Arnhem 
Land,  in  canoes  drifting  from  the  island  of  Timor,  They 
seem  then  to  have  advanced  over  the  continent  in  three 
separate  directions.  By  one  route  they  moved,  in  the 
course  of  ages,  directly  across  to  the  south  coast,  near  the 
head  of  the  Great  Bight,  Spencer  Gulf,  and  the  Gulf  of 
St  Vincent.  Another  division  followed  the  west  coast  to 
Swan  River,  and  round  by  King  George's  Sound.  The 
third  and  most  important  body,  turning  eastward,  crossed 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpent.aria,  then  split  and  sub- 
divided itseU  amidst  the  rivers  and  highland  ranges  of 
Queensland,  while  some  of  its  tribes  crossing  thj  Upper 
L>arling  occupied  New  South  Wales,  overspread  the 
li'ivcrina,  and  peopled  the  southeastern  quarter  of  Aus- 
tralia. The  proofs  and  arguments  upon  which  this  hypo- 
thetical distribution  is  based  are  set  forth  by  Mr  Eyre  in 
his  interesting  essay  on  the  Australian  al'origiues  (Dis- 
i-overUs  in  Central  Atislralia,  &c.,  by  E  J.  Eyre,  resident 
magistrate,  Murray  River,  vol.  ii.)  It  is  chiefly  the  pre- 
valence of  some  peculiar  customs,  such  as  circumcision,  or 
the  removal  of  two  upper-jaw  teeth  at  a  stated  age  of 
adolescence,  that  seems  to  mark  the  common  descent  of 
tribes,  now  widely  distant  in  location,  which  appear  to 
have  belongnj  t.i  one  ol  the  suppo-sed  main  streams  of 
population.  The  discontinuince  of  such  customs  among 
the  tribes  of  the  other  main  divisions  is  plausibly  ascribed  to 
Ileal  influences.  From  a  comparison  of  their  lanc;uages, 
the  diversities  of  which  have  boon  already  referred  to,  it 
appears  that  little  aid  is  to  be  expected  from  them  in  ethno- 
logical grouping. 

I'he  natives  of  the  north-eastern  quarter — a  tropical 
region  of  diversiQed  surface,  with  many  rivers  and  thick 
forests,  as  well  as  open  highlands — are  far  superior  in  body, 
mind,  and  social  habits  to  those  of  t!ie  rest  of  Australia. 
They  bear,  in  fact,  most  resemblance  to  their  neighbours 
and  kindred  in  the  L'land  of  New  Guinea,  but  are  still 
below  these  in  many  iinfnsrtant  respects. 

If  a  general  view  be  taken  of  the  tribes  of  Australia,  and 
the  state  in  which  they  existed  independently  of  recent  Euro- 
pean intercourse,  two  or  three  extraordinary  defects  exhibit 
themselves.  They  never,  in  any  situat'.on,  cultivated  the 
»oil  for  any  kind  of  food  crop.  They  never  reared  any 
kind  of  cattle,  or  kept  any  domesticated  animal  except  the 
■log,  which  probably  came  over  with  them  in  their  canoes. 
They  have  nowhere  built  permanent  dwellings,  but  con 
ir>nlcd  themselves  with  mere  hovels  for  temporary  shelter 
I'hey  have  neither  manufactured  nor  possessed  any  chattels 
'■eyond  such  articles  of  clothing,  weapons,  ornaments,  and 
-itensila  as  they  might  carry  ou  their  persons,  or  in  the 
.'ainily  store-bag  for  daily  use.  Their  want  of  ingenuity 
"jnd  contrivance  has,  however,  undoubtedly  been  promoted 
liy  the  natural  poverty  of  the  land  in  which  the  race  settled. 

The  sole  dress  of  both  sexes  in  their  aboriginal  state  is 
a  cloak  of  skin  or  matting,  fa.stened  with  a  skewer,  but 
open  on  the  right-hand  si^de.  No  headgear  is  worn,  except 
sometimes  a  net  to  confin^the  hair,  a  bunch  of  feathers,  or 
the  tails  of  small  animals.  The  bosom  or  back  is  usually 
tattocd,  or  rather  scored  with  rows  of  hideous  raised  scars, 
produced  by  deep  gashes  at  the  ago  when  youth  comes  to 
manhood  or  woiuanhooi     Their  dwellings,  for  the  most 


part,  are  either  bowers,  furiiicd  of  the  branches  of  trees, 
or  hovels  of  piled  logs,  loosely  covered  with  grasf  or  bark, 
which  they  can  erect  in  an  hour,  wherever  they  encamp. 
But  some  huts  of  a  more  commodious  and  substantial  form 
were  seen  by  Flinders  on  the  southeast  coast  in  1799, 
and  by  Captain  King  and  Sir  J.  iMitchell  on  the  north-east, 
where  they  no  longer  appear.  The  ingenuity  of  the  race 
is  mostly  to  be  recognised  in  the  manufacture  of  their 
weapons  of  warfare  and  the  chase.  While  the  use  of  the 
bow  and  arrow  does  not  seem  to  have  occurred  to  them, 
the  spear  and  axe  are  in  general  use,  commonly  made  of 
hard-wood  ;  the  hatchets  of  stone,  and  the  javelins  pointed 
with  stone  or  bone.  The  peculiar  weapon  of  the  Australian 
IS  the  boomerang,  a  curved  blade  of  wood,  of  such  remark- 
able construction,  that  it  swerves  from  its  direct  course, 
sometimes  returnihg  so  as  to  hit  an  object  behind  the 
thrower.  Their  nets,  made  by  women,  cither  of  the  ten- 
dons of  animals  or  the  fibres  of  plants,  will  catch  and  hold 
the  strong  kangaroo  or  the  emu,  or  the  very  large  fish  of 
Australian  rivers.  Canoes  of  beut  bark,  for  the  inland 
waters,  are  hastily  prepared  at  need  ,  but  the  inlets  and 
straits  of  the  north-eastern  sea-coast  are  navigated  by  larger 
canoes  and  rafts  of  a  better  construction. 

Without  claiming  permanent  ownership  of  the  land,  each 
native  tribe  was  accustomed,  till  the  English  squatter  came, 
to  enjoy  the  recognised  manorial  dominion  of  its  own 
hunting-ground,  perhaps  ten  or  twelve  miles  square.  This 
was  subdivided  between  the  chief  heads  of  families.  The 
afl'airs  of  a  tribe  are  ruled  by  a  council  of  the  men  past 
middle  age  who  are  still  in  full  vigour  of  mind  and  body. 
One  may  be  their  president,  but  they  have  no  hereditary 
prince.  Their  most  .solemn  assemblies  take  place  when  the 
youth  undergo  one  or  other  of  the  painful  ceremonies  o/  ini- 
tiation into  manhood.  In  every  case  of  death  from  disease 
or  unknown  causes  the  sorcerers  hold  a  public  inquest,  and 
pretend  to  ask  the  corpse  how  it  was  killed.  Such  deaths  are 
invaiiably  ascribed  to  witchcraft  practised  by  a  hostile 
or  envious  neighbouring  tribe.  The  bodies  of  the  slain  in 
battle  are  sometimes  eaten,  or  the  fat  of  the  kidneys,  at 
least,  is  extracted  for  a  feast  of  victory.  But  cannibalism 
in  Australia  is  not  confined  to  the  flesh  of  enemies,  nor  is 
it  generally  associated  with  au  insulting  triumph.  It  is 
rather,  like  that  reported  of  the  ancient  Scythians,  a  rite 
of  funeral  observance,  in  honour  of  deceased  kindred  and 
friends.  The  reality  of  this  custom  is  proved  by  the  testi- 
mony of  tru.stworthy  English  witnesses,  who  have  watched 
the  revolting  act.  The  only  idea  of  a  god  known  to  be  enter- 
tained by  these  people,  is  that  of  Buddai,  a  gigantic  old  man 
lying  asleep  for  ages,  with  his  head  resting  upon  his  arm, 
which  is  deep  in  the  sand.  He  is  expected  one  day  to 
awake  and  eat  up  the  world.  They  have  no  religion  beyond 
those  gloomy  dreams.  Their  notions  of  duty  relate  mostly 
to  neighbourly  service  and  social  interest ;  and  they  are  not 
all  thieves  or  liars,  but  are  capable  of  many  good  deeds.  The 
marriage  bond  is  observed  by  tha  wife  or  wives, the  penalty 
•  ■f  its  violation  being  death.  But  chastity  upon  any  other 
account  is  a  virtue  beyimd  the  native  conception,  though  a 
certain  delicacy  of  feeling  in  matters  of  sex  is  not  unknown. 
The  deplorable  lack  of  moral  restraint  has  involved  this 
unhappy  race  in  suH'crings  which  may  be  easily  under- 
stoocl,  from  their  contact  with  the  more  reckless  and 
vicious  representatives  of  foreign  nations. 

The  numbers  of  the  native  Australians  ore  steadily 
diminishing.  A  remnant  of  the  race  exists  in  each  of  the 
provinces,  while  a  few  tribes  still  wander  over  the  interior. 
Altogether  it  is  computed  that  not  more  than  about  80,000 
aborigiues  remain  on  the  continent. 

Perhaps  the  most  complete  and  trustworthy  informa- 
tion on  the  Australian  race  is  to  be  found  in  works  ['ub- 
lished  some  twenty  or  thirty  years  ago,  before  thf  cou.ilij 


114 


AUSTRALIA 


[colonial  history. 


was  occupied  as  it  now  is  by  the  Europenn  settler,  ilr 
Eyre's  work  above  referred  to,  and  Captain  (afterwards 
Sir  George)  Grey's  Discoveries  in  Xurtk-West  and  Westei-n 
Australia,  are  autliorities  that  may  be  relied  upon. 

Colonial  History. — Of  the  five  Australian  provinces, 
that  of  Nev?  South  Wales  may  be  reckoned  the  oldest. 
It  was  in  1788,  eighteen  years  after  Captain  Cook  explored 
the  east  coast,  that  Port  Jackson  was  founded  as  a  penal 
station  for  criminals  from  England ;  and  the  settlement 
retained  that  character,  more  or  less,  during  the  subsequent 
fifty  years,  transportation  being  virtually  s\ispended  in 
1839.  The  colony,  however,  from  1S21  h^d  made  a  fair 
start  in  free  industrial  progress. 

By  this  time,  too,  several  of  the  other  provinces  had 
come  into  ejcistence.  Van  Diemen's  Land,  now  called 
Tasmania,  had  been  occupied  as  early  as  1803.  It  was  an 
auxiliary  penal  station  under  New  South  Wales,  till  in 
1825  it  became  a  separate  province.  From  this  island, 
ten  years  later,  parties  crossed  Bass's  Straits  to  Port  Phillip, 
where  a  new  settlement  was  shortly  established,  forming 
till  1851  a  part  of  New  South  Wales,  but  now  the  richer 
and  more  populous  colony  of  Victoria.  In  1827  and  1829, 
an  English  company  endeavoured  to  plant  a  settlement  at 
the  Swan  River,  and  this,  added  to  a  small  convict  station 
established  in  1825  at  King  George's  Sound,  constituted 
Western  Australia.  On  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  St  Vincent, 
again,  from  1835  to  1837,  South  Australia  was  created  by 
another  joint-stock  company,  as  an  experiment  in  the  Wake- 
field scheme  of  colonisation. 

Such  were  the  political  component  parts  of  British 
Australia  up  to  1839.  The  earlier  history,  therefore,  of 
New  South  Wales  is  peculiar  to  itself.  Unlike  the  other 
mainland  provinces,  it  was  at  first  held  and  used  chiefly 
for  the  reception  of  British  convicts.  When  that  system 
was  abolished,  the  social  conditions  of  New  South  Wales, 
Victoria,  and  South  Australia  became  more  equal.  Pre- 
vious to  the  gold  discoveries  of  1851  they  may  be  included, 
from  1839,  in  a  general  summary  view. 

The  first  British  governors  at  Sydney,  from  1788,  ruled 
with  despotic  power.  They  were  naval  or  military  officers 
in  command  of  the  garrison,  the  convicts,  and  the  few  free 
settlers  The  duty  was  performed  by  such  men  as  Captain 
Arthur  Phillip,  Captain  Hunter,  and  others.  In  the 
twelve  years'  rule  of  General  Macquarie,  closing  with  1821, 
the  colony  made  a  substantial  advance.  By  means  of  con- 
vict labour  roads  a-d  bridges  were  constructed,  and  a 
roate  opened  into  the  interior  beyond  the  Blue  Mountains. 
A  population  of  30,000,  three-fourths  of  them  convicts, 
formed  the  infant  commonwealth,  whose  attention  was 
soon  directed  to  the  profitable  trade  of  rearing  fine  wool 
sheep,  first  commenced  by  Mr  John  M'Arthur  in  1803. 

During  the  next  ten  years,  1821-31,  Sir  Thomas  Bris- 
bane and  Sir  Ralph  Darling,  two  generals  of  the  army, 
being  successively  governors,  the  colony  increased,  Jand 
eventually  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  advantages  of  a 
representative  institution,  by  means  of  a  legislative  council. 
Then  came  General  Sir  Richard  Bourke,  whose  wise  and 
liberal  administration  proved  most  beneficial.  New  South 
Wales  became  prosperous  and  attractive  to  emigrants  with 
capital  Its  enterprising  ambition  was  encouraged  by 
taking  fresh  country  north  and  south.  In  the  latter  direc- 
tion, explored  by  Mitchell  in  1834  and  183G,  lay  Australia 
Felix,  now  Victoria,  including  the  well-watered,  thickly- 
wooded  country  of  Gipps'  Land. 

This  district,  then  called  Port  Phillip,  in  the  time  of 
Governor  Sir  George  Gipp.s,  1838  to  184G,  was  growing  fast 
into  a  position  claiming  independence.  Melbourne,  which 
began  with  a  few  huts  on  the  banks  of  the  Varra-1i'arra 
in  1835,  was  in  1810  u  busy  town  of  COCO  inhabitants, 
the   population   of  the   whole  district,  witli  the  towns  of  i 


Geelong  and  Portland,'  reaching  12,850;  while  its  import 
trade  amounted  to  £20-1,000,  and  its  exports  to  £138,000. 
Such  was  the  growth  of  infant  Victoria  in  five  years ; 
that  of  Adelaide  or  South  Australia,  in  the  same  period, 
was  nearly  equal  to  it.  At  Melbourne  there  was  a  deputy 
governor,  Mr  Latrobe,  under  Sir  George  Gipps  at  Sydney. 
Adelaide  had  its  own  governors,  first  Captain  Hindmarsh, 
next  Colonel  Gawler,  and  then  Captain  George  Grey. 
Western  Australia  progressed  but  slowly,  with  less  than 
4000  inhabitants  altogether,  under  Governors  Stirling  and 
Hutt. 

The  general  advancement  of  Australia,  to  the  era  of  the 
gold-mining,  had  been  satisfactory,  in  spite  of  a  severe 
commercial  crisis,  from  1841  to  1843,  caused  by  extrava- 
gant land  speculations  and  inflated  prices.  Victoria  pro- 
duced already  more  wool  than  New  South  Wales,  the 
aggregate  produce  of  Australia  in  1852  being  45,000,000 
lb ;  and  South  Australia,  between  1842  and  this  date,  had 
opened  most  valuable  mines  of  copper.  The  population  of 
New  South  Wales  in  1851  was  190,000;  that  of  Victoria, 
77,000;  and  that  of  South  Austraha  about  the  same. 

At  Summerbill  Creek,  20  miles  north  of  Bathurst,  in 
the  Jlacquarie  plains,  gold  was  discovered,  in  February 
1851,  by  Mr  E.  Hargraves,  a  gold-miner  from  Cahfornia. 
The  intelligence  was  made  known  in  April  or  May;  and 
then  began  a  rush  of  thousands, — men  leaving  their  former 
employments  in  the  bush  or  in  the  towns  to  search  for  the 
ore  so  greatly  coveted  in  all  ages.  In  August  it  was 
found  at  Anderson's  Creek,  near  Melbourne ;  a  few  weeks 
later  the  great  Ballarat  gold -field,  80  miles  west  of  that 
city,  was  opened ;  and  after  that,  Bendigo,  now  called 
Sandhurst,  to  the  north.  Not  only  in  these  lucky  pro- 
vinces, New  South  Wales  and  Victoria,  where  the  auri- 
ferous deposits  were  revealed,  but  in  every  British  colony 
of  Australasia,  all  ordinary  industry  was  left  for  the  one 
exciting  pursuit.  The  copper  mines  of  South  Australia 
were  for  the  time  deserted,  while  Tasmania  and  New  Zea- 
land lost  many  inhabitants,  who  emigrated  to  the  more 
promising  country.  The  disturbance  of  social,  industrial, 
and  commercial  affairs,  during  the  first  two  or  three  years 
of  the  gold  era,  was  very  great.  Immigrants  from  Europe, 
and  to  some  extent  from  North  America  and  China,  poured 
into  Melbourne,  where  the  arrivals  in  1852  averaged  2000 
persons  in  a  week.  The  population  of  V  ictoria  was  doubled 
in  the  first  twelvemonth  of  the  gold  fever,  and  the  value  of 
imports  and  exports  was  multiplied  tenfold  between  1851 
and  1853. 

The  colony  of  Victoria  was  constituted  a  .separate  pro- 
vince in  July  1851,  Mr  Latrobe  being  appointed  governor, 
followed  by  Sir  Charles  Hotham  and  Sir  Henry  Barkly 
in  succession.  The  more  rapid  incre.ise  of  Victoria  since 
that  time,  in  wealth  and  number  of  inhabitants,  has  gained 
it  a  pre-eminence  in  tlie  esteem  of  emigrants  ;  but  the 
varied  resources  of  New  South  Wales,  and  its  greater  extent 
of  territory,  may  in  some  degree  tend  to  redress  the  balance, 
if  not  to  restore  the  character  of  superior  importance  to  the 
older  colony. 

The  separation  of  the  northern  part  of  eastern  Australia, 
under  the  name  of  Queensland,  from  the  original  province  of 
New  South  Wales,  took  place  in  1859.  At  that  time  the 
district  contained  about  25,000  inliabitants  ;  and  in  the 
first  six  years  (or  Sir  George  Bowcn,  tlio  first  governor, 
observed,  in  1805)  its  population  was  quadrupled  and  its 
trade  trebled. 

It  appears,  from  a  general  view  of  Australian  progress  in 
the  Inst  twenty  years,  that  the  provinces  less  rich  in  gold 
than  Victorifi  '•■tve  '■>''cn  enabled  to  advance  in  prosperity 
by  other  means.  Wool  continues  the  great  staple  of  Aus 
•-luda.  But  New  South  Wales,  possessing  both  coal  aiul 
iron,  is  becoming  a  scat  of  manufactures;  while  (^luemt- 


A  U  S  —  A  U  S 


115 


land  is  uho  favoured  witli  nuicli  mineral  nealtb,  including 
tin.  The  semi-tropical  climate  of  the  latter  colony  is  suit- 
able for  the  culture  of  particular  crops,  needing  only  a 
supply  of  other  than  European  labour.  Meantime  South 
Australia,  besides  its  production  of  copper  and  a  fair  share 
of  wool,  has  become  the  great  wheat-growing  province  of 
the  continent. 

The  separate  colonies  of  Australia  are  still  in  a  some- 
what transitional  state,  emigration  being  so  continuous, 
and  the  country  to  be  yet  occupied  so  extensive.  For 
this  and  for  other  reasons,  therefore,  it  may  bo  more  fitting 
to  describe  the  several  colonies,  with  respect  to  their  in- 
dustrial and  social  conditions,  under  their  respective  names. 
To  enable  the  reader,  however,  to  judge  of  the  genera!  posi- 


tion of  the  provinces  at  a  recent  date,  the  f.illowing  statis- 
tics arc  appended  : — 


Name  of  Colony. 

Esilmaied 
Popula- 
tion at 
Clo^e  of 
ISiS.  . 

Revenue 
of 

ie;3. 

Puljllc 

Deljt  on 

Dec  31. 

1873. 

Value  of 
Inii>->it9 
for  1873 

v.lneof 

E>i.oria 
foi  is:}. 

Vlrtorlii 

6<;0.2T5 
I98.:'j; 

nii.cso 
\oi:i\i 

25.761 

t 

3.943.601 
3.324.713 

9J7.643 

1.120.0.14 

203.  TM 

134.8^3 

e 

12.44S.722 
10,842.414 
2.174.300 
4.786,8.'.0 
1,477.600 
34,000 

£ 
1C.M3.8S* 
11.0SS3S3 
3.829,830 
2.861,726 
1.107.167 
297,328 

£ 

!5.3"2  414 
ll,8i;.82fl 

4..is;.s;9 

3,.VI2,'.l:i 

89:i.,'.56 

265.217 

.\'ew  Swutb  Wft4eft,.. 
Soulb  Anstrili. 

Western  •Aiutrallu.. 

TolQl  forAintra.) 
Han  Colonics.. .( 

l.625,60J 

9,754,671 

il,7t2,48: 

15,738.295 

36.407.428 

(R.A.) 


AUSTRIA 


PUt«  lit.  A  USTRIA,  or  more  strictly  Austria-Hungary  (Ger. 
jCI.  Ocslerreich  and  Oesterreich-Ungarn),  is  an  extensive 
countrj'  in  the  soutliern  portion  of  Central  Europe,  lying 
between  long.  9°  and  26°  E.,  and  hit.  42°  and  51°  N.  It  thus 
extends  through  1 7  degrees  of  longitude  and  0  degrees  of 
latitude,  and  has  an  area  of  about  240.000  English  square 
miles.  With  the  exception  of  the  islands  in  the  Adriatic, 
and  the  narrow  projecting  tract  of  Dalmatia,  it  forms  a 
compact  region  of  country,  but  of  an  irregular  shape.  It 
is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  other  oountries,  except  where 
it  borders  upon  the  Adriatic,  which  is  about  one-fifth  of 
the  entire  extent  of  its  boundaries  Of  the  rest,  about  one- 
third  on  the  W.  and  N.  is  formed  by  the  German  empire 
(Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Prussia),  a  third  on  the  S.  and  E. 


Sketch  Map  of  Austria. 

\)y  the  Turkish  empire  and  the  Danubian  Principalities, 
and  the  remaining  third  by, Russia  on  the  N.E.  and 
Switzerland  and  Italy  on  the  S.W.  The  boundaries  are 
formed  in  some  parts  by  river  courses,  in  others  by  moun- 
tain ranges,  and  sometimes  they  extend  through  an  open 
country.  As  compared  with  France,  Austria  has  a  form 
nearly  as  compact,  but  its  frontiers  are  by  no  means  so 
well  defined  or  bo  strongly  protected  by  natural  barriers. 
It  ranks  third  in  extent  among  the  countries  of  Europe 
(after  Russia  and  Sweden),  and  fourth  in  point  of  popula- 
tion (after  Russia,  the  German  empire,  and  France). 
MountilDi.  Austria  is,  after  Switzerland,  the  most  meuntainous 
country  of  Europe,  and  about  four-fifths  of  its  entire  area 
is  more  than  GOO  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
mountains  are  frequently  covered  with  vegetation  to  a  great 
elevation.  At  the  base  are  found  vines  and  maize ;  on 
the  lower  slopes  are  green  pastures,  or  wheat,  barley,  and 
other  kinds  of  corn  ;  above  are  often  forests  of  oak,  ash, 
elm,  ic. ;  and  still  higher  the  yew  and  the  fir  may  be 


seen  braving  the  fury  of  the  tempest.  Corn'grows  to- 
between  3400  and  4500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the- 
forests  extend  to  5600  or  6400  feet,  and  the  line  of  per- 
petual snow  is  from  7800  to  8200  feet.  In  some  parts, 
however,  particularly  in  Tyrol,  Styria,  Carinthi.-i,  and 
Carniola,  the  mountains  appear  in  wild  confusion,  with 
rugged  peaks  and  bare  precipitous  sides,  forcibly  remind- 
ing the  traveller  of  Switzerland.  Tyrol  in  particular  has, 
like  that  country,  its  cascades,  its  glaciers,  its  perpetual 
snows,  and  its  avalanches. 

The  Alps  occupy  the  south-west  portion  of  the  country,' 
and  form  its  highest  lands.     They  are  distinguished  by 
various  names,  as  the  Rha:tian,  Noric,  Carnic,  Julian,  and 
Dinaric  Alps.     The  Rhcetian  or  Tyrolese  Alps  enter  Tyrol 
from  the  Swiss  canton  of  the  Grisons,  and  are  the  loftiest 
range  in  the  country,  a  number  of  the  summits  rising  to- 
the  height  of   12,000  feet,  and  the  highest,  the  Orteler 
Spitze,  attaining  a  height  of  12,814  feet  above  the  level  of" 
the  sea.     They  divide  into  three  principal  chains,  the  most 
southern  of  which  occupies  the  southern  portion  of  Tyrol, 
and  contains  the  Orteler  Spitze,  and  others  of  the  loftiest 
points  in  the  country.     The   middle   or  principal   chain, 
extends  in  an  easterly  direction  to  the  borders  of  Salzburg: 
and  Carinthia,  and   has  many  of  its  peaks  covered  with, 
perpetual  snow.     The  northern  chain  is  inferior  in  elev.v 
tion  to  the  others,  and  few  of  its  most  elevated  points- 
reach  the  snow-line.     The  Noric  Alps  are  a  continuation- 
.of  the  RhiEtian  eastward,  passing  through  Salzburg,  Styria,. 
Carinthia  north  of  the  Drave,  Lower  and  Upper  Austria, 
to  Hungary,  where  they  gradually  sink  into  the  plains. 
They  comprise  three  chains,  a  main  chain  and  two  lesser 
chains  proceeding  northward — the  one  the  Salzburg,  the 
other  the   Styria- Austrian    Alps.     The    main    chain,    the 
Noric  Alps  in  a  stricter  sense,  traverses  Salzburg,  Carinthia, 
and  Styria,  and  has  a  length  of  about  170  miles,  some  of  its 
peaks  rising  to  the  height  of  1 2,000  feet.     The  Cai  nic  or 
Carinthian  Alps  are  also  an  offshoot  of  the  Rha;tian  Alps 
eastward,  occupying  the  south-east  of   Tyrol,  Carinthia, 
and  the  north  of  Carniola.     They  form  several  branches, 
and  some  of  the  summits  are  over  9000  feet  high.     The 
Julian  or  Carniolan  Alps  extend  in  a  south-easterly  direc- 
tion through  Carniola  and  Croatia.     They  present  httle  of 
an    Alpine   character,   and    with   one   or   two   exceptions 
nowhere  rise  to  the  height  of  5000  feet.     They  are  for  the 
niost  part  bare  and  rugged.     The  Dinaric  Alps  are  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  preceding,  extepding  through  Croatia  and 
Dalmatia,  and  resemble  them  in  character.     The  highest 
point.  Mount  Dinara,  from  which  they  take  their  name,  is 
5956  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

After  the  Alps,  the  most  important  mountain  system  of 
Austria  U  the  Carpathians,  which  occupy  its  eastern  and. 
north-eastern  portions,  and  stretch  ia  the  form  of  an  arib- 


UG 


A  U  S  T  E   1   A 


[physical 


through  Silesia,  Moravia,  Galicia,  Hungary,  and  Transyl- 
vania, Tliey  have  an  extent  of  about  650  miles,  and  are 
divided  into  three  principal  groups — the  Hungarian  Car- 
pathians, the  Carpathian  Waldgebirge  or  Forest  Moun- 
tains, and  the  Transylvanian  Highlands.  The  Hungarian 
Carpathians  stretch  from  west  to  east,  through  Hungary, 
Moravia,  Silesia,  and  GaUcia  fur  about  200  miles,  and 
comprise  various  smaller  groups,  among  which  are  the 
Beskides,  the  Little  Carpathians,  and  the  Central  Car- 
pathians or  the  Tatra  Mountains.  This  last  group  consti- 
tutes the  highest  portion  of  the  Carpathians,  having  an 
average  elevation  of  over  6000  feet,  and  its  two  principal 
summits,  the  Eisthaler  Thurm  and  the  Lomnitzer  Spitze, 
having  a  height  of  8378  and  8222  feet  respective!)-.  In 
character  it  resembles  the  Alps  more  than  the  Carpathians, 
having  rugged  precipitous  sides,  deep  chasms,  snows, 
glaciers,  cascades,  kc.  The  Waldgebirge,  or  Forest  Moun- 
tains, are  a  series  of  moderate  elevations,  for  the  most 
part  wooded,  and  stretching  for  about  160  miles  through 
Hungary,  GaUcia,  and  Buckowina,  with  an  average  breadth 
of  about  45  miles.  They  are  in  general  from  3000  to 
6000  feet  in  elevation,  the  highest  point,  Pietrozza,  rising 
to  7086  feet.  The  Transylvanian  Highlands  extend  over 
Transylvania,  a  part  of  Hungary,  and  the  Military  Frontier, 
into  jloldavia  and  WaUachia.  They  have  a  length  of 
about  350"  miles,  and  breadth  of  from  30  to  90.  Several 
of  the  summits  rise  to  the  height  of  8000  feet.  The  sides 
of  the  Carpathian  mountains  are  generally  covered  with 
forests  to  a  considerable  height. 

The  Hercyfiian  mountain  system  spreads  itself  over 
Bohemia,  Silesia,  Moravia,  and  the  middle  and  northern 
portions  of  Tapper  and  Lower  Austria.  It  includes  the 
lesser  systems  of  the  Bohemian  Forest,  the  Erzgebirge,  the 
Riesengebirge,  and  the  Sudetes.  The  Bohemian  Forest  is 
a  series  of  wooded  heighta  on  the  confines  of  Bohemia  and 
Bavaria,  and  extending  south  from  the  Eger  to  the  Danube. 
Its  highest  point  is  4610  feet  above  the  sea.  The  Erzge- 
birge, or  Ore  Mountains,  commence  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Elbe,  nm  eastward  bef\veen  Bohemia  and  Sasony,  and 
terminate  near  the  sources  of  the  White  Elster.  None  of 
the  summits  rise  to  the  height  of  4000  feet.  The  Biesengc- 
birge  or.Giant  Mountains  are  on  the  confines  of  Bohemia 
*  towards  Prussian  Silesia,  and  have  their  highest  point, 
Schneekoppe  or  Ricscnkopjpe,  5330  feet  above  the  sea. 
ITie  Sudetes  is  a  name  sometimes  given  to  all  the  moun- 
tains of  Northern  Bohemia,  but  it  more  properly  belongs 
to  thafrange  which  runs  between  Moravia  and  Prassian 
Silesia,  from  the  March  to  the  Oder.  The  highest  summit, 
the  Spieglitzer  Schneeberg,  is  4774  feet  high. 
Oeolngy.  The  great  central  chain  of  the  Alps  consists  of  primitive 
rocks,  principally  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  granite.  Occa- 
sionally clay-slate,  greywacke,  and  limestone  overlie  these 
rocks.  Iron  ore  is  very  alDundant  here,  and  gold  and 
copper  are  found.  The  northern  and  southern  ranges  of 
the  Alps  are  composed  of  limestone.  In  the  southern 
range  the  limestone  rests  upon  gneiss,  which  crops  out  in 
Bome  parts.  Iron,  .copper,  lead,  and  zinc  ores,  and  quick- 
silver are  found  in  some  parts  to  a  large  extent.  In  the 
Dorthern  range  the  limestone  is  in  some  places  covered 
with  clay-slate,  greywacke,  and  tran.sition  limestone.  Iij 
the  north  the  limestone  is  covered  with  sandstone,  which 
eiteiids  in  an  almost  continuous  lino  ftom  the  Lake  of 
Constance  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Vienna.  In  this  dis- 
trict a  number  of  beds  of  coal  are  found.  The  central 
range  of  the  Carpathians  is  formed  chiefly  of  gneiss,  granito, 
clay-slate,  greywacke,  and  transition  limestone,  freqiiently 
covered  with  extensive,  patches  of  Tertiary  formations. 
North  and  south  of  this  are  ranges  of  sandstone  mountains, 
00  which  diluvial  and  alluvial  deposits  are  also  found. 
The  northern  sand.?toiie  range  is  rich  in  salt ;  the  ccntr.il 


chain  abounds  in  iron  and  copper  ore ,  and  the  gneiss  and 
granitic  mountains  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania  are  rich 
in  ores  of  gold  aiid  silver.  Numerous  beds  of  coal  are 
also  found  in  the  kter  formations.  The  Bohemian  and 
Moravian  moantam  system  is  composed  chiefly  of  gneiss 
and  granite.  Bas,alt,  clinkstone,  greenstone,  and  red  sand 
stone  are  also  com.mon.  Silver  and  lead  mines  are  exten- 
sively worked,  also  mines  of  zinc  and  iron.  Coal  is 
abundant  here.  The  plain  and  hilly  parts  of  the  country 
belong  chietly  to  the  middle  or  Miocene  period  of  "the 
Tertiary  formation,  and  comprise  sand,  gravel,  clay-marl,  &c. 

As  the  highlands  of  Austria  form  part  of  the  great  water-  Ri%cr\ 
shed  of  Europe  which  divides  the  waters  flowing  north- 
ward into  the  North  Sea  or  the  Baltic,  from  those  flowing 
southward  or  eastward  into  the  Mediterranean  or  the  Black 
Sea,  its  rivers  flow  in  three  different  directions — northward, 
southward,  and  eastward.  With  the  e-sception  of  the 
small  streams  belonging  to  it  which  fall  mto  ihe  Adriatic, 
all  its  rivers  have  their  mouths  in  other  countries,  and  it- 
principal  river,  the  Danube,  has  also  its  source  in  another 
countrj'.  This,  which  after  the  Volga  is  the  largest  rivei 
of  Europe,  rises  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  flows 
through  Wiirtemberg  and  Bavaria,  and  is  already  naWgable 
when  it  enters  Austria,  on  the  borders  of  which  it  receives 
the  Inn,  a  river  which  has  as  large  a  body  of  water  as 
itself.  It  has  a  course  of  about  820  miles  within  the 
country,  which  is  about  48  per  cent,  of  its  entire  length. 
Where  it  enters  it  is  898  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  where  it  leaves  only  132  feet  It  has  thus  a  fall 
within  the  country  of  706  feet,  and  is  at  first  a  very  rapid 
stream,  but  latterly  a  very  slow  one  Its  aflluents,  after 
the  Inn,  are  at  first  generally  small,  the  principal  being  the 
Traun,  the  Enns,  and  the  March  In  Hung.iiy  it  receives 
from  the  Carpathians  the  Waag,  Neutra.  Gran,  and  Eipel ; 
and  from  the  Alps  the  Drave,  the  Mur,  and  the  Save. 
But  the  principal  affluent  of  the  Danube  is  the  Theiss,  which 
rises  in  the  Carpathians,  and  drains  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  eastern  half  of  Hungary  The  country  drained  by  the 
Danube  is  formed  into  several  basins  by  the  mountains 
approaching  its  banks  on  either  side.  The  principal  of 
these  are  the  Linz  and  Krems  basins,  the  Vienna  basin, 
and  the  little  and  great  Hungarian  basins.  Between  this 
last  and  the  plains  of  WaUachia.  it  passes  through  the 
narrow  rocky  channels  ef  Islach,  Kasan,  and  the  Iron 
Door,  where  the  fall  is  about  41  feet  in  less  than  half  a 
mile.  The  Dniester,  which,  like  the  Danube,  flows  into  the 
Black  Sea,  has  its  source  in  the  Carpathians  in  Eastern 
Galicia,  and  pursues  a  very  winding  course  towards  the 
south-cast.  It  receives  its  principal  aflluents  from  the 
Carpathians,  and  drain?  in  Austria  a  territory  of  upwards 
of  12,000  English  s()uare  miles  It  is  navigable  for  about 
300  miles  The  Vistula  and  the  Oder  both  fall  into  the 
Baltic,  The  former  rises  m  Moravia,  flows  first  north 
through  Austrian  Silesia,  then  takes  an  easterly  direction 
along  the  borders  of  Prussian  Silesia,  and  afterwards  a 
north-easterly,  separating,  Gahcia  from  Russian  Poland,  and 
leaving  Austria  not  fa-  from  Sandomir  It-s  course  lu 
Austria  is  240  miles,  draining  an  area  of  15.500  square 
miles.  It  is  navig.ible  for  nearly  200  miles,  and  its  prin- 
cipal aflluents  are  the  Save  and  the  Bug.  The  Oder  has 
also  its  source  in  Moravia,  flows  first  cast,  and  then  north- 
cast  through  Austrian  Silesia  into  Prussia.  Its  length 
within  the  Austrian  territoiy  is  only  about  55  miles,  no 
I!art  of  which  is  navigal>le  The  only  river  of  this  country 
which  flows  into  the  North  Sea  is  the  £lbo  It  has  its 
source  in  the  Riesengebirge.  not  far  from  the  Schneekoppe, 
flows  first  50uth,  then  ca.-t,  and  afterwards  northeast 
through  Bohemia,  and  then  enters  Saxony  Its  principal 
aflluents  are  the  Adler.  Isor.  and  Kgcr,  and,  most  important 
of  all,  the  Moldau.     The  last,  fmm  the  length  ol  ns  course, 


FEATCnES.] 


A  U  S  T  R  I  A 


ir. 


and  the  qnantity  of  water  which  it  brings  down,  is  eulilleJ 
10  be  considered  the  main  stream.  It  has  a  course  of  200 
miles,  and  is  navigable  for  190.  The  Elbe  itself  has  a 
course  within  the  Austrian  dunnnions  of  185  miles,  for 
about  65  of  which  it  is  navigable.  It  drains  an  area  of 
upwards  of  21,000  square  miles.  The  lUiine,  though 
scarcely  to  be  reckoned  a  river  of  the  country,  flows  for 
about  25  miles  of  its  coui-se  between  it  and  Switzerland. 
The  principal  river  of  Austria  which  falls  into  the  Adriatic 
IS  the  Adige.  It  nsos  in  the  mountains  of  Tyrol,  flows 
south,  then  east,  and  afterwards  south,  into  the  pbins  of 
Lombardy.  Its  principal  aflluent  is  the  Eisack.  Of  the 
streams  which  have  their  course  entirely  within  the  country, 
and  which  fall  into  the  Adriatic,  the  principal  is  the  Isonzo, 
75  miles  in  length,  but  navigable  only  for  a  short  distance 
from  its  mouth. 

The  lakes  and  marshes  of  Austria  are  very  numerous, 
and  some  of  them  aro  of  great  extent.  The  lakes  lie 
principally  in  the  valleys  among  the  Alps,  and  the 
marshes  are  frequent  along  the  courses  of  the  rivers. 
The  largest  lake  of  Austria  is  the  Balaton,  in  Hungary, 
which  is  about  46  miles  in  length  by  18  in  breadth,  and, 
mcludiiig  the  swamps  in  connection  with  it,  covers  an  area 
of  500  square  miles.  The  Neusiedler,  also  in  Hungaiy,  is 
18  miles  in  length,  by  from  4  to  7  iu  breadth,  and  covers 
an  area  of  106  square  miles.  Among  the  many  smaller 
ones  the  principal  are  the  Traunsee,  Attersee,  Wijrthersce, 
Mondsec,  ic.  No  other  European  country  equals  Austria 
in  the  number  and  value  of  its  mineral  springs.  No  fewer 
than  1500  of  these  are  reckoned,  and  they  occur  princi- 
pally in  Bohemia  and  Hungary.  In  the  former  aro  Karlsbad, 
Manenbad,  Franzensbad,  Teplitz,  PUllna,  and  Seidlitz. 

The  climate  of  Austria,  in  consequence  of  its  great  extent, 
and  the  great  differences  in  the  elevation  of  its  surface^  is 
very  various.  It  is  usual  to  di\ide  it  into  three  distinct 
zones.  The  most  soufliern  extends  to  40°  N.  lat.,  and 
mcludes  Dalmatia  and  the  country  along  the  coast,  together 
with  the  southern  portions  of  TjtoI  and  Carinthia,  Cro.atia, 
Slavonia,  and  the  most  southern  part  of  Hungary.  Here 
the  seasons  are  m'ld  and  equable,  the  winters  are  short 
^snow  seldom  falling),  and  the  summers  last  for  five 
months.  The  Wne  and  maize  are  everywhere  cultivated, 
as  well  as  olives  and  other  southern  pro<iucts.  In  the 
south  of  Dalmatia  tropical  plants  flourish  in  the  open  air. 
The  central  zone  lies  between  40°  and  4  9°  N.  lat.,  and 
includes  Lower  and  Upper  Austria,  Salzburg,  St}Tia, 
Carinthia,  Carniola.  Central  and  Northern  Tyrol,  Southern 
Moravia,  a  part  of  Bohemia,  the  main  portion  of  Hungary, 
and  Transylvania.  The  seasons  are  more  marked  here 
than  in  the  preceding.  The  wnntcrs  are  longer  and  more 
«evcre,  and  the  summers  are  hotter.  The  vine  and  maize 
are  cultivated  in  favourable  situations,  and  wheat  and 
other  kinds  of  grain  art  generally  grown.  The  northern 
ione  embraces  the  territory  Ijnng  north  of  49°  N.  lat., 
comprising  Bohemia,  Northern  Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Gali- 
cia.  The  winters  are  here  long  and  cold ;  the  vine  and 
maize  are  no  longer  cultivated,  the  principal  crops  being 
wheat, barley,  oat3,  rje,  hemp,  and  flax.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  ranges  from  about  59°  in  the  south  to  48°  in 
the  north.  In  some  parts  of  the  countr)-,  however,  it  is  as 
low  as  40°  40'  and  even  30°.  In  Vienna  the  average 
annual  temperature  is  50°,  the  highest  temperature  being 
94°,  the  lowest  2°  Fahr.  In  general  the  eastern  part  of 
the  country  receives  less  raia  than  the  western.  In  the 
south  the  rains  prevail  chiefly  in  spring  and  autumn,  and  in 
the  north  and  central  parts  during  summer.  Storms  aro 
frequent  in  the  region  of  the  South  Alps  and  .along  the 
coast.  In  some  parts  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Alps  the  rain- 
fall 1.^  excessive,  sometimes  exceeding  CO  inches.  It  is 
less  among  tho  Carpathians,  where  it  usually  vanes  from 


Florv 


30  to  40  niches.  In  other  parts  the  rainfall  usually 
averages  from  20  to  24  inches,  but  in  the  plains  of  Hungary 
it  is  as  low  as  16. 

From  the  varied  character  of  its  climate  and  soil  the 
vegetable  productions  of  Austria  are  very  various.  It  has 
floras  of  the  plains,  the  hills,  and  the  mountains,  an  alpine 
flora,  and  an  arctic  flora ,  a  flora  of  marshes,  and  a  flora  ot 
steppes;  floras  peculiar  to  the  clay,  the  chalk,  the  sand- 
stone, and  the  slate  formations.  Tho  number  of  dilRieiii 
species  is  estimated  at  12,000,  of  which  one-third  are 
phanerogamous,  or  flowering  plants,  and  two-thirds  crj-pto- 
gamous,  or  tlowerlcss.  Tho  crown-land  of  Lower  Austria 
far  surpassf.s  in  this  respect  the  other  divisions  ol  tLe 
country,  having  about  four-ninths  of  the  whole,  and  not 
less  than  1700  species  of  flowering  plants.  Hungary, 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Galicia  are  the  principal  corn- 
growing  regions  of  the  country ;  and  Tyrol,  Salzburg,  and 
Upper  Styria  are  tho  princi[]al  pastoral  regions. 

The  animal  kingdom  embraces,  besides  the  usual  domestic  aimimiIv 
animals  (as  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swme,  goats,  asses.  &c.), 
wild  boars,  deer,  wild  goats,  hares,  &c. ;  also  bears,  wolves, 
lynxes,  foxes,  wild  cats,  jackals,  otters,  beavers,  polecats, 
martens,  weasels,  and  tho  like.  Eagles  and  hawks  are 
common,  and  many  kinds  of  singing  birds.  The  rivers  and 
lakes  abound  in  different  kinds  of  fish,  which  are  also 
plentiful  on  the  sea-coast.  Among  insects  the  bee  and 
the  silkworm  are  tho  most  useful  The  leech  forms  an 
article  of  trade.  In  all  there  are  90  different  species  of 
mammals,  248  species  of  birds,  377  of  fishes,  and  mors 
than  13,000  of  insects. 

Austria  comprises  five  countries,  each  bearing  the  name  Dlviiion* 
of  kingdom — viz.,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  Galicia,  lUyria,  and 
Dalmatian  one  archduchy,  Austria;  one  principality. 
Transylvania  ;  one  duchy,  Styna  ;  one  margraviate,  Mora- 
via ;  and  one  county,  TjtoI.  These  are  now  divided  iiiio 
provinces,  which  are  called  crown-lands,  and  of  which  at 
present  there  are  18,  14  being  in  Austria  Proper,  and  4  in 
Hungary.  Tho  follownng  table  gives  the  area  and  civil 
population  of  the  different  crown-lands  in  1857  and  at  31st 
December  1809.  The  first  14  crown-lands  constitute 
Austria  Proper,  and  tho  remaining  4  form  the  kingdom  ot 
Hungary.  Gurtz,  Istria.  and  Trieste  are  also  known  as  ih 
Maritime  District. 


Cro«n   3D(ls. 

Areas 

In 
Ensrlltb 
Miics. 

ropnla- 
tfon  In 
1837 

Population  in  16C9              1 

Malu 

Females. 

Tout 

Lower  Austria 

7.C30 
4,l>17 
S.757 
t.0« 
3,002 
3.S-I4 
3.074 

ll.!.",? 

19.097 
8.5.'.5 
LOSl 

30.213 

4.923 
62.CUi 
81.159 

7.421 
12.219 

1,6S1.C97 
707,1CD 
14B.7fin 

l,0iC,773 
332.4.',e 
461.041 

t20,!';s 

831.016 

4.T0.',.;;5 
l.snr.ooi 

413,012 
4,i97.4;0 

45C.920 

404.409 
9.800,735 
1,92(;.797 

8:6,009 
1.0C4.9K 

on;.o«7 
3.-.8.11; 

73.468 
t55.289 
1C1.JI9 
220.000 
2SS.203 
420.241 

5,403.029 
04S.20C 
242.374 

2,600..',  18 
255.019 
220,169 

5.409.102 

1,051.144 
405,062 
C0C.091 

9S7.164 
373.402 
77.042 
676.020 
174.881 
243,21.4 
203.760 
449.C66 

2.672.440 

1,010,091 
260.007 

2.707.4'.i« 
2.V.,014 
222.017 

5,618,101 

],o,'.n5«;2 

601.644 
J93.380 

1,054.251 
73l,6:'.' 

1,'.1,41" 
l,I3I.;i09 

sao.i"'! 

403,271 
582,(i7ri 

8;&oo; 

S.106,061 1 
1.007.607 

in.5SI 
5.118,016 

511.0C4 

442,706 
I1.1I7.6:'3 
2.10l,7;'7 

oor,6i-« 

1,200.371 

S.^:7.biirs 

Styila 

Gditz. l5til.\  ATiicstc 
TjTol  and  VoiailbcvK 

Gnllcln 

TL-insylvatiLl 

Ciontia  and  Slftvoma.. 
.Mllimry  Fronlk-r 

ToH.1 

2^5.037 

31.902.934 

17.467  508 

18.I67.2C0 

35,634,658 

A  nuiri;  recent  report  states  th,it  tlie  population  of  Austria  Propel 
had  ri.wn  from  'Jij,210,000  in  1SG9  to  20,970,000  in  1873— Iht 
male  population  Imnng  increased  from  9,810,000  to  10,200,000, 
ami  tho  females  from  10,400,000  to  10,770,000,  Tlic  most  thickly 
popuLitcd  crown-land  is  Silesia ;  tho  most  thinly,  Salzburg. 

The  civil  population  of  Austria  in  1818  amounted  to  Popubtiork 
20,709,203,  in  1830  it  had  increased  to  34,082,400,  in 
1S42  to  35,295,957,  in  1857  to  37,339,012,  and  in  1809 
to  35,034,858.     Between  the   two  last  dates  it  had  lost 
its  Lombardo- Venetian  territo-ies,  with  more  than  5,000,000 


118 


AUSTRIA 


[cDUCATIoy.' 


mhabitants.  In  Austria  Proper  the  number  of  births  in 
1869  was  812,474,  of  which  419,374  were  males  and 
393,100  females,  699,047  were  legitimate,  and  113,427 
illegitimate,  and  17,114  were  still-born.  The  number  of 
deaths  among  children  up  to  5  years  of  age  was  281,643 — 
152,294  being  males,  and  129,349  females.  The  number 
■  of  marnages  that  took  place  during  that  year  was  208,787, 
of  which  164,018  were  between  parties  neither  of  whom 
had  been  previously  married  ;  8670  between  parties  both 
.,of  whom  had  been  previously  married  ;  23,533  between 
iwidowers  and  unmarried  females,  and  12,566  between 
widows  and  unmarried  males  The  total  number  of  deaths 
during  1869  was  583,995,  oT  which  302,104  were  males 
and  281,891  females.  Of  these  the  ages  of  28  males  and  40 
females  are  given  as  over  100  years.  Violent  deaths  carried 
off  5988  males  and  1939  females,  of  whom  1110  males 
and  265  females  had  committed  suicide,  244  males  and  82 
females  were  murdered,  and  4  males  executed.  In  Austria 
Proper  there  were  738  cities  and  large  towns,  1270  market 
towns,  52,919  villages,  and  2,766,314  inhabited  and 
121,045  uninhabited  houses.  In  Hungary  there  were  189 
cities  and  large  towns,  769  market-to\vns,  16,373  villages, 
and  2,450,213  houses.  The  cities  containing  more  than 
100,000  inhabitants  in  1809  were  Vienna  (833,855),  Pesth 
(201,911),  and  Prague  (157,275).  Seven  cities  contained 
between50,000and  100,000  inhabitants;  42 between  20,000 
Bnd  50,000;  and  90  between  10,000  and  20,000. 

The  population  of  Austria  is  made  up  of  a  number  of 
distinct  races,  differing  from  each  other  in  manners,  customs, 
language,  and  religion,  and  united  together  only  by  living 
Under  the  same  government.  The  most  numerous  race  is 
<he  German,  amounting  to  9,000,000,  and  forming  25  per 
cent,  of  the  entire  population.  They  are  found  more  or 
less  in  all  the  crown-lands,  but  are  most  numerous  in 
Lower  and  Upper  Austria,  Salzburg,  Styria,  Carinthia,  and 
Northern  Tyroh  The  different  Slavonic  races  number 
together  16,540,000,  or  46  per  cent.  The  principal 
Slavonic  races  are, — in  the  north,  the  Czechs  and  Moravians 
(4,480,000),  who,  together  with  the  Slovacks  in  the 
Western  Carpathians  (1,940,000),  form  18  per  cent,  of  the 
entire  population, and  the  Poles  (2,370,000)  and  the  Ruthens 
(3,360,000)  occupying  Galicia;  and  in  the  south,  the 
Slovens  n, 220,000),  the  -Croats  (1,520,000),  and  the 
Serbians  (1,651,000).  The  northern  Slavonians  are  found 
chiefly  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Galicia,  and  the  north  of 
Hungary ;  the  southern  in  Carniola,  Dalmatia,  Croatia, 
Slavonia,  and  the  Military  Frontier.  The  Magyars  or 
Hungarians  occupy  chiefly  Hungary  and  Transylvania,  and 
number  5,590,000,  or  16  per  cent,  of  the  whole  population. 
The  Rumiini  or  Wallachians  number  2,940,000,  or  over  8 
per  cent. ;  the  Jews,  1,105,000,  or  3  per  cent. ;  the  Italians, 
515,000,  or  1-4  percent.;  and  the  gipsies,  140,000.  Thereat 
consist  of  Armenians,  Bulgarians,  Albanians,  Greeks,  <fec 
tHtllgloD.  Austria  has  always  remained  strongly  attached  to  the 

Roman  Catholic  Church.  Her  sovereigns,  however,  have 
in  general  resisted  the  temporal  pretensions  of  the  popes, 
and  reserved  to  themselves  certain  important  rights,  such 
as  the  imposing  of  taxes  on  church  property,  the  nomina- 
tion of  bishops  and  archbishops,  and  the  option  of  restrict- 
ing, or  even  prohibiting,  tho  circulation  of  Papal  bulls. 
About  two-thirds  of  tho  people,  or  nearly  24,000,000,  pro- 
fess the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  If,  however,  wo  deduct 
the  kingdom  of  Hungary  and  Galicia,  where  less  than  one- 
half  of  the  people  are  Roman  Catholics,  tho  proportion  in 
the  rest  of  tho  country  is  much  increased.  In  some  parts 
<he  proportion  to  the  entire  population  is  as  high  as  90  to 
98  per  cent.  The  Greek  Catholics  number  in  Austria 
Proper  2,342,163  (almost  all  in  Galicia),  and  in  Hungary 
1,599,028.  Tho  Eastern  Greek  Church  numbers  461,511 
.idhcrents  in  Austria,  and  2.089,319  in  Hungary.     Of  tho 


Protestant  denominations,  the  Lutherans  are  more  numer- 
ous in  the  western  half  of  the  empire,  the  Calvinists  in  the 
eastern.  The  numbers  are— in  Austria  Proper,  Lutherans, 
252,327,  and  Calvinists,  111,935;  in  Hungary,  Lutherans, 
1,365,835,  Calvinists,  2,143,178.  The  principal  other 
religions  are  the  Jewish,  1,375,861  (nearly  half  of 
them  in  Galicia);  Armenian,  10,133;  Unitarian,  55,079 
(nearly  all  in  Transylvania).  The  Catholic  Church  (includ- 
ing the  Greek  and  Armenian  Catholics)  has  1 1  archbishops, 
24  suffragan  bishops,  2  vicariate  bishops,  and  1  miUtary 
bishop,  in  Austria  Proper,  and  5  archbishops  and  23 
bishops  in  Hungary.  Altogether  there  are  about  34,000 
ecclesiastics,  and  950  convents,  with  8500  monks  and  5700 
nuns.  The  Oriental  Greek  Church  has,  in  Austria  Proper, 
3  bishops  (1  in  Euckowina  and  2  in  Dalmatia),  and  in 
Hungary,  the  patriarch  of  Karlowitz,  the  archbishop  of 
Herrmannstadt,  and  8  bishops,  with,  in  all,  4000  priests,,' 
and  40  convents,  with  300  monks. 

Previous  to  1848  Austria  was  very  far  behind  in  the 
matter  of  education ;  but  since  that  time  great  improve- 
ments have  been  eflected,  and  an  entire  change  has  taken 
place.  This  subject  now  receives  the  greatest  attention; 
schools  of  all  kinds  have  been  established  throughout  the 
country,  improved  systems  of  teaching  have  been  intro- 
duced, and  instruction  is  open  to  all  without  regard  to 
class  or  creed  at  a  very  small  cost,  or  e\cn  gratuitously. 
It  still  continues,  however,  to  be  in  great  measure  under 
the  control  of  the  priests,  and  many  of  the  teachers  are 
ecclesiastics.  The.  Roman  Catholic  religion  forms  an 
essential  part  of  the  instruction  in  all  schools,  except  those 
for  special  subjects.  The  Orie'htal  Greek  and  Protestant 
Churches  have,  as  a  rule,  their  own  common  schools,  and 
where  this  is  not  the  case,  they  have  to  send  their  children 
to  the  Catholic  schools.  The  Jews  also,  in  places  where 
they  have  no  special  schools,  are  obliged  to  send  their 
children  to  Christian  schools. 

The  vorioi:.=i  educational  institutions  may  be  arranj^ed  under  four 
classes — (1.)  Tbe  lower  or  common  schools;  (2.)  Tlio  higher  or 
middle  schools  ;  ^3.)  The  universities,  academies,  and  technical 
schools;  (4.)  The  special  schools  (for  particular  branches  of  science 
or  art).  All  children  from  6  to  12  years  of  age  are  bound  to 
attend  the  common  schools.  This  law,  however,  would  appear  to 
be  not  very  strictly  carried  out,  for  of  the  number  of  2,219,917 
children  who  ought  to  have  been  attending  the  common  schools  in 
Austria  Proper  in  186S,  the  number  given  as  actually  at  school  if 
only  1,691,349,  or  about  76  percent.  This  percentage,  moreover, 
varies  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  being  in  some,  as 
Tyrol,  Salzburg,  Moravia,  and  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  as  high 
as  98  or  100,  and  in  Styria  and  Carinthia  from  93  to  96  ;  in  others, 
as  in  Carniola,  only  56,  in  the  Maritime  District  47,  Dalmatia  28, 
Galicia  27,  Buckowiua  20.  The  proportion  for  the  whole  of  Hun- 
gary is  83  percent.,  and  it  is  higher  in  the  western  than  in  th« 
eastern  half  of  the  kingdom.  The  number  of  common  schools  in 
Austria  in  1868  was  15,054,  with  32,137  male  and  2814  female 
teachers,  12,225  of  the  former  being  ecclesiastics,  and  1036  of  thii 
latter  nuns  ;  in  Hungary  the  number  of  schools  was  over  16,000, 
and  of  teachers  23,000.  In  connection  with  many  of  these  schools 
there  are  training  institutions  for  teachers,  industrial  schools  for 
girls,  and  trade  and  agricultural  schools  for  boys.  The  middlf 
schools  are  the  gymnasia,  real-g}'mnasia,  and  real-schools.  A  com- 
plete "gymnasium  provides  for  a  course  of  eight  years'  study,  divided 
into  two  j)arts  of  four  years  each.  The  lower  course  not  only  pre- 
pares for  the  higher,  but  is  also  complete  in  itself  for  those  who  do 
not  wish  to  advance  farther.  Tho  branches  of  study  include  Latin, 
Greek,  and  n^odcm  languages,  geography,  history,  religion,  mathe- 
matics, natural  history,  physics,  writing,  drawing,  singing,  and 
gymnastics.  In  passing  from  oho  class  to  another  the  scholars 
undergo  a  very  searching  examination.  The  real  schools,  or  middle 
industrial  schools,  have  been  established  since  1843,  and  arc  designed 
to  impiirt  technical  knowledge,  and  olTord  a  suitable  training  to 
those  intending  to  follow  iiulustrinl  pur.iuit*.  They  are  divided 
into  two  courses  of  three  ycjirs  each,  a  lower  and  an  upper— the 
former  serving  nqt  only  as  a  preparation  for  the  latter,  but  forming 
also  an  iudepciidcnt  course,  lilting  for  the  lower  kinils  of  industrial 
occupations.  The  branches  taught  include  geography,  history, 
arithmetic,  mathematics,  writing,  book-keeping,  exchange,  natural 
history,  technology,  drawing,  &c.  The  re.ilgymnnsia  arcaclA59  of 
institutions   iutcruicdiate    between   these    two,    partaking  of  tho 


AlililltUTLnK    , 


A  I'  S  T  R  I  A 


iiy 


^1 


character  of  both  In  Austria  Prorer  there  were,  in  1S71,  92  gym- 
oiisia,  with  164"  leathers  (518  Uitig  eccleiiabtics)  anJ  •Jt;,102 
tcholai^  i  31  veal  gvrnna'-ia,  with  375  teachers  (06  ecclesiustios)  and 
45,290  sc'hol.irs,  dbJsSicni  schools,  with 777  teachers (91  ecclcsiuslks) 
and  15.I3-- scholars  In  Hungary  there  were  \rl  gymnnsia,  1  real- 
yoiuajiuin,  and  25  realscbuols,  having  in  all  33,000  scholars. 
.'here  are  SIX  uuiver»ilics  in  Austria  fio|ier  (Vienna,  Gratz,  Inns- 
bruck, Plague,  Cracow,  Lembergl,  and  one  in  Hungary  (Pesth), 
»ith,  in  all.  707  professors  aud  10,900  students.  Each  university 
(eicei't  Leniberg,  which  has  no  medical  faculty)  has  faculties  for 
Roman  Catholic  theology,  law  and  political  economy,  medicine 
and  surgery,  and  philosophy.  The  theological  and  law  course* 
occupy  four  years  each,  the  medical  live,  and  the  philosof.hical 
three.  Of  the  students.  40  per  cent,  were  at  the  university  of 
Vienna,  18  at  Pesth,  16  at  Fr.igue.  ID  at  Leniberg,  and  64  at  Gralz. 
Of  the  S532  students  attending  the  six  Austrian  universities,  1SS8 
were  receiving  free  instruction  and  924  were  stipendists,  and  in  addi- 
tion to  this,  6S2  were  paving  only  half  fees.  The  technical  high 
schools  or  acideinies  hjvi  for  their  object  the  imparting  of  a  hi^h 
scientific  education.  The  students  geneially  enter  them  from  the 
upr>er  real-schools,  and  the  complete  technical  course  extends  over 
tive  years.  There  are  eight  of  these  institutions  in  Austria  Proper, 
Laving  in  all  284  professors  aud  teachers,  and  3179  scholars,  of 
whom  1501  wcrf  receiving  free  instruction,  and  231  were  sttpendisls. 
Tlie  principal  of  these  is  the  Polytechnic  institution  in  Vienna,  which 
has  79  professors  aud  teachers,  and  782  scholais  Among  the 
special  educational  institutions  may  be  mentioned  about  seventy 
theological  seminaries  connected  with  the  Catholic  Church,  aud  a 
number  of  similar  institutions  connected  with  the  Eastern  Greek 
and  Protestant  Churches;  a  rabbinical  school  (in  Presburg);  acade- 
mies foi  law,  mining,  navigation,  commerce,  agriculture,  and  the 
management  of  forests;  normal  and  military  schools;  schools  for 
•urgery  and  midwifery;  u-terinaiy  schools,  &.c.  There  are  also  a 
Dumber  of  private  schoob  of  various  kinds,  schools  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb  and  blind,  orphan  institutions,  ic.  In  connection  with  the 
universities  and  many  of  the  higher  educational  institutions  are  to 
be  found  libraries,  museums  of  natural  history  and  antiquities, 
botanic  gardens,  observatories,  chemical  laboratories,  ic.  There 
also  exist  numerous  learned  and  scientific  societies.  The  intellectual 
P'-.gress  of  Austria  is,  of  late  years,  particularly  manifest  in  the  de- 
parfnieiits  of  law,  medicine,  natural  science,  history,  and  Oriental 

languages.  j  -  ■       ,  t 

'induitriei  'Ihe  majority  of  the  people  of  Austria  are  en^-aged  in  agricultural 
pursuits  or  in  connection  with  the  forests,  the  pioi>ortion  varying 
111  ditlereut  parts  from  50  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population. 
The  proportion  of  those  engaged  in  trade  or  manufacture  vanes, 
amounting  to  30  per  cent,  in  Lower  Austria,  24  in  Bohemia,  22  in 
Moravia  and  Silesia,  19  in  Upper  Austria,  14  in  Tyrol.  13  in  Salz- 
burg, 1 1  in  Carinthia,  9  in  Carniola,  5  in  Buckowiua,  and  4  in  Calicia 
and  Dalmalia.  In  Dalmatia  about  8  pec  cent,  of  the  people  are 
employed  in  navigation  and  the  tisheries, 
AiiTKul-  The'  productive  land  of  Austria  Proper  is  estimated  at  89  6  per 

tar.  cent,  of  iU  superficial  area,  and  that  of  Hungry  at  84  4— making 

66  9  per  cent,  of  the  whole  country.     Farther,  the  arable  land  in 
Austria  forms  316  per  cent.,  the  vineyards  07,  gardens  and  mea- 
Jowa  II  7,  pasturage  14  7,  and  foresU  30  9.     In  like  manner,  in 
Hungary  the  arable  land  forma  30  6  [wr  cent.,  vineyards  1  2,  gar- 
dens and  meadows  12  8,  pasturage  13  2,  and  forests  266.    The  prin- 
cipal product  of  the  arable  land  is  grain,  of  which  the  annual  yield 
IS  over  400,000,000  bushels.     Of  this  about  one-hfth  is  wheat,  one- 
fourth  rye,' one-fourth  oats,  one'scvcnth  maije,  one-seventh  barley, 
and    the    rest  buck-wheat  and   millet.      The  priiicii>al  grainpro- 
ducin"  districts  arc  Hungary,  Bohemia,  Gahcia,  Moravia,  and  Lower 
and    tipper    Austria.       In    agriculture     Austria     is    still    behind 
ni.iny  ot'ier  countries,   but  great  improvements  have  of  late  years 
Uken  place.     Flax,   hemp,  and  beet  are  chiefly  found  in  Silesia, 
Moravia,  Bohemia,  and  Hungary;  hops  in  Bohemia,  and  tobacco 
(which  is  a  state  monopoly)  only  in  Hungary,  Galicia,  and  Tyrol. 
Among  the  otherproducts  maybe  mentioned  pease,  beans,  potatoes, 
"*turniiis,   rape  seed,  cabbages,  ic.     Though  the  vineyards  are  not 
very  extensive,  a  considerable  quantity  of  wine  is  produced,  and 
•ouie  of  the  Hungarian  wines.  asTok.iy,  are  justly  Celebrated.     'Ihe 
annual  yield  of  wine  is  about  375.000,000  gallons,  of  which  72  per 
cent,  is  from  Hungary  and  the  neighbouring  districts,  64  from  Lower 
Austria,  6  from  Southern  Tyrol,  44  from  Styria.  4  from  Dalmatia. 
34  from  Moravia,  and  2  from  the  Maritime  District.     The  principal 
girden  products  arc  fruit  and  kitchen  vegetables.     The  best  fiuit 
districts  arc   Moravia,   Transylvania,   Hungary,   Bohemia,    Upper 
Austria,  and  Styria.     Certain  districts  are  distinguished  for  parti 


cular  kinds  of  fruit,  as  Tyrol  for  apples,  Hungary  for  melons,  Dal- 
matia for  figs,  pomegranates,  olives,  ic.  In  the  south  of  Dalmatia 
the  palm  glows  in  the  open  air,  but  bears  no  fruit.  The  chestnut, 
«live,  and  mulberry  trees  are  common  in  the  south — the  olive 
chivtly  in  Dalmatia,  the  &Iaritime  District,  and  Southern  Tyrol;  the 
tnulbeiry  tree  in  Southern  Tyrol,  the  south  of  Hungary.  Slavonia, 
«nd  Styria.  The  forests  occupy  nearly  one-third  of  the  produc- 
t,vc  ajca  of  the  countr).  and  tover  CG,60U  English  square  miles. 


They  are  mivh  mure  extensive  in  the  eaalcrn  than  in  llie  westers 
half  of  the  country,  the  relative  proportions  being  62  per  cent  in 
the  former,  and  33  in  the  latter.  '1  hey  are  found  particul.iriy  in 
the  region  of  the  Carpathians,  and  especially  in  Galicia  and  Bucko- 
wina-  The  .Alpine  regions  are  gener-illy  well  wooded,  as  is  also  the 
country  of  the  Sudetes.  Thi-  forests  are  chiclly  of  oak,  pine,  beech, 
ash,  elm,  and  the  like,  and  are  estimated  to  yield  annually  over 
27,000,000  cords  of  building  wood  and  hrewoud 

Austria  is  distiaguielied  lor  the  number  and  superiority  of  ita 
horses,  for  the  improvement  of  which  numerous  studs  exist  over  tli« 
country.  The  breeding  of  horses  is  more  or  less  extensively  carried 
on  in  all  thi- crown-lands,  but  more  especially  in  Hungary.  Transyl- 
vania, Buckowina,  Galicia,  Styria,  Bohemia,  Moraria,  and  Upper 
and  Lower  Austria.  The  total  number  of  horses  in  the  countrv  in 
IS'Owas  3,525,842,  ofwhich  2,15S,bl9Kereiu  Hungary.  AUkinds 
of  horses  are  represented,  from  the  heaviest  to  the  lightest,  from  the 
largest  to  the  smallest.  The  most  beautiful  horses  are  found  in 
Transylvania  and  Buckowina,  the  largest  and  strongesi  in  Salzburg. 
The  horses  of  Styiia,  Carinthia,  Northern  Tyrol,  and  Upper  Austria 
are  also  famous.  In  Dalmatia,  the  Maritime  District,  and  Southern 
Tyrol,  horses  are  less  numerous,  and  mules  aud  a-sses  in  a  great 
measure  Uke  tlieir  place  Of  the  13,891  mules  in  the  coiuitry.  45  ptr 
cent  were  in  Dalmatia,  and  30  per  cent,  in  the  Maritime  District 
and  Southcin  Tyrol ;  and  of  the  61.831  asses,  28  percent  were  in 
the  funner  and  21  in  the  latter.  The  Hungarian  crown  lands  con- 
tained 2266  mules  aud  30, 4S2  asses. 

Austria  cannot  be  said  to  bo  remarkable  as  a  cattle-rearing  coen 
try.  Indeed,  except  in  certain  districts,  particularly  among  the 
Alps,  it  must  be  considered  to  be  much  behind  in  (his  branch  of 
industry.  The  finest  cattle  are  to  be  found  in  the  Alpine  regioni , 
in  other  paru  the  breeds  are  generally  very  inferior.  The  Hun- 
garian crowu-hinds,  however,  have  of  late  years  been  improving  iu 
this  respect.  The  country  numbered  12,704,405  head  of  cattle  in 
1870,  ol^  which  6,279,193  were  in  Hungary.  2,070,572  iu  Galicia. 
aud  1,602,015  in  Bohemia.  The  cattle  of  the  eastern  half  of  th« 
country  considerably  outnumbered  those  of  tlie  western  ;  but  in 
quality  tiie  latter  were  far  superior  to  the  former.  In  Hungary  aud 
Transylvania  there  are  about  72,000  buffaloes.  The  rearing  of  sheef 
receives  a  large  share  of  attention,  and  is  carried  on  to  a  consider- 
able extent  in  all  the  crown  lauds,  and  in  some  very  extensively 
.Much  has  been  done  of  late  years  in  the  way  of  improving  tit 
breeds,  more  particularly  in  Moravia,  Silesia,  Bohemia,  Upper  anil 
Lower  Austria,  and  Hungary.  The  main  obje-it  has  beeu  the  iiu 
provemeut  of  the  wool,  and  with  this  view  the  mexino  and  othei 
fine-wooled  breeds  have  been  introduced.  Some  attention,  how. 
ever,  is  also  given  to  the  fattening  properties.  For  mutton,  th« 
best  sheep  are  those  of  Lower  Caiinthia,  the  Maritime  District, 
Dalmatia,  and  the  Miliury  Frontier  The  sheep  are  frequently 
driven  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another  for  the  sake  of  pas 
tore,  and  even  into  other  countries,  as  Lombaidy,  Turkey,  and  th< 
Danubian  Princi[>alitie3.  The  number  of  sheep  in  the  country  in 
1S70  was  20,000,000,  of  which  ;5.000,000  were  in  the  kingdom  ol 
Hungary.  The  goat,  which  has  been  called  the  poor  man's  cow,  ii 
also  to  be  found  in  all  parU  of  the  country,  but  more  particularly 
in  the  mountainous  districts  and  among  the  poorer  peasantry. 
Yhc  total  number  in  the  country  in  1870  was  1,552.000,  of  which 
573,000  Were  in  Hungary  Dalmatia,  however,  is  the  great  coun- 
try of  the  goats,  where  they  number  280,656,  after  which  follow 
Bohemia  with  191,273,  and  Tyrol  with  137,693  The  number  ol 
swine  was  6,9s4,752,  of  which  4,443,'279  were  in  Hungary  They 
are  naturally  most -numerous  in  those  crown  lands  which  contain 
extensive  oak  and  lieech  fosests,  ur  which  have  many  distilleries. 
Heuee  they  are  mostly  found  in  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Uio  Mill 
tary  Frontier,  Galicia,  Styria,  and  Bohemia 

Bees  are  extensively  kept,  particulariy  in  the  crown-hinds  ol 
Lower  Austria,  Hungary,  Calicia,  and  Transylvania.  There  were 
in  1870  15,300,000  beehives  in  the  country,  yielding  7,750,000  Ih 
of  honey  ind  340,000  lb  of  wax.  The  silkworm  is  cultivated  in 
ceruin  parts  of  the  southern  districts,  particulariy  in  Southern 
Tyrol,  which  yields  2,200,000  lb  of  cocoons,  being  nearly  double 
that  of  all  the  rest  of  the  country  put  together.  The  rivers  and 
lakes  in  general  abound  with  fish,  which  are  also  plentiful  along 
the  coast.  Ill  Dalmatia,  in  particular,  fishing  constitutes  an  im- 
portant branch  of  industry,  affording  employment  to  many  of  tha 
population.  Leeches  i.re  common  in  the  swamps,  and  form  a  con- 
siderable article  of  ex|iort.  The  average  annual  value  of  the  pro- 
•ducc  of  the  land  and  forests,  including  the  cattle,  and  hunting  and 
fishing,  is  estimated  at  1212,000,000.  The  value  of  the  real  pro- 
perty, including  llic  cattle  and  agricultural  implemenU,  is  given  al 
1:78-2,000,000.  ■  1       t  I 

In  the  extent  and  variety  of  iU  mineral  resources  Austria  rankj  »jter«l* 
among  the  first  countries  of  Europe.  Besides  the  noble  metals,  gold 
and  silver,  it  abounds  in  ores  of  more  or  less  richness  of  iron,  cop- 
per, lead,  and  tin  ;  while  in  less  abundance  are  found  zinc,  anti- 
monv,  arsenic,  cobalt,  nickel,  manganese,  bismuth,  chiomiunj, 
ufan'iiini,  tellurium,  sulphur,  giaphite,  asphalt,  rock-salt,  coal, 
and  i*truleum.     Theie  arc  also  marble,  roofing  slate,  gypsum,  porce- 


120 


AUSTRIA 


[MANUt'AOTUilES.  ^ 


.aia  earth,  potter's  clay,  and  precious  stones.  The  crown-lands 
in  which  milling  operations  are  chiefly  carried  on  are  Styna  (iron 
and  coal),  Cannthia  (lead  and  iron),  Carmola  (quicksilver),  Hun- 
gary (gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  and  coal),  'fransylvania  (gold  and 
silver),  Salzburc  (iron),  Cohetnia  (silver,  bad,  iron,  and  ccal),  Mo- 
ravia (iron  ana  coal),  Galicia  (salt).  The  chief  places  where  gold 
Q.u(i  silver  ores  are  found  are — (1.)  at  Zalathna  in  Transylvania,  on 
the  southern  rangg  of  the  Behar  Mountains,  where  dttiuents  of  the 
Koros  and  Maros  take  their  rise,  in  which,  as  well  as  in  the  Theiss 
and  the  Danube,  gold  is  also  found  ;  (2.)  The  district,  of  Schenmitz 
and  Kremnitz  in  Hungary  ;  /3.}  Pribram  and  Joachimsthal  in  Bo- 
hemia. Nearly  3,000,000  o't.  of  gold  and  silver  ores  is  obtained 
annually,  from  w^iich  64,291  oz.  of  gold  and  1,476,000  02.  of  silver 
are  extracted  Of  the  gold  54  per  cent,  is  obtained  in  Transyl- 
vania, and  44  m  Hungary  ;  and  of  the  silver  ore,  65  per  cent,  is 
raised  in  Hungary,  27  in  Bohemia,  and  oj  in  Transylvania.  Iron 
IS  found  more  or  less  in  all  the  crown-lan-is  except  Upper  Austria, 
the  Maritime  District,  and  Dalmatia  ;  but  it  is  most  plentiful  and 
best  in  quality  in  Styria  and  Caiinthia.  The  amount  of  raw  and 
cast  iron  annually  obtained  from  the  ore  raised  in  the  country  is 
7,600,000  cwt.,  of  which  28  per  cent,  is  from  Styria,  15  from 
Cannthia,  12^  from  Bohemia,  II4  from  Moravia,  16  from  Upper 
Hungary,  6^  from  other  parts  of  the  kingdom  of  Himgary,  and  the 
rcmaind«r  fruin  the  other  crown-lands.  The  principal  place  where 
copper  is  obtained  is  the  neighbourhood  of  Scbmolnitz  in  Hungary. 
The  quantity  for  the  whole  country  amounts  to  1,500,000  cwt.  of 
ore,  from  which  65,000  cwt.  of  pure  metal  is  obtained.  Of  this, 
80  per  cent,  is  from  Upper  Hungary,  6  from  Tyrol,  and  4  from 
Buckowina  Carinthia  is  particularly  rich  in  lead,  and  from  it  more 
than  one-half  (52  per  cent.)  of  the  entire  quantity  raised  in  the  coun- 
try is  obtained.  Bohemia  yields.  26  per  cent.,  and  Hungary  15t 
Altogether,  105,000  cwt.  of  ore,  and  114,000  c\vt.  of  pure  metal  is 
obtained.  Idria  in  Carniola  has,  after  Alaiaden  in  Spain,  the  rich- 
est quicksilver  mine  in  Europe,  producing  3900  cwt.  of  pure  metal. 
Of  the  rest,  Hungary  produces  1120  cwt.,  and^Transj'lvania  450. 
Tin  is  found  only  in  Bohemia,  which  supplies  55,000  cwt  of  ore, 
from  which  450  cwt.  of  tin  is  obtained.  Zinc  is  found  chiefly  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Ciacow,  where  146,475  cwt.  of  ore  is  raised, 
Austria  is  particularly  rich  in  salt.  In  Galicia  there  exists  a  stratum 
of  rock-salt  many  miles  in  extent,  which  is  worked  at  \Vitliczka 
and  other  places.  Similar  layers  occur  in  Hungary  (Marmaros)  and 
Transylvania  (at  Thonia).  There  ajso  exist  salt  springs  in  Galicia, 
in  Marmeroa,  and  in  Transylvania,  from  which  salt  is  largely  ex- 
tracted, as  it  is  also  to  a  considerable  extent  from  sea  water  011  the 
coast.  About  3,900,000  cwt.  of  rock-salt  is  annually  obtained 
from  the  mines  (of  which  22  per  cent  is  from  Galicia,  24  from  Mar- 
maros, 34  from  Transylvania),  ttom  the  various  salt  springs  about 
;;,800,000  cwt.,  and  from  the  salt-works  on  the  coast  1,400,000  cwt. 
Austria  is  possessed  of  almost  inexhaustible  stores  of  coal,  and  the 
amount  annually  raised  exceeds  6,000,000  tons,  of  which  48  percent. 
13  in  Bohemia,  12  in  Hungary,  11  in  Silesia,  10  in  Styria,  6A  in  Mo- 
ravia, 2i  in  Galicia,  and  I4  in  Carniola.  Teat  and  clay  are  abundant 
in  certain  parts  of  the  country  ;  porceljjin  earth  is  found  in  Bohemia 
and  Moravia;  white,  red,  black,  and  variously-coloured  marbles, 
exist  in  the  Alps,  particularly  in  Tyrol  and  Salzburg;  quartz,  felspar, 
heavy  spar,  rock-crystal,  asbestos,  kc,  are  found  in  various  parts; 
and  among  prcLrious  stones  may  be  specially  mentioned  the  Hun- 
garian opals  and  the  Bohemian  garnets.  The  number  of. persons 
employed  in  the  various  mines  in  Austria  Proper  in  18/0  was  75,451, 
and  in  the  smelting  and  casting  works,  13,857.  In  .-edJition  to 
these,  9818  persons  were  employed  in  the  salt-mines  and  other  salt- 
works. In  Hungary  50,143  persons  «v'erc  employed  in  mining  and 
smelting.  The  total  annual  value  of  the  raw  materifils  obt.iiiied 
from  tho  mines  is  estimated  at  over  £0,000,000,  of  which  nearly 
one-half  is  of  coal,  a  fifth  of  iio:i,  an  eighth  of  gold  and  silver,  and 
a  tenth  of  rock-salt  -  •    ■ 

The  manufactures  of  Austria  have  made  great  process  during 
the  last  twenty  years,  and  now  some  of  them  are  extensively  carried 
on.  They  include  cotton,  flax,  hemp,  woollen  and  sillt  stuiis ;  gold, 
silver,  iron,  lead,  copper,  tin,  and  zinc  articles  ;  Icnthcr,  paper, 
beer,  brandy,  and  augar  ;  porcelain  and  earthenware  ;  chemical 
stutfs  ;  scientific  and  musical  instruments,  &c.  The  manufactures 
are  principally  carried  on  in  the  western  crown-lands,  and  more 
/rtrticulaily  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Lower  Austria.  In 
Galicia  and  the  Hungarian  crown-luuds  the  manufactures  are  cora- 
"parativcly  neglected.  The  principal  scats  of  tho  cotton,  woollen, 
find  l^ncn  manufactures  are  in  Mora\*ia,'  Silesia,  Bohemia,  and 
Vienna;  of  iron  and  steel  wares  in  Styria  and  Carinthia  ;  iron  in 
Upper  Austria  ;  cnst-iron  gooda  in  Moravia,  Styria,  Carinthia,  and 
Bohemia  ;  eilk  in  Vienna  ;  glass  and  porcelain  w  Bohemia  ;  l«et- 
root  sugar  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  ;  leather  in  Bohemia,  Moravia, 
Galicia,  and  Hungary;  beer  in  Bohemia  and  Lower  Austria;  brandy 
in  Galicia,  Moravia,  and  Bohemia;  cabinet  wares  and  musical  in- 
ttruments  in  Vienna  and  Prague;  and  scientific  and  surgical  in- 
struments in  Vienna, 

The  cotton  mnnufactnrc  has  made  very  rapid  progress,  and  is  now 
one  of  the  moat  cxtcnttirc  and  flourishing  in  the  country.     In  I80I 


the  import  of  cotton  was  101,000  cwt,  and  tho  export  175  ;  inlJ<5(5 
tlie  fonuer  had  risen  to  522,000,  and  the  latter  to  1270  ;  and  in 
1670  the  former  was  1,100,000,  and  the  latter  36,000  cwt  There 
are  172  spinning  factories,  with  1,750,000  spindles,  in  the-country,' 
almost  all  situated  in  Lower  Austria,  BohL-mia,  and  Vorarlberg. 
Tiiere  are  46  factories,  with  550,000  spindles,  in  Lower  Austria^ 
between  the  Vienna  Forest  and  the  Leitha,  and  beside  thera  are  7 
dyeing  and  printing  works.  A  principal  seat  of  the  cotton  manu- 
facture is  in  Northern  Bohemia,  from  the  Eger  to  Keichenberg, 
where  there  are  no  fewer  than  SO  spinning  factories  and  25  printing 
works.  Besides  these,  there  are  7  factories  at  Prague  and  1  ia 
Southern  Bohemia.  In  Vorarlberg  there  are  21  factories,  with 
200,000  spiudlcs  ;  and  iu  Upper  Austria  7  factories  and  6  printing 
works. 

The/nx  and  kemp  manufacture  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  coun- 
try, and  was  long  the  most  important  In  oonseqnence,  however, 
of  the  rapid  advancement  of  the  cotton  manufacture  it  is  no 
longer  of  tbe  same  importance  as  formerly  ;  yet  it  still  alTords  em- 
ployment to  a  great  number  o£  persons,  and  is  very  generally  ex- 
tended over  the  country.  It  is  principally  carried  on  as  a  domestic 
branch  of  industry,  and  in  country  districts  is  frequently  engaged  in 
OS  a  secondary  pursuit  by  those  employed  in  agricultural  latKJurs. 
The  flax  is  mostly  spun  by  hand,  and  the  weaving  confined  to  the 
commoner  kinds  of  linen,  being  chiefly  intended  for  home  use.  In 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Upper  Austria,  however,  this 
manufacture  is  more  extensively  carried  on  than  in  other  parts. 
There  are  here  a  number  of  factories  for  the  spinning  of  flax,  ajd 
the  finer  kinds  of  linen  are  manufactured. 

The  u-oollen  manufacture  is  also  an  old  established  branch  of 
industry,  and  ia  actively  carried  on.  It  is  estimated  that  about 
600,000  ci^'t  of  wool  is  annually  spun  ;  and  there  are  about  230 
spinning  factories,  with  upwards  of  700,000  spindles.  The  great 
seats  of  the  woollen  manufacture  are  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Silesia, 
and  Upper  Austria.  In  Bohemia  its  great  seat  is  in  and  around 
Reicbenberg,  where  the  annual  value  of  the  goods  produced  is  about 
£1,800,000.  In  Moravia  the  principal  seats  are  lirunn  (for  coarse, 
and  also  the  finest  sorts  of  cloth),  iS'amiescht,  and  Iglau.  In  these- 
two  croftTi-lauds  is  made  half  of  tho  entire  quantity  of  woollen 
goods  produced  in  the  country.  The  principal  ol  tlie  other  seats  are 
the  districts  Bielitz  in  Silesia,  Vienna  in  Lower  Austria,  and 
Viktring  in  Carinthia  (for  fine  goods).  Vienna  is  also  distinguished 
for  its  manufacture  of  shawls.  The  coarser  kinds  of  woollen  goods 
are  generally  manufactured  over  the  country,  and  principally  in  the 
people's  houses,  aud  for  home  use. 

'1  he  manufacture  of  silk  stuffs  is  principally  carried  on  in  Vienna, 
and  to  a  small  extent  in  the  north  of  Bohemia  and  in  the  Maritime 
District.  The  spinning  of  silk  has  its  principal  scat  in  Southern 
Tyrol,  where  about  550.000  lb  are  spun  annually,  besides  whicU 
aljout  1,700,000  lb  aie  annually  brought  from  other  countries. 

The  iron  and  steel  manufactures  form  one  of  the  moyt  imj-urtant 
branches  of  industry,  aud  aflbrd  employment  to  a  great  number  of 
persons.  They  are  more  or  less  extensively  carried  on  in  all  the 
crown-lands,  except  the  Maritime  District,  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  and 
Slavonic;  but  their  principal  seats  are  in  Lower  and  Upi.er  Austria, 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  Styria,  and  Carinthia.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portsnt  of  these  seats  is  Steier  and  its  neighbourhood,  in  Upper 
Austria,  where  there  are  about  700  establishments,  pi'oducing" 
goods — chicHy  cutlery,  scythes,  sickles,  firearms,  &c. — to  the  value 
of  £400,000  annually.  In  Styria  there  are  large  ironworks  at 
Miiria-Zell  and  Neuberg ;  and  in  Carinthia,  at  Prevuli,  Buch- 
scheiden,  and  Perlach.  There  are  also  large  ironworks  in  Lower 
Austria,  Carniola,  Tyrol,  Bohemia,  and  Moravia.  Tlie  making  of 
steam  engines  and  other  kinds  of  machinery  is  largely  carried  on  in 
and  about  Vienna,  where  there  are  26  establishments  for  this  pur- 
pose. There  are  similar  establishments  in  other  purtj  of  Lower 
Austria,  in  Styria,  Bohemia,  Silesia,  and  Buckowina.  The  Lloyds* 
Company  has  also  large  workohops  at  Trieste.  About  1.100,000  cwt 
of  iron  are  annually  usefl  in  the  making  of  maclnnery.  and  about 
0,600,000  cwts.  in  the  other  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  among 
which  niiiy  be  m.entioned  cutlery,  firearms,  fiks.  wire,  nails,  tin- 
plate,  steel  pens,  needles,  i:c. 

The  principal  roriufr- works  areat  Brixleggand  other  places  in  Tyrol, 
and  in  Galicia,  Buckowina,  and  Hungary.  The  quantity  of  metal 
employed  is  ahout  -10,000  cwt.,  and  the  value  of  the  articles  annually 
produced  is  £250, OUO.  In  tho  Uad-v^ovks  tho  quantity  of  metal 
enipUiyed  is  65,000  cwt,  and  the  annual  volue  of* the  goods  pro- 
duced, £100,000.  Ti7i  is  manufactured  (principally  in  Bohemia) 
to  the  annual  value  of  £50,000,  and  zinc  to  that  of  £2500.  The 
prr-cious  metals,  rjold  and  silver,  ore  principally  worked  in  the 
larger  towns,  particularly  Vienna  and  Prague,  and  the  value  of  the 
■articles  annually  produced  is  about  £1,700,000.  In  addition  to 
this  a  considerable  amount  of  gold  and  silver  is  annually  taken  up 
by  the  mints.  The  mixed  metals  are  also  made  ond  manufactured  to  a 
considerable  extent,  as  brass,  btdl  metal,  gun  metal,  pinchbeck,  kc. 

The  glass  manufacture  has  its  greatest  development  in  Bohemia, 
wh"-i  there  are  not  only  thf?  greatest  numl'LT  of  works  (35  io 
Nn'iS  Tu  and  85  iu  Southern  Eoliemia},  but  the  wares  oro  also  i>^ 


CuMMERCIi.l 


A  U  S  T  K  I  A 


1-21 


♦cry  superior  quality.  Tliiir  annual  value  is  about  £1,000,000. 
Kxcept  in  Sfjria  and  Morovin  there  is  Utile  glass  made  in  other 
jurts  of  the  coantry,  ani  th:it  only  of  the  commoner  sorts.  The 
manufacture  of  mirrors  is  also  exUnsively  carried  on  in  Boliemia  and 
pume  other  p.irts.  Bohemia  and  Moravia  are  likewise  distinguished 
for  their  earthen  and  porcelain  wares.'  The  preparation  ot chemical 
fluffs  has  been  of  late  years  greatly  extended,  and  is  now  actively 
Mrried  on.  Sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids  are  largely  made  in 
Kuhcniia,  Lower  Austria,  and  Silesia  ;  pharmaceutical  preparations 
and  poir.ioios  are  made  cliiclly  in  Vienna,  and  dye-stulFs  m  Lower 
Austria  and  Bohemia.  The  m.anufacture  of  wooden  articlesis  wide- 
»pread  ovor  the  country,  and  nITorJs  employment  to  a  great  number 
•>f  persons.  The  smaller  articles,  jjarticularly  children's  toys,  are 
Urj;i;ly  made  by  the  peasantry  in  the  mountainous  and  rural  dis- 
truts,  particularly  in  Tyrol,  Salzburg,  Upper  Austrir  and  Bohemia. 
Furniture,  wajjgous,  aud  carriages  are  made  in  Vienna  ami  other 
large  towns.  There  arc  also  several  establishments  for  the  manu-. 
faeture  of  railway  carriages  in  Vienna  and  Prague. 

The  manufacture  of  mathem.atical,  optical,  and  surgical  iiistni- 
ments,  end  of  physical  and  chemical  apparatus,  has  of  late  years 
risen  rapidl;  'nto  importance,  particularly  iu  Vienna  and  Plague, 
ond  now  these  are  to  be  found  among  the  exports  to  other  countries. 
Austria  is  also  distinguished  for  the  manufacture  of  musical  instru- 
ments, particularly  piauos  and  organs,  but  also  for  other  stringed  and 
wmd  instruments.  Clock  or  watch  making  is  not  very  extensively 
carried  on. 

The  leather  nianufactnrc  fornjs  an  impoitant  branch  of  industry, 
the  value  of  the  goods  annually  produced  being  estimated  at  not  less 
than  X10,000,000  It  is  principally  carried  on  in  Lower  Austria, 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  Galicia,  Transylvania,  and  Hungary.  Vienna 
aiid  Prigue  are  Die  great  centres  of  the  boot  and  shoe  trade,  and  the 
cloves  made  in  thcio  towns  are  considered  little  inferior  to  those  of 
Vrani».  Saddlery  is  also  largely  carried  on  in  these  towns,  and  in 
Posth. 

yaper-making  has  of  late  made  considerable  progress  in  Austria. 
There  are  70  paper  machines  and  193  paper  mills  in  oi>cration,  20 
of  the  former  and  100  of  the  latter  being  in  Bohemia.  The  rest  are 
mostly  in  Lower  Austria,  Styria,  and  Finnic.  Painting,  lithogiaph- 
ing,  e'ngravi.ig,  and  map  making,  are  actively  carried  on  in  Vienna 
«i:'j  somi  of  tne  other  large  towns.  There  are  44  printing  and  78 
lithographic  establishmeuta  in  Vienna  alone.    • 

Austria  is  noted  for  its  beer,  particularly  that  of  Vienna  and 
Bohemia.  There  are  about  3200  breweries  in  the  country,  of  which 
more  than  1000  are  in  Bohemia.  The  largest  establishments,  how- 
ever, are  in  Lower  Austria,  in  tho  neighbourhood  of  Vienna.  The 
annual  quantity  of  beer  made  is  estimated  at  a!>out  186,000,000 
j  Jlons.  Brandy  is  made  largely  in  Hungary,  Galieia,  and  BucVo- 
Aina,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Lower  Austria, 
Kosoglio,  maraschino,  and  other  liqueurs,  are  made  in  Dalmatiaand 
il'iravia. 

The  manufa'jture  of  sugar  from  beet-root  is  in  a  vcrj'  flourishing 
itatc,  and  is  lapidly  extending  In  1857  there  were  in  Austria 
Pi"per  91  suj;3r-wnrks,  consuming  8,300,000  cwt.  of  beet,  which 
.(.'i  luntswerc  in  1S70  raised  to  190  and  24,834,646  respectively.  In 
.B-  i.emia  alone  there  were  126  works,  consuming  15,279,000  cwt.  of 
but.  Of  the  other  works,  Moravia  pos.sessed  45,  Silesia  10,  Lower 
A;stTia  6,  Galicia  5.  'i'his  manufacture  is  alsc  carried  on  to  some 
e-tent  in  Hungary  and  Transylvania. 

The  m.mufa:turc  as  well  as  the  growtli  of  tobacco  is  a  govern- 
ment monopoly.  Tliere  are  22  establishments  for  the  manufactnie 
of  tobacco  and  cigars,  employing  about  20,000  workpcoiile.  Of 
thi.so  there  arc  5  in  Lower  Austria,  3  in  Galicia,  2  in  Moravia,  2  in 
Tyrol,  and  4  in  IIungai7.  The  largest  arc  those  of  JIainburg  in 
lyowcr  Austria  (where  about  one-sixth  of  the  whole  is  manufactured^, 
Furstcnfild  in  Styria,  aud  Sedler  in  Bohemi.v  About  70,000,000  lb 
of  tobacco  are  mannfactored  autiually. 

Tho  annual  value  of  the  industrial  products  of  Austria  is  esti- 
mated at  not  losi  than  Jt'lM,000,0M,  of  which  33  per  cent,  falls  to 
the  eastern,  and  07  per  cent,  to  the  western  half  of  the  country. 
Among  the  crown-lands,  13  per  cent,  belongs  to  Bohemia  alone,  15 
to  Lower  Austria,  15  to  Hungary,  6  to  Transylvania  and  the  other 
Hungarian  crown-lands,  11  to  Galicia  and  Euckowina,  10  to 
.  Moravia,  6  to  Tyrol,  4  lo  Styria,  and  4  to  Upper  Austria. 

Austria  is  not  favourably  situated  for  commerce  on  account  of  its 
inland  position,  its  small  extent  of  sea-coast,  and  the  mountainous 
character  of  much  of  its  surface.  Its  trade  was  also  formerly  very 
much  hampered  Ly  high  duties,  and  restriction^  of  various  kinds. 
'I'hesp,  however,  have  now  been  very  much  mollified  or  removed, 
and  its  trade  has  in  consequence  rapiiily  improved.  Much  has  been 
done,  too,  in  the  way  of  m-aking  and  improving  tho  roads,  opening 
mountain  passes,  constructing  railways,  and  establishing  lines  of 
steamera.  In  1874  there  were  9530  miles  cf  railway  in  operation, 
(if  which  5755  were  in  Austria  and  3775  in  Hungary.  Besides 
these  there  were  about  2000  miles  in  course  of  consiruction.  There 
uro  also  59,770  miles  of  highways,  of  which  70  per  cent,  are  in 
.Austria  and  30  in  Hungary.  Bohemia,  in  particular,  is  distinguished 
fur  vlie  number  and-f.\cellencc  of  its  roads.     The  rivcr  Danube  is 


navig.iblo  for  steamers  for  its  entire  icngth  in  the  country — from 
Passau  to  Orsova.  Many  of  its  affluents  arc  also  narigable  foi  • 
considerable  length,  particularly  the  Theiss,  Drave,  and  Save.  The 
Danube  Steam  Company  possesses  155  steamers,  of  13,946  horse- 
power, and  495  towed  boats.  There  are  also  steamers  on  a  number 
of  tho  larger  lakes.  Altogether,  Austria  possesses_4240  miks  of 
navigable  river  and  canal  communication,  of  which  the  greater 
part  (60  per  cent.)  is  in  Hungary. 

The  principal  seaports  of  Austria  are  Trieste  and  Fiume,  at  tli« 
he.id  of  the  Adriatic,  iht  former  in  the  Maritime  crown-land,  tho 
latter  iu  tnat  of  Croatia.  The  number  cf  vessels  that  entered  th« 
IHjrt  of  Trieste  in  1870  was— sailing  vessels,  laden,  6332;  in  killast, 
S93  ;  total  tonnage,  407,606;  value  of  imports,  £4,673,170: 
steamers,  l.aden,  924  ;  in  balKist,  900;  total  tonnage,  552,497; 
value  of  imports,  £12,580,950.  The  number  of  vessels  that  loft 
was— sailing  vessels,  laden,  4409;  in  ballast,  1794  ;  total  tonnage, 
411,601  ;  value  of  exports,  £3,325,400  :  steamers,  laden,  920  ;  la 
ballast,  900;  total  tonnage,  571,175;  value  of  exports,  £0, 716,940. 
Trieste  is  the  scat  o|  the  Austrian  Lloyds' Company,  wLieh  trades 
principally  with  the  eastern  ports  of  the  Mediterranean,  Oalaci, 
Sinope,  Smyrna,  lieirout,  Alexandria,  &c.  They  own  OS  steam 
vessels.  The  number  of  vcuscls  that  entered  the  port  of  Fiume  in 
1370  w.as— sailing  vessels,  laden,  1530  ;  in  ballast,  270  ;  total  ton- 
iiBOT,  77,499;  value  of  imports,  £519,820  :  steamers,  laden,  229  ; 
in  ballast,  17;  total  tonnage,  52,671  ;  value  of  imports,  £174,720. 
The  number  of  vessels  that  left  was— sailing  vessels,  laden,  1160  ; 
iu  ballast,  622  ;  total  tonnage,  33,781 ;  value  of  exports,  £366,790 : 
steamers,  laden,  245;  in  ballast,  1  ;  total  tonnage,  52,671  ;  value 
of  exiKirts,  £94,340. 

The  commerciel  navy  of  Austria  in  1870  comprised  83  steam 
vessels,  of  47,242  tons  burden,  having  2352  men  ;  566  large  sailing 
vessels,  trading  with  foreign  countries,  of  255,930  tons  burilen, 
having  5939  men;  and  2487  coasting  vessels,  of  555,313  tona 
burden,  having  7588  men.  Besides  these,  there  were  4717  smallrr 
vessels,  with  14,475  tons  and  12,305  men,  employed  as  lighters,  iu 
fishing,  &C.  The  number  of  trading  vcsselj  that  entered  and  left  the 
various  ports  in  1870  was — entered,  sailing  vessels,  Austrian,  laden. 
l/,604  (tonnage,  486,745);  in  ballast,  9727  (tonnage,  270,867): 
foreign,  laden,  4360  (tonnage,  263,942)  ;  in  ballast,  2793  (tonnage, 
184,760):  steamers,  Austrian,  laden,  4964  (tonnage,  1,676,09/i)  ; 
in  ballast,  2597  (tonnage,  409,460);  foreign,  laden,  179  (tonnage, 
138,032)  ;  in  ballast,  12  (tonnage,  7847).  Left— sailing  vessels, 
Austrian,  laden,  17,204  (tonnage,  468,093)  ;  iu  ballast,  10,308 
(tonnage,  290,531);  foreign,  laden,  5705  (tonnage,  384,019);  in 
ballast,  1976  (tonnage,  103,995)  :  steamers,  Austrian,  laden,  4160 
(tonn.age,  1,403,865)  ;  in  ballast,  3397  (tonnage,  678,512)  ;  foreign, 
laden,  160  (tonnage,  143,100);  in  balla.«t,  32  (tonnage,  21,79u). 
Total  entered— Austrian  vessels,  34,855-  (tonnage,  2,843,207)  ; 
foreign,  7344  (tonnage,  594,581):  left— Austrian,  35,069  (tonnoge, 
2,641, UOI);  foicign,  7271  (tonnage,  652,904).  The  total  value  of 
the  imports  was  £16,630,150;  of  the  exports,  £1S,052,25I>— 
£7,093,180.  of  the  former,  and  £3,578,810  of  the  latter,  being  In 
foreign  vessels.  Tlie  principal  foreign  trade  is  carried  on  with 
Italy,  Oiceee,  Turkey,  England,  Holland,  Norw,'.y  and  Sweden. 
North  Germany,  Denmaik,  and  North  America.  The  number  of 
Vessels  belonging  to  the  principal  foreign  states  that  entered  ami 
left  the  various  ports  iu  1S70,  was  as  follows  : — 


1 

Entciea.                    1                       Left 

1 

Vessels 

Tonnage.  ;^C°.'.r-:i!  loesses 

Tonnage. 

Vftlue  ol 
Cargoes 

IlQllan  

3457 

383 

41 

30 

1         £ 
1SS142       I.6J3730 
31.511    1      440,140 
13.307    1      151!  940 
137.330    i  3.7.'4.810 
8.795         V34.;lt) 

7.471          JC4.8;0 

450S 
313 

Via 

"35 

301.781 
85.415 
12.455 

136. 4<;] 

8,770 
8.7S3 

1.53'.'  510 

cea.jno 

Turkbb 

1  BiUiih   

ftwio 

1.S37.JS0 

IlAltu 

Swedish  and) 
N'orwtgUr.  ( 

7i,»eo 

The  principal  imports,  with  their  values,  were — coffee,  £805,370; 
sugar,  £215,950  ;  tobacco,  in  leaf,  £417,670;  ditto,  manufactured, 
£J57,5'20;  wheat,  £311,500;  maize,  £331,050;  flour,  £431,810; 
olive  oil,  £77S,S90  ;  iron,  raw  ond  wrought,  £1,210,570;  raw 
cotton,  £1,855,210;  cotton  yarn,  £303,130;  cotton  goods. 
£1,375,390  ;  linen  goods,  £226,470  ;  wool,  £266,270  ;  woollen 
goods,  £25'2,900 ;  machines,  £216.010.  Tho  principal  exports 
^ere— coffee,  £336,610;  sugar,  £381,090;  manufactured  tobacco. 
£370,010;  wheat,  £244,410;  maize,  £134,980;  flour,  £933,730, 
olive  oil,  £614,640;  spiriU  of  wine,  £334,620;  barrel  staves, 
£517,520;  building  atones,  £307,040;  raw  cotton,  £;93,75ri; 
cotton  goods,  £2,030,060;  wool,  £109,490;  woollen  goods, 
£219,738;  articles  of  clothing,  £212,540;  paper,  £256,070. 

As  might  bo  expected  from  its  natural  position,  tho  overland 
foreign  trade  of  Austria  is  more  import,ant  than  its  sea  tiallic. 
While  the  latter  amounted  to  £29,682,400,  the  former  was  no  h>s 
than  £55,039,03 1  (importa,  £27,890,181;  exports,  £27,148,853)  Pi 
the  overland  trade  about  74  per  cent,  is  with  Germany,  14  with 


122 


A  U  S  T- 11  I  A 


GOVERNMENT. 


TarkcT.  6J  with  Italy,  5^  with  Russia;  and  rather  more  than  ^ 
with  Switzerland.  It  includes  colonial  goods,  agnciiltural  and 
garden  produce,  animals  and  animal  produce,  the  produce  of  the 
mines  and  raanufacturea,  chemical  products,  machines,  scientihc 
instruraents.  wine,  beer,  brandy,  &c.  Besides  these,  there  is  a  con- 
Bi<ii-rable  transit  trade  through  the  country,  chiefly  from  the  sea- 

forts  and  the  eastern  borders,  towards  the  north  and  north-west. 
I  is  Mtimated  at  about  £12.000,000 
The  internal  trade  consists  chiefly  of  the  exchange  of  the  pro- 
liicts  of  different  parts  of  the  country,  more  particularly  of  the 
A^cultural  products  of  the  east  with  the  industrial  products  of 
the  west.  Important  markets  are  held  at  tLsed  times  in  the  principal 
towns  for  the  different  kinds  of  produce.  Vienna,  as  being  the 
capital  and  the  seat  of  so  many  different  branches  of  industry,  and 
as  having  ready  means  of  communication  with  all  parts  of  the 
"ountry,  is  the  principal  seat  both  of  the  home  and  of  the  foreign 
trade,  and  the  great  resort  of  merchants  and  capitalists. 

Austria  possesses  a  number  of  banks,  the  principal  of  which  are — 
the  National  Bank,  founded  in  1816,  and  having  an  active  capital 
of  £9,000,000  ;  the  Austrian  Land-Credit  Institute,  founded  1864, 
«ctive  capital,  £960,006  ;  the  Austrian  Trade  and  Manufactures 
Credit  Institute,  founded  1855,  active  capital,  £4,000,000;  the 
Anglo- Aastrian  Bank,  founded  1863,  active  capital,  £1,704,600; 
the  Union  Bank,  founded  1870,  active  capital,  £1,200,000;  the 
Franco-Anstrian  Bank,  founded  1899,  active  capital,  £800,000  ;  the 
Lower  Austrian  Discount  Company,  founded  1853.  active  capital, 
£700,000.  The  National  Bank  is  the  only  company  authorised  to 
issue  notes.  There-  are  also  a  number  of  savings  banks  and  loan 
institutions  of  various  kinds,  as  well  as  numerous  societies  formed 
with  the  view  of  furthering  in  various  ways  industry  and  commerce. 
In  1871  there  were  3604  poet-offices  in  Austria,  and  1638  in  Hun- 
gary ;  the  number  of  private  letters  that  passed  through  the  former 
in  that  year  was  125,614,538,  and  through  the  latter,  37,363,139  ;  of 
newspapers  through  the  former,  51,780.909,  and  through  the  latter. 
21i,303,771.  There  were  also  throughout  the  country  1081  tele- 
graph stations,  and  22,636  miles  of  JUnes  transmitting  upwards  of 
1,000,000  messages  during  that  year. 

Ot'vem-  The  head  of   the  Austro-Hungarmn   monarchy  is  the 

ownL  emperor  and  king,  who  is  also  the  head  of  the  army  and 

of  the  executive.  The  succession  is  hereditary,  in  the 
order  of  primogeniture,  in  the  male  line  of  the  house  of 
Hapsburg-Lothringen,  or  Lorraine;  and  failing  this,  in 
the  female  line.  The  monarchy  comprises  two  distinct 
states — a  German  or  Cisleithan,  commonly  called  Austria, 
and  a  Magyar  or  Transleithan,  usually  termed  Hungary. 
Each  of  these  has  its  own  parliament,  ministers,  and 
government ;  While  the  army  and  navy  and  foreign  rela- 
tions are  common.  These  are  under  the  direction  of  a 
controlling  body  known  as  the  Delegations,  consisting  of 
sixty  members  for  each  state,  two-thirds  being  elected  by 
the  Lower  House,  and  one-third  by  the  tipper  House  of 
each  of  th»  parliamentary  bodies. ,..  They  usually  sit  and 
vote  in  two  chambers — one  for  Austna,  the  other  for 
Hungary  ;  but  in  the  event  of  disagreement  on  any  ques- 
tion, they  meet  together,  and  without  further  deliberation 
give  their  final  votes,  and  the  decision  thus  arrived  at  is 
binding  on  the  whole  empire."  Their  resolutions  require 
neither  the  approval  nor  the  confirmation  of  the  represen- 
tative aseembliea  by  which  they  are  chosen,  but  only 
imperial  assent.  The  executive  is  vested  in  three  departs 
ments — (1^,  A  ministry  of  foreign  affairs  ;  (2),  a  ministry 
of  war ;  and  (3),  a  ministry  of  financa  These  are  respon- 
eible  to  the  Delegations.  The  Reichsrath,  or  Parliament 
of  Austria,  consists  of  anTJpper  and  a  Lower  House.  The 
former,  the  House  of  Lords,  is  composed— {1),  of  princes 
of  the'  imperial  house  who  are  of  age  (U  in  1874);  (2), 
of  the  heads  ot^oble  houses  of  high  rank,  in  whom  the 
dignity  is  hereditary  (56) ;  (3),  of  the  archbishops  (10)  and 
of  bishops  with  tho  rank  of  princes  (7) ;  and  (4),  of  life 
members  nominated  by  the  emperor  on  account  of  dis- 
tinguished services  (102).  The  Lower  House,  or  Hou.so  of 
Representatives,,  is  composed  of  353  members,  elected  to 
represent  the  different  crown-lands  by  all  citizens  who  are 
of  age  and  possessed  of  a  small  property  qualification. 
The  emperor  annually  convokes  the  Reichsrath,  and  nomi- 
nates the  presidents  and  vice-presidents  of  each  division 
out  of   the  members.      The  business  of  tho  Reichsrath 


embraces  all  matters  of  legislation  relating  to  laws,  duties, 
and  interests,  except  such  as  are  specially  excluded  £r 
belonging  to  other  departments.  It  also  takes  up  matters 
connected  with  trade,  commerce,  and  finance,  the  post- 
office,  railways,  telegraphs,  customs,  the  mint,  raising  of 
new  loans,  imposing  of  new  taxes,  budgets,  matters  relat- 
ing to  military  service,  <tc  The  members  of  either  House 
have  the  right  to  propose  new  laws  on  matters  within 
their  province  ;  but  the  consent  of  both  Houses,  as  well  as 
the  sanction  of  the  emperor,  is  required  to  render  them 
valid.  The  executive  is  vested  in  the  president  and 
ministries  of  the  interior,  religion  and  education,  finance, 
commerce,  agriculture,  national  defence,  and  justice.  The 
ministers  form  also  the  Ministerial  Council,  which  is  pre- 
sided over  by  the  emperor  or  a  minister-president 

Jn  addition  to  the  Reichsrath,  there  are  seventeen  pro- 
vincial diets  established  in  different  districts  of  the  country 
for  the  direction  and  regulation  of  local  matters,  taxation, 
education,  rebgion,  public  works,  charitable  institutions, 
industry,  trade,  &.C.  Each  diet  ia  composed  of  the  arch- 
bishops and  bishops  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek 
Catholic  Churches,  of  the  rectors  of  the  universities,  and 
of  representatives  of  the  great  landed  estates,  of  the  towns, 
of  chambers  of  industry  and  commerce,  and  of  rural  com- 
munes. The  number  of  members  varies  according  to  the 
size  and  importance  of  the  districts — from  .20  or  30  np  ta 
100  for  Moravia,  151  for  Galicia,  and  241  for  Bohemia. 

The  Hunganan  Parliament  or  Reichstag  consists  of  an 
Upper  and  a  Lower  House, — the  former  known  as  the 
House  of  Magnates,  the  latter  as  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives. The  Upper  House,  in  1873,  consisted  of  3  pnnces 
of  theieigning  house,  having  estates  in  the  kingdom,  31 
archbishops  and  bishops  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek 
Churches,  and  381  high  officials  and  peers  of  the  king- 
dom. The  Lower  House  is  composed  of  representatives 
elected  for  three  years  by  citizens  oi"  age  who  pay  a  certain 
amount  of  direct  taxes.  The  number  of  representatives, 
in  1873,  was  444,  of  whom  334  represented  the  counties, 
rural  districts,  and  towns  of  Hungary;  75  represented 
Transylvania ;  and  35  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  The  president 
and  vice-president  of  the  House  of  Magnates  are  nominated 
by  the  king  from  among  the  members  ,  and  the  president 
and  two  vice-presidents  of  the  House  of  Representatives  ar» 
elected  by  the  members.  The  sovereign,  though  emperor  of 
Austna,  is  styled  "king"  m  all  public  documents.  The 
executive  is  vested  in  a  president  and  ministries  of  nation&l 
defence,  the  court,  finance,  interior,  religion  and  education, 
justice,  public  works,  agnculture,  industry  and  commerce, 
and  for  Croatia  and  Slavonia. 

The  revenue  and  expefnditure  are  presented  in  three  Finance 
distinct  budgets : — (1),  That  of  the  Delegations  for  the 
whole  empire ;  (2),  that  of  the  Austnan  Reichsrath  for 
Austria;  and  (3),  that  of  the  Hunganan  Reichstag  for 
Hungary.  By  an  arrangement  of  1868  Austria  pays  70 
per  cent.,  and  Hungary  30  per  cent.,  towards  the  common 
expenditure  of  the  empire.  The  total  expenditure  for  the 
whole  empire,  in  1873,  was  estimated  as  follows: — 

Ordinary.  Eitrftordlnnry.  ToUL 

i.  Miiiistryof-Foreign  Affairs  £424.629  £11,181  £435,810 

■  o    M-   •  *-      t-ar      )  Army...8,909,35«  989,963  9,899,318 

2.  Ministry  of  War  j  j^^^ 631,427  182,654  1,014,081 

3.  Ministry  of  Finance 192,093  ,.        105;  1S2,203 

4.  Board  of  Control 10,409  ...  10,40» 


-    •  '  £10,367,919  £1,183,902  £11,551,821 

The  estimated  Revenue  for  tho  same  period  was  as  follows  :— 

Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs £09,750 

Waft 610,141 

,,  Finance 258 

Board  of  Control  83 

£580,232 


Carry  forward,     £680,232 


FIXAXCE.J 


A  U  S  T  R  I  A 


123 


Brought  forwar.1,         £530,232 

Customs  Duties   r. 1,505,COO 

Ptyments  by  Hungary  oa  Account  of  Military 

FroDliers S.      188,319 

Share  of  livptndilurc  frilling  to  Austria  (70  p.c)..       0,439,368 

lluiigiir)-(30p,c.)      2,708,302 

£11,551,821 

TUe  budget  of  Austiia  Piupcr  for  1873  was  as  fullows: — 

Rcctipts. 

Direct  TaiM .-.■::;.... .£9,034, «0 

Customs  Duties 2,314,100 

Duties  on  Articles  of  Consumption 5,876,230 

Salt  Monopoly -. 1,872,000 

Tobacco  Monopoly .S812,600 

Stamps 1,400,000 

JuJici:il  Fees 3,300,000 

State  Lottery 1,526,000 

Octroi 274,300 

State  Property  and  Mint 177,743 

Domains  and  Forest* ■. 449,800 

Mines 477,050 

Post-Officennd  Telegraphs .:  .........  .1.932,200 

Miscellaneous >. 4,861,811 


£39,307.769 
Expfiidilnre. 

Inipfclial  Household iu«>'i  u»    £615,000 

Vabi net  Chancery .-.in..  7,221' 

Reichsrath >...,.,.         56,436 

Court  of  the  Empire ; >.  ,        2,300 

Council  of  Ministers 6J,200 

Ministry  of  the  Interior 1,836,061 

National  Defence '     891,300 

lieligion  and  Education 1,334,270 

Finance 8,023,323 

,,  Commerce..., 3,262,576 

Agriculture 1,060,853 

Justice 1,529.226 

Iluard  of  Control 14,820 

Pensions,  Grants,  and  Subsidies 2,381,628 

Share  of  Interest  on  Public  Debt 9,320,269 

Administration  of  Public  Debt 740,600 

Proiiortion  of  Public  E.\penditure.. 7,799,816 

£38,992,929 

The  budget  fur  1S74  gives  the  revenue  as  £38,329,897,  and  the 
bxpendilure  as  £39,896,531;  and  that  for  1875,  the  revenue  as 
.t30,912,9C9,  and  the  expenditure  as  £38,178,255. 

The  budget  of  the  kingdom  of  Hungary  for  1 873  was  as  follows  :— 

Kceeipta. 

Direct  Tases £4,481,842 

Indirectdo 7,106,546 

State  Domains,  Mines,  Mint,  ke.  )  .  qqq  gj,        . 

PostOfhce,  ic \ ' 

Miscell.iiieous 1,262,652 


£16,911,071 
ExptndUure. 

Ifoyol  Household  ,:.'   £365,000 

Cabinet  Chancery •         6,139 

Ueichst.ig  , 70,000 

Councilor  Ministers...., 35,903 

Ministry  of  the  Court ..    .•       86,39') 

,,  Interior , C    755,713 

War : V  896,670 

„  Religion  and  Education 375,217 

Justice  1,068,147 

'„  Agricultnre  and  Commerce....    1,159,733 

l,.l  Uoads,  Jtf, 4.776.953 

„'.         Finance 6,466,431 

..'         Croatia 425,670 

'Sh.ic  of  Interest  on  Public  Debt 3,272,320 

Ordinary  Expenses    2,829,321 

Miscellaneous : 650,264 


£23,220,939 

The  budget  for  1874  gives  the  reTenne  as  £22,402,790,  and  the 
expenditure  as  £25,073,382,  bring  a  deficit  of  £3,270,592. 

Though  the  Austrian  budget  for  1873  presents  a  surplus,  there 
had  for  many  years  previously  lieen  a  large  annu.il  deficit,  amount- 
ing in  some  jcirs  to  £6,000,000  or  £7,000,000  ;  and  the  two  suh- 
■••^ncnt  yrrirs  also  show  a  considerable  deficiency.  Consequently, 
the  I'liLIic  debt  has  been  rapidly  increasing.     In  1515  lb"  national 


A.m^. 


.Vav 


.Iclit  amounted  to  £82,500,000.  in  IS.'.O  to  £105,000,000,  in  184(J 
to  £125,000,000,  in  1857  to  £239,000,000,  in  1866  to  £291,.0u0,000, 
and  in  1874  to  £323,800,000,  of  -nhich  £264,000,000  was  funded, 
£22,200,000  redeemable,  and  £37,600,000  floating  debt.  By  the 
cession  of  the  Lombardo-Veuetian  provinces  in  1866,  Austha  was 
relieved  of  £3,500,000  of  debt  alVectijig  those  territories.  The 
kingdom  of  Hungary  had  also  at  the  end  of  1873  a  debt  of 
£43,871,783. 

Austria  is  said  to  have  "  daring  the  last  few  years  made  greater 
sacrilices  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  her  aiTuy  and  obtained  givater' 
results  than  any  other  nation  in  Euroj*.  Her  military  educational 
establishments  aud  system  of  training,  both  elementary  and  pro- 
fessional, for  olHcers  and  men,  are  of  a  very  high  order"  (Captain 
W.  S.  Cooke  0/1  tlie  Artwd  Ulrenjlh  of  Aiutria,  1873).  A  nt» 
scheme  of  army  organisation  was  brought  into  operation  in  ]8ol>, 
by  which  the  military  forces  of  the  whole  empire  are  divided  iHu 
tho  standing  army  with  its  reserve,  the  Landwehr,  the  Ersa!i- 
reserve,  and  the  Landsturm.  The  standing  army  is  maintained  fur 
the  defence  of  the  emjiire  against  a  foreign  Ibe.  and  for  the  preservj- 
lion  of  order  and  Security  at  home.  The  Landwehr  is  intended  lo 
support  the  standing  army  in  time  of  war  and  for  home  defence. 
The  Ersatz-reserve  is  composed  of  a  certain  cl.iss  of  conscripts  who 
arc  destined  to  fill  up  the  ranks  of  tlie  standing  army  in  tiuic  ot 
war,  but  in  peace  reuiaiii  on  permanent  furlough.  The  Laudsturiu 
is  made  up  of  volunteers  who  do  not  belong  either  to  the  standing 
army,  the  navy,  or  tJie  Landwehr.  It  is  called  out  and  organisid 
to  the  extent  required  when  tho  country  is  threatened  by  a  hostUo 
invasion,  and  is  intended  to  support  the  standing  army  and  Land- 
welir.  Military  service  is  compulsory  on  all  citizens  capable  of 
bearing  arms.  The  terra  of  service  lasts  for  twelve  years — three 
in  the  standing  army,  seven  in  the  reserve,  and  two  in  tho  Land- 
wehr. The  strength  of  the  army  in  peace  is  fi.\ed  at  252,0i,0 
men,  to  be  raised  during  war  to  800,000,  of  which  Austria  has  to 
furnish  457,012,  and  Hungary  342,983.  It  is  composed  of  SO  regi- 
ments of  infantry,  41  regiments  of  cavalry,  13  regiments  of  artillery, 
2  regiments  of  engineers,  1  regiment  pioneers,  and  other  troops.  (Sie 
Akmy,  ToL  ii.  p.  604.)  The  navy  was  in  1S74  composed  of  47  steam- 
vessels,  of  96,700  tons  burden  and  16,635  horse-power,  carrying  3;'5 
guns;  17  sailing  vefeels,  of  11,800  tons;  and  6  steam  tenders,  of  120u 
tons  burden  and  366  hoFsc-power.  The  number  of  seamen  in  pca.-e, 
5782  i  in  war,  11,532.     The  naval  stations  are  Tola  and  Trieste. 

The  present  empire  of  Austria  took  its  rise  in  b  niargi-a-  Hi>iir»to 
viate  founded  by  Charlemagne,  towards  the  close  of  the. 
8th  century,  in  that  fertile  tract  of  countrj'  lying  along 
the  southern  ba'ik  of  the  Danube  to  the  east  of  the. 
Paver  Enns,  and  now  included  in  Lower  Austria,  It  was 
called  Ostreick  or  Ocsl€>Teick,,ihe  eastern  countrj',  from  its 
position  relative  to  the  rest  of  Germany.  It  continued 
to  be  ruled  by  margraves  (Ger.  Marhgraf,  lord  of  the 
marches)  for  several  centuries,  down  to  the  year  1156. 
when  the  territory  west  of  the  Enns  was  added  to  it,  and  it 
was  raised  to  a  duchy.  It  subsequently  received  further 
accessions  of  territorj',  and  in  \i5Z  was  made  an  arch- 
duchy. 

The  country  of  the  present  arehducliy  M  Au.'rtria  Tfas  in 
early  times  inhabited  by  the  Taurisci,  a  Celtic  race,  who 
were  afterwards  better  known  as  the  Norici.  They  were 
conquered  by  the  Romans  in  14  B.C.  ;  and  thereafter  a. 
portion  of  what  is  now  Lower  Austria  aud  Styria,  together 
with  the  municipal  city  of  Vindnhona.  now  Vienna,  and 
even  then  a  place  of  considerable-  imporlance,  was  formed 
into  the  province  of  Pannonia;  and  the  rc--t  of  Lower 
Austria  and  Styria,  together  with  Cariiithia  and  a  part  of 
Carniola,  into  that  of  Noricum.  Tyrol  was  included  m 
Rhatia,  while  north  of  the  Danube,  and  extending  to  the 
borders  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  were  the  territories  of 
the  Marcomanni  and. tho  Quadi.  These  were  not  unfre- 
qucntly  troublesome  to  tho  Romans ;  and  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  from  IC'J 
to  180  A.D.,  they  maintained  with  varj-ing  success  a  harass- 
ing war  against  them.  In  174  the  Roman  army  was  so 
nearly  cut  off  by  the  Quadi  that  its  safety  was  attributed 
to  a  miracle.  The  emperor  died  at  Vindobona  when  an 
an  expedition  against  those  troublcsorao  neighbours,  and,. 
his  successor,  Comraodus,  was  glad  to  make  peace  with  the.n. 
On  the  decline  of  the  imperi.il  power  these  Roman  [  .->k- 
vinces  became  a  prey  to  the  incursions  of  barbaric  tiibcs.. 


124 


A  U  S  T  R  I  A 


{lIISTOP.7 


During  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  the -country  was  suc- 
cessively occupied  by  the  Boii,  Vandals,  Heruli,  Rugii, 
Goths,  Huns,  Lombards,  and  Avari.  About  563,  after  the 
Lombards  had  settled  in  Upper  Italy,  the  River  Enns 
became  the  boundary  between  the  Bajuvarii,  a  people. o£ 
German  origin,  and  the  Avari,  who  had  come  £rom  the 
east.  In  7^3  the  Avari  crossed  the  Enns  and  attacked 
Bavaria,  but  were  subsequently  driven  back  by  Charle- 
magne, and  forced  to  retreat  as  far  as  the  Eaab,  their 
country  from  the  Enns  to  that  river  being  then  made  a  part 
of  Germany.  It  was  taken  by  the  Hungarians  in  900,  but 
-Kos  again  anne.xed  to  Germany  in  955  by  Otho  I.  In 
983  the  emperor  appointed  Leopold  I,  of  Babenberg  or 
Bamberg,  margrave  of  Austria,  and  his  dynasty  ruled  the 
country  for  26.3  years.  He  died  in  994,  and  wiis  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Henry  I,  who  governed  till  1018.  In  1156 
Austria  received  an  accession  of  territory  west  of  the  Enns, 
and  was  raised  to  a  duchy  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  I. 
Tlie  first  duke  was  Henry  Jasomirgott,  who  took  part  in 
the  second  crusade.  He  removed  the  ducal  residence  to 
Vienna,  and  began  the  building  of  St  Stephen's  cathedral. 
His  successor,  Leopold  V.,  in  1192,  obtained  Styria  as  an 
addition  to  his  territory,  and  Frederick  II.  received  posses- 
sion of  Carniola.  Frederick,  in  the  latter  years  of  his  life, 
contemplated  the  erection  of  Austria  into  a  kingdom,  but 
hiS  sudden  death  in  a  battle  against  the  Magj-ars,  in  1246, 
put  an  end  to  the  project,  and  with  him  the  line  became 
extinct. 

The  Emperor  Frederick  II.  now  declared  Austria  and 
St)Tia  to  have  lapsed  to  the  imperial  crown,  and  appointed 
a  lieutenant  to  govern  them  on  the  pact  of  the  empire. 
But  claims  to  the  succession  were  brought  forward  by 
descendants  of  the  female  branch  of  the  Babenberg  line  , 
and  after  various  contests  Ottocar,  son  of  the  king  of 
Bohemia,  gained  possession  about  1252  of  the  duchies 
of  Austria  and  Styria.  In  1269  he  succeeded  to  Carinthia, 
a  part  of  Carniola  and  Friuli ,  but  he  lost  all  by  refusing 
to  acknowledge  the  Emperor  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  and 
eventually  fell  in  battle  in  an  attempt  to  recover  them  in 
12T8; 
flaptburo  The  emperor  now  took  possession  of  the  country,  and 
•dynasty,  appointed  his  eldest  son- governor,  but  subsequently,  in 
1282,  having  obtained  the  sanction  of  the  electors  of  the 
empire  to  the  act,  he  conferred  the  duchies  of  Austria  and 
Styria,  with  the  province  of  Carinthia,  on  his  sons  Albert 
and  Rudolph,  and  thus  introduced  the  Hapsburg  dynasty. 
The  brothers  transferred  Carinthia  to  Meinhard,  count  of 
Tyrol;  and  in  1283  Albert  became  sole  possessor  of  Austria, 
StjTia,  and  Carniola.  He  increased  his  possessions  cou- 
Biderably  by  wars  with  his  neighbours,  but  was  murdered 
at  Rheinfelden  in  1308,  when  on  an  expedition  against 
the  Swiss,  by  his  nephew,  John  of  Swabia,  whom  he  had 
deprived  of  his  hereditary  possessions.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  five  sons,  Frederick,  Leopold,  Henry,  Albert,  and 
Otto.  In  1314  Frederick,  the  eldest,  was  set  up  by  a  party 
a.1  emperor  in  opposition  to  Louis,  duke  of  Ba'.-aria, 
but  was  defeated  and  takeu  prisoner  by  his  rival  in  1322. 
In  1315  Duko  Leopold  was  defeated  in  an  attempt  to 
recover  the  forest  towns  of  Switzerland  which  liad  revolted 
'rom  his  father.  Leopold  died  in  1326,  Henry  in  1327,  and 
Frederick  in  1330.  The  two  surviving  brothers  then  made 
peace  with  the  Emperor  Louis,  and  in  1335  they  acquired 
Carinthia  by  inheritance.  On  the  death  of  Otto  in  1339 
Albert  became  sole  ruler.  He  died  in  1358.  llis  son  and 
successor,  Rudolph  II.,  finished  the  church  of  St  Stephen's 
and  founded  the  university  of  Vienna,  dying  childless  in 
1365.  Ho  was  succeeded  by  his  two  brothers,  Albert  III. 
and  Leopold  III.,  who  in  1379  divided  their  po-ssessions 
between  them,  the  former  taking  the  duchy  of  AiL<;tria,  the 
latter  Styria  and  other  parts.     Leopold  fell  at  Seinpach  in 


1386,  but  his  desi.enddnts  continued  to  rule  in  Styria. 
Albert  acquired  Tyrol  and  some  other  districts,  and  died 
in  1395.  He  w'as  succeeded  by  his  son,  Albert  IV.,  who 
was  poisoned  at  Zn^im  in  1404,  when  on  an  expedition 
against  Procopius,  count  of  Moravia.  Albert  V.  succeeded 
his  father,  and  having  married  the  daughter  of  the  Em- 
peror Sigismund,  he  obtained  the  thrones  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia,  and  became  emperor  (Albert  II.)  in  1433.  He 
died  the  following  year,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  pos- 
thumous son  Ladislaus,  who  died  witho\it  issue  in  1457 
The  Austrian  branch  of  the  family  thus  became  extinct,  and 
was  succeeded  by  that  of  Styria.  The  crowns  of  Hungary 
and  Bohemia  passed  for  a  time  into  other  hands. 

The  possession  of  Austria,  which  in  1453  had  been 
raised  to  an  archduchy,  was  for  some  yeara  a  subject 
of  dispute  between  the  Emperor  Frederick  III.  and  his 
brothers,  but  at  length,  on  the  death  of  Albert  in  1463, 
the  emperor  obtained  sole  possession.  His  son  Maximilian, 
by  marrying  the  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold,  acquired 
the  Netherlands  in  1477,  but  on  the  death  of  his  father  in 
1493  he  succeeded  him  as  emperor,  and  transferred  the 
government  of  the  Netherlands  to  his  son  Philip.  He 
added  Tyrol  and  some  parts  of  Bavaria  to  his  paternal  pos- 
sessions, and  made  some  advances  towards  the  recovery  of 
Hungary  and  Bohemia.  His  son  Philip,  by  his  marriage 
with  Johanna,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  acqidred 
a  right  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  but  died  in  1506.  Maxi- 
milian died  in  1519,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grand- 
son Charles  (son  of  Philip),  who  two  years  before  had 
obtained  the  Spanish  crown,  and  was  now  made  em- 
peror under  the  title  of  Charles  V.  By  treaties  dated 
1521  and  1524,  Charles  resigned  all  his  hereditary  posses- 
sions in  Germany,  except  the  Netherlands,  to  his  brother 
Ferdinand.  The  latter,  by  his  marriage  with  Anna,  sister 
of  the  king  of  Hungary,  acquired  right  to  the  kingdoms 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  together  with  Moravia,  Silesia, 
and  Lausatia.  His  right  to  Hungary,  however,  was  con- 
tested by  John  Zapolya,  waywode  of  Transylvania,  who 
was  elected  by  a  party  of  the  nobles,  and  was  crowned 
king  in  1527.  Being  unable  to  cope  single-handed  with 
Ferdinand,  John  sought  the  aid  of  the  sultan,  Soliman  II., 
who  in  1529  advanced  with  a  large  army  to  the  very  gates 
of  Vienna ;  but  after  several  inetiectual  attempts  to  take 
the  city  he  raised  the  siege  and  returned  to  Buda.  At 
length,  in  1535  an  agreement  was  come  to,  in  terms  ot 
which  John  was  allowed  to  retain  the  title  of  king,  to- 
gether with  half  of  Hungary,  but  his  descendants  werd 
to  be  entitled  to  Transylvania  only.  John  died  in  1540, 
but  the  people  of  Lower  Hungary  were  opposed  to  Fer- 
dinand, and  set  up  the  son  of  their  late  king  against  him. 
In  the  strugs^le  wliich  ensued  the  aid  of  the  Turks  was  again 
invoked,  and  the  result  was  that  Ferdinand  had  to  agree 
to  pay  an  annual  sum  of  30,000  ducats  to  the  sultan  for 
this  part  of  Hungai-y.  Ferdinand  was  also  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  surrendering  Wiirtembcrg  to  Duko  Ulrich,  on 
condition,  of  its  remaining  a  fief  of  Austria  and  reverting 
to  that  country  on  the  extinction  of  the  male  line.  Not- 
withstanding this,  the  possessions  of  the  German  line  of 
the  house  of  Austria  at  this  time  are  estimated  at  1 14,000 
scpiare  miles.  On  the  abdication  of  Charles  V.  in  1556, 
Ferdinand  succcedc<l  to  the  imperial  throne.  He  died  in 
1564,  leaving  directions  for  the  division  of  his  possessions 
among  his  three  sons.  The  eldest,  Maximilian  IL,  received 
the  imperial  crown,  together  with  Austria.  Hungary,  and 
Bohemia  ;  the  second,  Ferdinand,  obtained  Tyrol  and  Lower 
Austria  ;  and  the  third,  Charles,  was  m.ade  master  of  Styria, 
Carinthia,  Carniola,  and  Gdrtz.  In  1556  tlio  sultan  Soli- 
man  again  marched  at  tlie  head  of  a  great  army  into  Hun- 
gary, but  met  with  a  very  determined  resistance  at  Szigeth, 
before  wliich  town  he  was  suddenly  cut  off  by  apaple.fy. 


HISTORY.] 


AUSTRIA 


125 


Peace  was  concluded  with  bis  successor,  and  in  1572  Maxi- 
milian caused  his  eldest  son  Kudul|)h  to  be  crowned  king 
of  Hungary,  llo  was  afterwards  crowned  king  of  Bohemia, 
and  was  also  elected  king  of  the  Romans.  Maximihan  died  in 
157G,and  was  succeeded  by  Rudolph  on  the  imperial  throne. 
This  monarch  was  little  fitted  to  ride,  and  left  the  manage- 
ment of  affairs  very  much  to  others,  lie  was  entirely 
under  the  power  of  the  Jesuits,  set  at  nought  the  ancient 
laws  of  the  country,  and  persecuted  the  Pcotcstaiits.  The 
latter,  under  Bocskay,  revolted  in  IGO-i,  and  having  se- 
cured the  aid  of  the  sultan,  gained  repeated  victories  over 
the  imperial  troops,  compelling  Rudolph  to  give  them  terms 
of  peace  in  lOOG.  During  this  reign  the  possessions  of  the 
Archduke  Ferdinand  of  TjtoI  reverted  to  the  two  other. 
Iine3;  while  in  1008  Hudulph  was  compeUed  to  cede  Hun- 
gary, and  in  ICll  Bohemia  and  Austria,  to  his  brother 
Matthias,  who  on  the  death  of  Rudolph  in  1012  was  crowned 
emperor.  Ills  reign  was  full  of  promise,  but  unfortunately 
it  was  only  of  short  duration.  Being  an  old  man  and 
childless,  he  chose  as  his  successor  his  cousin  Ferdinand, 
archduke  of  Styria,  whom  ho  caused  to  be  crowned  king 
of  Bohemia  in  1010,  and  of  Hungary  in  1018.  He  died 
the  following  year,  when  Ferdinand  became  emperor. 
1>my  Before  the  death  of  Matthias,  the  memorable  struggle 

tmWit.  between  Roman  Catholicism  and  Protestantism,  known  as 
the  T/iirti/  Ytars'  War  (1018  to  1048),  had  commenced.  It 
originated  in  an  insurrection  of  the  Protestants  of  Bohemia, 
who  renounced  their  allegiance  to  Ferdinand  and  chose  for 
their  king  the  elector  palatine  Frederick  V.  Frederick 
was  supfiortcd  by  all  the  Protestant  princes  except  the 
elector  of  Saxony,  while  Ferdinand  was  assisted  by  the 
king  of  Spain  and  the  other  Catholic  princes.  At  first 
success  attended  the  arms  of  the  insurgents,  who  repeatedly 
routed  the  imperial  troops,  and  even  laid  siege  to  Vienna. 
But  the  Duke  MaximUian  of  Bavaria,  cofning  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  imperialists  at  the  head  of  a  weU-appointed 
army,  totally  defeated  Frederick  at  the  White  Hill  near 
Prague  (Sth  November  1020).  The  following  day  Prague 
opened  its  gates  to  the  conqueror,  and  in  a  short  time  the 
whole  country  was  reduced  to  subjection,  and  the  territories 
of  the  elector  palatine  divided  among  the  allies.  The  war 
might  have  ended  here  had  Ferdinand  adopted  a  concilia- 
tory policy,  but  impelled  by  revenge  and  fanatical  zeal  he 
adopted  an  opposite  course,  and  instituted  against  the  Pro- 
testants a  severe  persecution.  They  wero  thus  again  com- 
pelled to  take  up  arms,  and  in  1025  Christian  IV.,  king  of 
Denmark,  supported  by  subsidies  from  England,  put  him: 
eelf  at  their  head.  He  wa.<i  subsequently  joined  by  Count 
Mansfeld  and  Christian  of  Brunswick,  while  opposed  to 
him  were  Wallenstein  and  Tilly  at  the  head  cf  two  power- 
ful armies.  In  April  1020  Mansfeld  wa.^  defeated  by  Wal- 
lenstein at  Dessau,  and  a  few  months  later  Tilly  vanquished 
the  Danish  king  at  Lutter.  The  victorious  armies  after- 
wards marched  into  Denmark,  and  the  king  was  c»mpellod 
to  conclude  a  humiliating  peace  at  LUbeck  in  1029.  The 
Piotostants  were  now  awed  into  submission,  and  Ferdinand 
was  emboldened  to  carry  out  to  still  greater  lengths  his 
policy  of  suppression.  Aiming  at  the  total  extirpation  of 
Protestant  doctrines  throughout  his  dominion.^,  he  revoked 
all  the  privileges  that  had  formerly  been  granted,  even  such 
OS  had  previously  received  his  approval.  By  the  so<alled 
Jidici  p/ /i'frfiV.wdVm,  dated  0th  March  1029,  he  enjoined 
the  restitution  of  all  ecclesiastical  property  secularised  since 
the  peace  of  Pa.ssau,  and  ordered  the  Protestants  to  relin- 
quish to  the  Catholics  all  benefices  which  they  had  appro- 
[iriated  contrary  to  the  peace  of  Passau  and  the  Ecclesiastical 
Reservation. 

The  Catholic  princes  themselves  wero  now  becoming 
alarmed  at  the  enormous  power  which  they  had  contributed 
to  place  in  the  hands  of  the  emperor.     They  therefore 


demanded  a  reduction  of  the  army  and  the  dismissal  of 
Wallenstein,  and  with  these  demands  the  emperor  felt  him- 
self obliged  to  comply.  But  a  new  champion  of  the  Pro- 
testant cause  now  appeared  in  the  north,  iu  the  person  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden.  This  valiant  prince, 
having  received  promises  of  aid  from  France  as  wcU  as  from 
England  and  the  United  Provinces, suddenly  landed  an  army 
of  15,000  men  at  Usedom  in  June  1030.  Pomerania  and 
Mecklenburg  were  soon  conquered  by  him,  and  a  great  part 
of  Brandenburg  was  overrun  by  his  army.  He  was  unable, 
however,  to  relievo  the  town  of  Magdeburg,  uhith  was- 
besieged  by  Tilly  and  taken  by  assault  20th  May  1031, 
when  the  most  barbarous  atrocities  were  perpetrated  upon 
the  unfortunate  inhabitants.  The  elector  of  Brandenburg 
and  afterwards  the  elector  of  Saxony  joined  Gustavus,  and 
the  combined  army  met  the  imperialists  under  Tilly  at 
Breitenfeld,  near  Leipsic,  and  defeated  them  with  great 
slaughter  (7th  September  1031).  The  victor  now  rapidly 
regained  all  that  had  been  lost.  Again  Tilly  was  beaten 
at  the  passage  of  the  River  Lech  on  Sth  AprU  1032,  and 
the  following  day  he  died  of  his  wounds.  Wallenstein  was 
now  recalled  and  placed  at  the  head  of  the  imperial  trooj'S. 
His  name  inspired  fresh  ardour  among  the  soldiery,  men 
flocked  to  his  standard,  and  ho  speedily  found  himself  at 
the  head  of  a  very  large  army.  He  drove  the  Saxons  out 
of  Bohemia,  and  afterwards  marched  to  Nuremberg,  where 
Gustavus  was  entrenched  in  a  strong  position.  The  two 
armies  watched  each  other  for  eight  weeks,  when  the  king 
directed  an  attack  against  the  imperialists,  but  after  a  fierce 
struggle  was  repulsed.  A  fortnight  later  Gustavus  moved 
in  the  direction  of  Bavaria,  but  Wallenstein,  instead  of 
following  him,  marched  into  Saxony,  and  thus  obliged  him 
to  suspend  his  operations  in  Bavaria  and  to  set  out  iu  pursuit 
of  his  opponent,  llie  two  armies  met  at  Liitzen,  where  a 
battle  took  place  on  IGth  November  1032.  The  gi'eate;t 
skill  and  bravery  were  displayed  on  both  sides,  and  the 
issue  was  long  doubtful,  but  at  length  victory  declared  in 
favour  of  the  Swedes,  though  dearly  purchased  with  the 
loss  of  their  brave  commander,  who  fell  mortally  wounded. 

The  death  of  Gustavus  was  an  irreparable  loss  to  the 
Protestants  in  Germany.  Wallenstein,  however,  made 
but  little  use  of  the  advantages  he  now  possessed,  and  has- 
even  been  accused  of  treacherous  designs  against  the  em- 
pire. Be  this  as  it  may,  his  enemies  at  court  and  -in  the- 
army  wero  numerous  and  powerful,  and  he  was  at  length 
a.ssa.ssicated  bj'  some  of  his  own  officers,  25th  February 
1034.  Tl»e  Protestant  cause  met  with  another  disaster 
in  the  defeat  of  Bernard  of  Weimar  at  Nordlingen  on  Olh 
September.  On  30th  May  1G35  Saxony  concluded  at 
Prague  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  emperor,  in  terms  of 
which  the  Lutherans  were  freed  from  the  operation  of  the 
Edict  of  Restitution.  The  other  Lutheran  princes  soon 
after  accepted  the  like  terms ;  but  tho  Calvinists,  who 
were  disliked  by  both  parties,  were  left  to  their  fate.     ' 

Sweden,  no  longer  able  to  carry  on  the  war  as  she  had 
done,  entered  into  a  treaty  with  France,  resigning  the 
direction  of  operations  to  that  power,  a  position  of  which 
Richelieu  gladly  availed  himself,  as  according  with  his  am- 
bitious designs.  The  war  now  assumed  a  new  phase,  Fiance 
and  Swedqu  beingallicd  against  the  empire  and  the  Lutheran 
states  of  Germany,  aided  by  Spain.  Richelieu's  efTorts  were 
in  great  measure  directed  to  humbLng  the  latter  power. 
He  sent  an  army  into  Spain,  and  entvred  into  leagues 
with  tho  dukes  of  Savoy  and  Parma  and  the  United  Pro- 
vinces for  attacking  tho  Spanish  power  in  Italy  and  the 
Netherlands.  These  projects  did  not  meet  with  success, 
and  the  war  was  for  a  time  carried  into  the  French  terri- 
tories. In  the  meantime  tho  Swedes,  under  General- 
Baner,  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Saxons  and  ira- 
pwialists  at  Wittstock  {4th  October  1030).     The  emperor 


126 


A  U  S  T  R  I  A 


[llrSTORV 


died  on  the  15lh  Febru.iry  1C07,  and  was  succeeded  by 
bia  son  Ferdinand  III.  The  war  was  carried  on  for  eleven 
years  longer ;  and  the  success  which  at  first  was  with  the 
imperialists,  after  a  time  cama  round  to  their  adversaries, 
tdl  at  length  the  emperor,  pressed  on  all  sides  and  deserted 
by  his  allies,  was  glad  to  agree  to  terms  of  peace.  '  By  the 
peace  of  Westphalia,  signed  Sith  October  1648,,  France 
acquired  Alsace  ;  Sweden  got  Upper  Pomerania,  the  Isle 
of  Ilugen,  and  some  other  territory ;  the  sovereignty  and 
independence  of  the  different  states  was  recognised ; 
the  Calvinists  were  placed  on  the  same  footing  as  the 

■  Lutherans  ;  and  the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces 

■  and  the  Swiss  Confederation  was  acknowledged. 

Ferdinand  III.  died  in  1C57,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Leopold  I.  This  prince,  by  his  harsh  treatment  of 
the  Hungarians,  drove  that  people  into  revolt ;  and  they, 
being  unable  to  cope  with  the  power  of  the  empire  single- 
handed,  called  in  the  aid  of  the  Turks,  who,  under  Kara 
Mustapha  in  1CS3,  besieged  Vienna,  which  was  only  saved 
by  an  army  of  Poles  and  Germans  under  John  Sobieski. 
The  imperial  army  then  reduced  the  whole  of  Hungary  into 
subjection,  and  united  to  it  Transylvania,  which  had  been 
hitherto  governed  by  its  own  princes ;  and  the  whole  was 
declared  to  be  a  hereditary  kingdom.  In  1099  Turkey, 
after  being  defeated  in  several  sanguinary  engagements  by 
the  celebrated  general  Prince  Eugene,  w.is  compelled  by 
th»  peace  of  Carlowitz  to  cede  to  Hungary  the  country 
lying  between  the  Danube  and  the  Theiss.  Previous  to 
his  troubles  with  Hungary  and  Turkey,  Leopold  had  lent 
his  aid  in  1C72  to  tho  Dutch  in  their  struggle  against  the 
ambitious  designs  of  France.  This  was  brought  to  a  close 
by  the  peace  of  Nimeguen  in  1C78;  but  the  conflict 
broke  out  afresh  the  following  year,  when  tho  English 
also  came  forward  and  contributed  largely  both  in  troops 
and  money.  The  chief  scenes  of  warfare  were  the  Nether- 
lands and  the  banks  of  the  Rhine.  At  last  in  1697  came 
the  peace  of  Ryswick,  •which  left  the  contending  parties  in 
nearly  the  same  relative  positions  as  at  the  beginning  of 
the  contest.  The  allies  had,  however,  the  satisfaction  of 
having  compelled  the  French  king  to  stop  short  in  his 
echentes  of  aggrandisement. 
War  it  tlfo  The  death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain  in  1700,  without  leav- 
Socccssion.  jng  issue,  led  to  what  is  known  as  the  War  of  the  Succes- 
sion. -Louis  XIV.  had  married  the  eldest  sister  of  tho 
lata  king,  but  she  had  by  solemn  covenant  renounced  her 
right  to  tho  Spanish  crown.  The  second  sister  had 
married  tho  Emperor  Leopold,  and  she  had  m.ada  no 
such  renunciation,  but  her  daughter  had,  who  was  married 
to  the  elector  of  Bavaria.  Leopold  had  two  sons  by  a 
second  marriage,  and  now  claimed  the  crown  for  the  younger 
of  these,  on  the  ground  of  his  mother  being  an  aunt  of  ther 
deceased  king.'  Intrigijes  had  been  carried  on  by  tho 
several  parties  concerned  for  some  time  before  the  king's 
death,  and  he  had  been  induced  to  make  a  secret  will, 
in  which  ho  named  Philip,  duke  of  Anjou,  grandson 
of  Louis  XIV.,  as  his  successor.  Leopold,  iowever, 
Was  by  no  means  inclined  to  depart  from  what  he  con- 
sidered his  rights,  and  tho  other  states  of  Europe  looked 
with  jeaWsy  on  the  prospect  of  a  union  of  France  and 
Spain  under  a  Bourbon  dyn.isly.  An  alliance  was  accord- 
ingly formed  by  Austria  with  England  and  Holland 
against  France,  with  which  power  on  the  other  hand  Bavaria 
allied  herself.  The  emperor  despatched  an  army  into  Italy 
under  Prince  Eugene,  to  take  possession  of  the  Spanish 
territories  in  that  country ;  while  the  English  and  Dntch 
united  their  forces  under  Marlborough.  Tho  former  ex- 
pericnced  a  good  deal  of  hard  fighting,  but  cfToctcd  little 
cf  consequence,  while  the  latter  busied  himself  in  taking 
cr.e  after  anot/icr  of  llie  French  strongholds  in  the  Nether- 
Vinds.     At  longth  the  two  generals  Cijmbincd  their  force* 


and  met  tlie  Diulcd  army  of  their  enemies  at  Blenheim. 
The  latter  numbered  about  56,000  men  and.  occupied  a 
strong  position,  while  the  number  of  the  former  was  about 
52,000.  The  Cght  commenced  by  Marlborough  leading 
the  right  wing  against  the  French,  while  Eugene  with  the 
left  wing  advanced  against  the  Bavarians.  The  battle  was 
long  and  fierce,  the  assailants  being  repeatedly  driven  back 
by  a  most  terrible  fire  from  the  enemy's  artillery.  At 
length  victory  declared  for  the  allied  English  and  .Austrian 
armies  (13th  August  1704).  About  10,000  of  the  French^ 
and  Bavarians  fell  on  the  field,  and  nearly  13,000  were' 
made  prisoners,  .iniong  whom  was  the  commander  of  the 
French  army.  Marshal  Tallard.  The  elector  of  Bavaria 
was  compelled  to  cross  the  Rhine  with  the  French,  and 
his  territory  was  occupied  by  the  imperialists.  'I  he  follow  • 
ing  year  the  emperor  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest 
son,  Joseph.  The  war  was  continued  with  vigour,  but  for  a 
time  nothing  of  importance  was  anywhere  effected.  France 
now  directed  her  chief  attentian  to  the  conquest  of 
the  Netherlands,  and  sent  into  that  country  a  magnificent 
army  under  the  command  of  Marshal  Villeroi.  But  this 
general  was  no  match  for  Marlborough  ;  and  in  the  battio 
of  Ramillies  (23d  May  1700)  he  was  totally  defeated  with 
a  loss  of  about  13,000  men.  Prince  Eugene's  efforts  in 
Italy  were  also  this  year  crowned  with  much  success.' 
After  a  memorable  march  of  more  than  200  miles,  he 
suddenly  appeared  before  Turin,  which  was  then  closely 
besieged  by  the  enemy.  Having  effected  a  junction  with 
the  duke  of  Savoy,  he  attacked  the  French  Lines  (7th 
September),  and  though  repeatedly  driven  back,  at  length 
succeeded  in  totally  routing  the  enemy.  The  French 
general.  Count  Marsin,  was  wounded,  taken  prisoner,  and 
died  the  following  day.  The  French  power  in  Northern 
Italy  was  thus  shattered,  and  soon  after  both  French  and 
Spaniards  were  driven  out  of  the  countr}-.  The  like  suc- 
cess attended  the  efforts  of  Marlborough  in  the  Nether- 
lands, where  he  took  possession  of  evt-ry  place  of  note.' 
After  Eugene  had  settled  affairs  in  Italy,  he  again  formed 
a  junction  with  JIarlborough  in  the  Netherlands,  and  on 
11th-  June  1708  they  attacked  and  routed  the  French 
under  VendSme  at  Gudenarde.  France  now  made  over- 
tures for  peace  ;  but  these  being  rejected,  she  sent  a  new 
army  into  the  field,  under  the  command  of  Marshal  Villars. ' 
He  was  attacked  by  the  two  victorious  generals  in  his 
entrenchments  at  Malplaquet  (11th  September  1709)  and 
totally  defeated.  France  again  made  proposals  for  peace, 
but  these  meeting  with  no  better  success,  the  war  wa."> 
continued.  The  emperor  died  on  17th  April  1711,  and 
his  successor  being  his  brother,  the  Archduke  Charles,  who 
laid  claim  to  the  Spanish  crown,  this  event  contributed 
not  a  little  to  restore  peace.  The  prospect  of  the  union 
on  one  head  of  the  crowns  of  Austria  and  Spain  did 
not  accord  with  tho  views  of  those  who  had  been 
hitherto  supporting  the  claims  of  Austria,  and  the  transfer 
of  Spain  to  a  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  ajipcared  to  them 
the  less  dangerous  alternative  of  the  two.  This,  joined 
to  the  change  of  ministry  in  England,  and  the  removal  of 
Marlborough  from  the  command,  together  with  the  im- 
patience of  the  Dutch  under  so  long  and  so  buniensome  a ' 
war,  led  to  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  which  was  signed  11th 
April  1713.  Austria  continued  the  war  for  -soma  time 
longer,  but  the  next  year  agreed  to  suW.tantially  the  same 
terms  at  Baden.  By  this  treaty  France  engaged  that  the 
crowns  of  France  and  Spain  should  never  be  united,  and 
that  mrpart  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  should  ever  be 
tiansforred  to  her  ;  she  also  ceded  to  England  Nova  Scotia, 
Newfoundland,  lluds^on's  Bay,  and  St  Kitt's,  and  agreed 
to  destroy  tho  fortifications  of  Dunkirk ;  Spain  gave  up 
her  possessions  in  the  Netherlands  and  in  Italy  to  Austria 
(«ho,  on  her  part,  renounced  her  claim  to  the  Spanish 


iiisTonv. 


AUSTRIA 


127 


succession),  and  ceded  Gibraltar  and  Minorca  to  Eng- 
land ;  the  Dutch  received  a  small  accession  of  territory  ; 
and  tbo  duke  of  Savoy  obtained  Sicily,  with  the  title  of 
kin^— afterwards  (1720)  exchanged  for  the  island  of  Sar- 
dinia. The  Austrian  monarchy  now  embraced  about 
190,000  square  miles  of  territory,  with  nearly  29,000,000 
of  inhabitants.  '  Its  annual  revenue  was  between 
13,000,000  and  14,000,000  florins,  and  its  army  consisted 
of  1 30,000  men. 

Austria  next  became  involved  in  a  war  with  the  Turks, 
and  in  17 IG  Prince  Eugene  set  out  at  the  head  of  an  army 
against  them.  The  result  was  a  series  of  splendid  suc- 
cesses, which  led  to  a  peace  signed  at  Passarowitz  (171S), 
by  which  .\ustria  received  a  considerable  accession  of  ter- 
ritory. Disaffection  still  continued  to  subsist  between 
Spain  and  .^ustria,  which  led  to  repeated  negotiations  on 
the  part  of  the  other  powers  to  preserve  peace.  Charles 
being  without  heirs-male,  was  desirous  of  securing  the 
fiuccessiou  to  his  eldest  daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  and  with 
this  view  he  framed  the  celebrated  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
and  it  became  his  great  object  to  get  the  assent  of  the 
other  powers  to  this  arrangement.  England  and  almost 
M  the  other  powers,  except  France,  Spain,  and  Sardinia, 
acceded  to  it  in  1731.  In  1733  the  emperor  became  in- 
volved in  a  war  with  Franco  on  behalf  of  Augustus  1 1 1. 
of  Saxony,  who  had  been  elected  king  of  Toland.  France 
supported  the  claims  of  Stanislaus  Leczinski,-ftnd  received 
the  aid  of  Spain  and  Sardinia.  The  war  was  carried  on 
principally  in  Italy,  where  Austria  was  driven  out  of 
most  of  her  possessions,  and  was  glad  to  sue  for  peace.  I3y 
this  treaty  Augustus  was  confirmed  on  the  throne  of 
Poland ;  but  Austria  was  obliged  to  cede  to  Stanislaus 
the  duchies  of  Lorraine  and  Bar,  to  be  afterwards  trans- 
ferred to  France ;  Don  Carlos  was  placed  on  the  throne  of 
the  Two  Sicilies,  and  the  grand  duchy  of  Tuscany  was 
bestowed  on  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  the  emperor  receiving 
as  compensation  Parma  and  Placcntia ;  and  France,  and 
afterwards  Spain  and  Sardinia,  acceded  to  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction.  VVar  again  broke  out  with  the  Turks,  and 
Prince  Eugene  being  now  no  more,  the  Austrians  were 
repeatedly  beaten  and  expelled  from  one  stronghold  after 
another,  till,  by  the  peace  of  Belgrade  (1739),  the  emperor 
was  compelled  to  yield  up  almost  all  that  the  arms  of 
Eugene  had  formerly  gained  for  him.  The  emperor  died 
on  the  20th  October  1740,  and  his  eldest  daughter,  JIaria 
Theresa,  who  was  married  to  the  duke  of  Lorraine  or 
Lothringen  (afterwards  archduke  of  Tuscany),  assumed 
the  government.  Immediately  counter-claims  were  ad- 
vanced on  all  sides.  The  elector  of  Bavaria  claimed  to  be 
rightful  heir  to  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia;  the  elector  of 
Saxony  and  king  of  Poland,  and  also  the  king  of  Spain, 
claimed  the  entire  succession ;  the  king  of  Sardinia  laid 
claim  to  the  duchy  of  Milan,  and  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia 
to  the  province  of  Silesia.  France  espoused  the  cause  of 
Bavaria,  while  England  alone  came  forward  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  queen,  and  the  Hungarians,  now  united  iind 
loyal,  willingly  recruited  her  armies.  Aided  by  Franco 
and  Saxony,  the  electa*  of  Bavaria  took  possession  of 
Bohemia,  and  was  proclaimed  king  in  1741,  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  was  elected  emperor  under  the  title  of 
Charles  VIL  The  king  of  Prussia  marched  suddenly  into 
Silesia  and  took  possession  of  that  country.  The  elector 
of  Bavaria,  aided  by  French  troops,  next  invaded  Austria, 
ond  even  threatened  Vienna.  The  queen  fled  to  Presburg 
and  convoked  the  Hungarian  diet.  She  appeared  in  the 
midst  of  the  assembly  with  her  infant  son  Joseph  in 
l^or  arms,  and  appealed  to  them  for  protection  and  help. 
A  uurst  or  enthusiasm  followed,  and  a  powerful  Hungarian 
army  was  speedily  at  her  service.  The  French  and 
Bavarians  were  soon  driven  out  of  the  archduchy.      A 


battle  was  fought  between  the  Austrians  under  the  prince 
of  Lorraine  and  the  Prussians  under  Frederick,  at  CzasLiU 
(17th  May  1742),  in  which  the  former  were  defeated,  and 
this  was  followed  by  the  peace  of  Breslau  (11th  June),  by 
which  Prussia  acquired  possession  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Silesia  (excepting  the  towns  of  Troppau  and  Jrigemdorf, 
and  the  mountains  of  Silesia)  and  the  county  of  Glatz. 
Austria  now  turned  her  arms  against  the  French  and 
Bavarians,  the  former  of  whom  were  driven  out  of  the 
country.  In  1744  the  king  of  Prussia,  jealous  of  the 
success  attending  the  Austrians,  again  took  the  field 
against  them  in  support  of  the  emperor.  He  marched 
into  Bohemia  and  took  Prague,  but  subsequently  was 
forced  to  retreat;  and  the  death  of  the  emperor  Charles  on 
20th  January  1745  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs.  Maria 
Theresa's  husband  was  in  September  elected  emperor 
under  the  title  of  Francis  I.,  and  after  some  more  fight- 
ing, a  peace  was  concluded  with  Prussia  at  Dresden,  by 
which  the  king  was  confirmed  in  the  possession  of  Silesia. 
The  war  with  Franco  was  prosecuted  for  some  time  longer 
in  the  Netherlands  and  in  Italy  with  varying  success,  but 
ultimately  peace  was  concluded  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in 
October  1748.  Austria  gave  up  the  duchies  of  Parma, 
Placentia,  and  Guastalla  to  Don  Philip,  son  of  the  king 
of  Spain,  and  several  districts  of  Milan  to  Sardinia; 
Prussia  was  confirmed  ia  the  possession  of  Silesia  and 
Glatz ;  while  Maria  Theresa  was  recognised  as  rightful 
monarch  of  Austria.  After  having  acquired  peace,  and 
been  thus  confirmed  in  her  po.sSessions,  her  great  desire 
was  to  recover  Silesia  from  Frederick,  whose  conduct 
towards  her  had  sunk  deep  into  her  heart.  She  directed 
her  attention  to  strengthening  and  improving  her  army, 
and  to  forming  alliances  with  the  other  states  against  the 
Prussian  king,  particularly  with  Russia  and  Saxony.  In 
1755  war  broke  out  in  North  America  between  France 
and  England,  and  in  view  of  its  becoming  more  general 
England  solicited  the  aid  of  Austria,  but  without  success. 
This  naturally  led  to  a  union  between'England  and  Prussia, 
while  France  allied  herself  with  Austria  and  Russia. 

Jn  July  1756,  Frederick  desp.itched  a  messenger  to 
Vienna  to  ascertain  the  meaning  of  the  large  forces 
assembled  in  Bohemia  and  Mora\ia.  Receiving  an  evasive 
answer,  he  at  once  marched  an  army  of  60,000  men  into 
Saxony,  took  Dresden,  and  made  himself  master  of  the 
country,  the  Saxon  army  of  only  about  17,000  men  being 
shut  up  in  a  strong  position,  but  ill  provisioned,  between 
Pirna  and  Konigstein.  An  Austrian  army,  under  the 
command  of  Marshal  Browne,  advanced  from  Bohemia  to 
the  relief  of  Saxony,  but  was  met  by  Frederick.  A  battle 
took  place  at  Lowositz  (1st  October),  which,  though  not 
decisive,  ended  in  the  retreat  of  the  Austrians ;  and  the 
famished  Saxon  army,  after  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  effect 
a  retreat  to  Bohemia,  laid  down  their  arms.  This  ended 
the  first  campaign,  and  both  sides  did  their  utmost  to 
prepare  for  renewing  hostilities  the  following  year.  The 
empress  strengthened  her  forces  in  Bohemia,  and  the  1757 
imperial  diet  conceded  an  army  of  60,000  men  to  assist 
her.  France  engaged  to  send  an  army  of  80,000  or  100,000 
men  into  Germany,  and  Russia  set  in  motion  an  army  ol 
100,000  men  against  Prussia.  In  all,  the  allies  were  esti- 
mated to  muster  about  500,000  men,  while  Frederick  could 
scarcely  raise  200,000  of  his  own,  his  auxiliaries  (.English, 
Hanoverians,  <tc.)  probably  amounting  to  about  !0.000 
more.  Frederick  renewed  the  war  by  marching  an  army 
into  Bohemia,  where,  on  Cth  May,  he  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Austrians,  under  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  ;a  the 
neighbourhood  of  Prague,  and  then  laid  siego  to  that  city. 
General  Daun,  at  the  head  of  an  Austrian  army,  advanced 
to  the  relief  of  the  city,  and  the  king  set  out  to  meet  him. 
The  encounter  took  place  at  Kolin  (ISth  June),  and  the 


128 


A   U  S  T  R  I  A 


[histort- 


rrussians,  being  much  infer. it  in  numbers,  were  beaten 
witb  great  slaughter.  Frederick  was  compelled  at  once  to 
raise  the  siege  and  to  evacuate  Bohemia.  Iq  honour  of 
this  victory  the  eniiTe3S  instituted  the  military  order  of 
Maria  Theresa.  It  had  also  the  effect  of  inspiring  the  allies 
with  fresh  courage.  The  Russians  invaded  the  kingdom 
of  Prussia;  the  Swedes  entered  Pomerania  ;  and  two  French 
armies  crossed  the  Khine  ia  order  to  attack  Hesse  and 
Hanover  and  then  march  into  Prussia.  One  of  these  armies, 
under  the  comraand  of  Prince  Soubise,  advanced  towards 
Thuringia,  in  order  to  form  a  junction  with  the  imperial 
forces  under  the  prince  of  Hildburghaxisen,  while  Marshal 
d'Estr(;es,  who  commanded  the  larger  French  army,  en- 
tered Hanover,  and  through  the  incapacity  of  his  opponent, 
gained  an  easy  \'ictory  over  the  Anglo-Germanic  army, 
under  the  duke  of  Cumberland,  near  Hastenbeck,  on  the 
Weser  {2oth  July).  The  duke  afterwards  completed  his 
disgrace  by  agreeing  to  disband  his  troops  and  give  up 
Hanover,  Hesse,  Bninswick,  and  the  whole  country  between 
the  Weser  and  the  Rhine,  to  the  French.  The  other  French 
army  effected  a  union  with  the  imperial  troops  of  Thu- 
ringia, and  made  preparations  for  driving  the  Prussians 
out  of  Saxony.  Frederick,  however,  determined  to  meet 
them,  and  after  a  series  of  marches  and  countermarches 
the  two  armies  came  together  near  Rossbach.  The  Prus- 
sian army  amounted  to  about  22,000  men,  while  that  of 
the  French  and  Austrians  numbered  nearly  00,000.  Fre- 
derick's troops  were  encamped  upon  a  height,  and  the 
allies,  when  they  advanced  to  the  attack,  were  suddenly 
met  by  such  a  tremendous  fire  that  they  were  thrown  into 
confusion  and  unable  to  recover  themselves.  In  less  than 
half  an  hour  the  day  was  decided  (5th  November  1757). 
The  alhes  had  1200  killed  and  more  than  7000  taken 
prisoners,  while  the  loss  of  the  Prussians  scarcely  exceeded 
500  in  kdhd  and  wounded.  At  this  time  the  imperialists 
had  entered  Silesia  and  there  gained  several  advantages 
over  the  Prussians,  who  were  at  lengfh  driven  to  the  walls 
of  Breslau.  Here  a  battle  was  fought  (22d  November) -in 
wh.ch  the  Austrians  were  victorious,  and  the  city  itself 
soon  after  surrendered  to  the  conquerors.  Frederick  now 
made  what  haste  he  could  to  retrieve  his  fortunes  in  this 
quarter,  and  met  the  Austrian  army,  under  Prince  Charles 
of  Lorraine,  in  a  plain  near  the  village  of  Leuthen.  The 
Austrians  numbered  about  80,000  men,  while  the  Prus- 
sians did  not;  erceed  30,000,  yet  by  the  skilful  disposal  of 
his  troops  an'  the  celerity  of  his  movements  Frederick 
again  gained  a.  complete  victory  (5th  December).  The  fiehi 
was  covere'J  with  slain,  and  it  is  estimated  that  about 
20,000  f  ivreniered  .themselves  prisoners.  Breslau  was 
speedily  letaken,  and  the  Austrians  driven  out  of  Silesia. 

T'le  English  were  very  indignant  at  the  treaty  entered 
lato  by  the  duke  of  Cumberland,  and  another  army  was 
speedily  raised  and  placed  under  the  command  of  Duke 
1758  Ferdinand  of  Bninswick,  who  commented  the  campaign  of 
1758  by  suddenly  attacking  the  French  in  their  winter 
quarters.  In  a  few  weeks  he  succeeded  in  driving  them 
out  of  the  country,  pursued  them  across  the  Rhine,  and 
attacked  them  furiously  at  Crofcld,  where  they  were  com- 
pletely routed. 

While  Field-Marshal  Daun,  who  had  received  the  com- 
mand of  the  Austrian  army,  was  waiting  the  attack  of 
Frederick  in  Bohemia,  the  latter,  by  forced  marches, 
entered  Moravia  and  laid  siege  to  Olmutz.  The  town, 
however,  defended  itself  with  the  greatest  bravery,  and 
the  Prussians  were  compelled  to  raise  the  siege.  By  this 
time,  Daun  having  blocked  up  Frederick's  retreat  into 
Silesia,,  the  Prussian  array  was  marched  suddenly  north- 
ward into  Bohemia,  and  attacked  the  Russians  who  liad 
invaded  Brandenburg.  After  a  desperate  battle  the  latter 
wero  defeated   with  Rrcat   slau);htcr   at    Zorndoif   (2fith 


August),  and  compelled  to  retreat  into  Poland.  Frederick 
now  entered  Saxony,  where  his  brother  Prince  Henry  was 
hard  pressed  by  the  Austrians.  Thereupon  Daun,  retired 
to  a  strong  position  in  Lusatia,  and  Frederick  took  up  a 
position  near  him,  little  thinking  that  Daun  would  attack 
him.  Early  in  the  morning  of  the  14th  of  October,  however, 
the  Austrians  suddenly  fell  upon  Lim  at  the  village  of  Horh- 
kirchen,  and  in  the  confusion  and  darkness  the  slaughter 
was  terrible.  Frederick  lost  several  of  his  best  generals, 
including  Prince  Francis  of  Brunswick,  Prince  Maurice  of 
Dessau,  and  Field-Marshal  Keith,  with  about  9000  of  his 
soldiers.  His  camp,  baggage,  and  ammunition  also  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Austrians.  The  victory,  however, 
was  productive  of  little  material  results  ,  Frederick  retreated 
intO-Silesia,  while  the  Austrians,  after  ineffectual  attempts 
on  Lcipsic,  Torgau,  and  Dresden,  retired  to  Bohemia  for 
the  winter.  The  Austrian  army  was  again  largely  reinforced, 
and  every  preparation  made  for  renewing  hostilities  with 
vigour.  The  following  year  (1759)  Duke  Ferdinand  found  1759 
himself  hard  pressed  by  two  French  armies  under  the 
Duke  de  Broglie  and  the  Marshal  de  Contades.  He  sus- 
tained a  defeat  at  Bergen  (12th  April),  but  afterwards 
gained  a  signal  victory  at  Miuden  (1st  August),  and  com- 
pelled the  French  to  retreat.  Daur>,  waiting  the  approach 
of  the  Russians,  did  not  take  the  field  till  the  beginning 
of  May,  when,  on  their  advance  towards  the  Oder,  he 
moved  into  Lusatia.  In  June,  Dohna,  who  was  sent  to 
check  the  advance  of  the  Russians,  was  forced  to  retreat, 
and,  on  the  23d  July,  Wedel,  who  succeeded  hiin  in  ibe 
command,  "was  totally  routed  near  ZiiUichau.  The  Russians 
then  marched  on  to  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  where  they 
were  joined  'by  18,000  Austrians  under  Marshal  Loudon. 
Frederick  hastened  with  what  troops  he  could  collect  to 
give  battle  to  the  combined  army.  The  latter  took  up  a 
strong  position  on  the  heights  near  Kunorsdoif,  and  there 
they  were  attacked  early  on  the  12th  of  August  by  the 
king.  The  Prussians  numbered  about  50,000,  while  the 
Russians  and  Austrians  amounted  to  90,000.  The  bat.le 
raged  long  and  furiously,  and  .the  issue  was  long  doubtful, 
but  at  length  the  Russians  were  giving  way  on  all  sides, 
and  victory  was  about  to  declare  for  the  Prussians,  when 
unexpectedly  the  Austrians  made  a  furious  attack  upon 
them,  threw  them  into  confusion,  and  in  a  short  time 
drove  them  from  the  field.  Frederick  lost  in  this  action 
20,000  of  his  brave.st  troops,  and  the  loss  on  the  side  of 
the  allies  was  not  less  than  24,000  men  killed  and  wounded. 
In  the  meantime  the  Austrians  overran  Saxony,  took 
Torgau,  Wittenberg,  and  Leipsic,  and  invested  Dresden, 
which,  after  a  spirited  defence,  surrendered  when  an  army 
of  relief  was  close  at  hand.  But  Frederick  was  speedily  in 
the  field  again  at  the  head  of  a  new  army,  and,  by  dint  of 
skilful  manoeuvring  and  cutting  off  supplies,  be  succeeded 
in  harassing  the  two  armies,  and  compelled  the  Hussiana 
again  to  retire  into  Poland.  An  army  of  13,000  men, 
under  General  Fink,  attacked  the  rear  of  the  Austrian 
army  near  Maxen,  but  after  a  brief  but  sanguinary  conflict 
they  were  defeated  and  taken  prisoners.  Daun  took  up 
his  winter  quarters  in  Saxony,  nc^withstauding  every  effort 
of  Frederick  to  dispossess  him. 

The  imperial  troops  had  been  very  successful  during  the 
last  campaign,  and  were  in  good  condition  to  renew  the 
fight,  while  the  Prussians  had  sustained  great  losses,  were 
dispirited,  and  could  only  muster  about  80,000  fighting 
men,  and  these  no  longer  veterans,  but  in  great  measure  raw 
recruits.  In  the  campaign  of  1 7C0  Frederick  vras  hi'mscif  tn 
couduct  the  war  in  Saxony,  Prince  Henry  was  to  protect  the 
marches  against  the  Russians,  and  Geneial  Fouquct  svas  to 
defend  Silesia  against  the  Austrians  under  Loudon.  On 
2od  June,  8000  I'russians,  under  Fouquet,  were' surrounded 
and  attacked  on  all  sides  by  30,000  Austrians  at  Landshut, 


nisroiiv.] 


AUSTRIA 


12d 


:md,  after  defending  tuemselvca  long  witli  great  bravery, 
uere  obliged  to  yield.  The  king,  after  an  ineCfectual 
uttack  upon  Dresden,  marched  into  Silesia  followed  by  tie 
Austrians.  At  Liegnitz  ho  found  himself  bttween  thn^e 
armies,  under  Uecerals  Daun,  Lacy,  and  Loudon,  number- 
ing about  90,000  men,  while  lus  own  army  amounted  to 
only  aboat  30,000.  On  the  night  preceding  the  15th  of 
August,  Frederick  took  np  a  position  on  the  neighbouring 
heights  of  Pfaffendorf.  Scarcely  had  he  done  so  when  the 
Austrian  army,  under  Loudon,  made  its  appearance,  it 
having  also  intended  to  occupy  the  same  position,  and 
then  fall  upon  the  Prussians.  The  Austrians  were  greatly 
astonished  to  find  the  enemy  before  them ;  nevertheless, 
ihey  fought  for  three  hours  with  great  bravery,  return- 
ing again  and  again  to  the  attack,  but  were  at  length 
compelled  to  retreat  with  a  loss  of  4000  killed  and  6000 
wounded.  Daun  afterwards  came  up  and  made  an  attack 
upon  the  Prussians,  but,  learning  what  had  happened  to 
Loudon,  he  withdrew.  Frederick  now  directed  tis  march 
on  Breslau ;  and  meanwhile  the  Russians  effected  a  junc- 
tion with  the  Austrians,  and  msrched  on  Berlin,  which 
surrendered  to  them  (3d  October).  A  week  later,  hearing 
that  the  king  was  advancing  against  them,  they  left  the 
city  and  retired  into  Saxony.  Daun  had  likewise  arrived 
iu  Saxony,  and  taken  up  a  very  strong  position  near 
Torgau.  Here  the  Prussians  attached  him  with  great  fury 
on  3d  November.  The  battle  lasted  till  night  without 
being  decisive,  and  the  carnage  on  both  sides  was  fearful. 
The  Prussians  prepared  to  renew  the  attack  next  day,  but 
the  Austrians  retreated  during  the  night.  They  lost  about 
1 2,000  men  killed  and  wounded,  and  8000  prisoners.  By 
this  battle  Frederick  reconquered  the  greater  part  of 
Saiony,  and  accordingly  he  fixed  his  winter  quarters  there, 
establishing  his  headquarters  at  Leipsio.  In  1761  Frederick 
employed  every  stratagem  to  prevent  the  junction  of  the 
Russian  army  under  Buturlin  with  the  Austrian  under 
Loudon.  The  two  armies,  however,  at  length  came  to- 
gether in  the  environs  of  Strigau  (12th  August),  the  com- 
bined force  amounting  to  130,000  men,  while  the  Prussians 
numbered  only  about  50,000.  The  leaders,  'however, 
could  not  agree  to  a  common  course  of  proceeding,  and 
the  two  onnies  separated  without  effecting  anything  of 
consequence.  The  Austrians  surprised  and  took  Schweid- 
nitz  ( Ist  October),  and  the  Prussians,  after  a  four  months' 
siege,  took  possession  of  Colberg  (13th  December).  In 
Saxony  Prince  Henry  had  to  retreat  before  Daun ;  but  the 
latter  gained  no  great  advantages,  and  Frederick  settled  in 
Breslau  for  the  winter.  It  seemed  as  if  Prussia  must  at 
last  yield  to  her  assailants,  but  this  was  as  far  as  ever  from 
the  king's  mind.  To  add  to  his  diflSculties,  the  subsidies 
'rom  England  were  stopped  by  the  earl  of  Bute  after  the 
Jeath  of  George  IL  But  by  the  death  of  the  Czarina 
Elizabeth  (5th  January  1762)  ho  was  freed  from  one  of 
the  most  powerful  of  his  enemies;  and  her  successor, 
Peter  III.,  not  only  recalled  the  army,  but  delivered  up  all 
the  Prussian  prisoners,  and  even  entered  into  an  alliance 
.  with  the  king  Sweden  also  retired  from  the  contest,  and 
entered  into  terms  of  peace. .  Frederick  was  therefore  in  a 
better  condition  to  carry  on  the  war  vigorously  against 
Austria,  and  the  seventh  campaign  was  marked  by  a  series 
of  dLsaaters  to  that  power.  He  attacked  and  overthrew 
Daun's  right  wing  at  Burkersdorf  (21st  July),  gained  a 
victory  at  Reichenbach  (16th  August),  and  took  Schweid- 
nitz  after  a  very  gallant  defence  (9th  October).  Prince 
Henry  was  also  victorious  at  Freiberg  (29th  October).  In 
the  meantime  Duke  Ferdinand  had  been  during  the  Inst 
three  years  succeasfuUy  maintaining  the  war  with  the 
French.  Fresh  reinforcements  and  new  generals  were 
brought  agailisthim,  but  he  could  not  be  crushed  ;  and,  by 
the  victories  of  Wilhclmsthal  (24th  June)  and  Luttcrn- 
3-7 


burg  (23d  July),  France  was  brought  to  agree  to  peace. 
Thus  Austria  and  Prussia  were  left  to  carry  on  the  war 
alone  ;  and  the  former,  though  amply  proWded  with  troops, 
was  without  money  to  furnish  the  necessary  supplies,  while 
Frederick  was  ever  ready  to  come  to  terms  on  having  the 
possession  of  Silesia  secured  to  him.  Austria  found  herself 
obliged  to  yield  this  point,  and  peace  was  at  length  agreed 
to.  The  treaty  was  signed  at  the  castle  of  Hubertaburg, 
in  Saiony,  15tli  February  1763,  and  thus  ended  the  Seven  1761 
Years'  War, — a  war  disastrous  to  all  concerned,  and  which 
is  estimated  to  have  cost  in  actual  fighting  men  853,000. 
It  effected  no  territorial  change  in  any  of  the  countries, 
but  through  it  Prussia  rose  to  be  one  of  the  great  powers 
of  Europe.  Austria,  on  her  part,  had  carried  on  the  coij- 
flict  with  remarkable  vigour  and  determination ;  her  sol- 
diers had  displayed  great  bravery,  and  some  of  her  generals 
had  shown  a  military  genius  not  greatly  inferior  to  that  of 
Frederick  himself. 

Maria  Theresa  now  zealously  devoted  herself  to  improv- 
ing the  condition  of  her  people  and  country.  She  estab- 
lished schools,  removed  feudal  hardships,  imprgved  the 
condition  of  the  serfs,  reformed  ecclesiastical  abuses,  and 
fostered  industry  and  commerce.  The  Emperor  Francis 
died  18th  August  1765,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Joseph  II.,  who  the  previous  year  had  been  elected  king  of 
the  Romans.  He  also  became  joint-regent  with  his  mother 
of  the  hereditary  states.  Maria  established  two  collateral 
branches  of  her  house  in  the  persons  of  ber  two  younger 
sons,  the  Archduke  Leopold  in  Tuscany,  and  the  Archduke 
Ferdinand,  who  married  the  heiress  of  Este,  it  Modena 
By  the  first  partition  of  Poland  (1772)  Austria  acquired 
Oalicia  and  Lodomeria,  and  in  1777  Buckowina  was  ceded 
by  the  Porte.  On  the  death  <jf  the  elector  of  Bavaria 
without  issue,  the  Emperor  Joseph  laid  claim  to  his  do- 
minions. To  this  Frederick  was  opposed,  and  again  took 
the  field  against  Austria.  The  dispute,  however,  was 
settled  without  war  (1779),  Austria  being  content  with  the 
cession  by  Bavaria  of  the  frontier  district  called  the  quarter 
of  th£  Inn,  and  one  or  two  others.  The  empress  died  29tli 
November  1780,  in  the  sixty  fourth  year  of  her  age  and  the 
forty-first  of  her  reign.  She  was  a  woman  of  many  and 
great  virtues,  with  few  weaknesses,  and  effected  more  for 
Austria  than  any  of  her  predecessors.  Mr  Carlylo  says 
that  she  was  "most  brave,  high  and  pious  minded  ;  beauti- 
ful, too,  and  radiant  with  good  nature,  though  of  a  temper 
that  will  easily  catch  fire ;  there  is,  perhaps,  no  nobler 
woman  then  Lving."  At  her  death  the  monarchy  com' 
prised  234,500  square  miles,  with  a  population  estimated 
at  ?4,000,000,  and  a  public  debt  of  160,000,000  florins,  oi 
£16,000,000. 

The  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  whose  zeal  for  reform  had  in 
great  measure  been  kept  in  check  during  the  lifetime  of  his 
mother,  now  felt  himself  at  liberty  to  give  it  full  scope. 
He  attempted  a  number  of  changes,  of  which  several  were 
praiseworthy  in  their  objects,  but  abrupt  and  premature  in 
their  operation,  so  that  in  the  end  they  were  productive  of 
evil  consequences.  He  sought  to  establish  a  system  of 
central  government  and  uniformity  of  legislation  through- 
out his  dominions;  enjoined  the  exclusive  use  of  the  German 
language  in  all  schools,  courts  of  justice,  ice  ;  granted  free 
and  unrtaer^ed  toleration  to  all  sects  of  Christians ;  abo' 
lished  numerous  convents  and  monasteries ;  dismantled 
various  fortresses ;  and  did  away  with  primogeniture  and 
feudal  vassalage.  Had  his  people  been  ripe  for  theso 
changes  he  would  probably  have  been  hailed  as  a  reformer 
of  abuses  ,  but  the  Austrians  were  attached  to  their  old 
usages,  and  were  little  inclined  for  change,  while  the  arbi- 
trary manner  in  which  the  improvements  were  introduced 
could  not  fail  to  provoke  discontent.  General  uneasiness, 
therefore,   began    to    prevail,   whicji    in    t!;o   NVtbrr'indj 


130 


A  U  S  T  }l  I  A 


[msror.v. 


Tatoki  out  into  open  revolt  in  1789.  Tliis,  togetlier  with 
an  unsuccessful  war  in  which  he  had  engaged  with  Russia 
against  Turkey,  is  understood  to  have  preyed  upon  his 
over-seusitiva  mind,  and  caused  his  death  on  "iOth  February 
1790.  He  was,  says  Mr  Carlyle,  "a  man  of  very  high 
<[ualiti6S,  and  much  too  conscious  of  them  ;  a  man  of  am- 
bition without  bounds ;  one  of  those  fatal  men — fatal  to 
themselves  first  of  all — who  mistake  half  genius  for  whole; 
and  rush  on  the  second  step  without  having  made  the  first." 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Leopold,  grand  duke 
of  Tuscany,  who  by  his  moderation  and  firmness  was  suc- 
cessful in  restoring  peace  to  the  country,  and  in  quelling 
the  insurrection  in  the  Netherlands.  He  also  made  peace 
with  the  Porte.  The  misfortunes  of  his  sister  Maria 
Antoinette  and  her  husband,  Louis  XVL  of  France,  led 
liim  to  enter  into  an  alliance  with  Prussia  against  the 
J792  Revolutionists,  but  he  died  before  the  war  broke  out  (1st 

March  1792)  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis 
II.,  who  had  hardly  ascended  the  throne  when  he  found 
War  witl;  himself  involved  in  a  war  with  France.  Hostilities  com- 
fraiae  menced  on  28th  April  with  on  attempted  invasion  of 
Flanders  by  the  French,  but  their  undisciplined  troops 
wore  speedily  routed  and  put  to  flight.  A  combined  army 
of  50,000  Prussians,  under  the  command  of  the  duke  of 
Brunswick,  and  15,000  Austrians  under  General  Claufait, 
besides  about  20,000  French,  soon  after  crossed  the  French 
frontier,  took  Longwy  and  Verdun,  and  marched  on  Paris. 
In  the  meantime  Dumouriez  was  actively  engaged  in  col- 
lecting an  army,  and  soon' found  himself  'in  a  condition  to 
jneet  them,  A  series  of  engagements  took  place  without 
any  decided  result,  beyond  checking  the  advance  of  the 
jiUied  troops,  who  were  now  also  suflfering  very  severely 
<fom  sickness  and  famine.  It  was  therefore  deemed  pru- 
dent to  retire,  and  Verdun  and  Longwy  were  soon  after 
retaken.  Dumouriez  ne.xt  invaded  the  Netherlands  with 
en  army  of  100,000  men,  to  oppose  which  the  Austrian 
army  only  amounted  to  40,000.  A  battle  took  place  at 
Jemappes  on  the  6th  of  November,  in  which  the  Austrians 
fought  with  heroic  bravery,  and  the  contest  was  long 
doubtful,  but  the  superior  numbers  of  the  French  carried 
the  day,  The  loss  on  both  sides  was  very  great ;  and  soon 
.after  the  whole  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  with  the  e.x- 
ception  of  Luxemburg,  was  in  the  hands  of  the  French. 
The  commencement  of  the  campaign  of  1793  was  dis- 
tinguished by  a  series  of  brilliant  victories  gained  by  the 
lilies  in  the  Netherlands.  Dumouriez  was  defeated  at 
Aldenhoven,  and  again  in  a  great  battle  at  Neerwinden 
(18th  March).  Soon  after,  afraid  of  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  Jacobins  in  Paris,  he  passed  over  to  the  allies.  His 
successor.  General  Dampierre,  was  defeated  and  slain  on 
the  plains  of  Famars,  and  the  allies  became  masters  of 
Valenciennes  and  Condd.  Towards  the  end  of  the  cam- 
jjaign,  however,  the  republican  troops  were  successful  in  a 
uumber  of  engagements.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
year  1794,  the  Austrians,  Dutch,  English,  and  Hanoverians 
united  their  forces  in  the  Netherlands  under  the  command 
of  the  prince  of  Coburg,  and  the  Emperor  Francis  himself 
joined  the  camp,  in  order  by  his  presence  to  encourage  the 
troops.  In  April  the  allies  were  successful  at  Gateau  and 
at  Landrccies,  and  took  that  town  ;  but  their  good  fortune 
then  forsook  them.  Clairfait  was  attacked  singly  at  Kor- 
tryk  by  Pichegru,  and  forced  to  yield  to  supifrior  numbers; 
und  the  allies  under  the  prince  of  Coburg  were  attacked  by 
bim  at  Tournay  (22d  May),  when  an  extremely  long  and 
bloody,  but  undecisive,  battlo  was  fought.  The  Austrian 
troops  were  now  greatly  dispirited ;  and,  on  the  2Cth  June 
they  were  defeated  by  General  Jourdan  at  Plcurus.  This 
was  followed  by  other  disasters,  so  that  all  Flanders  was  soon 
in  the  hands  of  the  French.  Pichegni,  pursuing  his  vic- 
torious career,  next  invaded  Holland,  which,  before  the  end 


of  the  year,  was  transformed  into  a  republic.  In  the  begin-  !  '95 
ning  of  1795  Prussia  abandoned  the  cause  of  the  allies,  and 
concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  French  republic  at  Basle 
(5th  April),  and  was  joined  therein  by  Hanover  and  Hesse 
Cassel,  so  that  Austria  and  England  were  left  alone  to  pro- 
secute the  war.  For  some  months  a  cessation  of  hostilities 
took  place  between  the  contending  parties ;  but  on  the  6th  of 
September  the  French  army  under  Jourdan  suddenly  crossed 
the  Rhme  near  Diisseldorf,  invested  that  town,  and  drove 
the  Austrians  before  it  over  the  Maine.  Clairfait,  however, 
reassembled  his  troops  behind  the  latter  river,  and  attacked 
the  French  at  Hochst,  ne'ar  Frankfort,  and  completely 
defeated  them  (Uth  October),  so  that  they  were  obliged  to 
recross  the  Rhine.  In  the  meantime  Pichegru  had  crossed 
the  river  with  another  army,  near  Mannheim,  and  took  pos- 
session of  that  town.  Wurraser,  who  was  sent  for  its  relief, 
arrived  too  late  for  that  purpose,  but  .attacked  the  French 
army  near  it,  put  them  to  flight,  and  compelled  them  to 
recross  the  Rhin-j,  leaving  a  garrison  of  8000  men  to  defend 
the  town,  which,  after  a  vigorous  siege,  surrendered  to 
the  Austrians.  The  French,  undismayed  by  these  failures, 
were  only  stimulated  to  greater  efforts  ;  and  the  following  1798. 
year  they  sent  out  three  armies  against  Austria,  one  under 
Jourdan  towards  the  Lower  Rhine,  another  under  Moreau 
towards  the  Upper  Rhine,  and  a  third  into  Italj'.  In  the 
end  of  May  the  French  army  under  Jourdan  crossed  the 
Lower  Rhme,  and  gained  some  successes,  but  was  after- 
wards attacked  by  the  Archduke  Charles  (IGth  June),  and 
forced  to  recross  the  river.  Moreau  soon  after  efi"ected  his 
passage  over  the  Upper  Rhine  at  Strasburg,  defeated  the 
Austrians  in  several  partial  engagements,  and  reduced  the 
circle  of  Swabia  to  subjection.  Jourdan  again  pushed  for- 
ward his  troops,  and  took  Frankfort  by  bombardment, 
but  was  defeated  with  great  loss  by  the  archduke  at  Am- 
berg  (24th  August),  and  (igain  at  Wurzburg  (3d  September). 
Moi-cau  had  in  the  meantime  continued  his  advance  into 
Bavaria,  but  was  ultimately  obliged  to  effect  a  retreat, 
which  he  carried  out  with  great  skill,  sufl'ering  compara- 
tively little  loss,  and  recrossing  the  Rhine  on  20th  October. 
But  a  different  fate  was  attending  the  army  in  Italy,  under 
the  command  of  a  young  oflficer,  who  afterwards  became 
world-famous  for  his  generalship,  namely,  Bonaparte.  By 
the  promptitude  of  his  movements,  and  the  suddenness  of 
his  attacks,  he  completely  overcame  and  separated  the 
nrmy  of  the  Sardinians  from  that  of  the  Austrians,  and 
forced  the  Sardinian  king  to  sign  a  treaty  of  peace. 
He  then  turned  his  arms  against  the  Austrians,  defeated 
them  in  several  engagements,  and  made  himself  master  of 
the  whole  of  Lombardy,  except  Mantua.  Wurmser  was 
now  summoned  from  Germany  with  an  army  of  30,000 
men,  which  raised  the  |Austrian  force  to  about  60,000 ; 
while  opposed  to  them  were  about  55,000  French.  In- 
stead, however,  of  advancing  in  one  body,  the  Austrians 
were  divided  into  two  columns,  which  advanced  by  different 
routes,  a  mistake  of  which  Bonaparte  did  not  fail  to  take 
advantage.  One  division  of  20,000  men  was  attacked  and 
compelled  to  retreat  towards  the  mountains,  while  Wurmser 
with  the  other  division  entered  Mantua.  Leaving  that 
city  ho  sustained  a  double  defnat  atLonato  and  CastigUone 
(3d  August);  and,  being  again "Bevorcly  beaten  at  Medola 
(5th  August),  he  was  forced  to  seek  shelter  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Tyrol.  Having  received  reinforcements,  however, 
ho  again  advanced  in  divided  columns,  one  of  which  was 
defeated  at  Roveredo,  the  other,  under  himself,  neat 
Da-ssano.  He  took  the  road  to  Mantua  with  the  remains 
of  his  army,  and  reached  that  town  after  a  brilliant  victory 
over  a  body  of  French  troops  that  had  been  sent  to  iu- 
torccpt  him.  Meanwhile  the  Austrians  collected  another 
anvy  of  40,000  men  under  Alvinzi,  who,  after  a  scries  oi 
successes,  gftincd  a   decided   victory   over    Bonaparte  ul 


HISTOBYJ 

CaldiCTO  (lUli  NoTembcr).  Four  Jays  later  the  Austrrans 
were  again  attacked  by  the' French  near  the  village  of 
Areola,  and  after  three  days'  desperate  fighting  on  both 
Bides  the  Austrians  at  length  retreated.  Alwnzi  received 
reinforcements,  and  again  set  out  to  attack  the  French,  but 
suffered  a  severe  defeat  at  Rivoli  on  14th  January  1797. 
A  fortnight  later  Mantua  capitulated,  and  the  French  be- 
came undisputed  masters  of  the  country.  Speaking  of  the 
perseverance  and  patriotic  spirit  of  the  Austrians  in  this 
struggle  in  Italy,  Sir  A.  Alison  says,  "  It  is  impossible  to 
'contemplate  without  admiration  the  vast  armies  which 
they  successively  sent  into  the  field,  and  the  unconquerable 
courage  with  which  these  returned  to  a  contest  where  so 
many  thousands  of  their  countrymen  had  perished  before 
them.  Had  they  been  gtiided  by  greater  or  opposed  by 
less  ability  they  unquestionably  would  have  been  successful, 
and  even  against  the  soldiers  of  the  army  of  Italy  and  the 
genius  of  Napoleon,  the  scales  of  fortune  repeatedly  hung 
equaL" — {History  of  Europe.)  The  Archduke  Charles  was 
now  recalled  from  the  Rhine  to  oppose  Bonaparte.  The 
latter  set  out  on  his  journey  northward  on  the  10th  of 
March,  with  the  view  of  crossing  the  Alps  aiid  so  reaching 
Vienna.  The  Austrians  attempted  to  oppose  his  progress 
at  the  river  Tagliamento,  but  without  success ;  and  a 
desperate  struggle  took  pbce  for  the  possession  of  the  Col 
de  Tarvis,  which  ended  in  favour  of  Napoleon,  so  that  in 
twenty  days  after  the  campaign  opened  the  army  of  the 
archduke  was  driven  over  the  Julian  Alps,  and  the  victori- 
ous French  army  of  45,000  strong  was  on  the  northern 
declivity  of  the  Alps,  within  60  leagues  of  Vienna. 
Napoleon,  still  pressing  on,  took  possession  of  Klagenfurt, 
and  advanced  as  far  as  Judenburg  on  the  River  Mur  ;  but. 
finding  his  position  very  insecure,  and  dangers  thickening 
upon  him,  he  despaired  of  carrying  out  his  intention  of 
dictating  peace  under  the  walls  of  Vienna.  Ho  there- 
fore, offered  terms  of  accommodation  to  the  Austrians, 
which  they  deemed  it  prudent  to  accept.  Preliminaries 
were  agreed  to  at  Lebben  (18lh  April),  and  a  formal  treaty 
of  peace  was  signed  at  Campo  Formic,  17th  October  1797.' 
By  this  treaty  Austria  ceded  to  France  Flanders  and  her 
Italian  possessions,  and  received  in  return  Venice  and  its 
dependent  provinces.  It,  however,  contained  certain 
eecret  articles,  by  one  of  which  Austria  consented  to  sur- 
render the  whole  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  France  ; 
and  a  convention  was  appointed  to  meet  at  Rastadt  to  pro- 
vide equivalents  on  the  right  bank  for  the  princes  dis 
possessed  on  the  left,  and  otherwise  to  settle  the  affairs  of 
the  empire  The  terms  were  not  particularly  hard  as 
regards  Austria.  The  ceded  territories  contained  about 
3,500,000  souls,  and  those  acquired  about  3,400,000.  But 
the  taking  away  of  the  independence  of  Venice,  which  had 
been  maintained  for  1400  years,  was  an  act  of  rapacity 
which  excited  the  indignation  of  Europe,  and  Austria's 
share  in  it  must  ever  remain  a  stain  on  her  annals. 

This  peace  was  not  of  long  duration.  As  the  business 
of  a  convention  which  met  at  Rastadt  advanced,  and  the 
bearing  of  the  secret  articles  became  known,  a  great  sensa- 
tion was  created  in  Germany.  The  highhanded  manner 
in  which  the  French  conducted  their  negotiations,  and  the 
insolence  andcontempt  with  which  they  treated  the  empire, 
led  to  the  recall  of  the  Austrian  aftibassidor  from  the  con- 
vention in  the  beginning  of  1799,  and  on  the  13th  of 
March  Franca  again  deobred  waragainst  Austria.  In  the 
meantime  the  latter  power  had  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  England  and  Russia  against  the  former.  In  Germany 
the  Archdoke  Charles  defeated  Jonrdan  at  Stockach  (26th 
March),  and  in  several  otherenconnters,  and  drove  him  out 
of  the  country  ;  and  he  afterwards  reconquered  the  whole 
•of  the  western  portion  of  Switzerland  to  beyond  Zurich 
from  Masseoa.     In    Italy  Scberer    was   defeated   by  the 


AUSTRIA 


131 


Austrian  general  Kray  at  Verona  and  at  Magnano,  and  then 
resigned  the  command  inlo  the  bauds  of  Moreau.  The 
•Russian  army,  under  Suwaroff,  now  formed  a  junction 
with  the  Austrian,  and  the  French  were  again  beaten  near 
Cassano  (27th  April).  This  was  followed  by  other  suc- 
cesses, so  that  in  less  than  three  months  the  French 
standards  were  driven  back  to  the  summit  of  the  Alps, 
and  the  whole  plain  of  Lombardy,  vrith  the  exception  of  a 
few  of  its  strongest  fortresses,  was  recovered.  After  this 
the  Russian  general  marched  against  Macdonald,  who  was 
advancing  with  a  French  army  from  Naples.  A  desperate 
conflict  took  place  on  the  banks  of  the  Trebbia,  which  was 
maintained  with  consummate  bravery  and  skLU  for  three 
days  (17-19  June),  until  victory  declared  for  the  Russians. 
Out  of  36,000  men  in  the  field  the  French  lost  above 
12,000  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  the  allies  nearly  as 
many.  .  One  place  after  another  now  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  allies;  but  mutual  jealousies  and  divisions  breaking 
out  among  them,  the  Russian  and  Austrian  forces  were 
eventually  separated.  This  led  to  the  most  disastrous 
results.  The  Russians  were  to  prosecute  the  war  in 
Switzerland,  while  the  Austrians  remained  to  carry  it  on 
in  Italy.  In  the  meantime  another  French  army  had  been 
collected  under  General  Joubert;  and,  on  the  15th  of 
August  he  was  attacked  by  the  allies  at  Novi.  The  battle 
was  long  and  obstinate,  but  at  length  the  allies  were 
victorious.  The  French  lost  their  general,  who  fell  mortally 
wounded,  besides  about  1500  killed,  5500  wounded,  and 
3000  prisoners.  The  loss  of  the  allies  was  1800  killed, 
5200  wounded,  and  1200  prisoners.  The  Russian  general 
now  directed  his  march  towards  the  -Alps,  forced  the  St 
Gotthard,  and  descended  into  the  valley  of  the  Urseren, 
driving  the  French  before  him  with  great  slaughter.  With 
great  difficulty  and  loss  he  effected  a  passage  through  the 
horrible  defile  of  the  Shachenthal,  between  Altdort  and 
Mutten;  but,  at  the  latter  place,  instead  of  meeting  the 
allied  troops,  as  he  had  expected,  he  found  himself  in  the 
midst  of  the  enemy.  Before  this  time  Massena  had  sd 
beset  the  Russian  general  Korsakoff  at  Zurich,  that  he  was 
compelled  to  fight,  and  with  difficulty  made  his  escape 
with  the  remains  of  his  army,  while  the  Austrian  forces 
-under  Hotze  had  also  been  beaten  by  Soult.  Nothing 
remained  for  Suwaroff  but  retreat,  a  course  which  he 
adopted  with  extreme  reluctance,  making  his  way  witli 
incredible  resolution  and  perseverance  over  the  ru;;ged 
Alps  into  Glarus  and  the  Orisons,  and  at  length  reaching 
the  valley  of  the  Rhine  (10th  October).  Disagreements 
having  taken  place  between  the  Austrian  and  Russian 
generals  regarding  their  future  proceedings,  the  latter  with 
drew  to  winter  quarters  in  Bavaria  ;  and  soon  after  this 
the  capricious  czar  of  Russia,  Paul,  withdrew  from  the 
alliance  and  recalled  his  troops. 

Bonaparte,  who  had  now  returned  from  his  Egyptian 
campaign,  made  proposals  for  peace,  which  were  rejected, 
and  both  sides  prepared  to  renew  the  contest  in  1800.  A 
numerous  and  well-appointed  French  army  was  collected  at 
Dijon,  at  the  head  of  which  the  first  consul  suddenly  put 
himself,  and  set  out  for  Italy  across  the  Great  St  Bernard. 
The  passage  was  effected  with  great  skill  and  determination 
in  spite  of  every  obstacle,  and  he  arrived  in  Lombardy  before 
Melas,  the  Austrian  general  there,  bad  been  informed  of 
the  expedition.  On  the  14th  of  Juge  a  great  battle  took 
place  near  the  village  of  Marengo,  the  most  obstinate  and 
sanguinary  that  had  up  to  this  time  been  fought.  The 
Austrian  army  numbered  21,000  foot  and  7000  bbrse, 
while  opposed  to  them  was  an  army  of  22,000  men.  The 
battle  was  maintained  with  great  spirit  and  obstinacy  on 
both  sides ;  bnt  at  length,  after  repeated  charges,  the 
French  were  compelled  to  give  way,  and  the  retreat  be- 
came general.     At  this  moment,  however,  a  fresh  body  of 


132 


A   U  IS  T  11  X  A 


[histobv. 


UM. 


French  troops  under  D^saijc  arriving  on  the  field  tlie  con- 
test was  renewed,  and  after  a  final  struggle  the  Austrians 
were  compelled  to  yield.  They  lost  about  7000  men  in 
killed  and  wounded,  and  3000  prisoners^  while  the  French 
lost  about  the  same  number  in  killed  and  wounded,  and 
1000  prisoner?,  taken  in  the  early  part  of  the  day.  Their 
retreat  being  cut  off,  the  Austrians  capitulated  to  the 
conqueror,  who  thus  again  acquired  possession  of  the 
whole  of  Italy  In  the  meantime  Moreau  had  invaded 
Germany  and  defeated  Kray  in  several -engagements,  parti- 
cularly at  Stocliach  and  Moskirch,  and  again  at  Biberach 
and  Hochstadt ;  he  also  took  Munich,  and  laid  Bavaria 
and  Swabia  under  contribution.  'An  armistice  was  now 
agreed  to  (Parsdorf,  loth  July),  and  overtures  were 
made  for  peace,  but  without  success.  Hostilities  were 
resumed  in  the  end  of  November,  and  at  first  the  Austrians 
gained  some  advantages,  but  on  the  3d  of  December  they 
sustained  a  crushing  defeat  at  Hohenlinden.  The  fight 
was  long  and  obstinate  ;  the  French  lost  on  that  and  the 
preceding  days  9000  men,  while  the  loss  of  the  Austrians 
was  nearly  twice  as  great.  The  moral  effects  of  the  defeat 
were  .-most  disastrous  Moreau  now  -advanced  by  hasty 
marches,  crossed  the  Inn,  took  Salzburg,  and  pressed  on 
towards  Vienna  but  an  armistice  was  agreed  to  on  25th 
December.  In  Italy  the  Austrian  forces  sustained  a  severe 
defeat  at  ihe  passage  of  the  MinciQ  (26th  December). 
Saffering  under  these  disasters  Austria  was  glad  to  agree 
to  terms,  which  were  concb'ded  at  Luneville,  9th  February 
1801. 

By  this  treaty  the  whole  of  tie  left  bank  of  the  Rhine 
'was  again  ceded  to  France,  and  the  Adige  was  declared  to 
be  the  boundary  of  Austria  in  Italy ;  tho  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany,  on  the  promise  of  an  indemnity  in  Germany,  re- 
nounced his  dukedom  in  favour  of  the  infant  duke  of 
Parma,  created  king  of  Etruria  ;  the  duke  of  Modena  re- 
ceived the  margraviate  of  Breisgau  in  exchange  for  his 
territory  ;-and  tho  independence  of  the  Batavian,  Helvetic, 
Cisalpine,  and  LigUrian  republics  was  recognised  and 
guaranteed.  .  A  convention  was  to  be  again  summoned  for 
the  regulation  and  adjiistment  of  the  rights  of  all  con- 
cerned. In  order  tQ^  provide  indemnities  for  the  despoiled 
princes,  a  large  proportion  of  the  ecclesiastical  sovereignties 
of  the  empire  was  seculamed,  or,  in  other  words,  con- 
fiscated; and  all  the  free  imperial  cities  were  deprived  of 
their  privileges  with  the  exception  of  si.^c  To  the  share  of 
Prussia  fell  the  bishoprics  of  Hildesheim  and  Paderborn, 
the  city  of  Munster,  and  other  cities  and  abbacies,  to  the 
amount  of  more  tha^n  four  times  what  she  had  lost  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Thus  was  she  rewarded  for  her 
discreditable  neutrality  and  impolitic  desertion  of-  the 
European  alliance,  though  she  subsequently  suffered  for  this 
nt  Jena  and  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit.  Tho  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany  received  the  archbishopric  of  Salzburg,  the  bishopric 
of  Eichstadt,  and  part  of  that  of  Passau,  in  exchange  for 
liis  hereditary  possessions.  .  Austria  received  the  Tyrolesc 
archbishoprics  of  Trent  and  Brixen.  She  had  also  received, 
in  1795,  Western  Galicia  as  her  share  in  the  third  division 
'>f  Polamd,  so  that  now  her  territory  comprised  over 
254,000  square  miles,  her  public  debt  amounting  to 
1,220,000,000  florins,  or  £122,000,000. 

Aujstria  now  enjoyed  a  short  period  of  peace,  and  cm- 
ployed  it  in  silently  repairing  the  breaches  in  her  army  and 
finances  which  had  been  produced  by  the  late  wars. '  After 
Napoleon  had  assumed  the  title  of  empcrop  of  the  French, 
the  Emperor  Francis  took  for  himself  and  his  sueccS-sors 
that  of  emperor  of  Austria  (11th  August  1804).  On  llth. 
April  1805,  an  alliance  was  formed  between  England  and, 
Russia  for  rcsi.sting  the  encroachments  of  France,  and  some 
months  later  Austria  and  Sweden  likewise  joined  it. 
Prussia  hold  aloof,  in  tho  hope  of  receiving  Hanover  as  a 


reward  for  her  neutrality ;  while  Baden,  Wiirtembcrg,  and 
Bavaria  skied  with  France.  Deceived  by  the  efforts  that 
Napoleon  was  ostensibly  making  for  the  invasion  of  Eng- 
land, the  Austrians  (9th  Septeruber)  crossed  the  Inn,  in- 
vaded Bavaria,  and  took  up  a  position  in  the  Black  Forest. 
Jleanwhile  the  French  troops  were  in  full  march  from  the 
shores  of  the  Channel  to  the  banks  of  the  Rhine ;  and  the 
force  in  Hauover,  under  Bernadotte,  tvas  ordered  to  cross 
the  Prussian  territory  without  asking  permission,  and  form 
a  junction  with  the  Bavarians  in  the  rear  of  the  Austrians, 
while  other  corps  were  at  the  same  time  directed  by  circuit- 
ous routes  upon  their  flanks.  The  Austrian  general.  Mack, 
on  the  first  intelligence  of  the  approach  of  the  French,  had 
concentrated  his  forces  at  Ulm,  Memmingen,  and  Stockach, 
contemplating  an  attack  only  in  front.  Great  was  his- 
consternation,  therefore,  when  he  found  that  there  was  also 
an  army  on  his  rear.  After  several  partial  engagements, 
in  which  the  Austrians  were  defeated,  the  Archduke 
Ferdinand,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  cavalry,  succeeded  in 
making  his  way  through  the  enemy,  and  in  reachin,'; 
Bohemia;  while  Mack,  with,  the  rest  of  tho  army,  shut 
himself  up  in  Ulm,  which,  with  30,000  men,  he  was  forced 
to  surrender  (20th  October).  After  this,  Napoleon,  with 
his  usual  rapidity,  marched  with  the  main  body  of  his 
troops  upon  Vienna,  and  on  th^Sth  of  November  established 
his  headquarters  at  Linz,  the  capital  of  Upper  Austria. 
The  Russian  and  Austrian  troops  made  various  attempts  to 
obstruct  his  farther  progress  (particularly  at  Diirrenstein, 
where  a  desperate  engagement  took  place),  but  without 
success-;  and,  on  the  13th  November,  Vienna  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  conqueror,  who  made  his  headquarters  at 
Schijnbrunn.  In  the  meantime  the  Archduke  Charles 
was  with  the  army  in  Italy,  where,  on  29th  October, 
he  was  attacked  with  great  fury  on  the  heights  of 
Caldiero,  by  the  French  under  Massena.  A  terrible  con- 
flict ensued,  and  continued  till  night  parted  the  combat- 
ants. It  was  renewed  the  following  day,  when  at  length 
victory. declared  for  the  Austrians.  The  archduke,  how- 
ever, was  unable  to  avail  himself  of  his  success,  for,  hear- 
ing of  the  unfortunate  state  of  matters  in  Germany,  he  set 
out  with  his  army  for  the  defence  of  the  capital,  and  con- 
ducted it  with  great  skill  over  the  mountains,  ■eo  that  it 
suffered  no  serious  loss.  Marshal  Ney,  who  had  been  sent 
with  a  bod)'  of  troops  into  Tyrol,  succeeded  in  taking  the 
mountain  barrier  of  Scharnitz  by  storm,  and  in  making 
himself  master  of  Innsbruck.  Two  bodies  of  Austrian 
troops  had  been  so  hard  pressed  that  they  were  obliged  to 
capitulate — one  under  General  Jellachich  at  Feldkirch,  and 
another  under  the  Prince  de  Rohan  at  Castel- Franco  in  Italy. 
After  the  loss  of  Vienna  tho  allied  forces  collected  them- 
selves in  Moravia,  whither  they  were  followed  by  Napoleon. 
At  length  the  two  armies  came  in  sight  of  each  other  at 
Austerlitz,  and  both  sides  prepared  for  battle,  which  it  wa.s 
felt  must  be  a  most  momentous  one,  and  was  to  bo  witnessed 
by  three  emperors  (those  of  France,  Austria,  and  Russia). 
Tho  allied  forces  numbered  fully  80,000.  men,  of  whom 
15,000  were  cavalry,  while  the  French  had  90,000  men  in 
the  field.  The  army  of  the  allies  was  not  well  generaled, 
while  on  the  side  of  the  French  were  Soult,  Bernadotte, 
Davoust,  Murat,  Lanncs,  Oudinot,  Bessiires,  &c.  The 
battle  commenced  on  the  morrting  of  the  2d  December, 
and  continued  till  night.  Both  sides  displayed  tho  greatest 
skill  and  braver}';  at  one  part  of  tho  field  tho  allies  would 
be  victorious,  at  another  the  French  ;  at  ono  time  victory 
would  incline  to  the  French,  and  again  to  the  allies.  At 
length,  however,  towards  evening,  the  allies  camo  to  be 
beaten  at  all  points,  and  the  route  soon  became  general. 
Numbers  sought  to  save  themselves  by  crossing  the  frozen 
lake  of  Satschan ;  but  shots  from  the  French  batteries  on 
the  heights  above  broke  llie  ice  in  all  directions,  and  about 


HISTORY.] 


AUSTRIA 


133 


2000  men  pcrishci  The  allies  lost  about  30,000  men, 
killed,  wounded,  or  made  prisoners,  while  the  French  lost 
about  12,000  in  killed  and  wounded.  This  was  the  most 
glorious  of  all  Napoleon's  victories ;  but  he  was  stiU  in  a 
very  dangerous  position.  The  Archduke  Charles,  with  an 
army  of  b0,000  men,  was  now  approaching  Vienna;  Hun- 
gary was  rising  en  viasse  against  him ;  Kussian  reserves 
were  advancing ;  and  Prussia  was  at  length  preparing  to 
declare  war,  on  account  of  the  unauthorised  passage  of 
French  troops  through  her  territories.  From  these  difficul- 
ties, however,  he  was  freed  by  the  desire  of  the  Emperor 
Francis  for  peace.  An  armistice  was  agreed  to,  and  finally 
a  treaty  of  peace  was  drawn  up  and  signed  at  Presburg  (25th 
December  180.5).  By  this  treaty  Austria  ceded  to  Bavaria, 
now  erected  into  a  kingdom,  the  whole  of  the  Tyrol,  Vorarl- 
berg,  Lindau,  Burgan,  Passau,  Eichstadt,  Trent,  and  Brixen, 
besides  several  petty  lordships ;  to  Wiirterabcrg,  now  also 
become  a  kingdom,  the  bordering  Austrian  dominions  in 
Swabia ;  and  to  Bidcn  the  Breisgau,  the  Ortonau,  and  the 
town  of  Constance.  She  also  yielded  up  her  Venetian 
possessions,  and  agreed  to  pay  a  war  contribution  of 
.£1,600,000.  In  exchange  for  all  these  sacrifices  she 
merely  received  the  small  electorate  of  Salzburg,  and  the 
possessions  of  the  Teutonic  Order.  In  all,  Austria  lost 
about  28,000  square  miles  of  territory,  with  a  population 
of  2,700,000,  and  a  revenue  of  14,175,000  florins.  It  was 
evidently  not  the  intention  of  Napoleon  to  overthrow  the 
Austrian  monarchy,  but  rather  to  throw  its  strength  to  the 
eastward,  and  to  impose  a  barrier  of  subordinate  kingdoms 
between  it  and  France,  so  as  to  prevent  its  interference 
with  his  schemes  of  aggrandisement  in  Germanj-and  Italy. 
A  blow  was  inflicted  upon  the  constitution  of  the  Ger- 
man empire  by  Napoleon,  in  the  fonnation  of  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine.  Representatives  of  the  different 
powers  concerned  assembled  at  Paris  in  the  beginning  of 
July  180G;  and,  on  the  12th  of  that  month,  an  Act  was 
signed  whereby  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wiirtcmberg,  the 
elector  of  Baden,  and  thirteen  other  princes  of  Western 
Germany,  separated  themselves  from  the  German  empire, 
and.  formed  a  confederation  under  the  protection  of  the 
emperor  of  the  French.  10^000,000  men  were  thus,  by  a 
single  stroke,  transferred  from  the  empire  to  a  foreign  alli- 
ance. Wisely  yielding  to  what  ho  could  not  prevent,  the 
Emperor  Francis;  by  solemn  deed,  renounced  the  title  of 
emperor  of  the  Romans,  and  declared  himself  the  first  of 
the  emperors  of  Austria, 

The  peace  of  Presburg  was  quickly  followed  by  the  war 
between  France  and  Prussia,  in  which  the  latter  sufl"ered 
terrible  retribution  for  her  selfish  policy  in  leaving  Austria 
to  struggle  unaided  against  the  common  foe  of  Europe. 
Great  efforts  were  ni.ide  to  induce  Austria  to  take  part  in 
this  war,  but  she  prudently  remained  neutral,  contenting 
herself  with  making  every  effort  to  strengthen  and  improve 
her  army,  and  increase  her  warlike  resources.  During  the 
whole  of  1800  and  1807  the  efforts  of  the  war  department, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  Archduke  Charles,  were  inces- 
sant to  restore  the  losses  that  had  been  sustained  in  the 
lito  war.  The  army  was  also  remodelled  upon  the  system 
U08.  adopted  by  Napoleon.     The  transfer  of  a  large  portion  of 

the.  French  army  in  Gernviny  to  the  Peninsula  on  the 
breaking  out  of  war  there,  emboldened  the  Austrian  Gov- 
ernment to  issue  a  decree  (9th  June,  1808),  instituting  a 
landwehr  or  militia  to  bo  raised  by  conscription,  which 
soon  amounted  to  300,000  men,  in  addition  to  a  rcigular 
standing  army  of  350,000.  On  hearing  of  this,  Napoleoa 
ISvS.  addressed  strong  remonstrances  to  the  court  at  Vienna, 
which  made  loud  professions  of  pacific  intentions,  but  did 
not  cease  its  warlike  preparations.  In  the  spring  of  1809 
(ho  armies  on  both  sides  took  the  field,  and,  on  8th  April, 
Austrian  troops  croised  the  frontierH  at  once  in  Bohemia, 


on  the  Inn,  in  the  Tyrol,  and  in  Italy.-  In  the  mean- 
time France  was  bringing  together  her  forces  from  all 
quarters  towards  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  where  at  length 
she  had  an  army,  including  the  troops  of  the  Germun 
Confederation,  of  about  200,000. men,  and  Berthier  was 
despatched  to  take  the  command  tiU  the  arrival  of  the 
emperor.  The  Archduke  Charles  had  crossed  the  Inn 
with  upwards  of  120,000  men,  and  on  the  ICth  they  had 
advanced  as  far  as  the  Isar,  which  they  crossed.  Berthier, 
instead  of  concentrating  his  troops,  was  separating  them,  so 
that  they  were  in  the  utmost  danger,' when  the  arrival  of 
Napoleon  at  once  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs.  On  the 
19th  an  action  took  pLace  at  Thanu,  between  a  body  of 
about  20,000  French  and  a  like  number  of  Austrians,  with- 
out any  decisive  result;  and  the  following  day  the  main 
body  of  the  Austrians,  over  50,000  strong,  was  suddenlj- 
attacked  and  defeated  after  a  feeble  resistance  at  Abens- 
berg,  by  a  French  army  of  C5,000  men.  The  same  day 
the  Austrians  attacked  aud'took  Ratisbon,  and  secured  the 
bridge  over  the  Danube  there.  Both  sides  now  prepared 
for  a  general  engagement,  which  took  place  at  Eckmiihl  on 
the  22d  of  April.  The  battle  was  bravely  contested ;  but 
at  length  the  French  were  victorious,  the  loss  to  the 
Austrians  being  5000  killed  and  wounded,  and  7000 
prisoners.  The  archduke  retired  during  the  night  to 
recruit  his  army  in  Bohemia,  and  Ratisbon  was  taken  by 
storm.  In  other  parts,  particularly  in  Italy,  success  was 
attending  the  Austrian  arms. 

Napoleon  now  lost  no  time  in  again  marching  on  to 
Vienna,  and  no  great  attempt  was  made  to  impede  his 
progress  except  at  Ebersberg,  where  Hiller  with  about 
30,000  Austrians  took  his  stand  to  defend  the  wooden  bridge 
over  the  Traun.  lie  was  gallantly  attacked  by  a  body  of 
French  troops  under  Massena,  and  a  fearful  struggle  to6k 
place ;  but  at  length  the  French  prevailed,  and  Hiller  with-_ 
drew  his  troops.  Each  side  lost  about  GOOO  men  on  this 
occasion.  On  the  10th  of  May  the  French  eagles  appeared 
before  the  walls  of  Vienna,  ami,  after  an  ineffectual  attempt 
at  defence,  the  city  surrendered  on  the  1 3th.  The  Arch- 
duke Charles  was  hastening  to  the  relief  of  the  town,  but 
arrived  too  late.  The  two  armies  therefore  prepared  for 
battle,  the  one  on  the  nortli  bank  of  the  Danube,  the  other 
on  the  south.  On  the  night  of  the  19th  the  French  pro- 
pared  to  cross  the  river  at  the  island  of  Lobau,  and  by 
daybreak  on  the  21st  they  had  40,000  men  landed  on  the 
northern  side.  The  Austrians  now  resolved  upon  an  attack, 
and  by  two  o'clock,  when  the  fight  began,  the  French  force 
amounted  to  about  50,000  men,  while  the  Austrians  had 
80,000  to  oppose  them.  The  scene  of  action  was  near 
the  villages  of  Aspcrn  and  Essling,  and  the  struggle  was 
maintained  with  the  most  desperate  courage  on  both  sides 
till  night  parted  the  combatants.  The  Austrians  had 
cveiywhero  the  advantage,  but  both  sides  prepared  tojenew 
the  contest  the  next  day.  During  the  night',  and  early  in 
the  morning,  French  troops  were  still  passing  over,  so  that, 
notwithstanding  his  losses.  Napoleon  had  fully  70,000  men 
to  renew  the  fight.  It  commenced  eariy  in  the  morning, 
and  continued  the  greater  part  of  the  day  ;  but  at  length 
tho  French  were  beaten  on  all  sides,  and  compelled  to 
retreat  to  the  island  of  Lobau.  In  these  two  days  tliey 
lost  upwards  of  30,000  men,  and  tho  Austrians  not  less 
than  20,000.  The  victory  produced  a  great  impression  on 
the  mind  of  Europe,  and  dissipated  in  a  great  degree  tlia 
charm  of  Napoleon's  invincibility. 

He,  however,  made  every  preparation  for  renewing  tha 
contest.  lie  summoned  troops  from  different  parts,  and  for- 
tified his  position  on  the  island  of  Lobau,  connecting  it  also 
by  several  bridges  with  the  south  bank  of  the  river.  On 
the  evening  of  the  4  th  of  July  he  assembled  his  troops  on 
the  island,  amounting  to    150  000  infantry  and  30,000 


134 


AUSTRIA 


[history. 


cavalry,  mth  750  pieces  of  cannon.  During  the  night 
several  bridges,  which  had  been  secretly  prepared,  were 
thrown  over  to  the  northern  bank  at  a  point  where  they 
were  not  looked  for,  and  by  six  o'clock  the  following 
morning  the  whole  body  had  passed  over.  In  the  after- 
noon the  French  made  a  vehement  attack  upon  the 
Austrians,  but  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter.  Early 
on  the  morning  of  the  6th  the  Austrians  began  the  attack. 
Their  numbers  were  then  about  115,000  infantry  and 
25,000  cavalry ;  but  they  were  in  hourly  expectation  of 
the  arrival  of  an  additional  body  of  30,000  under  the  Arch- 
duke John,  which  was  known  to  be  not  far  off.  The  battle 
was  contested  with  the  utmost  determination  and  bravery 
on  both  sides.  The  Austrian  right  wing  succeeded  in  over- 
throwing and  putting  to  flight  the  left  wing  of  the  enemy. 
On  the  other  wing  the  contest  was  long  and  doubtful ;  but 
two  divisions  of  troops  having  at  length  succeeded  in  turn- 
ing the  extreme  flank  of  the  Austrians,  the  latter,  after  a 
gallant  defence,  were  compelled  to  abandon  their  position. 
In  these  circumstances,  llapoleon  collected  all  his  dispos- 
able forces  and  brought  them  to  bear  upon  the  centre  of 
the  Austrians,  which  was  their  weak  point,  the  archduke 
having  thrown  his  strength  chiefly  into  the  twD  wings. 
After  repeated  charges,  which  were  repulsed  with  grea't 
bravery,  the  French  succeeded  in  forcing  their  Line,  and 
the  archduke,  despairing  of  maintaining  his  position, 
ordered  a  retreat,  which  was  effected  in  good  order  and 
with  little  loss.  The  French  were  so  exhausted  that  they 
displayed  little  vigour  in  the  pursuit,  and  neither  guns  nor 
prisoners  were  taken.  The  Archduke  John  came  up  in  the 
afternoon,  but  too  late  to  be  of  any  service.  Had  he  made 
his  appearance  sooner  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  result 
would  have  been  different.  As  it  was,  the  Austrians  suc- 
ceeded in  making  a  most  gallant  stand  against  a  greater 
number  of  the  beat  troops  of  France,  led  by  Napoleon 
and  some  of  his  greatest  generals.  This  battle  of  VVagram 
was  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  obstinately  contested 
fights  in  the  whole  war,  and  is  perhaps  the  most  glorious 
in  the  annals  of  Austria.  The  loss  on  both  sides  was 
immense,  amounting  to  about  25,000  on  each,  including 
killed  and  wounded.  The  Archduke  Charles  retreated 
towards  Bohemia  without  any  serious  molestation  from  the 
enemy.  A  battle  was  fought  at  Znaim  (11th  July)  be- 
tween the  Austrians  and  a  French  army  under  Massena 
which  was  following  them,  but  before  it  was  decided  news 
of  an  armistice  arrived.  This  was  followed  by  the  peace 
o(  Vienna  (14th  October).  "  The  campaign  of  Aspern  and 
Wagram,"  says  Sir  A.  Alison,  "  is  the  most  glorious  in  the 
Austrian  annals, — one  of  the  most  memorable  examples  of 
patriotic  resistance  recorded  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
,  .  .  Other  empires  have  almost  invariably  succumbed 
upon  the  capture  of  the  capital.  .  .  .  Austria  is  the  only 
state  recorded  in  history  which  (without  the  aid  of  a  rigor- 
ous climate  like  Moscow)  fought  two  desperate  battles  in 
defence  of  its  independence  after  its  capital  had  fallen." 
— {History  of  Europe.)  By  the  peace  of  Vienna  Austria  was 
compelled  to  cede  Salzburg,  Berchtesgadcn,  the  Innviertel, 
and  the  Hausruckviertel,  to  Bavaria ;  portions  of  Galicia 
to  Kussia  and  the  grand  duke  of  Warsaw  ;  and  Carniola, 
Trieste,  the  greater  part  of  Croatia,  Istria,  the  circle  of 
Villach,  (tc,  to  Italy  In  all  she  lost  about  42,000 
square  miles  of  territory  and  3,500,000  inhabitants,  to- 
gether with  more  than  11,000,000  florins  of  revenue. 
The  emperor  also  agreed  to  reduce  his, army  to  not  more 
than  150,000  men,  and  a  war  contribution  of  £3,400,000 
was  imposed  on  the  provinces  occui>icd  by  the  French 
troops.  Before  leaving  the  Austrian  capital  Napoleon 
cau.'scd  the  fortifications  to  Se  blown  up.  * 

SiKin  afliT  this  Napoleon  obtained  a  divorce  from  his 
wife  Jc'Scphinc,  and  ofTcrod   his   hand   to   Mari?   I.oiiis.n. 


daughter  of  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  was  accepted. 
The  marriage  was  celebrated  with  great  pomp  at  Vienna 
on  the  11th  March  1810.  In  1812  Austria  was  obliged 
to  enter  into  an  alliance  with  France  against  Russia,  and 
to  furnish  an  auxiliary  force  of  30,000  men  for  the  invasion 
of  the  latter  country.  The  disastrous  result  of  that  expedi- 
tion to  the  invaders  showed  Germany  that  the  fortunate 
moment  had  now  arrived  for  regaining  her  independeace. 
Prussia  was  tho  first  to  form  an  alliance  with  Russia,  and  I6i3. 
declared  war  against  France  (17th  March  1813).  Great 
efforts  were  made  to  induce  Austria  to  join  this  alliance, 
but  without  success.  She  directed  her  attention  to  raising 
her  military  strength,  and  making  other  preparations  to 
enable  her  to  take  an  important  part  in  the  coming  struggle, 
on  the  one  side,  or  the  other.  After  the  defeat  of  the  allies 
at  Lutzen  and  Bautzen,  and  the  conclusion  of  an  armistice 
at  Pleswitz,  Austria  came  forward  as  a  mediator,  with  the 
vie  V  of  effecting  a  peace  between  the  parties,  and  not  with- 
out the  vieWj  also,  of  gaining  some  material  advantage  for 
herself.  In  fact,  she  now  held  in  her  hand  the  balance 
between  the  contending  parties.  Her  army  of  150,000  or 
200,000,  wWch  she  had  collected  in  Bohemia,  would  bring 
victory  to  whatever  side  she  joined.  Metternich,  who  at 
that  period  had  the  direction  of  the  cabinet  of  Vienna,  was 
too  clear-headed  not  to  perceive  the  advantages  of  the 
position,  and  he  determined  to  avail  himself  of  them,  in  order 
if  possible  to  restore  to  Austria  her  lost  possessions.  Ho 
had  openly  avowed,  that  if  Napoleon  would  accede  to  the 
terms  which  he  proposed  Austria  would  throw  her  whole 
200,000  men  into  the  scale  in  his  favour.  At  first  it  seemed 
doubtful  to  which  side  she  would  attach  herself;  but  itwould 
appear  that  the  allies  had  reason  to  believe  that  she  was 
favourable  to  them,  and  that  Napoleon  had  also  reason  for 
suspecting  the  strength  of  her  attachment  to  him.  It  is 
evident  that  she  would  have  more  to  expect  from  the  allies 
than  from  Napoleon,  but  at  the  same  time  it  was  doubtfid 
how  far  she  would  be  influenced  by  the  existing  matri- 
monial alliance.  While  things  were  in  this  doubtful  state 
news  arrived  of  the  battle  of  Vitoria,  by  which  the  death- 
blow was  given  to  the  power  of  France  in  the  Peninsula, 
and  after  this  there  was  little  hope  of  peace  on  either  side. 
Austria,  whatever  her  previous  intentions,  doubtless  now 
felt  that  there  was  little  to  be  gained  from  attaching  her- 
self to  a  sinking  empire  and  a  falling  cause,  and  she  agreed, 
in  the  event  of  Napoleon  not  aacepting  the  terms  proposed, 
to  join  the  allies.  They  could  have  had  little  hope  that 
the  terms  would  be  accepted  ;  they  included  the  cession  to 
Austna  of  all  the  Illyrian  provinces,  with  Trieste,  the  re- 
instatement of  Prussia  in  her  ancient  possessions,  vrith  a 
frontier  on  the  Elbe,  and  the  dissolution  of  the  grand  duchy 
of  Warsaw,  to  be  divided  between  Russia,  Austria,  and 
Prussia.  These  terms  not  being  acceded  to,  both  parties 
prepared  for  war.  Austria  agreed  to  furnish  200,000  to 
the  allied  forces,  stipulating  in  return  that  she  should  be 
restored  to  the  condition  in  which  she  was  in  1803,  or,  at 
any  rate,  at  the  peace  of  Prcsburg. 

By  gigantic  eilorts  Napoleon  was  able  to  raise  his  army 
to  400,(jOO  men,  of  whom  nearly  350,000  were  eflectivc. 
and  he  resolved  to  m.ikc  Dresden  tho  pivot  on  which  all 
his  operations  should  turn.  To  oppose  him  the  allies  mus- 
tered about  400,000  men,  so  that  the  two  forces  were  pretty 
nearly  equal  Of  tho  latter,  a  grand  army  of  220,000  men, 
chiefly  Austrians,  under  Prince  Scliwarzcnberg,  was  sta- 
tioned in  Bohemia ;  Bliicher,  with  95,000  men,  was  to 
protect  SUcsia ;  while  Bcrnadottc,  the  crown  prince  of 
Sweden,  who  had  joined  the  allies  with  28,000  troops,  was 
to  protect  Berlin  and  Brandenburg  with  an  army  of  90,000. 
Napoleon  resolved  to  inarch  with  tho  main  body  of  his 
troops  into  Silesia  ^gainst  Bliicher,  having  despatched  an 
army  of  80,000  men  under  Oudinot  against  Berlin,  and 


A  If  S  T  R   I   A 


136 


sending  a  furce  ol  30,000  lo  keep  llie  passes  from  Bo- 
heiuid  lo  Dresden  Blucher  judiciously  retreated  before 
tiie  French  troops,  and  while  Napoleon  was  following  bim, 
the  allied  array  in  Bohemia  came  down  upon  Dresden. 
In  place,  however,  of  at  onco  beginning  the  attack,  it  was 
delayed  till  Bonaparte,  who  had  been  infornied  of  their 
movements,  had  time  to  arrive  The  attack  was  commenced 
on  28th  August,  and  kept  up  with  great  fury  during  the 
day ,  but  in  the  evening  a  series  of  sallies  were  made  from 
the  towu,  which  took  the  besiegers  completely  by  surprise, 
and  compelled  them  to  withdraw.  Najioleon  had  now  re- 
ceived sutticient  reinforcements  to  enable  him  to  give  battle, 
which  he  did  the  next  day.  He  was  then  able  to  muster 
130,000  men,  while  the  allies  numbered  about  1CO,000. 
The  6ght  was  maintained  for  some  time  with  great  bravery 
on  both  sides,  but  at  length  a  body  of  French  troops  under 
Murat  succeeded  in  turning  the  flank  of  the  allied  left 
wing,  and  then  attacking  them  suddenly  on  flank  and  rear; 
they  were  thus  thrown  into  confusion,  and  the  great  body 
of  them  killed  or  made  prisoners.  The  allies  lost  on  this 
occasion  about  26,000  men,  of  whom  about  13,000  were 
prisoners.  A  French  force  under  Vandamme  had  been  sent 
K)  cut  ofl'  the  retreat  of  the  allies,  but  this  was  engaged 
near  Culm  (29th  August)  by  a  body  of  Russians  under 
Ostermann,  and  a  desperate  struggle  took  place,  which  was 
renewed  the  next  day,  and  only  ended  by  the  appearance 
in  the  rear  of  the  French  of  a  large  body  of  Prussians, 
when  the  leader  and  most  of  his  troops  were  made  prisoners. 
The  French  lost  in  the  two  days  18,000  men,  of  whom 
7000  were  prisoners. 

Napoleon,  on  quitting  Silesia,  had  left  Macdonald  with 
Bn  army  of  80,000  men  to  oppose  Blucher.  The  latter 
suddenly  attacked  them  with  great  fury  on  the  Katzbach 
(2Cth  August),  and  defeated  them  with  great  slaughter. 
The  fight  was  several  time3  renewed  during  the  three  fol- 
lowing days  when  the  allies  were  in  pursuit,  and  in  all  the 
French  lost  about  7000  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  and 
18,000  prisoners.  Nor  was  the  French  army  under  Oudi- 
not  more  successful,  for  it  sustained  a  severe  defeat  at 
Gross  Beeren  (23d  August),  and  in  that  and  subsequent 
engagements  lost  about  4000  in  killed  and  wounded,  and 
an  equal  number  of  prisoners.  Napoleon  was  strongly 
affected  by  these  reverses,  the  more  so  that  they  were  quite 
unexpected.  He  gave  the  command  of  the  army  in  the 
niiTthto  Ney,  and  set  out  himself  against  Bliicher.  Ney 
ehgaged  the  allied  army  at  Dennewitz,  and  a  desperate 
battle  was  fought  (6th  September),  in  which  the  French 
were  at  length  beaten  and  put  to  flight  with  a  loss  of 
13,000  men,  of  whom  one-half  were  prisoners.  The  army 
in  Bohemia  now  again  resumed  the  o8"ensive,  and  was 
preparing  to  fall  upon  Dre-sden,  when  Napoleon  suddenly 
returned  and  drove  them  back.  He  again  marched  against 
Uliicher,  but  returned  to  Dresden  without  effecting  any- 
thing. He  then  resolved  to  enter  Prussia  and  take  Berlin, 
V.'jt  was  obliged  to  give  up  this  project  on  learning  that 
Bavaria  had  joined  the  allies  (8th  October).  Now  fearing 
that  his  retreat  might  be  cut  off,  he  directed  his  march 
towards  the  Rhine,  and  reached  Leipsic  on  the  15th  of 
October.  Here  the  combined  allied  armies  under  Schwarzen- 
berg,  Blucher.  and  Bernadotte  assembled,  and  on  the  16th 
e.0  indecisive  battle  was  fought,  which  to  the  French  was 
equivalent  to  a  defeat,  and  the  same  evening  Napoleon 
made  proposab  for  peace,  but  no  anawer  was  returned. 
The  battle  was  renewed  on  the  18th.  The  French  army 
numbered  about  175,000  men,  while  the  allied  forces 
amounted  to  about  290,000.  The  French  strength  was 
also  weakened  by  two  Saxon  brigades  of  foot  and  one  of 
civalry  passing  over  to  the  enemy  during  the  engagement. 
Notwithstanding  these  disadvantages  the  French  fought 
wi'.b  gre.it  braver)-  and  determination   but  were  at  length 


beaten  on  every  side.  Next  day  tliey  were  in  full  retreat, 
and  Leipsic  was  taken  by  the  allies  after  a  gallant  defence. 
The  total  loss  of  the  French  during  these  four  days  exceeded 
60,000  men  The  emperor  reached  Erfurt  on  the  23J 
October,  and  there  coUecti^  the  scattered  remains  of  his 
army.  The  Bavarians,  under  Wrede,  attempted  to  inter- 
cept his  retreat  at  Uanau,  but  though  aided  by  some  of 
the  allied  troops,  they  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter 
(30th  October).  The  Rhine  was  crossed  on  1st  November, 
and  on  tlie  9th  Napoleon  arrived  in  Paris.  Thus  Germany 
regained  its  independence,  and  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  was  dissolved.  Austria,  as  we  have  seen,  had  a 
principal  share  in  bringing  this  about ;  but  the  Emperor 
Francis  was  opposed  to  the  adoption  of  extreme  measures 
against  Napoleon,  being  desirous  that  the  sceptre  of  Franco 
should  continue  in  the  hands  of  his  daughter  and  her  de- 
scendants. Other  views,  however,  prevailed.  The  war  was 
carried  into  the  enemy's  country,  and  at  length,  not  with- 
out a  good  deal  of  fighting,  the  allies  entered  Paris  on  3Ut 
March  1814.  On  11th  April  Napoleon  resigned  the  im- 
perial crown 

lu  the  end  of  September  following  a  congress  was  assem- 
bled at  Vienna  to  adjust  the  claims  and  the  mutual  rela- 
tions of  the  several  states.  This,  however,  was  found  to 
be  a  matter  of  no  small  difficulty.  Russia  demanded  the 
whole  of  Poland,  and  Prussia  laid  claim  to  Saxony.  Austria, 
France,  and  England  were  opposed  to  these  claims,  ar.d 
determined  to  resist  them,  so  that  at  one  time  it  appeared 
us  if  war  was  again  to  break  out ;  but  more  peaceful  views 
began  to  prevail,  and  when  the  news  arrived  that  Napoleon  igjj^ 
had  secretly  quitted  Elba,  all  minor  diiferences  were  for- 
gotten in  the  presence  of  this  pressing  danger.  They  at 
once  declared  him  an  enemy  and  a  disturber  of  the  peaco 
of  the  world,  and  prepared  to  bring  against  him  an  arns j 
of  upwards  of  half  a  million  of  men.  But  before  these  had 
all  been  collected,  Wellington  and  Blucher  had  brought 
the  military  career  of  Bonaparte  to  a  close  on  the  field  of 
Waterloo.  In  the  new  partition  of  Europe,  which  was  fixed 
by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815),  Austria  received  Lom- 
bardy  and  Venice,  the  lUyrian  provinces,  Dalmatia,  tb'j 
Tyrol,  Vorarlberg,  Salzburg,  the  Innviertel,  and  Hausruck- 
viertel,  together  with  the  part  of  Galicia  formerly  ceded  by 
her,  making  in  all  about  3,200  square  miles  of  territory. 

The  emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia  and  the  king  of 
Prussia  also  entered  into  a  "  Holy  Alliance,"  by  which  they 
bound  themselves  to  remain  united  in  the  bands  of  true 
and  brotherly  love,  to  mutually  helj)  and  assist  each  other, 
to  govern  their  people  like  fathers  of  families,  and  to  main- 
tain religion,  peace,  and  justice  in  their  dominions.  This 
alliance,  beautiful  in  theory,  was  made,  in  fact,  the  means 
of  maintaining  absolute  power  in  the  hands  of  the  rulers, 
and  of  suppressing  free  institutions  and  almost  every  form 
of  liberty  among  the  people.  This  was  particularly  the 
case  in  Austria,  under  the  direction  of  Melternich,  who  did 
everything  in  his  power  to  carry  out  these  principles.  A 
strict  censorship  of  the  press  was  established,  not  only  to 
overlook  the  homo  press,  but  also  to  superintend  the  in- 
troduction of  foreign  publications.  A  system  of  secret 
police  was  also  organised  to  observe  and  report  what  was 
said  and  done  by  the  people  in  private.  Besides  this, 
Austria  was  ever  ready  to  aid  in  the  suppression  of  revolu- 
tionary movements  in  other  states.  In  the  construction 
of  the  German  Confederation  she  used  her  influence  to  sup- 
press the  popular  voice  in  all  matters  of  government ;  her 
armies  were  employed  in  quelling  the  popular  insurrections 
in  Naples  and  Piedmont  in  1822;  and  by  diplomacy  she 
aided  in  the  suppression  of  the  popular  movement  in  Spain 
in  1823.  During  the  insurrection  in  Greece  the  influence  of 
Austria  was  everted  agninst  it ;  and  when  Greece  was  oetab 
lished  as  a  kingdom(1827),under  the  protection  of  England. 


laa 


AUSTRIA 


[histoev. 


France,  and  Russia,  olie  Kepi  aloof.  When,  however, 
Uusaia  invaded  Turkey  in  1828,  Austria  joined  with  Eng- 
land in  interfering  to  prevent  the  fall  of  Constantinople, 
and  in  bringing  about  peace. 

The  commotions  that  followed  the  French  revokttion  of 
July  1830  in  different  parts  of  Europe  considerably  affected 
Austria.  Thia  manifested  itself  chiefly  in  Lombardy,  where 
the  presence  of  30,000  troops  was  required  to  maintain  the 
imperial  authority.  In  Parma  and  Modena  the  people 
suddenly  rose  in  insurrection  and  e.xpelled  their  rulers,  and 
Austrian  troops  wore  employed  to  restore  them.  An  in- 
surrection also  broke  out  in  the  Papal  States,  and  the  Pope 
invoked  the  aid  of  Austria,  whose  troops  entered  Bologna 
and  esliblished  themselves  there  (January  1832).  Upon 
this  the  f  rench  sent  a  force  to  occupy  Ancona,  and  at  one 
time  it  seemed  as  if  France  and  Austria  were  again  to  cross 
swords  on  Italian  soil,  but  this  danger  was  at  length  averted. 
In  the  minor  states  of  Germany  the  cry  for  popular  insti- 
tutions was  raised,  and  in  many  cases  the  rulers  were 
obliged  for  a  time  to  comply  with  them,  but  after  the  danger 
appeared  to  pass  away,  Austria,  acting  in  concert  with 
Prussia,  succeeded  in  bringing  back  the  old  state  of  things 
in  the  confederation.  The  Poles,  tired  of  Russian  rule,- 
and  hoping  to  be  supported  by  France,  took  up  arms  to 
regain  their  independence  (1831).  Although  Austria  pro- 
fessed a  strict  neutrality  in-the  struggle,  a  Polish  corps  that 
was  driven  into  her  territories  was  disarmed  and  detained, 
while  a  body  of_  Russian  troops  under  the  same  circum- 
Btances  was  allowed  to  continue  its  operations  against 
Poland.  During  the  remainder  of  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  no 
public  event  of  importance  occurred.  He  died  on  the  2d 
of  March  1835,  in  the  sixty-seventh  year  of  his  age  and 
the  forty-third  of  his  reign.  He  was  one  of  those  well- 
meaning  but  weak-mi  ided  men,  who  unfortunately  adopt 
the  wrong  means  for  effecting  the  good  which  they  intend. 
lie  wished  to  make  his  people  contented  and  happy,  but 
he  sought  to  do  so  by  repressing  all  independence  in  thought 
or  action,  and  keeping"  them  in  the  most  abject  subjection. 
He  earnestly  strove  for  their  advancement,  but  it  was  by 
strenuously  endeavonring  to  keep  things  as  they  were,  and 
opposing  every  form  of  change.  The  transition  from  an 
old  to  a  new  state  of  things  was  in  his  mind  always  asso- 
ciated with  the  utmost  danger,  and  to  be  by  all  means 
avoided.  He  did  much  in  the  way  of  establishing  ele- 
mentary schools  throughout  the  country,  but  said  that  he 
wished  to  have  no  learned  men,  only  good  loyal  citizens. 
He  v.a3  thoroughly  conscientious  and  correct  in  his  con- 
duct, but  at  the  same  time  narrow-minded,  suspicious,  and 
bigoted.-  He  was  moat  assiduous  in  his  attention  to  the 
business  of  the  state,. but  occupied  himself  chiefly  with 
small  matters  and  minor  details,  while  more  important  con- 
cerns were  entirely  overlooked  and  neglected.  His  good 
qualities,  however,  commended  him  to  the  afTections  of  his 
people,  and  this  doubtless  did  much  to  repress  among  his 
subjects  the  insurrectionary  spirit  which  subsequently  mani- 
fested itself. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Ferdinand  I.,  an 
amiable  but  weak-minded  prince,  who  left  the  government 
very  much  in  the  hands  of  his  prime  minister,  Metternich. 
The  various  signs  of  discontent  which  had  been  manifested 
during  the  former  reign  soon  became  stronger  and  more 
marked.  Paron  Pillersdorf,  the  successor  of  Metternich, 
speaking  of  this  period,  says,  "  Circumstances  permitted 
an  uninterrupted  enjoyment  of  peace,  but  the  necessity  for 
internal  amoliorationB  became  by  eo  long  a  delay  more 
urgent,  the  demand  for  them  more  sensible,  whilst,  owing 
to  the  procrastinations  of  the  Government,  faith  and  con- 
fidence were  diminlsHcd.  It  is  true  that  the  prosperity  of 
the  provinces  generally  did  not  decline ;  on  the  contrary, 
aianv  branches  of  commerce  manifested  an  increase  in  their 


deielopment;  but  in  spite'of  this  the  situation  of  the  whole 
empire  inspired  in  different  respects  serious  apprehensions, 
arising  from  the  disordered  state  of  the  economy  of  finance, 
the  yearly  augmentation  of  the  public  debt,  the  inefficiency 
of  the  measures  adopted,  and  still  more  from  the  oppressed 
disposition  of  mind  of  the  clear-sighted  and  inteUigenI 
classes  of  the  population." — {The  Political  Movement  in 
Austria  during  1848-49.)  The  people  saw  growing  up 
in  the  nations  around  them  freer  institutions  and  more 
liberal  modes  of  government,  and  they  could  not  help  con- 
trasting those  with  their  own  system.  Austria,  too,  was 
made  up  of  a  number  of  different  nationalities,  and  the 
Government  attempted  to  strengthen  its  position  by  working 
upon  their  national  prejudices  and  antipathies,  setting  race 
against  race,  and  creed  against  creed.  In  particular,  the 
German  element  was  favoured  at  the  expense  of  the  other 
nationalities;  and  the  Germanising  measi  res  of  the  Govern- 
ment excited  great  discontent  among  the  other  races.  It  has 
been  remarked  that  the  aversion  of  Austria  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Slavonic  element  in  her  population  was 
greatly  owing  to  jealousy  of  Russia,  which  power  she 
regarded  as  desirous  of  attaching  all  the  Slavonic  races  to 
itself.  Hence  Austria  has  always  been  opposed  to  the 
encroachments  of  Russia  in  Turkey,  and  in  favour  of 
maintaining  the  integrity  of  the  latter,  so  that,  when  war 
broke  out  in  1839  between  the  Sublime  Porte  and  the 
Pasha  of  Egypt,  she  readily  joined  England  in  support  of. 
the  former. 

The  court  of  Vienna  was  first  frightened  from  its  sense 
of  security  by  an  insurrection  in  Galicia  in  1846.  This 
having  been  suppressed,  Austria,  in  conjunction  with  the 
other  two  powers  which  had  dismembered  Poland,  deter- 
mined to  lay  hold  on  Cracow,  and  thus  extinguish  the  last 
remnant  of  Polish  independence.  This  step  being  contrary 
to  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  was  strongly  remonstrated  against 
both  by  England  and  France;  but  these  remonstrances  were 
unheeded,  and  the  republic  was  incorporated  in  the  Austrian 
empire.  The  French  revolution  of  1848,  which  convulsed 
almost  the  whole  of  continental  Europe,  caused  the  Austrian 
empire  to  totter  to  its  foundations.  Scarcely  had  the  news  Revolatlot 
of  the  fall  of  Louis  Philippe  reached  Vienna  when  the  "f  18'48. 
whole  city  was  in  a  state  of  open  rebellion  (13th  March). 
The  populace,  headed  by  the  students,  and  forcing  the 
magistracy  along  with  them,  made  their  way  into  the  im- 
perial palace,  and  loudly  demanded  from  the  emperor  the 
dismissal  of  his  old  counsellors,  and  the  immediate  grant  of 
a  new  constitution.  Alarmed  at  these  demonstrations  Prince 
Metternich  resigned,  and  was  soon  after  on  his  way  to 
London  ;  and  ah  imperial  proclamation  was  issued,  declar- 
ing the  abolition  of  the  censorship  of  the  press,  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  national  guard,  and  the  convocation  of  a 
national  assembly.  These  measures,  however,  as  well  as 
the  nomination  of  a  new  ministry,  were  far  from  sufficing 
to  arrest  the  popular  movement,  encouraged  and  led  on  by 
the  students  and  other  members  of  the  university.  The 
national  guard  just  called  into  being,  along  with  the 
academic  legion,  formed  themselves  into  a  permanent  com- 
mittee, and  dictated  laws  to  the  Government.  On  the  17th 
of  May,  Ferdinand,  accompanied  by  the  empress  and  the 
members  of  his  family,  secretly  quitted  the  palace,  and 
fled  to  Innsbruck.  An  attempt  to  dissolve  the  academic 
legion  caused  an  outbreak  on  the  20th,  and  the  strecla 
were  barricaded;  but  no  fighting  took  place,  for  the 
ministers  yielded  to  the  demands  of  the  rioters,  ond  gave 
up  their  design.  A  committee  of  citizens,  national  guards, 
and  students,  which  was  formed  for  the  preser\'ation  of 
peace  and  order,  was  Icgalisedby  the  prime  minister,  and 
assumed  the  authority  of  the  Government.  In  the  mean- 
time the  revolutionary  spirit  was  manifesting  itself  io 
other  parts  of  the  empire.     In  Italy  the  inhabitants  of 


BISTOnV.] 


AUSTRIA 


137 


Milan  and  Venice  rose  against  their  rulers/  and  eipelled 
tho  Austrian  troops.  Tliis  was  followed  by  a  general 
rising  throughout  Lombardy  and  Venice.  The  insurgents 
fjuud  an  ally  iu  Charles  Albert,  king  of  Sardinia,  who 
came  with  an  army  to  their  assistance,  and  declared  war 
against  the  empire.  At  first  he  succeeded  in  driving  the 
Austrians  back  to  the  northern  frontier  of  Italy;  but 
General  Radetzky,  having  received  reinforcements,  van- 
qaished  him  in  several  engagements,  and  compelled  him  to 
llee  to  his  own  dominions,  and  conclude  a. truce  with  the 
victors.  This  was  followed  by  the  reconquest  of  Milan  and 
'.ho  whole  of  Lombardy.  Venice  withstood  the  besieging 
«rmy  of  the  Austrians  for  some  months,  but  was  at  length 
obliged  to  surrender.  In  Bohemia  the  Czechs  or  Slavonic 
party  determined  to  obtain  redress  against  the  Germanis- 
ing measures  of  the  Government,  and  forwarded  a  petition 
to  the  emperor,  demanding  a  united  and  independent 
national  asscmbl;  for  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  independent 
uianicipal  institutions,  and  an  equal  share  in  public  otGccs 
with  the  German  part  of  the  population.  An  evasive 
answer  was  returned,  and  the  citizens  of  the  capital  rose 
in  insurrection.  A  national  assembly  of  delegates  of  the 
Slavonians  in  all  parts  of  the  empire  was  summoned  to 
meet  at  Prague.  Three  hundred  made  their  appearance, 
and  the  assembly  was  opened  in  the  beginning  of  June. 
The  efforts  of  tho  military  to  maintain  peace  excited  the 
enmity  of  the  citizens,  and  they  petitioned  for  the  removal 
of  the  commander,  Prince  Windischgratz.  3Ieanwhile  a 
collision  took  place  between  the  Slavonic  militia  and  the 
regular  troops.  The  Germans  joined  with  the  military, 
and  the  insurrection  raged  for  five  days ;  the  town  was 
bombarded  and  taken,  and  the  leaders  dispersed  or  taken 
prisoners. 

Iu  Hungary  the  National  Diet  had  passed  measures  in 
favour  of  a  responsible  ministry,  a  perfect  equality  of 
civil  rights,  religious  toleration,  the  formation  of  a  national 
puard,  and  abolition  of  the  censorship  of  the  press.  Tlio 
emperor  gave  his  consent  to  these  measures  ;  but  a  strong 
Austrian  party  in  the  country,  chiefly  Slavonians,  was 
opposed  to  them,  and,  instigated  and  supported  by  the 
Austrian  Government,  they  broke  out  in  open  revolt. 
Jellachich,  the  ban  or  governor  of.  Croatia,  was  the  leader 
of  the  insurgents,  and  collecting  an  army  of  65,000  men, 
he  marched  on  towards  Pesth.  An  army  was  speedily 
raised  by  the  Hungarians  to  meet  him,  and  a  battle  was 
fought  within  25  miles  of  the  capital  on  29th  September,  in 
which  Jellachich  was  beaten.  The  emperor  now  openly 
declared  against  tho  Hungarians,  annulled  the  decrees  of 
the  Diet,  suspended  the  civil  authorities,  and  appointed 
Jellachich  commander  of  the  army.  The  Diet,  denying  the 
authority  of  the  emperor,  organised  a  committee  of  safety, 
and  elected  Kossuth  president.  This  was  equivalent  to  a 
declaration  of  war,  and  an  Austrian  army  was  ordered  out 
against  them.  The  people  of  Vienna,  sympathising  with 
the  Hungarians,  rose  in  arms,  when  the  garrison  of  that 
city  departed  for  Hungary  (Cth  October).  A  deputation 
waited  on  the  minister  of  war,  Latour,  demanding  their 
recall,  and  on  his  refusal  they  took  the  arsenal  by  storm, 
and  murdered  him.  The  National  Diet,  which  had  met  on 
the  22d  of  July,  now  declared  its  sittings  permanent,  and 
elected  a  committee  of  public  safety.  It  sent  an  address 
to  the  emperor  asking  for  a  new  ministry,  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  against  the  Hungarians,  the  dismissal  of 
Jellachich,  and  an  amnesty  for  the  rioters.  The  emperor, 
who  had  returned  from  Innsbruck  to  Vienna  in  June, 
returned  an  evasive  answer,  and  fled  to  Olmiitz.  The 
people  in  the  capital  armed  themselves  under  tho  leader- 
ship of  General  Bern,  and  prepared  to  resist  the  impend- 
ing attack  of  the  army.  The  garrison,  after  having  retired 
outside  tho  limiLi  of  the  city,  was  joined  by  Jellachich's 
t—T 


horde  of  Croatians  and  by  the  army  of  Windischgriitz.  Ob 
23d  October,  an  army  of  100,000  men  appeared  before 
Vienaa,  and  the  city  was  summoned  to  surrender.  This 
the  people  refused  to  do,  and  the  attack  was  commenced 
on  the  28th,  when  the  city  was  set  on  fire  in  many  places. 
Tho  next  day  a  part  of  the  suburbs  was  taken,  and  the 
leaders  began  to  think  of  surrendering  when  the  news  of 
a  Uungariau  army  hastening  to  their  relief  inspired  them 
with  fresh  courage.  This  force,  however,  was  attacked  and 
put  to  flight  by  Jellachich  (30th  October),  and  next  day 
tho  city  was  taken  by  storm,  after" a  desperate  struggle, 
which  was  attended  with  immense  slaughter.  On  22d 
November  a  new  ministry  was  formed,  of  which  Prince 
Schwarzenberg  was  president;  and  on  2d  December  the 
Emperor  Ferdinand  was  induced  to  abdicate  the  throne. 
His  brother,  Francis  Charles,  who  was  his  legal  successor, 
likewise  renounced  hia  right  in  favour  of  lus  son,  Francis 
Joseph,  who  was  proclaimed  emperor  under  the  title  of 
Francis  Joseph  I. 

The  war  iu  Hungary  was  renewed  by  Windischgratz, 
who  crossed  the  Leitha,  and  after  several  successful  en- 
gagements entered  the  capital  of  that  country  (January 
1849),  the  Hungarian  Government  and  one  division  of  the 
army  having  departed  eastward  to  Debreczin,  while  the 
other  under  Gdrgei  retired  northward  towards  ^Yaitzen.  The 
Austrian  general,  instead  of  pursuing  them,  remained  in- 
active for  seven  weeks  at  Pesth,  and  thus  afforded  them 
time  to  organise.  In  Transylvania  General  Bem  gained  a 
decisive  victory  over  the  Austrians  in  that  territory,  and 
also  defeated  and  put  to  flight  a  Russian  force  that  had 
come  to  their  assistance.  At  length  Windischgriitz  moved 
forward  towards  Debreczin,  and  met  the  Hungarians  at 
Kapolna,  where  an  obstinate  and  bloody  but  indecisive 
battle  was  fought  (2Gth  February).  Next  day  the  Austrians, 
having  received  reinforcements,  renewed  the  fight,  and  tht 
Hungarians  were  obliged  to  retire.  Tho  latter  having  re- 
cruited their  forces,  another  obstinate  battle  was  fought 
near  Giidolo  (5th  April),  in  which  tho  Austrians  were  de- 
feated, as  they  were  in  several  subsequent  engagements,  so 
that  they  were  compelled  to  abandon  the  capital  and  recross 
the  Danube,  leaving  a  small  garrison  at  Buda,  which  after- 
wards surrendered.  Had  the  victorious  army  now  marched 
on  to  Vienna  they  would  doubtless  have  succeeded  in 
bringing  the  Austrians  to  terms;  but  disputes  among  the 
rulers  and  dissensions  among  the  generals  prevented  such 
a  course.  In  Juno  Prince  Paskewitch  crossed  the  Galician 
frontier  at  the  head  of  a  Russian  army  of  130,000  men ; 
and  General  Haynau,  who  now  had  the  command  of  the 
Austrian  troops,  was  joined  by  a  Russian  corps  under 
General  Palutin.  Tho  Hungarians  were  unable  to  contend 
against  these  forces,  and  had  again  to  leave  their  capital, 
the  seat  of  the  Government  being  tran.^ferred  to  Szegedin. 
Driven  from  this  place,  the  army  madca  stand  at  Temcsvar, 
but  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter  (Oth  August),  and 
again,  two  days  later,  at  Arad.  On  13tb  August  the  Hun- 
garian general,  Giirgci,  who  had  been  n.imcd  dictator,  sur- 
rendered to  tho  Russian.s.  Hungary  was  now  treated  as  a 
conquered  country,  and  the  greatest  cnielties  were  prac- 
tised against  the  people  by  tho  Austrian  general,  Haynau. 
The  military  and  parliamentary  leaders  were  shot  or  hanged, 
and  the  prisons  filled  with  unhappy  victims.  In  the  mean- 
time the  war  in  Italy  was  renewed  by  tho  king  of  Sardinia. 
He  was,  however,  defeated  at  Mortara  (21st  March)  by 
the  Austrian  general,  Radetzky,  and  again  at  Novara  (23d 
March),  when  ho  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son,  Victor 
Emmanuel,  with  whom  a  peace  was  concluded.  Venice 
held  out  against  the  Austrians  till  23d  August,  when  it 
was  forced  to  surrender. 

The  congress  which,  since  the  final  struggle  in  Vienna, 
had  been  adjourned  to  Krcmsier,  was  dissolved  (March  4, 


138 


AUSTRIA 


[ni$Tor.Y. 


1819),  and  a  constifiUfon  promiilgafed  by  the  free  will  of 
the  erapcrsr.  At  this  time  efforts  were  made  in  the  German 
National  Assembly  at  Frankfort  to  form  Germany  into  one 
integral  empire,  excluding  Austria,  the  imperial  crown 
being  offered  to  the  king  of  Prussia.  This  was  violently 
opposed  by  the  Austrian  Government,  and  though  the  king 
of  Prussia  did  not  venture  in  the  face  of  this  opposition 
to  accept  the  imperial  crown,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  kings  of  Saxony  and  Hanover  (May  1849),  with  the 
view  of  forming  a  strict  union  with  the  different  states  of 
the  German  confederacy  to  the  exchisiou  of  Austria.  To 
this  treaty  the  majority  of  the  lesser  states  afterwards  ac- 
ceeded,  and  a  diet  was  convened  at  Erfurt  (May  1852), 
under  the  presidency  of  Prussia,  for  the  reorganisation  of 
Germany.  Austria,  to  counteract  the  efforts  of  her  rival, 
invited  the  different  states  to  send  their  representatives  to 
Frankfort,  where  she  assumed  the  lead.  The  legality  of 
the  assembly  was  at  once  acknowledged  by  Bavaria,  and 
Saxony  and  Hanover  were  subsequently  gained  over  to  it. 
While  matters  were  in  this  state  disturbances  arose  in  Hesse- 
CasscL  The  margrave  invoked  the  assistance  of  Austria, 
whde  the  people  looked  for  aid  to  Prussia.  Having  re- 
ceived the  authority  of  the  diet  at  Frankfort,  Austria  sent 
an  army  into  Hesse,  where  they  wore  confronted  by  another 
army  from  Prussia,  and  an  immediate  commencement  of 
hostilities  was  looked  for,  but  this  was  averted  by  a  con- 
ference held  at  Olmiitz,  when  Pitissia  acknowledged  the 
right  of  Austria  to  enter  Hesse.  Soon  after  this  Austria 
and  Prussia  convoked  a  congress  of  all  the  states  at  Dres- 
den, where  it  was  agreed  that  the  final  settlement  of  the 
affairs  of  the  confederacy  should  be  submitted  to  the  de- 
cision of  the  diet  at  Frankfort.  Austria  now  proposed  to 
the  diet  that  all  her  provinces,  including  Hungary  and 
Lombardo-Venetia,  should  be  included  in  the  Gorman  con- 
federacy, but  this  bold  proposal  failed  of  acceptance. 

Austria  now  made  strenuous  efforts  to  develop  the  re- 
sources of  the  monarchy  by  encouraging  agriculture,  in- 
dustry, and  commerce.  The  land  was  freed  from  the 
burdcus  of  feudalism,  taxes  were  removed,  new  roads  were 
formed,  and  railways  were  constructed.  A  new  tariff  was 
adopted  (July  1851),  and  negotiations  were  entered  into 
with  the  other  German  states  for  a  complete  customs'  union 
with  the  ZolUerein,  but  this  was  strongly  opposed  by  Prussia 
and  several  of  the  other  states  in  the  union.  A  commercial 
treaty,  however,  was,  after  considerable  negotiation,  con- 
cluded between  Austria  and  the  ZoUvcrein  (19th  February 
1853).  The  liberal  concessions  that  had  been  made  by  the 
Government  were  rapidly  disappearing,  a  rigorous  military 
system  of  rule  was  being  introduced,  and  centralisation  wa.s 
taking  the  place  of  the  old  provincial  system.  On  the  1st 
of  January  1852  it  was  announced  that  the  constitution 
and  fundamental  rights  were  abolished,  the  ministers  m:re 
declared  responsible  only  to  the  emperor,  trial  by  jury  was 
set  aside,  the  censorship  of  the  press  was  again  in  operation. 
The  influence  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  and  the  Jesuits 
was  also  re-established.  A  popular  outbreak  occurred  in 
Milan  (Cth  February  1853),  wlien  a  number  of  the  military 
were  killed,  but  it  was  speedily  suppressed.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  assassinate  the  emperor  in  Vienna  by  a  young 
Hungarian  (ISlh  February).  In  the  quarrel  between  the 
Montenegrins  and  the  Porte,  Austria  sided  with  the  former, 
and  Count  Leiningen  was  sent  to  Constantinople  (Februnry 
1853)  to  demand  the  redress  of  their  grievances,  which  was 
granted.  About  this  time  Russia  demanded  the  protectoivUe 
of  the  Greek  Christians  in  Ttirkey,  and  this  being  denied, 
her  troops  crossed  the  Pruth  and  occupied  the  principalities 
of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  (July  1853).  Austria  took  a 
leading  part,  along  with  France  and  England,  in  condemn- 
ing Ihosic  proceedings  and  in  endeavouring  to  bring  abtiut 
peace.     .She  also  gave  the  Western  pnv\  crs  to  believe  that 


she  would  actively  cO-operate  with  them  in  the  defence  of 
Turkey,  but  afterwards  fell  back  upon  vague  promises,  and 
on  April  20,  1854,  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Prussia, 
by  which  the  two  powers  guaranteed  each  other's  dominions 
from  attack,  and  pledged  themselves  only  to  take  an  active 
part  in  the  war  when  the  interests  of  Germany  appeared 
to  be  endangered.  .On  June  14th  Austria  agreed  with 
Turkey  to  occupy  the  Danubian  principalities  with  an 
armed  force,  and  by  the  end  of  August  she  had  a  large 
army  there,  which  virt-ually  brought  the  war  on  the  Danube 
to  an  end.  Austria  still  continued  to  use  her  exertions  to 
bring  about  peace,  and  with  this  view  a  conference  was 
opened  at  Vienna  in  March  1855,  but  the  representatives 
of  the  several  powers  were  unable  to  agree  upon  a  basis. 
After  the  fall  of  Sebastopol  she  again  renewed  her  efforts, 
and  having  ascertained  the  terras  on  which  the  Western 
powers  would  be  prepared  to  treat,  she  sent  Count  Ester- 
hazy  to  St  Petersburg  to  lay  them  before  the  czar,  by  whom 
they  were  accepted,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at 
Paris,  Slst  March  1S5C. 

In  August  1855  the  empcrOr  signed  a  concordat  with 
tiie  Pope,  giving  the  church  greater  power  in  the  country 
than  it  had  ever  possessed  before.  The  clergy  were  to 
Lave  unlimited  control  over  all  ecclesiastical  matters  and 
matters  connected  with  education,  and  were  to  enjoy  free 
communication  with  Piome  without  the  intervention  of  the 
civil  power.  The  Government  now  seemed  desirous  of  re- 
laxing somewhat  their  restrictions,  and  of  making  tlie 
people  forget  the  troubles  of  1848  and  1849.  The  mili- 
tary rule  was  made  less  strict,  and  a  general  amnesty  was 
proclaimed  for  political  offences  (12th  July  185C).  The  em- 
peror visited  Italy  in  the  end  of  1856  and  Hungary  in  May 
1857,  but  the  remembrance  of  past  wrongs  was  still  alive 
in  the  minds  of  the  people,  and  he  was  everywhere  received 
with  the  greatest  coolness.  Austria  was  opposed  to  the 
union  of  the  Danubian  principalities,  and  for  some  time 
refused  to  evacuate  them,  but  at  length  (March  1857)  her 
troops  were  recalled. 

Sardinia  had  frequently  remonstrated  with  Austria  con- 
cerning her  policy  in  Italy,  wliile  Austria,  on  the  other 
hand,  complained  of  the  attacks  made  upon  her  by  the 
Sardinian  press.  A  growing  coolness  had  also  sprung  up 
between  Austria  and  France  on  this  subject,  which  reached 
its  climax  when  the  French  emperor  said  to  the  Austrian 
minister,  M.  Hiibner,  at  the  levee  on  the  1st  of  January  18.'i9. 
1859,  "I  regret  that  our  relations  with  your  Government 
are  not  so  good  as  they  were;  but  I  request  you  to  tell 
the  emperor  that  my  personal  feelings  for  him  have  not 
changed."  The  preparations  for  war  were  carried  on  with 
the  greatest  activity  by  Austria,  France,  and  Sardinia. 
England  sent  Lord  CoNilcy  to  Vienna  to  endeavour  to 
arrange  differences,  but  without  success.  Ii'ussia  proposed 
a  congress  of  the  five  great  powers,  and  this  was  agreed  to.  War  witli 
but  Austria  demanded  the  disarmament  of  Sardinia  previous  Kr.incr  ai 
to  the  congress,  which  the  latter  declined  to  agree  to,  and  S-'"'J""» 
both  sides  prepared  for  war.  Austrian  troops  poured  into 
Italy,  France  was  concentrating  her  forces  at  Toulon,  and 
Garibaldi  was  organising  a  corps  of  Italian  v<j!untccrs. 
The  Austrians  crossed  the  Ticino  (April  20),  and  the  French 
troops  were  niarclicd  into  Italy.  Napoleon  left  Paris  on 
the  lOlh  of  May,  and  reached  Genoa  on  the  12th,  wlicre 
he  was  next  day  joined  by  Victor  Eininanuel.  The  first 
serious  encounter  took  place  at  Monlebcllo  (May  20),  when 
a  strong  body  of  Austrians  was,  after  a  desperate  resist- 
ance, defeated  and  put  to  flight  by  a  body  of  French  troo]>s. 
The  /Tustrians  again  suffered  a  severe  defeat  at  Palest ro 
(M.aySl).  On  4th  Juno  the  battle  of  Magenta  was  fought, 
in  which  the  Austrians  were,  after  a  long  and  desperate 
cnnfliet,  defeated  and  put  to  liight  by  the  combined  army 
of  tlie  French  and  .Sardinians,  under  the  command  of  th-) 


BISTOEV.] 


AUSTRIA 


139 


I8«t, 


Emperor  Napoleon  in  person.  The  Austrians  fought  with 
great  bravery  and  deferniination,  but  were  not  well  officered, 
and  the  arrival  of  General  M'Mahon  with  his  troops  at  ati 
opportune  moment  decided  the  battle  against  them.  They 
had  about  75,000  men  in  the  field,  while  the  allies  num- 
bered about  55,000.  The  ktter  lost  about  4000  men  in 
killed  and  wounded,  the  former  about  10,000,  besides  7000 
prisoners.  Next  day  the  inhabitants  of  Milan  rose  in 
insurrection,  and  the  garrison  fled.  Pavia  was  evacuated  on 
the  7lh,  and  on  the  8lh  th«  fortified  position  of  Melegnano 
was  taken  after  three  hours'  hard  fighting.  The  same 
day  the  allied  monarchs  made  their  triumphal  entry  into 
Milan.  One  stronghold  after  another  now  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  conquerors.  The  defeated  army  retreated  to 
tke  further  bank  of  the  Mincio,  where  it  was  reorganised, 
and  the  emperor  himself  assumed  the  command.  It  then 
recrossed  the  Mincio,  and  took  up  a  position  near  the 
village  of  Solferino.  Here  the  allies  cama  up  to  it,  and 
both  sides  prepared  for  battle.  The  Austrian  army  num- 
bered about  170,000  men,  while  the  allied  troops  were  not 
less  than  150,000.  The  battle  commenced  early  in  the 
morning  of  the  24th  June,  and  continued  till  late  in  the 
afternoon.  The  Austrian  line  extended  for  nearly  12 
miles  The  right  and  left  wings  of  the  Austrians  were  for 
gome  time  successful,  while  Napoleon  was  using  every 
effort  to  break  their  centre.  In  this  he  was  at  length  suc- 
cessful, and  the  wings  were  then  obliged  to  retire  in  order 
that  they  might  not  be  overflanked.  The  French  lost  in 
•killed  and  wounded  12,000  men,  the  Sardinians  5000, 
and  the  Austrians  20,000,  besides  7000  prisoners.  The 
Austrians  now  abandoned  the  line  of  the  Mincio,  and  fell 
back  upon  Verona.  The  allies  crossed  the  Mincio,  Peschiera 
was  invested,  and  great  preparations  were  made  on  both 
sides  for  renewing  the  contest.  While  all  Europe  was  in 
the  expectation  of  another  great  battle,  news  arrived  that 
an  armistice  for  five  weeks  had  been  agreed  to ;  and  on 
I'lth  July  the  two  eraixjrors  met  at  ViUafranca,  and  agreed 
to  terms  of  peace.  A  conference  was  afterwards  held  at 
Ziirich,  and  a  treaty  drawn  up  and  signed  (10th  November 
1859).  By  it  Austria  gave  up  Lombardy,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  fortresses  of  Mantua  and  Peschiera,  to  Napoleon, 
who  was  to  hand  it  over  to  the  king  of  Sardinia;  Italy 
was  to  be  formed  into  a  confederation  under  the  presidency 
of  the  Pope,  and  Austria  was  to  be  a  mernber  on  account 
of  Venetia ;  and  the  princes  of  Tuscany  and  Modena  were 
to  have  their  possessions  restored  to  them. 

In  March  18C0  the  emperor,  by  patent,  enlarged  the 
OBlnber  and  powers  of  the  Reichsrath  or  council  of  the 
kMpire,  and  on  21st  October  promulgated  a  new  constitu- 
U-jn,  in.  which  he  declared  the  right  to  issue,  alter,  and 
abolish  laws,  to  bo  exercised  by  him  and  his  successors 
only  with  the  cooperation  of  the  lawfully  assembled  diets 
aOd  of  the  Reichsrath.  The  things  to  be  settled  with  the 
CO  operatiod  of  the  Reichsrath  were  all  legislative  matters 
relating  to  the  rights,  duties,  and  interests  of  the  seve- 
ral kingdoms  and  countries,  such  as  the  laws  connected 
with  the  coinage;  currency,  public  credit,  customs,  and 
commercial  matters.  This  was  followed  by  proposals  of 
■Imikr  changes  for  Hungary;  and,  on  27th  February  fol- 
lowing, it  was  decreed  that  their  former  constitutions  should 
bo  restored  to  Hungary,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  Transyl- 
vania. At  List-mentioned  date  a  fundamental  law  was 
also  promulgated  for  the  representation  of  the  empire  by 
a  Reichsrath,  composed  of  two  bodies,  a  house  of  peers 
and  a  bouse  of  deputies,  and  declaring  the  constitution  and 
functions  of  each.  It  was  declared  to  be  the  earnest  wish 
of  the  Government  that  hyper-centralisation  should  bo 
avoided.  On  1st  May  the  new  Reichsrath  was  formally 
opened  by  the  emperor  at  Vienna,  when  he  declared  his 
oonvicti'in  "that  hberal  institutions,  with  the  conscientious 


introduction  and  maintenance  of  the  prindples  of  equal 
rights  of  all  the  nationalities  of  his  empire,  of  the  equality 
of  all  his  subjects  in  the  eye  of  the  law,  and  of  the  partici- 
pation of  the  representatives  of  the  people  in  the  legisla- 
tion, would  lead  to  a  salutary  transformation  of  the  whole 
monarchy."  Hungary,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  Transylvania 
declined  to  send  representatives,  claiming  to  have  constitu' 
tions  and  rights  distinct  from  the  empire.  The  Reichsrath 
sat  till  the  close  of  18C2,  occupying  itself  chiefly  with  eccle- 
siastical affairs,  the  state  of  education,  personal  liberty,  and 
the  laws  relating  to  the  press,  commerce,  feudal  tefiures,  ic. 
In  18G3  the  emperor  of  Austria  invited  the  different  poten- 
tates of  Germany  to  meet  him  at  Frankfort,  in  order  to 
determine  upou  a  scheme  of  reform  for  their  common 
country.  They  almost  all  responded  to  the  invitation  except 
the  king  of  Prussia,  and  the  congress  was  opened  (August 
16)  by  a  speech  from  the  emperor.  The  proceedings,  how- 
ever, did  not  result  in  any  important  change,  owing  in  great 
measure  to  the  want  of  sympathy  from  Prussia. 

The  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  king  of  Denmark  (15th 
November  1 8C3),  gave  rise  to  a  general  ferment  in  Germany 
on  the  subject  of  the  duchies  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and 
Lauenburg.  To  the  Germans  a  united  fatherland  had  long 
been  a  favourite  idea,  and  they  now  saw  a  step  towards  its 
accomplishment.  Notwithstanding  the  treaty  of  London 
(8th  May  1852),  which  Hxed  the  succession  to  the  Danish 
crown,  and  was  signed  by  Austria  and  Prussia,  they  denied 
the  right  of  t'le  new  king.  Christian  IX  ,  to  the  duchies, 
and  laid  claim  to  them  as  part  of  Germany.  To  enforce 
their  claim  the  diet  determined  that  they  should  be  occu- 
pied by  an  armed  force,  and  Saxony  and  Hanover  were 
directed  to  enter  and  take  possession  of  Hclstein.  This 
was  done  without  their  coming  into  hostile  collision  with 
the  Danish  troops,  who  retired  to  Schleswig  (December 
1863).  Soon  after  this";  however,  Austria  and  Prussia 
gave  notice  that  they,  as  the  chief  powers  in  Germany,  in- 
tended to  take  upon  themselves  the  carrying  on  of  the  war. 
Hostilities  commenced  (1st  February  1864)  when  Austrian 
and  Prussian  troops  crossed  the  Schleswig  frontier  Den- 
mark had  trusted  to  England  and  France  coming  forward 
to  maintain  the  conditions  of  the  treaty  of  1852  ;  but  these 
powers  remained  passive,  and  the  Danes,  after  a  short 
but  heroic  stand,  were  forced  to  succumb.  An  armistice 
was  concluded  (1st  August),  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
eventually  signed  at  Vienna  (30th  October),  by  which 
Denmark  made  over  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Laueaburg 
to  Austria  and  Prussia. 

But  Austria  speedily  suffered  terrible  retribution  for  the 
part  she  had  taken  in  this  affair.  By  inducing  Austria  to 
join  with  her,  Prussia  succeeded  in  removing  part  of  the 
odium  of  the  proceeding  from  herself,  and  she  also  suc- 
ceeded in  obtiiining  the  aid  of  a  rival  power  to  secure 
territories  which  she  had  previously  determined  to  appro- 
priate as  her  own.  The  acquired  territory  naturally  lay 
very  convenient  for  Prussia,  and  Austria  would  have  will- 
ingly enough  given  up  her  claim  on  it  if  Prussia  bad 
agreed  to  grant  her  a  territorial  equivalent  in  some  other 
quarter  of  her  dominions.  This  the  latter  power  dechned  to 
do,  but  would  readily  have  consented  to  a  pecuniary  compen- 
sation. A  convention  was  therefore  held  at  Qastein  (August. 
1865),  which  brought  about  a  temporary  understanding 
Prussia  was  to  receive  Lauenburg  on  payment  of  a  sum  of 
1,500,000  thalers,  while  Austria  was  to  have  the  adminis- 
tration of  affairs  in  Holstein,  and  Prussia  in  Schleswig. 
Austria,  however,  was  desirous  of  the  formation  of  the 
duchies  into  a  separate  state,  and  supported  the  claims 
of  the  duke  of  Augustcnburg  to  them.  This  was  strenu- 
ously opposed  by  Prussia,  who  regarded  the  public  meet- 
ings that  were  permitted  to  bo  held  in  Holstein  in  sup- 
port of  this  as  a  breach  of   agreement.     Austria  referred 


140 


AUSTRIA 


illlSTOKY. 


the  question  to  the  Frankfort  diet,  which  decided  in  favour 
of  the  duke.  Matters  were  now  approaching  a  crisis.  Prussia 
had  long  looked  v  itl.  jCjlousy  upon  the  power  of  Austria, 
and  consider -.d  a  war  with  that  country  for  the  supremacy 
of  Germany  as  sooner  or  later  a  necessity.  The  German 
people  had  for  some  time  felt  that  there  was  not  room 
for  two  great  powers, — each  too  great  to  submit  to  the 
other,— one  or  other  must  give  way  before  the  country 
could  obtain  its  proper  place  and  influence  in  Europe. 
1868.  While  both  powers  were  professing  the  utmost  desire  for 
peace,  each  was  actively  preparing  for  war.  Prussia  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  Victor  Emmanuel  (27th  March  186G), 
the  latter  undertaking  to  declare  war  against  Austria  as 
80on  as  Prussia  commenced  hostilities,  while  the  former 
engaged  to  secure  Venetia  for  her  Itahan  ally.  la  the 
beginning  of  May  orders  were  issued  by  the  emperor  of 
Austria  for  putting  the  whole  army  upon  a  war  footing, 
and  for  concentrating  a  portion  of  it  upon  the  Bohemian 
and  Silesian  frontiers ;  and  about  the  same  time  the  Prus- 
Wa  with  sian  cabinet  issued  orders  to  fill  up  to  the  war  strength  the 
'"""''*•  different  branches  of  the  service.  On  7th  June  the  Prus- 
sian troops  entered  Holstein,  and  compelled  the  Austrians 
to  retire,  which  they  did  without  bloodshed. 

Austria  was  in  an  unprepared  state  when  the  war  actu- 
ally broke  out,  but  the  Prussian  forces,  on  the  other  hand, 
were  thoroughly  equipped.  The  Austrian  army  in  the  north 
amounted  to  247,000  men,  besides  the  Saxon  army  at 
Dresden  of  24,000,  in  all  271,000.  The  Prussian  force 
consisted  of  three  armies:  the  first,  under  the  command  x)f 
Prince  Frederick  Charles,  consisted  of  93,000  men,  and 
was  destined  for  Saxony  and  Bohemia ;  the  second,  under 
the  crown  prince,  numbered  115,000  men,  and  was  to 
operate  in  Silesia ;  while  the  third,  or  array  of  the  Elbe, 
under  General  Herwarth,  consisting  of  46,000  men,  was  to 
march  on  the  right  flank  of  the  first  army,  making  in  all 
254,000  men,  besides  reserve  corps  of  24,300  men  stationed 
at  Berlin.  General  Benedek  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Austrian  army,  and  his  forces  were  distri-^ 
buted  along  the  frontier  that  separates  Moravia  from 
Saxony  and  Silesia.  On  the  16th  of  June  the  Prussians 
entered  Saxony,  and  marched  upon  Dresden,  the  Saxon 
army  retiring  to  join  the  Austrians.  On  the  18th  the 
Austrians  entered  Silesia,  .and  the  same  day  the  Prussiansi 
took  possession  of  Dresden.  The  three  Prussian  armies 
now  advanced  into  Bohemia,  and  endeavoured  to  concen- 
trate in  the  direction  of  Gitschin."  On  June  2Gth  an  etu 
gagcment  took  place  between  some  companies  of  the  first 
army  and  a  body  of  Austrians  at  Podol,  in  which  the  latter 
were  defeated,  while,  at  Hiihnerwasser,  the  advanced  guard 
of  the  Elbe  army  attacked  some  Austrian  troops  and  drove 
them  back  toward.^  MiinchengrUtz.  Here,  on  the  28th,  a 
severe  struggle  took  place  between  the  Prussians  and  the 
Austrians,  supported  by  the  Saxons,  but  the  latter  were 
ultimately  driven  back  in  the  direction  of  Gitschin.  In 
the  meantime  the  second  army,  under  the  crown  prince, 
had  to  march  through  the  long  and  narrow  passes  of  the 
mountains  lying  between  Silesia  and  Bohemia.  On  the 
27th  one  of  the  corps  of  this  army,  under  General  Stein- 
inetz,-  engaged  an  Austrian  force  under  General  Ramming, 
and  after  a  severe  contest  began  to  give  way,  but  the 
crown  prince  coming  up,  the  Austrians  were  driven  back. 
The  same  day  another  corps  of  this  army  took  possession 
of  Trautenau,  but  were  attacked  by  the  Austrians  under 
General  Gablenz,  and  sustained  a  repulse.  Both  sides 
having  received  reinforcements,  the  action  was  renewed 
next  day  at  Soor,  when  victory  ultimately  declared  for  the 
rrussians.  At  Skalitz,  on  the  28th,  the  Prussian!!,  under 
Steinmetz,  were  att.icked  by  the  Austrians  under  Archduke 
Leopold,  but  tlic  latter  were  defeated,  and  the  town  taken 
by  storm.     It  is  said  that  on  this  occasion  the  arcluiuke 


had  disobeyed  positive  ord^.-s,  which  were  on  no  account 
to  make  an  attack.  On  the  29tb,  two  divisions  of  the  first 
army,  under  Generals  Tiimpling  and  Werder,  defeated  the 
Austrians  under  Count  Clam  Gallas,  at  Gitschin,  and  took 
the  town.  The  count,  who  occupied  a  strong  position 
here,  had  orders  not  to  attack  the  enemy,  but  these  he  had 
disobeyed,  and  the  consequence  was  that  Benedek,  who 
had  taken  up  a  strong  position  at  Dubenetz  to  oppose  the 
army  of  the  crown  prince,  found  himself  at  once  in  a  most 
dangerous  situation,  and  was  obliged  to  retreat  towards 
Koniggratz.  On  the  same  day  bodies  of  Austrians  were 
defeated  at  Koniginhof  and  SchweinschiideL  In  these 
various  engagements  the  Austrians  lost  in  all  from  30,000 
to  40,000  men.  Both  sides  now  concentrated  their  forces 
in  the  direction  of  Kijniggrutz,  and  prepared  for  a  general 
engagement.  On  June  30  the  king  of  Prussia  joined  the 
army,  and  the  battle  of  Koniggratz,  or  Sadowa,  was  fought 
on  the  3d  of  July.  The  Austrians  numbered  about  220,000, 
and  the  Prussians  probably  about  240,000.  The  battle 
was  long  and  well  contested,  both  sides  fighting  with  the 
greatest  determination  and  bravery ,  but  at  length  the 
Austrians  were  broken,  and  obliged  to  retire.  The  Prus- 
sians lost  359  officers  and  8794  men,  while  the  Austrians 
and  Saxons  lost  in  all  about  44,200  men,  of  whom  19,800 
were  prisoners.  This  terminated  what  has  been  sometimes 
called  the  Seven  Days'  War.  The  Austrians  retreated  to 
Zwittau  and  afterwards  to  Olmiitz.  A  portion  of  the  Prus- 
sians went  in  pursuit,  but  the  king,  with  an  army  of  up- 
wards of  100,000  men,  marched  on  towards  Vienna,  and 
reached  Nikolsburg,  July  IS.  After  the  battle  of  Konig- 
gratz, the  emperor,  seeing  the  disastrous  state  of  his  affairs, 
resolved  to  cede  Venetia  to  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  so  as 
to  be  able  to  bring  his  army  in  Italy  against  the  Prussians, 
and  he  also  expressed  his  willingness  to  accept  the  media- 
tion of  the  latter  to  bring  about  a  peace.  The  Archdulie 
AJbert,  who  had  the  command  of  the  army  in  Italy,  with 
which  he  had  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  on  the  Italians 
at  Custozza,  wasrecallod  to  take  the  chief  command  in 
place  of  Benedek.  An  armistice,  however,  was  agreed 
upon  through  the  mediation  of  Franco  (22d  July).  The' 
preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  at  Nikolsburg  (2Gth 
July),  and  negotiations  were  afterwards  carried  on  at 
-Prague,  where  a  treaty  was  signed  (23d  August).  By  this 
treaty  Austria  gave  up  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  Venetia 
and  the  fortresses  of  the  quadrilateral,  namely,  Peschicra, 
Mantua,  Verona,  and  Legnano;  recognised  the  dissolution 
of  the  late  German  Confederation,  and  consented  to  a  new 
formation  of  Germany,  in  which  she  should  have  no  part ; 
gave  up  all  claim  to  the  duchies-of  Holstein  and  Schlcswig  ; 
and  agreed  to  pay  a  war  indemnity  of  40,000,000  thalcrs, 
less  20,000,000  allowed  her  on  account  of  the  duchies. 

Having  thus  obtained  peace,  the  emperor  now  turncu 
his  attention  to  home  aff'airs.  Hungary  was  still  in  a  very 
troubled  and  dissatisfied  state.  We  have  seen  that  sue 
declined  to  send  representatives  to  thcRcichsrath,  insisting 
on  her  right  to  self-government,  and  refusing  to  have  any- 
thing else.  The  plan  of  opposition  she  adopted  was  that 
of  passive  resistance,  by  the  non-pajment  of  taxc!>.  At 
length,  at  the  opening  of  the  Hungarian  diet  at  Pc-<ith  by 
the  emperor  in  person,  on  December  14,  1865,  ho  rccog 
niscd  the  necessity  of  self-government  for  Hungary  so  far 
as  it  did  not  affect  the  unity  of  the  empire  and  the  position 
of  Austria  as  a  great  European  power.  He  also  recognised 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction  as  the  basis  on  which  a  settlement 
of  their  difficulties  was  to  be  sought.  At  the  opening  of 
the  diet  on  19th  November  186G,  ,an  injpcrial  rescript, 
signed  by  the  emperor,  was  read,  in  which  he  promised, 
by  the  appointment  of  a  responsible  ministry  and  tho  re- 
storation of  municipal  solfgovprnncnf,  to  do  justice  to  the 
constitutional  demands  of  tlie  Hungarians.     Jn  the  end  of 


A  U  T  — A  U  T 


141 


I S66,  Baron  Beast,  who  had  previonsij  been  prime  minisler 
of  Saxony,  and  was  not  only  a  foreigner  but  a  Protestant, 
was  made  foreigu  minister.  He  subsequently  became  prime 
minister  and  chancellor  of  the  empire.  In  the  spring  of 
1367  the  emperor  summoned  the  Reichsrath  to  assemble  at 
Vienna  to  deliberate  upon  various  important  measures, — 
the  proposed  amendments  in  the  Hungarian  constitution,  the 
question  of  ministerial  responsibilitv,  t'^e  sending  of  dele- 
gates to  assemblies,  the  extension  of  the  constitutional  self- 
government  of  the  different  provinces,  the  reorganisation  of 
the  army,  the  improvement  of  the  administration  of  justice, 
and  the  promotion  of  the  economical  interests  of  the  coun- 
try. It  was  opened  by  the  emperor  in  person  on  May  22, 
and  in  his  speech  o.r  the  occasion  he  earnestly  recommended 
to  their  attention  these  subjects.  "  To-day,"  he  said,  "  we 
are  about  to  establi-sh  a  work  of  peace  and  of  concord. 
Let  us  throw  a  veil  of  forgetfulness  over  the  immediate 
past,  which  has  inflicted  deep  wounds  upon  the  empire. 
Let  us  lay  to  heart  the  lessons  which  it  leaves  behind,  but 
let  us  derive  with  unshaken  courage  new  strength,  and  the 
resolve  to  secure  to  the  empire  peace  and  power."  On  Sth 
Juno  the  emperor  and  empress  were  crowned  king  and  queen 
of  Hungary  at  Pesth  amid  great  public  rejoicings,  on  which 
occasion  full  pardon  was  given  for  all  past  political  offences, 
and  full  liberty  to  all  offenders  residing  in  foreign  countries 
to  return.  Many  important  and  liberal  measures  were  dis- 
cussed and  carried  in  the  Reichsrath  ;  in  particular,  mar- 
riage was  made  a  civil  contract,  and  the  perfect  equality 
of  believers  of  different  creeds  was  recognised.  On  25th 
May  186S,  the  civil  marriage  bill  received  imperial  assent, 
and  on  30th  July  1870  the  concordat  with  Rome  was  de- 
clared to  be  suspended  in  consequence  of  the  promulgation 
of  the  doctrine  of  Papal  infallibility.  This  last  measure 
introduced  a  very  beneficial  change  in  the  relations  between 
Austria  and  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  has  brought  about 
more  sympathy  and  cordiality  between  these  two  states 
than  formerly  existed. 

For  some  years  the  Government  had  much  difficulty  in 
settling  the  law  of  elections  so  as  to  secure  the  due  repre- 


sentaii'un  of  the  different  races  and  classes  of  the  people 
in  the  Reichsrath.  On  Gth  March  1873  a  reform  bill  was 
passed  by  the  lower  house,  taking  thi  election  of  members 
of  the  Reichsrath  out  of  the  hands  of  the  provincial  diets 
and  transferring  it  to  the  body  of  the  electors  in  the  several 
provinces,  thus  substituting  direct  for  indirect  election. 
In  April  it  passed  the  upper  house  and  received  the 
imperial  assent.  This  measure  was  hailed  with  great  satis- 
faction, and  has  established  the  government  upon  a  much 
broader  and  more  secure  basis.  The  session  of  the  new 
Reichsrath  was  opened  by  the  emperor  in  person  on  Novem- 
ber 0.  In  tho  same  ycir  a  great  exhibition  of  the  indus- 
tries of  all  nations  was  licld  at  Vienna.  It  was  opened  on 
May  1  by  tho  cinpcror,  and  attracted  to  the  capital,  among 
others,  tho  prince  of  Wales,  the  czar  of  Russia,  the  em- 
peror and  empress  of  Germany,  the  king  of  Italy,  and  the 
shah  of  Persia.  On  2d  December  the  twenty-fifth  anni- 
versary of  the  emperor's  accession  to  the*  throne  was 
celebrated  amid  great  rejoicings  in  Vienna,  having  been 
celebrated  three  days  before  in  Pesth.  The  emperor  and 
empress  were  present  on  both  occasions,  and  everywhere 
met  with  an  enthusiastic  reception.  In  the  spring  of 
1874  a  bill  for  the  abolition  of  the  concordat  was  intro- 
duced by  the  Government,  and  measures  for  restricting  the 
powers  of  the  clergy  passed  both  houses.  In  his  speech  at 
the  opening  of  the  Reichsrath  on  Sth  November  of  that 
year,  the  emperor  said  that  by  the  system  of  direct  popu- 
lar elections  the  empire  had  obtained  real  independence, 
and  exhorted  the  members  to  work  with  united  energy  at 
the  solution  of  the  greatest  of  their  tasks,  the  uniting  of 
the  people  of  Austria,  so  that  she  might  become  a  powerful 
state,  strong  in  ideas  of  justice  and  liberty. 

See  Dr  F.  Kohlrausch,  Die  Deutsche  Geschickle,  1S66  ;  Ungewitter, 
Die  Ocsterreichische ilonarchie^  1856;  Geschichteder  Oesterreichi^chen 
KaiscrstaaUs,  1859  ;  Stein,  ffandbu^k  der  Geoyraphie,  1870  ;  Grant 
DuiX,  Studies  in  EiiropeanPolitics^\%66, and  Ely  in  Speeches,  1871;  Sir 
A.  Slalet,  TIte  Overthrow  of  Iht  Germanic  Con/cJeralion,  1870  ;  Th« 
Campaign  ti/1866  ire  Germany,  translated  by  Colonel  Von  Wriglit, 
1872  ;  Steinhauser,  Geor/raphievonOesierrcich-l/nfjani,  1S72  ;  Tlte 
Armed  Strength  of  Austria,  by  Cajitain  W.  S.  Cooke,  1874.    (D   K.) 


AUTOCHTHONES,  in  Greel:  MylholoQy,  the  first  human ' 
beings   who  appeared   in   tho   world,  and   who,  as  their 
name  implies,  were  believed  to  have  sprung  from  the  earth 
itself.     Instead  of  one  pair  as  the  first  parents  of  the  whole 
race,  each  district  of  Greece  had  its  own  autochthones,  who, 
according  to  Ahe  prominent  physical  features  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood, were  supposed  to  have  been  produced  from  trees, 
rocks,  or  marshy  places,  the  most  peculiar,  and  apparently 
the  most  widely-spread  belief  being  that  which  traced  the 
origin  of  mankind  fo  the   otherwi.se  unproductive  rocks. 
Whether  the  first  appearance  of  mankind  was  regarded  as 
having  been  simultaneous  in  tho  various  districts  or  not,  at 
what  time  or  times  such  appearance  was  made  with  refer- 
ence, for  example,  to  the  origin  of  the  gods  who  also  had 
sprung  from  the  earth  (Pindar,  Ncm.  vi.  1  ;  Hesiod,  Works 
and  Days,  108),  and  whether  the  first  men  possessed  the 
'ull  humau  form,  are  questions  which  there  is  no  material 
to  answer   satisfactorily.     On    the  last  point  it   is  to  be 
observed  that  Erysichthon  at  Athens  was  said  to  have  had 
legs  in  the  form  of  serpents,  and  that  this  is  taken  to 
denote  his  origination  from  a  marshy  place.     Similarly  the 
e«rth-born  giants,  who  made  war  against  the  gods,  had  legs 
u.  the  form  of  serpents,     in  Thebes,  the  race  of  Sparti 
weto   believed  to  have  sprung  from  a  field  sown    with 
dragons'  teeth.     Tho  Phrygian  Corybantcs  had  been  forced 
out  of  the  bill-side  like  trees  by  Rhea,  the  great  mother, 
tind   hence  were  callwl   iivRpo:l>viU.     But   whatever   the 
primitive  form  of  men  was  believed  to  have  Seen,  it  is  cle.ir 


from  .iEschylus  {Prometheus,  4-17,  foil.)  that  they  were 
supposed  to  have  at  first  lived  like  animals  in  caves  and 
woods,  till  by  the  help  of  the  gods  and  heroes  they  were 
raised  to  a  stage  of  civilisation.  The  practice  of  describing 
legendary  heroes  and  men  of  ancient  lineage  as  "  earth- 
born,"  yT/ycvfis,  strengthened  greatly  the  doctrine  of 
autochtliony,  and  nowhere  so  much  as  in  Attica. 

AUTO-DA-FE  {Act  of  Faith),  a  public  solemnity  of  the 
Inquisition  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  at  which  tho  .sentences 
of  the  court  were  read ;  those  who  were  declared  innocent 
were  formally  absolved,  and  the  condemned  were  handed 
over  to  the  secular  power  for  punishment  The  day  chosen 
was  usually  some  Sunday  between  Trinity  and  Advent. 
The  first  auto-da-fe  was  held  by  Torquemada  at  Seville  \\, 
1481  ;  the  last  was  probably  that  mentioned  by  Llorente. 
the  historian  of  the  Inquisition,  os  having  been  solemnised 
i  in  Mexico  in  1815.     See  Inquisition. 

AUTOGRAPH  (auro?  and  ypi4,iiv),  that  which  i; 
written  with  a  person's  own  hand,  an  original  manu.-^crii  l 
as  opposed  to  an  apograph  or  copy,  is  used  to  designate 
either  a  whole  document  {e.g.,  a  letter)  or  a  signature  only. 
The  latter  is  perhaps  the  more  common  use  of  the  term. 
The  interest  attaching  to  the  possession  bf  autograplis  ol 
distinguished  men,  which  has  created  a  new  branch  of 
industry,  is  [Partly  historical,  partly  psychological  The 
signatures  or  original  manuscripts  arc  interesting  and 
v.iluablc  elements  in  the  representation  of  tho  life  of  any 
individual  :   and    it    has    been    t^on?ht    that    from    the 


142 


A  U  T  —  A  U  V 


eutograph  some  conclusions  might  be  drawn  as  to  the 
mental  characteristics  of  the  writer.  It  is  doubtless  true 
that  temperament  will  in  some  degree  affect  handwriting, 
but  the  conditions  to  be  taken  into  account  are  so  numerous 
and  variable  that  the  attempt  to  infer  the  one  from  the 
other  seems  practically  hopeless.  Foe,  in  his  ingenious 
"Chapter  on  Autography"  (Wcn-ks,  Ed.  Ingram,  vol.  iv.), 
speaks  very  strongly  on  this  subject.  He  thinks  that  none 
but  the  unreflecting  can  deny  "  that  a  strong  analogy  does 
generally  and  naturallyexist  between  every  man's  chirography 
and  character,"  and  to  support  his  statement  compares  the 
signatures  and  mental  characteristics  of  a  large  number  of 
contemporary  American  writers.  In  many  cases,  however, 
he  is  obliged  to  confess  that  no  inference  whatever  can  be 
drawn,  in  some  others  the  analogy  is  extremely  forced,  and 
in  others,  again,  the  knowledge  of  the  writer's  character 
has  evidently  furnished  the  key  for  the  interpretation  of 
the  handwriting.  The  value  placed  by  an  amateur  on  any 
autograph  will,  of  course,  vary  with  the  celebrity  of  its 
author  and  the  scarcity  of  genuine  specimens.  The  taste 
for  collecting  autographs  is  not  confined  to  modern  times ; 
many  large  collections,  e.ff.,  those  of  Lom^nie  de  Brienne, 
of  I/icroix  du  Maine,  and  others,  were  formed  in  the  1 6th 
century,  and  during  the  same  period  we  know  that  albums 
used  to  be  carried  about  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the 
signatures  of  famous  personages.  'One  of  these  albums 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum  is  of  date  1578.  There 
are  at  present  many  valuable  public  and  private  collections, 
while  state  papers  and  archives,  of  course,  contain  a  rich 
harvest  of  royal  and  noble  signatures.  Fac-similes  of 
original  manuscripts  appear  first  to  have  been  printed  in 
Forbes's  Full  View  of  the  Public  TfaTisaclvms  in  the  Reign  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  1740-41  ;  and  soon  after,  several  were 
given  in  Fenn's  Original  Letters  from  the  Archives  of  the 
Paston  Familr/,  1787. 

The  following  are,  perhaps,  the  most  useful  works  on  tKe  sub- 
5ect: — J.  G.  Nichol's  Aut-ograpJis  of  Royal,  Noble,  Learned,  and 
A  Remarkable  Personages  eorispicrioits  in  English  Sislory,  from  the 
Reign  of  Ricliard  II.  to  that  of  CharltsII.,  Lond.  1829  j  Autographic 
Mirror,  1864,  ^qq.  ;  Netherclift,  Uajidbook  of  Aiitographs ;  Phillips 
and  Netherclift,  AiUographic  Album;  Simnis,  AiUographic Souvenir ; 
Netherclift  and  Simms,  Autographic  Miscellany;  Isographie  dcs 
Hommcs  Citibres,  4  vols.  1829-43;  Iconographie  des  Oonlemporains, 

2  vols.   1823-32;  Feuillet  de   Conches,    Causeries  dun   Ourieux, 

3  vols.  1862-64;  Lescure,  Les  Autographes,  1865;  Giinther  und 
SchuU  HaTidbuch  filr  Auiographcnsammler,  1&56  ;  Sammlung  his- 
torisch/beTiihiater  Aut( graphen,  1846;  Autographcn  Album  zur  200 
tdhr   Gcddchlnissfcier  dcs  IVestphdlischen  Fricdens-schlusscs,  1848. 

AUTOLYCUS  of  Pitane,  in  iEolis,  was  one  of  the 
earliest  Greek  writers  on  mathematics  and  astronomy.  As 
he  is  said  (o  have  given  instruction  to  Arcesilaus,  he 
probably  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  4th  century 
B.a  His  estant  works  consist  of  two  treatises ;  the  one, 
vtpi  KLvoviiivTjti  iT'pa'pa';,  contains  some  simple  propositions 
on  the  motion  of  the  sphere,  the  other,  Trcpl  cVitoXSc  koI 
iva^ewv,  in  two  books,  discusses  the  rising  and  setting  of 
the  fixed  stars.  Neither  treatise  is  of  much  scientific  value. 
There  are  several  Latin  versions  of  Autolycus,  and  a  French 
translation  by  yorcadol,  1572. 

.MJTO.MATON  (from  o^tot,  self,  and  //aw,  to  seize),  a 
self-moving  machine,  or  one  in  which  the  principle  of 
motion  is  contained  within  the  mechanism  itself.  Accord- 
ing to  this  description,  clocks,  watches,  and  all  machines 
of  a  similar  kind,  are  automata,  but  the  word  is  generally 
applied  to  contrivances  which  simulate  for  a  time  the 
motions  of  animal  life.  •  If  the  human  figure  and  actions 
ba  represented,  the  automaton  has  sometimes  been  called 
specially  an  androides.  We  have  very  early  notices  of  the 
construction  of  automata,  e.g.,  the  tripods  of  Vulcan,  and 
the  moving  figures  of  Dxdalus.  400  years  B.C.,  Archytas  of 
Tarontum  is  said  to  have  made  a  wooden  pigeon  that  could 
^y  ;  and  during  the  Middle 'Ages  numerouf  instances  of 


the  construction  of  automata  are  recorded.  Eegiomontanus 
is  said  to  have  made  an  iron  fly,  which  would  flutter  round 
the  room  and  return  to  his  hand,  and  also  an  eagle,  which 
flew  before  the  Emperor  Maximilian  when  he  was  entering 
Nuremberg.  Eoger  Bacon  is  said  to  have  forged  a  brazen 
head  which  spoke,  and  .\lbertus  Magnus  to  have  had  an  an- 
droides, which  acted  as  doorkeeper,  and  was  broken  to  pieecs 
by  Aquinas.  Of  these,  as  of  some  later  instances,  e.g.,  the 
figure  constructed  by  Descartes  and  the  automata  exhibited 
by  Dr  Camus,  not  much  is  accurately  known.  But  in  the 
iSth  century,  Vaucanson,  the  celebrated  mechanician, 
exhibited  three  admirable  figures, — the  flute-pbyer,  the 
tambourine-player,  and  the  duck,  which  was  capable  of 
eating,  drinking,  and  imitating  exactly  the  natural  voice  of 
that  fowl  The  means  by  which  these  results  had  been 
produced  were  clearly  seen,  and  a  great  impulse  was  given 
to  the  construction  of  similar  figures.  Knauss  exhibited 
at  Vienna  an  automaton  which  wrote ;  a  father  and  son 
named  Droz  constructed  several  ingenious  mechanical 
figures  which  wrote  and  played  music ;  Kaufmann  and 
Maelzel  made  automatic  trumpeters  who  could  play  several 
marches.  The  Swiss  have  always  been  celebrated  for  their 
mechanical  ingenuity,  and  they  construct  most  of  the 
curious  toys,  such  as  flying  and  singing  birds,  which  are 
frequently  met  with  in  industrial  exhibitions.  The 
greatest  difficulty  has  generally  been  experienced  in  devis- 
ing any  mechanism  which  shall  successfully  simulate  the 
human  voice.  No  attempt  has  been  thoroughly  suc- 
cessful, though  many  have  been  made.  The  figure  ex- 
hibited by  Fabermann  of  Vienna  is,  perhaps,  as  yet  the 
best.  No  notice  of  automata  can  be  complete  without  at 
least  a  reference  to  Ke'mpelen's  famous  chess  player,  which 
for  many  years  astonished  and  puzzled  Europe.  'This  figure, 
hovrever,  was  no  true  automaton,  although  the  mechanical 
contrivances  for  concealing  the  real  performer  and  giving 
effect  to  his  desired  movements  were  exceedingly  ingenious. 

AUTUN,  the  capital  of  an  arrondissement  of  the  same 
name  in  the  department  of  Saone  and  Loire,  in  France,  is 
picturesquely  situated  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  at  the 
foot  of  which  flows  the  Arroux.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  towns  of  Prance;  and  when  Cssar  invaded  Gaul 
it  was  the  most  important  of  the  jEdui  Its  name  was 
then  Bibracte,  but  being  afterwards  much  improved  and 
embellished  by  Augustus  it  took  that  of  Angustodunum. 
In  the  later  days  of  the  Roman  empire  it  wasafluurishin^ 
city,  and  consequently  attracted  the  barbarian  bands. 
It  was  successively  plundered  and  burned  by  tlie  Vandal,< 
in  406,  the  Burgundians  in  414,  the  Huns  in  461,  the 
Franks  in  534,  the  Saracens  in  739,  and. the  Normans  in 
895.  It  was  burned  by  the  English  in  1379,  and  besieged 
in  1591  by  D'Aumont.  Yet  in  spite  of  all  these  disastrous 
events,  its  former  greatness  is  attested  ty  many  Roman  and 
other  remains,  among  which  are  large  masses  of  its  ancieiit 
walls,  two  gates  in  admirable  preservation,  called  the  Porte 
ci'Arroitx  and  the  Porte  Saint-Andre,  tlie  walls  of  the  so- 
called  temple  of  Janus,  and  a  pyramid  in  the  neighbour- 
bouring  village  of  Couard,  in  which  some  recognise  a  monu- 
ment to  Divitiacus.  The  cathedral  is  a  structure  of  the 
11th  and  12th  centuries,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  remark- 
able spire  of  the  15th.  '  Aulun  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
and  has  a  college,  a  diocesan  seminary,  a  museum,  which  is 
very  rich  in  medals  and  other  minor  antiquities,  a  library, 
a  theatre,  itc,  with  tribunals  of  primary  jurisdiction  and 
commerce.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton  goods,  hosiery, 
carpets,  leather,  and  paper,'  with  a  considerable  trade  in 
timber,  hemp,  and  cattle.     Population  in  1872,  11,684. 

AUVEKGNE,  a  district,  and  formerly  a  province,  of 
France,  corresponding  to  the  departments  of  Ciintal  and 
Fuy-dc  Dome,  with  the  arrondissement  of  Brioude  in  Haute- 
Loire.     It  is  divided  into  Lower  and  Upper  by  the  Kivci 


/J 
I 

it 


A  U  X  — A  V  A 


i43 


Ruo  ;  the  distinction  between  the  two  portions  being  well 
marked  by  their  physical  features.  Upper  Auvergne  is 
rugged  and  mountainous,  and  is  covered  \vith  evidences  of 
volcanic  activity,  while  Lower  Auvergne  consists  largely  of 
fertile  and  well-watered  expanses.  In  climate,  too,  there 
is  a  marked  difference  ;  the  former  sufifcring  from  violent 
ejctrcmes,  ind  the  latter  enjoying  a  mild  and  equable 
temperature.  The  whole  district  is  largely  agricultural, 
and  special  attention  is  paid  to  the  rearing  of  cattle, 
horses,  and  mules.  The  mountains  are  rich  in  minerals, 
such  as  iron,  lead,  copper,  and  coal ;  and  numerous  medi- 
cinal springs  are  scattered  along  their  slopes.  The  inhabi- 
tants, who  to  a  certain  extent  are  the  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Afv»-ni,  are  a  strong,  ungainly  race,  habituated  to 
toilsome  labour.  For  a  long  time  they  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  leave  their  homes  for  the  purpose  of  seeking 
their  fortunes  abroad,  returning  after  they  have  acquired  a 
competency.  Spain  was  at  one  period  a  favourite  resort, 
but  the  current  of  emigration  is  now  principally  towards 
Paris  or  the  Belgian  towns.  In  Paris  alone  it  has  been 
calcidated  that  the  Auvergnats  number  50,000.  They 
speak  a  distinct  dialect,  and  are  also  recognised  by  their 
pronunciation.  A  closer  resemblance  to  Latin,  and  the 
presence  of  many  sounds,  such  as  tSjtz,  dj,  which  are  foreign 
to  ordinary  French,  are  among  the  fflost  striking  features  of 
thepatois;  the  vocabulary  also  contains  words  introduced  by 
the  English  at  the'time  of  their  occupation  of  the  country 
in  the  14th  century.  Of  the  existing  literature  a  con- 
siderable proportion  is  spurious.  Auvergne  was  early 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  countship,  and  passed  into  the  hands 
of  various  families,  the  most  important  of  which  is  known 
OS  La  Tour  d'Auvergne.  I^  was  finally  united  to  the  crown 
by  Louis  ,\in. 

Of  the  oumerom  books  whicli  have  been  written  on  this  interesting 
province,  the  following  may  be  mentioned  : — Aigiiepersc,  Petit  Diet. 
it's  pcrsonnagcs  d'Auvergne^  1850;  Michel,  L'ancienne  Auvergne^ 
3  vols,  fol- :  Iniberdis,  L Auvergne  historigue,  and  Hist,  des  gncrrcs 
rtiig.  en  Auvergne  pendant  lea  XVl'  et  XVll"  siicka ,  Allard,  Lcs 
eaux  thtrmo  vitfi^alea  d^ AUvcr/Jne. 

AU.XEMTILJS  of  Oappadocia  was  an  Arian  theologian 
of  some  emmcnce.  When  Constantine  deposed  the  ortho- 
dox bishops  who  resisted,  Auxentius  was  installed  into  the 
seal  of  Dionysius,  bishop  of  Milan,  and  came  to  be  regarded 
ns  the  great  opponent  of  the  Nioene  doctrine  in  the 
West.  So  prominent  did  he  become,  that  he  was  specially 
mentioned  by  name  in  the  condemnatory  decree  of  the 
By  nod  which  Damasus,  bishop  of  Kome,  convened  in 
defence  of  the  Nicene  doctrine.  When  the  orthodox 
emperor  Valentinian  ascended  the  throne,  Auxentius  was 
left  undisturbed  in  his  diocese,  but  his  theological  doctrines 
were  publicly  attacked  by  Hilarius  of  Poitiers.  Tho  chief 
source  of  information  about  him  is  the  Liber  contra  Auxai- 
(lum  in  the  Benedictine  edition  of  the  works  of  Hdarius. 

AUXERRE  (tho  ancient  Autissiodurum),  a  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Yonne,  situated  on  the  banks 
of  the  Yonnc,  in  a  wine  producing  district,  and  built  in  an 
antique  fashion.  Its  cathedral  is  one  of  tho  finest  Gothic 
buildings  in  the  country,  and  its  episcopal  palace,  now  used 
43  a  prefecture,  will  bear  comparison  with  any.  It  has 
several  normal  schools,  a  college  founded  by  the  famous 
Jacques  Amyot  (who  was  a  native  of  the  town,  and  died 
there  in  15'j3),  a  society  of  agriculture,  botanic  garden, 
museum,  theatre,  an  extensive  and  valuable  library,  ic. 
Tho  Yonno  is  navigable  from  a  little  above  the  town. 
Besides  trade  in  wine  and  in  firewood,  there  are  manufac- 
tures of  cloths,  druggets,  serges,  cotton  and  woollen  stock- 
ings, and  some  considerable  tanneries.     Population,  15,497. 

AU.XONJvJ^  (formerly  ylsjoni'um,-!e.,ac?  Sonam,  from 
its  position  on  the  SaCne),  a  city  of  France,  in  the  arron- 
<li33emeiit  of  Dijon  and  department  of  Cote  d'Dr.     It  is 


strongly  fortified,  and  possesses  an  old  castle,  an  arsenal, 
and  a  school  of  artillery.  Besides  their  manufactures  of 
cloth  and  serges,  the  inhabitants  carry  on  by  tho  river  con- 
siderable traffic  with  Lyons  in  wine,  grain,  and  wood. 
Long.  5°  24'E.,lat.  47°  13'  N.     Population,  5911. 

AVA,  the  former  capital  of  tho  Burman  empire,  lies  in 
21°  52'  N.  lat.,  and  96°  I  E.  long.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Irawadi,  which  is  here  3282  feet  broad,  and  which,  making 
a  bend  out  of  its  ordinary  course,  flows  pa.st  the  city  on  the 
north.  On  the  east  it  has  the  river  Myt-nge,  a  rapid  stream 
450  feet  broad,  which  flows  into  the  Irawadi  close  under 
its  walls.  From  this  river  a  canal  has  been  dug,  through 
which  its  waters  flow  on  tho  south-east  angle  of  the  city, 
and  are  again  brought  into  the  same  river.  On  the  soutli 
flows  the  deep  and  rapid  torrent  of  the  Myt-tha,  an  ofl'shoot 
of  tho  Myt-nge,  which,  falling  into  the  Irawadi,  forms  the 
defence  both  of  the  south  and  of  the  west  face  of  the  town. 
It  is  divided  into  the  upper  and  lower,  or  the  lesser  and 
the  larger  town,  both  of  which  are  fortified. 

The  brick  wall  that  surrounds  tho  city  is  15^  feet  in  height  anJ 
10  feet  in  thickness,  on  tho  inside  of  which  is  "thrown  up  a%ank  ol 
earth,  forming  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  There  is  a  ditch  round  tho 
outer  wall  which  is  inconsiderable,  and  in  thu  dry  season  fordaWe 
in  every  part.  The  lesser  town  is  chiefly  occupied  by  the  royal 
palace,  the  hall  of  justice,  the  council  chamber,  the  arssnal,  and 
the  habitiitions  of  a  few  courtiers  of  distinction.  A  strong  well- 
built  wall  of  more  solid  construction  than  the  OBter  wall  of  the  city, 
and  about  20  feet  high,  encloses  the  squara  in  which  these  buildings 
are  situated,  and  on  the  outside  is  a  teak-wood  stockade  of  tho  some 
height.  The  ditch  which  surrounds  tho  lesser  town  is,  moreover, 
deeper  and  broader  than  that  of  the  city,  and  when  full  is  not  to  be 
forded.  There  are,  however,  tlireo  cause%vays  across,  which  com- 
municate with  tho  adjacent  country.  Tho  circumference  of  tho 
city,  excluding  the  suburbs,  is  about  54  niiles.  but  over  this  exten- 
sive area  the  nouses'  are  but  thinly  scattered  ;  some  quarto's  are, 
indeed,  wholly  destitute  of  habitations,  and  have  the  appearance 
merely  of  neglected  coiunions.  In  general  tho  dwellings  of  tho 
inhabitants  arc  of  the  most  miserable  sort,  being  mere  huts  tliatched 
with  grass.  Wretched  as  are  such  habitations  to  European  eyes. 
the  poorei  chisscs  are  perhaps  as  well  lodged  here  as  in  any  oilier 
parts  of  Aiia.  Their  sleeping-places  aro  elevated  2  or  3  feet  from 
tho  ground.  Sorhe  of  the  houses  of  the  chiefs  are  constructed  of 
planks,  and  tiled  ;  but  there  are  not,  according  to  Mr  Crawford, 
more  than  half-a-dozen  edifices  built  of  brick  and  mortar.  Ava, 
like  all  the  other  Uunnese  towns,  is  adorned  with  numerous 
temples,  of  which  tho  gilded  spires,  rising  aloft,  present  on  a  distant 
view  of  the  place  a  splendid  and  imposing  appearance,  which  is  far 
from  being  realised  on  a  nearer  inspection.  The  largest  of  these 
temples  contains  two  distinct  edifices,  one  in  tlie  ancient,  the  otlicr 
in  a  modern  form  ;  tho  former  containing  an  image  of  Gautama, 
not  of  marble,  as  Synies  supposes,  but  of  sandstone.  It  is  in  a 
sitting  posture,  and  is  24  feet  in  height  The  head  is  8  feet  in 
diameter.  There  is  another  very  large  temple,  and  a  third  named 
tho  "Beautiful."  The  one  called  Maong-ltatna  is  of  great  celebrity  ; 
it  is  the  ono  in  which  the  public  odtccrs  of  the  government  take, 
with  the  most  solemn  fomis,  the  oath  of  allegiance.  The  temple 
called  ^laha-mrat-muni  had  an  addition  made  to  it  some  years  ago, 
of  which  Mr  Crawford  mentions  that  the  numerous  and  richlv- 
gilded  pillars  and  splendid  ceiling  exceeded  anything  that  was  to  te 
seen  without  the  palace.  A\'a  contains  eleven  markets  or  Ixunrs. 
composed  of  thatched  huts  and  shells,  wluch,  however,  are  well 
supplied  with  all  that  is  necessary  for  tho  wants  of  tho  people, 
flesideanativc  commodities,  there  are  exposed  in  these  markets  the 
produce  of  China  and  Lao,  with  liritish  cottons,  woollens,  glass, 
and  earthenware.  The  Bunnan  monasteries  are  mostly  built  of 
wood  ;  and  of  those  composed  of  more  solid  materials,  a  few  ancient 
ones  are  nearly  all  that  aro  to  be  seen.  The  only  exception  is  a 
monastery,  built  some  years  ago  by  .the  queen,  adjoining  the  palace — 
an  unshapely  fabric  of  i^nmense  size,  but  a  very  conspicuous  object. 

This  former  capital  of  the  Burman  dominions  comjirc- 
hends,  according  to  the  political  divisions  of  that  empire,  tlio 
town  of  Sagaing,  on  the  opposite  shore  of  the  Irawadi,  and 
the  town  of  Amarapura,  4  miles  to  the  east.  The  town  of 
S.againg  extends  along  the  Irawadi  for  more  than  a  mile 
and  a  half,  but  is  of  inconsiderable  breadth.  It  consists 
of  mean  houses  thinly  scattered  among  gardens  and 
orchards,  the  principal  trees  in  the  latter  consisting  of 
fine  old  tamarinds.  Over  the  site  of  the  town  and  its 
environs  are  scatttrcd  innumerable  temples,  some  of  thein 


144 


V  A  — A    V  F, 


old  and  ruinous."  olUrrs  ^.-.oTem,  On  <ae  nvcr  rucc  ::  iiis  j 
a  brick  wall  aoout  lU  ieet  ii;  iieiglit,  vmh.  parapet  and 
embrasures  like  that  of  Ava,  and  cxteiiding  for  above  half 
a  mile  along  the  river.  Amarapura  is  a  large  place,  and 
was  formerly  the  capital;  but  Ava,  which  was  twice  before 
the  capital,  was  again  made  so  in  1822.  It  continued  to 
be  so  till  1853,  when  the  present  king,  on  his  accession, 
transferred  the  capital  to  Mandalay.  To  each  of  the 
towns  of  Ava,  Sagaing,  and  Amarapura,  are  attached  dis- 
tricts, the  two  former  of  which  extend  12  miles  along  the 
1  iver,  and  are  of  equal  breadth. .  The  district  of  Amara- 
pura is  of  equal  size,  so  that  Ava  must  be  considered  as 
not  only  the  name  of  the  former  capital,  but  of  a  large 
district,  which  includes  an  area  of  288  miles,  containing, 
according  to  the  most  accurate  estimate,  354,200  inhabi- 
tants ;  but  the  city  of  Ava  is  not  supposed-  to  contain 
more  than  50,000  inhabitants,  and,  according  to  Mr  Craw- 
ford, half  that  number  would .  be  nearer  the  tnith.  The 
place,  taken  altogether,  affords  few  indications  of  industry 
or  commercial  enteiqjrise. 

'•  AVALLON,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Yonne,  finely  situated  on  a  granite  rock,  at  the  foot  of 
•which  flows  the  river  Voisin  or  Cousin.  The  church  of 
St  Lazare,  which  dates  from  the  12th  century,  is  a  good 
specimen  of  Burgundian  Gothic.  Manufactures  of  cloth, 
hats,  hosiery,  leather,  and  paper  are  carried  on,  and  there 
is  a  considerable  traffic  in  firewood,  which  is  conveyed  by 
the  Voisin,  the  Yonne,  and  the  Seine  to  Paris.  The  town 
was.  long  an  object  of  dispute  between  Burgundy  and 
France,  b\it  was  finally  united  to  the  crown  on  the  death 
of  Charles  the  Bold.  It  was  pillaged  by  the  Leaguers  in 
1594.     Population,  C070.     Long.  3°  5G'  E.,  lat.  47'°  30'  N. 

AVATCHA,  one  of  the  numerous  volcanoes  of  Kam- 
chatka, in  lat  53°  17'  N.,  and  long.  158°  50'  E.  It  rises  to 
a  height  of  nearly  9000  feet  (Mr  Kennan  says  11,000),  and 
has  an  extensive  crater  at  the  summit  and  another  on  its 
side.  It  was  in  active  eruption  in  1827,  1837,  and  1855. 
About  twenty  miles  to  the  south  lies  the  village  of  Avatcha 
on  a  river  of  the  same  name  ;  and  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  mountain  is  situated  the  little  town  of 
Petropavlovski,  which  contains  memorials  of  Behring  and 
La  Perouse,  and  was  the  scene  of  a  desperate  conflict 
during  the  Crimean  War  between  the, Russians  and  an 
invading  party  of  the  allies, 

AVEBURY,  a  village  of  England^  in  the  county  .of 
Wilts,  6  miles  W.  of  Marlborough.     It  .occupies  the  site  of 


Plan  of  Avcbmy. 

one    ol   toe   most   remarkable    megalithic    structures   in 
England.     This  consisted  of  a  large  outer  circle  for.med  of 


iCO  stones  cr  ironi  lo  to  17  feet  in  height,  and  about  40 
feet  in  circumference,  enclosing  an  area  of  about  lUOO  feet 
in  diameter.  This  circle  was  surrounded  by  a  broad  ditch 
and  lofty  rampart.  Within  its  area  were  two  smaller 
circles,  350  and  325  feet  in  diameter  respectively,  each 
consisting  of  a  double  concentric  row  of  stones, — a  stone 
pillar  or  maenhir,  20  feet  high,  occupying  the  centre  of  the 
one,  and  a  cromlech  or  dolmen  that  of  the  other.  A  long 
avenue  of  approach,  now  known  as  the  Kennet  Avenue, 
consisting  of  a  double  row  of  stones,  branched  off  from  this 
structure  towards  the  S.E.  for  a  distance  of  1430  yards. 
Few  traces  of  this  immense  erection  now  remain — the 
stones  having  been  broken  down  and  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  houses  of  the  viUage,  and  for  other  purposes. 
In  the  vicinity  are  two  other  monuments  of  great  -impor- 
tance, which  may  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  same 
group,  namely,  the  double  oval  of  megaliths  on  Hakpen 
Hill — Haca's  pen — and  the  artificial  mound  known  as 
Silbury  Hill.  The  Hakpen  oval  was,  according  to  Stuke- 
ley,  138 -feet  by  155,  and  had  an  avenue  45  feet  wide 
stretching  in  the  direction  of  Silbury  HiU.  This  hill 
is  due  south  from  Avebury,  and  the  distance  from  the 
centre  of  the  circle  to  the  centre  of  the  mound  is  very 
nearly  one  Roman  mile.  Much  discussion  has  talien  place 
about  the  age  and  object  of  these  constructions,  the  most 
popular  theory  hitherto  being  that  which  ascribed  them  to 
the  Druids,  and  thus  got  rid  of  historic  difficulties  by 
escaping  into  the  region  of  the  prehistoric.  Recently,  Mr 
Fergusson  has  strenuously  maintained  that  the  larger  circle, 
or  Avebury  proper,  and  Silbury  Hill,  commemorate  the 
last  of  the  twelve  Arthurian  battles,  which  was  fought 
(520  A.D.)  at  Badon  Hill,  a  name  whicli  he  identifies  with 
Waden  Hill. 

AVEIRO,  a  town  of  Portugal,  province  of  Beira,  the  scat 
of  a  bishopric  and  college.  It  has  sardine,  oyster,  and 
herring  fisheries,  as  well  as  a  thriving  trade  in  oil,  salt, 
wine,  and  oranges.  The  haven  is  wide  and  deep.  Popula- 
tion, 645G..    Long.  8°  34'  W.,  lat.  40°  40'  N. 

AVELLA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Principato 
Ulteriore,  in  a  fine  situation,  and  commanding  most  exten- 
sive prospects.  It  is  distant  about  20  miles  from  Naples, 
and  contains  3714  inhabitants.  Kear  it  are  the  remains 
of  the  ancient  Abella. 

AVELLINO,  a  fortified  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Principato  Ulteriore,  at  th«  foot  of  Mount  Vergine,  and  28 
miles  E.  of  Naples.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a 
cathedral,  several  parish  churches,  a  royal  college,  i-c, 
\vith  manufactories  of  cloth,  paper,  macc.ironi,  and  sausages, 
and  extensive  dye-works.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in 
corn,  chestnuts,  and  hazel-nuts.  -The  city  has  at  various 
times  suffered  severely  from  earthquakes.  Population, 
20,402. 

AVEMPACE.  Abtt  Bekii  Mohammed  Id\  Jaiha,  sur- 
namcd  Ibn  Badja  or  Ibn  Sayeg  {i.e.,  son  of  the  goldsmith), 
whose  name  has  been  corrupted  by  the  Latins  into  Avem- 
pace,  Avenpace,  or  Aben  Pace,  v/as  the  earliest  .and  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  of  the  Arab  philosophers  in  Spain. 
Almost  nothing  is  known  of  the  events  in  his  life ;  ho  was 
born,  probably  at  Saragossa,  tow-ards  Uie  close  of  the  11th 
centur)',  and  died  at  Fez  in  1138  at  a  not  very  advanced 
age.  Like  most  of  the  Arab  philosophers,  L.  was  a  physi- 
cian by  profession,  and  ho  is  also  said  to  have  been  a  man 
of  wide  general  culture.  Ho  was  a  skilled  musician, 
mathematician,  astronomer,  and  poet,  and  though  he  is 
iiow  known  only  through  his  metaphysical  speculations, 
these  do  not  seem  to  have  been  his  favourite  studies.  His 
writings,  if  we  accept  the  report  of  Occibiaj  were  raried 
ond  numerous.  Several  treatises  on  logical  .eubjccts  are 
mentioned  by  Casiri  .is  still  among  the  MSS.  ot  the 
Escurial,  and  some  ynaller  pieces  arc  also  found  in  other 


A  V  E  — A  V  E 


145 


libraries.  The  most  important  of  Lis  works  is  tbat  noticed 
by  AvetToes,  who  promised  a  complete  discussion  of  it, 
but  unfortunately  neither  the  treatise  nor  the  exposition 
has  come  down  to  us.  Our  knowledge  of  it  is  almost 
entirely  drawn  from  the  notices  given  by  Moses  of 
Narbonne,  a  Jewish  writer  of  the  11th  century,  in  his 
commentary  on  the  somewhat  similar  work  of  Ibn  Tofail. 
The  title  of  the  work  may  be  translated  as  the  liCyime  or 
Conduct  of  the  Solitary,  understanding  by  that  the  organised 
system  of  rules,  by  obedience  to  which  the  individual  may 
rise  from  the  mere  life  of  the  senses  to  the  perception  of 
pure  intelligible  principles,  and  may  participate  in  the 
divine  thought  which  sustains  the  world.  These  rules  for 
the  individual  are  but  the  image  or  reflex  of  the  political 
organisation  of  the  perfect  or  ideal  state ,  and  the  man 
who  strives  to  lead  this  life  is  called  the  solitary,  not 
because  he  mthdraws  from  society,  but  because,  while  in 
it,  he  remains  a  stranger  to  its  ways,  and  guides  himself 
by  reference  to  a  higher  state,  an  ideal  society.  Avempace 
does  not  develop  at  any  length  this  curious  Platonic  idea 
of  the  perfect  state.  His  object  is  to  discover  the  highest 
end  of  human  life,  and  with  this  view  he  classifies  the 
various  activities  of  the  human  soul,  rejects  such  as  are 
material  or  animal,  and  then  analyses  the  various  spiritual 
forms  to  which  the  activities  may  be  directed.  He  points 
out  the  graduated  scale  of  such  forms,  through  which  the 
soul  may  rise,  and  shows  that  none  are  final  or  complete  in 
themselves,  except  the  pure  intelligible  forms,  the  ideas  of 
ideas.  These  the  intellect  can  grasp,  and  in  so  doing  it 
becomes  what  he  calls  inlellectus  acquisitns,  and  is  in  a 
measure  divine.  This  self-consciousness  of  pure  reason  is 
the  highest  object  of  human  activity,  and  is  to  be  attained 
by  the  speculative  method.  The  intellect  has  in  itself 
power  to  know  ultimate  truth  and  intelligence,  and  does 
not  require  a  mystical  illumination  as  Algazali  taught. 
Avempace's  principles,  it  is  clear,  lead  directly  to  the 
Averroistic  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  intellect,  but  the 
obscurity  and  iucompletcncss  of  the  Rigime  do  not  permit 
us  to  judge  how  far  he  anticipated  the  later  thinker.  (See 
Jlunk,  Milangei  de  Phil.  Juiveet  Arabe,  pp.  383-410.) 

AVENBRUGGER,  or  Auenbrucger,  LEOroLD,  a  phy- 
sician of  Vienna,  the  discoverer  of  the  important  mode  of 
investigating  diseases  of  the  chest  and  abdomen  by  auscul- 
tation. His  method  was  to  apply  the  ear  to  the  chest,  and 
to  note  the  sounds  it  afforded  on  percussion  by  the  hand, 
or  what  is  called  immediate  auscultation  His  Latin  trea- 
tise, Inventum  novum  ex  Percussione  Thoracis  Sumani 
Jntenit  Pectoris  Morhos  delegendi,  pubhshed  in  1701, 
excited  little  attention,  until  it  was  translated  and  illus- 
trated by  Corvisart,  in  1808,  when  it  soon  led  the  way  to 
Lacnnec's  great  improvement  of  aiding  the  car  by  the 
stethoscope,  or  mediate  auscultation.  The  great  value  of 
the  method  introduced  by  Avenbruggcr,  in  the  diagnosis 
of  internal  diseases,  is  now  universally  acknowledged.  He 
was  born  at  Gratz  in  1722,  and  died  in  1809. 

AVENTINUS  [JonAN.v  Thurmayr],  author  of  the 
Annali  of  Bavaria,  was  born  in  the  year  14G6  at  Abens- 
berg.  He  studied  first  at  Ingoldstadt,  and  afterwards  in 
the  university  of  Paris.  In  1503  he  privately  t.iught 
rhetoric  and  poetry  at  Vienna,  and  in  1507  he  publicly 
l.iught  Greek  at  Cracow,  in  Poland.  In  l.'iOO  he  read 
lectures  on  some  of  Cicero's  works  at  Ingoldstadt,  and  in 
1512  was  api)ointed  preceptor  to  Prince  Ludwi-jand  Prince 
Ernst,  sons  of  Albert  the  Wise,  duke  of  Eivaria,  and 
travelled  with  the  latter  of  these  princes.  After  spending 
several  years  in  the  collection  of  materials  he  undertook  to 
write  the  Annala  Boiorum,  or  Annals  of  Bavaria,  being 
encouraged  by  the  dukes  of  that  territory,  who  settled  a 
jicnsion  upon  him,  and  gave  him  hopes  that  they  would 
defray  the  expenses  of  publication.     He  finished,  but  did 


not  publish,  his  work  in  1528,  and  in  the  following  year 
he  was  imprisoned  on  suspicion  of  heresy.  He  was  soon 
released  from  confinement,  but  the  indignity  he  had  suf- 
fered seriously  affected  him.  He  died  in  1534  at  Ratisbon. 
His  history,  which  has  gained  for  him  considerable  repu- 
tation as  a  writer,  was  published,  but  with  some  important 
omissions,  in  1554,  by  Ziegler,  professor  of  poetry  in  the 
university  of  Ingoldstadt.  These  passages,  which  were 
adverse  to  the  Roman  Catholics,  were  all  restored  in  the 
edition  published  at  Basle  in  1580,  by  Nicholas  Cisner. 
Besides  his  other  writings,  Gesner  attributes  to  him  a 
curious  work,  entitled  Numerandi  per  digitos  manusque 
Veterum  Coiisuetudines. 

AVENZOAR  [Abu  Merwan  Abdalmalec  ibn  ZohrJ, 
an  eminent  Arabian  physician,  who  flourished  about  the 
end  of  the  11th  or  beginning  of  the  12th  century,  was  born 
at  Seville,  where  he  exercised  his  profession  with  great 
reputation.  His  ancestors  had  been  celebrated  as  physi- 
cians for  several  generations,  and  his  son  was  afterwards 
held  by  the  Arabians  to  be  even  more  eminent  in  his  pro- 
fession than  Avenzoar  himself.  He  was  contemporary 
with  Averroes,  who,  according  to  Leo  Africanus,  heard  his  • 
lectures  and  learned  physic  of  him.  This  seems  probable, 
because  Averroes  more  than  once  gives  Avenzoar  very  high 
and  partly  deserved  praise,  calling  him  admirable,  glorious, 
the  treasure  of  all  knowledge,  and  the  most  supreme  in 
physic  from  the  time  of  Galen  to  his  own.  Avenzoar,  not- 
withstanding, is  by  the  generality  of  writers  reckoned  an 
empiric;  but  Dr  Freiud  observes  that  this  character  suits 
him  less  than  any  other  of  the  Arabian  physicians.  Aven- 
zoar belonged,  in  many  respects,  to  the  Dogmatists  or 
Rational  School,  rather  than  to  the  Empirics.  He  was  a 
great  admirer  of  Galen  ;  and  in  his  writings  be  protests 
emphatically  against  quackery  and  the  superstitious  re- 
medies of  the  astrologers.  He  shows  no  inconsiderable 
knowledge  of  anatomy  in  his  remarkable  description  of 
inflammation  and  abscess  of  the  mediastinum  in  his  own 
person,  and  its  diagnosis  from  common  pleuritis  as  well  as 
from  abscess  and  dropsy  of  the  pericardium.  In  cases  of 
obstruction  or  of  palsy  of  the  gullet,  his  three  modes  of 
treatment  are  ingenious.  He  proposes  to  support  the 
strength  by  placing  the  patient  in  a  tepid  bath  of  nutritious 
liquids,  that  might  enter  by  cutaneous  imbibition,  but  does 
not  recommend  this.  He  speaks  more  favourably  of  the 
introduction  of  food  into  the  stomach  by  a  silver  tube  ;  and 
ho  strongly  recommends  the  use  of  nutritive  eneraatd. 
From  his  writings  it  would  appear  that  the  offices  of  physi- 
cian, surgeon,  and  apothecary  were  already  considered  as 
distinct  professions.  He  wrote  a  book  entitled  The  Method 
of  Preparing  Medicines  and  Diet,  which  was  translated  into 
Hebrew  in  the  year  1 280,  and  thence  into  Latin  by  Paitt- 
vicius,  whoso  version,  first  printed  at  Venice  14'J0,  has 
passed  through  several  editions. 

AVERAGE,  a  term  used  in  maritime  commerce  to 
signify  damages  oi  expenses  resulting  from  the  accidents 
of  navigation.  Average  is  either  general  or  particular. 
General  average  arises  when  sacrifices  have  been  made,  or 
expenditures  incurred,  for  the  preservation  of  the  ship, 
cargo,  and  freight,  from  some  peril  of  the  sea,  or  from  its 
effects.  It  implies  a  subsequent  contribution,  from  all  the 
parties  concerned,  rateably  to  the  values  of  their  respective 
interests,  to  make  good  the  loss  thus  occasioned.  Particular 
average  signifies  the  damage  or  partial  loss  happening  to 
the  ship,  goods,  or  freight  by  some  fortuitous  or  unavoidable 
accident.  It  is  borne  by  the  parties  to  whose  property  the 
misfortune  happens,  or  by  their  insurers.  The  term  average 
originally  meant  what  is  now  distinguished  as  general 
average  ;  and  the  expression  "  particular  average,"  although 
not  strictly  accurate,  came  to  be  afterwards  used  for  the 
convenicocc   of   distinguishing  those   damages   or  p.iitial 

111.  —   1 9 


I4fi 


AVERAGE 


losses  for  wliich  no  general  contribution  coiild  be 
claimed. 

Although  nothing  can  be  more  simple  than  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  general  average,  that  a  loss  incurred  for 
the  advantage  of  all  the  coadventurers  should  ba  made 
good  by  them  all  in  equitable  proportion  to  their  stakes 
in  the  adventure,  the  application  of  this  principle  to  the 
varied  and  complicated  cases  which  occur  in  the  course  of 
maritime  commerce  has  given  rise  to  many  diversities  of 
usage  at  different  periods  and  in  different  countries.  It  is 
soon  discovered  that  the  principle  cannot  be  applied  in  any 
settled  or  consistent  manner  unless  by  the  aid  of  rules  of  a 
technical  and  sometimes  of  a  seemingly  arbitrary  character. 
The  distinctions  on  which  these  rules  turn^  are  often  very 
refined  iudeed.  This  is  the  chief  reason  why  no  real  pro- 
gress has  yet  been  made  towards  an  international  system  of 
general  average,  notwithstanding  repeated  conferences  and 
other  efforts  by  most  competent  representatives  from 
different  countries,  seeking  to  arrive  at  a  common  under- 
standing as  a  preliminary  basis  for  such  a  system.  A 
brief  summary  only  can  be  given  here  of  the  rules  which 
have  been  established  in  Great  Britain  by  usage,  or  by  legal 
decisions,  in  connection  with  the  subject. 

All  general  average  losses  may  be  divided  into  two 
principal  classes — (1),  sacrifices  of  part  of  the  cargo  and 
freight,  or  of  part  of  the  ship,  for  the  general  safety ;  (2), 
extraordinary  expenditures  incurred  with  the  same  object. 
We  shall  notice  these  in  their  order. 

When  a  part  of  e.  cargo  is  thrown  overboard  (or  jettisoned, 
as  it  is  termed)  to  save  the  ship  from  foundering  in  a  storm, 
or  to  float  her  when  stranded,  or  to  facilitate  her  escape  from 
an  enemy,  the  loss  of  the  goods  and  of  the  freight  attached 
to  them  must  be  made  good  by  average  contribution.  But 
if  goods  jettisoned  have  been  originally  stowed  on  deck,  no 
contribution  can  be  demanded  for  them,  unless  they  are  so 
carried  according  to  the  common  usage  and  course  of  trade 
on  the  voyage  for  which  they  are  shipped,  or  with  the 
consent  of  all  the  parties  concerned  in  the  ship  and  cargo. 

If,  instead  of  being  thrown  overboard,  the  goods  are  put 
into  boats  or  lighters,  and  lost  or  damaged  before  reaching 
the  shore,  such  loss  is  regarded  as  a  virtual  jettison,  and 
gives  a  claim  to  average  contribution.  The  same  rule 
applies  to  damage  occasioned  by  the  goods  being  put  ashore 
on  muddy  ground,  or  where  they  cannot  be  kept  in  ordinary 
safety.  But  when  the  goods  have  been  conveyed  to  a 
placo  of  ordinary  safety,  they  cease  to  be  at  the  risk  of  the 
general  interest ;  and  should  they  be  damaged  there  by 
fire  or  other  accidents  the  loss  must  be  borne  by  the  indi- 
vidual propric'ors,  or  by  their  insurers. 

Damage  done  to  the  cargo  by  discharging  it  af  a  port 
of  refuge  in  the  manner  and  under  the  circumstances 
customary  at  that  port,  is  not  allowed  es  general  average. 
This  rule  covers  the  caao  of  wastage,  breakage,  leakage, 
&c.,  from  handling  the  goods  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
discharging,  warehousing,  and  reshipping. 

If  goods  are  thrown  overboard  from  having  become, 
through  heating  or  other  cause  peculiar  to  their  own  con- 
lition,  a  source  of  special  danger  to  the  whole  interest,  the 
loss  is  not  recoverable  in  general  average.  So,  too,  if  a  cargo 
is  discharged  at  a  port  of  refuge  from  damage  resulting  from 
its  own  vice  propre,  the  costs  are  chargeable  to  its  owners. 

The  loss  of  corn,  salt,  guano,  or  similar  goods,  arising 
from  their  being  pumped  up  or  baled  out  with  the  water 
in  tho  vessel,  is.  not  recoverable  ly  average  contribu- 
tion. The  damage  done  to  the  cairgo  by  means  of  water 
thrown  down  the  hatches,  or  admitted  into  tho  ship  by 
scuttling  her,  for  tho  purpose  of  extinguishing  an  accidental 
firo,  was  excluded  from  general  average  by  the  usage  of 
I.loyda  up  till  1873.  In  that  year  the  courts  of  Queen's 
Bench  and  Exchequer  Chamber  expressed  a  strong  opinion 


in  connection  with  the  case  of  Stewart  v.  the  West  India 
and  Pacific  Steamship  Company,  that  such  damage  ought 
to  be  made  good  by  average  contribution.  The  usage 
has  now  been  altered  accordingly. 

The  amount  of  compensation  to  be  made  for  goods 
sacrificed  by  general  average  acts  is  determined  by  the  net 
market  price  they  would  have  produced  on  arrival  at  the 
port  of  destination  had  they  not  been  sacrificed ;.  but 
under  deduction  of  the  freight  attaching  to  them  (which  is 
made  good  to  the  shipowners),  and  of  the  charges  for  duties 
and  landing  expenses  which  are  saved. 

The  general  average  acts  next  to  be  considered  are  those 
■which  involve  sacrifices  of  part  of  the  ship  or  her  materiaU. 

The  same  principles  which  regulate  the  case  of  goods 
thrown  overboard  apply  also  to  the  jettison  of  the  ship's 
chains,  anchors,  hawsers,  spars,  boats,  or  other  stores.  But 
if  water-casks  are  stowed  on  deck,  or  if  chains  and  hawsers 
are  carried  on  deck  when  the  vessel  is  not  near  the  land 
so  as  to  render  it  necessary  that  they  should  be  so  carried, 
the  loss  arising  from  the  jettison  of  these  articles  falls  on 
the  shipowner  ;  and  if  boats  are  jettisoned  in  consequence 
of  their  having  been  broken  adrift  from  their  fastenings  on 
deck  by  the  force  of  the  sea,  they  are  excluded  from 
general  average,  and  are  charged  to  particular  average  on 
the  ship.  The  damage  done  to  tho  ship  by  cutting  holes  to 
effect  a  jettison  of  the  cargo,  or  to  pour  down  water  to 
a  fire,  or  by  scuttling  her  for  that  purpose,  is  allowed  as  a 
general  average  charge.  The  damage  arising  from  cutting 
or  knocking  away  a  portion  of  the  ship's  bulwarks  in  order 
to  prevent  the  deck  from  being  flooded  in  a  storm,  is  com- 
pensated in  the  same  manner. 

When  sails  or  masts  are  cut  away  in  order  to  right  a 
ship  which  has  been  thrown  on  her  beam-ends,  or  to  pre- 
vent her  from  driving  on  a  lee-shore,  the  loss  is  made 
good  by  average  contribution  ;  but  if  the  object  in  cutting 
away  a  sail  or  spar  be  merely  to  save  a  mast,  the  loss  is 
not  made  good  in  general  average. 

It  frequently  happens  that  masts  or  yards  are  sprung 
and  carried  away  by  the  force  of  the  wind,  and  are  left 
entangled  in  the  rigging,  or  hanging  over  the  ship's  side 
in  w  hat  is  termed  "  a  state  of  wreck  ;  "  in  these  circum- 
stances it  becomes  necessary  to  cut  them  away,  with  the 
sails  and  rigging  attached,  and  to  throw  the  whole  over- 
board, otherwise  they  would  impede  the  navigation,  and 
endanger  the  ship  and  cargo.  On  this  ground  it  is  helil 
by  some  authorities  that  the  loss  caused  by  the  act  of 
cutting  them  away  should  be  made  good  by  average  con- 
tribution. But  this  act  is  the  direct  consequence  of  the 
previous  accident,  which  places  these  articles  in  a  situation 
where  it  is  impossible  to  save  them  without  imperilling 
the  ship,  cargo,  and  lives.  It  would  not  be  reasonable  to 
imperil  these  for  such  a  purpose;  whence  it  follows  that 
the  displaced  articles  are  already  mrtually  lost  by  means 
of  the  original  accident,  before  tho  loss  is  actually  con- 
summated by  cutting  them  away.  This  loss  is  accordingly 
excluded,  by  the  usage  of  this  country,  from  average  con- 
tribution. On  the  same  principle,  no  contribution  can  be 
demanded  for  any  articles  which  are  sacrificed  as  having 
themselves  become,  through  previous  accident,  the  imme- 
diate cause  of  danger  to  tho  whole  interest. 

The  loss  of  sails  or  spars,  in  consequence  of  carrying  a 
press  of  canvas  to  avoid  a  leeshore,  or  to  escape  from  on 
enemy,  is  not  the  subject  of  genera'  average  in  this  country  ; 
neither  is  the  damage  suffered  by  the  ship  from  straining, 
under  any  such  extraordinary  press  of  sail, 

\Vbcu  anchors  and  calJes  are  slipped  from  in  order  to 
work  a,  vessel  off  a  leeshore,  or  to  avoid  collision  with 
anothor  ship,  tho  loss  is  made  good  by  average  contribu- 
tion ,  but  if  the  cable  is  slipped  in  order  that  tho  vessel 
may  join    convoy,    or    because    tho   anchor   has    become 


AVERAGE 


147 


booked  to  some  object  at  the  bottom  and  cannot  be  raised, 
the  loss  is  borne  by  the  shipowner. 

When  satis,  ropes,  or  other  materials  are  cut  up  and 
used  at  sen  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  leaks  or  to  rig 
jury-masts,  or  when  the  common  benefit  requires  that  they 
should  be  applied  to  some  purpose  for  which  they  were  not 
originally  intended,  the  loss  is  made  good  in  general 
average.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the  case  of  hawsers, 
cables,  anchors,  sails,  or  boats,  lost  or  damaged  in  attempt- 
ing to  force  off  a  stranded  vessel  from  the  shore. 

The  damage  sustained  ia  defending  a  ship  against  a 
pirate  or  an  enemy  is  not  the  subject  of  general  average  in 
this  country  ;  it  is  treated  as  particular  average  on  the  ship. 

It  has  bech  much  debated  by  writers  on  maritime  law, 
whether  the  voluntary  stranding  of  a  ship,  in  order  to  pro- 
vent  her  from  foundering,  should  be  treated  as  a  general 
or  as  a  particular  average  loss.  In  the  United  States  it 
has  been  settled,  by  judicial  decision,  that  the  loss  in 
question  constitutes  a  general  average  claim;  but  the 
opposite  doctrine  is  acted  upon  in  the  usage  of  Great 
Britain,  and  the  point  has  never  been  decided  by  the 
courts  of  law.  It  appears  to  us  that  the  argument  greatly 
preponderates  against  the  rule  adopted  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  favour  of  '  the  usage  established  in  this 
country.  ■  The^only  reason  for  regarding  this  loss  as  the 
subject  of  general  average  is,  that  it  originates  in  the  inten- 
tional act  of  running  the  ship  aground,  for  the  preservation, 
as  far  as  possible,  of  tlio  whole  interest  concerned.  But  it 
can  seldom  be  known  beforehand  how  the  dilferent  interests 
et  stake  will  be  specially  affected  by  the  act  in  question  ; — 
whether,  for  instance,  the  damage  to  the  cargo  may  not  be 
more  serious  than  the  damage  to  the  ship,  or  vice  versa. 
Thus  no  particular  part  of  the  interest  can  be  said  to  be 
intentionally  sacrificed  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole  ;  the 
intention,  indeed,  is  not  to  sacrifice  any  one  part,  but  to 
pbce  the  whole  interest  in  a  situation  of  less  peril  than  it 
would  otherwise  have  been  in.  What  particular  damages 
may  thereafter  ensue  to  either  ship  or  cargo  will  depend,  in 
each  case,  on  a  variety  of  circumstances  entirely  accidental 
in  their  character,  and  therefore  in  no  proper  sense  the 
subject  of  previous  intention.  The  same  rule,  therefore, 
which  excludes  from  general  average  accidental  damages  in 
all  other  cases,  ought  to  exclude  them  iu  this  case  also. 
Moreover,  when  the  alternatives  are  either  that  the  vessel 
be  left  to  founder,  or  that  she  be  run  ashore  with  a  chance 
of  preservation,  there  can  really  be  no  room  for  choice,  or, 
at  all  events,  the  elements  of  will  and  intention  are  entirely 
subordinate  in  the  part  they  must  play  under  the  pressure 
of  the  existing  circumstances ;  and  in  this  view  the 
stranding  is  as  truly  inevitable  as  if  it  had  been  caused  by 
the  force  of  the  winds  and  waves  alone. 

But,  even  were  these  reasons  less  weighty  than  it  appears 
they  are,  a  serious  practical  objection  might  be  urged 
against  the  doctrine  that  voluntary  stranding  should  be  a 
general  average  loss,  on  the  ground  that  it  would  in  most 
cases  be  impossible  to  distinguish  between  -the  damages 
received  by  the  ship  and  cargo  prior  to  the  stranding,  and 
those  sustained  after  or  in  consequence  of  it.  It  is  needless 
to  remark,  that  before  a  ship  can  be  in  such  imminent 
danger  of  foundering  aa  to  render  it  necessary  to  run  her 
ashore,  she  must  be  presumed  to  have  sustained  a  very 
•considerable  amount  of  damage  ;  aud  the  probability  is, 
that  the  cargo  also  will  have  suffered  to  a  corresponding 
extent  Up  to  this  point  these  damages  are  confessedly 
yarticutar  average  ;  and  were  it  held  that  the  damages 
after  the  stranding  were  the  subject  of  general  average,  it 
would,  of  course,  be  necessary  to  distinguish  the  separate 
damages  that  belonged  to  each.  But  in  every  case  these 
different  damages  would  exist  in  varying  proportions,  yet 
always  so  incorporated  together  that  iuau-e.  couIH  never 


have  a  more  perplexing  task  than  that  of  discriminating 
between  them.  No  general  rule  could  be  applied  that 
would  meet  the  widely  different  circumstances  of  each 
particular  case ;  and  the  arbitiary  method  of  adjustment 
that  would  alone  be  possible  would  doubtless  give  rise  to 
endless  dissatisfaction  and  dispute.  On  the  ground  of 
expediency,  therefore,  as  well  as  on  that  of  principle,  the 
usage  now  established  in  this  country  ought  to  be  main- 
tained, notwithstanding  the  high  authorities  by  whom  the 
opposite  practice  has  been  countenanced. 

The  amount  of  general  average  losses  on  the  ship  is 
compensated  by  allowing  to  the  owners  the  cost  of  repairs, 
or  of  new  materials  in  place  of  those  sacrificed,  subject  to 
the  deduction  of  one-third  for  the  difference  of  value 
between  old  and  new  ;  but  no  deduction  is  made  from  the 
cost  of  new  anchors,  and  only  one-sixth  is  deducted  from 
the  cost  of  new  chaiu  cables.  If  the  ship  be  on  her  first 
voyage  (which  is  held  to  include  the  homeward  as  well  as 
the  outward  passage),  the  repairs  and  new  materials  are 
otUowod  in  full. 

We  now  proceed  to  notice  the  second  principal  class  of 
general  average  losses,  consisting  of  extraordinary  expendi- 
tures incurred  with  a  view  to  the  common  benefit. 
^  AVhen  a  ship  is  obliged  to  put  into  a  port  of  refuge,  in 
consequence  of  damage  received  in  the  course  of  the  voyage, 
the  usage  in  this  country  is  to  allow  as  general  average  all 
the  charges  connected  with  the  entrance  of  the  vessel  into 
the  port,  and  with  the  landing  and  warehousing  of  the 
cargo,  when  this  is  necessary  to  admit  of  the  ship  being 
repaired.  Thus  the  expenses  of  pilotage  or  other  assist- 
ance into  the  port,  the  harbour  dues,  aud  similar  charges, 
the  costs  of  the  protest  taken  by  the  master  and  crew,  and 
of  the  survey  held  to  ascertain  whether  the  cargo  requires 
to  be  discharged,  together  with  the  charges  for  landing  the 
cargo  and  conveying  it  to  a  warehouse  or  other  place  of 
safely,  are  all  made  good  as  general  average.  The  costs 
of  repairing  the  ship  are  charged  to  general  average  only 
in  so  far  as  the  repairs  may  refer  to  damages  which  are 
themselves  the  proper  subject  of  general  contribution.  If 
the  damages  are  of  the  nature  of  particular  average,  as  is 
more  usually  the  case,  they  are  charged  accordingly ;  or 
if  they  proceed  from  "  wear  and  tear,"  they  are  stated 
against  the  shipowner. 

The  warehouse  rent  for  the  cargo  at  a  port  of  refuge, 
and  any  expenses  connected  with  its  preservation,  form 
special  charges  against  that  particular  interest,  and  are 
borne  by  the  proprietors  of  the  goods,  or  by  their  insurers. 
When  goods  are  insured  "  free  from  particular  average, 
unless  the  ship  be  stranded,"  it  is  necessary,  if  the  ship  has 
not  been  stranded,  to  distinguish  the  charges  for  warehouse 
rent  and  fire  insurance  from  those  incurred  in  connection 
with  the  preservation  of  the  goods  from  the  effects  of 
damage, — the  underwritera  being  liable  for  the  former,  but 
not  for  the  latter. 

'  The  expenses  of  reshipping  the  cargo,  and  the  pilotage, 
or  other  charges  outwards,  are  borne  by  the  freight.  If 
the  entire  cargo  cannot  be  taken  on  board  again,  from  the 
want,  at  the  port  of  refuge,  of  the  usual  facilities  for  stow- 
ing it,  the  loss  or  expenses  resulting  from  the  exclusion  of 
part  of  it  are  not  treated,  in  this  country,  as  the  subject  of 
general  contribution. 

The  wages  and  provisions  of  the  master  and  crew  during 
the  period  of  detention  at  a  port  of  refuge  are  not  admitted 
as  a  charge  against  general  average,  it  being  held  that  the 
shioowner  is  bound  to  keep  a  competent  crew  on  board  the 
ship  from  the  commencement  to  the  end  of  the  voyage  at 
his  own  expense. 

The  charges  for  agency  at  a  port  of  refuge  are  brought 
against  the  general  average,  even  thoitgh  they  may  have 
been   orieinEdlv   made   in   the   form  of  separate  charges 


148 


AVERAGE 


against  the  ship  and  cargo  respectively.  Commissions  on 
money  advanced,  maritime  interest  on  bottomry  and 
respondentia,  and  the  loss  on  exchanges,  kc,  are  appor- 
tioned relatively  to  the  gross  sums  expended  on  behalf  of 
the  several  interests  concerned. 

The  expenses  incurred  in  getting  a  stranded  ship  o£f  the 
ground,  the  hire  of  extra  hands  to  pump  a  ship  which  has 
sprung  a  leak,  and  the  sums  awarded  for  salvage  or  for 
other  services  rendered  to  the  ship  and  cargo  under  any 
extraordinary  emergencies,  are  compensated  by  average 
contribution.  But  this  rule  applies  only  to  the  extraneous 
assistance  that  may  have  been  obtained,  the  crew  being 
bound  fo  do  their  utmost  in  the  servioe  of  the  ship  on  all 
occasions,  with  extra  remuneration  for  what  they  might 
consider  extraordinary  exertions  on  their  part. 

The  costs  of  reclaiming  the  ship  and  cargo  after  having 
been  captured  are  allowed  as  general  average  charges  ; 
and  although  ransom,  to  an  enemy  is  prohibited  in  this 
country  by  legal  enactment,  it  seems  that  this  does  not 
apply  to  the  case  of  money  or  goods  given  up  by  way  of 
composition  to  pirates  for  the  Uberation  of  the  ship  and 
cargo,  and  that  this  would  also  form  a  subject  of  average 
contribution. 

When  the  ship  and  cargo  arrive  at  the  port  of  destination 
it  is  unnecessary,  in  ordinary  cases,  to  distinguish,  in  the 
adjustment  of  the  general  average,  between  the  losses 
which  have  arisen  from  sacrifices  and  those  which  have 
resulted  from  expenditures  for  the  common  benefit.  But 
if  the  ship  and  cargo  should  be  lost  before  reaching  their 
destination,  no  contribution  is  due  for  the  goods  or  ship's 
materials  which  may  have  been  sacrificed  at  a  former  stage 
of  the  voyage,  the  owners  of  these  being  in  no  worse  posi- 
tion than  any  of  their  coadventurers.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  evident  that  when  money  has  been  expended  for  the 
common  benefit,  the  subsequent  loss  of  the  ship  and  cargo 
should  not  affect  the  right  of  the  party  who  has  made  the 
advance  to  recover  it  in  full  from  aU  the  parties  for  whose 
advantage  it  was  originally  made.  Hence,  while  sacrifices 
ore  made  good  only  in  the  event  of  the  ship  and  cargo 
being  ultimately  saved,  expenditures  must  be  reimbursed 
whether  the  ship  and  cargo  be  eventually  saved  or  lost ; 
and  the  contribution  for  these  expenditures  must  be 
regulated  by  the  values  of  the  ship,  cargo,  and  freight  as 
they  stood  at  the  time  when  the  advances  were  made. 

If,  however,  the  money  required  for  average  expendi- 
tures has  been  raised  by  means  of  bottomry,  and  the  ship 
bo  lost  before  completing  the  voyage,  there  can  be  no 
claim  for  reimbursement, — the  risk  being  assumed  by  the 
bottomry  lender  in  consideration  of  the  premium  he  receives 
on  the  sum  advanced.  When  there  is  no  bottomry,  it 
is  a  usual  practice,  but  not  an  invariable  rule,  to  insure 
the  average  disbursements  by  a  special  policy.  When 
this  has  been  done,  and  when  the  amount  has  been 
recovered  on  the  subsequent  loss  of  the  ship,  it  cannot  be 
again  claimed  from  the  individuals  who  would  otherwise 
have  been  liable.  But  if  the  expenditures  are  not  insured, 
either  by  a  bottomry  contract,  or  by  a  special  policy,  and 
if  the  ship  and  cargo  bo  totally  lost  in  the  subsequent 
course  of  the  voyage,  the  parties  for  whose  benefit  the 
expenditures  were  incurred  must  reimburse  them  on  the 
principles  already  explained.  These  parties,  however, 
have  recourse  on  their  original  insurers,  not  only  for  the 
total  lo.ss  of  the  interests  insured,  but  also  for  the  previous 
expenditures,  although  the  insurers  may  thus  bo  called  on 
to  pay  a  larger  sum  than  the  amount  of  the  insurance. 

The  contribution  for  general  average  losses  is  regulated 
by  the  values  of  the  respective  intercuts  for  the  benefit  of 
which  they  were  incurred.  The  practical  rule  adopted,  in 
all  ordinary  cases,  is  to  estimate  the  ship,  cargo,  and 
freight  at  their  net  values  to  their  owners,  in  the  state  in 


which  they  arrive  at  the  port  of  destination,  hut  including 
in  these  values  the  stims  made  good  for  sacrifices,  and  to 
assess  the  contribution  accordingly.  The  necessity  for 
including  the  amount  of  compensation  made  for  sacrifices 
in  the  valuations  on  which  the  contribution  is  charged, 
arises  from  the  principle  that  all  the  parties  interested  in 
the  adventure  should  bear  the  ultimate  loss  in  exact  pro- 
portiorwto  their  respective  interests,  which  would  not  be  the 
case  if  the  owners  of  the  articles  sacrificed  were  to  recover 
their  fuD  value  without  being  themselves  assessed  for  the 
loss  thereon  in  the  same  manner  as  their  coadventurers. 

The  contributory  value  of  the  ship  is  accordingly  her 
actual  value  to  her  owner  in  the  state  iu  which  she  arrives, 
whether  damaged  or  otherwise,  including  the  sum  made 
good  in  the  general  average  for  any  sacrifices  which  may 
have  been  made  of  part  of  the  ship  or  her  materials. 

The  value  of  the  cargo  for  contribution  is  its  net 
market  value  on  arrival,  after  deducting  the  charges 
incurred  for  freight,  duty,  and  landing,  expenses,  but 
without  deducting  the  costs  of  insurance  or  commission. 
If  goods  be  damaged,  they  contribute  only  according  to 
their  deteriorated  value  ;  and  if  special  charges  have  been 
incurred  on  the  cargo  at  a  port  of  refuge  (as  for  warehouse 
rent,  <tc.),  the  amount  of  these  charges  is  deducted.  The 
sum  charged  to  general  average  for  goods  sacrificed  is  of 
course  added  to  the  valuation.  All  goods  carried  in  the 
ship  for  the  purposes  of  traffic  must  be  included  in  the 
valuation  of  the  cargo ;  but  the  wearing  apparel,  or  personal 
effects,  of  the  passengers  and  crew  are  exempted  from 
contribution. 

The  value  of  the  freight  for  contribution  is  the  sum 
received  by  the  shipowner  on  the  completion  of  the  voyage 
for  the  carriage  of  the  cargo,  after  deducting  from  that 
sum  the  wages  reckoned  as  from  the  date  of  the  casualty, 
the  port  charges  at  the  place  of  destination,  and  the  special 
charges  against  the  freight  which  may  have  been  incuired 
at  a  p;  t  of  refuge,  consisting  of  the  costs  of  rcshipping  the 
cargo,  and  of  outward  pilotage,  &c.  The  provisions  for 
the  voyage  are  not  deducted,  as  these  are  held  to  have 
formed  part  of  the  original  value  of  the  ship.  If  the  freight 
has  been  paid  in  advance,  it  forms  part  of  the  value  of  the 
goods,  and,  consequently,  does  not  contribute  as  a  separate 
interest  When  a  sum  has  been  advanced  on  account  of 
freight,  subject  to  insurance,  it  must  be  distinguished  from 
the  portion  of  the  freight  which  remains  at  the  shipowner's 
risk,  and  be  charged  separately  for  its  rateable  contribution  ; 
and  the  freight  so  advanced  is  not  subject  to  deduction  for 
wages,  &c.,  this  deduction  being  made  only  from  the  freight 
at  risk.  It  has  been  decided  that,  when  a  vessel  has  been 
originally  chartered  for  a  double  voyage,  the  whole  freight 
to  be  earned  under  the  charter-party  must  contribute  at  its 
net  value,  after  deducting  the  wages  and  other  charges 
which  must  be  incurred  in  earning  it  The  effect  of  this 
rule  is  to  render  the  freight  attaching  to  the  return  voyage, 
as  well  as  that  attaching  to  the  voyage  outwards,  liable  to 
contribute  for  average  losses  arising  in  the  course  of  the 
outward  passage, — a  result  the  equity  of  which  is  not 
always  very  apparent. 

An  adjustment  of  general  average  made  at  any  foreign 
port  where  the  voyage  may  terminate,  if  proved  to  bo  in 
conformity  with  the  law  and  usage  of  the  country  to  which 
such  foreign  port  belongs,  is  binding  on  all  the  parties 
interested  as  coadventurers,  although  they  may  be  subjects 
of  this  country,  and  although  the  adjustment  may  btfmade 
on  principles  diflfercnt  from  those  sanctioned  by  the  laws  or 
usages  of  Britain.  The  reason  for  this  rule  is,  that  the 
parties  engaging  in  the  adventure  are  held  to  as-'cnt  to 
the  known  maritime  usage  according  to  which  general 
average  is  adjusted  on  the  arrival  of  the  ship  and  goods  at 
the  port  of  destination. 


A  V  E  — A  V  E 


149 


The  subject  of  gcncrii  average  is  only  incidentally  con- 
tiected  witb  that  of  marine  insurance,  being  itself  a  distinct 
branch  of  maritime  law.  But  the  subject  of  particular 
average  arises  directly  out  of  the  contract  of  insurance,  and 
will  therefore  be  best  considered  in  connection  with  it. 
(See  bfsuRANCE.) 

For  further  information  with  respect  to  the  subject  of 
iverage,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  famous  work  of  M. 
Valin,  Commentaire  sur  VOrdonnance  de  1681,  t.  iL  p. 
147-198,  ed.  1760;  to  Emerigoti,  Traite  des  Assurances, 
u  L  pp.  598-674;  Amould  on  ifarine  Insurance;  and  the 
:reatise3  on  Average  of  .Stevens,  Benecke,  Baily,  Hopkins, 
and  Lowndes.  (j.  wa.) 

AVERNITS,  a  lake  of  Campania  in  Italy,  near  Baiie, 
occupying  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  about  a 
milo  and  a  half  in  circumference.  From  the  gloomy  horror 
of  Its  surroundings,  and  the  mephitic  character  of  its  exhala- 
tions, it  was  regarded  by  ancient  superstition  as  an  entrance 
to  the  infernal  regions.  It  was  especially  dedicated  to 
Proserpine,  and  an  oracle  was  maintained  on  the  spot.  In 
?14  B.C.,  Hannibal  with  his  army  visited  the  shrine,  but 
not  so  much,  according  to  f  liny,  for  purposes  of  piety,  as  in 
hope  of  surprising  the  garrison  of  Puteoli.  By  some  critics 
the  Cimmerians  of  Homer  were  supposed  to  have  been  the 
inhabitants  of  this  locality,  and  Virgil  in  his  jEneid  adopted 
the  popular  opinions  in  regard  to  it.  Originally  there  seems 
to  have  been  no  outlet  to  the  lake,  but  Agrippa  opened  a 
passage  to  the  Lucrine,  and  turned  this  "  mouth  of  hell  " 
into  a  harbour  for  ships.  The  channel,  however,  appears 
to  have  become  obstructed  at  a  later  period.  In  the  reign 
Of  Nero  it  was  proposed  to  construct  a  ship-canal  from  the 
Tiber  through  Avernus  to  the  Gulf  of  Baise,  but  the  works 
were  hardly  commenced.  The  plan  of  connecting  the  lake 
with  the  Gulf  of  Baiaa  was  brought  forward  as  late  as 
1858,  but  only  to  be  abandoned.  The  Logo  d'Averno  is 
now  greatly  frequented  by  foreign  tourists,  who  are  shown 
what  pass  for  the  Sibyl's  Grotto,  the  Sibyl's  Bath,  and 
the  entrance  to  the  infernal  regions,  as  well  as  the  tunnel 
from  Cumse,  and  ruins  variously  identified  as  belonging  to 
a  temple  or  a  bathing-pace. 

AVERROES,  known  among  his  own  people  ns  Ab(U- 
Walid  Mohammed  Ibn-Ahraed  Ibn-Mohanimed  Ibn-Rosud, 
the  kadi,  was  born  at  Cordova  in  1 1 26,  and  died  at  Marocco 
in  1198.  His  early  life  was  occupied  in  mastering  the 
curriculum  of  theology,  jurisprudence,  mathematics, 
medicine,  and  philosophy,  under  the  approved  teachers  of 
the  time.  The  years  of  his  prime  were  a  disastrous  era  for 
Mahometan  Spain,  where  almost  every  city  had  its  own 
petty  king,  whilst  the  Christian  princes  swept  the  land  in 
constant  inroads.  But  with  the  advent  of  the  Almohadcs, 
the  enthusiasm  which  the  desert  tribes  had  awakened, 
whilst  it  revived  religious  life  and  intensified  the  observance 
of  the  holy  law  within  the  realm,  served  at  the  same  time 
to  reunite  the  forces  of  Andalusia,  and  inflicted  decisive 
defeats  on  the  chiefs  of  the  Christian  North.  For  the  last 
time  before  its  final  extinction  the  Moslem  caliphate  in 
Spain  displayed  a  splendour  which  seemed  to  rival  the 
ancient  glories  of  the  Ommiade  court.  Great  mosques 
arose  ;  schools  and  colleges  were  founded  ;  hospitals,  and 
other  useful  and  beneficent  constructions,  proceeded  from 
the  public  zeal  of  the  sovereign;  and  under  the  patronage 
(if  two  liberal  rulers,  Jusuf  and  Jakiib,  science  and 
]>bilosophy  flourished  apace.  It  was  Ibn-Tofail  (Abubacer), 
th")  philosophic  vizier  of  Jusuf,  who  introduced  Averroes 
to  that  prince,  and  Avenzoar  (Ibn-Zohr),  the  greatest  of 
Moslem  physicians,  was  his  friend.  Averroes,  who  was 
vsTsed  in  the  Malekite  system  of  law,  was  made  kidi  oP 
{ieTille(1169),and  in  similar  appointments  tl'C  next  twenty- 
Cue  years  of  his  life  were  passed.  Wc  find  him  at  different 
It.  nods  in  Seville,  Cordova,  and  Marocco,  probably  follow- 


ing the  court  of  Jusuf  Almansur,  who  took  pleasure  in 
engaging  him  in  discussions  on  the  theories  of  philosophy 
and  their  bearings  on  the  faith  of  Islam.  But  science  and 
free  thought  then,  as  now,  in  Islam,  depended  almost  solely 
on  the  tastes  of  the  wealthy  and  the  favour  of  the  monarch. 
The  ignorant  fanaticism  of  the  multitude  viewed  speculative 
studies  with  deep  dislike  and  distrust,  and  deemed  any  one 
a  Zendik  (infidel)  who  did  not  rest  content  with  the  natural 
science  of  the  Koran.  These  smouldering  hatreds  burst 
into  open  flame  about  the  year  1 1 95.  Whether,  as  one  story 
ran,  he  had  failed  in  conversation  and  in  his  writings  to 
pay  the  customary  deference  to  the  emir,  or  a  court  intrigue 
had  changed  the  policy  of  the  moment,  at  any  rate 
Averroes  was  accused  of  heretical  opinions  and  pursuits, 
stripped  of  his  honours,  and  banished  to  a  place  near 
Cordova,  where  his  actions  were  closely  watched.  Tales  have 
been  told  of  the  insults  he  had  to  suffer  from  a  bigoted 
populace.  At  the  same  time  efforts  were  made  to  stamp 
out  all  liberal  culture  in  Andalusia,  so  far  as  it  went 
beyond  the  little  medicine,  arithmetic,  and  astronomy 
required  for  practical  life.  But  the  storm  soon  passed, 
when  the  transient  pas.sion  of  the  people  had  been  satisfied, 
and  Averroes  for  a  brief  period  survived  his  restoration  to 
honour.  Ho  died  in  the  year  before  his  patron  Almansur, 
with  whom  (in  1199)  the  political  power  of  the  Moslems 
came  to  an  end,  as  did  the  culture  of  liberal  science  with 
Averroes.  The  philosopher  left  several  sons,  some  of  whom 
became  jurists  like  Averroes's  grandfather.  One  of  them 
has  left  an  essay,  expounding  his  father's  theory  of  the 
intellect.  The  personal  character  of  Averroes  is  known  to 
us  only  in  a  general  way,  and  as  we  can  gather  it  from  his 
writings.  His  clear,  exhaustive,  and  dignified  style  of 
treatment  evidences  the  rectitude  and  nobility  of  the  man. 
In  the  histories  of  his  own  nation  he  has  little  place  ;  the 
renown  which  spread  in  his  lifetime  to  the  East  ceased  with 
his  death,  and  he  left  no  school.  Yet,  from  a  note  in  .-v 
manuscript,  we  know  that  he  had  intelligent  readers  in 
Spam  more  than  a  centur}'  afterwards.  His  historic  fame 
came  from  the  Christian  Schoolmen,  whom  ho  almost 
initiated  into  the  system  of  Aristotle,  and  who,  but  vaguely 
discerning  the  expositors  who  preceded,  admired  in  his 
commentaries  the  accumulated  results  of  two  centuries  of 
laboure. 

For  Aristotle  the  reverence  of  Averroes  was  unbounded, 
and  to  expound  him  was  his  chosen  task.  The  uncritical 
receptivity  of  his  age,  the  defects  of  the  Arabic  versions, 
the  emphatic  theism  of  his  creed,  and  the  rationalising 
mysticism  of  some  Oriental  thought,  may  have  sometimea 
led  him  a.stray,  and  given  prominence  to  the  less  obvious 
features  of  Anstotelianism.  But  in  his  conception  of  the 
relation  between  philosophy  and  religion,  Averroes  had  a 
light  which  the  Latins  were  without.  The  science,  falsely 
i-o  called,  of  the  several  theological  schools,  their  groundless 
distinctions  and  sophistical  demonstrations,  he  regarded  as 
the  great  source  of  heresy  and  scepticism.  The  allegorical 
interpretations  and  metaphysics  which  had  been  imported 
into  religion  had  taken  men's  minds  away  from  the  plain 
sense  of  the  Koran,  and  destroyed  the  force  of  those  appeals 
which  had  been  spoken  to  the  hearts  and  understandings 
of  our  common  humanity,  not  to  the  wisdom  of  the  "  people 
of  demonstration."  God  had  declared  a  truth  meet  for  all 
men,  which  needed  no  intellectual  superiority  to  understand, 
in  a  tongue  which  each  human  soul  could  apprehend 
according  to  its  powers  and  feelings.  Accordingly,  the 
expositors  of  religious  metaphysics,  Algazali  included,  are 
the  enemies  of  true  religion,  because  they  make  it  a  mere 
matter  of  syllogism.  Averroes  maintains  that  a  return 
must  be  made  to  the  words  and  teaching  of  the  prophet ; 
that  science  must  not  expend  itself  in  dogmatising  on  the 
metaphysical  consequences  of  fragments   of  doctrine  for 


!50 


A  V  E  R  Tw  O  E  S 


popular  acceptance,  but  must  proceed  to  reflect  upon  and 
examine  the  existing  things  of  the  world.  Averroes,  at 
the  same  time,  condemns  the  attempts  of  those  who  tried 
to  give  demonstrative  science  where  the  mind  was  not 
capable  of  more  than  rhetoric:  they  harm  religion  by  their 
mere  negations,  destroying  an  old  sensuous  creed,  but  can- 
uot  build  up  a  higher  and  intellectual  faith. 

In  this  spirit  Averroes  does  not  allow  the  fancied  needs 
of  theological  reasoning  to  interfere  with  his  study  of 
Aristotle,  whom  he  simply  interprets  as  a  truth-seeker. 
The  points  by  which  he  told  on  Europe  were  all  implicit  in 
Aristotle,  but  Averroes  set  in  relief  what  the  original  had 
left  obscure,  and  emphasised  things  which  the  Christian 
theologian  passed  by  or  misconceived.  Thus  Averroes 
had  a  double  effect.  He  was  the  great  interpreter  of 
Aristotle  to  the  later  Schoolmen,  worthy  of  a  place, 
according  to  Dante,  beside  the  glorious  sages  of  the  heathen 
world.  On  the  other  hand,  he  came  to  represent  those 
aspects  of  PeripateticLim  most  aUen  to  the  spirit  of 
Christendom  ;  and  the  deeply-religious  Moslem  gave  his 
name  to  the  anti-sacerdotal  party,  to  the  materialists, 
sceptics,  and  atheists,  who  defied  or  undermined  the 
dominant  beliefs  of  the  church. 

On  three  points  Averroes,  like  other  Moslem  thinkers, 
came  specially  into  relation,  real  or  supposed,  with  the 
religious  creed,  viz.,  the  creation  of  the  world,  the  divine 
knowledge  of  particular  things,  and  the  future  of  the  human 
souL  But  the  collision  was  rather  with  the  laboured 
ratiocinations  by  which  the  Asharite  and  Motazelite 
theologians  aimed  at  rationalising  dogma  than  with  the 
doctrine  of  religion  in  its  simplicity.  True  philosophy  is 
the  foster  sister  of  religion,  but  is  the  critic  of  scholastic 
subtleties.  In  regard  to  the  second  charge,  Averroes 
himself  remarks  that  philosophy  only  protests  against 
reducing  the  divine  to  tho  level  of  the  created  mind.  But 
the  real  grandeur  of  Averroes  is  seen  in  his  resolute  pro- 
secution of  the  stand-point  of  science  in  matters  of  this 
world,  and  in  his  recognition  that  religion  is  not  a  branch 
of  knowledge  to  be  reduced  to  propositions  nnd  systems  of 
dogma,  but  a  personal  and  inward  power,  an  individual 
truth  which  stands  distinct  from,  but  not  contradictory  to, 
the  universalities  of  scientific  law.  In  his  science  he 
followed  the  Greeks,  and  to  the  Schoolmen  he  and  his 
compatriots  rightly  seemed  philosophers  of  tho  ancient 
world.  He  maintained  alike  the  claim  of  demonstrative 
science  with  its  generalities  for  the  few  who  could  live  in 
that  ethereal  world,  and  the  claim  of  religion  for  all, — the 
common  life  of  each  soul  as  an  individual  and  personal 
consciousness.  But  theology,  or  the  mixture  of  the  two, 
he  regarded  as  a  source  of  evil  to  both — fostering  the 
vain  belief  in  a  hostility  of  pkilosophers  to  religion,  and 
meanwhile  corrupting  religion  by  a  pseudo-science.  A 
standpoint  like  this  was  tho  very  antithesis  of  scholasticism ; 
it  was  the  anticipation  of  an  adequate  view  which  modern 
speculation  has  seldom  exhibited. 

Tho  latent  nominalism  of  Aristotle  only  came  gradually 
to  bo  emphasised  through  the  prominence  which  Chris- 
tianity gave  to  tho  individual  lifo,  and,  apart  from  passing 
notices  as  in  Abelard,  first  found  clear  enunciation  in  tho 
school  of  Duns  Scotus.  Tho  Arabians,  on  tho  contrary, 
emphasised  the  idealist  aspect  which  had  been  adopted  and 
promoted  by  the  Neo-Platonisl  commentators.  Hence,  to 
Averroes  tho  eternity  of  tho  world  finds  its  true  expression 
io  the  eternity  of  God.  Tho  ceaseless  movement  of 
growth  and  change,  which  presents  matter  in  form  after 
form  as  a  continual  search  after  a  finality  which  in  time 
and  movement  is  not,  and  cannot  be  reached,  represents 
only  the  aspect  the  world  shows  to  tho  physicist  and  to 
tho  senses.  In  the  cyo  of  reason  the  full  fruition  of  this 
desired    finality    is    already   and    always    attained  ;   tho 


actualisation,  invisible  to  the  senses,  is  achieved  now  and 
ever,  and  is  thus  beyond  the  element  of  time.  This  tran. 
scendent  or  abstract  being  is  that  which  the  world  of  nature 
is  always  seeking.  He  is  thought  or  intellect,  the  actuality, 
of  which  movement  is  but  the  fragmentary  attainment  in 
successive  instants  of  time.  Such  a  mind  is  not  in  the 
theological  sense  a  creator,  yet  the  onward  movement  is 
not  the  same  as  what  some  modern  thinkers  seem  to  mean 
by  development.  For  the  perfect  and  absolute,  the  con- 
summation of  movement  is  not  generated  at  any  point  in 
the  process  ;  it  is  an  ideal  end,  which  guides  the  operations 
of  nature,  and  does  not  wait  upon  them  for  its  achieve- 
ment. God  is  the  unchanging  essence  of  tho  movement, 
and  therefore  its  eternal  cause. 

A  special  application  of  this  relation  between  the  prior 
perfect,  and  the  imperfect,  which  it  influences,  is  found  in 
the  doctrine  of  the  connection  of  the  abstract  (transcendent) 
intellect  with  man.  This  transcendent  mind  is  sometimes 
connected  with  the  moon,  according  to  the  theory  of  Aris- 
totle, who  assigned  an  imperishable  matter  to  the  sphere 
beyond  the  sublunary,  and  in  general  looked  upon  the 
celestial  orbs  as  living  and  intelligent.  Such  an  intellect, 
named  active  or  productive,  as  being  the  author  of  tho 
development  of  reason  in  man,  is  the  permanent,  eternal 
thought,  which  is  the  truth  of  the  cosmic  and  physicid 
movement.  It  is  in  man  that  the  physical  or  sensible 
passes  most  evidently  into  the  metaphysical  and  rational. 
Humanity  is  the  chosen  vessel  in  which  the  light  of  the 
intellect  is  revealed  ;  and  so  long  as  mankind  lasts  there 
must  always  be  some  individuals  destined  to  receive  this 
light.  "  There  must  of  necessity  always  be  some  philo- 
sopher in  the  race  of  man."  What  seems  from  the  material 
point  of  view  to  be  the  acquisition  of  learning,  study,  and 
a  moral  life,  is  from  the  higher  point' of  view  the  manifes- 
tation of  the  transcendent  intellect  in  the  individual.  The 
preparation  of  the  heart  and  faculties  gives  rise  to  a  series 
of  grades  between  the  original  predisposition  and  the  full 
acquisition  of  actual  intellect.  These  grades  in  the  main 
resemble  those  given  by  Avicenna.  But  beyond  these, 
Averroes  claims  as  the  highest  bliss  of  the  soul  a  union  in 
this  life  with  the  actual  intellect.  The  intellect,  therefore, 
is  one  and  continuous  in  all  individuals,  who  differ  only  in 
the  degree  which  their  illumination  has  attained.  Such 
was  the  Averroist  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  intellect — the 
eternal  and  universal  nature  of  true  intellectual  life.  By 
his  interpreters  it  was  transformed  into  a  theory  of  one  soul 
common  to  all  mankind,  and  when  thus  corrupted  conflicted 
not  unreasonably  with  the  doctrines  of  a  future  life,  com- 
mon to  Islam  and  Christendom. 

Averroes,  rejected  by  his  Moslem  countrymen,  found  a 
hearing  among  the  .Tews,  to  whom  Maimonides  had  shown 
tho  fiee  paths  of  Greek  speculation.  In  the  cities  of 
Laiigucdoc  and  Provence,  to  which  they  had  been  driven 
by  Spanish  fanaticism,  tho  Jews  no  longer  used  the  learned 
Arabic,  and  translations  of  the  works  of  Averroes  became 
necessary.  His  writings  became  tho  textbook  of  Levi  ben 
Oerson  at  Perpignan,  and  of  Moses  of  Narbonne.  Mean- 
while, before  1250,  Averroes  became  acctssil)!©  to  the  Latin 
Schoolmen  by  means  of  versions,  accredited  by  tho  names 
of  Michael  Scot  and  others.  William  of  Auvergne  is  tho 
first  Schoolman  who  criticises  tho  doctrines  of  Averroes, 
not,  however,  by  name.  Albcrtus  Magnus  and  St  Thomas 
devote  special  treatises  to  an  examination  of  the  Averroist 
theory  of  the  unity  of  iutellect,  which  they  labour  to 
confute  in  order  to  establish  tho  orthodoxy  of  Aristotle, 
But  as  early  as  /Egidius  Romanus  1217-1316),  Averroes 
had  been  stamped  as  tlie  patron  of  iudilferonco  to  theolo- 
gical dogmas,  and  credited  with  tho  emancipation  which 
was  equally  due  to  wider  experience  and  tho  lessons  of  the 
Crusades.     There    had  never  been  an  absence  of  protest 


A  V  E  R.  R  0  E  fe 


151 


ag.iiast  the  hierarchical  doctrine.  Berengar  had  struggled 
in  that  interest,  and  with  Abalard,  in  the  I2lh  century, 
the  revolt  against  authority  in  belief  grew  loud.  Tho 
dialogue  between  a  Christian,  a  Jew,  and  a  philosopher 
suggested  a  comparative  estimate  of  religions,  and  placed 
the  natural  religion  of  the  moral  law  above  all  positive 
uvelatioDs.  Nihilists  and  naturalists,  who  deified  logic 
and  science  at  the  expense  of  faith,  were  not  unknown  at 
Paris  in  the  days  of  John  of  Salisbury.  In  such  a  critical 
generation  tho  words  of  Averroism  found  willing  ears, 
and  pupils  who  outran  their  teacher.  Paris  became  the 
centre  of  a  sceptical  society,  which  the  decrees  of  bishops 
and  councils,  and  the  enthusiasm  of  the  orthodox  doctors 
and  knight-errants  of  Catholicism,  were  powerless  to  ex- 
tinguish. At  O-tford  Averrooa  told  more  as  the  great 
commentator.  In  the  days  of  Roger  Bacon  he  had  become 
an  authority.  Bacon,  placing  him  beside  Aristotle  and 
Aviccnna,  recommends  the  study  of  Arabic  as  the  only  way 
of  getting  the  knowledge  which  bad  versions  made  almost 
hopeless  ;  and  the  student  of  the  present  day  might  echo 
his  remark.  In  Duns  Scotus,  Averroes  and  Aristotle  are 
tlio  unequalled  masters  of  the  science  of  proof ,  and  he 
pronounces  distinctly  the  separation  between  Catholic  and 
philosophical  truth,  which  became  the  watchword  of  Aver- 
roism. By  the  14th  century  Averroism  was  the  common 
leaven  of  philosophy  ;  John  Baconthorpe  is  the  chief  of 
Averroists,  and  Walter  Burley  has  similar  tendencies. 

Meanwhile  Averroism  had,  in  the  eye  of  tho  great 
Dominican  school,  come  to  bo  regarded  as  the  arch-enemy 
of  the  truth.  When  Frederick  II.  consulted  a  Moslem 
free-thinker  on  the  mysteries  of  the  faith,  when  the  phrase 
or  legend  of  the  "  Three  Impostors"  presented  in  its  most 
offensive  form  the  scientific  survey  of  the  three  laws  of 
Moses,  Christ,  and  Mahomet,  and  when  the  characteristic 
doctrines  of  Averroes  were  misunderstood,  it  soon  followed 
that  his  name  became  the  badge  of  the  scoffer  and  the 
sceptic.  What  had  begun  with  the  subtle  disputes  of  the 
universities  of  Paris,  went  on  to  the  materialist  teachers  in 
the  medical  schools  and  the  sceptical  men  of  the  world  in 
the  cities  of  Northern  Italy.  The  patricians  of  Venice  and 
the  lecturers  of  Padua  made  Averroism  synonymous  with 
doubt  and  criticism  in  theology,  and  with  sarcasm  against 
the  hierarchy.'  Petrarch,  vexed  by  the  arrogance  and  ove.r- 
refinements  of  their  argumentation,  and  by  the  barbarism 
of  their  words,  refuses  to  believe  that  any  good  thing  can 
come  ont  of  Arabia,  and  speaks  of  Averroes  as  a  mad  dog 
barking  against  the  church.  In  works  of  contemporary 
art  Averroes  is  at  one  time  the  comrade  of  Mahomet  and 
Antichrist;  at  another  he  lies  with  Arius  and  Sabellius, 
vanquished  by  the  lance  of  St  Thomas. 

It  was  in  the  universities  of  North  Italy  that  Averroism 
finally  settled,  and  there  for  three  centuries  it  continued  as 
a  stronghold  of  Scholasticism  to  resist  the  efforts  of  revived 
antiquity  and  of  advancing  science.  Padua  became  the 
seat  of  Averroist  Aristotelianism  ;  and,  when  Padua  was 
conquered  by  Venice  in  1405,  the  printers  of  the  republic 
spread  abroad  the  teaching  of  the  professorsin  the  university. 
As  early  as  1300,  at  Padua,  Petrus  Aponensis,  a  notable 
expositor  of  medical  theories,  had  betrayed  a  heterodo.vy 
in  faith ;  and  John  of  Jandun,  one  of  tho  pamphleteers 
<in  the  side  of  Lewis  of  Bavaria,  was  a  keen  follower  of 
Averroes,  whom  ho  styles  a  "  perfect  and  most  glorious 
physicist"  Ijrbanus  of  Bologna,  Paul  of  Venice  (d. 
1423),  and  Cajetanus  de  Thionis  (13B7-1465),  established 
by  their  lectures  and  their  discussions  the  authority  of 
Averroes;  and  a  long  list  of  manuscripts  rests  in  the 
libraries  of  Lombardy  to  witness  the  diligence  of  these 
writers  and  their  successors  Even  a  lady  of  Venice, 
Cas.sandra  Fedelc,  in  1480,  gained  her  laurels  in  defence 
o(  Averroist  theses. 


With  Pomponatius,  in  1495,  a  brilliant  epoch  began  for 
the  school  of  Padua.  Questions  of  permanent  and  present 
interest  took  the  place  of  outworn  scholastic  problems. 
The  disputants  ranged  themselves  under  the  rival  commen- 
tators, Alexander  and  Averroes ;  and  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  became  the  battle-ground  of  tho  two  parties. 
Pomponatius  defended  tho  Alexandrist  dctrine  of  the  utter 
mortality  of  the  soul,  whilst  Augustinus  Niphus,  the  Aver- 
roist, was  entrusted  by  Leo  X.  with  the  task  of  defending 
the  Catholic  doctrine.  The  parties  seemed  to  have  changed 
when  Averroism  thus  took  the  side  of  the  church  ,  but  the 
change  was  probably  due  to  compulsion.  Niiibus  had 
edited  the  works  of  Averroes  (1495-7) ;  but  his  jxprcssions 
gave  offence  to  the  dominant  theologians,  anc^  he  had  to 
save  himself  by  distinguishing  his  personal  faith  from  his 
editorial  capacity.  Achillini,  the  persistent  philosophical 
adversary  of  Pomponatius  both  at  Padua  and  subsequently 
at  Bologna,  attempted,  along  with  other  moderate  but  not 
brilliant  Averroists,  to  accommodate  their  philosophical 
theory  with  the  requirements  of  Catholicism.  It  was  this 
comparatively  mild  Averroism,  reduced  to  the  merely  ex- 
planatory activity  of  a  commentator,  which  continued  to 
be  the  oflicial  dogma  at  Padua  during  tho  ICth  ccntur)'. 
Its  typical  representative  is  Marc-Antonio  Zimara  (d.  1552), 
the  author  of  a  reconciliHtion  between  the  tenets  of  Averroes 
and  those  of  Aristotle. 

Meanwhile,  in  1497,  Aristotle  was  for  the  first  time 
expounded  in  Greek  at  Padua.  Plato  had  long  been  tho 
favourite  study  at  Florence ;  and  Humanists,  like  Erasmus, 
Ludovicus  Vive.i,  and  Nizolius,  enamoured  of  the  popular 
philosophy  of  Cicero  and  Quintilian,  poured  out  the  vials 
of  their  contempt  on  scholastic  barbarism  with  its  "  impious 
and  thrice-accursed  Averroes."  The  editors  of  Averroes 
complain  that  the  popular  taste  had  forsaken  them  for  the 
Greek.  Nevertheless,  while  Fallopius,  Vesalius,  and 
Galileo  were  claiming  attention  tc  their  discoveries,  the 
Professors  Zabarella,  Piccolomini,  Pendasio,  and  Cremonini 
continued  the  traditions  of  Averroism,  not  without  changes 
and  additions.  Cremonini,  the  last  of  them,  died  in  1C31, 
after  lecturing  twelve  years  at  Ferrara,  and  forty  at  Padua. 
The  legend  which  tells  that  he  laid  aside  his  telescopa 
rather  than  see  Jupiter's  moons,  which  Galileo  had  dis- 
covered, is  a  parable  of  the  fall  of  scholastic  Averroism. 
Mediasvalism,  with  its  misconstruction  of  Averroes,  perished 
because  it  would  not  see  that  the  interpretation  of  the  past 
calls  for  the  ripest  knowledge  of  all  discoveries  in  the 
present. 

The  literary  works  of  Averroes  include  treatises  on  jurisprudence, 
grammar,  astronomy,  medicine,  and  nl;ilo9ophy.  In  1869,  a  work 
of  Averroc3  was  for  tlic  firit  time  published  in  Arabic  by  the  Bava- 
rian  Academy,  and  a  German  translation  appeared  in  1S75  by  tlio 
editor,  J.  Miillcr.  It  is  a  treatise  entitled  I'hilosophy  and  Theology, 
and,  with  tho  exception  of  a  German  version  of  tho  essay  on  the 
conjunction  of  the  intellect  with  man,  is  tho  first  translation  nhich 
enables  the  non-Semitic  scholar  to  form  any  adequate  idea  of  Aver, 
roes.  The  Lstin  translationsof  mostof  his  works  are  baibarous  and 
obscure.  A  great  part  of  his  writings,  particularly  on  jurisprudence 
and  astronomy,  as  well  as  essays  on  special  logical  subjects,  prolego- 
mena to  philosophy,  criticisms  on  Avicenna  and  Alfarabms,  remain 
in  manuscript  in  tlic  Escorial  and  other  libraries.  The  Latin 
editions  of  his  medical  works  include  the  Coliirjft  (i  e.,  Kulliyy.nt. 
or  summarj'),  a  risumi  of  medical  science,  and  a  commentary  ou 
Aviccnna's  poem  on  medicine;  but  Averroes,  in  mediral  renown, 
nlw.ays  stood  far  inferior  to  Avicenna.  The  Latin  editions  of  his 
philosophical  works  comprise  the  Commcntnrits  on  AnatoUe,  tho 
Pcstnictio  Dcstructionis  (against  Algazali).  the  De  Substantia  Orbis, 
and  a  double  treatise  De  Animtx  BtatitudifH.  The  Commentaries  of 
Averroes  fall  under  three  heads:— the  larger  commentaries,  in  which  a 
paragraph  is  tjuotcd  at  large,  and  its  clauses  expounded  one  by  one; 
the  medium  commentaries,  which  cite  only  the  first  words  of  a 
section  ;  and  the  paraphrases  or  analyses,  treatises  on  the  subjects  of 
the  Aristotelian  books.  The  larger  conimcnt:try  was  an  innovatujir 
of  Averroes;  for  Aviccnna,  copied  by  AIl>erlus  Macnus,  gave  undrr 
the  rubrics  furnished  by  Aristotle  works  in  which,  though  the* 
materials  were  borrowed,  the   grouping  waa    his   own      The   gn-nf 


T52 


A  V  E  — A  V  1 


comn;enta.'ies  exist  only  for  the  I'osUnor  Analytics,  Physics,  De 
Caloi^De  Anima,  and  Mdaphysics.  On  the  History  of  Animals  no 
eommentary -at  all  exists,  and  Plato's  Republic  is  substituted  for 
th"e  then  .inaccessible  Politics.  The  Latin  editions  of  these  works 
between  1480  and  15S0  number  about  100.  The  first  appeared  at 
Padua,  1472 ;  about  fifty  were  published  at  Venice,  the  best  known 
being  that  by  the  Juntas  (1552-3),  in  ten  Tolumes  folio. 

See  Ren  an,  Averroes  et  V  Averroisme ,  Munk,  Mdanges,  415-^58; 
Miiller's  German  translation.  Philosophic  xtnd  Theologie,  Miinchen, 
1875;  Stockl,  Phii.  d.  Mitlelalters,  ii.  67-124;  Averroes  fVater  und 
Sohn),  Drei  Abhandl.  iiber  d.  Conjunction  d.  scparaten  Intellects  mil 
d.  Menschen,  translated  into  German  from  the  Arabic  version  of 
Sam.  ibn-Tibbon,  by  Dr  J.  Hercz,  Berlin,  1869.  (W.  W.) 

A.VERSA,  a  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Terra  di  Lavoro, 
eituated  in  a  beautiful  plain  covered  with  orange-groves 
and  vineyards,  about  midway  between  Naples  and  Capua. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  wealthy  bishopric,  and  its  foundling 
hospital  and  lunatic  asylum,  the  latter  founded  by  Murat, 
are  very  celebrated.  Aversa  owed  its  origin  to  the  Nor- 
mans, and  dates  from  1030,  the  people  of  the  ancient  city 
of  Atella  being  transported  thither.     Population,  21,176. 

AVESNES,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Nord,  situated  in  a  fertile  district  on  the  Greater  Helpe. 
It  is  generally  well  built,  and  is  fortified  on  Vauban's 
system.  Its  principal  building  is  the  cathedral,  surmounted 
by  a  tower  330  feet  high,  which  is  raised  on  four  columns, 
and  has  a  fine  chime.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  sub-prefect,  and 
has  a  tribunal  of  primary  jurisdiction,  an  agricultural 
Bo'ciety,  and  a  communal  college.  The  principal  manu- 
factures are  hosier)',  coarse  serge,  and  soap  ;  there  are  also 
breweries,  tanneries,  salt-refineries,  and  brick  and  marble 
works.  A  great  part  of  the  town  was  destroyed  by  the 
explosion  of  a  powder-magazine  during  the  siege  by  the 
Prussians  in  July  1815,  but  was  soon  afterwards  rebuilt. 
Population,  3737. 

AVEYRON,  a  department  in  theS.  of  France,  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Cantal,  E.  by  Loz^re,  S.  by  H^rault  and 
Tarn,  and  W.  by  Tarn  et-Garonne  and  Lot,  containing  an 
area  of  3429  square  miles.  It  corresponds  to  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  ancient  district  of  Rouergue  in  Guienne,  which 
formerly  gave"  its  name  to  a  family  of  counts.  Its  earliest 
inhabitants  known  to  us  were  the  Rutheni,  whose  capital 
was  Segodunum,  identified  -.vith  the  modern  Rodez.  The 
department  is  rich  in  prehistoric  antiquities,  such  as  the 
dolmens  at  Taurines,  Laumieres,  Grailhe,  &c.  (see  paper 
by  M.  E.  Cartailhac  in  Norwich  vol.  of  Internal.  Cong,  of 
FrehisL  Arch.,  1868).  A  large  portion  of  Aveyron  is 
occupied  by  offshoots  of  the  Cevennes,  the  highest  summit 
being  Cham-de-la-Roche,  4350  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  About  half  the  area  is  under  cultivation,  nearly 
one-fourth  is  heath,  one-tenth  woods  and  forests,  and 
ra'.her  more  than  an  eighth  part  meadow  land.  Vineyards 
occupy  about  one-twelfth  part  of  the  cultivated  land.  The 
department  has  mines  of  copper,  lead,  silver,  iron,  zinc, 
alum,  and  antimony,  and  extensive  coal-fields  of  great  value. 
Rather  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants  are 
engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits  of  one  kind  or  another, 
— mainly  in  the  rearing  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  ;  and 
there  are  manufactures  of  paper,  woollen  and  cotton 
goods,  silk,  and  leather,  to  which  water-power  is  skilfully 
applied.  Aveyron  exports  chestnuts,  almonds,  hemp,  wool, 
wax,  the  famous  Roquefort  cheese,  timber,  and  cattle. 
Among  the  numerous  men  of  mark  belonging  to  the 
department  may  bo  mentioned  Jean  do  la  Valette,  the 
defender  of  Malta,  Raynal,  Bonald,  and  Louis  Blanc.  The 
capital  is  Rodez,  and  the  arrondissemcnts  are  Rodez, 
Espalion,  Milhau,  Saint- Affrique,  and  Villefranche.  Popu 
lation  in  1872,  402,47-1.  For  investigations  into  the  races 
repreecDtod  in  the  department  see  BulUtint  de  la  Soc. 
d  Anthrop.  vol.  iv. 

AVEZZANO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  Abruzzo  Ulteriore  fl., 
containing  o  cn^tlo,  which  was  built  in  )499  by  Virgilio 


Orsini,  afterwards  belonged  to  the  family  of  the  Colonnas, 
and  is  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Barberinis.  Population 
about  5900.     Long.  13°  32'  E.,  lat.  41°  58'  N. 

AVICEBRON.  The  writer  referred  to  by  the  Scholas- 
tics of  the  13th  century  under  this  name  was  sup- 
posed by  them  to  be  an  Arabian  philosopher,  and  was 
accordingly  classed  along  with  Avempace,  Abubacer,  and 
others.  Recent  researches  have  shown  that  this  is  an 
error,  and  that  this  author,  about  whom  so  little  was 
known,  is  identical  with  Salomon  ben  Gebirol,  a  Jewish 
writer,  several  of  whose  religious  poems  are  still  celebrated 
among  the  Jews.  Few  details  are  known  regarding  the 
life  of  Gebirol.  He  was  born  at  Malaga,  and  received  his 
education  at  Saragossa,  where,  in  1045,  he  wrote  a  small 
treatise  on  morals,  which  has  been  several  times  reprinted. 
His  death  is  said  to  have  taken  place  in  1U70  at  Valencia. 
Among  the  Jews  he  is  known  only  through  his  poems, 
and,  with  a  few  unimportant  exceptions,  no  Jewish  writer 
refers  to  his  philosophical  speculations.  The  Christian 
Schoolmen,  about  the  middle  of  the  1 2th  century,  became 
acquainted  with  Gundisalvi's  Latin  translation  of  a  work 
called  Fons  Vit(B  or  Sapientics,  which  exercised  a  powerful 
influence  on  their  metaphysical  discussions.  The  author 
was  called  by  them  Avicebron,  or  Avicembron,  or  Avence- 
brol,  and  nothing  was  known  regarding  him  till  M.  Munk 
discovered  a  Hebrew  abridgment,  by  Ibn  Falaqa^ra,  of 
Rabbi  S.  ben  Gebirol's  treatise  on  the  source  of  life.  He. 
readily  identified  this  with  the  work  of  the  unknown 
Avicebron,  and  the  discovery  of  two  Ijatin  MSS.  of  the 
Fons  has  placed  the  identification  beyond  doubt.  The 
extracts  of  FalaquSra  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  work,  and 
enable  us  to  understand  the  peculiar  influence  it  exercised. 
The  objects  of  metaphysics  according  to  it  are  three  in 
number,  the  knowledge  of  matter  and  form,  of  the  divine 
will  or  creative  word,  and  of  the  supreme  unity  of  God. 
God,  as  infinite,  cannot  be  known  by  intelligence  which  is 
finite,  for  all  knowledge  involves  comprehension,  or  requires 
that  the  known  be  contained  in  the  knowing.  God  works 
through  the  divine  will,  which  is  intermediate  between  the 
supreme  unity  and  the  world.  AU  things  in  the  world 
possess  both  matter  and  form  ;  all  the  various  species  of 
matter  are  but  variations  of  one  universal  matter ;  and 
similarly  all  forms  are  contained  in  one  universal  form. 
This  unity  of  matter  applies  to  the  soul  and  mind  as  well 
as  to  material  things,  and  it  is  against  this  proposition  that 
the  orthodox  Schoolmen,  as  Albertus  and  Thomas,  princi- 
pally argue.  The  matter  and  form  in  the  universe  is  dis- 
posed in  successive  stages,  and  rising  above  the  lowest  grade 
or  corporal  matter  there  are  certain  intermediate  substances 
uniting  it  with  the  divine  wdl,  without  which  there  is  no 
motion.  These  intermediate  substances,  taken  in  order,  are 
— the  universal  intellect,  the  rational  soul,  the  vital  soul,  the 
vegetative  soul,  and  nature,  or  the  principle  of  motion  in 
material  things.  Activity  is  transmitted  from  the  di\'ine  will 
through  these  stages,  each  of  which  causes  the  one  next 
below  itself  to  pass  from  potentiality  into  actuality.  The 
materials  of  Avicebron's  philosophy  are  due  mainly  to  tho 
Alexandrian  speculations  concealed  in  the  psendo- Aristote- 
lian Theology.  The  position  of  the  divine  will,  somewhat 
enigmatical  in  a  philosophical  pomt  of  view,  is  probably  a 
concession  to  Jewish  orthodoxy.  For  a  full  account  of  ail 
that  is  known  regarding  Avicebron's  life  and  philosophy, 
with  translation  of  Falaqui^ra's  extracts,  'see  Munk's 
Melanges  de  Phil.  June  et  Ar^ile,  pp.  1-306;  for  his 
poems  see  Sachs's  Die.  Religilise  Poesie  der  Juden  \rv 
Spanien,  and  Geigcr's  5.  len  Gahirol  und  seine  Dichtunqen. 
AVICENNA  (in  Arabic,  AbQ  Ali  el-Uoscin  Ibn-Abdallah 
Ibn-Sina)  was  born  about  tho  year  980  a.D  at  Afshena, 
one  of  the  many  hamlets  in  tho  district  of  Bokhara.  His 
mother  wo»  a  native  of  the  place;   bis  father,  a  Persian 


A  V  I  C  E  N  N  A 


153 


from  jrfalkli,  lillcd  tiic  i-'ost  of  tas-coUcctor  in  tlie  neigh- 
bouring town  of  llarmailin,  under  Nflh  ibn  Mansir,  tlie 
.Samanide  cniir  of  Bukbara.  On  iho  birth  of  Avicenna's 
j-oungcr  brother  the  family  migrated  to  the  capital,  then 
one  of  the  chief  cities  of  tho  Moslem  world,  and  famous 
for  a  culture  which  was  older  than  its  conquest  by  the 
Saracens.  Avicenna  was  put  in  charge  of  a  tutor,  and  his 
precocity  soon  made  him  the  marvel  of  his  neighbours, — as 
a  boy  of  ten  who  knew  by  roto  tho  Koran  and  much 
Arabic  poetry  bcsid-cs.  From  a  gftengrocer  he  learnt 
arithmetic ;  and  higher  branches  were  begun  under  one  of 
those  wandering  scholars,  who  gained  a  livelihood  by  cures 
for  the  sick  and  lessons  for  the  young.  Under  him 
Avicenna  read  the  Isagoge  of  Porphyry,  and  the  first  pro- 
positions of  Euclid.  But  tho  pupil  soon  found  his  teacher 
to  be  but  a  charlatan,  and  betook  himself,  aided  by  com- 
mentaries, to  master  logic,  geometry,  and  tho  Almagest. 
Before  he  was  sixteen  he  not  merely  knew  medical  theory, 
liut  by  gratuitous  attendance  on  the  sick  had,  according  to 
liis  own  account,  discovered  new  methods  of  treatmeat. 
For  the  next  year  and  a  half  ho  worked  at  the  higher 
philosophy,  in  which  he  encountered  greater  obstacles.  In 
such  moments  of  balHed  inquiry  he  would  leave  his  books, 
perform  the  requisite  ablutions,  then  hie  to  the  mosque, 
and  continue  in  prayer  till  light  broke  on  his  difficulties. 
Deep  into  the  night  he  would  continue  his  studies,  stimu- 
lating his  senses  by  occasional  cups  of  wine,  and  even  in 
his  dreams  problems  would  pursue  him  and  work  out  their 
solution.  Forty  times,  it  is  said,  he  read  through  the 
metaphysics  of  Aristotle,  till  the  words  were  impriuted  on 
Lis  memory ;  but  their  meaning  was  hopelessly  obscure, 
until  one  day  tbey  found  illumination  from  the  little  com- 
mentary by  Alfarabius,  which  he  boi'ght  at  a  bookstall  for 
the  small  sura  of  three  drachma;.  So  great  was  his  joy  at 
the  discovery,  thus  made  by  help  of  a  work  from  which  he 
had  expected  only  mystery,  that  he  hastened  to  return 
thanks  to  God,  and  bestowed  an  alms  upon  tho  poor. 
Thus,  by  the  end  of  his  seventeenth  year,  he  had  gone  the 
round  of  the  learning  of  his  time  ;  his  apprenticeship  of 
study  was  concluded,  and  he  went  forth  a  master  to  find  a 
market  for  his  accomplishments. 

His  first  appointment  was  that  of  physician  to  the  emir, 
whom  tho  fame  of  the  youthful  prodigy  had  reached,  and 
v.'ho  owed  hira  his  recovery  from  'a  dangerous  illness. 
Avicenna's  chief  reward  for  this  service  was  access  to  the 
royal  library,  contained  in  several  rooms,  each  with  its 
chests  of  manuscripts  in  some  branch  of  learning.  The 
Samanides  were  well-known  patrons  of  scholarship  and 
srholars,  and  stood  conspicuous  amid  tho  f.ishion  of  the 
period,  which  made  a  library  and  a  learned  retinue  an 
indispensable  accompaniment  of  an  emir,  even  in  the  days 
of  campaign.  In  such  a  library  Avicenna  could  inspect 
works  of  great  rarity,  and  study  tho  progress  of  science. 
When  the  library  was  destroyed  by  Cre  not  long  thereafter, 
tho  enemies  of  Avicenna  accused  him  of  burning  it,  in 
order  for  ever  to  conceal  the  sources  of  his  knowledge. 
Meanwhile,  ho  assisted  his  father  in  his  financial  labours, 
but  still  found  time  to  write  some  of  his  earliest  works  for 
two  wealthy  patrons,  whose  absolute  properly  they  became. 
Among  them  was  the  ColUclio,  one  of  those  short  synnpses 
of  knowledge  which  an  author  threw  off  for  dilicrcnl 
patrons. 

At  the  age  of  twenty-two  Avicenna  lost  his  father.  The 
Samanido  dynasty,  which  for  ten  years  had  been  hard 
prcssfd  between  the  Turkish  Khan  of  Kashgar  on  the  north 
and  the  rulers  of  Ghaznl  on  the  south,  came  to  its  end  in 
December  1004.  Avicenna  scorns  to  h.avo  declined  the 
olfjrs  of  Malimud  the  Gliazncvide  (who,  like  his  compcer.s, 
vas  rapidly  g.ithcring  a  brilliant  cortege  of  savants,  includ- 
ing tlie  astronomer  A  Ibivuiii),  and  firocccdod  westwards  to 


the  city  of  Urdjensh  in  the  modern  district  of  Khiva, 
where  the  vizier,  regarded  as  a  friend  of  scholars,  gave 
him  a  small  monthly  stipend.  But  the  pay  w.as  small,  and 
Avicenna  wandered  from  place  to  place  through  the  districts 
of  Nishapur  and  Merv  to  the  borders  of  Khorasan,  seeking 
an  opening  for  his  talents.  In  the  restless  change  which 
threw  the  several  cities  of  Iran  from  hand  to  hand  among 
those  feudal  emirs  of  the  Buide  family,  who  disputed  tho 
fragments  of  the  caliphate,  the  interests  of  letters  and 
science  were  not  likely  to  be  regarded.  Sherns  al-Ma.Mi 
Kabfls,  the  generous  ruler  of  Deilem,  himself  a  poet  and  a 
scholar,  with  whom  he  had  expected  to  find  an  asylum,  was 
about  that  date  ( 1 0 1 3)  starved  to  death  by  his  own  revolted 
soldiery.  Avicenna  liiniself  was  at  this  season  stricken 
down  by  a  severe  illness.  Finally,  at  Jorjaii,  near  the 
Caspian,  he  met  with  a  friend,  who  bought  near  his  own 
house  a  dwelling  in  which  Avicenna  lectured  on  logic  and 
astronomy.  For  this  patron  several  of  his  treatises  were 
written  ;  and  the  commencement  of  his  Canon,  of  Medkint 
also  dates  from  his  stay  in  Ilyreania. 

He  subsequently  settled  at  Rai,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
modern  Teheran,  where  a  son  of  the  last  emir,  Mcdj 
Addaula,  was  nominal  ruler,  under  the  regency  of  his 
mother.  At  Rai  about  thirty  of  his  shorter  works  are  said 
to  have  been  composed.  But  the  constant  feuds  which 
raged  between  tho  regent  and  her  second  son,  Shems 
Addaula,  compelled  the  scholar  to  quit  the  place,  and  after 
a  brief  sojourn  at  Kaswin,  he  passed  southwards  to  Hama- 
dan,  where  that  prince  had  established  himself.  At  first 
he  entered  into  the  service  of  a  high-born  lady  ;  but  ere 
long  the  emir,  hearing  of  his  arrival,  called  him  in  as 
medical  attendant,  and  sent  hira  back  with  presents  to  his 
dwelling.  Avicenna  was  even  raised  to  the  oflice  of  vizier ; 
but  tho  turbulent  soldiery,  composed  of  Koords  and  Turks, 
mutinied  against  their  nominal  sovereign,  and  demanded 
that  tho  new  vizier  should  be  put  to  death.  Shems 
Addaula  consented  that  he  should  be  banished  from  the 
country.  Avicenna,  however,  remained  hidden  for  forty 
days  in  a  sheikh's  house,  till  a  fresh  attack  of  illness 
induced  the  emir  to  restore  him  to  his  post.  Even  during 
this  perturbed  time  ho  prosecuted  his  studies  and  teaching. 
Every  evening  extracts  from  his  great  works,  the  Canon 
and  the  Sanaiio,  were  dictated  and  explained  to  his  pupils; 
among  whom,  when  the  lesson  was  over,  he  spent  the  rest 
of  the  niglit  in  festive  enjoyment  with  a  band  of  singers 
and  players.  On  the  death  of  tho  emir  Avicenna  ceased 
to  be  vizier,  and  hid  himself  in  the  house  of  an  apothecary, 
where,  with  intense  assiduity,  he  continued  the  composi- 
tion of  his  works.  Meanwhile,  he  had  written  to  Abu 
Jaafar,  the  prefect  of  Ispahan,  offering  his  services;  but 
the  new  emir  of  Hamadan  getting  to  hear  of  this  corre- 
spondence, and  discovering  the  place  of  Avicenna's  conceal- 
ment, incarcerated  him  in  a  fortress.  War  meanwhile 
continued  between  the  rulers  of  Ispahan  and  HamadSn  ;  in 
1024  the  former  captured  IlamadSn  and  its  towns,  and 
expelled  the  Turkish  mercenaries.  When  the  storra  had 
passed  Avicenna  returned  with  the  emir  to  llamad.ln,  and 
carried  on  his  literary  labours ;  but  at  length,  accompanied 
by  his  brother,  a  favourite  pupil,  and  two  slaves,  made  his 
escape  out  of  tho  city  in  tho  dress  of  a  Sufite  ascetic. 
After  a  perilous  journey  they  reached  Ispahan,  and  received 
an  honourable  welcome  from  the  prince.  The  remaining 
ten  or  twelve  years  of  Avicenna's  life  were  spent  in  tbs 
service  of  Abu  Jaafar  Ala  Addaula,  whom  he  accompanied 
as  physician  and  general  literary  and  scientific  adviser, 
even  in  liis  numerous  campaigns.  During  these  years  ho 
began  to  study  literary  matters  and  philology,  instigated,  it 
is  asserted,  by  criticisms  on  his  style.  But  amid  his  rest- 
less study  Avicenna  never  forgot  his  love  of  enjoyment. 
ITnusual  bodily   vigour  enabled   Imii   to   cuiiibiiic  scvwi 

III     ~   7'o 


154 


A  V  I  C  E  N  N  A 


oeTution  to  work  with  facile  indulgence  in  sensual  pleasures. 
His  passion  for  wine  and  women  was  almost  as  well  known 
as  hia  learning.  With  much  gaiety  of  heart,  and  great 
powers  of  understanding,  he  showed  at  the  same  time  the 
Bpirit  of  an  Aristippus  more  than  that  of  an  Aristotle  at 
the  courts  of  the  wealthy.  Versatile,  light-hearted,  boastful, 
and  pleasure-loving,  he  contrasts  *ith  the  nobler,  and  more 
intellectual  character  of  Averroes.  Hb  bouts  of  pleasure 
gradually  weakened  his  constitution  ;  a  severe  colic,  which 
seized  him  on  the  march  of  the  army  against  Hamadin, 
was  checked  by  remedies  so  violent  that  Avicenna  could 
scarcely  stand.  On  a  similar  occasion  the  disease  returned; 
with  difficulty  he  reached  Hamadin,  where,  finding  the 
disease  gaining  ground,  he  refused  to  keep  up  the  regi- 
men imposed,  and  resigned  himself  to  his  fate.  On  his 
deathbed  remorse  seized  him  ;  he  bestowed  his  goods  on 
the  poor,  restored  unjust  gains,  freed  his  slaves,  and  every 
third  day  till  hia  death  listened  to  the  reading  of  the 
Koran.  ^  He  died  in  June  1037,  in  his  58th  year,  and  was 
buried  among  the  palm-trees  by  the  Kiblah  of  Hamadan. 

It  was  mainly  accident  which  determined  that  from  the 
12th  to  the  17th  century  Avicenna  should  be  the  guide  of 
medical  study  in  European  universities,  and  eclipse  the 
names  of  Rhazes,  Ali,  and  Avenzoar.  His  work  is  not 
essentially  different  from  that  of  his  predecessors  Rhazes 
and  Ali ;  all  present  the  doctrine  of  Galen,  and  through 
Galen  the  doctrine  of  Hippocrates,  modified  by  the  system 
of  Aristotle.  But  the  Canon  of  Avicenna  is  distinguished 
from  the  El-Hau>i  {Continens)  or  Summary  of  Rhazes  by 
its  greater  method,  due  perhaps  to  the  logical  studies  of  the 
former,  and  entitling  him  to  his  surname  of  Prince  of  the 
Physicians.  The  work  has  been  variously  appreciated  in 
subsequent  ages,  some  regarding  it  as  a  treasury  of  wisdom, 
and  others,  like  Avenzoar,  holding  it  useful  only  as  waste 
paper.  -  In  modern  times  it  has  been  more  criticised  than 
read.  The  vice  of  the  book  is  excessive  classification  of 
bodily  faculties,  and  over-subtlety  in  the  discrimination  of 
diseases.  It  includes  five  books  ;  of  which  the  first  and 
second  treat  of  physiology,  pathology,  and  hygiene,  the 
third  and  fourth  deal  with  the  methods  of  treating  disease, 
and  the  fifth  describes  the  composition  and  preparation  of 
remedies.  This  last  part  contains  some  contingent  of 
personal  observation.  He  is,  like  all  his  countrymen,  ample 
in  the  enumeration  of  symptoms,  and  is  said  to  be  inferior 
to  Ali  in  practical  medicine  and  surgery.  He  introduced 
into  medical  theory  the  four  causes  of  the  Peripatetic 
system.  Of  natural  history  and  botany  he  pretends  to  no 
special  knowledge.  Up  to  the  year  1650,  or  thereabouts, 
the  Canon  was  still  used  as  a  text-book  in  the  universities 
of  Louvain  and  Montpellier. 

Th6  rank  of  Avicenna  in  the  mediaeval  world  as  a  philo- 
sopher was  far  beneath  his  fame  as  a  physician.  Still,  the 
logic  of  Albertus  Magnus  and  succeeding  doctors  was 
largely  indebted  to  him  for  its  formulae.  In  logic  Avi- 
cenna starts  from  distinguishing  between  the  isolated 
concept  and  the  judgment  or  assertion  ;  from  which  two 
primitive  elements  of  knowledge  there  is  artificially  gene- 
rated a  complete  and  scientific  knowledge  by  the  two  pro- 
cesses of  definition  Snd  syllogism.  -  But  the  chief  interest 
for  the  history  of  logic  belongs  to  his  doctrine  in  so  far  as 
it  bears  upon  the  nature  and  function  of  abstract  ideas. 
The  question  had  been  suggested  alike  to  East  and  West 
by  Porphyry,  and  the  Arabians  were  the  first  to  approach 
the  full  statement  of  the  problem.  Alfarabius  had  pointed 
out  that  the  universal  and  individual  are  not  distinguished 
from  each  other  as  understanding  from  the  senses,  but  that 
both  universal  and  individual  are  in  one  respect  intel- 
lectual, just  as  in  another  connection  thoy  play  a  part  in 
perception,  lie  had  distinguished  the  universal  essence 
in  iln   abstract    nature,  from  the  universal  considered  in 


relation  to  a  number  ui  singulars.  Tfiese  suggestions 
formed  the  basis  of  Avicenna's  doctrine.  The  essences  or 
forms — the  inidligibilia  which  constitute  the  world  of  re.il 
knowledge — may  be  looked  at  in  themselves  (metaphysi- 
cally), or  as  embodied  in  the  things  of  sense  (physically), 
or  as  expressing  the  processes  of  thought  (logically).  The 
first  of  these  three  points  of  view  deals  with  the  form  or 
idea  as  self-contained  in  the  principles  of  its  own  being, 
apart  from  those  connections  and  distinctions  which  it 
receives  in  real  (sensuous)  science,  and  through  the  act  of 
intellect.  Secondly,  the  form  may  be  looked  at  as  the 
similarity  evolved  by  a  process  of  comparison,  as  the  work 
of  mental  reflection,  and  in  that  way  as  essentially  express- 
ing a  relation.  When  thus  considered  as  the  common 
features  derived  by  examination  from  singular  instances,  it 
becomes  a  universal  or  common  term  strictly  so  called.  It 
is  intellect  which  first  makes  the  abstract  idea  a  true 
universal.  (Iniellectus  informis  agi^  vniversalitatem)  In 
the  third  place,  the  form  or  essence  may  be  looked  upon  as 
embodied  in  outward  things  {in  singularibus propriis),  and 
thus  it  is  the  type  more  or  less  represented  by  the  members 
of  a  natural  kind.  It  is  the  designation  of  these  outward 
things  which  forms  the  "  first  intention  "  of  names  ;  and 
it  is  only  at  a  later  stoge,  when  thought  comes  to  observe 
its  own  modes,  that  names,  looked  upon  as  predicables  and 
universals,  are  taken  in  their  "  second  intention."  Logic 
de.ils  with  such  second  intentions.  It  does  not  consider 
the  forms  ante  multiplicitatem,  i.e.,  as  eternal  ideas — nor 
in  multiplicitate,  i.e.,  as  immersed  in  the  matter^of  the 
phenomenal  world — but  post  muliipliciialem,  i.e.,  as  they 
exist  in  and  for  the  intellect  which  has  examined  and  com- 
pared. Logic  does  not  come  in  contact  with  things,  except 
as  they  are  subject  to  modification  by  intellectual  forms. 
In  other  words,  universality,  individuality,  and  speciality 
are  all  equally  modes  of  our  comprehension  or  notion  ; 
their  meaning  consists  in  their  setting  forth  the  relations 
attaching  to  any  object  of  our  conception.  In  the  mind. 
e.g.,  one  form  may  be  placed  in  reference  to  a  multitude  of 
things,  and  as  thus  related  will  be  universal  The  form 
animal,  e.g.,  is  an  abstract  intelligible,  or  metaphysical 
idea.  When  an  act  of  thought  employs  it  as  a  schema  to 
unify  several  species,  it  acquires  its  logical  aspect  [respectus) 
of  generality  ;  and  the  various  living  beings  qualified  to 
have  the  name  animal  applied  to  thera  constitute  the  natural 
class  or  kind.  Avicenna's  view  of  the  universal  may  be 
compared  with  that  of  Abelard,  which  calls  it "  that  whose 
nature  it  is  to  be  predicated  of  several,"  as  if  the  generality 
became  explicit  only  in  the  act  of  predication,  in  the  strnir> 
or  proposition,  and  not  in  the  abstract,  unrelated  form  or 
essence.  The  three  modes  of  the  universal  before  things, 
in  things,  and  after  things,  spring  from  Arabian  inlluenct, 
but  depart  somewhat  from  his  stand-point. 

The  place  of  Avicenna  amongst  Moslem  philosophers  is 
seen  in  the  fact  that  Shahraatani  takes  him  as  the  type  of 
all,  and  that  Algazali's  attack  against  philosophy  is  in 
reality  almost  entirely  directed  against  Avicenna.  Hia 
system  is  in  the  main  a  codification  of  Aristotle  modified 
by  fundamental  views  of  Neo-Platoniat  origin,  and  it  tends 
to  be  a  compromise  with  theology.  In  order,  for  example.  ■ 
to  maintain  the  necessity  of  creation,  ho  taught  that  all 
things  except  God  were  admissible  or  possible  in  their  own 
nature,  but  that  certain  of  thera  were  rendered  necessary 
by  the  act  of  the  creative  first  agent, — in  other  words, 
that  the  possible  could  be  transformed  into  Ihe  necessary. 
Avicenna's  theory  of  the  process  of  knowledge  is  an 
interesting  part  of  his  doctrine.  Man  has  a  rational  soul, 
one  face  of  which  is  turned  towards  the  body,  and,  by  the 
help  of  the  higher  aspect,  acts  as  practical  understanding  ; 
the  other  face  lies  open  to  the  reception  and  acquisition  of 
the  inteUigible  forms,  and  its  aim  is  to  become  a  reason- 


A  V  I  — A  Y  I 


Me  world,  reproducing  the  forms  of  the  universe  aad 
thoir  intelligible  order.  In  man  there  is  only  the  sus- 
ceptibility to  reason,  which  is  sustained  and  helped  by 
the  light  of  the  active  intellect.  Man  may  prepare  him- 
self for  this  inQu.x  by  removing  the  obstacles  which 
prevent  the  union  of  the  intellect  with  the  human  vessel 
destined  for  its  reception.  The  stages  of  this  process  to  the 
acquisition  of  mind  are  generally  enumerated  by  Avicenna 
as  four;  in  this  part  ha  follows  not  Aristotle,  but  the 
Greek  commentator.  The  first  stage  is  that  of  the  hylic 
or  material  intellect,  a  state  of  mere  potentiality,  like 
that  of  a  child  for  writing,  before  he  has  ever  put  pen 
to  paper.  •«  The  second  stage  is  called  in  habilu  ;  it  is  com- 
pared to  the  case  of  a  child  that  has  learned  the  elements 
of  writing,  when  the  bare  possibility  is  on  the  way  to  be 
developed,  and  is  seen  to  be  real.  In  this  period  of  half- 
trained  reason,  it  appears  as  happy  conjecture,  not  yet 
transformed  into  art  or  science  proper.  When  the  power 
of  writing  has  been  actualised,  we  have  a  parallel  to 
the  intettectus  in,  acta — the  way  of  science  and  demonstra- 
tion is  entered.  And  when  writing  has  been  made  a 
permanent  accomplishment,  or  lasting  property  of  the 
subject,  to  be  taken  up  at  will,  it  corresponds  to  the  iMel- 
leclui  adeptus — the  complete  mastery  of  science.  The 
>vhole  process  may  be  compared  to  the  gradual  illumination 
of  3  body  naturally  capable  of  receiving  light.  There  are, 
however,  grades  of  susceptibility  to  the  active  intellect,  i.e., 
in  theological  language,  to  communication  with  God  and 
his  angels.  Sometimes  the  receptivity  is  so  vigorous  in  its 
affinity,  that  without  teaching  it  rises  at  one  step  to  the 
vision  of  truth,  by  a  certain  "  holy  force  "  above  ordinary 
measure.  (In  this  way  philosophy  tried  to  account  for 
the  phenomenon  of  prophecy,  one  of  the  ruling  ideas  of 
Islam.)  But  the  active  intellect  is  not  merely  influential  on 
human  souls  It  is  the  universal  giver  of  forms  in  the  world. 
In  several  points  Avicenna  endeavoured  to  give  a  ratio- 
nale of  theological  dogmas,  particularly  of  prophetic  rule, 
of  miracles,  divine  providence,  and  immortality.  The 
permanence  of  individual  souls  he  supports  by  arguments 
borrowed  from  those  of  Plato.  The  existence  of  a  prophet 
is  shown  to  be  a  corollary  from  a  belief  in  God  as  a  moral 
governor,  and  the  phenomena  of  miracles  are  required  to 
evidence  the  genuineness  of  the  prophetic  mission.  For 
man,  in  order  to  his  well-being  and  the  permanence  of  his 
kind,  requires  in  the  first  place  a  clear  vision  of  right  and 
truth,  and  must,  secondly,  depend  upon  some  power  capable 
of  carrying  out  these  discoveries  of  moral  law.  If  pro- 
vidence has  60  arranged  that  the  eyelids  and  the  hair  of  the 
eyebrows  shall  grow  to  protect  the  eye,  much  more  is  it 
needful  for  a  prophet  to  arise  who  shall  preach  the  truth 
of  God's  unity,  prescribe  laws  for  men,  and  exhort  them  to 
well-doing  by  the  promise  of  recompense  to  come.  The 
weal  of  humanity  demands  the  revelation  from  God,  and, 
to  certify  his  office,  the  prophet  must  work  miracles.  Just 
as  in  ordinary  states  the  soul  influences  the  bodily  organs, 
BO  in  exalted  conditions  it  may  attain  the  level  of  those 
high  immaterial  spirits,  whose  energy  is  strong  enough  to 
permeate  the  whole  passive  world.  This  mystical  union 
with  the  hidden  universe  is  a  mystery  which  the  ordinary 
mind  cannot  understand.  Many  things  then  become 
visible  as  by  a  lightning  flash  in  the  darkness,  and  are 
apprehended  by  the  vigorous  grasp  of  pure  intuition.  But 
more  generally  the  imagination  throws  itself  on  these 
intuitions,  and  presents  them  to  the  lower  soul  under  the 
eemblanco  of  forms  and  sounds — the  angelic  beauty  which 
the  seer  beholds,  and  the  harmonious  speech  which  a 
heavenly  voice  seems  to  utter  in  his  car.  Thus  Avicenna, 
like  his  predecessors,  tried  to  harmonise  the  abstract  forms 
of  philosophy  with  the  religious  faith  of  his  nation.  But 
'■is  arguments  are   generally  vitiated  by  the   fallacy   of 


assuming  what  they  profess  to  prove,  llis  failure  is  made 
obvious  by  the  attack  of  Algazali  on  the  tendencies  and 

results  of  speculatioiu 

Upwards  of  100  troitiscs  are  ascribed  to  Avicenci.  Some  of 
them  are  trncts  of  a  few  pages,  others  are  works  extending  through 
several  volumes.  The  beat.kuown  amongst  them,  and  that  to 
wliich  Avicenna  owed  his  Europeao  reputation,  U  the  Canon  of 
Hedicine;  an  Arabic  edition  of  it  appeared  at  Rome  1593,  and  s 
Hebrew  version  at  Naples  in  1491.  Of  the  Latin  version  there 
were  about  thirty  editions,  foanded  on  the  original  translation  by 
Gerard  of  Cremona.  The  15th  century  has  the  hononr  of  composing 
the  great  commentary  on  the  text  of  the  Canon,  grouping  around  it 
all  that  theory  had  imagined,  and  all  that  practice  had  observed. 
Other  medical  works  translated  into  Latin  are  the  MedicamciUo 
Cordialia,  Cajiticum  fU  Medicina,  TracUthis  de  Si/rupo  Autoso. 
Scarcely  any  member  of  the  Arabian  circle  of  the  sciences,  including 
theology,  philology;  mathematics,  astronomy,  physics,  and  music, 
has  been  left  untouched  by  the  treatises  of  Avicenna,  many  of 
which  probably  varied  little,  except  in  being  commissioned  by  a 
dilforent  patron  and  having  a  different  form  or  extent.  He  wiotc 
at  least  one  treatise  on  alchemy,  but  several  others  have  been  fakely 
attributed  to  him.  His  book  on  animals  was  translated  by  Michael 
Scot.  His  Lo^ie,  Metaphysics,  Physics,  De  Calo,  are  treatises  giving 
a  synoptic  view  of  Aristotelian  doctrine.  The  iojicand  Metaphysics 
have  been  printed  more  than  once;  the  latter,  e.g.,  at  Venice  in 
1493,  1495,  and  1546.  Some  of  his  shorter  css.iys  on  medicine, 
logic,  &c.,  take  a  poetical  form  (the  poem  on  logic  was  published  by 
Schmoelders  in  1836).  Two  cncyclopEjic  treatises,  dealing  with 
philosophy,  are  often  mentioned.  The  larger,  Al-Shefa  (Sanalio), 
exists  nearly  complete  in  manuscript  in  the  13oJlei.in  Library  and 
elsewhere;  part  of  it  on  the  De  Anima  appeared  at  Pavia  (1490)  as 
the  Liber  SextiLS  ^aturalium,  and  the  long  account  of  Avicenna's 
philosophy  given  by  Shahrastani  seems  to  bs  mainly  an  analysis, 
and  in  many  places  a  reproduction,  of  the  Al-Shf/a.  A  shorter  form 
of  the  work  is  known  as  the  Al-Nedjat  {Libcralio).  The  Latin 
editions  of  part  of  these  works  have  been  modified  by  the  corrections 
which  the  monkish  editors  confess  that  they  applied.  There  is  «Iao 
a  Philosophia  Orientalis,  mentioned  by  Roger  Bacon,  and  now  lost, 
which  according  to  Averrocs  was.  pantheistic  in  tone. 

For  Avicenna's  life,  see  Ibn  Kh^iM^Lan's  JBiographicat  Dictionary, 
translated  by  Slane  (1842) ;  Wiistenfeld's  Oeschicfue  der  Arabischen 
Aerzte  und  NaturforsAer,  Gottingen,  1840;  Abul-Pharagius,  Ids- 
toria  Dynastiarum.  -  For  his  medicine,  seo  Sprcngel,  Histoire  de  la 
Midccinc;  and  for  his  philosophy,  see  Shahrastani,  Germ,  trans) 
vol.  ii.  213-332  ;  Prantl,  Ocschichtt  der  Logik,  ii.  318-361 ;  Stockl, 
Phil.  d.  MiUclallers,  ii.  23-58  ;  Munk,  Milanges,  352-3G6  ;  and 
Haneberg  in  the  Abhandlungen  dtr  Philos.-Philolog.  Clas^.  de} 
Baycrisdun  Academic,  1867.  (W.  \V.) 

-  AV|ENUS,  RuFUS  Festcs,  a  Latin  poet,  who  appcart 
to  have  flourished  in  the  latter  ialf  of  the  -Uh  century. 
Any  knowledge  we  have  of  the  facts  of  his  life  is  derived 
from  a  Latin  inscription,  printed  by  Meyer  (Anthologia 
Latina,  278),  which  has  been  supposed  to  refer  to  him. 
He  is  in  all  probability  the  Festus  who  was  proconsul  in 
Africa  in  3G6  and  following  years,  and  in  Achaia  in  372. 
He  is  the  author  of  the  following  works : —  1 .  Descriptio  Orlis 
Terra,  sometimes  called  Metaphrasis  Periegeseos  Dionijsii, 
being  derived  from  the  Trfpi^yTjo-i!  of  that  writer ;  2.  Ora 
Maritima,  of  which  there  is  extant  only  a  fragment 
describing  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  the  Mediterranean  as  far 
as  JIarseilles ;  3.  Aralea  Phcenomena,  and  Araiea  Prog- 
noslica,  which  are  paraphroses  of  two  works  of  Aratus. 
These  poems,  with  the  exception  of  the  Aralea,  are  cob- 
tained  in  Wcrnsdorf's  Poetce  Latini  Minores,  vol.  v.  pt.  ii. 

AVIGLIANO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  ol 
Basilicata,  1 1  miles  N.N.W.  of  Potenza.  It  stands  on  the 
declivity  of  a  hUl,  and  contains  a  collegiate  church,  several 
convents,  and  a  royal  college.  A  peculiar  kind  of  pottery 
produced  here  towards  the  end  of  the  18th  century  is  still 
sought  after  by  collectors.  The  surrounding  country  is 
said  to  produce  the  finest  cattle  in  the  kingdom.  A  pari 
of  the  town  was  destroyed  by  a  land-slip  in  1 824.  Popula- 
tion, 15,982. 

AVIGNON,  the  chief  town  of  the  department  ol 
Vaucluse  in  France,  situated  in  a  beautiful  plain,  or. 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone,  not  far  from  the  entrance  ol 
the  Durance.  It  is  surrounded  by  its  ancient  crenellated 
walls,  which  are  in   a  state  of   remarkable  preservation, 


156 


A  V  I  — A  V  I 


and,  on  the  outside,  by  a  line  of  pleasant  boulevards 
planted  with  trees.  A  precipitous  rock  rises  from  the 
riser's  edge;  and  from  its  summit  the  cathedral  of  Noire 
Dame  des  Doms,  a  building  of  the  12th  century,  looks 
down  on  the  city,  but  is  almost  thrown  into  insignificance 
^y  the  Palace  of  the  Popes,  which  rises  by  its  side,  and 


Sketch  Plan  of  Avignon. 

Palace  of  the  Popes.  2.  Former  Palace  of  the  Archbishops  3,  Town-Honse 
4,  Calvet  Mascum.  fi.  ConTent  of  the  Visitation.  6.  Theological  Scniioary 
(St  Charles).  7  Hospital  (St' Louis).  8.  Cavalry  Banacks.  9.  ISaiiacks. 
10.  Penitentiary.  11.  Infantry  Barracks.  12.  St  Joseph's  College.  1.3.  Con- 
vent of  the  Holy  Sacrament.  14,  Hotel-Dleu  and  Oeneial  Charity.  16.  Church 
of  St  S>Tnphorien.  16.  Church  of  the  Sacred  Heart  17.  Prisons.  18  Savlugs 
Bank  and  Loan  Office.  19.  Couit-House.  20.  Lyceum.  21.  Ljceura.  22.  Sus- 
pension Bridgo.  2.1.  Bcneiet  Bildge.  A.  Place  du  Palais.  B.  Place  de  I'Hotcl 
dc  Ville.  C.  Rue  de  la  R(?publlque.  D.  Rue  Calade.  F,  Place  du  Corps  Saint. 
0,  Rua  des  Lices.  H,  Place  I'le.  J,  VIeux  Scptler.  K,  Rue  du  Saule.  L, 
RuQ  CarrtSterie.  M,  Porte  du  RliOno.  N,  Porto  de  la  Lipne.  O.  Porte  St 
Lazarus.  Q,  Porte  L'luibeit.  K,  Porte  St  Michael.  S,  Poite  St  Roche.  T, 
Porte  de  I'Oullo. 

.trctohcs  in  sombre  grandeur  along  the  southern  slope. 
This  building,  or  congeries  of  buildings,  was  commenced  by 
Benedict  XII.  in  1330,  and  continued  by  successive  popes 
for  sixty  years.  It  covers  an  area  of  rather  more  than  \\ 
acres.  The  paintings  with  which  it  was  profusely  adorned 
ara  in  great  measure  destroyed,  and  even  the  grandeur 
of  its  dismantled  interiors  was  for  a  long  time  broken 
in  upon  by  the  carpentry  and  plaster-work  of  French 
barracks.  A  restoration  has,  however,  been  for  some  time 
in  progress  ;  and  the  building  will  again  be  appropriated 
for  ecclesiastical  and  civic  purposes.  The  churches  of  St 
Agricol,  St  Didier,  and  St  Pierre  may  be  mentioned  as  of 
eome  importance ;  also  the  papal  mint,  now  known  as  a 
music  academy;  the  town-hall,  built  in  1862;  the  Calvet 
museum,  rich  in  Roin  m  remains ;  the  Rcquicn  museum  of 
natural  history;  and  the  Hotel  des  Invalides.  Of  the 
church  of  the  Cordeliers,  in  which  Petrarch's  Laura  was 
buried,  only  a  small  part  is  standing,  and  the  tomb  itself 
has  been  entirely  destroyed.  Tho  city  is  the  seat  of  an 
archbishop,  and  has  tribunals  of  primary  jurisdiction  and 
coraraerco,  a  royal  college,  a  theological  seminary,  a  society 
of  arts,  tho  Vaiicluse  academy,  a  public  library,  a  theatre, 
&c.  The  chief  object  of  in(iustry  is  the  preparation  of 
eiJk  and  the  manufacture  of  silk  goods ;  there  are  also 
manufactures  of  paper,  leather,  hats,  jewellery,  ironware 
<tc.  Avignon  is  remarkably  subject  to  violent  winds,  of 
which  tho  most  disastrous  is  the  mistral ;  and,  according 
to  tho  proverb,  Avenio  veniosa,  sine  vcnto  venenosa,  cum 
vento  fastidiosa  (windy  Avignon,  liable  to  plague  when  it 
lias  not  the  wind,  and  pla^^ued  with  tho  wind  when  it  has 
it).  The  town  was  a  place  of  some  importance  in  tho 
times  of  Roman  supremacy,  and  seems  to  have  had  some 
epccial  connection  with  the  Greek  colony  at  Massilia.  It 
was  incorporated  with  the  Burgundian  kingdom,  and  on 
its  dissolution  became  a  free  republic,  after  tho  Italian  type. 
As  late,  indeed,  as  17'JO,  it  retained  its  consuls,  though  its 


republican  constitution  was  really  di!Stroyed  by  Charles  of 
Anjou.  From  1309,  when  Clement  V.  took  up  his  abode 
in  the  city,  to  1377,  when  Gregory  XL  returned  to  Rome, 
Avignon  was  the  seat  of  the  papal  court,  and  it  continued 
from  1378  to  1418  to  be  the  seat  of  French  anti-popes.  In 
1348  it  was  purchased  by  Pope  Clement  VI.  from  Joanna 
of  Sicily  for  the  sura  of  80,000  florins,  and  it  remained  in 
possession  of  the  popes  tiU  the  French  Revolution.  Popula- 
tion in  1872,  38,196. 

AVILA,  a  province  of  Spain,  one  of  the  moderu 
divisions  of  the  kingdom  of  Old  Castile,  situated  between 
long.  4"  14'  and  5°  55'  W,  and  lat.  40'  48'  and  41°  1*6' N. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Valladolid,  E.  by  Segovia  and 
Madrid,  S.  by  Toledo  and  Caceres,  and  ^\^  by  Salamanca. 
The  area  is  2570  square  miles;  population,  176,769.  It 
naturally  divides  itself  into  two  sections,  difTering  com- 
jiletely  in  soil,  climate,  productions,  and  social  economy.  The 
northern  portion  is  generally  level;  the  soil  is  of  indiiTorent 
quality,  strong  and  marly  in  a  few  places,  but  rocky  in 
all  the  valleys  of  the  Sierra  de  Avila  ;  and  the  climate 
alternates  from  severe  cold  in  winter  to  extreme  heat  in 
summer.  The  population  of  this  part  is  agricultural.  The 
southern  division  is  one  mass  of  rugged  granitic  sierras,  inter- 
spersed, however,  with  sheltered  and  well-watered  valleys, 
abounding  with  rich  vegetation.  The  winter  here,  especially 
in  the  elevated  region  of  the  Paramera  and  the  waste  lands 
of  Avila,  is  long  and  severe,  but  the  climate  is  not  unhealthy. 
The  inhabitants  are  occupied  in  the  rearing  of  cattle.  The 
principal  mountain  chains  are  the  Guadarrama,  separating 
this  province  from  Madrid ;  the  Sierras  de  Avila,  a  con- 
tinuation of  them  westward;  the  Sierra  de  Credos,  running 
from  the  south  of  Piedrahita  through  Barco,  Arcnos,  and 
part  of  Cebreros;  and  the  Paramera,  stretching  southwards 
from  the  city  of  Avila  into  Arenas  and  Cebreros.  The 
various  ridges  which  ramify  from  the  latter  are  covered 
with  wood,  presenting  a  striking  contrast  to  the  bare  peaks 
of  the  Sierra  de  Credos,  and  the  barren  levels  in  which 
they  rise  on  the  north.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Alberche  and  Tietar,  belonging  to  tho  basin  of  the  Tagus, 
and  the  Tormcs,  the  Corneja,  and  the  Adaj.a,  belonging  to 
that  of  the  Douro.  The  mountains  contain  silver,  copper, 
iron,  lead,  and  coal,  but  their  mineral  wealth  has  been 
exaggerated,  and  tho  actual  production  is  absolutely  nil. 
Quarries  of  fine  marble  and  jasper  exist  in  the  district  of 
Arenas.  The  province  has  declined  in  wealth  and  popula- 
tion during  the  last  two  centuries,  a  result  due  less  to  the 
want  of  activity  on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants  than  to  tho 
oppressive  manorial  and  feudal  rights  and  the  strict  laws 
of  entail  and  mortmain,  which  have  acted  as  barriers  to 
improvement;  The  principal  production  is  tho  wool  of  the 
Merino  sheep,  which  at  one  time  yielded  an  immcnsij 
revenue.  Game  is  plentiful,  and  the  rivers  abouud  in  fish, 
apecially  trout.  Olives,  chestnuts,  and  grapes  arc  grown, 
and  the  culture  of  silk-worms  is  also  carried  on.  There  ii 
little  trade,  and  tho  manufactures  are  few,  consisting 
chiefly  of  copper  utensils,  lime,  soap,  cloth,  paper,  combs, 
ire.  The  state  of  elementary  education  is  comjiaratively 
good,  and  the  ratio  of  crime  is  proportionately  low  (Madoz, 
Vicrionario  da  Espana), 

Avila  (the  ancient  Abnla),  a  city  of  Spain,  the  capital  of 
the  above  province,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Adaja,  about  3000  feet  above  the  soa-levcl,  at  the  termina- 
tion of  the  Guadarrama  Mtiuntaiiis.  ".On  all  sides,"  says 
a  recent  traveller,  "the  town  is  surrounded  by  a  tawny 
desert,  over  whose  arid  plains  numbers  of  gray  boulders 
arc  scattered  like  (locks  of  sheep."  Its  ancient  wall  is  still 
in  good  preservation,  crowned  by  a  breastwork,  with  towers 
of  great  strength  ;  but  a  large  part  of  the  town  lies  beyond 
the  circuit.  Avila  is  the  scat  of  a  bishop  sufl'ragan  to 
Santiago,  and   has  a  Gothic  cathedral,  built  by  Garcia 


A  V  I  _  A  X  II 


151 


ao  Estrella  in  1107;  a  number  of  interesting  churches, 
BucU  as  Santo  Tomas,  with  •  the  beautiful  tomb  of 
Prince  Juan,  San  Vinctnti,  with  its  remarkable  carving, 
and  Nuestra  Sera/.  Madre  Santa  Teresa,  built  over  the 
birthplace  of  the  patroness  of  Spain  (who  here  founded  the 
convent  of  St  Joseph);  as  well  as  several  monasteries  and 
schools,  an  infirmary,  and  a  foundling  hospital.  It  was 
formerly  the  seat  of  a  university,  which  was  founded  in 
1482,  and  changed  into  the  college  of  St  Thomas  in  1807. 
The  only  manufacture  of  any  importance  is  the  spmning  of 
the  wool  furnished  by  the  native  sheep.    Population,  6892. 

AYILA,  Gil  Gonzalez  d',  a  Spanish  biographer  and 
antiquary,  was  born  at  Avila  about  the  year  1577,  and 
died  there  in  1C58.  He  was  made  historiographer  of  Castile 
in  1012,  and  of  the  Indies  in  1641.  Of  his  numerous 
works,  the  most  valuable  are  his  Tcatro  de  las  Orandcas 
de  Madrid  (Madrid,  1023,  sqq.),  and  his  Teatro  Eclesiastico, 
descriptive  of  the  metropolitan  churches  and  cathedrals 
of  Castile,  with  lives  of  the  prelates  (Madrid,  104D-D3,  4 
vols.  4  to). 

AVILA  Y  ZUNIGA.  Ltrts  d',  author  of  a  Spanish  his- 
tory of  the  wars  of  Charles  V.  Nothing  is  known  as  to  the 
place  or  date  cither  of  his  birth  or  of  his  death.  He  was 
probably  of  low  origin,  but  married  a  wealthy  heiress  of 
the  house  of  Zuniga,  whose  name  he  added  to  his  own. 
He  rose  rapidly  in  the  favour  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V., 
served  in  the  army  and  as  ambassador  to  Rome,  and  was 
present  at  the  funeral  of  Charles  in  1558.  His  work  is 
entitled  Comentarios  de  la  Guerra  de  Alemaha,  kecha  de 
Carlos  V.  en  el  aiio  de  1540  y  1547,  and  appears  to  have 
been  printed  in  1548.  It  became  very  popular,  and  was 
translated  into  English,  French,  Dutch,  Gerpian,  Italian, 
and  Latin.  As  was  to  be  expected  from  the  position  of 
the  author,  the  book  gave  a  rather  one-sided  account  of 
Charles,  and  its  misrepresentations  have  been  eevercly 
criticised. 

AVILES,  Sav  Nicolas  de  (the  Latin  Flavionaii'a),  a 
town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Oviedo,  about  a  league 
from  the  sea-coast,  in"  lat.  43°  34'  N.,  long.  5°  58'  W.  It 
has  a  considerable  trade  by  means  of  its  port,  which  affords 
good  anchorage  for  all  classes  of  vessels.  There  are  here 
some  copper  works  and  coal  mines,  and  the  stone  quarries 
are  extensive  and  productive.  Aviles  has  two  parish 
shurches,  a  theatre,  and  a  public  school  Population,  3297. 
.•  AVLON'A,  or  Valona  (the  ancient  AlXwv),  a  town  and 
seaport  of  Albania,  in  the  eyalet  of  Yanina.  It  stands  on 
an  eminence  near  the  Gulf  of  Avlona,  an  inlet  of  the 
Adriatic,  almost  surrounded  by  mountains.  The  port, 
which  is  protected  by  the  island  of  Sasseno,  the  ancient 
Saso,  is  the  best  on  the  Albanian  coast  It  is  visited 
weekly  by  Austrian  steamers,  and  carries  on  considerable 
intercourse  with  Brindisi,  ic.  The  town  is  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  from  the  sea,  and  has  rather  a  pleasant  appear- 
ince  with  its  minarets  and  its  palace,  surrounded  with 
gardens  and  olive  groves.  -  The  Christian  population,  of 
which  a  considerable  proportion  are  Italians,  is  largely. 
Jngagcd  in  commerce  ;  while  the  Turks  manufacture 
•vooUen  stuffs  and  arms.  The  material  imported  into' 
England  for  tanning,  under  the  name  of  Valonia,  is  the 
oericarp  of  an  acorn  produced  in  the  district.  Avlona. 
pkyed  an  important  part  in  the  wars  between  the  Normans 
»nd  the  Byzantine  empire.  In  1404  it  was  taken  .by  thcT 
Ottomans;  and  after  being  in  Venetian  possession  in  1090^ 
was  restored  to  them  in  1091.  In  1851  it  suffered  severely 
from  an  earthquake. 

•  AVOIRDUPOIS,  or  AvERDUPots,'  the  iiame  of  a  system 
of  weights,  commonly  supposed  to  be  derived  from itho 
French,  ai-oir  du  pois.to  have  weight.-  "The- suggested 
derivation  from  averer,  to  verify,  seems,  however,  more 
probable,  averdupoia  bsing  the  earlier  form  of  the  word. 


Avoirdupois  weight  is  used  for  all  commodities  except  the 
precious  metals^  gems,  and  medicines.  The  pound  avoir- 
dupois, which  is  equal  to  7000  grains  troy,  or  45354 
grammes,  is  divided  into  16  ounces,  and  the  ounce  into  l(j 
drams.      See  Weights  and  Measures. 

AVOLA,  a  city  on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  in  the  province 
of  Syracuse,  with-  11,912  inhabitants.  It  manufactures 
straw-mats,  and  has  trade  in  wine,  grain,  oil,  honey,  die.  ; 
and  there  are  sugar  plantations.- 

AVON,  the  name  of  several  rivers  in  England,  Scotland, 
and  France.  The  word  is  Celtic,  appearing  in  Wekh  as 
a/on,  in  Manx  as  aon,  and  in  Gaelic  as  ahkuinn  (pronounced 
avain),  and  is  radically  identical  with  the  Sanskrit  ap,  water, 
and  the  Latin  aqua  and  amnis.  The  root  appears  more  or 
less  disguised  in  a  vast  number  of  river  names  all  over  the 
Celtic  area  in  Europe.  Thus,  besides  such  forms  as  Evan, 
Aune,  Anne,  Ive,  Auney,  Inney,  ic  ,  in  the  British  Islands, 
we  have  Aff  s.ni  Aven  in  Brittany,  Avenza  and  Avens  in 
Italy,  Avi.a  in  Portugal,  and  Avono  in  Spain;  while  tbo 
terminal  syllable  of  a  brge  proportion  uf  the  French  nvers, 
such  as  the  Sequana,  the  Malrona,  the  Carumna,  and  so 
on,  seems  origmally  to  have  been  the  same  word.  The 
names  Punjui,  Doa6,  &c.,  show  the  root  in  a  clearer  shape. 
(See  Taylor's  Words  and  Places.)  -Of  the  principal  Eng- 
lish rivers  of  this  name  in  its  full  form  three  belong  to 
the  basin  of  the  Severn.  The  Upper  or  Shakespearean 
Avon,  rising  in  Northamptonshire,  near  the  battlefield  of 
Naseby,  tlows  through  Warwickshire,  Worcester,  and 
Gloucester,  past  Rugby,  Warwick,  Stratford,  and  Evesham, 
and  joins  the  larger  river  at  Tewkesbury ;  while  the 
Lower  Avon  has  its  sources  on  the  borders  of  Wiltshire, 
and  enters  the  estuarj'  of  the  Severn  at  King's  Roads,  after 
passing  Malmesbury,  Bath,  and  Bristol.  (See  Ireland  s 
Upper  Awn  ;  Lewis's  Book  o/  English  Rivers,  1805.)  The 
Middle  or  Little  Avon  has  its  whole  course  m  Gloucester- 
shire, and  reaches  the  Severn  a  short  distance  below  the 
town  of  Berkeley.  Another  river  of  this  name  rises  in  Wilts, 
.  and  flows  past  Salisbury  to  the  Bniish  Channel.  In 
Scotland  one  is  a  tributary  of  the  Clyde,  another  belongs 
to  the  basin  of  the  Forth,  and  a  thud  joins  its  waters  with 
the  Annan,  while  an  Aven  is  a  confluent  of  the  Spey.  In 
France  there  are  two  "  Avous"  in  the  system  of  the  Loire, 
and  two  in  that  of  the  Seine. 

AVRANCHES  (ancient  Abrincatce,  or  Ingena),  a  town 
of  France,  in  the  department  of  Manche.  It  was  an  im- 
portant military  station  of  the  Romans,  and  has  in  more 
modern  times  sustained  several  sieges,  the  most  noticeable 
of  which  was  the  result  of  its  opposition  to  Henry  IV.  It 
stands  on  a  wooded  hill,  commanding  a  fine  view  of  the  bay 
and  rock  of  St  Michel,  about  three  miles  distant.  At  the 
foot  of  the  hill  flows  the  river  Ste,  which  at  high  tide  is 
navigable  from  the  sex  The  principal  trade  is  in  corn, 
cider,  and  salt ;  and  candles,  lace,  nads,  parchment,  leather, 
itc,  are  manufactured.  Avranches  was  formerly  a  bishop's 
see;  and  ita  cathedral,  destroyed  as  ln"ecure  in  the  time 
of  the  first  French  Revolution,  was  the  finest  in  Normandy. 
Its  site  is  now  occupied  by  an  open  jilace,  called  after  the 
celebrated  Huct,  bishop  of  Avranches  ;  and  one  stone  re- 
mains with  an  inscription  marking  it  out  as  the  spot  where 
Henry  II  received  absolution  for  the  murder  of  A  Bccket. 
Saint-Saturnin's  church  dates  from  the  13th  century,  and 
has  a  remarkable  g!iteway.  The  ancient  episcopal  palace  is 
iiow  used  as  a  museum  of  antiquities  ,  and  an  extensive 
public  library  is  kept  in  the  "  mairie."  A  new  cathedral  is 
in'course  of  erection.  The  agreeable  situation  and  climate  of 
this'town  make  it  a  favourite  residence  of  Enghsh  families. 
Population  in  1872,  8137. 

"  AXHOLM,  or  A.\ELiioLM,an  island  in  the  N.W.  part  of 
Lincolnshire,  England,  formed  by  the  rivers  Trent,  Idle,  and 
Don.     It  consists  mainly  of  a  plateau  of  slight  elevation^. 


158 


A  X  I  — A  X  1 


and  comprises  the  parishoa  of  Althorpo,  Belton,  E|)wiirlh, 
lliiey,  Luddington,  O'.vston.  and  Crowle  ,  the  total  area 
being  about  47,000  acres.  At  a  very  early  period  it  wuuld 
nppear  to  have  been  covered  with  forest;  but  this  having 
been  in  great  measure  destroyed,  it  sank  into  a  comparative 
swamp.  In  162"  King  Charles  I.,  who  was  lord  of  the 
island,  entered  into  a  contract  with  Cornelius  Vermuyden, 
a  Dutchman,  for  reclaiming  the  meres  and  marshes,  and 
rendering  them  fit  for  tillage.  This  undertaking  led  to 
thii  intrOQUction  of  3  large  number  of  Flemish  workmen, 
who  settled  in  the  district,  and,  in  spite  of  the  violent 
measures  adopted  by  the  English  peasantry  to  expel  them, 
retained  their  ground  in  sutEcient  numbers  to  atfect  the 
physical  appearance  and  the  accent  of  the  inhabitants  to 
ihisday.  Elaborate  volumes  have  been  published  on  the 
island  by  Peck  (181.5).  Stonehouse,  and  Read  (See 
paper,  by  R   Peacock,  in  Anthropological  Review,  1870.) 

AXIOM,  from  the  Greek  dfiu/xa,  is  a  word  of  great 
import  both  in  general  philosophy  and  in  special  science  ; 
it  also  has  passed  into  the  language  of  common  life,  being 
applied  to  any  assertion  of  the  truth  of  which  the  speaker 
happens  to  have  a  strong  conviction,  or  which  is  put 
forward  as  beyond  question.  The  scientific  use  of  the 
word  is  most  familiar  in  mathematics,  where  it  is  customary 
to  lay  down,  under  the  name  of  axioms,  a  number  of 
propositions  of  which  no  proof  is  given  or  considered 
necessary,  though  the  reason  for  such  procedure  may  not  be 
the  same  in  every  case,  and  in  the  same  case  may  be  vari- 
ously understood  by  different  minds.  Thus  scientific 
axioms,  mathematical  or  other,  are  sometimes  held  to  carry 
with  them  an  inherent  authorityor  to  be  self-evident,  whereiu 
it  13,  strictly  speaking,  implied  that  they  cannot  be  made 
the  subject  of  formal  proof  ;  sometimes  they  are  held  to 
admit  of  proof,  but  not  within  the  particular  science  in 
which  they  are  advanced  as  principles  ;  while,  again,  some- 
times the  name  of  axiom  is  given  to  propositions  that  admit 
of  proof  within  the  science,  but  so  evidently  that  they 
may  be  straightway  assumed.  Axioms  that  are  genuine 
principles,  though  raised  above  discussion  within  the 
Bcience,  are  not  therefore  raised  above  discussion  alto- 
gether From  the  time  of  Aristotle  it  has  been  claimed 
for  general  or  first  philosophy  to  deal  with  the  principles 
of  special  science,  and  hence  have  arisen  the  questions 
concerning  the  nature  and  origin  of  axioms  so  much  debated 
among  the  philosophic  schools.  Besides,  the  general  philo- 
sopher himself,  having  to  treat  of  human  knowledge  and 
its  conditions  as  his  particular  subject-matter,  is  called  to 
determine  the  principles  of  certitude,  which,  as  there  can  be 
none  higher,  must  have  in  a  peculiar  sense  that  character 
of  ultimate  authority  (however  explicable)  that  is  ascribed 
to  axioms;  and  by  this  name,  accordingly,  such  highest 
pnnciplo.i  of  knowledge  have  long  been  called.  In  the 
cxse  of  a  ^ord  so  variously  employed  there  is,  perhaps,  no 
better  way  of  understanding  its  proper  signification  than  by 
considering  it  first  in  the  historical  light — not  to  say  that 
there  hang.-i  about  the  origin  and  early  use  of  the  name  an 
obscurity  which  it  is  of  importance  to  disjjell. 

The  earliest  use  of  the  word  in  a  logical  sense  appears 
in  the  works  of  Aristotle,  though,  as  will  presently  be  shown, 
il  had  probably  acquired  such  a  moaning  before  his  time, 
and  only  received  from  him  a  more  exact  determination. 
In  his  theory  of  demonstration,  set  forth  in  the  I'osle.rinr 
An'ilijlics.  h«  give.s  the  name  of  axiom  to  that  immediate 
principle  of  syllogistic  reasoning  which  a  learner  must  bring 
with  him  (i.  2,  C)  ,  again,  axioms  are  said  to  bo  the  common 
principles  from  which  all  demonstration  takes  place — com- 
mon to  all  demonstrative  sciences,  but  varying  in  cxprc?sioa 
-jcciirding  to  Iho  subject-matter  of  each  (i  10,  4).  The 
principle  of  all  other  axioms — the  surest  of  aU  principles 
— II  that  called  later  the  principle  of  Conffadiclion,  in- 


demonstrable itself,  and  thus  fitted  to  be  the  ground  ol 
all  demonstration  {Metaph  ,  lii.  2,  iv.  3).  Aristotle's  fol- 
lowers, and,  later  on,  the  commentators,  with  glosses  of 
their  own,  repeat  his  statements.  Thus,  according  to 
Themistius  (ad  Post.  Anal.),  two  species  of  axioms  were 
distinguished  by  Theophrastus — one  species  holding  of  aU 
things  absolutely,  as  the  principle  (later  known  by  the  name) 
of  Excluded  Middle,  the  other  of  all  things  of  the  same 
kind,  as  that  the  remainders  of  equals  are  equal.  These, 
adds  Themistius  himself,  are,  as  it  were,  connate  and  com- 
mon to  all,  and  hence  their  name  Axiom  ,  "  for  vhat  is 
put  over  either  all  things  absolutely  or  things  of  one  sort 
universally,  we  consider  to  have  precedence  with  respect  to 
them."  The  same  view  of  the  origin  of  the  name  reappears 
in  Boethius's  Latin  substitutes  for  it — dignitas  and  maxima 
(propositio),  the  latter  preserved  in  the  word  Maxim,  which 
is  often  used  interchangeably  with  Axiom.  In  Aristotle, 
however,  there  is  no  suggestion  of  such  a  meaning.  As 
the  ■  verb  ifioOi'  changes  its  original  meaning  of  deem 
worthy  mto'  think  fit,  think  simply,  and  also  'claim  or 
require,  it  might  as  well  be  maintained  that  Q|i'w//a — 
which  Aristotle  himself  employs  in  its  original  ethical 
sense  of  worth,  also  in  the  secondary  senses  of  opinion  or 
dictum  (Metaph.,  iii.  4),  and  of  simple  proposition  (Topics, 
viii.  1).— was  conferred  upon  the  highest  principles  of 
reasoning  and  science  because  the  teacher  might  require 
them  to  be  granted  by  the  learner.  In  point  of  fact,  later 
writers,  like  Proclus  and  others  quoted  by  him,  did  attach 
to  Axiom  this  particular  meaning,  bringing  it  into  relation 
with  Postulate  (ainy/io),  as  defined  by  Aristotle  in  the 
Posterior  Analytics,  or  as  understood  by  Euclid  in  his 
Elements.  It  may  hero  be  added  that  the  word  was  used 
regularly  in  the  sense  of  bare  proposition  by  the  Stdics 
(Diog.  Laert,  vii.  65.  though  Simplicius  curiously  asserts 
the  contrary,  ad  Epict.  Ench.,  c.  58),  herein  followed  in 
later  times  by  the  Raraist  logicians,  and  also,  in  effect,  by 
Bacon. 

That  Aristotle  did  not  originate  the  use  of  the  term 
axiom  in  the  sense  of  scientific  first  principle,  is  the  natural 
conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  the  reference  ho  makes  to 
"  what  are  called  axioms  in  mathematics  "  (jlA^to/z/i.,  iv  3). 
Sir  William  Hamilton  (Note  A,  Reid'e  Worls,  p.  765) 
would  have  it  that  the  reference  is  to  mathematical  works 
of  his  own  now  lost,  but  there  is  no  real  ground  for  such 
a  supposition.  True  though  it  be,  as  Hamilton  urges,  that 
the  so-called  axioms  standing  at  the  head  of  Euclid's 
Elements  acquired  the  name  through  the  influence  of  the 
Aristotelian  philosophy,  evidence  is  not  wauling  that  by 
the  time  of  Aristotle,  a  generation  or  more  tefore  Euclid, 
it  was  already  the  habit  of  geometricians  to  give  definite 
expression  to  certain  fixed  principles  as  the  basis  of  their 
science.  Aristotle  himself  is  the  authority  for  this  asser- 
tion, when,  in  his  treatise  De  Ccelo,  iii.  4,  he  speaks  of  tlic 
advantage  of  having  definite  principles  of  demonstration, 
and  these  as  few  as  possible,  such  as  are  postulated  by 
mathematicians  (naOantp  a^io'xn  kqI  oI  iv  toi?  ixaO)'}naaiv), 
who  always  have  their  principles  limited  in  kind  or  num- 
ber The  passage  is  decisive  on  the  point  of  general 
mathematical  usage, and  so  distinctly  suggests  the  very  word 
axiom  in  the  sense  of  a  principle  assumed  or  postulated, 
that  Aristotle's  repeated  instance  of  what  ho  himself  calls  by 
the  name — If  equals  be  taken  from  eipials,  the  remainders 
are  equal — can  hardly  bo  regarded  otherwise  than  as  a 
citation  from  recognised  mathematical  treatises.  Tho 
conclusion,  if  warranted,  is  of  no  small  interest,  in  view 
of  tho  famous  list  of  principles  sot  out  by  Euclid,  which 
has  come  to  bo  regarded  in  modern  times  as  the  typical 
specimen  of  axiomatic  foundation  for  a  science. 

Euclid,  giviirg  systcmalic  form  to  the  elements  of  geome- 
trical science  in  the  generation  after  Ihc  de.ilh  of  Aristotle, 


A  X  I  0  l\i 


159 


propoonded,  at  the  beginning  oi  his  treatise,  under  the 
oinie  of  opoi,  the  definitions  with  which  modern  readers  aro 
familiar ;  under  the  name  of  air^yuaTa,  the  three  principles 
of  construction  now  called  postulates,  together  with  the 
three  theoretic  principles,  specially  geometrical,  now  printed 
as  the  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  axioms  ;  finally,  under 
the  name  of  Koivai  tvroiai,  or  common  notions,  the  series  of 
general  assertions  concerning  equality  and  inequality, 
hiving  an  application  to  discrete  as  well  as  continuous 
quantity,  now  printed  as  the  first  nine  axioms.  Now, 
throughout  the  Elements,  there  are  numerous  indications 
tbat  Euclid  could  not  have  been  acquainted  with  the  logical 
doctrines  of  Aristotle  :  a  most  important  one  has  been 
signalised  in  the  article  Analysis,  and,  in  general,  it  may 
suffice  to  point  out  tbat  Euclid,  who  is  said  to  have  flour- 
ished at  Alexandria  from  323  (the  year  of  Aristotle's  death) 
to  283  B.C.,  lived  too  early  to  bo  affected  by  Aristotle's 
work — all  the  more  that  he  was,  by  philosophical  profession, 
a  Platonist  Yet,  although  Euclid's  disposition  of  geome- 
trical' principles  at  the  beginning  of  his  Elements  is  itself 
one  among  the  signs  of  his  ignorance  of  Aristotle's  logic,  it 
■Bould  seem  that  he  had  in  view  a  distinction  between  his 
postulates  and  common  notions  not  unlike  the  Aristotelian 
distinction  between  alnj/jiaTa  and  ofiw/iaTo.  AU  the 
postulates  of  Euclid  (including  the  last  three  so-called 
axioms)  may  be  brought  under  Aristotle's  description  of 
ainj^oTa — principles  concerning  which  the  learner  has,  to 
begin  with,  neither  belief  nor  disbelief.  Post.  Anal.,  l  10, 
6)  j  being  (as  Do  Morgan  interprets  Euchd's  meaning)  such 
03  tha  "  reader  must  grant  or  seek  another  system,  whatever 
be  his  opinion  as  to  the  propriety  of  the  assumption." 
Still  closer  to  the  Aristotelian  conception  of  axioms  come 
Euclid's  common  notions,  as  principles  "  which  there  is  no 
question  every  one  .will  grant "  (De  Morgan).  From  this 
point  of  view,  the  composition  of  Euclid's  two  lists,  as  they 
originally  stood,  becomes  intelligible  ;  be  this,  however,  as 
it  may,  there  is  evidence  that  his  enumeration  and  division 
of  principles  were  very  early  subjected  to  criticism  by  his 
followers  with  niore  or  less  reference  to  Aristotle's  doctrine. 
ApoUonius  (250-220  B.C.)  is  mentioned  by  Proclus  [Cmn. 
in  EucL,  iil)  as  having  sought  to  give  demonstrations  of 
the  common  notions  under  the  name  of  axioms.  Further, 
according  to  Proclus,  Geminus  made  the  distinction  between 
postulates  and  axioms  which  has  become  the  familiar  one, 
that  they  are  indemonstrable  principles  of  construction  and 
demonstration  respectively.  Proclus  himself  (412-485  i.D.) 
practically  comes  to  rest  in  this  distinction,  and  accordingly 
«itnide3  from  the  list  of  postulates  all  but  the  three 
received  in  modern  times.  The  list  of  axioms  he  reduces 
to  five,  striking  out  as  derivative  the  two  that  assert  in- 
equality (4th  and  5th),  also  the  two  that  assert  equality 
between  the  doubles  and  halves  of  tbe  same  respectively 
(Cth  and  7th).  Euclid's  postulate  regarding  the  equality 
of  right  angles  and  the  other  assumed  in  the  doctrine  of 
paraUel  lines,  now  printed  as  the  1 1th  and  12th  axioms,  ho 
holds  to  be  demonstrable  :  the  lOtb  axiom  (regarded  as 
an  axiom,  not  a  postulate,  by  some  ancient  authorities,  and 
50  cited  by  Proclus  himself) — Two  straight  hues  cannot 
snclose  a  apaco — he  refuses  to  print  with  the  others,  as 
being  a  special  principle  of  geometry  Thus  he  restricts 
the  name  axiom  to  such  principles  of  demonstration  as  are 
common  to  the  science  of  quantity  generally.  These,  he 
then  dcchires,  are  principles  immediite  and  self-manifest — 
untaught  anticipations  whose  truth  is  darkened  rather  than 
cleared  by  attempts  to  demonstrate  them 

The  question  as  to  the  axiomatic  principles,  whether  of 
knowledge  in  general  or  of  special  science,  remained  where 
it  had  thus  been  left  by  the  ancients  till  modern  times, 
when  new  advances  began  to  be  made  in  positive  scientific 
inquiry  and  a  new  pliilosopby  took  the  place  of  the  peri- 


patetic system,  as  it  had  been  contiuued  thjongh  the 
Middle  Ages.  It  was  characteristic  alike  of  the  philosophic 
and  of  the  various  scientific  movements  begun  by  Des- 
cartes to  be  guided  by  a  consideration  of  mathematical 
method — that  method  which  had  led  in  ancient  times  to 
special  conclusions  of  exceptional  certainty,  and  which 
showed  itself,  as  soon  as  it  was  seriously  taken  up  again, 
more  fruitful  than  ever  in  new  results.  To  establish  philo- 
sophical and  all  special  truth  after  tbe  model  of  mathe- 
matics became  the  direct  object  of  the  new  school  of 
thought  and  inquiry,  and  the  first  step  thither  consisted 
in  positing  principles  of  immediate  certainty  whence 
deduction  might  proceed.  Descartes  accordingly  devised 
hie  criterion  of  perfect  clearness  and  distinctness  of  thought 
for  the  determination  of  ultimate  objective  truth,  and  his 
followers,  if  not  himself,  adopted  the  ancient  word  axiom 
for  the  principles  which,  with  the  help  of  the  criterion, 
they  proceed«d  freely  to  excogitate.  About  the  same 
time  the  authority  of  all  general  principles  began  to  be 
considered  more  explicitly  in  the  light  ol  their  origin. 
Not  that  ever  such  consideration  bad  been  wholly  over- 
looked, for,  on  the  contrary,  Aristotle,  in  pronouncing  the 
principles  of  demonstration  to  be  themselves  indemon- 
strable, had  suggested,  however  obscurely,  a  theory  of  theii 
devdopment,  and  his  followers,  having  obscure  sayings  to 
interpret,  had  been  left  free  to  take  different  sides  ou  the 
question  ;  but,  aa  undoubtedly  the  philosophic  investiga- 
tion of  knowledge  has  in  the  modern  period  become  more 
and  more  an  inquiry  into  its  genesis,  it  was  inevitable  that 
principles  claiming  to  be  axiomatic  should  have  their 
pretensions  scanned  from  this  point  of  view  with  closer 
vision  than  ever  before.  Locke  it  was  who,  when  the 
Cartesian  movement  was  well  advanced,  more  especially 
gave  this  direction  to  modern  philosophic  thought,  turn- 
ing attention  in  particular  upon  the  character  of  axioms ; 
nor  was  his  original  impulse  weakened — rather  it  was 
greatly  strengthened-rby  his  followers'  substitution  of 
positive  psychological  research  for  his  method  of  general 
criticism.  The  expressly  critical  inquiry  undertaken  by 
Kant,  at  however  different  a  level,  had  a  like  bearing  on 
the  question  as  to  the  nature  of  axiomatic  principles ,  and 
thus  it  has  come  to  pass  that  the  chief  philosophic  interest 
now  attached  to  them  turns  upon  the  point  whether  or  not 
they  have  their  origin  in  experience. 

It  is  maintained,  on  tbe  one  hand,  that  axioms,  like 
other  general  propositions,  result  from  an  elaboration  of 
particular  experiences,  and  that,  if  they  possess  an  ctcep- 
tional  certainty,  the  ground  of  this  is  to  be  sought  m  the 
character  of  the  experiences,  as  that  they  are  exceptionally 
simple,  frequent,  and  uniform.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
held  that  the  special  certainty,  amounting,  as  it  does,  to 
positive  necessity,  is  what  no  experience,  under  any  circum- 
stances, can  explain,  but  is  conditioned  by  the  nature  of 
human  reasorL  More  it  is  hardly  possible  to  assert  gene- 
rally concerning  the  position  of  the  rival  schools  of  thought, 
for  on  each  side  the  representative  thinkers  differ  greatly 
in  the  details  of  their  explanation,  and  there  is,  moreover, 
on  both  sides  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  scope  ol 
the  question.  Thus  Kant  would  hmit  the  application  ol 
the  name  axiom  to  principles  of  mathematical  ecicnce, 
denying  that  in  philosophy  (whether  metaphysical  or 
natural),  which  works  with  discursive  concepts,  not  wiib 
intuitions,  there  can  be  any  principles  immediately  certain  ; 
and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  to  mathematical  principles 
only  that  the  name  is  universally  accorded  in  the  language  of 
special  science — not  generally,  in  spite  of  Newton's  lead,  to 
the  kws  of  motion,  and  hardly  ever  to  scientific  principles  of 
more  special  range  like  the  atomic  theory.  Other  thinkers, 
however,  notably  Leibnitz,  lay  stress  on  the  ultimate  prin- 
ciples of  all  thinking  as  the  only  true  axioms,  and  would 


IGU 


A  X  I  0  IvI 


contend  ior  the  possibility  of  reducing  to  these  (n-ith  the 
heip  of  deCmtions)  the  special  principles  of  mathematics, 
commonly  allowed  to  pass  and  do  duty  as  axiomatic.  Still 
others  apply  the  name  equally  and  in  the  same  sense  to 
the  general  principles  of  thought  and  to  some  principles  of 
special  science.  In  view  of  such  differences  of  opinion  as 
to  the  actual  matter  in  question,  it  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  there  should  be  agreement  as  to  the  marks  character- 
istic of  axioms,  nor  surprising  that  agreement,  where  it 
appenrs  to  exist,  should  often  be  only  verbal  The  charac- 
ter of  necessity,  for  example,  so  much  relied  upon  for  ex- 
cluding the  possibility  of  an  experiential  origin,  may  either, 
03  by  Kant,  be  carefully  limited  to  that  which  can  be 
claimed  for  propositions  that  are  at  the  same  time  syn- 
thetic, or  may  be  vaguely  ♦.aken  (as  too  frequently  by 
Leibnitz)  to  cover  necessity  of  mere  logical  implication — 
the  necessity  of  analytic,  including  identical,  propositions — 
which  Kant  allowed  to  be  quite  consistent  with  origin  in 
experience.  The  question  being  so  perplexed,  no  other 
course  seems  open  than  to  try  to^determine  the  nature 
of  axioms  mainly  upon  such  instances  as  are,  at  least 
practically,  admitted  by  aU,  and  these  are  mathematical 
principles. 

That  propositions  •  with  an  exceptional  character  of 
certainty  are  assumed  in  mathematical  science  is  notorious ; 
that  such  propositions  must  be  assumed  as  principles  of  the 
science,  if  it  is  to  be  at  once  general  and  demonstrative,  is 
now  conceded  even  by  extreme  experientialists ;  while  it  is, 
farther,  universally  held  that  it  is  the  exceptional  character 
of  the  subject-matter  of  mathematics  that  renders  possible 
such  determinate  assumption.  What  the  actual  principles 
to  be  assumed  are,  has,  indeed,  always  been  more  or  less 
disputed  ;  but  this  is  a  point  of  secondary  importance,  since 
it  is  possible  from  different  sets  of  assumption  to  arrive  at 
results  practically  the  same.  The  particular  list  of  proposi- 
tions passing  current  in  modern  times  as  Euclid's" axioms, 
like  his  original  list  of  common  notions,  is  open  to  objection, 
not  so  much  for  mixing  up  assertions  not  equally  underira- 
tive  (as  the  ancient  critics  remarked),  but  fur  including 
two — the  8th  and  9th — which  are  unlike  all  the  others  in 
being  mere  definitions  (viz.,  of  equals  and  of  whole  or  part). 
Deing  intended  as  a  body  of  principles  of  geometry  in 
particular  within  the  general  science  of  mathematics,  the 
modern  list  is  not  open  to  exception  in  that  it  adds  to  the  pro- 
positions of  general  mathematical  import,  forming  Euclid's 
original  list,  others  specially  geometrical,  provided  the  addi- 
tions made  are  sufficient  for  the  purpose.  It  does,  in  any 
case,  contain  what  may  be  taken  as  good  representative  in- 
stances of  mathematical  axioms  both  general  and  special;  for 
example,  the  1st,  Things  equal  to  the  same  are  equal  to  one 
another,  applicable  to  all  quantity;  and  the  10th,  Two 
straight  lines  cannot  enclose  a  space,  specially  geometrical. 
(The  latter  has  been  regarded  by  some  writers  as  either  a 
mere  definition  of  straight  lines,  or  as  contained  by  direct 
implication  in  the  definition  ;  but  incorrectly.  If  it  is  held 
to  be  a  definition,  nothing  is  too  complex  to  be  so  called,  and 
the  very  meaning  of  a  definition  as  a  principle  of  science  is 
abandoned  ;  while,  if  it  is  held  to  be  a  logical  implication 
of  the  definition,  the  whole  science  of  geometry  may  as  well 
be  pronounced  a  congeries  of  analytic  propositions.  Whca 
straight  line  is  strictly  defined,  the  assertion  is  clearly  seen 
to  bo  synthetic.)  Now  of  such  propositions  as  the  two 
just  quoted  it  is  commonly  said  that  they  are  self-evident, 
that  they  are  seen  to  be  true  as  soon  aA  slated,  that  their 
opposites  are  inconceivable  ;  and  the  expressions  arc  not 
too  strong  as  deacriptivo  of  the  peculiar  certainty  pertaining 
to  tliem.  Nothing,  however,  is  thereby  settled  as  to  the' 
ground  of  the  certainty,  which  is  the  real  point  in  dispute 
between  the  experiential  and  rational  schools,  as  these 
La»e   become  determinatcly  opposed  since  the  time  and 


mainly  through  the  influence  of  Kant.  Such  axioms, 
according  to  Kant,  being  necessary  as  well  as  synthetic, 
cannot  be  got  from  experience,  but  depend  on  the  nature 
of  the  knowing  faculty ;  being  immediately  synthetic,  they 
are  not  thought  discursively  but  apprehended  by  way  of 
direct  intuition.  According  to  the  experientialists,  as 
represented  by  J.  S.  MiU,  they  are,  for  all  their  certainty, 
inductive  generalisations  from  particular  experiences  ;  only 
the  experiences  are  peculiar  (as  already  said)  in  being 
extremely  simple  and  unifoml,  while  the  experience  of 
space — MUl  does  not  urge  the  like  point  as  regards  number 
— is  farther  to  be  distinguished  from  common  physical 
experience  in  that  it  supplies  matter  for  induction  no  less 
in  the  imaginative  (representative)  than  in  the  presentative 
form.  Mill  thus  agrees  with  Kant  on  a  vital  point  in 
holding  the  axioms  to  be  synthetic  propositions,  but  takes 
little  cr  no  account  of  that  which,  in  Kant's  eyes,  is  their 
distinctive  characteristic — their  validity  as  universal  truths 
in  the  guise  of  direct  intuitions  or  singular  acts  of  percep- 
tion, presentative  or  re"presentative.  The  synthesis  of 
subject  and  predicate,  thus  universally  valid  though  imme- 
diately effected,  Kant  explains  by  supposing  the  singular 
presentation  or  representation  to  be  wholly  determined  from 
within  through  the  mind's  spontaneous  act,  instead  of  being 
received  as  sensible  experience  from  without  ;  to  speak 
more  precisely,  he  refers  the  apprehension  of  quantity, 
whether  continuous  or  discrete,  to  "  productive  imagina- 
tion," and  regards  it  always  as  a  pure  mental  construction. 
MUl,  who  supposes  all  experience  alike  to  be  passively 
received,  or,  at  aU  events,  makes  no  distinction  in  point  of 
original  apprehension  between  quantity  and  physical  quali- 
ties, fails  to  explain  what  must  be  allowed  as  the  specific 
character  of  mathematical  axioms.  Our  conviction  of  their 
truth  cannot  be  said  to  depend  upon  the  amount  of  support- 
ing experience,  for  increased  experience  (which  is  all  that 
Mill  secures  and  secures  only  for  figured  magnitude, 
without  psychological  reason  given)  does  not  make  it 
stronger ;  and,  if  they  are  conceded  on  being  merely 
stated,  which,  unless  they  are  held  to  be  analytic  proposi- 
tions, amounts  to  their  being  granted  upon  direct  inspection 
of  a  particular  case,  it  can  be  only  because  tho  case,  so 
decisive,  is  made  and  not  found — is  constituted  or  con- 
structed by  ourselves,  as  Kant  maintains,  with  the  guarantee 
for  uniformity  and  adequacy  which  direct  construction  alone 
gives.  StQl  it  does  not  therefore  follow  that  the  construc- 
tion whereby  synthesis  of  subject  and  predicate  is  directly 
made  is  of  the  nature  described  by  Kant — due  to  the 
activity  of  the  pure  ego,  opposed  to  the  very  notion  of 
sensible  experience,  and  absolutely  a  priori.  As  we  have 
a  natural  psychological  experience  of  sensations  passively 
received  through  bodily  organs,  we  also  have  what  is  not 
less  a  natural  psychological  experience  of  motor  acti\'ity 
exerted  through  the  muscular  system.  Only  by  muscular 
movements,  of  which  we  are  conscious  in  the  act  of  perform- 
ing them,  have  we  perception  of  objects  as  extended  and 
figured,  and  in  itself  the  activity  of  the  describing  and 
cucumscribing  movements  is  as  much  matter  of  experience 
as  is  the  accompanying  content  of  passive  sensation.  At 
the  same  time,  the  conditions  of  the  active  exertion  and  of 
the  passive  affection  are  profoundly  different.  While,  in 
objective  perception,  withiu  the  same  or  similar  movements, 
tho  content  of  passive  sensation  may  indefinitely  vary 
beyond  any  control  of  ours,  it  is  at  all  times  in  our  power 
to  describe  fo.'ms  by  actual  movement  with  or  without  a 
content  of  sensation,  still  more  by  represented  or  imagined 
movement.  Our  knowledge  of  the  physical  qualities 
of  objects  thus  becomes  a  reproduction  of  our  mani- 
fold sensible  cxporience,  as  this  in  its  Tariety  can 
alone  be  reproduced,  by  way  of  general  concepts  ; 
our  knowledge  of  their  mathematical  attributes   is,  first 


AXIOM 


161 


nnA  !ast,  an  act  of  conscious  proJucllon  or  construction. 
Ir  Sg  manifestly  so,  as  movement  actuiil  or  imaginary,  in 
iio  case  of  magnitude  or  continuous  quantity;  nor  is  it 
utberwise  in  the  case  of  number  or  discrete  quantity,  when 
the  units  are  objects  (points  or  anything  else)  standing  apart 
from  each  other  in  space.  When  the  units  are  not  objects 
presented  to  the  senses  or  represented  as  coeiistent  in 
space,  but  are  mere  subjective  occurrences  succee4ing  each 
other  in  time,  the  numerical  synthesis,  doubtless,  proceeds 
dilTerently,  but  it  is  still  an  act  of  construction,  dependent 
on  the  power  we  have  of  voluntarily  determining  the  flow 
of  subjective  consciousness.  Thus  acting  constructively  in 
uur  experience  both  of  number  and  form,  vre,  in  a  manner, 
Duki  the  ultimaty  relations  of  both  to  be  what  for  us  they 
must  be  in  all  circumstances,  and 'such  relations  when 
expressed  are  truly  axiomatic  in  every  sense  that  has  been 
ascribed  to  the  name. 

Beyond  the  mathematical  principles  which  may  be  thus 
accounted  for,  there  are,  as  was  before  remarked,  no  other 
principles  of  special  science  to  which  the  name  of  axiom 
is  uniformly  applied.  It  may  now  be  understood  why  the 
name  should  be  withheld  from  such  a  fundamental 
generalisation  as  the  atomic  theory  in  chemistry,  even 
when  we  have  become  so  familiar  with  the  facts  as  to  seem 
to  see  clearly  that  the  various  kinds  of  matter  must 
combine  with  each  other  regularly  in  definite  proportions: 
the  proposition  answers  to  no  intuition  or  direct  apprehen- 
sion. At  most  could  it  be  called  axiomatic  in  the  sense, 
of  course  applicable  to  mathematical  principles  also,  that 
it  is  assumed  as  true  in  the  boay  of  science  compacted  by 
means  of  it.  The  laws  of  motion,  however,  formulated  by 
Newton  as  principles  of  general  physics,  not  only  were 
called  by  him  axiomatic  in  this  latter  sense,  but  have  been 
given  out  by  others  since  his  time  as  propositions  intuitively 
certain  ;  aifd,  though  it  cannot  seriously  be  protended  that 
there  is  the  same  case  for  ascribing  to  them  the  character 
of  a  priori  truths,  there  must  be  some  reason  why  the  name 
of  axiom  in  the  full  sense  has  been  claimed  for  them  alone 
by  the  side  of  the  mathematical  principles.  The  a  priori 
charaotcr,  it  is  clear,  can  only  in  a  peculiar  sense  be  claimed 
for  truths  which  all  the  genius  of  the  ancients  failed  to 
grasp,  and  wliich  were  established  in  far  later  times  as 
inductions  from  actual  experiments;  Newton,  cerLainly, 
in  calling  them  axioms,  by  no  means  claimed  for  them 
aught  but  an  experiential  origin.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
must  bo  conceded  that  motion  as  an  experience  has  in  it  a 
character  of  simplicity,  like  that  belonging  to  number  and 
form,  consisting  mainly  in  a  clear  apprehension  of  the 
circumstances  under  which  the  phenomenon  varies,  while, 
again,  such  apprehension  is  conditioned  by  the  psychological 
nature  of  the  experience,  namely,  that  it  is  one  depending 
on  activity  of  our  own  which  we  can  control,  and  docs  not 
come  to  us  as  bare  passive  afTection  which  we  must  take 
as  wo  find  it.  Wo  do  in  truth  make  or  constitute  motion, 
as  we  construct  nuiuber  and  space  ;  moving,  as  we  please, 
without  external  occasion,  and,  when  apprehending  objective 
movements,  following  these  with  conscious  motions  of  our 
members.  Notwithstanding,  our  proper  motions  far  less 
adequately  correspond  to  the  reality  of  external  motions 
than  do  our  subjective  constructions  of  space  and  number 
answer  to  the  reality  of  things  figured  and  numbered. 
With  limited  store  of  nervcuis  energy  and  muscles  of  con- 
fined sweep,  wo  cannot  execute  at  all  such  .continued 
unvarying  movements  as  occur,  at  least  approximately,  in 
nature  ;  we  cannot,  by  any  such  combinations  of  movements 
as  we  are  able  to  make,  determine  beforehand  tho  result 
of  such  complex  motions  as  nature  in  endless  variety 
exhibits  ;  nor,  again,  can  wo  with  any  accuracy  appreciate 
'.he  relation  between  action  and  reaction  by  opposing  our 
.juscular  organs  to  one  another.     We  must  wait  long  upon 


experience  that  comes  to  us,  or  rather,  in  face  of  the 
objective  complexity  presented  by  nature,  sally  forth  to 
make  varied  experiments  with  moving  thing,-,  and  there- 
upon generalise,  before  anything  can  be  dctermmed  posi 
tively  respecting  motion.  This  is  precisely  what  'nquirers, 
until  about  the  time  of  Galileo,  were  by  no  means  content 
to  do,  and  they  had  accordingly  laws  of  motion  which  were, 
indeed,  devised  a  priori,  but  which  were  not  objectively 
true.  Since  the  time  of  Galileo  true,  or  at  least  effective, 
laws  of  motion  have  been  established  inductively,  like  all 
other  physical  laws ;  only  it  is  more  easy  than  in  the  case 
of  the  others,  which  are  less  simple,  to  come  near  to  an 
adequate  subjective  construction  of  them,  and  hence  the 
claim  sometimes  set  up  for  them  to  be  in  fact  a  prion  and 
In  the  full  sense  axiomatic. 

It  remains  to  inquire  in  what  sense  the  general  principles 
of  all  knowledge  or  principles  of  certitude  may  be  called, 
as  ihey  often  are  called,  axioms.  The  laws  of  Contradiction 
and  of  Excluded  Middle,  noted  though  not  named  by 
Aristotle,  together  with  that  formulated  as  tho  law  of 
Identity,  presupposed  as  they  arc  in  all  consistent  thinking, 
have,  with  a  character  of  widest  generality,  also  a  character 
of  extreme  simplicity,  and  may  fitly  be'denominated  axioms 
in  the  sense  of  immediate  principles.  They  stand,  however, 
as  pure  logical  principles,  apart  from  all  others,  being 
wholly  formal,  without  a  shade  of  material  content.  There 
can  be  no  question,  therefore,  of  their  certainty  being 
guaranteed  by  a  direct  intuition,  valid  for  all  cases  because 
fully  representative  of  all ;  as  little  does  there  appear  valid 
ground  for  calling  them,  in  the  proper  sense,  inductive 
generalisations  from  experience.  They  may  rather  be  held 
to  admit  only  of  the  kind  of  proof  that  Aristotle  calls 
dialectical  :  whoever  denies  them  will  find  that  he  cannot 
argue  at  all  or  bo  argued  with,  he  cuts  himself  off  from  all 
part  in  rational  discourse,  and  is  no  better,  as  Aristotle 
forcibly  expresses  it,  than  a  plant.  The  like  position  of 
being  postulated  as  tho  condition  of  making  progress 
belongs  to  tho  very  different  principle  or  principles  (which 
may,  however,  be  called  logical,  in  the  wider  sense)  implied 
in  the  establishment  of  truth  of  fact,  more  particularly  the 
inductive  investigation  of  nature.  Whether  expressed  in 
the  form  of  a  principle  of  Sufficient  Reason,  as  by  Leibnitz, 
or,  as  is  now  more  common,  in  the  form  of  a  principle  o( 
Uniformity  of  Nature,  with  or  without  a  pendant  principle 
of  Causality  for  tho  special  class  of  uniformities  of  succession, 
some  assumption  is  indispensable  for  kuitting  together  into 
genen;l  truths  the  discrete  and  particular  elements  o( 
experience.  Such  postidatcs  must  be  declared  to  have  an 
experiential  origin  rather  than  to  be  a  priori  principles, 
but  experience  may  more  truly  be  said  to  suggest  them  than 
to  be  their  ground  or  foundation,  since  they  arc  themselves 
the  ground,  express  or  implied,  of  all  ordered  experience. 
Their  case  is  perhaps  best  met  by  pronouncing  them 
hypothetical  principles,  and  as  there  are  no  axioms — not 
even  those  of  mathematics — that  are  thought  of  without 
reference  to  their  proved  efficiency  as  principles  leading 
to  definite  conclusions,  they  may  bo  called  axiomatic  on 
account  of  their  extreme  generality,  however  little  they 
possess  the  character  of  immediacy. 

The  name  axiom,  at  the  end  of  tho  inquiry,  is  tlius  left 
undeniably  equivocal,  and  it  clearly  behoves  those  who 
employ  it,  whether  in  philosophy  or  science,  always  to 
make  plain  in  what  sense  it  is  meant  to  bo  taken.  Before 
closing,  it  is,  perhaps,  necessary  to  add  why,  in  dealing 
with  the  question  of  origin,  no  account  has  been  taken 
of  tho  doctrine  of  evolution  which  has  become  so  promi- 
nent ill  tue  latest  scientific  and  philosophical  speculation. 
From  tho  point  of  view  of  the  present  article,  that  doo- 
trine  has  only  an  indirect  bearing  on  the  inquiry.  If 
the   conditions  of   cxperii^nce   as   they  ore  found  in  the 


162 


A  X  I\I  —  A  Y  h 


individual  suifice  to  wpUin  the  dilterent  assurance  with 
'Jrhich  general  assertions  are  made  in  different  de- 
jjartments  of  knowlege,  there  is  no  need  to  carry  the 
.  psychological  consideration  farther  back.  The  effect  of 
Such  difference  in  the  conditions  of  experience  may,  of 
course,  be  accumulated  in  the  life  of  the  race,  and  the 
accumulation  may  go  far  to  determine  the  psychological 
iistory  of  the  indiWdual,  but  the  question,  as  a  rational 
one,  must  be  decided  upon  analysis  of  the  conditions  as 
they  are.  (g.  c.  e.) 

F  AXillNSTER,  a  market-town  of  England,  in  the  county 
of  Devon,  147  miles  from  London,  and  24  from  Exeter. 
It  takes  its  name  from  the  Eiver  Axe,  on  which  it  stands. 
The  ancient  abbey-church,  qr  minster,  which  adorns  the 
centre  of  the  town^was  built  by  King  Athelstan  to  com- 
Tnemorate  a  victory  over  the  Danes.  The  town  was 
formerly  distinguished  for  its  production  of  the  best  and 
most  costly  description  of  carpets ;  and  it  stiU  manufac- 
tures broad  and  narrow  cloths,  cotton,  leather,  gloves,  tapes, 
end  druggets.  Dr  Buckland  was  a  native  of,  the  town. 
'?>pulation  of  the  parish  in  1871,  2861. 

AXUil,  an  ancient  city  of  Abyssinia,  85  miles  N.W. 
io'  Antalo,  still  remarkable  for  its  ruins.  It  was  for  a  long 
fetjae  the  capital  of  a  great  Shemitic  people,  who  extended 
:ti.3ir  sway  over  a  large  part  of  Abyssinia ;  and  the  language 
'cr  oksn  there  at  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
'has  continued  to  te  the  ecclesiastical  language  ever  since. 
."riie  chronicles  of  Abyssinia  were  preserved  in  the  church, 
and  are  frequently  referred  to  as  the  Books  of  Axum.  The 
fcost  interesting  of  the  monuments  still  extant  are  the 
vbelisk  and  the  so-called  coronation-room,  both  constructed 
of  granite,  and  the  latter  containing  some  valuable  bilingual 
Inscriptions.  In-  the  modern  town,  which  is  the  capital  of 
the  kjogdom  of  Tigr^,  the  weaving  of  cotton  and  manufac- 
ture of  parchment  are  carried  on.  (See  Sail's  Travels,  and 
Scbimper  in  Zeitsch.  der  Ges.  Erdh,  Berlin,  1869.) 

AYAMONTE,  a  fortified  city  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
jf  Huelva,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Guadiana,  about  2  miles 
from  its  mouth.  The  harbour  is  good,  but,  on  account  of 
I  bar  at  its  mouth,  it  is  of  difficult  entrance.  The  principal 
tmploymeat  of  the  inhabitants  is  afforded  by  the  fisheries, 
especially  for  sardines,  tunny,  cod,  and  horse-mackerel ; 
but  this  branch  of  industry  has  suffered  by  the  extension 
of  the  general  coasting  traffic.  Silk-weaving  is  carried  on. 
Ayamonte  is  said  to  have  had  in  the  IGth  century  16,000 
inhabitants.     Population,  5960. 

AYLESBURY,  a  market-town,  parliamentary  borough, 
and  railway  junction,  in  the  county  of  Buckingham,  39 
miles  N.W.  of  London.     It  stands  on  a  gentle  eminence  iu 
the  centre  of  -a  fertile  vale,  and  consists  of  several  streets 
and  lanes  irregularly  built,  but   well  paved  and  lighted. 
The  county-hall,  market-house,  and  county  gaol  arc  hand- 
some buOdings,  as  is  also  the  parish  church,  au  ancient 
structure  with  a  tower  rising  from  the  centre.     It  has  a 
free   grammar-school   (1011),    several    other   schools   and 
charities,  a  corn-exchango  (18G5),  three  banks,  a  savings 
bank,  an  infirmary  (1833),  a  union  workhouse,  and  places 
of  public  worship  for  Roman  Catholics,  Methodists,  Baptist.', 
Independents,  <kc.     It  returns  two  members  to  parliament. 
The  assizes  and  quarter  sessions  and  the  elections  of  mem- 
bers for  the  county  arc  held  here.    The  inhabitants  are  prin- 
cipally employed  in  the  manufacture  of  bonclace  and  straw- 
plaiting,  besides  the  rearing  of  ducks,  which  are  sent  in 
i%rge  quantities  to  the  London  market  at  Christmas.     A 
branch  canal,  six  miles  in  length,  connects  Aylesbury  with 
the  Grand  Junction  Canal,     i'opulation  of  parliamcntar}- 
borough  in  1871,  28,700. 

AYLESl'ORD,  a  village  of  England,  in  the  county 
^f  Kent,  3i  miles  from  M.iidstonc,  and  32  from  London. 
(t  stands  at  the  base  of  a  hill  on  the  right  bank  of  the 


Mcdway,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge  of  six' 
arches.  The  church  stands  on  au  ejimence  behind  the 
Tillage.  At  a  short  distance  to  the  W .  was  a  Carmelite 
friary,  founded  in  1240,  the  remains  of  which  now  form  a 
part  of  the  family  mansion  of  the  earl  of  Aylesford. 
The  vicinity  exhibits  several  remains  of  antiquity,  among 
which  is,  or  rather  was,  for  it  is"  grievously  destroyed,  a 
cromlech  called  Kit's  Coity  House,  about  a  mile  N.E.  from 
the  village.  This  is  supposed  by  Mr  Fergusson,  in  accord- 
ance with  tradition,  to  mark  the  burial-place  of  Catigern, 
who  was  slain  here  in  a  battle  between  .the  Britons'  and 
Saxons  in  455  a.d.  The  tomb'of  Horsa,  who  fell  in  the 
same  battle,  is  situated  at  Horsted,  about  2  miles  to  the  N. 
Near  Aylesford,  too,  are  other  remains,  known  as  the  Count- 
less Stones.     Population  of  parish  in  1871,  2100. 

A"iT.MER,  John,  Bishop  of  London  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  was  born  in  the  year  1521  at  Aylmer- 
hall,  in  the  parish  of  Tilney,  in  the  county  of  Norfolk. 
Whilst  a  boy,  he  v.as  noticed  for  his  precocity  by  the 
marquis  of  Dorset,  afterwards  duke  of  Suffolk,  ivho  sent 
him  to  the  university  of  Cambridge.  He  afterwards 
proceeded  to  O.xford,  where  he  completed  his  studies  and 
took  his  degree  in  divinity.  He  was  then  made  chajilain 
to  the  duke  and  tutor  to  his  daughter,  the  accomplished 
and  unfortunate  Lady  Jane  Grey,  -whose  extraordinary 
proficiency  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  reflects  no 
small  honour  on  her  preceptor.  His  first  preferment  was 
to  the  archdeaconry  of  Stow,  in  the  diocese  of  Lincoln, 
which  gave  him  a  seat  in  the  Convocation  held  in  the  first 
year  of  Queen  Mary,  where  he  resolutely  opposed  the 
return  to  Popery,  to  which  the  generality  of  the  clergy 
were  inclined.  He  was  soon  after  obliged  to  fly  hia 
country,  and  take  shelter  among  the  Protestants  in 
Switzerland.  While  there  he  wrote  a  reply  to  Knoi's 
famous  Blast  against  the  Monstrous  Eeijintait  of  Women, 
under  the  title  of  An  Uarborowe  for  FaithfuU  end  Trt-uf- 
Suhjects,  &C.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth  ha 
returned  to  England.  In  15G2  he  obtained  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Lincoln,  and  was  a  member  of  the  famous 
synod  of  that  year,  which  reformed  and  settled  the  doctrine 
and  discipline  of  tlie  Church  of  England.  In  157G  he  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  London,  and  while  in  that  position 
made  himself  notorious  by  the  harsh  manner  in  which  be 
insisted  on  the  Act  of  Uniformity.  His  persecution  of  the 
Puritans,  and  of  any  clergj'men  suspected  of  Puritanical 
leanings,  with  the  extreme  measures  he  used,  made  him 
unpopular  even  with  his  own  party.  He  is  frequently 
assailed  in  the  famous  Marprdate  Tracts,  and  is  char- 
acterised as  Morrdl,  the  bad  shepherd,  in  Spenser's 
Shcp/tcaj-Je's  CaUndar.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of 
harsh  and  -violent  temper,  coarse,  and  avaricious,  and  with 
few  redeeming  qualities.  He  is  said  to  have  been  an  able 
scholar,  but  he  has  left  nothing  which  could  prove  this. 
He  died  in  1694.  (Strype,  Life  and  Actions  of  John 
Ai/lmer,  Bishop  of  London.) 

AYR,  CouNTV  OF,  or  Avkshire,  a  Scottish  county, 
bounded  by  Wigtownshire  and  the  stcwartry  of  Kirkcud 
brighten  the  S.  ;  by  Kirkcudbright,  Dumfries,  and  Lanark 
on  the  E. ;  and  by  Renfrewshire  on  the  N.  On  the  W.  it 
has  a  coast  line  extending  to  70  miUs  on  the  Irish  Sea  and 
the  Firth  of  Clyde.  The  county  contains  1149  square 
miles,  or  735,202  acres.  The  middle  part,  which  is  the 
broadest,  is  about  26  miles  across.  There  are  six  rivers 
of  some  note  in  Ayrshire — Stinchar,  Girvan,  Doon,  Ayr, 
Irvine,  and  Garnock.  Of  these  the  A}t,  from  which  the 
county  and  county  town  take  their  name,  is  the  largest. 
It  rises  at  Glcnbuck,  on  the  border  of  Lanarkshire,  nnd, 
after  a  course  of  33  miles,  falls  into  the  Firth  of  Clydo 
at  the  county  town.  The  scenery  along  its  banks  from 
Soni  downwards— I'assing  Catrinc,  Ballochmyle,  Barakim- 


A  Y  U 


163 


ming,  Sundroin,  Auchencruive,  and  Ciaisio — isvariinl  and 
beautiful  The  lesser  streams  aro  aunierous ;  aud  there 
are  many  frcsli-water  lochs,  the  largest  of  which  is  Loch' 
Doon,  tho  source  of  the  river  Doon.  The  southern  and 
eastern  parts  of  the  county  are  hilly,  but  none  of  the 
jieaks  reaches  a  height  of  2000  feet.  In  former  times  the 
shire  was  diWded  into  three  districts — Carrick,  south  of  the 
Doon  ;  Kyle,  between  the  Doon  and  the  Irvine ;  aud  Cun- 
ningham,'north  of  the  Irvine.  Kyle,  again,  was  divided 
by  the  river  Ayr  into  King's  Kyle  on  the  south,  and  Kyle 
Stewart  on  the  north.  Tho  county  is  now  politically 
divided  into  south  and  north  Ayrshire.  The  former  com- 
prises Kyle  and  Carrick,  and  the  latter  Cunningham,  and 
each  division  returns  a  representative  to  Parliament.  The 
old  divisions,  however  are  still  popularly  retained.  The 
greater  part  of  Carrick  is  hilly,  and  lit  only  for  sheep-walks. 
The  uplands  of  Kyle  aro  also  extensive,  but  there  is  a 
larger  proportion  of  good  low-country  land  in  that  district. 
Cunningham  is  comparatively  level,  and  has  a  great  extent 
of  rich  land,  though  rather  hea\'y  in  its  character.  The 
scenery  is  not  grand  in  any  part  of  the  county,  but  much 
of  it  is  picturesque  and  beautiful.  From  many  of  the 
heights  a  rich,  undulating,  well-wooded  country  may  be 
seen,  with  the  Bay  of  Ayr,  or  tho  Firth  of  Clyde  beyond, 
and  the  lofty  peaks  of  Arran,  or  tho  Arg)-llshiro  hills,  in 
the  distance. 

There  has  been  no  lack  of  agricultural  enterprise  in  Ayr- 
sliire.  With  a  nvoist  climate,  and,  generally,  a  rather 
heavy  soil,  draining  was  necessary  for  the  successful  growth 
of  green  crops.  Up  till  1840,  or  a  few  years  later,  a  green 
crop  in  the  rotation  was  seldom  seen,  except  on  porous 
river-side  land,  or  on  the  lighter  farms  of  tho  lower  districts. 
In  the  early, part  of  the  century  lime  was  a  powerful 
auxiliary  in  the  inland  districts,  but,  with  repeated  applica- 
tions, it  gradually  became  of  little  avail.  Thorough  drain- 
ing gave  the  next  great  impulse  to  agriculture.  Enough 
bad  been  done  to  test  its  cllficacy  previous  to  the  announce- 
ment of  Sir  Robert  Peel's  drainage  loan,  after  which  it 
was  rapidly  extended  throughout  the  county.  Green-crop 
husbandry,  and  the  liberal  use  of  guano  and  other  auxiliary 
manures,  made  a  wonderful  change  on  tho  face  of  the 
county,  and  increased  immensely  tho  amount  of  agricultural 
produce.  Early  potatoes  are  now  extensively  grown  in  some 
localities.  The  farmers  on  the  coast  lands  of  Girvan  and 
West  Kilbride  are  first  in  the  market,  and  the  next  supplies 
come  from  the  friable  lands  about  Ayr  and  St  Quivox.  A 
considerable  extent  of  ground  is  cleared  in  June  for  the 
Glasgow  market;  and,  in  dropping  seasons,  good  crops  of 
turnip*  follow.  At  the  end  of  July  and  the  beginning  of 
August,  great  quantities  of  potatoes  are  sent  to  Newcastle, 
and  to  the  largo  towns  of  Lancashire  and  the  West  Riding. 
Tho  mild  climate  of  the  AjTshire  coast  in  spring  is  favour- 
able to  this  kiifd  of  cropping,  which  brings  quick  returns, 
and  on  tho  whole  is  profitable.  Carrots  and  mangolds  are 
cultivated  more  extensively  than  in  any  other  Scotch 
county,  and,  with  early  sowing  and  rich  manuring,  heavy 
crops  are  raised.  Wheat  generally  follows  green  crops  in 
the  lower  parts  of  tho  county,  though  barley  is  coming 
more  into  use  than  in  former  times  on  liglit  land.  The 
border  line  for  wheat  may  be  drawn  at  a  little  over  300 
feet ;  above  that  height  its  growth  is  exceptional.  The 
dairy  forms  an  important  department  of  farm  manage- 
ment in  Ayrshire.  Dunlop  cheese  was  a  well-known  pro- 
duct of  Ayrshire  dairies  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago.  Part 
of  it  was  very  good  ,  but  it  was  unequal  iu  its  general 
character,  and  unsaleable  in  English  markets.  Dissatisfied 
with  the  ioferior  commercial  value  of  their  cheese  iu  com- 
parison with  some  English  varieties,  the  Ayrshire  Agri- 
cultural Association  brought  a  Somerset  farmer  and  his 
wife  in    i8.'>'i   to  teach  the  Cheddar  method,   and  their 


effort  has  been  most  successful.  Cheddar  cheese  of  first 
rate  quality  is  now  made  in  Ayrshire  and  Galloway,  and 
tho  annual  cheese  show  at  Kilmarnock  is  the  most  im- 
portant in  tho  kingdom.  The  cheese  may  be  more 
thoroughly  fine  in  a  few  Somerset  dairies,  but  the  aver- 
age quality  of  Scotch  Cheddar  is  higher  than  the  English. 
This  great  change  of  an  industrial  art  has  brought  wealth 
to  the  county.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  it  lias 
added  £2  per  cow  to  the  annual  value  of  dairy  produce, 
and  there  are  45,000  cows  in  Ayrshire. 

The  manufactures  of  Ayrshire  have  attained  considerable 
importance.  The  cotton  works  at  Catrine  are  extensive, 
and  have  been  .a  long  time  established.  The  site  was 
chosen  with  the  view  of  utilising  the  water  pow  er  of  the  river 
Ayr,  and  steam  is  still  merely  an  auxiliary.  At  Kilmar- 
nock and  Ayr  there  are  extensive  engineering  establish- 
ments, and  large  carpet  works;  and  other  fabrics  aro 
manufactured  in  those  towns  and  at  Dairy,  Kilbiruie,  Beith, 
and  Stewarton.  Until  the  last  three  or  four  years,  Irvine 
was  a  back-going  place,  bufit  has  received  an  impulse  from 
the  erection  of  large  chemical  works.  Tho  situation  is  very 
suitable  for  chemical  manufactures,  as  the  soil  is  poor  and 
sandy,  and  the  liquid  refuse  of  chemical  works  is  easily 
carried  into  the  sea,  without  causing  the  nuisance  which  is 
inevitable  in  a  large  town.  The  Eglinton  Chemical  Com- 
pany are  most  extensive  manufacturers  of  bichromate  of 
potash — a  substance  which  is  used  at  dyeworks  as  an 
oxidising  agent;  and  another  company  is  largely  engaged 
iu  the  alkali  trade,  and  in  the  extraction  of  copper  from 
burnt  pyrites  ore.  On  the  coast,  between  Irvine  and 
Ardrossan,  works  have  been  erected  on  the  sandhills  for 
the  manufacture  of  dynamite,  which  is  now  well  known  a.i 
one  of  the  most  powerful  explosive  agents.  It  is  much 
used  for  blasting  under  water,  and  large  quantities  of  it 
are  sent  to  America  for  blowing  up  the  roots  of  trees  in 
tho  reclamation  of  land. 

The  iron  trade  of  Ayrshire  has  risen  to  great  import- 
ance. The  manufacture  has  long  been  carried  on  at  Muir- 
kirk,  although  the  iron  had  to  be  carted  long  distances  to 
Ayr  and  Glasgow  before  'the  introduction  of  railways. 
Immense  fields  of  ironstone  have  been  opened  up  within 
tho  last  quarter  of  a  century ;  and  there  are  now  33 
furnaces  in  blast  within  the  county,  producing  about 
330,000  tons  per  annum.  The  works  aro  all  connected 
with  tho  Gla.sgow  and  South-Western  Railway.  The 
whole  manufacture  of  ii~on  in  Ayrshire  is  in  tho  hands 
of  three  great  companies,  namely,  William  Baird  &  Com- 
pany, the  Dalmcllington  Iron  Company,  and  Merry  ic 
Cunningham.  Hematite  of  good  quality  is  raised  in  Sorn 
and  Muirkirk,  and  discoveries  of  it  have  been  made  in 
Carrick.  The  coal-fields  are  of  great  extent,  and  limestone 
exists  in  large  quantities.  A  valuable  whetstone  quarry  is 
worked  at  Bridge  of  Stair  on  the  Ayr. 

The  old  harbours  of  tho  county  were  at  .\jt,  Irvine,  and 
Saltcoats.  The  latter  is  now  neglected,  and  its  place  is 
supplied  by  the  more  important  harbour  of  Ardrossan.  The 
works  at  Ardrossan  wero  carried  through  by  the  private 
enterprise  of  the  last  two  carls  of  Eglinton.  They  wero 
begun  iu  the  early  part  of  this  century,  with  the  expecta- 
tion of  making  Ardrossan  an  important  shipping  port  for 
Glasgow,  in  connection  with  a  canal,  which,  however,  was 
never  carried  further  than  from  Glasgow  to  Johnstone. 
The  works  were  designed  by  Telford.  The  pier  was 
finished  in  1811,  and  tho  docks  were  completoJ  by  the 
late  earl.  The  harbour  of  Troon  was  likewise  the  work  of 
an  enterprising  noblemnn.  It  was  formed  by  the  late  duke 
of  Portland,  who  connected  it  with  Kilmarnock  by  a  rail 
way,  which  was  among  the  earliest  in  the  country.  Troon 
has  an  extensive  shipping  business,  as  the  outlet  for  the 
great  coal  fields  of  tho  Kilmarnock  district.    Acts  of  parlu»- 


164 


AYR 


ment  have  been  obtained,  which  sanction  harbour  improve- 
ments at  Irvine  and  Girvan,  and  a  large  wetdock  is  in 
course  of  formation  at  Ajrr.  The  docli  at  Ayr  is  important, 
as  Ayr  is  the  natural  outlet  for  the  great  coalfields  up  the 
river,  and  for  the  ironworks  at  Dalmellington,  Lugar,  and 
Muirkirk,  as  well  as  the  fields  which  are  being  developed 
on  the  railways,  called  the  Ayrshire  lines,  between  Cum- 
nock and  the  river  Doon. 

The  Glasgow,  Kilmarnock,  and  Ayr  Railway  was  parti- 
ally opened  in  1840,  and  soon  after  completed.  A  con- 
nection was  made  a  few  years  later  from  the  Ayr  lino  at 
Kilwinning  to  Ardrossan,  and  an  extension  from  Kilmar- 
nock to  Cumnock,  with  a  branch  to  Muirkirk.  Extensions 
followed  from  Cumnock  to  Dumfries  and  Carlisle,  and 
from  Ayr  to  Dalmellington,  and  to  Maybole  and  Girvan  ; 
and  the  Troon  Railway  was  acquired  from  the  duke  of 
Portland,  as  a  connecting  link  of  what  is  now  the  Glasgow 
and  South-Western  Railway  system.  Other  important 
branches  have  been  made,  and  a  trunk  line  is  now  in 
course  of  formation  between  Girvan  and  Stranraer,  which 
will  give  a  connection  between  Glasgow  and  Ayrshire  and 
the  north  of  Ireland  by  the  shortest  sea  passage.  Ayr- 
shire is  thus  well  supplied  with  railways. 

The  antiquities  of  Ayrshire  are  not  of  much  note.  There 
are  cairns  in  Galston,  Sorn,  and  other  localities  ;  a  road, 
supposed  to  be  a  work  of  the  Romans,  which  extended 
from  Ayr,  through  Dalrymple  and  Dalmellington,  towards 
the  Solway  ;  camps,  attributed  to  the  Norwegians  or 
Danes,  on  the  hills  of  Knockgeorgan  and  Dundonald  ;  and 
the  castles  of  Loch  Doon,  Turnberrj',  Dundonald,  Porten- 
cross,  Ardrossan,  ic.  There  are  interesting  remains  of 
the  celebrated  abbeys  of  Kilwinning  and  Crossraguel;  and 
the  ruins  of  the  little  church  of  Alloway,  amid  the  lovely 
scenery  near  the  birthplace  of  Burns,  have  become  more 
famous  from  their  associations  than  many  great  works  of 
architectural  genius. 

'ITie  rural  population  of  Ayrshire  is  decreasing,  but  the 
mining  population  has  increased,  and  the  towns  are  grow- 
ing.    At   the   last   census   there  were  27,132    inhabited 
houses,  and  the  population  reached  200,745.     The  county 
valuation  last  year  amounted  to  £1,178,183,  Ss.  lOd.,  being 
an    increase    of  more   than   £50,000   from    the   previous 
year.     The  amount  for  Kyle  was  £446,874,  18s.  5d. ;  for 
Cunningham,  £411, .104,   Is.  Gd. ;  for  Carrick,  £177,168, 
lOs.  3d. ;  for  the  burgh  of  Ayr,  £G3,273,  IGs.  6d. ;  for  Kil- 
marnock, £63,202,  193.;  and  for  Irvine,  £16,159,  Os.  2d. 
AvB,  the  capital  of  tho  above  county,  is  situated  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  and  about  40 
miles  S  S.W.  from  Glasgow      Tho  spot  has  probably  been 
inhabited   from  a  remote  antiquity.     Nothing,  however,  is 
known  of   its  history  till   the  close  of  the   13th  century, 
when  it  waa  made  a  royal  residence,  and  soon  afterwards 
a  royal   burgh,  by  WtUiam  the   Lioc.     The  charter  con- 
(emng  upon  it  the  latter  privilege  has  been  preserved,  of 
which  a  fac  smiilo  will  be  found  in  vol  i.  of  tho  National 
Manuscripts   of  Scotland.     During   the  wars  of  Scottish 
independence  tho  possession  of  Ayr  and   its  castlo  was, 
acc«rding  to-tr.adition,  an  object  of  importance  to  both  the 
-ontending   parties.       In   Blind    Harry's  Life  of  Wallace 
they  are  frequently  mentioned,  and  the  scene  is  laid  there 
of  one  of  the  patriot's  greatest  exploits ;  but  the  authen- 
ticity of    many  of   the   minstrel-historian's   statements   is 
more  than  doubtful.     On  better  authority,  the  records  of 
tho  burgh,  it  is  known  that  early  in  the  ICth  century  Ayr 
was  a   ;)lacc   of   considerable   influence  and  trade.     The 
bberalily  of  William  the  Lion  had  bestowed  upon  tho  cor- 
poration an  extensive  grant  of  lands  ;  while  in  addition  to 
the  well  endowed  church  of  St  John's,  it  had  two  monas- 
teri«!s,  each  possessed  of  a  fair  revenue.     When  Scotland 
was  overrun  by  Oliver  Cromwell,  Ayr  was  selected  a^  the 


site  of  one  of  those  forts  which  he  built  to  command  the 
country.     This   fortification,  termed  the  citadel,  enclosed 
an  area  of  ten  or  twelve  acres,  and  included  within  its 
limits  the  church  of  St  John's,  in  which  the  Scottish  Parba 
ment   on    one   occasion    met,  and    confirmed   the  title  ol 
Robert   Bruce  to  the  throne.     The  church  was  converted 
into  a  storehouse,   the  Protector  partly  indemnifying  tho 
inhabitants    for    this    seizure    by    liberally    contributing 
towards    the   erection    of   a    new  place  of   worship,   now 
known  as  the  Old  Church.     Ayr  proper  lies  on  the  south 
bank  of   the    river,  and   is  connected  with   Newton  and 
Wallacetown   on  the  north   by  two  bridges,  the  Old  and 
the  New,  the  "  Twa  Brigs"  of  Burns.     Of  lato  years  the 
town  has  extended  greatly  on  the  Ayr  side  of  the  stream. 
Nearly  the  whole  of  Cromwell's  Fort  is  now  covered  with 
houses,   and   to  the  south,  in   the   direction  of  the   race- 
course,   numerous    fine   villas    have   been    erected.      Ayr 
possesses  several   good  streets  and  a  number  of   ilcg.Tnt 
pubUc  and  other  edifices.     The  County  Buildings,  w!ii-h 
afford  accommodation  for  the  circuit  and  provincial  courts, 
as   well    as   for  the  various  local  authonties,  occupy  the 
west  side  of   Wellington  Square.     Contiguous  to  these  is 
the  jail,  a  well-regulated   establishment,  partly  used  as  a 
penitentiary.    The  Town's  Buildings,  near  the  New  Bridge, 
is  a  handsome  erection,  the  effect  of  which  is  somewhat 
impaired    by    the   lowness    of    the    site.     They   contain 
assem'oly  rooms  and  a  reading-room,  and  are  surmounted 
by  a  spire  217  feet  high,  designed  by  Hamilton,  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  considered  by  many  the  finest  in  the  west  of 
Scotland.     All   the  Edinburgh  and   Glasgow  banks  Lave 
branches  in  Ayr,  and  some  of  them  have  built  ornamental 
structures    for   their   accommodation.       Besides   th^    old 
church  abeady  mentioned,  there  is  another  parish  church 
called    the    New,  and  a  number  of   dissenting  places  of 
worship,  none  of  them,  however,  noteworthy  on  account  of 
their  architecture.     The  Academy,  a  large  building  in  a 
convenient    position,    includes,    or    has    superseded,    the 
Grammar  School  of  the  burgh,  the  existence  of  which  can 
be  traced  back  as  far  as  the  13th  century.     A  portion  of 
the  tower  of  St  John's  Church  still  remains,  but,  to  the 
regret  of  the  antiquary,  has  been  completely  modernised. 
The  "Wallace   Tower"   is   a   Gothic   structure    in  High 
Street,  erected  on  the  site  of  an  old  building  of  the  saino 
name  taken  down  in  1835.     A  niche  in  front  is  filled  by  a 
statue  of  the  Scottish  hero  by  Thorn,  a  self-taught  sculptor, 
who    executed   in    a  much    more    successful    manner   the 
statues  of  Tam  o'  Shantcr  and  Sootier  Johnnie,  now  in 
the  grounds  of  Burns'  Monument.    Ayr  Hosi>ital  is  a  plain 
but    substantial    erection    near    the    Townhcad    railway 
station.     There  are  two  subscription  libraries  in  the  town, 
and  it  also  supports  one  weekly  and  one  bi-weekly  news- 
paper.    Its  religious  and  charitable  societies  are  numerous. 
A  market  is  held  every  Tuesday,  and  there  are  five  yearly 
fairs.     The  Western  Meeting  takes  place  in  September  nf 
every  year  on  Ayr  racecourse,  a   largo  enclosure   in  the 
suburbs,  which  has  been  re.scrved  for  this  [mrpose  for  more 
than  a  century.     Alloway  Kirk  and  Burns'  Monument  arc 
distant  2J  miles.     The  principal  manufactures  of  Ayr  tre 
le.-vthcr,   caqiets,  woollen    goods,  A-c.  ;    and   fisheries   and 
shipbuilding  aro  also  carried  on  to  a  small  extent.     There 
are  several  foundries  and  engineering  establishments.    Ayr 
has  a  general  trade  of  considoniHc  value.     Large  quan- 
tities  of   timber   are    imported    from    Canada   and    from 
Norway;  coal  and  iron  are  the  chief  exports.     The  har- 
bour occupies  both  sides  of  the  river  from  the  New  Bridge 
to  the  sea,  and  has  boon  built  at  a  very  considerable  ex- 
pense   in   a   most   substantial   manner.     Tho  south   pier 
projects  some  distanc^^  into  the  sea  ;  on  tho  north  side  is  a 
large  breakwater  protecting  the  entrance,  and  on  the  north 
piof  arc  three  lights,  two  bright  and  one  red  from  12  to 


AYR-    A  Y  T 


16r> 


3^  f 'et  above  hi^h  >•■■•-  The  depth  of  water  at  the 
Uif  13  abnut  H  feet  ai  ne-p  and  IG  at  spring  tides.  Ex- 
teosive  doolis  arc  i  the  course  of  formation,  which  are  ex- 
pect'^d  to  increasi;  largely  the  importance  of  the  place  as  a 
seapurt.  Railways  converge  upon  Ayr  from  the  north,  east, 
and  south,  opening  up  a  connection  (vith  all  parts  of  the 
country.  The  burgh  unites  with  Irvine,  Inveraray,  Campbel- 
town, and  Oban  in  returning  a  member  to  Parliament.  Pre- 
vious to  1873,  its  municipal  boundary  on  the  north  was  the 
river,  but  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  obtained  in  that  year 
by  which  this  boundary  was  extended  so  as  to  include 
NeivtononAjT  and  Waliacetown,  and  made  the  same  as 
that  of  the  parliamentary  burgh.  The  corporation  of  Ayr 
consists  of  a  provost  and  four  bailies,  and  twelve  town 
councillors.  In  1871  the  population  of  the  extended  burgh 
was  17,851.  Though  thus  conjoined  vfith  Ayr  for  the 
parliamentary  franchise  and  municipal  government,  and 
forming  with  it  in  reality  but  one  town,  Newton  and 
WallaCetown  were  formerly  each  quite  separate.  The  for- 
mer is  a  burgh  or  barony  of  very  ancient  erection.  The 
original  charter  has  been  lost ;  but  it  is  traditionally  said 
to  have  been  granted  by  King  Robert  the  Bruce  in  favour 
of  forty-eight  of  the  inhabitants  who  had  distinguished 
themselves  at  Bannockburn.  Bo  this  as  it  may,  the  com- 
mon property  of  the  burgh  is  held  to  bo  the  exclusive 
p/operty  of  the  freemen,  forty  eight  in  number.  The 
extent  of  tho  lots  possessed  by  each'  varies  from  six  to  ten 
acres,  and  their  value  is  considerable.  Newton  has  a 
council,  consisting  of  two  bailies,  a  treasurer,  and  six  coun- 
cillors, aniiaaily  elected  by  the  freemen  from  among  their 
own  number; but  the  powers  of  the  council, though  originally 
extensive,  ara  now  very  limited.  Waliacetown  is  quoad 
eivilia  a  part  of  the  neighbouring  parish  of  St  Quivox. 
About  two  mUes  east  of  Newton  is  the  village  of  Prest- 
Tvick,  the  headquarters  of  one  of  the  most  flourishing  golf 
clubs  in  Scotland. 

AYKER,  Jacob,  one  of  the  earliest  dramatists  of  Ger- 
many, was  born  in  1560,  probably  at  Nuremberg, — at  least 
he  resided  there  when  a  mere  boy.  His  first  occupation 
was  keeping  an  iron-store,  which  he  did  with  considerable 
success.  After  studying  law  for  some  time  at  Bamberg, 
where  he  attained  a  good  position  as  a  lawyer,  he_ returned 
to  Nuremberg,  and  continued  to  practise  there,  acquiring 
the  freedom  of  the  city  in  1594,  and  ultimately  becoming 
an  imperial  notary.  He  died  2Cth  March  1605.  Ayrcr's 
works  consist  of  numerous  small  poems,  and  of  the  series 
of  dramas  on  which  his  fame  rests.  Like  other  dramas 
of  the  time,  his  productions  are,  for  the  most  part,  spec- 
tacular displays,  with  laboured  dialogue,  and  vary  in 
length  from  five  to  twenty-eight  acts.  The  plots  are 
plainly  taken  from  the  Latin  and  Italian  tales  which 
eupplied  material  to  nearly  all  the  early  European  drama- 
tists. The  chief  interest  of  Ayrer's  works  for  English 
readers  arise  from  their  connection  with  Shakespeare. 
Ayrer  adopted  several  of  Shakespeare's  plots,  as  well 
S3  Lis  method  of  representing  the  characters  on  the 
stage  after  life,  "and  so  produced,"  says  his  editor, 
"according  to  the  new  English  manner  and  art,  that  all 
can  be  personally  acted  and  placed  so  that  it  shall  seem 
to  the  spectators  to  bo  really  happening."  In  Ayrer's 
time  the  dramatic  spiritO"  England  was  strong,  and  good 
plays  and  players  abounded.  Some  of  the  latter  took 
circuits  through  Germany,  and  though  performing  in  their 
native  tongue,  excited  enthusiasm  by  their  vivacity. 
A)Ter  caught  this  enthusiasm,  and  adapted  several  of  the 
English  dramas  to  the  German  stage.  The  Opuj  Thfatri- 
cum,  in  one  folio  volume  of  12G2  pages,  was  published 
posthumously  in  1618.  It  contained  thirty  plays  and 
thirty-six  carnival  inttrludes.  A  second  volume  to  contain 
forty  more,  though  promised,  did  not  appear.      Of    the 


comedies  and  trag'^dies  of  Ayrer,  sLx  have  been  reproduced 
with  an  English  translation  in  Cohn's  Shake^pfare  m 
Germany,  These  contain  respectively  plots  resembling 
The  Tempest,  Much  Ado  about  Nothing,  The  Two  Gentle- 
men  of  Verona,  Tiiui  And) onicus,  Romeo  and  Juliet,  and 
UamUt.  In  1601,  a  comic  prose  work  by  Ayrer  was 
published,  giving  an  account  of  an  Imaginary  Suit  oj 
the  Devil  affair.st  Jesus  Christ  for  DfMroying  Hell.  Soma 
of  his  plays  were  published  prior  to  1535,  but  these  are 
not  now  to  be  had,  and  even  the  folio  of  1618  is  extremely 
rare.  Further  informatior  -'bout  Ayrer  may  be  gained 
from  Tieck's  Deulsches  Theater,  vol.  i.  ;  Wolff's  Encyc.  der 
Deulschen  Xalionallileralur,  vol.  i. ;  Cohn's  Shakespcan 
in  Germany  ;  Dr  Bell's  Shakespeare's  Puck,  and  his  Folic- 
lore;  Dr  Latham's  Tift  Dissertations  on,  "  Hamlet ;"  W.  J. 
Thorn's  Three  Kotehls  on  Shakespeare.  .     .     . 

AYTON,  Sir  Robert  (1570-1633),  a  Scottish  lyrical 
poet,  the  second  son  of  Andrew  Ayton  of  Kinaldie  in  Fife- 
shire,  was  educated  at  the  University  of  St  Andrews,  and 
seems  afterwards  to  have  resided  for  several  years  in 
France,  where  he  gained  considerable  reputation  as  a  poet 
and  scholar.  On  the  accession  of  James  VI.  in  1603,' 
Ayton  published  a  very  elegant  Latin  panegj'ric,  which  at 
ofice  brought  him  into  notice  and  favour  at  court.  He  was 
knighted  by  the  king,  and  held  various  important  otfices, 
particularly  that  of  private  secretary  to  the  queen.  He 
was  of  an  exceedingly  amiable  disposition,  and  was  much 
beloved  by  his  contemporaries ;  even  Ben  Jonson,  who 
criticised  all  other  poets  so  severely,  seems  to  have  ir.ada 
an  exception  in  his  favour,  for  he  told  Drummond  that  Sir 
Robert  loved  him  dearly.  Ayton's  extant  works  consist  of 
some  Latin  poems,  and  of  a  few  pieces  in  the  English 
dialect,  which  are  distinguished  by  smoothness  of  rhythm 
and  delicacy  of  fancy.  His  best  ode,  Liconstancy  ReprovfJ, 
beginning,  "I  do  confers  thou'rt  smooth  and  fair,"  mr\y 
take  rank  with  the  finest  pieces  of  Herrick  or  Suckling, 
while  a  few  others  are  but  little  inferior.  His  poems  have 
been  collected  and  published  by  C.  l.'ogers  (lidin.  18-44). 

AYTOUN,  William  Edmonstocse,  a  Scottish  poet, 
humourist,  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  at  Edin- 
burgh, 21st  June  1813.  He  was  the  only  son  of  Roger 
Aytoun,  a  writer  to  the  Signet,  and  the  family  was  of 
the  same  stock  as  Sir  Robert  Ayton  noticed  above.  From 
his  mother,  a  woman  of  marked  originality  of  character  and 
considerable  culture,  he  derived  his  distinctive  quilities, 
his  early  tastes  in  literature,  and  his  political  symj'athics, 
his  love  for  ballad  poetry,  and  his 'admiration  for  the 
Stuarts.  At  the  age  of  eleven  he  was  sent  to  the  Edin- 
burgh Academy,  whence  he  passed  in  due  time  to  the 
University,  studied  the  classics  under  Professors  Pdlans  and 
Dunbar,  and  Rttcnded  the  course  of  Professor  John  Wilson 
on  Moral  Philosophy.  In  1833  he  spent  a  few  months  in 
London  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  law  ;  but  in 
September  of  that  year  be  went  to  study  German  at 
Aschuffenburg,  where  he  remained  till  April  1834.  Ha 
then  resumed  his  legal  pursuits  in  his  father's  chambers, 
was  admitted  a  writer  to  tho  Signet  in  1835,  and  five  years 
later  was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar.  But,  by  his  own 
confession,  though  he  "  followed  the  law,  he  never  could 
rrertako  it."  He  disliked  his  profession,  and  aliow<>d  iiis 
literary  tastes  to  predominate.  His  first  publication — :» 
volume  entitled  Poland,  Homer,  and  other  J''oems,  in 
which  he  gave  expression  to  his  eager  interest  in  the  stale 
of  Poland — appeared  in  1832.  While  in  Germany  1  • 
made  a  translation  in  blank  verse  of  the  first  part  of 
Faust ;  but,  forestalled  by  other  translations,  it  was  never 
published.  In  1836  he  made  his  earliest  contributions  to 
Blackwood's  Magazine,  in  translations  from  Uhland  ;  a.i<' 
from  1839  till  his  death  he  remained  on  the  staff  of  DUi-l- 
uood.     About  1811  he  became  acquainted  with  Mr  Thev 


16(j 


A  Z  A  —  A  Z  A 


dore  Martin,  an(3  in  association  with  him  wrote  a  series  of 
ii^bt  humorous  papers  on  the  tastes  and  follies  of  the  day, 
in  which  were  interspersed  the  verses  which  afterwards 
became  popular  as  the  Bon  Guattier  Ballads.  The  work 
on  which  his  reputation  as  a  poet  chiefly  rests  is  the  Lays 
of  the  Scottish  Cavaliers.  The  first  of  these  appeared  in 
Blackwood's  Magazine  in  April  1843,  and  the  whole  were 
published  in  i.  collected  edition  in  1848.  They  became 
very  popular,  and  have  passed  through  nineteen  editions, 
the  last  of  which  has  spirited  and  beautiful  illustrations 
by  Sir  J.  Noel  Pa'.on  and  W.  H,  Paton.  Meanwhile,  he 
obtained,  in  1845,  the  chair  of  Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres 
at  Edinburgh  University,  which  he  filled  honourably  and 
successfully  till  1864.  He  devoted  himself  conscientiously 
to  the  duties  of  the  office,  and  his  pupils  increased  in 
number  from  30  to  150.  In  1349  he  married  the  youngest 
daughter  of  Professor  John  Wilson  (Christopher  North), 
whose  death,  in  1859,  was  the  great  calamity  of  his  life. 
His  services  in  support  of  the  Tory  party,  especially  during 
the  Anti-Corn  Law  struggle,  received  official  recognition 
in  his  appointment  (1852)  as  sheriff  of  Orkney  and  Zetland. 
In  1854  appeared  Firmilian,  a  Spasmodic  Tragedy,  in 
which  he  attacked  and  parodied  the  writings  of  Bailey, 
Sydney  Dobell,  and  Alexander  Smith  ;  and  two  years  later 
he  published  his  Bothivelt,  a  Poem.  Among  his  other 
literary  works  are  a  Collection  of  the  Ballads  of  Scotland, 
a  translation  of  the  Poems  and  Ballads  oj  Goethe,  executed 
in  co-operation  with  his  friend  Theodore  Martin,  a  small 
volume  on  the  Life  and  Times  of  Richard  /,,  written  for 
the  Family  Library,  and  a  novel  entitled  Norman  Sinclair, 
many  of  the  details  in  which  are  taken  from  incidents  in 
his  own  experience.  In  1860  Aytoun  was  elected  honorary 
president  of  the  Associated  Societies  of  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity. The  death  of  his  mother  took  place  in  November 
1861,  and  his  own  health  was  failing.  In  December  1863 
he  married  Miss  Kinnear,  and  health  and  happiness  for  a 
time  revived  ;  but  his  malady  recurred,  and  he  died  at 
Blackbills,  near  Elgin,  4th  August  1865.  His  remains 
were  interred  at  Edinburgh.  A  memoir  of  Aytoun  by 
Theodore  Martin,  with  an  appendix  containing  some  of  his 
prose  essays,  was  published  in  1867.  (w.  L.  K.  c.) 

AZAIS,  Pierre  Htacintqe,  a  brilliant  French  writer 
on  philosophy,  was  born  at  Sorrfeze  in  1766,  and  died  at 
Paris  in  1845.  He  was  educated  at  the  college  in  his 
native  town  ;  and  at  the  age  of  17  joined  a  religious  body 
with  the  view  of  afterwards  entering  the  church.  He 
remained  only  a  year  in  this  society,  and  then  accepted  an 
appointment  as  teacher  in  the  college  at  Tarbes.  The 
duties  »t  this  otEce  proved  most  uncongenial  to  him,  and 
he  gladly  entered  the  service  of  the  bishop  of  Ol^ron,  to 
whom  he  acted  as  secretary.  With  this,  too,  he  quickly 
became  dissatisfied,  cither  on  account  of  the  bishop's 
reiterated  desire  that  be  should  take  orders,  or  from  the 
many  petty  annoyances  incident  to  his  post.  He  with- 
drew to  the  little  village  of  Villemagnc,  jiear  Bezicrs, 
where  he  supported  himself  by  performing  the  duties  of 
organist  in  the  church.  He  afterwards  acted  as  tutor  to 
the  Count  do  Bosc's  sons,  with  whom  he  romained  till  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution.  Azais,  at  first  an  ardent 
admirer  of  ttiat  great  movement,  was  struck  with  dismay 
at  the  atrocities  that  were  perpetrated,  and  published  a 
vehement  pamphlet  on  the  subject.  He  was  denounced, 
and  had  to  seek  safely  in  flight.  For  eighteen  months  ho 
found  refuge  in  the  hospital  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  at 
Tarbes;  and  it  was  not  till  1806  that  he  was  able  to  settle 
io  Paria.  There,  three  years  later,  he  published  his  treatise 
Da  Compensations  dans  let  Destinies  Ilumaines,  in  which 
ho  sought  to  show  that  happiness  and  misery  were  fairly 
balanced  in  this  world,  and  that  consequently  it  was  the 
duty  of  citizcuB  to  submit  quietly  to  a  fixed  goi'erument. 


This  doctrine  was  not  displeasing  to  Napoleon,  who  mada 
its  author  professor  at  St  Cyr.  Aiter  the  removal  of  t'jat 
college,  he  obtained,  in  1811,  the  post  of  inspector  of  the 
public  library  at  Avignon,  and  from  1812  to  1815  he  held 
a  similar  office  at  Nancy.  His  preference  for  the  Bonaparte 
dynasty  naturally  operated  in  his  disfavour  at  the  Restora- 
tion ;  but  after  suffering  considerable  privation  for  some 
years,  he  obtained  a  government  pension,  which  placed 
him  beyond  the  reach  of  want.  He  employed  the  remain- 
ing years  of  his  life  in  oral  and  published  expositions  of 
his  system  of  philosophy. 

According  to  Azais,  the  whole  of  existence,  the  universe, 
whose  cause  is  God,  may  be  regarded  as  the  product  of 
two  factors.  Matter  and  Force.  Matter  in  its  primitive 
state  consists  of  homogeneous  elements  or  atoms.  All 
force  is  in  its  nature  expansive,  and  is,  therefore,  subject 
to  one  supreme  law,  that  of  equilibrium,  or  eqaivalence  of 
action  and  reaction  ;  for  evidently  expansive  force  emanat- 
ing from  each  body  is  repressive  force  acting  on  all  other 
bodies.  The  whole  of  the  phenomena  of  the  universe  are 
successive  stages  in  the  development  caused  by  the  action 
of  this  one  force  under  its  one  law  on  the  primitive  atoms; 
and  in  tracing  this  development  we  must  group  facts  into 
three  distinct  orders, — first,  the  physical;  second,  the 
physiological ,  third,  the  intellectual,  moral,  aud  pohtical. 
In  the  sphere  of  physical  phenomena,  distinct  development 
can  be  traced  from  the  simplest  mechanical  motion  up 
through  the  more  complex  forces  of  light,  heat,  and  elec 
tricity  to  the  power  of  magnetic  attraction,  by  means  ol 
which  the  second  great  order  of  facts  is  produced  out  of  the 
first.  For  magnetic  force  acting  on  elastic  bodies,  -which 
as  reactive  have  potential  life,  creates  the  primitive  living 
globule,  which  is  shaped  like  a  tube  open  at  both  ends. 
From  this  first  vital  element  a  gradual  ascent  can  be  traced, 
culminating  in  man,  who  is  differentiated  from  the  ether 
animals  by  the  possession  of  intellect,  or  consciousness  ol 
the  ideas  with  which  external  things  impress  him.  These 
ideas,  however,  are  in  themselves  corporeal  ;  what  is 
immaterial  in  man,  or  his  soul,  is  the  expansive  force 
inherent  in  him.  Moral  and  pohtical  phenomena  are  the 
results  of  two  primitive  instincts,  progress  and  self-con- 
servation, corresponding  to  the  two  forces,  expansion  and 
repression.  From  the  reciprocal  relations  of  these  instincts 
may  be  deduced  the  necessary  conditions  of  social  and 
political  life.  The  ultimate  goal  of  humanity  is  the  perfect 
fulfilment  of  the  law  of  equilibrium,  the  establishment  of 
universal  harmony.  When  that  is  accomplished,  the 
destiny  of  man  has  been  achieved,  and  he  will  vanish  from 
this  earth.  Such  s  consummation  may  be  looked  for  in 
about  7000  years.  During  an  additional  period  of  0000 
years  the  great  cosmical  forces  will  be  gradually  tending 
towards  the  establishment  of  complete  equilibrium  ;  and, 
when  this  is  attained,  the  present  system  of  things  is  at 
an  end. 

The  chief  works  of  Azoia,  besides  the  Compensations,  aru-  Si/slime 
Universel,  8  vols.  1812  ;  llu  Sort  de  Vhomme,  3  vols.  1820  ;  Court 
de  fliilosophie,  8  vols.  1824  ;  Explication  VniverstUe,  S  vols 
1820-8  ;  y«JiMS<,  Maturill,  Religion,  Philosophie,  1837  ;  Kc  /o 
I'hrenOlogie,  du  Alagwlisme,  et  de  la  Folie,  1843. 

AZARA,  Don  Fei.ix  de,  a  Spftn.ish  naturalist,  was  born 
18th  May  1740,  and  died  in  1811.  He  studied  first  at  the 
university  of  Huesca,  and  afterwards  at  the  military  aca^ 
demy  of  Barcelona.  In  1764  he  entered  the  army  a^  a 
cadet,  and  in  1767  obtained  an  ensigncy  in  the  engineer 
corps.  In  1781  he  was  appointed,  with  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-colouel  of  engineers  and  captain  in  t!ie  navy,  oo 
a  commission  to  lay  down  the  lino  of  demarcation  between 
the  Spanish  and  the  Portuguese  territories  in  South 
America.  There  ho  spent  many  years,  observing  ai:d 
collecting  specimens  of  the  various  interesting  objects  of 


A  Z  A  —  A  Z  E 


1G7 


oatural  history  that  abound  in  those  wide  and  little-knowo 
regions.  In  1801  he  obtained  leave  to  return  to  Spain, 
and  after  a  short  residence  at  Paris,  waa  appointed  a 
member  of  the  Junta  de  fortificaciona  y  dtfensa  de  Ambos 
India!,  a  public  board,  in  which  chiefly  was  centred  the 
home  government  of  the  Spanish  colonies.  His  principoJ 
work  is  his  Travels  in  South  America  from  1781  to  1801  ; 
published  in  French  from  the  author's  MS.,  by  C.  A. 
Walckenaer,  with  atlas  and  plates,  4  vols.  8vo,  Paris, 
1809.  It  contains  a  valuable  account  of  the  discovery, 
conqnest,  and  civil  and  natural  histoiy  of  Paraguay  and  Rio 
de  la  Plata ;  and  embodies  his  former  contributions  to  the 
toology  of  these  countries,  which  had  appeared  in  a  French 
translation  at  Paris  in  1801.  The  work,  is  enriched  with 
the  notes  of  Walckenaer  and  Cuvier,  and  a  notice  of  the 
author  by  the  former.  An  English  translation  of  part  of 
Azara's  work  on  the  Natural  History  of  Paraguay  appeared 
at  Edinburgh  in  1838. 

AZ.4.RA,  Don  Joss  Nicbolas  d',  the  elder  brother  of 
the  naturalist,  born  in  1731,  was  appointed  in  17C5  Spanish 
agent  and  procurator-general,  and  in  1785,  ambassador  at 
Rome.  During  his  long  residence  there  he  distinguished 
himself  as  a  coUector  of  Italian  antiquities  and  as  a  patron 
of  art  Be  was  also  an  able  and  active  diplomatist,  took 
a  leading  share  in  the  difficult  and  hazardous  task  of  the 
eipulsioh  of  the  Jesuits  from  Spain,  and  was  instrumental 
iQ  securing  the  election  of  Pius  VI.  He  withdrew  to 
Florence  when  the  French  took  possession  of  Rome  in 
1793.  He  was  afterwards  Spanish  ambassador  at  Paris; 
was  three  times  deprived  of,  and  restored  to  his  office;  and 
was  finally  preparing  to  return  to  his  antiquarian  studies 
la  Italy  when  he  was  seized  with  a  fatal  illness,  and  died 
at  Paris  in  January  1804. 

AZEGLIO,  Massimo  TAP.utELLi,' Marquis  d',  an  emi- 
nent Italian  author  and  statesman,  was  born  in  October 
1798,  at  Turin.  He  was  descended  from  an  ancient  and 
Doble  family  of  Piedmont,  and  was  the  son  of  a  military 
oiScer,  who,  when  the  subject  of  this  notice  was  in  his 
fifteenth  year,  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Rome.  The 
boy  went  with  him,  and,  being  thus  introduced  to  the  mag- 
niBcent  works  of  art  for  which  the  Eternal  City  is  famous, 
contracted  a  love  for  painting,  as  well  as  for  music.  He 
desired  to  become  a  painter,  and,  although  his  studies  were 
for  a  time  interrupted  by  his  receiving  a  commission  in  a 
Piedmontese  cavalry  regiment,  and  by  a  subsequent  illness, 
brought  on  by  the  severity  of  his  scientific  investigations 
end  resulting  in  his  quitting  the  service,  he  eventually 
returned  to  Rome,  and,  with  some  difficulty,  obtained  his 
father's  permission  to  devote  himself  to  art  He  remained 
»t  the  Papal  capital  eight  years,  and  acquired  great  skill 
and  some  fame  as  a  landscape-painter  At  the  close  of 
that  period  events  directed  his  nund  into  other  channels. 
His  father  died  in  1830,  and  the  younger  Azeglio  then 
removed  to  Milan,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
.\le3sandro  Manzoni,  the  poet  and  novelist,  whose  daughter 
h>)  married.  In  this  way  his  thoughts  were  turned 
'..iwards  literature  and  politics.  At  that  time,  Italy  was 
irofoundly  agitated  by  the  views  of  the  national  and 
liberal  party  The  country  was  divided  into  several  distinct 
ilates,  of  which  the  greater  number,  even  of  those  that 
were  nominally  independent,  were  under  the  influence  of 
Austria.  Lombardy  and  Venetia  formed  parts  of  the 
Austrian  dominions  The  petty  monarchies  of  the  north 
were  little  better  than  vassals  to  the  house  of  Uaps- 
burg ,  tho  Papacy,  in  the  centre,  was  opposed  to  all 
national  itspirations ;  and  the  kingdom  of  tho  Two 
Sicilies,  in  the  south,  was  a  despotism,  which  for  cruelty 
tnd  mental  darkness  could  not  have  been  exceeded  in 
•Vsia   itself.     The   French  revolution  bf  July   1830  gave 

'.ditional  force  to  tho  movements  cf  the  Italian  liberal 


party,  and  the  young  men  of  the  day  threw  then.selveu 
with  fervour  into  the  crusade  against  old  abuses  and  foreign 
domination.  Mazzini  was  just  beginning  bis  career  as  au 
agitator,  and  the  whole  air  was  surcharged  with  revolu- 
tionary enthusiasm.  This  was  especially  the  case  in  the 
north  of  Italy,  ^where  Massimo  d' Azeglio  was  now  settled. 
Art  was  abandoned  by  him  for  literature,  and  hterature 
was  practised  with  a  view  to  stimulating  the  sense  of 
national  independence  and  unity.  In  1833,  M  d'Azeglio 
published  a  novel  called  Ettore  Fieramoaca,  which  was 
followed  in  1841  by  another,  entitled  Niccolo  di  Lapi. 
Both  had  a  political  tendency,  and,  between  the  two  d^tes 
at  which  they  appeared,  M.  d'Azeglio  visited  various  parts 
of  Italy,di3'using  those  liberal  principles  which  be  saw  were 
the  only  hope  of  the  future.  His  views,  however,  were 
very  different  from  those  of  tho  republican  party.  He  was 
a  constitutional  monarchist,  and  strong!;  apposed  to  the 
insurrections  and  secret  conspiracies  which  Mazzini  and 
others  so  frequently  fostered  at  that  time,  and  which  always 
resulted  in  failure  and  renewed  oppression.  His  treatise 
Degli  Ultimi  Casi  di  Romagna  (Of  the  Last  Events  in  the 
Romagna),  published  in  1846,  before  the  death  of  Pope 
Gregory  XVI.,  was  at  once  a  satire  on  the  Papal  Govern- 
ment, a  denunciation  of  the  repubUcan  attempts  at  insur- 
rection, and  an  exhortation  to  the  Italian  princes  to  adopt 
a  national  policy.  M.  d'Azeglio  returned  to  Rome  in  184G, 
after  the  death  of-  Pope  Gregory,  in  June,  and,  it  is  thought, 
had  considerable  influence  in  persuading  the  new  Pope 
(Pius  IX.)  to  conduct  his  government  in  accordance  with 
liberal  principles.  He  supported  measures  relating  to  the 
freedom  of  the  press,  tho  reform  of  the  Papacy,  and  the 
emancipation  of  the  Jews.  In  1848  he  accompanied  the 
Papal  army  of  observation  sent  from  Rome  to  watch  the 
insurgent  forces  in  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  which  had 
temporarily  discomfited  the  Austrians,  and  were  being 
supported  by  Charles  Albert,  king  of  Sardinia.  General 
Durando,  who  had  the  command  of  the  Papal  army,  actively 
assisted  the  rebels,  in  defiance,  it  is  said,  of  his  instructions  • 
and  Azeglio  was  severely  wounded  in  the  leg  at  the  battle  of 
Vicenza,  where  he  commanded  a  legion.  In  the  same  year 
(1848),  he  published  a  work  on  the  Austrian  Auaitinatioru 
in  Lombardy ;  and  on  the  opening  of  thefirstSardinian  parlia- 
ment ho  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  chamber  of  deputies. 
After  the  crushing  defeat  of  the  Sardinians  at  Novara, 
March  23,  1849, — a  defeat  which  brought  the  second  of, 
the  two  brief  wars  with  Austria  to  a  disastrous  close, — : 
D'Azeglio  was  made  president  of  the  cabinet  by  Victor' 
Emmanuel,  in  whoso  favour  his  father,  Charles  Albert,  had 
just  resigned.  In  this  position  the  marquis  used  his  high 
powers  with  great  advantage  to  the  progress  and  consolida- 
tion of  the  Sardiniai}  kingdom.  His  occupation  of  the 
office  lasted  from  the  11th  of  May  1849  to  the  20th  of 
October  1852,  when  he  was  replaced  by  Connt  Cavour 
At  the  termination  of  the  war  of  1859^  when  a  large  portion 
of  the  States  of  the  Church  shook  off  the  dominion  of  the 
Pope,  and  declared  for  annexation  to  tho  kingdom  of 
Northern  Italy,  Azeglio  was  appointed  general  and  com- 
missioner-extraordinary, purely  military,  for  tho  Romao 
States — a  temporary  office,  which  he  administered  in  t 
conciliatory  And  sagacious  spirit  He  died  on  the  11  tb 
of  January  1866,  leaving  a  reputation  for  probity  and 
wisdom,  which  his  countrymen  will  not  forget  to  cherish. 
His  writings,  chiefly  of  a  polemical  character,  were  numer- 
ous. In  addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  the  most 
noteworthy  was  a  work  on  The  Court  of  Home  and  the 
Gospels,  of  which  an  English  translation,  with  a  preface 
by  Dr  Layard,  appeared  in  1859.  A  volume  of  persona; 
recollections  was  issued,  in  1 667,  after  M.  d'Azeplio's  death 
AZERBIJAN  (so  called,  according  to  Sir  William  Ouscley 
from  a  fire  temple  ;  cucr,  fire,  and  baijan,  a  keeper),  a  ;>ro- 


J  68 


A  Z  I  —  A  Z I 


*iace  of  Persia,  corresponding  to  the  ancient  Atropatene. 
It  is  separated  Ifom  a  division  of- the  Russian  Empire  on 
the  N.  by  the  Biver  Araxes,  and  from  Irak  on  the  S.  by 
the  Kizil-Uzen,  or  Golden  Stream,  while  it  has  the  Caspian 
Sfea  and  Ghilan  on  the  E.,  and  Asiatic  Turkey  on  the  W. 
Its  area  is  estimated  at  25,280  square  miles.  The  country 
is  superior  in  fertility  to  the  southern  provinces  of  Persia. 
It  differs  entirely  from  the  provinces  of  Fars  and  Irak,  as 
it  consists  of  a  regular  succession  of  undulating  eminences, 
ipartially  cultivated,  and  opening  into  extensive  plains 
such  as  Anjan,  Tabreez,  and  Urumiyah  or  Van.  Near  the 
centre  of  the  province  the  mountains  of  Sahend  or  Serhund 
rise  in  an  accumulated  mass  to  the  height  of  9000  feet 
ftbove  the  sea.  The  highest  point,  Mount  Sfevellan,  towards 
its  eastern  frontier,  attains  a  height  of  about  12,000  feet 
Mcording  to  some  authorities,  but  according  to  Khani- 
koff,  it  is  15,400  ;  and  the  Talish  Mountains,  which  run 
from  N.  to  S.  parallel  to,  and  at  no  great  distance  from, 
the  Caspian,  have  an  altitude  of  7000  feet.  Except  the 
jboundary  rivers  already  mentioned,  there  are  none  of  any 
'great  extent ;  but  these  both  receive  a  number  of  tribu- 
taries from  the  province,  and  several  streams  of  consider- 
able volume,  such  as  the  Jughutu,  the  Agi,  and  the  Shar, 
belong  to  the  basin  of  "the  Lake  Urumiyah.  This  lake  is 
about  300  miles  in  circumference,  and  4200  feet  above  the 
sea.  Its  waters  are  more  intensely  salt  than  the  sea,  and 
it  is  "  supposed  to  contain  no  living  creature  except  a 
kind  of  polype ;"  but  it  is  the  resort  of  great  flocks  of  the 
flamingo.  The  country  to  the  N.  and  W.,  namely,  the 
districts  of  Urumiyah  and  Selmart,  is  the  most  picturesque 
liud  prosperous  part  of  Azerbijan ;  yet  even  here  the  tra- 
veller from  the  more  civilised  regions  of  Europe  laments 
the  want  of  enterprise  among  the  inhabitants.  Azerbijan 
is  on  the  whole,  however,  reckoned  one  of  the  most  pro- 
ductive provinces  of  Persia,  and  the  villages  have  a  more 
pleasing  appearance  than  those  of  Irak.  The  orchards  and 
gardens,  in-  which  they  are  for  the  most  part  embosomed, 
yield  delicious  fruits  of  almost  every  description,  which 
are  dried  in  large  quantities.  Provisions  are  cheap  and 
abundant,  and  wine  is  made  in  considerable  quantities. 
There  is  throughout  the  district  a  lack  of  forests  and  of 
timber  trees.  Lead,  copper,  saltpetre,  sulphur,  and  coal 
are  found  within  the  coniines  of  Azerbijan  ;  also  a  kind  of 
beautiful  transparent  marble  or  jasper,  which  takes  the 
highest  polish,  and  is  used  in  the  buddings  of  Tabreez, 
Shiraz,  and  Ispahan,  under  the  name  of  Tabreez  or 
Be'ghami  marble.  There  are  exports  of  silk  and  cotton, 
teitile  fabrics,  leather,  hidea  and  lambskins,  dry-fruits, 
sugar,  driigs,  tobacco,  and  wax,  (fcc,  the  -total  value  in 
1870,  a  year  of  grcxt  trade  depressbn,  being  £422,632. 
In  the  same  year  the  Imports  amounted  to  XI, 094,717. 
The  chief  towns  are  Tabreez,  Urumiyah  (the  supposed 
birthplace  of  Zoroaster),  Ardebil,  Khoee,  Maragha,  Dilman, 
Abbasabad,  Mehrand,  Siral,  and  Souj-Bolak.  The  climate 
is  healthful — in  summer  and  autumn  hot,  but  cold  in 
winter.  The  cold  is  severely  felt  by  the  lower  orders,  owing 
to  the  want  of  fuel,  for  which  there  is  no  substitute 
■jxcept  dried  cow-dung,  mixed  with  straw.  The  spring  is 
temperate  and  delightful  in  the  plains,  but  on  the  moun- 
tains snow  lies  eight  months  in  the  year  ;  and  hailstorms 
ore  so  violent  as  frequently  to  destroy  the  cattle  in  the 
^fields.  The  best  soils  yield  from  fifty  to  sixty  fold  when 
^abundantly  irrigated ;  and  supplies  of  water  for  this 
purpose  are  drawn  from  the  many  small  rivers  by  which 
ithe  province  is  intersected.  Oxen  arc  generally  used  to 
draw  the  plough.  The  population  is  of  a  very  varied 
character,  comprising  Kurds,  Armenians,  Syrians,  Tatars, 
Persians  proper,  and  other  tribes  or  nationalities,  and  is 
roughly  estimated  at  2,000,000.-  The  Persian  army  is 
largely   "omposcd  of  natives  of  Azerbijan.  who  make  ex- 


cellent soldiers;  they  are  siibject  to  compulsory  enlistment 
The  province  is  under  the  government  of  the  heir-appareni 
to  the  Persian  throne.  (Kinneir's  Geographical  Memoir  o> 
the  Persian  Empire,  1S13  ;  Eraser's  Travels  and  Adiai- 
tares  in  the  Persian  Provinces  on  the.  Caspian  Sea  , 
Rawlinson's  "Tabriz  to  Takhti  Suleiman,"  in  Jour.,  oj 
Poy.  Geog.  Soc,  1840  ;  Chesney's  Euphrates  and  Tigris 
Expedition,  1850;  Abbott's  "Memorandum"  in  Proc. 
of  Roy.  Geog.  Soc,  13G4.) 

AZIMGARH,  a  district  and  city  in  the  Benares  divi- 
sion of  British  India,  and  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  North-Western  Provinces,  lies 
between  25'  38  3"  and  20"  24'  45  N.  lat.,  and  82°  44' 
15"  and  84°  10'  45"  1.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
the  river  GhagrA,  separating  it  from  Gorakhpur'  district ; 
on  the  E.  by  Ghizipur  district  and  the  river  Gauges ;  on 
the  S.  by  the  districts  of  Jaunpur  and  Ghizipur;  and  on 
the  W.  by  Jaunpur  and  the  Oudh  district  of  Faizibid. 
Its  area  in  1872  was  returned  at  2494  square  miles,  of 
which  1268  square  miles  are  under  cultivation,  344  square 
miles  are  cultivable  waste,  and  the  remaining  882  square 
miles  are  barren  and  uncultivable.  The  population  of  the 
district  in  1865  was  1,385,872  souls,  of  whom  1,184,689 
were  Hindus,  and  201,183  Mahometans.  The  pressure 
of  the  population  on  the  soil  averaged  555  per  square  mile. 
The  census  of  1872  discloses  a  population  of  1,531,410,  of 
whom  1,333,805  were  Hindus,  197,581  Mahometans, 
and  24  Christians  and  others ;  the  pressure  of  the  popula- 
tion on  the  land  being  614  per  square  mUe.  The  portion 
of  the  district  lying  along  the  banks  of  the  Ghagri  is  a 
low-lying  tract,  varying  considerably  in  width  ;  south  of 
this,  however,  the  ground  takes  a  slight  rise.  The  slope  of 
the  land  is  from  north-west  to  south-east,  but  the  general 
drainage  is  very  inadequate.  Roughly  speaking,  the  dis- 
trict consists  of  a  series  of  parallel  ridges,  whose  summits 
are  depressed  into  beds  or  hollows,  along  which  the  rivers 
flow ;  while  between  the  ridges  are  low-lying  rice  lands, 
interspersed  with  numerous  natural  resen'oirs.  The  prin- 
cipal streams  are  the  Tons,  Sarjii,  Khiird,  Kunwar,  Majhor, 
Mangdi,  Udantl-or  Aurd,  and  the  BhansAi.  The  chief  lines 
of  road  traffic  are  the  following: — (1.)  From  Gorakhpur  to 
Ghizipur,  running  north  and  south;  (2.)  from  Gorakhpur 
to  Azlmgarh  town,  in  a  north-easterly  and  south-westerly 
direction,  and  continued  thence  to  Jaunpur  cantonment  ; 
(3.)  from  Ghizipur  to  Azlmgarh,  and  thence  on  to  Faizibad 
in  Oudh;  (4.)  from  Ghizipur  to  Lucknow.  The  sod  is 
fertile  and  veiy  highly  cultivated,  bearing  mignificent 
crops  of  rice,  sugar-cane,  and  indigo.  The  principal  indus- 
tries of  the  district  are  cotton  and  sUk  manufactures,  the 
total  value  of  which  in  1872  amounted  to  X109,081.  The 
settlement  of  the  land  revenue  in  702  estates  or  mahals  is 
fixed  and  permanent ;  in  the  remaining  3284  estates  e, 
settlement  was  made  by  Mr  Thomason  in  1836  for  thirty 
years,  and  is  now  (1873)  undergoing  revision.  The  total 
revenue  of  the  district  from  all  sources  amounted  in 
1870-71  toX187,464;  the  expenditure  in  the  same  year 
being  XI 72,550.  Six  towns  are  returned  by  the  census 
of  1872  as  containing  a  popidation  of  upwards  of  5000 
inhabitants — viz.,  Azlmgarh  (the  capital  of  the  district), 
population  15,893;  Miu-Nith  Blianjan,  13,765;  Mubirak- 
pur,  12,068;  Sikandarpur,  5239;  Dubarl,  5014;  and  1\t, 
5213.  The  municipalities  are  as  follows:  —  Azlmgarh 
city:  the  municipal  income,  which  is  derived  from  octroi, 
amounted  in  1872  to  Xrj33,  2s.,  the  average  incidence  of 
taxation  being  Is.  6 id.  per  head  of  the  population.  Miu- 
Nith  Bhanjan,  municipal  income  XI 25,  8s.;  Mubirakpur, 
XI 12,  163.;  and  Sikandarpur,  X48.  The  cost  of  the 
municipal  police  of  these  three  towns  is  levied  by  means 
of  a  direct  cess  on  house  occupiers.  The  total  number  oi 
schools  in  Azlmgarh  district  in  1871  72  was  286,  att^nde  1 


A  Z  I  —  A  Z  0 


169" 


by  -ISTI  Hindu  .ind  3sia  Mahometan  pujiils.  The 
force  neccssaiy  lor  the  protection  of  person  and  property 
in  1871-72  consisted  of  673  regular  police,  Ciju^il  to  1 
man  to  every  370  square  miles  of  area,  or  1  to  every  2215 
inhabitants;  besides  a  village  watch  or  rural  police  force 
consisting  of  2036  men,  equal  to  1  watcbniiui  to  every 
098  square  miles,  or  I  to  every  G03  inliabitanis. 

AziMCARH  Crry,  the  prmcipal  place  in  the  district 
of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the  river  Tons,  in  20'  0' 
N.  laf.,  and  S3'  11'  E.  long.  The  city  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  about  1G20  by  a  powerful  landholder  named  Azlra 
KhAn,  who  owned  lar^e  estates  in  this  part  of  the  country. 
For  municipal  income  and  population,  see  above. 

AZO,  a  distinguished  professor  of  civd  law  m  the 
university  of  Bologna,  and  a  native  of  that  city.  He  was 
the  pupil  of  Joannes  Bassianus,  who  taught  at  Bologna 
towards  the  end  of  the  Tith  century,  and  who  was  the 
outhor  of  the  famous  Arbor  Actionum.  Azo,  whose  name 
is  sometimes  written  Azzo  and  Azzolenus,  and  who  is 
•ometimes  described  as  Azo  Soldanus,  from  the  surname 
of  his  father,  occupied  a  very  important  position  amongst 
the  gloss-writers,  and  his  Kcadinrjs  {Lcclura)  on  the  Code, 
which  were  collected  by  his  pupil,  Alexander  de  Sancto 
yGgidio,  are  considered  by  Savigny,  a  most  competent  judge, 
to  be  the  most  valuable  of  the  works  of  that  school  which 
have  come  down  to  us. 

AZOFF,  or  Asov  (in  Turkish,  Asalc),  a  town  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  southern  arm  of  the  Don,  about  20  miles  from 
Its  mouth.     Its  identification  with  the  ancient  Tanais  and 
the  medi.TCval  Tana  seems  erroneous ;   but  it  was  long  a 
place  of  great  importance  both  as  a  military  and  commercial 
position.     Peter  the  Great  obtained  possession  of  it  after  a 
protracted  siego   in  1G96,  and  did  a  great   deal   for  the 
eccurity  and  prosperity  of  the  town.     At  the  peace  of  } 7 1 1 , 
however,  he  had  to  restore  it  to  the  Turks  ;   and  it  was 
not  till  177-1   that  it  was    finally  united  to  the  Russian 
empire.     Since  then  it  has  greatly  declined,  owing  to  the 
silting  up  of  its  harbour  and  the  competition  of  the  city  of 
Taganrog.      Its    population,    principally   engaged    in    the 
lisheries,  numliers,  according  to  Russian  statistics,  10,791. 
AZOFF,    TiiE   Sea   of,    an    inland   sea   of    Southern 
Europe,  communicating  with  the  Black  Sea  by  the  Strait 
of  Yenikalo,  the  ancient  Boaphnrns  Cimmeritts.     To  the 
Romans  it  was  known  as  the  Pains  MuMis,  from  the  name 
of  the  neighbouring  people,  who  called  it  in  their  native 
language  Temarenda,  or  Mother  of  Waters.     Possibly  to 
account  for  the  outward  current  into  the  Black  Sea,  it  was 
long  supposed  to  possess  direct  communication  with  the 
Northern  Ocean,  and,  when  it  was  discovered  that   there 
was   no   visible  channel,  recourse  was  had  to  a  "  secret 
eluicc  ;"   there  being,  it  was  thought,  but  a  comparatively 
narrow  isthmus  to   be  crossed.     In  some  prehistoric  time, 
according  to  Pallas  and  Murchison,  a  connection  with  the 
Caspian  Sea  seems  to  have  existed  ;  but  no  great  cliange 
has  taken  place  in  regard  to  the  character  or  relations  of 
the  Sea  of  Azof!  since  our  earliest  records.     It  lies  between 
45°  20'  and  47°  1 8'  N.  Iat.,and  between  35°  and  39°  E.  long., 
its  length  from  S.W.  to   N.E.    being   about   235    miles, 
and  its  greatest  breadth  110.     It  is  for  the  most  part  com- 
paratively shallow  ;  the  d  epcst  portion  forming  as  it  were 
s  prolongation  of  the   bed    of  the  Don,  its  largest  and, 
indeed,  its  only  very  important  tributary.    Near  the  mouth 
of  that  river   the   depth  varies  from    3  to  10  feet,    and 
the  greatest  depth  does  not  exceed  41  feet     Fierce  and 
continuous   winds  from   the  E.   prevail    during  July  and 
August,  and  in  the  later  part  of  the  year  those  from  the 
N.E.    and    S  E.    are    not   unusual.     A    great   variety   of 
currents  are  thus  produced,  and  the  relative  depths  cf  the 
rtit'efents  parU  of  the   sea   are   greatly  modified.     From 
December  to  March  the  wliole  surface  is  generally  frr-en. 
3— «» 


The  water  is  for  ...c  u.^^k,  part  comparativuly  fresh,  but 
ditl'crs  considerably  in  this  respect  according  to  locality  and' 
current.  Fish  arc  so  abundant  that  the  Turks  use  the 
name  Baluk-Denis,  or  Fish-Sea.  To  the  W.,  separated 
from  the  main  basin  by  the  long,  narrow  S[)il  of  .\rabat, 
lies  the  remarkable  series  of  lagunes  and  marshes  kuowii 
as  the  Sivash,  or  Putrid  Sea.  Here  the  water  is  intensely 
salt,  and  at  the  same  time  swarms  with  life.  The  Sea  of 
AzotT  is  of  great  importance  to  Russian  commerce,  and  a 
number  of  flourishing  cities  have  grownup  along  its  shores. 
Of  these  the  most  important  are  Taganrog,  Berdiansk, 
Mariupol,  and  Yenikale.  Unfortunately,  there  is  a  lack 
of  safe  and  commodious  harbours  and  road.i 

AZORES,  TuE,  or  AVester.v  Islands,  are  situated  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and  extend  in  an  oblique  line  from  N.W 
to  S.E.,  between  3G'  55'  and  3'J'-55'  N.  lat.,  and  between 
25'  and  31°  10'  W.  long.  They  are  generally  considered 
as  pertaining  to  Europe,  though  separated  by  a  distance  of 
800  miles  from  the  coast  of  Portugal.  They  are  divided 
into  three  distinct  groups  :  the  south-eastern  consisting  of 
Sao-.Miguel,  or  St  Michael's,  and  Sta  Maria,  the  central 
and  largest,  of  Fayal,  Pico,  Sao  Jorge,  Terceira,  and 
Graciosa;  and  the  north-western,  of  Florcs  and  Corvo. 

It  does  not  appear  that  tho  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
had  any  knowledge  of  the  Azores,  but  from  the  number  ••( 
Carthaginian  coins  discovered  at  Corvo  it  has  been  supposed 
that  the  islands  must  have  been  visited  by  that  adventurous 
people.  The  Arabian  geographers,  Edrisi  in  tho  12th 
century,  and  Ibnal-Wardi  in  the  11th,  describe,  after  the 
Canaries,  nine  other  islands  in  the  Western  Ocean,  which 
are  in  all  probabiUty  the  Azores.  This  identification  is 
supported  by  various  considerations.  The  number  o! 
islands  is  tho  same;  the  climate  under  which  they  aio 
placed  by  the  Arabians  makes  them  north  of  the  Canaries  , 
and  special  mention  is  made  of  the  hawks  or  buzzards, 
•j-hich  were  sufficiently  numerous  at  a  later  period  to  give 
rise  to  the  present  name  (Port.  ./Ifor,  a  hawk.)  The  Arabian 
writers  represent  them  as  having  been  populous,  and  as 
having  contained  cities  of  some  magnitude  ,  but  they  state 
that  the  inhabitants  had  been  greatly  reduced  by  intestine 
warfare.  The  Azores  are  first  found  distinctly  marked  in 
a  map  of  1351,  the  southern  group  being  named  the  Goat 
Islands  (Cabreras)  ;  the  middle  group,  the  Wind  or  Dove 
Islands  {De  Ventura  sive  de  Columbia);  and  the  western, 
the  Brazil  Island  (De  I>ra:t)—lho  word  Brazil  at  that  time 
being  employed  for  any  red  dye-stuff.  In  a  Catalan  map 
of  the  year  1375  the  island  of  Corvo  is  found  as  Corvi 
Marini,  and  Flores  as  Li  Coniji ;  while  Sao  Jorge  is  already 
designated  San  Zorze.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  tho 
discoverers  were  Genoese,  but  of  this  there  is  not  suflieicnl 
evidence.  It  is  plain,  hov.ever,  that  the  so-called  Flemish 
discovery  by  Van  dcr  Berg  is  only  worthy  of  tho  name  in 
a  very  secondary  sense.  According  to  the  usual  account. 
ho  was  driven  on  the  islands  in  1432,  and  the  news  e.'tcitcd 
considerable  interest  at  the  court  of  Lisbon.  The  navi^-ator. 
Gonzalo  Vclho  Cabral— not  to  be  confounded  with  his 
greater  na.niesake,  Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral — was  sent  to  pro- 
secute the  discovery  Another  version  relates  that  Don 
Henry  of  Portugal  had  in  his  possession  a  map  in  which 
the  islands  were  laid  down,  and  that  he  sent  out  Cabr.il 
through  confidence  in  its  accuracy.  The  map  had  bc(C 
presented  to  him  by  his  brother,  Don  Pedro,  who  had 
travelled  as  far  as  Babylon.  Be  this  as  it  may,  C.ibral 
reached  the  island,  which  he  named  Santa  Maria,  in  1  132, 
and  in  1444  took  possession  of  St  Michael's.  The  other 
islands  were  all  discovered  by  1457.  Colonisation  had 
meanwhile  been  going  on  prosperously;  and  in  14CG  tho 
Azores  were  presented  by  Alphonso  V.  to  his  aunt,  Isabella, 
the  duchess  of  Burgundy.  An  influx  of  Flemish  setlle.s 
followed,  and  the  islands  became  known  for  a  time  as  lli» 


170 


A  Z  0  r.  E  s 


Flemish  Islands.  From  1580  to  11)40  they  were  subject 
10  Spain  like  the  rest  of  the  Portuguese  kingdom,  of  which 
they  now  form  a  province.  At  that  time  the  Azore*  were 
the  grand  rendezvous  for  the  fleets  on  ttieir  voyage  home 
from  the  Indies;  and  hence  they  became  a  theatre  of  that 
maritime  warfare  which  was  carried  on  by  the  English 


under  Queetf  ■Elfzabeth'.'against  fSS'''l:'ouinsu(.'ir  powers. 
The  connection  with  England  has"  long  since  bfoa  of  a  mort 
peaceful  description ;  no  other  country  affording  such  a 
ready  market  for  Azorean  productions. 

The  islands  are  now  divided  into  three  administrative 
districts,  which  take  their  names  from  the  chief  towns  of 


<^: 


y     o     fi     r    fi 


A       .V 


..„^*"\>'*'S.\S  5UGCTI. 


''armuftit  ("V 


A . . [  


-U 


la   V.efOwtennA 


Angra  in  Terceira,  Horta  in  Fayal,  and  Ponta-Delgada 
in  St  Michael's — the  first  of  the  three  being  also  the  capital 
of  the  islands.  The  most  of  the  inhabitants  are  of  Portu- 
guese origin,  but  there  is  a  mixture  not  only  of  Flemish 
but  Moorish  blood.  Negroes,  Mulattoes,  English,  Scotch, 
and  Irish  immigrants  are  present  in  considerable  number.^, 
especially  in  San  Miguel  and  Fayal.  Education  is  in  a 
very  backward  state,  the  great  proportion  of  the  lower 
classes  being  unable  to  read  or  write.  Progi-ess,  however, 
is  being  made  in  this  as  well  as  other  respects. 

Under  the  active  administration  of  Pombal,  considerable 
efforts  were  made  for  tho  improvement  of  the  Azores,  but 
the  stnpid  and  bigoted  Government  which  followed  rather 
tended  to  destroy  these  benefits,  and  to  create  a  retrograde 
course.  Towards  tho  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
the  possession  of  the  islands  was  contested  by  the  claimants 
for  the  crown  of  Portugal  The  adherents  of  the  constitu- 
tion, who  supported  against  Miguel  tho  rights  of  Maria 
da  Gloria,  obtained  possession  of  Terceira  in  1829,  where 
tlicy  succeeded  in  maintaining  themselves,  ond  after  various 
struggles.  Queen  Maria's  authority  was  established  over 
all  the  islands.  She  resided  at  Angra  from  1830  to  1833. 
The  aspect  of  all  the  islands  is  very  similar  in  general 
characteristics,  preswUing  an  elevated  and  undulating 
outline,  with  little  or  no  tableland,  and  rising  into  peaks, 
of  which  the  lowest  (that  of  Sta  Maria)  is  1889  feet,  and 
the  highest  (that  of  Pico)  7613  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Their  lines  of  sea-coast  are,  with  few  exceptions,  high 
anrl  precipitous,  with  bases  of  accumulated  masses  of  fallen 
rock,  in  which  open  bays,  or  scarcely  more  enclosed  inlets, 
fyrm  the  harbours  of  the  trading  towns.  The  volcanic 
■haracter  of  the  whole  archipelago  is  very  obvious,  and 
has   been    abuuJautly  confirmed  by  the  numerous  earth- 


Map  of  the  Azores  or  Western  Islands. 

quakes   and   eruptions  which  have  taken  place  since  its 


discovery.  Hitherto  the  western  group  of  Flores  and  Corvo 
has  been  quite  exempt,  Graciosa  has  been  equally  undis- 
turbed, and  Fayal  has  only  suflered  from  one  eruption,  in 
1G72.  Tho  centre  of  activity  has  for  tho  most  part  been 
St  Michael's,  while  the  neighbouring  island  of  Santa  Maria 
has  altogether  escaped.  In  1-144—15  there  was  a  great 
eruption  at  St  Michael's,  of  which,  however,  the  accounts 
tliat  have  been  preserved  exaggerate  the  importance.  In 
1522  the  town  of  Villa  Franca,  at  that  time  the  capital  of 
the  island,  was  buried,  with  all  its  COCO  inhabitants,  during 
a  violent  convulsion.  In  1572  an  eruption  took  place  in 
the  island  of  Pico;  in  1580  St  George  was  the  scene  of 
numerous  outbursts;  and  in  1014  a  little  town  in  Terceira 
was  destroyed.  In  1G30,  1G52,  1C56,  1755,  1852,  i-c, 
St  Michael  has  been  visited  with  successive  eruptions  and 
earthquakes,  several  of  them  of  great  violence.  On  various 
occasions,  as  in  1038,  1720,  1811,  and  1807,  subterranean 
eruptions  have  taken  place,  which  have  sonietinies  been 
accompanied  by  the  appearance  of  temporary  islands.  Of 
these  the  most  remarkable  was  thrown  up  in  Juno  1811, 
about  half  a  league  from  the  western  extremity  of  St 
Michael's.  It  was  called  Sabrina  by  tho  commander  of 
the  British  man-of-war  of  that  name,  who  witnessed  the 
phenomenon.  Details  will  be  found  in  a  valuable  chapter, 
of  Ilartung's  T)it  Azoren,  p.  99,  aad  in  the  23d  vol.  of  th« 
/  Vi  ilosoph  teal  Tra  n  sad  ion  s. 

The  climate  is  particularly  temperate  and  equable,  th* 
extremes  of  sensible  heat  and  cold  being,  however,  increased 
by  tho  humidity  of  the  atmosphere.  This  is  so  great  that 
paper-hangings  will  not  adhere  to  tho  walls,  and  the  veneer- 
ing of  furniture  strips  oft".  Tlie  range  of  the  thermometer 
is  from  45"  Fahr.,  the  lowest  known  cctremc,  or  48°,  the 


AZORES 


171 


ordinary  lowest  exlieine  of  .January,  to  82',  the  ordinary, 
(.r  M",  tho  highest  known  extreme  of  July,  near  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Between  these  two  points  (both  taken  in  the 
jha'le)  there  is  from  month  fo  month  a  pretty  regular 
graJ.^tion  of  increase  or  decrease,  amounting  to  somewhat 
le:ss  than  four  degrees  {Gcgr  'phkul  Journal,  vol.  xv  )  In 
winter  tho  prevailing  wiii.'i  He  from  the  north  west,  west, 
and  south  ;  whde  in  summer  the  most  frequent  are  the 
north,  north  east,  and  east.  The  weather  is  often  eiLrcmely 
stormy,  and  the  winds  from  the  west  and  southwest  render 
Jhe  navi^.-ition  of  the  coasts  very  dangerous. 

The  general  character  of  the  Hora  is  decidedly  European, 
no  fswc.r  than  400  out  of  the  47.S  species  -generally  con- 
jidored  as  indigenous  belonging  likewi.>e  to  that  continent, 
while  only  four  are  found  in  America,  and  forty  are  peculiar 
to  the  archipelago.  Vegetation  in  most  of  the  islands  is 
remarkably  rich,  especially  in  grasses,  mosses,  and  ferns, 
h«.ath,  juniper,  and  a  variety  of  shrubs.  Of  tall-growing 
trees  there  was,  till  the  present  century,  an  almost  total  lack  , 
but  through  the  exertions  of  Jose  do  Canto  and  othcn  tho 
Bordeaux  pine,  tho  European  poplar,  the  .African  palm-tree, 
the  Australian  euralyptus,  the  cliestnut,  the  tulip  tree,  the 
elm,  the  oak,  and  inauy  others,  have  been  successfully 
introduced  into  one  or  more  of  the  islands.  The  orange, 
the  ipricot,  tho  banana,  the  lemon,  the  ci'ron,  the  Japanese 
medlar,  and  the  pomegranate,  are  the  common  fruits,  and 
various  other  varieties  are  more  or  less  cultivated.  At  one 
lime  much  attention  was  given  to  the  growing  of  the  sugar- 
cane, but  it  has  now  for  the  most  part  been  abandoned.  The 
culture  of  woad  introduced  in  the  IGth  century  also  belong.i 
to  tho  past.  A  kind  of  fern  {Dicf:sonia  ^>ilcUn),  called  hy 
the  natives  cahellinho,  and  common  throughout  tho  archi- 
pelago, furnishes  a  silky  material  for  the  stuffing  of  mat- 
Ires'se.",' which  forms  an  arlicie  of  e^tport  to  Brazil  and 
Portugal. 

The  mammalia  of  tlie  Azores  arc  limited  to  the  rabbit, 
weasel,  ferret,  rat  (brown  and  black),  mouse,  and  bat,  in 
addition  to  domestic  animals.  Among  the  fish  caught  off 
the  coast  may  be  mentioned  the  mullet,  the  tunny,  the 
bonito.  The  numbers  of  birds  are  so  remarkable  that  in 
St  Michael's,  where  a  reward  is  given  for  the  destruction  of 
tho  blackbird,  the  bullfinch,  the  redbreast,  the  chatEnch, 
and  the  canary,  the  sum  paid  annually  represents  a  death- 
list  of  420,000.     The  game  includes  the  woodcock,  red  par- 

itri<lge  (introduced  in  the  ICth  century),  quail,  and  snipe. 
St  .Michael'.s,  the  largest  and  most  populous  of  tho  islands, 

:  has  an  area  of  221  square  miles,  and  10.'),fOt  inhabitants 
'■'Tho  I'ast  end  rises  from  a  bluff  clilT,  from  1200  to  HOO  feet 
high,  to  a  lofty  inland  peak,  whence  a  central  range,  varying 
in  height  from  2000  to  250O  feet,  runs  to  the  westw.ird, 
terminating  in  the  Scrra  da  Agoa  do  Pao,  30GO  feet  above 
the  sex  The  sea  coast  gradually  declines  in  approaching 
the  last  point,  where  it  is  not  more  than  about  100  feet 
high.  The  middle  part  of  the  island  is  lower,  and  more 
undulating;  its  western  extremity  being  marked  by  the 
conspicuous  SerraOorda,  I. IT  4  feet  above  the  sea;  its  shores 
on  both  sides  are  low,  broken,  and  rotky.  The  aspect  of 
the  western  pnition  of  the  i.«laod  is  thai  of  a  vast  truncated 
cone,  irregularly  cut  off  at  an  elevation  of  about  SOO  feet, 
and  falling  on  the  N  ,  S  ,  .and  \V  sides  to  a  perpendicular 
coast  of  betwcecn  300  and  800  feet  high  In  Ihu  higher 
parts  an  undergrowth  of  shrubs  gives  the  mountains  a 
rich  and  wooded  appearance.  Like  all  volcanic  countries, 
the  face  t,f  ihc  idand  13  uneven  and  irregular,  being  deeply 
excavated  by  numerous  ravines,  and  roughened  by  streams 
of  soini  viinlicd  and  acoriarcous  lava,  that  resist  all  atmo- 
•phcnc  inlluenrcs  and  repel  vcgetalmn.  Heavy  rains  fallirg 
on  the  mi'intiins  afford  a  constant  supply  of  water  to 
four  lakes  at  the  bottom  of  extinct  crateis,  and  a  numt)er 
•f   n.inor  ruervoirs,  and   through   Ihcin   to  small  streams 


running  l-apidJy  down  on  all  siaes  into  the  sea  [Ccographv- 
cat  Juurna/,  vol.  xv.) 

Hot  springs  abound  in  many  parts  of  the  island,  and 
from  almost  every  crevice  vapour  is  seen  issuing.  But 
the  most  remarkable  phenomena  are  the  CahUiras  ^ir 
bulling  fountains,  which  rise  chiefly  from  a  valley  calluJ 
the  Furnas,  near  the  western  extremity  of  the  island.  The 
water  ascends  in  columns  to  the  height  of  about  12  feet, 
after  which  it  dissolves  in  clouds  of  vapour.  The  ground 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  is  entirely  covered  with  native 
sulphur,  like  ho:  frost.  At  a  small  distance  is  the 
Muddy  Crater,  the  vei-tex  of  which,  45  feet  in  diameter, 
is  on  a  level  with  the  plain.  Its  contents  are  in  a  state 
of  continual  and  violent  ebullition,  accompanied  with  a 
sound  resembling  that  of  a  tempestuous  ocean.  Yet  they 
never  rise  above  its  level,  unless  occasionally  to  throw 
to  a  small  distance  a  spray  of  the  consistence  of  melted 
lead.  The  Furnas  abounds  also  in  hot  springs,  some  of 
them  of  a  very  high  temperature.  There  is  almost  always, 
however,  a  cold  spring  near  to  tho  hot  on&  These  springs 
have  for  a  considerable  period  been  greatly  resorted  to  in 
cases  of  palsy,  rheumatism,  scrofula,  and  similar  maladies, 
and  bath-rooms  and  various  conveniences  for  visitors  have 
been  creeled. 

Tho  plains  are  fertile,  producing  wheat,  barley,  and  In- 
dian corn  ;  whilst  vines  and  oranges  grow  luxuriantly  on 
the  sides  of  the  mountains.  The  plants  are  made  to  spring 
even  from  the  interstices  of  the  volcanic  rocks,  which  are 
sometimes  blasted  to  receive  them.  Raised  in  this  manner, 
these  fruits  are  said  to  be  of  superior  quality  ;  but  the 
expense  of  such  a  mode  of  cultivation  necessarily  restricts  it. 
The  western  part  of  the  island  yields  hemp,  which  might 
bo  raised  to  a  considerable  extent.  Tho  exports  consist 
of  wine,  fruit,  and  piovisinns,  the  most  important  trade 
being  in  oranges.  Foreign  intercourse  was  at  one  time 
confined  rigorously  to  Lisbon  ;  but  tho  inhabitants  now 
trade  directly  with  England,  America,  and  other  countries. 
Tho  exports  during;  1872  at  the  port  of  St  Michael's  wero 
of  the  value  of  i.'8.i,279,  and  the  imports  amounted  to 
£91,943. 

The  principal  tov. n  in  the  i.'^Iand  is  Ponta-Delgada, 
which  contains  15, .020  inhabitants.  It  is  built  with  toler. 
able  regularity,  the  streets  being  straight  and  bioad.  The 
religious  edifices  are  numerous  and  elegant.  The  harbour 
receives  only  small  vessels;  those  of  larger  size  must  anchor 
in  an  open  roadstead,  which  cannot  be  occupied  during 
tho  prevalence  of  southerly  gales.  A  breakwater  and 
harbuur  of  refuge  have  been  in  process  of  constnictioti  for 
a  number  of  years  ;  and  a  lighthouse  is  being  built  at  the 
north  east  end  of  tho  island.  Tho  other  towns  ara  Vijhv 
Franca,  Ribcira  Grande,  Alagoa,  Agoa  do  PdO,  itc. 

St  Mary  is  a  small  isl.ind  immediately  adjacent  to  St  St  M»iY. 
Michael's,  through  the  medium  of  which  its  trade  is  con- 
dueteii,  as  it  has  no  good  harbours  of  its  own.  It  has  au 
area  of  30  square  miles,  and  produces  wheat  in  abundance, 
of  which  a  considerable  quantity  is  exported.  Various 
volcanic  rocks  are  the  predominant  foimations,but  beds  of 
limestone  also  occur,  giving  rise  to  numerous  stalactite 
grottoes  all  over  the  island.    Population  from  7000  to  8000. 

Teroeira  (so  called  as  being  the  third  in  order  of  dis-  T^ruir*. 
covcry)  is  smaller  than  St  Michael's,  but  being  placed 
in  a  more  central  position  with  respect  to  the  other  islands, 
has  been  chosen  as  the  scat  of  government.  The  port 
of  Angra,  protected  by  Mt.  Brazil,  is  also  superior  (o  any 
ff  those  in  St  Michael's.  This  island  does  not  exliib.! 
nea'ly  the  same  extensive  traces  of  volcanic  action;  and 
the  summits  of  its  mountains  are  generally  level.  It 
abourds  in  grain  and  cattle  ;  but  the  wines  are  inftrinr, 
and  fruits  are  raided  merely  for  internal  consumptipn. 
The  nuiubcr  of  inhabitants  is  estimated  at  50,000. 


172 


A  Z  0— A  Z  U 


Pico. 


Fayil  (80  called  from  the  extreme  abundance  of  the/at/a, 
au  indigeoous  shrub)  is  the  most  frequented  of  all  the 
AzoreJ,  after  St  Michael's,  as  it  has  one  of  the  best  harbours 
in  the  islands,  and  lies  directly  in  the  track  of  vessels  that 
are  crossing  the  Atlantic  in  any  direction.  Its  principal 
town  is  Villa  de  Horta,  with  a  population  of  763G.  The 
town  i.s  defended  by  two  castles  and  a  wall,  both  in  decay, 
and  serving  rather  for  show  than  strength.  The  city 
contains  two  convents  for  monks  and  three  for  nuns,  with 
eight  churches.  The  bay  is  two  miles  in  length  and  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  in  breadth,  and  the  depth  of  water  from  6 
to  20  fathoms.  Though  a  good  roadstead,  it  is  not  altogether 
free  from  danger  in  S.S.W.  and  S.E.  winds.  The  women 
of  this  island  manufacture  fine  lace  from  the  agave  thread, 
end  till  recently  produced  large  quantities  of  open-work 
stockings.  They  also  execute  carvings  in  snow-white  fig- 
tree  pith,  and  carry  on  the  finer  kinds  of  basTcet-making. 
A  small  valley,  called  Flemengos,  still  perpetuates  the  name 
of  the  Flemish  settlers,  who  have  left  their  mark  on  the 
phvsioal  appearance  of  the  inhabitants.  Population, 
26;264. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  wine  used  to  be  exported  from 
Fayal  under  the  name  of  Fayal  wine,  which  was  really  the 
produce  of  Pico,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  Azores, 
Phis  island  is  composed  of  an  immense  conical  mountain, 
rising  to  the  height  of  7613  feet,  and  bearing  every  trace 
of  volcanic  formation.  The  soil  consists  entirely  of 
pulverised  lava.  All  the  lower  parts  of  the  mountain  used 
to  be  in  the  highest  state  of  cultivation,  and  covered  with 
vine  and  orange  plantations.  But  in  1852  the  vines  were 
attacked  by  the  Oidium  fungus  and  completely  destroyed, 
while-  the  orange-trees  suffered  almost  as  much  from  the 
Coims  Hesperidum.  The  people  were  consequently  re- 
duced to  want,  and  forced  to  emigrate  in  great  numbers. 
The  planting  of  fig-trees  and  apricots  alleviated  the  evil, 
and  after  a  time  many  of  the  emigrants  returned,  Pico 
also  produces  a  valuable  species  of  wood  resembling,  and 
equal  in  quality  to,  mahogany.  ~  Population,  24,000. 

Graciosa  and  St  George  are  two  small  islands,  situated 
between  Fayal  and  Terceira.  Graciosa,  as  its  name 
imports,  is  chiefly  noted  for  the  extreme  beauty  of  its 
aspect  and  scenery.  The  chief  town  is  Sta  Cruz,  and  the 
total  population  8000.  The  only  manufacture  is  the 
Bt  George,  burning  of  bricks.  The  chief  town  of  St  George  is  Velas, 
and  the  popul.ition  18,000. 

The  two  small  islands  of  Corvo  and  Flores  seem  but 
Imperfectly  to  belong  to  the  group.  They  lie  also  out  of 
the  usual  track  of  navigators  ;  but  to  those  who,  missing 
their  course,  are  led  thither,  Flores  affords  good  shelter  in 
its  numerous  bays.  Its  poultry  is  excellent;  and  the  cattle 
are  numerous,  but  small  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
abundance  of  the-  flowers  that  find  shelter  in  its  deep 
ravines.    Population  of  Corvo,  1000,  and  of  Flores,  10,508. 

See  Hnrttnann's  Edrin  ;  Voyages  des  UoUandoii.  tome  i. ;  Astley's 
Colkdion,  vol  i. ;  Mosson's  "Account  of  St  iMigiiel,"  in  Phil.  Traim., 
1778  ;  Cook's  Second  Voynge;  Adanson's  Voyage  to  Senegal;  History 
oj  Hit  A..:rr^.  London,  1813,  ond  the  ri-viow  of  this  work  in  tlic 
Quarterly  for  1314  ;"fioi'l'9  Azores :  Londm  Geographical  Journal  ,■ 
A  Winter  in  the  Azores,  ly  J.  and  H.  Bullar,  1811  ;  Ilartung's  Vie 
Azoren  in  Aciusseren  Erscheinung  w.  Oeogn^st.  Natur,  Loipsic, 
1860;  Morclct's  Ilrs  A(;ores.  18G0  ;  DroweK' s  ^Ibnens  de  la  Fuinie 
A^orienne,  1861  ;  Droiict's  MoUusqiies  Marins  do  lies  Azores,  1858; 
Diouet's  Lettres  A^orknnes,  1862;  Hamos  (Dr  A,  Q.),  ^'oticia  do 
Archipelago  dos  Ai;cres.  kc,  1871  ;  Godman's  Aat.  Hist,  of  the 
Azures,  1370  ;  "Voyages  nux  Azores,"  by  Kouqne  in  the  FKCWie  des 
Deux  Mondcs,  1873^  •' Allgnmcinc  C'hnnic.  di's  Klimas"  in  Undro. 
MiUh.  vorn  llydr.  But.  dcr  Admir.,  lii-rlin,  1S73  ;  Kcrliallet's  i)«cr,' 
ie  I'Aihip.  de:  Azores,  1651,  trunsKntcd  by  Totten,  1874, 

AZuTUS,  the  name  given  by  Greek  and  Roman  writers 
to  AsndoJ,  ot  Eshdod,  an  ancient  city  of  Palestine,  now 
represented  by  a  few  remains  in  the  little  village  of  Esdud, 
in  the  /-ashalik  of  Acre.     It  was  situated  a  short  distance 


Graciosa. 


Corro  and 
Flores. 


inland  from  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  usual  military  route 
between  Syria  and  Egypt,  about  18  geographical  miles  N.  E. 
of  Gaza.  As  one  of  the  five  chief  cities  of  the  Philistines, 
and  the  seat  of  the  worship  cf  Dagon,  it  maintained,  do  .vu 
even  to  the  days  of  tie  Maccabees,  a  vigorous,  though 
somewhat  intermittent,  independence  against  the  power  of 
the  Israelites,  by  whom  it  was  nominally  assigned  to  the 
territory  of  Judah.  In  spite  of  its  being  dismantled  by 
Uzziah,  and  somewhat  later,  in  731tb.c.,  captured  by  the 
Assyrians,  it  was  strong  enough  in  the  next  century  to 
resist  the  assaults  of  Psammetichus  for  twenty-nine  years. 
Restored  by  the  Roman  Gabinius  from  the  ruins  in  which 
it  had  been  left  by  the  Jewish  wars,  it  was  presented  by 
Augustus  to  Salome,  the  sister  of  Herod.  It  became  the 
seat  of  a  bishop  early  in  the  Christian  era,  but  seems  never 
to  have  attained  any  importance  as  a  town. 

AZPEITIA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Guipuz- 
coa,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Urola,  15  miles  S.'W.  of  San 
Sebastian.  The  neighbouring  country  is  fertile,  and  quarries 
of  marble  are  wrought  in  the  mountains.  During  the 
Carlist  movement  in  1870-74,  Azpeitia  was  the  seat  of  the 
Guipuzcoan  Diputacion,  or  court  for  the  management  of  the 
war ;  and  gunpowder,  cartridges,  and  cannon  were  manu- 
factured ia  the  town.  The  famous  monastery  of  San 
Ignacio,  dedicated-to  Loyola,  about  a  mile  distant,  was  rOso 
appropriated  for  military  purposes.  Population  stated  at 
2335. 

AZTECS,  the  native  name  of  one  of  the  tribes  that 
occupied  the  table-land  of  Mexico  on  the  arrival  of  the 
Spaniards  in  America.  It  has  been  very  frequently 
employed  as  equivalent  to  the  collective  national  title  of 
Nahuatlecas,  or  Mexicans.  The  Aztecs  came,  according  to 
native  tradition,  from  a  country  to  which  they  gave  tho 
name  of  Aztlan,  usually  supposed  to  lie  towards  the  N.W,, 
but  the  satisfactory  localisation  of  it  is  one  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  in  Mexican  history.  The  date  of  the  exodus 
from  Aztlan  is  equally  undetermined,  being  fixed  by  various 
authorities  in  the  11th  and  by  others  in  the  r2th  century. 
One  Mexican  manuscript  gives  a  date  equivalent  to  11G4 
A.D.  They  gradually  increased  their  influence  among  other 
tribes,  until,  by  union  with  the  Toltecs,  who  occupied  the 
table-land  before  them,  they  extended  their  empire  to  an 
area  of  from  18,000  to  20,000  square  leagues.  The 
researches  of  Humboldt  gave  the  first  clear  insight  into  the 
early  periods  of  their  history.     See  Mexico. 

AZUNI,  UoMENico  Albekto,  a  distinguished  jurist  and 
writer  on  international  law,  was  born  at  Sassari,  in  Sardinia, 
in  1749.  He  studied  law  at  Sassari  and  Turin,  and  in 
1782  was  made  judge  of  the  consulate  at  Nice.  In  178C-8S 
he  published  his  Dizlmiario  Universale  Hagionato  delta 
Giui-ispruden:a  Mercantile.  In  1795  appeared  his  sys- 
tematic work  on  the  maritime  law  of  l^'aro\)C,Sistcma  Univer- 
sale dei  Principii  del  Diritto  Mcirilimo  dell'  Europa,  of  which 
a  second  edition  was  demanded  in  the  following  year.  A 
French  translation  by  Digeon  was  published  in  1  798,  and  in 
1805  Azuni  recast  the  work,  and  translated  it  into  French. 
In  180G  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  French  commission 
engaged  in  drawing  up  a  general  code  of  commercial  law, 
and  in  the  following  year  lie  proceeded  to  Genoa  as  pre- 
sident of  the  court  of  appeal.  After  tho  fall  of  Napoleon 
in  1814,  Azuni  lived  for  a  time  in  retirement  at  Genoa,  till 
he  was  invited  to  Sardinia  by  Victor  Emmanuel  I,,  and 
appointed  judge  of  the  consulate  at  Cagliavi,  and  director 
of  tho  university  library.  He  resided  at  Cagliari  till  his 
death  in  1827.  Besides  the  works  above  mentioned,  Azuni 
wrote  numerous  pamphlets  and  minor  works,  chiefly  on 
maritime  law,  an  important  trcati.sc  on  the  origin  and  pro- 
gress of  maritime  law  (Pariii,  1810),  and  an  historical, 
geographical,  and  political  account  of  Sardinia  (Ist  cd.t 
1799;  2d,  much  enlarged,  1802). 


1^ 


173 


B 


Bis  tbe  second  symbol  of  all  European  alphabets 
except  those  deiived  from  the  Cyrillic  original  (see 
Au'DAUET,  vol.  i.  p.  013),  such  as  the  Russian.  In 
these  a  moditicd  form,  in  which  only  the  top  of  the  upper 
loop  appears,  stands  as  the  second  letter,  with  the  value 
of  the  original  sound  b  ;  whilst  the  old  symbol  B  comes 
third  with  the  phonetic  value  y  or  w.  In  Kgypt  this  letter 
was  originally  a  hieroglyph  for  a  crane,  and  afterwards 
represented  also  the  sound  6.  The  symbol  and  its  |ihonctic 
value  were  borrowed  by  the  Phcenicians,  but  not  its  name, 
as  we  infer  from  finding  it  called  in  Hebrew  btt/t,  i.e.,  a 
house.  In  its  oldest  known  Pha^nician  form  the  upper 
loop  only  exists  in  a  more  or  less  rounded  shape.  In 
ditlerpnt  alphabets  even  the  upper  loop  was  gradually 
opened,  so  that  in  the  square  Hebrew  the  original  form  can 
no  longer  be  detected.  The  Greeks,  when  they  borrowed 
it  from  the  rhoonieians,  closed  up  the  lower  loop  as  well  as 
the  upper  for  convenience  of  writing.  Sometimes  the 
loops  were  angular,  but  more  generally  they  were  rounded. 
There  is  little  variation  of  the  form,  except  in  the  old 
alphabets  of  Corinth  and  Corcyra,  where  the  original  is 
hardly  recognisable.  In  old  Latin  both  the  rounded  and 
tbe  pointed  loops  appear. 

The  original  sound  which  this  symbol  represented,  and 
which  it  still  represents  in  most  European  languages,  is  a 
closed  labial,  i.e.,  one  in  which  perfect  closure  of  the  lips 
is  necessary,  the  sound  being  heard  as  the  lips  open.  Like 
all  closed  sounds,  it  is  not  capable  of  prolongation.  It 
diflers  from  p,  which  is  also  a  closed  labial,  as  a  sonant 
from  a  surd.  A  sonant  is  heard  when  the  breath,  as  it 
passes  through  the  glottis,  is  vocalised  by  tlie  tension  or 
approximation  of  its  edges.  When  there  is  no  such  action 
of  the  glottis,  mere  breath  alone  passes  through  ;  but  the 
explosiveness  of  the  breath  when  the  vocal  organs  are 
opened  produces  a  sound,  and  this  is  called  a  surd.  The 
vocal  organs  are  in  precisely  the  same  position  forp  as  for 
b;  but  in  producing  p  they  act  upon  breath  only;  in  pro- 
ducing b  they  articulate  voice. 

In  the  earliest  stage  to  which  we  can  trace  back  the 
language  spoken  by  the  forefathers  of  the  Indo-European 
nations,  it  cannot  bo  certainly  proved  that  the  sound  b  was 
ever  heard  at  the  beginning  of  a  word.  Perhaps  in  this 
position  it  ni.ay  have  been  souilded  indistinctly  as  a  labial 
V.  la  English  and  all  Low  German  languages  p  has 
taken  the  place  of  original  b,  which  is  preserved  in  Greek 
and  Latin  ;  thus  the  b  in  Kaiia^i?  is  replaced  by  p  in 
Engli.sh  "  hemp."  We  do  not  certainly  know  the  reason 
of  this  shifting  of  sound,  which  aQ'ects  all  momentary 
sound.s,  and  which  is  commonly  known  in  England  by  the 
name  of  "  Grimm's  law."  By  the  same  law  English  b  has 
taken  the  place  of  original  bh.  Thus  our  "  beech  "  stands 
for  origin.al  "  bliaga,"  which  is  represented,  according  to 
the  phonetic  laws  of  the  languages,  by  Greek  c^ijyo's  and 
Latin  "  fagus."  In  the  middle  of  a  Latin  word,  and  con- 
sequently generally  in  the  languages  derived  from  the 
Latin,  6  represents  original  b/i. 

There  is  a  tendency  among  some  peoples  to  allow  the  b 
sound  to  pass  into  a  v,  in  which  the  liiis  arc  not  finnly 
closed,  and  so  the  sound  is  cap.able  of  prolongation,  because 
it  docs  not  consist  (as  6  proper  does)  in  the  momentary 
escape  of  the  voice  after  the  lips  have  been  compressed  and 
then  opened.  This  v,  in  the  production  of  which  the  lijis 
elone  are  concerned,  nnist  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
our  EnglLiU  v,  which  is  the  result  of  pressure  between  the 
upper  teeth  and  lower  lip;  it  is  more  like  our  English  u: 


It  is  the  sound  which  has  taken  tlin  place  o!  o  in 
modem  Greek.  The  same  confusion  is  found  in  Lalm 
inscriptions  of  the  3d  and  4th  centuries  after  Christ,  when 
the  symbol  v  represents  original  b  ;  thus  sivi  stands  for  sib', 
liviilo  for  libido  (see.  Corssen,  Aussprao'te,  ifec.,  i.  131)  ;  and 
still  more  frequently  b  appears  for  v,  as  bixil  for  v!.liI.; 
The  change  would  be  inconceivable  if  the  symbol  v  in 
these  cases  had  had  the  same  sound  as  with  us,  that  of  a 
labiodental.  The  same  indistinctness  appeared  locally  in 
dialects,  as  is  shown  by  Martial's  well-known  epigram — 

"  llaml  tcmcre  aiitiquas  niutat  Vasconia  voces, 
Cui  nil  est  aliiiil  vivcrc  quam  bibcrc." 

BAADER,  Fit.\NZ  X.vver  voy,  an  eminent  German 
philosopher  and  theologian,  bom  27th  March  17Gu  at 
Munich,  was  the  third  son  of  I".  P.  Baader,  court  physician 
to  the  elector  of  Bavaria.  His  two  elder  brothers  were 
both  distinguished,  the  eldest,  Clemens,  as  an  author,  the 
second,  Joseph,  as  an  engineer.  Franz  when  young  was 
extremely  delicate,  and  from  his  seventh  to  his  eleveiit'j 
year  was  afllictcd  with  a  species  of  mental  weakness,  which 
singularly  enough  disappeared  entirely  when  he  was  intro- 
duced for  the  first  time  to  the  mathematical  diagrams  of 
Euclid.  His  progress  thenceforth  was  very  rapid.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the  university  of  Ingolstadt,  where 
he  studied  mcdiciHC,  aud  graduoted  in  17S2.  He  then 
spent  two  years  at  Vienna,  and  returning  home,  for  a  short 
time  assisted  his  father  in  his  extensive  practice.  This 
life  he  soon  found-  unsuited  for  him,  and  he  decided  on 
becoming  a  mining  engineer.  He  studied  under  Werner 
at  Freiberg,  travelled  through  several  of  the  mining  dis- 
tricts in  North  Germany,  and  for  four  years,  1792-17'JG, 
resided  in  England.  There  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  works  of  Jakob  Bohme,  and  at  the  same  time  was 
brought  into  contact  with  the  rationalistic  ISth-century 
ideas  of  UuiMe,  Hartley,  and  Godwin,  w  hich  were  extremely 
distasteful  to  him.  For  Baader  throughout  his  whole  life 
had  the  deepest  sense  of  the  rcalittj  of  religious  truths, 
and  could  find  no  satisfaction  in  m«e  reason  or  philo- 
sophy. "God  is  my  witness,"  he  writes  in  his  journal 
of  178G,  "how  heartily  and  how  often  I  say  with  Pascal, 
that  with  all  our  speculation  and  demonstration  we  remain 
without  God  in  the  world."  Modern  philosophy  he 
thought  essentially  atheistic  in  its  tendencies,  and  he 
soon  grew  to  be  dissatisfied  with  the  Kantian  system, 
by  which  he  had  been  atHkst  attracted.  I'articulaily 
displeasing  to  him  was  the  ethical  autonomy,  or  the  posi- 
tion that  man  had  in  himself  a  rule  of  action,  that  duly 
contained  no  necessary  reference  to  God.  This  Baader 
called  "a  morality  for  devils,"  and  passionately  declared 
that  if  Satan  could  ag.iin  come  upon  caith,  he  would 
assume  the  garb  of  a  professor  of  moral  jOulosophy.  The 
mystical,  but  juofoundly  religious,  speculations  of  Eckhart, 
St  Martin,  and  above  all  of  Bohme,  were  more  in  harmony 
with  his  mode  of  thought,  and  to  them  he  devoted  himself. 
In  170G  ho  returned  from  England,  and  in  his  ]iassago 
through  Hamburg  becamo  acquainted  with "  Jacobi,  the 
Faitk  philosopher,  with  whom  he  was  for  ninny  years  on 
terms  of  close  friend.sliip.  He  now  for  the  first  time 
learned  something  of  Schelling,  and  the  works  he  published 
during  this  period  were  manifestly  influenced  by  that 
philosopher.  Vet  Baader  is  no  disciple  of  Schelling,  and 
probably,  in  the  way  of  alTecting  the  future  course  of 
SchoUing's  thought,  gave  out  more  than  he  received. 
Their  personal  friendship  continued  till  about  the  year 
1822,  when  Baader's  veliement  denunciation  of  modero 


174 


B  A   A  D  E  R 


philosophy  in  his  letter  to  tlic  Czar  of  Russia  entirely 
alienated  Schelliiig. 

While  prosecuting  his  philosophical  researches,  Baader 
had  continued  to  apply  himself  diligently  to  his  profession 
of  engineer.  Ho  gained  a  prize  of  12,000  gulden  (about 
£1000)  for  his  new  method  of  employing  Glauber's  salts 
instead  of  potash  in  the  making  of  glass.  From  1S17  to 
1820  he  held  the  post  of  superintendent  of  mines,  and  nas 
raised  to  the  rank  of  nobility  for  his  services.  He  retired 
from  business  in  1820,  and  soon  after  published  one  of  the 
best  of  his  works,  Fermcnla  Cor^ndionis,  G  pts.,  1822-25,  in 
which  he  combats  modern  philosophy,  and  recommends  the 
study  of  J.  Bohme.  In  1826,  when  the  new  university 
was  opened  at  Munich,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
philosophy  and  speculative  theology.  Some  of  the  lectures 
delivered  there  he  published  under  the  title,  Spcku/ntive 
Dogmatik,  i  pts.,  1827-1836.  In  1838  he  opposed  the 
interference  in  civil  matters  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
to  which  he  belonged,  and  in  consequence  was,  during 
the  last  three  years  of  his  life,  interdicted  from  lecturing 
on  the  philosophy  of  religion.     He  died  23d  May  1841. 

It  is  extremely  di£Bcult  to  give  in  moderate  compass  an 
adequate  view  of  Baader's  philosophy  ;  for  he  himself 
generally  either  gave  e-xprcssion  to  his  deepest  thoughts  in 
brief,  obscure  aphorisms,  or  veiled  them  under  mystical 
symbols  and  analogies.  In  this  reeiiect  his  style  of  exposi- 
tion is  not  undeserving  of  Zeller's  strictures  (Ges.  d.  deut. 
Phil.,  732,  736).  Further,  he  has  no  systematic  works ; 
his  doctrines  were  for  the  most  part  thrown  out  in  short 
detached  essays,  in  comments  on  the  writings  of  BuLme 
and  St  Martin,  or  in  his  extensiva  correspondence  and 
journals.  For  his  own  part,  he  was  distinctly  of  opinion 
that  philosophy  is  not  as  -  yet  capable  of  reduction  to 
scientific  form,  and  it  .would  consequently  be  an  error  to 
demand  from  him  a  rigidly  coherent  body  of  truth.  At 
the  same  time,  the  general  tendency  of  his  thought  is  very 
apparent,  and  there  are  some  salient  points  which  stand 
out  with  a  clearness  sufficient  to  render  possible  an  outline 
of  his  whole  course  of  speculation.  In  the  mode  in  which 
he  approaches  the  problems  of»  philosojjhy,  Baader  is 
entirely  opposed  to  the  modern  speculative  spirit,  which, 
beginning  with  Descartes,  has  end.Mvoured  to  erect  a 
rational  or  coherent  system  on  the  basis  of  self-conscious- 
ness alone,  and  has  protested  against  the  presupposition  of 
anything  which  can  fetter  reason,  and  against  the  accepta- 
tion of  any  truth  which  cannot  be  rationally  construed. 
He  starts  from  the  position  that  human  rea.son  is  in  a 
corrupt  conditii>o.  and  by  itself  cau  never  reach  the  end  it 
aims  at,  and  maintains  that  we  cannot  throw  aside  the 
presuppositions  of  faith,  church,  and  tradition.  His 
point  of  view  may,  with  some  truth,  be  dc.?enlied  as 
Scholasticism  ;  for,  like  the  great  seliola.^tic  doctors,  he 
believes  that  theology  and  philosophy  arc  not  opposed 
sciences,  but  that  reason  has  to  make  clear  the  truths  given 
by  authority  and  revelation.  But  in  his  attempt  to  draw 
still  closer  the  realms  of  nature  and  of  grace,  of  faith  and 
knowledge,  of  human  thought  and  divine  reason,  lie 
approaches  more  nearly  to  the  mysticism  of  Fckliart, 
Paracelsus,  and  Bohme.  All  self-consciousness,  he  thinks, 
is  at  the  same  time  Gud-consciousncss  ;  our  knowledge  is 
never  mere  sricntia,  it'  is  invariably  con-scienlta—n  know- 
ing with,  consciousness  of,  or  participation  in  God.  Of 
thic  knowledge,  as  of  knowledge  in  general,  there  a're 
three  grailcs : — (1.)  Where  the  thing  known  impresses 
itself  upon  us  without  or  against  the  will,  where  the 
knowledge  is  necessary, — such,  e.fj.,  is  tlic  knowledge  l/ial 
God  is;  (2.)  Where  the  thing  knowu  i.«  coLMiised  by  an 
act  on  our  part,  where  knowledge  is  tree, — such,  f^r;.,  i.<  the 
voluntary  belief  or  trust  in  God;  (3.)  Where  ttie  thing 
known  enters  into,  and  forms  part  of.  the  very  process  of 


know  ing, — such  is  llic  sprculalive  knowledge  of  God,  where- 
in we  recognise  that  without  God  we  are  not,  and  that  we 
know  Him  only  in  and  through  His  knowledge  of  us.  Tlic 
notion  of  God  is  thus  the  fundamental  thought  of  Baader, 
his  philosophy  is  in  all  essentials  a  thcosonhy,  and  its 
first  great  problem  is  to  determine  accurately  the  nature 
of  the  divine  Being.  Now  Cod,  who  is,  according  to 
Baader,  the  primary  will  which  lies  at  tbe  basis  of  all 
things,  is  not  to  be  conceived  as  mere  abstract  Being, 
subslantia,  but  as  everlasting  process,  activity,  actus.  Of 
this  everlasting  process,  this  self-generation  of  God,  we 
may  distinguish  two  aspects — the  immanent  or  esoteric, 
and  the  emancnt  or  exoteric.  God  has  reality  only  in  so  far 
as  He  is  absolute  spirit,  and  only  in  so  far  as  the  primitive 
will  cognises  or  is  conscious  of  itself  can  it  become  spirit 
at  all.  But,  in  this  very  cognition  of  self  is  involved  the 
distinction  of  knower  and  known,  producer  and  produced, 
from  which  proceeds  the  power  to  become  spirit.  Tins 
immanent  process  of  self-consciousness,  wherein  indeed  a 
trinity  of  persons  is  not  given  but  only  rendered  possible, 
is  mirrored  in,  and  takes  place  through,  the  eternal  and 
impersonal  idea  or  wisdom  of  God,  which  e.Msts  beside, 
though  not  distinct  from,  the  primitive  will.  Concrete 
reality  or  personality  is  given  to  this  divine  Ternar,  as 
Baader  calls  it,  through  nature,  the  principle  of  self-hood, 
of  individual  being,  which  is  eternally  and  necessarily  pro- 
duced by  God.  Only  in  nature  is  the  trinity  of  persons 
attained.  These  processes,  it  must  be  noticed,  are  not  to 
be  conceived  as  successive,  or  as  taking  place  in  time,  they 
are  to  bo  looked  at  sitb  specie  alcrntlatis,  as  the  necessary 
eJements  or  moments  in  the  self-evolutioii  of  the  divine 
Being.  Kor  is  nature  to  be  confounded  with  created  .miI>- 
stance,  or  with  matter  as  it  exists  in  space  and  time ;  it  is 
pure  non-being,  the  mere  otherness,  altcrUaa,  of  God — his 
shadow,  desire,  want,  or  desidcrnim  sui,  as  it  is  called  by 
mystical  writer?.  Creation  is  itself  a  free  and  non-temporal 
act  of  God's  love  and  will,  and  on  this  ."ccount  its  reality 
cannot  be  speculatively  deduced,  but  must  be  accepited  as 
an  historic  fact.  Created  beings  were  originally  of  three 
orders^  the  intelligent,  or  •angels;  the  non  intelligent 
natural  existences  ;  and  man,  who  mediated  between  lliesc 
two  orders.  Intelligent  beings  are  endowed  with  freedom, 
it  is  possible,  but  not  necessary,  that  they  should  fall 
Hence  the  fact  of  the  fall  is  not  a  speculative,  but  an 
historic  truth.  The  angels  fell  through  pride — through 
desire  to  raise  thciViseJves  to  equality  with  God  ;  man  fell 
by  lowering  himself  to  the  level  of  nature.  Only  alter  the. 
fall  of  man  begins  the  creation  of  space,  time,  and  matter, 
or  of  the  world  as  we  now  know  it ;  and  the  motive  of  this 
creation  was  the  desire  to  aQ'ord  man  an  opi>oitiinity  for 
taking  advantage  of  the  scheme  of  redeiiiplion,  for  bung- 
ing forth  in  purity  the  image  of  God  according  to  w  huh  he 
has  been  fashioned.  The  physical  philosophy  and  antliio- 
jiology  which  Baader,  in  connection  with  this,  unfolds  m 
various  works,  is  but  little  instructive,  and  coincides  in  the 
main  with  the  senii-inlelligible  utterances  of  Jiolinie.  In 
nature  and  in  man  he  finds  traces  of  the  dire  eiVects  of  sm, 
which  has  coirupted  both,  and  has  destroyed  their  natural 
harmony.  As  regards  ethics,  it  has  been  already  pointed 
out  that  Baader  rejects  llic  Kantian  or  any  autonomic 
system  of  morals.  Not  obedience  to  a  moral  law,  but 
realisation  in  ourselves  of  the  divine  life,  through  and  in 
winch  we  have  our  being,  is  the  true  elliical  iiid.  But 
man  has  lost  the  power  to  cfl'cct  this  by  hiuisclf  ;  he  has 
alienated  liiniscif  from  God,  and  therefore  no  ethical  theory 
which  neglects  the  facts  of  sin  and  redemption  is  satisfac- 
tory or  even  possible.  The  history  of  man  and  of  humanity 
is  the  lii.story  of  the  redeeming  love  of  God.  The  uic.'ins 
whereby  we  put  ourselves  so  in  relation  with  Christ  as  lo 
receive  from  Him  his  beuliiig  vutue,  are  chiefly  pjayorand 


BAA       13  A  A 


175 


'the  gacraraents  of  the  church,  though  it  must  be  noted  that 
mere  worka  are  never  sufficient.  With  regard  to  man  in 
Uis  social  relalious  ere  are  two  great  institutions  or 
systems  of  rules  uoder  which,  or  in  connettion  with  which, 
he  stands.  One  is  temporal,  natural,  and  limited — the 
state ;  the  other  is  eternal,  cosmopolitan,  and  universal — 
the  church.  In  the  state  two  things  are  requisite :  first, 
common  submission  to  the  ruler,  which  can  only  be  secured 
or  given  when  the  state  b  Christian,  for  God  alono  is  the 
true  ruler  of  men  ,•  and,  secondly,  inequality  of  rank, 
without  which  there  can  be  no  organisation.  A.  despotism 
of  mere  power,  and  liberalism,  which  naturally  produces 
socialism,  are  equally  objectionable.  The  ideal  state  is 
A  perfectly  organised  church  society,  a  civil  community 
ruled  by  a  universal  or  Catholic  church,  and  the  principles 
0^1  this  church  are  equally  distinct  from  mere  passive 
pietism,  or  iaith  which  will  know  nothing,  and  from  the 
Protestant  doctrine,  which  is  the  very  radicalism  of  reason. 
Baader  is,  without  doubt,  the  greatest  speculative  theo- 
logian of  modern  Catholicism,  and  his  influence  has  ex- 
tended itself  even  beyond  the  precincts  of  his  (jwn  church. 
The  great  work  of  Rothe,  Theologische  Ethxk,  is  thoroughly 
impregnated  with  his  spirit ;  and,  not  to  mention  others, 
J.  Miillcr,  Christ.  Lehre  v.  der  Siinde,  and  Martensen, 
Christ.  Dogmatih,  show  evident  marks  of  his  influence. 

His  works  have  been  collected  and  published  by  a  namber  of  his 
•ilhcrents — HolTmann,  Hamberger,  E.  v.  Schaden,  Lutterbeck,  Von 
OstcD-Sacken,  and  .Schliiler — Baader's  Sitmmtliche  IVerke,  16  vols., 
1851-60.  Valuable  introdoctions  by  the  editors  are  prefixed  to 
the  several  volumes.  Vol.  xv.  contains  a  full  biography  ;  vol.  xvi., 
an  index,  and  an  able  sketch  of  the  whole  system  oy  Lutterbeck. 
Among  the  most  valuable  worics  in  elucidation  or  development  of 
Baader's  philosophy  may  be  named  : — Hoffmann,  Vor?iatU  mr  Speht. 
laliven  Lehre  ilaader's,  1836  ;  GrundzUge  der  Socittats-PhUosophie 
Franz  Baader's.  1837;  PhilosopKisclu  Schn/lm.  3  vols.,  1868-72;. 
VU  iVeUalUr^  1868;  Bamberger,  Cardinaljmnkit  d^r  Haadcrschm 
Pkilosophie,  1355  ;  Fundamentalbegriffe  tm  F.  B.'s  Elhik,  Politilr, 
tt.  Pcli^ons- Philosophic^  1858  ;  Lutterbeck,  Philosophische  Stand- 
pu^Ode  Baader'),  1354;  Baader' a  Lehre  vom  Wellgebdude,  1866.    The 

•  >nlv  satisfactory  survey  in  any  history  of  philosophy  is  that  given 
by  Erdmaon,  Versuch  etrur  Oach.  d.  rteium  Phil.,  iii.  2,  pp.  683- 
436.  (It.  AD.) 

BAAL  is  a  Semitic  word,  which  primarily  signifies  Ivrd 
or  ovmer,  and  then,  in  accordance  with  the  Semitic  way  of 
looking  at  family  and  religious  relations,  is  specially  ap- 
propriated to  express  the  relation  of  a  husband  to  his  wife, 
and  of  the  deity  to  his  worshipper.  In  the  latter  usage, 
which  does  not  occur  among  the  Arabian  Semites,  the  word 
Baal  seems  at  first  to  have  been  a  mere  title  of  deity  and 
not  a  proper  name.  In  the  Old  Testament  it  is  regularly 
written  with  the  article — "  the  Baal ; "  and  the  Baals  of 
different  tribes  or  sanctuaries  were  not  necessarily  con- 
ceived as  identical,  so  that  we  find  frequent  mention  of 
Baalim,  or  rather  "  the  B.ialim,"  in  tho  plural.  There  is 
even  reason  to  believ*  that  at  an  early  date  tho  Israelites 
applied  the  title  of  Baal  to  Jehovah  himself,  for  one  of 
Saul's  sons  is  named  Esh-baal  (1  Chron.  viiL  33),  while 
everything  we  know  of  Saul  makes  it  most  unlikely  that 
he  was  ever  an  idolater.  Afterwards,  when  the  name  Baal 
was  exclusively  appropriated  to  idolatrous  worship  (cf.  Hos. 
ii.  16,  17),  abhorrence  for  the  unholy  word  was  marked  by 
writing  .fiiwA^M  (shameful  thing)  for  Baal  in  compound  pro- 
per names,  and  thus  we  get  the  usual  forms  Ishbosheth, 
Me[)liibosheth.  .  (Cf.  Ewald,  Geschichte,  ii.  537,  and  Well- 
hausen,  Tert  der  Buchfr  Samuelis,  pp.  xii.  30,  where  more 
arguments  are  adduced  for  this  view.) 

The  freat  difficulty  which  has  been  felt  by  investigators 
in  determining  the  character  and  attributes  of  the  god  Baal 
mainly  arises  from  the  originally  appellative  sense  of  the 
word,  and  many  obscure  points  become  clear  if  wo  remem- 
ber that  when  tho  title  became  a  proper  name  it  might  be 

•  ppropriatcd  by  ditferent  nations  to  quite  distinct  deities, 
wbU*  trocea  of  the  wider  us»  of  the  word  aa  a  title  fcr  snv 


god,  might  very  well  survive  even  after  one  god  had  come 
to  be  known  as  Baal  par  excellence.  That  Baal  is  not  always 
one  and  the  same  god  was  known  even  to  the  ancient  myth-, 
ologists,  who  were  very  much  disposed  to  fuse  together  dis- 
tinct deities  ;  for  they  distinguish  an  "  old  "  Baal  or  BclitaOi 
(Bel  ethan)  from  a  younger  Baal,  who  is  sometimes  viewed 
as  the  son  of  the  other.  Tho  "  old  "  Baal  has  sometimes 
been  identified  with  the  planet  Saturn,  but  it  is  more  likely 
that  he  is  the  Baal  (in  Assyrin  pronunciation  Bil)  of  the 
first  triad  of  the  Babylonian  Pantheon,  that  is  the  Be!,  as 
distinct  from  the  Baal,  of  the  Old  Testament.  This  Assy- 
rian and  Babylonian  Bel  is  no  mere  solar  or  planetary  gud, 
but  is  represented  ia  Chaldean  cosmogony  as  the  shaper 
of  heaven  and  earth,  the  creator  of  men  and  beasts,  and  of 
the  luminaries  of  heaven  (Berosu»,  ed.  Richter,  p.  50).  At 
the  same  time,  we  find  that  the  inscriptions  give  the  title 
of  Bel  to  other  and  inferior  gods,  especially  to  Merodach 
or  the  planet  Jupiter.  This  planet  was,  we  know,  the  Baal 
(Bil,  Bil)  of  the  heathen  Mesopotamians  (Sabians)  of  later 
times,  and  of  the  Babylonian  Mendeans. 

The  Baal  cf  the  Synans,  Phccnicians,  and  heathen 
Hebrews  is  a  much  less  elevated  conception  than  the 
Babylonian  BeL  He  is  properly  the  sun -god,  Baal 
Shainem,  Baal  (lord)  of  the  heavens,  the  highest  of  tho 
heavenly  bodies,  but  still  a  mere  power  of  nature,  bom 
like  the. other  luminaries  from  the  primitive  chaos  {San- 
choniathon,  ed.  Orelli,  pp.  10,  14).  As  the  sun-god  he 
is  conceived  as  the  male  principle  of  life  and  reproduc- 
tion in  nature,  and  thus  in  some  forms  of  his  worship 
is  the  patron  of  the^rossest  sensuality,  and  tvcn  of  sys- 
tematic prostitution.  An  example  of  this  is  found  in  the 
worship  of  Baal  Pcor  (Num.  xxv.),  and  in  general  in  the 
Canaanitish  high  places,  where  Baal,  the  male  principle,  wiis 
worshipped  in  association  with  the  unchaste  goddess  Ashera, 
the  female  principle  of  nature.  The  frequent  rrferences 
to  this  form  of  religion  in  the  Old  Testament  are  obscured 
in  the  English  version  by  the  rendering  "grove"  for  the 
word  Ashera,  which  sometimes  denotes  the  goddess,  some- 
times the  tree  or  post  which  was  her  symbol.  Baal  himself 
was  represented  on  the  high  places  not  by  an  image,  but 
by  obelisks  or  pillars  (ifa^feboih,  E.  V.  wrongly  "  images  "), 
sometimes  called  chammanim  or  sun-pillars,  a  name  which 
is  to  be  compared  with  the  title  Baal-chamman,  frequently 
given  to  the  god  on  Phoenician  inscriptions.  There  is  rea- 
son to  believe  that  these  symbols,  in  their  earliest  form  of 
the  sacred  tree  and  tlje  sacred  stone,  were  not  specially 
appropriated  to  Baal  worship,  bnt  were  the  mark  of  any 
sanctuary,  mcmoriab  of  a  place  where  the  worshipper  had 
found  God  (see,  for  example.  Gen.  xxi.  33,  where  for  grove 
read  tamarisk.  Gen.  ixviii.  18),  while  the  stone  pillar  was 
also  a  primitive  altar.  Gradually,  however,  they  came  to 
be  looked  upon  as  phallic  symbols,  appropriate  only  to 
sensual  nature  worship,  and  as  such  were  attacked  by  the 
prophets  (Micah  v.  13,  14  ;  Isa.  xvii.  8,  xxvii.  9,  iic),  and 
destroyed  by  such  orthodox  kings  as  Josiah.  The  worship 
of  Baal  among  the  Hebrews  has  two  distinct  periods — one 
before  the  time  of  Samuel,  and  a  second  from  the  ir^tro- 
duction  of  the  Tyrian  worship  of  Baal  by  Ahab,-  who  mar- 
ried a  Phoenician  princess.  The  ritual  of  this  new  Boat, 
with  his  long  train  of  pnests  and  prophets,  his  temple  and 
sncred  vestments  (2  Kings  x.),  was  plainly  much  moresplfcn. 
did  than  the  older  Canaanitish  worship.  Of  the  worship 
of  the  Tyrian  Baal,  who  is  also  called  Melkart  (king  of  (he 
city),  and  is  often  identified  with  the  Greek  Heracles,  bot 
sometimes  with  the  Olympian  Zeus,  we  have  many  accounts 
in  ancient  writers,  from  Herodotus  downwards.  He  had 
a  magnificent  temple  in  insular  Tyre,  founded  by  Hiram, 
to  which  gifts  streamed  from  all  countries,  especially  at 
the  great  feasts.  The  solar  character  of  this  deity  appears 
especially  in  the  annual  feast  of  his  awakening  thortly  aflei 


17G 


B  A    A 


li 


II 


A 


the  wicter  solstice  (Joseiih.,  Ant.,  viii.  5).  At  Tjre,  aa 
among  the  Hebrews,  Baal  had  bis  symbolical  pillars,  one 
of  gold  aad  one  of  smaragdus,  wuich,  transported  by  phan- 
tasy to  the  Farthest  West,  are  still  familiar  to  us  as  the 
pillars  of  Hercules.  The  worship  of  the  Tyrian  Baal  was 
carried  to  all  the  Phoenician  colonies.  His  name  occurs 
as  an  element  in  Carthaginian  proper  names  (Haimiia/, 
A.sdnibal,  <ic.),  and  a  tablet  found  at  Marseilles  still  re- 
mains to  inform  us  of  the  charges  made  by  the  priests  of 
the  temple  of  Baal  for  offering  sacrifices. 

A  mnch-disputed  question  is  the  relation  of  the  sun-god 
Baal  to  Moloch-Satum.  Moloch  is  certainly  called  Baal 
iu  Jer.  xix.  5,  zxxii  35,  but  the  word  may  here  retain 
its  appellative  force.  It  is,  however,  the  theory  of  many 
scholars,  especially  worked  out  by  Movers,  that  Moloch  is 
only  a  special  development  of  Baal,  representing  the  de- 
structive heat  instead  of  the  life-giving  power  of  the  sun. 
Another  question  of  some  nicety  concerns  the  precise  char- 
acter and  mutual  relations  of  the  female  deities  associated 
with  Baal.  In  the  Old  Testament,  as  we  have  seen,  Ba.al 
ia  generally  associated  with  Ashera,  but  sometimes  with 
Asbtoreth  or  Astarto  (in  the  plural  Aahtarotb,  associated 
with  the  plural  Baalim,.!  Sam.  vii  4,  &c.)  As  Asbtoreth 
is  constantly  associated  with  the  Phcenician  Baal,  it  was 
long  customary  to  identify  Ashera  with  her,  a  theory  op- 
posed to  the  fact  that  Asbtoreth  is  represented  as  a  chaste 
goddess.  The  key  to  the  difficulty  is  probably  to  be  sought 
in  the  Assyrian  mythology,  where  we  find  that  the  planet 
.Venus  was  worshipped  as  the  cha£t«  goddess  Istar,  when 
she  appeared  as  a  morning  star,  and  as  the  impure  Bilit  or 
Beltifl,  the  MyLitta  of  Herod.  (I  19y),  when  she  was  an 
evening  star.  These  two  goddesses,  associated  yet  contrasted, 
seem  to  correspond  respectively  to  the  chaste  Asbtoreth 
and  the  foul  Asbara,  though  the  distinction  between  the 
rising  ftnd  setting  planet  was  not  kept  up  among  the  West- 
ern Semites,  and  the  nobler  deity  came  at  length  to  be 
■viewed  as  the  goddess  of  the  moon. 

Finally,  we  may  mention  as  a  special  form  of  Baal  the 
Philistine  Baal  zebu b,  or  "  Baal  of  flies,"  a  conception  which 
has  more  than  one  analogy  in  Greek  religion,  especially  the 
Zfi^  'Atto'/ivios  at  Olympia.  The  use  of  the  word  Beelze- 
bub, or  rather,  with  a  slight  change,  Beelzebul,  by  the  later 
Jews,  to  denote  the  prince  of  the  devib  (Mat.  xii.  24),  is 
easily  understood  on  the  principle  laid  down  in  1  Cor. 
X.  20. 

For  further  information  :is  to  Baal,  the  reader  ni.iy  con- 
sult works  on  Syrian  and  Phcenician  religion.  Of  older 
books,  the  most  celebrated  is  Selden's  De  diis  Syrl} ;  of 
recent  books,  Movers's  Dit  Phiinmer,  L,  a  work  full  of  learn- 
ing, but  deficient  in  method  and  logic.  The  valuable  con- 
tributions to  the  subject  from  Assyrian  research  are  partly 
brought  together  by  Scbrader  in  the  Stud,  und  Erit.  for 
1874,  pp.  335,  eyy.  (w.  e.  8.) 

BAALBEC,  or  Ba'aLbak,  an  ancient  city  of  Syria,  cele- 
brated fur  the  magnificence  of  its  ruins,  which,  with  the 
exception  of  those  at  Palmyra,  are  the  most  extensive  in 
that  region.  The  derivation  of  the  latter  part  of  the  name 
is  still  dubious,  some  boldly  identifjing  it  with  the  Egyp- 
tian Itak-i,  a  city,  and  others  comparing  it  with  the  Arabic 
lakha,  "to  be  thronged."  It  is  almost  certain  that  the 
Greek  ndiopolis  was  intended  to  be  a  translation  of  the 
name.  The  town  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  lowest  de- 
clivity of  the  Anti-Libanus,  at  the  opening  of  a  small  valley 
into  the  plain  of  El-BukA'a  or  Sablat  Ha'albak,  about  35 
miles  N  N  W.  of  Damascus,  and  38  S.S.E.  of  Tripoli. 
The  ini.abitanl3  have  a  saying.  Burton  informs  us,  that  it 
lies  on  the  latame.  meaning  that  it  occupies  the  flattened 
iTtat  of  a  watershed.  By  Kusscgger  its  licight  above  the 
sea  is  given  at  31 3G  Paris  feet,  and  by  Sch\ibert  at  5572, — 
lh»  r.icoo  •■•f  the  observations  being  3584  Paris  feet,  or  4502 


English  feet.  A  small  stream,  rising  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  from  a  fountain  known  as  Ba'as  el  Ayn, 
is  employed  for  the  irrigation  of  the  valley. 

The  origin  of  Baalbec  ia  lost  in  remote  antiquity,  and 
the  historical  notices  of  it  are  very  scsnty.  The  silence  cl 
the  classical  writers  respecting  it  would  seem  to  imply  that 
previously  it  had  existed  under  another  name,  and  various 
attempts  have  b;en  made  to  identify  it  with  certain  places 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  as  with  Baalgad,  "  ia  the  valley  of 
Lebanon"  (Josh.  xL  17);  Baalath,  one  of  Solomon's  cities 
(1  Kings  is.  18);  Baal-hamon,  where  Solomon  had  a  vine- 
yard (Cant.  viiL  11.);  and  "the  plain  of  Ayen  "  (Bikath- 
Aven,  Amos  i.  5),  referred  to  by  Amos ;  but  none  of  these 
identifications  seem  to  rest  on  any  very  solid  support, 
though  they  have  each  iu  turn  met  the  approval  of  some 
writer  of  authority.  In  the  absence  of  more  positive  in- 
formation, we  can  only  conjecture  that  its  situation  on  the 
high  road  of  commerce  between  Tyre  and  Palmyra  and  the 
farther  East  rendered  it  at  an  early  period  a  seat  of  wealth 
and  splendour.  It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  the  state- 
ment of  Macrobius  in  his  Saturnalia  may  be  founded  on 
the  tradition  of  a  real  and  potent  connection  between 
Heliopolis  and  its  F.gyptian  namesake.  It  is  mentioned 
by  Josepbus  {Ant.,  xiv.  3,  4),  Pliny  (Kal.  Ilisl.,  v.  22),  and 
Ptolemy,  and  coins  of  the  city  have  been  found  belonging 
td  the  reigns  of  almost  all  the  emperors  from  Nerva  to 
Gallienus.  John  Malala  of  Antioch  ascribes  the  erection 
of  a  great  temple  to  Jupiter  (laoi'  tu  Au  /icyav)  at  Helio- 
polis to  Antoninus  Pius  ;  and  two  votive  inscriptions  stili 
exist  on  the  bases  of  columns  in  the  Greater  Temple,  be- 
longing to  the  age  of  Septimius  Severus.  From  the  civic 
coins  of  the  reigns  of  Ncrva  and  Hadrian  we  learn  tha"; 
the  city  bad  been  constituted  a  colony  by  Julius  Cssar,  and 
that  it  was  the  seat  of  a  Roman  garrison  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  and  obtained  the  Jus  Ilalicum  from  Septimius 
Sevenis  (Ulpian,  De  Censibus,  lib.  i.)  Some  of  the  coins  of 
this  last  emperor  bear  the  figure  of  a  temple  and  the  legend 
COL  nEL.lo.M.H.,  Colonia  Heliopolis  Jovi  Optimo  Maximo 
Heliopolitano ;  while  one  of  the  reign  of  Valerian  has  the 
representation  of  two  temples. 

It  is  evident  that  in  the  early  Christian  centuries  Helio- 
polis was  one  of  the  most  flourishing  seats  of  Pagan  wor- 
ship, and  the  Christian  writers  draw  strange  pictures  of 
the  morality  of  the  place.  In  297  it  became  the  scene  of 
the  martyrdom  of  Gelasinus.  The  Emperor  Constantine, 
according  to  Sozomen,  issued  a  rescript  against  the  licen- 
tious rites  of  the  people,  and  founded  a  basilica  among 
them  ;  but,  on  the  accession  of  Julian,  the  Pagan  popula- 
tion broke  out  into  violent  {icrsecution,  and  the  city  be- 
came so  notorious  for  its  hostility  to  Christianity,  that 
Christians  were  banished  thither  from  Alexandria  as  a 
special  punishment.  Theodosius  the  Great  is  said  to  have 
turned  "  the  temple  of  JBalanivs,  the  Trililhon,"  into  a 
Christian  church,  and  the  city  seems  to  have  been  th^l 
scat  of  a  bishop.  -, 

From  the  accounts  of  Oriental  writer.'-,  Baalbec  seems  to 
have  continued  a  place  of  importnnce  down  to  the  time  of 
the  Moslem  invasion  of  Syria.  They  describe  it  as  one  of 
the  most  splendid  of  Syrian  cities,  enriched  with  stately 
palaces,  adorned  with  monuments  of  ancient  times,  and 
abounding  with  trees,  fountains,  and  whatever  contributes 
to  luxurious  enjoyment.  After  the  capture  of  bamascus 
it  was  regularly  invested  by  the  Moslems,  and  after  a 
courageous  defence,  at  length  capitulated.  The  ranscm 
exacted  by  the  conquerors  was  2000  ounces  of  gold,  4000 
ounces  of  silver,  2000  silk  vests,  and  1000  swords,  together 
with  the  arms  of  the  garrison.  The  city  afterwards  became 
the  mart  for  the  rich  pillage  of  Syria ;  but  its  prwperity  soon 
received  a  fatal  blow  from  the  caliph  of  Dainascns,  by 
whom  it  was  sacked  and  dismantled,  and  the  principal  in- 


B  A  A  L  B  E  C 


177 


habitants  put  to  tne  3«ord  (748  a.d.).  It  continued,  how- 
ever, to  be  a  place  of  military  importance,  and  was  fre- 
quently an  object  of  contest  between  the  caliphs  of  Eg}'pt 
4nd  tho  various  Syrian  dynasties.  In  1090  it  passed  into 
she  hands  of  the  Seljuk  princes  of  Aleppo  and  Damascus, 
who  in  1134  were  disputing  its  possession  among  them- 
selves, and  had  to  yield  in  1139  to  the  power  of  Genghis 
Khan.  He  h«ld  the  city  till  1145,  when  it  reverted  to 
Damascus,  and  continued  mostly,  from  that  time,  to  follow 
the  fortunes  of  that  city.  During  the  course  of  the  century 
it  suffered  severely  from  one  or  more  of  the  earthquakes  that 
visited  the  district  in  1139,  1157,  1170.  In  1260  it  was 
taken  by  the  forces  of  Hulagu,  who  destroyed  the  fortifica- 
tions; but,  in  the  14th  century,  it  is  again  described  by 
Abulfeda  as  enclosed  by  a  wall  with  a  large  and  strong 
fortress.  Whether  it  was  Baalbec,  or,  as  others  say, 
Cairo,  that  was,  in  13C7,  the  birthplace  of  Takkieddin 
Ahmed,  the  Arabic  historian,  he  appears  to  have  derived 
the  name  by  which  he  is  best  known,  El-Makrizi,  from  one 
of  the  quarters  of  the  city.  In  1400  it  was  pillaged  by 
Timur  in  his  progress  to  Damascus ;  and  afterwards  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Metaweli,  a  barbarous  predatory  tribe, 
who  were  nearly  exterminated  when  Djezzar  Pacha  perma- 
nently subjected  the  whole  district  to  Turkish  supremacy. 
The  ancient  walls  of  the  city  are  about  4  miles  in  com- 
pass ;  but  the  present  town  is,  with  tho  exception  of  some 
portions  of  its  Saracenic  fortifications  and  its  two  mosques, 
a  cirtster  of  mean-looking  hiiildings,  which  serve  c"ly  to 
bring  out  into  greater  proraaience  the  grandeur  ot  the 
neighbouring  ruins.  These  consist  of  three  temples,  usu- 
ally known  as  the  Great  Temple  (and  it  well  deserves  the 
name),  the  Temple  of  Jupiter,  Apollo,  or  the  Sun,  and  the 
Circular  Temple.  The  Great  Temple  {vide  Plan),  which 
would  seem  at  one  period  to  have  been  a  kind  of  pantheon, 
is  situated  on  a  magnificent  platform,  which  raises  it  high 
above  the  level  of  the  ground,  and  extends  from  east  to 
west  a  distance  of  about  1100  feet.  The  portico  is  at  the 
eastern  end,  and  must  have  been  reached  by  a  grand  flight 
of  steps.  It  is  180,  or,  including  the  excdrae  or  pavilions, 
260  feet  from  north  to  south.  A  threefold  entrance  leads 
into  the  first  court,  which  is  hexagonal  in  shape,  and 
measures  about  250  feet  from  corner  to  corner.  A  portal  50 
feet  wide,  flanked  on  each  side  by  a  smaller  aperture  of  10 
feet,  gives  admittance  to  the  great  quadrangle,  which 
extends  from  cast  to  west  for  440  feet,  and  has  a  breadth 
ot  370,  thus  including  an  area  of  between  3  and  4  acres. 
On  all  sides,  except  the  eastern,  where  the  "  stately  stairs  " 
led  up  to  the  temple  front,  this  court  was  surrounded  with 
exedrffi  of  various  dimensions,  enclosed  by  costly  pillars, 
and  adorned  with  numerous  statues;  but  statues  and  pillars 
ond  steps  are  now  all  involved  in  a  common  confusion. 
The  peristyle  of  the  temple  proper  was  composed  of  fifty- 
four  columns,  the  front  lino  consisting  of  ten  and  the  side 
line  of  nineteen  each.  The  height  of  the  shafts  was  about 
62  feet,  and  their  diameter  7  feet  at  the  b.iso  and  about  5 
feet  at  tho  top.  They  were  crowned  with  rich  Corinthian 
capitals,  and  supported  an  entablature  of  14  feet  ia  height 
(Col.  Chesney  says  1 1  feet  9  inches).  Most  of  them  were 
formed  of  three  blocks,  united  without  cement  by  strong 
iron  dowels.  Only  six  of  these  columns  still  stand  at  the 
western  end  of  tho  southern  side — three  having  fallen  since 
,  the  visit  of  Wood  and  Dawkins  in  1750.  That  part  of  tke 
great  pbtform  on  which  the  peristyle  rests  consists  of  im- 
mense walls  built  up  about  50  feet  from  the  ground,  and 
formed,  as  may  be  easily  seen  on  the  northern  side,  of 
thirteen  courses  of  bevelled  stones  in  alternate  layers  of 
longer  and  shorter  blocks.  Outside  these  walls,  at  a 
disUnco  of  29^  feet,  is  another  (so-called  substruction) 
wall  on  the  north,  west,  and  probably,  though  concealed 
by  rubbish,  also  on  the  east  side.     This  is  built  of  large 


stones,  and  contains  three  blocks  of  suck  extraordinary 
proportions  that  the  temple  acquired  from  them  its  ancient 
name  of  Trilithon,  or  "  Three-Stone-Temple."  These  mea- 
sure respectively  64  feet,  63  feet  8  inches,  and  63  feet  in 
length,  are  13  feet  in  height,  and  have  been  raised  20  feet 
from  the  ground  in  the  western  walL  Two  underground 
passages,  1 7  feet  wide  and  30  feet  high,  run  from  east  to 
west  along  the  sides  of  the  platform  of  the  great  quadrangle, 
and  are  connected  by  a  transverse  tunnel  of  similar  descrip- 
tion. They  seem,  from  inscriptions  on  the  walls,  to  have 
been  tenanted  at  some  time  by  Roman  soldiery. 

Slightly  to  the  north  of  the  Great  Temple,  and  agreeing 
with  it  in  its  orientation,  is  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  which 
is  in  much  better  preservation  than  its  neighbour,  and, 
though  small  in  comparison  with  it,  is  larger  than  the 
Parthenon   at   Athens.      It  likewise  is   built  on  a  plat- 


Ground-Plan  of  Great  Temple  ind  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Bulbee. 
(Fr      Wood  and  Dawkins,  Ruins  o/BaUxx.) 

form,  and  was  reached  by  a  flight  of  steps  at  the  eastern 
end,  which,  it  would  seem,  were  still  standing  iu  16SS. 
Tho  arrangement  of  its  peristyle  may  bo  seen  from  the 
plan.  Tho  height  of  the  columns  is  45  feet,  including  the 
Corinthian  capitals,  and  the  circumference  of  each  1 9  feet 
They  supported  an  entablature  of  7  feet  in  height,  from 
which  a  ceiling  was  carried  back  to  the  wall  of  the  cella, 
consisting  of  slabs  enriched  with  sculpture  of  great  beauty. 
Tho  principal  ornament  of  each  slab  is  a  hexagonal  mould- 
ing enclosing  tho  figure  of  some  god  or  hero ;  but  the  pro- 
fusion and  elegance  of  tho  fretwork  can  only  be  rendered 
by  the  artist.  After  passing  the  vestibule,  which  was 
partly  freed  from  its  barbarous  screen  by  Mr  Burton  in 

111.   —  23 


178 


B  A  B  — B  A  B 


1870,  we  reacli  "an  exquisitely-carved  doorway,  having 
a  staircase  on  each  side  leading  to  the  top  of  the  building," 
which  gives  entrance  to  the  interior  of  the  temple.  On 
the  soffit  is  the  figure  of  the  eagle  referred  to  by  so  many 
of  the  travellers,  and  regarded  by  Volney  and  others  as  the 
emblem  of  the  sun-god.  This  part  of  the  building  was 
greatly  damaged  in  the  earthquake  of  1759,  and  if  mea- 
sures are  not  taken  to  support  the  lintel,  it  must  soon  fall 
to  the  ground.  The  cella  seems  to  have  been  hj^jaethral  ; 
and,  like  the  rest  of  the  building,  it  was  richly  ornamented, 
'the  floor  now  presenting  a  mass  of  broken  sculpture  and 
pillars.  A  spiral  staircase,  in  the  interior  of  a  massive 
column,  leads  to  the  roof  on  each  side  of  the  portal 

Further  east  stands  the  Circular  Temple,  which  is  of 
very  small  dimensions,  but  of  beautiful  workmanship  and 
design.  It  consists  of  a  semicircular  cetla  surrounded  on 
the  outside  by  eight  Corinthian  columns,  while  within 
there  is  a— double  tier  of  smaller  pillars,  the  lownr  row 
being  Ionic  and  the  upper  Corinthian.  Down  to  the  last 
century  it  was  used  as  a  Greek  church ;  but  it  is  now  in  a 
very  ruinous  condition,  and  "  choked  with  wretched 
hovels."  It  is  known  to  the  people  of  Baalbec  as  Barbirat- 
c!  Atikah  {La  Sainle  Barbe). 

The  remains  of  the  military  works  of  the  Saracens  and 
their  successors  are  only  too  numerous  about  Baalbec ;  but 
they  have  left  no  buildings  of  greater  interest  than  the 
mosquea  already  mentioned,  the  larger  of  which  was  built 
by  Meiek  el  As'ad,  and  the  smaller  by  his  father,  Melek  el 
Zahir  (670  a.h.)  Several  interesting  excursions  may  be 
made  in  the  neighbourhood,  in  regard  to  which  the  reader 
may  consult  Murray's  Handbook,  Joanne  and  Isambert's 
Itineraire,  and  a  letter  of  Mrs  Burton's  in  Unexplored 
Si/ria. 

The  ruins  of  Baalbec  have  awakened  the  admiration  of 
European  travellers  from  the  ICth  century  down  to  the 
present  day.  Baumgarten  visited  them  in  1507,  Belon  in 
1548,  Thevet  in  1550,  Melchior  von  Seydlitz  in  15.')7, 
Radzivil  in  1583,  Quaresmius  in  1620,  Monconys  in  1647, 
Da  b.  Ruque  in  1688,  and  Maundrell  in  1699.  In  the 
18th  century  Pooocke  gave  a  sketch  of  the  ruins,  which 
was  followed  up  by  the  magnificent  work  of  Wood  and 
Dawkins  (1751),  to  this  day  one  of  our  principal  authori- 
ties, and  Volney,  in  17S4,  supplied  a  graphic  description. 
During  the  present  century  the  number  of  travellers  who 
have  visited  Baalbec  has  enormously  increased;  it  may  be 
sufficient  to  mention  Richardson,  Addison,  Lindsay,  WLIsoh, 
the  Duke  of  Ragusa,  Lamartine,  De  Saulcy,  Chesney,  and 
Hobinson.  Of  the  chapters  of  the  last  writer,  in  his 
Biblical  Researches,  vol.  iii.,  especial  use  has  been  made  in 
the  present  article.  In  spite,  however,  of  such  a  series  of 
investigators,  much  might  etiU  be  done  to  extend  our 
knowledge  of  those  wonderful  remains.  A  few  supcrfi'iial 
excavations  have  been  made  from  time  to  time;  but  the 
ruins  of  Baalbec  still  wait  for .  their  Layard  or  their 
Schliemann. 

BABATAO,  or  Babadao,  a  city  of  Turkey  in  Europe, 
io  the  government  of  Bulgaria  and  sanjak  of  Silistria.  It 
stands  on  the  lake  or  e.stuary  Rasein,  which  communicates 
with  the  Black  Sea,  ana  is.  Eurroiinded  by  mountains 
covered  with  woods.  It  used  to  be  the  winter  headquarters 
of  the  Turkish  army  during  their  wars  with  Russia  ;  anci,  in 
1854,  it  was  bombarded  by  the  Russians.  Long.  28°  32'  E, 
lat.  44'  55'  N.  '  The  population  of  10,000  includes 
many  Jews,  Armenians,  Tatars,  and  Greeks.  Babatag  was 
founded  by  Bajazct. 

BABBAOE,  CnARLES,  a  distinguished  Eugli-ih  mathe- 
Vnatician  and  mechanician,  was  liorn,  20th  December  1792, 
at  Teignmoulh  in  Devonshire.  He  was  educated  at  a 
private  school,  and  afterwards  entered  Trinity  College. 
_(;ambiidge,  where  he  graduated  in  1814'     Though  he  did 


not  compete  in  the  mathematical  tripos,  lie  acquired  a  great 
reputation  at  the  university.  In  the  year  after  his  gradua- 
tion he  contributed  a  paper  on  the  "  Cilculus  of  Func- 
tions"  to  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  and  in  181C  was 
made  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Along  with  Herschel 
and  Peacock  he  laboured  to  raise  the  standard  of  mathe- 
matical instruction  in  England,  and  specially  endeavoured 
to  supersede  the  Newtonian  by  the  Leibnitzian  notation  in 
the  Calculus.  With  this  object  the  three  friends  trans- 
lated, in  1810,  Lacroix's  Treatise  on  the  Differential  and 
Integral  Calculus,  and  added,  in  1820,  two  volumes  of 
examples.  Mr  Babbage's  attention  seems  to  have  been 
very  early  drawn  to  the  number  and  importance  of  the 
errors  introdaced  into  astronomical  and  other  calculations 
through  inaccuracies  in  the  computation  of  tables.  He 
contributed  to  the  Royal  Society  some  notices  on  the  rela- 
tion between  notation  and  mechanism;  and  in  1822,  in  a 
letter  to  Sir  H.  Davy  on  the  application  of  machinery  to 
the  calculation  and  printing  of  mathematical  tables,  he 
discussed  the  -principles  of  a  calculating  engine,  to  the 
construction  of  which  he  devoted  many  years  of  his  life. 
Government  was  induced  to  grant  its  aid,  and  the  inventor 
himself  spent  a  portion  of  his  private  fortune  in  the  pro- 
secution of  his  undertaking.  He  travelled  through  several 
of  the  countries  of  Europe,  examining  different  systems  of 
machinery;  and  some  of  the  results  of  his  investigations  were 
published  in  the  admirable  little  work.  Economy  of  Machines 
and  Manufactures,  1834,  which  Blanqui  has  called  "a 
hymn  in  honour  of  machinery."  The  great  calculating 
engine  was  never  completed  ;  the  constructor  apparently 
desired  to  adopt  a  new  pri,nciple  when  the  first  specimen 
was  nearly  complete,  to  make  it  not  a  difference  but  an 
analytical  engine,  and  Government  declined  to  accept  the 
further  uik.  From  1828  to  1839  Babbage  held  the  office 
of  Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  at  Cambridge.  He 
contributed  largely  to  several  scientific  periodicals,  and  was 
instrumental  in  founding  the  Astronomical  and  Statistical 
Societies.  He  only  once  endeavoured  to  enter  public  life, 
when,  in  1832,  he  stood  unsuccessfully  for  the  borough  of 
Finsbury.  During  the  later  years  of  his  life  he  resided  in 
London,  and,  surrounded  by  his  workshops,  still  continued 
to  devote  himself  to  the  construction  of  machines  capable 
of  performing  arithmetical  and  even  algebraical  calcula- 
tions. He  died  at  London,  20th  October  1871.  He  gives 
a  few  biographical  details  in  his  Passages  from  the  Life  of 
a  Philosop/ier,  1864,  a  work  which^hrows  considerable 
light  upon  his  somewhat  peculiar  character.  His  works, 
pamphlets,  and  papers,  were  very  numerous;  in  the  Passaijis 
he  enumerates  eighty  separate  writings.  Of  these  the 
most  important,  besides  the  few  already  mentioned,  are, 
Tables  of  Logarithms,  1826  ;  Comparative  Vino  of  the 
Various  Institutions  for  the  Assurance  of  Lives,  1826  ; 
Decline  of  Science  in  England,  1830;  Ninth  Bridgewater. 
Treatise,  'l  837  ;   The  Exposition  o/  1 85 1 ,  1 85 1 . 

BABEL  was  the  native  name  of  the  city  called  Babyk>n 
by  the  Greeks.  It  means  "gate  of  god,"  or  "  gate  of  the 
gods,"  and  was  the  Semitic  translation  of  the  original  Ac- 
cadian  designation  Ca-dimirra.  According  to  Gen.  xi,  1-9, 
mankind,  after  the  deluge,  travelled  from  the  mountain  of 
the  East  (or  Elwand),  where  the  ark  had  rested,  and  settled 
in  Shinar  (Sumir,  or  the  north-west  of  Chaldca).  Here 
they  attemntcd  to  build  a  city  and  a  tower  whose  top 
might  reach  urin.  heaven,  but  were  miraculously  prevented 
by  their  language  being  confounded.  In  this  way  the 
diversity  of  human  speech  was  accounted  for ,  and  an 
etymolog)'  w.as  found  for  the  name  of  Babylon  in  tb^  Hebrew 
verb  halhel,  "  to  confound."  According  to  Alexander  Poly- 
histor  (frg.  10)  and  Abydcnus  (frgs.  5  and  6),  the  towel 
w.as  overthrown  by  the  winds,  .The  native  version  of  the 
story  has  recently  been  discovered  among  the  cuneiforu) 


B  A  B  —  B  A  B 


J  70 


tablets  in  the  British  Museum.  Il  is  fuller  and  tnTc  com- 
(ilete  than  the  account  in  Genesis,  and  formed  part  of  a 
collection  of  Babylonian  legt'nds  older,  probably,  than  2000 
B  c.  We  learn  from  it  that  the  tower  was  erected  under 
the  supervision  of  a  semi  divine  being  called  Etanna.  The 
t)fter  has  been  identified  with  the  temple  or  tomb  of  Belus, 
which  Strabo  stated  with  some  exaggeration  to  have  been 
1  stadc  (GOG  feet)  high,  but  without  suthcient  reason.  It  is 
most  probably  represented  by  the  modern  Birs  Nimrud,  the 
ruined  remains  of  the  "Temple  of  the  Seven  Lights  of  the 
Earth,"  at  Borsippa,  a  suburb  of  Babylon,  which  was  dedi- 
cated to  Nebo.  The  temple  had  been  begun  by  "  a  former 
king,"  and  built  to  the  height  of  42  cubits,  but  it  lay  an 
uncompleted  ruin  for  many  centuries,  and  was  not  finished 
till  the  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Dr  Schrader  believes 
that  the  state  of  wreck  in  which  it  so  long  remained  caused 
•'the  legend  of  the  confusion  of  tongues"  to  be  attached 
to  it.  The  earliest  buildings  met  with  in  Chaldea  are 
constructed  of  sun-dried  brick  and  mud.  A  similar  tradi- . 
tioD  to  that  of  the  tower  of  Babel  is  found  in  Central 
America.  Xelhua,  one  of  the  seven  giants  rescued  from  the 
deluge,  built  the  gieot  pyramid  of  Cholula  'in  order  to 
storm  heaven.  The. gods,  however,  destroyed  it  with  fire 
and  confounded  the  language  of  the  buildurs.  Traces  of 
a  somewhat  similar  story  have  also  been  met  with  iTinong 
the  Mongolian  Tharus  in  Northern  India  [lieporl  of  the 
Ctniu3  of  Bengal,  1872,  p  ICO),  and,  according  to  Dr 
Livingstone,  among  the  Africans  of  Lake  Ngami.  The 
Esthonian  myth  of  "  the  Cooking  of  Languages"  (Kohl, 
lieism  in  die  Oilseeprovimen,  ii.  '251-255)  may  also  be 
compircd,  as  well  as  the  Australian  legend  of  the  origin  of 
the  diversity  of  speech  (Oerstacker,  Ileisen,  vol.  iv.  p. 
381,  seq.)  See  further  the  articles  BabyloiN  and  B.\by- 
LONIA.  (a.  n.  s  ) 

B.\B-EL-MANDEB,that  is,  the  Gate  of  Tears,  is  the  strait 
between  Arabia  and  Abyssinia  which  connects  the  Red  Sea 
wiih  the  Indian  Ocean.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
dangers  attending  its  navigation,  or,  according  to  an  Arabic 
legend,  from  the  numbers  who  were  drowned  by  the  earth- 
quake which  separated  Asia  and  Africa.  The  distance 
across  is  about  20  miles,  from  Ras  Menheli  on  the  Arabian 
coast  to  Ras  Seyan  on  the  African.  The  island  of  Perim, 
a  black  and  desolate  rock,  about  4  J  miles  long  by  2  broad, 
and  rising  to  a  height  of  240  feet,  divides  the  strait  into 
two  channels,  of  which  the  eastern  and  most  frequented, 
known  as  the  Bab  Iskcnder  {Alexander's  Strait),  is  not 
more  than  4  miles  wide,  and  varies  in  depth  from  7  to  14 
fathoms,  while  the  western,  or  Dact-e!-Mayun,  has  a  width 
of  about  15  miles  and  a  dcjith  of  180  fathoms.  Near  the 
African  coast  lie  a  group  of  smaller  islands  known  as  the 
Seven  Brothers.  There  is  usually  a  surface  outBow  from 
the  Red  Sea,  but  a  strong  under-current  must  set  inwards 
to  compensate  not  only  for  this,  but  for  the  loss  occasioned 
by  the  great  evaporation.  (See  Carpenter's  "  Further  In- 
quiries "  in  J.  R.  Geog  S.,  1874.)  In  the  end  of  the  18th 
century  (1790)  the  island  of  Perim  was  taken  possession  Of 
by  tht  British  and  held  as  a  m'^itary  outpost,  so  to  speak,  of 
the  Indian  empire.  They  again  asserted  their  right  to  it  in 
11857,  and  in  1861  a  lighthouse  was  built  at  Straits  Point, 
at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  island.  The  harbour  is 
accessible  and  commodious,  and  the  position  gives  com- 
plete command  of  the  Red  Sea. 

BABER..  Zedir  EDDiN  Maho'vet,  surna'mcd  Caber,  or 
the  Tiger,  the  famous  conqueror  of  India  and  founder  of 
the  sr.  called  Moghul  dynasty,  was  born  on  the  Hth  Fub- 
ruarj'  1483  He  was  a  descendant  of  Oengliis  Khan  and 
Tnnur,  and  his  father,  Omar  Sheikh,  was  king  of  Farghana, 
a  district  of  Transoxiana,  lying  cast  of  Saniarcand.  Uinar 
lied  in  1495,  and  Babcr,  though  only  twelve  years  of  age, 
.iicg^eded  ^o  the  throne.    "An  attempt  made  by  his  uncles 


to  dislodge  him  proved  unsuccessful,  and  no  sooner  was 
the  young  sovereign  firmly  settled  than  he  began  to  meditate 
an  extension  of  his  own  dominions.  In  14'J7  lie  attacked 
and  gained  possession  of  Somarcand,  to  which  he  always 
seems  to  have  thought  he  had  a  natural  and  hereditary 
right.  A  rebellion  among  his  nobles  robbed  him  of  his 
native  kingdom,  and  while  marching-  to  recover  it,  his 
troops  deserted  him,  and  he  lost  Samarcand  also.  After 
some  reverses  he  regained  both  these  places,  but  in  1501 
his  most  formidable  enemy,  Schaibani  Khan,  ruler  of  the 
Usbeks,  defeated  him  in  a  great  engagement,  and  drove 
him  from  Samarcand.  For  thice  years  he  wandered  about 
trying  in  vain  to  recover  his  lost  possessions ;  at  last,  in 
150J,  he  gathered  some  troops,  and  crossing  the  snowy 
Hundu  Kush,  besieged  and  caytured  the  strong  city  of 
Cabul.  By  this  dexterous  stroke  he  gained  a  new  and 
wealthy  kingdom,  and  completely  re  established  his  for- 
tunes. In  the  following  year  he  united  with  Hussaiii 
Mirza  of  Herat  against  Schaibani.  The  death  of  Hussain 
put  a  stop  to  this  expedition,  but  Baber  spent  a  year  at 
Herat,  enjoying  the  pleasures  of  that  capital.  He  returned 
to  Cabul  in  time  to  quell  a  formidable  rebellion, 'but  two 
years  later  a  revolt  among  some  of  the  leading  Moghul* 
drove  him  from  his  city.  Ho  was  compelled  to  take  to 
flight,  with  ver)'  few  companions,  but  his  great  personal 
courage  and  daring  struck  the  army  of  his  opponents  with 
such  dismay  that  they  again  returned  to  their  allegiance, 
and  Babcr  regained  his  kingdom.  Once  again,  in  1510, 
after  the  death  of  Schaibani,  he  endeavoured  to  obtain  pos- 
session of  his  native  country.  He  received  considerable 
aid  from  Shah  Ismael  of  Persia,  and  in  1511  made  a  tri- 
umphal entry  into  Samarcand.  But  in  1514  he  was  utterly 
defeated  by  the  Usbeks,  and  with  difliculty  reached  Cabul. 
He  seems  now  to  have  resigned  all  hopes  of  recovering 
Farghana,  and  as  he  at  the  same  time  dreaded  an  invasion 
of  the  Usbeks  from  the  west,  his  attention  was  more  and 
more  drawn  towards  India.  Several  preliminary  incursions 
had  been  already  made,  when  in  1521  an  opportunity  pre- 
sented itself  for  a  more  extended  expedition.  Ibr.diim, 
emperor  of  Delhi,  had  made  himself  detested,  even  by  his 
Afghan  nobles,  several  of  whom  called  upon  Babcr  for 
a-ssistanco.  lie  at  once  as.?embled  his  forces,  1 2,000  strong, 
with  some  pieces  of  artillery,  and  marched  into  India. 
Ibrahim,  with  100,000  soldiers  and  numerous  elephants, 
advanced  against  him.  The  great  battle  was  fought  at 
Paniput,  2l3t  Ajiril  152G,  when  Ibrahim  was  slain  and  his 
army  routed.  Baber  at  once  took  possession  of  Agra. 
A  still  more  formidable  enemy  awaited  him  ;  the  Rana 
Sangaof  Mewar  collected  the  enormous  force  of  21 0,000  men, 
-with  which  he  moved  against  the  invaders.  On  all  sides 
theio  was  danger  and  revolt,  even  Baber's  own  soldiers, 
worn  out  with  the  heat  of  this  new  climate,  longed  for 
Cabul.  By  vigorous  measures  and  inspiriting  speeches  he 
restored  their  courage,  though  his  own  heart  was  nearly 
failing  him,  and  in  his  distress  he  abjured  the  use  of  wine, 
to  which  he  had  been  addicted.  At  Kanweh,  on  the  10th 
March  1527,  ho  won  a  great  victory,  and  made  himself 
absolute  master  of  India.  Tho  remaining  years  of  his  life 
he  spent  in  arranging  the  affairs  and  revenues  of  his  new 
empire  and  in  iuiproving  his  capital,  Agra.  He  died  26th 
December  1530,  in  his  forty-eighth  year.  Baber  was  above 
the  middle  height,  of  great  strength,  and  an  ndniiraWe 
archer  and  swordsman.  His  mind  was  as  well  cultivated 
as  his  bodily  powers  ;  he  wrote  well,  nnd  his  olkservations 
are  generally  acute  and  accurate  ;  he  was  brave,  kindly, 
and  generous.  Full  materials  for  his  life  ore  found  in  his 
Memoirs,  written  by  himself  (translated  into  English  by 
Leyden  nnd  Erskinc,  London,  1826  ;  abridged  in  Culdecott,. 
Life  of  Hnbcr,  London,  1814). 

BABEUF,     FRANroisNoF.i,     poiOamcd     by     hiniscLf 


180 


B  A  B  — B  A  B 


Gracchiis  Babeuf,  the  earliest  of  the  French  socialists,  Tvas 
bom  in   1762,  in  the   department  of  Aisne.     From   his 
father,  a  major  in  the  Austrian  army,  be  received  special 
instruction  in  mathematics,  but  was  deprived  of  him  by 
death  at  the  age  of  sixteen.     Established  as  a  land-sur- 
veyor at  Roye,  in  the  Somme  department,  he  became  a 
fervid  advocate  of  the  Revolution,  and  wrote  articles  in  the 
Correspondanl  Picard,  for  which  ho  was  prosecuted  in  1790. 
He  was  acquitted  on  that  occasion,  and   was  afterwards 
elected  an  administrator  of  the  department;  but  a  charge 
of  forgery  being  brought  against  him,  he  was  condemned 
by  the  Somme  tribunal  to  twenty  years'  imprisonment  in 
1793.     Escaping   to   Paris,  he  became   secretary  to   the 
Relief  Committee  of  the  Commune,  and  joined  Garin  in 
his  denunciation  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety.     This 
led  to  his  incarceration,  ostensibly  under  the  former  sen- 
tence.    This  was,  however,  annulled  by  the  Court  of  Cassa- 
tion; and  he  was  also  discharged  by  the  Aisne  tribunal 
(ISth  July  1794),  to  which  he  had  been  remitted.     Return- 
ing to  Paris,  he  entered  on  a  violent  crusade  against  the 
remains  of  the  Bobespierre  party,  and  started  the  Journal 
de  la  Liberie  de  la  Presse.to  maintain  his  views.     In  the 
foUovring  year  (1795)  the  Girondists  acquired  supremacy 
in  the  Convention ;  Babeuf 's  journal  was  suspended,  and  him- 
self imprisoned — first  in  Paris  and  then  at  Arras.     Thrown 
into  the  society  of  certain  partisans  of  Robespierre,  he  was 
•won  over  by  them,  and  was  ready,  on  his  release,  to  become  the 
indiscriminating  defender  of  the  very  men  whom  he  had 
previously  attacked  (No.  34  of  the  Tribun,  as  he  now  called 
his  journal).      In   April    1796   Babeuf,   Lepelletier,  and 
others,  constituted  themselves  a  "  Secret  Directory  of  Public 
Safety,"  and  took  the  title  of  the  "  Equals;"  while  another 
association  of  self  styled  "  Conventionals"  and  "  Patriots" 
met  at  the  hotise  of  Amar..    The  latter  party  aimed  at  the 
re-establishment  of   the  revolutionary  government,   while 
Babenf  and  his  friends  wanted  besides   to   realise  their 
schemes  for  the  organisation  of  common  happiness.     Dis- 
putes naturally  arose;  and  to  reconcile  the  Equals  and  the 
Patriots,  it  was  agreed,  first,  to  re-estabhsh  the  constitu- 
tion of  1793;  and  secondly,  to  prepare  for  the  adoption  of 
true  equality  bythe  destruction  of  the  Government.    Every- 
thing was  ready  by  the  beginning  of  May  1796,  and  the 
number  of  adherents  in  Paris  was    reckoned  at  17,000; 
but  on  the  10th  the  Government  succeeded  in  arresting 
the  main  leaders  of  the  plot.     The  army  protected  the 
Government,  and  the  people  of  Paris  looked  on.     The  trial 
was  opened  at  Vendome  on  Feb.  2,  1797,  and  lasted  three 
months.     Babeuf   and    Dartht5  were  sentenced  to  death; 
Germain,  Buonarroti,  and  five  others,  to  transportation; 
Amar,  Vadier,  Duplay,  and  the  remaining  fifty-three,  were 
acquitted.     On  the  announcement  of  the  sentence,  Babeuf 
and  Darth6  stabbed  themselves,  but  the  wounds  were,  not 
mortal     They  passed  a  frightful  night,  and  next  morning 
were    borne    bleeding     to     the    scaffold.       Ardent    and 
generous,   heroic  and  self-sacrificing,  Babeuf  had  neither 
solid  knowledge  nor  steadiness  of  judgment.     "  The  aim 
of  society  is  happiness,  and  happiness  consists  in  equality," 
is  the  centre  of  his  doctrine.     Propagated  under  the  name 
of  Babouvism,  it  became  the  germ  of  contemporary  com- 
munism.    Babeuf's  influence  was  fatal  in  a  threefold  way, — 
because  ho  re-established  the  memory  of  Robespierre  among 
French  Republicans,  connected  them  with  the  theories  of 
Rousseau,  and  paved  the  way  for  that  school  of  Socialists 
vhich  left  the  lessons  of  experience  and  observation  for 
Utopian  dreams. 

BtbenTs  wo;ks  arc — 1.  Ciidaitrt  perpltue!,  iidii  k  VAssemhUe 
IiBlioiialg,  h  Toris,  I'an  1789  ot  le  premier  de  la  LibcrtiS  Froni;aisi', 
In  8ro;  2.  Journal  de  la  LibtrU  de  la  Prase,  which  apiifnred 
from  l)ie  23d  No.  nnder  the  title  of  "  Lt  tribun  du  peuplt,"  styled 
kiy  Michc'iot  "  If  monument  le  pins  inrtrurtif  de  I'epoque  ;"  3.  Ou 
£l/s'er:u  di  Dfyopulation,  ou  fa  vie  cl  kacrirrus  dc  Carrier,  r.nr  Grac- 


chus B.ibcuf.  Palis,  an  III,  in  Svo.  See  also,  in  aadition  to  legal 
documents  and  the  histories  of  the  rime,  Buonarioti's  Histoirc  de  la 
Conspiration  dc  Sabeuf,  of  which  there  is  an  English  trauslatioD 
by  Bronterre,  London,  1836. 

B.\BT,  or  B.iBY,  the  appellation  of  a  remarkable  modern 
sect  in  Persia,  is  derived  from  the  title  (6n6, i.e.,  gate)  assumed 
by  its  founder,  Seyed  Mohammed  Ali,  born  at  Shiraz  about 
1824,  according  to  Count  Gobineau,  but  ten  years  earlier 
according  to  Kasem  Beg.  Persia,  as  is  well  known,  is  the 
least  strictly  Mahometan  of  all  Mahometan  countries, 
the  prophet  himself  occupying  an  almost  secondary  place 
in  the  popular  estimation  to  his  successor  Ali,  and  the 
latter's  sons,  Hassan  and  Hosein.  The  cause  of  this  hetero- 
doxy is,  no  doubt,  to  be  sought  in  ethnological  distinctions, 
the  Aryan  Persians  never  having  been  able  to  thoroughly 
accommodate  themselves  to  the  creed  of  their  Semitic  con- 
querors. Their  dissatisfaction  has  found  vent  partly  inthj 
universal  homage  paid  to'Ali,  and  the  rejection  of  the  Sunua 
or  great  mass  of  orthodox  Mahometan  tradition,  partly 
in  violent  occasional  outbreaks,  most  characteristically 
of  aU  in  the  mystical  philosophy  and  poetry  of  the  Sufis, 
which,  under  the  guise  of  a  profound  respect  for  the  ex- 
ternals of  Mahometanism,  dissolves  its  rigid  Monotheism 
into  Pantheism.  Eabism  is  essentially  one  of  the  innumer- 
able schools  of  Sufism,  directed  into  a  more  practical 
channel  by  its  founder's  keen  perception  of  the  evils  of  his 
times.  His  first  appearance  in  public  took  place  about  1843, 
when,  on  his  return  from  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  and  after 
a  prolonged  course  of  meditation  in  the  mined  mosque  of 
Kufa,  the  scene  of  All's  murder,  he  presented  himself  in  his 
native  city  with  a  journal  of  his  pilgrimage  and  a  new 
commentary  on  the  Koran.  He  speedily  became  engaged 
in  controversy  with  the  mollahs  or  regular  dergj',  who, 
exasperated  by  the  freedom  of  his  strictures  on  their  lives 
as  well  as  their  doctrines,  obtained  an  ofiicial  decree  for- 
bidding him  to  preach  in  public,  and  confining  him  to  his 
house.  The  Bab,  by  which  title  he  was  now  universally 
known,  compUed  in  appearance,  but  continued  to  instruct 
his  disciples  in  private;  his  doctrines  rapidly  assumed  more 
logical  consistency,  and  his  pretensions  augmented  in  an 
equal  ratio.  He  now  laid  aside  the  tide  of  Bab,  declaring 
himself  to  be  the  Nokteh  or  Point,  i.e.,  not  merely  the  re- 
cipient of  a  new  divine  revelation,  but  the  focus  to  which 
ail  preceding  dispensations  converged.  There  was  little  in 
such  a  pretension  to  shock  Oriental  habits  of  thought; 
while  the  simplicity  and  elevation  of  the.ethical  part  of  the 
Bab's  system,  united  to  the  charm  of  his  manner  and  the 
eloquence  of  his  discourse,  rapidly  gained  fresh'  proselytes. 
The  most  remarkable  of  these  was  the  Mollah.  Hussein 
Boushrevieh,  a  man  of  great  erudition  and  energy  of  char- 
acter, who,  having  come  all  the  way  from  Khorassan  to  hear 
him,  became  his  convert,  and  undertook  the  dissemination 
of  his  religion  throughout  the  empire.  Two  other  apostles 
were  speedily  added,  the  appearance  of  one  of  whom  may 
almost  be  said  to  mark  an  epoch  in  Oriental  life.  It  is 
rare  indeed  to  find  a  woman  enacting  any  distinguished 
part  in  the  East,  least  of  all  that  of  a  public  teacher.  Such, 
however,  was  the  part  assumed  by  the  gifted  Zerryn 
Taj  {Crown  of  Gold),  better  known  by  the  appella- 
tion of  Gourrcd-Oul-Ayn  (Consolation,  of  (he  Eyes),  be- 
stowed in  .admiration  of  her  surpassing  loveliness.  Tlio 
third  missionary  was  Mohammed  Ali  Balfouroushi,  a  reli- 
gious man,  who  had  already  acquired  a  high  reputation  for 
sanctity.  The  new  religion  made  rapid  progress,  and  tho 
endeavours  of  the  authorities  to  repress  it  eventually  pro- 
duced a  civil  war.  Hussein  constructed  a  fort  in  tlie  pro- 
vince of  Mazandcran,  where  he  defeated  several  expeditions 
despatched  against  him,  but  at  length  fell  mortally  wounded 
in  the  momoutof  victory,and  his  followers,  reduced tosurrcn- 
der  by  famine,  were  mostly  put  to  death  nS49).     Balfou- 


B  A  B  — B  A  B 


181 


roushi,  with  a  number  of  his  principal  adheients,  perished  in 
the  city  of  Zendian  after  an  obstinate  defence  (May  1850). 
Ere  this  event  had  taken  place,  the  Government  had  pro- 
ceeded to  the  execution  of  the  Bab  himself,  who  had  now 
been  confined  for  some  time  in  the  fortress  of  Cherigh, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  greatly  impressed  his  gaolera  by 
his  patience  and  dignity.  He  was  removed  to  Tabriz,  and 
all  attempts  to  induce  him  to  retract  having  failed,  ho  was 
suspended  from  the  summit  of  a  wall  by  the  armpits  in 
view  of  the  peojfle,  along  with  one  of  his  disciples;  the 
object  of  this  public  exposure  being  to  leave  no  doubt  of 
ihe  reality  of  his  deatL  A  company  of  soldiers  discharged 
their  muskets  at  the  martyrs;  but  although  the  disciple 
was  killed  on  the  spot,  the  bullets  merely  cut  the  cords  by 
viiich  the  Bab  himself  was  suspended,  and  he  fell  to  the 
ground  unhurt.  With  more  presence  of  mind  on  his  part, 
this  apparently  miraculous  deliverance  might  have  pro- 
voked a  popalar  insurrection  in  his  favour;  but,  bewildered 
by  the  fall,  instead  of  invoking  the  people,  he  took  refuge 
in  a  guard-house,  where  he  was  promptly  despatched.  His 
death  was  far  from  discouraging  his  followers,  who  recog- 
nised as  his  successor  Mirza  Vahya,  a  youth  of  noble  birth. 
Yahya  established  himself  at  Baghdad,  where  he  is  or  was 
recently  still  residing.  No  new  event  of  importance 
occurred  until  1852,  when  an  attempt  of  several  Babis  to 
assassinate  the  Shah  led  to  a  ferocious  persecution,  in 
which  the  beautiful  Gourred-Oul-Ayn  perished  with  many 
others.  In  the  opinion  of  M.  Gobineau,  this  persecution 
has  rather  tended  to  encourage  than  to  repress  the  sect, 
which  is  believed  to  be  widely  diffused  in  Persia  at  this 
moment,  under  the  mask  of  conformity  to  the  established 
creed.  It  can  only  be  regarded  as  an  individual  symptom 
of  a  constantly  recurring  phenomenon — the  essential  in- 
compatibility between  the  religious  conceptions  of  Aryan 
and  Semitic  races.  The  doctrines  of  Babism  are  contained 
in  an  Arabic  treatise,  entitled  Bit/an  (the  Exposition), 
written  by  the  Bab  himself.  It  is  essentially  a  system  of 
Pantheism,  with  additicas  from  Gnostic,  Cabbalistic,  and 
even  Buddhistic  sources.  All  individual  existence  is  re- 
garded as  an  emanation  from  the  Supreme  Deity,  by  whom 
it  will  ultimately  be  reabsorbed.  Great  importance  is 
attached  to  the  number  seven,  being  that  of  the  attributes 
supposed  to  be  displayed  in  the  act  of -creation,  and  to  the 
number  nineteen,  which  inystically  expresses  the  name  of 
the  Deity  himself,  and  is,  moreover^  the  sum  of  the  pro- 
phets among  whom  the  latest  incarnation  of  the  divine 
nature  is  conceived  to  be  distributed  in  the  present  dispen- 
sation. Of  these  the  Bib  is  chief,  bu^  the  other  eighteen 
are  regarded  as  no  less  participators  iii  the  divine  nature. 
|Thi3  sacred  college  cannot  become  extinct  until  the  last 
judgment;  the  death  of  any  of  its  members  being  imme- 
diately followed  by  a  reincarnation,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Grand  Lama.  The  prophetic  character  of  Moses,  Christ, 
and  Mahomet  is/  ncknowledged,  but  they  are  .considered 
as  mere  precursors  of  the  Bab.  The  morality  of  the  sect 
is  pure  and  cheerful,  and  it  manifests  an  important 
advance  upon  all  previous  Oriental  systems  in  its  treatment 
of  woman.  Polygamy  and  concubinage  are  forbidden,  the 
»eil  is  disused,  and  the  equality  of  the  sexes  so  thoroughly 
•ccognised  that  one  at  least  of  the  nineteen  sovereign  pro- 
phets must  always  be  a  female.  The  other  chief  precepts 
of  Babism  inculcate  hospitality,  charity,  and  generous  liv- 
ing, tempered  by  abstinence  from  intoxicating  liquors  and 
drugs.  Asceticism  is  entirely  discountenanced,  and  men- 
dicancy, being  regarded  as  a  form  of  it,  is  strictly  pro- 
hibited. 

Our  rrincipal  nuthoritica  on  Babism  to  this  date  are  Count  Gobi- 
nnu,  formerly  French  attacht  at  Teheran,  in  his  -tU,  Its  Rcligiont 


et  Us  Philosophies  dona  TAsie  eculraU  (rnris,  1865),  «fid  an  ortielff- 
by  Kasem  Beg  in  the  Journal  Asiatiqu<  for  1S66.  These  materials 
have  been  condensed  into  a  valuable  essay,  by  F.  I'ilbn,  in  L'Annis 
J'hilosophiqiu  tor  18C9.  See  also  tlie  Bistory  o/  Persia  under  the 
Kajar  Dynasty,  by  R.  G.  Watson  (whose  accusations  of  ininioralily 
against  the  Babis  secin  to  be  founded  solely  on  the  misconduct  of  p.ir- 
ticular  raembers  of  the  sect);  Ethe,  Essays  und  Studien  (Berlin^ 
1872);  and  incidental  notices  in  the  travels  of  Vamb6ry,  Polak, 
Piggott,  and  Lady  Shell.  (R.  G  )    i 

B.\BOON,  tho  popular  name  of  apes  belonging  to  the 
genus  Cynocfphalus  of  the  family  Simiadx.  Sec  Ape. 
vol.  ii.  p.  152. 

BABRIUS,  or  Babrias,  or  Gabrias  (the  original  name 
being  possibly  Oriental),  a  Greek  fabulist,  who  wrote,  accord- 
ing to  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis,  shortly  before  the  Augustan  age, 
though  dates  have  been  assigned  to  him  from  250  B.C.  to 
250  A.D.  One  of  his  editors,  Boissonade,  believes  that  be 
was  a  Roman.  His  name  occurs  in  some  of  the  old  gram- 
marians, and  a  few  fragments  were  ascribed  to  him.  The 
first  critic  who  made  him  more  than  a  mere  name,  was 
Bentley  in  his  Dissertation  on  the  FabUs  of  ^sop.  In  a 
careful  examination  of  these  prose  Jisopian  fables,  which 
had  been  handed  down  in  various  collections  from  tho 
time  of  Maiimus  Planudes,  Bentley  discovered  traces  of 
versification,  and  was  able  to  extract  a  number  of  verses 
which  he  assigned  to  Babrius.  TjTwhitt  followed  up  the 
researches  of  Bentley,  and  for  some  time  the  efforts  of 
scholars  were  directed  towards  reconstructing  the  metrical 
original  of  the  prose  fables.  In  1842,  however,  M.  Mynas, 
a  Greek,  the  discoverer  of  the  Philosopkoumena  of  Hippo- 
lytus,  came  upon  a  MS.  of  Babrius  in  the  convent  of  St 
Laura  on  Mount  Athos.  This  MS.  contained  123  fables 
out  of  the  supposed  original  number,  160.  The  fables  arc 
written  in  choliambic,  i.e.,  limping  or  imperfect  iambio 
verse,  having  a  spondee  as  the  last  foot,  a  metre  originally 
appropriated  to  satire.  The  style  is  extremely  good,  the 
expression  being  terse,  pointed,  and  elegant,  and  the 
construction  of  the  stories  is  fully  equal  to  that  in  the 
prose  versions.  The  MS.  was  first  published  by  Boissonade 
in  184'1;  afterwards  by  Lachmann,  1845;  by  OreOi  and 
Baiter,  1845;  by  Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis,  1846; 
and  by  Schneidewin,  1853.  The  genuineness  of  this  collec- 
tion of  the  fables  was  generally  admitted  by  scholars. 
In  1857  Mynas  professed  to  have  discovered  at  Mount 
Athos  another  part  containing  94  fables  and  a  pro- 
oemium.  According  to  his  statement,  the  monks,  who  had 
been  willing  to  sell  the  MS.  containing  the  first  part  for 
a  sufficient  price,  refused  altogether  to  part  with  the 
second.  He  therefore  made  a  copy  which  was  sold  to  tho 
British  Museum,  and  was  published  in  1859  by  Sir  0.  C. 
Lewis.  But  these  fables  only  purport  to  be  Babrius  spoiled, 
after  having  passed  through  the  hands  of  a  "  diasceuast," 
that  is,  some  late  writer  who  has  turned  his  verses  into 
barbarous  Greek  and  wretched  metre.  In  a  Latin  dis- 
sertation, published  in  1861,  Professor  Conington  carefully 
examined  this  part,  arriving  at  the  conclusion  that  the 
fables  were  metrical  versions  of  the  prose  stories,  executed 
by  some  forger  who  must  have  been  acquainted  with 
Lachmann's  conjectures  on  fragments  fotmerly  known.' 
Cobet  expresses  a  similar  opinion,  but  in  stronger  terms.' 
It  is  not  impossible  that  the  forger  was  Mynas  himself. 
Sir  G.  C.  Lewis,  however,  holds  that  the  similarity  between 
the  fables  and  these  existing  prose  versions  appears  such  a« 
might  have  been  produced  not  by  a  forger  copying  from  a 
prose  writer,  but  rather  by  two  grammarians  recasting  the 
same  work  of  Babrius.  The  standard  edition  of  Babrius 
is  that  of  Sir.  G.  C.  Lewis  ;  there  is  a  faithful  translation 
in  verse  by  Daviea.  For  Conington's  dissertation  see  hi» 
Miscellaneous  Writing,  vol  ii.  pp.  460  491. 


lii-2 


B"A  B  Y  L  0  N-B  A  B  Y  L  0  N  I A 


BABYLON  (the  modern  Hillah)  m  the  Greek  form  of 
Babel  or  Bab-ili,  "  the  gate  of  god  "(or,  as  it  is  some- 
times written,  "  of  the  gods  "),  which,  again,  is  the  Semitic 
rendering  of  Ca-dimirra,  the  ancient  name  of  the  city  in 
the  Turanian  language  of  the  primitive  Accadian  popula- 
tion of  the  countiy.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  god 
meant  was  Merodach  or  Anu,  Merodach  being  the  patron 
divinity  of  Babylon  in  the  Semitic  period,  and  Su-Anna, 
"  the  valley  of  Anu "  (Anammelech),  being  one  of  its 
oldest  names.  Another  synonym  of  the  place  was 
Eei,  "  the  hollow,"  in  reference  to  its  situation,  and  it 
was  also  known,  down  to  the  latest  times,  as  Din-Tir,  "  the 
house  of  the  jungle,"  though  this  seems  properly  to  have 
been  the  designation  of  the  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Euphrates.  Under  the  Cassite  dynasty  of  Khammuragas, 
it  received  the  title  of  Gan-Duniyas  or  Gun-Duni,  "  the 
Fortress  of  Duniyas,"  which  was  afterwards  made  to  in- 
clude the  neighbouring  territory,  so  that  the  whole  of 
Babylonia  came  to  be  called  by  this  name.  Sir  H.  Kawlin- 
son  has  suggested  that  it  was  the  origih  of  the  Biblical 
Can  Eden,  or  "  Garden  of  Eden,"  to  which  a  popular 
etymology  has  given  a  Hebrew  form.  However  this  may 
be,  Babylon  figures  in  the  antediluvian  history  of  Berosus, 
the  first  of  his  mythical  monarchs,  Alorus,  being  a  native 
of  it.  The  national  epic  of  the  Babylonians,  which  grouped 
various  old  myths  round  the  adventures  of  a  solar  hero, 
knows  of  four  cities  only — Babylon,  Erech,  Nipur  (Nifer) 
or  Calneh,  and  Surippac  or  Larankha ;  and  according  to 
Genesis  x.,  Babylon  was  a  member  of  the  tetrapolis  of 
Shinar  or'Sumir,  where  the  Semite  invaders  of  the  Acca- 
dians  first  obtained  permanent  settlement  and  power.  It 
seeiiis,  however,  to  have  ranked  below  its  three  siater-cities, 
among  which  Erech  took  the  lead  until  conquered  by  the 
Accadian  sovereigns  of  Ur.  It  was  not  until  the  con- 
quest of  Khammuragas  that  Babylon  became  a  capital,*  a 
position,  however,  which  it  never  afterwards  lost,  except 
during  the  Assyrian  supremacy.  But  it  suffered  severely 
at  the  hands  of  its  northern  neighbours.  Tiglath-Adar 
drove  the  Cassi  from  it,  and  established  an  As.syrian 
dynasty  in  their  place ;  and  after  being  captured  by 
Tiglath-Pileser  I.  (1130  B.C.)  and  Shahnaneser  (851  B.C.), 
it  became  a  dependency  of  the  Assyrian  empire  in  the 
reign  of  the  son  of  the  latter.  The  dechne  of  the  first 
Assyrian  empire  restored  Babylon  to  independence ;  but 
it  had  Boon  afterwards  to  submit  to  the  Caldai,  and  from 
the  reign  of  Tiglath-Pileser  II.  to  the  death  of  Assurhani- 
pal,  it  was  a  mere  pro  nncial  town  of  Assyria,  breaking 
now  and  then  into  fierce  revolt  under  the_  leadership  of 
the  Caldai,  and  repeatedly  taken  and  plundered  by  Sargon, 
Sennacherib,  and  Assur-banipal.  Sennacherib,  indeed, 
razed  the  city  to  its  foundations.  After  the  defeat  of 
Sozub  (090  B.C.;,  he  tells  us  that  he  "  pulled  down,  dug 
up,  and  burned  with  fire  the  town  and  the  palaces,  root 
and  branch,  destroyed  the  fortress  and  the  double  wall, 
the  temples  of  the  gods  and  the  towers  of  brick,  and  threw 
the  i-ubbish  into  the  Araxes,"  the  river  of  Babylon.  After 
this  destruction  it  is  not  likely  that  much  will  ever  be  dis- 
covered on  the  site  of  Babylon  older  than  the  buildings  of 
Essar-haddon  and  Nebuchadnezzar.  It  was  under  the 
latter  monarch  and  his  successors  that  Babylon  became 
the  hur;e  metropolis  whose  ruins  still  astonish  the  traveller, 
and  which  was  described  by  Greek  writers.  Of  the  older 
city  we  can  know  but  httle.  The  Babylon  of  Ncbucliad- 
nezzfif  and  his  father,  Nabopolassar,  must  have  suffered 
■when  t'iken  by  Cyrus  ;  but  two  sieges  in  the  reign  of 
Dahos  ITystaspis,  and  one  in  the  reign  of  Xer.ves,  brought 


about  the  destruction  of  the  defences,  while  the  monothe- 
istic rule  of  Persia  allowed  the  temples  to  fall  into  decay. 
■  Alexander  found  the  great  temple  of  Bel  a  shapeless  ruin, 
and  the  rise  of  Seleucia  in  its  neighbourhood  drew  away 
its  population  and  completed  its  material  decay.  The 
buildings  became  a  quarry,  first  for  Seleucia  and  then  for 
Ctesiphon,Al  Modain,  Baghdad,  Kufa,Kerbelah,  Hillah, and 
other  towns,  and  ouf  only  cause  for  wonder  is  that  the  re- 
mains of  thereat  capital  of  Babylonia  are  stiU  so  extensivi^. 
The  principal  of  these  lie  on  the  left  bank  of  tl:c 
Euphrates,  and  consist  of  three  vast  mounds — the'.Sati/ 
or  MujeUibe,  the  Kasr,  and  the  Amrdm,  which  run  from 
north  to  south  ;  two  parallel  lines  of  rampart  east  and 
west  of  them  ;  and  an  isolated  mass,  together  with  a  senes 
of  elevations  separated  by  the  river  westward  of  the  Kasr, — 
the  whole  being  surrounded  by  a  triangular  rampart.  Our 
two  chief  authorities  for  the  ancient  topography  of  the 
city  are  Herodotns  and  Ctesias ;  and  though  both  were 
eye-witnesses,  their  statements  differ  considerably.  The 
city  was  built,  we  are  told,  on  both  sides  of  the  nver,  in 
the  form  of  a  square,  and  enclosed  within  a  double  row 
of  high  walls.  Ctesias  adds  a  third  wall,  but  the  inscrip- 
tions refer  only  to  two,  the  inner  enceinte,  called  Imgur-Bel, 
and  its  scdkhu  or  outwork,  called  Nimitti-BeL  Ctesias 
makes  the  outermost  waU  360  stades  (42  miles)  in  circum- 
ference, while  according  to  Herodotus  it  measured  480 
stades  (56  miles),  which  would  include  an  area  of  about  200 
square  miles  1  PUny  (N.  H.,  vi.  26)  follows  Herodotus  in 
his  figures,  but  Strabo  (xvi.  1,  5)  with  his  385  stades,  Qu. 
Curtius  (v.  1,  26)  with  his  368  stades,  and  Clitarchus 
(ap.  Diod.  Sic. ,  ii.  7)  with  365  stades,  agree  sufiBciently 
closely  with  Ctesias.  Even  the  estimate  of  Ctesias,  how- 
ever, would  make  Babylon  cover  a  space  of  about  100 
square  miles,  nearly  five  times  the  size  of  Londoa  Such 
an  area  could  not  have  been  occupied  by  houses,  especially 
as  these  were  three  or  four  stories  high  (Hdt,  i.  180). 
Indeed  Q.  Curtius  asserts  (v.  1,  27)  that  even  in  the  most 
flourishing  times,  nine-tenths  of  it  consisted  of  gardens, 
parks,  fields,  and  orchards.  According  to  Herodotus,  the 
height  of  the  walls  was  about  335  feet,  and  their  width  85 
feet;  while  Ctesias  makes  the  height  about  300  feet.  Later 
writers  give  smaller  dimensions,  but  it  is  clear  that  they  have 
merely  tried  to  soften  down  the  estimates  of  Hercdotus 
(and  Ctesias) ;  and  we  seem  bound,  therefore,  to  accept  the 
statement  of  the  two  oldest  eye-witnesses,  astonishing  as 
it  is.  But  we  may  remember  that  the  ruined  wall  of 
Nmeveh  was  150  feet  high,  even  in  Xenophon's  time 
(ATiah.,  iii.  4,  10,  and  cf.  ii.  4,  12),  while  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  250  towers  irregularly  disposed  along  the  wall 
of  Babylon  (Ctes.  ap.  Diod.,  ii  7)  were  broad  enough  to 
allow  a  four-horse  chariot  to  turn  (Hdt.,  i.  179).  The  clay 
dug  from  the  moat  had  served  for  the  bricks  of  the  wall, 
which  was  pierced  with  100  gates,  all  of  brass,  with 
brazen  lintels  and  posts.  The  twomner  enclosures  were  faced 
with  coloured  brick,  and  represented  hunting-scenes.  Two 
other  walls  ran  along  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  the 
quays  with  which  it  was  lined,  each  containing  25  gates, 
which  answered  to  the  number  of  the  streets  they  led 
into.  Ferry-boats  plied  between  the  landing  places  of  the 
gates  ;  and  a  movable  drawbridge  (30  feet  broad),  sup- 
ported on  stone  piers,  joined  the  two  parts  of  the  city 
together.  At  each  end  of  the  bridge  was  a  palace  ;  the 
great  palace  of  Nebucliadnezzar  on  the  eastern  side  (tiu 
modern  A'n.w),  which  Herodotus  incorrectly  transfers  tc 
the  western  bank,  being  the  most  magnificent  of' the  two. 
It  was  surrounded,  according  to  Uiodonis  (ii.  8,  4),  by  Ihre* 


BABYLON 


183 


walls,  tDe  outermost  being  GO  staa.,.  (7  miles)  in  circuit.  The 
inner  walls  were  decorated  with  liuuling-scenes  painted  on 
brick,  fragments  of  which  have  been  discovered  by  modern 
explorers.  Two  of  its  gates  were  of  brass,  and  had  to  be 
opened  and  shut  by  a  machine  ,  a. id  Mr  Smith  has  found 
traces  of  two  libraries  airtong  its  ruins.  The  palace,  called 
"the  Admiration  of  Mankind"  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
commenced  by  Nabopolassar,  overlocked  the  Ai-ipur-sabu, 
the  great  reservoir  of  Babylon,  and  stretched  from  this  to 
the  Kuphiates  on  the  one  side,  and  from  the  Imgur-Bel,  or 
inner  wall,  to  the  Libil,  or  eastern  canal,  on  the  other. 
Within  its  precincts  rose  the  Hanging  Gardens,  consisting 
of  a  garden  of  trees  and  flowers  on  the  topmost  of  a  series 
of  archea  at  least  75  feet  high,  and  built  in  the  form  of  a 
square,  each  side  raeasuriug  400  Greek  feet.  Water  was 
raised  from  the  Euphrates  by  means,  it  is  said,  of  a  screw 
(Strab ,  xvi.  1,  5;  Diod.,  ii.  10,  G).  Some  of  the  materials 
for  the  construction  of  this  building  may  have  been 
obtained  from  the  old  ruined  palace  of  the  early  kings,  now 
represented  by  the  adjoining  Amrim  mound.  The  lesser 
pahce  in  the  western  division  of  the  city  belonged  to 
Neriglissar,  and  contained  a  number  of  bronze  statues. 

The  most  remarkable  edifice  in  Babylon  was  the  temple 
of  Bel,  now  marked  by  the  Babil,  on  the  north-cast,  as 
Professor  Rawlinson  has  shown.  It  was  a  pyramid  of  eight 
square  stages,  the  basement  stage  being  over  200  yards 
each  way.  A  winding  ascent  led  to  the  s\immit  and  the 
shrine,  inVhich  stood  a  golden  image  of  Bel  40  feet  high, 
two  other  statues  of  gold,  a  golden  table  40  feet  long  and 
15  feet  broad,  and  many  other  colossal  objects  of  the  same 
precious  materi.il.  At  the  base  of  the  tower  was  a  second 
shrine,  with  a  table  and  two  images  of  solid  gold.  Two  altars 
were  placed  outside  the  chapel,  the  smaller  one  being  of  the 
same  metal.  A  similar  templo,  represented  by  the  modern 
Birs  Nimrnd,  stood  at  Borsippa,  the  suburb  of  Babylon. 
It  consisted  of  seven  stages,  each  ornamented  with  one  of 
the  seven  planetary  colours,  the  azure  tint  of  the  sixth,  the 
sphere  of  Mercury,  being  produced  by  the  vitrifaction  of 
the  bricks  after  the  stage  had  been  completed.  The  lowest 
stage  was  a  square,  272  feet  each  way,  its  four  corners 
e.tactly  corresponding  to  the  four-cardinal  points,  as  in  all 
other  Chaldean  temples,  anteach  of  the  square  stages 
raised  upon  it  being  placed  nearer  the  south-western  than 
the  northeastern  edge  of  the  underlying  one.  It  had  been 
partly  built  by  an  ancient  monarch,  but,  after  lying  un- 
finished for  many  years,  like  the  Biblical  tower  of  Eabel, 
was  finally  completed  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

The  amount  of  labour  bestowed  upon  these  brick  edifices 
must  have  been  enormous,  and  gives  some  idea  of  the 
human  force  at  the  disposal  of  the  monarch.  If  any 
further  illustration  of  this  fact  were  needed,  it  would  bo 
found  in  the  statement  made  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  one  of 
his  inscriptions  (and  quoted  also  from  Berosus),  that  he 
had  finished  the  Imgur-Bcl  in  fifteen  days.  The  same 
monarch  also  continued  the  embankment  of  the  Euphrates 
for  a  considerable  distance  beyond  the  limits  of  Babylon, 
»nd  cut  some  canals  to  carry  oQ'  the  overflow  of  that  river 
nto  the  Tigris.  The  grcnt  reservoir,  40  miles  square,  on 
the  west  of  Borsippa,  which  ha;l  boon  excavated  to  receive 
Iho  waters  of  the  Euphr.ites  while  the  bed  of  its  channel 
was  being  lined  with  brick,  was  also. used  for  a  similar 
purpo.sc.  The  reservoir  seems  to  have  been  entered  by 
the  Arakhtu  or  Araxes,  "the  river  of  Babylon,"  which 
'lowed  througli  a  deep  wady  into  the  heart  of  Northern 
Arabia,  as  Wetzsttiu  ha.s  pointed  out.  Various  nomad 
tribes,  suyb  as  the  Nabath;uans  or  the  Tekod,  pitched  their 
tents  on  its  banks;  but,  although  it  is  not  unfrequently 
mentioned  in  early  Babylonian  histoiy,  we  hear  no  more  of 
it  after  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  It  is  possible,  there- 
fore,  that  it  was  drained  by  the  western  reservoir,  (a.b.s.) 


BABYLONIA  AND  aSSyKIA.  Geographically,  as  well 
as  ethnologically  and  historically,  the  whole  difitrict  en- 
closed between  the  two  great  rivers  of  Western  Asia,  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates,  forms  but  one  country.  The  writers 
of  antiquity  clearly  recognised  this  fact,  speakingof  the  whole 
under  the  general  name  of  Assyria,  though  Babylonia,  as 
will  be  seen,  would  have  been  a  more  accurate  designation. 
It  naturally  falls  into  two  divisions,  the  northern  being 
more  or  less  mountainous,  while  the  southern  is  flat  and 
marshy  ;  and  the  near  approach  of  the  two  rivers  to  one 
another,  at  a  spot  where  the  undulating  plateau  of  the 
north  sinks  suddenly  into  the  Babylonian  alluvium,  tends 
still  more  completely  to  separate  them.  In  tbe  earliest 
times  of  which  vrc  have  any  record,  the  northern  portion 
was  comprehended  under  the  vague  title  uf  Gutium  (the 
Goi/im  of  Gen.  xiv.  1),  which  stretched  from  the  Euphrates 
oh  the  west  to  the  mountains  of  Media  on  the  east ;  but  it 
was  definitely  marked  off  as  Assyria  after  the  rise  of  that 
monarchy  in  the  IGlh  century  b.o.  Aram-Naharaim,  or 
Mesopotamia,  however,  though  claimed  by  the  Assyrian 
kings,  and  from  lime  to  time  overrun  by  them,  did  not 
form  an  integral  part  of  the  kingdom  until  the  9th  century 
B.C.,  while  the  region  on  tho  left  bank  of  the  Tigris, 
between  that  river  and  the  Greater  Zab,  was  not  only 
included  in  Assyria,  but  contained  the  chief  capitals  of  the 
empire.  In  this  respect  the  monarchy  of  the  Tigris 
resembled  Cbaldea,  where  some  of  the  most  important  cilics 
were  situated  on  the  Arabian  side  of  tho  Euphrates.  The 
reason  of  this  preference  for  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris 
was  due  to  its  abundant  supply  of  water,  whereas  tho  great 
Mesopotamian  plain  on  the  western  side  had  to  depend 
upon  the  streams  which  flowed  into  the  Euphrates.  This 
vast  fiat,  the  modern  El-Jczireh,  is  about  250  miles  in 
length,  interrupted  only  by  a  single  limestone  range,  rising 
abruptly  out  of  the  plain,  and  branching  off  from  the  Zagros 
mountains  under  the  names  of  Sara:ur,  Hamrin,  and  Siujar. 
The  numerous  remains  of  old  habitations  show  how  thickly 
this  level  tract  must  once  have  been  peopled,  though  now 
for  the  most  part  a  wilderness.  North  of  the  plateau  rises 
a  well-watered  and  undulating  belt  of  country,  into  which 
run  low  r.aiiges  of  limestone  hills,  sometimes  arid,  sometimes 
covered  with  dwarf-oak,  and  often  shutting  in,  between 
their  northern  and  north-eastern  flank  and  the  main 
mountain-line  from  which  they  detach  themselves,  rich 
plains  and  fertile  valleys.  Behind  them  tower  the  massive 
ridges  of  the  Niphates  and  Zagros  ranges,  where  the  Tigiis 
and  Euphrates  take  thei^  rise,  and  which  cut  ofl"  As.syria 
from  Armenia  and  Kurdistan.  The  name  Assyria  itself 
originally  denoted  the  small  territory  immediately  sur- 
rounding the  primitive  capital  "  the  city  of  Asur "  (al  Asur, 
the  Ellasar  of  Genesis),  which  was  built,  like  the  other  chief 
cities  of  the  country,  by  Turanian  tribes,  in  whose  language 
the  word  signified  "  water-meadow."  It  stood  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Tigris,  midway  between  the  Greater  mid  the 
Lesser  Zab,  and  is  represented  by  the  modern  i.\ita  • 
Sherghal.  It  remained  the  capital  long  after  the  Assyrians 
had  become  the  dominant  power  in  Western  Asia,  but  was 
finallysupplanted  by  C.alah  (A'ijHrii</), Nineveh  {Ntli  Yunua 
and  h'outivnjik),  and  Dur-Sargina  (Khorsalacl),  some  f  0 
miles  further  north.      Sec  Nineveb. 

In  contrast  with  the  arid  [ilateau  of  Mesopotamia, 
stretched  the  rich  alluvial  plain  of  Chaldea,  formed  by  the 
deposits  of  the  two  great  rivers  by  which  it  was  enclosed. 
The  soil  was  extremely  fertde,  and  teemed  "vith  an 
industrious  population.  Eastward  rose  the  mountains  of 
Elam,  Eouthwaid  were  the  sea  marshes  and  the  nncient 
kingdom  of  Nituk  or  Dilvun  (the  modern  Bender  Dilvun), 
while  on  the  west  the  civilisation  of  Babylonia  encroached 
beyond  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  upon  the  territory  of 
the   Semitic    nomades   (or   8uti).     Here  stood    L'r    (no" 


184 


BABYLONIA 


[oEOORAPHY.' 


Miig>-^r),  the  earliest  capital  of  the  country ;  and  Babylon, 
with  iU  suburb,  Borsippa  (Birs  IfimrUd),  aa  well  aa  the 
two  &ipparas  (the  Sepharvaim  of  Scripture,  now  Mosaib), 
occupied  both  the  Arabian  and  Chaldean  side  of  the  river. 
(See  Babylos.)     The  Ajaxes,  or  "  River  of  Babylon,"  was 
conducted  through  a  deep  valley  into  the  heart  of  Arabia, 
irrigating  the  land  through  which  it  passed  ;  and  to  the 
south  of  it  lay  the  great  inland  fresh-water  sea  of  Nedjef, 
surrounded  by  red  sandstone  cliffs  of  considerable  height, 
40  miles  in  length  and  35  in  breadth  in  the  widest  part. 
Above  and  below  thia  sea,  from  Borsippa  to  Kufa,  extend 
the  famous  Chaldean  marshes,  where  Alexander  waa  nearly 
lost  (Arrian,  Exp.  AL,  viL  22.;  Strab.,  xvi  1,  §  12,) ;  but 
these  depend  upon  the  state  of  the  Hindiyah  canal,  dis- 
appearing altogether  when  it  is  closed.     Between  the  sea 
of  Nedjef  and  Ur,  but  on  the  left  side  of  the  Euphrates, 
was  Erech  (now  Warhx),  which  with  Nipur  or  Calneh  (now 
Niffer),  Surippac  (Senkerehl),  and  Babylon  (now  Hillah), 
formed  the   tetrapolis  of  Sumir  or  Shinar.     This  north- 
western part  of  Chaldea  was  also  called  Gan-duniyas  or 
Gun-duni  after  the  accession  of  the  Casaite  dynasty.    South- 
eastern Chaldea,  on  the  other  hand,  waa  termed  Accad, 
though  the  name  came  also  to  be  applied  to  the  whole  of 
Babylonia.     The  Caldai,  or  Chaldeans,  are  first  met  with 
in  the  9th  century  B.a  aa  a  small  tribe  on  the  Persian  Gulf, 
whence    they    slowly    moved    northwarda,    until    under 
Merodach-Baladan    they    made     themselves    masters    of 
Babylon,  and  henceforth  formed  so  important  an  clement 
in  the  population  of  the  country,  as  in  later  days  to  give- 
their  name  to  the  whole  of  it.     In  the  inscriptions,  how- 
ever, Chaldea  represents  the  marshes  of  the  sea-coast,  and 
Teredon  waa  one  of  their  porta.     The  whole  territory  was 
thickly  studded  with  towns  ;   but   among  all  this  "  vast 
number  of  great  cities,"  to  use  the  words  of  Herodotus, 
Cuthah,  or  Tiggaba  (now  Ibrahim),  Chilmad  (Kalwadah), 
Is  [Hit),  and  Dar-aba  {Akkerkuf)  alone  need  be  mentioned, 
The  cultivation  of  the  country  was  regulated  by  canals, 
the   three   chief  of   which  carried  off  the  waters  of  the 
Euphrates  towards  the  Tigris  above  Babylon, — the  "  Royal 
River,"  or  Ar-Malcha,  entering  the  Tigi-is  a  little  below 
Baghdad,  the  Nahr-Malcha  running  across  to  the  site  of 
Soleucia,  and   the  Nahr-Kntha  passing  through  Ibrahim. 
The  Pallacopas,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Euphrates,  supplied 
an  immense  lake  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Borsippa.     So 
great   was   the   fertility   of   the   soil   that,   according   to 
Herodotus  (i.  195),  grain  commonly  returned  two  hundred- 
fold  to   the  sower,  and   occasionally  three   hundredfold. 
Pliny,  too  [H.  N.,  xviii.  17),  says  that  wheat  was  cut  twice, 
and  afterwards  waa  good  keep   for  sheep ;   and  Berosus 
remarked  that  wheat,  barley,  sesame,  ochrys,  palms,  apples, 
and  many  kinds  of  shelled  fruit  grew  wUd,  as  wheat  still 
does   in    the  neighbourhood  of   Anah.     A  Persian  poem 
celebrated  the  SCO  uses  of  the  palm  (Strab.,  xvi.  1,  14),  and 
Ammianus  Marcellinus  (xxiv.  3)  states  that  from  the  point 
reached  by  Julian's  army  to  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
waa  one  contiauous  forest  of  verdure. 

Such  a  country  waa  well  fitted  to  be  one  of  the  primeval- 
seats  of  civilisation.  Where  brick  l.iy  ready  to  hand,  and- 
climate  and  soil  needed  only  settled  life  and  moderate  labour 
to  produce  all  that  man  required,  it  was  natural  that  the 
great  civilising  power  of  Western  Asia  should  take  its  rise. 
The  history  of  the  origin  and  development  of  this  civilisa- 
tion, interesting  and  important  as  it  is,  has  but  recently  been 
made  known  to  us  by  the  decipherment  of  the  native  monu- 
meoto.  The  scanty  notices  and  conflicting  statements  of 
classical  writers  have  been  replaced  by  the  evidence  of  con- 
temporaneous documents  ,  and  though  the  materials  are  still 
but  a  t'the  of  what  we  may  hope  hereafter  to  obtain,  we  can 
sl'.ctch  ibe  outlines  of  the  history,  the  art,  and  the  science  of 
ths  powerful  nations  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.     Before 


doing  so,  however,  it  would  De  well  to  say  a  few  words 
in  regard  to  our  classical  sources  •  of  information,  the 
only  ones  hitherto  available.  The  principal-  of  these  is 
Berosus,  the  Manetho  of  Babylonia,  who  flourished  at  the 
time  of  Alexander's  conquests  (though  see  Havet,  Memoire 
sur  la  Date  des  Merits  qui  portent  les  noms  de  Berose  et  de 
Manethon).  He  was  priest  of  Bel,  and  translated  the 
records  and  astronomy  of  his  nation  into  Greek.  His 
works  have  unfortunately  perished,  but  the  second  and 
third  hand  quotations  from  them,  which  we  have  in  Euse- 
bius  and  other  writers,  have  been  strikingly  verified  by 
inscriptions  so  far  as  regards  their  main  facts.  The  story 
of  the  flood  taken  from  Berosus,  for  instance,  is  almost 
identical  with  the  one  preserved  on  the  cuneiform  tablets. ' 
Numerical  figures,  however,  as  might  be  expected,  ara 
untrustworthy.  According  to  Berosus,  ten  kings  reigned 
before  the  Deluge  for  120  saroi,  or  432,000  years,  begin- 
ning with  Alorus  of  Babylon  and  ending  with  Oliartea 
(Opartes)  of  Larankha,  and  his  eon  Sisnthrus,  the  hero 
of  the  flood.  Then  came  eight  dynasries,  which  are  given 
as  follows  :  — 

(1.)  86  Chaldean  kings  :.'. 34,030  years. 

(2.)     8  Median        , '. 224      „ 

(3.)  11  (Chaldean)  „       " 


(4.)  49  Chaldeaa 
(5.)     D  Arabian 
45  AssjTian 
*  (Assyrian) 
6  Chaldean 

Ptolemy's   canou 
dynasty  in  full — 

Nabonassar  (' 


(8.)     6 


453 
245 
S26 

• 

87 


(in   the  Almagest)  gives  the  seventh' 


(1.) 
(2.) 

(10.) 

(11. 

(12. 
(13. 
(14. 
(15. 
(16. 


47  B.C.)  14  yea'- 

Nadios 2     ,. 

Khinziros  and  Poros  (Put)    5     ,, 

Ilulffios    5     ,, 

Mardokempados  (Merodach-Baladan) 12     ,, 

Arkeanos  (Sargon; 5     ,, 

Interregnum 2     ,, 

Ha^sa 1  month.') 

Behbos  (702  B.C.)  3  years- 

Assaranadios  (Assur-nadin-sum) 6     ,, 

RSgebelos    1     ,, 

MesSsimordakos 4     ,, 

Interregnum  8     ,, 

Asaridinoa  (Essar-haddon)   13     ,, 

Saosdukhinoa  (Saval  sum-yucin) 20     ,, 

Sineladanos  (Assur-bani'pal)   22     ,, 


Next  to  Berosus,  the  authority  of  Herodotus  ranks  highest,' 
His  information,  however,  is  scanty,  and  he  had  to  trust 
to  the  doubtful  statements  of  ciceroni.  Herodotus  was 
controverted  by  Ctesias  of  Cnidus,  the  physician  of 
Artaxerxes  Mnemon.  But  Ctesias  mistook  mythology  for 
history,  and  the  Ninus  and  Semiramis,  the  Ninyas  and 
Sardanapalus,  of  Greek  romance  were  in  great  measure  his 
creations.  We  may  yet  construct  an  Assyrian  epopee,  like ' 
the  Shahnameh  of  Firdusi,  out  of  his  pages,  but  wo  must 
not  look  to  them  for  history.  Other  historical  notices  of 
Assyria  and  Babylonia,  of  more  or  less  questionable  value, 
are  to  bo  gathered  from  Diodorus  and  one  or  two  more 
writers,  but  beyond  Berosus  and,  to  a  limited  extent, 
Herodotus,  our  only  ancient  authority  of  much  value  "pon 
thi.>(  subject  is  the  Old  Testament. 

Ethnologti  and  History. — The  primitive  population  of 
Babylonia,  the  builders  of  its  cities,  the  originators  of  its 
culture,  and  the  inventors  of  the  cuneiform  system  of 
writing,  or  rather  of  the  hieroglyphics  out  of  which  it 
gradually  developed,  belonged  to  the  Turanian  or  Ural- 
Altaic  family.  Their  language  was  highly  agglutinative, 
approaching  the  modern  Mongolian  idioms  in  the  simplicity 
of  its  grammatical  machinery,  but  otherwise  more  nearly 
related  to  tho  Ugro-Bulgaric  division  of  the  Finnic  group ; 
and  its  speakers  were  mentally  in  no  way  inferior  to  the 
Hungarians  and  Turks  of  tho  present  day.     The  country 


'HISTORY.. 


BABYLONIA 


18/5 


W13  Jivided  into  two  halve.',  tte  Sumir  (.Sungu\  o  Shinar) 
in  the  uorlh-wcst,  and  the  Accad  in  the  south-east,  corre- 
gpond'ng  most  remarkably  to  the  Suomi  and  .(Uckara-k,  ..ito 
which  the  Finnic  race  believed  itself  to  have  been  separated 
in  its  first  mountain  home.  Like  Suomi,  Sumir  signified 
'  "(the  people)  of  the  rivers,"  and  just  as  Finnic  tradition 
makes  Kemi  a  district  of  tlie  Suomi,  so  Came  was  another 
name  of  the  Babylonian  Sumir.  The  Accadai,  or  Accad,  were 
"the  highlandeis"  who  had  descended  from  the  moun- 
tainous rejiou  of  Elum  ou  the  east,  and  it  was  to  them 
that  the  Assyrians  ascribed  the  origin  of  Chaldean  civilisa- 
tion and  writing.  They  were,  at  all  events,  tlie  dominant 
people  in  Babylonia  at  the  time  to  wliich  our  earliest 
contemporaneous  records  reach  back,  although  the  Sumir, 
or  "  people  of  the  home  langunge,"  as  they  are  sometimes 
termed,  were  named  first  in  the  royal  titles  out  of  respect 
to  their  prior  settlement  in  the  country.  A  survey  of  the 
syllabary  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  first  attemits 
ot  wTiling  were  made  before  the  Accad  had  descended  into 
the  plains  and  exchanged  papyrus  as  a  writing  material 
for  clay  ;  other  considerations,  however,  go  to  show  that 
allho'igh  the  37st2m  of  writing  may  have  been  iuvented 
before  they  had  entered  Babylonia,  it  was  not  completei} 
until  after  they  had  d.uie  so.  In  harmony  wilh  this,  we 
find  Berosus  ascribing  the  culture  of  "  the  mixed  population 
of  Chaldea  "  to  Cannes  and  other  similar  creatures  from 
the  Persian  Gulf.  So  far  as  we  can  judge,  the  civilisation 
I'f  Elam  is  at  least  coeval  with  that  of  Babylonia,  and  tlie 
capture  of  Babylon  by  the  Medes,  withwhom  the  historical 
dynasties  of  Berosus  are  commonly  supposed  to  begin, 
must  be  ex[)lained  by  an  Elamite  conquest.  Media  was 
the  Accadian  Mada,  "the  land"  junr  excellence  ;  and  Acca- 
dian  tradition  looked  back  upon  the  mountainous  district 
to  the  south-west  of  the  Caspian  as  the  cradle  of  their  race. 
Among  these  "mountains  of  the  east,"  and  in  the  land  of 
Kisir  (the  furthennost  division  of  Gutium  beyond  the 
Lesser  Zab),  rose  "  the  mountain  of  the  world,"  the  Turani.-in 
Olympus,  on  which  the  ark  of  the  Chaldean  Noah  was 
believed  to  have  rested.  From  this  centre  Turanian  tribes 
spread  in  all  directions,  meeting  Alarodians  on  the  north, 
and  Semites  on  the  south-west.  The  Aryans  had  not  yet 
penetrated  across  the  great  Sagartian  desert.  The  numerous 
tribes  of  Susiana,  both  civilised  and  uncivilised,  spoke 
languages  more  closely  Ugrian  than  even  that  of  the 
Accadians  ;  the  oldest  towns  of  Northern  Syria,  where  the 
Semite  afterwards  reigned  supreme,  bore  Accadian  names, 
and,  as  in  the  case  of  Haran,  were  mythologically  connected 
with  Babylon  ;  whdo  the  chief  cities  of  Assyria  were 
founded  by  Accadians,  were  denoted  by  Accadian  symbols, 
and  were  ruled  by  Accadian  princes,  in  strict  accordance 
with  tlio  statement  of  Genesis  that  out  of  Babylonia 
"  went  forth  Asshur."  An  Elamite  conqueror  of  Chaldea, 
like  CheQorlaomcr  (Gen.  xiv.  1).  imposed  his  authority 
not  only  over  Shinar,  but  over  Assyria  and  Gutium  as  well. 
The  earliest  geographical  lists  know  only  of  Nuvva,  or 
Elam,  on  the  east,  the  Khani  on  the  west,  JInrtu,  the  land 
of  "the  path  of  the  setting  sun,"  Subarti,  or  Syria,  with  its 
four  races,  and  Gutium,  which  stretilied  across  Mesopotamia 
from  the  Euphrates  on  the  one  side  to  the  mountains  of 
Media  on  tlio  other.  To  these  must  be  added  Anzan,  or 
southern  Elam,  wilh  its  capital  Susa,  Dilvun,  or  Nituk, 
on  the  Persian  Gulf,  and,  at  a  considerably  later  date,  the 
Hittitcs,  with  their  chief  city  Carchemish. 

The  first  monarchs  w  hose  monmnental  records  we  possess 
liaJ  their  scat  at  Ur,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Eui>hrates. 
I'r,  in  Accadian,  signified  "  the  city  "  par  excelU.tcc..  and 
so  bore  ti;stimony  to  the  supremacy  claimed  by  its  rulers 
over  the  rest  of  Babylonia.  The  great  temple  of  tlie 
Moongod  there  was  one  of  the  oldest  buildings  in  thi' 
co>kiitry,_iDif,4t3  erection  was  due  to  a  prince  who  claiuicd 


sovereignty  over  the  ^vliole  of  Babylonia,  niid  adorned 
Erech,  Nipur,  Larsa,  and  other  cities  ulth  temples  of  vast 
si^e,  dedicated  to  the  sun,'  to  Istar,  and  to  Bel.  He  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  great  Babylonian  builder;  anc'  this 
would  imply  that  it  was  under  him  that  Ur  rose  to  its 
prominent  position,  and  united  the  numerous  principalities 
of  Chaldea  under  one  head.  The  enormous  brick  struc- 
tures were  cemented  with  bitumen  in  the  plafe  of  linio 
mortar ;  but  the  use  of  the  buttress,  of  drains,  and  of 
external  oruamentation,  shows  that  architectural  knowledge 
was  already  advanced.  The  cuneiform  system  of  writing 
had  attained  its  full  development,  signet  stones  were  carvod 
with  artistic  skill,  and  the  amount  of  human  force  at  the 
disposal  of  the  monarch  may  be  estimated  from  the  fact 
that  the  Bowariyeh  mound  at  Warka,  on  the  site  of  the 
temple  of  the  Sungod,  is  200  feet  square  and  100  feet 
high,  60  that  above  30,000,000  bricks  must  have  been 
employed  upon  its  construction.  The  vicinity  of  Ur  to  the 
Semitic  tribes  of  Arabia  implies  that  the  Accadian  sove- 
reigns had  been  turning  their  attention  in  that  direction, 
and  we  find  nothing  surprising  therefore  in  the  Scriptural 
account  of  Abraham's  migration  from  this  place,  or  the 
Phoenician  tradition  of  the  original  home  of  the  C.  naanitish 
race  on  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  (Strab.,  i.  2,  35, 
xvi.  3,  4,  27;  Justin,  xviii.  3,  2;  Pliny,  N.  //.,  iv.  30). 
Indeed,  we  have  clear  evidence  that  Semitic  was  spoken  in 
Ur  itself  at  this  remote  epoch.  Although  the  ruling  casto 
were  Accadian,  and  generally  wrote  their  inscriptions  in 
that  language,  Dungi,  one  of  their  earliest  monarchs,  in 
spite  of  his  Turanian  name,  has  left  us  a  short  legend  in 
Semitic;  ;  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  imperial 
title  of  "Sumir  and  Accad  "  was  soon  to  be  assumed  to  mark 
a  linguistic  as  well  as  a  geographical  distinction.  The  brick 
legends  of  the  various  viceroys  who  governed  the  cities  of 
Chaldea  under  this  dynasty  are  all,  however,  in  Accadian. 
The  supremacy  of  Ur  had  been  disputed  byits  more  aucieut 
riv.al  Erech,  but  had  finally, to  give  way  before  the  rise  of 
Nisin  or  Karr^k,  a  city  whose  site  is  uncertain,  and  liarrak 
in  its  turn  was  succeeded  by  Lar.?a.  Elamite  conquest 
seems  to  have  had  something  to  do  with  these  transferences 
of  the  scat  of  power.  In  2280  B.C. — the  date  is  fixed  by 
an  inscription  of  Assur-bani-pal's — Cudur-nankhundi,  the 
Elamite,  conquered  Chaldea  at  a  time  when  princes  with 
Semitic  names  appear  to  have  been  already  reigning  there, 
and  Cudur-mabug  not  only  overran  "  the  west,"  or  Pales- 
tine, but  established  a  lino  of  monarchs  in  Babylonia.  His 
son  and  successor  took  an  Accadian  n3u:e,  and  extended 
his  sway  over  the  whole  country.  Twice  did  the  Elamite 
tribe  of  Cassi  or  KossKans  furnish  Chaldea  with  a  succession 
of  kings.  At  a  very  early  period  we  find  one  of  these 
Koss.-can  dynasties  claiming- homage  from  Syria,  Gutium, 
and  Northern  Arabia,  and  rededicating  the  images  of  native 
Babylonian  gods,  which  had  been  carried  away  in  war,  with 
gi-eat  splendour  and  expense.  The  other  Cassite  dynasty 
was  founded  by  Khammuragas,  who  established  his  capital 
at  Babylon,  which  henceforward  continued  to  be  the  seat 
of  empire  in  the  south.  The  dynasty  is  probably  to  bo 
identified  with  that  called  Arabian  by  Berosus,'  and  it 
was  during  its  domination  that  Semitic  came  gradually  to 
su;;ersedc  Accadian  as  the  language  of  the  country.  Kh.i.'r 
niuragas  himself  assumed  a  Semitic  name,  and  a  Semitic 
inscription  of  his  is  now  in  the  Louvre.  A  large  number 
of  canals  were  constructed  during  his  reign,  more  especially 
the  famous  Nahr-JIalcha,  and  an  embankment  built  alonj. 
the  banks  of  the  Ti^nis.  The  king's  attention  seems  t<. 
have  been  turned  to  the  subject  of  irrigation  by  a  flond 
which  overwhelmed  the  important  city  of  JIulMas.     Uie 

'  If  60,  the  number  of  reigns  to  be  nssi^rofil  to  it,  ai  well  as  ■(! 

duralion,   will  have  to  be  correcte<l,  i\s  «e  kuow  of  *l  least  ninctcr" 
kings  Ijclorisiiig  to  (Lis  Cassite  dynaslr. 
-  IK.    —    .-4 


186 


BABYLONIA 


tHISTOEY. 


first  conquesls  were  in  the  north  of  Babylonia,  and  froai 
this  base  of  operations  he  succeeded  in  overthrowing 
Naram-Sin  (or  Rim-Acu!)  in  the  south,  and  making  hiinseli 
master  of  the  whole  of  Chaldea.  Naram-Sin  and  a 
queen  had  been  the  last  representatives  of  a  dynasty 
which  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  glory  both  in  arms 
and  in  hterature.  Naram-Sin  and  his  father  Sargon 
had  not  only  subdued  the  rival  princes  of  Babylonia, 
but  had  successfully  invaded  Syxia,  Palestine,  and  even, 
03  it  would  seem,  Egypt.  At  Agane,  a  suburb  of  Sippara, 
Sargon  had  founded  a  library,  especially  famous  for 
its  works  on  astrology  and  astronomy,  copies  of  which 
were  made  in  later  times  for  the  libraries  of  Assyria. 
Indeed,  so  prominent  a  place  did  Sargon  take  in  the 
early  history  of  -Babylonia,  that  his  person  became 
surrounded  with  an  atmosphere  of  myth.  Not  only 
was  he  regarded  as  a  sort  of  eponymous  hero  of  litera- 
ture, a  Babylonian  Solomon,  whose  title  was  "the  de- 
viser of  law  and  prosperity,"  popular  legends  told  of 
his  mysterious  birth,  how,  like  Komulus  and  Arthur,  he 
knew  no  father,  but  was  born  in  secrecy,  and  placed  by  his 
mother  in  an  ark  of  reeds  and  bitumen,  and  left  to  the  care 
of  the  river ;  how,  moreover,  this  second  Moses  was 
carried  by  the  stream  to  the  dwelling  of  a  ferryman,  who 
reared  him  as  his  own  son,  until  at  last  the  time  came 
that  his  rank  should  bo  discovered,  and  Sargon,  "  the 
constituted  king,"  for  such  is  the  meaning  of  his  name, 
took  his  seat  upon  the  throne  of  his  ancestors.  It  was 
while  the  Cassite  sovereigns  were  reigning  in  the  south, 
and  probably  in  consequence  of  reverses  that  they  suffered 
at  the  hands  of  the  Egyptians,  who,  under  the  monarchs  of 
the  18th  dynasty,  were  pushing  eastward,  that  the  kingdom 
of  Assyria  took  its  rise.  Its  princes  soon  began  to  treat 
with  their  southern  neighbours  on  equal  terms  ;  the 
boundaries  of  the  two  kingdoms  were  settled,  and  inter- 
marriages between  the  royal  families  took  place,  which 
led  more  than  once  to  an  interference  on  the  part  of  the 
Assyrians  in  the  affairs  of  Babylonia.  Finally,  in  the  14th 
century  B.c  ,  Tiglath-Adar  of  Assyria  captured  Babylon, 
;imd  established  a  Semitic  line  of  sovereigns  there,  which 
"continued  until  the  days  of  the  later  Assyrian  empire. 
From  this  time  down  to  the  destruction  of  Nineveh,  Assyria 
remained  the  leading  power  of  Western  Asia.  Occasion- 
ally, it  is  true,  a  king  of  Babylon  succeeded  in  defeating 
his  aggressive  rival  and  invading  Assyria  ,  but  the  contrary 
was  more  usually  the  ccse,  and  the  AssjTiaus  grew  more 
and  more  powerful  at  the  expense  of  the  weaker  state, 
until  at  lost  Babj  onia  was  reduced  to  a  mere  apanage  of 
AssjTia. 

We  possess  an  almost  continuous  list  of  Assyrian  kings  ; 
and,  as  from  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century  downwards 
there  exists  a  native  canon,  in  which  each  year  is  dated  by 
the  limmu  or  archon  eponymos,  whose  name  it  bears,  as 
well  as  a  portion  of  a  larger  canon  which  records  the  chief 
events  of  each  eponymy,  it  is  evident  that  our  chronology 
of  the  later  period  of  Assyrian  history  is  at  once  full  and 
'trustworthy.  Similar  chronological  lists  once  existed  for 
^the  earlier  period  also,  since  an  inscription  of  a  king  of  the 
,l4th  century  Df  is  dated  by  one  of  these  eponymies  ;  and 
,  the  precise  dates  given  in  the  inscriptions  for  occurrences 
which  took  place  in  the  reigns  of  elder  monarchs  cannot 
otherwise  be  accounted  for.  How  far  back  an  accurate 
chronological  record  extended  it  is  impossible  to  say  ;  but 
astronomical  observations  were  made  in  Babylonia  from  a 
remote  period,  and  the  era  of  Cudui  nankhundi  was  knowp, 
as  we  have  seen,  more  than  IGOO  years  afterward  ,  while 
in  Assyria  not  only  can  Sennacherib  state  at  Bavian  that 
Tigblh  Pileser  I  was  defeated  by  tie  Babylonians  418 
>iMrs  bcforr  bis  own  invasion  of  that  country,  but  the  same 
Ti^'lath  Tiluinr    con    dj    701    years  as  the  exact  interval 


between  his  restoration  of  the  temple  of  Anuand  Rimmon 
at  Kalah  Sherghat  and  its  foundation  by  the  dependent 
viceroys  of  the  city  of  Assur. 

This  Tiglath-Pileser,  in  spite  of  his  subsequent  defeat  by 
the  Babylonians,  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
sovereigns  of  the  first  Assyrian  empire.  He  carried  bi« 
arms  far  and  wide,  subjugating  the  Moschians,  Comagenians, 
Urumians,  and  other  tribes  of  the  north,  the  Syriano  and 
Hittites  in  the  west,  and  the  Babylonians  (including  their 
capital)  in  the  south.  His  empire,  accordingly,  stretched 
from  the  Mediterranean  on  the  one  side  to  the  Caspian 
and  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  other ;  but,  founded  as  it 
was  on  conquest,  and  centralised  in  the  person  of  a  single 
individual,  it  fell  to  pieces  at  the  least  touch.  With  the 
death  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  Assyria  seems  to  have  been 
reduced  to  comparative  powerlessness,  and  when  next  its 
claims  to  empire  are  realised,  it  is  under  Assur-natsir-pul, 
whose  reign  lasted  from  883  to  858  B.C.  The  boundaries 
of  his  empire  exceeded  those  of  his  predecessor,  and  the 
splendid  palaces,  temples,  and  other  buildings  raised  by 
him,  with  their  elaborate  sculptures  and  rich  painting, 
bear  witness  to  a  high  development  of  wealth  and  art  and 
luxury.  Calah,  which  had  been  founded  by  Shalmaneser  I. 
some  four  or  five  centuries  previously,  but  had  fallen  into 
deciy,  became  his  favourite  residence,  and  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  a  capital.  His  son  Shalmaneser  had  a  long  reign 
of  35  years,  during  which  he  largely  extended  the  empire 
he  had  received  from  his  father.  Armenia  and  the  Parthians 
paid  him  tribute  ;  and  under  the  pretext  of  restoring  the 
legitimate  monarch  he  entered  Babylon,  and  reduced  the 
country  to  a  state  of  vassalage.  It  is  at  this  time  that  we 
first  hear  of  the  Caldai  or  Chaldeans, — carefully  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  X\i&  CauUm  or  Semitic  "  conquerors"  of 
Scripture, — nhoformed  a  small  but  independent  principality 
on  the  sea  coast.  In  the  west  Shalmaneser  succeeded  in 
defeating  in  854  B.C.  a  dangerous  confederacy,  headed  by 
Rimmon  idri  or  Ben-hadad  of  Damascus  and  including 
Ahab  of  Israel  and  several  Phoenician  kings.  Later  on 
in  his  reign  he  again  annihilated  the  forces  of  Hazael,  Ben- 
hadad's  successor,  and  extorted  tribute  from  the  princes  of 
Palestine,  among  others  from  Jehu  of  Samaria,  whose 
servants  are  depicted  on  the  black  obelisk.  The  last  few 
years  of  his  life,  however,  were  troubled  by  the  rebellion  of 
his  eldest  son,  which  well-nigh  proved  fatal  to  the  old  king. 
Assur,  Arbela,  and  other  filaces  joined  the  pretender,  and 
the  revolt  was  with  difficulty  put  down  by  Shalmaneser's 
second  son,  Samas-Rimmon,  who  shortly  after  succeeded 
him.  Samas-Rimmon  (824-811)  and  Rimmon-nirari 
(811-782)  preserved  the  empire  of  -Assyria  undiminished  , 
but  their  principal  exploits  were  in  Babylonia,  which  they 
wasted  with  fire  and  sword,  and  converted  into  an 
Assyrian  province. 

The  first  Assyrian  empire  came  to  an  end  in  74  1  when 
the  old  dynasty  was  overthrown  by  a  usurper,  Tiglath- 
Pileser,  after  a  struggle  of  three  or  four  years.  Once 
settled  on  the  throne,  however,  Tiglath  Pileser  proceeded 
to  restore  and  reorganise  the  empire  Babylonia  was  first 
attacked  ;  the  Assynian  monarch  offered  sacrifices  and  set 
up  his  court  in  its  chief  cities  ;  and  the  multitudinous 
Arab  tribes  who  encamped  alons;  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates 
were  reduced  to  subjection  The  Caldai  in  the  south  alone 
held  out,  and  to  them  belonged  the  first  four  kings  given 
in  Ptolemy's  canon.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  from  the 
inva.«ion  of  Tiglath-Pileser  to  the  revolt  of  Kabopolassar, 
Babylonia  ceased  to  have  any  separate  existence.  It  was 
governed  by  As.-iyrian  kings  or  the  viceroys  they  appointed, 
and  the  only  at  tempts  to  recover  independence  were  made 
under  the  leadership  of  the  "  Caldean  "  chiefs  It  bccomet 
nothing  more  than  an  important  province  of  Assyria. 

The  second  Assyrian  empire  differed  from  tbo  fiist  in  it.' 


niSTOIlY  ] 

greater  consolidation.  The  conquered  provinces  were  no 
lunger  loosely  attached  to  the  central  power  by  the  payment 
of  tribute,  und  ready  to  refuse  it  aa  soon  as  the  Assyrian 
armies  were  out  of  sight ;  they  were  chaugedinto  satrapies, 
each  with  its  fixed  ^xesand  military  contingent.  Assyrian 
viceroys  were  nominated  wherever  possible,  and  a  t'lrbu- 
lent  population  was  deported  to  some  distant  locality. 
Tills  vnii  explaiD  the  condition  in  which  Babylonia  found- 
itself,  as  well  as  the  special  attention  which  was  paid  to 
the  coui.trivS  on  the  Mediterranean  coast.  The  possession 
of  the  barbarous  and  half-deserted  districts  on  the  east  was 
of  little  profit  ;  the  inhabitants  were  hardy  mountaineers, 
diflBcult  to  subdue,  and  without  wealth;  and  although 
TiglathPileser  penetrated  into  Sagartia,  Ariana,  and 
Aracosia,  and  even  to  the  confines  of  India,  the  expedition 
was  little  more  than  a  display  of  power.  The  rich  and 
cinliacd  regions  of  the  west,  on  the  contrary,  offered 
attractions  which  the  politicians  of  Nineveh  were  keen  to 
discover.  Tiglath  Pileser  overthrew  the  ancient  kingdoms 
of  Damascus  and  Hamath,  with  its  nineteen  districts,  and 
after  receiving  tribute  from  Menahem  (which  a  false  read- 
ing in  the  Old  Testament  ascribes  to  a  non  existent  Pul)  in 
740,  placed  his  vassal  Hoshea  on  the  throne  of  Samaria  in 
730  in  the  room  of.  Pekah.  Hamath  had  been  aided  by 
Uzziah  of  Judah;  and,  on  the  overthrow  gf  the  Syrian 
city,  Judah  had  to  become  the  tributary  of  Assyria. 
Tiglath-Pdcser  seems  to  have  met  with  a  usurper's  fate, 
and  to  have  fallen  in  a  struggle  with  another  claimant  of 
the  throne,  Shalmaneser.  The  chief  event  of  Shalmaneser's 
reign  (727-722)  was  the  campaign  against  Samaria.  The 
capture  q(  that  city,  however,  was  reserved  for  his  successor, 
Sargon,  in  720,  who  succeeded  iu  founding  a  new  dynasty. 
Sargon's  reign  of  seventeen  years  forms  an  era  in  later 
Assyrian  history.  At  the  very  commencement  of  it  he 
met  and  defeated  the  forces  of  Elam,  and  so  prepared  the 
way  for  the  future  conquest  of  that  once  predominant 
monarchy  ..Ho  came  into  conflict,  also,  with  the  kingdoms 
of  Ararat  aiid'Van  in  the  north  ,  and  the  policy  of  the 
countries  beyond  the  Zagros  was  henceforth  influenced  by 
the  wishes  of  the  Assyrian  court.  But  it  was  in  the  west 
that  the  power  of  Nineveh  was  chiefly  felt.  SjTia  and 
Palestine  wcie  reduced  to  a  condition  of  vassalage,  Hamath 
was  depopulated,  and  Egjpt,  then  governed  by  Ethiopian 
princes,  first  came  into  collision  with  A.ssyria.  The  battle 
of  Pvaphia  in  710,  in  which  the  Egyptians  and  their  Philis 
tine  allies  were  defeated,  was  an  omen  of  the  (ulure  ;  and 
from  this  time  onward  the  destinies  of  civilised  Asia  were 
fought  out  ijetween  the  two  great  powers  of  the  ancient 
world.  As  the  one  rose  the  other  fell  ;  and  just  as  the 
diniai  of  Assyrian  glory  is  marked  by  the  complete  sub- 
jugation of  Egypt,  BO  the  revolt  of  Egypt  was  the  first 
signal  of  the  decline  of  Assyria.  The  struggle  between  the 
representative  stales  of  the  East  led,  as  wa.s  natural,  to  the 
oipcarance  of  the  Oreek  upon  the  stage  of  history.  Sargon 
claims  the  conquest  of  Cyprus  as  well  as  Phoenicia,  and  his 
effigy,  found  at  Idalium,  remains  to  this  day  a  witness  of 
the  (act.  Babylonia,  however,  was  the  point  of  weakness 
in  the  empire.  It  was  too  like,  and  yet  too  unlike,  Assyria 
to  be  otheiwise  than  a  dangerous  dependency  ;  and  its 
inhabitants  could  never  forget  that  they  had  once  been  the 
dominant  nation.  New  blood  had  been  infused  into  them 
by  the  arrival  of  the  Caldai,  whose  leader,  Merodach- 
Baladan,  the  son  of  Yacin,  called  Mardokcmpados  in 
Ptolemy's  canon,  had  taken  advantage  of  the  troubles 
which  closed  the  life  of  Tiglath  Pdeser  to  possess  himself 
of  Babylonia  ,  and  for  twelve  years  he  continued  master  of 
the  country,  untd  in  710  Sargon  drove  him  from  the  pro 
vinro,  and  crowned  himself  king  of  P.nbylon.  Merodach 
Baladan  had  forcse-cn  the  atlatk,  and  cndr.Tvt.urcd  to  meet 
it  by  forminii  alliMicca  with  Egypt  and  the  principalities 


BABYLONIA 


187 


of  Palestine.  The  confederacy,  however,  was  broken  up  iit 
a  single  campaign  by  the  Assyrian  monarch  ;  Judca  was 
overrun,  and  Ashdod  razed  to  the  ground.  Sargon,  who 
now  stykd  himself  king  of  Assyria  and  Babylon,  of  Sumir 
and  Accad,  like  TiglathPileser  before  him,  spent  the  latter 
part  of  his  reign  in  internal  reiorms  and  extensive  building. 
A  new  town,  called  after  his  name,  was  founded  to  th& 
north  of  Nineveh  (artbe  modern  Kouyunjik),  and  a  mag- 
uijicent  palace  was  erected  there.  The  library  of  Calah 
was  restored  and  enlarged,  in  imitation  of  his  semi-mythical 
namesake  of  Agane,  whose  astrological  works  were  re-edited, 
while  special  attention  was  given  to  legislation.  In  the 
midst  of  these  labours  Sargon  was  murdered,  and  his  son, 
Sennacherib,  ascended  the  throne  on  the  12th  of  Ab  705 
B.C.  Sennacherib  is  a  typical  representative  of  the  great 
warriors  and  budders  of  the  second  Assyrian  empire,  and  is 
familiar  to  the  readers  of  the  Old  Testament, from  his 
invasion  of  Judah,  which  the  native  raonumen'.s  assign  to 
the  year  701.  The  check  he  received  at  Eltakeh,  where  he 
was  met  by  the  forces  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  saved  the 
Jewish  king,  not,  however,  before  his  towns  had  been 
ravaged,  a  heavy  tribute  laid  upon  the  capital,  and  his 
allies  in  Ascalon  and  Ekron  severely  punished.  At  the 
commencement  of  this  campaign  Sennacherib  had  reduced 
Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  the  overthrow  of  these  centres  of 
commerce  caused  a  transfer  of  trade  to  Carchemish.  Baby- 
lonia had  shaken  off  the  yoke  of  Assyria  at  the  de.ith  of 
Sargon  under  Merodach-Baladan,  who  had  escaped  from  his 
captivity  at  Nineveh,  but  was  soon  reduced  to  obedience 
again,  and  placed  under  the  government  of  the  Assyrian 
viceroy  Belibus.  In  700,  however,  the  year  after  the 
Judsean  war,  Babylon  rebelled  onft^  more  under  the  in- 
domitable Merodach-Baladan,  and  Suzub,  another  Chaldean. 
Sennacherib  was  occupied  with  a  naval  war — the  first  ever 
engaged  in  by  the  Assyrians — against  a  body  of  Chaldeans 
who  had  taken  refuge  in  Susiana,  and  the  revolt  in  his 
rear  was  stirred  up  by  the  Susianian  king.  But  the  insur- 
gents were  totally  defeated ;  Assur-nadin-sum,  Sennacherib's 
eldest  son,  was  appointed  viceroy  of  the  southern  kingdomj 
and  the  Assyrian  monarch  felt  himself  strong  enough  to 
carry  the  war  into  the  heart  of  Elam,  wasting  the  country 
with  fire  and  sword.  A  last  attempt,  made  by  the 
Susianians  and  the  Chaldeans  of  Babylonia,  to  oppose  the 
power  of  Assyria  was  shattered  in  the  hardly-contested 
battle  of  Khaluli.  The  interregnum,  however,  wffich  marks 
the  last  eight  years  of  Sennacherib's  rule  in  Ptolemy's 
canon,  shows  that  Chaldea  -still  continued  to  give  trouble- 
and  resist  the  Assj-rian  yoke. 

Meanwhile  Sennacherib  had  been  constructing  canals  and 
aqueducts,  embanking  the  Tigris,  and  building  himself  a 
palace  at  Nineveh  on  a  grander  scale  than  had  ever  been 
attempted  before.  -His  works  were  interrupted  by  his 
murder,  in  G81,  by  his  two  sons,  who,  however,  soon  found 
themselves  confronted  by  the  veteran  army  of  Essar-haddon, 
their  father's  younger  and  favourite  soii.  Essarhaddori 
had  been  engaged  in  Armenia ,  but  in  January  680  he 
defeated  them  at  Khanirabbat,  and  was  proclaimed  king. 
Soon  afterwards  he  established  his  court  at  Babylon,  where 
be  governed  in  person  during  the  whole  of  his  reign  After 
settling  the  affairs  of  Chaldea  his  first  campaign  was 
directed  against  Syria,  where  Sidon  was  destroyed  and  its 
inhabitants  removed  to  Assyria,  an  event  which  exercised 
a  profound  influence  upon  Asiatic  trade  The  most  re- 
markable expedition  of  his  reign  Was  into  the  heart  ol 
Arabia,  to  the  kingdoms  of  Huz  and  Bu?.,  S)SO  m.lcs  dis- 
tant from  Nineveh,  280  mdcs  of  the  march  being  through 
arid  desert.  The  Assyrian  army  acconiplishcd  a  feat  naver 
since  exceeded.  In  the  north,  also,  it  .peneltated  equally 
far,  subjugating  the  tribes  of  the  Courjsus,  receiving  the 
submission  of  Teispcs  the  Ciinnieiian,  and  iaking  posscS- 


188 


BABYLONIA 


[history. 


«ion  of  the  copper  mines  on  the  most  remote  frontiera  of 
Media.  AH  this  part  of  the  couatry  was  now  in  the  hands 
of  Aryan  settlers,  and  each  small  town  had  its  independent 
chief,  like  the  states  of  Greece.  In  fact,  on  two  sides,  on 
both  north  and  west,  the  Assyrian  empire  was  in  contact 
■witb  an  Aryan  population,  and  among  the  twenty-two 
kings  who  sent  materials  for  Essar-haddon's  palace  at 
Nineveh  were  Cyprian  princes  with  Greek  names.  But 
the  most  important  work  of  Essar-haddon's  reign  was  the 
conquest  of  Egypt,  which  left  the  ancient  world  under  the 
rule  of  a  single  power  for  some  twenty  years,  and  by  fusing 
the  nations  of  Western  Asia  together,  broke  down  their 
differences,  spread  an  equalised  civilisation,  and  first  struck 
out  the  idea  of  universal  empire.  In  672  B.C.  the  land 
of  the  Pharaohs  was  invaded,  Tirhakah,  the  Ethiopian, 
driven  beyond  its  borders,  and  the  country  divided  into 
twenty  governments.  Vain  efforts  to  shake  off  .the  Assy- 
rian supremacy  were  made  from  time  to  time ;  but  just 
as  Babylon  had  to  look  to  the  foreign  Caldai  for  the 
championship  of  its  independence,  so  Egypt  found  its 
leaders  in  Ethiopian  princes.  In  609  Essar-haddon  fell  ill, 
and  on  the  1 2th  day  of  lyyar  in  the  following  year  he 
associated  his  son,  Assur-bani-pal,  with  him  in  the  king- 
dom. On  his  death  at  Babylon  in  667,  Assur  bani-pal  was 
left  sole  king.  One  of  his  first  acts  was  to  appoint  his 
brother  Savul-sum-yucin  (Sammughes)  governor  of  Baby- 
lonia. 

Assurbani-pal,  the  Sardanapalus  of  the  Greeks,  was  the 
'■'  grand  monarque  "  of  ancient  Assyria.  The  empire  on 
his  accession  was  at  the  height  of  its  glory  and  magnitude; 
the  treasures  and  products  of  the  world  flowed  into 
Kineveh,  and  its  name  was  feared  from  the  frontiers  of 
India  to  the  shores  of  the  iEgean.  Constant  wars  asserted 
the  superiority  of  the  Assyrian  troops,  though  they  drained 
the  empire  of  money  and  men  ;  and  the  luxury,  which  had 
come  in  hke  a  flood,  was  sapping  the  foundations  of  the 
national  strength.  Assur-bani-pal,  in  spite  of  his  victories. 
Lis  buildings,  and  his  patronage  of  literature,  left  a  dimin- 
ished inheritance  to  his  son ;  and  the  military  expeditious, 
formerly  conducted  by  the  king  in  person,  were  now  en- 
trusted to  his  generals.  His  first  work  was  to  check  the 
southward  advance  of  the  Cimmerians,  who  were  thus 
driven  upon  Asia  Minor,  and  to  quell  a  revolt  that  had 
broken  out  in  Egypt.  Two  campaigns  were  requisite  to 
effect  this,  and  meanwhile  Gygesof  Lydia  had  sent  tribute 
to  the  formidable  Assyrian  alouarch.  War  had  also  broken 
out  with  Elam,  which  ended,  after  a  long  and-bard  struggle, 
with  the  complete  conquest  of  the  country.  It  was  divided 
into  two  states,  each  ruled  by  Assyrian  vassals.  But  soon 
after  this  (in  652)  the  first  blow  wa'j  struck  which  eventu- 
ally led  to  the  downfall  of  the  empire.  A  general  insuirec- 
tion  suddenly  took  place,  headed  by  Assur-bani-pal's  own 
brother,  the  viceroy  of  Babylonia,  Elam,  Arabia,  Egypt, 
and  Palestine  made  common  cause  against  the  oppirssor. 
Egypt  alone,  however,  under  the  guidance  of  Psaminitichus, 
and  with  the  help  of  Gygcs,  succeeded  in  recovering  Jicr 
independence;  the  wandering  tribes  of  Northern  Arabia, 
Kedar,  Zobah,  Nabathxa,  ic,  were  chasti.sed,  and  sum- 
mary vengeance  taken  on  Babylonia  and  Elam.  Babylon 
and  Cuthah  were  reduced  by  famine  (049),  Sammuglies 
was  captured  and  burnt  to  death,  and  fire  and  sword  were 
carried  through  Elam.  After  a  protracted  war,  in  which 
Assur-bani  pal  was  aided  by  internal  dissensions,  Shushan 
was  plundered  and  razed,  and  the  whole  of  Susiana  re- 
duced to  a  wilderness.     Thi.s  happened  in  613. 

Assur-bar'i-pal's  building.s  were  unrivalled  for  size  and 
grandetir.  Assyrian  culture  reached  its  culminating  point 
ill  his  reign,  and  his  palaces  glittered  with  the  precious 
metals,  and  were  adorned  with  the  richest  .sculpture.  The 
library  which  he  formed  at  Nineveh  far  surpassed  any  that 


had  ever  existed  before ,  literary  wort.i  were  collected 
from  all  sides;  the  study  of  the  dead  language  of  Accad 
was  encouraged,  grammars  and  dictionaries  were  compiled, 
and  learned  men  of  all  nations  were  attracted  to  the  court. 
Patron  of  the  arts  as  he  was,  however,  Assur-bani-pal* 
character  was  stained  by  cruelty  and  sensuality.  Under 
his  second  name  of  Sin-inadina-])al,  he  appears  as  king  of 
Babylon  in  Ptolemy's  Ust ;  and  the  complete  amalgamation 
of  Assyria  and  Babylonia  in  the  later  years  of  his  rule  is 
shown  by  the  appearance  of  a  prefect  of  Babylon  among 
the  Assyrian  eponyms.  He  was  succeeded  in  625  by  his 
son  Assur-ebil-ili.  His  death  was  the  signal  for  a  genera! 
revolt.  Nabopolassar,  the  viceroy  of  Babylonia,  mad< 
himself  independent;  and  Assyria,  shorn  of  its  empire 
was  left  to  struggle  for  bare  existence,  until,  under  Sara- 
cus  its  last  monarch,  Nineveh  was  taken  and  burnt  by 
the  Babylonians  and  Jledes. 

The  seat  of  empire  was  now  transferred  to  the  souihern 
kingdom.  Nabopolassar  was  followed  in  604  by  his  son 
Nebuchadnezzar,  whose  long  reign  of  forty-three  years  made 
Babylon  the  mistress  of  the  world.  The  whole  East  was 
overrun  by  the  armies  of  Chaldea,  Egypt  was  invaded,  and 
the  city  of  the  Euphrates  left  without  a  rival.  Until  sys- 
tematic explorations  are  carried  on  in  Babylonia,  however, 
our  knowledge  of  the  history  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  empire 
must  be  confined  to  the  notices  of  ancient  writers,  although 
we  possess  numerous  inscriptions  which  record  the  restora- 
tion or  construction  of  temples,  palaces,  and  other  public 
bliildings  during  its  continuance.  One  of  these  bears  out 
the  boast  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  mentioned  by  Berosus,  that 
he  had  built  the  wall  of  Babylon  in  fifteen  days.  Evil- 
Merodach  succeeded  his  father  in  561,  but  he  was  mur- 
dered two  years  after,  and  the  crown  seized  by  his  brother- 
in-law,  Nergal-sharezer,  who  calls  himself  son  of  Belsuma- 
iscun,  "  king  of  Babylon."  Nergal-sharezer  reigned  four 
years,  .ind  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  a  mere  boy,  who  was 
put  to  death  after  nine  months  of  sovereignty  (555  DC.) 
The  power  now  passed  from  the  house  of  Nabopolassar, 
Nabu-nahid,  who  was  raised  to  the  throne,  being  of  another 
family.  Nebuchadnezzar's  empire  already  began  to  show 
signs  of  decay,  and  a  new  enemy  threatened  it  in  the  person 
of  Cyrus  the  Persian.  The  Lydian  monarchy,  which  had 
extended  its  sway  over  Asia  Minor  and  the  Greek  islands, 
had  some  time  before  come  into  hostile  colHsion  with  the 
Babylonians,  but  the  famous  eclipse  foretold  by  Thales  had 
parted  the  combatants  and  brought  about  peace.  Cnesus 
of  Lydia  and  Nabu-nahid  of  Babylonia  now  formed  an 
alliance  against  the  common  foe,  who  had  subjected  Medh 
to  his  rule,  and  preparations  were  made  for  checking  the 
Persian  advance.  The  rashness  of  Croesus,  however,  in 
meeting  Cyrus  before  his  allies  had  joined  him,  brought 
about  hia  overthrow;  Sardis  was  taken,  and  tiie  Persian 
leader  occupied  the  next  fourteen  years  in  consolidating 
his  power  in  the  north.  This  respite  was  employed  by 
Nabu-nahid  in  fortifying  Babylon,  and  in  constructing  those 
wonderful  walls  and  hydraulic  works  which  Herodotu.s 
ascribes  to  Queen  Nitocris.  At  liist,  however,  the  attack 
was  made ;  and  after  Spending  a  winter  in  draining  the 
Gyndos,  Cyrus  ajipearcd  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Babylon. 
Belshazzar,  Nabu  nahid's  eldest  son,  as  we  learn  from  an 
in.-5cri])tion,  was  left  in  charge  of  the  city,  while  his  father 
took  the  field  against  the  invader.  But  the  Jens,  who  saw 
in  the  Persians  monotheists  and  deliverers,  formed  a  con- 
siderable element  (Jf  the  population  and  anny ;  and  Nabu- 
nahid  foimd  himself  defeated  and  compelled  to  take  refut;e 
in  Borsippa.  By  diverting  the  eliannol  of  the  Euphrates  tl;o 
Persians  contrived  to  march  along  the  dry  river-bed,  ami 
enter  the  city  through  an  unguarded  gate.  Babylon  w;i!. 
taken,  and  Naliuiiidiid  shortly  afterwards  submitted  to  iljn 
conqueror,  receiving   in   return   pardon  and  a  residence  ui 


kRT.] 


B  A  B  Y  L  0  X  1  A 


18^ 


L.'iTmania.  He  probably  died  before  the  end  of  Cyrus'a 
t;^ii ;  at  all  evcni-",  when  Babylon  tried  to  recover  its  in- 
i.-j^endcnce  during  the  troubles  that  followed  the  death  of 
Cumbyses,  it  (VdS  under  impostors  who  claimed  to  bo 
"  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  son  of  Nib/,  nabid." 

Art,  Science,  and  Literature.  —  Although  in  art,  as 
in  other  things,  Assyria  \\as  but  the  pupil  and  imitator  of 
Babylonia,  there  was  yet  a  marked  dilfurcnce  between  its 
development  in  the  two  countries,  due  partly  to  natural 
causes.  \Vhile  the  Assyrians  had  stone  in  abundance,  the 
Babylonians  were  obliged  to  import  it  from  a  distance. 
Prick-clay,  on  the  contrary,  lay  ready  at  baud,  and  archi- 
■ac'u.'e  among  them,  consequently,  took  the  forms  imposed 
ipon  it  by  the  use  of  bricks  instead  of  stone.  WTiere  the 
■Vssyrians  employed  sculptured  alabaster  to  ornament  their 
buildings,  the  Babylonians  contented  themselves  with  ena- 
melled bricks  and  painted  plaster.  It  is  a  curious  proof 
of  the  servile  dependence  of  the  northern  upon  the  southern 
kingdom  in  artistic  matters,  that  the  Assyrians  continued 
to  make  large  use  of  brick  up  to  the  downfall  of  the  em- 
pire, in  spite  of  the  accessibility  of  stone  and  the  rapid 
decay  of  their  palaces  caused  by  the  employment  of  the 
more  fragile  material.  Still,  altliough  Assyrian  art  clung 
thus  unaccountably  to  the  building  materials  of  another 
country,  it  did  not  dispense  with  its  native  stone  altogether  ; 
and  speaking  broadly,  we  may  say  that  the  architecture  of 
Nineveh  is  characterised  by  the  use  of  stone  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  brickwork  of  Babylonia.  Sculpture  was 
naturally  developed  by  the  one,  just  as  painting  was  by  the 
other ,  and  the  ornamentation  which  could  fce  lavished  on 
the  e.vicrior  in  Assyria  had  to  be  conSncd  to  the  interior 
io  Chaidea. 

Another  distinction  between  the  art  of  the  two  monar- 
chies arose  from  the  character  of  their  respective  popula 
lions.  B:ib)lonia  was  essentially  a  religious  country,  and 
its  art,  therefore,  was  primarily  religious.  Nearly  all  the 
great  edifices,  whose  ruins  still  attract  the  traveller,  were 
lemi'lcs,  and  the  inscrif.tions  we  possess  of  the  Babylonian 
jiriiiccs  relate  almost  wholly  to  the  worship  of  the  gods. 
Id  Assyria,  on  the  other  hand,  the  temple  was  but  an  ap- 
pendage of  the  palace,  the  king  among  "  these  Romans  of 
Asia,"  as  I'rof.  Rawlinsou  calls  them,  being  the  central 
object  of  reverence.  While  the  Chaldean  temple,  with 
its  huge  masses  of  brickwork,  rose  stage  upon  stage, 
each  tier  smaller  th.m  the  lower,  differently  coloured, 
and  surmounted  at  the  top  by  a  chamber  which  served  at 
onctf  as  a  shrino  and  an  observatory,  the  AssyTian  palace 
was  erected  upon  a  mound  of  rubble,  with  open  couits  and 
imposing  entrance'",  though  never  more  than  one  or  two 
Btories  high. 

Closely  connected  with  this  difference  in  the  religious 
feelings  of  the  two  nations  was  the  greater  caie  and  atten- 
tion paid  to  burial  iu  B,;bylonia.  As  yet  nut  a  single  tomb 
has  been  found  in  Aisyria,.tthile  sepulchral  remains  abound 
in  Cbaldca  The  vast  necropolis  of  Ercch  asl'mishes  us 
by  the  number  of  its  graves,  and  the  potters  of  Babylonia 
were  largely  employed  in  making  clay  coflins.  The  char- 
acter of  Assyrian  art  being  thus  secular,  and  that  of  Baby- 
lonia sacred  and  sepulchral,  necessarily  led  to  a  diirerenl 
opplicQtioD  and  development  of  it  iu  the  two  countries 

We  must  regard  Assyiian  art  as  parallel  with  later  Baby- 
lonLin,  both  having  branched  off  from  Accadiiin.  In 
Assyrian  we  may  trace  two  or  even  three  [icriods  of  devclop- 
meut;  but  our  want  of  material:!  makes  it  impossible  to-do 
this  in  the  case  of  later  B.ibyloiian.  Among  neither 
people,  however,  did  art  altogether  escape  from  the  swath- 
ing bands  of  iti  nu.sety,  allhoui;h  it  was  never  crystallised 
a  in  ancient  Egypt.  The  ol.iest  monuments  of  Accad 
ilready  display  it  in  all  its  forma,  rude  nnd  rudimentary 
■<ougli  they  may  be      The  terraced  temples  o/  Ut,  Erech, 


and  other  places,  mouut  back  to  the  eailicst  times  of  Chal- 
dean history,  and  we  find  them  alread>  adorned  with 
enamelled  bricks,  which  were  first  coloured,  then  glazed, 
and  finally  baked  in  the  fire.  Terracotta  cones  of  various 
hues,  imbedded  in  plaster,  were  used  for  external  ornamen- 
tation, and  at  Warka  (Erech)  coloured  ha'fcolumns  are 
employed  for  the  same  purpose, — an  ornamentation  which 
recurs  in  Sargon's  palace  at  Khorsabad,  and  w.m  the  germ 
of  the  many  kinds  of  'liars  met  with  in  Assyria.  The 
internal  walls,  of  the  shrine  were  bright  with  paint  and 
bronze  and  gilding;  but  the  brilliant  colouring  of  the 
Chaldeans  was  not  reproduced  in  the  northern  monarchy 
where  more  sombre  tints  wore  preferred.  The  huge  struc- 
tures themselves,  of  burnt  and  unburnt  brick,  were  sup- 
ported by  buttresses,  and  the  rain  was  carried  ofi'  by 
elaborately  constructed  drains,  some  of  which  afford  us  the 
earliest  examples  of  the  arch.  A  leaden  pipe  for  the  same 
object  was  found  by  Mr  Loftus  at  Mughcir  (Ur). 

Stone,  on  account  of  its  scarcity,  was  highly  prized, 
and  used  only  for  sculpture  and  carving.  Fragments  of 
the  statue  of  an  Accadiaa  king  Lave  been  brought  from 
Hamniiim,  and  a  portrait  of  Merodach  iddin  akbi,  the  suc- 
cessful opponent  of  Tigluth-Pilc-scr  I.  (1120  b.c  ),  is  cut  in 
low  relief  on  a  stone  now  in  the  British  Museum.  Like  all 
other  Babylonian  stone  relics,  thc-y  are  of  small  size,  and 
of  hard  black  granite,  and  the  royal  portrait  is  interesting 
not  only  as  being  one  of  the  few  specimens  we  possess  of 
Babylonian  sculpture,  but  as  showing  the  marked  contrast 
of  the  Babylonian  face  to  the  typically  Jewish  features  of 
the  Assyrians.  If  larger  stones  were  rare,  however,  the 
same  cannot  be  said  of  smaller  ones,  which  were  used  as 
signets  and  talismans.  These  were  always  incised^,  and 
though  the  figures  are  frequently  rude,  and  still  more  often 
grotesque,  they  are  always  clearly  cut  and  vigorous.  In- 
deed, it  is  clear  that  emery  must  have  been  used  for  the 
purpose,  while  many  of  the -carvings  are  so  miriute  as  to 
suggest  the  employment  of  a  magnifying  glass  This,  how- 
ever, seems  to  be  out  of  the  question  at  so  eaily  a  date  as 
that  to  which  many  of  the  gciiis  belong,  although  a  crxsljl 
lens  was  discovered  by  Mr  Layard  at  Niinrild  'Ihe  di.-Mgr> 
ou  the  signet^cylinder  of  the  cailiest  king  of  Ur  of  whom 
we  have  any  knowledge  is'of  a  high  order  of  merit. 

Next  to  gem  cutting,  pottery  was  canied  to  considvtable 
perfection  by  the  .Accadians.  Some  of  their  vases  and 
lamps  exhibit  great  beauty  of  form,  and  bear  evidence  of 
the  potter's  wheel,  though  the  large  majority  are  made  by 
the  hand,  and  extremely  i-ude.  Spirited  bas  reliefs  in 
teiracotta,  however,  have  been  exhumed  at  Senkereh,  and 
some  small  t4rra<olta  figures  may  also  be  assigned  to  this 
early  period.  Metallurgy  was  more  backward.  Stone  im- 
plements were  stiU  in  use,  although  weapons  and  orua- 
menls  of  bronze  and  copper  are  met  with  in  abundance; 
and  even  iron  was  not  unknown.  Bronze  bowls  occur  in 
almost  every  tomb,  someliines  wrought  with  coiitiderable 
skill.  Mttallurgic  art.  however,  attained  its  highest  point 
in  the  manufacture  of  gold  objects  like  tar  rings  and  fillets. 
The  latter  may  be  compaicd  with  the  gold  head  dressei 
found  by  Vr  Sthlamann  in  the  Troad  This  backward 
state  of  nittallurgy  is  somewhat  temaikuble  when  »5  con- 
.-ider  the  skill  disj'laycd  in  the  making  of  textile  fabrics. 
The  oldest  genis  portray  the  Uiost  richly  embroidered 
robes,  and  it  i-?  probable  that  the  muslins  and  caiptis  foi 
which  Babylonia  was  afterwards  so  famous  were  already  a 
blanch  of  industry. 

Art  in  Assyria  developed  chiefly,  as  has  been  said,  or 
the  side  of  architecture  and  sculpture.  Its  first  period  is 
best  represented  by  the  reign  of  Asslir-natsir-pal,  in  whose 
palaces  we  obtain  excellent  illustrations  of  its  excellencies 
and  defects.  The  period  is  characterised  hy  a  simplicity 
and  vigour  which  shows  itself  in  the  bas-relieff,  where  tii^ 


190 


BABYLONIA 


[science. 


figures,  more  especially  the  animal  forma,  are  spirited  and 
nat\iral  beyoad  anythi-ag  that  we  meet  with  at  a  Uter 
time.  Nothing,  for  instance,  r^iii  be  bolder  and  more  life- 
like than  the  lion-hunt  depicted  on  the  slabs  of  Assur- 
natsir-paL  There  is  a  freedom  in  the  attitude  of  the 
animals  which  evidences  a  remarkable  grandeur  of  concep- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  the  execution  is  somewhat 
heavy,  the  perspective  is  worse  even  than  in  later -works, 
and  the  outlines  are  reproduced  with  too  servile  an  exacti- 
tude, A  backgroand,  again,  is  entirely  wanting,  the  atten- 
tion of  the  artist  being  concentrated  upon  the  principal 
group.  In  the  second  period,  which  extends  from  the 
beginning  of  the  second  empire  to  the  reign  of  Essar- 
haddon,  the  freohness  and  boldness  of  the  preceding  stage 
have  passed  away.  The  care  once  exclusively  bestowed 
upon  the  chief  figures  is  now  shared  with  an  elaborate 
background,  and  a  preEafTaellite  minuteness  prevails 
throughout  the  whole.  This,  added  to  a  total  want  of 
perspective,  causes  too  obtrusive  a  realism.  SliU,  what  is 
lost  in  vigour  is  gained  in  delicacy  and  finish,  and  the 
general  effect  of  such  rich  and  intricate  grouping  could  not 
but  have  been  effective  The  reign  of  Assur-bani  pal 
marks  the  third  and  last  period  of  Assyrian  art  Drawing 
has  made  a  rapid  advance,  and  the  sculptures  furnish 
several  instances  of  successful  foreshortening.  The  art  of 
this  period  is  distinguished  by  great  softness  and  chaste- 
ness  ;  vegetable  forms  are  represented  wilb  admirable  skill, 
and  the  overcrowding  of  the  preceding  stage  is  avoided  by 
recurring  to  the  plain  backgrounds  of  the  first  period,  or 
introducing  merely  the  main  outlines  of  a  landscape.  At 
the  same  time,  it  is  clear  that  Assyrian  art  is  beginning  to 
decline ,  the  freedom  and  boldness  that  once  marked  it 
tend  to  disappear,  and  it  is  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  effemi- 
nacy which  is  well  exemplified  by  the  subjects  portrayed. 
For  the  first  time  scenes  are  taken  from  the  harem  ,  the 
king  lies,  with  his  wife  seated  beside  him,  banqueting  under 
the  shade  of  the  vine ;  and  the  lions  that  Assur-natsir-pal 
hunted  in  the  open  field  at  the  risk  of  life  are  now  tame 
creatures,  kept  in  cages,  and  let  out  for  a  royal  6a«ti^,  where 
they  have  to  be  whipped  into  activity. 

The  effect  of  this  Assyrian  bas-relief  sculpture  was 
leightened  by  judicious  colouring  Red,  blue,  black,  and 
■white — none  of  them,  however,  of  very  great  brilliancy 
— were  laid  upon  certain  parts  of  the  picture,  such  as  the 
eyes,  hair,  and  fringes  of  the  garments.  This  partial 
colouring  was  also  adopted  by  the  Greeks,  and  it  is 
-  extremely  probable  that  they  borrowed  it  from  Assyria 
The  beginning  of  Greek  art  coincides  with  the  decadence 
of  Assyrian  ;  and  the  objects  found  by  M  Cesnola  and 
others  in  Cyj)ru3  show  us  the  transition  of  the  one  into  the 
other  While  the  remains  found  by  Dr  Schlicmann  in  the 
Troad  do  not  exhibit  any  Assyrian  influence,  the  olde&t 
■works  of  art  in  Greece  itself  are  i&oroughly  Assyrian  in 
character  Indeed,  we  can  trace  the  lion  sculpture  at  Mycena; 
through  the  similar  rock  carving  at  Kuinbet,  in  Phrygia, 
back  to  the  artists  of  Nineveh  The  lions  themselves  are 
Assyrian  iu  all  their  details,  and  the  pillar  against  which 
they  rest  rcappeai'S  m  toe  monuments  of  Asaurbani-pal. 
Columnar  architecture,  in  fact,  obtained  a  more  extensive 
development  ii»  the  empire  of  the  Tigris  than  has  ever  been 
the  case  elsewhere.  The  half  columua  of  ancient  Chaldea 
germinated  into  a  wonderful  variety  of  elaborate  forms. 
The  most  peculiar  are  those  wLich  rest  with  circular 
pedestals  upon  the  backs  of  Lons,  dogs,  and  winged  bulls 
The  chasteness  of  Hellenic  toJto  prescn'ed  it  from  this 
Eastern  faiitasticness,  but  the  Doric  and  Ionic  [liUani  had 
their  first  home  on  the  banks  ol  the  Tigri.i.  There  was 
Cv-metliing  in  the  round  firm  column  which  was  congenial 
to  tli'^  riiimi  of  the  (V.ssyrian, 

Indeed,    It   may    be    said    that    soIiditY    and    rcahsm 


underlie  all  Assyrian  art.  Muscular  strength  and  power  of 
an  intensely  earthly  and  human  nature  is  e.Tpressed  in  the'.- 
bas-reliefs  and  the  colossal  bulls  that  guarded  the  palac 
from  the  entrance  of  evil  spirits.  Nowhere  else  in  the 
"world  can  we  find  such  an  embodiment  of" brute  force  and 
unimaginative  energy.  Not  only  is  Assyrian  art  valuable 
as  disclosing  the  genesis  of  HeUenie,  but  yet  more  so  as 
filling  up  a  vacant  chapter  in  the  history  of  ssthetics 
The  divine  calm  and  mysterious  immensity  of  Egyptian 
sculpture  was  not  more  foreigu  to  the  Greek  than  the  stilf 
unspirituality  and  coarse  vigour  of  the  Assyrians,  which 
found  in  the  hon  an  appropriate  symboL  But  the  Assyrian 
artists  did  not  confine  themselves  to  architecture  and  bas 
reliefs.  Gem-cutting  was  carried  tojiigh  perfection,  ami 
even  sitting  statues  of  "  the  great  king"  were  attempted. 
These,  however,  were  not  so  successful  as  the  terra-cotta 
models,  some  of  which  are  of  great  beauty.  Indeed,  the 
potters  work  of  Nineveh  can  quite  vie  with  that  of 
ancient  Greece,  and  their  lamps  seem  to  be  prototypes  of 
those  which  we  find  in  the  tombs  of  Athens  or  Syracuse, 
Besides  porcelain,  glass  was  also  manufactured,  and 
though  transparent  glass  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
known  before  the  reign  of  Sargon,  coloured  glass,  with  all 
the  tints  that  we  admire  in  Venetian  ware,  had  long  been 
an  article  of  trade.  Metallurgy,  again,  was  a  branch  of 
industry  in  which  the  Assyrians  particularly  excelled. 
Their  gold  earrings  and  bracelets  are  admirable  both  in 
design  and  workmanship  ,  their  bronze  casts  are  free  from 
the  narrowness  of  their  sculptures,  in  stone  ,  and  so  well 
were  they  acquainted  with  the  art  of  inlaying  one  metal 
with  another,  that  our  modern  artists  have  been  content,  to 
learn  from  them  the  method  of  covering  iron  with  bronze. 
Uousehold  furniture,  too,  gives  us  a  high  idea  of  Assyrian 
skill.  Like  gem-cuttmg,  it  brought  out  the  Chinese  minute- 
ness and  accuracy  of  the  people,  and  the  profuse,  though  taste- 
ful ornamentation  of  the  seats  is  especially  to  be  noticed. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  our  knowledge  of  the  develop- 
ment ol  art  in  the  sister  kingdom  is  still  so  inipecfect.  As 
has  been  said,  however,  it  is  characterised  by  painting 
rather  than  sculpture,  and  the-  use  of  bnck  instead  of 
stone.  The  few  bas-rehefs  that  exist  are  small  and  inferior 
in  execution;  but  brilliant  colouring  and  a  laviih  use  of 
the  metals  made  up  for  this  want.  The  walls  were  covered 
with  the  most  costly  materials,  and  "  images  portrayed 
with  vermilion  "  excited  the  admiration  of  the  stranger. 
The  love  of  bright  colours,  in  contrast  with  the  sober  hues 
of  the  As.iyrian  palaces,  led  also  to  the  cultivation  of 
gardens,  and  the  hanging  gardens  of  Babylon,  raised  upon 
tiers  of  arches,  were  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  woild. 
The  Babylonian  had,  too,  a  strong  sense  of  humour.  In 
the  engraved  gems  and  metal  work  of  the  southern  empire, 
we  miss  the  finish  and  minute  care  of  the  sister  kingdom, 
but  they  are  replaced  by  a  spirit  of  gmtcsqueness  and 
serio  comedy.  In  pottery  and  the  manuf.uture  of  textile 
fabrics  the  Babylonians  particularly  excelled  ,  their  carpets 
and  variegated  dresses  were  highly  priced,  while  their 
fondness  for  music  was  much  celelTated,  The  history  of 
the  hitter  art,  however,  both  in  Babylonia  and  in  Assyria, 
has  yet  to  be  traced. 

The  science  of  Assyria,  like  must  things  else,  was  derived 
from  .-Vccad.  A  large  number  of  its  technical  terms  were 
borrowed  from  the  Turar.ian,  and  continued  to  the  last  an 
enduring  monument  of  the  debt  owed  by  the  Semite  to  his 
predecessor.  At  the  same  time,  he  did  not  remain  a  mere 
imitator  ;  science  received  a  development  in  his  hamis 
which  might  have  been  looked  for  in  vain  from  a  Turanian 
race.  First  and  foremost  comes  the  astronomy,  for  which 
Babylonia  was  so  famous  in  the  ancient  world.  Its  begin 
ninggoca  back  to  the  time  when  the  Accadai  had  not  yri 
descended  from  their  mountain  fastnesses.     The  zenith  wai 


LITEBATURK.] 

filed  above  Elam,  and  not  above  Babylonia,  and  "  the 
mountain  of  the  East,"  the  primitive  home  of  the  race,  was 
supposed  to  support  the  firmament.     The  shrines  on  the 
topmost  terraces  of  the  temples  were  used  also  as  obser- 
vatories.    Ur  had  its  royal  observatory,  and  so  probably 
bad  the  other  cities  of  C'haldea;  in  Assyria  they  existed  at 
Assur,   Nineveh,  and  Arbela,  and  the  astronomers-royal 
had  to  send  in  their  reports  to  the  king  twice  a  month. 
At  an  early  date  the  stars  were  numbered  and  named  ;  but 
the  moat  important  astronomical  work  of  the  .Accadians 
was  the  formation  of  a  calendar.     This  came  after  the  divi- 
sion of  the  hcarens  into  degrees,  since  the  twelve  months 
(of  30  days  each)  were  named  rJter  the  zodiacal  signs,  and 
would  seem    to    belong   to  about  2200  B.C.      Somewhat 
strangely,  the  Accadian  calendar  api^ears  to  have  passed  to 
the  Assyrians  (and  through  them  to  the  Jews)  through  the 
medium  of  the  Aramxans.     The  year  being  roughly  made 
to  consist  of  3G0  days,  intercalary  months  had  to  be  added, 
one  of  them  being  regularly  inserted  every  six  years,  and 
two  others  being  counted  in  by  the  priests  when  necessary. 
The  loss  of  60  years,  the  ner  of  GOO,  and  the  sar  of  3600, 
were  merely  cycles  dependent  upon  the  general  mathe- 
matical  system  of  the  Babylonians,  which  made  CO  the 
unit,  and  then  multiplied  it  by  the  factors  of  itself.     The 
week  of  7  days  was  in  use  from  an  early  period  ;  indeed, 
the  names  whicli  we  still  give  to  the  days  can  be  traced  to 
ancient  Babylonia ;  and  the  seventh  day  was  one  of  sulum 
nr  "  rest."     The  night  was  divided  into  three  watches  ;  but 
this  was  afterwards  superseded  by  the  more  accurate  divi- 
sion of  the  day  into   12  casbu  (of  2  hours  each),  corre- 
sponding to  the  divisions  of  the  equator,  each  casbu  being 
further  subdivided  into  GO  minutes,  and  these  again  into  GO 
seconds.     The  sections  of  the  equator  contained  30  degrees 
each — a  degree  being  60  sosses  or  minutes ;  but  since  an 
astrolabe,  now  in   the   Museum,  divides  each  of  the   12 
sections  in  the  outer  circle  into  20  degrees,  and  those  in 
the  inner  circle  into  10  degrees,  it  is  plain  that  a  different 
system  was  adopted  for  astrolagical   purposes.     Eclipses 
were  carefully  recorded  from  a  very  remote  epoch,  and  since 
»ome  of  these  are  said  to  have  happened  "according  to  calcu- 
lation," and  others  "  contrary  to  calculation,"  their  recur- 
rence after  a  cycle  of  eighteen  years  must  have  been  roughly 
determined.     One  of  the   Assyrian   reports  states  that  a 
watch-  was  kept  for  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  on  the  three  last 
days  of  the  month,  but  that,  contrary  to  expectation,  the 
eclipse  did  not  take  place,  and  we  possess  notices  of  eclipses 
which  have  been  verified  by  modern  astronomers,  though 
antecedent  to  the  era  of  Nabonassar,  with  whom,  sofar  as 
Ptolemy  knew,  the  first  record  of  them  began.     The  chief 
Work  on  astronomy  was  one  compiled  for  the  library  of 
Sargon  of  Agane  in  seventy  tablets  or  books,  which  went 
through  many  editions,  one  of  the  latest  being  now  in  the 
British  Museum.      It  was  called  "  the  illuniinatioji  of  Bel," 
and  was  translated  into  Greek  by  Berosus.     The  catalogue 
of  its  contents  includes  observations  on  comets,  on  the  pole- 
•lar,  the  conjunction  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  the  motions 
of  Venus  and  Mars.     The  main  purpose,  however,  of  all 
these  Babylonian  astronomical  observ.itions  was  an  astro- 
logical one",  to  cast  a  horoscope,  or  predict  the  weather,  was 
the  chief  business  of  the  Chaldean  astronomer.     Indeed, 
the  patient  minuteness  of  the  meteorological  observations 
is  most  curious,  and  it  was  believed  that  the  same  weather 
recurred  after  a  definite  number  of  years.     In  the  later 
As.iyrian  period  the  study  became  more  scientific,  and  the 
observatory    reports   have  Something  of  the   precision  of 
modern  times      But  from  a  much  earlier  era  we  obtain 
interesting  tables  of  lunar  longitudes  and  numerical  equi- 
valents of  the  daily  increase  and  decrea.se  of  the  moon.     As 
is  implied  by  the  attention  given  to  astronomy,  mathematics 
WIS  fairly  advanced.     The  unit  was  GO,  a  very  convenient 


BABYLONIA 


I'Jl 


number,  especially  when  nsed  as  the  denomlnaior  of  a 
fraction.  A  tablet  found  at  Senkereh  gives  a  table  of  squares 
and  cubes,  correctly  calculated,  from  1  to  CO  ;  and  a  people 
who  Were  acquainted  with  the  suq-dial,  the  clepsydra,  th3 
lever,  and  the  pulley,  must  have  had  no  mean  knowledge 
of  mechanics.  The  lens,  too,  discovered  at  Nineveh,  ex- 
plains the  minuteness  of  the  cuneiform  writing  on  so  many 
of  the  tablets,  and  suggests  the  possibility  of  artificial  aids 
to  the  observation  of  the  heavens. 

Assyria  possessed  Ijut  little  native  literature.  It  was 
essentially  a  land  of  soldiers,  and  the  more  peaceful  pur- 
suits had  their  home  in  Babylonia,  where  the  universities 
of  Erech  and  Borsippa  were  renowned  down  to  classical 
tlDies.  It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Assur-banipal  that 
any  attempt  was  made  to  rival  Babylon  in  learning;  then 
for  the  first  time  original  compositions  came  from  the  pens 
of  Assyrian  scholars,  and  works  were  even  written  in  the 
dead  language  of  Accad.  Syllabaries,  together  with  gram-, 
mars,  dictionaries,  and  reading-books  of  Assyrian  and 
Accadian,  were  drawn  up,  besides  lists,  of  Semitic  syno- 
nyms. In  these  grammars  and  vocabularies  lay  the  germ 
of  comparative  philology,  and  they  are  otherwise  valuable 
as  affording  us  the  earliest  native  analysis  of  Semitic  speech. 
But  before  this  closing  period  Of  the  empire,  the  Assyrians 
had  been  chiefly  content  to  translate  the  ancient  Accadian 
literature,  or  re-edit  the  contents  of  Babylonian  libniriea ; 
and  the  cramping  influence  of  a  dead  language,  in  which 
all  the  precedents  of  law  and  the  first  principles  of  science 
w-ere  locked  up,  tould  not  but  mkke  itself  felt.  Every 
great  city  of  Chaldea  had  at  least  one  Library,  and  it  was  in 
imitation  of  this  that  the  royal  libraries  at  Calah,  Nineveh, 
AssUr,  and  elsewhere,  were  founded.-  The  larger  part  of 
the  literature  was  in  clay,  stamped  in  minute  characters 
upon  baked  bricks,  laierculce  cortilcs  as  Pliny  calls  them  ; 
but  papyrus  was  also  used,  though  none  of  this  fragile 
material  has  been  preserved  to  our  day.  In  fact,  the  use 
of  papyrus  seems  to  have  preceded  that  of  clay,  which  wa's 
not  employed  untd  after  the  settlement  .of  the  Accadians 
in  the  plains.  The  clay  tablets  or  books  were  arranged  in 
order  ;  and  we  learn  from  the  catalogue  of  Sargon's  Lbrary 
at  Agane  (about  2000  Bc.)  that  each  was  numbered,  so 
th^it  the  student  had  only  to  write  down  the  number  of  the 
taClet  he  wanted  and  the  librarian  thereupon  handed  it  to 
him.  The  subjects  of  Accadian  literary  composition  were 
multifarious.  Among  the  most  interesting  are  the  hymns 
to  the  gods,  some  of  which  strikingly  resemble  the  Hebrew 
psalms  in  substance  as  well ,  as  in  form.  Indeed,  the 
parallelism  of  Hebrew  and  Assyrian  poetry  seems  to  have 
been  borrowed  from  the  Accadians.  But  the  similarity  of 
expression  and  feeling  is  no  less  remarkable.  Thus  we  reed 
in  one — (1.)  "  May  gud,  my  creator;  take  mine  hands.  ('I.) 
Guide  thou  the  breath  of  my  mouth  :  guide  thou  mine  hands; 
(3)0  lord  of  light!"  and  in  another — (1.)  "  In  heaven  who 
in  high?  Thou  alone,  thou  art  high.  (2.)  In  eanii  who  is 
highl  Thou  alone,  thou  art  high.  (3.)  As  for  thee, 
thy  word  in  heaven  is  declared  :  the  gods  bow  their  faces 
to  the  ground.  (4  )  As  for  thee,  thj?  word  in  earth  is 
deckired  :  the  spirits  of  earth  kiss  the  ground  ,"  or  in  a 
third — (1.)  "0  Lord,  my  transgressions  are  many:  great 
are  my  sins.  (2.)  The  Lord  in  the  anger  of  His  heart  has 
confounded  me.  (3  )  vTod  in  the  strength  of  His  heart,  set 
himself  against  me."  A  collection  was  afterwards  made 
of  these  hymn.s,  which  was  u.sed  for  ritualistic  purposes, 
and  regarded  as  an  inspired  volume,  and  has  been  apljy  com- 
pared by  M  Lenormant  with  the  Rig-Veda  of  Ibe  Hindus. 
Of  an  older  date  is  the  collection  of  magic  formula;  and 
charms,  chiefly  intended  to  counteract  the  effects  of 
sorcery  and  demoniac  possession,  which  go  back  to  the 
Shamanistic  period  of  Accadian  rehgiou.  Later  fban  the 
hymns,  but  stiU  prior  to  the  second  millennium  ac.  and 


192 


BABYLONIA 


[law  and  trade. 


the  formation  of  tte  calendar,  are  the  mythological  poems 
which  grew  out  of  the  development  of  a  solar  worship  and 
the  personiiication  of  the  attributes  of  the  gods.  Two  of 
these  poems  we  possess  intact, — on  the  Deluge  and  the 
descent  of  Istar  into  Hades, — and  part  of  a  third  which 
describes  the  war  of  the  seven  evil  spirits  against  the 
moun.  The  first  two  form  the  sixth  and  eleventh  books 
of  a  very  remarkable  epic  which  centred  round  the  adven- 
tures of  a  solar  hero,  older  and  originally  independent  lays 
being  woven  into  it  as  episodes.  The  epic  was  divided 
into  twefve  books,  each  book  dealing  with  a  legend  ap- 
propriate' to  the  name  of  the  corresponding  zodiacal  sign. 
This  astronomical  basis  of  the  national  epic  shows  how 
thoroughly  the  study  had  penetrated  the  mind  of  the 
people ;  and  the  clearness  with-  which  we  can  trace  the 
growth  and  formation  of  the  whole  work  throws  great 
Light  on  the  history  of  epic  literature  generally,  and 
adds  one  more  confirmation  to  the  theory  of  Wolf.  The 
Assyrians  also  had  their  epic,  in  imitation  of  the  Acca- 
dians,  and  M.  Lenormant  has  pointed  out  that  the  Semi- 
ramis  and  Naunarua  of  the  Greeks  and  the  other  personages 
of  Ctesias  were  really  figures  of  this  mythical  epopee. 
The  historical  and  chronological  works  that  have  .been 
preserved  are  of  purely  Assyrian  origin,  though  there 
is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  when  the  libraries  of 
Accad  come  to  be  excavated  similar  compositions  wiU  be 
found  in  them.  The  legal  literature  of  the  Accadians  was 
certainly  very  extensive,  and  a  collection  of  fables,  one  a 
dialogue  between  the  ox  and  the  horse,  and  another 
between  the  eagle  and  the  sun,  has  been  met  with. 

Language,  Law,  and  Trade. — As  above  stated,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  primitive  Sumirian  and  Accadian  population  of 
Assyria  and  Babylonia  belonged  to  the  Turanian  or  Ural- 
Altaic  family  of  speech.  The  Semitic  tribes,  who  first 
possessed  themselves  of  the  tetrapoUs  of  Sumir  or  Shinar, 
and  then  gradually  spread  over  the  whole  of  Assyria  and 
Babylonia,  borrowed  many  words  from  their  more  ci^hsed 
predecessors,  and  lent  them  a  few  others  in  jeturn.  The 
so-called  Assyrian  language  is  subdivided  into  the  two 
dialects  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  the  latter  dialect  being 
characterised  by  a  preference  for  the  softer  sounds,  and  a 
fuller  use  of  the  vowels.  Literature  and  the  influence  of 
a  dead  language  stereotyped  it  to  such  an  extent  that  it 
underwent  comparatiyely  little  change  during  the  1500 
years  (^uring  which  we  can  watch  its  career;  at  least  this 
is  the  case  with  the  literary  dialect.  The  closest  affinities 
are  with  Hebrew  and  Phoenician  ;  it  shares  their  pecu- 
liarities in  phonology,  grammar,  and  vocabulary  ;  and  some 
obscure  points  in  Hebrew  etymology  have  already  been 
cleared  up  by  its  help.  Next  to  Hebrew,  it  shows  per- 
haps the  greatest  resemblance  to  Arabic;  differing  most 
widely,  on  the  other  hand,  from  Aramaic.  Aramaic,  how- 
ever, from  becoming  the  lingua  fmnca  of  trade  and  diplo- 
macy after  the  fall  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  ended  (like  Arabic  in 
later  times)  in  superseding  its  sister  idioms ;  but  in^Baby- 
lonia  this  did  not  happen  until  after  the  Persian  conquest. 

A  large  number  of  the  legal  precedents  of  an  Assyrian 
judge,  like  the  titles  upon  which  he  had  to  decide,  went 
back  to  tbo  Accadian  epoch.  A  table  of  early  Accadian 
laws  shows  us  that  the  mother  occupied  the  same  pro- 
minent place  as  among  modern  Turanian  tribes.  The  son 
is  punished  with  a  fine  for  denying  his  father,  but  with 
banishment  for  denying  his  mother.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  hu.sband  can  divorce  tlio  wife  upon  payment  of  a 
pecuniary  compensation,  while  the  wife  who  repudiates 
her  husband  is  condemned  to  bp  drowned.  Tlie  life  and 
person  of  the  slave  arc  already  under  the  protection  of  the 
state,  the  master  who  misuses  liim  being  subject  to  a 
fine,  while  the  slave  could  purchase  his  freedom.  The 
rights  of  property,  however,  wore  strictly  guarded  by  the 


law;  the  maximum  cf  interest  seems  also  to  have  been 
defined  ;  and  houses,  land,  or  slaves  could  be  taken  as 
security  for  a  debt.  The  carefulness  with  which  deeds 
were  signed  and  attested,  and  adjudicated  cases  repoited, 
the  deeds  and  cases  being  afterwards  enclosed  m  an 
envelope  of  clay  on  which  the  names  and  main  points  were 
inscribed,  testifies  to  a  wide-spread  study  of  law.  Wit- 
nesses and  contracting  parties  generally  athxed  their  seals ; 
but  where  they  were  too  poor  to  possess  any,  a  nail-mark 
was  considered  sufficient.  In  the  Accadian  period  a 
father  could  assign  property  to  his  son  during  his  lifetime, 
.though  he  could  not  j^_t  him  in  possession;  and  ia  later 
times  a  limited  power  of  willing  was  in  existence.  The 
private  will  of  Sennacherib,  in  which  he  bequeaths  certain 
treasures  to  his  favourite  son  Essar-haddon,  is  one  of  the 
most  curious  documents  of  antiquity ;  unlike  other 
persons,  the  monarch  does  not  require  any  witnesses. 
Great  activity  of  trade  is  evidenced  by  this  development 
of  law.  But  here  again  we  must  note  a  distinction  due  to 
situation  between  the  northern  and  southern  kingdoms. 
Of  the  Chaldeans,  it  is  emphatically  said  that  "  their  cry 
was  in  their  ships,"  and  we  have  many  indications  of  early 
commerce  with  the  southern  coast  of  Arabia.  The  trade 
of  Assyria,  on  the  other  hand,  was  wholly  overland;  and 
its  first  fleet  was  the  one  built  by  Phojnician  captives  for 
Sennacherib,  when  pursuing  the  fugitive  Chaldeans  through 
the  Persian  Gulf.  Like  the  Jews,  however,  the  Assyrians 
showed  an  aptitude  for  trade  from  the  very  first.  Tho 
earliest  Semitic  settlements  in  Babylonia  seem  to  have 
been  mainly  for  commercial  purposes,  and  their  career 
there  may  be  compared  with  that  of  the  English  in  India. 
In  the  12th  century  B.C.  the  trading  spirit  had  so 
thoroughly  pervaded  them  that  not  only  were  objects  of 
utility  and  art  a  marketable  commodity,  but  we  find 
Tiglath-PUeser  I.  bringing  trees  from  the  countries  he  had 
overrun,  and  acclimatising  them  in  Assyria.  The  fullest 
development  of  business  and  commerce,  however,  does  not 
show  itself  untd  the  8th  and  7th  centuries  B.C.,  when 
Nineveh  was  a  busy  centre  of  trade.  Sidon  and  Tyre  had 
been  ruined  by  the  Assyrian  kings — indeed,  it  is  very 
possible  that  the  obstinate  wars  with  the  Pho?nician  cities 
had  their  origin  in  commercial  jealousy,  and  trade  h-id 
accordingly  transferred  itself  to  Carchemish,  which  was 
conveniently  situated  on  the.  Euphrates.  The  maueh  of 
Carchemish  became  the  standard  of  weight,  and  Aramaic 
the  common  language  of  trade.  Tho  interest  upon  money 
was  usually  at  4  per  cent.;  but  sometimes,  more  especially 
when  objects  like  iron  were  borrov.'cd,  at  3  per  cent, 
Payment  might  still  be  made  in  kind ;  but  more  ordinarilj 
in  bars  of  the  three  chief  metals,  which  were  weighed, 
though  mention  of  coined  money  also  occurs.  Houses 
could  be  let  on  lease,  and  the  deeds  which  conveyed  them 
give  a  careful  inventory  of  the  property  and  its  appurten- 
ances. Commercial  relations  extended  from  India  on  the 
one  side,  whence  caine  ivory  and  the  teak  found  at 
Mugheir,  which  Sennacherib  probably  means  by  "  wood  of 
Siuda,"  to  the  tin  islands  of  Cornwall  on  the  other. 

lidigton  and  Mythology. — The  earliest  religion  of  Aciind 
was  a  Shamanism  resembling  that  of  the  Siberian  or 
Samoycd  tribes  of  to-day.  Every  object  had  its  spirit, 
good  or  bad;  and  the  power  of  controlling  these  spirits  was 
in  the  hands  of  piicsts  and  sorcerers.  The  world  swarmed 
with  them,  especially  with  tho  demons,  and  there  w.as 
scarcely  an  actiofi  whuh  did  not~>isk  demoniac  possession. 
Diseases  were  regarded  as  caused  in  this  w.ay,  and  tho 
cherubs,  bulls,  and  other  composite  crcaluros  which  guariled 
the  entrance  to  a  house,  were  believed  to  protect  it  from 
mischief.  In  course  of  time  certain  spirits  (or  rather 
deified  powers  of  nature)  were  clevotcd  abcvo  the  rest 
into  '.he  position  of  gods;  and  at  tlip  head  of  all  stood  the 


I 


MYTHOLOGY  1 

Triad  of  Na  or  Ar.ua,  "the  sky,"  Ea,  "the  earth,"  and 
Mulge,  "the  lord  of  the  underworld."  The  old  Shamanism 
gradually  became  truusformed  into  a  religion  with  a  host 
of  subordinate  semidivino  beings ;  but  so  strong  a  hold 
bad  it  upon  the  mind,  that  the  new  gods  were  stiU  ad- 
dressed by  their  spirits.  The  religion  now  entered  upon  a 
new  phase;  the  various  epithets  applied  to  the  same  deity 
were  crystallised  into  fresh  divinities,  and  the  sun-god 
under  a  multitude  of  forms  became  the  central  object  of 
worship.  This  inevitably  led  to  a  mythology,  the  numerous 
personified  attributes  •passing  into  demigods  and  heroes. 
A.  large  part  of  the  Accadian  mythology  was  solar,  and  the 
transparency  of  its  proper  names  which,  as  in  other  agglu- 
tinative languages,  never  disguise  their  primitive  meaning, 
mates  it  valuable  in  verifying  the  so  called  "  solar  theory" 
of  comparative  mythology.  At  this  stage  of  development, 
however,  an  important  change  passed  over  the  old  faith. 
The  Semitic  settlers  in  Sumir  had  adopted  the  Accadian 
pantheon  and  belief,  and  after  a  conflict  between  the  dis- 
cordant religious  conceptions  of  the  two  races,  a  great 
sacerdotal  "  reform"  took  place  analogous  to  that  of  Brah- 
manism,  and  the  official  religion  fused  them  into  one  whol». 
The  magicians  were  taken  into  the  priestly  body,  and  the 
hierarchy  of  divine  beings  was  determined.  Tbe  old  triad 
of  Na,  Ea,  and  Mulge  became  the  trinity  of  Anu,  Ea, 
and  Bel  the  Demiurge,  all  children  of  Zicu  or  Zicara,  "  the 
sky"  (the  Sigo  of  Nicolaus  Damascenus) ;  Ea,  "the  god  of 
life  and  knowledge,''  "  the  lord  of  the  abyss,"  "  the  king 
'  I  rivers  and  the  garden,"  the  husband  of  Bahu  (the  Bohu 
0.'  Gen  i.  2),  whoso  spirit  pervades  the  universe,  being 
made  the  father  of  Bel-Merodach,  the  tutelary  divinity  of 
Babylon.  In  accordance  with  the  genius  of  tlae  sex  denot- 
ing Semitic  idioms,  each  deity  was  furnished  with  a 
female  principle,  and  "The  god"  in  Babylonia,  and  the 
personified  city  of  Assnr,  with  his  wife  Serui,  in  Assyria, 
were  placed  at  the  head  of  the  tantheon.  Below  these 
four  supreme  divinities  came  a  second  trinity  of  the  Moon- 
god,  Sun-god,  and  Air-god,  and  the  seven  together  formed 
"  the  seven  magnificent  deities."  After  these  were  arranged 
"  the  fifty  great  gods,"  and  then  the  300  spirits  of  heaven, 
and  thfSf  600  spirits  of  earth,  among  whom  was  found  a 
place  for  the  primeval  divinities  of  Accad  as  well  as  for 
the  many  local  deities  of  Chaldea.  The  most  dreaded  of 
"the  spirits  of  earth"  were  "the  seven  spirits"  who  were 
borh  "  without  father  and  mother"  in  the  encircling  abyss 
of  ocean,  and  carried  plague  and  evil  over  the  earth.  An 
old  myth  told  of  their  war  against  the  moon,  which  was 
deputed  to  watch  over  the  interests  of  mankind. 

Along  with  the  establishment  of  the  Babylonian  official 
religion,  an  astro-theology  was  created  by  the  introduction 
of  astronomy  into  the  religious  sphere.  The  "spirits"  of 
the  various  stars  were  identified  with  the  gods  of  the  now 
creed,  Merodach,  for  instance,  properly  one  of  the  forms 
of  the  sun-god,  being  identified  with  the  planet  Jupiter, 
flnd'»the  Eve  planetary  deities  were  added  to  the  seven 
magnificent  gods,  making  up  altogether  "  the  twelve  chiefs 
of  the  gods."  The  elaboration  of  tliis  estro-theology  was 
also  accompanied  by  the  formation  of  a  cosmogony.  The 
details  of  the  latter  are  to  be  found  in  the  fragments  of 
Dcrosus  and  Nicolaus  Damascenus,  whose  statements  are 
confirmed  by  the  inscriptions,  and  they  show  a  remarkable 
resemblance  to  the  cosmogonies  of  Genesis  ond  Phccnicia. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  both  Phoenicians  and  Hebrews 
profess  to  have  migrated  from  Chaldea. 

Tho  resemblance  is  still  more  striking  when  we  cxamiiW 
the  Babylonian  mythology.  The  sacred  tree  of  Babylonia, 
with  its  guardian  "cherubs" — a  word,  by  the  way,  which 
teems  of  Accadi.-in  origin — as  well  as  the  flaming  sword  or 
>Uunderb«lt  of  fifty  points  and  seven  heads,  recall  Biblical 
aDilogies;  while  the  Nnacbian  deluge  differs  but  slightly 


BABYLONIA 


193 


from  the  Chaldean  one.  Indeed,  the  Jchovistic  version 
of  the  flood  story  in  Genesis  agrees  not  only  in  details,  but 
even  in  phraseology  with  that  which  forms  the  eleventh 
lay  of  the  great  Babylonian  epic.  The  hero  of  the  latter  is 
Tam-zi  or  Tammuz,  "  the  sun  of  life,"  the  son  of  Ubara- 
tutu,  "  the  glow  of  sunset,"  and  denotes  the  revivifying 
luminary  of  day,  who  sails  upon  his  "  ark "  behind  the 
clouds  of  winter  to  reappear  when  the  rainy  season  is  past. 
He  is  called  Sisuthrus  by  Berosus,  that  is,  Susru  '  the 
founder,"  a  synonym  of  Na  "  the  sky."  The  mountain  on 
which  his  ark  rested  was  placed,  as  already  noticed,  in 
Nisir,  south-west  of  Lake  Urumiyeh.  Its  peak,  whereon 
the  first  altar  was  built  after  the  deluge,  was  the  legendary 
model  after  which  the  zigurats  or  towers  of  the  Babjlonian 
temples  were  erected.  Besides  the  account  of  the  flood, 
fragments  have  been  met  with  of  stories  resembling  those 
of  the  tower  of  Babel  or  Babylon,  of  the  creation,  of 
the  fall,  and  of  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac, — the  latter,  by 
the  way,  forming  probably  the  first  lay  of  the  great 
epic.  The  sixth  lay  we  possess  in  full  It  describes  the 
descent  of  Istar  into  Hades  in  pursuit  of  her  dead  husband 
Du-zi,  "the  offspring,"  the  Babylonian  Adonis.  Du-zi 
is  but  another  form  of  Tam-zi,  and  denotes  the  sun  when 
obscured  by  night  and  winter.  At  each  of  the  seven  gates 
of  Hades  the  goddess  left  some-portion  of  her  apparel,  until 
she  at  last  reached  the  abode  of  the  dead,  dark  and  joyless, 
whore  dust  alone  is  the  food  of  the  unhappy  shades.  In 
the  midst  rose  the  golden  throne  of  the  spirits  of  earth, 
beneath  which  welled  "  the  waters  of  life,"  and  here,  too, 
was  the  seat  of  Bahu.  Bahu,  as  queen  of  the  underworld, 
smote  Istar  with  many  diseases,  and  confined  her  in  Hades 
until  her  brother  the  Sun-god  complained  to  the  Moon-god 
and  Ea,  who  sent  a  sphinx  to  pour  the  waters  of  life  upon 
the  imprisoned  goidess  and  restore  her  to  the  light  of  day. 
This  myth  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  Chaldean  conception 
of  the  next  world.  Certain  favoured  individuals,  however, 
might  look  forward  to  a  happier  state  of  existence.  A 
psalm  which  invokes  blessings  upon  the  king  wishes  him 
everlasting  life  in  "  the  land  of  the  silver  sky,"  where  the 
gods  feast  and  know  no  evil  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
Babylonian  Hades  (like  the  Hebrew  Sheol)  is  not  very  dis- 
similar to  the  Homeric  one ;  and  the  possibility  of  borrow, 
ing  on  the  part  of  the  Greeks  is  suggested  by  the  fact,  that 
the  seven-headed  serpent  of  Hindu  legend  is  of  foreign 
origin,  being  taken  from  the  seven-headed  serpent  of  tlio 
Aceadians,  "  which  lashes  the  waves  of  the  sea,"  while  the 
story  of  Andromeda  came  through  Phoenician  hands  from 
a  Chaldean  myth  which  forms  the  subject  of  one  of  the 
lays  of  the  great  epic.  So,  too,  the  Oceanus  of  Homer  finds 
its  prototype  in  the  encircling  abysmal  waters  of  Accadian 
geography,  and  ikia  fravashis  and  miihras  of  Mazdaism  were 
introduced  by  the  Magian  (or  Turanian)  population  found 
in  Media  by  the  Aryan  invaders. 

But  the  old  Shamanistic  ideas  survived  also  in  Assyria 
and  Babylonia,  and  so  were  handed  on  to  the  Jews.  An 
elaborate  system  of  augury  flourished  down  to  the  last  days 
of  the  empire,  and  omens  were  drawn  from  every  event 
that  could  possibly  happen.  Magic  formula;  for  warding 
off  the  attacks  of  demons  were  extensively  used,  and  tbe 
bionzo  bowls  found  by  Mr  Layard,  as  well  as  the  part 
played  by  charms  and  demons  in  the  Talmud,  show  how 
strongly  the  belief  had  seized  upon  the  Jewish  mind. 
Through  the  Jews  and  the  various  Gnostic  systems  of  early 
Christianity,  the  primitive  doctrines  of  Accad  found  their 
way  into  the  mediwval  church,  and  the  features  of  the 
medieval  devil  may  be  traced  in  an  Assyrian  bas-rclicf, 
where  a  demon  with  horns,  claws,  tail,  and  wings,  is  being 
pursued  by  the  god  Adar.  Even  the  phylacteries  of  the 
Jews  go  back  to  the  same  origin.  Accadian  magic  ordered 
the  sorcerer  to  bind  the  chaiin,  twice  knotted  with  sctvn 


104 


B  A  C-B  A.C 


kuots,  round  the  limbs  of  the  sirk  man,  and  this,  with  the 
further  application  of  holy  water,  would,  it  was  believed, 
infallibly  produce  a  cure,  while  the  same  result  might  be" 
brought  about  by  fixing  "  a  sentence  out  of  a  good  book 
on  the  sufferer's  head  as  he  lay  in  bed."  Similar  super- 
stitions may  yet  be  detected  in  the  corners  of  our  own  land, 
and  still  more  on  the  Continent,  where  the  break  with  the 
traditions  of  the  past  has  been  less  strongly  felt.  They 
form~an  important  element  in  the  history  of  the  human 
iiilelligence,  and  the  light  thrown  upon  their  origin  and 


early  fortones  by  the  revelations  of  cuneiform  discover; 
has  opened  a  new  chapter  in  the  science  of  religion 

For  Babylon  and  Babylonia  see  Rich's  Babylon  and  Perstpoiis, 
and  two  memoirs  on  Babylon;  Layard's  Nineveh  and  Babylon; 
Loftus's  Chaldcea  and  Susiana ;  RawUnson's  Five  Great  Mon- 
archies;  Oppert's  Erpidilion  Sneniifique  en  Misopotame,  and 
Fastei  de  Sargon ;  Menant's  Annales  des  Rois  SAsryne .  LcDor- 
mant'a  Premiires  Ciirilisationi,  and  La  Uagie  chez  lei  Chaldient  ; 
Schrader's  Keilinsehrifien  und  das  AlU  Teslamml  .  Records 
of  the  Pttst ,  and  the  Traruactiena  oj  the  Society  of  Biblical 
A'chnology.  'A     H.  S.) 


BACCARAT,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Meurthe  and  arrondissement  of  LuneviUe.  It  has  a  large 
export  trade  of  timber,  planks  wheelwright's  work,  and 
charcoal,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  products  of  its  glassworks, 
which  were  established  in  1765.     Populatiou,  4763. 

BACCHIOLIONE,  a  river  of  north-eastern  Italy,  which, 
rising  in  the  mountains  .eastward  of  Trent,  passes  by 
Vicenza  and  Padua,  and,  after  a  course  of  90  rnUes,  falls 
into  the  -lagune  of  Venice,  south  of  Chioggia.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  large  boats  aS'  far  as  Vicenza,  and  is  connected 
with  the  Adige  by  means  of  a  canal  The  river  is  pro- 
bably the  ancient  Togisonus; 

BACCHUS,  the  Latin  name  of  Dicnysus,  the  god  of 
wme.     See  DroNTsua. 

BACCHYLIDES,  BokxvXiSt??,  a  famous  Greek  lyric 
poet,  born  at  lulis  in  Ceos,  was  the  nephew  of  Simftnides, 
and  flourished  about  470  years  before  Christ  He  resided 
long  at  the  court  of  Hiero  of  Syracuse  with  Simonides 
and  Pindar,  of  whom  he  is  said  to  have  been- the  rivaL 
His  works  consisted  of  odes,  dithyrambs,  and  hymns. 
Two  epigrams  cont.'.ined  in  the  Greek  Anthology  ascribe 
to  him  peculiar  softness  and  sweetness  of  style.  The  few 
remains  of  his  writings  are  contained  in  the  collections  of 
Brunck,  Bergk,  Bland,  and  Hartung  They  have  been  pub- 
lished separately  by  Neue,Sac<:Aj/Mis  C«' /"roj. ,  BerL ,  1823. 

BACCIO  BELLA  PORTA,  called  Fea  Baktolommeo 
El  S.  Maeco,  a  celebrated  historical  and  portrait  painter, 
was  born  at  Savignano,  near  Florence,  in  1469,  and  died  in 
1517.  He  received  the  first  elements  of  his  artistic  edu- 
cation from  Cosimo  Roselli ;  and  after  leaving  him;-devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  great  works  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  Of  his  early  productions,  which  arc  distinguished  for 
their  grace  and  beauty,  the  most  important  is  the  fresco  of 
the  Last  Judgment,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his  friend, 
ilariotto  Albertinelli.  While  he  was  engaged  upon  some 
pieces  for  the  convent  of  the  Dominican  friars,  he  made  the 
acquaintance,  of  Savonarola  who  quickly  acquired  great 
influence  over  him ,  and  Baccio  was  so  affected  by  his 
cruel  death,  that  he  soon  after  entered  the  convent,  and  for 
some  years  gave  up  his  art  He  had  not  long  resumed  it,  in 
obedience  to  his  superior,  when  the  celebrated  Raffaelle 
came  to  Florence  and  formed  a  close  friendship  with  him, 
Bartolommeo  learned  from  the  younger  artist  the  rules  of 
perspective,  in  which  he  was  so  skilled,  while  RafTaelle 
owes  to  the  frate  tne  iniproveme^it  in  his  colouring  and 
handling  of  drapery,  which  wa3  noticeable  m  the  works 
he  produced  after  their  meeting  Some  years  afterwards 
he  visited  Rome,  and  was  struck  with  admiration  and 
a  feeling  of  his  own  inferiority  when  he  contemplated  the 
masterpieces  of  Michel  Angelo  and  RaffaeUe.  With  the 
latter,  however,  he  remained  on  the  most  friendly  terms, 
and  when  he  departed  from  Rome,  left  in  his  hands  two 
unfinished  pictures  which  Raffaelle  completed.  Barto- 
ioinmeo'e  figures  had  generally  been  small  and  draped. 
These  qualities  were  alleged  against  him  as  defects, 
and  to  prove  that  his  stylo  was  not  the  result  of  want  of 
power,  no  painted  the  niagmficent  figure  of  St  Mark,  and 


the  undraped  figure  of  St  Sebastian  The  latter  was  so 
well  designed,  so  naturally  and  beautififlly  coloured,  and 
so  strongly  expressive  of  sufl'ering  and  agony,  that  it  was 
found  necessary  to  remove  it  from  the  place  where  it  had 
been  exhibited  in  the  chapel  of  a  convent.  The  majority  of 
Bartolommeo's  compositions  are  altar-pieces,  and  few  of  them 
are  to  be  met  with  oijt  of  Tuscany.  They  are  remarkable 
for  skill  in  the  massing  of  light  and  shade,  richness  and 
delicacy  of  colouring,  and  for  the  admirable  style  in  whirh 
the  drapery  of  the  figures  is  handled,  Bartolommeo  having 
been  the  first  to  introduce  and  use  the  lay-figure  with  joints. 
BACH,  Johann-Sebastian,  was  born  at  Eisenach  in 
Thuringia,  on  March  21,  1685,  the  same  year  which  gave 
birth  to  his  great  contemporary  Handel  His  father  held 
a  musical  appointment  from  the  town  council,  being  him- 
self descended  from  a  musician.  The  family  of  the  Bachs, 
like  those  of  some  of  the  great  Italian  painters,  may  be 
cited  as  one  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  hereditary 
artistic  genius.  Through  four  consecutive  generations 
they  followed  the  same  calling,  counting  among  their 
number  no  less  than  fifty  musicians  of  more  or  less  re- 
markable gifts.  Even  of  the  first  ancestor  of  the  family 
known  to  us,  a  miller  and  baker,  who,  owing  to  religious 
persecutions,  had  to  leave  Pressburg  in  Austria  for  the 
Protestant  north  of  Germany,  we  are  told  that  in  his 
leisure  hours  he  was  fond  of  playing  the  lute,  the  sounds 
of  which,  as  the  old  family  chronicle  naively  adds,  must 
have  mixed  sweetly  with  Uie  clattering  of  the  wheels  of 
his  mill  The  accumulated  artistic  gifts  and  traditions  of 
his  forefathers  were  at  last  brought  to  their  highest  de- 
velopment by  the  genius  of  our  master,  who  again  trans- 
mitted them  to  his  numerous  sons.  JohannSebastian's 
parents  died  before  he  had  reached  his  tenth-year,  and  he 
was  left  to  the  care  of  his.  elder  brother,  an  organist  at 
Ohrdruf,  from  whom  he  received  his  mdimentary  musical 
education.  According  to  a  tradition  the  elder  Bach  was 
by  no  means  pleased  with  the  rapid  progress  of  his  more 
gifted  brother,  and  even  refused  )iim  access  to  the  sources 
of  knowledge  available  at  that  primitive  period ;  he  was 
particularly  anxious  t6  withhold  from  him  a  certain  col- 
lection of  compositions!  for  the  pianoforte,  by  contemporary 
masters,  which,  however,  the.  younger  Bach  contrived  to 
obtain  surreptitiously,  and  which  he  copied  at  night  in 
the  course  of  six  months.  By  practising  the  music  tbos 
become  his  own  on  the  pianoforte,  he  made  himself  master 
of  the  technique  of  an  instrument,  the  capabilities  of  which 
he  was  destined  to  enlarge  and  develop  by  the  works  of  bis 
own  genius.  In  1698  his  brother  died,  and  Bach,  at  the 
age  of  fourteen,  saw  himself  thrown  on  his  own  resource* 
for  his  further  means  of  support.  He  went  to  Liineburg, 
where  his  beautiful  soprano  voice  obtained  him  an  appoint- 
ment as  chorister  at  the  school  of  St  Michael  In  thia 
manner  he  became  practically  acquainted  with  the  prin- 
cipal works  of  vocal  music,  continuing  at  the  same  timo 
his  practice  on  the  organ  and  pianoforte.  A  special 
teacher  of  any  of  these  instruments,  or,  indeed,  of  th» 
theory  of  music.  Bach  «ecm3  never  to  have  had,  at   least 


BACH 


195 


not  to  our  knowledge,  and  his  style  shows  liule  affinity 
to  the  modes  of  expression  in  use  before  hira.  In  some 
measure,  indeed,  it  may  be  aaid  that  he  new-created  his 
own  style,  and,  at  the  same  time,  that  of  modern  music  in 
general,  a  proof  both  of  the  originality  of  his  power  and 
of  the  autodidactic  kind  of  his  training.  Nevertheless, 
Bach  was  ansious  to  proJit  by  the  exnmples  of-  contem- 
porary masters  of  his  art.  We  bear  of  frequent  trips  to 
the  neighbouring  cities  o'  Hamburg,  Liibeek,  and  Celle, 
at  that  time  important  centres  of  artistic  life.  In  the 
first  mentioned  city  Keiser  created  sensation  by  the  un- 
rivalled splendour  of  his  operatic  productions,  while  at 
Liibeek  the  celebrated  organist,  Buxtehude,  excited  the 
enthusiastic  admiration  of  the  young  art-aspirant.  In 
Cclle,  on  the  other  hand,  a  celebrated  band,  composed 
chiefly  of  French  artists,  offered  an  opportunity  for  the 
practical  study  of  orchestral  music.  Such  were  the  ele- 
ments of  his  self-education,  to  which  must  be  added  his 
thorough  knowledge  of  Palestrina  and  other  masters  of 
the  grand  old  Italian  school,  of  most  of  whose  works  Bach 
possessed  copies  written  with  his  own  hand. 

At  the  age  of  eighteen  Bach  returned  to  Thuringia,  where 
his  executive  skill  on  the  organ  and  pianoforte  attracted 
universal  attention,  and  even  obtained  him  various  musical 
appointments,  of  which  we  mention  as  the  most  important 
that  of  court  organist  to  the  duke  of  Weimar.  One,  and 
not^e  least  welcome,  of  his  official  duties  was  the  com- 
position of  sacred  music.  One  of  his  most  beautiful 
sacred  cantatas,  Ich  hattt  viel  Btkiimmemiss,  was  com- 
posed during  his  stay  at  Weimar.  An  amusing  in- 
cident of  his  otherwise  quiet  and  eventless  career  also 
belongs  to  this  jtime.  We  are  speaking  of  his  musical 
combat  with  Jhe  celebrated  French  organist,  J.  Louis 
Marchand,  who  had  reached  Dresden  on  his  travels,  and 
lorded  it  over  his  artistic  coUeagiies  at  the  Saxon  court  in 
the  most  sublime  manner.  The  injured  musicians,  in  their 
endeavours  to  humble  the  pride  of  the  Frenchman,  at  last 
hit  upon  the  idea  of  proposing  a  competition  on  the  organ 
between  him  and  Bach,  whose  fame  at  that  time  had  begun 
to  sjiread  far  beyond  his  place  of  residence.  Ho  was 
Bummoncd  to  Dresden,  and  the  day  of  the  tournament 
fixed,  at  which  the  court  and  all  the  musical  celebrities 
of  the  town  were  to  be  present.  'At  first  Marchand 
treated  his  young  and  comparatively  unknown  rival  with 
scorn,  but  on  hearing  him  perform  at  a  preparatory 
meetiug,  he  was  so  struck  vrith  Bach's  power  that  he  iguo- 
miniously  quitted  the  field,  and  vanished  from  Dresden 
before  the  day  of  the  contest  arrived.  This  triumph 
led  to  Bach's  appointment  as  musical  conductor  {Kapell- 
meister) to  the  duke  of  Kothen,  which  he  held  from 
1717-1723,  after  a  previous  stay  at  Weimar  for  nearly 
nine  years.  In  1723  ho  remc".\;u  to  Lcipsic,  where  the 
position  of  cantor  at  the  celebrated  "  Thomasschulc," 
combined  with  that  of  organist  at  the  two  princi|)al 
churches  of  Leipsic,  was  offered  to  him.  It  was  here  that 
the  greater  part  of  his  works  were  composed,  mostly  (or 
the  iiLmediate  requirements  of  the  moment.  Several  of 
them  be  .engraved  himself,  with  the  assistance  of  his 
favourite  son,  Friedemann.  The  further  course  of  his  life 
ran  smoothly,  only  occasionally  rufllcd  by  his  altercations 
with  his  employers,  the  town-councillors  of  Leipsic,  who,  it 
is  said,  were  shocked  by  the  "  unclerical "  style  of  Bach's 
compositions,  and  by  his  independent  bearing  generally. 
He  was  married  twice,  and  had  by  his  two  wives  a  family 
of  eleven  sons  and  nine  daughters.  In  1747  Bach  made 
a  journey  to  Potsdam  by  the  invitation  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  who,  himself  a  musical  amateur,  received  the  master 
with  distinguished  marks  of  regard.  He  had  to  play  on 
the  numerous  pianofortes  of  the  king,  and  also  to  try 
Iho   oreans   of    the   churches    of    Potsdam.      Two   years 


after  this  event  his  sight  began  to  fail,  and  before  long 
he  became  perfectly  blind,  a  circumstance  which  again 
coincides  with  the  fate  of  his  great  contemporary,  Handel. 
Bach  died  of  apoplexy  on  the  28th  July  1700.  His  loss 
was  deplored  as  that  of  one  of  the  greatest  organists  and 
pianoforte  players  of  his  time.  Particularly  his  powers  of 
improvisation  are  described  as  unrivalled  by  any  of  his 
contemporaries.  Of  his  compositions  comparatively  little 
was  known.  His  MS.  works  were  at  his  death  divided 
amongst  his  sons,  and  many  of  them  have  been  lost  in  the 
course  of  time ;  only  about  one-half  of  his  greater  works 
were  recovered,  when,  after  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  century, 
the  verdict  of  his  neglectful  ■ --^ntemporarios  was  reversed 
by  an  admiring  posterity. 

The  history  of  this  Bach  revival  is  closely  connected  with 
the  name  of  Mendelssohn,  who  was  amongst  the  first  to 
proclaim  by  word  and  deed  the  powers  of  a  genius  almost 
too  gigantic  to  be  grasped  by  the  receptivity  of  one  gene- 
ration. By  the  enthusiastic  endeavours  of  Mendelssohn, 
Schumann,  and  others,  the  circle  of  Bach's  worshippers 
has  increased  rapidly.  In  1850,  a  century  after  his  death, 
a  society  was  started  for  the  correct  publication  of  all  of 
Bach's  remaining  works,  to  which  music  owes  the  rescue 
from  oblivion  of  some  of  its  sublijnost  emanations.  Amongst 
those  who  have  vastly  contributed  to  establish  the  rapport 
between  our  master's  genius  and  modern  lovers  of  art,  we 
also  mention  Dr  Robert  Franz,  himself  one  of  Germany's 
greatest  lyrical  composers,  who  has  edited  and  adapted  to 
the  resources  of  the  modern  orchestra  several  of  Bach's  most 
beautiful  works.  Of  these  works,  comprising  almost  all 
the  different  forms  of  music,  vocal  and  instrumental,  bar- 
ring the  opera,  wc  can  enumerate  only  the  roost  important 
ones,  referring  the  reader  for  further  information  to  the 
biographical  and  critical  works  by  Bach's  son,  Philipp 
Emmanuel,  by  Forkel,  and  more  recently  by  Bitter  and 
Spitta.  The  last-mentioned  book  has  appeared  quite  lately, 
and  exceeds  its  predecessors  both  by  comprehensiveness  of 
research  and  critical  appreciation.  Of  his  numerous  and 
sacred  oratorios,  cantatas,  and  similar  choral  works,  wo 
name  the  so-called  Christmas  oratorio  (1734),  the  Passion 
music  to  the  words  of  St  John,  and  that  infinitely  grander 
to  the  gospel  of  St  Matthew  (1734),  also  his  Mass  in 
B  minor,  one  of  the  greatest  masterpieces  of  all  times, 
and  the  Magnificat  in  D.  Another  cantata  is  constructed 
on  Luther's  grand  chorale,  Ein'  feste  Burg.  The  most 
celebrated  amongst  his  pianoforte  compositions  is  the 
so-called  Woltemperirie  Clavier,  a  collection  of  preludes 
and  fugues  in  the  different  keys  of  the  scale.  For  the 
•orchestra  wc  name  the  Grande  Suite  in  D,  and  for  bis 
favourite  instrument,  the  organ,  the  so  called  Chromatic 
Fantasia,  It  remains  to  add  a  few  words  about  Bach's 
position  in  the  history  of  musical  development.  By  Marx, 
a  well-known  critical  WTiter,  he  has  been  called  the 
"  Founder  and  Father  of  German  Music;"  and  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  no  other  German  composer  before  him  had 
attained  a  specifically  national  type  of  musical  utterance 
as  distinguished  from  that  of  other  nations.  This  applies 
both  to  mattef  and  manner.  Bach  has  frequently  founded 
his  grandest  conceptions  on  the  simplest  tune  of  old 
chorales,  that  is,  of  purely  popular  effusions  of  piotis 
fervour,  such  as  had  survived  in  the  living  memory  of  the 
nation  from  the  time  of  Luther  and  his  great  revival  of 
religious  feeling.  Sometimes  these  tunes  ivere  adapted  for 
religious  purposes  from  still  older  songs  of  a  secular 
character,  being  thus  thoroughly  interwoven  with  the  in- 
most feeling  of  the  German  people.  In  raising  these  simple 
creations  of  popular  growth  to  the  higher  sphere  of  art. 
Bach  has  established  his  claim  to  the  name  of  the  creator 
of  the  Germanic  as  opposed  to  the  Homance  phase  of 
musical  art.     This  spirit  of  German,  or  to  speak  more 


196 


B  A  C  -  B  A  C 


BccuratcJy.  North  German  nationality,  thoughtful  yet  naive, 
earnest  yet  tender,  has  also  reacted  on  the  form  of  Bach's 
creations.  Bach's  counterpoint,  compared  with  the  poly- 
phonous  splendour  of  Palestrina  or  Orlando  di  Lasso,  is, 
as  It  were,  of  a  more  intense,  more  immediately  personal 
kind.  In  his  sacred  cantatas,  the  alternate  exclamations 
of  the  voices  sometimes  rise  to  an  almost  passionate  ferrour 
of  devotion,  such  as  is  known  only  to  the  more  mdivi- 
dualised  conception  of  human  relations  to  the  Deity  peculiar 
to  Protestant  worship, — applying  that  term  in  a  purely 
emotional,  that  is,  entirely  ansecUnan  sense  It  is  thus 
that  Bach  has  vivified  the  rigid  forms  of  the  fugue  with 
the  fire  of  individual  passion.  About  the  pecubarities  of 
his  style,  from  a  technical  point  of  view,  we  can  speak  no 
further  How  his  style  and  his  genius,  neglected  by  his 
con  tern  poranes,  and  obscured  by  other  masters,  like  Haydn 
and  Mozart,  starting  from  a  diflferent  basis  and  imbued 
with  a  diOferent  spirit,  have  ultimately  been  destined  to 
exercise  a  potent  spell  on  modern  art,  we  have  indicated 
already.  (f   h  ) 

BACH,  Kael  Philipp  Emmanuel,  second  son  of  the 
above,  was  born  at  Weimar  on  the  Hth  March  1714,  and 
died  at  Hamburg  on  the  Hth  September  1788  He  was 
perhaps  the  most  highly  gifted  musician  of  the  eleven 
brothsrs,  and  his  influence  on  the  development  of  certain 
musical  forms  gives  him  a  prominent  place  in  the  history 
of  th&  art.  He  studied  at  the  Thomasschule  and  after- 
wards at  the  university  of  Leipsic,  devoting  himself,  like 
several  of  his  brothers,  to  jurisprudence.  In  1738  he 
took  up  his  residence  in  Berlin,  where  he  was  soon  after- 
wards appointed  chamber  musician  to  Frederick  the  Great. 
In  1767  he  was  allowed,  after  considerable  negotiation,  to 
rebnquish  his  situation  at  court  in  order  to  accept  the 
post  of  kapelkaeigt,er  at  Hamburg,  where  he  passed  the 
last  twenty-one  years  of  his  life.  He  was  a  very  prolific 
composer,  his  most  ambitious  work  being  the  oratono  of 
Thi  IsraelUes  in  the  Wilderness.  The  majority  of  his 
compositions,  however,  were  naturally  written  for  his  m- 
strument,  the  clavier.  His  Versnckuber  die  wahre  Art  das 
Klavier  zu  spielen  (Essay  on  the  true  method  of  harpsichord 
playing)  was  long  a  standard  work,  and  Clementi  pro- 
fessed to  have  derived  from  Bach  his  distinctive  style  of 
pianoforte  playing.  Haydn  is  said  to  have  acknowledged 
in  hia  old  age  his  deep  obligation  to  the  works  of 
Philipp  Emmanuel  Bach.  From  them  he  certainly  learned 
thg  fora  of  the  sonata  and  sjrmphony,  of  which  Bach  may 
fau'ly  claim  to  have  been  the  originator,  though  Haydn 
enriched  it  ^^nd  gave  it  permanence.  This  faot  gives  Bach's 
name  a  distinction  to  which  the  intrinsio  merits  of  his 
compositions  might  not  entitle  him,  it  being  now  generally 
agreed  by  the  best  critics  that  he  was  a  somewhat  feeble 
imitator  of  his  father's  style. 

BACHE,  Alexaubes  Dallas;  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can physicist,  who  has  gained  a  wide  reputation  as  super- 
intendent of  the  great  American  Coast  Survey,  was  a  great- 
grandson  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  was  bom  at  Phila- 
delphia, 19th  July  1806.  In  1821  he  entered  the  mili- 
tary academy  at  West  Point,  and  graduated  there  with  the 
highest  honours  in  1825.  For  some  Ume  ho  acted  as 
assistant  professor  in  the  academy,  holding  at  the  same  time 
a  commission  as  lieutenant  of  engineers,  in  which  capacity 
he  was  engaged  for  a  year  or  two  in  the  erection  of  coast 
fortifications.  He  occupied  the  post  of  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  university  of  Pennsylvania  from  1827  to 
1836,  and  was  then  made  president  of  the  newly-instituted 
Giratd  College.  In  this  capacity  he  undertook  a  journey 
through  some  of  the  principal  countnes  of  Europe,  in 
ordsr  to  examine  their  systems  of  education,  and  on  his 
relura  published  a  very  valuable  report  la  1843,  on 
tb«  death   of   Professor    Hassler.  he  was   appointed    by 


Government  to  the  office  of  superintendent  or  the.  C^a8t 
survey  He  succeeded  in  impressing  Congress  with  a 
sense  of  the  great  value  of  this  work,  and  by  means  of  tht 
bberal  aid  it  granted,  he  carried  out  a  singularly  comprehen- 
sive plan  with  great  ability  and  most  satisfactory  results. 
By  a  skilful  division  of  labour,  and  by  the  erection  of  nume- 
rous observing  stations,  the  mapping  out  of  the  whole  coast 
proceeded  simultaneously  under  the  eye  of  the  general 
director  Nor  were  the  observations  confined  to  mere 
description  of  the  coastrline,  the  several  stations  were  well 
supplied  with  instruments,  and  a  vast  mass  of  magnetic  and 
meteorological  observations  was  collected,  such  as  must  in- 
fallibly prove  of  infinite  service  in  the  future  progress  of 
physical  science.  The  annual  reports  issued  by  the  super- 
intendent were  admirable  specimens  of  such  summaries, 
and  secured  for  him  a  high  reputation  among  European 
savantB.  Professor  Bache  contributed  numerous  papers 
to  scientific  journals  and  transactions,  and  laboured  ear- 
nestly to  raise  the  position  of  physical  science  in  America. 
For  some  months  before  his  death,  which  took  place  at 
Newport,  17th  February  1867,  he  was  afilicted  with  soft- 
ening of  the  brain,  caused,  perhaps,  by  intense  and  long- 
contmued  mental  exertion. 

BACHELOR,  a  word  of  various  meaning,  and  of  ex- 
ceedingly obscure  ongia  In  modern  times  the  most 
common  significations  of  it  are— (1),  an  unmarried  person 
(2),  one  who  has  taken  the  lowest  degree  m  any  of  tht 
faculties  at  a  university.  At  various  times,  however,  it 
has  signified  either  a  young  man  in  general,  from  which 
the  first  of  the  modern  meanings  was  easily  developed ;  or 
a  knight  who  was  unable  to  lead  a  body  of  retainers  into 
the  field,  i  e.,  to  use  the  technical  phrase,  was  not  able 
lever  banniire  ,  or,  finally,  an  ecclesiastic  at  the  lowest  stage 
of  his  course  of  training.  It  has  also  been  pointed  out 
that  bacheleria,  which  meant  the  body  of  aspirants  to 
knighthood,  came  to  be  used  as  synonymous  with  gentry. 

Etymology  gives  little  help  in  arranging  these  meanings 
so  as  to  discover  the  unity  underlying  them.  In  mediaeval 
Latin  the  word  baccalana  (connected  by  Ducange  with 
vasseleria,  by  Stubbs  with  bacca,  i.e.,  vacca,  a  cow),  which, 
according  to  Diez.  is  peculiar  to  the  south  of  France  and 
the  north  of  Spain,  sigj^ified  a  certain  portion  of  land, 
the  size  and  tenure  of  which  imposed  on  the  possessor 
certain  feudal  duties.'  The  possessor  was  called  baecalarivs, 
and  the  name  readily  acquired  the  signification  of  one  who, 
from  poverty  or  other  cause,  as  youth,  was  not  able  to  take 
rank  as  a  knight.  As  a  third  stage  in  the  use  of  the  word,- 
Diez  marks  out  the  application  of  it  to  denote  the  lowest 
degree  in  a  university.  But  though  these  transitions  from 
the  primitive  meaning  may  perhaps  appear  natural,  thero 
is  no  historic  evidence  of  their  having  taken  place.  The 
same  applies  to  the  five  meanings  given  in  Ducange. 

We  look  with  more  prospect  of  success  to  the  old  French 
words  bacelle,  bacelote,  bachelette,  bachelerie,  hachelage,  which 
l^ave  all  the  meaning  of  youth,  apprenticeship.  They  may 
possibly  be  connected  with  the  Celtic  or  Wekh  words, 
hath,  little,  bachgen.  a  boy.  (See  Wedgwood,  s.v.,  who  is 
of  opinion  that  the  baccalarius  of  the  north  of  Spain  is  not 
in  any  way  connected  with  our  word  backelor.)  It  is  very 
probable  that  this  is  truly  the  Toot  of  the  word.  It  has, 
however,  been  frequently  connected  with  baculus,  a  stick, 
from  which  is  supposed  to  have  come  baculartus,  as  the 
word  used  often  to  be  spelled.  (See  Promptortum  Par- 
vulorum,  t.v.)  Whether  the  relation  in  this  case  is  that  of 
skooiing  forth  or  budding  (cf.  tlio  Portuguese  bacharel,  a 
twig  of  vino,  and  Barbazan's  derivation  from  baccalia), 
or  the  more  obvious  one  suggested  by  the  functions  of  the 
baculariua,  who  appears  to  have  acted  as  the  monitor  or 
praepostor  at  schools  (see  H.  T.  Kiley,  Chronica  Mona*terti 
at  Albani),  is  very  doubtful 


B  A  C  —  B  A  C 


197 


i3aclielora,  or  unmarritil  persons,  have  in  many  countries 
jcen  subjected  to  penal  laws.  Tho  best-known  examples 
of  auch  legislation  are  those  of  Sparta  and  Rome.  At 
Sparta,  citizens  who  remained  unmarried  after  a  certain 
ago  were  subjected  to  a  species  of  dTi/xio.  They  ^yere  not 
allowed  to  witness  the  gymnastic  exercises  of  the  maidens ; 
and  during  winter  they  were  compelled  to  march  naked 
round  the  market-place,  singing  a  song  composed  against 
themselves,  and  expressing  the  justice  of  their  punishment. 
The  usual  respect  of  tho  young  to  the  old  was  not  paid 
to  bachelors  (Plut.,  Lye,  15).  At  Athens  there  was  no 
definite  legislation  on  this  matter ;  but  certain  minor  laws 
are  evidently  dictated  by  a  spirit  akin  to  the  Spartan 
doctrine  (see  Scbomann,  Gr.  Alterth.,  i.  548).  At  Rome, 
though  there  appear  traces  of  some  earlier  legislation  in 
the  matter,  the  first  cledrly  known  law  is  that  called  the 
Lex  Julia,  passed  about  18  B.C.  It  does  not  appear  to 
have  ever  come  into  full  operation ;  and  in  9  a.d.  it  was  incor- 
porated with  the  Lex  Papia  et  Poppsea,  the  two  laws'being 
frequently  cited  as  one.  Lex  Julia  et  Papia  Poppxa.  This 
law,  while  restricting  marriages  between  the  several  classes 
of  the  people,  laid  heavy  penalties  on  unmarried  persons, 
gave  certain  privileges  to  those  citizens  who  had-  several 
children,  and  finally  imposed  lighter  penalties  on  married  per- 
sons who  were  childless.  In  Britain  there  has  been  no  direct 
legislation  bearing  on  bachelors ;  but,  occasionally,  taxes 
have  been  made  to  bear  more  heavily  on  them  than  on  others. 
Instances  of  this  are  the  Act  (6  and  7  WilL  III.)  passed 
in  1695;  the  tax  on  servants,  1785;  and  the  income  tax, 
1798V 

BACHIAN,  one  of  the  East  Indian  islands  belonging  to 
the  group  of  the'  northern  Moluccas,  sitmated  immediately 
south  of  the  equator,  and  lying  with  its  subordinate  islands, 
Mandioli  and  Kasiruta,  between  1 27''and  1  '27°and  50'E.  long. 
It  is  of  an  irregular  form,  consisting  of  two  distinct  moun- 
tainous parts,  \  nited  by  a  low  isthmus,  which  a  slight  sub- 
sidence would  submerge.  The  area  is  estimated  at  about  600 
geographical  square-miles.  Sandstone,  coralline  limestone, 
and  pebbly  conglomerate  are  the  prevailing  rocks.  Of 
volcanic  fonaations  no  traces  were  discovered  by  Mr  Wallace, 
but  other  travellers  speak  of  hot  springs  that  seem  to  point 
to  volcanic  activity.  The  sulphur  spring  at  Taubeukit  has 
a  temperature  of  1 25°  Fahr.;  and  a  more  remarkable  example 
of  the  same  phenomenon  exists  at  Sayowang  on  the  east 
ceast.  The  highest  mountain  in  the  southern  half  of  the 
island  is  Gunong  Sabella,  which  is  regarded  by  the  natives 
as  the  seat  of  evil  spirits.  It  was  partially  ascended  by 
Bernstein  in  1861.  A  large  portion  of  the  surface  is  richly 
wooded,  and  sago,  cocoa-nuts,  and  cloves  are  abundantly  pro- 
duced, while,  in  spite  of  the  extermination  of  nutnicg-trces 
by  the  DutcL,  at  least  one  extensive  grove  remains.  Bachian 
is  remarkable  as  the  most  eastern  point  on  the  globe  in- 
habited by  any.  of  the  Quadrumana.  The  interior  of- 
the  island  is  uninhabited,  and  none  of  the  dwellers  on 
tho  coast  are  indigenous.  They  consist  of  tho  Sirani  or 
Christian  descendants  of  the  Portuguese,  of  Malays,  with 
o  Papuan  element,  Galela  men  from  the  north  of  jilolo, 
and  a  colony  from  Tomore,  in  tho  eastern  peninsula  of 
Celebes.  The  Sirani  preserve  various  marks  of  their  Portu- 
guese origin,  wear  a  semi-European  dress,  and  celebrate 
Sunday  with  dancing  and  music  The  gavemment  of  tho 
island  is  vested  in  a  sultan,  under  (he  protection  of  iLa 
Dutch,  to  whom  it  is  becoming  of  considerable  importance 
from  the  discovery  of  coal  and  other  minerals.  The  chief 
town  or  Tillage,  called  Amassing  by  the  natives,  but  often 
spoken  of  as  Bachian,  is  situated  on  the  isthmus. 

BACKGAMMON,  a  game  played  with  dice,  said  to  have 
been  ioveuled  about  the  10th  century  (Strutt).  The  ety- 
mology of  iho  word  backgammon  is  disputed;  it  is  probably 
Saxon, — Bapc,  back  ;  jamen,  game,  i.e.,  a  game  in  which 


the  players  are.liaV  e  to  be  sent  back.  Other  derivations 
are,  Dan.  bakke,  tray,  gammen,  game  (Wedgwood);  and 
Welsh,  iocA,  little,  ea^Amaun,  battle  (Henry). 

Backgaminoais  played  by  two  persons,  having  between 
t\i(:m^b/ickgaminon  board.  (See  diagram  )  The  board  is 
divided  into  tables,  each  table  being  marked  with  six  points, 
coloured  alternately  white  and  black.  The  inner  and  outer 
tables  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  projectici;  bar. 

BlACE. 

Dlnck'8  Home  or  Inner  Table.  Dlack'a  Outer  Table. 


Wbtte'a  Home  or  Inner  Table.  Wblte's  Outer  Table. 

White. 
B.ickgammoD  Board. 

•  -  The  board  b?  furnished  with  fifteen  white  and  fifteen 
black  Tneti,  disposed  at  the  commencement  of  a  game  in  the 
manner  shown  above.  The  arrangement' of  the  men  may 
be  reversed,  as  it  would  be  if  the  diagram  were  turned  upside 
down,  and  the  white  men  put  where  the  black  now  stand, 
and  vice  versa,  there  being  no  rule  as  to  whether  the  play 
shall  be  from  right  to  left,  or  from  left  to  right.  It  is  usual 
to  make  the  inner  table  (see  diagram)  the  one  nearest  to  the 
light  (Academie  desjcux  ;  regies  dujeu  de  lovtetable): 

Two  did  boxes  are  required;  one  for  each  player,  and  a 
pair  of  dice,  "which  are  used  by  both  players.  The  dice  are 
marked  with  numbers  on  each  face  from  one  to  six,  number 
one  being  called  ace  ;  two,  deuce  ;  three,  trois  (pronounced 
trpy);  four,  quatre  (katre);  five,  cinqve  ;  and  six,  six  (size). 

The  board  teing  arranged,  each  player  throws  one  die ;  the 
one  who  throws  the  higher  number  has  the  right  of  playing 
first ;  and  he  may  either  adopt  the  throw  priginally  made  by 
thfi  two  players,  each  throwingone  die;  orhe  may  throw  again, 
using  both  dice. 

Each  player  moves  his  own  men  from  point  to  point,  the 
moves  being  determined  by  throws  of  the  dice  made  by  the 
players  alternately.  A  player  may  move  any  of  his  men 
a  number  of  points  corresponding  to  tho  numbers  thrown 
by  him,  provided  the  board  is  not  blocked  by  two  or  more 
of  his  adversary's  men  occupying  the  point  to  which  ho 
wishes  to  move.  Thus,  suppose  white  throws  cinque, 
six,  he  may  move  one  of  his  men  from  the  left-hand 
corner  of  the  black's  inner  table  to  tho  left-hand  corner 
'of  black's  outer  table  for  six  ;  he  may,  again,  move  the  same 
man  five' points  further  on,  viz.,  to  the  right-hand  point  of 
the  same  table  for  five,  when  his  move  is  completed ;  or 
ho  may  leave  the  man  first  moved  six,  and  move  any  othtt 
man  five  points,  where  the  board  is  open.  But  white  can- 
not move  a  man  for  five  from  the  ace  point  in  black's 
inner  table,  because  the  six  point  in  that  table  (i.ir.,  the 
fifth  point  from  where  'white  moves)  is  blocked  by  the 
black  men.  Any  part  of  the  throw  which  cannot  be 
moved  is  of  no  effect ;  but  it  is  compulsory  for  a  player 
to  move  the  wholo  throw  if  he  can.  Thus,  if  the  men  were 
differently  placed,  and  white  couid  move  a  six.  and  havinz 


198 


B  A  C  K  G  A  M  I\I  O  X 


done  so  could  not  move  a  five,  his  move  is  completed.  If, 
however,  by  moving  the  five  first,  he  can  afterwards  move 
a  sir,  he  may  be  required  to  make  the  move  in  that  manner. 
All  white's  moves  must  be  in  the  direction  indicated,  viz", 
from  black's  inner  table  to  black's  outer,  and  frjm  this  to 
white's  outer  table,  and  so  on  to  white's  inner  table ;  and 
all  black's  moves  must  be  in  the  contrary  direction.  Of 
course,  where  men  are  originally  placed  part  of  the  way 
home,  they  only  have  to  traverse  the  remainder  of  the 
distance. 

A  play  «  in  moving  must  not  skip  a  point  which  is  blocked 
by  his  adversary's  men.  Thus,  suppose  white's  first  throw 
is  fives,  he  cannot  move  a  man  from  the  ace  point  of 
black's  inner  table  to  the  cinque  point  of  black's  outer, 
although  that  is  free  ;  because  in  moving  the  first  cinque 
he  comes  to  a  point  which  is  occupied  by  black. 

When  two  similar  numbers  are  thrown  (called  doublets), 
the  player  has  a  double  move.  Thus,  if  he  throws  aces 
he  has  to  move  four  aces  instead  of  two,  and  so  on  for  the 
other  numbers. 

When  a  player  moves  his  men  so  as  to  occupy  a  point 
with  two  men,  it  is  called  making  a  point.  Thus,  if  ace, 
trois  are  thrown  and  white  moves  one  man  from  the  three 
in  his  outer  table  to  the  cinque  point  in  his  inner  table,  for 
trois,  and  then  moves  a  man  from  the  sLs  point  to  the  cinque 
point  of  his  inner  table,  for  ace,  he  makes  a  point  there. 

If  a  player  leaves  only  a  single  man  on  a  point,  or  places 
a  single  man  on  an  unoccupied  point,  it  is  called  leaving  a 
blot.  Thus,  if  the  first  throw  is  six,  cinque,  and  white  carries 
a  man  from  black's  inner  table  as  far  as  he  will  go,  white 
leaves  a  blot  on  the  ace  point  of  his  opponent's  home 
table. 

When  a  blot  is  left  the  man  may  be  taken  up,  or  the 
blot  may  be  hit,  if,  while  it  remains,  the  adversary  throws  a 
number  which  will  enable  him  to  place  a  man  on  that  point. 
For  example,  if  a  blot  is  left  on  black's  ace  point,  as  in  the 
case  previously  supposed,  and  black  throws  a  five,  or 
numbers  that  make  up  five,  ho  can  hit  theblot  from  his 
six  point ;  or  similarly,  if  he  throws  seven,  or  numbers  that 
make  up  seven,  he  can  hit  the  blot  from  the  three  men 
posted  in  his  outer  table.  The  man  hit  is  placed  on  the 
bar,  and  has  to  enter  black's  inner  table  again  at  white's  next 
throw. 

It  will  be  observed  that  black  in  taking  up  white  leaves 
a  blot  himself,  which  subjects  him  to  be  taken  up  if  white 
enters  with  an  ace.  If  this  should  occur,  black's  man  is 
placed  on  the  bar,  and  has  at  his  next  throw  to  enter  white's 
inner  table,  whence  ho  has  to  start  his  journey  homo. 
Suppose  white  to  have  a  blot  as  before  on  black's  ace 
point,  and  black  to  throw  sixes,  black  could  then  move 
two  men  from  white's  outer  table  to  his  own  bar  point  (so 
called  because  it  is  close  to  the  bar),  and  thence  again  to 
his  own  ace  point,  when  he  would  hit  white  without 
leaving  a  blot. 

The  point  in  which  a  man  is  entered  must  not  be  blocked 
by  two  or  more  men  belonging  to  the  adversary.  Thus,  to 
carry  on  the  illustration,  if  white  now  throws  aces,  or  sixes 
or  six,  ace,  ho  cannot  enter  at  alL  He  is  not  allowed  to 
move  any  man  while  he  has  one  to  enter;  consequently  his 
throw  is  null  and  void,  and  black  throws  again.  It  some- 
times happens  that  one  player  has  a  man  up,  and  that  his 
adversary  occupies  all  the  points  on  his  own  home  table 
with  two  or  more  men  (called  having  his  table  made  vji). 
In  this  case,  the  player  with  a  man  up  cannot  enter;  and  as 
it  13  useless  for  him  to  throw,  his  adversary  continues  throw- 
ing until  ho  is  obliged  to  open  a  point  on  his  inncrtablc. 

Two  blots  may  bo  taken  up  at  once  if  the  adversary 
throws  numbers  that  will  hit  them  both.  It  is  po.^.sible  with 
doublet*  to  take  up  four  blots  at  once,  but  this  could  scarcely 
happen  in  a  game  between  pl.iycrs  of  any  profiiicnry. 


The  game  proceeds  by  moving  the  men  round  towards 
home,  or  by  hitting  blots  and  sending  them  back,  until  one 
of  the  players  gets  all  his  men  into  his  inner  tabU  or  home. 
As  soon  as  this  stage  is  reached,  the  player  who  has 
accomplished  it  begins  to  take  his  men  off  the  board  oi  to 
bear  them.  Thus,  suppose  he  has  several  men  on  every  pomt 
of  his  table,  and  throws  six,  quatre  ;  he  bears  one  man  from 
his  six  point, 'and  one  from  his  quatre  point.  If  his  six 
point  is  .unoccupied,  he  can  bear  a  sis  from  -his  cinque 
point,  or  from  the  highest  point  which  is  occupied,  and 
so  on  with  smaller  numbers,  provided  the  numbers  thrown 
are  higher  than  the  points  occupied ;  if  lower,  the  throw 
must  be  moved.  A  player  has  the  option  of  moving  a  man 
when  he  can,  instead  of  bearing  it.  Thus,  in  the  case 
originally  given  the  six  must  be  borne,  because  a  six 
cannot  be  moved ;  but  the  quatre  may  be  moved  if  pre- 
ferred, by  moving  a  man  from  the  six  point  to  the  deuce 
point,  or  from  cinque  point  to  the  ace  point  Doublets 
entitle  to  bear  or  move  four  men  in  accordance  with  the 
previous  rules.  The  adversary  similarly  bears  his  men 
as  soon  as  he  gets  them  all  home.  If,  after  a  play-jr 
has  commenced  bearing  his  men,  he  should  be  hit  on  a 
blot,  he  must  enter  on  his  adversary's  inner  table,  and  must 
bring  the  man  taken  up  into  his  own  inner  table  before  he 
can  bear  any  more. 

Whoever  first  bears  all  his  men  wins  the  game : — a  single 
game  or  hit  \i  his  adversary  has  borne  any  of  his  men  ;  a 
double  game  "or  gammon  if  the  adversary  has  not  borne  a 
man  ;  and  a  triple  game  or  backgammon,  if,  at  the  time  the 
winner  bears  his  last  man,  his  adversary,  not  having  bomo 
a  man,  has  one  in  the  winner's  inner  table. 

When  a  series  of  games  is  played,  the  winner  of  a  hit  has 
the  first  throw  in  the  succeeding  game  ;  but  if  a  gammon  is 
won,  the  players  each  throw  a  single  die  to  determine  the 
first  move  of  the  next  game. 

In  order  to  play  backgammon  well,  it  is  necessary  to 
know  all  the  chances  on  two  dice,  and  to  apply  them  in 
various  ways.  The  number  of  different  throws  that  can  be 
made  is  thirty-sLx.  (See  Haza-RD.)  By  taking  all  the  com- 
binations of  these  throws  which  include  given  numbers,  it 
is  easily  discovered  where  blots  may  be  left  with  the  least 
probability  of  being  hit  For  example,  to  find  the  chance  of 
being  hit  where  a  blot  can  only  be  taken  up  by  an  ace;  the 
adversary  may  throw  two  aces,  or  ace  in  combination  with 
any  other  number  up  to  six,  and  he  may  throw  each  of  these 
in  two  different  ways,  so  that  there  are  in  all  eleven  ways  in 
which  an  ace  may  be  thrown.  This  deducted  from  thirty-six 
(the  total  number  of  throws),  leaves  twenty-five  ;  so  that  it  is 
25  to  11  against  being  hit  on  an  ace.  It  is  very  important 
to  bear  in  mind  the  chance  of  being  hit  on  any  number. 
The  following  table  gives  the  odds  against  being  hit  on  any 
number  within  the  roach  of  one  or  two  dice  : — 

It  is  25  to  11,  or  about  9    to  4,  against  bring  bit  on  1 

2 
3 

8 

9 
10 

t.  11 

I'i 

The  table  shows  that  if  a  blot  must  be  left  within  the 
reach  of  one  die  (i.e.,  on  any  number  from  1  to  6).  the 
nearer  it  is  left  to  the  adversary's  man,  the  less  probability 
there  is  of  its  being  hit  Also,  that  it  is  long  odds  against 
being  hit  on  a  blot  which  is  only  to  be  reached  with  double 
dice,  and  that,  in  tltat  case  {i.e.,  on  any  number  from  7 
to  \'2).  the  further  off  the  blot  is,  the  less  chanqe  there  ii" 
of  its  being  Lit 


24, 

>  12, 

or 

2 

..  1. 

22, 

.  14. 

or  about  3 

..  2, 

21  , 

15, 

or 

7 

,,  5. 

21  . 

15, 

,, 

7 

,.  6. 

19, 

17, 

,, 

04 

,.8i 

30, 

6, 

,, 

5 

SO, 

C. 

,, 

D 

31  , 

5, 

,, 

6 

33, 

3, 

n 

3J. 

n 

17 

36, 

l",' 

,, 

35 

>>  li 

13  A  C  K  G  A  31  M  0  N 


100 


The  table  assumes  ttat  the  board  is  open  loi-  every  pos- ' 
«ible  throw.  If  part  of  the  throw  is  blocked  by  an  interven- 
in"  point  being  held  by  adverse  men,  the  chance  of  being  bit 
may  be  less.  Thus,  a  blot  may  be  hit  on  an  eight  with 
duecM  ;  fours  ;  cinque,  trois  (twice) ;  or  six,  deuce  (twice). 
If  the  fourth  point  is  blocked,  the  blot  cannot  be  hit  with 
deuces  or  fours,  and  consequently  the  chance  oi  its  being 
hit  is  reduced  from  30  to  6  to  32  to  4,  or  from  5  to  1  to 
8  to  1. 

Two  principles,  then,  have  to  be  considered  in  moving 
the  men : — (l)To  make  pointswhero  there  is  the  best  chance 
of  obstructing  the  opponent ;  (2.)  When  obliged  to  leave 
blots,  to  choose  the  position  in  which  they  are  least  likely 
to  be  hit,  i.e.,  either  as  near  as  possible  to  an  adverse  man, 
or  as  far  as  possiblo  from  any  adverse  men  ;  or  where  the 
intervening  points  are  blocked  by  the  player's  own  -Ben. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  game  it  is  advisable,  if  possible, 
to  secure  the  cinque  point  in  your  own  inner  table,  or  the 
cinque  point  in  your  adversary's  inner  table,  or  both.  If 
you  succeed  in  this,  you  should  then  play  a  bold  game  in 
hopes  of  winning  a  gammon.  The  next  best  point  to  gain 
is  your  own  bar  point ;  and  the  next  to  that  the  quatre 
point  in  your  own  inner  table. 

If  you  are  fortunate  enough  to  secure  all  these  points, 
and  your  adversary's  inner  table  is  less  favourably  made 
up,  it  is  then  to  your  interest  to  open  your  bar  point  (in 
expectation  of  compelling  your  adversary  to  run  out  of  your 
inner  table  with  a  six),  and  also  to  keep  any  men  you  may 
have  in  the  outer  tables  spread  (i.e.,  not  to  crowd  a  number 
of  men  on  one  point).  In  this  case  you  have  a  good  chance 
of  hitting  the  man  your  adversary  brings  out,  and  also  of 
hitting  the  man  ho  has  left  on  your  ace  point. 

If  you  succeed  in  taking  both  these  men,  and  your  ad- 
versary has  a  blot  in  his  inner  table,  it  will  bo  to  your  in- 
terest not  to  make  up  your  own  table,  but  to  leave  a  blot 
there  on  purpose,  in  hopes  of  his  entering  on  it.  You  will 
then  have  a  probability  of  hitting  a  third  man,  which,  if 
accomplished,  will  give  you  considerable  odds  (according 
to  Hoyle,  4  to  I)  in  favour  of  winning  a  gammon;  whereas 
if  you  have  only  two  of  his  men  up,  the  odds  are  against 
your  gammoning  him. 

Tho  beat  move  for  every  possiblo  throw  at  the  commencement  of 
a  game  is  33  follows ; — If  you  throw  aces  (the  best  of  all  throws), 
move  two  on  your  bar  point  and  two  on  your  cinque  point.  This 
throw  is  often  givpn  to  inferior  players  by  way  of  odds. 

Ace  deuce;  move  the  ace  from  your  adversary's  ace  point  (if 
playinp  for  a  hit  only),  and  the  deuce  from  the  five  men  placed  in 
your  adversary's  outer  table.  If  playing  for  a  gammon,  move  the 
aee  from  the  six  to  the  cinque  point  in  your  inner  table. 

Ace  trois  :  make  the  cinque  point  in  your  inner  table. 

Ace  quatre  and  ace  cinquo :  move  the  ace  from  your  adversary's 
ace  point,  and  the  quatre  or  cinque  from  the  five  men  in  your  ad- 
versary's outer  table.  If  playing  for  a  gammon,  play  the  ace  on 
the  cinque  point  in  your  inner  table. 

Ace  sijt :  make  your  bar  point. 

Deuces  ;  move  t«o  on  the  quatre  point  in  your  inner  table,  and 
two  on  the  trois  point  in  your  opponent's  inner  table.  If  playing 
for  a  gammon,  move  two  on  the  quatre  point  in  your  inner  table, 
and  two  from  the  five  men  in  your  adversary's  outer  table. 

Deuce  trois  and  deuce  cinque  :  move  two  men  from  the  five  p1ac«d 
in  your  adversary's  outer  table.  1     ' 

Deuce  quatre  :  make  the  quatre  point  in  your  own  table. 

Deuce  six  :  move  a  man  from  the  five  in  your  adversary's  outer 
tahie,  and  place  him  on  the  cinque  point  in  your  own  table. 

Threes  :  play  two  on  the  cinque  point  in  your  inner  tabic,  and 
Uirec  on  tho  quatre  point  of  your  adversary's  inner  tahle.  For  a 
giramon,  play  two  on  your  cinque  point  and  two  on  your  trois 
point  in  your  inner  table.  i       i  ,      i 

Trois  quatre :  move  two  men  from  tho  Lve  ir*  your  opponent's 
outer  Uble. 

Trois  cinque  :  make  the  trois  point  in  your  own  table. 

Trois  sii  bring  a  man  from  your  adversary's  ace  point  as  far 
M  he  will  go. 

Fours  :  move  two  on  the  cinque  point  in  vour  adversary's  inner 
lahlc.  and  two  fiora  the  five  in  hta  outer  table.  For  a  gammon, 
move  two  min  from  the  five  in  your  opponent'a  outer  table  to  the 
Clique  point  in  your  own  t:ible.   ..,.  ' 


QuQtre  cinque  auu  quatre  six  :  carry  a  man  from  your  adversary's 
aco  point  as  far  as  ho  will  go. 

Fives :  move  two  men  from  the  five  in  your  adversary's  outer 
table  to  the  trois  point  in  your  inner  table.    - 

Cinque  six  :  move  a  man  from  your  advei-sary's  ace  point  as  far 
as  he  will  go. 

Sixes  (the  second  best  throw):  move  two  on  your  adversary's  bai 
point,  and  two  on  your  own  bar  poinl. 

Subsequent  moves  depend  on  the  intervening  throws  ;  conse- 
quently the  problem  becomes  too  compUcated  for^alysis.  Some 
general  rules,  however,  may  be  given.  « 

In  carrying  the  men  home  carry  the  most  distant  man  to  yonr 
adversary's  bar  point,  next  to  the  six  point  in  your  outer  table,  and 
then  to  the  six  point  in  your  inner  Uble.  Uy  following  this  i-ule 
as  nearly  as  the  throws  admit,  you  will  carry  the  men  to  your  inner 
table  in  the  fewest  nuipbcr  of  throws.  When  all  are  home  but  Iwo, 
it  is  often  advisable  to  lose  a  point,  if  by  so  doing  you  put  it  in  ibe 
power  of  a  high  throw. to  save  u  gammon. 

If,  in  endeavouring  to  gain  your  own  or  your  adversary's  cinqua 
point,  you  have  to  leave  a  blot  and  arc  hit,  and  your  adversary  ia 
forwarder  in  the  game  than  you,  you  must  put  another  man  on  your 
cinque  or  bar  point,  or  into  your  adversary's  table.  If  this  man  is 
not  hit,  you  may  then  make  a  point,  and  so  get  as  good  a  game  as 
your  opponent.  If  it  is  bit,  you  must  play  a  back  game  (i.e.,  allow 
him  to  take  up  as  many  men  as  he  likes) ;  and  then  in  entering 
the  men  taken  up,  endeavour  to  secure  your  adversary's  ace  and 
trois  points,  or  ace  and  deuce  points,  and  keep  three  men  upon  his 
ace  point,  so  that  if  you  bit  him  from  there  you  still  keep  the  are 
point  protected. 

To  find  which  is  the  forwardest,  reckon  how  many  points  you 
have  to  bring  all  your  men  home  to  the  six  point  in  your  inner 
table.  Add  to  thb  six  for  every  man  on  the  six  point  in  your  tables, 
five  for  every  man  on  your  cinque  point,  and  so  on  ;  and  then  make 
the  same  calculation  for  your  adversary's  men. 

Avoid  carrying  many  men  upon  the  trois  or  deuce  point  in  your 
own  tables,  as  these  men  are  out  of  play,  and  the  board  is  left  open 
for  your  adversary. 

Whenever  you  have  taken  up  two  of  your  adversary's  men,  and 
have  two  or  more  points  made  in  your  inner  table,  spread  your 
other  men  to  take  the  best  chance  of  making  another  point  in  your 
tables,  and  of  hitting  the  man  your  adversary  enters.  As  soon  as 
he  enters,  compare  his  game  with  yours,  and,  if  equal  or  better,  take 
up  his  man,  except  when  playing  for  a  hit  only,  and  your  playing 
the  throw  gives  you  a  better  chance  for  the  hit. 

Always  take  up  a  man  if  the  blot  you  leave  in  making  the  move 
can  only  be  hit  with  double  dice,  except  when  playing  fur  a  hit 
only,  and  you  already  have  two  of  your  opponent's  men  in  your 
tables,  and  your  game  is  forwardest ;  because  your  having  three  of 
his  men  in  your  tables  gives  him  a  better  chance  of  biting  you  with- 
out leaving  a  blot  than  if  ho  has  only  two. 

In  entering  a  man  which  it  is  to  your  adversary  s  advantage  to  hit, 
leave  the  blot  upon  the  lowest  point  you  can,  «.y.,  ace  point  in  pre- 
ference to  deuce  point,  and  so  on  ;  because  this  crowds  his  game  by 
taking  out  of  it  the  men  played  ou  tho  low  point. 

When  your  adversary  is  bearing  his  men,  and  you  have  two  men 
in  his  taolc,  say  on  his  ace  point,  and  several  men  in  the  outi-r 
table,  it  is  to  your  advantage  to  leave  one  man  on  the  ace  point, 
because  it  prevents  bis  bearing  his  men  to  tho  greatest  advantage, 
and  gives  you  the  chance  of  his  leaving  a  blot  But  if,  on  calcula- 
tion, you  find  that  you  can  probably  save  the  gammon  by  bringing 
both  your  men  out  of  his  table,  do  not  wait  for  a  blot.  To  make 
this  calculation,  you  must  ascertain  in  how  many  throws  you  cnn 
bring  all  your  men  home  (a  throw  aver.nging  eight  points),  and  in 
how  many  throws  he  can  bear  all  his  men,  on  the  (assumption  that 
he  will  bear  on  the  average  two  men  at  each  throw. 

The  laws  of  backgammon  (a3  given  by  Hoyle)  are  aa 
follows : — 

1.  WTieii  a  man  is  taken  from  any  point,  it  must  be  played  ; 
when  two  men  are  taken  from  it,  they  also  must  he  played.  2.  A 
man  is  not  supposed  to  be  played  till  it  is  placed  upon  a  point  and 
quitted.  3.  If  a  player  have  only  fourteen  men  in  play,  there  is  no 
penalty  indicted,  becauso  by  his  playing  with  a  les-ier  number  than 
he  is  entitled  to,  ho  plays  to  a  dis.idvantBce  for  want  of  the  deficient 
man  to  make  up  his  tables.  4.  If  he  bear  any  number  of  men 
before  he  has  entered  a  man  taken  up,  and  which  of  course  he  was 
obliged  to  enter,  such  men  so  borne  must  be  entered  again  in  tho 
adversary's  tables  as  well  as  the  man  taken  up.  5.  If  he  have  mis- 
taken his  throw  and  played  it.  and  his  adversary  have  thrown,  it  is 
not  in  the  choice  of  either  o!  tlic  players  to  alter  it,  unless  they  both 
agree  so  to  do. 

Hussian  Backgammon  or  TiUTiac  is  played  w^th  tho 
same  implements  as  backgammon.  The  men  arc  not  placed 
on  the  board,  but  both  black  and  white  are  entered  in  the 
same  table  by  throws  of  the  dice,  and  both  ulaycrs  move 


20U 


B  A  C-  B  A  C 


in  the  same  direction  round  to  the  opposite  table.  A  player 
13  not  obliged  to  enter  all  his  men  befoTe  he  moves  any ; 
and  he  can  take  up  blots  on  entering,  although  he  has 
some  of  his-men,  which  have  never  been  entered,  off  the 
board.  But,  while  a  player  has  a  man  up,  he  must  enter 
it  before  entering  any  more,  or  moving  any  of  those  already 
entered.  If  he  cannot  enter  the  man  that  is  up,  he  loses 
the  benefit  of  the  throw 

A  player  who  throws  doublets  must  move  not  only 
the  number  thrown,  but  also  doublets  of  the  number 
corresponding  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  dice ,  thus, 
if  he  throws  sixes,  he  must  first  enter  or  move  the  sixes, 
as  the  case  may  be,  and  then  aces,  and  he  also  has  another 
throw.  If  he  throws  doublets  a  second  time,  he  moves 
according  to  the  rule  already  given,  and  throws  again, 
and  so  on  The  privilege  is  sometimes  restricted  by  not 
allowing  this  advantage  to  the  first  doublets  thrown  by 
each  player  It  is  sometimes  extended  by  allowing  the 
thrower  of  deuce,  ace,  to  choose  any  doublets  he  likes  on 
the  opposite  sides  of  the  dice,  and  to  throw  again.  The 
restriction  with  regard  to  the  first  doublets  thrown  does 
not  apply  to  deuce,  ace,  nor  does  throwing  it  remove  the 
restriction  with  regard  to  first  doublets. 

A  player  must  first  be  able  to  complete  the  doublets 


thrown.  If  the  cannot  move  the  who.e  thrpWi  l*  cannot 
take  the  corresponding  doublets ,  and  he  is  not  allowed 
another  throw  if  he  cannot  move  all  the  points  to  which 
he  is  entitled.  In  other  respects  the  game  is  similar  to 
ordinary  backgammon.  The  chief  object  in  the  game  is 
for  the  player  who  has  his  men  in  advance  to  secure  as 
many  successive  points  as  possible,  so  that  his  adversary 
may  be  unable  to  pass  or  hit  the  forward  men.      (h.  j.) 

BACKHUYSEN',  Ludolf,  an  eminent  painter  of  the 
Dutch  school,  was  born  at  Embden,  in  Hanover,  in  1631,  and 
died  in  1709.  He  was  brought  up  as  a  merchant  at  Amster- 
dam, but  early  discovered  so  strong  a  genius  for  painting 
that  he  relinquished  business  and  devoted  himself  to  art. 
He  studied  first  under  Everdingen  and  then  under  Dubbels, 
two  eminent  masters  of  the  time,  and  soon  became  cele- 
brated for  his  sea  pieces.  He  was  an  ardent  student  of 
nature,  and  frequently  exposed  himself  on  the  sea  in  an 
open  boat  in  order  to  study  the, effects  of  tempests.  Hia 
compositions,  which  are  very  numerous,  are  nearly  all 
variations  of  one  subject,  and  in  a  style  peculiarly  his  own, 
marked  by  intense  realism  or  faithful  imitation  of  nature. 
In  his  later  years  Backhuysen  employed  hia  time  in  etching 
and  caligraphy.  Several  of  his  beat  pieces  are  in  the 
gallery  of  the  Louvra 


BACON,  FRANCIS 


BACON,  Francis,  Baron  Veeulam,  Viscount  St 
Alban,  was  born  at  York  House  in  the  Strand,  Lon- 
don, on  the  22d  January  1561.  He  was  the  youngest  son 
of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  the  celebrated  lawyer  and  statesman, 
who  for  twenty  years  of  Elizabeth's  reign  held  the  seals  as 
lord  keeper.  His  mother,  the  second  wife  of  Sir  Nicholas, 
•  was  a  daughter  of  Sir  Anthony  Cooke,  formerly  tutor  to 
Edward  VI.  She  was  a  woman  of  considerable  culture, 
well  skilled  in  the  classical  studies  of  the  period,  and  a 
warm  adherent  of  the  Reformed  or  Puritan  Church.  One 
of  her  sisters  was  married  to  the  famous  Lord  Treasurer 
Burghley.  Very  little  is  known  of  Bacon's  early  life  and 
education.  His  health  being  then,  as  always,  extremely 
delicate,  he  probably  received  much  of  his  instruction  at 
home.  Yet,  Rawley  tells  us,  "  his  first  and  childish  years 
were  not  without  some  mark  of  eminency  ;  at  which  time  ho 
was  endued  with  that  pregnancy  and  towardness  of  wit,  as 
they  were  presages  of  that  deep  and  universal  apprehension 
which  was  manifest  in  him  afterwards,  and  caused  him  to  be 
taken  notice  of  by  several  persons  of  worth,  and  place,  and 
especially  by  the  queen,  who,  as  I  have  been  informed, 
delighted  much  to  confer  with  him  and  to  prove  him  with- 
questions ;  unto  whom  he  delivered  himself  with  that 
gravity  and  maturity  above  his  years  that  her  majesty 
would  often  term  him,  Tht  young  lord  keeper."  In 
April  1573  he  was  entered  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  for  three  years  he  resided  with  his  brother  Anthony. 
Our  information  with  regard  to  these  important  years  is 
sinjularly  scanty.  We  know  only  that  Bacon  at  Cam- 
bridge, like  Descartes  at  La  Fleche,  applied  himself  dili- 
gently to  the  several  sciences  as  then  taught,  and  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  methods  employed  and  the  results 
attained  were  alike  worthless  and  erroneous.  Although 
he  preserved  a  reverence  for  Aristotle  (of  whom,  however, 
he  seems  to  have  known  but  little),  he  learned  to  despise 
the  Aristotelian  philosophy.  It  yielded  no  fruit,  was 
serviceable  only  for  disputation,  and  the  end  it  proposed 
to  itself  was  a  mistaken  one.  Philosophy  must  be  taught 
its  true  business,  and  to  attain  its  new  aim  a  new  method 
must  be  devised.  With  the  first  germs  of  this  great  con- 
ception in  his  mind,  Bacon  left  the  university  in  1576. 
In   the  same  year  he  and  hi"  brother  Anthony   were 


entered  de  societate  magistrorum  at  Gray's  Inn,  and  a  few 
months  later  he  was  sent  abroad  with  Sir  Amyas  Paulet, 
the  English  ambassador  at  Paris.  He  spent  some  time  in 
that  city,  and  travelled  through  several  of  the  French  pro- 
vinces. The  disturbed  state  of  government  and  society  in 
France  at  that  time  must  have  afforded  him  much  valuable 
political  instruction ,  and  it  has  been  commonly  supposed 
that  certain  A'otes  on  the  State  of  Christendom,  usually 
printed  in  his  works,  contain  the  results  of  his  observa- 
tions But  Mr  Spedding  has  shown  that  there  is  n( 
reason  for  ascribing  these  "  Notes"  to  htm,  and  that  they 
may  be  attributed  with  more  probability  to  one  of  his 
brother  Anthony's  correspondents. 

The  sudden  death  of  his  father  in  February  1 579  neces- 
sitated Bacon's  return  to  England,  and  exercised  a  very 
serious  influence  on  his  fortunes.  A  considerable  sum  of 
money  had  been  laid  up  by  Sir  Nicholas  in  order  to  pur- 
chase an  estate  for  his  youngest  son,  the  only  one  other- 
wise unprovided  for.  Owing  to  his  sudden  death,  this 
intention  was  not  carried  out,  and  but  a  fifth  part  of  the 
money  descended  to  Francis,  who  thus  began  his  career 
in  comparative  poverty.  It  was  one  of  the  gravest  misfor- 
tunes of  his  life  he  started  with  insufficient  means, 
acquired  a  habit  of  borrowing,  and  was  never  afterwards 
out  of  debt.  As  it  had  become  absolutely  necessary  that 
he  should  adopt  some  profession  by  which  an  adequate 
income  would  be  yielded,  he  selected  that  of  law,  and 
took  up  his  residence  at  Gray's  Inn  in  1579 

Nothing  throws  so  clear  a  light  on  the  career  of  any 
great  man  as  a  knowledge  of  his  character  and  aims  when 
he  made  the  first  step  into  the  world.  We  learn  from  this 
how  he  himself  desired  to  shape  his  course,  and  at  everj 
[)oint  can  see  how  far  his  actions  correspond  to  the  end  he 
had  placed  before  him.  Wo  have,  fortunately,  information 
from  Bacon  himself  on  thest  pointa  In  the  fragment 
De  I nterpretatione  Natural  Vroocmium  (written  probably 
about  1G03)  ho  analyses  his  own  mental  character,  and 
lays  before  us  the  objects  he  had  in  view  when  he  entered 
on  public  life.  If  his  opening  sentence.  Ego  cum  me  ad 
utilitatps  huvuxnas  natum  exhiimarem,  seems  at  firat  sight 
a  little  arrogant,  it  must  bo  remembered  that  it  is  the 
arrogance  of  the  iicyaK6\}ni)(o<!,  who  thiuks  himself  werthy 


BACON 


:0l 


of  great  things,  and  u  worthy,  it  is  a  great  sell  esteem, 
based  opon  a  consciousness  of  great  powers.  This  grand 
and  comprehensive  aim,  the  production  of  good  to  the 
human  race  through  the  discovery  of  truth,  was  combined  in 
him  with  the  m^re  practical  desire  to  be  of  service  to  his 
country,  service  for  which  he  felt  himself  by  birth  and 
education  eminently  fitted.  He  purposed,  therefore,  to 
obtain,  if  possible,  some  honourable  post  in  the  state 
which  would  give  him  the  means  of  realising,  so  far  as  in 
him  lay,  these  two  great  projects,  and  would  at  the  same  time 
enable  him  to  do  somewhat  for  the  church,  the  third  of 
the  objects  whose  good  he  had  at  heart  The  constant 
striving  after  these  three  ends  is  the  key  to  Bacon's  life. 
His  qualifications  for  accomplishing  the  task  he  thus  set 
before  him  were  not  small  Wis  intellect  was  far-seeing 
and  acute,  quick  and  yet  cautious,  meditative,  methodical, 
and  free  from  prejudice  If  we  add  to  this  account  what 
Bacon  himself  does  not  tell  us — that  he  seems  to  have 
been  of  an  unusually  sweet  temper  and  amiable  disposition 
— we  shall  have  a  fairly  complete  picture  of  his  mental 
character  at  the  critical  period  of  his  entry  into  the  world. 
In  1580  he  appears  to  have  taken  the  first  step  in  his 
projected  career  by  applying,  through  his  uncle,  Burghley, 
for  some  post  at  court.  His  suit,  though  well  received  by 
the  queen  and  the  lord  treasurer,  was  unsuccessful ;  the 
particulars  of  it  are  totally  unknown.  For  two  years  after 
this  disappointment  he  worked  quietly  at  Gray's  Inn,  and 
in  1582  was  admitted  an  outer  barrister.  In  1584  he 
took  his  seat  in  Parliament  for  Melcombe  in  Dorsetshire, 
bat  the  notes  for  the  session  do  not  disclose  what  part  he 
took  or  what  reputation  he  gained.  About  the  same  time 
he  made  another  application  to  Burghley,  apparently  with 
a  view  to  expediting  his  progress  at  the  bar.  His  uncle, 
who  appears  to  have  "  taken  his  zeal  for  ambition,"  wrote 
him  a  severe  letter,  taking  him  to  task  for  arrogance  and 
pnde,  qualities  which  Bacon  vehemently  disclaimed.  It 
IS  uncertain  what  success  attended  this  suit ;  but  as  his 
advancement  at  the  bar  was  unusually  rapid,  his  uncle's 
influence  may  not  improbably  have  been  exerted  in  his 
behalf.  Some  years  later,  in  1589,  he  received  the  first 
substantial  pieca  of  patronage  from  his  powerful  kinsman, 
the  reversion  of  the  clerkship  of  the  Star  Chamber  being 
granted  to  him.  The  office  was  valuable,  worth  about 
£1600  a  year;  but  it  did  not  become  vacant  for  nearly 
twenty  years,  and  was  thus,  as  Bacon  used  to  say,  "  like 
another  man's  ground  buttailing  upon  his  house,  which 
might  mend  his  prospect,  but  did  not  fill  his  barn."  A 
considerable  period  of  his  life  had  thus  slipped  away,  and 
his  affairs  had  not  prospered.  He  had  written  on  the 
condition  of  parties  in  the  church  ;  he  had  set  down  his 
thoughts  on  philosophical  reform  in  the  lost  tract,  Temporis 
ParhLS  Maxiimis]  but  he  had  failed  in  obtaining  the  position 
which  he  looked  upon  as  an  indispcnsahle  condition  of 
success.      A  long  ar»d  eloquent  letter  to  Burghley,'  written 

*  "  I  wax  now  somewhat  aDcient ;  on e-and- thirty  years  is  a  great 
deal  of  sand  in  the  hour-gla.<is.  ...  I  ever  bare  a  mind  (in  some 
middle  place  that  1  coutd  discharge)  to  serve  her  majesty  ;  not  as  a 
man  bom  under  Sol,  thai  tovcth  honour  ;  nor  under  Jupiter,  that 
loTetb  buslDe&s  (for  the  contemplative  planet  cameth  me  away  wholly) ; 
bat  as  a  nuui  bom  under  an  excellant  sovereign,  that  deserveth  the 
dedicfttioo  of  all  men's  abilities.  .  .  .  Again,  the  meanness  of  my 
ettate  doth  somewhat  move  me  ;  for  though  1  cannot  accuse  myself 
that  1  am  either  prodigal  or  slothful,  yet  my  health  is  not  to 
•pend,  nor  my  course  to  get.  Lastly,  1  confess  that  I  have  as  vast 
cootemplatire  ends  as  I  have  moderate  civil  ends  :  for  1  have  taken 
all  knowledge  to  be  my  province  ;  and  if  I  could  purge  it  of  two  sorts 
of  roTers,  whereof  the  one  with  frivolous  disputations,  confutations, 
and  Tcrboailics,  the  other  with  blind  experiments  and  auricular 
iradibons  and  impostures,  bath  committed  so  many  spoils,  I  hope  1 
iboald  bnog  in  industrious  observations,  grounded  conclusions,  and 
proOtabla  Inventions  and  discoveries — the  best  state  of  that  province. 
This,  whether  it  be  curiosity,  or  vain-glory,  or  nature,  or  (if  one  tAke 
H  f.«Tuurab1y;  ^tiUinihrovio^  is  «c   fixed  in  '^y  rnind  as  it  cannot  be 


under  these  circumstances,  gives  a  vivid  pict'ire  of  his 
mental  state,  throws  additional  light  upon  his  character  and 
.aims,  and  at  the  same  time  gives  a  slight  hint  as  to  the 
cause  of  his  uncle's  slackness  in  promoting  him 

Some  time  before  this,  perhaps  as  early  as  1588,  Bacon 
appears  to  havebecome  acquainted  with  Essex,  the  impetuous 
and  headstrong  favourite  of  Elizabeth's  later  years.  At  the 
close  of  1591  he  was  acting  as  the  earl's  confidential 
adviser,  and  in  the  following  year  Anthony  Bacon,  returning 
from  the  Continent,  Was  also  introduced  to  the  young  noble- 
man, and  the  two  brothers  exerted  themselves  diligently  in 
his  service.  In  PYb.  1593  Parliament  was  called,  and 
Bacon  took  his  seat  as  member  for  Middlesex.  The  special 
occasion  for  which  the  House  had  been  summoned  was  the 
discovery  of  one  of  the  numerous  Popish  plots  that  distracted 
Elizabeth's  reign.  The  conspiracy  seemed  to  be  formidable, 
and  Government  felt  the  necessity  for  increased  supplies. 
As  Bacon's  conduct  in  this  emergency  seriously  affected  his 
fortunes,  and  has  been  much  misunderstood,  it  is  necessary 
to  state,  as  bnefly  as  possible,  the  whole  facts  of  the  case. 
The  House  having  been  duly  informed  of  the  state  neces- 
sities, assented  to  a  double  subsidy,  and  appointed  a 
committee  to  draw  up  the  requisite  articles.  Before  this 
was  completed,  a  message  arrived  from  the  House  of  Lords 
requesting  a  conference,  which  was  granted.  The  committee 
of  the  Commons  were  then  informed  that  the  .risis 
demanded  a  triple  subsidy  to  be  collected  in  a  shorter  time 
than  usual,  that  the  Lords  could  not  assent  to  less  than  this, 
and  that  they  desired  to  confer  on  the  matter.  This 
proposal  of  the  Lords  to  discuss  supply  infringed  upon 
the  privileges  of  the  Commons ;  accordingly,  when  the 
report  of  committee  flds  read  to  the  lower  House,  Bacon 
stood  up  and  spoke  against  the  proposed  conference,  point- 
ing out  at  the  same  time  that  a  commumcation  from  the 
Lords  might  be  received,  but  that  the  actual' dehberation 
on  It  must  be  taken  by  themselves  alone.  His  motion,  after 
some  delay,  was  carried,  and  the  conference  was  rejected. 
The  Lords  upon  this  lowered  their  demands,  and  desired 
merely  to  make  a  communication,  which,  being  legitimate, 
was  at  once  assented  to.  The  House  had  then  before  them 
the  proposal  for  a  triple  subsidy,  to  be  collected  in  three,  or, 
as  the  motion  ultimately  was  shaped,  in  four  years,  instead 
of  in  six,  as  the  ordinary  custom  would  have  been.  Bacon, 
who  approved  of  the  increased  subsidy,  was  opposed  to  the 
short  period  in  which  it  was  proposed  to  be  raised.  He  sug- 
gested that  it  would  be  difficult  or  impossible  for  the  people  to 
meet  such  heavy  demands,  that  discontent  and  trouble  wculd 
arise,  and  that  the  better  method  of  procedure  was  to  raise 
money  by  levy  or  imposition.  IIis  motion  appears  to  have 
received  no  support,  and  the  four  years'  subsidy  was  passed 
unanimously.  Bacon,  as  it  turned  out,  had  been  mistaken 
in  thinking  that  the  country  would  be  unable  to  meet  the 
increased  taxation,  and  his  conduct,  though  prompted  by  a 
pure  desire  to  be  of  service  to  the  queen,  gave  deep  and 
well  nigh  ineradicable  offence.  He  was  accused  of  seeking 
popularity,  and  was  for  a  time  excluded  from  the  court.  His 
letter  to  Burghley,'  who  had  told  him  of  the  queen's  dis- 
pleasure with  his  speech,  offers  no  apology  for  what  he  bad 

removed.  And  1  do  easily  see,  that  pUce  of  any  reasonable  command- 
ment doth  bring  commandment  of  more  wits  than  of  a  man's  own 
And  if  your  lordship  ehall  find  cow,  or  ftt  any  time,  that  1  do  ectk 
or  affect  any  place  whercunto  any  that  ia  nearer  to  your  lordship  shall 
be  convenient,  say  then  th.it  1  am  a  most  dishonest  man.  And  if 
your  lordship  will  not  carry  roe  on,  .  this  1  will  do.  1  will  sell  the 
inheritance  that  I  have,  and  purchase  some  lease  of  quick  revenue,  or 
some  oflTice  of  gain  that  shall  be  executed  by  deputy,  and  so  give  over 
all  cans  of  service,  and  become  some  sorry  bookmaker,  or  a  tme 
pioneer  in  that  mine  of  truth."  — ^pedding,  Ltttcnand  L\fe,  l  108-9  ) 
•  Spedding,  LtUcrt  and  L\ft.  i  2S4-35,  f/.  i.  3C2  This  letter,  with 
those  to  Puckenng  or  Essex  and  the  queen,  i.  210-41,  should  be  com- 
pared with  what  IS  said  of  them  by  Ma'-ouli)  \f  hit  Essay  aw  Eaccn.  orrt 
by  Cauij.bcll,  Lwes,  u.  287 


202 


BACON 


eaid.  but  expresses  regret  that  liis  motivfis  should  have  been 
mbunderstood,  and  that  any  offence  should  have  been  taken. 
He  soon  felt  that  the  queen's  anger  was  not  to  be  appeased 
by  euch  a  justification.  The  attorney-generalship  had 
fallen  vacant,  and  Bacon  became  a  candidate  for  the  office, 
his  tnost  formidable  rival  being  his  life-long  antagonist, 
Coke,  who  was  then  solicitor  Essex  warmly  espoused 
Bacon's  cause,  and  earnestly  pressed  his  claims  upon  the 
queen  ;  but  his  impetuous,  pettish  pleading  tended  rather 
to  retard  than  advance  the  cause  Burghley,  on  the  other 
hand,  in  no  way  promoted  his  nephew's  interest  ;  he  would 
recommend  him  for  the  solicitorship,  but  not  for  the 
attorney-generalship  :  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  Sir 
Robert  Cecd  secretly  used  his  influence  against  his  cousin. 
The  queen  delayed  the  appointment,  and  Bacon's  fortunes, 
as  they  then  stood,  could  ill  brook  delay.  He  was  harassed 
with  debt,  and  at  times  so  disheartened  that  he  contem- 
plated retirement  from  public  life  and  devotion  to  abstract 
studies  In  March  1594  it  was  at  last  understood  that 
Coke  was  to  be  attorney-general.  Essex,  though  bitterly 
mortified,  at  once  threw  all  his  energies  into  the  endeavour 
to  procure  for  Bacon  the  solicitorship  ,  but  in  this  case 
also,  his  method  of  dealing,  which  was  wholly  opposed  to 
Bacon's  advice,'  seemed  to  irritate,  instead  of  conciliating 
ths  queen  The  old  offence  was  not  yet  forgiven,  and 
after  a  tedious  delay,  the  office  was  given,  in  Oct.  1595, 
to  Sergeant  Fleming.  Burghley  and  Puckering  seem  to 
have  assisted  Bacon  honestly,  if  not  over-warmly,  in  this 
second  application  ;  but  the  conduct  of  Cecil  had  roused 
suspicions  which  were  not  perhaps  without  foundation. 
Essex,  to  compensate  in  some  degree  for  Bacon's  disappoint- 
ment, insisted  upon  presenting  him  with  a  piece  of  land, 
worth  about  £1800,  and  situated  probably  near  Twicken- 
ham Park  Nor  did  his  kindness  cease  there ,  before 
Bailing  on  the  expedition  to  Cadiz,  in  the  beginning  of 
1596,  he  addressed  letters  to  Buckhurst,  Fortescue,  and 
Egerton,  earnestly  requesting  them  to  use  their  influence 
towards  procuring  for  Bacon  the  vacant  office  of  master  of 
the  roUs.  Before  anything  came  of  this  application,  the 
Cadiz  expedition  had  resulted  in  a  brilliant  success,  and 
Essex  became  the  idol  of  the  army  and  the  people.  Bacon 
saw  clearly  that  such  a  reputation  would  assuredly  alienate 
the  affections  of  the  queen,  who  loved  not  to  have  a  subject 
too  powerful  or  too  popular  He  therefore  addressed  an 
eloquent  and  imploring  letter  to  the  earl,  pointing  out, the 
dangers  of  his  position,  and  urging  upon  him  what  he 
judged  to  be  the  only  safe  course  of  action,  to  seek  and 
secure  the  favour  of  the  queen  alone;  above  all  things  dis- 
suading him  from  the  appearance  of  military  popularity. 
His  advice,  however,  was  unpalatable  and  proved  ineffectual. 
The  earl  still  continued  his  usual  course  of  dealing  with 
the  queen,  depending  solely  upon  her  supposed  affection 
for  him,  and  insanely  jealous  of  any  other  whom  she  might 
seem  to  favour.  His  unskilful  and  unlucky  management 
of  the  sea  expedition  to  Ferrol  and  the  Azores  in  no  way 
lowered  his  popularity  with  the  people  but  undoubtedly 
weakened  his  influence  with  the  queen 

Bacon's  affairs  in  the  meantime  had  not  been  prospering. 
He  had  increased  bis  reputation  by  the  publication,  in  1597, 
of  his  Essays,  along  with  which  were  the  Colours  of  Good 
and  Evil  and  the  Medilationes  Sacrce  ,  but  his  private 
fortunes  were  in  a  bad  condition.  No  public  office  apparently 
could  be  found  for  him  ;  he  failed  in  the  endeavour  to 
retrieve  his  position  by  a  marriage  with  the  wealthy  widow, 
Lady  Hatton,  and  in  1598  he  was  arrested  for  debt.  He 
seems,  however,  to  have  been  growing  in  favour  with  the 
queen  Some  years  previously  (perhaps  about  1594),  he 
had  begun  to  be  employed  by  her  in  crown  affairs,  and  he 
gradually  acquired  the  standing  of  one  of  the  learned 
'  S«  L"Ur$  and  Life,  i.  289,  M.  &1. 


counsel,  though  he  held  no  commission  or  warrant,  and 
received  no  salary.  At  the  same  time  he  was  no  longeron 
the  former  friendly  terms  with  Essex,  a  certain  estrangement 
having  sprung  up  between  them,  caused  no  doubt  by  the 
earl  finding  his  friend's  advice  distasteful.  The  earl's  affairs 
were  then  at  a  somewhat  critical  stage,  ahd  as  our  judg- 
ment upon  a  most  important  episode  in  Bacon's  life  depends 
upon  our  knowledge  of  the  events  of  the  ensuing  year,  it 
will  be  requisite  to  enter  more  minutely  than  would  other- 
wise be  necessary  into  proceedings  with  which  Bacon 
himself  had  nothing  to  do. 

Ireland  was  then  in  a  rebellious  and  discontented  con- 
dition, and  it  was  somewhat  difficult  for  the  Englisl 
Government  to  decide  either  on  a  definite  course  of  policy 
with  regard  to  it,  or  on  a  leader  by  whom  that  policy  might 
be  carried  out  Upon  this  subject  a  violent  quarrel  took 
place  between  the  queen  and  Essex,  who  for  some  months 
retired  from  court,  and  refused  to  be  reconciled  At  last 
he  came  forth  from  his  seclusion,  and  it  was  soon  under- 
stood that  he  was  in  person  to  undertake  the  subjugation  of 
the  rebels  in  Ireland,  with  a  larger  force  than  had  ever  before 
been  sent  into  that  country.  Into  the  obscure  details  of 
this  unhappy  campaign  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter;  one  fact 
stands  out  clearly,  that  Essex  endeavoured  to  carry  out  a 
treasonable  design  His  jealousy  and  ill  temper  had  been 
so  roused  that  the  only  course  open  to  him  seemed  to  be  the 
obtaining  a  powerful  military  force,  the  possession  of  which 
would  compel  the  queen  to  reinstate  him  in  her  favour 
Whether  or  not  this  plan  was  in  contemplation  before  he 
undertook  the  Irish  expedition  is  not  evident,  though  even 
outsiders  at  that  time  entertained  some  suspicions,  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  the  treasonable  character  of  the  negotia- 
tions carried  on  in  Ireland.  His  plans,  probably  not  very 
definite,  were  disturbed  by  an  imperative  message  from  the 
queen,  ordering  him  not  to  return  to  England  without 
her  permission.  He  at  once  set  off,  and,  trusting  apparently 
to  her  affection  for  him,  presented  himself  suddenly  before 
her.  He  was,  for  the  moment,  received  kindly,  but  was 
soon  afterwards  ordered  to  keep  his  chamber,  and  was  then 
given  into  the  custody  of  the  lord  keeper  at  York  House, 
where  he  remained  till  March  1000  His  great  poptilarily, 
and  the  general  ignorance  of  the  reasons  for  his  imprison- 
ment, stirred  up  a  strong  feeling  against  the  queen,  who 
was  reported  to  be  influenced  by  Bacon,  and  such  indigna 
tion  was  raised  against  the  latter,  that  his  friends  feared 
his  life  would  be  in  danger.  The  groundless  character  of 
this  accusation  shows  how  little  confidence  should  be  reposed 
in  popular  versions  of  obscure  occurrences  It  was  at  last 
felt  necessary  that  the  queen  should  in  some  way  vindi- 
cate her  proceedings,  and  this  she  at  first  did,  contrary  to 
Bacon's  advice,  by  a  declaration  from  the  Star  Chamber 
This,  however,  gave  little  or  no  satisfaction,  and  it  was  found 
expedient  to  do  what  Bacon  had  always  recommended,  to 
have  a  fair  trial,  yet  not  one  in  which  the  sentence  must 
needs  be  damaging  to  the  earl.  The  trial  accordingly  took 
place  before  a  body  of  her  majesty's  councillors,  and  Bacon 
had  a  subordinate  and  unimportant  part  in  the  accusation. 
Essex  does  not  seem  to  have  been  at  all  hurt  by  his  action 
in  this  matter,  and  shortly  after  his  release  they  were  again 
on  friendly  terms.  Bacon  drawing  up  letters  as  if  to  or  from 
the  earl  with  the  design  of  having  them  brought  before  the 
queen  But  Bacon  did  not  know  the  true  character  of  the 
transactions  in  which  Essex  had  been  engaged.  The  latter 
had  been  released  from  all  custody  in  August,  but  in  the 
meantime  he  had  been  busily  engaged  in  treasonable  cor- 
respondence with  James  of  Scotland,  and  was  counting  on 
the  Irish  army  under  his  ally,  Montjoy,  the  new  deputy. 
But  Montjoy  had  apparently  come  to  see  how  uselesu  tht 
attempt  would  be  to  force  upon  tlie  queen  a  settlement,  ol 
the  succession,  and  di-rliMcd  to  go  further  in  the  mattet 


Jl 


BACON 


203 


Gssei  waa  thua  thrown  upon  bia  own  resources,  and  his 
»Dger  against  the  queen  bemg  roused  afresh  by  the  refusal 
o  renew  his  monopojy  of  sweet  wines,  he  formed  the  des- 
rwrate  project  of  seizing  her  person  and  compelling  her  to 
diaiDLSs  from  her  council  hia  enemies  Raleigh,  Oobham,  and 
Cecjl  As  some  proteit,  he  intended  to  affirm  that  his  Life 
was  in  danger  from  these  men,  who  were  in  league  with 
the  Spaniards.  The  plot  was  forced  on  prematurely  by  the 
suspicions  excited  at  court,  and  the  rash  attempt  to  rouse 
the  city  of  London  (8th  February  1601)  proved  a  complete 
fiasco.  The  leaders  were  arrested  that  night  and  thrown 
into  prison.  Although  the  actual  rising  might  have  ap- 
peared a  mere  outburst  of  frantic  passion,  the  private 
eiaminations  of  the  most  prominent  conspirators  disclosed 
to  the  Gfovemmcnt  a  plot  so  widely  spread,  and  involving  so 
many  of  the  highest  in  the  land,  that  it  would  have  been 
perilous  to  have  pressed  home  accusations  against  all  who 
might  be  implicated.  Ilssex  was  tried  along  with  the  young 
earl  of  Southampton,  and  Bacon,  as  one  of  her  majesty's 
counsel,  was  present  on  the  occasion.  Coke,  who  was 
principal  spokesman,  managed  the  case  with  great  want  of 
skill,  incessantly  allowing  the  thread  of  the  evidence  to 
escape,  and  giving  the  prisoners  opportunity  to  indulge  in 
irrelevant  justifications  and  protestations  which  were  not 
ineffectual  in  distracting  attention  fron  the  real  question 
at  issue.  On  the  first  opportunity  Bacon  rose  and  briefly 
pomted  out  that  the  earl's  plea  of  having  done  nothing  save 
jfhat  was  absolutely  necessary  to  defend  his  life  from  the 
machmations  of  his  enemies  was  weak  and  worthless,  inas- 
much as  these  enemies  were  purely  imaginary ;  and  he 
compared  his  case  to  that  of  Pisistratns,  who  had  made 
use  of  a  somewhat  simikr  stratagem  to  cloak  his  real  de- 
signs upon  the  city  of  Athens.  He  was  thereupon  inter- 
rupted by  the  earl,  who  proceeded  to  defend  himself,  by 
declaring  that  in  oire  of  the  letters  drawn  up-by  Bacon, 
and  purj>orting  to  be  froa  the  ear!  to  Aiithouy  Bacon,  the 
existence  of  these  rumoors,  and  the  dangers  to  be  appre- 
hended from  them,  had  been. admitted-;  and  he  continued, 
"  If  these  reasons  were  then  just  and  true,  not  counterfeit, 
how  can  it  be  that  now  .my  pretences  are  false  and  injuri- 
ous 1 "  To  this  Bacon  replied,  that  "  the  letters,  if  they 
were  there,  would  not  blush  to  bo  Seen  for  anything  con- 
tained in  them,-  and  that  he  had  spent  more  time  in  vain 
in  studying  how  to  make  the  earl  a  good  servant  to  the 
queen  than  he  had  done  in  anything  else."  It  seems  to 
be  forgotten  in  the  general  accounta  of  this  matter,  not 
only  that  Bacon's  letters  bear  out  what  he  said,  but  that 
the  earl's  excuses  weYe  false.  A  second  time  Bacon  was 
compelled  to  interfere  in  the  course  of  the  trial,  and  to 
recall  to  tJbe  minds  of  those  present  the  real  question  at 
issue.  He  animadverted  strongly  upon  the  puerile  nature 
of  the  defence,  and  in  answer  to  a  remark  by  Essex,  that 
if  he  had  wished  to  stir  up  a  rebellion  he  would  have  had 
a  larger  company  with  him,  pointed  out  that  his  depend- 
ence was  upon  the  people  of  London,  and  compared  his 
attempt  to  that  of  the  duke  of  Guise  at  Paris.  To  this 
the  earl  made  little  or  no  reply.  Bacon's  use  of  this  illus- 
tration, and  of  the  former  one  of  Pisistratus,  has  been  much 
L-ommented  on,  and  in  general  it  seems  to  have  been  thought 
that  had  it  not  been  for  his  speeches  E^cx  might  have 
escaped,  or,  at  all  events,  have  been  afterwards  pardoned. 
But  this  view  of  the  matter  depends  on  the  supposition  that 
Essex  was  guilty  only  of  a  rash  outbreak.'  That  this  was 
not  the  case  was  well  known  to  the  queen  and  her  council. 
Unfortunately,  prudential  motives  hindered  the  publication 
of  the  whole  evidence  ;  the  people,  conse(Jucntly,  were  still 
Ignorant  of  the  magnitude  of  the  crime,  and,  tdl  recently, 
biographars  of  Bacon  have  been  in  a  like  ignorance.*     The 

'  9eo  MarAtilay'i  Etsny  on  Bacon 

'  TUn  "tflt  Btory  "f  Esiei  is  given  Id  Mr  SpeJJing'»  LtUtri  and 


earl  himself,  before  execution,  confessed  his  guilt  and  the 
thorough  justice  of  his  sentence,  while,  with  singular  lack 
of  magnanimity,  he  incriminated  several  against  whom 
accusations  had  not  been  brought,  among  others  his  sister 
Lady  RicL  After  his  execution  it  was  thought  necessary 
that  some  account  of  the  facts  should  be  drawn  up  and 
circulated,  in  order  to  remove  the  prejudice  against  the 
queen's  action  in  the  matter.  This  was  intrusted  to  Bacon, 
who  drew  up  a  Declaration  of  the  Practices  arid  Treason) 
attempted  and  committed  by  Robert,  late  Earl  of  Essex,  his 
first  draft  being  extensively  altered  and  corrected^  by  the 
queen  and  council  Nothing  is  known  with  certainty  of 
the  reception  given  to  this  official  erplanation,  but  the  ill 
feeling  against  Bacon  was  not  wholly  removed,  and  some 
years  later,  in  1604,  he  published,  in  the  form  of  a  letter 
to  Montjoy,  an  Apology  for  his  action  in  (he  case.  This 
Apology  gives  a  most  fair  and  temperate  history  of  the 
relations  between  Bacon  and  Essex,  shows  how  the  prudent 
counsel  of  the  one  had  been  rejected  by  the  other,  and 
brings  out  very  clearly  what  we  conceive  to  be  the  true 
explanation  of  the  matter.  Everything  that  Bacon  could 
do  was  done  by  him,  until  the  real  nature  of  Essex's  de- 
sign was  made  apparent,  and  then,  as  he  had  repeatedly 
told  the  earl,  his  devotion  and  respect  were  for  the  queen 
and  state,  not  for  any  subject ;  friendship  could  never  take 
rank  above  loyalty.  Those  who  blamo  Bacon  must  acquit 
Essex  of  all  wrong-doing. 

Bacon's  privatt  fortunes,  during  the  period  after  the 
death  of  Essej;,  were  not  in  a  flourishing  condition.  He 
had  obtained  a  grant  of  XI 200  from  the  fines  imposed  on 
Catesby,  one  of  the  conspirators,  but  his  debts  were  suflS- 
cient  to  swallow  up  this  and  much  -  more.  And,  though 
he  was  trusted  by  Elizabeth,  and  on  good  terms  with  her, 
he  seems  to  have  seen  that  he  had  no  chance  of  advance- 
ment. But  her  death  in  1603,  followed  by  the  tmdisputcd 
succession  of  James,  gave  him  new  hopes ;  to  use  his  own 
expression,  he  found  himself  "  as  one  awaked  out  of  sleep." 
It  appeared  to  him  that  at  length  the  abilities  he  was  con- 
scious of  possessing  would  obtain  recognition ;  he  thought 
that  "  the  canvassing  world  "had  gone,  and  the  "  deserving 
world  "  had  come.  He  used  every  means  in  his  power  to 
bring  himself  under  James's  notice,  writing  to  all  his  friends 
at  the  Scottish  court  and  to  the  king  himself.  He  managed 
to  obtain  a  personal  interview  with  the  king,  but  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  much  satisfied  with  it.  In  fact,  while 
the  king- confirmed  in  their  situations  those  who  had  held 
crown  offices  imder  Elizabeth,  Bacon,  not  holding  his  post 
by  warrant,  was  practicaUy  omitted.  He  was,  however, 
continued,  by  special  order  of  the  king,  as  learned  counsel 
extraordinary,  but  little  or  no  law  business  appears  to  have 
been  intrusted  to  him.  Ho  procured,  through  his  cousin 
Cecil,  the  dignity  of  knighthood,  which,  contrary  to  his 
inclination,  ho  received  along  with  about  300  others,  on 
the  23d  July  1G03.  Between  this  time  and  the  opening 
of  James's  first  Parliament  he  was  engaged  in  literary  work, 
and  sent  to  the  king  two  pamphlets — one  on  the  Union,  the 
other  on  measures  for  the  pacification  of  the  church.  What 
opinion  was  formed  of  them  by  James  is  unknown.  Shortly 
after  ho  published  his  Apology;  the  reception  it  met 
with  is  equally  uncertain.  In  March  1604  Parliament 
met,  and  during  their  short  session  Bacon's  hands  seem  to 
have  been  full  of  work.  It  was  a  busy  and  stirrii.g  time, 
and  events  occurred  dunng  it  which  carried  within  them 
the  seeds  of  much  future  dissension.  Prerogative  and 
privilege  camo  more  than  once  into  collision,  the  abuses  of 
purveyance  and  wardship  were  made  matters  of  conference, 
though  the  thorough  discussion  of  them  was  deferred  to  a 


Li/e.     It  Is  also  Ttry  Tigorooaly  told  by  Mr  Dnic«  !n  the  Introduction 
to  hi»  Ctrrrcspondmct  of  Jama  VI.  wi.'A  ir'ir  Jlnhert  Ctcil,  Canidca 

Society,  ISCi. 


204 


BACON 


succeeding  session  ;  wliilc  James's  temper  was  iivitated  by 
the  objections  brought  against  his  favourite  scheme  of  the 
Union,  and  by  the  attitude  taken  up  by  the  House  with  re- 
gard to  religious  affairs.  The  records  are  barely  full  enough 
to  enable  us  to  judge  very  accurately  of  the  share  taken 
by  Bacon  in  these  discussions  ;  his  name  generally  appears 
as  the  reporter  of  the  committees  on  special  subjects.  We 
can  occasionally,  however,  discern  traces  of  his  tact  and 
remarkable  prudence  ;  and,  on  the  whole,  his  attitude,  par- 
ticularly with  regard  to  the  Union  question,  recommended 
him  to  James.  He  was  shortly  afterwards  formally  in- 
stalled as  learned  counsel,  receiving  the  salary  of  £40,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  pension  of  £60  yearly^  He  was  also 
appointed  one  of  the  commission  to  treat  of  the  conditions 
accessary  for  the  Union  ;  and  the  admirable  manner  in 
which  the  duties  of  that  body  were  discharged  must  be 
attributed  mainly  to  his  influence  and  his  complete  mastery 
of  the  subject.  During  the  recess  he  published  his  Advance- 
inent  of  Learning,  dedicated  to  the  king. 

He  was  now  fairly  bfought  into  relations  with  James, 
aud  his  prospects  began  to  look  a  little  brighter.  It  is 
important  for  us  to  know  what  were  his  ideas  upon 
government,  upon  parliaments,  prerogative,  and  so  forth, 
since  a  knowledge  of  this  will  clear  up  much  that  would 
seem  inexplicable  in  his  hfe.  It  seems  quite  evident'  that 
Bacon,  from  position,  early  training,  and,  one  might  almost 
think,  natural  inclination,  held  as  his  ideal  of  government 
the  Elizabethan  system.  The  king  was  the  supreme 
power,  the  centre  of  law  and  justice,  and  his  prerogative 
must  not  be  infringed.  Parliament  was  merely  a  body 
called  to  consult  with  the  king  on  emergencies  (circa  ardua 
regni)  and  to  grant  supplies.  King  and  parliament 
together  make  up  the  state,  but  the  former  is  first  in 
nature  and  importance.  The  duty  of  a  statesman  was, 
therefore,  to  carry  out  the  royal  will  in  as  prudent  a 
manner  as  possible ;  he  was  the  servant  of  the  king,  and 
etood  or  fell  according  to  his  pleasura  It  is  hard  to  put 
ourselves  at  this  point  of  view,  and  we  can  with  difficulty 
understand  how  such  a  maa  as  Bacon  held  a  theory  which 
seems  now  so  inadequate.  But  he  was  not  singular  in 
his  opinions,  and  he  was  undoubtedly  sincere ;  and  it  is 
only  by  keeping  them  constantly  in  mind  that  we  can 
understand  his  iifter  relations  with  the  king. 

In  the  second  Parliament  there  was  not  so  much  scope 
for  the  exercise  of  his  powers.  The  Gunpowder  Plot  had 
aroused  in  the  Commons  warmer  feelings  towards  the 
king;  they  passed  severe  laws  against  recusants,  and 
granted  a  triple  subsidy.  At  the  same  time  they  continued 
the  collection  of  the  grievances  concerning  which  they 
were  to  move.  In  the  course  of  this  session  Bacon  married 
Alice  Bamham,  "  the  alderman's  daughter,  an  handsome 
maiden,  to  my  liking,"  of  whom  he  had  written  some 
years  before  to  his  cousin  Cecil.  Little  or  nothing  is 
known  of  their  married  life. 

The  third  Parliament  was  chiefly  occupied  with  the 
commercial  and  legal  questions  rising  out  of  the  proposed 
Union,  in  particular,  with  the  dispute  as  to  the  naturalisa- 
tion of  the  Post  Nati.  Bacon  argued  ably  in  favour  of 
this  measure,  but  the  general  feeling  was  against  it.  The 
House  would  only  pass  a  bill  abolishing  hostile  laws  be- 
tween the  kingdoms ;  but  the  case  of  the  Past  iVali,  being 
brought  before  the  law  courts,  was  settled  as  the  king 
wished.  Bacon's  services  were  rewarded  in  Juno  1C07 
by  the  office  of  solicitor;  he  had  at  lost  gained  a  step 
upon  tho  ladder  of  advancement.  His  promotion,  how- 
ever, was  not  rapid  ;  several  years  passed  before  he  gained 
another  step.  Meantime,  though  circumstances  had  thrown 
bim  too  much  into  active  life,  he  had  not  forgotten  his 
•iheriahod  project  of  reorganising  science.  A  survey  of 
•  Sac  LcUertand  Life,  iv.  177,  vL  38,  vii.  IIG.  117. 


the  ground  had  been  made  in  the  Advancement,  and 
some  short  pieces  not' published  at  the  time  were  probably 
written  in  the  subsequent  two  or  three  years.  Towards 
the  close  of  1607  he  sent  to  his  friends  a  small  tract, 
entitled  Cogitata  et  Visa,  probably  the  first  draft  of  what 
we  have  under  that  title.  In  1609  he  wrote  the.  noble 
panegyric.  In  felicem  memoriam£h:abet}uB,  and  the  curi- 
ously learned  and  ingenious  work  De  Sapiaitia  Yetervm ; 
and  completed  what  seems  to  have  been  the  Redargutio 
Philosophiarum,  or  treatise  on  the  idols  of  the  theatre. 

In  1610  the  famous  fourth  Parliament  of  James,  met. 
It  is  not  possible  to  enter  minutely  into  the  important 
occurrences  of  this  short  session.  Prerogative,  despite  Bacon's 
advice  and  eff'orts,  clashed  more  than  once  with  liberty  ; 
Salisbury's  bold  schemes  for  relieving  the  embarrassment 
caused  by  th?  reckless  extravagance  of  the  king  proved 
abortive,  and  the  House  was  dissolved  in  February  1611. 
Bacon  took  a  considerable  share  in  the  debates,  coilsistently 
upheld  the  prerogative,  and  seemed  yet  to  possess  the 
Confidence  of  the  Commons.  The  death  of  Salisbury, 
occurring  soon  after,  opened  a  position  in  which  Bacon 
thought  his  great  political  skill  and  sagacity  might  be 
made  more  immediately  available  for  the  king's  service. 
How  far  he  directly  oS'ered  himself  for  the  post  of 
secretary  is  uncertain,  but  we  know  that  his  hopes  were 
disappointed,  the  king  himself  undertaking  the  duties  of  tli.' 
.office.  About  the  same  time  he  made  two  inefi'ect'j^ 
applications  for  the  mastership  of  the  wards ;  the  first, 
on  Salisbury's  death,  when  it  was  given  to  Sir  George 
Carey ;  the  second,  on  the  death  of  Carey.  H  is  some- 
what hard  to  understand  why  so  little  favour  was  shown 
by  the  king  to  one  who  had  proved  himself  able  and 
willing  to  do  good  service,  and  who,  in  spite  of  his 
disappointments,  still  continued  zealously  to  ofi'er  advice 
and  assistance.  At  last,  in  1613,  a  fair  opportunity  for 
promotion  occurred.  The  death  of  Sir  Thomas  Fleming 
made  a  vacancy  in  the  chief-justiceship  of  the  King's 
Bench,  and  Bacon,  after  some  deliberation,  proposed  to  the 
king  that  Coke  should  be  removed  from  his  place  in  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas  and  transferred  to  the  ICing's 
Bench.  He  gives  several  reasons  for  this  in  his  letter  to 
the  king,  but  in  all  probability  his  chief  motive  was  that 
pointed  out  by  Mr  Spedding,^  that  in  tho  Court  of  King's 
Bench  there  would  be  less  danger  of  Coke  coming  into 
collision  with  .  the  king  on  questions  of  prerogative,  in 
handling  which  Bacon  was  always  very  circumspect  and 
tender.  The  vacancy  caused  by  Coke's  promotion  was 
then  filled  up  by  Hobart,  and  Bacon,  finally  stepped  into 
the  place  of  attorney-general.  The  fact  of  this  advice 
being  otTered  and  followed  in  all  essentials,  illustrates  very 
clearly  the  close  relations  between  the  king  and  Bacon, 
who  had  become  a  confidential  adviser  on  most  occasions 
of  difficulty.  That  his  adherence  to  the  royal  party  was 
already  noticed  and  commented  on  appears  from  the  signi- 
ficant remark  of  Chamberlain,  who,  after  mentioning  tho 
recent  changes  among  tho  law  oflicials,  says,  "There  is  a 
strong  apprehension  that  little  good  is  to  be  expected  by  this 
change,  and  that  Bacon  may  prove  a  dangerous  instrument." 
'  Further  light  is  thrown  upon  Baron's  relations  with 
James,  and  upon  his  political  sympathies,  by  tho  letter  to 
the  king  advocating  the  calling  of  a  parliament,'  and  by 
the  two  papers  of  notes  on  which  his  letter  w;is  founded.* 
These  documents,  even  after  duo  weight  is  given  to  all  con- 
siderations urgc^  in  their  favour,*  seem  to  confirm- tho  view 
already  taken  of  Bacon's  theory  of  govorninent,  and  at 
the  same  time  show  that  his  sympathies  with  the  roya^ 
party  tended  to  blind  him  to  the  true  character  of  ccrtaiu 
courses  of  action,  which  can  only  bo  justified  by  a  strain- 


'  leltcrs  and  lAfc,  iv.  SSL 
'  Ibid.,  i».  aC5-73. 


■  Und.,  iv.  330. 
•  Itnd..  iv  375  78 


BACON 


205 


Ing  of  political  etiiics.  The  advice  he  offered,  in  all  sin- 
cerity, was  most  prudent  and  sagacious,  and  viight  have 
been  successfully  carried  out  by  .a  man  of  Bacon's  tact  and 
skill;  but  it  was  intensely  one-sided,  and  exhibited  a  curi 
ous  want  of  appreciation  of  what  was;  even  then  beginning 
to  be  looked  on  as  the  true  relation  of  Icing,  parliament,  and 
people.  Unfortunately  for  James,  he  could  neither  adopt 
nor  carry  out  Bacon's  policy.  The  Parliament  which  met 
in  April  1G14  and  was  dissolved  in  June,  after  a  stormy 
session,  wis  by  no  means  in  a  frame  of  mind  suitable  for 
the  king's  purposes.  The  House  was  enraged  at  the  sup- 
posed project  (then  much  misunderstood)  of  the  "  Under- 
takers;" objection  was  taken  to  Bacon  being  elected  or 
serving  aa  a  member  while  holding  office  as  attorney-general; 
and,  though  an  exception  was  made  in  his  favour,  it  was  re- 
solved that  no  attorney-general  should  in  future  bo  eligible 
for  a  seat  in  Parliament.  No  supply  was  granted,  and  the 
king's  necessities  were  increased  instead  of  diminished. 
The  emergency  suggested  to  some  of  the  bishops  the  idea 
of  a  voluntary  contribution,  which  was  eagerly  taken  up 
by  the  noblemen  and  crown  ofiBcials.  The  scheme  was 
afterwards  extended  so  as  to  take  in  the  whole  kingdom, 
but  lost  something  of  its  voluntary  character,  and  the 
means  taken  to  raise  the  money,  which  were  not  what  Bacon 
would  liavo  recommended,'  were  calculated  to  stir  up  dis- 
content The  general  dissatisfaction  received  a  somewhat 
unguarded  and  intemperate  expression  in  a  letter  sent  to 
the  justices  of  Marlborough  by  a  gentleman  of  the  neighbour- 
hootl,  named  St  John,  in  which  he  denounced  the  attempt 
to  raise  funds  in  this  way  as  contrary  to  law,  reason,  and 
religion,  as  constituting  in  the  king  personally  an  act  of  per- 
jurj',  involving  in  the  same  crime  those  who  contributed,  and 
thereby  subjecting  all  parties  to  the  curses  levelled  by  the 
church  at  such  offences,  St  John  was  summoned  befoje 
the  Star  Chamber  for  slander  and  treasonable  language  J  and 
Bacon,  ex  ojirio,  acted  as  public  prosecutor.  The  sentence 
pronounced  (a  fine  of  X5000  and  imprisonment  for  life)  was 
severe,  but  it  was  not  actually  inflicted,  and  probably  was 
not  intended  to  be  carried  out,  the  success  of  the  prosecution 
bemg  all  that  was  desired.  St  John  remained  a  short  time 
in  prison,  and  was  then  released,  after  making  a  full  apology 
and  submissiotL  The  fine  was  remitted.  It  seems  in- 
credible that  Bacon's  conduct  on  this  occasion  should  have 
been  censured  by  his  biographers.  The  offence  was  clear ; 
the  law  was  undoubted ;  no  particular  sympathy  was  excited 
for  the  culprit;  the  sentence  was  not  carried  out;  and 
Eacon  did  only  what  any  one  in  his  place  would  naturally 
and  necessarily  have  done.  The  nature  of  his  office  involved 
him  in  several  trials  for  treason  occurring  about  the  same 
time,  and  one  of  these  is  of  interest  sufficient  to  j-cpay  a 
s  jmewhat  longer  examination.  Edmund  Pcachara;  a  clergy- 
man in  Somersetshire,  had  been  committed  to  custody  for 
B  libel  on  his  superior,  the  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells.  In 
searching  his  house  for  certain  papers,  the  officers  came 
upon  some  loose  sheets  stitched  together  in  the  form  of  a 
sermon,  the  contents  of  which  were  of  such  a  nature  that 
it  was  judged  right  to  lay  them  before  the  council  As  it 
was  at  first  suspected  that  the  writing  of  this  book  had 
been  prompted  by  sofno  disaffected  persons,  Peacham  was 
interrogated,  and  after  he  had  declined  to  give  any  informa- 
tion, was  subjected  to  torture.  Bacon,  as  one  of  the  learned 
connsel,  was  ordered  by  council  to  take  part  in  this  ex- 
amination, which  was  undoubtedly  warranted  by  precedent, 
whatever  m.iy  now  be  thought  of  it.  Nothing,  however, 
was  extracted  from  Peacham  in  this  way,  and  it  was 
resolved  to  proceed  against  liim  for  treason.  Now,  in  the 
erntod  sUte  of  popular  feeling  at  that  period,  the  failure 
of  Government  to  substantiate  an  accusation  of  treason 
»imld  have  been  a  serious  matter.  The  king,  with  whom 
'  ltl((Tt  ami  L\ft,  r.  81-Sj! 


the  council  agreed,  seems  therefore  to  have  thought  ic 
desirable  to  obtain  beforehand  the  opinions  of  the  four 
chief  judges  as  to  whether  the  alleged  offence  amounted  to 
treason.  In  this  there  was  nothing  unusual  or  illegal,  and 
no  objection  would  at  that  time  have  been  made  to  it,  but 
James  introduced  a  certain  innovation  ;  he  proposed  that 
tTie  opinions  of  the  four  judges  should  be  given  separately 
and  in  private.  It  may  be  reasonably  inferred  that  his 
motive  for  this  was  the  suspicion,  or  it  may  be  the  know- 
ledge, that  Coke  did  not  consider  the  matter  treasonable. 
At  all  events  when  Coke,  who  as  a  councillor  already  knew 
the  facts  of  the  case,  was  spoken  with  regarding  the  new 
proposal  of  the  king,  he  at  once  objected  to  it,  saying  that 
"  this  particular  and  auricular  taking  of  opinions"  was 
"  new  and  dangerous,"  and  "  not  according  to  the  custom 
of  the  realm."  He  at  last  reluctantly  assented,  and  pro- 
posed that  Bacon  should  consult  with  him,  while  the  other 
law  officers  addressed  themselves  to  the  three  puisne  judges. 
By  Bacon's  directions,  the  proposal  to  the  three  judges  to 
give  their  opinions  separately  was  made  suddenly  and  con- 
fidently, and  any  scruples  they  might  have  felt  were  easily 
overcome.  The  first  stop  was  thus  gained,  and  it  was 
hoped  that  if  "infusion"  could  be  avoided,  if  the  papers 
bearing  on  the  case  wero  presented  to  the  judges  quickly, 
and  before  their  minds  could  bo  swayed  by  extraneous  in- 
fluence, their  decision  on  the  case  would  be  the  same  as 
that  of  the  king.  It  is  clear  that  the  extraneous  influence 
to  be  feared  was  Coke,  who,  on  being  addressed  by  Bacon, 
again  objected  to  giviug  his  opinion  separately,  and  even 
seemed  to  hope  that  his  brother  judges  after  they  had  seen 
the  papers  would  withdraw  their  assent  to  giving  their 
decisions  privately.  Even  after  the  discussion  of  the  case 
with  Bacon,  ho  would  not  give  his  opinion  until  the  others 
had  handed  in  theirs.  What  the  other  judges  thought  is 
not  definitely  known,  but  Bacon  appears  to  havo  been 
unable  to  put  in  operation  the  plan  he  had  devised  for 
swaying  Coke's  judgment,^  by  putting  him  in  some  dark 
manner  in  doubt  that  he  should  be  left  alone ;  or  if  he  did 
attempt  this,  he  was  unsnccessful,  for  Coke  finally  gave  an 
opinion  consistent  with  what  he  seems  to  have  held  at  first, 
that  the  book  was  not  treasonable,  as  it  did  not  disable  the 
king's  title.  Although  the  opinions  of  the  judges  were  not 
made  public,  yet  as  we  learn,  not  only  from  Bacon,  but  from 
a  sentence  in  one  of  Carleton's  letters,^  a  rumour  had  got 
about  that  there  was  doubt  as  to  the  book  being  treason- 
able. Under  these  circumstances,  Bacon,  who  feared  that 
such  a  report  might  incite  other  people  to  attempt  a  similar 
offence,  proposed  to  the  king  that  a  second  rumour  should 
be  circulated  in  order  to  destroy  the  impression  caused  by 
the  first.  "  I  do  think  it  necessary,"  he  says,  "  that  because 
we  live  in  an  age  in  which  no  counsel  is  kept,  and  that  it  is 
true  there  is  some  bruit  abroad  that  the  judges  of  the 
King's  Bench  do  doubt  of  the  case  that  it  should  not  be 
treason,  that  it  be  given  out  constantly,  and  yet  as  it  were 
in  secret,  and  so  a  fame  to  slide,  that  the  doubt  was  ouly 
upon  the  publication,  in  that  it  was  never  published.  For 
that  (if  your  majesty  marketh  it)  taketh  away  or  at  least 
qualifleth  the  danger  of  the  example ;  for  that  will  be  no 
man's  case."*  Bacon's  conduct  in  this  matter  has  been 
curiously  misrepresented.  He  has  been  accused  of  torturing 
the  prisoner,  and  of  tampering  with  the  judges'  by  consult- 
ing them  before  the  trial ;  nay,  he  is  even  represented  as 
selecting  this  poor  clergyman  to  serve  for  an  example  to 
terrify  the  disaffected,  as  breaking  intcf  his  study  and  finding 
there  a  sermon  never  intended  to  bo  preached,  which 
merely  encouraged  the  people  to  resist  tyranny.'  All  this 
lavish  condemnation  is  wide  of  the  mark,  nnd  rests  on  a 
complete  misconception  of  the  casa     If  any  blame  attaches 


'  UUlrt  and  Lift,  ».  101. 


'  find.  V    121,  r  •  rtnd  ,  »    124 

•  C»nn.Ocll.  lim,  M   Sit 


20G 


BACON 


f 


to  him,  it  must  arise  either  from  his  endeavour  to  force  Coke 
to  a  favourable  decision,  iu  which  he  was  in  all  probability 
prompted  by  a  feeling,  not  uncommon  with  him,  that  a 
matter  of  state  policy  was  in  danger  of  being  sacrificed  to 
some  senseless  legal  quibble  or  precedent,  or  from  his 
advice  to  the  king  that  a  rumour  should  be  set  afloat 
which  was  not  strictly  true.  We  do  not  imagine  that  in 
any  other  politician  either  of  these  actions  would  meet  with 
very  severe  condemnation. 

Bacon's  share  in  another  great  trial  which  came  on 
shortly  afterwards,  the  Overbury  and  Somerset  case,  is  not 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  render  it  necessary  to  enter  upon 
that  obscure  and  thorny  subject.'  It  may  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  his  letters  about  this  time  show  that  he  had 
become  acquainted  with  the  king's  new  favourite,  the 
brilliant  Sir  George  Villiers,  and  that  he  stood  high  in  the 
king's  good  graces.  In  the  early  part  of  1G16,  when 
EUesmere,  the  lord  chancellor,  was  dangerously  ill.  Bacon; 
wrote  a  long  and  careful  letter  to  the  king,  proposing  him-" 
self  for  the  office,  should  it  fall  vacant,  and  stating  as 
frankly  as  possible  of  what  value  he  considered  his  services 
would  be.  In  answer,  he  appears  to  nave  received  a  dis- 
tinct promise  of  the  reversion  of  the  office ;  but,  aa  EUes- 
mere recovered,  the  matter  stood  over  for  a  time.  He 
proposed,  however,  that  he  should  be  made  a  privy  coun- 
cillor, in  order  to  give  him  more  weight  in  his  almost  re- 
cognised position  of  adviser  to  the  king,  and  on  the  9th  June 
1616  he  took  the  oaths  and  his  seat  at  the  council  board. 

Meanwhile,  his  great  rival  Coke,  whose  constant  ten- 
dency to  limit  the  prerogative  by  law  and  precedent  had 
made  him  an  object  of  particular  dislike  to  James,  had  on 
two  points  come  into  open  collision  with  the  king's  rights. 
The  first  case  was  an  action  of  prcemunire  against  the  Court 
of  Chancery,  evidently  instigated  by  him,  but  brought  at  the 
instance  of  certain  parties  whose  adversaries  had  obtained 
redress  in  the  chancellor's  court  after  the  cause  had  been 
tried  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench.  With  all  his  learning 
and  ingenuity.  Coke  faded  in  inducing  or  even  forcing  the 
jury  to  bring  in  a  bill  against  the  Court  of  Chancery,  and 
it  seems  faidy  certain  that  on  the  technical  point  of  law 
involved  he  was  wrong.  Although  his  motive  was,  in  great 
measure,  a  feeling  of  personal  dislike  towards  Ellesmere, 
yet  it  is  not  improbable  that  ho  was  influenced  by  the 
de.iire  to  restrict  in  every  possible  way  the  jurisdiction  of 
a  court  which  was  the  direct  exponent  of  the  king's  wishes. 
The  other  case,  that  of  the  commendams,  was  more  im- 
portant in  itself  and  in  the  circumstances  connected  with 
it.  The  general  question  involved  in  a  special  instance 
wa?  whether  or  not  the  king's  prerogative  included  the 
right  of  granting  at  pleasure  livings  in  commendam,  i.e.,  to 
be  enjoyed  by  one  who  was  not  the  incumbent.  Bacon, 
as  attorney-general,  delivered  a  speech,  which  has  not  been 
reported ;  but  the  king  was  informed  that  the  arguments 
on  the  other  side  had  not  been  limited  to  tho  special  case, 
but  had  directly  impugned  the  general  prerogative  right 
of  granting  living.s.  It  was  necessary  for  James,  as  a 
party  interested,  at  once  to  take  measures  to  see  that  tho 
decision  of  the  judges  should  not  be  given  on  the  general 
question  without  duo  consultation.  He  accordingly  wrote 
to  Bacon,  directing  him  to  intimate  to  the  judges  his 
pleasure  that  they  should  delay  judgment  until  after  dis- 
cussion of  the  matter  with  himself  Bacon  commun'catcd 
first  with  Coke,  who  in  reply  desired  that  similar  notice_ 
should  be  given  to  the  other  judges.     This  was  doi  e  by 

*  The  mysterioui  crimes  supposed  to  be  conce.ilcd  under  the  ob:  cnro 
<1etails  of  Ibis  case  bavo  cast  a  shadow  of  va^ao  suspicion  on  all  who 
»^«re  concerned  in  it.  Tho  niiDute  examination  of  tho  facts  by  Mr 
Bpddding  (Uttert  and  Li/r,  T.  208-347)  seenis  to  show  thai  11  cso 
n  rrrt  crim(«  ejist  nowhcrft  but  in  Ibo  heated  imaj^nationa  of  rnmar  tic 
biograpbcn  and  hisloriaus 


Bacon,  though  he  seems  to  hint  that  in  so  doing  he  war 
going  a  little  beyond  his  instructions.     The  judges  took  nc 
notice  of  the  intimation,  proceeded  at  once  to  give  judg- 
ment, and  sent 'a  letter  fn  their  united  names  to  the  king 
announcing  what  they  had  done,  and  declaring  that  it  was 
contrary  to  law  and  to  their  oath  for  them  to  pay  any 
attention  to  a  request  that  their  decision  should  be  delayed. 
The  king  was  indignant  at  this  encroachment,  and  acting 
partly  on  the  advice  of  Bacon,  held  a  council  on  the  Gth 
June  1616,  at  which  tho  judges  attended.  ■  James  then 
entered  at  great  length  into  the  case,  censuring  the  judges 
for  the  offensive  form  of  their  letter,  and  for.  not  having 
dekyed  judgment  upon  his  demand,  which  had  been'  made 
solely  because  he  was  himself  a  party  concerned.     The 
judges,  at  the  conclusion  of  his  speech,-fell  on  their  knees, 
and  implored  pardon  for  the  manner  of  their  letter;  but 
Coke  attempted  to  justify  the  matter  contained  in  it,  say- 
ing that  the  delay  required  by  his  majesty  was  contrary  to 
law.     The  point  of  law  was  argued  by  Bacon,  and  decided 
by  the  chancellor  in  favour  of  the  king,  who  put  the  ques- 
tion to  the  judges  individuaDy,  "Whether,  if  at  any  time,  in 
a  case  depending  before  the  judgds,  which  his  majesty 
conceived  to  concern  him  either  in  power  or  profit,  and 
thereupon  required  to  consult  with  them,  and  that  they 
should  stay  proceedings  in  the  meantime,  they  ought  not 
to  stay  accordingly  V     To  this  all  gave  assent  except  Coke, 
who  said  that  "  when  the  case  should  be,  he  would  do  that 
should  be  fit  for  a  judge  to  do."     No  notice  was  taken  by 
the  king  of  this  famous,  though  somewhat  evasive,  reply, 
but  the  judges  were  again  asked  what  course  they  would 
take  in  the  special  case  now  before  them.     They  aU  declared 
that  they  would  not  decide  the  matter  upon  general  grounds, 
affecting  the  prerogative,  but.upon  special  circumstances  in- 
cident to  the  case;  and  with  this  answer  they  were  dismissed. 
Bacon's  conduct  throughout  the  affair  has  been  blamed, 
but  apparently  on  wrong  grounds.     As  attorney  he  was 
merely  ftJlfiUirig  his  duty  in  obeying  the  command  of  the 
king ;  and  in  laying  down  the  law  on  the  disputed  point, 
he  was,  we  may  be  sure,  speaking  his  own  convictions. 
•Censure   might   more   reasonably   be   bestowed   on  him, 
because  he  deliberately  advised  a  course  of  action  than 
which    nothing   can   be   conceived    better    calculated  'to 
strengthen   the   hands   of    an   absolute  monarch.'    This 
appeared  to  Bacon  justifiable  and  right,  because  the  pre: 
rogative  would  be  defended  and  preserved  intact.     Coke 
certainly  stands  out  in  a  better  light,  not  so  much  for  his 
answer,  which  was  rather  indefinite,  and  the  force  of  which  is 
much  weakened  by  his  assent  to  the  second  question  of 
the   king,    but  for  tho   general   spirit   of    resistance   to 
encroachment  exhibited   by   him.      He   was  undeniably 
troublesome  to  the  king,  and  iti  is  no  matter  for  wonder 
that  James  resolved  to  remove  him  from  a  position  where 
he  could  do  so  nlUch  harm.     On  the  26th.  June  he  was 
called  before  the  council  to  answer  certain  charges,  one  of 
which  was  his  conduct  in  the  pramtmire  question.     He 
acknowledged   his   error  on    that  head,  and  made  little 
defence.     On  the  30th  he  was  suspended   from   council 
and  bench,  and  ordered  to  employ  his  leisure  in  revising 
certain  obnoxious  opinions  in  his  reports.     He  did  not  per- 
form tho  task  to  the  king's  satisfaction,  and  a  few  months 
later  he  was  dismissed  from  office. 

Bacon's  services  to  the  king's  cause  had  been  most 
important;  and  as  he  had,  at  the  same  time,  acquired 
great  favour  with  Villiers,  his  prospects  looked  brighter 
than  before.  According  to  his  custom,  he  strove  earnestly 
to  guida  by  his  advico-the  conduct  of  the  young  favourite. 
His  letters,  in  which  ho  analyses  the  various  relations  in 
whi'-Ii  sucli  a  man  must  stand,  and  prescribes  the  course  of 

'  Tijsnmcwhal  similar  case  is  that  of  the  writ  De  Raj'  rncoHai"" 
brought  forward  by  Bacon.     See  Letters  and-Li/t,  y  233  30. 


BACON 


207 


t:tion  suitable  for  each,  are  valuable  and  deserving  of 
actentioD.'  Very  striking,  in  view  of  future  events,  are 
the  words'  in  which  he  gives  him  counsel  as  to  his  dealing 
with  judges  :  "  By  no  means  be  you  persuaded  to  inter- 
pose yourself  by  word  or  letter  in  any  cause  depending,  or 
like  to  be  depending,  in  any  court  of  justice,  nor  sulTer 
ioy  man  to  do  it  where  you  can  hinder  it ,  and  by  all 
means  dissuade  the  king  himself  from  it,  upon  the  impor- 
tunity of  any,  either  for  their  friends  or  themselves  If 
It  should  prevail,  it  perverts  justice ;  but  if  the  judge  be 
60  just,  and  of  so  undaunted  a  courage  (as  he  ought  to  be) 
as  not  to  be  inclined  thereby,  yet  it  always  leaves  a  taint 
of  suspicions  aud  prejudice  behind  it "  It  is  probable 
that  ViUiers  at  this  time  had  really  a  sense  of  the  duties 
attaching  to  his  position,' and  was  willing  to  be  guided  by 
a  man  of  approved  wisdom.  It  was  not  long  before  an 
opportunity  occurred  for  showing  his  gratitude  and  favour. 
Ellesmere  resigned  the  chancellorship  on  the  5th  March 
1617,  and  on  the  7th  the  great  seal  was  bestowed  upon 
Dacon,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Keeper  Two  months  later 
he  took  his  seat  with  great  pomp  in  the  Chancery  Court, 
and  delivered  a  weighty  and  impressive  opening  discourse. 
He  entered  with  great  vigour  on  his  new  labours,  and  in 
less  than  a  month  he  was  able  to  report  to  Buckingham 
that  be  had  cleared  off  all  outstanding  Chancery  cases. 
He  seemed  now  to  have  reached  the  height  of  his  ambi- 
tion ;  he  was  the  first  law  officer  in  the  kingdom,  the 
accredited  minister  of  his  sovereign,  and  on  the  b^st  terms 
with  the  king  and  his  favourite.  His  course  seemed  per- 
fectly prosperous  and  secure,  when  a  slight  storm  arising 
opened  his  eyes  to  the  frailty  of  the  tenure  by  which  he 
held  his  position 

Coke  was  in  disgrace  but  not  in  despair ;  there  seemed 
to  be  a  way  whereby  he  could  reconcile  himself  to 
Buckingham,  through  the  marriage  of  his  daughter,  who 
had  an  ample  fortune,  to  Sir  John  ViUiers,  brother  of  the 
marquis,  who  was  penniless  or  nearly  so.  The  match  was 
distasteful  to  Lady  Hatton  and  to  her  daughter  ;  a  violent 
quarrel  was  the  consequence,  and  Bacon,  who  thought  the 
proposed  marriage  most  unsuitable,  took  Lady  Hatton's 
part  His  reasons  for  disapproval  he  explained  to  the 
king  and  Buckingham,  but  found  to  his  surprise  that  their 
indignation  was  strongly  roused  against  him.  He  received 
from  both  bitter  letters  of  reproof  ;  it  was  rumoured  that 
he  weald  be  disgraced,  and  Buckingham  was  said  to  h.->ve 
compared  his  present  conduct  to  his  previous  unfaithful- 
ness to  Essex.  Bacon,  who  seems  to  have  acted  from  a 
iimple  desire  to  do  the  best  for  Buckingham's  own  interests, 
at  once  changed  his  course,  advanced  the  match  by  every 
means  in  his  power,  and  by  a  humble  apology  appeased 
the  indignation  that  had  been  excited  against  him.  It  had 
been  a  sharp  lesson,  but  things  seemed  to  go  on  smoothly 
after  it,  and  Bacon's  affairs  prospered.  In  January  1618 
be  received  the  higher  title  Lord  Chancellor ;  in  July  of 
the  same  year  he  was  made  Baron  Verulam  ;  and  in 
January  1621  he  was  created  Viscount  St  Alban.  Hi.'* 
fame,  too,  had  been  increased  by  the  publication  in  1620 
if  his  most  celebrated  work,  the  Novum  Organum.  He 
seemed  at  length  to  have  made  satisfactory  progress 
towards  the  realisation  of  his  cherished  aims  ;  the  method 
essential  for  his  Instauration  was  partially  completed  ,  and 
he  had  attained  as  high  a  rank  in  the  state  as  he  had  ever 
contemplated.     But  history  too  clearly  tells  us  that  his 


Uttert  and  Lift,  v1  6,  7,  13-26.  27-58 
•  Thid  ,  7l.  33 
^  »  A  position ^whlch  Btcon  In  some  re»p«t«  approved  See  Buayi, 
"  Of  Ambition  "  "  It  is  counted  by  some  a  weakness  in  prinoes  to  hate 
laTouritea  ;  bcl  it  Is  of  all  others  the  best  remedy  against  ambitious 
{T/'nX  ores  ;  for  when  the  way  of  iileasuring  and  displeasuring  UelB  by 
the  favouiitr.  It  Is  Impossible  any  ollrti  should  be  over  great " 


actions  in  that  position  were  not  calculated  to  promote  the 
good  of  his  country. 

Connected  with  the  years  during  which  he  held  office 
is  one  of  the  weightiest  charges  against  his  character. 
Buckingham,  notwithstanding  the  advice  he  had  received 
from  Bacon  himself,  was  in  the  habit  of  addressing  letters 
to  him  recommending  the  causes  of  suitors.  In  many 
cases  these  seem  nothing  more  than  letters  of  courtesy, 
and  from  the  general  tone,  it  might  fairly  be  concluded 
that  there  was  no  intention  to  sway  the  opiniou  of  the 
judge  illegally,  and  that  Bacon  did  not  understand  the 
letters  in  that  sense.  This  view  is  supported  by  considera- 
tion of  the  few  answers  to  them  which  are  extant.'  One 
outstanding  case,  however,  that  of  Dr  Steward,'  casts 
some  suspicion  on  all  the  others  The  terms  of  Bucking- 
ham's note'  concerning  it  might  easily  have  aroused 
doubts  ,  and  we  find  that  the  further  course  of  the  action 
was  to  all  appearances  exactly  accommodated  to  Dr  Steward, 
who  had  been  so  strongly  recommended.  It  is,  of  course, 
dangerous  to  form  an  extreme  judgment  on  an  isolated 
and  partially  understood  case,  of  which  also  we  have  no 
explanation  from  Bacon  himself,  but  if  the  interpretation 
given  by  Mr  Heath  be  the  true  one.  Bacon  certainly 
suffered  his  first,  and  so  far  as  we  can  see,  just  judgment 
on  the  case  to  be  set  aside,  and  the  whole  mattar  to  be 
reopened  in  obedience  to  a  request  from  Buckingham 

It  is  somewhat  hard  to  understand  Bacon's  position  with 
regard  to  the  king  during  these  years.  He  was  the  first 
officer  of  the  crown,  the  most  able  man  in  the  kingdom, 
prudent,  sagacious,  and  devoted  to  the  royal  party.  Yet 
his  advice  was  followed  only  when  it  chimed  in  with  James's 
own  will  ;  his  influence  was  of  a  merely  secondary  kind  , 
and  his  great  practical  skill  was  employed  simply  in  carrying 
out  the  measures  of  the  king  in  the  best  mode  possible.  We 
know  indeed  that  he  sympathised  cordially  with  the  home 
policy  of  the  Government ,  he  had  no  objection  to  such 
monopolies  or  patents  as  seemed  advantageous  to  the 
country,  and  for  this  he  is  certainly  not  to  be  blamed  ' 
The  opinion  was  common  at  the  time,  and  the  error  was 
merely  ignorance  of  the  true  principles  of  political 
economy.  Bu'  we  know  also  that  the  patents  were  so 
numerous  as  to  be  oppressive,  and  we  can  scarcely  avoid 
inferring  that  Bacon  more  readily  saw  the  advantages  to 
the  Government  than  the  disadvantages  to  the  people.  In 
November  1620,  when  a  new  parliament  was  summoned 
to  meet  on  January  following,  he  earnestly  pressed  that 
the  most  obnoxious  patents,  those  of  alehouses  and  inns, 
and  the  monopoly  of  gold  and  silver  thread,  should  be 
given  up,  and  wrote  to  Buckingham,  whose  brothers  were 
interested,  advising  him  to  withdraw  them  from  the 
impending  storm.  This  prudent  advice  was  unfortnnately 
rejected.  But  while  h«  went  cordially  with  the  king  in 
domestic  affairs,  he  was  not  quite  in  harmony  with  him  on 
questions  of  foreign  policy,  ^fot  only  was  he  personally 
in  favour  of  a  war  with  Spain  for  the  re-uvcry  of  the 
Palatinate,  but  he  foresaw  in  such  a  course  of  action  the 
means  of  drawing  together  more  closely  the  king  and 
his  Parliament.  He  believed  that  the  royal  difficulties 
would  be  removed  if  a  policy  were  adopted  with  which 
the  people  could  heartily  sympathise,  and  if  the  king 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his  Parliament  and  led  them 
on  But  his  advice  was  neglected  by  the  vacillating  and 
peace-loving   monarch,  his  proffered  proclamation  was  put 

'  Utters  and  Life,  ri.  278,  29<-96.  313 

'  /bid.  Til.  679-588,  analysis  of  the  case  by  Mr  Henth.  »bc  ex- 
presses a  strong  opinion  sgaiost  Bucoo's  action  in  the  mattor 

•  fhid.,  »i.  iti. 

*  For  a  full  discussion  of  Bacon's  connection  »Uh  the  monopnlin. 
see  Gardiner,  Frinu  C^arUt,  Sx ,  ii  355-373  For  Ids  opinion  of 
monopolies  in  general,  see  Ltllcrt  and  lAft,  vi  4} 


208 


BACON 


HeiJe,  and  a  we<.!:,  featureless  production  substituted'  in 
its  place.  Nevertheless  the  new  Parliament  seemed  at 
first  more  responsive  than  might  have  been  looked  for.  A 
double  subsidy  wi3  granted,  which  was  expressly  stated 
to  be  "  not  on  any  consideration  or  condition  for  or  con- 
cerning the  Palatinate."  The  session,  however,  was  not 
far  advanced  when  the  question  of  patents  was  brought 
up  ,  a  determined  attack  was  made  upon  the  very  ones  of 
which  Bacon  had  been  in  dread,  and  it  was  even  proposed 
to  proceed  against  the  referees  (Bacon  and  Montagu)  who 
had  certified  that  there  was  no  objection  to  them  in  point 
of  law.  This  proposal,  though  pressed  by  Coke,  was 
allowed  to  drop  ;  while  the  king  and  Buckingham,  acting 
under  the  advice  of  Williams,  afterwards  lord  keeper, 
agreed  to  give  up  the  monopolies.  It  was  evident,  how- 
ever, that  a  determined  attack  was  about  to  be  made 
upon  Bacon,  and  that  the  proceeding  against  the 
referees  was  really  directed  against  him.  It  is  probable 
that  this  charge  was  dropped  because  a  more  powerful 
weapon  had  in  the  meantime  been  placed  in  his  enemies' 
hands.  This  was  the  accusation  of  bribery  and  corrupt 
dealings  in  Chancery  suits,  an  accusation  apparently 
wholly  unexpected  by  Bacon,  and  the  possibility  of  which 
he  seems  never  to  have  contemplated  until  it  was  aotually 
brought  against  him.  At  the  beginning  of  the  session  a 
committee  had  been  appointed  for  inquiring  into  abuses  in 
the  courts  of  justice.  Some  illegal  practices  of  certain  Chan- 
cery officials  had  been  detected  and  punished  by  the  court 
itself,  and  generally  there  was  a  disp&sition  to  overhaul  its 
affairs,  wbde  Coke  and  Cranfield  directly  attacked  some 
parts  of  the  chancellor's  administration.  But  on  March 
14th  one  Aubrey  appeared. at  the  bar  of  the  House,  and 
charged  Bacon  with  having  received  from  him  a  sura  of 
moneyTvhile  his  suit  was  going  on,  and  with  having  after- 
wards decided  against  him.  Bacon's  letter '  on  this 
occasion  is  worthy  of  serious  attention  ;  he  evidently 
thought  the  charge  was  but  part  of  the  deliberate  scheme 
to  ruin  him  which  had  already  been  in  progress.  A  second 
accusation  (Egerton's  case)  followed  immediately  after,  and 
was  investigated  by  the  House,  who,  satisfied  that  they  had 
just  matter  for  reprehension,  appointed  the  19th  for  a  con- 
ference with  the  Lords.  On  that  day  Bacon,  as  he  had 
feared,  was  too  ill  to  attend.  He  wrote ''  to  the  Lords 
excusing  his  absence,  requesting  them  to  appoint  a  con- 
venient time  for  his  defence  and  cross-examination  of 
witnesses,  and  imploring  them  not  to  allow  their  minds  to 
be  prejudiced  against  h\m,  at  the  same  time  declaring  that 
he  would  not  "  trick  up  an  innocency  with  cavillations, 
but  plainly  and  ingenuously  declare  what  he  knew  or 
remembered."  The  charges  rapidly  accumulated,  but 
Bacon  still  looked  upon  them  as  party  moves,  and  wa.s  in 
hopes  of  defending  himself.'     Nor  did   he  seem  to  have 

'  Lellers  and  Lift,  vii.  213  :  "I  know  I  have  clean  hands  and  a' 
tVaa  hf&rt,  and  1  hope  a  clean  hon.ie  for  frienda  or  servants.  But 
Job  himself,  or  whosoever  wai!  the  jiiatest  judge,  hy  such  hunting 
for  malten  against  hira  ac  hath  been  used  against  me.  may  for  a  liine 
oeem  foul,  specially  15,5  time  when  greatness  is  the  mark  and  accusa- 
tion is  the  game.**" 

•  rbiJ.ti,  215-16. 

'  rtiJ,  vii.  825-26.  From  the  letter  to  the  king  (March  05,  1021)  — 
••  liVTlCD  I  enter  Into  myself,  I  6nd  not  the  materials  of  such  a  tem- 
pest as  ii  comen  upon  mo.  I  buve  been  (as  your  majesty  kooweth 
best)  neTor  author  of  any  immoderate  counsel,  but  always  desired  to 
have  IhingB  carried  maminia  modu.  I  have  been  do  avaricious  op- 
pr»ssor  of  the  people.  I  have  been  no  haughty  or  Intolcrablo  or 
h»t«ful  man  in  my  conversation  or  carriage.  1  have  inherited  no 
hatr«d  from  my  father,  but  am  a  gooil  patriot  born.  Whence  should 
this  be  T  For  these  are  the  things  that  use  to  raise  disliket  abroad. 
.  .  .  And  for  the  briberies  and  giftji  wherewith  I  am  chorged,  when 
the  book  of  hearts  shall  be  opened,  I  hope  I  shall  not  bo  found  to 
have  the  troubled  fountain  of  a  coiTupt  hoart  In  a  depraved  habit  of 
taking  rewards  to  pervert  Justice,  howsoever  1  may  ba  frail,  and  par- 
*ake  of  the  ab.'e  of  the  times." 


lost  his  courage,  if  we  are  to  believe  the  commoo  reports 
of  the  day,*  though  certainly  they  do  not  appear  worthy 
of  very  much  credit. 

The  notes*  bearing  upon  the  interview  which  he  obtained 
with  the  king,  show  that  he  had  begun  to  see  more  clearly 
the  nature  and  extent  of  the  offences-  with  which  he  was 
charged,  that  he  now  felt  it  impossible  altogether  to 
exculpate  himself,  and  that  his  hopes  were  directed  towards 
obtaining  some  mitigation  of  his  sentence.  The  long  roll 
of  charges  made  upon  the  19th  April  finally  decided  him; 
he  gave  up  all  idea  of  defence,  and  wrote  to  the  king 
begging  him  to  show  him  favour  in  this  emergency.'  The 
next  day  he  sent  in  a  general  confession  to  the  Lords,' 
trusting  that  this  would  be  considered  satisfactory.  The 
Lords,  however,  decided  that  it  was  not  sufficient  as  a 
ground  for  their  censure,  and  demanded  a  detailed  dnd 
particular  confession.  A  list  of  twenty-eight  charges  was 
then  sent  him,  to  which  an  answer  by  letter  was  required. 
On  the  30th  April  his  "  confession  and  humble  submission"^ 
was  handed  in.  In  it,  after  going  over  the  several  instances, 
he  says,  "  I  do  again  confess,  that  on  the  points  charged 
upon  me,  although  they  should  be  taken  as  myself  have 
declared  Lhem,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  corruption  and 
neglect ;  for  which  I  am  heartily  and  penitently  sorry,  and 
submit  myself  to  the  judgment,  grace,  and  mercy  of  the 
court."^  On  the  3d  May,  after  considerable  discussion,  the 
Lords  decided  upon  the  sentence,  which  was,'"  That  he  should 
undergo  fine  and  ransom  of  X40,000  ;  that  he  should  be 
imprisoned  in  the  tower  during  the  king's  pleasure  ;  that 
he  should  be  for  ever  incapable  of  any  office,  place,  or 
employment  in  the  state  or  commonwealth  ;  that  he  should 
never  sit  in  parliament,  or  come  within  the  verge  of  the 
court.  This  heavy  sentence  was  only  partially  executed. 
The  fine  was  in  effect  remitted  by  the  king;  imprisonment 
in  the  tower  lasted  for  about  four  days  ;  a  general  pardon 
(not  of  course  covering  the  parliamentary  censure)  was 
made  out,  and  though  delayed  at  the  seal  for  a  time  by 
Lord  Keeper  Williams,  was  passed  probably  in  November 
1621.  The  cause  of  the  delay  seems  to  have  lain  with  Buck- 
ingham, whose  friendship  had  cooled,  and  who  had  taken 
ofi'ence  at  the  fallen  chancellor's- unwillingness  to  part  with 
York  House.  This  difference  was  finally  smoothed  over, 
and  it  was  probably  through  his  influence  that  Bacon 
received  the  much-desired  permission  to  come  within  the 
verge  of  the  court.     He  never  again  sat  in  parliament. 

So  ends  this  painful  episode,  which  has  given  rise  to  the 
most  severe  condemnation  of  Bacon,  and  which  still  presents 
great  and  perhaps  insuperable  difficulties.  On  the  whole, 
the  tendency  of  the  most  recent  and  thorough  researches 
has  been  towards  the  opinion  that  Bacon's  own  account  of 
the  matter  (from  which,  indeed,  our  knowledge  of  it  is 
chiefly  drawn)  is  substantially  correct.  He  distinguishes 
three  ways  in  which  bribes  may  be  given,"  and  ingenuously 

*  Letters  and  Life,  vil  227,  and  Gardiner,  Prince  Charla,  ic,  i.  460. 
'  fbul..  vii.  236,  233.  '  lUd.,  vii.  241. 

'  Ilml  ,  vu.  242-4  :  "  It  restelh  therefore  that,  without  fig-leaves, 
I  do  ingenuously  confess  and  acknowledge,  that  having  understood  the 
particulars  of  the  charge,  not  formally  from  the  Uouse,  but  enough  to 
inform  my  conscience  and  memory,  1  find  matter  suQicient  and  full, 
both  to  move  mo  to  desert  the  defence,  and  to  movo  your  lordships 
to  condemn  and  censure  me." 

•  /ftt.f ,  Til   252-262.         »  IbiJ.,  vii.  261.         "  Ibid.,  vii.  270. 

^'  n>iii ,  2.'ifl-36  :  "The  first,  of  bargain  and  contract  for  reward  to 
pervert  justice,  pendente  lite.  The  second,  where  the  judge  conceives 
the  cauee  to  he  at  an  end,  by  the  information  of  the  party  or  others 
wise,  and  usetb  not  such  diligence  as  he  ought  to  inquire  of  it. 
And  the  third,  where  the  cause  is  really  ended,  and  it  is  sine/^'tude 
without  relation  to  any  precedent  promise.  .  .  .  For  the  -first  of  theni 
1  take  myself  to  be  as  innocent  as  any  born  upon  St  Innocent's  Day, 
in  my  heart  for  the  second,  I  doubt  on  some  particulars  I  m^y 
he  faulty.      And  for  the  last.  I  conceived  it  to  be  no  fault,  but  the n-in 

I   I  ih'sire  to  be  better  informed,    that   1   may   \m  twice  penitent,  uuce 

i  for  the  fact  and  again  for  the  error." 


BACON 


209 


coiifcssea  that  his  on'u  acta  amounted  to  eomiptlon  and 
were  worthy  of  cODdeiiinalion.  Now,  corruption  strictly 
interpreted  would  imply  the  deliberate  sale  of  justice,  and 
this  Bacon  explicitly  denies,  affirming  that  he  never  "had 
bribe  or  reward  in  his  eye  or  thought  when  he  pronounced 
any  sentence  or  order."  When  we  analyse  the  speci6c 
charges  against  him,  with  his  answers  to  them,  we  find 
many  that  are  really  of  little  weight.  The  twenty-eighth 
and  last,  that  of  negligence  in  looking  after  his  servants, 
though  it  did  him  much  harm,  may  fairly  be  eaid  to  imply 
no  moral  blame.  The  majority  of  the  others  are  instances 
of  gratuities  given  after  the  decision,  and  it  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  the  judgment  of  the  peers  gives  us  no  means 
of  determining  how  such  gifts  were  looked  upon,  whether  or 
not  the  acceptance  of  them  was  regarded  as  a  "  corrupt " 
practice.  In  four  cases  specifically,  and  in  some  others  by 
implication,  Bacon  confesses  that  he  had  received  bribes 
from  suitors  pendente  lite.  Yet  he  affirms,  as  we  said 
before,  that  his  intention  was  never  swayed  by  a  bribe  ; 
and  sp  far  as  any  of  these  cases  can  bo  traced,  his  decisions, 
often  given  in  conjunction  with  some  othei-  official,  are  to 
all  appearance  thoroughly  just.  In  several  cases  his 
judgment  appears  to  have  been  given  against  the  party 
bestowing  the  bribe,  and  in  at  least  one  instance,  that  of 
Lady  WTiarton,  it  seems  impossible  to  doubt  that  he  must 
have  known  when  accepting  the  pYeseut  that  his  opinion 
would  be  adverse  to  her  cause.  Although,  then,  he  felt  that 
these  practices  were  really  corrupt,  and  even  rejoiced  that 
his  own  fall  would  tend  to  purify  the  courts  from  them,' 
he  did  not  feel  that  he  was  guilty  of  perverting  justice  for 
the  sake  of  reward.  How  far,  then,  is  such  defence  or 
eiplanation  admissible  and  satisfactory  1  It  is  clear  that 
two  things  are  io  be  considered  :  the  one  the  guilt  of  taking 
bribes  or  presents  on  any  consideration,  the  other  the  moral 
guilt  depending  upon  the  rfful  perversion  of  justice. 
The  attempt  has  sometimes  been  made  to  defend  the  whole 
of  Bacon's  conduct  on  the  ground  that  he  did  nothing  that 
was  not  done  by  many  of  his  contcmpurarics.  Bacon  him- 
self disclaims  a  defence  of  this  nature,  and  we  really  have 
no  direct  evidence  which  shows  to  what  extent  the  offering 
and  receiving  of  such  bribes  then  prevailed.  That  the 
jiractice  was  common  is  indeed  implied  by  the  terms  in 
v.liich  Bacon  speaks  of  it,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that 
the  fact  of  these  gifts  being  taken  by  officials  was  a 
thing  fairly  well  known,  although  aU  were  aware  of 
their  illegal  character,  and  it  was  plain  that  any  public 
exposure  of  such  dealings  would  be  fatal  to  the  individual 
against  whom  the  charge  was  made  out.'  Bacon  knew  all 
this ;  he  was  well  aware  that  the  practice  was  in  itself 
indefensible,'  and  that  his  conduct  was  therefore  corrupt 
and  deserving  of  censure.  So  far,  then,  as  the  mere  taking 
of  bribes  is  concerned,  he  would  permit  no  defence,  and 
his  own  confession  and  judgment  on  his  actions  contain  as 
severe  a  condemnation  as  has  ever  been  passed  upon  him. 
Yet  in  the  face  of  this  he  does  not  hesitate  to  call  himself 
"  the  justest  chancellor  that  hath  been  in  the  five  changes 
cinceSir  Nicholas  Bacon's  time  "/and  this  on  the  plea  that 

'  Uttert  and  Li/e,  vii.  242. 

•  Hui.,yM.  m  :  "Neither  will  your  lordships  forget  that  there 
4r«  vilia  ttmporu  u  well  m  mlia  hominU,  and  that  tho  bopiniiint!  of 
reformatioQt  hath  tho  contrary  power  to  the  pool  of  Bethesda,  for 
that  had  atrangth  to  euro  only  hira  that  wa«  first  cast  in,  and  this 
•lath  commonly  4tretic^b  to  hurt  him  only  that  ia  first  cast  ia  " 

•  Sec,  among  many  other  passages,  Eitayi,  ' '  Of  Great  Place ; "  "  For 
cerruptiona  do  not  only  bind  thioo  own  bands  or  thy  servant'® 
bands  from  taking,  but  bind  tho  hands  of  suitors  also  from  offering  ; 
fnr  inicgrity  uMd  doth  the  one  ;  hut  intetTity  professed,  and  with  a 
manifest  dattsUtion  of  bribery,  doth  the  other ;  and  aTold  not  only 
the  fault  btit  the  suspicion." 

•  C/.  LttUri  and  Life,  Til.  560  ;  "  I  was  the  jiuiert  Judge  that  was 
In  England  these  Bfty  years  ;  but  it  was  tbo  jusun  censure  in  Tsr 
tiament  that  was  these  two  hundred  years."  i 


his  intentioiLS  had  always  been  pure,  aiid  had  never  been 
affected  by  the  presents  he  received.  His  justification  has 
been  set  aside  by  modern  critics,  not  on  the  ground  that 
the  evidence  demonstrates  its  falsity,'  but  because  it  ij 
inconceivable  or  imnatural  that  any  man  should  receive  a 
present  from  another,  and  not  sutTer  his  judgment  to  bo 
swayed  thereby.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  such  an 
a  priori  conviction  is  not  a  sufficietrt  basis  on  which  to 
found  a  sweeping  condemnation  of  Bacon's  integrity  as  an 
administrator  of  justice.  On  the  other  hand,  even  if  it  be 
admitted  to  bo  possible  and  conceivable  that  a  present 
should  bo  given  by  a  suitor  simply  as  seeking  favourable 
consideration  of  his  cause,  and  not  as  desirous  of  obtain 
ing  an  unjust  decree,  and  should  be  accepted  by  the  judge 
on  the  same  understanding,  this  would  not  entitle  one 
absolutely  to  accept  Bacon's  statement.  Further  evidence 
is  necessary  in  order  to  give  foundation  to  a  definite  judg- 
ment either  way;  and  it  is  extremely  improbable,  nay, 
almost  impossible,  that  such  can  ever  be  produced.  In 
these  circumstances,  due  weight  should  be  given  to  Bacon's 
own  assertions  of  his  perfect  innocence  and  purity  of  in- 
tention ;  they  ought  not,  to  be  put  out  of  court  unless 
found  in  actual  contradiction  to  the  facts ;  and  the  reverse 
of  this  is  the  case,  so  far  as  has  yet  appeared." 

The  remainder  of  his  Ufe,  though  stiU  harassed  by  want 
of  means,  for  James  was  not  liberal,  was  spent  in  work  far 
more  valuable  to  the  world  than  anything  ho  had  accom- 
plished in  his  high  office.  In  March  1C22  he  presented 
to  Prince  Charles  his  History  of  Uenry  VII.  ;  and  imme- 
diately, with  unwearied  industry,  set  to  work  to  complete 
some  portions  of  his  great  work.  In  November  1622 
appeared  the  Historia  I'entorum;  in  January  1623,  the 
I{iiloria  Vitcc  et  Mortis ;  and  in  October  of  tho  same  year, 
tho  De  Augmentis  Scientiarum,  a  Latin  translation,  with 
many  additions,  of  the  Advancement.  Finally,  in  December 
1624,  he  published  his  ApoplUhegms,  and  Translations  of 
some  of  the  Psalms ;  and,  ia  1625,  a  third  and  enlarged 
edition  of  the  £ssat/s. 

Busily  occupied  with  these  labours,  his  life  now  drew 
rapidly  to  a  close.  In  March  162C  he  came  to  London, 
and  when  driving  one  day  neat  Highgate,  was  taJien  with 
a  desire  to  discover  whether  snow  would  act  as  an  anti- 
septic. He  stopped  his  carriage,  got  out  at  a  cottage,  pur- 
chased a  (owl,  and  with  his  own  hands  as.?isted  to  stuff  It 
with  snow.  He  was  seized  with  a  sudden  chill,  and  became 
so  seriously  unwell  that  he  had  to  be  conveyed  to  Lord 
Arundel's  house,  which  was  near  at  hand.  Here  his  illness 
increased,  the  cold  and  chill  brought  on  bronchitis  and  he 
died,  after  a  few  days'  suffering,  on  the  9th  April  1626. 

Bacon's  Works  and  PniLosopnv. 

A  complete  survey  of  Bacon's  works  and  an  estimate  of 
his  place  in  Lterature  and  philosophy  are  matters  for  i 
volume.  It  is  here  proposed  merely  to  classify  tho  works, 
to  indicate  their  general  character,  and  to  enter  somewhat 
more  in  detail  upon  what  he  himself  regarded  as  his  great 
achievement, — the  reorganisation  of  the  sciences,  and  the 
exposition  of  a  new  method  by  which  tho  hunian  mind 
might  proceed  with  security  and  certainty  towards  the  true 
end  of  all  human  thought  and  action. 


*  Or  on  the  ground  that  there  was  a  distinct  rule  forblddin|{ 
chancellors  and  tho  like  ofiiciala  to  take  presents.  This  does  not 
seem  to  hsvo  been  tho  case,  if  we  may  judge  from  what  Bacon  savs, 
Ltllera  and  Life,  vii.  233. 

*  Not  only  do  the  cases,  so  far  as  they  are  known,  siipport  Bacon's 
pica  of  innocence,  but  it  Is  remarkable  that  no  attempt  at  a  reversal  of 
any  of  his  numerous  decrees  appears  to  have  l>een  successful.  Had  his 
decrees  been  wilful  perversions  of  justice,  it  is  scarcely  conceiv.ibla 
th.Tt  some  of  them  should  not  have  been  overturned.  S-.-c  LeUcrs  aid 
Life,  vH.  555-562. 

—  »7 


210 


BACON 


Putting  aside  the  letters  and  occasional  writings,  we  may 
convenieutly  distribu-te  the  other  works  into  three  classes,' 
Professional,  Literary,  Philosophical.  Of  the  Professional 
works,  which  include  the  Reading  on  the  Statute  of  Uses, 
the  Maxims  of  Law,  and  the  treatise  (possibly  spurious)  on 
the  Use  of  tlie  Law,  only  experts  can  speak  with  confidence  ; 
and  their  opinion,  so  far  as  it  has  yet  been  given,  coincides 
to  some  extent  with  Bacon's  own  estimate  of  his  powers  as 
a  lawyer.  "  I  am  in  good  hope,"  he  says,  "  that  when  Six 
Edward  Coke's  reports  and  my  rules  and  decisions  shall 
come  to  posterity,  there  will  be  (whatsoever  is  now  thought) 
question  who  was  the  greater  lawyer."  If  Coke's  reports 
sliow  completer  mastery  of  technical  details,  greater 
knowledge  of  precedent,  and  more  of  the  dogged  grasp  of 
the  letter  than  do  Bacon's  legal  writings,  there  can  be  no 
dispute  that  the  latter  exhibit  an  infinitely  more  compre- 
hensiye  intelligence  of  the  abstract  principles  of  jurispru- 
dence, with  a  richness  and  ethical  fulness  that  more  than 
C'ompensate  for  their  lack  of  dry  legal  detail.  Bacon  seems 
indeed  to  have  been  a  lawyer  of  the  first  order,  with  a  keen 
scientific  insight  into  the  bearings  of  isolated  facts,  and  a 
power  of  generalisation  which  admirably  fitted  him  for  the 
self-imposed  task,  unfortunately  never  completed,  of  digest- 
inc  or  codifying  the  chaotic  mass  of  the  English  law. 
.  Among  the  Uterary  works  are  included  all  that  he  himself 
designated  moral  and  historical  pieces,  and  to  these  may 
be  added  some  theological  and  minor  writings,  such  as  the 
Apophthegms.  Of  the  moral  works  the  most  valuable  are 
the  Essays.  It  is  imposibltf  to  praise  too  highly  writings 
which  have  been  so  widely  read  and  universally  admired. 
The  matter  is  of  the  familiar,  practical  kind,  that  "comes 
home  to  men's  bosoms."  The  thoughts  are  weighty,  and 
even  when '  not  original,  have  acquired  a  peculiar  and 
"ucuque  tone  or  cast  by  passing  through  the  crucible  of 
Bacon's  mind.  A  sentence  from  the  Essays  can  rarely  be 
mistaken  for  the  production  of  any  other  writer.  The 
short,  pithy  sayings, 

"Jewels,  five  wprd3  long, 
That  on  the  stretched  forefinger  of  all  time     - 
Sparkle  for  ever," 

have  becorae  popular  mottoes  and  household'  words.  The 
style  is  quaint,  original,  abounding  in  allusions  and  wit- 
ticisms, and  rich,  even  to  gorgeousness,  with  piled  up 
analogies  and  metaphors.'  The  first  edition  contained  only 
ten  essays,  but  the  number  was  increased  in  1612  to  thirty- 
eight,  and  in  1625  to  fifty-eight.  The  short  tract,  Colours 
of  Good  and  Evil-  which  with  the  Meditatignes  Sacrae 
originally  accompanied  the  Essays,  was  afterwards  incor- 
porated with  the  De  Augmentis.  Along  with  these  works 
may  be  classed  the.  curiously  learned  piece,  De  Sapientia 
Veterum,  in  which  !\e  works  out  a  favourite  idea,  that  the 
mythological  fables  of  the  Greeks  were  allegorical  and 
concealed  the  deepest  truths  of  their  philosophy.  As  a 
scientific  explanation  of  the  myths  the  theory  is  of  no  value, 
but  it  affords  fine  scope  for  the  exercise  of  Bacon's 
"unrivalled  power  of  detecting  analogies  in  things  apparently 
most  dissimilar.  The  Apophthegms,  though  hardly  deserv- 
ing Macaulay's  praise  of  being  the  best  collection  of  jests 
in  the  world,  contain  a  number  of  those  significant  anecdotes 
which  Bacon  used  with  such  effect  in  his  other  writings. 
Of  the  historical  works,  besides  a  few  fragments  of  tho 
projected  history  of  Britain,  there  remains  the  History  of 

*  Tho  peculiaritic!»  of  Bacon's  style  were  noticed  very  early  by  hia 
contemporaries.  (See  Letters  and  Life,  i.  268.)  Raleigh  and  Jonson 
hATO  both  recorded  their  opinions  of  it,  but  no  one,  it  seems  to  us,  baa 
charactenscd  it  more  happily  than  his  friend,  Sir  Tobic  Matthews,  **  A 
mail  10  rare  in  knowledge,  of  so  many* several  kinds,  endued  with  tho 
facility  and  felicity  of  exprassing  it  all  Ln  so  elegant,  significant,  so 
abundant,  and  yet  so  choice  and  ravishineaway  of  wonls,  of  metaphors, 
of  allMsions,  as  perhaps  tho  world  Iiatli  notsaen  since  it  was  a  world." — 
"KddMit  to  tUc  Rudur '  prefixed  to  Voilo.tiiin  of  UnjUth  Lr'lert.  llfiO. 


Henry  VII.,  a  valuable  work,  giving  a  clear  and  animated 
narrative  of  the  reign,  and  characterising  Henry  with  great 
skill.  The  style  is  in  harmony  with  the  matter,  vigorous 
and  flowing,  but  naturally  with  less  of  the  quaintness  and 
richness  suitable  to  more  thoughtful  and  original  writings. 
The  series  of  the  literary  works  is  completed  by  the  minor 
treatises  on  theological  or  ecclesiastical  questions.  Some 
of  the  latter,  included  among  the  occasional  works,  are 
admirably  sagacious  and  prudent,  and  deserve  careful  study. 
Of  the  former,  the  principal  specimens  are  the  Medilationes 
SacrcE  and  the  Confession  of  Eaith.  The  Paradoxes 
(Characters  of  a  believing  Christian  in  paradoxes,  and  seem- 
ing contradictions),  which  was  often  and  justly  suspected, 
has  been  conclusively  proved  by  Mr  Grosart  not  to  be  the 
work  of  Bacon. 

Philosophical  Worh. — The  great  mass  of  Bacon's  writ- 
ings consists  of  treatises  or  fragments,  which  either  formed 
integral  parts  of  his  grand  comprehensive  scheme,  or  were 
closely  connected  with  it.  More  exactly  they  may  be 
classified,  as  is  done  by  tho  most  recent  editors,  under 
three  heads  : — A.  Writings  which  actually  formed  part  of. 
the  Instauratio  Magna;  B.  Writings  originally  intended 
to  form  parts  of  the  Instauratio,  but  which  were  after- 
wards superseded  or  thrown  aside ;  C.  Works  connected 
with  the  Instauratio,  but  not  directly  included  in  its  plan. 
To  begin  with  the  second  of  these  classes,  we  have  under 
it  some  important  tracts,  which  certainly  contain  little,  if 
anything,  that  is  not  afterwards  taken  up  and  expanded  in 
the  more  elaborate  works,  but  which  are  not  undeserving 
of  attention,  from  the  difference  in  the  point  of  view  and 
method  of  treatment.  Tho  most  valuable  of  them  are — 
(1.)  The  Advancement  of  Learning,  of  which  no  detailed 
account  need  be  given,  as  it  is  completely  worked  u^ 
into  tho  De  Avgmentis,  and  takes  its  place  as  the  first 
part  of  the  Instauratio.  (2.)  Valerius  Terminus,  a  very 
remarkable  piece,  composed  probably  about  1603,  though 
perhaps  retouched  at  a  later  period.  It  contains  a  brief  and 
somewhat  obscure  outline  of  the  first  two  parts  in  the 
Instauratio,  and  is  of  importance  as  affording  us  some 
insight  into  the  gradual  development  of  the  system  in 
Bacon's  own  mind.  (3.)  Temporis  Partus  Masculut, 
another  curious  fragment,  remarkable  not  only  from  its 
contents,  but  from  its  style,  which  is  arrogant  and  offen- 
sive, in  this  respect  unlike  any  other  writing  of  Bacon's. 
The  adjective  masculus  points  to  the  power  of  bringing 
forth  fruit  possessed  by  the  new  philosophy,  and  perhaps 
indicates  that.aU  previous  births  of  time  were  to  be  looked 
upon  as  feminine  or  imperfect ;  it  is  used  in  a  somewhat 
similar  sense  in  Letters  and  Life,  vi.  183,  "  In  verbis 
masculis,  no  flourishing  or  painted  words,  but  such  words 
as  are  fit  to  go  before  d?eds."  (4.)  PedarguUo  Philoso- 
phiarum,  B.  highly  finished  piece  in  the  form  of  an  oration, 
composed  probably  about  1608  or  1009,  and  containing  in 
pretty  full  detail  much  of  what  afterwards  appears  in  con- 
nection with  the  Idola  Thealri  in  book  i.  of  the  JVovum 
Organum.  (6.)  Cogitata  et  Visa,  perliaps  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  minor  philosophical  writings,  dating  from 
1607  (though  possibly  the  tract  in  its  present  form  m:iy 
have  been  to  some  extent  altered),  and  containing  in 
weighty  and  sonorous  Latin  the  substance  of  the  first  book 
of  the  Organum.  (6.)  The  Descriptio  Globi  Intellectualis, 
which  is  to  some  extent  intermediate  between  the  Advance- 
ment and  the  De  Augmentis,  goes  over  in  detail  the  general 
classification  of  the  r.ciences,  and  enters  particularly  on 
some  points  of  minor  interest.  (7.)  The  brief  tract  De 
Interprctatione  Naturce  Sententice  Duodecim  is  evidently  a 
first  sketch  of  part  of  the  Novum  Organum,  and  in  phrase- 
ology is  almost  identical  with  it.  (8.)  A  few  smaller 
pieces,  such  as  the  Inquisitio  de  Motu,  the  Calor  et  Frigus, 
tlip  ilistoriaSoni et  Atid<tus,zn<i  the  Phixnomcna  Univtni, 


BACON 


211 


\n  early  specimens  of  his  Xalural  History,  and  exhibit  the 
irst  tentative  applications  of  the  new  method. 

The  third  great  dirision  of  the  philosophical  works  con- 
sists of  treatises  on  subjects  connected  with  the  Instauratio, 
i)ut  not  forming  part  of  it.  It  is  not  necessary  to  charac- 
terise these  at  any  length.  The  most  interesting,  and  in 
many  respects  the  most  remarkable,  is  the  philosophic 
romance,  the  New  Atlantis,  a  description  of  an  ideal  state 
in  which  the  principles  of  the  new  philosophy  are  carried 
out  by  political  machinery,  and  under  state  guidance,  and 
wherSf  many  of  the  results  contemplated  by  Bacon  are  in 
imagination  attained.  The  work  was  to  have  been  com- 
pleted by  the  addition  of  a  second  part,  treating  of  the 
laws  of  a  model  commonwealth,  which  was  never  written. 
Another  important  tract  is  the  De  Principiis  at/jue  Origini- 
bua  secundum  Fabulas  Cvjtidinis  et  Coeli,  where,  under 
the  disguise  of  two  old  mythological  stories,  he  (in  the 
manner  of  the  Sapientia  Veterum)  finds  the  deepest  truths 
concealed.  The  tract  is  unusually  interesting,  for  in  it  ho 
discusses  at  some  length  the  limits  of  science,  the  origin  of 
things,  and  the  nature  of  primitive  matter,  giving  at  the 
same  time  full  notices  of  Democritus  among  the  ancient 
philosophers  and  of  Telesius  among  the  modem.  Deserv- 
ing of  attention  are  also  the  Cogitaliones  de  Natura  Hervm, 
probably  written  early,  perhaps  in  1605,  and  the  treatise 
on  the  theory  of  the  tides,  De  Fluxu  et  Kefluxu  Maris, 
written  probably  about  1616. 

The  philosophical  works  which  form  partof  the  Instauratio 
must  of  course  be  classed  according  to  the  positions  which 
they  respectively  hold  in  that  scheme  of  the  sciences. 
Before  entering  on  an  account  of  Bacon's  object  and 
method,  it  is  necessary  to  give  the  general  outline  of  his 
i/rraugemen^. 

The  great  work,  the  reorganisation  of  the  sciences,  and 
the  restoration  of  man  to  that  command  over  nature  which 
he  had  lost  by  the  fall,  consisted  in  its  final  form  of  six 
divisions. 

■  I.  Parlilionfs  Scientiarum,  a  survey  of  the  sciences, 
either  such  as  then  ciisted  or  such  as  required  to  be  con- 
structed afresh — in  fact,  an  inventory  of  all  the  possessions 
of  the  human  mind.  The  famous  classification'  on  which 
this  survey  proceeds  is  based  upon  an  analysis  of  the 
faculties  and  objects  of  human  knowledge.  This  division 
is  represented  by  the  De  Augmcnlis  Scientiarum. 

II.  Tnterpretalio  iVa(«r(F. --After  the  survey  of  all  that 
has  yet  been  done  in  the  way  of  discovery  or  invention, 
comes  the  new  method,  by  which  the  mind  of  man  is  to  be 
trained  and  directed  in  its  progress  towards  the  renovation 
of  science.  This  division  is  represented,  though  only 
imperfectly,  by  the  Novum  Oiganum,  particularly  book  ii. 

III.  Ilisloria  Naturalis  et  E.cperimetdahs. — The  new 
method  is  valueless,  because  inapplicable,  unless  it  be  sup- 
plied with  materials  duly  collected  and  presented — in  fact, 
unless  there  be  formed  a  competent  natuial  history  of  the 
Phcenomena  Universi.  A  short  introductory  sketch  of  the 
requisites  of  such  a  niturul  history,  which,  according  to 
Bacon,  is  essential,  necessary,  the  6(ww  lotius  negotii,  is 
given  in  the  tract  Parasceve,  appended  to  the  Novum 
Qrganum.  The  principal  works  intended  to  form  portions 
of  the  history,  and  either  published  by  himself  or  left  in 
manuscript,  are  UiMoria  Vcnlorum,  Historia  Vitceet  Mortis, 
Ilisloria  Densi  el  Pari,  and  the  extensive  collection  of 
facts  and  observations  entitled  Sylva  Sylvcrum. 

IV.  Scala  Intrlleclus. — It  might  have  been  supposed 
'.hat   the    new    philosophy   could    nOw   be    inaugurated. 

*  At  is  well  kDowB,  till)  division  of  the  sciences  adopted  in  the  great 
frenrh  Kncycli^pfdie  was  founded  upon  this  claMifirjitioQ  of  Bacon's. 
See  IHQernl  !  frosj/rclut  {CEtvrej,  iii.)  and  D'Alonibert'a  l/iscoura 
(/Kui*-*-*,  I  )  The  scheme  Khoutd  be  compared  ^'tb  later  attempts  of 
•K«  taaic  natiirj  '■••  Amjiirc,  Couroot.  Tomie.  and  II    Spencer. 


Matoriab  had  been  supplied,  along  with  a  new  method  by 
wliich  they  were  to  be  treated,  and  naturally  the  next  step 
would  be  the  finished  result.  But  for  practical  purposes 
Bacon  interposed  twodi visions  between  the  preliminaries  and 
the  philosophy  itself.  The  first  was  intended  to  consist  of 
types  or  examples  of  investigations  conducted  by  the  new 
method,  serviceable  for  keeping  the  whole  process  vivjJIy 
before  the  mind,  or,  as  the  title  indicates,  such  that  the 
mind  could  run  rapidly  up  and  down  the  several  steps  or 
grades  in  the  process.  Of  this  division  there  seems  to  be 
only  one  small  fragment,  the  Fiium  Labyrintln,  consisting 
of  but  two  or  three  pages. 

V.  Prodromi,  forerunners  of  the  new  philosophy.  This 
part,  strictly  speaking,  is  quite  extraneous  to  the  general 
design.  According  to  the  Distributio  Operis?  it  was  to 
contain  certain  speculations  of  Bacon's  own,  not  formed  by 
the  new  method,  but  by  the  unassisted  use  of  his  under- 
standing. These,  therefore,  form  temporary  or  uncertiiin 
anticipations  of  the  new  philosophy.  There  is  extant  a 
short  preface  to  this  division  of  the  work,  and  according 
to  Mr  Spedding,  some  of  the  miscellaneous  treatises,  such 
as  De  Principiis,  De  Fluxu  et  pejiuxu,  Cogitationes  de 
Natura  Rerum,  may  probably  have  been  intended  to  be 
included  under  this  head.  This  supposition  receives  some 
support  from  the  manner  in  which  the  fifth  part  is  spoken 
of  in  the  Nov}tm  Organvm,  i.  116. 

VI.  The  new  philosophy,  which  is  the  work  of  future 
ages,  and  the  result  of  thd  new  method. 

Bacon's  grand  motive  in  his  attempt  to  found  the 
sciences  anew  was  the  intense  conviction  that  the  knowledge 
man  possessed  was  of  little  service  to  him.  "  The  know- 
ledge whereof  the  world  is  now  possessed,  especially  that 
of  nature,  cxtendeth  not  to  magnitude  and  certainty  of 
works."^  Man's  sovereignty  over  nature,  which  is  founded 
on  knowledge  alone,  had  been  lost,  and  instead  of  the  free 
relation  between  things  and  the  human  mind,  there  was 
nothing  but  vain  notions  and  blind  experiments.  To 
restore  the  original  commerce  between  man  and  nature, 
and  to  recover  the  imperium  hominis,  is  the  grand  object 
of  all  science.  The  want  of  success  which  had  hitherto 
attended  efforts  in  the  same  direction  had  been  due  to 
many  causes,  but  chiefly  to  the  want  of  appreciation  of 
the  nature  of  philosophy  and  its  real  aim.  Philosophy  is 
not  the  sciento  of  things  divine  and  human  ;  it  is  not  the 
search  after  truth.  "  I  find  that  even  those  that  liave 
sought  knowledge  for  itself,  and  not  for  benefit  or  ostenta- 
tion, or  any  practical  enablement  in  the  course  of  their 
life,  have  nevertheless  propounded  to  themselves  a  wrong 
mark,  namely,  satisfaction  (which  men  call  Truth)  and  not 
operation."*  "  Is  there  any  such  happiness  as  for  a  man's 
mind  to  be  raised  above  the  confusion  of  things,  where  be 
may  have  the  prospect  of  the  order  of  nature  and  error 
of  man  "i  But  is  this  a  view  of  delight  only  and  not  of 
discover)'  1  of  contentment  and  not  of  benefit  1  Shall 
ho  not  as  well  discern  the  riches  of  nature's  warehouse 
as  the  beauty  of  her  shop?  Is  truth  ever  barren  1  Shall 
he  not  bo  able  thereby  to  produce  worthy  effects,  and 
to- endow  the  life  of  man  with  infinite  commodities'!"' 
Philosophy  is  altogether  practical ;  it  is  of  little  matter 
to  the  fortunes  of  humanity  what  abstract  notions  ono 
may  entertain  concerning  the  nature  and  the  principles  of 
thing!!.'  This  truth,  however,  has  never  yet  been  recog- 
nised ;'  it  has  not  yet  been  seen  that  the  true  aim  of  all 
science  is  "  to  endow  the  condition  and  life  of  man  with 

'  See  also  "  Letter  to  Fulgentio,"  JUltert  nnd  tiff.  »n   633. 

•  Fit  Lab. :  Coij.  et  Visa,  i. ;  c/.  Pref.  lo  Im.  itmj. 

•  I-'af.  Ter.,  23'J  ;  </.  J»r.  0.,  1.  124.. 

»  utirr,,  i.  123.  •  .V.  o.i  ;:« 

'  Fil.Lab.i;  c/ JVO.  i.  81;  Vof.  To-  (ir»ri<,  in  TM),  Aur-tiuc. 
meni,  b.  i.  {Workj,  iii   S90. 


212 


BACON 


new  powers  or  worts,"'  or  "to  extend  more  widely  the 
limits  of  the  power  and  greatness  of  man."^  Nevertheless, 
it  is  not  to  be  imagined  that  by  this  being  proposed  as  the 
great  object  of  search  there  is  thereby  excluded  all  that  has 
hitherto  been  looked  upon  as  the  higher  aims  of  human  life, 
such  as  the  contemplation  of  trutL  Not  so,  but  by  follow- 
ing the  new  aim  we  shaU  also  arrive  at  a  true  knowledge  of 
the  universe  ia  which  w©  are,  for  without  knowledge  there 
is  no  power ;  truth  and  utility  are  in  ultimate  aspect  the 
sam  1 ;  "  works  themselves  are  of  greater  value  as  pledges 
of  truth  than  as  contributing  to  the  comforts  of  life."^ 
Such  was  the  conception  of  philosophy  with  which  Bacon 
started,  and  in  which  he  felt  himself  to  be  thoroughly 
original.  As  his  object  was  new  and  hitherto  unproposed, 
eo  the  method  he  intended  to  employ  was  different  from 
all  modes  of  investigation  hitherto  attempted.  "  It  would 
be,"  as  he  says,  "  an  unsound  fancy  and  self-contradictory, 
to  expect  that  things  which  have- never  yet  been  dooe  can 
be  done  except  by  means  which  have  never  yet  been 
tried."*  There  were  many  obstacles  in  his  way,  and  he 
seems  always  to  iave  felt  that  the  first  part  of  the  new 
scheme  must  be  a  pars  destruens,  a  destructive  criticism  of 
all  other  methods.  Opposition'  was  to  bo  expected,  not 
only  from  previous  'philosophies,  but  especially  from  the 
human  mind  itself.  In  the  first  place,  natural  antagonism 
might  be  looked  for  from  the  two  opposed  sects,  the  one  of 
whom,  in  despair  of  knowledge,  maintained  that  all  science 
was  impossible;  while  the  other,  resting  on  authority  and  on 
the  learning  that  had  been  handed  down  from  the  Greeks, 
declared  that  science  was  already  completely  known,  and 
consequently  devoted  their  energies  to  methodising  and 
elaborating  it.  Secondly,  within  the  domain  of  science 
itself,  properly  so  called,  there  were  two  "  kinds  of  rovers" 
who  must  be  dismissed.  The  first  were  the  speculative  or 
logical  philosophers,  who  construe  the  universe  ex  analogia 
hominis,  and  not  ex  analof/ia  mnndi,  who  fashion  nature 
according  to  preconceived  ideas,  and  who  employ  in  their 
investigations  syllogism  and  abstract  reasoning.  The 
second  class,  who  were  equally  offensive,  consisted  of  those 
who  practised  blind  experience,  which  is  mere  groping  in 
the  dark  {vaga  exptrienlia  mei'a  palpatio  eat),  who  occa- 
sionally hit  upon  good  works  or  inventions,  which,  like 
Atalanta's  apples,  distracted  them  from'  further  steady  and 
gradual  progress  towards  universal  truth.  In  place  of 
these  straggling  efforts  of  the  unassisted  human  mind,  a 
graduated  system  of  helps  was  to  be  supplied,  by  the  use 
of  which  the  mind,  when  placed  on  the  right  road,  would 
proceed  with  unerring  and  mechanical  certainty  to  the 
invention  of  new  arts  and  sciences. 

Such  were  to  be  the  peculiar  functions  of  the  new 
method,  though  it  has  not  definitely  appeared  what  that 
method  was,  or  to  what  objects  it  could  be  applied.  But, 
before  proceeding  to  unfold  his  method,  Bacon  found  it 
necessary  to  enter  in  con.sidcrable  detail  upon  the  general 
subject  of  the  obstacles  to  progress,  and  devoted  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  first  book  of  the  Organum  to  the  ex- 
amination of  them.  This  discussion,  though  strictly  speak- 
ing extraneous  to  the  scheme,  has  always  been  looked  upon 
as  a  most  important  part  of  his  philosophy,  and  his  name 
is  perhaps  as  much  associated  with  the  doctrine  of  Idola 
as  with  the  theory  of  induction  or  the  classification  of  the 
sciences. 

The  doctrine  of  the  kinds  of  fallacies  or  general  classes  of 
errors  into  which  the  human  mind  is  prone  to  fall,  appears 
in  many  cf  the  works  written  before  \\ia  Novum  Organum, 
and  the  treatment  of  them  varies  in  some  respects.  The 
classification  in  the  Organum,  hcwever,  not  only  has  the 

'  Fa    lydb..  %■  0/.  N  0..  i.  81  i   Vat.  Ter.  {Worh,,  iii.  222,  233) ; 
*'n«  AOantu  (  Horfcj,  Ui.  156). 
•  W  0  .  1   1 18.  "  nid.,  i.  124.  •  Ibid.,  1.  6, 


author's  sanctiou,  but  has  received  the  stamp  of  histoncal 
acceptation  ;  and  comparison  of  the  earlier  notices,  though 
a  point  of  literary  interest,  has  no  important  philosophic 
bearing.  Th&  Idola,''  false  notions  of  things,  or  erroneous 
ways"  of  looking  at  nature,  are  of  four  kinds ;  the  first 
two  innate,  pertaining  to  the  very  nature  of  the  mind  and 
not  to  be  eradicated ;  the  third  creeping  insensibly  into 
men's  minds,  and  hence  in  a  sense  innate  and  inseparable ; 
the  fourth  imposed  from  without.  The  first  kind  are  the 
Idola  Tribiis,  fallacies  incident  to  humanity  or  the  race  ia 
general.  Of  these,  the  most  prominent  are — the  prone- 
ness  of  the  mind  to  suppose  in  nature  greater  order  and 
regiJarity  than  there  actually  is  ;  the  tendency  to  support 
a  preconceived  opinion  by  affirmative  instances,  neglecting 
or  throwing  out  of  account  all  negative  or  opposed  cases  , 
and  the  tendency  to  generalise  from  few  observations,  or 
to  give  realitj  to  mere  abstractions,  figments  of  the  mmd. 
Manifold  errors  also  result  from  the  weakness  of  the 
sense3,which  affords  scope  for  mere  conjecture ;  from  the  in- 
fluence exercised  over  the  understanding  by  the  will  and  pas- 
sions; from  the  restless  desire  of  the  mind  to  penetrate  to  the 
ultimate  principles  of  things ;  and  from  the  belief  that 
"man  is  the  measure  of  the  universe,"  whereas,  in  truth, 
the  world  is  received  by  us  in  a  distorted  and  erroneous 
manner.  The  second  kind  are  the  Idola  Specus,  idols 
of  the  cave,  or  errors  incident  to  the  peculiar  mental  or 
bodily  constitution  of  each  individual,  for  according  to 
the  state  of  the  individual's  mind  is  his  view  of  things. 
Errors  of  this  class  are  innumerable,  because  there  are 
numberless  varieties  of  disposition  ;  but  some  very  promi- 
nent specimens  can  be  indicated.  Such  are  the  ten- 
dency to  make  all  things  subservient  to,  or  take  the  colour 
of  some  favourite  subject,  the  extreme  fondness  and  rever- 
ence either  for  what  is  ancient  or  for  what  is  modern,  and 
excess  in  noting  either  differences  or  resemblances  amongst 
things.  A  practical  rule  for  avoiding  these  is  also  given  : 
"  In  general  let  every  student  of  nature  take  this  as  a  rule, 
that  whatever  his  mind  seizes  and  dwells  upon  with  par- 
ticular satisfaction  is  to  be  held  in  suspicion.""  The  third 
class  are  the  Idola  Fori,  idols  of  the  market-place,  i.e., 
errors  arising  from  the  influence  exercised  over  the  mind 
by  mere  words.  This,  according  to  Bacon,  is  the  most 
troublesome  kind  of  eiTor,  and  has  been  especially  fatal 
in  philosophy.  For  words  introduce  a  fallacious  mode  of 
looking  at  things  in  two  ways  :  first,  there  are  some  words 
that  are  really  merely  names  for  non-existent  things, 
which  are  yet  supposed  to  exist  simply  because  they  have 
received  a  name ;  secondly,  there  are  names  hastily  and 
unskilfully  abstracted  from  a  few  objects  and  applied  reck- 
lessly to  all  that  has  the  faintest  analogy  with  these 
objects,  thus  causing  the  grossest  confusion.  The  fourth 
and  last  class  are  the  Idola  Tkeatri,  idols  of  the  theatre, 
i.e.,  fallacious  modes  of  thinking  resulting  from  received 
systems  of  philosophy,  and  from  erroneous  methods  of 
demonstration.  The  criticism  of  the  demonstrations  is 
introduced  later  in  close  connection  with  Bacon's  new 
method  ;  they  are  the  rival  modes  of  procedure,  to  which 
his  own  is  definitely  opposed.  The  philosophies  which 
are  •'  redargued "  are  divided  into  three  classes,  the 
sophistical,  of  which  the  best  example  is  Aristotle,  who 
forces  nature  into  his  abstract  schemata  and  thinks  to  ex- 


*  Tlie  word  Idolon  is  manifestly  borrowed  from  Plato.  It  ia  used 
twice  inconoection  with  the  Plniotiic  Ideas  (iV,  0  , 1,  23, 124),  and  iscou- 
trotted  with  thorn  lis  the  false  appearftoco.  The  i\Zai\ov  with  Plato 
is  the  fleeting,  transient  imago  of  the  real  thing,  and  tlu^  pusage 
evidently  referred  to  by  Bacon  is  that  in  the  Hep.  vii.  616  A  "  «ol 
•  ^ofto*-  niv  rii  ffmai  hy  fiatrra  HaOofit/iq.  itai  .4CtA  tovto  4v  roit  f  Ja»»< 
Ti  Tf  Twf  ay0pwK(x-i'  nai  ri  ruy  iK\vy  ttZiit\a,  tJ^tpiiy  fi  ivrd."      ii 

16  explained  well  lo  the  Advancement,  bk.  t.  ( M'oyki,  iii.  iili- 

•  A'  0  ,  i.  58. 


BACON 


213 


plain  by  definitions ,  the  empirical,  wliich  from  few  and 
limited  experiments  leaps  at  onca  to  general  conclusions  ; 
»nd  the  superstitious,  which  corrupts  philosophy  by  the 
introduction  of  poetical  and  theological  notions. 

Such  are  the  general  causes  of  the  errors  that  infest  the 
human  mind ;  by  their  exposure  the  way  is  cleared  for-the 
introduction  of  the  new  method.  The  nature  of  this  method 
cannot  bo  understood  until  it  is  exactly  seen  to  what  it  is 
to  be  applied.  What  idea  had  Bacon  of  science,  and  how 
is  his  method  connected  with  it  t  Now,  the  science  '  which 
was  specially  and  invariably  contemplated  by  him  was 
Natural  Philosophy,  the  great  mother  of  all  the  sciences  ; 
it  was  to  him  the  typo  of  scientific  knowledge,  and  its 
method  was  the  method  of  all  true  science.  To  discover 
exactly  the  characteristics  and  the  object  of  natural  philo- 
sophy it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  place  it  holds  in 
the  general  scheme  furnished  in  the  Advancement  or  De 
AuijmetUis.  All  human  knowledge,  it  is  there  laid  down, 
may  be  referred  to  man's  memory,  or  imagination,  or 
reason.  In  the  first,  the  bare  facts  presented  to  sense  are 
collected  and  stored  up  ;  the  exposition  of  them  is  History, 
which  is  either  natural  or  civil  In  the  second,  the  mate- 
rials of  sense  are  separated  or  divided  in  ways  not  cor- 
responding to  nature  but  after  the  mind's  own  pleasure, 
and  the  result  is  Poesy  or  feigned  history.  In  the  third, 
the  materials  are  worked  up  after  the  model  or  pattern  of 
nature,  though  we  are  prone  to  err  in  the  progress  from 
sense  to  reason  ;  the  result  is  Philosophy,  which  is  con- 
cerned either  with  God,  with  nature,  or  with  man,  the  second 
being  the  most  important.  Natural  philosophy  is  again 
divided  into  speculative  or  theoretical,  and  operative  or 
practical,  according  as  the  end  is  contemplation  or  works. 
Speculative  or  theoretical  natural  philosophy  has  to  deal 
with  natural  substances  and  qualities,  and  is  subdivided 
into  physics  and  metaphysics.  Physics  inquires  into  the 
efficient  and  material  causes  of  things;  metaphysics,  into 
the  formal  and  final  causes.  The  principal  objects  of 
physics  are  concrete  substances,  or  abstract  though 
physical  qualities.  The  research  into  abstract  qualities, 
the  fundamental  problem  of  physics,  comes  near  to  the 
metaphysical  study  of  forms,  which  indeed  differs  from 
the  first  only  in  being  more  general,  and  in  having  as  its 
result  a  form  strictly  so  called,  i.e.,  a  nature  or  quality 
which  is  a  limitation  or  specific  manifestation  of  some 
higher  and  be'^ter  known  genus.  Natural  philosophy  is, 
therefore,  in  ultimate  resort  the  study  o{  forms,  and,  conse- 
quently, the  fundamental  problem  of  philosophy  in  gimcral 
is  the  discovery  of  these  foi-ms. 

"On  a  given  body  to  generate  or  6uporinduce  a  new  nuturo  or 
Ditures,  is  the  work  and  aim  of  buman  power.  .  .  *  Of  a  given 
nature  to  discover  the  form  or  true  specific  dilTcronce,  or  nature- 
eogeodcring  nature  {ruitura  ncUuraiis)  or  source  of  emanation  (for 
these  are  the  terras  wbich  are  nearest  to  a  description  of  the  thing), 
u  the  work  and  aim  of  human  knowledge."' 

■  The  questions,  then,  whose  answers  give  the  key  to  the 
whole  Baconian  philosophy,  may  bo  put  briefly  thus — 
What  are  forms  1  and  how  is  it  that  knowledge  of  them 
solves  both  the  theoretical  and  the  practical  problem  of 
(ciencol  Eucon  himself,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  pass:ige 
quoted  above,  finds  great  difliculty  in  giving  an  adequate 
and  exact  definition  of  what  he  means  by  a  form.  As  a 
general  description,  the  following  passage  from  the  Novum 
Organum,  n.  4.,  may  be  cited  : — 

"  The  form  of  a  nature  is  such  that  given  the  form  tho  nature 
Infallibly  follows.  .  .  ^  Again,  the  form  is  such  that  if  it  be  taken 
away  the  nuturo  infallibly  vanislics.  .  .  .  Lastly,  the  true  form  is 
anch  that  it  deduces  tho  given  natnre  from  some  source  of  being 
which  is  inherent  in  mor«  natures,  and  which  is  better  known  in 
the  natural  order  of  things  than  the  form  itself."' 

>  ,V.  O.,  I.  79,  80.  98,  108.  '  Ihid ,  ii.  1. 

'  Tbia  btUa  knou-n  in  Ott  order  of  nattm  is  oowhva  satisfactorily 


From  this  it  would  appear  that,  since  by  a  niiture  is 
meant  some  sensible  quality,  superinduced  upon,  or  pos- 
sessed by,  a  body,  so  by  a  form  we  are  to  understand  the 
cause  of  that  nature,  which  cause  is  itself  a  dctenuiuate 
case  or  manifestation  of  some  general  or  abstract  quality 
inherent  in  a  greater  number  of  objects.  But  all  these  are 
mostly  marks  by  which  a  form  may  be  recognised,  and  do 
not  explain- what  the  form  really  is.  A  further  definition 
is  accordingly  atteniptcd  in  Aph.  13  :— 

"The  form  of  a  thing  is  tho  very  thing  itielf,  and  ths  thing 
differs  from  the  form  no  otherwise  than  as  the  apparent  differs  from 
the  real,  or  the  external  from  the  internal,  or  the  thing  lu  reference 
to  the  man  from  the  thing  in  reference  to  the  universe." 

This  throws  a  new  light  on  the  question,  and  from  it 
the  inference  -at  once  follows,  that  the  forms  are  tho  per- 
manent causes  or  substances  underlying  all  visible  pheno- 
mena, which  are  merely  manifestations  of  their  activity 
Are  the  forms,  then,  forces  1  At  times  it  seems  as  if 
Bacon  had  approximated  to  this  view  of  the  nature  of 
thijigs,  for  in  several  passages  he  identifies  forms  with  laws 
of  activity.     Thus,  ho  says — 

"  When  I  speak  of  forms  I  mean  nothing  more  than  those  laws 
and  determinations  of  obsulute  actuality  which  govern  and  con- 
stitute any  simple  nature,  as  beat,  light,  weight,  in  every  kind  of 
matter  and  subject  that  is  susceptible  of  them.  Thus  the  form  of 
heat  or  the  form  of  light  is  the  same  thing  as  tho  law  of  heat  or 
the  law  of  light."*  "  Matter  rather  than  forms  should  be  the  object 
of  our  attention,  its  configurations  and  changes  of  configuration, 
and  simple  action,  and  law  of  action  or  motion  ;  for  forms  are  Cg- 
pients  of  the  human  mind,  unless  you  will  call  those  laws  of  action 
forms."*  *'Fomi3  or  true  dilfcrences  of  things,  which  are  in  fact 
laws  of  pure  act."®  "For  tliougb  in  nature  nothing  really  exists 
besides  individual  bodies,  performing  jiure  individual  acts  accord- 
ing to  a  fixed  law,  yet  in  philosophy  this  ver^'  law,  and  the  in- 
vestigation, discoveiy,  and  explanation  of  it,  is  tho  foundation  as 
well  of  knowledge  as  of  operation.  And  it  is  this  law,  with  its 
clauses,  that  I  mean  when  I  speak  of  forms."' 

Several  important  conclusions  may  be  drawn  from  these 
passages.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  evident  that  Bacon,  like 
the  Atoraical  school,of  whom  he  highly  approved,  had  a  clear 
perception  and  a  firm  grasp  of  the  physical  character  of 
natural  principles ,  his  forms  are  no  ideas  or  abstractions, 
but  highly  general  physical  properties.  Further,  it  is 
hinted  that  these  general  qualities  may  be  looked  upon  as 
the  modes  of  action  of  simple  bodies.  This  fruitful  con- 
ception, however,  Bacon  docs  not  work  out ,  and  though 
he  uses  the  word  cause,  and  identifies  form  with  formal 
cause,  yet  it  is  perfectly  apparent  that  the  modern  notions 
of  cause  as  dynamical,  and  of  nature  as  in  a  process  of  flow 
or  development,  are  foreign  to  him,  and  that  in  his  view 
of  the  ultimate  problem  of  science,  cause  meant  causa 
imm-ancns,  or  underlying  substance,  effects  were  not  con- 
sequents but  manifest:ition3,  and  nature  was  regarded 
in  a  purely  statical  aspect.  That  this  is  so  appears  even 
more  clearly  when  we  examine  his  general  conception 
of  tho  unity,  gradation,  and  function  of  the  sciences. 
That  the  sciences  .are  organically  connected  is  u  thought 
common  to  him  and  to  his  distinguished  predecessor  Roger 
Bacon.  "  I  that  hold  it  for  a  great  impediment  towards 
the  advancement  and  further  invention  of  knowledge,  that 
particular  arts  and  sciences  have  been  disincorporated  from 
general  knowledge,  do  not  understand  one  and  the  same 
thing  which  Cicero's  discourse  and  the  note  and  conceit  of 
the  Grecians  in  their  word  circle  learning  do  intend.  For 
I  mean  not  that  use  which  one  science  hath  of  another  for 
ornament  or  help  in  practice ;  but  I  mean  it  directly  of 
that  use  by  way  of  supply  of  light  and  information,  which 
the  particulars  and  instances  of  one  science  do  yield  and 
present  for  the  framing  or  correcting  of  the  axioms  of  an- 

explained  by  Hacoo.  Like  his  classification  of  causes,  and  iu  .soma 
degree  his  notion  of  form  itself,  it  comes  frcm  Arislollo.  See  An 
Pos(  ,  71.  6  33  ;   Topir.  Ml,  I.  r.  ,  Eth.  .Vic,  lOO.-i,  a  30. 

•  V.  0.,  ii.  17.      'ibid.<i,\        '/tiJ,  I.  75        '/;«<..  U.  I- 


214 


BACON 


other  science  in  their  vecy  truth  and  notion."'  In  accord- 
ance with  this,  Bacon  placed  at  the  basis  of  the  particular 
sciences  which  treat  of  God,  nature,  and  man,  one  funda- 
mental doctrine,  the  Prima  Pkilosophia,  or  first  philosophy, 
the  function  of  which  was  to  display  the  unity  of  nature 
by  connecting  into  one  body  of  truth  such  of  the  highest 
axioms  of  the  subordinate  sciences  as  were  not  special  to 
one  science,  but  common  to  several.^  This  first  philosophy 
had  also  to  investigate  what  are  called  the  adventitious  or 
transcendental  conditions  of  essences,  such  as  Much,  Little, 
Like,  Unlike,  Possible,  Impossible,  Being,  Nothing,  the  logi- 
cal discussion  of  which'  certainly  belonged  rather  to  the 
laws  of  reasoning  than  to  the  existence  of  things,  but  the 
physical  or  real  treatmentof  v/hich  mightbeexpected  to  yield 
answers  to  such  questions  as,  Why  certain  substances  are 
numerous,  others  scarce  ?  or  why,  if  like  attracts  like,  iron 
does  not  attract  ironl  Following  this  summary  philosophy 
come  the  sciences  proper,  rising  like  a  pyramid  in  succes- 
sive stages,  the  lowest  floor  being  occupied  by  natural 
history  or  experience,  the  second  by  physics,  the  third, 
which  is  next  the  peak  of  unity,  by  metaphysics.'  The 
knowledge  of  the  peak,  or  of  the  one  law  which  binds 
nature  together,  is  perhaps  denied  to  man.  Of  the  sciences, 
physics,  as  has  been  already  seen,  deals  with  the  efficient 
and  material,  i.e.,  with  the  variable  and  transient,  causes  of 
things.  But  its  inquiries  may  be  directed  either  towards 
concrete  bodies  or  towards  abstract  qualities.  The  first 
kind  of  investigation  rises  little  above  mere  natural  history; 
but  the  other  is  more  important,  and  paves  the  way  for 
metaphysics.  It  handles  the  configurations  and  the  appetites 
or  motions  of  matter.  The  configurations,  or  inner  struc- 
tures of  bodies,  include  dense,  rare,  heavy,  light,  hot,  cold, 
&c.,  in  fact,  what  are  elsewhere  called  simple  natures. 
Motions*  are  either  simple  or  compound,  the  latter  being 
the  sum  of  a  number  of  the  former.  In  physics,  however, 
these  matters  are  treated  only  as  regards  their  material  or 
eSicient  causes,  and  the  result  of  inquiry  into  any  one  case 
gives  no  general  rule,  but  only  facilitates  invention  in  some 
similar  instance.  Metaphysics,  on  the  other  hand,  treats 
of  the  formal  or  final  cause ^  of  these  same  substances  and 
qualities,  and  results  in  a  general  rule.  With  regard  to 
forms,  the  investigation  may  be  directed  either  towards 
concrete  bodies  or  towards  qualities.  But  the  forms  of 
substances  "are  so  perplexed  and  complicated,  that  it 
is  either  vain  to  inquire  into  them  at  all,  or  such  in- 
quiry as  is  possible  should  be  put  off  for  a  time,  and  not 
entered  upon  till  forms.of  a  more  simple  nature  have  been 
rightly  investigated  and  discussed. "^  "To  inquire  into 
the  form  of  a  lion,  of  an  oak,  of  gold,  nay,  even  of  water  or 
air,  is  a  vain  pursuit ;  but  to  inquire  the  form  of  dense, 
rare,  hot,  cold,  kc,  as  well  configurations  as  motions,  which 
in  treating  of  physic  I  have  in  great  part  enumerated  (I 
call  them  forms  of  tlie  first  class),  and  which  (like  the 

'  VaUrius  Terminus,  iii.  228-29.  ' 

'  C/.  N.  0.,  ii.  27.  Bacon  nowhcro  enters  upon  the  questions  of 
how  aucli  a  science  is  to  be  constructed,  and  how  it  can  be  expected  to 
possess  an  independent  method  while  it  remains  ilie  mere  receptacle 
for  the  generiiUsations  of  the  several  sciences,  and  consequently  has  a 
content  which  varies  with  their  progress.  His  whole  conception  of 
X*rima  rkilosophia  should  be  compared  with  such  a  modern  work  as 
the  First  PHnciplcs  of  Hcrhurl  Spencer. 
'  "-It  is  to  bo  noticed  that  this  scale  of  nature  corresponds  with  the 
ecale  of  ascending  axioms. 

*  Cf.  also,  for  motions,  iV.  0.,  ii.  48. 

*  The  knowledge  of  final  causes  does  not  lead  to  works,  and  the  con- 
fcidcration  of  them  must  bo  rigidly  excluded  from  physics.  Yet  there 
Is  DO  opposition  between  physical  and  final  causes  ;  in  ultimate  resort 
the  mind  is  compelled  to  think  the  universe  as  the  work  of  reason,  to 
refer  facta  to  God  and  Providence.  T^io  idea  of  final  cause  is  also 
fruitful  in  sciences  which  have  to  do  with  human  action.  {Cf.  DcAtij., 
iii.  cc.  4,  C  ;  tfov.  Org.,  i.  43,  ii.  2  ) 

*  Dt  Aug.,  iii.  4.  In  the  Advanr.rmcixt  {WorJis,  iii.  355)  It  is 
distinctly  snid  that  they  are  not  to  be  inqiiired  into.  One  can  hardly 
i:e  how  the  B.iconinn  method  could  have  applied  to  concrete  substances. 


letters  of  the  alphabet)  are  not  many,  and  yet  make  up 
and  sustain  the  essences  and  forms  of  all  substances — 
this,  I  say,  it  is  which  I  am  attempting,  and  which  con- 
stitutes and  defines  that  part  of  metaph3-sic  of  which  we 
are  now  inquiring."  Physics  inquires  into  the  same 
qualities,  but  does  not  push  its  investigations  into  ultimata 
reality  or  reach  the  more  general  causes.  We  thus  at  last 
attain  a  definite  conclusion  with  regard  to  forms,  and  it 
appears  clear  that  in  Bacon's  belief  the  true  function  of 
science  was  the  search  for  a  few  fundamental  physical 
qualities,  highly  abstract  and  general,  the  combinations  of 
which  give  rise  to  the  simple  natures  and  complex  pheno- 
mena around  us.  His  general  conception  of  the  universe 
may  therefore  be  called  mechanical  or  statical ;  the  cause 
of  each  phenomenon  is  supposed  to  be  actually  contained 
in  the  phenomenon  itself,  and  by  a  sufficiently  accurate 
process  could  be  sifted  out  and  brought  to  light.  As  soon 
as  the  causes  are  known  man  regains  his  power  over  nature, 
for  "  whosoever  knows  any  form,  knows  also  the  utmost 
possibility  of  superinducing  that  nature  upon  every  variety 
of  matter,  and  so  is  less  restrained  and  tied  in  operation 
either  to  the  basis  of  the  matter  or  to  the  condition  of  the 
efficients."' 

Nature  thus  presented  itself  to  Bacon's  mind  as  a  huge 
congeries  of  phenomena,  the  manifestations  of  some  simple 
and  primitive  qualities,  which  were  hid  from  us  by  the 
complexity  of  the  things  themselves.  The  world  was  a 
vast  labyrinth,  amid  the  windings  of  which  we  require 
some  clue  or  thread  whereby  we  may  track  our  way  to 
knowledge  and  thence  to  power.  This  thread,  the  filum 
lahyrinthi,  is  the  new  method  of  induction.  But,  as  has 
been  frequently  pointed  out,  the  new  method  could  not 
be  applied  until  facts  had  been  observed  and  collected. 
This  is  an  indispensable  preliminary.  "  Man,  the  servant 
and  interpreter  of  nature,  can  do  and  understand  so 
much,  and  so  much  only,  as  he  has  observed  in  fact  or 
in"  thought  of  the  course  of  nature ;  beyond  this  he 
neither  knows  anything  nor  can  do  anything."  The  pro- 
position that  our  knowledge  of  nature  necessarily  begins 
with  observation  and  experience,  is  common  to  Bacon  and 
many  contemporary  reformers  of  science,  but  he  laid  pecu- 
liar stress  upon  it,  and  gave  it  a  new  meaning.  What  he 
reaUy  meant  by  observation  was  a  competent  natural 
history  or  collection  of  facts.  "  The  firm  foundations  of 
a  purer  natural  philosophy  are  laid  in  natural  history."  ' 
"  First  of  all  we  must  prepare  a  natural  and  experimental 
history,  sufficient  and  good ;  and  this  is  the  foundation  of 
all."'  The  senses  and  the  memory,  which  collect  and 
store  up  facts,  must  be  assisted ;  there  must  be  a  ministra- 
tion of  the  senses  and  another  of  the  memory.  For  not 
only  are  instances  required,  but  these  must  be  arranged  in 
such  a  manner  as  not  to  distract  or  confuse  the  mind,  i.e., 
tables  'and  arrangements  of  instances  must  be  constructed. 
In  the  preliminary  collection  the  greatest  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  mind  be  absolutely  free  from  preconceived 
ideas;  nature  is  only  to  bo  conquered  by  obedience  ;  man 
must  bo  merely  receptive.  "  All  depends  on  keeping  the 
eye  steadily  fixed  upon  the  facts  of  nature,  and  so  receiv- 
ing their  images  simply  as  they  are ;  for  God  forbid  that 
wo  should  give  out  a  dream  of  our  own  imagination  for  a 
pattern  of  the  world  ;  rather  may  He  graciously  grant  to  us 
to  write  an  apocalypse  or  true  vision  of  the  footsteps  of  the 
Creator  imprinted  on  his  creatures."^"  Concealed  among 
the  f.acts  presented  to  sense  are  the  causes  or  forms,  and 

^  llius  the  last  ^tep  in  the  theoretical  analysis  gives  the  first  means 
for  the  practical  operation.  C/.  Aristotle,  Jilh.  Jfic,  iii.  3,  12,  "ri 
taxarov  iv  ifj  iyaKvffft  npuToy  (Jyai  iv  Tp  •ytviatC*  Cf.  also  iVov. 
Or.,.,  i.  103. 

>■  Voijitationcs  (Works,  iii.  IS").  '  K.  0.,  ii.  10. 

'"  I'rif.  to  InslauT.  Cf.  Valerius  Term.  ( Works,  iii.  224), and  X.  0., 
I  68,  124. 


BACON 


the  problem  therefore  Is  so  to  analyse  eipericncn,'  so  to 
br.ak  it  up  into  pieces,  that  we  shall  with  certainty  and 
moclianical  easo  arrive  at  a  true  conclusion.  This  process, 
which  forms  the  essence  of  the  new  method,  may  in  its 
entirety,  as  a  ministration  to  the  reason,  be  called  a  logic ; 
but  it  differs  widely  from  the  ordinary  or  school  logic  in 
end,  method,  and  form.  Its  aim  is  to  acquire  command 
over  nature  by  knowledge,  and  to  invent  new  arts,  whereas 
the  old  logic  strove  only  after  dialectic  victories  and  the 
discovery  of  now  arguments.  In  method  the  ditference  is 
:ven  more  fundamental.  Hitherto  the  mode  of  demonstra- 
tion had  been  by  the  syllogism ;  but  the  syllogism  is,  in 
many  respects,  an  incompetent  weapon.  It  is  compelled 
to  accept  its  first  principles  on  trust  from  the  science  in 
which  it  is  employed  ;  it  cannot  cope  with  tho  subtlety  of 
nature ;  and  it  is  radically  vitiated  by  being  founded  on 
li,i3tily  and  inaccurately  abstracted  notions  of  things. 
For  a  syllogism  consists  of  propositions,  propositions  of 
words,  and  words  are  tho  symbols  of  notions.  Now  the 
first  step  in  accurate  progress  from  sense  to  reason,  or  true 
philosophy,  is  to  frame  a  bona  notio  or  accurate  coaception 
uf  tho  thing ;  but  the  received  logic  never  does  this.  It 
flies  off  at  once  from  experience  and  particulars  to  the 
highest  and  most  general  propositions,  and  from  these  de- 
scends, by  the  use  of  middle  terms,  to  axioms  of  lower 
generality.  Such  a  mode  of  procedure  may  bo  called 
anlicipatio  naturce  (for  in  it  reason  is  allowed  to  pre- 
scribe to  things),  and  is  opposed  to  the  true  method,  the 
interpretatio  naturce,  in  which  reason  follows  and  obeys 
nature,  discovering  her  secrets  by  obedience  and  submis- 
sion to  rule.  Lastly,  the  very  form  of  induction  that 
has  been  used  by  logicians  in  the  collection  of  their  in- 
stances is  a  weak  and  useless  thing.  It  is  a  mere  enume- 
ration of  a  few  known  facts,  makes  no  use  of  exclusions 
or  rejections,  concludes  precariously,  and  is  always  liable 
to  be  overthrown  by  a  negative  instance.^  In  radical 
opposition  to  this  method  the  Baconian  induction  begins 
by  supplying  helps  and  guides  to  tho  senses,  whose  un- 
ijsisted  information  could  not  be  relied  on.  Notions  were 
formed  carefully,  and  not  till  after  a  certain  process  of 
induction  was  completed.'  The  formation  of  axioms  was 
to  be  carried  on  by  a  gradually  ascending  scale.  "Then 
and  only  then  may  wo  hope  well  of  tho  sciences,  when  in 
a  ju»t  scale  of  ascent  and  by  successive  steps,  not  inter- 
rupted or  broken,  we  rise  from  particulars  to  lesser  axioms; 
and  then  to  middle  axioms,  one  above  the  other;  and  last 
of  all  to  the  most  general."*  Finally  the  very  form  of 
i^iduction  itself  must  be  new.  "  The  induction  which  is  to 
be  available  for  the  discovery  and  demonstration  of  sciences 
and  arts  must  analyse  nature  by  proper  rejections  and 
exclusions ;  and  then,  after  a  sufficient  number  of  negatives, 
come  to  a  conclusion  on  the  afiirmative  instances,  ^'hich 
has  not  yek  been  done,  or  even  attempted,  save  only  by 
Plato.'  .  .  .  And  this  induction  must  be  used  not  only  to 

'  Prcf.  to  Inst. 

*  BacoD's  summary  ia  valuable.  "  In  the  whole  of  the  process  which 
Iwwls  from  the  senses  and  objects  to  axioms  and  conclusions,  tho  de- 
monstration: which  we  use  arc  deceptive  and  incompettnt.  The  process 
consists  of  four  parts,  and  has  as  many  faults.  In  the  first  place,  the 
impressions  of  tho  sense  itselJ'  are  faulty,  for  the  sense  both  fails  us 
and  deceives  us.  But  its  shorlcominj^  are  to  be  supplied  and  its  de- 
ceptions to  be  corrected.  Secondly,  notions  are  all  drawn  froni  tho 
Itipressioos  of  the  sense,  and  are  indefinite  and  confused,  whereas  they 
should  be  deQoito  and  distinctly  boujidcd.  Thirdly,  the  induction  is 
amiss  which  infers  the  principles  of  sciences  by  simple  enumeration, 
and  dotis  not,  as  it  ought,  employ  exclusions  and  solutions  (or  separa- 
tions) of  nature.  Lastly,  that  method  of  discovery  and  proof  accord- 
ing to  which  the  most  general  principles  are  first  established,  and  then 
Intorrordiate  axioms  are  tried  and  proved  by  them,  is  the  parent  of 
i^rror  and  the  curse  of  all  science." — (iV.  0.,  i.  63.) 

•    '  'V-  0  ,  i.  105  «  Ibid  .  i.  101  ;  <■/.  1.  10-26. 

•  This  extract  gives  an  answer  to  the  objection  sometimes  raised  that 
y>'ican  is  not  ont;iiil  in  his  theory  of  iuduction.     He  cerlaiuly  ad::v:> 


215 

discover  axioms,  but  also  in  the  formation  of  notions."' 
This  \-iew  of  the  function  of  exclusion  is  closely  connected 
with  B.icon'3  doctrine  of  forms,  and  is  in  fact  dependent 
upon  that  theory.  But  induction  is  neither  the  whole  of 
the  new  method,  nor  is  it  applicable  to  forms  only.  There 
are  two  other  grand  objects  of  inquiry  :  the  one,  tho  trans- 
formation of  concrete  bodies;  the  other,  the  investigation 
of  tho  latent  powers  and  the  latent  schematism  or  configu- 
ration. With  regard  to  the  first,  in  ultimate  result  it 
depends  upon  the  theory  of  forms  ;  for  whenever  the  com-> 
pound  body  can  be  regarded  as  the  sum  of  certain  simple 
natures,- then  our  knowledge  of  the  forms  of  these  natures 
gives  us  the  power  of  superinducing  a  new  nature  on  the 
concrete  body.  As  r^irda  the  latent  process  which  goes 
on  in  all  cases  of  generation  and  continuous  development  or 
motion,  wo  examine  carefully,  and  by  quantitative  measure- 
ments, the  gradual  growth  and  change  from  tho  first  ele- 
ments to  the  completed  thing.  The  same  kind  of  investi- 
gation may  be  extended  to  many  cases  of  natural  motion, 
such  as  voluntary  action  or  nutrition  ;  and  though  inquiry 
is  here  directed  towards  concrete  bodies,  and  does  not 
therefore  penetrate  so  deeply  into  reality  as  in  research  for 
forms,  yet  great  results  may  be  looked  for  with  more  con- 
fidence. It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Bacon  did  not  complete 
this  portion  of  his  work,  in  which  for  tho  first  time  be 
approaches  modern  conceptions' of  change.  Tho  latent 
configuration  or  inward  structure  of  the  parts  of  a  body 
must  be  kiiowa  before  we  can  hope  to  superinduce  a  new 
nature  upon  it.  This  can  only  be  discovered  by  analysis, 
which  will  disclose  the  ultimate  constituents  (natural 
particles,  not  atoms)  of  bodies,  and  Igad  back  tho  discussioa 
to  forms  or  simple  natures,  whereby  alone  can  true  light 
bo  thrown  on  these  obscure  questions.  Thus,  in  all  cases, 
scientific  explanation  depends  upon  knowledge  of  forms ; 
aU  phenomena  or  secondary  qualities  are  accounted  for  by 
being  referred  to  the  primary  qualities  of  matter. 

The  several  steps  in  the  inductive  investigation  of  tho 
fortn  of  any  nature  flow  readily  from  the  definition  of  the 
form  itself.  For  that  is  always  and  necessarily  present  when 
the  nature  is  present,  absent  when  it  is  absent,  decreases  and 
increases  according  as  the  nature  decreases  and  increases. 
It  is  therefore  requisite  for  the  inquiry  to  have  before  us 
instances  in  which  the  nature  is  present.  The  list  of  these  is 
called  tho  table  of  Essence  and  Presence.  Secondly,  wo  must 
Lave  instances  in  which  the  nature  is  absent ;  only  as  such 
cases  might  be  infinite,  attention  should  bo  limited  to  such 
of  them  as  are  most  akin  to  the  instances  of  presence.^  The 
list  in  this  case  is  called  table  of  Absence  in  rroximity. 
Thirdly,  we  must  have  a  number  of  instances  in  which  the 
nature  is  present  in  difTerent  degrees,  either  increasing  or 
decreasing  in  the  same  subject,  or  variously  present  in  dif- 
ferent subjects.  This  is  the  table  of  Decrees  or  of  Com- 
parison. After  the  formation  of  these  tables,  we  proceed 
to  apply  what  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  part  of  the 

that  Plato  has  nscd  a  method  somewhat  skin  to  his  own  ;  but  it  has 
frequently  been  contended  that  his  induction  is  nothing  more  than  tho 
iiriytayn  of  Aristotle  (see  Remusat's  Bacon,  d-c,  pp.  310-315,  and  for 
a  criticism,  Waddington,  Essais  de  Lor/iqrue,  p.  CGI,  sqq.)  This  seems 
a  mistake.  Bacon  did  not  understand  by  induction  the  argument  from 
particulars  to  a  general  proposition  ;  he  looked  upon  the  exclusion  and 
rejection,  or  upon  elimination,  as  tho  essence  of  induction.  To  this 
process  he  was  led  by  his  doctrine  of  forms,  of  which  it  is  the  neces- 
sary consequence  ;  it  is  the  infallible  result  of  his  view  of  science  and 
its  problem,  and  ia  as  original  as  that  is.  Whoever  accepts  Bacon's 
doctrine  of  cause  must  accept  at  the  same  time  bis  theor>'  of  the  way 
in  which  the  cause  may  be  sifted  out  from  among  the  phenomena.  It 
is  evident  that  the  Socratio  search  for  the  essence  by  au  analysis  of 
instances  — an  induction  ending  in  a  definition — has  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  Baconian  inductive  method. 

•A'.  0.,  i.  105. 

'  That  is  to  say,  diiTerlng  in  nothing  save  the  absence  of  the  Lalure 
under  investigation. 


21G 


ii  A  C  0  N 


BiconiaL  mefaod,  and  thac  in  whicu  the  author  took  most 
pride,  the  process  of  exclusion  or  rejection.  This  elimina- 
tion of  the  non-essential,  grounded  on  the  fundamental 
propositions  with  regard  to  forms,  is  the  most  important  of 
Bacon's  contributions  to  the  logic  of  induction,  and  that  in 
which,  as  he  repeatedly  says,  his  method  differs  from  all 
previous  philosophies.  It  is  evident  that  if  the  tables  were 
complete,  and  our  notions  of  the  respective  phenomena 
clear,  the  process  of  exclusion  would  be  a  merely  mechanical 
counting  out,  and  would  infallibly  lead  to  the  detection  of 
the  cause  or  form.  But  it  is  just  as  evident  that  these 
conditions  can  never  be  adequately  fulfilled.  Bacon  saw 
that  his  method  was  impracticable^(though  he  seems  to 
have  thought  the  difficulties  not  insuperable),  and  therefore 
set  to  work  to  devise  new  helps,  adminicular  These  he 
enumerates  in  VL,Aph.^\  -.-^Prerogative  Instances,  Supports 
fif  Induction,  Rectification  of  Induction,  Varying  the  Inves- 
tigation according  to  the  Nature  of  the  Subject,  Prerogative 
Natures,  Limits  of  Investigation,  Application  to  Practice, 
Preparations  for  Investigation,  the  Ascending  and  Descend- 
ing Scale  of  Axioms.  The  remainder  of  the  Organum  is 
devoted  to  a  consideration  of  the  tweuty-seven  classes  of 
Prerogative  Instances,  and,  though  it  contains  much  that  is 
both  luminous  and  helpful,  it  idds  little  to  our  knowledge  of 
■what  constitutes  the  Baconia  method.  On  the  other  heajs 
we  have  but  a  few  scattered  hfats.  But  although  the  rigorous 
requirements  of  science  could  only  be  fulfilled  by  the  employ- 
ment of  all  these  means,  yet  in  their  absence  it  was  permis- 
sible to  draw  from  the  tables  and  the  exclusion  an  hypotheti- 
cal coQclusion,  the  truth  of  which  might  be  verified  by  the 
use  of  the  other  processes ;  fcuch  an  hypothesis  is  called 
fantastically  the  First  Vintage  (Findcmiatio).  The  induc- 
tive method,  so  far  as  exhibited  in  the  Organum,  is  exem- 
plified by  an  investigation  into  the  nature  of  heat. 

Such  was  the  method  devised  by  Bacon,  and  to  which 
he  ascribed  the  qualities  of  absolute  certainty  and  mechanical 
cimplicity.     But  even  supposing  that  this  method  were 
accurate  and  completely  unfolded,  it  is  evident  that  it  could 
only  be  made  applicable  and  produce  fruit  when  the  pheno- 
mena of  the  universe  have  been  very  completely  tabulated 
and  arranged.     In  this  demand  for  a  complete  natural 
history,  Bacon  also  felt  that  he  was  original,  and  he  was 
deeply  impressed  with  the  necessity  for  it;'  in  fact,  he 
eeems  occasionally  to  place  an  even  higher  value  upon  it 
than  upon  his  Organum.     Thus,  in  the  preface  to  his  r.eries 
of  works  forming  the  third  part  of  the  Instauratio,  he  says: 
"  It  comes,  therefore,  to  this,  that  my  Organum,  evctii  if  it 
were  completed,  would  not  without  the  Natural  History 
much  advance  the  Instauration  of  the  Sciences,  whereas  the 
Natural  History  without  the  Organum  would  advance  it 
not  a  little."  '     But  a  complete  natural  history  is  evidently 
a  thing  impossible,  and  in  fact  a  history  can  only  be 
collected  by  attending  to  the  requirements  of  the  Organum. 
This  was  seen  by  Bacon,  and  what  may  be  regarded  as  his 
final  opinion  on  the  question  is  given  in  lb(   important 
letter  to  Baranzano  : — "  With  regard  to  the  iaultitude  of 
instances  by  which  men  may  be  deterred  from  the  attempt, 
hero   is   my   answer.      First,   what   need    to  dissemble  1 
Either  store  of  instances  must  be  procured,  or  the  business 
most  be  given  up.     All  other  ways,  however  enticing,  are 
impassable.     Secondly,  the  prerogatives  of  instances,  and 
the  mode  of  experimenting  upon  experiments  of    light 
(which  I  shall  hereafter  explain),  will  diminish  the  multi- 
tude of  them  very  much.     Thirdly,  what  matter,  I  ask,  if 
the  description  of  the  instances  should  fill  six  times  as 
many  volumes  as  Pliny's  History  ?  .  .  .  .  For  the  true 

'  DMrli.  Op  ( Works,  17.  28) ;  Paratcevt  {ibid.,  261,  252, 255-250) ; 
t>'.-'rip  Olob.  Intel.,  ch.  3. 

•  WV-i.,  ii.  IC;  </.  A'.  0.,  1.  130. 


natural  history  is  to  take  nothiLg  'jxcept  i'istaccea,  cm 
nections,  observations,  and  canons."  '  The  Organum  aud 
the  History  are  thus  correlative,  and  form  the  two  equally 
necessary  sides  of  a  true  philosophy ;  by  their  union  the 
new  philosophy  is  produced. 

Two  questions  may  be  put  to  any  doctrine  which  pro- 
fesses to  efi'ect  a  radical  change  in  philosophy  or  science. 
Is  it  original  1  Is  i  .""valuable  1  With  regard  to  the  first, 
it  has  been  already  pointed  out  that  Bacon's  induction  or 
inductive  method  is  distinctly  his  own,  though  it  cannot 
and  need  not  be  maintained  that  the  general  spirit  of  his 
philosophy  was  entirely  new. 

The  value  of  the  method  is  a  separate  and  more  difficult 
question.  It  has  been  assailed  on  the  most  opposite 
grounds.  Macaulay,  while  admitting  the  accuracy  of  the" 
process,  denied  its  efficiency,  on  the  ground  that  an  opera- 
tion performed  naturally  was  not  rendered  more  easy  or 
efficacious  by  being  subjected  to  analysis.*.  This  objection 
is  curious  when  confronted  with  Bacon's  reiterated  asser- 
tion that  the  natural  method  pursued  by  the  unassisted 
human  reason  is  distinctly  opposed  to  his ;  and  it  is  besides 
an  argument  that  tells  so  strongly  against  many  sciences, 
as  to  be  comparatively  worthless  when  applied  to  any  one. 
There  are,  however,  more  formidable  objections  against  the 
method.  It  has  been  pointed  out,^  and  with  perfect 
justice,  that  science  in  its  progress  has  not  followed  the 
Baconian  method ;  that  no  one  discovery  can  be  pointed  to 
which  can  be  definitely  ascribed  to  the  use  of  his  rules,  and 
thatmenthe  most  celebrated  for  their  scientific  acquirements, 
while  paying  homag6  to  the  name  of  Bacon,,  practically  set 
at  naught  his  most  cherished  precepts.  The  reasoi)  of  this  is 
not  far  to  seek,  and  has  been  pointed  out  by  logicians  of  the 
most  diametrically  opposed  schools.  The  mechanical 
character  both  of  the  natural  history  and  of  the  logical 
method  applied  to  it,  resulted  necessarily  from  Bacon's 
radically  false  conception  of  the  nature  of  cause  and  of  the 
causal  relation.  The  whole  logical  or  scientific  problem  is 
treated  as  if  it  were  one  of  co-existence,  to  which  in  truth  the 
method  of  exclusion  is  scarcely  applicable,  and  the  assump- 
tion is  constantly  made  that  each  phenomenon  has  one  and 
only  one  cause.'  The  inductive  formation  of  axioms  by  a 
gradually  ascending  scale  is  a  route  which  no  science  has 
ever  followed,  and  l»y  which  no  science  could  ever  make 
progress.  The  true  scientific  procedure  is  by  hypothesis 
followed  up  and  tested  by  verification  ;  the  most  powerful 
instrument  is  the  deductive  method,  which  Bacon  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  recognised.  The  power  of  framing 
__________^ 

*  Letters  and  Life,  vii.  377. 

*  Compare  what  Bacon  says,  A.  0.,  \.  130. 

'  Brewster,  Life  of  NeKton,  1855  (see  particularly  vol.  ii.  403,  405); 
LassoD,  Ueber  Baco  von  Verulam'sunssenschaftliclie  Principicn,  1860; 
I-iebig,  Utter  Francis  Sacon  von  Verulam,  &c.,  1863  (a  translation  of 
tho  last  appeared  in  Maemillan' s  Magazine  for  July  and  August 
18C3).  Although  LicbiK  points  out  how  little  ecicnca  proceeds  according 
to  Bacon's  rules,  yet  his  other  criticisms  seem  cf  extremely  little  value. 
In  a  very  ofTensive  and  quite  unjustifiable  tone,  which  is  ficverely 
commented  on  by  Sigv;art  and  Fisclier,  ho  attacks  iho  Baconian 
methods  and  its  results.  These  results  he  claims  to  find  in  the  Sytva 
Sylvarum,  entirely  ignoring  what  Bacon  himself  haa  said  of  tho  nature 
of  that  work  {N.  0.,  i.  117  j  cf.  Rawley's  Pref.  to  the  5.  S.),  and 
thvis  putting  a  false  interpretation  on  the  experiments  there  noted. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  he  should  detect  many  flaws,  hut  ho  never 
fails  to  exaggerate  an  error,  and  seems  sometimes  completely  to  miss 
the  point  of  what  Bacon  says.  (See  particularly  his  rema.ks  on  S.  S., 
83,  335.)  The  mejhod  he  explains  in  such  e  way  as  to  show  ho  has 
not  a  glimpse  of  its  true  nature.  He  brings  apiinst  Bacon,  of  all  men, 
tho  accusations  of  making  induction  start  froni  Uie  undetermined 
perceptions  of  the  senses,  of  usiiig  imagination,  and  of  putting  a  quite 
arbitrary  interpretation  on  phenomena.  Ho  crowns  his  criticism  by 
expounding  what  he  considers  to  bo  the  truo  scientific  method,  which, 
OS  has  been  pointed  out  by  Fischer,  is  simply  that  Paconian  doctrin* 
againit  which  his  attack  ought  to  have  been  directed.  (See  his  account 
of  the  method,  Utier  Bacon,  47 -iO  :  K.  Fifchcr,  Bacon,  p.  ^a»-^o^.^ 
I      •  Mill,  Logic,  U.  pp.  115,  »16,  D:9,  330. 


BACON 


217 


hypotbcses  poinU  to  another  want  in  the  Baconian  doctrine. 
If  that  power  form  part  of  tho  true  method,  then  ths^mind 
IS  not  wholly  passive  or  recipient;  it  anticipates  nature,  and 
moulds  the  experience  icceived  by  it  in  accordance  with  its 
own  constructive  ideas  or  conceptions  ;  and  yet  farther,  the 
minds  of  various  investigators  caD  never  be  reduced  to  the 
same  dead  mechanical  level'  There  will  still  be  room  for 
the  scientific  use  of  the  imagination,  and  for  the  creative 
flashes  of  genius.' 

If,  then,  Bacon  nimself  made  no  contributions  to  science, 
if  no  discovery  can  be  shown  to  be  due  to  the  use  of  his 
rules,  if  bis  method  bo  logically  defective,  and  the  prob- 
lem to  which  it  was  applied  one  from  its  nature  in- 
capable of  adequate  solution,  it  may  not  unreasonably  be 
asked,  Hnw  baa  he  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  tho  great 
leader  in  the  refotai.ition  of  modern  science  1  How  is  it 
that  he  shares  with  Descartes  the  honour  of  inaugurating 
modern  philosoj^hy  i  To  this  the  true  unswer  seems  to  be, 
that  Bacon  owes  his  position  not  only  to  the  general  spirit 
of  his  philosophy,  but  to  the  manner  in  which  he  worked 
into  a  connected  system  the  new  mode  of  thinking,  ana  to 
the  incomparable  power  and  eloquence  with  which  he  ex- 
pounded and  enforced  it-  Like  all  epoch-making  works, 
the  jVui-um  Organum  gave  e.tpressioc  to  ideas  which  were 
already  beginning  to  be  in  the  air.  The  time  was  ripe  for 
a  great  change ;  scholasticism,  long  decaying,  had  begun 

'  Whewell,  J'hil.  0/  Ind.  Sc,  ii.  399,  402-3  ;  Ellis,  Int.  lo  Bacon's 
Warkt,  X.  30,  61 ;  Brewster,  /feiolcm,  ii.  404  ;  Jevons,  Prine.  o/i>cic7ue, 
ii.  220.  A  severe  judgraent  on  Bicun's  method  13  given  in  Diibring's 
ablo  bnt  one-sided  JirilitcAe  Oesch.  d.  Phil.,  in  «Uich  t!ie  merits  of 
Roger  Bacon  are  brought  prominently  forward. 

'  Although  it  most  bo  admitted  that  the  Baconian  method  is  fa'rly 
open  to  the  above-mentioned  objections,  it  is  tunous  and  significant 
that  Baron  was  not  thoroughly  ignorant  of  them,  but  with  deliberate 
consciousness  preferred  bis  own  method.  We  do  not  think,  indeed, 
that  the  notiones  of  which  be  speaks  in  any  way  correspoud  to  what 
Whewell  and  Kllis  would  call  "  conceptions  or  ideas  furnished  by  the 
mind  of  the  thinker ; "  nor  do  we  imagine  that  Bacon  would  have 
admitted  these  aa  necessary  elements  in  the  mductive  process,  but 
ho  was  certainly  net  ignorant  of  what  may  be  called  A  deductive 
method,  and  of  a  kind  of  hypothesis.  This  is  clear  from  the  use  be 
makes  of  the  yindcir.iatio,  from  certain  hints  as  to  the  testing  of  axioms, 
from  his  admiesiou  ol  the  syllogiam  into  physical  reasoning,  ar-.*.  from 
what  he  calls  Ezperientia  LiCerala.  The  function  of  the  Vijidemiatio 
has  been  already  pointed  out ;  with  regard  to  axioms,  he  says  {.V. 0., 
i.  106),  "  In  estJiblishitig  axioms  by  tliis  kind  of  indu/'tion,  wo  mu.st 
also  Kiantiue  and  try  whether  thtj  axiom  so  established  be  framed  to 
the  measure  of  these  particulars  from  which  it  is  derived,  or  whether 
It  be  larger  or  wider.  And  if  it  be  larger  and  wider,  we  must  observe 
whether,  by  indicating  to  us  new  particulars,  it  confirm  that  wide- 
neas  and  largeness  as  by  a  collatcriJ  security,  that  we  may  not  ertber 
rtick  fast  in  things  already  known,  or  loosely  grasp  at  sliadows  and 
abstract  forms,  not  at  things  solid  and  reAlia^d  in  matter."  {C/.  also 
the  pa.«.sage  from  VaUrius  T&rminus,  quot«d  in  Ellis's  note  un  the 
above  aphorism.)  Of  tho  syllogism  ho  says,  "  I  do  not  propose  to  give 
op  the  syllogisr.i  altogether.  S.  is  incompetent  for  the  principal  things 
rather  than  useless  for  tho  generality.  In  tho  mathematics  there  is 
no  reason  wby  it  should  not  bo  employed.  It  is  the  llux  of  matter 
and  the  inconstancy  of  the  physical  body  which  requires  induction, 
that  thereby  it  may  be  fixed  as  it  wt-re,  and  allow  tho  formation  of 
Dotions  welt  defined.  In  physics  you  wisely  note,  ai)d  therein  1  agree 
with  yoQ,  tluHt  after  the  notions  of  the  first  class  and  the  axioms 
concerrung  them  have  been  by  induction  weii  made  out  and  defined, 
syllogism  may  be  .-ippiied  safely  ;  only  it  must  be  restrained  from  le.ip- 
ing  at  once  to  tho  most  general  notions,  and  progress  must  bo  made 
through  a  fit  r'ctcssloD  of  steps." — ("  Letter  lo  B.iran7ano,"  tetters 
and  Li/f,  vji.  377.)  And  with  this  may  be  compared  what  ho  says  of 
ffiithcjaatirs  {iV(w.  Org.,  il.  8;  /*<ir*7«cefc,  vii.)  In  his  account  of 
Sxperienlu*  Litrrnta  {lie.  Attg.,  v.  2)  he  comes  very  near  to  the  modern 
mo<le  of  experimental  research.  It  is,  lie  s,^y3,  tiie  procedure  from  on*- 
experiment  to  another,  and  is  not  a  science,  but  an  art  or  loimcd 
sagacity  (resembling  in  this  Aristotle's  iyx'^'a^  which  may,  how- 
w\tr,  be  enlightened  by  the  precepts  of  tho  Inltrprdalw.  Eight 
rarietie*  of  such  experiments  are  enumerated,  and  a  comparison  is  drawn 
between  this  -ind  the  inductive  method  ;  "though  the  rational  method 
of  Inquiry  by  the  Orgacon  promises  far  greate-.  things  in  the  end.  yet 
this  saga^iy,  proceeding  by  learned  experience,  will  in  the  meantime 
present  mankind  with  a  mimber  of  invention!-,  which  lie  near  at  band  " 
(cy  y  O..  I.  lo3  ' 


to  fall ;  the  authority  not  only  of  school  doctrines  but  of 
the  church  had  been  discarded  ;  while  here  and  there  a  few 
devoted  e-i:perimenters  were  turning  with  fresh  zeal  to  tho 
unwithered  face  of  nature.  The  fruitful  thoughts  which 
lay  under  and  gave  rise  to  these  scattered  etJorts  of  the 
human  mind,  were  gathered  up  into  unity,  and  reduced  to 
systca.  in  the  new  philosophy  of  Bacon.'  It  is- assuredly 
little  matter  for  wonder  that  this  philosophy  should  con- 
tain much  that  is  now  inapplicable,  and  that  in  many 
respects  it  should  be  vitiated  by  radical  errors.  The  details 
of  the  logical  method  on  which  its  author  laid  the  greatest 
stress  have  not  been  found  of  practical  service  ,•  yet  the 
fundamental  ideas  on  which  the  theory  rested,  the  need  for 
rejecting  rash  generalisation, and  the  necessity  for  a  critical 
analysis  of  experience,  are  as  true  and  valuable  now  as 
they  were  then.  Progress  in  scientific  discovery  is  made 
mainly,  if  not  solely,  by  the  employment  of  hypothesis, 
and  for  that  no  code  of  rules  can  be  laid  down  such  as 
Bacon  had  de\Tsed.  Yet  the  framing  of  hypothesis  is  no 
mere  random  guess  work  ;  it  is  not  left  to  the  imagination 
alone,  but  to  the  scientific  imagination.  There  is  required 
in  the  process  not  merely  a  preliminary  critical  induction, 
but  a  subsequent  experimental  companson,  verification,  or 
proof,  the  canons  of  which  can  be  laid  down  with  precision. 
To  formulate  and  show  grounds  for  these  laws  is  to  construct 
a  philosophy  of  induction,  and  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  first  step  towards  the  accomplishment  of  the  task 
was  made  by  Bacon,  when  he  introduced  and  gave  due 
prominence  to  the  powerful  logical  instrument  of  exclusion 
or  elimination. 

Of  the  general  characteristics  of  Bacon's  philosophy,  and 
of  the  consequent  place  he  holds  in  the  history  of  modern 
speculative  thought,  this  is  not  the  place  to  speak.  It  is 
curious  and  significant  that  in  the  domain  of  the  moral 
and  metaphysical  sciences  his  influence  has  been  perhaps 
more  powerful,  and  Lis  authority  has  been  more  frequently 
appealed  to,  than  in  that  of  the  physical.  This  is  due,  not 
so  much  to  bis  expressed  opinion  that  the  inductive  method 
was  applicable  to  all  the  sciences,'  as  to  the  generally  prac- 
tical, or,  one  may  say,  positive  spirit  of  his  system. 
Theological  questions,  which  had  tortured  the  minds  of 
generations,  tiro  by  him  relegated  from  the  province  of 
reason  to  that  of  faith.  Even  reason  must  be  restrained 
from  striving  after  ultimate  truth  ;  it  is  one  of  the  errors  of 
the  human  intellect  that  it  will  not  rest  in  general  prin- 
ciples, but  must  push  its  investigations  deeper.  Experience 
and  observation  are  the  only  remedies  against  prejudice 
and  error.  Into  questions  of  metaphysics  as  commonly 
understood  Bacon  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  entered,  but 
a  long  line  of  thinkers  have  drawn  inspiration  from  him, 
and  it  is  not  without  justice  that  he  Las  been  looked  upon 
as  the  originator  and  guiding  spirit  k'I  that  empirical  school 
which  numbers  among  its  adherents  such  names  as  Hobbes, 
Locke,  llume.  Hartley,  Mill,  Condillac,  the  Encyclopxdists, 
and  many  others  of  smaller  note. 

In  concluding  tliis  article,  the  writer  desires  to  express  his  obliga-^ 
tions  to  Mr  James  Spcdding  fur  various  observations  and  suggestions 
made  upon  it  before  it  went  to  press,  and  for  the  uscof  cortain  MS. 
notes  relating  to  disputable  passages  in  Bacon's  life. 

Biography. — Spedding,  Letters  and  Life  of  Lord  Bacon,  7  vols. 
1862-74  ;  Macauluy,  Essays ;  Campbell,  Lives  of  Chancellors :  Mon- 
tagu, li'orks,  vols.  ivi.  and  xvii.,  IS34  ;  Hcpworth  Dijion,  Personal 
History 0/ Lord  Bacon,  ISCI,  and  Sim y  of  Lord  Bacon's  Life,  1862. 

iro/ <•.«.- -The  classical  edition  is  that  by  llcisrs  R.  L.  Ellis, 
J.  Spcdding,  and  D.  H.  Heath,  2d  cd  ,  7  vols.,  1870  (i.-iii.  con- 
tains Philosophical  Works  ;  iv.  v..  Translations;  vi.  vii..  Literary 
and   Professional  Works).     Montagu's  edition  (17  vols.,  1825-34) 

3  yvc  the  vigorous  passage  in  Ilerschel,  DisctAtrse  on  th*  Stiulj  a/ 
yalttral  PAifcsopAy,  §  105  ;  (/.  §  96  of  the  same  work. 

*  Bacon  himself  seems  lo  anticipate  that  tho  progrcso  of  scieoc^ 
would  of  itseU  render  his  method  antiquated  IaVov.  Org.,  i.  130^ 

>  A'ov.  Org.,  i.  127. 

i;.—  23 


218 


BACON 


Is  fall,  but  badly  arrangcJ  and  editei  Of  numerous  editions  or 
individual  works,  or  portions  of  the  whole,  the  following  are  good  : — 
tEui-res  Philoaophiqucs  de  Bacon,  par  Bouillct,  3  vols.,  1S31 ;  £ssays, 
by  Whately,  5th  ed.,  1S66,  and  by  W.  A.  Wright;  1S62  ;  Novum 
Organum,  by  Kitchin  (1855) ;  Translation  by  the  same  (1855)  j 
Advancement  of  Learning,  by  \V.  A.  Wright. 

Philosophy. — Besides  the  Introductions  in  Ellis  and  Spedding's 
edition,  ,the  following  may   be   noticed  : — Kuno    Fischer,    Frxnz 


Bacon  und  seine  Nachfolger,  .2d  ed.,  1S75  (Ist  ed.,  1S56,  trans, 
into  English  by  O.xtnl'ord,  1S57) ;  Remusat,  Bacon,  sa  vie,  etc., 
1857  (2ii  ed.,  1858);  Craik,  Bacon,  his  Writings  ami  his  PhUo- 
Sophy,  3  vols.  1846-7  (new  ed.,  1860) ;  A.  Dorner,  De  Baconis  Fhilo 
Sophia,  Berlin,  1S67  ;  Liebig,  Ucbcr  Francis  Bacon  von  Verulam 
und  die  Mcthode  der  Naturforschung,  1S63  ;  Lasson,  l/ebcr  Baco  von 
Feralams  icissejischaftliche  Princij/icn,  1S60  ;  Bohmer,  U'tier  P. 
Bacon  von  Vemlam,  1864.  ^U.  AIL) 


j  BACON',  JoHk,  who  may  be  considered  the  founder  of 
'the  British  school  of  sculpture,  was  born  Nov.  24,  1740. 
He  was  tha  son  of  Thomas  Bacon,  cloth-worker  in  South- 
wark,  whose  forefathers  possessed  a  considerable  estate  in 
Somersetshire.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  lie  was  bound 
apprentice  in  Mr  Crispe's  manufactory  of  porcelain  at 
Lambeth,  where  he  was  at  first  employed  in  painting  the 
fmall  ornamental-  pieces  of  china,  but  by  his  great  skill  in 
moulding  he  soon  attained  the  distinction  of  being  modeller 
to  the  work.  The  produce  of  his  labour  he  devoted  to  the 
support  of  his  parents,  then  in  somewhat  straitened  circum- 
stances. While  engaged  in  the  porcelain  works  he  had  an 
opportunity  of  seeing  the  models  executed  by  diflcrent 
sculptors  of  eminence,  which  were  sent  to  be  burned  at  an 
adjoining  pottery.  An  observation  of  these  productions 
appears  to  nave  immediately  determined  the  direction  of 
his  genius ;  he  devoted  himself  to  the  imitation  of  them 
with  so  much  success,  that  in  17.58  a  small  figure  sent  by 
him  to  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts  received 
a  prize,  and  the  highest  premiums  given  by  that  society 
were  adjudged  to  him  nine  times  between  the  years  1763 
and  1776.  During  his  apprenticeship  he  also  improved 
the  method  of  working  statues  in  artificial  stone,  an  art 
which  he  afterwards  carried  to  perfection.  Bacon  first 
attempted  working  in  marble  about  the  year  17G3,  and, 
during  the  course  of  his  early  efforts  in  this  art,  was  led 
to  improve  the  method  of  transferring  the  form  of  the 
model  to  the  marble  (technically  called  getting  out  the 
points),  by  the  invention  of  a  more  perfect  instrument  for 
the  purpose,  which  has  since  been  adopted  by  many 
sculptors  both  in  this  and  other  countries.  This  instru- 
ment possesses  many  advantages  above  those  formerly 
employed  ;  it  is  more  e.xact,  takes  a  correct  measurement 
in  every  direction,  is  contained  in  a  small  compass,  and 
can  be  used  upon  either  the  model  or  the  marble.  In  the 
year  1769  he  was  adjudged  the  first  gold  medal  given  by 
the  Royal  Academy,  and  in  1770  was  made  an  associate 
of  that  body.  He  shortly  afterwards  exhibited  a  figure  of 
Mars,  which  gained  him  considerable  reputation,  and  he 
was  then  engaged  to  execute  a  bust  of  George  III.,  in- 
tended for  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  secured  the  king's 
favour,  and  retained  it  throughout  life.  His  great  cele- 
brity now  procured  him  numerous  commissions,  and  it  is 
said,  that  of  sixteen  different  competitions  in  which  he  was 
engaged  with  other  artists,  he  was  unsuccessful  in  one  case 
only.  Considerable  jealousy  was  entertained  against  him 
by  other  sculptors,  and  he  was  commonly  charged  with 
ignorance  of  classic  style.  This  charge  he  repelled  by  the 
cvecution  of  a  noble  head  of  Jupiter  Tonans,  and  many  of 
his  emblematical  figures  arc  in  perfect  classical  taste. 
On  the  4th  of  August  17P9,  he  was  suddenly  attacked 
with  inflammation,  which  occasioned  his  death  in  little 
more  than  two  days,  in  the  D9th  year  of  his  age.  He  left 
0,  widow,  his  second  wife,  and  a  family  of  six  sons  and 
three  daughters.  Of  his  merit  as  a  sculptor,  the  universal 
reputation  of  liis  works  affords  decisive  proof,  and  his 
various  productions  which  adorn  St  Paul's  Cathedral, 
London,  Christ  Church  and  Pembroke  College,  Oxford, 
the  Abbey  Church,  Bath,  and  Bristol  Cathedral,  give  ample 
testimony  to  hi'i  powers.     Perhaps  his  best  works  are  to 


be  found  among  the  monuments  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
(See  Memoir  of  the  late  John,  Bacon,  R.A.,  by  the  Rev. 
Richard  Cecil :  London,  1811.) 

B.ACON,  Sir  Nicholas,  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal  in  N'icholas, 
the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  born  at  Chislehurst  in 
Kent  in  1510,  and  educated  at  the  university  of  Cambridge, 
lafter  which  he  travelled  in  France,  and  made  some  stay  at 
Paris.  On  his  return  he  settled  in  Gray's  Inn,  and  applied 
himself  with  such  assiduity  to  the  study  of  the  law,  that 
he  quickly  distinguished  himself ;  and,  on  the  dissolution  ^ 
of  the  monastery  of  St  Edmund's  Bury  in  Suffolk,  he 
obtained  agraut  of  several  manors  from  King  Henry  VIIl., 
then  in  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  his  reign.  Two  years  later 
he  was  promoted  to  the  office  of  attorney  in  the  court  of 
wards,  which  was  a  place  of  both  honour  and  profit.  In 
this  office  he  was  continued  by  King  Edward  VI. ;  and  in 
1552  he  was  elected  treasurer  of  Gray's  Inn.  His  great 
moderation  and  prudence  preserved  him  through  the 
dangerous  reign  of  Queen  Mary.  Very  early  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  he  was  knighted;  and  in  1558  he  succeeded 
Nicholas  Heath,  archbishop  of  York,  as  keeper  of  the  great 
seal  of  England  ;  he  was  at  the  same  time  made  one  of  the 
queen's  privy  council.  .'Vs  a  statesman,  he  w.as  remarkable 
for  the  clearness  of  his  views  and  the  wisdom  of  his 
counsels,  and  he  had  a  considerable  share  in  the  settling  of 
ecclesiastical  questions.  That  he  was  not  unduly  elated 
by  his  preferments,  appears  from  the  answer  he  gave  to 
Queen  Elizabeth  when  she  told  him  his  house  at  Redgrave 
was  too  little  for  him,  "  Not  so,  madam,"  returned  he, 
"  but  your  majesty  has  made  me  too  great  for  my  Imuse." 
On  only  one  occasion  did  he  partially  lose  the  queen's 
favour.  He  w'as  susjiected  of  having  assisted  Hales,  the 
clerk  of  the  hanaper,  in  his  book  on  the  succession,  written 
at  the  time  of  Lady  Catherine  Grey's  unjust  imprisonment. 
Bacon  was  deprived  of  his  seat  at  the  council,  and  it  was 
even  contemplated  to  deprive  him  of  the  seal  also.  He 
seems,  however,  to  have  quickly  regained  his  position,  and 
to  have  stood  as  high  in  the  royal  favour  as  before.  He 
died  on  the  2Cth  of  February  1579,  having  held  the  great 
seal  more  than  twenty  years,  and  was  buried  in  St 
Paul's,  London,  where  a  monument,  destroyed  by  the  great 
fire  of  London  in  IGCC,  was  erected  to  his  memory. 
Granger  observes  that  ho  was  the  first, lord  keeper  who 
ranked  as  lord  chancellor ;  and  that  he  had  much  of  that 
penetrating  genius,  solidity,  judgment,  persuasive  eloquence, 
and  comprehensive  knowledgeof  law  and  equity,  which  after- 
wards shone  forth  with  such  splendour  in  his  illustrious  son. 

B.'VCON,  KoGEE.  The  13th  century,  an  age  peculiarly  Rofer 
rich  in  great  men,  produced  few,  if  any,  who  can  take 
higher  rank  than  •Roger  Bacon.  He  ia  in  every  way 
worthy  to  be  placed  beside  such  thinkers  as  .\lbcrtua 
Magnus,  Bouaventura,  and  Thomas  Aquinas.  .  These  had 
an  infinitely  wider  renown  in  their  day,  while  he  was 
ignored  by  his  contemporaries  and  neglected  by  his  succes- 
sors; but  modern  criticism  has  restored  the  balance  in  his 
favour,  and  is  even  in  danger  of  going  equally  far  m  the 
opposite  direction.  Bacon,  it  is  now  said,  was  not  appro- 
ciated  by  his  age  because  he  was  so  completely  in  advance 
of  jt ;  ho  is  a  16th  or  17th  century  philosopher,  whose  lot 
has  boon  by  some  accident  cast  in  the  13th  century,  he 


11. 


BACON 


219 


U<'r.  is  no  schoolman,  but  a  modern  thinker,  whose  conceptions 
of  science  are  oioro  just  and, clear  than  are  even  those  of 
his  more  celebrated  namesake.'  In  this  view  there"  is 
certainly  a  considerable  share  of  truth,  but  it  is  much 
exaggerated.  As  a  general  rule,  no  man  can  be  completely 
dissevered  from  his  national  antecedents  and  surroundings, 
and  Bacon  is  not  an  exception.  Those  who  take  up  such 
an  extreme  position  regarding  his  merits  have  known  too 
litUc  of  the  state  of  contemporary  science,  and  have  limited 
their  c"ni[)arison  to  the  works  of  the  scholastic  theologians. 
We  never  Cnd  iu  Bacon  himself  any  consciousness  of 
origmality  ,  he  h.is  no  fresh  crcitive  thought  or  method  to 
introduce  whereby  the  face  of  science  may  be  changed;  he  is 
rather  a  keen  and  systematic  thinker,  who  is  working  in  a 
wcHbeatcn  track,  from  which  his  coutemporaries  were  being 
drawn  by  thesuperior  attractions  of  theology  and  metaphysics. 
Roger  Bacon  was  born  in  1214,  near  Ilchester,  in 
Somersetshire.  His  family  appears  to  have  been  in  good 
circumstances,  for  he  speaks  of  his  brother  as  wealthy, 
and  he  himselt  expended  considerable  sums  on  books  and 
instruments;  but  in  the  stormy  reign  of  Henry  III.  they 
suffered  severely,  their  property  was  despoiled,  and  several 
members  of  the  family  were  driven  into  exile.  Roger  com- 
pleted his  studies  at  Oxford,  though  not,  as  current  tradi- 
tions assert,  at  Merton  or  at  Brazenose,  neither  of  those 
colleges  having  then  been  founded.  His  great  abilities 
were  speedily  recognised  by  his  contemporaries,  and  he 
came  to  be  on  terms  of  close  intimacy  with  some  of  the 
most  independent  thinkers  of  the  time.  Of  these  the 
most  prominent  were  Adam  de  Marisco  and  Robert  Grosse- 
testo  Ifiapi(o),  afterwards  bishop  of  Lincoln,  a  man  of 
liberal  mind  and  wide  attainments,  who  had  especially 
devoted  himself  to  mathematics  and  experimental  science. 
Very  little  is  known  of  Bacon's  life  at  Oxford ;  it  is  said 
he  took  orders  in  1 233,  and  this  is  not  improbable.  In  the 
following  year,  or  perhaps  later,  he  crossed  over  to  France, 
»nd  studied  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Paris,  then  the  centre  of  intellectual  life  in  Europe. 
The  years  Bacon  spent  there  were  unusually  stirring.  The 
two  great  orders,.the  Franciscans  and  Dominicans,  were  in 
the  vigour  of  youth,  and  had  already  begun  to  take  the 
lead  in  theological  discussion.  Alexander  of  Hales,  the 
author  of  the  great  Summa,  was  the  oracle  of  the  Francis- 
cans, while  the  rival  order  rejoiced  in  Albertus  Magnus,  and 
in  the  rising  genius  of  the  angelic  doctor,  Thomas  Aquinas. 
The  scientific  training  which  Bacon  had  received,  partly 
by  instruction,  but  more  from  the  study  of  the  Arab 
writers,  made  patent  to  bis  eyes  the  manifold  defects  in 
tlie  imposing  systems  reared  by  these  doctors.  It  dis- 
gusted him  to  hear  from  all  around  him  that  philosophy 
was  now  at  length  complete,  that  it  had  been  reduced  into 
compact  order,  and  was  being  set  forth  by  a.certain  pro- 
fessor at  Paris.  Even  the  great  authority  on  which  they 
reposed,  Aristotle,  was  known  but  in  part,  and  that  part 
was  rendered  well-nigh  unintelligible  through  the  vileness 
of  the  translations  ;  yet  not  one  of  those  professors  would 
learn  Greek  so  that  they  might  arrive  at  a  real  knowledge 
of  their  philosopher.  The  Scriptures,  if  read  at  all  in  the 
schools,  wero  read  in  the  erroneous  versions  ;  but  even 
these  were  being  deserted  for  ihcSentei  :es  of  Peter  Lombard. 
Physical  science,  if  there  was  anything  deserving  that 
name,  was  cultivated,  not  by  experiment  in  the  true  Aris- 
totelian way,  but  by  discussion  and  by  arguments  deduced 
from  premises  resting  on  authority  cr  custom.  Every- 
wber«  there  was  a  show  of  knowledge  covering  and  con 
tealmg  fundamental  ignorance.  Bacon,  accordingly,  who 
knew  what  true  science  was,  and  who  had  glimpses  of  a 
scientific  urganon   or  method,   withdrew  from   the  usual 


'  S««  Dulriiig,  Krilischt  Ots.  d.  I'Kil.,  192,  :<9  51. 


sctiolastic  routine,  and  devoted  himself  to  languages  and 
experimental  researches.  Among  all  the  instructors  with 
whom  ho  came  in  contact  in  Paris,  only  one  gained  his 
esteem  and  respect ;  this  was  an  unknown  individual, 
Petrus  de  Maharncuria  Picardus,  or  of  Picardy,  probably 
identical  with' a  certain  mathematician,  Petrus  Peregiinus 
of  Picardy,  who  is  perhaps  the  author  of  a  MS.  treatise, 
ZJsJ/a^nefe,  contained  intheBibliothfeque  Impfiriale  atParis. 
The  contrast  between  the  obscurrty  of  such  a  man  and  the 
fame  enjoyed  by  the  fluent  young  doctors  of  the  schools 
seems  to  have  roused  Bacon's  indignation.  In  the  Opm 
Minus  and  Opiis  Tertium  he  pours  forth  a  violent  tirade 
against  Alexander  of  Hales,  and  against  another  professor, 
not  mentioned  by  name,  but  spoken  of  as  alive,  and  blamed 
even  -more  severely  than  Ale.xandcr.  This  anonymous 
writer,  He  says,  who  entered  the  order  when  young 
(puerulus),  who  had  received  no  proper  or  systematic  in- 
struction in  science  or  philosophy,  for  he  was  the  6rst  in 
his  order  to  teach  such  subjects,  acquired  his  learning  by 
teaching  others,  and  adopted  a  dogmatic  tone,  which  has 
caused  him  to  be  received  at  Paris  with  applause  as  the 
equal  of  Aristotle,  Avicnnna,  or  Averroes.  He  has  cor- 
rupted philosophy  more  than  any  other,  he  knows  nothing 
of  optics  or  perspective,  and  yet  has  presumed  to  write  dt 
naturatibiu ,  he  is  ignorant  of  speculative  alchemy,  which 
treats  of  the  origin  and  generation  of  things ;  he,  indeed, 
is  a  man  of  infinite  industry,  who  has  read  and  observed 
much,  but  all  his  study  is  wasted  because  he  is  ignorant 
of  the  true  foundation  and  method  of  science.* 

It  is  probable  that  Bacon,  during  his  stay  in  Paris,  ac- 
quired considerable  renown.  He  took  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  theology,  and  seems  to  have  received  from  his  contem- 
poraries the  complimentary  title  of  rfoc/or  miVaii/is.  In  1200 
he  was  again  at  Oxford,  and  probably  about  this  time,  though 
the  exact  date  cannot  be  fixed,  he  entered  the  Franciscan 
order.  His  fame  spread  very  rapidly  at  Oxford,  though  it 
was  mingled  with  suspicions  of  his  dealings  in  magic  and 
the  black  arts,  and  with  some  doubts  of  his  orthodoxy. 
About  1257,  Bonavcntura,  general  of  the  order,  interdicted 
his  lectures  at  Oxford,  and  commanded  him  to  leave  that 
town  and  place  himself  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
body  at  Paris.  Here  for  ten  years  he  remained  under  con- 
stant supervision,  suilering  great  privations,  and  strictly 
prohibited  from  writing  anything  which  might  be  published. 
But  during  the  time  he  had  been  at  Oxford  his  fame  had 
reached  the  ears  of  the  Papal. legate  in  England,  Guy  de 
Foulques,  a  man  of  culture  and  scientific  tastes,  who  in 
1265  was  raised  to  the  papal  chair  as  Clement  IV.  In 
tho  following  year  he  wrote  to  Bacon,  who  had  been  already 
in  communication  with  him,  ordering  him,  notwithstanding 

'  It  i3  diiBcult  to  identify  this  unknown  professor.  Brewer  thinks 
the  referenco  ia  to  Richard  of  Cornwall ;  but  the  little  we  know  ol 
Richard  is  not  in  harmony  with  what  is  said  here,  nor  with  the  terics 
in  which  be  is  elsewhere  spoken  of  by  Bacon.  Erdmann  conjectures 
Thomas  Aquinas,  which  is  extremely  improbable,  as  Thomas  was  un- 
questionably not  the  6rst  of  his  order  to  study  philosophy.  Cousin 
and  Charles  think  that  Albertus  Magnus  is  aimed  at,  and  certainly 
much  of  what  is  said  applies  with  peculiar  force  to  him.  But  soma 
things  do  not  at  all  cohere  with  what  is  otherwise  known  of  Albert. 
Tho  unknown  is  said  to  have  received  no  regular  philosophic  training; 
wo  kuow  thnt  Albert  did.  Tho  unknown  entered  the  order  when  very 
young  ;  unless  the  received  dale  of  Allvrl's  birth  be  false,  he  did  not 
euttir  till  nearly  twenty-eight  years  of  age.  Albert,  too,  could  not  bo 
said  with  justice  to  be  utterly  ignorant  of  alchemy,  and  his  mechanical 
inventions  are  well  known.  It  is  worth  pointing  out  that  Brewer,  in 
transcribing  tho  passage  bearing  on  this  (Op.  Ined.  p.  327),  has  the 
words  Frairum  pucruUis,  which  iu  his  marginal  note  ho  interprets  al 
applying  to  the  Franciscan  order.  In  this  case,  of  course,  Albert  could 
sot  lie  the  person  refened  to,  as  be  was  a  Dominican.  But  Cbarle*. 
in  his  transcription,  entirely  omits  tho  iniporLint  word  Fratrum. 
Tb«ro  are  other  instances  in  which  Brewer  and  Charles  do  not  agre*. 
e.  ^.,  according  to  Brewer,  Bacon  speaks  of  Thomas  and  A!t'frt  a» 
puen  duorum  ordinum  ;  according  I"  Cliarlcs,  be  says,  primi  di^onnn 
ordinum  ;  a  discrepancy  not  unimporlBiil 


220 


BACON 


any  injunctions  trom  his  superiors,  to  wnte  out  aud  send 
to  him  a  treatise  on  the  sciences  which  he  had  abeady 
asked  of  him  when  papal  legate.  Bacon,  who  in  despair 
of  being  ever  able  to  communicate  his  results  to  the  world, 
had  neglected  to  compose  anything,  and  whose  previous 
writings  had  been  mostly  scattered  tracts,  capitula  qncedam, 
took  fresh  courage  from  this  command  of  the  Pope.  Rely- 
ing on  his  powerful  protection,  he  set  at  naught  the  many 
obstacles  thrown  in  his  way  by  the  jealousy  of  his  superiors 
and  brother  friars,  and  Respite  the  want  of  funds,  instru- 
ments, materials  for  copying,  and  skilled  copyists,  com- 
pleted in  about  eighteen  months  three  large  treatises,  the 
0/IU3  Majus,  Opus  Minus,  and  Opus  Tertium,  which,  with 
some  other  tracts,  were  despatched  to  the  Pope  by  the 
hands  of  one  Joannes,  a  young  man  trained  and  educated 
with  great  care  by  Bacon  himself. 

The  composition  of  such  extensive  works  in  so  short  a 
time  is  a  marvellous  feat  We  do  not  know  what  opinion 
Clement  formed  of  them,  but  before  his  death  he  seems  to 
have  bestirred  himself  on  Bacon's  behalf,  for  in  1268  the 
latter  was  released  and  permitted  to  return  to  Oxford. 
Uere  he  continued  his  labours  in  experimental  science,  and 
also  in  the  composition  of  complete  treatises.  The  works 
sent  to  Clement  he  regarded  as  mere  preliminaries,  laying 
dowu  principles  which  were  afterwards  to  be  applied  to 
the  several  sciences.  The  first  part  of  an  encyclopaedic 
work  probably  remains  to  us  in  the  Compendium  Studii 
Philosophice,  belonging  to  the  year  1271.  In  this  work 
Bacon  makes  a  vehement  attack  upon  the  ignorance  and 
vices  of  the  clergy  and  monks,  and  generally  upon  the  in- 
eufHciency  of  the  existing  studies.  In  1278  he  underwent 
the  punishment  which  seems  to  have  then  been  the  natural 
consequence  of  outspoken  opinions.  His  books  were  con- 
demned by  Jerome  de  Ascoli,  general  of  the  Franciscans, 
a  gloomy  bigot,  who  afterwards  became  Pope,  and  the  un- 
fortunate philosopher  was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he 
remained  for  fourteen  years.  During  this  time,  it  is  said, 
ha  wTOte  the  small  tract  De  Retardandis  Senedutis  Acci- 
denlibus,  but  this  is  merely  a  tradition.  In  1292,  as  ap- 
pears from  what  is  probably  his  latest  composition,  the 
Compendium  SCudii  Theologiae,  he  was  again  at  liberty. 
The  exact  time  of  his  death  cannot  be  determined;  1294 
is  probably  as  accurate  a  date  as  can  be  fixed  upon. 

Bacon's  Works. — Lelaud  has  said  that  it  is  easier  to  col- 
lect the  leaves  of  the  Sibyl  than  the  titles  of  the  works 
written  by  Roger  Bacon  ;  and  though  the  labour  has  been 
somewhat  lightened  by  the  publications  of  Brewer  and 
Charles,  referred  to  below,  it  is  no  easy  matter  even  now  to 
form  an  accurate  idea  of  his  actual  productions,  flis  writ- 
ings, so  far  as  known  to  us,  niay  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
those  yet  in  manuscript  and  those  printed.  An  enormous 
number  of  MSS.  are  known  to  exist  in  British  and  French 
libraries,  and  probably  all  have  not  yet  been  discovered. 
Many  are  transcripts  of  works  or  portions  of  works  already 
published,  and  therefore  require  no  notice.  Of  the  others, 
several  are  of  first-rate  value  for  the  comprehension  of 
B.icon's  philosophy,  and,  though  extracts  frum  them  have 
been  given  by  Charles,  it  is  clear  that  till  they  have  found  an 
editor,  no  representation  of  his  philosophy  can  be  complete.' 

The  works  hitherto  printed  (neglecting  reprints)  are  the 
following  : — (1.)  Speculum  Alchimim,  ISil — translated 
into  English,   1597;  (2.)  De  Miralili  Potcslate  Artis  et 

'  The  TOoro  important  MSS.  are  : — fl.)  Tho  eitcn.'sivo  work  on  the 
fondamenta!  notions  of  phyHics,  called  Communia  Naturalium,  which 
ts  found  in  Iho  Mazarin  Library  at  Paris,  in  the  British  Mnnpum,  and 
in  the  Bodloiftn  and  University  College  Libraries  at  Oxford  ;  (2)  On 
the  fundamental  nnlinns  of  mathematics,  De  Communihus  Mathfinaticir, 
part  of  wlu<h  is  in  llio  Sloano  collection,  part  In  the  nodleian  ;  (.3.) 
llacor.u  Phyinca,  contained  among  tho  athlition&l  MSS  in  the  British 
Muso'ia  ,  (4.)  The  fragment  called  Quinta  Pars  Comptridii  TheoloQur, 


Nuturce,l5i2 — English  translation,  1659,  (i.)  LibdUidj  %,^a 
Retardandis  Senedutis  Accidentibus,  1590 — translated  aa 
the  "Cure  of  Old  Age,"  1683;  (i.)  Saniaris , Medicines 
Magistri  D.  Rogeri  Baconis  Anglia  de  Arte  Chymice  Scripta, 
1603 — a  collection  of  small  tracts  containing  Excerpta  dt 
Libra  AvicenncB  de  Anima,  Breve  Breviarium,  Verbum 
Abbreviatum,^  Secrdum  Secretwum,  Tractalus  Tnum  Yer 
borum,  and  Speculum  Secretorum ;  (5.)  Perspediva,  1614, 
which  is  the  fifth  part  of  the  Opus  Majus ,  (6. )  Specula 
Maihematica,  which  is  the  fourth  part  of  the  same  ;  (7  ) 
Opus  Majus  ad  Clementem  IV.,  edited  by  Jebb,  1733  . 
(8.)  Opera  hactenus  Inedita,  by  J  S.  Brewer,  1859,  coi. 
taiuing  the  Opus  Tertium,  Opus  Minus,  Compendium  St>id. 
Philosophice,  and  the  De  Secrdis  Operibus  Natures. 

How  these  works  stand  related  to  one  another  -can  onlj 
be  determined  by  internal  evidence,  and  this  is  a  somewhat 
hazardous  method.  The  smaller  works,  which  are  chiefly 
on  alchemy,  are  unimportant,  ^nd  the  dates  of  their  com- 
position cannot  be  ascertained.  It  is  known  that  before 
the  Opus  Majus  Bacon  had  already  written  some  tracts, 
among  which  an  unpublished  work,  Computus  ii aturaliun; 
on  chronology,  belongs  probably  to  the  year  1^63  ,  while, 
if  the  dedication  of  the  De  Secrdis  Operibus  be  authentic, 
that  short  treatise  must  have  been  composed  before  1249. 

It  is,  however,  with  the  Opus  Majus  that  Bacon's  real 
activity  begins.  That  great  work,  which  has  been  called 
by  ^^^lewell  at  once  the  Encyclopedia  and  the  Organum 
of  the  13th  century,  requires  a  much  fuller  notice  than 
can  here  be  given.  As  published  by  Jebb  it  consists 
of  six  parts ;  there  should,  however,  be  a  seventh,  De 
Morali  Philosophia,  frequently  referreii  to  in-  the  Opvi 
Tertium^  Part  L  (pp.  1-22),  which  is  sometimes  desig- 
nated De  Utilitate  Scientiarum,  treats  of  the  four  offenJi- 
cula,  or  causes  of  error.  These  are,  authority,  custom,  the 
opinion  of  the  unskilled  many,  and  the  concealment  of  real 
ignorance  with  show  or  pretence  of  knowledge.  The  last 
error  is  the  most  dangerous,  and  is,  in  a  sense,  the  causo 
of  all  the  others.  The  offendicula  have  sometimes  been 
looked  upon  as  an  anticipation  of  the  more  celebrated  doc- 
trine of  Idola  ;  the  two  classifications,  however,  have  little 
in  common.  In  the  summary  of  this  part,  contained  in 
the  Opus  Tertium,  Bacon  shows  very  clearly  his  perception 
of  the  unity  of  science,  and  the  necessity  of  an  encyclo- 
pcedical  treatment  "  Nam  omncs  scientia;  sunt  annexes, 
et  mutuis  se  fovent  auxiliis,  sicut  partes  ejusdem  ♦otius, 
quaruni  quEe'.ibet  ppus  suum  peragit,  non  solum  propter  ;^ 
sed  pro  aliis." — {Op.  Ined.,  p.  18.) 

Part  II.  (pp.  23-43)  treats  of  the  relation  between  pliilo- 
sophy  and  theology  All  true  wisdom  is  contained  in  the 
Scriptures,  at  least  implicitly ;  and  the  true  end  of  philo- 
sophy is  to  rise  from  the  imperfect  knowdedge  of  created 
things  to  a  knowledge  of  the  Creator.  Ancient  philo- 
sophers, who  had  not  the  Scriptures,  received  direct  illu- 
mination from  God,  and  only  thus  can  the  brilliant  results 
attained  by  them  be  accounted  for. 

Part  III  (pp.  44-57)  treats  of  the  utility  of  grammar, 
and  tho  ucccssiiy  of  a  true  lingxustic  science  for  the  adc 
quate  comprehension  cither  of  the  Scriptures  or  of  bo61i> 
on  philosophy.  The  necessity  of  accurate  acquaintanct 
with  any  foreign  language,  and  of  obtaining  good  texts,  is  e 
subject  Bacon  is  never  weary  of  descanting  upon.  He  laya 
down  very  clearly  tho  requisites  of  a  good  transktor ,  hf 
should  know  thoroughly  the   language  he   is  translating 


In  the  Brit  Mus  ,  (6)  the  Mfln]>hysua,  in  tho  Bibliotb  Irop«r  «l 
I'jris  ;  (B  )  The  Compendium  Sttiiiii  Theuloyice,  in  the  Brit  Mtia  ;  (7^) 
The  logical  fragments,  such  n.s  tho  Summa  liiftlectice^g.  in  the  Bodleian, 
and  the  glosses  upon  Aristotle's  physics  and  rartaphy.sics  in  the  Ubrirj 
at  Amiens 

'  At  the  close  of  the  Verb.   Abbrev   Is  a  curious  note,  concluding 
with  the  words,  "  *vm  fictjerut  fuit  dlscyyvliw  frntrni  Atht'rtit' 


BACON 


221 


from,  the  language  into  which  he  is  translating,  and  the 
subject  of  which  the  book  treats. 

Part  IV.  (57-255)  contains  an  elaborate  treatise  on 
mathematics,  "  the  alphabet  of  philosophy,"  and  on  its 
importance  in  science  and  theology.  Bacon  shows  at  great 
length  that  all  the  sciences  rest  ultimately  on  mathematics, 
and  progresa  only  when  their  facts  can  be  subsumed  under 
mathematical  principles.  This  singularly  fruitful  thought 
ho  exemplifies  and  illustrates  by  showing  how  geometry 
is  applied  to  the  action  of  natural  bodies,  and  demonstrat- 
ing by  geometrical  figures  certain  laws  of  physical  forces. 
He  also  shows  how  bis  method  may  be  used  to  determine 
Bomo  curious  and  long-discussed  problems,  such  as  the  light 
of  the  stars,  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide,  the  motion  of 
the  balance.  He  then  proceeds  to  adduce  elaborate  and 
sometimes  slightly  grotesque  reasons  tending  to  prove  that 
mathematical  knowledge  is  essential  in  theology,  and  closes 
this  section  of  his  work  with  two  comprehensive  sketches 
of  geography  and  astronomy.  That  on  geography  is  par- 
ticularly good,  and  is  interesting  as  having  been  read  by 
Columbus,  who  lighted  on  it  in  Petrus  de  Alliaco's  Imago 
Mundi,  and  was  strongly  influenced  by  its  reasoning. 

Part  V.  (pp.  256-307)  treats  of  perspective.  This  was 
the  part  of  his  work  on  which  Bacon  most  pj-ided  himself, 
and  in  it,  wo  may  add,  ho  seems  to  owe  most  to  the  Arab 
writers  Alkindi  and  Alhazcn.  The  treatise  opens  with  an 
able  sketch  of  psychology,  founded  upon,  but  in  some  im- 
portant respects  varj-ing  from,  Aristotle's  De  Anima.  The 
enatomy  of  the  eye  is  next  described ;  this  is  done  well 
ond  evidently  at  first  hand,  though  the  functions  of  the 
parts  are  not  given  with  complete  accuracy.  Many  other 
poiats  of  physiological  optics  are  touched  on,  in  general 
erroneously.  Bacon  then  discusses  very  fully  vision  in  a 
right  line,  the  laws  of  reflection  and  refraction,  and  the 
construction  of  mirrors  and  lenses.  -  In  this  part  of  the 
work,  as  in  the  preceding,  his  reasoning  depends  essentially 
upon  his  peculiar  view  of  natural  agents  and  their  activities, 
'lis  fundamental  physical  maxims  are  matter  and  force;  the 
/atter  ho  calls  virtus,  species,  imago  agenlis,  and  by  num- 
berless other  names.  Change,  or  any  natural  phenomenon, 
is  produced  by  the  impression  of  a  virtus  or  species  on 
matter — the  result  being  the  thing  known.  Physical  action 
is,  therefore,  impression,  or  transmission  of  force  in  lines, 
and  must  accordingly  be  explained  geometrically.  This  view 
of  nature  Bacon  considered  fundamental,  and  it  lies,  in- 
deed, at  the  root  of  his  whole  philosophy.  To  the  short 
notices  of  it  given  in  the  4th  and  5th  parts  of  the  Optis 
Majus,  ho  subjoined  two,  or  perhaps  three,  extended  ac- 
counts of  it.  V'e  possess  at  least  one  of  these  in  the  tract 
De  Muhiplicmione  Specierum,  printed  as  part  of  the  Opu-i 
Afqjus  by  Jebb  (pp.  358-444).  Wo  cannot  do  more  than 
refer  to  Charles  for  discussions  as  to  how  this  theory  of 
nature  is  connected  with  the  metaphysical  problems  of  foice 
ond  matter,  with  the  logical  doctrine  of  unisersals,  and  in 
general  with  Bacon's  theory  of  knowledge. 

Part  VL  (pp.  445-477)  troots  of  experimental  science, 
"  domina  omnium  scientiarum."  There  are  two  methods  of 
knowledge :  the  one  by  argument,  the  other  by  experience. 
Mere  argument  is  never  sufficient ;  it  may  decide  a  ques- 
tion, but  gives  no  satisfaction  or  certainty  to  the  mind, 
which  can  only  be  convinced  by  immediate  inspection  or 
intuition.  Now  this  is  what  experience  gives.  But  experi- 
ence is  of  two  sorts,  external  and  internal :  the  first  is  that 
usually  called  experiment,  but  it  can  give  no  complete 
knowledge  even  of  corporeal  things,  much  less  of  spiritual 
On  the  other  hand,  in  inner  experience  the  mind  is  illu- 
minated by  the  divine  truth,  and  of  this  supernatural  en- 
lightenment there  are  seven  gmdcs. 

Experimental  science^  which  in  the  Op'it  TeHium  (p. 
*6)  is  distinguished  from  the  speculative  sden  03.a.nd  the 


operative  arts  in  a  way  thst  forcibly  reminds  us  of  Francis 
Bacon,  iisaid  to  have  three  pc3X prerogatives  over, 'ill  other 
sciences : — (1.)  It  verifies  their  conclusions  by  direct  experi- 
ment; (2.)  It  discovers  truths  which  they  could  never  reach; 
(3.)  It  investigates  the  secrets  of  nature,  and  opens  to  us 
a  knowledge  of  past  and  future.  As  an  instance  of  his 
method,  Bacon  gives  an  investigation  into  the  nature  and 
cause  of  the  rainbow,  which  is  really  a  very  fine  specimen 
of  inductive  research. 

The  seventh  part  of  the  Opus  Majus,  not  given  in  Jebb's 
edition,  is  noticed  at  considerable  length  in  the  Opus  Ter- 
lium  (cap.  xiv.)  Extracts  from  it  are  given  by  Charles, 
(pp.  339-348). 

As  has  been  seen.  Bacon  had  no  sooner  finished  this 
elaborate  work  than  he  began  to  prepare  a  summary  to  be 
sent  along  with  it.  Of  this  summary,  or  Opus  Minus,  part 
has  come  down  and  is  published  in  Brewer's  Op.  Ined. 
(313-3S9),  from  what  appears  to  be  the  only  MS.  The 
work  was  intended  to  contain  an  abstract  of  the  Opus 
Majus,  an  aocount  of  the  principal  vices  of  theology,  and 
treatises  on  speculative  and  •  practical  alchemy.  At  the 
same  time,  or  immediately  after,  Bacon  began  a  third  work 
as  a  preamble  to  the  other  two,  giving  their  general  scope 
and  aim,  but  supplementing  them  in  many  points.  The 
part  of  this  work,  generally  called  Opus  I'ertium,  is  printed 
by  Brewer  (pp.  1-310),  who.  considers  it  to  be  a  complete 
treatise.  Charles,  however,  has  given  good  grounds  for 
.supposing  that  it  is  merely  a  preface,  and  that  the  work 
went  on  to  discuss  grammar,  logic  (which  Bacon' thought 
of  Little  service,  as  reasoning  was  innate),  mathematics, 
general  physics,  metaphysics,  and  moral  philosophy.  He 
founds  his  argument  mainly  on  passages  in  the  Communia 
Naturalium,  which  indeed  prove  distinctly  that  it  was  sent 
to  Clement,  and  cannot,  therefore,  form  part  of  the  Com- 
pendium, as  Brewer  seems  to  think.  It  must  be  confessed, 
however,  that  nothing  can  well  be  more  confusing  than  the 
references  in  Bacon's  works,  and  it  seems  well-nigh  hope- 
less to  attempt  a  complete  arrangement  of  them  until  the 
texts  have  been  collated  and  carefully  printed. 

All  these  large  works  Bacon  appears  to  have  looked  on  as 
preliminaries,  introductions,  leading  to  a  great  work  which 
should  embrace  the  principles  of  all  the  sciences.  This  great 
work,  which  is  perhaps  the  frequently  referred  to  Liber  Sex 
Scientiarum,  he  began,  and  a  few  fragments  still  indicate  its 
outline.  First  appears  to  have  come  the  treatise  now  called 
^Compendium Studii  Pkilosophi(t{BKV(iT,  pp.  393-519), con- 
taining an«ccount  of  the  causes  of  error,  and  then  entering 
at  length  upon  grammar.  After  that,  apparently,  logic 
was  to  be  treated  ;  then,  possibly,  mathematics  and  physics ; 
then  speculative  alchemy  and  experimental  science.  It  is, 
however,  very  difficult,  in  the  present  state  of  our  know- 
ledge of  the  MSS.,  to  hazard  even  conjectures  as  to  the  con- 
tents and  nature  of  this  last  and  most  comprehensive  work. 

Bacon's  fame  in  popular  estimation  has  always  rested 
on  his  mechanical  discoveries.  Careful  research  has 
shown  that  very  little  in  this  department  can  with  accuracy 
bo  ascribed  to  him.  He  certainly  describes  a  method  of 
constructing  a  telescope,  but  not  so  as  to  lead  one  to  con- 
clude that  he  was  in  possession  of  that  instrument.  Gun- 
powder, the  invention  of  which  has  been  claimed  for  him 
on  the  groilnd  of  a  passage  in  his  works,  which  fairly  in- 
terpreted at  once  disposes  of  any  such  claim,  was  olrcady 
known  to  the  Arabs.  Burning-glasses  were  in  common 
use,  and  spectacles  it  does  not  appear  he  made,  although 
he  was  probably  acquainted  with  the  principle  of  their  con- 
struction. His  wonderful  predictions  (in  the  De  Secretis) 
must  be  taken  cum  grano  satis  ;  and  it  is  not  to  be  for- 
gotten that  he  believed  in  astrology,  in  the  doctrine  of 
signatures,  and  in  the  philosopher's  stone,  and  imev  that 
the  circle  bad  been  squared. 


222 


B  A  C  — B  A  C 


The  best  work  on  Roger  Bacon  is  undoubtedly  that  of  E.  Charles, 
Roger  Bacon,  sa  Vie,  ses  Oavragfs,  scs  Doctriius  dCapris  des  textrs  in- 
idits,  1S61.  Against  the  somewhat  enthusiastic  estimate  and  modern 
interpretation  given  in  this  work,  Schneider  in  h\s  Roger  Baccn,  Eine 
Monographie,  Augsburg,  1873,  has  reclaimed.  He  points  out  very 
clearly  certain  aspects  in  which  Bacon  appears  as  a  mere  scholastic. 
The  new  matter  contained  in  the  publications  of  Charles  and  Brewer 
was  summarised  by  H.  Siebert,  Roger  Bacon :  Inaugural  DissertaMon, 
Marburg,  1861.  Cf.  also,  J.  K.  Ingram,  On  the  0pu3  Majus  of 
Bacon,  Dublin,  1858  ;  Cousin,  Fragments,  Phil,  du  iloyen  Age  (re- 
printed from  Journal  dea  Savans,  1848)  ;  Salsset,  PrScurseurs  el 
Disciples  de  Descartes,  pp.  1-58  (reprinted  from  Revue  de  Deux 
Umdes,  1861);  Prantl,  Gesch.  der  Logik,  iii.  120-129  (a  severe  criti- 
cism of  Bacon's  logical  doctrines).  (R-  AX).) 

BACONTHORPE,  or  Bacon,  John,  called  The  Resolute 
iDoctor,  a  learned  mouk,  born  towards  the  end  of  the  13th 
century,  at  Baconthorpe,  a  village  in  Norfolli.  Aftef  spend- 
ing the  early  part  of  his  life  in  the  convent  of  Blakeney, 
near  Walsingham,  h,e  removed  to  Oxford,  and  from  that  city 
to  Paris,  where  he  obtained  great  reputation  for  his  learn- 
ing, and  was  esteemed  the  principal  of  the  Averroists.  In 
1329  he  returned  to  England,  and  was  chosen  twelfth  pro- 
vincial of  the  English  Carmelites.  In  1333  he  was  sent 
for  to  Rome,  where,  we  are  told,  he  first  maintained  the 
Pope's  sovereign  authority  in  cases  of  divorce;  but  this 
opinion  he  is  imderstood  to  have  afterwards  retracted.  He 
died  in  London  in  1346.  His  chief  work  was  published  in 
1510,  with  the  title  Dodoiis  reiolati  Joannis  Bacconia 
Anfflici  Carmelitce  radiantissimi  opus  super  quattuor  sen- 
ienliarum  libris,  4  vols,  folio;  it  has  passed  through  several 
editions.  The  little  that  is  known  of  this  schoolman,  who 
in  his  own  day  and  order  had  a  reputation  rivalling  that  of 
Thomas  Aquinas,  may  be  seen  in  Brucker,  Hisl.  Crit.,  iii. 
8G5;  Stijckl,  P^iV.  d.  Mitlel.  ii.  1044-5;  Haureau, /'Ai;. 
Scol,  iL  476  ;  Prantl,  Ges.  d.  Logik,  iii.  318. 

BACSiVNYI,  Janos,  a  Hungarian  poet,  was  born  at  Tapo- 
leza,  May  11,  17G3,  and  died  at  Linz,  May  12,  1845.  In 
1785  he  published  his  first  work,  a  patriotic  poem,  The  Valour 
of  the  Magyars.  In  the  same  year  he  obtained  a  situation 
B3  clerk  in  the  treasury  at  Kaschau,  and  there,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  other  two  Hungarian  patriots,  edited  the  Magyar 
Museum,  which  was  suppressed  by  the  Government  in  1792. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  deprived  of  his  clerkship ; 
and  in  1794,  having  taken  part  in  the  conspiracy  of  Bishop 
Martinovich,  he  was  thrown  into  the  state  prison  of  the 
Spielberg,  near  Briinn,  where  he  remained  for  two  years. 
After  his  release  he  took  a  considerable  share  in  the 
Magyar  Minerva,  a  literary  review,  and  then  proceeded  to 
Vienna,  where  he  obtained  a  post  in  the  bank,  and  married. 
In  1809  he  translated  Napoleon's  proclamation  to  the 
Magyars,  and,  in  consequence  of  this  anti- Austrian  act,  had 
to  take  refuge  in  Paris.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  he  was 
given  up  to  the  Austrians,  who  allowed  liim  to  reside  at 
Linz,  on  condition  of  never  leaving  that  town.  Ho  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  poems  at  Pesth,  1827  (second  edition, 
Buda,  1835),  and  also  edited  the  poetical  works  of  Anyos 
and  Faludi. 

BACTRIA,  orBACTRlANA,  an  ancient  country  of  Central 
Asia,  lying  to  the  south  of  the  River  Oxus,  and  reaching  to 
the  western  part  of  the  Paropamisan  range,  or  Hindu  Kush. 
It  was  sometimes  regarded  as  including  the  district  of 
Margiana,  or  Merv,  which  was  more  frequently  considered 
as  distinct.  The  character  of  the  country  is  very  various, 
and  has  been  well  described  by  Curtius,  whose  account  is 
confirmed  by  the  few  modern  travellers  who  have  passed 
through  it.  Some  portions  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty 
of  their  scenery,  or  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  evidenced  by 
a  rich  and  varied  vegrtation,  while  other  parts  are  stretcher 
of  barren  and  drifting  sands.  In  early  history  Bactria  is 
connnotcd  with  some  of  the  most  important  movements  of 
the  Indo-European  races,  and  has  no  small  claims  to  bo 
regarded  as  the  cndle  of  our  present  civilisation.     Accord- 


ing to  Persian  tradition,  it  became  the  seat  of  the  Iranian 
wanderers,  who  established  the  religion  of  Zoroaster,  and 
expelled  the  Vedic  inhabitants  of  the  country.  "  In  the  7tb 
century  B.C.  it  passed  under  the  dominion  of  the  Medes, 
and  not  long  after  formed  part  of  the  conquests  of  Cyrus. 
In  the  reign  of  Darius  it  ranked  as  the  twelfth  satrapy 
of  the  empire,  and  furnished  valuable  contingents  to  the 
imperial  army;  these  are  described  at  a  later  date  by 
Herodotus  as  wearing  the  Median  head-dress,  and  making 
use  of  theij  native  bows  and  short  spears.  Like  the  rest 
of  Western  Asia,  Bactria  was  subjugated  by  Alexander,  and 
formed  part  of  the  empire  of  the  Seleucids;  but  in  the  3d 
century  B.C.  it  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  independent 
kingdom  by  the  successful  revolt  of  Diadotus,  the  Greek 
satrap.  "There  thus  arose  a  remarkable  dynasty — if 
dynasty  it  can  be  called — of  Grseco-Bactrian  kings,  who 
have  been  the  object  of  much  modern  investigation,  but  are 
not  as  yet  arranged  in  any  satisfactory  order.  The  names 
of  seven  or  eight  of  them  are  known  from  the  Greek  and 
Roman  historians,  and  upwards  of  forty  are  preserved  on 
their  coins.  The  great  problem  to  be  solved  by  numisma- 
tists is  how  to  dispose  of  so  many  claimants  in  the  compara- 
tively iiarrow  space  of  time  at  their  disposal  It  is  highly 
probable  that  many  of  them  held  contemporaneous  sway 
in  different  parts  of  the  Bactrian  region,  sometimes  with  a 
distinct  preponderance  on  the  part  of  one,  and  sometimes 
with  practical  equilibrium  of  power  ;  but  their  geographical 
distribution  can,  only  be  conjectured  from  what  are  under- 
stood to  be  mint-marks  on  their  coins.  The  period  of  the 
final  disintegration  of  the  Graeco-Bactrian  power  is  not 
definitely  ascertained  ;  but  as  early  as  the  time  of  Eucratides 
(160  B.C.)  there  appears  on  the  coinage  the  so-called  Bac- 
trian tali,  a  language  cognate  with  Sanskrit  but  written 
in  characters  of  seemingly  Phoenician  origin.  Besides  these 
monetary  legends,  several  Bactrian  inscriptions  have  been 
recently  discovered,  among  the  most  important  cf  which 
are  the  "  Taxila"  copperplate,  which  has  furnished  the  key 
to  the  Bactrian  numeral  system,  the  Peshawur  vase,  the 
Manikyala  cylinder,  the  Bimaran  vase,  and  the  Wardak 
urn,  but  none  of  them  are  of  very  much  historical  value. 
Bactria  seems  to  have  passed  successively  under  the  power 
of  various  Saca  and  Parthian  and  so-called  Indo-Scythian 
rulers,  and  during  the  first  six  or  seven  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era  it  became  one  of  the  most  important  centres 
of  Buddhistic  monasticism.  (See  Balkh)  Its  modern 
history  is  of  but  little  importance,  as  it  has  never  formed 
an  independent  kingdom  of  any  power  or  stability. 

See  Bayer,  Eisl.  Reg.  Gracco-Bactr.,  Petrop.,  1738;  Kohler,  AM. 
grecgues  des  Rois  de  la  B.,  St  Pet.,  1822-3  ;  Tychscn,  Comm.  Recen. 
GMing.,  v.  vi. ;  Tod,  in  Roy.  Asint.  Soc.  Trans.,  1824  ;  Schlegel, 
in  Joum.  Asial.,  1828  j  Prinsep,  in  J.  of  Asiat.  Soe.  Bengal,  1833- 
88;  Raoul-Rochette,  in  Jour,  des  Savants,  1834-39  and  1844; 
Jacquct,  in  J.  Asiat.,  183G  ;  Masson,  in  J.  of  Asiat.  Soc.  Bejigal, 
1836;  K.  O.  Miillcr,  in  Gdtlingen  Amcigen,  1835  and  1838;  Mionnet, 
in  Suppliment  viii.  to  his  Discriplion,  itc,  1837;  Lassen.  Zur  Oesck, 
der  Griech.  u  Indoskyth.  KOn.,  Bonn,  1S38  ;  Grotefend,  Die  i/Unzen 
der  Kan.  v.  Bactr.,  Hanover,  1839  ;  Wilson,  Ariana  Antigua,  1841  ; 
Cunningham,  Numism.  Chron.,  viii.  1843;  Lassen,  Indxsdie  Alter- 
Ihmnskunde,  vol.  ii.,  1852  ;  Enhu  Rnjendra  Lai,  in  J.  Asiat.  Soc.  of 
Bengal,  1861 ;  E.  Thomas,  "  Bactrian  Coins,"  in  J.  Roy.  Asiat.  Soc 
Or.  Brit,  and  1 ,  1673;  Dowson,  "  B.  Pali  Inscr.,"  ibidem. 

BACUP,  a  town  of  England,  in  Lancashire,  20  miles  N- 
from  Mancliesler.  It  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  valley  on 
the  River  Spcddon,  and  is  a  station  on  the  East  Lancashire 
railway.  It  is  chiefly  important  for  its  factories,  foundries, 
and  mills,  as  well  as  for  the  coal-mines  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. Since  1841,  when  the  population  of  the  chapclry  was 
only  152G,  Bacup  has  rapidly  increased,  and  its  sanitary 
condition  has  been  greatly  improved  by  the  exertions  of  a 
local  board.  The  river  has  been  deepened  for  a  mile  above 
the  town,  and  a  water  supply  has  been  secured  by  mcansi 
of  a  reservoir  at  llifiher  Stacks.    There  are  two  Epbcc;'al 


B  A  D  — B  A  D 


223 


churcbes  and  several  dissjnting  places  of  worship,  a 
mechanics'  instituta  and  library,  and  various  other  institu- 
tions. A  new  inarkctliall  was  built  io  1S07.  Population 
of  Itrcal  buird  .listriet  in  1871,  17,199. 

BADAJOS,  a  province  of  Spain,  forming,  by  the  division 
of  1833,  the  southern  half  of  the  old  province  of  Estrema- 
dura,  or  what  is  generally  called  Lower  Estremadura.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Cacercs,  E.  by  Ciudad  Real,  S.  and 
S  E.  by  Cordova,  Seville,  and  Huelva,  and  W.  by  Portugal, 
embracing  an  areaof  8687  square  miles.  Seo  Estremadur*. 

Badajos,  the  capital  of  the  above  province,  is  a  fortified 
city,  and  the  see  of  a  bishop.  It  is  situated  about  5  miles 
from  the  Portuguese  frontier,  on  a  slight  elevation  near  the 
left  bank  of  the  Guadiana,  and  is  one  of  the  principal 
stations  on  the  railway  between  Madrid  and  Lisbon.  The 
height  is  crowned  by  the  ruins  of  a  Moorish  ca-stle.  A  strong 
wall  and  bastions,  with  a  broad  moat  and  outworks,  and  forts 
on  the  surrounding  heights,. make  the  city  a  place  of  great 
etrength.  The  river  is  crossed  by  a  magnificent  granite 
bridge,  originally  built  in  1-lGO,  repaired  in  1597,  and 
rebuilt  in  1833  The  city  is  well  built,  and  contains  an 
(irsenal,  a  cathedral,  built  like  a  fortress  and  bombproof, 
several  churches,  hospitals,  and  schools.  Its  monasteries  are 
all  secularised,  one  being  occupied  as  infantry  barracks;  and 
gome  of  its  nunneries  are  closed.  Badajos  was  finally  taken 
from  the  Moors  in  1235  by  Alphonso  IX  ,  and  from  its 
importance  as  n  frontier  garrison  has  since  been  the  scene 
of  numerous  sieges.  The  last  and  most  severe  was  in 
1812,  when  it  was  stormed  by  the  British  troops  under 
Wellington  and  carried  with  dreadful  loss.  The  town  "was 
delivered  up  to  a  two  days'  pillage.  It  had  been  surrendered 
the  previous  year  to  Soult  by  the  treachery  of  Imaz,  the 
commander  qi  the  garrison.  'The  trade  and  manufactures 
of  Badajos  are  considerable,  and  much  contraband  traffic  is 
carried  on  with  Portugal.  Badajos  is  the  birthplace  of  the 
painter  Luis  de  Morales  and  of  Manuel  Godoy.    Pop.  22,895. 

BADAKUSHAN,  a  country  of  Central  Asia,  situated  in 
the  upper  valley  of  the  Kokcha  river,  one  of  the  principal 
head  streams  of  the  0iu3.  .  The  name  has  bjon  variou.sly 
spelt  Badascian,  Balacian,  I5alakhshan,  Balaslixn,  Ralaxien 
and  Balaxia.  Including  Wakhan,  it  lies  ber^ecu  AS"  50' 
and  38°  N  lat.,  and  between  69°  30'  and  74°  20'  E.  long. 
The  chief  ascertained  positions  are  as  follows  :  FyizibAd, 
37°  2'  N.,  70'  36'  E.  ;  Ishkashm,  36°  45'  N  ,  71°  38'  E. ; 
Punja,  37°  5'  N.,  72°.39' E. ;  and  Karkat  YassLq  lake, 
37°  14'  N  ,  74°  18'  E.  Its  extent  from  east  to  west  is 
about  200  miles,  and  from  north  to  south  about  150  miles. 
On  the  north  it  is  bounded  by  Kulab  and  Darwaz  ;  on  the 
e.ist  by  the  lofty  table-land  of  Pamir ;  on  the  south  by  the 
Hindu  Kush  range ;  and  on  the  west  by  Kunduz.  The 
Pamir  land  is  the  .principal  watershed  of  Ajsia,  and 
Badakhshan  forms  part  of  the  western  water  slope  consti- 
tuting the  basin  of  the  Oxus.  The  country  is  for  the 
most  part  mountainous,  but  there  are  numerous  plains  and 
fertile  valleys.  The  general  slope  of  the  country  is  great, 
since  Kunduz  ia  probably  not  more  than  500  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  while  Lake  Victoria,  close  to  the  principal 
watershed,  is  estimated  at  15,600  feet. 

Badakhshan  comprises  1 6  districts.  The  principal  district 
called  Faizibid  is  under  the  rule  of  the  Mfr  Mahmiid 
Shah ,  the  others  are  dependencies  ruled  by  relatives  of  the 
Mfr,  or  by  hereditary  feudatories.  Each  ruler  is  inde- 
pendent, but  is  bound  to  aid  the  Mfr  of  FaizAbAd  in  time 
of  need.  The  Mfr  himself  pays  tribute  to  the  Amir  of 
Cabul.  The  other  districts  besides  FaizAbild  are  Daraim, 
Shahr-l-buzurq,  Gumbuz,Farakhar,  Kishm,  Rustak,  RushAn, 
ShighnAn,  IshkAshm,  WakhAn,  Zebak,  MinjAn.Ragh,  Daung, 
and  AsiAbA.  Each  district  has  its  subdivisions.  In  FaizA- 
bAd  there  are  several  fertile  tracts  ;  amongst  them  are  the 
billy  regions  of  Yaftal  and  Shewi.  which  are  thickly  popu- 


lated, the  former  by  Tajiks,  and  the  latter  by  Turks  of  the 
Jakha  Moghal  tribe  ;aud  the  plateaus  of  Argii^and  ShewA, 
of  which  the  former  ia  somewhat  higher  than  the  plain  of 
FaizAbAd,  about  15  miles  in  length  by  about  8  in  breadth, 
and  well  cultivated,  while  the  latter  is  stiU  higher,  and 
forms  the  best  and  largest  pasture  ground  in  Badakhshan. 
A  lake  named  Sir-ikol,  about  20  miles  in  circumference, 
is  situated  on  the  ShewA  plateau.  In  and  around  FaizAbAd 
there  are  numerous  excellent  fruit  and  flower  gardens;  the 
principal  manufactures  are  ..-st-iron  pots,  boots  and  shoes, 
and  a  material  woven  from  silk  and  cotton,  called  ilacha. 
The  district  of  Jirm,  also  subject  to  Mahmiid  Shah,  com- 
prises numerous  rich  valleys,  as  well  as  the  famous  miceuil 
region  called  Yamgan,  or  "  all  mines."  The  mines  vibIJ 
rubies,  lapis  lazuli,  lead,  alum,  sal-ammoniac,  sulphur, 
copper,  itc.  The  annual  yield  of  lapis  lazuli  averages 
.about  X1500,  which  is  sold  at  the  rate  of  seven  shU- 
liugs  per  pound;  it  is  exported  to  Russia,  Kashmir,  and  China. 
The  Dasht-Baha-rak  is  an  extensive  plain  in  this  district, 
on  which  was  formerly  situated  a  large  city,  once  the 
capital  of  Biwlakhshan.  There  are  several  villages  on  it,  as 
also  the  summer  residence  of  the  M(r.  The  caravan  route 
from  India  to  FaizAb.Ad  passes  over  this  plain.  The  districts 
of  Rustak,  Ragh,  Kishm,  Daraim,  and  Shahr-I-buzurg  are 
next  in  importance  as  regards  fertility  and  population. 
They  abound  in  fertile  hiila  and  plains.  The  principal 
cultivated  productsare  wheat,  rice,  Ctceran'i;^'n«m,P^<WTO/m 
Mungo,  cotton,  linseed,  poppy,  sesame,  apples,  grapes,  mul- 
berries (which  form  the  principal  article  of  food  in  these 
regions),  pears,  apricots,  walnuts,  melons,  gourds,  turnips, 
radishes,  carrots,  spinach,  leeks,  as  also  numerous  garden 
flowers  and  timber  trees.  The  districts  of  Minjan  and 
Rushan  are  more  mountainous,  have  a  cooler  climate,  and 
are  more  sparsely  populated  than  the  foregoing.  Their 
inhabitants  are  also  distinct,  differing  in  physical  features, 
creed,  language,  and  habits.  The  celebrated  ruby  mines  are 
in  Ishkashm;  they  have  not  been  worked  for  more  than  30 
years,  except  temporarily  in  1 86C.  It  is,  however,  suspected 
that  they  are  worked  surreptitiously  by  the  people.  They 
yield  the  well-known  Balas  (i.e.,  Badakhshan)  ruby. 

The  principal  domesticated  animal  is  the  yak.  There  are 
also  large  flocks  of  sheep,  cows,  goats,  ponies,  numeroui- 
fine  dogs,  and  Bactrian  camels.  The  more  important  wiU 
animals  are  a  large  wild  sheep  (Ovispoli),  foxes,  wolves, 
jackals,  bears,  boars,  deer,  and  lions;  amongst  birds,  there 
are  partridges,  pheasants,  ravens,  jaya,  Sparrows,  larks,  a 
famous  breed  of  hawks,  itc. 

Badakhshan  proper  is  peopled  by  Tajiks,  Turks,  and 
Arabs,  who  speak  the  Persian  and  Turki  languages,  and 
profess  the  orthodox  doctrines  of  the  Mahometan  law 
adopted  by  the  Sunnite  sect ;  while  the  mountainous 
districts  are  inhabited  by  Tajiks,  professing  the  Shia  creed, 
and  speaking  distinct  dialects  in  different  districts. 

Badakhshan  was  visited  by  Hwen  Thsang  in  G30  and 
644.  The  Arabian  geographers  of  the  10th  century  speak  of 
its  mines  of  ruby  and  azure,  and  give  notices  of  the 
flourishing  commerce  and  large  towns  of  Watshand  Khotl, 
regions  which  appear  cither  to  have  in  part  corresponded 
with  or  to  have  lain  close  to  Badakhshan.»  In  1272-73 
Marco  Polo  and  his  companions  stayed  for  a  time  in  Badakh- 
shaa  During  this  and  the  follo\ving  centuries  the  country 
was  governed  by  kings  who  claimed  to  be  descendants 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  last  of  these  kings  was  Shab 
Mahomet,  who  died  in  the  middle  of  the  15th  century, 
leaving  only  his  married  daughters  to  represent  the^  royal 
line.  Early  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  the  Uzbeks 
obtained  possession  of  Badakhshan,  but  were  soon  expelled, 
and  then  the  country  was  generally  governed  by  descend- 
ants of  the  old  royal  dynasty  by  the  female  line.  About 
the  middle  of  the    18th   century  the   present  djniasly   of 


224 


B  A  D  — B  A  D 


Mirs  established  its  footing  in  p.ace  of  the  old  one  which 
had  become  extinct.  In  1765  the  country  was  invaded 
and  ravaged  by  the  ruler  of  Cabul.  During  the  first  three 
decades  of  the  present  century  it  was  overrun  and  depopu- 
lated by  Kokan  Beg  and  his  son  Murad  Beg,  chiefs  of  the 
Kataghan  Uzbeks  of  Kundus.  The  country  was  still 
suffering  from  these  disasters  when  Wood  visited  it  in 
1837.  When  Murad  Beg  died,  the  power  passed  into  the 
hands  of  another  Uzbek,  Mahomet  Amir  Khan.  In  1859 
the  Kataghan  Uzbeks  were  expelled;  and  Mfr  Jahander 
Shah,  the  representative  of  the  modem  royal  line,  was 
reinstated  at  Faizdbid  under  the  supremacy  of  the 
Afghans.  In  18C7  he  was  expelled  by  the  Afghans  and 
replaced  by  the  present  ruler,  Mir  Mahomet  Shah,  and 
other  representatives  of  the  same  family.  According  to 
the  latest  accounts  the  country  was  reviving  from  its  past 
misfortunes,  and  the  towns  were  again  rising.  Badakh- 
shan  owes  part  of  its  prosperity  to  the  baneful  traffic  in 
slaves.  A  strong  man  is  considered  a  fair  exchange  for 
a  large  dog  or  horse,  and  a  fine  girl  for  about  four  bor.ies. 
The  district  is  of  some  political  interest  in  connection  with 
the  frontier  line  of  Afghanistan,  which  has  recently  been 
the  subject  of  discussion  between  the  Russian  and  British 
Governments. 

In  1867  a  report  on  Badakhshau  was  drawn  up  by  the  Pundit 
Mun-phool  after  a  sojourn  of  two  or  three  years  in  the  country. 
For  further  information,  see  the  Book  o/ Ser  Marco  Polo,  vo\.  i.  1871, 
edited  by  Col.  Yule  ;  A  Journey  to  the  Source  of  the  River  Orus,  by 
Capt.J.  Wood,  edition  of  1872  ;"  Report  on  the  Mirza's  Exploration 
from  Cabal  to  Kashgar,"  by  Major  Montgomerie,  in  the  Journal 
of  Roy.  Geo.  Soc,"  voL  xli.  p.  132  ;  "A  Harildar's  joarney  through 
Ohitral  to  Faizabad  in  1870,"  by  Major  Montgomerie,  in  journal  last 
mentioned,  vol.  xlii.  p.  180  ;  *'  Papers  connected  with  the  Upper 
Oxus  Regions,"  by  Col.  Yule,  in  thesame  volume,  p.  438;  "Monograph 
on  the  Oius,"  by  Maj.-Gen.  Sir  H.  C.  Rawlinson,  in  the  san)© 
volume,  p.  482  ;  and  a  paper  by^ the  writer  last  mentioned,  "On 
Badakhsnan  and  Wakhin,"  in  the  Proceedingt  <y[  the  Roy.  Oeog. 
tioc.,  vol.  xvii.  p.  108. 

BADALOCCHIO,  Sisto,  sumamed  Rosa,  a  painter  and 
engraver,  was  bom  at  Parma  in  1581,  and  died  in  1641  or 
1647.  He  was  of  the  school  of  Anuibale  Carracci,  by 
whom  he  was  highly  esteemed  for  design.  His  principtJ 
engravings  are  the  series  known  as  77u  Bible  of  Raffaelle, 
which  were  executed  by  him  in  conjunction  with  Lanfranc, 
another  pupil  of  Carracci's.  The  best  of  his  paintings, 
which  are  few  in  number,  are  at  Parma. 

BADEN,  The  Grand  Duchy  of,  is  situated  in  the  S.W. 
of  Germany,  between  47°  32'  and  49°  52'  N.  lat.,  and  be- 
tween 7°  27'  and  9°  50'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  Bavaria  and  Hesse  Darmstadt;  W.  by  Rhenish  Bavaria, 
Alsace,  and  Lorraine;  S.  by  Switzerland;  and  E.  by 
Wiirtemberg  and  part  of  Bavaria.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  present  century  Baden  was  only  a  raargraviate,  with 
an  area  little  exceeding  1300  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  210,000.  Since  then  it  has  from  time  to  time 
acquired  additional  territory,  so  that  its  area  now  amounts 
to  upwards  of  5800  Jjuaro  miles,  and  its  population  to 
nearly  a  million  and  a  half. 

It  consists  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  eastern  half 
of  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Rhine,  and  of  the  mountains 
which  form  its  boundary.  The  mountainous  part  is  by  far 
the  most  extensive,  forming,  indeed,  nearly  80  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  area.  From  the  Lake  of  Constance  in  the  south 
to  the  River  Neckar  is  a  portion  of  the  so-called  Black 
Forest  or  Schwarzwald,  which  is  divided  by  the  valley  of 
the  Kinzig  into  two  districts  of  different  elevation.  To  the 
south  of  the  Kinzig  the  mean  height  is  3100  feet,  and  the 
loftiest  summit,  the  Feldberg,  reaches  about  4780  feet ;  while 
to  the  north  the  mean  height  is  only  2100  feet,  and  the 
Belchen,  the  culminating  point  of  the  whole,  docs  not  ex- 
ceed 4480.  To  the  north  of  the  Neckar  is  the  Odenwald 
wnge.-with  a  mean  of  1440  feet,  and,  in  the  Katzcnbueke), 


an  extreme  of  1980.  Lying  oetween  the  Tlhiue  and  the 
Dreisam  is  the  Kaiserstuhl,  an  independent  volcanic  group, 
nearly  10  miles  in  length  and  6  in  breadth,  the  highest 
point  of  which  is  1760  feet. 


Sketch  Map  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden. 
The  greater  part  of  Baden  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the 
Rhine,  which  receives  upwards  of  twenty  tributaries 
from  the  highlands  of  the  duchy  alone  ;  a  portion  of  the 
territory  is  also  watered  by  the  Main  and  the  Neckar.  A 
part,  however,  of  the  eastem  slope  of  the  Black  Forest 
belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Danube,  which  there  takes  its 
rise  in  a  number  of  mountain  streams.  Among  the  numer- 
ous lakes  which  belong  to  the  duchy  are  the  Mummel, 
Wilder,  Nonnenmattweiher,  Titti,  Eichener,  Schluch,  <tc., 
but  none  of  them  are  of  any  size.  The  Lake  of  Constance, 
or  Boden  See,  belongs  partly  to  Bavaria  and  Switzerland. 

(I  From  1819  to  1832  Baden  was  divided  into  six  circles, 
which  were  reduced  in  the  latter  year  to  the  four  follow- 
ing : — The  Lake  Circle  or  Constance,  the  Upper  Rhine  or 
Freiburg,  the  Middle  Rhine  or  Carlsruhe,  and  the  Lower 
Rhine  or  Manheira.  This  division,  though  still  employed, 
has  been  legally  supplanted  by  one  into  the  eleven  circles 
of  Constance,  Villingen,  WaUlshut,  Freibnrg,  Lorrach, 
Offenburg,  Baden,  Carslruhe,  Manhcim,  Heidelberg,  and 
Mosbach.  The  capital  of  the  duchy  is  Carlsraho,  which  in 
1871  had  a  population  of  36,582;  the  other  principal  towns 
are  Manheim  (39,614),  Freiburg  (24,599),  Heidelberg 
(19,988),  Pforzheim  (19,801),  Rastadt  (11,559),  Baden 
(10,083),  Constance  (10,052),  Bruchsal  (9786),  and 
Lahr  (6710).  The  population  is  most  thickly  clustered  in 
the  north  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Swiss  town  of 
Basel. 

,  The  mineral  wealth  of  Baden  is  not  very  great ;  but  the 
mines  of  Oberwcrt,  Kandern,  ifec,  produce  excellent  iron  ; 
there  are  two  zinc  mines  and  one  of  lead  ;  coal  is  worked 
at  Dicsburg,  Zunsweicr,  Baden,  A'c.  ;  and  silver,  copper, 
gold,  cobalt,  ahim  vitriol,  and  suljihur  are  also  obtained  in 
small  quantities.  Gold  washing,  at  one  time  extensively 
carried  on  along  the  Rhine,  is  now  little  practised.  Pent 
is  found  in  abundance,  as  well  fts  gj'psum,  china-clay,  and 


BADEN 


225 


potter's  earth.  Theduchy  was  formerly  dependent  on  France 
for  its  salt  supply,  but  extensive  salt  works  have  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  been  maintained  by  the  Government  at  Durr- 
heim  and  Rappenau.  In  1874  the  amount  produced  was 
of  the  value  of  j£54,S80.  Tha  mineral  springs  of  Baden 
are  very  numerous,  and  have  acquired  great  celebrity, — 
those  of  Baden-Baden,  Badenwciler,  Antogast,  Griesbach, 
Friersbach,  and  Petersthal,  being  the  most  frequented. 

The  inhabitants  of  Baden  are  of  various  origin, — those 
to  the  N.  of  the  Murg  being  descended  from  the  Alemanni, 
and  those  to  the  S.  from  the  Franks,  while  the  Swabian 
plateau  derives  its  name  and  its  popukition  from  another 
race.  This  distinction  is  still  marked  in  the  manners,  the 
language,  and  the  dress  of  the  different  districts.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  people  are  engaged  in  agricultural  and  pastoral 
pursuits,  for  which  much  of  the  country  is  well  adapted. 
la  the  valleys  the  soil  is  particularly  fertile,  yielding 
luxuriant  crops  of  wheat,  maize,  barley,  spelt,  beans, 
potatoes,  flax,  hemp,  hops,  beet-root,  and  tobacco  ;  and 
even  in  the  more  mountainous  parts  rye,  wheat,  and  oats 
are  extensively  cultivated.  There  is  a  considerable  extent 
of  pasture  land,  and  the  rearing  of  cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  and 
goats  is  largely  attended  to.  The  culture  of  the  vine  has 
recently  been  increasing,  and  the  wines,  which  are  charac- 
terised by  a  mildness  of  flavour,  are  in  good  demand. 
The  gardens  and  orchards  supply  abundance  of  fruits, 
especially  almonds  and  walnuts  ;  and  the  keeping  of  bees 
is  common  throughout  the  country.  A  greater  proportion  of 
Baden  than  of  any  other  of  the  South  German  states  is 
occupied  by  forests.  In  thcso  the  predominant  species 
aro  the  fir  and  pine,  but  many  others,  such  as  the  chestnut, 
are  well  represented.  A  third,  at  least,  of  the  annual 
supply  of  timber  is  exported,  the  chief  consumer  being 
Holland,  though  of  late  years  Paris  has  derived  a  con- 
siderable supply  from  this  source. 

The  manufactures  of  Baden  were  formerly  vtry  insig- 
nificant, but  have  greatly  increased  since  its  accession  to 
the  Zollverein  in  1835.  They  are,  however,  chiefly  con- 
fined to  iron  and  hardware  goods,  and  the  spinning 
and  weaving  of  cotton.  The  latter  industry  is  principally 
carried  on  at  Ettlingen,  Offenburg,  St  Blaise,  Zell, 
Schopfheim ;  Maoheim  has  an  extensive  manufacture  of 
mirrors,  and  Carlsruhe  of  machines  ;  while  Pforzheim  is 
famous  for  its  production  of  jewellery  and  goldsmiths' 
work.  Beet-root  sugar  is  manufactured  at  W.ighausel  more 
brgcly  than  anywhere  else  in  Germany.  Paper,  leather, 
and  tobacco  are  also  important  objects  of  industry.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  Black  Forest  have  long  been  celebrated 
for  their  dexterity  in  the  manufacture  of  wooden  orna- 
ments and  toys,  watches,  clocks,  musical  boxes,  organs, 
4c.  Of  clocks  alone  about  600,000  are  made  every 
year. 

The  exports  of  Baden,  which  coincide  largely  with  the 
industries  just  mentioned,  are  of  considerable  import- 
ance, but  the  bulk  of  its  trade  consists  in  the  transit  of 
goods.  The  country  is  well  furnished  with  roads  and 
railways,  the  greater  proportion  of  the  latter  being  in  the 
hands  of  the  state.  A  line  runs  the  whole  length  of  the 
land,  for  the  most  part  parallel  with  the  Rhine,  while 
branches  cross  obliquely  from  east  to  west. 

The  educational  instil«itions  of  Baden  are  numerous  and 
flourishing,  and  public  instruction  is  largely  subsidised  by 
the  Government.  There  are  two  universities,  the  Protestant 
one  at  Heidelberg,  founded  in  1386,  and  the  Catholic  one 
at  Freiburg,  founded  in  1457.  The  library  at  Heidelberg 
numbers  150,000  volumes,  and  that  at  Freiburg  100,000, 
while  there  is  another  of  almost  equal  size  at  Carisruhe 
There  are  8Ls<^Iyccum3  at  Carlsruhe,  Constance,  Freiburg, 
Heidelberg,  Manheim,  Rastadt,  and  Wertheim  ;  several 
eymuisiums ,  normal  schoob  at  CarUruhe,  Ettlingen,  and 
»— 10 


Meersburg,  besides  upwards  of  2000  common  schools  estab- 
lished ihroughuut  the  country.  There  is  an  institution  m 
Pforzheim  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,and  one  In  Freiburg  for  tha 
blind.  The  polytechnic  school  at  Carlsruhe  is  among  the 
most  efficient  institutions  of  the  kind  in  Germany.  The 
preparatory  course  extends  over  three  years,  and  includea 
French,  German,  English,  special  history,  mathematics, 
drawing,  modelling,  chemistry,  mineralogy  and  geology, 
mechanics,  itc.  The  special  courses  are  engineering, 
architecture,  forestry,  chemistry,  mechanics,  commerce, 
and  post-office  service,  and  extend  over  from  one  to  four 
years.  The  ducal  family  of  Baden  belong  to  the  Pro- 
testant section  of  the  Church,  but  the  majority  of  the 
population  are  Roman  Catholics.  The  returns  of  the 
census  of  1871  are  as  follows; — Catholics,  942,JCO;  Pro- 
testants, 491,008;  other  sects,  22G5  ,  and  Jews,  25,703. 
The  district  where  the  Roman  Catholic  preponderance  was 
greatest  was  Constance,  while  the  Protestants  weio 
slightly  more  numerous  in  the  district  of  Manheim. 

The  government  of  Baden  is  an  hereditary  monarchy, 
with  the  executive  power  vested  in  the  grand  duke,  and 
the  legislative  authority  in  a  Parliament  consisting  of  two 
Chambers.  The  upper  Chamber  is  composed  of  all  the 
princes  of  the  reigning  line  who  are  of  age,  the  chiefs 
of  ten  noble  families,  the  possessors  of  hereditary  landed 
estates  worth'  £25,000,  the  Roman  Catholic  archbishop 
of  Freiburg,  the  president  of  the  Protestant  Church,  a 
deputy  from  each  of  the  universities,  and  eight  nominees 
of  the  duke.  The  lower  Chamber  consists  of  63  repre- 
sentatives, of  whom  22  are  elected  by  the  burgesses  of  cer- 
tain towns,  and  41  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  bailiwicks. 
The  parliamentary  candidate  must  possess  tax-paying  pro- 
perty of  the  value  of  1 0,000  florins  (i833),  or  derive  a  salary 
of  at  least  XI 25  from  a  public  office.  Every  citizen,  if 
neither  criminal  nor  pauper,  has  the  right  of  voting,  but 
only  in  the  choice  of  deputy-electors,  by  whom  the  real 
election  of  the  representatives  is  decided.  The  members  of 
the  lower  House  are  elected  for  eight  years,  and  meeting." 
of  Parliament  must  take  place  every  two  years. 

The  budgets  are  granted  by  Parliament  for  a  term  of 
two  years.  In  1875  the  ordinary  expenses  were  rated  at 
£1,572,959,  and  the  ordinary  receipts  at  £1,557,108. 
The  total  public  debt  on  the  1st  of  January  1874  was 
£12,985,067. 

Since  the  organisation  of  1864  courts  are  held  at  Con- 
stance, Freiburg,  Offenburg,  Carlsruhe,  and  Manheim, 
the  supreme  court  being  in  the  city  last  named.  Manheim 
is  also  the  seat  of  the  central  commission  for  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Rhine. 

The  ducal  family  of  Baden  traces  its  descent  from  the 
counts  of  Zahringen,  who  flourished  in  the  llth  century, 
and  derived  their  title  from  what  is  now  a  little  town  to 
the  north  of  Freiburg.  Hermann  I.,  the  second  son  of 
Count  Berthold  I  ,  took  the  title  of  margrave  of  Hoch- 
berg  in  Breisgau,  and  was  succeeded  in  1074  by  his  eon 
Hermann  II.,  who  was  the  first  to  style  himself  margrave 
of  Baden.  On  the  death  of  the  Margrave  Christopher 
in  1527,  his  estates  were  divided  among  his  three  lonj, 
but  one  of  them  having  died  soon  after,  the  two  survivors 
became  the  sole  inheritors,  and  founded  the  two  lines  of 
Baden-Baden  and  Baden  Durlach.  The  former  of  tbes.\ 
which  produced  one  of  the  most  famous  generals  of  the 
17th  century,  became  extinct  by  the  death  of  Augustus 
George  in  1771,  and  its  possessions  were  united  with 
Baden-Durlach  under  Charles  Frederick.  By  the  treaty  of 
Lun(5\'illo  in  1801,  Baden  acquired  a  considerable  addition 
of  territory,  in  1803  the  margrave  received  the  title  of 
Elector;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg  in  1805  his  domains 
were  still  further  increased  by  the  accession  of  Brei.'<gau. 
On    the   dissolulioQ  of  the   empire   in    ISOG,  the  elector 


226 


i3  A  D  E  N 


joined  the  Confederation  of  the.  Rhine,  and  received 
the  title  of  Grand  Dake,  with  1950  square  miles  of 
additional  territory.  Shortly  after  this  extension  and 
consoUdation  had  taken  place,  Bavaria  laid  claim  to  a 
portion  of  the  duchy,  but  her  demands  were  indignantly 
rejected,  and  in  1818  the  grand  duke  bestowed  on  the 
country  a  political  constitution,  the  fundamental  principle  of 
which  was  the  territorial  integrity  of  Baden.  -  In  the  fol- 
lonring  year  this  integrity  was  guaranteed  by  the  Frankfort 
Commission.  The  first  session  of  the  Baden  parliament 
fell  into  disputes  and  had  to  be  dissolved  ;  but  the  second, 
in  1820,  commenced  the  work  of  reform  by  the  complete 
abolition  of  serfdom  and  the  establishment  of  ministerial 
responsibility.  In  1821  the  union  of  the  two  Protestant 
churches  in  Baden  was  brought  about.  Other  questions 
of  importance,  such  as  trial  by  jury,  freedom  of  the  press, 
abolition  of  tithes,  and  extension  of  education,  became  sub- 
jects of  interest  and  debate ;  but,  unfortunately,  the  influence 
of  the  French  revolution  of  1830  led  the  democratic  party  to 
excesses,  which  the  Government  met  with  acts  of  ill-advised 
repression.  Matters  were  beginning  to  readjust  themselves 
when  the  revolution  of  1848  again  aroused  the  opposing 


forces.  In  1849  the  duke  was  constrained  to  flee,  and 
Brentano,  the  democratic  leader,  took  possession  of  Carls- 
ruhe  iii  the  nam.e  of  the  national  committee.  By  the 
25th  of  June,,  however,  the  Prussian  forces,  after 
several  severe  engagements  with  the  revolutionists, 
effected  the  restoration  of  the  duke,  who  returned  to  hia 
capital  on  18th  August ;  and  it  was  not  long  before  the 
country  began  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  the  outbreak. 
Not,  indeed,  that  it  became  quiescent ;  for  Baden  has  had 
its  full  share  in  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  disputes 
that  have  been  so  rife  throughout  Germany  during  recent 
years.  The  Roman  Catholic  clergy,  with  the  bishop  of 
Freiburg  at  their  head,  have  maintained  an  obstinate 
struggle  with  the  Liberal  party,  which  is  now  predomi- 
nant. The  separation  of  church  and  state  has  been 
established ;  the  Jews  have  been  admitted  to  full  civic 
rights ;  freedom  of  trade  has  been  promulgated,  and  a 
number  of  minor  reforms  successfully  carried  through. 
In  the  German  war  of  18C6  Baden  sided  against  Prussia; 
but  in  1870  it  joined  in  the  formation  of  the  new  German 
empire,  and  its  troops  are  incorporated  in  the  14th  corps 
of  the  imperial  army. 


Croond-Pl&n  of  Baden-Baden. 


BADEN  (or  Baden-Baden,  to  distinguish  it  from  other 
places  of  the  name),  a  town  and  celebrated  watering-place 
of  Germany,  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden.  It  stands  on 
the  side  of  a  hill,  near  the  Cos  or  Get,  in  a  beautiful  valley 
of  the  Black  Forest,  18  miles  S.VV.  of  Carlsruhe  ;  and  it  is 
connected  by  a  branch  with  the  Manheim  and  Basel  railway. 
The  superiority  of  its  situation, itscxtensiveplcasure-grounds, ' 
gardens,  and  promenades,  and  the  brilliancy  of  the  life  that 
is  led  during  the  season,  have  for  a  long  series  of  years  coi- 
tinucd  to  attract  crowds  of  visitors  from  all  parts  of  the 
■world.  The  resident  population  amounts  to  about  10,000, 
but  that  number  is  frequently  augmented  fourfold.  The 
prevailing  nationality  is,  or  rather  tva^  the   French,  but 


Americans,  Russians,  and  English  are  all  numerously  repre- 
sented. The  hot  springs,  wliicli  were  among  the  earliest 
attractions  of  the  place,  are  twenty-nine  in  number,  and 
vary  in  temperature  from  37°to54'' K.,!.f.,from  11 5°  to  153° 
Fahr.  They  flow  from  the  castle  rock  at  the  rate  of  90  gallons 
per  minute,  and  the  water  is  conveyed  through  the  town 
in  pipes  to  supply  thedilfcrcnt  baths.  The  town  proper  is 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Oos,  but  the  principal  resorts  of 
the  adventitious  population  are  on  the  other  side.  A 
Convcrsador.thaxts  and  a  Trinkhalle  or  pump-room  (1842),  a 
theatre  (1861),  and  a  picture-gnllerj',  are  among  the  chief 
fashionable  buildings,  to  which  nmy  bo  added  the  library 
and  reading-room.    The  gaming-tables,  wiiicb  for  so  many 


I 


B  A  D  — B  A  D 


227 


years  n-crn  a  striliin;;  feature  of  Baden-CaJen,  are  now 
:ibuli6l:cJ.-The  only  building  of  much  autiquarijii  interest, 
with  ihe  exception  of  the  castles,  is  the  parish  church,  which 
dates  from  the  lyth  century,  and  contains  the  tombs  of 
several  of  the  maigraves.  There  is  a  Protestant  church 
a  short  distance  to  the  east  of  Leopoldsplatz,  and  not  far 
off  a  small  Episcopalian  church  ;  while  on  the  Michaelsbcrg 
is  the  Greek  chapel,  with  its  gilded  dome,  which  was  erected 
over  the  tomb  of  the  Roumanian  prince,  JlichaelStroudza, 
who  died  at  Baden  in  18G3. 

The  springs  of  Baden  were  known  to  the  Romans,  and 
the  foundation  of  the  town  is  referred  to  tlie  Emperor 
Hadrian  by  an  inscription  of  somewhat  doubtful  authen- 
ticity. The  name  of  Aurelia  Aquensis  was  given  to  it  in 
honour  of  Aurelius  Severus,  iu  whose  reign  it  would  seem 
to  have  been  well  known.  Fragments  of  its  ancient  sculp- 
tures are  still  to  be  seen,  and  in  1847  remains  of  Roman 
vapour  baths,  well  preserved,  were  discovered  just  below 
the  New  Castlo.  From  the  14th  century  down  to  the  close 
of  the  17th,  Baden  was  the  residence  of  the  margraves,  to 
whom  it  gave  its  name.  They  first  dwelt  in  the  Old  Castle, 
the  ruins  of  which  still  occupy  tho  summit  of  a  hilj  above 
the  town,  but  in  1479  they  removed  to  tho  New  Castle 
{still  so  called);  which  is  situate.l  on  the  hillside  nearer  to 
the  town,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  subterranean  dungeons. 
During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  Baden  suffered  severely  from 
the  various  combatants,  but  especially  from  the  French, 
who  pillaged  it  in  1G43,  and  laid  it  iu  ashes  in  1C88.  The 
margravine  Sibylla  rebuilt  the  New  Castle  in  1697,  but  the 
margrave  Louis  removed  to  Rastadt  in  1706.  Since  the 
beginning  of  tho  present  century  the  Government  has 
greatly  fostered  the  growth  of  the  town. 

BADEN,  Switzerland,  a  small  town  in  the  canton  of 
Aargau,  on  the  Limmat,  14  miles  N.W.  of  Zurich.  It  is 
much  frequented  on  account  of  its  warm  medicinal  springs, 
which  are  about  20  in  number,  and  vary  in  temperature 
from  98°  to  126^  Fahr.  About  15,000  persons  visit  the  place 
annually.  Tacitus,  in  the  first  book  of  his  Histories  (c.  07), 
incidentally  speaks  of  it  as  in  modian  municipii  extructus 
locua,amcEno  salubriumaquaritmnsufrequens;  and  numerous 
remains  of  pillars  and  inscriptions,  coins,  and  other  antiqui- 
ties confirm  his  description.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
Alcmanni  and  tho  Huns,  but  was  again  frequented  during 
the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  though  its  modern  prosperity  only 
dates  from  the  IDth  century.  Foralong  time  the  countship 
of  Baden  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Hapsburgs,  but  it  was 
conquered  by  the  Swiss  Confederates  in  1415.  It  was  here 
that  the  famous  disputation  of  Eck  with  Zwingle  and  ffico- 
lampadius  took  place  in  1520  ;  and  here  was  held  the 
conference  of  1589.  In  1714  the  peace  which  put  an  end 
to  the  war  of  tho  Spanish  Succession  was  concluded  at 
Baden  between  Austria  and  France  ;  and  four  years  after- 
wards a  treaty  between  Zurich,  Berne,  and  St  Gall  received 
its  name  from  the  town.     Resident  population,  3412. 

BADEN,the  chief  town  of  a  circle  in  Lower  Austria,  about 
12  miles  S.  of  Vienna  on  the  railway  to  Gratz.  It  is  beau- 
•tifuUy  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  romantic  Jlclcncnthal, 
near  tho  banks  of  the  Schwachat,  a  rapid  stream  with  several 
waterfalls,  and  has  become  a  favourite  summer  resort  with 
the  inhabitants  of  tho  neighbouring  capital.  Tho  warm 
baths,  which  give  name  to  the  town,  are  thirteen  in  number, 
and  vary  in  temperature  from  72°  to  97°  Fahr.  They  rise, 
for  tho  most  part,  at  the  foot  of  tho  Calva/iaihery,  which 
is  composed  of  dolomitic  limestone.  The  number  of  patients 
is  about  8000  annually.  Tho  celebrity  of  Baden  dates  back 
to  the  days  of  the  Romans,  who  knew  it  by  the  name  of 
Aqua:  Celioe ;  and  remains  of  their  occupation  still  exist. 
In  1812  the  town  suffered  severely  from  a  fire,  but  it  has 
since  been  elegantly  rebuilt.  Tho  principal  buildings  are 
the  church  of  St  Stephen,  the  theatre,  the  casino,  and  the 


military  hospital  A  short  distance  to  the  west  of  the  town 
stands  the  castle  of  Weilberg,  which  belongs  to  members 
of  the  imperial  family.  The  only  manufacture  of  much 
importance  that  is  carried  on  m  Badch  is  tho  production 
of  steel-wares  ;  these,  especially  the  razors,  are  of  excellent 
quality.    .Permano.-.t  population,  about  0500. 

B.\DGER  (Mcles),  a  family  of  Plantigrade  Carnivora, 
po.sscasing  greatly  elongated  bodies  and.  short  limbs,  each  of 
the  latter  furnished  with  five  toes,  provided  at  their 
extremities  with  long,  power.'ul  claws,  by  means  of  which 
they  form  deep  burrows  in  the  earth.  Tho  carnassial 
tooth,  which  in  tho  bears  is  wholly  tuberculate,  is  in  the 
badgers  provided  also  witii  a  cutting  edge,  their  whole 
dentition  being  specially  adapted  to  the  partly  vegetable, 
partly  animal  diet  on  which  they  subsist.  The  badger  differs 
from  all  other  mammals  in  having  the  lower  jaw  so  articu- 
lated to  the  vpper,  by  mejns  of  a  transverse  condyle  firn.ly 
locked  into  a  long  cavity  of  the  cranium,  tliat  dislocation 
of  the  jaw  is  all  but  impossible,  and  this  enables  those 
creatures  to  maintain  their  hold  with  the  utmost  tenacity. 
The  European  badger  (Meles  Taxus)  may  be  taken  as  typical 
of  the  entire  family.  It  is  nowhere  abundant,  but  is 
found  over  the  entire  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
It  is  a  quiet,  inoffensive  animal,  nocturnal  and  solitary  in 
its  habits,  sleeping  by  day  in  its  burrow,  and  issuing  forth 
at  night  to  feed  on  roots,  beech-mast,  fruits,  the  eggs 
of  birds,  some  of  the  smaller  quadrupeds,  frogs,  and  insects. 
It  is  said  also  to  dig  up  the  nests  of  wasps  in  order  to 
.eat  the  larva;,  as  the  ratel — a  closely  allied  South  African 
form — is  said  to  rob  the  bees  bf  their  honey.  The  nialo 
and  female  are  seldom  seen  together,  and  are  supposed  to 
trace  each  other  by  means  of  the  odour  of  the  secretion 
contained  in  a  glandular  pouch  beneath  the  tail.  Although 
the  badger  does  not  seek  to  attack,  yet,  when  driven  to  bay, 
its  great  muscular  power  and  tough  hide  renders  it  a  for- 
midable antagonist,  as  was  often  seen  in  the  days,  now 
happily  gone  by,  when  badger-baiting  was  a  favourite 
amusement  of  the  English  peasantry.  Fossil  remains  of 
the  badger  have  been  found  in  this  country,  apparently 
contemporaneous  %vith  the  extinct  cave  bear,  hyena,  and 
tiger ;  still  more  ancient  remains  are  said  to  have  been 
found  in  the  Red  Crag  of  Suffolk,  and  should  these  prove 
authentic,  the  European  badger,  says  Professor  Owen, 
"  will  be  the  oldest  known  species  of  mammal  now  living 
on  tho  face  of  tho  earth."  The  American  badger  (j1/«<j 
Lah-adorica)  is  a  native  of  California  and  Te.\as,  and  in  its 
habits  closely  resembles  the  former  species ;  it  seems, 
hotvever,  to  be  more  carnivorous.  According  to  Oray, 
several  species  inhabit  tho  southe;m  parts  of  Asia.  When 
badgers  were  more  abundant  tluin  they  now  are,  their 
skins  dressed,  with  the  hair  attached,  were  commonly  used 
for  pistol  furniture.  They  are  now  cliiefly  valued  for  tho 
iiair,  that  of  tho  European  badger  being  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  best  shaving-brushes,  while  the  softer  hair 
of  the  American  species  is  employed  for  tho  same  purpose, 
and  also  for  painters'  pencils.  0197  skins  of  the  American 
badger  were  imported  into  London  during  1873. 

BADIA  Y  LEBLICH,  Domingo,  a  celebrated  Spanish 
traveller,  better  known  under  his  assumed  name  of  Ali  Bey, 
was  born  in  Biscay  in  the  year  17CG.  After  receiving  a 
liberal  education  he  devoted  particular  attention  to  the 
Arabic  language,  and  made  special  preparation  otherwise 
for  his  Oriental  travels.  Under  the  name  of  Ali  Bey  and 
in  Mussulman  costume,  lie  visited  Egypt,  Marocco,  Tripoli, 
Arabia,  and  Syria,  and  w.as  received  as  a  person  of  high  rank 
wherever  he  appeared.  On  his  return  to  Europe  in  1607 
he  declared  himself  a  Bonapartist,  and  was  made  Intendant, 
first  of  Segovia,  and  afterwards  of  Cordova,  When  the 
French  were  driven  from  Spain,  Badia  wa.s  compelled  to 
take  refuge  in  Franco,  and  there,  iu    181 4,  pul'lished  at» 


228 


B  A  D  — B  A  D 


account  of  his  travels  under  the  title  of-  Voyage  d'Ali  Bey 
'.n  Asie  et  e»  Afrique,  itc,  in  3  vols.  8to.  A  few  years 
later  he  set  out  again  for  Syria,  under  the  assumed  name 
of  Ali  Otbman,  and,  it  is  said,  accredited  as  a  political 
agent  by  the  French  Government.  He  only  reached 
Aleppo,  and  there  died,  30th  August  1818,  not  without 
suspicion  of  having  been  poisoned. 

BADIUS,  JoDocus  or  Josse,  sometimes  called  Badius 
AsCESSius  from  the  village  of  Asche,  near  Brussels, 
where  he  wi_  born  in  1462,  was  an  eminent  printer  at 
I'aris,  whose  establishment  was  celebrated  under  the  name 
of  Prelum.  Ascensianum.  He  was  himself  a  scholar  of 
considerable  repute,  had  studied  at  Brussels  and  Ferrara, 
and  before  settling  in  Paris,  had  taught  Greek  for  several 
years  at  Lyons.  He  illustrated  with  notes  several  of  the 
classics  which  he  printed,  and  was  the  author  of  numerous 
pieces,  amongst  which  are  a  life  of  Thomas  h.  Kempis, 
and  a  satire  on  the  follies  of  women,  entitled  Navicula 
StuUarum  Mutierum.  He  died  in  1535.  His  epitaph  was 
■written  by  his  grandson,  the  celebrated  Henry  Stephanus. 

BADMINTON,  a  game  of  recent  introduction.  It  may 
be  played  in  or  out  of  doors,  by  any  number  of  persons  from 
two  to  eight;   two  or  four  makes  the  best  game.     The 


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Diagram  illustrating  the  Game  of  Badminton, 
following  description  applies  to  the  outdoor  game;  the  in- 
door follows  the  same  plan,  modified  only  by  circumstances 
affecting  a  room. 

A  tolerably  level  surface  is  required  to  form  a  ground. 
Turf  or  asphalt  is  the  best.  The  size  of  the  ground 
varies  from  40  ft.  by  20  ft.  to  30  ft.  by  15  ft.,  according  to 
the  space  at  command  and  the  activity  of  the  players. 

The  ground  is  divided  into  courts  as  shown  in  the 
diagram,  which  gives  the  marking-out  and  measurements 
of  a  full-sized  ground. 

•  The  boundaries  of  the  ground  and  of  the  courts  should 
be  defined  by  means  of  whiting  and  water,  or  pcgged- 
down  tape,  the  former  being  preferable. 

On  each  of  the  spots  marked  "  post,"  half-way  between 
the  service  lines,  and  15  ft.  apart,  a  post  about  C  ft.  high 
must  be  erected,  either  on  a  stand  or  driven  into  the 
gr  jund,  and  supported  by  guy-ropes. 

A  net,  about  5  ft.  G  in.  or  5  ft.  high. should  be  stretched 
from  post  to  post.  The  depth  of  the  net  is  of  but  little 
consequence.  Where  expense  is  no  object,  it  should  reach 
to  the  ground. 

The  implements  required  in  playing  the  g.ime  are — 
(1),  shxdiUcocks,  and  (2),  rackets  or  hattUdores.  The  former 
should  bo  about  5  in.  high,  and  about  1  oz.  in  weight. 
For  outdoor  play  the  shuttlecocks  are  sometimes  made 
heavier  by  being  loaded  with  lead.  The  body  should  bo 
covered  with  india-rubber.  Tlie  ra.-lets  should  be  similar 
to  thoao  used  at  the  game  of  the  same  name,  only  sniallcr, 
about  2  ft.  6  in.  long. 

The  game  consists  in  sending  the  shuttlecock  with  the 
racke*  over  the  net,  forwards  and  backwards,  until  one  of 
tbo    players    fails    to  return    it.        The    pjaycrs    decide 


by  lot  which  shall  commence  or  have  first  hand -in 
and  choice  of  ends.  The  player  who  is  hand-in  (say  A) 
stations  himself  in  one  of  the  courts  at  his  end,  his  adver- 
sary (say  B)  in  the  diagonally  opposed  court  at  the  other 
end.  A.  then  serves  to  B.,  i.e.,  A.  standiag  in  the  court 
chosen  by  him,  strikes  the  shuttlecock  over  the  net  with 
the  racket  into  the  diagonally  opposed  court.  B.  then  has 
to  return  the  service  by  striking  the  shuttlecock  back  over 
the  net  without  allowing  it  to  touch  the  ground,  and  so  oa 
alternately  until  one  player  fails.  If  this  is  the  player  who 
served,  he  is  hand-out,  his  adversary  becomes  hand-in,  and 
serves,  and  no  score  accrues.  But  if  the  player  failing  is  the 
one  who  was  served  to,  his  adversary  scores  one  point  towarc  s 
game,  called  an  ace.  The  player  who  first  scores  15  aces  win;', 
the  game  ;  but  if  the  score  arrives  at  14  all,  it  is  necessary 
for  one  player  to  score  two  consecutive  aces  in  order  to  win. 

The  server  must  serve  according  to  the  following 
conditions : — He  must  stand  with  both  feet  in  the  court 
served  from  ;  he  must  send  the  shuttlecock  clean  over  the 
net  {i.e.,  without  touching  net  or  posts),  and  to  that  it  will 
drop  into  or  beyond  the  service  line  bounding  the  court 
served  into,  and  into  the  diagonally  opposed  court.  If  he 
fails  to  comply  with  these  conditions  it  is  a  fault,  and  he 
has  to  serve  again.  Two  consecutive  faults  put  his  hand  out. 

The  server's  hand  is  also  out  if  he  fails  to  send  the 
shuttlecock  over  the  net;  if  he  hits  the  shuttlecock  beyond 
the  external  boundary  of  the  ground,  or  more  lb  jn  once  ;  or, 
if  after  the  server  has  loosed  it,  it  touches  him.  No  fault 
is  allowed  for  these  failures,  as  they  are  considered  more 
serious  than  those  first  enumerated.  After  service  is 
properly  given,  if  either  player  fails  to  return  the  shuttle- 
cock clean  over  the  net,  and  so  that  it  drops  within  the 
external  boundary  of  the  ground  on  the  side  of  the  net 
furthest  from  the  striker,  the  player  failing  loses  an  ace,  or 
is  hand-out  as  the  case  may  be.  It  will  be  observed  that 
in  the  service  the  shuttlecock  must  be  sent  from  right  court 
to  right  court,  or  from  left  to  left,  but  in  the  return,  by 
either  player,  it  is  only  required  that  the  shuttlecock  shall 
drop  within  any  part  of  the  ground,  bounded  by  the  external 
line  of  all  In  addition  the  shuttlecock  must  be  struck 
before  it  touches  the  ground,  and  must  be  touched  only 
with  the  racket,  and  must  only  be  hit  once,  otherwise  it 
counts  against  the  striker.  If  the  shuttlecock  drops  on  the 
line  enclosing  the  court  served  into,  or  in  the  return  drops  on 
the  boundary  line,  it  is  generally  reckoned  as  a  let,  i.e.,  the 
stroke  or  innings  goes  for  nothing,  and  the  server  serves 
again.  But  this  is  an  utterly  useless  rule,  and  it  is  better 
to  count  everything  that  drops  on  the  line  to  the  striker. 

In  the  case  of  a  fault,  or  in  the  case  of  returns  that  are- 
not  according  to  the  conditions,  if  the  adversary  returns  or 
attempts  to  return  the  shuttlecock,  the  service  or  return 
counts  the  same  as  though  it  had  been  properly  made.  If  tho 
server  scores  he  serves  again,  this  time  from  his  other  court, 
and  so  on  alternately  from  one  court  to  the  other  as  long 
as  he  scores.  When  he  is  hand-out,  his  adversary  commences 
serving  from  cither  of  the  courts  at  his  end,  and,  on  scor- 
ing, serves  from  liis  other  court,  and  so  on.  In  partner 
games  the  disposition  of  the  players,  and  the  rules  by 
which  they  conduct  tlie  game,  as  to  the  two  hands  in,  and 
so  forth,  are  identical  with  those  which  pre>'ail  at  lawn 
tennis.     See  Tennis.  ("•  J) 

BADNUR,  the  headquarters  of  the  district  of  Beti*!!, 
consists,  besides  the  F.iiroponn  houses,  of  twoTiAzArs.  The 
largest,  the  Kothi  BAzAr,  has  a  population  of  2013  souls. 
Tho  public  buildings  are  tho  Commissioner's  court-house, 
the  district  court-house,  tho  jail,  the  schools,  the  police- 
station,  the  post-oflice,  the  dispensary,  Ac.  There  is  a  good 
sar6.i  or  inn  for  native  travellers,  and  a  dAk  hamjalow  or 
resting-place  for  Eiiropoans.  Not  far  from  Badniir  is 
KherlA^  the  former  residence,  of  the  Gond  Ed.iAs,  whi^ra 


B  A  D  — B  A  G 


229 


there  13  an  old  fort,  now  in  ruins,  which  used  to  be  held 
by  them.     Lat.  21°  57'  N.,  long.  IT  59'  E.    • 

BADRINATH,  a  town  and  celebrated  temple  in  Hindii- 
etin,  in  the  Britiih  district  of  Garhwal,  situate  on  the  right 
b.ink  of  the  Vishnugangi,  a  tributary  of  the  AlaknandA 
River,  in  the  middle  of  a  valley  nearly  i  niiles  in  length, 
and  1  in  breadth,  in  30°  44'  N.  lat  and  79°  32'  E.  long. 
The  town  is  small,  containing  only  twenty  or  thirty  huts, 
in  which  reside  the  Brdhmans  and  the  attendants  on  the 
temple.  The  building,  however,  which  is  considered  a 
'  place  of  high  sanctity,  by  no  means  corresponds  to  its  great 
celebrity.  It  is  about  40  or  50  feet  in  height,  built  in  the 
fonn  of  i  cone,  with  a  smaU  cupola,  on  the  top  of  which  is 
a  gilt  ball  and  spire,  and  contains  the  shrine  of  Badrinith, 
dedicated  to  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  The  principal  idol 
is  of  black  stone,  and  is  3  feet  in  height.  Badrinith  is  the 
favourite  resort  of  pilgrims  from  aU  parts  of  India.  In 
ordinary  years  the  number  varies  from  7000  to  10,000; 
but  every  twelfth  year,  when  the  festival  of  Kumbh  ilehi 
is  celebrated,  the  concourse  of  persons  is  said  to  be  50,000. 
In  addition  to  tBe  gifts  of  votaries,  the  temple  enjoys  a 
further  source  of  revenue  from  the  rents  of  villages  assigned 
by  former  RAjis.  Some  years  ago  the  temple  was  shat- 
tered by  an  earthquakJfe,  .ind  has  only  been  partially  restored. 
It  is  situate  among  mountains  rising  23,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  Elevation  of  the  site  of  the  temple,  10,294 
feet. 

BAENA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Cordova, 
8  leagues  S.E.  of  the  city.  It  is  picturesquely  situated, 
near  the  River  Marbello,  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  crowned  with 
a  castle,  which  formerly,  belonged  to  Gonzalo  de  Cordova, 
'and  is  now  the  property  of  the  Altamira  family.  It  has 
four  parish  churches  and  three  schools,  one  of  which, 
exclusively  for  girls,  has  a  high  reputation  in  the  province. 
The  education,  which  is  conducted  by  sisters  of  charity, 
does  not  go  beyond  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  religious 
instruction.  Grain  and  oil  are  the  principal  articles  of 
commerce.  The  site  of  th6  Roman  town  (Baniana  or 
Binxana)  can  still  bo  traced,  and  various  antiquities  are 
"frequently  met  with.  A  subterranean  vault  was  discovered 
in  1833,  containing  twelve  cinerary  urns,-with  inscriptions 
commemorating  various  members  of  the  Pompeian  family.. 
In  1292  Mahomet  Ibn  Aljama  vainly  besieged  the  city, 
the  defence  of  which  on  that  occasion  is  commemorated 
by  the  fiv&  Moorish  heads  in  its  coat-of-arms.  Baena  is  the 
birthplace  of  Juan  de  Penalosx    Population,  about  12,000. 

BAEZ.\  (ancient  Beatia),  a  city  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Jaen.  It  stands  on  a  considerable  elevation,  about  3 
miles  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Guadalquivir.  Lat.  37°  59' 
N.,  long.  3°  28'  W.  It  is  well  built,  and  has  a  cathedral 
and  several  fine  public  buildings,  among  which  the  most 
worthy  of  notice  are  the  university  (founded  in  1533,  and 
for  some  time  defunct),  the  oratorio  of  the  order  of  St 
PhiUp  Neri,  and  the  marble  fountain  with  Caryatides  in 
the  Plaza  de  la  Constitucion.  The  Cordova  and  Ubeda 
gates,  and  the  aich  of  Baeza,  are  among  the  remains  of  its 
old  fortifications,  which  were  of  great  strength.  There  is 
little  trade  or  manufacture  here.  The  principal  productions 
of  the  neighbourhood  are  grain  and  oil  The  red  dye  made 
from  the  native  cochineal  was  formerly  celebrated.  In  the 
time  of  the  Moors  Bacia  was  a  flourishing  city  of  50,000 
inhabitants,  and  the  capital  of  a  separate  kingdom,  but  it 
never  recovered  from  the  sack  of  1 239.  It  is  the  birthplace 
of  Caspar  Beccrra,  the  celebrated  scidptor  and  painter. 
Present  population,  about  11,000. 

B.\.FFIN,  WiLLi-Mi,  an  able  and  enterprising  English 
eeaman,  born  in  1584.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  early  life, 
and  his  fame  rests  entirely  on  the  voyages  undertaken  by 
him  during  the  years  1 01 2  to  1616.  In  1612  he  accom- 
panied Captain  James  Hall  on  his  fourth  voyage  in  search 


of  the  north-west  passage,  and  in  1  CI  3  he  commanded  one  of 
the  English  vessels  engaged' in  the  Greenland  fisheries.  In 
1C15  and  1610  Baffin  made  two  voyages  in  the  "Discovery" 
under  Bylot,  and  on  the  second  of  them  explored  the  large 
inlet,  afterwards  called  Baffin's  Bay.  The  only  accounts  of 
these  expeditions  were  given  by  Baffin  himself,  and  later 
investigators  have  thoroughly  confirmed 'his  descriptions. 
In  1618  he  is  said  to  have  been  mate  in  a  voyage  to  Surat 
and  ilocha;  and  in  1 021  he  was  killed  while  attempting,  in 
conjunction  with  a  Persian  force,  to  expel  the  Portuguese 
from  Ormuz.  (See  Purchas's  Pilgrims  and  the  publica- 
tions of  the  Hakluyt  Society  for  1849.) 
.  BAFFIN'S  BAY,  or  Baffin's  Sea,  is  properly  neither 
a  bay  nor  a  sea,  but  part  of  the  long  strait  or  inlet  which 
separates  Greenland  from  the  N.E.  coast  of  America.  It 
extends  from  about  09°  to  78°  N.  lat.,  and  from  54°  to  72' 
W.  long,  and  is  connected  by  Lancaster  Sound  and  Barrow's 
Strait  with  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  was  first  explored  in  1616 
by  the  English  navigator  Baffin.  The  part  of  the  strait 
to  the  south  is  known  as  Davis  Strait,  and  the  narrower 
channel  to  the  north  takes  the  name  of  Smith's  Sound. 
The  coasts  are  generally  high  and  precipitous,  and  are 
deeply  indented  with  gulfs.  The  most  important  island  on 
the  east  side  is  Disco  to  the  north  of  Disco  Bay,  where 
there  is  a  Danish  settlement.  During  the  greater  part  of 
the  year  this  sea  is  frozen,  and  it  is  navigable  only  from  the 
beginning  of  June  to  the  end  of  September.  It  is  annually 
visited  by  vessels  engaged  in  the  whale  and  seal  fishery. 
(See  Petermann's  Mittheil.,  1873,  map  13,  and  Markham's 
Cruise  in  Baffin's  Bay.'^ 

BAGATELLE  is  an  indoor  game,  probably  derived  from 
the  old  English  shovel-board,  described  by  Cotton  in  his 
Compkat  Gamester  (1674),  though  many  consider  that  its 
invention  is  due  to  the  French.  Like  billiards,  chess,  and 
draughts,  its  origin  is  not  certainly  known ;  but  whatever  its 
genesis,  its  name  is  undoubtedly  French.  Bagatelle  games 
are  played  on  an  oblong  board,  usually  from  six  to  ten 
feet  in  length,  by  a  foot  and  a  half  to  three  feet  in  Tiidth. 
The  bed  of  the  table,  which  is  ordinarily  of  slate  or 
mahogany,  is  covered  with  fine  green  cloth ;  and  at  the 
upper  end,  which  is  rounded,  there  are  nine  holes  or  cups, 
numbered  from  1  to  9,  thus 

5 

3  2 

8        9        7 

4  6 
1 

Into  these  holes  ivory  balls  are  driven  by  a  cue  in  all 
respects  similar  to  the  instnimcnt  used  in  Billiaeds, 
which  see.  The  sides  and  circular  end  of  the  table  are 
furnished  with  clastic  cushions  ;  and  in  some  of  the  newer 
tables  there  is  also  a  pocket  on  each  side.  Nine  balls — 
eight  white,  and  one  red  or  black  (sometimes  four  white, 
four  red,  and  one  black) — are  used  in  the  most  popular  of 
the  several  bagatelle  games. 

The  ordinary  game  is  played  according  to  the  following 
rules  : — 

1.  Any  number  of  persons  may  play,  whether  singly  or 
in  sides.  2.  Each  player  strings  for  lead,  and  he  who 
lodges  his  ball  in  the  highest  hole  begins.  In  the  case  of 
partners,  one  only  on  each  side  need  string  for  the  lead. 
3.  The  player  who  wins  the  lead  takes  the  nine  balls  and 
plays  thtm  one  after  the  other  up  the  table  from  baulk,  first 
striking  at  the  red  ball  which  is  placed  on  the  spot  about 
a  foot  below  the  1  hole.  The  object  of  the  player  is  to 
lodge  his  own,  or  the  coloured  ball,  or  both  balls,  in  the 
holes.  4.  The  red  ball  counts  double  when  it  is  played  into 
a  hole;  and  for  each  white  ball  lodged  or  holed,  : 
corresponding  number  of  points  is  scored   to  that  ma,rlt'l 


230 


B  A  G  — B  A  G 


in  the  cup.  (Sometimes  two  coloured  balls  are  used,  in 
which  case  both  count  double.)  5  The  red  ball  must  be 
first  struck,  and  the  remainder  of  the  balls  are  played  up 
to  the  holes — the  sum  total  of  the  holes  made  being  the 
striker's  score.  6.  Any  number  of  rounds  may  be  played 
for  the  game,  as  agreed  on  at  the  commencement;  and  the 
player  (or  side)  obtaining  the  highest  aggregate  score  wins. 
7.  Any  ball  that  rebounds  beyond  the  baulk  line,  or  is  forced 
over  the  table,  is  not  re-used  in  that  round. 

Sans  Egal,  or  the  French  Game,  is  the  next  most  gene- 
rally played  game  on  the  bagatelle  table.  It  is  governed  by 
the  following  laws  : — 1.  The  player  who  takes  the  lead 
(which  is  decided  as  in  bagatelle)  makes  choice  of  four  balls 
of  either  colour,  and  placing  the  black  one  on  the  spot,  com- 
mences by  striking  it  with  a  ball  from  baulk.  2.  Tl;e 
other  player  then  strikes  up  one  of  his  balls,  and  so  on 
alternately,  3  He  who  holes  the  black  ball  counts  it 
towards  his  game,  together  with  any  number  made  by  the 
white  4.  If  either  player  hole  his  adversary's  ball,  the 
number  scored  by  such  ball,  or  balls,  is  marked  to  the 
other  side.  5.  The  player  who  makes  the  greatest  number 
of  points  in  each  round  wins  the  game,  and  takes  the  lead 
in  the  nest.  The  rule  as  to  balls  rebounding  beyond  the 
baTilk  Une,  or  being  forced  off  the  table,  is  the  same  as  in 
the.  preceding  game. 

'  The  Cannon  Game,  sometimes  played  oft  a.  table  without 
holes,  consists  entirely  of  cannons,  that  is  to  sa/,  two  balls 
"itruck  in  succession  by  the  cue-balL  This  game  is  played 
50, 100,  or  150  up;  and  the  holes  into  which  the  balls  fall  are 
■lom'?  ;imes  counted  in  addition  to  the  cannon.  Three  balls  only 
ire  used — a  white,  a  spot- white,  and  a  black  ball  At  start- 
ing the  latter  is  placed  on  the  spot,  and  the  adversary's  baU 
on  a  point  equi-distant  between  the  first  and  centre  holes, 
1  and  9.  If  the  striker  make  a  cannon,  he  goes  on  as  long 
as  he  can  score,  but  no  hole  can  be  counted  without  first 
making  the  cannoa  To  miss  the  white  involves  the  loss 
of  1  point ;  and  to  miss  the  black  ball,  5  points.  The 
striker's  break  is  ended  when  he  fads  to  cannon,  and  then 
the  other  player  goes  on, — he  who  first  gains  the  required 
number  winning  the  game.  When  there  are  pockets  to  the 
table,  two  points  are  taken  for  every  white  ball  pocketed, 
and  three  points  for  the  red.  Should  the  player's  ball  fall 
into  a  pocket  before  he  make  the  cannon,  the  score  is  taken 
by  the  opponent.  In  the  Irish  Cannon  Gflme  the  holes  do 
rot  count,  except  by  way  of  penalty  ;  all  points  made  by 
holing  the  balb  being  ad^ed  to  the  score  of  the  adver- 
sary. Sometimes,  in  both  the  cannon  games  two  points  are 
taken  for  a  cannon,  from  white  to  white  and  then  to  red, 
and  three  for  a  cannon  from  white  to  red  and  then  to  white ; 
or,  when  two  coloured  balls  are  used,  three  points  are  taken 
for  a  cannon  from  the  black  to  the  red.  Lately,  bagatelle 
tables  as  much  as  14  feet  long  by  6  feet  wide  have  been 
made  for  the  cannon  game. 

Mississippi  is  a  game  played  on  a  bagatelle  table  with 
a  bridge  pierced  with  arches,  each  arch  bearing  a  certain 
number — say,  from  1  to  10  or  12.  The  balls  are  first  played 
from  the  baulk  against  the  cushion  on  to  the  bridge,  which 
is  placed  just  in  front  of  th&lowermost  hole.  The  rules  are 
— 1.  If  the  ball  pass  through  the  bridge,  all  the  points 
indicated  on  the  arch  are  counted  towards  the  player's 
score,  in  addition  to  any  points  made  by  the  ball  falling 
into  a  hole  beyind  the  bridge.  The  game  may  be  played 
by  two  or  more  persons,  and  ho  who  first  makes  the  number 
of  points  agreed  on — 100,  200,  000,  ic. — wins.  A  modifi- 
cation of  this  game  is  called 

Trou  Madame.  In  this  the  balls  are  played  from  the 
baulk  straight  up  to  tho  bridge  without  touching  the 
cushion, and  only  the  points  markedupon  the  arches  score, — 
all  points  made  by  the  balls  dropping  into  the  holes  beyond 
being  scored  to  the  opponent.    Another  variety,  called 


Cochamaroo,  or  Russian  Bagatelle,  is  played  on  a  tabi© 
prepared  with  a  number  of  pins,  holes,  arches,  and  bells,  up 
to  and  through  which  the  ball  is  played  from  the  bauik  end 
of  the  table.  It  is  a  childish  amusement,  requiring  little 
skill,  and  therefore  needing  only  the  barest  mention. 

In  playing  the  bagatelle  games  a  much  less  degree  of 
force  is  required  for  the  stroke  than  is  necessary  for  bil- 
liards. Some  adepts  are  able  to  fill  all  the  holes  at  one 
essay ;  first,  by  striking  the  red  ball  on  the  side,  making  a 
double  hazard,  say,  into  the  7  and  the  8  holes,  and  then, 
either  by  playing  'direct  at  tho  holes  or  at  the  cushion, 
lodging  each  successive  ball  tUl  the  whole  nine  are  pocketed. 
In  this  way,  counting  double  for  the  red,  as  many  as  54' 
points  can  be  scored  in  a  single  round  of  the  balls.  When 
two  coloured  balls  are  used,  of  course  a  proportionally 
larger  score  is  made.  The  cue  should  be  held  lightly 
between  the  fingers  and  thumb,  not  grasped  in  the  palm  of 
the  hand ;  and  much  use  may  be  made  of  the  variou.s 
strokes  employed  in  billiards,— as  the  side,  the' screw,  the 
twist,  and  the  drag ;  for  which  terms  see  the  article 
Billiards.  (g.  p.  p.) 

BAGGESEN,  Jens  Emmanuel,  the  most  prominent 
literary  figure  in  Denmark  during  the  latter  part  of  last 
century,  was  born  on  the  tSth  of  February  17&5,  at  Korsoi 
His  parents  were  very  poor,  and  before  he  was  twelve  he 
was  sent  to  copy  documents  at  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the 
district.  By  dint  of  indomitable  perseverance,  he  managed 
to  gaici  an  education,  and  in  1782  entered  the  university 
of  Copenhagen.  His  success  &s  a  writer  was  coeval  with 
his  earUest  publication  ;  his  Comical  Tales  in  verse,  poems 
that  recall  the  Broad  Grins  that  Colman  the  younger 
brought  out  a  decade  later,  took  the  town  by  storm,  and  the 
struggling  young  poet  found  himself  a  popular  favourite 
at  twenty-one.  He  then  tried  serious  lyrical  writing,  and 
his  tact,  elegance'  of  manner,  and  versatility,  gained  him  a 
place  in  the  best  society.  This  sudden  success  received  a 
blow  in  1788,  when  a  very  poor  opera  he  had  produced  was 
received  with  mockery,  and  a  reaction  against  him  set  in. 
He  left  Denmark  in  a  rage,  and  spent  the  next  years  in 
Germany,  Franco,  and  Switzerland.  In  the  country  last 
mentioned  he  married,  began  to  write  in  German,  and  pub- 
lished in  that  language  his  next  poem,  Alpenlied.  In  1790 
he  returned  to  his  mother-country,  bringing  with  him  as  a 
peace-offering  his  fine  descriptive  poem,  the  Labyrinth, 
in  Danish,  and  was  received  with  unbounded  homage. 
The  next  twenty  years  were  spent  in  incessant  restless  wan- 
derings over  the  north  of  Europe,  Paris  latterly  becoming 
his  nominal  home.  He  continued  to  publish  volumes  alter- 
nately in  Danish  and  German.  In  1811  he  returned  to 
Copenhagen  to  find  the  young  Ohletischlager  installed  as 
the  great  poet  of  the  day,  and  he  himself  beginning  to  lose 
his  previously  unbounded  popularity.  Until  1820  he  re- 
sided in  Copenhagen,  in  almost  unceasing  literary  feud 
with  some  one  or  other,  abusing  and  being  abused,  the 
most  important  feature  of  tho  whole  being  Baggesen's  do- 
termination  not  to  allow  Ohlenschliiger  to  bo  considered 
a  greater  poet  than  himself.  Ho  then  went  back  to  his 
beloved  Paris,  where  he  lost  his  wife  and  youngest  child, 
and  fell  at  last  into  a  state  of  hopeless  melancholy  madness. 
In  182G,  having  slightly  recovered,  he  wished  to  see  Den- 
mark once  more,  but  died  at  Hamburg  on  his  way,  on  the 
3d  of  October,  and  was  buried  at  Kiel.  His  many-sided 
talents  achieved  success  in  all  forms  of  writing,  but  his 
domestic,  philosophical,  and  critical  works  have  long  ceased 
to  occupy  attention.  A  littlo  more  power  of  restrain- 
ing his  egotism  and  passion  would  have  made  him  ona 
of  tho  wittiest  and  keenest  of  modern  satirists,  and  his 
comic  poems  aro  deathless.  The  Danish  literature  owe* 
Baggoson  a  great  debt  for  the  firmness,  polish,  and  form 
which  ho  introduced  into  it — his  stylo  being  ilways  finished 


B  A  G  —  B  A  G 


231 


aaJ  elegant.  With  all  bit  faults  he  standa  as  the  greatest 
figure  between  Holberg  and  Ohlenschlager.  Of  all  his 
poems,  however,  the  loveliest  and  best  ia  a  little  simple  song, 
called  There  was  a  time  when  I  was  very  Utile,  which  every 
Dane,  high  or  low,  knows  by  heart,  and  which  is  matchless 
in  its  simplicity  and  pathos.  It  h.is  outlived  alt  hh 
epics.  (e.  w.  g) 

BAGHDAD,  a  Turkish  pashalic  or  government  of 
Asia,  computed  to  have- an  area  of  above  100,000  square 
miles.  It  stretches  in  a  N.W.  directiiin,  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Shatt-el-Arab  at  Bussorah,  to  Merdin,  situated  near 
the  source  of  the  Tigris ;  and  from  the  confines  of  Persia 
to  the  banks  of  the  Khabour,  ■which  separates  it  from 
the  pashalic  of  Diarbekir.  Its  general  boundaries  are  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Arabi.in  desert  of  Nojd  to  the  W. 
and  S.,  Kusistan  and  Mount  Zagros  to  the  E.,  the  pashalic 
of  Diarbekir  to  the  N.W.,  and  Armenia  with  the  terri- 
tories of  the  Kurdish  chief  of  Julamerick  to  the  N. 
This  great  tract  comprehends  ancient  Babylonia  and  the 
greatest  part  of  Assyria  proper.  The  first  includes  the 
space  enclosed  by  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates,  which  is 
also  known  under  the  general  appellation  of  Mesopo- 
tamia; and  the  second,  that  which  is  beyond  the  Tigris, 
commonly  called  Lower  Kurdistan.  This  tract  of  countiy 
Ls  an  extensive  and  very  fertile  plain,  and  is  watered  by 
the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates,  which  at  Baghdad  approach 
within  25  miles  of  each  other,  and  aDord  an  inexhaustible 
supply  of  the  finest  water.  Only  some  parts  of  these 
fertile  districts,  however,  are  cultiv.itod,  as  the  population 
consists  in  many  places  of  wandering  Arabs,  who  are 
averse  to  agriculture,  and  who,  in  their  vagrant  life  of 
idleness  and  rapine,  neglect  all  the  natural  advantages  of 
the  country.  ,The  most  productive  portion  of  the  pashalic 
is  on  the  banks  of  the  Shatt  el-Arab,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Bussorah.  This  tract,  for  upwards  of  30  miles  below 
that  city,  is  well  cultivated,  and  yields  vast  quantities  of 
dates,  wheat,  barley,  and  various  kinds  of  fruits.  The 
banks  of  the  Euphrates  produce  abundant  crops  of  dry 
grain.  Higher  up  the  Euphrates,  the  country  which  is 
possessed  by  the  Arabs  is  a  low  marshy  tract,  formed  by 
the  expansion  of  the  Euphrates,  and  is  famed  for  plentiful 
crops  of  rice.  Among  the  mountainous  districts  of  the 
Upper  Euphrates  the  country  is  higlJy  picturesque  and 
beautiful ;  it  is  watered  by  the  River  Mygdonius  (the  Gozan 
of  Scripture),  and  is  in  a  tolerable  state  of  cultivation.  It 
produces  in  abundance  tha  finest  fruits,  such  as  grapes, 
olives,  figs,  pomegranates,  which  are  considered  the  most 
delicious  in  the  East ;  apples,  pears,  apricots  of  an  inferior 
quality ;  and  the  finest  dates,  on  which  the  inhabitants,  as 
in  other  parts  of  Asia,  depend  in  many  cases  for  subsist- 
ence. The  domestic  animals  are,  the  horse,  for  which  the 
country  has  long  been  fanicd,  -the  ass,  camel,  dr'ome- 
dary,  buir.ilo,  and  mulo.  Of  the  wild  animals,  the  lion, 
the  hyena,  the  jackal,  the  wolf,  and  the  wild  boar,  are 
common  ;  and  antelopes  are  very  numerous.  Hares  are 
plentiful,  but  foxes  are  seldom  seen.  All  sorts  of  poultry 
are  bred  except  the  turkey.  On  the  cultivated  lands, 
and  on  the  borders  of  the  rivers,  the  black  partridge 
is  met  with  in  great  numbers.  Snipes  and  almost  every 
Bpecies  of  wild  fowl  may  be  found  in  the  marshes,  and 
pelicans  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  In 
addition  to  these  two  rivers,  the  country  is  watered  by 
the  Khabour  or  Chaboras,  formed  by  the  junction  of 
Jevcral  small  streams  about  ten  miles  to  the  S.W.  of 
Mcrdin,  and  by  the  Mygdonius,  or  Gozan,  the  Hermas  of 
the-  Arabs,  which  used  formerly  to  discharge  a  part  of  its 
tvatcrs  into  the  Euphrates  through  the  Khabour,  and  a 
part  into  the  Tigris  through  the  Thirthar,  passing  by 
Hatra,  but  which  is  now  entirely  lost  iu  a  salt  marsh  at 
the  foot  of  the  Singar  hills. 


In  ancient  times  the  plain  of  Mesopotamia  was  occupied 
by  the  great  and  wealthy  cities  of  Nineveh,  Babylon, 
Seleucia,  Ctesiphon,  Ac,  and  was  in  a  high  stale  of  cul- 
tivation. It  was  intersected  by  many  well-coustructed 
canals  and  other  works,  which,  in  dispersing  over  the 
couutry  the  superfluous  waters  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates, 
proved  extremely  useful  to  agriculture.  These  works  aro 
now  all  ruined,  and  not  a  vestige  remains  of  many  of  tX^ 
canals,  while  the  course  of  _other3  can  only  bo  faintly 
traced  in  their  imperfect  remains.  One  canal,  however, 
called  El-Hye,  still  exists ;  it  connects  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Tigris  exactly  half-way  between  Bussorah  and  Baghdad, 
and  is  navigable  in  spring  for  large  boats. 

BAOHD.VD,  a  city  of  Asia,  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
empire  of  the  caliph,  and  long  renowned  for  its  commerce 
and  its  wealth,  is  situated  on  an  extensive  and  desert 
plain,  which  has  scarcely  a  tree  or  village  throughout  its 
whole  extent ;  and  though  it  is  intersected-by  the  Tigris, 
it  stands  mostly  on  its  eastern  bank,  close  to  the  water's 
edge.  Old  Baghdad  on  the  W.  is  now  considered  as  merely 
a  suburb  to  the  larger  and  more  modern  city  on  the  eastern 
shore,  the  former  containing  an  area  of  only  146  acres, 
while  the  latter  extends  over  591.  It  has,  however, 
numerous  and  extensive  streets,  well  furnished  with  shops, 
and  is  protected  by  strong  walls,  with  three  gates  opening 
towards  HUlah  on  the  Euphrates  and  Kazimeen.  Beyond 
these  modern  bulwarks  vestiges  of  ancient  buildings, 
spreading  in  various  directions,  are  visible  in  the  plain, 
which  is  strewed  with  fragments  of  brick,  tiles,  and 
rubbish.  A  burying-ground  has  extended  itself  over  a 
large  tract  of  land  formerly  occupied  by  the  streets  of  the 
city ;  and  here  is  the  tomb  of  Zobeide,  the  favourite  wife 
of  Haroun  el  Raschid,  built  of  brick,  of  a  high  octagonal 
shape,  and  surmounted  by  a  lofty  superstructure  in  the 
form  of  a  cone.  It  was  originally  built  in  827  A.D.,  Init 
has  been  fl-cquently  restored.  The  two  towns  of  Old 
and  New  Baghdad  *re  connected  by  a  bridge  of  thirty  pon- 
toons. The  form  of  the  new  city  is  that  of  an  irregular 
oblong,  about  1500  paces  in  length  by  800  in  breadth; 
and  a  brick  wall,  about  five  miles  in  circuit,  encloses  tha 
town  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  This  wall,  which  is  built 
of  brick,  has  been  constructed  and  repaired  at  different 
periods ;  and,  as  in  most  other  works  of  the  same  natura 
in  Mahometan  countries,  the  oldest  portion  is  the  best, 
and  the  more  modem  the  worst  part  of  tho  fabric.  At 
the  principal  angles  are  large  round  towers,  with  smaller 
towers  intervening  at  short  distances  ;  and  on  these  large 
towers  batteries  are  planted,  with  brass  cannon  of  different 
calibre,  badly  mounted.  Of  two  of  these  angular  towers 
Mr  Buckingham  remarked  that  the  workmanship  is  equal 
to  any  ancient  masonry  that  he  had  ever  seen.  The  wall 
has  three  gates — one  on  the  S.E.,  ono  on  the  N.E.,  and  a 
third  on  the  N.W.  of  the  city;  and  it  is  surrounded  by  a 
dry  ditch  of  considerable  depth.  A  fourth  gate  on  the 
northern  side,  which  has  been  closed  since  the  capture  of 
the  city  by  Sultan  Amurath  IV.  in  1C38,  is  a  good  specimen 
of  Saracenic  brick-work.  It  was  formerly  called  "  the  white 
Gate,"  but  is  now  known  as  tho  "  Bab-el-Tilism,"  or 
"  Talismanic  Gate,"  from  a  fine  Arabic  inscription  in  relief 
on  a  scroll  border  round  the  tower,  which  bears  the  date 
of  CIS  A.n.  (1220  A.D.)  The  town  has  been  built  without 
the  slightest  regard  to  regularity.  The  streets  are  even  moro 
intricate  and  winding  than  those  in  most  other  Eastern 
towns;  and,  with  tho  exception  of  tho  bazaars  and  some 
open  squares,  the  interior  is  little  else  than  a  labyrinth  of 
alleys  and  pi-seagcs.  The  streets  aro  unpavcd,  and  in 
many  places  so  narrow  that  two  horsemen  can  scarcely 
pass  each  other ;  and  as  it  is  sildom  that  the  houses  have 
windows  facing  the  great  pnblic  thoroughfares,  and  tho 
doors  are  small  and  mean,  they  present  on  both  sides  the 


232 


BAGHDAD 


gloomy  appearance  of  dead  walls.  All  tte  buildings,  both 
public  and  private,  are  constructed  of  furnace-burnt  bricks, 
of  a  yellowish-red  colour,  taken  chiefly  from  the  ruins  of 
other  edifices,  as  their  rounded  angles  evidently  show.  A 
house  is  generally  laid  out  in  ranges  of  apartments  open- 
ing into  a  square  interior  court,  and  furnished  with  subter- 
ranean rooms  called  serdaubs,  into  which  the  inhabitants 
retreat  during  the  day  for  shelter  from  the  intefise  heats 
of  summer ;  and  with  terraced  roofs,  on  which  they  take 
their  evening  meal,  and  sleep  in  the  open  air.  Occasion- 
ally in  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  when  the 
Sherki  or  south  wind  is  blowing,  the  thermometer  at 
break  of  day  is  known  to  stand  at  112°  Fahr.;  while  at 
noon  it  rises  to  119°,  and  a  little  before  Iwo  o'clock  to 
122°,  standing    at   sunset   at   117°,  and   at   midnight  at 


114°.     But    this    scale    of    temperature    is    exceptional 

During  the  summer  months  the  wind  is  usually  in  the 
north-west,  and  the  air,  though  hot,  is  fresh  and  exhilarat- 
ing, the  thermometer  ranging  from  about  75°  at  sunrise  to 
107°  at  the  hottest  time  of  the  day.  The  interiors  of  the 
houses  of  the  rich  are  splendidly  furnished,  and  ornamented 
in  the  ceilings  with  a  sort  of  chequered  work,  which  has  a 
handsome  appearance.  A  great  portion  of  the  ground  within 
the  walls  of  the  town  is  unoccupied  by  buildings,  especially 
in  the  north-eastern  quarter;  and  even  in  the  more  populous 
parts  of  the  city  near  the  river,  a  considerable  space  be- 
tween the  houses  is  occupied  by  gardens,  where  pome- 
granates, grapes,  figs,  olives,  and  dates  .grow  in  great 
abundance,  so  that  the  city  when  seen  from  a  distance 
I  has  the  appearance  of  rising  out  of  the  midst  of  trees. 


Ground- PlaQ^f  the  Encemte  of  Baghdad. 
Reduced  flora  Smrey  made  by  Commander  F.  Jonea  and  Mr  W.  Collloswood  of  the  Indian  Navj,  1953-M. 


The  principal  public  buildings  in  Baghdad  are  the 
mosques,  the  khans  or  caravanserais,  and  the  serai  or 
palace  of  the  pasha.  The  palace,  which  is  situated  in  the 
north-western,  quarter  of  the  town,  not  far  from  the  Tigris, 
is  distinguished  rather  for  extent  than  grandeur.  It  is 
a  comparatively  modem  structure,  built  at  different  periods, 
and  forming  a  large  and  confused  pile,  without  proportion, 
beauty,  or  strength.  There  are  no  remains  of  the  ancient 
palace  of  the  caliphs. 

In  all  Mahometan  cities  the  mosques  are  conspicuous 
objects.  The  number  in  Baghdad  is  above  100;  but  of 
these  not  more  than  thirty  are  distinguished  by  the  charac- 
teristic minarets  or  steeples,  the  rest  being  merely  chapels 
and  venerated  places  of  prayer.  The  most  ancient  of 
these  mosques  was  erected  in  the  year  of  the  llegira  633, 
or  1235  of  the  Christian  era,  by  the  Caliph  Mustansir. 
AU  that  remains  of  the  original  building  is  the  minaret, 
nnd  a  small  portion  of  the  outer  walls ;  the  former  a  short, 
heavy  erectioh,  of  the  most  ungraceful  proportions,  built 


of  bricks  of  various  colours,  diagonally  crossed.  The  jamab 
or  mosque  of  Merjaneeah,  not  far  distant  from  the  former, 
though  the  body  of  it  is  modern,  has  some  remains  of  old  and 
very  rich  arabesque  work  on  its  surface,  dating  from  the  1  "Ith 
century.  The  door  is  formed  by  a  lofty  arch  of  the  Pointed 
form,  bordered  on  both  sides  by  rich  bands  exquisitely 
sculptured,  and  having  numerous  inscriptions.  The  mosque 
of  Khaseki,  supposed  to  have  been  an  old  Christian 
church,  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  tha  niche  for  prayer, 
which,  instead  of  a  simjilo  and  unadorned  recess,  is 
crowned  by  a  Roman  arch,  with  square  pedestals,  spirally 
fluted  shafts,  a  rich  capital  of  flowers,  and  a  fine  fan  or 
shell-top  in  the  Eomiin  stylo.  Around  the  arch  is .  a 
sculptured  frieze;  and  down  the  centre,  at  the  back  of  the 
niche,  is  a  broad  band,  richly  sculptured  with  vases,  flowiys, 
(fee,  in  the  very  best  stylo  of  workmanship, — the  whole 
executed  on  a  white  marble  ground.  The  building  in  its 
present  state  bears  the  date  of  IG82  a.d.,  but  the  sculptures' 
which  it  contains  belong  prjbably  to  the  time  of  the  early 


B  A  G  H  D  .V  D 


233 


cajiphj.  Tlie  mosque  of  the  vizier,  near  the  Tigris,  has  a  fine 
dome  and  lofty  minaret;  and  the  great  mosque  in  the  square 
of  El  Meidan  is  also  a  noble  building.  The  others  do  not 
merit  any  particular  notice.  The  domes  of  Baghdad  are 
mostly  high,  and  disproportionately  narrow.  They  are 
richly  ornamented  with  glazed  tiles  and  painting,  the 
colours  chiefly  green  and  white,  which,  being  reflected  from 
a  polished  surface,  impart  more  liveliness  than  magni- 
ficence to  the  aspect  of  these  buildings.  In  the  opinion 
of  Mr  Buckingham,  they  are  not  to  bo  compared  to  the 
rich  and  stately  domes  of  Egypt,  as  the  minarets,  although 
they  have  the  same  bright  assemblage  of  colours,  are  far 
from  being  equal  "to  the  plain  and  grave  dignity  of  sorao 
of  the  Turkish  towers  at  Diarbekir,  Aleppo,  and  Damascus, 
or  to  the  lighter  elegacce  of  many  of  those  in  the  larger 
towns  on  the  banks  of  the  Nde." 

There  are  about  thirty  khans  or  caravanserais  in  Baghdad, 
all  of  inferior  construc'.iou  to  those  in  the  other  large  towns 
of  Turkey.  The  only  remarkable  building  of  this  class  is 
called  Khan-el- Aourtmeh,  and  adjoins  the  Merjaneeah 
mosque,  to  which  it  formerly  belonged.  The  vaulted  roof 
of  this  building  is  a  fine  specimen  of  Saracenic  brick- 
work, and  like  the  adjoining  mosque,  bears  the  date  of 
1356  AD.  It  is  said,  however,  to  occupy  the  site  of  an 
ancient  Christian  church.  The  bazaars,  which  are  numer- 
ous, are  mostly  formed  of  fong,  straight,  and  tolerably  wide 
avenues.  The  one  most  recently  built  is  the  largest  and 
the  best ;  still  it  has  an  air  of  meanness  about  it  that  is 
not  common  in  the  bazaars  of  large  Turkish  cities.  It  is 
long,  wide,  and  lofty,  and  well  filled  with  dealers  and 
wares  of  all  sorts.  Several  of  these  bazaars  are  vaulted 
over  with  brick  work;  but  the  greater  number  are  merely 
covered  wjth  flat  beams  which  support  a  roof  of  straw, 
dried  leaves,  or  branches  of  trees  and  grass.  There  are 
abou^  fifty  baths  in  Baghdad,  which  are  also  very  inferior 
in  their  accommodations  to  those  in  the  other  large  towns 
of  Mesopotamia.  The  only  other  Mahometan  remains 
which  it  is  necessary  to  mention  are — 1.  The  Tekiyeh,  or 
shrine  of  the  Bektash  dervishes,  on  the  western  bank  of 
the  river.  The  ehriiie  is  in  ruins,  but  it  contains  a  fine 
Cufic  inscription  now  mutilated,  which  bears  the  date  of 
333  A.H.  (or  94i  ad)  2.  The  tomb  of  the  famous 
MaarufelKerkhi,  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  dating  from 
1215  A.D.  3.  In  Eastern  or  New  Baghdad  the  college  of 
Mustansir,  near  the  bridge,  now  in  ruins,  but  bearing  a 
fine  inscription  dated  630  ah.  (or  1233  a.d.)  4.  The 
shrine  of  the  famous  Saint  Abdul  Kadir,  which  is  visited 
by  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  the  Mahometan  world.  The 
original  tomb  was  erected  about  1252  a.d.,  but  the  noble 
dome  which  now  canopies  tha  grave  dates  from  about  two 
centuries  later.  An  aqueduct,  the  only  one  in  the  city, 
conveys  water  from  the  river  to  this  shrine.  None  of  the 
other  mosques  or  tombs  require  particular  notice. 

Baghdad  is  about  600  miles  from  the  mouth  of  tne  Tigris 
(following  its  course),  and  about  400  from  Bussorah;  and 
with  the  latter  place  it  carries  on  a  constant  communication 
by  means  of  boatsof  from  twenty  tofiltytons  burden,  though 
the  river  is  navigable  for  larger  vessels.  With  a  northerly 
wind  these  boats  will  make  the  passage  to  Bussoiah  in  seven 
or  eight  days ;  in  calms,  when  they  have  merely  the  aid  of 
the  current,  the  passage  occupies  from  ten  to  fifteen  days. 
Sir  R.  K.  Forter  mentions  that  the  stream  of  the  Tigris  runs 
at  the  rate  of  s<ven  knots  an  1  our.  This,  however,  is  pro- 
bably during  floods,  since,  with  such  a  powerful  current,  a 
boat  could  not  occupy  ten  or  fifteen  days  on  its  passage 
from  Baghdad  to  Bussorah.  Incoming  up  the  stream, 
thirty  or  forty  days  are  required  to  reach  Baghdad.  Of 
lata  years,  however,  steam  communication  has  almost  en- 
tirely superseded  the  use^f  the  native  craft  between  Bagh- 
dad and  Bussorah      British  steamers  were  firot  placed  upon' 

3—vsr 


the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  by  Colonel  Chesney  in  183G,  and, 
with  the  sanction  of  the  Turkish  Government,-  they  have 
ever  since  been  maintained  there,  one  small  vessel  of  the 
Indian  naval  service  being  attached  to  the  British  Residency, 
and  two  commercial  steamers  belonging  to  an  English  com- 
pany being  employed  in  navigating  the  Tigris  for  trade  pur- 
poses. The  Turks  have  also  endeavoured  to  establish  a  Line 
of  mercantile  steamers  of  their  own  between  Baghdad  and 
Bussorah,  but  they  have  not  hitherto  been  very  successful 
The  smaller  craft,  used  for  bringing  supplies  of  provisions 
and  fruit  to  the  city,  are  circular  boats  of  basket-work, 
covered  with  skins,  the  same  that  have  been  employed  from 
the  remotest  antiquity.  The  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  are 
liable  to  spring  floods  ;  and  the  streams  of  both  rivers  being 
sometimes  joined,  inundate  the  desert  plain  on  which  Bagh 
d..d  stands,  when  the  city  appears  like  an  island  in  the 
midst  of  the  sea.  The  inhabitants  are  supplied  with  water 
from  the  Tigris,  which  is  brought  to  their  houses  in  goats' 
skins,  the  convenience  of  water-works,  ci  terns,  and  pipes 
Being  entirely  unknown. 

Baghdad  has  much  declined  from  its  ancient  importance. 
It  was  formerly  a  great  emporium  of  Eastern  commerce ; 
and  it  still  receives,  by  way  of  Bussorah,  from  Bengal  the 
manufactures  and  produce  of  India,  which  are  distributed 
over  Arabia,  Syria,  Kurdistan,  Armenia,  and  Asia  Minor. 
At  the  same  time  the  inland  trade  from  Persia  and  the  East 
has  fallen  off.  The  productions  and  manufactures  of  Persia, 
which  were  intended  for  the  Syrian,  Armenian,  andTurRisli 
markets,  and  were  sent  to  Baghdad  as  a  central  depOt,  now 
reach  Constantinople  by  the  more  direct  route  of  Erzeroom 
and  Tocat.  Wealth,  indeed,  appears  to  be  deficient  among 
all  classes,  and  Baghdad  has  many  symptoms  of  a  decayed 
city.  It  must,  however,  be  noted  that  a  very  considerable 
trade  has  sprung  up  of  late  years  between  the  European 
markets  and  Baghdad,  several  English  houses  being 
established  in  the  city,  who  import  goods,  direct  from 
London  and  Liverpool,  via  the  Suez  Canal  and  Bussorah, 
and  French,  German,  Swiss,  and  Greek  merchants  being 
also  engaged  in  the  traffia  The  staple  articles  of  eiport 
are  dates,  wool,  and  grain,  to  which  may  be  added  cloth  of 
various  kinds,  drugs,  dye-stuffs,  and  miscellaneous  produc- 
tions. A  very  considerable  trade  in  horses  is  also  carried 
on.  The  total  value  of  the  exports  in  1870-71  reached 
about  £46,900,  while  the  imports  for  the  same  year  were 
stated  at  upwards  of  £285,000.  There  is  a  considerable 
manufacture  of  red  and  yellow  leather,  which  is  made  into 
shoes,  and  finds  a  ready  sale. 

The  population  is  a  mixture  of  nations  from  various 
quarters  of  the  East.  The  chief  officers  of  Government, 
whether  civil  or  military,  are  of  the  families  of  Constanti- 
nopoUtan  Turks,  though  they  are  mostly  natives  of  the 
city;  the  merchants  and  traders  are  almost  all  of  Persian 
or  Arabian  descent;  while  the  lower  classes  consist  of 
Turks,  Arabs,  Persians,  and  Indians.  There  are  some 
Jews  and  Christians,  who  still  remain  distinct  from  the 
other  classes;  while  the  strangers  in  the  town  are  Kurds, 
Persians,  and  desert  Arabs  in  considerable  numbers.  Tho 
dress  of  the  Baghdad  Turks  is  not  nearly  so  gay  or  splendid 
as  that  of  their  northern  countrymen;  and  the  costume  of 
the  residents  is,  upon  the  whole,  unusually  plain  in  com- 
parison with  that  of  other  Asiatics.  As  every  nation 
retains  its  own  peculiar  dress,  it  may  bo  easily  conceived 
what  an  amusing  variety  of  costume  must  be  seen  in  the 
streets  of  Baghdad.  The  dress  of  the  females  is  as  mean  as 
that  used  in  the  poorest  villages  of  Mesopotamia;  women 
of  all  classes  being  enveloped  in  a  blue  checked  cloth,  such 
as  is  worn  by  the  lowest  orders  in  Egypt,  and  having  their 
faces  covered  by  hideous  veils  of  black  horse-hair. 

Baghdad  is  governed  by  a  pasha,  assisted  by  a  council. 
He  was  formerly  chosen  from  the  ranks  of  the  Georgian 


234 


B  A  G  ^  B  A  G 


Mamelukes,  but  is  now  always  selected  from  among  tlie 
highest  oflScers  of  the  Constantinople  court,  his  term  of 
office  being  usually  for  four  or  five  years.  He  is  also 
governor-general  of  Irak,  and  possesses  supreme  authority 
from  Diarbekir  to  Bahrein,  though  he  does  not  under 
ordinary  circumstances  interfere  with  the  subordinate 
governments  of  Mosul  and  Kurdistan.' 

The  East  India  Company  used  to  maintain  a  resident 
in  Baghdad  with  a  large  establishment,  and  his  post  is  now 
replaced  by  that  of  a  consul-general  and  political  agent. 
A  French  consul  is  also  regularly  appointed. 

Until  recently  Baghdad  was  supposed  to  be  entirely  a 
Mahometan  city,  dating  from  the  time  of  AJ  Mansilr ;  but 
Sir  H.  Rawlinson  discovered  in  1848,  during  an  unusually 
dry  season,  when  the  rivers  had  fallen  six  feet  below  the 
ordinary  low-water  mark,  that  the  western  bank  of  the  Tigris 
was  lin£d  with  an  embankment  of  solid  brick-work,  dating 
from  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  as  the  bricks  were  each 
stamped  with  his  name  and  titles;  and  it  has  been  since 
remarked  that  in  the  Assyrian  geographical  catalogues  of  the 
time  of  SardanapaUis,  one  of  the  Babylonian  cities  bears 
the  name  of  Bagdad,  and  may  thus  very  possibly  represent 
the  after  site  of  the  capital  of  the  caliphs.  According  to 
the  Arabian  writers,  however,  there  were  no  traces  of  former 
habitation  when  Al  Mansiir  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
new  city.  It  was  adorned  with  many  noble  and  stately 
edifices  by  the  magnificence  of  the  renowned  Haroun  el 
Raschid,  who  also  built  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  river, 
connecting  the  two  quarters  of  the  town  by  a  bridge  of 
boats.  Under  the  auspices  of  Zobeide,  the  wife  of  that 
prince,  and  Jaffer  the  Barmecide,  his  favourite,  the  city  may 
be  said  to  have  attaiued  its  greatest  splendour.  It  con- 
tinued to  flourish  and  increase,  and  to  be  the  seat  of  ele- 
gance and  learning,  until  the  656th  year  of  the  Hegira 
(1277  A.D.),  when  Hulaku  the  Tatar,  the  grandson  of 
Genghis  Khan,  took  it  by  storm,  and  extinguished  the 
dynasty  of  the  Abbassides.  The  Tatars  retained  possession 
of  Baghdad  till  about  the  year  1400  of  our  era,  when  it  was 
taken  by  Timur,  from  whom  the  Sultan  Ahmed  Ben 
Avis  fled,  and  finding  refuge  with  the  Greek  emperor, 
contrived  afterwards  to  repossess  himself  of  the  city,  whence 
lie  was  finally  expelled  by  Kara  Yusef  in  1417.  In  1477 
his  descendants  were  driven  out  by  Usura  Cassim,  who 
reigned  39  years  in  Baghdad,  when  Shah  Ishmael  the  First, 
the  founder  of  the  royal  hause  of  Seff,  made  himself  master 
of  it.  From  that  time  it  continued  for  a  long  period  an 
object  of  contention  between  the  Turks  and  Peraians. 
It  was  taken  by  Soliman  the  Magnificent,  and  retaken  by 
Shah  Abbas  the  Great;  and  it  was  afterwards  besieged  by 
Amurath  the  Fourth,  with  an  army  of  300,000  men. 
After  an  obstinate  resistance,  it  was  forced  to  surrender 
1638  A.D.  ;  when,  in  defiance  of  the  terms  of  capitu- 
lation, most)  of   the  inhabitants    were  massacred.     Since 

'  Bwidea  the  court  of  superior  officers  which  assists  the  piuiha  in 
tho  general  adminiatriition  of  the  prorinco,  there  is  also  a  Mejiis,  or 
mixed  tribunal,  for  tho  settlement  of  municipal  and  commercial  affairs, 
to  which  both  Christian  and  Jewish  merchants  are  admitted.  Much, 
of  course,  depends  on  the  individual  charactei  of  the  pasha,  but,  on  the 
whole;  justice  is  fairiy  administered,  and  with  less  disposition  perhaps 
to  press  on  the  non-Mussulman  portion  of  the  population  than  in  any 
other  city  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  The  Jewish  and  Christian  communities, 
Indeed,  from  their  wealth,  Intelligence,  and  loiig  standing  In  the- 
country,  enjoy  an  exceptionally  favourable  social  position,  and  live  on 
terms  of  equality  with  their  Mahometan  neighbours. 

Baghdad  is  also  the  headquarters  of  tho  army  of  Irak,  and  regular 
troops  to  the  amount  of  five  or  sir  thousand  men  of  all  arms  are 
usually  kept  together  in  the  city,  while  an  equal  force  Is  distributed  in 
BQiall  garrisons  in  the  Arab  and  Kurdish  districts.  Baghdad,  after 
paying  all  its  expenses,  remits  about  £100,000  per  annum  to  tho 
imperial  treasury,  but  its  rosilurccs  are  capable  of  almost  Indefinite 
development,  and  there  is  Indeed  no  reason  why  the  vnlleyi  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  should  not,  under  an  enlightened  goveniraent, 
yield  a  revenue  fully  equal  to  that  of  tlie  falley  of  the  Nile. 


that  period  it  has  remained  under  a  nominal  subjectioo 
to  the  Turks.  Achmet,  the  greatest  of  the  pashas  td 
Baghdad,  and  the  first  who  rendered  the  pashalic  inde- 
pendent of  the  Porte,  defended  the  tovm  with  such  courage 
against  Nadir  Shah,  that  the  invader  was  compelled  to 
raise  the  siege,  after  ouffering  great  loss.  ■  Baghdad, 
according  to  Colonel  Chesney,  had  110,000  inhabitants 
previously  to  the  great  plague  of  1830;  but  in  1853 
Mr  Layard  estimated  its  population  under  50,000.  A.n 
estimate  made  in  1872  on  a  census  taken  in  1809  nses 
as  high  as  150,000,  but  this  is  in  all  probability  an  exag- 
geration (v.  Allen's  Indian  Mail,  1874).  Long.  44°  24'  E.. 
lat.  33°  21'  N.  Buckingham's  Travels  in  Mesopotamia 
(1827);  Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels  in  Georgia,  Persia, 
Armenia,  and  Ancient  Babylonia  (1821-22)  ;  Kinneir's  Geo- 
graphical Memoir  of  the  Persian  Empire  (1813);  Chespey's 
Expedition  (1850);  Rousseau's  Description  du  pochalik 
de  Bagdad  (1809);  V/ellsted's  City  of  the  Caliphs; 
Grove's  Residence  in  Baghdad  (1830-32)  ;  Transactions  oj 
Bombay  Ge-og.  Soc.  (1856).  (h.  o.  e.) 

BAGHERMI,  or  Baoirmi,  a  district  or  kingdom  of  Ceu 
tral  Africa,  lying  to  the  S.  of  Lake  Chad  and  S.W.  of  Bornu. 
It  extends  about  240  miles  from  N.  to  S.,  and  has  a 
breadth  of  barely  150  miles.  The  surface  is  almost  flat, 
with  a  slight  inclination  to  the  N.,  and  the  general  eleva- 
tion is  about  950  feet  above  sea-level.  The  Shari,  a  larga 
and  always  navigable  river,  forms  the  western  boundary, 
and  throws  out  an  important  effluent  called  the  Bachikam, 
which  passes  through  the  heart  of '  the  country.  The  soil 
consists  partly  of  Ume  and  partly  of  sand,  and  is  by  no 
means  unfertile.  In  many  parts  not  a  stone  is  to  bo  seen. 
Negro-millet,  sesamum,  and  sorghum  are  the  principal 
grains  in  cultivation,  but  rice  grows  wild,  and  several  kinds 
of  grass  or  poa  are  used  as  food  by  the  natives.  Cotton 
and  indigo  are  gnvm  to  a  considerable  extent,  especially 
by  Bornu  immigrants.  Among  the  trees  the  most  import- 
ant are  the  tamarind,  the  deleb-pakn,  the  dum-palm,  tho 
hajilij  or  Balanites  (egyptiaca,  the  sycamore,  and  the 
cornel.  The  country  often  suflfers  from  drought,  and  is 
greatly  plagued  with  worms  and  insects,  especiallj'  ants  of 
all  kinds,  red,  black,  and  white.  The  Kungjimgjudu,  a 
sort  of  beetle  which  does  great  damage  to  the  crops,  is  eaten 
by  the  natives.  A  large  proportion  of  the  people  have 
their  feet  mutilated  by  the  attacks  of  a  small  worm,  which 
takes  up  its  residence  in  the  first  joint  of  the  little  toe  and 
cats  it  gradually  away.  The  inhabitants  of  Baghcrmi  are 
a  vigorous,  well-formed  race,  who,  according  to  their  owQ 
traditions,  came  from  tho  Far  East  several  centuries  ago. 
They  speak  a  language  cognate  with  those  spoken  by  the 
Sara,  who  dwell  about  two  degrees  further  south,  and  the 
Dor,  who  are  situated  at  tho  confluence  of  the  Dyor  with 
the  White  Nile.  On  their  arrival  they  soon  extended  their 
power  over  the  Fellata  and  Arabs  already  settled  in  the 
district,  and  after  being  converted  to  Mahometanism  under 
Abd-Allah,  their  fourth  king,  they  extended  their  authority 
over  a  large  number  of  heathen  tribes.  Tho  most  import- 
ant of  these  are  the  Sokoro,  the  Bua,  the  NyUlam,  the  Sara, 
the  Tumok.  and  the  Busso.  They  are  almost  all  in  a  low 
state  of  civilisation,  and  practise  strange  superstitions — a 
belief  in  a  god  whom  they  identify  with  thunder  being  the 
greatest  extent  of  their  religion.  They  are  subject  to 
the  barbarous  raids  of  their  Baghermian  masters,  who  derive 
from  them  a  constant  supply  of  slaves  with  which  to  pay 
tho  tribute  demanded  from  thom  in  their  turn  by  tho  sultsn 
of  Bornu."  For  our  knowledge  of  this  district  we  are  prin- 
cipally indebted  to  Barth  and  Nachtigal ;  the  former  was  _ 
for  some  time  a  prisoner  in  Mosscfut,  the  capital. 

See  Barth,  Travels  in  Northern  and  Central  Africa  in 
1849-53,  vol.  iii.,  and  Nachtigal,  in  Pctcrmann's  J//rtArt/ 
for  1874,  and  in  Zdtseh.  d.  Ges.  f.  Erdkundau  Berlin,  1870 


B  A  G  —  B  A  G 


235 


BAGHMATT,  a  river  of  HindustAn,  which  has  its  source 
in  tho  hiJls  to  the  nor*h  of  Kitraandu,  the  capital  of  Nepil, 
whence  it  flows  in  a  southerly  direction  through  the  district 
of  Tirhut  in  tho  province  of  Behar,  and,  receiving  the 
tt-aters  of  the  Buchii  on  its  north  bank,  and  of  BurA  Gandak 
on  its  south' bank,  joins  the  Ganges,  after  a  course  of  285 
miles,  in  25"  23'  N.  lat.  and  86°  34'  E.  long.,  about  8  miles 
below  the  town  of  Monghir,  but  on  the  opposite  bank. 

BAGLIVr,  Giorgio,  an  illustrious  Italian  physician, 
descended  from  a  poor  persecuted  Armenian  family,  was 
born  at  Ragusa  in  1669,  and  assumed  tho  name  of  his 
adoptive  father,  Pietro  Angelo  Baglivi,  a  wealthy  physician 
of  Lecce.  He  studied  successively  at  the  universities  of 
Salerno,  Padua,  and  Bologna ;  and  after  travelling  over 
Italy,  he  went  in  1502  to  Rome,  where,  through  the  in- 
duence  of  the  celebrated  Malpighi,  he  was  elected  professor 
of  anatomy  in  the  college  of  Sapienza.  He  died  at  Rome 
in  1707,  at  tho  early  age  of  thirty-eii^'ht.  A  collection  of 
his  writings,  which  are  all  in  the  Latin  language,  was 
published  in  4to  in  1704,  and  has  been  several  times 
reprinted  in  the  same  form.  An  edition  in  2  vols.  8vo 
wa.s  published  in  1 788.  Baglivi's  worlc  De  Fihra  Motrice,  is 
the  foundation  of  that  theory  of  medicine  which  was  substi- 
tuted by  Hoffmann  and  Cullen  for  the  Humoral  Pathology. 
1  PAGNACAVALLO,  BABTOLOStMEO,  an  Italian- painter, 
who  flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century. 
Ui3  real  name  was  Ramenghi,  but  he  received  the  cogno- 
men Bagnacavallo  from  the  little  village  where  he  was 
born  in  1484.  He  studied  first  under  Francia,  and  then 
proceeded  to  Rome,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Raffaelle. 
UTiilo  studying  underhim  he  worked  along  with  many  others 
at  tho  decoration  of  the  gallery  in  tho  Vatican,  though  it 
is  not  known  what  portions  are  his  work.  On  his  return 
to  Bologna  he  quickly  took  the  leading  place  as  an  artist, 
and  to  him  were  due  the  great  improvemehts  in  the 
general  style  of  what  has  been  called  the-  Bologneso 
school  His  works  were  considered  to  be  inferior  in  point 
of  design  to  some  other  productions  of  the  school  of 
Raffaelle,  but  they  were  distinguished  by  rich  colouring 
and  graceful  delineation.  They  were  highly  esteemed  by 
Ouido  and  tho  Carracci,  who  studied  them  carefully  and 
in  some  points  imitated  them.  The  best  specimens  of 
Bagnacavallo 's  works,  the  Dispute  of  St  A'ugustin  and  a 
Madonna  with  Child,  are  at  Bologna.     Ho  died  in  1542. 

BAGNfcRES-DE  BIGORRE  (the  Vitus  Aguensis  of 
tho  Romans),  the  capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  tho  depart- 
ment of  Hautes-Pyrdndes,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Adour,  13  miles  S.E.  of  Tarbes.  It  is  one  of  the  princi- 
pal watering-places  in  France,  and  is  much  admired  for  its 
picturesque  situation  and  the  beauty  of  its  environs,  parti- 
cularly the  valley  of  Campan,  which  abounds  with  beautiful 
gardens  and  handsome  villas.  The  town  is  remarkably 
neat  and  clean,  and  many  of  the  houses  are  built  or  orna- 
mented with  marble.  Its  thermal  springs  and  baths  are 
numerous  and  varied,  and  are  very  eflicacioiis  in  debility  of 
the  digestive  organs  and  other  maladies.  Their  temperature 
is  from  90°  to  135°  Fahr.  The  season  commences  in  May 
and  terminates  about  tho  end  of  October,  during  vAich 
time  the  population  is  more ,  than  doubled.  Manu- 
factures of  woollen  cloth,  worsted,  leather,  pottery,  and 
toys  are  carried  en,  and  marble  from  tho  neighbouring 
quifrries  is  wrought  in  the  town.  Greatly  frequented 
by  the  Romans,  and  destroyed  by  the  Gothic  invaders, 
Uagntres  begins  to  appear  again  in  history  in  the  12th 
century,  and  roso  into  permanent  importmco  under  the 
reign  of  Jeanne  d' Albert,  the  mother  of  Henry  IV.  Per- 
manent population,  about  9500. 

BAQNERES-DE-LUCnON,  a  smaU  well-built  town  of 
>  tancc,  department  of  Hautc-Garonne,  plea.santly  situated 
in  the  Talley  of  the  Luchon, '  at  the  foot  of  tho  Pyrenees. 


It  is  celebrated  for  its  sulphurous  thermal  springs,  which 
vary  in  temperature  from  88°  to  180°  Fahr.  The  bath- 
ing establishment  is  one  of  tho  most  complete  in  Europe. 
The  waters  are  employed  with  success  in  a  variety  of 
chronic  affections,  and  about  10,000  patients  visit  the  town 
annually.     Resident  population,  about  3600. 

BAGPIPE  (Fr.  musette,  Ger.  Sackpfeife,  Ital.  comamuia), 
a  musical  instrument  of  unknown  antiquity,  which  seems 
to  have  been  at  one  time  or  other  in  common  use  among 
all  the  nations  of  Europe,  and  still  retains  its  place  in 
many  Highland  districts,  such  as  Calabria,  the  Tyrol,  and 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  The  wind  is  generally  supplied 
by  a  blowpipe,  though  in  some  cases  bellows  are  used. 
These  and  other  slight  variations,  however,  involve  no 
essential  difference  in  character  or  constniction,  and  a 
description  of  the  great  bagpipe  of  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland  will  serve  to  indicate  the  leading  features  of  the 
instrument  in  all  its  forms.  It  consists  of  a  large  wind- 
bag made  of  greased  leather  covered  with  woollen  cloth;  a 
mouth-tube,  valved,  by  which  tho  bag  is  inflated  with  the 
player's  breath;  three  reed  drones;  and  a  reed  chanter  with 
finger-holes,  on  which  the  tunes  are  played.  Of  tho  three 
drones,  one  is  long  and  two  are  short.  The  longest  is  tuned 
to  A,  an  octave  below  the  lowest  A  of  the  chanter,  and  the 
two  shorter  drones  are  tuned  each  an  octave  above  tho  A 
of  the  longest  drone;  or,  in  other  words,  in  unison  with 
the  lowest  A  of  tho  chanter.  The  scale  of  the  chanter 
has  a  compass  of  nine  notes,  all  natural,  extending  from  O 
on  the  second  line  of  the  treble  stave  up  to  A  in  alt.  In 
the  music  performed  upon  this  instrument,  the  players 
introduce  among  the  simple  notes  of  the  tune  a  kind  of 
appoggiatura,  consisting  of  a  great,  number  of  rapid  notes 
of  peculiar  embellishment,  which  they  term  warhlers.  No 
exact  idea  of  these  warblers  can  be  fonned  except  by  hear- 
ing a  first-rate  player  upon  the  Highland  bagpipe.  The 
history  of  the  bagpipe  can  bo  clearly  traced  from  the 
earliest  periods  by  means  of  pictorial  representations  and 
references  occurring  in  literature.  The  instrument  probably 
consisted  at  first  of  the  pipes  without  the  bag,  and  in  this 
form  it  is  mentioned  in  Scripture  (1  Sam,  x.  5;  Isa.  v.  12; 
Jer.  xh-iii.  36),  and  was  used  by  the  Egyptians,  the 
Greeks,  and  the  Romans.  The  strain  upon  the  player  of 
these  pipes  was  so  great  that  he  had  to  bandage  up  his  hps 
and  cheeks  with  a  tfiopfieia  or  irtpurroiuov,  the  Roman 
capisirum,  a  leathern  muzzle  or  headstall.  It  seems  very 
probable  that  tho  bagpipe  derived  its  origin  from  these 
double  and  triple  reed-pipes,  by  the  after  addition  to  them 
of  a  wind-bag  made  of  the  skin  of  a  goat  or  kid,  together 
with  a  valved  porte-vcnt,  in  order  to  reheve  the  strain  on 
tho  lungs  and  cheeks  of  the  player.  There  are  several 
evidences  that  the  bagpipe  was  well  known  in  tho  time  of 
Nero.  It  is  represented  on  a  coin  of  that  reign,  copied  in 
Montfaucon's  Antiquities,  and  Suetonius  (Ner.,  54)  speaks 
of  a  promise  made  by  Nero  shortly  before  his  death,  that 
ho  would  appear  before  the  people  as  a  bagpiper  (viricu- 
larius).  In  mediaeval  Latin  the  instrument  is  designated 
the  Tibia  ■utricularia.  Chaucer  represents  the  miller  as 
skilled  in  playing  the  bagpipe;  and  Shakspc.ire's  familiar 
allusion  to  "  the  drone  of  a  Lincolnshire  bagjjipe"  is  suffi- 
cient of  itself  to  disprove  the  common  notion  that  the 
instrument  hiis  always  been  peculiar  to  Scotland. 

BAGRATION,  Pbtek,  Pkince,  a  distinguished  Russian 
general,  descended  from  the  noble  Georgian  family  of 
the  Bagratides,  was  born  in  1765.  In  1782  ho  entered 
tho  Russian  army  and  served  for  some  years  in  the  Caucasus. 
In  1788  ho  wcis  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Oczacow,  and  after- 
wards accompanied  Suwaroff,  by  whom  he  was  lii(^hly 
esteemed,  through  all  his  Italian  and  Swiss  campaigns. 
He  particularly  distinguished  himself  in  1709  hy  tho 
capture  of  tho  town  of  Brescia.     In  the  wars  of  1805  his 


236 


B  A  G  — B  A  H 


ochieyements  were  even  more  brilliant.  With  a  small  force 
he  withstood  for  several  hours  the  united  troops  of  Murat 
and  Lannes,  and  though  half  his  men  fell,  the  retreat  of 
the  main  army  under  KutusofiF  was  thereby  secured.  At 
Auflterlitz  he  had  the  command  of  the  advanced  guard  of 
Prince.  Lichtenstein's  column,  and  at  Eylau  and  Friedland 
he  fought  with  the  most  resolute  and  stubborn  courage. 
In  1808  he  commanded  in  Finland,  and  in  1809  in  Turkey, 
and  was  almost  uniformly  successful  in  his  operations.  In 
the  famous  Russian  campaign  of  1812  the  corps  under  his 
leadership  had  been  separated  from  the  main  army  under 
Barclay  de  Tolly,  and  was  defeated  ,by  Liavoust  at 
Mohilev.     Bagration,  however,  succeeded  in  eflfecting  the 


dsjslred  junclion  at  Smolensk.  He  was  mortally  wounded 
in  the  bloody  battle  of  the  Borodino,  7th  Sept.  1812,  and 
died  one  month  later. 

BAHAMAS,  or  Lucayas,  a  very  numerous  group  of 
islands,  cays,  rocks,  and  reefs,  comprising  an  area  of  3021 
square  miles,  lying  between  21°  42'  and  27°  34'  N.  lat.  and 
72°40'  and  79°  5'  \V.  long.  They  encircle  and  almost  enclose 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  stretching  more  than  600  miles  from 
the  eastern  coast  of  Florida  to  the  northern  coast  of  St 
Domingo,  and  are  traversed  by  only  three  navigable 
channels — 1st,  the  Florida  Channel  to  the  N.,  which 
runs  along  the  coast  of  the  United  States  and  lies  to  the 
westward  of  the- whole  Bahama  group;  2d,  the  Providence 


Sketch-Map  of  the  Bahama  Islanils. 


Channels,  passing  through  the  group  to  the  N.,  and 
separating  tho  Great  and  Little  Banks;  and  3d,  the  old 
Bahama  Channel,  which  passes  to  the  S.  of  the  Great  Bahama 
Bank,  between  it  and  Cuba.  The  islands  lie  for  the  most 
part  on  the  windward  edge  of  the  Great  and  Little  Banks, 
or  of  the  ocean  sounds  or  tongues  which  pierce  them.  The 
total  number  of  islands  is  29,  while  the  cays  are  reckoned 
at  661,  and  the  rocks  at  2387.  Tho  principal  islands  are 
NewProvidonco  (which  contains  tho  capital  Nassau),  Abaco, 
Harbour  Island,  Eleuthora,  Inagua,  llayaguana,  St  Salva- 
dor, Andrea  Island,  Great  Bahama,  Ragged  Island,  Rum 
Cay,  Exuma,  Long  Island,  Crooked  Island,  Acklin  Island, 
Long  Cay,  Watling  Island,  tho  Berry  Islands,  and 
the  Biminis.  Turk's  Island  and  tho  Caicos,  which  be- 
long geographically  to  the  Bahama  group,  were  separated 
politically  in  1848.  The  formation  of  all  the  islands  is 
the  same.— calcareous  rocks  of  coral  and  shell  hardened  into 


j  limestone,  honeycombed  and  perforated  with  innumerable 
cavities,  without  a  trace  of  primitive  or  volcanic  rock  ;  the 
surface  is  as  hard  as  flint,  but  underneath  it  gradually 
softens  and  furnishes  an  admirable  stone  for  building, 
which  can  be  sawn  into  blocks  of  any  size,  these 
hardening  on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  Tho  shore."* 
are  generally  low,  the  highest  hill  in  tho  whole  range  of 
the  islands  being  only  230  feet  high.  The  soil,  although  very 
thin,  is  very  fertile.  On  Andres  Island  and  on  Abaco  thtre 
is  much  largo  timber,  including  mahogany,  mastic,  lignum 
vitn?,  iron,  and  bullet  woods,  and  many  others.  Unfortu- 
nately the  want  both  of  labour  and  of  roads  renders  it  im- 
possible to  turn  this  valuable  timber  to  useful  account.  The 
fruits  and  spices  of  tho  Bahamas  ara  very  numerous, — tbo 
fruit  equalling  any  in  the  world.  The  produce  of  tho  islands 
includes  tamarinds,  olives,  oranges,  lemons,  limes,  citrons, 
pomegranates,  pino-applos,  figs,  sapodiUas,  bananas,  sower- 


BAHAMAS 


237 


eops,  melons,  yams,  potatoes,  gourds,  cucumbers,  pepper, 
cassava,  prickly  pears,  sugar  cane,  ginger,  coffoe,  indigo, 
Guinea  corn  and  pease.  Tobacco  and  cascarilla  bark  also 
flourish  ,  and  cotton  is  indigenous,  and  was  woven  into  cloth 
by  the  aborigines. 

It  13  a  remarkable  fact  that  except  in  the  island  of  Andros, 
no  streams  of  running  water  are  to  bo  found  in  the  whole 
group.  The  inhabitants  derive  their  water  supply  from 
wells,  tho  ram-water  in  which  appears  to  have  some  con- 
nection with  the  sea,  as  the  contents  of  the  wells  rise  and 
fall  with  the  tide  upon  the  neighbouring  shore.  The  Baha- 
mas are  far  poorer  in  their  fauna  than  in  their  flora.  It 
is  said  that  tho  aborigines  had  a  breed  of  dogs  which  did 
not  bark,  and  a  small  coney  is  also  mentioned.  The  guana 
also  13  indigenous  to  the  islands.  Oxen,  sheep,  horses, 
and  other  live  stock  introduced  from  Europe,  thrive  well, 
but  of  late  years  veiy  littlo  attention  has  been  paid  to 
stock  rearing,  and  Nassau  has  been  dependent  upon  Cuba 
for  its  beef,  and  on  tho  United  States  or  Nova  Scotia 
for  its  mutton.  There  are  many  varieties  of  birds  to 
be  found  in  the  woods  of  the  Bahamas  ;  they  include 
flamingoes  and  tho  beautiful  humming-bird,  as  well  as  wild 
geese,  ducks,  pigeons,  hawks,  green  paiTOts,  and  doves.  The 
waters  of  the  Bahamas  swarm  with  fish,  and  the  turtle  pro- 
cured here  is  particularly  fine.  In  the  southerly  islands 
•there  are  salt  ponds  of  great  value. 

The  story  of  the  Bahamas  is  a  singular  one,  and  bears 
principally  upon  the  fortunes  of  New  Pro\'idence,  which, 
from  the  fact  that  it  alone  possesses  a  perfectly  safe  harbour 
for  vessels  drawing  more  than, 9  feet,  has  always  been  the 
seat  of  Government,  when  it  was  not  the  headquarters  of 
lawless  villainy.  St  Salvador  (Cat  Island,  or  as  some  sup- 
pose, Watling  Island),  however,  claims  historical  precedence 
as  the  landfall  of  Columbus  on  his  memorable  voyage. 
He  passed  through  the  islands,  and  in  one  of  his  letters  to 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  he  said,  "  This  country  excels  all 
others  as  far  as  the  day  surpasses  the  night  in  splendour; 
tho  natives  lovo  their  neighbours  as  themselves ;  their  con- 
versation is  tho  sweetest  imaginable ;  their  faces  always 
smiling  ;  and  so  gentle  and  so  afl'cctionate  are  they,  that  I 
swear  to  your  highness  there  is  not  a  better  people  in  the 
world."  But  the  natives,  innocent  as  they  appeared,  were 
doomed  to  utter  destruction.  Ovando,  the  governor  of 
Hispaniola,  who  h,id  exhausted  the  labour  of  that  island, 
turned  his  thoughts  to  the  Bahamas,  and  in  1500  Ferdinand 
authorised  him  to  procure  labourers  from  these  islands. 
It  is  said  that  reverence  and  love  for  their  departed  rela- 
tives was  a  marked  feature  in  the  character  of  the  abori- 
gines, and  that  the  Spaniards  made  use  of  this  as  a  bait  to 
trap  the  unhappy  natives.  They  promised  to  convey  the 
ignorant  savages  in  their  ships  to  the  "  heavenly  shores," 
where  their  departed  frieiids  now  dwelt,  and  about  40,000 
were  transported  to  Uispanioh  to  perbh  miserably  in  tho 
mines.  From  that  date  until  after  colonisation  of  New 
Providence  by  the  English,  there  is  no  record  of  a  Spanish 
visit  to  the  Bahamas,  with  the  exception  of  the  extraordinary 
cruise  of  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon,  the  conqueror  of  Porto  Rico, 
*ho  passed  months  searching  tho  islands  for  "  Bimini," 
which  w^as  reported  to  contain  the  miraculous  "Fountain 
of  Youth." 

Tho  deserted  islands  were  first  visited  by  tho  English 
in  1029,  and  a  settlement  formed  in  New  Providence, 
which  they  hold  till  1641,  when  the  Spaniards  eipelloil 
them  but  made  no  attempt  to  settle  there  themselves. 
Tho  English  again  took  possession  in  1CG7,  and  in  IGSO 
Charles  II.  made  a  grant  of  the  islands  to  George,  Duke 
of  Albemarle;  William,  Lord  Craven;  Sir  George  Carteret ; 
John,  Lord  Berkeley;  Anthony,  Lord  Ashley ;  and  Sir  Peter 
Colleton.  Governors  were  appointed  by  the  lords  proprio- 
tors,  and  there  are  very  copious  records  iu  tho  state  p.ipcrs 


of  the  attempts  made  to  develop  the  resources  of  the  island  ; 
but  the  repeated -attacks  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the  tyranny 
and  mismanagement  of  the  governors,  proved  great  obstaclts 
to  success.  In  July  1703  the  French  aud  Spaniards  mado 
a  descent  on  New  Providence,  blew  up  the  fort,  spiked  the 
guns,  burnt  tho  church,  and  parried  oB  the  governor,  with 
the  principal  inhabitants,  to  the  Havannah  ;  and  in  October 
the  Spaniards  made  a  second  descent,  and  completed  the 
work  of  destruction.  It  is  said  that  when  the  last  of  the 
governors  appointed  by  the  lords  proprietors,  iu  ignorance 
of  the  Spanish  raid,  arrived  in  New  Providence,  he  found 
the  island  without  an  inhabitant.  It  soon,  however, 
became  the  resort  of  pirates,  and  the  names  of  many  of 
the  worst  of  these  ruflians  is  associated  with  New  Provi- 
dence, the  notorious  Blackboard  being  chief  among  tho 
number.  At  last  matters  became  so  intolerable  that  tho 
merchants  of  London  and  Bristol  petitioned  the  Crown 
to  take  possession  and  restore  order,  and  Captain  Woods 
Rogers  was  sent  out  as  tho  first  Crown  governor,  and 
arrived  at  New  Providence  in  1718.  Many  families 
of  good  character  now  settled  at  the  Bahamas,  and  some 
progress  was  made  in  developing  the  resources  of  the  colony, 
although  this  was  interrupted  by  the  tymnnical  conduct  of 
some  of  the  governors  who  succeeded  Captain  Woods 
Rogers.  At  this  time  the  pine-apple  was  introduced  as  an 
article  of  cultivation  at  Eleuthera ;  and  a  few  years  subse- 
quently, during  the  American  war  of  independence, 
colonists  arrived  in  great  numbers,  bringing  with  them 
wealth  and  also  slave  labour.  Cotton  cultivation  was  now 
attempted  on  a  large  scale.  In  1783,  at  Long  Island,  800 
slaves  were  at  work,  and  nearly  4000  acres  of  land  under 
cultivation.  But  the  usual  bad  luck  of  the  Bahamas  pre- 
vailed ;  the' red  bug  destroyed  the  cotton  crops  in  1788, 
and  again  in  1794,  and  by  the  year  1800  cotton  cultiva» 
tion  was  almost  abandoned.  There  were  also  other  causes 
that  tended  to  retard  the  progress  of  the  colony.  In 
1776  Commodore  Hopkins,  of  the  American  navy,  took 
the  island  of  New  Providence;  ho  soon,  however,  aban- 
doned it  as  untenable,  but  in  1782  it  was  retaken  by 
the  Spanish  governor  of  Cuba.  The  Spaniards  retained 
nominal  possession  of  the  Bahamas  until  1783,  but  before 
peace  was  notified  New  ProWdenco  was  recaptured  by  a 
loyalist,  Colonel  Deveaux,  of  the  South  Carolina  militia,  in 
June  1783.  In  1787,  the  descendants  of  the  old  lords 
proprietors  received  each  a  grant  of  i!2000  in  satisfaction 
of  their  claims,  and  tho  islands  were  formally  reconveyed 
to  the  Crown.  The  Bahamas  began  again  to  make  a  littlo 
progress,  until  the  separation  of  Turks  and  Caicos  Islands 
in  1848,  which  had  been  hitherto  the  most  productive 
of  the  salt-producing  islands,  unfavourably  affected  the 
finances.  Probably  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  in 
1834  was  not  without  its  effect  upon  the  fortunes  of  tho 
landed  proprietors. 

The  next  event  of  importance  in  tlie  history  of  tho 
Bahamas  was  the  rise  of  tho  blockade-running  trade,  con- 
sequent on  the  dosing  of  the  southern  ports  of  America 
by  the  Federals  in  18G1.  At  the  commencement  of  18C5 
this  trade  was  at  its  highest  point.  In  January  and 
Februarj'  18G5  no  less  than  20  steamers  arrived  at  Nassau, 
importing  14,182  bales  of  cotton,  valued  at  £554,075. 
The  extraordinary  diffcioncc  between  the  normal  trade  of  tho 
islands  and  that  due  to  blockade-running,  will  be  seen  by 
comparing  tho  imports  and  exports  before  the  closing  of 
the  southern  ports  in  18C0  with  those  of  18G4.  In  tho 
former  year  the  imports  were  £234,029,  and  tho  exports 
XI 57,350,  while  in  the  latter  year  the  imports  were 
X5,34C,112,  and  the  exports,  £4,072,398.  The  excite- 
ment, extravagance,  and  waste  existing  at  Nassau  during 
the  days  of  blockade-running  exceed  belief.  ludividuAls 
may  liavc  profited   h\rgcly,  but  the   Bahamas  probably 


238 


BAHAMAS 


benefited  little.  The  Government  managed  to  pay  its 
debt  amounting  to  X43,7S6,  but  crime  increased,  and 
sickness  became  very  prevalent.  The  cessation  of  the 
trade  was  marked,  however,  by  hardly  any  disturbance ; 
there  were  no  local  failures,  and  in  a  few  months  the 
steamers  and  their  crews  departed,  and  New  Providence 
subsided  into  its  usual  state  of  quietude.  This,  however, 
was  not  fated  to  last  long,  for  in  October  1866  a  most 
violent  hurricane  passed  over  the  island,  injuring  the 
orchards,  destroying  the  fruit-treos,  and  damaging  the 
sponges,  which  had  proved  hitherto  a  source  of  profit. 
The  hurricane,  too,  was  followed  by  repeated  droughts, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  out-islands  were  reduced  to 
indigence  and  want.-  There  was  an  increase,  however,  in 
the  production  of  salt.  The  exports  as  a  whole  fell  off. 
Those  of  native  produce,  which  in  1866  had  been 
iE77,604,  were  reduced  in  1807  to  £71,117,  and  the 
remaining  exports  of  1866,  amounting  to  £184,372,  were, 
in  1867,  £156,131.  The  depression  has  continued  almost 
to  the  present  time  (1875).  The  public  debt  paid  off 
during  the  davs  of  the  blockade-running  swelled  again  to  a 
sum  of  £54,161,  ISs.  2d.,  and  the  revenue  until  very  lately 
was  steadily  on  the  decline.  It  was  £47,530  in  1870, 
while  the  expenditure  was  £48,598,  and  in  1872  there 
was  a  further  decrease  of  revenue  to  £37,574,  with  an 
expenditure  of  £39,000.  In  1873  there  was,  however, 
an  improvement.  The  revenue  rose  to  £44,053,  the  ex- 
penditure being  only  £42,737.  The  improvement  in  the 
finances  is  due  principally,  it  would  seem,  to  the  readjust- 
ment of  the  customs'  duties.  In  a  recent  Blue  Book  it 
is  stated  that  the  Government  in  1873  increased  the 
duties  on  ale,  brandy,  gin,  rum,  and  whisky  by  50  per 
cent.;  on  cigars  and  tobacco,  by  100  per  cent;  and  on  wine 
by  200  per  cent.  As  regards  other  articles  the  Assembly 
at  the  same  time  relieved  the  general  consumer  by 
reducing  the  25  per  cent,  ad  valorem  duties  to  15  per  cent. 
They  abolished  the  export  duty  on  vessels  in  distress,  and 
they  reduced  the  tonnage  and  wharfage  dues.  They  abo 
abolished  a  licence  fee,  payable  hitherto  by  the  men 
employed  as  wTeckers,  and  they  repealed  a  special  income- 
tax  levied  upon  public  officers.  The  last  colonial  report 
expresses  a  hope  and  a  belief  that  the  sound  financial  con- 
dition to  which  the  colony  has  been  restored  will  continue. 
The  hope,  however,  hardly  seems  justified  at  present  by 
the  commercial  progress  of  the  Bahamas.  In  1870  the 
imports  were  of  the  value  of  £283,970.  In  1872  they 
had  fallen  to  £201,051,  and  in  1873  they  had  increased 
to  £226,306.  In  like  manner  the  exports  of  1873  con- 
trasted favourably  with  those  of  1872,  having  increased 
from  £136,224  to  £1,"6,613.  But  the  increase  in  exports 
is  due  to  the  development  of  trade  in  articles,  such  as  pine- 
apples and  oranges,  the  production  of  which  is  uncertain,  since 
a  season's  crop  may  perish  in  a  hurricane.  The  sponge  trade 
is  not  so  prosperous  as  it  should  be,  the  Spanish  authori- 
ties, it  appears,  interfering  with  the  spongers  working  on 
the  reefs  near  Cuba;  while  the  excessive  duty  levied  in  the 
United  States  on  salt  has  almost  paralysed  the  salt-making 
trade  of  the  Bahamas.  The  total  number  of  pine-apples 
exported  to  the  United  States  and  England  in  1873  was 
422,994  dozen,  valued  at  £38,707.  To  this  must  be 
added  the  tinned  fruit,  a  branch  of  industry  introduced 
in  1872.  Pineapples  in  tins  were  exported  in  the  follow- 
ing year  to  the. number  of  69,105  dozen,  valued  at 
£13,018,  and  cases  of  pineapples  from  the  same  establish- 
ment to  the  value  of  £1712.  The  exportation  of  other 
fruit  was— of  oranges,  2,252,000,  valued  at  £3822  ;  of 
Bananas,  7172  bunches,  valued  at  £346  ;  and  about  £700 
worth  of  grape-fruit,  shaddocks,  lemons,  limes,  and  melons. 
One  great  and  profitable  business  at  the  Bahamas  has 
decreased,  and  is  not  likely  to  flourish  again.     There  has 


been  of  lute  years  a  marked  diminution  in  the  number  of 
marine  casualties,  which  in  past  times  threw  into  the 
ports  of  the  colony  a  large  amount  of  valuable  property, 
of  which  a  great  part  was  frequently  exported.  The 
erection  of  lighthouses,  the  diversion  of  trade  from  the 
southern  ports  of  America,  and  the  increased  use  of  steam, 
have  all  tended  to  this  decline  of  the  wreckers'  trade,  and 
it  is  said  that  the  people  of  Harbour  Island,  at  one  time 
the  great  stronghold  of  the  wreckers,  have  now  all  turned 
their  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  pine-apples.  In  1864 
the  number  of  -wrecks  reported  was,  including  complete 
and  partial,  67,  while  in  1871  it  was  but  39. 

The  colony  is  divided  into  13  parishes,  although  the 
division  is  now  used  for  civil  purposes  only.  An  Act  to 
amend  the  ecclesiastical  laws  of  the  colony  was  assented  to 
on  the  1st  of  June  1869,  and  confirmed  on  the  7th  of 
October  1869,  and  the  Church  of  England  at  the  Bahamas 
disestablished.  The  population  of  the  islands  taken  at 
the  census  of  1871  was  39,162  (being  an  incicase  in  the 
decennial  period  since  1861  of  3875),  of  whom  19,349  were 
males,  and  19,813  females.  With  regard  to  race,  it  may 
be  said  that  the  native  and  coloured  inhabitants  now 
enormously  outnumber  the  white  colonists.  The  last  return 
showing  the  varieties  of  race  was  .published  in  1826  ,  the 
population  was  16,033,  of  whom  4588  were  white,  2259 
coloured,  and  9186  black;  since  then  the  proportion  of 
coloured  and  black  to  white  has  increased.  The  health  of 
the  colony  has  been  improving  of  late  years  ;  the  death-rate 
of  1872  was  only  17-9  in  1000.  The  total  births  were 
1475  against  704  deaths.  The  climate  of  the  Bahamas 
has  always  borne  a  reputation  for  salubrity.  The  mean  of 
a  series  of  daily  observations  of  temperature  for  10  years 
is  as  follows  : — 

Height  of  Thermomder  in  Degrees  Fahr.  o^  9  A  M. 


Max. 

January  75 

February 76 

March 73 

Apiil   81 

May 81 

June    88   ' 

July 88 

Augast    88 

SeptembiT  86 

October  82 

November  79 

December 77 


70 
71 
72 
75 
73 
81 
82 
81 
81 
77 
74 
73 


Mlo 
6fi 
65 
S« 
68 
71 
74 
75 
75 
75 
73 
70 
69 


The  rainfall  is  heavy  from  May  to  October.  During  fhe 
winter  months  it  is  small,  and  from  the  month  of  Novem- 
ber up  to  April  the  climate  of  New  Providence  is  most 
agreeable.  Advantage  has  been  taken  of  this  for  many 
years  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  mainland  of  Amenca, 
who  can  escape  by  a  four  days'  voyage  from  the  icy 
winter  of  New  York  to  the  perpetual  summer  of  the 
Bahamas.  New  Providence  has  gained  a  name  as  a  resort 
for  the  consumptive,  and  perhaps  justly  so  far  as  the 
Anglo-Saxon  race  is  concerned,  but  the  Africans  and 
coloured  races  suffer  greatly  from  diseased  of  the  lungs,  and 
the  black  troops  stationed  at  Nassau  have  always  been 
notorious  for  the  proportion  of  men  invalided  from  con- 
sumptive disease.  The  principal  religious  denominations 
are  the  Wcslcyan,  Baptist,  Church  of  England,  and 
Presbyterian.  The  following  figures  represent  appro.xi- 
"mately  »ue  number  of  persons  generally  attending  the 
church js  and  chapels  of  the  several  denominations: — 
WesL-yan,  7370;  Baptist,  7971;  Church  of  England, 
J25J;  Presbyterian,  300.  There  is  no  Koman  Catholic 
pl:.ce  of  worship  in  the  islands,  and  the  members  of 
t'lat  church  are  very  few  in  number.  The  constitution  of 
'.ho  Bahamas  consists  of  a  governor,  aided  by  an  executive 
j  council  of  9  members,  a  legislative  council  of  9  members. 


B  A  H  —  B  A  H 


239 


and  a  representativo  assembly  of  28  members.  The 
qualifications  of  electors  are  fall  age,  a  residence  of  twelve 
iii.mths,  six  of  which  must  have  botii  as  a  freeholder,  or  a  resi- 
dence of  six  mouths  and  a  payment  of  duties  to  the  amount 
of  X26,  Os.  lOd.  The  qualification  of  members  is  possession 
of  an  estate  of  real  or  personal  property  to  the  value  of 
X500.  The  executive  is  composed  partly  of  official  and 
partly  of  unotlicial  members ;  the  latter  have  usually  a 
seat  in  one  of  the  branches  of  the  legislature.  There  are 
35  Government  schools  in  the  Bahamas,  5  of  which  are 
in  New  Providence,  and  30  in  the  out  blands.  These 
schools  are  managed  by  an  education  board  composed  of 
6  or  more  members,  with  the  governor  as  president.  The 
legislative  grant  for  educational  purposes  is  £2200  a  year, 
exclusive  of  the  salary  of  the  inspector  of  schools,  who  is 
borne  upon  the  civil  establishment  on  a  salary  of  X200. 
The  number  of  children  on  the  books  is  about  3006,  and 
there  are  1200  in  addition  attending  schools  in  connectiou 
with  the  Church  of  England.  It  is  calculated  tfiat  about 
65  per  cent,  of  the  chddren  between  5  and  15  attend  school. 
The  isolation  of  the  settlements,  the  low  salaries  of  the 
teachers,  and  the  indifference  of  parents,  are  great  obstacles 
to  the  spread  of  sound  education  in  the  Bahamas.- 

There  are  numerous  lighthouses  in  the  group,  the  princi- 
pal being  at  Gun  Cay,  Abaco.  Cay  Sal,  Great  Isaacks,  Cay 
Lobos,  Stirrups  Cay,  EUbow  Cay,  Castle  Island,  Hoy  Island, 
and  Athol  Island.  The  chief  institutions  of  the  Bahamas 
are  to  be  found  in  New  Providence.  They  include  a  savings' 
bank,  a  public  library,  a  well-conducted  newspaper  press,  the 
Agricultural  Society,  Bahama  Institute,  Fire  Brigade,  the 
New  Providence  Asylum,  Public  Dispensary,  St  Andrew's 
Charitable  Society,  a  provincial  grand  lodge  of  freemasons, 
ttc.  There  are  also  libraries  at  Dunmoro  Town,  in  Harbour 
Island,  at  Matthew  Town,  Inagua,  at  New  Plymouth,  at 
Abaco,  (fee.  (j.  T.  w.  n.) 

BAHIA,  a  province  of  the  Brazilian  empire,  situated  on 
the  S.E.  coast,  and  extending  from  the  Rio  Grande  do 
Belmonte  in  the  S.  to  the  Rio  Real  in  the  N.  It 
is  bounded  by  Sergipe  and  Pernambuco  on  the  N.,  by 
Piauhl  on  the  N.W.,  by  Goyaz  on  the  \V.,  and  on  the  S. 
by  Minas  Qeraes  and  Espirito  Santo.  It  has  an  area  of 
202,272  square  miles,  and  its  population  is  stated  at 
1,450,000.  Bahia  sends  14  deputies  to  the  general 
assembly  of  the  empire,  and  7  senators  to  the  upper  house, 
while  its  own  legislative  assembly  consists  of  36  members. 
Besides  Bahia  the  capital,  Olivenfa,  Branca,  Jacobina,  and 
Joazeira  are  important  towns.  A  chain  of  mountains, 
broken  into  numerous  sierras,  runs  from  N.  to  S. 
through  the  province  at  the  distance  of  200  miles  from  the 
coast,  while  the  intermediate  district  gradually  rises  in  suc- 
cessive terraces.  The  maritime  region,  the  so-called  liecon- 
cava,  is  remarkably  fertile,  and  is  studded  with  thriving 
towns  and  villages,  but  the  interior  is  often  very  dry  and 
barren,  and  is  only  thinly  pcoijled  in  many  places  with 
wandering  Botacudos.  The  main  sources  of  the  wealth  of  the 
provinco  are  cotton,  coffee,  sugar,  and  tobacco,  all  of  which 
are  cultivated  with  the  greatest  success.  Mandioc,  rice, 
beans,  and  maize  are  grown ;  also  jalap,  ipecacuanha,  and 
saffron,  as  well  as  oranges,  mangoes,  and  various  other 
fruits.  A  large  portion  is  still  covered  with  primeval  forest, 
but  the  woodman  is  rapidly  diminishing  the  extent.  The 
mineral  wealth  of  the  province  is  but  partially  explored  and 
still  more  p.irtially  utilised.  In  1844  diamond  mines  were 
discovered  to  the  N.  of  the  River  Pera^uass,  and,  till  the 
deposits  near  the  Capo  of  Good  Hope  were  brought  to 
light,  afforded  omployninnt  to  a  large  number  of  ganm- 
ptiros  0^  washers."  The  di.scovcrj-  of  amethysts  at  Catitii 
in  1872  attracted  numerous  searchers;  and  about  the  same 
time  coal  was  found  in  the  island  of  Itaparica.  Gold  is 
present  in  the  alluvium  of  the  River  San  Francisco. 


BAHIA,  or,  in  full,  SiN  Salvador  da  Babia  de  todos 
03  Santos,  a  krge  city,  and,  till  1763,  the  capital  of  BrazU, 
is  situated  on  the  S.E.  coast  on  the  Bay  of  All  Saints, 
from  which  it  takes  its  name,  in  13°S.  lat.,  and  38°  20'  W. 
long.  Built  partly  along  the  foot  and  partly  on  the  top 
of  a  steep  hill,  it  consists  of  an  upper  and  lower  town,  com- 
munication between  the  two  being  effected  by  large  flights 
of  steps,  and  since  1S73  by  a  powerful  hydraulic  elevator. 
The  carrying  of  goods  and  passengers  up  and  down  these 
stairway-streets  atl'ords  employment  to  a  largo  number  of 
negro  porters  and  chairmen.  The  lower  town,  or  Praya, 
consists  mainly  of  one  long  and  narrow  street,  with  still 
narrower  and  more  tortuous  lanes.  The  houses  are  built 
of  stone,  and  many  of  them  are  several  stories  high.  This 
is  the  business  part  of  the  city,  where  are  situated  the 
quays,  docks,  warehouses,  custom-houses,  exchange,  and 
arsenal ;  and  here  the  sailors,  porters,  and  lower  classes 
generally  reside.  The  church  of  A'oslra  Seiiora  da  Praya 
is  remarkable  as  having  been  built  of  stones  that  were 
hewn  in  Lisbon  and  shipped  across  the  ocean.  The  upper 
city  has  wide  and  well-paved  streets,  open  squares,  and 
pleasant  promenades,  adorned  with  orange  trees  and  bana- , 
nas.  The  most  important  is  the  Passeio  Publico,  which  was 
opened  in  1814,  and  overlooks  the  beautiful  bay.  There 
is  no  city  in  Brazil  that  can  vie  with  Bahia  in  the  number 
and  splendour  of  its  ecclesiastical  buildings,  among  which 
the  Jesuits'  college,  now  used  as  a  hospital,  and  the 
cathedral,  which  is  built  of  marble,  are  pre-eminent.  There 
are  likewise  numerous  educational  institutions,  includ- 
ing a  lyceum  (in  which  Latin,  Greek,  French,  and  Enghsh, 
mathematics,  philosophy,  &c.,  are  taught),  a  theological 
seminary,  and  a  medical  academy,  which  is  supported  by 
the  imperial  Government,  and  has  about  400  students?  The 
museum  and  public  library  also  deserve  mention.  Among 
the  buildings  connected  with  the  civic  and  commercial  acti- 
vity of  the  city  are  the  government-house,  the  court-house, 
the  mint,  and  the  town-house;  also  the  Al/andega,  where  til 
foreign  importations  have  to  be  entered,  and  the  Consoladt, 
where  aU  native  productions  are  registered  for  exportation. 
There  are  ILkewiso  a  number  of  banks  and  commercial  asso- 
ciations of  various  kinds.  Bahia  has  long  been  a  place  of 
great  traffic.  The  streets  of  the  upper  city  are  very  in- 
conveniently paved,  but  the  city  and  its  suburbs  are  now 
connected  bystreet  railways,  two  running  in  the  upper  town 
and  one  in  the  lower.  Bomsira  is  the  name  of  the  northern 
suburb,  and  Victoria  that  of  the  southern ;  the  foreign 
merchants  for  the  most  part  reside  in  the  latter.  The 
commerce  principally  consists  in  the  exportation  of  cotton, 
coffee,  sugar,  rum,  tobacco,  and  rosewood,  and  the  importation 
of  miscellaneous  foreign  goods.  The  value  of  the  imports 
in  1870  was  £1,671,670,  of  which  £885,206  belonged 
to  Britain.  The  exports  of  the  same  year  were  valued  at 
£1,790,028.  The  bay  is  one  of  the  finest  in  America,  and 
is  well  defended  by  forts.  The  entrance  is  protected  by 
the  largo  island  of  Itaparica,  which  has  upwards  of  16,000 
inhabitants,  of  whom  more  than  7000  are  collected  in  the 
town  of  San  Gonzalo.  A  largo  number  of  these  are  em- 
ployed in  the  whale-fishery,  which  has  greatly  fallen  off, 
however,  from  its  former  prosperity. 

Bahia  was  visited  in  1503  by  Amerigo  Vespucci.  The 
first  settlement  was  founded  and  called  San  Salvador  by 
Diego  Alvarez  Corrca,  who  had  been  shipwrecked  on  the 
coast ;  but  the  Portuguese  governor  who  gave  formal 
existence  to  the  city  was  Thomas  de  Souza,  who  landed  in 
1549.  It  owed  its  increase  to  the  Jesuits,  wh«  defended 
it  against  the  English  in  15S3.  In  1023  it  fell  into  tho 
hands  of  the  Dutch,  who  held  it  for  two  years.  In  1823 
it  was  surrendered  by  tho  Portuguese  to  tho  Brazilian 
nationality.  A  revolution,  which  broke  out  in  thfl  city  in 
1837,  was  suppressed  by  tho  imperial  Government     Th& 


240 


B  A  H  — B  A  I 


first  printing-press  vras  introduced  in  1811,  and  the 
first  sugar-mill  in  1823.  In  1808  railway  commuincatiou 
was  established  to  Joazeiro. 

BAHRDT,  Karl  Feiedrich,  a  German  theologian, 
distinguished  for  his  extreme  rationalism  and  his  erratic 
life,  was  bom  in  1741  at  Bischofswerda,  of  which  place  his 
father,  afterwards  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic,  was 
for  some  time  pastor.  He  was  educated  chieily  at  the 
celebrated  school  of  Pforta,  and  afterwards  entered  the 
university  of  Leipsic,  where  he  studied  theology,  and  at 
first  attached  himself  to  the  strongly  orthodox  party  headed 
by  Crusius.  After  graduation  he  lectured  for  a  time  as 
adjunct  to  his  father,  and  then  with  the  rank  of  catechist 
proceeded  to  Leipsic,  where  he  became  exceedingly  popular 
as  a  preacher,  and  was  appointed  extraordinary  professor  of 
Biblical  philology.  During  this  period  of  his  life  he  pub- 
lished a  popular  book  of  devotions,  called  the  Christian  in 
Solitude.  In  1768  the  notorious  irregularity  of  his  conduct 
necessitated  his  resignation  and  his  departure  from  Leipsic. 
By  some  influence  he  obtained  a  professorship  of  Biblical 
antiquities  in  the  philosophical  faculty  of  the  new  univer- 
sity of  Erfurt,  and  having  procured  a  theological  degree 
from  Erlangen,  he  again  began  to  read  theological  lectures. 
His  orthodoxy  had  by  this  time  completely  vanished;  be 
was  an  avowed  rationalist  of  the  extreme  school,  and  with 
great  diligence  and  ability  sought  to  popularise  the  prin- 
ciples of  his  creed.  At  the  same  time  his  bitter  and 
quarrelsome  disposition  embroiled  him  with  his  colleagues, 
and  in  1771  he  left  Erfurt,  but  obtained  another  professor- 
ehip  At  Giessen.  Here  also  the  bold  e.^pression  of  his 
opinions  cut  short  his  tenure  of  office;  in  1775  he  resigned 
and  became  director  of  Von  Salis's  educational  establish- 
ineut,  the  philanthropin  at  Marschlins,  a  post  he  held  for 
only  one  year.  For  a,  brief  period  he  acted  as  general 
superintendent  at  Diirkheim,  and  then  endeavoured,  but 
unsucessfuUy,  to  set  up  an  educational  institution  at 
Heidesheim.  He  had  now  become  most  obnoxious  to  the 
German  Government,  who  prohibited  him  from  lecturing  or 
publishing  any  work  on  theology,  or  from  holding  any 
professorial  office.  In  1779  he  took  refuge  in  Halle, 
where  he  resided  for  ten  years,  lecturing  in  the  forenoon  on 
moral  philosophy,  and  ofHciating  in  the  afternoon  as  land- 
lord of  a  public-house  which  he  had  opened  at  the  gate  of 
the  town,  and  which  was  largely  patronised  by  the  students. 
in  1783  he  was  arrested,  partly  on  account  of  a  pasquinade 
he  had  written  upon  the  Prussian  religious  edict,  and  was 
cotidemncd  to  two  years'  imprisonment.  The  period  of  his 
confinement,  reduced  by  the  king  to  one  year,  was  employed 
by  Bahrdt  in  writing  memorials  of  his  life  and  opinions. 
After  his  release  he  continued  his  former  course  of  Kfe,  and 
died  after  a  severe  illness,  23d  Aprd  1792.  His  numerous 
works,  including  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  are 
comparatively  worthless,  and  are  -RTittcn  in  an  offensive 
tone.  He  has  been  well  called  by  Herzog  a  caricature  of 
the  rationalism  of  the  18th  century. 

BAHREIN,  the  principal  island  of  a  cluster  in  the 
Persian  Gulf,  in  an  indentation  of  the  Arabian  coast. 
It  is  about  70  radcs  long  and  nearly  20  broad,  and  is 
very  flat  and  low  except  towards  the  cast,  where  a 
range  of  hills  attain  an  elevation  of  800  or  900  feet. 
The  climate  is  mild,  but  humid,  and  rather  unhealthy. 
The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  fertile,  and  produces  rice, 
pot  herbs,  and  fruits,  of  which  the  citrons  are  especi- 
ally good.  -"■'Water  is  abundant,  but  frcrpiently  brackish. 
Fish  of  all  kinds  abound  off.thc  coast,  and  are  very  cheap 
in  the  markets.  The  inhabitants  are  a  mi.ted  race  of  Arab, 
Omanito,  and  Persian  blood,  slender  and  small  in  their 
physical  appearance  ,  they  po.isess  great  activity  and  in- 
ti-lligencc,  and  are  known  in  all  the  ports  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  for  their  commercial  and   industrial   ability.  _  The 


traffic  in  the  island  itself  is  grc.it  and  various,  the  harbour 
of  Manama,  which  admits  vessels  of  200  tons,  being  largely 
frequented  by  ships  from  Persia,  Sindh,  India,  ic.  This 
town,  which  has  in  some  respects  supplanted  the  older  and 
more  inland  Kuffin,  is  well  built,  and  contains  about  25,000 
inhabitants  ;  and  there  are  besides  about  15  villages  in  the 
island.  There  is  a  city  of  almost  equal  extent  in  the 
neighbouring  and  smaller  island  of  Mohanek,  but  the 
trade  is  not  so  great.  Bahrem  has  from  a  remote  period 
been  famous  for  its  pearl  fishery,  which  produces  the  finest 
pearls  in  the  world.  The  Portuguese  obtained  possession 
of  the  islands  in  1507,  but  were  driven  from  their  settle- 
ments in  that  quarter  by  Shah  Abbas  m  1G22.  The  islands 
afterwards  became  an  object  of  contention  between  the 
Persians  and  Arabs,  and  at  last  the  Arabian  tribe  of  the 
Athubis  made  themselves  masters  of  them  in  1784.  ^Since 
then  they  have  been  for  some  time  subject  more  or  less 
to  the  Wahabees,  whose  interference  has  greatly  damaged 
the  commerce  of  the  ports,  and  led  to  extensive  emigration 
of  the  inhabitants.  (See  Palgrave,  in  J.  Roy.  Geo.  Soc, 
vol  xxxiv.) 

ViAlM,  an  ancient  town  of  Campania,  Italy,  situated 
between  the  promontory  of  Misenum  and  Puteoli,  on  the 
Sinus  Baianus,  and  famous  for  its  warm  springs  and  baths, 
which  served  the  wealthier  Romans  for  the  purposes  both  of 
health  and  pleasure.  The  variety  of  these  baths,  the  mild- 
ness of  the  climate,  and  the  beauty  of  the  landscape,  capti- 
vated the  minds  of  the  opulent  nobles.  The  habitations 
at  first  were  small  and  modest ;  but  increasing  luxury 
added  palace  to  palace,  and  enterprfsing  architects,  supported 
by  boundless  wealth,  laid  the  foundations  of  new  erections 
in  the  sea.  From  being  a  place  of  occasional  resort  for  a 
season,  Baiae  grew  up  into  a  city,  and  the  confluence  of 
wealthy  inhabitants  rendered  it  as  much  a  miracle  of  art 
as  it  had  before  been  of  nature,  though  it  never  attained 
the  rank  of  a  municipium,  but  continued  to  be  dependent 
on  Cuma;.  C.  Marius,  LucuUus,  Pompey,  and  Julius  Cassar 
are  among  the  most  remarkable  of  those  who  gave  (5clat  to 
Baiae  during  the  republic  ,  and  at  a  later  period  it  was  a 
favourite  resort  of  Nero,  Caligula,  Hadrian,  and  Severus. 
It  flourished  till  the  days  of  Theodoric  the  Goth ;  but  its 
destruction  followed  quickly  upon  the  irruption  of  tha 
northern  conquerors.  When  the  guardian  hand  of  man  was 
withdrawn,  the  sea  reclaimed  its  old  domain ;  moles  and 
buttresses  were  washed  away ;  and  promontories,  with  the 
proud  towers  that  once  crowned  their  brows,  were  under- 
rained  and  tumbled  into  the  deep.  Innumerable  ruins, 
heaps  of  marble,  mosaics,  and  other  relics  of  the  past, 
attest  the  ancient  splendour  of  the  city.  The  most  remark- 
able are  the  so-called  temples  of  Mercury,  Venus,  and 
Diana,  and  various  buildings  which,  rightly  or  wrongly, 
have  been  assigned  to  the  more  famous  of  those  who  are 
known  to  have  had  villas  in  the  town.  The  Castdlo  di 
Jiaja  w;is  built  in  the  ICth  century  by  Pietro  di  Toledo.- 
Long.  14°  3'  E.,  lat.  40°  50' N. 

BAIBURT,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the  fiashalio 
of  Erzeroum,  and  G5  miles- W.N. VV.  from  that  city.  Accord- 
ing to  Neumann  it  was  an  Armenian  fortress  in  the  1st 
century,  and  it  is  identified  by  Hitter  with  the  Jiaiberdon 
fortified  by  Jjistinian.  It  -n-as  afterwards  one  of  the  strong- 
holds of  tlie' Genoese,  when  prosecuting  their  trade  with 
India.  Remains  of  their  fortifications  still  exist,  but  in  a 
very  dilapidated  state,  the  Russians  having  blown  up  the 
defences  in  1829.  (See  view  in  Yule's  Marco  Polo,  vol  L) 
Populntion  of  town  about  COOO. 

BAlF,  Jkan  Antoine  de,  poet  of  the  French*  Rcnais' 
sancc  and  member  of  tho  Pleiad,  was  the  natural  son  of 
Lazarc  do  Baif  and  an  Italian  girl.  He  was  born  in  \!>32  at 
Venice,  where  his  father  was  residing  as  French  ambassador. 
Thanks,  perhaps,  to  the  surroundings  of  his  childhood,  Lo 


B  A  1— B  A  I 


241 


grew  up  a  fanatic  for  tba  fin6  arts,  and  surpassed  in 
zeal  all  the  leaders  of  the  Kenaiasaace  in  France.  Besides 
nriting  an  immense  number  of  short  poems  of  an  amorous 
or  congratulatory  kind,  he  translated  or  paraphrased  various 
pieces  from  Bion,  Moschus,  Theocritus,  Anacreon,  Catullus, 
and  Martial.  He  resided  in  Paris,.enjoyed  the  continued 
favour  of  the  court,  and  founded  the  Acaddmie  Royale  de 
Musique ;  his  hou.'>e  became  famous  fur  the  charming  con- 
certs which  he  gave,  entertainments  at  which  Charles  IX. 
and  Henry  III.  frequently  flattored  him  with  their  presence. 
He  was  a  dear  friend  of  Ronsard  and  the  other  members 
of  the  Pleiad.  Hia  works  were  published  in  4  thick 
volumes,  entitled  Amour/,  Jaix,  Patsettmps,  et  Poemet 
^1571-74),  containing,  among  much  that  is  now  hardly 
readable;  some  pieces  of  infinite  grace  and  delicacy.  He 
died  in  1589  or  1591.  His  father,  Lazare  de  Baif,  pub- 
Ibhed  a  translation  of  the  EUctra  of  Sophocles  in  1537, 
and  afterwards  a  version  of  the  Hecuba,  was  an  elegant 
versifier  in  Latin,  aud  is  commended  by  Joachim  du  Bellay 
as  having  introduced  certain  valuable  words  into  the  French 
language. 

BAIKAL  (i.e.,  Baiahhal,  or  Abundant  Water),  a  great 
fresh-water  lake  of  Siberia,  in  the  government  of  Irkutsk, 
397  miles  in  length  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  and  from  13  to  54 
miles  in  breadth,  with  an  area  of  about  12,500  square 
miles.  This  vast  reservoir  is  situated  1360  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  in  the  midst  of  steep  mountain  ranges,  that 
often  rise  sheer  from  the  water's  edge  in  lofty  walls  of 
syenite,  gneiss,  or  conglomerate,  while  elsewhere  their 
eloping  flanks  are  thickly  clad  with  dark  forests  of  conifer- 
ous trees.  The  lake  is  fed  by  several  rivers, — the  Upper 
Angara,  the  Selenga,  which  descends  from  the  basin  of 
Lake  Kossogol,  the  Barguzin,  and  others  ;  while  the  only 
visible  outlet  is  by  the  Lower  Angara,  a  tributary  of  the 
Yenisei  The  water  is  excellent,  and  is  extremely  clear,  so 
that  the  bottom  can  be  seen  at  the  depth  of  8  fathoms. 
The  depth  of  the  lake  varies  from  22  to  upwards  of  300 
fathoms.  It  yields  abundance  of  salmon,  and  there  is  a 
profitable  fishery  of  se?Js  on  its  shores  during  the  whole 
summer.  The  climate  is  extremely  severe ;  and  the  lake, 
which  is  frozen  over  from  November  to  May,  is  almost 
perpetually  swept  by  the  wind.  It  facilitates,  however, 
the  Russian  trade  with  China,  and  that  between  Irkutsk 
and  Dauria.  It  is  navigated  by  the  Russians  in  summer, 
and  in  winter  they  cross  it  on  the  ice.  Europeans  em- 
barked on  its  waters  for  the  first  time  in  1G43.  Steam- 
vessels  were  introduced  in  1846,  and  the  passage  across. is 
made  in  about  eight  hours.  Several  hot  springs  and 
mineral  waters  are  seen  on  the  margin,  and  naphtha  is 
sometimes  found  floating  on  the  surface.  The  lake  is  between 
sr  20'  and  55°  30'  N.  lat.,  and  103^  and  110°  R  long. 
The  island  of  Olkhon,  near  its  north  shore,  is  32  mUes 
long  and  nearly  1 0  broad.  This  island  and  the  southern 
borders  of  the  lake  are  inhabited  by  Mongolian  tribes, 
while  towards  the  north  the  Tungooses  are  to  be  found  in 
gradually  diminishing  numbers.  (See  "  Description  du  lac 
do  Baikal,"  trad,  du  russe  par  M.  Klaproth,  in  Nouv.  Ann. 
dtt  Voy.  t  ivii.  p.  289  ;  Erman's  6'iicrta,  1848;  Semenoff, 
Slovar  Ross.  Imp.) 

BAIKIE,  William  Balfoub,  M.D.,  eldest  son  of 
Captain  John  Baikie,  R.N.,  was  born  at  Kirkwall,  Orkney, 
on  the  2l8t  August  1824.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh,  and, 
on  obtaining  his  degree,  joined  the  royal  navy.  He  early 
attracted  the  notice  of  Sir  Roderick  Murchison,  through 
whom  he  was  appointed  SBrgeon  and  naturalist  to  the 
Niger  Expedition  of  1854.  The  death  of  the  senior  ofiScer 
occurring  at  Fernando  Po,  Dr  Baikie  succeeded  to  the 
command.  The  results  of  the  voyage  are  given  in  his 
ewD  and  other  narratives.  Ascending  the  river  about  250 
miles  beyond  the  point  reached  by  former  explorers,  the 


little  steamer  Pleiad  returned  and  reached  the  mouth 
after  a  voyage  of  118  days  without  the  loss  of  a  single  man. 
The  second  expedition  started  in  March  1807.  .\fter  two 
years  passed  in  exploring,  the  navigating  vessel  was  wrecked 
in  passing  through  some  of  the  rapids  of  the  river,  and  Dr 
Baikie  was  unable  longer  to  keep  his  party  together.  All 
returned  home  but  himself;  no  way  daunted,  he  determined 
single-handed  to  carry  out  the  purposes  of  the  expedition. 
Lauding  from  a  small  boat  with  one  or  two  native  followers 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Quorra  and  Benue,  he  here  chose 
the  old  model  farm  ground  as  the  base  of  his  future  opera- 
tions— a  spot  memorable  from  the  disasters  of  the  explor- 
ing party  of  1841.  After  purchasing  the  site,  and  con- 
cluding a  treaty  with  the  native  chief,  he  proceeded  to 
clear  the  ground,  build  houses,  form  enclosures,  and  pave 
the  way  for  a  future  city.  Numbers  flocked  to  him  from 
all  parts  round,  and  in  his  settlement  were  representatives 
of  almost  all  the  tribes  of  Central  Africa.  To  the  motley 
commonwealth  thus  formed  he  afted  not  merely  as  ruler, 
but  also  as  physician,  teacler,  and  priest.  Before  five 
years  he  had  opened  up  the  navigation  of  the  Niger,  made 
roads,  and  established  a  market,  to  which  the  native 
produce  was  brought  for  sale  and  barter.  He  had  also 
collected  vocabularies  of  nearly  fifty  African  dialects,  and 
translated  portions  of  the  Bible  and  prayer-book  into 
Housa.  Once  only  during  his  residence  had  he  to  employ 
armed  force  against  the  surrounding  tribes.  He  died  on 
his  way  home,  at  Sierra  Leone,  in  November  1863,  aged 
thirty-nine  years.  An  appropriate  monument  has  been 
erected  .to  hia  memory  within  the  nave  of  the  ancient 
cathedral  of  St  Magnus. 

BAIL  (Batlium)  is  used  in  common  law  for  the  free- 
ing or  setting  at  liberty  of  one  arrested  or  imprisoned 
upon  any  action,  either  civil  or  criminal,  on  surety  taken 
for  his  appearance  at  a  certain  day  and  place. 

BAILEN,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Jaen, 
24  miles  N.N.W.  of  Jaen.  It  seems  to  correspond  to  the 
ancient  Baecula,  where  Scipio  gained  signal  victories  over 
Hasdrubal.  209  B.C.,  and  over  Mago  and  Masinissa,  206 
Bc.  (Polyb.,  X.  38,  xi.  20;  Liv.,  ixviL  18-20,  xxviii.  13). 
In  the  neighbourhood  also,  in  1212,  was  fought  the  great 
battle  of  Navas  de  Tolosa,  where  Alphonso  VIII.  is  said  to 
have  left  200,000  Moors  dead  on  the  field,  with  the  loss  of 
only  25  Chriitians.  Here  again,  on  the  23d  of  July  1808, 
the  French  genenal  Dupont,  after  a  bloody  contest  of 
several  days,  signed  the  capitulation  of  Bailen,  by  which 
1 7,000  men  were  delivered  up  to  the  Spaniards  as  prisoners 
of  war.  This  disaster  was  the  first  great  blow  to  the  French 
arms  in  the  Peninsula.  There  is  nothing  remarkable  about 
the  town,  except  the  ruins  of  a  castle,  formerly  belonging  to 
the  counts  of  Benavente,  and  now  the  property  of  the 
Osuna  family.  Glass  and  tiles  are  manufactured,  and  the 
weaving  of  cloth  and  pressing  of  olives  are  carried  on. 
Population,  7831.  (Madoz,  Diccionario;  Ukert,  vol  x. 
p.  379.) 

BAILEY,  or  BAay,  Nathamazl  or  Nathan,  an  emi- 
nent English  philologist  and  lexicographer,  whoso  Elymo- 
logical  Englith  Dictionary,  published  apparently  in  1721, 
was  a  great  improvement  on  all  previous  vocabularies, 
and  really  formed  the  basis  of  Johnson's  great  work.  It 
is  still  worthy  of  being  consulted  for  information  with 
regard  to  the  change  of  signification  in  certain  words,  and 
to  the  date  at  which  bthcrs  were  introduced  into  the 
languag&  Bailey  bad  a  school  at  Stepney,  near  London, 
and  was  the  author  of  Dictionari^m  Domeslicum  and 
several  other  educational  works.     He  died  in  1742. 

BAILEY,  Samuel,  an  able  writer  on  philosophical  and 
literary  subjects,  was  born  at  Sheffield  in  1 791.  His  father 
carried  on  a  largo  general  business  in  that  town,  and  for 
some  years  the  son  devoted  himself   to   mercantile  pur- 


242 


B  A  I  — B  A  I 


suits.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  he  gave  up  this 
occupation,  and,  having  a  competent  fortune,  withdrew 
from  all  business  concerns,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Sheffield  Banking  Company,  of  which  he  was  chairman 
for  many  years.  Although  an  ardent  Liberal  of  most 
advanced  views,  he  took  little  or  no  active  part  in  political 
affairs.  On  two  occasions,  at  the  earnest  solicitation  of 
his  numerous  friends  and  admirers,  he  stood  for  Sheffield, 
but  without  success.  The  "Bentham  of  Hallamshire," 
as  ho  has  been  called,  was  of  too  retiring  a  disposition, 
and  had  too  much  of  the  philosophical  politician  about 
him  to  win  the  admiration  or  suffrages  of  an  ordinary 
body  of  electors. '  His  life  is  for  the  most  part  a  history 
of  his  numerous  and  varied  publications,  and  his  name  is 
known  to  a  very  limited  circle.  The  intimation  of  his 
sudden  death  on  the  18th  January  1870,  with  the  subse- 
quent notice  of  his  munificent  gift  of  £90,000  to  his  native 
town,  excited  some  curiosity  and- interest,  which,  however, 
quickly  died  away.  This  ia  not  quite  as  it  should  be. 
Bailey  has  certainly  given  to  the  world  no  work  of  first- 
rate  importance,  but  there  are  few  authors  of  modern  times 
who  have  written  more  elegantly  and  clearly,  or  with  more 
originality  of  treatment,  on  the  various  problems  of  psycho- 
logy and  political  science.  His  first  work,  Essaps  onthe 
Formation  and  Publication  of  Opinions,  published  anony- 
mously in  1821  (2d  ed.  1826,  3d  ed.  1837),  a -thoughtful, 
practical,  and  clearly  written  treatise,  has  attracted  a  greater 
share  of  public  attention  and  favour  than  any  of  his  other 
writings.  A  sequel  to  it  appeared  in  1829,  Essat/s  on  the 
Pursuit  of  Truih,  on  the  Progress  of  Knowledge,  and  on  the 
Fundamental  Principle  of  all  Evidence  and  Expectation 
(2d  ed.  1844).  Intermediate  between  these  two  were  Ques- 
tions on  Political  Economy,  Politics,  Morals, <i:c.,  1823,  and  a 
Critical  Dissertation  on  the  Nature,  Measure,  and  Causes  of 
Value,  directed  against  the  opinions  of  Ricardo  an^  his 
school.  His  next  publications  were  also  on  econoijic  or 
political  subjects.  Rationale  of  Political  Eej-rcserdation, 
1835,  and  Money  and  its  Vicissitudes,  1837  ;  about  the  same 
time  also  appeared  some  of  his  pamphleto,  Discmsioi  of  t 
Parliamentary  Reform,  Right  of  Primogeniture  Examined, 
Defeitce  of  Joint-Stock  Banks.  Bailey  seens  then  t? 
have  turned  his  attention  almost  entirely  to  spec  'iative 
philosophy.  In  1842  appeared  his  Rei-iew  of  Berieln/s 
Theory  of  Vision,  an  acute  and  able  work,  which  called 
forth  rejoinders  from  J.  S.  Mill  in  the  Westmiiuter  Review 
(reprinted  in  Dissertations),  and  from  Ferrier  in  Blackwood 
(reprinted  in  Lectures  and  Remains,  ii.)  Bailey  replied  to 
his  critics  in  A  Letter  to  a  Philosopher,  itc,  1843.  In 
1851  he  published  one  of  his  best  works.  Theory  of  Rea- 
soning (2d  ed.  1852),  a  thoughtful  discussion  of  the  nature 
of  inference,  and  an  able  criticism  of  the  functions  and 
value  of  the  syllogism.  In  1852  he  published  Discourses 
on  Various  Subjects';  andfinally  summed  up  his  philosophic 
views  in  the  Letters  on  the  Philosophy  of  the  Ilutnan  Mind 
(three  series,  1855,  1858,  1863),  which  is  at  once  the  most 
considerable  and  the  most  valuable  of  his  contributions  to 
mental  science.  Bailey  had  not  entirely  given  himself  up 
to  abstract  studies;  in  1845  he  had  ventured  on  poetical 
composition.  Maro,  a  poem  in  four  cantos  (85  pp.,  Long- 
mans), contains  a  somewhat  lively  description  of  the  mental 
state  of  a  young  poet  who  printed  1000  copies  of  his  first 
poem,  of  which  only  10  were  sold.  He  had  also  been  a  dili- 
gent student  of  Shakespeare,  and  his  last  Literary  work  was 
the  treatise,  in  two  volumes.  On  the  Received  2'ext  of  Shake- 
tpeart^s  Dramatic  Writtrujs  and  its  Im]yroveme7it.  It  miist 
be  confessed  that  many  of  tho  emendations  suggested  by 
Lim  are  more  fantastic  than  felicitous. 

The  Letters  contain,  in  clear  and  lively  language,  a  very 
frcsli  discussion  of  many  of  the  principal  problems  in 
philoscpby,  or  rather  in  psychology.     Bailey  can  hardly  be 


classed  as  belonging  either  to  the  strictly  einpiricaJ  or  tc 
the  idealist  school,  bat  his  general  tendency  is  towards  the 
former.  The  following  are  the  most  interesting  points  in 
his  work  : — (1.)  In  regard  to  method,  he  founds  psychology 
entirely  on  introspection  ;  critical  study  of  one's  own  con- 
sciousness is,  according  to  him,  the  only  means  of  obtaining 
materials  for  philosophy.  He  thus,  .to  a  certain  extent, 
agrees  with  the  Scotch  school,  but  he  differs  from  them  in 
rejecting  altogether  the  doctrine  of  mental  faculties.  What 
have  been  designated  faculties  are,  upon  his  view,  merely 
classified  facts  or  phenomena  of  consciousness.  He  criti- 
cises very  severely  the  habitual  use  of  figurative  or  meta- 
phorical language  in  describing  mental  operations.  (2.) 
His  doctrine  of  perception,  which  is,  in  brief,  that  "  the 
perception  of  external  things  through  the  organs  of  sense 
is  a  direct  mental  act  or  phenomenon  of  consciousness  not 
susceptible  of  being'  resolved  into  anything  else,"  and  tho 
reality  of  which  can  be  neither  proved  nor  disproved,  is 
not  worked  out  in  detail,  but  is  supported  by  elaborate  and 
sometimes  subtle  criticisms  of  aU  other  theories.  Upon 
this  point  Bailey's  remarks  are  deserving  of  attention. 
(3.)  With  regard  to  general  and  abstract  ideas  and  general 
propositions,  his  opinions  are  those  of  the  empirical  school, 
but  his  analysis  frequently  puts  the  matter  in  a  new  light, 
and  brings  forward  points  of  novelty.  (4.)  In  the  theory  of 
morals  Bailey  is  an  advocate  of  Utilitarianism,  and  works 
out  with  great  skiU  the  steps  in  the  formation  of  the  "  com- 
plex "  mental  facts  involved  in  the  recognition  of  duty, 
obligation,  right.  His  handling  of  the  moral  sentiments 
(Letters,  iii.  193-258)  is  one  of  the  best  specimens  of  his 
general  style  of  psychological  analysis. 

BAILLET,  Adkien,  a  French  ■writer  and  critic,  was 
born  in  June  1.649,  at  the  village  of  Neuville,  near  Beauvais, 
in  Picardy,  and  died  in  January  1706.  His  parents  could 
only  afford,  to  send  him  to  a  small  school  in  the  village,  but 
he  picked  up  some  Latin  from  the  friars  of  a  neighbouring 
convent,  who  brought  him  under  the  notice  of  the  bishop 
of  Beauvais.  By  his  kindness  Baillet  received  a  thorough 
ducation  at  the  theological  seminary,  and  was  afterwards 
appointed  to  a  post  as  teacher  in  the  school  of  Beauvais. 
In  1676  he  took  orders,  and  was  presented  to  a  small 
vicarage.  His  duties  interfering  too  much  with  his  studies, 
he  accepted  in  1680  the  appointment  of  librarian  to  M. 
de  Lamoignon,  advocate-general  to  the  parliament  of 
Paris,  of  whose  lit)rary  he  made  a  Catalogue  Raisonne  in 
thirty-five  volumes  folio,  all  written  with  his  own  hand. 
The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spe'nt  in  incessant,  unremit- 
ting labour ;  so  keen  was  his  devotion  to  study  that  he 
scarcely  allowed  himself  even  natural  rest.  In  the  list  of 
his  numerous  works  the  following  are  among  the  most 
conspicuous: — \.  Hlstoire  de  Ilollande  dcpuis  \(>Q^  jusqu' 
d,  1690,  4  tom.  12mo,  a  continuation  of  Grotius,  and  pub- 
lished under  the  name  of  Neuville.  2.  Les  Vies  des  Saints, 
3  tom.  fol.  3.  Des  Satires  personelles,  traitS  historique  et 
critique  de  celles  qui  portent  le  litre  d'Anti,  2  tom.  12mo.  4. 
Vie  de  Descartes,  2  tom.  4to.  6.  Jugemens  des  Savants  svr 
les  jyrincipau-x  Ouvrages  des  AuteUrs,  9  tom.  12mo.  The 
last  is  the  most  celebrated  and  useful  of  all  the  works  of 
this  learned  and  indefatigable  writer.  The  edition  in  seven 
volumes  quarto,  published  in  1722  by  M.  (Je  la  Monnoye, 
contains  tho  Anti-BaitUt  of  M.  Menage,  besides  notes; 
but  tho  edition  published  at  Amsterdam  in  1725  is  more 
esteemed. 

BAILIEUL,  an  ancient  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Nord,  near  tho  Belgian  frontier,  situated  on  a 
rising  ground  to  tho  north  of  the  River  Lys.  It  was 
formerly  a  place  of  great  strength,  and  is  now  a  busy  in- 
dustrial town,  with  manufactures  of  lace,  thread,  black 
soap.pottcrv,  woollen  stuffs  and  ribbons,  brandy, Icather,and 
cheese.   Population,  1 2,896.    Lat.  60°  45'  N..  lone.  2°  44'  E. 


B  A  I  -  B  A  I 


243 


BAlLLlE,  JoAN.VA,  poet  and  draniatist,  waa  born  at 
the  manao  of  BotliweU,  on  the  banks  of  the  Clyde  (Scot- 
land), in  17G2.  At  an  early  period  of  her  life  she 
removed  with  her  sister  Agnes  to  London,  where  their 
brother,  the  celebrated  Dr  Matthew  Baillic,  was  settled. 
The  two  sisters  were  left  a  small  competence  by  their 
uncle,  Dr  William  Hunter,  and  took  up  their  residence  at 
Hampatoad,  on  the  outskirtsjDf  London,  where  they  passed 
the  remainder  of  their  lives.  Miss  Baillic  died  on  the  23d 
Feb.  1851, at  the  advanced  age  of  89,  her  faculties  remaining 
unimpaired  to  the  last.  Her  gentlennss  and  sweetness  of 
disposition  made  her  a  universal  favourite,  and  her  little 
cottage  at  Hanipstead  was  the  centre  of  a  brilliant  literary 
society.  Miss  Baillie  had  received  an  excellent  education, 
and  probably  cultivated  very  early  her  faculty  of  poetical 
composition,  but  it  was  not  till  1708  that  she  published  tho 
first  volume  of  hor  Plays  on  the  Passions.  Her  design, 
founded  on  a  cafcful  study  of  the  nature  of  dramatic 
poetry,  was  to  illustrate  each  of  the  deepest  and  strongest 
passions  of  the  human  mind,  such  as  Hate,  Jealousy,  Fear, 
Love,  by  a  tragedy  and  a  comedy,  in  each  of  which  should 
be  exhibited  the  actions  of  an  individual  under  the  influence 
of  these  passions.  The  success  of  the  first  volume  was  very 
considerable,  and  a  second  edition  was  soon  called  for. 
A  second  volume  followed  in  1802,  a  third  in  1812,  and 
three  moro  ia  1836.  Some  miscellaneous  dramas  were 
published  in  1804,  and  the  Family  Legend  appeared  in 
1810.  Miss  Baillie  herself  intended  her  plays  not  for  the 
closet  but  for  the  stage.  The  Family  Legend,  brought  out 
at  Edinburgh  under  the  enthusiastic  patronage  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  had  a  brief  though  brilliant  success  ;  De  Monfort  had 
a  short  run  in  London,  mainly  through  tho  acting  of 
Kemble  and  Mrs  Siddons  ;  Uenriquez  and  Tlie  Separation 
were  coldly  received.  The  popular  verdict  has  thus  been 
given  against  the  dramas  as  good  stage  plays,  and  the  almost 
universal  decision  of  readers  has  confirmed  this  judgment. 
With  very  few  exceptions,  they  aro  unsuited  for  stage 
exhibition.  Not  only  is  there  a  flaw  in  the  fundamental 
idea,  that,  viz.,  of  an  individual  who  is  the  embodiment  of 
a  single  passion,  but  there  is  a  want  of  incident,  and  a 
narrowness,  consequent  upon  the  attention  being  too  much 
directed  on  a  single  point,  that  present  insuperable  ob- 
stacles to  their  success  as  acting  pieces.  The  plot  is 
generally  well  constructed,  but  the  very  consciousness  of 
aim  with  which  it  is  wrought  out  gives  to  the  whole  a 
morbid  and  unnatural  aspect ;  there  is  rarely,  if  ever,  any 
progre.13  in  the  play ;  the  whole  is  apparent  from  the  out- 
set, and  the  action  never  heightens  the  spectators'  interest. 
It  must  bo  confessed,  also,  that  Miss  Baillie  had  no  very 
adequate  notion  of  what  is  required  in  a  stage  drama,  and 
that  her  experience  was  too  limited.  This  is  apparent  in 
her  comedies,  which  are  very  inferior  productions.  In 
short,  her  want  of  success  is  a  clear  proof  of  tho  impracti- 
cability of  that  analytic  or  psychological  method,  which 
the  expounds  and  defends  in  her  preliminary  dissertations. 
Tho  plays,  however,  are  admirably  adapted  for  reading ; 
they  show  remarkable  powers  of  analysis  and  acute  obser- 
vation, nhd  are  written  in  a  pure  and  vigorous  stylo,  rising 
occasionally  into  strains  of  high  poetic  feeling  and  expres- 
sion. The  best  of  the  tragedies  aro  undoubtedly  Henrique!, 
The  Separation,  De  Monfort,  and  Count  Basil,  the  first  of 
which  might  perhaps  be  made  into  a  good  acting  play. 
Mi.^s  Baillie's  reputation  does  not  rest  entirely  on  her 
dramas  :  she  is  tho  authoress  of  some  poetical  pieces  and 
nongs  of  groat  beauty,  and  in  all  probability  great  portion 
of  her  fame  will  bo  found  to  rest  on  these  minor  works. 
The  best  of  thera  arc  tho  Linet  to  Agne$  BaUlie  on  her 
Birthday,  The  Kitten,  To  a  Child,  and  some  of  her  adapta- 
tions of  Scotch  songs,  such  as  Woo'd  and  Married  an'  a\ 
Scattered  throughout  the  dramas  are  also  some  lively  and 


beautiful  songs,  such,  e.g.,  as  the  Chough,  and  the  Crow 
in  Orra,  the  lover's  song  in  the  Phantom,  ocginniug  — 

*'  I'vo  seen  llio  mooo  gleam  through  tlie  cave, 
And  minute  drops  like  diamouds  gUaciag." 

And  tho  sailor's  song — 

"  0  swiftly  kUiIcs  the  bonny  boat 
Just  parted  from  the  shore." 

(See  Joanna  Baillie'a  Dramatic  and  Poetical  Worh,  Lond. 
1851,  1  vol) 

BAILLIE,  Dr  Matthew,  anatomist  and  physician, 
was  born  in  the  manse  of  Shotts,  Lanarkshire,  in  1761.  He 
came  of  a  highly  gifted  family  :  his  father,  the  Rev.  James 
Baillie,  was  successively  clergyman  of  the  parishes  of 
Shotts,  Bothwell,  and  Hamilton,  in  Lanarkshire,  and  after- 
wards professor  of  divinity  in  tho  university  of  Glasgow  , 
his  mother  was  Dorothea,  sister  of  the  celebrated  William 
and  John  Hunter ;  and  his  sister  Joanna  was  the  poet. 
Dr  Baillie  was  for  several  years  a  student  in  the 
university  of  Glasgow,  where  he  heard  tho  lectures  of  Dr 
Reid  on  moral  philosophy.  His  professional  career  was 
determined  by  the  advice  of  his  uncle,  Dr  William  Hunter, 
who  undertook  to  superintend  his  education.  On  his 
father's  death  he  obtained  an  exhibition  to  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  whore  he  remained  a  year  before  removing  to  Lon- 
don. His  studies  were  there  carried  on  under  the  personal 
direction  of  his  uncle,  and  after  two  years  he  began  to  be 
associated  with  Dr  Hunter  in  his  anatomical  lectures  as 
an  assistant  and  demonstrator,  visiting  Oxford  occasionally, 
so  as  to  keep  tho  terms  necessary  for  the  degree  of  bache- 
lor of  medicine.  Dr  Hunter,  at  his  death,  bequeathed  the 
use  of  his  magnificent  collections  to  his  nephew,  together 
with  tho  lecture-rooms  in  Windmill  Street,  an  annuity  of 
£100  a  year,  and  a  small  family  estate  in  Scotland.  The 
last  was  resigned  by  Baillie  to  his  other  uncle,  Dr  John 
Hunter,  whom  he  considered  as  tho  inatural  heir. 
Within  two  years  after  Dr  Hunter's  death  his  nephew 
became  the  principal  teacher  in  that  celebrated  school  of 
anatomy  ;  and  in  1787,  although  only  a  bachelor  of  medi- 
cine, he  was  appointed  physician  to  St  George's  Hospital. 
In  1789  ho  married  Sophia,  daughter  of  tho  eminent 
accoucheur  Dr  Denman,  a  connection  favourable  to  his 
practice.  In  1795  he  published  his  Morbid  Anatomy,  a 
work  which  was  speedily  translated  into  French,  Italian, 
and  German,  into  the  last  by  tho  anatomist  Sommering. 
After  this  ho  had  the  honour  of  being  enrolled  a  doctor 
of  medicine  of  Oxford,  and  Fellow  of  tho  Royal 
College  of  Physicians.  As  a  practising  physician  he 
w.as  universally  respected,  and  his  decease,  which  took 
place  on  the  23d  of  September  1823,  in  tho  C3d  year  of 
his  age,  was  sincerely  regretted. 

Tho  second  edition  of  tho  Morhid  Anatomy  appeared  in  1797  ; 
and  two  years  afterwards  it  was  illustrated  by  a  4to  volume  of  en- 
gravings, with  dcsciiptions  of  tho  plates.  His  Anatomical  Lectures 
and  Medical  Observations  W'cro  printed  privately  after  bis  death. 
Tho  lyorks,  2  vols.  8vo,  edited,  with  a  biographical  sketch,  by  Mr 
Wardrop,  contain  only  the  Morbid  Anatomy  and  miscellaneous 
medical  papers. 

BAILLIE,  Robert,  a  prominent  Scotch  Presbyterian 
of  tho  17th  century,  was  born  at  Glasgow  in  1602.  He 
graduated  in  1620  at  tho  university  of  that  town,  and 
then  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  divinity.  In  1631, 
after  ho  had  been  ordained  and  had  acted  for  some  years 
as  regent  in  the  university,  ho  was  appointed  to  the  living 
of  Kilwinning  in  Ayrshire.  Tho  church  disputes  of  the 
century  i»'ere  just  beginning,  and  Baillie  was  naturally 
drawn  into  them.  In  1G38  ho  was  a  member  of  the 
famous  Glasgow  Assembly,  and  soon  after  ho  accompanied 
Leslie  and  tho  Scotch  army  as  chaplain  or  prcacher.(  In 
1642  ho  was  mado  professor  of  divinity  at  Glasgow,  and 
in  the  following  year  was  selected  as  one  of  the  five  Scotch 


244 


B  A  I  — B  A  I 


clergymen  wlio  were  sent  to  tLe  great  Westminster  As- 
sembly. In  1649  he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  sent 
to  Holland  for  the  purpose  of  inviting  Charles  II.  to  Scot- 
land, and  of  settliiig  the  terms  of  his  admission  to  the 
government.  He  continued  to  take  an  active  part  in  all 
the  minor  disputes  of  the  church,  and  in  1661,  after  the 
ejection  of  Gillespie,  he  was  made  principal  of  the  Glasgow 
University.  He  died  in  August  of  the  following  year, — 
his  death  being  probably  hastened  by  his  mortification  at 
the  apparently  firm  establishment  of  Episcopacy  in  Scot- 
land. Baillie  was  a  man  of  learning  and  ability ;  his 
views  were  not  extreme,  and  he  played  but  a  secondary 
part  in  the  stirring  events  of  the  time.  His  Letters,  by  which 
ha  is  now  chiefly  remembered,  are  of  considerable  historical 
importance,  and  give  a  very  lively  picture  of  the  period. 
A  complete  memoir  and  a  full  notice  of  all  his  writings 
will  be  found  in  Dr  Laing's  edition  of  the  Letters  and 
Journals  of  Robert  Baillie,  Bannatyne  Club,  3  vols.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1841-42. 

BAILLY,  Jean  Sylvain,  a  French  astronomer  and 
•orator,  was  born  at  Paris  on  the  15th  September  1736.  He 
was  originally  intended  for  the  profession  of  a  painter ;  his 
own  inclinations,  however,  tended  strongly  towards  literary 
pursuits,  and  it  is  said  that  at  a  very  early  age  he  had  com- 
pleted two  tragedies.  But  his  acquaintance  and  friendship 
with  the  celebrated  Mathematician  LacaiUa,  and  perhaps 
the  example  of  hia  brilUant  young  contemporary  Clairaut, 
finally  decided  the  direction  of  his  studies,  which  were  then 
entirely  devoted  to  science  and  scientific  investigation. 
The  first  of  his  labours  was  a  calculation  of  the  comet  which 
appeared  in  the  year  1759.  In  1763  he  was  admitted  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences;  and  in  the  same 
jear  he  published  a  reduction  of  the  observations  made  by 
lacaillein  1760  and  1761  on  the  zodiacal  stars,  a  compila- 
tion of  great  labour  and  utility.  la  1764  he  competed 
for  the  prize  offered  by  the  Academy  for  a  dissertation  on 
the  theory  of  Jupiter's  satellites.  Lagrange,  who  was  a 
complete  master  of  the  most  powerful  analysis,  was  the 
successful  competitor ;  but  Baiily's  memoir,  which  was 
published  in  an  expanded  form  in  1766,  showed  great 
ability,  and  at  once  established  the  author's  reputation  as 
a  physical  astronomer.  He  foUowed  up  his  dissertation 
in  1771  with  an  able  and  important  memoir  on  the  Lijfu 
of  the  Satellites,  in  which  he  expounded  some  novel  and 
elegant  methods  of  observation. 

His  attention,  meantime,  was  not  solely  devoted  to  ab- 
stract science ;  ho  was  equally  distinguished  for  eloquence 
and  brilliancy  of  style.  His  Eloges  on  Corneille,  Leibnitz, 
Molifere,  and  others,  were  universally  admired.  In  1773 
he  was  proposed  as  a  candidate  for  the  secretaryship  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  was  supported  by  iJuffon ;  the 
influence  of  D'Alembert,  however,  sectired  the  appointment 
of  the  famous  Condorcet.  In  1784  BaiUy  was  made  secre- 
tary of  the  French  Academy,  and  in  the  following  year  ho 
was  admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles 
Lettres.  This  was  the  only  instance,  from  the  time  of 
Fontenello,  of  any  writer  being  at  the  eamo  time  a  member 
of  all  the  three  academies. 

In  the  year  1775  ho  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
most  extensive  work,  llistory  of  Astronomy,  which  con- 
tained the  history  from  its  origin  down  to  the  foundation 
of  the  Alexandrian  school  This  was  followed  by  three 
volumes  on  Modern  Astronomy,  published  between  1776 
and  1783.  The  work  is  of  little  or  no  historical  value,  but 
it  is  admirably  written,  and  added  greatly  to  the  author's 
reputation  as  a  master  of  narrativ*  exposition.  In  1787 
he  completed  the  history  by  a  volume  on  Indian  and  Ori- 
ental astronomy,  which  shows  considerable  erudition,  but 
is  not  founded  on  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  Indian 
tccords,  and  is  highly  fantastic  in  its  speculations. 


The  quiet  course  of  Baiily's  life,  hitherto  devoted  to 
literature  and  science,  was  now  broken  in  upon  by  that 
great  convulsion,  the  French  Revolution,  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  first  .and  most  zealous  promoters.  In  the  part 
which  he  acted,  he  has  had  the  singular  good  fortune  to 
be  well  spoken  of  by  opposite  factions,  and  has  never  been 
charged  either  with  want  of  integrity  or  with  selfish,  de- 
signs. When  the  states-general  of  France  were  assembled 
in  1789,  he  waselected  a  deputy  to  the  tiers-etat,  of  which 
he  was  afterwards  chosen  president;  and  when  the  na- 
tional assembly  had  been  constituted,  he  continued  in  the 
chair,  and  ofiiciated  as  president  at  the  time  the  king's 
proclamation  was  issued  ordering  that  body  to  disperse. 
During  the  struggle  which  took  place  between  the  national 
assembly  and  the  court,  Bailly  was  amongst  the  most  for- 
ward in  asserting  those  popular  rights  which  were  then 
new  in  France ;  and  it  was  he  who  dictated  the  famous 
oath  to  the  members  of  the  tiers-etat,  by  which  they 
pledged  themselves  "to  resist  tyrants  and  tyranny,  and 
never  to  separate  till  they  had  obtained  a  free  constitu- 
tion." On  the  14th  of  July  following,  the  day  on  which 
the  Bastille  was  stormed  and  taken  by  the  people,  he  was 
by  universal  consent  appointed  mayor  of  Paris.  In  this 
high  office  he  is  allowed  to  have  acted  with  great  integrity, 
courage,  and  moderation,  and  to  have  discharged  its  ardu- 
ous and  sometimes  perilous  duties  in  a  highly  honourable 
manner,  and  during  its  course  he  was  instrumental  in  pro- 
moting the  various  measures  by  which  the  popular  party 
at  length  prevailed  over  that  of  the  court ;  for  which,  as 
well  as  for  his  conduct  in  other  respects,  he  obtained  a 
high  degree  of  pcfpularity.  But  the  multitude,  newly  un- 
shackled from  the  fetters  of  despotism,  greeii,,  of  novelty, 
fired  with  enthusiastic  and  unsettled  notions  of  freedom, 
and  daily  panting  for  change,  would  brook  no  opposition 
to  their  wild  schemes.  Bailly,  who  probably  saw  too  late 
the  general  disposition  of  the  people  to  anarchy,  stiU  wished 
the  laws  to  be  respected,  and  hoped  by  the  vigorous  enforce- 
ment of  them  to  restore  and  maintain  tranquillity.  He 
ordered  some  deputies  from  the  military  insurgents  of  Nancy 
to  be  arrested,  and  firmly  opposed  the  rash  proceedings  of 
Marat  and  Hebert ;  he  ceased  to  be  a  member  of  the  Jacobin 
club ;  and  he  exerted  himself  strongly  to  persuade  the 
populace  to  permit  the  king  and  royal  family  to  depart  to 
St  Cloud.  By  these  measures,  which  were  very  distasteful 
to  the  fickle  and  infuriated  people,  he  lost  their  confidence 
and  favour ;  and  his  popularity  was  finally  destroyed  by 
his  conduct  on  the  occasion  of  the  tumultuous  meeting  of 
the  populace  on  the  17th  of  July  1791,  to  demand  the 
abolition  of  monarchy  ;  for,  when  called  on  by  the  national 
assembly  to  disperse  the  mob,  who  had  assaulted  the  sol- 
diery, he  ordered  the  latter  to  fire,  by  which  means  40 
persons  were  killed  and  above  100  wounded.  Finding 
himself  after  this  an  object  of  hatred  and  suspicion  to  the 
people,  whom  he  had  faitlifully  served,  he  resigned  his 
otEco  at  the  dissolution  of  the  constituent  assembly  in  the 
end  of  the  year  1791,  and  retired  to  Nantes.  From  there 
he  wrote  to  Laplace,  who  was  residing  at  Melun,  and  pro- 
posed, if  it  were  safe,  to  join  him.  Laplace,  finding  that  a  de- 
tachment of  revolutionary  troops  had  been  ordered  to  Mclun, 
advised  Bailly  not  to  veuturc,  but  his  advice  was  neglected. 
The  ex-mayor  was  recognised  by  otio  of  tlio  soldiers, 
arrested,  and  thrown  into  prison.  Arraigned  on  10th 
November  1793  bi-foro  a  sanguinary  tribunal,  ho  was  on 
the  11th  condemned  to  death  as  a  conspirator,  and  exe- 
cuted the  day  following,  near  the  spot  where  ho  had  given  ;j 
Uie  order  for  the  military  to  Cro  on  the  people.  Ho  mot  1 
his  death  with  the  greatest  calmness  and  courage.  i 

Several  worlta  written  l)y  Cnilly,  onJ  found  in  manuscript,  _li«v«  j 
been  published  ninco  his  death  ;  particularly  an  Essay  on  Fahhi  I 
mid  their  Huturii,  and  Memoirs  of  a   Witness  of  the   Rexioiutiow, 


I 


B  A  I  —  B  iV  I 


2-f5 


vhii^ll  nma  iovn  to  October  17E9.  Notices  of  his  life  nro  given 
in  the  ^'.oga  by  St  Just,  Lnlaoclc,  and  Lacrctdic  ;  also  in  Arago, 
tioticet  Biographiqucs,  vol.  ii, 

BAILY,  Edward  Hodoes,  a  distinguisbcd  sculptor, 
was  born  at  Bristol,  lOtli  March  1788,  and  died  at  Lon- 
don. 22d  May  18G7.  His  father,  who  was  a  ship-carver 
o/  great  repute,  destined  him  for  a  commercial  life,  but 
even  at  school  the  boy  showed  his  natural  taste  and  re- 
markable talents  by  producing  numerous  wax  models  and 
busts  of  his  schoolfellows,  and  afterwards,  when  placed  in 
a  mercantile  house,  still  carried  on  his  favourite  employ- 
ment. Two  Homeric  studios,  executed  for  a  friend,  were 
shown  to  Flaxman,  who  bestowed  on  them  such  high  com- 
mendation, that  in  1807  Daily  came  to  London  and  placed 
himself  as  a  pupil  under  the  great  sculptor.  Inrl81t  ho 
gained  the  Academy  gold  medal  for  a  model  of  Hcrcvhs 
restoring Alcestis  toAdmctus,a.nil  soon  after  exhibited  Apollo 
discharging  his  arrows  against  the  Greeks,  and  Hercules 
casting  Lichas  into  the  sea.  In  1821  he  was  elected  R.A., 
aud  exhibited  one  of  his  best  pieces,  Eee.  He  was  for 
many  years  engaged  in  lucrative  employment  as  modcllep 
for  Messrs  RundcU  &  Co.  and  Messrs  Storr  it  Mortimer.  He 
was  also  entrusted  with  the  carving  of  the  bas-reliefs  on 
the  south  side  of  the  Marble  Areh'at  Hyde  Park.  Besides 
numerous  busts  and  statues,  such  as  those  of  Xelson  on  ■ 
the  Monument,  of  EarlGrey,  of  Lord  Mans6eld,  and  others, 
his  finest  pieces  are,  Hi'e  at  the  Fountain,  Eve  listening  to 
the  Voice,  Maternal  AJfection,  Girl  preparing  for  the  Bath, 
and  the  Graces. 

BAILY,  Francis,  an  English  astronomer,  was  born  in 
Berkshire  in  the  year  1774,  and  for  many  years  carried  on 
business  as  a  stockbroker  in  London.  While  amassing  a 
largo  fortime  by  his  business,  he  applied  the  profound  mathe- 
matical knowledge  for' which  he  was  distinguished  to  the 
doctrine  of  probabilities,  and  published  several  interesting 
works  on  that  subject,  as.  Tables  for  the  Purchasing  and 
Dencieing  of.  Leases,  The  Doctrine  of  Interest  and  Annui- 
ties, Th^  Doctrine  of  Annuities  and  Assurances,  itc.  In 
1820  h3  was  one  of  the  original  and  most  active  promoters 
of  the  Astronomical  Society ;  and  on  his  retirement  from 
business  in  1825,  he  entered  with  the  utmost  energy  upon 
the  cultivation  of  astrononjy  and  the  kindred  sciences.  He 
gavo  the  Xautical  Almanac  its  present  form  and  intro- 
duced other  improvements ;  ho  took  an  active  part  in  the 
investigation  of  ;he  effects  of  the  atmosjjhero  on  pendulum 
experiments ;  he  aided  in  the  repetition  of  the  experiment 
of  Cavendish  on  the  specific  gravity  of  the  earth  ;  he  super- 
intended tho  publication  of  the  Astronomical  Society's 
catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars  ;  and  the  revision  of  the  annual 
catalogues  in  tho  13th  volume  of  tho  Society's  Afcmo'irs 
was  entirely  his  work.  On  his  recommendation  tho  Bri- 
tish Association  undertook  the  rcpubUcalion  of  the  H'Csioire 
Celeste  of  Lalandc,  combined  with  Lacaille's  catalogue, 
which  together  contain  no  less  than  57,000  stars  ;  and 
there  i«  reason  to  believe  that  ho  took  an  important  part 
in  tho  investigation  of  tho  course  of  the  tidal  wave  in  the 
Atlantic  His  Account  of  the  liev.  John  Flamsteed,  First 
Astronomer- Ro>jal,  1835,  a  work  of  great  ability  aud  re- 
Rearch,  excited  much  discussion  from  tho  disclosures  it 
made  relative  to  tho  character  of  Sir  Is-iac  Newton. 
Bally  was  extremely  patient  and  methodical,  and  these 
qualities  enabled  him  to  elTect,  in  the  hist  twenty  years  of 
kis  career,  a  greater  number  of  researches  than  most  other 
philosophers  have  accomplished  during  a  wholo  lifetime. 
Ho  died  August  30,  ISU. 

B.VINBUIDGE.  Ur  Jon>f,  physician  and  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Ashby-de-la-Zouchc,  in  Leicestershire,  in 
tho  year  1582.  ~  He  t.aught  a  grammar  school  for  some 
years,  and  practised  physic,  employing  his  leisure  hours  in 
a^tronony,  which  waa  his  favourite  study.    After  removing 


to  London  he  was  admitted  a  Fellow  of  the  College  of 
Physicians,  and  gained  considerable  reputation  by  his  de- 
scription of  the  comet  in  1618.  The  next  year  Sir  Henry 
Savlle  appointed  Bainbridge  his  first  professor  of  astronomy 
at  Oxford  ;  and  the  masters  and  fellows  of  Merton  Collcgo 
mado  him  first  junior,  and  then  superior,  reader  of  Lin- 
acre's  lecture.  He  died  in  1043.-  IJis  published,  works 
are — 1  An,  Astronomical  Description  of  the  late  Comet, 
Lond.  1619.  ,2.  Prodi  Splusra,  1620.  3.  Canicularia  ; 
a  Treatise  concerning  the  Canicu/ar  Days,  Oxford,  1648. 
Several  of  his  unpublished  writings  exist  in  manuscript  in 
the  library  of  Triiiity  College,  Dublin. 

B.\INE&,  Edward,  for  many  years  proprietor  and  editor 
of  the  Leeds  Mercury,  and  M.P.  for  Leeds  from   1834  to 
1841,  was  born  in  1774  at  Waltoii-le-Dale,  a  village  dis- 
tant a  little  way  from  Preston,  in  Lancashire.     Ho  w.is 
educated   at   the   grammar  schools   of    Hawkshead   and 
Preston,  and  at  tho  age  of  sixteen  was  apprenticed  to  a 
printer  in  the  latter  town.      After  remaining  thero  four 
years  and  a  half  he  removed  to  Leeds,  finished  his  appren- 
ticeship, and  at  once  started  in  business  for  himself.     He 
was  always  a  most  assiduous  student,  and  quickly  became 
known  as  a  man  of  great  practical  shrewdness  and  ability, 
who  took  a  keen  interest  in  political  and  social  movements. 
His  liberal  opinions  in  polities  led  him  to  sympathise  with 
the  dissenting  party  in  church  aOairs,  and  it  was  not  long- 
before  he  joined  the  body  of  Independents.     In  1801  tha 
assistance  of  friends  among  the  members  of  that  party 
enabled  him  to  purchase  the  copyright  of  the  Leeds  Mer- 
cury.     Provincial  newspapers  did  not  at  that  time  possess 
m'Jch  influence  ;  the  editorial  province  was  not  extended 
to  the  composition  of  what  are  now  called  leading  articles, 
and  the  system  of  reporting  was  dcfectivo.    In  both  respects 
Baines   made  a  complete  change   iu  tha  Mercury.     Tho 
ability  of  his  political  articles  gradually  caused  the  paper 
to  be  looked  upon  as  tho  organ  of  Liberal  opinion  in  Leeds, 
and  it  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  spread  of  sound  doc- 
trines on  practical  questions  in  the  north  of  England.     At. 
the  same  time  his  watchful  care  secured  the  efficiency  of 
the  minor  departments.     Baines  soon  began    to   take  a 
more  prominent  part  in  pohtics;  he  was  an  ardcn't  advo- 
cate of  parliamentary  reform,  and  it  was  mainly  by  his 
influence  that  Macaulay  was  returned  for  Leeds  in  1832. 
In  1834,  when  a  vacancy  was  caused  by  Macaulay 's  accept- 
ance of  an  Indian  appointment,  Baines  was  proposed  as  a 
candidate,  and  was  returned  after  a  sliarp  contest.     He 
was  re-elected  in  1835  and  1837,  but  was  obliged  to  resign 
from  ill  health  in  1841..    Ho  was  noted  in   Parliament 
as  a  Judicious  supporter  of  the  Liberal  party,  but  with 
independent   views.      Ho   strongly  advocated   the   sepa- 
ration  of    church   and  state,   and   opposed   Government 
interference  in  national  education.      His  letters  to  Lord 
John  Russell  on  the  latter  question  (1846)  had  a  powerful 
influence  in  determining  the  action  of   the  Government. 
Ho   died   in'  1848.      In    tho  midst   of    his    active    life 
ho  had  found  time  for  literary  work.     His  best  knowi\ 
WTitings    are: — The    History,    Directory,    and    Oasetleer 
of  the  County  of  York;  History,  Directory,  and  Gazetteer 
of  the  County  of  Lancaster;  History  of  the  County  Pala- 
tine and  Duchy  of  Lancaster.      He  was  also  the  author 
of  a  JHslory  of  the   Wars  of  XapoUon,  which  was  con- 
tinued  under   tho    title   of  A    Hiitury   of   the   Peign  of 
George  JH.     His  Life  (1861)  has    been  written   by  his 
son,  Edward  Baines,  jun.,  for  some  time  editor,  and  stil! 
(1875)  one  of  tho  proprietors,  of  the  Leeds  Mercury,  and 
well  known   by  his  histories  of  tho  cotton  and  woollen 
manufactures  of  Great  Britain. 

BAINE.S,  ^fATTiiEW  Tai.cot,  eldest  son  of  tho  above, 
was  born  in  1799,  and  died  in  18C0.  He  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  entered  the  bar.      In  1837  he  was  mads 


246 


B  A  I— B  A  J 


recorder  of  Hull,  and  in  1847  was  returned  to  Parliament 
for  that  city.  His  remarkable  ability  made  itself  quickly 
apparent,  and  in  1848  ha  became  president  of  the  Poor- 
Law  Board.  In  1852  he  sat  for  Leeds,  and  was  again 
appointed  president  of  the  Poor-Law  Board,  which  office 
he  held  tQl  1855.  In  1856  he  was  made  chancellor  of  the 
Duchy  of  Lancaster,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet. 

BAINI,  Giuseppe,  a  learned  musical  critic  and  com- 
poser of  church  music,  was  born  at  Rome  in  1775,  and 
died  there  in  1844.  He  was  instructed  in  composition  by 
his  uncle,  Lorenzo  Bami,  and  afterwards  by  JannaconL 
In  1814  he  was  appointed  musical  director  to  the  choir  of 
the  pontifical  chapel,  in  which  he  had  for  several  years 
been  one  of  the  principal  bass  singers.  His  compositions 
were  very  favourable  specimens  of  the  severe  ecclesiastical 
style;  one  in  particular,  a  Miserere,  was  long  performed 
alternately  with  the  more  celebrated  work  of  AUegri  in  the 
8  irvices  of  the  Sistine  chapel  during  Passion  week.  Baini 
held  a  higher  place,  however,  as  a  musical  critic  and  histo- 
rian than  as  a  composer,  and  his  Life  of  Palestrina  (Me- 
morie  storico-critiche  delta  vita  e  (kCle  opere  di  Giovanni 
Pierluigi  da  Palestrina,  1828)  ranks  as  one  of  the  best 
works  of  its  class. 

BAIRAil,  a  Turkish  or  Persian  word  meaning  feast,  is 
the  name  applied  to  the  two  great  Mahometan  festivals. 
The  first  of  these,  called  generally,  though,  according  to 
some  authorities,  incorrectly,  the  Greater  Bairam,  is  the 
day  following  the  Ramadan,  or  month  of  fasting.  It  lasts 
strictly  for  only  one  day,  though  the  common  people  gene 
rally  extend  it  to  three,  and  is  a  period  of  great  animation 
and  enjoyment.  What  is  called  commonly  the  Lesser 
Bairam  follows  the  first  at  an  interval  of  sixty  days.  It  is 
the  feast  of  sacrifices,  at  which  all  Moliometans  imitate  the 
oflferings  of  animals  which  aro  then  being  made  at  Mecca 
to  commemorate  Abraham's  offering  of  Isaac.  It  lasts  for 
four  days,  and  is  not  of  so  sacred  a  character  as  the  first 
Bairam. 

BAIRD,  General  Sir  David,  Bart,  was  born  at  New- 
byth  in  Aberdeenshire,  in  December  1757.  He  entered 
the  British  army  in  177.3,  and  was  sent  ti  India  'R-ith  the 
73d  Highlanders  in  1779.  In  the  following  year  ho  had 
the  misfortune  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  Hyder  Ali,  in  the 
Mysore  chief's  perfidious  attack  on  a  handful  of  British 
troops  at  Perambucum.  Tho  prisoners,  it  is  well  known, 
wore  most  barbarously  treated.  Baird  survived  his  cap- 
tivity ,  and  on  his  release,  visited  his  native  country,  but 
returned  to  India  in  1791  as  a  lieutenant-coloneL  When 
Harris  marched  against  Tippoo  Sahib,  Baird,  now  a  major- 
general,  served  under  him  in  thai  campaign ;  and  when 
it  was  resolved  to  etorm  Seringapatam,  he  solicited  and 
obtained  the  honour  of  leading  the  storming  party  to 
the  breach.  He  mado  a  daring  assault,  and  was  soon  a 
master  of  tho  stronghold  in  which  ho  had  long  been  tho 
prisoner.  Through  some  misconception,  Baird  seems  to 
have  looked  upon  the  temporary  appointment  of  Colonel 
Wellesleyto  hold  the  captured  town  as  permanently  super- 
seding him,  and  on  this  ground  he  judged  himself  to  have 
been  treated  with  injustice  and  disrespect.  He  after- 
wards received  tho  thanks  of  tho  British  Parliament  and 
of  tho  East  India  Company  for  his  gallant  bearing  on 
that  important  Any,  and  a  pension  was  offered  him  by 
tho  Company,  which  he  declined,  apparently  from  tho  hope 
of  receiving  tho  order  of  tho  Bath  from  tho  Oovernment. 
General  Baird  comnuindcd  tho  Indian  army  which  was  sent 
in  1801  to  co-opcrato  with  Hutchinson  in  tho  expulsion  of 
tbe  French  from  Egypt.  Ho  landed  at  Kossoir,  conducted 
his  array  to  Kcnoh  on  the, Nile,  and  thenco  to  Rosctta, 
where  he  arrived  just  as  tho  Trench  were  treating  for  the 
evacuation  of  Alexandria.  On  his  return  to  India  in  1802 
he  was  employed  against  Scindia.  but  irritated  nt  some 


neglect  he  had  experienced,  he  relinqvushed  his  command 
and  returned  to  Europe.  In  1804  he  was  knighted,  and  in 
the  following  year  commanded  tho  expedition  against  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  captured  Cape  Town  ;  but  here 
again  his  usual  iU-luck  attended  him,  for  he  was  recalled 
before  he  had  organised  his  conquest,  for  having  sanctioned 
the  expedition  of  Sir  Home  Popham  against  Buenos  Ayres. 
He  served  again  in  1807  in  the  expedition  against  Copen- 
hagen, and  in  the  following  year  commanded  the  consider- 
able force  which  was  sent  to  Spain  to  co-operate  with  Sir 
John  Moore.  In  the  battle  of  Coruna,  where,  after  tho 
death  of  Moore,  he  held  supreme  command,  a  grape-shot 
shattered  his  left  arm,  so  that  it  had  to  be  amputated'at  the 
shoulder-joint.  He  again  obtained  the  thanks  of  Parlia- 
ment for  his  gallant  services,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  de- 
coration of  the  order  of  the  Bath,  and  the  rank  of  a  baronet. 
Sir  David  married  Miss  Campbell  Preston,  a  Perthshire 
heiress,  in  1810.  In  1820  he  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  in  Ireland  J  but  tho  post  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  suitable  for  him,  and  he  was  removed  in  1821.  From 
that  period  he  no  more  appeared  in  public  life.  He  died 
on  the  18th  August  1829.  (See  Hook's  Life  of  Sir  David 
Baird.) 

BAIREUTH,  or  Bavreuth,  the  capital  of  tho  circle  of 
Upper  Franconia,  in  Bavaria,  is  pleasantly  situated  in  a 
valley  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Red  Maine,  40  miles  N.N.E. 
of  Nuremberg.  It  is  well  built,  with  broad,  regular,  and 
well-paved  streets,  and  is  partially  surroupded  by  old 
wills.  The  river  is  crossed  here  by  two  bridges.  Most  of 
the  buildings  are  of  comparatively  modern  date,  the  city 
having  suffered  severely  from  the  Hussites  in  1430,  and 
from  a  conflagration  in  1621  Among  the  more  important 
are — the  old  castle,  erected  in  1454,  the  new  castle,  built 
in  1753.  the  opera-house,  one  of  the  finest  in  Germany, 
the  gymnasium,  founded  in  1 664,  the  riding  school,  and  the 
barracks.  Among  the  ecclesiastical  buildings,  tho  Stadt- 
liirche,  dating  from  1439,  and  containing  the  monuments 
of  the  margraves  of  Baireuth,  is  the  most  important ;  and 
there  are  also  a  handsome  synagogue,  a  public  library, 
theatre,  hospital,  and  aL  orphan  and  a  lunatic  asj-lum.  la 
1841, a  monument,  by  Schwanthalcr.was  erected  here  to  Jean 
Paul  Richter,  who  spent  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life 
in  the  city,  and  has  left  some  beautiful  descriptions  of  tho 
neighbourhood  in  his  Sirbcnkits.  His  house  wasin  Fried- 
richsstrasse.  Baireuth  is  a  railway  junction,  and  has  an 
active  trade,  chiefly  in  grain  and  horses.  It  manufactures 
woollen,  linen,  and  cotton  goods,  leather,  delft  and  other 
earthenware,  and  tobacco,  and  has  also  several  breweries 
and  distilleries.  About  half  a  league  distant  is  the  village 
of  St  George,  noted  for  its  marble  works  ,  and  about  two 
miles  to  the  E.  is  the  Hermitage,  a  fanciful  building, 
erected  in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century,  with  gardens 
containing  terraces,  statues,  and  fountains.  Baireuth  has 
been  chosen  by  Richard  Wagner  as  the  scene  of  his 
musical  festivals,  and  a  theatre  is  being  erected  for  his 
special  use.  Population,  17,841.  Baireuth  was  formerly 
tho  capital  of  a  principality  of  the  same  name,  which 
was  annexed  in  1791  to  the  kingdom  of  Prussia.  In 
1807  it  was  ceded  by  Prussia  to  Franco,  which  kept 
possession  of  it  i-ill  1810,  when  it  was  transferred  to 
Bavaria. 

BAJA,  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  in  tho  county  of 
Bacs,  on  the  left  bank  of  tho  Danube,  CO  miles  S.  of 
Pesth.  It  was  burned  down  in  1807,  but  has  since  been 
well  built.  It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  grain  and 
pigs,  and  its  four  annual  markets  arc  largely  attended. 
Tho  Roman  Catholics,  the  Greek  Church,  and  the  Jews 
have  each  a  place  of  worship  in  tlio  town,  which  also 
possesses  a  gymnasium,  and  a  castle  belonging  to  the 
Grassalkovich  family.     Population,  18,110. 


B  A  J  —  B  A  K 


247 


BAJAZET  I.,  sultan  of  the  Turks,  commenced  to  rcigu 
m  13S9,  aud  died  iu  11U3.  Tbo  woUknown  story  of  the 
iron  cage,  in  which  this  monarch  was  said  to  have  been 
carried  about  by  his  conqueror  'J'iraur,  has  no  authority, 
and  probably  originated  in  a  mistake  as  to  the  word  for  a 
iiUer,  in  which  Bajazet  was  carried. 

BAJAZET  II.,  eon  of  Mahomet  II.,  succeeded  Lis 
father  as  sultan  in  1481,  and  died  in  1512.  See  Con- 
stantinople and  Turkey. 

BAJUS,  or  De  Bay,  Michael,  a  celebrated  theologian, 
was  born  at  Melin  in  Hainaut  in  1513.  lie  distinguished 
himself  highly  during  his  course  of  study  at  Louvain,  and 
was  quickly  promoted  to  a  professorship  in  the  college 
of  that  town.  In  1549  he  took  his  doctor's  degree,  and 
two  years  later  ho  was  appointed  rcgius  professor  of 
divinity.  On  account  of  his  eminence  in  theological 
learning  ha  was  selected  by  the  king  of  Spain  to  go  to  the 
great  council  at  Trent,  in  the  proceedings  of  which  ho 
took  a  prominent  part.  His  studies  having  been  chiefly 
directed  to  Augustine,  with  whose  works  he  vas  very 
familiar,  Bajus  found  that  his  doctrines  on  the  fundamental 
points  of  freewill,  predestination,  grace,  and  the  sacraments, 
were  in  direct  opposition  to  the  scholastic  theology  recog- 
nised as  orthodox  by  the  powerful  .body  of  the  Jesuits. 
Eighteen  propositions,  said  to  be  gathered  from  the  works 
of  Bajus  and  his  colleague  Hcssels,  were  condemned  by 
the  Sorbonne,  and  a  more  extensive  collection  of  sevcnty- 
Eiz  were  censured  by  Pope  Pius  V.  in  15G7.  This 
censure,  which  did  not  press  very  heavily  on  Bajus,  who 
was  not  indeed  mentioned  as  holding  the  cCiidemned 
doctrines,  was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  Gregory  XIII.  in 
1580.  Bajus,  who  was  a  man  of  meek  and  mild  temper, 
quietly  made  such  submission  as  was  requisite  under  the 
circumstances,  continued  to  hold  his  professorship,  and  even 
advanced  to  the  dignity  of  chancellor  of  the  university.  He 
died  in  1589,  in  the  77th  year  of  his  age.  His  principal 
works  have  been  published  in  a  collected  form  at  Cologne, 
1696,  1  vol.  4to,  in  2  parts;  some  largo  treatises  have 
not  been  published.  The  doctrines  for  which  Bajus  was 
censured,  and  the  discussions  arising  with  regard  to  them, 
ore  interesting  in  connection  with  the  history  of  Jansen- 
ism, for  Janscn  did  little  mora  than  reproduce  the 
Augustinianism  of  Bajus. 

BAJZA,  Anton,  a  distinguished  Hungarian  poet  and 
critic,  was  born  at  Sziicsi  in  1804.  His  earliest  contribu- 
tions were  made  to  Kisfaludy's  Aurora,  a  Lterary  paper  of 
which  ho  was  editor  from  1830  to  1837.  He  also  wrote 
largely  in  the  Krilische  Blatter,  the  Athenaeum,  and  the 
Figydmco,  or  Observer.  His  criticisms  on  dramatic  art 
were  considered  the  best  of  these  miscellaneous  writings. 
In  1830  he  published  translations  of  some  foreign  dramas, 
Auslandische  Biihne,  and  in  1835  a  collection  of  his  own 
poems.  In  1837  he  was  made  director  of  the  newly 
established  national  theatre  at  Pcsth.  He  then,  for  some 
years,  devoted  himself  to  historical  writing,  and  published 
in  succession  the  Historical  Library  (Tiirtereii  KUnyvtdr), 
6  vols.  1843-45;  the  Modern  Plutarch  (Uj  Plutarch), 
1845-47;  and  the  Universal  History  (Vildgtorclct), 
1847.  These  works  arc  to  somo  extent  translations  from 
German  authora  In  1847  Bajxa  edited  the  journal  of 
the  opposition,  Elleiior,  at  Lcipsic,  and  in  March  1848 
Kossuth  made  him  editor  of  his  paper,  Kossuth  Ilirlapja. 
In  1850  he  wa»  attacked  with  brain  disease,  and  died  in 
1858. 

BAKAI^OANJ,  a  district  of  British  India  in  the  Dacca 
division,  under  the  Lieutcnant-Covernor  of  Bengal,  situated 
between  23°  14'  27'  and  21°  48'  N.  lat,  and  80°  55'  10" 
nnd  91°  4'  50'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the 
districts  of  Dacca  and  Faridpur,  from  which  it  is  ncparated 
by  the   Padmi   and    M.unikAtlkhilj   on    the    E.   by  the 


Meghui  and  Sbdhbdzpur  rivers,  and  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
which  separates  it  from  No.\khili  and  Tipperah  ;  on  the  S. 
by  the  Bay  of  Bengal;  and  on  the  W.  by  JessBr  and  Farid- 
pur districts.  Area,  4935  square  miles;  population,' 
2,377,433.  The  general  aspect  of  the  district  is  that  of  a 
flat  even  country,  dotted  with  clusters  of  bamboos  and 
bctel-nut  trees,  and  intersected  by  a  perfect  network  of 
dark-coloured  and  sluggish  streams.  There  is  not  a  hill 
or  hillock  in  the  whole  district,  but. it  derives  a  certain 
picturesque  beauty  from  its  wide  expanses  of  cultivation,  and 
the  greenness  and  freshness  of  the  vegetation.  This  is 
especially  conspicuous  iu  the  rains,  but  at  no  time  of  the 
year  docs  the  district  present  a  dried  or  burnt-up  appear- 
ance. The  villages,  which  are  always  walled  round  by 
groves  of  bamboos  and  betel-nut  palms,  have  often  a  very 
striking  appearance;  and  Bikarganj  has  many  beauties 
of  detail  which  strike  a  traveller  in  passing  through  the 
country.  The  level  of  the  country  is  low,  forming  as  it 
does  a  part  of  the  great  Gangetic  delta ;  and  the  rivers, 
streams,  and  water-courses  are  so  numerous  that  it  is  very 
ditEcult  to  travel  except  by  boat  at  any  season  of  the 
year.  Every  natural  hollow  is  full  of  water,  around  the 
margin  of  which  long  grasses,  reeds,  and  other  aquatic 
plants  grow  in  the  greatest  profusion,  often  making  it 
difficult  to  say  where  the  land  ends  and  where  the  water 
begins.  Towards  the  north-west  the  country  is  very  marshy, 
and  nothing  is  to  be  seen  for  miles  but  tracts  of  unreclaimed 
swamps  and  rice  lands,  with  a  few  huts  scattered  here  and 
there,  and  raised  on  mounds  of  earth.  In  the  south  of  the 
district,  along  the  sea  face  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  lie  the 
forest  tracts  of  the  Sundarbans,  the  habitation  of  tigers, 
leopords,  and  other  wild  beasts. 

The  principal  rivers  of  the  dialrict  arc  tho  Meghni,  tto  Aridl 
Khio,  and  tbc  Hnrincliita  or  lialcswar,  with  their  numerous  off- 
ehoots.  The  Mcghni  represents  tlie  accumulated  waters  of  the 
Brahmaputra  and  Ganges.  It  flows  along  the  eastern  boundary 
of  the  district  in  a  southerly  direction  for  about  100  miles,  till  it 
debouches  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  During  the  latter  part  of  its 
course  this  noble  river  espauds  into  a  largo  cstuaiy  contain- 
ing many  islands,  the  principal  of  which  is  that  of  Dakshi'n 
ShahbazpuT.  The  Anal  Khan,  a  branch  of  the  Ganges,  enters  the 
district  from  the  north,  and  flows  generally  in  a  south-easterly 
direction  till  It  falls  into  the  estuary  of  tho  Meghna.  The  main 
channel  of  the  Arial  Khdu  ia  about  1700  yards  in  width  in  the  dry 
season,  and  from  2000  to  3000  yards  in  the  rains.  It  receives  a 
number  of  tributaries,  sends  olT  several  olTshoota,  and  is  navigable 
throughout  the  year  by  native  cargo  boats  of  the  largest  size.  The 
Ilaringhati,  Balcawar,  Madhumati,  and  Oarai, are  variou-s  local  names 
for  tho  same  river  iu  difTcrcnt  parts  of  its  course,  and  represent 
another  great  offshoot  of  the  Ganges.  It  enters  Bikarganj  near  the 
north-west  comer  of  tho  district,  whence  it  forms  its  western 
boundary,  and  mns  south,  but  with  great  windings  in  its  upper 
reaches,  till  it  crosses  tho  Sundarbans,  and  finally  falls  into  the 
Bay  of  Bengal  by  a  largo  nnd  deep  estuary,  capable  of  receiving 
merchant  ships  of  considerable  lunien.  In  tho  whole  of  its  course 
through  tho  district  the  river  is  navigable  by  native  boats  of  large 
tonnage,  and  by  large  seagoing  ships  as  high  up  as  Morrellganj,  in 
the  neighbouring  diitrict  of  Jcasor.  Among  its  many  tributaries 
in  Bakarganj  the  most  important  is  the  Kacbi,  itself  a  considerable 
stream  and  navigable  by  large  boats  all  the  year  round,  which  flows 
in  a  southerly  direction  for  20  miles,  when  it  falls  into  the  Baleswar. 
Other  rivers  of  minor  im]iortanco  aro  the  Barisdl,  Bishkhili, 
Nihdlganj,  Khairabiid,  Ghilgar,  Kumir,  &c  All  tho  rivers  in  the 
districtaro  subject  to  tidal  action  from  the  McghnA  on  the  north, 
and  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  on  tho  south,  and  neariy  all  of  them 
are  navigable  at  high  tide  by  countiy  boats  of  all  sizes.  The  rise 
of  the  tide  is  very  considerable  in  the  estuary  of  the  lleghn.i,  and 
many  of  the  crocks  and  watercourses  in  tho  island  of  Uotslitn 
ShabbAzpur,  which  oro  almost  dry  at  ebb  tide,  contain  18  or  19 
feet  of  water  at  the  flood.  A  very  strong  "bore"  or  tidal  wave 
runs  up  the  estuary  of  the  Meghni  at  spring  tides,  and  a  singular 
sound  like  thunder,  known  as  tho  "B.irisal  Guns,"  is  often  heard 
far  out  at  sea  about  the  time  it  is  coming  in.  There  are  numeroM 
marshes  in  the  district,  of  great  size  and  depth,  and  alwundiiig  in  fiah. 
The  following  pceuli.aritv  of  some  of  them  is  quoted  fiom  Culonel 
Castrell's  Gtnyraphifnl  and  Slalislical  Report  of  the  IHit-riit 
(18(38):— "In  some  of  the  swamps,  especially  in  those  of  Bikarganj, 
the  surface  growth   of   aiiualic  plauU,   mined  witti  drift  woeda. 


248 


B  A  K  A  n  G  A  N  J 


grasses,  ftnJ  r?ce  stillc:,  increases  annually,  anj  io  process  of  time  a 
crust  is  foiiijej  capable  of  supporting  humau  beings,  and  oa  wbich 
rice  is  cultivated.  Small  tioating  patches  are  thus  formed,  and  the 
natives  assert  that  in  very  strong  blowing  weather  these  are  sdme- 
times  carried  from  one  side  of  the  swamp  to  the  other,  and  are  a 
cause  of  great  dispute.'  A  Government  otS'^ial,  whose  duties  often 
took  him  to  these  swamps,  mentioned  that  the  first  time  he  found 
himself  oa  ground  of  this  kind,  being  totally  unawaro  of  its 
nature,  he  was  gieatly  alarmed  at  feeling,  as  he  thought,  tho  earth 
moving  beneath  him  ;  and  still  more  astonished  when,  on  seeking 
information  from  the  inhabitants,  he  was  told  *it  was  only  the 
tide  coming  in.'  The  owners  of  these  floating  fields  make  holes 
through  them,  and  catch  the  fish  which  are  immediately  attracted 
by  the  light." 

Tho  census  of  1872  disclosed  a  population  of  2,377, ISS  souls  in 
Bdkarganj  district,  spread  over  4935  square  miles,  inhabiting  4269 
Tillages  and  321,657  houses;  persons  per  square  mile,  4S2  ;  per  vil- 
lage, 557  ;  per  house,  7'4.  Tha  Mahometans  aro  the  largest 
section  of  the  population,  and  number  7,540,965,  or  64  3  per  cent  of 
the  total  inhabitants;  Hindus,  827i393,  or  S4-8  per  cent.;  Bud- 
dhist, 4049,  or  -2  per  cent.  ;  Christians,  4852,'or  '2  per  cent,  j  onj 
persons  of  unspecified  religion,  174  souls.  "The  ilusalmans  of 
Bikarganj  are  among  the  worst  of  their  creed,  steeped  in  ignoranre 
ond  prejudice,  easily  .excited  to  violence  and' murder,- very  litigious, 
and  grossly  immoral.  Tire  Fardizis  or  Puritan  sect  of  Mahometiins 
are  exceedingly  numerous  in  the  district.'  The  Buddhist  population 
'consists  of  ilaghs  or  the  people  of  Arakrin,  who  first  setUcd  in 
I'.akarganj  about  seventy  years  ago,  and  have  made  tliemselvcS  very- 
useful  in  tho  clearing  ofihe  Sundarbans.  A  gipsy -like  tribd  called 
the.Bebajias  are  rather  numerous  in  this  district.  They  principally 
live  in  boats,  travelling  from  place  to  place,  profess  Muhammadau- 
ism,  and  gain  their  subsistence  by  wood-cutting  in  the  Sundarbans, 
fishing,  fortune-telling,  and  trading  in  trinkets.  The  Christian 
community  of  Bakarganj  owes  its  origin  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
monastery  at  Bandel  near  Calcutta,  and  to  the  Protestant  (Bap- 
tist) missionaries  at  Serampur.  The  principal  native  converts  come 
from  tho  Hindu  low-caste  Chandals,  &c.,  who  subsist  by  cultiva- 
tion. 

Barisil,  the  headquarters  station,  sitiiafed  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Barisil  river,  in  21°  41'  40"  N.  ht,  and  DO" 
24'  30''  E.  long.,  is  tbo  only  tcwn  containing  upwards  of 
COOO  inhabitants.  In  1872  its  population  amounted  to 
7684  souls;  municipal  income,  £1019,  18s.;  municipal 
expenditure,  £1000,  2s.;  incidence  of  taxation,  23.  T^d. 
pet  head.  There  aro  also  three  other  municipal  towns — 
(1.)  Nalchitl,  a  largo  trading  vilhgo;  principal  exports, 
rice  and  paddy;  imports,  salt,  tobacco,  oil,  and  sugar; 
(2.)  .ThilakAtl  or  Mahdrijganj,  a  largo  timber  market,  also 
trading  in  rice,  paddy,  and  salt;  (3.)  Daulat  Kh.'^n,  the 
principal  village  in  tho  island  of  Daksliin,  Shihbizpur ; 
exports,  betel-nut.  A  number  of  small  trading  villages 
exist  throughout  the  district,  and  each  locality  has  its 
periodical  fairs  for  purposes  of  traffic.  The  material  condi- 
tion of  tho  people  is  good.  Every  inhabitant  is  a  small  land- 
holder, and  cultivates  sufficient  rice  and  other  necessaries  for 
the  support  of  his  family.  Owing  to  this  reason,  hired  labour 
is  very  scarce,  and  during  the  harvest  season,  when  the 
few  available  labourers  arc  sought  for  by  the  landholders, 
tho  price  of  labour  rises  to  Is.  per  diem.  The  average  cost 
of  living  to  a  labouring  man  is  about  Cs.  per  month.  Except 
in  the  larger  ■villages,  tho  dwellings  of  tho  people  are  very 
isolated.  The  inhabitants  seldom  congregate  together  into 
hamlets,  but  each  man  builds  his  homestead  on  the  highest 
spot  on  his  own  land  without  any  reference  to  his  neigh- 
bours. Rice  is  tho  great  crop  of  the  district,  and  three 
liarvests  are  obtained  annually — tho  dman,  or  winter  rice  ; 
dus,  or  autumn  crop  ;  and  boro,  or  spring  rice.  Tho  former 
yields  the  finest  grain,  and  is  the  staple  crop  of  the  district. 
It  is  sown  at  the  setting  in  of  the  rains  in  A[>ril  or  May, 
transplanted  from  the  beginning  of  June  to  the  middle  of 
August,  and  reaped  in  November  or  December.  About 
100  varieties  of  the  dman  rice  arc  cultivated  in  the  district. 
The  dus  crop  is  sown  in  the  early  part  of  the  hot  weather, 
and  reaped  in  August.  Upwards  of  20  varieties  of  this 
rice  arc  produced.  Tho  horo  or  spring  rice  is  of  a  coarse 
description,  lari;jly  used  by  the  poorer  classes,  and  is  cul- 
tivatbd  to  a  con.sidcrablc  extent  in  the  alluvial  river  accre- 


tions, and  on  other  low-lying  grounds.  It  is  sown  broadcast 
in  December,  and  reaped  in  April  or  May.  Bakarg.iuj 
exports  its  rice  chiefly  to  Calcutta.  The  average  yield  of 
rice  land  here  is  from  17i  to  22  cwt.  per  acre.  Other 
crops — khesdri  {Lathyrns  sativus),  musuri  (Cicer  Ims), 
sarishd,  or  mustard,  rape-seed,  linseed,  jute,  sugar-cane^ 
betel-nut,  itc.  Manufactures — pottery,  coarse  cloth,  oil, 
fine  mats,  and  molasses.  Tho  district  has  only  five  small 
roads,  but  its  rivers  afford  ample  means  of  communica» 
tion. 

Like  all  other  districts  of  Pengal,  Bikarganj  has  stead)ly 
increased  in  prosperity  since  its  administration  passed  iijto 
the  hands  of  English  oiEeers,  and  especially  of  late  years, 
since  the  country  has  been  dhectly  under  the  Crown. 
Frorii  the  time  of  the  acquisition  of  Bengal  by  the  British 
in  17G5  up  the  end' of  1817,  Bikarganj  formed  a  part  of 
the  Dacca  district.  It  ■was  tlien  formed  into  a  separata 
coUectorship,  with  the  object  -of  encouraging  enterprising 
persons  to  cultivate  its  immense  tracts  of -(vaste  lands.  la 
rSlS  the  net  revenue  of  the  district  arnountcd  to  £96,438, 
and  the  net  civil  expenditure  to  £13,647.  Two  years  later 
(1820)  tho  net  district  revenue  had  slightly  decreased  to 
£95,709,  while  the  net  expenditure  on  civil  administration 
had  increased  to  £16,G09.  During  the  next  forty  years 
both  revenue  and  expenditure  rapidly  increased,  and  in 
18G0-C1  the  net  revenue  of  the  district  amounted  to 
£150,305,  and  the  net  civil  expenditure  to  £32,584.  In 
1870-7 1  the  total  net  revenue  was  £203,445,  and  net  ci'al 
expendituro,  £44,902.  The  land  revenue  of  Bikarganj  is 
settled  in  perpetuity  with  the  zaminddrs.  la  1872  the 
district  contained  4729  estates,  held  by  5960  proprietors, 
who  were  assessed  at  a  total  revenue  of  £143,156.  Io 
J 871  the  machinery  for  protecting  tho  district  consisted  of 
583  men  of  the  regular  police  of  all  ranks,  maintained  at 
a  totn'  cost  of  £1 1,186.  Attached  to  the  regular  police  is  a 
river  patrol  consisting  of  five  boats,  and  manned  by  a  crew 
of  35  men.  The  village  watch  or  rural  police  consisted  ia 
1871  of  5135  .men,  maintained  at  a  cost  of  £18,486,  paid 
by  the  landholders  and  ■villagers,  each  village  watchman 
having  besides  a  small  plot  of  ground  rent  free.  A  muni- 
cipal police  of  53  men  was  also  maintained  in  the  towns 
and  large,  villages,  at  a  total  cost  of  £403,  14s.,  defrayed 
out  of  municipal  receipts.  Education  is  in  a  very  back- 
ward state  in  Bikarganj,  owing  to  the  inhabitants  being 
almost  wholly  composed  of  petty  husbandmen,  the  majority 
of  whom  are  Mahometans  of  the  most  bigoted  tenets.  Ira 
1856-57  the  district  contained  5  schools,  attended  by  482 
pupils,  and  maintained  at  a  total  cost  of  £595,  13s.  Ira 
1871-72  there  were  78  Gov2rnniont  and  aided  schools, 
attended  by  3713  pupils,  and  maintained  at  a  total  cost  of 
£3767,  123.,  the  total  cost  to  the  state  being  £1232,  10s._ 
This  is  exclusive  of  private  schools  uninspected  by  tho 
education  department.  The  census  report  of  1872  returned 
tho  total  number  of  schools  (Government  and  private)  at 
512,  attended  by  a  tgt.al  of  7299  pupils.  Barisil  town 
contains  a  Government  school,  which  is  tho  largest  in 
Eastern  Bengal,  and  financially  the  most  successful;  tho 
cost  to  Government  for  its  355  pupils  in  1872  being  only 
£31,  123.  Bikarganj  district  is  divided  into  5  magisterial 
sub-divisions^  viz.,  Baris.il,  Dakshfn  Shihbizpiir,  Midi- 
ripur,  Birozpur,  and  PatuAkbiK,  comprising  1?  police 
circles  or  t/u'uids,  and  54  fiscal  divisions  or paj'(;an<f*.  Tho 
climate  of  Bikarganj  is  one  of  tho  healthiest  in  Eastern 
Bengal,  owing  to  the  strong  ^outh-wcst  monsoon,  which 
comes  up  directly  from  tho  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  keeps  tho 
atmosphere  cool ;  but  tho  heavy  rainfall  and  consequent 
humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  combined  with  the  use  of  bad 
water,  are  fruitful  sources  of  disease.  Tho  average  annual 
temperature  varies  from  78°  to  85°.  The  therinonietcr 
ranges  from  62°  to  98°.     Tho  endemic  diseases  of  ISikar- 


B  A  K  — B  A  K 


249 


ganj  are  fevers  of  tlie  iatermittent,  remittent,  and  continued 
I  vpe3,  attributable  to  the  extreme  dampness  and  malarious 
iijture  of  the  district.  Cholera  is  always  present,  the 
number  of  cases  increasing  in  the  hot  season  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  cold  weather.  Smallpox  occasionally  makes 
its  appearance  in  an  epidemic  form, — frequently  caused  by 
inoculation,  which  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent  in  Bikar- 
ganj  by  the  natire  medical  practilioiiers. 

BAKER,  Henby,  a  distinguished  naturalist,  was  bom 
in  Fleet  Street,  London,  in  1098.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
he  was  apprenticed  to  a  bookseller,  with  whom  he  remained 
for  seven  years.  Pie  then  became  clerk  to  Mr  Forster, 
attorney,  whose  deaf  and  dumb  daughter  he  instructed 
carefully,  and  with  such  success  that  for  a  time  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  training  of  persons  similarly  afflicted. 
Daring  this  period  of  his  life  he  published  several  poems, 
and  married  Sophia,  youngest  daughter  of  the  famous 
Daniel  Defoe,  who  bore  him  two  sons,  both  of  whom 
he  survived  In  1740  he  was  elected  fellow  of  the 
bociety  of  Antiquaries  and  of  the  Royal  Society.  He 
contributed  many  memoirs  to  the  Transactions  of  the 
latter  society,  and  in  1744  received  the  Copley  gold 
medal  for  microscopical  experiments  on  the  crystallisation 
and  configuration  of  ealine  particles.  Mr  Baker  died  at 
his  apartments  in  the  Straud  on  the  25th  of  November 
1774.  Besides  his  numerous  memoirs  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions,  he  published  two  valuable  treatises  on  the 
microscope:  The  Microscope  made  Easy,  London,  1743, 
and  Employment  for  the  Microscope,  1753.  Another  well- 
known  work  is  his  philosophical  poem.  The  Universe, 
which  has  passed  through  several  editions.  Mr  Baker's 
memory  i3  perpetuated  by  the  Bakerian  Lecture  of  the 
Royal  Society,  for  the  foundation  of  which  he  left  bj  will 
the  sum  of  £100. 

BAKER,  SiB  Richard,  author  of  the  Chronicle  of  the 
KiTigs  of  England,  was  born  at  Sissinghurst,  in  Kent, 
about  the  year  1563.  He  w.is  educated  at  Oxford,  took 
the  degree  of  Mastor-of  Arts,  and  in  1603  received  the 
honour  of  knighthood.  In  1620  he  was  made  high 
sheriff  of  Oxfordshire ;  but  having  engaged  to  pay  some  debts 
of  his  wife's  family,  he  was  reduced  to  poverty,  and  obliged 
to  betake  himself  for  ehelter  to  the  Fleet  prison,  where 
he  died,  February  18,  1645.  During  his  confinement  he 
composed  numerous  works,  historical,  poetical,  and  mis- 
cellaneous. Amongst  these  are  Meditations  and  Disquisi- 
tions on  th:  Lord's  Prayer  ,  Meditations,  drc,  on  several  of 
the  Psalms  of  David  .  Meditations  and  Prayers  upon  the 
Seven  Days  of  the  Week  ,  Cato  Variegatus,  or  Calo's  Moral 
Distichs  ;  Theatrum  Tnumphans,  or  Theatrum  Redivivum, 
being  a  reply  to  Frynne's  Histrwmastur,  &c.  His  principal 
work,  the  Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  England,  inexact  and 
uncriti>;al,  but  written  in  a  pleasant  and  readable  style, 
quickly  acquired  a  high  reputation.  It  was  continued  to 
1058  by  Edward  Phillips,  Milton's  nephew,  and  has  passed 
through  many  editions. 

BAKER.  "Tbomas,  a  learned  antiquary,  descended  from 
an  ancient  famdy  distinguished  by  its  loyalty,  was  born  at 
Crook  in  1655.  He  was  educated  at  the  free  school  at 
Darham.  and  proceeded  thence,  in  1674,  to  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  afterwards  obtained  a  fellow- 
ehip.  Lurd  Crewe,  bishop  of  Durham,  collated  him  to  the 
rectory  of  Long-Newton  in  bis  diocese,  in  1687,  and 
furthur  intended  to  give  him  that  of  Sedgefield,  with  a 
golden  prebend,  had  not  Baker  incurred  his  displeasure 
for  refusing  to  read  James  IL'a  Declaration  of  Indulgence. 
The  bishop  who  disgraced  him  for  this  refusal,  and  who 
was  afterwards  specially  excepted  from  Wdliam's  Act  of 
Indemnity,  took  the  oath.'?  to  that  king,  and  kept  his 
bishopnc  till  his  death.  "  Baker,  on  the  other  hand,  though 
be   bad   opposed    James,  refused    to    take   the   oaths   to 


William  ;  he  resigned  Long-Newton  on  the  1st  of  August 
109U,  and  'etired  to  St  John's,  in  which  he  was  protected 
tdl  the  20La  of  January  1716-17,  when  he  and  oneand- 
twenty  others  were  deprived  of  their  fellowships.  .iVfter 
the  passing  of  the  Registering  Act  in  1723,  he  could  not 
be  prevailed  on  to  comply  with  its  requirements  by  regis- 
tering his  annuity  of  £40,  although  that  annuity,  left  him 
by  his  father,  with  X20  per  annum  from  his  elder  brothu-'s 
collieries,  was  now  his  whole  subsistence.  He  retained  a 
lively  sense  of  the  injuries  he  had  suffered  ;  and  inscribed 
himself  in  all  his  own  books,  as  well  as  in  those  which  he 
gave  to  the  college  library,  socius  ejectus,  and  in  some 
rector  yectus.  He  continued  to  reside  in  the  college  as 
commoner-master  till  his  death  on  the  2d  of  July  1740. 
The  whole  of  his  valuable  books  and  manuscripts  he 
bequeathed  to  the  university.  The  only  works  he  pub- 
lished were,  Reflections  on  Learning,  showing  the  Insuffi, 
ciency  thereof  in  its  several  particulars,  in  order  to  eiince  the 
usefulness  and  necessity  of  RevdtUion,  Lond.  1709-10,  and 
tae  preface  to  Bishop  Fisher's  Funeral  Sermon  for  Mar- 
gaiet.  Countess  of  Richmond  and  Derby,  1708, — both  with- 
out his  name.  His  valuable  manuscript  collections  relative 
to  the  history  and  antiquities  of  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge, amounting  to  thirty-nine  volutes  in  folio  and 
three  in  quarto,  are  divided  between  the  British  Museum 
and  the  public  library  at  Cambridge, — the  former  possessing 
twenty-three  volumes,  the  latter  sixteen  in  folio  and  three 
in  quarto.  The  life  of  Baker  has  been  WTitten  by  Robert 
Masters,  8vo,  1784,  and  by  Horace  Walpole,  in  the  quarto 
edition  of  his  works. 

BAKEWELL,  a  market-town  in  Derbyshire,  on  the 
River  Wye,  152  miles  from  London.  Its  fine  old  church 
contains  monuments  of  the  families  of  'V^ernon  and  Manners. 
The  inhabitants  are  supported  by  the  working  of  the  coal, 
lead,  and  zinc  mines,  and  the  stone  and  marble  quarries  in 
the  neighbourhood.  There  is  also  a  large  cotton  manufao- 
tory  in  the  town  established  by  Arkwright.  Bakewell  is 
remarkable  for  a  chalybeate  spring,  frequented  by  invalids. 
It  has  a  free  school  of  ancient  date,  a  literary  and  scientific 
institution,  and  a  museum.  About  four  miles  distant  is 
Chatsworth  House,  the  seat  of  the  duke  of  Devonshire. 
Population  in  1871,  2283. 

BAKHCHISAKAI  (Turkish,  the  Garden  Palace),  a 
town  of  Russia  in  the  government  of  Taurus,  situated  in  a 
narrow  gorge  on  the  banks  of  a  small  stream  called  the 
Chiryuk-Su,  about  10  miles  S.S.W.  of  Simpheropol.  Of 
unknown  origin,  it  became  towards  the  close  of  tlie  15th 
century  the  residence  of  the  Tatai  khans ;  and  its  chief 
objects  of  interest  are  the  remains  of  its  splendour  under 
the  Tatar  dynasty.  The  principal  building,  the  palace,  or 
Khan  Serai,  was  origiuajly  erected  in  1519  by  Abdul- 
Sahal-Gerai,  and  was  restored  at  Potemkin's  command  by 
the  architect  Elson  for  the  reception  of  Catherine.  Not 
far  off  is  a  cemetery,  which  contains  the  tombs  of  many  of 
the  khans.  There  are,  besides  three  or  four  churches  and 
a  synagogue,  no  fewer  than  thirty-five  mosques,  of  which 
the  most  important  was  founded  in  tha  early  part  of  the 
18th  century.  The  population  still  consists  for  the  most 
part  of  Tatars,  Catherine  II.  in  1783  having  granted  them 
the  exclusive  right  of  habitation  in  the  city.  The  remainder 
consists  of  Russians,  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Jews.  Bakh- 
chisarai is  a  place  of  considerable  industry,  manufacturing 
red  and  yellow  morocco,  sheepskin  cloaks,  agricultural 
implements,  sabres,  and  other  cutlery,  and  forming  on  I 
important  depot  for  the  corn,  fl,ix,  fruits,  tobacco,  arid 
other  produce  of  the  whole  surrounding  district.  In  the 
neighbourhood  is  Chufut^Kali  (or  Jews'  city),  the  chief 
scat  of  the  Karaitic  Jews  of  the  Crimea,  eituatcd  on 
lofty  and.  except  on  one  side,  inaccessible  cliffs.  Popula- 1 
tion,  10,528. 


250 


B  A  K  -  B  A  1> 


BAKHMUT,  a  town  of  Russia  ia  the  governtueut  of 
Ekaterinoslav,  near  the  river  from  which  it  derives  iU 
name.  It  owed  its  origin  in  the  latter  half  of  the  17tb 
century  to  the  discovery  of  salt-springs,  which  ceased, 
however,  to  be  utilised  in  17S2.  Its  present  importance 
is  chiefly  due  to  the  extensive  coal-deposits  in  the  vicinity. 
Population,  16,791 

BAKING.  The  art  of  baking  consis's  in  heating  any 
thing  in  an  oven  or  fire  so  as  to  harden  it,  and  in  this  sense 
the  term  is  used  when  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  bread, 
porcelain,  pottery,  and  bricks.  It  is  also  applied  to  certain 
modes  of  dressing  or  cooking  animal  food  ,  thus  we  speak 
of  baked  meats,  pies,  &c.  In  the  present  article  the  baking 
of  flour  or  meal  for  use  as  human  food  will  alone  be  treated 
of. 

The  origin  of  baking,  as  of  most  arts  of  primary  im- 
portance, precedes  the  period  of  history,  and  is  involved  in 
the  obscurity  of  the  early  ages  of  the  human  race.  E.t- 
cavations  conducted  on  the  site  of  some  of  the  numerous 
lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland  have  resulted  in  the  discovery 
of  abundant  evidence  that  the  art  of  making  bread  was 
practised  by  our  prehistoric  ancestors  as  early  as  the  Stone 
Period.  Not  only  have  stones  for  grinding  meal  and  bak- 
ing bread  been  discovered,  but  bread  itself  in  largo  quan- 
tities has  been  disinterred,  preserved  by  being  carbonised 
in  the  fires  which  frequently  destroyed  the  pile-dwellings 
of  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  the  world.  At  Roben- 
hausen,  Meisskomer  discovered  8  lb  of  bread,  a  weight 
which  would  correspond  with  about  40  lb  of  newly-baked 
bread.  At  Wangen  there  has  been  discovered  "actual 
baked  bread  or  cake  made  of  the  crushed  corn,  precisely 
similar  to  that  found  about  the  same  time  by  Mr  Meiss- 
komer at  Robenhausen.  Of  course,  it  has  been  burned  or 
charred,  and  thus  these  interesting  specimens  have  been 
preserved  to  the  jircsent  day.  The  form  of  these  cakes  is 
somewhat  round,  and  about  an  inch  lo  an  inch  and  a  half 
in  diameter.  The  dough  did  not  consist  of  meal,  but  of 
grains  of  eorn  more  or  less  crushed.  In  some  specimens 
the  halves  of  grains  of  barley  are  plainly  discernible.  The 
under  side  of  these  cakes  is  sometimes  flat,  sometimes  con- 
cave, and  there  appears  no  doubt  that  the  mass  of  dough 
was  baked  by  being  laid  on  hot  stones  and  covered  over 
with  glowing  ashes." — (Keller's  Lake  Dwellings,  Lee's 
Translation,  p  63.) 

The  very  early  mention  of  bread  in  written  history 
further  boars  out  the  great  antiquity  of  the  art  of  baking. 
Bread  is  first  specifically  mentioned  in  Genesis  xvjii.  5, 
when  Abraham,  wishing  to  entertain  the  three  angels  on 
the  plains  of  Mamre,  offered  to  "  fetch  a  morsel  of  bread  ; " 
and  the  operation  of  baking  is  immediately  thereafter 
alluded  to  in  thu  instructions  to  Sarah  to  "  make  ready 
quickly  three  measures  of  fine  meal,  knead  it,  and  make 
cakes  upon  the  hearth  '  At  the  same  time,  when,  in  the 
city  of  Sodom,  Lot  entertained  two  angels,  "  he  made  them 
3  feast,  and  did  bake  unleavened  bread,  and  they  did  eat " 
(Genesis  xix  3)  It  may  be  inferred  from  the  mention  of 
unleavened  bread  that,  in  thoso  patriarchal  times,  the  two 
great  classes  of  bread  were  known  and  used.  At  a  period 
little  later  the  art  of  baking  was  carried  to  high  perfection  in 
Egyfjt,  which  then  took  the  lead  in  the  arts  of  civilised  life. 
The  Egyptians  baked  cakes  and  loaves  of  many  varieties 
«nd  shapes,  in  which  they  employed  several  kinds  of  flour, 
and  they  flavoured  their  bread  with  various  aromatic  in- 
gredients. The  chief  baker  of  Pharaoh,  who  was  in  prison 
along  with  Joseph,  doubtless  pursued  his  craft  in  its  essen- 
tial features  in  the  same  way  as  bakers  do  at  the  present 
day. 

Vrom  ancient  Egypt  excellence  in  the  art  of  baking  tra- 
)e.lod  with  the  inarch  of  civilisation  into  Greece,  and  the 
allusions  to  bread  in  the  works  of  classic  authors  are  very 


numerous.  In  The  Deipiiosophisls  of  Athemus  mention 
is  made  of  no  less  than  sixty-two  varieties  of  bread  as  known 
among  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  minute  descriptions  of  many 
of  them  are  given.  We  learn  from  Pliny  {Xat.  Hist.,  x^i. 
28)  that  professional  bakers  were  first  introduced  into  Roma 
at  the  close  of  the  war  with  Perseus,  king  of  Macedon. 
By  the  practical  Romans  the  baking  trade  was  formed  into 
a  kind  of  incorporation  or  guild,  with  special  privileges 
and  immunities  attached  to  the  calling.  Public  bakeries 
were  distributed  throughout  the  city,  to  which  slaves  wero 
assigned  for  performing  the  heavier  and  more  disagreeable 
tasks  connected  with  the  occupation.  Grain  was  delivered 
into  public  granaries  by  enrolled  Saccarii,  and  it  was  dis- 
tributed to  the  bakers  by  a  corporation  called  the  Catabo- 
lenses.  No  separate  mills  for  grinding  corn  then  existed, 
the  grain  being  pounded  and  sifted  in  the  bakeries,  and 
hence  the  Roman  bakers  were  known  as  Pisto7-es.  A 
special  magistrate  was  appointed  to  take  cognisance  of 
every  matter  connected  with  the  management  of  public 
bakeries. 

The  calling  of  the  baker  during  the  Middle  Ages  was 
considered  to  be  one  so  closely  atl'ecting  the  interests  of 
the  public  that  it  was  put  under  strict  regulation  and  super- 
vision, and  these  special  restrictions  continued  to  affect 
the  trade  down  to  very  recent  times.  In  England,  an  Act 
of  Parliament  was  passed  i^  1266  for  regulating  the  price 
of  bread  by  a  public  assize,  and  that  system  continued  in 
operation  till  1822  in  the  case  of  the  city  of  London,  and 
till  1836  for  the  rest  of  the  country.  The  price  of  bread 
was  determined  by  adding  a  certain  sum  to  the  price  of 
every  quarter  of  flour,  in  name  of  the  baker's  expenses  and 
profit ;  and  for  the  sum  so  arrived  at  tradesmen  were 
required  to  bake  and  sell  eighty  quartern  loaves,  or  a  like 
proportion  of  other  sizes,  which  it  was  reckoned  each 
quarter  of  flour  ought  to  yield.  The  following  table  es- 
hibits  the  assize  price  of  bread  in  London  in  1814. — 


Price  ot 

I'lice  of 

riicecf 

Ti  k -c  of 
4-lli  ' 

Tilce  of 

Trk-t"  of 

Floni  In 

QuarterQ 

en> 

!U) 

1-rtl 

SlUIIings. 

Loaf. 

Lonf 

Loaf. 

Loaf. 

Loaf 

>.      d 

>       d 

».     A 

».     d. 

<      d 

30 

0     6J 

1     0 

0     6 

0     3 

0.   u 

35 

0     7} 

1  n 

0     6i 

0     3i 

0   13 

40 

0     8 

1     23 

0     7J 

0     33 

0   13 

45 

0     83 

1      4 

0     8 

0     i 

0     2 

60 

0     91 

1    54 

0     8J 

0     41, 

0  n 

CO 

0  11 

1    6} 

0  lOj 

0     6 

0     2S 

70 

1     OS 

1  11 

0   llj 

0   f3 

0    3 

80 

1     2 

2     U 

1     1 

0     64 

0    31 

90 

1     3J 

2     H 

1     21 

0     71 

0     34 

100 

I     6 

2     71 

1     3.1 

0     7j 

0     4 

The  art  of  making  bread  made  its  w.iy  northwards  very 
slowly ;  and  even  at  present,  in  the  northern  countries  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  loaves  of  bread  are  seldom  used  except  by 
the  higher  classes  of  inhabitants.  In  Sweden,  for  example, 
rolls  are  frequently  seen  in  the  towns,  but  loaves  rarely. 
Towards  the  end  of  1812  the  captain  of  an  English  packet 
ordered  a  Gothenburg  baker  lo  bake  for  him  a  quantity  of 
bread,  to  the  value  of  XI  sterling.  The  baker  was  con- 
founded at  so  large  an  order,  and  refused  to  comply 
till  the  captain  gave  him  security  that  he  would  carry  off 
and  pay  for  the  loaves,  declaring  that  he  could  never  dis- 
pose of  so  great  a  quantity  of  bread  in  Gothenburg  if  it 
were  left  upon  his  hands.  In  the  country  part  of  Sweden 
no  bread  is  made  but  rye-cakes,  nearly  us  hard  as  flint,, 
which  are  only  baked  twice  a  year.  About  a  century  ago 
loaf-bread  was  almost  as  rare  in  the  rural  districts  of  Scot- 
land, barley  (cnncdj  and  calen  cakes  then  constituting  the 
universal  substitutes  among  almost  all  ranKs  fn  many 
part-s  of  England  it  is  the  custom  for  private  families  to 
bako  their  own  bread.     This  is  particularly  the  case  it 


BAKING 


251 


Ken  ,  and  in  some  parts  of  Lancashire.  In  the  year  1804 
llio  .  )n-n  of  Manchester,  with  a  population  of  90,000  per- 
sons, did  not  contain  a  single  public  baker.  Bakers  in 
Great  Britain  are  now  placed  under  the  provisions  of  "  The 
Bakeliouses'  Regulation  Act,  IS63"  (26  and  27  Vict.  cap. 
40),  a  statute  passed  after  a  searching  inquiry  into  the 
condition  of  bakehouse?  in  London  and  of  the  persons 
employed  in  them.  By  this  Act  no  young  person  under 
the  age  of  18  is  permitted  to  work  in  a  bakehouse  between 
the  hours  of  9  p.m.  and  5  a.m.,  and  special  enactments  pro- 
vide for  securing  the  cleanliness  and  ventilation  of  bake- 
houses, and  for  the  regulation  of  sleeping  apartments  con- 
nected with  them. 

As  compared  with  wheat-flour  all  other  materials  used 
for  making  bread  are  of  comparative  insignificance.  Oat 
cakes  still  form  a  staple  article  of  food  in  many  rural  dis- 
tricts of  Scotland,  and  are  occasionally  us«d  in  other  coun- 
tries. They  are  made  by  mixing  up  oatmeal,  warm  water, 
and  salt,  sometimes  with  the  addition  of  butter  or  fat,  into 
a  very  stiff  paste,  and  kneading  this  out  into  a  thin  cake, 
which  is  first  filed  on  a  hot  plate  or  "  girdle,"  and  finished 
in  front  of  an  open  fire.  Scones  of  barley-flour,  sweet  and 
tough,  were  formerly  largely  used  in  Scotland,  but  have  now 
given  place  to  a  similar  preparation  of  wheaton  flour.  Rye 
bread,  bo.ii  fermented  and  unfermented,  is  largely  con- 
sumed by  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe 
in  tho  poc:  and  backward  districts.  Cakes  of  maize  meal, 
baked  like  oat  cakes,  are  consumed  in  some  parts  of  the 
United  .States.  The  meal  of  various  species  of  millet  is 
used  in  Southern  Europe  to  form  bread ;  and  in  India  and 
China,  durva  (Sorghum  vulgare)  and  other  cereal  grains 
are  baked  /or  food.  Of  non-cereal  flours,  the  principal 
used  for  broad-making  is  buckwheat,  Fagopyrum  escu- 
tentutn,  extensively  employed  in  Russia  and  Holland.  The 
flour  of  peas!!,  beans,  and  other  leguminous  seeds,  are  also 
baked  into  cakes ;  and  cassava  cakes  are  made  from  the 
meal  of  the  tapioca  plant,  Jairopha  Manihot,  in  South 
America.  E.ccepting  rye,  none  of  these  substances  is  used 
for  making  vtsiculated  or  fermented  bread. 

The  grain  of  wheat  consists  of  an  outer  husk  or  cover- 
ing, an  embryo  or  germ,  and  a  central  mass  of  farinaceous 
material.  The  outer  husk  is  composed  of  several  distinct 
layers  of  ligneous  tissue,  closely  adhering  to  the  seed,  and 
very  hard  in  texture.  In  grinding,  this  is  detached  in  scales, 
and  constitutes  the  chief  proportion  of  the  bran.  The 
inner  portion  of  the  envelope  is  softer,  and  contains  an 
active  nitrogenous  principle,  termed  cerealin,  and  is  besides 
rich  in  fat  and  salts.  This  portion  goes  with  tho  pollard 
or  parings  in  ths  dressing  of  wheat  flour.  Towards  Jhe 
centre  of  the  grain  the  substance  becomes  whiter  in  colour 
and  more  friable  in  texture,  so  that,  in  grinding,  the  finest 
flour  in  consistence  is  always  the  whitest  in  appearance. 
By  agriculturists  several  hundred  varieties  of  wheat  and  a 
number  of  distinct  species  are  recognised ;  but  in  com- 
merce tho  grain  ia  distinguished  as  white  and  red,  or  as 
hard  and  soft  wheats.  There  is  a  considerable  range  of 
difference  in  tho  proportions  of  their  proximate  constitu- 
ents, hard  wheats  aii  a  rule  being  much  more  nitrogenous 
than  the^soft  varieties  ;  and  similarly,  wheats  grown  in  hot 
climates  are  also  usually  richest  in  nitrogen.  The  follow- 
ing analyses  of  two  tj'pical  varieties  of  wheat  are  taken 
from  Paycn's  tables,  water  being  neglected  : — 

n«r(l  Whc«^  So(t  will  at 

Tognnrog.  TouicIIc 

Kitrogcnons  matter 2000  12G5 

Starch , 6380  74  51 

Doxtrin .^ :  ..       800  605 

Cellulose 310  2  SO 

Fatty  matter , 2  25  187 

Mineral  matter 285  2.12 

When  wheat  is  gr/iu.  1  it  is  sifted  or  dressed  into  a  scries 


of  mill  products,  ranging  from  flne  flour  to  bran,  a  cording 
to  the  size  of  the  ground  particles.  The  divisions  vary  in 
different  mills  and  localities ;  but  the  accompanying  table 
— the  result  of  an  elaborate  series  of  experiments  by  Messrs 
Lawes  and  Gilbert — may  be  regarded  as  a  standard  of  the 
relative  proportions  of  mill  products : — 

Mean  Tidd  of  Flour,  Bran,  ie.,  in  100  parts  Meal, 


Wliiat  ol 

is-ii;. 
7  Cases. 

Wheal  of 

1M7. 
19  Cases. 

Wbeat  ot 

iS'ta. 

2  Cases. 

Moan  of 
Ihe  28 
Cases. 

1    Wire  1 

HO 

17-9 

8-7 

85 '7 
16-4 
13'3 

47-4 

23  9 
20 

411 

18  6 

92 

2.  Wire  2    

3.  Wire  3 

Amounts  of  1,  2,  and  1 
3  tcethcr t 

09-3 

49 
10-2 

70-2 

5-8 
8-7 

73  3 

21 

4-5 

70  « 

66 

8-3 

4.  Tails  

5.  FineSharpsor  Middlings 

6.  Coarse  Sharps   

35 
3  9 
4-4 

3-5 

33 

1-8 
7  2 
2-5 

3  6 
26 

7-9 
69 

3-4 
2-4 
6-5 
3  0 

7    Fine  Pollard 

8.  Coarse  I'oUard 

9.  LoDf' EraQ 

The  tails  and  fine  sharps  are  generally  passed  through 
the  mill  a  second  time,  bringing  up  the  yield  of  flour  to 
about  80  per  cent,  of  the  entire  grain.  As  an  example  of 
mill  products  in  practice,  the  following  table  is  copied  from 
the  actual  mill  receipts  of  a  Scotch  miller.  The  quantity 
dealt  with  represents  16 'quarters  of  wheat,  weighing  63J 
lb  per  bushel,  in  all  578  st.  11  tt>.     The  yield  was — 

St.  Il> 

Fine  Flour 414  0 

Odd  aud  Second  Flour 23  13 

Parings  (Sharps  and  Pollards) 36  12 

Bran  and  Shellings 92  0 

Waste 11  0 

The  composition  of  flour  and  bran  given  in  the  under- 
stated table  is  the  mean  result  of  a  series  of  fourteen 
analyses  by  Peligot  :— 

Flour.  Bran. 

Water 140  10  30 

Fatty  matters 1-2  2S» 

Nitrogenous  substances  insoluble  in  water  (gluten)  ...128  1084 

,,                 ,,          soluble            ,,       (albumen)    1 '8  1'64 

Non-nitrogenous  soluble  substances — dextrin,  sugar,    7  2  5  80 

Starch 597  22C2 

Cellulose..., 17  43  98 

Salts , 16  ?-52 

It  is  a  disputed  point  whether  dextrin  Or  sugar  exists  in 
flour  of  the  best  quality;  but  the  action  of  heat  and  mois- 
ture in  the  baking  process  quickly  transforms  a  portion  of 
the  starch  into  thasoluble  condition.  In  flour  of  inferior 
quality  a  large  percentage  of  dextrin  is  usually  found — a 
circumstance  very  detrimental  to  its  bread-making  qualities. 
A  table  of  tho  percentage  of  gluten,  obtained  by  Messrs 
Lawes  and  Gilbert  from  a  large  number  of  flour  j,  shows  a 
variation  from  8'9  to  14'9  per  cent.  This  gluten  itself 
(the  insoluble  nitrogenous  substance  in  flour)  is  a  compound 
body,  composed  of  three  or  four  distinct  substances ;  but 
its  physical  conditions  of  elasticity,  tenacity,  and  colour 
are  of  much  greater  importance  to  the  baker  than  either 
its  chemical  constitution  or  its  amount. 

The  varieties  of  wheaten  bread  are  civisible  into 
two  great  classes — Unvesiculated  and  Vcsicxtlated  Bread. 
Under  the  first  head  are  included  such  products  of  the 
art  as  are  fired  or  baked  without  first  being  raised  or 
rendered  spongy  by  the  development  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
within  the  mass,  either  by  fermentation  or  otherwise. 
Vcsiculated  bread  is  produced  when  carbonic  acid  is  either 
developed  in  or  introduced  into  the  dough  so  as  to  per- 
meate the  mass  with  an  infinite  number  of  mfnute  cavities, 
which  render  the  product  light  and  spongiform..' 


252 


BAKING 


UnveSICulateD  Beead. — The  simplest  form  of  bread, 
and  the  rudest  baking,  are  seen  in  the  Australian  "  Damper," 
a  cake  made  from  dough  composed  of  flour,  salt,  and 
water,  baked  in  the  dying  embers  of  a  wood  fire.  The 
dout'h  is  laid  on  a  flat  stone,  covered  with  a  tin  plate,  and 
the  hot  ashes  heaped  around  and  over  it,  care  being  taken 
not  to  expose  it  to  a  heat  of  more  than  212°  Fahr.  Pass- 
aver  cakes,  scones,  and  "  bannocks "  are  prepared  from  a 
similar  dough,  and  fired  on  hot  plates  or  in  ovens,  and  form 
an  agreeable  and  nutritious  food.  When  such  dough  is 
exposed  to  a  high  heat,  so  that  the  resulting  cake  is  hard, 
dry,  and  resonant,  biscuits  (bis  cuic,  twice  baked)  are 
formed. 

Biscuit  Manufacture. — Biscuit  making  is  a  branch  of 
trade  distinct  from  ordinary  baking,  conducted  under 
different  conditions,  and  requiring  machinery  and  processes 
peculiar  to  itself.  Biscuits  are  made  by  a  rapid  and  con- 
tinuous process ;  they  can  be  preserved  a  long  time,  and 
in  proportion  to  their  price  they  occupy  little  space,  so  that 
it  is  practicable  to  sell  them  in  markets  remote  from  the 
place  of  manufacture.  The  manufacture  of  biscuits  is  now 
conducted  on  a  very  large  scale,  ingenious  and  complicated 
machinery  is  employed  in  the  various  processes,  and  a  large 
export  trade  in  biscuits  has  grown  up.  The  firm  of  Messrs 
Carr  &,  Co.,  of  Carlisle,  was  the  first  to  originate  the  manu- 
facture, and  that  firm  still  possesses  one  of  the  largest  and 
best-appointed  establishments.  To  the  partners  of  this 
firm  we  are  indebted  for  much  information  as  to  the  pro- 
cesses employed  in  this  modern  industry. 

The  general  arrangements  of  a  ship-biscuit  factory  are 
shown  in  the  sectional  view,  fig.  1.     The  flour  stored  on  the 


I'n.  1. 


al  view  of  Ship-Biscuit  Factor3r._ 


dough  is  carried  forward  by  intermittent  motion  to  a  punch- 
ing apparatus  c,  in  which  moulds  or  cutting  edges  of  the 


upper  floor  is  passed  down  through  a  shoot  to  the  flour-room, 
where  it  is  sifted  to  free  it  from  knots  or  lumps.  In  the 
making  of  plain  water  or  skip  biscuits,  the  flour  is  shot 
directly  down  into  the  mixer  a,  on  thi  ground  floor,  in 
quantities  usually  of  one  bag  at  a  time,  to  v\..ich  the  roqui- 
sito  quantity  of  water,  regulated  by  a  gauge-glass,  is  added. 
The  mixer  is  a  cylindrical  vessel  of  ca.st-iron,  in  which  a 
scries  of  knives  or  arras  is  kept  revolving  on  a  central  axis. 
The  revolution  of  these  knives  is  suflicient  to  incorporate 
the  flour  and  water  thoroughly  into  a  very  stiff  dough  in 
about  seven  minutes.  From  the  mixer  the  dough  fs  de- 
livered on  a  table  in  largo  amorphous  masses,  and  it  is 
next  carried  forward  to  the  brake  machine  b.  The  brake 
consists  of  two  heavy  iron  rollers,  having  generally  a  re- 
ciprocating motion,  between  which  the  dough  is  passed 
backwards  and  forwards  several  times  till  it  is  rolled  out 
into  a  plate  or  sheet  of  uniform  thickness  and  consistency. 
The  sheet  of  prepared  dough  is  next  carried  forward  to 
the  cutting  and  panning  machine  <•,  a  highly  complex  and 
ingenious  apparatus,  the  principle  of  which  is  shown  in 
fig.  2.  In  this  machine  the  dou;;h  is  first  passed  between 
a  pair  of  gauge  rullora  a,  graduated  to  secure  a  shoot  of 
any  desired  uniform  thickness,  from  which  it  is  received 
on  an  endless  sheet  of  felt  b.      On  this  web  the  sheet  of 


FlO.  2. — Cutting  and  Panning  Machine. 

si^e  and  form  of  biscuit  desired  are  arranged.  Here  the 
biscuits  are  cut  out,  the  scrap  being  caught  on  a  web  d,  and 
carried  upward  till  it  falls  over  in  a  box  or  trough  on  the 
table  e,  from  which  it  is  returned  to  the  brake  machine. 
The  biscuits  are  carried  down  the  web  /,  and  fall  into  tin 
trays,  which  are  fed  in  at  jr  by  a  boy,  and  move  forward 
at  the  same  rate  the  biscuit  web  travels,  so  that  they  are 
ready  for  being  immediately  placed  on  the  travelling  stage 
of  the  patent  oven.  The  processes  are  so  arranged  that  the 
oven  carries  forward  the  biscuits  as  quickly  as  they  are 
delivered  by  the  cutting  machine,  and  in  some  cases  the 
ovens  are  fed  direct  from  the  cutting  and  panning  appa^ 
ratus  by  automatic  machinery.  The  patent  travelling  ovens 
are  constructed  from  30  to  44  feet  long,  and  fitted  with 
endless  webs  either  of  plates  or  chains.  The  chain  webs 
are  used  for  baking  small  and  fancy  biscuits,  such  as  are 
placed  in  trays,  and  the  plates  are  used  for  large  and  plain 
water  biscuits,  which  are  placed  by  hand  on  the  travelling 
plates.  The  rates  at  which  biscuits  of  diflerent  sizes  and 
degrees  of  richness  must  traverse  the  whole  length  of  the 
oven  varies  from  about  five  to  forty  minutes,  and  the  tem- 
perature of  the  oven  has  also  to  be  modified  to  suit  the 
various  quaUties,  Both  tho  heat  and  rate  of  motion  are 
under  easy  and  adequate  control  in  the  pateijt  ovens. 

There  is  an  endless  variety  in  the  form  and  composition 
of  plain  and  fancy  biscuits.  In  the  trade  list  of  Messrs 
Vicars,  of  Liverpool,  tho  chief  manufacturers  of  biscuit 
machinery,  the  names  of  128  varieties  of  cutters  are  men- 
tioned. In  the  making  of  fancy  biscuits,  milk,  eggs,  sugar, 
butter  or  lard,  and  flavouring  essences  are  extensively  used, 
and  in  these  cases  the  proportions  of  the  various  ingredi- 
ents are  roughly.mingled  before  being  sent  down  the  shoot 
into  tho  mixer.  Tho  richest  class  of  biscuits,  the  dough 
for  which  is  necessarily  soft,  are  cut  out  by  hand  laboiu-, 
and  fired  on  trays  in  common  ovens.  The  dough  for 
rout  biscuits  is  placed  in  a  strong  metal  box  or  cham- 
ber in  which  a  piston  is  tightly  fitted.  The  piston  is 
moved  forward  by  a  screw,  and  it  pushes  the  dough  through 
a  series  of  holes  or  dies.  The  dough  Ls  received  on  a  sliding 
board,  and  is  cut  into  proper  lengths  by  a  knife.  Cracknels 
arc  made  without  cither  milk  or  water  being  used  to  mix 
the  dough,  eggs  alone  being  employed  for  this  purpose. 
Certain  proportions  of  butter,  sugar,  and  scsquicarbonate  ol 
ammonia  are  adiled  to  the  mixture  of  flour  and  eggs,  and 
the  dough  is  baked  in  tho  usual  way.  The  cracknels, 
when  cut  out,  are  thrown  into  n  boiler  of  boiling  water, 
and  in  about  two  minutes  they  float  to  tlio  top.r~They  arc 
tlien  fished  out  and  thrown  into  cold  water,  and  then  drained 
on  cloths,  panned,  and  fired  in  an  ordinary  oven  at  a  high 
heat.  In  the  firing,  the  ninmonic  carbonate,  being  very 
volatile,  is  driven  off,  and  tho  cracknel  thus  assumes  its 
spongy  structure.  Many  other  varieties  of  biscuits  are 
rendered  light  and  spongiform  by  the  use  of  tho  scsqui- 
carbonate of  ammonia,  or  of  carbonate  of  soda,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  sour  niillc.  In  tho  firing  of  biscuits,  not  only 
tho  moisture  of  tho  dough  is  driven  oil",  but  a  ccrluix.  pro 


B  A  K 

portion  of  the  water  held  by  the  flour  in  its  apparently 
dry  state,  so  that  from  10  lb  of  flour  only  about  9  lb  of 
water  biscuits  are  obtained.  The  composition  of  plain 
biscuit  is  given  by  Dr  Parkes  as  follows : — 


Water 8  to  12 

NitroRtnoQS  substances        15 
Dextrin S'8 


Sugar 1'9 

Fat 1-3 

Starch 72to75 


Vesiculated  Bread. — Under  this  head  is  included  such 
bread  as  is  rendered  spongiform  in  structure  by  the  action 
of  carbonic  acid  within  the  dough,  and  which  is  not  baked 
hard  and  dry  as  in  the  case  of  biscuits.  It  includes  ordi- 
nary loaf  bread,  pan  loaves,  French  or  Paris  loaves,  cottage 
loaves,  bricks,  rolls,  buns,  and  many  varieties  of  fancy 
bread  distinguished  by  local  names  and  minor  differences 
of  form  and  composition.  Vesiculated  bread  is  made  in 
three  different  ways:^ 

1st,  By  the  development  of  carbonic  acid  within  the 
dough  through  fermentation  of  the  flour.  This  is  the 
ordinary  and  principal  method  of  bread-making. 

2d,  By  mixing  the  dough  with  water  previously  aerated 
with  carbonic  acid.  The  aerated  bread  made  under  the 
patent  of  the  late  Dr  Dauglish  is  thus  manufactured. 

3d,  By  the  disengagement  of  carbonic  acid  from  chemi- 
cal agents  introduced  into  the  dough.  Dodson's  patent 
unfermented  bread  comes  under  this  head,  and  the  "  baking 
powders"  and  "yeast  powders"  extensively  sold  consist 
generally  of  carbonate  of  soda  or  ammonia  and  citric  or 
tartaric  acid,  which  evolve  carbonic  acid  in  presence  of 
water. 

Fermented  Bread. — The  manufacture  of  fermented  or 
leavened  bread  is,  as  has  already  been  hinted,  of  very  great 
antiquity,  and  it  is  still  by  the  fermentation  process  that 
bread  is  chiefly  made.  In  ancient  times  leaven  was  em- 
ployed to  induce  fermentation  in  dough  ("  a  little  leaven 
leaveneth  the  whole  lump,"  OaL  v.  9),  and  to  this  day 
Parisian  bakers,  who  excel  all  others  in  the  quality  of  the 
bread  they  produce,  chiefly  use  the  same  ferment.  Leaven 
is  simply  a  portion  of  dough,  put  aside  from  a  previous 
baking,  in  which  the  fermentative  action  has  reached  an 
advanced  stage  of  activity.  Yeast,  however,  has  been  used 
as  a  ferment  from  an  early  period,  and  it  appears  that  it 
was  first  80  employed  in  France.  PUny  says  (Nat.  Hist., 
jy'ui.  12),  "  Gallias  et  Hispaniae  frumeuto  in  potum  reso- 
luto,  spuma  ita  concreta  pro  fermento  utuntur;  qua  de 
causa  levior  illis  quam  cajteris  panis  est."  The  use  of  yeast 
appears  to  have  died  out  in  France,  but  was  revived  again 
towards  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  when  its  rfiintroduc- 
tion  was  violently  opposed  by  the  Faculty  of  medicine  of 
Paris. '  Yeast  is  now  jiscd  by  Parisian  bakers  for  fancy 
bread  and  pastry  only. 

The  baking  of  fermented  bread  involves  thrco  distinct 
opirations,  which  are  technically  denominated  "  setting 
the  sponge,"  making  the  dough  or  kneading,  and  baking 
or  firing.  It  will  bo  convenient  first  to  describe  these  pro- 
cesses as  they  are  conducted  in  a  London  bakehouse.  The 
first  duty  of  the  baker  is  to  mix  a  ferment,  which  consists 
of  a  mixture  of  potatoes,  yeast,  and  flour.  The  potatoes, 
in  the  proportion  of  6  Jb  to  a  sack  of  flour,  are  boiled 
and  mashed  in  a  tub,  and  water  is  stirred  in  till  the 
mixture  is  reduced  to  a  temperature  of  from  70°  to 
90°  Fahr.  )About  2i  pints  of  yeast  and  12  lb  of 
flour  scalded  in  boiling  water  are  then  added,  and  the 
whole  forming  a  thin  uniform  paste  is  set  aside  for  several 
hours,  during  which  it  undergoes  an  active  fermentation. 
Setting  the  sponge  consists  in  mixing  the  ferment  in  a  largo 
trough  with  flour  and  water  sufficient  to  make  the  wholo 
into  a  rather  stiff  paste.  The  flour  used  at  this  stage,  when 
"  full  sponge  "  is  made,  should  be  about  one-half  the  entire 
quantity  intended  to  bo  used  in  the  "  batch,"  and  the  ingre- 
dients have  to  be  thoroughly  incorporated  by  the  workman 


I  N  G  253 

stirring  them  laboriously  together  with  his  arms.  The 
operation  occupies  from  twenty  minutes  to  half  an  hour, 
and  when  ready  the  sponge  is  covered  over  and  allowed  to 
rest  for  several  hours  according  to  the  temperature  at 
which  it  is  maintained.  Generally  in  from  four  to  five 
hours  the  sponge  "  rises ; "  fermentation  has  been  going 
on,- and  carbonic  acid  steadily  accumulating  within  the 
tenacious  mass  till  it  has  assumed  a  puffed  out  appearance. 
By  degrees  the  sponge  gives  off  the  gas  in  puffs,  and  tha 
mass  begins  to  collapse,  till  what  was  a  swollen  convex 
surface  assumes  a  somewhat  concave  form,  the  centre  be- 
ing depressed  while  the  sides  adhere  to  the  edges  of  the 
trough.  The  workman  judges  by  the  amount  of  collapse 
the  time  the  sponge  is  ready  to  be  taken  in  hand  for 
kneading  or  making  the  dough.  This  process  is  thus 
described  by  an  eye-witness: — "The  batch  consisted  of 
a  sack  and  a  half  of  flour,  nearly  one-half  of  which 
had  been  used  in  making  the  sponge.  Two  men  com- 
menced breaking  the  sponge  at  1.4  P.M.  Having  poured 
the  water  into  it,  they  plunged  their  arms  in  and  stirred  it 
about  until  it  became  of  the  consistency  of  thin  batter.  At 
1.10  they  began  to  mix  the  dry  flour  with  it,  immediately 
upon  doing  which  they  were  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of  flour 
dust,  their  heads  being  bent  down  to  within  a  few  inches 
of  the  mass  they  were  handling.  Flour  and  pieces  of  dough 
were  splashed  over  the  trough  upon  the  floor.  At  1.12  a 
third  man  was  added.  Their  hair,  caps,  and  face  powdered 
thickly  with  the  dust,  a  thick  cloud  of  which  was  thrown 
up  with  every  movement,  especially  when  large  masses  of 
dough,  as  it  became  a  little  solid,  were  taken  up  in  their 
arms  and  thrown  upon  the  rest,  fresh  flour  being  first 
strewn  between.  At  1.15  one  of  the  men  became  very  red 
and  heated.  The  other  two  were  very  pale,  and  did  not 
show  any  perspiration.  At  1.16  the  cutting  off  of  large 
masses  began,  as  much  as  two  men  could  lift  to  place  over 
the  adjoining  mass.  At  1.23  the  men  began  to  pound  the 
mass  with  their  fists.  At  1.26  one  of  the  pale  men,  who 
was  also  very  thin,  began  to  look  red  and  hdi.  At  1.29, 
after  smoothing  the  mass  down,  they  began*  again  to  pound 
it  with  their  fists.  At  1.30  it  was  again  smoothed  over, 
the  sides  of  the  trough  scraped,  and  a  little  dry  flour  thrown 
over  it.  It  was  then  considered  finished." '  After  this 
laborious  process  the  finished  dough  is  covered  over  for 
some  time,  varying  from  half  an  hour  to  two  hours  accord- 
ing to  the  temperature,  during  which  fermentation  again 
begins,  and  the  mass  is  "  proofed."  It  is  then  "  scaled 
off,"  i.e.,  weighed  on  scales  in  pieces  of  4  lb  4  oz.,  if  4-B> 
loaves  are  to  be  made,  or  half  that  amount  for  2-lb  loaves ; 
and  as  rapidly  as  weighed  it  is  "  moulded  "  into  the  form 
of  the  loaf,  when  it  is  ready  to  put  into  the  oven.  Flour 
of  good  quality  will  take  up  about  1 7  gallons  of  water  in 
course  of  the  foregoing  operations,  and  before  putting  into 
the  oven  the  ingredients  of  a  4-Ib  loaf  will  be — 

tb  ox. 

Flour S  2 

■Water 1  IJ 

Yeast 0  Oi 

Potatoes 0  li 

S.alt. 0  OJ 

A  loaf  ready  for  going  into  the  oven  has  about  half  the 
bulk  it  attains  during  the  process  of  firing.  Batches  of 
cottage  and  household  loaves  are  packed  close  side  by  side 
on  the  sole  of  the  oven,  the  sides  of  each  loaf  being  rubbed 
with  butter  to  prevent  them  from  adhering  to  each  other, 
and  they  are  consequently  crusted  on  the  top  and  bottom 
only.  Pan  loaves  arc  baked  each  in  separate  tinned 
pans  of  the  form  of  the  loaf,  and  Parisian  loaves  are  baked 
end  to  end  iu  long  tinned  pans.  The  firing  of  bread  in 
the  oven  occupies  from  1  to  1  ^  hours,  the  temperature  at  the 

I  TrcmoDliccrc's  Report  on  Journeymen  JSaicri, 


254 


BAKING 


beginning  of  the  process  being  from  550°  to  GOO"  Falir. 
The  baker  can  ascertain  if  the  oven  is  at  a  proper  tem- 
perature by  throwing  a  little  flour  on  the  sole  of  the  oven, 
which  ought  to  turn  to  a  light  brown  colour.  Ovens  in 
London  are  usually  built  of  brick,  with  a  sole  only  2| 
inches  thick ;  in  Scotland  stone  is  used,  the  solo  being 
from  10  to  12  inches  thick,  and  the  oven  consequently 
retains  heat  mucb  more  effectually 

In  Scotland  the  system  of  using  ferments  is  not  gener- 
ally practised  as  in  London,  some  of  the  varieties  of  yeast 
or  barm  -being  mixed  directly  with  the  flour.  In  some 
localities  the  system  of  setting  "  quarter  sponge"  is  adopted, 
in  which  the  sponge  originally  prepared  contains  only  one- 
fourth  of  the  flour  to  be  used.  To  this,  after  an  interval 
of  about  twelve  hours,  more  flour  and  water  are  added,  which 
brings  it  up  to  half  sponge,  and  about  two  hours  thereafter 
the  mass  is  ready  for  making  the  dough.  In  Paris,  where 
bread-making  is  carried  to  the  highest  perfection,  leaven, 
as  has  already  been  mentioned,  is  the  fermenting  agent 
employed.  This  'consists  of  a  portion  of  dough  laid  aside 
from  a  previous  baking  in  a  uniform  temperature  for  seven 
or  eight  hours,  during  which  it  swells  and  acquires  an 
alcoholic  odour.  .This,  termed  "  the  chief  leaven,"  is  taken 
and  worked  up  with  flour  and  water  to  a  firm  paste  double 
its  original  mass,  when  it  becomes  "  the  first  leaven."  After 
an  interval  of  six  hours  the  amount  is  again  doubled,  forming 
the  second  leaven.  The  "  complete  leaven  "  is  formed  by 
doubling  the  si^o  of  the  second  leaven,  and  the  proportion 
the  complete  leaven  bears  to  the  finished  dough  is  about 
one-third  in  summer  and  one-half  in  winter. 

Sound  flour  yields  from  90  to  91  4-B)  loaves  per  bag 
of  280  El,  some  "strong"  flours  giving  even  a  greater 
quantity  of  bread.  A  table  of  experiments,  conducted 
by  Messrs  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  gives  a  mean  result  of  135  2 
of  bread  from  100  of  flour;  and  in  the  observations  of  a 
large  number  of  English  and  French  authorities  quoted  by 
them,  the  ratio  of  bread  to  100  of  flour  varied  from  127 
to  150.  The  following  table  gives  the  mean  of  25  analyses 
cf  the  bread  of  London  bakers  by  Dr  Odling: — 

■Water -. 43-43 

Organic  nwlter.. S5-2G 

.llincral  matter  or  ash 1'30 

Percentage  of  ash  in  dry  breail 230 

„  nitrogen  in  new  bread 1-26 

„  ,,         in  dry  bread 2-22 

The  bakers'  standard  of  excellence  of  flour,  apart  from 
the  question  of  colour,  is  the  weight  of  bread  it  will  pro- 
duce of  a  proper  dryness  and  texture.  The  "strength" 
of  flour  ia  this  respect  appears  to  depend  much  more  on 
its  condition  than  on  the  absolute  percentage  of  its  con- 
stituents. 

Panary  Fermentation. — It  would  be  altogether  out  of 
place  in  this  papet  to  refer  to  the  conflicting  theories  as  to 
the  cause  of  ferinentation  in  organic  substances.  The  so- 
called  panary  fermentation  in  bread-making  is  a  true  alco- 
holic fermentation,  and  whether' induced  by  yeast  or  leaven 
the  result  is  precisely  the  same.  The  gluten  of  the  flour 
13  the  fermenting  agent,  and  it  is  stirred  into  activity  by 
contact  with  a  glutinous  body  already  in  an  active  condi- 
tion, which  may  bo  cither  yeast  or  leaven.  In  this  con- 
dition it  exerts  a  fermentative  influence  over  the  sugar 
which  may  cither  have  existed  previously  in  flour,  or 
which  is  at  least  immediately  developed  in  it  by  the  iiillii- 
cncc  of  moisture.  The  active  gluten  eplils  up  each  mole- 
cule of  sugar  into  two  of  alcohol,  two  of  carbonic  acid, 
and  one  of  water,  and  consequently  an  infinite  number  of 
minute  air  bubbles  arc  developed  throughout  the  ferment- 
ing mass.  The  reaction  is  shown  in  llio  follswing  equa- 
tion :  C.n..O,  =  2CJI^O-F2a\-fll,0. 


1  molecule  of  Grape  Sugar.. 

2  molecules  of  Alcoliol 

2        ,,          Carbonic  Acid  . 
1        ,,  Water  


CaiV  Hyd.  Oiy.  C«r*.  tlj-d.  Oiy. 
6       11      7 

4       12      2 
2       ...       4 
2       1 
6       14       7 

.  As  the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid  and  alcohol  proceeds, 
the  sponge  gradually  swells,  the  little  bubbles  coalesce  and 
enlarge,  rising  through  the  tenacious  mass  till  the  surface 
is  reached,  and  then  the  carbonic  acid  bursts  out  and  the 
dough  begins  to  fall.  This  process  would  go  on  a  consider- 
able time,  but  the  alcoholic  fermentation  would  soon  pass 
into  an  acetous  fermentation  and  the  sponge  would  become 
sour.  When  acetous  fermentation  ensues,  as  not  un- 
frequently  happens  in  baking,  it  mny  be  remedied  to  soma 
extent  by  the  addition  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  to  the  sponge. 
The  late  master  of  the  mint,  Dr  Thomas  Graham,  was  the 
first  to  demonstrate  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  fermented 
dough,  and  he  thus  described  his  experiment; — "To  avoid 
the  use  of  yeast,  which  might  introduce  alcohol,  a  small 
quantity  of  flour  was  kneaded,  and  allowed  to  ferment  in 
the  usual  way  to  serve  as  leaven.  By  means  of  the  leaven 
a  considerable  quantity  of  flour  was  fermented,  and  when 
the  fermentation  had  anived  at  the  proper  point,  formcii 
into  a  loaf.  The  loaf  was  carefully  enclosed  in  a  distilla- 
tory apparatus,  and  subjected  for  a  considerable  time  to  the 
baking  temperature.  Upon  examining  the  distilled  liquid, 
the  taste  and  smcU  of  alfohol  were  quite  perceptible,  and 
by  repeatedly  rectifj'ing  it,  a  small  quantity  of  alcohol  was 
obtained,  of  strength  suflicient  to  burn  and  to  ignite  gun- 
powder by  its  combustion.  The  experiment  was  frequently 
repeated,  and  in  difi'erent  bakings  the  amount  of  the  spirit 
obtained  of  the  above  strength  was  found  to  vary  from  0  3 
to  1  per  cent,  of  the  flour  employed."  Although  the  tem- 
perature of  the  oven  drives  off  that  amount  of  the  spirit, 
fermented  bread  is  yet  found  to  retain  a  proportion  of  alco- 
hol, as  much  as  from  0  221  to  O'lOl  per  cent,  having  been 
found  in  different  specimens  of  baked  bread.  Speaking  in 
1858,  Dr  Odling  estimated  the  amount  of  alcohol  thrown 
out  into  the  atmosphere  from  the  bread  baked  in  London 
as  equal  to  300,000  gallons  of  spirits  annually.  Many 
years  ago  a  patent  was  secured  by  a  I^Ir  Hicks  for  collect- 
ing and  condensing  the  alcoholic  fumes  from  bakers'  ovens, 
and  a  company  was  formed  for  working  the  invention. 
After  an  expenditure  of  £20,000  the  attempt  had  to  bo 
abandoned,  not  from  any  failure  to  obtain  the  spirit,  but 
because  the  bread  baked  in  the  process  was  dry,  unpalat- 
able, and  unsaleable 

AVhon  what  is  termed  "  whole  whcatcn  flour  " — that  is, 
the  entire  substance  of  the  grain,  excepting  only  the  outer 
bran^-is  baked,  it  is  known  that  the  resulting  loaf  is  of  a 
dark  brown  colour,  sweetish  in  taste,  and  liable  to  be  some- 
what heavy  and  sodderj.  The  brown  colour  was  at  one 
time  supposed  to  be  <luc  to  the  presence  of  bran  particles 
in  the  flour,  and  in  ISlC  an  American,  Mr  Bcntz,  invented 
a  process  for  remoWng  the  outer  oilicle  of  wheat  before 
grinding,  it  being  supposed  that  the  flour  so  prepared 
would  yield  a  loaf  of  white  colour,  while  utilising  a  larger 
proportion  of  the  substance  of  the  grain  than  is  commonly 
used.  To  the  astonishment  of  experimenters,  however,  the 
bread  made  from  such  flour  was  found  to  have  the  colour 
and  other  characteristics  of  wholo  wheatcn  bread.  The 
subject  was  investigated  by  an  eminent  French  chemist, 
M.  Migo  Mourics,  who  found  that  the  peculiar  action  of 
whole  wheatcn  flour  was  dvie  to  the  presence  in  the  outer 
part  of  the  seed  of  a  peculiar  nitrogenous  body,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  ccicaliu.  and  which  is  closely  allieil  in 
composition  and  action  to  the  diastaso  of  malt.  Ccrcaliri 
exerts  a  peculiarly  energetic  influence  on  starch,  transform- 
ing it  into  a  brown  adhesive  mixture  of  dextrin  and  sugar. 
llo  showed  that  when  the  fermentative  action  of  jjlulcn 


B  A   K   I   N  G 


255 


^ . cponderates  the  result  is  tUo  foruialion  of  the  proJu.^ts 
desired  by  ibe  baker — taibonic  aciJ  and  alLohul  ,  but  whcu 
the  influniceuf  ccrealiu  prevails,  lactic  fermentation  ensues, 
and  deilnn.  sugar,  and  and  substances  are  formed,  «hich 
it  Is  the  objrct  of  the  baker  to  avoid  Suferal  ojethods  of 
av.iiding  this  deteriorating,  intluence  of  cerealiu,  and  at  the 
same  time  securinj;  the  use  of  the  uniimuio  of  flour,  have 
been  put  in  operation  by  M  Wi^ge  Mounts.  The  process 
now  in  usx  at  the  boiilangene  C'entrjlo  de  I'Assistance 
I'ulilique  (the  Sciph>n)  iii  Faris,  foi  the  preparation  of  the 
Hour  and  baking  white  bread  uitb  the  whole  of  the  mill 
products  etceplioj  the  bran,  he  thus  describes  —"The 
corn  IS  aioibtened  with  from  2  to  5  per  cent  of  water  satu- 
rated with  Seasalt,  and  at  the  eud  of  sotue  hours  the  ex 
terior  coverings  only  become  moist  and  tender  The  grain 
Is  then  tl'rowQ  between  nearly  closed  millstones,  and  70 
per  CbQt  of  flour  is  obtained  without  cerealin,  plus  10  to 
\i  per  cent  of  meal.  This  i.«  bruised  between  light  stones, 
and  separated  by  wiunow-ing  from  the  greater  part  of  the 
husk  remnants  To  prepare  khe  bread,  all  the  leaven  is 
made  with  flout  at  70  per  cent  ,  and  the  meal  13  added  to  the 
soft  d"ugb  last  of  all  ,  as,  iu  spite  of  the  small  amount  of 
cerealin  which  it  still  contains,  it  wdl  not  produce  brown 
bread,  because  at  that  time  the  length  of  incubation  is  Dot 
sufficient  to  change  it  into  a  leaven  Thus  white  brea<l 
u  produced  containing  all  the  farinaceous  part  of  the 
wheat  " 

It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  flour  of  good  colour. 
and  unexceptionable  chemical  composition,  fails  to  yield  a 
dough  which  will  rise  by  fermentation,  and  the  loaf  from 
which  is  sweet,  solid,  sodden,  and  adhesive  Wheat  that 
has  been  badly  harvested,  or  which  in  any  way  haa  been 
allowed  to  sprout,  has  part  of  the  gluten  changed  into  the 
form  of  diastase,  which,  like  cerealin,  changes  starch  into 
dextrin  and  sugar  The  gluten  of  flour  which  has  been 
dried  at  a  loo  high  temperature,  and  of  flour  which  has 
been  kept  in  a  damp  situation,  is  modified  and  acts  iu  the 
6ame  manner  If  dough  is  made  with  an  infusion  of  malt, 
It  yields  a  result  exactly  the  same  as  that  above  described 
It  is  to  guard  the  starch  of  inferior  flour  against  this 
deteriorative  influence  that  a  proportion  of  alum  is  used 
by  many  bakers  of  second  class  bread.  Alum  Las  the 
power  of  preserving  starch  to  a  largo  extent  from  the 
Dietmiorpliic  action  of  altered  gluten,  diastase,  or  cerealin, 
and  of  producing  from  an  inferior  flour  a  loaf  of  good 
texture  and  colour.  The  use  of  alum  is  regarded  as  an 
adulteration,  and  heavy  penalties  have  been  imposed  on  its 
detection  ,  but  its  estimation  in  bread  is  a  process  of  the 
greatest  difliculty,  and  authorities  are  by  no  means  agreed 
as  to  its  deleterious  influence.  Other  mineral  salts  have 
a  similar  protective  power  on  the  starch  of  inferior  vNhcat, 
and  lime  water  has  been  successfully  employed  in  place  of 
alum.  To  this  also  it  is  objected  by  some  that  the  addition 
of  lime  renders  the  valuable  phosphatic  salts  of  flour  in- 
•oluble  by  transforming  them  into  phosphate  ol  limo 

Aerated  Bread  — When  carbonic  acid,  instead  of  being 
generated  by  fermentation  within  dough,  is  separately  pre 
pared  and  incorporated  with  flour  and  water,  aerated  bread 
is  produced.  The  system  by  which  this  is  efl"ected  was 
invented  by  the  late  Dr  Dauglish,  and  aerated  bread  has 
been  manufactured  under  his  patent  since  March  1H59 
The  system  is  now  in  operation  in  all  the  principal  towns 
(D  the  United  Kingdom,  and  it  appears  to  be  steadily 
gaining  in  public  favour 

The  Uauglish  apparatus  (see  fig.  3) consists  of  the  follow 
ing  parts: — 1st,  a  generator  A,  in  which  carbonic  acid  is 
evolved  from  chalk  by  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid  ;  2d, 
a  gas-holder,  in  which  the  carbonic  acid  is  stored  for  use 
after  bfiing  puriflod  in  passing  through  water ,  3i!,  an  air 
|>ump,  for  pumping  carbonic  acid  from  the  gas  holder  and 


forcing  it  into  the  water  vessel  and  mixer  ;  4th,  another  Aermi 
uir  puiup,  for  withdrawing  atmospheric  air  from  the  mixer  bread 


Fiu  3      Daugti^b  App^f^tu^— *ioubIe  set. 

before  the  aerated  water  is  admitted  ,  6th,  a  water  vessel 
B,  a  strong  cylinder  of  copper  capable  of  withstanding 
a  pressure  of  100  lb  on  the  square  inch,  and  of  suflScicnt 
size  to  contain  water  for  a  full  charge  of  the  mixer  j 
attached  to  this  water  vessel  there  are  a  gauge-glass  C, 
and  a  pressure  gauge  D,  for  indicating  the  pressure  of  gas 
as  It  is  pumped  iu  ,  6th,  the  mixer  E,  a  globular  vessel 
of  cast-iron,  capable  of  bearing  high  pressure,  through  the 
centre  of  which  an  axle  runs,  fitted  with  iron  kneaduig- 
arms  extending  to  the  circumference  of  the  vesseL  The 
pumps  and  the  revolving  arms  within  the  mixer  are  worked 
by  steam  power  In  order  to  make  a  sack  of  flour  into 
dough,  a  lid  at  the  top  of  the  mixer  is  opened,  and  the 
flour  passed  down  into  it  through  a  spout  from  the  floor 
above  The  lid  of  the  mixer  is  then  fitted  tightly  on,  and 
the  air  within  it  exhausted  by  the  pump.  The  requisite 
quantity  of  water,  about  17  gallons,  is  drawn  into  the  water 
vessel,  and  carbonic  acid  is  forced  into  it,  till  the  pressure 
amounts  to  from  15  to  25  D)  per  square  inch.  The 
aerated  water  is  then  passed  into  the  mixer,  and  the  mix- 
ing arms  are  set  iu  motion,  by.  which,  in  about  seven 
minutes,  the  flour  and  water  are  incorporated  into  a 
perfectly  uniform  paste.  At  the  lowor  end  of  the.  mixer 
a  cavity  F  is  arranged,  gauged  to  hold  suflicient  dough 
foi  a  28)  loaf,  and  by  a  turn  of  a  lever  that  quantity 
is  dropped  into  a  pan  ready  /or  at  once  depositing  in 
the  oven.  The  whole  of  these  operations  can  be  per- 
formed in  less  than  half  an  hour.  When  4  lb  loaves 
are  to  be  baked  the  lever  has  simply  to  be  twice  .turned. 
At  another  part  of  the  lower  end  of  the  mixer  is  placed 
a  pipe  0,  with  a  stopcock,  by  which  dough  intended  to 
be  fired  as  Pans  bread,  on  the  sole  of  the  oven,  is  drawn 
oB  and  veighed  before  being  placed  in  the  oven.  The 
pressure  of  gas  within  the  mixer  is  sufliicient  to  force  out 
the  whole  of  the  dough,  which,  immediately  on  being 
liberated,  swells  up  by  expansion  of  the  gas  confined  within 
the  tenaciiius  mass.  Currant  loaves  and  various  kinds  ol 
fancy  bread  are  made  by  the  aerated  process  by  placing  the 
necessary  ingredients  in  the  mixer  along  with  the  flour. 
The  advantages  claimed  for  Dr  Dauglish's  process  ore  : — 

■'  (1  )  It  docs  away  entirely  with  fermentation,  and  witn  all  thoM 
cliemiciil  chaDgea  iu  tUo  coustitucDta  of  the  flour  winch  an  codh- 
queut  upon  it. 

"  (2  I  It  0  voids  tne  loss  consequent  upon  the  decomposition  of  lh» 
porlion  of  slarih  ol  glucose  consumed  in  the  process  of  fermentation, 
estiuiated  at  about  from  3  to  6  per  cent. 

"(3  )  It  reduces  the  time  requisite  to  prepare  a  batch  of  douRh 
for  theSlv'ii,  from  a  period  of  from  eight  to  twelve  boura  to  leaa 
than  thirty  niinutca. 

"  {i  )  Its  resulta  are  abaulutely  certain  and  unifons. 

"  (5  )  It  does  away  with  the  neceasitv  for  "he  u«e  of  alum  wllk 
floor  flour,  and  the  t^-iiiptatioD  which  '-lers  are  under  to  as* 
with  aU. 


■■* 


256 


BAKING 


"  (6.)  It  has  tlie  recommendation  of  absolute  and  entire  cleanli- 
ness, the  human  hiad  not  touching  the  dough  or  the  biead  from 
the  beginning  to  the  end. 

"(7.)  The  journeymen  are  relieved  from  a  circumstance  most 
destructive  to  their  health— that  of  inhaling  the  flour  dust  in  the 
process  of  lineading.  .  . 

"(S.)  It  will  produce  a  healthier  condition,  of  the  baking  trade, 
and  thereby  diminish  to  a  great  extent  the  tndacements  which  lead 
to  the  extensive  system  af  fraud  now  practised  upon  the  public  by 
the  production  of  adulterated  and  inferior  bread. 

"  (9.)  It  will  effect  an  immense  saving  in  tto  material  from 
another  source,  namely,  by  preventing  the  sacrifice  of  at  least  10 
per  cent,  in  the  nutritive  portion  of  the  grain,  hitherto  lost  as 
human  food  by  the  method  of  grinding  and  dressing  necessary  ii 
the  preparation  of  flour  for  making  white  bread  by  fermentation. 

"(10.)  Together  with  the  preservation  of  this  large  proportion 

of  the  entire  quantity  of  wheat  converted  into  flour,  there  is  also  the 

important  result  of  the  proportion  preserved  {the  cerealin)  being  a 

I  most  powerful  agent  in  promoting  the  e.isy  and  healthy  digestion 

of  food." 

It  is  objected  by  opponents  of  the  Dauglish  system  that 
the  product  is  not  really  bread,  but  only  an  artificial  pro- 
duct resembling  bread.  It  is  held  that  the  process  of  fer- 
mentation has  a  specific  influence  on  the  constitution  of 
.bread,  beyond  its  mechanical  effect  of  rendering  the  mass 
spongy  or  porous.  One  of  the  chief  hindrances  to  the  more 
general  use  of  aerated  bread  ia  the  fact  that  it  is,  as  com- 
pared with  fermented  bread,  insipid  and  tasteless.  In 
practice,  the  public  have  not  hitherto  derived  any  advan- 
tage from  the  alleged  economy  of  manufacture,  and  the 
Buitability  of  inferior  and  cheap  flour  for  the  process.  Al- 
though fermented  bread  is  hurtful  in  some  conditions,  it  is 
not  easy  to  supplant  well-made  fermented  loaves  in  general 
public  estimation,  and  aerated  bread  can  scarcely  be  said 
to  have  hitherto  had  a  fair  trial,  as  with  the  necessarily 
expensive  machinery  a  large  trade  is  necessary  in  order  to 
return  a  fair  profit  on  the  capital  invested. 

Unfermented  Bread. — Under  this  head  is  included  such 
bread  as  is  vesiculated  by  means  of  carbonic  acid  evolved 
from  chemical  substances  introduced  in  the  making  of  the 
dough.  In  writingtha  article  on  "  Baking  "  for  the  supple- 
ment to  the  fifth  edition  of  this  Encyclopaedia,  published 
in  1816,  Professor  Thomas  Thomson  of  Glasgow  stated 
that  the  only  end  served  by  fermentation  was  the  genera- 
tion of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  that  this  might  be  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  bicarbonate 
of  soda.  About  1842  Mr  Henry  Dodson  commenced  to 
manufacture  bread  on  this  system,  and  obtained  a  patent 
for  his  process.  Ho  used  hydrochloric  acid  and  bicarbon- 
ate of  soda  in  such  proportions  that  while,  by  their  re- 
action, they  liberated  sufficient  carbonic  acid  to  aerate  the 
dough,  they  formed  chloride  of  sodium  or  common  salt 
enough  for  iho  bread... liebig,  in  his  Familiar  Leltas, 
B.iys  regarding  this  system  ■ — "Chemists,  generally  speak- 
ing, should  never  recommend  the  use  of  chemicals  for 
culinary  preparations,  for  chemicals  are  seldom  met  with 
in  commerce  in  a  state  of  purity.  ^  Thus,  for  example,  the 
muriatic  [hydrochloric]  acid  which  it- has  been  proposed  to 
mix  with  carbonate  of  soda  in  bread  is  always  very  impure, 
and  very  often  contains  arsenic  "  The  scscjuicarbonato  of 
ammonia  is  also  used  as  a  source  of  carbonic  acid  in 
vesiculating  bread,  and  it,  on  account  of  its  highly  volatile 
nature,  is  entirely  driven  off  in  the  process  of  baking.  A 
great  amount  of  private  or  domestic  baking  is  conducted 
on  the  same  principle,  butter  milk  and  bicarbonate  of  soda 
being  used  for  mixing  the  dough  in  making  "  scones."  In 
this  case  the  lactic  acid  of  the  milk  combines  with  the 
soda,  liberating  carbonic  acid.  The  baking  powders  and 
yeast  powders  which  are  sold,  and  the  so-called  self-raising 
flour,  all  depend  tor  their  action  on  the  mixture  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda  with  some  organic  acid,  such  as  tartaric  or 
citric  acid. 

Baking  ilachintry  and  Ofotj,— The  art  of  baking,  al- 


though it  13  the  most  important  of  aU  industries  connected 
with  the  preparation  of  human  food,  is  one  which  is  stiU 
carried  on  in  the  most  rude  and  primitive  manner.  While 
modern  inventions  and  the  progress  of  improvement  have 
changed  the  conditions  under  which  nearly  all  arts  and 
manufactures  are  conducted,  the  baking  of  bread  is  still 
conducted  as  it  was  during  the  palmy  days  of  ancient 
Greece.  The  nature  of  the  processes  necessary  for  the 
preparation  of  bread,  the  limited  time  it  will  keep,  and 
the  consequent  impossibility  of  storing  the  product  or  send- 
ing it  4ny  considerable  distance,  tend  to  keep  the  trade  id 
the  position  of  a  limited  and  local  handicraft.  It  is,  there- 
fore, not  a  pursuit  which  attracts  capitalists,  and  master 
bakers  are  mostly  in  the  position  of  small  tradesmen,  with- 
out either  the  inclination  or  ability  to  invest  money  in 
expensive  machinery  and  fittings.  In  the  case  of  biscuit- 
baking  the  conditions  are  quite  difl'erent,  and  it,  as  has 
been  seen,  has  developed  into  a  great  manufacture,  with 
elaborate  and  complex  machinery  and  the  most  perfect 
mechanical  appliances.  Many  forms  of  machine  have  been 
proposed  as  substitutes  for  the  rude  and  laborious  manual 
labour — always  unfavourable  to  health,  and  sometipies  not 
very  cleanly — involved  in  baking.  Many  of  these  machines 
admittedly  produce  better  bread  than  can  be  made  by  hand- 
work, and  that  at  no  inconsiderable  saving  of  material  and 
time,  but  the  necessity  of  either  steam  or  water  power  foi 
their  effective  working  greatly  restricts  their  use. 

The  two  processes  to  which  machinery  has  been  success- 
fully adapted,  are  the  mixing  of  the  sponge  and  the  knead- 
ing of  the  dough.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  mould 
loaves  by  machinery,  but  these  have  hitherto  failed  ;  nor 
has  the  endeavour  to  fire  bread  in  travelling  ovens  yet 
been  practically  successful.  A  great  variety  o'  knead 
ing  machines  have  been  suggested  and  used,  since  MK 
first  trial  of  such  an  implement  in  Paris  upwards  of  a 
century  ago.  The  various  plans  upon  which  such  machines 
have  been  constructed  will  be  seen  in  the  accompanying 
illustrations.  Fig  4  is  a  form  of  dough-making  machine 
in  common  use.  It  consists  of  a  trough  or  box,  the  lower 
portion  of  which  is  semi  cylindrical,  hung  on  a  spindle, 
with  a  series  of  iron  crossbars  revolving  inside.  It  is 
made  to  be  worked  by  either  hand  or  steam-power,  and  of 
various  sizes,  as  required  by  bakers.  In  this  machine  the 
whole  of  the  operations  connected  with  setting  the  sponge, 
breaking  the  sponge,  and  mixing  the  dough,  are  performed. 
The  gearing  is  arranged  to  give  a  fast  motion  for  setting 
the  sponge,  and  a  slow  motion   towards  the  close  of  the 


Flo   4 — tiiic'itliiig  Matbiue. 


dongh  making,  when  it  is  desirable  to  draw  out  the  maM 
in  order  to  give  it  a  "  skin,"  or  smooth  superficial  texture. 
A  worm-wheel,  working  in  toothed  gearing,  tilts  over  the 
machine  wh^n  the  process  of  kneading  ia  complete,  and  the 
dough  18  then  conveyed  to  the  scaling  and  moulding  table 


BAKING 


257 


Fig.  0  repreaeuts  a  kneadingiiiacUine,  of  a  highly  approved 
(om,  used  in  the  great  Scipion  bakery  of  Pans,  the  inven- 


Fio.  5;— Dolands  KueadiBg-Mat'.imo, 

tioa  of  M.  Boland.  Externally  it  is  like  the  former,  and 
It  13  also  geared  to  move  at  two  rates  of  rapidity.  It  has 
(.irther  an  adjustment  by  which  the  force  of  the  motion  is 
increased  while  its  rate  is  diminished.  The  main  pecu- 
iurity  of  M.  Boland's;)c<rin  meckanique  consists  in  the  form 
ui  the  revolving  blades  inside  the  trough.  These  blades 
ftre  so  arranged  that  they  operate  when  in  motion  some- 


Fio  6.  — Jvneailinp-Mnrliiue  of  DcliryDcaboTca. 

what  like  alternate  screws,  and  so  toss  backward  and  for- 
ward the  dough  when  it  is  thin,  and  lift  and  draw  it 
out  when  stiff,  passing  it  to  each  side  of  the  trough 
allernalely  An  entirely  difTerent  form  of  kneader  is  seen 
in  fi:;.  G,  This  also  is  of  French  origin,  the  invention  of 
M.  DeLiry-Dcsbovcs  of  Soissnns  (Aisne).  Its  construction 
ond  operation  are  thus  described  : — "  The  trough  is  a  castr 
iron  basin,  which  turns  on  a  vertical  axis.  The  interior  is 
provided  with  &  kneader,  shaped  like  a  lyre,  which  6rst 
works  up  the  dough  and  then  divides  it  during  the  entire 
penod  of  operation.  Two  other  implements  are  also  used, 
of  a  helical  form,  to  draw  out  and  inflate  the  dough  in  a!l 
directions,  part  by  part,  as  is  practised  in  kneading  by 
hand.  The  baker  in  charge  can   regulate    the  paste 

without  stopping  the  mechanism.  The  water  and  leaven 
arc  6r3t  introduced,  the  trough  is  then  set  to  work,  the 
■workers'  employed  to  manipulate  the  dough  are  put  in 
{;«ar,  and  ihe  leaven  being  diluted  and  flour  added,  the 
kncaders  are  also  put  in  gear.  After  the  lapse  of  twelve  or 
fifteen  minutes  the  dough  is  sufficiently  kneaded,  and,  by 
turning  ihe  band  wheel  fixed  to  the  scre^  oji  the  vertical 


shaft,  the  three  kneaders  are  thrown  out  of  gear.  The 
implement  which  effects  the  cleaning  of  the  trough  is  then 
removed,  and  its  place  supplied  by  a  balance-hook,  by 
which  the  dough  may  be  weighed  in  the  trough  itself.  It 
IS  simply  necessary  to  turn  the  basin  on  its  axis  as  re- 
quired, until  the  whole  of  the  dough  is  weighed."  — (Villain. 
Etudes  sur  I' Exposition  de  18C7.) 

The  fourth  form  of  mechanical  kneader  we  shall  describe 
13  that  invented  by  Messrs  Vicars  of  Liverpool,  who  are 
extensive  makers  of  all  forms  of  machinery  connected  with 
bread  and  biscuit  making.     This  machine  'lij?  7\  ".-nsisLs 


Fio.  7.— Patent  Vertical  .Miner. 

of  two  vertical  shafts,  carrying  radial  arms.  These  arms 
pass  each  other  in  opposite  directions,  so  that,  in  addition 
to  a  tearing  action  on  the  dough,  which  the  knives  have  on 
passing  each  other,  they  have  a  screw,  action,  pressing 
the  dough  down  on  one  sido  and  up  on  the  other.  The 
vessels  containing  the  dough  are  made  of  wood,  of  an  oval 
form,  to  correspond  with  the  action  of  the  machine.  One 
considerable  advantage  connected  with  Messrs  Vicars's 
machine  is,  that  any  number  of  troughs  can  be  worked  l>y 
the  same  pair  of  iniiiing  shafts,  as  the  troughs  are  mov- 
able, and  are  raised  to,  or  lowered  from,  the  blades  of  the 
mixer  by  means  of  friction  wheels  and  spur  gear.  A 
baker  can  thus  have  several  troughs  containing  sponges  in 
different  stages  of  advancement,  all  mixed  by  one  pair  of 
shafts,  and  sdl  in  their  turn  being  made  into  dough  by  the 
same  shafts. 

Much  thought  and  skill  have  been  expended  in  the 
endeavour  to  etTcct  improvements  in  the  ordinary  form  of 
a  baker's  ovon,  but  hitherto  no  plan  has  been  devi3cd 
which  produces  bread  of  a  quality  superior  to  that  fired  id 
the  oven  which  is  commonly  used.  A  baker's  oven  of  the 
common  description  is  a  low  vaulted  chamber,  about  10 
feet  long,  by  8  feet  wide,  and  30  inches  high.  It  is  built 
and  floored  of  atone  or  brick,  and  has  a  small  door  in  front 
by  which  the  moulded  dough  is  put  in  and  the  loaves 
withdrawn.  At  one  side  of  this  door,  in  the  extreme 
corner,  are  placed  the  furnace  and  fire-grate,  opening  into 
the  oven,  and  at  the  opposite  corner,  the  smoke  flue  by 
which  smoke  escapes  from  the  interior.  The  heat  is  by 
this  arrangement  carried  throughout  the  entire  oven,  and 
when  the  temperature  is  sufficient  the  fire  is  withdrawn, 
the  flue  shut,  and  the  dough  is  quickly  introduced  on  a 
"  peel,"  or  long  wooden  shovel.  Various  elTorts  have  been 
made  to  effect  the  beating  of  ovens  by  fire  o.xternal  to  the 
chamber  itself,  but  they  fail  to  produce  that  radiation  of 
heat  which  is  found  essential  to  good  baking.  Porkin's 
hot-water  oven  for  some  lime  met  with  favour  ^n  Great 
Britain,  and  a  modification  of  it  was  employed  in  Franca 


258 


B  A  K  —  B  A  L 


Oq  this  system  the  oven  Li  heated  by  superheated  water, 
convoyed  from  a  stovo  through  closed  pipes,  which  are 
coiled  round  the  entire  interior  of  the  oven.  This  oven 
has  the  recommendation  of  perfect  cleanness,  and  the 
temperature  in  it  is  easily  regulated ;  but  it  is  costly  in 
construction,  and  the  method  has  not  commended  itself  in 
practice.  Among  ovens  heated  from  the  e.'cterior,  that  of 
M.  RoUand  takes  a  high  place  for  ingfuuity  and  novelty 
of  construction.  Its  characteristic  peculiarity  consists  in 
the  possession  of  a  revolving  sole,  which  not  only  allows 
tho  e.isy  introduction  and  withdrawal  of  the  bread,  but  the 
bringing  of  the  dilferent  parts  regularly  and  uniformly 
under  tho  influence  of  tho  heat  applied.  The  revolution  of 
the  sole  is  accomplished  by  8  handle  worked  from  the  front 
of  tho  oven  ;  and  besides  this  rotatory  motion  the  sole  can 
also  be  raised  or  lowered  so  as  to  bring  either  the  upper  or 
under  side  of  the  bread  dose  to  the  heat  as  desired.  The 
heating  of  M.  Holland's  oven  is  effected  by  means  of  flues, 
which  pass  radially  under  and  over  the  revolving  eole. 
'The  chief  objection  urged  against  this  form  of  oven  is, 
that  the  air  within  it  becomes  too  dry,  which  detracts  from 
the  flavour  of  the  loaves  6red  in  it.  The  use  of  the  Vienna 
oven  is  general  in  Germany,  and  is  extending  in  Paris 
for  the  baking  of  small  or  Vienna  bread.  It  is  egg-shaped 
in  form,  with  an  incUned  sole,  a  very  small  aperture,  and 
a  low  roof.'  Its  average  internal  dimensions  are  12  feet 
in  depth,  10  feet  wide,  and  18  inch'es  high.  In  the  best 
of  these  ovens  glazed  tiles  are  used  for  the  sole.  The  in- 
clination of  the  sole  facilitates  the  hlling  and  emptying  of 
the  oven  ;  and  the  confined  space  of  the  interior  retains  a 
large  proportion  of  moisture,  which  gives  a  fine  colour  to 
the  crust  and  flavour  to  the  crumb  of  the  bread. 

Qualities  of  Bread. — Tho  process  of  baking  changes  the 
structure  of  the  crust  or  outer  part  of  a  loaf,  and,  accord- 
ing to  Reichenbach,  develops  in  it  a  substance  termed 
assamar,  which  he  saj's  has  an  influence  in  retarding  the 
waste  of  tissue.  It  dqes  not  alter  the  starch  oPthe  crumb 
or  internal  part,  but  only  swells  the  granules,  and  by  the 
induced  sponginessof  the  mass  renders  it  readily  digestible. 
Well-baked  bread  should  have  a  yellowish-brown  crust ; 
tho  crumb  should  bo  uniform  in  texture,  permeated  with 
minute  cavities,  and  without  "eyes"  or  large  air-cells.  The 
colour  of  the  crumb,  unless  in  the  case  of  whole  wheaten 
bread,  should  be  white;  it  should  be  free  from  acidity 
and  sourness.  It  should  keep  sweet  and  eatable  for 
several  days ;  and  when  stale  it  will  be  found  to  become 
soft  and  pleasant  by  again  heating  it  in  an  oven,  after 
which,  however,  it  rapidly  changes.  According  to  Dr 
Pr.mkland's  determinations,  "1  lb  of  tho  crumb  of  bread, 
if  digested  and  oxidised  in  tho  body,  will  produce  an 
amount  of  force  equal  to  1333  tons  raised  1  foot  high. 
Tho  maximum  of  work  which  it  will  enable  a  man  to  per- 
form is  267  tons  raised  1  foot  high.  I  lb  of  crumb  of 
bread  can  produce,  at  tho  maximum,  l-j-'j  oz.  of  dry 
muscle  or  flesh." 

The  adidteration  of  bread,  and  its  detection,  are  treated 
under  the  lie.iding  Adulteration,  vol.  i.  p.  170.     (j.  pa.) 

BAKU,  or  Bauku,  the  chief  town  of  the  government  of 
the  same  name,  in  the  Russian  province  of  Transcaucasia 
(Daghestan),  situated  in  the  peninsula  of  Apsheron,  on  tho 
west  coast  of- tho  Caspian,  and  possessing  one  of  the  most 
spacious  and  convenient  ports  in  that  sea.  Long.  49°  SS' 
E.,  lat  40"  23'  N.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of  an  obtuse  tri- 
angle, on  the  alopo  of  an  and  hill,  and  is  defended  by  a 
double  wall  and  ditch  conatruc'..ed  during  the  reign  of  Tctcr 
the  Orent.  Tho  general  appearance  of  the  town  is  decidedly 
OrientaJ,  with  its  Citroofcd  ho  iscs  rising  ono  behind  tho 
other,  often  in  so  close  proximity  that  tho  top  of  the  ono 


132- 


Tbe  Viomia    ovoo    is   ftgurej    m    Kiiapp's    TtchnoU^gy,  vol. 


forms  the  courtyard  of  the  next.  The  hill  is  crowned  by 
a  castle,  which  dates  from  the  15ih  ceutury,  and  tlie 
mosque  of  Shah-Abbas,  still  in  good  preservation.  At  ths 
entrance  of  th?  harbour  stands  the  Maiden's  Tower,  now 
used  as  a  lighthouse,  whi<-h  derives  its  name  from  a  tragedy 
like  that  of  tho  Cenci.  Baku  is  not  only  a  principal  statiuii 
of  the  Russian  fleet,  but  it  carries  on  a  very  extensive  trade, 
exporting  naphtha,  iron,  Unen,  and  woollen  goods,  and  re- 
ceiving in  return  cotton,  grain,  fruits,  Ac.  The  numerous 
naphtha  wells  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  the  remarkable 
escape  of  inflammable  gases,  rendered  Baku  a  favourite 
resort  of  the  fire-worshippers,  who  for  long  maintained 
their  temples  in  the  district;  but,  though  the  natural 
phenomena  display  themselves  as  abundantly  as  ever,  they 
arc  now  almost  entirely  deserted  by  devotees.  The  Arabian 
Masudi,  in  the  10th  century,  is  supposed  to  be  the  first  to 
mention  "  Baki"  and  its  fire-breathing  mountain  ;  and  the 
naphtha  wells  are  probably  those  alluded  to  by  Marco  Pulo. 
In  1509  it  was  taken  by  the  Persians,  who  lost  it  to  tlio 
Turks,  but  recovered  it  under  Shah-Abbas.  Captured  !>y 
the  Russians  in  1723,  it  was  restored  to  Persia  in  173D, 
but  after  various  vicissitudes  it  was  finally  incorpor.Ued 
with  the  Russian  empire  in  180G.  (See  Goldschmid's  'J'lU- 
graph  and  Travd,  1874  ;  Filippi's  Viaggio  in  Persia,  1805; 
Hist,  des  dicouiertcs  faites par  div.  sav.  voyageurs,  Lausanne, 
1784;  La  Tour  du  Monde,  18G3;  "Baku"  in  Zeitschnjt 
der  Deutsck.  Geol.  Gesellsck.,  1874.) 

BAL.^,  a  market-town  of  Wales,  county  of  Merioneth, 
and  hundred  of  Penllyn,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
lake  of  the  same  name,  17  mdes  N.E.  of  -Dolgelly.  It 
consists  principally  of  one  wide  street.  Its  manufactures 
are  flannels,  stockings,  gloves,  and  other  woollen  hosiery. 
There  is  an  endowed  grammar  school,  founded  in  1712, 
and  a  theological  college,  belonging  to  the  Calvinisiic 
Mtithodists.  The  Rev.  Thomas  Charles,  well  known  in 
Connection  with  the  religious  literature  of  his  country,  was 
long  a  minister  at  Bala.  Population,  1539.  The  Lake  of 
Bala,  which  is  4  miles  long  and  about  half  a  mile  broad,  is 
subject  to  sudden  and  sometimes  dangerous  floods.  It  is 
very  deep  and  clear,  and  abounds  with  [like,  perch,. trout, 
eels,  and  the  gwyniad,  or  Coregomis  fa-a. 

B.'VL.^AM,  or  rather  Bileam,  the  son  of  Beor,  belonging 
to  Pethor,  by  the  River  Euphrates  in  Aram,  is  represented 
in  Scripture  as  a  seer  who  possessed  the  power  of  blessing 
and  cursing  cfTcctually.  According  to  tho  narrative 
in  Numbers  xxii.-xxiv.,  he  was  invited  by  Balak,  king  of 
Moab,  to  come  and  curse  Isr.ael,  in  order  to  ensure  the 
latter's  defeat.  Jehovah,  however,  forbade  him  to  go  aa  he 
was  requested,  and  therefore  he  refused  to  accompany  the 
deputation  of  elders,  who  had  been  sent  to  invite  him, 
"  with  the  rewards  of  divination  in  their  liand."  After  the 
arrival  of  a  second  embassy  more  imposing  than  tho  first, 
he  received  divine  permission  to  go,  but  only  on  comlition 
that  he  should  adhere  strictly  to  what  Jehovah  should  tell 
him.  lie  set  out  accordingly,  and  in  his  journey  experi- 
enced the  anger  of  the  Lord,  an  angel  being  sent  to  stop  his 
progress,  who  was  perceived  only  by  the  ass  on  which  the  pro- 
phet was  riding.  After  Balaam's  eyes  hail  been  0|iened  he 
saw  the  angel,  and  declared  his  willingness  to  go  back,  but 
received  pcrmi.ssion  to  continue  his  journey  on  condition  of 
saying  nothing  but  what  was  suggested  to  him  by  God.  His 
reception  by  Balak  was  honourcbic  and  imposing,  yet  he 
continued  faithful  to  Jehovah,  and  told  the  king  ho  would 
only  annouiu'C  what  Jehovah  revealed.  Standing  on  th« 
height  of  Baal  Bjuioth,  and  surveying  tho  tents  of  Israel, 
he  declared  his  inability  to  curse  a  [H'ople  so  peculiar  and 
righteous.  Brought  next  to  the  top  of  I'isgah,  and  behold- 
ing thence  a  part  of  the  Israelite  camp,  he  announced  that 
Jehovah  saw  no  iniquity  or  pcrvcrsoness  in  Jacob;  that 
He  was  with  them  ;  that  they  were  therefore  strong  auii 


BALAAM 


2o9 


victorioua.  ConJuctcd  aflcrwards  tj  (lie  top  of  Poor,  ^je 
surveyed  the  army  of  Israel,  and  predicted  their  future, 
their  goodly  dwellings  in  Canaan,  and  their  successful  wars 
against  tho  nations  down  to  Saul's  time.  Though  Balak 
wu  angry  and  interrujitcd  him,  Balaam  continued  his 
prophecy,  announcing  Israels  valiant  deeds,  from  Uavid 
down  to  Uezckiah.     Upon  this  he  returned  to  his  home. 

Another  account  of  Balaam  appears  in  Numbers  xxxi. 
8  16,  Joshua  xiii.  22,  where  wo  learn  that  be  advised  tho 
Miilianite  women  to  seduce  the  Israelites  to  the  licentious 
worship  of  Baa',  and  that  he  was  slain  in  a  war  with  the 
Midianitcs. 

The  character  given  to  Balaam  in  the  first  accoiint  is  a 
favourable  one.  lie  is  a  worshipper  of  Jehovah  the  true 
God,  receives  divino  revelations,  and  repeatedly  declares 
that  be  will  not  go  beyond  or  against  them.  Kaithfid  to 
his  calling,  bo  steadfastly  resists  temptations  sufficiently 
powerful,  and  therefore  God  communicates  His  Spirit  to 
him,  enabling  him  to  predict  the  future  of  Israel. 

Tho  second  account  is  unfavourable.  .  lu  it  he  appears 
as  a  diviner,  Dpi|"5.  a  heathen  seer,  who  tempted  the  wor- 
shippers of  the  true  God  to  idolatry.  Instead  of  being  a 
prophet  of  Jehovah,  receiving  visions  and  revelations,  a 
man  to  whom  tho  Almighty  came  by  night,  giving  him 
instructions  what  to  do,  he  is  an  immoral  soothsayer.  Of 
tho  two  accounts,  the  latter,  brief  as  it  is,  seems  entitled 
to  greater  consideration.  Tho  former  is  elaburate  and 
artiOcial,  the  theme  being  the  glorification  of  tho  cho.sen 
people  by  the  mouth  of  one  of  their  enemies.  An 
inspired  seer  from  the  far  distant  land. of  Aram  is  called 
in  to  bless  the  Israelites.  He  does  so  reluctantly,  but 
like  a  true  prophet,  announcing  nothing  but  what  came 
to  pass.  Tho  way  in  which  bo  is  taught  the  high  des- 
tiny of  the  chosen  people  is  instructive.  Ignorant  at 
first  of  Israel's  relation  to  tho  truo  God,  and  thinking 
they  were  like  others,  bo  was  disposed  to  cunso  them, 
but  is  enlightened,  and  forcibly  impelled  to  follow  the 
divine  revelations.  From  a  heathen  mantis  be  is  converted 
into  a  true  prophet  by  revelations  and  visions  which  ho 
cannot  resist.  Tho  seer  is  taken  to  three  places  in  succes- 
sion, whence  he  surveys  Israel,  and  utters  oracular  sayings 
concerning  them.  Three  times  tho  angel  of  tho  Lord 
stands  in  the  way,  and  three  times  the  a-ss  is  smitten  by 
B.ilaam.  There  are  four  prophetic  announcements— xxlii. 
7-10,  13-24  ;  xxiv.  3-9,  15-24.  Tho  fir.st  refers  to-  tho 
separate  condition  of  Israel,  their  numbers,  and  their  wor- 
sliip  of  the  true  God  amid  the  idolatry  of  the  surrounding 
nations.  Tho  second  declares  that  God  blesses  Israel 
because  there  is  no  ini<iuity  or  pcrvcrseness  in  them,  that 
He  dwells  among  them,  reveals  himself  to  them,  and 
makes  them  powerful  and  victorious.  Both  these  refer  to 
Miisaic  times,  or  at  lexst  to  times  not  later  than  Joshua. 
But  tho  third  announcement  has  the  rhamcter  of  prediction, 
and  refers  to  future  events.  Henco  Balaam  is  ijitroduccd 
as  a  man  whoso  eyes  are  opened,  who  bears  tho  words  of 
God,  and  sees  visions  of  the  Almighty.  The  condition 
of  tho  people  down  to  the  time  of  Saul  is  glanced  at,  their 
secure  settlement  in  Canaan,  and  victorious  wars  with  the 
native  races.  Tho  fourth  prophecy  apparently  carries 
down  the  history  to  the  time  of  Hezekiah  ;  and  a  future 
ruler  is  distinguished  as  the  star  out  of  Jacob,  tho  sceptre 
out  of  Israel,  the  conqueror  of  the  Moabitea  and  Edomites. 
Tho  mention  of  the  Kcnitcs  and  Assyria  in  ver.  22,  the 
former  of  whom  were  allies  of  Edom,  shows,  in  the  opinion 
of  some  recent  critics,  that  the  writer  w.as  acq\iaintcd  with 
the  Edomite  wars  xindfl-  Amaziah  and  Uzziah,  and  hoped 
that  the  latter  power  would  permanently  subjugate  tho 
restless  Kdomites.  This  would  bring  the  composition 
down  to  the  first  half  of  the  8tb  century.  Verses  23  and 
84  arc  obscure,  but  probably  refer  to  no  event  later  than 


Hezekiah.  A  fleet  from  the  Phccnician  Gj'prians  seems  to 
have  attacked  the  Canaanitish  and  Phceniciaa  coasts, 
threatening  the  Syrians  farther  north. 

The  writer  of  Num.  xxjd.  8,  16,  Joshua  liii.  22,  is  tho 
Elohist,  whose  account  is  very  brief.  Meagre,  however, 
as  it  is,  it  is  probably  bistoriciL  A  heathen  soothsayer; 
connected  with  tho  Midianites,  perished  in  one  of  their 
battles  with  Israel.  The  writer  of  Numbers  ixii.-xxiv.' 
is,  in  this  view,  the  Jehovist,  who,  under  the  name  of 
Balaam,  gives  expression  to  bis  ideas  and  hopes  in  tho 
elevated  diction  of  an  inspired  prophet  As  Jacob  and 
Moses  had  pronounced  blessings  on  Israel  under  the  imme- 
diate inspiration  of  the  Almighty,  so  Balaam  is  summoned 
from  a  distant  land  to  eulogise  tho  same  people. 

.  The  character  of  Balaam  has  Veen  apprehended  very 
variously.  Such  diversity  must  exist  according  as  the 
Elohist  or  Jehovist  is  followed.  The  Old.  Testament 
writers  who  mentioned  bim  afterwards  were  influenced  by 
the  Jehovistio  notice,  and  pronounce  no  judgment  upon  tha 
seer  (Deut.  xxiiL  5,  6;  Joshua  xxiv.  9,  10;  Micah  vi.  5; 
Nehemiah  xiii.  2) ;  but  the  Now  Testament  authors  followed 
the  Elohistic  account,  and  speak  of  him  disparagingly,  attri- 
buting to  him  love  of  "  the  wages  of  unrighteousness,"  mad- 
ness, idolatrousness,  and  impiety  (2  Peter  ii.  15,  16  ;  Juda 
11  ;  Rev.  ii.  14).  Josephus  calls  him  ^ains  dpitrros  tu^c 
ToTf,  "  tho  best  prophet  of  bis  time,"  supposing  him  to  bo 
a  prophet  of  the  tnio  God,  but  with  a  disposition  ill- 
adapted  to  resist  temptation.  Philo  describes  his  character 
more  critically  :  "  Therenvas  a  man  at  that  time  celebrated 
for  divination,  who  lived  in  Mesopotamia,  and  was  an  adept 
in  all  tho  forms  of  the  divining  art ;  but  in  no  branch  wa» 
ho  more  admired  than  iu  auguty ;  to  many  persons,  and 
oif  many  occasions,  be  gave  great  and  astounding  proofs  of 
his  skill.  For  to  some  he  foretold  storms  in  the  height  of 
summer;  to  others  drought  and  heat  in  the  depth  of  win- 
ter; to  some  scarcity  succeeding  a  fruitful  yaar,  and  thcr» 
again  abundance  after  scarcity ;  to  others  the  overflowin:; 
and  drying  up  of  rivers,  and  the  remedies  of  pestilential 
diseases,  and  a  vast  multitude  of  other  things,  each  of  which 
be  acquired  great  fame  for  predicting."  The  unfavourable 
character  drawn  of  him  by  Philo  is  that  which  is  generally 
taken  by  tho  later  Jews.  Tho  later  Targumists  call  him  a 
sinner  and  an  accursed  man,  while  the  Talmudists  make 
him  the  representative  of  the  godless,  in  Contrast  with 
Abraham,  the.  representative  of  tho  pious.  Yet  they  do 
not  ignore  his  prophetic  gift.  The  Midrashim  about  him 
arc  hardly  worth  mentioning,  such  as  that  he  was  one  of 
Pharaoh's  counsellors^'  that  bo  was  governor  of  a  city  io 
Ethiopia  which  he  excited  to  rebellion,  but  wis  unable  to 
defend  against  Moses  at  tho  bead  of  au  army  who  stormed 
the  place  and  put  Balaam  to  flight.  In  Yalkut  (§  She- 
moth)  ho  is  said  to  bavo  been  identified  by  some  with 
Laban,  Jacob's  father-in  law  ;  by  others  with  Elihu,  Job's 
friend  ;  while  others  say  that  Jannos  and  Jambres  wcro 
his  sons.  In  Sanhcdrin  (§  Chelek)  he  is  said  to  have  been 
blind  of  an  eye.  These,  and  other  rabbinical  fables,  aro 
entirely  worthless ;  and  Origen's  belief  that  the  M.agi  from 
Persia,  who  came  to  worship  the  infant  King  of  the  Jews, 
learnt  the  meaning  of  tho  star  from  Balaam's  prophecies. 
Is  of  tho  same  charncter.' 

Most  of  the  Fathers,  including  Augustine  and  Amtroso, 
judged  him  to  be  a  soothsayer  or  magician,  a  prophet  in- 
spired by  the  devil.  A  few,  as  TertuUian  and  Jerome, 
took  a  more  favourable  view  of  his  character.  The  Ma- 
hometans have  various  fables  concerning  Balaam-  Tbty 
say  that  be  was  of  the  race  of  Anakim,  or  giants  of  Pales- 
tine, and  that  ho  read  the  books  of  Abraham,  where  he  got 
the  name  Jehovah,  by  virtue  of  which  be  predicted  tba 

'  Seo  Fibriciui'i  Code^  Pindefisrrphut  Vet.  Test.,  p.  807,  4c. 


^GO 


B  A  L  —  B  A  L 


fttturfi,  and  got  from  God  whatever  he  asked.  This  pro- 
cored  him  great  renown.  In  consequence,  however,  of  his 
prevarication,  God  was  offended  with  him,  and  left  him  to 
himself,  so  that  ho  fell  into  infidelity.  It  is  generally 
supposed  that  the  words  in  the  Koran  (§  Al-^Vraf)  refer  to' 
him  : — "  The'history  of  him  unto  whom  we  brought  our 
signs  and  he  departod  from  them  ;  wherefore  Satan  followed 
him,  and  he  became  one  of  tliose  who  were  seduced.  And 
if  we  had  pleased,  we  had  surely  raised  him  thereby  unto 
wisdom;  but  he  inchned  unto  the  earth,  and  followed  his 
own  desire.  Wherefore  his  likeness  is  as  the  hkeness 
of  a  dog,  which,  if  thou  drive  him  away,  putteth  forth  his 
tongue ;  or  if  thou  let  him  alone,  putteth  forth  his  tongue 
also." 

It  has  been  conjectured  with  much  probability  that 
the  Arabic  wise  man,  commonly  called  Lokman,  is  identi- 
cal with  Balaam.  The  two  names  coincide  in  meaning, 
■devoztrer,  swalloioer ;'  and  the  names  of  their  fathers  are 
also  alike.  The  Jews  suppose  Balaam  to  have  been  a 
Nahorite,  and  so  Lokman  is  regarded  by  many  Arabic 
authors,  though  the  more  general  opinion  is  that  he  was 
an  Abyssinian  slave  who  lived  in  the  time  of  David,  and 
■was  renowned  as  a  Hakim.  The  proverbs  or  fables  attri- 
buted to  him  are  of  Greek  origin. 

Modem  critics  are  divided  in  opinion  respecting  him. 
■Three  leading  views  embrace  the  vaneties  of  belief  as  to 
bis  true  position,  viz  ,  that  he  was  an  idolater  and  sooth- 
sayer, whose  soul  was  uninfluenced  by  true  religion — a 
«<Mcerer  who  had  acquired  reputation  by  his  insight  into 
fthe  force  of  nature  and  his  incantations  ,  that  he  was  a 
true  prophet  of  God,  a  pious  man  who  fell  through  covet- 
•ousness  ;  and  that  he  was  a  heathen  soothsayer  and  a 
prophet  of  Jehovah  at  the  same  time,  occupying  an  inter- 
mediate position,  with  an  incipient  knowledge  and  fear  of 
Cod,  needing  but  to  be  developed,  though  checked  by  the  love 
of  gain.  It  appears  impossible  to  arrive  at  a  definite  or  com- 
prehensive view  of  one  who  is  described  indifferent  sources 
inconsistently.  Bishop  Butler,  not  recognising  that  the  his- 
tory of  Balaam  has  poetical  elements,  and  that  different  tradi- 
ticais  are  given  respecting  him,  considers  him  a  very  wicked 
man  under  a  deep  sense  of  God  and  religion,  persisting 
atill  in  his  wickedness,  and  preferring  the  wages  of  unright- 
■eouaness  even  when  he  had  before  him  a  lively  view  of  death. 
His  mind  was  distracted  by  contradictory  pnnciples  of 
action.  All  we  know  about  him  amounts  to  very  little. 
After  admitting  that  a  heathen  sooth-sayer  of  this  name 
existed  in  Mesopotamia,  and  had  acquired  some  renown  in 
the  regions  adjoining,  and  that  he  was  employed  in  some 
way  as  a  medium  for  uttering  eulogiums  upon  Israel,  of 
■vfaose  pre-eminence  and  permanence  he  is  fully  conscious, 
nothing  else  can  be  affirmed  with  certainty.  (Davidson's 
Jntroduciion  to  the  Old  Testament,  vol.  i.  p.  328,  &c.  ; 
E'wikl's  Ge.ichichte  dcs  Volkes  Israel,  zweyter  Band,  p. 
"298,  <tc.,  3d  edition,  and  his  Jakrhiicher,  part.  8,  p  1, 
■Ac  ;  Kurtz's  Geschichte  dcs  alien  Bmides,  zweyter  Band, 
p.  454,  ic.  ;  Hengsteuberg's  Die  Geschichte  Bileam's  und 
iteime  Weissagungen,  1842;  Winer's  Rcahvorterhuch,  s.v. 
•"Bileam;"  Knobel's  Die  Bilcher  Numeri,  Dniteronomium, 
i—'i  Jotua  erUiirt,  p  121,  drc  ;  Schenkcl'."*  Bihel- Lexicon, 
«.«.  **Bileam;"  and  Hamburger's  Real-EncydopcEdte  fur 
JBiSd  und  Talmud,  s.v.  "  Bileam.") 

BAlAGIIAT,  a  British  district  in  the  Central  Provinces 
of  India,  situated  between  21°  and  23°  N.  lat  and  80°  and 

*  0}?p5  ^rom  ^73,  with  tho  formative  letter  0.  It  baa  been  de- 
■«TT«1  from  Dl?— ypU  fSaiibed.  105),  destroyer  or  cnrruptcr  of  the 
JM^pte,  fio  that  the  name  haA  passed  for  a  typical  dcsipiatioii  of  Israel's 
^■■By  :  and  this  is  reflected  in  llio  Greek  word  NtwoXafrTjr  (Ilev,  ii. 
•f\,  from  piKov  and  Kaii,  as  if  tho  Nicolaitanc.i  were  essentially 
CjAnnttes,  or  scduccra.     But  this  ctyrDology  of  the  name  Ualaam  ia 


SI°  E.  long. ;  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  district  of  Mandli; 
on  the  E.  by  the  district  of  Chhattisgarh  ;  on  the  S.  by 
Chhattisgarh  and  Bhandari  ,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  district 
of  Seoul.  Bal.igh.'it  forms  the  eastern  portion  of  the  cen- 
tral plateau  which  divides  the  province  from  east  to  west. 
These  highlands,  formerly  known  as  the  RAigarh  Bichhii 
tract,  remained  desolate  and  neglected  until  1 8tJ6,  when  the 
district  of  Bilighit  was  formed,  and  the  country  opened  to 
the  industrious  and  enterprising  peasantry  of  the  WamgangA 
vaUey.  Geographically  the  district  is  divided  into  three 
distinct  parts  — (1.)  The  southern  lowlands,  a  slightly 
undulating  plain,  comparatively  well  cultivated,  and  drained 
by  the  Wainganga,  Bigh,  Deo,  Ghisrl,  and  Son  nvers. 
(2.)  Tho  long  narrow  valley,  known  as  the  Mau  Taluk.\, 
lying  between  the  hills  and  the  Waingangi  nver,  and  com- 
prising a  long,  narrow,  irrcgular-shaped  lowland  tract, 
intersected  by  hill  ranges  and  peaks  covered  witb  dense 
jungle,  and  running  generally  from  north  to  south.  (3  ) 
The  lofty  plateau,  in  which  is  situated  the  Riig.^rh  Bichhia 
tract,  comprising  irregular  ranges  of  hills,  broken  into 
numerous  valleys,  and  generally  running  from  east  to  west. 
The  highest  points  in  the  hills  of  the  district  are  a.<  fol- 
lows:— Peaks  above  Lanjl,  2300  or  2000  feet;  Tepftgarb 
hill,  about  2600  feet  ,  and  Bhainsaghit  range,  about  3000 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  pnncipal  nvers  in  the  distnct  are 
the  Waingangi,  and  its  tributaries,  the  Bagh,  Nahri,  and 
Uskdl  ;  a  few  smaller  streams,  such  as  the  MasmAr,  the 
MAhkari,  ic  ;  and  the  BanjAr,  HAlon,  and  Jamur.ift,  tribu- 
taries of  the  Narbada,  which  drain  a  portion  of  the  upper 
plateau.  BAlAghAt  contains  very  extensive  forests,  but  they 
do  not  produce  timber  of  any  great  value  They  teem  witl\ 
wild  animals,  from  the  great  bison  to  the  fox  ,  470  beasts 
and  venomous  snakes  were  killed  m  18G7-CS,  a  total  reward 
of  £150  being  paid  under  this  head.  The  district  contained 
in  1868  an  a.sscssed  area  of  1462'08  square  miles  or  935,731 
acres,  of  which  214,587  acres  were  under  cultivation; 
488,510  grazing  lands  ;  110,938  culturable,  but  not  actu- 
ally under  cultivation  ,  115.696  unculturable  waste.  The 
census  report  of  1872  returned  the  area  at  2008  square 
miles.  The  census  of  1866  showed  a  population  of  170.964 
This  had  in  1872  increased  to  195,008,  residing  in  37,192 
houses  and  781  villages;  average  number  of  persons  per 
square  mile,  7477  ;  per  village,  24969,  per  house,  524. 
Of  the  total  population,  131,176  or  (>7'27  per  cent, 
were  Hindus,  2934  or  T50  per  cent.  Mahometans,  39 
Buddhists;  11  Chnstians ;  G0,848  or  31-20  percent,  of 
unspecified  rehgions  of  aboriginal  or  imperfectly  Uiuduisod 
types. 

Since  1867  considerable  encouragement  has  been  given 
to  the  cultivating  tribes  of  PonwArs,  Kunbis,  MarArs,  i-c, 
of  the  low  country  to  immigrate,  and  take  up  lands  in  the 
upland  tracts  By  this  moans  a  large  quantity  of  jungle 
lands  has  lately  come  under  cultivation.  The  acreage 
under  the  princip.il  crops  grown  in  the  district  is  returned 
as  follows  — nee,  188,312  acres  ,  wheat,  585  ;  other  food 
grains,  8770;  oil-seeds,  313C,  sugar,  505,  fibres,  100; 
tobacco,  638;  total,  202,340  acres.  Iron  is  smelted  by 
the  Gonds ,  golil  exists  in  the  beds  of  some  of  the  rivers, 
but  not  in  sullicicnt  quantities  to  repay  the  labour  of 
washiug.  There  are  no  regularly  made  roads  in  the  dis- 
trict. Five  pas.'ics  lead  from  the  low  country  to  tho  high- 
lands, viz.,  the  BAnpur  GhAt,  the  Warai  (iiiAt,  the  Pancheri 
GhAt.,  tho  BhoiulwA  GhAt,  and  the  Aliniadpur  GhAt  For 
revenue  puqiosca  the  distnct  is  divided  into  two  sub- 
divisions, the  BilrliA  Talisll  and  the  ParaswArA  Tahsfl.  In 
18G8-G9  the  total  revenue  of  the  BAlAghAt  district 
amounted  to  XI  1,740,  of  which  £6754,  or  57  |>er  cent, 
was  from  land.  For  the  protection  of  person  and  property, 
Government  maintained,  in  1808,  115  policemen,  at  a  total 
cost  of  XI 160,  ICs.     In  1868  only  two  towns  in  tho  di»- 


B  A  L  —  B  A  L 


26t 


trict  had  upwarJs  of  2000  inhabitants,  -riz.,  Hattd,  popula- 
rivin,  2603,  and  Lanjf,  population,  21 IG.  About  60  years 
a^o  the  upper  part  of  the  district  wa3  an  impenetrable 
waste.  About  that  time  one  Lachhmaa  Xdik  established 
the  first  villages  on  the  Paraswiri  plateiu.  ou  which  there 
ore  about  30  flourishing  settlements.  But  a  handsome 
Buddhist  temple  of  cut  stone,  belonging  to  some  remote 
period,  is  suggestive  of  a  civilization  which  had  disappeared 
before  historic  times. 

BiVLAXCE.  For  the  measurement  of  the  "  mass  "  of 
{if.,  of  the  quantity  of  matter  contained  in)  a  given 
bcdy  we  'possess  only  one  method,  which,  being  indepen- 
dent of  any  supposition  regarding  the  nature  of  the  matter 
to  be  measured,  is  of  perfectly  general  applicability.  The 
method — to  give  it  at  once  in  its  customary  form — consists 
in  thij,  that  after  having  fixed  upon  a  unit  jnass,  and 
procured  a  sufficiently  complete  set  of  bodies  representing 
each  a  known  number  of  mass-unita  (a  "  set  of  weights  "), 
we  determine  the  ratio  of  the  weight  of  the  body  under 
examination  to  the  weight  of  the  unit  piece  of  the  set,  and 
identify  this  ratio  with  the  ratio  of  the  masses.  Machines 
constructed  for  this  particular  modus  of  weighing  are  called 
balances.  Evidently  the  weight  of  a  body  as  determined 
by  means  of  a  balance — and  it  is  in  this  sense  that  the 
term  is  always  used  in  everyday  life,  and  also  in  certain 
sciences,  as,  for  instance,  in  chemistry — is  independent  of 
the  magnitude  of  the  force  of  gravity  ;  what  the  merchant 
(or  chemist)  calls,  say,  a  "  pound  "  of  gold  is  the  same  at 
the  bottom  as  it  is  at  the  top  of  Mont  Blanc,  although  its 
real  wfijght,  i.e.,  the  force  with  which  it  tends  to  fall,  is 
greater  in  the  former  than  it  is  in  the  latter  case. 

To  any  person  acquainted  with  the  elements  of  me- 
chanics, numerous  ideal  contrivances  for  ascertaining  which 
of  two  bodies  is  the  heavier,  and  for  even  detcrmining^the 
ratio  of  their  weights,  will  readily  suggest  themselves ;  but 
there  would  be  no  use  in  our  noticing  any  of  these  many 
conceivable  balances,  except  those  which  have  been  actually 
realised  and  successfully  employed.  These  may  be  con- 
veniently arranged  under  six  heads. 

1.  Spring  Balances. — The  general  principle  of  this  class 
of  balances  is  that  when  an  elastic  body  is  acted  upon  by 
a  weight  suspended  from  it.  it  undergoes  a  change  of  forra, 
which,  cceteris  paribus,  is  the  greater  the  greater  the  weight. 
The  simplest  form  of  the  spring  balance  is  a  straight  spiral 
of  hard  steel  (or  other  kind  of  elastic)  wire,  suspended  by 
its  upper  end  from  a  fixed  point,  and  having  its  lower  end 
bent  into  a  hook,  from  which,  by  means  of  another  hook 
crossing  the  first,  the  body  to  be  weighed  is  suspended, — 
(n&ttcrs  being  arranged  so  that  even  in  the  empty  instru- 
raent  the  axis  of  the  spiral  is  a  plumb-line.  Supposing  a 
body  to  be  suspended  at  the  lower  hook,  it  is  clear  that  the 
point  where  the  hooks  intersect  each  other  will  descend 
from  the  level  it  originally  occupied,  and  that  it  must  fall 
through  a  certain  height  h.  before  it  can,  by  itself,  remain 
at  rest.  This  height,  provided  the  spiral  was  not  strained 
beyond  its  limit  of  elasticity  (i.e.,  into  a  permanent  change 
of  form),  is  proportional  to  the  weig/U  P  of  the  body,  and 
consequently  has  to  the  mass  M  the  relation  A  =  c^M, 
where  c  is  a  constant  and  g  the  acceleration  of  gravity. 
Hence,  supposing  in  a  first  case  A  and  M  to  have  been  A' 
and  M',  and  in  a  second  case,  h''  and  M',  we  have  A':  A* : : 
y'M':  j'M';  and  it  is  only  as  long  as  g  is  the  same  that 
we  can  say  A' :  A':  :  M' :  M".  Spring  balances  are  very 
extensively  usotl  for  the  weighing  of  the  cheaper  articles  of 
commerce  and  other  purposes,  where  a  high  degree  of  pre- 
cision is  not  required.  In  this  class  of  instruments,  to  com- 
bine compactness  with  relatively  considerable  range,  the 
■pring  is  generally  made  rather  strong ;  and  sometimes  the 
•xactitude  of  the  reading  is  increased  by  inserting,  between 
the  index  and  that  point  the  displacement  of  which  serves 


to  measure  the  weight,  a  system  of  levers  or  toothed  wlieeTs^' 
constructed  so  as  to  magnify  into  convenient  visibility 
the  displacement  corresponding  to  the  least  differenca 
of  weight  to  be  determined.  Attempts  to  convert  the 
spring  balance  into  a  precision  instrument  have  scarcely 
ever  been  made ;  the  only  case  in  point  known'  to 
the  writer  is  that  of  an  elegant  little  instrument  con- 
structed by  Professor  Jolly,  of  Munich,  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  specific  gravity  of  solids  by  iramersiou, 
which  consists  of  a  long  steel-wire  spiral,  suspended  in  front 
of  a  vertical  strip  of  silvered  glass  bearing  a  millimetre 
scale.  To  read  off  the  position  of  equilibrium  of  the  index 
on  the  scale,  the  observing  eye  is  placed  in  such  a  position 
that  the  eye,  its  image  in  the  glass,  and  the  index  are  in  a 
line,  and  the  point  on  the  scale  noted  down  with  which  the 
index  apparently  coincides. 

2.  Chain.  Balances. — This  invention  of  Wilhelm  Weber's 
having  never,  so  far  as  we  know,  found  its  way  into  actual 
practice,  we  confine  ourselves  to  an  illustration  of  its  prin- 
ciple. Imagine  a  flexible  string  to  have  its  two  ends  attached 
to  the  two  fixed  points  C  and  D  (fig.  1),  forming  the  ter- 
c p    . 


Fia  1. — Diagram  illustratiog  Chain  Ba1anc«. 

minal  points  of  a  horizontal  line  CD  shorter  than  the  stnng. 
Suppose  two  weights  to  be  suspended,  the  one  at  a  point  A, 
the  other  at  a  point  B.of  the  string;  the  form  of  the 
polygon  CDBA  will  depend,  cccteris  paribus,  on  tho  ratii* 
of  the  two  weights.  Assuming,  for  simplicity's  sake, 
CA  to  be  equal  to  DB,  then,  if  the  weights  are  equal,  say, 
each  =  P  units,  the  lino  AB  wilTbe  horizontal  But  if 
now,  say,  the  weight  at  B  be  replaced  by  a  heavier  weight 
Q,  the  point  A  will  ascend  through  a  height  A,  the  point 
B  will  descend  through  a  lesser  height  A'  in  accordance 
with  equation  PA  =  QA',  and  the  angle  between  what  is  nois- 
tiie  position  of  rest  of  the  base  line  A'B',  and  the  origjiai 
line  AB  will  depend  on  the  ratio  of  P :  Q.  The  eiatft 
measurement  of  this  angle  would  be  difiicult,  but  it  vcmld 
be  easy  to  devise  very  exact  means  for  ascertaining  wbetlw^r 
or  not  it  was  horizontal,  and,  if  not,  whether  it  slanteoi 
down  the  one  way  or  the  other ;  and  thus  the  instrument 
might  serve  to  determine  whether  P  was  equal  to,  or  greater 
or  less  than,  Q;  and  this  obviously  is  all  that  is  required  to 
convert  the  contrivance  into  an  exact  balance. 

3.  Lever  Balances. — This  class  of  balances,  being  moro 
extensively  used  than  any  other,  forms  tho  most  impor- 
tant division'of  our  subject.  There  is  a  great  variety  of 
lever  balances  ;  but  they  are  all  founded  upon  the  same 
principles,  and  it  is  consequently  expedient  to  begin  by 
summing  up  these  into  one  general  theory. 


2G2 


BALANCE 


Theory  of  the  Lever  Balance  (fig.  2).  —  In  developing 
Ibe  "  theory  "  of  a  niacliinc,  the  first  step  always  is  and 
must  be  that  we  substitute  for  the  machine  as  it  is  a 
fii-titious  machine,  which,  while  it  closely  corresponds  in  its 
working  to  the  actual  thing,  is  free  from  its  defects.  In 
Ihis  sense  what  now  follows  has  to  be  understood.     Imagine 


S'-a 


'0  9   a   7  S  S  A  3   2 


3  3   a  S  6  7  a  9  10 


Fio.  2.  — Diagram  fllustriting  tlie  theory  of  the-  Lever  Balance. 

an  infltiibU  beam  suspended  from  a  stand  in  such  a  manner 
that,  while  it  can  rotate  freely  about  a  certain  horizontal 
axis  fixed  in  its  position  with  rejpect  to  toth  the  stand  and 
the  beam,  and  passing  through  the-Iatter  somewhere  above 
its  centre  of  gravity,  it  cannot  perform  any'other  motion. 
Imagine  the  beam  "at  each  end  to  be  provided  with  a 
certica.l  slit,  and  each  slit  to  be  traversed  by  a  rigid  line' 
6xed  in  the  bcim  in  such  a  situation  that  both  lines  are 
parallel  to,  and  in  one  and  the  same  plane  with,  the  axis  of 
rotation ;  and  suppose  the  mass  of  the  beam  to  be  so 
distributtd  that  the  line  connecting  the  centre  of  gravity 
B  with  its  projection  0  on  the  axis  of  rotation  stands  perpen- 
dicular on  that  plane.  Suppose  now  two  weights,  P'  and 
T",  to  be  susjiended  by  means  of  absolutely  flexible  strings, 
the  former  from  a  point  A  on  the  rigid  lino  in  the  left,  the 
other  from  a  point  B  on  the  rigid  line  in  the  right  slit,  and 
clearly,  whatever  may  be  the  effect,  it  will  not  depend  on 
the  length  of  the  strings.  Hence  we  may  replace  the  two 
weights  by  two  material  points  situated  in  A  and  B,  and 
weighing  F'  and  V"  respectively.  But  two  such  points  arc 
equivalent,  statically,  to  one  point  (weighing  P'  +  F") 
situated  somewhere  in  D  within  the  right  line  connect- 
ing A  with  I!.  Suppose  the  beam  to  be  arrested  in  its 
"  normal  position  "  (by  wliich  we  mean  that  position  in 
which  AB  stands  horizontal  and  the  line  SO  is  a  plumb- 
line),  and  then  to  bo  released,  the  statical  effect  will 
depend  on  the  situation  of  the  point  D,  and  this  situation, 
supposing  the  raf  I' :  I"  to  be  given,  on  the  ratio  P':  P". 
If  P'  I'  =  P"  /",  D  lies  in  the  axis  of  rotation  ;  the 
beam  remains  at  rest  in  its  normal  position,  and,  if  brought 
out  of  it,  will  return  to  it,  being  in  stable  cquiUbrium. 
This  at  once  suggests  two  modes  of  constructing  the 
instrument  and  two  corresponding  methods  of  weighing. 

First  Method. — Wo  so  construct  our  instrument  that 
fthilo  I'  is  constant,  I"  can  be  made  to  vary  and  its  ratio  to 
r  b9  measured.  In  order  then  to  determine  an  unknown 
weight  P',  we  susjicnd  it  at  the  point  pivot  A  ;  we  then 
take  a  standard  weight  P"  and,  by  shifting  it  forwards  and 
backwards  on  AB,  find  that  particular  position  of  the  point 
of  suspension  B,  at  which  P'  exactly  counterpoises  P'      Wc 

i"  r 

then  read  ofT  p- ,  and  have  P'  =  P'-p- .     But,  practically,  the 

body  to  bo  weighed  cannot  be  directly  suspended  from  A,  but 
JBlust  be  placed  in  a  pan  suspended  from  A, and  cnnseipKntly 


the  weight  p^  of  the  pan  and  its  appurtenances  wouia  always 
have  to  be  deducted  from  the  total  weight  P',  as  found  by 
the  experiment,  to  arrive  at  the  weight  of  the  object  p  = 
P  -p„.  Hence,  what  is  actually  done  in  practice  is  so  to 
shape  the  right  arm  that  its  back  coincides  with  the  line 
AB,  and  to  lay  down  on  it  a  scale,  the  degrees  of  which 
are  equal  to  one  another,  and  to  /'  (or  some  convenient  sub- 
multiple  or  multiple  of  /')  in  length,  and  so  to  adjust  p, 
and  number  the  scale,  that  when  the  sliding  weight  P"  is 
suspended  at  the  zero-point,  it  just  counterpoises  the  pan  ; 
80  that  when  now  it  is  shifted  successively  to  the  points  1, 
2,  3  ...  p,  it  balances  exactly  1,  2,  3  ...  p  units  of 
weight  placed  in  the  pan.  This  is  the  principle  of  the 
common  steel-yard,  which,  on  account  of  the  rapidity  of  its 
working,  and  as  it  requires  only  one  standard  weight,  is 
very  much  used  in  practice  for  rough  weighings,  but  which, 
when  carefully  constructed  and  adjusted,  is  susceptible  of  a 
very  considerable  degree  of  precision-.  In  the  case  of  a 
precision  steelyard,  it  is  best  so  to  distribute  the  mass  of 
the  beam  that  the  right  arm  balances  the  left  one  +  the 
pan,  to  divide  that  arm  very  exactly  into,  say,  only  10 
equal  parts,  and  instead  of  one  sliding  weight  of  P''  units 
to  use  a  set  of  standards  weighing  F",  -^  P",  ^j-J-j  P", 
Yty^iTS  P",  &c.  The  great  difficulty  is  to  ensure  to  the  heavier 
sbding  weights  a  sufficiently  constant  position  on  the  beam. 
-To  show  the  extent  to  which  this  difficulty  can  bo  overcome 
it  may  be  stated  that  in  an  elegant  little  steel-yard,  con- 
stnicted  by  Mr  Westphal  of  Celle  (for  the  determination  of 
specific  gravities),  which  we  had  lately  occasion  to  examine, 
even  the  largest  rider,  which  weighs  about  10  grammes, 
was  so  constant  in  its  indications  that,  when  suspended  in 
any  notch,  it  always  produced  the  same  effect  to  within  less 
than  j-o'trpth  of  its  value. 

Second  Method. — We  so  construct  our  instrument  that 
both  I'  and  l"  have  constant  values,  and  are  nearly  or 
exactly  equal  to  each  other,  and  provide  it  with  pans,  whose 
weights  p^'  and  p/'  are  so  adjusted  against  each  other  that 
p'  t'=pj'l",  and,  consequently,  the  empty  instrument  is  at 
rest  in  its  nornul  position.  We  next  procure  a  sufficiently 
complete  set  of  weights,  i.e.,  a  set  which,  by  properly  com- 
bining the  several  pieces  with  one  another,  enables  us  to 
build  up  any  integral  multiple  of  the  smallest  difference  of 
weight  S  we  care  to  determine,  a  set,  for  instance,  which 
virtually  contains  any  term   of  the  series  0001,  0002, 

0.003 100000  grammes.     In  order  now  to 

determine  an  unknown  weight  p',  we  place  it,  say,  in  the 
left  pan,  and  then,  by  a  series  of  trials,  find  that  combina- 
tion of  standards  p"  which,  when  placed  in  the  right  pan, 
establishes  equilibrium  to  within  ±  S.     Evidently — 

P=^^.     .     .     -  (1). 

In  the  case  of  purely  relative  weighings,  there  is  nothing  to 

hinder  us  from  adopting  -j  units  ['•.ff.,  -p  grammes)  as  our 

unit  of  mass,  and  simply  to  identify  the  relative  value  of  p' 
with  the  number  p".  But  even  if  we  want  to  know  chc 
absolute  value  of  p'  in  true  grammes,  we  need  not  know 

the  numerical  value  of  —  .      All  we  have  to  do  is,  after 

I' 
having  detonnined  the  value  of  p'  in  terms  of  y,  to  reverse 

the  positions  of  object  and  sta.idards,  and,  in  a  similar 
manner,  to  ascertain  the  value  p,"  which  now  counterpoises 
the  unknown  weight  p'  lying  in  the  riijht  pan.     Obviously 

/''=;>"  J.  =/',"  f,  whence  (p')"  =p"p",  and  p  =  Jp'p,', 
for  which  expression,  if  the  two  arms  arc  very  nearly  of 
equal  length,  wc  may  safely  substitute  p  =  l(p"  +  A  ")•  0'> 
instead  of  at  once  finding  the  counterpoise  for  ]>'  in  stan- 
dards, wp  ni.ay  tlist  counterpoise  it  by  moans  of  shot  or  othci 


BALANCE 


563 


material  placc-d  in  the  opposite  pan,  and  fben  find  out  tbe 
number  of  grammes  ;;"  which  has  to  be  substituted  for  ;/  to 
again establiib absolute  equilibrium.  Evideutlyp'  =  p".  This 
(io  reference  to  the  ideal  machine  meant  to  be  realised)  is 
■  the  theory  of  the  common  balance  as  we  see  it  working  iu 
every  grocer's  shop,  and  also  that  of  the  modern  precision 
balance,  whichj  in  fact,  is  nothing  but  an  equal  armed 
beam  and  scales  reBnedly  constructed.  In  the  case  of  the 
latter  class  of  bahinces  the  inconvenience  involved  in  the 
use  of  very  small  weights  may  be  avoided  (and  is  generally 
avuided)  by  dividing  the  right  arm  of  the  beam,  or  rather 
the  lino  AB,  into  10  equal  parts,  and  detormiuing  ditVer- 
cnces  of  less  than,  say,  0  01  gramme  by  means  of  a  sliding 
weight  possessing  that  value.  But  evidently,  instead  of 
dividing  the  whole  length  of  the  right  arm,  it  is  better  to 
divide  some  portion  of  it  which  is  so  situated  that  the  rider 
can  be  shifted  from  the  very  zero  to  the  "  10,"  and  so  to 
adjust  the  r'dcr,  that  when  it  is  shifted  successively  from 
0  to  1,  2,  3  .  .  n  it  13  the  same  as  if  1,  2,  3  .  .  n  tenths 
of  its  weight  were  placed  in  the  right  pan.  The  rider  in 
this  case  must,  of  course,  form  part  and  parcel  of  the  beam. 
It  is  singular  that  none  of  our  [irecision-balance  makers 
Lave  ever  thought  of  this  very  obvious  improvement  on  the 
customary  system.  In  the  verj'  excellent  instrument  made 
by  Messrs  Becker  and  Company  of  New  York,  this,  it  is  true, 
is  realised  partially  in  a  rider  weighing  12  milligrammes 
and  a  beam  divided  into  12  equal  parts  (instead  of  10  and 
10  respectively)  ;  but  tliis  <loes  not  enable  one  to  shift  the 
rider  to  where  it  would  indicate  from  0  to  say  ^s  or  ^s 
of  a  milligramme.  Whichever  of  these  modes  of  wei^hine 
we  may  adopt,  we  must  have  an  arrangement  to  see  whether 
the  balance  is  in  its  normal  position,  and  it  is  desirable 
also  to  have  some  means  to  enable  us,  in  the  course  of  our 
trials,  to  form  at  least  an  idea  as  to  the  additional  weight 
which  would  have  to  be  added  to  the  standards  on  the  pan 
(or  to  be  taken  away)  in  order  to  establish  equilibrium. 
To  define  the  normal  position,  all  that  is  required  is  to 
provide  the  beam  with  a  sullicicntly  long  "  needle,"  the 
nxis  of  which  is  parallel  to  the  line  O.S,  and  which  plays 
against  a  circular  limb  fi.xed  to  the  stand  and  constructed  so 
that  the  upper  edge  of  the  limb  coincides  very  nearly  with 
ihe  path  of  the  point  of  the  vibrating  needle,  and  to 
graduate  the  Limb  so  that,  as  fig.  2  shows,  the  zero  point 
indicates  the  normal  position  of  the  beam.  In  order  to  sec 
how  the  graduation  must  be  made  to  bo  as  convenient  ils 
possible  a  means  for  translating  deviations  of  the  needle  into 
differences  of  weight,  let  us  a.'.sume  the  balance  to  be 
charged  with  P'  grammes  from  A  and  with  P"  +  A  grammes 
from  B,  and  P'  and  P"  to  satisfy  the  equation  V  I  =  P'7". 
The  two  weights  F'  and  V"  being  equivalent,  to  one  point 
P'+  I""  in  the  axis  of  rotation,  the  effect  is  the  same  as  if 
these  two  wciglits  did  not  cxi.-it  and  the  beam  was  only 
under  the  inllucnce  of  two  weights,  \-iz  ,  the  weight  W  of 
the  beam  acting  in  S  and  the  weight  A  acting  iu  B.  I'.ut 
this  comes  to  the  same  as  if  both  \V  and  A  were  replaced 
by  one  point  weighing  W  +  A,  and  situated  somewhere  at 
C,  between,  and  on  a  lino  with,  B  and  S.  Hence,  suppos- 
ing the  beam  to  be  first  arrested  in  its  normal  position  and 
then  to  be  left  to  itself,  the  right  arm  will  go  down  and 
not  be  able  by  itself  to  remain  at  rest  before  it  has  reached 
that  position  in  which  C„  lies  vertically  below  the  axis  of 
rotation.  Cal.-ris  paribus  C,  will  be  the  nearer  to  B, 
and  consequently  the  angle  a,  through  which  the  beam 
(and  with  it  the  needle)  has  to  turn  to  assunio  what  now 
is  ils  position  of  stable  eiiuilibriuni,  will  be  the  greator  the 
greater  A  is,  and  for  the  same  A  and  \V  the  angle  of  devia- 
tion will  be  the  greater  the  less  the  distance  s  of  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  beam  S  is  from  the  axis  of  rotation.  The 
former  proposition  enables  one  in  a  given  case  to  form  an 
idea  of  the  amount  A  which  has  to  be  taken  away  from  the 


right  pan  to  establish  equilibrium.  To  find  the  exact 
mathematical  relation  between  A  and  the  corresponding 
angle  o,  let  us  remember  that  tbe  position  of  C,  Ls  the 
same  whatever  may  be  the  direction  of  gravity  with  regard 
to  the  beam.  Assurning  gravity  to  act  parallel  to  OS, 
we  have  (W  +  A)  C'C',=  A/",  where  C  stands  for  the  pro- 
jection of  C„  on  O.S.  Assuming,  secondly,  gravity  to  act 
parallel  to  the  line  OB,  we  have  f\V  +  A).  Uo  =  W.  OS; 

^i^=taua  =  ^        •     .     .     (2). 
CO  Ws  ^  ' 

Obviously,  the  right  way  of  graduating  the  limb  is  to  place 

the  marks  so  that  their  radial  projections  on' the  tangent 

to  the  circle  at  the  zero-point  divide  that  Line  into  parts 

of  equal  length.     In  tho  ordinary  balance  where  /"  is  a 

constant,  the  factor  --  has  a  constant  value,  which  can  bo 

VVi" 

determined  by  one  experiment  with  a  known  A — always 
supposing  that  in  the  instrument  used  the  requirements  cf 
our  theory  were  exactly  fullilled.  In  good  precision  balances 
they  are  fulfilled,  to  such  an  extent  at  least,  that  although 
the  factor  named  is  not  absolutely  constant,  but  a  function 
of  P,  it  can  be  looked  upon  as  a  relative  constant,  so  that  by 
determining  the  deviations  produced  by  a  given  A,  say  A  =  1 
miLligranime,  for  a  series  of  charges  {i.e.,  values  of  P"),  one 
is  enabled  to  readdy  convert  deviations  of  the  necdJe,  as 
read  oil'  on  the 'scale,  into  differences  of  weight.  This 
method  is  very  generally  followed  in  the  exact  determina- 
tions of  weights  as  required  in  chemical  assaying,  in  the 
adjusting  of  sets  of  weiglit,s,  <tc.  Only,  instead  of  letting 
the  needle  come  to  rest  and  then  reading  off  its  position, 
what  is  done  is  to  note  down  2,  3,  4  ...  n  consecutive 
excursions  of  the  needle,  and  from  the  readings  (a,,  a.,  a^ 
Oj  .  .  .  a.)  to  calculate  the  position  a„  where  the  needle 
XL'cmld  come  to  rest  if  it  were  allowed  to  do  so.  It  beinu 
understood  that  the  readings  must  be  taken  as  positive  or 
negative  quantities  according  as  they  lie  to  the  left  or  to  the 
right  of  the  zero-point,  n^  might  be  identified  with  any  of 
the  sums — 


\  ("i  +  aj,    i  (a,  +  aj,  . 


i  («._,  -f  o,), 


but  clearly  it  Ls  much  better  to  calculate  a,  by  taking  the 
mean  of  these  quantities,  thus — 

ai-fn.-H2(<i;-haj  .  .  .  +  a..,) 
"""  2(n-i)  '■ 

and  it  is  also  easily  seen  that  to  eliminate  as  much  os 
possible  the  influences  of  the  resistance  of  tho  air  and 
(let  us  at  once  add  by  anticipation  of  what  ought  to 
be  reserved  for  a  subsequent  paragraph)  of  the  friction 
in  the  pivots  of  the  balance,  it  is  expedient  to  let  n  bo  an 
odd  number.  Theoretically  this  method  is.  of  course,  not 
confined  to  small  A's,  and  it  is  easy  to  conceive  a  balance 
in  which  the  limb  is  so  graduated  that  it  gives  directly  the 
weight  of  an  object  placed  in  the  right  pan  ;  this  is  tho 
principle  of  the  Tangent  Balance,  a  class  of  instruments 
which  used  to  be  very  generally  employed  for  the  weighing 
of  letters,  parcels,  Ac,  but  is  now  almost  entirely  superseded 
by  the  spring  balance. 

After  having  thus  given  a  general  theory  of  the  ideal, 
let  us  now  pass  to  the  actual  instrument.  But  in  doing 
so  we  must  confine  ourselves  mainly  to  the  consideration 
of  that  particular  class  of  instruments  called  precision 
balances,  which  are  used  in  chemical  assaying,  for  the  ad- 
justment of  standard  weights,  and  for  other  exact  gravi 
metric  work. 

The  J^rccision  llalonce  being,  as  already  said,  qnte 
identical  in  principle  with  the  ordinary  "pair  of  scales,' 
there  's  no  sharp  line  of  demarcation  between  it  and  what 
is  usually  called  "a  common  balance,"  and  it  is  equally 


264 


BALANCE 


impossible  to  name  the  inventor  of  the  more  perfect  form 
of  the  instrument.  But  taking  the  precision  balance  in 
what  is  now  considered  its  most  perfected  form,  we  may 
safely  say  that  all  which  distinguishes  it  from  the  com- 
mon balance  proper  is,  in  the  main,  the  invention  of  the 
late  Mr  Robinson  of  Londoa  In  Robinson's,  as  in  most 
modern  precision  balances,  the  beam  consists  of  a  perforated 
flat*rhomuu3  or  isosceles  triangle,  made  in  one  piece  out  of 
gun-metal  or  hard-hammered  brass.  The  substitution  for 
either  of  those  materials  of  hard  steel  would  greatly  increase 
the  relative  inflexibility  of  the  beam,  but,  unfortunately, 
Bteel  is  given  to  rusting,  and,  besides,  ia  apt  to  become 
magnetic,  and  has  therefore  been  almost  entirely  abandoned. 
The  perforations  in  the  beam  are  an  important  feattire,  as 
they  considerably  diminish  its  weight  (as  compared  with 
what  that  would  be  if  the  pierf  orations  were  filled  up)  without 
to  any  great  extent  reducing  its  relative  solidity.  In  fact, 
the  loss  of  carrying  power  which  a  solid  rhombus  suffers  in 
consequence  of  the  middle  portions  being  cut  out,  is  so 
elight  that  a  very  insignificant  increase  in  the  size  of  the 
minor  diagonal  is  sufficient  to  compensate  for  it.  Why  a 
balance  beam  should  be  made  as  light  as  possible  is  easily 
seen  ;  the  object  (and  it  is  as  well  here  to  say  at  once,  the 
only  object)  is  to  diminish  the  influence  of  the  unavoidable 
imperfections  of  the  central  pivot.  "To  reduce  these  imper- 
fections to  a  minimum,  the  beam  in  all'  modern  balances 
is  supported  on  a  polished  horizontal  plane  of  agate  or  hard 
steel  fixed  to  the  stand,  by  means  of  a  perfectly  straight 
"  knife.-idge"  ground  to  a  prism,  of  hard  steel  or  agate, 
which  is  firtfily  connected  with  the  beam^  so  that  the  edge 
coincides  with  the  intended  axis  of  rotation.  In  the  best 
instruments  the  bearing  plane  is-  continuous,  and  the  edge 
rests  on  it  along  its  entire  length  ;  iii  less  expensive  instru- 
ments the  bearing, consists  of  two  separate  parts,  of  which  the 
one  supports  the  front  end,  the  other  the  hind  end  of  the 
edge.  Every  complete  balance  is  provided  with  an  "  arrest- 
ment," one  of  the  objects  of  which  is,  as  the  name  indi- 
cates, to  enable  one  to  arrest  the  beam,  &nd,  if  desired,  to 
bring  it  back  to  its  normal  position  ;  but  the  most  impor- 
tant function  of  it  is  to  secure  to  fvery  point  of  the 
central  edge  a  perfectly  fixed  position  on  its  bearing.  So 
far  all  modern  precision  balances  agree ;  but  the  way  in 
which  the  point-pivots  A  and  B  of  our  fictitious  machine 
are  sought  to  be  realised  varies  very  much  in  dillerent  in- 
struments. In  Robinson's,  and  in  the  best  modern  balances, 
the  beam  is  provided  at  its  two  extremities  with  two  knife- 
edges  similar  to  the  central  one  (except  that  they  are  turned 
upwards),  which,  in  intention  at  least,  are  parallel  to,  and  in 
the  same  piano  as,  the  central  edge ;  on  tach  knife-edge 
rests  a  plane  agate 
or  steel  bearing,  with 
which  is  firmly  con- 
nected a  bent  wire 
or  stirrup,  provided 
at  its  lower  end  with 
a  circular  hook,  the 
plane  of  which  stands 
perpendicular  to  the 
corresponding  knife- 
edge  ;  and  from  this  _,„,.,„,  „  .  .  „ 
t  1  .1  Fio.  3.— Ocnling  3  Balance,  cliiu  of  Beam, 
hook  the  pan  is  sus-                        ° 

pended  by  means  of  a  second  hook  crossing  the  first,  mat- 
ters being  arranged  so  that,  supposing  both  end-bearings  to 
be  in  their  proper  places  and  to  lie  horizontally,  the  work- 
ing points  A'  and  B'  of  the  two  hookandcye  arr.ingomcnts 
are  vertically  below  the  intended  point-pivots  A  and  B 
on  the  edges.  In  this  construction  it  is  an  important  func- 
tion of  the  arrestment  to  assign  to  each  of  the  two  ter- 
minal bearings  a  perfectly  constant  position  on  its  knife- 
edge.      IIow  this  is  done  a  glance  at  figs.  3  and  4  (of 


which  the  former  is  taken  from  an  excellent  instrument 
constructed  by  L.  Oertling  of  London,  and  the  latter  from 
an  equally  good  balance,  represented  in  fig.  5,  made  by 
Messrs  Becker  &  Co.,  of  New  York)  shows  better  than  any 
verbal  explanation.  But  what  cannot  be  seen  from  these 
sketches  is  that  the  range  of  the  arrestment  is  regulated, 
and  its  catching  con- 
trivances are  placed, 
so  that  when  the 
arrestment  is  at  its 
highest  place,  the  cen- 
tral edge  is  just  barely 
lifted  from  its  bearing, 
and  the  terminal  bear- 
ings are  similarly 
lifted  from  their  re- 
spective knife-edges,  fiq.  4.-Becker's  Balance.  End  of  Beim. 
so     that    the    beam 

is  now  at  rest  in  its  normal  position.  In  other  bal- 
ances, as,  for  instance;  in  the  justly  celebrated  instru- 
ments  of   Mr   Staudinger  of   Giessen,'  Robinson's  plane 


■§ ■■ ^ 

Fia.  5. — Becker's  Balance. 

terminal  bearings  are  replaced  by  roof-shaped  ones  (Sg. 
6),  so  that  their  form  alone  suffices  to  secure  to  them 
a  fixed  position  on  their  knife-edges.     Another  a 

construction  (which  ofi'ers  the  great  advantage  Bi     ■ 

of  being  easy  of  execution  and  facilitating  the  SJ^jfe^ 
adju.stment  of   the   instrument)  is   to   give  to  ^ 

the  terminal  edges  the  form  of  circular  rings,  ^'8-  *• 
the  planes  of  which  stand  parallel  to  the  central  edge, 
and  irom  which  the  pais  are  suspended  directly  by 
sharp  hooks,  so  that  the  points  A'  and  B  coincide  with 
A  and  B  respectively.  In  either  case  the  terminal 
bearings  are  independent  of  the  arrestment,  which  must 
consequently  be  provided  with  some  extra  arrangement, 
by  means  of  which  the  beam,  when  the  central  edge  is 
lifted  from  its  support,  is  steadied  and  held  fast  in  its 
normal  position.  In  second  and  third  class  instruments 
even  the  central  edge  is  made  independent  of  the  arrest- 
ment, by  letting  it  work  in  a  semi-cylindrical  or,  what 
is  better,  a  roof  shaped  bearing,  which,  by  its  form,  assigns 
to  it  (in  intention  at  least)  a  definite  position. 

In  order  now  to  develop  acomplete  theory  of  the  precision 
balance,  let  us  first  imagine  an  instrument,  which,  for 
distinctness,  we  will  assume  to  be  constructed  on  Robinson's 
model,  the  knife-edges  and  bearings,  Ac,  being  exactly  and 
absolutely  what  they  are  meant  to  bo,  except  that  the 
terminal  edges,  while  still  parallel  to  the  axis  of  rotation, 
are  slightly  shifted  out  of  their  proper  places.  Supposing 
such  a  balance  were  charged  with  P'  =  p\  -f  p  from  the 
left,  and  F'  =  p\  +  p"  from  the  right  knife-edge, — and 
it  is  clear  that  in  this  case  also  the  charges  may  bo  assumed 
to  bo  concentrated, — F  in  a  certain  fixed  point  A  on  the 


BALANCE 


265 


left,  aud  P"  in  a  certain  fixed  point  B  on  the  right  edge, 
and,  consequently,  .the  statical  condition  of  the  balance  is 
the  same  as  if  tbe  weights  W,  P',  P"  were  all  concentrated 
in  one  fixed  poiut  C^  (fig.  7),  the  position  of  which, 
in  regard  to  the  beam,  is  independent  of  the  extent  to 
which  the  latter  may  have  turned,  and  independent  of  the 
direction  of  gravity.     It  is-alio  caiily  aeen  that  in  a  given 


Fio.  7.— Diagram  ilkstratiDg  theory  of  Precision  Balance. 

beam  the  position  of  C,  will  depend  only  on  F  and  P", 
and  supposing  P'  to  remain  constant  it  will  change  its 
position  whenever  F'  changes  its  value.  The  point  C,,  wiil 
in  general  lie  outside  of  tho  axis  of  rotation,  and  conse- 
quently there  will  in  general  be  only  two  positions  of  the 
beam  in  which  it  can  remain  at  rest,  namely,  first,  that  posi- 
tion in  •  which  C,  lies  vertically  above,  and,  secondly,  that 
position  in  which  it  lies  vertically  below  the  axis  of  rotation. 
Only  one  of  these  two  positions  can  possibly  lie  within  the 
ongle  of  free  pl.iy  which  the  beam  has  at  its  disposal.  The 
second  of  the  two  positions,  if  it  is  within  this  angle,  can 
easily  be  found  experimentally,  because  it  is  the  position 
of  stable  equilibrium,  which  the  beam,  when  left  to  itself  in 
any  but  the  first  position,  will  always  by  itself  tend  to 
assume.  The  first  position,  viz.,  that  of  unstable  equilibrium, 
is  practicalli/  beyond  the  reach  of  experimental  determina- 
tioa  Hence  the  points  A,  B,  and  S  must  be  situated  so 
that,  at  least  whenever  P7'  =  P'7"  exactly  or  very  nearly, 
the  beam  hat  a  definite  position  of  st.ablc  equilibrium,  and 
that  this  position  is  within  the  angle  of  free  play.  To 
formulate  these  conditions  mathematically,  assume  a  system 
of  rectangular  coordinates,  X,  Y,  Z,  to  be  connected  with 
the  beam,  so  that  the  axia  of  tho  Z  coincides  with  the 
central  edge  and  tho  origin  with  the  projection  O  of  tho 
centre  of  gravity  on  that  edge,  while  the  Y-axis  p.isse3 
through  the  centre  of  gravity.  Let  the  values  of  the 
co-ordinates  of  the  points  A,B,S,  C;,  (imagined  to  bo  situated 
as  indicated  by  the  figure)  be  as  follows: — 
Point        A  B        s       c 

x=-r      -fT     0     X, 

y=     h'       h'     «„     y„ 

(The  :^s  are  evidently  of  no  practical  consequence.)  To  find 
X,  and  y„  we  need  only  again  apply  the  reasoning  which 
heljicd  us  in  tho  case  of  tho  similar  problem  regarding  the 
ideal  instrument.  Assuming,  then,  first,  gravity  to  act 
parallel  to  Y,  we  have  (F  +  V'  +  W)  x,  =  P'7"  -  P7'. 
Assuming,  secondly,  gravity  to  act  parallel  to  X,  we  h.-ivc 
(F  -t-  F'  -t-  VV)y,  =  PA'  +  F7('  +  Ws,  .-.  for  the 
distance  of  the  common  centre  of  cravity  C,  of  the  system 
3— II* 


from  the  axis  of  rotation,  r=  Jx^  +  yj,  aud  for  the 
angle  a  through  whioh  the  needle,  supposing  it  to  start 
from  the  zero-point,  must  turn  to  reach  its  position  of  stable 
equihbrium — 

P'T-PT 


Ws 


-hPVi'-l-P'r 

If,  in  particular  cases,  one  or  more  of  the  points  A,  B,  S 
should  lie  above  the  X-axis,  we  need  only  consider  the 
lespective  ordinates  as  being  in  themselves  negative,  and 
the  equations  (as  can  easily  be  shown)  remain  in  force. 
Taking  equation  3,  together  with  what  was  said  before,  we 
at  once  see  that  if  a  b.ilance  is  to  be  at  all  available  for 
what  it  has  been  made  for,  and  supposing  two  of  the 
co-ordinates  /»',  A"  to  have  been  chosen  at  random,  the 
third  must  be  chosen  so  that,  at  least  whenever  P'  ex- 
actly ur  nearly  counterpoises  P",  W.*,,  +  P7i'  +  F'A"  >  0. 
For  if  it  were  =  0,  then,  in  case  of  P7'  =  P'7,"  the  balance 
would  have  no  definite  position  of  equilibrium,  and  if  i' 
were  negative,  y^  would  be  negative,  and  the  position  of 
stable  equilibrium  would  lie  outside  the  angle  of  free  play. 
Obviously,  the  best  thing  the  maker  can  do  is  so  to  adjust 
the  balance  that  h'  =  A"  =  0  and  I'  =  I",  because  then 
tho  customary  method  of  weighing  (see  above)  assumes 
its  greatest  simplicity,  and,  especially,  the  factor  with  which 
the  deviation  of  the  needle  has  to  be  multiplied  to  convert 
it  into  the  corresponding  excess  of  weight  present  on  the 
respective  pan  assumes  its  highest  degree  of  relative  con- 
stancy. We  speak  of  a  degree  of  constancy  because  this 
factor  can  never  be  absolutely  constant,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  no  beam  is  absolutely  inflexible,  and  consequently  A' 
as  well  aa  A"  is  a  function  of  P',  and  P"  of  the  form  A  = 
h^+  yP,  where  y  has  a  very  obvious  meaning.  What  is 
actu.ally  done  in  the  adjusting  of  the  best  instruments  is  so 
to  place  the  terminal  edges  that,  for  a  certain  medium 
value  of  Y  +  V",  h'  +  A"  =  0,  so  that  the  sensibility  of 
the  balance  is  about  the  same  when  the  pans  are  empty  as 
when  they  are  charged  with  the  largest  weights  they  are 
intended  to  carry.  The  condition  i  =  I"  also  cannot 
be  fulfilled  absolutely  in  practice,  but  mechanicians  now- 

adays  have  no  difficulty  in  reducing  the  difference  y  -  1 

to  less  than  ±  tuwC'  '"'d  even  a  greater  value  would 
create  no  serious  inconvenience.  We  shall  therefore 
now  assume  our  balance  to  be  ex.actly  equal-armed  ;  and, 
substituting  for  A'  -t-  A"  the  symbol  2A,  and  under- 
standing it  to  be  that  (small)  value  which  corresponds  to 
the  charge,  substitute  for  equation  3  the  simpler  expression 

which,  on  the  understanding  that  P"  =  P'  +^  A,  and  that 
A  is  a  very  small  weight,  gives  the  tangent-value  corre- 
sponding to'  P  and  A.  Sometimes  it  is  convenient  to  look 
upon  the  pans  (weighing  ;)„  each)  as  forming  part  and 
parcel  of  the  beam  ,  the  equation  then  assumes  the  form — 
At 


tan  a  -  -. 


(5). 


where  />  =  P  -p.,- 

In  a  precision  balance  the  sensibility,  i.e.,  the  tangent- 
value  of  the  deviation  produced  by  A  =   1,  which  is 

^  "        W's'  +  2;.A  ^   '' 

must  have  a  pretty  considerable  value,  and  at  tho  same 
time  ought  to  be  as  nearly  as  possible  independent  of  tho 
charge.  Hence  what  the  equation  (4)  indicates  with  refer- 
ence to  a  balance  to  be  constructed  is,  that,  so  far  as  these 
two  qualities  are  concerned,  we  may  choose  the  weight  of 
the  beam  as  we  like;  and  in  regard  to  the  sensibility  which 
tLc  instrument  is  meant  to  have  when  charged  to  a  certain 


26G 


B  A  L  A  N  G  E 


extent,  we  hare  even  the  free  choice  of  the  arm-length, 
because,  whatever  /  or  W  be,  if  only  the  centre  of  gra-nty  of 
the  empty  beam  is  brought  to  the  proper  distance  from 
the  central  edge,  we  can  give  to  the  sensibility  any  value 
we  please.  What  is  actually  done  is  so  to  construct  the 
beam  that  its  centre  of  gravity  lies  decidedly  lower  than 
one  would  ever  care  to  have  it,  and  then  to  connect  with  the 
beam  a  small  movable  weight  (called  the  "bob")  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  can  be  shifted  up  and,  down  along  a  wire, 
the  axis  of  which  coincides  with  the  Y-axis,  and  thus  the 
value  jj  of  the  distance  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam 
from  the  central  edge  be  caused  to  assume  any  value,  from  a 
certain  maximum  down  to  nothing,  and  even  a  little  beyond 
nothing.  As  to  the  relative  independence  of  the  sensibility 
of  the  charge,  equation  5  shows  that  a  given  balance  will 
possess  this  quality  in  the  higher  a  degree  the  less  the  distance 
k  of  the  central  edge  is  from  the  plane  of  the  two  terminal 
ones,  and,  supposing  A  to  be  constant  (t.e.,  the  adjustment  to 
be  finished),  the  less  ihe  initial  sensibility  a„  exhibited  by 
the  empty  instrument.  Passing  from  one  balance  to  the 
other,  but  supposing  k  and  n„  to  reaiaia  constant,  we  readily 
see  that  the  sensibility  is  the  more  nearly  independent  of 
the  charge  p  in  the  pans,  the  greater  the  arm-len(jih  I  is. 
From  what  has  beensaid  above,  it  would  appear  that  by  means 
of  a  balance  provided  with  a  gravity-bob,  we  could  attain 
any  degree  of  precision  we  liked,  but  evidently  this  is  not 
possible  practically,  because  in  the  actual  instrument 
neither  the  knife-edges  and  their  bearings  nor  the  arrest- 
ment are  what  we  have  hitherto  supposed  them  to  be  ;  and, 
consequently,  both  I'  and  I"  as  well  as  h,  instead  of  being 
constants,  are  variable  quantities.  Obviously,  the  non- 
constancy  of  the  ratio  I'  :  L"  is  the  most  important  point, 
and  to  this  point  we  shall  therefore  confine  our  attention. 
Let  us  imagine  that  the  imaginary  balance  hitherto  con- 
sidered has  been  charged  equally  on  both  sides  (with 
P  =  Pj  -t-  p),  so  that  its  normal  position  is  its  position 
of  rest,  and  then  assume,  first,  that  the  middte  edge  (which 
hitherto  has  been  an  absolutely  rigid  line)  is  now  a  nar- 
row and  slightly,  but  irregularly,  curvetl  rough  surface. 
The  effect  will  be,  that,  supposing  the  balance  to  be 
repeatedly  arrested  and  made  to  vibrato,-  the  axis  of  rota- 
tion, instead  of  being  constant,  will  shift  irregularly  between 
r  =  -l-A  and  x—  -X  where  A  means  a  sn.all  length.  But 
this  comes  to  the  same  as  if  the  central  pivot  were  abso- 
lutely perfect,  but  bad  the  common  centre  of  gravity  C„,  in- 
stead of  being  fixed  at  x  =  0,  oscillating  between  x  =  ±  A„'. 
In  other  word.=i,  the  balance  may  possibly  cnine  to  rest  at 
any  position  within  a  certain  angle  ±  /?,  which,  as  an  angle 
of  deviation,  corresponds  to  the  overweigbt 

«o={2(;'.    rt  +  wrf. 

Assume  now,  secondly,  that,  say,  the  right  terminal  edge 
was  slightly  turned  so  as  no  longer  to  bo  parallel  to  the 
middle  edge.  This  in  itsdf  would  not  matter  much,  bo- 
cause  although  it  might  produce  a  change  in  the  length  of 
the  right  arm,  this  chango  would  bo  permanent,  and  the 
arm-length  again  be  constant,  provided  the  hook-and-eye 
amngement  for  the  suspension  of  the  pan,  and  the  arrest- 
ment, were  ideally  perfect.  But,  practically,  they  are  nut, 
and,  moreover,  the  knife-edge  and  its  bearing  are  not 
what  theory  suppo.ses  them  to  bo  ;  and  the  effect  is  the  same 
as  if  the  virtual  point  of  ap[)licatii)n  A  of  the  charge 
p,  +  p,  instead  of  being  at  the  constant  distance  I  from 
the  centre,  oscillated  irregularly  between  I  -^  K  and  I  -  A", 
where  A'  has  a  similar  moaning  to  that  of  A„.  The  joint 
effect  of  the  imperfections  of  the  three  pivots  is  that  the 
indications  of  the  balance,  instead  of  being  con.slant,  are 
variable  within  .t  t,  whore  «  means  a  small  weight  deter- 
lumed  ajiproximately  by  the  equation — 


'  =  I  {[2(A  +p)  +  W]X,  +  2(p,  +  p)X}      .     (7)  - 

Hence,  in  a  balance  to  be  constructed  for  a  given  purpose,  t 
must  be  made  long  enough  to  make  sure  of  iti  compensating 
the  effects  of  the  A's,  which,  for  a  given  set  of  knife-edges,  and 
a  given  degree  of  absolute  exactitude  in  their  adjustu'.ent, 
may  be  assumed  to  have  constant  values.  Evidently  iu  a 
given  balance  «  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  sensibility, 
and  consequently  it  would  bo  useless  to  increase  the 
sensibility  beyond  what  is  required  to  make  the  angle  /3, 
corresponding  to  t  (i>.,  that  angle  within  which  the 
balance  is,  so  to  speak,  in  indifferent  equilibrium),  con- 
veniently visible.  To  go  further  would,  in  general,  be  a 
mistake,  because  the  greater  the  sensibility  the  more 
markedly  it  varies  with  the  charge,  the  less  is  the  maximum 
overweight  which  can  be  determined  by  the  method  of 
vibration,  and,  last  not  least,  the  more  slowly  the  balance 
will  vibrate,  because  the  time  of  vibration  t  is  governed  by 
the  equation  — 

t^     /kW  +  2{p„+p)'      _±_ 

where  4  is  a  constant  which  depends  on  the  shape  of  the 
beam,  and  for  the  ordinary  perforated  rhombus  is  about 
=  J  ,  while  R,  stands  for  the  length  of  the  pendulum 
beating  seconds  at  the  place.     Introducing  the  sensibility — 

a  =  VT7 jrr-; ; .  we  have  t  =  c  Ja,  where  c  is  a  constant. 

4.  Compound  Lever  Balances. — Of  these  numerous  inven- 
tions— in  all  of  which  a  high  degree  of  practical  conveni- 
ence is  obtained  at  the  expense  of  precision — we  must  con- 
tent ourselves  with  noticing  two  which,  on  account  of  their 
extensive  use,  cannot  be  passed  over.  We  here  allude,  in 
the  first  place,  to  that  particular  kind  of  equal-armed  lever 
balances,  in  which  the  pans  are  situated  above  the 
beam,  and  which  are  known  as  "  Robervais  balances;"  and 
secondly,  to  those  peculiar  complex  steel-J/ards  which  are 
u-^ed  for  the  weighing  of  heavy  loads  by  means  of  compara- 
tively small  weights. 

In  liobervnl's  balance  (fig.  8),  the  beam  consists  of  a 
parallelogram,  in 
which  each  of  the 
four  corners  A,  B, 
A',  B'  is  a  joint,  and 
which  by  means  of 
two  joints  situated 
in  the  centres  of  the 
two  longer  sides  AB 
and  AB'  is  sus- 
pended from  a  ver- 
tical rod  so  that  the 
two  shorter  sides 
AA'  and  BB'  under  Fin,  8.- Ilnl'-iviil's  Ii.il.uice, 

all  circumstances  stand  vertical.  With  these  two  sides  the 
pans  are  rigidly  connected  ;  and  the  main  feature  in  the  ma- 
chine is,  that  wherever  the  charge  in  the  pan  may  lie,  i.e., 
whatever  maybe  the  virtual  point  of  application  of  the  wlmle 
charge  l^  in  regard  to  the  vertical  side  of  the  beam,  its  static,-\l 
effect  is  the  same  as  if  P  was  concentrated  in  a  point  D 
in  the  axis  of  the  rod  AA'  or  BB'.  That  this  really  is  .so  is 
easily  pro'cd.  Imagine  the  particle  weighing  I'uniti  to 
be  rigidly  -innccted  with,  say,  AA,' but  situated  to  the 
loft  of  that  line,  and,  whatever  may  bo  its  distance  from 
AA',  when  the  beam  descends  through  a  certain  angle,  the 
vertical  projection  of  the  path  described  by  the  point  D,  i.e., 
its  fall  h,  h.i5  the  sanio  value  whatever  ite  distance  hom 
A.\'.  lleir  the  work  done,  say,  against  an  elastic  string 
teiuling  tn  hold  the  beam  in  its  place,  invariably  is  =  l7i 
as  it  would  be  if  D  was  situated  in  AA'. 


I 


U  A  L  -  r,  A   L 


2G7 


The  ordinary  Dtcimal  Balance  is  a  ccnbination  of 
levers  illustrated  by  fig.  9.  a,  c,  b,  d,  e,  g,  h,  /,  are  all 
joints  or  pivots  ;  a  and  A  rest  on  the  fixed  framework  of 
thp  machine,  and  consequently  indirectly  on  the  ground  ; 
c  rests  on  the  lever  ab.  In  the  actual  machine  cd  supports 
the  "  bridge"  which  accommodates  the  load,  -vhile  at  /  is 
tiispeoded  a  pan  for  the  weight.     The  pan  is  so  adjusted 


^^ 


L 


f 


Fis.  9. — Decimal  Balance. 


that  it  balances  the  bridge.  Suppose  the  load  P  to  be 
placed  so  that  its  centre  of  gravity  is  at  i,  and  a  portion 
P,  of  P  will  press  on  the  knife-edge  at  c,  the  rest  Pj  will 
pull  at  d  and,  with  the  same  force,   at  g.     Now,  P,    = 

P.  ^-,  equivalent  to  —  P,  pulling  at  6  or  e,  equivalent  to 
cd  ab 

-.   ae       Ti      eh       ,,. 

r.  =r  .  :=r  .  =r  puUing  at  7.     The  dimensions  are  SO  chf«en 
ab      cd      gh 

that  _;  =  "=,  hence  the  effect  of  P,  at  g  is  equivalent  to 
ab      ch 


a  weight  r.  =r 
cd 


The  other  portion  of   P,  viz.,  P^,  \m\\A 
at  d,  and  consequently  also  at  g,  with  a  force  P.  •=  . 

cd 

Hence   the   effect   of    the    total    load    is    equivalent   to 

P.  I — = — - )  =  P  units  suspended  at  g,  and  if,  for  instance, 

gh  =  YZ  hf,  one  pound  in  the  pan  will  countcrpoiso  ien 
pounds  at  any  point  of  the  bridge. 

5.  Torsion  Balances. — Of  the  several  instruments  bearing 
this  name,  the  majority  are  no  balances  at  all,  but  machines 
for  measuring  horizontal  forces  (electric,  magnetic,  itc),  by 
the  extent  to  which  they  aie  able  to  distort  an  clastic  wiro 
vertically  suspended  and  fixed  at  its  upper  end.  In  the 
torsion  balances  proper  the  wire  is  stretched  out  horizon- 
tally, and  supports  a  beam  so  fixed  to  it  that  the  wire  passes 
through  its  centre  of  gravity.  Henco  the  elasticity  of  the 
wire  hero  plays  the  same  part  as  the  weight  of  the  beam 
does  in  the  common  balance.  An  instrument  of  this  sort 
was  invented  by  Ritchie  for  the  measurement  of  very  small 
weights,  and  for  this  purpose  it  may  offer  certain  advan- 
tages; but,  clearly,  if  it  were  ever  to  be  used  for  measuring 
larger  weights,  the  beam  would  have  to  bo  supported  by 
knife-edges  and  bearings,  and  in  regard  to  such  ap[ilication 
therefore  (i.e.,  as  a  means  for  serious  gravimetric  work),  it 
has  no  raison  d'Ctre.     See  Electricity  and  Magnetis.m. 

6.  For  Hydrostatic   weighing  machines  see    the   article 

HvDROMETEn.  (w.  D.) 

BALANCE  OF  POWER.  The  theory  of  the  Balance 
of  Power  may  be  saiil  to  have  exercised  a  preponderating 
influence  over  the  policy  of  European  statesmen  for  moro 
than  two  hundred  years,  that  is,  from  tho  Treaty  of 
Westphalia  until  ,the  middle  of  tho  present  century ; 
and  to  havo  been  the  principal  clement  in  tho  political 
combinations,  negotiations,  and  wars  which  marked  that 
long  and  eventful  period  of  modern  history.  It  deserves, 
therefore,  the  attentive  consideration  of  tho  historical 
student,  and,  indeed,  the  motive  cause  of  many  of  the 
greatest  occurrences  would  ho  unintelligible  without  a 
due  estimate  of  its  effects.     Even  down  to  our  own  times 


it  has  nut  been  without  an  important  influence  ;  for  thai 
Crimean  War  of  1654  was  undertaken  by  England  and' 
France  for  no  other  object  than  to  maintain  the  balance  of 
power  in  Eastern  Europe,  and  to  prevent  the  aggrandise- 
ment of  Russia  by  the  dismemberment  of  the  Ottomaa 
empire  and  tho  conquest  of  Constantinople.  Nevertheless 
there  is,  perhaps,  no  principle  of  political  science,  long  and 
universally  accepted  by  the  wisest  statesmen,  on  which 
modern  opinion  has,  within  the  last  twenty  years,  under- 
gone a  greater  change  ;  and  this  change  of  opinion  is  not 
merely  speculative,  it  has  regulated  and  controlled  the 
policy  of  the  most  powerful  states,  and  of  none  more  than 
of  Great  Britain,  in  her  dealings  with  the  continent  of 
Europe.  At  tho  date  of  the  publication  of  the  la.*!  edition 
of  this  work,  the  theory  of  the  b.;Ianco  of  power  was 
believed  to  be  so  firmly  established,  both  by  reason  and 
experience,  that  it  was  laid  down,  in  the  forcible  words  of 
Earl  Grey,  that  "the  poorest  peasant  in  England  is  inter- 
ested in  the  balance  of  power,  and  that  this  country  ought 
to  interfere  whenever  that  balance  appeared  to  bo  really 
in  danger."  At  the  present  time  no  English  statesman 
would  lay  down  that  proposition  categorically  ;  and  pro- 
bably no  European  statesman  would  be  prepared  to  act 
upon  it.  In  proportion  as  tho  theory  of  the  balance  of 
power  has  lost  much  of  its  former  authority,  tho  doctrine 
of  non-intervention  has  gained  strength  and  influence,  and 
this  has  been  accepted  at  the  present  day  both  by  Whig 
and  Tory  ministers,  so  that  no  strong  difference  of  opinion 
can  at  the  present  time  be  said  to  exist  in  the  British  nation 
on  the  subject.  Within  the  last  fifteen  years  political 
changes  of  extraordinary  magnitude  have  been  brougiit 
about  in  Europe  by  force  of  arms  and  by  revolutions.  In 
former  times  such  changes  would  certainly  have  led  to  a 
general  war,  on  tho  priuciple  that  it  was  essential  to 
maintain  tho  relative  strength  and  indopendcnce  of  states, 
and  to  support  the  fabric  of  European  policy.  But,  under 
tho  policy  of  non-intervention,  the  effects  of  these  contests 
have  been  confined  to  the  states  which  were  directly 
engaged  in  them  ;  and  tho  other  powers  of  Europe  have 
maintained  a  cautious  neutrality,  which  has  probably  not 
lessened  their  own  strength,  and  which  has  saved  the 
world  from  a  general  conflagratioru 

The  theory  of  the  balance  of  power  rested  on  several 
assumptions.  It  was  held,  more  especially  from  the  timq 
of  Grotiiis,  in  the  early  part  of  the  l"lh  century,  that  the 
states  of  Europe  formed  one  grand  community  or  federal 
league,  of  which  the  fundamental  principle  and  condition. 
was  the  preservation  of  the  balance  of  power  ;  that  by 
this  balance  (in  the  words  of  Vattel)  was  to  be  understood 
such  a  disposition  of  things,  as  that  no  one  potentate  or 
state  shall  be  able  absolutely  to  predominate  and  prescribe 
laws  to  the  others  ;  that  all  were  equally  interested  m 
maintaining  this  common  settlement,  and  that  it  was  the 
interest,  the  right,  and  the  duty  of  every  power  to  interfere, 
even  by  force  of  arms,  when  any  of  the  conditions  of  this 
settlement  were  infringed  or  assailed  by  any  other  member 
of  the  community.  The  princijile  can  hardly  be  more 
tersely  expressed  than  in  the  words  of  Polybius  (lib.  i.  Jap. 
83)  :  "  Ncque  enim  ejusmiidi  principia  contcmnere  opoiHet, 
ncquo  tanta  cuiquara  astruenda  est  potentia,  ut  cum  co 
poslea  de  tuo  quamvis  manifesto  jure  disceptare  ex  jcquo 
non  queas."  Or,  to  borrow  the  language  of  Fcnelon  in 
liis  Instnirtions,  drawn  up  by  him  for  the  guidance  of  tho 
Due  do  Bourgogne,  "  This  attention  to  maintain  a  sort  of 
equality  and  equipoise  between  neighbouring  nations  is 
the  security  of  the  general  tranquillity.  In  this  respect  all 
neighbouring  nations,  trading  with  each  other,  fi/iin  olo 
great  body  and  a  sort  of  commuuity.  Thi;s,  ChristenJjni 
is  a  kind  of  universal  republic,  whiih  has  it.i  inlcfsis.  its 
fears,  and  its  precautions  to  be  takco.     All  tho  nurmttia, 


268 


BALANCE    OF    POWER 


of  tilis  great  body  owe  it  to  one  another  for  the  common 
good,  and  owe  it  to  themselves  for  the  security  of  their 
•country,  to  prevent  the  progress  of  any  other  members  who 
«hould  seek  to  overthrow  this  balance,  which  would  turn 
■to  the  certain  ruin  of  all  the  other  members  of  ftie  same 
body.  Whatever  changes  or  affects  this  general  system  of 
Europe  is  too  dangerous,  and  draws  after  it  infinite  ruis- 
-chiefs."  Whatever  may  be  the  value  of  these  philanthropic 
principles,  bistory  remindi;  us  that  when  they  were  most 
loudly  professed  they  were  most  frequently  violated,  and 
that  no  cause  ef  war  seems  to  have  been  so  frequent  or  so 
fatal  as  the  spurious  pretext  of  restoring  peace  and  defend- 
ing the  general  tranquillity  of  the  worli  Thus,  it  was  to 
balance  the  power  of  the  house  of  Austria  that  Cardinal 
Bichelieu  flung  France  into  the  quarrels  of  Germany  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  and  even  lent  her  aid  to  the  Protestant 
cause.  It  was  to  balance  the  encroaching  and  aggressive 
grower  of  Louis  XIV.  that  numerous  combinations  were 
formed  between  England,  Austria,  and  Holland,  which, 
after  nearly  half  a  century  of  almost  uninterrupted  contests 
and  bloodshed,  ended  in  the  peace  of  Utrecht  The  pretext 
of  Frederick  II.,  when  he  was  meditating  some  act  of  rapine, 
generally  was  that  he  believed  some  hostile  combination 
had  been  formed  against  him,  which  it  was  wise  to  antici- 
pate. -In  short,  bo  cause  of  war  has  been  more  frequently 
alleged  and  acted  upon,  than  that  a  proper  consideration 
for  the  balance  -of  power  rendered  it  necessary  to  take 
forcible  measures  to  avert  some  remote  or  hypothetical 
danger. 

It  is  obviously  a  maxim,  not  only  of  policy  but  of  -com- 
inon  sense  and  human  nature,  that  the  weak  should  combine 
io  protect  themselves  against  the  strong,  and  that  when 
the  independence  of  minor  states  is  threatened  by  the 
embitioti  or  the  overwhelming  superiority  of  a  power  aiming 
at  universal  empire,  they  vptII  do  wisely  to  unite  for  the 
purposes  of  self-defence  and  resistance.  Frederick  II. 
himself  says,  in  his  Anti-Machiavel,  where  he  laid  down 
precepts  which  he  did  not  practise,  "  When  the  excessive 
aggrandisement  of  one  power  threatens  to  overwhelm  all 
others,  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  oppose  barriers  to  its 
encroachments,  whilst  there  is  yet  time  to  stay  the  torrent. 
The  clouds  are  seen  to  gather,  the  lightning  announces  a 
coming  storm,  and  the  sovereign  who  is  unable  to  contend 
against  the  tempest  will,- if  he  is  wise,  unite  himself  with 
all  those  who  are  menaced  by  the  same  common  danger. 
Had  the  kings  of  Egj'pt,  Syria,  and  Macedonia  confederated 
together  against  the  Roman  power,  they  would  not  have 
fallen  under  its  oppressive  yoke ;  an  alliance  prudently 
contracted,  and  a  var  carried  on  With  energy,  would  have 
saved  the  ancient  world  from  universal  despotism."  So 
too,  Hume,  in  his  celebrated  Essay  on  the  Balaru-.e  of 
Power,  endeavours  to  show  that  the  ancients  were  familiar 
■with  the  principle  both  as  statesmen  and  historians,  and, 
for  example,  he  avers  that  whoever  will  read  Demosthenes's 
oration  for  the  Megalopolitang,  will  see  the  utmost  refinc- 
Jnents  on  this  principle  that  ever  entered  into  the  head  of 
a  Venetian  or  European  spcculatist. 

But  with  great  respect  to  these  illustrious  authorities, 
they  appear  to  have  discussed,  under  the  name  of  the 
balance  of  power,  a  principle  which  might  more  fitly  be 
termed  a  theory  of  warlike  alliances.  The  object  of  the 
balance  of  power,  riglitly  understood,  is  not  to  carrj-  on 
■war  with  success,  but  to  avuid  war  altogether,  by  establish- 
ing a  common  interest  and  oljligation  in  the  maintenance 
of  the  conditions  of  peace.  When  war  is  declared,  public 
law  is  suspended,  and  each  st.ite  must  be  guiilml  by  what 
it  coDcoivts  to  bo  its  own  interest  and  duty.  If  the" theory 
•f  the  balance  of  power  has  any  value  at  all,  it  i.'i  not  in 
the  hour  of  violence  and  bloodshed,  when  the  fato  of 
.iMtions  may  be  decided  on  a  field  of  battle,  but    athcr  in 


those  negotiations  which  must  eventually  terminate  th^ 
contest,  which  commonly  bring  together  for  that  purpose 
the  representatives  of  all  the  belligerents,  and  which  are  de- 
signed to  provide  against  the  recurrence  of  these  calamities. 

The  ablest  and  most  eloquent  champion  of  the  system 
of  equipoise  in  the  present  century  was  the  Chevalier  von 
Gentz,  who  published  his  Fragvients  upon  the  Balance  of 
Power  in  Europe  in  1806,  under  the  influence  of  the  cata- 
strophe which  had  subjugated  the  Continent,  and  who  subse- 
quently took  an  active  part  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  the 
attempts  to  constitute  a  new  system  of  European  policy. 
Gentz  defines  the  balance  of  power  as  "  a  constitution 
subsisting  between  neighbouring  states  more  or  less  con- 
nected with  one  another,  by  virtue  of  which  no  one  among 
them  can  injure  the  independence  or  essential  rights  of 
another,  without  meeting  with  ^ectual  resistance  on  some 
side,  and  consequently  exposing  itself  to  danger."  And  he 
rests  this  constitution  on  four  propositions  ^1.)  That  no 
state  must  ever  become  so  powerful  as  to  coerce  all  the 
rest ;  (2.)  That  every  state  which  infringes  the  conditions 
is  liable  to  be  coerced  by  the  others ;  (3.)  That  the  fear 
of  coercion  should  keep  all  within  the  bounds  of  modera- 
tion ;  and  (4.)  That  a  state  having  attained  a  degree  of  power 
to  defy  the  union  should  be  treated  as  a  common  enemy. 
He  argues  that  by  a  strict  adherence  to  these  principles  wars 
Would  be  averted,  excessive  power  restrained,  and  the 
independent  existence  of  the  humblest  members  of  the 
confederacy  secured.  But,  for  the  reasons  we  have  previously 
assigned,  it  is  a  fallacy  to  suppose  that  even  the  civilised 
states  of  Europe  have  ever  naturally  formed  a  confederacy, 
or  that  their  relations  are  governed  by  common  rules  of 
action,  recognised  alike  by  all  of  them.  That  theory  sup- 
plies a  very  insecure  basis  for  the  balance  of  power  and  the 
maintenance  of  peace.  The  law  of  nations,  not  being  im- 
posed or  sanctioned  by  any  supreme  and  sovereign  authority, 
is,  in  fact,  reducible  to  the  general  laws  of  morality,  which 
ought  to  regulate  the  dealings  of  mankind,  except  when 
it  has  been  expressed  and  established  in  the  form  of  a 
contract,  binding  on  all  the  parties  to  that  obligation. 
To  determine  the  true  character  and  limits  of  the  balance 
of  power,  we  must  have  recourse,  not  to  vague  general 
principles,  but  to  positive  law,  framed  in  the  shape  of 
international  contracts,  which  are  termed  treaties,  and 
which  have  been  sanctioned  at  different  epochs  of  modern 
history-  by  a  congress  of  states.  This  historical  treatment 
of  the  subject  leads  us  to  more  tangible  and  solid  grouud  ; 
and  it  will  be  seen  that  on  these  occasions  jnore  especially 
attempts  have  been  made  to  establish  a  balance  of  power 
in  Europe  upon  the  basis  of  general  treaties;  and. that 
these  attempts  have  been  rewarded  by  considerable, 
though  not  by  permanent,  success  in  the  17th,  ISlh,  and 
19th  centuries. 

The  first  idea  of  a  general  congress,  to  put  an  end 
to  the  horrors  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  to  adjust 
the  conflicting  claims  of  rival  creeds  and  hostile  princes, 
appears  to  have  originated  with  the  emperor  of  Germany  in 
ICIO.  The  attempt  to  restore  p«ace  by  the  authority  of 
the  Germanic  Diet  had  failed.  It  became  necessary  to  have 
recourse  to  mediating  powers,  and  after  a  protracted  pre- 
liminary negotiation,  the  Congrcssof  Miinster  or  Westphalia 
opened  on  the  11th  July  1043, — the  Catholic  and  Protes- 
tant belligerents  being  represented  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  mediating  powers,  France,  Sweden,  Venice,  and  tiie 
Pope,  on  the  ether.  We  do  not  propose  in  this  place  to 
follow  the  train  of  these  complicated  negotiations.  It  is 
enough  for  our  present  purpose  to  remark  that  the  great 
treaty  which  resulted  from  them,  and  was  signed  on  the 
24th  October  1048,  became  the  basis  of  the  public  law  of 
Europe,  and  the  first  official  recognition  of  the  existence  of 
a  European  balance  of  power.     The  conditions  established 


BALANCE    OF    T  0  AV  E  R 


269 


in  Germany  left  the  Catholic,  the  Lutheran,  and  the 
Reformed  Churches  in  posseyjion  of  their  respective  inde- 
pendence, whilst  they  relieved  the  minor  princes  from  their 
strict  dependence  on  the  empire ;  but,  above  all,  they  con- 
ferred on  France  and  Sweden,  as  mediating  powers,  the 
right  of  intervention  for  the  purpose  of  upholding  the 
provisions  of  the  treaty.  In  other  words,  the  balance 
which  had  been  established  between  the  states  of  Central 
Europe  was  regulated  by  external  weights,  which  could  be 
brought  to  bear  upon  it.  The  result  of  this  combination, 
due  mainly  to  Cardinal  Mazarin,  was  certainly  injurious 
to  the  unity  and  independence  of  Germany,  and  it  tended 
to  aid  the  aggressive  and  dictatorial  power  of  Louis  XIV. 
Nevertheless,  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  Treaty  of 
Westphalia  were  recognised  and  renewed  as  the  conditions 
of  the  general  peace  of  Europe  down  to  the  French  Revolu- 
tion ;  they  were  not  wholly  absent  from  the  minds  of  the 
negotiators  at  Vienna  in  1815  ;  and  they  only  received 
their  death-blow  from  the  hand  of  the  Prussian  Government 
in  1S60  and  1870.  Whatever  might  be  the  merits  of  the 
Treaty  of  Westphalia,  it  had  not  that  of  securing  to  Europe 
on  unbroken  or  durable  peace  ;  and  even  the  territorial 
relations  of  Franco  and  Germany  were  altered  within 
thirty  years  of  that  time  by  the  conqnest  of  Frauche  Comtd 
and  Alsace.  But  the  wars  of  Louis  XIV.  were  not  general 
wars,  until  he  engaged  in  the  fatal  attempt  to  place  his 
grandson  on  the  throne  of  Spain,  and  to  unite  the  two 
crowns  in  the  house  of  Bourbon.  Efforts  had  been  made, 
io  view  v/f  the  approaching  extinction  of  the  Spanish  branch 
of  the  house  of  Austria,  to  preserve  the  bilance  of  power 
by  a  timely  partition  of  the  v.ost  dominions  of  the  Spanish 
empire — a  remarkable  example  of  an  attempt  to  prevent  a 
formidable  cataatrophe  by  an  equitable  arrangement.  But 
it  may  be  doubted  whether  any  arrangement  in  which  so 
little  account  was  taken  of  the  wishes  and  traditions  of 
nations  could  possibly  have  succeeded  ;  and  it  unques- 
tionably failed,  because  Louis  XIV.  did  not  hesitate  to 
repudiate  the  treaties  he  had  signed,  and  to  avail  himself 
of  the  last  will  and  testament  of  Charles  XL,  which  had 
been  extorted  from  the  Spanish  court  by  his  intrigues. 
That  event  raLsed  again  the  whole  question  of  the  balance. 
of  power  in  Europe.  It  was  received  as  a  doctrine  of 
political  faith  that  the  union  of  the  French  and  Spanish 
crowns  in  one  family  must  be  fatal  to  Ae  independence  of 
all  other  states ;  that  it  would  replace  the  Stuarts  upon 
the  throne  of  England,  and  establish  the-  ascendency  of 
France  and  the  Catholic  party  over  Europe.  It  was  there- 
fore resisted  by  a  coalition,  of  which  England,  Austria, 
and  Holland  were- the  principal  members.  Franco  was  at 
length  reduced  to  the  lowest  point  of  humiliation,  and  in 
1703  peace  might  have  been  obtained  on  every  point  but 
one.  Louis  refused  to  turn  his  arms  against  his  own 
grandsoD,  and  the  war  continued  till  1715.  Philip  V. 
retained  the  Spanish  crown,  and  the  relations  of  all  the 
European  states  were  once  more  adjusted  with  legal  nicety 
at  Utrecht.  Great  pains  were  taken  to  pronde,  by  a  system 
of  renunciations,  against  the  possibility  of  the  union  of  the 
crowns  of  France  and  Spain  on  the  same  head,  becau.se  it 
was  held  that  such  a  contingency  would  be  fatal  to  the 
balance  of  power  in  Europe.  But  these  precautions  did 
not  prevent  the  conclusion,  at  a  later  pcrioil,  of  the  family 
compact  between  the  two  branches  of  the  house  of  Bourbon, 
which  was  regarded  as  a  lasting  danger  to  other  countries, 
and  was  opposed  by  the  whole  strength  of  Britain  and  the 
genius  of  Chatham.  The  peace  ot  Utrecht  was  denounced 
by  Parliament  and  detested  by  the  na.ion  as  an  inglorious 
termination  of  a  glorious  war,  and  its  aut  jors  were  con- 
signed to  obloquy  and  eiilc  ;  but  it  secured  the  peace  of 
Europe  for  thirty  years  ;  it  reduced  the  power  of  France  ; 
•ad  bad  it  not  been  for  the  German  dominions  of  the  house 


of  Hanover,  it  might  have  been  still  longer  before  England, 
was  drawn  into  another  war. 

Hitherto  the  political  system  of  Europe  had  comprised 
little   more  than  the  states   of   France,    Austria,   Spain, 
Sweden,  and  Holland,  with  the  occasional  intervention  of 
Great  Britain,  more   for  the  defence  of  the  interests  of 
others  than  of  her  own.     But  the   ISth  century  witnessed 
a  total  change  in  the  politics  of  the  world.     J\  new  empire, 
Russia,  arose  in  the  north,  under  the  genius  of  Peter  and 
of  Catherine  ;  the  ambition  and  military  skill  of  Fredericfc 
II.  raised  Prussia  from  a  secondary  member  of  the  German 
empire   to  a   powerful    and   independent   kingdom  ;  jtbe 
colonial  eipfiires  of  Spain,  France,  and  Britain  had  extended 
their  territorial    interests  to  the   continents  of  Asia  and 
America,  and_to  the  eastern  and  the  western  isles,  inao- 
much  that  wars,  begun  in  Europe,  soon  raged  on  the  bants 
of  the  Ganges  and  the  St  Lawrence  ;  and  the  declaration 
of  independence  of  the  United  States  of  America  called 
into  being  a  new  and  powerful  people  of  the  future.     The 
partition  of  Poland,  which  was  commenced  in  1772,  marked 
a  new  era  of  aggressive  revolutionary  policy  ;  it  was  a  gross. 
invasion  of  the  principle  of  the  balance  of  power,  etTected 
by  three  powers,  jealous  of  their  respective  strength,  but- 
indifferent  to  the  rights  of  an  independent  nation  and  to- 
the  opinion  of  Europe.'     That  lawless  act  was  the  prelude 
to  more  violent  attacks  on  the  sovereignty  and  nationality 
of  many  countries,  for  before  the  century  closed  the  Freach 
Revolution,  and  the  wars  that  followed  it,  crushed  to  atoms 
the  ancient  fabric  of  Europe.    Whilst  events  of  this  magni- 
tude v,'eic  occurring  in  the  world,  it  is  obvious   that  the 
theory  of  the  balance  of  power  was  entirely  displaced  and 
dislocated.     New  elements  were  at  work  over  a  far  wider 
area ;  new  sources  of  power   and    influence  were  opened 
of  far  more  importance  than  those  territorial  and  dynastic 
questions  which  occupied  the  atatesmcn  of  Mtinster  and 
of  Utrecht;  ancient  land-marks  were  swept  away;  minor 
states  were  annihilated  ;   and  the  temporary  domination  of 
Napoleon  over  a  great  portion  of  the  continent  of  Europe 
seemed  to  have  overthrown  the  balance  of  power  for  even- 
In  those  dark  and  evil  days  public  writers  like  Gentz  andf 
Mackintosh  still  maintained  the  principle  that  peace  could 
only  be  restored  by  a  due  recognition  of  the  rights  and 
independence  of  every  nation,  and  England  adhered  in- 
flexibly to  the  policy  of  combining  the  scattered  elements  of 
Europe  against  the  common  enemy.     Half  a  doicn  times 
over  these  coalitions  failed  ;  but  they  succeeded  at  last,  and 
this  country  had  the  glory  of  playing  no  inconsider.nWe 
part  in  the  restoration  of  the  liberties  of  all  other  nations 
against  foreign  aggression.     Great  as  were  the  cost  and  tbcr 
burden  of  that  tremendous  war,  we  still  hold  that  the  pro- 
digious power  of  France  and  the  boundless  ambition  of 
Napoleon  left  us  no  honourable  alternative  but  to  pursue  it  ; 
and,  as  Mr  Fox  himself  discovered  when  he  conducted  the 
negotiations  of  180G,  it  was  impossible  to  conclude  peace 
with  France  without  basely  surrendering  the  whole  inte- 
rests  of    Europe   to   universal    oppression,   and   without. 
exposing  this  country  to  be  at  last  the  victim  of  a  power 
which  had  devoured  all  the  rest.     The   principle  of  the 
balance  of  power,  in  the  sense  of  mutual  defence,  was  never 
asserted  with  greater  energy  thtiu  it  was  by  this  country 
in  that  struggle,  and  we  do  not  regret  it.     "  As  long,"  says 
Bacon,  "  as  men  are  men,  and  as  long  as  reason  is  rauson, 
a  just  fear  will  be  a  just  cause  of  a  preventive  war ;   but 

*  It  deserves  to  be  noticed  llial  down  to  the  pn'iiiion  of  PoItDd.  n** 
&t:itc,Iiowcvur  f^rii.ill.lind  been  exling\ii&lied,  anniti ilalcd.au>!  "ADDcii-d" 
in  llie  continuous  wars  of  tlic  two  |>rcv-.ous  centuries — down  to  Lho 
republics  of  Gcticv.\.ind  San  M anno  all  ret.iincd  Ihoir  national  exittcrre. 
Ttic  wars  of  th«  French  RcTolulion.  and  still  more  the  wars  of  our  o^m 
times,  have  swept  a  irultitu'te  of  tlic  minor  slates  and  ilynaslitf  tiuua. 
the  njap  of  Europe,  and  iiiCorpnraUd  Ihcm  in  larger  empirel.. 


270 


BALANCE    OF    POWER 


especially  if  it  be  part  of  the  case  that  there  be  a  nation 
that  is  manifestly  detected  to  aspire  to  new  acquests,  then 
other  states  assuredly  cannot  be  justly  accused  for  not  pay- 
ing for  the  first  blow,  or  for  not  adopting  Polyphemus's 
courtesy,  to  be  the  last  that  shall  be  eaten  up.  " — [Speech 
concerning  a  War  with  Spain.) 

Upon  the  fall  of  Napoleon  in  1814  it  became  the-  com- 
mon interest,  and  the  universal  desire,  of  all  the  sovereigns 
and  nations  of  Europe  to  restore  peace  upon  a  settled  basis, 
to  re-establish  the  authority  of  public  law,  to  reinstate  the 
rightful  owners  in  the  possessions  and  dominions  they  had 
been  forcibly  deprived  of,  to  reduce  the  military  establish- 
ments which  weighed  so  heavily  on  the  finances  and  on  the 
population  of  Europe,  and  to  create  anew  a  balance  of  power 
between  the  states  of  Europe,  by  which  the  greatest  of 
them  might  be  restrained  and  the  least  of  them  protected. 

■  k.  secret  article  had  been  annexed  to  the  Treaty  of  Paris, 

■  vieclaring  that  "  the  allied  powers  had  agreed  among  them- 
selves on  the  bases  which  were  to  be  given  to  the  future 
system  of  equilibrium  ; "  though  what  the  nature  of  that 
agreement  and  of  those  bases  was,  has  never  been'  made 
clearly  apparent.  But  the  matter  was  unquestionably 
referred  to  the  congress  then  about  to  open  at  Vienna, 
where  the  most  powerful  sovereigns  and  the  most  distin- 
guished ministers  of  all  the  European  states  met  for  the 

ffirst  time  in  council     That   congress  was  certainly  the 
most  complete,  and  in  its   action   the   most   important, 
assemblage    of    independent   political   powers    and   their 
representatives  which  ever  took  place  in  the  world.     Its 
decisions  were  not  all  of  them  just,  or  wise,  or  disinterested. 
The  broad  general  principles  of  pacification  which   had 
been  laid  down  were  more  than  once  traversed  and  thwarted 
by  particular  interests  and  ambitions.     The  theory  of  the 
tights  of  legitimate  sovereigns   over   their  subjects   was 
carried  to  an  extravagant  point,  pregnant  with  danger  for 
the  future.     Genoa  was  transferred  to  Sardinia,  Venice  to 
Austria,  Norway  to   Sweden,   Poland  to  Russia,  part  of 
Saxony  to  Prussia,  and  the  sacred  hopes  and  pledges  of 
freedom  which  had  animated  the  nations  in  the  contest  were 
forgotten  by  the  leading  courts  of  Europe  in  the  division 
of  the  spoil.     But  in    spite   of   these  shortcomings  and 
abuses,  we  cannot  concur  with  writers  who,  like  Harden- 
berg,  denounce  the  Congress  of  Vienna  as  an  auction  of 
nations  and  an  orgy  of   kings.     It  was  said   that   every 
one  withdrew  from  the  Congress  of  Vienna  disappointed, 
no  one  having  obtained  as  much  as  he  expected  ;  but  if  so, 
that  would  suggest  the  inference  that  the  general  interest 
of  Europe  prevailed  over  the  pretensions  of  each  particular 
state.     From  the  point  of  view  we  arc  now  considering, 
which  is  the  restoration  of  the  balance  of  power,  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  the  Treaties  of   Vienna  secured  forty  years 
of  peace  to  Europe.       They  stood  the  lirunt  of  two  fresh 
convulsions  in  France  in  1830  and  in  1848,  and  their  main 
:   provisions,    though   modified   with    respect    to    the    Low 
Countries  in  1832,  and  abrogated  in  Italy  by  the  campaign 
'  'of  1859,  were  not  seriously  impaired  until  the  dis.solution 
of   the  Germanic   body  in  18CG,  and  the  Franco-German 
•AVar  of  1870.    During  the  whole  of  this  period  the  warlike 
ambition  of  France,  and  the  disposition  of   Russia  to  over- 
awe Central  Europe,  were  successfully  held  in  check.     At 
Vienna  itself,  and  during  the  congress,  the  struggle  was 
cl'ise   and  sometimes   doubtful.     Russia  was  resolved    to 
rttain  the  whole  of   Poland,  which  she  occupied  with  her 
armies,  and  Prussia  claimed  the  whole  of  Saxony  as  a  coin- 
I'lnaation    for   her   share   of    the    Polish    provinces.     To 
counteract  this  combination  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  an  alli- 
nnco  was  signed  on  the  3(1  January  18ir>  between  Austria, 
Liigland,  and  France,  which  might  have  led  to  hostilities 
ceuvceu  i\w^v  powers  and  tlirir  recent  allies.     Perhaps  it 
^miS  fortunate  that    the  return  of   NaiJoleon   from   Elba 


broke  up  the  congress,  and  reminded  all  the  powers  that 
union  and  mutual  concessions  were  the  first  duties  of  those 
who  had  devoted  themselves  to  the  cause  of  law,  order,  and 
peace.  It  was  a  sign  of  the  wisdom  of  the  congress,  and 
of  its  respect  for  sound  principles,  that  although  France 
waSothe  vanquished  power  and  the  author  of  the  calamities 
of  Europe,  she  was  tr^^ted  at  Vienna  with  as  much  con- 
sideration as  any  other  state.  Her  ambassador,  M.  de 
Talleyrand,  had  his  full  weight  in  the  congress ;  and  no 
attempt  was  made  in  1814  to  curtail  her  ancient  territorial 
possessions  or  to  lower  her  rank  in  Europe.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  just  influence  of  France  was  recognised  as  an 
essential  condition  of  the  balance  of  power. 

For  the  first  time,  then,  by  this  general  act  of  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  the  territorial  possessions  and  frontiers 
of  the  Continental  states  were  defined  in  one  document, 
to  which  all  the  Governments  of  Europe  were  parties ;  the 
constitution  of  the  Germanic  body  was  incorporated  in  the 
same  instrument,  and  the  neutrality  and  independence  of 
the  smallest  cities  and  commonwealths  were  established 
and  guaranteed.  Every  state  in  Europe  had  therefore  an 
equal  right  and  interest  to  invoke  the  authority  of  the 
treaty,  and  to  claim  the  execution  of  all  its- conditions.  A 
complete  fabric  of  European  polity,  such  as  had  never 
existed  before,  was  thus  literally  established  by  mutual 
contract;  and  every  infraction  of  it  might  justly  be 
brought  under  the  consideration  of  the  high  contracting 
parties,  or  might  even  have  been  the  ground  of  a  declaration 
of  war.  In  several  instances  this  controlling  power  was 
wisely  and  beneficially  exercised,  and  more  than  one  burning 
question  was  adjusted  by  the  conferences  which  met  from 
time  to  time,  always  on  the  basis  of  the  treaties  of  1815. 
This  certainly  was  the  nearest  approach  ever  made  to  a 
practical  balance  of  power ;  and  we  owe  to  it,  as  we  have 
seen,  a  long  period  of  mutual  confidence,  respect  for  public 
law,  and  peace,  which  contributed  enormously  to  the  pro- 
gress, prosperity,  and  happiness  of  the  w-orld. 

But  there  are  darker  shades  to  the  picture.  The  com- 
prehensive interest  which  every  state  was  thus  held  to 
have  acquired  in  maintaining  the  general  settlement  might 
be  held,  and  was  held,  to  justify  a  dangerous  and  mischievous 
degree  of  intervention  in  the  internal  affairs  of  every  other 
oountry,  and  this  right  was  too  often  exercised  in  a  man- 
ner injurious  to  liberty  and  independence.  The  northern 
powers,  not  content  with  the  terms  of  the  general  alliano« 
and  the  treaties  of  Vienna,  proceeded  to  connect  more 
closely  by  the  mystic  ties  of  the  Holy  Alliance,  which  pro- 
vided that  they  were  to  act  together  on  all  subjects,  and 
to  regard  their  interests  as  one  and  indivisible.  The  con- 
struction they  put  upon  the  system  recently  established 
in  Europe  was  that  it  gave  the  allied  powers  a  right  to  in- 
terfere, not  only  for  the  prevention  of  quarrels,  aggres- 
sions, and  war,  bat  in  the  internal  government  of  states, 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  changes  which  they  regard- 
ed as  injnrioUB  to  their  own  security  and  eventuiilly  tothe 
balance  of  power.  At  the  congresses  and  conferences  ol 
Troppau,  Carlsbad,  Aix-la-ChapcUe,  and  Verona,  these 
doctrines  were  avowed  and  acted  u[ion  to  their  furthest 
extent,  and  under  pretence  of  maintaining  and  defending 
the  common  interests  of  Europe,  the  popular  movements 
and  constitutional  progress  of  Italy  were  crushed,  a  French 
army  entered  Spain  in  1823  to  restore  the  authority  of 
Ferdinand  VII.  against  the  Cortes,  and  even  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  South  American  colonics  was  represented  as 
a  blow  to  the  peace  and  security  of  Europe.  The  British 
Government  had  early  perceived  tb.it  the  intcrjiretatioD 
thus  given  •"  iho  theory  of  the  balance  of  power,  aud  to 
what  was  termed  the  federal  system  in  Europe,  was  only 
another  name  for  an  intolerable  op|)rcssion,  and  that  the 
ri;;ht  of  intervention  in  the  internal  affairs  of  other  countrioa 


B  A  L  A  N  C  E     ()  F     P  0  W  K  R 


271 


taa  claimed  and  exercised  under  false  and  dangerous 
jrcteits.  The  duke  of  Wellington,  who  represented  tbis 
:ountry  at  the  Cou'^Tess  nf  Verona,  under  lostructions 
framed  by  Lord  Castlereagb,  was  the  tirst  to  declare  that 
England  could  be  do  party  to  such  au  application  of  the 
:heory  of  iho  alliance,  and  that  this  country  preferred 
.solation  to  any  such  system  of  combined  policy.  That 
(fas  the  germ  of  the  modern  doctrine  of  nonintervention. 
Bat  as  long  as  the  Treaties  of  Vienna  lasted,  it  was  our 
J.ity  arid  our  right  to  endeavour  to  snpport  their  authority, 
irid  to  vindicate  .the  rights  established  by  a  compact  to 
»hich  this  country  was  a  party.  We  declined  in  1802  to 
:o',n  with  Prussia  in  enforcing  the  declaration  made  by  the 
lUied  powers  in  1815,  which  excluded  any  member  of  the 
family  of  Bonaparte  from  the  throne  of  France  ;  but  we 
iought,  in  cunjunction  with  France,  to  protest  against  the 
inoihilation  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  the  incorporation 
of  Cracow,  the  admission  of  non-German  provinces  it\Jo  the 
confederation,  and  the  invasion  of  Schleswig ;  and  we  op- 
posed the  annexation  of  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France,  but 
jl.iue  and  without  effect.  The  compart  of  Vienna  was 
gradually  set  aside  and  violated  in  the  course  of  years 
t>y  those  who  were  most  interested  in  maintaining  it ;  and 
fthen  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.  proposed,  in  1863,  a 
new  congress  for  the  purpose  of  re\Tsing  and  re-establish- 
ing the  balance  of  power  in  Europe,  under  the  name  of 
an  International  Council,  England  refused  to  be  a  party' 
to  the  negotiation,  and  rejected  the  scheme.  Lord  Russell 
replied,  "  There  being  no  supreme  authority  in  such  an 
assembly  to  enforce  the  decision  of  the  majority,  the  con- 
gress would  probably  separate,  leaving  many  of  its  mem- 
bers on  worse  terms  with  each  other  than  they  had  been 
before."  This  was  the  last  attempt  made  to  bring  the 
authority  of  a  congress,  representing  the  collective  authority 
of  Europe,  to  bear  on  questions  affecting  the  general  peace. 
When  this  point  was  reached  it  was  apparent  that  the 
whole  theory  of  the  confederated  system  in  Europe  had 
become,  for  a  time  at  least,  obsolete  ;  that  the  treaties  and 
mutual  guarantees  on  which  that  system  rested  bad  lost 
thtir  power ;  and  that  there  was  no  controlling  force  to 
resist  the  ambitious  or  warlike  designs  of  any  state  capable 
of  .'iving  effect  to  them.  The  Italian  campaign  of  1859  had 
considerably  altered  the  condition  of  Southern  Europe,  and 
weakened  Austria.  Possibly,  Prussia,  in  withholding  her 
as.-istance  at  that  time  from  her  federal  ally,  foresaw  in  the 
■de'Vit  of  Austria  an  event  favourable  to  her  own  future 
pretensions.  At  any  rate,  for  the  first  time,  a  war  seriously 
affecting  the  balance  of  power  was  begun  and  ended  by 
the  two  principal  belligerents  alone,  and  even  the  price  paid 
by  the  house  of  Sardinia  for  the  services  of  France — the 
ce.^ion  of  Savoy  and  Nice — was  tacitly  acquiesced  in  by 
Europe.  Twenty  years  before,  it  would  have  been  thought 
impossible  that  the  doctrine  of  non-intervention  should 
have  acquired  so  great  an  ascendency. 

But  the  consequences  of  this  novel  state  of  affairs  soon 
became  manifest  in  the  increasing  disintegration  of  Europe. 
No  state  could  have  a  greater  claim  than  Denmark  to  the 
protection  of  the  principles  of  the  balance  of  power,  for,  as 
late  as  1852,*  all  the  great  powers  bad  pledged  themselves 
by  treaty  to  maintain  the  integrity  of  her  dominions,  the 
unity  of  the  monarchy,  and  the  order  of  succession  to  the 
crown  which  was  then  established.  Yet  in  1864  the 
German  powers  proceeded  to  what  was  termed  a  Federal 
Execution  against  her;  Holstein,  Lauenberg,  and,  eventu- 
ally, Schleswig  were  torn  from  her  by  Prussia,  Austria 
icting  a  subordinate  part.  England  in  vain  appealed 
by  her  diplomacy  to  the  terms  of  the  agreement  of  1852, 
but  France  and  Russia  stood  "aloof,  and  the  greatest 
injustice  the  world  had  witnossod"  since  the  partition  of 
Poland  was   consiunmatcd.     As  every  event   in   political 


life  is  closely  connected,  Prussia  now  proceeded  to  ally 
herself  with  the  crown  of  Italy  against  Austria,  and  to 
execute  her  grand  design  of  the  overthrow  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation  and  the  expulsion  of  Austria  from  that  body, 
which  had  been  regarded  as  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
European  system.  As  long  as  that  body  subsisted,  war 
was  impossible  between  its  respective  members,  and  France 
was  incapable  of  attacking  their  united  forces.  The  success 
of  Prussia  in  the  campaign  of  1866  was  rapid  and  complete, 
and  Austria  ceased  to  form  part  of  the  Germanic  Confedera- 
tion. The  power  of  Prussia  was  further  increased  by  the 
military  conventions,  which  gave  hor  the  absolute  com- 
mand over  the  armies  of  the  minor  German  states.  This 
was  undoubtedly  the  severest  blow  which  had  yet  been 
inflicted  on  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe;  and  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  HI.,  who  had  recently  given  vent  to  bis 
dissatisfaction  with  the  treaties  of  1815,  now  found  himself 
confronted  by  an  enemy  intinitely  n;ore  powerful  and  dan- 
gerous. The  results  of  Sadowa  were  as  fatal  to  the 
influence  and  security  of  France  as  if  she  herself  had  lost  a 
campaign.  The  French  nation,  however,  failed  to  under- 
stand the  magnitude  of  the  danger,  though  they  were 
irritated  by  the  approach  of  it.  War  was,  on  more  than 
one  occasion,  on  the  point  of  breaking  out ;  and  at  length 
France  plunged  into  it  with  a  recklessness  and  incapacity 
only  to  be  equalled  by  the  tremendous  calamities  that  war 
caused  her  to  endure.  Again,  no  third  state  was  drawn  by 
political  considerations  into  the  conflict.  The  terms  of 
peace  were  settled  between  the  vanquished  and  the  con- 
querors without  reference  to  the  general  interests  of  other 
nations  ;  and  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  place  these 
arrangements  under  the  sanction  of  the  public  law  of 
Europe.  Rus/ia  took  advantage  of  the  agitated  condition 
of  Western  Europe  to  abrogate,  by  her  own  will  and 
pleasure,  an  important  stipulation  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace 
of  1856,  and  Europe  again  submitted  to  this  breach  of 
covenant. 

The  general  result  is  that,  at  the  present  time,  the 
military  power  of  the  German  empire  far  surpasses  that 
of  any  other  state,  and  could  only  be  resisted  by  a  gene- 
ral combination  of  all  the  rest.  The  balance  of  power, 
as  it  was  understood  fifty  years  ago,  and  down  to  a  nlore 
recent  time,  has  been  totally  destroyed  ;  no  alliances  can  be 
said  to  exist  betix.^  ,any  of  the  great  powers,  but  each  of 
them  follows  a  distinct  course  of  policy,  free  from  any 
engagements  to  the  rest,  except  on  some  isolated  points  ; 
the  minor  states  can  appeal  to  no  certain  engagement  or 
fixed  general  principle  for  protection,  except,  perhaps,  as 
far  as  the  neutrality  of  Switzerland  and  Belgium  is  con- 
cerned ;  and  for  the  last  two  centuries  there  has  not  been 
a  lime  at  which  all  confidence  in  public  engagements  and 
common  principles  of  international  law  has  been  so  griev- 
ously shaken.  Where  the  reign  of  law  ends,  the  reign  of 
force  begins,  and  we  trace  the  inevitable  consequence  of 
this  dissolution  of  legal  international  ties  in  the  enormous 
augmentation  of  military  establishments,  which  is  the  curse 
and  the  disgrace  of  the  present  age.  Every  state  appears 
to  feel  that  its  security  depends  on  arming  the  whole  virile 
population,  and  maintaining  in  what  is  called  a  stale  of 
peace  all  the  burdens  of  a  complete  armament ;  inde.ed,  in 
the  most  barbarous  ages  and  the  most  sanguinary  wars  there 
were,  doubtless,  fewer  men  under  arms,  and  less  money 
was  spent  in  arming  them,  than  at  the  present  day. 

We  have  shown  in  the  preceding  observations  that  we 
do  not  retain  the  faith  of  our  forefathers  in  the  balance  of 
power.  It  is  impossible  to  equaLse  the  strength  of  nations. 
It  is  impossible  to  regulate  or  control  the  growth  and  de- 
velopment of  their  forces,  which  depend  not  on  territorial 
possessions  alone,  but  on  their  industry,  their  credit,  their 
natural  icsources,  and   their  internal  institutions.     It  i» 


272 


B  A  L  —  B  A  L 


impossible  to  weigh  their  relative'  power  and  influence  in 
nice  or  golden  scales,  nor  can  we  always  compel  them 
^'  parcere  subjectia  et  debellare  superbos."  But  the  recog- 
nition of  certain  mutual  obligations  and  principles  of 
public  law  is  the  fundamental  condition  of  civilisation 
itself.  Nothing  can  be  more  injurious  to  society  than  that 
the  states  of  Europe  should  exist  without  aUiances,  without 
mutual  confidence,  without  a  common  system  based  on  the 
principles  of  justice  and  of  peace,  the  weak  Living  in  dread 
of  the  strong,  the  strong  armed  to  the  teeth  against  each 
other.  We  trust  that  before  another  great  catastrophe 
arises  from  this  state  of  disguised  hostility,  a  truer  balance 
of  power  may  be  established  by  a  return  to  sounder  prin- 
ciples; for  peace  can  never  bo  secure  unless  it  is  protected 
by  the  concurrence  of  the  leading  nations  of  the  world,  and 
by  their  determination  to  oppose  a  combined  resistance  to 
those  who  have  no  object  but  their  own  aggrandisement 
and  ambition.  (h.  e.) 

BALASOR,  a  district  of  British  India  in  the  Orissa 
division,  under  the  LieutenantrGovernor  of  Bengal,  lies 
between  20"  and  21°  N.  lat.,  and  in  86°  and  87°  E;  long., 
and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  district  of  Midnapur  ;  on 
the  S.  by  Cattack  district,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Biitaranl  river  ;  on  the  W.  by  the  tributary  states  of  Keun- 
jhar,  Nilgiri,  and  Morbhanj ;  and  on  the  E.  by  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  Balasor  district  forms  a  strip  of  alluvial  land 
between  the  hQls  and  the  sea,  varying  from  about  9  to  34 
miles  in  breadth;  area,  20G6  sq.  miles.  The  hill  country 
rises  from  the  western  boundary  line.  The  district  natu- 
rally divides  itself  into  three  weU-defined  tracts — (1.)  The 
Salt  Tract,  along  the  coast ;  (2.)  The  Arable  Tract,  or  rice 
country;  and  (3.)  The  Submontane  Tract,  or  jungle  lands. 
The  Salt  Tract  runs  the  whole  way  down  the  coast,  and 
forms  a  desolate  strip  a  few  miles  broad.  Towards  the 
beach  it  rises  into  sandy  ridges,  from  50  to  80  feet  high, 
sloping  inland,  and  covered  with  a  vegetation  of  low  scrub 
jungle.  Sluggish  brackish  streams  creep  along  between 
banks  of  fottid  black  mud.  The  sand  hills  on  the  verge  of 
the  ocean  are  carpeted  with  creepers  and  the  vnld  convol- 
vulus. Inland,  it  spreads  out  into  prairies  of  coarse  long 
grass  and  scrub  jungle,  which  harbour  wild  animals  in 
plenty ;  but  throughout  this  vast  region  there  is  scarcely  a 
hamlet,  and  only  patches  of  rice  cultivation  at  long  inter- 
.vals.  From  any  part  of  the  Salt  Tract  one  may  sec  the 
boundary  of  the  inner  arable  part  of  the  district,  fringed 
with  long  lines  of  trees,  from  which  every  morning  the 
villagers  drive  their  caf'e  out  into  the  saliferous  plains  to 
graze.  The  Salt  Tract  is  purely  alluvial,  and  appears  to  be 
of  recent  date.  Towards  the  coast  the  soil  has  a  distinctly 
saline  taste. 

Salt  is  largely  manufactured  in  this  tract  by  evaporation. 
The  following  is  the  process  followed  : — At  the  beginning 
of  December  the  contractor  selects  his  locality,  about  a 
quarter  to  half  a  mile  from  the  sea,  and  engages  a  class  of 
men  called  chuliyds,  or  heads  of  salt  gangs.  These  men 
receive  Is.  a  cwt.  for  whatever  amount  of  salt  they  turn 
out.  They,  in  their  turn,  engage  working  parties  of 
makmgis,  wlio  are  paid  at  the  rate  of  3d.  to  5d.  a  day. 
The  ground  is  first  marked  out  by  a  shallow  trench;  and 
the  grasses  and  bushes  are  carefully  dug  up  and  removed. 
A  deep  ditch  is  next  dug  from  the  sea,  by  means  of 
■which,  twice  a  month,  the  spring  tides  overflow  the  salt- 
field,  and  fill  a  number  of  reservoirs,  4  feet  in  diameter, 
and  2  or  3  feet  deep.  A  mound  of  earth  is  then  piled  up 
to  the  height  of  2  feet,  and  from  3  to  4  in  diameter.  It  is 
neit  hollowed  out  into  the  shape  of  a  bowl,  plastered  inside 
with  clay,  and  furnished  with  a  hole  at  the  bottom,  covered 
vith  a  layer  of  grass  G  inches  thick.  The  salt-makers  fill 
this  bowl  with  saline  earth  scraped  off  the  ailjaeent  l;uul, 
and  pour  the  sea-water  on  it  from  the  top.     I'.y  the  cud  of 


six  hours  the  water  has  drained  through  into  a  pit  at  the 
bottom,  and  runs  down  a  thatched  trench  towards  a  reser- 
voir, whence  it  is  transferred  to  the  evaporators.  The 
latter  consist  of  from  IGO  to  200  little  unglazed  earthenware 
pots,  fastened  together  by  stiff  tenacious  mud,  and  holding 
two  quarts  each.  The  neighbouring  plains  supply  grasses 
for  the  fuel  Six  hours'  boiling  completes  the  process. 
The  brine,  which  consisted  in  the  first  place  of  sea-water 
charged  to  its  maximum  power  of  solution  by  percolating 
through  the  bowls  of  salt  earth,  subsides  into  diity  crystals 
at  the  bottom  of  the  pots.  It  is  then  ladled  out  in  spoons 
made  of  half  cocoa-nuts.  The  whole  process  is  as  rude 
and  careless  as  can  well  be  imagined.  The  total  cost 
of  manufacture  is  estimated  at  2s.  Id.  a  cwt.,  which 
with  the  Government  duty  of  8s.  8d.,  makes  a  total  cost  of 
10s.  9d. 

The  Arable  Tract  lies  beyond  the  salt  lands,  and  embraces 
the  chief  part  of  the  district.  It  is  a  long  dead  level  of  rich 
fields,  with  a  soil  Lighter  in  colour  than  that  of  Bengal  or 
Behar ;  much  more  friable,  and  apt  to  split  up  into  small 
cubes  with  a  rectangular  cleavage.  A  peculiar  feature  of 
the  Arable  Tract  is  the  Pats,  Literally  the  Cups,  or  depressed 
lands  near  the  river  banka  They  were  probably  marshes 
that  have  partially  silted  up  by  the  yearly  overflow  of  the 
streams.  These  Cup-lands  bear  the  finest  crops.  As  a 
whole,  the  Arable  Tract  is  a  treeless  region,  except  around 
the  villages,  which  are  encircled  by  fine  mango,  pipal, 
banyan,  and  tamarind  trees,  and  intersected  with  gi-een 
shady  lanes  of  bamboo.  A  few  palmyras,  date  palms,  and 
screw  pines  (a  sort  of  aloe,  whose  leaves  are  armed  with 
formidable  triple  rows  of  hook-shaped  thorns)  dot  the 
expanse,  or  run  in  straight  lines  between  the  fields.  The 
Submontane  Tract  is  an  undulating  country  with  a  red  sml, 
much  broken  up  into  ravines  along  the  foot  of  the  hills, 
Masses  of  laterite,  buried  in  hard  ferruginous  clay,  crop  up 
as  rocks  or  slabs.  At  KopAri,  in  KUa  jVmbohati,  about  2 
square  miles  are  almost  paved  with  such  slabs,  dark  red  in 
colour,  perfectly  flat,  and  polished  like  plates  of  iron.  A 
thousand  mountain  torrents  have  scooped  out  for  themselves 
picturesque  ravines,  clothed  with  an  ever-/resh  verdure  of 
prickly  thorns,  stunted  gnarled  shrubs,  and  here  and  there 
a  noble  forest  tree.  Large  tracts  are  covered  with  S4l 
jungle,  which  nowhere,  however,  attains  to  any  great 
height. 

Iiii!;uor  (Ji-strict  is  watered  by  sLx  distinct  river  systems  •  1.  The 
Sulianrekhi,  literally  the  streak  of  gold,  forms  the  bouiidaj-y  between 
Balasor  and  ftlidnapur.  tlowiiig  in  a  tortuous  southern  course,  with 
fngantic  bends  I'rom  east  to  west  till  it  reaches  the  sea  in  lat.  21"  35' 
N.  and  long.  87°  23'  E.  It  is  navign-ble  by  country  craft  as  high 
as  Kalikapur,  about  16  miles- from  >he  moutb,  to  wliieh  point  the 
tide  also  runs.  Itice  boats  of  2  tons'  burden  can  make  their  way  up 
to  t'lc  end  of  the  Balasor  district,  and  during  the  rains  far  into  the 
tributary  state  of  Morbhanj.  2.  Tho  intermcilinte  couutry  on  th» 
south  of  tho  Subanrekha  and  the  north  of  tho  Bunibalang,  forms  « 
great  line  of  dniinage  down  from  Morbhorij.  It  is  watered  by  a 
number  of  small  streams,  of  wliieli  tlie  principal  are  tho  Jamir.i, 
B.ins,  and  Bliairingi.  They  unite,  bifurcate,  and  re-nnito  in  tho 
wildest  confusion,  ami  at  length  enter  the  sea  as  the  I'anchpara,  in 
hit.  21°  31'  N.  and  long.  S7°  10'  E.  3.  .South  of  this  network  of 
rivers  is  the  Hunibalang,  literally  the  Ohl  Twister.  It  rises  among 
tho  Morbhanj  liills,  in  lat.  21°  24'  and  long.  86°  36',  and  after 
receiving  two  small-  tributiries,  the  Gang;ihar  and  Suuaf.  wriggles 
into  the  sea  in  lat.  21°  2S'  and  long.  S7°  6'.  Brigs,  sloops,  and 
sea  going  stenuiers  can  navigate  this  river  as  far  as  the  town  of 
Balasor,  about  1(3  miles  up  its  twisting  course,  but  the  sand-bar 
across  tlie  mouth  of  the  river  renders  the  entrance  dilJicult.  4. 
South  of  the  Biirahalnng,  n  network  of  rivers,  knowii  os  the  .lamka, 
fitui  ltn-ir  w.iy  down  the  line  of  drainage  from  the  western  Nilgiri 
hills,  and  enter  the  sea  by  many  channels.  r>  'I'he  Kiinsbans,  ris- 
ing in  Kila  Amltohati,  runs  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  at  firet 
ainu>st  itarallel  with  the  Nilgiri  hills,  and  receives  from  them  a 
numlter  of  nameless  diainage  streams  on  ite  nortliern  bank.  At 
Birp.ird  it  bifurcates,  the  northern  branch  retaining  its  original 
niuiie,  n?id  entering  the  sea  in  lat,  21°  12'  25",  long.  86°  52  _I0", 
Tlie  -southern  branch  receives  the  name  of  Gnmmai,  and  falls  into 
the  Ma  6  mdes  south  of  the  Kausl>dns.     This  river  isuavi^blcoaly 


B  A  L  —  B  A  L 


273-. 


•  fow  miln  up,  but  is  celebrated  fat  its  sudden  floods  and  the  vast 
exteot  of  country  which  it  submerges  in  the  raiuy  season.  6.  Tlie 
Uaitarant  enters  the  district  at  the  village  of  Hali[>ur,  and  flows  for 
»bout  45  miles  in  a  south-westerly  direction  till  it  joins  the  Dhimra, 
5  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  united  stream  enters  tho  sea  under 
the  name  of  ti>e  Dh.irard,  in  lat.  20°  47',  long.  87°.  The  Dhamra 
U  a  fine  navigable  estuary,  but,  like  all  tho  Orissa  rivers,  it  is  ren- 
dered perilous  by  a  bar  across  its  mouth. 

Population  of  Balasor  in  1^72,  770,232  souls,  residing  in  3266 
Tillages,  and  133,913  houses;  persons  per  square  mile,  378;  vil- 
Uges  per  square  mile,  1  53;  persons  per  village,  236;  houses  per 
aquare  mile,  67 ;  persons  per  house,  5  5.  Of  the  total  population 
733,396,  or  95  9  per  cent.,  wero  Hindus  ;  18,878,  or  24  jwl  cent., 
Mahometans  ;  530,  or  1  per  cent..  Christians  ;  1  Buddhist  ;  and 
12,427,  or  16  per  cent.,  of  aboriginal  origin.  The  proportion  of 
liiales  to  the  total  district  population  w.as  ■19*2  per  cent. ;  number 
of  m,ale  adult  agriculturists,  150,391,  and  male  adult  non-agricul- 
turists, 62,542.  Brihmans,  Karans.  Khanddits,  and  other  castes, 
compose  tho  Hindu  population.  There  are  tft'o  settlements  of 
Christian  missionaries  in  the  district  belonging  to  the  Freewill 
liaptists,  from  Dover,  New  Hampshire,  U.S.  Tho  district  contains 
only  one  town  with  upwards  of  5000  inhabitants,  viz.,  Balasor 
itself,  with  18,263.  Almost  the  whole  population  of  the  district 
lives  by  agriculture.  Rice  forms  the  staple  crop  of  the  district,  and 
is  divided  into  5  great  rjenfray  and  49  principal  varieties.  Pulses, 
oil-seeds,  hemp,  tobacco,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  ic,  makeup  tho  other 
agricultural  products  of  Balasor.  Balasor  husbandmen  consist  of 
two  classes,  thdni  or  cultivators,  with  a  right  of  occupancy,  and 
pdhl,  or  tenants  at  will.  Roughly  speaking,  one  half  of  the  district 
is  under  tillage,  and  the  other  half  incapable  of  cultivation.  Exports 
— Grain,  sugar,  oil-seeds,  timber,  hides,  horns,  &c.  Imports — 
Native  cloths,  Encrlish  piece-goods,  ic.  Total  revenue  of  the  Bala- 
•or  district  in  1570-71,  £102,052,  of  which  £41,403,  or  40  percent., 
was  from  land  ;  total  expenditure  in  the  same  year,  £51,620.  In 
1872  the  police  force  of  tho  district  consisted  of  560  olHcers  and 
men  i>f  the  regular  police,  maintained  at  a  total  cost  of  £8879,  83.  ; 
32  officers  ana  men  of  the  municipal  police,  maintained  at  a  cost  of 
£224,  123  ;  aud  2320  men  of  tho  village  watch,  maintained  by  grants 
of  ser\'ice  lands  and  by  subscriptions  from  villages,  which  amountt'd 
to  £2745  in  1872  ;  total  strength  of  police,  291 S  men  ;  toul  cost, 
£11,849.  Balasor  contained  1053  schools  in  1872,  attended  by 
11,538  pupils.  The  Government  and  aided  schools  were  43  in 
number,  attended  by  1631  pupils,  and  maintained  at  a  total  cost  of 
£1559,  to  which  Government  contributed  £748,  16s.  The  climate 
of  Balasor  greatly  varies  according  to  the  seasons  of  the  year.  The 
hot  season  lasts  from  March  to  June,  but  is  tempered  by  cool  sea 
breezes  ;  from  June  to  September  tho  weather  is  close  and  oppressive ; 
and  from  October  to  February  the  cold  season  brings  the  north- 
easterly winds,  with  cool  mornings  and  evenings.         (W.  W.  H.) 

B.iLASOR,  tho  principal  town  and  administnative  head- 
quarters of  the  above  district,  situ.itcd  on  the  River  Biird- 
balang,  in  21°  28'  45"  N.  lat.,  and  8G'  59  33"  E.  long.,  about 
8  miles  from  the  sea-co.ast  as  the  crow  flies,  and  16  by  the 
river.  Tho  Engli!*h  settlement  of  Balasor,  formed  in  1642, 
and  that  of  Pippli  in  its  neighbourhood,  seven  years  earlier, 
became  tho  basis  of  the  future  greatness  of  tho  British  in 
India.  The  servants  of  the  East  India  Company  hcjc 
fortified  themselves  in  a  strong  position,  and  carried  on  a 
brisk  invc:itment  in  country  goods,  chiefly  cottons  and 
mushns.  They  flourished  in  ."spite  of  the  oppressions  of  the 
Mahometan  governors,  and  when  needful  asserted  their 
claims  to  respect  by  arms.  In  1688,  affairs  having  come 
to  a  crisis.  Captain  Heath,  commander  of  the  Company's 
•hips,  bombarded  the  town.  In  the  18th  century  Balasor 
rapidly  declined  in  importance,  on  account  of  a  dangerous 
bar  which  formed  across  the  mouth  of  the  river.  At  present 
the  bar  has  12  to  15  feet  of  water  at  spring  tides,  but  not 
more  than  2  or  3  feet  at  low  water  in  the  dry  season. 
Largo  ships  have  to  anchor  outside  in  the  open  roadstead. 
The  town  contains  a  population  of  1 8,263 ;  municipal  income 
in  1872,  £519  ;  expenditure,  £514  ;  rate  of  ta.xation,  CJd 
per  head  of  population  (w.  w.  11.) 

B.\LBI,  Adria.v,  one  of  the  most  eminent  geographers 
of  modern  times,  was  born  at  Venice  in  1782.  In  1820 
be  visited  Portugal,  and  there  collected  materials  for  his 
well-known  work  entitled  Essai  Statitdquf  sur  U  Jioyaiime 
de  Po'tupal  et  d'Myarvf,  which  wtui  piiMisiicd  at  Paris  in 
1822.  This  was  followed  by  Var\,'tcs  Polihqutt  et  Sladi- 
i.tpies  de  la  Momirchxe   Portvynise,  which  contains  some 


curious  observations  respecting  that  country  under  the 
Roman  sway,  aud  on  the  state  of  literature  and  the  arts. 
In  1826  he  published  the  first  volume  of  his  Atlas  £l/i7io- 
graphique  du  Glule,  ic.,  a  work  of  great  erudition, 
embodying  the  researches  of  the  most  distinguished  German 
philologists  and  geographers.  la  1832  appeared  the  Abrije 
de  Geoyiaphie,  which  added  greatly  to  the  author's  reputa- 
tion. This  work,  in  an  enlarged  form,  was  translated  into 
the  principal  languages  of  Europe.  Balbi  afterwards  retired 
to  Padua,  where  he  continued  to  pursue  his  favourite  science 
with  unabated  ardour.  Besides  those  already  mentioned, 
ho  was  the  author  of  several  other  works  in  the  same  de- 
partment of  science.     He  died  on  the  14th  of  March  1848. 

BALBO,  Cesaee,  an  important  Italian  writer  and  states- 
man, was  born  at  Turin,  November  21,  1789.  His  father, 
Prospero  Balbo,  held  a  high  position  in  the  Piedmoiitose 
court,  and  at  the  time  of  Cesare's  birth  was  syndic  cf  the 
capital.  His  mother,  a  member  of  the  Azeglio  family,  died 
when  ho  was  three  years  old ;  and  he  w.as  brought  up  in 
the  house  of  his  great  grandmother,  the  countess-  of  Bugino, 
"a  noble  and  proud  old  lady."  In  1798  he  joined  his 
father  at  Paris.  From  1808  to  1814  Balbo  served  in, 
various  capacities  under  the  Napoleonic  empire,  helping,  at 
Florence  and  Rome,  to  fii  tho  chains  of  despotism  on  his- 
country.  Gradually,  however,  his  eyes  were  opened,  and,, 
on  tho  fall  of  Napoleon,  he  was  ready,  in  various  capacities, 
to  serve  tho  causo  of  his  country.  WTiile  his  father  was 
appointed  minister  of  the  interior,  he  entered  the  army, 
and  undertook  political  missions  to  Paris  and  London.  On 
the  revolulioij  of  1821  he  was  forced  into  exile,  and  though, 
not  long  after,  he  was  allowed  to  return  to  Piedmont,  all 
active  service  as  a  statesman  was  denied  him.  Reluctantly, 
and  with  frequent  endeavours  to  obtain  some  appointiuent, 
he  gave  himself  up  to  literature  as  tho  only  means  left  him. 
to  influence  the  destinies  of  his  country.  This  accounts  for 
tho  fitfulness  and  incompleteness  of  so  much  of  his  literary 
work,  and  for  the  practical,  and  in  many  cases  temporary, 
clement  that  runs  through  even  his  most  elaborate  produc- 
tions. The  great  object  of  his  labours  w.aa  to  help  in. 
securing  for  Italy  that  independence  from  foreign  control 
which,  even  more  than  internal  freedom,  ho  regarded  as. 
the  first  necessity  of  national  life.  Of  true  Italian  unity 
he  had  no  expectation  and  no  desire.  A  confederation  of 
separate  states  under  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope  was  the 
genuine  heau  ideal  of  Balbo,  as  it  was  the  ostensible  beau 
ideal  of  GiobertL  But  Gioberti,  in  his  Primato,  seemed  to 
him  to  neglect  the  first  essential  of  independence,  which  he 
accordingly  inculcated  in  his  Speiatice  or  I/op's  of  Itabj. 
Preparation,  both  military  and  moral, alertness,  and  patience, 
were  his  constant  theme.  He  did  not  wish  revolution,  but 
reform ;  aud  thus  he  became  the  leader  of  a  moderate 
party,  and  the  steady  opponent  not  only  of  despotism  but 
of  democracy.  At  last,  io  1848,  his  hopes  were  so  far 
satisfied  by  the  constitution  granted  by  the  king.  He  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  commission  of  electoral  law, 
and  held  a  post  in  the  first  reformed  gnvernnient.  With 
the  ministry  of  Azeglio,  which  soon  after  got  into  power, 
he  continued  on  friendly  terms,  and  his  pen  continued  tho 
active  defence  of  his  political  principles  till  his  death,  on 
the  3d  June  1853.  The  moat  important  of  his  writings  aro 
historico-pplitical,  and  derive  at  once  their  majesty  ai)d 
their  weakness  from  his  theocratic  theorj-  of  Christianity. 
His  style  is  clear  and  vigorous,  and  not  unfrcqucntly  terse 
and  epigrammatic.  He  published  Quattro  Kovelle  in 
1829;  Sloria  d'ltalia  is  1830,  Vila  di  Dante,  1839, 
Medita:ioni  Storiche,  1842-5  ;  Li  Sp'rame  d'ltalia,  1843  • 
Sommario  delta  Sloria  d'ltalia. 

BALBO.\,  Vasco  Nl'NFZ  de,  one  of  the  bravest  and-, 
mo.^t  successful  of  the  Spanish  discoverers  of  /Uncrica,  wa:' 
born  at  Xcres  de  los  Cabiilleros,  ia  lUtremadura,  abtiut  (h(< 


;74 


B  A  L  — B  A  L 


year  1475.  He  was  by  birth  a  hidahjo,  or  gcnfloman, 
but  was  in  poor  circumstances. .  Little  is  known  of  his 
life  till  the  year  1501,  when  he  was  one  of  the  company 
of  adventurers  who  followed  Roderigo  de  Bastidas  in  his 
voyage  of  discovery  to  the  western  seas.  He  appears  to 
have  settled  in  Hispaniola,  and  took  to  cultivating  land  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Salvatierra,  but  with  no  great  success, 
as  his  debts  soon  became  oppressive.  In  1009  the  famous 
Ojeda  sailed  from  San  Domingo  with  an  expedition,  and 
founded  the  settlement  of  San  Sebastian.  He  had  left 
orders  with  Enciso,  an  adventurous  lawyer  of  the  town,  to 
fit  out  two  ships  and  convey  provisions  to  the  new  settle- 
ment. Enciso  set  sail  in  1510,  and  Balboa,  whose  debts 
made  the  town  unpleasant  to  him,  managed  to  accompany 
him,  by  concealing  himself  in  a  cask  which  was  conveyed 
from  his  farm  to  the  ship  as  if  containing  provisions.  The 
expedition,  after  various  adventures,  reached  San  Sebastian 
to  find  Ojeda  gone  and  the  settlement  in  ruins.  While 
Enciso  was  undecided  how  to  act,  Vasco  Nunez  proposed 
that  they  should  sail  for  Darien,  on  the  Gulf  of  Uraba, 
where  he  had  touched  when  with  Bastidas.  His  proposal 
was  at  once  accepted,  and  carried  out.  The  new  town  was 
named  Sta  Maria  de  la  Antigua  del  Darien.  Bitter  quar- 
rels soon  broke  out  among  the  adventurers,  caused  chiefly 
by  Enciso  prohibiting  all  private  interchange  for  gold  with 
the  natives.  Enciso  was  deposed  from  the  office  of  autho- 
rity which  he  had  assumed,  but  it  was  found  no  easy 
matter  to  elect  a  successor.  Nicuesa,  in  whose  province 
they  were,  was  proposed  by  several,  and  was  brought  from 
Nombre  do  Dios  by  a  ship  which  had  been  sent  out  to 
bring  assistance  to  him. .  The  inhabitants  of  Darien,  Tiow- 
ever,  would  not  receive  him,  and,  in  their  wrath,  seized 
him  and  placed  him,  with  seventeen  companions,  in  a  crazy 
bark  with  which  to  find  his  way  back  to  Hispaniola. 
The  party  of  Vasco  Nunez  grew  strong  ;  Enciso  was  thrown 
into  prison,  and  finally  sent  off  to  Spain  along  with  Vasco's 
ally,  the  alcalde  Zamudio.  Being  thus  left  in  authority, 
Balboa  began  to  make  excursions  into  the  surrounding 
country,  and  by  his  bravery  and  conciliatory  manners 
gained  the  friendship  of  several  native  chiefs.  On  one  of 
these  excursions  he  heard  for  the  first  time  of  the  great 
ocean  that  lay  on  the  other  side  of  the  mountains,  and  of 
the  wondrous  land  of  gold,  afterwards  called  Peru.  Soon 
after  his  return  to  Darien  he  received  letters  from  Zanuulio, 
informing  hiin  that  Enciso  had  complained  to  the  king, 
and  had  obtained  a  sentence  condemning  Balboa  and 
summoning  him  to  Spain.  In  his  despair  at  this  message 
Vasco  resolved  to  attoniut  some  great  cnterpriso,  the  success 
of  which  ho  trusted  Would  conciliate  his  sovereign.  On 
the  1st  September  1513,  he  set  out  with  about  190  men, 
well  armed,  and  sailed  to  Coyba,  where  he  left  half  his 
forces  to  guard  the  canoes  and  ships.  With  the  remainder 
he  started  on  his  perilous  journey  across  the  isthmus.  On 
the  '2Gth  September  they  reached  the  summit  of  the  range 
of  mountains,  and  the  glorious  expanse  of  tlie  Pacific  was 
displayed  to  them.  Three  days  later,  they  began  to 
descend  the  mountains  on  the  western  side,  and  Vasco, 
arriving  at  the  seashore,  formally  took  possession  ol  the 
ocean  in  the  name  of  the  Spajiish  monarch,  lie  remained 
on  the  coast  for  some  time,  heard  again  of  Peru,  had  the 
I'carl  Islands  pointed  out  to  him,  and  set  out  for  Darien. 
<')n  the  IStli  January  1514  ho  reached  the  town,  and  was 
received  with  the  utmost  joy.  He  at  once  sent  messengers 
to  Spain  bearing  presents,  to  give  an  account  of  his  dis- 
coveries ;  but,  uiitortunately,  these  did  not  arrive  till  an 
expedition  had  sailed  from  Spain,  under  Don  Pedro  Arias 
dc  Avila  (generally  called  Pedrarias,  or  Davila),  to  replace 
V.iscu  Nunez,  and  to  take  possession  of  the  colony.  For 
sonio  time  after  Podraria.'s  reached  Darien  Vasco  was  in 
greut  straits,   but   ut  length   letters    came  from   the   king. 


announcing  to  him  his  satisfaction  with  his  exploits,  and 
naming  him  Adclunlado,  or  admiral.  Pedrarias  was  pre- 
vailed upon  to  bo  reconciled  with  Vasco,  and  gave  him  one  of 
his  daughters  in  marriage.  Vasco  then  resolved  to  accom- 
plish his  grand  project  of  exploring  the  western  sea.  With 
infinite  labour  materials  for  building  ships  were  conveyed 
acro.'ss  the  isthmus,  and  two  brigantines  were  constructed. 
With  these  the  adventurers  took  possession  of  the  Pearl 
Islands,  and,  had  it  not  been  for  the  weather,  would  have 
reached  the  coast  of  Peru.  This  career  of  discovery  was 
stopped  by  the  jealousy  of  Pedrarias,'  who  feared  that 
Balboa  would  throw  oil'  his  allegiance,  and  who  enticed 
him  to  Ada  by  a  crafty  message.  As  soon  as  he  had  him 
in  his  power,  ho  threw  him  into  prison,  had  him  tried  for 
treason,  and  forced  the  judge  to  condemn  him  to  death. 
The  sentence,  to  the  grief  of  all  the  inhabitants,  was 
carried  into  execution  on  the  pubUc  square  of  Ada  in 
1517. 

BALBRIGOAN,  a  seaport  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of 
Dublin  and  parish  of  Balrothery,  18|  miles  N.N.E.  of  the 
capital.  The  harbour,  though  dry  at  low  tides,  has  a  depth 
of  14  feet  at  high-water  springs,  and  affords  a  good  refuge 
from  the  E.  or  S.E.  gales.  It  is  formed  by  a  pier  600  feet 
long,  with  a  lighthouse  at  its  extremity,  in  53°  37'  N.  lat., 
6°  12'  W.  long.  A  viaduct  of  eleven  arches  crosses  the 
harbour.  The  town  has  considerable  manufactures  of 
cottons  and  hosiery,  and  is  much  frequented  as  a  watering- 
place  in  summer.     Population  in  1871,  2332. 

BALDE,  Jakob,  a  modern  Latin  poet  of  considerable 
repute,  was  born  at  Ensisheim  in  Alsace  in  1G03,  and  died 
in  16t38.  He  entered  the  Society  of  the  Jesuits  in  1G24, 
and  for  the  greater  part  of  his  bfo  acted  as  court-preacher 
and  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Munich.  His  Latin  poems 
were  very  numerous,  and  those  in  imitation  of  Horace  are 
particularly  successful.  Although  Balde  has  received  some 
attention  since  Herder  translated  several  of  his  best  pieces, 
and  although  some  of  his  poems  are  by  no  means  deficient 
in  lightness,  grace,  and  skilful  versification,  it  would  be  a 
mistake  to  look  upon  him  as  a  poet  of  high  rank.  A  col- 
lected edition  of  his  works  in  4  vols,  was  pubUshed  at 
Cologne  in  1C50  ;  a  more  complete  edition  in  8  vols.,  at 
Munich,  1729.  Extracts  have  been  given  by  OrcUi,  1805, 
IS18;  and  some  detaehcd'poems  have  been  published  by 
various  editors. 

BALDI,  BiiRNAUDiNO,  a  distinguished  mathematician 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  descended  of  a  noble  family 
at  L'rbino,  in  which  city  ho  was  born  on  the  Cth  of  June 
1533.  He  pursued  his  studies  at  Padua  with  extraordi- 
nary zeal  and  success,  and  is  said  to  have  acquired,  during 
the  course  of  his  life,  no  fewer  than  sixteen  languages, 
though  according  to  Tiraboschi,  the  inscription  on  his  tomb 
liniits  the  number  to  twelve.  The  appearance  of  the  plague 
at  Padua  obliged  him  to  retire  to  his  native  city,  whence 
he  was,  shortly  afterwards,  called  to  act  as  tutor  to  Fer- 
ranto  Oonzaga,  from  whom  he  received  the  rich  abbey  of 
Ouastallx  He  held  office  as  abbot  for  twenty  five  years, 
and  then  retired  to  his  native  town.  In  1G12  ho  was 
employed  by  the  duke  as  his  envoy  to  Venice,  where  lie 
distinguished  himself  by  the  congratulatory  oration  lio 
delivered  before  the  Venetian  senate  on  the  election  of  the 
new  doge,  Andrea  Moinmo.  I'aldi  died  at  L'rbino 
on  the  12th  of  October  1G17.  Ho  was,  perhaps,  the  most 
universal  genius  of  his  age,  and  is  said  to  have  written 
upwards  of  a  hundred  dill'ercnt  works,  the  chief  port  of 
which  have  remained  unpublished.  His  various  works  give 
satisfactory  evidence  of  his  abilities  as  a  theologian,  niatlie- 
matician,  geographer,  antiqujry,  historian,  and  poet.  Tlie 
Cronica  del  Muli-matici  is  an  abridgment  of  o  larger  work, 
on  wliicli  ho  had  bestowed  twelve  years  of  labour,  and 
which  was  intended  to  contain  the  lives  of  more  iLau  two 


B  A  L  —  13  A  L 


275 


buclreu  mathematicians.  His  life  has  been  written  by 
Afft',  Mazzuobelli,  and  others. 

BALDIXGER,  Ernest  Gottfried,  a  German  physician 
of  considerable  eminence,  and  the  author  of  a  great  number 
ii  medical  publications,  was  born  near  Erfurt,  13th  May 
J  738.  Ue  studied  medicine  at  Erfurt,  Halle,  and  Jena, 
lad  in  1761  was  intrusted  with  the  superintendence  of  the 
Diilitary  hospitals  connected  with  the  Prussian  encampment 
Lcar  Torgau.  He  published,  in  1765,  a  dissertation  on 
ihe  diseases  of  soldiers,  which  mot  with  so  favourable  a 
reception  that  he  published  an  enlarged  edition,  under  the 
title  of  Treatue  on  the  Diseases  that  prevail  in  Armies, 
Langensalza,  1774,  8vo.  In  1768  he  became  professor 
nf  medicine  at  Jena,  whence, he  removed,  in  1773,*  to 
Oottingen,  and  in  1785  to  Marburg,  where  he  died  of 
»poplexy  on  the  21bt  of  January  1804.  Among  his  pupils 
irere  Akermann,  Sommering,  and  Blumeubach.  Some 
jighty-four  separate  treatises  are  mentioned  as  having  pro- 
ceeded from  his  pen,  in  addition  to  numerous  papers  scat- 
tered through  various  collections  and  journals. 

BALDINUCCI,  FiLlPPO,  a  distinguished  Italian  writer 
.■>D  the  history  of  the  arts,  was  born  at  Florence  about 
1624,  and  died  in  1696.  His  chief  work  is  entitled  Notine 
■U  Pro/essori  del  Disegno  da  Cimabue  in  q-uh  {dal  1260 
lino  al  1670),  and  was  first  published,  in  six  vols.  4to, 
1681-1728.  The  capital  defect  of  this  work  is  the  attempt 
to  derive  all  Italian  art  from  the  schools  of  Florence.  A 
jood  edition  is  that  by  Ranalli  (5  vols.  8vo,  Florence, 
1845-47).  Baldinucci's  whole  works  have  been  published 
Id  fourteen  vols,  at  Milan,  1808-12. 

BALDOVINETTI,  Alessio,  was  a  distinguished  painter 
jf  Florence  in  the  15th  century,  whose  works  have  now 
become  very  scarce.  Hogarth  takes  him  as  a  type  of  those 
obscure  artists  to  whom  the  affected  amateurs  of  his  time 
were  wont  to  ascribe  old  paintings — "'Tis  a  fine  piece  of 
Alessio  Baldovinetti,  in  hia  third  manner."  His  father, 
BJdovinetti,  belonged  to  a  merchant  family  of  good  stand- 
ing and  fortune.  Alessio  was  born  in  1422,  and  took  to 
painting,  according  to  Vasari,  against  his  father's  desire. 
His  art  was  distinguished  rather  for  study  than  for  genius. 
It  represents  completely  some  of  the  leading  characters  of 
the  Florentine  school  in  that  age.  It  was  an  age  of  diligent 
ichooling  and  experiment,  in  which  art  endeavoured  to 
master  more  of  the  parts  and  details  of  nature  than  she 
bad  mastered  heretofore,  and  to  improve  her  technical 
means  for  their  representation.  Among  the  parts  of  nature 
specially  studied  in  the  15th  century,  were  landscape  and 
oatural  history,  the  particulars  of  scenery,  and  the  charac- 
ters of  birds,  beasts,  and  plants.  Alessio  Baldovinets  sur- 
passed all  his  contemporaries  in  attention  to  these  matters. 
In  Vasari's  words,  you  see  in  his  paintings  "  rivers,  bridges, 
•tones,  grasses,  fruits,  roads,  fields,  cities,  castles,  arenas,  and 
»n  infinity  of  suchlike  things."  From  this  quality  of  his  art 
it  has  been  guessed,  without  sufficient  cause,  that  he  was 
the  pupil  of  Paolo  Uccelli,  the  first  Florentine  master  who 
devoted  himself  to  such  matters.  For  the  rest,  this  ex- 
treme care  and  minuteness  renders  his  manner  somewhat 
bard.  Like  many  other  painters  of  his  time,  he  treats 
iraperios,  hair,  and  such  parts,  with  a  manner  that  shows 
:ho  influence  of  the  goldsmith,  and  is  more  proper  to  metal 
*<"■''  'han  to  painting.  His  principal  extant  works  are  a 
nativity  in  the  church  of  the  Annunziati,  an  altar-piece,  No. 
2t,  in  the  g.iUery  of  the  Uffizi,  and  another.  No.  2,  in  the 
gallery  of  ancient  pictures  in  the  Academy  of  Arts  at 
Florence.  The  great  work  of  his  life  was  a  series  of  frescoes 
from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  chapel  of  the  Gianfigliazzi 
family  in  the  church  of  Sta  Trinita,  containing  many  in- 
teresting contemporary  portraits  ;  but  these  were  destroyed 
about  1760.  He  also  designed  a  likeness  of  Cante  for  the 
^iktbedrol  of  Florence  in  1465.     His  technical  experiments 


were  of  the  same  nature  as  those  made  by  his  contempo 
rarics — Pesellino,  Pollaiuolo,  and  Domeiiico  Venizianu,  who 
endeavoured  to  find  out  an  oil  medium  at  Florence  before 
Antonello  da  Messina  had  brought  to  Venice  the  secrets  of 
the  Flemish  practice.  Vasari  relates,  how  Alessio  thought 
he  had  made  a  great  discovery  with  the  mixture  of  yolk  of 
egg  and ieated  vemiceliquida,  but  how  the  work  so  painted 
presently  became  discoloured.  He  understood  mosaic  as 
well  as  painting,  and  between  1481  and  1484  was  engaged 
in  repairing  ancient  mos.iic3,  first  in  the  church  of  S.-\n 
Miniato,  next  in  the  baptistery  at  Florence.  He  is  said 
to  have  instructed  Dominico  Ohirlandaio  (see  Bigordi)  in 
this  art.  He  died  on  the  29th  of  August  1499,  within 
two  years  and  a  half  of  the  completion  of  his  frescoes  in 
the  Gianfigliazzi  chapel..  (Vasari,  ed.  Lemoniiier,  vol  iv. 
pp.  101-107  ;  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  Uist.  of  Painting  in 
Italy,  vol.  ii.  pp.  372-381.)  (s.  c.) 

B.VLDUINUS,  Jacobus,  a  distinguished  professor  of 
civil  law  in  the  university  of  Bologna.  He  was  by  birth 
a  Bolognese,  and  is  reputed  to  have  been  of  a  noble  family. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Azo,  and  the  master  of  Odofredus,  of 
Hostiensis,  and  of  Jacobus  de  Ravanis,  the  last  of  whom 
has  the  reputation  of  having  first  applied  dialectical  forms 
to  legal  science.  His  great  fame  as  a  jurist  caused  him 
to  be  elected  podesiil  of  the  city  of  Genoa,  where  he  was 
intrusted  with  the  reform  of  the  laws  of  the  republic. 
He  died  at  Bologna  in  1225,  and  has  left  behind  him  some 
treatises  on  Procedure,  which  have  the  merit  of  being  the 
earliest  of  their  kind. 

BALDUR,  one  of  the  most  interesting  figures  of  the 
Scandinavian  mythology,  was  the  son  of  Odin  and  Frigg. 
His  name  (from  baldr,  the  foremost  or  pre-eminent  one) 
deVioted  his  supreme  excellence  and  beauty.  In  the 
Gylfeginning  we  read  that  he  was  so  amiable  that  all  loved 
him,  so  beautiful  that  a  light  seemed  to  shine  about  him, 
and  his  face  and  hair  were  for  ever  refulgent.  He  was  the 
mildest,  wisest,  and  most  eloquent  of  the  /Esir ;  and  when 
he  pronounced  a  judgment,  it  was  infallible.  His  dwelling 
was  in  Brejdablik  (far-sight),  where  nothing  impure  could 
come,  and  where  the  most  obscure  Question  could  be 
explained.  The  wonderful  legend  of  this  death  is  first 
dimly  recorded  in  the  Vdluspa,  the  nf^indest  and  most 
ancient  of  Eddaic  poems,  and  more  .Vlly  in  the  younger 
Edda.  Baldur  was  visited  by  evil  dreams,  and  felt  his  life 
to  be  in  danger.  His  mother,  Frigg,  took  oath  of  all 
things  in  the  world,  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral,  that 
they  should  not  slay  her  son.  The  gods  being  then  secure, 
found  pastime  in  setting  the  good  Baldur  in  their  midst, 
and  in  shooting  or  hurling  stones  at  his  invulnerable  body. 
Then  Loki,  the  evU  god,  took  on  him  the  form  of  a  woman 
and  went  to  Frigg  in  FensaL  From  Frigg  he  learned  that 
of  all  things  in  the  earth  but  one  could  injure  Baldur,  and 
that  was  a  little  tree  westward  from  Valh.il,  that  was  too 
young  to  take  the  oath.  Thither  went  Loki  and  found 
the  plant ;  it  was  the  mistletoe.  He  plucked  it  up,  fashioned 
it  into  an  arrow,  and  went  back  to  the  /Esir.  They 
were  still  in  a  circle,  shooting  at  Baldur;  and  outside  the 
ring  stood  the  blind  god  Hoder,  of  whom  Loki  asked 
wherefore  he  did  not  shoot.  When  Hoder  had  excused 
himself  because  of  his  blindness,  Loki  offered  to  aim  for 
him,  and  Hoder,  shooting  the  arrow  of  mistletoe,  Baldur 
suddenly  fell,  pierced  and  dead.  No  such  misfortune  had 
ever  yet  befallen  gods  or  men  ;  there  was  long  silence  in 
heaven,  and  then  with  one  accord  there  broke  out  a  loud 
noise  of  weeping.  The  JEaii  dared  not  revenge  the  deed, 
because  the  place  was  holy,  but  Frigg,  rushing  into  their 
midst,  besought  them  to  send  one  to  Hel  to  fetch  him 
back.  Hel  promised  to  let  him  go  if  all  things  in  heaven 
and  e-irth  were  unanimous  in  wishing  it  to  be  so;  but 
when  inquiry  was  made,  a  creature  called  Thokt  was  found 


276 


B  A  L  —  B  A  L 


in  the  cleft  of  a  rock  that  said,  "  Let  Hel  keep  its  booty." 
This  was  Loki,  and  so  Baldr.r  came  not  bact  U'  Valiai. 
His  death  was  revenged  by  his  son  Vale,  who,  being  only 
one  night  old,  slew  Hoder  ;  but  Loki  fled  from  the  revenge 
rf  the  gods.  In  Baldur  was  personified  the  Light  of  the 
sun  ;  in  his  death  the  quenching  of  that  light  in  winter. 
1q  his  invulnerable  body  is  expressed  the  incorporeal 
quality  of  light ;  what  alone  can  wound  it  is  mistletoe,  the 
(.ymbol  of  the  depth  of  winter.  It  is  noticeable  that  the 
Druids,  when  they  tut  down  this  plant  with  a  golden 
sickle,  did  so  to  prevent  it  from  wounding  Baldur  again. 
According  to  the  Vdluspa,  Baidur  will  return,  after  Ragna- 
rijk,  to  the  new  heavens  and  the  new  earth ;  so  the  sun 
returns  in  spring  to  the  renovated  world.  In  the  later 
versions  it  was  no  ordinary  season,  but  the  Fimbul  winter, 
which  no  summer  follows,  which  Baldur's  death  prefigured, 
[t  must  not  be  overlooked  that  the  story  of  Baldur  is  not 
merely  a  sun-myth,  but  a  personification  of  that  glory, 
purity,  and  innocence  of  the  gods  which  was  believed  to 
have  been  lost  at  his  death,  thus  made  the  central  point  of 
the  whole  drama  of  the  great  Scandinavian  mythology. 
Baldur  has  been  also  considered,  in  relation  to  some  state- 
ments of  Saxo  Grammaticus,  to  have  been  a  god  of  peace, 
— peace  attained  through  warfare ;  this  theory  has  been 
advanced  by  Weinhold  with  much  ingenuity.  Several 
myths  have  been  cited  as  paralleling  the  story  of  the  death 
of  Baldur ;  those  of  Adanis  and  of  Persephone  may  be 
considered  as  the  most  plausible.  (e.  w.  o.) 

BALDUS,  an  eminent  professor  of  the  civil  law,  and 
also  of  the  canon  law,  in  the  university  of  Perugia.  He 
came  of  the  noble  family  of  the  Ubaldi ;  and  his  two 
brothers,  Angelus  de  Ubaldis  and  Petrus  de  Ubaldis,  were 
almost  of  equal  eminence  with  himself  as  jurists.  .  He  was 
bom  in  1327,  and  studied  civil  law  under  Bartolus  at 
Perugia,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  civil  law  at  the  early  age  of  seventeen  in  1344. 
Frederial3  Petnicius  of  Siena  is  said  to  have  been  the 
master  under  whom  he  studied  canon  law.  Upon  his  pro- 
motion to  the  doctorate  he  at  once  proceeded  to  Bologna, 
where  he  taught  law  for  three  years ;  after  which  he 
was  advanced  to  a  professorial  chair  at  Perugia,  which  he 
occupied  for  thirty-three  years.  He  taught  law  subsequently 
at  Pisa,  at  Florence,  at  Padua,  and  at  Pavia,  at  a  time 
when  the  schools  of  law  in  those  universities  disputed  the 
palm  with  the  school  of  Bologna.  Baldus  has  not  left 
behind  him  any  works  which  bear  out  the  great  reputation 
which  he  acquired  amongst  his  contemporaries.  This 
circumstance  may  be  in  some  respects  accounted  for  by  the 
active  part  which  he  took  in  public  afl'airs,  and  by  the  fame 
which  he  acquired  by  his  consultations,  of  which  five 
volumes  have  been  published  b>  Diplovataccius.  Baldus 
was  the  master  of  Peter  Beaufwt,  the  nephew  of  Pope 
Clement  VI.,  who  became  himself  Pope  under  the  title  of 
Gregory  XL,  and  whoso  immediate  successor,  Urban  VI., 
summoned  Baldus  to  Rome  to  assist  him  by  his  consuUa- 
tions  Bgainflt  the  anti  pope  Clement  VII.  Cardinal  do 
Zabarella  and  Paulus  do  Castro  were  also  amongst  his 
pupils.  His  Commentary  on  the  Liber  Fendonim  is  con- 
sidered to  be  one  of.  the  best  of  his  works,  which  have 
been  unfortunately  left  by  him  for  the  most  part  in  an 
incomplete  state 

BALDWIN,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  English  prelate  of  the 
12th  century,  was  born  of  obscure  parents  at  Exeter,  where, 
in  the  early  part  of  his  life,  he  taught  a  grammar  school. 
After  this  ho  took  orders,  and  was  made  archdeacon  of 
Exeter;  but  he  resigned  that  dignity,  and  became  a  Cister- 
cian merik  in  the  monastery  of  Ford  in  Devonshire,  of 
whic'h,  id  a  few  years,  he  was  made  abbot.  In  the  year 
1180  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Worcester.  In  1184 
be  w.-w  promoted  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  and  by  Urban  11 L 


was  appointed  legate  for  that  diocese.  He  laid  the  fonndn- 
tion  of  a  church  and  monastery  in  honour  of  Thomas  i 
Becket  at  Hackington,  near  Canterbury,  for  secular  priests; 
but  being  opposed  by  the  monks  of  Canterbury  and  th? 
Pope,  he  was  obliged  to  desist.  Baldwin  then  laid  the 
foundation  of  -the  archiepiscopal  palace  at  Lambeth.  la 
11S9  he  crowned  King  Richard  L  at  Westminster,  and 
two  years  later,  after  making  a  pilgrimage  through  Wales 
to  preach  the  Crusade,  followed  that  prince  <o  the  Holy 
Land,  where  he  died  at  the  siege  of  Ptolemais  or  St  Jean 
d'Acre.  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  who  accompanied  him  in 
an  expedition  through  Wales,  says  he  was  of  modcraie 
habits  and  of  an  extremely  mild  disposition.  He  wrote 
various  tracts  on  religious  subjects,  some  of  which  were 
coDected  and  published  by  Bertrand  Tissier  in  1662. 

BALE,  John,  Bishop  of  Ossory,  in  Ireland,  was  born  at 
Cove,  near  Dunwich  in  Suffolk,  in  November  1495.  He 
was  educated  in  the  monastery  of  the  Carmelites  at  Norwich, 
and  afterwards  at  Jesus  College,  Oxford.  He  belonged  at 
first  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  but  was  converted  to 
the  Protestant  religion  by  Thomas  Lord  Wentworth.  On 
the  death  of  Lord  Cromwell,  the  favourite  of  Henry  VIII., 
who  had  protected  him  from  the  persecutions  of  the  Romisb 
clergy,  he  was  obliged  to  lake  refuge  in  Flanders,  where 
he  continued  eight  years.  Soon  alter  the  accession  of 
Edward  VL  he  was  recalled  ;  and  being  first  presented  to 
the  living  of  Bishop's  Stocke  (Bishopstoke),  in  Hampshire, 
he  was  nominated  in  1552  to  the  see  of  Ossory,  in  Ireland. 
During  his  residence  there  he  was  remarkably  assiduous  in 
propagating  the  Protestant  doctrines,  but  with  little  suc- 
cess, and  frequently  at  the  hazard  of  his  life.  On  the 
accession  of  Queen  Mary  the  tide  of  opposition  became  so 
powerful  that,  to  avoid  assassination,  he  embarked  for 
Holland  ;  and,  after  various  vicissitudes,  reached  Easel  in 
Switzerland,  where  he  continued  till  the  accession  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  After  his  return  to  England  he  was,  in  1560, 
made  prebendary  of  Canterbury,  where  he  died  in  Novem- 
ber lo63,  in  the  sixty -eighth  year  of  his  age.  Bale  is  noted 
as  being  one  of  the  last  (though  not  the  last,  as  has  some- 
■times  been  said)  of  those  who  wrote  miracle-plays.  Several 
of  his  are  extant,  and  a  list  of  titles  of  about  twenty  is  given 
by  Collier  (li.  238).  They  are  remarkable  for  the  determi- 
nation they  manifest  to  introduce  and  inculcate  the  doctrines 
of  the  Reformed  religion.  The  best  of  his  historical  plays^ 
Kynge  Jokan,  has  been  published  by  the  Camden  Society, 
1838.  Of  his  numerous  other  works  the  most  noted  is  his- 
collection  of  British  biography,  entitled  lUustrium  Ifajoria 
Britanniit  Scriptorum  Calalogus,  a  Japheto  sanctissimi 
Nouh  jUio  ad  An.  Dom.  1559.  This  work  was  fii-st  pub- 
lished in  quarto  in  1548,  and  afterwards,  with  various 
additions,  in  folio,  in  1557-59.  Although  slightly  inaccu- 
rate, it  is  still  a  work  of  great  value  for  the  minute  notices 
it  gives  of  writers,  concerning  whom  little  is  otherwise 
known.  A  selection  from  his  works  was  pubhshed  in 
1849  by  the  Parker  Society,  containing  the  Examinationt 
of  Cobhain,  Thorpe,  and  Anne  Askew,  and  the  Image 
of  tke  two  Churches.  Bale's  style  is  frequently  coarse 
and  violent,  and  his  truthfulness  has  been  sometimes  chal- 
lenged. 

BALEARIC  ISLANDS,  a  remarkable  group  in  the 
western  part  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  lying  to  the  S.  and 
E.  of  Spain,  between  38"  40'  and  40"  5'  N.lat.,  and  between 
V  and  b"  E.  long.  The  name,  as  now  employed,  includes 
not  only  the  ancient  Insuta'  Baharcs  {Major  and  Afinor), 
but  also  the  J'ilyusa:  or  Pine  Islands,  as  the  two  more 
western  were  called.  The  orij;in  of  the  name  Baltarcs  is  a 
mere  matter  of  conjecture,  and  the  reider  may  choose  any  of 
the  derivations  usually  offered  with  about  an  equal  chance 
of  not  being  right.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  modern  Majorca  (or,  in  Spanish,  Malkirca)and  Minorca. 


BALEARIC     ISLANDS 


277 


fin  Spanish,, Mcnorca)  are  obtained  from  the  Latin  ilajor 
and  Minor,  '  through  the  Byzantine  forms  Moioptita  and 
Uivo/Hxa;  while  Iviza:  is  plainly  the  older  Ebusus,  a  name 


of,  probably,  Carthaginian  origin..  The  Ophiuaa  of  the 
Greeks  (Co!uhrarta  of  the  Romans)  is  now  known  as 
Formentera. 


■•^"feS.   MESORC/ 


"H 


:%, 


JLaTOBCA 
on 
HALLonri> 


'^r^jil^^  I 


Skiitcb  Map  of  the  Balearic  Inlands. 


Majorca  is  the  largest  island  of  tbe  group,  having  an 
irea  of  1430  square  miles.  Its  shape  is  that  of  a  trape- 
loid,  with  the  angles  directed  to  the  cardinal  points  ;  and 
its  diagonal,  from  Cape  Ororer  in  the  W.  to  Cape  Pera  in 
the  E.,  is  about  sixty  miles.  On  the  N.W.  the  coast  is 
highly  precipitous,  but  on  the  other  sides  it  is  low  and 
sloping.  On  the  N.E.  there  aro  several  considerable  bays, 
of  which  the  chief  are  those  of  Alcudia'  and  PoUenza  ; 
while  on  the  S.  W.  is  the  still  more  important  bay  of  Palma. 
No  fewer  than  twelve  ports  or  harbours  are  enumerated 
round  the  island,  of  which  may  be  mentioned  Andrair, 
SoUer,  and  Porto  Colom.  In  the  N.  W.  Majorca  is  traversed 
by  a  chain  of  mountains  running  parallel  with  the  coast,  and 
attaining  its  highest  elevation  in  Silla  de  ToriUas,  4  COO  feet 
above  the  sea.  Towards  the  south  and  east  the  surface  is 
comparatively  level,  though  broken  by  isolated  peaks  of  con- 
siderable height.  The  northern  mountains  afford  great 
protection  to  the  rest  of  the  island  from  the  violent  gales  to 
which  it  is  exposed,  and  render  the  climate  remarkably  mild 
and  pleasant,  while  the  heats  of  summer  are  tempered  by 
the  sea-breezes.  The  scenery  of  Majorca  is  varied  and 
beautiful,  with  all  the  picturesqucnessof  outline  that  usually 
belongs  to  a  limestone  formation.  Some  of  the  valleys, 
such  as  those  of  Valdcmoza  and  Seller,  with  their  luxuriant 
vegetation,  are  delightful  resorts.  There  are  quarries  of 
marble,  of  various  grains  and  colours — those  of  Santagny, 
in  the  partido  of  Manacor,  being  especially  celebrated  ; 
while  lead,  iron,  and  cinnabar  have  also  been  obtained. 
Coal  of  a  jet-like,  character  is  found  at  ienisalem,  where 
works  were  commenced  in  1836,  at  Selva,  where  it  has  been 
mined  since  1851,  near  Santa  Maria,  and  elsewhere.  It  is 
used  in  the  industrial  establishments  of  Palma,  and  in  the 
manalacture  of  lime,  plaster,  and  bricks,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  mines, — a  considerable  quantity  being  also 
exported  to  Barcelona.  The  inhabitants  are  principally 
devoted  to  agriculture,  and  most  of  the  arable  land  of  the 
islands  ii  under  cultivation.     Tbe  mountains  are  terraced  ; 


and  the  old  pine  woods  have  in  many  places  given  place  to 
the  olive,  the  vine,  and  the  almond  tree,  to  fields  of  wheat 
and  flax,  or  to  orchards  of  figs  and  oranges.  For  the  last- 
mentioned  fruits  the  valley  of  SoUer  is  one  of  the  most 
important  districts,  the  produce  being  largely  transmitted 
to  Fr.ince,  and  realising  about  i!25,000  per  annum.  The 
oil  harvest  is  very  considerable,  and  Inca  is  the  centre  of 
the  oil  district.  The  wines  are  light  but  excellent,  especi- 
ally the  Muscadel  and  Montona.  The  agricultural  methods 
of  the  islands  are  still  somewhat  primitive,  but  the  intro- 
duction of  machinery  indicates  improvement,  as  well  as  tbe 
drainage,  by  an  English  company,  of  a  marsli  and  lake, 
8000  acres  in  extent,  near  the  town  of  Alcudia.  During 
ihe  Bummer  there  is  often  great  scarcity  of  water;  but, 
according  to  a  system  handed  down  by  the  Moors,  the 
rains  of  autumn  and  winter  are  collected  in  enormous 
reservoirs,  which  contain  suflicient  water  to  last  through 
the  dry  season  ;  and  on  the  payment  of  a  certain  rate, 
each  landholder  in  turn  has  his  fields  flooded  at  certain 
intervals.  Mules  are  used  in  the  agriculture  and  traffic  of 
the  island.  The  cattle  are  small,  but  the  sheep  are  large 
and  well  fleeced.  Pigs  are  largely  reared,  and  exported 
to  Barcelona.  There  is  abundance  of  pouUr)'and  of  small 
game.  A  good  deal  of  brandy  is  made  and  exported. 
Excellent  woollen  and  linen  cloths  are  woven.  ,  The  silk- 
worm is  reared, and  its  produce  manufactured;  aod  canvas, 
rope,  and  cord  are  largely  made,  fcom  both  native  and 
foreign  materials.  The  average  value  of  the  imports  of 
the  island  is  .£550,000,  and  the  exports  amount  to  rather 
more.  The  roads  are  excellent,  the  four  principal  being 
tho«o  from  Alcudia,  Manacor,  Soller,  and  Andraii  to  the 
capital.  A  railway  is  in  course  of  construction  from  Palma 
by  Inca  to  Alcudia,  and  the  stock  is  all  held  by  Mallorquins. 
A  telegraphic  lino  passes  from  Palma  to  Valcenia,  and . 
there  is  regular  steam  communication  with  Barcelona  and 
Alicante.  A  Majorcan  bank  has  been  established,  and  . 
credit  association  for  the  development  of  the  resources  of 


278 


BALEARIC     ISLANDS 


the  island.,  Tlie  people  are  industrious  and  hospitable, 
and  pique  themselves  on  their  loyalty  and  orthodoxy. 
They  are  often  but  poorly  educated,  and  their  superstition 
is  great ;  crime,  however,  is  rare.  Vaccination  is  common 
throughout  the  island,  except  in  the  cities, — the  women 
often  performing  the  operation  themselves  when  medical 
assistance  cannot  be  got.  Castilian  is  spoken  by  the 
upper  and  commercial  classes ;  the  lower  and  agricultural 
employ  a  dialect  resembling  that  of  the  Catalans,  with 
whom,  also,  their  general  appearance  and  manners  connect 
them.  Besides  the  towns  already  mentioned,  Liuchmayor 
and  Campos  are  places  of  considerable  size  ;  and  the  castle 
of  Belbez  near  Palma,  which  was  the  former  residence  of 
the  kings,  is  worthy  of  notice.  Population  of  the  island, 
204,000. 

Minorca,  the  second  of  the  group  in  size,  is  situated  27 
miles  E.N.E.  of  Majorca.  It  has  an  area  of  260  square 
miles,  and  extends  about  35  miles  in  length.  The  coast 
is  deeply  indented,  especiaUy  on  the  north,  with  numerous 
creeks  and  bays, — that  of  Port  Mahon  being  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  Mediterranean,  if  not  the  best  of  them  all,  as 
the  couplet  of  Andrea  Doria  quaintly  puts  it — 

"Junio,  Julio,  Agosto,  y  puerto  MahoD 
Los  mejores  pueitos  del  Mediterraneo  son"  — 

"June,  July,  August,  and  Port  Mahon  are  the  best  har- 
bours of  the  Mediterranean."  The  ports  Addaya,  Fornelle, 
Ciudadela,  and  Nitja  may  also  be  mentioned.  The  surface 
of  the  island  is  uneven,  flat  in  the  south  and  rising 
irregularly  towards  the  centre,  where  the  mountain  El 
Toro — probably  so  called  from  the  Arabic  Tor,  a  height, 
though  the  natives  have  a  legend  of  a  toro  or  bull — has  an 
altitude  of  5250  feet.  Owing  to  want  of  shelter  from 
mountains,  the  climate  is  not  so  equable  as  that  of  Majorca, 
and  the  island  is  exposed  in  autumn  and  winter  to  the 
violence  of  the  north  winds.  The  soil  of  the  island  is  of 
very  unequal  quality  ;  that  of  the  higher  districts  being 
Light,  fine,  and  fertile,  and  producing  regular  harvests 
without  much  labour  or  cultivation,  while  that  of  the 
plains  is  chalky,  scanty,  and  alike  unfit  for  pasture  and  the 
plough.  Some  of  the  valleys  have  a  good  alluvia!  soil, 
and  where  the  hills  have  been  terraced,  they  are  cultivated 
to  the  summit.  The  wheat  and  barley  raised  in  the  island 
are  sometimes  sufGcic-nt  for  home  consumption  ;  there  is 
rarely  a  surjjlus.  The  Iltfjysarum  coronarium,  or  zulla,  as 
It  is  called  by  the  Spaniards,  is  largely  cultivated  for 
(odder.  Wine,  oil,  potatoes,  legumes,  hemp,  and  flax  are 
produced  in  moderate  quantities ;  fruit  of  aU  kinds, 
including  melons,  pomegranates,  figs,  and  almonds,  is 
abundant.  The  moniato,  or  sweet  pota'o,  is  grown  and 
exported  to  Algeria.  The  caper  plant  is  ,  ommon  through- 
out the  isknd,growing  on  ruined  walh).  Horned  cattle, sheep, 
goats,  ic,  are  reared,  and  the  island  abounds  with  small 
game.  Stone  of  various  kinds  is  plentiful,  a  soft  stone,  easily 
quarried,  and  acquiring  hardness  by  exposure,  is  used  for 
building.  In  the  district  of  Mcrcadal  and  in  Mount  Sania 
Agueda  are  found  marbles  and  porjihyries  superior  to  tho.se 
of  Italy,  and  lime  and  slate  are  also  abunj.mt.  Lead, 
copper,  and  iron  might  be  worked  were  it  nut  for  the 
scarcity  of  fuel.  There  are  manufactures  of  the  wool, 
hemp,  and  flax  of  the  island  ;  and  formerly  there  was  a 
good  deal  of  boalbuildin!^ ;  but,  with  the  exception  of 
agriculture,  all  branches  of  industry  are  comparatively 
neglected.  The  principal  exports  are  wheat,  cattle,  cotton- 
stufl's,  and  shoca  An  excellent  road,  constructed  in  1713-15 
by  Brigadier  Xanc,  to  whose  memory  a  monument  was 
erected  at  the  first  milestone,  runs  through  the  Lsland  from 
S.E.  to  V..\V.,  and  connects  Port  Mahon  with  Ciudadela, 
passinr;  Wy  Alayor,  Mcrcadal,  and  Ferrerias.  Ciudadela, 
which  was  tne  capital  of  the  island  tiU  Mahon  wni  rajsed 


to  that  position  by  the  English  during  their  occupancy  ot 
the  island,  still  possesses  considerable  remains  of  its  former 
importance.     Population  of  the  island,  39,000. 

Iviij-a,  Ivua,  or,  in  Spanish,  Ibiza,  the  £busua  of  the  tviv* 
ancients,  lies  50  mdes  S  W  of  Majorca,  and  about  60  from 
Cape  San  Martin  on  the  coast  of  Spain,  between  SS*"  50'  and 
3'J°  8'  N.  kt,,  and  between  1°  U'  and  T  38'  E.  lung. 
Its  greatest  length  from  N  E  to  S  W  is  about  25  milts, 
and  its  greiitest  breadth  about  13.  The  coast  is  indented 
by  numerous  small  bays,  the  principal  of  which  are  those 
of  San  Antonio  on  the  N  VV.,  and  of  Iviza  on  the  S  E 
coast.  Of  all  the  Balearic  group,  Iviza  is  the  most  varu;d 
in  its  scenery  and  the  most  fruitful.  The  hilly  paits  are 
richly  wooded  It  was  on  one  of  the  summits  called 
Campsey  that  one  of  the  stations  in  the  celebrated  measure- 
ment of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  was  placed  The  climate  is 
for  the  most  part  mdd  and  agreeable,  though  the  hot  winds 
from  the  African  coast  are  sometimes  troublesome  OU, 
corn,  and  fruits  (of  which  the  most  important  are  the, 
common  fig,  the  prickly  pear,  the  almond,  and  the  carub-' 
bean)  are  the  principal  productions  of  the  island  ,  but  the  J 

inhabitants  are  rather  indolent,  and  their  modes  of  cul'ure 
are  very  primitive.  Hemp  and  flax  are  also  grown  Th^ie 
are  numerous  salt-pans  along  the  coast,  which  were  formeily 
worked  by  the  Spanish  Government,  but  are  now  in  the 
hands  of  a  joint-stock  company  Carob-beans,  almonds, 
charcoal,  and  lead  are  the  other  attides  of  esport.  to  wLub 
may  be  added  stockings  ot  native  manufacture  The  imports 
are  rice,  flour,  and  sugar,  woollen  goods,  and  cotton  'I  be 
capital  of  the  island,  and,  indeed,  the  only  town  of  much 
importance, — for  the  pi?pulation  is  remarkably  scaiterfd.— 
is  Iviza  or  La  Ciudad,  a  fortified  town  on  the  S  E  coast  cun 
sisting  of  a  lower  and  upper  portion,  and  possessirig  a  gO"d 
harbour.  The  population  of  the  island  is  about  2I,0U(',  cf 
whom  5500  are  lesident  in  the  capital 

South  of  Iviza  lies  the  smaller  and  more  inegular  island  Fo'"  tn 
of  Formentera,  which  is  said  to  derive  its  name  from  Uk-  ''^" 
production  of  wheat.  It  Is  situated  between  I"  22'  iuid 
1°  37'  E.  long.  With  Iviza  it  agrees  buth  in  gen.-ial 
appearance  and  in  the  character  of  its  productions  but  it  is 
altogether  destitute  of  streams  Goats  and  sheep  are  (oond 
in  the  mountains,  and  the  coasts  are  grcallj  fiequented  by 
flamingoes.  The  last  station  in  the  nieasureiiienl  of  the 
arc  of  the  meridian  was  in  this  island 

There  are  several  smaller  islands  in  the  Balearic  group,  Smallei 
such  as  Cabrera,  or  Goat  Island,  and  Conejera,  or  Kabbit  '*'""''' 
Islo.nd,  south  of  Majorca,  but  none  of  them  are'of  any  size 
or  importance  except  Cabiera,  which  is  full  of  caverns  and 
is  used  as  a  place  of  banishment.  In  1608  it  was  the 
scene  of  a  deed  of  gross  barbarity — a  large  number  of 
Frenchmen  being  landed  on  the  island,  and  almost  allowed 
to  perish  for  want  of  food. 

Of  tho  origin  of  the  eiirly  iobabitunts  of  the  Bn!eario  UIhdus  Hi<(or| 
nothing  iscenaiuly  kuown,  though  Greek  ami  I><>iiiiiu  wTilers  ref'-r 
to  Bo-olian  and  RtioJiiin  seltleuients.  According  to  gen-^rul  tradi- 
tion the  uativea,  from  whutt-vt-r  quarter  derived,  were  a  btrauge  aijd 
s«viip;o  ptiojde  till  they  received  iutrie  tluUurr  of  (ivlilsutiou  IVcni 
llie  Cai thagiDians,  ^^ho  early  took  post-essioij  ol  the  isluods,  tiijj 
built  tliemselvcs  cities  on  their  coasts  Of  lhe.-.e  tilits,  Mahon,  the 
most  important,  still  retains  the  name  whiih- it  derived  fnm 
tho  family  of  Mnpo.  About  twenty  three  years  after  the  dei-tnic- 
lion  of  Carthage  the  Romans  accused  the  people  of  the  i>Iands  of 
piracy,  and  sent  apainst  them  Q  Ca-cilius  Rleteilus,  who  hood 
reduced  them  to  ol'edience,  settled  amolit:-St  ttuui  30110  KoDi;in  iiud 
Spanish  o«loliists,  founded  the  cities  of  ralnia  and  I'olleiitia,  and 
ilitroducetl  tlie  cultivation  of  the  olive,  liesides  vaJuable  contin- 
gents of  tlic  celebrated  Balearic  slingers  tlie  Romans  derived  from 
their  new  conquest  rnule^  (from  Minorca),  edible  snails,  ^inope,  and 
pitch.  Of  their  occupation  numerous  traces  stilj  exist, — the  most 
remarkable  beini;  the  aqueduct  at  ruUeiitia, 

In  423  A  n  the  inlonda  wero  taken  possession  of  by  llic  Vanda]"*. 
and  in  798  >ty  the  Moors,  They  became  a  separate  Moorish  kiii^- 
dom  iu  lOOit,  which,  becoming  extremely  obnoxious  foi  piracy,  was 
the  object  of  a  crusade  directed  against  it  by  Pope  J'ascal  11  ,  is 


i 


B  A  L  —  r,  A  L 


279 


»h!i;h  the  Cntnlans  look  the  leaJ.  Tliis  oipfdition  w.ij  frustralM 
It  the  time,  bnt  w.i3  resumed  by  Doa  J;iiine,  king  of  Aragon,  and 
llie  Moors  e.xpellcd  in  123-2.  During  their  occupatioa  tho  island 
was  populous  and  productive,  and  an  agtivo  commerce  was  carried 
on  with  Spain  and  ATrica.  Don  Jaime  conferred  the  sovereignty  of 
Ihe  isles  on  bis  tliird  son,  under  whom  and  his  successors  they 
(urmcd  an  independent  kingdom  up  to  1319,  from  which  time  their 
history  merges  iu  that  of  Spain.     In  1521  an  insurrection  of  the 

fpisinlry  against  the  nobility,  whom  they  massacred,  took  place  in 
lajorca,  and  was  not  suppressed  without  much  bloodshed.  In 
Ihe  war  of  tho  Spanish  Succession  all  the  islands  declared  for 
Charles  ;  tho  duke  of  Anjuu  had  no  foolii^g  anywhere  save  in  the 
tiiadel  of  ilahon.  Minorca  was  reduced  by  Count  Villars  in  1707  : 
hut  it  was  not  till  Juno  1715  that  Majorca  was  subjugated,  and 
■ncinwhile  Port  Mahon  was  captured  by  tho  English  under  General 
Stanhope  in  1703.  In  1713  tlie island  was  socuredto  them  by  the  peace 
if  Utrecht ;  but  in  17.')6  it  was  invailcd  by  a  force  of  12,000  Freneh, 
vho,  ailer  defeilirg  the  unfortunate  Admiral  Byiig,  captured  I'ort 
Mahon.  Restored  to  England  in  1703  by  the  peace  of  Versailles 
Iho  island  reniaiatJ  in  our  possession  till  17S2,  when  it  was  retaken 
by  the  Spaniards.  Again  seucd  by  the  English  in  179!',  it  was  finally 
cded  to  Spain  by  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1803.  When  tho  French 
Invaded  Spain  in  1S03,  the  Mallorquins  did  not  remain  indilferent  ; 
Ihe  governor,  D.  Juan  Miguel  do  Vives,  announced,  amid  unirer.sal 
icdamition,  his  resolution  to  adhere  to  Ferdinand  VII.  At  first  the 
Junta  would  take  no  active  part  in  tho  war,  retaining  the  corps  of 
roluntcers  that  were  formed  for  the  defence  of  the  island  ;  but  find- 
log  it  quite  secure,  they  transferred  a  succession  of  them  to  the  Pen  in* 
luTa  to  reinforce  tho  allies.  Such  was  the  animosity  excited  against 
the  French  when  their  excesses  were  known  to  the  Mallorquins,  that 
»ome  of  tho  French  prisoners,  conducted  thither  in  1810,  had  to  be 
transfeired  with  all  speed  to  the  island  of  Cabrera,  a  transference 
which  was  not  effected  before  some  of  them  had  been  killed. 

Armstrong's  Ifist.  of  Minorca^  1756  ;  Dameto's  Hist,  del  reijno 
Bnharko  o  tie  Mallorca;  Sist.  of  Balearic  IsiaTids,  London,  171(3 ; 
Vincento  Mut's  Hisloria;  CIcghorn's  Diseases  of  Minorca,  1751  ; 
Wernsdorf,  Anliquitates  BaleariecE ;  Clayton's  Sunny  South,  18G9  ; 
George  Sand,  in  Revue  dcs  Deux  Mondes,  IS4I ;  D'llermilly,  Ilist.  du 
fioitatime  de  ^finorque,  Maesiricht,  1777;  "Balearic  Islands,"  in 
Bates's  Illustrated  Travels,  vol.  i.  ;  Die  Balearen  inll^ort  und  Sild 
jcseMldert,  Leipsic,  1S71 ;  "  Klima  der  lialearcn  "  in  the  Zcit.  der 
OesteYr.  Oescll.  fiir  Meteorologie,  1S74  ;  Juan  Ramis,  Antigucdadcs 
Cetticas  de  la  Isla  de  Mcnorea,  Mahon,  1813;  I'auli,  "EinMonat 
>uf  den  Balearen"  in  Das  Ausland,  1873  ;  Arago,  Di  majeunesse, 
(Euvres,vo\.  i. ;  Biot,  Recueil  d'Observaliona  gcodisiques,  &c.,  1821. 
I 

1     B.VLES,  Peter,  a  famous  caligrapbist,  and  one  of  the 
Erst   inventors  of   sbortliand  writing.     He   was  born  in 
1517,  and   is   described  by  Autboiiy  Wood   as  a  "most 
iesterous  person  in  his  profession,  to  the  great  wonder  of 
scholars   and   others."     We   are  also  informed   that  "  he 
Jpent  several  years  in  sciences  among  O.xonians,  particularly, 
13  it  seems,  in  Gloucester  Hall ;   but  that  study,  which  he 
used  for  a  diversion  only,  proved  at  length  an  employment 
of  profit."    Ho  is  mentioned  for  his  skill  in  micrography  in 
Hollingshed's  Chronide,  O-nno  1575.     "Hadrian  Junius," 
lays   Evelyn,  "speaking  as  a  miracle  of  somebody  who 
wrote  the  Apostles'  Creed  and  tho  beginning  of  St  John's 
Gospel  within  the  compass  of  a  farthing  :    wh  it  would  he 
have  said  of   our   famous    Peter  Biles,  who,  in  tho  ye.ir 
1575,  wrote  tho  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Creed,  Decalogue,  with 
two  short  prayers  in  I.,atin,  his  own  name,  motto,  day  of 
the  month,  year  of  the  Lord,  and  reign  of  the  queen,  to 
whom  he  presented  it  at  Hampton  Court,  all  of  it  written 
within  the  circle  of  a  single  penny,  inchased  in  a  ring  and 
borders  of  gold,  and  covered  with  a  crystal  so  accurately 
wrought  as  to  be  very  plainly  legible  ;  to  tho  great  admira- 
tion of  her  m.ijesty,  tho  whole  privy  council,  and  several 
ambasaadots   then   at   court  1 "     Bales  was  likewise  very 
dcKlcrous  :a  imitating  handwritings,  and  about  157G  was 
employed   by  Secretary  Walsingham   in  certain    political 
manicuvres.     We  find  him  at  tho  head  of  a  school  near  the 
Old  Bailey,  London,  in  1590,  in  which  year  he  published 
his  Writiny  Schoolmaster,  in  three  Part.'.      In  1 595  ho  had 
0.  gre.it  trial  of  skill  with  one  Daniel  Johnson,  for  a  golden 
J  pen  of  X20  value,  and  won  it  ;  and  a  contemporary  author 
further  relates  that  he  had  also  the  .irnis  of  cali^ranhy 
jiven  him,  which  arc  azure,  a  pen  or.     Talcs  died  about  the 
fear  ICIO. 


BALFE,    .Michael   William,  was    corn,    in   180S,  at 
Limerick  la  Ircbud.     His  musical  gifts  became  apparent 
at  an  early  age.      The  only  instruction  he  received  w.is 
from  his  father,  and  a  musician  of  the  name  of  Horn  ;  and 
it  seems  to  have  been  limited  to  a  superGcial  training  of 
the  voice,  and  to  some  lessons  on  tho  pianoforte.     At  ono 
time  Balfe  also   practised  tho  violin,  and  was  even  bold 
enough  to  play  in  public   one  of   Viotti's  conc»rtos,  but, 
seemingly,  without  much  success.     He  never  seems  to  have 
studied   systematically  the  fundamental  principles  of  Lis 
art,  and  this   want  of  rudimentary  training  has  left  the 
stamp  of   imperfection  on  all  his  works.     Being  in  pos- 
session of  a  small  but  pleasant  barytone  voice,  ho  chose 
tho   career  of   an   operatic  singer,   and    mado   his   d(but 
in  Der  Freischiit!,  at  Drury  Lane,  at  the  early  age  of  six- 
teen.    Tho   following  year   he  was  taken  to  Rome  by  a 
wealthy  family.     In  Italy  be  wrote  his  first  dramatic  work, 
a   ballet,   Perouse,   first   performed  at  the   Scala  theatre, 
Milan,  in  1S26.     In  the  later  part  of   the  same  year  he 
appeared  as    Figaro  in  Rossini's  Barhiere,  at  tho  Italian 
Opera  in  Paris,  at  that  time  the  scene  of  the  tinequalled 
vocal  feats  of  such  singers  as  Sontag,  Malibran,  Lablache, 
and  others.    Balfe's  voico  and  training  wero  little  adapted 
to  compete  with  such  artists;  he  soon  returned  to  Italy, 
where,  during  the  next  nine  years,  he  remained  singing  at 
various  theatres,  and  composing  a  number  of  operas,  now 
utterly  and  justly  forgotten.     During  this  time  he  married 
the   prima  donna,  Mdlle.  Luisa  Roser,  a  lady  of  German 
birth,  for  whom  one  of  his  operas  was  written.     He  even 
made  bold  to  disfigure,  by  interpolated  music  of  his  own, 
tho  works  of  Rossini,  Donizetti,  and  other  masters  of  est.ib- 
lished  reputation.     Ftitis  says  that  the  public  indignation, 
roused  by  an  attempt  at  "  improving"  in  this  manner  the 
opera  It  Crociato  by  Meyerbeer  compelled  Balfo  to  throw 
up  his  engagement  at  tho  theatre  La  Fenico  in  Venice.     H  e 
returned  to  England  where,  in  1835,  his  Siege  of  RochclU 
was  produced,  and  rapturously  received  at  Drury  Lane. 
Encouraged  by  his  success,  he  produced  a  series  of  oper.is 
which  for  some  time  made  him  the  most  popular  composer 
of  tho  day.     Amongst  the  works  written  for  London  we 
mention  Amelia,  or  the Love-tesl  (1838)  ;  /a/s/n/ (with  tbo 
incomparable  Lablache  as  Sir  John) ;  Keolanthe;  and  the 
Bohemian    Girl    (1844).      Tho    last-mentioned   work    is 
generally  considered  to  be  his  chef  dceuvre ;  it  carried  it-i 
composer's  name  to  Germany,  where  it  was  performed  wil'j 
considerable   success  at   various   theatres.     Balfo   in   the 
meantime  also  wrote  several  operas  for  the  OpiSra  Comiquo 
and  Grand  0[p(;ra   in  Paris,  of   which  we  may  mention 
those  called  Le  Piiits   I' Amour,  Lcs  quatre  Fils  Aymon, 
and  L'koile  de  Seville.     After  a  short  period  of  success  hi^ 
populirity  began  to  decline,  and  at  the  time  of  his  deatii 
in    1870,  most  of  his  music   had  become  antiquated.    A 
postliumous  work   of  his.  The  Talisman,  tho  libretto   of 
which  is  taken  from  Walter  Scott's  novel,  was  performed 
at  the  Italian  Opera,  Drury  Lane,  in  1874,  with  conside.- 
able  success.     The  chief  charm  of  his  works  consists  in  a 
certain  easy,  not  to'say  trivial,  melodiousness,  such  as  mnr 
be  readily  accounted  for  by  tho  composer's  Irish  nationality 
without  the  addition  of  individual  genius  of  a  higher  kind. 
He  had  also  a  certain  instinct  for  brilliant  orchestratio-i, 
and  for  the  coarser  effects  of  operatic  writing.     Music, I 
knowledge  of  a  higher  kind  he  never  possessed,  nor  did  Lf? 
supply  this  want  by  the  natural  impulses  of  a  truly  refined 
nature.    "  To  speak  of  Balfe  as  an  artist  is  either  to  raisuso 
the  word  or  to  permit  its  meaning  to  depend  on  temporal y 
success,  no  matter  how  acquired."      Such  is  the  stern  but 
not  unjust  verdict  of  the  late  Mr  H.  F.  Chorley,  whoso 
opinion  of  the  detrimental  effect  of  Balfe's  success  "on 
the  chances  of  establishing  a  real    national   oper.i"  also 
appears  to  be  correct.    Balfe's  claim  to  particular  notice  rests. 


■280 


B  A  L  — 13  A  L 


indeed,  less  on  the  intrinsic  merits  of  hLs  works  than 
■on  their  undoabted  success ;  and,  most  of  all,  on  the 
fact  of  his  being  one  of  the  few  composers  of  British  birth 
whose  names  are  known  beyond  the  limits  of  their  own 
country.  (f.  h.) 

BALFOUR,  SiE  James,  of  Pittendreich,  at  one  time 
lord  president  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  Scotland,  an  active 
and  unscrupulous  politician  during  the  stormy  period  of  the 
reign  of  Mary.  He  was  originally  educated  for  the  church, 
and  adopted  the  principles  of  the  Reformers.  With  Knos 
:and  others  he  was  condemned  to  the  galleys  on  account 
of  the  part  he  had  taken  in  the  murder  of  Beaton,  but 
■after  their  release  he  abjured  Protestantism,  and  speedily 
acquired  great  favour  with  the  court,  obtaining  some  con- 
siderable legal  dignities.  He  was  deeply  implicated  in  the 
murder  of  Darnley,  and  drew  up  the  bond  which  was  signed 
by  all  the  conspirators.  As  some  reward  for  his  services, 
he  was  made,  by  Mary,  governor  of  Edinburgh  Castle,  a 
position  in  which  he  had  a  good  opportunity  for  the 
exercise  of  his  great  talents  for  treachery.  He  pelded  ths 
■castle  to  Murray  on  conditions  favourable  to  himself  alone, 
and  then  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  regent's  party,  by 
whose  favour  he  secured  the  post  of  lord  president.  During 
the  next  few  years  he  changed  his  political  views  more  than 
once,  but  managed  to  keep  in  safety,  though  for  a  time 
te  deemed  it  prudent  to  withdraw  to  France.  On  the 
accession  of  James  he  returned  ;  and,  after  having  had  once 
to  flee  from  Morton,  now  his  deadly  enemy,  he  brought 
about  the  destruction  of  that  nobleman  by  producing  the 
bond  bearing  upon  Darnley's  murder.  He  died  not  long 
after  in  15S3.  The  collection  of  statutes  entitled  the 
Pradicks  is  generally  ascribed  to  him ;  but  it  is  not  known 
tow.  much  of  the  book  belongs  to  him  and  how  much  to  Sir 
John  Skene,  hia  colleague  in  the  task  of  arranging  them. 

BALFOUR,  Sia  jAiTEs,  Bart.,  of  Denmylne  and 
Kinnaird,  an  eminent  annalist  and  antiquary,  was  born 
about  1600.  He  received  a  good  education,  travelled  for 
some  time  on  he  Continent,  and  then  devoted  his  attention 
ulmost  entirely  to  the  study  of  the  history  and  antiquities 
of  his  country.  He  was  well  acquainted  with  Sir  Wm. 
Segar  and  with  Dugdale,  to  whose  Monasticon  he  contri- 
buted. He  was  knighted  by  Charles  L  in  1630,  was  made 
lyon  king-at-anns  in  the  same  year,  and  in  1633  received 
the  baronetcy  of  Kinnaird.  He  was  removed  from  his 
office  of  king-at-arms  by  Cromwell,  and  died  in  1657. 
Some  of  his  works,  which  are  very,  numerous,  are  preserved 
in  the  Advocates'  Library  at  Edinburgh,  together  with  his 
correspondence, — from  which  rich  collection  Mr  Haig 
published  Balfour's  Annates  of  Scotland  from  the  scire 
1057-1603,  in  4  vols.  8vo.  (1824-25).  See  Sibbald, 
Afemnria  Balfounana,  1699. 

BALFOUR,  Robert,  a  learned  Scotchman,  born  about 
the  year  1550,  who  was  for  many  years  principal  of  the 
Guienne  College  at  Bordeaux.  His  principal  work  is  his 
Commentary  on  tki  Loyic  and  Ethics  of  Aristotle  (Burdig. 
1616-20,  2  torn.  4to),  which  is  described  by  Dr  Irving  (Lives 
of  the  Scottish  Writers)  as  uniting  vigour  of  inteDect  with 
great  extent  and  variety  of  learning.  Balfour  was  one  of 
the  scholars  who  in  the  Middle  Ages  contributed  to  spread 
abroad  over  the  Continent  the  fame  of  the  perfervidum 
ingeninm  Scotorum. , 

BALFROOSH,  or  BARFCKUsn,  a  large  commercial  town 
of  Persia,  province  of  Mazanderan,  on  the  River  Bhawal, 
which  13  hero  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  nine  arches,  about 
twelve  miles  distant  from  tbe  southern  shore  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  where  the  small  town  of  Meslied-i-Sir  serves  as  a  kind 
of  port.  Built  in  a  low  and  swampy,  though  fertile  country, 
and  approached  by  deep  and  almost  impassable  roads,  it 
would  not  seera  at  all  favourably  situated  for  the  seat  of 
*a  extensive  inland  trade.     It  ix,  however,  peopled  entirely 


by  merchants,  mechanics,  and  their  dependants,  and  is 
wholly  indebted  for  its  present  size  and  importance  to  its 
commercial  prosperity.  The  principal  articles  of  its  trade 
are  rice,  silk,  and  cotton.  The  town  is  of  a  very  peculiar 
structure  and  aspect.  It  is  placed  in  the  midst  of  a  forest 
of  tall  trees,  by  which  the  buildings  are  so  separated  from 
one  another,  and  so  concealed,  that,  except  in  the  ba2aars, 
it  has  no  appearance  of  a  populous  town.  The  streets  are 
broad  and  neat,  though  generally  unpaved ;  and  they  are 
kept  in  good  order.  No  ruins  are  to  be  seen,  as  in  other 
Persian  towns ;  the  houses  are  comfortable,  in  good  repair, 
roofed  with  tUes,  and  enclosed  by  substantial  walls.  There 
are  no  public  buildings  of  any  importance.  The  only 
places  of  interest  are  the  bazaars,  which  extend  fully  a  mile 
in  length,  and  consist  of  substantiaUy-built  ranges  of  shops, 
covered  with  a  roof  of  wood  and  tUes,  and  well  stored  with 
commodities.  There  are  about  ten  principal  caravansaries, 
and  from  twenty  to  thirty  medresses  or  colleges,  the  place 
being  as  much  celebrated  for  learning  as  for  commerce. 
At  the  time  of  Eraser's  visit  (1822)  it  was  said  to  contain 
200,000  inhabitants,  but  this  was  probably  an  exaggera- 
tion. Since  that  time  its  population  has  undergone  various 
fluctuations,  and  is  now  estimated  at  125,000.  Long. 
52"  42'  E.,  lat.  36°  37'  N. 

BALGUY,  John,  an  eminent  English  theologian  and 
moral  philosopher,  was  born  at  Sheffield  on  August  12, 
1 686.  He  received  his  early  education  partly  under  his 
father,  and  partly  under  Mr  Daubuz,  his  father's  successor, 
in  the  grammar-school  of  that  town.  He  entered  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1702,  graduated  Bachelor  of  Arts 
in  1706,  was  ordained  to  the  ministry  in  1710,  and  soon 
after  obtained  the  small  living  of  Lamesly  and  Tanfield 
in  the  county  of  Durham.  He  married  in  1715.  It  was 
the  year,  in  which  Bishop  Hoadley  preached  that  famous 
sermon  on  The  Kingdom  of  Christ,  which  gave  rise  to  the 
long,  wearisome,  and  confused  theological  war  known  as 
the  "  Bangorian  controversy  ;"  and  Balguy,  under  the  7iom 
de  plume  of  Silvius,  began  his  career  of  authorship  by 
taking  the  side  of  Hoadley  in  this  controversy  against 
some  of  his  High  Church  opponents.  In  1726  he  published 
A  Letter  to  a  JOeist  concerning  the  Beaut)/  and  Excellency  of 
Moral  Virtue,  and  the  support  and  improvement  which  it 
receives  from  the  Christian  Religion,  chieHy  designed  to 
show  that,  while  a  love  of  virtue  for  its  own  sake  is  the 
highest  principle  of  morality,  religious  rewards  and  punish- 
ments are  most  valuable,  and  in  some  cases  absolutely 
indispensable,  as  sanctions  of  conduct.  He  supposed  that 
a  contrary  opinion  had  been  maintained  by  Lord  Shaftesbury 
in  his  Inquiry  concerning  Virtue;  but  an  examination  of 
th.at  essay  will  prove  him  to  have  in  this  respect  done 
Shaftesbury  injustice.  In  1728  he  was  made  a  prebend  of 
Salisbury  by  his  friend.  Bishop  Hoadley.  He  published 
in  the  same  year  the  first  part  of  a  tractate  entitled  The 
Foundation  of  Aforal  Goodness,  and  in  the  following  year  a 
second  part,  "  illustrating  and  enforcing  the  principles  con- 
tained in  the  former."  The  aim  of  the  work  is  twofold — 
to  refute  the  theory  of  Hutcheson  Ycgarding  the  basis  of 
rectitude,  and  to  establish  the  theory  of  Clarke.  His 
objections  to  Hutchcson's  theory  are, — (1.)  That  it 
represents  virtue  as  arbitrary  and  insecure  by  making  it 
depend  on  two  instincts,  benevolent  affection  and  the  moral 
sense ;  (2.)  That  if  true,  brutes,  since  they  have  kind 
instincts  or  affections,  must  have  some  degree  of  virtue; 
(3.)  That  if  such  atVoctions  constitute  virtue,  the  virtue 
must  be  the  greater  in  proportion  as  tho  affections  are 
stronger,  contrary  to  the  notion  of  virtue,  which  is  the 
control  of  the  affections ;  and  (4.)  That  virtue  is  degraded 
by  being  made  a  result  of  instincts  instead  of  being 
represented  as  the  highest  part  of  our  nature.  Clarkc'^ 
fundamental  ethical  principle,  that  virtue  is  conformity  to 


B  A  L  — B  A  L 


281 


rpasDn, — tlie  acting  according  to  fitnesses  which  arise  out 
of  the  eternal  and  immutable  relations  of  agents  to  objects, — 
is  the  central  and  guiding  thought  in  Balguy's  moral 
speculations,  and  even  the  source  of  what  is  roost  distinctive 
in  his  theology.  His  exposition  of  it  is  characterised  by 
insight  into  its  significance,  and  by  ingenuity  in  disposing 
of  the  objections  which  had  been  urged  against  it  In  1729 
lie  became  vicar  of  Northallerton,  in  the  county  of  York. 
His  next  work  was  an  essay  on  Divine  Rectitude;  or,  a 
Brief  Inquiry  concerning  the  Moral  Perfections  of  the  Deity, 
particularly  in  respect  of  Creation  and  Providence.  It  is  an 
attempt  to  show  that  the  same  moral  principle  which  ought 
to  direct  human  life  may  be  perceived  to  underlie  the  works 
and  ways  of  God  :  goodness  in  the  Deity  not  being  a  mere 
disposition  to  benevolence,  but  a  regard  to  an  order,  beauty, 
and  harmony,  which  are  not  merely  relative  to  our  faculties 
and  capacities,  but  real  and  absolute;  claiming  for  their  own 
Bakes  the  reverence  of  all  intelligent  beirtgs,  and  alone 
answering  to  the  perfection  of  the  divine  ideas.  It  is  only, 
Balguy  thinks,  when  the  divine  rectitude  is  thus  viewed 
as  aiming  at  order  no  less  than  at  happiness,  as  acting 
according  to  the  true  reasons  of  things  no  less  than  froiu 
the  affection  of  ben»volence,  that  such  facts  as  the  gift  of 
freedom  to  man,  the  introduction  and  infliction  of  natural 
evil,  the  inequalities  of  human  fortune,  the  sufferings  of  the 
righteous,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  wicked,  can  be  satis- 
factorily explained.  There  followed  A  Second  Letter  to  a 
Deist,  concerning  a  late  book  entitled  "  Christianity  as  old  as 
the  Creation,"  more  particularly  that  chapter  which  relates 
M  Dr  Clarke.  Here  Balguy  argues  that  Tindal  had  falsely 
inferred  revelation  to  be  superfluous  from  the  perfection  of 
;  the  law  of  nature  and  the  ability  of  rea.son  to  discover  that 
law.  He  grants  that  the  law  of  nature  is  perfect  and 
unchangeable,  and  that  men  can  know  whatever  it  is  thoir 
duty  to  do,  but  maintains  that  the  light  of  reason  may  have, 
and  has  had,  added  to  it  by  revelation  knowledge  of  great 
interest  and  value.  This,  he  holds,  is  all  that  Clarke  had 
maintained,  and  Tindal  had  failed  to  show  that  ho  had 
fallen  into  anj..  self-contradictions.  The  same  leading 
thoughts  which  we  find  in  the  tracts  just  mentioned  meet 
MS  again  in  The  Law  of  Truth,  or  the  Oiligalions  of  Reason 
essential  to  all  Religion.  In  this  essay  it  is  contended, — 
(1.)  That  reason  binds  or  obliges,  in  the  strictest  sense  of 
the  word,  all  moral  agents  ;  (2.)  That,  considering  men  in 
,  their  intellectual  and  moral  capacity,  the  obligations  of 
religion  are  entirely  founded  on  the  obligations  of  reason  ; 
and  (3.)  That  on  this  ground,  religion,  whether  natural  or 
revealed,  stands  very  firm  and  secure.  Balguy  collected 
these  tracts  and  published  them  in  a  single  volume  in  1734, 
the  Letter  to  a  Deist  and  the  Foundation  of  Moral  Goodness 
having  previously  passed  through  three  editions.  In  1741 
he  published  an  £ssqy  on  Redemption,  containing  somewhat 
peculiar  views.  Redemption  as  taught  in  Scripture  means, 
according  to  him,  "  the  deliverance  or  release  of  mankind 
from  the  power  and  punishment  of  sin,  by  the  meritorious 
sufferings  of  Jesus  Christ,"  btit  involves  no  translation,  of 
guilt,  substitution  of  persons,  or  vicarious  punishment. 
Freed  from  these  ideas,  which  have  arisen  from  interpreting 
literally  expressions  which  arc  properly  figurative,  the 
doctrine,  he  argues,  satisfies  deep  and  urgent  human  wants, 
and  is  in  perfect  consistence  and  agreement  with  reason 
and  "rectitude.  His  last  •  publication  was  a  volume  of 
sermons,  pervaded  by  good  sense  and  good  feeling,  and 
clear,  natural,  and  direct  in  style,  but  bearing  few  traces  of 
the  influence  of  the  most  distinctive  and  potent  Christian 
motives.  He  died  at  Harrowgate,  September  21,  1748. 
•  A  second  volume  of  sermons  appeared  shortly  afterwards. 
The  edition  of  his  sermons  most  commonly  met  with  is  the 
3d,  in  2  vols.,  published  in  17G0.  The  notice  of  his  life  in 
the  Biographia  Britannica  was  written  by  his  son.     P'o 


also  Hunt's  Religiotu  Thought  in  England,  vol.  iL  3C2-4, 
454-6,  iiL  87-9.  Mr  Hunt  erroneously  represents 
Shaftesbury  and  not  Hutcheson  as  the  philosopher  assailed 
in  the  Foundation  of  Moral  Goodness.  (r.  f.) 

BALI,  or  Little  Java,  one  of  the  Sunda  Islands,  in 
the  Eastern  Seas,  separated  from  Java  by  the  straits  of  the 
same  name,  which  are  a  mile  and  a  half  wide.  It  is  75 
miles  in  length  ;  its  greatest  breadth  is  00  miles.  A  chaiu 
of  mountains  crosses  the  island  in  a  direction  E.  and  W., 
and  terminates  on  the  E.  in  the  volcanic  peak  Gunung- 
agung,  12,379  feet  above,  the  sea-level.  The  climate  and 
suil  are  the  same  as  in  Java ;  it  has  mountains  of  propor- 
tionate height,  several  lakes  of  great  depth,  and  streams 
well  fitted  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation.  Rice  is  produced 
in  great  quantities,  and  is  even  exported  to  ''Madura, 
Celebes;  Timor,  and  Java.  The  other  productions  are 
tobacco,  maize,  pulses,  oil,  and  salt ;  also  cotton  of  an 
excellent  quality.  Coffee  is  now  grown  with  great  success  ; 
in  the  district  of  Teja  Kulo  alone,  150,000  trees  were 
planted  in  the  first  four  months  of  1873.  The  inhabitants 
(estimated  at  about  800,000),  though  originally  sprung 
from  the  same  stock  as  those  of  Java,  exceed  them  in 
stature  "and  muscular  power,  as  well  as  in  activity  and 
enterprising  habits.  "  They  have,"  says  Sir  Stamford 
Raflles,  "  a  higher  cast  of  spirit,  independence,  and  man- 
liness than  belongs  to  any  of  their  neighbours."  They 
are  good  agriculturists  and  skilful  artisans,  especially  in 
textile  fabrics  and  the  manufacture  of  arms.  The  imports 
are  iron  and  cotton  cloths,  and  opium  to  a  great  extent; 
in  the  district  of  Tabacan  alone,  forty  chests  of  this  drug 
are  annually  consumed.  Both  imports  and  exports  are  on 
the  increase  ;  but  trade  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Euro- 
peans, Chinese,  and  Arabs,  who  have  their  firms  or  agents 
in  Batavia,  Surabaya,  Makassar,  and  Singapore.  The  trade 
returns  in  the  port  of  Padang  Cove  are  estimated  at 
£500,000  to  £GO0;O00  per  annum  ;  those  of  Buleleng  and 
Jembrana  were  about  £500,000  in  1873.  The  island  is 
divided  into  the  eight  independent  principalities  of 
Buleleng,  Karang  Asam',  Bangli,  Tabanan,  Mcngui,  Klong- 
kong,  Gyanyar,  and  Badong,  each  under  its  own  ruler. 
The  deputy-commissioner  of  Banyuwangi  in  east  Java  is 
also,  charged  with  the  superintendence  of  the  island  of 
Bali  in  behalf  of  the  Dutch  Government.  Though  native 
rule  is  described  as  very  tyrannical  and  arbitrary,  espe<;ialiy 
in  the  principalities  of  Badong  and  Tabanan,  trade  and 
industry  could  not  flourish  if  insecurity  of  persons  and 
property  existed  to  any  great  extent.  The  natives  have 
also  a  remedy  against  the  aggression  of  their  rulers  in  their 
own  hands  ;  it  is  called  J/e(i7a.s,  consists  in  a  general  rising 
and  renunciation  of  allegiance,  and  proves  mostly  successful. 
Justice  is  administered  from  a  written  civil  and  criminal 
code.  Slavery  is  abolished.  Hinduism,  which  was  once 
the  religion  of  Java,  but  has  been  extinct  there  for  four 
centuries,  is  still  in  vogue  in  the  islands  of  Bali  and 
Lombok,  where  the  cruel  custom  of  widow  burning  is  still 
practised,  and  the  Hindu  system  of  the  four  castes,  with  a 
fifth  or  Pariah  caste  (called  Chanddla),  adhered  to.  It 
appears  partly  blended  with  Buddhism,  partly  overgrpwn 
with  a  belief  in  Kalas,  or  evil  spirits.  To  appease  these, 
offerings  are  made  to  them  either  direct  or  through  the 
mediation  of  the  Devas  (domestic  or  agrarian  deities) ; 
and  if  these  avail  not,  the  Mcnyepi,  or  Great  Sacrifice,  is 
resorted  to.  Buddhism  prevails  only  in  three  districts. 
The  Mahometan  religion  is  said  to  bo  on  the  wane,  in 
spite  of  the  good  influence  it  has  exerted  upon  the  people. 
Of  theearly  history  of  their  island  the  Balincse  know nothi ng. 
The  oldest  tradition  they  possess  refers  to  a  time  shortly 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Majapahit  dynasty  in  Java, 
about  the  middle  of  the  15th  century;  but,  according  to 
Lassen,  who   identifies    Bali   with   the  isUnd   risiteJ    bj 


282 


B  A  L  — 13  A  L 


Jambulos,  there  must  have  ocen  luJian  settlers  there  before 
■the  middle  of  the  1st  century,  by  whom  the  press:;t  name, 
probably  cognate  with  the  Sanskrit  balin,  strong,  was  in 
all  likelihood  imposed.  It  was  not  till  1G33  that  the 
Dutch  attempted  to  egter  into  alliance  with  the  native 
princes,  and  their  earliest  permanent  settlement  at  Port 
J3ado;ig  only  dates  from  1845.  Their  influence  was  extended 
by  the  results  of  the  war  which  they  waged  with  the  natives 
about  1847-9.  A  geological  survey  of  the  whole  island  is 
it  present  (1874-5)  in  progress  under  their  auspices. 
The  Balinese  language  belongs  to  the  same  group  of  the 
Malayan  class  as  the  Javanese,  Sund.inese,  Madurese,  kc, 
but  is  as  distinct  from  each  of  these  as  French  is  from 
Italian.  It  is.  most  nearly  akin  to  the  Sasak  language 
fipoken  in  Lorabok'and  on  the  east  coast  of  Bali.  The 
litacary  language  has  embodied  many  of  its  ingredients 
from  the  Old  Javanese,  as  spoken  in  Java  at  the  time  of 
the  fall  of  Majapahit  (15th  century),  while  the  vulgar 
dialect  has  kept  free  from  such  admixture.  Javanese 
intluence  is  also  traceable  in  the  use  of  three  varieties  of 
speech,  as  in  the  Javanese  language,  according  to  the  rank 
of  the  people  addressed.  The  alphabet  is  with  some  modifi- 
cations the  same  as  the  Javanese,  but  more  complicated. 
The  material  universally  used  for  writing  on  is  the  prepared 
leaf  of  the  lontar  palm.  The  sacred  literature  of  the 
Balinese  is  written  in  the  ancient  Javanese  or  Kawi 
language,  which  appears  to  be  belter  understood  here  than 
it  is  in  Java.  (See  R.  van  Eck,  Beknopte  handleiding  bij 
debeoefeninij  van  het  Balintesche  taal,  Utrecht,  1874.)  In 
the  years  1871  and  1872,  5,000  people  died  of  smallpox 
in  the  island  ;  since  then  vaccination  has  been  introduced 
by  the  Dutch.  In  Se[itember  1874  several  districts  wero 
fearfully  ravaged  by  cholera;  in  Sanipidi  alone  out  of  its 
3000  inhabitants  700  fell  victims  to  the  scourge;  the  rest 
fled  into  the  woods. 

Crawfurd's  DfscripJive  DUtionary  of  the  Indian  Isjanih,  1S55  ; 
P.  J.  Veth,  IVnordcyilioek  van  Nedcrlandsch  Indie,  1869  ;  Tijd- 
schrift  vooT  NederlnnJsch  Indie  for  1874,  vol.  ii.  p.  439,^.; 
Lassen's  Indische  Allcrlhurnskunde,  iii.  iv.,  passim;  Friediich's 
•' Veralag  van  Bali  "  in  7'rans.  of  Butaviari  Soc.  of  Arts  and  Sci., 
x.^iii.,  and  a  paper  in  tlie  Journal  of  Ike  hid.  Arch.,  1849  ;  M.  de 
<'ariibee'3  "  Essai  sur  Bali  "  iu  Le  MuniUur  dcs  Indcs  Orient ,  184C- 
47;  Dubois's  Vies  des  Goxtvcrnenrs-giniraux ;  Vt^icVefa  L'Arrliipcl 
Inditn,  1874;  Jaarbock  van  hct  Mijnwczcn  in  N.  Ost. -Indie,  1S74. 

BALIOL,  or  Balliol,  Sib  John  de,  an  English  baron, 
after  whom  Balliol  College  in  Oxford  has  been  named,  was 
the  son  of  Hugh  Baliol,  of  Bernard's  Castle,  in  the  diocese 
of  Durham.  His  great  wealth  and  power  raised  him  to  a 
prominent  position  in  the  kingdom,  and  ho  rendered  good 
service  to  Henry  III.  in  his  contest  with  De  Moiitfort  and 
♦.be  revolted  barons.  In  12C3  he  endowed  several  scholar- 
ships at  Oxford,  and  formed  the  intention  of  founding  a 
college.  This  he  did  not  accompli.-ih,  but  after  his  death 
in  12G0,  his  widow,  Devorgille  or  Devorguill,  carried  out 
his  design,  and  the  foundation  received  the  name  of  Balliol 
College.  Sir  John'.s  son  was  the  well-known  John  Baliol, 
the  competitor  with  Bruce  for  the  tlironc  of  Scotland. 

BALKAN  (the  ancient  Ilirnms),  a  mountain  range  that 
separates  the  waters  of  the  Lower  Danube  from  those  that 
flow  into  the  Archipelago ;  or,  in  the  more  extended 
application  of  the  name,  the  whole  mountain  system  from 
the  Adriatic  to  the  Euxine.  The  main  chain  has  a  mean 
elevation  of  4000  or  5000  feet,  and  rises  in  various  parts 
to  a  height  of  7000  or  8000.  Especially  towards  the  cast 
it  breaks  up  into  a  number  of  parallel  chains,  and  sends  out 
various  offshoots  both  south  and  north.  Mount  Scardus, 
the  highest  point  of  the  Char-D.igh,  attains  to  9700  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  most  of  the  rivers  of  the  northern 
■watershed  find  tlieir  way  to  the  Black  Sea,  while  those 
from  the  southern  fall  into  tlie  Mediterranean.  The  rango 
is  cros.scd  by  numerous  defiles,  most  of  which  are  left  iu  a 


nearly  impassable  condition,  tuough  they  might  in  many 
cases  be  turned  into  serviccabjo  routes.  Communication  is 
ke[it  up  between  Vienna  and  Constantinople  by  the  pass 
usually  known  as  Trajan's  Gate.  Others  of  iraportance 
are  the  Nadir-Derbent,  the  Karnabad,  and  the  Basardshik- 
Sophia.  The  mountains  are  for  the  most  part  of  granitic  for- 
mation, and  are  said  to  contain  a  variety  of  valuable  mine- 
rals, but  are  still  imperfectly  known,  in  spite  of  the  labours 
of  PouquevUle,  Bou(5,  Viquesnel,  Grisebach,  llahn,  Barth, 
ic.  Kanitz,  between  1870  and  1874,  cros.'ied  the  eastern 
part  no  fewer  than  seventeen  times  by  diU'ercnt  passes. 

See  Journey  aeross  Balkan  by  the  /'asses  of  Scinnno  and  Pravadit 
London,  1831  ;  Jocbmus's  "Journvy,"  1SJ7,  in  J'lurn.  Hoy  Geoj- 
Soc.,  1854;  Nouvelles  Annates  des  Voyayes,  2d  sriics,  vol.  X.; 
I'tterniaun's  MitlheU.,  1873-74. 

BALKU,  the  ancient  Dactra  or  Zariaspa,  was  formerly 
a  great  city,  but  is  now  for  the  most  part  a  mass  of  ruins, 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Adirsiah  or  Balkh  river, 
in  a  large  and  fertile  plain  1800  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
modern  name  is,  according  to  Vambery,  the  Turkish  laltk, 
or  biilikh,  a  city.  The  ruins,  which  occupy  a  space  of  about 
twenty  miles  in  circuit,  consist  chiefly  of  fallen  mosques 
and  decayed  buddings  of  sun-burnt  brick.  No  monuments 
of  pre-Mahometan  date  have  been  pointed  out,  if  we  except 
the  bricks  with  cuneiform  inscriptions  which  Ferrier  asserts 
ho  observed;  but  nothing  like  a  proper  investigation  of 
the  site  has  yet  been  efl'ected.  The  antiquity  and  great- 
ness of  the  place  are  recognised  by  the  native  populations, 
who  speak  of  it  as  the  Mother  of  Cities.  Its  foundation  is 
mythically  ascribed  to  Kaiomurs,  the  Persian  Romulus  ; 
and  it  is  at  least  certain  that,  at  a  very  early  date,  it  was 
the  rival  of  Eebatana,  Nineveh,  and  Babylon.  For  a  long 
time  the  city  and  counlry  was  the  central  scat  of  the 
Zqroastrian  religion,  the  founder  of  which  is  said  to  have 
died  within  the  walls.  From  the  Memoirs  of  lluen 
Thsanq,  a  Chinese  traveller,  we  learn  that,  at  the  time  of 
his  visit  in  the  7th  century,  there  were  in  the  city,  or  its 
vicinity,  about  a  hundred  Buddhist  convents,  with  3000 
devotees,  and  that  there  was  a  large  number  of  sliipas,  and 
other  religious  monuments. .  The  most  remarkable  was  the 
J\'au  Ikli'tr,  Ntiva  Bihara,  or  New  Convent,  which  pos- 
sessed a  vi'iy  costly  statue  of  Buddha.  A  curious  notice  of 
this  budding  is  found  in  the  Arabian  geographer  Yfikflt. 
Ibn-llaukal,  an  Arabian  traveller  of  the  lOth  century, 
■  describes  Balkh  as  built  of  clay,  with  ramparts  and  six 
gates,  and  extending  half  a  parasang.  He  also  mentions  a 
castle  and  a  mosque.  -  El  Edrisi,  in  the  12th  century,  speaks 
of  its  possessing  a  variety  of  educational  establishments, 
and  carrying  on  an  active  trade.  There  wero  several  im- 
portant commercial  routes  from  the  city,  stretching  as  far 
cast  as  India  and  Chini.  In  1220  Genghis  Khan  sacked 
Balkh,  butchered  its  inhabitants,  and  levelled  all  the  build- 
ings capable  of  defence, — treatment  to  which  it  was  again 
subjected  in  the  14th  century  by  Tiniur.  Notwithstand- 
ing this,  however,  Marco  Polo  can  still,  iu  the  following 
century,  describe  it  as  "  a  nolde  city  and  a  great."  Balkh 
fonneil  the  government  of  \urungzebe  in  his  youth.  In 
173G  it  was  conquered  by  Nadir  Shah.  Under  the  Durani 
monarchy  it  fell  into  the  h^ijub  of  the  Afghans;  it  was 
conquered  by  Shah  Murad  of  Kunduz  in  1820,  and  for 
some  time  has  been  subject  to  the  Khan  of  Bokhara. 

See  ITouen  Thsarri,  tr.  by  Julien,  vol.  i.  pp.  'J9-32  ;  liurnes's  Traivts 
in  Bokhara,  1831-33;  Fcrrier's  Travtls;  yaxuhery's  Bokhara,  IS73. 

BALL,  John,  a  Puritan  divine,  of  whom  Baxter  speaks 
in  very  high  terms,  was  born,  in  1585,  at  Cassington,  or 
Chessington,  near  Woodstock,  and  died  in  1G40.  Ho 
entered  Brazenoso  CoUege,  Oxford,  in  1G03,  and  remained 
there  five  years.  He  then  migrateil  to  St  Mary's  Hall, 
from  which  he  took  his  bachelor's  degree  in  1G08.  Soon 
after  graduating  he  went  into  Cheshire  to  act  as  tutor  to 


B  A  L  -  15  A  L 


23^3 


the  children  of  Lady  Cholmonduley.  ^Vhile  there  he  was 
thrown  iuto  the  company  of  some  enthusiastic  Puritans, 
xvhose  views  be  quickly  adopted.  He  resolved  upon  enter- 
ing the  church,  and,  going  up  to  London,  obtained 
ordination  from  an  Irish  bishop.  Ho  was  afterwards 
appointed  to  the  small  curacy  of  Whitmoro,  near  Stoke,  in 
Staffordshire,  and  here  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
eking  out  his  miserable  stipend  by  teaching  a  small  school 
The  most  popular  of  his  numerous  works  was  the  Short 
Trtadst,  containing  all  the  Principal  Grounds  of  Christian 
Jldigion,  which  has  passed  througli  a  great  many  editions, 
Tnd  has  been  in-common  use  as  a  Puritan  catechism.  His 
Treatise  of  Faith,  and  Friendly  Trial  of  the  Grounds  tending 
to  Separation,  the  latter  of  which  defines  his  position  with 
regard  to  the  church,  are  also  valuable  works. 

B.VLLADS.  The  word  ballad  is  derived  from  the  Old 
French  bnller,  to  dance,  and  originally  meant  a  song  sung 
to  the  rhythmic  movement  of  a  dancing  chorus.  Later, 
the  word  became  the  techuical  term  for  a  particular  form 
of  old  fashioned  French  poetry,  remarkable  for  its  involved 
and  recurring  rhymes.  "  Laisse  moi  auj:  Jeux  Florau.\  de 
Toulouse  toutes  ces  vieux  po&ies  Francoises  comme 
tci//arfcs,"  says  Joachim  du  Bellay  in  1550;  and  Philaniinte, 
the  lady  pedant  of  Moliiire's  Fenimes  Scavantes,  observes — 
"  I.a  IwlKide,  Jl  ir.on  gout,  est  nne  chose  facie, 
Cc  u'cn  est  plus  b  niO'lc,  «lle  sent  son  vieux  temps." 

In  England  the  term  has  usually  been  applied  to  any 
simple  tale,  told  in  simple  verse,  though  attempts  have  been 
made  to  confine  it  to  the  subject  of  this  paper,  namely. 
Popular  Songs.  By  popular  songs  we  understand  what 
the  Germans  call  Volks-lieder,  that  is,  songs  composed  by 
the  people,  for  the  people,  handed  down  by  oral  tradition, 
and  in  style,  taste,  and  even  incident,  common  to  the  people 
in  all  European  countries.  The  beauty  of  these  purely 
popular  ballads,  their  directness  and  freshness,  has  made 
them  admired  even  by  the  artificial  critics  of  the  most 
artificial  periods  in  literature.  Thus  Sir  Philip  Sydney 
confesses  that  the  ballad  of  Chevi/  Chase,  when  chanted  by 
"  a  blind  crowder,"  stirred  his  blood  like  the  sound  of 
trumpet.  Addison  devoted  two  articles  in  the  Spectator  to 
a  critique  of  the  same  poem.  Montaigne  praised  the  iia'ivctc 
of  the  village  carols ;  and  Malherbe  preferred  a  rustic 
chansonette  to  all  the  poems  of  Ronsard.  These,  however, 
arc  rare  instances  of  the  taste  for  popular  poetr)',  and  though 
the  Danish  ballads  were  coUecte'd  and  printed  in  the  middle 
of  the  lOtli  century,  and  some  Scotch  collections  date  from 
the  beginning  of  the  ISth,  it  was  not  till  the  publication 
of  Allan  Ramsay's  Evergreen  and  Tea  TMe  Miscellany, 
and  of  Bijhop  Percj-'s  L'cliijucs,  that  a  serious  effort  was 
j-.iado  to  recover  Scotch  and  English  folk-songs  from  the 
recitation  of  the  old  people  v.ho  still  knew  them  by  heart. 
At  the  time  when  Percy  was  editing  the  lieliqucs,  Madame 
de  Ch6nior,  the  mother  of  the  celebrated  French  poet  of 
that  name,  composed  an  essay  on  the  ballads  of  hei  native 
land,  modem  Greece;  and  later.  Herder  and  Grimm  and 
Goethe,  in  Germany,  did  for  the  songs  of  their  country 
what  Scott  did  fur  those  of  Liddesdale  and  the  Forest. 
It  was  fortunate,  perhaps,  for  poetry,  though  unlucky  for 
the  scientific  study  of  the  ballads,  that  they  were  mainly 
legardcd  from  the  literary  point  of  view.  The  influence  of 
tlicir  artless  melody  and  straightforward  diction  may  be 
felt  in  the  lyrics  of  Goethe  and  of  Coleridge,  of  Wordsworth, 
of  Heme,  and  of  Andre  Chiinier.  Chiinicr,  in  the  most 
adcctcd  age  oven  of  French  poetiy,  translated  some  of  the 
llomaic  ballads;  one,  as  it  ch.inced,  being  identical  with 
that  which  Shakspeare  borrowed  from  some  English  reciter, 
and  put  into  the  mouth  of  the  mad  Ophelia.  The  beauty 
of  the  ballads  and  the  interest  they  excited  led  to  numerous 
frtrgerios.  It  is  probable  that  Hogg  was  as  great  a  culprit 
in  Scotland,  as  Pro.-per  Miirimiie  with  his  Gu:la,  or  collec- 


tion of  Servian  imitations,  m  France.  Editors  could  not 
resist  the  temptation  to  interpolate,  to  restore,  and  to 
improve  the  fragments  that  came  in  their  way.  The 
Marquis  de  la  Villcmarqu<5,  who  first  drew  attention  to  the 
ballads  of  Brittany,  is  not  wholly  free  from  this  fault. 
Thus  a  very  general  scepticism  was  awakened,  and  when 
questions  came  to  be  asked  as  to  the  date  and  authorship 
of  the  Scottish  traditional  ballads,  it  is  scarcely  to  be 
wondered  at  that  Dr  Chambers  attributed  most  of  them 
to  the  accomplished  Lady  Wardlaw,  who  lived  in  the  middle 
of  the  ISth  century. 

Tho  -vexed  and  dull  controversy  as  to  the  origin  of 
Scottish  folk-songs  was  due  to  ignorance  of  tho  comparative 
method,  and  of  the  ballad  literature  of  Europe  in  general. 
The  result  of  the  discussion  was. to  leave  a  vague  impression 
that  our  native  ballads  were  perhaps  as  old  as  the  time  of 
Dunbar,  and  were  the  production  of  a  class  of  professional 
minstrels.  These  minstreb  are  a  stumbling-block  in  the 
way  of  the  stuiient  of  the  growth  of  ballads.  The  domestic 
annals  of  Scotland  show  that  her  kings  used  to  keep  court- 
bards,  and  also  that  strollers,  jongleurs,  as  they  were  called, 
•vent  about  singing  at  the  doors  of  farm-houses  and  in  the 
streets  of  towns.  Here  were  two  sets  of  minstrels  who  had 
apparently  left  no  poetry  ;  and,  on  the  other  side,  there 
was  a  number  of  ballads  that  claimed  no  author.  It  was 
the  easiest  and  most  satisfactory  inference  that  the  courtly 
minstrels  made  the  verses,  which  the  wandering  crowders 
imitated  or  corrupted.  But  this  theory  fails  to  account, 
among  other  things,  for  the  universal  sameness  of  tone,  of 
incident,  of  legend,  of  primitive  poetical  formulae,  which  the 
Scotch  ballad  possesses,  in  common  with  the  ballads  of 
Greece,  of  France,  of  Provence,  of  Portugal,  of  Denmark, 
and  of  Italy.  The  object,  therefore,  of  this  article  is  to  prove 
that  what  has  long  been  acknowledged  of  nursery  tales,  of 
what  the  Germans  call  Mdrchen,  namely,  that  they  are  the 
immemorial  inheritance  at  least  of  all  European  peoples,  is 
true  also  of  ballads.  The  main  incidents  and  plots  of  tho 
fairy  tales  of  Celts,  and  Germans,  and  Slavonic  and  Indian 
peoples,  their  unknown  antiquity  and  mysterious  origin,  are 
universally  recognised.  No  one  any  longer  attributes  them 
to  this  or  that  author,  or  to  this  or  that  date.  The  attempt 
to  find  date  or  author  for  a  genuine  popular  song  is  as 
futile  as  a  similar  search  in  the  caae  of  a  Mdrchen.  It 
is  to  be  asked,  then,  whether  what  is  confessedly  true  of 
folk-tales, — of  such  stories  as  th'  ^^eeping  Beauty  and 
Cinderella, — is  true  also  of  folk-songj?  Are  they,  or  have 
they  been,  as  univei-sally  sung  as  the  fairy  tales  have  been 
narrated?  Do  they,  too,  bear  traces  of  the  survival  of 
primitive  creeds  and  primitive  forms  of  consciousness  and 
of  imagination  1  Are  they,  like  Mdrchen,  for  the  most  part, 
little  influenced  by  the  higher  religions.  Christian  or  poly- 
theistic? Do  they  turn,  as  Mdrchen  do,  on  the  same 
incidents,  repeat  the  same  stories,  employ  tho  same  ma- 
chinery of  talking  birds  and  beasts  ?  Lastly,  are  any 
specin-.ens  of  ballad  literature  capable  of  being  traced  back 
to  extreme  antiquity  ?  It  a)ipcars  that  all  these  questions 
may  be  answered  in  the  affirmative ;  that  the  great  age 
and  universal  diffusion  of  the  b.allad  may  be  proved ;  and 
that  its  birth,  from  the  lips  and  heart  of  the  people,  may 
be  contrasted  with  the  origin  of  an  artistic  poetry  in  the 
demand  of  an  aristocracy  for  a  separate  ejiic  literature, 
destined  to  be  its  own  possession,  and  to  be  the  first 
development  of  a  poetry  of  perj(jnality, — a  record  of  indi- 
vidual passions  and  emotions.  After  bringing  forwaixl 
cx.ampleJi  of  the  identity  of  features  in  European  ballad 
poctrjf  we  shall  proceed  to  show  that  they  all  .'■prang  from 
the  ijaine  primitive  custom  of  dance,  accompanied  by 
improvised  song,  which  still  exists  in  Greece  and  Russia, 

I  and  even  in  valleys  of  the  Pyrenees. 

I     There  can  scarcely  be  a  better  guide  in  tho  examination 


284 


BALLADS 


of  the  notes  or  marks  of  popular  poetry  than  the  instruc- 
tions which  M.  Ampere  gave  to  the  committee  appointed 
in  1852-53  to  search  for  the  remains  of  ballads  in  France. 
M.  Ampere  bade  the  collectors  look  for  the  following  char- 
acteristics : — "  The  use  of  assonance  in  place  of  rhvme, 
the  brusque  character  of  the  recital,  the  textual  repetition, 
as  in  Homer,  of  the  speeches  of  the  persons,  the  constant 
use  of  certain  numbers, — as  three  and  seven, — and  the 
representation  of  the  commonest  objects  of  every-day  life 
as  being  made  of  gold  and  silver."  M.  Ampfere  might  have 
added  that  French  ballads  would  probably  employ  a  "  bird- 
chorus,"  the  use  of  talking-birds  as  messengers  ;  that  they 
would  repeat  the  plots  current  in  other  countries,  and  dis- 
play the  same  non-Christian  idea  of  death  and  of  the 
'uture  world,  the  same  ghostly  superstitions  and  stories  of 
jietamorphosis,  and  the  same  belief  in  elves  and  fairies,  as 
are  found  in  the  ballads  of  Greece,  of  Provence,  of  Brit- 
tany, Denmark,  and  Scotland.  We  shall  now  examine 
these  supposed  common  notes  of  all  genuine  popular  song, 
supplying  a  few  out  of  the  many  instances  of  curious 
identity.  As  to  bruaqueness  of  recital,  and  the  use  of 
assonance  instead  of  rhyme,  as  well  as  the  aid  to  memory 
given  by  reproducing  speeches  verbally,  these  are  almost 
unavoidable  in  all  simple  poetry  preserved  by  oral  tradition. 
In  the  matter  of  recurring  numbers,  we  have  the  eternal — 

"  Trois  belles  fiUes 
L'y  en  a'z  une  plus  bcllo  que  le  jour," 

who  appear  in  old  French  ballads,  as  well  as  the  "  Three 
Sailors,"  whose  adventures  are  related  in.  the  Lithuanian 
and  Provencal  originals  of  Mr  Thackeray's  Little  Billee. 
Then  there  is  "  the  league,  the  league,  the  league,  but 
barely  three,"  of  Scotch  ballads  ;  and  the  rpia  TrouXaxm, 
three  golden  birds,  which  sing  the  prelude  to  Greek  folk- 
songs, and  so  on.  A  more  curious  note  of  primitive  poetry 
is  the  lavish  and  reckless  use  of  gold  and  silver.  M. 
Tozer,  in  his  account  of  ballads  in  the  Highlands  of 
Turkey,  remarks  on  this  fact,  and  attributes  it  to  Eastern 
influences.  But  the  horses'  shoes  of  silver,  the  knives  of 
fine  gold,  the  talking  "  birds  with  gold  oh  their  wings,"  as 
in  Aiiatophanes,  are  common  to  all  folk-song.  Everything 
almost  is  gold  in  the  Kalevala,  an  epic  formed  by  putting 
into  juxtaposition  all  ^he  popular  songs  of  Finland.  Gold 
is  used  as  freely  in  the'lallads,  real  or  spurious,  which  M. 
Verkovitch  has  ha,,' jiTjllected  in  the  wilds  of  Mouut 
Rhodopo.  The  capti?  ,''in  the  French  song  is  as  lavish  in 
his  treatment  of  his  runaway  bride, — 
**  Son  araant  I'habille, 
Tout  en  or  et  argent  ;" 

and  the  rustic  in  a  song  from  Poitou  talks  of  his  faucillc 
d'or,  just  as  a  variant  of  Hugh  of  Lincolu  introduces  gold 
chairs  and  tables.  Again,  when  the  lover,  in  a  ballad 
common  to  France  and  to  Scotland,  cuts  the  winding  sheet 
from  about  his  living  bride — "  il  tira  ses  c'iseaus  d'or  fin." 
If  the  horses  of  the  Klephts  in  Romaic  ballads  are  gold 
shod,  the  steed  in  Willic'$_  Lady  \z  no  less  splendidly 
accoutred, — 

"  Silver  shod  before. 
And  gowjen  shod  behind.'* 

Readers  of  Homer,  and  of  the  Chanson  de  Roland,  must 
have  observed  the  same  primitive  luxury  of  gold  in  these 
early  epics. 

Next  as  to  talking-birds.  These  are  not  so  common  as 
in  Mdrchen,  but  still  are  very  general,  and  cause  no 
surprise  to  their  human  listeners.  Ine  omniscient  popinja'y, 
who  "  up  and  spoke  "  in  the  Border  minstrelsy,  is  of  the 
same  family  of  birds  as  those  that,  according  to  Talvj, 
pervade  Servian  song;  as  the  rpia  T-ovXnxid  which  introduce 
the  story  in  tlic  Romaic  ballads  ;  as  the  wise  birds  whose 
speech  is  still  understood  by  exceptionally  gifted  Zulus  ; 
AS  ibe  wicked  dove  that  whispers  tcmntai'in  in  •he  sweet 


French  folk-song ;  as  the  "  bird  that  came  out  of  a  bush,  on 
water  for  to  dine,"  in  the  Water  o'  Wearies  Well. 

In  the  matter  of  identity  of  plot  and  incident  in  the 
ballads  of  various  lands,  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  no  such 
comparative  tables  exist  as  Von  Hahn  tried,  not  very 
exhaustively,  to  make  of  the  "  story-roots "  of  Mdrchen. 
A  common  plot  is  the  story  of  the  faithful  leman,  whose 
lord  brings  home  "a  braw  new  bride,"  and  who  recovers 
his  affection  at  the  eleventh  hour.  In  Scotland  this  i» 
the  ballad  of  Lord  Thomas,  and  Fair  Annie  ;  in  Danish  ii 
is  Skiaen  Anna.  It  occurs  twice  in  M.  Fauriel's  collection 
of  Romaic  songs.  Again,  there  is  the  familiar  ballad  about 
a  girl  who  pretends  to  be  dead,  that  she  may  be  borne  on 
bier  to  meet  her  lover.  This  occurs  not  only  in  Scotland, 
but  in  the  popular  songs  of  Provence  (collected  by  Damase 
Arbaud)  and  in  those  of  Metz  (Puymaigre),  and  in  both 
countries  an  incongruous  sequel  tells  how  the  lover  tried 
to  murder  his  bride,  and  how  she  was  too  cunning,  and 
drowned  him.  Another  familiar  feature  is  the  bush  and 
briar,  or  the  two  rose  trees,  which  meet  and  plait  over  the 
graves  of  unhappy  lovers,  so  that  all  passers-by  see  them, 
and  say  in  the  Provencal, — 

'  Diou  ague  I'amo 
Des  paurcs  amourous." 

Another  example  of  a  very  wide-spread  theme  brings  us  to 
the  ideas  of  the  state  of  the  dead  revealed  in  folk-songs. 
The  Xight  Journey,  in  JL  Fauriel's  Romaic  collection,  tells 
how  a  dead  brother,  wakened  from  his  sleep  of  death  by 
the  longing  of  love,  bore  his  living  sister  on  his  saddle- 
bow, in  one  night,  from  Baghdad  to  Constantinople.  Iii 
Scotland  this  is  the  story  of  Proud  Lady  Margaret ;  in 
Germany  it  is  the  song  which  Biirger  converted  into 
Lenore  ;  in  Denmark  it  is  Aagi  und  Elsd  ;  in  Brittany  the 
dead  foster-brother  carries  his  sister  to  the  apple  close  of 
the  Celtic  paradise  (Barzaz  Breiz).  Only  in  Brittany  do 
the  sad-hearted  people  think  of  the  land  of  death  as  an 
island  of  Avalon,  with  the  eternal  sunset  lingering  behind 
the  flowering  apple  trees,  and  gleaming  on  the  fountain  of 
forgetfulness.  In  Scotland  the  channering  worm  doth 
chide  even  the  souls  that  come  from  where,  "  beside  the 
gate  of  Paradise,  the  birk  grows  fair  enough."  The  Romaic 
idea  of  the  place  of  the  dead,  the  garden  of  Charon,  whence 
"  neither  in  spring  or  summer,  nor  when  grapes  are  gleaned 
in  autumn,  can  warrior  or  maiden  escape,"  is  likewise  pre- 
Christian.  In  Provenijal,  Danish,  and  Yorkshire  folk-song, 
[ the  cries  of  children  ill-treated  by  a  cruel  stepmother 
awaken  the  departed  mother, — 

"  'Twas  cold  at  night  and  tlie  bairnles  grat. 
The  mother  below  tlie  raouls  heard  that." 

She  reappears  in  her  old  home,  and  henceforth,  "  when 
dogs  howl  in  the  night,  the  step-mother  trembles,  and  is 
kind  to  the  children."  To  this  identity  of  superstition  we 
may  add  the  less  tangible  fact  of  identity  of  tone.  The 
ballads  of  Klephtic  exploits  in  Greece  match  the  Border 
songs  of  Dick  of  the  Law  and  Kinmont  Willie.  The  same 
simple  delight  of  living  animates  the  short  Greek  Scholia 
and  their  counterparts  in  Franco.  Everywhere  in  these 
happier  climcs,'a3  in  Southern  Italy,  there  are  snatches  of 
popular  verse' that  make  but  one  song  of  rose  trees,  and 
apple  blossom,  and  the  nightingale  that  sings  for  maidens 
lovcrless, — 

"  "  U  ne  chantc  ^las  pour  moi, 

Jc'n  ai  un,  Dieu  nicrci," 

says  the  gay  French  refrain. 

It  would  not  be  diflicult  to  multiply  inst.iiices  of  resem- 
blance between  the  dilferent  folk-songs  of  Europe ;  but 
enough  has,  perhaps,  been  said  to  support  the  position  that 
they  are  popular  and  primitive  in  the  same  sense  aa 
if'irchen      Tlic.v  ''■'te  from  times,  and  are  composed   by 


B  A  L— B  A  L 


285 


peoples  who  flml,  in  a  nntural  improvisation,  a  natural 
utterance  of  mcHluUitoil  and  rhylhmic  speech,  the  appiopriate 
relief  of  their  emotions,  in  moments  of  high-wrought  feeling 
cr  on  soleina  occasions.  "  Poesie"  (as  Puttcnbam  well  says 
in  his  Aft  of  English  Poesie,  1589)  "is  more  ancient  than 
the  arlifi'-iail  of  the  Greeks  and  Latines,  and  used  of  the 
eavage  and  uncivill,  who  were  before  all  science  and  civilitie. 
This  is  proved  by  certihcate  of  merchants  and  travellers, 
V. 'lo  by  late  navigations  have  surveyed  the  whole  world,  and 
tl.icovered  large  countries,  and  wild  people  strange  and 
8avage,  affirming  that  the  American,  the  Perusino,  and  the 
very  Canniball  do  sing  and  also  say  their  highest  and  holiest 
Butters  in  certain  riming  versicles."  In  the  same  way 
Aristotle,  discoursing  of  the  origin  of  poetry,  says  (Poet.,  c. 
iv. ),  ty^wijrrav  ttjv  iron^av  (k  Tiijr  durocr^cSiatr/iaTwv.  M.  de  la 
Villcmarqud  in  Brittany,  M.  Pitrd  in  Italy,  Herr  Ulrich  in 
Greece,  have  described  the  process  of  improvisation,  how 
it  grows  out  of  the  custom  of  dancing  in  large  bands  and 
accompanying  the  figure  of  the  dance  with  song.  "  If  the 
people,"  says  M.  Pitri,  "  find  out  who  is  the  composer  of 
a  camom,  they  will  not  sing  it."  Now  in  thoso  lands  where 
a  blithe  peasant  life  still  exists  with  its  dances,  like  the 
ko^os  of  Russia,  we  find  ballads  identical  in  many  respects 
with  those  which  have  died  out  of  oral  tradition  in  these 
islands.  •  It  is  natural  to  conclude  that  our  ballads  too 
were  first  improvised,  and  circulated  in  rustic  dances.  We 
learn  from  M.  Bujeaud  and  M.  de  Puymaigro  in  France, 
that  all  ballads  there  have  their  air  or  tune,  and  that  every 
dance  has  its  own  words,  for  if  a  new  dance  comes  in, 
perliaps  a  fashionable  one  from  Paris,  words  are  fitted  to  it. 
Is  ihere  any  trace  of  such  an  operatic,  lyrical,  dancing 
peasantry  in  austere  Scotland  1  We  find  it  in  Oawin 
Douglas's  account  of — 

"  Sic  as  wo  olfpe  wenches  and  damosels, 
la  gersy  greens,  w.indcring  by  spring  wells. 
Of  bloomed  branches,  and  flowers  white  and  red, 
riettaod  their  lusty  chaplets  for  their  head, 
Some  sang  ring  sang3,  dances,  ledcs,  and  rounds." 

Xoy,  ring-sangs  aro  ballads,  dancing  songs ;  and  Young 
Tan^ane,  for  instance,  was  doubtless  once  danced  to,  as  we 
know  it  possessed  an  appropriate  air.  Again,  Fabyan, 
the  chronicler  (quoted  by  Ritson)  says  that  the  song  of 
triumph  .over  Edward  II.,  "  was  after  many  days  sung  in 
dances,  to  the  carols  of  the  maidens  and  minstrels  of 
Scotland."  Wo  might  quote  the  Complaynt  of  Scotland  to 
the  same  effect.  "  The  shepherds,  and  their  wyvis  sang 
mony  other  melodi  sangs,  .  .  .  than  efter  this  sueit 
celestial  harmony,  tha  began  to  dance  in  ane  ring"'  It  is 
natural  to  conjecture  that,  if  we  find  identical  ballads  in 
Scotland,  and  in  Greece,  and  Italy,  and  traces  of  identical 
«ustom9,-^ustonJs  crushed  by  the  Reformation,  by  Puri- 
tanism, by  modern  so-called  civilisatibn, — the  ballads 
sprang  out  of  the  institution  of  dances,  as  they  still  do  in 
warmer  and  plcasanter  climates.  It  may  be  supposed  that 
legends  on  which  the  ballads  are  composed,  being  found  as 
they  are  from  the  W  hito  Sea  to  Cape  Matapan,  are  part 
of  the  stock  of  primitive  folk-lore.  Thus  wo  have  an 
tnimcmorial  antiquity  for  the  legends,  and  for  the  lyrical 
i-horuaes  in  which  their  musicftl  rendering  was  improvised. 
Wa  are  still  at  a  loss  to  discover  tho  possibly  mythological 
germs  of  the  legends;  but,  at  all  events,  genuine  ballads 
raay  be  chiimcd  as  distinctly  popular,  and,  bo  to  speak, 
impersonal  in  matter  and  in  origin.  It  would  bo  easy  to 
ehow  that  8ur%-ivaU  out  of  this  stage  of  inartistic  lyric 
poetry  linger  in  tho  early  epic  poetry  of  Homer  and  of  tho 
French  epopees,  b.t\A  that  tho  Greek  drama  sprang  from  the 
sacred  choruses  of  village  vintagers.  In  the  great  early 
epics,  as  in  popular  ballads,  there  is  the  same  directness  and 
fimplicity,  tho  samo  use  of  recurring  cpithct.i,  tho  "green 
jjrass,"   the    "  salt   sea,"   the  "  shadowy  hills,"  the  same 


repetition  of  speeches,  and  something  of  the  fame  barbaric 
profusion  in  the  use  of  gold  and  silver.  But  these  resem- 
blances must  not  lead  us  into  the  mistake  of  supposing 
Homer  to  be  a  collection  of  ballads,  or  that  he  can  be 
properly  translated  into  ballad  metre.  The  Hiad  and  the 
Odyssey  are  the  highest  form  of  an  artistic  epic,  not  com- 
posed by  piecing  together  ballads,  but  developed  by  a  long 
scries  of  noble  doi'^oi,  for  the  benefit  of  the  great  houses 
which  entertain  them,  out  of  the  method  and  materials  of 
popular  song.  Ballads  sprang  from  the  very  heart  of  the 
people,  and  flit  from  age  to  age,  from  lip  to  lip  of  shepherds, 
peasants,  nurses,  of  all  the  class  that  continues  nearest  to 
the  state  of  natural  men.  They  make  music  with  the  plash 
of  the  fisherman's  oars  and  the  hum  of  the  spinning-wheel, 
and  keep  time  with  the  step  of  the  ploughman  as  he  drives 
his  team.  The  country  seems  to  have  aided  man  in  their 
making;  the  bird's  note  rings  in  them,  the  tree  has  lent  her 
whi.^pers,  ihe  stream  its  murmur,  the  village-bell  its  tinkling 
tune.  The  whole  soul  of  tho  peasant  class  breathes  in  their 
burdens,  as  the  great  sea  resounds  in  the  shells  cast  up  on 
the  shores.  Ballads  are  a  voice  from  secret  places,  from 
silent  peoples,  and  old  times  long  dead ;  and  as  such  they 
stir  us  in  a  strangely  intimate  fashion  to  which  artistic  verse 
can  never  attain. 

The  works  of  the  following  authors  will  be  found  useful  to  the 
student  of  ballads: — Talvj,  Vharaktcristik  dir  Volksliedcr,  ieeWng 
'chieOy  with  tho  northern  races  of  Europe,  and  with  some  African 
and  Asiatic  tribes;  Kretschmar's  VolksUcder ;  J.  Grimm,  in 
several  treatises.  For  Brittany — Marquis  de  la  Villeinarqii^'s 
liarzaz  Brciz;  also  M.  Liucls's  Chansons  Popvlctires  For  Kran'^e — 
Bugcaurt,  ChansoTis  Populaircs ;  De  Puyraaicre  (for  the  Metz 
district),  Damase  Arbaud  (for  Provence)  ;  Cliampfleury's  lorge 
coUcotidn  is  rather  miscellaneous.  The  quarterly  journal,  Hou- 
manin,  publishes  many  folk-songs.  For  Greece— Fauriel,  Possow, 
1,0  Grand.  For  Italy— Pitr6  and  Nigra.  For  Scotland— Scott, 
Jamicson,  Motherwell.  (A  L.) 

BALLANCHE,  Pierre  Simon,  a  distinguished  French 
philosopher  of  the  theocratic  school,  was  born  at  Lyons  in 
1776.  His  health  from  infancy  was  e.ttrcmely  delicate, 
his  nervous  system  was  weak,  and  he  was  frequently  sub- 
ject to  hallucinations  and  mental  disorders.  This  weakness 
was  much  aggravated  by  his  experience  of  the  horrors  con- 
sequent on  the  insurrection  af  Lyons  and  the  siege  of  that 
town,  during  which  he  and  his  mother  were  compelled  to 
take  refuge  in  the  country.  His  education  seems  never  to 
have  been  very  complete  ;  liut  he  was  early  imbued  with 
ideas  on  the  construction  of  society,  which  naturally  sprang 
/rom  the  events  of  the  revolutionary  period.  His  first 
literary  effort  was  an  epic  poem,  describing  the  occurrences 
at  Lyons  ;  this  he  never  published.  In  1801  he  wrote  an 
essay  Du  Sentiment  considerc  dans  la  littcratiire  et  dans 
les  Arts,  a  work  which  shows  very  well  the  defects  as  well 
as  the  merits  of  his  style  and  manner  of  thinking.  It  is 
essentially  unsystematic  ;  and  the  few  good  ideas  contained 
in  it  are  expressed  in  language  so  figurative  that  it  costs 
an  effort  to  discover  what  is  really  being  said.  Ballanchc, 
indeed,  was  essentially  unsystematic  and  unscientific,  and 
seems  to  have  h.id  no  conception  of  what  is  truly  required 
in  a  philosophy.  His  Blyle  is  not  external  to  the  thinking, 
but  is  undissolubly  connected  with  it ;  strange  thoughts 
and  lizaiTe  expressions  arise  together. 

His  next  great  work,  the  Antigone,  a  prose  poem,  pub- 
lished in  181 1,  was  the  fruit  of  long  and  quiet  meditation, 
and  %rti3  received  with  great  favour  by  the  brilliant  literary 
society  surrounding  Chateaubriand  and  Mnie.  R(;camicr, 
into  which  Ballancho  had  been  introduced.  From  this 
year,  1814,  dates  his  serious  effort  towards  a  speculative 
reconstruction  of  society,  an  exposition  of  the  palingenesis 
of  social  order.  lie  transferred  his  residence  to  Paris, 
where  he  continued  to  live  in  communication  with  tho 
few  thinkers  who  had  like  philosophical  tendencies  with 
himself.     In  1817  appeared  his  £ssai  sur  lei  Instituiionl 


286 


B  A  L  —  B  A  L 


Sociales  dans  leur  rapport  aivc  Us  hh'cs  nouvelles,  ^\hich 
was  iotended  to  serve  as  a  prelude  to  his  great  tripartite 
social  epic.  The  work  is  more  inteiligible  than  any  other 
of  Ballanche's  ,  it  advocates  a  moderate  constitutional 
gOTernment,  and  w^as,  on  this  account,  misjudged  by  many, 
who  fancied  it  recommended  Bourbonism.  A  philosophical 
dialogue,  Le  Fieillard  et  U  Jeune  Homme,  and  a  novel, 
UB.<rmrne  sarts  Norn,  were  written  in  1819  and  1820.  He 
then  devoted  himself  to  his  great  work,  the  Palingenesie 
Sociale.  This,  which  was  to  be  a  Theodiora,  an  exposition 
of  the  workings  of  God  in  history,  was  divided  into  three 
parts :  the  first  reconstructed  that  period  of  the  world 
which  was  before  the  rise  of  religion,  which  is  prehistoric,  or 
mythical ;  the  second  endeavoured,  from  a  study  of  known 
history,  to  deduce  a  universal  law  or  rule ,  the  third 
sketched  that  state  of  things  through  and  in  which  humanity 
at  last  attains  its  final  end  and  crowning  glory.  The  works 
representing  these  three  parts  were  called  LOrphee,  La 
Formult,  and  La  Ville  des  Expiations ;  only  the  first 
was  completed,  but  some  fragments  of  the  others  are  in 
existence.  To  the  whole  a  general  introduction  was  pre- 
fixed, which  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  Ballanche's  works. 
HLs  latest  writing,  Vision  d'Hebal  (Hebal  being  the  chief 
of  a  Scottish  clan,  and  gifted  with  second  sight),  was 
evidently  intended  to  form  portion  of  the  third  part  of 
the  Palingenesie.  In  mystical  language  it  gives  vague  and 
semi-prophetic  utterances  on  the  future  course  of  world- 
history.  It  is  by  some  considered  his  greatest  production. 
Ilallanche,  who  in  1341  had  received  the  distinguished 
honour  of  a  seat  in  the  French  Academy,  died  in  1847. 
He  was  much  beloved  by  his  friends,  and  seems  to  have 
been  a  most  amiable,  warm-hearted  man,  enthusiastic  and 
poetical  in  temperament,  whose  intellect,  however,  was  over- 
shadowed by  his  imagination.  A  collected  edition  of  his 
works  was  set  on  foot  in  1830,  and  was  intended  to  occupy 
nine  vols.  Only  four  appeared,  and  were  republished  in  a 
smaller  form  in  1833. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  give  a  connected  view  of 
Ballanche's  fundamental  ideas.  As  has  been  said,  he 
belonged  to  the  theocratic  school,  who,  in  opposition  to 
the  ration.alism  of  the  preceding  age,  emphasised  the 
principle  of  authority,  placing  revelatiun  above  individual 
reason,  order  above  freedom  and  progress.  •  But  Ballanche 
made  a  sincere  endeavour  to  unite  in  one  system  what  was 
valuable  in  the  opposed  modes  of  thinking,  lie  held  with 
the  theocratists  that  individualism  was  an  impracticable 
view;  man,  according  i  >  him,  exists  only  in  and  through 
society.  He  agreed  further  with  them  that  the  origin  of 
society  was  to  be  explained,  not  by  human  desire  and 
"ifforta,  but  by  a  direct  revelation  from  God.  Lastly,  with 
De  Bonald,  ho  reduced  the  problem  of  the  origin  of  society 
to  that  of  the  origin  of  language,  and  held  that  language 
was  a  divine  gift.  But  at  this  point  he  parts  company 
with  the  theocratists,  and  in  this  very  revelation  of  language 
finds  a  germ  of  progress.  Originally,  in  the  pniiiitivo 
state  of  man,  speech  and  thought  are  identical ;  but  gra- 
dually tho  two  separate ;  language  is  no  longer  only 
spoken,  it  is  also  written,  and  finally  is  printed.  .Thus 
the  primitive  unity  is  broken  up;  the  original  social  order 
which  co-existed  with,  and- was  dependent  on  it,  breaks  up 
also.  New  institutions  spring  up,  upon  which  thought 
acts,  and  in  and  through  which  it  even  draws  nearer  to  a 
final  unity,  a  rehabilitation,  a  palingenesis.  Tho  volition 
of  primitive  man  was  one  with  that  of  God  ,  but  it 
becomes  broken  up  into  separate  volitions  which  oppose 
themselves  to  the  divine  will,  and  through  the  oppositions 
and  trials  of  this  world  work  onw.nrus  to  a  .second  and 
completer  harmony.  ■  The  history  of  humanity  is  there 'ire 
comprised  in  the  fall  from  the  perfect  state, and  in  tho  return, 
lifter  repeated  trials,  to  a  similar  condition.     In  tho  dim, 


shadowy  records  of  mythical  times  inay  be  traced  tfie  obscufS 
outlines  of  primitive  society  and  of  its  fall ;  and  this  is  at- 
tempted in  the  Orphie.  Actual  history  exhibits  the  conflict 
of  two  great  priuciples,  which  may  be  said  to  be  realised  in 
the  patricians  and  plebeians  of  Rome.  Such  a  distinction 
of  caste  is  regarded  by  Ballanche  as  the  original  state  of  his- 
torical society ;  and  history,  as  a  whole,  he  considers  to  have 
followed  the  same  course  as  that  taken  by  the  Roman 
plebs  in  its  gradual  and  successful  attempts  to  attain 
equality  with  the  patriciate.  On  the  future  events  through 
which  the  human  race  shall  achieve  its  destiny  Ballanche 
gives  few  intelligible  hints.  The  sudden  flash  which 
disclosed  to  the  eyes  of  Hebal  the  whole  epic  of  humanity 
cannot  be  reproduced  iu  language  trammelled  by  time  and 
space.  Scattered  throughout  the  wcrks  of  Ballanche  are 
many  valuable  ideas  on  the  connection  of  events  which 
makes  possible  a  philosofihy  of  history  ,  but  his  own  theory, 
so  far  as  it  can  be  understood  and  judged,  does  not  seem 
Likely  to  find  more  favour  than  it  has  already  met  with. 

See  Ampere,  Ballanche,  Paris,  IS48  ,  Ste  Beiive,  Portraits  Ctm* 
temporaines,  vo\.  ii.;  Damircn,  Philoj:i^pfnc  de  XW'^^  Si^le  An 
admirable  analysis  of  the  works  composing  the  Pahng&ntsie  is  giveo 
by  Barchuu,  Revue  de  deux  Mondes,  1S31,  t.  2.  pp.  410-456. 

BALL.-VRAT,  or  Ballaar.\t,  a  large  and  flourishing 
city  of  Australia,  in  the  province  cf  Victorix  It  is  situated 
about  58  miles  NW.  of  Geclong,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway,  and  about  66  mdes  W.N  W  of  Melbourne,  at 
an  elevation  of  1437  feet  above  the  level  of  .the  sea,  on  a 
small  river  known  as  the  Varowce  Creek.  It  consists  of 
three  portions, — Ballarat  West,  Ballarat  East,  and  Sebas- 
topol, — each  of  which  has  its  own  municipality  and  town- 
hall.  Its  existence  and  prosperity  are  solely  due  to  the 
gold-fields  which  were  discovered  here  in  1851.  In  1855  it 
was  proclaimed  amunicipality.  and  in  1870  Ballarat  West 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  city  In  1871  it  contained  56 
churches,  477  hotels,  10,000  dwellings,  11  banks,  8  iron- 
foundries,  13  breweries  and  distilleries,  3  flour-mills,  a  free 
public  library,  a  mechanics'  institute,  a  hospital,  a  "bene- 
volent institution,"  a  theatre,  and  a  public  garden ;  while 
about  sixty  miles  of  water-mains  and  fifty  of  gas-mains 
had  been  laid  down.  Its  population — of  very  various  origin, 
and  including  a  large  number  of  very  degraded  Chinese,  who 
are  huddled  together  in  a  separate  quarter — then  amounted 
to  48,156. 

BALL.;iRl  [BELLARv],adistrict  in  the  Madras  Presidency, 
lies  between  13°  40'  and  1,5°  58  N  lat  ,  75°  44  and  78° 
19'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N  by  the  NizAm'a 
territory,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  tho  Tungbhadri 
river  ;  on  the  E.  by  the  districts  of  Kadapa  and  Kamul  ; 
on  the  S.  by  the  Mysore  country  ,  and  on  the  W  by 
Mysore,  and  the  Bombay  district  of  Dharwar.  Its  extreme 
length  from  north  to  south  is  170  mdes,  and  its  breadth 
from  east  to  west  about  120  miles.  /  The  area  of  the  dis- 
trict, including  145  square' miles  of  tho  Sandilr  State,  is 
estimated  at  about  1 1,4'JG  square  miles  ,  according  to  other 
returns,  the  area  is  10,857  square  miles  (excluding  Sandiir), 
of  which  1004  consists  of  barren  soil,  sites  of  villages,  beds 
of  water-courses,  ic,  and  9852  of  lands  either  actually 
cultivated  or  capableof  cultivation.  The  census  of  1871 
returued  the  population  at  1,052,044,  of  whom  94  pci 
cent,  were  Hindus.  It  is  estimated  that  941,712,  ot 
7 1 '8  per  cent,  of  tho  population,  live  by  agriculture. 
The  general  aspect  of  the  district  is  that  of  an  exten- 
sive plateau  between  the  East<.'rn  and  Western  Ghits,  of 
an  average  height  of  from  800  to  1000  feet  above  sea- 
level.  The  most  elevated  tracts  are  on  the  W.,  where  the 
surface  rises  towards  tho  culminating  range  of  hills,  and 
on  the  S.,  where  it  rises  to  the  elevated  table-land  of  Mysore. 
Towards  the  centre  the  surface  of  tlie  plain  presents  a 
monotonous  aspect,  being  almost  treeless,  and   unbroken 


B  A  L  —  B  A  L 


28T 


rivo  by  a  few  rocky  clevatinns  that  stand  forth  abruptly 
frum  the  sheet  of  t)lack  soil  below.  Tho  hill  rangea  in 
BallArl  are  those  of  Sandiir  and  Kampli  to  the  W.,  the 
LaukA  Malla  to  tho  E  ,  and  the  Copper  mountain  to  the 
S.W.  Thclast  has  an  elevation  of  3148  feet.  The  district 
13  watered  by  five  hill  streams,  viz.,  the  TungbhadrA,  formed 
by  the  junction  of  two  small  rivers,  Tung  and  Chailr,i,  the 
Uaggarl,  Hindrl,  Ponnar,  and  Chitravati.  ■  The  I'onndr  is 
considered  a  sacred  river  by  the  natives.  None  of  the  rivers 
are  nangable,  and  all  are  fordablc  during  the  dry  season. 

The  agricultural  products  of  tlit>  distriet  arc  rotion,  indigo,  wheat, 
nee,  sug.ir-cine,  (lax,  betel,  plaiuain,  tuinicnc,  chillies,  onions, 
bt*mp,  coriander,  tobacco,  aroca-nut,  cocoa-nut.  od  seeds,  &c.  The 
follo^tiiig  13  a  rough  cstimato  of  acre.-ige  under  ditTercnt  crops;— 
Food  grains,  2,037,000  acres  ;  oil-seeds,  103,000  acres  ;  green 
•  nd  garden  crops,  36,000  acres;  orchards,  IS. 000  acres  ;  cotton, 
indigo,  and  sugar-cane,  37,000  acres,  fallow,  541,000  .lercs  ;  totol, 
3,922,000  acres.  The  inanufactures  of  tho  district  consist  of  cotton 
poods,  t^pe.  carpets,  rope,  blankets,  felts,  dyes.  oil.  sugar  and  molasses, 
paper,  leather,  glass  bangles  or  bracelets,  and  iron  and  earthen  pots. 
Cotton,  blankets,  raw  hides,  iron,  ic  ,  form  the  articles  of  e.\port. 
The  chief  mineral  products  are  iron,  copper,  lead,  autirtiony,  man- 
ganese, alum. and  gun-Qints.  .  Among  precious  stones  diamonds  are 
lound,  tho  chicT  diamond  mines  being  at  Muniinadagu  and  Wajra- 
ka.'ur.  Tho  diamonds  aro  collected  in  the  sandstone  breccia  and 
con;;!omerate  The  mines  no  longer  yield  sulJicient  profit  to  lie 
regularly  worked,  though  every  now  and  tiien  diamonds  of  small 
value  ore  met  witli  The  revenue  of  tlio  lialUri  district  from  all 
nources  amounted  in  1S)5  to  i'257,lD'J.  in  1855  to  A'218,284  ;  and 
in  18C3  to' £322. :'>4  3.  The  land  tax  forms  the  principal  source  of 
revenue  In  1SG8  it  yielded  £242.684.  More  than  one-fourth  of 
the  landj  aro  held  as  /ndm,  i,e.,  under  grants  formerly  made  for 
services  or  for  religious  purposes.  These  were  very  lightly  taxed 
by  the  ualive  Governraents,  but  the  present  state  of  tlicir  assessment 
is  not  less  than  that 'of  ordinary  lamls.  The  police  ibrco  numbered 
1122  in  1371.  maintained  at  a  cost  of  £l'i.012  In  1870  71  the 
district  contained  153  schools,  attended  by  4274  pupils.  It  has 
onU-  seven  towns  with  a  population  of  more  than  7000  souLs— il), 
Ballarf,  po|mlation,  including  troops  in  the  cantonment.  51,145; 
(2).  HospetU.  9345  ,  (3),  Tadipatri,  8IS2  .  (4).  Harpanhalli.  7895; 
(:.(,  Raiarug,  7734;  (0),  Emmiganur.  7326.  anJ*'(7),  Yadiki,  7202. 
Only  four  municipal  towns  exist  in  the  district .  —  I.  MalKiri — popula- 
tion. 51, 1 15;  municipal  income  in  1871,  £7051  .  e.^pcndittire,  £7495; 
rate  of  taxation,  2s.  SJd.  per  head.  -  2.  Gutti  — population,  Cii33; 
municipal  income.  £902.  evpcnditure,  £930;  ralo  of  taxation, 
3s.  3|a  per  head  3.  Anantpur — population,  4971  ;  municipal 
incoiie,  £791  .  expenditure,  £734  ,  rate  of  taxation,  33.  2id.  per 
head  4  Adoni— municipal  income,  £2147,  expenditure.  £19o5. 
Fifty  nine  roads,  of  a  total  length  of  1405  miles,  connect  the  different 
towns  anil  vi.ila^e*  in  the  Ballari  distiict;  and  the  M.TJraa  Railway. 
with  a  branch  to  IJall.arf.  passes  through  it.  The  climate  of  Ballari 
is  characterised  by  extreme  dryness,  in  eousenuenceof  the  air  pass. 
ing  over  a  great  extent  of  heated  plains,  and  it  [las  a  smaller  rain- 
fall than  any  other  district  in  South  India  The  aver.ige  daily 
range  of  tho  thennonieter  is  from  07"  to  83"  ,  average  rain-fall  for 
the  tivo  years  ending  1869.  17  inches.  The  prevailing  diseases  are 
cholera,  fever,  small  pox.  ophthalmia,  dysentery,  and  skin  diseases 
among  the  lower  classes  Ballari  is  subject  to  disastrous  storms 
and  hurricanes,  and  to  famines  arising  from  a  scries  of  bad  seasons. 
The  storms  of  1804  and  1851,  and  the  famiucs  of  1751,  1792,  1793, 
1803,  1833,  1851,  and  1860  still  live  in  the  popular  memory. 

Little  13  known  of  tho  early  history  of  the  district  It 
appears  to  have  been  a  portion  of  the  aftcient  kingdom  of 
A  ij.iyanagaram.  and  on  the  overthrow  of  that  slate  in  15G4 
A  D.  by  tho  Mahometans,  tho  tract  now  forming  tho  dis- 
trict of  BallArl  was  split  up  into  a  number  of  military 
holdings,  held  by  chiefs  called  I'nligArs.  In  1C30  tho 
Carnatic  was  anuotcd  to  the  tJij.lpur  dominions,  from 
which  again  it  was  wrested  in  1680  by  Sivajl,  the  founder 
of  the  Marhalta  power  It  was  then  iiicludod  in  tho  do- 
minions of  Niz.'im-ul  mulk.  the  nominal  viceroy  of  the  Great 
Mughul  in  the  Dakhln.  from  whom  again  il  was  subsc-' 
(Jlicntly  conquered  by  Haidar  All  of  Mysor.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  with  Tipii  Sultiiti  in  1702,  the  territories  which 
now  form  the  BalUrl  district  fell  to  the  share  of  the 
NizAm  of  Uaidar.'ibid,  by  whom  it  was  ceded  to  the  British 
in  1800.  in  return  for  a  force  of  English  troops  to  be 
stationed  at  his  capital  In  1818  the  district  of  Balliri 
was  (onstituted  as  it  at  present  remains.      Amidst  all  these 


political  con\-uIsion3  the  little  slate  of  Sandi'ir,  occupy- 
ing a  central  position  in  the  B.iU.Arl  district,  and  surrounded 
by  a  cordon  of  hdls,  preserved  its  integrity.  Sandiir  can 
only  be  entered  by  one  of  three  principal  natural  passes, 
viz.,  the  Bhimagundi  p.ass  on  the  N.E.,  the  I!.^managuiid> 
pass  on  the  N.,  and  the  Oblagundf  p.tss  on  tho  W.  Iib 
chief  is  the  representative  of  one  of  the  most  ancicni. 
Marhatti  families,  and  derives  a  revenue  of  £4500  fruin 
hia  ft;ito.  lie  now  holds  Sandiir  as  a  Jdt/ir  or  a  military 
tenure  from  our  Government,  but  p.ays  no  tribute. 

BAiLAnf,  the  principal  town  of  the  above  district,  is  tho 
chief  seat  of  the  iudicial  and  revenue  establishments,  and 
the  headquarters  vi  the  military  force  in  the  ceded  district* 
consisting  of  Ballirl  and  Kadap.i.  Tho  fort  rises  Jroin  a 
huge  nia.ss  of  granitic  rocks,  which  jut  up  abniptly  to  a 
height  of  450  feet  above  the  plain,  with  a  circumference  of 
nearly  2  miles.  Its  length  from  north-east  to  south-west 
is  about  1100  feet.  To  the  E.  and  S.  of  the  Ballirf  rock 
lies  a  heap  of  boulders  irregularly  piled  one  on  the  olho 
but  to  tho  W.  is  an  unbroken  surface  of  sheet-rock,  while 
the  N.  is  walled  by  bare  rugged  ridges.  BallArl  rock  is 
defended  by  two  distinct  lines  of  works,  tho  upper  and  the 
lower  fort.  Tho  upper  fort  is  a  quadrangular  building  on 
the  summit  of  tho  rock,  with  only  one  way  up  to  it,  and 
deemed  impregnable  by  the  Myr.ore  princes.  But  as  it  ha^ 
no  accommodation  for  a  garrison,  it  is  now  unoccupied  by 
our  troops,  with  the  exception  of  a  sni.ill  guard  in  chargu 
of  prisoners.  The  ex-Naw,lb  of  Karmil  was  confined  in  it 
for  forty  years  for  the  murder  of  his  wife.  It  contains  several 
tanks  or  cisterns  excavated  in  the  rock.  Outside  tho 
turreted  rampart  are  a  tlitch  and  covered  way.  The  lower 
fort  lies  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  rock,  and  measures  about 
half  a  mile  in  diameter.  Il  contains  the  barracks  for  our 
troops,  the  arsenal  and  commissariat  stores,  the  Protestant 
church,  orphanage,  Masonic  lodge,  post-office,  and  numer- 
ous private  dwellings.  The  fort  of  Ballarf  was  originally 
built  by  one  Tinimapa,  in  the  IGth  century  It  was  first 
dependent  on  the  kingdom  of  Vijayanagaram,  afterwards 
on  Bijiipur,  and  subsequently  subject  to  the  Niz.'lm  and 
Haidar  AH.  The  latter  improved  the  fortifications  with 
the  assistance  of  French  artisans,  whom  he  afterwards 
hanged  for  not  building  the  fort  on  a  higher  rock  adjacent 
to  il.  The  cantonment  b.'lz.'ir  of  Balldri  enjoys  the  reput.i- 
tion  of  being  the  best  military  b4z;ir  in  Southern  India. 
To  the  W.  of  the  rock  arc  tho  regimental  lines  for  two 
Native  infantry  regiments,  one  European  regiment,  and  one 
regiment  of  cavalry.  On  the  E.  are  tho  jail,  the  public 
courts,  and  the  terminus  of  the  branch  line  of  the  Madr.as 
Railway.  BallArl  town,  including  the  cantonment,  con- 
tained in  1866  a  population  of  37,015  souls,  of  which 
13.341  were  Hindus,  4178  .Mahometans,  and  1042  Chris- 
tians. Population  ascertained  by  the  census  of  1871, 
51.145.  Elevation  above  the  sea,  IGOO  feet.  Distance 
from  Bombay,  S.E.,  380  miles;  from  M.idras,  N.W.,  2(0 
mile.s.     Lat.  15°  18'  N.  ;  long.  70°  59'  E. 

BALLATER,  a  vill.ige  of  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  on 
tho  River  Dee,  42  miles  W.  f.om  Aberdeen.  In  its  vicinity 
are  the  medicinal  wells  of  Pannanich,  Balmoral  Cxstle  (a 
summer  residence  of  Queen  Victoria),  and  Ballatrich  Earni, 
where  Byron  spent  part  of  his  boyliood.  Ballatrich  is  a 
short  distance  from  "  Lachin-y-Gair"  (Lochnagar),'une  of 
tho  loftiest  of  the  Grampian  range,  and  the  subject  of  one 
of  Byron's  most  beautiful  poems. 

•  BALLENSTEDT,  a  city  in  the  duchy  of  Anhalt-Bcrn- 
burg.  It  is  situated  on  the  Oetcl  in  the  Harz  Forest,  in  a 
most  picturesque  district,  and  consists  of  an  old  and  a  new 
town.  A  6ne  road,  bordered  with  trees,  leads  to  the  castle  of 
the  dukes  of  Anhalt-Bernburg.  The  city  contains  about  439  J 
inhabitants,  who  are  mostly  engaged  in  linen  manufactures, 
gardening,  Sic    Ballenstedt  is  the  birthplace  of  Job.  Arndt. 


288 


B  A  L  — B  A  L 


BALLET  is  a  word,  the  signification  of  which  depends 
upon  the  century  in  which  we  find  it  employed.  Originally 
derived  from  the  Greek  ySaAAifcir,  to  dance,  it  has  passed 
through  the  mediaeval  Latin  ballare  (with  ballator  as  synony- 
mous with  saltator)  to  the  Italian  ballare  and  badlala,  to  the 
Prench  ballet,  to  the  old  English  word  ballelte,  and  to  ballad. 
Iq  old  French,  according  to  Rousseau,  ballet  signifies  "to 
(lance,  to  sing,  to  rejoice ;"  and  thus  it  incorporates  three 
distinct  modern  words,  "  ballet,  ball,  and  ballad."  Through 
the  gradual  changes  in  the  amusements  of  different  ages, 
the  meaning  of  the  first  two  words  has  at  length  become 
limited  to  dancing,  and  the  third  is  now  confined  to  sing- 
ing. But,  although  ballads  are  no  longer  the  vocal  accom- 
paniments to  dances,  round  the  maypole,  our  old  ballads 
are  still  sung  to  dance  tunes.  The  present  acceptation  of 
the  word  ballet  is — a  theatrical  representation  in  which  a 
story  is  told  only  by  gesture,  accompanied  by  music  which 
should  be  characterised  by  stronger  emphasis  than  would 
be  employed  with  the  voice.  The  dancing  should  be  con- 
nected with  the  story,  but  is  more  commonly  incidental. 
The  French  \yord  was  found -to  be  so  comprehensive  as  to 
require  further  definition,  and  thu3  the  above-described 
would  be  distinguished  as  the  ballet  d'action  or  pantomime 
ballet,  while  a  single  scene,  such  as  that  of  a  village  festival 
with  its  dances,  would  now  be  termed  a  divertissement. 

The  ballet  d'action,  to  which  the  changed  meaning  of 
the  word  is  to  be  ascribed,  and  therewith  the  introduction 
of  modern  ballet,  has  been  generally  attributed  to  the  IGth 
century.  Novelty  of  entertainment  was  then  sought  for  in 
the  Splendid  courts  of  Italy,  in  order  to  celebrate  events 
which  were  thought  great  ia  their  time,  such  as  the 
marriages  of  princes,  or  the  triumphs  of  their  arms.  Inven- 
tion was  on  the  rack  for  novelty^  and  the  skill  of  the 
machinist  was  taxed  to  the  utmost.  It  has  been  supposed 
that  the  art  of  the  old  'Roms.n  pantomimi  was  then  revived, 
to  add  to  the  attractions  of  court-dances.  Under  the 
Roman  empire  the  panlomimi  had  represented  either  a 
■mythological  story,  or  perhaps  a  scene  from  a  Greek  tragedy, 
by  mute  gestures,  while  a  chorus,  placed  in  the  background. 
Bang  cantica  to  narrate  the  fable,  or  to  describe  the  action 
of  the  scene.  The  question  is  whether  mute  pantomimic 
action,  which  is  the  essence  of  modern  ballet,  was  carried 
through  those  court  entertainments,  in  which  kings,  queeus, 
princes,  and  princesses  took  parts  with  the  courtiers;  or 
whether  it  is  of  later  growth,  and  derived  from  professional 
dancers  upon  the  st.ige.  The  former  is  the  general 
opinion,  but  an  analysis  of  the  only  ballet  which  is  known 
to  have  boon  printed  in  a  complete  form  during  the  IPth 
century,  would  lead  to  the  inference  that  the  court  enter- 
tainments of  Italy  and  France  were  masques,  or  masks, 
which  included  declamation  "and  song,  like  those  of  Een 
Jonson  with  Inigo  Jonea  for  the  court  of  James  I. 

The  introduction  of  the  Italian  stylo  of  ballet  into  Franco 
was  on  the  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  the  Due  de  Joyeuso 
with  Millie,  de  Vaudemont,  sister  to  the  queen.  This  was 
in  1581;  and  the  ballet  was  printed  in  1582,  in  a  small 
folio  of  eighty-two  leaves,  with  music,  dialogue,  engravings 
of  the  scene  and  of  the  fancy  dresses,  and  full  details  of 
the  plot.  It  is  eiititk'd  lialct  Comiquc de  la  livyne,  because 
the  queen  took  a  part  in  it,  as  one  of  the  naiades,  with  her 
ladies;  but  they  were  only  posed  upon  machinery  to  bo 
looked  at,  and  neither  spoke  nor  sang.  One  lady  of  the 
court  sang  a  song,  two  others  a  duet,  and,  again,  others  a 
chorus.  Jupiter  and  Mercury  each  sang  a  song,  but  Circe 
and  the  rest  spoke  poetry.  The  king's  musicians,  as  tritons, 
were  the  mainstays  of  the  music  ;  the  ladies  and  gentlemen 
of  the  court  appeared  in  splendid  fancy  dresses,  and  danced 
the  cntr(Se3.  The  inventor  of  the  ballet  was  lialtazarini 
Holgioiosn,  who  had  assumed  the  name  of  Baltasar  do 
liraujoyeux    upon   his   appuiiitincnt  as    first   musician  to 


Catherine  de  Medicis,  queen  dowager  of  France.  The  disuse 
of  dialogue  and  of  vocal  music  in  ballet  seems  to  have  beea 
arrived  at  only  by  degrees.  One  of  the  most  complete 
books  upon  the  subject  is  by  the  Jesuit  Le  P(ire  Menestrier 
(Cljude  Francois)  Bes  Ballets  Anciens  el  Modernes,  12mo, 
1C81.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a  ballet  for  Louis  XIV.  iu 
1658;  and  in  his  book  he  analyses  about  fifty  of  the  early 
Italian  and  French  baUets.  His  definition  is  as  follows  :— 
"  BaUets  are  dumb  comedies,  which  should  be  divided  into 
acta  and  scenes,  like  other  theatrical  pieces.  Recitations 
divide  them  into  acts,  and  the  entrt^es  of  dancers  are  equal 
in  number  to  the  scenes."  So  recitation  had  not  then  been 
dispensed  witL  At  length  the  opinion  gained  ground  that, 
iu  stage  representations,  the  actions,  feelings,  and  passions 
could  be  more  faithfully,  gracefully,  and  intelligibly  ex- 
pressed to  the  eye  by  pantomimic  action,  than  it  would  be 
possible  to  do  to  the  ear.  The  art  of  dramatic  expression 
then  became  a  greater  object  of  study  ;  and,  perhaps,  from 
about  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  or  in  the  time  of 
Noverre,  the  spectators  have  been  prepared  only  by  a  short 
printed  summary  of  the  story  which  was  to  be  repre- 
sented, (w.  cu.) 

BALLINA,  a  seaport  and  market-town  of  Ireland,  county 
of  Mayo,  18  miles  N.N.E.  of  Castlebar,  situated  on  the 
River  Moy,  which  is  here  crossed  by  two  bridges.  It  has 
a  parish  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church  (the  latter  being  in 
the  suburb  of  Ardnaree  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river). 
Baptist  and  Methodist  chapels,  a  court-house,  three  branch 
banks,  a  workhouse,  hospital,  dispensary,  barracks,  and 
several  schools.  A  convent  was  erected  in  1807.  The 
salmon  fishery  and  fish-curing  are  important  branches  of  its 
trade  ;  and  it  haa  also  breweries  and  Hour-mills,  and  manu- 
factures snuff  and  coarse  linen.  The  amount  of  harbour 
receipts  in'  1873  was  X12G6.  In  1798  Ballina  was  fur  a 
short  time  in  the  possession  of  the  French,  under  General 
Humbert.  In  the  neighbourhood  there  is  an  interesting 
dolmen,  proved  by  the  early  annals  of  Ireland  to  belong 
to  the  5th  century  a.d.  (vide  Fergusson's  Jiude  Slo7it 
Monuments).  To  the  east  of  the  village  are  the  remains 
of  an  abbey,  with  a  Gothic  door-case  in  fine  preservation 
(Archdall).     Population  in  1871,  5551. 

BALLINASLOE,  a  town  of  Ireland,  province  of  Con- 
naught,  91  miles  W.S.W.  of  Dublin.  The  River  Suck,  an 
afliuont  of  the  Shannon,  divides  it  into  two  parts;  the 
western  being  in  the  county  of  Galway,  the  eastern  in  the 
county  of  Roscommon.  They  are  connected  by  two  bridges 
and  a  causeway  across  an  island.  The  town  is  clean  and 
well  built,  and  contains  a  handsome  church,  with  a  singular 
octagonal  spire  springing  from  scrolls.  There  are  Roman 
Catholic  and  Methodist  chapels,  several  public  schools,  a 
district  lunatic  asylum,  union  workhouse,  market-Louse,  a 
savings  bank  (established  in  1822),  several  flour-mills,  and 
breweries.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  Garbally  Castle,  the 
seat  of  the  carl  of  Clancarty.  A  great  annual  cattle  fair 
is  held  here  from  the  5th  to  the  9lh  of  October,  its 
importance  may  be  judged  from  the  fact,  that  in  187-1  there 
wero  exposed  for  sale  18,018  horned  cattle  and  05,130 
sheep.  The  Wi stern  Star  is  published  in  the  tu«n. 
I'opulation  in  1871,  4019. 

BALLOON.     Sue  Akho.nautics,  vol.  i.  pp.  187-207. 

BALLOT,  or  secret  voting,  has  been  employed  iu  poli- 
tical, legislative,  and  judicial  assemblies,  and  also  in  tho 
proceedings  of  private  clubs  and  corporations.  At  Athens, 
the  dicasts,  in  giving  their  verdict,  gcnemlly  used  balls  of 
stone  (jysephi)  or  of  metal  {sponduli).  Those  pierced  in 
the  centre,  or  black  in  colour,  signified  condeninatioii  ; 
those  unpierced,  or  white,  signified  act]uittal.  The  bo,\es 
were  variously  arranged  ;  but  generally  a  brass  box  received 
both  classes  of  votes,  and  a  wooden  box  received  the  unused 
balls.  In  the  assembly,  cases  of  ;»n«7(v/i'ii,  such  as  ostracisjii. 


B 


L  L  0  T 


289 


the  naturalisation  of  foreigners,  or  the  release  of  state- 
debtors,  were  decided  by  secret  voting.  The  petalism,  or 
voting  by  words  on  olive-leaves,  practised  at  Syracuse,  may 
also  be  mentioned.  At  Rome  the  ballot  was  introduced  to 
the  comitia  by  the  Ltges  Tabellariae,  of  which  the  Lex 
Gabiana  (139  B.C.)  relates  to  the  election  of  magistrates, 
the  Lex  Cassia  (137  B.C.)  to  judicia  populi,  and  the  Lex 
Papiria  {\3ri  B  c.)  to  the  enactment  and  repeal  of  laws. 
The  wooden  tabeltae,  placed  in  the  cixta,  or  wicker  box, 
were  marked  U.  It.  {uti  rogas)  and  A.  (antiijuo)  in  the  case 
of  a  proposed  law  ;  L.  (libera)  and  D.  (damtio)  in  the  case 
of  a  public  trial  ;  in  the  case  of  an  election,  puncta  were 
made  opposite  the  names  or  initials  of  the  candidates. 
Tabetlae  were  also  used  by  the  Roman  judices,  who 
eipressed  their  verdict  or  judgment  by  the  letters  A. 
(absolvo),  C  (condemno),  and  N    L.  (non  liqiiel)} 

In  Great  Britain  the  ballot  was  suggested  for  use  in  Par- 
liament by  a  political  tract  of  the  time  of  Charles  II.  It  was 
actually  used  by  the  Scots  Parliament  of  1662  in  proceed- 
ingon  the  "Billeting  Act," a  measire  proposed  by  Middleton 
to  secure  the  ostracism  of  Lauderdale  and  other  political 
opponents  who  were  by  secret  vote  declared  incapable  of 
public  office  The  plan  followed  was  this  :  each  member 
of  Parliament  wrote,  in  a  disguised  hand,  on  a  piece  of  pape^ 
the  names  of  twelve  suspected  persons  ;  the  billets  were 
put  in  a  bag  held  by  the  registrar;  the  bag  was  then  sealed, 
and  was  afterwards  opened  and  its  contents  ascertained 
in  the  Exchequer  Chamber,  where  the  billets  were  imme- 
diately burned,  and  the  names  of  the  ostracised  concealed 
on  oath.  The  Billeting  Act  was  repudiated  by  the  king, 
and  the  ballot  was  not  again  heard  of  till  1705,  when 
Fletcher  of  Saltoun,  in  his  measure  for  a  provisional 
government  of  Scotland  by  annual  Parliaments  in  the 
event  of  Queen  Anne's  death,  proposed  secret  voting  to 
protect  members  from  court  influence.  The  gradual 
emancipation  of  the  British  Parliament  from  the  power 
of  the  Crown,  and  the  adoption  of  a  strictly  representative 
system  of  election,  have  not  only  destroyed  whatever 
reason  may  once  have  existed  for  the  ballot  in  deliberative 
voting,  but  have  rendered  it.  essential  that  such  voting 
should  be  open.  It  was  in  the  agitations  for  parliamentary 
reform  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  that  the 
demand  for  the  ballot  in  parliamentary  elections  was  first 
seriously  made.  The  Benthamites  advocated  the  system 
10  1817.'  At  the  Peterloo  Massacre  (1819)  several  banners 
were  inscribed  with  the  ballot.  O'Connell  introduced  a  bill 
on  the  subject  in  1830;  and  the  original  draft  of  Lord 
John  Russell's  Reform  Bill,  probably  on  the  suggestion  of 
Lords  Durham  and  Duncannon,  provided  for  its  introduc- 
tion. Later  on  Mr  Grote  became  its  chief  supporter  in 
the  House  of  Commons;  and  from  1833  to  1839,  in  spite 
of  the  ridicule  cast  by  Sydney  Smith  on  the  "  mouse-trap," 
aad  on  Mr  Grote's  "dagger-box,  in  which  you  stab  the 
card  of  your  favourite  candidate  with  a  dagger,"'  the 
minority  for  the  ballot  increased  from  106  to  217.  In 
1838  the  ballot  was  the  fourth  point  of  the  People's 
L'hartec  In  the  same  year  the  abolition  of  the  land 
qualiGcation  introduced  rich  commercial  candidates  to  the 
constituencies.  ,  Lord  Melbourne's  ca\)inet  declared  the 
question  open.  The  cause.upheld  by  Macaulay,  Ward, Hume 
(io  his  resolutions,  1 848),  and  Berkeley,  was  strengthened  by 
ihe  Report  of  Lord  H.-irtinglon's  Select  Committee  (15lh 
March  1870), Ho  the  effect  that  corruption,  treating,  and 
inliinidalion  by  priests  and  landlords  took  place  to  a  large 

'  lu  5^i«ony  jurlci  still  vote  by  ballot. 

•  See  the  powerlul  orticlt  by  James  Mill,  Wcstminttrr  Rev.,  vol.  liii. 

•  For  a  description  of  Mr  Grote's  canl-frame,  in  which  the  card  wis 
punctured  throuub  a  hole,  ami  wia  thus  nerer  in  the  voter's  bands,  see 
Sptelalor.  25lh  Febniiry  18:17. 

•  Psrliaro.nljiy  I'-jers,  ISO?  9,  R.  302,  352-1  ,  and]S70.  R  115 

a—ii 


extent  at  both  parliamentary  and  muiiicipdl  elections  ia 
England  and  Ireland  ;  and  that  the  ballot,  if  adopted,  would, 
probably  not  only  promote  tranquillity  at  elections,  but 
protect  voters  from  undue  influence,  and  introduce  greater 
freedom  and  purity  in  voting,  provided  secrecy  was  made 
inviolable  except  in  cases  where  a  voter  was  found  guilty 
of  bribery,  or  where  an  invalid  vote  had  been  given.  At 
Manchester  and  Stafford  in  1869,  test  ballots  had  taken 
place  on  the  Australian  principle  as  practised  in  Victoria, — 
the  voting  car4  containing  the  names  of  all  the  candidates, 
printed  indillerputcolours(forthebencfitof  illiterate  voters), 
and  the  voter  being  directed  to  score  out  the  names  of  those 
he  did  not  support,  and  then  to  place  Ihe  card  (covered  by 
an  official  envelope)  in  the  box.  It  was  found  at  Manchester 
that  the  voting  was  considerably  more  rapid,  and  therefore 
less  expensive,  than  under  the  old  system ;  that  only  80  cards 
out  of  1 1,475  were  rejected  as  informal ;  and  that,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  candidates  being  present  to  check  false  state- 
ments  of  identity,  and  the  public  outside  being  debarred 
from  receiving  information  what  voters  had  voted,  the  ballot 
rather  decreased  the  risk  of  personation.  At  Manchester  the 
cards  were  not  numbered  consecutively,  as  isdone  in  Victoria, 
so  that  (assuming  the  officials  to  be  free  from  corruption)  no 
scrutiny  could  have  detected  by  whom  particular  votes 
were  given.  At  Staflord  the  returning  officer  stamped  each 
card  before  giving  it  to  the  voter,  the  die  of  the  stamp 
having  been  finished  only  on  the  morning  of  the  election. 
By  this  ineaiis  the  possibility  was  excluded  of  what  was 
known  in  the  colonies  as  "  the  Tasmanian  Dodge,"  by 
which  3  corrupt  voter  gave  to  the  returning  officer,  or  placed 
in  the  bo.'?,  a  blank  non-official  ticket,  and  carried  out  from 
the  booth  his  official  card,  which  a  corrupt  agent  then 
marked  for  his  candidate  and  gave,  so  marked,  to  corrupt 
voter  No.  2  (before  he  entered  the  booth),  on  condition 
that  he  also  would  bring  out  his  official  card,  and  so  on  ad 
libitum  ;  the  agent  thus  obtaining  a  security  for  his  bribe, 
unless  the  corrupt  voter  chose  to  disfranchise  himself  by 
making  further  marks  on  the  card. 

At  the  close  of  1870  the  ballot  was  employed  in  the 
election  of  members  for  the  London  School  Board,  under 
the  Education  Act  of  that  year. 

In  1872  Mr Forster's Ballot  Act  (3.")  and  36  Vict.  c.  33) 
introduced  the  ballot  in  all  parliamentary  and  municipal 
elections,  except  parUamentary  elections  for  universities ; 
and  the  code  of  procedure  prescribed  by  the  Act  was 
adopted  by  the  Scotch  Education  Board  in  the  first  School 
Board  election  (1873),  under  "The  Education  (Scotland) 
Act,  1872."  It  is  impossible  hero  to  analyse  the  Ballot 
Act,  which  not  only  abolishes  public  nominations  of 
candidates,  but  deals  with  the  ofTeiice  of  personation  and 
the  expenses  of  elections.  As  regards  the  ballot,  a  white 
paper  is  used  on  which  the  names  of  the  candidates  are 
printed  in  alphabetical  order,  the  voter  filling  up  with  a  X 
the  blank  on  the  right  hand  opposite  the  name  he  votes  for. 
The  paper,  before  being  given  out,  is  marked  by  the 
presiding  ofliceron  both  sides  with  an  official  stamp,  which 
is  kept  secret,  and  cannot  be  used  for  a  second  election 
within  seven  years.  The  paper  is  marked  on  the  back  with 
the  same  number  as  the  counterfoil  of  the  paper  which 
remains  with  the  ofliccr.  This  counterfoil  is  also  marked 
with  the  voter's  number  on  the  register,  so  that  the  vote 
may  bo  identified  on  a  scrutiny  ;  and  a  mark  on  the  register 
shows  that  the  voter  has  received  a  ballot  paper.  The  voter 
folds  up  the  paper  so  as  to  conceal  his  mark,  but  to  show 
the  stamp  to  the  officer,  and  deposits  it  in  the  box,  whicK 
is  locked  and  sealed,  and  so  coiislructcd  that  papers  cannot 
be  withdrawn  without  unlocking  it  Papers  inadvertently 
spoiled  by  the  voters  may  be  exchanged,  the  officer 
preserving  stpnrately  the  spoiled  p.ipcis.  If  a  voter  is 
inc.ipacitated  from  blindness,  or  other  phvsical  causfr.  or 


290 


B  A  I.  L  0  'I' 


makes  bclOic  the  ulllcer  a  Jcclar.itiOn  of  inability  Ij  rcid, 
or  when  the  poll  is  od  a  Saturday  declares  Lunself  a  Jew, 
the  offictr  ca\ise3  the  paper  to  Lie  marked  aa  the  voter 
directs,  and  keeps  a  record  of  the  transaction.  A  voter  who 
claims  to  vote  after  a  other  has  voted  in  respect  of  the  same 
•qualification,  obtains  a  (green)  paper  which  is  not  placed  in 
tlie  box,  but  preserved  apart  as  a  "  tendered  "  paper.  Ue 
must,  however,  declare  his  identity,  and  that  he  has  nut 
already  voted.  The  presiding  officer,  at  the  close  of  the 
poll,  has  to  account  to  the  returning  officer  for  the  papers 
entrusted  to  biin,  the  number  being  made  up  by — (1)  papers 
in  the  bos,  12)  spoiled  papers,  (3)  unused  papers,  and  (4) 
tendered  papers.  During  the  voting  (for  which  schoolrooms 
Bid  othff  public  rooms  are  available,  and  for  which  a 
separate  compartment  must  bo  provided  for  every  100 
electors  entitled  to  vote  at  a  station)  agents  of  candidates 
aie  allowed  to  be  present  in  the  pdlingstation,  but  they, 
as  well  as  the  olTicials,  are  sworn  to  secrecy  as  regards  who 
h.ive  voted,  and  for  whom;  and  they  are  prohibited  from 
interfering  with  the  voter,  inducing  him  to  show  his  vote, 
or  attempting  to  ascertain  the  number  on  the  back  of  the 
jiaper.  These  agents  are  also  present  with  the  returning 
<)6Bcer  when  he  counts  the  papers  and  the  votes,  rejecting 
•thosa  papers — ( 1 ),  w  hich  want  the  official  mark  on  Ike  back  , 
(2),  on  which  voles  are  given  for  lunrc  candidates  than  the 
■voter  is  entitled  Iq  vote  for  ;  (3),  on  which  anything  except 
the  number  on  the  back  is  marked  or  written  by  which  the 
voter  can  be  identified  ;  (4),  which  are  unmarked,  or  so 
Uiarked  that  it  is  uncertain  for  whom  the  vole  is  given. 
The  (yuntcd  and  rejected  pnpers,  and  also  the  "  tendered" 
papers,  cuuiilerfuils,  and  marked  register  (which  have  not 
ticen  opened),  are,  in  pailiamentary  elections,  transm'tted 
by  the  returning  ofKccr  to  the  clerk  of  the  Crowf  in 
Chancery  in  England,  or  the  sheriffclerk  in  Scotland,  who 
<le3troys  thera  at  the  end  of  one  year,  unless  othe' wise 
directed  by  an  prdcr  of  the  House  of  Commons,  or  of  some 
•court  ha\-ing  jurisdiction  in  election  petitions.  Such 
petitions  either  simply  dispute  the  accuracy  of  the  return 
■on  the  ground  of  miscounting,  or  wrongous  rrjecliun  or 
wrongous  admission  of  papers,  in  which  case  the  court 
csamincs  the  counted  and  rejected  papers:  or  niaUo 
allegations  of  corruption,  ic,  on  which  it  may  bo  Lec'essary 
to  refer  to  the  marked  counterfoils  and  ascertain  how  bribed 
voters  have  voted.  Since  the  elections  of  1874  much 
discontent  has  been  expressed,  because  judges  have  rejected 
papers  with  trifling  (perhaps  accidental)  marks  other  than 
the  X  upon  them,  and  because  elections  have  been  lost 
through  the  failure  of  the  officer  to  stamp  the  papers.  For 
tlus  purpose  the  use  has  been  suggested  of  a  perforating 
instead  of  an  embossing  stamp,  while  a  dark  ground  paper 
with  white  voting-spaces  would  make  misplaced  votes  im- 
possible. The  Ballot  Act  has  introduced  several  new  offences, 
such  as  forging  or  fraudulently  defacing  or  destroying  a 
paper  or  the  official  mark  ;  supplying  a  paper  without  due 
authority;  fraudulently  putting  into  the  boi  a  non-official 
paper;  fraudulently  tak'og  a  paper  out  of  the  station 
without  due  authority;  destroying,  taking,  opening,  or 
iilherwise  interfering  with  a  box  or  packet  of  papers  then 
in  use  for  election  purposes.  Those  oflenccs,  and  attempts 
10  commit  them,  are  punishable  in  the  case  of  officers  and 
links  with  imprisonment  for  two  years,  with  or  without 
l.jrd  labour  In  other  c.ises  the  ternr  of  imprisonment  is 
«ix  months 

The  ballot  being  lliiis  tin  fail  accompli  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  it  is  now  scarcely  necessary  to  indicate  the 
argunicn'a  by  which  it  was  supported  and  opposed.  It 
liti  born  found  possible  to  render  voting  peKectly  secret 
and  to  pri.viilc  for  a  scrutiny.  It  would  bo  foolish  to  expect 
Jlill  Bcori-t  votings  ill  bo  a  perfect  srourity  for  indopcndcnt 
voting.      H'tl.ir)*.   Ircaltn:^,    and    intiniid.ilion   contiiiiir«    (/> 


bo  practised,  but  with  dimhiished  effect.  Bribery  a,ay 
still  be  made  conditional  on  the  briber's  success,  but  thu 
Act  is  felt  to  be  an  expression  of  national  opinion  against 
all  interference  with  individual  judgment.  The  argument 
that  the  franchise  is  a  public  trust,  to  the  exeitise  of  which 
a  public  responsibility  should  attach,  would  be  conclusive 
if  the  "selfish  partialities"  of  the  voter  were  the  chief  evil. 
The  ballot  was  declared  to  lead  to  universal  hypocrisy  and 
deception ;  and  Sydney  Smith  spoke  of  "  voters,  in  dominos, 
going  to  the  poll  in  sedanchairs  with  closely-drawn 
curtains."  The  observed  effect  of  a  secret  bai'ot  is,  however, 
gradually  to  exterminate  und  le  influence  and  canvassing; 
and  when  the  necessity  for  S3crecy  is  removed,  votes  are 
not  kept  secret.  The  alarm  of  "the  Confessional"  seems 
to  be  unfounded,  as  a  Catholic  penitent  is  not  bound  to 
confess  his  vote,  and  if  he  did  so,  it  would  be  a  crime  in 
the  confessor  to  divulge  it. 

The  ballot  b  used  very  largely  in  the  Biilish  Colonies, 
and  on  the  Continent.  In  South  Australia,  under  the  Anstri 
Constitution  Act  of  1856  and  the  Electoral  Act  of  1858, 
both  the  Legislative  Council  and  the  Houso  of  Assembly 
are  elected  by  manhood  suffrage  under  tho  ballot,  tho 
returning  officer  putting  nis  initials  on  the  voting  card, 
which  the  voter  is  directed,  under  pai]  of  nullity,  to  fold 
so  that  tho  officer  may  not  ae  the  vote  which  is  indicated 
by  a  cross.  The  cards  are  destroyed  wiien  the  poll  is 
announced;  and  thus  personation,  thou;;' i  proved  against 
certain  voters  for  the  purpose  of  punisaing  them,  would 
not  void  an  election,  for  there  can  be  no  .scrutiny  before 
tho  Court  of  UispulPd  Eeturns.  Canvassing  has  almost 
disappeared.  In  Victoria,  under  the  Electoral  Act  of  18C5 
(29  Vict.  c.  279),  both  the  Legislative  Council  and  tho 
Legislative  Assembly  are  elected  practically  by  manhood 
suH'ragc  under  the  ballot,  which  was  introduced  in  1850. 
The  officer  adds  to  his  initials  a  number  corresponding  to 
the  viitcr's  number  on  the  register,  and  the  cards  are  pre 
served  till  after  the  tinio  for  petitioning  the  Committee  of 
Elictions  and  Qualifications  has  exiiired,  so  that  a  scrutiny 
may  take  )ilace  of  challenged  votes.  The  important  Road 
Boards  under  the  Local  Government  Consolidation  Act  of 
18C9are  also  elected  by  ballot.  In  Tasmania  the  chid 
peculiarity  is  that  (as  in  South  Australia)  the  card  is  not 
put  directly  by  the  voter  into  the  box,  but  banded  to  the 
officer  who  puts  it  there  (this  being  thought  a  security 
against  double  voting  or  voting  with  a  nonofficial  card,  and 
also  against  the  voter  carrying  away  his  card)  ;  here  also 
tho  cards  are  destroyed  immediately,  while  in  New  South 
Wales,  where,  as  in  Victoria,  the  voting  is  by  scoring  out 
and  not  by  a  cross,  the  cards  are  kept  for  five  years.  The 
vigorous  municipal  boards  of  these  colonies  are  also  elected 
by  ballot,  which  has  dimiidihcd  expense  and  unduu 
influence  very  greatly,  but  has  not  produced  comphte 
secrecy  of  voting. 

In  France,   where  from   1840  to  1845  the  ballot,   or  Fr«ni 
icnUin,    had    been    used    for   deliberative    voting    in    the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  its  ujo  in  elections  to  the  Corps 
L<?gislatif  was  carefully  rcgul/itcd  at  the  bjginning  of  the 
Second  Empire  by  the  Ur;janic    Decree  of  2d   February 
1852.     Under  this  law  the  voting  was  su|iCrintended  by  a 
bureau  consisting  of  tho  deputy  returning  officer  (called 
president   of   the  section),  four  unpaid  assessors  selected 
from  the  constituency,  and  a  secretary,     pach  voter  pre 
sents  a  polling  card,  with  his  designation,  d>te  of  birth,  and' 
signature   (to   secure  identity),  which   he  has  previously 
got  at  tho  Afairie.     This  the  president  nnitiUites,  and  Iht         j 
vote  is  then  recorded  by  a  "  biiUetii),"  which  is  not  official, 
but    is   generally    [iriutid    with  a  candidate's    name,  and 
given  to  the  voter  by  an  agent  outside,  the  only  conditions. - 
being  that  the  buIKliii  shall  be  "  sur  iia|>ii'r  blanc,  ears . 
»i<.'iios  oxti^ricurs,  cl  pri'parr  en  doliiTs  dv  I'nsfenibMo."    Tli' , 


il 


B  A  L  L  0  T 


291 


total  nnniber  of  rMei  given  (there  being  oiil)'  une  lueuibcr 
in  each   eloctural  district)  is  checked  by  reference  to  "  la 
ll'uille   d'appil   et  inscription  des   votants,"  the  law  still 
supposing  that  each  voter  is  publicly  called  on  to  vote      If 
the  voter,  when  challenged,  cannot  sign  his  polling  card,  he 
may  call  a  witness  to  sign  for  him.     The  following  classes 
uf  bulletins  are  rejected: — "illisibles,  blancs,  ne  contenant 
pas  uoe  designation  suffisante  ;  sur  lesqueU  les  votar.ls  se 
Sunt   fait   connaitro ;   contenant   le   nom  d'une    persoiine 
nayant  pas  prctiS  le  serment  [irescril"  (i.t ,  of  a  person  not 
nominated).     Only  the  votes  pronounced  bad  by  the  bureau 
in  presence  of  representative  scrutineers  are  preserved,  in 
case  theie  should  be  called  for  during  the  "  Session  pour 
verification  des  Pouvoirs."     Practically  the  French  ballot 
did  not  allorii  secrecy,  for  you  might  observe  what  bulletin 
the  voter  .ook  from  the  agent,  and  follow  him  up  the  queue 
into  the  polling  place  ;    but  the  determined  Toter  might 
conceal  his  vote  even  from  the  undue  influence  of  Govern- 
ment by  scratching  out  the  printed   matter  and  writing 
bis  vote.     Thi.?  was  always  a  good  vole,  and  scrutiny  of 
good   votes  *as  impossible.     The  ballot  b  slUl  used   in 
the  elections    to    the   National    Assembly,   but    in    the 
Assembly  itself  only  in  special  cases,  as,  f.^.,  in  the  elec- 
tion of  a  "  rapporteux."     Under  the  law  of   10th  August 
1871,  the  conseils  giindrau.t  (departmental  councils)   are 
elected  by  ballot.     In  Piedmont  the  ballot  formed  part  of 
the  free  constitutional  government  introduced  by  Charles 
Albert  in  March  1848;  it  was  e-i^tended  to  Italy  in  18G1. 
Voting  for  the  Italian  Chamber  of  Deputies  takes  place 
under  the   law  of   20th  November  1850,  and  in  public 
halls  (not  booths),  to  which  admission  is  gained  by  showing 
a  certiflcate  of   inscription,  issued  by  the  mayor  to  each 
qualiSed   voter.     A   stamped   blue  ofEcial   paper,  with  a 
menjorandum  of   the  law  printed  on  the  back  {holUlino 
$piegUo),  is  then  issued  to  thfe  elector ;  on  this  he  writes 
the  name  of  a  candidate  (there  -being  equal  electoral  col- 
leges), or,  in  certain  exceptional  cases,  gets  a  confidential 
friend  to  do  so,  and  hands  the  paper  folded  up  to  the  pre- 
aident  of  the  biireau,  who  puts  it  in  the  box  {uma),  and 
who   afterwards   presides   at   the   public  "  squiltinio   dei 
suCfragi."     No  scrutiny  is  possible  ;  canvassing  and  bribery 
are  rare  ;  and  Cavour  thought  the  ballot  had  quite  nullified 
the   clerical  power,  at  least  in  Piedmont.     Greece  is  the 
only  European  country  in  which  the  ball  ballot  is  used. 
The  voting  takes  place,  in  the  chulrches,  each  candidate  has 
a  box,  on   which  his  name  is  inscribed,  one  half   (white) 
being  also  marked  "  Yes,"  the   other  half  (black)  "  No." 
The  voter,  his  citizenship  or  right  to  vote  in  the  eparchy 
being  verified,  receives  one  ball  or  leaden  bullet  for  each 
L-andidate  from  a  wooden  bowl,  which  a  clerk  carries  from 
box  to  box.     The  voter  stretches  his  arm  down  a  funnel, 
and  drops  the  ball  into  the  "  Yes  "  or  '•  No  "  division.     The 
vote  is  secret,  but  there  is  apparently  no  check  on  "  Yes  " 
votes  being  given  for  all  the  candidates,  and  the  ball  or 
bullet  is   imitable.     In    the  United   States   a  most   im- 
perfect  ballot  system  prevails.     In  many  states  there  is 
no  register,  and  therefore  personation  and  double  voting 
are  practised.     Again,  there  is  no  ofEcial  card,  but,  as  in 
Iho  Shanty  system  of  New  Y^ork,  candidates' touts  give  out 
printed  and  designed  cards,  which  sometimes  fraudulently 
iiuilato  Ofle  another  in  design,  so  that  ignorant  voters  arc 
misled.     Again,  the  ballot  is  generally  taken  in  an  engine- 
house,  or  shed  open  to  the  str6et,  so  that  mob-intimidation 
luay  be  used,  and  votes,  as  in  France,  are  not  practicaJjy 
lecret.     In  Massachusetts,  in  1851-2,  the  Know-nothing 
or    Anti-Irish    party,   anxious    to    prevent    personation, 
iutroduccd  a  secret  ballot  for  state   elections,  using   the 
Manchester  envelope  and  an  onicial  card,  with  the  names 
of  the  candidates  printed.     This   led  to   fraud    and  w.as 
abandoned,  a  return  being  made  to  the   French  system. 


The  history  of  the  ballot  in  Hungary  is  remarkable.  Bffure 
1848  secret  voting  was  unknown  there.  The  electoral 
law  of  that  year  left  the  regulation  of  parliamentary 
elections  to  the  county  and  town  councils,  very  few  of  whah 
adopted  the  ballot.  The  mode  of  voting  was  perhaps  the 
most  primitive  on  record.  Each  candidate  had  a  large  box 
with  his  name  supersciibed,  and  painted  in  a  distinguishing 
colour.  On  entering  the  room  alone  the  voter  received  a 
rod  from  i  to  Q  fi'.t  in  Icmjl/t  (to  prevent  concealment  ol 
non  official  rods  on  the  voters  person),  which  lie  placed  in 
the  box  through  a  slit  in  the  lid  '3y  the  electoral  law  of 
1874,'  the  ballot  in  parliamentary  elections  in  Hungary 
is  abolished,  but  is  made  obligatory  in  the  elections  of 
town  and  county  councils,  where  votes  are  given  /or 
several  persons  at  once.'  This  voting,  however,  carried 
on  by  party-lists  on  ddlerenlly  coloured  cards  is  practically 
open.  There  is  a  strong  feeling  in  Hungary  that  the  ballot 
would  be  worked  by  the  Catholic  clergy  through  the  Con- 
fessional. As  most  of  the  electors  are  freeholders,  there  is 
little  intimidation.  In  Prussia,  Stein,  by  his  Stiidteordnung,  Qtrmin", 
or  Municipal  Corporation  Act  of  1808,  introduced  the^ 
ballot  in  the  election  of  the  Municipal  Assembly  (Stadl 
verordnelen  Versamvdung).  Under  the  German  Constitu 
tion  of  1SC7,  and  the  New  Constitution  of  1st  January 
1871,  the  elections  for  the  Reichstag  are  conducted  by 
universal  suffrage  under  the  ballot  in  conformity  with  the 
Electoral  Law  of  31st  May  18G9,  which  also  divided 
Germany  into  equal  electoral  districts. 

To  secure  complete  secrecy,  and  to  avoid  the  possibility  B'  .t  t 
of  fraud  and  the  large  expense  of  printing  and  counting  mdcuines. 
ballot  papers,  several  ballot  machines  or  registers  have  been 
invented.  In  that  of  Vassie  there  was  an  arrangement  of 
confluent  funnels,  by  which  the  voter  was  prevented  from 
dropping  more  thm  one  ball  into  the  box.  In  that  of 
Chamberlain  the  number  of  votes  given  was  indicated  by 
the  ringing  of  a  bell.  In  that  of  Sydserff,'  the  ball  was 
placed  by  the  sheriff  in  the  common  duct,  and  the  voter,  by 
moving  a  lever,  guided  it  into  a  channel  leading  to  the  box 
of  a  p-rticular  candidate.  Generally,  it  may  be  said  that 
these  mechanical  contrivances  have  been  attempts  to  make 
the  ball-system  secret  at,d  accurate  onch  voter  depositing  a 
ball,  and  the  accumulated  balls  showing  the  state  of  the 
poll.  This  in  a  large  constituency  would  become  unwieldy, 
and  no  permanent  record  of  the  poll  (except  the  collocation 
of  the  balls)  would  be  obtained.  A  considerable  advance 
is  made  in  the  invention  of  Mr  James  Davie,  Edinburgh, 
which  we  select  for  detailed  descri[)tion  Of  this  register 
an  essential  part  is  the  wooden  chamber  (4  feet  square  by 
7  feet  in  height)  which  the  voter,  having  received  a  metal 
ball  from  the  sheriff,  enters  by  a  spring-hinged  door  to 
which  a  lever  is  attached.  On  one  side  of  the  chamber  is 
a  box,  on  the  lid  of  which  stand  differently  coloured  cups, 
marked  each  with  a  number  and  the  name  of  a  candidate. 
Inside  the  box  is  a  cylinder  traversed  lengthwise  by  a 
spindle,  and  having  at  one  end  a  toothed  wheel  By  a 
screw-nut  the  cj'linder  revolves  on  and  moves  along  the 
spindle.  On  the  cylinder  is  paper  divided  into  spaces, 
which  correspond  with  the  cups,  and  above  this  a  sheet  of 
carbonised  paper  as  a  printing  medium  A  pinion  connects 
the  cylinder  with  the  door-lever,  so  that  the  opening  of  tho 
door  drives  round  the  paper  one  space  .\  steel  type, 
suspended  on  an  clastic  card,  is  centred  (o  each  cup.  Tho 
voter  having  pLiccd  tho  ball  in  a  cup,  leaves  the  chamber 
by  another  spring-hinged  door,  which  in  opening  displaces 

'  Hungary  is  now  being  diTJdcd  into  eqnal  eli^cloral  di.<(ricts 
'  On    llio   ottior   hand,    by  the  2d  of  the  original  bycJawi  of  the 
Bank  of  England,  it  was  providcti  that  tho  ballot  sliould  bo  used  in  the 
general  courts  "in  any  question  concerning  ont^  one  person,  mailer^of 
thing  " 

'  Utters- raienl,  No.  63  of  1869. 


292 


B  A  L  —  B  A  L 


the  bottoms  of  the  cups,  and  tliU3  onuses  the  ball  to  drop 
on  the  head  of  the  type,  beneath  which  it  presses  agaiust 
the  recording  sheet  on  the  cylinder.  The  ball  immediately 
rolls  down  a  groove  to  the  sheriff's  desk  outside  the  chamber, 
where  it  is  handed  to  the  next  voter,  only  one  ball  bein'j 
used  in  connection  with  each  register  (unless,  of  course, 
there  are  more  votes  than  one  to  be  given).  The  closing  of 
the  exit  door  restores  the  bottoms  to  the  cups.  This  simple 
and  effectual  plan  has  the  merit  of  secrecy,  of  immediate 
detection  of  fraud  (e.g-,  the  introduction  of  a  non-official 
ball  to  the  cup),  of  rapidity  in  voting  and  in  counting,  and 
of  leaving  almost  nothing  to  the  voter's  presence  of  mind. 
Tho  voter  can  make  only  one  well-defined  mark  on  the 
paper,  and  this  he  can  do  only  in  leaving  tho  chamber  before 
the  next  voter  has  entered.  Mr  Davie's  invention,  which 
in  187U  received  a  prize  from  the  Royal  Scottish  Society 
of  Arts,  is  obviously  not  adapted  to  cumulative  voting,  but 
may  be  worked  with  any  number  of  candidates  under  single 
voting.  Although  the  motion  of  the  cylinder  would  record 
in'  a  diagonal  direction  the  series  of  votes,  it  would  be 
practically  impossible  to  identify  votes  from  a  numbered 
list  of  the  voters.  (w.  c.  s.) 

B.\LLYCASTLE,  a  seaport  town  of  Ireland,  county 
Antrim,  situated  on  a  bay  opposite  Rathlin  island.  The 
town  is  well  built,  consisting  of  two  parts,  about  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  asunder,  and  connected  by  a  fine  avenue.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  18th  century,  one  of  tho  Boyd  family 
devoted  himself  to  the  extension  and  improvement  of  the 
town,  establishing  manufactures,  endowing  charities,  and 
building  churches,  and  succeeded  in  producing  a  temporary 
vitality.  Upwards  of  X150,000  is  said  to  have  been  ex- 
pended upon  the  pier  and  harbour;  but  the  violence  of  the 
sea  overthrew  the  former,  and  the  latter  has  been  filled 
with  sand.  To  the  east  of  tho  town  are  the  remains  of  an 
abbey.     Population  in  1871,  1253. 

BALLYilEXA,  a  town  of  Ireland,  county  Antrim,  on 
the  Braid,  an  affluent  of  the  Maine,  two  miles  above  thfiir 
junction.  It  is  33  miles  N.N.W.  of  Belfast,  with  which  it 
IS  connected  by  railway.  The  town  owes  its  prosperity 
chiefly  to  its  linen  trade,  introduced  in  1733,  which  gives 
employment  to  the  greater  part  of  the  iuhabitants.  It  has 
a  parish  church,  several  chapels  and  schools,  a  market- 
house,  and  four  branch  banks.  There  ia  a  newspaper 
published  in  tho  town  called  the  Ballymena  Observer. 
Population  in  1871,  including  Hanyvillo  in  the  suburbs, 
7931. 

BALLYSHANNON,  a  seaport  and  market-town  of 
Ireland,  county  of  Donegal,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Erne.  Lat.  54°  30' N.,  long.  8'  11' W.  Tho  river  is  here 
crossed  by  a  bridge  of  fourteen  arches,  which  connects  the 
town  with  tho  suburb  of  Purt,  Below  the  bridge  the  river 
forms  a  beautiful  cascade,  150  yards  wide,  with  a  fall  at 
low  water  of  IG  feet.  The  harbour  is  a  small  creek  of 
Donegal  Bay,  about  600  yards  long  and  350  yards  broad, 
and  ia  only  accessible  to  small  vessels.  The  town  contains 
a  church,  several  chapels,  a  bank,  a  market-house,  barracks, 
and  a  union  workhouse.  Tho  salmon  fishery  is  the  only 
important  occupation.  Previous  to  tho  Union  Ballyshannon 
returned  two  members  to  the  Irish  Parliament.  Population 
in  1871,  2958 

BAIi/MEZ,  Jaime  LuciEN,  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic,  eminent 
as  a  political  writer  and  a  philosopher,  was  born  at  Vich 
in  Catalonia,  on  the  28th  August  1810,  and  died  there  on 
tho  9th  July  1818.  Tho  most  important  of  his  works, 
and  that  on  which  his  fame  principally  rests,  is  entitled  El 
Protialanlismo  cnmparado  con  el  CaiolicUmo  en  lus  rela- 
cionet  con  la  Civilisacion  Europca,  published  18'12-44,  a 
most  able  defence  of  Catholicism.  It  has  been  translated 
into  French,  Italian,  German,  and  English.  The  best  of 
bis   philosophical    works,    which    are   able  expositions  of 


the  old  scholastic  system  of  thought,  are  the  Filosofia  Fon^ 
damental,  1846,  and  the  Corso  de  Filosofia  Elemental, 
4  vols.  1847.  The  Protestantism  and  Catholicity  and  the 
Fundamental  Philosophy  have  both  been  translated  into 
English  (1849,  2  vols.  1857).  Nearly  all  the  works  are 
to  be  had  in  German  and  French.  See  M.  do  Blanche- 
Ruffin,  JaC'jiies  Bahnbs,  sa  Vie  et  ses  Ouvraijes,  Paris,  1849. 

BALMORAL  CASTLE,  a  residence  of  Her  Majesty 
Queen  Victoria,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  River  Dee,  about 
9  miles  above  Ballater  and  50  miles  from  Aberdeen.  The 
property,  which  now  consists  of  upwards  of  10,000  acres, 
besides  a  large  tract  of  hill  ground,  belonged  in  its 
original  extent  to  the  Farquharsons  of  luverey,  by  whom 
it  was  sold  to  the  Earl  of  Fife.  In  1848  it  was  leased  by 
the  late  Prince  Consort,  and  in  1852  was  finally  pur- 
chased for  a  sum  of  £32,000.  The  castle,  which  was 
erected  at  Prince  Albert's  private  expense,  is  of  the  Scotch 
baronial  style  of  architecture. 

BALNAVES,  Henry,  a  Scottish  Protestant,  born  st 
Kirkcaldy  in  Fife,  in  the  reign  of  James  V.,  and  educated 
at  the  university  of  St  Andrews.  'Ihere  is  some  doult 
both  as  to  the  e.xact  date  of  his  birth,  which  has  been  fixed 
as  1520,  and  as  to  the  rank  in  society  to  which  he  be- 
longed. He  completed  his  studies  on  tho  Contimmt, 
and,  returning  to  Scotland,  entered  the  family  of  the  Earl 
of  Arran,  who  at  that  time  was  regent;  but  in  the  year 
1542  the  earl  dismissed  him  for  embracing  the  Protestant 
jeliglon.  In  1546  he  was  implicated  in  the  minder  of 
Cardinal  Beaton,  at  least  ho  is  known  to  have  taken  refuge 
with  the  conspirators  in  the  castle  of  St  Andrews;  and 
when  they  were  at  last  obliged  to  surrender  to  the  Frencli, 
he  was  sent  with  the  rest  of  the  garrison  as  a  prisoner  to 
France.  During  his  confinement  at  Rouen  he  wrote  the 
work  entitled  Confession  of  Faith,  to  which  Knox  added 
marginal  notes  and  a  preface  ;  but  it  was  not  published 
till  1584,  five  years  after  his  death.  He  returned  to  Scot- 
land about  the  year  1559,  and  having  joined  the  Congre- 
gation, was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to  treat 
with  tlie  duke  of  Norfolk  on  the  part  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
In  1563  he  was  made  one  of  the  lords  of  Session,  an  ofl'ce 
which  he  is  said  to  have  held  for  the  first  time  in  1538, 
and  was  appointed  by  the  General  Assembly,  with  other 
learned  men,  to  revise  the  Book-  of  Discipline.  Knox,  his 
contemporary  and  fellow-labourer,  gives  him  the  char- 
acter of  a  very  learned  and  pious  man.  Balnavcs  died  at 
Edinburgh  in  1579. 

BALSAM,  an  oleo-resin  or  natural  compound  of  resin 
and  essential  oil,  in  such  proportions  that  the  substance  is 
in  a  viscous  or  semi-fluid  condition.  The  gradations  from 
a  solid  resin  to  a  limpid  essential  oil  are  insensible,  and 
most  resins  have  a  balsamic  consistency  on  llieir  exudation, 
only  hardening  by  exposure  to  air.  It  has  been  proposed 
to  limit  the  name  balsam  to  such  .substances  as  contain 
cinnamic  or  an  analogous  acid  in  addition  to  the  volatile 
oil  and  resin  which  turpentines  contain  alone;  but  this 
distinction  has  not  been  carried  out. 

The  fragrant  balsams  which  contain  cinnamic  or  benzoic 
acid  may,  however,  be  regarded  as  a  di.stinct  cla.ss,  allied 
to  each  other  by  their  composition,  properties,  and  uses- 
Thoso  of  this  cla.ss  found  in  commerce  are  the  balsam  I'f 
Peru,  balsam  of  Tolu,  liquid  storax,  and  Iiquidumhar. 
BaUam  if  Peru  is  tho  produce  of  a  lofty  leguminous  tree, 
Myrospermum  peruiferum,  growing  within  a  limited  area  in 
San  Salvador,  Central  America,  but  now  introduced  into 
Ceylon.  It  ia  a  thick,  viscid  oleo-resin  of  a  deep  brown  or 
black  colour  and  a  fragrant  balsamic  odour.  It  has  been 
analysed  by  Kachlcr,  who  thus  states  its  percentage  com- 
position,—cinnamic  acid  46,  resin  32,  benzylic  alcohol  20. 
It  IS  used  in  perfumery,  and  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant 
a|'|ilic.ition   to  indolent    sores,  as    well    as    internally  foi 


B  A  L  —  B^A  L 


293 


ksth  "ii  and  ^actoru'  ivrnplaints.  Balsam  of  Tolu  is  like- 
wise iToduceJ  from  u  species  of  Myrospermitm,  M.  tolui- 
ferun.  It  is  of  a  brown  colour,  thickdt  than  Peru  balsam, 
and  attains  d  considerable  degree  of  solidity  on  keeping. 
It  also  is  a  product  of  equatorial  America,  but  is  found  over 
a  much  wider  area  th.'va  is  tho  balsam  of  Peru.  Tolu  bal- 
sam consists  of  a  combination  of  inodorous  resin  with 
cinnamic  arid,  no  benzoic  acid  being  prosoiit  in  it.  It  is 
used  in  perfumery  and  as  a  constituent  iu  cout'h  syrups 
and  lozenges.  Liquid  slorax  is  a  balsam  yielded  by 
Liquidambar  oricntalii,  a  native  of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  a 
soft  resinous  substance,  with  a  pleasing  balsamic  odour, 
especially  after  it  has  been  kept  for  some  time.  It  contains 
a  principlo—  styrol  or  cinnamene — to  which  it  owes  its 
peculiar  odour,  besides  cinnamic  acid,  stryacin,  and  a 
resin.  Liquid  storax  is  used  in  medicine  as  an  external 
application  in  skin  diseases,  and  internally  as  an  expec- 
torant. An  analogous  substance  is  derived  from  Liquid- 
ambar  Altingia  in  Java.  Liquidamhar  balsam  is  derived 
from  Liqvidamhar  styraciflua,  a  tree  found  in  the  United 
States  and  Mexico.  It  contains  cinnamic  acid,  but  is 
destitute  of  benzoic  acid. 

Of  balsams  entirely  destitute  of  cinnamic  and  benzoic 
constituents  tbc  following  are  found  in  commerce: — Mecca 
■BaUam  or  Balm  of  Gilead,  yielded  by  the  Bahamodrndron 
Jlerryi  (B.  gilcadense  of  De  CandoUe),  a  tree  growing  in 
Arabia  and  Abyssinia,  is  supposed  to  be  the  balm  of  Scrip- 
ture and  the  fiaXcrafiov  of  Theophrastus.  When  fresh  it  is 
a  viscid  fluid,  with  a  penetrating  odour,  but  it  solidiBes 
with  age.  It  was  regarded  with  the  utmost  esteem  among 
the  nations  of  antiquity,  and  to  the  present  day  it  is 
peculiarly  prized  among  the  people  of  the  East.  Balsam 
of  Copaiba  or  Capivi  is  a  fluid  oleo-resin  of  a  pale  brown 
or  straw  colour,  produced  from  several  trees  of  the  genus 
Copaifera,  growing  in  tropical  America.  It  possesses  a 
peculiar  odour  and  a  nauseous  persistent  tarry  taste. 
Balsam  of  copaiba  contains  from  40  to  60  per  cent,  of 
essential  oil,  holding  in  solution  a  resin  from  which  capivic 
acid  can  ba  prepared.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  medicine  for 
the  treatment  of  inflammatory  aS'eclions  of  mucous  surfaces. 
Under  the  name  of  Wood  Oil,  or  Gurjun  Balsam,  an  oleo- 
resin  is  procured  in  India  and  tho  Eastern  Archipelago 
from  several  species  of  Dipterocarpus,  chiefly  D.  turbin- 
atus,  which  has  tho  odour  and  properties  of  copaiba,  and 
is  used  for  it  in  East  Indian  hospital  practice.  Wood  oil 
is  also  used  as  a  varnish  in  India,  and  forms  an  eff'cctive 
protection  against  the  attacks  of  white  ants.  A  substitute 
for  copaiba  is  also  found  in  tho  dark  red  balsam  yielded 
by  Ilardwickia  pitmata,  a  leguminous  tree. 

Canada  Bakam. — Tho  olco-resins  obtained  from  coni- 
ferous trees  are  usually  termed  turpentines,  but  that  jielded 
by  Abies  balsamea  is  known  in  commerce  as  Balsam  of 
Canada.  It  is  a  very  transparent  substance,  somewhat 
fluid  when  first  run,  but  thickening  considcrably'with 
age,  possessed  of  a  delicate  yellow  colour,  and  a  mild 
terebinthous  odour.  According  to  FlUckigcr  and  Uanbury 
it  contains  24  per  cent  of  essential  oil,  GO  per  cent,  of  resin 
eoluble  in  alcohol,  and  16  per  cent,  of  resin  soluble  only  in 
•tbcr.  It  has  been  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  copaiba, 
but  its  chief  uses  are  for  mounting  preparations  for  the 
microscope  and  as  a  varnish. 

I  BALTA,  the  chjef  town  of  a  circle  of  the  same  name  in 
tho  lluasian  government  of  Podolia.  It  stands  on  the 
Rodima,  near  its  junction  with  the  Bug,  and  carries  on  a 
largo  trade  in  cattle  and  horses  and  tho  raw  products  of  the 
surrounding  district.  It  has  two  great  annual  fairs,  the 
more  important  being  held  at  Whitsuntide  and  the  other  in 
June.  A  Tariety  of  industries,  such  as  tallow-melting, 
•oap-boiling,  tile  making,  and  brewing  are  likewise  pro- 
Kcuted.    llic  Jews  form  a  very  considerable  part  cf  the 


population,  which  in  1867  numbered  14,528.  Balta  was 
in  great  part  destroyed  by  the  Russians  in  1780. 

BALTARD,  Louis  Piehbe,  a  distinguished  French 
architect  and  engraver,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  1765,  and 
died  in  1846.  Ho  was  originally  a  landscape  painter,  but 
in  his  travels  through  Italy  was  so  much  struck  with 
the  beauty  of  tho  Italian  buildings,  that  he  changed 
his  profession  and  dev'itcd  himself  to  nrcbitcctnre.  In 
his  new  occupation  ho  achieved  great  success,  and  waa 
selected  to  prepare  the  plans  for  some  of  the  largest  [)ublic 
edifices  in  Paris.  liis  reputation,  however,  rests  not  so 
much  on  his  practical  perfotmasces  in  architecture  as  on 
his  great  skill  in  tho  art  of  engraving.  Among  tho  best 
known  of  his  platM  are  the  drawings  of  Paris  (Paris  et 
ses  Monummtj,  2  vols,  fol.,  1,803),  the  engravings  for 
Dcnon's  igtjpie,  the  illustrations  of  Napoleon's  wars  {La 
Colonne  de  la  grande  Armce),  and  those  contained  in  the 
series  entitled  the  Grand  Prix  de  V Architecture,  which  fur 
some  time,  he  carried  on  alone.  He  has  also  gained  distinc- 
tion as  an  engraver  of  portraits. 

BALTIC  SE.\.  The  name  by  which  this  inland  sea  is 
commonly  designated  is  first  found  in  the  Uth  century,  iu 
the  work  of  Adam  of  Bremen,  entitled  Chorograpliia  Scandi- 


V 


Sketch  M.ip  of  Baltic  Sea. 

navicc.  The  derivation  of  the  word  is  uncertain.  It  seems 
probable  that,  whatever  may  be  the  etymology  of  the  name 
Baltic,  that  of  the  Great  and  Little  Belts  is  the  same.  Tho 
Swedes,  Danes,  and  Germans  call  it  the  Ostsee  or  East  Sea. 
The  Baltic  is  enclosed  by  Sweden,  Russia,  the  German 
empire,  and  Denmark ;  and  it  communicates  with  tho 
North  Son,  by  tho  winding  clwnnel  which  lies  between 
the  southern  part  of  the  Scandinavian  pciiiasula  and  the 
northern  peninsula  of  Schlcswig  and  Jutland.  Tho  first 
part  of  this  channel  is  in  great  measure  blocked  by  tho 
islands  of  Zealand  and  Tunen,  so  as  to  form  the  three 
narrow  passages  which  arc  known  as  the  Sount)  (between 


294 


BALTIC 


Swedca  and  Zealand),  the  Great  Belt  (betwcea  Zealand 
and  Fuaenl,  and  the  Little  Belt  (between  Fiinen  and 
Jutland).  Each  of  these  forms  a  distinct  communication 
between  the  Baltic  and  the  Cattegat,  which  is  the  open 
portion  of  the  channel  lyiQg  between  the  coast  of  Sweden 
;ind  the  eastern  side  of  Jutland  ;  while  the  Cattegat  opens 
freely  into  the  Skager  Rack,  which  is  the  continuation  of 
same  open  channel,  between  the  southern  end  of  Norway 
and  the  north-west  coast  of  Jutland,  into  the  North  Sea. 

The  length  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  from  Swinemiinde  in 
the  S  to  Tornea  in  the  N.,  is  nearly  900  miles ;  and  its 
greatest  width,  between  Karlscrona  and  Memel,  exceeds 
200  miles.  Its  whole  area,  including  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia 
and  Finland,  is  about  160,000  geographical  square  miles. 
It  runs  first  in  an  easterly  direction  as  far  as  Memel,  a 
distance  of  300  miles,  and  then  northwards  as  far  as  lat. 
59°  21'  N.,  a  distance  of  350  miles,  at  which  point  it 
separates  into  two  greit  gulfs.  One  of  these,  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  runs  nearly  due  E. ;  the  other,  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  almost  N.  The  Gulf  of  Bothnia  is  400  miles  in 
length,  with  an  extreme  breadth  of  120  miles,  but  where 
narrowest  it  does  not  exceed  40  miles.  The  archipelago  of 
Aland  lies  a*  its  entrance.  The  Gulf  of  Finland  is  280 
miles  in  length,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  60  or  70  miles. 

The  depth  of  the  Baltic  rarely  exceeds  100  fathoms — 
being  greatest  between  the  island  of  Bornholm  and  the 
coast  of  Sweden,  where  it  reaches  115  fathoms,  and  least 
in  the  neighbouihood  of  the  mouths  of  large  rivers,  which 
bring  down  a  great  quantity  of  earthy  matter,  especially  in 
the  spring,  so  that  in  many  parts  the  bottom  is  being  so 
rapidly  raised  by  its  deposit  that-  the  mouths  of  rivers 
formerly  navigable  are  now  inaccessible.  This  is  especially 
the  case  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  above 
Quarken,  where  several  tracts  are  now  dry  land  which 
•  were  once  water  ;  and  also  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tornea, 
where  meadows  now  take  the  place  of  waters  which  were 
traversed  in  boats  by  the  French  Academicians,  when  they 
were  measuring  an  arc  of  the  meridian.  Along  the 
southern  coast  the  shallowness  of  the  harbours  is  a  great 
obstacle  to  navigation,  especially  since  they  are  closed  by 
ice  for  nearly  one-third  of, the  year.  On  the  western  side 
it  is  not  more  than  15  fathoms  deep;  and,  in  general,  it  is 
only  from  8  to  10  fathoms.  On  the  S.  it  nowhere  exceeds 
no  fathoms.  The  Gulf  of  Finland  suddenly  shallows  from 
50  or  60  fathoms  to  5,  or  even  less.  The  average  depth  of 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  is  not  greater  than  that  of  the  rest  of 
the  sea.  Numerous  rocky  islands  and  reefs,  many  of  them 
level  with  the  water,  render  the.  navigation  of  this  sea 
extremely  dangerous. 

The  shore  of  the  Baltic  is  generally  low.  Along  the 
southern  coast  it  is  for  the  most  part  sandy, — with  sand- 
banks outside,  and  sand-hills  and  plains  inland.  Where 
streams  come  down,  there  are  often  fresh-water  lakes  termed 
haffSy  which  are  separated  from  the  sea  by  narrow  spits 
caUed  nthrunrjs.  Two  of  these  haff.-:  arc  of  great  extent ; 
one  of  them,  termed  the  Frische  naff,  lies  between  Danzig 
»nd  Konigsberg,  which  last  town  is  situated  on  the  part 
of  it  most  remote  from  tho  sea  ;  the  other,  termed  the 
Kurische  Ilaff,  lies  between  Konig.sberg  and  Memel,  the 
latter  town  being  situated  on  the  channel  connecting  the 
ha£f  with  the  sea.  Near  the  entrance  to  tho  Gulf  of  Fin- 
land tho  co.ast  becomes  rocky,  and  continues  to  be  so  for 
the  most  part  around  tho  gulfs  both  of  Finland  and 
Bothnia,  except  towards  tho  head  of  each ;  tho  rocks, 
however,  are  never  high.  The  shores  of  the  southern  part 
of  the  Swedish  pcninsnk  are  mostly  high,  but  not  rocky  ; 
at  Stockholm,  however,  'there  is  an  archipelago  of  rocky 
islands,  on  some  of  which  the  town  is  partly  built. 

Drainnrie  Area. — Tho  Baltic  may  be  considered  as  the 
estuary- of  a  groat  number  of  rivers,  none  of  them  individu- 


ally of  great  size,  but  collectively  draining  a  very  large  area, 
which  is  estimated  at  about  717,000  square  miles,  or  nearly 
one-fifth  of  the  entife  area  of  Europe.  This  great  drainagu 
area  is  remarkable  for  the  small  proportion  of  its  boundary 
that  is  formed  by  mountains  or  high  table-lands, — its 
greater  part  consisting  of  land  of  no  considerable  elevation, 
which  slopes  down  vgry  gradually  to  its  coast-line,  and  of 
which  a  large  proportion  is  covered  by  lakes.  This  is 
especially  the  character  of  the  drainage  area  of  the  Neva, 
whose  waters  are  immediately  derived  from  the  large  shallow 
Lake  Ladoga,  which  receives  the  contributions  of  numerous 
other  lakes,  Onega  being  the  largest,  though  Lake  Saima 
in  Finland,  with  its  irregular  prolongations,  is  scarcely  less 
extensive.  The  entire  surface  drained  by  the  Neva  is  esti- 
mated at  about  100,000  square  miles,  or  nearly  twenty 
times  that  of  the  drainage  area  of  the  Thames.  Through 
Lake  Onega,  the  Nova  is  connected  with  the  Dwina  and 
the  Volga  by. canals,  through  which  small  vessels  can  pass 
from  the  Baltic  into  either  the  White  Sea  or  the  Caspian. 
The  Dana  or  South  Dwina,  which  discharges  itself  into 
the  Gulf  of  Riga,  is  another  important  river,  draining  an 
area  of  about  35,000  miles  in  West  Russia,  and  having  a 
length  of  5fi0  miles,  -of  which  405  miles  are  navigable. 
The  drainage  area  of  the  Niemen,  which  enters  the  Baltic 
at  Memel,  is'  conterminous  with  that  of  the  Duna,  and  is 
of  about  the  same  extent ;  this  river  is  navigable  for  more 
than  400  miles  from  its  outlet,  and  communicates  with  the 
Dnieper  by  a  canal  through  which  vessels  c?n  pass  from 
the  Baltic  to-the  Black  Sea.  The  Vistula,  which  receives 
the  waters  of  thfi  whole  area  of  Russian  and  Prussian 
Poland,  flowing  past  Warsaw  into  the  Baltic  at  Dantzig,  is 
a  very  large  and  important  river,  having  a  length  of  520 
miles,  of  which  430  are  navigable,  and  a  drainage  area  of 
72,000  square  miles.  And  the  Oder,  rising  in  the  hill 
districts  of  Silesia,  drains  the  extensive  level  areas  of 
Brandenberg  and  Pomerania,  and  discharges  into  an  estuary, 
that  may  be  said  to  begin  from  Stettin,  the  water  drawn 
from  an  area  of  45,000  square  miles.  Numerous  rivers 
discharge  themselves  into  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  bringing 
down  water  from  the  mountain  ranges  of  Sweden  and 
Norway  ;  but  their  course  is  comparatively  short  ijnd  direct, 
with  few  tributaries,  so  that,  individually,  they  do  not 
attain  any  great  size.  The  drainage  of  the  more  level 
southern  portion  of  Sweden  is  for  the  most  part  collected 
by  the  great  lakes  Wener,  Wetter,  and  Malar,  of  which 
the  first  pours  its  water  into  the  North  Sea,  and  tho  others 
into  the  Baltic.  By  means  of  a  canal  joining  Lakes  Wener 
and  Wetter  vessels  can  pass  directly  from  the  Cattegat 
into  the  Baltic. 

Climale. — It  is  not  only,  however,  tho  extent  of  its 
drainage  area,  but  the  large  proportion  borne  by  the  rain 
and  snow  which  fall  upon  that  area  to  the  amount  dissipated 
by  evaporation  from  its  surface,  that  goes  to  swell  the  aggre- 
gate of  fresh  water  poured  into  the  basin  of  the  Baltic;  for 
there  is  probably  no  inhabited  region  of  the  whole  globo 
over  which  so  large  a  quantity  of  snow  falls,  in  proportion 
to  its  area,  as  it  docs  in  tho  cointrics  round  this  basin. 
They  receive,  direct  from  the  Atlantic,  a  vast  amount  of 
Tioistura  brought  by  its  west  and  south-west  winds  ;  and 
even  the  winds  which  have  already  passed  over  the  low 
plains  of  Jutland  and  Northern  Germany  will  have  parted 
with  little  of  their  moisture  before  reaching  the  Baltic 
provinces  of  Russia.  When  these  vapour  laden  west  ami 
south-west  winds  meet  the  cold  dry  cast  and  north-cast 
winds  of  Siberia,  their  moisture  is  precipitated,  in  summer 
as  rain,  and  in  winter  as  snow;  and  owing  to  the  prevalence 
of  a  low  atm()»i)heric  temperature  through  a  largo  part  of 
tho  year,  the  proportion  lost  by  evaporation  is  extremely 
small  as  compared  with  what  passes  off  from  other  inland 
seas.     The  large  excess  of  the  amount  of  fresh  water  di* 


BALTIC 


295 


charged  into  the  basin,  over  that  which  passes  off  by  evapo- 
ration froji  its  aiirfaco,  is  indicated  by  its  low  salinity, 
which,  however,  varies  considerably  in  its  ditlcrent  parts 
and  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  The  temperature  of 
the  Baltic  is  remarkable  for  its  range,  which  is  rather  that 
of  a  terrestrial  than  of  a  marine  area — this  being  doubtless 
owing  in  great  degree  to  the  fact  that  its  shallowness  and 
the  low  salinity  of  its  water  allow  a  largo  part  of  its  surface 
to  be  frozen  during  the  winter.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the 
Oulf  of  Bothnia,  with  the  land  enclosing  it  on  both  sidea, 
lies  between  the  January  isotherms  of  10°  and  20° — the 
former  crossing  it  near  its  head,  and  the  latter  near  its 
junction  with  the  Baltic  proper  ;  and  the  wholo  of  the 
Baltic  proper,  with  the  land  enclosing  it  on  the  east,  .south, 
and  west,  lies  between  the  January  isotherms  of  20°  and 
30*.  On  the  other  hand,  the  July  isotherm  of  60°,  which 
crosses  England  near  the  parallel  of  51°,  passes  across  the 
Oulf  of  Bothnia  near  the  Walgrund  Islands,  almost  9° 
further  north  ;  and  the  wholo  of  the  Baltic  proper,  with 
the  Oulf  of  Finland  and  the  southern  part  of  the  Oulf  of 
Bothnia,  lies  between  the  July  isotherms  of  60°  and  65°. 
Thus  the  range  between  the  mean  summer  and  mean  wiriter 
temperatures,  which  is  only  about  20°  in  the  British 
Islands,  is  about  40°  over  the  Baltic  area.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  ranges  between 
30°  at  its  northern  extrotoity  and  40°  at  its  southern, 
while  that  of  the  Baltic  ranges  from  40°  at  its  northern 
boundary  to  about  46°  at  its  southern. 

formation  and  Tl'ansporlnt ion  of  Ice. — The  greater  part 
of  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Finland  is  usually  frozen  over 
during  the  winter,  the  formation  of  ice  beginning  at  the 
head  and  extending  downwards.  Masses  of  ice,  conveyed 
by  the  currents  into  the  Baltic  proper,  freeze  together  as 
the  winter  advances,  and  form  vast  fields,  generally 
e-ttending  on  the  east  side  as  far  south  as  the  islands  of 
Dago  and  Oesel,  and  on  the  west  to  the  south  of  Stockholm. 
It  happens  Sometimes,  though  rarely,  that  largo  portions  of 
the  Baltic  proper  are  continuously  frozen  over;  but  naviga- 
tion is  usually  interrupted  by  the  blocking  up  of  its  bays 
and  harbours  with  ice,  from  the  latter  part  of  December  to 
the  beginning  of  April  The  freezing  of  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia 
and  Finland  begins  earlier  and  ends  later. 

The  curious  phenomenon  of  the  /orjnaiion  of  boUom-ice, 
and  its  rise  to  the  surface,  is  more  frequently  seen  in  the 
Baltic  and  the  Cattegat  than  in  the  open  ocean,— chiefly,  it 
seems  probable,  on  account  of  the  shallowness  of  these  seas. 
It  has  been  particularly  observed  Ly  Prof.  Nilsson  in  the 
Cattegat,  off  Kullen  Point,  near  the  southern  extremity  of 
Sweden  ;  but  according  to  Chydenius  it  is  very  common  in 
various  parts  of  the  Baltic,  having  been  especially  noticed 
by  the  fishermen  off  the  Aland  Islands.  In  calm  winter 
weather,  water  of  from  4  to  8  feet  deep  is  often  covered  in 
ft  very  short  time  with  small  plates  of  ice,  mostly  circular  in 
form,  varying  in  diameter  from  1  to  5  inches,  and  having 
a  uniform  thickness  which  never  exceeds  two  lines.  These 
plates  can  be  seen  coming  up  from  below,  rising  edgeways 
towards  the  surface,  often  with  such  force  as  to  lift  them- 
selves three  or  four  inches  out  of  tlie  water.  When  they  come 
up  in  great  numbers  they  are  often  piled  one  upon  another, 
and  are  then  usually  soon  broken,  by  the  action  cither  of 
waves  or  of  currents,  into  small  pieces,  which  unite  again 
by  rcgelation  so  as  to  form  irregular  cakes  of  ice  ,  and 
these,  as  soon  as  the  water  becomes  tolerably  still,  cohere 
into  a  continuous  rough  sheet.  But  it  sometimes  happens 
that  if  the  plates  come  up  more  sparsely,  and  the  weather 
is  very  still  and  cold,  they  remain  unbroken,  and  the 
diameter  of  each  increases,  sometimes  to  two  feet  or  even 
more.  When  the  fishermen  notice  these  ice-plates  coming 
up  from  below  in  largo  quantitie.i,  they  at  once  make  for 
land,  01  tlity  know  that  they  might  otherwise  be  scon  com- 


pletely ice-bound.  The  same  thing  appears  to  happen  in 
polar  seas  in  the  shallow  water  near  land.  Chydenius, 
who  was  a  member  of  the  Swedish  Spitzbergen  expeditioo 
in  1657,  states  that  on  one  occasion  the  surface  of  the  sea, 
which  was  previously  quite  clear  of  ice,  became  lo  covered 
in  the  course  of  half  an  hour,  that  it  was  with  difficulty 
that  a  boat  could  bo  forced  through  it ;  and  this  although 
the  temperature  of  the  air  during  the  day  had  not  been 
lower  than  4°  C,  and  no  wind  or  stream  had  brought  the 
ice  together 

It  does  not  seem  very  clear  in  what  way  this  formation 
of  bottom-ice  is  to  be  accounted  for.  Bottom-ice  has  often 
been  noticed  in  fresh-water  lakes  and  streams ;  and  hwge 
plates  Lave  been  seen  to  rise  to  the  surface,  sometimes  with 
force  enough  to  bring  up  stones  of  considerable  size, — in 
one  instance  a  heavy  iron  chain.  In  these  ciscs  it  would 
seem  that  the  motion  of  the  bottom-water  over  roughened 
surfaces  contributes  to  its  congelation.  And  in  the  shallow 
water  near  the  sea-shore,  stones  and  sea-weeds  may  be  seen 
covered  with  ice,  like  the  hoar-frost  on  trees,  before  any 
ice  forms  on  the  surface.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  sem- 
water  increases  in  density  dowii  to  its  freezing  point,  so  that 
the  water  cooled  at  the  surface  will  always  go  down,  the 
deepest  stratum  being  thus  the  coldest.  And  thus,  although 
no  lower  temperature  can  be  carried  down  by  the  water 
than  that  to  which  it  has  been  subjected  at  the  surface, 
the  water  that  does  not  freeze  at  (say)  -  2°  5  C.  when 
lying  upon  water,  changes  into  ice  when  it  comes  in  con- 
tact with  the  irregular  solid  bottom,  perhaps  on  account 
of  the  more  ready  dissipation,  under  the  latter  circum- 
stances, of  the  heat  set  free  in  the  act  of  congelation. 

When  ice  forms  over  the  shallow  bottoms  which  border 
parts  of  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  large  blocks  of 
stone  are  frequently  frozen  into  it;  and  these,  being  lifted 
when  the  water  rises  in  the  early  summer,  are  often  trans- 
ported by  currents  to  considerable  distances,  finally  subsid- 
ing again  to  the  bottom  when  the  ice  melts.  In  this 
manner  a  deposit  of  rocky  fragments,  some  of  thein  6  or 
8  feet  across,  is  being  formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  Baltic 
outlets ;  as  is  known  from  the  fact,  that  sunken  ships 
which  have  been  visited  by  divers  in  the  Sound  and  in 
Copenhagen  roads  have  been  found  covered  with  such 
blocks  within  no  very  long  period.  It  not  unfrequently 
happens,  moreover,  that  sheets  of  ice  with  included  boulders 
are  driven  up  on  the  coast  during  storms,  and  are  thus 
carried  some  way  inland,  being  sometimes  packed  to  a 
height  of  even  50  feet.  A  case  was  described  by  Von  Baer 
in  which  a  block  of  granite,  whose  weight  was  estimated  at 
between  400  and  500  tons,  was  thus  carried  by  the  ico 
during  the  winters  of  1837-8;  and  Forchhammcr  mentions 
that  the  Sound  being  suddenly  frozen  over  during  an 
intense  frost  in  Februaiy  1844,  sheets  of  ice  driven  by  a, 
storm  were  heaped  upon  the  shore  of  the  bay  of  Taarbeijk, 
and  frozen  into  one  mass  so  as  to  form  a  mound  more  than 
1 6  feet  high,  which  threw  down  the  walls  of  several  houses, 
and  left  behind  it  ridges  of  sand  and  pebbles  when  it 
thawed.  It  is  apparently,  moreover,  by  similar  agencies, 
that  the  fringe  of  rocky  islands  of  all  dimensions  called  the 
Skcir,  which  lies  at  a  little  distance  from  the  shore  of  many 
parts  of  the  Baltic,  is  being  gradually  modified.  Boats  and 
small  vessels  can  sail  in  smooth  water  within  this  skiir, 
even  when  the  sea  outside  is  strongly  agitated  ;  but  the 
navigation  is  intricate,  and  the  danger  from  sunken  rocks 
to  those  not  thoroughly  acquainted  with  it  is  very  con- 
siderable. The  diminution  which  has  been  noticed  from 
time  to  time  in  the  depth  of  the  channels,  and  the  appear* 
ance  above  water  of  what  were  formerly  regarded  as  sunken 
rocks  or  reefs,  have  been  regarded  as  concurring  with  other 
evidence  to  prove  that  a  general  rice  of  land  is  now  going 
on  over  this  area.     But  it  seems  probable,  from  what  bflg 


296 


BALTIC 


now  been  stated,  that  the  increase  of  height  and  dimensions 
which  has  beea  observed  in  the  reefs  and  inlets  of  the 
ekar  during  the  last  half  century,  may  bo  adequately 
accounted  for  by  -the  action  of  ice,  which  has  piled  up 
(generally  on  a  basis  ol  fixed  rock)  accumulations  of  trans- 
|X)rted  dibris. 

Rise  of  Land  around  the  Baltit:. — Early  in  the  last 
century  the  Swedish  physicist  Celsius  (to  whom  we  owe 
the  invention  of  the  centigrade  scale)  formed  the  opinion 
that  the  waters  both  of  the  Baltic  and  of  the  North  Sea 
were  gradually  subsiding;  and  this  opinion,  though  con- 
troverted by  other  authorities,  was  embraced  by  Linnceus. 
It  is  now  clear  that  many  of  the  facts  by  which  it  was  sup- 
ported are  explicable  by  the  transporting  agency  of  rivers 
and  of  ice,  as  already  explained ;  and  it  was  pointed  out 
by  Playfair  in  1802,  that  even  admitting  the  proofs  on 
which  Celsius  relied,  they  would  rather  show  that  the 
land  is  rising,  than  that  the  water  is  receding.  During  the 
present  century  a  great  deal  of  attention  has  been  given  to 
this  question,  on  account  of  its  geological  interest,  by 
many  very  able  observers  ;  and  the  results  may  be  briefly 
euramarised  as  follows  : — (1.)  An  elevation  of  the  whole  of 
Norway,  ft-om  the  North  Cape  to  the  Naze,  has  taken  place 
within  a  comparatively  recent  pleriod, — ^as  is  evidenced  by  the 
numbers  of  raised  beaches  containing  existing  shells,'  which 
are  found  at  different  points  along  the  western  coa^j^  fre- 
quently at  a  height  of  200  feet  above  the  present  sea-level, 
and  in  some  spots  at  a  height  of  more  than  600  feet.  As 
these  beaches,  where  one  lies  above  another,  are  not  always 
parallel,  it  appears  that  the  elcvatory  action  did  not  take 
place  equally  over  the  whole  area  ;  and  the  movements  were 
probably  intermittent,  with  long  pauses  between.  (2.)  At 
various  points  along  the  coast  of  the  Baltic  and  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  alike  in  Sweden  and  in  Finland,  similar  collections 
of  shells  have  been  found,  belonging  to  species  now  in- 
habiting the  basin,  and  characterised  by  the  peculiar  fades 
to  be  presently  noticed  as  distinguishing  its  mollirscan  fauna 
from  that  of  the  ocean. '  Such  deposits  have  been  found 
'very  far  inland,  and  at  a  height  of  230  feet  above  the  sea. 
Hence  it  appears  that  before  this  upheaval  took  place,  the 
Baltic  must  have  been  separated,  as  now,  from  the  North 
Sea  by  the  mountain  ridge  of  Norway,  although  it  ex- 
tended over  a  considerably  larger  area  of  what  is  at  present 
low-lying  land.  (3.)  Notwithstanding  the  numerous  ob- 
servations which  have  been  made  with  a  view  to  ascertain 
whether  any  change  of  level  is  now  going  on,  the  question 
must  be  regarded  as  still  undetermined.  Little  reliance 
can  be  placed  on  occasional  comparisons,  of  the  height 
of  marks  made  upon  rocks  above  the  sea-level,  since, 
although  there  are  no  tides,  the  height  of  the  water  in  the 
basin  is  subject  to  considerable  variations,  from  causes  to 
be  presently  explained.  (4.)  SThcrc  is  a  good  deal  of 
evidence,  on  the  other  hand,  that,  towards  the  southern 
extremity  of  Sweden,  there  has  been  a  depression  of  the 
land  since  the  hLstoric  period.  In  this  portion,  known  as 
Scania,  no  elevated  beds  of  recent  marine  shells  have  been 
met  with  ;  in  its  seaport  towns  there  are  streets  now  at  or 
even  below  the  level  of  the  water,  which  must  havo  been 
above  it  when  first  built ;  and  a  large  stone  whose  distance 
from  the  sea  was  measured  by  Linnx'us,  in  174!>,  was 
found  100  feet  nearer  the  water's  edge  when  its  distance 
was  again  measured  in  1836.  Near  Stockholm,  again,  a 
fishing-hut,  with  remains  of  boats  of  very  antique  form 
«nd  construction,  was  found,  in  1819,  at  a  depth  of  CO 

*  The  bhcUs  found  in  the  r-iined  l)e.ich  at  Uddevalla  )ty  Mr  J.  Cwyn 
Jeffreys  in  18G2,  were  charactpriswl  by  him  an  glacial  ;  but  tlmy  have 
been  sliovn  to  be  8pccifl^ally  identical  with  moUusca  now  livijig  at 
Spitiberpf^n  ;  iknd  it  is  pfobablo  that.whon  tha  wttt£r  was  deeper  tlian 
«t  present  alone  tlio  coast  of  Norway,  the.*ie  ^r<luld  hovo  ranged  soutli- 
fvardi  aluDg  IbO  cold  bottom,  as  they  do  cveo  now  to  a  certala  citcot. 


feet,  covered  over  with  gravel  and  shell-marl ;  and  it  was 
considered  by  Sir  C.  Lyell  to  be  impossible  to  explain  the 
position  of  this  hut  without  imagining  first  a  subsidence 
to  the  depth  of  more  than  60  feet,  and  then  a  re-elevation. 
On  the  whole,  it  appears  clear  that  oscillations  of  level,  not 
uniform  either  ia  direction  or  in  degree,  have  taken  place 
in  various  parts  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  within  a 
recent  period,  whilst  in  regard  to  the  continuance  of  an.y 
such  changes  at  the  present  time  we  have  no  certain 
knowledge,  though  it  is  considered  probable  by  many  of  the 
most  distinguished  savaiis  both  of  Sweden  and  Norway. 

Movements  of.  Water  in  the  Baltic. — There  is  scarcely 
any  tidal  movement  in  the  Baltic ;  for  though  there  are 
sensible  tides  in  the  Skager  Rack,  these  begin  to  diminish 
in  the  Cattegat,  and.  are  very  trifling  in  the  Sound  and 
Belts,  averaging  only  about  a  foot  at  Copenhagen.  There 
is  usually  a  general  movement  of  the  upper  waters  of  tha 
Baltic  towards  the  three  channels  which. form  its  outlet^ 
and  a  considerable  flow  of-  water  through  them.  The 
large  volume  of  water  dischaVgcd  by  the  rivers  that 
empty  themselves  into  the  upper  end  of  that  gulf  forms 
a  southward  current,  which  becomes, very  rapid  where  it 
narrows  at  Quarkou  (being  partly  blocked  also  by  the 
Walgrnnd  Tslands),  and  again  where  it  is  Obstructed  by  tha 
Aland  Islands,  as  it  enters  the  Baltic  proper.  In  that  part 
of  th^  basin  the  current  is  liable  to  considerable  modifica- 
tion from  prevalent  winds ;  but  it  Ls  usually -very  perceptiblo 
in  the  spring  and  early  part  of  the  summer,  when  the  snows 
are  melting.  On  tha  other  hand,  when  an  unusual  con- 
.tinuaiice  of  north-west  wind  concurs  with  high  spring-tide-i 
to  drive  the  water  of  the  North  Sea  into  the  outlet  of  tho 
Baltic,  a  large  body  of  water  flows  back  into  its  basin, 
producing  a  reverse  current,  which  u  felt  as  far  as  Danzig. 

There  are  also  considerable  variations  in  the  height  of 
the  water,  that  seem  for  the  most  part  referrible  to  throe 
different  conditions,  which  may  operate  separately  or  in 
combination,  viz.,  (1),  vhe  seasonal  increase  and  decrcasa 
of  tho  amount  of  water  brought  down  by  rivers ;  (2)'  the 
banking  up  of  the  outflow  by  opposing  winds;  and  (3), 
variations  in  atmospheric  pressure. 

(1.)  During  the  winter  months  the  quantity  of  fresh 
water  poured  into  the  Baltic  by  the  rivers  which  discharge 
themselves  into  it  is  greatly  reduced  by  the  freezing  of 
their  sources ;  and  this  is,  of  course,  especially  the  case 
with  those  that  empty  themselves  into  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia. 
Uence  tho  general  level  of  the  surface  is  at  its  lowest  at 
this  season.  With  the  melting  of  the  snow  in  spring  and 
early  summer,  however,  there  is  an  enormous  increase  in 
the  quantity  of  fresh  water  poured  into  tho  basin,  and 
the  level  of  its  surface  then  rises.  There  is  always,  of 
course,  a  tendency  to  equalisation  of  the  level  of  the  Baltic 
with  that  of  the  sea  outside,  by  outflow  or  inflow  currents 
through  its  three  channels  of  communication ;  but  the 
narrowness  of  these  prevents  that  equalisation  from  being' 
imnuidiate,  ond  it  is  often  interfered  with  by  winds.  ^  (2.) 
The  influence  of  winds  in  banking  uj)  the  water  at  the 
outlets,  nod  even  in  reversing  the  usual  currents,  is  very 
decided,  as  has  bean  especially  shown  by  tho  recent 
researches  of  Dr  Meyer  of  Kiel.-  Tho  strongest  and  most 
constant  surface-outflow  is  seen  during  the  autumn  and 
winter  months,  when  there  is  little  or  no  elevation  of  level, 
but  when  the  prevalent  direction  of  the  wind  is  such  as  to 
<lriTe  the  Baltic  water  towards  and  through  the  straits. 
When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  winds  prevalent  in  the  North 
Sea  tend  to  drive  its  water  into  the  straits,  their  usual  out- 
current  may  be  reversed  ;  and  this  most  frequently  happens 
during  tho  S}>ring  and  summer  months,  although  the  excess 

'  Unl'riuAurijm  iiber  Phj/riialuchr  "•Mi>"'>i>«  da  WeMc/ttn 
TUtUs  Uer  Oitut 


JP>  A  L  T  I  C 


297 


water  to  be  discharged  ia  tlieu  at  its  greatest.  It  some- 
times happens,  especially  about  the  autumnal  equinox,  that 
a  N.W.  gale  con'.ufs  with  a  high  tide  in  the  Skager  Rack 
to  driye  its  water  towards  the  Baltic,  causing  it  to  overflow 
the  lower  portions  of  some  of  the  DauLsh  islands.  If,  then, 
a  southerly  wind  should  carry  this  water  onwards  into  the 
Uulf  of  Finland,  the  check  which  it  gives  to  the  downflow 
of  the  Neva  produces  disastrous  inundations  at  St  Peters- 
burg. (3.)  The  influence  of  atmospheric  pressure  upon  the 
height  of  the  water  in  the  Baltic  is  very  remarkable.  It 
had  long  been  noticed  that  its  Idvel  occasionally  rises  even 
as  much  as  3  fc^t  without  any  apparent  cause,  and 
maintains^  itself  at  that  height,  sometimes  only  for  a 
few  days,  but  occasionally  for  several  weeks  together,  and 
this  at  all  seasons.  Schult<5n,  having  observed  that  such 
elevations  of  kvel  are  preceded  by  a  fall  of  the  barometer, 
and  that  when  the  barometer  rises  again  the  water  subsides, 
was  led  to  recognise  the  dependence  of  these  changes  upon 
converse  changes  in  atmospheric  pressure ;  and  this 
reference  was  confirmed  by  observation  of  the  constant 
proportion  borne  by  one  to  the  other.  A  similar  con- 
sequence of  variation  in  atmospheric  pressure  has  been 
observed  in  the  Jf'editerranean  (see  Mhditeur.\nean)  ;  and 
it  has  also  been  noticed  in  England  as  a  disturbing  ele- 
ment in  modifying/the  height  of  the  tides. 

Salinilij  of  Baltic  Water. — As  might  be  expected  from 

what  has  been  already  stated,  the  proportion  of  salt  in  thei 

water  of  the  Baltic  is  very  much  below  that  of  oceanic 

water,  and  varies  greatly  at  dilTer^nt  seasons.--  In  the  Gulf 

of  Bothnia,  at  Jhe  time  the  river-ftow  is  greatest,  the  surface 

water  is  often  so  little  salt  as  to  be  quite  drinkable,  its 

sp.  gr.  having  been  found  as  low  as  1  004.     But  it  is  said 

to  contain  at  Christmas  six   times   as  much  salt   as   at 

midsummer,  showing  that  when  the  river  supply  is  at  its 

lowest,  its  place  is  taken  by  a  reflux  of  salt  water  from  the 

outside  ocean.     In  the  Baltic  proper  there  is  a  very  decided 

difference  in   salinity  between  the  upper   and  the   lower 

stratum  ;   the   less   saline   water  of   the   surface   flowing 

towards  the  outlet  over  the  more  saline  water  beneath,  just 

as  the  fresh-water  current  of  a  great  river  runs  out  to  sea, 

even  far  beyond  the  sight  of  land.     Thus  the  proportion 

of  salt  in  1000  parts  of  a  samjile  of  s«r/acc-water  taken 

near  Stockholm  being  5919,  that  of  bollom-v^ler,  brought 

up  from  120  fathoms,  was  7  182 ;  and  in  like  manner  the 

proportion  of  salt  in  sio/acc-water  at  the  entrance  of  the 

Oulf  of  Finland  being  3552,  that  of  to«om-water  at  30 

fathoms    depth   was  4  921, — the   proportion   of    salt   in 

North  Sea  water  averaging  32  823  parts  in  1000.     Nearer 

the  outlet  the  proportion  of  salt  is  greater  alike  in  surface 

and  in  bottom-water.      From  the  careful  and  systematic 

observations  of  Dr  Meyer  (cp.  cil.),  it  appears  that  the 

tp.  gr.  of  the  surface-stratum  at  Kiel  ranges  between  about 

rOOS2  in  summer  and  1  0142  in  winter,  the  latter  showing 

lomewhat  above  half   the  quantity   of  salt  contained    in 

urdinary  sea-water.     But  if  the  direction  of  the  prevalent 

winds  during  the  autumn  be  sucb  as  to  maintain  a  strong 

surface  out-current,  and  conpcqucntly  (as  will   presently 

appear)  a  very  strong  inward  undercurrent,  as  happens  in 

some  years,  the  maxijnura  of  salinity  will  present  itself  at 

that  season.      The  sp.  gr.  of  the  deeper  stratum  ranges  at 

Kiel  from  1  014,'.  to  10100;   at  Helsingor  on  the  Sound 

from  1  0190  to  1  0220  ;   .ind  at  KorsOr  on  the  Great  Belt 

from  lOlSO  to  1  0243  ;  thus  showing  it  to  bo  principally 

composed  of  North  Sea  water,  whose  sp.  gr.  may  be  taken 

as  102G4. 

Currents  in  the  Baltic  Straits.— Thv  results  of  observation 
••f  the  movements  of  the  upper  and  under  strata  of  water 
in  tb«  Baltic  Straits,  strongly  confirm  the  doctrine  else- 
whoro  enunciated  (see  Atlantic)  in  regard  to  the  potency 
oi  iUghtdillerences  of  downward  prnssurcin  the  production 
J— ^>» 


of  undercurrents.  The  prevalent  movement  of  the  upper 
stratum  in  the  Baltic  Straits  is  outicard  ;  and  this  couuura 
with  the  low  salinity  of  Baltic  water  to  indicate  that  it  ia 
partly  an  overflow  current,  produced  by  the  excess  of  riv.or 
supply  over  loss  by  evaporat^n,  which  tends  to  raise  its 
level.  But  even  when  this  -.outward  surface-current  is 
strong,  there  is  usually  an  inward  under-currtjnt  of  Nortl\ 
Sea  water,  carrying  back  into  the  basin  of  the  Baltfc  a' 
iarge  proportion  of  the  salt  which  would  otherwise  be  lost 
to  it ;  and  the  existence  of  this  under-current,  which  has 
been  abundantly  established  by  experimental  inquiries,  as 
well  as  by  the  observations  of  divers,  is  exactly  what  theory 
would  lead  us  to  predict.  For  if  two  columns  of  water  of 
the  same  height,  but  ditlcring  in  specific  gravity,  be  made 
to  communicate  wi'h  each  other  alike  at  the  surface  and  at 
the  bottom,  the  lower  part  of  the  heavier  column,  having  a 
greater  lateral  pressure,  wUl  flow  towards  the  lighter,  thus 
tending  to  produce  an  elevation  of  level  in  the  latter,  which 
will  rectify  itself  by  a  surface-flow  in  the  opposite  direction; 
and  thus  a  vertical  circulation  will  be  maintained,  as  long 
as  the  causes  which  maintain  the  difference  of  salinity 
remain  in  operation.  Now,  as  the  salinity  in  the  oceanic 
column  may  be  regarded  aa  practically  constant,  whilst 
the  salinity  of  the  Baltic  column,  though  not  uniform, 
is  kept  down  by  the  influx  of  river-water  to  a  much  lower 
degree,  this  difl'erence  will  always  exist  to  a  greater  or  less 
amount.  When,  however,  the  height  of  the  Baltic  column 
is  so  much  raised — cither  by  the  excess  of  its  fresh-water 
supply,  or  by  the  reversal  of  the  surface-current  by  the 
agency  of  wind — that  the  downward  pressure  of  its  less 
saline  -water  exceeds  that  of  the  more  saline  water  of  the 
North  Sea  column,  the  under-current  will  be  brought  to  a 
stand,  or  its  direction  will  be  reversed.  Thus  it  is  that 
when  the  outward  movement  of  the  upper  stratum  depends 
rather  upon  the  prevalent  winds  (as  is  usually  the  caso 
during  autumn  and  winter)  than  upon  the  elevation  of  its 
level  within  the  basin,  the  inward  under-current  which 
supplies  its  place  is  strongest  and  most  constant'.  And  it  is 
by  this  means,  much  more  than  by  the  occasional  reversal 
of  the  surface-current,  that  salt  is  carried  back  into  the 
Baltic, — .as  is  proved  by  the  close  correspondence  shown  by 
Dr  Meyer's  observations  to  exist  between  the  predominance 
of  the  inward  under-current  and  the  elevation  of  the  sp.  gr. 
of  the  surface-water  of  the  Baltic.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  during  the  spring  and  summer  months,  when  the  outward 
movcmeut  of  the  upper  stratum  is  rather  an  overflow- 
current,  and  the  salinity  of  the  surface-water  is  the  lowest, 
that  the  undercurrent  sets  less  strongly  and  less  constantly^ 
inward. 

Zoolofi'/. — The  fauna  of  the  Baltic  may  be  regarded  as 
that  of  a  large  estuary,  having  a  narrow  communication  with 
the  sea, — its  marine  luhabitants  being  such  us  can  adapt 
themselves  to  considerable  variations  in  the  salinity  of  its 
water.  Whales  rarely  enter  the  Baltic  ,  but  ix>rpoisc3  fre-[ 
quent  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Danish  islands.  Seals  are 
obtained  in  considerable  numbers  at  the  breaking  up  of 
the  ice  around  Gotlland  and  the  Aland  Isles.  The  salmon 
'is  among  the  most  abundant  fishes  of  the  Baltic  proper, 
ascending  its  rivers  from  April  to  June  ;  and  salmon-trout 
are  caught  in  some  of  its  bays.  The  jiortion  of  the  BaltiL' 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Danish  islands  is  frcqucnietl 
by  various  species  of  GaJiJiC,  which  do  not  range  further 
east.  In  the  Hth  and  15th  centuries  there  was  a  consider- 
able herring-fishery  within  the  Sound  and  along  the  co.ast 
of  Scania  (the  southern  portion  of  Sweden) ;  but  this  fish 
seems  to  have  latterly  quite  deserted  the  Baltic,  and  rarely 
shows  itself  even  in  the  Cattegat.  On  the  eastern  coast  of 
Swedor,  on  the  other  hand,  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  a 
fish  calKd  the  stromling,  which  is  nearly  allied  to  the 
herring,  being   chiefly  distinguished  bv  its  small  iijc,  is 


298 


B  A  L  — B  A  L 


caught  iu  great  numbers,  and  is  dried  and  salted  for  distant 
markets.  Tiie  molluscan  fauna  of  the  Baltic  is  chiefly  made 
up  of  common  sheila  of  our  own  shores, — such  as  Cardium, 
Mydlus,  and  Littorina,  which  can  bear  an  admixture  of 
fresh  water,  together  with  several  proper  fresh-water  shells, 
such  as  Paludina,  Neritina,  and  Lymncea ;  the  marine 
types,  however,  being  remarkable  for  their  very  small  size, 
which  is  often  not  above  one-third  of  their  usual  dimen- 
sions. There  is  an  entire  absence,  except  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  straits,  of  such  essentially  marine  types  as 
Buccxnum,  Ostrea,  Pecten,  Patella,  and  Balanus.  It  is 
interesting  to  remark  that  the  Danish  Kjokkenmodding 
BOntain  abundance  of  oysters,  and  also  of  full-sized  cockles, 
mussels,  and  periwinkles  ,  from  which  it  may  be  inferred 
that  even  within  the  human  period  the  outside  ocean  had 
freer  access  to  the  basin  of  the  Baltic  than  it  has  now, — 
probably  through  what  is  now  the  peninsula  of  Jutland, 
which  seems  at  no  remote  period  to  have  been  an 
archipelago.  (w.  b.  c.) 

I  BALTIMORE,  in  Maryland,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
flourishing  cities  in  the  United  States  of  North  America,  is 
situated  on  the  north  side  of  the  Patapsco  River  or  Bay, 
14  miles  above  its  entrance  into  the  Chesapeake,  37  miles 
^N  E  of  Washington,  and  100  S.W.  of  Philadelphia.     Lat. 


Ground-Plan  of  Baltiraore. 


1     Northern  Central  Rallwa;  StAtlon 

3    Mount  Clare  do. 

3   Cimden  do, 

4,  9t  Mary"*  College. 

fi.  lialtlmoro  College 

«.  Pi'lson. 


7  Penitentiary. 

8  Clly  Hall. 

9.  WashlngtoT]  MonumenL 

10  Battle  MGDamcnt. 

11  Hospital. 

13    Lazarolto  and  Llghthoiue. 


J9°  17'  N.,long.  76'  36'  \V.  The  natural  advantages  of 
ibis  position  were  long  overlooked  by  the  settlers  in  the 
ricinity  of  the  Chesapeake  ;  and  it  was  only  in  1729  that 
they  directed  their  attention  to  the  place,  and  laid  out  a 
plan  of  the  town.  At  that  time  a  part  of  it  was  under 
cultivation  as  a  farm,  but  all  the  rest  was  a  wilderness. 
For  some  years  its  growth  was  by  no  means  rapid,  as  it  had 
to  contend  with  all  the  obstacles  that  could  be  thrown  in 
Its  way  by  the  jealousy  of  older  rivals.  From  an  authentic 
sketch  of  Baltimore  made  in  the  year  1752,  it  appears  that 
it  then  contained  about  twenty-five  houses,  only  four  of 
which  were  built  of  brick,  the  rest  being  of  a  more  primitive 
structure.  In  1 768  it  became  the  county  town;  and  in 
1776,  according  to  a  census  then  taken,  it  contained  564 
houses,  and  5934  inhabitants.  From  this  time  it  rose 
rapidly  into  importance ;  and  in  1780  became  a  port  of 
entry,  when  a  custom-house  was  opened.  Previous  to  this 
sU  vessels  trading  to  and  from  the  port  had  to  be  entered, 
cleared,  and  registered  at  Annapolis.     In  December  1796 


it  obtained  an  act  of  incorporation.     By  the  census  of  1870 
Baltimore  contained  267,854  inhabitants. 

The  city  is  pleasantly  situated  on  slightly  undulating 
ground,  and  extends  about  4  J  miles  from  E.  to  W.,  and  3 J 
from  N.  to  S.,  covering  an  area  of  10,000  acres.  It  is 
divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parts  by  a  small  stream  called 
Jones's  Falls,  crossed  by  a  number  of  bridges.  The  division 
east  of  the  falls  is  nominally  subdivided  into  two  parts — 
Fell's  Point  and  Old  Town.  The  former,  the  most  easterly 
part  of  the  town,  is  the  principal  resort  of  seamen,  and  is  the 
place  where  the  shipbuilding  and  manufactures  are 
principally  carried  on.  The  Old  Town  lies  to  the  N.  and 
W.  of  this.  The  portion  west  of  the  Frflls  is  likewise 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  city  propei"  and  Spring  Garden. 
The  former  is  the  centre  of  trade,  and  the  residence  of  the 
more  wealthy  inhabitants  ;  while  the  latter,  nhicH  is  the 
extreme  south-western  quarter,  and  the  lowest  and  most 
unhealthy  portion  of  the  city,  is  inhabited  by  the  poorer 
classes.  Baltimore  contains  about  200  churches,  and  has  Buildrng*. 
three  universities,  several  colleges,  122  public  schoolu,  a 
state  normal  school,  a  manual  labour  school,  besides  nume- 
rous private  schools  and  academies,  an  academy  of  art  and 
science,  an  infirmary,  hospitals,  asylums,  dispensaries,  ic, 
three  theatres,  an  opera-house,  a  museum,  and  many  fine 
public  buildings.  The  most  imposing  building  in  the  city 
is  the  new  city  hall,  one  of  the  finest  structures  of  the  kind 
in  the  country.  It  occupies  an  entire  square  of  ground,  an 
area  of  about  26,000  square  feet,  near  the  centre  of  the  city, 
and  contains  the  various  municipal  offices.  The  style  of 
architecture  is  the  Renaissance,  of  which  it  is  a  fin-:  specimen. 
The  entire  outer  facing  of  the  walls,  the  portico,  and  all 
•the  ornamental  work,  are  of  white  Maryland  marble;  the 
inner  walls  and  floors  are  of  brick,  and  are  fire-proof.  It  is 
four  stories  high,  surmounted  by  a  Mansard  roof  of  iron  and 
slate,  with  a  dome  and  tower  of  iron  on  a  marble  base, 
rising  to  the  height  of  240  feet.  The  interior  is  very  finely 
finished.  It  was  begun  in  1867,  and  cost  about  32,600,000. 
Another  important  public  building  is  that  of  the  Peabody 
Institute,  founded  by  the  late  'George  Peabody,  Esq.,  of 
London,  and  endowed  by  him  to  the  amount  of  §1,400,000. 
It  has  provisions  for  a  public  library,  a  gallery  of  art,  and 
a  conservatory  of  music,  also  for  lectures  and  musical 
performances.  It  was  incorporated  in  1857.  One  wing 
of  the  'building,  which  is  immediately  contiguous  to  the 
Washington  'monument,  is  completed,  and  the  remainder  is 
in  progress.  The  completed  wing  is  faced  and  ornamented 
with  white  marble,  in  a  simple  but  massive  and  imposing 
style,  and  contains  the  library  of  over  56,000  volumes 
(1875),  and  a  hall  for  lectures,  concerts,  &c.  The  custom- 
house is  a  spacious  building,  225  feet  long,  by  141  feet 
wide.  The  principal  room  is  53  feet  square,  ami  is  lighted 
by  a  dome  1)5  feet  above  the  street.  On  its  four  sidei 
are  colonnades,  the  columns  of  which  are  each  a  singlo 
block  of  fine  Italian  marble.  Baltimore  has  several  spltn 
did  monuments,  which  have  acquired  for  it  the  name 
of  "the  Monumental  City."  The  largest  of  these,  erecti'd 
to  the  memory  of  Washington,  stands  on  an  eminence  i^f 
150  feet,  and  has,  with  its  base,  an  altitude  of  200  feet. 
It  is  of  white  marble;  the  base  is  50  feet  square,  and  24 
feet  in  height,  surmounted  by  a  Doric  column  25  feet  in 
diameter  at  the  base,  with  a  spiral  staircase  in  its  interior,  and 
on  the  summit  is  a  statue  of  Washington,  13  feet  high. 
The  "  Battle  Monument,"  also  of  white  marble,  was  erected 
by  public  subscription  in  1815,  to  the  memory  of  those 
who  had  fallen  in  defence  of  the  city  in  the  previous  year. 
It  is  62  feet  high  ;  the  base  is  of  Egj-ptian  architecture  ; 
the  column  is  in  the  form  of  a  bundle  of  Roman  fasces,  upon 
,the  bands  of  which  are  inscribed  the  names  tf  those  whom 
it  commemorates ;  and  the  whole  is  sunnountcd  by  a 
female  figure,  the  emblematical  genius  of  the  city.     The  city 


Monu- 

•  int^ntx 


B  A  L  —  B  A  L 


299 


Ibonr. 


■•yi. 


is  supplied  with  water  from  Laka  Roland,  an  artificial 
lake  about  8  miles  north  of  tlie  city,  of  a  capacity  of 
000,000,000  gallons,  and  from  three  other  reservoirs,  with 
an  aggregate  storage  capacity  of  about  5iS0,000,000  gallons, 
the  couimon  source  of  supply  being  Jones's  Falls.  There 
are  also  numerous  public  springs  and  fountains  throughout 
tho  town.  Baltimore  has  a  number  of  parts  and  public 
squares,  chief  of  which  is  Druid  Ilill  Park,  a  tract  of  700 
acres  on  the  extreme  .north-west  of  the  city,  possessing 
more  natural  beauties  than  any  other  in  the  United  States. 
The  manufactures  and  commerce  of  Baltimore  are  very 
eiten.sive  and  flourishmg.  There  is  scarcely  a  branch  of 
industry  that  is  not  prosecuted  to  some  c.\tent  in  the  city 
or  its  vicinity.  Among  these  are  shipbuilding,  iron  and 
copper  works,  woollen  and  cotton  manufactures,  pottery, 
sugar-refining,  petroleuni-reCning,  distilling,  saddlery,  agri- 
cultural implement-making,  cabinet-making,  tanning,  ic. 
In  tho  vicinity  of  Baltimore  is  found  the  finest  briek-clay 
in  tho  world,  of  which  more  than  100,000,000  bricks  are 
made  annually.  "Tho  Abbott  Iron-works,  in  the  eastern 
part  of  tho  city,  have  the  largest  rolling-mills  in  the  United 
States.  An  industry  peculiar  to  Baltimore  is  the  packing 
of  oysters  in  air-tight  cans  for  shipment  to  all  parts  of  the 
world.  The  oysters  are  taken  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay. 
Fruits  and  vegetables  are  also  packed  in  the  same  way,  the 
entire  trade  consuming  from  twenty  to  thirty  million  cans 
annually.  This  city  is  one  of  the  greatest  fiour-markcts  in 
tho  Union,  and  has  a  large  e.tport  trade  in  tobacco.  There 
belonged  to  the  port  of  Baltimore  (30th  November  1874) 
83-1  vessels,  registering  84,900  tons,  of  which  GO  vessels 
("22,000  tons)  were  en;,'aged  in  foreign,  and  the  rest  in  the 
coasting  trade.  These  figures  show  a  considerable  reduc- 
tion from  those  of  18G0,  as  a  result  of  the  war  between 
the  States,  during  which  many  Baltimore  vessels  were  en- 
rolled under  foreign  flags,  and  have  so  remained.  There  are 
twenty-six  banks,  with  a  capital  (in  1874)  of  §14,000,000, 
and  seven  savings-banks ;  seventeen  fire  and  marine  and 
three  life  insurance  companies,  besides  many  agencies 
for  other  companies.  The  assessed  value  of  taxable  pro- 
perty of  all  kinds  in  Baltimore  for  the  year  1S70  was 
8207,181,550,  and  for  the  year  1875,  8231,242.313, 
being  an  increase  of  824,000,763.  The  harbour,  which 
consists  of  thrco  parts,  is  excellent.  Its  entrance,  be- 
tween Fort  M'Henry  and  the  lazaretto,  is  about  600 
yards  wide,  with  23  feet  of  water.  This  depth  is  con- 
tinued with  an  increased  width  for  a  mile  and  a  quarter,  to 
near  Fell's  Point.  The  entrance  to  tho  second  harbour  is 
opposite  Fell's  Point,  whore  tho  width  is  contracted  to  one- 
fourth  of  a  mile,  with  a  depth  of  IG  feet.  Above  this 
entranco  it  widens  into  an  ellipse  of  a  mile  long,  half  a 
mile  broad,  and  15  feet  deep.  The  third,  or  inner  harbour, 
has  a  depth  of  14  feet,  and  penetrates  to  near  the  centre  of 
the  city.  Vessels  of  the  largest  class  can  lie  at  the  wharves 
near  Fell's  Point,  Locust  Point,  and  Canton,  and  those  of 
500  tons  can  come  into  the  inner  harbour.  The  harbour 
i»  defended  by  Fort  M'Henry.  The  railroads  of  Baltimore 
arc, — The  Philadelphia,  Wilmington,  and  Baltimore  line, 
opened  in  1837,  length  98  miles;  tho  Northern  Central, 
to  Sunbury  in  Pennsylvania,  completed  in  1858,  length 
138  miles;  tho  B.allimorc  and  Potomac  to  the  Potomac 
River,  opened  in  1873,  length  73  miles,  with  a  branch  to 
Washington  (on  this  road  there  is  a  tunnel  a  mile 
and  three-quarters  in  length) ;  tho  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
the  main  stem  of  which  goes  to  Wheeling,  a  distance  of  379 
miles,  opened  through  in  1853.  It  has  the  Parkcrsburg 
Division.  104  miles ;  the  Central  Ohio  Division,  to  Colum- 
bus, 513  miles  from  Baltimore  ;  and  the  Lake  Erie  Division 
>to  Chicago,  opened  in  1874.  878  miles.  The  city  is  also 
traversed  by  numerous  lines  of  horse-railways  for  the 
ooQvcaiencc  of  local  travel.     In  hoaltbfulncss  Baltimore  is 


the  fourth  city  in  the  Union,  its  aiinuai  death-rate  being 
"025.  Its  mean  annual  temperature  is  50"  Kahr. ;  the  mean 
summer  and  winter  temperatures  7G°  and  30°  respectively. 

BALUCHIST^VN,  a  maritime  country  of  Asia,  wbosp 
coast  is  continuous  with  that  of  the  north-western  part 
of  the  Indian  Peninsula.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Afghanistan,  on  the  E.  by  Sindh,  on  the  S  by  the  Arabian 
Sea,  and  on  the  W.  by  Persia.  The  fromier  between 
Persia  and  Baluchistan  has  been  drawn  by  an  English 
commission,  sent  out  in  1870  under  Sir  F.  Ooldsmid,  from 
Gwadur  Bay  (about  61°  3G'  E.  long.)  northwards,  to  lat. 
26°  15'  N.,  when  it  turns  caslwaid  to  the  Nihing  River, 
following  which  N.  and  E.  to  its  sources,  it  passes  on  to 
about  C3°  12  E.  long.,  when  it  resumes  a  northerly  direc- 
tion' to  Jalk.  As  thus  determined,  Baluchistan  has  an 
area  of  about  106,500  sq.  miles.  It  extends  from  lat 
24°  50'  to  30°  20',  and  from  long.  Gl°  10'  to  68°  38';  its 
extreme  length  from  E.  to  W.  being  500  miles,  and  it* 
breadth  370, 

The  outline  of  the  sea-coast  is  in  general  remarkably 
regular,  running  nearly  due  E.  and  W.,  a  little  N.  of  lat. 
24°  46'  from  Cape  Monze,  on  the  border  of  Sindh,  to  Cape 
Jewnee,  near  the  River  Dustee.  It  is  for  the  most  part 
craggy,  but  not  remarkably  elevated,  and  has  in  some 
places,  for  considerable  distance,  a  low  sandy  shore,  though 
almost  everywhere  the  surface  becomes  much  higher  inland. 
The  principal  headlands,  proceeding  /mm  E.  to  W.,  are 
Cape  Monze  or  Ras  Moarree,  which  is  the  e;isteru  headland 
of  Sonmeauee  Bay ;  Goorab  Sing;  Ras  Arubah  ,  Ras  Noo, 
forming  the  western  headland  of  Gwadel  Bay  ;  Ras  Jewnee, 
forming  the  eastern  point  of  Gwadur  Bay,  and  Cape  Zegin 


S'lietcb  Map  of  Baluchistan. 


at  its  western  extremity.  .There  is  no  good  harbour  along 
tho  coast,  though  it  extends  about  COO  miles  ;  but  there 
are  several  roadsteads  with  good  holding-ground,  and 
sheltered  on  several  points.  Of  these  the  best  are  Son- 
meanec  Bay,  Honiara,  and  Gwadur.  On  tho  latter  are 
situated  a  small  town  and  a  fort  of  the  same  name,  and  also 
a  telegraph  station  of  the  Indo-European  line. 

Of  the  early  history  of  this  portion  of  the  Asiatic  continent 
little  or  nothing  is  known.  The  poverty  and  natural  strength 
of  the  country,  combined  with  the  ferocious  habits  of  the 
natives,  seem  to  have  equally  repelled  the  friendly  visits  of 


soo 


BALUCHISTAN 


inquisitive  strangers  and  the  hostile  incureions  oi  invading 
armies.  The  first  distinct  account  which  we  have  is  from 
Afrian,  who,  with  his  usual  brevity  and  severe  veracity, 
narrates  the  march  of  Alexander  through  this  region, 
which  he  calls  the  country  of  the  Orit«  and  GadrosiL  He 
gives  a  very  accurate  account  of  this  .forlorn  tract,  its 
general  aridity,  and  the  necessity  of  obtaining  water  by 
digging  in  the  beds  of  torrents  ;  describes  the  food  of  the 
inhabitants  as  dates  and  fish  ;  and  adverts  to  the  occasional 
occurrence,  of  fertile  spota,  the  abundance  of  aromatic  and 
thorny  shrubs  and  fragrant  plants,  and  the  violence  of  the 
monsoon  in  the  western  part,  of  Mekran.  He  notices  also 
the  impossibility  of  subsisting  a  large  army,  and  the  con- 
sequent destruction  of  the  greater  part  of  -the  men  and 
beasts  which  accompanied  the  expedition  of  Alexander. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  8th  century  this  country  was 
traversed  by  an  army  of  the  caliphate. 

The  country  derives  its  name  from  the  Baluches,  but  the 
Brahocs  are;  considered  the  dominant  race",  from  which  the 
ruler  of  the  country  is  always  selected.  From  whatever 
quarter  these  may  have  arrived,  they  eventually  expelled, 
under  their  leader  Kumbur,  the  Hindu  dynasty,  which  at 
that  time,  governed  the  country,  and  conquered  Baluchistan 
/or  themselves.  The  Baluches  are  a  quite  distinct  race,  and 
must  have  arrived  in  the  country  at  a  subsequent  period, 
probably  in  small  bodies,  some  of  which  may  have  come 
from  Syria  or  from  Aiabia ;  in  proof  of  this  the  Kyheree, 
for  instance,-  possess  a  remarkably  handsome  breed  of 
horses  showing  unmistakable  Arab  blood.  Anyhow,  so 
marked  is  the  social  distinction  between  Baluch  and 
Brahoe,  that  when  the  khan  assembles  his  forces  for 
war  the  latter  tribes  demand,  as  their  right,  wheaten 
flour  as  a  portion  of  their  daily  rations,  while  the  Baluch 
tribes  are  only  entitled  to  receive  that  made  from  a 
coarse  grain  called  jowar.  There  is  also  a  Persian  colony 
known  as  the  Dehwars ;  and  a  considerable  number  of 
Hindus,  who  appear  to  have  been  the  first  settlers  in  the 
Brahoe  mountains  on  their  expulsion  from  Sindh,-  Lus, 
and  Mekran  by  the.  caliphs  of  Baghdad. 

Taking  a  general  view  on  the  subject  of  the  original 
inhabitants  of  Baluchistan,  we  may  conclude  that  they 
have,  from  a  very  early  date,  been  reinforced  by  emigration 
from  other  countries,  and  from  stragglers  dropped  from  the 
hosts  of  the  numeroB3  conquerors,  from  Alexander  to  Nadir 
Sbah,  who  have  pa-ssed  and  repassed  through  Baluchistan 
or  its  neighbourhood  on  their  way  to  and  from  India.  Thus 
we  find  the  Saka  tribe  located  on  the  plains  of  Gressia,  on 
the  borders  of  Mekran,  the  ancient  Gedrosia,  and  still 
further  to  the  west,  the  Dahoe.  These  tribes  are  on  the 
direct  line  of  Alexander's  march  ;  and  we.  knov/  that  tribes 
of  this  name  from  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  accompanied 
his  army.  In  Sarawan  we  find  the  Sirperra,  and  Pliny  tells 
us  that  a  tribe  called  Saraparx  resided  near  the  tSxus. 
Further,  on  the  Dushti-bedoulets,  a  plain  at  the  northern 
entrance  of  the  Bolan  Pass,  we  find  the  Kurds,  a  name, 
BKain,  familiar  as  that  of  a  celebrated  and  ancient  nation. 
The  names  of  numerous  other  tribes  might  be  cited  to 
support  this  view,  but  it  would  require  too  much  space 
to  follow  up  the  subject.  Both  Brahocs  and  Baluches  are 
Mahometans  of  the  Suni  persuasion. 

The  precise  period  at  which  tbe  Brahoes  gained  the 
mastery  cannot  be  accurately  ascertained  ;  but  it  was 
probably  about  two  centuries  ago.  The  last  rajah  of  the 
Hindu  dynasty  found  himself  compelled  to  call  for  the 
assistance  of  the  mountain  shepherds,  with  their  leader, 
Kumbur,  in  order  to  check  the  encroachments  of  a  horde 
of  dcjircdators,  headed  by  an  Afghan  chief,  who  infested 
the  country,  and  oven  threatened  to  attack  the  seat  of 
covernment.  Kumbur  successfully  performed  the  service 
for  which  ho  had  been  png^ged:  but  having  in  a  few  years 


quelled  the  robbers,  against  whom  he  had  been  called  in, 
and  finding  himself  at  the  head  of  the  only  military  tribe 
in  the  country,  he  formally  deposed  the  rajah  and  assumed 
the  government. 

The  history.of  the  country  after  the  accession  of  Kumbur 
is  as  obscure  as  during  the  Hindu  dynasty.  It  would 
appear,  however,  that  the  sceptre  was  'Quietly  transmitted 
.to  Abdulla  Khan,  the  fourth  in  descent  from  Kumbur, 
who,  being  an  intrepid  and  ambitious  soldier,  turned  his 
thoughts  tnw.ards  the  conquest  of  Gutch-Gundava,  then 
held  by  different  petty  chiefs,  under  the  authority  of  the 
Nawabs  of  Sindh. 

After  various  success,  the  Kumburanees  at  length  'pos- 
sessed themselves  of  the  sovereignty  of  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  that  fruitful  plain,  including  the  chief  town,  Gundava. 
It  was  during  this  contest  that  the  famous  Nadir  Shah 
advanced  from  Persia  to  the  invasion  of  Hindustan  ,  and 
while  at  Kandahar,  he  despatched  several  detachments  into 
Baluchistan,  and  established  his  authority  in  that  province. 
Abduila  Khan,  however,  was  continued  in  the  government 
of  the  country  by  Nadir's  orders  ;  but  he  was  soon  after 
kiUed  in  a  battle  with  the  forces  of  the  Nawabs  of  Sindh. 
He  was ,  oucceeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Hajee  Mohummud 
Khan,  who  abandoned  himself  to  the  most  tyrannical  and 
licentious  way  of  life,  and  alienated  his  subjects  by 
•oppressive  taxation.  In  these  circumstances  Nusseer  Khan, 
the  second  son  of  Abdulla  Khan,  who  had  accompanied  the 
victorious  Nadir  to  Delhi,  and  acquired  the  favour  and 
confidence  of  that  monarch,  returned  to  Khelat,  and  was 
hailed  by  the  whole  population  as  their  deliverer.  Finding 
that  expostulation  had  no  effect  upon  his  brother,  he  one 
day  entered  his  apartment  and  stabbed  him  to  the  heart. 
As  soon  as  the  tyrant  was  dead,  Nusseer  Khan  mounted 
the  musnud,  amidst  the  universal  joy  of  his  subjects  ;  and 
immediately  transmitted  a  report  of  the  events  which  had 
taken  place  to  Nadir  Shah,  who  was  then  encamped  near 
Kandahar.  The  shah  received  the  intelligence  with  satisfac- 
tion, and  despatched  a  firmas,  by  return  of  the  messenger, 
appointing  Nusseer  Khan  beglerbey  of  all  Baluchistan. 
This  event  took  place  in  the  year  1739. 

Nusseer  Khan  proved  anactive, politic, and  warlike  prince. 
He  took  great  pains  tore-establish  the  internal  goverumentef 
all  the  provinces  in  his  dominions,  and  improved  ahd  forti- 
fied the  city  of  Khelat.  On  the  death  of  Nadir  Shah  in  1747, 
he  acknowledged  the  title  of  the  king  of  Cabul,  Ahmed 
Shah  Abdulla.  In  1758  he  declared  himself  entirely 
independent ;  upon  which  Ahmed  Shah  despatched  a  force 
against  him,  under  one  of  his  ministers.  The  khan, 
however,  raised  an  army  and  totally  routed  the  Afghan 
army.  On  receiving  intelligence  of  this  discomfiture,  the 
king  himself  marched  with  strong  reinforcements,  and  a 
pitched  battle  was  fought,  in  which  Nusseer  Khan  was 
worsted.  He  retired  m  good  order  to  Khelat,  whither  he 
was  followed  by  the  victor,  who  invested  the  place  w-ith  his 
whole  army.  The  khan  made  a  vigorous  defence  ;  and, 
after  the  royal  troops  had  been  foiled  in  their  attempts  to 
take  the  city  by  storm  or  surprise,  a  negotiation  was  pro- 
posed by  the  king,  which  terminated  in  a  treaty  of  peace. 
By  this  treaty  it  was  stipulated  that  the  king  was  to  receive 
the  cousin  of  Nusseer  Khan  in  marriage  ,  and  that  the 
khan  was  to  pay  no  tribute,  but  only,  when  called  upon, 
to  furnish  troops  to  assist  the  armies,  for  which  he  was  to" 
receive  an  allowance  in  cash  equal  to  half  their  pay.  Tbe 
khan  frequently  distinguished  himself  in  the  subsequent 
wars  of  Cabul  ,  and,  as  a  rcw.ird  for  his  services,  the  king 
bestowed  upon  him  several  districts  in  perpetual  and  entir^ 
sovereignty.  Having  succeeded  m  quelling  a  dangcrou.i 
rebellion,  headed  by  his  cousin  Behcram  Khan,  this  able 
prince  at  length  died  in  extreme  old  age,  in  the  month  of 
June  1795,  leaving  three  sons  and    live  daughters.     Uj 


BALUCHISTAN 


301 


was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Muhmood  Khan,  tlicn  a 
boy  of  about  fourteen  years.  During  the  reign  of  this 
prince,  who  has  been  described  as  a  very  humane  and 
indolent  man,  the  countrj-  was  distracted  by  sanguinary 
broils  ;  the  governors  of  several  provinces  and  districts 
withdrew  their  allegiance ;  and  the  dominions  of  the 
khans  of  Khelat  gradually  so  diminished,  that  they  now 
comprehend  only  a  small  portion  of  the  provinces  formerly 
subject  to  Nusseer  Khan. 

In  1839,  when  the  British  army  advanced  through  the 
Bobn  Pass  towards  Afghanistan,  the  conduct  of  Mehrab 
Khan,  the  ruler  of  Baluchistan,  was  considered  so  treacher- 
ous and  dangerous,  as  to  require  "  the  exaction  of  retri- 
bution from  that  chieftain,"  and  "  the  execution  of  such 
arrangements  as  would  establish  future  security  in  that 
quarter.''  General  Willshire  was  accordingly  detached 
from  the  army  of  the  Indus  with  1000  men  to  assault  Khelat. 
A  gate  was  knocked  in  by  tho  field-pieces,  and  the  town 
and  citadel  were  stormed  in  a  few  minutes.  Above  400 
Baluches  were  slain,  among  them  Mehrab  Khan  himself; 
and  2000  prisoners  were  taken.  Subsequent  inquiries 
have,  however,  proved  that  the  treachery  towards  the 
British  was  not  on  the  part  of  Mehrab  Khan,  but  on  that 
of  his  vizier,  Mahomed  Hassein,  and  certain  chiefs  with 
whom  he  was  i?i  league,  and  at  whose  instigation  the  British 
convoys  were  plundered  in  their  passage  through  Cutch- 
Gundava  and  in  the  Bolan  Pass.  The  treacherous  vizier, 
however,  made  our  too  credulous  political  officers  believe 
that  Mehrab  Khan  was  to  blame, — hjs  object  being  to 
bring  his  master  to  ruin  and  to  obtain  for  himself  all 
power  in  the  state,  knowing  that  Mehrab's  successor  was 
only  a  child.  IIow  far  he  succeeded  in  his  object  history 
has  shown.  In  the  following  year  Khelat  changed-  hands, 
the  governor  established  by  the  British,  together  with  a 
feeble  garrison,  being"  overpowered.  At  tho  close  of  the 
same  year  it  was  reoccupied  by  the  Briti-sh  under  General 
Nott.  In  1841,  Nusseer  Khan,  the  youthful  son  of  tho 
slain  Mehrab  Khan,  was  recognized  hy  the  British,  who 
soon  after  evacuated  the  country. 

.  From  the  conquest  of  Sindh  by  the  British  troops  under 
the  command  of  the  late  General  Sir  Charles  Napier  in 
1843  up  to  1854,  no  diplomatic  intercourse  occurred 
worthy  of  note  between  the  British  and  Baluch  states.  In 
the  latter  year,  however,  under  the  govcrnor-general-ship  of 
the  late  marquis  of  Dalhousie,  the  late  General  John  Jacob, 
C.B.,  at  the  time  political  superintendent  and  commandant 
on  the  Sindh  frontier,  w.is  deputed  to  arrange  and  conclude 
a  treaty  between  the  Khelat  state,  then  under  the  chieftain- 
ship of  Meer  Nusseer  Khan,  and  the  British  Government. 
This  treaty  was  executed  on  the  14th  of  May  1854,  and 
was  to  the  following  elTect : — 

"  That  the  former  ofTensive  and  defensive  treaty,  con- 
cluded in  18il  by  Major  Outram  between  the  British 
Government  and  Mcer  Nusseer  Khan,  chief  of  Khelat, 
was  to  be  annulled. 

"  That  Meer  Nusseer  Khan,  his  heirs  and  successors, 
bound  themselves  to  oppose  to  the  utmost  all  the  enemies 
of  the  British  Government,  and  in  all  cases  to  act  in  subor- 
dinato  co-operation  with  that  Government,  and  to  enter  into 
no  negotiations  with  other  states  without  its  consent. 

"  That  should  it  be  deemed  necessary  to  station  British 
troops  in  any  part  of  the  territory  of  Klielaf,  they  shall 
occupy  such  positions  as  may  be  thought  advisable  by.the 
Briti.ih  authorities. 

"  That  tho  Baluch  chief  was  to  prcvc.it  all  plundering  on 
the  part  of  his  subjects  within,  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of, 
British  territory. 

"That  he  was  further  to  protect  all  merchants  pabsing 
through  Lis  territory,  and  only  to  exact  from  them  a 
tran.tit  duty,  fixed  by  schedule  attached  to  the  treaty  ;  and 


that'  on  condition  of  a  faithful  performance  of  these  duties, 
he  was  to  receive  from  tho  British  Government  an  annual 
subsidy  of  50,000  rupees  (X5000).  " 

The  provisions  of  the  above  treaty  were,  most  loyally 
performed  by  Meer  Nusseer  Khan  up  to  the  time  of  his 
death  in  1856.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Mcer 
Khodadad  Khan,  the  present  ruler,  a  youth  of  twelve  yeara 
of  age,  who,  however,  did  not  obtain  his  position  before 
he  had  put  down  by  force  a  rebellion  on  the  part  of  his 
turbulent  chiefs,  who  had  first  elected  him,  but,  not  receiving 
what  they  considered  an  adequate  reward  from  his  treasury, 
sought  to  depose  Lira  in  favour  of  his  cousin  Shere  dil 
Khan.  In  the  latter  part  of  1857,  the  Indian  rebellion 
being  at  its  height,  and  the  city  of  Delhi  still  in  the  hands 
of  the  rebels,  a  British  officer  (Major  Henry  Green)  waa 
deputed,  on  the  part  of  the  British  Government,  to  reside, 
as  political  agent,  with  the  khan  at  Khelat,  and  to  assist 
him  by  Lis  advice  in  maintaining  control  over  his  turbulent 
tribes.  This  duty  was  successfully  performed  until  18G3, 
when,  during  the  temporary  absence  of  Miijor  Malcolui 
Green,  the  then  political  agent,  Khodadad  Khan  was,  at, 
the  instigation  of  some  of  his  principal  chiefs,  attacked, 
while  out  riding,  by  his  cousin,  Shere  dil  Khan,  and  severely 
wounded.  Khodadad  fled  in  safety  to  a  residence  close  to 
the  British  border,  and  Shere  dil  Khan,  was  elected  and 
proclaimed  khan.  His  rule  was,  however,  a  short  one, 
for,  early  in  1864,  when  proceeding  to  Khelat,  he  was 
murdered  in  the  Oundava  Pass  ;  and  Khodadad  was  again 
elected  chief  by  the  very  men  who  had  only  the  previous 
year  caused  his  overthrow,  and  who  had  lately  been  accom- 
plices to  tho  murder  of  Lis  cousin.  Since  the  above  events 
Khodadad  has  maintained  his  precarious  position  with 
great  difficulty ;  but  owing  to  his  inability  to  govern  his 
unruly  subjects  without  material  assistance  from  the  British 
Government,  which  they  are  not  disposed  to  give.  Lis 
country  has  gradually  fallen  into  tho  greatest  anarchy  ; 
and,  consequently,  some  of  the  provisions  of  the.  treaty  of 
1854  having  been  broken,  diplomatic  relations  have  been 
discontinued  with  the  Khelat  state  since  the  end  of  1874. 

The  territories  of  Baluchistan  are  now  comprised  under 
the  following  divisions — Jalawan,  Sara  wan,  Khelat,  Mekran, 
Lus,  Cutch-Gundava,  and  Kohistan. 
,  The  most  remarkable  features  of  this  extensive  country 
are  its  rugged  and  elevated  surface,  its  barrenness,  and  its 
deficiency  of  water.  The  mass  lA  mountains  which  forms 
the  eastern  boundary  of  that  division  of  Baluchistan  called 
the  Kohistan,  or  mountain  territory,  lying  between  the 
capital,  Khelat  (lat.  29°  1'  38"  N.,  long,  about  GO"  39' E.), 
and  the  plain  country  to  the  east  of  it,  designated  Cutchee, 
or  Cutch-Gundava,  is  composed  of  several  parallel  ranges 
of  limestone  rock,  in  closo  proximity  to  each  other,  having 
a  general  strike  of  N.N.E.  to  S.S.W.  and  a  breadth  of  about 
55  miles.  This  range  originates  in  Afghanistan,  and  enters 
Baluchistan  north  of  the  Bolan  Pass  in  about  30°  N.  lat. 
and  about  CO"  30'  E.  long,  under  the  name  Ucrbooe;  and, 
after  throwing  out  a  branch  to  the  eastward,  which  touches 
the  River  Indus  at  Sehwan,  terminates  under  the  desijjna- 
tion  of  the  Hala  Mountains,  at  Cape  Monze  on  the  coast  of 
the  Arabian  Sea,  W.  of  Kurrachee,  in  about  25°  N.  lat,  and 
66°  68'  E.  long.,  thus  having  a  total  length  of  upwards  of 
300  miles.  Tho  highest  mountain  of  this  range  is  the 
ChcluJ  Tan,  bearing  about  N.  by  E.,  85  miles  from  Khelat, 
and  attaining  an  altitude  of  12,000  feet  abovo  the  sea. 
The  western  range  of  the  Ilerbooe  Mountains  in  this  portirm 
of  Baluchistan  are  barren  and  without  timber,  and  scantily 
peopled  with  pastoral  tribes  of  Brahocs,  who  emigrate  tn 
the  jilains  of  Cutchee  on  the  approach  of  the  winter 
months. 

North   of    the   Bolan    liiver  and    Pafs   fne    Hcrtooo 
Mountains  are  met,  in  about  lot.  N.  30°,  by  confused  ranges 


302 


BALUCHISTAN 


of  roiigli  precipitous  inouutains,  which  extend  to  the  east- 
ward with  a  strike  nearly  E.  and  \V.  to  the  Sooliman  range, 
iQ  about  29°  5'  N.  lat.  and  about  CO"  30'  E.  long.  This 
tract  is  almos^  entirely  inhabited  by  Murrccs,  Boogtees,  and 
other  tribes  of  Baluch  plunderers,  and  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  the  province  of  Sowestan.  South  of  these  ranges  lies 
the  desert  country,  which  touches  the  Sindh  frontier  in 
28"  27'  N.  lat.  _         .  ^     _ 

The  two  princip.al  watercourses  which  drain  the  Kohistan 
portion  of  Baluchistan  E.  of  Khelat  are  the  rivers  Bolan  and 
Moola,  the  former  rising  about  GO  miles  N.E.  of  Khelat,  the 
latter  at  Anjcora,  lat.  28°  10'  N.,  long,  about  06°  29'  E., 
about  45  miles  south  of  that  city.  They  both  discharge 
themselves  into  the  plains  of  Cutchee,  the  former  atDadur, 
lat.  about  29°  28'  51"  N.,  long,  about  67°  26'  E.,  and  the 
latter  at  Kotra  near  Gundava,  lat.  28°  33'  47"  N.,  long, 
about  07°  20'  E.  There  is  at  all  seasons  a  plentiful  supply 
of  clear  running  water  in  these  streams,  which  is  entirely 
used  up  for  irrigational  purposes  on  issuing  into  the  plains. 
They  are  subject  to  dangerous  floods  from  sudden  storms  in 
the  neighbouring  mountains  during  the  rainy  season.  The 
two  easiest  and  safest  passes  from  Central  Asia  into  India 
take  their  names  from  these  streams.  South  of  the  Moola 
the  Gaj  River  issues  into  the  plains,  and  its  waters  are  also 
absorbed  in  cultivation.  The  Nara  issues  into  the  plains 
near  Kajjuk,  N.W.  corner  of  Cutch-Gundava,  in  lat.  about 
29°  36'  N.,  and  long,  about  08°  2'  E.;  ordinarily  its  water 
U  utilized  entirely  for  cultivation  in  its  course  through 
the  Afghan  province  of  Seebee  ;  but  at  periods  of  heavy 
rains  in  the  mountains  it  is  liable  to  burst  its  banks,  and 
then  inundates  immense  tracts  in  the  Cutchee  desert  to  the 

BOUth. 

West  of  Khelat,  as  far  as  about  65°  30'  E.  long.,  the 
mountain  ranges  have  much  the  same  strike,  and  are  of  the 
same  nature  as  those  to  the  eastward,  but  the  ranges  are 
much  narrower,  more  defined,  and  of  a  lower  altitude.  The 
valleys  between  them  vary  from  5  to  15  miles  in  breadth  ; 
they  are  quite  devoid  of  trees.  The  water-courses  generally 
follow  the  direction  of  the  hills  from  N.  to  S.  and  in  some 
instances  during  hea^-y  rains  their  waters  reach  the  Arabian 
Sea;  but  as  a  general  rule  they  are  absorbed  long  before 
they  reach  the  coast,  partly  in  cultivation,  but  principally 
by  the  sandy  arid  nature  of  the  soil  and  excessive  dryness 
of  the  atmosphere, — due,  probably,  to  tho  proximity  of 
the  great  desert  west  of  Kharan,  which  extends  to  the 
confines  of  Persia.  The  most  important  of  these  water- 
courses is  tho  Dustee  or  Moolcanee. 

The  climate  of  Baluchistan  is  extremely  various  in  the 
different  provinces.  The  soil  in  general  is  exceedingly 
stony.  In  tlio  province  of  Cutch-Gundava,  however,  it  is 
rich  and  loamy,  and  so  very  productive,  that,  it  is  said, 
were  it  all  properly  cultivated,  the  crops  would  be  more 
than  sufficient  for  the  supply  of  the  whole  of  Balu- 
chistan. Gold,  silver,  load,  iron,  tin,  antimony,  brimstone, 
alum,  sal-ammoniac,  and  many  kinds  of  mineral  salts,  and 
saltpetre,  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  The 
precious  metals  have  only  been  discovered  in  working  for 
iron  and  lead,  in  mines  near  the  town  of  Nal,  about  150 
miles  S.S.W.  of  Khelat.  The  difTcrcnt  other  minerals 
above  enumerated  are  very  plentiful.  The  gardens  of 
Khelat  produce  many  sorts  of  fruit,  which  arc  sold  at  a 
very  moderate  rate,  such  as  apricots,  peaches,  grapes, 
almonds,  pistachio  nuts,  apples,  pears,  plums,  currants, 
cherries,  quinces,  figs,  pomegranates,  mulberries,  plantains, 
raclons,  guavas,  Ac.  All  kinds  of  grain  known  in  India 
are  cultivated  in  tlic  difTcrcnt  provinces  of  Baluchistan,  and 
tbore  is  abundance  of  vegetables.  Madder,  cotton,  and 
indigo  are  also  produced  ;.  and  the  latter  is  considered 
s>ipcrir>r  to  that  of  Bengal  Great  attention  is  given  to 
Iho  culture  of   the  dato  fruit    in  tho  province  of  Mckran. 


The  domestic  animals  of  Baluchistan  are  horses,  mules, 
asses,  camels,  buffaloes,  black-cattle,  sheep,  goats,  dogs, 
»nd  cats,  besides  fowls  and  pigeons  ;  but  there  are  neithei 
geese,  turieys,  nor  ducks.  The  wild  animals  are  tigers, 
leopards,  hyenas,  wolves,  jackals,  tiger-cats,  wild  dogs, 
foxes,  hares,  niangooses,  mountain  goats,  antelopes,  elks, 
red  and  moose  deer,  wild  asses,  il'C.  Of  birds  they  have 
almost  every  species  to  be  met  with  either  in  Europe  or 
India. 

Tho  principal  towns  in  Baluchistan  are  as  fuUows ; — 
Khelat  is  the  capital  of  the  whole  country  ;  Mustoong,  of 
the  province  of  Sarawan  ;  -Kozdar,  of  Jalawan  ;  Bcyla,  of 
Beyla ;  Kej,  of  Mekran  ;  Dagh,  of  Cutch-Gundava;  and 
Dadur  and  Gundava  are  towns  in  the  last-mentioned 
province. 

The  capital  stands  on  an  elevated  site  7000  feet  above 
the  sea,  on  the  western  side  of  a  well-cultivated  plain  or 
valley,  about  eight  miles  long  and  two  or  three  broad,  a 
great  part  of  which  is  laid  out  in  gardens  and  other 
enclosures.  The  town  is  built  in  an  oblong  form,  and  on 
three  sides  is  defended  by  a  mud  wall,  18  or  20  feet  high, 
flanked,  at  intervals  of  250  yards,  by  bastions,  which,  as 
well  as  tho  wall  itself, are  pierced  with  numerous  loopholes 
for  matchlock-men.  The  defence  of  the  fourth  side  of  the 
city  has  been  formed  by  cutting  away  perpendicularly  the 
western  face  of  the  hill  on  which  it  is  partly  built.  On 
the  summit  of  this  eminence  stands  the  palace,  command- 
ing a  distinct  view  of  the  town  and  adjacent  country. 
That  quarter  of  tho  hill  on  which  the  khan's  residence  is 
erected  has  been  enclosed  by  a  mud  wall,  with  bastions  , 
'the  entrance  to  it  is  on  the  south-western  side  ;  and  here, 
as  well  as  at  the  city  gates,  which  are  three  in  number, 
there  is  constantly  a  guard  of  matchlock-men.  Both  town 
and  citadel  are,  however,  completely  commanded  by  the 
surrounding  hills,  tmd  are  incapable  of  offering  any  resist- 
ance against  artillery.  Within  the  walls  there  are  upwards 
of  2500  houses,  and  the  number  of  these  in  the  suburbs 
probably  exceeds  one-half  of  that  amount.  The  houses  are 
mostly  built  of  half-bu.nt  brick  or  wooden  frames,  and 
plastered  over  with  mud  or  mortar.  In  general,  the  streets 
are  broader  than  those  of  native  towns,  and  most  of  thera 
have  a  raised  pathway  on  each  side  for  foot-passengers,  and 
hjvo  also  an  uncovered  kennel  in  the  centre,  which  is  a 
nuisance,  from  the  quantity  of  filth  thrown  into  it,  and  the 
stagnant  rain-water  that  lodges  there.  The  upper  stories  of 
the  hiiuses  frequently  project  across  the  street,  and  thereby 
render  the  part  beneath  them  gloomy  and  damp.  This 
seems  a  very  rude  attempt  to  imitate  the  bazaars  of  Persia 
and  Cabul.  Tho  bazaar  of  Khelat  is  extensive,  well  fur- 
nished with  every  kind  of  goods  ;  all  the  necessaries  of 
life  may  be  purchased  there  at  a  moderate  price.  Tho 
town  is  supplied  with  delicious  water  from  a  spring  in  the 
face  of  a  hill  on  the  opposite  side  of  a  plain,  whence  it 
meanders  nearly  through  its  centre,  having  the  town  and 
suburbs  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  the  gardens.  It 
may  be  remarked  of  this  spring,  that  the  waters,  at  their 
immediate  issue  from  the  smaller  channels,  possess  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  tepidity  until  after  sunrise,  when  they 
suddenly  become  exceedingly  cold,  and  remain  so  during 
the  day. 

We  have  no  data  from  which  we  can  form  an  accurate 
compulation  of  the  population  of  Baluchistan,  but  it  may 
be  estimated  at  about  400,000.  The  two  great  races  of 
Baluch  and  Brahoe,  each  subdivided  into  an  infinite  number 
of  tribes,  arc  clearly  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their 
language  and  appearance.  The  Baluch,  or  Baluchckce, 
language  partakes  considerably  of  the  idiom  of  the  modern 
Persian,  ullhough  greatly  disguised  under  a  singularly 
corrupt  [ironuiiciation.  Tho  Brahoekee,  on  the  otiier  hand, 
has  nothing  analogous  to  Persian,  but  appears  to  contain  « 


B  A  L  —  B  A  L 


30^ 


J, —it  number  of  ancient  llinduwee  words;  and,  as  it 
strikes  the  ear,  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  dialect 
spoken  in  the  Panjaub.  The  Baluchos  in  general  have  tall 
figures,  long  visages,  and  raised  features ;  the  Brahoes,  ou 
the  contrary,  have  short,  thick  bones,  with  round  faces 
and  Sat  lineaments. 

The  Baluches  are  a  handsome,  active  race  of  men,  not 
possessing  great  physical  strength,  but  inured  to  changes 
of  climate  and  season,  and  capable  of  enduring  every 
species  of  fatigue.  In  their  habits  they  are  pastoral  and 
much  addicted  to  predatory  warfare,  is  the  course  of  which 
they  do  not  hesitate  to  commit  every  kind  of  outrage  and 
cruelty.  Notwithstanding  their  predatory  habits,  how- 
ever, they  aro  considered  to  be  a  hospitable  people.  After 
the  fashion  of  other  barbarous  tribes  in  that  part  of  the 
world,  they  will  protect  and  kindly  entertain  a  stranger 
whde  their  guest,  but  feel  no  scruple  in  robbing  and 
murdering  hira  as  soon  as  he  has  left  their  precincts.  They 
arc  indolent,  and  unless  excited  by  amusement  or  war,  or 
compelled  to  action  by  some  urgent  motive,  spend  their 
time  in  idleness,  rude  dissipation,  and  the  enjoyment  of 
such  coarse  luxuries  as  they  can  procure — in  lounging,^ 
gambling,. smoking  tobacco  or  hemp,  and  chewing  opium. 
The  tenets  of  their  religion, — and  still  more,  perhaps,  their 
poverty, — preserve  them  from  the  abuse  of  fermented 
liquors.  Their  principal  articles  of  food  are  milk  in  all  its 
forms,  the  flesh  of  domestic  animals,  not  excepting  that  of 
the  camel,  and  game,  including  wild  asses,  the  flesh  of 
which  is  considered  a  delicacy.  Their  appetites  are  vora- 
cious ;  they  consume  incredible  quantities  of  flesh  when 
it  can  bo  obtained,  and  prefer  it  in  n  half-cooked  state. 
They  also  use  grain  in  the  form  of  bread,  and  prepared 
variously  otherwise  ;  but  they  enjoy  most  such  articles  of 
food  or  condiment  as  possess  a  strong  and  stimulating 
flavour,  as  capsicum,  onions,  and  garlic.  Their  indolence 
prompts  them  to  keep  as  many  slaves  as  they  can  obtain  and 
support.  Polygamy  is  universal.  Some  of  the  lower  ordera 
have  as  many  as  eight  women,  either  as  wives  or  mistresses, 
and  the  number  is  increased  in  proportion  to  the  rank  and 
means  of  the  man.  Wives  are  obtained  by  purchase,  pay- 
ment being  made  in  cattlo  or  other  articles  of  pastoral 
wealth.  The  ceremony  of  marriage  is  performed  by  the 
moollah  or  priest ;  and  on  this  occasion,  as  well  as  on  some 
others  afl"ecting  females,  practices  similar  to  those  of  the 
Lovitical  law  arc  observed.  For  instance,  in  this  country, 
as  also  among  the  Afghans,  a  man  is  expected  to  many 
Ijie  widow  of  a  deceased  brother.  When  a  death  takes 
place,  the  body  is  watched  for  three  successive  nights  by 
assembled  friends  and  neighbours,  who  spend  llioir  time  in 
ffasting,  80  that  the  ceremony  seems  intended  rather  to 
furnish  enjoyment  to  the  living  than  to  render  honour  to 
the  dead. 

The  common  dress  of  the  Braliocs  is  a  coarse  white  or 
blue  calico  shirt,  buttoned  round  the  neck,  and  reaching 
below  the  knee ;  their  trousers  are  made  of  the  same 
cloth,  or  of  a  kind  of  striped  slulF  called  soosce,  and 
puckered  round  the  ankles.  On  their  heads  they  wear  a 
email  silk  or  cotton  qViilted  cap,  fitted  to  the  shape  of  the 
bkuU,  and  a  kummurhund  or  sash,  of  the  same  colour, 
round  their  waists.  The  Baluches  wear  a  similar  dress,  but 
a  turban  on  the  head  and  wide  trousers  unconCned  at  the 
ankle.  In 'winter  the  chiefs  and  their  relatives  appear  in  a 
tunic  of  chintz,  lined  and  stulFcd  with  cotton  ;  and  the 
poorer  classes,  when  out  of  doors,  wrap  themselves  up  in  a 
surtout  made  of  cloth,  manufactured  from  a  mixture  of 
goats'  hair  and  sheep's  wool.  The  women's  dress  is  very 
similar  to  thit  of  the  men  ;  their  trousers  are  preposterously 
wide,  and  made  of  silk,  or  a  mixture  of  silk  and  cotton. 

The  fluctuation  of  power  renders  it  dilUcult  to  define 
precisely  the  nature  of  the  governmcut  of  Khelat.     During 


the  reign  of  Nusscer  Khan  the  whole  kingdom  might  be 
said  to  have  been  governed  by  a  complete  despotism ;  yet 
that  ruler  so  tempered  the  supreme  authority  by  the  privi- 
leges granted  to  the  feudal  chiefs  within  their  own-tribes, 
that,  to  a  casual  observer,  it  boro  the  appearance  of  a 
military  confederation.  The  tribes  all  exercise  the  right  ol 
selecting  their  own  sirJar,  or  head  ;  and  the  khan  has  tho 
power  of  confirming  or  disapproving  of  their  nomination  ; 
but  this  power  is  never  exercised,  and  appears  to  be  merely 
nominal.  The  khan  of  Khelat  declares  war  and  makes 
treaties  connected  with  the  whole  of  Baluchistan,  and  can 
order  the  sirdar  of  each  tribe  to  attend  in  person  with  his 
quota  of  troops.  Agreeably  to  a  code  of  regulations  framed 
by  one  of  the  earliest  princes  of  the  Kumburanee  dynasty, 
the  entire  administration  of  justice  was  vested  in  the  person 
at  the  head  of  the  government.  The  sirdar,  however,  has 
the  power  of  adjusting  i)etty  quarrels,  thefts,  and  disputed 
points  of  every  description,  among  the  inhabitants  of  a 
kheil  or  society  ;  but,  in  all  cases  of  importance,  an  appeal 
lies  in  the  last  instance  to  the  khan  at  Khelat. 

The  amount  of  revenue  enjoyed  by  the  khan  of  Khelat 
is  inconsiderable,  as  the  ruling  races,  Baluch  and  Brahoe, 
pay  no  direct  taxes,  and  their  poverty  and  simple  habits 
prevent  them  from  contributing  much  indirectly.  His 
income  is  therefore  derived  from  his  resources  as  a  pro- 
prietor of  lands  or  towns ;  from  a  proportion  of  the 
produce  paid  in  kind  by  the  Afghan,  Dehwar,  and  Jet 
cultivators;  from  dues  on  direct  and  transit  trade;  and' 
from  arbitrary  exactions,  a  never-failing  mode  with  Eastern 
potentates  of  recruiting  an  exhausted  treasury.  Pottinger 
estimated  the  amount  at  350,000  rupees  ;  Masson,  who  had 
ample  means  of  acquiring  information  through  colloquial 
channels,  at  300,000.  At  tho  prsisent  date  (1875)  it  is 
300,000  rujiccs  or  X30,000  at  the  utmost.  With  such  a 
revenue  it  is  obvious  that  no  standing  army  can  be  main- 
tained ;  and  Masson,  certainly  very  competent  to  the  task 
of  acquiring  information  on  this  subject,  states  that  Mclirab 
Khan,  "  nearly  destitute  of  troops  in  his  own  pay,  was  com- 
pelled, on  the  slightest  cause  for  alarm,  to  appeal  to  the 
tribes,  who  attended  or  otherwise  as  suited  their  whims  or 
convenience."  Pottinger  computed  thcnuniber  of  available 
fighting  men  at  00,000.  Mehrab  Khan  could  on  no  occasion 
assemble  more  than  12,000;  and  in  his  final  struggle  for 
properly,  power,  and  life,  the  number  of  his  troops  did  not 
amount  to  3000.  At  the  present  time  (IS75)  about40,00b 
would  probably  be  available  if  all  attended  the  summons, 
but  the  utmost  number  the  khan  could  collect  would  bo 
about  10,000.  All  depends  iqion  the  state  of  the  treasury, 
the  cause  of  the  war,  and  the  [lowcr  the  khan  may  be  able 
to  exert  over  his  chiefs.  The  Baluch  soldier  is  heavily 
encumbered  with  arms,  carrying  a  matchlock,  a  sword,  a 
dagger,  and  a  shield.  Pottinger  considered  them  good 
maiksmen,  and  slates  that  in  action  lliey  Irutt  princijially 
to  their  skill  in  this  respect,  avoiding  close  conibat ;  but 
their  readiness  in  general  to  close  with  the  British  troops 
shows  that  he  is  in  this  instance  mistaken.  There  were  no 
Brahoes  opposed  to  our  forces  at  the  battle  of  Mcanee,  nor 
were  there  any  Baluches  irora  Baluchistan.  The  levies  of 
the  Ameer  of  Sindh  were  principally  composed  of  Sindee 
and  Baluch  tribes,  who  had  long  been  settled  in  Sindh. 
The  greater  part  serve  ou  foot ;  but  a  number,  not  incon- 
siderable, have  horses.  Camels  aro  only  used  by  tribes  or 
the  western  borders  of  Baluchistan  in  their  prcdati'i> 
excursions. 

BALUE,  Je\n,  a  French  cardinal,  who  raised  him&clf 
from  a  very  mean  station  to  dignity  and  honour."!.     11a 
was  born  of  very  humble  parentage  at  Angle  in  Poitou,  \n> 
1121,  and  w.i3  first  patronised  by  tho  bishop  of  Poitiers.  . 
He  eventually  became  almoner  to  Louis  XI.,  and  managed 
to  secure  a  considerable  share   in  the  govcrouieut  ^  Uut 


304 


B  A  L  — B  A  L 


■being  detected  in  treasonable  correspondence  vtiih  the  duke 
of  Bourgogne,  he  was  confined  by  Louis  in  an  iron  cage  8 
feet  square.  On  his  release,  however,  eleven  years  after- 
wards, he  was  loaded  with  l^nours  by  Sixtus  IV.,  was 
eent  as  legate  to  France,  ana  received  the  bishopric  of 
Albano.     He  died  at  Ancona  in  1491. 

BALUZE,  Etienne^  a  celebrated  French  scholar,  was 
born  at  Tulle  on  the  24th  of  December  1630,  and  died  in 
July  1718.  After  completing  his  education  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Toulouse,  he  was  invited  by  M.  de  Marca, 
afterwards  archbishop  of  Paris,  to  undertake  the  superin- 
tendence of  his  library.  De  Marca  died.in  16G2,  and 
Baluze,  after  acting  as  librarian  to  Le  Tellier  and  the 
archbishop  of  Auch,  obtained  in  1667  a  similar  situation 
with  the  famous  Colbert,  which  he  retained  till  1700, 
some  years  after  the  death  of  that  minister.  His  reputa- 
tion and  his  mastery  of  French  law  and  antiquities  obtained 
for  him  in  1670  the  professorship  of  canon  law  in  the 
royal  college,  a  chair  founded  expressly  for  him.  On  the 
fall  of  the  Cardinal  de  Bouillon  in  1710,  Baluze,  who  had 
attached  himself  to  his  party,  was  removed  by  a  lettre  de 
cachet  from  Paris,  and  transferred  from  Rouen  to  Blois, 
Tours,  and  Orleans  in  succession.  He  obtained  his  recall 
in  1713,  though  he  never  recovered  his  professorship.  Of 
Baluze's  numerous  works  the  best  known  is  the  Capitularia 
Regum  Francorum,  which  is  of  considerable  historical  value. 
The  Miscellanea,  in  7  vols,  contain  several  curious  extracts 
from  manuscripts  found  by  him  in  the  libraries  at  Paris. 

BALZAC,  HoNORB  de,  perhaps  the  greatest  name  in 
the  post-Revolutionary  literature  of  France,  was  born  at 
Tours  in  1799,  and  died  in  1858.  His  date  thus  corre- 
sponds with  the  whole  period  of  the  rise,  the  acfiae,  and  the 
decline  of  the  Romantic  school,  to  which  he  can  scarcely, 
however,  be  said  to  have  belonged.  It  is  true  that  be  was 
inspired  by  many  of  the  influences  that  animated  Victor 
Hugo  and  his  followers.  Like  them  he  was  much  occupied 
by  the  study  of  the  fantastic  element  in  mediaeval  art,  so 
strongly  opposed  to  the  calm  and  limit  of  classical  litera- 
ture, like  them  he  reproduced  the  remoter  phases  of  life 
and  passion,  and  thought  that  few  subjects  were  so  base  or 
obscure  as  to  be  unworthy  of  artistic  jtreatmeot.  But 
there  is  something  in  the  powerful  personality  of  Balzac 
indicated  by  the  colossal  body,-  by  the  strong  and  sensual 
face,  somewhat  resembling  the  profile  of  the  Emperor  Nero, 
which  preserved  him  from  the  mannerism  of  any  school. 
He  was  never  successful  in  reproducing  the  existence  of 
the  past,  he  was  essentially  the  man  of  his  own  day,  and 
La  Com^die  Ilumaine  is  as  much  the  picture  of  the  19th, 
as  the  Divina  Commedia  is  of  the  13th  century.  The 
passions  that  move  his  characters  are  the  intense  desire  of 
boundless,  wealth,  of  luxury,  of  social  distinction ;  and 
though  here  and  there  his  financiers,  his  journalists,  his 
political  intriguers,  his  sordid  peasantry,  are  relieved  by 
the  introduction  of  some  pure  figure,  like  that  of  Eugenia 
Orandet,  of  David,  or  of  Eve,  there  are  only  too  many 
elaborate  studies  of  creatures  sunk  below  the  surface  of 
humanity,  the  embodiments  of  infinite  meanness  and 
nameless  sin.  He  was  merely  "  the  secretary  of  society," 
he  said,  and  "drew  up  the  ■  inventory  of  vices  and 
virtues."  His  ambition  was,  "  by  infinite  patience  and 
courage,  to  compose  for  the  France  of  the  19lh  century 
that  history  of  morals  which  the  old  civilizations  of  Rome, 
Athens,  Memiihis,  and  India,  have  left  untold."  The 
consequence  of  tliis  ambition  is,  that  Balzac's  voluminous 
romances  have  too  often  the  air  of  a  minute  and  tedious 
chronicle,  and  thot  the  contemporary  reader  is  wearied 
with  a  mass  of  details  about  domestic  architecture,  about 
the  stock  exchange,  and  about  law,  which  will  prove 
invaluable  to  posterity. 

RaUac'a  private  history,  which  may  be  traced  through 


many  passages  of  his  novels,  was  a  strange  and  not  a 
happy  one.  He  was  early  sent  from  his  home  in  Tours  to 
the  college  of  Vendome,  where  he  neglected  the  studies 
and  sports  of  childhood  to  bury  himself  in  mystic  books 
and  mystic  reveries.  He  has  told  the  story  of  his  school 
life  in  Louii  Lambert,  how  he  composed  a  theorie  de  la 
volonte,  a  theory  which  was  to  complete  the  works  of 
Mesmer,  Lavater,  Gall,  and  Bichat.  This  promising 
treatise  was  burned  by  one  of  the  masters  of  the  school ; 
and  Balzac,  falling  into  bad  health,  returned  homo.  The 
next  stage  in  his  education  was  a  course  of-  study  at  the 
Sorbonne,  and  of  lectures  on  law.  In -the  offices  of  avoucs 
and  notaries  he  picked  up  his  knowledge  of  the  by-ways 
of  chicanery, — knowledge  which  he  uses  only  too  freely  in 
his  romances.  Nature  djd  not  mean  Balzac  for  an. advocate  ; 
he  was  constant  in  the  belief  in  his  own  genius,  a  belief 
which  for  many  years  he  had  all  to  himself,  and  his  family 
left  him  to  work  and  starve,  on  the  scantiest  pittance,  in  a 
garret  of  the  Rue  Lesdiguitres.  There  followed  ten  years 
of  hard  toil,  poverty,  experiments  in  this  and  that  way  of 
getting  a  living.  These  struggles  are  described  in  Facino 
Cane,  in  the  Feau  de  Chaifr-m,  and  in  a  series  of  letters 
to  the  author's  sister,  Madame  de  Surville.  Balzac  found 
"  three  sous  for  bread,  two  for  milk,  and>three  for  firing  " 
suffice  to  keep  him  alive,  while  he  devoured  books  in  the 
library  of  the  Arsenal,  copied  out  his  notes  at  night,  and 
then  wandered  for  hours  among  the  scenes  of  nocturnal 
Paris.  "  Your  brother,"  he  writes  to  Madame  de  Surville, 
"  is  already  nourished  like  a  great  man, — he  is  dying  of 
hunger."  He  tried  to  make  money  by  scribbHog  many 
volumes  of  novels  without  promise,  and  borrowed  funds  to 
speculate  in  the  business  of  printing.  Ideas  which  have 
since  made  other  men's  fortunes  failed  in  Balzac's  hands, 
and  he  laid  the  foundations  of  those  famous  debts  which 
in  later  life  were  his  torment  and  his  occupation.  At 
length  appreciation  came,  and  with  appreciation  what 
ought  to  have  been  wealth.  Balzac  was  unfortunately  as 
prodigal  of  money  as  of  labour;  he  would  shut  himself 
up  for  months,  and  see  no  one  but  his  printer;  and  then 
for  months  he  would  disappear  and  dissipate  his  gains  in 
some  mysterious  hidmg-place  of  his  own,  or  in  hurried 
travclhng  to  Venice,  Vienna,  or  St  Petersburg.  As  a  child 
he  had  been  a  man  in  thought  and  learning  ;  as  a  man  he 
was  a  child  in  caprice  and  extravagance.  His  imagination, 
the  intense  power  with  which  ho  constructed  new  combina- 
tions of  the  literal  facts  which  he  observed,  was  like  the 
demon  which  tormented  the  magician  with  incessant  de- 
mands for  more  tasks  to  do.  When  he  was  not  working 
at  La  Comcdie  Ilumaine,  his  fancy  was  still  busy  with  its 
characters ;  he  existed  in  an  ideal  world,  where  some 
accident  was  always  to  put  him  in  possession  of  riches 
bcvond  the  dreams  of  avarice.  Meantime  ho  squandered 
all  the  money  that  could  bo  rescued  from, his  creditors  on 
sumptuous  apparel,  jewels,  porcelain,  pictures.  His  excesses 
of  labour,  his  sleepless  nights,  his  abuse  of  colTec  under- 
mined Ids  ocemiiigly  indestructible  health.  At  length  a 
mysterious  passion  for  a  Russian  lady  was  crowned  by 
marriage ;  the  famous  debts  were  jiriid,  the  visionary  house 
was  built  and  furni.shcd,  and  then,  "  when  the  house  was 
ready,  death  entered."  Balzac  died  at  the  cnlniination  of 
his  fame,  and  at  the  bcgiiuiing.  as  it  seemed,  of  the  period 
of  rest  to  which  he  had  always  looked  forward. 

It  is  impossible  to  enter  on  a  detailed  critiijsm  of  Batec's 
novels.  In  them  he  scales  every  height  and  sounds  every 
depth  of  human  character, — from  the  purity  of  the  mys- 
terious Seraphitus  Seraphita,  cold  and  strange,  like  the 
peaks  of  her  northern  Aljw,  to  the  loathsome  sins  of  the 
Marnefs,  whoec  deeds  should  find  no  calendar  but  that  of 
HolL  In  the  great  divisions  of  his  Comfdie,  the  eccnes  of 
private  and  of  public  life  of  the  [irovinces  and  of  the  city, 


13  A   r.  —  T]  A   M 


305 


lb  the  philosophic  studies,  and  in  the  Conies  jDrotaiujues, 
Balzac  has  built  up  a  work  of  art  which  answers  to  a 
Mieaiseyal  cathedral.  There  are  subterranean  places,  haunted 
by  tie  Vautrins  and  "  FiUes  aux  yeux  d'or ,"  there  are  the 
seats  of  The  moneychangers,  where  the  N'ucingens  sit  at 
the  receipt  of  custom ;  there  is  the  broad  platform  of 
everyday  life,  where  the  journalists  intrigue,  where  love 
is  sold  /or  hire,  where  splendours  and  miseries  abound, 
where  the  peasants  cheat  their  lords,  where  women  betray 
their  husbands ;  there  are  the  shrines  where  pious  ladies 
pass  saintly  days ;  there  are  the  dizzy  heights  of  thought  and 
rapture,  whence  falls  a  ray  from  the  supernatural  light  of 
Swedenborg;  there  are  the  lustful  and  hideous  grotesques 
of  the  Contes  Drolalijucs.  Through  all  swells,  like  the 
organ-tone,  the  ground-note  and  mingled  murmur  of 
Parisian  life.  The  qualities  of  Balzac  are  his  extraordinary 
range  of  knowledge,  observation,  sympathy,  his  steadfast 
determination  to  draw  every  line  and  shadow  of  his 
subject,  his  keen  analysis  of  character  and  conduct.  His 
defects  are  an  over-insistance  ou  detail,  which  hampers  and 
bewilders  rather  than  aids  the  imagination  of  his  readers  ; 
his  tortured  style,  "  a  special  language  forged  out  of  all 
the  slangs,  all  the  terminologies  of  science,  of  the  studio, 
the  laboratory,  the  coulisses;"  his  fondness  for  dwelling 
on  the  morbid  patliology  of  human  nature.  With  all  these 
defects,  and  with  the  dithculty  of  judging  any  one  of  his 
tiles  separately,  because  each  is  only  a  fragment  in  the 
development  of  the  immense  Comidie  Uumaine,  Balzac 
holds  a  more  distinct  and  supreme  place  in  French  fiction 
than  perhaps  any  English  author  does  in  the  same  field  of 
ast.  (a.  l  ) 

BALZAC,  Jean  Louis  Guez  de,  a  celebrated  French 
writer,  was  born  at  Angoulecie  in  1094.  His  father  was 
possessed  of  considerable  property,  and  he  himself  was 
eirly  befriended  by  the  Cardinal  de  la  Valette,  who  took 
liim  in  his  train  to  Rome.  His  letters  written  from  that 
]ilace  to  his  acquaintances  and  to  many  who  held  a  high 
position  at  the  French  court,  were  expressed  so  admirably, 
and  showed  such  powers  of  eloquence,  as  to  gain  for  him  the 
highest  renown.  On  his  return  from  Italy  he  was  at  once 
and  everywhere  received  as  a  master  in  the  art  of  composi- 
tion. The  most  extravagant  compliments  were  showered 
upon  him,  and  his  head  appears  to  have  been  turned  a 
little  by  his  success.  In  lOl-'l  a  collection  of  his  Letters 
was  published,  and  was  received  with  great  favour  by  the 
public.  Soon  afterwards  a  direct  charge  of  plagiarism 
was  made  against  Balzac  in  a  pseudonymous  tract,  On  the 
conformity  of  M.  de  Balzac's  Eloquence  with  that  of  the 
(•reatest  Personages  of  Past  and  Prcs-'nl  Time.  A  terribly 
fierce  paper  war  was  excited  by  this  pamphlet ;  and  Balzac, 
in  disgust,  retired  to  his  own  estate,  where  he  continued 
his  labour  of  composition.  In  1634  ho  expressed  a  desire 
to  enter  the  Academy,  and  was  at  once  elected  with 
universal  acclain.ition.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1G54.  His 
fame  rests  entirely  upon  the  Letters,  which,  though  empty, 
bombastic,  and  affected  in  matter,  are  written  with  great 
Bkill,  and  show  a  real  mastery  over  the  language.  They 
introduced  a  new  style  ;  and  Balzac  has  thus  the  credit  of 
being  the  first  reformer  of  French  prose,  as  bis  contempo- 
rary Malhcrbe  was  the  first  reformer  of  French  poetry. 

BAMBA,  a  province  of  Congo,  on  the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  lying  to  the  S.  of  the  llivcr  Ambriz.  This  district 
is  fertile,  abounds  in  gold,  silver,  copper,  salt,  etc.,  and  is 
said  to  bo  thickly  populated.  Its  chief  town,  which  bears 
the  same  name,  was  formerly  of  considerable  importance, 
the  climate  being  remarkably  healthy  for  that  region  of 
Africa. 

BAMBARRA,  a  country  of  inner  Africa,  on  the  Joliba 
or  Upper  Niger.  The  principal  towns  arc  Scgu,  Sansadinp, 
Jaiuima,  Mursha,  Jabbi,  Sai,  KuUikoro,  Maraca-Uuba,  and 


Uamba,  in  many  of  which  the  Mahometans  have  mosques. 
For  further  particulars  see  Africa,  vol.  i.  p.   271. 

BAMBARKA,  a  town  of  western  Africa  on  a  backwater 
of  the  Niger,  of  considerable  commercial  importance,  and 
situated  in  a  fertile  plain,  115  miles  S.S.W.  of  Timbuctoo. 
(See  Barth's  Travels  in  Central  Africa,  vol.  iv.  p.  354.) 

BAMBEPiG,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in  the  circle  of  Upper 
Franconia,  on  the  River  Regnitz,  3  miles  above  its  junction 
with  the  Maine,  and  33  miles  N.  of  Nuremberg,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  It  is  partially  surrounded 
by  walls  and  ditches,  and  is  divided  by  the  river  and 
Ludwig's  canal  into  three  districts,  which  are  connected  by 
handsome  bridges.  The  town  is  well  built,  and  the  streets 
are  well  paved  and  lighted.  The  cathedral,  a  noble  struc- 
ture in  the  Byzantine  style  of  architecture,  is  surpassed  by 
few  of  the  kind  in  Germany.  It  was  founded  in  1004  by 
the  Emperor  Henry  II.,  and  finished  in  1012,  but  was 
afterwards  partially  burnt,  and  rebuilt  in  1110.  It  con- 
tains the  tombs  of  the  founder  and  his  empress  Cunigunde, 
Conrad  111.,  Pope  Clement  II.,  ic,  and  numerous  monu- 
ments and  paintings  by  eminent  masters.  Among  the 
other  public  buildings  are  St  Martin's  church,  the  palace 
(formerly  the  residence  of  the  prince-bishops),  town-house, 
and  theatre.  The  Benedictine  convent  of  St  Michael  was 
turned,  in  1803,  into  a  charitable  institution  for  poor 
citizens  known  as  Ludwig's  hospital.  Bamberg  has  nume- 
rous literary  and  charitable  institutions,  as  the  lyceum, 
gymnasium,  polytechnic,  normal,  and  medical  schools,  a 
library,  museum,  picture-gallery,  hospital,  and  workhouse. 
The  trade  is  considerable ;  cloths,  sealing-wax,  leather, 
tobacco,  musical  instruments,  carriages,  ic,  are  manu- 
factured, and  there  are  numerous  breweries.  The  whole 
of  the  neigh'bouring  district  is  like  a  vast  garden,  and  fur- 
nishes large  supplies  of  liquorice,  carrots,  aniseed,  cori- 
ander, and  other  seeds.  Bamberg  was  formerly  the  capital 
of  an  independent  bishopric,  which  was  secularized  in  ItiOI, 
and  assigned  to  Bavaria  in  1803.     Population,  25,733 

BAMBOCCiO.     See  Laer,  Peter  Van. 

BAMBOO,  a  genus  (Jlambusa)  of  arbore.'cent  grasses 
very  generally  distributed  throughout  the  tropical  lands  of 
the  globe,  but  found  and  cultivated  especially  in  India, 
China,  and  the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  There  is  a  large 
number  of  species  enumerated  ;  but,  as  is  the  case  with 
most  plants  under  cultivation,  much  difficulty  is  found  in 
distinguishing  species  from  varieties  produced  by  artificial 
selection.  Banibusa  arundinacea  is  the  species  most 
commonly  referred  to.  It  is  a  treelike  plant,  rising  to  a 
height  of  40,  60,  or  even  80  feet,  with  a  hollow  stem, 
shining  as  if  varnished.  The  stem  is  extremely  slender^ 
not  exceeding  the  thickness  of  5  inches  in  some  which  are 
50  feet  high,  and  in  others  reaching  15  or  18  inches  in 
dinmetcr.  The  whole  is  divided  mto  joints  or  septa  called 
knots  or  inlernodes,  the  intervals  between  which  in  the 
case  of  some  of  the  larger  stems  is  several  feet.  These 
joints  or  divisions  are  formed  by  the  crossing  of  the  vascular 
bundles  of  fibres.  They  produce  alternate  lateral  buds, 
which  form  small  alternate  branchlcts  springing  from  the 
base  to  the  top,  and,  together  with  the  narrow-pointed 
leaves  issuing  from  them,  give  the  plant  an  elegant  feathered 
appearance  as  it  waves  in  the  wind.  The  rapidity  of  its 
growth  is  surprising.  It  attains  its  full  lieight  in  a  few 
months,  and  ilr  Fortune  records  the  observation  of  a  growth 
of  from  2  to  2.^  feet  in  a  single  day.  In  Jfalabar  it  is  said 
to  bear  fruit  when  fifteen  years  old,  and  then  to  die. 

The  bamboo  is  cultivated  with  great  care  in  regular 
plantations  by  the  Chinese.  The  plant  is  propagated  by 
shoots  or  suckers  deposited  in  pits  l8  inches  or  2  feet  deep 
at  the  close  of  autumn  or  the  beginning  of  winter.  Various 
expedients  are  followed  to  obtain  good  bamboc>3 ;  one  of 
the  most  usual  being  to  take  a  vigorous  root  and  transplant 


^06 


B  A  M  —  B  A  M 


it,  leaving  only  four  or  five  inches  above  the  joint  next  the 
ground.     The  cavity  is  then  filled  with  a  mixture  of  horse- 
litter  and  sulphur.     According  to  the  vigour  of  the  root, 
the  shoots  will  be  more  or  less  numerous;  they  are  destroyed 
at  an  early  stage  during  three  successive  years  ;  and  those 
springing  in  the  fourth  resemble  the  parent  tree.     The  uses 
to  which  all  the  parts  and  products  of  the  bamboo  are 
applied  in  Oriental  countries  are  almost  endless.     The  soft 
and  succulent  shoots,  when  just  beginning  to  spring,  are  cut 
over  and  served  up  at  table  like  asparagus.     Like  that  vege- 
table, also,  they  are  earthed  over,  to  keep  them  longer  fit  for 
consumption;  and  they  afford  a  continuous  supply  during 
the  whole  year,  though  it  is  more  abundant  in  autumn. 
They  are  also  salted  and  eaten  with  rice,  prepared  in  the 
form  of  pickles,  or  candied  and  preserved  in  sugar.    As  the 
plant  grows  older,  a  species  of  fluid  is  secreted  in  the  hollow 
joints,  in  which  a  concrete  substance,  highly  valued  in  the 
East  for  its  medicinal  qualities,  called  tabaxir  or  tabascheer,  is 
gradually  developed.     This  substance,  which  has  been  found 
to  be  a  purely  siliceous  concretion,  is  possessed  of  peculiar 
optical  properties.     As  a  medicinal  agent  the  bamboo  is 
almost  or  entirely  inert,  and  it  has  never  been   received 
into  the  European  materia  medica.     A  decoction  of  the 
leaves  of   the  plant  b,  however,  employed   in   the  East 
for  pectoral  affections,-  and  the  leaf-buds  are  said  to  be 
diuretic.     The  grains  of  the  bamboo  are  available  for  food, 
and  the  Chinese  have  a  proverb  that  it  produces  seed  more 
abundantly  in  years  when  the  rice  crop  fails,  which  means, 
probably,  that  in  times  of  dearth  the  natives  look  more 
after  such  a  source  of  food.     The  Hindus  eat  it  mixed  with 
honey  as  a  delicacy,  equal   quantities   being   put  into  a 
hollow  joint,  coated  externally  with  clay,  and  thus  roasted 
over  a  fire.     It  is,  however,  the  stem  of  the  bamboo  which 
is  applied  to  the  greatest  variety  of  uses.     Joints  of  sufficient 
size  form  water  buckets ;  smaller  ones  are  used  as  bottles, 
md  among  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo   they  are  employed  as 
cooking  vessels.     Bamboo  is  extensively  used  as. a  timber 
wood,  and  houses  are  frequently  made  entirely  out  of  the 
products  of  the  plant-;  complete  sections  of  the  stem  form 
posts  or  columns ;   split  up,  it  serves  for  floors  or  rafters  ; 
and,  interwoven  in  lattice- work,  it  is  employed  for  the  sides 
of  rooms,  admitting  light  and  air.      The  roof  is  sometimes 
of  bamboo  solely,   and  when  split,  which  is  accomplished 
with  the  greatest  ease,  it  can  be  formed  into  laths  or  planks. 
It  is  employed  in  shipping   of   all  kinds  ;  some   of   the 
strongest  plants  are  selected  for  masts  of  boats  of  moderate 
size,  and  the  masts  of  larger  vessels  are  sometimes  formed 
by   the   union  of   several   bamboos   built   up  and  joined 
together. 

The  bamboo  is  employed  in  the  construction  of  all  kinds 
of  agricultural  and  domestic  implements,  and  in  the  materials 
and  implements  required  in  fishery.  Bows  arc  made  of  it 
by  the  union  of  two  pieces  with  many  bands ;  and,  the 
septa  being  bored  out  and  the  lengths  joined  together,  it  is 
employed,  as  wo  use  leaden  pipes,  in  transmitting  water  to 
reservoirs  or  gardens.  From  the  light  and  slender  stalks 
shafts  for  arrows  are  obtained ;  and  in  the  south-west  of 
Asia  there  is  a  certain  species  of  equally  slender  growth, 
from  which  writing-pens  or  reeds  are  made.  Ajoiut  forms 
a  holder  for  papers  or  pens,  and  it  was  in  a  joint  of  bamboo 
that  silk-worm  eggs  were  carried  from  China  to  Con- 
stantinople during  the  reign  of  Justinian.  The  outer 
cuticle  of  Oriental  species  is  so  hard  that  it  forms  a  sharp 
and  durable  cutting  edge,  and  it  is  so  siliceous  that  it  can 
be  used  as  a  whetstone.  This  outer  cuticle,  cut  into  thin 
strips,  is  one  of  the  most  durable  and  beautiful  materials 
for  basket-making,  and  both  in  China  and  Japan  it  is 
Jargely  so  employed.  Strips  are  also  woven  mto  cages, 
chairs,  beds,  and  other  articles  of  furniture,  Oriental 
wicker-work  in  bamboo  being  unequalled  for  beauty  and 


neatness  of  workmanship.     In  China  the  interior  portions 
of   the   stem  are  beaten  into   a   pulp,  and  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  the  finer  varieties  of  paper.      Bamboos  are 
imported  to  a  considerable  extent  into  Europe  far  the  use 
of  basket-makers,  and  for  umbrella  and  walkmg-slioks.     In 
short,  the  purposes  to  which  the  bamboo  is  applicable  are 
almost  endless,  and  well  justify  the  opinion  that  "  it  is  one 
of  the  most  wonderful  and  most  beautiful  productions  o.f 
the   tropics,  and  one  of  Nature's  most  valuable  gifts  to 
uncivilized  man"  (A.  R.  Wallace,  The  Alalay  Archipelago). \ 
BAMBOROUGH,  a  village  in  Northumberland,  on  iha] 
sea-coast,  14  miles  N.  of  Alnwick.     It  was  a  royal  borough' 
previous    to    the    Norman    Conquest,    and    returned    two 
members  to  parliament  in  the  23d  year  of  Edward  I.      Us 
ancient  castle  stands  close  to  the  sea  on  an  almost  perpen- 
dicular rock,  150  feet  in  height,  and  is  accessible  only  on 
the  south-east  side.     The  first  erection  is  ascribed  by  the 
Saxon  chronicles  to  King  Ida  of  Northumberland,  who  is 
said  to  have  named  it  Bebbanburh  after  his  queen  Bebbe 
(547  ad)     The  principal  events  in  its  early  history  are 
the  siege  by  Penda  in  642,  the  ravages  of  the  Danes  in 
993,  the   unsuccessful  defence   by  De   Mowbray  against 
William  Rufus,  and  numerous  sieges  during  the  Wars  of 
the  Roses.     In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  it  fell  into  decay. 
At  lengthy  in  the  18th  century,  it  became  the  property  of 
Lord  Crewe,  bishop  of  Durham,  who,  in  1720,  vested  the 
castlo  and  manor  in  trustees  for  charitable  purposes.     In 
virtue  of  this  bequest  a  patrol  is  kept  on  the  coast,  apart- 
ments are  provided  for  shipwrecked  seamen,  and  a  store- 
house for  salvage-goods,  and  granaries  are  maintained  in 
order  to  supply  corn  to  the  poor  at  a  cheap  rate  in  times  of 
scarcity.     An  infirmary,  a  dispensary,  and  a  large  library  be- 
queathed by  Dr  Sharp,  are  also  maintained,  while  poor  chil- 
dren receive  gratuitous  education  at  two  "national "schools. 
Population  in  187 1, 320  in  the  village,  and  3751  in  the  parish,  i 
BAMBOUK,  a  country  in  the  interior  of  Western  Africa, 
situated  between  the  Senegal  and  its  tributary  the  Faleme, 
and  extending  from  lat.  12°  30'  to  14°  N,,  and  from  long. 
10°  to  12°  30'  W.     It  is  traversed  from  N  W   to  S.E.  by 
the  steep  and  wall-like  range  of  theTaniba-Ura  Mountains. 
The  soil  in  a  large  part  of  the  country  is  of  remarkable 
fertility ;    rice,    maize,     millet,    melons,    manioc,    grapes, 
bananas,  and  other  fruits,  grow  almost  without  cultivation; 
the   forests  are  rich  in  a  variety   of   valuable  trees;  and 
extensive   stretches  are  covered  with  abundant  pasturage 
of  the  long  guinea-grass.     As  a  natural  consequence  there 
is  great  profusion  of  animal  life.     The  inhabitants,  a  branch 
of  the  Mandingo  race,  have  made  but  little  progress  in 
civilization.     The  one  product  of  their  country  which  really 
excites  them  to  labour  is  gold  ;  and  even  it  is  so  common 
and  accessible  that  the  rudest  methods  of  collection  are 
deemed  sufficient.     The    most  remarkable   deposit   is    at 
Natakoo,  where  a   considerable  hill  seems  to  be   wholly 
composed  of  auriferous  strata.     There  is  also  a  good  mine 
at  Kcnieba      In  exchange  for  the  gold,  cloth,  ornaments, 
and  salt — the  last  a  most  valuable  article — are  imported. 
The  usual  beast  of  burden  is  the  ass,  the  horse  being  only 
possessed  by  the  very  wealthiest  in  the  country.     Sheep  and 
cattle   are   both    i)retly   numerous.       Unfortunately,    the 
climate  is  very  unhealthy,  especially  in  the  rainy  season, 
which  last's  foi  about  four  months,  from  .Inly  or  August. 
The  chief  towns  are  Bambouk,  Salaba,  and  Konkuba.     The 
Portuguese  early  penetrated  into  Bambouk,  and  were  even 
for  some  time  masters  of  the  country  ,  but  the  inhabitants 
made  a   general  rising   and  completely  drove  them    out. 
Remains  of  their  buildings,  however,  are  still  to  be  seen.  The 
French,  soon  after  they  had  formed  their  settlement  on  tho 
Senegal,  turned  their  attention  to  this  land  of  gold.     It  was 
niPt  till  171G,  however,  that  Compagnon,  under  the  auspices 
of  De  la  Brue,  the  governor  of  Senegal,  succeeded  by  great 


'B  A.3I  — B  A  N 


307 


address,  and  not  wnuoui.  risk,  in  visitii.g  various  parts  of 
t!io  auriferous  region;  and  his  exiiloratious  were  followed 
up  hy  David,  Levens,  and  others.  Raffenel  visited  the 
country  in  1814,  and  Pascal,  a  naval  lieutenant,  was  there 
in  1859.  A  few  commercial  stations  or  comptoirs  have 
rec-.ntly  been  established. 

Seo  Lubat,  JJel.  de  I'Afr.  occid.  ;  De  Golbcry;  Voy.  m  Afr.  en 
1785;  AnjOdee 'J'arJicu,  '*St;nc'g,imbie"  ui  ihe  Univers  piUomique ; 
liall'incl,  I'oy.  dans  I'Afr.  occid.,  1846  ;  lievuc  algtrienne  el  colo- 
viaU  for  March  ISCO  ;  Kaidherh**  Chapiircs  de  (jiographie  and  An-_ 
nuaire  de  Senegal. 

B.\MI.\N,  a  once  renowned  city  in  the  territory  now 
subject  to  the  Afghans,  iu  W  50'  N.  lat.,  67°  44'  E.  long. 
Its  remains  lie  in  a  valley  of  the  Hazara  country,  on  the  chief 
road  from  K.'ibul  towards  Turkestin,  and  imniedintoly 
at  tho  northern  foot  of  that  prolongation  of  the  Indian 
Caucasus  now  called  Kohi-Baba  (see  vol.  i.  pp.  227,  241). 
The  passes  on  the  Kibul  side  are  not  less  than  1 1 ,000  and 
1  2,000  feet  in  absolute  height,  and  those  immediately  to 
the  north  but  little  inferior.  The  river  draining  the  valley 
is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  the  Suikh.'ib  or  Aksarai,  a« 
important  tributary  of  the  Upper  Oxus  {Hid.  p.  241).  The 
prominences  of  the  cliffs  which  line  the  valley  are  crowned 
by  the  remains  of  numerous  massive  towers,  whilst  their 
precipitous  faces  are  for  6  or  7  miles  pierced  by  an  iiiGnity 
of  ancient  cave-dwellings,  some  of  which  are  stiU  occupied. 
The  actual  site  of  the  old  city  is  marked  by  mounds  and 
remains  of  walls,  and  on  an  isolated  rock  in  the  middle  of 
the  valley  are  considerable  ruins  of  what  appears  to  have 
been  tho  acropolis,  now  known  to  the  people  as  Ghdlg\ilah. 
But  tho  most  famous  remains  at  B'lmi.'in  are  two  colossal 
standing  idols,  carved  in  the  cliffs  on  the  north  side  of  the 
valley.  Bunies  estimates  tho  height  of  the  greater  at  120 
feet,  the  other  at  half  as  much.  These  images,  which  have 
Been  much  injured,  apparently  by  cannon  shot,  are  cut  in 
niches  in  the  i.irk,  ur.'i  both  images  and  niches  have  been 
coated  with  stucco.  There  is  an  inscription,  not  yet  inter- 
[•reted  or  copied,  over  the  greater  idol,  and  on  each  side 
of  its  niche  are  staircases  leading  to  a  chamber  near  the 
head,  which  shows  traces  of  elaborate  ornamentation  in 
azure  and  gilding.  The  surface  of  the  niches  also  has 
been  painted  with  figures.  In  one  of  the  branch  valleys  is 
a  similar  colossus,  somewhat  inferior  in  size  to  the  second 
of  those  tv.o  ;  and  there  are  indications  of  other  niches  and 
idols.  As  seen  from  the  rock  of  Ghiilgiilah,  Bdmidn,  with 
its  mined  towers,  its  colossi,  its  innumerable  grottoes,  and 
with  the  singular  red  colour  of  its  barren  soil,  presents  an 
impressive  aspect  of  desolation  and  mystery. 

That  the  idols  of  lidmian,  about  nhii;h  so  many  conjectures  have 
been  uttered,  were  Buddhist  figures,  is  ascertained  from  the  narra- 
tive of  the  Chinjsc  pilgrim,  Hwen  "Thsang,  who  saw  them  in  their 
aplcTidour  in  630  ad.  His  descri|>tion  of  tho  position  of  the  city 
an<l  images  corresponds  accurately  \\  ith  modern  reports.  He  assigns 
10  the  greater  imiige,  wbicli  was  gilt  (the  object,  probably,  of  tlio 
InstiT  co.iling),  a  hiiglit  of.I40  or  150  feet,  and  to  tho  second  100. 
'lie  latter  would  seem  from  his  account  to  liave  been  sheathed  with 
copper.  Still  vaster  than  these  was  a  recumbent  figure,  2  miles  east 
of  Biniiin,  representing  Sakya  Buddha  entering  A'irtdni,  i.e.,  in 
«et  of  death.  This  was  "about  1000  feet  In  length."  No  traces  of 
this  are  alluded  to  by  modern  travellers,  but  in  all  likelihood  it 
was  only  formed  of  rubble  plastered  (a»  is  the  case  still  with  such 
A'irtdna  (iguies  in  Indo-China),  and  of  no  durability.  For  a  city 
do  notable  Bami.in  has  a  very  obscure  history.  It  does  not  seem 
possible  to  identify  it  with  any  city  in  classical  geography  :  AUx- 
nndna  ad  Cducasum  it  certainly  was  not.  The  first  known  mention 
nf  it  seems  to  be  that  by  Hwen  Thsang.  at  a  time  when  apparently 
it  had  already  passt-d  its  niciidian,  and  was  the  head  of  one  of  the 
•mall  slates  into  which  the  empire  of  the  White  Huns  had  broken 
up.  At  a  Inter  j>eriod  B'Wniin  was  for  half  a  century,  ending  12H  A.D., 
t^ie  scat  of  a  branch  of  the  Ghori  dvnasty,  ruling  over  ToklidriMtan, 
or  the  basin  of  tho  Upper  Oxus.  'Ihe  place  was  long  besieged,  and 
finally  annihilated  (ri22)  by  Chinghiz  Khan,  whose  wr.Tth  was 
wtasptTateii  at  the  death  of  a  favourite  grandson  by  an  arrow  from 
,  \li  walls.  There  appears  to  be  no  further  record  of  H.iniian  as  a  city  ; 
but  Iha  Cfiaracter  of  niins  at  Chulgulab  agrees  with  traditions  OQ 


t' 


the  spot  in  indicating  that  tho  city  must  have  been  rebuilt  after  tl< 
time  of  the  Mongols,  and  again  perished.  In  1840,  during  the 
British  occupation  of  Kabul,  Bamian  was  the  scene  of  an  action  in 
which  Colonel  Denny  with  a  small  forco  routed  Dost  Mahommed 
Khan,  accompanied  by  a  number  of  Uzbeg  chiefs.  (Burnes, 
Journey  to  Bokhara;  Masson's  Journeys  and  his  papers  in  tho 
/.  As.  .Toe,  Bengal;  Julieo,  Pitcrins  Bouddhista;  E.  Thomas  in 
J  H.  As.  Soc.,  &c.)  (II   Y.) 

BAMPTON,  Rev.  Jodn,  founderof  the  series  of  divinity 
lectures  at  Oxford  known  as  the  Hampton  Lectures,  appears 
to  have  been  born  in  1CS9  and  to  have  died  in  1751.  Ho 
was  a  member  of  Trinity  College,'Oxford,  and  for  some  timo 
canon  of  Salisbury,  llis  will  directs  that  eight  lecturesl 
shall  bo  delivered  annua'ly  on  as  many  Sunday  mornings' 
in  full  term,  "  between  the  commencement  of  the  last 
month  in  Lent  terin  and  the  end  of  the  third  week  in  Act 
tciin,  upon  either  of  the  following  subjects; — to  confirm  and 
establish  the  Christian  faith,  and  to  confute  all  heretics 
and  schismatics — upon  the  divine  authority  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures — upon  the  authority  of  the  writings  of  the 
primitive  fathers,  as  to  the  faith  and  practice  of  the 
primitive  Church — upon  the  divinity  of  our  Lord  and 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ — upon  the  divinity  of  the  Holy 
Ghost — upon  the  articles  of  the  Christian  faith  as  com- 
prehended in  the  Apostles'  and  Nicene  Creeds."  The 
lecturer,  who  must  be  at  least  a  Master  of  Arts  of  Oxford 
or  Cambridge,  is  chosen  yearly  by  the  heads  of  colleges, 
and  no  one  can  be  chosen  a  second  time.  The  series  of 
lectures  began  in  1780,  and  has  continued  to  the  present 
time  unbroken,  with  the  exception  of  the  years  1834  and 
1835,  when  no  lecturers  were  appointed,  and  1841,  when 
no  lectures  were  delivered.  Several  of  the  lecturers  have 
been  men  of  great  eminence  and  ability  ;  lleber,  for  in- 
stance, was  selected  in  1815,  Whately  in  1822,  Milman  in 
1827,  Home  in  1828,  Hampden  in  1832,  Govilburn  in 
1850,  Mansel  in  1858,  Liddon  in  18GC.  The  institution 
has  done  much  to  preserve,  at  least  in  some  quarters,  a 
high  standard  in  English  theology ;  and  the  lectures  as 
a  whole  form  a  very  valuable  body  of  apologetic  litera- 
ture. 

BANAN.\  (.U«s<i  sapienlum),  a  gigantic  herbaceous 
plant  belonging  to  the  natural  order  JIusact'cr,  originally  a 
native  of  the  tropical  parts  of  the  East,  but  now  cultivated 
in  all  tropical  and  sub-tropical  climates.  It  forms  a  spurious 
kind  of  stem,  rising  15  or  20  feet  by  the  sheathing  base 
of  the  leaves,  the  blades  of  which  sometimes  measure  as 
IS  uchas  10  feet  in  length  by  2  feet  across.  The  stem 
bears  several  clusters  of  fruit,  which  somewhat  resemble 
cucumbers  in  size  and  form  ;  it  dies  down  aftrr  maturing 
the  fruit.  The  weight  of  the  produce  of  a  single  cluster  is 
sometimes  as  much  as  80  lb,  and  it  was  calculated  by 
Humboldt  that  tho  productiveness  of  the  banana  as  tom- 
pared  with  wheat  is  as  1 33  to  1 ,  and  as  against  potatoes 
44  to  1.  Tho  varieties  of  banana  cultivated  in  the  tropics 
are  as  numerous  as  the  varieties  of  apples  in  temperate 
regions,  and  the  best  authorities  now  agree  that  no  speciiic 
difference  exists  between  it  and  the  plantain.  The  fruit  is 
extensively  used  as  food  ;  and  in  many  of  the  Pacific 
islands  it  is  the  staple  on  which  the  natives  depend.  In 
its  immature  condition  it  contains  much  starch,  which  on 
ripening  changes  into  sugar ;  and  as  a  ripe  fruit  it  has  a 
sweet  but  somewhat  flavourless  taste.  From  tho  unripe 
fruit,  dried  in  tho  sun,  a  useful  and  nutritious  flour  is  pre- 
pared. The  following  represents  the  pcrcentago  com- 
position of  the  pulp  of  the  ripe  fruit : — Nitrogenous  matter, 
4820;  sugar,  pectin,  ic,  19G57;  fatty  matter,  0  G32  ; 
cellulose,  0200 ;  saline  matter,  0  791;  water,  73  900. 
An  analysis  of  the  flour  l<y  Dr  Murray  Thomson  yieiflcj 
the  following  results :— Water,  1233;  starch,  71  CO;  gum 
and  sugar,  682;  nitrogenous  matter,  2  01:  cellulose, 
5-99;  oil,  050;  salts,  0-04. 


308 


D  A  N  -  B  A  N 


BANAT,  a  district  ia  tlie  south-east  of  Hungary,  con- 
sisting of  the  three  counties  of  Thorontal,  Temeswar,  and 
ICraaso,  which  has  strangely  acquired  this  title,  though  it  was 
never  governed  by  a  "  ban."  It  is  bounded  by  the  Theiss, 
t.he  Maros,  and  the  Danube,  forming  almost  a  regular  paral- 
lelogram. The  soil  is  in  many  parts  a  remarkably  rich 
alluvial  deposit.  Under  the  Turkish  yoke  it  was  allowed 
to  lie  almost  desolate  ia  marsh  and  heath  and  forest ;  but 
Joseph  II.  determined  to  render  it,  if  possible,  a  populous 
and  prosperous  district.  He  accordingly  offered  land,  at  a 
very  low  rate,  to  all  who  were  willing  to  settle  within  its 
borders.  Germans,  Greeks,  Turks,  Servians,  Italians,  and 
Frenchmen  responded  to  his  call,  and  soon  developed  the 
agricultural  resources  of  the  region.  Canals  were  formed 
at  great  expense  of 'labour;  marshes  and  forests  were 
cleared  ;  and  now  the  Banat  is  one  ofv  the  most  highly 
cultivated  parts  of  the  Austrian  empire.  Wheat,  barley, 
cits,  rye,  rice,  maize,  flax,  hemp,  rape,  sun-flowers, 
ti'bacco,  grapes,  and,  in  short,  nearly  all  the  productions 
of  Europe,  are  successfully  raised.  The  climate  in  summer 
is  very  like  that  of  Italy,  and  in  winter  is  milder  than  in 
other  parts  of  Hungary.  Nor  is  it  any  longer  unhealthy, 
though,  in  1777,  Born  spoke  of  it  with  horror  as  a  realm 
of  death,  and  the  account  given  of  it  in  1802  by  Dr  Samuel 
Clarke  was  not  much  better.  The  scenery  is  extremely 
diversified,  from  the  plains  of  Thorontal  to  the  Enow7 
mountains  of  Krasso.  The  mineral  wealth  is  considerable, 
including  copper,  tin,  lead,  zinc,  iron,  and  especially  coal. 
Among  its  numerous  mineral  springs  the  most  important 
are  those  of  Menadia,  which  were  known  to  the  Romans  as 
7'Aermrc  Herculis.  Not  only  there  but  in  other  parts  of 
the  Banat  numerous  remains  of  the  Roman  occupation  still 
exist.  The  various  origin  of  its  inhabitants  may  still  be 
easily  traced,^the  separate  settlements  having  kept  remark- 
ably distinct,  and  in  many  cases  preserving  their  native 
languages  and  customs.  The  chief  town  is  Temeswar,  and 
other  places  of  importance  are  Lugos,  Kikinda,  Becskerch, 
and  Werschitz.     Population  about  1,500,000. 

See  GrisL'Iini,  Versiich  cincr.Gesch.  lies  Temeswar  Banals,  Vienna, 
1785  ;  Hietzinger,  Vcrsuch  einer  StalisHk  der  MilitdTgrenze  des 
Oestcrreirh.  Kaiscrth.,  Vieiin.T,  1781  ;  Bohm,  Geschichte  des  Teme- 
twar  Banals,  Leipsic,  ISGI  ;  I'apet,  Uunijarij,  1855. 

BANBRIDGK,  a  town  of  Ireland,  county  of  Down,  on 
the  Bann,  23  miles  S.W.  of  Belfast,  standing  on  the  summit 
of  an  eminence.  To  facilitate  access,  a  central  carriage- 
way, 200  yards  long,  has  been  cut  through  the  main  street 
to  a  depth  of  15  feet,  the  opposite  terraces  being  connected 
by  a  bridge.  Banbridge  is  a  neat  town,  with  a  handsome 
church,  several  chapels,  a  market-house  (built  in  1831),  and 
a  court-house.  It  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  linen  trade 
in  the  county,  and  has  extensive  cloth  and  thread  factories, 
bleachCelds,  and  chemical  works.  Population  in  1871, 
5000. 

BANBURY,  a  market-town,  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough,  and  railway  junction,  in  the  county  of  Oxford, 
71  miles  from  London,  and  a  little 
to  the  west  of  the  River  Cherwell  and 
the  Oxford  and  Birmingham  canal. 
It  is  well  built,  and  Las  two  or  three 
foundries,  several  breweries,  and 
Bomo  other  manufactures,  but  is 
chiefly  dependent  on  tl;«  neighbour- 
ing villages  which  send  their  agricul- 
tural produce  to  its  markot  It  was 
formerly  famous  for  its  chtcse,  nnd 
gives  its  name  to  a  kind  of  cake  of  considerable  repute  Its 
ancient  cross,  now  destroyed,  is  celebrated  in  the  well  known 
nur.scry  rhyme.  During  the  17th  century  the  inhabitants 
of  Banbury  seem  to  have  been  zealous  Puritans,  and  arc 
frequently  satirized   by  contemporary  dramatists  (Chnm- 


Banbury  Anna 


bers's  Book  of  Days,  vol.  ii.  p.  31G).  At  a  somewhat 
earlier  period  the  grammar  school,  which  is  now  defunct, 
was  of  such  repute  as  to  be  chosen  as  the  model  for 
the  constitution  of  the  school  of  St  Paul's.  A  school 
of  science  was  erected  in  1861.  Banbury  returns  one 
member  to  parliament,  and  the  borough  (which  is  partly 
in  Northamptonshire)  had,  in  1 872,  a  population  of  1 1,726, 
of  whom  4122  were  in  the  town. 

BANCA,  Bank.\,  or  Banxka,  an  island  off  the  east 
coast  of  Sumatra,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  Strait  of 
Banca,  lies  between  lat.  1"  30'  and  3°  7'  S.,  and  long.  105°  9' 
and  106"  64'  E.  '  It  varies  from  8  to  20  miles  in  bread<h, 
and  has  an  area  of  5000  English  square  miles.  Its 
mines  of  tin,  which  were  discovered  in  1710,  are  remark- 
ably productive,  and  in  1872  yielded  no  less  than  68,148 
piculs,  the  average  yield  during  the  previous  ten  years 
being  73,961  piculs.  The  washing  is  almost  wholly 
carried  on  by  Chinese,  and  a  large  part  of  the  metal  finds 
its  way  to  their  country.  Iron,  copper,  lead,  silver,  and 
arsenic,  are  also  found  in  the  island.  The  soil  is  generally 
dry  and  stony,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  surface  is  covered 
with  forests,  in  which  the  logwood  tree  especially  abounds. 
Its  mountains,  which  scarcely  exceed  2000  feet  in  height, 
are  covered  with  vegetation  to  their  summits.  They  are  of 
granitic  formation,  containing  felspar,  quartz,  mica,  and 
tourmaline.  Poi)ulation,  54,339,  including  17,070  Chinese, 
37,070  natives,  116  Europeans,  and  55  Arabs.  Munt.nk, 
the  capital,  has  upwards  of  3000  inhabitants.  "  The 
houses,  which  mostly  belong  to  Chinamen,  are  neatly 
built  and  well  painted  ;  the  streets  are  kept  in  good  repair, 
and  the  whole  place  has  an  air  of  enterprise  and  thrift  i' 
{vide  Bickinore's  East  Indian  Archip.,  1868).  There  are 
several  other  forts  on  the  island.  It  belongs  to  the  Dutch, 
who  derive  from  it  upwards  of  ,3,000,000  guilders,  or 
£250,000,  of  annual  income,  after  the  expenses  of  the 
administration  are  paid. 

BANCROFT,  Richard,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  the 
reign  of  James  I.,  distinguished  as  an  inflexible  opponent 
of  Puritanism,  was  born  at  Farnworth  in  Lancashire  in 
1544.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge  University,  studying 
first  at  Christ's  College,  and  afterwards  at  Jesus  College. 
He  took  his  degree  of  B.A.  in  1567,  and  that  of  M.A.  in 
1570.  Ordained  about  that  time,  ho  was  named  chajilain 
to  Dr  Cox,  then  bishop  of  Ely,  and  in  1575  was  presented 
to  the  rectory  of  Teversham  in  Cambridgeshire.  The  ne.vt 
ye.ar  he  was  one  of  the  preachers  to  the  university,  and  in 
1584  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  St  Andrew's,  Holboni. 
His  unquestionable  abilities,  and  his  zeal  as  a  champion  of 
the  church  in  those  unsettled  times,  secured  him  rapid  pro- 
motion, and  at  length  the  highest  ecclesiastical  position  in 
tho  land.  Ho  graduated  B.D.  in  15S0,  and  D.D.  five 
years  later.  In  1585  he  was  appointed  treasurer  of  St 
Paul's  Cathedral,  London.  On  February  9,  1589,  he 
preached  at  Paul's  Cross  a  sermon  on  1  John  iv.  1,  the 
substance  of  which  was  a  passionate  attack  on  the  Puritans. 
Ho  described  their  speeches  and  proceedings,  caricatured 
their  motives,  denounced  tho  exercise  of  the  right  of  private 
judgment,  and  sot  forth  the  divine  right  of  bishops  in  such 
strong  language  that  one  of  tho  queen's  councillors  held  it 
to  amount  to  a  threat  against  the  supremacy  of  the  Crown. 
Sixteen  days  after  the  publication  of  this  ecclesiastical 
manifesto,  ISancroft  was  made  a  prebendary  of  St  Paul'.i. 
Within  a  few  years  he  was  advanced  to  the  same  dignity 
in  the  collegiate  church  of  Westminster,  and  in  the  cathedral 
church  of  Canterbury.  Ho  was  chaplain  successively  to 
Lord  Chancellor  Hatton  and  Archbishop  Whitgift.  In 
May  1 597  ho  was  consecrated  bishop  of  London  ;  and  from 
this  time,  in  consequence  of  tho  ago  and  incapacity  ff^r 
business  of  Archbishop  Whitgift,  he  was  virtually  invested 
with  tho  power  of  primate,  and  had  the  solo  niauagement  of 


B  A  N  —  B  A  N 


309 


ecclesiastical  affairs.  Among  the  more  notewortby  cases 
which  fell  under  his  direction  were  the  proceedings  against 
Martin  Jlar-Frelate,  Cartwright  and  his  friends,  and  the 
piotts  Penrj",  whose  "seditious  writings"  he  caused  to  be 
intercepted  and  given  up  to  the  Lord  Keeper.  In  IGOO  he 
was  sent  on  an  embassy,  with  others,  to  Embden,  for  the 
purpose  of  settling  certain  matters  in  di.spute  between  the 
English  and  the  D.ines.  This  mission,  howeyer,  failed. 
Bishop  Bancroft  was  present  at  the  death  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  famous  con- 
ference of  the  prelates  and  tlie  Presbyterian  divines  held  at 
Hampton  Court  in  1 604.  By  the  king's  desire  he  undertook 
the  vindication  of  the  practices  of  confirmation,  absolution, 
private  baptism,  and  lay  excommunication ;  he  urged,  but 
in  vain,  the  re  inforcement  of  an  ancient  canon,  "  that 
schismatics  are  not  to  be  heard  against  bishops  ; "  and  in 
opposition  to  the  Puritans'  demand  of  certain  alterations  in 
doctrine  and  discipline,  he  besought  the  king  that  care 
might  be  taken  for  a  pra'jiny  ckrgy  ;  and  that,  till  men  of 
learning  and  sulSciency  could  be  found,  godly  homilies 
might  be  re.id  and  their  number  increa-sed.  In  the  capacity 
of  a  commissioner  for  ecclesiastical  causes  (1603),  he 
odvocated  severe  measures  for  the  suppression  of  "  heresy 
and  schism,"  treating  books  against  Episcopacy  as  acts  of 
sedition,  and  persecuting  their  authors  as  enemies  of  the 
state.  In  March  1604,  Bancroft,  in  consequence  of  the 
death  of  the  primate,  was  appointed  by  royal  writ  president 
of  Convocation  then  assembled ;  and  he  there  presented 
for  adoption  a  book  of  canons  collected  by  himself.  In  the 
following  November  he  was  elected  successor  to  Whitgift 
in  the  see  of  'Canterbury.  He  had  now  but  six  years  of 
life  before  him.  He  continued  to  show  the  same  zeal  and 
severity  as  before,  and  with  so  much  success  that  Lord 
Clarendon,  writing  in  his  praise,  expressed  the  opinion  that 
"  if  Bancroft  had  lived,  ho  would  quickly  have  extinguished 
all  that  fire  in  England  which  had  been  kindled  at  Geneva." 
In  1605  he  was  sworn  a  member  of  the  Privy  Council. 
The  same  year  ho  engaged  in  a  contest  with  the  judges,  and 
exhibited  articles  of  complaint  against  them  before  the 
hirds  of  the  council ;  but  these  complaints  were  overruled.' 
He  enforced  discipline  and  exact  conformity  within  the 
church  with  an  iron  hand  ;  and  forty-nine  ministers  of  the 
church  were  deprived  of  thfiir  livings  for  disobedience  to 
his  injunctions.  In  160S  ho  was  chosen  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Oxford.  One  of  his  latest  public  acts  was  a 
proposal  laid  before  the  parliament  for  improving  the 
revenues  of  the  church.  In  the  la.s.t  few  months  of  his  life 
be  took  part  in  the  discussion  about  the  consecration  of 
certain  Scottish  bishops,  and  it  was  in  pursuance  of  his 
advice  that  they  were  consecrated  by  several  bishops  of  the 
English  Church.  By  this  act  were  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church.  Archbishop  Bancroft  was 
"the  chief  overseer"  of  the  authorised  version  of  the 
Bible,  published  within  a  year  of  his  death.  Ho  died  at 
Lambeth  Palace,  November  2,  1610.  His  literary  remaios 
are  very  few  and  unimportant. 

BANDA,  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the  AiJ.'ih.^b.'ld 
division,  under  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  North- 
western Provinces,  lies  between  24°  59'  15"  and  25°  55' 
30^  N.  lat,  and  80"  2'  45"  and  81°  3S'  E.  long.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  district  of  Fathipur,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  River  JamnA ;  on  the  N.E.  by  the 
districts  of  Fathipur  and  AlKlhiibdd  ;  on  the  S.E.  by  the 
native  stoto  of  RiwA  ;  on. the  S,  and  S.W.  by  some  of  tlie 
petty  states  of  Bundelkhand  ;  and  on  the  VV.  and  N.W.  by 
the  disti-ict  of  Hamfrpur.  -  Area,  3030  square  miles,  of 
which  1390  are  under  cultivation,  848  cultivable  but  not 
cultivated,  108  revenue  free,  and  684  uncultivable  waste. 
The  census  of  1872  took  the  urea  at  2908'68  square  miles, 
nod  reti'med  the  district  population  at  697,610  souls, — 


viz.,  Hindus,  657,107;  Mahometans,  40,407;  Christians, 
6.  Average  density,  230  persons  to  the  square  mile.  Of  the 
population  in  1872,  2897  were  landed  proprietors,  42,230 
agriculturists,  and  63,644  non-agriculturists.  In  some  parts 
the  district  rises  into  irregular  uplands  and  elevated  plains, 
interspersed  with  detached  rocks  of  granite  ;  in  others  it 
sinks  into  marshy  lowlands,  which  frequently  remain  under 
water  during  the  rainy  season.  The  sloping  country  on 
the  bank  of  the  Jamni  is  full  of  ravines.  To  the  S.E.  the 
Vindhya  chain  of  hills  takes  its  origin  in  a  low  range  not 
exceeding  500  feet  in  height,  and  forming  a  natural 
boundary  of  the  district  in  that  direction.  The  principal 
river  of  the  district  is  the  Jamni,  which  flows  from  north- 
west to  south-east,  along  the  N.  E.  bound'ary  of  the  district 
for  125  miles.  Its  most  important  tributaries  within  tho 
district  are  the  Ken,  Bagain,  Paisunf,  and  Oh.-ln,  all  of 
which  take  their  rise  in  the  Vindhya  hills.  The  principal 
towns  and  market  villages  in  the  district  are  Man,  Mdjhgion 
orRijApur,  Markd,  SamgarA,  Augisi,  Chilli,  and  BarAgAon, 
all  situated  on  the  bank  of  the  JamnA. 

The  black  soil  of  the  district  yields  abundant  crops  of  wheat,  bar- 
ley, maize,  millet  of  various  sorts,  rice,  and  pulsee.  Hemp,  oil-seeds, 
sugar,  and  ind.go  are  also  grown,  but  by  far  tho  most  imiK)itant 
crop  is  cotton,  for  which  the  district  is  so  celebrated  that  tne  pro- 
duce is  distinguished  in  commerce  as  "  Danda  Cotton."  The  esti- 
mated acreage  under  the  principal  crops — Gram  {Ciccr  arietinitm\ 
]3J,662  acres;  wheat,  VH,2V  ;  maize,  126, 198;  c'otton,  69,66": 
barley,  60,976  ;  rice,  20,987  ;  total,  550,737  acres,  or  660-52  squat* 
miles.  The  total  cultivated  area  of  the  district  is  netumed  at  1S90 
square  milea.  The  manufactures  of  Band,i  consist  of  ooarse  cotton- 
ctolh,  sackcloth,  and  stone  handles  for  knives.  Iron  and  buildinj^ 
stene  form  the  only  mineral  products.  The  revenue  of  the  district 
amounted  in  1870-71  to  £167, iS3,  the  expenditure  beinf;  £63,425  ; 
Since  the  acquisition  of  the  country  by  the  British,  eight  settle- 
ments of  the  land  revenue  have  been  made  at  different  periods. 
Tha  last  (1834-35)  of  these  adjusted  the  demand  at  £134,904,: 
and  the  total  collections  amounted  in  1870-71  to  £131,275.  In 
1871  the  regular  police  force  of  620  men  was  maintained  at  a 
cost  of  £8920,  while  a  rural  constabulary  of  2552  men  was  main- 
tained at  the  cost  of  the  landholders  and  villagers.  In  1871-72 
there  were  21 4  schools  in  the  district,  with  an  average  daily  attend- 
ance of  4695  pupils;  expenditure,  £2194,  of  which  Governmtnt 
paid  £754.  Bandd  district  has  only  two  towns  containing  upwards 
of  5000  inhabitants,  viz.,  Bandd  (27,746)  and  Girwan  (6670). 
Banda,  the  headquarters  of  the  district,  lies  en  the  right  bank  of 
the  River  Ken,  in  lat.  25°  2S',  long.  SI"  23'.  Thirty-six  miles  of  the 
Jalalpur  branch  of  the  East  Indian  Railway  lie  within  the  district, 
and  eleven  first-class  roads  afford  good  means  of  communication  — 
the  most  important  road,  both  commercially  and  for  military  pur- 
poses, being  that  from  Alanikpur  to  ChilKi,  The  chmate  of  Bandit 
is  cold  in  the  winter  months,  and  terribly  hot  in  summer.  Frost 
is  rare,  except  in  tho  moist  land  adjoining  the  rivers;  the  hot  winds 
frequently  cause  deaths  among  the  natives  from  exposure  to  the 
midday  heat.     R-ainfall  in  1S70-71,  51'3  inches  .    i 

Banda  has  fonned  an  arena  of  contention  for  the  successive  races 
who  have  struggled  for  the  sovereignty  of  India.  Kalinjar  tftwn, 
then  the  capital,  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  Malimud  of 
Ghazni  in  1023  ad.;  in  1196  it  was  taken  by  Kutab-ud-din,  the 
general  of  JIuhammad  Ghori  ;  in  1545  by  Sher  Shah,  who,  how- 
ever, fell  mortally  woundeil  in  the  assault.  About  the  year  1735 
the  RAja  of  Kaliujar's  territory,  including  the  present  district  of 
Banda,  was  bequeathed  to  Baji  Ji.io,  the  tiarbattd  Peshwa;  and  from 
tho  Jlarhattds  it  passed  by  the  treaties  of  1802-3  to  Oic  Company.  .' 

BANDA  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  the  ^ast  Indian' 
Archipelago,  lying^  to  the  S.  of  Cgram,  in  lat.  4°  30'  S  and 
long.  129°  50'  E.  They  arc  ten  or  twelve  in  number,  and 
have  an  area  of  about  715/)  square  miles.  Their  volcanic 
origin  is  distinctly  marked  Banda  Lantoir,  which  derives 
its  name  from  the  lunlar  or  Palmyra  palm,  is  the  largest  of 
the  group.  From  tJie  sea  this  island  appears  lofty,— 
its  sides  being  steep,  and  crowned  by  a  sort  of  table-land 
which  extends  nearly  from  one  end  to  the  other.  The 
whole  is  one  continuous  forest  of  nutmeg  and  Can/irt  trees, 
the  latter  being  planted  to  screen  the  former  from  the  w  ind. 
The  unhealthiness  of  Lantoir  has  prevented  it  from  bcconung 
the  seat  of  government,  for  which  in  other  rcspccte  it  would 
naturally  be  <hoscn.  ,The  village  of  Selam  contains  the 
ruins  of  the  chief  Portuguese  settlement.     A  considerable 


310 


B  A  N  — B  A  N 


fort,  called  Hollandia,  commands  the  harbour.  Baoda 
Neira  lies  S.  of  Lantoir  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Dutch 
resident,  whose  jurisdiction  esteuds  not  only  over  the 
Banda  Islands,  but  also  over  a  part  of  Ceram  and  several 
other  small  groups.-  Fort  Nassau,  which  was  built  in  1  GOO, 
is  the  chief  defence  of  the  islands  ;  and  to  the  right  and 
left  of  it  extends  the  village  of  Neirx  Ounong  Api  is  to 
the  north  of  Neira,  and  derives  its  name — Fire  Mountain — 
from  its  large  cone-shaped  volcano,  which  rises  2320  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  constantly  emitting  smoke. 
The  peak  was  ascended  by  Professor  Reinwardt  in  1821, 
by  M.  S.  Mailer  in  1828,  and  in  1865  by  Mr  Bickmore, 
who  has  given  an  interesting  account  of  the  adventure. 
Eruptions  took  place  in  1586,  1598,  1609,  1615,  1632, 
1690,  1696,  1712,  1765,  1775,  1778,  1820,  1824;  and 
earthquakes  without  eruptions  occurred  in  1629,  1683, 
1710,  1767,  1816,  and  1852  On  the  last  occasion  the  sea 
swept  up  in  an  enormous  wave  over  Fort  Nassau.  Pulo 
Way — The  Water  Island — lies  north  of  Neira.  It  is  about 
400  or  500  feet  high,  consists  of  coral  rock,  and  is  esteemed 
the  healthiest  of  the  group.  Pulo  Bond  or  Roon — the 
Chamber  Island — is  about  four  miles  further  N.,  and  was 
at  one  time  the  seat  of  an  English  "factory."  Rosyngain, 
about  seven  miles  S.E.  of  Lantoir,  is  likely  to  become  of 
some  importance  for  its  gold-mines.  It  was  formerly  a 
convict  station  for  Amboyna.  Pulo  Pisang — Banana 
Island — two  miles  N.E.  of  Neira,  produces  fine  fruits. 
The  other  islands  Craka,  Capella,  Sonangy,  &c.,  are 
uninhabited.  In  the  space  between  Banda  Lantoir  and 
the  islands  of  Banda  Neira  and  Gunong  Api  there  is  a  very 
good  harbour,  formed  with  entrances  both  from  the  E.  and 
W.,  which  enable  vessels  to  enter  it  from  either  of  the 
monsoons.  These  channels  are  weU  defended  with  several 
batteries,  particularly  the  western  one,  which  i.'<  very  narrow. 
Between  Ounong  Api  and  Banda  Neira  there  is  a  third 
channel  into  this  harbour  from  the  N.,  but  it  is  navigable 
for  small  vessels  oily.  The  principal  articles  of  commerce 
in  the  Banda  group  are  nutmegs  and  mace.  The  native 
population  having  been  cleared  o£f  by  the  Dutch,  the 
plantations  were  worked  by  slaves  and  convict.^  till  the 
emancipation  of  1860.  The  introduction  of  Malay  and 
Chinese  labourers  has  since  taken  phice.  The  plantations 
or  perken  can  neither  be  sold  nor  divided  About  700,000 
lb  or  upwards  of  nutmegs  are  obtained  in  a  year,  with  a 
proportionate  quantity  of  mace.  The  imports  are  pro- 
visions, cloth,  and  iron-ware  from  Batavi.i,  and  various 
native  productions  from  the  Aru  Islands,  Ceram,  Mc. 

The  Banda  Islands  were  discovered  and  annexed  by  the 
Portuguese  AbfKus  about  1511;  but  in  the  beginning  of 
the  17th  century  his  countrymen  were  exi>ell«d  by  the 
Dutch.  In  160.S  the  English  built  a  factory  on  Pulo  Way, 
which  was  demolished  by  the  Dutch  as  soon  as  the  English 
vessel  left.  Shortly  after,  however,  Banda  Neira  and 
Lantoir  were  resigned  by  the  natives  to  the  English, 
and  in  1020  Pulo  Boon  and  Pulo  Way  were  added  to 
their  dominions  ,  but,  in  spite  of  treaties  into  which  they 
had  entered,  the  Dutch  attacked  and  expelled  their  British 
rivals.  In  1654  they  were  compelled  by  Cromwell  to 
restore  Pulo  Roon,  and  to  make  satisfaction  for  the  mas. 
eacre  of  Amboyna ,  but  the  English  settlers  not  being 
adeqiiatcly  supported  from  home,  the  island  was  retaken 
by  the  Dutch  in  1CR4.  They  retained  undisturbed  posses- 
sion of  their  conquests  in  this  quarter  of  the  globe  until 
the  year  1796,  when  the  Banda  Islands,  along  with  all  the 
other  Dutch  colonics,  were  conquered  by  the  British. 
They  were  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Amiens  in  the  year 
1800,  again  captured,  and  finally  restored  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris  concluded  in  1814.  In  the  Presidency  of  Banda 
there  are  111,194  inhabiUuts  of  whom  6000  belong  to 
Kcira. 


See  Wallace's  ^fa!ay  Archipelago;  BIckmore's  Indian  Archi- 
pelago; Linden's  Baiula  m  Zipxe  bewoTiers,  1S73  ;  Tratis.  of  Ihiah 
Geog.  Soc,  1574. 

BANDELLO,  Matteo,  an  Italian  novelist,  was 
born  at  Castelnuovo,  near  Tortona,  about  the  year  1480. 
He  received  a  very  careful  education,  and  entered  the 
church,  though  he  does  not  seem  to  have  prosecuted  his 
theological  course  with  great  zeal.  For  many  years  he 
resided  at  Mantua,  and  superintended  the  educatiou  of  the 
celebrated  Lucrezia  Gonzni;a,  in  whose  honour  he  ••c^roposed 
a  long  poem.  The  decisive  battle  of  Pavia,  which  gave 
Lombardy  into  the  hands  of  the  emperor,  compelled 
Bandello  to  fly,  his  house  at  Muan  was  burnt  and  his 
property  confiscated.  He  took  refuge  with  Cesar  Fregoso, 
an  Italian  general  in  the  French  service,  whom  he  accom- 
panied into  France.  In  15.n0  he  was  raised  to  the 
bishopric  of  Agen,  a  town  in  which  he  resided  for  many 
years  before  his  death  in  1562.  Bandello  wrote  a  number 
of  poems,  but  his  fame  rests  entirely  upon  his  extensive 
collection  of  NovelU,  or  tales,  which  have  been  extremely 
popular.  They  belong  to  that  species  of  Uterature  of 
which  Boccaccio's  Dccamemn  .ind  the  i^ueen  of  Navarre's 
Heptarmron  are,  perhaps,  the  best  known  examples.  The 
commun  origin  of  them  all  is  to  be  found  in  the  old 
Fahliaux  of  the  French  Trouveurs,  though  some  well 
known  tales  are  evidently  Eastern,  and  others  classicaL 
BandeUo's  novels  are  esteemed  the  best  of  those  written 
in  imitation  of  the  D'l-amernn,  though  Italian  critics 
find  fault  with  them  for  negligence  and  inelegance  of  style. 
They  have  little  value  in  a  purely  literary  point  of  view, 
and  many  of  them  are  dishgured  by  the  grossest  obscenity. 
Hi.storically,  however,  they  are  of  no  little  interest,  not 
only  from  the  insight  into  the  social  life  of  the  period  which 
they  aflTord,  but  from  the  important  infiuence  they  exercised 
on  the  EUzabethan  drama.  The  stories,  on  wliich  Shake- 
speare based  several  of  his  plays,  were  supplied  by  Bandello, 
probably  through  Belleforest  or  Paynter  (see  Simrock, 
Qufllen  des  Shakespeare).  The  same  is  true  of  Massinger, 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  and  others.  The  most  convenient 
edition  of  Biindello  is  that  in  9  vols,,  1813. 

BANDTNELLI,  Bajjtolommeo  or  BACcro,  a  Floren- 
tine sculptor,  was  boin  in  1487,  and  died  1559  His 
father  was  an  eminent  goldsmith,  distinguished  for  his 
exquisite  designs  in  chasing  gold  and  silver  ornaments; 
and  in  this  duniestic  school  Bandinelli  obtained  the  first 
elemeuts  of  drawing.  Showing  a  strong  mclination  fi>r  the 
fine  arts,  ho  was  early  placed  under  Rustici.ii  sculptor,  and 
a  friend  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  with  whom  he  made  rapid  pro- 
gress The  ruling  motive  in  his  life  seems  to  have  been 
jealousy  of  Michel  Angelo,  one  of  whose  cartoons  he  is  said 
to  have  torn  up  and  destiiiyed.  Vasari,  who  gives  a  very 
full  history  of  his  life,  manifesto  the  greatest  dislike  for 
his  moral  character,  but  at  the  same  time  gives  lum  the 
highest  praise  as  an  artist  tie  is  regarded  by  some  as 
inferior  in  sculpture  only  to  his  great  rival.  Michel  Angelo  , 
at  all  events,  his  productions  entitle  him  to  a  very  high 
place  among  Italian  sculptors.  His  be.it  works  are  the 
marble  culoss;il  groiio  of  Hercules  and  Cocu,^  in  the 
Piazza  del  Gran  Diico  ,  his  group  of  Adam  nud  Eve  ;  his 
exquisite  bnsm-rili^nn  \i\  the  choir  of  tbc  .athedral  of 
Florence;  his  copy  of  the  Laocoon ;  and  the  figures  of 
Christ  and  Nicodemus  on  his  own  tomb.  (See  Vasari, 
Lives,  iii.  232-296.) 

B.-VNDINI,  ANGbXo  Maria,  an  Italian  author,  was  born 
at  Florenco  on  the  25th  Sept  1726.  Having  been  left  an 
orphan  in  his  infancy,  he  was  supported  by  his  uncle, 
Joseph  Bandini.  a  lawyer  of  some  note.  lie  received  his 
education  among  the  Jesuits,  and  showed  a  special  inchno- 
tion  for  the  study  of  antiquities.  His  first  work  was  a 
dissertation,  De  Veterum  Saltationibui,  published  in  1749,. 


B  A  N  —  B  A  N 


311 


In  1747  bo  undertook  a  journey  to  Vienna,  in  company 
with  tLe  bishop  of  VoUerra,  to  whom  be  acted  in  the 
capacity  of  secretary.  He  was  introduced  to  the  emperor, 
and  toolt  the  opportunity  of  dedicating  to  that  monarch 
his  Specitnen  LitUraturce  Florenttnce,  which  was  llitn 
printing  at  Florence.  On  bis  return  he  took  orders,  and 
settled  at  Rome,  passing  the  whole  of  his  time  in  the  library 
of  the  Vatican,  and  in  those  of  the  Cardinals  Paasionei 
and  CorsinL  The  famous  obelisk  of  Augustus,  at  that 
t.nie  disinterred  from  the  ruins  of  the  Campus  Martius, 
Whs  described  by  Banditii  in  a  learned  folio  volume  De 
Obflixco  A  uguMi.  Shortly  after  lie  was  compelled  to  leave 
Rorau  on  account  of  bis  health  and  returned  to  Florence, 
where  hfc  wa3  appointed  librarian  tc  the  valuable  library 
bequeathed  tc  the  public  by  the  Abbi*  MarucellL  In  175G 
hf  was  preferred  by  th.-  empun^r  to  a  prebend  at  Florence, 
and  appointed  principal  librarian  to  th'-.  Laurentian  library. 
During  forty-four  years  ho  continued  to  discharge  the 
duties  of  this  situation,  and  died  in  1800,  generally 
esteemed  and  regretted.  On  his  di-alhbed  he  founded  a 
publii"  school,  and  bt;queathed  the  remainder  of  his  fortune 
to  other  charitable  purpo.ses.  The  most  important  of  his 
numerous  works  are  the  Catalngus  C'xJJ.  JfSS.  Grcec, 
Lac  Ital.,  Bib..  Lavr-ml.,  8  vols.,  1707-1778,  and  the 
Vita  e  Letter'  d'Amerujn  Vespucci,  1745 

BANDON,  or  Bandonphioge,  an  inland  town  and 
parliamentary  borough  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of  Cork, 
and  twenty  miles  by  rail  from  the  county  town,  is  situated 
on  both  sides  of  the  River  Bandon,  which  is  here  cros.sed 
by  a  bridge  uf  six  arches  It»has  two  churches,  a  hand- 
some Roman  Catholic  chapel,  Protestant  and  Methodist 
places  of  worship,  a  convent,  two  market-ho'uses,  a  spacious 
quay  on  the  south  sidt-  of  the  river,  an  inllrniary,  a  hospital, 
a  dispensary,  several  public  libraries  and  reading-rooms,  an 
endowed  school,  a  court-house,  a  bridewell,  and  barracks. 
Its  manufactures  of  woollen  and  cotton  goods  have  much 
declined  ;  but  there  are  distilleries,  breweries,  tanneries, 
and  flour-mills.     Population  in  ISTl,  HI.'?]. 

BANFF,  the  county  town  of  BanfTshire,  is  a  place  of 
great  antiquity;  aci'i'rding  to  tradition,  it  was  at  times 
the  residence  of  Mal.:olm  Canmnrr!  It  was  visited  by 
Ehivii  L  and  his  6<m  Henry  ,  and  there  b  a  charter  of 
Malcolm  IV.,  signed  at  Banff  the  eleventh  year  of  bis 
reign,  which  corre-xponds  with  1IG3  The  church  was 
given  to  the  monastery  of  Arbroath  by  William  the  Lion, 
and  8  convent  of  Carmelite  or  White  Friars  is  men- 
tioned in  ii  chart^jr  by  Robert  I.,  1,324.  The  town  is  said 
t"  have  lo.-it  many  of  its  ancient  grants,  but  these,  it  is 
added.  w»ro  renewed  in  132+  by  King  Robert  the  Bruce, 
und  in  1.172  by  Robert  II.  The  natural  situation  of  the 
town  13  beautiful,  having  its  south-ea.stern  exposure  on  a 
gentle  alopB.  the  wide  blue  sea  on  it.s  N.,  the  River  Deveron 
•  ■n  the  E.,  and  on  the  S.  the  richly-wooded  country  with 
the  magnificent  mansion  and  grnunds  of  the  earl  of  Fife. 
The  streets  a''e  well  and  regiilnrly  built  and  paved,  and  are 
remarkable  for  their  cloanlim'ss.  The  principal  buildings 
ore  Banff  CiisUe,  a  plain  modem  building,  belonging  to  the 
earl  >if  Seifield,  erectpd  upon  the  site  of  an  old  castle,  in 
which  Archbishop  Sharp  was  born ;  the  county  coart 
buildings;  the  town-house,  surmounted  by  a  spire  100 
(uct  high;  a  prison;  parish  church,  Episcopal  church  and 
parsonage.  Free  church,  United  Presbyterian,  Independent, 
Methodist,  and  Roman  Catholic  places  of  worship ;  Chal- 
mers' Hospital;  a  mason  lodge,  of  ta.'steful  architecture;  the 
Qoademy,  a  modern  cdiQce  of  Grecian  design,  capable  of 
containing  GOO  scholars,  to  which  there  is  attached  an 
extensive  museum.  There  are  large  and  well-conducted 
seminaries  for  young  ladies,  also  several  libraries,  a 
club-room,  branch  banks  and  a  savings  bank,  public 
baths    hotels,  custom-house,  gas   and  water    works,   ic. 


The  Banffshire  Journal,  a  weekly  newspaper,  with  an  ex- 
tensive circulation,  is  published  on  Tuesdays.  Al  oue  period 
Banff  carried  on  a  considerable  manufactory  of  stockings 
and  linen  yarn.  A  branch  of  the  Great  North  of  Scotland 
Railway,  which  leaves  Inveramsay  Junction  and  terminates 
at  MacdulT,  is  the  direct  communication  from  Aberdeen, 
and  has  a  station  at  Bridge  of  Banff.  Another  line  of 
railway,  which  has  its  terminus  at  the  harbour  of  Banff, 
runs  in  connection  with  Portsoy,  and  joins  the  Great  North 
of  Scotland  Railway  at  Grange,  near  Keith.  The  principal 
exports  are  grain,  cattle,  salmon,  herrings,  haddocks,  pork, 
butter,  and  potatoes.  The  river  fishing  is  the  property  of 
the  earl  of  Fife,  with  a  sea-line  extending  a  considerable 
distance  on  each  side  of  the  river  mouth.  The  burgh  is 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  provost,  three  bailies,  and  five 
councillors,  who  manage  all  the  town's  affairs.  Mr  Alexander 
Cassie  of  Loudon,  a  native  of  Baiilf,  some  thirty  years  ago, 
left  to  the  poor  of  the  town  about  X20,000,  the  interest 
of  which  is  divided  twice  a  year  among  the  poor.  A  few 
years  ago,  Mr  Alexander  Chalmers  of  Clunie,  a  general 
merchant  and  shipowner  in  Banff,  left  about  £70,000  to 
build  and  endow  a  hospital  for  sick  and  destitute.  The 
building,  which  is  near  the  harbour,  has  somewhat  the 
appearance  of  Donaldson's  Hospital  at  Edinburgh. 

The  town  of  Macduff,  which  is  fast  rising  into  import- 
ance, has  a  good  harbour,  branch  banks,  itc.  It  is  about  a 
mile  to  the  E.  of  Banff,  with  which  it  has  communication  by 
a  stone  bridge  of  seven  arches  across  the  Deveron.  Its  trade 
in  shipping,  <fec.,  is  more  extensive  than  that  of  Banff,  to 
which  burgh  it  vpas  united  by  the  Reform  Act.  It  was  an 
old  burgh  of  barony,  called  Doune,  but  soon  after  it  was 
acquired  by  the  Dulf  family  its  name  was  changed  to  Mac- 
duff. A  harbour  was  then  erected,  and  in  1 783  it  was  made 
a  burgh  by  George  III.  MacduT  is  locally  situated  within 
the  parish  of  Gararie,  and  has  an  independent  municipal 
government.  Banff  and  Macduff  unite  with  Elgin,  CuHen, 
Inverurie,  Kintore,  and  Peterhead,  in  sending  a  member  '.o 
parliament.  Population  within  the  parliamentary  bound 
arics  in  1871, about  4000;  municipality,  3557.  The  weekly 
market-day  of  Banff  is  Friday,  on  which  day  a  corn  market 
is  held  ;  and  there  are  two  annual  fairs. 

BANFFSHIRE,  a  maritime  county  in  the  N.E.  of  Scot- 
land, lying  between  lat  57°  6'  and  57°  42'  N.,  and  long. 
2'  15' and  3°  40'  N.,  and  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Moray 
Firth,  E.  and  S.  by  Aberdeenshire,  and  W.  by  Morayshire 
and  part  of  Inverness-shire.  It  has  an  area  of  G86  square 
miles,  or  439,219  statute  acres,  its  extent  from  N.  to  S. 
being  50  miles,  and  from  E.  to  W.  32  miles, — its  average 
breadth  not  exceeding  14  miles.  It  contains  21  parishes, 
and  parts  of  10  others.  Its  royal  and  parliamentary 
burgbs  arc  Banff,  Macduff,  and  Cullen ;  and  its  principal 
harbours  are  at  Banff,  Macduff,  Cullen,  Portsoy,  Buckie, 
and  Portgordon.  The  parliamentary  burghs  are  contri- 
butory to  Elgin,  and  the  county  returns  a  member  to  par- 
liament The  parliamentary  constituency  in  1874-5  was 
1737.  Many  of  the  schoolmasters,  with  those  of  the  coun- 
ties of  Aberdeen  and  Moray,  share  in  Dick's  bequest. 

The  surface  of  Banffshire  presents  a  very  diversified  aspect. 
The  lower  district  is  mostly  a  fine  open  country  of  a  rich, 
deep,  and  highly-cultivated  soil,  agreeably  diversified  with 
gentle  risings  and  young  plantations.  The  upper  district 
is  mountainous  and,  at  a  distance,  wears  a  bkak,  forbidding 
appearance.  But  the  scone  changes  on  a  nearer  approach. 
Extensive  farms  are  found  embosomed  in  its  fertile  and 
well<ultivated  glens.  Some  of  the  mountains  are  covered 
with  tree?  in  full  luxuriance  of  growth  ;  some  presenting  \ 
beautiful  intermixture  of  rock  and  copse,  while  others  are 
covered  with  brown  heath.  The  Spey  fiows  along  its 
western,  and  the  Deveron  along  its  eastern  boundary  ;  and 
both  yield  a  considerable  rvveiiuo  from  their  salmon  Csh- 


312 


BA.NFFSHIRE 


ing3.  The  principal  mountains  'of  Bahffsliire  proper  are 
Benrinnes  and  the  Knockhill;  but  Cairngorm,Ben  Macdhui, 
and  Ben  Aren,  the  highest  summits  in  Britain,  lie  on  or 
close  to  the  boundary.  The  principal  noblemen's  and  gentle- 
men's seats  are  Duff  House,  CuUen  House,  Park  House, 
Troup  House,  Forglen  House,  Drummuir,  Kininvie,  Bal- 
venie,  Aberlour,  and  Uothiemay.  Several  of  these  are 
elegant  mansions,  and  most  of  them  are  surrounded  by 
extensive  and  tastefully  laid-out  plantations.  The  natival 
woods  are  inconsiderable  bot'k  in  extent  and  value. 

The  geology  of  Banffshire  is  very  closely  connected  with 
that  of  the  neighbouring  counties  of  Aberdeen  and  Moray, 
from  which  it  is  divided  by  no  natural  boundaries.  Gneiss, 
and  to  a  greater  extent  mica  slate,  form  the  lowest  stratified 
rocks  running  nearly  south-west  from  the  coast  between 
Cullen  and  Portsoy  to  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Fiddach, 
Deveron,  and  Aven  rivers.  Generally  they  are  fine  grained 
slaty  rocks,  and  form  low  rounded  mountains,  of  no  great 
beauty,  but  decomposing  into  soils  of  considerable  fertility. 
In-  many  places  the  mica  slate  alternates  or  passes  into 
quartzite,  which  differs  from  it  chiefly  in  the  almost  entire 
absence  of  mica.  Quartzite  in  a  more  independent  form 
is  seen  on  the  coast  between  Cullen  and  Buckie,  and  forms 
also  the  Durn  Hill  near  Portsoy,  the  Binn  of  Cullen,  the 
Knockhill,  and  much  of  the  high  ground  to  the  south. 
Where  it  prevails  the  soil  is  far  from  fertile,  and  the  white, 
weather-beaten  mountains  have  a  very  sterile  aspect. 
Connected  with  this  series  also  beds  of  limestone  are  very 
oommon,  and  have  been  quarried  iu  many  places,  as  near 
Boyne  Castle,  Sandend,  and  Fordyce  in  the  north,  and  in 
the  interior  near  Keith,  Mortlach,  and  Tomintoul. 

Clayslate  occurs  in  considerable  abundance  in  Ranffshire, 
in  some  places  perhaps  merely  a  finer  variety  of  micaslate, 
in  others  coarser  in  texture,  or  so-called  grey  wacke.  Large 
masses  are  seen  near  Boharm,  and  from  Dufftown  south  to 
Kirkmichael.  It  also  forms  the  north  coast  from  Knock 
Head  by  Banff,  Macduff,  and  GaraTie,  to  the  Troup  Head, 
often  rising  into  bold,  lofty  cliffs,  and  extends  south  to 
Gartly.  In  several  plac:s  it  is  wrought  for  roofing  slates 
both  in  this  sounty  and  in  Aberdeenshire.  ThoAigh  no 
fnssils  have  yet  been  found  in  these  strata,  there  is  little 
doubt  that  they  are  more  or  less  metamorphosed  represen- 
tatives of  the  lower  portions  of  the  Palaeozoic  (Silurian 
and  Cambrian)  formations, 

Resting  on  these  rocks  Devonian  or  Old  Red  gandstone 
and  conglomerate  beds  are  seen  in  a  few  places.  Thus  the' 
Morayshire  beds  cross  the  Sp8y  near  Fochabers,  running 
along  the  coast  to  Buckie,  and  in  the  Tynet  Burn  have 
yielded  many  characteristic  fossil  fishes.  Gamrie,  at  the 
north-east  extremity  of  the  county,  is  also  well  known  for 
similar  remains  occurring  in  calcareous  nodules  embedded 
in  a  bluish  grey  marly  rock,  from  which  they  are  washed 
out  by  a  small  stream  on  its  way  to  the  sea.  The  more" 
important  species  are  CheiracanthusMurchisoni,Cheirolfpis 
Uragus,  Coccosteiu  aispidatus,Diplopteru3  affini),  Glyptolepm 
efcgans,  Ostcotepis armatus,  and  I'ierichthys  Milleri.  In  the 
interior,  near  Tomintoul,  another  large  deposit  of  red 
sandstone  occurs,  probably  of  the  same  age,  but  as  yet  no 
organic  remains  have  been  found  in  this  locality.  Indica- 
tions of  still  more  recent  formations  are  seen  in  the  clialk 
flints  common  in  the  vicinity  of  Portsoy,  and  in  the  Oolite 
fossils  found  in  the  brick  clays  at  Black  pota.  The  raised 
beach  with  recent  shells,  more  than  L'OO  feet  above  the  sea- 
luvcl,  near  the  old  church  of  Gamrie,  is  also  interesting. 
yfsin  other  parts  of  Scotland,  the  .-iurfacc  of  the  country  is 
covered  with  masses  of  boulder  clay  and  stratified  drift 
beds,  the  materials  often  derived  from  a  considerable  di.<i- 
tance  and  some  of  the  granite  boulders  several  tons  in 
weight. 

The  moet  important  igneous  rock  is  granite.     Thiarock, 


a  portion  of  the  great  central maia  of  ths  Grampians,  forms 
the  mountains  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  country  round 
the  sources  of  the  Aven.  Benrinnes  also  consists  of  it, 
and  smaller  masses  are  seen  in  Glenlivet  and  other  locali- 
ties* The  well-known  "graphic  granite"  forms  a  veifi  on 
the  coast  near  Portsoy,  and  gets  its  name  from  the  quaxt« 
and  felspar  crystals  appearing  on  the  polished  surface  like 
rude  letters.  Syenite,  a  compound  of  hornblende  and 
felspar,  covers  a  large  district  running  south  from  near 
Portsoy  to  Rothiemay  and  Huntly  in  Aberdeenshire.  The 
serpentine  of  Portsoy,  though  long  known,  and  said  to  havo 
been  at  one  time  extensively  wrought  and  even  sent  to 
France  as  an  ornamental  stone,  is  now  almost  neglectecL 
Rocks  of  a  similar  character  may  be  traced  pretty  much  in 
a' south-west  direction  to  near  the  sources  of  the  Dev«ron, 
and  from  that  into  the  upper  parts  of  the  Don  in  Aber- 
deenshire. 

Some  interesting  minerals  have  been  found  in  Banffshire. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  magnetite,  chromite,  arid 
asbestos  at  Portsoy ;  fluorite  near  Boharm,  at  Keith,  and 
on  the  Avon ;  also  cyanite  and  chiastolite  in  clayslate  at 
Boharm.  Atrtempts  were  made  many  years  ago  to  work  a 
vein  of  sulphuret  of  antimony  near  Keith ;  and  morb 
recently  mines  of  haematite  were  opened  near  Arndilly  on 
the  Spey. 

The  agriculture  of  Banffshire  is  conducted  upon  the 
newest  and  most  approved  principles.  The  soil,  though 
varying  even  in  adjacent  fields,  is  in  general  rich  and 
productive,  yielding  fair  crops  of  wheat,  and  excellent  crop."! 
of  barley,  oats,  <tc.;  and  the  grass  and  green  crops  are 
equally  abundant.  About  163,000  acres  are  under  culti- 
vation, the  e.xtent  of  the  farms  is  in  general  from  150  to 
200  arable  acres,  independently  of  moorland  and  pas- 
ture-grounds. The  duration  of  leases  is  nineteen  years  ; 
although  there  are  still  some  individuals  who  possess  on 
liferent,  and  a  few  leases  are  held  for  a  longer  term.  The 
whole  of  the  farms,  even  the  smallest  pendicles,  are  under 
regular  rotations  of  cropping,  generally  a  five  or  seven 
course  shift.  ,The  fields  are  well  laid  out  and  subdivided, 
and  properly  cleaned  and  manured  ;  for  which  last  purpose 
large  quantities  of  lime,  bone-dust,  and  guano,  are  annually 
imported.  The  ridges  are  all  straight;  and  the^elds,.at 
least  many  of  them,  are  enclesed  with  stone  dykes  or  othjr 
fences.  "The  swamps  and  wet  grounds  have  also  been 
drained  and  cultivated,  so  as  to  eflect  a  total  revolution  in 
the  ancient  modes  of  agriculture  within  ths  county.  The 
cattle  and  stock  hold  a  high  character  ■  and  there  are  several 
herds  of  pure  short-horns  and  purell  polled  Aberdeenshire 
cattle  maintained  in  the  county.  This  Vdlstrict  was  much 
indebted  to  one  of  the  earls  of  Findlater,  who,  as  early  as  the 
year  1754,  not  only  introduced  and  exemplified,  on  some  of 
his  own  farms,  the  most  approved  practices  then  known  in 
England,  but  held  out  liberal  encouragement  to  his  tenants 
to  follow  his  example.  His  descendants,  the  earls  of  Sea- 
field,  have  also  done  much  to  improve  the  family  estates, 
adding  to  them  many  thousands  of  acres  of  arable  land  ; 
and  it  may  be  said  with  truth  that  one  of  the  earls  was 
the  greatest  planter  of  trees  in  Great  Britain  within  the  pre- 
sent century.  In  184G  this  nobleman  received  the  honorary 
gold  medal  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of 
Scotland,  for  his  vast  and  thriving  plantations  of  useful 
timber  trees,  in  the  counties  of  Banff,  Moray,  and  Nairn.! 
From  the  year  ISll  to  1S45,  he  had  planted  18,93g,224' 
Scotch  firs,  11,904,79S  larches,  843,450  hardwoods;  mak-' 
ing  the  enormous  aggregate  of  31,686,472  forest  trees, 
planted  in  8223  acres  of  enclosed  ground. 

This  county  itlso  owes  much  to  the  earls  of  Fife,  by  whose 
generous  efforts  and  taste  for  improvement  a  vast  amount 
has  been  done  in  planting  and  reclaiming  land,  by  favourable 
leases  to  the  tenantry,  and    allowances   for  draining,  i* 


B  A  N  —  B  A  N 


313 


Latterly,  improvement  has  been  promoted  by  agricultural 
associations,  annual  premiums  being  given  for  the  best 
specimens  of  live  stock  and  the  best  productions  of  the 
8oiL  The  Banffshiro  Agricultural  Association  has  two 
shows  yearly  for  all  sorts  of  stock  and  produce  and  agri- 
cultural implements,  with  premiums  for  superiority  in 
various  trc-tli  of  'Mttle,  poultry.  Ac.  The  vilucd  rcnt.il 
of  the  counly  is  uow  upwards  of  £:2"24,"25U  sterling. 

_Tho  m.inuf.ittures  of  Banffshire  are  very  uuimportint, 
the  inhabitants  being  principally  engaged  in  agriculture 
and  the  rearing  of  cattle.  The  salmon-fishery  is  actively 
prosecuted  on  the  rivers,  and  herring  and  other  6sheries  on 
the  coast  Distilling  is  largely  carried  on  in  Glenlivet  and 
other  places ;  and  there  Is  a  woollen  factory  at  Keith 

Banffshire  was  the  scene  of  many  bloody  conllicts 
between  the  Scots  and  their  Danish  invaders.  From  1G2'1 
to  1645  it  was  the  theatre  of  almost  incessant  struggles, 
and  the  Covenanting  troubles  of  that  period,  com- 
bined with  the  frequent  conllicts  of  the  claus,  were  pro- 
ductive of  serious  evils.  Several  remains  of  antiquity  are 
pointed  out  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  such  as  the 
sculptured  stone  at  Mortlach,  and  the  churches  of  CuUon 
and  Fordyce  Ruins  of  castles  and  traces  of  encampments 
are  often  to  bo  met  with,  and  a  groat  number  of  cairns 
and  tumuli  are  also  found.  Among  the  distinguished  men 
whom  Banffshire  has  produced,  the  following  maybe  men- 
tioned : — Archbishop  Sharp  of  St  Andrews  ,  George  Baird, 
distinguished  for  his  services  as  sheriff  of  the  county  during 
the  time  of  the  Covenanters ,  Thomas  Ruddiman^  the 
grammarian  ,  Walter  Ooodall,  the  defender  of  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots ;  Dr  Alexander  Geddes  ,  and  James  Ferguson, 
the  astronomer  The  population  of  the  counly  in  1861 
and  in  1871  was  as  follows  — 

FTocscs  PEnsoss 


Inhabited    Unlnhati  BuiMing         Male  Female  Total      I 

1861         11.001         313  92         28.000        31,215         59,215 

1871         11,603         370         80         29,367         32.656        62.U23 

Sta  Robertson's  Collections  for  n  Ifistory  of  the  Shires  of  Aberdeen 
and  Banff,  Spalding  Club  ,  Sliovi  s  History  of  the  Province  of  Moray; 
Cordiner's  AiUiquilies  of  the  North  of  Scotland,  and  various  statis- 
tical accounts  of  l3anlT:,hirc 

BANGALORE,  the  administrative  capit.al  and  most 
important  town  of  the  chief  commissionership  of  Mysore, 
also  a  large  military  cantonment,  situated  in  12'  58'  N.  lat., 
and  77"  33  E  long  In  1872  the  total  population  of  the 
llangalore  municipality  amounted  to  191,300;  municipal 
iicomo  in  1872-73,  £19,090;  expenditure,  £17,496; 
overage  rate  of  taxation,  2s  per  head  of  the  population. 
For  the  protection  of  the  town,  a  municipal  police,  consisting 
of  22  officers  and  124  men,  was  maintained  in  1872-73, 
at  a  total  cost  of  £2756  'Bangalore  commands  the  pro- 
vince of  Mysore  from  a  military  point  of  view.  The  eleva 
linn  of  the  district  on  which  it  stands  renders  it  healthy 
-for  English  troops  ,  and  a  large  European  and  Native  force 
is  quartered  at  the  military  cantonment, — the  Native  force 
in  1872-73  consisting  of  six  regiments  of  cavalry,  number- 
ing 2095  officers  and  men,  and  four  regiments  of  infantry, 
numbering  2 1 49  officers  and  men.  The  principal  institution 
uf  the  Jown  is  the  Bang.ilore  High  School  or  Central  College 
for  the  province,  attended  by  between  four  and  five  hundred 
pupils.  The  average  annual  charge  of  educating  each  pupil 
'HI  1872-73  was  £3,  43  Gd,  of  which  £2,  3s.  9d.  was  con- 
tributed by  the  state.  Mr  Thornton  thus  writes  regarding 
the  history  of  the  town  : — 

The  foundation  of  the  present  fort  was  laid  by  a  descendant  of 
.Rempi'Goud,  a  liusbandnian  of  tho  nci(;hbouring  country,  who, 
J-robably  in  tho  16th  century,  had  left  his  native  village  to  avoid 
th«  tyranny  of  the  wndnjar  of  that  iilace,  and  settled  on  a  sjiot  a  few 
miles  to  the  north  of  liaiijilor*.  To  the  peaceful  occupation  of  a 
tamMr  he  addcl  that  of  a  warrior,  and  his  lirst  exploit  w.u  the  con- 
quest of  this  place,  where,  and  at  Savcndriig,  hia  family  subsequently 


erected  fortresses.  Dan;;alore,  with  other  possessions, xva3,  however, 
wrested  from  them  by  Bijipur.  Somewhat  later  wo  find  it  enume- 
rated among  the  jdgirs  of  Sndhji,  father  of  Sivaji,  the  founder  of  tho 
Marhattd  sway  ;  and  at  an  early  period  of  his  cajoer  in  tho  service 
of  tho  Bijapur  state,  that  adventurer  seemed  to  have  fixed  his 
residence  there.  It  appears  to  have  passed  into  the  possession  of 
Venkoji,  one  of  the  sons  of  Shihji ;  but  he  having  occupied  Tanjor, 
deemed  Bangalore  too  distant,  especially  under  the  circumstances 
of  [he  times,  to  Iv  safe  He  accordingly,  iu  1CS7,  entered  into  a 
bargain  for  its  sale  to  Chik  Deo,  I'aji  of  Myso.-e,  for  thri  o  lacs  of 
rupees  ;"but  before  it  could  be  completed,  Kasim  liban,  commander 
of  the  forces  of  Aurangieb,  marched  upon  the  place,  and  entered  it 
almost  without  rosisUnco.  This  event,  however,  had  no  other 
result  than  to  transfer  the  stipulated  price  from  one  vendor  to 
another  ;  for  that  general,  not  coveting  the  possession,  immediately 
delivered  it  over  to  Chik  Deo  on  payment  of  the  three  lacs.  Iu 
1753,  Naojir.ij,  the  powerful  minister  of  the  R.ija,  caused  Bangalore 
to  be  granted,  as  ijdgir  or  fief,  to  llaidar  All,  afterwards  usurper 
of  Mysore,  who  greatly  enlarged  and  strengthened  the  fort,  which, 
in  1760,  on  bis  expulsion  from  Seriogapatam,  served  as  his  refuga 
from  destruction.  In  1791  it  was  stormed  by  a  British  army  com- 
manded by  Lord  Cornwallis 

The  subsequent  history  of  Bangalore  belongs  to  the 
general  events  of  Mysore,  the  province  of  which  it  forms 
the  political  capital  Bangalore  is  now  one  of  the  hand- 
somest English  stations  in  India,  with  noble  public  build- 
ings, spacious  and  artistically  laid  out  gardens,  broad 
smooth  roads,  well-supervised  bazaars,  and  a  good  water 
supply.  The  markets  display  almost  every  sort  of  English 
and  Indian  fruit  or  vegetable.  Bangalore  forms  the  resi- 
dence of  tho  chief  commissioucr  of  Mysore  and  the  principal 
officers  of  his  administration,  and  is  well  worthy  of  its  place 
as  the  political  and  military  capital  of  the  province. 

BANGKOK,  a  city  of  Siam,  which  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  capital  in  1769.  It  is  situated  on  both  sides  of 
the  River  Menara,  about  20  miles  from  the  ssa,  in -lat.  13° 
33'  N.  and  long.  100'  34'  E.  The  river  is  navigable  to 
the  city  for  vessels  of  300  tons,  but  there  is  a  bar  at  its 
mouth,  which  at  the  lowest  ebbs  has  only  six  feet  of  water, 
and  at  no  time  has  more  than  fourteen.  The  general 
appearance  of  Bangkok  is  very  striking,  alike  from  its 
extent,  the  strange  architecture  of  its  more  important 
buildings,  and  the  luxuriant  greenness  of  the  trets  with 
which  it  is  profusely  interspersed  The  streets  are  in  many 
cases  traversed  by  canals,  and  the  houses  raised  on  piles, 
while  a  large  part  of  the  population  dwell  in  floating  houses 
moored  along  the  river  sides  in  tiers  three  or  four  deep. 
The  nucleus  of  the  city  on  the  eastern  bank  is  surrounded 
by  a  wall  30  feet  high,  and  1 0  or  12  feet  thick,  relieved 
by  numerous  towers  and  bastions  ;  but  the  rest  of  the  city 
stretches  irregularly  for  full  seven  miles  along  each  side  of 
tho  river,  and  in  some  places  attains  nearly  as  great  a 
breadth, — the  Menam  itself  being  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
across.  All  the  ordinary  buildings  are  composed  of  wood 
or  bamboo  work  ;  but  the  temples  and  palaces  are  of  more 
solid  construction,  and  are  gorgeously  ornamented.  Tho 
spires,  and  in  some  cases  the  whole  edifices,  are  covered  with 
gilding,  or  many-coloured  mosaic  of  the  most  grotesque 
description,  while  the  roofs  are  adorned  with  fantastic  ridges 
and  gables.  In  all  there  are  upwards  of  a  hundred  temples 
in  tho  city  and  suburbs.  Tho  palace  of  the  "  First  King  " 
is  enclosed  by  high  white  walls,  which  are  about  a  mile  in 
circumference.  It  consists  of  a  large  number  of  different 
buildings  for  various  purposes — temples,  public  offices, 
seraglios,  the  stalls  for  tho  sacred  elephant,  and  accommo- 
dation for  thousands  of  soldiers,  cavalry,  artillery,  and  war 
elephants,  an  arsenal,  a  theatre,  Ac.  Tho  hall  of  audience, 
in  which  the  throne  of  the  king  stands,  is  situated  in  .the 
middle  of  the  principal  court.  The  temples  are  of  great 
richness,  floored  with  mats  of  silver,  and  stored  with  monu- 
ments and  relics.  In  one  of  them  is  a  famous  jasper  statue 
of  Buddha.  Tho  poimlation  of  the  city  is  of  various 
nationalities. — Burmese,  IVguans, '  Cambodians,  Cochin-' 
Chinese,  Malays,  Indo-rortuguese,  and  others,  besides  th». 


314 


B  A  N  —  B  A  N 


two  predomicaQt  classes,  the  Chinese  and  Siamese.  There 
is  great  commercial  activity,  the  principal  articles  of  trade 
being  sugar,  pepper,  and  rice.  The  supplies  of  the  last 
article  can  be  brought  from  a  long  way  inland  by  means  of 
the  river  and  various  canals,  such  as  the  Petrio,  which  joins 
the  Bang-Pa-Kong  at  Kanat.  Cardamoms,  timber,  and  tin 
are  also  largely  exported.  European  manufactures  are 
extensively  imported,  the  natives  being  very  ready  to  adopt 
new  methods  and  machinery  ;  and  steam-mills  for  various 
purposes  are  being  set  up.  The  river  is  kept  clear  by  a 
steam-dredger,  and  iron  bridges  of  European  construction 
are  built  across  the  canals.  Qas  is  used  in  the  palaces  of 
the  kings  and  the  houses  of  many  of  the  nobility.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  European  firms  carry  on  business  in 
the  city,  and  the  English  Government  maintains'a  consul. 
Christian  missions,  both  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic, 
are  maintained,  the  latter  church  having  established  a 
bishopric.     The  population  is  said  to  amount  to  400,000. 

The  reader  will  find  much  curious  information  on  Bangkol:  in 
Crawford's  Embassy  to  Siam,  2  vols.  1830  (plan  at  p.  214  of  vol.  iL) ; 
Pallegoix's  Dtscripiion,  du  royaumc  Thai,  ou  Siarri,,\Z^i\  and  Bow- 
ring's  Siam,  1857.  See  also  Jahresbcricht  des  FereiTis/Or  Erdk.  zu 
Dresden,  viii.  and  ii. 

BANGOR,  a  parliamentary  borough  and  market-town  of 
Carnarvonshire,  North  'Wales,  nine  miles  N.E.  of  Carnar- 
von, to  which  it  is  a  contributory  borough.  It  consists 
mainly  of  one  narrow  crooked  street  of  nearly  a  mile  in 
length,  strStching  N.E.  and  S.W.  through  a  romantic  valley 
between  two  ridg«s  of  rock.  It  stands  near  the  northern 
entrance  of  the  Menai  Strait,  and  the  beauty  of  its  scenery 
attracts  thousands  of  visitors  every  year.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  episcopal  palace,  deanery-house, 
Roman  Catholic  chapel,  several  dissenting  meeting-houses, 
free  schools,  union  poorhouse,  infirmary,  market-house 
(1862),  assembly  rooms,  temperance  hall,  three  banks,  and 
railway  station.  The  cathedral  is  an  embattled  cruciform 
structure,  with  a  low  massive  tower  crowned  with  pinnacles. 
It  occupies  the  site  of  a  more  ancient  edifice,  originally 
f  junded  about  525,  but  destroyed  by  the  English  in  1071. 
It  was  afterwards  rebuilt,  but  suffered  severely  in  the  wars 
between  the  Welsh  and  Henry  III.;  and  in  1402  it  was 
burned  down  during  the  ravages  of  Owen  Glendower.  For 
more  than  ninety  years  it  remained  in  ruins.  The  choir 
was  rebuilt  by  Bishop  Dean  in  the  time  of  Henry  'VII  , 
and  the  tower  and  nave  were  added  by  Bishop  SkefBngton 
in  1532.  The  principal  trade  of  Bangor  consists  in  the 
export  of  slates,  which  are  raised  in  the  quarries  six  miles 
distant,  and  conveyed  by  a  railway  to  Port  Penrhyn,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Cegid,  a  little  to  the  east  of  the  town 
This  port  is  accessible  for  vessels  of  from  200  to  300  tons 
at  all  states  of  the  tide,  and  has  a  quay  upwards  of  300 
yards  in  length.     Population  of  burgh  in  1871,  9859. 

BANGOR,  a  seaport  and  market-town  of  Ireland,  county 
Down,  on  the  south  side  of  Belfast  Lough,  12  miles  E.N  E. 
of  Belfast.  It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  cotton 
and  linen  and  embroidered  muslin,  and  has  a  bank,  a 
market-house,  a  parish  church,  several  chapels,  and  a 
public  library.  It  is  greatly  frequented  as  a  bathing-place, 
especially  by  the  people  of  IBclfast.  Remains  of  an  ancient 
abbey,  said  to  have  been  destroyed  by  the  Danes  in  820, 
are  still  to  be  seen.     Population  in  1871,  25G0. 

BANGOR,  a  seaport  town  in  the  state  of  Maine,  North 
America,  capital  of  the  county  of  Penobscot,  on  the  river 
of  that  name,  at  its  junction  with  the  Kenduskeag,  60 
miles  from  the  sea.  Lat.  44°  47  50"  N.,  long.  68°  47'  'W. 
,  It  was  incorporated  aa  a  town  in  1791,  and  niised  to  the 
rank  of  a  city  in  1834.  The  harbour  is  spacious,  and 
affords  anchorage  for  the  largest  vessels  at  high  tide.  The 
chief  article  of  trade  is  timber,  which  employs  about  2000 
«hip3   annually;   and    there   are   sawmills,  plaD'.ng-mills, 


ship-yards,  foundries,  and  manufactories  of  furniture' 
There  are  numerous  good  schools  arranged  on  a  graduated 
scale,  and  churches  of  about  ten  different  denominations. 
A  theological  seminary  belonging  to  the  Congregatiooalists 
was  founded  in  1816.  A  library,  instituted  in  1843,  has 
upwards  of  11,000  volumes.  •  Population  in  1870,  18,289. 
BANIALUKA,  a  town  and  fortress  of  Turkey,  in  the 
eyalet  of  Bosnia,  situated  on  the  Verbas  or  Verbitza,  a 
navigable  tributary  of  the  Save.  Its  warm  baths,  for 
which  it  is  still  known,  would  seem,  from  the  antiquities 
discovered  on  the  spot,  to  have  been  frequented  by  the 
Romans.  There  are  upwards  of  forty  mosques  in  the  town, 
and  one  of  them  is  regarded  as  the  finest  in  Turkey.  An 
acttssa  trade  is  carried  on,  and  gunpowder  and  cloth  are 
manufactured,  while  in  the  neighbourhood  silver-mining 
is  also  prosecuted  with  success.  Banialuka  was  for  a  long 
time  the  seat  of  the  Bosnian  governors,  and  has  been 
frequently  exposed  to  the  vicissitudes  of  war.  In  1G8S  it 
was  captured  for  the  Austrians  by  Louis  of  Baden. 
Population,  15,000. 

BANIM,  John,  an  Irish  novelist  of  great  power  and 
ability,  was  born  at  Kilkenny  in  1798.  He  received  a 
good  education,  and  at  a  very  early  age  gave  evidence  of 
remarkable  genius.  In  his  thirteenth  year  he  entered 
Kilkenny  College,  where  many  other  eminent  Irishmen  have 
received  their  training,  and  devoted  himself  specially  to 
drawing  and  painting,  in  which  he  became  so  proficient 
that  he  resolved  to  adopt  the  profession  of  an  artist.  He 
accordingly  proceeded  to  Dublin  and  studied  for  two  years 
in  tlie  schools  connected  with  the  Royal  Society,  where  he 
obtained  high  prizes.  For  some  time  afterwards  he  taught 
drawing  in  his  native  town,  and  while  doing  so  had  the 
misfortune  to  fall  violently  in  love  with  one  of  his  pupils. 
His  affections  were  returned,  but  the  parents  of  the  young 
lady  interfered  and  removed  her  from  Kilkenny.  She  pined 
away  and  died  in  two  months.  The  occurrence  made  a 
deep  impression  on  Banim's  mind,  and  this,  together  with 
his  exposure  to  the  weather  on  the  night  of  her  funeral, 
caused  a  severe  dlness  which  completely  shattered  his  health. 
After  a  partial  recovery  he  set  out  for  Dublin  and  settled 
finally  to  the  work  of  literature.  He  published  a  poem. 
The  Cells'  Paradise,  and  had  some  success  as  a  writer  for 
the  stage.  During  a  short  vi.sit  to  Kilkenny  he  married, 
and  at  the  same  time  planned,  in  conjunction  with  his 
brother  Michael  (born  179C),  a  series  of  tales  illustrative  of 
Irish  life.  He  then  set  out  for  London,  the  great  centre 
of  literary  activity,  and  supported  himself  by  writing  for 
magazines  and  for  the  stage.  A  volume  of  miscellaneous 
essays  was  published  anonymously  in  1824,  called 
Revelations  of  the  Dead  Alive.  In  April  1825  appeared 
the  first  scries  of  Tales  of  the  O'Hara  Family,  which 
achieved  immediate  and  decided  success.  One  of  the  most 
powerful  of  them,  Crohoore  of  the  Bill  Hook,  was  by 
Michael  Banim.  In  1826  a  second  series  was  published, 
containing  what  is  decidedly  one  of  the  best  Irish  novels  in 
our  literature.  The  Nowlans.  John's  health  had  almost  en- 
tirely given  way, and  the  next  effort  of  the  "O'Hara  family" 
was  almost  entirely  the  production  of  his  brother  Michael. 
The  Croppy,  a  Tale  of  1798,  is  hardly  equal  to  the  earlier 
tales,  though  it  contains  some  wonderfully  vigorous 
passages.  The  Denounced,  The  Mayor  of  Wind<jap,  The 
Ghost  Hunter  (by  Michael  Banim),  and  The  Smuggler, 
followed  in  quick  succession,  and  were  received  with  con- 
siderable favour.  Banim,  meanwhile,  had  completjly 
broken  down  in  health,  and  had  become  much  straitened 
in  circumstances.  During  his  absence  in  France  a  move- 
ment to  relieve  his  wants  was  set  on  foot  by  the  English 
press,  headed  by  Sterling  in  the  Times.  A  sufficient  sum 
was  obtained  to  remove  him  from  any  danger  of  actual 
want,  and  to  this  Government  afterwards  added  a  pension 


B  A  N  —  B  A  N 


315 


of  XT 50.  lie  settled  in  Windgap  Cottage,  a  short  distance 
Truin  Kilkenny  ;  and  there,  a  complete  invalid,  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  His  last  piece  of  Lterary  work 
was  the  novel,  entitled  Father  Connell.  Ue  died  in  July 
1S42,  aged  44.  Banim's  true  place  in  literature  is  to  be 
estimated  from  the  merits  of  the  O'llara  Tales ;  his  later 
works,  though  of  considerable  ability,  are  not  unfrequently 
prolix,  and  are  marked  by  too  evident  an  imitation  of  the 
IVaveriey  Noitls.  The  Tales,  however,  show  him  at  his 
best ;  they  are  masterpieces  of  faithful  delineation.  The 
strong  passions,  the  lights  and  shadows  of  Irish  peasant 
character,  have  rarely  been  so  ably  and  truly  depicted.  The 
prevailing  quality  ia  a  wonderful  vehemence,  combined  with 
a  gloominess  extending  at  times  to  natural  phenomena  as 
well  as  to  the  characters  of  the  tale ;  the  incidents  are 
striking,  sometimes  even  horrible,  and  it  is  not  without 
Bome  justice  that  the  authors  have  been  accused  of  sensa- 
iionaliim,  of  straining  after  melodramatic  effect.  The 
lighter,  more  joyous  side  of  Irish  character,  which  appears 
80  stroi.gly  in  Lover,  does  not  receive  due  prominence  from 
the  Baniras.  (See  P.  J.  Murray,  Life  of  John  Banim, 
1857.) 

BAiiJARMASSIN,  a  district  in  the  southeast  of 
Borneo,  which  was  incorporated  by  the  Dutch  in  consequence 
of  the  war  of  1800,  in  regard  to  the  succession  in  the 
sultanate,  which  had  been  under  their  protection  since 
1787.  .  It  is  watered  by  the  river  system  of  the  Banjar, 
and  tr;.versed  by  a  chain  of  mountains  that  in  some  places 


reaches  the  height  of  3000  feet.  The  dibtrict  has  been, 
divided  by  the  Dutch  into  the  residency  of  Kwecn  and  the 
suD  residencies  of  Amunlal  and  Martapura.  T)ie  town  of 
Martapura  was  the  seat  of  the  sultan  from  1771.  The 
principal  productions  of  the  district  are  gold,  diamonds, 
coal,  pepper  and  other  spices,  drugs,  edible  birds'  nesis, 
gum,  wax,  rattans,  &c.  The  inland  portion  is  covered  with 
forest,  while  the  flat  and  swampy  seaboard  is  largely  occu- 
pied by  rice-fields.  The  inhabitants,  who  are  for  the  most 
part  Dayaks,are  roughly  estimated  from  300,000  toCOO,000. 
Banjaemassin,  the  chief  town  of  the  above  district,  also 
known  as  Fort  Tatas,  is  situated  about  15  Ifliles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Banjar,  in  lat.  3°  23'  S.,  long.  114°  37'  R 
The  most  of  the  houses  are  built  on  piles,  as  the  town  is 
subject  to  frequent  inundations.  In  1700  the  East  Indian 
Company  established  a  factory  here ;  but  the  place  was 
found  to  be  unhealthy,  and  the  Company's  servants  were 
finally  attacked  by  the  natives,  whom  they  repulsed  with 
great  difficulty.  The  settlement  was  abandoned.  The 
English  again  seized  Banjarmassin  in  1811,  but  restored  it 
in  1817.  The  trade  consists  in  the  export  of  the  products 
of  the  surro'jnding  country  and  the  import  of  cloth,  Chinese 
pottery,  all  kinds  of  metal  goods,  opium,  tobacco,  and  salt. 
The  population  is  of  a  very  mixed  character,  and  is  esti- 
mated at  upwards  of  30,000.  Of  the  commercial  com- 
munity the  Chinese  form  a  very  important  portion.  The 
coal  mines,  discovered  in  1846  at  Mount  Pengaron,  to  the 
E.,  are  larg<  ly  worked  by  the  Dutch. 


BANKING 


AB.ANK,  in  its  simplest  form,  is  an  institution  where 
money  may  be  deposited  for  safe  keeping  ;  but  banks 
are  usually  established  to  lend  as  well  as  to  receive  money  ; 
and  the  profits  of  a  banker  are  commonly  derived  from  the 
excess  of  the  interest  he  receives  from  those  indebted  to 
him  over  the  interest  he  allows,  so  far  as  he  allows  any,  to 
those  who  have  deposited  money  with  him.  Early 
denunciations  of  usury  (Exod.  ixii.  25)  show  the  antiquity 
of  the  practice  of  lending  money  at  interest ;  but  this  must 
have  long  preceded  the  origin  of  tha  business  of  both 
borrowing  and  lending  money.  \Vhen  this  first  appeared 
it  was  not,  at  least  in  modern  Europe,  a  distinct  profession, 
but  was  undertaken  by  goldsmiths  and  dealers  in  precious 
metals.  In  the  progress  of  the  separation  of  employments, 
which  is  a  characteristic  of  an  advancing  society,  banking 
became  a  business  of  its  own,  which  has  again  been  sub- 
divided into  many  branches  independently  pursued.  It 
was,  for  example,  formerly  generally  allowed  to  be  part  of 
the  business  of  a  banker  to  borrow  money  by  issuing 
promissory  notes  payable  to  bearer,  which  passed  from 
hand  to  hand  as  money,  within  the  sphere  of  the  operations 
of  the  banks,  and  banks  thus  borrowing  money  were  called 
Hanks  of  Issue ;  but  it  has  been  contended  of  late  years 
that  the  function  of  issuing  notes  passing  by  delivery  as 
•  monejy  should  bo  reserved  for  the  state,  or  for  some  institu- 
tion controlled  and  directed  by  the  state ;  and  we  shall 
have  hereafter  to  notice  the  controversy  that  has  arisen 
I  on  this  point,  and  the  steps  that  have  been  taken  in  conse- 
quence of  it.  An  eiplanation  of  the  different  species  of 
banks  will  also  properly  be  deferred  till  a  later  stage,  but 
it  will  be  convenient  here  to  give  a  general  sketch  of  the 
nature  of  the  business  of  an  ordinary  banker.  We  have 
said  he  receives  and  lends  money  ;  he  may  receive  money 
either  on  a  deposit  or  on  a  current  or  drawing  account. 
When  money  is  received  on  deposit  it  ia  commonly  repay- 
able to  the  depositor  alone,  to  whom  a  deposit  note  or 
receipt  is  given  ;  but  it  may  also  bo  paid  to  any  one  to 
whom  the  depositor  gives  an  order   on  the  bank  either 


endorsed  on  the  deposit  note  or  receipt  or  accompanying  it 
If  the  banker  undertakes  to  pay  interest  on  deposits,  the 
rate  varies  according  to  the  length  of  the  notice  the  de- 
positor agrees  to  give  before  withdrawing  the  money,  the 
ability  of  the  banker  to  deal  with  it  being,  of  course, 
dependent  upon  the  time  he  may  rely  upon  keeping  it. 
When  money  is  received  on  a  current  or  drawing  account, 
the  customer  of  the  banker  draws  it  out,  as  he  requires,  by 
means  of  orders,  to  which  the  specific  name  cheques  is 
given;  and,  partly  for  convenience  and  partly  by  way  of 
security  against  fraud,  bankers  are  in  the  habit  of  giring 
their  customers  books  of  forms  of  cheques  consecutively 
numbered.  Cheques  are  generally  payable  to  the  person 
in  whoso  favour  they  are  drawn  (the  payee)  or  bearer, 
though  they  are  sometimes  payable  to  the  payee  or  order, 
in  which  case  endorsement  by  the  payee  is  necessary 
before  the  money  can  be  received.  By  the  usage  of 
bankers  in  the  United  Kingdom  a  "crossed  "  cheque,  tl^.it 
is,  a  cheque  across  the  face  of  which  two  parallel  lines,  with 

the  name  of  a  Kinkcr  or  the  words  " &  Co."  inserted 

between  them,  have  been  drawn,  has  been  long  held  pay- 
able by  the  banker  on  whom  it  is  drawn  to  ;he  payee  alone 
or  to  another  banker ;  and  this  usage  received  the  force  of 
law  by  statutes  of  the  present  reign  (19  and  20  Vict.  c.  25, 
and  21  and  22  Vict.  c.  79). 

Bankers  lend  money  by  opening  credits  in  their  books, 
against  which  their  favoured  customers  may  draw  to  the 
extent  of  the  credits  opened  ;  by  discounting  bills ;  by  the 
purchase  of  securities  ;  or  by  advancing  money  on  securities, 
ic,  (tc.  It  will  have  been  gathered  that  they  also  under- 
take the  business  of  collecting  the  money  fur  cheques,  for 
bills,  and  for  other  securities  as  they  mature,  which  they 
m.iy  have  received  from  their  customers.  The  labour  cf 
collection  is  much  facilitated  in  England  by  the  fact  that 
bills  of  exchange  arc  almost  invariably  made  payable  in 
London,  and  that  every  country  banker  has  a  correspondent 
among  the  London  bankers  who  collects  for  him  and 
paysfoibimj  and  the  London  bankers  again  maintain  an 


316 


BANKING 


eatablLshmeat  called  the  Clearing-house  (see  p.  32S),  where 
their  clerks  meet  to  effect  their  ititerchanges. 

Banking  appears  to  have  reached  a  high  state  of  de- 
Telopment  among  the  ancients. .  The  bankers  of  Greece 
(TpoTTt'^iTiu)  and  Rome  (argentarii,  viensarii,  nummularii) 
exercised  nearly  th'j  same  functions  as  those  of  the  present 
day,  eicept  that  they  do  not  appear  to  have  issned  not''?. 
They  received  money  on  deposit,  to  be  repaid  on  dem:inds 
made  by  cheques  or  orders,  or  at  some  stipulated  period, 
sometimes  paying  interest  for  it,  and  sometimes  not.  Their 
profits  arose  from  their  lending  the  balance  at  their  disposal 
at  higher  rates  of  interest  than  they  allowed  the  depositors. 
They  were  also  extensively  employed  in  valuing  and 
exchanging  foreign  moneys  for  those  of  Athens,  Corinth, 
Rome,  <tc.,  and  in  negotiating  bills,  of  exchange.-  In 
general  they  were  highly  esteemed,  and  great  confidence 
was  placed  in  their  integrity.  The  rate  of  interest  charged 
by  the  bankers  was  sometimes  very  high,  but  that  was  not 
a  consequence,  as  has  been  alleged,  of  their  rapacity,  but 
of  the  defective  state  of  the  law,  which,  as  it  gave  every 
facility  to  debtors  disposed  to  evade  payment  of  their  debts, 
obliged  the  bankers  to  guarantee  themselves  by  charging  a 
proportionally  high  rate  of  interest^  Banking  reappeared 
in  Italy  'upon  the  revival  of  civilization.  The  bank  of 
Venice  is  reputed  the  first  in  date  in  the  history  of  modern 
Europe )  but  it  did  not  become  a  bank,  as  we  Onderstand 
the  term,  till  long  after  its  foundation.  Historians  inform 
us  that  the  republic  being  hard  pressed  for  money,  was 
obliged,  upon  three  different  occasions,  in  1156,  1480,  and 
1510,  to  levy  forced  contributions  upon  the  citizens,  giving 
them  in  return  perpetual-  annuitiesat  certain  rates  per 
cent.  The  annuities  due  under  the  forced  loan  of  1156 
were,  however,  finally  extinguished  in  the  16th  century; 
and  the  offices  for  the  payment  of  the  annuities  due  under 
the  other  two  loans  having  been  consolidated,  eventually 
became  the  Bank  of  Venice.^  .This  might  be  effected  as 
follows  : — The  interest  on  the  loan  to-  Government  being 
paid'purjctually,  every  claim  registered  in  the  books  of  the 
office  would  be  considered  as  a  productive  capital  ;  and 
these  claims,  or  the  right  of  receiving  the  annuity  accru- 
ing thereon,  must  soon  have  been  transferred,  by  demise 
or  cession,  from  one  person  to  another.  This  practice 
would  naturally  suggest  to  holders  of  stock  the  simple  and 
easy  method  of  discharging  their  mutual  debts  by  transfers 
on  the  otEce  books,  and  as  soon  as  they  became  sensible  of 
the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  this  method  of  account- 
ing, bank-money  was  invented.  It  will,  however,  be  seen 
that  the  establishment  thus  described  was  at  first  no  more 
than  the  transfer  office  of  a  National  Debt,  transfers  of 
which  were  accepted  at  par  in  discharge  of  private  debts, 
und  it  is  indeed  said  that  the  funded  debt  transferred 
aometimes  commanded  an  agio  or  premium  above  the 
(current  money  of  the  republic.  This  establishment  was 
ruined,  after  passing  through  many  changes,  by  the  invasion 
of  the  French  in  1797. 

The  origin  of  modern  banking  may  be  tr.iccd  to  the 
money-dealers  of  Florence,  who  were  in  high  re|nite  as 
receivers  on  deposit  and  lenders  of  money  in  the  Hth 
century  ;  and  banking  was  indeed  practised  at  Florence  in 
the  13lh  if  not  in  the  12th  century.  Mr  Madeud  writes 
(Banking,  vol.  L  289)— 

"  Tho  names  of  the  Bardi,  Acciftjuoli,  Pcnizzi,  Pitti,  nntl  Medici 
vera  famous    throughout  £uroi>e.      In    1345  tho  BaiJi  ami  the 


'  Doeckh's  Pctilical  Economy  of  Athene,  i.  IC?,  ic. ;  Voyage 
<tAnacharje,np.  Li, passim;  Sunlh's  Diclimiary  o/  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities,  s.  v.  Argentarii,  kc. 

"  The  onnuilics  of  tho  forced  loan  of  H80  were  to  be  suspended 
ditrmK  periods  of  w.ir.      ) 

'  Cleirnc,  Dm  Negoee,  tte  la  Dnnquc,  ic.  {Bordeau«,  1656),  pp. 
112  -117|  ft  scarce  and  valuable  vuluuio. 


PiTuzzi,  tho  two  grtatcst  mercantile  houses  in  Italy,  failed.  EdwarJ 
III.  owed  the  Bardi  900,000  gold  florins,  which  his  war  with 
France  prevented  him  paying;  and  the  king  of  Sicily  owed  them 
100,000  gold  florins.  The  deposits  of  citizaus  and  strangers  with 
the  Bardi  were  550,000  gold  florins.  The  Peruzzi  were  owed  600,000 
gold  florins  by  Edward  111.,  and  100,000  by  the  king  of  Sicily,  and 
the  deposits  they  owed  their  customers  were  350,000  gold  florins. 
The  fall  of  these  two  great  pillars  of  crcdk  involved  that  of  mulli- 
tudos  of  other  ssr.a'.':?  e:'.-"'lis';rrrr.ts,  and,  says  A'illani  {Istor. 
Fiorent.,  xii.55),  the  community  of  Florence  iiad  never  been  thrown 
into  such  ruin  and  disorder  before.  And  thereupon  he  breaks  out 
against  the  folly  of  his  fellow-citizens  entrusting  tiieir  ihoney  to  the 
care  of  others  for  the  love  of  gain.  The  city,  hayever,  recovered 
fiora  this  terrible  disaster,  and  we  find  that  between  1430  and  1433 
seventy-six  bankers  at  Florence  lent  4,S65,000.gold  florins.  At  orie 
tirne  Florence  is  said  to  have  had  eighty  bankers,  but  not  any 
public  bank." 

The  business  of  banking  was  not  introduced  into 
England  till  the  17  th  century,  when  it  began  to  be 
undertaken  by  goldsmiths  in  London,  who  appear  to 
have  borrowed  it  from  HoUand.  It  was  attacked  as 
innovations  commonly  are.  Mr  Gilbart,  in  his  Uutory 
and  Principles  of  Banking,  quotes,  from  a  pamphlet  pub- 
lished in  1676,  entitled  The  Mystery  af  the  Neic-Fashioned 
Goldsmiths  or  Bankers  Discovered,  a  passage  that  may  be 
reproduced, — 

"Much  about  the  same  time— the  time  of  the  civil  commotion — 
the  goldsmiths  (or  new-fashioned  bankers)  began  to  receive  the  rents 
of  gintlemen's  estates  remitted  to  town,  and  to  allow  them,  and 
others  who  put  cash  into  their  hands,  some  interest  for  it  if  it 
remained  but  a  single  month  in  their Tiands,  or  even  a  lesser  time. 
This  was  a  great  allurement  for  people  to  put  money  Into  their 
hands,  which  would  bear  interest  till  the  day  they  wanted  it  ;  and 
they  could  also  draw  it  out  by  one  hundred  pounds  or  fifty  pounds, 
ic,  at  a  time  as  they  wanted  it,  with  infinitely  less  trouble  than  if 
they  had  lent  it  ont  on  either  real  or  personal  security.  The  con- 
sequence was  that  it  quickly  brought  a  great  quantity  of  cash  into 
their  hands,  so  that  the  chief  or  greatest  of  tlnia  was  now  enabled 
to  supply  Cromwell  with  money  in  advance,  on  the  revenues,  as  his 
occasion"  required,  upon  great  advantages  to  theijiselves." 

Sir  Joslah  Child  also  attacked  "  that  innovated  practice  of 
bankers  in  London"  in  his  Ncio  Discourse  of  Trade, 
though  he  subsequently  became  himself  a  banker ;  and  his 
house,  Messrs  Child  i  Co.,  of  Temple  Bar,  and  the  house 
of  Messrs  Hoare,  in  Fleet  Street,  stiil  survive  as  the  only 
private  banks  now  in  existence  in  London  which  wera 
established  previous  to  the  Bank  of  England. 

Foundation  and  Early  History  of  l/ie  Bank  of  England. 

The  Bank  of  England,  which  has  li>ng  been  the  principal 
bank  of  deposit  and  circulation  in  Great  Britain,  and 
indeed  in  Europe,  w.as  founded  in  1694.  Its  principal 
projector,  Mr  William  Patcrson,  an  intelligent  Scotch 
gentleman,  was  afterwards  engaged  in  the  ill-fated  Darien 
enterprise.  Government  being  at  the  time  much  distressed 
for  want  of  money,  partly  from  the  defects  and  abuses  in 
tho  system  of  taxation,  and  partly  from  the  diflicuity  of 
borrowing  because  of  tho  Eupjioscd  instability  of  the 
Revolutionary  cstabli.slimcnt,  the  bank  grew  out  of  a  loan 
of  £1,200,000  for  the  public  service.  The  subscribers,, 
besides  receiving  8  per  cent,  on  tho  sum  advanced  as 
interest,  and  £4000  a  year  as  tho  expense  of  management, 
in  all  XI 00,000  a  year,  were  incorpor.ated  into  a  society 
dcninuinated  tho  Governor  and  Company  of  tho  Bank  of 
England.  The  charter  is  dated  tho  27th  of  July  1C9>. 
It  declares,  amongst  other  things,  that  they  shall  "be 
capable,  in  law,  to  purchase,  enjoy,  and  retain  to  thi'ni  and 
their  successors,  any  moneys,  lands,  rents,  tenements,  and 
possessions  whatsoever ;  and  to  purchase  and  acquire  all 
sorts  of  goods  and  cliatlels  whatsoever,  wherein  they  are 
not  restrained  by  Act  of  Tarliament;  and  also  to  gront, 
demise,  and  dispose  of  the  same. 

"  That  the  management  and  government  of  the  corpora- 
tion be  committed  to  the  governor  and  twenty-four  dirco 


B  A  N  K  I  N  G 


317 


tors,  wlio  shall  bo  elected  between  the  25th  of  March  and 
the  25th  day  of  AprU  each  year,  from  among  the  members 
of  the  company  duly  qualified. 

"  That  no  dwidend  shall  at  any  time  be  made  by  the 
said  governor  and  company,  save  only  out  of  the  interest, 
profit,  or  produce  arising  by  or  out  of  the  said  capital, 
etock,  or  fund,  or  by  such  dealing  as  is  allowed  by  Act  of 
Parliament. 

"  They  mu.st  bo  natural-born  subjects  of  England,  or 
naturalized  subjects ;  they  shall  havo  in  their  own  name, 
and  for  their  own  use,  seTcrally,  viz.,  the  governor  at  least 
£4000,  the  deputy-governor  j;3000,  and  each  director 
X2000,  of  the  capital  stock  of  the  said  corporation. 

"That  thirteen  or  more  of  the  said  governors  and  direc- 
tors (of  which  the  governor  or  deputy-governor  must  be 
olways  one)  shall  constitute  a  court  of  directors,  for  the 
management  of  the  affairs  of  the  company,  and  for  the 
appointment  of  all  agents  and  servants  which  may  be 
accessary,  paying  them  such  salaries  as  they  may  consider 
reasonable. 

"  Every  elector  must  have,  in  his  own  name  and  for  his 
own  use,  j£500  or  more  capital  stock,  and  can  oiJy  give 
one  vote.  He  must,  if  rdiuired  by  any  member  present, 
take  the  oath  of  stock,  or  the  declaration  of  stock  in  case 
he  may  be  one  of  the  people  called  Quakers. 

"  Four  general  courts  shall  be  held  iu  every  year,  in  the 
months  of  September,  December,  April,  and  July.  A 
general  court  may  be  summoned  at  any  time,  upon  the 
requisition  of  nine  proprietors  duly  qualified  as  electors. 
The  majority  of  electors  in  general  courts  have  the  power 
to  make  and  constitute  bye-laws  and  ordinances  for  the 
government  of  the  corporation,  provided  that  such  bye-laws 
and  ordinances  be  not  repugnant  to  the  laws  of  the  king- 
dom, and  bo  confirmed  and  approved  according  to  the 
statutes  in  such  case  made  and  provided." 

'The  corporation  is  prohibited  from  engaging  in  any  sort 
of  commercial  undertaking  other  than  dealing  iu  bills  of 
exchange,  and  in  gold  and  silver.  It  is  authorised  to 
advance  money  upon  the  security  of  goods  or  merchandise 
pledged  to  it,  and  to  sell  by  public  auction  such  goods  as 
are  not  redeemed  within  a  specified  time. 

It  was  also  enacted,  in  the  same  year  in  which  the  bank 
was  established,  by  statute  6  William  and  Mary,  c.  20,  that 
the  bank  "  shall  not  deal  in  any  goods,  wares,  or  merchan- 
dise (except   bullion),  or  purchase  any  lands  or  revenues 
belonging   to   the   Crown,  or   advance  or   lend    to   their 
.  majesties,  their   heirs   or  successors,  any  sum  or  sums  of 
money,  by  way  of  loan  or  anticipation  on  any  part  or  parts, 
branch   or  branches,  fund  or  funds  of  the  revenue,  now 
granted  or  belonging,  or  hereafter  to  bo  granted,  to  their 
majesties,  their  heirs  and  successors,  other  than  such  fund 
or  funds,  part  or   parts,  branch  or   branches  of   the  said 
revenue  only  on  which  a  credit  of  loan  is  or  shall  be  granted 
by  Parliament."     And  in  1G97  it  was  enacted,  that  the 
"  common  capital  or  principal  stock,  and  also  the  rc.il  fund, 
of  the  governor  and  company,  or  any  profit  or  produce  to 
be  made  thereof,  or  arising  thereby,  shall  be  exempted  from 
any  rates,  taxes,  assessments,  or   impositions  whatsoever 
during  the  continuance  of  the  bank  ;   Miat  all  the  profit, 
benefit,  and  advantage  from  time  to  time  arising  out  of  the 
management  of  the  said  corporation.shall  be  applied  to  the 
uses  of  all  the  members  of   the   said   association  of    the 
governor  and"company  of  the  Bank  of  England,  ralcably 
and  in  proportion  to  each  member's  part,  share,  and  interest 
in  the  common  cajiital   and  principal  stock   of   the   said 
governor  and  company  hereby  established." 

In  1G90,  during  the  great  recoinage,  the  bank  was 
involved  in  great  difficulties,  ond  was  even  compelled  to 
diiapend  payment  of  its  notes,  which  were  at  a  heavy 
discount.     Owing,  however,  to  thcjudicious  conductof  the 


directors,  and  the  assistance  of  the  Government,  the  bank 
got  over  the  crisis.  But  it  was  at  the  same  time  judged 
expedient,  iu  order  to  place  it  iu  a  situation  the  better  to 
withstand  any  adverse  circumstances  that  might  afterwards 
occur.to  increase  the  capitalfromil, 200,000 to£2,201, 171. 
In  1708  the  directors  undertook  to  pay  off  and  cancel  ono 
mdlion  and  a  half  of  exchequer  bLUs  they  had  circulating 
two  years  before,  at  4i  per  cent.,  with  the  interest  upon 
them,  amounting  in  all" to  £1,775,028,  which  increased  tho 
permanent  debt  due  by  tho  public  to  the  bank,  including 
jC  100,000  then  advanced  in  consideration  of  tho  renewal 
of  the  charter,  to  £3,375,028,  for  which  they  were  allowed 
6  per  cent.  The  bank  c;ipital  was  then  also  doubled,  or 
increased  to  £4,402,342.  But  the  year  1708  is  chiefly 
memorable  in  the  history  of  the  bank,  for  the  Act  pre- 
viously alluded  to,  which  declared,  that  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  tho  corporation  of  the  Bank  of  England,  "  it 
should  not  be  lawful  for  any  body  politic,  erected  or  to  bo 
erected,  other  than  the  said  governor  and  company  of  the 
Bank  of  England,  or  of  any  other  persons  whatsoever, 
united  or  to  be  united  iu  covenants  or  partnership,  exceed- 
ing the  number  of  six  persons,  in  that  part  of  Great  Britain 
called  England,  to  borrow,  on-e,  or  take  up  any  sum  or 
sums  of  money  on  their  bills  or  notes  payable  on  demand, 
or  in  any  less  time  than  six  months  from  the  borrowing 
theresf."  This  proviso  is  said  to  have  been  elicited  by  the 
Mine  Adventurers  Company  having  commenced  banking 
business  and  begun  to  issue  notes.  It  will  be  seen  ou 
examination  that  tho  proviso  did  not  prohibit  the  forma- 
tion of  associations  for  general  banking  business;  it  simply 
forbade  the  issue  of  notes  by  associations  of  more  than  six 
partners ;  but  tho  issue  of  notes  was  regarded  as  so  essen- 
tial to  the  business  of  banking,  that  it  came  to  be  believed 
that  joint-stock  banking  associations  were  absolutely  pro- 
hibited in  England,  and  no  such  association  was  founded 
until  after  the  legislation  of  1826  (see  p.  322)  expressly 
permitting  them  to  be  established.  The  charter  of  tho 
Bank  of  England,  when  first  granted,  was  to  continue  for 
eleven  years  certain,  or  till  a  year's  notice  after  the  1st  of 
August  1705.  The  charter  was  further  prolonged  in  1G07. 
In  170S,  the  bank,  having  advanced  £400,000  for  tbe 
public  service,  without  interest,  the  exclusive  privileges  of 
the  corporation  were  prolonged  till  1733.  And  in  con- 
sequence of  various  advances  mado  at  different  times,  the 
exclusive  privileges  of  the  bank  were  continued  by  suc- 
cessive renewals  till  the  1st  of  August  1855,  with  tho 
proviso  that  they  might  be  cancelled  on  a  year's  notice 
to  that  effect  being  given  after  the  said  1st  of  August 
1855. 

Vi'e  subjoin  an  account  of  the  successive  renewals  of  tho 
charter,  of  the  conditions  under  which  these  renewals  were 
made,  and  of  the  variations  in  the  amount  and  interest 
of  the  permanent  debt  due  by  Government  to  the  bank, 
exclusive  of  the  dead  weight. 


Duto  of       Coiidltlonft  nndtrr  wlil.-h   Tlcncwiila  were 
Uuncw&l.        nmcle  ftntl  Kctmar-ent  Dt-bt  coDtiBctid. 
I — 

1694 


Ch.irtcr  },Ta""'<'  u'ldiT  the  Act  5  nnj 
G  Will.  111.  c.  20.  rcJccmalili 
ui>ou  the  expiration  of  twelve 
months'  notice  after  tho  1st 
August  1705,  upon  payment  by 
tlie  puMic  to  tho  hank  of  the  (Ic- 
UKintl  theroin  9[a'cificil. 

Under  this  Act  the  bank  oil- 
vaneo.l  to  tho  public  £1,200,000 
iu  consideration  of  their  receiving 
an  annuity  of  £100,000  a  year, 
viz.,  8  per  oent.  interest  and  £1000 
for  management 


Carryforward 1.200,000 


rerniBnent  Debt. 


».  d. 


1,200,000     0    0 


318 


BANKING 


Dale  of 
RLtlewal 


1697 


r708 


1713 


1712 


Conditions  under  which  Renewals  were 
maiie  and  Permanent  Debt  contracted. 


Permanent  Debt. 


Brought  forward 
Chatter  continued  by  8  and  9  Will. 
111.  c.  20,  till  twelve  months'  no- 
tice after  1st  of  August  1710,  on 
payment,  kc. 

Under  this  Act  the  bank  took 
up  and  added  to  their  stock 
£1,001,171  Excheijuer  bills  and 
tallies. 
Charter  continued  by  7  Antw,  c  7, 
till  twelve  months'  notice  after 
1st  of  August  1732,  on  pavment, 
ic. 

Under  this  Act  the  bank  ad- 
vanced £400,000  to  Government 
mthout  interest,  and  delivered 
up  to  be  cancelled  £1,775,027, 
173.  lOd.  E.tchequer  bills,  in  con- 
sideration of  their  receiving  an 
annuity  of  £106,501,  133.,  beijig 

at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent 

Charter  continued  by  12  Anne, 
Stat.  1,  c'  11,  till  twelve  months' 
notice  after  tho  1st  of" August 
1742,  on  payment,  &c. 

In  1716,  "by  the  3  Geo.  I.  o.  8, 
the  bank  advanced  to  Government, 
at  5  pep  cent 

And  by  the  same  Act  the  in- 
•terest  on  the  Excheijuer  bills  can- 
celled in  1.780  waa  reduced  from 
6  to  5  per  cent. 

In  1721,  by  S  Geo.  I.e.  21,  the 
South  Sea  Company  were  autho- 
rized to  sell  £200,000  Government 
annuities,  and  corporations  pur- 
chasing the  samo  at  26  years' 
purchase  were  authorized  to  add 
the  amount  to  their  capital  stock. 
The  bank  -purchased  tlie  whole 
of  these  annuities  at  20  years' 
purchase ^ 

Five  per  cent,  interest  was  pay- 
able on  this  sura  to  midsum- 
mer 1727,  and  thereafter  4  per 
cent. 

At  difTercnt  times  between  1727 
and  1738,  both  iiJclusive,  the 
bank  received  from  the  public, 
on  account  of  permanent  debt, 
£3,275,027,  173.  10d„  and  ad- 
vanc'ed  to  it,  on  account  of  ditto, 
£3,000,000:  DitTeronce. 

Debt   due    by  the    puldiB   in 

1738...- 

Chaitor  continued  by  15  Geo.  11. 
c.  13,  tijl  12  months'  iiotii^e  after 
the  1st  of  August  1764,  on  pay- 
ment, ic. 

Under  this  Act  the  bank  ad- 
vanced £1,600,000  without  in- 
terest, which,  being  added  to  the 
original  advance  of  £1,200,000, 
and  the  £400,000  advanced  in 
1710,  bearing  interest  at  6  per 
cent.,  reduced  tlie  interest  on  the 
whole  to  3  per  cent 

In  1745.  under  authority  .of  19 
Geo.  II.  c.  6,  tho  b.mk  delivered 
up  to  be  cancelled  £986,000  of 
Exchequer  bills,  in  consideration 
of  an  annuity  oC  £39,472,  being 
at  the  rate  of  3  per  cent 

In  1749,  tho  23d  Geo.  II.  c.  6. 
reduced  the  interest  on  the  4  per 
cent,  annuities,  held  by  the  bank, 
to  3^  per  cent,  for  seven  years 
from  tho  25th  of  DcL-enibcr  1750, 
and  thoreafler  to  3  per  cent 

Carry  torunrd  


£  J.     d. 

1.200,000     0     0 


2,175,027  17  10 


2,000,000     0     0 


4,000,000     0     0 


9,375,027  17  10 


275,027  17  10 
9,100,000     0     0 


1,600,000     0    0 


986,000     0     0 


ll,69fl,000     0     0 


D.^te  of 
ReneWiil. 


1764 


1781 


1800 


1833 


1844 


861 


ConOitions  under    winch  Renewals  were 
made  and  Pernianent  Debt  contracted. 


Brouglit  forward      .... 

Charter   continued   by  4  Geo.    III. 

c.  25,  till  twelve  months'  notice 

after  the  1st  of  August  1786,  on 

payment,  kc. 

Under  this  Act  the  bank  paid 
into  the  Exchequer£110,000,  free 
of  all  charge. 
Charter  continued  by  21  Geo  III. 
c.  60,  till  twelve  months  notice 
after  the  1st  of  August  1S12,  on 
payment,  &c. 

Under  this  Act  the  bank  ad- 
vanced £30,000,000  for  the  public 
service  for  three  years,  at  3  p.  cent. 
Charter  continued  by  40  Glo.  111. 
c.  23,  till  twelve  months'  notice 
after  the  1st  of  August  1833,  on 
payment,  &c. 

Under  this  Act  the  bank  ad- 
vanced to  Government  £3.000,000 
for  six  years  without  interest ;  but 
in  pursuance  of  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  committee  of  1807,  the 
advance  was  continued,  without  in- 
terest, till  six  monthsafter  the  sig- 
nature of  a  definitive  treaty  of  peace. 

In  1816,  the  bank,  under  au- 
thority of  the  Act  56  Geo.  III.  c. 
96,  advanced  at  3  per  cent.,  to  be 
repaid  on   or  before    the   1st  of 

August  1833 .  . 

Charter  continued  by  3  and  4  Will. 
IV.  c.  9S,  till  twelve  months' 
notice  after  the  1st  of  August 
1855,  with  a  proviso  that  it  may 
be  dissolved -on  twelve  months' 
notice  after  the  1st  of  August 
1855,  on  payment,  kc. 

This  Act  directs  that  in  future 
the  bank. shall  deduct  £120.000 
a  year  from  their  charge  on  ac- 
count of  the  management  of  the 
public  debt ;  and  tliat  a  fourth 
1  at  of  the  debt  due  by  the  public 
to  the  bank,  or  £3,671,000,  be 
paid  off 

Permanont-advance  by  the  bank 
to  the  public,  bearing  interest  at  3 
percent.,  independent  of  the  ad- 
vances on  account  of  dead  weight, 
or  otlie^    public    securities   held' 

by  it 

Cluirtcr  continued  by  7  and  8  Viet, 
c.  32,  till  twelve  months  after  the 
1st  of  August  1355,  on  payment, Ac. 

This  Act  exempts  the  notes  of 
the  bank  from  all  charge  on  ac- 
count of  stamp-duty,  and  directs 
that  in  future  the  bank  shall  de- 
duct a  further  sum  of  £180.000 
a  year  from  the  charge  on  account 
of  the  management  of  the  public 
debt.  It  also  allows  notes  of  the 
value  of  £14,000,000  to  be  issued 
on  securities,  separates  the  bank- 
ing from  the  issuing  department 
of  tho  establishment,  and  effects 
other  iu'portant  changes. 
The  Act  21  and  25  Vict.  c.  3,  pro- 
vides fresh  terms  of  jjayment  to 
endure  until  tho  5th  April  1886. 
Tlie  amo\int  to  be  deducted  to  bo 
£60,000  plus  tho.  whole  allowance 
out  of  profits  of  issue,  making  in 
ftU  at  that  time  £188.078,  and 
now  (1875)  about  £200,000. 

The  amount  to  1m*  issued  on  se- 
curities WAS  raised  to  £15,000,000 
on  2Ist  Kebruary  1366. 


Permanent  DebL 


£ 
11,686,000 


3.000,000     0     0 


14,686,000     0     0 


3,071.000     0     0 


11,015,000     0     0 


B  A  N  K  I  ^^  G 


319 


The  capital  of  the  bank  od  which  dividends  are  paid  has 
never  exactly  coincided  with,  though  it  has  seldom  differed 
very  materially  from,  the  permanent  adv;ince  by  the  bank 
to  the  public.  We  have  already  seen  that  it  amounted  in 
170S  to  £4,402,342.  Between  that  year  and  1727  it  had 
increased  to  near  £9,000,000.  In  1746  it  amounted  to 
X10,780,000.  From  this  period  it  underwent  no  change 
till  1782,  when  it  was  increased  8  per  cent.,  amounting  to 
£11,642,400.  It  continued  stationary  at  this  sum  down 
to  1810,  when  it  was  raised  to  £14,553,000,  by  an  addition 
of  25  per  cent,  from  the  profits  of  the  bank,  under  the 
provisions  of  the  Act  06  Geo.  III.  c.  96.  The  Act  for  the 
renewal  of  the  charter  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c.  98,  directed 
that  the  sum  of  £3,671,700,  being  the  fourth  part  of  the 
debt  due  by  the  public  to  the  bank,  should  be  paid  to  the 
latter,  giving  the  bank  the  option  of  deducting  it  from  its 
capital  But  that  has  not  been  done  ;  and  after  sundry 
changes,  the  capital  of  the  bank  amounts,  as  formerly,  to 
£14,553,000. 

The  Bank  of  England  has  been  frequently  affected  by 
panics  amongst  the  holders  of  her  notes.  In  1745  the 
alarm  occasioned  by  the  advance  of  the  Highlanders,  under 
the  Pretender,  as  far  as  Derby,  led  to  a  run  upon  the  bank  ; 
and  in  order  to  gain  time  to  effect  measures  for  averting 
the  run,  the  directors  adopted  the  device  of  paying  in 
shillings  and  sixpences  I  But  they  derived  a  more  effectual 
relief  from  the  retreat  of  the  Highlanders,  and  from  a 
resolution  agreed  to  at  a  meeting  of  the  principal  merchants 
and  traders  of  the  city,  and  very  numerously  signed, 
declaring  the  willingness  of  the  subscribers  to  receive 
bank-notes  in  payment  of  any  sum  that  might  be  due  to 
ihem,  and  pledging  ^themselves  to  use  their  utmost  endea- 
vours to  make  all  their  payments  in  the  same  medium. 

During  the  tremendous  riots  in  June  1780,  the  bank 
incurred  considerable  danger  Had  the  mob  attacked  the 
establishment  at  the  commencement  of  the  riots,  the  conse- 
quences might  have  proved  fatal.  But  they  delayed  their 
altack  till  time  had  been  afforded  for  providing  a  force 
sufficient  to  insure  its  safety.  Since  that  period  a  consider- 
able luilit.^ry  force  occupies  the  bank  every  night  as  a  pro- 
tection in  any  emergency  that  may  occur. 

Frogras  of  Banking  m  Enjlnnd  down  to  Restriction  Order 

o/\797. 

The  business  of  banking  had  meanwhile  been  undertaken 
in  several  of  the  country  towns  of  England.  The  still 
existing  bank  of  Messrs'Smith  ik  Co.  of  Nottingham,  the 
parent  of  the  London  establishment  of  Messrs  Smith, 
Payne,  and  Smiths,  claims  to  have  been  established  in 
1688  ;  the  Bristol  (Md  Bank  (Messrs  Baillie,  Cave,  and  Co.) 
dates  fmm  1750,  the  Hull  Old  Bank  (Messrs  Peasoand  Co.) 
from  1754  ;  and  many  other  country  banks  trace  back  their 
history  to  the  latter  half  of  the  last  centurj'.  It  is  believed 
that  all  these  bankers  issued  their  own  notes  payable  to 
bearer  as  part  of  their  business  ;  and  they  were  not  very 
scrupulous  in  regard  to  the  m.ngnitude  of  the  sums  for 
which  they  were  given.  The  Bank  of  England  had  not 
issued  any  notes  for  less  than  £20  previously  to  1759, 
when  it  commenced  the  issue  of,  £10  notes;  but  the 
country  bankers  put  in  circulation  notes  for  such  small 
Bums  that  Parliament  enacted,  in  1775,  that  none  should 
l>o  issued  for  less  ihan  £1.  In  1777  this  minimum  limit 
was  further  raised  to  £5,  but  in  spite  of  this  restriction  the 
number  and  the  amount  of  the  issues  of  the  country 
bankers  soon  become  dangerously  multiplied.  The  ter- 
mination of  the  American  War  was  followed  by  a  great 
industrial  and  commercial  development  at  home.  Agri- 
C'llture,  commerce,  and  still  more,  manufactures,  into  which 
Walt  and  Arkwrighf's   inventions  bad  been  lately  intro-  i 


duced,  immediately  began  to  advance  with  a  rapidity 
unknown  at  any  former  period.  In  consequence,  that 
confidence  which  had  either  been  destroyed,  or  very  much 
weakened  by  the  disastrous  events  of  the  war,  wcs  fully 
reestablished.  The  extended  transactions  of  the  coimtry 
required  fresh  facditite  for  carrying  them  on,  and  these 
were  supplied  in  the  utmost  profusion.  The  number  of 
banks,  which  in  1784  was  certainly  under  150,  increased 
80  rapidly,  that  in  1792  they  amounted  to  about  350.  In 
consequence,  a  banking  oflSco  was  opened  in  every  market- 
town  and  in  most  considerable  villages.  And  such  being 
the  case,  it  is  needless,  perhaps,  to  add,  that  the  prudence, 
capital,  and  connections  of  those  who  set  up  these  establish- 
ments were  but  little  attended  to.  The  great  object  of  a 
large  class  of  traders  was  to  obtain  discounts  ;  and  the 
bankers  of  an  inferior  description  were  equally  anxious  to 
accommodate  them.  All  sorts  of  paper  were  thus  forced 
into  circulation,  and  enjoyed  nearly  the  snme  degree  of 
esteem.  The  bankers  and  those  with  whom  they  dealt 
had  the  fullest  confidence  in  each  other.  No  one  seemed 
to  suspect  that  there  was  anything  hollow  or  unsound  in 
the  system.  Credit  of  every  kind  was  strained  to  the 
utmost ;  and  the  available  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the 
bankers  were  reduced  far  below  the  level  which  the  magni- 
tude of  their  transactions  required  to  render  them  secure. 

The  catastrophe  which_  followed  was  such  as  might 
easily  have  been  foreseen.  ,The  currency  having  become 
redundant,  the  exchanges  took  an  unfavourable  turn  in  the 
eariy  part  of  1792.  A  difBculty  of  obtaining  pecuniary 
accommodation  in  London  was  not  long  after  experienced  ; 
and,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  the  Bank  of  England 
to  mitigate  tho  pressure,  a  violent  revulsion  took  place  in 
the  latter  part  of  1792  and  the  beginning  of  1793.  The 
failure  of  one  or  two  great  houses  excited  a  panic  which 
proved  fatal  to  many  more.  Out  of  the  350  country 
banks  in  England  and  Wales,  when  this  revulsion  began, 
about  300  were  compelled  to  stop  payments,  and  upwards  of 
50  were  totally  destroyed,  producing  by  their  fall  an  extent 
of  misery  and  bankruptcy  till  then  unknown  in  the  country. 

Attempts  have  sometimes  been  made  to  show  that  this 
crisis  was  not  occasioned  by  an  excess  of  paper  money 
having  been  forced  into  circulation,  but  by  the  agitation 
caused  by  the  war  then  on  the  eve  of  breaking  out.  But 
there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  good  grounds  for  this 
opinion.  The  symptoms  of  an  overflow  of  paper — a  fall  of 
tho  exchange,  aud  an  etUux  of  bullion — took  place  early  in 
1792,  or  about  twelve  mouths  before  the  breaking  out  of 
hostilities. 

Suspension  of  Cash  Payments  in  1797. 
The  year  1797  is  a  most  important  epoch  in  the  history  of 
English  banking.  Owing  partly  to  events  connected  with 
the  war  then  carried  on,  to  loans  to  the  Emperor  of 
Germany,  to  bills  drawn  on  tho  trcasurj'  at  home  by  the 
British  agents  abroad,  and  partly,  and  chiefly,  perhaps, 
to  the  advances  most  unwillingly  made  by  the  bank  to 
Government,  which  prevented  the  directors  from  having  a 
sufhcient  control  over  their  issues,  the  exchanges  became 
unfavourable  in  1705,  and  in  that  and  the  following  ytjr 
large  sums  of  specie  were  drawn  from  the  bank.  In  tho 
end  of  1796  and  beginning  of  1797,  cpnsiderable  appre- 
hensions were  entertained  of  invasion,  and  rumours  were 
propagated  of  descents  having  been  actually  made  on  th? 
coast.  In  consequence  of  the  fears  that  were  thus  excited, 
runs  were  made  on  the  provincial  banks  in  different  part.i 
of  the  countiy ;  and  some  of  them  having  failed,  the 
panic  became  general  and  extended  itsilf  to  London. 
Demands  for  cash  poured  in  from  all  quarters  upon  the 
bank,  which,  on  Saturday  the  25th  of  February  1797,  had 
only  £1,272,000  of  cash  and  bullion  in  its  coffers,  with 


320 


BANKING 


every  prospect  of  a  violent  run  taking  place  on  the  follow- 
ing Monday.  In  this  emergency,  an  order  in  council  was 
issued  on  Sunday  the  26th,  prohibiting  the  directors  from 
paying  their  notes  in  cash  until  the  sense  of  Parliament 
should  be  taken  on  the  subject.  And  after  Parliament  met, 
and  the  measure  had  been  much  discissed,  it  was  agreed  to 
continue  the  restriction  till  six  months  after  the  signature 
of  a  definitive  treaty  of  peace. 

As  soon  as  the  order  in  council  prohibiting  payments 
m  cash  appeared,  a  meeting  of  the  principal  bankers, 
merchants,  traders,  ic,  of  the  metropolis,  was  held  at  the 
Mansion-house,  when  a  resolution  was  agreed  to,  and  very 
numerously  signed,  pledging,  as  had  been  done  in  1745, 
those  present  to  accept,  and  to  use  every  means  in  their 
power  to  make  bank-notes  be  accepted,  as  cash  in  all  trans- 
actions. This  resolution  tended  to  allay  the  apprehensions 
that  the  restriction  had  excited. 

Parliament  being  in  session  at  the  time,  a  committee  was 
immediately  appointed  to  examine  into  the  affairs  of  the 
bank;  and  their  report  put  to  rest  whatever  doubts  might 
have  been  entertained  with  respect  to  the  solvency  of  the 
establishment,  by  showing,  that  at  the  moment  when  the 
order  in  council  appeared,  the  bank  was  possessed  of 
property  to  the  amount  of  £15,513,690,  after  all  claims 
upon  it  had  been  deducted.  This  suspension  of  cash 
payments  being  naturally  followed  by  a  withdrawal  of  gold 
from  circulation,  made  it  necessary  to  allow  of  the  issue  of 
notes  of  a  smaller  denomination  than  £5,  and  the  statute  of 
1777  was  accordingly  also  suspended. 

Much  difference  of  opinion  has  existed  with  respect  to 
the  policy  of  the  restriction  in  1797  ,  but,  considering  the 
peculiar  circumstances  under  which  it  took  place,  its 
expediency  seems  abundantly  obvious.  The  run  did  not 
originate  in  any  over  issue  of  bank  paper,  but  grew  entirely 
out  of  political  causes  So  long  as  the  alarms  of  invasion 
continued,  it  was  clear  that  no  bank  paper  immediately 
convertible  into  gold  would  remain  in  circulation.  And  as 
the  bank,  though  possessed  of  ample  fund.o,  was  without 
the  means  of  instantly  retiring  its  notes,  it  might,  but 
lor  the  interferenco  of  Government,  have  been  obliged  to 
stop  payments, — an  event  which,  had  it  occurred,  might 
have  produced  consequences  fatal  to  the  public  interests. 

The  error  of  the  Government  did  not  consist  in  their 
coming  to  the  assistance  of  the  bank,  but  in  continuing  the 
restriction  after  the  alarm  of  invasion  bad  ceased  and  there 
was  nothing  to  hinder  the  bank  from  safely  reverting  to 
specie  payments. 

It  had  been  generally  siipi'Osed.  previously  to  the  passing 
o(  the  Restriction  Act,  that  bank  notes  would  not  circulate 
unless  they  were  immediately  convertible  into  cash.  But 
llie  event  showed  that  this  was  not  really  the  case 
Though  the  notes  of  the  Bank  of  Engl.ind  were  not,  at  the 
passing  of  the  Restriction  Act.  declared  by  law  to  be  legal 
lender,  they  were  rendered  such  in  practice,  by  being 
received  as  cash  in  all  payn.etils  on  account  of  Government, 
and  by  the  vast  majority  of  individuals  For  the  first  three 
years  of  the  restriction,  their  issues  were  so  moderate  that 
they  not  only  kept  on  a  par  with  gold  but  actually  bore  a 
small  premium.  But  in  1801.  1802,  and  1S03,  they  were 
80  much  increased  that  they  fell  to  3  discount  of  from  8  to 
10  percent.  In  1804  they  again  recovered  their  value, 
and  from  that  year  to  1808,  both  Inclusive,  they  were  at  a 
discount  of  2J  per  cent.  In  ISUi)  and  1810.  however.  Ilia 
directors  appear  to  have  embarked  on  a  new  cour.^c,  and  to 
have  entirely  lost  sight  of  the  principles  by  which  their 
issues  had  previously  been  governed  ;  for  the  average 
nmount  <if  bank  notes  in  circulation,  which  had  not  exceeded 
17J  milliona.  nor  fallen  short  of  16}  millions,  in  any  one 
year,  from  I  S02  to  1 808,  both  inclusTve,  was  in  1 809  raised 
to  X18,y27,833,  and  1810  to  £22,541,523.     The  issues 


of  cot;.ntry  bank  paper  were  increased  in  a  still  greater  pro- 
portion ;  and,  as  there  was  no  corresponding  increase  of  tha 
business  of  the  country,  the  discount  on  bank-notes  rose  from 
2h  in  1808  to  from  13  to  16  per  cent,  in  1809  and  1810 

This  depreciation  in  the  value  of  bank  paper  being 
accompanied  by  a  corresponding  fall  in  the  exchange 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  public  and  the  legislature. 
In  consequence,  the  House  of  Commons  appointed,  in  1810, 
a  committee  to  inquire  into  the  subject ;  and  having 
examined  several  witnesses,  the  committee  in  their  report, 
which  was  both  an  able  and  a  celebrated  paper,  justly 
ascribed  the  fall  in  the  value  of  bank  paper,  as  compared 
with  gold,  to  its  over-issue  ,  and  recommended,  in  the  view 
of  correcting  the  existing  evil  and  of  preventing  its 
recurrence,  that  within  two  years  the  bank  should  be 
obliged  to  resume  specie  payments.  But  this  recommenda- 
tion not  being  adopted,  the  over-issue  of  paper  went  on 
increasing.  In  1812  it  was  at  an  average  discount,  as 
compared  with  bullion,  of  20  per  cent.,  in  1813,  of  23  pei 
cent.;  and  in  1814,  when  the  maximum  of  depreciation 
was  attained,  it  was  at  25  per  cent. 

At  the  period  when  the  restriction  on  cash  payments  took 
place  in  1797,  it  is  supposed  that  there  were  about  280 
country  banks  in  existence  ;  but  so  rapidly  were  these 
establishments  multiplied,  that  they  amounted  to  above 
900  in  1813.  The  price  of  corn,  influenced  partly  by  the 
depreciation  of  the  currency  and  the  faciUty  with  which 
discounts  were  obtained,  but  more  by  deficient  harvests 
and  the  unprecedented  difficulties  which  the  war  threw  in 
the  way  of  importation,  rose  to  an  extraordinary  height 
during  the  five  years  ending  .with  1813.  But  the  harvest 
of  that  year  being  unusuiJly  productive,  and  the  intercourse 
with  the  Continent  being  then  also  renewed,  prices, 
influenced  by  both  circumstances,  sustained  a  very  heavy 
fall  in  the  latter  part  of  1813  and  the  beginning  of  1814. 
And  this  fall  having  ruined  a  considerable  number  of 
larmers  and  produced  a  general  want  of  confidence,  such  a. 
destruction  of  provincial  paper  took  place  as  has  rarely 
been  paralleled  In  1814,  1815,  and  1816,  no  fewer  than 
240  country  banks  stopped  payment ,  and  eighty-nine  com- 
missions of  bankruptcy  were  issued  against  these  establish- 
meuts,  being  at  the  rate  of  one  commission  against  every  ten 
and  a  half  of  the  total  number  of  banks  existing  in  1813» 

The  great  reduction  that  was  thus  suddenly  and  violently 
brought  abnut  in  the  quantity  nf  country  bank  paper,  by 
extending  the  field  for  the  circulation  of  Bank  of  England 
paper,  raised  its  value  in  1817  nearly  to  a  par  with  gold. 
I  he  return  to  cash  payments  being  thus  facilitated,  it  was 
fixed,  in  1819,  by  the  Act  59  Geo  III  c  78,  commonly 
called  Sir  Robert  Peel's  Act,  that  they  should  take  place  in 
1823  But  to  prevent  any  future  over  issue,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  render  the  resumption  as  little  burdensome  as 
possible.  It  was  enacted,  in  pursuance  of  a  plan  suggested 
by  Mr  Kicardo.  that  the  batiks  should  be  obliged  during 
the  interval  from  the  passing  of  the  Act  till  the  return  to 
sjiecie  payments,  to  pay  its  notes,  il  required,  in  bars  of 
standard  bullion  ol  not  less  than  sixty  ounces'  weight 
This  plan  was  not,  however,  acted  upon  during  the  period 
allowed  by  law  ,  for  a  large  amount  of  gold  having  been 
nrcumulatcd  at  the  bank,  the  directors  prelcrrcd  recom- 
mencing specie  payments  on  the  Ist  of  May  1821 

The  fluctuations,  referred  to  aliove,  in  the  value  of  papir 
were  exceedingly  injurimis  From  1809  to  1815.  the 
creditors  of  every  antecedent  contract,  land  holders  whose 
estates  had  been  let  on  k'ase.  stockholders  and  annuitants 
of  every  description — all  in  short,  who  could  not  raise  lh«- 
nominal  amount  of  their  claims  or  incomes  proportionally 
to  the  fall  in  the  value  of  money,  were  to  that  cxtoul  losers. 
The  inju.ttico  that  would  h.ive  been  done  to  the  creditors 
ol  the  state  and  of  mdividuals,  who  had  made  their  loan'- 


BANKING 


321 


in  goli,  or  paper  equivalent  to  gold,  by  raising  the 
denomination  of  the  coin  twenty-five  percent.,  however  gross 
nnd  palpable,  wouhi  not  have  been  greater  than  was  actually 
done  them  in  1814,  by  compelling  them  to  receive  payment 
of  their  just  debts  in  paper  depreciated  to  that  extent. 

It  is  true,  that  after  a  currency  has  been  for  a  consider- 
able period  depreciated,  as  much  injustice  is  done  by  rais- 
ing, as  was  previously  done  by  (depressing,  its  value.  But 
there  is  good  reason  to  doubt  whether  the  depreciation  from 
1809  to  1815  (for  the  depreciation  of  2J  per  cent,  during 
the  SIX  preceding  years  is  too  inconsiderable  to  be  taken 
into  account)  extended  over  a  sufficiently  lengthened  period 
to  warrant  the  Legislature  in  departing  from  the  old  stan- 
dard. It  is  needless,  however,  to  offer  any  opinion  on  this 
rather  difficult  point,  for  wo  have  seen  that  the  value  of 
p^per  was  raised  iu  1816  and  1817  almost  to  par  by  acci 
dental  circumstances  without  any  interference  on  the  part 
of  Government  or  of  tha  bank  Sir  Robert  Peel's  Act,  to 
which  this  rise  bad  been  ascribed,  not  being  passed  till 
1819,  could  have  nothing  to  do  with  whatoccurrtd  two  or 
three  years  previously.  Its  object  was  twofold,  to  redeem 
the  pledge  given  by  Parliament  to  restore  the  old  standard 
on  the  return  of  peace,  and  to  shut  the  door  against  any 
fresh  depreciation  of  paper. 

History  of  Banking  from  the  Ihsumplion  of  Cash 
Payments  to  the  Crisis  of  1825 

The  resumption  of  cash  payments  did  not,  however,  put 
dn  end  to  the  vicissitudes  of  banking.     Notwithstanding 
the  ample  experience  that  had  been  supplied  by  the  occur- 
rences of  1792-93  and  1814-10,  of  the  mischievous  conse- 
quences of  the  issue  of  paper  by  the  country  banks,  and  of 
their  want  of  solidity,  ifothing  whatever  was  done,  when 
provision  was  made  for  returning  to  specie  payments,  to 
restrain  their  issues,  or  to  place  them  on  a  better  footing 
The  consequences  of  such  improvidence  were  not  long  in 
manifesting   themselves.     The    prices  of   corn    and  other 
agricultural  products,  which  had  bten  greatly  depressed  in 
consequence    of   abundant   harvests,  in   1820.   1821,  and 
1822,  rallied  in   1823,  and  the  country  bankers  immedi- 
ately began  to  enlarge  their  issues.     It  is  unnecessary  to 
inquire  into  the  circumstances  which  conspired,  along  with 
the  rise  of    prices,  to  promote  the  extraordinary  rage  for 
(peculation  exhibited  in  1824  and   1825      It  is  sufficient 
to  observe,  that  in  consequence  of  their  operation,  confidence 
w.as  very  soon  carried  to  the  greatest  height      It  did  not 
seem  to  be  supposed  that  any  scheme  could  be  hazardous, 
much  less  wild  or  extravagant      The  infatuation  was  such, 
that  even  the  most  considerate  persons  did  not  scruple  to 
embark  in  visionary  and  absurd  projects  ,  while  the  extreme 
facility  with  which  discounts  were  procured  upon  bills  at 
very  lung  dates,  afforded  the  means  of  carrying  on  every 
Burt   ol    undertaking       The    mosi    worthless    paper    was 
readily  negotiated.     Many  of  the  country  bankers  seemed. 
Indeed,  to  have  no  other  object  than    to  get   themselves 
indebted    to  the  public      And   such  was  the  vigour  and 
success  of  their  efforts  to  force  their  paper  into  circulation, 
that  the  amount  of  it  afloat  in   1825  is  estimated  to  have 
been  nearly  CO  per  cent,  greater  than  in   1823.     The  con- 
sequences of   this   extravagant  and    unprincipled  conduct 
are  well  known      The  currency  having  become  redundant, 
the  exchanges  began  to  decline  in  the  summer  of   1824. 
Tlie  directors  of  the   Bank  of    England  having  unwarily 
entered,  in  the  early  part  of  that  year,  into  an  engagement 
with  the  Government  to  pay  off  such  holders  of  4  per  cent, 
stock  as  might  dissent  from  its  conversion  into  a  3J  per 
cent  stock,  were  obliged  to  advance  a  considerable  sum  on 
this  account  after  the  depression  of   the  exchange.      But 
U'.'pite  this  circumstance,  they  might  «nd  ought  to  have 

3—13 


taken  measures,  in  the  latter  part  of  1824  and  the  earlie* 
part  of  1825,  by  fossening  their  issues  to  stop  the  elllux 
of  bullion.  But  not  being  suiBciently  alive  to  the  u 
of     '  ■     •• 


argcncy 


the  crisis,  the  London  currency  was  not  materially 
diminfshed  till  September  1825.  The  recoil,  which  would 
have  been  less  severe  had  tti^off-^rt^  of  the  bank  to  prevent 
the  exhaustion  of  its  coffers  taken  place  ai  ^f,  «.rlier 
period,  was  most  appalling.  The  country  banks  be^;-.  .^ 
give  way  the  moment  they  experienced  a  considasably 
increased  difficulty  of  obtaining  accommodation  in  London, 
and  confidence  and  credit  were  immediately  at  an  end. 
Suspicion  having  awakened  from  her  trance,  distrust  had 
no  limits.  All  classes  of  depositors  made  haste  to  call 
up  the  sums  they  had  entrusted  to  the  car»  of  the  banks. 
There  was  also  a  run  upon  them  for  payment  of  their 
notes,  not  in  the  view  of  sending  the  gold  as  a  mercantile 
adventure  to  the  Continent,  but  to  escape  the  loss  which  it 
became  obvious  the  holders  of  country  paper  would  have 
to  sustain.  Saiive  qui  pent  was  the  universal  cry  ,  and  the 
destructioii  was  so  sudden  and  extensive,  that  in  less  than 
six  weeks  above  seventy  banking  establishments  were 
swept  off,  and  a  vacuum  was  created  in  the  currency  which 
absorbed  from  eight  to  ten  millions  of  additional  issues  by 
the  Bank  of  England,  at  the  same  time  that  myriads  of 
those  private  bills  that  bad  previously  swelled  the  amount 
of  the  currency,  and  added  to  the  machinery  of  speculation, 
were  wholly  destroyed 

It  may  be  worth  while,  perhaps,  to  observe  that  it  haa 
been  alleged,  in  opposition  to  what  is  now  stated,  that  the 
difficulties  of  the  bank  in  1825  were  not  caused  by  any 
excess  either  of  its  issues  or  of  those  of  the  country  banks, 
but  by  the  too  great  amount  of  the  capital,  that  is  of  coin 
and  bullion,  it  had  lent ;  and  in  proof  of  this  allegation, 
we  are  referred  to  the  increase  of  nearly  eight  millions  in 
the  amoupt  of  securities  which  the  bank  held  in  August 
1825  over  their  amount  m  August  1822,  and  to  the 
simultaneous  decrease  of  nearly  six  and  a  half  millions  in 
the  amount  of  bullion  in  its  coffers.'  But  a  little  con- 
sideration will  suffice  to  show  the  futility  of  this  statement. 
No  issue  of  notes  can  be  said  to  be  in  itself  excessive 
Whether  it  is  or  is  not  in  excess  depends  upon  its  relation 
to  the  amount  of  coin  and  bullion  reserved  by  the  issuing 
bank  in  its  coffers  The  Bank  of  England  enlarged  its 
issues  disproportionately  and  took  no  steps,  or  none  of 
sufficient  energy,  to  reduce  the  amount  of  notes  in  circula- 
tion till  long  after  the  exchange  had  become  unfavourable, 
and  bullion  was  demanded  of  it  for  exportation.  The 
accumulation  of  securities  was  the  necessary  result  of  this 
radical  error  The  currency  having  become  redundant  in 
1824.  the  notes  ol  the  bank  were  returned  upon  it  for 
gold,  so  that  Its  securities  were  augmented  at  the  same 
time  that  its  means  of  dealing  with  the  unfavourable 
exchange  were  impaired  It  is  to  be  remembered,  that 
the  efflux  of  bullion  showed  conclusively  that,  however 
issued,  and  whether  greater  or  less  than  at  former  periods, 
the  paper  afloat  was  in  excess,  and  that  its  reduction  had 
becoine  indispensable  And  such  being  the  case,  it  w.as 
the  duly  of  the  bank  directors,  as  soon  as  they  felt  the  drain 
fo(  gold  setting  steadily  against  them,  to  adopt  every  means 
in  their  power,  by  raising  the  rate  of  interest.  Belling 
securities,  and  otheiwise,  to  reduce  their  issues,  and  restore 

'  Securilies  of  all  ioria.  3)st  August  1822,...'  £17,290.510 

SIsl  August  1825 25,106,030 

Excess  of  SerarillM,  3Ist  August  1825,  over  those 

kcld  on  31U  August  1822 ■    £7,»1 5,590 

Bullion  in  Bank,  31st  August  1822 jE]0,«»7»SI50 

„      31st  August  1825 :.'»  r  ■  3,63«.320 

Diminution  of  hulliOD £(J,WS.OJO 

Or>the  28th  Fcbniarj  1826,  the  bullion  in  the  bank  «mouul«l  to 
only  £2,459.510. 


322 


B.  A  K  K  I  N  G 


the  exchange  to  par.  And  had  they  do„e  this  at  a 
eafficicQtly  early  period,  it  is  aU  but  certain  the  bank  would 
not  have  lost  more  than  two  or  three  millions  of  buUion  ; 
whereas  by  their  following  a  different  line  of  conduct,  end 
deferrin"  the  adoption  of  vigorous  repressive  measures  tiU 
I  °  pp-:.-i  "  •"<"  drained  of  about  seven  railhons 
c  .  ,|,.-.,i,  and  its  safety  seriously  compromised  before  it 
-ould  stop  the  drain.' 

Lejitlution,  o/  1826 — Suppression  of  £\  Notes — Joint- 
Utock  Banks  of  Issue  authirrized. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  nations  are  slow  and 
reluctant  learners,  the  events  of  1825-26,  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  those  of  the  same  sort  that  had  previously 
occurred,  produced  a  conviction  of  the  necessity  of  doing 
somethmg  that  should  at  least  improve  the  system  of 
country  banking  in  England.  But  the  measures  adopted 
with  tbis  view  were  very  far  indeed  from  eiTectually  securing 
their  object.  The  law  of  1708,  limiting  to  six  the  number 
of  partners  in  banking  establishments  issuing  notes,  was 
repealed,  and  it  was  enacted,  that  banks  with  any  number 
of  partners  might  be  established  for  the  issue  of  notes 
anywhere  beyond  sixty-five  miles  from  London,  and  that 
banks  not  issuing  notes  might  be  established  in  London 
Itself  with  any  number  of  partners.  The  circulation  of 
notes  for  less  than  five  pounds  in  England  and  Wales  was 
at  the  same. time  forbidden.  It  was  intended  to  extend 
the  same  prohibition  to  Scotland  and  Ireland,  but  the 
opposition  to  the  proposal  excited  in  these  countries  was 
too  strong  to  be  overcome.  Sir  Walter  Scott  threw  himself 
zealously  into  the  controversy,  and  by  his  Letters  of  Matachi 
Malaijrowther,  helped  to  make  the  resistance  effectual. 

The  suppression  of  £\  notes  was  advantageous  in 
shutting  up  one  of  the  principal  channels  by  which. tlie 
inferior  class  of  country  bankers  got  their  paper  into 
circulation,  to  the  frequent  loss  of  the  poorer  classes  ;  but 
it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  balance  of  argument 
is  in  favour  of  the  issue  of  notes  of  this  denomination  by 
the  Bank  of  England  or  some  agency  of  the  state,  under 
conditions  ensuring  their  convertibility. 

The  second  branch  of  the  banking  legislation  of  1S2G 
was  for  some  time  a  comparative  failure.  Those  who 
luppoeed  that  joint-stock  banks  would  be  immediately  set 
on  foot  in  all  parts  of  England,  were  a  good  deal  disap- 
pointed with  the  slowness  with  which  they  spread  for  some 
years  after  the  Act  permitting  their  establishment  was 
passed.  The  heavy  losses  occasioned  by  the  downfall,  of 
most  of  the  joint-stock  projects  set  on  foot  in  1824  and 
1825,  made  all  projects  of  the  same  kind  bo  looked  upon 
for  a  considerable  period  with  suspicion,  and  deterred  most 
persons  from  embarking  in  them.  But  this  caution  gradu- 
ally wore  off ;  and  the  increasing  prosperity  of  the  country, 
and  the  dilTiculty  of  vesting  money  so  as  to  obtain  from  it 
reasonable  return,  generated  anew  a  disposition  to  adven- 
ture in  hazardous  projects.  A  mania  for  embarking  in 
speculative  schemes  acquired  considerable  strength  in  1834  ; 
and  during  1835  and  part  of  1836,  it  raged  with  a  violence 
but  little  inferior  to  that  of  1825.  It  was  at  first  princi- 
pally directed  to  railroad  projects ;  but  it  soon  began  to 
embrace  all  sorts  of  schemes,  and,  among  others,  joint  stock 
banks,  of  which  an  unprecedented  number  were  projected 
in  1835.     The  progress  of  the  system  was  as  follows  : — 

*  It  may  be  observed  that  Mr  McCulIocb  (on  whose  contributions 
to  the  BevcDth  and  eighth  editions  of  this  work  the  present  article  is 
havcd)  pointed  out  in  a  paper  in  the  Scotsman^  published  In  1825, 
what  would  be  the  inevitable  result  of  the  bank  allowing  the  drain  of 
bullion  to  nin  ita  course,  vii,,  that  it  would  be  drained  of  its  last 
•ov-reign,  and  obliged  to  stop  paynienls;  and  that  it  coiUd  not  avert 
thin  result  otherwise  than  by  narrowing  Its  issues,  and  raising  the  value 
of  the  currency.  Thodirectoudid  this  at  last,  but  they  ought  to  have 
ilone  it  Dcai  Ijr  twelve  monttis  sooiicr- 


nanl;3. 

lo  1S26  there  were  registered  6 

In  IS27 ,...,..,.,v..  1 

In  lS28..-,^-..-.,-...<».^,,„..,...„.  5 

Iq  m^  ........r^^. ^.;,^ 4 

In  lS30r„....»,.~^ ^„...,...-„  3 

In  1331 ,. ..,„....^..,^,..  8  ' 

Total,....    114 

In  point  of  fact,  however,  the  number  of  banks  created 
in  1835  and  1836  was  vastly  greater  than  appears  from 
this  statement.  It  seems  that,  at  an  avenge,  each  of  the 
56  banks  established  in  those  years,  like  those  previously 
established,  had  from  four  to  five  braiubes  ;  and  as  these 
branches  transacted  all  sorts  of  banking  business,  and 
enjoyed  the  same  credit  as  the  parent  establishment,  from 
which  they  were  frequently  at  a  great  distance,  they  were, 
to  all  intents  and  purposes,  so  many  new  banks  ;  so  that, 
instead  of  56,  it  may  safely  be  aOirmed  that  from  about 
220  to  280  new  joint  stock  banks  were  opened  in  England 
and  Wales  in  1835  and  1836,  but  mostly  in  the  former  year. 

In  January,  February,  and  March  183G,  when  tlio  rage 
for  establishing  joint-stock  banks  was  at  iLs  height,  the 
exchange  was  either  at  par,  or  slightly  in  our  favour, 
showing  that  the  currency  was  already  up  to  its  level,  anJ 
that  if  any  considerable  additions  were  made  to  it,  tbi- 
exchange  would  be  depressed,  and  a  drain  for  bullion  be 
experienced.  Bu.  these  circumstances,  if  ever  they  occurred 
to  the  managers  of  the  joint-stock  banks,  do  not  seem  to 
have  had,  and  could  not  in  truth  be  expected  to  have,  any  ma- 
terial influence  over  their  proceedings.  Their  issues,  which 
amounted  on  the  26th  of  December  1S35  to  £2,799,551, 
amounted  on  the  25th  of  June  1836  to  £3,588,064, 
exclusive  of  the  vast  mass  of  additional  bills,  cheques,  and 
other  substitutes  for  money  they  had  put  into  circula- 
tion. The  consequences  were  such  as  every  man  of  sense 
might  have  foreseen.  In  April  1836  the  exchange  became 
unfavourable,  and  bullion  began  to  be  demanded  from  the 
Bank  of  England.  The  directors,  that  they  might  the 
better  meet  the  drain,  raised  the  ratecf  interest  in  June  from 
4  to  4J  per  cent.,  and  this  not  being  enough  sufliciently  to 
lessen  the  pressure  on  the  bank  for  discounts,  ihcy  raised  it 
in  August  from  4  J  to  5  per  cent.  But  during  the  whole 
of  this  period  the  country  banks  went  on  increasing  their 
issues;  and  the  issues  of  the  joint-stock  banks  rose  from 
£3,588,064  in  June,  to  no  less  than  £4,258,197  on  the  31st 
of  December,  being  an  increase  of  nearly  20  per  cent,  after 
the  exchange  was  notorioubly  against  the  country;  and  the 
most  serious  consequences  were  apprehended  from  the  con- 
tinued drain  for  bullion. 

It  may,  perhaps,  be  supposed  that  the  increased  issue  of 
the  joint-stock  banks  would  be  balanced  by  a  coiresponding 
diminution  of  the  issues  of  the  private  batiks,  and  that  on 
the  whole  the  amount  of  their  joint  issues  mijjht  not  be 
increased.  This,  however,  was  not  the  case.  Some  private 
banks  were  abandoned  in  1836,  and  others  incorporated 
with  joint-stuck  banks ;  and  it  is  further  true,  that  thoso 
which  went  on  managed  their  atTairs  with  more  discretion 
than  their  a.ssociatcd  competitors.  But,  from  the  20th  o( 
September  1835  to  the  31st  of  December  1836,  the  issues 
of  the  private  banks  were  diminished  only  £159,087, 
whilst  those  of  the  joint-stocks  were  increased  during  the 
same  period  £1,750,160,  or  more  than  ten  timeiXhe  falling 
otr  in  the  others. 

These  statements  show  the  inexpediency  of  leaving  the 
issue  of  paper  to  the  unregulated  discretion  of  an  indefinite 
number  of  competing  banks.  Its  issue  ought  in  all  cases 
to  bo  governed  by  the  slate  of  the  exchange,  or  rather,  as 
already  elated,  iiy  the  inUux  aiui  eH'nx  of  bulhon.  But 
previously  to  1844,  the  provincial  banks  might  go  on  over- 
issuing for  a  lengthened  period  without  being  affected  by  a 
demand  for  bullion,  or  even  for  Bank  of  England  paper. 


BANKING 


323 


In  the  end,  no  doubt,  an  c2Iiix  of  tLe  former  was  sure, 
by  rendering  nuuiey  and  all  sorts  of  pecuniary  accommoda- 
tion scarce  in  the  metropolis,  to  afl'ect  tlxe  country  banks  as 
well  as  tUe  Bank  of  England ;  and  then  tho  injury  to 
industry,  occasioned  by  the  withdrawal  of  their  accustomed 
ftccommodalions  from  a  great  number  of  individuals,  was 
severe  in  proportion  to  the  too  great  liberality  with  which 
they  bad  previouily  been  supplied.  This  was  especially 
the  case  in  183C,  when  the  Bank  of  England,  by  bolstering 
up  the  Northern  and  Certtral  Bank,  averted,  though  but 
for  a  while,  the  bankruptcy  of  that  eslablishment,  which 
had  no  fewer  than  forty  branches,  and,  by  doing  so,  is  said 
to  have  prevented  the  occurrence  of  a  panic  that  might 
have  proved  fatal  to  many  other  joint-stock  and  private 
banks.  Still,  however,  the  shock  given  to  industrial 
undertakings,  by  the  revulsion  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
year,  and  in  1837,  although  unaccompanied  by  any  panic, 
was  very  severe.  All  sorts  of  commercial  specuhitions 
were  for  a  while  completely  paralyzed,  and  there  were  but 
few  districts  in  which  gre.'it  numbers  of  individuals  wore 
not  thrown  out  of  employment.  In  laisley,  Birmingham, 
and  most  other  towns,  the  distress  occasioned  by  the 
revulsion  was  very  general  and  long-continued.  And 
owing  to  the  Bank  of  England  having  delayed,  in  1838 
and  the  earlier  part  of  1830,  to  take  efficient  measures  for 
tbs  reduction  of  its  issues,  despite  the  unmistakable 
evidence  of  their  being  redundant,  the-bullion  in  its  coffers 
was  reduced  in  September  1839  to  £2,406,000  ;  and,  but 
for  the  eflBcient  assistance  obtained  from  the  Bauk  of 
Franco,  its  stoppage  could  hardly  have  been  averted. 

Act  of  1844 — Objections  to  and  Defence  of  that  Act — 
Suspensions  of  in.  1847,  1857,  and  1866. 

This  perilous  experience  having  again  forcibly  attracted 
the  public  attention  to  the  state  of  the  banking  system.  Sir 
Robert  Peel  was  induced  to  attempt  its  improvement.  Tho 
clause  in  the  Act  3  apd  4  Will.  IV.  c.  9,  which  renewed 
the  bank  charter  in  1S33,  gave  Parliament  power  to  revise 
or  cancel  it  in  1845,  and  thus  afforded  a  legitimate 
opportunity  for  the  introduction  of  the  new  system.  It 
was  indispensable,  in  attempting  to  obviate  the  defects 
inherent  in  our  currency,  to  proceed  cautiously,  to  respect, 
OS  far  as  possible,  existing  interests,  and  to  avoid  taking 
any  step  that  might  excite  the  fears  or  suspicions  of  tho 
public  ;  but  the  measures  which  Sir  Robert  Peel  introduced 
ond  carried  through  Parliament  in  1844  and  1845,  for  the 
improvement  of  the  English  banking  system;  were  so  skil- 
fully contrived  as  to  provoke  little  opposition,  at  the  same 
time  that  they  effected  most  important  and  highly  beneficial 
changes. 

The  measures  in  question  consisted  of  the  Act  7  and  8 
Vict  c.  32,  which  refers  to  the  Bank  of  England  and  the 
English  country  banks  ;  and  the  Acts  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  38, 
37,  referring  to  the  banks  of  Scotland  and  Ireland.  These 
statutes  were  intended  to  obviate  the  chances  of  overissue. 
by  limiting  the  power  to  issue  notes  payable  on  demand, 
nad  by  making  the  amount  of  such  notes  in  circulation  vary 
with  the  amount  of  bullion  in  the  possession  of  the  issuers, 
ond  this  object  has  been  perfectly  attained.  The  statutes 
hare  as  completely  failed  to  attain  a  second  object  con- 
templated by  their  author — that  of  preventing  great  and 
rapid  fluctuations  in  the  rate  of  discount;  and  the  truth 
IS  now  recognized,  that  the  power  of  ovor-issuing  notes  is  one 
of  many  causes  which  may  conduce  to  variations  in  the  rate 
«'f  discount  and  by  no  means  the  most  efficient  of  them. 
In  dealing  with  the  Bank  of  England,  Sir  Robert  Peel 
adopted  the  propos.al  previously  made  by  Lord  Overstone,' 

'  In  tcaru  puWi'l'i-d  in  13.17  «ml  1840,  anil  in  lii«  tviilence  f-efor* 
%  comfDitlee  of  tb<  IIouso  of  Coiddiolj  *d  *<ie  latter  jrjr. 


for  effecting  a  complete  separation  between  the  issuing  and 
banking  departments  of  that  establishment,  and  giving  tho 
directors  full  liberty  to  manage  the  latter  at  discretion, 
while  they  should  have  uo  power  whatever  over  the  other. 

The  notes  of  the  Bank  of  England  in  circulation  for  somo 
years  previously  to  1844  rarely  amounted  to  twenty,  or 
sunk  so  low  as  sixteen  millions.  And  such  being  the  case, 
Sir  Robert  Peel  was  juslitied  in  assuming  that  the  circula- 
tion of  the  bank  could  not,  in  any  ordinary  condition  of 
society,  or  under  any  merely  commercial  vicissitudes,  be 
reduced  below  fourteen  millions.  And  the  Act  of  1844 
allowed  th«  bank  to  issue  this  amount  upon  securities,  of 
which  the XI  1,015,100  lent  by-the  bank  to  the  public  wai 
the  most  important  item.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  the  issues 
of  the  provincial  banks  were  at  the  same  time  limited  in 
their  amount,  and  confined  to  certain  existing  banks,  it  waa 
further  provided,  in  the  event  of  any  of  these  banks  ceasing 
to  issue  notes,  that  the  Bank  of  England  might  be 
empowered,  by  order  in  councd,  to  issue,  upon  securities, 
two-thirds,  and  no  more,  of  the  notes  which  such  banks 
had  been  authorised  to  issue.  Under  this  condition,  the 
total  secured  issue  of  the  bank  has  (1875)  been  increased 
from  £14,000,000  to  £15,000,000.  But  for  eiery  other 
note  which  the  issue  department  may  at  any  time  issue  mtr 
and  above  the  maj^mum  amount  (£15,000,000)  issued  on 
securities,  an  equal  amount  of  coin  or  bullion  must  be  paid 
into  its  coders.  And  hence,  under  this  system,  the  notes 
of  the  Bank  of  England -are  rendered  really  and  truly 
equivalent  to  gold,  while  their  immediate  conversion  into 
that  metal  no  longer  depends,  as  it  previously  did,  on  the 
good  faith,  the  skill,  or  the  prudence  of  the  directors.  And 
these  important  results  have  been  attained  without  imposing 
any  burden  of  which  any  one  has  any  right  to  complain. 
Our  currency  rests  on  the  fundamental  principle,  that  all 
debts  above  forty  shillings  shall  be  paid  in  gold.  But 
individuals  and  associations,  including  the  banking  or 
commercial  department  of  the  bank,  have  the  option,  if 
they  prefer  it,  to  exchange  gold  for  bank-notes,  and  to 
make  use  of  the  latter  in  their  dealings  with  tho  public 
Hence,  if  A  or  B  goes  to  the  issuers  of  paper,  and  gets  100 
or  500  notes  from  them  in  exchange  for  aii  equivalent 
amount  of  gold,  it  is  his  own  convenience  he  has  exclusively 
in  view.  He  was  at  full  liberty  to  use  gold,  but  ho  pre- 
ferred exchanging  it  for  notes  because  he  could  employ  the 
latter  more  advantageously.  This  is  the  way  in  which 
paper  is  issued  under  the  Act  of  1844  ;  and  such  being  the 
case,  it  is  contradictory  to  say  that  it  is  productive  either 
of  hardship  or  inconvenience. 

It  is  alleged  that  the  new  system  is  injurious  by  shackling 
the  bank  in  the  use  of  its  credit,  and  the  ariwer  is,  that  it 
docs  this  in  order  to  prevent  the  greater  injury  of  over- 
issues of  paper.  The  Act  prevents  the  bank  from  issuing 
substitutes  for  money  which  do  not  represent  money.  It 
does  not  absorb  or  lock  up  a  single  sixpence  worth  of 
capital,  nor  does  it  interfere  in  any  manner  of  way  with 
its  employment.  The  gold  in  the  issue  department  of  the 
bank  was  not  purchased  by  the  bank,  and  does  not  belong 
to  it.  The  bank  is  its  keeper,  but  not  its  owner.  It 
belongs  to  the  public,  or  to  the  holders  of  bank-notes,  who 
deposited  it  in  the  bank  in  exchange  for  notes,  with  and 
under  the  express  stipulation,  that  on  p.ayin'g  the  latter 
into  the  bank  they  should  receive  back  their  gold.  Any 
interference  with  these  deposits  would  be  an  interference 
with  property  held  in  pledge  for  others,  that  is,  it  would 
be  an  act  precisely  of  the  same  kind  with  tliat  which 
exposes  private  bailees  to  penal  servitude. 

But  though  the  bank  directors  may  not  lay  viclent  hands 
on  the  pro[]crty  of  the  public,  the  bank,  it  is  obvious,  hu« 
at  this  moment  the  same  absolute  command  over  its  entire 
capital  and  credit,  that  it  would  have  were  the  .'Vet  of  1814 


32-' 


BANKING 


non-«xistent.  Apart  from  the  practice  of  issuing  transfer- 
able notes,  the  bank  is  free  from  all  restraint,  and  is  in 
precisely  the  same  situation  as  other  banking  or  mercantile 
establishments.  Its  directors  may  lend  or  not  lend  as 
they  please,  and  may  lay  down  such  conditions  as  they 
please  in  regard  to  the  interest  and  the  terms  of  loans 
and  discounts.  In  short,  they  may  do  whatever  they  like 
with  their  own  ;  but  farther  they  are  not  permitted  to  go. 
They  may  not  substitute  shadows  for  realities.  They  can- 
not, whether  to  assist  others,  or  to  relieve  themselves  from 
embarrassment,  issue  a  single  note  except  upon  a  deposit  of 
bullion.  But  this  rule  does  not  operate  on  the  bank  only. 
It  applies  to  all  individuals  and  associations.  And  to  relax 
it  in  any  degree  would  be — disguise  it  as  one  may — to 
authorize  an  issue  of  fictitious  or  spurious  paper,  and  con 
sequently  to  vitiate  {he  currency  and  to  abuse  credit  in  the 
way  that  is  sure  to  be  in  the  end  the  most  disastrous.  ■ 

This  statement  shows  the  groundless  nature  of  the  charge 
which  is  often  made  against  the  Act  of  1844,  that  under 
its  operation  the  bank  runs  the  risk  of  being  brought  to  a 
stop,  though  it  may  have  some  five,  six,  or  even  eight 
millions  bullion  in  its  coffers.'  For  it  is  plain  that  two 
things  are  confounded  in  this  charge,  which  are  quite 
distinct,  and  have  no  necessary  conjiection  with  each  other, 
viz.,  the  proceedings  of  the  bank  in  the  capacity  of  issuer 
of  notes,  and  its  proceedings  in  the  capacity  of  a  banking 
company.  In  the  former  capacity  it  b  all  but  impossible 
that  it  should  be  brought  to  a  stop  ;  and  if  such  a  thing 
should  happen,  there  would  not  then  be  an  ounce  of  bullion 
in  its  coffers.  It  is  not,  however,  impossible  nor  even  very 
improbable,  that  the  bank  should  be  brought,  in  its  mer- 
cintile  capacity,  into  difficulties,  while  there  may  be  a  large 
amount  of  bullion  in  the  issue  department.  But,  though 
euch  should  be  the  case,  is  that  any  reason  why  the  bank 
directors  should  be  permitted  to  draw  on  funds  that  do 
not  belong  to  them,  and  over  which  they  have  no  control  1 
Supposing  the  bank  was  in  difficulties,  is  it  to  be  allowed 
to  right  itself  by  setting  aside  the  principle  of  meum  and 
tuum,  and  seizing  on  what  belongs  to  others  1  The 
directors  would  be  the  first  to  repudiate  such  a  doctrine, 
which  must  be  rejected  by  all  men  who  have  any  sense  of 
honour  or  regard  for  character. 

One  of  the  most  plausible  objections  to  the  Act  of  1844 
is  that  it  "  limits  the  currency  ,"  that  it  makes  no  provision 
for  the  increasing  demands  of  the  public  ;  and  confines  us 
in  1875,  when  the  exports  will  probably  exceed  220 
millions,  to  the  same  amount  of  money  as  in  1844,  when 
the  exports  did  not  exceed  58.J  millions.  The  simple 
truth,  however,  is  that  the  Act  allows  money  to  be  imported 
and  exported,  to  be  retained  or  sent  elsewhere,  just  as  it 
'18  wanted,  and  what  it  does  limit  is  the  uncontrolled  issue 
of  paper  representatives  of  money,  which  experience  proved 
were  too  often  emitted  without  any  reference  to  the  reserves 
of  money  kept  to  maintain  the  convertibility  of  the  paper 
issued.  The  £14,000,000  (now  £15,000,000)  issued  on 
securities  is  the  only  thing  that  is  limited  in  the  Act ; 
everything  else  varies  with  the  varying  condition  and  cir- 
cumstances of  the  country,  including  the  means  by  which 
the  use  of  money  may  bo  economized.  In  the  week  ending 
the  7th  July  1875,  the  issue  department  of  the  bank  had 
issued  notes  to  the  amount  of  £41,(129,955,  being  no 
fewer  'than  £20,029,955  over  and  .above  the  amount 
authorized  to  be  issued  on  securities.  '■And  if  the  country 
had  really  required  a  larger  supply  of  money,  th.at  is, 
if  more  coins,  or  paper'  equivalent  to  coins,  could  have 
been  absorbed  into  the  circulation  without  rendering  the 
currency  redundant,  and  depressing  the  exchange,  the 
additional  quantity  would  have  been  forthwith  supplied. 
For,  under  such  circumstancea,  merchants,  hankers,  and 
tnouey-doalers,  would  have   realized  a  certain  and  imme- 


diate profit  by  carrying  bullion  to  the  mint  cr  the  bank, 
th.at  they  might  obtain  coins,  or  notes,  or  both,  with 
which  to  increase  the  currency.  It  is  one  of  the  chief 
merits  of  the  Act  of  1844,  that,  under  its  agency,  the 
supply  of  money  is  not  to  any  extent  or  in  any  degree 
regulated  or  influenced  by  the  proceedings  of  the  bank  or 
the  Government.  They  have  nothing  to  do  in  the  matter, 
unless  it  be  to  coin  the  huUion  which  individuals  oF' firms 
carry  to  the  mint  for  that  purpose,  and  to  exchange,- when 
called  upon,  notes  for  coins,  and  coins  for  notes.  The 
supply  of  money,  like  that  of  all  non-monopolized  articles, 
is  wholly  dependent  upnn,  and  is  determined  by  the  free 
action  of  the  public.  It  would,  indeed,  be  quite  as  true 
to  say,  that  the  Act  of  1844  limits  the  amount  of  corn,  of 
cloth,  or  of  iron  produced  in  the  country,  as  that  it  limits 
the  amount  of  money.  It  maintains  the  value  of  the  notesi 
issued  by  the  bank  on  a  level  with  the  coins  for  which 
they  are  substitutes  ;  but  beyond  that  its  effect  is  nil.  It 
has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  greater  or  less  amount 
of  the  coin  and  notes  of  trustworthy  convertibility  put 
into  circulation.  That  depends  entirely  on  the -estimate 
formed  by  the  public  of  its  excess  or  deficiency,  an  estimate 
which  when  wrong  is  sure  to  be  corrected  by  the  exchanges. 
We  may  add,  that  no  inference  can  ever  be  safely  drawn 
from  the  number  of  notes  or  coins,  or  both,  afloat  in  a 
country,  as  to  whether  its  currency  be,  of  be  jiot,  in  excess. 
That  is  to  be  learned  by  the  state  "of  the  exchange,  or  by 
the  influx  and  efflux  of  bullion.  -If  the  imports  of  bulUun 
exceed  the  exports,  it  shows  that  the  currency  is  in  some 
degree  deficient ;  while,  if  the  exports  ekceed  the  imports, 
It  shows  that  the  currency  is  in  excess,'  and  that  no  addi- 
tions can  be  made  to  it  without  farther  depressing  the 
exchange  and  increasing  the  drain  of  bullion.  When  the 
imports  and  exports  of  bullion  are  about  equal,  then  of 
course  the  currency  is  at  about  its  proper  level.  These  are 
the  only  criteria  by  which  anything  can  ever  be  correctly 
inferred  in  regard  to  the  deficiency  or  excess  of  currency. 
Its  absolute  amount  affords  hardly  even  a  basis  for  conjec- 
ture. When  there,  is  little  speculation  or  excitement,  an 
issue  of  25  or  27  millions  bank-notes  may  be  in  excess; 
while,  at  another  time,  and  with  a  different  state  of  trade 
and  speculation,  an  issue  of  35  or  37  millions  of  notes  may 
not  be  chough.  Except  in  periods  of  internal  commotion, 
or  when  we  are  disturbed  by  alarms  of  invasion,  the  state 
of  the  exchange  is  the  only,  as  it  is  the  infallible,  test  of 
the  sufficiency  and  insufiiciency  of  the  currency.  We  may 
further  state,  that  those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  complaining 
of  the  limitation  of  the  currency  by  the  Act  of  1844,  ainio.st 
uniformly  underrate  its  amount.  We  have  already  Ston 
that,  in  the  week  ending  the  7th  July  1875  the  notes 
issued  by  the  issue  department  of  the  b.ink  amounted  to 
£41,029,955,andof  these  £12, 453,4 15  were  in  the  banking 
department  of  the  bank,  leaving  a  balance  of  £23,576,5  lO 
in  the  hands  6f  the  general  public  ;  and  this  latter  sura  is, 
we  are  told,  the  real  amount  of  the  issues.  But  this  is 
falling  into  the  rather  serious  blunder  of  mistaking  a  part 
for  the  whole.  The  notes  in  the  banking  department  of 
the  bank  make  not  only  a  part,  but  a  most  important  and 
active  part,  of  the  currency  of  the  country.  They  consti- 
tute the  means,  along  with  the  bullion  in  the  same  depart 
mcnt,  with  which  the  bank  carries  on  her  banking  business, 
and  are  as  evidently  a  portion  of  the  currency  as  the  notes 
in  the  tills  of  private  bankers  and  the  pockets  of  indi- 
viduals. The  notes  in  tlie  banking  department  of  the  bank 
must  therefore  never  be  omitted  in  estimating  the  amount 
of  notes  in  circulation.  Tlie  latter,  and  the  notes  out  of 
the  issue  de|inrtniont,  ore  identical  ;  and,  in  a  general 
point  of  view,  it  matters  not  a  straw  whether  thry  are  in 
the  hands  of  the  banking  department  of  the  bank  or  o( 
individuals 


B  A  y  K  I  N  u 


325 


So  far  we  have  dealt  with  the  legislation  of  \SH  in  its 
bearing  on  the  Bank  of  England.  The  dciire  of  Sic  Robert 
Peel  reached  beyond  this,  but  he  was  unable  to  complete 
his  policy.  He  rightly  held  that  experience  had  shown 
that  the  balance  of  advantages  lay  oa  the  side  of  the  sup- 
pression of  all  note  issues  eicept  that  of  the  Bank  of 
England,  aj  reformed  by  him,  or  of  some  similar  supple- 
mentary establishments  regulated  in  the  same  manner. 
But  it  was  obviously  impossible  to  prohibit,  without  com- 
pensation, the  future  exercise  by  country  bankers  of  the 
rights  they  had  legitimately  acquired ;  and  as  it  was  not 
easy  to  buy  up  the  existing  privileges  of  the  private  and 
joint-stock  banks,  Sir  Robert  Peel  allowed  them  to  remain 
under  conditions  prohibiting  their  extension,  and  he  appar- 
ently hoped  that  country  isucs  wo.uld  gradually  disappear' 
before  the  rivalry  of  Bank  of  England  notes.  The  Act  of 
1811,  accordingly,  enacted  that  no  new  bank  for  the  i.isuo 
of  notes  should  be  established  in  any  part  of  the  United 
Kingdom  ;  and  that  the  maximum  issue  of  notes  by  the 
existing  country  banks  of  England  should  in  future  be 
limited  to  the  average  amount  which  they  had  respectively 
in  circulation  during  the  twelve  weeks  preceding  the  27th 
April  IS  11.  It  was  also  ordered  that  the  names  of  the 
partners  in  joint-stock  and  other  banks  should  be  periodi- 
cally published.  A  provision  was  also  enacted  under  which 
SD  issuing  bank  could  resign  its  privilege  by  composition 
with  the  Bank  of  England.  The  existing  law  was  main- 
tamed  preventing  the  issue  of  any  notes  other  than  the 
Bank  of  England  in  London,  and  the  establishment,  within 
sixty-five  miles  of  London  of  any  branch  of  an  English 
joint-stock  bank  having  the  privilege  of  issue.' 

The  convertibility  of  the  Bank  of  England  notes  has 
been  perfectly  maintained  since  1811,  and  the  management 
of  English  banks,  whether  private  or  joint-stock,  has  been 
sound  and  judicious,  the  cases  of  failure  among  them  being 
few  and  contrasting  strongly  with  the  recurrent  epidemics 
of  insolvency  of  earlier  experience.  It  must,  however,  be 
admitted  that  the  variations  in  the  rate  of  discount  charged 
by  the  bank  have  been  much  more  numerous  and  violent 
since  1811  than  they  were  before,  and  on  three  occasions — 
ia  1847,  1857  1866 — it  has  been  judged  necessary  to 
•uthorize  a  suspension  of  the  Act  so  far  as  to  allow  the 
bank  directors  the  power  to  strengthen  the  banking 
department  by  recourse  to  the  reserves  of  the  issue  depart- 
ment. In  each  case  the  suspension  of  the  Act  arrested  and 
allayed  the  panic  prevailing  up  to  the  moment  of  suspension, 
pnd  in  1866  it  was  not,  in  fact,  found  necessary  to  exercise 
the  power  to  borrow  from  the  issue  department  which  h.id 
been  conceded  to  the  directors  We  must  proceed  to 
inquire  whether  the  Act  of  1811  is  to  bo  blamed  for  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  changes  of  the  rate  of  discount 
which  has  since  been  experienced,  and  whether  this  increase 
and  the  suspension  of  the  Act  in  time  of  trial  constitute  a 
reason  for  its  abrogation  or  for  a  modification  of  its  provi- 
sional 

In  the  first  place,  the  increased  number  of  changes  in  the 
rate  of  discount  is  more  apparent  than  real.  The  manage- 
ment of  the  Bank  of  "England  has  oecomo  responsive  to  the 
movement  in  the  value  of  money  in  the  open  market  in  a 
degree  unknown  before  this  generation.  The  rate  of  dis- 
count outside  the  bank  chmged  rapidiy  and  often  before 
1844,  but  its  fluctuations  were  to  a  large  extent  prevented 
from  affecting  the  Bank  of  England.  Previously  to  the 
modification  of  the  Usury  Laws  in  1839,  the  bank  could 
not  charge  more  for  loans  than  5  per  cent.,  and  for  some 
considerable  period  after  the  restriction  had  been  removed 
the  directors,  influenced,  in  part  at  le.ast,  by  their  accustomed 
habit  on  several  occasions,  permitted  the  bank  to  be  involved 

'  The  proviiionj  rrsnbting  the  issu«>  of  Scotch  and  Iriib  banl.s  will 
te  found  belo  -,  p.  332  tf}. 


in  difficulties  which  might  have  been  averted  by  their  sooner 
raising  the  rate  of  discount.  Strict  limitation  in  the  uumhec 
and  class  of  customers  with  whom  the  bank  would  do 
business,  and  a  refusal  to  rediscount  bills  that  had  been 
already  discounted  by  money-dealers,  made  it  possible  U> 
keep  the  bank  rate  below  the  rates  of  the  open  market 
without  exposing  the  resources  of  the  establishment  to  3D 
exhausting  demand. 

Next,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  methods  of  economizing 
the  use  of  money  by  the  development  of  banking  have  been 
extraordinarily  multiplied  since  1811.  The  Bank  Act,  as 
we  have  shown,  in  no  way  operates  to  diminish  the  supply 
of  money  in  the  country;  on  the  contrary,  it  tends  to 
increase  it,  since  it  forbids  any  extension  of  the  use  of  notes 
issued  on  credit  as  a  substitute  for  money.  The  effect  of 
the  Act  has  therefore  been  to  neutralize  rather  than  to 
stimulate  the  process  of  economy  in  the  use  of  money  to 
which  we  have  called  attention.  But  the  transactions  of 
bankers — the  issue  of  cheques,  the  negotiation  of  bills,  <tc., 
ic. — have  multiplied  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  stock  of 
ready  money  on  which  they  rest,  and  the  mass  of  transitory 
credits  being  constantly  increasing  while  the  reaprves  of  cash 
sufl'ers  little  change,  there  naturally  and  necessarily  follows 
an  increased  sensibility  in  the  equilibrium  of  the  monej 
market,  with  constant  oscillations  in  the  rate  of  interest. 
But  although  the  increase  in  the  number  of  changes  of 
discount  since  1811  has  not  been  as  great  as  may  at  first 
seem  apparent,  and  so  far  as  the  increase  has  been  real  it 
must -be  chiefly  attributed  to  the  growing  disproportion 
between  the  magnitude  of  transitory  credits  at  any  time 
existing  and  the  reserve  of  cash  kept  on  hand,  yet  it  may 
be  freely  admitted  that  it  is  not  improbable  that  changes 
have  from  time  to  time  happened  that  might  not  have 
occurred  supposing  the  separation  of  the  banking  and  issue 
departments  had  not  been  established.  It  is  evident  that 
if  the  cash  in  the  two  departments  had  been  equally 
accessible  to  the  bank  directors,  a  withdrawal  of  money 
which  is  now  thrown  upon  one  department  would  not  have 
caused  so  great  a  change  in  the  proportion  between 
liabilities  and  reserve  as  is  now  exhibited  ;  and  if  the 
directors  had  reason  to  believe  that  the  withdrawal  was  no 
more  than  a  temporary  efilux  to  the  provinces  or  elsewhere, 
to  be  followed  by  a  speedy  reflux,  they  might  have  been 
bolder  in  abstaining  from  raising  tlie  rate  of  discount..  But 
this  action  or  rather  inaction  would  have  been  indtilgcd  in 
at  the  price  of  a  certain  risk  to  the  convertibility  of  the 
note,  which  is  now  avoided,  and  if  it  should  appear  in  the 
end  that  the  directors  had  erred  in  supposing  the  move- 
ment of  money  to  be  but  temporary,  they  would  see  reason 
to  regret  that  they  had  not  been  forced  to  stringent  action 
at  the  beginning  of  it.  The  oscillations  experienced  in  the 
rate  of  discount,  oscillations  which  after  all  indicate  nothing 
more  than  the  natural  movement  in  the  value  of  a  medium 
which  is  the  first  to  be  agitated  by  changes  in  value  of  every 
other  commodity,  are  cheaply  purchased  as  the  price  of  the 
permanent  and  perfect  equality  of  the  bank-note  and  the 
money  it  represents.  The  repeated  suspensions  of  the  Act 
of  1814  in  time  of  trial  do,  prima  facie,  present  a  much 
stronger  argument  for  the  repeal  of  the  statute.  Legisla. 
tion  which  breaks  down  upon  critical  occasions  discredits 
ttie  Legislature  that  decreed  it;  and  it  is  not  to  be  denied 
that  the  mere  suspension  of  the  Act  has  more  ^llan  once 
operated  as  a  charm  to  allay  feelings  of  panic  among 
bankers,  money-dealers,  and  merchants.  It  must  also  be 
admitted  that  Sir  Robert  Peel,  in  common  with  the  earlier 
advocates  of  the  policy  of  the  Act.  believed  that  it  would 
prevent  the  recurrence  of  commercial  crises.  It  is  strange 
that  such  an  anticipation  should  have  been  entertained. 
Whoever  will  reflect  on  the  nature  of  the  organization  of 
credit  in  the  commercial  worldj  and  on  the  timid  and  self* 


326 


BANKING 


protecting  instincts  of  men,  especially  o:  capitalists,  will  be 
(orced  to  confess  that  the  recurrence  of  crises  must  be 
accepted  as  inevitable  The  more  highly  developed  is  the 
economy  of  money  the  greater  must  be  the  sum  which 
banks  and  bankers  are  liable  to  be  called  upon  to  repay 
on  demand  or  at  short  notice  in  proportion  to  the  reserves 
of  money  kept  in  their  coffers  ;  and  the  greater  also  must 
be  the  amount  of  bills  falUng  due  daily,  and  largely  met 
as  they  fall  due  by  the  proceeda  of  bills  drawn  daily  and 
(discouuted  as  drawn.  The  smoothness  of  action  of  the 
commercial  machine  evidently  depends  upon  the  continu- 
ance of  that  confidence  which  is  ordinarily  felt  by  the' 
creditor-class  in  the  solvency  of  debtors,  and  any  access  of 
distrust  may  easily  produce  consequences  culminating  in  a 
Crisis.  Bankers  who  are  at  once  debtors  and  creditors  are 
necessarily  constrained  to  protect,  themselves  in  such 
periods  of  defective  confidence  by  declining  to 'meet  the 
applications  for  loans  and  discounts  which  are  forced  upon 
them ;  and  a  sharp  competition, ensues  for  the  possession  of 
the  ready  money  that  is  available  in  the  market.  The 
pressure  is  concentrated  upon  the  Bank  of  England,  and 
the  publicity  of  the  condition  of  that  institution,  consequent 
upon  the  weekly  issue  of  its  balance-sheet,  lets  all  men 
know  the  rate  of  decline  of  its  cash  reserve.  At  such  a 
time  an  accident  may  cause  the  spirit  of  caution  to  pass 
into  apprehension  and  panic.  The  fear  that  the  cash 
balances  of  the  banking  department  may  be  exhausted 
incites  bankers  to  hasten  to  anticipate  one  another  in  with- 
drawing any  reserve  they  may  have  kept  at  the  bank,  and 
the  rate  of  diminution  of  the  cash  of  the  department  is 
accelerated.  It  is  obvious  that  the  condition  we  have 
described  is  in  its  origin  independent  of  any  particular 
regulations  adopted  with  respect  to  the  note-circulation  of  a 
community;  and  it  has,  in  fact,  been  experienced  in  Great 
Britain  under  all  varieties  of  laws,  and  in  the  United  States, 
Sn  Northern  and  Southern  Germany,  and  in  the  British 
colonies  under  an  equally  wide  dissimilarity  of  currency- 
regulations.  Our  history  previous  to  1844  shows  that 
(such  a  condition  may  be  aggravated,  if  not  precipitated, 
by  an  antecedent  issue  of  notes  increasing  the  proportion 
between  the  volume  of  transitory  credits  and  the  cash 
available  to  meet  instantaneous  demands  ;  and  as  long 
as  the  issue  of  notes  was  unrestricted,  bankers  could 
never  resist  the  temptation  to  make  up,  by  an  increase  in 
their  issues,  any  diminution  in  their  available  cash,  a  cause 
directly  provocative  of  a  further  diminution  by  its  effect  on 
adverse  exchanges,  and  therefore  producing  a  sharper 
reaction  when  the  necessity  was  at  last  recognised  of  recover- 
ing the  balance  between  their  cash  iu  -hand  and  their 
Jiabilitiea  The  Act  of  1844  cannot  prevent  panic,  but  it 
prevents  bankers  from  resorting  to  causes  which  aggravi'te 
panics,  and  it  moreover  supplies  a  means  of  allaying  the  un- 
re.asoning  terror  in  which  panics  culminate.  Were  it  not  for 
th6  separation  of  the  issue  and  the  banking  departments 
■we  should  be  constrained  to  witness  and  tolerate  periodical 
suspension  of  cash  payments,  as  this  would  be  the  only 
means  left  of  appeasing  alarm  ;  and  this  desper:ite  expedient 
has  been,  in  fact,  employed  over  and  over  again,  under  such 
circumstances,  both  in  England  and  elsewhere.  The  Act 
of  1844  gives  us  a  less  dangerous,  though  by  no  means  a 
perfectly  harndess,  power  When  the  minds  of  creditors 
are  unhinged,  and  all  are  competing  for  money  which  is  not 
in  existence  in  suflicient  quantities  to  satisfy  their  demands, 
the  announcement  that  the  Government  has  authorized  the 
bank  directors  to  suspend  the  action  of  the  Act  and  to  fall 
back  OB  the  resources  of  the  issue  department  operates  as 
a  charm.  The  mere  announcement  is  often  enough  to  put 
an  end  to  the  panic  previously  prevailing,  the  feverish  lit 
pisses  away,  and  the  customary  temper  of  con6dence  is 
more  or  less  slowly  restored. 


We  conclude  tluit  the  existence  of  the  Act  of  1844  is 
justified  even  when  it  is  suspended,  for  it  provides,  in  the 
maintenance  of  the  cash  reserves  of  the  issue  department,  a 
stock  of  money,  the  unlocking  of  which  furnishes  the  means 
of  arresting  panic  which  would  otherwise  have  to  be  sought 
in  a  periodic  suspension  of  cash  payments.  It  has  naturally 
been  asked  whether  the  law  might  not  be  saved  the  apparent 
discredit  involved  in  its  being  set  aside  by  an, act  of  the 
Executive  Government,  acting  on  the  faith  of  a  subsequent 
indemnity  from  Parliament,  by  the  embodiment  in  it  of  a 
power  authorizing  its  suspension  under  circumstances  that 
provoke  its  suspension.  Mr  Lowe,  as  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  introduced  into  the  House  of  Commons,  in  1873, 
a  bill  having  this  object.  He  proposed  that  the  Bank 
Act  might  be  suspended  by  order  of  the  Government  .of, 
the  day  when  the  minimum  rate  of  discount  had  reached, 
12  per  cent.,  when  the  exchanges  were  favourable  t^ 
England,  and  when  the  governor  and  deputy-governor  of  thS 
bank  certified  that  panic  had  caused  a  large  portion  of  the 
bank  notes  nominally  in  circulation  to  be  locked  up  and 
withdrawn  from  circulation.  The  authority  of  Mr 
Gladstone's  administration  had  declined  when  this  bill  was 
introduced,  and  it  was  not  well  received.  It  was  con- 
tended that  the  conditions  proposed  by  Mr  Lowe  had  not 
always  existed  when  the  Act  had  been  suspended,  and  they 
would  be  so  rarely  satisfied  that  the  power  of  suspension 
promised  by  the  bill  could  never  be  exercised.  It  was 
further  contended  that  Mr  Lowe's  attempt  was 'necessarily 
impracticable.  In  seeking  to  define  beforehand  the  con- 
ditions of  suspension  of  the  Bank  Act,  he  tried  to  define  the 
conditions  of  a  panic ;  and  to  attempt  to  define  the  con- 
ditions of  that  which  is  in  its  essence  unreasonable  was  i 
logical  contradiction.  A  banic  has  no  laws  :  it  has  no  fixed 
shape.  It  is  precipitated  we  know  not  how ;  and  we  are 
in  the  midst  of  it  before  we  are  aware.  As  it  is  thus 
impossible  to  prescribe  beforehand  the  conditions  of  panic, 
it  may  reasonably  be  thoilght  that  it  is  better  to  leave  to 
the  Government  of  the  day  the  responsibility  of  acting  when 
a  panic  has  demonstrated  its  existence.  Mr  Lowe's  bill,- 
assailed  from  many  quarters,  was  withdrawn  without  the 
opinion  of  Parliament  being  taken  on  its  merits,  and  no 
attempt  has  been  since  made  to  bring  the  subject  before 
the  Legislature. 

We  have  already  said  that  Sir  Robert  Peel  contemplated 
an  ultimate  extinction  of  all  note  issues  save  that  of  the 
Bank  of  England ;  and  he  probably  expected  that  the 
substitution  of  Bank  of  England  notes  for  all  others  would 
not  be  long  delayed.  The  progress  actually  achieved 
towards  this  end  has  been  very  slow.  Out  of  204  private 
banks  in  England  and  Wales  left  by  the  Act  of  1844,  with 
total  privileged  issues  of  X5, 153, 407,  no  more  than  85 
have  ceased  to  issue  ;  and  the  amount  they  i.ssued  which  is 
now  withdrawn  was  £1,283,041.  Of  joint-stock  banks  18 
have  ceased  to  issue  i!8 12,453,  out  of  72  having  privi- 
leged issues  of  j£3,495,446.  Only  one  Scotch  bank  li.is 
ceased  to  issue  notes  since  the  Scotch  Act  of  1845,  and  no 
alteration  whatever  has  taken  place  in  the  fixed  issues  of 
the  Irish  biuiks.  It  may  be  added  that  fhe  provisions  of 
the  Act  of  1S44,  relied  upon  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  for  bringing 
about  by  arrangement  a  stibstitntion  of  Bank  of  England 
notes  for  those  of  privileged  bankers,  have  been  for  mnny 
years  entirely  neglected.  With  these  facts  before  us  it  \i 
not  surprising  that,  in  18C5,  Mr  Gladstone,  as  Ch.inccllor 
of  the  Exchequer  under  Lord  Palmerston,  should  have 
submitted  to  the  Hour.oof  Commons  a  blH  dealing  with  the 
subject.  By  if,  it  w.is  proposed  that  priv.iie  lianks  of  i.«suB 
in  England  and  Wales  should  be  reloiiscd  from  the  existing 
restriction  that  the  numbers  of  partners  must  not  exceed 
six.  and  that  joint-stock  banks  should  be  allowed  to  come 
w  illiin  the  circle  of  sixty  five  miles  from  London  upon  their 


BANKING 


327 


amiertabing  to  pay  annually  to  the  Exchequer  a  duty  at 
ibe  rate  of  2  per  cent,  (altered  in  oommittee  on  the  bill 
hrst  to  Ij  and  then  to  1  per  cent.)  on  their  average  issues, 
uiid  that  thereupon  their  privileges  of  issue  should  be  assured 
to  them  until  1S90  (altered  in  committee  to  1S75  anii 
1880),  after  which  these  privileges  should  cease  and 
determine.  The  bill  was  purely  permissive ;  but  it  was 
thought  by  its  author  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  English 
banks  of  issue  would  place  themselves  under  its  operation) 
and  further  legislation  would  be  practicable  with  respect  to 
the  rest.  The  bill,  however,  was  less  and  less  approved  as 
it  became  better  known,  and  it  was  ultimately  withdrawn. 
From  tliat  lime  no  legislation  on  the  subject  has  been  con- 
templated until  the  session  1S75,  when  the  action  of  the.. 
Scotch  banks  in  establishing  he.id  offices  in  London  was 
followed  by  an  agitation,  described  in  the  section  on 
Scotch  banks  (p.  332),  which  has  resulted  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  select  commiitee  on  the  law  of  banking  and  of 
note  issues. 

The  Select  Committee  thus  appointed  has  received  a  vast 
m;is9  of  evidence  on  the  law  and  practice  of  banking  and 
of  the  issue  of  notes,  but  tie  session  has  been  allowed 
to  close  without  any  attempt  being  made  to  report  on 
the  subject  of  the  committee's  inquiries,  and  no  practical 
action  is  expected  to  follow  the  termination  of  its  labours. 
It  must  be  admitted  that  the  obstacles  to  legislation,  sup- 
posing legislation  to  be  desirable,  are  considerable.  The 
bankers  of  the  kingdom  are  largely  represented  on  both 
kides  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  they  are  on  the  whole 
well  contented  with  the  present  state  of  the  law,  while  the 
great  body  of  the  public  are  profoundly  ignorant  and 
uninterested  in  it.  The  inaction  to  be  overcome  is  so 
great,  and  the  force  available  is  so  limited,  that  nothing 
will  be  done  except  under  the  inQueuco  of  a  commercial 
crisis,  when  almost  anything  may  be  done.  The  aim  of 
economists  and  statesmen  should  be  to  prodnce  a  body  of 
authority  tbat  may  command  respect  even  in  the  midst  of 
universal  agitation  ;  and  the  inquiries  of  the  Select  Com- 
niittee  to  which  wo  have  referred  might  bo  useful  for  this 
purpose,  if  they  had  been  pursued  with  any  discrimination. 
As  it  is,  the  evidence  received  by  the  commiltee'will  probably 
»er/e  as  a  quarry  tc  which  wisdom  and  unv/isdom  may 
equally  resort  for  facts  and  arguments. 

At  the  risk  of  stating  something  that  may  appear  too 
obviously  true  to  require  statement,  we  would  submit  that 
the  question,  whether  bankers  should  be  permitted  to  issue 
notes,  must  be  determined  upon  a  balance  of  opposing  con- 
siderations of  expediency.  Many  of  the  advocates  and 
supporters  of  Sir  Robert  Peel's  legislation  of  1844  have 
said,  apparently  with  a  conviction  that  they  were  express- 
ing an  axiomatic  trath,  that  the  issue  of  notes  was  no  part 
of  the  business  of  a  banker.  Mr  Gladstone  has,  within 
the  past  session,  spoken  in  this  sense.  The  force  of 
assertions  of  this  kind  cannot  be  admithed;  There  is  no 
Unr  of  nature  limiting  the  action  of  a  banker  within  the 
bounds  sought  to  be  prescribed  ;  and  if  we  accept  as  the 
definition  oi  a  banker  a.  person  whose  business  it  is  to 
borrow  and  lend  money,  we  cannot  but  recognize  in  the 
issue  of  transferable  notes  a  most  convenient  process  of 
carrying  on  this  business.  A  banker  who  issues  notes 
borrows  so  much  from  the  persons  from  time  to  time  hold- 
ing them,  and  this  money  he  has  lent  to  the  customers 
indebted  to  him.  .The  reasons  of  convenience  which 
justify  a  prohibition  of  the  liberty  of  issue  are,  6rst.  that 
•iperience  has  shown  that  this  process  of  borrowing  is  too, 
|H)lcnt  and  too  easily  abused  to  the  precipitation  and 
og^'ravation  nf  commercial  cwscs  ;  and,  secondly,  that  the 
gre,it  ami  almost  insuperable  difficulty  of  refusing  to 
ri'i-ove  notes  which  hnvc  obtained  general  currency  makes 
k  Bost  desirable  thai  such   notes  should   possess  some 


better  guarantee  than  can  be  always  forthcoming  of  the 
solvency  of  private  issuers.  These  are  the  reasons  which 
prevail  to  uphold  Sir  Robert  Peel's  legislation,  and  which 
impel  us  to  consider  what  means  may  be  discovered  of 
perfecting  his  policy  by  the  unification  of  issues  through- 
out  the  kingdom. 

We  believe  the  propagation  of  clear  ideas  on  the  subject 
of  the  note  currency,  and  the  acceleration  of  the  time 
when  one  currency  only  shall  be  in  circulation,  would  both 
be  greatly  facilitated  by  a  mechanical  and  local  separation 
of  the  issue  department  from  the  Bank  of  England.  .Much 
confusion  of  thought  stdl  prevails  by  reason  of  the  fact 
that  the  Bank  of  England  is  used  as  the  agent  for  manag- 
ing what  is  now  a  state  issue,  resting,  so  far  as  it  is 
Uncovered  by  specie,  upon  state  security.  If  the  business 
of  issuing  notes  were  removed  bodily  from  the  Bank  of 
England  and  located  in  a  Government  office,  and  the  uaniij 
of  the  notes  at  the  same  time  changed,  it  could  not  fail  to 
be  seen  that  the  business  left  behind  in  Threadneedle  Street 
differed  in  no  essential  particular  from  that  of  any  other 
banker  in  Lombard-  Street,  and  much  of  the  superstitious 
regard  of  the  City  for  the  Bank  of  England,  and  trust  ia 
its  assistance  in  time  of  trouble,  would  be  rapidly  destroyed. 
It  would  then  be  understood  that  the  cry  for  ministerial 
interference  at  the  time  of  crises  and  of  incipient  crises 
was  nothing  more  than  a  claim  for  the  nation  to  cover  with 
its  credit  those  who  had  not  been  prudent  enough  to  main- 
tain.adequate  reserves  for  their  own  defence;  and,  as  this 
would  be  uuderstood  beforehand,  it  would  induce  the  con-" 
sequence  of  greater  circumspection  on  the  part  of  dealers  in 
money  and  a  less  temptation  to  rely  on  extraneous  aid. 
The  purely  mechanical  act  of  removing  the  issue  of  notes 
from  Threadneedle  Street  would  n^ake  the  facts  of  the 
situation  plain,  and  would  bring  about  an  alteration  of 
conduct  among  London  bankers,  so  that  it  should  conform 
to  the  facts  thus  perceived.  It  has  for  some  time  past  been 
cleiily  perceived  that  the  delicacy  of  the  coudition  of  the 
money  market  in  London  has  been  much  exaggerated, 
and  the  feverish  tendency  to  crises  materially  excited, 
because  the  cash  reserves  kept  by  the  London  bankei-s  are 
disproportionately  small  compared  with  the  amount  of  their 
instantaneous  liabilities.  Competition  has,  of  course,  been 
a  considerable  element  in  causing  this  attenuation  of  cash 
reserves.  Each  joint  stock  bank  has  struggled  after  that 
increase  of  credit  which  follows  an  increase  of  dividends ; 
and  the  unproductive  cash  balances  on  hand  have  been 
kept  down  to  tlie  lowest  limit.  They  "would,  however,, 
never  have  been  reduced  to  such  narrow  dimensions  but  for 
the  relianee  placed  on  the  assistance  of  the  Bank  of  England 
in  the  last  extremity ;  and  if  it  were  mjde  plain  that  the 
Bank  of  England  is  itself  nothing  more  than  a  big  joint« 
stock  bank,  this  reliance  would  disappear.  Many  schemes, 
equally  ingenious  and  chimerical,  have  been  recently  put 
forth  for  compelling  bankers  to  keep  larger  reserves  of  cash 
in  proportion  to  their  de|»sil3.  The  true  way  to  remove 
the  danger  -always  threatening  us  under  the  system  that 
exists  is  to  produce  a  conviction  among  bankers  that  tliey 
must  not  expect  help  elsewhere  if  they  become  distressed 
through  a  default  in  their  own  reserves  of  cash. 

If  the  separation  of  the  issue  depimtment  from  the  rest 
of  the  Bank  of  England  was  completed  by  its  transfer  to  a 
Government  office  under  the  management  of  State  agents, 
the  unification  of  the  issues  of  the  kingdom  might  be 
accomplished  by  legislation  akin  to  that  adopted  by  the 
United  States  in  relation  to  the  national  bauks.  Each 
bank  of  issue  might  be  required  to  withdraw  its  own  notes 
and  to  receive  and  put  out  in  exchange  for  them  note& 
emanating  from  the  Stale  establishment,  but  bearing  a 
statement  on  their  face  of  the  banks  through  which  they 
were  issued.    Government  securities  should  be  deposited  by 


'328 


BANKING 


thi  issuing Tjanfcs  for  the  amounts  tlius  put  into  circulation, 
which  must  not  exceed  the  amount  of  their  existing 
authorized  issues ;  and  the  interest  on  these  securities 
would  be  paid  to  the  banks,  less  a  fixed  charge  to  defray 
the  cost  of  preparing  and  issuing  the  notes  delivered  to 
them.  The  notes  thus  issued  would  be  payable  at  the 
central  State  ofiSce,  and  would  circulate  throughout  the 
kingdom  ;  but  as  often  as  they  were  brought  back  to  the 
central  office  they  would  be  cleared  again  by  the  several 
issuing  banks  for  reissue,  unless  the  latter  desired  to  retired 
from  the  arrangement,  in  which  case  the  issuing  bank 
would  redeem  the  notes  it  issued,  which  would  be  cancelled, 
and  the  securities  deposited,  or  a  corresponding  part  of 
them,  would  be  handed  back  It  would  not  be  improper 
to  force  this  plan  on  the  acceptance  of  the  privileged  banks 
of  issue,  although  we  believe  it  would  be  freely  accepted, 
inasmuch  as  their  notes  would  at  once  acquire  currency 
throughout  the  kingdom  without  discrimination  of  locality 
in  exchange  for  the  deposit  of  security,  and  the  gain  they 
now  realize  from  the  issue  of  notes  would  be  left  un- 
diminished. We  must,  however,  repeat  the  expression  of 
the  conviction  that  neither  this  nor  any  other  change  of 
the  present  system  can  be  regarded  as  practicable  until  the 
impulse  of  agitating  circumstances  has  stirred  up  Parlia- 
ment to  face  the  question. 

Different  Species   of  '  Banks — The  Ctearing-lwnse — Auilio- 
rization  of  Banks  with  Limited  Liability. 

We  have  elsewhere  hinted  at  the  subdivision  of  the 
business  of  banking  which  has  accompanied  the  develop- 
ment of  commerce.  A  banker  borrows  and  lends  money, 
but  the  conditions  under  which  money  is  borrowed  or  lant 
may  be  extremely  various,  and  ,the  different  classes  of 
bankers  are  distinguished  from  one  another  by  differences 
in  the  rules  which  they  observe  in  borrowing  or  lending. 
Bankers  may  borrow  money  on  call,  at  deposit,  on  deben- 
tures, at  interest,  or  without  interest,  and  they  may  lend 
on  open  credits,  by  discounting  bills,  by  advances  on 
mortgage  repayable  in  instalments  or  otherwise,  itc,  kc. 

Banks  of  Deposit. — These  banks  receive  money  on 
deposit,  that  is  to  say,  on  conditions  that  a  certain  pre- 
scribed notice  shall  be  given  of  the  time  of  withdrawal. 
They  allow  interest,  and  they  usually  lend  a  large  pro- 
portion of  their  money  on  securities  which  are  not  at  any 
moment  immediately  capable  of  being  realized. 

Land  Mort'jage  Banks  may  be  classed  with  banks  of 
deposit,  but  they  are  also  accustomed  to  borrow  on  deben- 
tures repayable  at  the  end  of  one,  two,  three,  or  a  larger 
number  of  years,  at  rates  of  interest  varying  with  the  period 
of  the  debenture.  These  institutions  were  first  started 
for  the  purpose  of  granting  facilities  to  the  mortgagers  of 
land.  The  money  received  on  debentures  w.as  lent  out 
again  to  proprietors  and  purchasers  of  land,  who  repaid 
their  debts  by  annual  instalments.  It  was  in  this  way 
that  the  legislation  of  Stein  was  facilitated  in  Germany  ; 
tlio  peasant  being  able  to  obtain  at  once  from  the  Land 
Mortgage  Bank  the  capital  necessary  to  redeem  the  feudal 
rights  of  his  lord,  a  debt  which  he  repaid  by  a  series  of 
annual  payments  often  corresponding  to  what  he  had  pre- 
viously paid  as  rent,  until  he.  became  an  absolute  unin- 
.cumbered  owner  of  the  fields  he  cultivated. 

Credit  Companies,  such  as  the  Credit  Fonder,  the  Credit 
Mobilier,  itc.,>tc.,  are  strictly  analogous  to  land  mortgage 
banks,  except  that  they  invest  their  funds  in  loans  on 
the  security  of  general  industri.il  undertakings,  to  which 
business  they  have  added  the  function  of  negotiaters  of 
direct  loans  between  companies  formed  for  the  conduct 
of  such  undertakings  and  the  capitalist  public. 

Ditcount  Banki  and  Discount  Agencies  borrow  money  on 


call  or  deposit,  and  lend  it  exclusively  in  the  discount  of 
bills  and  negotiable  securities,  which  they  often  rediscount 
with  capitalists  desirous  of  investing  their  money  in  form; 
capable  of  being  speedily  realized. 

2'rust  Associations  borrow  money  on  debentures  and'in- 
vest  it  in  the  loans  of  foreign  states  cr  similar  securities, — 
the  principle  of  such  an  association  being  that  the  original 
investor  can  be  secured  against  the  default  of  any  one 
borrower  by  the  receipt  of  a  high  average'rate  of  interest 
and  the  general  solvency  of  the  rest. 

Savings-Banks  are  institutions  established  for  the  receipt 
of  the  smaller  savings  of  the  poor.  As  at  present  existing 
they  are  divided  into  two  classes,' the  Trustees'  Savings- 
banks  and  the  Post  Office, Savings-banks  ;  but  it  seems 
probable  that  some  rearrangement  of  their  machinery  will 
be  made  in  the  next  session  of  Parliament.  For  further 
particulars  see  Savings-banks. 

Allusion  has  already  been  made  (aiite,  p.  316)  to  the 
Clearing-house.  This  institution  was  established,  just  a 
century  ago,  as  a  place  where  the  clerks  of  the  bankers  in 
the  City  of  London  could  assemble  daily  to  exchange  with 
one  another  the  cheques  drawn  upon  and  bills  payable  at 
their  respective  houses.  Before  the  Clearing-house  existed, 
each  banker  had  to  send  a  clerk  to  the  places  of  business 
of  all  the  other  bankers  in  London  to  ccJlect  the  sums 
payable  by  them  in  respect  of  cheques  and  bills  ;  and  it  is 
obvious  that  much  time  was  consumed  by  this  process, 
which  involved  also  the  use  of  an  unnecessary  quantity 
of  money  and  corresponding  risks  of  safe  carriage.  In 
1775  the  common  centre  of  exchange  was  agreed  upon. 
Its  use  was  confined  to  the  bankers, — at  that  tmie  and  long 
afterwards  £«clusively  private  bankers, — doing  business 
within  the  City,  and  the  bankers  in  the  west  end  of  the 
metropolis  used  some  one-or  other  of  the  City  banks  as  their 
agent  in  clearing,  a  practice  which  still  continues.  When 
the  joint-stock  banks  were  first  established  the  jealousy 
of  the  existing  banks  was  powerful  enough  to  exclude  them 
altogether  from  the  use  of  the  Clearing-house ;  ,and  some 
years  elapsed  before  this  feeling  was  removed  so  as  to  allow 
them  to  be  admitted. 

At  first  the  Clearing-hduse  was  simply  a  place  of  meeting, 
but  it  came  to  be  perceived  that  the  sorting  and  distribu- 
tion of  cheques,  bills,  itc,  could  be  more  expeditiously 
conducted  by  the  appointment  of  two  or  three  common 
clerks  to  whom  each  banker's  clerk  could  give  all  the 
instruments  of  exchange  he  wished  to  collect,  and  from 
whom  he  could  receive  all  those  payable  at  his  own  house. 
The  payment  of  the  balance  settled  the  transaction,  and 
an  analysis  of  the  statistics  of  the  Clearing-house  by  the 
late  Mr  Babbage  {Jour.  Statist.  Soc,  March  185G),  shows 
that  the  amount  of  cash  that  passed  was  often  less  than 
4  per  cent,  of  the  total  sums  cleared.  Latterly,  however, 
the  arrangements  of  the  Clearinghouse  have  been  further 
perfected,  so  that  neither  notes  nor  coin  are  now  required. 
The  Clearing-house,  as  well  as  each  banker  using  it,  has  an 
account  at  the  Bank  of  England  ;  and  the  balances  due  .it 
the  close  of  each  day's  transactions  arc  settled  by  transfuni 
from  one  account  to  another  at  the  bank.  ' 

The  use  of  the  Clearing-house  was  still  furthei-  extended 
in  1858,  so  as  to  include  the  .settlement  of  exchanges 
between  the  country  bankers  of  England.  Before  that 
time  each  country  banker  receiving  cheques  on  other 
country  bankers  sent  them  to  those  other  bankers  by  post 
(supposing  they  were  not  'carrying  on  business  in  the  sama 
place),  and  requested  that  the  amount  should  bo  paid  by 
the  London  agent  of  the  banker  on  whom  the  chequc.t  were 
drawn  to  the  London  agent  of  the  banker  remitting  them. 
Cheques  were  thus  coUosted  by  correspondence,  and  each 
remittance  involved  a  separate  payment  in  London.  In 
1858  it  was  proposed  to  set  up  a  country  clearinghouse  in 


B  A  N  K  I  X  G 


329 


Loadon ;  but  it  was  suggested  by  Sir  Joh«  Lubbock  that 
the  eiiating  establishment  could  accomplish  what  was 
desired,  and  this  was  eventually  donet  A  country  banker 
now  sends  cheques  on  other  country  banks  to  brs  London 
correspondent,  who- exchanges  them  at  the  Clearing-house 
with  the  correspondents  of  the  bankers  on  whom  they  are 
drawn.  (Sir  John  Lubbock,  Jour.  SlatUt.  Soc.,  Sept. 
1865.)  It  will  be  easily  understood  that  an  extraordinary 
economy  in  the  use  of  coin  has  resulted  from  these 
arrangements  ;  and  in  the  paper  by  Sir  John  Lubbock  to 
which  we  have  referred,  he  gives  statistics  showing  that 
out  of  the  sum  of  a  million  paid  into  the  bank  in  which 
he  is  a  partner,  only  £21,500  consists  of  bank  notes  and 
£6210  of  coin.  An  ordinary  weekly  clearing  varies  from 
100  to  130  millions;  in  1868  the  weekly  average  was, 
however,  no  more  than  £65,397,075,  from  which  it  rose 
continuously  to  an  average  of  £116,254,717  in  1873.' 
There  was  a  little  falling  off  in  1874,  which  is  now  being 
recovered. 

Up  to  the  year  1858  banking  companies  could  not  be 
constituted  with  limited  liability  of  partners  except  by  way 
of  privilege  under  special  Acts  of  Parliament,  Royal 
Charters,  or  Letters  Patent ;  and  although  the  Bank  of 
England,  and  the  three  oldest  established  bauk^  in  Scotland, 
were  thus  favoured  without  any  consequent  deterioration  in 
the  character  of  their  management,  abundant  arguments 
were  adduced  in  deprecation .o{  a  general  law  on  the  subject. 
In  1858,  however,  an  Act  was  passed  authorizing  the 
formation  and  registration  of  bankingcompanies  with  limited 
liability,  and  also  enabling  existing  unlimited  companies  to 
register  as  associations  with  a  limited  liability  of  partners, 
subject  to  a  proviso  that,  if  the  bank  was  a  bank  of  issue' 
the  liability  of  its  partners  should  remain  unlimited  in 
respect  of  such  issue.  Several  banks  have  been  established 
and  registered  under  this  law,  and  no  evil  results  h^ve  been 
observed  to  follow. 

Presait  MaRugemerU  of  the  Bank  of  England. 

When  the  charter  was  renewed  in  1833,  the  notes  of  the 
lUnk  of  England  were  made  legal  tender  everywhere  in 
England  except  at  the  bank.  Of  the  wisdom  of  this 
regulation  no  doubt  can  be  entertained.  Bank-notes  are 
necessarily  always  equivalent  to  bullion  ;  and  by  making 
them  substitutes  for  coin  at  country  banka,  the  demand  for 
Ibe  latter  during  periods  of  alarm  or  runs  is  materially 
diminished,  and  the  stability  of  the  bank  and  of  the 
pecuniary  system  of  the  country  proportionally  increased. 

Since  1826  the  bank  has  established  branches  in  some 
of  the  great 'commercial  towns.  The  mode  and  terms  of 
conducting  business  at  these  have  been  described  &8  fol- 
lows : — 

"The  branch  bank  at  Swansct  [and  the  same  is  true  of  those 
eslablishej  In  other  rlaces]  is  to  be  a  secure  |.lacc  of  deposit  for  per- 
•ons  having  occasion  to  make  use  of  a  lank  for  that  purpose  ;  such 
perwoa  are  said  to  have  drau-iti^  accounli:  to  facilitate  to  the  mer- 
cantile and  trading  classM  the  obtaining  discounts  of  good  and 
uneicentionable  bills,  founded  upon  real  transactions,  two  approved 
Damn  being  required  upon  every  bill  or  note  discounted  ;  these  are. 
called  dixouHt  eaounts.  The  applicnlious  of  parties  who  desire  to 
open  discount  accounts  at  the  braurli  are  forwarded  to  tlw  parent 
ealiblishaient  for  npproval,  and- an  answer  is  generally  received  in 
about  ten  days.  \\  hen  approved,  good  bills  may  be  discounted  at 
Ibe  branch  without  reference  to  London.  Bills  payable  at  Swansea, 
London,  or  any  other  placo  whera  a  branch  is  established,  are  dis- 
counted under  this  regulation.  The  dividends  on  any  of  the  public 
runda,  which  are  payable  at  the  Bank  of  England,  may  bo  received 
at  the  branch  by  persons  who  have  opened  'drawing  account.! ' 
•tier  aigning  powers  of  attorney  for  that  purpose,  winch  the  branch 
•ill  procure  from  London.  No  charge  is  made  in  this  case,  except 
Ibe  eipens*  of  the  power  of  attorney  and  the  postages  incurred  in 
traunutting  it.  Purchases  and  sales  of  every  Jcscriptjon  of  Govern- 
Brnt  accur.ties  are  effected  by  Iho  brunch  at  a  charge  corresponding 
to  that  made  by  the  loc^l  bankers  where  the  branch  is  situated.  A 
commiuion.  including  Irokonpo  in  London,  and  all  expenses  ef 
pottage,  it  charjjed  on  imying  at  the  Bank  of  Kngland  bills  accepted  J 
a-15' 


by  persons  uaving  drawing  accounU  at  Swansea,  such  bdls  to  bs 
advised  by  the  brauch  ;  also  for  granting  letters  of  crediton  LondoD. 
or  on  the  other  branches.  The  Lmnch  g.-nuts  bills  oD  London,  p«y^ 
able  at  seven  days'  date,  without  acceptance,  for  sums  al  £10  and 
upwards.  Persons  having  drawing  accounts  at  Swansea  may  order 
money  to  be  paid  at  the  bank  in  London  to  their  credit  at  Swansea, 
and  vice  versa,  at  a  charge  of  6d.  in  lieu  of  postage.  The  branch 
may  be  called  upon  to  change  any  notes  issued  and  dtUed  at  Swan- 
sea ;  but  they  do  not  change  the  notes  of  the  bank  in  London,  nor 
receive  them  in  payment,  unless  as  a  matter  of  courtesy  where  the 
parties  are  kijowu.  Bank  post  bills,  which  are  accepted  and  due, 
arc  received  at  the  branch  frocn  parlies  having  drawing  accounts, 
and  taken  to  account  without  any  charge  for  postage;  but  unac- 
cf^'ied  bank  post  bills,  which  must  Be  sent  to  London,  are  subject 
to  the  charge  of  postage,  and  taken  to  account  when  due.  No 
interest  is  allowed  on  deposits.  No  advance  is  made  by  the  branch 
upon  any  description  of  landed  or  other  property,  nor  is  any  account 
allowed  to  be  overdrawn.  The  notes  are  the  same  as  thoao  issued 
by  the  parent  establishment,  except  being  dated  Swansea,  and  made 
payable  there  and  in  London.  No  note  issued  exceeds  the  sum  of 
;t500,  and  none  are  for  a  less  amount  than  £5." 

The  Bank  of  England  transacts  the  whole  business  of 
Government.  "She  acts  not  only,"  says  Adam  Smith, 
"  as  an  ordinary  bank,  but  as  a  great  engine  of  state.  She 
receives  and  pays  the  greater  [tart  of  the  annuities  which 
are  due  to  the  creditors  of  the  public ;  she  circulates 
Exchequer  bills  ;  and  she  advances  to  the  Government  the 
annual  amount  of  the  land  and  ualt  taxes,  which  are 
frequently  not  paid  till  some  years  thereafter." 

The  Bank  of  England  rarely  discounts  bills  that  have 
more  than  two,  or  at  most  three  months  to  run,  and  it  were 
well  were  this  rule  generally  observed  by  other  establish- 
ments.    The  discounting  of  bdls  at  long  dates  is  a  powerful 
stimulus  to  unsafe  speculation.     When  individuals  obtain 
loans  which  they  are  not  to  be  called  upon  to  pay  for  six, 
twelve,  or,  perhaps,  eighteen  months,  they  are  tempted  to 
adventure  in  speculations  which  are  not  expected  to  be 
wound  up  till  some  proportionally  distant  period  ;   aD<l  as 
these  not  unfrequently  fad,  the  consequence  is  that,  when 
the  bdU  become  due,  there-is  commonly  little  or  no  provi- 
sion made  for  their  payment.    In  such  cases  the  discounters, 
to  avert  an  imminent   loss,  sometimes  consent  to  renew 
the  bills.     But,  while  a  proceeding  of  this  sort  is  rarely 
productive  of  ultimate  advantage  to  cither  party,  the  fact 
of  its  having  taken  place  makes  other  adventurers  reckon 
that,  in  the  event  of  their  speculations  proving  to  be  less 
successful  than  they  anticipated,  their  bills  will  be  treated  in 
the  same  manner,  and  thus  aggravates  and  extends  the  evil. 
In  other  respects,  too,  tlie  discount  of  bills  at  long  dates, 
or  their  renewal,  or  the   making  of   permanent   loans,   is 
altogether  inconsistent  with  sound  banking  principles,  for 
it  prevents  the  bankers  from  having  that  command  over 
their  resources  which  is  advantageous  at  all  times,  and 
indis|5ensahle  in  periods  of  difficulty  or  distress.  • 

In  the  discounting  of  bills,  a  great  deal  of  stress  ia 
usually  laid,  or  pretended  }o  be  laid,  on  the  distinction 
between  those  that  arise  out  of  real  transactions  and  those 
that  are  fictitious  or  that  are  intended  for  accommodation 
purposes.  The  former  are  said  to  be  legitimate,  while  the 
latter  are  stigmatized  as  illegitimate.  But  Mr  Thornton' 
has  shown  that  the  difference  is  neither  so  well  marked 
nor  so  wide  as  many  suppose,  A  notion  seems  to  be 
generally  entertained  that  all  real  bills  are  drawn  against 
produce  of  one  sort  or  other,  which  (or  its  yalue)  is  supposed 
to  form  a  fund  for  their  payment.  Such,  however,  is  not 
always,  nor  even  most  commonly,  the  case.  A,  for  example, 
sells  to  B  certain  produce,  for  which  he  draws  a  bill  at 
sixty  days'  date.  But  prices  are  rising,  trade  is  brisk,  or  a 
spirit  of  speculation  is  afloat,  and,  in  a  week  or  two  (some- 
times much  less),  B  sells  the  produce  at  an  advance  to  C, 
who  therealtersellsitto  D,  and  so  on.  Hence  it  may,  and, 
in  fact,  frequently  does  happen,  that  bills  amounting  to 

'  Oa  tb>  r«Dcr  Cndil  cf  Great  Britain.  c»d.  2. 


330 


BANKING 


tonr,  five,  or  even  tea  times  the'  value  of  a  quantity  of 
merchandise,  have  grown  out  of  its  successive  sales,  before 
the  first  bill  of  the  series  has  become  due.  And  not  only 
this,  but  bills  are  themselves  verj'  frequently  rediscounted  ; 
and  in  this  case  the  credit  of  the  last  iiidorser  is  generally 
the  only  thing  looked  to  ;  and  there  is  not,  perhaps,  one 
case  in  ten  in  which  any  inquiries  are  made  in  regard  to 
the  origin  and  history  of  the  bills,  though  they  are  often 
of  the  most  questionable  description. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  would  aeem  that  the  real  or 
presumed  solvency  of  the  parties  signing  a  bill,  and  respon- 
sible for  ita  payment,  is  the  only  safe  criterion  by  which  to 
judge  whether  it  should  or  should  not  be  discounted.  But 
the  fact  of  a  merchant  or  other  trader  oEfering  accommoda- 
tion bills  for  discount  ought  unquestionably  to  excite  a 
suspicion  that  he  is  trading  beyond  his  capital.  Inquiries 
of  the  most  searching  description  should  forthwith  be 
instituted ;  and  unless  satisfactory  explanations  are  given, 
his  paper  should  be  rejected.  On  the  same  principle,  the 
offering  of  bilU  for  rediscount  ought  to  awaken  suspicions 
of  the  bankers  and  others  who  resort  to  so  questionable  a 
mode  of  carrying  on  business.  But,  except  in  so  far  as  a 
feeling  of  distrust  may  be  thus  very  properly  excited, 
there 'does  not  appear  to  be  anything  in  an  accommodation 
bill  fer  se  to  hinder  it  from  coming  within  the  pale  of 
negotiability.  It  is  a  mode  of  obtaining  a  loan  from  a 
bauk  ;  and  when  the  character  of  the  bill  is  known  to  the 
banker,  or  is  openly  declared,  it  does  not  appear  to  be  an 
objectionable  mode. 

Besides  bills  avowedly  intended  for  accommodation  pur- 
poses, another  and  a  different  variety  of  such  bills  is  drawn 
by  parties  at  a  distance  from  each  other,  often  men  of  straw, 
and  made  to  appear  as  if  they  were  bottomed  on  real  trans- 
actions. Bills  of  this  sort  are,  if  is  greatly  to  be  regretted, 
always  current,  and  often  to  a  largo  extent.  Of  course 
no  person  of  respectability  can  be  knowingly  connected  with 
such  bills,  which  are  almost  always  put  in  motion  either  to 
bolster  up  some  bankrupt  concern,  or  to  cheat  and  defraud 
the  public.  But  despite  the  mischief  of  which  they  are 
productive,  it  appears  to  be  pretty  generally  supposed  that 
the  currency  of  these  bills  is  an  evil  which  cannot  be  pre- 
vented. There  can,  however,  be  no  real  doubt  that  it  mayj 
at  all  events,  be  very  greatly  diminished ;  and  this  desir- 
able result  would  be  effected  were  it  enacted  that  all  bills 
shall  henceforth  bear  upon  their  face  what  they  really  are  ; 
that  those  that  are  intended  for  accommodation  purposes 
ehall  have  at  tlieir  head  the  words  "  Accommodation  bill;  " 
and  that  those  only  shall  bear  to  be  for  "value  received  " 
that  have  grown  out  of  bona  fide  transfers  of  property.  An 
enactment  of  tiis  sort  could  not  be  felt  as  a  grievance  by 
any  one  unless  he  had  a  fraudulent  purjiose  in  view.  Anil 
were  the  impressing  of  a  false  character  on  a  bill  made  a 
criminal  offence,  punishable  by  several  years'  imprison- 
ment, there  is  every  probability  that  a  formidable  check 
would  be  given  to  the  issue  of  spurious  bills,  and  to  the 
manifold  abuses  to  which  the  practice  gives  rise. 

Bill-discounters  who  have  got  fictitious  paper  on  their 
hands  and  attempt  to  get  rid  of  it  by  concealing  its  char- 
acter or  representing 'it  in  a  favourable  light  make  them- 
selves parties  to  the  fraud.  Such  conduct  is  so  very 
flagitious,  that  when  it  can  be  fairly  brought  homo  to  the 
parties  it  should  subject  them  to  the  severest  penalties. 

The  rates  of  discount  charged  by  the  bank,  since  its 
establishment  in  1694  down  to  1845,  were  as  follows : — 


Frem  Aug. 
Aug. 
Oct. 
Jan 


8,  1891  to  Aug.  30, 
30,  1C94       Jan.    10, 


2J,  1094 
10,  1695 
Do. 
J>n.   16,  169S 


Per  cent. 

1694  on  Foreign  bills 6 

1695  Foreign  bills 4i 

1695       Inland  bills 6 

1695       Fori'igu  bills 6 

to  customcra  of  the  bauT; 3 

July   26,  1718  on  Inland  bills 44 


Jan.    16, 
Moy  19, 


From  May  19, 
Do. 
Feb.  23, 
June  2'2, 
July  26, 
April  30, 
O.'t.  27, 
Ang.  23, 

Do. 
Oct.    18, 
Deo.   12, 

Do. 
May     1, 
May    1, 

June  20, 
Dec.  13, 
July  5, 
July  21, 
Sept.  1, 
Feb.  13, 
Jlay  16, 
June  20, 
Aug.  1, 
Jan.  23, 
Oct.  15, 
June  3, 
April  7, 
Sept.  5, 
Do. 


1695  to 
on 
1704  to 
1710 
1716 
1719 
17i0 
1722 

1742 
1744 

1746 
1746 

1822 
1S25 
1827 
1836 
1836 
1838 
1839 
1839 
1839 
1840 
1840 
1841 
1842 
1S44 


Feb.  28,  1704  on 
Foreign  bilib  not 
June  22,  1710  on 
July  26,  1716 
April  30,  1719 
Oct.   27    1720 
Aug.  23,  1722 
Oct.    18,  1742 

•  do. 
Dec.   12,  1744 
May     1,  1746 

do. 
April   5,  1773 
June  20,  1822 


Dec.  13, 
July  5, 
.July  21, 
Sept.  1, 
July  15, 
May  10, 
Julie  20, 
Aug.  1, 
Jan.  23, 
Oct.  15, 
June  3, 
April  7, 
Sept.  5, 
Mar.  13, 
do. 


1825 
1827 
1836 
1836 
1833 
1S39 
1839 
1839 
1840 
1840 
1841 
1S42 
1S44 
1845 


Per  cepfc 

Foreign  bills 4 

payable  at  the  bank  6 

Foreign  bills 6 

For.  &  Inland  do.  4 

Bills  and  notes ;  6 

Bills 6 

BUls ■. 4 

Inland  bills  5 

Foreign  hilh 4 

Foreign  bills 6 

do.  (1 5  d.  to  run)  .  4 

Inl.ind  bills  6 

Foreign  bills 6 

Bills  end  notes 
(95  d.ays  to  run) 
do. 


do. 
do. 
do. 
do, 
do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 


4 

6 
6 
4 

i\ 

6 

4 

S 

6J 

6 


65  d.ay  bills  5 

96  day  bills 5 

do.  5 

do.  4 

Bills  24 

Kotes 3 


Since  1845  the  changes  of  interest  have  been,  for  reasons 
already  given,  much  more  numerous.  We  give  the  num- 
ber of  changes  in  each  year — 


In  1845,    2  changes. 

In  1855, 

7  c 

langcs. 

In 

1865,  14  changes. 

1846,    1       „ 

1856, 

8 

,, 

1866,  14»     ;, 

1647,  10'     „ 

1857, 

9' 

It 

1867,    3       „ 

1848,    3       „ 

1858, 

6 

1868,    2      „ 

1849,     1       „ 

1859, 

5 

1869,    7       „ 

1850,    1       „ 

1860, 

9 

If 

1870,    9      „ 

1851,    0      „ 

1861,  133 

1871,  10       „ 

1852,    2       „ 

1862, 

5 

,, 

1872,  13      „ 

1853,    6       „ 

18C3,  1 

2 

II 

1873,  24*     „ 

1854,    2       „ 

1SC4,  14* 

1874,  14      „ 

The  dividends  or 

1  bank  stock, 

from  the  establishment  of 

the  company  to  the 

present  time 

,  have  been  as  follows  :  — 

Tears.          Dlvld 

Dd. 

Years. 

Dividend. 

1694,     8  per  cent. 

1823| 

8  per  cent. 

1697,     9 

1839, 

7 

1708,     Varied  from  9  to 

1852, 

n 

1729,         6J  pe 

r  cent. 

1853, 

8 

1730,     6 

1856, 

84 

1730,     6i 

1859, 

84 

1721,     6 

1863, 

83 

1728,    ,64 

1864, 

9} 

1747,     5 

1865, 

llj 

1753,     44 

1866, 

lOj 

1764,     5 

1867, 

10 

1767,     54 

1868, 

8 

1781,     6 

1869, 

83 

1788,     7 

1872, 

94 

1807,   10 

1873, 

10 

The  Bank  of  England  does 

no 

I  allow 

ei 

her  at  the  bend 

*  Rising  from  4  per  cent,  ou  Sd  April  to  8  per  cent,  on  20th  Nov., 
declining  ugain  to  5  per  cent,  by  24th  Dec,  and  to  3  in  1848. 

*  With  the  exception  of  one  week  the  rate  wag  high,  varying  from 
4  to  6^  from  Sept.  1853  to  May  1856,  from  which  date  it  rose  to  ao 
average  of  6  per  cent,  until  Oct.  1807,  wheu  it  rapidly  mounted  to  10 
per  cent,  in  Dec.  1857,  and  thence  declined  to  4  in  Feb.  1858. 

*  7  woe  the  average  rate  in  the  spring,  and  6  the  average  in  the 
summer  of  18CI. 

*  At  the  end  of  1863  the  rate  rose  to  7  and  8  per  cent.,  aod  It 
oscillated  abofrt  these  figuics'lhroughout  1804,  tT\'ic€  falling  to  6,  and 
twice  rising  to  9  per  cent.  » 

*  The  averago  rate  in  1805  was  4,  but  at  tho  close"  of  the  year  H 
rose  to  6  and  7  ;  end  in  18G6  it  mounted  until  it  reached  10  per  cent 
on  tbo  15th  August,  from  which  it  foil  to  3J  before  tho  end  of  tb« 
year.  \ 

'  The  crisia  In  America  (seeBanlfring  in  tho  United  States,  p.  341) 
was  followed  by  a  rapid  rise  from  3  per  «ciit.  on  the  20th  August  lo  ft 
per  cent,  on  the  5tb  Nov.,  from  ivllich  the  rote  receded  to  4^  befort 
the  tA  of  the  )vsn. 


J5  A   N    K  1    N   G 


331 


ofTico  iQ  LouJou,  or  at  its  branches,  any  iotcrcst  on  do- 
p'isita,  aiiJ  many  plausible  reasous  have  been  advanced  in 
defence  of  this  rule.  They  are  ivtll  stated  in  iLe  following 
eilract  fioni  the  evidence  of  Mr  Weguclin,  formerly  goveraor 
of  the  bank,  before  the  Comiuilt.e  of  lb57: — 

"  We,"  said  lie,  **at  the  CaDk  of  England,  have  always  considered 
that  the  proper  runclious  of  a  banker  were  to  keep  the  spare  cash  of 
Lis  customer,  such  cash  as  his  customer  required  for  Lis  daily  ex- 
penditure, for  the  sudden  demands  of  his  business,  and  any  acci- 
dcnt-''l  accumulation  which  [uight  happen  before  the  customer  had 
occasion  to  invest  it.  The*,  is  contrasted  with,  the  system  pursued 
by  iho  joint-stock  banks.  The  joint-stock  bank  invites  a  laige 
deposit  by  olFcring  a  certain  rate  of  interest  for  the  deposit  ;  in  point 
of  fact,  the  joint-stock  bank  becomes  the  investor  of  the  money  in- 
stead of  the  customer.  The  customer  of  a  joint-stock  bank  docs  not 
himself  invest  his  own  money,  but  be  employs  the  joint-stock  bank 
to  do  it,  taking  tlie  guarantee  of  llie  joint-stock  bank,  and  taking, 
possibly,  a  lower  rate  of  interest.  Now.  that  system,  if  applied  to 
the  Bank  of  England,  would  be,  I  think,  very  prejudicial  to  the 
public  interests.  It  would,  lo  the  6t:>t  place,  force  upon  the  Bank 
of  England  to  invest  its  reserves  much  more  closely  than  it  does 
now.  If  it  had  to  pay  interest  upon  its  deposits,  it  could  only  do 
60  by  inventing  them  in  some  securities  that  would  pay  a  higher  rale 
of  interest  than  that  which  it  pays.  Its  deposits  also  are  of  that 
particular  character  which  would  render  it  still  more  inexpedient 
that  they  should  bo  closely  invested.  They  consist,  in  the  first 
place,  of  Goverument  deposits,  which  rise  from  a  low  rate  at  one 
period  of  ai^iiarter  up  to  five  or  six  millions  higherat  another  period 
of  a  quarter,  and  again  collapse  to  a  very  low  rate  at  another  period. 
Again,  the  private  deposits  consist,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  the 
dt[>osit3  of  the  bankers  and  the  joint-stock  banks  of  London.  Those 
deposits  are  the  amounts  which  those  bankers  require  to  work  their 
own  business.  Consequently,  they  are  not  deposits  which  should  be 
very  closely  invested  by  the  Bank  of  England.  In  times  when 
there  is  a  great  accumulation  of  deposits  in  the  Bank  of  England,  it 
is  because  the  public  are  not  able  at  those  times  to  find  investments 
to  their  mind  to  employ  those  deposits;  and  consequently,  it  is  not 
(it  all  likely  that  the  Bank  of  England,  if  that  is  tiie  case  with  the 
public  generally,  will  bo  able  to  find  investments  which  the  public 
thcmscrvcs  have  not  been  able  to  do.  All  these  reasons  combined 
would  lead  me  to  think,  that  to  force  a  system  upon  the  Bank  of 
England  by  which  it  should  be  obliged  to  employ  its  deposits  very 
closely — much  more  closely  than  it  does  at  present — would  be  not 
only  prejudicial  and  unsafe  as  regards  the  Bank  of  England,  but 
Would  be  prejudicial  to  the  public  inl'jrest." — Quest.  159. 

It  is,  however,  obvious  that  this  reasoning  is  quite  incon- 
clusive. Mr  Weguelin  shows  clearly  enough  that  the 
directors  of  the  bank  would  be  bound  to  exercise  great 
caution  in  the  choice  and  extent  of  their  investments,  but 
he  says  nothing  to  explain  why  they  should  not,  as  the 
managers  of  a  joint-stock  company,  use  every  raeaiis  of 
profitably  extending  their  business,  and  it  is  incontestable 
that  if  the  bank  directors  offered  to  receive  deposits  at 
interest,  the  reputation  of  the  bank  would  enable  them  to 
defy  the  competition  of  the  other  joint-stock  banks.  The 
truth  is,  that  the  non-allowance  of  interest  is  a  tradition,  of 
DO  authority  in  itself,  and  operating  injuriously  in  keeping 
up  the  delusion  that  the  banking  department  of  the  Bank 
of  England  is  an  institution  differing  essentially  in  the 
character  of  its  business  from  other  banks. 

Previously  to  1786  the  bank  received  an  allowance  for 
p»ying  the  dividends,  superintending  the  transfer  of  the 
stock,  itc,  of  the  national  debt,  at  the  rate  of  X5C2,  lOs.  a 
million  on  its  amount.  In  17S6  this  allowance  was  reduced 
lo  i;4>')0  a  million,  the  bank  being,  at  tue  same  time, 
entitled  to  a  consideriible  allowance  for  its  trouble  in 
receiving  contributions  on  loans,  lotteries,  itc.  This, 
though  long  regarded  as  a  very  improvidei;t  arrangement 
on  the  part  of  the  public,  was  acquiesced  in  till  1808,  when 
the  allowance  on  account  of  managcmi'nt  was  reduced  to 
£310  per  million  on  £000,000,000  of  the  public  debt,  and 
to  £300  per  million  on  all  that  it  exceeded  that  sum, 
cxcljsive  of  some  acparato  allowances  for  annuities,  <tc. 
The  impression,  :however,  was  still  entertained  that  the 
allowances  for  management  should  bo  further  reduced,  and 
this  has  been  effected  in  the  interim. 

Exclusive  of  its  functions  na  nublic  banker  and  manager 


of  the  public  debt,  the  Bunk  of  England  is  conacclcd  villi 
Guverument  through  the  circulation.  AVe  have  seen  that 
it  13  entitled  to  issue  the  sum  of  ill 5,(100,000  upon  secu- 
rities, that  is,  on  I  lie  credit  of  the  funds  lent  to  Govern- 
iiieut.  But  for  those  the  bank  receives  about  3  per  cent. 
ititurest,  and  such  be;(ig  the  case,  the  public  is  doaily 
entitled  to  a  portion,  if  not  to  the  whole  uuiouut  of  the 
piofils  realised  by  the  bank  on  the  issue  of  these 
£15,000,000.  It  IS  difficult  to  say  how  much  this  ought 
to  be.  The  issue  department  of  the  bank  seldiim  re- 
issues notes,  but  for  the  most  part  destroys  thcui  as  soon 
as  llicy  are  returned  to  it.  This  practice  is  said. to  be 
necessary  to  enable  the  bank  to  obviate  fraud,  by  keeping 
a  proper  account  of  the  numbers  of  the  notes  afloat.  An 
opinion  is,  however,  pretty  generally  entertained  that  this 
might  be  effected  by  a  less  expensive  process  than  that 
which  is  now  resorted  to.  And  certainly,  it  seems  to  be  a 
very  wasteful  proceeding,  that  a  quantity  of  newly 
manufactured  notes  issued  by  the  bank  Lu  the  forenoon,  and 
returned  to  her  in  the  afternoon,  should  not  bo  reissued, 
but  consi^;iicd  to  the  flames.  The  Scotch  banks  are  jusilj 
censurable  for  keeping  their  notes  too  long  afloat,  but  iLis 
is  running  nUh  a  vengeance  into  the  oi)posite  extrema 

In  18G1  afresh  arrangemontwasmade between  theCovcrn- 
ment  and  the  bank,  to  endure  for  25  years.  Under 
this  agreement  the  bank  receives  £300  per  million  on 
£000,000,000,  aiid  £150  per  million  on  the  amount  of 
debt  above  that  sum  ;  but  from  these  allowances  are 
deducted  £C0,000  for  exemption  from  stamp  duties  aod 
the  whole  allowance  out  of  profit  of  issue,  making  togcthei 
nearly  £200,000. 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  responsibility  and  eipenso 
incurred  by  the  bank,  in  managing  tlie  public  debt,  are 
very  great.  The  temptation  to  the  commission  of  fraud,  in 
transferring  stock  from  one  individual  to  another,  and  in 
the  payment  of  the  dividends,  is  well  known  ;  and  notwith- 
standing the  skilfully  devised  system  of  checks  adopted  by 
the  bank  for  preventing  this,  it  has  frequently  sustained 
very  great  losses  by  forgery  and  otherwise.  In  1803  the 
bank  lost,  through  a  fraud  committed  by  one  of  the 
principal  cashiers,  Mr  Astlett,  no  less  than  £340,000;  and 
the  forgeries  of  Fauntlcroy,  tho  banker,  cost  it  a  still 
larger  sum.  At  an  average  of  tho  ten  years  ending  with 
1831,  tho  bank  lost,  through  forgeries  on  the  public  funds, 
£40,204  a  year. — {Report  on  Bank  Charter,  Aj'ptn.  \>.  105.) 

Besides  the  transactions  alluded  tOj  tho  bank  entered, 
on  the  20th  of  March  1823,  into  an  cng.ngeraeut  with 
Government  with  respect  to  the  public  pensions  'and 
annuities,  or,  as  they  have  been  more  commonly  termed, 
the  etead  ucight.  At  the  end  of  the  war,  the  naval  and 
military  pensions,  superannuated  allowances,  kc,  amounted 
to  above  £5,000,000  a  year.  They  would,  of  course,  have 
been  gradually  lessened,  and  ultimately  extinguished,  by 
the  death  of  the  parties  ;  but  it  was  resolved  in  1822  to 
attempt  to  spread  the  burden  equally  over  the  whole 
period  ol  forty-five  years,  during  which  it  was  calculated 
the  annuities  would  continue  to  decrease  To  effect  this 
purpose,  it  was  supposed  that,  upon  Government  offering 
to  pay  £2,800,000  a  year  for  forty-five  years,  capitalists 
would  bo  found  who  would  undertake  to  pay  the  entire 
annuities,  according  to  a  gr.iiluatcd  scale  previously  deter- 
mined upon,  making  the  fiist  ytara  payment  of  £4,900,000, 
and  gradually  decreasing  the  payments  until  the  forly-fifth 
and  last  year,  when  they  were  to  amoutit  to  only  .£300,000. 
This  supposition  was  not,  huwover,  realized.  No  cajiitalis Is 
were  found  willing  to  enter  info  such  distant  engagements 
But  in  1823,  the  bank  agreed,  on  condition  of  receiving  an 
annuity  of  £585,740  ioi  forly/oxtr  years,  commencing  on 
the  5th  of  April  1823,  lo  pay,  on  account  of  the  pcnsion.s, 
ic,  at  different  specified  periods,  between  the  years  1S23 


332 


BANKING 


[SCOTLAND. 


and  1&23,  botl.  mclusive,  the  sum  of  £!  3,039,419. — 
(4  Geo.  IV  c.  22.)  TIils  anuuily  has,  in  due  course  of 
time,  expired. 

Formerly  the  business  transacted  at  the  bank  was  so 
much  encumbered  with  forms  and  conditions,  that  the 
generality  of  merchants  and  ordinary  people  rarely  thought 
of  employing  it  to  keep  their  money  or  make  their  pay- 
ments. But  in  this  respect  an  entire  change  has  been 
effected.  Cheques,  the  minimum  amount  of  which  was 
formerly  ilO,  may  now  be  drawn  of  any  amount,  great  or 
small ,  and  all  sorts  of  banking  business  is- conducted  with 
facility  and  despatch,  and,  it  may  be  added,  with  perfect 
security. 

The  bank  opens  banking  accounts,  or,  as  they  are  called, 
"drawing  accounts,"  for  the  safe  custody,  and  the  receipt 
and  payment  of  cash,  not  only  with  merchants  and  traders, 
but  with  all  persons  who  choose  to  keep  their  money  at  a 
banker's  and  to  draw  cheques  against  it.  The  bank  also 
takes  charge  of  its  customers'  bills  of  exchange.  Exchequer 
bills,  and  other  securities,  and  does  all  that  is  needful 
either  in  the  collection  of  bills  of  exchange,  the  exchange 
of  Exchequer  bills,  the  receipt  of  dividends,  and  so  forth, 
free  of  any  charge.  Plate  chests,  and  deed  and  security 
boxes,  may  be  deposited  free  of  expense,  by  customers,  for 
safe  custody.  The  bank  looks  to  the  average  balance  of 
cash  on  each  account  to  compensate  for  the  trouble  and 
expense  of  keeping  it,  and  in  this  respect  the  requirements 
of  the  bajik  are  certainly  not  greater  than  those  of  ordinary 
bankers.  No  particular  sum  is  required  to  be  lodged  on 
opening  an  account ;  it  is  only  necessary  that  the  party 
should  be  known  as  respectable,  and  in  a  condition  to 
require  a  banking  account.  But  the  bank  receives  and 
holds  suras  of  money  for  safe  custody  for  parties  who  have 
ilo  current  accounts. 

The  following  are  the  regulations  under  which  accounts 
are  conducted  : — 

1.  All  letters  should  be  addressed  to  the  chief  cashier. 

2.  It  is  desirable  that  drafts  should  be  drawn  upon  cheques  fur- 
nished by  the  bank. 

3.  Cheques  upon  city  bankers,  eastward  of  King  Street,  Cheap. 
•ide, — 

Paid  in  by  12  o'clock  may  bo  drawn  for  after  1. 
Do.  2  o'clock         ,,  „         after  3. 

4.  Cheques  paid  in  after  2,  and  before  3  o'clock,  and  cheques  upon 
•11  other  London  bankers  paid  in  before  12  o'clock,  may  be  drawn 
for  on  the  foliowint^  morning. 

5.  Cheques  paid  in  after  3  o'clock  are  sent  out  at  3  the  following 
morning,  and  may  be  drawn  for  as  soon  aa  received. 

_  6.  Dividend  warrants  are  received  at  the  drawing  office  until  4 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon  for  all  persons  having  accounts  at  the  bank. 

7.  It  ia  requested  that  notice  bo  given  at  the  drawing  oflice  of 
bills  accepted  payable  at  the  bank,  with  the  date  of  their  maturity. 

8.  Persons  keeping  a  drawing  account  with  the  bank  (although 
not  having  a  discount  account)  may  tender  bills  for  discount 
through  the  drawing.  olEco,  Application  for  discounts  or  for 
advances  on  stock.  Exchequer  bills,  ic,  must  bo  made  before  2 
o'clock. 

9.  Bills  of  eichango  and  notes  not  paid  when  due,  will  be  noted. 

10.  "The  bank  will  make  purchases  or  sales  of  British  or  foreign 
eecuritiis  upon  an  order  in  writing  addressed  to  the  chief  cashier  ; 
and  dividends  on  stock  may  be  received  under  powers  of  attorney 
granted  to  the  cashiers  of  the  bank. 

11.  Exchequer  bills,  bonds,  railway  debentures,  or  any  other 
eecuritioa  may  be  deposited,  and  the  interest,  when  payable,  will  be 
receiver!  and  placed  to  account. 

)2.  Credits  paid  in  to  account  are  received  without  the  bankbook, 
«nd  are  afterwards  entervd  therein  without  the  party  claiming 
them. 

13.  Notea  of  country  bankers,  payable  in  London,  are  seat  out 
the  samo  day  for  payment  if  paid  in  iH'forc  3  o'clock. 

14.  The  pass-books  should  bo  left  at  the  drawing  olhce,  at  least 
ono«  a  month,  to  bo  written  up. 

15.  Whore  post-bills  arc  rcquircjl.  or  a  payment  is  to  be  made  to 
amy  olEce  of  the  bank  by  cheque  on  the  Bank  of  England,  the  cheque 
must  bf  presented  nt  the  omce  upon  which  it  is  drawn,  and  ex- 
changed fc)r  an  order  on  the  post  bill  office,  or  on  tin 
the  paynic'it  is  to  be  made. 


the  office  at  which 


IG.  Cash-bo.xes  taken  in,  contfnts  unkDOWD,  for  such  parties  as 
keep  accounts  at  llic  bauk. 

17.  A  person  having  a  drawing  account  may  have  a  discount 
account ;  but  no  person  can  have  the  latter  without  at  the  same 
time  having  the  former.  When  a  discount  account  is  opened,  the 
signatures  of  th»  parties  are  entered  in  a  book  kept  for  that  purpose, 
and  powers  of  attorney  are  granted  empowering  the  persons  muncd 
in  them  to' act  for  their  principals.  Bills  of  exchange  having  more 
than  95  days  to  run  a-re  not  eligible  for  discount. 

N.B. — All  changes  in  the  residence  of  persons  keeplng^cash  at  the 
bank  are  requested  to  be  made  known  at  the  drawing  office;  and  it 
is  particularly  requested  that  no  gratuities  be  oUcred  to  the  clerks 
of  the  bankiug  offices,  such  gratuities  being  strictly  forbidden. 

S:otck  Banks. 

The  Act  of  1708,  preventing  more  than  six  individuals 
from  entering  into  a  partnership  for  carrying  on  the  busi- 
ness of  banking,  did  not  extend  to  Scotland.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  exemption,  several  banking  companie.s, 
with  numerous  bodies  of  partners,  have  existed,  for  a 
lengthened  period,  in  that  part  of  the  empire. 

The  Bank  of  Scotland  was  projected  by  Mr  John  Holland, 
merchant,  of  London,  and  was  established  by  Act  of  the 
Scotch  Parliament  (Will.  III.,  Pari.  1,  §  5)  in  1695,  by  the 
name  of  the  Governor  and  Company  of  the  Bank  of  Scot- 
land. Its  original  capital  was  £1,200,000  Scotch,  or 
£100,000  sterling,  distributed  in  shares  of  XIOOO  Scotch, 
or  £83,  Cs.  8d.  sterling,  each.  The  Act  exempted  the 
capital  of  the  bank  from  all  public  burdens,  and  gave  it  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  banking  in  Scotland  for  twenty-o:ie 
years.  The  objects  for  which  the  bank  was  instituted,  and 
its  mode  of  management,  were  intended  to  be,  and  have 
been,  in  most  respects,  similar  to  those  of  the  Bank  of 
England.  The  responsibility  of  the  shareholders  is  limited 
to  the  amount  of  their  shares.  The  capital  of  the  bank 
was  increased  to  £200,000  in  1774,  and  was  enlarged  by 
subsequent  Acts  of  Parliament,  the  last  of  which  (44  Geo. 
III.  c.  23)  was  passed  in  1804,  to  £1,500,000,  its  present 
amount.'  Of  this  sum  £1,000,000  has  been  paid  up.  The 
last-mentioned  Act  directed  that  all  sums  relating  to  the 
affairs  of  the  bank  should  henceforth  be  rated  in  sterling 
money  ;  that  the  former  mode  of  dividing  bank  stock  by 
shares  should  be  discontinued ;  and  that,  for  the  future,  it 
should  be  transferable  in  sums  or  parcels  of  any  amount. 
On  the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms  in  1707,  the  Bank  of 
Scotland  undertook  the  recoinage,  and  effected  the  exchange 
■of  the  currency  in  Scotland.  It  was  also  the  organ  of 
Government  in  the  issue  of  the  new  silver  coinage  in  1817. 

The  Bank  of  Scotland  is  the  only  Scotch  bank  consti- 
tuted by  Act  of  Parliament.  It  began  to  establish  branches 
in  1G96,  and  issued  notes  for  one  pound  as  early  as  1704. 
The  bank  also  began,  at  a  very  early  period,  to  receive 
deposits  on  interest,  and  to  grant  credit  on  cash  accounts, 
a  minute  of  tho  directors  with  respect  to  the  mode  o( 
keeping  the  latter  being  dated  as  far  back  as  1729.  It  is, 
therefore,  entitled  to  the  credit  of  having  introduced  and 
set  on  foot  the  distinctive  principles  of  the  Scotch  banking 
system,  which,  whatever  may  be  its  defect.*",  is  pcrhajis 
superior  to  most  other  systems  hitherto  established.  Gene- 
rally speaking,  the  Bank  of  Scotland  has  been  cautiously 
and  skilfully  coiuiuctcd  ;  and  there  can  bo  no  doubt  that 
it  has  been  productive,  both  directly  and  as  an  example  to 
other  banking  establishments,  of  much  public  utility  and 
advantage. 

It  may  bo  worth  mentioning,  that  tho  Act  of  Will.  III. 
establishing  tho  Bank  of  Scotland,  declared  that  all 
foreigners  who  became  partners  in  tho  bank  should  by 
doing  so  become,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  naturalised 
Scotchmen.     After  being  for  a  long  time  forgotten,  this 

*  AHlioiich  the  capital  of  tho  Hank  of  Scotland  remains,  as  stated 
In  the  text,  a  power,  as  yet  unusetl,  was  conferred  on  the  bank  by  a. 
priv.itc  Act  passed  in  1373  to  raise  its  capital  to  i:3,000,000. 


6C0TLA1-0.J 

clause  was  taken  a  J  vantage  of  in  1818, when  several  aliens 
acquired  property  in  tbeUinkin  order  to  secure  the  benefit 
of  naturalization.  Cut  aftor  being  suspended,  the  privilege 
waa  finally  cancelled  in  18'22. 

We  subjoin  an  official  abstract  of  the  constitution  and 
objects  of  the  Bank  of  Scotland,  printed  in  1857  for  the 
use  of  the  proprietors  ; — the  terras  and  model  of  transact- 
ing businesi  are,  of  course,  someUmes  altered,  according 
to  circumstances: — 

1.  The  Banlc  of  Scotland  is  >  public  national  establishment, 
erected  and  regulated  by  the  Legislature  alone,  and  expressly  aa  a- 
public  bank  in  this  kinpdom, — for  the  benefit  of  the  nation,  aud  for 
the  ajToncement  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and  manufactures,  and 
for  other  objects  of  public  policy. — (WiU.  Pari.  1,§5;  HOeo.lll. 
c.  32;  24  Geo.  III.  c.  8;  32  Geo.  HI.  c  25;  34  Geo.  lU.c.  19; 
44  Geo.  III.  c   23.) 

2.  The  statutory  capital  is  at  present  £1,500,000  sterling.  It  is 
raised  by  voluntary  subscription,  and  has  been  subscribed  for 
£1,000,000  has  been  called  for,  and  paid  in. — (44  Geo.  J II.  c. 
28.) 

3.  Subscribers,  if  not  under  obligations  to  the  bank,  may,  at 
pleasure,  transfer  their  right.  If  under  obligation  to  the  bank,  the 
obligation  roust  Irfi  previously  liquidated  ;  or  the  proceeds  of  the 
sale,  at  a  price  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  directors,  must  be  applied 
towards  such  liquidation.  Transfers  are  made  by  a  short  assign- 
ment and  acceptance  thereof,  both  in  a  register  appointed  for  that 
purpose.  The  expense,  besides  the  Government  stamp,  is  lis.— 
(Will   P«rl.  I,  §5  ) 

4.  Bunk  of  Scotland  stock  may  be  acquired,  in  any  portions,  by 
any  person,  community,  or  other  lawful  -party  whatsoever,  without 
eelettion,  exclusion,  or  limitatiou  of  numbers. — (Will.  Pari.  1,  §  5; 
44  Geo.  III.  0.  23  ) 

5.  Bank  of  Scotland  stock  may  be  conveyed  by  will,  and,  if 
Bpecially  mentioned,  without  expense  of  confirmation.  It  cannot  be 
«rrested  ;  the  holder's  right  may  be  adjudged.  Dividends  may  be 
arrested  —(Will.  Pari.  1,  §  6.) 

6.  The  Bank  of  Scotland  is  a  public  corporation  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment. The  bank's  transactions  are  distinct  from  those  of  the 
stockholders;  and  theirs  from  those  of  the  bank.— (WiU.  ParL  1, 
!5.) 

7.  The  establishment  is  expressly  debarred  from  any  other  busi- 
ness thaa  that  of  banking. — (Will.  Pari.  1,  §  5.) 

8.  The  management  is  vested,  by  statute,  in  a  governor,  deputy- 
governor,  twelve  ordinary,  and  twelve  extraordinary  directors.  They 
are  chosen  annually,  on  the  last  Tuesday  of  March,  by  the  stock- 
holders having  £2a0  of  stock  or  upwards.  Those  above  £250  have 
ft  vote  for  every  £250,  to  £5000,  or  20  votes.  No  person  can  have 
more  than  20  votes.  The  governor  must  hold,  at  least,  £2000  of 
etork.;  the  deputy-governor  £1500;  and  each  director  £750  [now 
£1000].  They  swear  to  be  equal  to  all  persons,  and  cannot  hold 
•ny  inferior  office  in  the  bank.— (Will.  ParL  1,  §  5  ;  U  Geo.  HI. 
.e.  32;  44  Geo.  III.  c.  23.) 

9.  The  executive  part  is  conducted  by  a  treasurer,  secretary,  and 
other  public  officers,  all  sworn.  All  the  officers  of  the  Bank  of 
Scotland  find  due  security.— (Will.  Pari.  1,  §  5.) 

10.  The  t>oard  of  directors  sits,  for  the  general  administration  of 
the  bank,  at  the  bank's  public  head  office  in  Edinburgh.  The  local 
bu.sinesa  of  that  district  is  also  conducted  at  that  office.  For  the 
local  business  in  the  other  parts  of  the  kingdom,  the  bank  has  its 
regular  public  offices  in  the  prinaipal  towns.  Ateach  of  these  offices 
there  is  the  t>ank  agent  or  cashier,  who  gives  due  security,  and  con- 
ducts the  bank's  business  for  that  district  in  the  manner  after- 
mentioned  —(Will.  Pari    1,  §  5.) 

11.  The  bank  takes  in  money  at  all  its  public  offices,  on  deposit 
receif.ta  or  on  current  deposit  accounts.  At  the  head  office  drafta  on 
the  branches,  and  at  the  branches  drafts  on  the  other  branches  and 
no  the  head  office,  are  granted.  Roth  at  the  head  office  and  branches 
drafts  are  granted  on  the  London,  Dublin,  and  English  and  Irish 
frovincial  correspondents  of  the  bank.  All  receipts  and  drafts  are 
on  the  hank's  engraved  forms,  and  bear  to  be  granted  "  F»r  the 
Bank  of  Scotland,"  or  "  for  the  Governor  and  Company  of  the  Bank 
of  Scotland."  At  the  head  office  official  documents  are  signed  by 
the  treasurer,  and  at  the  branches  by  the  agents,  and  all  are  counler- 
•Ign-d. 

Kemittanees  can  b«  made  to  the  principal  colonial  and  continen- 
tal towns;  and  bills,  payabli  in  the  colonies,  and  in  foreign  conn- 
Inci,  can  be  negotiated  through  the  bank  — (/^MoiuTion  o/  Court, 
1791,  a>  aina  modified.) 

.V  B  —The  bank  has  always  allowed  interest  on  deposits,  atarat« 
var)-ing  according  to  circumstances. 

12  bills  on  London,  Edinburgh,  or  any  town  ic  the  United 
Kiiiplom,  are  discounted  at  all  the  banV«  public  offices.  The 
bank's  agents  judge,  in  ordinar>-  cases,  of  the  bills  presented,  so  that 
r»rtic»  meet  with  no  delay.     The  bank  does  not  reissue  the  bill« 


B  A  N   K  I  N.  G 


333 


which  it  has  discounted  —(7»i-»Zu/ioti  o/ CourJ,  23d  Feb  1789.  and 
fubsfqwmt  modtficatifms.) 

13.  Government  stock  and  other  public  funds  may  be  purrhnseJ 
or  sold,  and  dividends  thereon  may  be  received  through  the  bank. 

14  The  b^nk  gives  credit  on  cash  accounts  at  any  of  its  offices, 
on  bond,  with  security.  The  security  may  be  personal  co  obligants, 
or  such  other  sccunty  as  may  bo  specially  agreed  on  Applications 
for  cash  accounts  are  given  in  to  the  olhce  where  the  cash  account 
is  wanted,  and  must  specify  the  credit  desired,  and  the  security  pro- 
posed :  and  the  individual  partners,  where  co-partnenes  are  proposed. 
Cash  accounts  are  granted  by  the  directors  only,  and  are  not  re- 
called unless  by  their  special  authority.  It  is  understood  that  ihcse 
credits  are  not  used  as  dead  loans,  l^  proilttce  interest  only  In  tb« 
fair  course  of  business,  the  advantage  of  the  bank  is  consulted  by  aa 
active  ciroulation  of  its  notes,  and  by  frequent  repayments  to  it  in 
a  way  least  affecting  that  circulation.  —  {Kaotuttvn  n/  Court,  6lh 
Nov.  1729,  and  23d  Feb.  1789.) 

15.  The  bank's  dividend  has  been  for  some  lime  8  [it  has  risen 
till  it  is  now  (1S75)  14]  per  cent  per  annum  on  its  pai<l-up  capital 
of  £1,000,000  sterling.  The  dividends  are  paid  regularly  twice  a 
year,  without  expense.  They  may  be  drawn  either  at  the  bank's 
head  office,  or  at  any  of  its  other  offices,  as  most  agreeable  to  tha 
stockholder.' 

The  above  may  suffice  as  a  general  outline  of  the  modo 
in  which  the  business  of  banking  is  conducted  in  Scotland. 

The  Royal  Bank  of  Scotland  was  established  in  1727. 
Its  original  capital  of  X15 1,000  has  been  increased  to 
X2,000';000. 

The  British  Linen  Company  was  incorporated  in  1746, 
for  the  purpose,  as  its  name  implies,  of  "undertaking  the 
manufacture  of  linen.  But  the  views  in  which  it  originated 
were  speedily  abandoned,  and  it  became  a  banking  com- 
pany only.     Its  capital  amounts  to  £1,000,000. 

None  of  the  other  banking  companies  cstablishsd  in 
Scotland  are  chartered  associations  with  limited  responsi- 
bility, the  partners  being  liable,  to  the  whole  extent  oi 
their  fortunes,  for  the  debts  of  the  firms.  The  number  of 
partners  is  in  every  case  considerable  The  affairs  of  the 
banks  are  uniformly  conducted  by  a  board  of  directors, 
annually  chosen  by  the  shareholders. 

The  Bank  of  Scotland  began,  as  already  stated,  to  issue 
XI  notes  so  early  dj^  1704,  and  their  issue  has  since  been 
continued  without  interruption.  "  In  Scotland,"  to  use 
the  statement  given  in  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  of  1825  on  the  Promissory  Notes  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  "  the  issue  of  promissory  notes  pay- 
able to  the  bearer  on  demand,  for  a  sum  of  not  less  than 
20s.,  has  been  at  all  times  permitted  by  law  ;  nor  has  any 
Act  been  passed  limiting  the  period  for  which  such  issue 
shall  continue  legal  in  that  country." 

All  the  Scotch  banks  receive  deposits  of  as  low  a  value 
as  XI 0,  and  often  lower,  and  allow  interest  upon  them. 

The  interest  allowed  by  the  banks  upon  deposits  varies, 
from  time  to  time,  according  to  the  variations  in  the  our- 
rent  rate  of  interest.  The  aggregate  amount  of  the  sums 
deposited  with  the  Scotch  banks  in  1874-5  is  stated  to 
beX78,401,070. 

A  witness,  connected  for  many  years  with  different  bank* 
in  Scotland,  and  who  had  experience  of  their  concerns  at 
Stirling,  Edinburgh,  Perth,  Aberdeen,  and  Glasgow,  being 
examined  by  the  Commons'  Committee  of  1826,  stated 
that  more  than  half  the  deposits  in  the  banks  with  which 
he  had  been  connected  were  in  sums  from  XIO  to  X'JOO. 
Being  asked  what  class  of  the  community  it  is  that  makes 
thfi  small  deposits,  he  gave  the  foflowing  answer, — from 
which  it  appears  that  the  mode  of  conducting  this  branch 
of  the  bank  business  in  Scotland  has  long  given  to  that 
country  most  part  of  the  benefits  derivable  from  the  estab- 
lishment of  savings-banks  — 

'  Now  that  fuodholders  may  have  their  dividend  warrants  sent  them 
by  post  on  notifying  s  desire  to  tb»l  effect,  it  If  slninf;e  that  itiyck- 
holderv  in  the  si-ottiab  banks  should  ba  itill  jonipellod  to  malt*  pa^ 
sonal  application  at  ao  oCce  of  the  bank  for  their  divideod«. 


334 


BANKING 


[SCIJTLAKD. 


Qtusfion. — 'What  class  of  the  cramnunity  is  it  that  makes  the  I  bank,  and  add  the  savings  of  their  .lahour,  with  the  interest  that 


tmallest  deposits  7 

"  Anmcer. — They  are  generally  the  labouring  classes  in  towns  like 
Slasgow  ;  in  country  places  like  Perth  and  Aberdeen,  it  is  from 
lervants  and  fishermen,  and  that  class  of  the  community  who  save 
imall  sums  from  their  earnings,  till  they  come  to  be  a  bank  deposit. 
There  is  now  a  facUity  for  their  placing  money  in  the  Provident 
Banks,  which  receive  money  till  the  deposit  amounts  to  £10. 
When  it  comes  to  £10  it  is  equal  to  the  minimum  of  a  bank  deposit. 
rhe  system  of  banking  in  Scotland  is  an  eitension  of  the  Provident 
Bank  system.     Half-yearly  or  yearly  those  depositors  come  to  the 

The  foll(yi'nng  Table  exhibits  an.  account  of  the  different  Scotch  Banh,  their  Partners,  Branches,  Authorized  Circulation 
Actual  Circulation,  Coin,  dc,  in  1874-5  {from,  Oliver  &  Buijd's  Almanac  and  Banks  of  Issue. Report). 


has  accrued  upon  the  deposits  from  the  previous  half-year  or  year, 
to  the  principal ;  and  in  this  way  it  goes  on,  without  leing  at  all 
reduced,  accumulating  (at  compound  interest)  till  the  depositor  is 
able  either  to  buy  or  build  a  house,  when  it  comes  to  x  £100,  or 
£200,  or  £300,  or  till  he  is  able  to  commence  business  as  a  master 
in  the  line  in  which  he  has  hitherto  been  a  servant.  A  ^eat  part  of 
the  depositors  of  the  bank  are  of  that  description,  and  a  great  part 
of  the  most  thriving  of  our  farmers  and  manufacturers. have  aiiseQ 
from  such  beginnings." 


■Instl- 
tuled. 


1695 

1727 
1745 
1810 
1S25 
1830 
1825 
183S 
1838 
1839 
1833 


Bank  of  Scotland 

RoJ^il  Bank  

British  Linen  Co 

Commercial  Bank 

National  Bank  of  Scotland 

Union  Bank  of  Scotland  .„ 

Aberdeen  Town  and  County  Bank 

North  of  Scotland  Bank  ..s 

Clydesdale  Bank 

City  of  Glasgow  Bank 

Caledonian  Bank* 


Partners. 

Dr. 

1409 

86 

1454 

105 

1209 

70 

1228 

101 

1660 

91 

1260 

116 

848 

41 

1423 

43 

1383 

79 

1273 

125 

804 

21 

Paid  op 
Capital. 


£ 

1,000,000 

2,000,000 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 

252,000 

320,000 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 

126,000 


Rest  or 
Reserve 
Fund. 


£ 

385,000 
500,000 
350;  000 
407,114 
400,000 
380,000 
115,000 

85,000 
500,000 
423,000 

62,531 


Dividend 
per  ceot. 


13J 
9i 
13t 
15t 
16t 
15 
I2.it 

nj 

16i 

11 

14+ 


Amount  of 
Deposits. 


£ 

10,632,000 
10,063,000 
7,703,000 
9,603,000 
10,874,000 
9,608,000 
1,829,000 
2,466,000 
6,519,000 
8,162,000 
1,043,000 


Price  per  £100  Stoci  '•  ^r 
share  of  thoso  uiavUeu  •, 


lS-4. 


1S73. 


£ 

2S7 
192* 
283 
296 
307 
281 

15J 
94 
256 
208 
H 


18?  3. 


£ 

292 
196 
272 
300 
300' 
285 
15? 

91 
2634 
219 

71 


£ 

308 
2305 
291 
319 
319 
292 

17J 

11 
234 
240 

H 


•  The  capital  of  banks  marked  with  an  asterisk  is  in  shares:- 
Bank,  £4  paid  ;   Caledonian  Bank,  £2,  lOs.  paid. 

The  loans  or  advances  made  by  the  Scotch  banks  axe 
either  in  the  shape  of  discounts,  or  upon  cash-credits,  or, 
as  they  are  more  commonly  termed,  ccLsh  accounts.^ 

A  cash-credit  is  a  credit  given  to  an  individual  by  a 
banking  company  for  a  limited  sum,  seldom  under  £100 
or  £200,  upon  his  own  security,  and  that  of  two  or  three 
individuals  approved  by  the  bank,  who  become  sureties 
for  its  payment.  The  individual  who  has  obtained  such  a 
credit  is  enabled  to  draw  the  whole  sum,  or  any  part  of  it, 
when  he  pleases,  replacing  it,  or  portions  of  it,  according 
as  he  finds  it  convenient,  interest  being  charged  upon 
Buch  part  only  as  he  draws  out.  "  If  a  man  borrows 
£5000  from  a  private  hand,  besides  that  it  is  not  always 
to  be  found  when  required,  he  pays  interest  for  it  whether 
he  be  using  it  br  not.  His  bank  credit  costs  him  nothing, 
except  during  the  moment  it  is  of  service  to.  him,  and  this 
circumstance  is  of  equal  advantage  as  if  ho  had  borrowed 
money  at  a  much  lower  rate  of  interest"  (Hume's  Sssay 
an  Balance  of  Trade).  This,  then,  is  plainly  one  of  the 
most  commodious  forms  in  which,  advances  can  be  made. 
Cash-credits  are  not,  however,  intended  to  be  dead  loans  ; 
and  they  are  not  granted  except  to  persons  in  business,  or 
to  those  who  are  frequently  drawing  out  and  paying-  in 
money. 

The  system  of  cash-credits  has  beer;  very  well  described 
in  the  Ileport  of  the  Lords'-  Committee  of  1826  on  Scotch 
and  Irish  Banking.  "  There  is  also,"  say  their  lordships, 
"one  part  of  their  system  which  is  stated  by  all  the 
witnesses  (and,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Committee,  very 
justly  stated)  to  have  had  the  best  effects  upon  the  people 
of  Scotland,  and  particularly  upon  the  middling  and  poorer 
rlaiwcs  of  society,  in  producing  and  encouraging  habits  of 
triviality  and  industry.  The  practice  referred  to  is  that 
ul  cash-credits.  _  Any  person  who  applies  to  a  bank  for 
n  cash-credit  is  called  upon  to  produce  two  or  more  com- 
petent sureties,  who  are  jointly  bound ;  and  after  a  full 
iiiq'iiry  into  the  character  of  tho  applicant,  the  nature  of 
his  business,  and  tho  sufiDoiency  of  his  secnnties,  ho  is 
allowcc'  to  open  a  credit,  and  to  draw  upon  tho  bank  for 
the  whole  of  its  amount,  or  for  such  part  as  his  daily  tran- 
gactinos  may  require.     To  the  credit  of  the  account  hn 


-The  Aberdeen  Town  and  County  Bank,  £7  paid  ;  North  of  Scutland 
f  Dividend  and  bonu^. 

pays  in  such  sums  as  he  may  not  have  occasion  to  use,  and 
interest  is  charged  or  credited  upon  the  daily  balance,  as 
the  case  may  be.  From  the  facility  which  these  cash- 
credits  give  to  all  the  small  transactions  of  the  country, 
and  from  the  opportunities  which  they  afford  to  persons 
who  begin  business  with  little  or  no  capital  but  theit 
character  to  employ  profitably  the  minutest  products  of 
their  induptry,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  most  impor- 
tant advantages  are  derived  to  the  whole  community. 
The  advantage  to  the. banks  that  give  these  c-ash-credits 
arises  from  the  call  which  they  continually  produce  for 
the  issue  of  their  paper,*  and  from  the  opportunity  which 
they  afford  for  the  profitable  employment  of  part  of  their 
deposits.  The  banks  are  indeed  so  sensible  that,  in  order 
to  make  this  part  of  their  business  advantageous  and 
secure,  it  is  necessiary  that  their  cash-credits  should  (as 
they  express  it)  be  frequently  operated  upon,  that  they 
refuse  to  continue  them  unless  this  implied  condition  be 
fulfilled.  The  total  amount  of  their  c;ish-credits  is  stated 
by  one  witness  to  be  £5,000,000,  of  which  the  average 
amount  advanced  by  the  banks  may  be  one-third. 

The  expelise  of  a  bond  for  a  cash-credit  of  £.')00  is  12s. 
Cd.  stamp  duty,  and  a  chdrge  of  from  5s.  to  lOs.'  6cL  per 
cent,  for  preparing  it. 

There  have  been,  on  the  whole,  comparatively  few  failures 
among  the  Scotch  banks.  In  1793  and  1825,  when  so 
many  of  tho  English  banks  were  swept  off,  there  was  not  a 
single  establishment  in  Scotland  that  gave  way.  This 
superior  solidity  appears  to  have  been  owing  to  various 
causes, — partly  to  the  banks  having,  for  the  most  part,  large 
bodies  of  partners,  who,  being  conjointly  and  individually 
bound  for  the  debts  of  the  companies  to  which  they  belong, 
go  far  to  render  their  ultimate  security  all  but  unqucstiun- 
alilo,  and  partly  to  the  facility  afforded  by  the  law  of 
Scotland  of  attaching  a  ilobtor's  property,  whether  it  con- 
si.st  of  land  or  movables,  and  making  it  available  for  the 
payment  of  his  debts.  This  last-mcntioncd  circumstance  wa.s 
referred  to  as  follows,  in  tin.'  Reijort  already  alluded  to  : — 

'  'Hie  adranlago  of  an  incienscd  issue  i.s,  however,  irurh  reduced, 
wljen  the  authorized  issues  are  exceeded,  and  cash  rescn-cs  art  kept  iJI . 
liuud  eq'i.il  to  the  excess. 


eCOTLA>D  I 


B  A  N  K   I  N  G 


335 


••  A  crcdil'^r  in  Scotland  ia  empon-ercj  to  attach  the  real  an  J  hcri- 
fai  le  as  well  as  the  personal  estate  of  lily  ili'btor.  for  payincut  of 
p^rst'iijl  dtlta,  amon^  which  mHy  l>e  classcJ  debts  d\ie  by  bills  and 
promissory  notes  ,  and  recourse  may  be  had,  for  the  purpose  of  pro* 
curing  payment,  to  each  descnption  of  property  at  the  same  time. 
Execution  is  not  conGiicd  to  the  real  nnjp.r:y  of  a  di-blor  merely 
durinc  bis  life,  but  proceeds  with  equal  clfect  upon  that  properly 
after  hi«  decease 

"The  law  relating  to  the  estnblishmeut  of  records  gives  ready 
meana  of  procuring  information  with  respect  to  the  real  and  hert* 
jblo  estate  of  which  any  person  in  Scotland  may  be  possessed.  No 
purchase  of  an  estate  in  that  country  is  secure  until  the  sasinc  (thnt 
.»,  tlie  instrument  certifying  that  actual  delivery  has  been  given)  is 
put  on  record,  nor  is  any  mortgage  dTcctual  until  the  deed  is  in  liko 
Oiannor  recorded 

'•  In  the  case  of  conflicting  pecuniary  claims  upon  real  property, 
the  preference  is  not  regulated  by  tho  date  of  the  tr<ins.-iction,  but 
/•y  thf  date  oj  its  record.  These  records  are  accessible  to  all  persons  ; 
and  thus  the  public  can  with  ease  ascertain  tho  effeotivo  means 
vl.i.li  a  banking  company  possesses  of  dischart^iog  ita  obligations  ; 
nr.il  the  f'ariners  in  that  company  are  enabled  to  tictermine,  with 
tofvnble  accuracy,  the  degree  of  risk  and  responsibility  to  which 
lire  private  proj^erty  of  each  is  exposed  " 

But,  on  the  whole,  we  are  incliijfid  to  think  that  the 
long  faiuiliarity  of  the  inhabitants  with  banks  and  paper 
money,  and  the  less  risk  that  has  attended  the  business  of 
banking  in  Scotland,  have  been  the  principal  causes  of  tho 
greater  stability  of  the  Scotch  banks.  This  stability  was 
not,  however,  everywhere  exhibited  in  the  crisis  of  1857, 
when  two  of  the  principal  Scotch  banks,  the  headquarters 
of  which  were  in  Glasgow,  were  compelled  to  stop  pay- 
ments They  had  very  large  capitals,  the  Western  Bank 
£1,500  000,  and  the  City  of  Glasgow  Bank  £1,000,000, 
with  a  great  many  branches,  large  amounts  of  deposits, 
and  very  numerous  and  wealthy  proprietary  bodies.  Uad 
tho  management  of  the  Western  Bank  displayed  anything 
like  ordinary  skill  and  pnidence,  it  might  have  gone 
triumphantly  through  a  far  more  serious  trial.  But  having 
advanced  immense  sums  to  a  few  firms  that  never  were 
entitled  to  any  considerable  credit,  it  was  so  crippled  that, 
for  a  lengthened  period  before  its  stoppage,  it  was  reduced 
to  the  expedient  of  sending  up  the  bills  it  had  discounted 
Id  Glasgow  to  be  rediscounted  in  London ;  and  when  this 
resource  failed  it,  and  the  other  banks  declined  to  come 
forward  to  its  ■^sistance,  nothing  remained  for  it  but  to 
shut  its  doors  '  On  the  affairs  of  the  bank  being  inves- 
tigated by  a  committee  appointed  for  the  purposcj  it  was 
found  that  they  were  in  a  much  worse  state  than  any  one 
could  have  anticipated.  The  losses  exceeded  two  millions, 
and  were  directly  attributable  to  the  carelessness  and 
negligence  of  directors,  and  the  incompetence  of  the 
managers  appointed  by  them. 

We  have  already  explained  tho  nature  of  Sir  Robert 
Pecl'i  Act  of  1845  (following  that  of  1844)  dealing  with 
Scotch  banks.  It  allowed  the  Scotch  banks  then  exercising 
the  privilege  of  issuing  notes  to  continue  to  exercise  it, 
without  limitation  of  amount,  but  subject  to  the  condition, 
that  for  every  note  issued  by  a  bank  above  its  average 
circulation  the  year  preceding  the  Ist  May  1845  an  equal 
amount  in  coin  should  be  kept  in  its  coffers.  No  bank 
established  after  the  passing  of  the  Act  was  allowed  to  issue 
notes.  No  change  was  effected  by  the  Act  in  the  denomi- 
nation of  notes  issued,  which  remained,  therefore,  of  XI  and 
upwards.  Many  theorists  have  urged  that  £1  notes  should 
be  forbidden  in  Scotland,  just  as  others  have  argued  in 
favour  of  their  being  again  put  into  circulation  in  England. 
This  question  cannot  be  settled  upon  abstract  arguments. 
We  have  no  doubt  that  the  balance  of  reasoning  is  in  favour 
of  the  issue  of  £1  notes,  provided  they  are  issued  under 
regulations  securing  their  convertibility  at  all  times  and 

'  Tb«  management  of  the  City  of  Glasgow  Bank  vcli,  as  compared 
•  'S  that  of  the  W«attm  Bank,  prudent  and  skilful,  li  recommenced 
•.-'i  Mvtiiiucs  busioeis. 


under  all  circumstances,  but  these  regulations  ore  wanting 
111  Scotland.  Legislation  on  the  subject  should  not  take 
the  form  of  suppressing  £1  notes  entirely,  but  of  with- 
drawing the  privilege  of  issuing  them  from  the  existing 
banks,  and  vesting  it  in  a  public  institution  governed  by 
fixed  rules  analogous  to  those  of  the  issue  department  uf  the 
Bank  of  England.  When  the  convertibility  of  notes  is  thus 
made  certain,  the  single  valid  objection  against  the  issue  of 
those  o'  £1  denomination  disappears.  It  may  be  added 
that  more  than  one-half  the  total  issues  of  the  bank* 
established  in  tho  Australian  colonies  consists  of  £1  poles. 

A  complaint  has  been  often  raised  that  the  Act  of  1845 
gave  the  existing  Scotch  banks  a  practical  monopoly  of  the 
business  of  banking  in  North  Britain,  arid  it  must  be 
admitted  to  be  the  fact,  that  only  one  new  bank  has  been 
established  in  Scotland  since  the  passing  of  the  Act,  and 
that  bank  carried  on  business  for  a  short  time  only.  It  is, 
however,  true  that  legislation  precisely  the  same  has  not  pre- 
vented the  establishment  of  new  banks  in  Ireland,  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  observed  fact  is  rightly  attributed  to 
the  cause  assigned  to  it.  With  the  exception  of  London,  and 
some  of  the  larger  provincial  towns,  there  have  been  very 
few  banks  established  in  England  since  1836,  eight  years 
before  the  Bank  Charter  Act;  and  of  the  banks  established 
in  1835  and  1S3"C,  very  many  were  formed  by  the  conver- 
sion of  pre-existing  private  banks  into  joint-stock  associa- 
tions. The  truth  appears  to  be  that  the  natural  obstacles 
to  the  establishment  of  a  new  bank  in  a  district  already 
occupied  by  banks  and  bankers  are  almost  insuperable.  A 
bank  cannot  be  successful  unless  it  commands  credit;  and 
those  who  want  a  place  of  safe  keeping  for  their  money 
select  establishments  that  have  been  tried  and  tested 
through  long  years.  Hence  it  happens  that,  though  private 
banks  of  long  standing  continue  in  esteem,  the  attempts 
to  set  up  new  private  banks  are  most  rare  ;  and,  unless 
the  wealth  and  prosperity  of  a  neighbourhood  have  rapidly 
developed,  so  that  capitaUsts  have  risen  to  prominence  in  it 
who  are  not  connected  as  shareholders  or  directors  with 
existing  banks,  it  is  not  easy  to  form  joint-stock  associations 
of  weight  enough  to  compete  with  the  institutions  in  pos- 
session of  the  field.  It  is  not  necessary  to  refer  the  absence 
of  new  banking  companies  in  Scotland  or  elsewhere  to  the 
legislation  of  Sir  Robert  Peel.  Though  he  allowed  the 
Scotch  banks  to  increase  indefinitely  the  issue  of  their 
notes,  it  was  upon  condition  of  keeping  in  hand  wish  to 
represent  every  note  above  fixed  limits  ;  so  that  the  amount 
of  profit  derivable  from  their  issues  is  not  capable  of 
increase,  and  the  value  of  their  privileges  will  have  been 
strictly  included  in  the  selling  price  of  shares  in  these 
banks  since  1845.  As  far  as  the  privilege  of  issue  goes, 
capitalists  preparing  to  a,tart  a  new  banking  association  in 
Scotland  would  be  in  the  same  position  as  in  bujing  shares 
in  an  established  company ;  and  if  they  do  not  start  an 
association  of  theirown,  it  is  from  the  difficulty  of  attracting 
confidence,  rather  than  because  they  would  not  enjoy  the 
profits  of  a  pnvilegcd  circulation  for  which  they  would  have 
to  pay  a  full  value.  It  must  also  be  observed  that  the 
competition  among  the  existing  banks  is  sufficiently  active 
to  have  caused  them  to  increase  the  number  ot  their 
branches  40  per  cent,  since  1845. 

Another  question  has  been  raised  in  relation  to  Scotch 
banks,  which  w.-is  the  subject  of  a.  keen  parliamentary  dis- 
cussion during  the  past  session  (1875).  It  h,^3  been  men- 
tioned (anlt,^.  322)  that  English  joint-stock  banks  of  issue 
are  debarred  from  setting  up  branches  in  London,  or  within 
sixty-five  miles  of  it, a  prohibition  originally  imposed  or  thorn 
in  the  interest  of  tho  Bank  of  England  as  a  b.ink  of  issue 
There  is  no  such  prohibition  affecting  Scotch  and  Irish 
banks,  which  can  set  up  offices  in  Lomlun  or  elsewhere  in 
England  suljei  I  tu  lb ;  siiikjie  condition  affecting  all  barikiog 


336 


BANKING 


[IRELAND. 


establisliments  set  up  ia  England  since  1844,  that  notes 
other  ih2,h  Bank  of  England  notes  are  not  issued  at  such 
offices ;  and  it  is  obvious  that  a  Scotch  or  Irish  banking 
company  establishing  a  head  office  in  London  would  be 
able  to  give  it  at  once  a  large  agency  business,  and  would 
be  able  to  feed  it  continuously  with  new  connections  owing 
to  the  flow  of  immigration  from  Scotland  and  Ireland  to 
London.  Accordingly,  the  directors  of  the  National  Bank 
of  Ireland  began  to  conduct  the  general  business  of  bank- 
in"  at  their  bead  office  in  London  in  1854,  and  they  have 
subsequently  set  up  seven  or  eight  branches  in  the  metro- 
polis, each  of  which  is  understood  to  be  the  centre  of  much 
business.  This  example  was  so  far  followed,  that  the 
National  Bank  of  Scotland  started  an  office  in  London  in 
1864  ;  the  Bank  of  Scotland  did  the  same  in  1867  ;  and 
the  Royal  Bank  in  1874,  having  obtained  a  private  Act 
for  the  purpose.  The  Clydesdale  Bank  also  opened  three 
branches  in  Cumberland  in  1874.  In  consequence  of  this 
action  Mr  Goschen  brought  into  Parliament 'a  bill,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  disable  Scotch  banks  from  coming 
into  England,  as  English  joint-stock  banks  of  issue  are 
disabled  from  coming  to  London.  The  bill  did  not  extend 
to  Irish  banks,  as  they  were  held  too  firmly  settled  in 
the  metropolis  to  be  erpelled  from  it.  Two  arguments 
were  advanced  in  favour  of  this  measure  :  the  first,  that 
it  was  hard  that  Scotch  banks  should  be  permitted  to 
do  that  which  is  denied  to  English  joint-stock  banks  ;  but 
it  is  an  easy,  and,  as  it  would  seem,  a  conclusive  answer 
to  this  argument,  that  English  joint^stock  banks  of  issue 
should  be  freed  from  the  disability  now  imposed  upon 
them.  Now  that  an  increase  in  its  issue  is  not  a  measure" 
of  profit  to  the  Bank  of  England,  there  is  no  reason  why 
these  country  banks  of  England  should  not  be  allowed 
to  set  up  head  offices  in  London,  subject  to  the  law  for- 
bidding the  issue  of  their  notes  in  London.  The  second 
argument  in  favour  of  Mr  Goschen's  measure  was,  that 
something  ought  to  be  done  to  hasten  that  unification 
of  issues  which  Sir  Robert  Peel  contemplated  ;  and  if  the 
Scotch  banks  had  come  to  Parliament  asking  for  a  liberty 
they  did  not  possess,  there  would  have  -been  some  plausi- 
bility in  this  argument.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  the  whole 
strength  of  the  support  to  Mr  Goschen's  biU  sprang  from 
the  jealousy  of  the  existing  bankers  of  London  of  any 
intrusion  into  their  domain.  Unworthy  as  this  source  of 
opposition  was,  it  prevailed  so  far  as  to  cause  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
to  consider  the  law  and  practice  of  banking,  and  this 
Committee's  report  has  just  aj'peared  aa  these  sheets  are 
passing  through  the  press  (August  1875). 

Banking  m  Ireland. 

"  In  no  country,  perhaps,"  says  Sir  Henry  Parnell, 
"  has  the  issuiing  of  paper  money  been  carried  to  such  an 
injurious  excess  as  in  Ireland.  A  national  bank  was 
established  in  1783,  with  similar  privileges  to  those  of  the 
Bank  of  England  in  respect  to  the  restriction  of  more 
than  six  partners  in  a  bank,  and  the  injury  that  Ireland 
has  sustained  from  the  repeated  failure  of  banks  may  be 
mainly  attributed  to  ibis  defective  regulation.  Had  the 
trade  of  banking  been  left  as  free  in  Ireland  as  in  Scotland, 
the  want  of  paper  money  that  would  have  arisen  with  the 
p'-ogrcss  of  trade  would  in  all  probability  have  been  sup- 
plied by  joint-stock  companies,  eupported  with  large  capi- 
tals and  governed  by  wise  and  effectual  rules. 

"In  1797,  when  the  Bank  of  England  suspended  its 
payments,  the  same  privilege  was  extended  to  Ireland  ;  and 
»fter  this  period  the  issues  of  the  Bank  of  Ii^land  were 
rapidly  increa.scd.  In  1797  the  amount  of  the  notes  of  the 
Bank  of  Ireland  in  circulation  was  i;621,917;  in  1810 
X2,266,471;   and  in  1814,  £2.080,999. 


"  These  increased  issues  led  to  corresponding  increased 
issues  by  the  private  banks,  of  which  the  number  was  fifty 
in  1804.  The  consequence  of  this  increase  of  paper  was  its 
great  depreciation  ;  the  price  of  bullion  and  guineas  arose 
to  10  percent,  above  the  mint  price  ;  and  the  exchange  with 
London  became  as  high  as  18  per  cent.,  the  par  being  8J. 
This  unfavourable  exchange  was  afterwards  corrected,  not 
by  any  reduction  in  the  issues  of  the  Bank  of  Ireland,  but 
by  the  depreciation  of  the  British  currency  in  the  year 
1810,  when  the  exchange  between  Loudon  and  Dublin 
settled  again  at  about  par. 

"  The  loss  that  Ireland  has  sustained  by  the  failure  of 
banks  may  be  described  in  a  few  words.  It  appears,  by 
the  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Irish  Eschnnges  in  1804, 
that  there  were,  at  that  time,  in  Ireland  fifty  registered 
banks.  Since  that  year  a  great  many  more  have  been 
established,  but  the  whole  have  failed,  one  after  the  other, 
involving  the  country  from  time  to  time  in  immense  distress, 
with  the  following  exceptions — First,  a  few  that  withdrew 
from  business;  secondly,  four  banks  in  Dublin;  thirdly, 
three  at  Belfast;  and,  lastly,  one  at  Mallow.  These  tigCt 
banks,  with  the  new  Provincial  Bank  and  the  Bank  of 
Ireland,  are  the  only  banks  now  (1827)  existing  in  Ireland 

"In  1821,  in  consequence  of  eleven  banks  having  failed 
nearly  at  tbe  same  time,  in  the  preceding  year,  in  the 
south  of  Ireland,  Government  succeeded  in  making  an 
arrangement  with  the  Bank  of  Ireland,  by  which  joint-stock 
companies  were.allowed  to  be  established  at  a  distance  of 
fiity  miles  (Irish)  from  Dublin,  and  the  bank  was  permitted 
to  increase  its  capital  from  2i  to  3  millions  sterbng.  The 
Act  1  and  2  Geo.  IV.  c.  72,  was  founded  on  this  agreement. 
But  ministers  having  omitted  to  repeal  in  this  Act  various 
restrictions  on  the  trade  of  banking  that  had  been  imposed 
by  33  Geo.  II.  c.  14,  no  new  company  was  formed.  In 
1824  a  party  of  merchants  of  Belfast,  wishing  to  establish 
a  joint-stock  company,  petitioned  Parliament  for  the  repeal 
of  this  Act  of  Geo.  II.;  and  an  Act  was  accordingly  passed 
in  that  session,  repealing  Some  of  its  most  objectionable 
restrictions  (5  Geo.  IV.  c.  73). 

"  In  consequence  of  this  Act,  the  Northern  Bank  of 
Belfast  was  converted  into  a  joint-stock  company,  with  a 
(nominal)  capital  of  £500,000,  and  commenced  business  on 
the  1st  of  January  1825.  But  the  restrictions  of  33  Geo. 
II.,  and  certain  provisions  contained  in  the  Acts  1  and  2 
Geo  III.,  and  5  Geo.  IV.,  obstructed  its  progress,  and  they 
found  it  necessary  to  apply  to  Government  to  remove  them  ; 
and  a  bill  was  accordingly  introduced,  which  would  have 
repealed  all  the  obnoxious  clauses  of  the  33  Geo.  II.,  had 
it  not  been  so  altered  in  the  commi'ttee  as  to  leave  several 
of  them  in  force.  In  1825  the  Pro\'incial  Bank  of  Ireland 
commenced  business  with  a  (nominal)  capital  of  £2,000,000; 
and  the  Bank  of  Ireland  has  of  late  established  branches 
in  all  the  principal  towns."' 

Since  Sir  Henry  Parnell  published  the  pamphlet  from 
which  we  have  taken  the  foregoing  extract,  several  joint- 
stock  banking  companies  have  been  founded  in  Ireland. 
The  Provincial  Bank,  to  which  Sir  Henry  alludes,  has  a 
paid  up  capital  of  £540,000,  and  has  been  well  and 
profitably  managed.  But  others  have  been  less  fortunata 
The  Agricultural  and  Commercial  Bank  of  Ireland,  estab- 
lished in  1834,  with  2170  partners,  a  paid  up  capital  of 
£352,790,  and  many  branches,  stopped  payment  during 
the  pressure  in  November  1836,  and  by  doing  so  involved 
many  persons  in  great  distress.  It  appears  to  have  been 
extremely  ill-managed.  The  auditors  appointed  to  examine 
into  its  affairs  reported — "  Its  bookkeeping  has  been 
found  to  be  so  faiilty,  that  v.e  are  convinced  no  accurate 
bal.ince-sheot  could  at  any  time  have  been  constructed." 

'  Oiicmatima  <m  Paptr  Atonry,  &c.,  by  Sir  Beorr  Ptraell,  ft  17L 


RSLLAND.] 


B  A  N  K  I  N  G 


337 


A.nd  thoy  significantly  adJed — "  the  personal  accounta 
it  the  bead  office  require  a  diligent  and  searching  re- 
fision." 

The  Tipperary  Joint-Stock  Bank,  which  was  established 
in  1839,  and  stopped  paymonta  iu  1605,  appears  to  have 
been  little,  if  at  all,  better  than  a  mere  swindling  engine. 
Luckily  it  did  HOt  issue  notes  ;  and  the  sphere  of  its 
operations  was  not  very  extensive.  But,  so  far  as  its 
influence  went,  nothing  could  be  worse,  being  ruinous  alike 
to  the  majority  of  its  partners  and  to  the  public. 

We  have  in  the  previous  section  on  Scotch  banks  men- 
tioned the  fact  of  the  establishment  by  the  National  Bank 


of  Ireland  of  a  head  'office  and  of  severui  branches  in 
London.  This  example  has  been  so  far  followed  by  the 
Provincial'  Bank  that  it  has  also  set  up  a  head  ofBce  in 
London,  without,  however,  competing  for  general  business 
in  the  metropolis.  An  addition  was  made  to  the  number 
of  Irish  banks  in  1864  by  the  establishment  of  the  Munstei 
Bank  (Limited),  having  its  head  office  in  Cork.  It  has 
established  upwards  of  40  branches,  and  pays  a  dividend 
of  12  per  cent,  to  its  shareholders. 

We  borrow  principally  from  Thorn's  Irish  Almanac,  ths 
most  valuable  publication  of  its  class,  the  following  detaili 
with  respect  to  the  Irish  banks  in  1875  : — 


Account  of  Joint-Slock  Banks  existing  in  Ireland  in  1875,  their  Branches,  Capital,  Fixed  Issues,  itc. 


a 

a 
• 

3 

Ba.'<S9. 

Subscilbed  C 

epttal 

P»i 

up  Ctiiilift) 

Llltest 
Dlvl- 
Ocnd 
pci  An- 
num de- 
clared 

ItCSClVV 

Kurd 

and 

BalHoce 

ader  laiil 

Dividend 

No  o( 

Shurei. 

Per 
Shore. 

Amount 

Per 

Srmre- 

Amount 

1783 
1827 

1824  j 

1864 
1835 
1825 

1S24 

1836 
18J6 

Bank  of  Ireland  (y>uft;in) 

Belfast  Uankiug  Company  (Bd/ast) 

(Now  Shares).  . 
Hibernian  Joint-Stock  Banking  Company 

{Dublin)    

Munster  Bank    Limited  (Oiri) 

49 
35 

31 

41 

109 

43 

... 

44 

4 

41 

Stock. 
5,000 
5,000    ' 

20,000 

100,000 

50,000 

5,000 

6,000 

1  20,000 

j     4,000 

30,000 

100,000 

£ 

100 
100 
100 

100 

10 

50 

92/6/2 

100 

100 

10 

50 

10 

£ 
2,769.230 
600,000. 
500,000 

2,000,000 

1,000,000 

2,5O(,uU0 

461,538 

500,000 

2,040,000 

1.500,000 
1,000,000 

£ 

100 

25 

25 

25 

34 
30 
30 
30 

ro 

n 

£ 
2,769,230 
125,000 
125,000 

500,000 

350,000 

1,500,000 

150,000 

150,000 

j     540,000 

300,000 
250,000 

Per 
cent 

1-2 

20 
8 

12 

12- 
11 

15 

20 

15 

20 

£ 

1,072,000 

135,966 

235,000 

170,000 
133,000 

170,000 

254,131 

196,060 
297,500 

National  Bank  (London)..  

Northern  liankcng  Company  (BelfaH) 

,,                     ,,          New  Shares.. 

Provincial  Bank  of  Ireland  (loiuion)     ..  .  . 

Royal  Bank  of  Ireland  (Dublin) 

Ulster  Banking  Company  {Bel/ust).. 

Bank  of  Amsterdam. 

1  ho  Bank  of  Amsterdam  was  foupded  in  1G09,  on  strictly 
commercial  principles  and  views,  and  not  to  afford  any 
Msislance,  or  to  intermeddle  with  the  finances  of  the  state. 
Amsterdam  was  then  the  great  entrepot  of  the  commerce  of 
Ihe  world,  and  of  course  the  coins  of  all  Europe  passed 
current  iu  it.  Many  of  them,  however,  were  so  worn  and 
defaced  as  to  reduce  their  general  average  value  to  about 

9  per  cent,  less  than  their  mint  value  ;  and,  in  consequence, 
the  new  coins  were  immediately  melted  down  and  exported. 
The  currency  of  the  city  was  thus  exposed  to  great  tluctua- 
tions;  and  it  was  chiefly  to  remedy  this  inconvenience  and 

10  fix  the  value  or  par  of  the  current  money  of  the  country, 
that  the  merchants  of  Amsterdam  established  a  "bank," 
on  tl)e  model  of  that  of  Venice.  Its  first  capital  was 
formed  of  Spanish  ducats  or  ducatoons,  a  silver  coin  which 
Spain  had  struck  in  the  war  with  Holland,  and  with  which 
the  tide  of  commerce  had  enriched  the  country  it  was 
formed  to  overthrow.  The  bank  afterwards  accepted  the 
coins  of  all  countries,  worn  or  new,  at  their  intrinsic  value, 
and  made  its  own  bank-money  payable  in  standard  coin  of 
the  country,  of  full  weight,  deducting  a  "  brassage"  for 
the  expense  of  coinage,  and  giving  a  credit  on  its  books, 
or  "  bank-money,"  for  the  deposits. 

The  Bank  of  Amsterdam  professed  not  to  lend  out  any 
part  of  the  specie  entrusted  to  its  keeping,  but  to  retain  in 
its  coffers  all  that  was  inscribed  on  its  books.  In  1C7D, 
when  Louis  XIV.  penetrated  to  Utrecht,  almost  every  one 
who  had  an  account  with  the  baiik  demanded  his  deposit, 
nnd  these  were  paid  off  so  readily  that  no  suspicion  could 
exist  as  to  the  fidelity  of  the  administration.  Many  of 
the  coins^thcn.,  brought  forth  bore  marks  of  the  conflagra- 
tion which  happened  at  the  Hotel  de.  Ville,  soon  after  tho 
establishracnt  of  tho  bank.  This  good  faith  was  main- 
tained till  about  tho  middle  of  list  century,  when  tho 
managers  secretly  lent  part  of  their  bullion  to  the  East 
India  Company  and  Government.     Tho  usual  "  saths  of 


office  "  were  taken  by  a  religious  magistracy,  or  rather  by 
the  magistracy  of  a  religious  community,  that  all  was  safe  ; 
and  the  good  people  of  Holland  believed,  as  an  article  of 
their  creed,  that  every  florin  which  circulated  as  bank- 
money  had  its  metallic  constituent  in  the  treasury  of  the 
bank,  sealed  up,  and  secured  by  oaths,  honesty,  and  good 
policy.  This  blind  confidence  was  dissipated  in  December 
1790,  by  a  declaration  that  the  bank  would  retain  10  per 
cent,  of  all  deposits,  and  would  return  none  of  a  less 
amount  than  2500  florins. 

Even  this  was  submitted  to  and  forgiven.  But,  four 
years  afterwards,  on  tho  invasion  of  the  French,  the  bank 
was  obliged  to  declare  that  it  had  advanced  to  the  States 
of  Holland  and  W'est  I'riesland,  and  the  East  India 
Company,  more  than  10,500,000  florins,  which  sum  it  was, 
of  course,  unable  to  Ihake  up  to  the  depositors,  to  whom, 
however,  it  assigned  its  claims  on  the  states  and  the  com- 
pany. Bank-money,  which  previously  bore  an  agio  of  5 
per  cent,  immediately  fell  to  IC  per  cent,  below  cunent 
money. 

This  epoch  marked  the  fall  of  an  institution  which  had 
long  enjoyed  an  unlimited  credit  and  had  rendered  the 
greatest  services.  The  amount  of  treasure  in  tho  vaults  of 
the  bank,  in  1775,  was  estimated  by  Mr  Hope  at  33.000,000 
florins.' 

Tht  Bank  of  France. 

This  bank,  second  in  magnitude  and  importance  to  the 
Bank  of  England  only,  was  originally  founded  in  1800,  but 
was  not  placed  on  a  solid  and  well-defined  basis  till  1806. 
Its  capital,  which  was  originally  fixed  at  45,000,000  fr., 
was  raised  in  tho  last-mentioned  year  to  90,000,000  fr., 
divided  into  90,000  shares  or  actions,  of  1000  fr.  each. 
Of  these  shares,  67,900  have  passed  into  tho  hands  of  the 
public;  tho  remaining  22,100,  having  bcen-purchascd  up 
by  the  bank  out  of  its  surplus  profits,  were  subsequently 

'  Storcb,  Court  d^ Bcimomit  Politiqut,  torn.  ir.  p.  102, 


3?>b 


B  A  N  K  I  N  G 


Tf 


Mr.ce'Iei  flence  its  capital  amounted,  down  to  1848,  to 
07,900,000  f:.  (£2.716,000),  with  a  reserve  fund,  first  of 
10,000,000  fr.,  and  more  recently  of  12,950,750  fr.  Since 
1806  the  bank  has  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  b'^-mg  the  only 
institution  in  Paris  entitled  to  issue  notes  payable  on 
demand ;  and,  as  wiU  be  afterwards  seen,  it  is  now  the 
Dnly  authorized  issuer  of  such  paper  in  France.  Its 
charter  and  exclusive  privileges  have  been  prolonged  and 
varied  by  laws  passed  at  different  periods. 

The  bank  has  established,  at  diflerent  periods  since  1817, 
offices  or  branches  [succttrsales)  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  They  are  managed  nearly  in  the  same  way  as  the 
parent  establishment ;  but  their  operations  were  long  on 
a  comparatively  small  scnle.  These  are  exclusive  of  the 
departmental  banks  united,  as  will  be  immediately  seen,  to 
the  banli  in  1848. 

Notwithstanding  the  skill  and  caution  with  whicn  its 
iffairs  have  generally  been  conducted,  the  revolution  of 
1  848  brought  the  bank  into  a  situation  of  extreme  danger. 
It  had  to  make  large  advances  to  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment and  the  city  of  Paris.  And  these  circumstances, 
combined  with  the  distrust  that  was  ucivers.ally  prevalent, 
occasioned  so  severe  a  drain  upon  thf  bank  for  gold,  that 
to  prevent  the  total  exhaustion  of  its  coffers,  it  was 
authorized,  by  a  decree  of  the  16th  March  1S4S,  to  suspend 
cash  payments,  its  notes  being  at  the  same  time  made  legal 
tender.  But  to  prevent  the  abuse  that  might  otherwise 
have  taken  place  under  the  suspension,  the  maximum 
amount  of  its  issues  was  fixed  at  3o0  millions.  The  bank 
was  then  also  authorized  to  reduce  the  value  of  its  notes 
from  500  fr.  to  200  and  100  fr. 

Previously  to  1848,  joint-stock  banks,  on  the  model  of 
that  of  Paris,  and  issuing  notes,  had  been  established  in 
Lyons,  Marseilles,  Bordeaux,  Rouen,  and  other  large  cities. 
And  it  was  then  determined  that  these  banks  should  be 
incorporated  with  the  Bank  of  France,  and  made  branches 
of  the  latter.  This  was  effected  by  decrees  issued  on  the 
27th  April  and  2d  May  1848,  by  which  the  shareholders 
of  the  banks  referred  to  (nine  in  number)  were  allowed,  for 
every  1000  fr.  nominal  value  of  their  shares,  a  share  of 
1000  fr.  nominal  value  of  the  stock  of  the  Bank  of  France. 
And,  in  consequence  of  this  measure,  23,351  new  shares, 
representing  a  capital  of  23,351,000  fr.,  were  added  to  the 
stock  of  the  Bank  of  france.  making  the  latter  consist 
of  91,2.'JC,00i»  fr.  d.v;u.:a  into  91,25U  shares.  In  1S51 
the  tank  resumed  specie  payments. 

The  suppression  of  the  local  issues  of  tne  oepartmental 
banks  was,  no  doubt,  a  judicious  measure,  and  was 
indispensable,,  indeed,  to  secure  the  equal  value  of  the 
paper  circulating  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  This, 
however,  might 'have  been  effected  by  the  more  stoppage 
of  the  issues  of  the  departmental  banks,  without  consoli- 
dating them  with  the  Bank  of  France.  The  latter  measure 
is  one  of  which  the  policy  is  very  questionable  ;  and  there 
(ire,  as  already  seen,  good  grounds  for  thinking  that  the 
banking  business  of  thj  departments  would  have  been 
rnoro  likely  to  be  well  conducted  by  local  associations,  than 
by  branches  of  the  Bank  of  France.  Constant  additions 
\i.\vo  been  made  to  the  number  of  branches,  which  now 
exceeds  seventy 

Owing  to  the  war  with  Russia,  and  still  more  to  the  rage 
for  speculation,  and  the  drain  for  silver  to  the  East  that 
folluwed  it.  the  Bank  of  France  became  exposed  to  con- 
siderable difficuUici  And  in  the  view  of  strengthening 
ils  position,  and  also,  it  may  bo  presumed,  of  providing  a 
loan  for  Oovernmcnt,  a  law  was  passed  (9th  June  1857), 
by  which  the  ca]>ital  of  the  bank  was  increased  from 
91,250  shares  of  1000  fr.  each  to  182,500  shares  of  1000 
fr.  each.  Tlie  new  shares  were  assigned  to  the  existing 
l>ropriclur.«  af  the  rate  of  1100  fr.  per  share,  producing  a 


total  sum  of  100,375,000  fr.,  of  which  100  millions  were 
lent  to  Government  at  3  per  cent.  Hence  the  measure. 
though.it  added  to  the  credit  and  security  of  the  bank, 
made  no  addition  to  the  means  directly  at  its  disposaL 

Down  to  the  passing  of  this  law,  the  bank  coulinot 
raise  the  rate  of  interest  on  loans  and  discounts  above  6 
per  ceut.  But  this  impolitic  restriction  was  removed,  and 
the  bank  authorized  to  charge  any  rate  of  interest  which 
she  reckoned  expedient,  except  upon  advances  to  Govern- 
ment, the  maximum  interest  on  which  was  limited  to  3  per 
cent.  The  bank  was  farther  authorized  to  issue  notes  of 
the  value  of  50  fr.,  to  make  advances  on  railway  shares, 
ic,  and  the  charter  was  extended  to  1897. 

The  management  of  the  Bank  of  France  was  severely 
tried  in  the  latter  part  of  1864  by  the  occurrence  of  a 
finaucial  crisis  at  Paris  ;  and  in  January  1865  a  commission 
of  inquiry  was  appointed  to  examine  into  the  principles 
and  practice  of  banking.  There  was,  however,  nothing 
mysterious  or  exceptional  in  the  experience  of  1864. 
Speculation  had  been  much  stimulated  in  France  by  thn 
establishment  of  companies  (CrtiditFoncier,  CriiditMobilier, 
(tc,  itc.)  for  the  undertaking  of  public  works,  and  much 
capital  was  locked  up  and  more  pledged  towards  the  com- 
pletion of  enterprises  supposed  at  first  to  be  highly  profit- 
able, but  in  reJ-'ity  offering  a  distant  and  doubtful  promisa 
of  remunerat.un.  The  crisis  of  1864  was  the  dissipation 
of  these  delusions,  and  the  voluminous  publications  of 
evidence  and  opinion  by  the  commission  of  inquiry  pro 
duced  no  practical  consequences. 

The  war  of  1870-71  could  not  but  have  an  important 
influence  on  the  operations  of  the  bank.  Successive 
Governments  resorted  to  it  for  assistance,  which  was 
obtained  by  increasing  the  issue  of  its  notes  and  by  giving 
them  a  forced  currency.  The  rate  of  interest,  which  had 
been  2t  per  cent,  from  May  18G7,  rapidly  rose  to  6  and 
G'. ,  at  which  it  remained  with  scarcely  any  variation  from 
tlh  August  1870  till  late  in  the  year  1872.  The  rate 
would  probably  have  risen  much  higher,  but  on  the  13th 
August  a  law  was  approved  suspending  the  liability  'of 
the  acceptors  of  bills  current  to  meet  them  at  maturity, 
and  this  suspension  was  renewed  until  it  was  finally  with- 
drawn in  July  1871.  The  amount  of  unpaid  bills  held 
by  the  bank  reached  a  maximum  of  368  millions  of  francs, 
but  the  ultimate  loss  was  extremely  small.  On  the  23d 
June  1870  the  metallic  reserve  at  the  bank  was  131 SJ 
millions  of  francs,  which  was  reduced  to  a  minimum  of  505 
millions  on  the  24th  December  of  the  same  year.  The 
notes  in  circulation  before  the  war  had  been  about  1400 
millions  of  francs;  but  before  the  end  of  the  year '1870 
their  volume  had  increased  to  1700  millions;  and  this 
again  rose  to  2000  millions  before  July  1871,  and  to 
2400  millions  before  the  end  of  1871.  A  law  of  the 
29th  December  1871  fixed  the  maximum  at  2800  millions; 
which  was  finally  raised  on  15th  July  1872  to  a  maximum 
of  3200  millions.  The  debt  of  the  state  to  the  bank 
increased  concurrently  with  this  increase  of  issues,  which 
was,  indeed,  authorized  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  tbo 
bank  to  assist  the  treasury.  On  the  2Gth  December  1670 
the  bank  held  treasury  "bons"  to  the  extent  of  174,800,000 
francs  only,  but  on  the  30th  November  1871  it  hell 
1,193,600,000  of  these  "  bons,"  and  in  August  1872  the 
amount  reached  1,363,100,000  francs.  A  law  of  the  21.'.t 
June  1871,  followed  by  an  agreement  between  the  bank 
and  the  Government,  provided  for  the  repayment  of  this 
debt  in  annual  payments  of  200  millions,  but  up  to  this 
time  (August  1875)  the  income  of  the  state  has  never  been 
large  enough  to  provide  the  whole  of  this  sinking  fund. 
T!ie  banl;  has,  however,  been  able  to  increase  its  metallic 
rese'vo  through  the  liquidation  of  securities  ond  tbo  ao- 
ciia.ulition  of  dcpisits  ;  sy  that,  after  ha.inj,'  bean  rcdiict-d. 


OMIED  Bl'Airj.; 


BANKING 


330 


03  we  hava  said,  to  505  millions  in  Decembsr  1870,  and 

not  attaining  to  more  than  634  millions  in  December 
1871,  it  rose  in  the  same  month  of  1872  to  793  millions, 
io  1873  to  820  miUions,  and  in  1874  to  1331,  or  just  the 
amount  at  which  it  stood  before  the  declaration  of  war. 
Its  volume  has,  however,  continued  to  increase,  and  on 
the  25th  March  of  this  year  (1875)  it  stood  at  1528 
millions ;  and  the  forced  currency  of  the  notes  of  the 
bank  might  be  at  any  time  withdrawn.  It  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  management  of  the  bank  throughout 
these  years  of  difficulty  has  been  eminently  prudent  and 
successful. 

The  bank  is  obliged  to  open  a  compU  courant  for  any  one 
who  requires  it,  and  performs  services,  for  those  who  have 
such  accounts,  similar  to  those  performed  for  their  customers 
by  the  banks  in  London.  The  bank  does  not  charge  any 
commission  on  current  accounts,  so  that  its  only  remunera- 
tion arises  from  the  use  of  the  money  placed  in  its  hands 
by  the,  individuals  whose  payments  it  makes.  It  is 
probable,  therefore,  as  has  been  alleged,  that  this  part  of 
the  business  is  but  little  profitable.  'I'he  bank  also  dis- 
counts bills  with  three  signatures  at  variable  dates,  but  not 
having  more  than  three  months  or  ninety  days  to  run. 
Besides  discounting  bills,  the  bank  makes  adynnces  on 
stocks  and  pledges  of  various  kinds,  and  undertakes  tne 
care  of  valuable  articles,  suclT  as  plate,  jewels,  title-deeds, 
<fec.,«t  a  charge  of  j  per  cent  on  the  value  of  the  deposit 
for  every  period  of  six  months  and  under. 

The  administration  of  the  bank  is  vested  in  a  council 
of  twenty-one  members,  viz.,  a  governor  and  two  sub-gover- 
nors, nominated  by  the  chief  of  the  state,  and  fifteen 
directors  and  three  censors,  nominated  by  the  shareholders. 
The  bank  has  a  large  surplus  capital  or  rest.  In  1848  the 
dividends  only  amounted  to  75  fr.  per  share.  In  1855 
md  185C  they  were  200  and  272  fr.  on  each  share.  In 
1870  they  fell  to  114  fr.,  but  rose  again  to  300  fr.  in  1871, 
and  to  320  fr.  in  1872.  In  July  1856  the  1000  fr. 
«hare  of  bank-stock  was  worth  4075  fr.,  in  July  1857  it 
had  sunk  to  2880  fr.  It  is  now  (1875)  worth  about 
3850  fr. 

Banking  in  the  United  States. 

Before  the  late  Civil  War  it  had  been  the  uniform  practic'fe 
of  the  different  Stales  of  the  Union  to  allow  banks  to  be 
established  for  the  issue  of  notes,  payable  in  specie  on 
demand.  In  cases  where  the  liability  of  shareholders  in 
banks  was  to  be  limited  to  the  amount  of  their  shares, 
they  had,  previously  to  1 838,  to  be  established  by  Acts  of 
the  local  legislatures ;  but,  in  general,  these  were  easily 
obtained,  and  it  may  bo  said  that  banking  was  quite  free, 
and  that,  practically,  all  individuals  or  associations  might 
issue  notes,  provided  they  abided  by  the  rules  laid  down 
for  their  guidance,  and  engaged  to  pay  them  when  pre- 
sented. 

Under  this  system  the  changes  in  the  amount  and  value 
of  the  paper  currency  of  the  United  States  were  greater 
Ibao  in  any  other  country,  aud  it  produced  an  unprecedented 
amount  of  bankruptcy  and  ruin. 

Between  1811  and  1820,  about  195  banks,  in  difTerent 
parts  of  the  Union,  became  bankrupt ;  and  it  is  said,  in  a 
report  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United 
States,  dated  12th  May  1820,  that  these  failures,  which 
mostly  happened  in  1814  and  1819,  produced  a  state  of  dis- 
tress so  general  and  severe  that  few  examples  of  tho  like 
had  then  occurred. 

But  bad  as  this  instance  was,  it  was  nothing  to  that 
which  took  place  subsequently  to  1834.  The  accouoU  of 
the  aggregate  issues  of  tho  banks  dilTur  a  little  ;  but  the 
following  statement  is  believed  to  be  very  nearly  accurate, 


1830  $68,628,898 

1S3<  .      D4,839,57(; 


1835    103,692,495 

1836  U0,310,G38 

1837 149,185,690 

Now  observe,  that  this  sudden  and  enormous  increase 
took  place  under  the  obligation  which  we  are  told  is  quite 
enough  to  prsvent  all  abuse  of  paying  notes  on  demand. 
The  result  was  what  most  men  of  sense  must  have  antici- 
pated, viz.,  that  a  revulsion  took  place,  and  that  every 
bank  wntbin  the  Union,  without,  it  is  believed,  a  single 
exception,  stopped  paj-ment  in  1837. 

In  1838  such  of  the  banks  as  had  been  best  managed 
and  had  the  krgest  capitals  resumed  payment  in  specie. 
But  in  1839  and  1840  a  farther  crash  took  place;  and 
the  bank-notes  afloat,  which,  as  has  ber  n  seen,  amounted  to 
§149,185,890  in  1837,  sunk  to  $83,734,000  in  1842,  and 
to  S58,563,000  in  1843.  It  is  supposed  that  in  this  latter 
crash  nearly  180  banks,  including  the  Bank  of  the  United 
States,  were  totally  destroyed.  And  the  loss  occasioned, 
by  the  depreciation  which  it  caused  in  the  value  of  stock* 
of  all  kinds  and  of  all  sorts  of  property,  was  quite  enor- 
mous. And  yet,  vast  as  that  loss  was,  it  was  really  trifling, 
as  a  writer  in  the  American  Almanack  has  stated,  compared 
with  "  the  injury  resulting  to  society  from  the  upheaving 
it  occasioned  of  the  elements  of  social  order,  and  the  uttei 
demoralization  of  men  by  the  irresistible  temptation  to 
speculation  which  it  afl"orded,  ending  in  swindling  to  retain 
iUgotten  riches." 

The  evils  of  the  American  system  were  aggravated  by 
the  lowness  of  the  notes  which  most  banks  issued.  Thij 
brought  them  into  the  hands  of  retail  traders,  labourers 
and  others  in  the  humbler  walks  of  life,  who  always  sufl'ei 
severely  by  the  failure  of  a  bank. 

After  1838  and  1842  various  measures  were  taken  in 
nearly  all  the  States,  but  principally  in  New  York,  to 
restrain  the  free  action  of  th6  banks,  and  to  prevent  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  calamities  referred  to. 

In  New  York,  for  example,  banks  were  divided  into  two 
great  classes — the  incorporated  and  the  free  banks.  Tlio 
former,  incorporated  by  a  State  law,  had  to  conform  to 
certain  regulations,  and  to  contribute  a  half  per  cent, 
annually  upon  their  capital  to  a  security  fund,  which  was 
devoted  to  the  payment  of  the  notes  of  defaulting  banks. 
But  this  was  a  most  objectionable  plan  ;  for,  in  the  first 
place,  it  did  not  prevent  bankruptcies,  and,  in  the  second 
place,  it  compelled  the  well-managed  banks  to  contribute 
to  a  fund  which  went  to  pay  the  debts  of  those  that  were 
mismanaged.  It  consequently  declined  in  favour,  and  soon 
become  rarely  acted  upon. 

In  tho  other  or  free  banking  system,  all  individuals  or 
associations  who  chose  to  deposit  securities  (minimum 
amount,  $100,000)  for  their  pajTnent  were  allowed  to  issue 
an  equal  amount  of  notes.  Aud  this  was  certainly  by  far 
the  more  efficient  as  well  as  the  more  popular  of  the  two 
plans.  It  was,  however,  not  free  from  objection  ;  because, 
\st,  A  longer  or  shorter,  but  always  a  considerable,  period 
necessarily  elapses  after  a  bank  stops  before  its  notes 
can  be  retired  ;  and,  2rf,  The  securities  lodpcJ  for  the 
notes  were  necessarily  at  all  times  of  uncertain  and  fluctuat- 
ing value,  while,  in  periods  of  panic  or  general  distrust, 
they  became  all  but  inconvertible.  Tho  Sub-Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  of  the  United  States  animadverted  as  follows 
on  this  plan,  in  a  letter  dated  27th  Nov    1854  ; — 

"  The  policy  of  many  of  the  Stale  Governments  has  of 
lato  years  consisted  in  encouraging  the  issue  of  small  notes, 
by  sanctiuDing  the  establishment  of  what  are  popularly 
called  '  free  banks,'  with  deposits  of  slocks  and  mortgage! 
for  the  '  ultimate  '  security  of  their  issues.  This  '  ultimate' 
security  is,  it  may  be  admitted,  belter  than  no  security  at 


340 


B  A  N   K  I  N  G 


all.  The  mischief  is,  that  it  is  least  available  T?hen  most 
•ranted.  The  very  causes  which  preveot  the  banks  from 
redeeming  their  issues  promptly,  cause  a  fall  io  the  value 
of  the  stocks  and  mortgages  on  "  the  ultimate  security  '  of 
which  their  notes  have  been  issued.  The  'ultimate' 
security  may  avail  something  to  the  broker  who  buys  them 
at  a  discount,  and  can  hold  them  for  months  or  years  ;  but 
the  labouring  man  who  has  notes  of  these  'State  security 
banks '  in  his  possession,  finds,  when  they  stop  payment, 
that  '  the  ulliniite  security'  for  their  redemption  does  not 
prevent  his  losing  twenty  five  cents,  fifty  cents,  or  even 
seventy-five  cents  in  the  dollir. 

"  In  a  circulating  medium  we  want  something  more  than 
'  ultimate  security.'  We  want  also  '  immediate  '  security  , 
we  want  security  that  is  good  to-day,  and  will  be  good  to- 
Diorrow,  and  the  next  day,  and  for  ever  thereafter.  This 
security  is  found  in  gold  and  silver,  and  in  these  only."' 

The  Fi'_-port  of  the  Superintendent  of  Banking  for  the 
Slate  of  New  York  for  IboG  showed  that  the  securities  he 
then  held  in  trust  amounted  to  S3'J, 359,071,  which  were 
almost  wholly  lodged  by  banking  associations  and  individual 
bankers. 

During  the  year  the  securities  held  in  trust  for  the  under- 
menvioned  banks  that  had  become  insolvent  in  1855  were 
diap  ised  of.  But  the  sums  realized  by  their  sale  did  not  in 
any  case  sufEce  to  pay  the  notes  at  par  ;  while  a  period, 
varying  from  two  to  four  years,  would  have  to  elapse  before 
the  affairs  of  the  insolveat  banks  were  finally  settled. 


NaiDea  of  8an]u  tbat  failed 


Eighth  Avenue  Bank  . 
Fiirmers"  Bank,  OuonJaga 

-James'  Back 

Mcrctidiits  and  Mecbaoics' 

Bank,  Oswego 

New  Kochelle,  Bank  of.... 
New  Kochelle,  Bauk  of.... 


Notes 
tedtM?ine(l 


All    

All  

All 

All  

Slock  notes - 
Slock  and 
efitale  notes 


Rates  of 

Kedemp- 

lioiL 


94  cents 
85  cents 
91  cents 

77  cents 
Par   .... 


EipiratioQ  of 

Time  for 
RedetuptiotL 


May  21,  1861 
Nov.  12,  1859 
June  17,  1858 

Sept  23,  1860 
Juno  17,  1858 


81  cents  June  17,  1858 


This  statement  set  the  defective  nature  of  the  security 
system,  as  administered  in  New  York,  in  the  clearest  point 
of  view.  It  might,  no  doubt,  have  been  improved  by 
increasing  the  proportion  of  securities  to  notes.  But, 
owing  to  the  variety  of  securities  that  were  taken  (viz.,  ail 
manner  of  bonds  and  mortgages,  state,  canal,  and  railway 
stocks,  itc  ,  Ac  ).  and  the  uncertainty  of  their  value,  a  great 
deal  of  risk  was  always  incurred  in  accepting  them,  and 
they  could  never  form  a  proper  foundation  on  which  to 
issue  notes. 

In  1857  another  crash  took  place,  and  all  the  banks 
in  the  Union,  from  the  Oulf  of  Mexico  to  the  frontiers  of 
Canada,  again  stopped  payments. 

There  had  been  a  rapid  increase  of  discounts  since  1851, 
and  that  increase  was  especially  great  in  1856,  and  went  on 
augmenting  down  to  August  1857.  On  the  8th  of  that 
month  the  discounts  and  advances  by  the  New  York  banks 
amounted  to  $122,077,252,  the  deposits  in  their  possession 
being,  at  the  same  time,  $94,436,417.  This  was  the 
maximum  of  both.  On  the  24th  of  August  the  Ohio  Liie 
and  Trust  Company,  which  carried  on  an  extensive  banking 
business  in  New  York,  stopped  payments,  and  by  8o  doing 
gave  a  severe  shock  to  credit  and  confidence,  which  the 
suspension  of  two  or  three  more  banks  turned  into  a  panic. 
Notes  being  in  a  certain  degree  secured,  the  run  upon  the 
banks  was  principally  for  deposits.  And  to  meet  it  they 
BO  reduced  their  discounts  and  advances,  Uiat,  on  the  17th 
October,  they  amounted  to  only  $97,245,826.     This  sudden 

*  The  above  aUlenienls  are  taken  from  a  paper  read  bj  Lord  Over- 
■toQS  to  the  Comjuittee  on  Bauki. 


[u.NlTED   STATES. 

and  violent  coutraction  necessarily  occasioned  the  suspension 
of  many  of  those  mercantile  houses  that  had  depended  on 
the  bonks  for  discounts.  And  it  did  this  without  stopping 
the  drain  for  deposits,  which  had  sunk,  on  the  17th 
October,  to  $52,894,623,  being  a  decrease  of  S41,546,78i 
in  about  two  months.  The  universal  stoppage  of  the  banks 
was  a  consequence  of  these  proceedings. 

The  Civil  War  had  as  one  of  its  consequences  the 
introduction  of  a  general  banking  Uw  in  the  United  States, 
conformable  in  many  respects  to  the  principles  of  what  we 
have  described  as  the  free  banking  law  of  New  York.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  war  in  1861,  the  amount  of  paper 
money  in  circulation  was  about  §200,000,000,  of  which 
$150,000,000  had  been  issued  in  the  loyal  States,  and 
the  coin  in  circulation  was  estimated  at  $275,000,000. 
The  necessities  of  the  Treasury  very  soon  compelled  the 
Government  to  borrow  from  the  associated  banks  of  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Boston,  and  to  issue  demand-notes 
to  the  extent  of  $50,000,000, — which,  however,  were  not 
at  first  made  legal  tender.  In  February  1862  an  Act  was 
passed  by  Congress  authorizing  the  issue  of  $150,000,000, 
iu  Treasury  notes  of  not  less  than  $5  each,  out  of  which, 
however,  $50,000,000  were  in  lieu  of  the  notes  already 
issued,  and  this  issue  was  declared  to  be  legal  tender 
except  in  discharge  of  customs'  duties,  and  of  the  payment 
of  interest  by  the  United  States  on  the  national  debt.  It 
will  be  easily  understood  that  coin  went  out  of  circulation, 
and  a  premium  on  gold  was  established,  which  increased  as 
the  amount  of  the  Treasury  notes  was  increased  by 
successive  legislation,  and  as  national  bank-notes  came  to 
be  issued  iu  pursuance  of  the  law  we  must  proceed  to 
describe.  This  is  the  Banking  Law  of  the  25th  February 
1863,  which,  as  amended  by  the  Act  of  the  3d  June  1864, 
now  continues  in  force.  By  this  law  a  Currency  Bureau 
and  Comptroller  of  Currency  were  appointed  in  the 
Treasury  Department,  with  the  power  to  authorize  banking 
associations  of  not  less  than  five  persons  subscribing,  ex- 
cept in  very  small  towns,  a  minimum  capital  of  $100,000, 
50  per  cent,  to  be  paid  up  at  once,  and  the  remainder  within 
six  months.  It  was  enacted  that  any  such  association, 
before  commencing  business,  must  transfer  to  the  Treasurer 
of  the  United  States  any  United  States  interest-bearing 
bonds  not  less  than  one-third  of  the  capital  stock,  and 
should  thereupon  receive  from  the  Comptroller  of  the 
Currency  circulating  notes  of  different  denominations  in 
blank,  registered  and  countersigned,  equal  in  amount  to 
90  per  cent,  of  the  current  market  value  of  the  bonds  so 
transferred,  but  not  exceeding  their  par  value.  The  whole 
amount  of  notes  thus  issued  was  not  to  exceed  $300,000,000, 
one-half  to  be  apportioned  "among  the  States  according  to 
their  representative  population,  and  the  other  half  to  be 
apportioned  with  regard  to  the  existing  banking  capital, 
resources,  and  business  of  the  States. 

The  banks  already  existing  in  the  several  States  were 
rapidly  transformed  into  national  banks  under  the  operation 
of  this  law,  and  their  previous  notes  withdrawn  in  exchange 
for  the  new  natiouai  bank  is.iue.  The  currency  of  the 
Union  thus  came  to  consist  of  the  demand-notes  of  the 
Treasury,  which  rose  in  1865  to  about  $450,000,000,  and 
of  the  notes  of  the  national  banks,  which  rapidly  approached 
the  limit  of  $300,000,000,— the  latter  notes  passing 
throughout  the  Union,  whatever  the  bank  through  which 
they  were  issued,  as  freely  as  the  former,  since  the  ultimate 
payment  of  them  was  secured  by  the  deposit  under  the 
law  we  have  stated,  of  an  adequate  amount  in  United 
States'  bonds  at  the  Treasury.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to 
trace  the  subsequent  financial  history  of  the  States,  but  the 
experience  of  1873  must  be  referred  to  for  the  instruction 
It  affords.  As  no  8ufli«iont  stcjis  were  taken  after  the 
termination  of  the  war  to  reduce  the  GWoUeu  value  of  Ibe 


CFRUANV.I 

curreD'-T,  gold  remained  out  of  circulation,  though  with  the 
growth  lit  business  thi;  pn-iaiuoj  on  it  declined  tu  an  average 
rata  of  12  per  cent.;  but  no  inconvenience  was  felt  from 
toe  eiisteiice  of  ii  pure  paper  circulation,  and  the  opinion, 
ID  fact,  arose  that  the  currency  thus  established  was  a  sure 
preventive  of  recurrent  panics  and  exaggerated  rates  of 
discount.  But  in  September  1873  the  hnancial  house  of 
Jay,  Cooke,  i  Co  ,  having  locked  up  a  large  amount  of 
capital  in  railway  enterprises  not  immediately  if  ever  likely 
to  be  productive,  suspended  payments;  other  financial 
houses  were  forced  to  take  the  same  step,  several  banks 
closed  their  doors,  and  a  severe  panic  set  in  The  holders 
of  the  notes  in  circulatiug  of  the  banks  that  failed  were 
protected  by  the  deposit  of  bonds  at  the  Treasury,  and  the 
notes  were  never  discredited;  but  the  financial  distress 
throughout  the  Union  was  excessive,  and  continued  for 
many  months  It  was  practically  demonstrated  that  the 
national  bank  law  protected  the  holders  of  national  bank- 
notes from  loss,  but  afforded  no  immunity  against  the 
occurrence  of  financial  crises. 

Banking  in  Germany. 
Banking  in  Germany,  up  to  the  close  of  the  Franco- 
German  War,  presented  no  peculiar  features  requiring 
attentioa  The  Bank  of  Uamhurgh  was  established  in 
1619,  on  the  model  of  that  of  Amsterdam,  as  a  purely 
deposit  bank  for  the  transfer  of  sums  from  the  account  of 
one  individual  to  that  of  another  ;  and  its  management 
appears  to  have  been  uniformly  good.  In  the  several 
German  States  banks  were  authorized  under  laws  peculiar 


B  A  N  -  B  A  N 


341 


to  each  ;  and  most  of  them  were  allowed  to  issue  notes 
according  to  regulations  varying  from  Stdte  to  State.  It 
followed  that  the  notes  of  each  bank  weie  confined  to  its 
own  neighbourhood  ,  but  the  establishment  of  Germiu 
unity  was  followed  by  a  demand  for  a  general  banking  law, 
and  the  establishment  of  a  note  currency  that  might 
circulate  throughout  the  empire.  After  some  discussion 
the  Act  of  the  30th  January  1S75  was  passed  to  satisfy 
these  demands.  Under  this  law  an  Imperial  B;uik  was 
established,  with  an  uncovered  issue  of  L'50  millions  of 
marks  (=  £12,500,000);  and  thirty  two  banks  were  re- 
cognized as  possessing  rights  of  uncovered  issue  to  the  ex- 
tent of  135  millions  of  marks  (X6,750,0U0).  The  Imperial 
Bank  Ls,  however,  allowed  to  increase  its  issue,  subject  to 
the  condition  that  at  least  one-third  is  represented  by  cash 
in  hand,  and  the  remaining  two-thirds  by  bills  not  having 
more  than  three  months  to  run  ;  while  the  other  banks  may 
also  exceed  their  authorized  issues  subject  to  the  payment 
of  5  per  cent,  interest  on  the  excess  above  the  authorized 
limit,  plus  the  cash  in  hand,  and  weekly  retarns  are 
required  of  the  amount  in  circulation.  No  note  is  to  be 
less  than  100  marks  (£5),  and  no  new  right  of  issue  caa 
be  conceded  except  by  a  law  of  the  empire.  The  State 
itself,  however,  under  a  law  of  April  1874,  has  the  right 
to  issue  120  millions  of  marks  in  State  notes  of  small 
denominations.  The  working  of  this  law  has  not  yet  been 
tested  ;  but,  if  we  may  judge  from  our  own  experience,  it 
will  not  produce  any  rapid  withdrawal  of  local  issues,  and 
the  unification  of  the  note  currency  of  the  empire  will  not 
be  accomplished.  (l  n  c.) 


BANKRUPTCY.  ^Vhen  a  person  is  unable  to  pay 
his  debts  in  full,  the  law  of  civilized  countries  adopts 
some  means  of  satisfying  the  creditors,  as  far  aa  they 
can  be  satisfied,  out  of  the  debtor's  estate,  and  relieving 
the  debtor  himself  from  pressure  which,  by  his  own  efforts, 
he  would  not  be  likely  to  overcome.  The  debtor  having 
been  declared  a  bankrupt,  bis  property  vests  in  his  creditors 
for  the  purpose  of  being  rateably  divided  among  them,  and 
he  thereupon  starts  a  new  man,  entirely  relieved  from  the 
obligations  thus  partially  satisfied.  Such,  in  general  terms,  is 
the  process  of  bankruptcy  as  observed  in  modern  societies. 
The  law  of  bankruptcy  is,  in  fact,  a  modern  creation,  slowly 
evolved  out  of  the  criminal  code  in  answer  to  the  neces 
sities  of  a  widely-spread  industrial  bfe.  Early  society  is 
unanimous  in  treating  inability  t»  (ulfil  legal  obligations 
as  a  most  serious  offence  ,  and  the  harshness  of  ancient  law 
towards  debtors  has  been  explained  as  a  consequence  of  the 
fact  that  a  contract  waa  at  first  regarded  aa  a  sort  of 
incomplete  conveyance,  and  creditor  and  debtor  as  persons 
who  respectively  had  and  had  not  fulfilled  their  legal 
obligations.  The  early  law  of  Borne,  while  prohibiting 
contracts  of  usury,  still  gives  the  legal  creditors  the  savage 
remedy  of  dividing  the  carcase  of  their  debtor  or  selling 
him  and  his  family  into  slavery.  Severe  ccmmercial 
distress  endangering  the  stability  of  the  state  is  of  fiequcnt 
occurrence  in  the  history  of  Rome  ,  but  the  law  against 
debtors  long  retained  its  primitive  severity.  The  Lex 
Poetelia  (about  320  Bc.)  enabled  a  debtor,  who  could 
swear  to  being  worth  as  much  as  he  owed,  to  save  his 
freedom  by  resigning  his  property  ,  and  many  years  after 
tba  legislation  of  Julius  Caesar  established  the  ccssio  bono- 
rum  aa  an  available  remedy  for  all  honest  insolvents.  The 
slow  development  of  the  law,  and  the  practical  difficulties 
with  which  each  new  adjustment  was  met,  are  copiously 
i'lustrated  by  the  history  of  bankru[itcy  legislation  in 
Ungland.  The  first  English  statute  on  bankruptcy  (34 
and  3r>  Hen.  VUL  c    4)   waa  dirtcted  against  frauduUnt 


debtors,  and  gave  power  to  the  lord  chancellor  and  other 
high  ofiicera  to  seize  their  estates  and  divide  them  among 
the  creditors.  The  13  Eliz.  c.  7  restricted  bankruptcy  to 
traders,  and  prescribed  certain  acts  by  committing  which  a 
trader  became  a  bankrupt.  Commissioners  appointed  by 
the  lord  chancellor  are  to  seize  the  person  of  the  bankrupt 
and  divide  his  property  among  the  creditors.  The  4  Anne 
c  17  and  10  Anne  c.  15  took  away  the  criminal  character 
hitherto  borne  by  the  proceedings,  and  allowed*a  debtor, 
with  the  consent  of  a  majority  of  his  creditors,  to  obtaui  a 
certificate  of  having  conformed  to  the  requisitions  of  the 
bankrupt  law,  which,  when  confiraieJ  by  the  thanceLlor. 
discharged  his  person  and  his  after  acquired  properly 
from  debts  due  by  him  at  the  time  of  his  bankruptcy  The 
6  Geo.  rV.  c.  16  allows  a  debtor  to  procure  his  o«n  bank- 
ruptcy (an  arrangement  previously  regarded  as  fraudu- 
lent), and  introduces  the  principle  oi  deeds  of  arrangement 
between  debtor  and  creditors  wilhout  a  [niblic  bankruptcy. 
The  1  and  2  Will  IV.  c  60  established  the  Court  of 
Bankruptcy,  consisting  of  six  comuissioners,  along  with 
four  judges  as  a  Court  of  Review,  and  appointed  official 
assignees  to  get  in  the  bankrupt's  estate  on  behalf  of  the 
creditors. 

Various  other  statutes  in  the  next  twenty  years  made 
unimportant  changes  in  the  constitution  of  the  court 
Id  1847  jurisdiction  in  bankruptcy  waa  again  restored  to 
the  Court  of  Chancery  by  the  appeal  being  transferred  to 
that  court.  The  Bankrupt  Law  Consolidation  Act,  1849, 
effected  several  important  alterations  in  the  system.  Pro- 
ceedings were  to  begin  by  a  petition  to  the  Court  of 
Bankruptcy  instead  of  a  fiat  out  of  Chancery.  The  com- 
missioners were  authorized  to  award  certificates,  classified 
according  to  the  merit  of  the  banktujilcy.  In  the  first 
class  the  insolvency  was  declared  to  be  due  to  misfortune  , 
in  the  second,  not  entirely  to  misfortune  ;  and  in  the  tbini, 
not  at  all  to  misfortune.  Certain  specified  offences  deprived 
the  bankrupt  of  all  rii:Lt  to  a  certificate,  and  made  lii.'D 


342 


BANKRUPTCY 


liable  to  a  criminnl  prosecution.  The  object  of  this  arrange- 
ment was,  of  course,  to  meet  fraudulent,  or  not  entirely 
honest,  attempts  to  obtain  the  benefit  of  a  discharge  of 
debts  under  the  bankruptcy  laws  It  was  not  entirely 
successful,  inasmuch  as  there  was  no  settled  principle 
observed  in  classifying  the  certificates,  and  the  lowest 
class  was,  for  all  practical  purposes,  as  good  as  the  highest. 
The  Act  of  1849  also  encouraged  private  arrangements  by 
making  a  composition,  accepted  by  nine-tenths  of  a  bank- 
rupt's creditors,  binding  upon  the  rest';  but  it  was  decided 
Bubsequently  by  the  courts  that,  to  make  such  a  composi- 
tion binding,  it  must  be  accompanied  by  a  complete  cessio 
bonarum.  The  next  statute,  the  Bankruptcy  Act,  1861, 
made  non-traders  subject  to  the  law  of  bankruptcy,  and 
empowered  a  majority  in  number,  and  three-fourths  in 
value,  of  the  creditors  to  bind  the  minority  without  a  cessio 
bonorum.  This  arrangement  was  found  to  lead  to  private 
and  fraudulent  compositions,  and  in  consequence  by  an 
Amendment  Act  in  1868  enlarged  powers  were  given  to 
aon-assenting  creditors.  All  this  legislation  still  failed 
to  give  complete  satisfaction.  The  complete  exoneration 
of  after-acquired  property  was  denounced  as  unfair  and 
likely  to  invite  fraudulent  bankruptcies,  the  system  of  ar- 
rangements with  creditors  was  disliked,  and  the  control 
of  creditors  over  the  property  of  the  debtor  and  proceedings 
in  bankruptcy  was  felt  to  be  too  smaU.  The  Bankruptcy 
Act,  1869,  was  passed  after  many  unsuccessful  attempts 
to  deal  with  these  complaints.  It  established  a  new  Court 
of  Bankruptcy,  consisting  of  a  chief  judge,  registrars,  and 
other  ofEcera.  The  commissionerships  were  abolished,  and 
the  subordinate  staff  was  to  be  transferred  to  the  new  court. 
The  chief  judge  in  bankruptcy  is  to  be  a  judge  of  one  of 
the  Superior  Courts  of  Xaw  and  Equity  ;  and  hitherto  the 
office  has  been  held  by  one  of  the  acting  vice-chancellors. 
Appeals  from  the  county  courts  in  bankruptcy  go  to  the 
chief  judge,  and  appeals  from  the  chief  judge  to  the  Court 
of  Appeal  in  Chancery,  and  thence  occasionally  to  the 
House  of  Lords.  Official  assignees  were  abolished ;  and 
trustees,  who  should  be  creditors,  are  to  be  appointed  to 
distribute  the  bankrupt's  estate,  while  the  creditors  ma/ 
appoint  a  committee  of  inspection  to  superintend  the  opera 
tions  of  the  trustees.  A  comptroller  in  bankruptcy  will 
receive  the  trustees'  accounts  after  they  have  been  audited 
by  the  committee,  and  take  notice  of  any  irregularity  in 
the  proceedings  of  the  trustees.  The  law  of  reputed  owner- 
ship was  restricted  to  traders.  Voluntary  settlements  by  a 
trader,  except  in  the  case  of  property  accrued  in  right  of 
his  wife,  are  void  as  against  the  trustee  if  the  settler 
becomes  bankrupt  within  two  years  after  the  settlement  ; 
and  if  he  becomes  bankrupt  within  ten  years,  it  must  be 
shown  that,  at  the  time  of  the  settlement,  he  had  sufficient 
property  besides  to  pay  his  then  existing  debts,  otherwise  the 
settlement  becomes  void,  A  covenant  by  a  trader,  although 
Kade  in  consideration  of  marriage,  for  future  settlement  of 
property  not  then  in  any  way  belonging  to  him,  ia  void  as 
against  the  trustee,  unless  the  property  has  been  transferred 
or  paid  before  the  bankruptcy.  The  Act  also  introduces  im- 
portant alterations  as  to  the  discharge  of  the  bankrupt.  A 
bankrupt  will  not  bo  discharged  unless  his  estate  has  paid  ten 
shillings  in  the  pound,  or  a  majority  of  the  creditors  (three 
fourths  in  value)  declare  that  the  bankrupt  is  not  respon- 
sible for  the  deficiency,  and  that  they  desire  his  discharge 
If  vfithin  three  years  the  bankrupt  makes  up  the  dividend 
of  ten  shillings  in  the  pound,  he  may  have  his  discharge; 
end  in  the  meantime  his  property  will  be  protected  from 
the  creditors  of  the  bankruptcy.  If  be  fails  to  make  up 
this  dividend  within  three  years,  any  debt  r-;;iaining 
Qnpaid  will  become  enforceable  against  his  after-acquired 
property, — subject,  of  course,  to  the  rigbls  of  creditors 
snbsequent   to  the  bankruptcy.    There  are  prnvi.sions  for 


compromising  the  bankruptcy  by  composition  or  liquidation 
by  arrangement  The  usual  criminal  cbuses  have  beei; 
separated  from  the  new  statute  of  bankruptcy  and  appeal 
in  a  separate  enactment, — the  Debtors'  Act,  1869, — and 
the  Court  of  Bankruptcy  has  no  longer  any  criminal  juris- 
diction whatever.  The  Debtors'  Act  abolishes  imprison- 
ment for  debt  (except  in  certain  cases  in  which  the  debt  is 
mostly  of  the  nature  of  a  penalty),  and  provides  for  the 
punishment  of  certain  misdemeanours  of  fraudulent  debtors, 
whose  aflfairs  have  come  into  bankruptcy.  The  prosecution 
takes  place  before  the  ordinary  cruuinal  tribunals.  '  The 
Bankruptcy  Act  and  the  Debtors'  Act  become — by  the 
repeal  of  previous  statutes  relating  to  insolvency,  bank- 
ruptcy, and  imprisonment  for  debt — a  complete  record 
of  the  legislation  now  in  force  on  this  subject. 

Under  the  new  statute  aU  the  county  courts  are  consti- 
tuted local  courts  of  bankruptcy,  while  for  the  London 
district,  as  defined  in  the  Act,  there  is  the  London  Bank- 
ruptcy Court.  All  these  courts  are  presumed  to  be  tlie 
same  court,  and  cases  may  be  transferred  from  one  to  the 
other  if  necessary.  Subject  to  this  power  of  transfer, 
proceedings  are  to  be  taken  against  a  debtor  in  the  court  of 
the  district  in  which  he  resides ;  and  if  he  does  not  reside 
in  England  and  Wales,  in  the  London  court.  By  order  of 
that  court,  or  by  resolution  of  the  creditors,  or  by  certificate 
of  the  local  judge,  cases  may  be  transferred  to  the  London 
court  from  any  of  the  local  courts.  The  chief  judge,  or  a 
local  judge,  may  delegate  ihe  powers  (except  the  power  of 
committing  for  contempt)  to  the  registrar.  All  the  courts 
of  bankruptcy  and  their  officers  in  England  are  to  act  in 
conjunction  with  bankruptcy  courts  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  and  with  British  courts  having  jurisdiction  in 
hatiruptcy  elsewhere,  the  orders  of  one  court  being 
enforceable  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  others.  Section 
72  of  the  Act  gives  to  the  new  Court  of  Bankruptcy  the 
important  power  "  to  decide  all  questions  of  priority,  and 
all  other  questions  of  law  or  fact  arising  in  any  case  of 
bankruptcy  coming  within  the  cognisance  of  such  court,  ot 
which  the  court  may  deem  it  expedient  or  necessary  to 
decide,  for  the  purpose  of  doing  complete  justice  or  making 
a  complete  distribution  of  property  in  any  such  case."  By 
this  enlarged  jurisdiction  the  CDurt  has  power  to  decide, 
even  as  against  strangers,  questions  arising  in  the  bank- 
niptcy ;  and  it  has  been  held  that  it  may  restrain 
proceedings  in  Chancery  or  at  Common  Law,  and  even  out  of 
the  jurisdiction.  The  judge  may,  at  the  request  of  parties, 
or  of  hi5  own  discretion,  direct  issues  of  fact  to  be  tried  by 
a  jury. 

By  the  Bankruptcy  Act,  1661,  the  special  legislation 
relating  to  insolvent  debtors  was  abolished.  Up  to  that 
time  traders  only  had  been  allowed  the  relief  of  bankruptcy, 
and  all  other  insolvent  debtors  remained  liable  to  their 
creditors  for  the  unpaid  portion  of  their  debts.  They  might 
be  kept  in  prison  during  the  creditor's  pleasure,  and  any 
p'-opcrty  they  might  acquire  was  available  for  the  satisfac- 
tion of  the  creditors'  claims.  From  time  to  time  special 
Acts  were  passed  for  the  liberation  of  insolvent  debtors 
confined  in  prison,  a  general  Act  (53  Geo  III.  c.  102)  was 
triod  for  a  Umited  period  and  repeated,  and  finally,  by  1 
and  2  Vict.  c.  110,  a  court  was  established  for  the  "  relief 
of  insolvent  debtors,"  their  discharge,  of  course,  being  con- 
ditional on  the  surrender  of  their  property  for  the  benefit 
of  their  creditors.  The  principle  of  the  distinction  thus 
maintained  between  the  trader  and  the  non-trader  was, 
that  the  creditors  of  the  former  were  to  be  regarded  as  to 
some  extent  partners  in  his  speculations,  while  the  latter 
was  alone  responsible  for  his  insolvency  ;  and  it  was  feared 
that  the  discharge  of  b.uikruptcy,  if  allowed  as  a  means  of 
satisfying  private  debts,  might  give  great  enconragcirctit 
tci    pxtra^'iaanco   and    fraud.     On    the   abolition    of    "■I" 


B  A  N  K  R  U  r  T  C   ^ 


343 


Insolvents'  Court  in  18G1,  all  msolvent  debtors  were 
adia'.'tcd  to  the  relief  of  bankrupt's  Jiicharge,  but  a 
distiactiuQ  is  sLiU  made  on  several  important  points  between 
traders  ani^  non-traders.  A  schedule  to  the  Act  of  1800 
gives  a  list  of  the  different  occupations  which  are  to  be 
considered-  as  "  trades,"  and  the  exception  is  expressly  stated 
that  "  a  f.irjner,  grazier,  common  labourer,  or  workman  for 
him,  shall  not,  nor  shall  a  member  of  any  partnership, 
association,  or  company,  which  cannot  be  adjudged  bankrupt 
under  this  Act,  be  deemed  as  such  a  trader  for  the  purposes 
of  this  Act."  The  liability  to  bankruptcy  may  therefore  be 
said  to  be  now  almost  co-extensive  with  the  capacity  to 
make  a  contract.  Persons  who  cannot  make  a  binding 
contract,  e.g.,  married  women,  minors,  lunatics,  itc,  cannot 
be  made  bankrupts.  But  where  this  incapacity  is  removed 
(as  for  example  in  the  city  of  London,  where  by  custom  a 
married  woman  may  trade  as  a/c-mme  ov/ej,  the  liability  to 
bankruptcy  will  arise. 

Proceedings  in  bankruptcy  are  now  begun  by  a  petition 
from  one  or  more  creditors  (claiming  not  les^  than  i."50), 
alleging  that  the  debtor  in  question  has  committed  an  act 
of  bankruptcy,  and  prajnng  that  he  may  be  adjudged  a, 
bankrupt.  •  The  following  are  "  acts  of  bankruptcy  : " — 
( 1 .)  If  the  debtor  has  assigned  his  property  to  trustees  for  the 
benefit  of  his  creditors  ;  or  (2),  has  made  a  fraudulent  con- 
veyance of  any  of  his  property  ;  or  (3),  with  intent  to  defeat 
his  creditors,  has  departed  from  or  remained  out  of 
England ;  or,  being  a  trader,  has  left  his  dwelling-house,  or 
begun  to  keep  house,  or  suffered  himself  to  be  outlawed ; 
or  (4),  has  filed  a  declaration  of  inability  to  pay  his  debts ; 
(5.)  If  execution  for  not  less  than  £50  has  been  levied 
by  seizure  of  goods  (in  the  case  of  a  trader) ;  (6.)  If  the 
creditor  has  served  a  "  debtors' summons  "  for  not  less  than 
£50,  and  the  debtor  has  for  three  weeks  (or  if  a  trader,  for 
seven  days)  neglected  to  pay  or  compound  for  the  same. 
The  adjudication  must  be  aaked  for  within  six  months  of 
the  act  of  bankruptcy,  and  the  petitioning  creditor's  debt 
must  be  for  a  liquidated  (i.e.,  ascertained)  sum  due  at  law  or 
ill  equity,  and  must  not  be  a  secured  debt  unless  the  security 
is  given  up  for  the  benefit  of  the  creditors.  Should  the 
alleged  debtor  deny  his  indebtedness,  the  court  may  dismiss 
the  summons  or  direct  the  issue  to  bo  tried  by  itself  or 
some  other  competent  court ;  and  similar  proceedings  take 
place  when  the  debtor  appears  to  the  creditors'  petition  and 
repudiates  his  indebtedness. 

The  consequence  of  adjudication  is  that  all  the  bank- 
I  upt's  property  vests  in  the  registrar  of  the  court,  until  the 
appointment  by  the  creditors  of  a  trustee,  and  thereafter  in 
the  trustee.  The  word  property  has  been  expressly  defined 
to  include  money,  goods,  things  in  action,  land,  and  every 
description  of  property,  whether  real  or  personal,  also 
obligations,  ornaments,  and  "  every  description  of  estate, 
interest,  and  profit,  present  or  future,  vested  or  contingent, 
arising  out  of,  or  incident  to,  property  as  above  defined." 
.The  adjudication  "  relates  back  "  to  the  time  of  the  "  act 
'of  bankruptcy."  The  bankrupt  may  retain  the  tools  of  his 
trade  and  the  neccssaty  clothing  and  bedding  of  his  family 
to  the  extent  in  all  of  JE20.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  trustee 
to  discover,  take  possession  of,  realize,  and  distribute  the 
bankrupt's  property  ;  and,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  the 
Bankruptcy  Act,  he  must  follow  the  directions  of  the  com- 
mittee of  inspection  or  the  creditors.  The  bankrupt  is 
required  to  aid  in  the  administration.  He  must  procure  a 
statement  of  his  affairs,  and  submit  to  a  public  examination 
thereon.  A  bankrupt  under  examination  is  not,  like  a 
witness  in  other  courts,  protected  from  questions  tending 
to  inculpate  himself,  although  ho  cannot  be  compelled  to 
answer  a  question  whether  he  has  done  some  specific  act 
clearly  of  a  criminal  nature.  Ilis  answers  may  afterwards 
b«  Uicd  as  evidence  against  him  on    a  criminal  charge. 


The  bankrupt  cannot  now  bj  arrCEtcd  or  imprisoned  except 
for  attempts  to  leave  the  country,  avoid  appearance,  remove 
or  conceal  his  goods,  ic,  or,  uftor  odjudication,  for  removing 
goods  above  the  value  of  £5,  or  failing  to  attend  examina- 
tion, or  committing  contempt  of  court.  If  a  member  of 
the  House  of  Commons  is  adjudged  bankrupt,  he  becomes 
incapable  of  sitting  or  voting  for  one  year  aljter  the 
adjudication,  unless  within  that  time  the  bankruptcy  la 
annulled  or  the  creditors  satisfied.  If  on  the  expiration  of 
a  year  neither  of  these  events  has  taken  place,  the  court 
certifies  the  fact  to  the  speaker,  and  the  scat  of  the  bank- 
rupt member  thereupon  becomes  vacant.  A  bankrupt  peer 
is  disqualified  from  sitting  or  voting  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
unless  and  until  his  bankruptcy  is  annulled  on  the  ground 
that  the  order  of  adjudication  ought  not  to  have  been  made^ 
or  the  bankrupt  is  discharged  by  actual  payment  or 
satisfaction  in  the  prescribed  mode  from  all  debts  and 
liabilities  due  at  the  date  of  his  bankruptcy.  The  conditions 
on  which  a  bankrupt  may  obtain  his  discharge  have  been 
already  stated.  The  discharge  releases  the  bankrupt  for  all 
debts  provable  under  tho  bankruptcy,  except  debts  due  to  the 
Crown,  or  for  offences  against  the  revenue,  and  debts  incurred 
by  means  of  fraud  or  breach  of  trust.  The  court  has  power 
to  annul  the  bankruptey  on  various  grounds,  but  in  that 
case  all  acts  properly  done  by  the  trustee  in  reference  to  the 
property  of  the  bankrupt  will  now  remain  valid.  A 
partnership  may  be  adjudged  bankrupt,  and  the  general 
rule  of  distribution  is  that  the  joint  creditors  have  priority 
of  payment  out  of  the  Joint  or  partnership  property,  and 
the  separate  creditors  oUt  of  the  separate  estate. 

A  less  public  form  of  bankruptcy  is  also  sanctioned. by 
the  Act  of  18C9.  By  §  125  it  is  provided  that  the  credi- 
tors of  a  debtor  may  declare  (by  a  majority  in  number  and 
three-fourths  in  value)  that  his  affairs  are  to  be  liquidated 
by  arrangement  and  not  in  bankruptcy.  By  §  126  the 
creditors  may,  by  a  resolution  under  the  same  conditions, 
resolve  that  a  composition  shall  be  accepted  in  satisfaction 
of  the  debts  due  to  them  by  the  debtor.  If  liquidation  is 
resolved  on,  every  creditor,  whether  having  notice  of  the 
meeting  or  not,  is  absolutely  restrained  from  taking  any 
proceedings  for  recovering  his  debt,  unless  it  appears  to 
the  court  that  his  debt  is  prejudicially  affected  by  the 
resolution;  otherwise  under  liquidation  or  composition,  the 
court  may  restrain  or  permit  other  legal  processes  on  respect 
"of  provable  debts  as  it  thinks  fit. 

in  Scotland,  as  in  England,  the  law  of  bankruptcy  arose 
as  a  remedy  against  the  frauds  of  insolvent  debtors.  It 
was  declared  by  an  Act  of  tho  Scottish  Parliament  (1621, 
c!  18)  that  no  debtor  after  insolvency  should  fraudulently 
diminish  the  fund  belonging  to  his  creditors,  and  if  a  deed 
of  assignment  was  gratuitously  executed  after  the  contract- 
ing of  debt  in  favour  of  a  near  relation  or  a  confidential 
friend,  fraudulent  dealing  was  to  be  presumed.  The  Act 
1G96,  c.  5,  settled  the  definition  of  a  notour  or  notorious 
bankrupt,  a  question  which  had  previously  engaged  tfi- 
attention  of  the  judges  of  the  Court  of  Session.  The  statute 
defines  a  "a  notour  bankrupt"  to  be  any  debtor  who, 
being  under  diligence  by  horning  or  caption,  at  the  instance 
of  his  creditors,  shall  be  cither  imprisoned,  or  retire  to  the 
abbey  or  any  other  privileged  place,  or  flee  or  abscond 
for  his  personal  security,  or  defend  his  person  by  force,  and 
who  shall  afterwards  be  found,  by  sentence  of  the  Lords  of 
Session,  to  be  insolvent.  Bankrujitcy  as  thus  defined  was, 
it  is  said,  intended  to  afford  a  remedy  against  fraudulent 
preference  by  debtors,  and  not  as  the  ground-work  of  t 
general  process  of  distribution,  although  by  later  stctuttt 
it  became  a  necessary  requisite  of  every  such  process.  T^i 
exceptions  recognized  in  the  Act  of  1606.  of  persons  absent 
from  Scotland,  and  therefore  not  liable  to  imprisonment, 
or  of   persons  exempted   therefrom  by  special  privile<7-«, 


344 


BANKRUPTCY 


were  removed  by  later  legislation.  The  English  distinction 
between  traders  and  non-traders,  it  will  be  observed,  is 
not  recognized  in  Scotcli  law.  The  statute  made  null  and 
void  all  voluntary  dispositions,  assignations,  and  other 
deeds  at  or  after  or  within  sixty  days  before  bankruptcy. 
The  principal  Bankruptcy  Act  now  in  force  is  the  19  and 
20  Vict.  c.  79  (amended  by  20  and  21  Vict,  c  19,  and  23 
and  24  Vict.  c.  33). 

By  section  9  of  the  principal  Act,  notour  bankruptcy  is 
now  constituted — 

1.  By  sequestration  (or  adjudication  in  England  and 
Ireland) ;  and 

2.  By  insolvency  concurring  either — (a),  with  a  duly 
executed  charge  for  payment  followed  by  imprisonment 
or  apprehension,  or  flight  or  retreat  to  sanctuary,  by 
execution  of  arrestment  of  debtor's  effects,  not  discharged 
within  fifteen  days,  by  execution  of  poinding  of  any  of 
his  movables,  or  by  decree  of  adjudication  of  any  part 
of  his  movable  estate  ;  or  (6),  with  sale  of  effects  belong- 
ing to  the  debtor  under  a  poinding  or  under  a  sequestration 
for  rent,  or  retiring  for  twenty-four  hours  to  the  sanctuary, 
or  "making  application  for  the  benefit  of  cessio  bonorum. 

Notour  bankruptcy  continues,  in  case  of  sequestration, 
until  the  debtor  has  obtained  his  discharge,  and  in  other 
cases  until  insolvency  ceases.  Sequestration  may  be  awarded 
of  the  estate  of  any  person  in  the  following  cases  : — 

1.  Living  debtor  subject  to  jurisdiction  of  Scotch  courts, 
— (a),  on  his  own  Jietition  with  concurrence  of  qualified 
creditors;  or  (6),  on  petition  of  qualified  creditors,  provided 
he  be  a  notour  bankrupt,  and  have  had  a  dwelling-house 
or  place  of  business  in  Scotland  within  the  previous  year. 

2.  In  the  case  of  a  deceased  debtor,  subject  at  his  death 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court, — (a),  on  the  petition  of 
his  mandatory;  or  {li),  on  the  petition  of  qualified  creditors 
(§  13). 

Setjuestration  may  be  awarded  either  by  the  Court  of 
Session  or  by  the  sheriff.  A  sequestration  maybe  recalled 
by  a  majority  in  number  and  four-fifths  in  value  of  the 
creditors,  who  may  prefer  to  wind  up  the  estate  by  private 
arrangement.  If  the  sequestration  proceeds,  the  creditors 
hold  a  meeting,  and  by  a  majority  in  value  elect  a  trustee 
to  administer  the  estate,  and  three  commissoners  (being 
creditors  or  their  mandatories)  to  assist  and  control  the 
administration  and  declare  the  dividends.  The  bankrupt 
(under. pain  of  imprisonment)  must  give  all  the  information 
in  his  power  regarding  his  estate,  and  he  must  be  publicly 
examined  on  oath  before  the  sheriff;  and  "  conjunct 
and  confident  persons"  may  likewise  be  examined.  The 
bankrupt  may  be  discharged  either  by  composition  or  with- 
out composition.  In  the  latter  case  (1)  by  petition  with 
concurrence  of  all  the  creditors,  or  (2)  after  six  months 
with  concurrence  of  a  majority  and  four-fiftha  in  value  of 
the  creditors,  or  (3)  after  eighteen  months  with  concurrence 
of  a  bare  majority  in  number  and  value,  or  (4)  after  two 
years  without  concurrence.  In  the  last  case  the  judge 
may  refuse  the  application  if  he  thinks  the  bankrupt  has 
fraudulently  concealed  his  effects,  or  wilfully  failed  to  com- 
ply with  the  law. 

The  procedure  in  cessio  bonotum  is  regulated  by  6  and 
7  Will.  IV.  c.  56  (which  gave  jurisdiction  to  sheriffs)  and 
Act  of  Sederunt  of  Juno  1839.  A  debtor  who  is  or  has 
been  in  prison,  or  has  had  a  warrant  of  imprisonment  served 
ogainst  him,  may  present  a  petition  setting  forth  his  in- 
ability to  pay  his  debts,  and  his  wiHingness  to  surrender 
his  estate,  and  preying  for  interim  protection.  The 
debtor  is  examined  by  the  sheriff  on  oath,  and  the  creditors 
may  be  heard  against  the  petition.  A  decree  of  cessio 
bonorum  operates  as  an  assignation  of  a  debtor's  movablfs 
to  a  trustee  for  bchoOf  of  creditors.  The  bankrupt  under 
e  r.-wio  has  no  power  to  insist  on  his  discharge,  and  there- 


fore cannot  protect  his  subsequent  acquisitions  against  his 
creditors.  By  the  late  statute  a  majority  of  the  creditors 
(subject  to  review  by  the  court)  may,  in  certain  cases,  resolve 
that  the  bankrupt  shall  be  entitled  to  apply  for  a  decree  of 
cessio  only,  and  not  to  a  discharge  in  the  sequestration, 
and  the  court  may  grant  the  cessio  in  the  sequestration 
without  requiring  a  new  process. 

By  the  Bankruptcy  (Ireland)  Amendment  Act,  1872  (35 
and  36  Vict.  c.  58),  the  law  of  Ireland  has  been  assimilated 
to  the  new  system  established  by  the  English  Bankruptcy 
Act,  1869.  (e.  r  } 

Bankruptcy  in  the  United  Stales. 

In  the  United  States,  Congress  alone  has  power  to  pas.i 
a  bankrupt  law  which  shall  have  authority  throughout 
the  country.  The  several  States  may  enact  such  statutes 
when  there  is  no  law  of  Congress  in  operation  ;  but  these 
statutes  will  fully  bind  only  the  citizens  of  the  State  which 
enacts  it.  There  is  no  power  to  obtain  effectual  control  of 
property  without  its  limits  so  as  to  prevent  local  prefer- 
ences ;  nor  can  the  State  laws  discharge  contracts  due  to 
non-residents.  The  general  Government  has  made  so  little 
use  of  the  power  confided  to  it,  that  many  of  the  States 
were  obliged  to  pass  bankrupt  laws,  notwithstanding  the 
imperfection  of  their  operation  in  some  cases,  and  those, 
often,  the  most  important  in  the  interests  involved. 
Massachusetts  had  an  excellent  system,  established  in  1838, 
which  is  specially  mentioned  because  the  Act  of  Congress 
is  largely  drawn  from  this  source.  All  State  laws  on  the 
subject  are  suspended  while  a  general  law  of  bankruptcy  is 
in  force. 

The  first  general  Bankrupt  Act  was  passed  in  1800,  and 
repealed  in  1803.  In  1841  another  law  was  put  in  opera- 
tion, with  a  special  view  of  meeting  the  urgent  needs  of 
debtors  who  had  been  ruined  by  the  commerci  il  revulsion  of 
1837-38,  and  who  could  receive  no  effectual  relief  from  local 
laws.  This  Act  was  repealed  iu  thirteen  months  ;  but  in 
the  meantime  a  very  large  number  of  cases  had  been  dis- 
posed of,  amounting,  for  example,  to  3250  in  Massachusetts 
alone.  The  law  now  in  operation  took  effect  June  1,  1867. 
It  was  framed  with  much  care  by  a  committee  of  the  House 
of  Representatives,  of  which  Mr  Jenckes,  of  Rhode  Island, 
was  the  chairman  and  chief  working  member.  Its  authors 
hoped  that  it  would  form  a  permanent  addition  to  the  com- 
mercial jurisprudence  of  the  country. 

The  administrative  machinery  is  simple.  The  district 
courts,  which  have  always  had  the  original  jurisdiction  of 
causes  in  admiralty,  revenue,  and  other  national  matters, 
are  made  courts  of  bankruptcy.  The  judge  of  each  district 
ascertains  how  many  registers  are  needod  for  the  convenient 
despatch  of  causes  in  his  territory,  and  they  are  appointed 
by  the  chief  justice  of  the  United  States  and  the  district 
judge  concurrently.  The  registers  have,  by  law,  functions 
chiefly  administrative  and  ministerial;  but  they,  in  fact, 
hear  and  decide  many  judicial  questions  by  consent  of  the 
parties,  and  subject  to  the  revision  of  the  judge.  In  pro- 
ceedings in  bankruptcy  proper,  such  as  adjudications,  dis- 
charges, proof  of  debts,  marshalling  assct.i,  there  is  an 
appeal  from  the  district  to  the  circuit  court,  and  no  farther. 
Actions  at  law,  or  suits  in  equity,  to  which  assignees  in 
bankruptcy  are  parties,  may  bo  brought  cither  in  the  State 
or  the  Federal  courts.  If  in  the  latter,  the  whole  case  if  in 
equity,  or  the  law  points  in  an  action  at  law,  may  be  carried 
to  the  Supreme  Court  at  Washington  when  the  amount  in 
dispute  exceeds  fSUOO,  or  questions  of  law,  which  the 
judges  of  the  circuit  court  consider  doubtful,  may  bn  certi- 
fied by  them  to  the  Supreme  Court,  whatever  niny  be  the 
amount  involved  ;  and  all  decisions  of  the  highest  court  of 
a  State,  involving  questions  of  law  under  the  l!ankiu[it 
Act,  may  bo  reviewed  by  the  Supreme  Court,  if  adverse  to 


B  A  N  — B  A  N 


345 


the  right  or  title  set  up  under  that  statute.  In  some  of 
theae  various  modes  tha  principal  questions  arising  under 
the  Act  will  in  lime  be  si;ttled  by  the  highest  judicial 
authority,  and  thus  uniforn-ity  of  decision  will  be  secured. 

The  statute  covers  the  whole  ground  of  bankruptcy  and 
insolvency.  It  is  applied  to  all  debtors,  whether  traders 
or  not,  and  to  debtors  petitioning  for  its  benefits,  as 
well  as  to  those  proceeded  against  by  creditors.  Any 
one  who  owes  §300  may  petition,  and  any  such  debtor 
who  has  committed  certain  specified  acts  may  be  adjudged 
bankrupt  In  invilum.  The  acts  of  bankruptcy  are  sub- 
Btintially  alike  in  all  such  statutes  in  England  and  the 
United  States,  and  tend  to  prove  either  fraudulent  con- 
duct or  hopeless  insolvency,  such  as  concealing  property, 
conveying  it  fraadulenly,  departing  the  district  with  intent 
to  defraud  creditors,  lying  in  prison  for  twenty-one  days 
There  is  nothing  analogous  to  the  trader  debtor  summons, 
though  the  Act  of  1800,  and  the  Massachusetts  law  of 
183S,  admitted  a  somewhat  similar  teat  of  bankruptcy. 
This  law,  however,  has  adopted  one  which  to  a  consider- 
able extent  supplies  this  want,  by  declaring  a  merchant, 
trader,  banker,  broker,  mafiufacturer,  or  miner  to  be  bank- 
rupt who  has  suffered  his  commercial  paper  to  remain 
overdue  and  unpaid  for  forty  days.  No  other  distinction 
is  made  between  traders  and  other  debtors,  excepting  that 
merchants  and  tradesmen  are  bound,  under  pain  of  being 
denied  their  discharge,  to  keep  proper  books  of  account. 

The  property  of  the  bankrupt  is  assigned  by  the  judge 
or  register  to  the  persons  chosen  by  the  majority  in  number 
and  value  of  the  creditors — the  court  having  full  power  to 
overrule  the  choice  of  the  creditors,  or  to  add  an  assignee 
to"  those  chosen.  The  assignment  is  conclusive  evidence 
of  tho  assign-ies'  authority,  and  cannot  be  collaterally  im- 
peached on  any  ground,  excepting  want  of  jurisdiction  in 
the  bankrupt  court,  nor  in  any  suit  whatever.  This  most 
valuable  rule  was  adopted  by  Massachusetts  in  1838,  and 
has  saved  an  enormous  amount  of  useless  litigation.  There 
is  no  danger  of  injustice  from  it,  because  the  adjudication 
against  a  bankrupt  is  never  made  without  notice  to  him, 
nor  without  a  trial  by  jury,  if  he  demands  one;  and  any 
person  having  an  interest  adverse  to  the  adjudication  has  a 
right  to  be  heard  as  well  as  the  debtor. 

The  doctrine  of  the  relation  of  the  assignee's  title  to  an 
act  of  bankruptcy  committed  in  the  country  baa  not  obtained 
in  the  United  States.  That  title  relates,  as  in  other  suits, 
to  the  beginning  of  the  proceedings, — that  is  to  say,  the  day 
and  hour  that  the  petition,  whether  voluntary  or  involun- 
tary, is  filed.  The  most  marked  difference  between  the 
English  and  American  statutes,  or  rather  between  tbte  prac- 
tical working  of  them,  is  in  the  extension  given  by  the 
latter  to  the  doctrine  of  preference.  By  the  law  of  1867 
and  its  amendments,  the  assignee  can  avoid  all  advantages 
given  to  pre-existing  creditors  within  four  months  (in  in- 
voluntary cases,  within  two  months)  before  the  filing  of  the 
petition,  if  the  bankrupt  was  then  insolvent,  and  intended 
a  preference,  and  the  preferred  creditor  knew  the  insolvency 
and  the  intent,  no  matter  what  pressure,  by  suit,  threat,  or 
otherwise,  may  have  been  brought  to  bear  upon  tho  debtor. 
This  law,  as  construed,  operates  almost  like  a  relation  back 
of  the  assignee's  title,  so  far  as  pre-existing  creditors  are 
concerned,  unless  the  payments  or  settlements  have  been 
made  in  the  ordinary  course  of  business,  and  sometimes, 
though  rarely,  when  they  have  been  so  made.  This  rule 
is  a  logical  development  of  the  law  of  preference,  as  estab- 
lished in  Lord  Mansfield's  time,  and  still  continued  in 
England.  When  it  is  considerad  that  a  preference  is  a 
technical  fraud,  and  may  be  charged  as  an  act  of  bankruptcy 
And  as  a  valid  objection  to  the  debtor's  discharge,  it  will 
\>t  readily  seen  that  the  conduct  of  debtors  in  failing  cir- 
cunutanccs  must  be  much  restrained  and  regulated,  to  the 


advantage  of  the  general  creditors,  by  the  pjrib  that  attend 
a  partial  or  unfair  mode  of  settlement,  or  even  a  struggle 
to  continue  business  after  recuperation  has  become  hope- 
less. Such  was  found  to  be  the  operation  of  a  similar  law 
in  Massachusetts,  where  it  prevailed  for  more  than  twenty 
years  before  the  statute  of  that  State  was  suspended  by  the 
general  Bankruptcy  Act  of  1867. 

The  discharge  of  the  debtor  is  granted  or  refused  by  the 
court  absolutely.  There  are  no  grades  or  classes  of  certi- 
ficates, and  no  power  to  suspend  action  upon  the  question, 
and  put  the  debtor  on  probation.  In  voluntary  bankrupt- 
cies 30  per  cent,  must  be  paid  in  dividends,  or  the  consent 
of  one-fourth  in  number  and  one-third  in  value  of  the 
creditors  must  be  obtained.  Any  creditor  may  oppose  the 
decree  of  discharge  for  fraud  committed  or  continued  within 
six  months  before  the  petition,  for  loss  by  gaming,  and  in 
the  case  of  merchants  and  tradesmen,  as  we  have  seen,  for 
failure  to  keep  suitable  accoutits.  The  discharge  when 
granted,  is,  like  the  assignment,  unimpeachable  in  any 
court ;  but  it  may  be  renewed  within  two  years  by  the  court 
that  granted  it,  upon  evidence  afterwards  discovered. 

The  title,  powers,  and  duties  of  the  assignee,  the  mode 
of  settling  joint  and  separate  estates,  and  marshalling  debts 
and  assets,  are  substantially  similar  under  the  English  and 
American  systems.  The  title  of  the  assignee,  however, 
does  not  depend  at  all,  in  any  case,  upon  the  date  of  the 
petitioning  creditor's  debt.  The  misdemeanours  created 
by  the  law  were  taken,  with  some  modifications,  from  the 
felonies  of  the  English  Act  in  force  in  1867.  The  mode  of 
compounding  with  creditors  has  recently  be*  adopted  from 
the  English  statute  of  1869,  and  has  been  largely  used  with 
good  results. 

Whether  or  not  the  bankrupt  law  will  take  ita  place  as 
part  of  the  settled  policy  of  the  country  cannot  bo  easily 
predicted..  It  is  not  likely  to  be  displaced  until  the  exist- 
ing commercial  depression  has  been  relieved.  After  that 
time  much  will  depend  upon  the  degree  of  care  and  economy 
with  which  it  is  administered,  and  the  readiness  of  Con- 
gress to  adopt  modifications  that  shall  be  found  to  be 
necessary,  but  most  upon  the  opinion  that  the  debtors  of 
the  country  may  entertain  of  its  operation.  The  law  waa 
considerably  modified  in  1874  in  the  interest  of  debtors, 
by  making  adjudications  in  invilum  more  difficult,  and  dis- 
charges more  ea-sy ;  but  the  law  is  still  popular  with  credi- 
tors, because  of  the  serious  check  it  imposes  upon  local 
preferences.  It  is  likewise  approved  by  those  lawyers  and 
judges  who  have  had  the  most  to  do  with  its  adminittra- 
tion  ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  effect  of  a  few  years 
more  of  its  operation  may  be  to  render  it  indispensable  to 
the  commercial  world.  (j.  l.) 

BANKS,  Sir  Joseph,  for  upwards  of  forty  years  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  w.is  born  in  Argyle 
Street,  London,  on  the  13th  of  February  1743.  He  was 
the  only  son  of  William  Banks,  a  gentleman  of  considerable 
landed  property,  whose  father  had  derived  his  fortune  prin- 
cipally from  successful  practice  as  a  physician  in  Lincoln- 
shire, bad  been  on  one  occasion  sheriff  of  that  county,  and 
had  for  some  years  represented  Peterborough  in  parliament 
Very  little  is  known  of  Joseph's  early  life  and  education.  Ho 
appears  to  have  been  sent  at  the  age  of  nine  to  Harrow, 
and  after  spending  iour  years  there,  was  removed  to  Eton. 
Here  ho  seems  first  to  have  acquired  a  taste  for  botanical 
pursuits,  and  was  accustomed  to  spend  all  his  leisure  hours 
in  the  beautiful  lanes  and  fields  round  the  school.  He 
carried  the  same  fondness  for  natural  history  to  Oxford, 
where  he  was  entered  as  a  gentleman  commoner  of  Christ's 
College',  and  by  his  exertions  a  lecturer  on  natural  science 
was  for  the  first  time  brought  into  the  university.  .After 
taking  an  honorary  degree  he  left  Oxford ;  and  at  the  age 
of  twenty-ono'he  found  himself  possessed  of  ample  medo^ 


54G 


B  A  N  —  B  A  N 


hU  father  having  died  in  1  701.  Tliree  years  later  he  made 
his  first  scientific  expedition  to  Newfoundland  and  Labra- 
dor, and  brought  back  a  rich  collection  of  plants  and 
insects.  Shortly  after  his  return,  Government  resolved  to 
send  out  Captain  Cook  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean;  and  Banks,  through  the  influence  of.  his 
friend  Lord  Sandwich,  obtained  leave  to  join  the  expedi- 
tion. He  made  the  most  careful  preparations,  in  order  to 
be  able  to  profit  by  every  opportunity,  and  induced  Dr 
Solander,  a  distinguished  pupil  of  Linnaeus,  to  accompany 
him.  He  even  engaged  diaaghtsmen  and  painters  to  de- 
lineate such  objects  of  interest  as  did  not  admit  of  being 
transported  Or  preserved  The  voyage  occupied  three  years, 
and  many  hardships  had  to  be  undergone  ;  but  the  rich 
harvest  of  discovery — -many  natural  phenomena  being  for 
the  first  time  brought  to  light — was  more  than  adequate 
compensation.  Banks  was  equally  anxious  to  join  Cook's 
second  expedition,  and  expended  large  sums  in  engaging 
assistants  and  furnishing  the  necessary  equipment ;  but, 
owing  to  ill-feeling  on  the  part  of  some  Government  officials, 
he  was  compelled  to  rehnquish  his  purpose.  He,  however, 
employed  the  assistants  and  materials  he  had  collected  in  a 
voyage  to  Iceland,  returning  by  the  Hebrides  and  StaSa, 
the  geological  formation  of  which  he  was  the  first  to 
describe.  In  1778  Banks  was  elected  president  of  the 
Koyal  Society,  of  which  he  had  been  a  fellow  from  1766. 
His  predecessor  had  been  compelled  to  resign  owing  to 
Bunie  disagreement  with  the  court,  but  Banks  was  always 
a  favourite  with  the  king.  In  1781  he  was  made  a 
baronet;  in  1795  he  received  the  Order  of  the  Bath;  and 
in  1797  he  was  admitted  to  the  Privy  Council.  During  the 
long  tenure  of  his  office  as  president,  Sir  Joseph  did  much 
to  raise  the  state  of  science  in  Britain,  and  was  at  the  same 
time  most  assiduous  and  successful  in  cultivating  friendly 
relations  with  scientific  men  of  all  nations.  His  kindness 
and  .liberality  were  beyond  praise,  and  he  was  most  generous 
in  affording  to  other  naturalists  the  free  use  of  his  vast 
materials.  It  has,  however,  been  made  matter  of  objection 
to  him,  that  from  his  own  predilections  he  was  inclined  to 
overlook  and  depreciate  the  labours  of  the  mathematical 
and  physical  sections  of  the  Royal  Society.  .Sir  Joseph 
died  on  the  19th  March  1820,  at  the  age  of  77.  He 
bequeathed  his  valuable  collections  of  books  and  botanical 
specimens  to  the  British  Museum.  His  only  writings  are 
two  small  tracts  of  little  importance;  he  seems  to  have 
given  up  his  intention  of  writing  an  elaborate  treatise  aftsr 
tlis  death  of  his  friend  and  fellow-labourer,  Dr  Solander. 
His  fame  rests  mainly  on  his  numerous,  discoveries  in 
botany  and  natural  history.  See  Cuvier,  Eloge  Historique 
•U  M.  Banks,  1821. 

BANKUR.4,  a  district  of  British  India,  within  the 
Bardw.'lmlivision,  under  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal, 
situated  in  22°  and  23°  N  hit.,  and  8G°  and  87°  E.  long., 
bounded  on  the  N.  and  E.  by  Bardwin  district ;  on  the  S. 
by  Midnapur  district ;  and  on  the  \V.  by  Minbhiim  district. 
BinkurA  forms  a  connecting  link  between  the  delta  of  the 
Ganges  on  the  E.  and  the  mountainous  highlands  of  Chhot.^ 
Nigpur  on  the  W.  Along  its  eastern  boundary  adjoining 
Bardwin  district  the  country  is  flat  and  alluvial,  presenting 
the  appearance  of  the  ordinary  paddy  lands  of  Bengal. 
Going  N.  and  W.,  however,  the  surface  gradually  ri^es  into 
long  undulating  tracts  ;  rice  lands  and  swamps  give  way 
to  a  region  of  low  thorny  jungle  or  forest  trees ;  the  ham- 
lets become  smaller  and  more  scattered,  and  nearly  disappear 
altogether  in  the  wild  forests  along  the  western  boundary. 
The  principal  hills  arc — MAnjiA  hill,  on  the  .south  bank  of  the 
Dimodar  ;  Koro  hill,  S.  of  the  foregoing  ;  Su.suiii.'l  hill,  W. 
of  Koro,  and  Ilehilrinith  hill,  in  the  N.W,  corner  of  the 
district.  The  river.i  arc  merely  mountain  torrents — the 
'argest,  the   Dicindar,  being  only  navigable  by  wmntrj- 


boats  during  the  rains.  The  census  of  1872  returjkcd  the  . 
population  of  the  district  at  526,772  soub,  inhabiting  2028 
villages,  and  10-1,687  houses  ;  average  density  of  popula- 
tion, 391  to  the  square  mile.  The  Hindus  numbered 
487,786,  or  92  6  per  cent,  of  the  total  population;  Maho- 
metans, 13,500  ;  Christians,  70;  and  persuiis  of  unspecified 
rehgion,  chieSy  aboriginal  tribes,  25,416. 

District  area,  after  recent  tran.^tfers  to  aad  from  the  districts  of 
Baldwin  and  Jldnbhum  m  1872,  1346  square  miles.  Before  these 
trausfers  the  area  was  returned  at  1350  square  milis,  of  which  6'i'l 
were  said  to  be  cultivated,  540  cultivable  but  not  cultivated,  and 
180  uncultivable  waste.  Agricultural  products — rice,  barley,  cotton, 
indigo,  oil-seeds,  and  pulses.  Minerals — coal,  hme,  and  building; 
stone.  In  its  manufactures,  tha  district  is  noted  for  fine  descnn- 
tions  of  coloured  silk  cloths.  Exports — rice,  oil-seeds,  lac,  tamaniiil, 
silk  cloth,  silk  cocoons,  &c  Imports — Engliiih  piece  goods,  salt, 
tobacco,  spices,  cocoa-nuts,  turmeric,  and  different  kmds  of  pulses. 
Chief  trading  towns  and  seats  of  commerce — Bankura,  Bishnupur, 
Riijgrdm,  lud  Barjord.  Three  main  lines  of  road  traverse  the 
district,  "file  total  revenue  increased  from  £40,934  in  1835-36  to 
£66,392  in  1870-71,  and  the  civil  expenditure  from  £8006  to 
.t'17,487  within  the  same  period.  B;inkura  is  a  permancctly  settled 
district.  In  1870-71  the  distiict  contained  910  estates,  held  by 
1351  proprretors,  and  paying  a  total  Government  land  revenue  of 
£45,362.  Besides  the  land  revenue,  the  following  are  returned  as 
the  other  sources  of  revenue  in  1870-71,  viz.,  assessed  taxes,  £5455; 
excise,  £3167;  stamps,  £0787;  law  and  justice,  £30,478;  law 
charges,  £62  ;  and  local  and  provincial  funds,  £2512.  The  police 
force  in  1871  numbered  5681  men,  maintained  at  a  cost  of 
£23,656.  The  district  contained  515  schools  in  1871-72,  at- 
tended by  14,676  pupils;  maintained  at  a  total  cost  of  £4602,  of 
which  Government  paid  £1291.  The  climate  of  Bankura  is  gene- 
rally healthy,  the  cold  season  bein^bracing,  'the  air  wholesome  and 
dry,  and  fogs  of  rare  occunience.  The  temperature  in  the  hot  scawjn 
is  very  oppjressive  and  relnxing.  Eainfall  in  1868,  6r25  inches; 
minimum  temperature  in  the  same  year,  62^;  maximiun,  98'. 
The  prevailing  diseases  in  the  district  are  intermittent  fever,  leprosy, 
and  occasicaSly  diarrhoea  and  dysentery.  Chulera  visited  the 
district  in  an  epidemic  form  in  the  ycnrs  1855,  1860,  1864,  1S66-G7, 
and  1869,  that  of  the  first  year  beiug  the  severest.  Bankura  suffered 
grea'ly  from  the  famine  of  1865-66.  Two  towns  contain  a  popula- 
tion of  upwards  of  5000 — 1.  Bdnkura,  the  administrative  head- 
quarters ;  population,  16,794;  municipal  income  in  1872,  £551; 
expenditure,  £476.  2.  Bishnupur — population,  18,047;  municipal 
income,  £273  ;  expenditure,  £192.  The  Bishnupur  Raj  was  one  of 
the  largest  estates  in  Bengal  in  the  end  of  the  last  century,  but  it 
was  sold  for  arrears  of  revenue  shortly  after  the  conclusion  of  the 
permanent  settlement  in  1793. 

B.iNKURA,  the  principal  town  of  the  district  of  the  same 
name,  in  23°  14'  N.  lat.,  and  87°  6'  45"  E.  long.,  stands  on 
an  elevation  on  the  left  bank  of  the  River  Dhalkisor.  It 
has  a  bAz.'ir,  a  spacious  building  for  the  accommodation  of 
travellers,  and  the  district  courts,  school,  jail,  post  oflice, 
itc.     In  1872  the  population  amounted  to  16,794. 

B.'VNN,  a  considerable  river  of  Ireland,  which  rises  in 
the  Mourne  Mountains,  County  Down,  and  falls  into  Lough 
Neagh.  From  this  it  emerges  as  the  Lower  Bann,  and, 
flowing  between  the  counties  of  Antrim  and  Londonderry, 
falls  into  tlie  Atlantic,  four  miles  S.W.  of  Portrush.  The 
Upper  Bann  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  50  tons  to  its  junc- 
tion with  tlio  Newry  canal,  a  little  above  Portadown.  The 
Lower  Bann  flows  in  a  northerly  direction;  it  is  navigable 
up  to  Coleraine  for  vessels  of  200  tons,  but  the  bar  at  iu 
mouth  renders  it  diflicult  of  access  in  rough  weather,  and 
it,'»  course  is  broken  by  a  fall  of  13  feet  about  a  mile  above 
Coleraine.  The  salmon  and  eel  fisheries  are  of  considerable 
value.  Mca.surcd  in  a  direct  line,  the  Upper  Bann  is  about 
35  miles  long,  and  the  Lower  30  miles. 

BANNERETS.  In  the  early  ages  of  chivalry  there  were 
two  kinds  of  knights,  called  res[iectively  liachdirr.t  and 
Btinnerct.i.  The  former  carried  pennons  terminating  in  a 
point  or  points ;  the  latter,  banners, — that  is  to  say,  pennons 
rendered  square  by  having  the  jioints  cut  ofl'.  This  proce.is 
of  converting  the  pennon  into  the  banner  was  done  by  the 
sovereign  himself  on  the  field  of  battle,  standing  benonth 
his  own  royal  standard  displayed.  The  dislinctic^n',  awarded 
fur  peculiar  gallantry,  was  a  very  high  one ,  and  those  who 


B 


N  —  B  A  N 


347 


-njoyod  it  ranked  above  all  other  kQigbts  except  ihose  of 
Ld  Garter.  The  baoner  bora  the  coat  armour  of  the  b><»- 
uoret  himself,  and  served  as  an  ensign  for  the  followers  and 
retainers  whom  ho  took  witli  him  into  the  camp  or  court 
The  king  himseLf  and  the  greatest  nobles  were  member  o( 
the  order ;  and  we  have  in  the  Roll  of  Caerlaverock  th? 
blazon  of  nearly  one  hundred  bannerets  (including,  the 
kiugf  eleven  earls,  and  the  bishop  of  Durham)  who  v?ere 
present  with  Edward  I.  in  his  campaign  against  Scotland 
in  1300.  The  etymology  of  tha  word  is  clear,  and  Selden, 
after  expressing  his  opinion  that  baro  b  equivalent  to  vir, 
remarks  that  "the  Germans  have  also  the  name  of  banner- 
heer  OT  panner-heer,  as  if  you  would  sny  domtnus  vexilli/er, 
or  the  like,  or  as  the  title  of  banneret"  {Titles  of  Honour, 
part  ii.  1,  52).  Nevertheless  the  term  banneret,  either 
from  simple  misapprehension  or  in  order  to  mark  the 
relative  rank  of  the  knight,  has  been  translated  baronettus 
(quasi  baro  minor)  in  some  old  statutes ;  and  the  historian 
Walsingham,  in  describing  the  prisoners  at  the  batile  of 
Stirling,  speaks  of  Barones  et  JJaronetli  liffinti  duo,  itc. 
Indeed,  in  a  patent  granted  to  Sir  Ralph  Vane  so  late  as 
4  Edward  VI.,  his  grade  of  banneret  is  Latinized  by  Bar- 
onettus. In  France,  it  is  said,  the  dignity  was  hereditaav; 
but  in  England  it  died  with  the  person  who  gained  it  On 
the  institution  of  baronets  by  King  James  I.,  the  order 
dwindled,  and  at  length  became  eitincL  The  last  banneret 
created  was  Sir  John  Smith,  who  received  the  dignity  after 
the  battle  of  Edgebill,  for  his  gallantry  in  rescuing  the 
standard  of  Charles  I 

BAI^NOCKBURN,  a  village  of  Scotland,  on  the  Ban- 
nock, an  aflBuent  of  the  Forth,  three  miles  S.  of  Stirling, 
In  1871  its  population  amounted  to  2564,  principally 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  tweeds  and  carpets.  In 
the  neighbourhood,  on  the  24th  of  June  1314,  was  fought 
the  memorable  battle  which  secured  the  independence  of 
Scotland,  and  established  Bruce  upon  the  throne.  A  fr.ig- 
ment  of  the  "  bore  stone"  in  which  the  royal  standard  was 
placed,  is  stiU  to  be  seen,  protected  by  an  iron  framework. 
At  Sauchieburn,  in  the  neighbourhood,  James  III.  was 
defeated  by  his  subjects  in  1488.     See  Scotland. 

BANSWARA  (literally,  tte  forest  country),  a  RAjput 
feudatory  state  under  the  Mew4r  agency  in  Rajputind,  ex- 
tends from  23°  10  to  23'  48'  N.  lat.,  and  from  74°  2'  to 
74°  41'  E.  long.  It  borders  on  Gujarat,  and  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  native  states  of  Dungarpur  and  Udaipur  or 
Mewir;  on  the  N.E.  and  E.  by  Pratibgarh ;  on  the  S.  by  the 
dominions  of  Uolkir  and  the  state  of  Jabu4;,and  on  the 
'V.  by  the  state  of  Rlwikinta.  Binswiri  State  is  about 
\5  miles  in  length  from  N.  to  S,,  and  33  miles  in  breadth 
from  E.  to  \V.,  and  has  an  area  of  1440  square  milej,  with 
;n  estimated  population  of  144,000  souls.  The  Mahi  is  the 
only  river  in  the  state,  and  great  scarcity  of  water  occurs  in 
the  dry  season.  The  Mah.'lriwal,  as  the  chief  is  called, 
has,  however,  undertaken  the  digging  of  wells,  tanks,  ic, 
to  meet  this  want.  The  BinswAri  chief  belongs  to  the 
family  of  Udaipur.  During  the  vigour  of  the  Dehli  empire 
Bin3w.lri  formed  one  of  its  dependencies ;  on  its  decline 
the  state  passed  under  the  Marhattis.  Wearied  out  by 
their  oppressions,  its  chief  in  1812  petitioned  for  English 
protection,  on  the  condition  of  his  state  becoming  tributary 
on  the  expulsion  of  the  MarhattAs.  The  treaty  of  1818  gave 
effect  to  this  arrangement;  England  guaranteeing  the  prince 
against  external  enemies  and  rcfractory'chiefs  ;  he,  on  his 
part,  pledging  himself  to  be  guided  by  her  representative 
in  the  administration  of  bis  state.  There  are  33  tributary 
rhicfs  or  Thikurs  of  this  state,  and  the  whole  strength  of 
force  kept  up  in  1870-71  w.is  617  men.  Indian  corn, 
wheat,  pukes,  rice,  and  other  kinds  of  millet  form  the  chief 
products  of  Bansw.irA.  The  revenue  of  the  slate  nmounled 
to  ;G17,595  in  1870-71,  exclusive  of  £3301  sut  apart  for 


the  personal  expenditure  of  the  chief  and  hia  family  The 
total  expenditure  in  the  same  year  amounted  to  £16,745. 
.'.J  annual  tribute  of  X3997,  or  50,000  Salirishdhl  rupees, 
IS  paid  by  the  chief  to  .he  British  Government.  The  cu -- 
;nm  of  sati,  jr  wddow-burning,  has  long  been  abolished  in 
the  state,  but  the  people  retain  all  their  superstitions 
legarding  witches  md  sorcery;  and  as  late  as  1870,  a 
■  Bhil  woman,  aboui  80  years  old,  was  swung  to  death  at 
Kusalgarh  in  BanfcwArA,  on  an  accusation  of  witchcro-lL 
The  perpetrators  of  the  crime  were  sentenced  to  five  years 
rigorous  imprisonment,  but  they  had  the  sympathy  of  the 
people  on  their  side '  The  chief  town  is  BinswirA,  lat  23° 
30'  and  long.  74°  24',  situSted  about  8  miles  W.  of  the 
MaM  liver,  surrounded  by  an  old  disused  rampart,  and 
adorned  by  various  Hindu  temples,  with  the  battlements 
of  the  chief's  palace  overlooking  it. 

BANTAM,  a  decayed  town  of  Java,  formerly  capital  of 
a  district  of  the  same  name,  at  the  northwestern  extremity 
of  the  island,  situated  on  the  Bay  of  Bantam,  near  tha 
mouth  of  a  river  which  falls  into  the  bay.  It  was  once  a 
large,  rich,  and  flourishing  city,  but  is  now  mostly  in 
ruins.  It  is  about  61  miles  W.  of  Batavia,  and  is  situated 
on  a  low,  swampy  beach,  surrounded  by  jungle,  and  inter- 
sected by  stagnant  streams,  so  that  its  climate  is  even  more 
unhealthy  than  that  of  Batavia  was  in  tha  last  ce»tury. 
Prior  to  the  Dutch  conquest  Bantam  was  a  powerful  Maho- 
metan state,  whose  sovereign  extended  his  conquests  in  tha 
neighbouring  islands  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra.  In  1695 
the  Dutch,  under  Houtmann,  expelled  the  Portuguese,  and 
formed  their  first  settlement.  An  English  factory  was 
established  in  1 603,  and  continued  to  exist  till  the  massacre 
of  the  agents  in  1677.  In  1G83  the  Dut^  reduced  the 
sultan  to  vassalage,  built  the  fort  of  Spielwyk,  acd 
monopolized  the  port,  which  bad  previously  been  fre&W 
all  comers  ;  and  for  more  than  a  century  afterwards  Bantam 
was  one  of  the  most  important  seats  of  commerce  in  tha 
East  Indies.  In  1811  after  Batavia  had  surrendered  to 
the  British^  Bantam  soon  followed  ;  but  it  was  restored  to 
the  Dutch  in  1814.  Two  years^  later,  however,  they 
removed  their  chief  settlement  to  the  more  elevated  station 
of  Serang,  or  Ceram,  seven  miles  inland,  aird  in  1817  the 
ruin  of  Bantam  was  hastened  by  an  extensive  conflagra- 
tion. The  Bay  of  Bantam  was  formerly  a  commodious 
retreat  for  vessels;  but  it  is  now  so  choked  up  with  daily 
accessions  of  soil  washed  ^own  from  the  mountains,  na 
well  as  by  coral  shoals  extending  a  tonsiderable  way  to 
tha  eastward,  that  it  is  inaccessible  to  vessels  of  any  con- 
siderable burden.     Long.  106°  3'  E.,  lat  6°  4'  S. 

BANTRY,  a  small  seaport  situated  on  Bantry  Bay,  on 
the  S.W.  coast  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of  Cork.  Lat. 
51°  39'  N.,  long.  9°  24'  W.  The  trade  of  this  port, 
formerly  considerable,  is  now  almost  confined  to  the  ex- 
portation of  grain.  The  pilchard  fishery  was  once  very 
productive,  but  the  fish  has  now  deserted  the  coast.  Tha 
population,  which  in  1831  was  4276,  had  decreased  in  1871 
to  2441  (including  409  in  the  Island  of  Whiddy).  The  bay 
of  the  same  name  is  about  25.  imles  long  by  4  to  6  broad, 
has  from  10  to  30  or  40  fathoms  of  water,  and  is  surrounded 
by  high  mountaij.s.  It  affords  a  very  fine  harbour  fcr 
shipping,  and  contains  two  small  islands.  Bear  and  Whiddy. 
In  1796  a  French  fleet  anchored  here  with  the  view  of  in- 
vading Ireland,  and  laudedl  eight  men,  who  were  inj^me- 
diately  taken  prisoners. 

BANU,  a  district  of  British  India,  under  tDe  Lieutenant-' 
Governor  of  the  Paojftb,  lios*  between  33°  15'  30' and  32' 
IP'  qO'  N.  lat,  and  72°  1'  and  70°  27"  E.  long.  If  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  KhatabI  hUls,  separating  it  from 
;he  district  of  I  obit,  and  by.a  comer  of  the  Rawal  I^ndJ 
district;  on  the  E.  by  the  districts  of  Jbilam  and  ShAhi-ur, 
on  the  S.  by  the  district  of  DerA  Ismdil  IChAn ,  and  on  the 


348 


B  A  N  —  B  A  F 


W.  by  the  Wazfri  hills.  Total  area,  3U8  square  miles. 
Population,  287,547:  consisting  of  Hindus,  26,222,  or  9-12 
per  cent.;  Mahometans,  260,550,  or  90  61  per  cent.; 
Sikhs,  493;  others,  282;  density  of  population  per  square 
mile,  91.  The  principal  tribes  iuhabiting  the  district  are — 
(1.)  Wazlri  Pathans,  recent  immigrants  from  the  hills,  for 
the  most  part  peaceable,  and  good  cultivators;  (2.)  Banuchis, 
inhabitants  of  Banu  proper;  (3.)  Pathans,  criminal  and 
depraved,  with  all  the  vices  and  few  of  the  virtues  of  their 
race,  but  fair  cultivators  ;  and  (4.)  Murati  Pathans,  Lnhabi- 
tauts  of  the  Erakhel  valley,  a  fine  manly  race,  truthful  and 
industrious. 

The  Indus  6o\vs  through  the  district  from  north  to  80uth, 
dividing  it  into  two  portions.  The  other  streams  are  the  Kiiram 
twhich  falls  into  the  Indus)  and  its  tributary  the  Gambila.  The 
course  of  the  Indus  is  very  capricious,  and  ha3  a  tendency  to 
encroach  eastwards  During  inundations  its  vast  body  of  waters 
stretches  for  many  miles  across  the  country.  Principal  crops  of 
Banu  district:  wheat,  barley,  grain,  and  pulses  for  the  spring 
harvest ;  millet,  Indian  corn,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  and  oil  seeds, 
for  the  autumn  liarvest. '  Average  produce  of  land  per  acre  in 
lb:  — Rice,  369  lb.;  cotton,  100;  sugar,  1394;  tobacco,  612; 
wheat,  480 ;  other  inferior  grains,  640  ;  oilseeds,  240 ;  fibres, 
87.  Cultivated  area  of  the  district  in  IS71-72,  450,619  acres; 
uncultivated  and  pasture  grounds,  414,607,  cultivable,  58,562; 
uncultivable,  1,092,493;  total,  1,565,062  acres,  or  2446  square 
miles  reported  on.  Revenue  from  all  sources  in  1S71-72,  £50,218, 
of  which  £42,741  was  derived  from  the  land  The  first  regular 
settlement  of  the  land  revenue  commenced  in  1871-72,  and  is  still 
(1874)  in  progress.  A  police  force  of  464  men  of  all  grades  is  main- 
tained, of  whom  395  belong  to  the  imperial,  57  to  the  municipal, 
and  12  to  the  primitive  police.  The  district  contained  33  schools  in 
1871-72,  attended  by  llD2pupil3.  The  principal  towns  are — 
Trdkhel,  population,  7446;  Kaldbigh,  6419  ;  Edwardesabad  (Banu), 
S1S5  ;    Bhangi  khel,  5339  ;  Nimal,  5010  ;  and  Van  Bachran,  6178. 

BANYAN  TREE  {Ficus  indtca,  Linn.,  Urostigma 
henghahiise,  Gaspat.)  is  a  native  of  several  parts  of  the 
East  Indies  and  Ceylon.  It  has  a  woody  stem,  branching 
to  a  great  height  and  vast  extent,  with  heart-shaped  entire 
leaves  terminating  in  acute  points.  Every  branch  from 
the  main  body  throws  out  its  own  roots,  at  first  in  small 
tender  fibres,  several  yards  from  the  ground  ;  bat  these  con- 
tinually grow  thicker  until  they  reach  the  surface,  when 
they  strike  in,  increase  to  large  trunks,  and  become  parent 
trees,  shooting  out  new  branches  from  the  top,  which  again 
in  time  suspend  their  roots,  and  these,  swelling  into  trunk;, 
produce  other  branches,  the  growth  continuing  as  long  as 
the  earth  contributes  her  sustenance.  On  the  banks  of  the 
Nerbudda,  according  to  Forbes's  Oriental  Memories,  stands 
a  celebrated  tree  of  this  kind,  which  is  supposed  to  be  that 
described  by  Nearchus  the  admiral  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
This  tree  once  covered  an  area  so  immense,  that  it  has  been 
known  to  shelter  no  fewer  than  7000  men.  •  Though  now 
much  reduced  in  size  by  the  destructive  power  of  the  floods, 
the  remainder  is  still  nearly  2000  feet  in  circumference, 
and  the  trunks  large  and  small  exceed  3000  in  number. 

BAPHOMET,  the  imaginary  symbol  or  idol  which  tlie 
Knights  Templars  were  accused  of  worshipping  in  their 
secret  rites.  The  term  is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of 
Mahomet,  who  in  several  medieval  Latin  poems  seems  to  be 
called  by  this  name.  Von  Hammer  wrote  a  dissertation  in 
the  Mines  de  I' Or  lent,  1818,  in  which  he  revived  the  old 
charge  against  the  Templars.  The  word,  according  to  his 
interpretation,  signifies  the  bnptism  of  Metis,  or  of  fire, 
and  is,  therefore,  connected  with  the- impure  rites  of  the 
lov.-cst  Gnostic  sects,  the  Ophites.  Additional  evidence 
of  this,  according  to  Von  Hammer,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
architectural  decorations  of  the  Templars'  churches.  An 
elaborate  and,  so  far  as  has  yet  appeared,  successful  criticism 
of  Von  Hammer's  arguments  was  made  in  the  Journal  ties 
Savam,  March  and  April  1819,  by  M.  Raynouard,  well 
known  as  the  defender  of  the  Templars.  See  also  Hallani, 
Middle  Ayes.  c.  i.  note  15. 

BAPTISM.     Christian  b-iptism    is   the   eaciamcnt    b.y 


which  a  person  is  initiated  into  the  Christian  ChurclL  Tlic 
word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  /SaTrrtfo),  the  frequentativ 
form  of  /SaTTToj,  to  dip  or  wash,  which  is  the  term  used  ii. 
the  New  Testament  when  the  sacrament  is  described.  In 
discussing  what  is  meaut  by  baptism,  three  things  have  to 
be  inquired  into — (1)  the  origin  of  the  rite,  (2)  its  meaning, 
or  the  doctrine  of  baptism,  and  (3)  the  form  of  the  rite 
itself. 

1  The  Origiti  of  Baptism. — Christian  theologians  do 
not  require  to  go  further  back  than  to  the  New  Testamlht, 
for  there,  in  the  record  of  our  Lord's  life,  and  in  'ihe 
writings  of  His  apostles,  they  find  all  that  is  required  to 
form  a  basis  for  their  doctrines.  The  principal ' passages 
in  the  New  Testament  in  which  baptism  is  described  are 
as  follows  : — Matt,  xxviii.  18-20  ;  Mark  xvL  16  ;  John  iii. 
26  ,  Acts  ii.  38,  x.  44,/.  .viii.  16,  xix.  1,  /.,  xxii.  16  ;  Rom. 
VI.  4  ,  1  Cor.  i.  14-16,  vi  II  ;  Eph.  v.  26 ;  Col.  ii.  12  ;  Hek 
X  22,  23,  ic.  From  these  te.xts  we  learn  that  baptism  is 
specially  connected  with  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  with 
the  forgiveness  of  sins,  with  our  being  buried  with  Christ'; 
and  we  are  also  taught  by  whom  baptism  is  to  be  adminis- 
tered, and  who  are  the  proper  partakers  in  the  ordinance. 
It  is  from  a  due  arrangement  and  comparison  of  the  con- 
ceptions in  these  texts  that  a  doctrine  of  baptism  has  been 
formed.  But  whUe  theologians  do  not  require  to  go 
beyond  the  New  Testraent  for  the  origin  and  meaning  of 
baptism,  historical  investigation  cannot  help  trying  to  trace 
analogies  to  the  rite  in  Old  Testament  and  even  in  Pagan 
history.  In  the  New  Testament  itself  there  are  two 
distinct  kinds  of  baptism  spoken  of — the  baptism  of  John 
and  Christian  baptism.  Treatises  on  Jewish  antiquities 
speak  of  the  baptism  of  proselytes ;  and  St  Paul  applies 
the  terra  baptism  to  describe  certain  Old  Testament  events, 
and  we  find  in  use  among  certain  Pagan  tribes  ritfs 
strongly  resembling  Christian  baptism,  so  far  as  external 
ceremonies  go.  Hence  the  question  arises.  What  is  the 
relation  of  Christian  baptism  to  these? 

Writers  on  the  antiquities  of  the  Christian  church  were 
accustomed  to  find  the  source  of  Christian  baptism  in  the 
baptism  of  John,  and  to  assert  that  John's  baptism  was 
simply  a  universal  and  sj-mbolical  use  of  the  well  kno'vn 
ceremony  of  the  baptism  of  proselytes,  and  they  connected 
this  Jewish  rite  with  Old  Testament  and  even  with  Pagan 
lustrations.  But  this  mode  of  explanation  must  now  be 
abandoned.  It  is  very  difficult  to  show  any  real  connection 
between  the  baptism  of  John  and  Christian  baptism  further 
than  the  general  relation  which  all  the  actions  of  the 
forerunner  must  have  had  to  those  of  the  Messiah.  We 
know  very  little  about  the  baptism  of  John,  and  all 
attempts  to  describe  it  minutely  are  founded  either  upon 
conjecture  or  upon  its  identity  wjth  the  baptism  of  prose- 
lytes Was  John's  baptism  an  initiation,  and  if  so, 
initiation  into  whati  Did  Christ  baptize  in  His  lifetime, 
or  did  Christian  baptism  properly  begin  after  Christ's 
death,  and  after  the  mission  of  the  Holy  Ghost  ?  What 
was  the  formula  of  John's  baptism,  and  was  there  any 
change  or  growth  in  the  furinula  of  Christian  haptismt 
(The  Tubingen  School,  for  ccample,  think  that  the  formula 
in  Acts  ii.  is  much  earlier  than  the  complete  and  more 
developed  one  in  Matt  xxvui  19  )  All  these  questions 
require  to  be  answered  with  much  more  precision  than  the 
present  state  of  our  information  admits  of,  befcre  we  can 
define  the  precise  relation  subsisting  between  the  baptism 
of  John  and  the  baptism  of  Christ. 

The  connection  belwecn  the  baptism  of  John  and  the 
Jewish  baptism  of  proselytes,  of  which  a  gre,it  deal  has  been 
made,  is  also  founded  on  assumptions  which  cannot  be 
proved.  Tins  very  plausible  theory  first  assumes  tliat 
proselytes  wure  baptized  from  an  early  time  in  the  Jewish 
Church,  aliiiou^li  the  Old  Te-'tnmont  tells  ua  nothing  about 


BAPTISM 


340 


If,  and  tben  supposes  that  John  simply  made  use  of  this 
ordinaiy  Jowish  rite  for  the  purpnsc  of  declaring  symbolically 
that  tlie  whole  Jewish  nation  were  disfranchised,  and  had 
to  bo  re-admitted  into  the  spiritual  Israel  by  means  of  the 
same  ceremony  which  gave  entrance  to  members  of  heathen 
nations.  But  the  subject  of  the  baptism  of  proselytes  is 
one  of  the  most  hopelessly  obscure  in  the  whole  round  of 
Jowish  antiquities,  and  can  never  be  safely  assumed  in  any 
argument;  and  the  general  results  of  investigation  seem  to 
prove  that  the  baptism  of  proselytes  was  not  one  of  the 
Jewish  ceremonies  until  fcng  after  the  coming  of  Christ, 
while  there  is  much  to  suggest  that  this  Jewish  rite  owes 
Its  origin  to  Christian  baptism.  Others  again,  as  Steitz, 
tind  the  historical  basis  of  baptism  in  the  lustrations  or 
sprinklings  with  water  so  often  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  in  such  symbolical  acts  as  Naaman's  bathing  in 
the  Jordan,  and  in  various  prophecies  where  puriScation 
from  sin  is  denoted  by  sprinkling,  e.g.,  Ezek.  xxxvi.  25-30, 
Zech.  xiii,  1,  (fee.  ,  but  such  anticipations  can  scarcely  be 
called  the  historical  origin  of  the  rite.  Many  modern 
writers  connect  baptism  with  certajn  Pagnn  rites,  and 
point  to  theJustrations  in  use  in  religious  initiation  among 
the  Egyptians,  Persians,  and  especially  the  Hindus,  but 
very  little  can  be  made  of  such  far-fetched  analogies. 
Perhaps  the  most  curious  instance  of  this  kind  is  to  be 
found  in  the  double  baptism, — the  one  Pagan  and  civil,  and 
the  other  religious  and  Christian, — which  existed  side  by 
side  with  each  other  in  Norway  and  Icel.ind  The  Pagan 
rile  was  called  "  ansa  vatri,"  while  the  name  for  Christian 
b.iptism  was  "ski^ro."  The  Pagan  rile  was  much  older 
than  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  and  was  connected 
with  the  savage  custom  of  exposing  infants  who  were  not 
to  be  brought  up.  The  newly-born  infant  was  presented 
tathe  father,  who  was  to  decide  whether  the  child  was  to 
Oe  reared  or  not  ,  if  he  .decided  to  rear  it,  th^n  water  was 
poured  over  the  child  and  the  father  gave  it  a  name ;  if  it 
u.as  to  be  exposed,  then  the  ceremony  was  not  gone  through. 
The  point  to  be  observed  is  that,  if  the  child  was  exposed 
by  any  one  after  the  ceremony  had  been  gone  through,  it 
was  a  case  of  murder,  whereas  it  was  not  thought  a  crime 
if  the  child  was  made  away  with.'befi3re  Water  had  been 
poured  over  it  and  it  had  been  named.  The  analogy  lies 
in  the  use  of  water,  the  bestowal  erf  the  name,  and  the 
entrance  into  civil  life  through  the  rite. 

II  Tht  Duclnne  o/  Baptism.  —  Among  the  Greek 
Fathers,  for  it  is  there  we  mus'  look  fur  the  beginning  of 
llie  docirinc,  ba[itism  was  called  by  various  names,  all  of 
which  referred  to  the  spiritual  effects  which  were  supposed 
to  accompany  the  rite.  For  example,  a  common  term  for 
baptism,  was  IIuAiyyfuo-i'a,  or  reijeneralion — for  every 
Cbnslun  was  supposed  to  be  born  again  by  the  waters  of 
baptism.  "  We  lislies,"  says  Tertullian.  "  are  born  in  water, 
conformable  to  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, — l\6v<;." 

['\r^rTm^   XpilTTOS.    0«ou    Yio?,    SwTfjp  =  l^>f^LS. )        It     tVuS    alSO 

called  i^uiTifT^d?,  or  illumination  ;  mysterium  ;  sijnnculiim, 
or  seal  of  the  Lord ,  charjctfr  Dominiciis ;  fiirjcri';  or 
^I'lTTayuyi'a.  the  initiation  ,  tcjtuiiov,  or  viaticum,  from  its 
being  administered  to  departing  persons;  saceiJolium  laid, 
or  the  lay  priesthood,  bocause  allowed,  in  cases  of  necessity, 
to  be  conferred  by  l.iymcn  ;  the  great  circumcision,  because 
11  was  held  to  succeed  in  the  room  of  circumcision  ;  Sipok 
»nj  ;(api<r^a  KLpii>v,  the  gi/l  of  the  Lord,  because  it  had 
Cbnst  for  Its  author,  and  not  man  ;  sometimes  by  way  ot 
einineiice  simply  S^pov.  t<\«i'uj(ti?  and  tiAiti),  ibe  consecration 
and  cnnsiimnuitton,  because  It  gave  men  the  peifection  of 
Cbribliaiis.  lind  a  right  to  partake  uf  to  tiXuoi',  the  Lord's 
Supper.  Ill  studying  the  statements  made  by  the  early 
Kilhers  upor.  baptism,  we  Giid  not  so  much  a  distinct  and 
definite  doctrine  as  gropings  toward  n  doctrine,  and  it  is 
not  until   wo  coiuc   to  St   Augustine   that  we  can   find  any 


strict  and  scientific  theory  of  the  nature  and  effects  of  the 
sacrament.  The  earlier  theologians  sometimes  make  sta:e- 
naents  which  imply  the  most  extreme  view  of  the  magical 
effects  of  the  sacrament,  and  at  other  times  explain  its 
results  in  a  purely  ethical  way.  Thus,  for  example,  Herraas 
says, — "  Our  life  is  sanctified  by  water;"  while  Tertullian 
expressly  declares, — "  Anima  non  lavatione  sed  responsiona 
sancitur."  It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  the  abundant 
use  of  metaphorical  language  by  the  Greek  Fathers,  and 
the  want  of  anything  like  a  strictly  theological  termiuology, 
prevent  our  finding  anything  like  the  precise  doctrinal 
statements  which  became  familiar  in  the  Western  Church  ; 
while  the  prevalence  of  curious  Greek  physical  speculations, 
which  taught  the  creative  power  of  water,  mingled  with 
and  distorted  the  ideas  about  the  effects  of  the  water  in 
baptism.  It  was  St  Augustine,  the  great  theologian  of  the 
Western  Church,  who  first  gave  expression  to  exact  dogmatic 
statements  about  the  nature  and  meaning  of  baptism. 
The  real  difficulty  to  be  explained  was  the  connection 
between  the  outward  rite  and  the  inward  spiritual  change; 
or  to  put  it  more  precisely,  the  relation  between  the  water 
used  and  the  Holy  Spirit  who  can  alone  regenerate.  The 
Greek  theologians  had  shirked  rather  than  faced  the 
difficulty,  and  used  terms  at  one  time  exaggerating  the 
magical  value  of  the  element,  at  another  insisting  on  the 
purely  ethical  and  spiritual  nature  of  the  rite  ;  but  they  never 
attempted  to  show  in  what  precise  relation  the  external  rite 
stood  to  the  inward  change  of  heart.  It  is  true  that  one  or 
two  theologians  had  almost  anticipated  Augustine's  view, 
but  the  anticipation  nas  more  apparent  than  real,  for  the 
theology  of  the  Greek  Church  in  this,  as  in  most  other 
doctrines,  is  greatly  hampered  by  the  mystical  tendency 
to  represent  regeneration  and  kindred  doctrines  much 
more  as  a  species  of  chemical  change  of  nature  than  as  a 
change  in  the  relations  of  the  will.  Augustine  insisted 
strongly  on  the  distinction  between  the  sacrament  itself 
and  what  he  called  the  "res  sacramenti,"  between  the 
inward  and  spiritual  and  the  outward  and  material,  and  by 
doing  so  Augustine  became  the  founder  of  both  the  modern 
Roman  Catholic  and  the  modern  orthodox  Protestant 
views.  Apart  from  certain  modifying  influences,  it  would 
not  be  difficult  for  the  ortbo'lox^^Protestant  to  subscribe  to 
most  of  Augustine's  views  upor  baptism,  for  be  insists 
strongly  on  the  uselessnessof  ths'external  sign  without  the 
inward  blessing  of  the  Spirit.  But  in  this  doctrine,  as  in 
most  others,  Augustine's  doctrine  of  the  Church  so  inter- 
fered as  to  make  practically  inoperative  his  more  spiritual 
views  of  baptism.  The  Church,  Augustine  thought,  was 
the  body  of  Christ,  and  that  in  a  peculiarly  external  and 
physical  way,  and  just  as  the  soul  of  man  cannot,  so  far  as 
we  know,  exert  any  influence  save  upon  and  through  the 
body,  so  the  Spirit  of  Christ  dispenses  His  gracious  and 
regenerating  influences  only  through  the  body  of  Christ, 
i  e.,  the  Church.  But  the  Church,  Augustine  thought,  was 
no  invisible  spiritual  communion.  It  was  the  visible 
kingdom  of  God,  the  visible  "  civitas  Dei  in  percgrinationc 
per  terras,"  and  so  entrance  into  the  Church,  and  the  right 
and  possibility  of  participating  in  the  spiritual  benefits  which 
members  of  the  Church  can  alone  enjoy  was  only  possible 
by  means  of  a  visible  entrance  into  this  visible  kingdom. 
Thus  while'  Augustine  in  theory  always  laid  greatest  stress 
upon  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  upon  the  spiritual 
side  of  baptism,  he  practically  gave  the  impulse  to  that 
view  of  the  sacrament  which  made  the  external  rite  of 
primary  importance.  It  was  the  Holy  Spirit  who  alone 
imparted  spiritual  gifts  to  the  children  of  God.  But  the 
one  way  by  which  the  benefits  of  this  Spirit  could  be  shared 
was  in  the  first  place  through  baptism.  Baptism  was 
thought  to  be  necessary  to  salvation,  and  all  who  were 
unb;i]'tizcd  were  unsaved.       In  this  w.iy  Augustine,  while' 


350 


BAPTISM 


recognizing  the  spiritual  nature  of  the  sacrament,  held 
views  about  the  importance  of  the  rite  which  were  as 
strong  as  those  of  any  Greeic  theologian  who  had  mingled 
confusedly  in  his  mind  Christian  doctrines  and  the  maxims 
of  Pagan  philosophy  about  the  creative  power  of  the 
element  of  water.  Of  course  such  a  doctrine  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  baptism  with  water  had  to  be  modified  to 
some  extent.  There  were  cases  of  Christian  martyrs  who 
had  never  been  baptized,  and  yet  had  confessed  Christ  and 
died  to  confess  Him  ;  for  their  sakes  the  idea  of  a  baptism 
of  blood  was  brought  forward  ;  they  were  baptized  not  with 
water,  but  in  their  own  blood.  And  the  same  desire  to 
widen  the  circle  of  the  baptized  led  the  way  to  the  recog- 
nition of  the  baptism  of  heretics,  laymen,  and  nurses.  It 
was  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  baptism  which  was 
developed  by  the  Schoolmen,  and  which  now  is,  the 
substance  of  modern  Roman  Catholic  teaching.  The 
Schoolmen,  whose  whole  theology  was  dominated  by  the 
Augustinian  conception  of  the  Church,  simply  took  over 
and  made-  somewhat  more  mechanical  and  less  spiritual 
Augustine's  doctrine.  They  were  enabled  to  give  the 
doctjina  a  more  precise  and  definite  shape  by  accommodat- 
ing it  to  the  terms  of  the  Aristotelian  phitosophy.  They 
began  by  distinguishing  between  the  matter  and  the  form 
of  baptism.  Had  Augustine  had  this  distinction  before  him 
he  would  probably  have  called  the  water  the  matter,  and  the 
action  of  the  Holy  Spirit  the  form  which  verified  and  gave 
shape  to  the  matter  ;  but  the  whole  idea  of  the  Schoolmen 
was  much  more  mechanical,  the  magical  idea  of  the  sacra- 
ment came  much  more  into  prominence,  and  the  spiritual 
and  ethical  fell  much  more  into  the  background,  and 
with  them,  while  water  was  the  materia  sacramenti,  the 
forma  sacramenti  was  the  words  of  the  rite, — "  I  baptize 
thee,"  die,  (tc.  Thus  insensibly  the  distinction  between 
the  external  rite  and  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which 
Augustine  had  clearly  before  him  in  theory  at  least,  was 
driven  back  into  its  original  obscurity,  and  while  it  was 
always  held  t>heoreticaIly  that  the  grace  conferred  in  baptism 
was  conferred  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  still  the  action  of  the 
Spirit  was  so  inseparably  connected  with  the  mechanical 
performance  of  the  rite,  that  the  external  ceremony  was 
held  to  be  full  warrant  for  the  inward  spiritual  presence  and 
power,  and  it  was  held  that  in  baptism  grace  was  conferred 
ex  opere  operalo.  The  actual,  benefits  which  were  supposed 
to  coLie  in  this  way  were,  freedom  from  original  sin  and 
forgiveness  of  it  and  all  actual  sins  committed  up  to  the 
time  of  baptism,  and  the  implanting  of  the  new  spiritual 
life — a  life  which  could  only  be  slain  by  a  deadly  sin. 
The  Scholastic  doctrine  of  baptism  is  the  doctrine  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  the  restatements  made  by 
Mohler  on  the  one  hand,  and  Jesuit  theologians  on  the 
other,  do  not  do  more  than  give  a  poetical  colouring  to  the 
doctrine,  or  bring  out  more  thoroughly  the  magical  aud 
mechanical  nature  of  the  rite. 

The  Protestant  doctrine  of  baptism,  like  the  Scholastic 
or  Roman  Catholic,  is  to  be  traced  back  to  Augustine  and 
his  distinction  between  the  sign  and  the  thing  signified, 
and- may  be  looked  at  as  a  legitimate  development  of  the 
Augustinian  doctr.ne,  just  as  that  must  be  considered  to  be 
an  advance  on  the  doctrine  of  the  early  Church  Fathers. 
The  early  Fathers  had  confused  the  sign  with  the  thing 
gignilied, — the  water  with  the  action  of  the  Holy  Spirit, — 
and  could  only  mark- their  half-conscious  recognition  of  the 
distinction  by  an  alternating  series  of  strong  statements 
made  now  on  the  one  side  and  now  on  the  other. 
Augustine  distinguished  the  two  with  gieat  clearness, 
but  connected  thena  in  an  external  way  by  meansa  of  his 
conception  of  the  visible  Church  ami  of  baptism  as  the  door 
leading  into  it,  and  this  led  his  followers  to  pay  exclusive 
attention   to  the  external  side,  until    the  thing  signified 


became  lost  in  the  sign.  The  Protestant  th^logians  con- 
nected the  two  in  an  internal  way  by  means  of  the  spiritual 
conception  of  faith,  and  so  were  able  always  to  keep  the 
sign  in  due  subordination  to  the  thing  signified.  It  is  faith 
— not  faith  in  the  sense  of  imperfect  kno\vledge,  or  a3seiiti 
to  intellectual  propositions,  but  faith  in  thaOense  of  personal 
trust  in  a  personal  Saviour,  or  "  fiducia,"  as  the  17th  century 
theologians  called  it — which  so  connects  the  water  with  the 
presence  and  power  of  the  Spirit  tnat  the  one  is  the  means 
which  the  other  uses  to  impart  His  spiritual,  grace.  In  this 
way  baptism  is  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  means  of  grace, 
and  grace  is  imparted  through  it  as  through  the  other 
means — the  Lord's  Supper,  the  Word  of  God,  prayer,  i'c. 
Just  as  the  dead  letters  and  sounds  of  the  Word  of  God 
are  but  the  signs  of  the  presence  and  power  of  His  Spirit, 
and  become  at  His  touch  the  living  revelation  of  the  Lord, 
so  in  baptism,  the  outward  rite,  worthless  in  itself,  becomes 
the  sign  and  pledgeof  the-presence  and  power  of  the  Spirit 
of  God ;  and  as,  in  the  case  of  the  Word  of  God,  it  is  faith 
or  "  fiducia  "  that  on  the  human  side  connects  the  external 
signs  with  the  inward  power  of  the  Spirit,  so,  in  baptism, 
it  IS  the  same  faith  which  unites  the  wa-ter  and  the  Spirit. 
So  far  all  orthodox  Protestants  are  agreed,  but  in  order 
to  show  the  historical  evolution  of  the  doctrine,  it  is 
necessary  to  notice  in  a  sentence  the  difference  between 
the  Lutheran  and  the  Calvinist  doctrines.  Luther's  own 
doctrine  of  baptism  changed,. very  much:  in  the  second 
stage — the  stage  represented  by  the  tract,  De  Babyl.  Capt. 
Ecd. — it  is  not  different,  in  germ  at  least,  from  the 
Calvinist  view ;  but  he  afterwards  drew  back  and  adopted 
views  much  nearer  to  the  Scholastic  theory.  He  was 
evidently  afraid  that,  if  he  went  too  far  from  the  Scholastic 
doctrine,  and  insisted  too  strongly  on  the  importance  of 
faith,  he  might  be  led  on  to  reject  the  baptism  of  infants ; 
and  his  later  theories  are  a  recoil  from  that.  The  question 
which  Luther  had  to  face  and  answer  here  was,  What  is 
meant  by  faith,  the  faith  which  connects  the  symbol  with 
the  reality,  and  so  appropriates  the  gifla  of  God's  grace  in 
the  sacrament  J  Is  it  a  faith  which  begins  and  ends  in  the 
individual  act  of  faith  at  work  in  the  person  that  is  baptized  1 
or  is  it  a  much  wider  thing  with  a  more  universal  sig- 
L.iicance?  Luther  did  not  face  this  question  thoroughly, 
but  his  recod  from  the  Reformed  theory  of  baptism  seems 
to  show  that  he  would  have  taken  the  former  answer.  Nor 
did  Calriu  face  the  question  ;  but  his  doctrine  of  baptisn: 
implies  that  he  would  have  taken  the  latter  answer  The 
faith  which  a  man  has  in  Christ,  the  faith  which  appropriates, 
is  not  the  individual's  only,  but  extends  far  beyond  hmi  anc? 
his  small  circle.  It  is  awakened  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  i' 
comes  into  being  wiibin  the  sphere  of  God's  saving  purpose 
Its  very  existence  indicates  a  sulidarile  between  the 
individual  believer  and  the  whole  Church  of  God.  Hence 
on  the  Reformed  doctrine,  while  faith  is  essential  "to  the 
right  appropriation  of  the  blessing  in  the  rile,  there  is  no 
need  for  thoroughly  developed  faith  in  those  who  are 
baptized.  If  they  are  infants,  then  thj3y  are  baptized 
^because  of  the  faith  of  their  pareuti.  or  near  relations,  or  ul 
the  congregation  before  whom  the  baptism  is  [lerformcd ; 
only  those  who  are  the  sponsors  for  tiie  child  bind  them- 
selves before  God  to  train  up  the  child  to  know  that  it 
has  been  baptized,  and  to  appropriate  in  conscious  individual 
faith  the  benefits  of  the  ordinance.  Such  is  the  Reformed 
theory  of  baptism  ;  and  it  rests  upon  the  ideas  of  the 
soliiiarite  of  believers,  of  the  prior  existence  of  the  Church 
to  the  individual  believers,  and  of  the  ethical  unity  of  the 
Church.  On  the  other  hand,  thyse  who  hold  that  the 
Church  is  simply  the  sum  of  individual  men  and  women, 
and  ihiit  it  is  increased  not  by  the  silent  widening  of  th« 
iiifiucnce  of  God's  saving  purpose  within  mankind,  but  by 
individual    conversions   aud  by  individuals  joining    the 


B  A  T  T  I  S  :\I 


351 


Church,  caonot  help  regarding  infant  baptism  as  a  mere 
mockery.  Hence  the  doctrines  of  the  Anabaptists,  Baptists, 
Mennonites,  <tc.  (see  Baptists),  who  reject  infant  baptism 
altogether,  and  maintain  that  there  can  be  no  valid  baptism 
without  the  conscious  appropriation  by  an  act  of  faith  of 
the  benefits  symbolized  by  the  rite.  It  is  to  be  noticed 
that  the  tendency  of  those  who  reject  infant  baptism  is  to 
regard  the  sacrament  not  so  much  as  a  means  of  grace,  but 
simply  as  an  act  symbolical  of  entrance  into  the  Church, 
and  to  approach  in  this  way  the  views  of  the  Socinians  and 
Remonstrants.  Quakers  reject  baptism  altogether  along 
with  the  sacrament  of  the  Supper. 

III.  BnptUmal  Rites. — la  the  Apostolic  and  immediately 
post-Apostolic  Church,  there  was  no  stated  time  or  place 
for  baptism-  Philip  baptized  the  Ethiopian  eunuch  by  tUe 
roadside,  as  soon  as  he  had  declared  his  faith.  After- 
wards, however,  Easter,  Whitsuntida,  and  Epiphany  were 
seasons  supposed  to  be  specially  appropriate  for  baptism, 
and  the  sacrament  was  not  performed  at  other  times  save 
in  cases  of  necessity.  Baptism,  TertuUian  said,  had 
special  reference  to  the  death  and  rising  again  of  our  Lord, 
and  also  to  the  mission  of  the  Holy  Ghost  ;  and  festivals 
which  were  connected  with  these  events  were  specially 
appropriate  for  baptism.  As  soon,  too,  as  churches  were 
built,  and  congregations  formed,  baptism  became  a  public 
act  of  worship,  and  was  generally  performed  in  baptisteries 
built  adjoining  the  church.  The  early  Church,  like  most  of 
the  Reformation  Churches,  condemned  private  baptism. 

In  the  Apostolic  Church  the  baptismal  rite  seems  to  have 
been  a  very  simple  one.  "  Repent  and  be  baptized,  every  one 
of  you,"  was  all  that  Peter  thought  it  necessary  to  say  to 
those  whom  he  invited  to  join  the  Christian  Church  ;  but 
soon  after  the  Apostolic  times  baptism  became  a  very 
elaborate  ceremoniaL  No  one  could  be  baptized  unless  he 
had  submitted  to  a  long  and  elaborate  course  of  instruc- 
tion as  a  catechumen  ;  and  in  order  to  be  made  a  catechumen 
a  ceremony  of  some  length  had  to  be  gone  through.  The 
candidate  was  received  into  the  number  of  the  catechumens 
by  the  laying  on  of  hands  and  prayer  ;  and,  in  the  Western 
Church,  salt  was  given  to  him,  the  salia  datio  being  held 
to  be  the  special  tacramenlum  caUchumenoruin.  Catechu- 
mens were  permitted  to  attend  public  worship  at  first  as 
hearers  only;  afterwards  they  were  permitted  to  take  part 
in  the  responses  and  genuflections  of  the  audience.  From 
these  catechumens  the  candidates  for  baptism,  called  eom- 
jKtentes  or  electi,  were  from  time  to  time  selected.  The 
baptismal  ceremony  was  a  lengthy  one.  The  catechumens 
were  first  received,  then  got  their  Chri.stian  names,  then, 
facing  the  west,  the  place  of  darkness,  thpy  renounced 
the  devil  and  all  his  works.  The  priest  then  exorcised 
them,  by  laying  his  hands  upon  their  heads  and  breathing^ 
into  their  faces.  After  the  exorcism  came  the  opening  of 
the  ears  and  nose,  a  ceremony  which  had  special  reference 
to  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  upon  Christ  in  the  form 
of  a  dove.  The  catechumens  were  then  anointed  with  the 
catechumen  oil  (This  part  of  the  cerei'uony  was  sometimes 
gone  through  after  baptism,  although  it  is  possible  that 
there  w»re  two  anointings,  one  before  and  one  after.)  The 
officiating  priest  then  repeated  the  Creed  and  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  and  gave  a  short  explanation  of  their  meaning,  and 
the  lengthy  ceremony  was  concluded  by  the  catechumen 
repeating  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Apostles'  CreSd.  All 
these  ceremonies  preceded  the  special  baptismal  rite,  and 
commonly  occupied  more  than  one  day.  In  the  baptismal 
ceremony  the  minister  first  consecrated  the  water  by  prayer, 
and  the  catechumen  was  then  baptized  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  usual  mode  of 
performing  the  ceremony  was  by  immersion.  In  the  case 
of  sick  persons  (dinici)  the  minister  was  allowed  to  baptize 
by  pouring  water  upon  the  head  or  by  sprinkling.     In  the 


early  Church  "  clinical "  baptism,  as  it  was  called,  was  only 
permitted  in  cases  of  necessity,  but  the  practice  of  baptism 
by  sprinkling  gradually  came  in  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  councds  and  hostile  decrees.  The  Council  of  Ravenna, 
in  1311,  was  the  first  council  of  the  Church  which  legalized, 
baptism  by  sprinkling,  by  leaving  it  to  the  choice  of  tb«' 
officiating  minister.  The  custom  was  to  immerse  thre* 
times,  once  at  the  name  of  each  of  the  persons  in  the  Trinity,^ 
but  latterly  the  threefold  immersion  was  abolished,  because 
it  was  thought  to  go  against  the  unity  of  the  Trinity.  The 
words  used  in  baptizing  always  embodied  the  formul.i 
in  the  last  chapter  of  St  Matthew.  But  the  mode  of 
uttering  them  varied.  In  the  Western  Church  the  priest 
uttered  the  simple  formula,  but  in  the  Eastern  Church 
the  common   formula  was,  /Sairrt'^erat  o  SoEAos  toC   Btov 

O  5<ll'a  €19  TO  Ol'O^Ul  ToC  TTOTpoS-^ — 'A^T/V KoX  TOU  VloC 'Afirjtl 

— Kat  ToiJ  ayCov  Trvci/iaro? — 'A/xt;!/ — yvv  *cat  ud  <t?  Tor? 
ai'uti'a;  Ttjjv  alti}i'utv.  'Afx^v.  After  immersion  the  neo- 
phyte partook  of  milk  and  honey  to  show  that  he  was 
now  the  recipient  of  the  gifts  of  God's  grace  ;  he  was  then 
anointed  with  oil  to  show  that  he  was  enrolled  among  the 
spiritual  priesthood,  and  with  the  unction  was  joined  the 
sign  of  the  cross  made  on  the  forehead.  Then  followed 
the  laying  on  of  hands,  which  latterly,  when  the  episcopate 
became  separate  from  the  presbytery,  was  done  by  the 
bishop,  and  was  the  germ  of  the  sacrament  of  confirmation. 
In  the  course  of  time  one  or  two  other  symbolical  actions 
were  added  ;  the  neophyte  was  clothed  in  a  white  garment — 
(hence  Pentecost,  which  was  the  principal  baptismal  festival, 
was  called  WTiit  Sunday) — and  a  band  (chrismale)  was  put 
round  his  head.  In  the  Eastern  Church  there  followed  the 
girding  of  the  loins  of  the  neophj^e  and  the  crowning  of  him 
with  a  consecrated  corona,  significant  of  his  entrance  into 
the  royal  priesthood ;  in  the  Western  Church  a  burning 
cross  was  given  him.  In  the  various  Eastern  churches  the 
rites  differed  somewhat  from  each  other,  nor  was  exact 
uniformity  to  be  found  in  the  Western  ChurcL  It  could 
easily  be  shown  that  a  great  deal  of  this  complex  ceremonial 
took  its  origin  from  the  introduction  of  Pagan  ceremonies 
into  the  Christian  worship. 

The  present  form  of  administering  baptism  in  the  Church 
of  Rome  is  as  follows : — When  a  child  is  to  be  baptized,  the 
persons  who  bring  it  wait  at  the  door  of  the  church  for  the 
priest,  who  comes  thither  in  his  surplice  and  his  purplo 
stole,  surrounded  by  his  clerks.  He  begins  by  questioning 
the  godfathers,  whether  they  promise  in  the  child's  name 
to  live  and  die  in  the  true  Catholic  and  Apostolic  faith  ; 
and  what  name  they  would  give  to  the  child.  Then 
follows  an  exhortation  to  the  sponsors,  after  which  the 
priest,  calling  the  child  by  its  name,  asks,  "  What  dost 
thou  demand  of  the  Church?"  The  godfather  answers, 
"  Eternal  life."  The  priest  proceeds,  "  If  thou  art  desirous 
of  obtaining  eternal  life,  keep  God's  commandments, — Thou 
shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God,"  ic. ;  after  which  he  breathes 
three  times  in  the  child's  face,  saying,  "  Come  out  of  this 
child,  thou  evil  spirit,  and  make  room  for  the  Holy  Ghost" 
Then  he  makes  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  the  child's  forehead 
and  breast,  saying,  "  Receive  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  thy 
forehead  and  in  thy  heart ;  "  upon  which,  taking  off  his  c.ip, 
he  repeats  s  short  prayer,  and,  laying  his  hand  gently  on 
the  child'*  head,  repeats  a  second  prayer  ;  then  ho  blesses 
some  salt,  and  putting  a  little  of  it  into  the  child's  mouth, 
he  says,  "  Receive  the  salt  of  wisdom."  All  this  is  per- 
formed at  the  church  door.  Afterwards,  the  priest,  with 
the  godfathers  and  godmothers,  come  into  the  church,  and 
advancing  towards  the  font,  repeat  the  Apostles'  Creed  and 
the  Lord's  Prayer.  Arrived  at  the  font,  the  priest  again 
exorcises  the  evil  ,'pirit,  and  taking  a  little  of  his  owe 
spittle,  with  the  thumb  of  his  right  hand  mbs  it  on  the 
child's  cars  and  nostrib,  repeating  as  he  touches  the  right 


352 


B  A  P  —  R  A  P 


ear,  the  same  word  Ephphatha,  "  be  thou  opened,"  which 
Dur  Saviour  made  use  of  to  the  man  born  deai  and  dumb. 
Lastly,  they  pull  oflF  its  swaddling-clothes,  or  strip  it  bslow 
the  shoulders,  during  which  the  priest  prepares  the  oil. 
The  sponsors  then  hold  the  child  directly  over  the  font, 
Dbserving  to  turn  it  due  east  and  west  ;  whereupon  the 
priest  asks  the  child  whether  he  renounces  the  devil  and 
all  his  works,  and  the  godfather  having  answered  in  the 
affirmative,  the  priest  anoints  the  child  between  the 
shoulders  in  the  form  of  a  cross  ;  then  taking  some  of  the 
consecrated  water,  he  pours  part  of  it  thrice  on  the  child's 
head,  at  each  perfusion  calling  on  one  of  the  persons  of  the 
Holy  Trinity.  The  priest  concludes  the  ceremony  of 
baptism  with  an  exhortation.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
Roman  Church  allows  midwives,  in  cases  of  danger,  to 
baptize  a  child  before  the  birth  is  completed.  A  still- 
born child  thus  baptiied  may  be  buried  in  consecrated 
ground. 

With  regard  to  the  form  of  baptism  used  in  the  Church 
of  England,  we  shall  only  mention  one  or  two  of  the  more 
material  differences  between  the  form  as  it  stood  in  the 
first  liturgy  of  King  Edward,  and  that  in  the  English 
Common  Prayer  Book  at  present.  First,  the  form  of 
consecrating  the  water  did  not  make  a  part  of  theotEce  in 
King  Edward's  liturgy,- as  it  does  in  the  present,  because 
the  water  in  the  font  was  changed  and  consecrated  but 
once  a  month.  The  form  itself  likewise  was  something 
different  from  that  now  used,  and  was  introduced  with  a 
short  prayer  that  Jesus  Christ,  upon  whom  (when  He  was 
baptized)  the  Holy  Ghost  came  down  in  the  likeness  of  a 
dove,  would  send  down  the  same  Holy  Spirit,  to  sanctify 
the  fountain  of  baptism,  which  prayer  was  afterwards 
left  out  at  the  second  revision.  By  King  Edward's  first 
Eook  the  minister  was  required  to  dip  the  child  in  the 
water  thrice ;  first  the  right  side,  secondly  the  left,  and 
lastly  the  face  toward  the  foot  This  triple  immersion  was  a 
very  ancient  practice  iathe  Christian  Church,  and  was  used 
in  honour  of  the  Holy  Trinity, — though  some  later  writers 
say  it  was  done  to  represent  the  death,  burial,  and 
resurrection  of  Christ,  together  with  His  three  days'  con- 
tinuance in  the  grave.-  -But  afterwards,  the  Arians  per- 
suading the  people  that  the  custom  denoted  a  distinct 
substantiality  of  the  three  persons  in  the  Trinity,  the  or- 
thodox party  discontinued  it  and  used  only  one  single 
immersion. 

By  the  first  Common  Prayer  Bonk  of  King  Edward, 
after  the  child  was  baptized  the  godfathers  and  godmothers 
were  to  lay  their  hands  upon  him,  and  the  minister  was  to 
put  on  him  the  white  vestment,  commonly  caUed  the 
ckrysome,  and  to  say,  "  Take  this  white  vesture  as  a  token 
of  the  innocency  which,  by  God's  grace,  in-sthis  holy 
sacrament  of  baptism,  is  given  unto  thee,  and  for  a  sign 
whereby  thou  art  admonished,  so  long  as  thou  livest,  to  give 
thyself  to  innocence  of  living,  that  after  this  transitory  life 
thou  inaycst  be  partaker'of  tiic  life  everlasting."  As  soon 
as  he  had  pronounced  these  words,  he  was  to  anoint  the 
infant  on  the  head,  saying,  "  Almighty  God,  the  father  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  hath  regenerated  thee  by  water 
and  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  hath  given  unto  thee  remission 
of  all  thy  sins,  may  He  vouchsafe  to  anoint  thee  with  the 
unction  of  His  Holy  Spirit,  and  bring  thee  to  the  inherit- 
once  of  everlasting  life." 

Bapiism  of  th{  dead  seems  to  have  been  founded  on  the 
opinion  that  when  men  had  neglected  to  receive  baptism 
in  their  lifetime^  some  compensation  might  bo  made  for 
this  default  by  their  receiving  it  after  death,  orbyanolher 
being  baptized  for  them.  This  practice  wa3  chiefly  in 
use  among  various  heretical  sects. 

IJypothttvcal  Baptism  was  that  administered  in  certain 
doubtful  coses,  with  the  formula,  "  If  thou  art  baptiicd,  I 


do  not  rebaptize ;  if  thou  art  not,  1  baptize  thee  in  Iha 
name  of  the  Father,"  ic. 

Solevin  Baptism  was  that  conferred  at  stated  seasons. 
Such  in  the  ancient  Church  were  the  Paschal  baptism  and 
that  at  Whitsuntide.  This  is  sometimes  also  called  general 
baptism. 

Lay  Bapti.tm  we  find  to  have  been  permitted  both  by 
the  Common  Prayer  Book  of  King  Edward,  and  by  that 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  when  an  infant  is  in  immediate  danger 
of  death,  and  a  lawful  minister  cannot  be  had  ;  but  after- 
wards, in  a  convocation  held  in  the  year  1575,  it  was 
unanimously  resolved,  that  even  private  baptbm,  in  a  case 
of  necessity,  was  only  to  be  administered  by  a  lawful 
minister.  The  Scotch  Reformed  Church  also  prohibited 
private  baptism  by  lay  persons,  but  ordained  that  when 
any  had  been  thus  baptized,  the  rite  was  not  to  be  repeated. 

The  name  baptism  has  been  applied  to  certain  ceremonies 
used  in  giving  names  to  things  inanimate.  The  ancients 
knew  nothing  of  the  custom  of  giving  baptism  to  inanimate 
things,  such  as  bells,  ships,  and  the  like.  The  first  notice 
we  have  of  this  is  in  the  capitulars  of  Charles  the  Great, 
where  it  is  mentioned  with  censure  ;  but  afterwards  it  crept 
by  degrees  into  the  Roman  offices.  Baronius  carries  its 
antiquity  no  higher  than  the  year  9G8,  when  the  great 
beD  of  the  church  of  Lateran  was  christened  by  Pope  John 
in.  At  last  it  grewto  such  a  height  as  to  form  a  ground 
of  complaint  in  the  Centum  Gravamina  of  the  Gennau 
nation,  drawn  up  at  the  diet  of  Nuremberg  in  15S1,  where 
the  ceremony  of  baptizing  a  bell,  with  godfathers,  it,  to 
make  it  capable  of  driving  away  tempests  and  devils,  was 
declared  to  be  a  superstitious  practice,  contrary  to  the 
Christian  religion,  and  a  mere  seduction  of  the  simple 
people. 

Authorities: — Bingham's  Origines  Ecdcsiasticcr^  bks.  10,  11  ; 
Gnmm's  DeiUsc/u  Htc/UsalterthMner ;  J.  G.  Walch,  Eistoria  Pado- 
hiptismi  quatuoT  priorum  sizculorum ;  G.  T.  'Vossius,  Disput. 
I'lginti  dc  Baptiimo.  (T.  M.  L.  j 

BAPTISTERY  (Baptisterium",  in  the  Greek  Church 
f^umcrrijpioi')  was  a  haU  or  chapel  in  which  the  catechumens 
were  instructed  and  the  sacrament  of  baptism  administered. 
It  was  commonly  a  circular  building,  although  sometimes 
it  had  eight  and  sometimes  twelve  sides,  and  consisted  of 
an  ante-room  (TrpoaAios  oiico?)  where  the  catechumens  were 
instructed,  and  where  before  baptism  they  made  their 
confession  of  faith,  and  an,  inner  apartment  where  the 
sacrament  was  administered.  In  the  inner  apartment  the 
principal  object  was  the  baptismal  font  (KoXv^/Jijf^Ja,  or 
piscina),  in  which  those  to  be  baptized  were  immersed 
thrice.  Three  steps  led  down  to  the  floor  of  the  font,  and 
over  it  wass«tpendcd  a -golden  or  silver  dove ;  while  on 
the  walls  were  commonly  pictures  of  the  scenes  in  the  life 
of  the  Baptist.  The  font  was  at  first  always  of  stone, 
but  latterly  metals  were  often  used.  Baptisteries  belong 
to  a  period  of  the  church  when  great  numbers  of  adult 
catechumens  were  baptized,  and  when  immersion  was  the 
rule.  We  find  Little  or  no  trace  of  them  before  Constantine 
made  Christianity  the  state  religion,  i.e.,  before  the  4th 
century;  and  as  early  as  the  6th  century  the  baptismal  font 
was  built  in  the  porch  of  the  church  and  then  in  the  church 
itself.  After  the  9th  century  few  baptisteries  were  built, 
the  most  noteworthy  of  later  date  being  those  at  Pisa, 
Florence,  Padua,  Lucca,  and  Parm.i.  Some  of  the  oldci 
baptisteries  were  very  large,  so  large  that  we  hear  ol 
councils  and  synods  being  held  in  them.  It  was  necessary 
to  make  them  large,  because  in  the  early  church  it  was 
customary  for  the  bishop  to  baptize  all  the  catechumens  in 
his  diocese  (and  so  baptisteries  are  commonly  found  attached 
to  the  cathedral  and  not  to  the  parish  churches),  and  also 
because  the  rite  was  performed  only  thrico  in  the  year. 
(See  Baptism.)     During  the  months  when  ihcrr  were  no 


B  A  r  —  BAP 


3:)3 


bnptiauis  the  b.ipt]steiy  Juors  were  scalcJ  with  the  bishop's 
«e^L  iiaiilistenes,  we  lind  from  the  records  ol'  caily 
councils,  were  first  built  aiiU  used  to  correct  the  evils 
arising  from  the  [iractice  of  private  baptism.  As  soon  as 
Christianity  made  such  progressthat  infant  baptism  became 
the  rule,  and  as  soon  as  immersion  gave  place  to  sprinkling, 
the  ancient  baptisteries  were  no  longer  necessary.  They 
are  ttiU  in  general  use,  however,  in  Florence  and  Pisa. 
The  name  baptistery  is  sometimes  also  given  to  a  kind  of 
cbapeHn  a  large  church,  which  served  the  same  purpose. 
(Cf.  llefele's  Voncihm,  pafstm ;  Du  Cange,  Glossari/, 
irtide  "  Baplibtcrium  ,"  Eusebuis,  Uist.  Eccl.  x.  4  ;  Bing- 
ham's Aiiti'jiiilies  of  l/ie  C/triittan  Church,  book  xi.) 

B.-Vl'TISrS,  a  denomination  of  Christians,  distinguished, 
as  their  name  imports,  from  other  denominations  by  the 
news  they  hold  respecting  the  ordinance  of  baptism. 

The  early  history  of  the  Baptists,  both  in  thfs  country 
end  on  the  Continent,  is  very  obscure.  In  the  great 
awakening  of  rehgious  thought  and  feeling  which  char.ic- 
terizcd  the  beginning  of  tl.  >  IGtIi  century,  it  was  inevitable 
that  amongst  those  who  burst  the  fetters  which  bound  them 
to  the  see  of  Rome  .";orae  should  be  willing  to  retain  as 
much  of  the  ancient  doctrine  and  practice  as  they  could 
with  a  safe  conscience,  whilst  others,  rejoicing  in  their  new- 
found liberty,  would  desire  to  cast  aside  every  remnant  of 
what  they  regarded  as  superstition,  and  to  advance  as  far 
as  possible  in  the  path  of  what  they  deemed  Christian 
liberty ;  nor  is  it  at  all  to  be  wondered  at  that  strange  and 
wild  theories  on  matters  even  remotely  connected  with 
religion  should  spring  into  life.  But  amidst  all  the  diver- 
sities of  opinion  that  existed,  it  was  constantly  held  by 
I'rotcstants  that  "holy  Scripture  containeth  all  things 
necessary  to  salvation,  so  that  whatsoever  is  neither  read 
therein  nor  may  be  proved  thereby,  although  it  be  sometime 
received  of  the  faithful  as  godly  and  profitable  for  an  order 
and  comeliness,  yet  no  man  ought  to  be  constrained  to 
believe  it  as  an  jirticlo  of  faith  or  reputo  it  requisite  to 
the  necessity  of  salvation"  (.Articles  of  King  Edward  VI.) 
We  must  not  be  surprised  that  the  right  of  private  judg- 
ment, which  IS  involved  in  the  principle  thus  broadly  laid 
down,  was  nevertheless  far  from  being  conceded  to  the 
Client  that  was  desired  by  those  who  de[iarted  farthest 
from  the  Church  of  Borne.  In  fact,  each  separate  section 
of  Protestants  claimed  for  itself  to  stand  on  the  ground 
of  holy  Scripture,  and  was  prepared  to  resist  alike  the 
tyranny  of  Borne  and  what  it  considered  the  licence  of 
other  bodies  of  Protestants.  Thus  it  happened  that  the 
Baptists,  or  as  their  opponents  called  them,  the  Ana- 
baptists (or,  as  iCwingli  nnmes  them,  Catabantists),  were 
Btrenuously  opposed  by  all  other  sections  of  the  Christian 
Church,  and  it  w.as  regarded  by  almost  all  the  early  refor- 
mers to  bo  the  duty  of  the  civil  magistrate  to  punish  tli;m 
with  fine  and  imprisonment,  and  even  with  death.  There 
was,  no  ddubt,  some  justification  for  this  severity  in  the 
fact  that  the  fanaticism  which  burst  forth  in  the  early 
times  of  the  Reformation  frequently  led  to  insurrection  and 
revolt,  and  in  particular  that  the  leader  of  the  "  peasant 
war"  in  Saxony,  Thomas  Miinzcr,  and  probably  many  of 
his  followers,  were  "  Anabaptists."  One  result  of  this 
severity  is,  that  the  records  of  the  early  history  of  the 
Anabaptists  both  on  the  Continent  and  in  this  country  arc 
very  few  and  meagre.  Almost  all  that  is  currently  known 
of  them  comes  to  us  from  their  opponents.  There  is,  how- 
ever, much  valuable  information,  together  with  detailed 
accounts  of  their  sufTerings,  in  the  Dutch  Martyrology  of 
Van  Braght,  himself  a  Baptist,  which  bears  the  title 
Marlelaen  Spirjd  der  Dnops-jcunJe  (2d  cd.  fol.,  1CS5),  an 
English  translation  of  the  latter  half  of  which  was  published 
in  2  vols.  8vo,  Lond.  1850-53,  cdito*!  by  Dr  Underhill, 
now  secretary  of  the  Baptist  Missionarj-  Society.  Probably 
8— U 


the  earliest  .onfession  of  fait^  c;'  any  Baptist  community 
is  that  given  by  Zwingli  in  tne  second  pan  oi  his  EUnchus 
contra  Calabaj/ttslas,  [)ubliihed  in  1527.  Zwingli  professes 
to  give  it  cntue,  translating  it,  as  he  says,  aj  lerlum  into 
Latin.  lie  upbraids  his  opponents  with  not  having  pub- 
lished these  articles,  but  declares  that  there  is  scarcely  any 
one  of  them  that  has  not  a  written  {(/tsaiijtum)  copy  of 
these  laws  which  have  been  so  well  concealed.  The  articles 
are  in  all  seven.  The  first,  which  we  give  in  full,  relates  to 
baptism  . — 

*'  Ijajnism  ought  to  be  given  to  all  who  have  been  taught  repent* 
anco  and  ch.ingo  of  life,  mid  who  in  trulh  believe  that  through 
Christ  their  sios  are  blotted  out  (abolila),  and  the  Bins  of  all  wlio 
are  willing  [vulunt)  to  walk  in  the  resurrection  of  Jcsua  Christ,  oud 
who  are  willing  to  be  buried  with  Inm  into  death,  that  they  may 
rise  again  with  him.  To  all,  therefore,  who  in  llus  manner  seek 
bnplistn,  and  of  themselves  ask  us,  wo  will  give  it.  By  this  rule 
are  excluded  all  baptisms  of  infants,  the  great  abomiDution  of  thu 
r.omao  pontiff.  For  this  article  we  have  the  testimony  and  strength 
of  Scriplure,  we  have  also  the  practice  of  the  apostles;  which  things 
we  simply  and  also  stedfastly  will  observe,  for  we  arc  assured  of 
them."* 

The  second  article  relates  to  withdrawment(aisrCT!ito1  or 
excommunication,  and  declares  that  all  who  have  givcu 
themselves  to  the  Lord  and  have  been  baptized  into  the  one 
body  of  Christ  should,  if  they  lapse  or  fall  into  sin,  be 
excommunicated;  The  third  article  relates  to  the  breaking 
Ol  bread  ;  in  this  it  is  declared  that  they  who  break  tho 
one  bread  in  commemoration  of  the  broken  body  of  Christ, 
and  drink  of  the  one  cup  in  commemoration  of  His  blood 
poured  out,  must  first  be  united  together  into  the  one  body 
of  Christ,  that  is,  into  the  church  of  God.  The  fourth 
article  asserts  the  duty  of  separation  from  the  world  and 
its  abominations,  amongst  which  are  included  all  papistical 
and  semi-papistical  works.  The  fifth  relates  to  pastors  of 
the  church.  They  assert  that  the  pastor  should  be  some 
one  of  the  dlock  who  has  a  good  report  from  those  who 
are  without.  "  His  office  is  to  read,  admonish,  teach,  learn, 
exhort,  correct,  or  excommunicate  in  the  church,  and  to 
preside  well  over  all  the  brethren  and  sisters  both  in  prayer 
and  in  the  breaking  of  bread  ;  and  in  all  things  that  relate 
to  the  body  of  Christ,  to  watch  that  it  may  be  established 
and  increased  so  that  the  name  of  God  may  by  us  be 
glorified  and  piaiscd,  and  that  the  mouth  of  blasphemers 
may  be  stopped."  The  sixth  article  relates  to  the  power 
of  the  sword.  "  The  sword,"  they  say,  "  is  the  ordinance 
of  God  outside  the  perfection  of  Christ,  by  which  the  bad 
is  punished  and  slain  and  the  good  is  defended."  They 
further  declare  that  a  Christian  ought  not  to  decide  or  give 
sentence  in  secular  matters,  and  that  he  ought  not  to 
exercise  the  office  of  magistrate.  Thesevenlh  article  relates 
to  oaths,  which  they  declare  are  forbidden  by  Christ. 

However  much  we  may  diflfer  from  the  points  maintained 
in  these  articles,  we  cannot  but  be  astonished  at  the 
vehemence  with  which  they  «cre  oiiposcd.  and  the  epithets 
of  abuse  which  were  hea[ped  upon  the  unf.irtuiiate  sect  that 
maintained  them.  Zwingli,  through  whom  they  come 
down  to  us,  and  who  gives  them,  as  he  says,  that  the  world 
may  see  that  they  are  "fanatical,  stolid,  audacious,  impious," 
can  scarcely  be  acquitted  of  unfairness  in  joining  togethei 
two  of  them, — the  fourth  and  fifth, — thus  making  the 
article  treat  "  of  the  avoiding  of  abominable  pastors  in  the 
church "  (Super  devitatione  alominalilimn  pnslorum  in 
I-.'cctesia),  though  there  is  nothing  about  pasters  in  th« 
fourth  article,  and  nothing  about  abominations  In  the  fiflh, 
and  though  in  a  marginal  note  he  himself  explains  thct  the 
first  two  copies  that  were  sent  him  read  as  he  does,  but  the 
other  copies  make  two  articles,  as  in  fact  they  evidently 
are.  To  us  at  the  present  day  it  appears  tiot  merely  strange 
but  shocking,  that  the  Protestant  Council  of  Ziirich,  which 
had  scarcely  won  its  own  liberty,  and  was  still  in  dread  of 
tho  persecution  of  tho    Roiaaiiists,  should  pass  a  due** 


354 


BAPTISTS 


ordering,  as  Zwingli  himself  reports,  that  any  person  who 
administered  anabaptism  should  be  drowned;  and  stiU 
more  shocking  that,  at  the  time  when  Zwingli  wrote,  this 
cruel  decree  should  have  been  carried  into  effect  against 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Anabaptists,  Felix  Mantz,  who 
had  himself  been  associated  with  Zwingli,  not  only  as  a 
Btudent,  but  ako  at  the  commencement  of  the  work  of 
Reformation.  No  doubt  the  wild  fanaticism  of  some  of 
.the  opponents  of  infant  baptism  seemed  to  the  Reformers 
to  justify  their  severity.  In  1537  Menno  Simonis  joined 
himself  to  the  Anabaptists  and  became  their  leader.  His 
moderation  and  piety,  according  to  Mosheim,  held  in 
check  the  turbulence  of  the  more  fanatical  amongst  them. 
He  died  in  1561,  after  a  life  passed  amidst  continual 
dangers  and  conflicts.  His  name  remains  as  the  designa- 
tion of  the  Mennonites,  who  eventually  settled  in  the 
Netherlands  under  the  protection  of  William  the  Silent, 
Prince  of  Orange. 

Of  the  introduction  of  Baptist  views  into  England  we 
iave  no  certain  knowledge.  Fox  relates  that  "  the  registers 
of  London  make  mention  of  certain  Dutchmen  counted 
for  Anabaptists,  of  whom  ten  were  put  to  death  in  sundry 
places  in  the  realm,  anno  1535  ;  other  ten  repented  and  were 
saved."  In  1536  King  Henry  VIII.,  as  "  in  earth 
supreme  head  of  the  Church  of  England,"  issued  a  pro- 
clamation together  with  articles  concerning  faith  agreed 
upon  by  Convocation,  in  which  the  clergy  are  told  to 
instruct  the  people  that  they  ought  to  repute  and  take 
"  the  Anabaptists'  opinions  for  detestable  heresies  and  to 
b«  utterly  condemned."  The  document  is  given  in  extenso 
by  Fuller,  who  further  tells  us  from  Stow's  Chronicles  that, 
in  the  year  1538,  "four  Anabaptists,  three  men  and  one 
woman,  all  Dutch,  bare  faggots  at  Paul's  Cross,  and  three 
days  after  a  man  and  woman  of  their  sect  was  burnt  in 
Smithfield."  In  the  reign  oi  Edward  VI.,  after  the  return 
of  the  exiles  from  Ziirich,  Hooper  writes  to  his  friend 
Bullingcr  in  1549,  that  he  reads  "a  public  lecture  twice 
in  the  day  to  so  numerous  an  audience  that  the  church 
cannot  contain  them,"  and  adds,  "  the  Anabaptists  flock 
{confluunt)  to  the  place  and  give  me  much  trouble."  It 
would  seem  that  at  this  time  they  were  united  together  in 
communities  separate  from  the  Established  Church.  Lati- 
mer, in  1552,  speaks  of  them  as  segregating  themselves  from 
the  company  of  other  mea  In  Philpott's  sixth  examination 
in  1555  we  are  told  that  Lord  Riche  said  to  him,  "AU 
heretics  do  boast  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  every  one  would 
have  a  church  by  himself,  as  Joan  of  Kent  and  the  Ana- 
baptists." Philpott  was  imprisoned  soon  after  Mary's 
accession  in  1553  ;  and  it  is  very  pleasing  to  find,  amid.st  the 
records  of  intense  bitterness  and  rancour  which  charac- 
terized these  times,  and  with  which  Romanist  and  Protes- 
tant alike  assailed  the  persecuted  Baptists,  a  letter  of 
Philpott's,  to  a  friend  of  his,  "  prisoner  the  same  time  in 
Newgate,"  who  hl;ld  Baptist  opinions.  His  friend  had 
wiitten  to  ask  his  judgment  concerning  the  baptism  of 
infants.  Philpott  in  a  long  reply,  whilst  maintaining  the- 
obligation  of  infant  baptism,  yet  addresses  his  correspondent 
as,  "  dear  brother,  saint,  and  fellow-prisoner  for  the  truth  of 
Christ's  gospel  f  and  at  the  close  of  his  argument  he  says, 
"  I  beseech  thee,  dear  brother  in  the  gospel,  follow  the  steps 
of  the  faith  of  the  glorious  martyrs  in  the  primitive  church, 
and  of  such  as  at  this  day  follow  the  same."  During  the 
whole  of  the  IGtb  century,  and  through  tho  greater  part  of 
the  17th,  whatever  changes  took  place  in  the  state  church, 
the  Baptists  in  England,  together  with  otKer  dissenters, 
continued  to  sufTer  persecution.  Archbishop  Sandys^ 
nbout  the  year  1576,  says  :  "  It  is  the  property  of  froward 
tectarica,"  JUnongst  whom  ho  classes  Anabaptists,  "  who.se 
i•l7entio.^3  cannot  abide  tho  light,  to  make  obscure  conven- 
ticles;" and  though   ho  admits  that  "  when  the  gospel   is 


persecuted,  secret  congregations  are  allowed,"  he  declares 
that  as  the  gospel,  "  strengthened  with  the  civil  hand,"  is 
now  publicly  and  sincerely  preached,  "  such  stray  sheep  as 
will  not  of  their  own  accord  assemble- themselves  to  serve 
the  Lord  in  the  midst  of  this  holy  congregation,  may  law- 
fully -and  in  reason  ought  to  be  constrained  thereunto." 
There  is  no  doubt  that  a  large  number  of  the  Baptists  in 
England  at  this  time  came  from  Holland,  but  there  is  little 
reason  to  think  that  Fuller  is  correct  when,  after  speaking 
of  certain  Dutch  Anabaptists  being  seized  in  1570,  some 
of  whom  were  banished  and  two  burnt  at  Smithfield,  he 
adds,  "  we  are  glad  that  English  as  yet  were  free  from 
that  infection." 

About  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  the  severe  laws 
against  the  Puritans  led  many  dissenters  to  emigrate  to 
Holland.  Some  of  these  were  Baptists,  and  an  English 
Baptist  Church  was  formed  in  Amsterdam  about  the  year 
1609.  In  1611  this  church  publLshed  "a  declaration  of 
faith  of  English  people  remaining  at  Amsterdam  in 
Holland."  The  article  relating  to  baptism  is  as  follows  ; — 
"  That  every  church  is  to  receive  in  all  their  members  by 
baptism  upon  the  confession  of  their  faith  and  sins,  wrought 
by  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  according  to  the  primitive 
institution  and  practice.  And  therefore  churches  consti- 
tuted after  any  other  manner,  or  of  any  other  persons,  are 
not  according  to  Christ's  testament.  That  baptism  or 
washing  with  water  is  the  outward  manifestation  of  dying 
unto  sin  and  walking  in  newness  of  life  ;  and  therefore  in 
no  wisa  appertaineth  to  infants."  They  hold  "  that  no 
church  ought  to  challenge  any  prerogative  over  any  other  ;" 
"  that  magistracy  is  a  holy  ordinance  of  God  ;"  "  that  it  is 
lawful  in  a  just  cause  for  the  deciding  of  strife  to  take  au 
oath  by  the  name  of  the  Lord." 

The  last  execution  for  heresy  in  England  by  burning 
alive  took. place  at  Lichfield,  April  11,  1612.  The  con- 
demned person,  Edward  Wightman,  was  a  Baptist.  Much 
uncertainty  rests  on  the  history  of  the  Baptists  during  the 
next  twenty  years.  It  would  seem  that  many  members 
of  the  Brownist  or  Independent  denomination  held  Baptist 
views.  An  independent  congregation  in  Loudou,  gathered 
in  the  year  1616,  included  several  such  persons,  and  as  the 
church  was  larger  than  could  conveniently  meet  together 
in  times  of  persecution,  they  agreed  to  allow  these  persons 
to  constitute  a  distinct  church,  which  was  formed  on  the 
12th  September  1633  ;  and  upon  tliis  most,  if  not  all,  the 
members  of  the  new  church  were  baptized.  Another 
Baptist .  church  was  formed  in  London  in  1639.  These 
churches  were  "  Particular  "  or  Calvinistic  Baptists.  The 
church  formed  in  1609  at  Amsterdam ,  held  Arminian 
views.  In  104-1  a-Confession  of  Faith  was  published  in 
the  names  of  seven  churches  in  London  "  commonly 
(though  falsely)  called  Anabaptist,"  in  which  were  included 
the  two  churches  just  mentioned.  The  article  on  baptism 
13  as  follows : — "  That  baptism  is  an  ordinance  of  thoNew 
Testament  given  by  Christ  to  be  dis[)ensed  only  upon 
persons  professing  faith,  or  that  are  disciples,  or  taught, 
who,  npon  a-  profession  of  faith,  ought  to  bo  baptized."' 
"The  way  and  manner  of  dispensing  this  ordinance  the 
Scripture  holds  out  to  be  dipping  or  jilunging  tho  whole  body 
underwater."  Thoy  further  declare  that  "a  civil  magis- 
tracy is  an  ordinance  of  Cod,"  which  they  are  bound  to 
obey.  ■  IIow  well  they  understood  the  distinction  between 
the  rights  of  conscience  and  the  rights  of  the  civil  magis- 
trate is  shown  with  remarkable  clearness  , — 

"  We  bcliovp,"  thry  sfly.  "thntin  ft!I  tlioso  civil  laws  which  have 
Iwon  orted  by  thcin  [the  Buprfnie  niftgi.stracy],  or  for  the  priscnt  ore 
or  shftU  bo  nrdaiiicil,  wo  are  bound  to  yield  subjection  nnd  obedience 
t'nto  in  the  Lord,  ft!!  conceiving  oiirsclvcH  bound  to  defend  both  the 
IteraoEa  or  those  thus  chosen,  and  all  civil  law.s  mode  by  tlicm, 
with  our  persons,  liberties,  and  estates,  with  all  that  is  eiilli'tl  oura, 
.illhongh  we  sliuold  sulTer  n^'vor  so  niuch  from  theai  in  not  actively 


BAPTISTS 


355 


tubmitUni;  to  some  ecclesiastical  laws,  wlucL  Diiglit  be  coDCcivcd  Ly 
ihvm  to  be  tbeir  duties  to  establish,  wUich  ue  Tor  the  present  cooM 
not  see,  nor  oar  consciences  could  submit  onto  ;  yot  are  we  bound 
to  yield  our  persons  to -their  pleasures," 

They  go  oa  to  speak  of  the  breathing  time  which  they  have 
had  of  late,  and  tbeir  hope  that  Gou  would,  as  they  say, 
"incline  the  magiatrates"  hearts  so  for  to  tender  our  con- 
sciences as  that  we  might  be  protected  by  them  from  wrong, 
injury,  oppression,  and  molestation;"  and  then  they- proceed : 
"But  if  God  withhold  the  magistrates' allowance  and  further- 
ance herein,  yet  we  must,  notivithstanding,  proceed  together 
in  Chrisiian  communion,  not  daring  to  give  place  to  suspend 
our  practice,  but  to  walk  in  obedience  toChrist  in  the  pro- 
fession and  holding  forth  this  faith  before  mentioned,  even 
in  the  midst  of  all  trials  and  aQlictions,xiut  accounting  our 
goods,  lands,  wives,  children,  fathers,  mothers,  brethren, 
sisters,  yea,  and  our  own  lives,  dear  unto  us,  so  that  we 
may  finish  our  course  with  joy  ;  remembering  always  that 
we  ought  to  obey  God  rather  than  men."  They  end  their 
confession  thus :  "  If  any  take  this  that  we  have  said  to 
be  heresy,  then  do  we  with  the  apostle  freely  confess,  that 
after  the  way  which  they  call  heresy  worship  we  the  God 
of  our  fathers,  believing  all  things  which  are  written  in  the 
Law  and  in  the  Prophets  and  Apostles,  desiring  from  our 
eouls  to  disclaim  all  heresies  and  opinions  which  are  not 
after  Christ,  and  to  be  stcdfast,  unmovablc,  always  abound- 
ing in  the  work  of  the  Lord,  as  knowing  our  labour  shall 
not  be  in  vain  in  the  Lord."  THe  breathing  tiipe  of  which 
they  speak  was  not  of  long  continuance:-  Soon  after  the 
Restoration  (1600)  the  meetings  of  N"onconformista  were 
continually  disturbed  by  the  constables,  and  their  preachers 
were  carried  before  the  magistrates  and  fined  or  imprisoned. 
One  instance  of  these  persecutions  will,  perhaps,  bo  more 
impressive  than  any  general  statemeritsJ  In  the  records  of 
one  of  the  churches  at  Bristol  still  existing,  and  having, 
now  and  for  perhaps  nearly  two  centuries,  their  place  of 
meeting  in  Broadmead,  but  at  this  time  meeting  in  divers 
places,  we  find  this  remark :  "  On  the  29th  of  November 
1G35  our  pastor,  Brother  Fownes,  died  in  Gloucester  jail, 
having  been  kept  there  for  two  years  and  about  nme  months 
a  prisoner,  unjustly  and  maliciously,  for  the  testimony  of 
Jesus  and  preaching  the  gospel  He  was  a  man  of  great 
learning,  of  a  sound  judgment,  an  able  preacher,  having 
great  knowledge  in  divinity,  law,  physic,  &c.  ;  a  bold  and 
pjtient  Biifferer  for  the  Lord  Jesus  and  the  gospel  he 
preached.";  From  the  same  records  we  learn  that  on  the 
2jth  March  1683,  whilst  Mr  Fownes  was  preaching  in  the 
wood  where  they  were  accustomed  secretly  to  meet,  they 
were  surrounUed  by  horse  and  foot.  Mr  Fownes  was  taken 
and  committed  "  to  Gloucester  jail  for  six  months  on  the 
Oiford  Act."  The  record  adds,  "the  teit  Brother  Fownes 
had  been  preaching  from  was  2  Tim.  ii  9."  There  could 
scarcely  have  been  found  a  more  appropriate  text  for  his 
last  sermon  to  the  congregation, — "  Wherein  I  suffer  trouble 
as  an  evil  doer  even  unto  bonds ;  but  the  word  of  God  is 
not  bound." 

.  With  the  Revolution  of  1GS8,  and  the  passing  of  the  Act 
of  Toleration  in  1689,  the  history  of  the  persecution  of 
Baptists,  as  well  as  of  other  Protestant  dissenters,  ends. 
The  removal  of  the  remaining  disabilities,  such  as  those 
imposed  by  the  Test  and  Corporation   Acts  repealed   in 

1828,  has  no  special  bearing  on  Baptists  more  than  on 
other  Nonconformi-sts  The  ministers  of  the  "  three  de- 
nominations of  dis-senters,"— Presbyterians,  Independents, 
and  Baptists.— resident  in  Loudon  and  the  neighbour- 
hood, had  the  privilege  accorded  to  them  of  presenting 
OD  proper  occasions  an  address  to  the  sovereign  in  state,  a 
privilege  which  they  stUI  enjoy 

The  Baptisu  were  early  divided  into  two  sections, — those 
*ho  m  accordatice  with  Arminiao  views  held  the  doctrine 


of  "  General  Redemption,"  and  those  who,  agreeing  with 
the  Calvinistic  theory,  held  the  doctrine  of  "  Particular 
Redemption ; "  and  hence  they  assumed  respectively  the 
names  of  General  Baptists  and  Particular  Baptists.  In  the 
last  century  many  of  the  General  Baptists  had  gradually 
adopted  the  Arian,  or,  perhaps  the  Socinian  theory ;  whilst, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  Calvinism  of  the  Particular  Baptists 
had  in  many  of  the  churches  become  more  rigid,  and 
approached  or  actually  became  Antinomianism.  In  1770 
the  orthodox  portion  of  the  General  Baptists  formed 
themselves  into  a  separate  association,  under  the  name  of 
the  General  Baptist  New  Conneciion,  since  which  time  th* 
"  Old  Connection"  has  graduaUy  merged  into  the  Unitaiian 
denomination.  Somewhat  later  many  of  the  Particular 
Baptist  churches  became  more  moderate  in  their  Calvinism, 
a  result  largely  attributable  to  the  writings  of  Andrew 
Fuller.  Up  to  this  time  the  great  majority  of  the  Baptists 
admitted  none  either  to  membership  or  communion  who 
wore  not  baptized,  the  principal  exception  being  the 
churches  in  Bedfordshire  and  Hertfordshire,  founded  or 
influenced  by  Bunyan,  who  maintained  that  difference  of 
opinion  m  respect  to  water  baptism  was  no  bar  to  com- 
munioa  At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  this 
question  was  the  occasion  of  great  and  long-continued 
discussion,  in  which  the  celebrated  Robert  Hall  took  a 
principal  part.  The  practice  of  mixed  communion  graduaUy 
spread  in  the  denomination.  Still  more  recently  many- 
Baptist  churches  have  considered  it  right  to  admit  to  full 
membership  persons  professing  faith  in  Christ,  who  do  not 
agree  with  them  respecting  the  ordinance  of  baptism.  Such 
churches  justify  tbeir  practice  on  the  ground  that  tbey  ought 
to  grant  to  all  their  fellow  Christians  the  same  right  of  private 
judgment  as  they  claim  for  themselves.  It  may  not  be  out 
of  place  here  to  correct  the  mistake,  which  is  by  no  means 
uncommon,  that  the  terms  Particular  and  General  as  applied 
to  Baptist  congregations  are  intended  to  express  this  differ- 
ence in  their  practice,  whereas  these  terms  relate,  as  has 
been  already  said,  to  the  difference  in  their  doctrinal  views. 
The  difference  now  under  consideration  is  expressed  by  the 
terras  "strict"  and  "open,"  according  as  communion  (or 
membership)  is  or  is  not  couCaed  to  persons  who,  accord- 
ing to  their  view,  are  baptized. 

The  Baptists  early  felt  the  necessity  of  providing  an 
educated  ministry  for  their  congregations  Some  of  their 
leading  pastors  had  been  educated  in  one  or  ether  of  the 
English  universities.  Others  had  by  their  onn  efforts 
obtained  a  large  amount  of  learning,  amongst  whom  Dr 
John  GLll  was  eminent  for  his  knowledge  of  Hebrew.  He 
is  said  to  have  assisted  Bishop  Walton  in  the  prep.iration 
of  his  Polyglot.  Mr  Edward  Terrdl,  from  whose  liccrrdi 
we  have  alreauly  quoted,  and  who  died  in  16t-j,  left  a 
considerable  part  of  his  estate  for  the  instruction  of  young 
men  for  the  ministr)-,  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
pastor  of  the  church  now  meeting  in  Bro.tdmcad,  Bristol, 
of  which  be  was  a  member.  Other  bequests  for  the  same 
purpose  were  made,  and  from  the  year  1720  the  Baptist 
Academy,  as  it  was  then  called,  ryeived  yourig  men  as 
students  for  the  ministry  amongst  the  Boptists  Fifty 
years  later,  in  1770,  a  society,  called  the  Bristol  Education 
Society,  was  formed  to  enlarge  this  academy  ,  and  it  was 
still  further  enlarged  by  the  erection  of  the  present  Enstol 
Baptist  College  about  the  year  1811  In  the  North  of 
England  a  similar  Education  Society  was  formed  in  1804 
at  Bradford,  Yorkshire,  which  has  since  been  removed  to 
Rawdon  near  Leeds.  In  the  metropolis  a  college  was 
formed  in  1810  at  Stepney,  and  was  removed  to  Regent'.* 
Parkin  1806  The  Pastors'  College  in  cornection  with 
the  Metropohtan  Tabernacle  Ras  instituted  in  ISiiC 
Be.iides  these,  the  General  Baptists  have  maintained  h 
college  since  1797    which  at  present  is  rarricd  oo  at  ChJ  . 


30(1 


B  A   Tl  —BAR 


well,  near  Nottingham  A  theological  in.-titution,  intended 
to  promote  the  views  of  the  "  Strict  "  Baptists,  has  lately 
(1SC6)  been  established  at  Manchester.  There  is  also  a 
Baptist  theological  iustitution  in  Scotland,  and  there  are 
three  colleges  in  Wales  The  total  number  of  studeota  in 
these  institutions  may  be  reckoned  to  be  about  200 

The  Baptists  were  the  6rst  denomination  of  British 
Christians  that  undertook  the  work  of  missions  to  the 
heathen,  which  has  become  so  prominent  a  feature  in  the 
religious  activity  of  the  present  century.  As  early  as  the 
year  1784,  the  Northamptonshire  Association  of  Baptist 
churches  resolved  to  recommend  that  the  first  Monday  of 
every  month  should  be  sot  apart  for  prayer  for  the  spread 
of  the  gospel,  a  practice  which  has  since,  as  a  German 
writer  remarks,  extended  over  all  Protestant  Christendom, 
and  we  may  add  over  all  Protestant  Missions.  Six  years 
later,  in  1792,  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  was  formed 
at  Kettering  in  Northamptonshire,  after  a  sermon  on  Isaiah 
liL  2,  3,  preached  by  the  afterwards  celebrated  William 
Carey,  the  prime  mover  in  the  work,  in  which  he  urged  two 
•points:  "Expect  great  things  from  God;  attempt  great 
things  for  God."  In  the  course  of  the  following  year  Carey 
sailed  for  India,  where  he  was  joined  a  few  years  later  by 
Marshman  and  Ward,  and  the  mission  was  established  at 
Serampore.  The  great  work  of  Dr  Carey's  life  was  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  various  languages  and 
dialects  of  India.  The  society's  operations  are  now  carried 
on,  not  only  in  the  East,  but  in  the  \yest  Indies,  Africa, 
and  Europe.  In' 1873  there  were  employed  87  European 
missionaries  and  229  native  pastors  and  evangelists,  at 
423  stations, — the  total  number  of  members  of  churches 
being  32,444.  The  funds  of  the  society  amounted  to  up- 
wards of  £40,000,  exclusive  of  the  amount  raised  at  mission 
stations.  In  1816  the  General.  Baptists  established  a 
missionary  society,  the  operations  of  which  are  confined 
to  India.  It  employs  16  missionaries,  male  and  female, 
and  16  nativa  preachers,  and  has  an  annual  income  of 
£14,000. 

Ill  regard  to  church  government,  thfe  Baptists  agree  with 
the  Independents  that  each  separate  church  is  complete  in 
it.'ielf,  and  has,  therefore,  power  to  choose  its  own  ministers, 
and  to  make  such  regiilations  as  it  deems  to  be  most  in 
accordance  with  the  purpose  of  its  existence,  that  is,  the 
advancement  of  the  religion  of  Christ.  A  comparatively 
small  section  of  the  denomination  maintain  that  a 
"  plurality  of  elders  "  or  pastors  is  required  for  the  com- 
plete organization"  of  every  separate  church.  This  is  the 
distinctive  peculiarity  of  those  churches  in  Scotland  and 
the  north  of  England  which  are  known  as  Scotch  Baptists. 
The  largest  church  of  this  section,  consisting  at  present  of 
484  members,  originated  in  Edinburgh  in  1765,  before 
which  date  only  one  Baptist  church — that  of  Keiss  in 
Caithness,  formed  about  1750— appears  to  have  existed  in 
Scotland.  The  greater  number  of  the  churches  are 
united  in  associations  voluntarily  formed,  all  of  them 
determined  by  geographical  limits  except  the  General 
Baptist  Association;  which  includes  all  the  churches 
cannected  with  that  body.  '  The  associations,  as  well  as 
the  churches  not  in  connection  with  them,  are  united 
together  in  the  Baptist  Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
formed  in  1813.  This  union,  however,  exerts  no  authori- 
tative action  over  the  separate  churches.  One  important 
part  of  the  work  of  the  union  is  tho  collection  of  information 
in  which  all  the  churches  are  interested.  According  to 
Iho  liaptist  Handtiook  for  tho  present  year  (1875),  there 
are  in  the  United  Kingdom — Bajilist  churches,  2612;  places 
of  worship,  3321  ;  pa.stors,  1916  ;  menibers,  254,998. 

Some  of  the  Englisli  settlers  in  all  parts  of  the  world  have 
coined  with  them  the  principles  and  practice  of  the  Baptists 
The  introduction  of  Baptist  views  in  America  was  due  to 


Roger  WiUiams,  who  emigrated  to  Boston,  Massachusetts, 
in  1630.  Driven  from  Massachusetts  on  account  of  hi? 
denying  the  power  of  the  civil  magistrate  in  matters  o( 
religion,  he  formed  a  settlement  and  founded  a  state  in 
Rhode  Isbnd,  and  having  become  a  Baptist  he  formed,  ir» 
1639,  the  fii'st  Baptist  church  in  America,  of  which  he  was 
also  for  a  short  time  the  pastor.  It  is  impossible  here  to 
trace  the  history  of  the  Baptists  in  the  United  States.  In 
1873  there  are  reported — churches,  20,520;  ministers, 
12,589,  members,  1,'633,939.  The  great  majority  of  the 
chuiches  practise  "strict"  communion.  Their  missionary 
society  is  large  and  successful,  and  perhaps  is  best  known 
in  this  country  through  the  life  of  devoted  labour  of  Dr 
Judson  in  Burmah.  There  are  many  Baptist  churches  also 
throughout  British  America.  In  the  more  recent  colonies 
of  Australia  and  New  Zealand  a  large  number  of  Baptist 
churches  have  been  formed  during  the  last  twenty-five 
years,  and  have  been  principally  supplied  with  ministers 
frofi  England.'  (f.  w.  o.) 

BAR,  a  town  of  Russian  Poland,  in  the  government  of 
Podolia,  50  miles  N.E.  of  Kamihetz.  It  is  situated  on  the 
River  Kov  an  affluent  of  the  Bug,  and  was  formerly  called 
by  that  name  itself.  Its  present  designation  was  bestowed 
in  memory  of  Bari  in  Italy,  by  Bona  Sforza,  the  consort  of 
Sigismund  I.  of  Poland,  who  had  rebuilt  the  town  after  its 
destruction  in  1452  by  the  Tatars.  From  1672  to  1699 
it  remained  in  possession  of  the  Turks.  In  1678  a  con- 
spiracy of  tho  Polish  nobles,  Pulaski,  Krasinski,  and  others, 
against  the  Russians  was  formed  in  the  town,  which  was 
shortly  after  taken  by  storm,  but  did  not  become  finally 
united  to  Russia  till  the  partition  of  ,1793.  Eleven  fairs 
are  held  every  year,  but  the  trade  of  the  place  is  not  very 
great.     Population,  8077. 

BAR-HEBRiEUS.     See  Abulfaragics,  vol.  L  p.  60. 

BAR-LE-DUC,  or  Bar-sur  Ornain,  the  chief  town  of 
the  department  of  Meuse  in  France.  It  occupies  the 
declivity  and  base  of  a  hill,  in  lat.  48"  46'  8'  N.,  long.  5°  9' 
47"  E  ,  on  the  River  Ornain,  a  tributary  of  the  Marne,  125 
miles  E.  of  Paris,  and  consists  of  an  upper  and  lower  town, 
the  latter  being  the  more  modern  and  respectable  of  tlie 
two.  It  is  a  railway  station  on  the  Paris-and-Strasburg 
line,  and  the  Marne-aud-Rhine  canal  passes  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity.  A  college,  a  normal  school,  a  society  of 
agriculture  and  arts,  and  a  public  hbrary,  are  among  its 
educational  institutions.  The  only  building  of  mark  is  the 
church  of  St  Pierre,  which  contains  a  curious  figure  of  a 
half  decayed  body  in  white  marble,  originally  forming  part 
of  the  mausoleum  of  Reni5  of  ChSlons,  Prince  of  Orange. 
The  castle,  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  upper  town, 
was  built  by  Frederick  I.,  duke  of  Lorraine,  in  the  10th 
century.  Louis  Xi  got  posses.=^ion  of  the  place  and  caused 
it  to  be  fortified  in  1474.  It  was  dismantled  under  Louis 
XIV.  in  1670,  but  retains  a  few  relics  of  the  ancient  wwiks. 
An  extensive  tiafEc  is  maintained  in  wood,  wine,  and 
wot^l  ;  and  the  manufactures  of  cotton  stuffs,  hats,  hosiery, 
leather,  and  confections,  are  considerable,  the  last-mentioned 
article  being  especially  celebrated.  Population  in  1872, 
15,175.  The  district  of  Ear  was  governed  by  a  scries  oi 
counts  from  959  to  1354,  when  it  was  raised  to  a  duchy, 
which  in  1419  w.as  ceded  to  RcniS  of  Anjou,  and  hence- 
forward followed  tho  fortunes  of  Lorraine.  The  motto  of 
the  dukes,  which  has  been  adopted  by  the  town,  was  I'lvt 
penscr  que  dire.  Their  coins  were  usually  distinguished  by 
two  barbels. 

BARSUR-AUBE,  tho  chief  town  of  an  arrondisscmcnt 
in  tho  department  of  Aube,  in  France.  It  is  a  slatioii  on 
the  Puris-and-Mulliouso  line,  and  is  situated  on  tho  right 
bank  of  the  River  Aube,  at  the  foot  of  Sainte  Gcrmaine,  in 
a  picturesque  distriet,'lhe  wine  of  which  is  much  esteenici 
It  i.i  a  pretty  little  town,  with  a  few  remains  of  its  ancicnC- 


B  A  R  —  B  xV  li 


557 


Jviriincations.  There  are  several  churches  of  considerable 
antiquity — the  most  remarkable  being  Saint  Maclou.  In 
ISl  4  Barsur-Aube  was  the  scene  of  several  conflicts  between 
OuJinot  and  the  Allied  Army,  in  which  the  latter  ultimately 
gained  the  victory.  Population  in  1S72,  4453.  Long. 
4°  44'  E.,  lat.  48°  13'  N. 

BAR-SUKSEINE,  the  chief  town  of  an  arrondissement 
in  the  department  of  the  Aube,  in  France.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  Bar-sur-Scine  was  a  place  of  considerable  importance, 
and,  according  to  Froissart,  contained  no  fewer  than  900 
"hotels"  or  mansions.  It  was  devastated  in  1359  by 
mar.'\uder3  from  Lorraine,  and  suffered  greatly  in  the  re- 
ligious wars  of  the  ICth  and  17th  centuries.  A  battle  was 
fought  here  in  1814  between  the  French  and  the  Allies. 
Long.  4°  24'  E.,  lat.  iS,"  6'  N.     Population  in  1872,  2798. 

BARA  B.iNKt,  a  district  of  British  India  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Chief  Commissioner  of  Oudh.lies  between 
26°  and  28°  of  N.  lat.  and  81°  and  82°  of  E.  long.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.W.  by  the  district  of  Sitipur;  on  the 
N.  by  Bhariich  ;  on  the  N.E.  by  Gond.^ ;  on  the  E.  by 
FaizibAd  ;  on  the  S.  by  Sultdnpur  and  Rai  Bareli ;  and  on 
the  W.  by  Lucknow.  The  district  stretches  out  in  a  level 
plain  interspersed  with  numerous  ^Ai/i  or  marshes.  In  the 
upper  part  of  the  district  the  soil  is  sandy,  while  in  the  lower 
part  it  is  clayey,  and  produces  finer  crops.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Ghagri  {Gogra),  forming  the  northern  boun- 
dary, and  the  Gilmtf,  flowing^through  the  middle  of  the 
district.  Both'  are  navigable  by  country  cargo  boats. 
Area,  1735  square  miles,  of  which  1244  are  classiSed  as 
follows  : — 821  cultivated,  172  cullurable  but  not  cultivated, 
and  251  unculturable  waste.  Estimated  population  in 
1869,  875,587,  or  G50  to  the  square  mile,  living  in  148,166 
houses  and  2065  villages;  Hindus,  748,061;  Mahome- 
tans, 127,315;  Christians,  76.  Population  in  1872, 
1,101,954  soula.  Fins  towns  in  the  district  contain  over 
5000  inhabitants— Nawdbganj,  10,496;  Rudaulf,  12,517; 
Fathipur,  7494;  Darfibid,  5999;  and  Rimnagar,  5714. 
Principal  crops,  and  their  acreage  : — Rice,  132,459  acres  ; 
wheat,-  224,583 ;  pulses  and'  other  food  grains,  304,636 ; 
oil-sceds,  23,000  ;  sugar-cane,  29,586  ;  cotton,  509;  opium, 
3423;  indigo,  4875  ;  fibres,  675  ;  tobacco,  6051  ;  and  vege- 
tables, 6351  acres.  The  agricultural  stock  and  beasts  of 
burden  in  the  district  consisted  in  1871-72  of  83,232  cows 
and  bullocks,  1000  horses,  2590  ponies,  2840  donkeys, 
75,928  sheep  and  goats,  51,060  pigs,  1181  carts,  26,121 
ploughs,  and  1533  boats.  Of  the  population  returned  in 
1869, 741,989  were  agriculturists,  and  133,598  non-agricul- 
turista.  The  means  of  communication  within  the  district 
consist  of  337  miles  of  well-made  roads,  and  78  miles  of 
railway  were  under  construction  in  1872.  Total  revenue  in 
1871-72,  £165,662,  of  which  £157,505,  or  95  per  cent., 
was  derived  from  the  land.  The  police  consist  of  (1),  a 
regular  constabulary  force,  490  strong,  maintained  at  a 
cost  of  £6812  per  annum;  and  (2),  the  village  watch, 
numbering  9558  men  ;  total,  10,048,  or  about  1  to  each  100 
of  the  population,  according  to  the  estimate  of  1872. 

BARAHAT,  a  town  of  northern  HindustAn,  situated  in 
the  nimilayas,  and  within  the  native  state  of  Garhwil,  in 
30°  43'  N.  lat.  and  78°  29'  E.  long.  The  town  w.13  almost 
destroyed  in  1803  by  an  earthquake — a  calamity  greatly 
aggravated  by  th&  houses  having  been  built  of  large 
■tones,  with  slated  roofs.  From  its  central  position, 
it  maintains  a  free  communication  with  all  parts  of  the  hills, 
and  those  who  make  the  pilgrimage  to  Gangotrl  generally 
halt  here  and  lay  in  a  stock  of  provisions  for  the  journey. 
In  the  neighbourhood  stands  a  curious  trident  in  honour  of 
Siva.  The  pedestal  is  of  copper,  the  shaft  of  brass  about 
12  feet,  and  the  forks  about  6  feet  in  length.  There  is  no 
tradition  to  show  the  origin  of  this  curious  relic ;  and 
Jilthough  it  bears  a  legible  inscription,  no  '>ne  has  as  yet 


deciphered   iu     The   temple   in   which    it   nus   formerly 
enclosed  was  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  of  1803. 

BARANTE,  AiiABLE  Guillauile  Prosper,  Baron  de 
Brugiire,  an  eminent  French  statesman,  and  the  learned 
historian  of  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  was  the  son  of  an 
advocate,  and  was  born  at  Riom,  June  10,  17S2.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the  Ecole  Polylechnique  at  Paris, 
and  at  twenty  obtained  his  first  appointment  in  the  civil 
service.  His  abilities  secured  him  rapid  promotion,  and 
in  1 800  the  post  of  auditor  to  the  council  of  state  was  given 
to  him.  After  being  employed  in  several  political  mi-ssions 
in  Germany,  Poland,  and  Spain,  during  the  next  two  years, 
he  became  prefect  of  Vieone.  At  the  time  of  the  return  of 
Napoleon  I,  he  held  the  prefecture  of  Nantes,  and  this 
post  ho  immediately  resigned.  About  this  period  he 
married.  On  the  second  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he 
was  named  councillor  of  state  and  Secrctarj'-gcneral  of  the 
Ministry  of  the  Interior.  About  the  same  time  he  was 
elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  for  the  two  departments 
of  Puy-dc-D6me  and  Loire  Inf^rieure  ;  but  in  the  following 
year,  in  consequence  of  being  under  the  legal  age  of  a 
deputy,  as  required  by  a  new  law,  he  lost  his  seat.  After 
filling  for  several  years  the  post  of  Director-general  of 
Indirect  Taxes,  he  was  created,  in  1819,  a  peer  of  France, 
and  took  an  active  and  prominent  part  as  a  member  of  the 
opposition  in  the  debates  of  the  Upper  Chamber.  During 
the  same  period  the  leisure  hours  which  he  could  spare 
from  his  political  engagements  were  devoted  to  literary 
studies.  After  the  revolution  of  July  1830,  M.  de  Barante 
was  appointed  ambassador  to  Turin  ;  whence,  five  years 
later,  he  was  transferred  in  the  same  cap.ocity  to  St 
Petersburg.  Throughout  the  reign  of  Louia  Philippe  be 
remained  a  supporter  of  the  Government ;  and  after  the 
fall  of  the  monarchy  in  February  1848,  he  withdrew  from 
political  affairs  and  retired  to  his  country  seat  in  Auvergne. 
Shortly  before  his  retirement  he  had  been  made  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  As  a  scholar  his  oput 
magnum  is  the  Histoire  des  Dues  de  Bourgogne  de  la 
Maison  de  Valois,  which  appeared  in  a  series  of  volumes 
between  1824  and  1828.  It  procured  him  immediate  ad- 
mission among  the  Forty  of  the  French  Academy ;  and  its 
great  qualities  of  scholarship,  impartiality,  accuracy,  and 
purity  of  style,  have  given  him  a  place  among  the  greatest 
French  historians.  Amongst  the  other  literary  works  of 
M.  de  Barante  are  a  Tableau  de  la  Littirature  Franfaise 
au  dixhuitieme  Sticle,  of  which  several  editions  were  pub- 
lished; Des  Communes  ei  de  l'Aristocratie(\S!'2\);  a  French 
translation  of  the  dramatic  works  of  Schiller ;  Qucstiemt 
Constitutioneltea  (1850);  Histoire  de  la  Convention  Na- 
tionale,  which  appeared  in  six  volumes  between  1851  and 
1853;  Histoire  du  Directoire  de  la  Jiipublique  Franfaise 
(1855)  ;  £tudfs  Historiques  et  Biographiques  (1857)  ;  La 
y'ie  Ptililique  de  M.  Royer-Collard  (1801).  The  version  of 
Hamiei  for  M.  Guizot's  Shakespeare  was  the  work  of  M.  de 
Barante.  He  spent  the  Last  eighteen  years  of  his  life  in 
retiremtent  in  Auvergne,  and  died  there  on  November  22 
1866 

BARANYA,  a  province  in  the  kingdom  of  Hungary, 
extending  over  1960  square  miles.  It  lies  in  the  angle 
formed  at  the  junction  of  the  Danube  and  the  Drave,  is 
traversed  by  offshoots  of  the  Slyrian  Alps,  and  contains 
one  city,  13  market-towns,  and  341  villages.  The  in- 
habitants number  about  283,500,  and  consist  of  Magyars, 
Germans,  Croatians,  and  Servians,  a  large  proportion  being 
Roman  Catholics.  The  greater  part  of  the  land  is  fertile, 
but  a. portion  of  it  is  marshy  and  unhealthy.  The  chief 
products  are  corn,  wine,  flax,  tobacco,  asparagus,  and 
potash.  Warm  springs  are  found  at  Tapolcza,  Sikliis,  and 
Harkany.  There  are  some  valuable  quarries  of  marble  and 
millstones,  and  numerous  coal-mines.     The  rearing  of  sheep 


358 


B  A  R  — BA  R 


and  swine  is  larfjely  engaged  in.  The  province  is  subdivided 
into  six  circles.  The  capital  is  Fiintkirchen,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  a3,863. 

BARANZANO,  Jean  Ajitoine,  sufnamed  Redemptus,  an 
eminent  natural  philosopher  and  mathematician,  was  born  in 
Piedmont  in  1590,  and  died  at  Montargis  in  1622.  He  was 
a.  Barnabite  monk,  and  was  for  a  time  professor  of  philo- 
sophy and  mathematics  at  Annecy.  His  principal  works  are 
Urano3copia(l6n),.I)e  Novis  Opinionibus  Physicis  (1619), 
Campus  Philosoplciciu  (1620).,  He  was  greatly  esteemed  by 
Lord  Bacon,  with  whom  he  corresponded.  Bacon's  letter 
to  him  (Spedding,  Litters  and  Life  of  Bacon,  vii.  374-C) 
shows  that  he  thoroughly  appreciated  the  new  philo- 
sophy, and  could  see  its  weak  as  well  as  its  strong  points. 
BARASAT,  a  subdivisional  town  in  the  district  of  the 
24  Parganis,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lieutenant- 
Governjor  of  Bengal,  situated  in  22°  43'  24'  N.  lat.  and  88' 
31'  45"  E.  long.  For  a  considerable  time  BArisat  town  was 
the  headquarters  of  a  joint  magistracy,  known  as  the 
"Birisat  District,"  but  in  18G1,  on  a  re-adjustment  of 
boundaries,  BirAsat  district  was  abolished  by  order  of 
Government,  and  was  converted  into  a  subdivision  of 
the  24  FarganAs.  Population  in  1872 — Hindus,  6G49  ; 
Mahometans, .  5133;  Christians,  30;  and  others,  10; 
total  11,822.  Municipal  income,  £363;  expenditure, 
£289,  43.;  rate  of  municipal  taxation,  T^d.  per  head.  It 
forms  a  striking  illustration  of  the  rural  character  of  the 
so-called  "  towns"  in  Bengal,  and  is  merely  an  agglomeration 
of  41  separate  villages,  in  which  all  the  operations  of  hus- 
bandry go  on  precifely  as  in  the  adjacent  hamlets. 

BARATlfiRE,  or  Barettieb,  John  Phiup,  a  very 
remarkable  instance  of  precocious  genius,  was  bom  at 
Schwabach  near  Nuremberg  on  the  10th  January  1721. 
His  early  education  was  most  carefully  conducted  by  his 
father,  Francis  Baratiire,  pastor  of  the  French  church  at 
Schwabach,  and  so  rapid  was  his  progres.")  that  by  the 
time  he  was  five  years  of  age  he  could  speak  French,  Latin, 
md  Dutch  with  ease,  and  read  Greek  fluently.  -He  then 
engaged  in  the  study  of  Hebrew,  and  in  three  years  was 
able  to  translate_,th6  Hebrew  Bible  into  Latin  or  French, 
or  to  retranslate  these  versions  into  the  original  Hebrew. 
From  his  reading  he  collected  materials 'for  a  dictionary  of 
rare  and  diflSoult  Hebrew  words,  with  critical  and  philo- 
logical observations ;  and  when  he  was  about  eleven  years 
old  translated  from  the  Hebrew  Tudela's  I linerarium.  In 
bis  fourteenth  year  he  was  admitted  Master  of  Arts  at  Halle, 
and  received' into  *he  Royal  Academy  at  Berlin.  The  last 
years  of  his  short  life  he  devoted  to  the  study  of  history 
and  antiquities,  and  had  collected  materials  for  histories 
nf  the"  Thirty  Years'  War  and  of  Antitrinitarianism,  and 
for  an  Inquiry  concerning  Egyptian  Antiquities.  His  health, 
which  had  always  been  weak,  gave  way  completely  under 
these  labours,  and  he  died  on  the  5th  October  1740,  aged 
19  years  and  8  months.  He  had  published  eleven  separate 
works,  and  left  a  great  quantity  of  manuscript  materials. 

B.A.RATYNSKI,  Jewoenij  Abramovitcp,  a  distin- 
guished Russian  poet,  was  born  in  1792.  .  He  was'educatcd 
at  the  royal  school  at  St  Petersburg,  and  then  entered  the 
army.  He  served  for  eight  years  in  Finland,  and  appears 
to  have  got  into  disgrace  on  account  of  some  foolish  pranks 
which  he  had  played.  During  these  years  ho  composed 
his  first  poem,  Eva,  which  bears  very  manifest  traces  of 
his  residence  in  Finland.  Through  the  interest  of  friends 
ho  obtained  leave  from  the  Czar  to  retire  from  the  army, 
and  settled  near  Moscow.  There,  so  far  as  his  broken 
health  would  allow  him,  he  devoted  his  time  to  poetry,  and 
completed  his  chief  work.  The  Gipsy,  which  has  been 
spoken  of  by  critics  as  the  best  poem  of  its  kind  in  tlic 
Russian  language,  and  as  fully  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the 
6i>o9t  productions  of  Pouschkin.     This  was  his  only  wort  of 


any  extent ;  his  healta  gave  way  completely,  ana  he  died 
in  1844  at  Naples,  whither  he  had  gone  for  the  saki 
of  the  milder  climate.  A  collected  edition  of  his  poenis 
appeared  at  St  Petersburg,  in  2  vols.,  in  1835. 

BARBACENA,  a  town  of  Brazil,  in  the  province  cl 
Minas-Geraes,  situated,  at  the  height  of  about  3500  feet 
above  the  sea,  in  the  Sierra  Mantiqucir.a,  150  miles  N.W- 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  has  low  houses  and  broad  streets, 
and  contains  a  town-hall,  a  prison,  a  hospital,  founded  in 
1852  by  Antonio  FerreLra  Armond,  and  a  "school  of  inter- 
mediate instruction,"  in  which  French  history  and  geometry 
are  taught.  The  trade  is  principally  in  gold-dust,  cotton, 
and  coffee.     Population  of  town  and  district,  14,000 

BARBADOS,  or  Barbadoes,  the  most  windward  of  the 
Caribbean  Islands,  is  situated  in  lat,  13"  4'  N.  and  long,  59° 
37'  W.,  78  miles  E.  of  St  Vincent,  the  island  nearest  to  it  in 
the  Caribbean  chain.     It  lies  in  the  track  of  vessels,  and 


-x> — 3 — ■' 


VctAhAm   P' 


Sketch  Map  of  Barbados. 

is  well  adapted  to  be  an  entrqA  of  commerce.  It  has 
nearly  the  size  and  proportions  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  being 
21  miles  in  length,  and  about  HJ  miles  in  its  broadest  part. 
It  has  a  superficial  area  of  106,470  acres,  or  about  166 
square  miles,— 70,000  acres  (besides  grass  land)  are  under 
cultivation,  and  nearly  30,000  acres  of  sugar-cane  are 
annually  cut.  The  island  is  almost  encircled  by  coral  reefs, 
which  in  some  parts  extend  seaward  nearly  three  miles. 
There  are  two  lighthouses,  one  on  the  south  point  and 
another  on  the  south-east  coast.  A  harbour  light  has  also 
been  placed  on  Needham's  Point.  The  harbour,  Carlisle 
Bay,  is  a  largo  open  roadstead.  The  inner  harbour,  or 
careenage,  for  small  vessels,  is  protected  by  a  breakwater 
called  the  Molchead.  Barbados  presents  every  variety  of 
scenery,— hill  and  valley,  smooth  table-land  and  rugged 
rocks.  From  one  point"  of  view  the  land  rises  in  a  suc- 
cession of  limestone  and  coral  terraces,  which  indicate 
different  periods  of  upheaval  from  the  sea.  From  another 
there  is  nothing  to  be  seen  but  a  mass  of  abruptly-risi:ig 
rocks.  The  highest  elevation.  Mount  Ilillaby,  is  1 104  feel 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.     The  island  contains  but  feu 


BARBADOS 


359 


gtrcama  or  stre;imlet3.  TLc  guUius  or  ravines,  the  result, 
no  doubt,  of  volcanic  agcocy,  are,  however,  very  numerous, 
radiating  from  the  high  semicircular  ridge  of  the  corallijie 
formation  in  a  very  regular  manner  to  the  west,  north,  and 
eouth,  but  not  to  the  east,  where  the  coral  rocks  end 
abruptly.  The  chalky  soil  of  the  district  called  Scotland 
(from  its  assumed  resemblance  to  the  scenery  of  the 
Highlands)  contains  infusoria,  and  is  altogether  different 
from  the  deposits  of  the  coral  animals  which  form  the  super- 
ficial area  of  six-sevenths  of  the  island  (91,000  acres). 
Besides  the  chalk  or  marl,  sandstone  is  found  in  this  district. 
The  climate  of  Barbados  is  healthy ;  the  temperature 
equable.  For  eight  months  in  the  year  the  sea  breezes 
keep  it  delightfully  cool  for  a  tropical  country.  The  extent 
of  cultivation,  the  absence  of  swamps  (the  porous  character 
of  the  rock  immediately  underlying  the  soil  preventing 
accumulations  of  stagnant  water)  account  for  the  freedom 
from  miasma.  The  destruction  of  the  forests  may  have 
made  the  rainfall  —  upon  which  successful  cultivation 
depends — somev.hat  uncertain,  but  does  not  seem  to  have 
affected  it  to  such  an  extent  as  might  have  been  anticipated. 
The  rainfall  is  caused,  apart  from  elevation,  by  the  exposure 
of  the  land  to  those  winds  laden  with  moisture  which 
strike  the  island  at  dUTerent  periods  of  the  year.  The 
average  rainfall  of  the  four  years  1753-6  was  6589 
inches;  of  the  twenty  five-years  1847-71,  577-1  inches; 
of  the  single  year  1873,  5120  inches.  The  sugar  produc- 
tion of  the  island  is  calculated  at  800  hogsheads  of  10 
cwt.  each  for  every  inch  of  rain. 

'  The  N.E.  trade-wind  blows  for  three-fourths  of  the  year, 
and  most  of  the  rain  comes  from  the  same  quarter. 
.M»rch  13  the  driest  of  the  months,  and  October  the  wettest ; 
the  average  rainfall  for  the  former  being  li  inch,  and  for 
the  latter  9  inches.  Leprosy  is  not  uncommon  among  the 
negroes,  and  elephantiasis  is  so  frequent  as  to  be  known  by 
the  name  of  "  Barbados  leg." 

Bridgetown  is  the  capital  and  port  of  the  island,  and  the 
centre  of  business  activity.  It  contains  about  23,000 
inhabitants.  Over  the  creek  which  received  the  waters 
from  the  heights  around  the  Indians  had  built  a  rude 
bridge.  This  was  known  for  a  long  time  after  the  British 
settlement  as  the  Indian  Bridge,  but  as  the  settlement 
grew,  and  after  the  old  bridge  had  been  replaced  by  a 
more  solid  structure,  the  place  received  the  name  of  Bridge- 
town. The  town  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1660,  .and 
rebuilt,  principally  of  stone,  upon  a  larger  scale.  It 
iulTcred  again  from  fire  in  1706  and  1845.  Jt  has  a  large 
town  hall.  The  Government  buildings  are  a  handsome 
pile  close  to  the  sea.  The  town  fol.lows  the  curve  of  the 
bay.  Behind  it  the  hills  begin  to  rise,  forming  the  first 
btepping-stone  to  the  higher  lands  of  the  interior.  At  the 
louthcrn  extremity  are  the  extensive  buildings  for  the 
garrison,  Barbados  being  the  headquarters  of  the  troops  in 
the  West  Indian  comniand. 

'  Opinions  differ  as  to  the  derivation  of  the  name  of  the 
islend.  It  is  probably  ths  Spanish  word  for  the  hanging 
branches  of  a  vine  which  strike  root  in  the  earth.  In 
maps  of  the  IClh  century  the  island  appears  under  various 
nainci.  among  which  are  Si  Demnnlo,  Dernardos,  Darhn- 
daio,  Darurxhs,  and  Darnodo.  The  traces  of  Indians  in 
this  island  are  more  numerous  than  in  any  other  of  the 
Caribbccs.  The  first  recorded  visit  of  Englishmen  was 
in  the  year  1005,  when  the  crew  of  the  "Olive  Blossom" 
landed,  and  erected  a  cross  as  a  memorial  of  the  event, 
cutting  at  the  same  time  upon  the  bark  of  a  tree  the  words 
"James,  king  of  England  and  of  this  island."  This  party 
of  adventurers  did  not  settle,  but  from  ilie  time  of  their 
visit  the  history  of  Barbados  begins.  That  history  has 
some  special  features  It  shows  the  process  c5  peaceful 
colonir.atiiin,  for  the  island,  acquired  wiilinul  conquest  or 


blSbdsEcdding,  has  never  since  been  out  of  tlie  |>ossession 
of  the  British.  It  was  the  first  EngUsh  colony  where  the 
sugar-cane  was  planted.  Its  colonists  have almostfrom  the 
beginning  enjoyed  re[irc3entative  institutions,  and  the  full 
measure  of  English  freedom.  They  have  always  defended 
their  rights  with  spirit,  and  shown  consistent  loyalty  to 
the  Crown.  The  prominence  and  accessibility  of  the  island 
h.ave  made  it  important  as  a  military  station  in  the  wars 
with  the  French  and  Dutch.  And  its  varying  fortunes 
show  the  effects  of  the  commercial  legislation  of  England, 
from  the  stringent  Navigation  Laws  of  Cromwell  down  to 
the  repeal  of  the  sugar  duties  in  1874.. 

The  first  patent  conveying  a  proprietary  interest  in 
Barbados  was  granted  by  James  L  to  Lord  Leigh,  after- 
wards e.arl  of  Marlborough.  In  1624  a  ship,  belonging  to 
Sir  Wilham  Courieen,  a  rich  merchant  of  London,  called  at 
Barbados.  The  country  was  found  to  be  thickly  wooded, 
and  uninhabited,  except  by  a  great  number  of  wild  hogs. 
Sir  William  Courteen,  having  received  a  description  of 
the  place,  sent  out  two  large  ships  under  Ihe  authority 
of  Marlborough's  patent.  One  of  these,  the  "John  and 
William,"  commanded  by  John  Powell,  arrived  in  February 
1525,  which  is  therefore  the  date  of  the  earliest  English 
settlement  in  the  island.  The  thirty  settlers  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  town  which  they  called  Jamestown,  and 
chose  Crj^'ain  William  Deane  their  governor.  But  the 
earl  of  Carlisle,  having  obtained  from  King  James  in 
102 1  the  warrant  for  a  grant  of  all  the  Caribbean  Islands, 
twenty-two  in  number,  agreed,  in  1027,  to  pay  the  earl  of 
Marlborough  £300  a  year  for  his  right  to  Barbados.  The 
patent  in  favour  of  Lord  Carlisle  passed  the  great  seal  on 
2d  July  1C27;  but  during  his  absence  on  a  diplomatic 
mission  soon  after,  William,  carl  of  Pembroke,  the  Lord 
Chamberlain,  obtained  in  the  interest  of  Sir  William  Cour- 
teen a  grant  of  several  islands,  including  Barbados.  Upon 
Lord  Carlisle's  return  he  obtained  the  revocation  of  Lord 
Pembroke's  grant,  and  the  full  confirmation  of  his  own 
rights,  upon  which  he  acted  in  on"ering  to  sell  parcels  of 
land  for  an  annual  payment  of  40  lb  of  cotton.  The 
Society  of  London  >Ierchant3  then  obtained  from  Lord 
Carlisle  a  grant  of  10,000  acres,  and  they  appointed  Charles 
Wolferstone,  a  native  of  Bermuda,  to  proceed  with  sixty- 
four  persons,  and  to  govern  the  settlement  under  a  com- 
mission from  the  earl.  Wolferstone  and  his  party  arrived 
in  July  102S  in  the  bay,  known  thenceforth  as  Carlisle 
Hay.  The  antagonism  between  the  earlier  settlers  under 
Cuurtcen's  auspices  and  Wolferstone's  party  broke  out 
into  actual  fighting.  Finding  that  the  validity  of  his 
patent  was  stiil  being  disputed.  Lord  Carlisle  obtained  a 
further  confirmation  of  it  by  the  king  in  April  1629,  and 
at  once  despatched  Sir  William  Tufton  as  commander-in- 
chief  with  a  sufficient  force  to  subdue  the  rival  settlers. 
In  1045  Philip  Bell  became  governor,  and  the  real  progress 
of  the  colony  began.  Good  laws  were  passed,  a  judicial 
system  was  elaborated  ;  the  island  was  divided  into  eleven 
parishes,  and  a  general  assembly  formed  by  two  represoii- 
tatives  of  each  parish,  elected  by  a  majority  of  freeholders. 
A  council  had  been  in  existence  since  the  time  of  Wolfer« 
stone. 

The  first  settlers  cultivated  maize,  sweet  potatoes,  plan- 
tahis,  and  yams  for  their  own  consumption,  and  indigo, 
cotton  wool,  tobacco,  ginger,  and  aloes  for  export  Quan- 
tities of  logwood,  fustic,  and  lignum  vita  were  also  shijiped. 
Cut  the  adaptability  of  the  soil  for  cane  becoming  known, 
and  the  necessary  knowledge  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar 
being  obtained,  this  article  at  once  became  the  grgat  stuplc 
of  the  colony.  The  value  of  property  ver)'  largely  increased. 
The  half  of  an  estate  of  500  acres,  200  under  cane,  with 
buildings  and  appurtenances,  was  sold  for  X7000  about  the 
year  1050,  the  labourers  bein<;  slaves  from  Africa, 


3(50 


BARBADOS 


It  was  while  the  rapid  progress  of  the  colony  was 
attracting  especial  attention,  and  many  persons  of  family 
and  means,  adherents  of  the  royal  cause,  were  finding  it  a 
refuge  from  the  troubles  at  home,  that  Francis  Lord 
Willoughby  of  Part-am  went  out  as  governor,  with  the  con- 
sent of  Kiiig  Charles  II.,  who  had  been  proclaimed  in 
Barbado?  as  soon  as  the  news  of  the  execution  of  Charles 
I.  had  arrived.  Lord  Carlisle  had  died,  and  his  heir  had 
Tieen  entrusted  with  the  duty  of  paying  his  debts  out  of 
the  revenue  from  the  island.  Lord  Willoughby  agreed  to 
take  a  lease  from  the  new  earl  of  the  profits  of  the  colony 
for  twenty-one  years,  to  pay  Lord  Carlisle  one-half,  and  to 
accept  the  governorship,  including  that  of  the  other  islands 
in  the  Carlisle  grant.  Upon  his  arrival  in  1650,  notwith- 
standing the  active  opposition  of  a  party  headed  by  Colonel 
Walrond,  he  procured  the  passing  of  an  Act  acknowledging 
the  king's  sovereignty,  the  proprietary  rights  of  the  earl  of 
Carlisle,  and  his  own  interest  derived  from  the  latter.  But 
the  Parliament  despatched  Sir  George  Ayscue  with'  a 
squadron  and  considerable  land  forces,  to  reduce  the  island 
to  submission  to  its  authority.  About  the  same  time  the 
famous  Navigation  Law  was  enacted,  by  which  foreign  ships 
were  prohibited  from  trading  with  British  colonies,  and 
imports  into  England  and  the  dependencies  were  not  allowed 
in  foreign  bottoms.  This  restriction  had  a  great  effect  upon 
Barbados,  which  depended  upon  foreign  importation  for  a 
great  deal  of  its  provisions.  Sir  G.  Ayscue's  expedition 
appeared  off  Barbados  in  October  165L  After  one 
unsuccessful  attempt,  a  knding  was  effected,  and  Lord 
Willoughby's  force  was  routed.  The  counsels  of  a  moderate 
party  in  the  island,  however,  prevailed,  and  a  compromise 
was  effected.  A  treaty  was  made  declaring  the  authority 
of  the  Parliament,  but  containing  provisions  not  at  all 
unfavourable  to  the  inhabitants,  and  reserving  even  to  Lord 
Willoughby  his  rights  in  the  island.  During  the  Common- 
wealth prisoners  of  war  were  sometimes  sent  to  Barbados. 
The  expedition  of  1 655  against  St  Domingo  and  Jamaica 
under  Penn  and  Venables  was  reinforced  by  a  troop  of 
horse  and  3500  volunteers  from  Barbados.  At  the  Restora- 
tion Lord  Willoughby  went  out  once  more  to  Barbados  and 
resumed  his  office.  Several  of  the  faithful  adherents  of 
the  royal  cause  in  the  island  were  made  baronets  and 
knights,  but  the  restrictions  upon  commercial  intercourse 
which  had  been  imposed  by  the  Parliament  were  made  more 
stringent.  Then  doubts  began  to  arise  in  the  minds  of  the 
planters  as  to  the  title  by  which  they  held  their  estates. 
They  had  created  by  their  exertions  a  very  valuable 
property,  and  the  bare  possibility  of  the  carl  of  Carlisle 
stepping  }n  and  dispossessing  them  caused  much  discon- 
tent. The  death  of  Lord  ,  Carlisle  brought  matters  to  a 
cri.sis.  An- arrangement  was  made  in  1663  by  which  the 
different  claimants  were  satisfied,  the  proprietary  or  patent 
interest  was  dissolved,  and  the  Crown  exercised  directly  its 
rights,  and  undertook  the  government,  although  it  was  not 
till  1672  that  the  nomination  of  thecouncd  was  taken  into 
the  hands  of  the  king.  A  duty  of  4  J  per  cent,  upon  the 
produce  of  the  Liland  was  levied  in  1663  to  satisfy  the  claims 
and  defray  "the  government  expenses.  Lord  Willoughby 
received  a  new  commission,  and  the  only  practical  change 
effected  in  the  cfOnstitution  was  that  all  laws  were  thenco- 
forwar  made  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  king.  -In 
16G5  the  colony  successfully  resisted  an  attack  by  the 
Dutch  ;  but  in  conducting  an  expedition  against  the  French 
in  Ouadaloupe  in  1 660,  Lord  Willoughby  was  lost  in  a 
I'urricanc,  and  an  eventful  and  occasionally  brilliant  career 
was  thus  prematurely  ended.  lie  was  succeeded  in  the 
government  by  his  brother,  Lord  William  Willongh by, during 
vhose  governorship  the  divi.sion  of  the  Caribbean  Island.s 
into  Windward  and  Leeward  was  made.  The  hurricane 
of    1C75  gave  a  serious  check  to  the  ■prosperity  of  the 


colony.  An  unsuccessful  "application  was  made  to  tha 
home  Government,  to  remit,  on  account  of  the  distress 
that  prevailed,  the  ih  per  cent,  duty,  which  pressed  very 
heavily  upon  the  planters.  The  island-  had  .  scarcely 
recovered  from  the  efiects  of  the  hurricane  when  the  supply 
of  labour  was  restricted  and  its  expense  increased  by  the 
Royal  African  Company,  at  the  head  of  which  was  the 
duke  of  York,  receiving  a  charter  for  the  exclusive  supply 
of  slaves  to  the  West  India  Islands.  This  company  had 
great  influence  in  the  appointment  of  governors ;  and  in 
consequence  of  oppressive  proceedings  and  depreciation  oJ 
the  value  of  properly,  many  families  left  the  island.  A 
number  of  persons  implicated  in  the  duke  of  Monmonth'j 
rebelUon  were  sent  to  Barbados  and  treated  harshly. 
Duties  upon  sugar  were  imposed  by  the  mother  country 
which  were  increased  at  the  accession  of  James  II.,  to  2s 
4d.  per  cwt.  on  Muscovado,  and  to  7s.  upon  all  sugars  for 
common  use.  From  the  survey  made  by  governor  Sii 
Richard  Dutton  in  1683-4,  it  appears  that  the  population 
consisted  of  17,187  free,  23S1  unfree  and  servants 
(prisoners  of  war  and  persons  brought  from  England  under 
engagements  for  terms  of  years),  and  46,602  slaves.  The 
number  of  acres  in  useful  possession  was  90,017,  and  of 
sugar-works  358.  These  figures  show  how  rapidly,  in 
spite  of  all  diflSculties,  the  colony  had  grown  in  sixty  years. 
The  wars  in  Europe  were  reproduced  npon  a  smaller 
scale,  though  with  equal  if  not  greater  intensity,  among 
the  different  nationalities  in  the  West  Indies.  In  such  times 
the  seas  swarmed  with  privateers ;  and  freights  were  so 
high  as  to  induce  the  island  Legislature  to  make  a  vain 
attempt  to  regulate  them  by  law.  The  news  of  the  peace 
of  Eyswick  was  received  with  great  joy,  and  matters 
remained  quiet  untQ  the  declaration  of  war  against  France 
and  Spain  in  1702  revived  privateering  in  West  Indian 
waters.  Events  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century  du 
not  call  for  detailed  description.  It  was  the  custom  of 
the  assembly  to  supplement  the  salary  of  the  governor 
(which  was  paid  by  the  Crown  out  of  the  4J  per  cent, 
duty)  by  special  grants,  sometimes  of  large  amount.  But 
this  (lid  not  prevent  many  constitutional  conflicts  between 
the  assembly  and  the  executive.  During  the  war  which 
commencedj  between  England  and  France  in  1756,  the 
West  Indies  witnessed  much  fighting,  with  its  attendant 
suffering.  In  1761  a  determined  attempt  was  made  to 
break  the  power  of  France  in  the  archipelago.  Barbados 
entered  with  enthusiasm  into  the  project.  Guadaloupe  had 
been  taken  in  1759,  and  the  principal  effort  now,  under 
Admiral  Rodney  and  General  Monckton,  was  directed 
against  Martinique.  In  1762  that  island  surrendered, 
Barbados  spent  ^24,000  in  raising  and  equipping  her  pro- 
portion of  men  in  the  attacking  forces  ;  and  in  1765  the 
Uousa  of  Commons  voted  £10,000  as  compensation  for 
the  expense  incurred.  By  the  Treaty  of  1763,  how- 
ever, both  these  islands  were  restored  to  France.  The 
constant  wars  had  naturally  on  injurious  effect  upon 
Barbados.  During  the  governorship  of  the  Hon.  Edward 
Hay,  who  was  appointed  in  1773,  differences  of  opinion 
arose  as  to  the  state  of  the  island.  When  the  war 
between  England  and  the  American  colonies  began, 
the  supply  of  provisions,  ujion  which  Barbados  depended, 
necessarily  stopped.  Tha  assembly  addressed  a  petitiot 
to  the  king,  praying  for  relief ;  through  the  interposi- 
tion of  the  governor  the  relief  was  not  immediately 
granted,  but  in  1778,  when  the  island  was  in  a  very 
depressed  state,  the  British  ministry  sent  a  quantity  of 
jirovisions  for  sale  at  prime  cost.  With  the  advent  of 
General  Cunninghame  as  governor  another  series  of  con- 
tentious years  began.  In  the  midst  of  disputes  as  to  the 
right  of  the  governor  to  exact  certain  foes  without  the 
ciiiisent  of  the  assembly,  a  hurricane  viaitcd  the  iubnd  and 


J 


B  A  11  B  A  D  0  S 


361 


caused  much  destructiou  of  property  Parliament  in  1782 
granted  j£80,000  for  relief,  but  an  attempt  to  obtaia  the 
repeal  of  the  4  J  per  cent,  duty  was  again  unsucccssfuL 
The  French  were  regaining  their  ascendency  in  the  archi- 
pebgo,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  great  naval  victory  won 
by  Sir  George  Rodney,  Barbados  and  the  remaining  British 
colonies  might  have  fallen  to  the  enemy.  As  the  18th 
ceiitury  closed;  the  prospect  of  the  great  tinal  struggle  with 
France  overshadowed  the  colonies.  The  Barbadians  ener- 
getically put  themselves  in  a  slate  of  defence,  and  at  the 
same  time  voted  and  privately  subscribed  money  to  assist 
his  Majesty  to  carry  on  the  war.  The  peace  of.  Amiens, 
in  1 802,  relieved  anxiety  for  a  brief  interval,  but  hostilities 
were  soon  renewed.  When  in  1805  Napoleon  sent  a 
squadron  to  the  archipelago,  with  4000  'soldiers,  the  crisis 
put  Barbados  on  her  mettle.  The  French  fleet  was  suo- 
cossful  iti  exacting  large  sums  of  mOney  from  adjacent 
colonies.  Admiral  Villeneuve,  too,  was  on  his  way  with  a 
still  larger  fleet  and  stronger  force.  '  But  when  Admiral 
Cochrane  arrived  off  Barbados  the  safety  of  the  island  was 
secured.  Even  amid  the  intense  excitement  of  these 
events  constitutional  questions  were  not  forgotten.  The 
governor  could  only  establish  martial  law  when  the  enemy's 
tieet  was  in  sight.  A  premature  declaration  drew  forth  a 
protest  from  the  assembly,  and  the  controversy  was  only 
ended  when  the  Home  Government  asserted  the  full 
prerogative  of  the  Crown  to  iiflpose  martial  law  when 
necessary  for  the  safety  of  the  island.  The  most  memorable 
event  in  1805  was  a  flying  visit  from  Lord  Nelson  in  search 
of  a  French  fleet.  In  October  of  the  same  year  the  battle 
of  Trafalgar  was  won,  and  Bridgetown  soon  after  had  its 
Trafalgar  Square  and  its  Nelson  statue.  In  1809  an 
expedition  sailed  from  Barbados,  under  Governor  Beckwith, 
against  the  French  in  Martinique.  After  a  bombardment 
of  five  days  that  place  was  taien. ,  Twelve  months  later 
Beckwith  similarly  attacked  Guadaloupe  ;  and  when  that 
island  was  conquered,  after  some  hard  fighting,  the  power 
of  the  French  in  the  archipelago  was  again  reduced  to  its 
lowest  ebb.  When  the  war  ended  in  1810  in  the  West 
Indies,  the  British  were  supreme  in  that  region.  But 
danger  was  threatened  from  another  source.  The  rupture 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  in  1812 
:aused  privateering  to  be  resumed  to  an  extent  that  almost 
destroyed  the  commerce  of  the  island,  until  the  abdication 
of  Napoleon  and  the  peace  with  .\mcrica  in  1814  again 
brought  relief  to  the  colonies.  Tlue  military  history  of 
Barbados  ceased  at  the  close  of  the  Peninsular  War. 

In  the  meantime  Barbadian  affairs  had  attracted  notice 
in  Parliament.  In  1812  a  motion  was  made  in  the  House 
of  Commons  that  the  ik  per  cent,  duty  should  be  applied 
exclusively  to  local  purposes.  A  considerable  amount  of 
this  revenue  had  been  devoted  to  pensions  to  persons 
entirely  unconnected  with  the  colony,  and  it  was  stated  in 
iho  House  of  Commons  that  part  of  the  money  had  been 
appropriated  to  the  king's  household  in  the  reign  of 
William  III.  Nor  were  the  Barbadians  themselves  back- 
ward in  stating  their  grievances.  In  1813  they  protested 
against  the  importation  of  East  Indian  sugars  into  Great 
Britain,  and  also  against  the  system  of  patent  oflices,  by 
which  nonresident  ofScials  were  able  to  draw  large  sums 
from  the  island  for  services  which  they  never  performed.  By 
Act  of  the  Parliament  G  Geo.  IV.  c.  1  U,  1825,  foreign  com- 
modities were  admitted  into  the  British  possessions  at  modo- 
raterates  of  duty  if  the  countries  sending  those  articles  would 
give  similar  privileges  to  British  ships.  As  the  United 
States  refused  reciprocity,  the  West  Indian  ports  were 
closed  against  their  vessels,  and  the  United  States  retaliated 
by  prohibiting  all  intercourse  with  British  colonics.  From 
the  operation  of  the  above  mentioned  Act  an  important 
oJostitutional  question  arose.  These  duties,  levied  in  the 
3— M« 


name  of  the  king,  were  to  be  paid  into  the  local  treasury 
for  the  uses  of  the  colony,  but  the  customs  ofliicers,  of 
course  appointed  from  home,  received  instructions  to  retain 
their  own  salaries  from  the  reveftue.  This  was  denounced 
by  the  assembly  as  illegal,  and  after  a  long  controversy  it 
was  agreed,  in  1832,  that  10  per  cent,  should  be  deducted 
to  defray  the  expense  of  collecting  the  tax.  Another 
question  arose  which  illustrates  the  relations  between  Eng- 
land and  the  colony.  By  an  island  Act  of  1773,  a  2s.  Gd. 
tonnage  duty  was  imposed,  but  small  vessels  belonging  to 
residents  were  only  to  pay  on  three  voyages  a  year.  By  an 
Act  of  Parliament  in  1832  this  exemption  was  abolished. 
The  assembly  protested  and  denied  the  right  of  Parliament 
to  tax  colonies  which  had  representative  institutions ;  but 
Lord  Stanley,  in  1833,  declared  that  this  right  existed, 
although  its  eserciso  was  a  matter  of  expediency.  After 
the  hurricane  of  1831,  which  was  perhaps  the  severest  the 
island  had  ever  experienced,  causing  1591  deaths  and  a 
destruction  of  property  estimated  .at  more  than  a  million 
and  a  half  sterling,  another  urgent  appeal  was  made  for  the 
remission  of  the  4^  per  cent,  duty,  but  without  effect, 
although  £100,000  was  granted  by  Parliament  in  1832  for 
the  relief  of  the  islands  which  had  suffered  from  the  visita- 
tion ;  of  this  sum  Barbados  took  half.  By  an  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment passed  in  1833,  the  ih  per  cent,  duty  was  at  length 
removed,  oru:r  having  been  in  existence  for  175  years. 

But  a  social  revolution  had  begun  which  was  destined  Sla»f 
to  change  not  so  much  the  prosperity  of  the  colony,  as  the  i^boui 
conditions  under  which  that  prosperity  arose.  From  the 
first  settlement,  of  coarse,  the  one  great  want  was  labour. 
As  the  labour  supply  increased  and  became  more  certain 
the  cultivation  expanded,  wealth  was  created,  and  the 
importance  of  the  colony  grew.  In  the  early 'days  white 
labour  was  employed,  assisted  by  Indians  obtained  from 
other  islands  and  the  mainland  of  South  America,  but 
when  the  sugar-cane  began  to  be  cultivated,  negro  slaves 
wdre  imported  from  Africx  This  slave  trade,  mostly 
conducted  by  companies  or  persons  in  England,  continued 
until  the  year  180G,  when  it  was  stopped  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment. In  that  year  there  were  60,000  negroes  in  the 
island.  Tiiis  measure  was,  of  course,  the  first  step  to  the 
abolition  of  slavery  itself.  On  the  1st  August  1834,  the 
great  Act  of  Emancipation  came  into  force,  and  four  years 
of  apprenticeship  began.  Out  of  the  20  millions  granted 
for  compensation,  Barbados  received  £1,720,345,  being  an 
average  payment  of  £20,  14s.  on  83,170  slaves.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  large  population  and  small  extent  of  uncul- 
tivated land,  emancipation  had  not  in  Barbados  such  a 
relaxing  effect  upon  the  industry  of  the  negroes  as  it  had 
in  the  more  thinly-populated  colonies.  An  efficient  system 
of  town  and  rural  police  was,  however,  essential  From 
the  time  of  emancipation  the  negroes  multiplied  rapidly. 
In  1844,  out  of  a  total  population  of  122,198,  at  least 
90,000  were  negroes,  among  whom  females  were  largely  in 
excess.  The  popuhtion,  notwithstanding  an  occasional 
epidemic  and  almost  continuous  emigration,  has  continued 
to  increase,  a?  the  following  census  returns  will  show  • — • 

Vcar.  Whlttt.  Coloured.  '    Black. 

1851      ......  15,824  30,059  -SO.OSS 

I86I      16,59i  36.128  100,005 

1871 16,560  89,578  105,904 

The  density  of  the  population  in  1871  was  therefore  yCS 
to  the  square  mile.  The  gross  population  at  the  end  o( 
1873  was  estimated  at  If  0,000. 

ProJuotion  and  commerce  have  uodergons  great  Buctuations.  fuJ*. 
Before  the  navigation  laws  the  Dutch  were  good  cnstomcrs,  but 
Bubsoqiicutlv  the  greater  part  of  the  produce  Ena  been  exported  to 
England.  In  1767  the  total  exports  of  sugar  were  24,000  hhds.; 
in  1805  they  were  19,605  hhds.  In  1803,  probably  in  consc<iiierce 
of  the  stoppage  of  the  slave  trade,  the  e.Tportj  fell  to  13,996  lihds., 
la  1834  they  were  28,311  bbUs.,  and  io  1846.  with  the  prospect  of 


3G2 


B  A  R  —  B  A  R 


the  equalization  of  the  English  sugar  duties  upon  slave  and  free 
grown  sugar,  they  fell  to  21,996  hhds.  From  1850  to  1872,  the 
iTerage  quantity  exported  annually  was  44,000  hhds.  The  crop  of 
1873'yielded  only  37,337  hhds.  The  total  values  of  import.i  and 
sxports  in  1850,  1860,  and  1873  were  as  follows  :— 

Imports.  Export*. 

ISSO £734,358  £831,534 

I860  941,761  984.294 

1873     .  .      ..      1,193,814  1,024,083 

OftheimporU  £305,189  were  from  theUnitcd  Kingdom,  £171,592 
from  British  Colonies,  £485,275  from  tlio  United  States,  and  tlit 
remainder  from  other  foreign  countries.  The  exports  were  thus 
distributed;— £471,175  to  the  United  Kingdom,  £3^8.791  to  British 
Colonies,  and  £164,165  to  foreign  couuliies,  inclutung  £'25,640 
to  United  States.  Of  the  toLil  exports  05  per  cent,  consisted  of 
native  productions,  sugar,  molasses,  and  rum.  The  balance  consists 
of  the  transit  trade,  which  contributes  largely  and  increasingly  to 
thecommercial  business  of  the  island.  The  number  of  shifs  entered 
fronl  the  United  Kingdom  in  1873  was  74,  tonnage,  22,590  j  from 
United  States,  181,  tonnage,  40,725  ;  from  British  North  American 
Colonies,  125,  tonnage,  19,283  ;  from  West  Indies  and  Guiana,  851, 
tonnage,  44,323.  The  total  number  of  ships  entered  waa  1406, 
with  a  tonnage  of  153,400  tons.  But  in  1873  the  crop  was  defi- 
cient. The  figures  for  1875  will  show  the  employment  of  a  much 
larger  quantity  of  shipping. 

Barbados  is  gradually  becoming  the  central  mart  for  all  the  Wind- 
ward Islands,  even  Trinidad  finding  it  more  advantageous  to  derive 
her  breadstoffs,  &c.,  from  this  quarter,  than  to  import  them  direct 
from  the  continent.  There  was  formerly  an  extensive  whale-fishery 
round  the  island,  and  recently  attempts  have  been  made  to  revive 
its  importance.  Many  other  fishes  would  afford  an  excellent  return, 
but  this  source  of  wealth  is  in  great  measure  neglected.  The  anchovy 
is  frequently  diiven  up  in  shoals  on  the  coast.  The  flying-fish  is 
one  of  the  principal  articles  in  the  Bridgetown  market ;  barracoudaa, 
•harks,  and  conger-eels  are  also  exposed. 
Govern.  The  local  government  consists  of  a  governor  {who  is  also  governor- 

nent  in-chief  of  St  Vincent,  Grenada,  Tobago,  and  St  Lucia);  a  legisla- 

tive council  (the  members  of  which  form  as  well  an  executive 
council),  appointed  by  the  sovereign,  and  holding  ofiice  during 
fileasure,  and  the  house  of  assembly.  In  former  times  the  council 
exercised  judicial  functions,  but  in  1841  a  chief-justice  was  ap- 
,iointpd,  and  recent  improvements  have  relieved  the  council  of  their 
equity  and  nearly  all  their  a'ppellatc  jurisdiction.  The  island  is  still 
divided  into  11  parishes,  each  of  which  sends  two  representatives 
to  the  assembly.  In  addition  to  the  parishes,  Bridgetown  sends 
two  members.  The  number  of  voters,  with  the  necessary  property 
qualification,  is  about  1350.  The  business  of  the  legislature  is  con- 
ducted according  to  the  forms  of  the  English  Parliament,  even  to 
the  election  of  a  speaker  to  preside  over  the  assembly,  the  initia- 
tion of  money  bills  in  that  house,  and  the  assertion  of  the  right  to 
•Revenue  exclude  strangers.  The  assembly  is  elected  annually.  The  revenue 
of  tho  island  in  1873  was  £123,670,  derived  mainly  from  import 
duties,  tonnage  and  port-dues,  licences,  and  rum  duty.  The  ex- 
penditure was  £121,796.  The  total  parochial  taxation  in  1873  was 
£31,569,  which  bririga  the  gross  amount  of  general  taxation  to 
£155,245,  being  at  the  rate  of  £1,  9s.  Id.  per  arre,  or  17s.  6d  jht 
head  of  population.  The  island  is  free  from  debt.  The  judicial 
establishment  includes  a  court  of  chancery,  which  is  conducted 
according  to  the  rules,  and  follows  the  decisions,  of  the  English 
court;  a  court  of  common  pU'us,  criminal  sessions,  &c.  The  common 
law  of  England,  modified  by  local  enactments,  is  in  force  in  Barbados. 
"oligiOD,  The  Church  of  England  is  tho  prevailing  form  of  religion  in  the 

island.  In  1871  the  population  wns  thus  classified: — Church  of 
England,  144,080;  Weslcyans,  12,267;  Moravinns,  4733;  and 
Roman  Catholics,  513.  Eiich  parish  has  a  rcitor.  and  there  are 
twenty-eight  curates  in  the  island,  all  paiii  by  tlie  coloni.1I  revenue. 
The  other  denomiuations  are  also  now  entitled  to  grants.  In  the 
early  days  of  the  plantation,  the  clergy  wore  paid  by  one  pound  ol 
sugar  for  every  acre  of  land  in  thoir  parish.  The  first  bishop  of 
IVirbados  (the  diocese  including  other  colonies)  was  the  Right  I'ov. 
W.  Hart  Coleridge,  who  oriivcd  in  1S25,  ami  remained  till  1842, 
wlien  the  diocese  was  divided,  and  the  bishopric  of  Antigua  founded. 
Trinidad  has  recently  withdrawn  from  the  diocese  of  Barbados  and 
C<luc«Uon.  .lio  Windward  Islands,  and  founded  a  separate  bishopric.  Education 
is  extending  in  Unrbados  Thoro  were  in  1873.  79  primary  schools 
with  8000  scholars  on  the  register,  and  67  infint  schools,  with 
5500  scholars,  but  the  average  attendance  is  niurh  smaller.  The 
Oovcrntoont  expenditure  on  these  schools  for  the  year  was  £4000. 
Tho  principal  educational  estublishment  is  Coilringlon  College, 
founded  by  Colonel  Christoj^her  Codringlon.  Ho  bo'iuoathed  two 
estates,  known  as  Consett's  and  Codtinglon's,  to  the  Society  for  the 
Proi>ngation  of  the  Gospel.  Tliry  consisted  of  763  acres,  3  wind, 
mills,  sug.ir  biiiMings,  315  nogrcos,  and  100  hcarl  of  cattlo.  Tho 
nociety  came  into  possession  in  1712.  Tho  will  dcclarcii  that  tlio 
(ilontations  were  to  bo  couliiiueil,  and  300  negroes  always  kept  upon 
ihom;  that  professors  and  scholars  wrru  to  be  mnintained;  and  physic, 


chirurgery,  and  divinity  were  to  be  studied  and  practised.  The 
college  was  commenced  in  1716,  and  has  seen  many  vicissitudes. 
Oue  of  its  principal  objects  has  been  the  preparation  of  candidates 
for  holy  orders.  There  are  several  theological  scholarships  of  the 
value  of  £30  per  annum  from  the  college  funds,  anc  three  of  similai 
value  paid  by  the  Colonial  treasury.  There  is  a  school,  recently 
assisted  by  the  public  funds,  called  the  Codrington  Collegiate 
Grammar  School,  in  close  connection  with  the  college.  Harrison's 
College,  in  Bridgetown,  established  on  an  old  foundation,  has  been 
liberally  suppoited  by  the  Legislature,  and  promises  useful  results. 
Ligou's  History  0/  Barbados,  1657  ;  Oldmixon's  British  Empire 
in  America,  1741  ;  A  Short  History  of  Barbados,  1768  ;  Hemarks 
upon  the  Short  Jlistory,  1768  ;  Foyer's  History  of  Barbados,  1808  ; 
Capt.  Thom.  Southey's  Chron.  Hist,  of  11^.  Jrtdics,  1827  ;  Schom- 
burgk's  History  of  Barbados,  1848  ;  Griffith  Hughes,  A*a^  History 
of  Barbados ;  Haycock's  flora  Barbadcnsis ;  PaUnt  Rolls,  Public 
Itccord  Ofiice;  Annual  Beports,  ''Colonial  Possessions;"  Colonial 
OJice  List;  Governor  Rawson's  Bcport  on  Population,  1872,  and 
liainfall,  1874.  (J.  L.  0.) 

BARBAROSSA,  meaning  red-beard,  the  name  of  ,wo 
celebrated  Turkish  corsairs  of  the  ICth  century.  They 
were  the  sons  of  a  Roumelian  sipahi  who  had  settled  in 
Mitylene  after  the  capture  of  that  island  by  Mahomet  11., 
and  who  appears  to  have  embraced  Islamism.  The  eMcr 
of  the  two  is  generally  called  Aruch,  Horuk,  or  Ouradjh  ; 
the  name  of  the  younger  was  Khi2r,  but  he  was  afterwards 
called  by  the  sultan  Khair-ed-deen,  meaning  "  one  good  in 
the  faith,"  which  was  corrupted  by  the  Christians  into 
Hayraddin.  The  brothers  early  betook  themselves  to 
piracy ;  and  after  various  successes  and  reverses,  they 
acquired  sufficient  wealth  and  renown  to  enable  them  to  fit 
out  a  small  fleet  with  which  they  ravaged  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  became  the  pests  of  that  sea.  A  richly 
laden  vessel  which  they  presented  to  the  sultan  at  Con- 
stantinople procured  for  them  honorary  caftans  and 
recognition  of  their  services.  About  the  year  1516,  after 
having  been  for  some  time  in  the  service  of  the  bey  of 
Tunis,  they  beg.in  to  acquire  considerable  possessions  on 
the  coast  of  Africa.  Hayraddin  seized  the  island  of 
Shershel,  and  Arueh  gained  a  footing  in  Algiers.  The 
latter  began  to  extend  his  coriquests  into  tho  district  of 
Telmessan  or  Tlemcen,  and  was  resisted  by  the  Arabs, 
who  summoned  the  Spaniards  of  Gran  to  their  assistance. 
Aruch  fell  in  battle  in  1518,  and  was  succeeded  at  Algiers 
by  Hayraddin,  who,  after  the  reigning  prince,  Selim,  was 
removed  (in  what  way  is  somewhat  doubtful),  consolidated 
his  power  by  placing  himself  under  the  Subhme  Porte. 
Sulynian,  who  was  delighted  at  obtaining  so  much  territory 
at  such  a  smail  cost,  conferred  upon  Hayraddin  the  title 
of  Begler-beij  of  Algiers.  The  power  of  the  pirates  rapidly 
increased  ;  Algeciias,  a  small  island  opposite  Algiers,  was 
taken  from  tlie  Spaniards  after  an  obstinate  resistance,  and 
was  united  with  the  mainland  by  a  mole.  The  coasts  of 
tlie  Mediterranean  were  completely  at  the  mercy  Of 
Barliarossa,  who  carried  off  immense  numbers  of  slaves. 
In  1533,  when  Solynian  was  about  to  make  war  upon  his 
great  rival,  Charles  V..,  Hayraddin  joined  him  with  a  number 
of  ships.  He  was  received  with  great  honour,  and  mads 
admiral  (ca;)i7n;i-;)a.«/(a)  of  the  lleet.  His 'greatest  exploit 
was  the  capture  of  Tunis,  in  which  he  obtained  a  footing 
by  adopting  the  cause  of  a  rival  prince.  As  snon  as  ho 
had  deposed  Muley  Hassan,  the  reigning  sovcrcigi  ,he  seized 
the  town  for  himself  and  held  it  desjiite  the  resistance  of 
the  people.  Charles  V.,  however,  sent  out  a  great  fleet, 
under  Andrea  Doria,  who  retonk  the  town  after  a  protracted 
.siege.  Barliarossa  escaped  to  Algiers,  cidlccted  his  fleet, 
and  again  swept  the  seas.  He  pliindi;red  the  coasts  o( 
Italy,  captured  Gistelimova,  and  inllicted  a  severe  defeat 
on  Dana.  Ho  died  at  Constantinopla  4th  July  154(>. 
(See  \'on  Hamnier,  Geschiclite  des  Ogmcviisc/icn  /teir/ics,  iii. 
IGI,  sffj.;  also  li'ackwood's  Mwjadne,  vo).  Iii.)  The  Ein- 
pernr  Frederick  I.  is  very  frequently  dCiignatcd  by  the 
surname  Barbarossa, 


13  A  K  ^  B  A   h 


3G3 


■iAPiBARY,  the  general  designation  of  that  pnrt  of 
Nurtlitrn  Africa  wLich  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Egypt, 
W.  by  the  Atlantic,  S.  by  the  Sahara,  and  N.  by  the 
Mediterranean,  and  comprises  the  slates  of  Marocco, 
Algeria,  Tunis,  and  TripolL  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  Berbers,  one  of  the  most  remarliable  races  in  the  region. 
(See  Africa,  vol.  i.  p.  251,  Algeria,  Makocco,  Tripoli, 
Tl-.s-is) 

BARBASTRO,  a  fortified  city  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of  Uuesca,  on  the  Kiver  Vero,  near  its  junction  with  the 
Cinci  It  has  an  interesting  cathedral  and  seven  other 
churches,  with  several  hospitals.  It  was  recovered  from 
the  Moors  io  lOCJ.  The  bruthers  Argensola  were  born 
here.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed  in  tanning 
ond  currying  leather.     Long.  0"  20'  \V  ,  la't.  W  54'  N. 

liARBAULD,  Mrs  An.na  Letitia,  was  born  at  Kib 
wonh-Harcourt,  in  Leicestershire,  on  the  20th  June  1743. 
Her  father,  the  Rev.  Juhn  Aikin,  was  a  Presbyterian 
clergyman,  who  conducted  a  private  school  at  that  place 
lie  instructed  his  daughter  very  carefully,  and  besides  the 
usual  female  accorapliihraeiits  she  acquired  a  good 
knowledge  of  Latin  and  a  fair  knowledge  of  Greek.  In 
1753  Mr  Aikin  removed  his  family  to  \Varringtou,  to  act 
as  theological  tutor  in  a  dissenting  academy  there.  In 
1773  Miss  Aikin,  at  the  earnest  request  of  her  brother, 
Dr  John  Aikin,  known  as  the  author  of  the  Evenings  at 
llomf,  consented  to  publish  some  of  her  poems.  The 
volume  was  very  successful,  four  editions  being  called  for 
in  the  course  of  the  year.  In  1774  she  married  the  Rev, 
Uochemont  Barbauld,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  descended 
from  a  Freuch  Protestant  family  who  had  settled  in  England. 
He  had  been  educated  in  the  academy  at  AVarrington,  and 
had  recently  been  appointed  to  a  church  at  Palgrave,  in 
SutTolk.  There  he  began  a  private  boarding-school,  in  the 
work  of  which  he  was  most  ably  assisted  by  Mrs  Barbauld, 
who  superintended  the  younger  pupils.  Among  those  who 
pa.tsed  through  her  hands,  and  wlio  looked  back  with 
pleasure  to  the  instruction  given  by  her,  wire  Sir  William 
Cell,  Lord  Denman,  a"hd  William  Taylor  of  Norwich.  The 
Hymns  in  Prose  and  the  Early  Lessons  were  written  by 
bt-r  about  this  time  for  the  use  of  her  young  charges,  and 
proved  admirably  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  instructing 
childriTL  They  have  been  frequently  reprinted.  In  1785 
she  left  England  for  the  Continent  with  her  husband, 
whose  health  had  been  seriously  impaired.  On  their 
return  after  a  residence  of  about  two  years,  Mr  Barbauld 
was  appointed  to  a  church  at  Hampstcad,  where  they 
resided  till  1S02.  In  1792  Mrs  Barbauld  assisted  her 
brother  Dr  Aikin  in  the  composition  of  the  popular  series 
Eivnings  at  Home,  but,  it  is  said,  contributed  only  a  few 
piix'ts.  In  17'J5  she  published  an  edition  of  Akenside's 
Pleasures  of  hnajination,  with  a  critical  essay ;  and  two 
years  lattr,  she  edited  in  a  similar  manner  Coliins's  Odes. 
In  18U4,  aftiif  their  removal  to  Stoke  Newington,  she  pub- 
lished a  selection  of  papers  from  the  EngUsh  Essayists, 
and  a  selection  from  Richardson's  correspondence,  with  a 
biugraphii.al  notice.  The  critical  remarks  prefixed  to  these 
publications  have  been  much  admired;  they  are  generally 
judicious,  io  good  taste,  and  well  expressed.  In  1810  she 
published  a  collection  of  the  British  Kovelists,  with 
biographical  and  critical  notices.  In  the  following  year 
bhe  published  her  longest  poem,  entitled  Eighteen  Hundred 
and  Eleven,  depicting  the  political  and  social  events  of  the 
time,  and  giving  rather  a  gloomy  view  of  the  existing  state 
and  future  prospects  of  Britain.  The  poem  is  in  many 
respects  scarcely  worthy  of  the  author's  reputation.  Mrs 
B.arbauld  died  on  the  9th  March  1825;  she  had  been  a 
widow  from  1808.  A  collected  edition  of  her  works,  with 
Memoir,  was  published  by  her  niece.  Miss  Lucy  Aikin,  in 
2  vols.,  1826.      (Sec  A.  L.  Le   Breton,  Hemoir  of  Mrs 


Barbauld,    1874,    G.    A.    Ellis,    Memoir    of   Mrs    A.    A 
Barbauld,  1S74  ) 

B.'VRBEK,  one  whose  occupation  it  is  to  shave  or  tri'ra 
beards.  In  former  times  the  barber's  craft  was  dignified 
with  the  title  of  a  profession,  being  conjoined  with  the  art 
ol  surgery.  In  Fiance  the  barber-surgeons  were  separated 
from  the  perruquiers,  and  incorporated  as  a  distinct  body 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  In  England  barbers  first 
received  incorporation  from  Edward  IV.  in  14G1.  By  32 
Henry  VIII.  c.  42,  they  were  united  with  the  company 
of  surgeons,  it  being  enacted  that  the  barbers  should  con- 
fine themselves  to  the  uiinor  operations  of  blood-letting  and 
drawing  teeth,  while  the  surgeons  were  prohibited  from 
"  barbery  or  shaving."  In  1745  barbers  and  surgeons  were 
separated  into  distinct  corporations  by  18  George  II.  c.  15. 
The  barber's  shop  was  a  favourite  resort  of  idle  persons ; 
and  in  addition  to  its  attraction  as  a  focus  of  news,  a  lute, 
viol,  or  some  such  musical  instrument,  was  always  kept  for 
tho  entertainment  of  waiting  customers.  The  barber's  sign 
consisted  of  a  striped  pole,  from  which  was  suspended  a 
basin,  symbols  the  use  of  which  is  still  preserved.  The 
fillet  round  the  pole  indicated  the  ribbon  for  bandaging  the 
arm  in  bleeding,  and  the  basin  the  vessel  to  receive  the 
blood. 

BARBERINI,  the  title  of  a  powerful  family,  originally 
of  Tuscan  ^iit.'action,  wlio  settled  in  Florence  during  the 
early  part  of  the  1 1  th  century.  They  acquired  great  w ealth 
and  inliueuce,  and  in  1G23  MalVeo  Barberini  was  raised 
to  the  papal  throne  as  Urban  VIII.  He  made  his  brother, 
.•Vntonio,  and  two  nephews,  cardinals,  and  gave  to  a  third 
nephew,  Taddeo,  the  princip.ality  of  Palestrina.  Great 
jealousy  of  their  increasing  power  was  excited  amongst-^the 
neighbouring  princes,  and  Odoardo  Farnese,  Vtluko  of 
Parma,  made  war  upon  Taddeo  and  defeated  the  papal 
troops.  After  the  death  of  Urban  in  1644  his  successor, 
Innocent  X.,  showed  hostility  to  the  Barberini  family. 
Taddeo  fled  to  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1647;  but  the 
others  after  a  short  period  returned  to  Italy  and  had  their 
property  restored.  T+ie  principality  of  Palestrina  is  still  in 
the  hands  of  the  family ;  and  their  magnificent  palace  and 
hbrary  at  Rome  give  evidence  of  their  wealth  and  magni- 
ficence. 

BARBEVR.\C,  Jea.v,  an  able  writer  on  the  priociplrs 
of  natural  law,  was  the  iicjihew  of  Charles  Barbcyrac,  a 
distinguished  physician  of  .Montpellier,  and-  was  born  at 
B(*ziers  in  Lower  Languedoe,  in  1074.  lie  removed,  along 
with  his  family,  into  Switzerland  after  the  revocation  of 
tho  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  there  studied  jurisprudence. 
After  spending  some  time  at  Geneva  and  Frankfort  on  the- 
Main,  lie  became  professor  of  belles  lettres  in  the  French 
school  of  Berlin.  Thence,  in  1711,  he  was  called  to  the 
professorship  of  history  and  civil  law  at  Lausanne,  and 
finally  settled  as  professor  of  public  law  at  Groiiingen.  He 
died  in  1744.  His  first  published  work  of  any  extent  WM 
the  curious  Traiti  du  Jen,  1709,  in  which  he  defends  the 
morality  of  games  of  chance.  His  fame  rests  chiefly  on 
the  preface  and  notes  to  his  translation  of  PuO"endorfs 
i  celebrated  treatise  De  J^ure  A'aturix  et  Gentium.  In  fuuda- 
i  mental  principles  he  follows  almost  entirely  Locke  and 
I  PulTendorf ;  but  he  works  out  with  great  skill  tho  theory 
i  of  moral  obligation,  teferring  it  to  the  command  or  will  of 
God  He  indicates  the  distinction,  developed  more  fully 
by  Thomasius  and  Kant,  between  the  legal  and  the  moral 
qualities  of  action  The  principles  of  international  law  ho 
reduces  to  those  of  the  law  of  nature,  and  combats,  in  so 
doing,  many  of  the  positions  taken  up  by  Grotius.  He 
rejects'  the  notion  that  sovereignty  in  any  way  resembles 
property,  and  makes  even  marriage  a  matter  of  civil  con 
tract.  Barbcyrac  also  translated  Grotius's  De  Jure  Btlli  et 
Pacts,  Cumberland's  Dc  Legibus  Xalura:,  and  Puflendo^f's 


364 


B  A  K  -  B  A  R 


'smaller  trt-atUe  ou  obligations.  A210D3  his  own  produc- 
tions are  a  treatise,  De  la  Morale  ties  J'eres,  and  a  history 
of  ancient  treaties,  contained  id  the  Supplement  au  grand 
corps  diplorhatiqui. 

BARBIERI,  Gl0VA>rNi  Francesco  (othern-ise  called 
GuEP.ciNO,fronihi3  squinting), an  eminent  historical  painter, 
was  born  at  Cento,  a  village  not  far  from  Bologna,  in  1590. 
Hii  artistic  powers  were  developed  very  rapidly,  and  at  the 
a"e  of  seventeen  ha  was  associated  with  Benedetto  Gennari, 
a  well-known  painter  of  the  Bolognese  school.  The  fame 
of  the  young  painter  spread  beyond  his  native  village,  and 
in  1G15  he  removed  to  Bologna,  where  his  paintings  were 
much  admired.  His  first  style  was  formed  after  that 
of  the  Carracci ;  but  the  strong  colouring  and  shadows 
employed  by  Caravaggio  made  a  deep  impression  on  his 
mind,  and  for  a  considerable  period  his  productions  showed 
evident  traces  of  that  painter's  influence.  Some  of  his 
latest  pieces  approach  rather  to  the  manner  of  his  great 
contemporary  Ouido,  and  are  painted  with  more  lightness 
and  clearnesi  Guercino  was  esteemed  very  highly  in  his 
lifetime,  not  only  by  the  nobles  and  princes  of  Italy,  but  by 
his  brother  artists,  who  placed  him  in  the  first  rank  of 
painters.  He  was  remarkable  for  the  extremo  rapidity  of 
his  execution;  he  completed  no  fewer  than  100  large 
nltar  pieces  for  churches,  and  his  other  paintings  amount  to 
about  144.  His  most  famous  piece  is  thought  to  be  the 
Sta  Petronilla,  which  was  painted  at  Rome  for  Gregory 
XV.  and  is  now  in  the  Capitol  Guercino  continued  to 
paint  and  teach  up  to  the  time  of  his  death  in  ICCO.  He 
had  amassed  a  handsome  fortune  by  his  labours. 

BARBIERI,  Paolo  Antonio,  a  celebrated  painter  of 
still  life  and  animals,  the  brother  of  Guercino,  was  born  at 
Cento  in  1596.  He  chose  for  his  subjects  fruits,  flowers, 
insects,  and  animals,  which  he  painted  after  nature  with  a 
lively  tint  of  colour,  great  tenderness  of  pencil,  and  a  strong 
character  of  truth  and  life.     He  died  in  1640. 

BARBOUR,  John,  the  author  of  the  great  Scottish 
national  poem  Tlie  Brure,  was  born,  probably  in  Aberdeen- 
shire, about  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century.  He  was  a 
contemporary  of  Chaucer  and  Gower ;  but  so  little  is 
known  of  his  life,  that  the  very  date  of  his  birth  can  be 
only  approximately  given  as  about  1316.  In  1357,  as  we 
learn  from  a  safe-conduct  permitting  him  to  visit  O-vford 
for  the  purpose  of  study,'  he  held  the  position  of  arch- 
deacon of  Aberdeen.  In  1304  he  was  again  permitted  to 
enter  England  for  a 'Similar  purpose,^  and  in  1308  he 
received  letters  of  safe-conduct  authorizing  him  to  pass 
through  England  on  his  way  to  France,'  whither,  it  may  be 
conjectured,  he  wus  proceeding  in  order  to  visit  the  famous 
university  of  Paris.  From  this  date  to  his  death,  which 
took  place  probably  in  -March  1395,  notices  of  him  are 
Blightly  more  numerous.  In  1373  he  is  described  as  hold- 
ing the  ofBce  of  clerk  of  audit  of  the  king's  household.' 
About  the  same  time  he  must  have  been  busily  engaged  in 
the  composition  of  his  great  work,  for,  as  he  himself  tells 
us,  his  poem  was  more  than  half  finished  in  1375. 
"  In  the  tyme  of  the  compilinf; 

Oir  this  buk  Ihid  Robert  wes  King  ; 

AnJ  off  his  kynrik  pi.ssit  was 

Fyve  yer  ;  and  wcs  tlie  yor  off  prace 

A  thougand,  lliro  fiundyr,  se^-ynty 

And  fyve,  and  off  his  t-ld  si.\ty."* 

A  sum  of  ten  pounds,  which  was  paid  to  the  poet  by  the 
king's  orders  in  1377,^  was  in  all  probability  a  royal  gift  on 
the  completion  of  the  work.      Barbour  seems  indeed  to 

>  ItolM  Scotia,  1.  p.  803. 

"  rhul.,  i,  p.  880.  . 

•  nid,  \.  p.  928. 

•  Acfnunti  of  tht  Oreat  Chamhcrlnins  0/ Scoilaiui,  voL  IL  p.  19 

•  Bdrbour'i  lirurr,  p.  274,  Jamicson's  ed. 

•  Svhejucr  IColU.  No.  82. 


have  been  well  treated  by  his  sovereign  ;  he  received  a 
perpetual  aunuily  uf  twenty  shillings,"  which  he  bequeathni 
to  the  dean  and  chapter  of  Aberdeen  as  payment  of  a 
yearly  mass  to  be  said  for  his  soul),  tithes  of  the  parish  of 
Rayne  in  the  Ganoch,  and  a  crown  wardship,  always  a 
lucrative  oQice  in  these  times.  A  further  bounty  of  ten 
pounds  a  year  during  life,  granted  in  13S8,  was  probably 
a  reward  on  the  completion  of  the  poet's  second  large  work, 
T/ie  Brute.  The  cessation  of  payment  of  this  annuity 
enables  us  to  ti.-^  with  some  accuracy  the  date  of  Barbour's 
death. 

The  Bruce,  which  is  Barbour's  principal  poem,  although  it 
is  almost  the  sole  authority  for  the  events  of  the  period,  is 
not  to  be  considered  as  merely  a  rhyming  chronicle.^  Ilia 
theme  was  freedom  and  the  liberation  uf  his  country  from 
the  dominion  of  a  foreign  people  The  age  of  Bruce  was 
the  age  of  Scottish  chivalry,  and  the  king  himself  presented 
the  most  perfect  model  of  a  vali.int  knight.  With  such  a 
crisis  and  suclt  a  hero,  therefore,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
Barbour  should  have  achieved  a  work  of  hi-sting  fame. 

The  poem  begins  with  an  account  of  the  succession  to 
the  Scottish  crown  after  the  death  of  Alexander  III.  In 
this  part  of  his  poem  Barbour  has  made  a  slight  anachron- 
ism. He  makes  his  hero  compete  with  John  Baliol  fur 
the  crown  of  Scotland,  while  it  was  his  grandfather,  the 
Lord  of  Annandale,  who  unsuccessfully  contested  the  right. 
Then  follows  a  lamentable  account  of  the  desolation  of  the 
country  and  the  oppression  of  the  people  by  the  English. 
Bruce's  energetic  actions  to  free  his  country,  and  his 
romantic  adventures,  which  form  so  interesting  an  episode 
in  Scottish  history,  are  narrated  with  great  minuteness, 
down  to  the  battle  of  Bannbckburn,  which  is  described 
with  all  its  interesting  details.  At  this  point  the  national 
epic  properly  ends  ;  but  Barbour  further  relates  the  ex- 
pedition of  Bruce  to  Ireland,  and  the  exploits  of  Uouglas  and 
Randolph  on  the  borders,  and  concludes  with  an  account 
of  the  deaths  of  King  Robert  and  his  gallant  knights. 

The  next  in  order  uf  his  writings  was  that  before  referred 
to,  cr.lled  ?'/<?  Brule,  of  which  it  is  behoved  no  MS.  exists, 
unless  the  supposition  of  Mr  Henry  Bradshaw,  hbrarian  of 
the  university  of  Cambridge,  be  correct,  that  about  2000 
lines  of  two  MS.  Troy-books;  by  Lydgate,  preserved  in  the 
Cambridge  and  Bodleian  Libraries,  furm  part  of  this  poem. 
It  appears  to  have  comprised  a  genealogical  history  of  the 
kings  of  Scotland,  deducing  their  origin  from  the  great 
medicEval  hero,  Brutus,  son  uf  Aseanius.  and  grandson  of 
.(Eneas,  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  king  of  Britain. 
The  existence  of  such  a  work  is  fully  established  by 
various  passages  in  Wyntown's  Cronykil. 
"This  Nynus  hnd  a  sone  alsua, 

Sere  U.trdane  lord  of  t'rj^ia. 

Fra  quham  liarb'Te  siit^iy 

Has  made  a  propyr  Genealogy, 

I'yl  Robert  oure  sei'ownd  kyng. 

That  Scotland  liad  in  gnveni)  nj». 

*'  Of  Bnittus  lynence  qulia  n-yll  her. 
He  Ink  the  tretia  of  Barbere, 

Mad  in  tyl  a  Oenealo;:;y  ♦ 

Rycht  wele,  and  nnre  perfylly 
Than  I  can  on  ony  wya 
"Wytht  all  my  wyt  to  yowe  dex^-s." 

"  The  Stcwartis  oryginale 
The  Archedekyue  lias  tretyt  hal 
In  metyio  fayre  "* 

It  is  also  referred  to  by  Barbour  himself  in  the  following 
passage : — 

"  Als  Artlmr,  that  throw  chevalrj 
Maid  Hretanc  maistres  and  lady 

'  Exchfipirr  Rolls,  Nos.  177,  178. 

*  It  contains  the  earliest  notice  of  the  ancient  Celtic  poetry  of  Si  ot- 
UihI.     Sec  Harbour's  /Irurr,  p   4.1.  ,Iami.'Son'i  ed. 

"  Crmyhii  or  Scoltand,  ix    1.  Ill    iii.  139.  VIII.  vii    14.1. 


B  A  "R  B  0  U  R 


3U5 


On  iwi'.l  kiDr)l;io  that  he  wan  . 
Aod  alsua,  as  a  noble  nian, 
He  w.Tn  throw  bauill  Fraunce  all  fre. 
And  Lucius  Yber  KeDCU!.yt  he, 
Tliat  iheD  of  Rome  was  euiperour  • 
Got  yeit.  for  all  bis  gret  valour. 
Modrf)t  bis  systir  son  bioi  slcn. 
And  guii  rata  als  ma  llian  inew, 
Throw  tresouoe  and  throw  wikldtnes; 
Tlie  Broite  bcris  IhairoT  wyines  "  ' 

The  list  of  the  works  of  Barbour  was  his  Book  of  Legendi 
»/  Sdiiils,  which  coDtained,  as  the  author  tells  us — 

"  Sioryss  of  sere  haly  n;en 
That  to  plus  God  v»  may  kene. 

The  manuscript  of  this  work  (which  was  brought  to  light 
a  few  years  ago  by  Mr  bradshaw)  is  preserved  in  the 
library  of  the  university  of  Cambridge.  The  Legends  are 
contained  in  a  tall,  narrow  volume  of  paper,  closely  written 
in  an  unmistakably  Scottish  band,  containing  a  great  many 
thousand  lines  in  the  usual  verse  of  Barbour.  This,  taken 
in  connection  with  certain  incidental  notices  which  the 
writer  gives  of  himself,  and  certain  stories  which  he  tells 
of  what  happened  in  his  time,  leaves  little  room  for  doubt 
as  to  the  author.  The  following  extract  from  the  account 
of  a  cure  performed  by  St  Ninian  upon  a  native  of  Elgin 
may  be  given  as  a  specimen  of  these  legends  — 

•  A  lytil  tale  yit  herd  I  t(^ll 
That  in  to  njy  tyme  befel 
Of  a  cudman  in  Murefe  borne 
lo  Elgyne  and  his  kine  beforne 
And  callit  vas  a  f.iilhfu)  man 
Vithall  thanie  that  hyme  knew  than 
And  this  man  trastcly  I  say 
For  1  kcnd  hyme  weile  mony  day 
Jobne  Balormy  ves  his  Dame 
A  man  of  ful  gud  fame 
And  in  processe  of  tyme  tyd  hyme 
Til  haf  the  worme  in  til  his  lymo 
And  wroL'hl  sa  in  his  schank  and  kne 
That  bath  ««re  thai  lyk  lyi.t  lo  be  "  ' 

The  works  of  Barbour  are  interesting  in  a  philological 
point  of  view.  At  one  time  they  were  regarded  as  tb;  6rst 
written  in  what  was  termed  the  ancient  Scottish,  a  spcial 
language,  which  was  supposed  to  have  been  derived  directly 
from  the  Suio  Gothic,  or  the  Ma-so  Gothic  of  Ulphilas. 
The  extraordinary  circumstance,  however,  was  that  Barbour 
and  other  eatly  Scottish  poets,  such  as  Wyntown,  James 
1  ,  and  Lyndsay,  speak  of  the  language  as  ''Inglis"  In 
y'A«  Bruce  the  following  passage  occurs  : — 

'This  wes  the  spt'k  he  maid  perfay 
As  is  in  Vngiis  toung  to  .say  "  ' 

It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  these  poets  wrote  in  a 
language  founded  on  the  Anglo-Saxon  of  the  northern  type, 
and  nearly  identical  with  that  spoken  in  the  northern  half 
of  England,  which  was  general  from  the  Trent  to  the  Forth, 
and  northwards  on  the  eastern  coast  as  far  as  Aberdeen. 
In  this  e.ttensive  district  a  Doric  dialect  of  English  was 
general,  and  in  the  14th  century  there  was  no  greater 
diCference  between  the  written  language  of  York  and  ol 
Eastern  Scotland  than  there  is  now  between  the  modern 
6]ieech  of  Aberdeen  and  Edinburgh  ♦ 

According  to  Warton,'  Barbour  has  adorned  the  Eng- 
liih  language  by  a  strain  of  versification,  expression, 
and  poetical  imagery,  far  superior  to  tho  age.  Dr  Noll* 
remarks  that  ho  has  given  his  countrymen  a  fine  example 

'   Biibour  »  llruct.  p  20,  JamiiMOo's  ed      In  one  of  the  M3-i    ol 
Lyddite  IS  a  Dote—**  Her  cndis  Ihe  monk  and  begyDoys  Barlwur. '* 
'  .Yjiiiynat  MSS  0/  Scolland,  pi  ii    No  75. 
'  H^rtjour'i  Brvct,  IV  p  252 

•  For  an  ejtimilc  of  the  position  of  Barboui  In  the  littralure  of  the 
ppn.!.  lee  MaKuer'i  Allr.<i:jl\scht  Sprachprolicn,  i.  p.  371. 

•  lliil   n/  Knilisk  Po'lry,  ii    p    \H 

•  //.!>  ....  Enjluh  Poetry  prefixed  lo  Surrey  and  Wyalfi  roemj. 
f    ll)'j 


of  the  simple,  energetic  style,  which  resembled  Chaucer's 
best  manner,  and  wanted  little  to  make  it  the  genuine 
language  of  poetry.  Simplicity  may  be  said  to  be  the  main 
feature  in  the  plan  and  conduct  of  bis  poems  Uis  story 
is  throughout  his  first  and  chief  object,  and  he  shows  great 
anxiety  lest  in  any  point  of  the  actual  adreutures  he  may 
mislead  his  reader.  Ue  prays  that  he  may  say  "nought 
bot  suthfast  thing,"  and  he  was  the  first  who  did  so  with 
some  of  the  graces  of  the  fables  of  romance.  He  has, 
however,  a  heart  for  every  kind  of  nobleness.  His  far- 
famed  encomium  on  political  freedom  is  distinguished  by  a 
manly  and  dignified  strain  of  sentiment ; — 

*  A  !  frcdome  is  a  noble  thing  ! 
Fredome  mayss  man  to  haitf  liking, 
Fredome  all  solace  to  man  gitlis  : 
He  levys  at  ess  that  frely  Icvys ! 
A  noble  hart  may  haifl*  nane  ess, 
Na  ellys  nocht  that  may  him  pless, 
Gyff  fredome  failyhe  ;  for  fre  liking 
Is  yharaytour  all  othir  thing. 
Na  he  that  ay  hass  U-vyt  fre, 
May  nocht  kuaw  Weill  the  projiyrte. 
The  ang^T,  na  tho  wrechyt  dome 
That  is  coiW'lyt  to  foule  thyrldome  : 
Bot  gyfT  he  had  assayt  it. 
Than  all  pcrquer  he  suld  i    wyt, 
And  suld  think  fredome  mar  lo  pryss 
Than  all  the  gold  in  warld  that  is."' 

The  following  passage  cannot  be  passed  without  par- 
ticular notice ,  the  annals  of  heroes  furnish  but  few  instances 
of  so  pleasing  a  nature,  whether  it  be  that  heroes  seldom 
stoop  to  actions  of  mere  benevolence,  or  that  their  historians 
do  nut  think  it  of  much  importance  to  transmit  such  actions 
to  posterity  ; — 

'*  Tlie  king  has  hard  a  woman  cry  , 
He  askyt  quhat  that  wes  in  hy. 
'  It  is  Ihe  layudar,  Schyr,'  said  ane, 
'  That  her  ciiild-ill  rycht  now  has  tanc, 
'  And  mon  lefe  now  behind  ws  her  ; 

*  Tharfor  solio  makya  yono  iwill  cher', 
The  king  said,  *  Ccrtis  it  »ar  pile 

*  That  stilo  in  that  poynt  left  suld  be; 
'  For  certis  I  trow  tfiar  is  na  man 

*  That  he  ne  will  rew  a  woman  tban.' 
Hiss  ost  all  thar  arestyt  he. 

And  gert  a  tent  sone  stertil  be. 
And  gert  hyr  gang  in  hastily. 
And  othjT  wenien  to  be  hyr  liy, 
Qnhijl  scbo  wes  deliuer,  he  bald  ; 
And  syne  furih  on  bis  wayis  raid  : 
And  bow  scho  fiirlh  suld  caryit  be. 
Or  euir  he  fuith  fui",  ordany  t  h«. 
This  wes  a  full  grtl  cujtasy. 
That  swilk  a  king,  end  sa  mighty, 
Gert  \.\h  men  duell  on  this  maner       * 
Bot  for  a  pouir  lauendcr."  ® 

It  has  been  Elated  that  Earbour  presents  us  with  but  few 
studies  of  natural  scenery.  His  description  of  spring  i». 
however,  worthy  of  his  muse,  and  contrasts  favourably  wjlb 
any  of  the  po'try  of  the  period  : — 

'  This  wes  in  ver,  quhcn  wynter  tyde, 
Will,  his  bljstis  hidwyss  to  byde. 
Was  our-drywyn,  and  byrdis  smalc, 
As  turturis  and  the  nychlyngale, 
Begoutb  ryiht  miraly  to  syng  ^ 
And  foi  to  roak  in  thair  singjog 
Swete  Dotis,  and  eownya  ser, 
And  melodys  plcsand  to  ber  ; 
And  the  Ireis  brgcuth  to  ma 
Burgeons,  and  brytht  bloniys  alsua, 
To  wj-n  the  hclyng  off  thair  benid, 
'That  wykk)l  uyntir  hud  thaim  rew  id 

Of  Barbour's  Briict  neither  the  original  manusciipt  nor 
any  contemporary  copy  i.'t  known  to  exist      It  is  a  sora» 


'  Bnrbonr's  Bruce, 

•  Ihtd  .  p   320. 

*  flid.  p  <"> 


p    10,  Jamiesoo'i  e(* 


366 


B  A  R  — B  A  R 


what  remarkable  circumstance  thot  tlie  earliest  specimen 
of  Barbour's  language  is  to  be  found  in  extracts  inserted 
by  Wyntown  in  his  Cronykil,  which  may  be  set  down  as 
belonging  to  the  year  1440.'  A  valuable  manuscript  of 
The  Bruce  is  preserved  in  the  Advocates'  Library,  Edin 
burgh,  which  was  penned  by  John  Ramsay  in  1489. 
Ramsay  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  person  tliat  was  after- 
wards prior  of  the  Carthusian  monastery  at  Perth.  This 
transcript  is  stated  to  have  been  executed  at  the  request  of 
Simon  Lochmalony,  vicar  of  ^loonsie. 

Another  manuscript  exists  in  the  library  of  St  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  and  is  dated  1487.  The  handwriting 
is  very  like  that  of  the  Advocates'  Library  manuscript, 
and  from  the  initials  of  the  transcriber  being  J.  R.,  it  is 
supposed  that  this  is  another  transcript  made  somewhat 
earlier  by  the  same  scribe.  This  last  manuscript  affords 
perhaps  the  best  readings,  but  each  serves  to  correct 
errors  and  to  supply  omissions  of  the  other. 

The  printed  editions  are  almost  a  century  later.  The 
first  known  edition  of  The  Bruce  is  believed  to  have  been 
printed  at  Edinburgh  in  1570-71,  but  of  this  only  one 
imperfect  copy  is  known  to  exist.  The  next  known  edition 
is  that  printed  at  Edinburgh  by  Andro  Hart  in  1616,  only 
one  copy  of  which  is  extant.  Another  edition  was  printed 
by.  Hart  in  1620.  Editions  ware  issued  by  Andrew 
Anderson,  Edinburgh,  1G70,  12mo;  Robert  Saunders, 
Glasgow,  1072,  Robert  Freebairn,  Edinburgh,  1715  or 
1716  (issued  with  a  false  title  page  in  1758) ;  Carmichael 
and  Miller,  Edinburgh,  1737.  John  Pinkerton  issued  an 
edition  in  1700,  printed  at  London,  in  3  vols.  8vo,  which 
he-styles  "the  first  genuine  edition."  It  was  taken  from 
the  Advocates'  Library  manuscript,  but,  as  his  transcript 
teas  executed  neither  by  himself  nor  under  his  immediate 
Inspection,  many  gross  inaccuracies  were  sulTered  to  remain 
uncorrected.  Dr  John  Jamieson  printed  an  edition  at 
Edinburgh  in  1820,  in  4to.  This  was  a  carefid  print  of 
the  Advocates'  Library  manuscript.  Mr  Cosmo  Innes 
printed  an  edition  for  the  Spalding  Club  in  1856.  It  was 
made  from  a  collation  of  the  Advocates'  Library  and  the 
Cambridge  manuscripts.  The  Rev.  VV.  W.  Skeat  is  at 
present  (1875)  engaged  in  editing  an  edition  for  the 
Early  English  Text  Society  (extra  series),  1870-75.  This 
edition  is  founded  on  the  Cambridge  manuscript,  carefully 
collated  with  the  Edinburgh  manuscript  and  with  Hart's 
edition  of  1616,  and  occasionally  with  Anderson's  edition 
of  1670.  (j-  SM.) 

BARBUDA,  one  of  the  lesser  Antilles  or  Caribbean 
islands,  is  10  miles  in  length  by  about  8  in  breadth,  presentr 
ing  a  very  flat  surface,  covered  to  a  great  extent  with  woods, 
in  which  deer  abound.  Many  varieties  of  shell-6sh  and 
other  fish  are  found  on  the  coast,  which  is  also  frequented 
by  large  flocks  of  water-fowl.  The  part  of  the  island 
under  cultivation  is  fertde;  corn,  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco, 
and  indigo  are  grown  ;  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  is  one  of 
the  principal  occupations.  So  salubrious  is  tho  climate 
that  Barbuda  serves  as  a  kind  of  sanitarium  for  the  adjacent 
islands.  The  inhabitants,  who  number  less  than  2000,  are 
main\y  negroes.  The  island  was  annexed  to  Britain  in 
1628,  and  was  bestowed  in  1680  on  the  Codrington  family, 
in  whose  possession  it  still  remains.  The  north  point  is 
in  lat.  17°  33'  N.  and  long.  61"  43'  W. 

BARCA,  a  maritime  district  of  Northern  Africa,  which 
formerly  belonged  to  Tripoli,  but  was  raised  in  1869  to  bo 
a  separate  province  immediately  dependent  on  Constanti- 
nople. It  extends  from  the  Gulf  of  Sert  (the  ancient 
Syrtcs)  to  the  Egyptian  frontier,  between  lat.  30°  and 
33"  N.  and  between  long.  20°  and  25'  E  ,  and  has  an  area 
of  about  60,700  squar-.  miles.     This  territory  is  traversed 

*  Cnmykil  <tf  Scotland,  book  viii.  c  '2  and  18. 


from  east  to  west  by  a  mountain  chain  varying  in  height 
from  400  or  500  to  upwards  of  ISOO  feet.  A  great  part  of 
Barca,  particularly  towards  the  coast,  is  very  fertile, 
aboHnding  with  excellent  pasturage,  and  producing  large 
supplies  of  corn.     The  chief  town  is  Bengazi. 

BARCA,  an  ancient  city  in  Cyrenaica,  and  within  the 
above  district,  to  which  it  gave  name.  Its  ruins  are  now 
known  as  El-Medinah.  It  was  situated  between  Cyreno 
(now  Grennah)  and  Hesperides  (now  Benyan),  about  1 1 
miles  distant  from  the  sea,  on  the  top  of  the  rising  ground 
that  overlooks  the  S}Ttes.  It  was  founded  about  554  B.C. 
by  a  colony  from  Cyrene,  who  fled  from  the  ill-treatment  of 
Arcesilaus  II.,  and  obtained  the  co-operation  of  a  number 
of  Libyans.  About  forty- four  years  after  its  foundation  it 
sufTered  severely  from  the  revenge  of  Fheretima,  the 
mother  of  Arcesilaus  III.,  being  captured  and  pillaged  by 
the  Persians,  to  whom  she  had  appealed  for  assistance, 
while  large  numbers  of  its  inhabitants  were  led  captive  to 
Bactria.  In  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies  the  founding  of  a  now 
city,  Ptolemais,  on  the  sea-coast  drew  away  from  the  older 
site  a  large  part  of  the  population  ;  but  Barca  continued 
to  exist  for  several  centuries  after  the  Christian  era,  and  even 
seems  to  have  risen  again  into  importance  under  the  Arabs 
Theruin3arefew,andare  thought  to  be  those  of  the  Arab  city. 

BARCELONA,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Catalonia,  and  now  the  chief  town  of  the  Spanish  provincff 
to  which  it  gives  Its  name,  is  a  flourishing  city  and  seaport 
on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  lat.  41°  22'  N.  and 
long.  2°  9'  E.,  between  the  rivers  B&os  (Bueiulo)  on  tho 
north  and  the  Llobregat  (Rubricatus)  on  the  south.  It 
stands  on  the  sloping  edge  of  a  small  but  fertile  plain  now 
covered  with  villas  and  gardens.  Immediately  to  the 
south-east  rise  the  Montjuich  hills  to  the  height  of  650 
feet,  crowned  by  an  important  fortification  ;  while  on  .the 
west,  the  north,  and  the  north-east,  the  view  is  bounded  by 
the  heights  of  San  Pedro  Martio,  Valcanca,  and  Moncada. 
Barcelona  was  formerly  surrounded  by  a  strong  line  of 
ramparts,  and  defended,  or,  more  correctly,  overawed  by  a 
citadel  on  the  north-east,  erected  in  1715  by  Philip  V. 
on  Vauban's  principle ;  but  these  fortifications  being  felt 
as  a  painful  restriction  on  the  natural  development  of  tho 
city,  were,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  ef  the  central  Govern- 
ment, finally  abolished  by  the  local  authorities  in  1845. 
The  waUs  of  the  moat  were  utilized  for  the  cellars  of  the 
houses  which  soon  occupied  the  site  of  the  ramparts,  and 
the  ground,  which  had  been  covered  by  the  citadel,  was 
laid  out  in  horticultural  gardens.  •  A  rapid  extension  of 
the  city  to  the  north-west  took  place,  and  in  18C0  an 
elaborate  plan  for  the  laying  out  of  new  districts  received 
the  royal  sanction.  Barcelona  thus  comprises  an  old  and  a 
new  town,  difi'cring  from  each  other  in  many  important 
features,  the  former  still  consisting  for  the  moat  part 
of  irregular  and  narrow  streets,  while  the  latter  has  all 
the  symmetry  and  precision  of  a  premeditated  scheme. 
The  buildings  of  the  old  town  are  chiefly  of  brick,  from 
four  to  five  stories  in  height,  with  flat  roofs,  aud  other 
Eastern  peculiarities ;  while  in  tho  new  town  hewn  stono 
is  very  largely  employed,  and  the  architecture  is  often  of  a 
modern  English  style.  To  the  south-east,  on  the  tongue 
of  land  that  helps  to  form  the  port,  lies  the  suburb  of 
Barceloneta.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  marquis  do  la  Mina, 
who,  about  1754,  did  so  much  for  the  city,  and  is  regularly 
laid  out,  the  houses  being  built  of  brick  after  a  uniform 
pattern.  The  main  street  or  axis  of  the  old  town  is  tho 
RamUa,  a  favourite  resort  of  the  higher  classes,  which  has  a 
fine  promenade  planted  with  plane-trees  running  down  the 
middle,  and  contains  the  jirincipal  hotels  and  theatres  of 
the  city.  Among  the  most  important  of  the  squares  are 
tho  Plaza  de  I^alacio,  the  Plaza  Real,  and  the  Plaza  del 
Tcatro.     The    Pasco   do   San   Juan   and  the  Gardin  del 


B  A  R  C  E  L  0  N  A 


367 


tieneral  to  the  north-east  of  the  town  arc  being  removed. 
The  site  of  the  former  is  to  be  occupied  by  a  large  market, 
while  Ibo  latter  is  to  be  absorbed  into  the  Park.  Barcelona 
a  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and,  like  most  Spanish  towns,  has  a 
-aige  number  of  ecclesiastical  buildings,  though  by  no 
means  so  many  as  it  once  possessed.     If  Burceloneta  on 


^ 


:s^ 


'»  r-yalu^  Mi2» 


)    r 


)(     )000000—      , — .-_ 

lLd0000  0  0CD-O:c>90000-00' 
lOOOOOOOOOiOjOO'i.',  00- 


oooo-otoooo  k^.9- 
boo  o'q-o  O  O  0X3  0--  .^ 
o  o  Q  3=ao  o  o  o  o  o"oo 

)OOQOO"0^^3-&0000  0  0!GGr 

)OOOOQQ00  0  5:n'OSOOoo:oo( 

) O  a  D  O O O.OuD  il'SiO O O  00 O  O'Q  0< 
JOa  DOOQ^"t  ^^ai^:oDO03GCi  d)0( 
lOOQDC^^'^^JXtS^feOQgSgOOf 

'SO'^ 


^  ^iaD°=lDOO 


Ga  idea  » 


Uruunti-ridn  of  Uarettoii^ 

the  one  hand,  and  Garcia,  a  suburban  village,  on  the  other, 
be  included,  the  number  of  cLuicLos  amounts  to  twenty- 
•even,  and  eighteen  of  these  are  parroqmns ,  while  no 
fewer  than  eighteen  convents  were  still  standing  in  1873. 
The  cathedral,  erected  betweca  1208  and  14  48,  but  not  yet 
finished,  is  a  spacious  building  in  the  Pointed  style,  and 
contains  the  toiub  of  Santa  Eulalia,  the  patron  saint  of  the 
city,  lis  stained  glass  windows  are  among  the  finest  in 
Spain,  and  it  possesses  archives  of  great  value.  Santa 
Maria  del  Mar,  S.tiitos  Justo  y  Pastor,  San  Pedro  de  las 
ruellas.  and  Sin  Pablo  del  C;,mpo,  arc  all  churches  worthy 
of  mention.  San  Miguel  in  Barccloncta,  which  preserved 
B  curious  ancient  mo.«aic  and  contained  the  tomb  of  the 
marf(ui3  de  la  Mina,  has  been  taken  down. 

The  educational  institutions  of  Barcelona  have  from  an 
e.iny  period  been  numerous  and  important.  The  university 
{Uiiiiersitl'ul  LiUiarw)  was  originally  founded  in  1430 
hj  the  magistracy  of  the  city,  and  received  a  bull  of  confirma- 


tion from  Pope  Nicholas  V.  in  1450,  possessing  at  that 
time  four  faculties  and  thirty-one  chairs,  all  endowed  by 
the  corporation  {vide  Capmanj-'s  Jfanorias).  It  was  sup- 
pressed ia  1714,  but  restored  in  1841,  ahd  now  occupies 
an  extensive  building  in  the  new  town.  There  are,  besides, 
an  academy  of  natural  scieuces,  a  college  of  medicine  and 
surgery, — confirmed  by  a  bull  of  Benedict  X 11 1,  in  1400, — 
an  academy  of  fine  arts,  a  normal  school,  a  theological 
seminary,  an  upper  industrial  school,  an  institution  for  the 
education  of  deaf  mutes,  a  school  of  navigation,  and  many 
minor  establishments.  Gratuitous  instruction -of  a  very 
high  order  is  afforded  by  the  Board  of  Trade  to  upwards 
of  two  thousand  pu[)i]3.  The  principal  charitable  founda- 
tions are  the  Casa  de  Caridad,  or  Hyusc  of  Industry,  the 
Hospital  General,  dating  from  1401,  and  the  Foundling 
Hospital  The  Monies  de  Piedad  are,  in  facf,  mutual  bene- 
fit societies;  and  that  of  Nostra  Scnora  de  la  Esperanza 
has  this  peculiarity,  that  loans  on  deposits  are  made  without 
interest  to  necessitous  persons,  thousands  of  whom  yearly 
ava-1  themselves  of  its  advantages.  The  principal  civic 
and  commercial  bviildings  are  the  Casa  ComnsCorial,  a  fine 
Gothic  hall,  the  Lonja,  or  Exchange,  dating  from  1383,  and 
the  Aduana,  or  Customhouse,  built  in  1792.  At  the 
seaward  end  of  the  Rambla  i.<!  a  large  ancient  structure, 
{.heAtarazanas,  or  Arsenals,  which  was  finished  about  1243. 
A  portion  of  it  was  recently  taken  down  to  give  a  better 
view  to  the  promenade.  Remains  of  the  former  royal  state 
of  Barcelona  are  found  in  the  Palacio  Real  of  the 'kings  of 
Aragon,  and  the  Palacio  da  la  Reina.  At  the  highest 
pait  of  thecity,  in  the  Calie  del  Paradis,are  some  magnificent 
colonins,  and  other  Roman  remains,  which,  however,  are 
hidden  by  the  surrounding  buildings. 

The  inhabitants  of  Barcelona  are  not  only  an  intelligent 
and  industrious,  but  a  gay  and  pleasure-loving  people. 
Means  of  public  recreation  are  abundantly  supplied.  There 
are  no  fewer  than  fourteen  theatres  of  more  or  less 
pretension, .  the  two  most  important  being  tbo  Teatio 
Priilcipal  and  the  Teatro  del  Liceo.  The  latter  is  a  very 
fine  building,  originally  erected  in  1845  on  the  site  of  a 
convent  of  Trinitarian  monks,  and  capable  of  containing 
4000  spectators.  A  striking  feature  in  Barcelona  society 
is  the  development  of  social  life;  and  the  number  of 
restaurants  and  similar  places  of  evening  resort  is  very 
great.  A  [ileasant  promenade  is  furnished  not  only  by  the 
Ilambla  but  by  the  Muralla  del  Mar,  or  sea  v.all,  which 
was  largely  due  to  the  marquis  de  la  Mina,  and  is  now 
undergoing  cvtensive  alteration  by  the  rtclainiing  of  a 
strip  of  land  from  the  port. 

Barcelona  has  long  been  the  industrial  and  commercial 
'centre  of  Eastern  Spain — a  preeminence  which  dates  from 
the  12th  and  13th  centuries.  It  was  tlie  rival  of  Genoa 
and  Venice,  and  in  renown  its  hardy  mariners  were  second 
to  none.  The  origin  of  the  famjus  code  of  maritime 
laws  known  as  the  OoiisolaJo  del  viar  is  usually,  though 
not  with  absolute  certainty,  ascribed  to  its  merchants; 
and  it  is  pretty  well  established  that  they  were  the  liist  tB 
eni])loy  the  method  of  marine  insurance.  We  find  them 
at  an  early  period  trading,  not  only  with  the  ports  of  tlia 
Mediterranean,  but  with  the  Low  Countries  and  England, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  with  Constantinople  and  Damascus, 
Egypt  and  Armenia,  on  the  other, — entering  into  treaties 
with  kings  and  niagisUacics,  and  cslabjishing  in  aH 
inijiortant  places  consuls  to  look  after  their  interests.  Tlif 
prosperity  so  deeply  rooted  continued  through  nunierou» 
vicissitudes  till  the  emancipation  of  the  Spanish  Ainericaa 
colonies,  when  a  comparative  decline  set  in.  This,  however, 
proved  only  temporary,  and,  in  spite  of  the  disastrous  ccn- 
Ecquences  of  the  French  invasion,  and  the  various  revolu- 
tions of  the  country  since  then.  Barcelona  has  no  need  to 
look  back  with  regret  to  the  past.      A  great  variety   of 


3G8 


B  A  R  —  B  A  R 


industries  are  now  carried  on — the  most  important  being 
the  spinning  and  weaving  of  wool,  cotton,  aad  silk.  Of 
the  numerous  guilds  that  were  anciently  formed  in  the 
city  an  interesting  list  is  to  be  found  in  Capmany.  It 
carries  on  a  large  shipping  trade.  In  1872  between  700 
and  800  foreign  vessels,  with  a  tonnage  of  300,000  tons, 
discharged  their  cargoes  in  the  port.  Of  these  160  were 
British.  The  imports  from  the  colonics  are  sugar,  cotton, 
tobacco,  rum,  wax,  dye-wood,  <tc.;  machmery,  coals,  coke, 
cotton,  wool,  thread,  and  other  stuffs,  are  brought  from 
England;  articles  of  silk,  chemical  prepaAtions,  pastes 
and  flours  of  all  sorts,  objects  of  fashion,  wines  and  liquors, 
from  France  ;  petroleum,  cotton,  and  staves  from  North 
America ;  cotton  from  the  Brazils  and  Smyrna ;  hides 
from  the  River  Plate  ;  salt-fish  from  the  North  Sea.  The 
export  trade  is  not  so  extensive,  consisting  largely  of  fruits 
and  vegetables,  oil,  silk,  wmes,  salt,  ic.  The  so-called 
port  of  Barcelona  was  at  first  only  an  open  beach,  slightly 
sheltered  by  the  neighbouring  hills,  but  at  an  early  period 
the  advantage  of  some  artificial  protection  was  felt.  In 
1433  we  find  Don  Alphonso  V.  granting  the  magistracy 
a  licence  to  build  a  mole  ;  and  in  1474  the  Moll  de  Santa 
C'reu  was  oflicially  commenced.  Long  after  this,  however, 
travellers  speak  of  Barcelona  as  destitute  of  a  harbour; 
and  it  is  only  in  the  17th  century  that  satisfactory  works 
were  undertaken.  Down  to  a  very  recent  period  all  the 
included  area  was  shut  off  from  the  open  sea  by  a  sand- 
bank, which  rendered  the  entrance  of  large  vessels 
impossible.  An  extension  of  the  former  mole,  and  the  con- 
atmction  of  another  from  the  foot  of  Montjuich,  have 
embraoed  a  portion  of  the  sea  outside  of  the  bank,  and  a 
convenient  shelter  is  thus  afforded  for  the  heaviest  men  of 
war.  The  depth  in  this  part  is  about  40  feet,  while 
within  the  sandbank  it  is  from  18  to  20.  Barcelona  is 
well  supplied  with  inland  communication  by  rail,  and  the 
traffic  of  its  own  streets  is  largely  facilitated  by  tramway 
lines  running  from  the  port  as  far  as  Garcia. 

According  to  traditions  preserved  by  the  Roman  writers, 
Barcelona  owed  its  origin,  or  at  least  its  first  importance, 
to  the  Carthaginians  under  Hamilcar  Barca,  after  whom  it 
was  called  Bamno.  It  received  a  Roman  colony,  and 
was  known  by  the  name  of  Faventia.  After  having  shared 
in  the  various  vicissitudes  of  the  barbaric  invasion.s,  it 
became  the  capital  of  a  dukedom  under  Louis  the  Pious, 
and  not  long  after  began  to  give  the  title  of  count  to  a 
family  that  soon  made  itself  independent.  In  985  the  city 
was  captured  by  the  Moors,  but  not  long  after  it  was 
recovered  by  Count  Borell.  In  1151  Raynmnd  Berenguer 
married  the  daughter  of  R.amiro  II.  of  Aragon,  and  thus 
the  countship  of  Barcelona  was  united  to  that  kingdom  by 
his  son.  From  the  successive  princes  of  the  line  the  city 
received  many  privileges.  In  1040  Barcelona  was  the 
centre  of  the  Catalonian  rebellion  against  Philip  IV.,  and 
threw  itself  under  French  protection.  In  1652  it  returned 
to  its  allegiance,  but  was  captured  by  the  duke  of  Vendome 
in  1697.  At  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  in  the  same  year, 
it  was  restored  to  the  Spanish  monarchy.  During  the 
War  of  the  Succession  Barcelona  adhered  to  the  house  of 
Austria.  The  seizure  of  Montjuich  in  1705  and  the 
subsequent  capture  of  the  city  by  the  earl  of  Peterborough 
formed  one  of  his  most  brilliant  achievements.  In  1714 
it  was  taken  after  an  obstinate  resistance  by  the  duke  of 
Berwick  in  the  interests  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  war  was  reluctantly  reconciled  to  the  Bourbon  dynasty. 
At  the  commencement  of  Bonaparte's  attempt  on  the  liberty 
of  Spain,  the  French  troops  obtained  possession  of  the 
fortress,  and  kept  the  city  in  subjection.  Since  then  it  hits 
•harcd  in  most  of  the  revolutionary  movements  that  have 
fw«pt  over  Spain,  and  has  frequently  been  distinguished 
by  the  vii'lcnce  of   i's  civl'-  commotions.     By  the   census 


of  1857  the  population  .of  tne  city  amounted  to  180,014, 
and  by  an  enumeration  in  1864  the  city  and  suburbs  were 
found  to  contain  252,000  persons.  (See  Manifestadon  de 
muichos  relevantcs  servicios  de  Barcelona,  Barcelona,  1697  ; 
Capmany,  Memorias  historkas  sobre  Barcelona,  1779-92; 
Chantreau,  Lettres  de  Barcelonne,  1793;  Hare,  fra?iderin(/s 
i]iSpai7i.) 

BARCLAY,  Alexander,  an  English  poet,  was  born 
probably  about  1476.     His  nationality  has  been  matter  of 
much  literary  dispute,  but  the  evidence  on  the  whole  seems 
to  point  to  the  conclusion  that,  though  he  spent  the.  greater 
part  of  his  life  in  England,  he  was  a  native  of  Scotland. 
The  place  of  his  education  is  equally  doubtful ;  he  studied 
at  one  of  the  great  English  universities,  but  at  which  has 
not  yet  been  settled  by  his  biographers.     He  received  a 
benefice  from  the  provost  of  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and  it 
might  therefore  be  inferred  that  he  had  been  a  student  at 
that  place.     But  Oxford  is  nowhere  referred  to  in   his 
writings,   whereas   Cambridge   is   mentioned   once.      He 
appears  to  have  travelled  on  the  Continent  after  complet- 
ing  his   university   course,    and   on  his  return   received 
an  appointment  as  chaplain  in  the  collegiate  church  at 
Ottery  St  Mary  in  Devonshire.      He  afterwards  became 
a  Benedictine   monk  of  the  njonastery  of   Ely,  and   at 
length  assumed  the  habit  of  St  Francis  at  Canterbury. 
Having  survived  the  dissolution    of   the  monasteries,  he 
became  successively  vicar  of  Much  Badew  in  Essex,  and,  in 
1546,  of  Wokey  in  Somersetshire  ,  and  a  few  months  be- 
fore his  death  he  was  presented  by  the  dean  and  chapter 
of   Canterbury  to  the  rectory  of  All-Saints  in   Lombard 
Street.      As  he  retained  some  of  his  preferments  in  the 
reign  of    Edward  VI.,  it  is  presumed  that  he  nmst  have 
complied  with  the  changes  of  the  times.     He  died  at  an 
advanced  age  in  the  year  1052,  and  was  interred  at  Croydon. 
Barclay  wrote  at  a  period  when  the  standard  of  English 
poetry  wrs  extremely  low ;  and,  as  excellence  is  alw.ays 
comparative,  this  circumstance    may  partly  enable  us  to 
account  for  the  high  reputation  which  he  enjoyed  among 
his   contemporaries.      At   the   same  time  his  best  work, 
being  a  comprehensive  and  easily  understood  satire  on  the 
manners  of  the  times,  naturally  acquired  a  wide  popularity, 
and  was  extensively  read.     The  title  given  to  it  was  the 
Ship  of  Fooles,   and   it   was  first  printed   by  Pinson  in 
1509.     The  original  design,  and  many  of  the  details,  were 
derived  from  Sebastian   Brandt,   a  civilian  of  Strasburg, 
who  in  1494  published  a  poem  entitled  Das  barren  Schiif, 
which  was  so  well  adapted  to  the  taste  of  the  age  that  a 
Latin  and  a  French  version  appeared  in  1497,  and  another 
French  version  in  1498.     Barclay  professes  to  have  trans- 
lated "  oute  of  Latcn,  Frenche,  and  Doche ;"  but  to  the 
original  cargo  he  has  added  many  fools  of  English  growth. 
Under  the  representation  of  a  ship  freighted  with  fools  of 
various  denominations,  the  poet  exposes  the  prevalent  vices 
and  follies  of  the  age  ,  and  although,  as  Warton  remarks, 
the  poem  is  destitute  of  plot  and  the  voyage  of  adventures, 
the  general  design  was  found  to  possess  many  attractions. 
The  work  is  of  considerable  importance,  as  giving  a  clear 
though  by  no  means  pleasing  jucture  of  English  society  and 
lower  class  life  in  the  time  of  Henry  VllL,  and  also  as 
marking  a  stage  in  the  progress  of  the  English  language. 
Barclay's  vocabulary  is  essentially  that  of  the  people.     His 
other   works   are — The    Caslell   of  Laboure,    1506;    The 
Mirrour  of  Good  Atannrrs,  translated  from  the  poem  of 
Mancini  De  quatuor    Virtutilus  ;   The  Eglofjes ;  a  version 
of  Salhist ;  an    Jntroduclion  to    Write  and    to  Pronounce 
Frenche  ;  and  some  small  pieces.     A  catalogue  of  all  these, 
with  full   notice  of   the  little  that  is  known  concerning 
Barclay,  and  ample  bibliograiiliiral  information,  is  supplied 
by  Mr  Jamicson  in  the  introduction  to  his  edition  of  the 
Ship  of  Foots,  Edin.,  1S74. 


B  A  R  C  L  A  Y 


3G9 


BARCLAY,  JoD.v,  a  distin>uisbed  scholar  and  writer, 
Ais  born,  January  28,  15S2,  at  Pout  i-Mousson,  where  his 
father  William  liarclay  (sec  below)  was  professor  of  civil 
law.  Educated  at  the  Jesuits'  college,  be  gave  evidence 
of  reiuaikable  ability  at  an  early  age.  and  xvas  only 
mneieeu  when  he .  pu^^lished  a  commentary  upoa  the 
Tlifbati  of  Statius.  The  Jesuits  were  naturally  desirous 
that  he  should  enter  their  order,  but  to  tlus  both  himself, 
and  his  father  wero  averse.  The  jealous  enmity-  of  the 
order  was  roused  against  them  m  consequ'ence  of  this 
refusal,  and  in  1C03  both  left  France  and  crossed  over  to 
England.  In  the  following  year  they  returned  and  settled 
at  Angers,  where  Barclay's  father  had  been  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  law.  Soon  after  the  death  of  his  father  in  IC05, 
Barclay  appears  to  have  married,  and  (o  have  settled  in 
Loudon,  where  in  1  COG  he  published  the  second  part  of  his 
Satyruon,  the  first  part  having  appeared  on  his  previous 
visit  to  England.  In  1610  he  edited  an  important  treatise 
left  by  his  father,  De  Potestate  Vapce,  which  involved  him 
in  controversy  with  the  famous  Cardinal  Bellarmin.  In 
3G14  appeared  the  wittiest  and  most  interesting  part  of  the 
Sati/ncon,  entitled  Icon  Animoriim,  which  gives  a  critical 
survey  of  the  varied  manners  and  characteristics  of  the 
several  European  nations.  It  has  been  frequently  reprinted. 
In  1 G 1 6,  after  a  short  stay  in  Pans,  he  proceeded  to  Rome, 
where  he  continued  to  reside  till  his  death  on  r2th  August 
1C21.  His  romance,  Aryems,  was  passing  through  the 
press  at  tha  period  of  bis  death,  and  it  appeared  in  the 
course  of  the  same  year  Barclay,  from  what  reason  is 
not  apparent,  failed  to  attain  the  position  to  which  his 
talents  seemed  fairly  to  entitle  him.  His  reputation  as  a 
writer  and  scholar  was  remarkably  high  among  his  con- 
temporaries, Grotius  and  others  have  lavished  praises  on 
tho  purity  and  elegance  of  his  Latin  stylo  ;  his  romance 
was  extremely  popular ,  and  some  of  his  Latin  pocins  are 
very  happy.  The  idea  of  the  S'ltyncon,  one  of  his  two 
extensive  compositions,  is  borrowed  from  Pctronius  ;  in 
the  details,  however,  the  work  fortunately  does  not  follow 
that  author  so  closely.  It  was  very  extensively  read,  and 
lias  passed  through  several  editions.  The  Argems,  a  long 
Latin  romance,  sometimes  looked  on  as  a  political  allegory, 
■was  very  popular.  It  is  said  to  have  been  warmly  admired 
by  Richelieu  and  I.cibnitz,  while  Cowper,  Disraeli,  and 
Coleridge  speak  of  jt  in  terms  of  high  admiration.  The 
value  that  was  put  upon  it  by  Barclay's  contemporaries 
and  immediate  successors  may  be  gathered  from  the  critical 
estimate  of  it  given  in  the  Vitm  Bardaii,  prefixed  to  later 
editions  of  the  work.  "  Ilubct  entm,"  says  the  anonymous 
writer  of  tho  life,  "  heioicum  Tullu  ligorem,  Lncomsmum 
et  politicam  Taciti,  Livii  antiquitatem,  Jlusculos  puros 
Petronii,  sales  fahuhsos  Nasonu,  podtcam  Maronica  vix 
tn/eiiorem."  There  have  been  numerous  editions  of  the 
book,  which  has  been  translated  into  almost  every  European 
language. 

B.\UCL.\Y,  JonN,  M  D  ,  an  eminent  anatomist,  was 
born  in  Perthshire  in  1700,  and  died  at  Edinburgh  in 
ltJ26.  After  the  usual  routine  of  parochial  education,  he 
completed  his  academical  course  at  the  United  College  of 
St  Andrews.  Ho  subsequently  studied  divinity  there, 
and  was  licensed  as  a  preacher  by  the  Presbytery  of 
Dunkeld.  Having  rep.iiicd  to  Edinburgh  in  1789,  as 
tutor  to  the  family  of  Sir  James  CampbcH  of  Aberuchill, 
ho  began  to  give  his  aiteniion  to  the  study  of  raedi- 
cinc.  and  parliculaily  to  human  and  comparative  anatomy. 
.Ho  became  assistant  to  .Mr  John  Bell,  and  took  the 
di-grce  of  M  D  in  1706,  after  having  defended  an 
inaugural  dissertation,  De  Amma  jcu  Pinicipio  Vi/ali,  a 
subject  which  occupied  bis  maturer  powers  towards  the 
chisc  of  his  lif«  Inimcdialcly  after  his  graduation,  be 
re, 'aired  to  London,  ond  studied  for  sfmc  time  under  Dr 


.Marshall,  at  that  time  a  very  distinguished  teacher  of 
anatomy  in  the  metropolis.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Edin- 
burgh, he  commenced  his  lectures  on  anatomy  in  November 
17'J7,  and  speedily  attracted  an  audience,  which  increased 
considerably  m  numbers  until  tho  period  of  his  retirement, 
a  short  lime  before  his  death. 

Of  Barclay's  |irofe3sioDal  writings,  the  earliest,  we  believe,  «ns 
the  .iiticle  ruvsiOLOOY.coDtnbuttd  to  the  third  cdilion  of  this  woik. 
Ill  1SII3  he  attein[ited  a  reform  m  the  language  oj"  auatomy,  with  a 
view  10  render  it  more  accurate  and  precise, — a  task  for  which  his 
aoi]ni[tmcuts  as  a  classical  scholar  rendered  him  peculiarly  «ell 
qujlihed.  Although  the  ^'omcudatuTc  tthich  he  published  in  tbut 
yejr  has  Dot  been  ^cuerdlly  adopted,  the  profession  acknowledged 
'llie  iin|iorlance  of  the  object  nliich  be  had  in  view,  as  well  as 
the  talent  and  learning  with  which  it  was  executed.  In  1808 
ho  puhliihed  his  Treatise  on.  the  Muscular  AfoUons  of  the  Human 
Bijiiij,  and  in  1812  his  Description  of  the  Arteries  o/  the  Human 
Body,  a  work  displaying  much  acute  observation  and  laborious  re- 
search, which  may  be  considered  the  most  practically  useful  Q^ 
all  his  writings.  His  last  public.ition.  completed  only  a  few  years 
before  his  death,  was  An  Jtujuiry  iiuo  .the  Opinions,  Ancient  and 
M'^iem,  concerning  Life  and  Orijanization,  a  work  replete  with 
learning  and  sound  ori;;inal  criticism.  His  introductory  lectures 
published  after  his  death  coulain  a  valuable  abriJgineut  of  the 
history  of  anatomy. 

B.\11CLAY,  JonN,  founder  of  a  small  sect  iu  the  Scotch 
Church  called  Bereaus  or  Barclayites,  was  born  in  Perthshire 
in  1734,  and  died  at  Edinburgh  in  1798.  He  graduated 
at  St  Andrew's,  and  after  being  licensed  became  assistant  to 
the  pari.sh  minister  of  Enol  in  Perthshire.  He  developed 
some  very  peculiar  views,  wTijch  led  to  a  dilTcrcnce  with 
the  minister;  and  in  1703  he  left  and  was  appointed  assist- 
ant to  Mr  Dow  of  Fetkcrcairn.  Iu  this  parish  he  became 
very  popular,  but  his  opinions,  whether  as  expounded  from 
the  pulpit,  or  as  set  forth  in  a  paraphrase  of  some  Psalms 
which  he  published,  failed  to  give  satisfaction  to  his  Pres- 
bytery. In. 1772  he  was  rejected  as  ""Successor  to  Mr 
Dow,  and  was  even  refused  by  the  Presbytery  the  testi- 
monials requisite  in  order  to  obtain  another  living.  The 
refusal  of  the  Presbytery  was  sustained,  by  the  General 
Assembly,and  Mr  Barclay  thereupon  leftthe  Scotch  Church. 
He  preached  in  Edinburgh,  London,  Bristol,  and  other 
places,  but  with  no  great  success.  Neither  his  writings, 
which  were  collected  in  three  volumes,  nor  the  sect  formed 
by  him,  are  of  much  importance.  His  adherents  were  called 
Bereans,  because  they  regulated  their  conduct  as  the  in- 
habitants of  Berea  arc  said  to  have  done,  by  dihgenlly 
searching  the  Scriptures  (Acts  xvii.  1 1). 

BARCLAY,  Robert,  one  of  the  most  eminent  w-ntcrs 
belonging  to  the  Society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers,  was  born 
in  1048  at  Gordonstown  in  Morayshire.  He  was  sent  to 
finish  his  education  in  Pans,  aiid  it  appears  he  was  at  one 
time  inclined  to  accept  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  In 
1607,  however,  be  followed  the  example  of  his  father 
Colonel  Barclay  of  Urie,  and  joined  the  recently  formed 
Society  of  Friends.  He  was  an  ardent  theological  student, 
a  man  of  warm  feelings  and  considerable  mental  power, 
and  he  soon  came  prominently  forward  as  the  leading 
apologist  of  the  new  doctrine.  His  greatest  work.  An 
Apology  for  the  True  Chriglian  Divinity,  was  published  lu 
Latin  in  1676,  and  w.as  an  elaborate  statement  of  the 
grounds  for  holding  certain  fundamental  positions,  lai8 
down  in  the  Theses  Theologicae  which  had  been  put  forward 
in  the  preceding  year.  The  most  prominent  of  the  Theses 
was  that  bearing  on  Immediate  Revelation,  in  which  the 
superiority  of  this  Inner  Light  to  Reason  or  Scripture  is 
sharply  stated  Barclay  experienced  to  some  extent  the 
persecutions  inflicted  on  the  new  society,  and  was  sevc  al 
times  thrown  into  prison  He  died  in  1690  at  tho  early 
a"c  of  forty-two.  His  Apology,  which  is  still  tho  most 
important  manifesto  of  the  Quaker  society,  was  translated 
by  himself  into  English  in  1673.  Translations  of  it  ini» 
foreign  languages  have  also  appca.td. 


370 


B  A  R  —  B  A  R 


BARCLAY,  William,  LL.D.,  a  writer  on  civil  law,  was 
born  ia  Aberdeenshire  iu  ibe  year  1541.  He  spent  the 
early  part  of  liis  bfe,  and  much  of  his  fortune,  at  the 
court  of  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  from  whose  favour  he  had 
reason  to  expect  preferment.  In  1573  he  went  over  to 
France,  and  at  Bourges  began  to  study  civil  law  under  the 
famous  Cujas.  Hs  continued  some  years  in  that  semi- 
nary, where  he  took  his  doctor's  degree  ;  and  was  soon  after 
appointed  professor  of  civil  law  in  the  university  of  Pont- 
k-Mousson,  recently  founded  by  the  duke  of  Lorraine.  The 
prince  afterwards  made  him  counsellor  of  state  ind  master 
of  requests.  In  the  year  1581  Barclay  married  Anne  de 
Mallevi lie,  a  French  lady.  Their  son  was  the  jcelebrated 
John  Barclay,  author  of  the  Argents.  This  /outh.  the 
Jesuits  would  gladly  have  received  into  their  society;  but 
his  father  refused  his  consent,  and  thereby  inci  ired  their 
bitter  enmity.  He  was  compelled  to  leave  Fran'.e,  and  re- 
turned to  Britain,  where  King  James  oflfered  him  i consider- 
able preferment,  provided  he  would  become  a  member  of  the 
Church  of  England.  He  would  not  accept  the  pest  on  this 
condition,  and  went  back  again  to  France  in  1601.  Soon 
after  his  arrival  he  was  appointed  first  professcr  of  the 
civil  law  in  the  University  of  Angera,  where  he  died  the 
year  following,  and  was  buried  in  the  Franciscan  church. 
Barclay  was  a  man  of  considerable  ability,  and  his  legal 
writings  are  still  valued.  In  his  political  opiniocs  he  was 
directly  opposed  to  his  illustrious  countryman  Bjchanan, 
and  was  a  strenuous  defender  of  the  rights  of  ki  igs ;  his 
own  speculations  on  the  principles  of  government  rre  best 
known  to  some  from  an  incidental  confutation  \y  Locke, 
in  his  Treatises  on  Government.  His  most  imporlant  writ- 
ings were : — 

De  Jiegno  et  Regali  Potcstaie^  adversiis  Bnchananum-^  Brutvvi, 
Boucheriuvi,  et  rcliquos  Monarchomachos^  libri  scx^  Paris,  ]60O, 
4to  ;  In  Titulum  Pandectarum  de  Rebus  credilU^et  Jurcjurando 
ComTneiUarii,  Paris,  1605,  8vo  ;  De  PoUstate  Pa  pee  ;  an  et  quaienus 
in  Reges  et  Principes  scculcires  jus  et  impcrium  habeat :  Liber  post- 
humus,  Mussiponti,  1610,  8vo.  This  work  was  translated  into 
French,  and  an  English  version  is  printed  with  tire  treatise  of 
Sheldon,  Of  the  Lawfulness  of  the  Oath  of  Allegiance,  Lend.  ICll, 
4to.  Barclay's  two  treatises,  De  Regno  and  De  Potestate  Paper,  have 
repeatedly  been  printed  in  the  same  volume  :  Hanover,  1612,  8vo; 
Hanover,  1617,  8vo. 

BARCLAY  DE  TOLLY,  Michael,  a  Russian  prince 
and  general, highly  distinguished  in  the  wars  with  Napoleon, 
was  born  in  Livonia  in  1759.  He  was  a  descendant  of  the 
old  Scotch  family  of  Barclay,  a  branch  of  whom  had  settled 
in  Russia  in  the  17th  century.  He  was  adopted  by  General 
Vermbulen,  and  entered  a  Russian  cuirassier  regiment  when 
Tery  young.  In  1 788  and  1 789  he  served  against  the  Turks, 
and  in  the  following  years  against  the  Swedes  and  Poles, 
In  1806,  when  Russia  took  up  arms  against  Napoleon,  he 
commanded  the  advanced  guard  at  the  battle  of  Pultusk. 
At  Eyiau  ho  lost  an  arm,  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-general.  In  1808  ho  commanded  igainst  tho 
Swedes,  and  in  1809  by  a  rapid  and  darint^  march  for  two 
days  over  the  ice  he  surprised  and  seized  IJmco.  In  1810 
he  ws  made  minister  of  war,  and  retainci  the  post  till 
1813  There  was  very  keen  opposition  to  the  appointment 
of  a  f  reigner  as  commander-in-chief,  and  after  the  defeat 
of  Smolensk,  the  outcry  was  so  great  that  he  resigned  his 
office  and  took  a  subordinate  place  under  t'lo  veteran 
Kutusoff.  -On  the  death  of  tho  latter  he  was  reappointed 
to  the  supreme  command,  and  fought  at  tho  battles  of 
Bautzen,  Dresden,  and  Leipsic.  He  was  unable  to  bring 
up  his  forces  in  time  for  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  but 
marched  into  Franco  and  took  part  in  the  occupation  of 
Paris.  He  was  rewarded  for  his  services  by  being  mado 
prince  and  field -marshal.  He  died  in  1818  at  Insterburg, 
in  Prussia,  while  on  his  way  to  the  Bohemian  bahs. 

RAR-COCHEBAS,  or  BARCocnAn  {Son  of  a  Star),  a 
celebrated  Jewish  leader  in  the  insurrection  against  Hadrian, 


131-135  A.D.,  whose  real  name  was  Simeon.  Th;  events 
of  his  life  belong  to  the  history  of  the  Jews. 

BARD,  from  the  Welsh  bardd,  is  the  name  appl.ed  to 
the  ancient  Celtic  poets,  though  the  word  is  sometimes 
loosely  used  as  synonymous  wit  a  poet  in  general.  So  far 
as  can  be  ascertained,  the  titlti  bards,  and  some  jf  the 
privileges  peculiar  to  that  class  of  poets,  are  to  be  found 
only  among  Celtic  peoples.  The  name  itself  is  no;  us^ed 
by  Cssar  in  his  account  of  the  manners  and  custonis  of 
Gaul  and  Britain,  but  he  appears  to  ascribe  the  functions 
of  the  bards  to  a  section  of  the  Druids,  with  which  class 
they  seem  to  have  been  closely  connected.  Later  Latin 
authors,  such  as  Lucan  (Phar.,  p.  447),  Festus  (De  Verb. 
S-'gn.  s.  v.),  and  Ammianus  MarceUinus  (bk.  xv.),  used  the 
term  Bardi  as  the  racognized  title  of  the  national  poets  oi 
singers  among  the  peoples  of  Gaul  and  Britain.  In  Gaul, 
however,  the  institution  soon  disappeared ;  the  purely 
Celtic  peoples  were  swept  back  by  the  waves  of  Latin  and 
Teutonic  conquest,  and  finally  settled  in  Wales,  Ireland, 
Brittany,  and  the  north  of  Scotland.  There  is  clear 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  bards  in  all  these  places,  though 
the  known  relics  belong  almost  entirely  to  Wales  and 
Ireland,  where  the  institution  was  more  dist  nctively 
national.  In  Wales  they  formed  an  organized  society, 
with  hereditary  rights  and  privileges.  They  were  treated 
with  the  utmost  respect,  and  were  exempt  from  tr.xes  or 
military  service.  Their  special  duties  were  to  celebr,i.te  the 
victories  of  their  people,  and  to  sing  hymns  of  ptaise  to 
God.  They  thus  gave  poetic  expression  to  the  religious 
and  national  sentiments  of  the  people,  and  therefore  ex- 
ercised a  very  powerful  influence.  The  whole  society  of 
bards  was  regulated  by  laws,  said  to  have  been  first  dis- 
tinctly formulated  by  Hywell  Dha,  and  to  have  been  after- 
wards revised  by  GrufTydd  ap  Conan.  At  stated  intervals 
great  festivals  were  held,  at  which  the  most  famous  bards 
from  the  various  districts  met  and  contended  in  song,  the 
umpires' being  generally  the  princes  and  nobles.  Even 
after  the  conquest  of  Wales,  these  festivals,  or  Eisl?ddfodau, 
as  they  were  called,  continued  to  be  summoned  by  tlie 
English  sovereigns,  but  from  the  reign  of  Eliza'oeth  the 
custom  has  been  allowed  to  fall  into  abeyance.  They  have 
not  since  been  summonid  by  royal  authority,  but  have  been 
revived,  and  are  held  egularly  at  the  present  time.  In 
Ireland  also  the  bards  were  a  distinct  cla.ss  with  peculiar 
and  hereditary  privileges.  They  appear  to  have  been 
divided  into  three  great  sections :  the  first  celebrated 
victories  and  sang  hymns  of  praise ;  the  second  chanted 
the  laws  of  the  nation  ;  the  third  gave  poetic  genealogies 
and  family  histories.  The  Iri.sh  bards  were  held  in  high 
repute,  and  frequently  were  brought  over  to  Wales  to  give 
instruction  to  the  singers  of  that  country. 

Sco  Ed.  Jones,  Relics  of  the  JVelsh  Bards,  1784;  'Walker, 
Mcrrwi^  of  ttie  Irish  Bards,  1786;  Owen  Jones.  Myvijrian  Arehce' 
ology  of  Wales,  3  vols.,  lSOl-7  ;  W.  F.  Skene,  Four  Ancient  Books 
of  Wales,  'I  vols.,  ISGS. 

.  BARDESANES,  or  Bar  Deisan,  a  celebrated  Gnostic, 
u-as  a  native  of  Edessa  in  Mesopotamia,  and  apjicars  to 
have  flourished  during  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  Very 
little  is  known  of  his  life.  He  is  said  to  have  held  a  dis- 
putation with  Apollonius,  a  philosoplier  in  the  train  of 
Lucius  Verus,  and  ho  is  known  to  liavo  written  against  tho 
Marcionite  and  other  heresies.  There  is  considerable  doubt 
whether  ho  was  ever  a  disciple  of  Valentinus,  but  it  is 
acknowledged  that  he  never  ceased  to  belong  to  tho 
Christian  church.  However  seriously  his  principles,  if 
rigidly  interpreted,  might  conflict  with  the  doctrtncs  of 
Christianity,  ho  did  not  regard  himself  as  opposed  to 
tliiit  I'aith,  and  ho  was  generally  considered  one  of  its  best 
defenders.  He  was  especially  famed  for  his  hymna-, 
fragments  of  which  ore  stUl  extant.      Of  his  other  works 


B  A  II  — B  A  R 


37 1 


Jhere  seems  to  remain  oifiy  a  treatise  Oil  Fate,  a  portion 
of  which  was  preserved  by  Eusebius  {Prep.  Evan.,  vL  10), 
while  the  whole  has  beec  printed  from  a  Syriac  MS.  with 
English  trauslatica  by  Cureton  (SpiciUgiam  Si/riacum, 
Lor.d.  1855).  The  system  of  Bardesanes,  so  far  as  it  can  be 
gathered  from  the  scanty  notices  of  other  writers,  had  many 
points  in  common  with  that  of  Valentinus,  but  shows  to 
an  almost  greater  extent  the  influence  of  Oriental  mysti- 
cism and  imagery.  He  begins,  as  do  all  the  other  Gnostics, 
with  postulating  the  existence  of  tho  Unknown  God  or 
Father,  the  ground  of  all  the  forms  of  being.  Alongside  of 
God,  and  coexisting  with  Him, — in  fact,  His  necessary 
shadow, — is  vague,  unformed,  eternal,  and  uncreated 
Mattet.  From  this  dualism  springs  the  possibility  of  evil 
■n  the  universe.  Evil  is  not,  indeed,  correlative  and  equally 
.lecessary  with  God,  but  arises  from  matter.  The  Eternal 
Father,  through  union  with  His  everlastingly  produced,  but 
shadowy  companion,  brings  forth  tho  Son,  from  whose 
union  with  the  Uoly  Spirit  (Sophia)  spring  the  elements. 
The  combinatiDiis  of  the  productive  and  receptive  agents 
are  called  syzj/gies,  and  of  them  there  are  seven.  Bardesanes, 
who  had  dSfep.y  studied  tho  Chaldean  astrology,  seems  to 
have  discussed  at  great  length  tho  iniluence  of  the  sta;s 
on  human  action.  He  vindicated  for  man,  .what  may, 
with  some  stretch  'A  lanjuage,  be  termed  a  transcendental 
freedom.  His  foil  jwers  were  distinguished  by  the  strange 
opinion  they  entertained  with  regard  to  the  body  of  Christ, 
which  they  h  Vl  to  be  ouly  phenomenal,  not  real  Besides 
the  notices  ol  bardesanes  to  be  found  in  general  works  on 
Gnosticism, — ;  ■  those  of  Baur,  Matter,  Lipsius,  and  Man- 
sel, — the  foUo'  jng  may  be  consulted  : — Hahn,  Bardesanes 
Gnosticus  Syr  mm  primus  hymnologiis,  1819;  Hilgenfeld, 
Bardesanes,  der  lelrte  Gnostiker,  18G4. 

BAJIDILI,  CiiRisTOPH  Gottfried,  a  German  metaphy- 
sician, distinguishi  d  by  his  opposition  to  the  system  of 
Kant,  was  born  a'.  Blaubeuren  in  Wiirtemberg,  in  1761, 
and  died  at  Stuttgart  in  1 808.  Of  his  numerous  works  the 
principal  is  his  Flcments  of  Log'c  (Grinulrist  der  ersten 
Logik,  Stuttgart,  1800).  His  system  has  had  but  little 
iniluence  in  Germany,  the  celebrated  Reinhold  being  the 
only  adherent  of  ony  importance.  Yet  in  some  respects  his 
ideaa  opened  the  way  for  the  Liter  speculations  of  ScheUiog 
and  Hegel.  He  dissented  strongly  from  the  Kantian  dis- 
tinct'on  between  matter  and  form  of  thought,  and  urged 
that  philosophy  should  consider  only  thought  in  itself, 
pure  thought,  which  is  the  ground  or  possibility  of  being. 
The  fundamental  principle  of  thought  and  criterion  of 
certitude  was,  according  to  him,  the  law  of  identity ; 
logical  thinking  was  real  thinking.  The  matter  upon  which 
thought  operated  was  in  itself  indefinite  and  unformed,  a 
mere  aTreipov,  which  was  rendered  definite  or  took  deter- 
minate forms  through  tho  action  upon  it  of  thought. 
Bardili,  however,  worked  out  his  fundamental  idea  in  an 
•  abstract,  onesided  manner.  Thought, as  conceived  by  him, 
had  no  power  of  development  in  it,  and  ultimately  reduced 
itself  to  a  species  of  arithmetical  computation.  (See  on 
bis  system  the  notices  iii  Michelet,  Geschichte  der  letzten 
Systeme,  Bd.  i.,  and  Erdmann,  Versuch  einer  Geschichte  d. 
ncu.  Phil.,  Bd.  iil  pt.  i.) 

BARDSEY  (i.e.,  Bard's  Island),  or  in  Wel.sh  Ynys  Enlli, 
the  Island  of  tho  Current,  is  situated  at  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  Cardigan  Bay.  It  is  2\  miles  long  by  1  broad, 
with  an  area  of  about  370  acres,  o(  which  one-third  is 
billy.  The  island  produces  both  barhy  and  oats.  On  the 
S.E.  side  there  is  a  harbour  wh  ch  admits  vessels  of  40  tons. 
On  the  north  side  are  the  ruins  of  St  Mary's  Abbey,  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Cadfan  in  516,  which  afforded  refuge 
to  great  numbers  of  fugitives  during  the  7th century.  The 
lighthouse  has  a  fixed  light  129  feet  above  hich  water,  in 
lat.  52"  45'  N.,  long.  4"  •i.7'  W.  j 


B.\RD\VAN  (sometimes  spelled.  Burdwan),  a  division  or 
commissionership  in  India  under  the  Lieulenaut-Govemor 
of  Bengal,  comprising  the  districts  of  Bardwdn,  HiigU  with 
llowrah,  Midnapur,  Bdnkuri  or  West  Bardwdn,  and  Bir- 
bhiim,  lies  between  23°  and  25°  N.  lat.  and  between 
80°  and  89°  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  district 
of  tho  Santil  ParganAs  in  the  BhAgalpur  division,  and 
Murshidibid  in  the  Rijsh.'lhi  division ;  on  the  E.  by  tho 
Presidency  districts  of  Nadiy4,  and  the  24  Parganis  ;  on 
the  S.  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  native 
tributary  state  of  Morbhauj,  and  the  district  of  Mdnbhilm. 
in  tho  ChhotA  Nigpur  division.  In  1872  BardwAn  diW- 
sion  contained  an  area  of  12,719  square  miles,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  7,286,957,  inhabiting  25,842  towns  and  villages, 
and  1,468,791  houses;  persons  per  square  mile,  573;. 
villages  or  townships  per  sqt;are  mile,  2  03;  houses  per 
square  mile,  115;  persons  per  village,  282  ;  and  persons  per 
house,  5.  Tho  census  of  1872  classifies  the  population 
of  the  Bardwdn  division  as  follow  . — Hindus — males, 
3,051,967;  females,  3,164,093;  total,  6,216,060,  or 
853  per  cent  :  Mahometans — males,  450,103  ;  females, 
479,288;  total,  929,391,  or  12-8  per  cent.:  Christiana 
— males^  2352;  females,  2053;  total,  4405,  or  -1  per 
cent. :  total — males,  3,572,108,  or  49  per  cent ;  females, 
3,714,849,  or  51  per  cent  ;  grand  total,  7,286,957. 

BardwAn,  an  important  district  in  the  division  of 
the  same  name,  under  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Ben- 
gal, situated,  between  23°  53'  and  22°  46'  N.  lat.,  and 
between  68°  39'  and  86°  52'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on 
?!ie  N.  by  the  diatricta  of  Birbhilm  and  Murshiddbdd, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  River  Ajai ;  on  tho  E.  by 
the  districts  of  Nadiyd  and  Uugli,  the  River  Bhdgirathi 
separating  it  from  the  former  ;  on  the  S.  by  the  districts 
of  UilgH  and  Midnapur;  and  on  tho  W.  by  the  district.* 
of  Bdnkuri  and  Manbhum.  For  fiscal  purposes  the 
Board  of  Revenue  returns  its  area  at  3150  square  miles  : — 
cultivated,  2810  ;  cultivable,  but  not  cultivated,  190  ;  and 
uncultivable,  150.  The  census  of  1872  gives  the  police 
area  at  3523  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  2,03  ,745 
souls,  inhabiting  5191  villages,  and  residing  in  435,416 
houses.  Persons  per  square  mile,  578  ;  per  village,  392  ; 
per  house,  47.  Hindus  number  1,679,363,  or  82'5  per 
cent;  Mahometans,  348,024,  or  171  per  cent;  Chris- 
tians, 890,  or  -1  per  cent  ;  and  persons  of  unspecified  reli- 
gion, 6468,  or  '3  per  cent 

Bardw.in  is  a  flat  plain,  nnd  its  scenery  is  uninteresting.  Chief 
rivers — the  Bhamrathi,  Diniodar,  Ajai,  Bankii,  Kunur,  and  Kbari, 
of  which  only  tue  Bbagiralbi  is  navigable  by  country  cargo  boat* 
througliout  tho  year.  Agricultural  proaucts — paddy,  indico,  pulses, 
oil-sccds,  sugar-cane,  potatoes,  tobacco,  wheat,  onions,  Rarlic,  pump- 
kins, melons,  cucumbers,  and  vegetables  of  various  kinds.  Bard\van 
district  is  one  of  tlie  best  cultivated  in  Lower  Bengal.  Minerals  - 
iron,  copper,  lime  and  sandstone,  and  above  all,  coal.  The  creator 
portion  of  the  coal-bearing  rocks,  known  as  the  Damodaror  Raniganj 
iicld,  is  enclosed  between  iho  Rivers  Damodar  and  Ajai,  and  lies 
between  23°  35'  and  23°  45'  N.  lat,  and  86°  40'  iind  87°  15'  E.  long,, 
at  a  distance  of  from  about  120  to  ICO  miles  nortb-west  from 
Calcutta.  Tho  beds  arc  composed  of  coarse  and  fine  sandstones  and 
felspathic  coal-scams,  the  latter  being  frequently  continuous  over 
considerable  areas.  Those  knouTj  as  the  Lower  D-imodars  are  coarse 
conglomerates,  with  white  sandstones  and  numerous  coal-seams  of 
very  irregular  character.  The  working  of  the  Rdniganj  coal  (which 
at  present,  1874,  is  included  within  tho  Bardwdn  district)  dates 
from  1774,  when  a  company  was  formed  by  several  English  gentle- 
men for  the  purpose  of  mining  tho  collieries  ;  and  in  the  follo-Aiiig 
year  91  tons  of  Bardwdn  coal  were  despatched  to  Calcutta.  Id  1800, 
49  collieries  were  worked,  chiefly  conducted  witlf  European  capital, 
and  yielded  a  toLil  out-turn  of  313,300  tons.  In  1868  the  out-turn 
of  tho  whole  coal-field  exceeded  600,000  tons.  There  are  now  44 
coal-mines  at  work  w-ilhin  the  Bardwdn  district,  of  which  19  mines 
turn  out  more  than  10,000  tons  of  coal  apiece  per  annum.  In  the 
larger  and  better  mines  coal  is  raised  by  steam  from  pits  and 
galleries.  In  tho  smaller  mines  or  workings  coal  is  raised  Ij 
hand-labour  from  open  quarries.  In  the  Kiiniganj  coal  field  6? 
steam  engines,  with  an  aggrrgnte  of  807  horse-power,  arc  at  work. 
Only  one  scam  (or  set  of  seams)  ol  a  less  thickness  than  8^  feet  ik 


372 


B  A"  R  —  B  A  R 


«ork<"d.  and  t)v!  average  tliiclcncsa  of  the  seams  at  the  Ra.iiganj 
irnnea  isal'out  \0  or  10  Ifft.  Tlie  pits  are  mostly  sliallow,  very  few 
bving  more  than  150  ft-ot  deep.  TUe  licngal  Coal  Company,  with 
Its  miuca  at  Uamgdoj  and  westwards,  is  aloue  able  to  raise  more  thaa 
^O.OhO  toQS  of  coal  anuually.  SUk  and  cotton  cloth,  brass 
utensils,  silver  and  gold  ornaments,  and  mdigo,  are  the  principal 
cianufactmes  of  the  district.  Three  indigo  factories  m  Bardwau 
.are  conducted  with  European  capital.  Articles  of  trade  consist  of 
-Tice,  tobacco,  pulses,  wheat,  oil-seeds,  jute,  sugar,  salt,  English  and 
country  made  cloths,  cotton,  molasses,  timber,  and  coal.  In  1790 
•the  total  revenue  of  the  Bardwan  district  amounted  to  £503,093, 
in  13'J0  to  £453.321.  and  in  IS70  (after  transfers  of  a  large  part 
cif  ;t5  area  to  adioining  districts)  to  £388,773.  The  expenditure 
in  1797  aniountel  to  £11.213,  in  1820  to  £17,338,  and  in  1870  to 
£63,435.  The  land  tax  is  the  principal  source  of  revenue,  which 
amounted  in  1790  to  £503,272,  in  1850  (from  a  reduced  area)  to 
£309,618,  and  in  1870  to  £305,806.  For  the  protection  of  person 
and  property  Government  maintained  in  1871  a  regular  constabulary 
force  632  strong,  at  a  total  cost  of  £11,622  a  year,  besides  11,052 
men  of  the  vill.-ige  watch  possessing  service  lands  or  paid  by  the  vil- 
lagers. Bardwan  contained  939  schools  in  1871-72,  attended  by 
21,926  pupils,  and  costing  £4323  annually  to  the  state.  For 
administrative  purposes  the  district  is  divided  into  six  magisterial 
subdivisions — bardwdn,  Kalna,  Kdtwa,  Bud-bud,  lUnigaoi,  and 
Jaliandbad,  with  22  police  circles.  Exclusive  of  the  Bardwan  city 
described  below,  there  are  aeven  towns  in  the  district  containing  a 
pooulatioii  of  more  than  50OO  soula.  They  are  also  municipalities, 
an3  are  as  follows:—!.  Kalna— population  Hindus,  22,463, 
Mahometans,  3557  ;  Christians,  38  ;  others.  ;-278  ;  total,  27,336  : 
municipal  income  in  1872,  £1185  ;  expenditure,  £930  ;  rate  of 
taxation,  lOgd.  per  head  2.  Syainb.izar — population:  Hindus, 
19.341;  Mahometans,  294;  total,  19,635-  municipal  income, 
£276  ;  expenditure,  £224;  rate  of  taxation,  3|d.  per  head  3. 
Ranigauj  —population  :  Hindus,  17.927,  ^'ahometans,  1473; 
Christians,  178;  total,  19,678.  municiiial  income,  £871,123.; 
expenditure,  £871,123.  ;  rate  of  taxation.  3d.  per  head  4.  Jahana- 
bad  :  Hindus,  10,222;  Mahometans,  3IS7  ;  toi.al,  13,409  mum. 
tipal  income,  £238,  ISs.  ;  expenditure,  £250,  149  ,  rate  of  taxation 
per  head,  44d.  6.  Bdli — population:  Hindus,  8150,  Mahometans, 
^69;  total,  6819  :  municipal  income,  £173. 4s.  ;  expenditure,  £214, 
43  ;  rate  of  municipal  taxation,  4|d.  per  head  6.  Katwa— popula- 
tion :  Hindus,  6817,  Mahometans,  1131  ,  Cluistians,  15,  total. 
7963:  municipal  income,  £513,  14s,  expenditure,  jE513,  14s., 
rate  of  taxation.  Is  3jd.  per  head  7  Dainhat — population  : 
(Hindus,  7389;  Mahometans,  173;  total,  7562  municipal  in. 
come,  £398,  83.  ;  expenditure,  £386,  8s.  ;  rate  of  Uxation,  Is  OJd 
per  head.  The  East  Indian  Railway  and  the  Urand  Trunk  road 
'loading  to  tlie  North-Western  Provinces  pass  through  the  district, 
■which  has  also  fifteen  other  roads  communicating  vvith  the  neigh- 
Viouiing  districts.  The  climate  of  Bardw.in  was  considered  a  few 
years  back  to  be  the  healthiest  in  Bengal  But  an  epidemic  fever 
broke  out  about  1867.  and  is  still  (1874)  raging  in  the  district  It 
causes  havoc  and  depopulation  among  the  cultivating  classes  The 
Maharaja  of  Bard  win,  one  of  the  largest  landholders  in  Bengal, 
has  an  income  estimated  at  £400,000  to  £500.000  sterling  a  year 
]5ardwan  district  was  acquired  by  the  East  India  Company  under 
the  treaty  with  Nawab  Mir  Kdsira  in  17(iO.  and  confirmed  by  the 
Emperor  Sh.ili  Alam  in  1765  The  land  leveuue  was  fixed  in 
perpetuity  with  the  zamindais  in  1793. 

BardwAn,  the  principal  town  of  the  district  of  tlie  same 
name,  situated  on  the  route  from  Calcutta  to  Beuarcs,  and 
a  station  on  the  East  Indian  Ilaihvay,  lies  in  23"  14'  15" 
N.  lat.,  and  87°  53'  57"  E.  long.  Jacquemont  formerly 
described  BardwAn  town  "  as  consisting  of  an  assetublage 
of  crowded  suburbs,  of  wretched  huts,  with  walls  of  mud, 
and  covered  with  thatch,  having  no  temples  of  striking 
aspect,  and  few  handsome  houses."  At  the  present  time 
Bardwin  13  a  well-built,  busy  town,  with  commodious 
streets,  dotted  with  large  tanks,  and  surrounded  by  luxu- 
riant gardens.  ,  The  MahirAji's  palaces  are  handsome 
buildings,  furnished  in  the  English  style,  wjth  elegant 
mirrors  and  nick-nacks  from  I'ans,  and  some  tolerable  oil 
paintings.  Bardwin  forms  the  headquarters  of  the  civil 
authorities  of  the  division  and  district,  consisting  of  the 
commissioner,  the  judge,  magistrate,  and  collector,  and 
their  European  and  native  assistants  In  1814  the  lown 
contained  a  population  estimated  at  53,927  souls  ,  and  in 
1872,  32,321,  DcLails  of  population  in  1872  —Hindus, 
22,013;  M.nhomctan.s,  9027,  Christians,  223;  persons 
of  unsiicciGcd  reliKion,  158;  total,  32,321.  Municipal 
•ncorao   in    1871,  £5450;   c^tpcnditiiie,  i:54.''>"  ,   rate  of 


taxation,  3$.  Aid.  per  head.  In  1C35  Bardwin  was  besieged 
by  a  rebel  chief  of  the  Great  Mughul  The  city  soon  fell 
into  the  bauds  of  the  besiegers,  the  Riji  was  slain  in  battle 
outside  the  walls,  and  the  ladies  of  his  family  committed 
suicide,  to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors. 
The  present  Mahiriji  13  a  well-educated,  liberal-muided 
man.  He  maintains  a  great  public  school  in  the  town  at 
his  own  cost,  and  is  ever  forward  with  help  111  time  of 
distress  or  famine,  as  in  18G6  and  1874. 

BARhGES,  a  small  town  situated  between  two  mountain 
chaius  in  the  department  of  Hautes  Fyr4ni5es  in  France, 
about  25  miles  from  Bagnires  de  Bigorre.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  warm  sulphurous  springs,  first  brought  into  notice 
by  the  visit  of  Madame  du  Mamtenon  in  1676,  the  tem- 
perature of  which  varies  from  88°  to  111°  Fahr.  The 
benefit  of  the  waters  is  grauted  to  the  army  at  the  expense 
of  the  Government,  which  erected  a  bath-house  in  18Gt. 
During  the  winter  the  town  is  so  exposed  to  avalanches 
that  only  a  few  of  the  residents  remain.  The  town  gives 
its  name  to  a  silk-fabric  (barfege)  which  13  principally 
manufactured  in  Bagniires  de  Bigorre. 

BARELI,  or  Baeeillt,  a  district  of  British  India  in  the 
Rohilkhand  division,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lt.-Gover- 
nor  of  the  North-Western  Provinces,  situated  between  28°  2' 
and  29°  2'  N  lot,  and  79°  2'  30"  and  80°  13'  15"  E.  long. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Kumion  district  and  the  inde- 
pendent state  of  Nepil  ,  on  the  E  by  a  portion  of  the  dis- 
trict of  SbAhj:ihinpur,  and  the  district  of  Lakhimpur  in 
Oudh  ;  on  the  S.  by  the  districts  of  Budion  and  Shihja- 
hinpur ,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  native  state  of  Rimpur  and 
Budion.  Bareli  is  a  level  country,  watered  by  many 
streams,  the  general  slope  being  towards  the  south.  Tho 
soil  IS  fertile  and  highly  cultivated,  groves  of  noble  trees 
abound,  and  the  villages  have  a  neat,  prosperous  look.  A 
tract  of  forest  jungle,  called  the  Tardi,  stretches  along  the 
extreme  north  of  the  district,  and  teems  with  large  game, 
such  as  tigers,  bears,  doer,  wild  pigs,  ic.  ^ 

The  River  Sarda  or  Gliagra  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
district,  and  13  the  principal  stream.  Next  in  importance  is  tho 
K.imgang.i,  which  receives  as  its  tributaries  most  of  the  hill  toirents 
of  the  Kumaon  mountains,  the  principal  ones  being  the  East 
Bahgul,  Nakatiya,  Deuraniyd,  Saukha,  Sidh.-^.  Dujauia,  Kichaha, 
West  Bahgul,  Bhakra,  Dhakra,  and  Dhiira.  The  Dcoha  is  another 
great  drainage  artery,  and  receives  manv  miuor  streams.  The 
Comati  or  Gumti  also  passes  through  the  district.  Bareli  district 
has  an  area  of  2976  70  square  miles,  of  which  1845-28  square 
miles  are  under  cultivation,  727  65  square  miles  arc  cultivable,  but 
not  actu.dly  under  cultivation  ,  2516  square  miles  are  held  revenue 
free;  and  378  CO  square  miles  are  returned  as  uncuUivablc  waste. 

.  The  census  of  1872  takes  the  area  at  2982  square  miles, 
and  returns  the  population  at  1,507,139  souls,  iuhabiting 
3548  vilhiges  or  townships,  and  296,441  houses;  density 
of  population  per  square  mile,  505  ;  villages  or  townships 
per  square  mile,  1  '2  ;  persons  per  village  or  township, 
425  ;  houses  per  square  mile,  99..;  persons  per  house,  5.  t 
Of  the  total  population,  1,197,583,  or  79-5  per  cent.,  are 
Hindus;  308,682,  or  205  per  ccut.,  Mahometans;  and 
536  Christians,  or  others  of  unspecified  religion.  The 
Mahometans  are  chiefly  the  descendants  of  Yusafza/ 
Afghins,  called  tho  Rohilli  Pathins,  who  settled  in  tho 
counti^  about  tho  year  1720.  The  Rohilliswerc  formerly 
the  ruling  race  of  tho  tract  of  country  called  Rohilkhand. 
and  are  men  of  a  taller  stature,  a  fairer  complexion,  and  a 
more  arrogant  air  than  the  general  inhabitants  of  the  dis- 
trict. Bishop  Heber  has  described  Ihcm  as  follows: — 
"  The  country  is  burdened  with  a  crowd  of  lazy,  prolligate, 
self-called  sawirs  (cavaliers),  who,  though  many  of  them 
arc  not  worth  a  rupee,  conceive  it  derogatory  to  their  gen- 
tility and  Pathin  blood  to  apjily  themselves  to  any  honest 
industry,  and  obtain  for  the  moat  part  a  precarious  liveli- 
hood by  sponging  on  tho  industrious  tradesmen  and  fnr- 


B  A  R  —  B  A  R 


373 


mors,  on  whom  they  levy  a  sort  of  blackmail,  or  as  hangers 
on  to  the  few  pcilthy  and  noble  families  yet  remaining 
iQ  the  province.  These  men  have  no  visible  means  of 
maintenanco,  and  no  visible  occupation  except  that  of 
lounging  up  and  down  with  their  swords  and  shields,  like 
the  ancient  Highlanders,  whom  in  mnny  respects  they  much 
resemble."  The  RobiUis,  after  tifty  years'  precarious 
independence,  were  subjugated  in  1774  by  the  confederacy 
of  British  troops  with  the  Nawdb  of  Oudh's  army,  which 
formed  so  serious  a  charge  against  Warren  Hastings.  Their 
territory  was  in  that  year  annexed  to  Oudh,  In  1801  the 
Nawib  of  Oudh  ceded  it  to  the  Company  in  commutation 
of  the  subsidy  money.  During  the  Sepoy  Mutiny  of  1857 
the  Rohillis  took  a  very  active  part  against  the  English,  but 
since  then  they  have  been  disarmed.  Both  before  and  after 
that  year,  however,  the  Barell  Mahometans  have  distin- 
guished themselves  by  fanatical  tumults  against  the  Hmdus. 

The  inhabit.int3  of  the  district  are  for  tho  most  part  poor,  Imt  their 
conditioD  has  improvfj  uniler  Engli.-ih  rule.  Sugar  and  rice,  of 
which  large  quantities  are  exported,  form  the  principal  agricultural 
products  of  the  district.  Pilibhit  formed  an  independent  district 
till  its  incorporation  with  Barcli  in  1842  ;  its  rice  is  celebrated  all 
over  the  N.W.  Provinces.  Other  agricultural  producti — wheat, 
barley,  cotton,  tobacco,  maize,  millet,  pulses,  and  fruit.  The  jungle 
tract  of  the  district  produces  fine  timber,  in  which  a  largo  trade  is 
carried  on.  The  total  revenue  of  the  district  for  1870-71  amounted 
to  £240,419,  and  the  civil  expenditure  to  £30,978.  By  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  revenue  is  derived  from  the  land;  the  new  settle- 
ment for  thirty  years  was  concluded  in  1872.  Four  towns  contain  a 
population  of  upwards  of  6000  souls  —1.  Bareli— area.  1280  acres, 
noticed  6clow.  2.  Pilibhit — area,  433  acres  ;  population,  29,840  ; 
municipal  revenue  (1872),  £3291,  6s.i  eipenditure,  £2638,  2s  ; 
rat«  of  taxation,  29.  2Jd  per  head  3.  Bis.-il pur— area,  142  acres; 
population,  9250.  municipal  revenue,  £282,  8s  ;  expenditure,  £343, 
189.  ;  rate  of  taxation,  7^d  per  bead.  4.  Anwlah— area,  128  acres; 
population,  11.153;  municipal  revenue,  £183,  29.  SJd.;  expenditure, 
£224,  159  lOd.  ;  rate  of  taxation,  4d  per  head.  Other  minor 
towns  :  Faridpur,  population,  4940  ,  SarauH.  4585  ;  Nawdhganj, 
4418.  There  are  19  other  towns  with  a  population  of  above  2000. 
Bareli  shows  a  heavy  criminal  return,  ana  tlie  police  do  not  appear 
to  be  successful  in  grappling  with  crime.  The  regular  police  con- 
sists of  a  force  of  4218  men.  In  1872  there  were  518  schools  in  the 
district,  attended  by  9265  pupils,  besides  those  attending  the 
(miversity  college  in  the  town  of  Bareli. 

BAP.ELf  [Z?ar«7/y],the  principal  place  in  the  district  of  the 
same  name,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  JuA,  a  tributary 
of  tho  Western  R4mgang4,in  N  lat.  28°  23',  E.  long.  79°  28'. 
It  is  a  large  town,  with  a  brisk  and  lucrative  commerce, 
and  manufactures  consisting  principally  of  house  furnitures, 
such  as  chairs,  tables,  ic  Mr  "JThornton  eays,  that 
"  besides  the  hands  engaged  in  this  branch  of  handicraft, 
there  are  cotton  weavers,  dressers,  and  twisters,  manufac- 
turers of  muslins,  and  also  of  silks  and  brocades,  -dyers 
and  colour-makers,  linen  and  cloth-plaiters,  gold  and  silver 
lace-makers,  jewellers,  goldsmiths,  and  silversmiths,  black- 
smiths, coppersmiths,  and  tinmen,  cutlers,  armourers,  seal- 
makers  and  engravers,  turners,  saddlers,  tailors,  <tc.,  ic." 
In  1872  Bareli  town  contained  a  population  of  102,982, 
of  whom  59,0.36  were  Hindus,  43,463  Mahometans,  and 
483  of  unspecified  religion.  In  1872  the  municipal 
revenue  of  the  town  amounted  to  £6602,  8s  ;  expenditure, 
£7217,  123.;  rate  of  municipal  taxation.  Is.  3Jd  per  head 
of  the  population.  The  municipal  revenue  is  derived  from 
octroi  duties  levied  on  articles  of  food  brought  for  sale  into 
tho  town.  The  principal  institution  in  the  town  is  the 
Bareli  college,  intended  as  a  seat  of  npper  class  learning  for 
the  surrounding  districts  of  the  N.W.  Provincea  It  is  con- 
ducted by  ft  staff  of  efficient  professors  from  England,  and 
its  course  includes  the  subjects  for  degrees  in  the  Calcutta 
University.  In  1872-73  it  was  attended  by  310  pupils. 
Tho  cast  of  the  coUegcdepartmentand  uppcrschool  amounted 
to  £5836,  of  which  Oovernmcnt  contributed  £.')330. 

BARhKE  DE  VIEUZAC,  Bertravd,  one  of  the  most 
notorious  mcmtcrs  of  the    French  National   Convention, 


was  born  at  Tarbes  in  Gascony,  September  10,  1735.     He- 
was    brought  up  to  the  pfofession  of  the  law,  and  was 
admitted  advocate   to  the  parliament  of   Toulouse.     He 
wrote   several  trivial   pieces,  panegyrics  of    Louis   .\VI., 
.Montesquieu,  J   J.  Rousseau,  and  others,  which  obtained 
prizes  from  provincial  academies,  and  a  dissert ition  on  a 
Latin  inscription  which  procured  huu  membership  of  the 
Academy  of   Floral  Games  of  Toulouse.     Such  was  tho 
smooth   beginning  of  a  career  which  ultimately   became 
unparalleled  for  meanness,  cowardice,  lying,  and  atrocicua 
cruelty.     At  the  age  of  thirty  he  married.     Four  years 
later,  in  1789,  he  was  elected  deputy  by  his  own  province  to 
the  States-general,  which  met  in  May.     He  had  made  his 
first  visit  to  Paris  in  the  preceding  year.     His  persona', 
appearance,    his    manners,    social    qualities,    and    liberal 
opinions,  gave  him  a  good  standing  among  the  multitude  of 
provincial  wise-heads  then  thronging  into  Paris,  eager  to  be 
the  saviours  of   France,  or   at  least  of  themselves.     He 
took  his  place  at  first  with  the  monarchical  party ;  and  his 
glib  pen  found  occupation  in  tho  preparation  of  various- 
reports,  and  in  editing  a  journal,  the  Point  du  Jour,  con- 
taining reports  of  the  debates  of  the  National  Assembly. 
For  a  time  he  formed    a  connection  with  the  House  of 
Orleans,  passing  over  soon  to  the  republican  party.     Bar^re 
appears  to  have  been  wholly  free  from  the  restraints  of 
conscience  or  any  guiding  principle;   his  conduct  was  re- 
gulated only  by  the  determination  to  be  on  the  side  of  the 
strongest.     After  the  close  of  the  National  Assembly  he 
was  nominated  one  of  the  judges  of  the  newly-instituted 
Court  of  Cassation.     In  1792  he  was  elected  deputy  to- 
the  National  Convention  for  the  department  of  the  Hautes 
Pyr^n^es.     At  first  he  took  part  with  the  Girondists  ;   but 
on  the  trial  of  the  king  he  voted,  with  the  Mountain,  for 
the  king's  death  "  sans  appel  et  sans  sursis."     He  closed 
his   speech   with    a   sentence    which  became   memorable, 
"L'arhre  de  la  liberie  ne  sanrait  crditre  s'il  n'clait  arrose  diir 
sang  du  rois."     As  tho  Mountain   became   the  strongest 
party  Barfcre  advanced  with  it,  unscrupulously  carrj'ing  out 
its  extremest  projects,  and  playing  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Reign  of   Terror.     The  light-heartedness   with   which  he 
acted  in  these  awful  scenes,  the  fluency  and  flippancy  of 
his  speeches  and  reports,  procured  him  the  title  of  the 
"  Anacreon  of  the  Guillotine."     He  supported  Robespierre 
in   his  atrocious  measure  against  the  Girondists,  crawled 
like  a  slave  at  the  feet  of  the  "  incorruptible  "  Maximilian 
till  the  day  of  his  fall,  and  then  advocated  his  execution 
without  a  hearing.     It  was  Bartre  who  had  proposed  the 
decree  that  no  quarter  should  be  given  to  any  English  or 
Hanoverian    soldier,   which    was    unanimously    adopted. 
This  procured  him  admission  by  acclamation  to  the  Jacobin 
Club,  from  which  he  had  been  previously  excluded.     The 
decree,  however,  remained  a  dead  letter.     A  few  months 
after  the  fall  of  the  Convention,  proceedings  were  taken 
against   Bari:ro  and  his  colleagues  of   the  Terror,  CoUot 
d'llerbois  and  Billaud-Varennes,  and  he  was  sent  to  the  Isle 
of  OWron.     He  was  removed  to  Saintes,  and  thence  escaped 
to  Bordeaux,  where  he  lay  in  concealment  for  several  years. 
In  1795  he  was  elected  member  of  the  Council  of  Fiv» 
Hundred,  but  was  not  allowed  to  take  his  scat..    When 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  First  Consul  he  was  anxious  to 
employ  Bartre,  but  Bari^  refused  the  overture.     It  was 
only  for  a  while.     Tho  witling  of  the  Terror  became  the 
hireling  and  the  spy  of  the  new  tyranny.     On  the  fall  o) 
Napoleon,  Bar6ro  played  the  part  of  royalist,  but  on  the 
final  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1815  he  was  banished 
for  life  from  France,  and  then  withdrew  into  Belgium  and 
temporary  oblivion.     After  the  Revolution  of  July  1830 
he    reappeared    in    France,  was   reduced    by   a   series   of 
lawsuits  to  extreme  indigence,  accepted  a   small  pension 
assigned  him  by  Louis  Philippe  (on  whom  ho  had  heaped 


374 


B  A  R  — B  A  R 


abuse  and  railing),  and  died^  .flie  last  survivor  of  the 
Committee  of  Public  Safety,  January  15,  1841.  Two 
years  after  his  death  appeared  A/cmnires  de  Bertrand 
Darbre,  edited  by  Hippolyte  Carnot  and  David  of  Angers. 
(See  Macaulay's  article  in  the  Ediuiunjh  Review,  vol. 
Ixxix.,  in  which  the  character  and  career  of  Bar^re'  are 
discussed  with  characteristic  emphasis  and  severity.) 

BARETTI,  Giuseppe,  an  Italian  critic  of  some  distinc- 
tion, was  born  at  Turin  in  17 IC.  He  was  intended  by  his 
father  for  the  profession  of  law,  but  at  the  age  of  sixteen 
fled  from  Turin  and  went  to  Guastalla,  where  he  was  for 
some  time  employed  in  a  mercantile  house.  Uis  leisure 
hours  he  devoted  to  literature  and  criticism,  in  which  he 
became  expert.  For  many  years  he  led  a  wandering  life, 
supporting  himself  chielly  by  his  writings.  At  length  he 
■arrived  in  London,  where  he  remained  for  a  considerable 
■time.  Ho  obtained  an  appointment  as  secretary  to  the 
Hoyal  Academy  of  Painting,  and  became  acquainted  with 
Jjhnson,  Garrick,  and  others  of  that  society.  He  was  a 
fiequent  visitor  at  the  Thrales' ;  and  his  name  occurs 
repeatedly  in  Boswell's  Life.  In  17C9  he  was  tried  for 
niurJcr,  having  had  the  misfortune  to  inflict  a  mortal 
♦wound  with  his  fruit  knife  on  a  man  who  had  assaulted 
li:in  in  the  street.  Johnson  among  others  gave  evidence 
in  his  favour  at  the  trial,  which  resulted  in  Baretti's 
acquittal.  He  died  in  May  1789.  His  first  work  of  any 
importance  was  the  Italian  Library,  London,  1757,  a 
useful  catalogue  of  the  lives  and  works  of  many  Italian 
.authors.  The  Letlere  Famigliari,  giving  an  account  of 
his  travels  through  Spain,  Portugal,  and  France  during  the 
years  17G1-17G5,  were  well  received,  and  when  afterwards 
piiblishud  in  English,  4  vols.,  1770,  were  highly  commended 
by  Johnson.  While  in  Italy  on  his  travels  Baretti  set  on 
foot  a  journal  of  literary  criticism,  to  which  ho  gave  the 
jtitle  of  Frusta  Lettenu-ia,  the  literary  scourge.  It  was 
published  under  considerable  difEcullies  and  was  soon 
discontinued.  The  criticisms  on  contemporary  writers 
were  sometimes  just,  but  are  frequently  disfigured  by  undue 
vehemence  and  coarseness.  Among  his  other  numerous 
•works  may  bo  mentioned  a  useful  Didionanj  and 
Orammar  nf  the  Italian  Lan(juaje,  and  a  dissertation  on 
Shakespeare  and  Voltaire. 

BAKFLEUR,  called  formerly  Earbeflot,  and  in  the 
Latin  chroniclers  Barhatxts  Fluctus,  an  ancient  town  of 
Nor/nnndy,  in  France,  now  in  the  department  of  Manche, 
15  flittcs  E.  of  Cherbourg.  It  was  at  one  time  the  seat  of 
an  active  trade  across  the  Channel,  but  was  ruined  and  had 
its  harbour  filled  up  by  the  English  in  134G.  Cape 
Bardcur  has  a  lichthousc  271  feet  above  the  sea,  in  Ions. 
1°  lew,  lat.  4UM0' N. 

BARUAM,  RicnARD  HAHRig,  a  celebrated  humourist, 
better  known  by  his  nom  de  plume  of  TuomaS  Incolosby, 
was  bora  at  Canterbury,  December  6,  1788.  At  seven 
years  of  age  he  lost  his  father,  who  left  him  a  small  estate, 
part  of  which  was  the  manor  of  Tappington,  so  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Legends.  At  nine  he  was  sent  to  St 
Paul's  school,    but  his   studies    were   interrupted   by   an 

'  SumnicJ  lip  thus:— "Our  opinion  then  is  this,  thai  Barire  ap- 
proaihcd  nearer  Ih.nn  any  person  mentioned  in  history  or  Crtioii, 
•whether  maa  or  cli-nl,  to  the  idea  of  coonummate  and  universal  de- 
pravity. In  hira  the  qualities  which  are  the  proper  olijecli  of  hatred, 
and  the  quahties  which  are  the  proper  ohjccts  of  contempt,  prciorro  an 
tlqii'iite  and  absolute  h,irinony.  In  almost  every  particular  .lort  of 
wiclMidncss  he  has  bad  rivals.  Flu  sensuality  was  immoderate;  but 
•thii  was  a  fading  eonimon  to  hira  with  many  great  and  amiable  men. 
There  hate  been  many  men  as  cowardly  as  he,  some  as  cnid,  a  few  as 
Tnian,  a  few  as  impudent.  There  may  also  have  been  as  preal  liars, 
though  wo  never  met  with  them  or  re.id  of  them.  liut  when  wo  put  every 
•th'ng  to^elhvr.  sensuality,  poltroonery,  baseness,  elfiontery,  mcnd.acity, 
barbarity,  the  result  is  sonicthin';  which  in  a  novel  we  should  rondcran 
as  eanealuro,  aud  to  which,  wo  venture  to  aay,  no  parallel  con  bo  found 
*a  Juitiry  " 


accident  which  shattered  his  arm  and  partially  crippled  it 
for  life.  Thus  deprived  of  the  power  of  bodily  activity, 
he  became  a  great  reader  and  diligent  student.  In  IbO? 
he  entered  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  intending  at  first  to 
study  for  the  profession  of  the  law.  Circumstances,  how- 
ever, induced  him  to  change  his  mind  and  to  enter  the 
church.  The  choice  seems  surprising,  for  he  had  from 
childhood  displayed  that  propensity  to  fun  in  the  form  of 
parody  and  punning  which  afterwards  made  him  a  reputa- 
tion. In  1813  he  w.as  ordained  and  took  acountry  curacy  ; 
he  married  in  the  following  year,  and  in  1821  removed  to 
London  on  obtaining  the  appointment  of  minor  canon  of 
St  Paul's  Cathedral.  Three  years  later  he  became  one  of 
the  priests  in  ordinary  of  his  Majesty's  chapel  royal.  In 
1826  he  first  contributed  to  Blackwood's  Magazine  ;  aud 
on  the  establishment  of  Btnlley's  Miscellany  in  1837  he 
began  to  furnish  the  series  of  grotesque  metrical  tales 
known  as  The  Ingoldshy  Legends.  These  became  very 
popular,  were  published  in  a  collected  form,  and  have  since 
passed  through  numerous  editions.  In  variety  and  whim- 
sicality of  rhymes  these  verses  have  hardly  a  rival  since 
the  days  of  Hudibras.  But  beneath  this  obvious  popular 
quality  there  lies  a  store  of  solid  antiquarian  learning,  the 
fruit  of  patient  enthusiastic  research  by  the  light  of'  the 
midnight  lamp,  in  out-of-the-way  old  books,  which  few 
re.iders  who  laugh  over  his  pages  detect.  If  it  were  of  any 
avaU  we  might  regret  that  a  more  active  faculty  of  venera- 
tion did  not  keep  him  from  writing  some  objectionable 
passages  of  the  Legends.  His  life  was  grave,  dignified,  and 
highly  honoured.  His  sound  judgment  and  his  .kind  heart 
made  him  the  trusted  counsellor,  the  valued  friend,  and 
the  frequent  peacemaker ;  and  he  was  intolerant  of  all 
that  was  mean,  and  base,  and  false.  In  politics  he  was  s 
Tory  of  the  old  school  ;  yet  he  was  the  life-long  friend  of 
the  liberal  Sydney  Smith,  whom  in  many  respects  he 
singularly  resembled.  Theodore  Uo<>k  was  one  of  his 
most  intimate  friends.  Mr  Barbara  was  a  contributor  to 
the  Edinburgh  Beview and  the  Literary  Gazette;  published 
a  novel  in  3  vols.,  entitled  My  Cousin  Nicholas;  and, 
strange  to  tell,  wrote  nearly  a  third  of  the  articles  in 
Gorton's  Biographical  Dictionary.  His  life  was  not  with- 
out such  changes  and  sorrows  as  make  men  grave.  He 
had  nine  children,  and  six  of  them  died  in  his'  lifetime. 
But  he  retained  vigour  and  freshness  of  heart  and  mind  to 
the  last,  and  his  latest  verses  show  no  signs  of  decay.  He 
died  in  London  after  a  long,  painful  illness,  June  17,  1815, 
leaving  his  beloved  wife,  two  daughters,  and  a  son,  surviv- 
ing him.  A  short  memoir,  by  his  son,  was  prefixed  to  a 
new  edition  of  Ingoldshy  in  1847,  and  a  fuller  Life  and 
Letters  was  published  in  2  vols,  in  1870. 

BARI,  Teera  1)1,  a  province  of  Italy,  in  the  district 
of  Apulia,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Adriatic,  E.  and 
S.E.  by  the  province  of  Otranto,  S.W.  by  Basilicata,  and 
W.  by  Capitanata.  _  It  has  an  area  of  1782  geographical 
square  miles,  and  is  divided  into  the  three  districts  of 
Bari,  Barletta,  and  Altamura.  Except  in  the  S.  and  S.W., 
where  branches  of  the  Apennines  occur,  the  surface  is 
generally  level  The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  calcareous, 
with  a  rich  covering  of  loam,  The  dimato  is  oppressively 
hot  in  summer,  but  very  pleasant  during  the  rest  of  the 
year.  The  only  considerable  river  is  the  Ofanto,  or  A  ujidut  ; 
but,  in  spile  of  the  lack  of  irrigation,  the  province  is  among 
the  best  cultivated  in  the  kingdom,  producing  abundance 
of  grain,  flax,  tobacco,  cotton,  wine,  oil,  almonds,  liquorice, 
iVc.  Swine,  asses,  goats,  and  sheep  with  a  very  fine  wool, 
arc  numerous;  and  the  salt  and  nitre  works  form  impor- 
tant branches  of  industry.  Among  the  more  important 
towns  besides  the  capital  are  Barletta,  Trani,  Bisccglie, 
Molfctta,  Monopoli,  and  Fasano  on  the  coast,  and  Andria 
Ruvo,  Nola,  Bitonto,  and  Cunversano  somewhat  inland. 


B  A   K  -  B  A   R 


375 


Tho   population,  nhich    U  densest   along   the  coast,  wad 
>.Ol.54U  in  1S71. 

Bari,  the  ancient  Barium,  capital  of  the  above  province 
and  seat  uf  an  archbishop,  is  situated  on  a  tongue  uf  laud 
pnyccting  into  the  AJiiutic,  iu  lat.  41°  7'  N.,  and  long. 
10"  53'  E.  It  is  defended  by  various  fortilications,  arEong 
which  the  most  important  is  the  citadel,  which  is  about  a 
mile  in  cireunifereuce,  and  dates  from  the  Norman  posses- 
sion. The  general  character  of  the  older  part  of  the  town 
U  gloomy  and  irregular,  but  the  newer  portion  has  spacious 
streets,  with  handsome  buildings.  The  priory  of  St 
Nicolo,  built  by  Robert  Guiscard  in  1087  to  hold  the 
relics  of  the  saint,  which  had  been  brought  from  Myra  in 
Lycia,  is  interesting  for  its  beautiful  crypt  and  the  tombs 
of  Uobertof  Bari  and  Bona  Sforza  of  Poland.  The  festival 
of  St  Nicholas,  on  the  Stb  of  May,  is  still  attended  by 
thousands  ;  and  his  body  is  believed  by  the  superstitious 
to  sujjply  the  i/anita  di  Bari.  The  cathedral  of  St  Sabino, 
&  fine  Gothic  structure,  was  barbarously  bestuccoed  and 
transfoimed  by  Archbishop  Gaeta  in  1745.  Among  tho 
otlier  'buildings  of  importance  aro  the  palace  of  the 
'•  Intendente,"  the  theatre  (a  large  modern  erection),  the 
Lyceum,  a  college  for  the  education  of  the  nobility,  and  an 
"  Athenseum."  The  commercial  importance  of  Ban  has 
been  for  some  lime  on  the  increase  ,  and  its  harbour,  aug- 
mented by  the  building  of  two  moles  in  1855,  has  more 
recently  received  a  still  greater  extension,  while  excellent 
anchorage  is  also  alfoided  by  its  roads  The  inhabitants 
are  skilful  seamen,  and  carry  on  a  large  traffic  in  their  owe 
ships  with  different  parts  of  the  Adriatic.  The  exports, 
which  consist  chicBy  of  olive  oil,  wine,  mustard  seed,  cream 
of  tartar,  grain,  and  almonds  and  other  fruits,  were  valued 
in  1872  at  £64'.', 818,  whde  the  imports  of  tho  same  year 
amounted  to  £240,081  The  railway  to  Briudisi  was 
opened  in  1865,  and  anolhei  line  has  since  been  extended 
to  Taranto  Barium,  according  to  the  evidence  of  its 
Coins. ^was  a  place  of  imporlauce  in  the  3d  century  BC, 
and  bad  a  decided  Greek  element  iu  its  culture;  but  it 
never  acquired  any  great  inliuence  in  the  old  Roman  World, 
ajid  all  allusions  to  it  in  the  classical  authors  are  of  an 
incidental  description.  After  the  fall  of  the  Western 
empire  it  was  subject  in  turn  to  the  Greek  emperors,  to  tho 
dukes  of  Benevento,  and  to  the  Saracen  invaders,  from 
the  last  it  was  delivered  in  971  by  Louis  II ,  and  again  in 
1002  by  the  Venetians,  who  left  their  Lion  of  tit  Mark  as 
en  emblem  to  the  city.  Not  long  after  it  was  raised  to  tho 
rank  of  capital  of  Apulia  by  the  Greek  emperors,  who  were 
soon  (1040)  compelled  to  acknowledge  it  as  a  free  princi- 
pality under  Arg)TU3.  After  a  four  years'  siege  it  was 
taken  in  1070  by  the  Normans,  who  lost  it  in  1137  to 
Lotbaire,  but  recovered  it  a  few  years  later.  In  1156  it 
was  razed  by  William  the  Bad,  and  has  sevei*!  times  eutfered 
a  similar  fate.  In  tho  14th  century  Bari  became  a  duchy, 
which  continued  to  exist  till  1558,  when  it  was  bequeathed 
by  Bona  Sforza  to  I'hdip  II.  of  Spain. 

S.e  Ucalillo,  Uistjria  de  Bari,  Kupoli,  1637  ;  LombarJi,  Com- 
j>fndlo  cnmoloijicu  dclte  vitc  dcjh  aicwcscuvi  ISarcsi,  Naj.uli,  1697. 

BARKING,  a  town  of  England,  county  of  Essex,  7  miles 
E  N  E  of  London,  on  the  River  Roding,  not  far  from  the 
Thames.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  nunnery,  one  of  the 
oldest  and  richest  in  England,  founded  about  670  by 
Erkenwald,  biihup  of  London,  and  restored  in  970  by  King 
Edgar,  about  a  hundred  yekrs  after  its  destruction  by  tho 
Danes.  'I'he  abbess  was  a  baroness  ex  officio,  and  the 
revenue  at  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  was  £1084. 
The  church  of  St  Margaret  is  an  ancient  cdihce  of  con- 
siderable beauty,  with  some  curious  mormments  ;  and  the 
oncieiit  market-house,  no  longer  used,  and  an  embattled 
^:nteway,are  also  woithy  of  mention.  The  various  dissenting 
Jenuniiuations    have   places   of   worship    iu    the    town. 


Population  in  1871,  576G,  principally  engaged  in  the  river 
tralhc  and  in  the  cultivation  of  vegetables  for  the  London 
market.  There  is  no  longer  much  attention  paid  to  the 
Libury,  but  various  industries  have  been  inlroduced. 

BARLAAM  and  JOSAPHAT,  Saints.  These  two 
saints  appear  in  both  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  Martyrology, 
in  the  foruer  under  l;Gth  August,  in  the  latter  under 
27th  November.  Their  story  is  in  the  highest  degree 
worthy  of  note,  because  it  is,  in  fact,  a  Christianized  ver- 
sion of  the  Indian  legendary  history  of  the  Buddha,  Sakya 
Muni. 

The  remarkable  parallel  between  Buddhistic  ritual, 
costume,  and  discipline,  and  those  which  especially  claim 
the  title  of  Catholic  in  the  Christian  church,  has  often  been 
recognized,  even  by  the  most  faithful  sons  of  Rome;'  and 
though  the  parallel  has  perhaps  never  been  elaborated  as 
it  might  be,  some  of  its  more  salient  points  are'  familiar. 
Still,  many  readers  may  be  unaware  that  Sakya  Muni 
himself,  or,  as  he  was  by  birth,  Siddharta,  the  son  of 
Suddodhana,  prince  of  Kapilavastu  (in  the  north  of  modem 
Oudh),  has  found  his  way  into  the  Roman  calendar  as  a 
saint  of  the  church. 

The  Christian  story  first  appears  in  Greet  among  the 
works  of  St  John  of  Damascus,  an  eminent  divine,  and 
an  opponent  of  the  Emperor  Leo  the  Isaurian  in  the 
Iconoclastic  movement,  who  flourished  in  the  early  part  of 
the  8th  century,  and  who,  before  he  adopted  the  monastic 
life  and  devoted  himself  to  theology,  had  held  high  ofBce 
at  the  court  of  the  caliph  Abu  Jifar  Almansiir,  as  his 
father  Sergius  is  said  to  have  done  before  him.^ 

The  outline  of  the  Greek  story  is  as  follows:  — St  Thomas  had 
converted  the  people  of  India,  anfl  after  the  eremitic  life  originated 
in  Egypt,  many  Indians  adopted  it.  But  a  jjowerful  pagan  king 
arose  who  bitted  and  persecuted  the  Christians,  especially  tlie 
ascetics.  After  this  king,  Abenner  by  name,  had  long  been  child- 
leas,  a  boy  greatly  desired,  and  matchless  in  beauty,  was  bom  to 
hiiii,  and  received  the  name  of  Jusanhat.  The  king,  in  his  joy, 
biimmons  astrologers  to  predict  the  child's  destiny.  Tfaey  foretell 
j^l'iry  and  j>rospei  ity  beyond  liiose  of  uU  his  predecessors.  One  sage, 
must  learned  of  all.  assents,  but  intimates  that  the  scene  of  this  glory 
Will  be,  not  the  paternal  kingdom,  but  another  infiLitely  more  exalted, 
and  that  the  child  will  adopt  the  faith  which  his  falhrr  persecutes. 

The  boy  shows  a  thoughtful  and  devout  turn.  King  Abenner, 
troubled  by  this  and  by  the  remembrance  of  the  prediction,  selects 
a  secluded  city,  iu  which  be  causes  a  splendid  palace  to  be  built, 
where  his  son  should  abide,  attended  only  by  tutors  and  servants  ia 
the  llower  of  youth  and  health.  No  stranger  was  to  have  access, 
and  the  boy  was  to  be  cognizant  of  none  of  the  sorrows  of  humanity, 
such  as  poverty,  disease,  old  age,  or  death,  but  only  of  what  was 
plcnsiiit,  80  that  he  should  have  no  inducement  to  tliink  of  the 
future  life  ;  nor  was  he  ever  to  hear  .•\  word  of  Christ  apd  his  religion. 

Prince  josaphat  grows  up  in  tliis  seclusion,  acquires  all  kinds  of 
knowledge,  and  exhibits  singular  eudowmeiits.  At  length,  on  his 
urgent  prayer,  tho  king  reluctantly  permits  him  to  p.iS3  the  limits 
of  the  palace,  after  having  taken  all  precautions  to  keep  painful 
objects  out  of  sight.  But  through  some  neglect  of  orders,  the 
prtuce  one  day  ciicouoters  a  leper  and  a  blind  man,  and  asks  of 
nis  attendants  with  irain  and  astonishment  what  such  a  spectacle 
should  mean  These,  thty  tell  him,  arc  ills  to  which  man  is  liable. 
Shall  all  men  have  such  ills?  he  asks.  And  in  the  end  ho  returns 
home  in  deep  depression.  Another  day  he  falls  in  with  a  decrepit 
old  man,  and,  stricken  with  dismay  at  thesiglit,  renews  his  questions, 
and  hears  for  the  first  time  of  death.  And  in  how  many  years, 
continues  the  prince,  does  this  foto  befall  man  t  and  must  he  eipect 
death  OS  inevitable  t  la  there  no  way  of  escape  t  No  means  of 
eschewing  this  wretched  state  of  decay  t  The  attendants  reply  as 
may  Iw  imagined  ;  and  Josaphat  goes  home  more  pensive  than  ever, 
dwelling  on  the  certainty  of  death,  and  on  what  shall  be  thcrc.iftcr. 

At  this  lime  Barlaam.  an  eremite  of  great  sanctity  and  know- 
ledge, dwelling  in  the  wilderness  of  Sennaritis,  divinely  warned, 

'  It  has  been  alleged  that  PJre  Hue,  on  returning  to  Europe,  wa» 
astonished  to  Qjud  his  celebrated  journey  to  Lba.sa  in  the  Index,  on  the 
ground  of  such  recognition.     But  this  seems  to  be  untrue. 

'  St  John's  authorship  of  tho  story  has  been  disputed.  Prof.  Max 
Mullcr,  in  the  paper  quoted  below,  seems  to  dispose  sufiicicnlly  of  the 
olijectioni.  None  of  the  old  editions  of  St  John's  works  contain  the 
Grerk  of  the  story.  This,  Prof.  MUllcr  states,  was  first  published  is 
1832  by  Bolssoaadc,  ia  bis  Analala  Gtcku,  toL  It. 


37G 


B  A  R  — B  A  R 


travels  to  India  in  the  disguise  of  a  merchant,  and  gains  nccess  to 
Friace  Josaphat,  to  whom  be  imparts  the  Christiau  doctrine  and 
commends  the  monastic  life.  Suspicion  arises  and  Carlaam  departs. 
liut  all  attempts  to  shake  the  prince's  convictions  fail.  As  a  last 
resource  the  king  sends  for  Theudas,  a  magician,  who  removes  the 
prince's  attendants  and  substitutes  seductive  girls;  but  all  their 
olandishments  are  resisted  through  prayer.  The  king  abandons  these 
efforts  and  associates  his  son  in  the  government.  The  prince  uses 
his  power  to  promote  religion,  and  everything  prospers  in  his  hands. 
At  last  Abenner  himself  yields  to  the  faith,  and  after  some  years  of 
(lenitence  dies.  Josaphat  suiTcnders  the  kingdom  to  a  friend  called 
Ilarachias,  and  departs  for  the  wilderness.  After  two  years  of  pain- 
ful search,  and  much  buffeting  by  demons,  he  6uds  Barlaam.  Tho 
latter  dies,  and  Josaphat  survives  as  a  hermit  many  years.  King 
Uariichias  afterwards  axrives,  nnd  transfers  the  bodies  of  the  two 
e.iiuts  to  India,  where  they  are  the  source  of  many  miracles. 

Now  this  story  is,  in  all  essentinls  and  in  many  details, 
mutatis  mutandis,  the  story  of  Buddha.  For  particulars 
we  must  refer  to  the  papers  of  M,  Midler  and  F.  Liebrecht 
cite'^  below ;  we  can  indicate  but  one  example  in  the 
piominent  episode  of  Sakya's  youth,  his  education  in  a 
sec'tided  palace,  hia  encounter  successively  with  a  decrepit 
old  man,  with  a  man  in  mortal  disease  and  poverty,  with  a 
dead  body,  and,  lastly,  with  a  religious  recluse  radiant  with 
peace  and  dignity,  and  his  consequent  abandonment  of  his 
princely  state  for  the  ascetic  life  in  the  jungle.  Some  of 
the  correspondences  in  the  two  stories  are  most  minute,  and 
Prof.  Muller  has  pointed  out  that  even  the  phraseology,  in 
which  some  of  the  details  of  Josaphat's  hi.story  are  described, 
almost  literally  renders  the  Sanskrit  of  the  LalUa  Vistara. 

We  have  given  but  the  skeleton  of  the  history  of  Barlaam 
and  Josaphat.  It  is  filled  out  with  episodes  and  apologues, 
several  of  which  also  have  been  traced  to  Buddhist  sources 
These  stories  no  doubt  promoted  the  vast  medieval 
popularity  of  the  legend  in  both  the  Greek  and  the  latin 
Churches.  Its  first  favour  in  the  former  seems  to  have 
been  due  to  its  embodiment  in  the  Lives  of  the  Saints,  as 
compiled  anew  by  Simeon  the  Metaphrast,  a  person  of 
disputed  ago,  but  not  of  later  date  than  1 150  ad.  Selections 
from  his  work,  in  which  this  legend  takes  the  lead,  continue 
to  be  issued  in  Romaic  as  works  of  popular  edification. 

At  what  time  the  two  saints  first  found  their  place  in  the 
Roman  martyrology  we  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain,  but 
their  story  figures  at  length  in  the  Spfculum  Ilisturiah 
of  Vincent  of  Beauvais,  and  more  briefly  in  the  Guhhn 
Legend  ol  Jacobus  de  Voragine,  both  of  the  13th  century. 
There  is  a  church  bearing  the  dedication  Divo  losaphat  in 
Palermo,  and  probably  others  in  other  Catholic  cities. 

The  story  continued  for  centuries  to  be  one  of  the  most 
popular  works  in  Christendom.  It  was  translated  into  most 
European  tongues,  including  Bohemian,  Polish,  and  Ice- 
landic. A  version  in  the  last,  executed  by  a  Norwegian 
king,  dates  from  1204  ;  in  the  East  there  were  versions  in 
(at  least)  Arabic,  Ethiopio,  Armenian,  and  Hebrew  ;  whilst 
a  translation  into  the  Tagala  language  of  the  Philippines 
was  printed  at  Manilla  in  1712.  The  story  was  rendered 
into  poems  and  miracle  plays.  Moreover,  its  episodes  and 
apologues  have  furnished  material  to  poets  and  story-writers 
of  very  diverse  ages  and  characters,  e.g.,  to  Boccaccio,  to 
Oower,  to  the  compiler  of  the  Gesla  Jfomanorum,  to  Shake- 
Bpcare  himself,  and  to  the  late  W.  Adams,  author  of  the 
A'l  iig's  Afessengcrs. 

The  identity  of  tho  stories  of  Ruddha  nnd  St  Josaphat  was  re- 

co^niized  by  tho  historian  of  Portuguese  India,  Diogo  do  Couto,  as 
may  ho  seen  in  his  history  (Dec.  v  liv  vi,  o,np  2),  In  mndern 
times  It  was  fust  noticed  (according  to  I'tof  M.  Muller)  by  M. 
l>ibnuUye,  in  tho  Journal  de$  D,hnls  (21-26  July  IS.'.P) .  l.ut  it 
was  inore  elaborately  set  f..rth  by  (he  lenrncd  Dr  Kdin  I.iebrucht  a 
year  Inter  (/aAr4iirt/ar/i'om<in,  ii„rf  £,„,;,  iiv^crodir  ii  p  3H)  ■ 
and  was  treated  with  his  usual  grace  hy  Prof  M.dler  himself  in  his 
lecture  on  the  •'  Migration  of  Kablcs  "  (sec  Contcmp.  JRci-irw  f,>r  July 
1S70,  pp.  r,H8  .77  )  -^  H^y.) 

BA  CLETTA,  the  ancient  .Bard«/im,  called  in  the  Middle 
Ages  Larolum,  a  fortified  seaport  town  of  Italy,  tli*;  .scat 


of  an  archbishop,  in  the  province  of  Terra  di  Bari.  It  is  %'i 
miles  N.W.  of  Bari,iu  lat.41°  19' 2G"  N.,  long.  16M8'  10' E 
The  town  is  well  built  and  handsome  ;  the  houses  are  large, 
and  the  streets  wide  and  well  paved.  It  has  a  fine  Gothic 
cathedral  (S.  Maria  Maggiore)  with  a  lofty  spire,  a  number 
of  churches  and  convents,  an  orphan  asylum,  a  college, 
a  theatre,  and  a  colossal  statue,  supposed  by  some  to  be 
of  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  but  this  is  dcuied  by  other 
art  critics.  The  harbour  is  formed  by  a  mole,  on  which 
a  Ugblbouse  is  erected,  and  it  is  commanded  by  the  citadel. 
It  is  only  capable  of  admitting  small  vessels,  but  the  town 
has  a  considerable  trade  in  grain,  wine,  oil,  fruit,  salt,  itc. 
Barletta  was  once  one  of  the  strongest  cities  in  Italy,  and 
in  the  13th  and  I4th  centuries  was  a  favourite  residenca 
of  the  kings  of  Naples.  It  was  here  that  the  first  tourna- 
ment in  that  part  of  Italy  was  held  in  1259,  and  in  150'! 
a  remarkable  combat  took  place  in  the  neighbourhood 
between  two  chosen  bands  of  Italian  and  French  knights, 
led  by  Colonna  and  Bayard  respectively.  Populatiun, 
28,6 1 3.  (See  MaruUo,  Diss.  star,  sopra  il colosso  di  Bar/ttia, 
Naples,  1816) 

BARLEY  (Hordeum),  a  most  important  genus  of  the 
cereal  plants  which  belongs  peculiarly  to  temperate  regions. 
Four  distinct  species  of  barley,  cultivated  for  the  produc- 
tion of  grain,  are  commonly  enumerated,  —  1st,  common  or 
two  rowed  bailey,  Hordeum  distichum  ;  2d,  Bere  or  Bigg, 
H.  vulgare  ;  3d,  six-rowed  barley,  11.  hextastichum ;  and 
4th,  fan,  spratt,  or  battledore  barley,  //.  zeocriton.  Of 
these  species,  but  chielly  of  the  first  two,  very  many 
varieties  are  recognized  by  cultivators,  and  new  kinds  are 
constantly  being  introduced.  Barley  is  the  most  hardy  of 
all  cereal  grains,  its  limit  of  cultivation  extending  further 
north  than  any  other  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  it  can  be 
profitably  cultivated  in  subtropical  countries.  The 
opinion  of  Pliny,  that  it  is  the  most  ancient  aliment  of 
mankind,  appears  to  be  well  founded,  for  no  less  thaiv 
three  varieties  have  been  found  in  the  lake  dwellings 
of  Switzerland,  in  deposits  belonging  to  the  Stone  Period. 
According  to  Professor  Heer  these  varieties  are  the 
common  two-rowed  {//.  distichum),  the  large  six  rowed 
(//.  hextastichum  densnm),ani  the  small  six-rowel  (//  hexta 
stichum  sanctum).  The  last  variety  is  both  the  most  ancient 
and  the  most  commonly  found,  and  is  the  sacred  barley  of 
antiquity,  ears  of  which  are  frequently  represented  plaited 
in  the  hair  of  the  goddess  Ceres,  besides  b«ing  figured  on 
ancient  coins.  The  cultivation  of  barley  in  ancient  Egypt 
is  indicated  in  Exod.  ix.  31.  Till  within  recent  times  barley 
formed  an  important  source  of  food  in  northern  countries, 
and  barley  cakes  are  still  to  some  extent  eaten.  Owing, 
however,  to  its  poverty  in  that  form  of  nitrogenous 
compound  called  gluten,  so  abundant  in  wheat,  barley  Hour 
cannot  be  baked  into  vesiculalud  bread  ;  still  it  is  a  highly 
nutritious  substance,  the  salts  it  contains  having  a  high 
proportion  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  on  it  the  Greeks  trained 
their  athletes.  Tho  foil  iwing  is  the  composition  of  barley- 
meal  according  to  Von  Bibra,  omitting  the  salts  :— 

Water .„..„ .-!.,,. .„    15        per  eenl 

Nitrogenous  compounds  ...4. ►.«... .i;^....   12  9S1      „ 

Cum  ,.<,...„-aw„,,M,-..r.5i..-.     6  744      ,, 

"^"gar  .......... ,>.n».-».ii.w. q5(J..^^.,^■  p,»,t, Mil*..*     3  fcOO      ,1 

Starch ,.,^....uj^crtAv.^ifr^«i?ij..ti....-,i..4  £1)  0!iO     ,, 

Knt .„.^«,,..,„ .,,,,,, 2170     ,, 

Barley  is  now  chicHy  ruUivatcd  for  malting,  to  prepare 
spirits  nnd  beer  (see  Bhewinu),  but  it  i.s  also  liirgely 
employed  in  domestic  cookery.  For  the  latter  purpose  the 
hard,  somewhat  flinty  grains  are  preferable,  and  tlicy  are 
prepared  by  grinding  off  tho  outer  cuticle  which  forms 
"  pot  barley."  When  the  attrition  is  carried  farther,  so 
that  the  grain  is  reduced  to  small  round  |)cllcts,  it  is  termed 
"  [lenrl  barley."  Patent  barley  is  cither  pot  or  pearl  barley 
reduced  to  (lour.     Under  the  name  dccoclum  hurdri,  a  pre 


B  A  R  - 

paratii^a  o[  barley  u  incluJed  in  the  British  Pbarmacopau, 
which  13  of  value  aj  a  demulcent  and  emollient  drink  in 
febrile  and  inllaramatory  disorders.  For  the  cultivation  of 
barley,  see  AcRicuhruHE,  vol.  i.  p.  3o3. 

The  foUowing  talle  shows  the  quantities  and  values  of 
.i>ai'-y  imported  intc  the  United  Kingdom  in  1873  ■ — 

Fiom  RiJMn  ..  _ „...^  ...  .   1.I19,U91  40S.344 

,.     SwMeo 182.004  86.366 

,.     DfDiurk    ; 850,011  425.856 

„     G-rniany .;.  .     ..1.138,737  672. 610 

..     Fr..oc« 1.970,953  966,710 

,.     Turkey 2,905.618  1.137,147 

,  Wallaohia  mj  Moldivia.  .  „      836,603  322,064 

..     Eg.vpt 16.510  6.105 

,.     Tripoli  aod  Tunis 29.554  11,330 

..     AI(;.:ria : 110.334  42,546 

„     Olher  couDtrieS  ,...._        82,559  34,434 

Total    9,241.053         4,013,573 

B.\RLOW.  Joel,  ao  .\iDercian  poet  and  politician,  born 
in  1755  at  Reading  in  Connecticut.  In  1774,  some  years 
after  his  father's  death,  he  was  entered  at  Yale  College,  New 
Haven,  where  he  soon  bsgan  to  manifest  considerable  taste 
for  poetry  and  power  of  composition.  A  few  small  pieces 
published'  by  him  were  received  with  some  degree  of  public 
favour  During  his  vacations  be  had  taken  part  with 
the  colonists  in  several  engagemofits  against  the  British, 
and  immediately  after  completing  his  cour.-ie,  he  qualified 
himself  for  the  church,  and  was  appointed  chaplain  to  a 
regiment  This  post  he  held  till  the  conclusion  of  peace 
between  Britain  and  America,  when  he  settled  in  the  village 
of  Hiitford,  and  began  to  practise  as  a  laivyer.  He  also 
conducted  a  newspaper,  and  about  the  same  time  published 
his  best  poem,  the  Viskin  of  Columbus,  a  vigorous  and 
«pirited  piece  of  writing.  About  the  year  178S  he  gave  up 
his  newspaper  and  his  legal  practice,  and  came  to  Europe 
as  the  agent  for  a  land  company.  Having  discovered  that 
this  company  was  merely  a  swindling  concern,  he  severed 
his  connection  with  it,  but  did  not  return  to  America.  In 
London  he  became  acquainted  with  some  of  the  most  ad- 
vanced liberal  thinkers,  and  published  several  political 
ti-actsof  a  decidedly  revolutionary  character.  In  1793,  after 
having  been  some  time  in  Fiance,  he  accompanied  the 
Commission  of  the  National  Convention,  which  was  sent  to 
organize  the  ne"ly  acquijed  territory  iu  Savoy.  During 
bis  residence  in  Paris  he  engaged  in  commercial  trar^ac- 
tioDS,  by  which  he  acqjired  considerable  fortune  and 
importarce.  In  1705  he  was  appointed  American  consul 
at  Algiers,  and  elBciently  discharged  the  duties  of  that 
ofBce.  In  1805  he  returned  to  America  and  began  to 
interest  himself  in  the  politics  of  his  own  country.  A 
pamphlet  of  his,  sketching  a  plan  of  national  education, 
was  received  with  great  favour.  In  1808  he  published  an 
enlarged  edition  of  his  great  poem,  under  the  title  Colum- 
biad.  It  was  magnificently  illustrated,  but  did  not  achieve 
the  popularity  of  its  predecessor.  In  1811  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  plenipotentiary  to  France,  with  the  object 
mainly  of  negotialing  a  commercial  treaty  and  of  obtaining 
compensation  for  some  American  proprTty  that  had  been 
unjustly  confiscated.  To  accomplish  this  he  required  a 
person.-il  interview  with  Napoleon,  and  set  out  to  meet  the 
emperor,  who  was  at  Uilna.  On  hi^  way  he  was  attacked 
with  inQdmrnatiou  of  the  lungs,  and  died  at  a  Polish  village 
near  Cracow,  on  the  2Jd  December  1812.  " 

BAllLOVJ',  Peter,  an  able  writer  on  pure  and  applied 
mathematics,  was  born  at  Norwich  in  177G,  and  died  in 
136:.'.  He  received  a  very  ordinary  education,  but  improved 
himself  by  his  own  exertions.  In  ISOC  he  was  appointed 
malhenialical  master  in  the  Woolwich  Academy  and  filled 
iSal  post  for  forty  one  years.  In  18i'3  he  was  made  a 
\  cUow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  two  years  later  received 


B  A  11 


377 


the  Copley  mcdaL  He  received  many  distinctions  from 
British  and  foreign  scientific  societies.  Mr  Barlow's  prin- 
cipal works  are — Elemmlary  Investigation  of  the  Ti.  onryof 
Surtihers,  1811;  t^ew  MalKemalical  and  Fhilosophval 
Dictionary,  1814;  Essay  on  Magnetic  Attractions,  1820. 
The  investigations  on  magnetism  led  to  the  important 
practical  discovery  of  a  means  of  rectifying  or  jinpensating 
compass  errors  in  ships.  Besides  compiling  numerous  useful 
tables,  Mr  Barlow  contributed  largely  to  the  Encyclopccdia 
Mctropulitana.  The  most  important  of  his  articles  are — 
"  Theory  of  Numbers,"  "Mechanics,"  "Hydrodynamics," 
"Pneumatics,"  "Optics,"  "Astronomy,"  "Magnetism," 
and  "  Eleotro-Magnetiira,"  along  with  the  huge  volume  on 
"  Manufactures." 

BAR.MECLDES,  or  descendants  of  Barmak,  were  a 
noble  Persian  family,  who  attained  great  power  under  the 
Abbaside  caliphs.  Barmak,  the  first  of  them,  was  a  Ghebre, 
or  Persian  fire-worshipper,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
native  of  the  district  of  Khorassan.  He  was  introduced  to 
the  caliph  Abd-ul  Malik,  and  acquired  great  power  under 
him.  His  family  pro.iipercil,  and  his  grandson,  Yahya,  was 
vLzier  to  the  cabph  El-Mahdy,  and  tutor  of  the  famous 
prince  Uaroun-al-Raschid,  celebrated  in  the  Thousand  and 
One  NiglUs.  Yahya's  sons  occupied  high  oflSccs,  one  of 
them,  Ja'afar  (the  Giafar  of  the  A'alioin  1^'iyhts),  being 
VLzier  and  constant  companion  of  Haroun.  The  caliph, 
however,  conceived  suspicions  against  the  Barmecides,  and 
in  802  beheaded  Ja'afar  with  great  cruelty,  condemned  the 
whole  family  to  prison,  and  confiscated  theu-  property. 
Oriental  historians  give  a  romantic  and  not  improbable 
reason  for  the  caliph's  conduct  towards  his  vizier.  Ja'afar 
had  been  married  to  Haroun's  favourite  sister,  Abbasab, 
on  condition  that  he  should  never  se«  his  wife  save  in 
presence  of  the  caliph.  He  neglected  this  injunction,  and 
Abbasah  bore  a  son,  who  was  brought  up  secretly.  The 
caliph  became  aware  of  this,  and  in  his  wrath  punished 
Ja'afar  and  all  Lis  family.  The  use  of  the  expression 
Barmecides'  Feast,  to  denote  an  imaginary  banquet,  is 
drawn  from  one  of  the  tales  ih  the  Aralian  .Vigils,  wher* 
an  entertainment  of  merely  imaginary  viands  is  served  up 
to  a  hungry  man  by    ae  of  the  Barmecides. 

BARMEN,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Dusseldorf  and  circle  of  Elberfeld,  on  the  Bergisch 
Markisch  railway.  It  is  formed  by  the  combination  of  a 
large'number  of  separate  villages,  which  stretch  along  the 
northern  valley  of  the  Wupper  for  a  distance  of  six  miles 
in  almost  perfect  continuity  with  Elberfeld.  The  first  of 
these  to  obtain  a  separate  civic  organization  was  Geraaike, 
which  may  thus  be  regarded  as  the  nucleus  of  the  whole. 
The  rapid  development  of  manufacturing  activity,  to  which 
the  town  o.ves  its  origin,  or.ly'J^tes  from  the  beginning  of 
the  18th  century.  It  is  the  chief  seat  of  ribbon-weaving 
in  Germany,  and  manufactures  thread,  lace,  buttons, 
braids,  cotton,  cloth,  silk  stuffs,  steel  wares,  and  plated 
goods.  There  are  alsc  numerous  bleachfields,  printlields, 
dyeworks,— famous  for  their  Turkey-red,— su.ipwork6,' 
chemical-works,  and  potteries.  A  chamber  of  commerce 
and  a  commercial  tribunal  hold  their  sessions  in  the  town, 
which  also  possesses  an  exchange,  a  music  ball,  a  deaf  and 
dumb  asylum,  numerous  schools,  and  a  variety  of  churches. 
The  most  of  the  inhabitants  aro  Protestants  of  various 
sects.  The  Ilhcnish-Westphalian  Missionary  Society 
maintains  a  theological  seminary  in  the  town  and  pjssesses 
an  ethnographical  museum.      Population,  74,449. 

B.-VRNABA.S  (7iSU"i2)  was  the  suniaiue  given  by 
the  apostles  to  Joses,  "  a  Leviie,  of  the  country  of  Cjjrus," 
who,  though  like  Paul  not  of  the  twelve,  was  with  him 
recognized  among  the  number  of  the  apostles.  The  name 
(iJ.'jc  wapriKXi^atiM),  translated  "son  of  consolation  "  in  the 
authorized  version  (Acts  iv.  3C),  wnu'd  be  better  rcndere-J 


378 


B  A  R  -  B  A  R 


"  son  of  exhortalioD  "  or  "  of  prophecy."  Baraabas  is  firbt 
mentioned  in  the  Acts  (i?.  3G,  37)  as  having  sold  his  land 
and  laid  the  money  at  the  apostlea'  feet.  He  nest  appears 
as  introducing  Paul  after  his  conversion  to  the  other  apostles 
(Acts  ix.  27),  from  which  a  previous  acquaintance  has  been 
itiferred.  Subsequent  notices  record  a  year's  residence 
along  with  Saul  at  Antioch,  where  they  "  taught  much 
people"  (xi  22-2C),  a  visit  to  Jerusalem  with  contribu- 
tions for  the  poorer  brethren  there  (xi.  27-30),  the  ordina- 
tion of  Saul  and  Barnabas  for  the  work  to  which  they 
were  called  by  the  Holy  Ghost  (xiii.  2,  3),  and  a  missionary 
journey  of  the  two  apostles  to  Cyprus  and  various  cities  of 
Asia  Minor  (xiii.  xiv)  When  the  dissension  arose  as  to 
the  necessity  of  circumcision,  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  sent 
to  Jerusalem  by  the  church  at  Antioch  to  consult  the- 
"apostles  and  elders"  on  the  question  (xv.  1-4).  Soon 
after  their  return  to  Antioch  they  resolved  to  undertake  a 
second  missionary  journey  ;  but  a  difference  arose  between 
them  in  regard  to  the  determination  of  Barnabas  to  take 
his  sister's  son,  John  Mark,  along  with  him.  "  The  con- 
tention was  so  sharp  between  them"  (xv.  39)  that  they 
separated,  Barnabas  and  Mark  going  to  Cyprus,  while  Paul 
and  Silas  went  to  Syria  and  Cilicia.  No  further  account 
of  the  career  of  Barnabas  is  given  in  the  New  Testament, 
with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  incidental  allusions  in  St 
Paul's  epistles  (1  Cor.  is.  6  ;  GaL  ii.  1,  9,  13).  Later 
writings  and  traditions  have  attempted  to  supply  what  is 
wanting  in  the  Scriptural  narrative,  but  they  contain  no 
facts  that  can  be  accepted  as  historically  certain.  Accord- 
ing to  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Barnabas  was  one  of  the 
seventy  disciples.  Various  accounts  of  still  later  date 
allege  that  he  studied  under  Gamaliel  along  with  Saul,  that 
he  suffered  martyrdom  at  Cyprus,  and  that  his  body  was 
discovered  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Zeno.  He  is  also 
»aid  to  have  been  the  founder  and  first  bishop  of  the  church 
at  MUao.  The  festival  of  St  Barnabas  is  held  on  the  11th 
ot  June. 

"BARNABAS,  Epistle  of,  and  Gospel  of     See  Aposto- 
lic Fatqers  and  Gospels. 

BARXARD  CASTLE,  a  market  and  manufacturing 
town  and  parish  in  the  county  of  Durham,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Tees,  24G  miles  from  London.  It  consists  of  one  main 
street,  about  a  mile  long,  with  a  number  of  smaller  ones 
branching  off  on  each  side.  The  principal  building  in  the 
high  street  is  the  town-hall,  an  octagonal  structure  dating 
from  1747.  St  Mary's  church,  built  in  the  12th  century, 
and  restored  in  1871,  contains  some  curious  monuments; 
but  the  building  of  chief  interest  is  the  castle,  from  which 
the  town  derives  its  name,  and  which  is  the  principal  scene 
of  Scott's  Rokebij.  This  was  founded  in  1132  by  Barnard 
Baliol,  an  ancestor  of  the  competitor  with  Bruce  for  the 
Scottish  crown,  and  was  reduced  to  a  ruinous  condition  by 
the  siege  of  1569,  when  it  was  defended  for  Queen  Eliza- 
beth by  Sir  George  Bowes  of  Streatlam.  The  remains  still 
extend  over  a  space  of  more  than  six  acres.  A  remarkable 
building,  known  as  the  Bowes'  Mansion  and  Museum,  was 
in  1874  bequeathed  to  the  town  by  a  descendant  of  the 
ga'lant  knight.  It  contains  a  valuable  collection  of  works 
of  art,  and  is  pne  of  the  liaest  edifices  of  the  kind  in  the 
kingdom.  The  principal  manufactures  of  Barnard  Castle 
are  carpets,  woollen  cloth,  and  shoe-thread.  The  corn 
market  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  north  of  England.  A 
line  joining  the  NorthEastern  and  the  London  and  North 
Western  Railways  passes  immediately  to  the  north  of  the 
town.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  Rokeby,  Egglestone 
Abbey,  Raby  Castle,  and  Lartington  Hall.  (See  Sir 
Walter  Scott's  Rokeby,  and  Atkinson's  Handbook  of  Barnard 
t'cutlr,  1874.) 

BARNAUL,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Russia,  in  the  government 
">(  Tomsk,  and  capital  of  a  circle  to  which  it  gives  its  name 


It  is  situated  in  a  wide  plain  which  is  bounded  by  off 
shoots  of  the  Altai  Mountains,  and  is  built  on  both  sidta 
of  the  Barnaulka  River  at  its  confluence  with  the  Ob,  in  Ijt 
53°  20'  N.,  and  long.  83°  26'  E.  It  is  the  capital  of  m, 
extensive  mining  district,  and  the  seat  of  a  board  o( 
administration.  Besides  its  numerous  smeUing-furuac6s,  it 
possesses  glassworks,  a  bell-foundry,  and  a  mint ,  and  it 
has  also  a  library,  an  observatory,  established  in  1841, 
a  mining  school,  a  museum  with  a  rich  v;ollection  of  mineral 
and  zoological  specimens,  and  a  theatre,  in  addition  to  the 
governor's  residence,  the  barracks,  and  other  buildings 
belonging  to  its  civic,  organization.  Barnaul  was  founded 
in  1730  by  Akynthies  Demidoff  (to  whose  memory  a 
monument  has  been  erected),  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a 
town  in  1771,  and  became  capital  of  the  circle  in  16"2'i. 
Population,  12,927. 

BARNAVE,  Aktoine  Pierre  Joseph  Marie,  one  of 
the  greatest  orators  and  noblest  actors  and  victims  of  the 
first  French  Revolution,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in  Dauphiny, 
October  22,  1761.  He  was  of  a  Protestant  family.  His 
father  was  an  advocate  to  the  parliament  of  Grenoble,  and 
his  mother  was  a  woman  of  high  birth,  superior  ability, 
and  noble  character.  He  was  at  once  thoughtful  and 
passionate,  studious  and  social,  handsome  iii  person  and 
graceful  in  manners.  He  was  brought  up  to  the  law,  and 
at  the  age  of  twenty-two  made  himself  favourably  known 
by  a  discourse  pronounced  before  the  local  parliament  on 
the  division  of  political  powers.  Dauphiny  was  one  of  the 
tirst  of  the  provinces  to  feel  the  excitement  of  the  coming 
revolution;  and  Barnave  was  foremost  to  give  voice  to  the 
general  feeling,  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  Esprit  des  edit} 
enrcgistres  militaircment  le  20  Mai  1788.  He  was  imme- 
diately elected  deputy,  with  his  father,  to  the  States  of 
Dauphiny,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  their  debates.  A 
few  months  later  he  was  transferred  to  a  grander  field 
of  action.  The  States-general  were  convoked  at  Versailles 
for  May,  5,  1789,  and  Barnave  was  chosen  deputy  of  the 
Tiers  Flat  for  his  native  province.  He  soon  made  au 
impression  on  the  Assembly,  and  became  the  friend  of 
most  of  the  leaders  of  the  popular  party.  He  took  part  in 
the  conferences  on  the  claims  of  the  three  ord'  ,  '  v  '•  ip 
the  first  address  to  the  king,  and  supported  r'lp  i\'  sal 
of  Sieyfes  that  the  Assembly  should  declare  it^f!lT  i-»tiunal. 
Though  a  passionate  lover  of  liberty,  he  knew  that  excess 
is  the  ruin  of  liberty,  and  maintained  the  necessity  for 
the  individual  and  for  the  community  of  both  freedom  and 
restraint.  He  hoped  to  secure  the  freedom  of  France  and 
her  monarchy  at  the  same  time.  But  ha  was  almost 
unawares  borne  away  by  the  mighty  currents  of  the  time, 
and  he  took  part  in  the  attacks  on  the  monarchy,  on  the 
clergy,  on  church  property,  and  on  the  provincial  parlia- 
mcntj.  With  the  one  exception  of  the  mighty  Mirabeau, 
Barnave  was  the  most  powerful  orator  of  the  Assembly. 
On  several  occasions  he  stood  in  opposition  to  Mirabeau 
After  the  fall  of  the  Bastillo  he  wished  to  save  the  throne. 
Ho  advocated  the  suspensive  veto,  the  system  of  two 
chambers,  and  the  establishment  of  trial  by  jury  iu  civil 
causes.  His  conflict  with  Mirabeau  on  the  question  of  as- 
signing to  the  king  the  right  to  make  peace  or  war  was 
one  of  the  most  striking  scenes  in  the  Assembly.  About 
this  time,  after  a  vehement  debate,  he  fought  a  duel  with 
Cazaliis,  in  which  the  latter  was  slightly  wounded.  About 
the  close  of  October  1790  Barnave  was  called  to  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Assembly.  On  the  death  of  Mirabeau  a  few 
months  later,  Barnave  paid  a  high  tribute  to  his  worth  and 
public  services,  designating  him  the  Shakespeare  of  oratory. 
On  the  arrest  of  the  king  and  the  royal  family  at  Varenucs, 
while  attempting  to  escape  from  France,  Barnave  was  one  of 
the  three  appointed  to  conduct  them  back  to  I'oris.  On  tho 
journey  he  was  dccjily  affeclcd  by  the  mournful  fate  of  tbew- 


B  A  R  -  B  A  R 


379 


royal  persons,  and  resolved  to  do  what  he  could  to  alleviate 
iLi^ir  sufferings  In  one  of  his'most  powerful  speeches  he 
maintained  the  inviolability  of  the  king's  person.  His 
public  career  came  to  an  end  with  the  close  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  and  he  returned  to  Grenoble  at  the 
beginning  of  1792.  His  sympathy  and  relations  with  the 
royal  family,  and  his  desire  to  check  the  downward  progress 
of  the  Revolution,  brought  on  him  the  suspicion  and  perse- 
cution of  the  more  violent  party.     At  the  end  of  August 

1792  he' was  arrested  and  imprisoned,  and  in  November 

1793  was  transferred  to  Paris.  The  nobility  of  his 
character  was  proof  against  the  assaults  of  suffering. 
"  Better  to  sufTer  and  to  die,"  he  said,  "  than  lose  one 
shade  of  my  moral  and  political  character."  On  Kovcmber 
28  he  appeared  before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  in 
company  with  DuportDutertre,  and  two  days  later  they 
both  perished  by  the  guillotine. 

BARN'ES,  Albert,  a  theologian  of  America,  specially 
distinguished  as  a  Biblical  expositor,  was  born  at  Rome  in 
the  state  of  New  York,  1st  December  1798,  and  died  at 
Philadelphia  5Wth  December  1870.  In  1820  he  graduated 
at  Hamilton  College,  and  in  the  same  year  commenced  his 
studies  for  the  ministry  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary. 
Soon  after  taking  licence  he  was  called  to  the  Presbyterian 
church  in  Morristown,  New  Jersey,  from  which  he  was 
transferred  to  the  pastoral  charge  of  the  first  Presbyterian 
church  of  Philadelphia  in  1830.  In  1867  he  was  com- 
pelled to  resign  owing  to  failing  health.  Barnes  held 
a  prominent  place  in  the  New  School  branch  of  the 
Presbyterians,  to  which  he  had  adhered  on  the  division  of 
the  denomination.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher,  but  his 
wide-spread  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  expository 
works,  which  have  probably  had  a  larger  circulation  both 
in  Europe  and  America  than  any  others  of  their  class.  Of 
the  well-kuown  Notes  on  Ike  New  Testament  it  is  said  that 
more  than  a  million  volumes  had  been  issued  at  the  time 
of  their  author's  death.  The  Notes  on  Job,  the  Psalms, 
Isaiah,  and  Daniel,  found  scarcely  less  acceptance.  Dis- 
playing little  original  critical  power,  their  chief  merit  lies 
in  (he  fact  that  they  bring  the  results  of  the  criticism  of 
others  within  the  reach  of  general  readers.  Barnes  was 
the  author  of  several  other  works  of  a  practical  and  devo- 
tional kind. 

B.\RNES,  JosnuA,  on  English  scholar,  born  in  1654 
lo  1695  he  was  chosen  queen's  professor  of  Greek,  a 
language  which  ho  wrote  and  spoke  with  the  utmost 
facility.  One  of  his  first  publications  was  a  whimsical 
tract,  entitled  Gerania,  or  a  New  Discovery  of  the  Little  Sort 
of  People  called  Pygmies.  Among  his  other  works  are  a 
Life  of  Edward  III.,  in  which  he  introduces  his  hero 
making  long  and  elaborate  speeches  ,  Sacred  Poems  ,  the 
Life  of  Oliver  CromutU  (he  Tyrant  ;  some  dramatic  pieces  ; 
a  poetical  paraphrase  on  the  history  of  Esther,  in  Greek 
v^e,  with  a  Latin  translation,  ic.  He  also  published 
editions  of  Euripides,  Armcreon,  and  Homer's  Iliad  and 
Odyssey,  with  notes  and  a  Latin  translation.  He  died  in 
1712 

BARNET,  or  Cnippixo  BAnNET.  a  market-town  in  the 
county  of  Hertford,  1 1  miles  from  London,  on  the  groat 
northern  road.  Near  it,  in  1471,  was  fought  the  decisive 
battle  between  the  houses  of  Yoik  and  Lancaster,  in  which 
the  great  earl  of  Warwick  fell.  The  parish  church  dates 
from  the  15th  century,  and  the  free  school  was  founded  by 
Elizabeth  in  1573.  The  market,  held  on  Monday,  is  large  ; 
and  there  are  great  cattle  fairs.  In  the  neighbourhood  is 
the  village  of  E.i9t  Bamct.  with  a  very  ancient  church, 
ropuhlion  of. parish  in  187J,  3375. 

BARN'EVELDT,  Jan  van  Olden,  Grand  Pensionary 
rf  Holland,  who  played  a  great  part  and  rendered  the  most 
tigt-J  services  to  his  country  in   the  long    conflict   with 


Philip  II.  of  Spain,  was  born  in   1547.     He  was  a  native 
of  Amersfoort  in  the  province  of  Utrecht,  and  could  least 
of  a  long  line  of  noble  ancestors.     Endowed  with  superior 
abilities,  he  was  educated  for  the  profession  cf  the  law,  and 
commenced  practice  as  an  advocate  at  the  Hague  in  1009. 
Ho  sympathized   deeply   with   his   countrymen  in   their 
resolution  to  throw  off  the  hated  yoke  of  Spain,  and  served 
as  a  volunteer  at  the  sieges  of  Haarlem  and  Leyden.      In 
1575   ha   married;   and   in   the  following  yc.ir  ho   was 
appointed  to  the  honourable  post  of  counsellor  and  chief- 
pensionary  of  Rotterdam.     In  1585,  when,  in  consequence 
of  the  assassination  of  the  sagacious  and  resolute  leaider  of 
the  Dutch,  and  the  genetal  success  of  the  Spaniards  under 
the    Prince' of  Parma,  the   cause  of  the   patriots  seemed 
almost  hopeless,  Barneveldt  was  chosen  head  of  an  embassy 
to  Queen  Elizabeth,  to  ask  for  her  assistance  and  to  offer 
her  the  sovereignty  of  the  United  Provinces.      The  queen 
agreed  to  give  aid  both  in  money  and  in  men,  but  refused 
to  accept  the  sovereignty.      An  expedition  was  sent  under 
the  command  of  Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester,  on  whom  the 
Dutch  conferred  supreme  and  absolute  authority.      Barne- 
veldt was  then  raised  to  the  high  office  of  advocate-gene- 
ral of    Holland    and    West   Friesland.       Dissatisfied  and 
indignant  at    Leicester's    incompetence,   arrogance,   and 
mismanagement,  he  endeavoured  to  limit  his  powers.     For 
this  purpose  he  succeeded  in  persuading   the   States   to 
appoint  Maurice  of  Nassau,  the  young  son  of  the  late  Prince 
of  Orange,  stadtholdcr  and  captain-general  of  Holland  and 
Zealand,  thus  contributing  to  place  in  the  highest  position 
the  man  who  was  afterwards  to  become  his  great  antagonist 
Leicester  was  recalled  at  the  close  of  1586.     In  the  course 
of  a  few  years  Barneveldt,  by  his  prudence  and  energy  in 
administration,  succeeded  in  restoring  order  and  materially 
improving  the  financial  affairs  of  the  States.     He  proposed 
to  resign  in  1592,  but  at  the  urgent  entreaty  of  the  States 
retained  his  post.      In  1598  he  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  the  object  of  which  was  to  strengthen 
and  maintain    the  friendship  of   France  and  the  United 
Provinces.     In  1603,  on  the  accession  of  James  I.  to  the 
throne,  Barneveldt  was  again  sent  to  England  as  head  of  an 
embassy,  and  in  conjunction  with  the  French  ambassador, 
M.  de  Rosny,  afterwards   duke   of  Sully,  negotiated  aik 
arrangement  for  further  assistance  against  the  Spaniards. 
In  1607,  having  first  insisted  on  and  obtained  a  recognition 
of  the  independence  of  the  Provinces,  he  began  negotiations 
with  Spain  with  a  view  to  establish  a  truce.      He  had  to 
contend  against  the  opposition  of  the  stadtholder  and  the 
army,  and  to  suffer  from  unmerited  popular  suspicions  of 
taking  bribes  from  the  Spanish" court.     But  he  triumphed 
over   all  difliculties,  and   on  April  9,  1609,  the   famous 
twelve  years'  truce  was  concluded.     From  this  time  Maurice 
was  his  sworn  foe.     The  two  men  were  leaders  of  two  great 
political   parties,   and   the   struggle   between    them   was 
embittered  by  the  admislure  of  theological  and  ecclesiastic.il 
controversy.     In   the  strife  then  going  on    betweec.  the 
Gomarites   (the  Calvinistic   party)   and   the    Arminians, 
Maurice  sided  with  the  former,  while  Barneveldt  supported 
the  latter,     ilaurice  was  aiming  at  the  sovereign  power  ; 
Bcirncveldt   resolutely    maintained    the   freedom    of   the 
republic.     The  clerical  party,  who  looked   up   to  Prince 
Maurice  as  their  chief,  were  bent  on  getting  the  Calvinistic 
system  established  as  the  state  religion,  and  on  refusing 
to  tolerate  any  other  system ,  Barneveldt  and  the  Arminiar  j 
contended  that  each  province  should  be  free  to  adopt  t^f 
form  which  it  preferred.     Barneveldt  was  the  consistt". 
champion  of  the  supremacy  of  the   civil   authority,  a.id 
"  the  prime  minister  of  Protestantism  "  (Motley).    The  con- 
vocation of  a  National  Synod  was  proposed  by  the  party  of 
the   stadtholder  and  resisted  by  Barneveldt.     When  dis- 
turbances broke  out  against  the  Arminians,  Maurice  refu**"! 


380 


B  A  R  — B  A  R 


to  suppress  them,  and  disarmed  ine  militia  organized  for 

tbe  purpose  by  Barneveldt.  The  former  now  assumed  the 
chief  power.  An  interview  took  place  on  August  1 7,  1 618, 
between  the  advocate  and  the  stadtholder ;  each  adhered 
resolutely  to  his  own  views,  and  the  meeting  remained 
fruitless.  Barneveldt,  with  his  friends  Grotius  and  Hoo- 
gcrbeets,  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  on  the  29th.  In 
November  following,  in  pursuance  of  the  command  of 
Prince  Maurice,  the  famous  Synod  of  Dort  assembled.  A 
few  days  later  the  trial  of  the  prisoners  began  before  a 
ejecial  commission.  The  proceedings  were  illegal ;  the 
a.-cusations  against  Barneveldt  were  fully  disproved,  but 
he  was  unjustly  found  guilty  and  sentenced  to  death. 
This  sentence  was  unscrupulously  confirmed  by  the  clerical 
synod.  It  was  a  foregone  conclusion,  and  Barneveldt  had 
seen  clearly  that  there  was  no  hope  for  him.  On  the  14th 
of  May  1619,  just  five  days  after  the  closing  of  the  synod, 
the  venerable  statesman  and  patriot,  then  in  his  seventy- 
first  year,  was  beheaded  at  the  Hague.  He  met  his  fate 
without  a  word  of  regret,  without  a  sign  of  fear.  His  calm 
■courage  and  his  tenderness  of  heaTt  are  attested  by  a  letter, 
still  extant,  written  to  his  wife  a  few  hours  before  his 
execution.  Besides  his  wife,  Maria  van  Utrecht,  Barne- 
veldt left  two  sons  and  two  daughters.  Four  years  after 
their  father's  death  the  sons  took  part  in  a  plot  against 
Prince  Maurice  ;  one  of  them  made  his  escape  and 
ent£red  the  service  of  Spain,  the  other  was  arrested  and 
beheaded. 

An  elaborate  history  of  The  Life  and  Death  of  John  of  BarnevcJd, 
\rith  a  Viev)  of  the  Primary  Causes  and  Movements  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  by  J.  L.  Motley,  author  of  the  Rise  of  the  Lutth  lie- 
fublic,  appeared  in  1874. 

BARNSLEY,  or  Black  Barnsley,  mentioned  in 
Domesday  Boot  as  Bernesleye,  a  town  and  municipal 
borough  in  the  West  Riding  .of  Yorkshire,  171  miles  from 
London  and  about  11  north  of  Sbeffield.  It  is  situated  on 
rising  ground  to  the  west  of  the  River  Dearne,  in  a  district 
of  considerable  natural  beauty.  The  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel,  and  the  weaving  of  linen  and  other  cloth,  are  the 
two  principal  industries  ;  but  there  are  also  bleachfields, 
printfields,  dyeworks,  sawmills,  cornmills,  and  raalt-hcmses  ; 
and  the  manufacture  of  glass,  needles,  and  wire  is  still 
carried  on.  The  last-mentioned  industry  dates  from  tbe 
reign  of  James  I.,  and  was  for  B  long  time  the  staple  of  the 
place.  There  are  large  coal-fields  in  the  neighbourhood, 
which,  indeed,  extend  under  the  town ;  and  these  afford 
■employment  to  considerable  numbers.  The  coal  is  largely 
e.tported  to  London  and  Hull,  for  domestic  and  other 
purposes,  the  coke  formed  from  it  also  being  in  great 
demand.  Besides  the  means  of  communication  afforded  by 
Boveral  railway  lines,  Barnsley  has  the  advantage  of  .two 
canals,  the  one  known  as  the  Bamsley-and-\Vakefield 
and  the  other  as  the  Dearne  acd-Dove.  Among  the  more" 
important  of  its  public  buildings  arc  the  church  of  St  Mary's, 
St  George's  (built  in  1823),  St  John's  (18D8),  the  county 
couit  (1851),  and  the  bank  (18C1).  There  are  a  number  of 
educational  and  benevolent  institutions  of  some  importance  ; 
the  free  grammar  school  dates  from  1GG5,  a  subscription 
library  was  started  in  1808,  and  a  philosophical  society  was 
founded  in  1828.  In  18G2  a  handsome  park  of  about  20 
acres  was  presented  to  the  town  by  the  widow  of  Joseph 
Locke,  M.P.  About  a  mile  from  the  town  are  the  ruins 
of  Monk  Bretton,  a  Cluniac  priory.  Popidution  in 
irri,  23,021 

BARNSTABLE,  a  seaport  town,  and  capital  of  the 
county  of  the  same  name,  in  the  .ttatc  of  Massachusetts, 
^'orth  America.  It  is  situated  on  the  south  side  of  a  bay 
of  'ho  same  name,  which  opens  into  Cape  Cod  Ray,  and  is 
6;<  miles  S.E.  of  Boston  The  population,  which  is  largely 
■•e.i  faring,  amounted  in  1870  to  4793. 


BARNSTAPLE,  a  market  and  borough  town  of  England, 
county  of  Devon,  40  miles'  N.W.  of  Exeter.  It  is  situated 
on  the  River  Taw,  6  inUes  from  its  mouth,  but  has  always 


Arms  of  Barnstaple. 
been  considered  a  seaport.  The  stream,  which  is  only 
navigable  for  small  craft,  is  here  crossed  by  an  ancient  stone 
bridge  of  1 6  arches,  and  by  a  railway  bridge  on  the  Illra 
combe  line.  The  town  is  handsome  and  well  built ;  it 
was  incorporated  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  and  has  returned 
two  members  to  parliament  since  the  time  of  Edward 
I.  The  woollen  Irade,  for  which  it  was  once  famous, 
has  now  entirely  declined  ;  but  it  manufactures  lace,  sail- 
cloth, and  fishing-nets,  and  has  extensive  potteries,  tan- 
neries, sawmills,  and  foundries,  while  shipbuilding  is 
also  successfully  carried  on.  The  public  buildings  and 
institutions  include  a  large  church,  a  guildhall  (1S2C),  a 
music  hall,  a  free  grammar  school,  a  literary  institute, 
national  and  charity  schools,  an  infirmary  (1832),  and  a 
dispensary,  and  the  finest  market-place  in  the  West  of 
England.  The  poet  Gay  was  boru  in  the  vicinity,  and 
received  his  education  at  the  grammar  school  here,  which  at 
an  earlier  period  had  numbered  Bishop  Jewel  among  its 
alumni.  Population  in  1871,  11,059.  Barnstaple  is  a 
town  of  considerable  antiquity,  and  was  erected,  it  is  said, 
by  Athelstan  into  a  borough.  At  the  time  of  the  Norman 
Conquest  it  numbered  between  forty  and  fifty  burgesses. 
Joel  of  Totness,  to  whom  it  was  transferred,  built  a  castle 
and  founded  a  priory  of  Cluniac  monks.  In  lOSS  the 
town  was  able  to  furnish  three  vessels  against  the  Spanish 
Armada. 

BAROCCHIO,  or  Bahozzi,  Giaco.mo  da  Vicnola, 
architect,  born  at  Vignola  in  the  Modenese  territory,  in 
1507.  He  succeeded  Michel  Angelo  as  the  architect  of 
St  Peter's,  and  executed  various  portions  of  that  fabric, 
besides  a  variety  of  works  in  Rome  and  other,  parts  of 
Italy.  The  designs  for  the  Escorial  were  also  supplied  by 
hiin.  He  is  the  author  of  an  excellent  work  on  the  Fut 
Orders  of  Architecture.  His  character  as  a  man  was  worthy 
of  his  genius ;  for  to  his  extensive  acquirements  and 
exquisite  taste  were  superadded  an  amenity  of  manners  and 
disposition  and  a  noble  generosity,  that  won  tbe  aifection 
and  admiration  of  all  who  knew  him.  He  died  in  1573, 
at  the  age  of  sixty-si.x. 

B.-^ROCCI,  or  Baroccio,  Federigo,  painter,  was  born  in 
1528  at  Urbino,  where  the  genius  of  Raphael  inspired 
him.  In  his  early  youth  he  travelled  to  Rome,  where  he 
painted  in  fresco,  and  was  warmly  commended  by  Michel 
Angelo.  He  then  returned  to  Urbino,  where,  with  the 
exception  of  some  short  visits  to  Rome,  be  continued  to 
reside  till  his  death  in  1C12.  He  acquired  great  fame  by 
his  paintings  of  religious  subjects,  in  the  style  of  which. he 
to  some  extent  imitated  Correggio.  His  own  followers 
were  very  numerous,  but  according  to  Lanzi,  carried  their 
master's  pecuharities  to  cj.css.  Barocci  also  etched  from 
his  own  designs  a  few  prints,  which  are  highly  finished, 
and  executed  with  great  softness  and  delicacy.  (See  Lanzi, 
IJist   of  Painting,  i    440  ) 

BAR01).\,  a  city  of  British  India,  the  capital  of  the 
native  state  known  as  the  GailcwAr's  dominions,  is  situated 
near  the  River  Biswamintri,  in  p2°  IG'  N.  Iat.,nnd  73'  14' 
E  long.     The  Government  of  Bombay  exorcises  a  political 


B  A  K— B  A  R 


381 


eaporintendeiice  over  the  Gaikwir,  and  a  British  political 
BgeDt  resides  at  Barodi.  The  town  is  fortiGei.1,  but  has  no 
great  strength.  Thornton  states  the  population  at  140,000. 
Barodi  contains  the  chief  court  of  the  stabe,  the  Gaikwir 
himself  presiding  in  appeals  from  the  decisions  of  the  other 
:ourt3  in  his  territory.  The  toma  contains  only  one  higher 
class  school,  the  High  School, — attended  in  1872  by  G5S 
pupils,  of  whom  155  were  learning  English,  221  MarhithI, 
and  2S2  Gujrithi.  There  are  also  two  vernacular  schools 
in  the  town.  The  late  GaikwAr,  Malhir  Rio,  was 
installed  in  1871.  The  princes  of  Barodi  date  their  im- 
portance from  the  Marhatti  confederacy,  which  in  the  last 
century  spread  devastation  and  terror  over  India.  Shortly 
after  1721  the  ruling  chief,  one  Pel.iji,  carved  a  feftilo  slice 
of  territory  out  of  GujirAt  Another  enjoyed  the  title 
of  "  Leader  of  the  Royal  Troops "  under  the  Peshwi 
During  the  last  thirty-two  years  of  the  century  the  house 
fell  a  prey  to  one  of  those  bitter  and  unappeasable  family 
feuda  which  are  the  ruin  of  great  Indian  families.  In 
ItJOO  the  inheritance  descended  to  a  prince  feeble  in  body 
and  almost  idiotic  in  mind.  British  troops  were  sent  in 
defence  of  the  hereditary  ruler  against  all  claimants ;  a 
treaty  was  signed  in  1802,  by  which  his  independence  of 
the  Peshwi,  and  his  dependence  on  our  own  Government, 
were  secured.  Three  years  later  these  and  various  othor^ 
engagements  were  cou.-.olidated  into  a  systematic  plan  for 
the  administration  of  the  Barodi  territory,  under  a  prince 
with  a  revenue  of  three  quarters  of  a  million  sterling,  pcr- 
(octly  independent  in  all  internal  matters,  but  practically 
kept  on  his  thfone  by  subsidiary  British  troops.  Since 
then  the  history  of  the  GailtwArs  has  been  very  much  the 
aame  as  that  of  most  territorial  houses  in  India  :  an  occa- 
sional able  minister,  more  rarely  an  able  prince ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  long  dreary  list  of  incompetent  heads, 
venal  advisers,  and  taskmasters  oppressive  to  the  people. 
Of  late  years  they  have  been  more  than  usually  unfortunate. 
Family  feuds  raged  6ercer  than  ever,  and  the  late  Gaikwir 
was  long  imprisoned  by  his  brother,  the  former  ruler, 
on  a  charge  of  attempted  fratricide.  The  miserable  scan- 
dals of  the  Barodi  Rij  need  not  be  revived  here.  Suffice 
it  to  say,  that  Malhir  Rio  found  himself  suddenly  brought* 
/rom  prison  and  placed  upon  the  throne,  and  that  his 
conduct  as  ruler  was  what  might  have  been  expected 
in  such  ft  case.  Frequent  complaints  of  his  mismanage- 
ment and  oppression  were  brought  before  the  British 
Government,  and  in  1873  a  commission  of  English  officers 
was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  affairs  of  the  state, 
and  its  management  by  the  GaikwAr.  Since  then  mis- 
rule has  advanced  with  a  rapid  foot.  After  one  or  two 
feints  at  reforming  his  government,  the  Gaikwir  returned 
to  his  old  courses.  An  attempt  in  1874  to  poison  the 
British  Resident  at  his  court  brought  affairs  to  a  crisb, 
and  early  in  1875  the  Gaikwir  was  tried  by  a  mixed  com- 
mission of  eminent  British  officers  and  natives  of  rank.  A 
unanimous  verdict  was  not  obtained  touching  the  particular 
attempt  at  poisoning ;  but  Lord  Northbrook,  as  Viceroy  of 
India,  found  it  necessary  to  depose  the  Gaikwir,  and  to 
^opoint  another  member  of  the  Barodi  family  to  rule  in 
..s  stead 

BAROMETER,  the  instrument  by  which  the  weight 
•r  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  estimated.  The  barometer 
was  invented  by  Torricelli,  a  pupil  of  Galileo,  in  ;  343.  It 
had  shortly  before  been  found,  in  attempting  to  raise  water 
from  a  very  deep  well  near  Florence,  that,  in  spite  of  all 
the  pains  taken  in  fitting  the  piston  and  valves,  the  water 
could  by  no  effort  bo  made  to  rise  higher  in  the  pump 
than  about  32  feet.  This  remarkable  phenomenon  Tor- 
ricelli accounted  for  by  attributing  pressure  to  the  air. 
fie  reasoned  that  water  will  rise  in  a  vacuum  only  to  a 
certain  height,  so  that  the  downward  pressure  or  weight  of 


the  column  of  water  will  just  balance  the  pressure  of  the- 
atmosphere ;  and  he  further  argued  that  if  a  fluid  heavier 
than  water  be  used  it  will  not  rise  so  high  in  the  tube  as 
the  water.  To  prove  this,  he  selected  a  glass  tube  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  4  feet  long,  and  her- 
metically sealed  one  of  its  ends  ;  he  then  filled  it  with 
mercury  and,  applying  his  finger  to  the  open  end,  inverted 
it  in  a  basin  containing  mercury.  The  mercury  instantly 
sank  to  nearly  30  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  mercury 
in  the  basin,  learing  in  the  top  of  the  tube  an  appareat 
vacuum,  which  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  most  perf'.-ct  that  can 
yet  bo  produced,  and  is  called  after  this  great  experimenter, 
the  Torricellian  vacuum.  He  next  converted  the  mercurial 
Column  into  a  form  suited  for  observation  by  bending  the 
lower  end  of  the  tube,  thus  constructing  what  has  since  beei» 
called  the  siphon  barometer.  The  fundamental  principle 
of  the  barometer  cannot  be  better  illustrated  than  by  his 
experiment  (see  fig.  2).  In  truth,  a  scale  is  all  that  is  re- 
quired to  render  this  simple  apparatus  a  perfect  barometer. 

The  heights  of  the  columns  of  two  fluids  in  equilibrium 
aro  inversely  as  their  specific  gravities ;  and  as  mercury  is 
10,784  times  heavier  than  air,  the  height  of  the  atmosphere 
would  be  10,784  times  30  inches,  or  nearly  five  miles,  if  it 
were  composed  of  layers  equally  dense  throughout.  But 
since  air  becomes  less  dense  as  we  ascend,  owing  to  its 
great  elasticity  and  the  diminished  pressure,  the  real  height 
of  the  atmosphere  is  very  much  greater.  From  observations 
of  luminous  meteors,  it  has  been  inferred  that  the  height 
is  at  least  120  miles,  and  that,  in  an  extremely  attenuated 
fcrm,  it  may  even  considerably  exceed  200  miles. 

Various  Huids  might  be  used  in  constructing  barometers.  FluiJu 
If  water  were  used,  the  barometric  column  would  be  about  35  ased- 
feet  long.  The  advantages,  however,  which  water  haromtters 
might  be  supposed  to  possess  in  showing  changes  of  atmo- 
spheric pressure  on  a  large  scale,  are  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  a  serious  objection.  The  space  in  the  tube 
above  the  column  of  water  is  far  froiji  being  a  vacuum, 
being  filled  with  aqueous  vapour,  which  presses  on  the 
column  with  a  force  varying  with  the  temperature.  At  a 
temperature  of  32°  Fabr.  the  column  would  be  depressed 
half  an  inch,  and  at  75°  a  foot.  Since  in  mercurial  baro- 
meters the  space  at  the  top  of  the  column  is  one  of  the 
most  perfect  vacuums  that  can  be  produced,  the  best  fluid 
for  the  construction  of  barometers  is  mercury.  It  is  there- 
fore the  only  fluid  used  where  scientific  accuracy  is  aimed 
at.  Pure  mercury  must  be  used  m  filling  the  tubes  of 
barometers  ;  because  if  it  be  impure,  the  density  will  not 
be  that  of  mercury,  and,  consequently,  the  length  of  the 
columns  will  not  be  the  same  as  that  of  a  column  composed 
of  pure  mercury  alone.  Even  should  the  density  happen 
to  be  the  same  as  that  of  pure  mercury  the  impurities 
would  soon  appear,  impeding  the  action  of  the  fluid  as  it 
rises  and  falls,  and  thus  rendering  the  instrument  unfit  for 
accurate  observation.  In  filling  barometer  tnbes,  air  and 
moisture  get  mixed  with  the  mercury,  and  must  be  expelled 
by  boiling  the  mercury  in  the  lube.  It  being  essential 
that  the  mercury  be  quite  freed  from  air  and  moisture,  nr> 
barometer  should  be  used  till  it  has  been  well  ascertained 
that  this  has  been  done.  Some  time  after  the  instrument 
has  been  hung  in  an  observing  position,  let  it  be  inclined 
gently  and  with  care,  so  that  the  mercury  m.iy  strike 
against  the  top  of  the  glass  tube  ;  if  there  is  no  air  within, 
a  sharp  metallic  click  will  be  heard,  but  if  the  sound  is 
dull,  the  air  and  moisture  have  not  been  entirely  expelled. 
If  the  mercurj'  should  appear  at  any  time  to  adhere  some- 
what to  the  tube  and  the  convex  surface  assume  a  more 
flattened  form,  it  may  be  concluded  that  air  or  moisture 
is  present.  If  on  examining  the  mercury  with  a  lens 
minut«  bubbles  aro  visible,  air  is  present.  In  all  these- 
cases  the  instrument  must  be  rccliied. 


382 


BAROMETER 


The  bast  barometers  are  usu*lly  fitted  with  an  air-trap, 
originally  proposed  by  Gay-Lussac  for  the  purpose  of 
arresting  the  ascent  to  the  Torricellian  vacuum  of  any  air 
that  may  have  found  its  way  into  the  column  by  the 
cistern.  The  air-trap  is  fitted  into  the  tube  somewhere 
between  tlie  scale  and  the  c-istern.  Barometers  famished 
with  an  air-trap  can  be  conveyed  from  place  to  place  ^vith 
more  safety,  and  they  remain  longer  in  good  working  order. 

There  are  two  classes  of  barometers — Siplion  Barometers 
■and  Cistern  Barometers.  The  Siphon  Barovieter  (fig.  1) 
consists  of  a  tube  bent  in  the  form  of  a  siphon,  and  is  of 
the  same  diameter  throughout.  A  graduated  scale  passes 
along  the  whole  length  of  the  tube,  and  the  height  of  the 
barometer  is  ascertained  by  taliing  the  difference  of  the 
readings  of  the  upper  and  lower  limbs  respectively.  This 
instrument  may  aUo  be  read  by  ^, 

bringing  the  zero-point  of  the 
graduated  scale  to  the  level  of 
the  surface  of  the  lower  limb  by 
means  of  a  screw,  and  reading 
off  the  height  at  once  from  the 
surface  of  the  upper  limb.  This 
barometer  requiresno  correction 
for  errors  of  capillarity  or  ca])a- 
city.  Since,  however,  impurities 
are  contracted  by  the  mercury  in 
the  lower  limb,  which  is  usually 
in  open  contact  w-ilh  the  air,  the 
satisfactory  working  of  the  instru- 
ment comes  soon  to  be  seriously 
interfered  with. 

Fig.  2.  shows  the  Cisttrn  Baro- 
meter in  its  essential  and  its 
simplest  form.  This  barometer 
is  subject  to  two  kinds  of  error, 
the  one  arising  from  capillarity, 
and  the  other  from  changes  in 
the  level  of  the  surface  of  the 
cistern  as  the  mercury  rises  and  falls  in  the  tube,  the  latter 
being  technically  called  the  error  of  cajificity.  If  a  glass  tube 
of  small  bore  be  plunged  into  a  vessel  containing  mercury, 
it  will  be  observed  that  the  level  of  the  mercury  in  the  tube 
is  not  in  the  line  of  that  of  the  mercury  in  the  vessel,  hut 
somewhat  below  it,  and  that  the  surface  is  convex.  The 
capillary  depression  is  inversely  proportional  to  the 
diameter  of  the  tube.  If  the  diameter  of  the  tube  be  O'l 
inch,  the  capillary  depression  of  mercury  in  boiled  tubes, 
or  error  of  capiHarili/,  is  0-070  inch  ;  if  02  inch,  the 
error  is  0029  inch  ;  if  03  inch,  it  is  0014  inch  ;  and  if 
0-5  inch,  it  is  only  0003  inch.  Since  capillarity  depresses 
the  height  of  the  column,  cistern  barometers  require  an 
addition  to  be  made  to  the  ob.servod  height,  in  order  to 
give  the  true  pressure,  the  amount  depending,  of  course,  on 
the  diameter  ot  the  tube. 

The  error  of  capacity  arises  in  this  way.  The  height  of 
the  barometer  is  the  perpendicular  distance  between  the 
surface  of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern  and  the  upper  surface 
of  the  mercurial  coUinin.  Now,  when  the  barometer  falls 
from  30  to  29  inches,  an  inch  of-  mercury  must  flow  out 
of  the  tube  and  pass  into  the  cistern,  thus  raising  the 
cistern  level  j  and,  on  the  other  hand,  when  the  baiomctor 
rises,  mercury  must  flow  out  of  the  cistern  into  the  tube, 
thus  lowering  the  level  of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern.  Since 
the  scales  of  barometers  are  usually  engraved  on  their  brass 
oases,  which  are  fixed  (and,  conscijucntly,  the  zero-point 
from  which  the  scale  is  graduated  is  also  fixed),  it  fol- 
lows that,  from  the  incessant  changes  in  the  level  of  the 
cistern,  the  readings  would  bo  sometimes  too  high  and 
sometimes  too  low,  if  no  provision  were  made  agoanat  this 
1    '".f  of  error. 


Fic.  1  — 

Siphon 

Barometer. 


A  simple  way  of  oorrecling  the  error  of  capacity  is — 
to  ascertain  (Ij  the  neutral  point  of  the  instrument,  or  that 
height  at  which  the  zero  of  the  scale  is  exactly  at  ths 
height  of  the  surface  of  the  cistern,  and  (2)  the  rate  ot 
error  as  the  barometer  rises  or  falls  above  this  point,  and 
then  apply  a  correction  proportional  to  this  rate.  In  many 
of  the  barometers  used  on  the  Continent  the  surface  area 
of  the  cistern  is  100  times  greater  than  that  of  the  tube,  in 
which  case  the  error  is  small,  and  can,  besides,  be  easily  cal» 
culated.  This  is  a  good  barometer  for  ordinary  observers, 
inasmuch  as  no  error  arises  in  bringing  the  surface  of  the 
mercury  of  the  ciatern  to  the  zero-point  of  the  scale,  which 
one  requires  to  have  some  skill  as  a  manipulator  and  good 
light  to  do  correctly.  Another  way  of  getting  rid  of  this 
error  is  effected  by  the  Board  of  Trade  Barometer,  con- 
structed originally  by  Adie  of  London.  In  this  barometer 
the  error  of  capillarity  is  allowed  for  in  fixing  the  zero- 
point  of  the  scale,  and  the  error  of  capacity  is  obviated  by 
making  the  scale-inches  not  true  inches,  but  just  so  much 
less  as  exactly  to  counterbalance  the  error  of  capacity. 

But  the  instrument  in  which  the  error  of  capacity  is 
satisfactorily    (indeed,    entirely)   got   rid   of    is   Fortln's  Foriiu's 

Barometer.       Fig.   3   shows   how  this  is  baiouietci 

effected.  The  cistern  is  formed  of  a  glass 
cylinder,  through  which  the  level  of  the 
mercury  may  be  seen.  The  bottom  is 
made  like  a  bag,  of  flexible  leather, 
against  which  a  screw  works.  At  the  top 
of  the  interior  of  the  cistern  is  a  small 
piece  of  ivory,  the  point  of  which  coin- 
cides with  the  zero  of  the  scale.  By 
means  of  the  screw,  which  acts  on  the 
llexible  cistern  bottom,  the  level  of  the 
mercury  can  be  raised  or  depressed  so  as 
to  bring  the  ivory  point  exactly  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern.  In 
some  barometers  the  cistern  is  fixed,  and 
the  ivory  point  is  brought  to  the  level  of 
the  mercury  in  the  cistern  by  raising  or 
depressing  the  scale. 

What  is  called  the  Fitzroy  Barometer 
is  only  a  modified  form  of  the  siphon 
barometer,  with  the  lower  limb  blown 
into  a  moderately-sized  bulb,  resembling 
a  cistern  in  some  respects,  and  thus  giv. 
ing  a  larger  range  to  the  readings  of 
the  upper  limb.  It  is  only  suited  for  jjopular,  not  for 
Ecientilic  jnirposes.  The  common  Wheel  Burometcr,  the  Wheel 
pop\ilar  form  of  the  weather  e/la.^s,  is  also  a  modification  of  baioiuctcr. 
the  siphon  barometer.  A  small  weight,  glass  or  iron, 
floats  on  the  mercury  in  the  lower  limb;  to  this  weight 
a  thread  is  attached,  which  is  led  round  a  horizontal  axis, 
a  small  weight  being  suspended  at  its  free  extremity  to 
keep  it  tight.  The  float  rises  and  falls  with  the  fluctua- 
tions of  the  barometer,  and  a  pointer  fixed  to  a  horizontal 
axis  being  turned  by  this  means  indicates  the  height  of 
the  barometer  by  figures  on  a  dial.  Since  the  mercury 
only  rises  or  falls  in  the  open  end  of  the  siphon  to  tl- 
extent  of  half  the  oscillation,  a  cistern  is  added  to  the  li  ■■ 
of  the  u])per  limb  to  increase  the  amount  of  the  oscillatio.. 
in  the  lower  limb.  This  form  of  the  barometer  is  only 
suited  for  very  rough  piir[)o.';e.i,  since  large  and  uncertain 
errors  arise  from  the  shortening  and  lengthening  of  the 
thread  with  the  varying  dampness  or  dryness  of  the  air, 
and  from  the  friction  of  the  different  p.art§  of  the  mechanism 
of  the  instrument 

Since  in  working  out  the  great  atmospheric  problem 
of  the  force  of  the  wind  in  its  relation  to  the  barometric 
gradient  (i.e.,  the  differences  of  the  pressures  at  dinercn't 
pl.acca,  reduced  to  the  same  lovel)  reading's  from  about  the 


Fit-'roy 

baruiiitttif 


Fia.  3.— Fortius 
Daroiiitier. 


i\ 


BAROMETER 


3Sj 


Jiuiidredlh  of  an  inch  (0  010),  or  cicn  less,  require  to  be  |  portability,  and  correctness.     The  Aneroid  M!.:rom<ter  was  Anc- 


extreme  ' 
will    be 


R 


obiervcd  aud  stated  with,  great  accuracy,  the 
iBip«rlance  of  accurate  seusitive  barometers 
apparent,— instruments  not  only  possessing  a  great  range 
of  scale,  but  a  scale  which  will  truly  indicate  the  real 
atmosphoiic  pressure  at  all  times.  The  two  barometers 
which  best  satisfy  this  requirement  are  King's  Barometer, 
which  has  been  in  use  for  many  years  at  the  Liverpool 
Observatory,  and  llowson's  Barometer,  i'ig.  4  shows  the 
essential  and  peculiar  parts  of  Howson's  baro- 
meter. A  is  the  barometer  tube,  which  is  of 
large  diameter,  and  longer  than  ordinary  in  order 
to  admit  of  a  greater  length  of  range.  B  is  a 
movable  cylindrical  cistern,  having  attached  to  its 
bottom  a  long  hollow  tube  or  stalk  c,  hermetically 
sealed,  springing  to  a  height  of  about  28  inches 
above  the  fixed  level  of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern. 
This  stalk  terminates  a  little  below  the  upper 
level  of  the  mercury,  and  its  upper  end  is  thus 
exposed  to  no  more  downward  pressure  than 
that  of  the  mercury  above  it ;  consequently, 
there  is  an  excess  of  upward  pressure  of  the  air 
which  tends  to  raise  the  cistern,  ^^'hen  the  ex- 
cess of  upward  pressure  is  exactly  balanced  by 
the  weight  of  the  cistern  with  its  stalk  and  con- 
tained mercury  up  to  b,  an  equilibrium  will  be 
established,  which  will  keep  the  apparatus  sta- 
tionary or  hanging  in  suspension.  If  now  the 
atmospheric  pressure  acting  on  the  cistern  be 
increased,  and  if  the  thickness  of  the  glass  tube 
A  be  supposed  to  be  nothing,  the  cistern  would 
continue  to  ascend  to  an  indefinite  extent,  since 
there  is  nothing  to  stop  it.  But  as  the  glass  is  a 
substance  of  some  thickness,  mercury  is  displaced 
by  the  glass  as  it  is  plunged  further  into  the  cis- 
tern ;  and  as  it  thus  ofifers  a  resistance  to  the 
iscent  of  the  cistern,  the  cistern  will  come  to  rest  llowson's 
when  the  quantity  of  mercury  displaced  is  equi-  Barometer 
valent  to  the  increase  of  pressure.  The  extent  of  range 
which  this  barometer  possesses  over  the  ordinary  baro- 
meter is  determined  by  the  ratio  of  the  internal  area  of 
the  tube  A  to  that  of  the  annulus  of  glass  which  bounds 
it, — the  range  increasing  as  the  internal  area  is  increased, 
or  as  the  thickness  of  the  glass  is  diminished. 

The  liability  of  the  barometer  to  be  broken  in  carriage  is 
great.  This  risk  is  considerably  lessened  in  the  Board  of 
Trade  Barometer,  which  has  the  tube  very  much  reduced 
in  diameter  for  a  part  of  its  length,  breakage  from 
"pumping"  being  so  much  lessened  thereby  that  the 
instrument  may  be  sent  as  a  parcel  by  rail,  iJf  only  very 
ordinary  care  be  taken  in  the  carriage.  This  is  essentially 
the  principle  of  the  Marine  Barometer,  which,  however,  lias 
the  tube  still  more  contracted.  For  rougher  modes  of 
transit  an  ingeniously  constructed  iron  barometer  has  been 
invented  by  Mr  T.  Stevenson,  C.E 

The  synipiezometer  was  invented  by  Adie  of  Edinburgh, 
it  consists  of  a  glass  tube,  with  a  small  chamber  at  the 
top  and  an  opert  cistern  below.  The  upper  part  of  the 
tube  is  filled  with  air,  and  the  lower  part  and  cistern  with 
glycerine.  When  atmospheric  pressure  is  increased,  the 
air  is  compressed  by  the  rising  of  the  fluid ;  but  when  it 
is  diminished  the  fluid  falb,  and  the  contained  air  expands. 
To  correct  for  the  error  arising  from  the  increased  pressure 
of  the  contained  air  when  its  temperature  varies,  a 
thermometer  and  sliding-scale  are  added,  so  that  the 
instrument  may  be  adjusted  to  the  temperature  at  each 
observation.  It  is  a  sensitive  instrument,  and  well  suited 
for  rough  purposes  at  sea  and  for  travelling,  but  not  for 
c.Tact  observation.  It  has  been  for  some  time  superseded 
liylho    Aneroid,   which   far    exceeds    it    in'  handincsa, 


Fro.  4.— 


invented  by  Vidi,  and  patented  in  England  in  131-t.  Its  ^-^ 
action  depends  on  the  effect  produced  by  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  on  a  circular  metallic  chamber  partially 
exhausted  of  air  and  hermetically  sealed.  Fig.  5  represents 
the  internal  construction,  as  seen  when  the  face  is  removed, 
but  with  the  hand  still  attached,  a  is  a  flat  circular 
metallic  box,  having  its  upper  and  under  surfaces  corrugated 
in  concentric  circles.  This  box  or  chamber  being  partially 
exhausted  of  air,  through  the  short  tube  b,  wliich  is  sub- 
sequently made  air-tight  by  soldering,  constitutes  a  spring, 
which  is  affected  by  every  variation  of  pressure  in  the 
external  atmosphere,  the  corrugations  on  its  surface  increas- 
ing its  elasticity.  At  the  centre  of  the  upper  "surface  of 
the  exhausted  chamber  there  is  a  solid  cylindrical  projection 
X,  to  the  top  of  which  the  principal  lever  ede  is  attached, 
as  shown  in  the  drawing.  This  lever  rests  partly  on  a 
spiral  spring  at  d ;  it  is  also  supported  by  two  vertical 
pins,  with  perfect  freedom  of  motion.  The  end  e  of  the 
lever  is  attached  to  a  second  or  small  lever/,  from  which 
a  chain  g  extends  to  k,  where  it  works  on  a  drum  attached 
to  the  axis  of  the  hand,  connected  with  a  hair  spring  at  h, 
changing  the  motion  from  vertical  to  horizontal,  and 
regulating  the  hand,  the  attachments  of  which  are  made  to 


Fia.  5. — Aneroid  Barometer. 

the  metallic  plate  i.  The  motion  originates  in  the  comi- 
gated  elastic  box  a,  the  surface  of  which  is  depressed  or 
elevated  as  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  is  increased  or 
diminished,  and  this  motion  is  communicated  through  the 
levers  to  the  axis  of  the  hand  at  A.  The  spiral  spring  on 
which  the  lever  rests  at  d  is  intended  to  compensate  for 
the  effects  of  alterations  of  temperature.  The  actual 
movement  at  the  centre  of  the  exhausted  box,  from  whence 
the  indications  emanate,  is  very  slight,  but  by  the  action 
of  the  levers  this  is  multiplied  GD7  times  at  the  point  of 
the  hand,  so  that  a  movement  of  the  220th  part  of  an  inch 
in  -the  box  carries  the  point  of  the  hand  through  three 
inches  on  the  dial.  The  eflect  of  this  combination  is  to 
multiply  the  smallest  degrees  of  atmospheric  pressure,  so 
as  to  render  them  sensible  on  the  index. 

The  instrument  requires,  however,  to  be  rCf  eatcilly  com- 
pared with  a  mercurial  barometer,  being  liable  to  changes 
from  the  elasticity  of  the  brass  chamber  changing,  or  from 
changes  in  the  system  of  levers  which  work  the  pointer. 
Though  aneroids  are  constructed  showing  great  accuracy  in 
their  indications,  yet  none  can  lay  any  claim  to  the  exact- 
ness of  mercurial  barometers.  The  mechanism  is  liable  to 
get  fouled  and  otherwise  go  out  of  order,  so  that  they  may 
change  0300  inch  in  a  few  weeks,  or  even  indicate  pressure 
so  inaccurately  and  so  irregularly  that  no  confidence  can  be, 
placed  in  them  for  even  a  few  days,  if  the  means  of  com- 
paring them  with  a  mercurial  barometer  be  not  at  hand. 


384 


BAROMETER 


Belr-iegia-         Of  the  selfTegisteriiig  barometers,  the  best  are  those  which 
tering  accomi'lish  this  object  by  photography.     This  is  done  by 

biirom6ter3.  concentrating  the  rays  of  a  gas  flame  by  means  of  a  lens, 
so  that  they  strike  the  top  of  the  mercurial  column.  A 
sheet  of  prepared  paper  is  attached  to  a  frame  placed 
behiad  a  screen,  with  a  narrow  vertical  slit  in  the  line  of 
the  rays.  The  mercury  being  opaque  throws  a  part  of  the 
paper  in  the  shade,  while  above  the  mercury  the  rays  from." 
tho  flame  pass  unobsitructed  to  the  paper.  The  paper 
being  carried  steadily  round  on  a  drum  at  a  given  rate  per 
hour,  the  height  of  the  column  of  mercury  is  photographed 
continuously  on  the  paper.  From  the  photograph  the 
height  of  the  barometer  at  any  instant  may  bo  taken. 
King's,  ffardi/s,  Hough's,  Hipp's,  and  ThoreWs  self-register- 
ing barometers  may  also  be  referred  to  as  giving  continuous 
records  of  the  pressure.  In  all  continuously  registering 
barometers,  however,  it  is  necessary,  as  a  check,  to  make 
eye-observations  with  a  mercury  standard  barometer  hang- 
ing near  the  registering  barometer  from  four  to  eight  times 
daily. 
M«tcriaJs.  In  constructing  the  best  barometers  three  materials  are 
employed,  viz. : — (1)  brass,  for  the  case,  on  which  the  scale 
is  engraved  ;  (2)  glass,  for  the  tube  containing  the  mercury  ; 
and  (3)  the  mercury  itself.  Brass  is  the  best  material  for 
thB  case  and  scale,  inasmuch  as  its  co-e93cient  of  expansion 
is  well  known,  and  is  practically  the  same  though  the, 
alloy  be  not  in  all  cases  exactly  alike.  It  is  evident  that 
if  the  co-eflicient  of  expansion  of  mercury  and  brass  were 
the  same,  the  height  of  the  mercury  as  indicated  by  the 
brass  scale  would  be  the  true  height  of  the  mercurial 
column.  But  this  is  not  the  case,  the  co-eflicient  of  expan- 
sion for  mercury  being  considerably  greater  than  that  for 
brass.  The  result  is  that  if  a  barometer  stand  at  30  inches 
when  the  temperature  of  the  whole  instrument,  mercury 
and  brass,  is  32°,  it  will  no  longer  stand  at  30  inches  if  the 
temperature  be  raised  to  69°;  in  fact,  it  wiU  then  stand  at 
SO'l  inches.  This  increase  in  the  height  of  the  column  by 
the  tenth  of  an  inch  b  not  due  to  any  increase  of  pressure, 
but  altogether  to  the  greater  expansion  of  the  mercury  at 
the  higher  temperature,  as  compared  with  the  expansion 
of  the  brass  case  with  the  engraved  scale  by  which  the 
height  is  measured.  In  order,  therefore,  to  compare 
with  each  other  with  exactness  barometric  observations 
made  at  different  temperatures,  it  is  necessary  to  reduce 
them  to  the  heights  at  which  they  would  stand  at  some 
uniform  temperature.  Tho  temperature  to  which  such  ob- 
servations are  now  almost  everywhere  reduced  is  32°  Fahr. 
The  following  is  Schumacher's  formula  for  computing 
the  corrections  for  barometers,  whose  heights  are  noted  in 
English  inches,  for  temperature  <,  according  to  Fahrenheit's 
•cale : — 

m(<-32°)-if(-62°) 
'=-"■     l-Hm((-32°) 
where  h  =  height  of  barometer, 

TO  =  expansion  of  Tncrcury  for  1°  Fahr.  =  O'COOlOOl, 
s  =  expansion  of  brass  fOr  1°  Fahr.  =  0-00001041. 
The  standard  temperature  of  tho  English  yard  being  G2° 
and  not  32°,  it  will  be  found  in  working  out  the  correc- 
tions from  the  above  formula  that  the  temperature  of  no 
correction  b  not  32°  but  28°'5.  If  the  scale  bo  engraved 
on  the  gla.ss  tube,  or  if  the  instrument  be  furni'shed  with 
a  glass  scale  or  with  a  wooden  scale,  different  corrections 
are  required.  These  may  be  worked  'out  from  the  above 
formula  by  substituting  for  the  co-efficient  of  the  expansion 
of  brass  that  of  glass  which  is  assumed  to  be  000000498, 
or  that  of  wood,  which  is  assumed  to  be  0.  Wood,  how- 
ev'cr,  should  not  be  used,  its  expansion  with  temperature 
being  unsteady,  as  well  as  uncertain. 

If  the  brass  scale  be  attached  to  a  wooden  frame  and  be 
free  to  move  up  and  down  the  frame,  as  is  the  case  with 


many  siphon  barometers,  the  corrections  for  brass  scales 
are  to  be  used,  since  the  zero-point  of  the  scale  is  brought 
to  the  level  of  the  lower  limb ;  but  if  the  brass  scale  be 
fixed  to  a  wooden  frame,  the  corrections  for  brass  scales 
are  only  applicable  provided  the  zero  of  the  scale  be  lixed 
at  (or  nearly  at)  the  zero  line  of  the  column,  and  be  free  to 
expand  upwards.  In  siphon  barometers,  with  which  an 
observation  is  made  from  two  readings  on  the  scale,  the 
scale  must  be  free  to  expand  in  one  direction.  Again,  if 
only  the  upper  part  of  the  scale,  say  from  27  to  31  inches, 
be  screwed  to  a  wooden  frame,  it  is  evident  that  not  the 
corrections  for  brass  scales,  but  those  for  wooden  scales 
must  be  used.  No  account  needs  to  be  taken  of  tho 
expansion  of  the  glass  tube  containing  the  mercury,  it 
being  evident  that  no  correction  for,  this  expansion  is 
required  in  the  case  of  any  barometer  the  height  of  which 
is  measured  from  the  surface  of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern. 

In  fixing  a  barometer  for  observation,  it  is  indispens-  Position  at 
able  that  it  be  hung'  in  a  perpendicular  position,  seeing  baromcier> 
that  it  is  the  perpeiidicxdar  distance  of  the  surface  of  the 
mercury  in  the  cistern  and  that  of  the-  top  of  the  column 
which  is  the  true  height  of  the  barometer.  Hence  it  is 
desirable  that  the  barometer  swing  in  position  ;  or  if  this 
■be  attended  with  risk  or  inconvenience,  it  must  be  seen 
that  it  be  clamped  or  permanently  fixed  in  a  position 
exactly  vertical  The  surface  of  the  mercurial  column  ia 
convex,  and  in  noting  the  height  of  the  barometer,  it  is 
not  the  chord  of  the  curve, — an  error  not  unfrequently 
made, — but  its  tangent  which  is  taken.  This  is  done  by 
setting  the  straight  lower  edge  of  the  vernier,  an  appendage 
with  which  the  barometer  is  furnished,  as  a  tangent  to  the 
curve.  The  vernier  is  made  to  slide  up  and  down  the 
scale,  and  by  it  the  height  -of  the  barometer  may  be  read 
true  to  0-002  or  even  to  0-001  inch.     See  Vernier. 

In  hanging  a  barometer  the  following  points  should  be 
attended  to  : — (1),  That  it  be  hung  so  that  the  mercurial 
column  be  quite  perpendicular ;  (2),  that  the  scale  be  about 
5  feet  high,  for  facility  of  reading ;  (3),  that  the  whole 
instrument,  particularly  the  scale  and  the  cistern,  be  hung 
in  a  good  light ;  and  (4),  that  it  be  hung  in  a  position  in 
which  it  will  be  exposed  to  as  little  fluctuation  of  tempera- 
ture as  possible.  A  wall  heated  by  a  flue,  and  positions 
which  expose  the  instrument  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  or  to 
that  of  a  fire,  are  very  objectionable.  It  is  to  be  kept  in 
mind  that  no  barometric  observation  can  be  regarded  as 
good  unless  the  attached  thermometer  indicates  a  temperature 
differing  from  that  of  the  whole  instrument  not  more  than 
a  degree.  For  every  degree  of  temperature  tho  Attached 
thermometer  differs  from  the  barometer,  the  observation 
will  be  faulty  to  the  extent  of  about  0-003  inch,  which  in 
discussions  of  diurnal  range,  barometric  gradients,  lunar 
range,  and  many  other  questions,  is  a  serious  amount. 

Before  being  used,  barometers  should  be  thoroughly 
examined  as  to  the  state  of  the  mercury,  the  size  of  cistern  (so 
as  to  admit  of  low  readings),  and  their  agreement  with  some 
known  standard  instrument  at  different  points  of  the  scale. 
The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  not  expressed  by  the 
weight  of  the  mercury  sustained  in  the  tube  by  it,  but 
by  the  perpendicular  height  of  tho  column.  Thus,  when 
tho  height  of  tho  column  is  30  inches,  it  is  not  said  that 
tho  atmospheric  pressure  is  14-7  lb  on  the  square  inch,  or 
the  weight  of  the  mercury  filling  a  tube  at  that  height 
whoso  transverse  section  equals  a  square  inch,  but  that  it 
is  30  inches,  meaning  that  the  pressure  will  sustain  o 
column  of  mercury  of  that  height. 

Tho  height   of  the  barometer  is  expressed  in  English  B.irotnetiii 
inches  in   England  and  America.     In    Franco  and   most  rcaiiiinjt 
European  countries,  tho  height  is  given  in  millimetre!!, 
a  millimiitre  bcinE5  the  thousandth  part  of  a  mitre,  which 
equals  39-37079  English  inches.    Up  to.l8(59-the  barometer 


B  A  R  O  ]M  E  T  E  11 


385 


wns  giver,  in  half-lines  in  Russia,  which,  equalling  the 
twentieth  of  an  English  inch,  were  readily  reduced  to 
English  inches  by  dividing  by  20.  The  metric  barometric 
•cale  13  now  used  in  Russia.  In  a  few  countries  OQ  the 
Continent  the  French  or  Paris  line,  equalling  0  088814 
inch,  still  continues  to  be  used.  Probably  millimetre  and 
English  inch  scales  will  soon  be  exclusively  in  use.  The 
English  measure  of  length  being  a  standard  at  62°  Fahr  , 
the  old  French  measure  at  61°  2,  and  the  metric  scale  at 
32°,  it  is  necessary,  before  comparing  observations  mide 
with  the  three  barometers,  to  reduce  thera  to  the  same 
temperature,  so  as  to  neutralize  the  inequabtiea  arising  from 
the  expansion  of  the  scales  by  heat. 

The  barometer  is  a  valuable  instrument  as  an  indicator 
of  coming  weather,  provided  its  rcaJiuga  be  interpreted 
with  intelligenca  High  pressures  generally  attend  tine 
weather,  but  they  not  unfrequently  accompany  wet  stormy 
weather ;  on  the  other  hand,  low  pressures,  which  usually 
occur  with  wet  and  stormy  weather,  not  unfrequently  ac- 
company fine  mild  weather,  particularly  in  winter  and  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Great  Britain.  The  truth  is,  the 
barometer  merely  indicates  atmospheric  pressure  directly, 
whilst  it  indicates  weather  only  inferentially  The  chief 
points  to  be  attended  to  are  its  fluctuations  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  wind  and  the  state  of  the  aky,  but  above 
all,  the  readings  of  the  barometer  as  compared  with  those 
at  neighbouring  places,  since  it  is  difference  of  firessure, 
or  the  amount  of  the  barometric  gradient,  which  deter- 
mines the  strength  of  the  wind  and  the  weather  generally 

Barometrical  Measurement}  of  Heights. 

The  decisive  experiment  by  which  Pascal  established 
Ihe  reality  of  atmospheric  pressure  suggested  to  him 
the  method  of  measuring  heights 
by  means  of  the  barometer  The 
tirst  attempts  to  effect  this  were 
necessarily  rude  and  inaccurate, 
tioce  they  went  on  the  assumption 
that  the  lower  mass  of  air  is  of 
uuitbrm  density.  The  discovery, 
however,  of  the  actual  relation  sub- 
sisting between  the  density  of  air  and 
its  elasticity  by  Bi^yle  in  England, 
md  about  the  same  time  by  Mariotte 
in  France,  laid  a  sure  foundation  for 
this  branch  of  atmospheric  physics 
— the  relation  being  that,  at  the  same 
temperature,  the  pressure  of  a  gas  is 
exactly  proportional  to  its  density 

The  truth  of  this  law  may  be  shov/n  by  the  following 
experiment.  Take  a  glass  tube,  of  equal  bore  throughout, 
:losed  at  one  end,  and  bent  in  the  form  of  a  siphon  (fig. 
1),  and  let  us  suppose  that  it  contains  in  the  closed  limb 
i  portion  of  air  AB,  shut  off  from  the  atmosphere  by 
mercury  filling  the  lower  portion  of  the  tube,  and  that  the 
enclosed  portion  of  air  exists  at  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the 
r.tmosphere  or  30  inches.  In  this  case  the  mercury  in  each 
l.rnb,  being  subject  to  the  same  pressure,  will  stand  at  the 
Fime  level.  If  we  now  pour  mercury  into  the  long  limb 
;fig  2)  till  the  level  in  this  limb  stands  30  inches  above 
Ibe  level  in  the  closed  limb,  the  additional  mercury  will  tend 
to  compress  the  air  in  AB'  with  a  pressure  equal  to  that 
rxcrted  by  a  column  of  30  inches  of  mercury.  In  the 
latter  case,  therefore,  the  air  is  subjected  ti.  a  pressure  of 
two  atmospheres,  or  CO  inches,  while  inihe  former  it  was 
only  subjected  to  a  pressure  of  one  atmosphere  or  30  inchea. 
It  will  be  found  that  the  space  A'B'  under  the  prcpsure 
of  two  almoBphcrci  is  only  half  the  space  AB  where  the 
pressure  is  only  one  atmosphere  If  mercury  had  been 
3— i5 


Fig.  2. 


filled  in  till  the  difference  of  level  of  the  mercury  in  the 
two  limbs  was  CO  inches,  or  a  pressure  of  three  atmospheres, 
the  space  occupied  by  the  air  iu  the  closed  bmb  would  have 
been  only  a  third  of  the  original  space  when  the  pressure 
was  osly  that  of  one  atmosphere.  Generally,  Boyle's  law 
or  Mariotte's  law  is  this  ; — The  volume  of  a  gas  varies 
inversely  as  the  pressure.  Since  the  same  quantity  of  air 
has  been  experimented  with,  it  follows  that  the  density  is 
doubled  with  a  pressure  of  two  atmospheres,  and  trebled 
with  that  of  three,  and  hence  the  pressure  of  a  gas  ie 
proportional  to  its  density. 

This  law,  however,  only  holds  provided  the  temperature 
is  rho  same.  The  familiar  illustration  of  a  bladder, 
partially  filled  with  air,  expanding  on  being  placed  near  a 
fire,  shows  that  if  the  pressure  remains  the  same, — thei 
pressure  in  this  case  being  that  of  the  atmosphere, — the 
gas  will  occujiy  a  larger  space  if  its  temperature  be  raised. 
If  the  temperature  be  increased  and  the  air  be  confined  so 
as  to  occupy  the  same  space,  the  pressure  will  be  increased. 

The  relation  between  the  temperature  and  pressure  of 
gases  was  first  discovered  by  Gay-Lussae;  and  more  recently 
our  knowledge  of  this  branch  of  the  subject  has  been  greatly 
enlarged  by  the  beautiful  and  accurate  experiments  of 
Regnault.  From  those  experiments  it  has  been  concluded 
that  the  co-efEcient  which  denotes  increase  of  elasticity  foi 
1°  Fahr.  of  air  whose  volume  is  constant  equals  '002036  : 
and  that  the  co-eiBcient-  which  denotes  increase  of  volume 
for  1°  Fahr.  of  air  whose  elasticity  is  constant  equals 
002039.  It  may  further  be  added  that  the  coefficient  of' 
expansion  for  carbonic  acid  gas,  hydrogen,  and  all  other 
gases,  is  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same. 

When  a  fluid  is  allowed  to  evaporate  in  the  exhausted 
receiver  of  an  air-pump,  vapour  rises  from  it  until  its 
pressure  reaches  a  certain  point,  after  which  all  further 
evaporation  is  arrested.  This  point  depends  on  the  nature 
of  the  fluid  itself  and  on  the  temperature,  and  it  indicates 
the  greatest  vapour  pressure  possible  for  the  fluid  at  the 
particular  temperature.  Regnai'lt  has  shown  th«*amount  of 
the  vapour  pressure  of  wateratdifferent  temperat'ures,  thus — 


Temp. 
Fuhr. 

6 

Max  Prcssun 

of  Vapour. 

Irich. 

0:0U 

10 

0068 

20 

•J  0103 

30 

0  165 

40 

C  248 

Temp. 

Max   PicsJ 

Fa^ir 

of  Vapou 

Inch. 

ftO 

0  301 

60 

•0518 

70 

0733 

80 

]  023 

90 

I'-^IO 

If  gases  of  different  densities  be  put  into  the  same  vessel 
it  is  found  that  they  do  not  arrange  themselves  according 
to  their  densities,  but  are  ultimately  diffused  through  each 
other  in  the  most  intimate  manner.  Each  gas  tends  to 
diffuse  itself  as  in  a  vacuum,  the  effect  of  the  presence  of 
other  gases  being  merely  to  retard  the  process  of  their 
mutual  diffusion.  As  regards  the  atmosphere,  evaporation 
goes  on  until  the  maximum  vapour  pressure  for  the  tem- 
perature has  been  attained,  at  which  point  the  air  is  said 
to  be  saturated,  and  whilst  the  temperature  remains  the 
same  further  evaporation  is  arrested  Thus,  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  50°  evaporation  goes  on  until  the  vapour  pressure 
reaches  0361  inch,  but  if  the  temperature  were  raised  to 
60°  the  process  of  evaporation  would  be  renewed,  and  go  on 
till  the  vapour  pressure  rose  to  0  518  inch.  If  at  a  vapour 
pressure  of  0  518  inch  the  temperature  were  to  fall  from 
60°  to  50°,  the  air  would  no  longer  be  capable  of  retaining 
the  whole  of  the  aqueous  vapour  in  suspension,  but  the 
surplus  part  would  bo  condensed  and  fall  aa  rain.  In  the 
change  from  the  aeriform  to  the  liquid  state  a  quantity 
of  latent  heat  is  given  out.  The  yet  uncertain  effect  of 
these  changes,  particularly  the  change  of  form  from  the 
aeriform  to  the  liquid  state,  on  the  pressure,  temper.iturc, 
and  raovemcnta  of  the  air,  renders  it  peculiarly  desirable 
that   baromctcric   observations  for   the   det'^rmi nation   of 


380 


B  A  R  0  I\I  E  T  E  R 


aeights  shoiiTJ  not  be  made  when  clouds  are  forming  or 
ram  is  falling 

Dalton  has  shown '  tliat  air  charged  with  vapour  is 
specifically  lighter  than  when  it  wants  the  vapour ;  in  other 
words,  the  more  vapour  any  given  quantity  of  air  has  in 
it  the  less  is  its  specific  gravity  ;  and  Sir  VVilkam  Thomson 
lias  shown '  that  the  condensation  of  vapour  in  ascending 
currents  of  air  is  the  cuief  cause  of  the  tooliog  effect  being 
60  much  less  than  that  which  would  be  experienced  by  dry 
ftir  From  these  ascertained  effects  of  aqueous  v;ipour  m 
modifying  the  pressure  and  temperature  of  the  atmosphere, 
the  importance  in  the  barometric'  measurement  of  heights 
of  full  and  accurate  observatioris  of  the  hygrometry  of  the 
atmospljere  and  of  the  weather  will  be  cpparent. 

Since  the  equihbnum  of  the  vapour  atmosphere  is  being 
constantly  disturbed  by  every  instance  of  condensation,  by 
the  ceaseless  process  of  evaporation,  and  by  every  change 
of  temperature,  and  riiice  the  presence  of  oxygen  and 
Ditrogeu  greatly  obstructs  t'he  fiee  diffusion  of  the  aqueous 
vapours,  it  follows  '.hat  Dalton's  law  of  the  independent 
pressure  of  the  va;/Our  and  the  dry  air  does  not  absolutely 
hold  good.  From  the  'constant  effort  of  the  vapour  to 
attain  to  a  state  of  equilibrium  there  is,  however,  a  con- 
tinual tendency  to  approach  this  state.  Since  the  equal 
■diffusion  of  the  dry  air  aj^d  the  vapour  is  never  reached, 
observations  can  only  indicate  local  humidity,  and  therefore 
as  regards  any  considerable  stratum  of  air  can  only  be 
regarded  as  approximate.  Though  particular  observations 
may  often  indicate  a  humidity  wide  of  the  marl?,  yet  in 
long  averages  a  close  approximation  is  reached,  except  in 
confined  localities  which  are  exceptionally  damp  or  dry. 
Hence  in  observations  for  the  determination  of  heights,  the 
results  of  a  long-continued  series  of  observations  should  be 
employed,  and  those  hours  should  be  chosen  whose  mean 
is  near  the  daily  mean. 

The  most  recent  results  arrived  at  by  Regnault  are  the 
bestj  but  It  IS  to  be  regretted  that  the  whole  subject  of  the 
hygrometry,  both  as  regard^  the  methods  of  observation  and 
tie  methods  of  discussing  the  observations,  is  still  in  an 
unsatisfactory  state.  This  consideration,  taken  in  connec- 
tion .with  our  defective  knowledge  of  the  relation  of  aqueous 
vapour  to  radiant  heat,  of  the  mode  of  its  diffusion  both 
vertically  and  horizontally,  and  of  the  influence  exerted  by 
its  condensation  into  cloud  and  rain,  and  with  our  ignorance 
of  the  merely  mechanical  effects  of  ascending,  descending, 
and  horizontal  currents  of  air  in  increasing  or  dimmishing 
barometric  pressure,  renders  it  evident  that  heights  deduced 
from  barometric  observations  can  only  be  regarded  as 
approxilnato.  It  is  much  to  be  desired,  in  stating  results, 
that  the  limit  of  error  were  taken  into  account,  and  the 
rieurestTound  number  in  accordance  therewith  should  alone 
be  given  as  the  calculated  result,  ThQs,  it  is  a  mistake  to 
give  as  the  height  of  a  place  1999  feet  when  the  calculation 
19  based  wholly  on  barometric  observations,  and  the  limit  of 
error  aifiounts  to  30  feet  or  more.  The  height  2000  should 
be  given  as  the  result. 

The  correction  for  decrease  of  gravity  at  the  higher  station, 
us  compared  with  the  force  of  gravity  at  the  lower  station 
or  at  oa-levol,  must  also  be  taken  into  account.  Its 
amount  is  small,  being,  roughly  speaking,  only  about  0001 
inch  per  400  feet.  Since  the  force  of  gravity  is  diminished 
in  proportion  to  the  square  of  Iheidistancc  from  the  centre 
of  gravity,  the  rate  of  its  decrease  with  the  height  varies  in 
different  latitudes.  Places  at  the  equator  being  farther 
from  Che  earth's  centre  than  places  at  the  poles,  it  follows 
that  the  force  of  gravity  diminishes  at  a  less  rapid  rate  as 
we  ascend  at  the  equator  than  it  does  at  the  poles.     Now, 

'  Utttoroloiiieal  Obsmohom  and  Essays,  2d  cd  ,  p.  100. 

*  ifen.  til.  atid  Phil.  So(.  Manckesler,  vol.  ii.  3cl  aeries,  p.  131. 


since  at  the  equator  gravity  diminishes  less  rapidly  witli 
the  height,  the  air  at  any  given  height-  will  exert  a  higher 
pressure  there  than  anywhere  else  on  the  globe  at  the  same 
height  as  compared  with  what  it  does  at  the  sea-level  of 
the  latitude.  Hence  a  subtraction  requires  to  be  made  at 
the  equator,  and  the  amount  to  be  subtracted  diminiskes 
as  we  proceed  into  higher'  latitudes,  till  it  falls  to  zero  at 
latitude  45°,  where  the  force  of  gravity  is  assumed  to  be 
the  mean.  For  higher  latitudes  an  addition  is  required 
which  constantly  increases  till  it  reaches  the  maximum  at 
the  poles.  This  correction  is  also  small,  being  for  1000 
feet  less  than  0  001  inch  in  Great  Britain,  and  less  than 
O'OOS  at  the  equator  and  the  poles. 

Various  formula;  Jor  the  barometrical  measurement  of 
heights,  based  on  these  principlen,  have  been  given  by 
Laplace  and  others,  not  a  few  of  them  being  unnecessarily 
refined  and  intricate  when  the  real  character  of  the  data  li 
taken  into  consideration.  The  following  formula  by 
Riililmann'  is  given  as  the  sinplest  and  best,  being  based 
on  the  most  recent' results  wf,  Ifh  have  been  arrived  at : — 

4=lS400-2(r001o7-(- 0  003675 — ^    1 

I  M     6"  \ 

y  l  +  0'378— 2— y 

I'-^elraTo  j-'-s-i^,     •  ••        n>. 

in  which  h  is  the  difference  in  metres  of  level  between  tht 
two  stations  ;  ('  and  ("  the  temperature  centigrade  of  the  an 
at  the  two  stations ;  i'  and  4"  the  heights  of  the  barometer 
in  miUimMres,  corrected  for  temperature  and  for  all  instru- 
mental errors ,  a'  and  o-"  the  elastic  force  of  vapour ;  * 
the  ir.  ju  of  the  latitudes  of  the  two  stations  ,  and  «  tht 
height  of  the  lower  station  above  the  sea  •    Making — 

1  C-fC'i 

A  =  log,      18400,2(1  00157  ■^0  0036751-2—  |  , 


(l-fO  002623  COS.  2#) 


C  =  l"g 
D=log. 


0-378/O-'     (r"\  I 
1-tO  002053  cos   19  }, 


E  =  log.     l■^ 


6;'.7S150  I 


Riihiuiann  has  calculated  the  values  A,  C,  D.  and  E  foi 
(he  different  values  of  the  respective  arguments,  which  ar* 
given  ID  the  tables  appended  to  the  work. 
From  formula  (1)  we  obtain — 

log!  A  =  log.  (log.  i'-log   ^"}■l•(A-l-C■^D-^E)       .    .(2). 

It  IS  assumed  that  the  whole  stratum  of  air  between  th» 
two  heights  is  in  a  state  of  rest,  and  that  the  means  of  the 
temperature  and  humidity  observed  at  the  two  stations  ara 
the  means  respectively  of  the  stratum  of  air  between  them. 

If  great  accuracy  is  desiivd.  both  barometers  must  be 
read  from  the  zeros  of  their.sc3le3,and  the  observations  must 
be  corrected  for  all  merely  instrumental  errors,  and  musl 
be  made  strictly  at  ther  same  time  or  times,  seeing  that 
a  very  small-error,- arising  either  from  imperfect  observa- 
tions, or  from  their  not  being  comparable,  produces  a  com 
jiaratively  largo  error  in  the  calculated  results. 

In  deducing  heights  from  tnng-coiilmued  observatwis  u 
should  be  ascertained  that  the  barometers  and  obserrai ions 
are  good,  and  observations  should  if  possible  be  used  which 
have  been  made  at  the  same  hours  of  the  day  and  during 
the  same  years.  Observations  at  different  hours  of  the 
dav  are  not  comparable,  since,  owing  to  our  imperfect 
knowledge  of  tho  differences  of  daily  barometric  range,  the 


'   Pie  Daromelnschm  Ill,>inm'ssunciet<  vnd  ihrt  r,rdtvtung /Vr  di4 
I'hyuk  dtT  Almosphdrt,  voa  Dt  RicUard  Ruhlmiicin,  Uipsic,  lbi« 


B  A  R  —  BAR 


387 


necessity  for  tLo  application  of  any  so-called  corrections  for 
(iiily  range  must  necessarily  lead  to  error.  The  comparison 
ihould  also  only  be  between  observations  made  during 
the  same  years,  since  the  means  of  different  years  often 
differ  widely  from  each  other.  Thus  the  difference  of 
height  between  two  places  at  which  barometncal  obser%a- 
tions  were  made,  from  1830  to  1S59  and  from  J850  to 
18G9  respectively,  could  be  more  accurately  ascertained 
from  the  ten  years'  averages  from  1850  to  1859  during 
which  observations  were  made  at  both  places,  than  from 
the  longer  averages  of  thirty  and  twenty  years.  Inattention 
»o  this  point  has  often  led  to  error,  especially  in  cases  where 
at  one  of  the  places  only  a  few  years  were  available  To 
secure  greater  accuracy,  the  calculations  should  be  made  on 
the  mean  for  the  year,  the  two  extreme  months,  January 
and  July,  and  that  month  during  which  the  distribution  of 
pressure  is  most  uniform  over  the  region  where  the  places 
are  situated.  Owing  to  the  great  differences  in  the  distri- 
bution of  atmospheric  pressure  in  different  parts  of  the 
globe  (see  Atmospbebe),  comparison  of  the  observations  at 
the  higher  station  with  those  at  more  than  one  lower  station 
is  in  some  cases  indispensable.  Thus,  if  it  were  desired 
to  compute  the  height  of  Dovre,  in  Norway,  barometrically, 
it  should  be  compared  both  with  Chri.^tiania  and  with 
Christiansund  on  the  west  coast ;  for  if  compared  with 
Christiania  alone  the  calculated  height  would  be  too  high, 
nnd  if  with  Christiansund  too  low,  the  reason  being  that 
the  mean  annual  pressure  diminishes  from  Christiania  to 
Christiansund.  The  same  remark  applies  to  a  Large  portion 
of  Hindustan  and  to  many  other  regions  of  the  globe. 

The  more  special  precautions  to  be  taken  in  deducing 
heights  from  one  or  a  few  observations,  that  is,  from  such 
data  as  travellers  observe,  are  these  : — that  the  observations 
he  made  in  as  settled  weather  as  possible,  at  those  hours 
of  the  day,  at  least,  at  which  observa'ions  are  made  at  the 
nearest  meteorological  stations,  nnd  be  repeated  as  long 
as  possible  from  day  to  day ;  that  the  barometer  hang 
perpendicularly  and  in  shade  ;  and  that  the  observations  be 
not  made  till  the  whole  instrument  has  acquired  the  tem- 
perature of  the  surrounding  air  For,  for  every  degree 
which  the  temperature  indicated  by  the  attached  thermo- 
meter differs  from  the  temperature  of  the  whole  instrument, 
there  is  an  error  of  about  0003  inch. 

From  their  portability  and  handiness  the  aneroid  baro- 
meter, and  the  thermometer  for  ascertaining  the  point  at 
which-water  boils,  are  of  great  use  in  determining  heights, — 
the  thermometer,  if  properly  managed,  being  the  more  accu- 
rate of  the  two.  Since,  owing  to  the  sluggishness  with  which 
the  aneroid  often  follows  the  changes  of  pressure,  espe- 
ci.illy  low  pressures,  its  readings  shotild  not  be  recorded  till 
it  has  hung  for  some  hours  at  the  place  of  observation,  and 
if  this  be  not  possible,  the  time  which  elapsed  from  arriving 
It  the  place  and  making  the  observ.ations  should  be  stated. 
It  may  not  bo  unnecessary  to  add  that  every  opportunity 
which  presents  itself  should  be  taken'  of  comparing  it  with 
a  standard  mercurial  barometer,  owing  to  the  variations, 
irregular  or  permanent,  to  which  aneroids  are  subject,  and 
that  the  instrument  should  always  be  read  in  one  position, 
since  the  difference  between  the  reading  in  a  horizontal 
l>o3ition  and  tho  reading  in  a  vertical  position  is  often 
considerable. 

At  a  pressure  of  29-905  inches  distilled  water  boils  at 
2^2^  The  temperature  of  the  boiling  point  varies  with 
tlie  nature  of  the  vessel.  Thus,  if  the  interior  of  the  glass 
voiisel  bo  varnished  with  shell  lac,  the  temperature  may 
rise  to  221°,  and  if  iron  filings  be  dropped  into  the  water, 
the  temperature  is  lowered.  But  in  all  these  cases  the 
temperature  of  the  vapour  arising  from  the  water  is  as 
nearly  as  possible  tho  same.  Hence  in  making  observations 
«ith   the   thermometer   for  hypjonietrical   purposes,   the 


instrument  is  not  plunged  into  the  water,  but  the  whole 
instrument,  bulb  and  stem,  are  by  an  apparatus  used  for 
the  purpose  plunged  into  the  vapour  arising  from  the  boil- 
ing water.  The  degrees  on  the  thermometer  used  are 
greatly  enlarged,  thus  admitting  of  a  minute  subdivision 
of  the  scale  and,  consequently,  of  very  precise  readings.  The 
following  are  a  few  of  the  barometric  heights  corresponding 
to  different  temperatures  at  which  distilled  water  boils, 
taken  from  Regnault's  tables  revised  by  Moritz : — 


Boilloe  Point. 

Bsmmelcr, 

Bollitif;  Point 

Barometer 

, 

Inclius. 

• 

liicheSb 

211 

29  331 

205 

25  990 

210 

2S-751 

204 

25-465 

209., 

2S-1S0 

203 

£4-949 

;;u3 

27-6)8 

202 

24  442 

207 

27  066 

201 

23-943 

206 

26-523 

200 

23-453 

The  temperature  of  tho  vapour  of  the  boiling  water 
being  observed,  the  pressure  is  ascertained  from  the  table, 
whence  the  height  may  be  calculated,  just  as  in  the  case 
of  pressures  obtained  by  means  of  a  mercurial  barometer. 

The  remark  made  by  Sir  John  Leslie  many  years  ago  still 
holds  good,  that  it  is  preposterous,  in  the  actual  state  of 
physical  science,  to  effect  any  liigh  refinement  in  the  for- 
mula for  computingl)arometrical  heights.  What  is  required 
on  the  part  of  the  computer  of  heights  from  barometrical 
observations  is  carefully  to  weigh  the  limits  of  error  due  to 
the  instrument  and  methods  of  observations,  to  the  hour 
of  the  day  and  the  month  of  the  year  (see  Atmosphf.re,  p. 
28),  and  to  the  degree  of  uuscttledness  of  the  weather  at  the 
time  the  observation%-n-ere  made,  and  to  give  effect  to  these 
in  the  calculated  results.  From  inattention  to  these  simple 
considerations  a  large  proportion  of  important  heights  given 
in  works  of  travel  and  of  physical  geography  are  very  errone- 
oiesly  stated,  and  consequently  require  careful  revision. 

For  very  rough  approximations  to  the  real  height  from 
observations  of  pressure  and  temperature,  Sir  G.  B.  Airy 
has  prepared  a  table  showing  the  differences  of  level  corre- 
sponding to  differences  of  pressure.  It  is  from  this  table 
that  tho  heights  corresponding  to  pressures  engraved  od 
many  aneroids  are  usually  taken.  The  heights  read  off  from 
the  pressures  should  be  corrected  for  observations  of  tem- 
perature carefully  taken  at  the  upper  and  lower  stations, 
the  mean  of  these  two  observations  being  assumed  as  the 
mean  of  the  stratum  of  air  occupying  the  interval  between 
the  two  heights.  (a.  n.) 

BAKON.  The  origin  and  primary  import  of  this  term 
have  been  much  contested.  Menage  derives  it  from  the 
Latin  baro,  a  word  which  we  find  used  in  classical  Latin  to 
signify  "a  simple"  er  "foolish  man"  (Cic.  Fin.,  ii.  23). 
Another  form  of  the  same  word  appears  to  be  i-aro,  to 
which  Lucilius  gives  the  meaning  "  a  stupid  man,"  "  a 
blockhead,"  Forcellini  observing  that  its  primary  sense 
is  "  a  block  of  tough,  hard  wood."  But  with  greater  pro- 
babihty  Graff  derives  the  word  baron  from  the  old  German 
Bar  =  Mann,  freicr  Mann.  The  word  seems  related  to  tlie 
Spanish  varon,  which  means  "  a  male,"  "  a  noble  person," 
and  its  root  may  be  found  in  the  Sanskrit  vera.  Like  tho 
Greek  ui-tjp  and  the  Latin  nr,  the  word  baron  signifies  man 
in  general  and  also  a  husband — the  old  legal  expression 
baron  and  feme  being  equivalent  to  our  ordinary  phrase 
"  man  and  wife." 

In  modern  English  usage  the  term  is  particularly  applied 
to  a  member  of  tho  lowest  order  of  the  peerage,  but  in 
ancient  records  (as  Lord  Coke  observes)  the  barony  included 
all  the  (titular)  nobility  of  England,  because  all  noblemen 
were  barons  though  they  might  possess  a  higher  dignity 
also  ;  and  the  great  council  of  peers,  in  which  were  included 
dukes,  marquesses,  and  carls,  as  well  as  barons,  was  styled 
simply  the  "  Council  dc  Baronage  "     In  like  manner  we 


388 


B  A  K  — JL}  A  R 


speak  of  the  "  Larons  wars,"  ar.J  "  tlie  baronsi"  wlio  signed 
Jfagoa  Cbarta,  altUough  nobles  of  bigber  rank  joined  in 
bolb,  and  it  is  usual  iu  summoning  to  the  Upper  House  a 
peer's  sun  in  the  lifetime  of  tbe  father  to  give,  for  the 
occasion,  a  separate  existence  to  tbe  latter's  barony.' 
Thus  Earl  Fortescue  sat  in  the  House  of  Lords  during  his 
father's  lifetime  as  baron  of  C'as'le  Hill,  county  Devon — 
the  barony  held  with  bis  father's  earldom.  The  fiction  is 
still  maintained  when  a  commoner  is  raised  directly  to 
one  of  the  higher  grades  of  the  peerage,  as  in  the  case  of 
Admiral  Jervis,  who  was  created  at  the  same  time  Baron 
Jervis  and  Earl  St  Vincent. 

The  origin  and  comparative  antiquity  of  barons  have  been 
the  subject  of  much  research  amongst  antiquaries.  Tbe 
most  probable  opinion  is  that  they  were  the  same  as 
our  present  lords  of  manors ,  and  to  this  the  appellation 
of  conrt-l'aron,  given  to  the  lord's  court,  and  incident  to 
every  manor,  seems  to  lend  countenance.  The  term  baron 
had,  tlierefore,  originally  a  very  extensive  meaning,  being 
applicable  to  all  tenants-in-chief  of  the  Crown,  whether 
holding  by  knight  service  or  by  grand  serjcantry.  But  the 
latter  only  were  in  the  narrower  sense  the  king's  barons, 
and  as  such  possessed  both  a  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction, 
each  in  his  curia  baronis,  and  were  entitled  to  seats  in  the 
great  council  of  the  nation  "  For,"  says  Sir  H.  Nicohis, 
"  it  was  the  principle  of  the  feudal  system  that  every 
tenant  should  attend  the  court  of  his  immediate  superior; 
and  hence  it  was  that  he  who  held  per  baroniam,  having 
no  superior  but  tbo  Crown,  was  bound  to  attend  bis 
sovereign  in  his  great  councd  or  parliament,  which  was, 
in  fact,  the  great  court  baron  of  the  realm"  {Historic 
Peerage  of  England,  ed.  Courtbope,  p.  18).  The  lesser 
barons — those,  namely,  who  held  by  knight  service — were 
also  occasionally  summoned  to  parliament,  but  upon  no 
fixed  principles,  and  "  the  irregularity  of  passing  „ver  many 
of  them  when  councils  were  held  for  the  purpose  of  levying 
money,  led  to  the  provision  in  the  Great  Charter  of  John, 
by  which  the  king  promises  that  they  shall  be  summoned 
through  the  sheriif  on  such  occasions  '  (Hallam,  Middle 
Ages,  iii.  213).  Both  these  classes,  but  the  former 
especially,  might  be  entitled  to  tne  appellation  of  Barons 
by  Tenure  ;  but  it  is  evident  that  the  mere  possession  of  a 
barony  (i.e.,  thirteen  knights'  fees  and  a  quarter)  did  not 
give  its  possessor  an  absolute  right  to  a  seat  in  parliament, 
and,  of  course,  all  such  baronies  must  have  been  swept 
away  by  the  Act  of  12  Car.  II.  c.  24,  abolishing  feudal' 
tenures  and  whatever  depended  thereupon.  But  from  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.  (49tb  year)  the  barons  were  suniiiioned 
to  attend  tbe  king  in  council  or  parliament  by  writ,  and 
thus  tho  dignity  ceased  to  be  territorial  and-  became 
altogether  personiJl.  And  although  the  writ,  whether 
addressed  to  ancient  barons  or  to  those  who  had  not  before 
been  peers  of  parliament,  contained  no  words  of  limitation 
to  the  heirs  of  the  person  summoned,  yet  it  was  laid  down 
by  Coke,  and  has  always  been  accepted,  that  it  ennobles 
the  blood  of  the  person  summoned,  and  that  thus  the  barony 
becomes  heritable  by  heirs,  male  or  female.  A  further 
change  by  King  Kichard  II.  in  the  11th  year  of  his  reign, 
>shen  he  created  John  Beauchamp  de  Ilolt  baron  of 
Kidderminster  by  tellers  palent,  and  since  that  date  this 
mode  of  conferring  the  dignity  of  a  baron  has  been  pursued. 
Dugdale  states  that  tho  solemn  investiture  of  barons  created 
by  pilent  was  performed  by  the  king  himself,  by  enrobing 
the  peer  m  scarlet,  and  this  form  conlin\ied  till  13  Jac,  I., 
when  the  lawyers  declared  that  the  delivery  of  tho  letters 
potent   without   ceremony   was    suflicient.      The    letters 

•  Tlie  pr.iolice  commpnccil,  al  Dilg.lnle  stalcj.  tlio  22  IMw.  IV,,  Iml 
cnme  ii.lo  more  geiiernl  imc  in  the  laltcr  part  of  tlie  17lli  ceiiliir)'.  It 
Kill  be  un.lLTstooJiljai  it  wa^dcsigiioi  to  "m'ci-lcratc  the  {insscbsinn  " 
ol  t  dionM.v    ainl  not  torr^ntA  n  -sroond. 


patent  express  the  limits^of  inheritance  of  the  barony. 
The  usual  limit  is  to  the  grantee  and  heii-s  male  of  bis 
body ;  occasionally  (as  in  the  case  of  Lord  Brougham)  in 
default  of  male  issue,  to  a  collateral  male  relative ;  asd 
occasionally  (as  in  the  case  of  Lord  Nelson)  to  the  heirs 
of  a  sister.  The  coronation  robes  of  a  baron  are  the  same 
as  those  of  an  earl,  except  that  he  has  only  two  rows  of 
spots  on  each  shoulder ;  and,  in  like  manner,  bis  parlia- 
mentary robes  have  but  two  guards  of  white  fur,  with 
rows  of  gold  lace ;  but  in  other  respects  they  are  the  same 
as  those  of  other  peers.  King  Charles  II.  granted  to  the 
barons  a  coronet,  having  six  large  pearls  set  at  equal 
distances  on  the  chaplet.  A  baron's  cap  is  the  same  as  a 
viscount's.  His  style  is  Eight  Honourable;  and  he  is 
addressed  by  the  king  or  queen,  Bight  Trvsty  and  Well 
Beloved. 

Barons  of  the  Exchequer,  sis  judges  (a  chief  baron  and 
five  puisne  barons)  to  whom  tbe  administration  of  justice 
is  committed  in  causes  betwixt  the  king  and  hLs  subjects 
relative  to  matters  of  revenue.  Selden,  in  his  Titles  oj 
Honour,  conjectures  that  they  were  originally  chosen  from 
among  the  barons  of  the  kingdom,  and  hence  their  name. 

Barons  of  the  Cinqiie  Ports  (originally  Hastings,  Dover, 
H}'the,  Romney,  and  Sandwich)  were  (prior  to  1831) 
members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  elected  by  the  Cinque 
Ports,  two  for  each  port.  ■  Their  right  to  the  title  is  recog- 
nized in  many  old  statutes,  but  in  1606  the  use  of  the  term 
in  a  message  from  the  Lower  House  drew  forth  a  protest 
from  the  peers,  that  "  they  would  never  acknowledge  any 
man  that  sitteth  in  the  Lower  House  to  the  right  or  title 
of  a  baron  of  parliament"  {Lords'  Journals).  These  porta 
are  now  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  warden. 

Baron  and  Feme,  in  .the  English  Law,  a  term  used  for 
husband  and  wife,  in  relation'  to  each  other,-  who  are 
accounted  as  one  person.  ,  Hence,  by  the  old  law  of 
evidence  the, one  party  was  excluded  from  being  evidence 
for  or  against  the  otlier  in  civil  questions,  and  a  relic  of  it 
is  still  preserved  in  the  'criminal  law. 

Baron  and  Feme,  in  Heraldry,  is  when  the  coats-of-arms 
of  a  man  and  his  wife  are  borne  per  pale  in  the  same 
escutcheon, — the  man's  being  always  on  the  dexter  side, 
and  the  woman's  on  the  sinister.  But  in  this  case  thd 
woman  is  supposed  not  to  be  an  heiress,  for  then  her  coat 
must  be  borne  by  the  husband  on  an  escutcheon  of  pretence. 
See  Hehaldrv.  Cc.  j.  r.) 

BARONET,  a  name  originally  given  to  the  lesser  barons 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  article,  but  -now  confined 
to  the  lowest  grado  of  our  hereditary  nobility.  The 
order  was  instituted  by  King  James  I.  in  1611,  at  tho 
su'^gestion  of  Sir  Robert  Cotton,  to  whom  the  plan  had 
been  .submitted  by  Sir  Thomas  Shcrley  of  Wiston,  its 
actual  inventor.  Originally,  tbe  creation  of  this  order  Vas 
merely  an  expedient  to  raise  money,  and  tho  cost,  of  a 
baronetcy  in  each  case  amounted  to  XI 09!),  exclusive  of 
the  {cea.  The  money  thus  raised  was  pro'fes-sedly  destined 
for  tho  defence  and  maintenance  of  the  new  plantation  in 
the  province  of  Ulster,  but  it  actually  passed  at  once  into 
the  lung's  exhausted  exchequer.  According  to  the  instnic- 
tions  given  to  tho  commissioners  appointed  for  admitting 
to  the  new  dignity,  none  were  eligible  but  "  men  of  quality, 
state  of  living,  and  good  reputation,  worthy  of  the  same, 
and,  at  the  least,  descended  of  a  giandfather  (by  the  father's 
sulo)  that  bore  arms,  and  who  have  also  of  certain  yearly 
revenue" — XI 000  per  annum.  The  number  created  at  first 
was  200,  and  the  king  engaged  for  himself,  liis  heirs,  and 
successors,  that  this  should  not  be  exceeded;  and  for 
himself  also  promised  that  no  vacancies  in  tho  original 
number  '.should  be  filled  up.  Charles  I.  disregarded  (lie 
stipiilalcd  limitation,  and  the  original  terms  have  ne\cr 
"inci   bcfn  rallied  out.     The  first  twenty  patents  issnod 


B  A  R  -  B  A  R 


389 


'were  dated  22d  May  IGl  If  and  begin  with  tliat  given  to  Sir 
Nicholas  Bacon  (son  of  the  lord  kgeper)  whose  descendant 
still  retains  the  position  of  premier  baronet  of  England. 
,  Baronets  take  precedence  accoiding  to  the  dates  of  their 
patents,  conformably  to  the  terms  of  which  no  intermediate 
honour  between  baron  .and  baronets»  can  be  established, 
and  they  rank  above  all  knights  except  those  of  the  Garter. 
The  title  or  prefix  of  .Sir  is  granted  them  by  a  peculiar 
clause  in  theif  patents,  and  until  1827  they  could  claim 
for-  themselves  and  the  heirs  male  of  their  bodies  the 
honour  of  knighthood.  All  baronets  are  entitled  to  bear 
in  their,  coats-of-arms,  either  in  a  canton  or  an  escutcheon 
at  their  choice,  the  arms  of  Ulster,  viz.,  a  bloody  hand. 

Baronets  of  Scotland,  called  also  Baronets  of  A'ova  Scotia. 
— This  order  of  knights-baronets  was  instituted  by  Charles  I. 
in  the  year  1G25,  when  the  first  person  dignified  with  the 
title  was  Sir  Robert  Gordon  of  Gordonstone,  a  founger  son 
of  the  earl  of  Sutherland.  The  professed  object  of  the 
institution  was  to  encourage  the  plantation  and  settlement 
of  Nova  Scotia  in  North  America  ;  hence  the  k^ing  granted 
to  each  of  them  a  certain  portion  of  land  in  that  province, 
which  they  were  to  hold  of  Sir  William  Alexander,  afler- 
wardsicarl  of  Stirling,  with  precedency  to  them  and  their 
heirs-male  for  ever,  before  all  knights  called  equites  aurati, 
all  lesser  barons  called  lairds,  and  all  other  gentlemen, 
eicept  Sir  William  Alexander,  his  Majesty's  lieutenant  in 
Nova  Scotja,  his  heirs,  their  wives  and  children.  It  was 
further  provided  that  the  title  of  Sir  should  be  prefixed  to 
their  Christian  uame_,  and.  Baronet  added  to  their  surname  , 
and  that  their  own  ancT  their  eldest  sons'  wives  should 
enjoy  the  title  of  Lady,  Madam,  or  Dame.  The  baronets 
of  Scotland  had  assigned  to  them  as  an  addition  to  their 
armorial  bearings  the  ensign  of  Nova  Scotia,  viz.,  argent, 
a  cross  of  St  "Andrew,  azure,  to  bo  borne  in  a  canton  or  in 
escutcheon;  but  in.  1629,  after  Nova  Scotia  was  sold  to 
the  French,  this  privUe^  was  changed  into  permission  to 
wear  a  badge  about  their  necks  pendent  from  an  orange- 
tawny  silk  ribbon-. 

[  Malone  has  given  the  following  curious  note  upon  tnis 
subject,  iti  his,  learned  Life  of  Dryden,  prefixed  to  his 
editioT\  of  the  prose  works  of  that  wni.cr  :7— 

"*  'I  When  the  orjer.of  baronefs'waa  first  established  in  1611,  King 
James  engaged  t^at  they  should  not  exceed  two  kundred.  However, 
towards  tlie  close  of  his  reign,  that  number  being  completed,  and 
the  creatipn  of  baroncta  being  found  a  useful  engine  of  Government 
(the  courtier  hy  whose  influence  the  title  was  obtained  receiving 
usually  ,£1000  for  tlie  grant),  it  was  not  lightly  to  be  paitcd  with. 
A  sche'me,  therefore,  of  creating  Baronets  of  Scotland  was  devised, 
which,  it  was  conceived,  would  be  no  infraction  of  the  original  com- 
jmct  to  confine  the  grants  to  a  limiteiTniunber  ;  and  as  the  English 
baronets  were  created  under  the  great  seal  of  England,  for  the  re- 
duction of  Ulster  in  Ireland,  so  the  Scottish  baronets  were  created 
under  the  gre.it  seal  of  Scotland,  for  the  reduction  of  Acadia,  or 
Aofi  Stotia.  The  scheme,  however,  was  not  carried  into  execution 
by  King  James  ;  but  early  in  Uie  reign  othis  successor  several  Scot- 
tish baronets  were  made.  From  this  statement  it  appears  that 
there  is  no  more  necessity  for  calling  a  baronet  created  under  the 
great  seal  of  Scotland  (whether  he  be  an  Englishman  or  Scotchman), 
a  Barontt  of  Nova  Scotia,  than  there  is  to  donominato  one  created 
onder  the  great  seal  of  England  »  Bnrnnel  of  Ulster." — (Malone's 
JDrydtn,  vol,  i,  pp,  23,  29,) 

After  the  Union  with  England  in  1707. the  baronets  of 
Scotland  charged  their  arms  with  the  Ulster  badge,  being 
created  as  baronets  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

B'ironets  of  Ireland. — This  order  was  likewise  instituted 
by  King  James  I.  in  the  18th  year  of  his  reign,  fof  the 
same  purpose  and  with  the  same  privileges  within  the 
kingdom  of  Ireland  as  had  been  conferred  on  the  analogous 
order  in  England;  for  which  also  the  Irish  baronets  paid 
the  same  fees  into  the  treasury  of  Ireland.  (c.  J.  R,) 

BARONIUS,  CiESAR,  the  great  church  historian,  was 
bom  on  tho"3Ijt  October  1538  in  the  district  of  Naples. 
His  Dar»at,i.  Camillo   dc   Barono   or  Baronio  and  Porcia 


Trebonia,  were  of  noble  birtL  He  was  educated  at  Veroll 
and  Naples,  where  his  favotirite  studies  were  theologj-  and 
jurisprudence.  In  1557  he  accompanied  his  father  to 
Rome,  and  found  himself  in  the  midst  of'  the  reactionary 
enthusiasm  which  did  much  to  restore  Italy,  in  spite  of  the 
efforts  of  her  reformers,  to  the  papal  authority.  There  he 
was  brought  in  contact  with  Philip  Neri,  a  man  who  then 
and  since  has  done  much  to  reconcile  the  speculative 
student  with  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  to  provide  for  him: 
work  in  her  service  to  which  he  can  give  his  whole  heart, 
Neri  had  just  founded  the  Italian  Oratory,  the  .model  of 
many  another,  and  he  and  his  monks  had  vowed  to  devote 
themselves  to  student  lives,  and  to  dedicate  their  irfiole 
power  of  study  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church..  Among 
the  theological  studies  pursued  in  the  oratory,  t:hurch  his- 
tory and  ecclesiastical  biography  held  a  prominent  place, 
the  greater  part  of  every  forenoon  being  set  apart  for  these 
subjects.  In  this  small  congregation  Baronius  found  a 
congenial  home,  and  his  superior,  Philip  Neri,  soon  saw 
that  he  had  secured  a  coadjutor  who  would  make  his  ora- 
tory all  he  had  hoped  it  would  become.  The  alarm  caused 
by  the  first  Protestant  church  history,  the  Magdeburg 
Centuries,  gave  his  studies  a  special  direction,  and,  as  he 
told  Pope  Stxtus  v.,  he  was  urged  by  his  own  desires,  and 
the  encouragement  of  Ne.i,  to  attempt  to  answer  the 
Magdeburg  divines.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  Annates 
Ecclesiastici,  h_is  great  work,  which  occupied  thirty  laborious 
years.  These  Annates,  the  first  and  in  many  respects  the 
most  important  historical  work  which  the  Roman  Catholic 
Chilrch.has  produced,  begin  with  the  birth  of  Christ  and 
end  with  the  year  1198.  The  book  is  not  properly  history ; 
it  is  annals  rather,  as  everything  is  subordinated  to  chros 
nology.  The  year  is  first  given,  then  the  reigning  Pope 
and  the  year  of  his  reign,  then  the  emperors  of  the  East  and 
West,  and,  after  its  institution,  the  name  and  year  of  the 
einperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  empire.-  This  chronological 
form  had  one  advantage — theology  was  kept  as  much  as 
possible  in  the  background,  and  the  facts  of  history  were  the 
most  important  part.  The  Annates  have  thus  become  very 
important  to  every  student  of  church  history  whether 
Protestant  or  Ropian  Catholic.  -  While  Baronius  was 
engaged  in  his  great  work  he  was  encouraged  by  several 
marks  of  papal  favour.  He  was  named  pronotarius  of 
the  papal  chair;  in  1596  he  was  elected  a  cardinal;  and 
ho  was  afterwards  chosen  to  fill  the  much-coveted  post 
of  librarian  of  the  Vatican.  He  died  on  the  SOth  of 
June  1G07.  The  best  and  most  useful  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  of  Mansi,  is.  38  vols.  fol. ;  it  gives  Pagi's 
crilica  tdstorico-theologica,  or  corrections  of  Baronius,  at 
the  foot  of  each  page.  The  best  text  is  the  Antwerp  edition 
of  IGIO. 

BARQUISIMETO,  a  city  of  Venezuela,  and  since 
1830  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Nueva  Segovia,  is 
situated  on  a  confluent  of  the  Portuguesa,  which  belongs  to 
the  northern  part  of  the  Orinoco  system.  The  surrounding 
district  is  fertile,  and  produces  excellent  coffee,  cocoa,  and 
sugar ;  and  the  climate  is  healthy  and  pleasant.  Bar- 
quisimeto  was  founded  in  1522  by  Juan  de  Villegas, 
principally  for  the  exploration  and  Wiirking  of  gold-mines 
supposed  to  exist  in  the  neighbourhood;  and  at  first  it 
receiv^cd  tjie  name  of  Nueva  Segovia  in  honour  of  his 
native  city.  The  commercial  advantages  of  its  situation 
soon  raised  it  to  considerable  prosperity.  In  1807  it  had 
about  15,000  inhabitants  ;  but  on  the  2Gth  of  March  1812, 
it  was  totally  destroyed  by  an  cartlKiu.ike.  It  has  since 
been  regularly  rebuilt,  and,  in  spite  of  the  disastrous  effects 
of  the  revolutionary  wars,  has  recovered  its  position. 
Among  its  public  buildings  may  be  mentioned  a  college  and 
several  schools.  The  inhabitants  arc  partly  engaged  in  the 
rearing  of  horses  3nd  mules.  '  Population  in  1873,  25,664t 


390 


B  A  R 


BAR 


BARE,  a  town  in  Alsace,  18  miles  S.W  of  Strasburg, 
situated  oa  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Vosges,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Qlrichthal.  Wool  and  cotton  spinning,  and  the 
manufacture  of  pottery,  crystal,  and  soap,  are  its  principal 
industries ;  and  an  active  trade  is  carried  on  in  wine, 
brandy,  vinegar,  cattle,  and  wood.  The  town  is  mentioned 
as  eariy  as  the  8th  century.  It  was  burned  by  the  troops 
fif  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  in  1592  ;  in  1678  it  suffered 
from  a  severe  conflagration ;  and  in  1791  it  was  greatly 
damaged  by  the  explosion  of  the  arsenal.  There  .is  a 
tepid  mineral  spring  in  the  neighbourhood,  and,  on  the 
OdUienberg,  which  rises  above  the  town,  are  the  ruins  of 
the  convent  of  St  Odilia,  which  was  founded  in  the  7th 
century      Population,  5651. 

BARBA,  or  B.UIray  (from  the  Scandinavian  Baraey, 
isle  of  the  ocean),  one  of  the  Hebrides  or  Western  Isles  of 
Scotland,  forming  part  of  Inverness-shire.  It  lies  about  5 
miles  S.W.  of  South  Uist,  and  is  8  miles  in  length  by  from 
2  to  4  miles  in  breadth.  The  parish  comprehends  a 
number  of 'smaller  islands  and  islets, — Berneray,  Flodday, 
Fluda,  Hellisay,Mingalay,Watersay,  Ac, — and  is  estimated 
to  contain  4000  acres  of  arable  land,  and  18,000  of  meadow 
and. hill  pasture.  ;,The  cod,  ling,  and  herring  fisheries  are 
considerable ;  and  the  coasks  abound  with  shell-fish, 
especially  cockles,  which  have  sometimes  afforded  food  to 
the  inhabitants  in  times  of  famine.  On  Barra  Head,  the 
highest  point  of  Berneray,  is  a  lighthouse  with  an  intermit- 
ting light  680  feet  above  high  water,  in  lat.  56°  48'  N.,  long. 
7°  38'  W.  There  are  several  remains  of  interest  in  the 
island  of  Barra,  as  the  churches  at  Kilbar,  the  castle  of 
the  M'Neils  at  Kishmul,  "  Danish"  forts  and  "  Druidical  " 
circles.  Population  of  island  (chiefly  Gaelic-speaking  FiO- 
raan  Catholics)  in  1871,  1563;  of  the  parish,  1753. 

BARRACKFUPi,  a  magisterial  subdivision  and  town 
of  British  India,  in  the  district  of  24  Parganis,  under  the 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal.  Barrackpur  SnEDivisiON 
was  formed  in  1858.  It  consists  of  the  single  police  circle 
of  NawAbganj,  and  contains  an  area  of  42  square  miles, 
with  51  villages,  16,057  houses,  and  a^total  population  of 
63,629,  of  whom  47,709,  or  69  5  per  cent.,  are  Hindus; 
19,600,  or  28'6  per  cent.,  are  Mahometans;  1281,  or 
1  9  per  cent.,  are  Christians  ;  and  39  are  of  other  religions. 
Proportion  of  males  to  total  population,  5 2 '2  per  cent. ; 
persons  per  square  mile,  1626;  villages  per  square  mile, 
L2I;  persons  per  village,  1346;  houses  per  square  mile, 
380;  persons  per  house,  4'3.  In  1870-71  the  subdivision 
contained  one  magistrate's  court,  with  a  regular  police  of 
195,  and  a  village  watch  of  38  men.  The  separate  cost  of 
administration  amounted  to  £2101. 

Barrackpur  Town  and  C.vntgnjien-t,  situated  on  the 
HiigH,  15  miles  above  Calcutta,  in  22°  45'  40"  N.  lat.,  and 
83°  23'  52'  R  long.  ;  area,  889  acres,  or  1-39  square  miles. 
Population,  according  to  the  experimental  census  of  1869 
—males,  5730;  females,  2914;  total,  8644.  Population, 
as  ascertained  by  the  general  census  of  1872  : — Hindus — 
males,  3207  ;  females,  1745  ;  total,  4952  :  Mahometans 
— males,  1987;  females,  1561;  total,  3548:  Christians — 
males,  766  ;  females,  297 ;  total,  1063  :  others — males, 
21  ;  females,  7  ;  total,  28.  Total  of  all  denominations — 
males,  6981  ;  females,  3610  ;  total  in  1872,  9591.  Muni- 
cipal income  in  1872,  X235,  93.  6d.  ;  expenditure,  the 
Bamo ;  taxation,  5Jd.  per  head.  Major  Smyth  says  in  his 
Survey  Report  of  the  24  Pargands  District  (1857): — 
"  The  natives  call  it  '  Chilnak,'  from  the  circumstance  of 
Job  Charnock,  the  founder  of  Calcutta,  ha^-ing  erected  a 
bungalow  and  established  a  small  bAzAr  there  (in  1689]. 
Troops  were  first  stationed  there  in  1772,  from  which  time 
it  has  acquired  the  name  of  Barrackpur.  The  cantonment 
is  situated  on  the  Icftljank  of  the  HilgH  ;  it  has  also  a  largo 
hizkr  and  several  large  tanks,  and  also  a  parade  ground. 


There  are  usually  four  regiments  of  Native  mfantrj'  can- 
toned in  the  lines.  To  the  south  of  the  cantonment  is 
situated  the  park,  created  by  the  taste  and  public  spirit  of 
Lord  Wellesley.  Within  the  park  is  situated  the  Govern- 
ment House,  a  noble-looking  building,  commenced  by  Lord 
Minto,  and  enlarged  into  its  present  state  by  the  Marquis 
of  Hastings.  The  park  is  beautifully  laid  out,  and  contains 
a  small  menagerie."  Its  most  interesting  feature  is  now 
Lady  Canning's  tomb.  Within  the  last  few  years  com- 
modious two-storied  brick  barracks  have  been  constructed 
for  the  British  troops,  and  have  materially  added  to  the 
health  and  comfort  of  the  soldiers.  The  military  bAzAr  is 
situated  a  short  distance  from  the  Sepoy  lines,  and  is  care- 
fully supervised  by  the  authorities.  The  military  force 
stationed  in  the  cantonment,  on  the  1st  March  18'?  3,  was 
as  follows  :— English  troops,  18  ofiicers,  and  395  non- 
commissioned oflicers  and  rank  and  file;  Native,  12  Eng 
iish  and  21  Native  officers,  with  877  non-commissioned 
ofEcers  and  men;  total  of  all  ranks,  European  and  Native, 
1323. 

Barrackpur  played  an  important  part  m  the  two  Sepoy 
mutinies  of  1824  and  1S57,  but  the  details  of  these  belong 
to  the  general  history  of  British  rule  in  India. 

BARRACKS  are  groups  of  buildings  constructed  for 
the  accommodation  of  soldiers.  The  word,  which  w.as 
formerly  spelt  "baracks  "  or  "baraques,"  is  derived  from  the 
Spanish  "  barracas,"  meaning  the  little  huts  or  cabins  used 
by  the  fishermen  on  the  sea-shore,  or  for  soldiers  in  the  field 
The  French  call  them  "casernes,"  meaning  lodgings  lor 
soldiers.  Barracks  of  a  temporary  character,  commonly 
called  "  huts,"  have  ordinarily  been  constructed  by  troops 
on  a  campaign  as  winter  quarters,  or  when  for  any  length 
of  time  in  "  standing  camp," — they  being  accommodated 
■when  in  the  field  under  other  circumstances  in  tents,  or  else, 
if  not  provided  with  tents,  bivouacing  without  cover. 

In  time  of  peace  barracks  were  formerly  only  provided 
for  troops  in  fortified  places  termed  "garrisons,"  soldiers 
elsewhere  being  provided  with  quarters  by  being  billeted 
on  public-houses.  The  apprehension  of  disturbances,  and 
risk  of  the  troops  being  too  much  mixed  up  with  the 
populations  of  the  localities  in  which  they  might  be 
stationed,  mainly  led  to  the  construction  of  barracks  in  or 
near  towns  in  England  about  the  year  1792.  In  the 
first  instance  the  Deputy-adjutant-general  was  charged  with 
the  building  and  fitting  up  of  barracks.  In  1793  the  same 
officer  was  appointed  "  Supenutendent-gcneral  of  barracks," 
and  subsequently  "  Barrack-master-general."  In  1806  the 
barrack  establishment  was  placed  under  the  direction  of  a 
board  of  four  commissioners,  of  whom  one  was  generally  a 
military  man.  About  the  year  1825  the  duke  of  Wellington 
arranged  for  the  construction  and  m.aintenanre  of  barr.acks 
t(J  be  given  over  to  the  corps  of  Royal  Engineers  The 
custody  and  equipment  of  barracks,  with  the  supply  of  fuel 
and  light  to  the  troops  quartered  in  them,  were  then  made 
and  remained,  until  recently,  the  duty  of  the  "  barrack 
department,"  which  consisted  of  barrack-masters  ond 
barrack-sergeants. 

The  duties  connected  with  barracks  in  the  British  ser- 
vice are  now  arranged  as  follows  ; — 

Conslruction,    in.iintenanoe,   and  1 
supply  of  fi.xturcs-,  olaocustoity  >  Koyal  Eogineoi  DernrtniPDl 
if  dismantled ) 

Equipment  with  supplioa   of  all  \ 
kind."?,  giving  and  uikinR  over  ; 
also  cu.stody  wbcD  furnished  but 
unoccupied 


I  Commissariat  Department 


Distribution  of  troops  to  barracks 


Q.  M  General's  Deportment, 
undiT  tho  orders  at  liend- 
quartors  of  the  Firld- 
jlarshal  Commanding-in- 
Chief,  and  in  di.strictsor  at 
foreipn  stations  of  the  Grp- 
eral  utticer  Commandinc 


B  A   R  RACKS 


n9J 


'TLe  duties  coBn<v''"4  witn  the  construction  of  barracks 
are  uudcr  the  supL-ivision  of  the  Inspector-general  of 
Fortifications,  who  is  also  Director  of  Works  to  the  War 
Department.  He  is  assisted  in  these  duties  by  a  Deputy 
anci  two  Assistant-directors  of  -Works,  and  a  professional 
statE 

The  arrangement -and  composition  of  barracks  vary 
accgrding  to  the  arm  of  the  service  to  be  accouimoJated  in 
them ;  thus  for  the  cavalry,  horse  and  field  artdlery,  Koyal 
Engineer  train,  and  traiioport  branch  of  the  army  service 
corps,  stables  are  required  ;  and  it  is  usual  to  provide  fur 
the  unmarried  non-commissioned  officers  and  men  over. 
their  horses,  a  troop  of  cavalry  or  a  division  of  field  artillery 
being  placed  in  a  separate  block  of  two  stones  4a  height. 
Horse  and  field  artillery  ^iso  require  gunsheds^^and  work- 
shops for  artificers,  such  as  coHarmakers.  wheelers,  <$«;.  All 
mounted  troops  require  forge  and  shoeing  accommodation 
US  well  as  saddlers'  shops.  Garrison  artillery  and  com- 
panies of  Royal  Engineers  can  be  accommodated  m  similar 
barracks  to  those  for  infantry,  but  the  latter  require  an 
ample  provision  of  workshops  for  artificers,  with  store 
accommodation  for  materials,  i&c 

Not  fifty  yfSars  since,  m  the  We.st  Indies,  men  slept  in 
barracks  m  hammocks  touching  each  other,  only  23  inches 
of  lateral  space  being  allowed  for  each  man.  At  the  same 
time  in  England  the  men  slept  in  wooden  beds,  with  two. 
tiers,  like  the  berths  of  a  ship,  and  not  unfrequenlly  each 
bad  held  four  men  Now.  each  soldier  has  an  iron  bed- 
stead which  turns  up  in  the  middle,  forming  a  seat  for  the 
daytime,  and  only  two  rows  of  beds  are  allowed  in  barrack- 
rooms,  and  the  principle  of  providing  one  window  for 
every  two  beds  is  carried  out  in  all  new  barracks. 

The  best  size  for  a  barrack-room  is  now  considered  to  be 
60  or  62  feet  long,  by  20  feet  wide,  and  about  12  feet  high. 
The  number  of  men  each,  room  is  to  contain  is  painted  on 
the  door .  and  in  barracks  of  modern  construction  each 
barrack-room  has  attai—ed  to  it — 

(1  I  A  small  (.«inzlel  serjpant's  room,  with  fire-place,  cupboard, 
•  nd  9nia|]  w-indow  looking  into  the  mfn's  room. 

(2  1  An  ablution  room,  with  basius,  water  taps,  and  a  fi.\ed  pan 
ill  wbicti  the  feet  can  \>e  washed 

(3. 1  A  oigbt  unoal,  with  water  for  flushing  laid  on. 

Barracks  are  washed  once  a  week,  and  on  intermediate 
days  the  rooms  are  dry-sctubbed.  The  walls  and  ceilings 
are  limewashed  by  the  troops  twice  a  year.  The  general 
periodical  painting  of  all  barrack  buildings  is  performed 
twice  externally  and  once  internally  in  every  eight  years. 
Formerly,  barrack  buildings  were  placed  on  very  limited 
areas,  and  even  a  whole  regiment  was  lodged  in  one  bouse 
built  in  the  form  of  a  square,  with  the  quarters  of  the 
officers  on  one  side  for  the  better  supervision  of  the  men  , 
but  the  Birrick  and  Hospital  Improvement  Commission 
recommended  thai  the  men  should  be  divided  in  numerous 
detached  buildings,  so  placed  as  to  impede  as  little  as 
possible  the  movement  of  air  and  the  action *of  the  sun's 
rays.  » 

For  barracks,  as  a  general  rule,  buildings  of  t<io  stones 
ID  height  are  preferred  to  those  of  three  stories,  but  three- 
story  buildings  may  be  adopted  w^here  space  is  limited  and 
lind  very  costly.  Buildings  of  two  stories  are  less  expensive 
than  those  of  only  one  story  in  height,  and  the  general 
orraiigcment.  when  the  former  mode  of  construction  fs 
adopted,  is  more  compact.  The  selecticfti  of  a  site  for  a 
barrack  requires  great  caro  and  circumspection.  This  duty 
is  performed  in  the  first  instance  by  the  Commanding  Royal 
Engineer  of  the  district,  or  an  officer  appointed  by  him  ; 
but  the  ground  proposed  is  also  reported  on  by  an  Army 
medical  officer  as  well  as  subsequently  by  the  General  Officer 
comniandlnit  the  district,  the  final  approval  resting  with 
the  Secretary  of  State  for  War. 


The  following  important  points  have  to  be  considered  i,n 
the  selection  of  a  site.  viz.. — (1.)  That  the  ground  is. 
suitably  situated  ,  ^2.)  That  it  is  sulficieht  for  the  number 
and  nature  of  troops  to  be  placed '-in  the  barracks  ;  (3.) 
That  It  is  not  commanded  by  higher  ground  within  rang* 
of  rifle  fire,  (4.)  That  the  subsoil  is,good  and  h»althy ;' 
(5.)  That  wnter  can  be  easily  obtained  for  drinking,  washing, 
and  .cooking  ;  (6.)  That  drainage  and  *eweiage  can  be 
carried  out ,  (7.)  That  gas  can  be -laid  on. 

A. barrack  should  riot  as  a  rule  be  placed  in  the  midst  of 
a  populous  town,  nor  should  it  be  too  far  distint  from  one. 
Lf  in  the  midst  of  a  town  it  would  not  be  likely  to  bo 
healthy  or  well  placed  in  respect  to  keeping  up  discipline, 
if  too  lar  off  the  men  quartered  in  it  may  become  dissatisfied 
"with  the  service.'  A  barrack  should  be  surrounded  with  a 
defensible  wall ;  there  should  be  as  few  entrances  as 
possible,  and  these  should  be  provided  with  strong,  well- 
barred  gates. 

In  the  new  barr.icks  now  under  construction  for  brigade 
depots,  the  armouries -are  generally  placed  in  defensible 
"  keeps,"  the  outer  or  boundary  walls  being  flanked  by 
caponnteres.  In  arranging  the  position  of  buildings  on  a 
design  for  a  barrack,  the  axis  of  each  of  those  intended  for 
occupation  by  troops  should  be  north  and  south, 'so  as  to 
albw  the  sun's  rays  to  fall  on  both  sides.  Pne  building 
should  in  no  case  obstruct  the  light  from  another.  The 
distance-  of  buildiugs  should  not  be  less,  than  their  ow:i 
height  froui  each  other.  The  position  selected  for  any  new 
building  or  buildings  in  an  existing  or  a  proposed  barrack 
IS  reported  oii  by  a  board  of  otlJcers,  consisting  of  the  head 
of  the  department,  officer  cuuiiuanding  a  regiment,  or  other 
responsible  officer  who  is  to  occupy  the  huilSing  when 
erected,  an  officer  not  under  the-rank  of  captain,  an<^  the 
commanding  Royal  Engineer  or  other  engiijeer  officer,-  a 
medical  officer  attending  to  advise  the  board.  Oil  the 
completion  of  a  new  building  cfr  barrack,  it  is  also  reported 
on  by  a  board  of  officers  before  being  taken  over  for  occu- 
pation. 

■  In  1854-55  public  attention  was  called  to  the  necessity 
for  sanitary  improvement  in  the  barracks  belonging  to 
Gceat  Britain,  and  an  inquiry  whs  institulod  by  the  Barrack 
and  Hospital  Improvement  Commission,  whicb""  was 
succeeded  by  the  Army  Sauitary  Committee.  The  reaUlt. 
of  the  inquiries  so  made.,has  been  a  gcfiat  fmprovemeal  of 
the  quarters  of  the  troops,  which  has  tended  largely  to 
decrease  the  sickness  previously  prevalent  among  tjietn. 

■  The  pnncFpal  improvements  have  been  a.i  follows.  viz.'.-^At  lea«t 
600  cubic  feet,  and  from  56  to  60  superficwl  feet,  are  notv  allotted  to 
every  siogle  noD-comroi£sioned  officer  and  w&a  in  permanent  bar* 
rarks.  It  being  considered  as  imjKjrtant  that  a  soldier  should  have 
his  fuU  ration  of  air  as  of  food  In  wooden  huts  400  cubic  feet  arn 
reckoned  sulScient.  At  least  1000  cubic  feet  are  allotted  (0  eveiy 
single  Don-commissioned  officer  and  Dtan  in  hot  climotes.  About 
16UU  cubic  feet  are  allotted  to  every  horse,  and  since  the  introductiorv 
of  ventilation,  as  well  as  proper  sututary  arrangements  in  stables. 
glanders  have  almost  entirely  disappeared  from  tne  army.  Married, 
non-commissioned  officers  and  men  nave  special  accommodation,  with, 
one  or  two  rooms  eacn,  according  to  the  size  of  the  rooms  or  raiiJc 
•of  the  occupant.  In  the  latest  buildings  small  washing-rooms  ha*e 
been  provided,  in  addition  to  two  rooms  for  each  family.  A  laundry 
and  infant  school  are  provided  for  every  compound  of  manieii 
soldiers*  quarters.  The  principal  medical  officer  is  now  charged 
with  seeing  that  the  regulations  for  protecting  the  health  of  troop». 
in  tiarracks  are  carried  out.  Each  regimental  medical  officer  haa. 
also  to  see  to  this  matter,  as  well  as  that  every  soldier  has  a  Sfp,irate 
bed  ;  that  the  beds  are  placed  at  p  proper  distance  from  the  wall,  and 
are  well  aired ;  and  that  the  windows  are  opened  every  morn- 
ing. Barrtick-rooms  are  wanned  in  two  ways,  viz.,  by  radiant 
heat  froTB  an  open  fire,  otid  by  warm  air  obtained  from  an  air  chamber 
behind,  and  heated  by  the  fire.  Much  attention  has  been  paid  of 
yite  years  to  the  improvement  of  the  means  of  cooking  the  meaJs  of 
soldiers.  Either  stici  boilers  and  Deane's  ovens  or  **  Warren's" 
apparatus  are  now  ordinarily  provided  for  this  purpose.  Every 
hc^douartcr  barrack  now  has  a  gymnasium  an.l  also  a  cb»pel  school^ 
as  well  as  a  sergeants'  ans  establishment.     B<:i-"'"  1  canteen  wi''" 


392 


B  A  R  —  B  A  R 


a  separate  bar  for  the  sale  of  groceries,. one  room  is  provWed  for  re- 
creatioa,  with  a  coffee  bar  atlat-hea,  and  another  room  for  reading, 
with  a  small  book-room  attached  to  Lt,  where  the  library  is  stored, 
and  from  which  boolc3  are  issued.  Where  there  are  several  barracks 
at  the  same  station,  the  sick  are  usually  treated  in  a  garrison  hos- 
pital ;  but  where  there  is  only  one  barrack,  a  regimental  hospital 
forms  a  part  of  it.  1200  cubic  feet  are  allowed  at  home  for  each 
patient  treated  in  military  hospitals,  and  about  1800  cubic  feet  in 
those  constructed  in  hot  climates.  The  proportion  of  hospital  ac- 
commodation now  allowed  at  home  stations  is  6  per  cent,  on  the 
accommodation  of  the  barrack  or  barracks  to  which  such  hospital  is 
attached.  A  surgery,  store  accommodation,  a  separate  infection 
ward,  hospital  sergeant's  quarters,  sick-orderly's  rooms,  and  a 
mortuary,  are  provided  as  part  of  an  hospital  establishmeut.  There 
is  also,  whenever  practicable,  a  garden,  where  the  convalescents  can 
sit  out,  or  taKo  eiercise  in  fine  weather.  At  the  main  entrance  to 
every  barracli  a  regimental  guard-room  is  placed,  which,  besides  a 
good  room  for  the  guard,  provided  with  a  wooden  bed  on  au  iron 
trame,  contains  a  prisoners'  room,  and  also  a  few  separate  cells  for 
the  detention  of  such  prisoners  as  require  to  be  kept  apart.  A 
proportion  of  "  provost  cells  "  are  also  constructed  in  large  barracks, 
where  soldiers  are  confined  when  ord-^red  or  sentenced  to  imprison- 
ment for  short  periods.  In  headquarter  cavalry  barracks  a  riding 
school,  ordinarily  150  feet  long  and  50  feet  wide,  is  provided  ;  also 
one  or  more  manages  for  out-door  training.  In  smaller  barracks, 
for  mounted  troops  only,  manages  are  provided  for  equitation  exer- 
cise. Rifle  ranges  are  now  considered  to  be  necessary  adjuncts  to 
all  except  small  barracks,  but  sometimes  the  troops  have  to  be 
.moved  to  a  distance  for  this  purpose,  owing  to  local  difficulties  pre- 
venting practice  being  carried  on.  In  barracks  of  modern  construc- 
tion, a  separate  house  or  quarter  containing  about  six  rooms  is 
provided  for  a  commanding  oBicer,aud  two  rooms  with  a  kitchen  (or 
servant's  room)  for  each  field  officer,  or  officer  holding  relative  rank  as 
such,  and  for  each  quarter-master.  Other  officers  have  one  room 
each,  with  a  compartment  screened  or  curtained  off  for  sleeping  and 
dressing,  a  servant's  room  for  brushing  and  cleaning  being  provided 
for  every  tivo  or  three  officers.  A  mess  establishment  is  attached 
to  every  officers'  barrack,  which  is  constructed  in  proportion  to  the 
numbers  to  be  quartered  in  the  barracks.  Where  the  headquarters 
of  a  regiment  are  stationed,  a  billiard-room  ia  usually  allowed  as 
part  of  the  mess  establishment  A  good  supply  of  water  is  one  of 
the  first  requisites  in  a  barrack,  and  it  is  preferable  to  obtain  it,  if 
possible,  from  the  water-works  of  the  locality,  rather  than  from 
wells,  which  are  liable  to  become  polluted  from  soakage,  leakage  of 
drains,  or  other  causes.  Barracks  should  have  high-level  tanks,  to 
contain  one  or  two  days'  supply  of  water,  as  a  reserve,  or  in  case  of 
fire,  and  firecocks  should  be  fixed  in  suitable  pkces.  Fire-engines, 
with  an  ample  supply  of  hose  and  also  ladders,  are  always  supplied 
for  use  in  barracks.  The  sewers  or  drains  of  a  barrack  should,  if 
possible,  discharge  into  the  main  or  branch  sewers  of  the  locality, 
but  if  none  such  exist,  irrigation  of  land  may  be  resorted  to,  or  earth 
closets  can  be  adopted,  and  the  liquid  drainage  only  be  disposed  of 
by  irrigation,  or  such  other  means  as  may  be  practicable.  Ail  drains 
should  be  properly  trapped  and  ventilated.  Soil-pipes  of  water- 
closets  should  also  be  ventilated  by  means  of  small  pipes  c.irried 
up  above  the  roof  of  the  main  building ;  pipes  of  the  size  of  ordinary 
gas-pipes  will  suffice  for  tliis  purjiose,  allowing  tfie  escape  of  foul  gas 
into  the  outer  air.  Overflow  or  other  water-pipes  should  on  no  account 
be  connected  directly  with  a  drain,  but  should  discharge  into  an  open 
or  surface  channel,  or  over  a  trap  or  grating.  Gas  is  ordinarily  laid 
on  to  barracks  both  externally  and  internally,  the  quantity  con- 
sumed being  checked  by  a  meter  or  meters.  It  is  usually  obtained 
by  agreement  from  any  public  gas-works  in  the  locality,  but  at  cer- 
tain large  stations  the  War  Department  have  their  own  gas-works. 
At  certain  large  stations  where  largo  bodies  of  troops  are  quartered, 
churches  are  provided  in  addition  to  or  in  place  of  chapel  schools. 
The  latter  are  used  for  the  services  of  the  men  of  dilTerent  persua- 
sions in  succession  ;  the  fonner  are  sometimes  similarly  used  but 
are  more  generally  restricted  to  the  Church  of  England  or  other 
specific  religious  persuasion.  Sometimes  military  cemeteries  are 
provided,  but  more  generally  the  soldiers  are  buried  in  those  of  the 
localities  where  they  may  be  quartertd.  Wherever  there  is  sufficient 
Uround  about  or  near  a  barrack,  o.i  at  Eastnev,  near  Portsmouth, 
soldiers  may  have  portions  for  gardening  allotted  them. 

The  funds  for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of 
barracks  are  included  in  Vote  13  of  the  army  estimates, 
»nd  the  average  amounts  so  provided  for  them  during  the 
past  three  years  have  been  as  follows  :— 

Part  I,  Works  over  £1000  £]02  188 

Part  2,  Kew  works  and  alterations  under  £1000''..".!!     68'o40     . 
Part  3,  Ordinary  and  current  repairs .'.   210,455 

£380,693 
riie   funds  for  the   equipment  of  barracks  are  provided 


in  Vote  12,  for  the  departmental  staff  in  Vote  9,  and  for 
supplies  of  fuel  and  light  in  Vote  10  of  the  army  esti- 
mates, (c.  B.  £./ 

BARRAS,  Paul  Francois  Jean  Nicolas,  Comte  de, 
a  distinguished  actor  in  the  great  French  Revolution,  was 
born  in  June  1755.  He  was  a  descendant  of  a  noble 
family  in  Provence,  and  at  an  early  age  entered  the  army. 
He  was  twice  in  India  with  hi3  regiment,  but  retired  from 
the  service  after  attaining  the  rank  of  captaiu.  Like  many 
others,  he  saw  in  the  Revolution  a  good  opportunity  for 
retneving  his  fortunes,  which  had  been  ruined  by  his 
extravagance  and  dissipation  ;  and  his  penetration  enabled 
him  to  foresee  the  certain  fall  of  the  royalist  party.  Be 
threw  in  his  lot  with  the  revolutionists,  and  speedily 
distinguished  himself  by  his  vigour  and  hardihood.  When 
elected  a  member  of  the  National  Convention,  he  gave  an 
uncompromising  vote  for  the  king's  death ,  and  at  the  siege 
of  Toulon,  where  for  the  first  time  he  met  Napoleon,  bis- 
energetic  measures  contributed  much  to  the  success  of  the 
French  arms.  Robespierre,  who  hated  Barras  for  hi-- 
dissolute  habits,  and  feared  him  for  his  boldness,  endes 
voured  to  have  his  name  included  in  one  of  his  prescription 
lists,  but,  on  the  9th  Thermidor  1794  Barras  completely 
overthrew  his  power.  His  success  from  this  period  waa 
secured;  after  the  13th  Vind^miaire  1795,  he  was  nomi- 
nated general-in-chief ,  and  after  the  aflair  of  the  18th 
Fructidor  1797,  in  which  Augereau  played  a  prominent 
part,  he  was  practically  dictator.  Bonaparte's  c<:yup  d'etat 
of  the  18th  Brumaire  1799  changed  the  whole  aspect  of 
affairs.  Barras,  seeing  that  resistance  to  his  powerful 
protiSgi  was  useless,  gave  in  his  resignation,  and  retired  to 
his  country  seat  His  latter  years  were  spent  ia  vanous 
intrigues,  in  which  he  showed  a  strong  leaning  towards  ths 
royalist  party.  He  died  in  1829.  The  character  of  Barras 
has  little  in  it  that  is  worthy  of  admiration.  He  was 
dissolute  in  private  life,  and  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have 
had  any  definite  public  policy.  At  the  same  time  he  was 
courageous,  prudent,  and,  on  occasions,  an  able  speaker. 

BAERHEAD,  a  town  of  Scotland,  county  of  Renfrew, 
three  miles  S.  of  Paisley,  and  8  miles  S.W.  of  Glasgow  on 
the  Caledonian  Railway  line  between  that  city  and  Kil- 
marnock. It  has  rapidly  increased  since  about  1840,  and 
formed  a  junction  with  the  neighbouring  villages  of  Dovc- 
cothall.  Cross  Artherlie,  and  Grahamston.  The  principal 
employment  is  spinning,  weaving,  and  bleaching.  Popu- 
lation in  1871,  C209. 

BARRl,  GiEALD  DE,  commonly  called  Giraldva 
Cambrensis,  an  historian  and  ecclesiastic  of  the  12th  and 
13th  centuriesy  was  born  at  the  castle  of  Maenor  Pyrr  near 
Pembroke,  probably  in  1147.  By»  his  mother  he  was 
descended  from  the  princes  of  South  Wales,  and  the  Do 
Barris  were  one  of  the  most  powerful  Welsh  families. 
Being  a  younger  brother,  and  intended  for  the  church,  he 
was  sent  to  St  David's,  and  educated  in  the  family  of  hia 
uncle,  the  bishop  of  that  see.  When  about  twenty  years 
of  age  he  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Paris,  where  he 
continued  for  some  years,  and,  according  to  his  own  account, 
became  an  excellent  rhetorician  and  lecturer.  On  his 
return  in  1172  he  entered  holy  orders,  and  was  made 
archdeacon  of  Brecknock.  Having  observed  with  much 
concern  that  his  countrymen  the  Welsh  were  very  backward 
in  paying  tithes  of  wool  and  cheese,  he  applied  to  Richard, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  was  appointed  his  legato  in 
Wales  for  remedying  Ibis  and  other  disorders.  Barry 
excommunicated  all,  without  distinctiott,  who  refused  to 
compound  matters  with  the  church,  and,  in  particular, 
delivered  over  bodily  to  the  evil  one  those  who  withheld 
the  tithes.  Not  satisfied  with  enriching,  he  also  attempted 
to  reform  the  clergy.  He  delated  an  aged  archdeacon  to 
the  archbishop,  for  the  unpardonable  crime  of  matrimony ; 


b  A  R  -  B  A  H 


393 


».rd  on  bis  refubing  to  put  away  his  wife  he  was  deprived 
ii^  his  archdeaconry,  wliich  was  beatowcd  upon  the  zealous 
legate.  On  the  death  of  his  uncle,  the  bishop  of  St 
David's,  iu  117G,  he  was  elected  his  successor  by  the 
chapter ,  but  this  choice  having  been  made  without  the 
permission  and  against  the  will  of  Henry  II,  GiralJ 
prudently  declined  to  insist  upon  it,  and  went  again  to 
Pans  to  prosecute  his  studies.  He  speaks  with  exultation 
of  the  prodigious  fame  which  he  acquired  by  his  eloquent 
declamations  in  the  schools,  and  of  the  crowded  aiidiences 
who  aMended  them,  -llaviug  spent  about  four  years  at 
Pans,  he  returned  to  St  David's,  where  he  found  every- 
thing in  confusion  ,  and  on  the  temporary  retirement  of 
the  bishop,  which  took  [ilace  soon  after,  he  was  appointed 
administrator  by  the  advice  of  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, and  governed  the  diocese  in  that  capacity  till  1 184, 
vihcn  the  bishop  was  restored.  About  the  same  time  be 
was  called  to  court  by  Henry  II  ,  appointed  one  of  his 
chaplains,  and  sent  into  Ireland  with  Prince  John,  by  whom 
he  was  offered  the  united  bishoprics  of  Femes  and  Leighlin. 
He  would  not  accept  them,  and  employed  his  time  in 
collecting  materials  for  his  Tmiojraphy  of  Ireland,  and  his 
history  of  the  conquest  of  that  island,  which  was  completed 
in  three  books  in  llST.  In  II 83  he  attended  Baldwin, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  his  progress  through  Wales, 
preaching  a  crusade  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land, — 
an  employment  in  which  he  tells  us,  with  his* usual 
modesty,  that  he  was  far  more  successful  than  the  primate, 
adding  significantly,  that  the  people  were  most  afl'ected 
witli  Latin  sermons  (which  they  did  not  understand), 
melting  into  tears,  and  coming  in  crowds  to  take  the  cross. 
On  the  accession  of  Richard  I.  in  1 189,  he  was  sent  by  that 
monarch  into  Wales  to  preserve  the  peace  of  the  country, 
and  was  even  joined  in  commission  with  William  Long- 
champ,  bishop  of  Ely,  as  one  of  the  regents  of  the  kingdom. 
He  failed,  however,  to  improve  this  favourable  opportunity  ; 
■ind  having  fixed  his  heart  on  the  see  of  St  David's,  the 
bishqp  of  which  was  very  old  and  infirm,  he  refused  the 
bishopric  of  Bangor  in  1190,  and  that  of  Llandaff  the 
year  following.  But  in  1192  the  state  of  public  affairs 
became  so  unfavourable  to  Barri's  interest  at  court  that 
be  determined  to  retire.  He  proceeded  to  Lincoln,  where 
William  de  Monte  read  lectures  in  theology  with  great 
applause  ;  and  here  he  spent  about  six  years  in  the  study 
of  divinity,  and  in  composing  several  works.  At  last  the 
see  of  St  David's,  which  had  long  been  the  object  of  his 
ambition,  became  vacant,  and  he  was  unanimously  elected 
by  the  chapter,  but  met  with  so  powerful  an  adversary  in 
Hubert,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  that  it  involved  him  in 
a  litigation  which  lasted  five  years,  cost  him  three  journeys 
to  Rome,  and  ended  in  his  defeat  in  the  year  1203.  Re- 
tiring from  the  world,  he  spent  the  last  seventeen  years  of 
his  life  in  studious  privacy.  His  MSS.  are  preserved  in 
the  British  Museum,  the  library  at  Lambeth,  and  the  Bod- 
leian Library 

or  his  publislicd  works,  the  best  knom  is  bis  Itinerarium  Cam- 
hrice,  of  wliicli  &  translation,  illustrated  with  flnnotitions,  and 
occotnpinicJ  with  a  life  of  the  author,  was  published  by  Sir  Richard 
'.'oil  Hoarc,  in  two  splendid  qu.irto  volumes,  in  1S06  The  complete 
works  are  being  published  under  the  direction  of  the  Master  of  the 
HoUs,  with  full  introductions,— OiroVrfi  Camhrensis  Optra,  edited 
by  J.  S.  Brewer  and  Mr  Diroock,  6  vols,  1861-75;  the  scviiilh 
auJ  last  volume  has  not  yet  appeared. 

BARRINGTON,  John  Shute,  first  Viscooirr,  a  noble- 
man distinguished  for  theological  learning,  was  the  youngest 
Bon  of  Benjamin  Shute,  merchant,  and  was  born  at  Theobald, 
in  Hertfordshire,  in  1C78.  He  received  part  of  his  educa- 
tion at  the  University  of  Utrecht ;  and,  after  returning  to 
Lngland,  studied  law  in  the  Inner  Temple.  In  1701  he 
publi.shcd  several  pamphlets  in  favour  of  the  civil  rights  of 
Protestant  dissenters,  to  which  class  he  belonged.  Od  the 
3— io' 


recommendation  of  Lord  Somers,  ho  was  employed  to 
induce  the  Presbyterians  in  Scotland  to  favour  the  union 
of  the  two  kingdoms,  and  in  1703  he  was  rewarded  for 
this  service  by  being  appointed  to  the  office  of  commissioner 
of  the  customs.  From  this,  however,  he  was  removed  on 
the  change  of  administration  in  171 1-;  but  his  fortune -had, 
in  the  meantime,  been  improved  by  the  be'quest  of  t\V"o 
considerable  estates, — one  of  them  left  Liiu  by  FranCia 
Barrington  of  Tofts,  whose  name  he  assumed  by  Act 
of  Parliament,  the  other  by  John  Wildmao  of  Becket. 
Barrington  now  stood  at  the  head  of  the  dissenters.  On 
the  accession  of  George  I.  he  was  returned-  member  of  par- 
liament for  Berwickupon-Twced  ;  and  in. 1720  the  king 
raised  hitp  to  the  Irish  peerage,  by  the  title  of  Viscount 
Harrington  of  Ardglass. '  But  having  unfortunately  engaged 
in  the  Harburg  lottery,  one  of  the  bubble  speculations  of 
the  lime,  he  incurred  the  disgrace  of  expulsion  from  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1723, —  a  punishment  which  was 
considered  greatly  too  severe,  andwa.s  thought  to  be  due  to 
personal  malice  on  the  part  of  Walpole,  In  1725  he  pub- 
lished his  ptinci[ial  work,  entitled  Miscellanea  Sacra,  or  a 
New  Method  of  considering 'so  much  of  the  History  of  the 
Apostles  as  is  coniained  in'Scriptnre,  in  an  Abstract  of  their 
History,  an  'Abstract  of  that  Abstract,  and. four  Critical 
£ssays,  2  vols.  8vo,-^afterward3  .reprinted  with  additions 
and  corrections,  in  3  vols.  8vo,  1770,  by  bis  son,  the  bishop 
of  Durham.  In  the  same  year  he  published  An  Essay  on 
the  Several  Dispensations  of  God  to  Mankind.  He  was  the 
author  of  various  other  tracts,  chiefly  on  subjects  relating 
to  religious  toleration.  He  died  in  1734.  Of  his  large 
family  four  were  distinguished. 

The  eldest,  Willum  Wild.mas,  sccopd  Viscount  Ear- 
.rington  (born  1717,  died  1793),  held  important  Government 
offices.  From  17.')5  to  17C1  he  was  secretary  nt  war,  from 
17G1  to  1762  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  from  17G2  to  1765 
treasurer  of  the  navy,  and  from  1765  to  1776  secretary  at 
war  again.  He  resigned  in -that  year,  receiving 'a  hand- 
some jiension.  In  1782  he  held  office  for  a  short  time- as 
postmaster-general.  ^ . 

The  Hon.  Daines  BARniNGTo;!,  the  third  son,  born  in 
1727,  was  a  dislingi.shed  antiquary  and  naturalist.  He 
■was  educated  for  the  profession  of  the  law,  and  after  filling 
various  posts,  was  appointed  a  Welsh  judge  in  1757,  and 
afterwards  second  justice  of  Chester.  He  never  rose  to 
much  eminence  at  the  bar,  but  he  showed  his  knowledge 
of  the  law  as  a  subject  of  liberal  study,  by  a  valuable 
publication,  entitled  Olscrvatinus  on  the  Stxdutcs,  chiefly  the 
more  ancient, from  Magna  Charta  to2\st  James  I.  cap.  27, 
with  an  Appendix,  being  a  proposal  for  neiomodelting  the 
Statutes,  1766,  4to,  a  work  which  has  a  high  reputation 
among  historians  and  constitutional  antiquaries.  In  1773 
ho  published'  an  edition  of  Orosius,  with  Alfred's  Saxon 
version,  and  an  English  translation  with  original  notes. 
His  Tracts  on  the  Probability  of  reaching  the  Xorlh  Pole, 
1775,  4to,  were  written  in  consequence  of  the  northern 
voyage  of  discovery  undertaken  by  Captain  Phipps,  after- 
wards Lord  Mulgravo.  In  them  he  has  accumulated  a 
variety  of  evidence  favourable  to  his  own  opinion  of  the 
practicability  of  attaining  the  object  in  which  that  voyage 
had  failed  ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  his  views  and 
arguments  had  some  effect  in  determining  the  Government 
at  a  later  period  lo  renew  the  attempt.  Mr  Barrington's 
other  writings  are  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  publications  of 
the  Royal  and  Antiquarian  Societies,  of  both  of  which  be 
was  Ion"  an  assiduous  member,  and  of  the  latter  vice- 
president.  Many  of  these  were  collected  by  him  in  a 
quarto  volume  entitled  Miscellanies  on  mriouf  Subjects. 
1781.  Among  the  most  curious  and  ingenious  of  hie 
papers,  arc  his  Experiments  and  Observations  on  the  Singing 
I  of  Birds,   and  his  Essay  on  the  Language  of  Dirda.     Ha 


394 


B  A  R  —  B  A  R 


died  on   the   Hth  March   1800,  and  was  buried  iu  tlie 
Temple  church. 

Samuel  Barrinoton,  the  fourth  son,  was  born  in  1729, 
and  died  in  1800.  He  entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age, 
and  in  1747  had  worked  his  way  to  a  post-captaincy.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  bravery  and  skill,  and  in  1778 
attained  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  He  held  command  for 
some  time  in  the  West  Indies,  and  repulsed  a  superior 
French  force  at  Sta  Lucia. 

Shute  Barrixgton,  the  youngest  son,  was  born  in  1734, 
and  died  in  1826.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  O.xford, 
aud  after  holding  some  minor  dignities,  was  made  bishop 
of  Llandaff  in  1769.  In  1782  he  was  translated  to 
Salisbury,  and  in  1791  to  Durham.  He  published  several 
volinnes  of  sermons  and  tracts,  and  wrote  the  political  life 
of  his  brother,  Viscount  Harrington, 

BARRISTERS,  in  England,  are  the  highest  class  of 
lawyers  who  have  exclusive  audience  in  all  the  superior 
courts.  Every  barrister  must  be  a  member  of  one  of  the 
four  ancient  societies  called  Inns  of  Court,  viz.,  Lincoln's 
Inn,  the  Inner  and  Middle  Temples,  and  Gray's  Inn.  The 
existence  of  these  societies  as  schools  can  be  traced  back  lo 
the  13th  century,  and  their  rise  is  attributed  to"the  clause 
in  Magna  Charta,  by  which  the  Common  Pleas  were  fixed 
at  Westminster  instead  of  following  the  king's  court,  and 
the  professors  of  law  were  consequently  brought  together 
in  London.  Associations  of  lawyers  acquired  houses  of 
their  own  in  which  students  were  educated  in  the  common 
law,  and  the  degrees  of  barrister  (corresponding  to 
apprentice  or  bachelor)  and  sergeant  (corresponding  to 
doctor)  were  conferred.  These  schools  of  law  are  now 
represented  by  the  Inns  of  Court,  which  still  enjoy  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  calling  to  the  bar,  and  through  their 
superior  order  of  benchers  control  the  discipline  of  the 
profession. 

I  Every  person  not  otherwise  disqualified  may  be  admit- 
ted as  a  student  of  law  by  passing  a  general  examination 
in  London,  or  on  producing  evidence  of  his  having  passed 
a  public  examination  at  a  university.  The  year  is  divided 
into  four  terms,  and  every  student  must  keep  twelve  terms 
before  he  can  be  called  to  the  bar.  A  term  is  kept  by  the 
student's  dining  six  (if  a  university  man,  three)  times  in 
the  hall  of  his  society.  Until  quite  recently  the  Inins  of 
Court  exercised  little  or  no  supervision  over  the  legal  educa- 
tion of  their  students.  Any  student  who  had  duly  kept 
his  terms  might  be  admitted  to  the  baron  producing  either 
a  certificate  of  having  passed  the  general  examination 
of  the  Council  of  Legal  Education,  or  a  certificate  of  attend- 
ance at  certain  public  lectures,  or  of  having  read  in  the 
chambers  of  a  barrister  or  special  pleader  for  at  least 
twelve  months.  The  examination  not  being  compulsory, 
was  only  used  as  a  qualification  for  call  by  a  minority 
of  students,  and  neither  of  the  other  tests  afl'orded  any 
security  as  to  the  applicant's  fitness  for  admission.  The 
regulations  both  as  to  legal  education  and  examinations 
have  been  very  greatly  altered.  A  complete  stafl'  of  public 
lecturers  and  tutors  has  been  established,  and  every  student 
must  pass  an  examination  in  jurisprudence,  civil  and 
international  law,  and  English  law,  before  being  admitted 
to  his  call.  Persons  connected  with  the  law  in  any  inferior 
capacity  (such  as  that  of  solicitor  and  solicitor's  clerk), 'or 
with  trade,  will  not  be  admitted  as  students ;  and  the 
benchers,  besides,  have  the  right  of  rejecting  any  applicant 
with  or  without  cause  assigned.  For  sulliciont  reasons,  and 
subject  to  an  appeal  to  the  Common  Law  judges  as  visitors, 
they  may  reject  the  petition  of  a  student  to  be  called  to 
tha  bar,  or  expel  from  their  society  and  from  the  profession 
any  barrister  or  bencher  of  the  inn.  This  power  has  been 
exercised  in  several  cases  within  recent  years,  and  the 
beDchers  appear  to  take  cognizance  of  any  kind  of  miscon- 


duct, whether  professional  or  not,  which  they  may  deem 
unworthy  of  the  rank  of  barrister.  The  age  at  which  a 
student  may  be  called  to  the  bar  is  twenty-one  years. 

The'  peculiar  business  of  barristers  is  the  advocacy  of 
causes  in  open  court,  but  in  Englanc^a  great  deal  of  other 
business  falls  into  their  hands.  They  are  the  chief  con- 
veyancers, and  the  pleadings  (i.e.,  the  counter  statements 
of  parties  previous  to  joining  issue)  are  in  all  tut  the 
simplest  cases  drafted ,  by  them.  There  is,  indeed,  a 
separate  class  of  conveyancers  and  special  pleaders,  being 
persons  who  have  kept  the  necessary  number"  of  terms 
qualifying  for  a  call,  but  who,  instead  of  being  called,  take 
out  licences  to  practise  unikr  the  bar.  There  are  still  a  few 
persons  who  act  under  such  special  licences,  but  in  general 
conveyancing  and  special  pleading  form  part  of  tho  ordinary 
work  of  a  junior  barrister.  The  highest  rank  among 
barristers  is  that  of  king's  or  queen's  counsel.  They  lead 
the  case  in  court,  and  give  opinions  on  cases  submitted  to 
them,  but  they  do  not  accept  conveyancing  or  pleading,  nor 
do  they  admit  pupils  to  their  chambers.  Precedence 
among  queen's  counsel,  as  well  as  among  outer  barristers, 
is  determined  by  seniority.  The  order  of  sergeants  at  law 
still  exists,  but  no  new  appointments  have  recently  been 
made,  and  it  will  probably  be  allowed  to  become  extinct, 
the  title  of  queen's  counsel  being  generally  preferred. 
Sergeants  rank  after  qut.n's  counsel.  Although  every 
barrister  has  a  right  to  practise  in  any  court  in  England,  it 
will  be  found,  in  fact,  that  each  special  class  "of  business 
has  its  own  practitioners,  so  much  so  indeed,  that  the  bar 
may  almost  be  said  to  be  divided  into  several  professions. 
The  most  marked  distinction  is  that  between  barristers 
practising  in  Chancery  and  barristers  practising  in  the 
courts  of  Common  Law.  The  fusion  of  Law  'and  Equity 
contemplated  by  the  Judicature  Act,  1873,  may  be  ex- 
pected in  course  of  time  to  break  down  this  distinction  ; 
but  for  many  years  there  has  been  a  complete  separation 
between  these  two  great  branches  of  the  profession.  There 
are  also  subordinate  distinctions  in  each  branch.  Counsel 
at  Common  Law  attach  themselves  to  one  or  other  of  the 
circuits  into  which  England  is  divided,  aud  may  not 
practise  elsewhere  unless  under  special  conditions.  In 
Chancery  the  queen's  counsel  for  the  most  part  restrict 
themselves  to  one  or  other  of  the  courts  of  first  instance 
(those  of  the  Vice-Chancellors  or  Master  of  the  Bolls). 
Business  before  the  court  of  Admiralty,  the  court  of 
Probate  and  Divorce,  tho  Privy  Council,  and  parliamentary 
committees,  exhibits,  though  in  a  less  degree,  the  same 
tendency  to  specialization.  In  some  of  the  larger  provincial 
towns  there  are  now  local  bars  of  considerable  strength. 
In  Manchester  and  Liverpool  alone  there  are  believed  to 
be  between  seventy  and  eighty  practising  barristers  ;  and  the 
probable  extension  of  this  system  cannot  fail  to  have  a 
most  important  infiuence  on  the  future  character  of  the 
profession.  The  bar  of  Ireland  exhibits  in  its  general 
arrangements  the  same  features  as  the  bar  of  England. 
Every  Irish  barrister  must  have  kept  at  least  six  terms  in 
one  of  the  English  Inns  of  Court.  There  is  no  connoctic^n 
whatever  between  the  Scotch  and  English  bars. 

Counsel  is  not  answerable  for  anything  spoken  by  hira 
relative  to  the  cause  in  hand  and  suggested  in  the  client's 
instructions,  even  though  it  should  reflect  on  tho  character 
of  another  and  prove  absolutely  groundless,  but  if  he 
mention  an  untruth  of  his  own  invention,  or  even  upon 
instructions  if  it  bo  impertinent  to  the  matter  in  hand,  he 
is  then  liable  to  an  action  from  the  party  injured.  Counsel 
may  also  be  punished  by  the  summary  power  of  the  court 
or  judge  as  for  a  contempt,  and  by  the  benchers  of  the  inn 
to  which  he  may  belong  on  cause  shown. 

The  rank  of  barrister  is  a  necessary  qualification  for 
nearly  all  ofliccs  of  a  judicial  character,  and  a  very  usual 


B  A  li  —  BAR 


395 


qaallfication  for  other  important  appointments.  Not  only 
the  judgeships  in  the  Superior  Courts  of  Law  and  Equity  at 
home  and  in  the  colonies,  but  nearly  all  the  magistracies 
<Si  minor  rank — recorderships,  county  court  judgeships,  ic, 
— are  restricted  to  the  bar.  The  result  is  a  unique  feature  in 
the  English  system  of  justice,  viz.,  the  perfect  harmony  of 
opinion  and  interest  between  the  bar  as  a  profession  and 
alt  degrees  of  the  judicial  bench. 

Bevising  Barristers  are  counsel  of  not  less  than  seven 
years'  standing  appointed  to  revise  the  lists  of  parliamentary 
voters. 

Barristers  cannot  maintain  an  action  for  their  fees,  which 
are  regarded  as  gratuities,  nor  can  they,  by  the  usage  of 
the  profession,  undertake  a  case  without  the  intervention 
of  an  attorney. 

B.\RROS,  JoAO  DE,  a  celebrated  Portuguese  historian, 
was  born  about  149G,  and  died  in  L570.  In  1522  he  was 
appointed  governor  of  St  George  del  Mina,  on  the  coast  of 
Guinea.  Three  years,  after,  the  king  recalled  him  to  court, 
and  made  him  treasurer  of  the  Indies.  This  appointment 
furnished  him  with  the  materials  necessary  for  the  composi- 
tion of  his  valuable  history,  entitled  Asia  Portuguesa,  the 
first  decade  ot  which  he  published  in  1552,  the  second  in 
1553,  and  the  third  in  1563  ;  the  fourth  was  not  published 
till  1615.  Several  authorshave  continued  the  work,  so  that 
it  extends  to  twelve  decades.  The  best  edition  is  that 
published  at  Lisbon,  in  1778,  in  9  vols.  8vo. 

BARROW-IN-FURNESS,  a  borough,  port,  and  parish 
in  the  hundred  of  Lonsdale,  North-West  Lancashire, 
situated  opposite  the  island  of  Walney,  at  the  e.\treme 
point  of  the  peninsula  of  Furness,  which  lies  between 
Morecambo  Bay  and  the  estuary  of  the  Duddon.  It  is 
distant  35  miles  from  Lancaster  and  91  from  Carlisle..  The 
area  oi  the  borough,  which  includes  Walney  and  the  islets 
at  its  south  end,  is  17,000  acres,  of  which  8155  are  land, 
the  rest  beiug  sand  and  water. 

The  town  has  had  a  remarkable  rise.  The  veins  of  pure 
haematite  iron  ore  in  the  district,  now  so  e.xtensively 
^wrought,  have  long  been  in  repute ;  and  more  than  a 
hundred  years  ago,  a  small  traOic  was  carried  on  in  the  ore, 
with  the  addition  by-andby  of  pig-iron,  which  early  began 
to  be  manufactured  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mines, — the  branch 
of  the  channel,  now  converted  into  docks,  serving  as  a 
harbour,  and  the  beach  as  a  quay,  for  the  shipment  of  the 
material  brought  down  from  the  mines  and  charcoal 
furnaces.  But  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  the 
annual  export  was  only  about  1000  tons,  and  then,  and  for 
many  years  after,  though  the  trade  went  on  increasing,  the 
place  was  the  merest  hamlet,  the  population  so  recently  as 
1847  being  only  325.  It  may  be  said  that  the  railway  has 
created  tho  modern  town.  By  the  opening  in  1846  of  the 
first  short  section  of  tho  Furness  Company's  lino,  from  the 
mines  near  Dalton  to  Piel  pier  and  Barrow,  tho  trade  of 
the  district  received  a  great  impetus,  and  it  rapidly 
developed  with  the  various  extensions  of  the  railway,  till 
in  1857,  by  the  corrying  of  the  line  over  Morecambe  sands, 
through  communication  was  establbhcd  between  Barrow 
and  Carnforth.  When  the  railway  was  opened  "the  ship- 
ments of  ore  had  risen  to  60,000  tons  a  year,  while  within 
five  years  afterwards  there  left  by  sea  and  rail  a  total  of 
250,000  which  ag^in,  within  other  five  years,  increased 
to  450,000  tons.  The  next  ^reat  onward  step  was  the 
establishment  at  Barrow,  in  1859,  of  the  iron-works  of 
Messrs  Schneider  and  Hannay,  followed  in  1864  by  the 
commcncemontof  steelworks,  the  two  being  united  in  1866 
under  "The  Barrow  Ha;matito  Steel  Company  (Limited)." 
In  1867  there  were  opened  the  Devonshire  and  Buccleuch 
docks,  constructed  at  a  comparatively  sm.all  cost  by  the 
enclosure  of  tho  channel  between  the  mainland  and  a 
•mall  island  on  which  shipbuilding  works  have  since  been 


erected.  The  docks  comprise  art  area  of  above  60  acres, 
are  entered  from  Walney  Channel  by  a  gateway  60  feet 
wide,  give  a  uniform  depth  of  24  feet,  the  stone  quays  being 
li  miles  long,  and  the  wharves  supplied  with  hydraulic 
cranes,  one  of  which  is  capable  of  lifting  100  tons.  Within 
a  few  years  after  the  opening  of  the  docks  various  impor- 
tant branches  of  industry  were  introduced,  by  means  of 
which  the  town  has  both  been  consolidated  and  increased. 
The  census  of  1871  gives  a  return  of  17,992,  while  a 
census  for  municipal  purposes,  November  1874,  showed 
a  population  of  over  40,000.  'The  inhabited  houses  at  the 
same  period  numbered  about  6U0O,  the  rateable  value  of 
the  borough  being  £144,000.  The  town  owes  much 
of  its  prosperity  to  the  enterprise  of  the  dukes  of  Devon- 
shire and  Buccleuch,  and  also  to  the  foresight,  zeal,  and 
practical  ability  of  Sir  James  Ramsden,  managing  director  of 
the  Furness  Railway  Company  and  first  mayor  of  the 
borough,  who  in  1872  received  tfie  honour  of  knighthood 
as  an  acknowledgement  of  the  value  of  bis  work,  while  a 
massive  bronze  statue  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  raised 
about  the  same  time  by  voluntary  contributions,  testifies  to 
the  appreciation  of  his  services  by  the  community. 

A  great  part  of  the  town  lies  low,  much  of  it  being  built 
on  ground  reclaimed  from  the  sea.  It  is  well  laid  out, 
according  to  a  fixed  plan,  in  regular  streets  running  at 
right  angles,  viz.,  north  and  south,  and  cast  and  west. 
About  XI  9,000  have  already  been  expended  on  approaches 
arid  general  road  improvements.  Not  many  public  buildings 
can  be  looked  for,  but  among  others  are  the  North  Lonsdale 
Hospital ;  tho  Workmen's  Club  and  Institute,  the  gift  of 
Mr  H.  W.  Schneider,and  others;  swimming  baths,  presented 
by  Sir  James  Ramsden  ;  a  town-hall  and  large  covered 
market,  besides  churches,  schools,  and  banks. 

The  first  place  among  the  public  works  must  be'assigned 
to  those  of  the  Barrow  Dsmatite  Steel  Company.  Their 
ironworks  have  sixteen  blast  furnaces  constructed  eo  as  to 
save  the  waste  gases,  which  are  utilised  in  heating  the 
boilers  and  hot-air  ovens.  At  the  steel-works,  which 
are  the  largest  in  Great  Britain,  are  eighteen  converters 
for  making  Bessemer  steel.  The  amount  of  ore  tised  ia 
about  460,000  tons  annually,  of  which  the  company's  own 
mines  yield  upwards  of  350,000  tons.  There  is  an  annual 
produce  of  250,000  tons  pig-iron,  and  110,000  tons  of 
steel,  80,000  tons  of  the  latter  being  rails.  In  the  pro- 
cesses about  500,000  tons  of  coke  and  coal  are  consumed 
annually ;  and  the  company  employ  at  their  works  and 
iron-mines  nearly.  5000  men,  besides  a  large  number  at 
co.al-mines  which  they  also  work. 

The  works  of  the  Iron  Shipbuilding  Company  (capital,  a 
quarter  of  a  million),  lying  between  the  docks  and  Walney 
Channel,  cover  an  area  of  50  acres,  with  a  frontage  of  1050 
teet,  where  ten  vessels  of  the  largest  size  can  be  laid  down. 
When  the  works  are  in  full  operation,  GOOO  men  will  be 
employed.     There  is  also  a  graving-dock  of  the  largest  size. 

■The  Barrow  Flax  and  Jute  Company  have  an  extensive 
jute  work  adjoining  the  docks,  and  communicating  with 
the  railway.  It  covers  an  area  of  1 4  acres,  has  an  imposing 
and  attractive  exterior,  and  is  beautifully  and  elaborately 
fitted  up  with  the  greatest  possible  regard  to  efficiency  and 
comfort.  The  works  employ  2000  hands.  Besides  the 
above  there  are  large  engineering-works,  waggon- works,  saw- 
mills, brick-works,  and  a  steam  corn-milL 

The  trade  of  the  port  is  indicated  by  tho  character  of 
the  public  works.  The  imports  are  chielly  timber,  coal, 
jute,  and  general  produce.  Ore,  steel  rails,  and  pig- 
iron  are  chief  among  the  exports.  In  1874  tho  vessels 
entering  the  port  numbered  1620,  with  a  tonnage  of  347,800 
tons  register.  An  extension  of  dock  accommodation  is 
being  provided  in  a  scries  of  basins,  to  be  called  th« 
Ramsden  dock,  with  a  water  area  of  200  acres.    Tasscnge) 


396 


B  A  R  —  B  A  R 


steamers  run  daily  to  Belfast,  and  ttere  is  ako  a  reg'jlar 
service  to  Glasgow  and  to^he  Isle  of  Man.  By  rail  there 
is  conneotion  with  Whitehaven,  and  with  the  London  and 
North- Western  and  Midland  systems,  with  branches  to  the 
Lake  district. 

Barrow  is  in  the  diocese  of  Carlisle.  Besides  the  Church 
of  England,  wh-ich  has  three  places  of  worship,  there-  are 
the  following  churches  : — the  Preibyterian,  Congregational, 
Wesleyan,  Methodist  New  Connexion,  Baptist,  and  Primi- 
tive Methodist, 

The  town  received  a  charter  of  incorporation  in  1867, 
when  a  covincil  of  sixteen  was  nominated,  that  number 
being  dovAled  by  an  Act  obtained  in  1875.  The  supply 
of  water  comes  from  Kirkby  Moor,  the  water- works  as  well 
as  the  gas-works  being  the  property  of  the  corporation. 
A  cemetery  has  been  provided  at  a  cost  of  £25,000,  with 
three  chapels.  A  complete  and  thorough  plan  of  drainage 
is  being  caTried  out,  partly  on  the  separate  system.  There 
is  a  fire  brigade  under  the  corporation,  and  at  the  entrance 
to  the  harbour  there  is  a  Ufe-boat  station.  The  police 
are  those  of  the  county.  Several  newspapers  are  published  ; 
and  there  are  branches  of  various  banking  establishments, 
eome  of  them  occupying  large  and  handsome  buildings. 

The  extensive  and  interesting  ruins  of  Furness  Abbey, 
founded  by  Stephen  in  1127,  lie  within  the  borough,  over 
two  miles  from  the  heart  of  the  town.  They  are  beauti- 
fully situated  in  a  small  wooded  valley,  with  a  hotel  and 
railway  station  close  by.  On  Piel  island  is  the  Pile  of 
Fouldrey,  or  Piel  castle,  the  ruin  of  a  castle  built  in  1327 
by  the  abbot  of  Forncss. 

BAHROW,  ISA.AC,  an  eminent  mathematician  and  divine, 
was  the  son  of  Thomas  Barrow,  a  linen  draper  in  London, 
where  he  was  born  in  1630.  He  was  at  first  placed  for 
two  or  three  years  at  the  Charter-house  school.  There, 
however,  his  conduct  gave  but  little  hopes  of  his  ever  suc- 
ceeding as  a  scholar,  for  he  was  inattentive  and  extremely 
fond.of  fighting.  Jjut  after  his  removal  from  this  establish- 
ment, his  disposition  took  a  happier  turn  ;  and  having  soon 
made  considerable  progress  in  learning,  he  was  in  1643 
entered  at  St  Peter's  College,  and  afterwards  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  applied  himself  with  great 
diligence  to  the  study  of  literature  and  science,  especially 
of  natural  philosophy.  He  at  first  intended  to  adopt  the- 
medical  profession,  and  made  some  progress  in  anatomy, 
botany,  and  chemistry,  after  which  he  studied  chronology, 
geometry,  and  astronomy.  He  then  travelled  iu  France 
and  Italy,  and  in  a  voyage  from  Leghorn  to  Smyrna  gave 
proofs  of  great  personal  bravery  ;  for  the  ship  having  been 
attacked  by  an  Algerinc  pirate,  Barrow  remained  upon  deck, 
and  fought  with  the  utmost  intrepidity,  until  the  pirate, 
unprepared  for  the  stout  resistance  made  by  the  ship,  sheered 
off  and  left  her  to  pursue  her  voyage. 

At  BmjTua  he  met  with  a  most  kind  reception  from  the 
English  consul,  Mr  Bretton,  upon  whoso  death  he  after- 
wards wrote  a  Latin  elegy.  From  this  place  he  proceeded 
to  Constantinople,  where  he  received  similar  civilities  from 
Sir  Thomas  Bendish,  the  English  ambassador,  and  Sir 
Jonathan  Dawes,  with  whom  he  afterwards  contracted  an 
intimate  friendship.  While  at  Constantinoplete  read  and 
,  studied  the  works  of  Chrysostom,  once  bishop  of  that  see, 
•whom  he  preferred  to  all  the  other  Fathers.  lie  resided  in 
Turkey  somewhat  more  than  a  year,  after  which  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Venice,  oiid  thence  returiicd  Jiome  through 
Germany  and  Holland  in  IC^Q.  Immediately  on  his  reach 
^g  England  ho  received  ordination  from  Bishop  Brownrig, 
end  in  1600  he  was  appointed  to  the  Greek  professorship 
at  Cambridge.  When  he  entered  upon  this  office  he 
ioteDdod  to  have  prelected  upon  the  tragedies  of  Sophocles; 
but  he  altered  his  intention,  and  made  choice  of  Aria- 
tollo'a    rhetoric.      His    lectures   on    this   suMcct    havinc 


been  lent  to  a  friend  who  never'  returned  ttcm,  are  irre- 
coverably lost.  In  July  16G2  he  was  elected  professor  of 
geometry  in  Gresham  College,  cm  the  recommendation  of 
I)r  Wilkins,  master  of  Trinity  College,  and  afterwards 
bishop  of  Chester;  and  in  M.iy  1563  be  was  chosen  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  at  the  first  election  made  by 
the  council  after  obtaining  their  charier.  The  same  year 
the.  executors  of  Mr  Lucas,  who,  according  to  the  terms 
of  his  will,  had  founded  a  mathematical  chair  at  Cam- 
bridge, fixed  upon  Barrow  as  the  first  professor j  and 
although  his  two  professorships  were  not  inconsistent  with 
eacl^  other,  he  chose  to  resign  that  of  Gresham  College, 
which  he  did  on  the  20th  May  IfiCl.  In  1669  he  resigned 
his  mathematical  chair  to  his  illustrious  pupil  Isaac  New 
ton,  having  now  determined  to  renounce  the  study  of 
mathematics  for  that  of  divinty.  Upon  quitting  his  pro- 
fessorship Barrow  was  only  a  fellow  of  Trinity  College;  but 
his  uncle  gave  him  a  small  sinecure  in  Wales,  and  Dr  Seth 
Ward,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  conferred  upon  him  a  prebend 
in  that  church.  In  the  year  1670  he  was  created  doctor 
in  divinity  by  mandate  ;  and,  upon  the  promotion  of  Dr 
Pearson,' master  of  Trinity  College,  to  the  see  of  Chester, 
he  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  by  the  king's  patent, 
bearing  date  the  13th  February  1672.  ^  In  1675  Dr  Barrow 
was  chosen  vice-chancellor  of  the  university.  He  died  on 
the  4th  of  May  1677,  in  the  47th  year  of  his  age,  and  was 
interred  in  Westminster  Abbey,  where  a  monument,  sur- 
mounted by  his  bust,  was  soon  after  erected  by  the 
contributions  of  his  friends.  By  his  English  contemporaries 
Barrow  was  considered  a  mathematician  second  only  to 
Newtim.  Continental  writers  do  not  place  him  so  high, 
and  their  judgment  is  probably  the  more  correct  one.  He 
was  undoubtedly  a  clearsighted  and' able  mathematician, 
who  handled  admirably  the  severe  geometrical  method,  and 
who  in  his  Method  of  Tangents  approximated  to  the  course 
of  reasoning  by  which  Newton  was  afterwards  led  to  the 
doctrine  of  Ultimate  Ratios  ;  but  his  substantial  contribu- 
tions to  the  science  are  of  no  great  importance,  and  his 
lectures  upon  elementary  principles  do  not  throw  much 
light  on  the  difliculties  surrounding  the  border-land  between 
mathematics  and  philosophy.  His  Sermons  have  long 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation ;  they  are  weighty  pieces  of 
reasoning,  elaborate  in  construction  and  ponderous  in  style. 

His  scicTitific  works  are  very  numerous.  Tlie  most  important 
are:  —  1.  Eitclid's  Elements;  2,  Euclni'ft  Data;  3.  Optical  Lectures, 
read  in  ibe  public  school  of  Caiiibmlge  ;  4.  Thirteen  Oeeyjiietricat 
Leclurts ;  5.  The  Works  c/  Archimedes,  the  Four  Books  of  Jpol- 
loniiis's  Covic  Sections,  and  Throdosius's  Spheric3,  explained  in  a 
AVti'  Method;  6  A  Lecture,  in  wbieh  Arcliimeiles's Theorems  of  the 
Sphere  and  Cylinder  are  investigated  andbrie[ly  demonstrated;  7. 
M'llheTiiatical  Lectures,  read  m  the  public  schools  of  the  Uuivcrhily 
of  Cambridge.  The  above  were  all  written  in  Latin.  His  Kngli&h 
works  have  been  collected  and  published  in  four  volmnes  folio. 

BARROW,  Sib  John,  Bart.,  was  burn  near  Ulverston, 
in  Lancashire,  June  19,  1764.  His  early  opportunities  of 
instruction  were  limited  ;  but  by  self-education  he  matured 
those  jiowers  which  eventually  were  turned  to  so  good  an 
account.  He  displayed  at  an  early  ago  a  decided  inclina- 
tion for  mathematical  pursuits,  lie  passed  some  years  of 
his  youth  as  superintciuliiig  clerk  of  an  iron  foundry  at 
Liverpool,  and  he  afterwards  taught  mathematics  at  an 
acailciny  in  Grcenwicli.  ^Vhilc  in  the  latter  situation  he  was 
fortnuute  in  obtaining,  through  the  interest  of  Sir  George 
Staunton,  a  place  in  the  first  British  embassy  to  China.  He 
was  Uius  enabled  to  put  his  foot  on  the  first  steji  of  the  lad- 
der of  ambition  ;  but  each  step  in  his  subsequent  career 
may  be  fairly  said  to  have  been  achieved  by  himself.  The 
account  of  the  embassy  publi.slied  by  Sir  George  Staunton 
records  many  of  Barrow's  valuable -contribution."!  to  litera- 
ture and  science  connected  with  China,  This  work, 
together  with  his  own  Bubseq'.'cntly  published  volume  c;" 


B  A  R  — B  A  R 


397 


triTeTs,  is  ample  evidence  how  welt  his  lime  haJ  been 
erapliiyed  Few  persons  could,  within  the  space  of  u  few 
months,  overcome  all  the  prjctical  dilTicultiea  of  such  a 
language  as  the  Chinese;  but  Barrow  sood  began  to  con- 
verse in  It.  and  acquired  a  complete  linowlcdge  of  its  theory. 
His  papers  on  this  subject  in  the  Quarterly  Htview  (to 
which  periodical  he  was  for  many  years  a  very  frequent 
contributor)  contain  a  very  admirable  account  of  that 
jiiigular  language. 

Although  Barrow  ceased  to  be  personally  connected  with 
Chinese  affairs  after  the  return  of  the  embassy  in  17'j-t, 
he  always  continued  to  take  a  lively  interest  in  ihem,  and 
on  critical  occasions  was  frequently  consulted  by  the  British 
Government.'  His  services  were  secured  by  Lord  Macartney 
in  his  important  and  delicate  mission  to  settle  the  govern- 
ment of  the  newly-acquired  colony  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hoi«.  Barrow  was  entrusted  with  opening  communica- 
tions with  the  Kaffres,  io  which  he  displayed  a  spirit, 
judgment,  and  humanity,  which  unfortunately  were  less 
conspicuous  in  subsequent  transactions  with  those  tribes. 
The  two  volumes  of  his  history  of  the  colony  made  the 
public  fully  acquainted  with  the  e.^tcnt,  capacities,  and 
resources  of  that  iniporiant,  but  till  then  little  understood, 
acquisition  of  the  British  Crown.  There  is  little  doubt  that 
it  was  the  perusal  of  this  valuable  work  which  mainly 
decided  Lord  Melville  to  appoint  Barrow,  though  then  a 
perfect  stranger  to  him,  as  his  second  secretary  of  the 
Admiralty.  Barrow's  subsequent  career  for  forty  years  at 
the  Admiralty  (embracing  the  wholo  period  of  the  war  with 
France),  will  be  for  ever  historically  associated  with  the  civil 
administration  of  the  British  navy  /or  the  same  period. 
He  enjoyed  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  all  the  eleven 
chief  lords  who  successively  presidtd  at  the  Admiralty 
Board  during  that  period,  and  more  especially  of  Kin^ 
William  IV.,  ifhile  lord  high,  admiral,  who  honoured  him 
with  tokens  of  his  personal  regard.  Barrow  was  a  fel- 
low of  the  Royal  Society,  and  had  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
The  honour  of  a  baronetcy  was  conferred  ou  him  by  Sir 
Robert  Peel  in  1835  ;  the  letter  in  which  the  honour  was 
announced  acknowledged,  in  highly  gratifying  terms,  his 
literary  and  scientific  eminence,  and  his  'Mong,  most  able, 
and  most  faithful  public  service." 

Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  Barrow  published 
the  lives  of  Lord  Macartney,  Lord  Anson,  Loid  Howe,  and 
Peter  the. Great ;  and  he  was  also  the  author  of  several 
valuable  contributions  to  the  aeveuth  edition  of  the 
Encyclopedia  Britannica. 

He  retired  from  public  life  in  1845,  in  consideration  of 
bis  advanced  years,  although  still  in  vigorous  possession  of 
all  the  mental  and  bodily  powers  required  for  the  due 
discharge  of  the  functions  of  his  o85co.  In  the  course  of 
the  three  following  years  his  vital  energies  gradually 
declined,  but  he  nevertheless  continued  so  fully  in  the 
enjoyment  of  his  faculties,  writing  a  history'of  the  modem 
Arctic  voyages  of  discovery,  of  which  he  was  a  great 
promoter,  as  well  as  his  autobiography,  published  in  1847, 
that  his  friends  and  relatives  entertained  no  apprehension 
that  his  end  was  so  near.  He  expired  suddenly  on  the  23d 
November  1 848,  in  the  85th  year  of  his  age,  much  honoured 
•nd  respected  by  his  friends  and  the  public  at  large. 

BARROWS.  I'he  custom  of  constructing  barrows,  or 
mounds  of  stones  or  earth,  over  the  remains  of  the  dead 
was  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  sepulchral 
tystcms  of  primitive  times.  Originating  in  the  common 
sentiment  of  humanity,  which  desires  by  some  visible 
memorial  to  honour  and  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the 
dead,  it  was  practised  alike  by  nations  of  high  and  of 
low  development,  and  continued  through  all  the  stages  of 
culture  that  preceded  the  introduction  of  Christianity. 
The   primary  idea  of  sepulture  appears  to  have  been  the 


I  provision  of  a  habitation  for  the  dead  ;  and  thus,  in  iti 
perfect  form,  the  barrow  included  a  chamber  or  chambeci 
where  the  tenant  was  surrounded  with  all  the  prized 
possessions  of  his  previous  life.  A  common  feature  of  the 
earlier  barrows  IS  the  enclosing  fence,  wbich  marked  ofif,  the 
site  from  the  surrounding  ground.  When  the  barrow  ■was 
of  earth,  this  was  usually  cllected  by  an  encircling  trench 
or  a  low  vallum.  When  the  barrow  was  a  stone  str.ucture, 
the  enclosure  was  usually  a  circle  of  standing  stones. 
Sometimes,  instead  of  a  chamber  formed  above  ground, 
the  barrow  covered  a  pit  excavated  under  the  original 
surface,  in  which  the  interments  had  been  made.  In  latei 
times  the  mound  itself  was  frequently  dispensed  with, 
and  the  interments  made  under  the  natural  surface,  within 
the  enclosure  of  a  trench,  a  vallum,  or  a  circle  of  standing 
stones.  Usually  the  great  barrows  occupy  conspicuous 
sites ;  but  in  general  the  eiternal  form  is  no  index  to  the 
internal  construction,  and  gives  no  absolute  indication  of 
the  nature  of  the  sepulchral  usages.  Thus,  while  the  long 
barrow  is  characteristic  of  the  Stone  Age,  it  is  impossible 
to  tell  without  direct  examination  whether  it  may  bo 
chambered  or  unchambered,  or  whether  the  burials  withiu  it 
may  be  those  of  burnt  or  of  unburnt  bodies. 

In  England  the  long  barrow  usually  contains  a  single 
chamber,  entering  by  a  passage  underneath  the  higher  and 
wider  end  of  the  mound.  In  Denmark  the  chambers  are 
at  irregular  intervals  along  the  body  of  the  mound,  aud 
have  no  passages  leading  into  them.  The  long  barrows  o( 
Great  Britain  are  often  from  200  to  400  feet  in  length  by 
60  to  80  feet  wide.  Their  chambers  are  rudely  but  strongly 
built,  with  dome-shaped  roofs,  formed  by  overla^iping  tim 
successive  courses  of  the  upper  part  of  the  side  walls.  In 
Scandinavia,  on  the  other  hand,  such  dome-roofed  chambers 
are  unknown,  and  the  construction  of  the  chambers  as  a  rule 
is  megalithic;  five  or  six  monoliths  supporting  a  capstone 
of  enormous  size.  Such  chambers  denuded  of  the  covering 
mound,  or  over  which  no  covering  mound  has  been  raised, 
are  popularly  known  in  England  as  "  cromlechs  "  and  ir 
France  as  "  dolmens."  The  prevailing  mode  of  sepulture 
in  all  the  different  varieties  of'  these  structures  is  by  tha 
deposit  of  the  body  in  a  contracted  position,  accompanied 
by  weapons  and  implements  of  stone,  otcasionaliy  by 
ornaments  of  gold,  jet,  or  amber.  Vessels  of  clay,  more 
or  less  ornate  in  character,  which  occur  with  these  early 
interments  of  unburnt  bodies,  are  regarded  as  food  vessels 
and -drinking  cups,  differing  in  character  and  purpc-ic  from 
the  cinerary  urns  of  the  Cremation  Period  in  which  tha 
ashes  of  the  dead  were  deposited. 

The  custom  of  burning  the  body  commenced  in  the  Stone 
Age  before  the  long  barrow  or  the  cromlech,  with  their 
contracted  burials,  had  passed  out  of  Use.  While  cremation 
is  rare  in  the  long  barrows  of  the  south  of  England,  it  is 
the  rule  in  those  of  Yorkshire  and  the  north  of  Scotland. 
In  Ireland,  where  the  long  barrow  form  is  all  but  unknown, 
the  round  barrow,  or  chambered  cairn,  prevailed  from  the 
earliest  Pagan  period  till  the  introduction  of  Christianity. 
The  Irish  barrows  occur  in  groups  in  certain  localities, 
which  seem  to  have  been  the  royal  cemeteries  of  the  tribal 
confederacies,  whereof  eight  arc  enumerated  in  an  ajicicnt 
Celtic  manuscript  on  Pagan  cemeteries.  The  best  bnown 
of  these  was  the  burial-place  of  the  kings  of  Tara.  It  is 
situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Boyne  above  Drogheda,  aud 
consists  of  a  group  of  the  largest  cairns  in  Ireland.  One 
of  these,  at  New  Orange,  is  a  huge  mound  of  stones  and 
earth,  over  300  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base,  and  70  feet  in 
height.  Around  its  base  •aro  the  remainc  of  a  circle  ol 
largo  standing  stones.  The  chamber,  which  is  20  feet 
high  in  the  centre,  is  reached  by  a  passage  1Q  lent  in 
length.     (See  illustration,  vol.  ii.  p.  384.) 

As  in  the  case  of  the  long  barrows,  the  traditional  (ons 


398 


BARROWS 


of  the  circular  chamfcered  barrows  was  retained  through 
various  changes  in  the  sepulchral  custoras  of  the  people, 
and  we  find  it  used  both  in  connection  with  burnt  and  with 
unburnt  burials.  It  was  the  natural  result  of  the  practice 
of  cremation,  however,  that  it  should  induce  a  modification 
of  the  barrow  structore.  The  chamber,  no  longer  regarded 
as  a  habitation  to  be  tenanted  by  the  deceased,  became 
simply  a  cist  for  the  reception  of  the  urn  which  held  his 
ashes.  The  degradation  of  the  chamber  naturally  produced 
a  corresponding  degradation  of  the  mound  which  covered 
it,  and  the  barrows  of  the  Bronze  Age,  in  which  cremation 
was  the  rule,  are  smaller  and  less  imposing  than  those  of 
the  Stone  Age,  but  often  surprisingly  rich  in  the  relics  of 
the  life  and  of  the  art  workmanship  of  the  time.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  varied  and  beautiful  forms  of  implements  and 
weapons, — frequently  ornamented  with  a  high  degree  of 
artistic  taste, — armlets,  coronets,  or  diadems  of  solia  gold, 
and  vases  of  elegant  form  and  ornamentation  in  gold  and 
bronze,  are  not  uncommon.  The'  barrows  of  the  Bronze 
Period,  like  some  of  those  of  the  Stone  Age,  appear  to  have 
been  used  as  tribal  or  family  cemeteries.  In  Denmark  as 
many  as  seventy  deposits,  of  burnt  interments  have  been 
observed  in  a  single  mound,  indicating  its  use  as  a  burying- 
place  throughout  a  long  succession  of  years. 

In  the  early  Iron  Age  there  was  a  partial  return  to  the 
more  massive  construction  of  the  earlier  periods.  Some- 
times chambers  are  found  formed  of  timber  instead  of 
stones,  in  which  the  bodies  were  deposited  unburnt, 
although  the  custom  of  cremation  was  largely  continued. 
In  Scandinavia  both  of  these  modes  of  sepulture  lingered 
till  the  close  of  the  Pagan  time.  One  of  the  latest 
examples  of  the  great  timber-chambered  barrow  is  that  at 
Jellinge  in  Jutland,  known  as  the  barrow  of  Thyre 
Danebod,  queen  of  King  Gorm  the  Old,  who  died  about 
the  middle  of  the  10th  century.  It  is  a  mound  about  200 
feet  in  diameter,  and  over  50  feet  in  height,  containing  a 
chamber  23  feet  long,  -8  feet  wide,  and  5  feet  high,  formed 
X)f  massive  slabs  of  oak.  Though  it  had  been  entered  and 
plundered  in  the  Middle  Ages,  a  few  relics,  overlooked  by 
its  original  violators,  were  found  when  it  was  recently 
reopened,  among  which  were  a  silver  cup,  ornamented  with 
the  interlacing  .work  characteristic  of  the  time,  and  some 
personal  ornaments.  It  is  highly  illustrative  of  the  tenacity 
with  which  the  ancient  sepulchral  usages  were  retained  even 
after  the  introduction  of  Christianity  that  King  Harald, 
son  and  successor  of  Gorm  the  Old,  who  is  said  to  have 
Christianized  all  Denmark  and  Norway,  followed  the  Pagan 
custom  of  erecting  a  chambered  tumulus  over  the  remains 
ot  his  father,  on  the  summit  of  which  was  placed  a 
rude  pillar-stone,  bearing  on  one  side  the  memorial  inscrip- 
tion in  Kunes,  and  on  the  other  a  representation  of  the 
Saviour  of  mankind  distinguished  by  the  crossed  nimbus 
Bnrrounding  the  head.  The  Kings'  Hows  at  Upsala  in 
Sweden  rival  those  ot  Jellinge  in  size  and  height.  In 
the  chamber  of  one  of  them,  which  was  opened  in  1829, 
there  was  found  an  urn  full  of  calcined  bones ;  and 
along, with  it  were  some  ornaments  of  gold  showing  the 
characteristic  workmanship  of  the  5th  and  Gth  centuries  of 
the  Christian  era.  Along  with  the  calcined  human  bones 
were  bones  of  animals,  among  which  those  of  the  horse  and 
the  dog  were  distingxiished.  In  much  earlier  times  the 
favourite  horse  or  dog  of  the  deceased  was  frequently 
deposited  in  Etruscan  tombs,  and  the  custom  continued 
in  Northern  Europe  until  cremation,  and  the  barbarous 
rites  which  usually  accompanied  it,  were  abolished  by  the 
stringent  prohibitions  of  the  Christian  church. 

Cemparing  the  results  of  the  researches  in  European 
barrowa  with  such  notices  of  barrow-burial  as  may  bo 
{^leaned  from  early  writing?,  we  find  them  mutually  illus- 
vtalive. 


The  Homeric  account  of  the  building  of  the  barrow  oi 
Hector  (II.  xxiv.)  brings  vividly  before  us  the  scene  »o 
often  suggested  by  the  examination  of  the  tumuli  of  pre- 
historic times.  During  nine  days  wood  was  collected  and 
brought,  in  carts  drawn  by  oxen,  to  the  site  of  the  funeral 
pyre.  Then  the  pyre  was  budt  and  the  body  laid  upon  it. 
After  burning  for  twenty-four  hours  the  smouldering  embers 
were  extinguished  with  libations  of  wine.  The  white  and 
calcined  bones  were  then  picked  out  of  the  ashes  by  the 
friends  and  placed  in  a  metallic  urn,  which  was  deposited 
in  a  hollow  grave,  or  cist,  and  covered  over  with  large  well- 
fitting  stones.  Finally,  a  barrow  of  great  magnitude  was 
heaped  over  the  remains,  and  the  funeral  feast  was  cele- 
brated. The  obsequies  of  AchUles,  as  described  in  the 
Odyssey,  were  also  celebrated  with  details  which  are  strik- 
ingly similar  to  those  observed  in  tumuli  both  of  the  Bronze 
and  Iron  Ages.  The  body  was  brought  to  the  pile  in  an 
embroidered  robe,  and  jars  of  unguents  and  honey  were 
placed  beside  it.  Sheep  and  oxen  were  slaughtered  at  the 
pile.  The  incinerated  bones  were  collected  from  the  ashes 
and  placed  in  a  golden  urn  along  with  those  of  Patroclus, 
Achilles's  dearest  friend.  Over  the  remains  a  great  and 
shapely  mound  was  raised  on  the  high  headland,  so  that  it 
might  be  seen  from  afar 'by  future  generations  of  men. 

Herodotus,  describing  the  funeral  customs  of  the  Scy- 
thians, states  that,  on  the  death  of  a  chief,  the  body  was 
placed  upon  a  couch  in  a  chamber  sunk  in  the  earth- and 
covered  with  timber,  in  which  were  deposited  all  things  need- 
ful for  the  comfort  of  the  deceased  in  the  other  world.  One 
of  his  wives  was  strangled  and  laid  beside  him,  his  cup- 
bearer and  other  attendants,  his  charioteer,  and  his  horses, 
were  killed  and  placed  in  the  tomb,  which  was  then  filled 
up  with  earth,  and  an  enormous  mound  raised  high  over 
all  The  barrows  which  cover  the  plainsof  ancient  Scythia. 
attest  the  truth  of  this  description.  A  Siberian  barrow^ 
described  by  Demidofi",  contained  three  contiguous  chamber^ 
of  unhewn  stone.  In  the  central  chamber  lay  the  skeleton 
of  the  ancient  chief,  with  his  sword,  his  spear,  his  bow, 
and  a  quiver  full  of  arrows.  The  skeleton  reclined  upon 
a  sheet  of  pure  gold,  extending  the  whole  length  of  the 
body,  which  had  been  wrapped  in  a  mantle  broidered  with 
gold  and  studded  with  precious  stones.  Over  it  was 
extended  another  sheet  of  pure  gold.  In  a  smaller  cham- 
ber at  the  chief's  head  lay  the  skeleton  of  a  female,  richly 
attired,  extended  upon  a  sheet  of  pure  gold,  and  similarly 
covered  with  a  sheet  of  the  saqie  metal.  A  golden  chain 
adorned  her  neck,  and  her  arms  were  encircled  with  brace- 
lets of  pure  gold.  In  a  third  chamber,  at  the  chiefs  feet, 
lay  the  skeleton  of  his  favourite  horse  with  saddle,  bridle, 
and  stirrups. 

So  curiously  alike  in  their  general  features  were  the 
sep(ilchral  usages  connected  with  barrow-burial  over  the 
whole  of  Europe,  that  we  find  the  Anglo-Saxon  Saga 
of  Beowulf  describing  the  chambered  tumulus  with  its 
gigantic  masonry  "  held  fast  on  props  with  vaults  of  stone," 
and  the  passage  under  the  mound  haunted  by  a  dragon, 
the  guardian  of  the  treasures  of  heathen  gold  which  it  con- 
tained. Beowulf's  own  burial  is  minutely  described  in 
terms  which  have  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  parallel 
passages  in  the  Iliad  and  Odyssfy.  There  is  first  the  pre- 
paration of  the  pile,  which  is  hung  round  with  helmets, 
shields,  and  coats  of  mail  Then  the  corpse  is  brought  and 
laid  in  the  midst ;  the  pile  is  kindled,  and  the  roaring 
flame  rises,  mingled  with  weeping,  til)  all  is  consumed. 
Then,  for  ten  long  days,  the  warriors  labour  at  the  rearing 
of  his  mighty  mound  on  the  headland,  high  and  broad,  to 
bo  seen  afar  by  the  passers  by  on  land  and  sea. 

The  pyramids  of  Egypt,  the  niausolea  of  the  Lydian 
kings,  the  sepulchres  of  the  Atreidi-e  at  Mycenie,  and  tba 
Etruscan  tombs  at  Cxre  and  Yolci,  are  lineally  dcsceoded 


B  A  R  — B  A  R 


399 


from  tlie  chambered  barrows  of  prehistoric  times,  modified 
ID  cuostructiuQ  accordiDg  to  the  advaacemeot  of  architec- 
tural art  at  the  period  of  their  erection.  There  u  no 
country  in  Europe  destitute  of  more  or  less  abundant  proofs 
of  the  almost  universal  prevalence  of  barrow-burial  in  early 
times.  It  can  be  traced  on  both  sides  of  the  basin  of  the 
Mediterranean,  in  Northern  Afric-a,  and  in  Asia  Minor, 
across  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  in  the  valley  of  Cubul,  and 
throughout  Western  India.  But  more  extended  research 
in  the  archaeology  of  these  vast  regions  is  needed  to  enable 
us  to  correlate  their  aacieoc  remains  with  tho^e  of  the 
European  continent. 

In  the  New  World  as  well  as  m  the  Old,  the  same 
customs  prevailed  over  vast  areas  from  a  very  remote 
period.  In  the  great  plains  of  North  America  the  dead 
were  buried  in  barrows  of  enormous  magnitude,  which 
occasionally  present  a  remarkable  similarity  to  the  long 
barrows  of  Great  Britain.  In  these  mounds  cremation 
appears  more  frequently  than  inhumation  ,  and  both  are 
accompanied  by  implements,  weapons,  and  ornaments  of 
stone  and  bone.  The  pottery  accompanymg  the  remains 
in  often  elaborately  ornamented,  and  the  mound  builders 
were  evidently  possessed  of  a  higher  development  of  taste 
and  skill  than  is  evinced  by  any  of  the  modern  aboriginal 
races,  b;^whom  the  mouncb  and  their  contents  are  regarded 
as  utterly  mysterious. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  customs  so  widely 
tpread  and  so  deeply  rooted  as  those  conne'^ted  with 
barrow-burial  should  have  been  difficult  to  eradicate.  In 
fact,  compliance  with  the  Christian  practice  of  inhumation 
in  the  cemeteries  sanctioned  by  the  church.was  only  enf  orced 
in  Europe  by  capitularies  denouncing  the  punishment  of 
death  on  those  who  persisted  in  burying  their  dead  after 
the  Pagan  fashion  or  in  the  Pagan  mounds.  Yet  even 
in  the  Middle  Ages  kings  were  buried  with  their  swords 
and  spears,  and  queen*  with  their  spindles  and  ornaments ; 
the  bishop  was  laid  in  iis  grave  with  his  crosier  and  comb, 
bis  chalice  and  vestments ;  and  clay  vessels  filled  with 
charcoal  (answering  to  the  urns  of  heathen  times)  are  found 
with  the  intermente  in  the  churches  of  France  and  Denmark. 

S«e  Bateman,  Ten  I'mrj'  Diggings ;  Davis  and  Thumam,  Crania 
Britanniai:  Thurnam,  "Ancieut  British  Barrotas,"  in  A rrhocologia ; 
CtDoo  Greenwcll,  Dr  Angus  Smith,  and  J.  Anderson,  "On  Cairns 
JD  Arjtyle  and  Caithness,"  in  Proaedings  of  the  Society  of  Anli- 
quariei  of  Scotland  ;  Petrie,  Histories  and  Antiquities  of  Tara,  and 
Round  Towers  o^ /rr /and/TVorsaae'a  Antiquities  of  Denmark,  trans- 
lated by  Tboma  ;  Nicdlaysen,  Norske  Fornhvninger  ;  Montelius, 
La  Suide  Prikistorique;  Cochet,  La  Normandie  Souterraine ,  Squier 
tnd  Davis,  Ancient  ifonuments  of  the  itississippi  Valley  ;  Stevens, 
Flint  Chips,  Ferguson,  Sloru  Monument)  of  all  Countries.     (J.  AN.) 

BARROW'S  STRAITS,  a  portion  of  the  channel 
which  runs  W.  from  Baffin's  Bay  through  the  isknds  of  the 
Arctic  archipelago  to  Melville  Sound.  It  lies  between  73° 
45'  and  74°  40'  N.  lat.,  is  about  200  miles  in  length,  and  has 
an  average  breadth  of  60  or  70  miles.  In  many  places  it 
is  upwards  of  200  fathoms  in  depth.  The  coasts  on  both 
•ides  are  generally  steep  and  rugged,  with  numerous  bays 
and  inlets,  the  most  important  of  which  b  the  Prince 
Regent  Inlet,  which  runs  S.  into  the  Gulf  of  Boothia. 

BARRY,  Sir  Charles,  a  distinguished  English  architect, 
was  bom  at  Westminster,  May  23,  1795.  After  pursuing 
his  elementary  professional  studies  for  sii  years  as  apprentice 
to  a  firm  of  architects  at  Lambeth,  he  set  out,  in  1817,  on 
the  customary  foreign  tour,  visiting  Greece  and  Italy, 
Egypt  and  Palestine,  and  enriching  his  memory  and 
imagination  by  the  study  of  the  great  buildings  and 
remains  of  former  ages.  On  his  return  to  England  in  1820 
he  settled  in  London,  and  was  not  slow  in  attaining 
distinction.  One  of  the  first  works  by  which  his  abilities 
as  an  architect  became  generally  known  was  the  church  of 
.Bt  Peter  at  Brighton,— an  attempt  in  Perpendicular  Gothic 


completed  in  1826.  Re  built  many  other  churches;  but 
the  marked  preference  for  Italian  architecture,  which  he 
acquired  during  Lis  travels,  showed  itself  in  various  impor- 
tant undertakings  of  Lis  earlier  years.  lu  1831  he  erected 
the  Travellers'  Club  in  Pull  Mall,  a  splendid  work  in  tho 
Italian  style,  and  the  first  of  its  kind  budt  in  London.  In 
the  same  style  and  on  a  grander  scale,  he  erected,  some 
years  later,  the  Reform  Club.  It  ia  UDueeessary  to  par- 
ticularize the  numerous  private  mansions  on  which  he  was 
engaged,  one  of  the  latest  and  most  magnificent  of  which 
was  Bridgewater  House,  the  town  residence  of  the  earl  of 
EUesmere.  Birmingham  possesses  one  of  his  best  works 
in  the  buildings  of  King  Edward's  grammar  school,  in  the 
Tudor  style.  For  Manchester  he  designed  the  Athenaeum, 
in  the  Italian  style  ;  and  for  Halifax,  the  townhalL  Ha 
was  engaged  for  some  years  in  reconstructing  the  Treasury 
buildings,  Whitehall.  But  his  masterpiece,  and  perhaps, 
notwithstanding  all  unfavourable  criticism,  the  masterpiece 
of  English  architecture  of  the  19th  century,  is  the  new 
palace  at  Westminster.  After  the  destruction  of  the  old 
liouses  of  parliament  by  fire  in  October  1834,  Barry  wa» 
the  successful  competitor  for  erecting  the  new  palace. 
The  firirt  stone  was  laid  in  the  spring  of  1840;  the  work 
was  steadily  carried  on  in  the  face  of  many  difficulties,  and. 
through  a  maze  of  private  dissensions  and  public  complaints, 
and  it  was  at  length  completed  in  1860.  Twenty  years 
seemed  long  in  passing,  but  once  past  the  time  assuredlj- 
will  no  more  seem  too  long  to  have  been  employed  in  the 
erection,  or,  we  might  say,  allowed  for  the  growth  of  this 
stately  and  beautiful  pile,  one  of  the  truest  glories  of  the 
banks  of  the  Thames.  Barry  was  elected  A.R.A.  in  1840, 
and  R.A.  in  the  following  year.  His  genius  and  achieve- 
ments were  recognized  by  the  representative  artistic  bodies 
of  the  principal  European  nations  ;  and  bis  name  was 
enrolled  as  a  member  of  the  academies  of  art  at  Rome, 
Berlin,  St  Petersburg,  Brussels,  and  Stockholm.  He  was 
chosen  F.R.S.  in  1849,  and  was  knighted  by  the  Queen  in 
1852.  He  died  suddenly  at  Clapham,  near  London,  May 
12,  1860,  and  his  remains  were  interred  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  In  1867  appeared  a  life  of  Sir  Charles  Barry  by 
his  son,  Dr  Alfred  Barry,  principal  of  King's  College, 
London.  A  claim  was  thereupon  set  up  on  behalf  of  Mr 
A.  Welby  Pugin  deceased,  who  had  been  Barry's  assistant, 
to  a  much  larger  share  in  the  work  of  designing  the  West- 
minster Palace  than  was  admitted  in  Dr  Barry's  narrative. 
The  controversy  raged  foi"  a  time,  but  -without  substantiating^ 
Mr  Pugin's  claim. 

BARRY,  J.i.ME.s,  an  eminent  painter,  was  born  at  Cork 
on  the  11th  October  1741.  His  father  had  been  a  builder, 
and,  at  one  time  of  his  life,  a  coasting  trader  between  the 
two  countries  of  England  and  Ireland.  To  this  business 
of  trader  James  was  destined,  and  he  actually  made,  whea 
a  boy,  several  voyages ;  but  these  being  forced  upon  him, 
he  on  one  occasion  ran  away  from  the  ship,  and  on  all  othen 
manifested  such  an  aversion  to  the  life  and  habits  of  a 
sailor,  as  to  induce  his  father  to  relinquish  all  hopes  of  him 
in  this  line,  and  to  sufi'er  him  to  pursue  his  inclinations, 
which  led  strongly  towards  drawing  and  study.  At  the 
schools  in  Cork  to  which  ho  was  sent,  he  was  distinguished 
above  his  schoolfellows  by  his  talents  and  industry ;  his 
habits  differed  from  those  of  ordinary  boys ;  he  seldom 
mixed  in  their  games  or  amusements,  but  during  play-houra 
stole  off  to  his  own  room,  where  he  worked  at  his  pencil, 
or  studied  some  book  that  he  bad  borrowed  or  bought.  Aa 
his  industry  was  excessive,  his  advances  in  the  acquisitioa 
of  knowledge  were  rapid,  and  he  was  regarded  as  a  prodigy 
by  his  school-fellows.  About  the  age  of  seventeen  he  firet 
attempted  oil  painting,  and  between  that  and  the  age  of 
twenty-two,  when  he  first  went  to  Dublin,  he  produced 
several  large  pictures,  whirh  decorated  his  father's  hoit«. 


400 


B  A  R  — B  A  R 


and  represented  subjects  net  often  chosen  by  young  artists, 
such  as  JEne3.s  escaping  with  his  family  from  the  flames  of 
Troy,  Susanna  and  the  elders,  Daniel  in  the  lions'  den,  ic. 
At  this  period  he  also  produced  the  painting  which  first 
brought  him  into  public  notice,  and  gained  him  the  acquaint- 
«ace  and  patronage  of  Edmund  Burke.  The  picture  was 
founded  on  an  old  tradition  of  the  landing  of  St  Patrick 
pD  the  sea-coast  of  Cashel,  and  of  the  conversion-  and  bap- 
tjsm  of  the  king  of  tha^  district  by  the  patron  saint  of  Ire- 
land. Barry's  manner  of  treating  it  wal  such  as  to  gain 
for  him  the  applause  and  admiration  of  the  connoisseurs  of 
London,  where  it  was  exhibited  in  17G2  or  17C3. 

J!y  the  liberality  of   Burke  and  his  other  friends,  Barry, 
ip  the  latter  part  of  1765,  was  enabled  to'procecd  to  the 
Continent,  where  he  remained  till  the  beginning  of   1771, 
«tudying  his  art  with  an  enthusiasm  which  seemed  to  augur 
the  highest  success,  and  making  observations   on  the  dif 
lerent  c/ie/s  d'asuvre  of   Italy   with  equal   independence  of 
Jodginent  and  nicety  of  discrimination.      He  proceeded  first 
to  Paris,  then  to  Rome,  where  he  remained  upwards  of  three 
years,  from  Rome  to  Florence  and  Bologna,  and  thence  home 
through   Venice.     His   letters   to   the    Burkes,  giving  an 
account  of  Michel  Angelo,  Pvaffaelle,  Titian,  and  Leonardo 
'da    Vinci,  show  a  complete  insight  into  the  characteristic 
snerits  of  their  works,  and  would  make  us  wonder  (if   the 
case  were  at  all  singidar)  how  he  could  enter  with  such 
force,  delicacy,  and  feeling,  into  excellences  of  which  he 
transplanted  nothing  into  his  own  works. 
i     Even  in  copying  from  the  antique  he   manifested  the 
Barae  aversion  to  labour,  or  to  that  kind  of  labour  which, 
by  showing  us  our  defects,  compels  us  to  make  exertions 
to    remedy  them.     He  made  all  his   drawings    from  the 
antique  by  means  of  a  delineator,  that  is,  a  mcchatiical 
instrument,  to  save  the  trouble  of  acquiring' a  knowledge 
both  of  form  and  proportion.     Barry  [laiiited  two  pictures 
while   abroad,  his    Adam    and  Eve,  and  his   Philoctetes. 
The  first  of  these  he  sent  home  as  a  specimen  of  his  pro- 
gress  in    the   art.     It   does    not   appear    to   have   given 
much  satisfaction.     His  Philoctetes  he  brought  home  with 
him.    It  is  a  coarse,  unclassical  performance,— the  direct, 
opposite,  indeed,  of  all  that  he  thought  it  to  be.     Soon 
after  his  return  to    England  he  produced  his  picture  of 
Venus,  which  has  been  compared,  though  with  little  justice, 
to  the  Galatea  of  RafFaelle,  the  Venus  of  Titian,  and  the 
Venus   de  MedicL     la  1773  he  exhibited  his  Jupiter  and 
Juno  on    Mount   Ida,  which  was  much  praised  by  some 
critics  of  that  day.     His  Death  of  General  Wolfe,  in  which 
the  British   and  French  soldiers  are  represented  in  very 
primitive  costumes,  was  considered  as  a  falling  off  from 
his  great  style  of  art,  the  painting  of  Greek  subjects,  and, 
accordingly,  it  is  said  to  "have  obtained  no  praise."     His 
fondness  for  Greek  costume  was  assigned  by  his  admirers 
as  the  cause  of  his  reluctance  to   paint  portraits, — as  if 
the  coat   were   of    more  importance  than  the  face.      His 
fastidiousness  in  this  respect,  and  his  frequent  excuses  or 
blunt  refusals  to  go  on  with  a  portrait  of  Burke  which  ho 
had  begun,  caused  a  misunderstanding  with  his  early  patron, 
which  does  not  appear  to  have  been  ever  entirely  made  up. 
The  difTerenco  between  them  is  said  to  have  been  widened 
hf  Burke's  growing  intimacy  with  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds, 
aiid  by  Barry's  feeling  some  little  jealousy  of  the  fame  and 
fortune  of  his  rival  "  in  a  humbler  walk  of  the  art."     About 
the   same   time   he    painted  a  pair  of   classical  suVijects, 
"Mercury  inventing  the  lyre,  and  Narcissus  looking  at  him- 
J^clf   in  the  water,  the   last  suggested  to  him  by  Burke. 
'He'also  painted  an  historical  [>icturc  of  Chiron  and  Achilles, 
oDd  another  of  the  story  of  Slratoiiice,  for  which  last  the 
dlike  of  Richmond  g.ave  him  a  hundred  guineas.      In  1773 
it  wan  proposed  to  decorate  the  interior  of  St  Paul's  with 
historical  and  sacred  subjects ;   but  the  plan   fell  to  the 


ground,  from  not  meeting  with  the  concurrence  of  Iho 
bishop  of  London  and  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
Barry  was  much  mortified  at  the  failure,  for  he  had  ic 
anticipation  fixed  upon  the  subject  be  intended  to  paint, — 
the  rejectioB  of  Christ  by  the  Jews  when  Pilate  proposes 
his  release.  In  1773  he  published  An .  Irtquiry  into  tht 
real  and  imaginary  Obstructions  to  the  Acquisition  of  the 
Arts  in  England,  vindicating  the  capacity  of  the  English 
for  the  fine  arts,  and  tracing  thi^ir  slow  ])rogress  hitherto 
to  the  Reformation,  to  political  and  civd  dissension.s,  and, 
lastly,  to  the  general  direction  of  the  public  mind  to 
mechanics,  manufactures,  and  commerce.  In  the  year  1774 
a  proposal  was  made,  through  Mr  Valentine  Green,  to 
Reynolds,  West,  Cipriani,  Barry,  and  other  artists,  to 
orixiraent  the  great  room  of  the  Society  for  the  Encourage- 
ment of  Arts,  Manufacturers,  and  Commerce,  in  the 
Adelphi,  with  historical  and.  allegorical  paintings.  This 
proposal  was  at  the  time  rejected  by  the  artists  themselves  ; 
but,  in  1777,  Barry  made  an  oH'er  to  paint  the  whole 
©n  condition  of  being  allowed  the  choice  of  his  sub- 
jects, and  being  paid  by  the  society  the  expenses  of 
canvas,  paints,  and  models.  His  oH'er  was  accepted,  and 
he  finished  the  series  of  pictures  at  the  cud  of  seven  years, 
instead  of  two,  as  he  had  proposed  to  hiuiself,  accomplishing 
his  task  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  the  members  of  the 
society,  who  granted  him  two  exhibitions,  and  at  dilVcrent 
periods  voted  him  50  guineas,  their  gold  medal,  dnd  200 
guineas.  Of  the  sis  paintings  making  up  the  series,  only 
one,  thai  of  the  Olympic  Games,  shows  any  artistic  power. 

Soon  after  his  return  from  the  Continent  Barry  had 
been  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  ;  and  in 
1782  he  was  apfiointed  professor  of  painting,  in  the  room 
of  Mr  Penny,  with  a  salary  of  i!30  a  year.  The  lectures 
which  he  delivered  from  the  chair  were  full  of  strong  sense 
and  wholesome  advice,  both  to  the  students  and  academi- 
cians. Among  other  things,  ke  insisted  much  on  the 
necessity  of  purchasing  a  collection  of  pictures  by  the  best 
masters  as  models  for  the  students,  and  proposed  several  of 
those  in  the  Orleans  collection.  This  recommendation  was 
not  relished  by  the  academicians,  and  quarrels  arose,  which 
reached  such  a  height,  that,  in  1799,  Barry  v/as  expelled 
from  the  academy,  soon  after  the  ajipcarance  of  his  Letter 
to  the  Dilettanti  Society,  a  very  amusing  but  eccentric 
publication,  full  of  enthusiasm  for  his  art  and  at  the  same 
time  of  contempt  for  the  living  professors  of  it.  After 
the  loss  of  his  salary,  a  subscription  was  set  on  foot  by  the 
•carl  of  Buchan  to  relieve  him  from  his  dilSculties,  and  to 
settle  him  in  a  larger  house  to  finish  his  |)icture  of  Pandora. 
The  subscription  amounted  to  XI 000,  with  which  an 
annuity  was  bought,  but  of  this  he  was  prevented  from 
enjoying  the  bcnelit,  for,  on  the  Glh  of  February  1800,  ho 
was  seized  with  a  pleuritic  fever,  and  died  on  the  2'2d  of 
the  same  month.  On  the  14th  of  March  his  remains 
were  interred  in  the  cathedral  of  St  Paul's. 

As  an  artist  Barry  is  more  distinguished  for  the  strength 
of  his  conceptions,  and  for  his  resolute  and  persistent 
delerniinatioii  to  apply  himself  only  to  great  subjects,  than 
for  liis  skill  in  designing  or  for  beauty  m  his  colouring. 
Ilis  ideas  were  generally  fine,  but  the  realization  of  tlicui 
was  almost  without  exception  unsuccessful.  His  drawing 
is  rarely  good,  his  colouring  frequently  wretched.  This 
curious  contradiction  in  his  artistic  powers  was  in  complete 
harmony  with  his  general  character.  He  was  extremely 
impulsive  and  unequal  ;  sometimes  morose,  eomctimes 
sociable  and  urbane  ;  jealous  of  his  contemporaries,  and  yet 
capable  of  prsnouncing  a  splendid  eulogy  on  Reynolds. 

BARS,  a  county  of  Hungary,  in  the  district  watered 
by  the  Ncutra,  Oran,  and  Zsitva.  which  belong  to  Iho 
northern  part  of  the  system  of  the  Danube.  It  is  for  thu 
most    part   uiountainous   and  has   great    mineral   wealih. 


B  A  R  — B  A  R 


401 


especially  in  gold  and  silver.  The  most  remarkable  mines 
are  those  of  Skleno  and  Vihnyo.  The  chief  towns  are 
Kremnitz  or  Kbrmbcz  Binya,  and  Neusohl  ijr  Besztercze- 
BAnya.  PopuJation  in  1869,  137,191,  mostly  Roman 
Catholics. 

BARTAN,  a  town  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  nea;  the 
mouth  of  the  Bartan-su,  which  was  known  to  the  Gresks 
as  the  Parthenius,  and  formed  part  of  the  boundary  between 
Bithynia  and  Paphlagonia.  The  town  is  built  on  two  ow 
limestone  hiUs,  and  has  its  streets  paved  with  blocks  of 
that  material.  It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  w  H 
Constantinople,  which  might  be  increased  were  it  not  "• 
the  obstruction  of  the  harbour  by  a  bar.  Population 
Between  six  and  seven  thousantL 

BARTAS,  GaiLLAUME  de  Sallcste  du,  a  French  poet, 
was  born  in  1544,  and  died  in  15'JO  of  wounds  received  in 
the  battle  of  Ivry.  He  was  employed  by  Henry  IV.  of 
France  in  England,  Denmark,  and  Scotland  ;  and  he  com- 
manded a  troop  of  horse  in  Gascony,  under  the  Marshal  de 
Martingan.  His  principal  work,  La  Sepmaine,  a  poem  on' 
the  creation  of  the  world,  which  has  long  since  fallen  into 
oblivion,  once  enjoyed  a  high  reputation,  thirty  editions  of 
it  having  been  printed  within  six  years  after  its  appearance. 
Its  religions  tone  and  rather  fanciful  style  made  it  a  great 
favourite  with  English  writers  of  the  time,  by  whom  the 
a'lthor  was  always  designated  as  the  divine  Du  Bartas,  and 
placed  on  an  equality  with  Ariosto.  Spenser,  Hall,  and 
Beu  Jonson,  all  speak  in  the  highest  terms  of  what  seems 
to  us  a  most  uninteresting  poem.  King  James  VL  tried 
his  "  prentice  hand "  at  the  translation  of  Du  Bartas's 
poem  LUranie,  and  the  compliment  was  returned  by  the 
French  writer  translating,  as  La  Lfpanihe,  the  monarch's 
poem  on  the  battle  of  Lepanto.  Joshua  Sylvester,  one  of 
the  Spenserian  poets,  translated  th,e  Sepmaine  in  1598, 
and  the  work  in  its  English  form  was  extremely  popular 
an:.l  exercised  no  slight  influence  on  English  literature. 
Du  Bartas  published  a  second  Week  in  1584 ;  portions  of 
it  and  of  the  first  were  translated  by  Xh.  Hudson,  William 
Lisle,  and  Thomas  Winter. 

EARTFELD,  or  Bartfa,  a  town  of  Hungary,  county  of 
Saros,  on  the  River  Tepla.  It  has  some  trade  in  wine, 
corn,  linen  and  woollen  goods,  paper,  etc.,  and  is  noted  for 
the  mineral  springs  in  the  vicinity,  the  water  of  which  is 
largely  exported.  Its  Gothic  church  is  adorned  with 
numerous  artistic  treasures,  and  its  archives  are  rich  in 
ancient  documents.     Population,  5303. 

BARTH,  Heisrich,  a  distinguished  African  explorer, 
was  born  at  Hamburg,  February  16,  1821.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  went  to  Be.-lin,  and  completed  his  education  at 
the  university  of  that  city.  After  a  year  of  study  he  set 
out  to  travel  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  returning  to  Berlin  in 
1841,  and  continuing  his  studies  for  three  years.  He 
took-  his  degree  in  1844,  and  yielding  to  a  desire,  which 
had  long  possessed  him,  to  explore  the  countries  lying  on 
the  Mediterranean,  he  made  his  first  visit  to  North  Africa 
i«  1845.  Before  setting  out  he  had  visited  London  and 
Paris,  and  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  Arabic 
language.  He  reached  Tunis,  Tripolis,  Benghasi,  explored 
Cjrrenaica,  and  travelled  down  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  On 
his  return  journey  he  was  attacked  and  wounded  by  robbers. 
In  1847  ho  travelled  in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  and  in  Asia 
Minor  and  the  islands  off  its  coasts,  and  from  Constanti- 
nople retui-ned  through  Greece  to  Berlin.  For  a  time  he 
was  engaged  there  as  frivai-docent,  and  in  preparing  for 
publication  the  narrative  of  his  WaneUrvnjen  durch  die 
KiUUjUiinder  de»  Miilelmeerei,  whhh  appeared  in  1849. 
At  the  suggestioB  of  Bunsen  and  Rittcr  he  entered  with 
enthusiasm  into  the  project  cf  the  English  expedition  for 
the  exploration  of  Central  Africa,  and  set  out  with  Overwcg 
in  November    1849.  ,  Five  years  were  devoted  to  their 


explorations,  and  Barth  did  not  arrive  in  Europe  till 
September  1855.  His  account,  entitled  Revse  und  Entdeck- 
ungen  in  Nord-  und  Centrala/rika,  appeared  in  5  vols., 
■between  1855  and  1S58,  and  was  followed  by  a  collection 
of  Central  African  vocabulanes  (1862-64;.  Dr  Barth  Lad 
not  yet  exhausted  his  energies  as  a  traveller.  Ib  1858  Ijo 
undertook  another  journey  in  Asia  Minor,  and  in  1862 
visited  Turkey  in  Europe,  in  the  following  year,  having 
returned  to  Berlin,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  geography 
at  the  university,  and  president  of  the  Geographical  Society. 
He  died  at  Berlin,  November  25,  1865. 

BARTH,  or  Bart,  Jean,  son  of  a  fisherman  of  Dunkirk, 
was  bom  in  1651  and  died  in  1702.  He  served,  when 
young,  in  the  Dutch  navy,  but  when  w  ar  broke  out  between 
Louis  XIV.  and  Holland,  he  entered  the  French  service. 
He  gained  great  distinction  in  the  Mediterranean,  where  he 
held  an  irregular  sort  of  commission,  not  being  then  able 
from  his  low  birth  to  receive  a  command  in  the  navy.  His 
success  was  so  great,  however,  that  ho  was  made  a  lieu- 
I  tenant  He  rose  rapidly  to  the  rank  of  captain,  and  then  to 
i  that  of  admiral  The  peace  of  Ryswick  put  a  close  to  his 
active  service.  Many  anecdotes  are  narrated  of  the  courage 
and  bluntness  of  the  uncultivated  sailor,  who  became  the 
popular  hero  of  the  French  naval  service.  (Richer,  Vie 
de  Jean  Bart,  1780,  and  many  editions  since;  Vanderest, 
Histoire  de  Jean  Bart.) 

BARTHELEMY,  Auguste  Marseille,  a  French  satiri- 
cal poet,  was  bom  at  Marseilles  in  1796,  and  died  in  1867. 
After  having  established  some  local  reputation  as  a  poet  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  by  one  of  his  first  efforts,  Le  Sacre  de 
Charles  X,  1825,  he  gained  the  favour  of  the  court  His 
energies,  however^  were  soon  enlisted  in  the  service  of 
the  opposition  party.  In  1826  appeared  the  clever  poli- 
tical satire,  Le  VilJeliade,  a  mock  heroic  poem,  the  joint 
production  of  Barlh6lemy  and  his  constajit  friend  Mery, 
also  a  native  of  Marseilles.  The  success  was  immediate 
and  pronounced  ;  fifteen  editions  were  called  for  during  the 
year,  and  the  authors  cleared  nearly  £1000.  A  rapid 
succession  of  political  squibs  and  satires  was  now  poured 
forth  by  the  ,authors,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  being 
Napoleon  en  Egypte,  1828,  which  passed  through  nearly  a 
dozen  editions  in  a  year.  In  1829  Barth^lemy  had 
become  so  offensive  to  the  Government  that  he  was 
imprisoned  and  fined  1000  francs.  The  Revolution  of  1830 
liberated  him ;  and  in  company  with  Mery,  be  celebrated 
the  triumph  of  the  people  in  one  of  -their  most  brilliant 
efforts,  L' Insurrection.  During  the  next  two  years  Barth6- 
lemy,  though  enjoying  for  a  .time  a  pension  from  Louis- 
Philippe,  did  not  cease  his  attacks  on  the  Government  and 
its  ministers.  In  1832,  however,  he  made  a  curious  change, 
the  motive  for  which  is  not  clear,  but  the  effect  of  which 
was  seriously  to  impair,  almost  to  destroy  his  influence. 
In  that  year  he  published  an  anonymous  poem,  supporting 
some  acts  of  the  Government  which  were  peculiarly 
obnoxious  to  the  Liberal  party,  and,  on  the  work  being 
attacked,  defended  it  openly.  For  the  next  few  years  he 
enjoyed  a  handsome  pension  from  the  Government,  and 
refrained  from  all  satirical  writing.  He  again  resumed  his 
old  style  in  1844,  but  without  the  former  success.  From 
that  date  he  contented  hirjlelf  with  merely  occasional 
poems. 

BARTHELEMY,  Jean  Jacques,  a  celebrated  French 
writer,  was  born  on  the  20th  January  1716,  at  Cassis,  a 
little  seaport  on  tbe  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  He  was 
educated,  first  at  the  college  of  the  Oratory  in  Marseilles, 
and  afterwards  ot  that  of  the  Jesuits  in  the  .same  city. 
While  completing  the  course  of  study  r;quuite  (or  the 
church,  which  ho  intended  to  join,  ho  devoted  much 
attention  to  Oriental  languages,  in  which  he  became  very 
proficient     After   assuming   the   ecclesiastical    habit,    b« 


40:,' 


B  A  R  —  B  A  R 


resided  with  his  family  at  Aubagne,  anj  during  this  period 
nf  his  life  was  introduced  by  his  friend,  M.  Gary  of 
Marseilles,  to  the  study  of  classical  antiquities,  particularly 
in  the  department  of  numismatics.  In  1744  he  repaired 
to  Paris,  carrying  with  hiin  a  letter  of  introduction  to  M. 
Gros  de  Bozc,  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions  and  Belles  Letters,  and  keeper  of  the  medals. 
He  became  assistant  to  De  Boze,  and  on  the  death  of  the 
latter  in  1753,  was  appointed  his  successor.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  enabled  to  pay  a  visit  to  Italy,  and 
spent  some  time  in  that  country,  inspecting  its  rich 
treasures  of  classical  remains.  While  0Q.,iiis  journey  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  the  French  ambassador,  M.  de 
StainviUe,  afterwards  due  de  Choiseul,  and  of  his  wife. 
The  minister  conceived  a  great  regard  for  Barthi5lemy,'and 
nn  liis  accession  to  power  loaded  the  scholar  with  benefits. 
In  1759  he  gave  him  a  pension  on  the  archbishopric  of 
Albi  ;  in  17G5  he  conferred  on  him  the  treasnrership  of 
St  Martin  de  Tours,  and,  in  17G8,  made  him  secretary- 
general  to  the  Swiss  guards.  lu  addition  to  these  sources 
of  revenue,  the  abbe  enjoyed  a  pension  of  5000  livres  on 
the  Mercure  de  France.  His  income,  which  was  thus  con- 
siderable, was  well  employed  by  him  ;  he  supported  and 
established  in  life  three  nephews,  and  gave  largely  to 
indigent  men  of  letters.  In  1789,  after  the  publication  of 
his  great  work,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  one  of  the  highest  honours  to  which  a'  French 
author  aspires.  Durmg  the  troubled  years  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, Barth^lcmy,  from  his  position  and  habits,  took  no 
share  in  any  public  affairs.  Yet  he  was  informed  against 
and  arrested  as  an  aristocrat.  So  great,  however,  was  the 
respect  felt  for  his  character  and  talents,  that  the  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Safety  were  no  sooner  informed  of  the 
arrest,  than  they  gave  orders  for  his  immediate  release. 
Barlh6lemy  died  soon  after,  on  the  30lh  April  1795. 

The  great  work  on  wliii.ii  Baitbelemy's  f.imc  rests  .ippcarecl  in 
]7S3,  and  was  entitled  V'o'iajc  dajcune  Anacharsis  en  Gr^ce,  dans 
te  milUu  du  gucitridmc  siicU  avmii  I'irt  Chrettatne.  lie  had  begun 
it  in  1757,  and,  during  an  uninterrupted  succession  of  thirty  year9, 
occupied  liis  leisure  hours  in  bringiiii»  it  to  ni.iturity.  The  iiero,  a 
young  Sc3'thian,  Jeacended  from  the  famous  pliilosopJier  Anacharsis, 
whoso  name  he  bears,  is  supposed  to  reu.iir  to  Giet-ce  fur  iustruetiou 
in  his  carlj  youth,  and  afler  making  tne  tonr  of  lier  rcpublii's, 
colonics,  and  islands,  to  return  to  his  native  country  and  write  this 
book  in  bis  old  age,  after  the  Macedonian  hero  had  overlnrnod  the 
J*ersian  empire.  In  the  manner  of  modern  travellers,  lie  gives  an 
account  of  the  customs,  government,  and  antiquities  of  the  country 
Jirt  is  supposed  to  have  visitetl  ;  a  copious  introduction  supitlies 
wli.itever  may  be  wanting  in  respect  to  historical  details;  whilst 
various  dissertations  od  the'ruu^ic  of  the  ureeks,  on  the  literature  of 
the  Athenians,  and  on  the  econoray,  pursuits,  ruling  passions,  man- 
Ders,  and  customs,  of  the  surrounding  st.ilcs,  supply  ample  informa- 
tion on  the  subjects  of  which  they  treat.  The  author,  indeed,  is 
not  profound  ;  and  the  young  Scythian  seldom  penetrates  much  be- 
low the  suiTace.  But  his  remarks  are  cornm.'inly  judicious,  and  to 
considerable  erudition  he  unites  singular  skill  in  the  distribution  of 
his  material,  and  a  happy  taknt  for  piescnting  his  subject  in  the 
most  ngiecablc  and  attractive  form.  The  assumed  character  is  so 
admirably  sustained  throughout,  that  we  can  scarcely  persuade  our- 
selves we  are  not  perusing  a  book  of  real  travels,  and  communing 
with  an  actual  personage  who  has  recorded  his  observations  and  ex- 
perience for  tho  instruction  and  improvement  of  his  countrymen. 
Modern  scholarship  has  superseded  most  of  the  details  in  tho  Voijagt, 
but  the  author  himself  diu  not  imagine  his  book  to  be  a  register  of 
accurately  ascertained  facts  ;  ho  rather  intended  to  afford  to  bis 
countrymen,  in  an  interesting  form,  some  knowledge  of  Greek 
civilization.  Tho  Oiarieks  of  Becker  is  a  more  recent  attempt  in 
a  similar  diicction,  but,  though  sujMjrior  in  si-holarshiji,  it  wants  the 
charm  of  style  which  is  the  principal  quality  in  the  Anacharsis. 

BARTHEZ,  or  BARTufes,  Paul  JosEi-n,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  physicians  of  France,  was  born  bn  the  1 1th 
of  December  1734,  at  Montpcllier.  He  received  his  early 
education  at  Narbonne  and  Toulouse, and  soon  gave  decisive 
indication.?  of  the  great  talents  with  which  nature  had 
endowed  him.  He  commenced  the  study  of  medicine  at 
Montpcllier  in   1700,  and  in   1703,  when  be  had  only  at- 


tained kis  nineteenth  year,  he  received  his  doctor's  degree. 
He  afterwards  occasionally  visited  Paris,  where  he  attracted 
the  notice  and  acquired  the  friendship  of  the  most  distiu- 
guished  literati  of  the  period.  In' 1756  he  obtained  the 
appointment  of  physician  to  the  military  hospital  in  Nor- 
mandy attached  to  the  army  of  observa'tion  commanded  by 
Marshal  d'Estr^es.  A  severe  attack  of  hospital  fever  com- 
pelled tfiQ  to  leave  this  post;  but  the  numerous  cases 
which  had  come  under  his  notice  furnished  materials  for 
several  papers  contributed  to  the  Memoirs  of  Ike  Academy 
of  Sciences.  In  1757  his  services  were  required  in  the 
medical  staff  of  the  army  of  Westphalia,  whSre  he  had  the 
rank  of  consulting  physician.  After  his  return  to  Paris 
he  acted  for  some  time  as  joint  editor  of  the  Journal  des 
Sdvans  and  the  Encyclopedic  Melhodi/jue.  In  1761  ha 
obtained  a  medical  professorship  at  Montpellier,  in  which 
his  abilities  as  a  teacher  soon  shone  forth  with  unrivalled 
lustre.  His  success  was  the  more  honourable,  inasmuch  as 
his  colleagues — Lamure,  Leroy,  and  Venel — were  men  of 
distinguished  reputation,  and  had  raised  the  school  to  a 
high  pitch  of  celebrity. 

In  1774  he  was  created  joint  chancellor  of  the  university, 
with  the  certainty  of  succeeding  singly  to  the  office  on  the 
death  of  the  colleague,  which  happened  in  1786.  He 
afterwards  took  the  degree  of  doctor  in  civil  law,  and  was 
appointed  counsellor  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Aids  at  Mont- 
pellier. In  1780  he  was  iiiduced  to  fix  his  residence  in 
Paris,  having  been  nominated  consulting  physician  to  the 
ting,  with  a  brevet  of  counsellor  of  state,  and  a  pensiou 
of  a  bundled  louis.  Honours  were  now  heaped  upon  him; 
he  was  admitted  free -associate  to  the  Academies  of  Sciences 
and  of  Inscriptions,  and  appointed  first  physician  to  the 
duke  of  Orleans,  in  the  room  of  Tronchin.  His  reputation 
increased  in  proportion  as  his  merits  were  displayed  on  a 
wider  theatre.  He  practised  as  a  physician  at  Paris  for 
nearly  ten  years,  and  received  the  most  flattering  testi- 
monials of  public  approbation. 

The  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution  compelled  Bar- 
thez  to  leave  Paris.  He  lost  considerable  part  of  his 
fortune,  and  retired  to  Carcassonne,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  theoretical  medicine.  It  was  in 
this  retreat  that  he  gave  to  the  world  his  Nouvelle  Meranique 
des  MouvcTnens  de  V Homme  ci  des  Animaux,  which  appeared 
in  1798. 

On  the  re-establishment  of  the  College  of  Medicine  St 
Montpellier,  Barthez  was  naturally  looked  upon  as  the 
person  most  likely  to  revive  its  former  fame.  But  age 
and  infirmity  operated  to  dissuade  him  from  resuming  the 
laborious  office  of  teacher,  and  he  was  accordingly  nominated 
honorary  professor.  In  1802  he  received  several  marks  of 
favour  from  the  new  government  under  Bonaparte ;  he 
was  nominated  titular  physician  to  the  Government,  and 
afterwards  consulting  physician  to  the  emperor,  and  member 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 

His  Traitemcnt  des  Maladiet  Gouttenses,  in  two  vols.  Svo, 
appeared  in  1802,  and  he  afte-wards  occupied,  himself  in 
preparing  for  the  press  a  new  edition  of  his  Elemcns  de  la 
Science  de  iHommr,  of  which  he  just  lived  to  sec  the  pub- 
lication. His  health  had  been  declining  for  some  year.! 
before  his  death,  which  took  place  soon  after  his  removal 
to  Paris,  on  the  10th  of  October  180G,  in  tho  72d  year  of 
his  age.  He  bequeathed  his  books  and  manuscripts  to  M. 
Lordat,  who,  in  consequence,  published  two  volumes  of 
Consultations  de  Halicine,  Paris,  1810,  Svo,  to  which  ho 
prefixed  a  preface  of  his  own.  Another  posthumous  work 
of  Barthez,  the  Traile  du  Jlcau,  preceded  by  some  account 
of  his  life,  was  edited  in  1807  by  his  brother,  M.  Barthez 
de  Marmoriores. 

Barthez  has  enjoyed  a  much  higher  reputation  on  the 
Continent  than  in  England,  where,  indeed,  his  wiitings 


B  A  R  —  B  A  U 


403 


ate  comparatively  litlle  known.  Plis  principal  work  is  the 
A'ouvetux  Elemens  de  la  Sfience  de  t'Uomme,  in  which  he 
unfolds  his  doctrine  of  the  vital  principle,  or  formative 
force.  lie  was  one  of  the  strongest  opponents  of  the 
theory  which  would  explain  the  phenomena  of  life  by 
physical  or  chemical  laws.  (Sec  Lurdat,  Exposition  dt  la 
duclrine  mfdicale  de  P.  J.  Bailluz,  1818.) 

BARTHOLINUS,  Gaspard,  a  learned  Swede,  born  in 
1585,  at  Malmoe.  His  precocity  was  extraordinary  ,  at 
three  years  of  age  he  was  able  to  read,  and  in  his 
thirteenth  year  he  composed  Greek  and  Latin  orations,  and 
delivered  them  in  public.  \Vhen  he  was  about  eighteen 
he  went  to  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  and  he  afterwards 
studied  at  Rostock  and  Wittcnibcrg.  He  then  travelled 
through  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  England,  France,  and 
Italy,  and  was  received  with  marked  respect  at  the  different 
universities  he  vbited.  In  1G13  he  was  chosen  professor 
of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  and  filled  that 
ofUce  for  eleven  years,  when,  falling  into  a  danj,erous  illness. 
he  made  a  vow,  that  if  it  should  please  God  to  restore  him, 
ho  would  apply  himself  solely  to  the  study  of  divinity. 
He  recovered,  observed  his  vow,  and  soon  after  obtained 
the  professorship  of  divinity,  with  the  canonry  of  RolschiUl 
He  died  on  the  13th  of  July  1C30,  after  having  written 
nearly  fifty  works  on  different  subjects. 

BARTHOLINUS,  Thomas,  a  physician,  son  of  the 
above,  was  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1619  He  studied 
medicine  at  Leydeu  for  three  years  (1G37-40)  He  then 
travelled  into  Trance,  and  resided  two  years  at  Paris  and 
Montpellier,  in  order  to  improve  himself  under  the  distin 
guished  physicians  of  those  universities,  after  which  he 
visited  Italy,  remained  three  yearsat  Padua,  and  then  went 
to  Basel,  where  he  obtained  the  degree  of  doctor  in 
phdosophy  Returning  to  Co|>enhagpn,  he  was  a  ipointed 
professor  of  mathematics  in  1C47,  and  next  year  was 
nominated  to  the  chair  of  anatomy,  for  which  he  was  belter 
qualified.  This  he  held  for  thirteeu  years,  distinguishing 
himself  by  sevcr.il  otecrvations  respecting  the  lacteal  and 
lymphatic  vessels,  shortly  after  their  discovery  by  Olaus 
Kudbeck.  His  close  application,  however,  having  adected 
his  health,  he  resigned  his  chair  in  ICGl,  and  retired  to  a 
little  estate  at  ILigestaed,  near  Copenhagen,  where  he  ho])ed 
to  spend  the  rema'nder  of  his  days  in  peace;  but  his  house 
having  been  burnt  in  1070,  hrs  library,  with  all  his  books 
and  manuscripts,  was  consumed.  In  consideration  of  this 
Isjs  the  king  appointed  B.irtholinu3  his  physician,  with  a 
handsome  salary,  and  exempted  his  land  from  all  ta-ies ; 
the  University  of  Copenhagen  also  chose  him  for  their 
librarian  ,  and,  in  1G75,  he  was  honoured  with  a  seat  in 
the  grand  council  of  Denmark.  He  died  on  the  4th  of 
December  IGSO  He  wrote  Anatomia  O'as/tardi  Barl/iolini 
Parrnlif,  novis  Obsfrvalionibus  primvm  lonipletata,  6^0  ; 
De  Monsti-is  ill  1^'atura  et  ilfedirina,  4to  ;  Schedion  df 
Armdhs  yel'rum,  /irceaeiiim  Dctiiotuin,  S^o  i  and  several 
other  works 

BARTHOLOMEW,  St  ('P^n  i?,  son  of  Talmai),  one  of 
the  twelve  a|)ostlc3,  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the 
same  as  Nalhanael  (John  i  40).  He  was  a  native  of 
Cana  in  Galilee  (John  xxi  2),  and  was  introduced  by  Philip 
to  Jesus,  who,  on  seeing  him  approach,  at  once  pronounced 
that  eulogy  on  his  ch.iracler  which  has  made  the  name 
NathanacI  almost  synonymous  with  sincerity  He  was  a 
witness  of  the  resurrection  and  the  ascension,  and  returned 
with  the  other  apo.stles  to  Jerusalem.  Of  his  subsequent 
history  wo  have  little  more  than  v.iguo  traditions. 
According  to  Euscbius  (//m<  Eccks  ,  v.  10),  when  Pantanus 
went  on  a  mission  to  the  Indians  (towards  the  close  of  tho 
2d  century),  he  found  among  them  the  Gospel  of  Matthew, 
written  in  Hebrew,  which  had  been  left  there  by  the  apostle 
Bartholomew      Jerome  {De    Vir    lUustr..  c.   36)  gives  a 


similar  account  But  the  name  Indians  is  applied  by 
ancient  writers  to  so  many  different  nations,  that  it  is 
diOicult  to  determine  the  scene  of  Bartholomew's  labours. 
Mosheim  (with  whom  Neauder  agrees)  is  of  opinion  that  it 
was  a  part  of  Arabia  Felix,  inhabited  by  Jews,  to  whom 
alone  a  Hebrew  gospel  could  bo  of  any  service.  According 
to  the  received  tradition,  this  apostle  was  flayed  alive  and 
crucified  with  his  head  downwards,  at  AJbanopolis  in 
Armenia,  or,  according  to  Nicephorus,  at  Urbanopolis  in 
Cilicia.  A  spmious  gospel  which  bears  his  name  is  in  the 
catalogue  of  apocryphal  books  condemned  by  Pope  Gelasius. 
The  festival  of  St  Bartholomew  is  celebrated  on  the  24th 
of  August. 

B.VHTOLIN'I,  LoRi;.N'20,  au  Italian  sculptor,  was  born 
in  1777,  of  very  humble  parents,  at  Vernio  in  Tuscany 
After  various  vicissitudes  in  his  youth,  during  which  he 
had  acquired  great  skill  and  reputation  as  a  modeller  in 
alabaster,  he  came  to  Paris  in  1797.  He  there  studied 
painting  under  Desmarets,  and  afterwards  sculpture  under 
Lemot.  The  bas-relief  Cleobis  and  Biton,  with  which  he 
gained  the  second  prize  of  the  Academy  in  1803,  at  once 
established  his  fame  as  a  sculptor  of  first-rate  ability,  and 
gained  for  him  a  number  of  influential  patrons.  He 
executed  many  minor  pieces  for  Deuon,  besides  busts  of 
M(jhul  and  Cherubini.  His  great  patron,  however,  was 
Napoleon,  for  whom  he  executed  a  colossal  bust,  and  who 
scut  him  to  Carrara  to  found  a  school  of  sculpture.  He 
remained  in  Carrara  till  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  and 
then  took  up  his  residence  in  Florence,  where  he  continued 
to  reside  till  hLs  death  in  1850.  His  works,  which 
include  an  immense  number  of  busts,  are  numerous  and 
varied.  The  best  are,  perhaps,  the  group  of  Charity,  the 
Hercules  and  Lichas,  and  the  Faith  in  God,  which  exem 
plify  the  highest  types  of  Bartolini's  style,  By  the  Italians 
he  is  ranked  next  to  Thorwaldsen  and  Canova. 

BARTOLOZZI,  Francicsco,  a  distinguished  engraver, 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1725,  or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  in  1730  He  was  originally  destined  to  follow 
out  the  profession  of  his  father,  who  was  a  silversmith  ; 
but  he  manifested  so  much  skill  and  taste  in  designing 
that  he  was  placed  under  the  superintendence  of  two 
Florentine  artists,  who  instructed  him  in  painting.  After 
devoting  three  years  to  that  art,  he  went  to  Venice  and 
studied  engraving  under  the  famous  Joseph  Wagner.  He 
made  very  rapid  progress,  and  executed  some  works  of 
considerable  importance  at  Venice.  He  then  removed  for 
a  short  time  to  Rome,  where  he  completed  a  set  of 
engravings  representing  events  from  the  life  of  St  Nilns, 
and  after  returning  to  Venice,  set  out  for  London  in  1764. 
For  nearly  forty  years  he  resided  in  London,  and  produced 
an  enormous  number  of  engravings,  the  best  being  those  of 
Clytie,  after  Annibale  Carracci,  and  of  the"  Virgin  and 
Child,  after  Carlo  Dolce.  A  great  proportion  of  them  are 
from  the  works  of  Cipriani  and  Angelica  Kaufimann. 
Bartolozzi  also  contributed  a  number  of  plates  to  Boydell's 
Shakespeare  Gallery.  In  1802  he  was  invited  to  Lisbon  to 
superintend  a  school  of  engraving  in  that  city.  Ho 
remained  in  Portugal  till  his  death,  at  an  advanced  age, 
about  tho  year  1816. 

BARTOLUS,  professor  of  the  civil  law  at  the  University 
of  Perugia,  and  the  most  famous  master  of  the  dialectical 
school  c^f  jurists,  was  born  in  1314,  at  Sasso  Ferrato, 
in  the  duchy  of  Urbino,  and  hence  is  generally  styled 
Barlolus  de  Saxo  Ferrato.  His  father  was  Franciscus 
Sevcri,  and  his  mother  was  of  the  family  of  the  Alfaui. 
Ho  studied  the  civil  law  first  of  all  under  Cinus  at 
Perugia,  and  afterwards  under  Oldradus  and  Jacobus 
de  Belvisio  at  Bologna,  where  he  was  promoted  to  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  civil  law  in  1334.  His  great  re- 
putation dates  from  his  appointment  to  n  chair  of  civil 


/ 


40h 


B  A  R^B  A  E 


law  in  the  L'niversity  cf  Ferugiii,  1343,  where  he  lec- 
tured" for  many  years,  raiding  the  character  of  the  law 
school  of  Perugia  to  a  level  with  that  of  Bologna.  He 
idied  in  1357  at  Perugia,  where  a  magnificent  monument 
recorded  the  interraeni  of  his  remains  in  the  church 
of  San  Francisco,  by  the  simple  inscription  of  "  Ossa 
Bartoli."  Bartolus  has  left  behind  him  a  great  reputation, 
and  many  writers  have  sought  to  explain  the  fact  by  attri- 
buting to  him  the  introduction  of  the  dialectical  method  of 
teaching  law ;  but  the  dialectical  method  had  been  em- 
ployed by  Odofredus,  a  pupil  of  Accursius,  in  the  previous 
century,  and  the  successors  of  Odofredus  had  abused  it 
to  an  extent  which  has  rendered  their  writings  in  many 
instances  unprofitable  to  read,  from  the  subject  matter 
teing  overlaid  with  dialectical  forms.  It  was  the  merit  of 
Bartolus,  on  the  other  hand,  that  he  employed  the  dialectical 
method  with  advantage  aa  a  teacher,  and  discountenanced 
khe  abuse  of  it ;  but  his  great  reputation  is  more  probably 
owing  to  the  circumstance  that  he  revived  the  exegetical 
system  of  teaching  law  (which  had  been  neglected  since 
the  ascendency  of  Accursius),  in  a  spirit  which  gave  it  new 
life,  whilst  he  was  enabled  to  impart  to  his  teaching  a 
practical  interest,  from  the  judicial  experience  which  he  had 
a-cquired  whilst  acting  as  assessor  to  the  courts  at  Todi  and 
at  Pisa  before  he  undertook  the  duties  of  a  professorial 
chair.  His  treatises  On  Procedure  and  On  Evidence  are 
amongst  his  most  valuable  works,  whilst  his  Commentary/  on 
the  Code  of  Justinian  has  been  in  some  countries  regarded 
as  of  equal  authority  with  the  code  itself. 

BARTON,  Benj.\mix  Smith,  M.D.,  an  American 
naturalist,  who  was  the  first  professor  of  botany  and  natural 
history  in  a  college  in  the  United  States.  He  was  born  in 
Pennsylvania  in  17G6,  studied  for  two  years  at  Edinburgh, 
atid  afterwards  graduated  at  Gottingen.  He  settled  at 
Philadalphia,  and  soon  obtained. a  considerable  practice. 
In  1789  he  was  appointed  to  the  protessorship  above 
mentioned  in  Philadelphia  College;  he  \Ta_3  made  professor 
of  materia  medica  in  1795,  and  on  the  death  of  Dr  Rush 
in  1813  he  obtained  the  chair  of  practical  medicine.  In 
1802  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  American  Philoso- 
phical Society.  Barton  was  the  auihor  of  various  works 
on  natural  history,  botany,  and  materia  medica.  By  his 
lectures  and  writings  he  may  be  said  to  have  founded  the 
American  school  of  natural  history.     He  died  in  1815. 

BARTON,  Elizabeth,  the  "  Maid  of  Kent,"  belonged 
to  the  village  of  Aldington  in  Kent.     She  was  a  pious, 
nervous,  and  enthusiastic  person,  subject  to  epilepsy  ;  and 
her  enthusiasm,  unfortunately  for  herself,  took  a  political 
turn   at  a  somewhat   critical  period    in  English    history. 
When  all  England  was  excited  with  the  attempts  made  by 
Henry  VIII.  to  obtain  a  divorce  from  Queeii  Catherine, 
Elizabeth  Barton  saw  visions  and  heard  speeches,  all  of 
which    related  to  the  contemplated  divorce.     These   she 
confided    to   her  parish   priest,  Richard  Masters,  and  ho 
wade  them  known  to  Dr  Buckling,  a  canon  of  Canterbury. 
Through  these  men  they  became  widely  known,  and  were 
everywhere   proclaimed    to   be   divino   revelations.      The 
chapel  at  Aldington  became  the  centre  of  many  pilgrimages, 
and  the  scene  of  many  excited  and  tumultuous  assemblies. 
Elizabeth  Barton  was  commonly  believed  to  be  a  prophetess, 
and  was  called  the  -'holy  maid  of  Kent."     Meanwhile  her 
visions  continued ;   she  saw  letters  written  in  characters 
of  gold  sent  to  her  by  Mary  JIagdalene,  which  contained 
both   revelAions  and  exhortations.     Among  other  things 
jhe  declared  that  it  was  revealed  to  her  that  if  the  contem- 
plated divorce  took  place,  the  king  would  bo  a  dead  man 
within  seven  months.     The  principal  agents  fur  the  Pope 
apd  for  Queen  Catherine  lent  themselves  to  fan   the  ex- 
citomont.     Even  such  men  as  bishops  Fisher  and  Warham 
and  Si' Thomas  More  corresponded  with  the  Maid  of  Kent. 


At  last  the  king's  wrath  was  aroused.  In"  1533  Elizabetn 
with  her  principal  suppo.ters,  Masters,  Bockling,  and 
several  others,  were  examined  before  parliament,  and 
sentenced  to  be  executed.  She  was  beheaded  at  Tyburn, 
April  21,  1534.  (C/.  Burnet's  History  of  the  Reformation 
in  England  ;  Lingard's  History  cf  Euylund.) 

BARUCH,  son  of  Neriah,  was  the  friend  and  amanuensis 
of  the  prophet  Jeremiah.  After  the  temple  at  Jerusalem 
had  been  plundered  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  he  wrote  down 
Jeremiah's  prophecies  respecting  the  return  of  the  Baby- 
lonians to  destroy  the  state,  and  read  them  in  the  tempk 
before  the  assembled  people  at  the  risk  of  his  life.  The 
roll  having  been  burned  by  the  king's  command,  Jere- 
miah dictated  the  same  again.  When  the  temple  was 
destroyed,  Baruch  went  to  Egypt  with  Jeremiah,  having 
been  tlamed  as  the  prompter  of  the  threatening  prophecies 
uttered  by  the  latter.  Nothing  certain  is  known  as  to  hia 
death, — some  accounts  representing  him  as  dying  in  Egypt, 
others  in  Babylonia.  The  Talmud  adopts  the  latter 
opinion,  making  him  the  instructor  of  Ezra,  to  whom  he  ia 
said  to  have  communicated  the  traditions  he  had  received 
from  Jeremiah. 

The  Book  ok  Bakuch  belongs  to  the  Apocrypha,  accord- 
ing to  Protestants,  and  to  the  deuterocanonical  produc- 
tions, according  to  Roman  Catholics. 

There  is  hardly  sufficient  cause  for  dividing  the  book, 
as  some  critics  suggest,  between  two  writers.  The 
author  of  iii.  9-v.  9  uses  Isaiah  as  well  as  Jeremiah  in 
two  places.  A  new  paragraph  undoubtedly  begins  at 
iii.  9,  which  has  little  connection  with  the  preceding  con- 
text, and  differs  from  it  perceptibly  both  in  matter  and 
form ;  yet  it  has  the  same  general  object.  From  reproof 
the  language  passes  to  hope  and  Messianic  happiness,  and 
it  becomes  livelier  and  more  elevated.  It  is  purer  Greek 
without  doubt.  The  supposed  traces  of  Alexandrian  cul- 
ture are  somewhat  indistinct.  Wisdom  is  not  spoken  of 
in  the  Alexandrian  manner  (iii.  24),  but  rather  iu  the  sama 
way  as  in  Siracb,  which  is  Palestinian. 

Much  difference  of  opinion  prevails  regarding  the  original 
language.  Some  are  for  a  Greek  original,  others  for  a 
Hebrew  one  ;  while  Fritzsche  and  Ruetschi  think  that  the 
first  part  was  composed  in  Hebrev/,  the  second  in  Greek. 
The  original  seems  to  have  been  Hebrew,  though  Jerome 
says  that  the  Jews  had  not  the  book  in  that  language;  and 
Epiphanius  asserts  the  same  thing.  The  testimony  of  the 
former  resolves  itself  into  the  fact  that  the  original  had 
been  supplanted  by  the  Greek ;  and  that  of  the  latter  is 
not  of  much  value,  since  he  gives  Baruch,  along  with 
Jeremiah  and  the  Lamentations,  in  a  second  list  of  the 
canonical  books.'  We  rely  on  the  statement  that  the  work 
was  meant  to  be  publicly  read  in  the  temple  (i.  14)  as 
favourable  to  a  Hebrew  original,  as  well  as  on  the  number 
and  nature  of  the  Hebraisms,  which  are  sometimes  so 
peculiar  that  they  cannot  be  resolved  into  the  authorship 
of  a  Greek-speaking  Jew.  That  the  writer  was  a  Pales- 
tinian appears  from  various  pas.sagcs,  such  as  ii.  17,  "For 
the  dead  that  are  in  the  graves,  whose  souls  are  taken 
from  their  bodies,  will  give  unto  the  Lord  neither  praise 
nor  righteousness;"  "Hearken,  0  ye  that  dwell  about 
Zion"  (iv.  9) ;  "  Ye  have  forgotten  the  everlasting  Cod 
that  brought  you  up ;  and  ye  have  grieved  Jerusalem 
that  nursed  you"  (iv.  8).  Both  the  latter  passages 
betray  a  Palestinian.  Besides,  the  conception  of  Wi.sdom 
in  iii.  12,  iic,  is  Palestinian  rather  than  Alexandrian; 
for  the  words  in  iii.  37  do  not  refer  to  the  incarna- 
tion of  the  Logos,  but  to  personified  Wisdom,  as  in 
Siracb  xxiv.  10.  This  points  to  a  Hebrew  original.  The 
version  seems  to  be  free,   especially  iu  the  latter  part. 

•  JJitrti.,  TllL  6;  comjiaro  De  Mens,  tt  Pond.,  c.  23;  ibid.,  c.  6. 


B  A  K  U  C  II 


407 


Wbo  was  the  translator?  A  comparison  of  the  Septuagint 
translation  of  Jeremiah  with  that  of  Biiuch  will  suggest  the 
answer.  The  agreement  between  the  two  is  rcniarkablc. 
Constructions,  phrases,  and  words  are  the  same  in  thera,  so 
that  we  may  conjecture  with  Ewald  and  Hitzig  that  the 
same  translator  appears.  The  words  /SaSt^iu,  a-rroaToX-q, 
j^apfjLO(T\Ji'T)t  yavpiafia^  StcrjuuirT^?,  a^oiMcr/xo'?,  oi'0//a  fxov 
imKaXdaOai  tV(' ni'i  are  common  to  both.  The  LXX.  ver- 
sion of  Jeremiah  was  not  made  till  the  1st  century  B.C. 
or  later ;  and  Theodotion's  translation  or  recension  of  it  in 
'he  second.  It  is  some  confirmation  of  the  opinion 
that  Greek  was  not  the  original  when  marginal  notes  are 
f)jnd  in  the  He.xaplar-Syriac  version  printed  by  Ceriani, 
u\  which  the  Hebrew  is  repeatedly  referred  to.  Nothing 
seems  to  disprove  the  assumption  that  Theodotion,  from 
whose  version  that  of  Paul  of  Tela  was  ta_ken,  had  the 
Hebrew  original  before  him. 

Though  Baruch  professes  to  .have  written  the  book,  a 
later  writer  speaks  in  his  name.  Jeremiah's  faithful  friend 
is  said  to  have  composed  it  at  Babylon.  This  view  is 
untenable  on  tho  following  grounds  ; — 

1.  The  work  contains  historical  inaccuracies.  Jeremiah 
was  living  in  the  fifth  year  after  the  destruction  of  Jem- 
aalem,  yet  the  epistle  is  dated  that  year  at  B.ibylon.  It  is 
unlikely  that  Baruch  left  Jeremiah,  since  the  two  friends 
were  so  united.  According  to  Baruch  i.  3,  Jeconiah  was 
present  in  the  great  assembly  before  which  the  epistle  was 
read,  whereas  wo  learn  from  2  Kings  ixv.  27  that  he  was 
kept  a  prisoner  as  long  as  Nebuchadnezzar  lived.  Joakim 
is  supposed  to  be  high  priest  at  Jerusalem  (i.  7).  But  we 
learn  from  1  Chron.  vi,  1 5  that  Jehozadak  filled  that  ofEce 
the  fifth  year  after  Jerusalem  was  destroyed.  In  i.  2 
there  is  an  error.  The  city  was  not  burned  when  Jehoiachim 
was  carried  away.  And  if  the  allusion  be  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  city  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  temple  and  its 
worship  are  supposed  still  to  exist  in  i.  8-10.  The  parti- 
culars narrated  are  put  into  tho  fifth  year  of  the  exile; 
yet  we  read,  "  Thou  art  waxen  old  in  a  strange  country " 
(iii.  10). 

2.  Supposing  Baruch  himself  to  have  been  the  wri^e^, 
books  later  than  his  time  are  used  in  the  work.  Nehemiah 
is  followed,  as  in  ii.  11  (comp.  Nehem.  ix.  10).  But 
Eichhorn's  language  is  too  strong  in  calling  the  contents 
"a  rhapsody  composed  of  various  writings  belonging  to 
Hebrew  antiquity,  especially  Daniel  and  Nehemiah."  ' 

The  date  of  tho  work  is  given  indefinitely  in  i.  2,  "  In  tho 
fifth  year,  and  in  the  seventh  day  of  the  month,  what  time 
as  the  Chaldeans  tgok  Jerusalem,  and  burnt  it  with  fire." 
The  natural  meaning  of  these  words  is,  "  The  fifth  year  after 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,"  not 
"  the  fifth  year  of  Jehoiachim's  captivity."  The  day  is 
given,  not  the  month  ;  and  therefore  De  Wette  conjectures 
that  tT<i  should  be  nijn';  but  MS.  authority  is  against  him. 
It  is  probable  that  the  name  of  the  month  has  drop[>cd  out, 
i.e.,  Sivan.  The  Palestinian  abode  of  the  writer  is  pretty 
clear,  especially  from  the  melancholy  view  of  death  pre 
sented  in  ii.  17,  iii.  19,  resembling  that  in  Psalms  vi.  6, 
lizviii.  18,  ciii.  29.  In  Alexandria  the  Jews  had  attained 
to  a  clear  idea  of  immortality,  in  Palestine  not.  The 
translation  was  made  in  Egypt,  which  accounts  for  various 
expressions  savouring  of  Alcxandrianism,  as  in  iii.,  23, 
24,  26.  There  are  evident  points  of  contact  between 
Daniel  and  Baruch,  as  appears  from  Baruch  i.  15-18, 
which  agrees  almost  verbally  with  Daniel  ix.  7-10.  So 
it  1,  2  coincide  with  Daniel  ix.  12,  13;  and  ii.  7-17 
with  Daniel  ix.  13-18.  Hitzig  thinks  the  two  authors  were 
identical,  but  this  can  hardly  bo  allowed  ;  for  the  tone  and 
atmosphere  of  Baruch  bear  no  perceptible  trace  of  the 


'  EinUitung  in  dit  apoknjphiichm  Schti/lm  dtt  A.  T.,  p.  382. 


Syrian  persecutions  or  Maccabcan  struggle.  Daniel  bor- 
rowed from  Baruch  pretty  closely  in  some  passages.  We 
suppose  that  the  translator  was  s^arated  from  the  author 
by  a  considerable  period,  probably_  200  years. "  Perhaps  tho 
author  lived  about  300-290  B.C. 

According  to  Jerome  and  Ejjiphanius,  the  Jews  did  not 
receive  tlie  book  into  their  canon  ;  nor  is  it  in  the  lists  given 
by  Josephus,  Melito,  and  others.  It  has  been  thought, 
however,  that  Origen  considered  it  canonical,  because  in 
his  catalogue  of  sacrod  books  he  gives  Lamentations  and 
"  the  epistle"  along  with  Jeremiah;  and  Jeremiah's  epistle 
formed  a  part  of  Baruch.  The  testimony  of  Origen  on 
this  point  is  perplexing ;  but  it  is  conceivable  that  some 
Jews  may  have  thought  very  highly  of  the  book  in  his 
time,  though  its  authority  was  not  generally  admitted 
among  their  coreligionists.'  From  the  position  which  the 
book  occupied  in  the  Septuagint,  i.e.,  either  before  or  after 
Lamentations,  it  was  often  considered  an  appendix  to 
Jeremiah  by  the  early  Christians,  and  was  regarded  in  the 
same  light,  and  of  equal  authority.  Hence  the  words  of  it 
were  often  quoted  as  Jeremiah's  by  Irenaeus,  Clemciis 
Alexandrians,  and  TertuUian.  CjTil  of  Jerusalem  reckons 
it  with  the  canonical  books,  among  the  aX  fieoTrvn'orof,  or 
ficiQi  ypatjiaC;  and  the  epithets  so  applied  cannot  be  e»- 
plained  away  by  Protestants. 

The  versions  are  the  two  Latin,  a  Syriac,  and  an  Araliic. 
The  Latin  one  in  the  Vulgate  belongs  to  a  time  prior 
to  Jerome,  and  is  tolerably  literal  Another,  somen  hat 
later,  was  first  published  by  Jos.  Maria  Caro  in  1688, 
•and  was  reprinted  by  Sabatier,  side  by  side  with  the 
ante-Hieronyniian  one,  in  his  BMiorum  Sacrorum  Latinee 
I'ersiones  Antiquce.^  It  is  founded  upon  the  preceding  one, 
and  is  less  literal.  The  Syriac  and  Arabic  versions,  printed 
in  the  London  Polyglott,  are  literal.  The  Hexaplar-Syriac 
version,  made  by  Paul,  bishop  of  Tela,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  7th  century,  has  been  published  by  Ceriani.*  The  most- 
convenient  editions  of  the  Greek  text  are  Tischendorf's,  in 
the  second  volume  of  his  Septuagint,  and  Fritzsche's  in 
Libri  Apocryphi  Teleris Testamenti Grcece,\di~ \.  (See  David- 
son's I nlrodvciion  to  the  Old  Teslameni,  vol.  iiL  ;  Kurzge- 
fasstes  £xegetisches  Handbuch  ru  den  Apokryphen  des  alten 
Testaments,  erste  Lieferung ;  Ewald's  Gesckichte  des  Volkes 
Israel,  vd.  iv.;  De  VV'ette's  J'iV«<«;!^,  §§  321-323;  Welte's 
Einleiiung  in  die  heiligen  Sdiri/ten  des  A.  T.,  iweyter 
Theil,  dritte  Abtheilimg.) 

Epistle  of  Jeremy. — An  epistle  of  Jeremiah's  is  often 
appended  to  Baruch,  forming  the  sixth  chapter.  Accord- 
ing to  the  inscription,  it  was  sent  by  the  prophet  by  God's 
command  to  the  Jews  who  were  to  be  carried  captive  to 
Babylon.  The  writer  describes  the  folly  and  absurdity  of 
idolatry  in  a  declamatory  style,  with  repetitions  somewhat, 
like  refrains.  Thus,  in  verses  16,  23,  29,  65  occurs  the 
sentience,  "  Whereby  they  are  known  not  to  be  gods  ■  there- 
fore fear  them  not;"  "  How  should  a  man  then  think  and 
say  that  they  are  gods,",  in-  40,  44,  56,  64,  69;  "How 
then  cannot  men  perceive  that  they  be  no  gods,"  in  49,  52. 
These  and  other  repetitions  are  unlike  Je;feraiah's.  The 
concluding  verse  is  abrupt. 

All  the  relation  this  epistle  has  to  Jeremiah  is,  that 
the  contents  and  form  are  derived  from  Jeremiah  x.  1-16 
and  xxix.  4-23.  Its  combination  with  Baruch  is  purely 
accidentaL  It  could  not  have  been  written  by  Jercmi.ih, 
though  many  Catholic  theologians  maintain  that  it  was.  The 
Hellenist  betrays  himself  in  a  few  instances,  as  when  he 
speaks  of  kings,  verses  51,  53,  56,  59.  .Though  Welte  tries 
to  prove  that  the  epistle  was  .written  in  Hebrew,  which  is 

*  Sco  Welto's  note  on  this  point  in  Hcrbst'j  EMeitung,  erii—  Tneit 
pp.  14,  15. 

*  S<o  vol.  II.  p.  734,  Ac. 

*  Moiiumcnta  .Sacra  ct  Pro/ana,  toln.  1.  fucic.  1. 


406 


B  A  R  —  B  A  S 


consistent  with  Jeremiah's  authorship,  his  arguments  are 
invalid.  The  original  is  pure  HellenisticGrcek.  Thewaruing 
against  idolatry  bespeaks  a  foreigner  living  out  of  Palestine. 
The  place  of  its  origin  was  probably  Egypt;  and  the  writer 
may  have  lived  in  the  Maccabean  period,  as  we  infer  from 
his  making  the  exile  last  for  seven  generations,  i.e.,  about 
210  years.  Jeremiah,  on  the  contrary,  gives  the  time  as 
70  years  in  round  numbers.  The  oldest  allusion  to  the 
epistle  is  commonly  found  in  2  Maccab.  ii,  2,  where  a  few 
words  are  similar  to  the  fourth  verse  of  our  epistle.  But 
the  appropriateness  of  the  supposed  reference  is  doubtful. 

The  old  Latin  version  of  the  epistle,  published  by  Saba- 
tier,  which  is  in  the  Vulgate,  is  literal.  The  Syriac  is  freer. 
The  Arabic  is  more  literal  than  the  Latin.  Both  are  in  the 
London  Polyglott.  The  Hexaplar-Syriac  was  published  by 
Ceriani.  (s.  D.) 

BARYTES,  or  Baryta,  an  oxide  (BaO)  of  the  metal 
barium,  usually  prepared  from  the  two  most  common  ores 
of  the  substance,  the  sulphate  and  the  carbonate  of  baryta. 
It  is  a  highly  caustic  alkaline  poisonous  body,  which  with 
water  forms  a  hydrate  of  baryta.  On  a  commercial  scale 
baryta  is  prepared  from  the  native  carbonate  (Witherite) 
by  exposing  -the-  mineral,  mixed  with  one-tenth  of  its 
weight  of  lamp  "black,  to  a  very  high  heat.  It  is  now 
largely  employed  in  the  beet  sugar  manufacture  for  sepa- 
rating crystallized  sugar  from  the  molasses.  A  solution 
of  the  hydrated  oxide,  under  the  name  of  baryta-water,  is  of 
very  great  use  in  the  chemical  laboratory  for  precipitating 
metallic  oxides,  and  on  account  of  its  sensitiveness  to 
carbonic  acid.  Sulphate  of  baryta,  or  heavy  spar,  the  cawk 
of  miners,  is  a  mineral  of  very  high  specific  gravity  (4  59), 
found  abundantly  in  veins  in  the  mountain  limestone  of 
England  and  frequently  associated  with  metallic  ores, 
When  reduced  to  potvder  the  white  varieties  are  sometimes 
used  as  a  pigment,  but  the  powder  is  more  frequently 
applied  as  an  adulterant  to  white  lead.  Heavy  spar  is  also 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  pottery.  The  powdered 
carbonate  of  baryta  is  used  to  some  extent  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  glass,  taking  the  place  of  a  part  of  the  alkali  in 
plate  glass,  and  of  some  portion  of  red  lead  in  flint  glass. 
Cassel  green,  6?  Kosenstiehl's  green,  is  a  pigment  manu- 
factured from  the  calcined  manganate  of  baryta.  Both  the 
nitrate  and  the  chloride  are  of  great  value  as  chemical 
reagents.  The  nitrate  and  chlorate  are  also  used  to  pro- 
duce a  green  light  in  pyrotechny. 

BASE  BALL,  a  game  which  holds  the  same  posilion 
in  the  United  States  of  America  as  cricket  does  in  Great 
Britain.  It  was  founded  on  the  old  British  game  of 
rounders,  though  many  additions  and  alterations  have  been 
made.  Americans  do  not  appreciate  the  patience  of 
Englishmen,  and  do  not  care  to  witness  a  cricket  match 
which  may  extend  to  three  days,and  then  remain  undecided, 
whereas  the  average  time  of  a  base  ball  match  is  from  two 
hours  te  two  hours  and  a  half.  The  first  regular  base  ball 
society  was  the  old  Knickerbocker  Club,  founded  at  New 
York  in  the  autumn  of  18-J5;  and  for  fifteen  years  the 
ephero  of  play  was  very  limited.  In  the  spring  of  18G0  tho 
Excelsior  Club  was  inaugurated  at  Brooklyn,  New  York, 
and  the  amateur  clement,  in  contradistinction  to  the  profes 
sional,  gave  a  marked  impetus  to  tho  pastime.  This  club 
was  second  to  none  in  the  United  States  of  America,  either 
in  social  standing  or  as  correct  exponents  of  tho  game.  The 
secession  of  tho  Confederate  States  soon  after,  and  tho 
eanguinary  civil  war  which  followed,  was  a  serious  intcrru])- 
tion  to  national  or  other  sports,  and  base  ball  became 
almost  obsolete  till  the  season  of  18C5.  Then  it  began  to 
spread  throughout  the  Union,  and  to  be  recognized  as  a 
profession,  not  a  few  devoting  their  whole  time  to  it  and 
being  paid  for  their  services.  Now  there  are  hundreils 
of  gatncs  played   for  every  one  ten  years  since.     In    the 


summer  of  1874  the  Boston  Ease  Ball  Club  and  the  Athlctio 
Base  Ball  Club  of  Philadelphia  crossed  the  Atlantic  and 
played  a  series  of  exhibition  matches  in  Englnnd  ar.il 
Ireland  ;  but,  as  anticipated,  the  pastime  did  not  find  favour 
with  Englishmen  or  take  root  in  British  soil. 

The  scene  chosen  for  the  pastime  should  be  a  clear  level 
piece  of  turf,  not  less  than  500  feet  by  350  fe^t.  The 
following  diagram  shows  the  laying  out  of  the  ground. 


Pocrer  o        CtiichaisfFtnaa 


ELO 

/^ 

03  di5C<fU» 

'P 

■\ 

Tout  L*'  r'^HJau* 

6aU®Rj3»  Right-shotl  S(op 

Right-f'ielder 


OUT -FIELD 


6aH®fti?i  5''-. 


te/ij^oi 


Diagram  illustrating  the  Game  of  Bftse  BjU 

The  position  of  the  bases  and  h.ise  lines  nnay  he  likened  to  e  90 
feet  square  shaped  dirtmoiid  The  first  point  to  be  selected  i9  (Jo 
rear  angle  of  the  home  base,  uliich  should  Ip  not  less  than  9'"*  h-et 
frora  the  most  suitable  end  of  the  ground,  and  equi  distant  from 
each  side.  Lay  out  this  base  I  foot  square,  and  from  the  front 
apex  measure  127  feet  4  inches  in  a  straight  line  down  llie  ground, 
and  the  point  reached  will  be  the  centre  of  the  second  base  i  ake 
a  cord,  ISO  feet  long,  Gxing  odl-  end  on  ihe  front  nngle  of  the  home 
base,  and  the  other  on  the  centre  of  the  second  base  By  hauling 
tho  centre  of  this  cord  taut  on  the  two  sidf9,  two  isosceles  right 
angled  ti iauglcs  will  be  foinied.  and  the  90  tt-et  square  completed. 
Standing  on  the  home  base  and  looking  down  llip  ground,  the  apex 
of  the  triangle  on  the  right  hand  is  the  centre  of  the  first  base,  and 
of  that  on  the  left  liand  the  centre  of  the  third  base.  48  feet  fiom 
the  front  angle  of  the  home  base  has  theu  to  be  mrnsured  dovxn  the 
diagonal  of  the  square,  in  order  to  fix  the  centre  of  the  piTehei  9 
position,  which  is  6  feet  square.  Lastly  come  the  foul  ball  posts, 
which  are  on  a  line  with  the  liome  and  fir:st  bas-'s,  and  borne  nod 
tliird  bases,  and  not  less  than  100  feet  fiom  the' centres  of  first  and 
third  bases  res['cctively 

Formerly,  nine  a  side  was  the  usual  number  of  players  , 
but.  latterly,  an  additional  man  bas  been  introduced  as 
right  short-stop,  and  the  sides  increased  to  ten.  Tbeir 
positions  are  marked  m  the  above  diagram.  The  theory  of 
the  game  is  that  one  side  takes  the  field,  and  the  olber 
goes  in.  The  pitcher  then  delivers  the  ball  to  the  striker, 
who  endeavours  to  hit  it  in  such  a  direction  as  to  elude 
the  fielders,  and  enable  him  to  run  rovuid  all  the  base  lines 
homo  without  being  put  ou*.  If  he  succeeds  a  run  is 
scored.  When  three  players  are  put  out  the  fielding  side 
come  in  ;  and  after  nine  innings  have  been  played  the  side 
which  have  scored  tho  most  runs  wins  the  game.  The 
rules  are  voluminous  and  minute,  but  the  pith  of  them  may 
be  gleaned  from  the  following  rtisum^  : — 

Tlie  hall  must  weigh  not  less  than  .1  ounces  oi  more  than  5\  ounces 
avoirdupois,  must  be  not  Iiss  than  1)  inches  or  more  than  9J  inches 
in  circumffrL'nee,  and  must  he  composed  of  1  ounce  avoirdupois  of 
vulcanized  india-rubber,  covered  witn  worsted  and  It-ither,  red  being 
the  most  suitable  colour  for  the  latter.  The  hat  must  be  circular  iu 
shape,  ni*t  **Xiceding  2^  inches  in  diameter  at  any  part,  or  42  inches 
in  li-ngth,  auci  mu^t  bo  made  exclusively  ol  wood  The  bases  shall  be 
1  foot  aquarc,  the  first,  second,  and  third  consisting  of  whit/"-"!)***! 


B  A  S  —  B  A  S 


407' 


l«;;9  secBKly  fj;>teQ?d  to  the  grouoti,  and  the  horae  ba:>c  of  uhite 
•toae  or  marble,  level  trilh  the  ground,  and  with  one  angle  fucitig 
the  pitcher.  Unless  tive  innings  on  eaoh  skle  are  concluded  it  is  no 
p.im**.  Kogame  can  be  drawn,  unttrss  play  13  stopped  by  darkness  or 
the  weather,  when  the  score  of  the  two  aides  is  even.  The  pitcher's 
position  shaU  bo  within  a  Sfiot  square,  the  front  of  which  shall  be 
45  feet  from  the  centro  of  the  borne  base,  and  the  centre  equi- 
distant from  the  centre  of  first  and  third  bases,  each  ani^le  tviu^ 
marked  by  a  flat  iron  or  stone  plate  6  inches  square.  In  delivering 
the  b.111,  the  pitcher  must  not  more  either  foot  outside  the  limits  of 
the  square,  and  the  Land  most  not  be  raised  higher  than  tbe  hip. 
All  balls  delivered  over  the  home  base,  and  at  the  height  requested 
by  tie  striker,  are  fair  balls.  All  other  balls  are  unfair  or  called 
balls,  and  if  tliree  occur  in  succession  the  striker  is  allowed  to  take 
the  6r9t  base,  and  any  other  players  move  on  a  base  accordingly. 
A  striker  may,  however,  take  un  unfair  hall  at  his  own  risk.  Balk- 
ing, or  pretending  to  deliver  the  ball  and  not  doing  so,  is  inadmis- 
sible, and  any  player,  on  tirst,  second,  or  third  base,  is  allowed  to 
run  a  base  whenever  balking  is  attempted.  Jf,  after  being  warned 
by  the  umpire,  three  balks  are  made  during  the  same  innings,  the 
out  side  at  once  forfeit  the  game.  A  ball  which  hits  the  bat  with- 
out being  struck  at,  or  the  person  of  the  striker  or  umpire,  is  a  dead 
hall  and  out  of  play.  The  striker  shall  stand  in  a  space  of  ground 
C  feet  by  3  feet,  on  either  side  of  the  home  base,  extending  2 
feet  in  front  and  4  feet  behind  the  centre  thereof,  and  the  inside 
1  foot  from  the  outside  angle  thereof,  otherwiso  it  is  a  foul  strike. 
The  striker  may  call  for  a  high  ball,  which  shall  be  delivered  above 
his  waist,  but  below  his  shoulder,  or  a  low  ball,  i.e.,  below  his  waist, 
but  cot  within  ]  foot  of  the  ground.  Should  the  striker  fail  to 
strike  three  fairly  delivered  balls,  he  must  run  the  first  base.  The 
foul  ball  lines  are  unlimited  in  length,  and  shall  extend  in  a  straight 
line  from  the  front  angle  of  the  6rst  base  through  the  centres  of  first 
and  third  bases  respectively.  A  ball  is  fairly  hit  if  it  first  touches 
the  ground,  a  player's  person,  or  other  object,  on  or  in  front  of  the 
foul  ball  lines.  A  batsman  is  out — 11.)  If  a  fair  bjll  be  caught  be- 
fore touching  the  ground,  no  matter  how  held  by  the  fielder  catch- 
ing it,  or  whether  the  ball  first  touches  the  person  of  another  fielder 
or  not,  proviifed  it  be  not  caught  by  the  cap  ;  (2)  If  a  foul  ball  be 
similarly  held,  or  if  it  be  so  held  after  touching  the  ground  but 
once  ;  (3.)  If  a  fair  ball  be  securely  held  by  a  fielder  while  touching 
the  first  base  with  any  part  of  his  person  before  the  base-runner 
touches  said  base,  after  hitting  a  fair  ball  ;  (4.)  If  the  batsman, 
after  strikiig  three  times  at  the  ball  and  failing  to  hit  it,  and,  run- 
nine  to  first  base,  fails  to  touch  that  base  before  the  ball  is  legally 
held  there  ;  (5  )  If,  after  the  batsman  has  similarly  failed  to  hit  the 
ball,  it  be  caught  either  before  touching  the  ground,  or  after  touch- 
ing the  CToiind  but  once  ;  (6.)  If  the  bauman  wilfully  strikes  at  the 
ball  to  hinder  the  b.ill  from  being  caught ;  (7.)  If  the  batsman  hit 
the  ball  on  a  called  foul  strike,  and  it  be  caught  either  fair  or  foul, 
or  if  he  make  two  called  foul  strikes.  Directly  a  striker  has  fairly 
struck  a  fair  ball  be  becomes  a  base-runner  ;  starting  from  the  home 
base  to  first  base,  thence  to  second,  third,  and  home  bases  resnec- 
lively,  all  bases  being  invariably  run  in  this  order.  No  base-runner 
19  compelled  to  vacate  his  base  except  by  the  striker's  striking  a  fair 
ball  The  lines  from  base  to  base  are  3  feet -wide,  clearly  marked 
out  OD  the  turf,  and  a  base-runner  who  leaves  the  base  line  to  avoid 
bring  touched  by  the  ball  in  the  hands  of  a  fielder  is  out.  A  run  is 
scored  when  any  base-runner  reaches  the  home  base  again,  after 
touching  all  the  other  bases  in  proper  succe.>i3ion.  and  provided  three 
playeraaienot  put  out  No  base  can  be  run,  or  run  scored,  when  a  fair 
strike  is  caught  before  touching  the  ground,  unless  the  base-runner 
returns  to  the  base  he  started  from,  w-hich  he  cannot  leave  again  until 
the  ball  is  held  by  the  pilclier,  wherever  that  fielder  may  hap[)en  to 
be.  No  unavoidable  obstruction  may  be  ofTered  to  any  base-runner 
keeping  the  base  lines.  A  basc-ruiincr  isout — {].)  If,  while  the  ball 
is  in  play,  he  be  touched  by  a  fielder  with  the  ball  in  hand,  when  no 
pirt  of  liis  person  is  touching  a  base;  and  should  the  said  fielder, 
while  in  the  act  of  touching  the  base-runner,  have  the  ball  knocked 
out  of  his  hand,  the  base-runner  so  touched  shall  be  declared  out  ; 
<2. )  If  the  ball  be  held  by  a  fielder  on  the  first  base  before  the  base- 
runner,  after  hitting  a  fair  ball,  touches  that  base  ;  but  if  a  fielder 
holding  the  ball,  and  a  base-runner  touch  a  base  simultaneously,  the 
latter  shall  not  bo  declared  out ,  (3.)  If  he  fail  to  touch  the  base  he 
runs  for,  the  ball  being  held  by  a  fielder,  while  touching  said  base, 
before  the  base-runncr 'returns  and  touches  it;  (4.)  If  he  in  any 
•  ay  interfere  with  or  obstruct  a  fielder  while  attempting  to  catch  a 
fair  flyball  er  a  foul  ball  ;  (5  )  If  he  wilfully  obstruct  a  fielder  from 
fielding  »  ball.  (6.)  If  he  intentionally  kick  the  ball  or  let  it 
strike  nim.  The  umpire  must  be  thoroughly  conversant  with  the 
game  and  all  minutis  of  the  rules.  He  is  the  sole  arbiter  of  every 
point  of  play,  whether  pitching,  catching,  fielding,  striking,  or  run- 
ning the  Wscs. 

The  catcher's  duty  is  to  catch  all  balls  pitched  to  the 
striker,  lie  elands  close  to  the  striker's  position  when  the 
pitching  u  slow,  and  some  50  feet  off  when  it  is  swift.     lie 


must  be  a  sure  catch  in  order  to  catch  the  striker  out  when 
opportunity  occurs,  and  a  swift  and  accurate  thrower  of  the 
ball  to  the  basemen.  The  pitcher  is  the  most  responsible 
person  on  the  out  side.  His  great  object  is  to  deceive  the 
striker  as  to  where  a  balj  is  coming,  and  he  must  therefore 
hav^  full  command  over  the  ball,  besides  possessing  the 
nerve  to  face  any  catches  hit  straight  at  him.  The  first, 
second,  and  third  basemen  must  all  be  sure  catchers,  swift 
and  accurate  throwers,  and  good  judges  of  which  bases  to 
send  the  ball  to  in  order  to  put  an  opponent  out.  The 
short-stop  must  be  an  active  man,  of  great  coolness  and 
judgment,  a  general  backer  up  of  the  in-field.  He  is  placed 
near  the  bne  from  second  to  third  base.  -The  right, 
centre,  and  left  fielders  must  all  be  sure  catchers,  good  long 
distance  throwers,  aud  active  runners.  Eight  short-stop  is 
generally  the  captam  of  the  side,  and  is  available  either 
in  this  position  or  anywhere  else  where  an  extra  hand  is 
required.  Having  less  work  to  do  than  any  other  fielder, 
he  has  better  opportunities  of  attending  to  his  general 
duties  of  supervision.  The  usual  positions  of  all  the 
fielders  are  defined  in  the  diagram.  The  catcher,  pitcher, 
first  and  third  basemen,  and  short-stop  comprise  the-in-Celd; 
the  remainder  the  out  field. 

The  pastime  requires  good  catching,  throwing,  and  run. 
ning  powers,  combined  with  courage,  nerve,  good  judgment, 
and  quick  perception  of  what  to  do  in  the  field.  Ihe  grea» 
draw-back  is  so  much  being  left  to  the  umpire,  and  bis 
decision  being  so  frequently  called  for.  Hardly  a  ball  is 
pitched  or  struck,  or  a  base  run  without  his  being  called  on 
for  a  decision  under  some  rule  or  other,  whereas  the  details 
of  the  game  should  be  so  plain  and  clear  as  only  to  call  foi- 
an  umpire's  decision  under  e.^ceptional  circumstances.  The 
attitude  of  the  striker  is  not  an  elegant  one,  and  the  pitchei 
is  allowed  to  keep  the  former's  muscles  too  long  on  the 
stretch  before  actually  delivering  the  baU.  Base  ball  is  a 
quicker  and  more  lively  pastime  than  the  great  Engli.sh 
national  game  of  cricket,  which  is  the  chief  thing  to  b» 
said  in  its  favour.  (h.  f.  w.) 

BASEDOW,  Jon.^N'N  Cernhard,  a  German  author, 
born  at  Hamburg  11th  September  1723,  was  the  son  of  k 
hairdresser.  He  was  educated  at  the  Johanneum  in  that 
town,  where  became  under  the  influence  of  the  well  knowu 
rationalist,  H.  S.  Rciraarus,  author  of  the  Woljinhuttel 
Fraginenis.  In  174-4  he  went  to  Leipsic  to  study  theology, 
and  gave  him.^elf  up  entirely  to  the  instructions  of  Professor 
Crusius,  and  to  the  study  of  philosophy.  This  at  first 
induced  sceptical  notions  ;  a  more  profound  e.xaminalion 
of  the  sacred  writings,  and  of  all  that  relates  to  them, 
brought  him  back  to  the  Christian  faith,  but,  in  I113 
retirement,  he  formed  his  belief  after  his  own  ideas,  and  it 
was  far  from  orthodox.  He  returned  to  Hamburg,  where 
in  1749,  M.  de  Quaalen,  pri^'j'-councillor  of  Uolstein, 
appointed  him  preceptor  to  liis  son.  Basedow  now  began 
to  exhibit  his  really  remarkable  powers  as  an  educator  of 
the  young,  and  acquired  so  much  distinction  that,  in  17;)3, 
he  was  chosen  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  bcUes- 
lettres  in  the  academy  of  Soroc  in  Denmark.  On  account 
of  his  theological  opinions  he  was  removed  from  this  post 
and  transferred  to  Altona,  where  some  of  his  published 
works  brought  him  into  great  disfavour.  He  left  off 
giving  lessons  without  losing  his  salary ;  and,  towards  iho 
end  of  17C7,  he  abandoned  theology  to  devote  himself 
with  the  same  ardour  to  education,  of  which  he  conceived 
the  project  of  a  general  reform  in  Germany.  He  began 
by  publishing  An  Address  to  the  Friends  of  Uuvwnily, 
and  to  Persons  in  Power,  on  Schools,  on  Education,  and  its 
fnjlucnce  on  Public  Happiness,  with  the  Plan  0/  an  £Umm- 
tary  Treatise  on  Human  Knowledge,  Hamburg,  1763.  He 
proposed  the  reform  of  schools  and  of  the  common  methods 
of  instruction,  and  the  establishment  of  an  institute  for 


408 


B  A  S  ^'B  A  S 


qualifying  teachers, — soliciting  su6scfi[jtions  for  the  print- 
ing of  Iu3  elemen'tar}'  work,  where  his  principles  were  to 
be  explained  at  length,  and  illustrated  by  plates.  The 
subsdtiptions  for  this  object 'amounted  to  15,000  thalers 
(£2250),  and  in  1774  he  published  his  Elementary  Work, 
3,  complete  system  of  primary  education,  intended  to 
develop  the  intelligence  of  the  pupils  and  to  bring  them, 
so  far  as  possible,  into  contact  with  realities,  not  with  mere 
words.  The  work  was  received  with  great  f^vSur,  and 
Basedow  obtained  means  to  establish  an  institute  for 
education  at  Dess'aif,  and-to  apply  his  principles  in  training 
disciples,  who  might  spread-  them  over  all  Germany. 
Little  calculated  by  nature  or  habit  to  succeed  in  an 
Craplo}inent  which  requires  the  greatest  regularity,  patience, 
.and  attention,  he,  however,  engaged  in  this"  new  project 
with  all  his  accustomed  ardour.  The  name  of  Philan- 
thropin  appeared. to  bira  the  most  expressive  of  his  views ; 
and  he  published  at  Leipsic  in  1774  a  pamphlet  entitled 
The  PhUanthropinon  founded  at  Dessau,  containing  the 
details  of  his  plan.  He  immediately  set  about  carrying  it 
into  execution ;  but  he  had  few  scholars,  and  the  success 
by  no  means  answered  his  hopes.  Nevertheless,  so  well 
had  his  ideas  been  received  that  similar  institutions  sprang 
■up  all  over  the  land,  and  the  most  prominent  writers  and 
thinkers  openly  advocated  the  pl.m.  Had  Basedow  been  a 
man  of  ordinary  tact',  his  -success  wou'd  have  been  com- 
plete. But  his  temper  was  intractable,  and  his  manage- 
ment was  one  long  •  guarrel  with  his  colleagues.  The 
institution  was  finally  shut  up  in  1793.  Basedow  died  at 
Magdeburg  on  the  25th  July  1790.  Notices  of  his  life 
and  work*  have  been  published  by  Rathmann  (1791)  and 
Meyer  (1791-2). 

BASEL,  Bale,  or  B.vsle  (the  first  being  the  Gerlnan, 
the  others  the  French  and  Old  French  forms  of  the  name), 
8  canton  in  the  N.W.  of  Switzerland,  with  au  area  of  184 
English  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.W.  by 
Alsace,  N.  by  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden,  E,  by  the  canton 
of  Aargau,  and  S.  and  S.W.  by  those  of  Solothum  and 
Berne.  The  canton  is  traversed  by  the  Jura  chain,  the 
highest  peaks  of  which  rise  to  from  4000  to  5000  feet. 
AVith  the  exception  of  the  Rhine  and  its  tributaries, — the 
Birse  and  the  Ergolz, — there  are  no  streams  of  any  magni- 
tude. The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  fertile  and  well  culti- 
vated, the  mountain  sides  affording  excellent  pasturage. 
The  principal  pursuits  of  the  people  are  agricultural  aud 
p.astoral,  though  here  and  there,  as  at  Liestal,  Sissach,  and 
Miinchenstein,  joal-mining  is  carried  on.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  ribbons,  woollen,  linen,  and  cotton  goods,  and 
iron  and  steel  wares.  ■  PoUtically  the  canton  consists 'of  two 
divisions,  one  urban  and  the  other  rural  (Basel-stadt  and 
Basel-landschaft),  each  with  its  own  constitution  and  laws. 
The  former  sends  two  members  to  the  National  CouncU ; 
its  legislative  power  is  in  the  hands  of  a  Great  Council 
which  consists  of  134  members,  chosen  for  six  years,  and 
its  executive  power  belongs  to  a  Lesser  Council  of  15 
members.  In  the  niral  division  the  legislative  body  (or 
Landrath)  is  chosen  for  three  years,  and  has  the  ultimate 
authority  over  all  departments;  the  executive  council  con- 
sists of  five  members  elected  for  the  same  period ;  it  sends 
three  members  to  the  National  Council.  The  prevailing 
language  is  German.  Population  of  Eascl-stadt  in  1870, 
47,700,  and  of  Basel-landschaft,  54,721. 

B.\SEL,  or  Bale,  the  capital  of  the  above  canton,  and, 
next  to  Geneva,  the  largest  city  in  Switzerland,  is  situated 
on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine,  43  miles  N.  of  Berne,  in  lat. 
17*  33'  N  ,  and  long.  7°  35'  E.  Great  Basel,  or  the  city 
proper,  lies  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  and  is  connected 
with  Little  Basel  on  the  north  side  by  a  handsome  bridge 
800  .feet  long,  which  Vas  originally  erected  in  1229. 
Th«    city   is    generally   well-built,    but   there   are  fewer 


remarkable  edifices  than  in  m^ny  other  Continental  citie» 
of  similar  size.  The  fine  old  Gothic"  catlifdral,  'fou.-'ded 
1010,  still  stands,-  and  contains  a  number  of  interesting 
monuments,  besides  the  tombs  of  Erasmus,  fficolampadius, 
and  other  eminent  persons  .  A  re-decoration  was  skilfull5 
effected  in  1852-1856.  Among  other  ecclesiasticij 
buildings  of  interest  may  be  mentioned  St  Martin's, 
restored  in  1851  ;  St  Alban's,  formerly  a  monast-ery  ;  the 
church  pf  the  Bare-footed  Friars,  which  now  .serves -as  o 
store-house ;  Elizabeth's  Church,  of  modern  erection  ;  and 
St  Clara's  in  Little  Basel.  The  town-hall  was  built  ir 
1508  and  restored  in  1826.  A  post-oSice,  a  new  bank,  and 
an  hospital  are  of  recent  erection.     Besides  the  uuiversity. 


Plan  of  Basel. 


A,  Peter's  Platl. 
n,  Maiket. 

C.  HarfuflBer  Plntz. 

D.  Zoological  Gardens. 


E.  Botanical  Gardens. 

F.  I'nlversitv. 

G.  Tuwn.IIail. 
H.  Annoury, 


which  was  founded  by  Popo  Pius  iL  in,  1459,  and 
reorganized  in  1S17,  Basel  possesses  a  public  library  of 
95,000  vols.,  with  a  valuable  collection  of  MSS.,  a  picture- 
gallery,  a  museum,  a  theological  seminary  for  missionaries 
(established  in  1810),  a  gymnasium,  an  industrial  school,  a 
botanical  garden,  an  orphan-asylum,  an  institution  for  deaf- 
mutes,  and  various  learned  societies.  Of  these  may  be 
mentioned  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  Useful 
Knowledge,  founded  in  1777  bv  Iselin,  the  Society  of 
Natural  History,  the  Society  of  National  Antiquities,  and 
the  Bible  Society,  which  dates  from  1804  and  was  the 
first  of  the  kind  on  the  Continent.  Basfel  is  the  seat  of  an 
active  transit-trade  between  France,  Germany,  and  Switzer- 
land, and  possesses  important  manufactures  of  silk,  linen, 
aud  cotton,  as  well  as  dyeworks,  bleachfields,  and  iron- 
works, the  mc^t  valuable  of  all  being  the  ribbon-trade. 
It  has  railway  communication  with  both  south  and  north. 
The  Baden  line  has  a  station  in  Little  Basel;  and  the 
central  station  for  the  Swiss  and  Alsace  railways  lies  to  the 
south-east  of  the  city  proper.  Basel  was  the  birthplace  of 
Euler,  Bernouilli,  Iselin,  and  perhaps  of  Udlbein;  and  the 
names  of  Erasmus,  QDcolampadius,  Grynxus,  Merian,  De 
Welte,  Hagenbach,  and  Wecknernagel,  are  associated  with 
the  university.     Population  in  1870,  44,834. 

Basel  (Basilia)  first  appears  in  fhe  4th  century  as  a 
Roman  military  post.  On  the  decay  of  the  neighbouring 
city  of  Augusta  liauracorum,  the  site  of  which  is  still 
marked  by  the  village  of  Augsti  it  began  to  rise  into  im- 
portance, and,  after  numerous  vici.ssitudes,  became  a  free 
city  of  the  empire  about  the  middle  of  the  10th  century, 
and  obtained  a  variety  of  privileges  and  rights.  In  135G 
the  most  of  its  buildings  were  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 


B  A  S  — B  A  S 


409 


To  1393  the  town  ot  Little  Basel  was  acquired  from  the 
bisliop  by  purchase.  From  1431  to  1  U3  the  meetings  of 
a  (jcneral  Council  were  biU  in  the  city  (see  next  article). 
After  the  battle  of  St  Jacob  in  1444,  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood,  Basel  was  vijited  by  the  plague,  and  its 
population  considerably  diminished.  In  laUl  it  became  a 
member  of  the  Swis>  Confederacy ;  and  it  was  one  of  the 
chief  seats  of  the  Rcfoniiation  movement.  The  position  of 
the  city  exposed  it  to  many  dangers  duiiiig  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  and  the  subsequent  disturbances  of  the  neigh- 
bouring states ,  but  in  spite  of  all  it  continued  to  flourish. 
A  peril  of  a  more  critical  kina  arose  from  within.  The 
■  luasiaristocratic  Ooveriiinenc  of  the  city  appropriated  all 
political  rights,  and  lett  the  inhabiiaiiis  of  the  rural  dis- 
tricts unrepresented, — which  gradually  led  to  much  discon- 
tent on  the  part  of  the  latter,  and  ultimately  to  actual 
rebellion.  It  was  not  till  Is33  that  peace  was  firmly 
restored  by  the  complete  separation  of  the  canton  into  the 
two  divisions  of  LSaselstadt  and  Basellandschaft,  the 
former  being  allowed  to  include  not  only  the  city  proper, 
but  also  the  communes  of  Reihen,  Bettingen,  and  Klein- 
Huningen  Tlie  capital  of  the  rural  division  is  Liesthal, 
with  (in  1870)  a  population  of  3S73. 

B.\SEL,  THE  Cou.sciL  OF  (1431-1443),  was  the  last  of 
the  three  great  reforming  councils  of  the  15th  century, 
coming  after  the  councils  of  Pisa  (1409)  and  Constance 
(1414-18)  In  these  three  councils  the  aim  of  the  majority 
was  to  reform  the  church  by  destroying  the  absolute 
supremacy  of  the  Pope,  and  by  curbing  the  rule  of  the 
Roman  curia  ,  and  the  acts  of  these  councils  were  all 
designed  to  reestablish  the  power  of  the  episcopate  by 
asserting  the  supremacy  of  cecumenical  councils.  At  Pisa 
these  aims  were  only  indicated  ,  at  Constance  they  were  so 
far  successful  that  schismatic  popes  were  dept  -d,  and  the 
council  practically  showed  its  superiority  to  the  Pope  by 
bestowing  tho  papal  chair  on  Martin  V.  ,  and  although  the 
fathers  of  Constance  were  compelled  to  sep.irate  before  thev 
could  do  much  else  in  the  way  of  reform,  they  practically 
kiid  the  foundation  by  insisting  that  councils  should  be 
held  frequently,  and  by  ordering  a  new  council  to  be  called 
at  the  end  of  five  years.  The  council  summoned  in 
obedience  to  this  command  was  the  Council  of  Basel,  but 
the  results  of  its  meeting  were  simply  to  show  the  helpless- 
ness of  the  episcopate  and  the  power  of  the  Roman  curia. 
At  Basel  the  labours  of  Pisa  and  Constance  were  undone, 
and  after  this  council  thoughtful  men  began  to  see  that 
the  church  could  not  be  reformed  without  destroying  the 
Papacy. 

The  Council  of  Basel  was  summoned  by  Martin  V. 
<1431).  He  first  appointed  it  to  meet  at  Pa  via,  then  at 
Siena,  but  Basel  was  at  last  fixed  upon.  At  the  very 
.beginning  Martin  died,  but  his  successor,  Eugenius  IV., 
sanctioned  all  his  decrees  ;  and  the  council  accordingly 
met  at  Basel  on  the  23d  of  July  1431,  under  the  presidency 
of  Cardinal  Julian  Cesarini.  At  first  all  went  well.  The 
bishops  took  care  so  to  arrange  the  organization  of  the 
council  and  its  method  of  procedure  as  to  make  it  a  true 
and  fair  representtktive  of  the  whole  Catholic  Church.  The 
members  of  the  council  wer6  divided  into  four  equal  classes, 
each  consbting  of  about  the  same  number  of  cardinals, 
archbishops,  bishops,  abbots,  kc,  and  each  completely 
organized,  with  its  president,  secretaries,  and  other  otBcers. 
This  was  done  to  neutralize  the  votes  and  prevent  the 
intrigues  of  tho  Italian  bishops,  who  were  very  numerous, 
ond  for  the  most  part  under  tho  power  of  the  Roman  curia. 
To  each  of  the  four  was  assigned  the  investigation  of  a 
•pecial  class  of  subjects  Each  section  met  separately  in 
its  own  hall  thrice  a  week.  Each  section  elected  three  of 
its  number  to  fnrm  a  committee  of  business.  One  third 
of  this  committee    was   changed    every    uionth.     All    the 


business  had  to  pass  through,  this  committee,  and  it  sent 
down  special  subjects  to  be  discussed  in  each  of  the  sec- 
tions. When  the  section  had  discussed  the  matter  it  sent 
its  decision  with  the  reasons  of  it  to  each  of  the  other 
sections,  who  then  discussed  the  matter  and  gave  their' 
opinion  upon  it.  If  three  sections  were  agreed  iipon  it, 
the  subject  was  brought  before  the  whole  council  for  general 
discussion  and  a  final  decision. 

The  three  subjects  which  were  specially  assigned  to  this 
council  were  tho  reunion  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches, 
the  reconciliation  of  the  Bohemians,  and  the  reform  of  ths 
church  according  to  the  resolutions  come  to  at  Constance. 
Soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  council  the  Roman  ciina 
took  alarm  at  the  zeal  and  determination  of  the  assembled 
bishops,  and  by  intrigues  compelled  the  Pope,  who  Avas 
really  anxious  for  reform,  to  do  all  he  could  to  hinder  the 
work  of  the  fathers  at  Basel.  Eugenius  twice  tried  to  dis- 
solve the  council  ;  but  it  resisted,  maintaining  that  a 
council  being  superior  to  the  Pope  could  not  be  dissolved^ 
and  the  Pope  yielded.  The  bishops  refused  to  admit  the 
Pope's  legates  until  they  admitted  the  supremacy  of  the 
council  and  promised  to  obey  its  decrees. 

The  first  business  to  which  the  members  addressed  them- 
selves was  to  curb  the  power  of  the  Pope  and  of  the  Roman 
curia.  They  tried  to  do  this  by  attempting  to  stop  the  flow 
of  money  from  all  parts  of  Europe  to  Rome.  They  abolished 
the  annates  ;  they  declared  it  illegal  in  a  bishop  to  send 
the  sum  of  money  commonly  presented'  on  his  investiture, 
itc;  and  they  passed  many  laws  to  restr.iin  the  lu.xury  and 
vice  of  the  clergy.  These  proceedings  so  alarmed  Eugenius 
that  he  resolved  either  to  bring  the  council  wUhin  the  reach 
of  his  influence  or  to  dissolve  it.  The  occasion  for  inter- 
ference arose  out  of  a  debate  which  the  subject  of  reunion 
with  the  Greek  Church  gave  rise  to.  The  Emperor  John 
Palsologus,  induced  principally  by  fear  of  the  Turks,  had 
written  both  to  the  Pope  and  to  the  council  on  the  subject 
of  the  reunion  of  Christendom,  and  both  had  entertained  hia 
proposals.  The  majority,  however,  of  the  bishops  in  tho 
council  maintained  that  this  subject  could  not  properly  be 
discussed  in  Italy,  and  that  the  deliberations  must  take 
place  in  France,  Savoy,  or  Basel,  far  from  the  influence  of 
the  Pope.  To  this  Eugenius  would  not  agree;  and  when  the 
council  decided  against  him,  he  resolved  to  assemble  another 
council,  which  met  first  at  Ferrara  and  afterwards  at 
Florence. 

The  rest  of  tho  proceedings  of  the  Council  of  Basel  is 
simply  a  record  of  struggles  with  tho  Pope.  In  1437  the 
council  ordered  the  Pope  to  appear  before  them  at  Basel. 
The  Pope  replied  by  dissolving  the  council ;  the  bishops, 
backed  by  the  emperor  and  the  king  of  France,  continued 
their  deliberations,  and  pronounced  the  Pope  contumacious 
for  not  obeying  them.  When  Eugenius  tried  to  take  away 
the  authority  of  the  council  by  summoning  the  opposition 
Council  of  Florence,  the  bishops  at  Basel  deposed  him. 
Eugenius  replied  by  a  severe  bull,  in  which  he  excommuni- 
cated the  bishops,  and  they  answered  by  electing  a  new 
Pope,  Amadous,  duke  of  Savoy,  who  assumed  the  uome  of 
Felix  V.  The  greater  part  of  the  church  adhered  to 
Eugenius,  but  most  of  the  universities  acknowledged  the 
authority  of  Felix  and  the  Council  of  Basel.  Notwith- 
standing the  opposition  of  Eugenius  and  his  adherents,  the 
Council  of  Basel  continued  to  jiass  laws  and  decrees  until  tbe 
year  1443  ;  and  when  the  bishops  separated  they  declared 
publicly  that  they  would  reassemble  at  Basel,  Lyons,  or 
Lau.^anne.  In  1447  Eugenius  died  and  was  succeeded  by 
Nicholas  V.,  who  tried  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation 
between  the  parties  in  the  church.  A  compromise  was 
clTccted,  by  which  Felix  resigned  the  pontificate,  and  the 
fathers  of  Basel  having  assembled  at  Lausanne,  ratified  the 
abdication    of    Feli'*,   and    directed    tho   church    to   obey 

IIP   —   52 


4H, 


B  A  S- B  A  S 


Nicholas,  while  iNicuolas  con6rmed  by  bis  sanction  the 
acta  and  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Basel. 

Hefele's  ConciliengesckichU,  vol  v.  :  Mansi,  Concilia,  vol.  xxix  ; 
^Qeas  Sylvius,  De  Concilio  Basilien3i,  The  Acts  of  the  Council  are 
preserved  in  MS.  in  Paris  and  in  Basel.  (T  M  L  ) 

BASHAN,  a  country,  lying  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan 
valley,  towards  its  northern  extremity,  often  mentioned 
in  Jewish  histoiy  The  Hebrew  form  of  the  name  is  tV? 
or  Wi^,  represented  in  Greek  by  Bao-af  and  Bao-aiiTis 
(LXX.  and  Epiphanius),  or  mure  frequently  by  Baraiam 
(Josephus,  Ptolemy,  Eusebius,  A-c).  The  name  is  under- 
Etood  to  be  derived  from  a  root  signifying  fertile,  or, 
according  to  some, ' basaltic ;  and  in  some  of  the  ancient 
versions  of  the  Old  Testament  it  is  occasionally  rendered 
by  a-word  indicating  fertility,  thus,  in  Ps.  xxii.  13,  the 
LXX.  gives  for  Bashan  ttiwc?,  Aquila  gives  AiTrapoi',  Sym- 
machus,  cnTia-ToL  When  we  first  hear  of  this  region  in  the 
days  of  Abraham  it  is  occupied  by  the  Rephaim,  whose 
chief  city  is  Ashteroth  Karnaira  (Gen.  xiv.  5).  These 
Rephaim,  with  kindred  tribes  spread  over  the  trans-Jordanic 
region,  were  in  great  part  subdued  and  supplanted  by  the 
children  of  Lot  (Deut.  ii.  10  11,  19-21),  who  in  their  turn 
were  invaded  and  displaced  by  the  Amorites  (Num.  xx 
26-30).  By  this  people,  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus,  the 
whole  region  north  of  the  Arjon  was  occupied  ,  and  they 
formed  two  kingdoms,  the  more  northerly  embracing  all 
Bashan  and  a  part  of  Gilead  (Deut.  iii,   8,  13;   Josh,  xii 

4,  5).  Og,  who  is  described  as  a  man  of  gigantic  stature, 
belonging  to  the  race  of  the  Rephaim,  was,  at  the  time 
referred  to,  the  ruler  of  this  kingdom  ;  and  having  come  out 
against  the  Israelities,  he  was  overthrown  in  battle  at  Edrei, 
one  of  his  own  cities.  Subsequently,  his  country 'became 
the  allotment  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  (Josh  xiii.  29-3 1 ). 

The  information  given  in  connection  with  the  Israelitish 
conquest  enables  us  to  define  with  considerable  exactness 
the  limits  of  the  ancient  Bashan.  Towards  the  west  it 
included  Golan  (Deut.  iv.  43;  Josh,  xx.  8,  xxi  27),  a 
name  which  to  the  present  day  has  continued  attached  to 
the  district,  the  Jaulan,  lying  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan, 
in  its  upper  course;  while  towards  the  east,  it  reached  to 
Salchah  (Deut.  iii  10,  &c  ),  the  modern  Salkhat,  situated 
on  the  southeastern  slope  of  the  Hauran  mountains.  On 
the  south  it  is  represented  as  immediately  adjoining  the 
country  of  Gilead,  whose  northern  boundary  is  known  to 
have  been  the  river  Jarmuk,  and  on  the  north,  it  is 
expressly  said  to  have  extended  to  Mount  Hermon  (Deut 
iv.  48,  xxxiii  22;  Josh  xiL  5,  xiii.  11,  12)  Within  the 
limits  thus  indicated,  thay  be  pointed  out  the  towns  and 
other  localities  mentioned  as  belonging  to  Bashan,  Ashta- 
roth,  Og's  metropolis,  doubtless  the  Ashteroth  Karnaim  of 
Gen  xiv  5,  called  al.=o  Beeshterah  (cf.  Josh,  xxi  27,  and 
1  Chron.  vi  71),  has  been  sou^-ht  in  various  places, 
especially  in  Tel  Ashtereh  (see  Newbold,  Jour  Geog  S^., 
vol.  xvi  ),  but  h,as  now,  with  much  probability,  been 
identified  (by  VVetzstein,  Reiseberichl  iibcr  Ifaunhi,  p  110) 
with  the  well-known  Busr.lh,  the  Bostra  of  the  Latins, 
whoso  position  admirably  adapts  it  for  a  capital  city,  and 
whose  ruins  attest  its  ancient  splendour  Edrei,  already 
mentioned,  is  to  be  identified  with  Dcr-lt,  on  the  west  of 
Busrih  (VVetzstein,  op.  cit.,  p,  47,  77),  The  position  of 
Oolan  and  Salchah  has  been  indicated,  while  Kenath 
(Num.  xxxii  42)  is  recovered  in  the  modern  Kunawat 
(Porter,  Five  Years  in  Damascus,  vol,  ii.  p  111).  The 
region  of  Argob  will  be  referred  to  immediately. 

Within  the  same  limits  lie  the  provinces  included  by 
Josephus  in  the  Bashan  of  the  Israelites  (i-/  Ant.  Jud.,  iv 

5,  3;  ix  8,  1  ,  Dell  Jnd.,  ii,  G,  3;  iii.  3,  5),  and  rccog. 
niz'^d  generally  by  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers.  They 
»rc  four  — Gaulonitis,  Trachonitis,  Auranitis,  and  Batan.Ta, 
answering  a<  nearly  as  possible  to  the  natural   divisions  of 


the  country  The  first,  Gaulonitis,  deriving  iia  namelrL.io 
the  ancient  Golan,  and  coincident  more  or  less  txaclly  with 
the  modern  Jaulan  already  mentioned,  forms  the  westei  ri 
division,  extending  from  the  Jordan  lakes  to  the  Haj  road. 
It  is  spoken  of  as  divided  into  two  sections,  the  territory 
of  Gamala,  or  Gamalitis,  and  the  territory  of  Sogana  (Bell. 
Jud.,  iv,  1,  1).  It  foruis  a  fertilt  plateau,  diversified  on 
its  northern  half  by  a  range  of  low,  richly-wooded  hills, 
the  Tell  el  Faras,  which  descends  fmm  ^Iount  Hermon. 
The  second,  Trachonitis  (mentioned  Luke  iii.  1),  lay  east 
of  the  preceding,  and  adjoined  the  terriK'ry  of  Damascus, 
as  well  as  Auranitis  and  Eataiu-ea  (Ant.  Jud ,  i,  6,  4  ,  xv 
10,  1),  This  leadsus  to  the  remarkable  tract,  now  called  the 
Lejah,  forming  one  of  the  two  Trachones,  or  rocky  volcanic 
districts,  lying  south  and  east  of  Damascus,  mentioned  by 
Strabo  (Geog.  xvi.  p.  520).  Inscriptions,  moreover,  have 
been  found  in  the  Lejah  (see  Burckhardt,  Travels  in  St/na, 
p.  117),  which  attest  that  the  district  was  called  Trachon 
In  this  province  we  may  with  confidence  recognize  "the 
region  of  Argob,"  so  often  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, as  included  in  the  country  of  Bashan  (Deut.  iii  4, 
13,  14;  1  Kings  iv.  13).  The  argun.ents  for  this 
identification  are, — 1st,  The  etymology  of  the  word  Argob 
(see  Gesenius  and  Fiirst,  sub  voce)  ,  2d,  the  descriptive 
term  usually  conjoined  with  the  name,  chebtl  Argob, 
indicating  a  tract  clearly  defined  and  measured  off,  and 
applied  elsewhere  to  the  line  of  the  sea  coast,  which  the 
boundary  of  the  Lejah  resembles  (c/..  Porter,  op.  cit.,  vol. 
ii,  p,  241),  3d,  by  the  Targuniists  the  name  Argob  is 
rendered  Trachona  (Lightfuot,  C/torograplacal  Xoles,  §  4). 
The  third  province,  Auranitis,  presents  a  name  known  both 
in  ancient  and  in  modern  times  In  Ezekiel  (xlvii,  IC,  18) 
mention  is  made  of  Haurau  (in  the  LXX,  AipaiiTis),  as  a 
locality  on  the  border  of  the  land  of  Israel.  The  name  is 
found  also  on  the  inscriptions  of  Assyria,  under  the  form 
Havranu  (Schrader,  Die  Keihnschrifttn  und  das  A.'T ,  p, 
237),  and  it  is  common  in  Arabian  writers  In  regard  to 
its  modern  use  Porter  says  (Jour  Sac.  Lit.,  July  1854, 
p^,  303),  "  The  name  Hauran  is  at  present  applied  by  those 
at  a  distance  to  the  whole  couutry  e.ast  of  JaulSn  and 
Jeidur,  By  the  people  of  that  country,  however,  it  is  use4 
in  a  much  more  restricted  sense,  and  is  given  only  to  the 
fertile  plain  on  the  south  of  the  Lejah,  with  the  narrow 
strip  on  the  west.  The  whole  of  this  district  is  perfectly 
tlat,  with  little  conical  hills  at  intervals.  The  soil  is  the 
most  fertile  in  Syria,  admirably  adapted  to  the  producl,ion 
of  wheat."  (C/  Burckhardt,  o/x  Ci(.,  p.  285).  The  fourth 
district  is  Balana>a,  a  name  obviously  derived  from,  and 
often  used  by  Josephus  and  others  coextensively  with,  the 
old  name  Bashan,  It  has,  however,  a  special  application 
to  the  district  lying  on  the  east  of  the  Lejiih  and  of  the 
Hauian  plain,  including  the  central  masses  of  the  Jebel  ed-  • 
Druz  or  Hanrfin  mountain  (apparently  the  Alsadanuis  or 
Alsalamus  mens  of  Ptolemy,  and,  perhaps,  the  Salmon  of 
Ps.  Ixviii.  14;  see  Rcland,  Palceslina,  p.  458;  Wctzstcin, 
op  cit.,  p  90)  and  its  eastern  slopes.  To  this  portion  of 
the  kingdom  of  Bashan,  the  njme  Ard  clBathanyeh  is  still 
applied  by  the  natives.  Says  Porter  (op.  cil  ,  p,  305), 
"  One  of  the  most  intelligent  Druzcs  I  met  with  in  my 
whole  journey,  told  me  the  whole  mountains  were  com- 
prehended in  the  Ard-elBathanyeh," 

The  history  of  Biishan,  after  its  conquest  by  tho 
Israelites,  merges  into  the  general  history  of  that  nation, 
and  of  Western  Asia,  It  is  last  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  in  2  Kings  x,  33,  in  connection  with  the  attacks 
made  by  Hazael.the  king  of  Damascus,  upon  the  territory 
of  Israel.  Throughout  the  Psalms  and  tho  Prophets, 
Bashan  is  celebrated  for  its  fertility  and  luxuriance,  its  rich 
pastures,  its  strong  bulls,  its  fallings  "of  rains,  of  lambs, 
'  "f  goats,  of  Inillorks,"  its  oaks  and  its  Cra  (Ps.  xxii. 


B  A  S  — B  A  .S 


411 


12;  Amos  iv.  1  ;  Isa.  ii.  13;  Jcr.  1.  19;  Fzck.  ixxix.  IS, 

IX m.  G},  and  its  extraurdiiiary  fertility  is  attested  by  the 
dt-usity  of  its  population  (Deut.  iii.  4,  5,  14) — a  duiisity 
proved  by  the  unparalleled  abundance  with  which  ri:ined 
towns  and  cities  are  now  strewn  over  the  whole  country, 
lu  the  disturbed  period  which  followed  the  breaking  up  of 
tlie  empire  of  Alexander,  its  possession  was  an  object  of 
I  untiuual  contest.  "  Idunixan  princes,  Nabathsan  kings, 
Arab  chiefs,  ruled  in  their  turn."  The  central  portion  of 
llie  country,  Tiachonitis,  early  became  a  refuge  for  outlaws 
and  ha'jMt  of  robbers,  a  character  for  which  it  is  singularly 
lilted  by  nature,  and  which  it  retains  to  the  present  day 
(C/.  Josephus,  An!  Jtid.,  xv.  1,  xvi.  9,  2,  Strabo,  Geoy , 
xvi.  p  520;  Gul  Tyr,  Hisl ,  xv.  10.)  In  Arabian  tradi- 
tion Bash.in  is  regarded  as  the  country  of  the  patriarch  Job 
(see  Abulfeda,  J/isl.  Anltislamica,  p  27,  208,  and  esp 
U'etzstein,  in  Delitzsch,  Das  Buck  Job,  p.  507,/');  and  it 
holds  a  prominent  place  in  authentic  Arabian  history  as 
the  seat  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Ghassanides  (see  Caussin  de 
Perceval,  L'/Jistoire  d(s  Arabes,vo\.  ii.  202,/  ;  Wetzstein, 
op  cit ,  121./).  At  the  present  day  the  Hauran  is  one  of 
the  seats  of  ihat  singular  people,  the  Druzes  (see  Druzes). 

Both  in  Its  natural  and  its  atchseological  aspects,  the 
cuuntry  of  Bashan  is  full  of  interest.  The  Jebel  ed-Diuz, 
which  rises  to  nearly  CUOO  feet  in  height,  is  a  congeries 
of  extinct  volcanoes,  and  the  products  of  eruption  from 
this  source,  spread  over  the  adjoining  plains,  have  given 
\o  the  soil  that  character  of  fertility  for  which  it  has  been 
in  all  ages  remarkable.  (C/  Lyell,  Principles  of  Geology, 
9th  ed  ,  p  391  )  This  volcanic  soil,  we  are  told,  yields 
on  the  average,  in  some  places,  eighty  returns  of  wheat,  and 
a  hundred  of  barley  (Wetzstein,  op.  cil ,  p.  30.)  The 
mountains  themselves  are  richly  clothed,  at  least  on  their 
western  side,  with  forests  of  various  kinds  of  trees,  among 
which  the  evergreen  oak  is  especially  abundant.  The  Lejah 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  regions  on  the  earth's  surface. 
"  It  is,"  says  one  of  the  latest  observers  (Burton,  Unex- 
plored  St/ria,  vol  i.  p.  164),  "in  fact  a  lava  bed  ;  a  stone 
torrent  poured  out  .  .  .  over  the  ruddy  yellow  clay  and 
the  limestone  floor  of  the  Hauran  valley,  high  raised  by 
the  ruins  of  repeated  eruptions,  broken  up  by  the  action  of 
furaaroles  or  blow  holes,  and  cracked  and  crevassed  when 
cooling  by  earthquakes,  and  by  the  weathering  of  ages." 
(See  also  Burckhardt,  o/>.  cit.,  p.  112,  Porter's  I'ive  Years 
in  Damascus,  vol.  ii   p.  241  ;  Wetzstein,  op.  cit.,  p.  25.) 

In  regard  to  the  architectural  monuments  of  the 
Hauran,  the  "striking  feature,"  says  Count  de  'Vogu^ 
{Recovery  of  Jerusalem,  p.  423),  "is  the  exclusive  use  of 
sinne.  The  country  produces  no  wood,  and  the  only  rock 
'>hich  can  be  obtained  is  a  basalt,  very  hard  and  very 
difficult  to  work."  The  walls  are  formed  of  large  blocks, 
carefully  dressed,  and  bid  together  without  cement,  and 
often  lot  into  one  another  with  a  kind  of  dovetail.  Roofs, 
doors,  stairs,  and  windows,  are  all  of  stone.  This,  of 
course,  imparts  to  the  buildings  great  massivcness  ol 
appearance  and  great  solidity,  and  in  multitudes  of  cases 
the  houses,  though  "  without  inhabitant,"  are  as  perfect  as 
when  first  reared.  Since  buildings  so  strong  arc  apparently 
capable  of  enduring  for  a.ny  length  of  time,  and  since  some 
of  these  arc  known,  from  the  inscriptions  upon  them,  to 
date  from  before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era, 
it  is  not  unnatural  to  regard  them  as,  in  fact,  the  work  of 
the  earliest  known  inhabitants  of  the  land,  the  Amoritcs 
or  the  Rephaim.  (See  Rilter,  Paldst.  und  Syrim,  ii.  9G4  , 
Porter,  Giant  Cities,  p.  79,/).  This,  however,  is  contested, 
on  the  ground  that  the  extant  inscriptions  and  the  archi- 
tectural style  point  to  a  much  later  dale,  and  must  be 
re(;arded  as  at  least  unproved.  (See  Wetzstein,  op.  eit.,  p. 
103  ;  Fergu^son,  in  Athentrutn,  July  1870,  p.  148  ;  Burton, 
tp.    eit.,  vol.   i     p.   192.)     Many  inscriptions   havo   been 


found  in  this  region, — most  of  tbcm  composed  in  Greek,  a 
considerable  number  in  two  forms  of  Shcmitic  writing  (the 
PalmjTeuian  or  Arama;an,  and  the  Sinaitic  or  Nabathxan) 
and  some  in  an  unknown  character,  resembling  th< 
Ilimyaritic.  Arabic  inscriptions  are  numerous  on  buildings 
of  more  recent  date.  The  oldest  recognizable  Greek  record 
bears  the  name  of  Herod  the  Great ;  and  the  Nabathacan 
kings,  of  the  dynasty  of  Aretas,  who  reigned  from  about 
100  B.C.  at  Bozrah  have  also  left  memorials. 

To  the  works  on  this  region  above  nfcrred  to  the  followirg  may 
be  ad  Jed  : — Scelzcn,  Retscn  durch  Stjrien  ;  Buckingliani,  2'raveh 
among  the  Arnb  Tribes,  Gnfaaiii,  Jour.  Gcog.  Soe.,  vol.  x.xviii.; 
Do  Vogue,  Syne  Ccnlrale ;  Wnddinglon,  Inscriptions  Grccgues 
de  la  Syrie ;  Frcshlield,  Travels  tn  tlte  Central  Caucasus  and 
Snshan.  ;\V    TU.) 

BASHKIRS,  a  people  who  inhabit  the  Russian  govern- 
ments of  Orcnbiu-g,  Perm,  and  Samar,  and  parts  of  Viatka, 
especially  on  the  slopes  and  confines  of  the  Ural,  and  in  the 
neighbouring  plains.  The  Bashkirs  are  a  Tatarized  Finnish 
race,  and  are  called  Eestyak  by  the  Kirghiz,  in  allusion  to 
their  origin  from  a  mixture  of  Ostyaks  and  Tatars.  The 
name  Bashkir  or  Bash-kflrt  appears  for  the  first  time  in  the 
beginning  of  the  lOth  centSty  in  the  writings  of  Ibn-Foslan, 
who,  describing  his  travels  among  the  Volga-Bulgarians, 
mentions  the  Bashkirs  as  a  warlike  and  idolatrous  race. 
The  name  was  not  used  by  the  people  themselves  in  the 
10th  century,  but  is  a  mere  nickname.  It  probably  points 
to  the  fact  that  the  Bashkirs,  then  as  now,  were  distin- 
guished by  their  large,  round,  short,  and,  possibly,  close- 
cropped  heads.  Of  European  writers  the  first  to  mention 
the  Bashkirs  are  PlanoCarpini  and  Rubruquis.  These 
travellers,  who  fell  in  with  them  in  the  upper  parts  of  the 
River  Ural,  call  them  Pascatir,  and  assert  that  they  spoke 
at  that  time  the  same  language  as  the  Hungarians.  Till 
the  arrival  of  the  Mongolians,  about  the  middle  of  the 
1 3th  century,  the  Bashkirs  were  a  strong  and  independent 
people,  and  troublesome  to  their  neighbours,  the  Bulgarians 
and  Pechenegs.  At  the  time  of  the  downfal  of'the  Kazan 
kingdom  they  were  in  a  weak  state.  In  1556  they  volun- 
tarily recogniacd  the  supremacy  of  Russia,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, the  city  of  Upha  was  founded  to  defend  them  from 
the  Kirghiz,  and  they  were  subjected  to  a  fur-tax.  In 
1G76  they  rebelled  under  a  leader  named  Seit,  and  weie 
with  difficulty  reduced;  and  again  in  1707,  under  Aldar 
and  Kusyom,  on  account  of  ill-treatment  by  the  Russian 
officials.  Their  third  and  last  insurrection  was  in  1735, 
at  the  time  of  the  foundation  of  Orenburg,  and  it  lasted 
for  six  years.  In  1 786  they  were  freed  from  taxes  ;  and 
in  1798  an  irregular  army  was  formed  from  among  them. 
They  are  now  divided  into  thirteen  cantons,  and  each 
canton  into  yfirts  or  districts,  the  whole  being  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Orenburg  governor-general.  In  military 
matters  they  are  subject  to  an  Ataman,  chosen  from  ths 
generals  of  the  army ;  but  in  civil  affairs  the  yiirts  and 
cantons  are  administered  by  Bashkir  officials.  They  main- 
tain a  military  cordon,  escort  caravans  through  the  Kirghiz 
steppes,  and  are  employed  in  various  other  services.  By 
mode  of  life  the  Bashkirs  are  divided  into  settled  and 
nomadic.  The  former,  who  are  not  distinguishable  from  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Tatar  villages,  are  engaged  in  agriculture, 
cattle-rearing,  and  bee-keeping,  and  live  without  want.  The 
nomadic  portion  is  subdivided,  according  to  the  districts  in 
which  they  wander,  into  those  of  the  mountains  and  those 
of  the  steppes.  Almost  their  sole  occupation  is  the  roaring 
of  cattle ;  and  they  attend  to  that  in  a  very  negligent 
manner,  not  collecting  a  suflTicicnt  store  of  winter  fodder 
for  all  their  herds,  but  allowing  part  of  thein  to  perish. 
The  Bashkirs  are  usually  very  poor,  and  in  winter  live 
partly  on  a  kind  of  gruel  called  yOryu,  and  badly  prepared 
cheese  named  skOrt.  They  are  hospitable  but  suspicious, 
ai't  to  r'lunder,  and  to  the  last  degree  lazy.     They  hsvft 


41^? 


B  A6  — B  AS 


hfe  heads,  bl.vck  hnir,  eyes  narrow  and  flit,  smad  fore- 
hcaJs,  ears  always  sticking  out,  and  a  swarthy  skm.  la 
"oneral,  they  are  strong  and  muscular,  and  capable  of 
tiidurin"  all  kinds  of  labour  and  privation.  They  profess 
Mahometanism,  but  are  little  acquainted  with  its  doctrines. 
In  intellectual  development  they  do  not  stand  high. 

See  Somcnoff,  Slovar  Ross  Imp  s  v  ;  Frahn,  "  De  Baskircs,"  in 
Htm.,  dc  I  Acad  de  St  retersburg,  1S22  ,  and  Flonnsky,  in  iyut.- 
nik  Evropi,  1S74. 

BASIL  THE  GREAT,  an  eminent  ecclesiastic  in  the 
4th  century.     He  was  a  leader  in  the  Arian  controversy,  a 
distinguished  theologian,  a  liturgical  reformer ,   and    his 
letters  to  his  friends,  especially  those  to  Gregory  of  Nazian- 
zus,  give  a  great  amount  of  information  about  the  stirring 
period    in  which    he   lived.     Basil  came  of  a  somewhat 
famous   family,   which  gave  a  number   of   distinguished 
supporters  to  the  church  of  the  4th  century.      His  eldest 
eister,   Macrina,  was  celebrated  for   her  saintly  life  ,    his 
second   brother  was  the  famous  Gregory  of  Nyssa ;   his 
youngest  was  Peter,  bishop  of   Sebaste  ,   and  his  eldest 
brother  was  the  famous  Christian  jurist  Naucratius.     It 
has  been  observed  that  there  was  in  the  whole  family  a 
tendency  to  ecstatic  emotion  and  enthusiastic  piety.     Basil 
was  born  about  330,  at  Cjesarea  in  Cappadocia.     While  he 
was  still  a  child,  the  family  removed  to  Pontus;  but  he  soon 
returned  to  Cappadocia  to  live  with  his  mother's  relations, 
and  seeuis  to  have  been  brought  up  by  his  grandmother 
Macrina.     It  was  at  Ca:sarea  that  he  became  acquainted 
with  his  lifelong  friend  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  and  it  was 
there  that  he  began    that   interesting   correspondence    to 
which  reference  has  been  made.     Basil  did  not  from  the 
first  devote  himself  to  the  church.      He  went  to  Constanti- 
nople in  pursuit  of  learning,  and  spent  four  or  five  years 
there  and  at  Athens.     It  was  while  at    Athens  that    he 
seriously  began  to  think  of  the  church,    and  resolved  to 
seek   out   the  most  famous  hermit  saints   in  Syria   and 
Arabia,  in  order  to  learn  from  them  how  to  attain  to  that 
enthusiastic  piety  in  which  he  delighted,  and  how  to  keep 
lus  body  under  by  maceration  and  other  ascetic  devices. 
After  this  we  find  hira  at  the  head  of  a  convent  near  Arnesi 
in  Pontus,  in  which  his  mother  Emmilia,  now  a  widow, 
his  sister   Macrina,  and  several  other  ladies,  gave   them- 
Belves   to   a  pious  life   of   prayer  and   charitable  works. 
He  was  not  ordained  presbyter  until  3G5,  and  his  ordina- 
tion was  probably  the  result  of  the  entreaties  of  his  ecclesi- 
astical superiors,  who  wished  to  use  his  talents  against  the 
Arians,  who  were  numerous  in  that  part  of  the  country, 
and    were    favoured   by    the   Arian    emperor,    who   then 
reigned  in  Constantinople.     In  370  Eusebius,  bishop  of 
Ceesarea,  died,  and  Basil  was  chosen  to  succeed  him.      It 
was   then  that  his  great  powers  wore  called  into  action. 
Caisarea  was  an  important  diocese,  and  its  bishop  was,  ex 
olficio,  exarch  of  the  great  diocese  of  Pontus.      Basil  was 
threatened  with  confiscation  of  property,  banishment,  and 
even  death,  if  he  did  not  relax  his  regulations  against  the 
Arians  ,  but  he  refused  to  yield,  and'  in  the  end  triumphed. 
He  died  in    379.     The   principal  theological  writings  of 
Basil  are    his   De   Sjuritu   Sancti  and     his   three   books 
against  Eunomius.     He  was  a  famous  preacher,  and  we 
possess  at  least  seventeen  homilies  by  him  on  the  Psalms 
and  on  Isaiah.       His  principal  efTort.s  as  a  reformer  were 
.  directed  towards  the  improvement  of   the    Liturgy   (the 
Liturgy  of  the  Holy  Basil),  and  the    reformation  of  the 
monastic  orders  of  the  East.    (C/.  the  Benedictine  editions 
of  the  works  of  Basil  the  Great.) 

The  name  Basil  also  belongs  to  several  distinguished 
churchmen  besides  Basil  the  Oreat*  (I  )  Basil,  bishop 
of  Ancyra  (33G-360),  a  scini- Arian,  highly  favoured 
by  the  Emperor  Constantine,  and  a  great  polemical 
wrilpr-  none  of  his  works  are  extant.  (2)  IJasil  of  Scleucia 


(fl.  448-458),  a  bishop  who  shifted  side.s  continually  in 
the  Eitcychian  controversy,  and  who  wrote  extensively,  his 
woiks  were  published  in  Paris  in  1G22.  (3.)  Basil  of  Ancyra, 
fl.  787;  he  opposed  image  worship  at  the  second  council 
of  Nicsa,  but  af ter-vards  retracted.  (4.)  Basil,  the  founder 
of  a  sect  of  mystics  who  appeared  lu  the  Greek  Church 
in  the  12th  century  {cf.  Anna  Comnena,  AlexutJ,  bk.  15). 

BASILICA,  a  term  denoting  (1)  in  civil  architecture,  a 
court  of  law,  or  merchants'  exchange,  aud  (2)  in  ecclesias- 
tical architecture,  a  church  of  similar  form  and  arrangement. 

The  name  bixsiltca,  ^acrtAtK>;  {sc.  o-roa  or  avAr;),  " 
royal  portico,"  or  "  hall,"  is  evidence  of  a  Greek  origii 
The  portico  at  Athens  in  which  the  second  archon,  ipxiai 
/3acrL\fiJ9,  sat  to  adjudicate  on  matters  touching  religion, 
and  in  which  the  council  of  Areopagus  sometimes  met,  was 
known  as  the  o-roa  /Sao-iAci.os  or  /Jao-iAiioj  (Pausan.,  i  3,  § 
I  ;  Demosth.,  AristoyU.,  p.  776  ,  Plato,  Charmid.,  ad  tiii(.; 
Aristoph.,  Ecdesia:.,  685).  From  this  circumstance  the 
term  appears  to  have  gained  currency  as  the  designation  of 
a  law-court,  in  which  sense  it  was  adopted  by  the  Romans. 
The  introduction  of  basilicoe  into  Rome  was  not  very  early. 
Livy  expressly  tells  us,  when  describing  the  conflagration 
of  the  city,  210  B.C., 'that  there  were  none  such  then, — 
"  neque  enim  turn  basilicas  erant  "  (xxvi.,27).  The  earliest 
named  is  that  erected  by  M.  Porcius  Cato,  the  censor,  183 
B.C.  (Liv.,  xxxix.  44),  and  called  after  its  founder  basilica 
Porcia.  When  once  introduced  this  form  of  building 
found  favour  with  the  Romans.  As  many  as  twenty 
basilicse  are  recorded  to  have  existed  within  the  walls  of 
Rome,  erected  at  diiTerent  periods,  and  bearing  the  names 
of  their  founders,  e.g. — yEmilia,  Julia,  Sempronia,  Ulpia 
or  Trajani,  ifcc.  The  basilicas  were  always  placed  in  the 
most  frequented  quarter  of  the  city,.*  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  a  forum,  and  on  its  sunniest  and  most  sheltered 
side,  that  the  merchants  and  others  who  resorted  thither 
might  not  suffer  from  the  severity  of  the  weather  (Vitruv., 
De  Architect.,  v.  1).  Originally,  the  basilicas,  like  the 
Royal  Exchange  in  London  and  the  Bourse  at  Antwerp, 
were  unroofed,  consisting  of  a  central  area  surrounded 
simply  by  covered  porticoes,  without  side  walls.'  Subse- 
quently, side  walls  were  erected  and  the  central  space  was 
covered  by  a  roof,  which  was  generally  of  timber,  the 
beams  being  concealed  by  an  arched  or  coved  ceiling,  orna- 
mented with  laciinaria.  Some  basilicas  {e.g.  that  of  Mai- 
entuis  or  "  the  Temple  of  Peace  ")  were  vaulted. 


Fio.  1 
1   Ponlcn. 
I!,  Mull  ot  Bnslllcn 
3  Side  aisles,  with  Kallcrlcfl  over. 


Basilica  nt  Pompeii, 
I      4.  Altnr. 
I      ti  TiltiiinnV 
«  Chnlcid 


a. 


In  plan  the  basilicas  were  large  rectangular  halls,  tKe 
length  of  which,  according  to  the  rules  laid  down  by 
Vitruvius  {^lbi  svp.),  was  not  to  be  more  than  three  times  or 
less  than  twice  its  width.  In  any  cases  where,  from  the 
necessity  of  the  locality,  the  length  exceeded  these  propor- 
tions, the  excess  was  to  bo  masked  by  the  consfruciion  of 
small  apartments  (chalciilica)  at  the  further  end,  on  both 
sides  of  the  tribunal.  On  each  side  of  the  central  area 
was  one,  or  sometimes,  as  in  the  Ulpian  and  /Emilmn 
ba'iilicas,  two  rows  of  columns.  These  were  returned  nt 
either  end,  cutting  off  a  vestibule  at  one  extremity,  and  the 
tribunal  or   court   proper,    forming   a    kind    of   transept. 


BASILICA 


41S 


elevated  above  the  nave,  at  the  ether.  Above  tne  aislc-s 
lhu3  formed  (/mrlicus)  were  galleries,  lorined  by  a  second* 
row  of  columns  supporting  the  roof,  approached  by  external 
itaircaaes,  for  the  acconiuiodadon  of  the  general  public — 
men  on  one  side,  women  on  the  other  (Plin.,  Epist.,  vi. 
33).  They  were  guarded  by  a  parapet  wall  {ptuteus} 
between  the  columns,  high  enough  to  preven;  those  in  the 
galleries  from  being  seen  by  those  below.  Sometimes,  as 
in  Vitruvius's  own  basilica,  at  Fanoim,  and  in  that  at 
Pompeii,  instead  of  a  double  there  was  only  a  single  row 
of  columns,  the  whole  height  of  the  building,  on  which  the 
roof  rested.  In  this  case  the  galleries  were  supported  by 
square  piers  (paraslalce)  behind  the  main  columns.  The 
building  was  lighted  with  windows  in  the  side  walla  and  at 
the  back  of  the  galleries.  In  the  centre  of  the  and-wall 
were  the  seats  of  the  judge  and  his  assessors,  generally 


occupying  a  semicircular  apse,  the  prxtor's  curule  chaii 
standing  in  the  centre  of  the  curve.  When  the  assessors 
were  very  numerous  (according  to  Pliny,  u.s.,  they  sometime.' 
amounted  to  one  hundred  and  eighty),  they  sat  in  two  oi 
three  concentric  curves  arranged  like  the  seats  of  a  theatre 
The  advocates  and  other  officials  filled  the  rest  of  thojaiseii 
platfonii,  divided  from  the  rest  of  the  building  by  a  screen 
of  lattice-work  (cajtcclli).  In  the  centre  of  the  chord  el 
the  apse  stood  an  altar  on  which  the  J^idices  took  an  oalh 
to  administer  true  justice.  The  tribunal  Bometimes  end.ii 
square  instead  of  apsidally.  This  is  so  in  the  basilica  at 
Pompeii  (see  the  plan  anne.ved),  where  the  tribunal  is  partLii 
from  the  body  of  the  hall  by  &  podium  bearing  a  screen  nl 
six  columns,  and  is  flanked  by  staircases  to  the  galleries  ami 
by  the  chalcidica.  T(ie  larger  and  more  magnificent  basilicas 
were  sometimes  finished  v,-ith  an. -apse  at  each  extremity 


Fio.  2. — Interior  view  of  Trujau'a  Basilica  {JSaiilka  Ulpia),  as  restored  by  Canlsa. 


The  plans  of  Trajan's  basilica  usually  give  this  arrangement. 
The  fragment  of  the  ground-plan  in  the  marble  tablets  pre- 
icrved  in  the  Capitol,  usually  called  that  of  the  iEmilian, 


but  really,  as  Canina  has  shown,  that  of  the  Ulpian  basUib. 
also  shows  an  apse,  designated  (Atrium)  Lihertatis.  Thif 
we,  know  from  many  ancient  authorities,  was  the  localit 


Fiu.  3.- 


'round-Plan  of  Trajan's  Basilica  (Basilica  I'ljna). 


for  the  manumission  of  slaves  ;  and,  therefore,  the  tribunal 
must  have  been  at  the  other  end,  and,  doubtless,  also  apsidal. 
The  basilica  of  Trajan  was  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
magnificent  in  Rome.     From  its  existing  remains  we  learn 


that  it  was.  174  feet  in  breadth,  and  more  than  twice  as 
long  as  it  was  broad.  (The  I'lan  and  supposed  internal 
arrangetnents  will  be  seen  in  the  annexed  woodcuts  from 
Canina.)     The  n.ive,  66  feet  in  breadth,  was  divided  from 


414 


B  A  S  I  L.  I  C  A 


tii6  double  aisles  by  rows  of  granite  columns,  35  feet  high. 
An  upper  row  of  columns  in  front  of  the  galleries  above 
the  aisles  supported  a  ceiling,  covered  with  plates  of 
gilt  bronze.  The  total  internal  height  was  about  120 
feet.  The  walls  were  cased  with  white  marble  from 
Luna.  It  was  paved  with  giallo  antico  and  purple  breccia. 
A  side  court,  which  enclosed  the  well-known  memorial 
column  to  Trajan,  was  flanked  by  libraries,  Bihliotheca 
Graeca  and    Latma   (Sidon.    ApoUinaris,  Epigr.,  Lx.   16). 


f  10.  4.' — Section  of  the  Ba«i!ic.i  of  Constaiiliije  or  Maxeotius 
(Teojpleof  Peace). 

The  basilica  of  Maxentius  (or  of  Constantino),  usually 
known  as  the  Temple  of  Peacf,  in  the  Forum  at  Rome,  was 
on  an  entirely  different  plan  from  those  already  described. 
The  internal  colonnades  were  dispensed  with,  the  central 
space  being  covered  by  a  vast  quadripartite  brick  vault,  in 
three  bays  ;  and  the  aisles  were  roofed  with  three  huge 
barrel  vaults,  each  72  feet  in  span.  Columns  were  only 
used  for  ornament.  The  tribunal  was  apsidal.  Its  width 
was  195  feet,  but  it  was  100  feet  shorter  than  Trajan's 
basilica.  The  ground-plan  of  a  snial.  but  interesting 
basilica,  of  which  the  foundations  remain  at  Otricoli 
(Ocriculum),  is  given  by  Agincourt  (pi  Ixxiii.  No.  100).  The 
nave  is  of  four  bays ;  beyond  the  aisles  there  is  an  addi- 
tional aisle  of  annexed  buildings  or  chahidica;  the  apse  is 
.internal.  A  good  example  of  a  provincial  basilica  remains 
at  Treves.  It  is  a  plain  hall,  about  90  feet  long,  the  walls 
being  100-feet  high,  without  aisles,  and  it  has  an  apsidal 
tribunal  elevated  considerably  above  the  floor.  Under  the 
empire,  when  architectural  magni6cence  reached  an  hitherto 
unparalleled  height,  hasiticce  formed  a  part  of  the  plan  of 
the  palaces  erected  by  the  emperors  and  nobles  of  Rome 
(Vitruv.,  vi.  81).  'A  beautiful  example  on  a  small  scale, 
the  Basilica  Jovis.  has  been  recently  excavated  in  the  rums 
'>f  the  palace  of  the  Caesars  on  the  Palatine.  Only  the 
lowtT  part  of  the  walls  remains,  but  the  arrangements  of 
the  building  are  singularly  perfect,  even  to  tlie  pierced 
marble  cancelh,  and  throw  the  clearest  light  on  the  con- 
struction of  these  halls. 

On  the  establishment  of  Christianity  as  the  imperial 
religion,  these  vast  halls  furnished  exactly  what  Was  wanted 
for  the  religious  assemblies  of  the  Christian  community. 
The  basilica  was,  in  fact,  a  ready-made  church,  singularly 
adapted  for  its  new  purpose.  The  capacious  nave  accoiu- 
modated  the  ordinary  congregations,  the  galleries  or  aisles 
the  females  and  the  more  digmfled  worshippers,  while 
the  raised  triihinal  formed  ihe  6fnm,  or  sanctuary,  separated 
by  lattice-work  from  the  less  sacred  portion  belo.',  the 
bishop  and  his  clergy  ociiipying  the  semicircular  apsis 
The  pnetor's  curule  chair  became  the  episcopal  throne,  the 
I'lrvcd  bench  of  his  assessors  the  seat  for  the  presbyters  of 
I  lie  church  The  inferior  clergy,  readers,  and  singers  took 
the  place  of  the  advocates  below  the  tribunal  ;  while  on 
the  site  of  Ihe  heathen  ali.ir  rose  the  holy  table  of  the 
EuchiiHtic  (cast  divi.li'd  from  the  nave  by  its  protecting 
latin-..'  work  screen,  from  winch  were  suspended  curtains 
gTiirdicii;  the  sacred  inysterics  from  the  intrusive  gaze  of 
Ihe  profrtiie 

The  words  of  Aiisonms  to  the  Emperor  Gratian,  in  which 
ilie  speaks  of  "  the  basilicas  once  full  of  business,  but  now 


of  prayers  for  the  emperor's  preservatmrl  [Oiat  Actio  pro 
Consiilatu),  are  a  tesumony  to  the  gene  al  conversion  of 
these  civd  basilicas  into  Christian  churches.  We  know 
this  to  have  been  the  case  with  the  basilicas  of  t^t  Cross 
(S,  Croce  in  Geruaalemrae)  and  St  Mary  Major's  at  Rome, 
which  were  halls  in  the  Sessorian  and  Liberian  palaces 
respectively,  granted  by  Constantine  to  the  Christians  We 
may  adduce  also  as  evidence  of  the  same  practice  a  passage 
from  the  theological  romance  known  as  The  Recoyndiona 
of  Clement  (bk.  x.  ch.  71),  probably  dating  from  the  eaiiy 
half  of  the  3d  century,  in  winch  we  are  told  that  Theophilus 
of  Antioch,  on  his  conversion  by  St  Peter,  made  over 
"the  basilica  of  his  house  "  for  a  church.  But  however 
this  may  have  been,  with,  perhaps,  the  single  exception  of 
St  Cross,  the  existing  Christian  basilicas  were  erected  from 
the  ground  for  their  sacred  purpose  At  Rome  the 
columns,  friezes,  and  other  materials  of  the  desecrated 
temples  and  public  buildings  furnished  abundant  materials 
for  their  construction.  The  decadence  of  art  is  plainly 
shown  by  the  absence  of  rudimentary  architectural  know, 
ledge  in  these  reconstructions.  Not  only  are  columns  of 
various  heights  and  diameters  made  to  do  duty  in  the  same 
colonnade,  but  even  different  orders  stand  side  by  side— 
(s-ff.,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite  at  St  Mary's  in  the 
Trastevere) ;  whde  pilasters  assume  a  horizontal  position, 
and  serve  as  entablatures,  as  at  St  Lawrence's.  There  being 
no  such  quarry  of  ready-worked  materials  at  Ravenna,  the 
noble  basdicas  of  that  city  are  free  from  these  defects,  and 
exhibit  greater  unity  of  design  and  harmony  of  proportions. 
In  all  cases,  however,  the  type  of  the  civil  basilica,  which 
had  proved  so  suitable  for  the  requirements  of  Christian 
congregations,  was  adhered  to  with  remarkable  uniformity. 
An  early  Christian  basilica  may  be  thus  described  in  its 
main  features  ; — A  porch  supported  on  pillars  (as  at  St 
Clement)  gave  admission  into  an  open  court  or  a/num,  sur- 
rounded by  a  colonnaded  cloister  (St  Clement.  Old  St 
Peter's,  St  Ambrose  at  Milan,  Parenzo).  In  the  centre  of 
the  lurt  stood  a  cistern  or  fuuntai  i  {contharus,  pkiale),  for 
drinking  and  ablutions,  in  close  contiguity  to  the  atrium, 
often  to  the  v.est.  was  the  bapt  stery,  usually  octagonal 
(Parenzo).  The  church  was  entered  through  along  nairov" 
porch  {nartlux),  beyond  which  penitents,  or  those  under 
ecclesiastical  censure,  were  forbidden  to  pass,  Thenarthex 
was  sometimes  internal  (St  Agnes),  sometimes  an  external 
portico  (St  Lawrence's,  St  Paul's).  Three  or  four  lofty  door- 
ways, according  to  the  number  of  the  aisles,  set  in  marble 
cases,  gave  admission  to  the  church  The  doors  themselves 
were  of  rich  5vood,  elaborately  carved  with  scriptural  sub- 
jects, or  of  bronze  similarly  adorned  and  often  gilt. 
Magnificent  curtains,  frequently  Embroidered  with  sacred 
6gures  or  scenes,  clo.sed  the  entrance,  keeping  out  the  be.it 
of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter. 

The  interior  consisted  of  a  long  and  wide  nave,  tiften  SO 
feet  across,  terminating  in  a  semicircular  apse,  with  one  or 
sometimes  (St  Paul's,  Old  St  Peter's.  St  John  Lateran)  two 
aisles  on  each  side, separated  by  colonnades  of  marble  pillars 
supiiorting  horizontal  entablatures  (Old  St  Peter's,  St  Mary 
Major's,  St  Lawrence's)  or  arches  (St  Paul's,  St  Agnes,  St 
Clement,  the  two  basilicas  of  St  Apolhnaris  at  Ravenna). 
Above  the  pillars  the  clerestory  wall  rose  to  a  great  height, 
pierced  in  its  upper  part  by  a  range  of  plain  round-headed  win- 
dows. The  space  between  the  windows  and  the  colonnade 
(the  later  tnforuini-space)  was  usually  decorated  with  a  series 
of  mosaic  pictures  in  panels  (Old  St  Peter's,  St  Piiul's,  St 
Mary  Major's.  St  Apollinaris  within  the  walls  at  Ruvennn). 
The  upper  gallciics  of  the  secular  basilicas  were  not  usually 
adopted-  in  the  West,  but  we  have  examples  of  this 
arrangement  at  St  Agnes,  St  Lawrence's,  and  the  Quattro 
!S,'\nti  Coronati.  They  are  much  more  frequent  in  llie  East. 
I  The  colonnade.')  sometimes  extended  quite  to  the  end  of 


BASILICA 


415 


tLe  church  (St  Mary  Jfajor's),  sometimes  ceased  some  little 
distance  from  the  end,  thus  forming  a  transverse  aisle  or 
transept  (St  Paul's,  Old  St  Peter's,  St  John  Latcran). 
%Vhere  this  transept  occurred  it  was  divided  from  the  nave 
by  a  wide  arch,  the  western  face  and  soiEt  of  which  were 
richly  decorated  with  mosaics.  O.ver  the  crown  of  the  arch 
we  often  End  a  bust  of  Christ  or  the  holy  lamb  lj"ing 
upon  the  altar,  and,  on  either  side,  the  evangelistic  sym- 
bols, the  seTen  candlesticks,- and  th?  twentj-four  elders. 
Another  arch  spanned  the  semicircular  apse,  in  which  the 
church  always  terminated.  Tliis  was  designated  the  arcA 
of  triumph,  from  the  mosaics* that  (tecorated  it  representing 
the  triumph  of  the  Saviour  and  Jlis  church.  The  conch 
or  ssmi-dome  that  covered  the  apse  was  always  covered  with 
mosaic  pictures  on  a  gold  ground,  usually  paintings  of  our 
Lord,  either  seated  or  standing,  with  St  Peter  and  St  Paul, 
uhd  other  apostles  and  saints,  on  either  hand.  The  beams 
(if  the  roof  were  generally  concealed  by  a  flat  ceiling, 
richly  carved  and  gilt.  The  altar,  standing  in  the  centre 
of  the  chord  of  the  apse  on  a  raised  platform,  reached  by 
flights  of  steps,  was  rendered  conspicuous  by  a  lofty  canopy 
supported  by  marble  pillars  {ciborium,  baldacchino),  from 
which  depended  curtains  of  the  richest  materials.  Beneath 
the  altar  was  the  con/essio,  a  subterranean  chapel,  contain- 
ing the  body  of  the  patron  saint,  and  relics  of  other  holy 
persons.  This  was  approached  by  descending  flights  of 
steps  from  the  nave  or  aisles.  The  con/essio  in  some  cases 
reproduced  the  original  place  of  interment  of  the  patron 
saint,  either  in  a  catacomb-chapel  or  in  an  ordinary  grave, 
and  thus  formed  the  sacred  nucleus  round  which  the 
ehurch  arose.  We  have  good  examples  of  this  arrangement 
at  St  Peter's,. St  Paul's,  St  Pudenziana,  and- St  Lawrence. 
It  was  copied,  as  we  wiO  see  hereafter,  in  the  original 
cathedral  of  Canterbury.  The  bishop  or  officiating  pres- 
byter advanced  from  his  seat  in  the  centre  of  the  semicircle 
of  the  apse  to  the  eastern  side  (ritually)  of  the  altar,  and 
celebrated  the  Eucharist  with  his  face  to  the  congregation 
'below.  At  the'foot  of  the  altar  steps  a  raised  platform 
occupying  the  upper  portion  of  the  nave  formed  a  choir  for 
the  singers,  readers,  and  other  inferior  clergy.  This  oblong 
space  was  separated  from  the -aisles  and  from  the  western 
portion  of  the  nave  by  low  marblo  walls  or  railings.  From 
these  walla  projected  ambonei,  or  pulpits  with  desks,  also 
of  marble,  ascended  by  steps.  That  for  the  reader  of  the 
gospel  was  usually  octagonal,  with  a  double  flight  of  steps 
westward  and  eastward.  That  for  the  reader  of  the  epistle 
was  square  or  oblong. 

The  exterior  of  the  basilicas  was  usually  of  a  repulsive 
plainness.     The  vast  brick  walls  were  unrelieved  by  orna- 


Pia  S— ElUr.o.-  ■.,...      . ,:,:,_,r,,  ,n  L  1,1  .-.',    i;iTCrn«. 

nient,  without  any  compensating  grace  of  outline  or  beauty 
of  proportion.     An  exception  was  made  for  the  west  front, 


which  was  usually  covered  with  plates  of  marble  mosaics 
or  painted  stucco  (Old  St  Peter's,  St  Lawrence's).  This  jrart 
was  frequently  crowned  with  a  hollow  projecting  cornice  (St 
Lawrence's,  Ara  Cceli).  But  in  spite  of  any  decorations  the 
external  efl'ect  of  a  basilica  must  always  have  been  hea\'y 
and  unattractive.  The  annexed  view  of  St  Apollinaris  iu 
Classe  at  Ravenna  affords  a  typical  examplei 

To  pass  from  general  description  to  individual  churches, 
the  first  place  must  be  given,  as  the  earliest  and  grandest 
examples  of  the  type,  to  the  world-famous  Roman  basUicas  ; 
those  of  St  Peter,  St  Paul,  and  St  John  Lateran,  "  omnium 
urbis  et  orlis  ecclesiarum  mater  ei  caput."  It  is  true  that 
no  one  of  these  exists  in  its  original  form.  Old  St  Peter's 
having  been  entirely  removed  in  the  IGth  century  to  make 
room  for  its  magnilicent  successor  ;  and  both  St  Paul's  and 
St  John  Lateran  having  beeji  greatly  injured  by  fire,  and 
the  last  named  being  so  completely  modernized  as  to  have 


.'f?;S::£k-" 


Fio.  6.— Facade  of  olj  St  Peier's,  Rom«. 

lost  all  interest.  Of  the  two  former,  however,  we  pos- 
sess drawings,  and  plans,  and  minute  description^  which 
give  an  accurate  con- 
ception of  the  ori- 
ginal buildings.  To 
commence  with  St 
Peter's,  from  the 
woodcuts  annexed 
it  will  be  seen  that 
the  church  was  en- 
tered through  a  vast 
colonnaded  atrium, 
212  feet  by  235  feet, 
with  a  fountain  in  the 
centre, — the  atrium 
being  preceded  by  a 
porch  mounted  by  a 
noble  flight  of  steps, 
The  church  w.as  212 
feet  wide  by  380  feet 
long ;  the  nave,  80 
feet  in  width,  was  six 
steps  lower  than  the 
side  aisles,  of  which 
there  were  two  on 
each  side.  The  four 
dividing  colonnades 
were  each  of  twenty- 
two  Corinthian 
columns.  Those  next 
the  nave  supported 
horizontal  entabla- 
tures. The  inner  co- 
lonnades bore  arches,  with  a  second  clerestory.  The  mail 
clerestory  walls  were  divided  into  two  rows  of  square  panrl 


7. — Cround-Plan  of  tbc  original  Ba 
ilica  of  St  Peter's  at  Rome. 

a.  Porch. 

b.  Atrium. 
.  Cloister* 


d.  Ksilhcx. 
t,  NaTc. 
/.  /.  AislcJ. 
t.  Herat. 


\  Allnr.  piotcctcd  by  ) 

double  •cieen. 
i,  ElsIiDn't    ihrona   t 


ccntie  of  lb»  1. 
t,  Sacristy. 
/.  Tomb  of  nonortol. 
m,CbilicbofSCAodr»« 


416 


BASILICA' 


coDtaiDmg  mosaics,  and  h:\d  windows  above.  The  transrept 
projected  beyond  the  body  of  tlie  church,— a  very  un- 
usual arrangement.  The  apse,  of  remarkably  small  dimen- 
sions, was  screened  off  by  a  double  row  of  twelve  wreathed 
columns  of   Parian  marble,   of   great  antiquity,   reported 


tja  i^H  i^si»-JI^?i^iss 


m  iM  HI  HI  III  urn 


IM&:^'^M^-'''' 


Fig    8. — Sectional  view  of  the  old  Basilica  of  St  Peter,  before  its 
dcstruction-in  the  15th  century. 

to  have  been   brought  from   Greece,  or  from   Solomon's 

Temple.     The  pontihcal  chair  was  placed  in  the  centre  of 

the  curve   of  the  apse,  on  a  platform  raised  several  steps 

above  the  presbytery.     To  the  right  and  left  the  seats  of 

the  cardinals  followed  the  line  of  the  apse.     At  the  centre 

of  the  chord  stood  the  high  altar  beneath  a  ciborium,  resting 

on  four  pillars  of  porphyry. 

Beneath   the   altar  was  the 

subterrai  ean      chapel,      the 

centre  of  the  devotion  of  so  ^'"' """ 

large  a  portion  of  the  Chris 

tian  world,  believed  to  con-    j 

tain  the  remains  of  St  Peter; 

a   vaulted   crypt   ran  round 

the  foundation  wall   of   the 

apse  in  which  many  of  the 

popes  were  buried.    The  roof 

showed  its  naked  beams  and 

rafters. 

The  basilica  of  St  Paul 
without  the  walls,  dedicated 
324  A.D.,  rebuilt  388-423, 
remained  in  a  sadly  neglected 
state,  but  substantially  un- 
altered, till  the  disastrous  fire  - 
of  1823,  which  reduced  the 
nave  to  a  calcined  ruin.  Its 
plan  and  dimensions  were 
almost  identical  with  those  of 
St  Peter's,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  annexed  woodcuts. 
Its  double  aisles  were  formed 
by  four  colonnades,  each  of 
tweiity  Corinthian  pillars,  33 
feet  high,  all  supporting 
arches.  Of  these  pillars  twenty-four  were  of  the  best  period 
of  Roman  art,  t.akcn  from  the  mausoleum  of  Augustus,  or 
from  the  basilica  JEiaUia,.  The  contrast  between  them 
and  those  of  the  5th  century,  standing  side  by  side  with 
thorn,  aho<f3  how  greatly  art  had  declined.  As  at  St 
Peter's,  the  walls  above  the  arches  were  lined  with  a  double 
row  of  mosaic  panels,  below  which  was  a  baud  of  circles 
containing  portraits  of  the  popes,  from  St  Peter  downwards. 
The  transept  was  parted  from  the  nave  by  a  sohd  wall, 
with  openings  pierced  in  it,  and  in  later  times  was  divided 
dova  th«  middle  by  a  transverse  colonnade     The  high 


Fia.  9.— Ground-Plan  of  StPaul's, 
Rome,  before  ita  destniction  by 
fire. 


a.  Nftrthci. 

b    Nave. 

c.  c,  Side  aisles. 


d.  Altar. 
t  llcmi. 
f.  Apse. 


altar  rose  above  a  crypt,  or  cun/essio,  traditionally  believed 
to  be  the  catacomb  of  Lucina,  a  noble  Roman  Christian 
matron,  to  which  the  body  of  the  apostle  Paul  had  been 
removed  251  a.d.  The  narthex  was  external.  St  Paul's 
had  completely  lost  its  atrium.  The  bronze  doors,  covered 
withscriptural  reliefs,  had  been  brought  from  Const-intinople, 


Fia.  10.— Section  of  the  Basilica  of  St  Paul,  Rome. 
The  omy  parts  of  the  modernized  five-aisled  basilica  of 
St  John  Lateran  (of  which  we  have  a  plan  in  its  original 
state,  Agincourt,  pL  kxiii.  No.  22)  which  retain  any  interest, 
are  the  double  vaulted  aisle  which  runs  round  the  apse,  a 
most  unusual  arrangement,  and  the  baptistery.  The  latter 
is  an  octagonal  building  standing  some  little  distance 
from  the  basilica  to  the  south.  Its  roof  is  supported  by  a 
double  range  of  columns,  one  above  the  other,  encircling 
the  baptismal  basin  sunk  below  the  floor. 

Of  the  three-aisled  basilicas  the  best  example  is  the 
Liberian  or  St  Mary  Major's,  dedicated  365,  and  re- 
constructed 432  A.D.  Its  internal  length  to  the  chord  of 
the  apse  is  250  feet,  by  100  feet  in  breadth.  The  Ionic 
pillars  of  grey  granite,  uniform  in  style,  twenty  on  each 
side,  form  a  colonnade  of  great  dignity  and  beauty, 
unfortunuftely  broken  towards  the. east  by  intrusive  arches 
opening  into  chapels.  The  clerestory,  though  modern,  is 
excellent  in  style  a»d  arrangement.  Corinthian  pilasters 
divide  the  windows,  beneath  which  are  very  remarkable 
mosaic  pictures  of  subjects  from  Old  Testament  history, 
generally  supposed  to  date  from  the  pontificate  of  Sixtus 
riL,  432-440.  The  face  of  the  arch  of  triumph  pre- 
sents also  a  series  of  mosaics  illustrative  of  the  infancy  of 
our  Lord,  of  great  value  in  the  history  of  art.  The  apse 
is  of  later  date,  reconstructed  by  Paschal  I.  in  818. 

The  Sessorian  basilica,  now  St  Cross  (Santa  Croce  in 
Gerusalemme),  is  of  exceptional  arrangement.  Originally 
a  hall  of  the  palace  known  as  Scssorium,  it  was  granted  by 
Constantine  for  the  purposes  of  Christian  worship,  and  a 
vast  apse,  nearly  the  whole  breadth  of  the  hall,  was  added 
at  the  east  end.  The  side  walls  are  pierced  by  two  tiers 
of  large  arched  openings,  originally  communicating  with 
a  second  range  of  aisles.  Of  these  the  lower  range  has 
been  built  ui>,  but  the  upper  is  still  open,  forming  im- 
mense window.?. 

Among  the  remaining  basilicM  of  Rome  those  of  St 
Lawrence  (S.  Lorenzo  fuori  le  Mura)  and  St  Agnes  deserve 
Ejiecial  mention,  as  exhibiting  a  gallery  corresponding  to 
those  of  the  civil  basilicas  and  to  the  later  tnforium,  carried 
above  the  aisles  and  returned  across  the  west  end.  The 
architectural  history  of  St  Lawrence's  is  curious.  When 
originally  constructed,  578-590,  it  consisted  of  a  short 
nave  of  six  bays,  with  an  internal  narthcx  the  whole  height 
of  the  biSlding.  In  the  13th  century  Honorius  III.  dis- 
orientated the  church,  by  pulHngdown  the  apse,  and  erecting 
a  nave  of  twelve  bays  on  its  site  and  beyond  it,  thus  con- 
verting the  original  nave  into  a  square-ended  choir,  the 
level  being  much  raised,  and  the  magnificent  Corinthian 
columns  half  buried.  As  a  consequence  of  the  church 
being  thus  shifted  completely  round,  the  face  of  the  arch 
of  triumph,  turned  away  from  the  present  entrance,  but 
towards  the  original  one,  is  invested  with  the  usual  mosaics 
(Agincourt,  pi.  xxviii  Nos.  29,  30,  31).  The  basilica  of 
St  Agnes,  tJ2r)-G38,  of  which  wo  give  a  plan  and 
section,  is  a  small  but  interesting  buihling,  mnch  hke  what 
St  Lawrence's  must  have  been  before  it  was  altered.     From 


i 


£l  A  S  I  L  I  C  A 


417 


vhe  full  ot  toe  ^ronoQ  the  upyei  galleries  are  on  s  level  wict 
a«  road  al  -ne  oast  end,  and  were  originally  eatered  from 

I 


*FiQ.  11. — GrounJ-Plan  of  Basilica  of  St  Agnes  at  Rome. 


L  Steps  donrti  to  tbe 

cburoh. 
1.  Nu11i>;i. 


3  S«te. 

4.  SiOr  aisles  with  gal- 
I6iiv4  above. 


6  Attar. 

6,  Ulstu.p'a  throne 

7,  7, 7,  UoUem  cliapeli. 


it.     St  Cross  originally  had  similar  galleries  above  the 
arcade. 


FlO.  12.— Section  of  Basilica  of  6t  Agnes  at  Rome. 

Though  inferior  in  size,  and  later  in  date  than  most  of 
the  basilicas  already  mentioned,  that  of  St  Clement  is  not 
surpassed  in  interest  by  any  one  of  them.  This  is  due  to 
Its  having  retained  its  original  ritual  arrangements  and 
charch-fittings  more  perfectly,  than  any  other.  These 
fittings  have  been  removed  from  the  earlier  church,  lying 
below  the  existing  building,  which  at  some  unknown  date 
and  for  some  unrecorded  reason,  was  abandoned,  611ed   urj 


Fio.  13. — Plan  of  Basilica  of  St  Clement  in  Rome. 


I.  Poreh 

t-  Atrlam 

a  N»e 

4.  Aisle  (or  meo 


S.  Aisle  for  womfo. 

6  Chonu  canto.iiia. 

7  Altar 

a  Qospel  amho 


9  Epistle  ambo 
10  Confesslo 
11.  Bishop's  thron 


with  earth,  and  a  new  building  erected  upon  it  as  a  founda- 
tion. The  most  probable  account  is  that  the  earlier  church 
w,-w  80  completely  overwhelmed  in  the  niin  of  the  city  in 
1084,  when  Robert  Quiscard  burnt  all  the  public  buildings 
from  the  Latemn  to  the  Cnpitol,  that  it  was  found  simpler 


and  more  convenient  to  build  a  new  edince  at  a  liigher 
level,  than  to  repair  the  old  one.  The  annexed  plan  and 
view  show  the  peculiarities  of  the  existing  building.  The 
church  IS  preceded  by  an  atrium,  the  only  perfect  example 
rsmaining  in  Rome,  lu  the  centre  of  which  is  the  canthai-ut, 
or  fountain  for  ablutions.  The  atrium  is  entered  by  a 
portico  made  up  of  earlier  fragments  very  carelessly  put 
together.  The  chorus  cantorum,  which  occupies  about  oue- 
third  of  the  nave  is  enclosed  by  a  low  marble  screen,  abouC 
3  feet  high,  a  work  of  the  9lh  century,  preserved  from  tho 
old  church,  but  newly  arranged.  The  white  marble  slabs 
are  covered  with  patterns  in  low  relief,  and  are  decorated 
with  ribbons  of  glass  mosaic  of  the  13th  century.  These 
screen-walla  stand  quite  free  of  the  pillars,  leaving  a  pas- 
sage between.  On  the  ritual  north  stands  the  gospel-an^bo,  of 
octagonal  form,  with  a  double  flight  of  steps  westwards  and 


luterior  of  St  Clement,  ftonie. 


eastwards.  To  the  west  of  it  stands  the  great  Paschal 
caniilestick,  with  a  spiral  shaft,  decorated  with  mosaic. 
Opposite,  to  the  south,  is  the  epistle-arnbo,  square  in  plan, 
with  two  marble  reading  desks  facing  east  and  west,  for  the 
reading  of  the  epistle  and  the  gradual  respectively.  The 
sanctuary  is  raised  two  steps  above  the  choir,  from  which, 
it  is  divided  by  another  portion  of  the  same  marble  screen 
The  altar  stands  beneath  a  lofty  ciborivm,  supported  by 
marble  columns,  with  a  canopy  on  smaller  shafts  above. 
It  retains  the  rods  and  rings  for  the  curtains  to  run  on. 
Behind  the  altar,  in.the  centre  of  the  curved  line  of  the  apse 
is  a  marble  episcopal  throne,  bearing  the  monogram  of  Ana- 
stasius  who  was  titular  cardinal  of  this  church  in  1 108.  The 
conch  of  the  apse  is  inlaid  with  mosaics  of  quite  the  end  of 
the  13th  century.  The  subterranean  church,  disinterred 
by  the  zeal  of  Father  JfuUooly,  the  prior  of  the  adjacent 
Irish  Dominican  convent,  is  supported  by  columns  of  very 
rich  marble  of  various  kinds.  The  aisle  walls,  as  well  as 
those  of  the  narthei,  are  covered  with  fresco-paintings,  of 
vanous  dates  from  the  7th  to  the  11th  century,  in  a  mar- 
vellous state  of  preservation.  (See  Si  Clement,  Pope  and 
Martyr,  and  hU  Basilica  in  /tome,  by  Joseph  MuUooly, 
O.P.,  Rome,  1873). 

Out  of  Piome  the  most  remarkable  basilican  churches  are 
the  two  dedicated  to  St  Apollinaris  at  Ravenna.  They  are 
of  smaller  dimensions  than  those  of  Rome,  bnt  the  design 
and  proportions  are  better.  The  cathedral  of  this  city,  a 
noble  basilica  with  double  aisles,  erected  by  Archbishoji 
Ursus,  400  A.D.  (Agincourt,  pi.  xxiii.,  No.  21),  wai. 
unfortunately  destroyed  on  the  erection  of  the  present 
tasteless  building.  Of  the  two  basilicas  of  St  Apollinaris, 
the  earlier,  S.  Apolliiiare  Nuovo,  originally  an  Arian  church 
erected  by  Theodoric,  493-525,  measuring  315  feet  in 
length  by  115  feet  in  breadth,  has  a  nave  51  feet  wide, 
separated  from  tho  single  aisles  by  colonnades  of  twenty- 
two  pillars,  supporting  arches,  a  small  prismatic  block 
bearing  a  sculptured  cross  intervening  with  very  happy 
effect  between  the  capital  and  the  arch.  The  clerestory 
wall  is  not  stilted  to  the  excessive  height  of  the  Roman 
examples.     Below  the  windows  a  continuous  band  of  saintlv 


418 


BASILICA 


figures,  male  on  one  siae  and  femaiv,  ou  the  other,  advancing 
in  stately  procession  towards  Oar  Lord  and  the   Virgin 
Mother    respectively,    affords 
one   of    the    most    beautiful 
examples  of  mosaic  ornamen= — 
tation   to    be    found    in   any 
church.      The   design  of  the 
somewhat   later   and   smaller 
church    of   St  Apolhuaris  in 
C'laase,  538-549  a.d.,  measur- 
ing 216  feet  by  104  feet,  is  eo 
similar  that   they  must  have 
proceeded  from  the  same  archi- 
tect   (Agincourt,    pL    Ixxiii., 
No  35). 

The  cathedral  on  the  island 
of  Toroello  near  Venice,  ori.- 
ginally  built  in  the  7  th  cen- 
tury, but  largely  repaired 
circa  1000  A.D.,  deserves  special  attention  from  the  fact 
that  it  preserves,  in  a  more  perfect  state  than  can  be  seen 
elsewhere,  the  arrangements  of  the  seats  in  the  apse.  The 
bishop's  throne  occupies  the  centre  of  the  arc,  approached 
by  a  steep  flight  of  steps.  Six  rows  of  stone  benches  for 
the  presbyters,  rising  one  above  another  like  the  seats  in  a 
theatre,  follow  the  curve  on  either  side, — the  whole  being 
singularly  plain  and  almost  rude.     The  altar  stands  on  a 


Fia.  15. — Arches  ol  St  ApoUi- 
aare  Nuovo,  Ravenna. 


In  the  Eastern  church,  though  the  erett.jn  of  St  Sopti.a 
at  Constantinople   introduced  a   new   type  which  almoii 


i'la.  16.— Apscof  Basiluj,  Tur  L  .   ,         ..  ;    .      ,   _ _,:il9 

■  for  the  clergy.     PVora  a  drawing  by  the  late  Lady  Talgrave. 

platform  ;  the  sanctuary  is  divided  from  the  nave  by  a 
screen  of  six  pillars.  The  walls  of  the  apse  are  inlaid 
wilh  plates  of  marble.  The  church  is  125  feet  by  75  feet. 
The  narrow  aisles  are  only  7  feet  in  width. 

Another  very  remarkable  basilica,  less  known  than  it 
deserves  to  bo,  is  that  of  Parenzo  in  Istria,  circa  542  a.d. 
l"ew  basilicas  have  sustained  so  little  alteration.  From 
•he  annexed  ground-plan  it  will  be  seen  that  it  retains  its 
ulriitm,  and  a  baptistery,  square  without,  octagonal  within, 
to  the  west  of  it.  Nine  pillars  divide  each  aisle  from  the 
nave,  some  of  them  borrowed  from  earlier  building.s.  The 
capitals  are  Byzantine.  The  choir  occupies  the  three 
easternmost  bays.  The  apse,  as  at  Torcello,  retains  the 
bishop's  thror.q  and  the  bench  for  the  presbyters  apparently 
unaltered.  Ihe  mosaics  are  singularly  gorgeous,  and  the 
npsc  walls,  as  at  Torcello,  are  inlaid  with  rich  marble  and 
nother-of-pearl  The  dimensions  are  small, — 121  feet  by 
32  feet.  (See  Kvii^tilcnkmate  fhs  Oesterriichischen  Kaiser~ 
Mtadti,  by  Dr  0.  Hcidtr  ar.d  others). 


Fia.  17.  — Ground-Plan  of  Cathedral  of  Parenzo,  Islria. 
a.  Cloistered  atrluiD,  d.  Chorus  cflntoi-ura.       .    A.  BeUiy. 

+.  Nanhcx.  ».  Alfar.  i,  Clioijel  of  St  AndiEW. 

fr.  Nave.  f.  Bishop's  thron;. 

c,  c,  Aislea.  ff.  Baptistery,  1 

entirely  superseded  the  old  one,  the  basihcan  forni,  or  as  it 
was  then  termed  dromical,  from  its  shape  being  that  of  a 
race-course  (drc/mos),  was  originally  as  much  the  rule  as  in 
the  West.  The  earliest  church  of  which  we  have  any  clear 
account,  that  of  PauUnus  at  Tyre,  313-322  a.d.,  described 
by  Eusebius  (H.  E.,  x.  4,  §  37),  was  evidently  basilican, 
with  galleries  over  the  aisles,  and  had  an  atrium  in  front. 
That  erected  by  Constantine  at  Jerusalem,  on  the  site 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  333,  followed  the  same  plan 
(Euseb.,  Vit.  Const.,  iii.  c.  29),  as  did  the  original  churches 
of  St  Sophia  and  of  the  Apostles  at  Constantinople.  Both 
these  buildings  have  entirely 
passed  away,  but  we  have  an 
excellent  example  of  an  Oriental 
basilica  of  the  same  date  still 
standing  in  the  church  of  the 
Nativity  at  Bethlehem,  rebuilt 
by  Justinian  in  the  Cth  century. 
Here  we  find  an  oblong  atrium, 
a  vestibule  or  narthex,  double 
aisles  with  Corinthian  columns, 
and  a  tran.sept,  each  end  of  which 

rminates  in  apse,  in  addition 
to  that  in  the  usual  position. 
Beneath  the  centre  of  the  tran- 
sept is  the  subterranean  church 
of  the  Nativity  (De  Vogu^,  Les 
E'fflisci  de  la  Terre  Sainle,  p.  46). 

Constantinople  still  preserves 
1  basilican  church  of  the  5th  cen-  ^'°:  _  W' 
lury,  that  of  St  John  Studios, 
103,  now  a  mosque.      It  has  a 

nave  and  side  aisles  divided  by  columns  supporting  a  hori- 
^lontal  entablature,  wilh  another  order  supporting  arches 
forming  a  gallery  above.  There  is  the  usual  apsidal  ter- 
mination. The  chief  difference  between  the  Eaotern  anil 
Pioman  basilicas  is  in  the  magnitude  of  the  galleries.  This 
'  is  a  characteristic  feature  of  Eastern  clninhes,  the  galleries 
being  intended  for  wobien,  for  whom  privacy  was  more 
studied  than  in  the  West  (Salzenbcrg,  Allc/irisi.  Baudenk- 
male  von  Consktnlinopli:). 

Other  basilican  churches  in  the  East  wliich  deserve  no- 
tice are  those  of  the  monastery  of  St  Catherine  on  Mount 
Sinai  built  by  Justinian,  that  of  Dana  between  Antiocli 
and  Bir  of  the  same  date,  St  Philip  at  Athens,  Bosrali 
in  Arabia,  Xanthus  in  Lycia,  and  the  very  ncble  churcl. 
of  St  Demetrius  at  Thessalonica.  Views  and  descriiitionn 
of  most  of  these  may  be  found  in  Texier  and  Pullan's 
Bl/:anline  Archittiiurc,  Couchaud's  C/ioijc  d'K(/iiscs  /I'^.'nn- 
lines,  and  the  works  of  the  count  de  VoguiS.  We  may 
refer  to  Fergusson's  Uistory  of  Architecture  for  views  and 
plans  and  description  of  the  very  interesting  early  minia- 
ture Christian  basilicas,  some  of  which  are  probably  Iho 
earUest  existing  Christian  buildings  in  the  Mcditerrnncan 
provinces  of  Africa.  The  same  work  (p.  C40)  ulso  gives 
an  account  of  the  early  French  basiUca,  dating  from  the 


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the  Nativity,  Bithlchelu. 

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fliihcx, 

2  Nave 

3.3  Aisles. 

>u^f 


BASILICA 


419 


6th  or  7th  century,  known  as  the  Basse  (EuvnaX  Reaurais  ; 
IS  well  as  (pp  550-552)  of  those  belonging  to  the  8th  or 
9lh  century,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Ltke  of  Con- 
stance at  Heichenau  and  Romain  Motier,  and  at  Granson 
on  the  Lake  of  NeufchateL 

.  The  first  church  built  in  England  under  IJoman  influence 
was  the  original  Saxon  cathedral  of  Canterbury.  From  the 
annexed  ground-plan,  as  conjecturally  restored  by  Professor 
I 


Fig.  19. — GrouuJ-PlaD  of  the  original  Cathedral  at  CaDterbury, 

as  restored  by  Wtllif. 
A.  FTIgb  altar  I      G,  Oar  Lady's  alLar 

b.  AJtar  of  our  Lor4.  H,  Bishop's  throne. 


C.  C.  Steps  to  crypt 

D.  Crrpl. 

p-  Chorus  canlorum 


K,  South  tower  with  altar. 

L.  North  tower  contaiuJoR  school. 

M,  Aicbbishop  Odo's  tomb. 


^\'illi3  from  Eadmer'a  description,  we  see  that  it  was  an 
aisled  basilica,  with  an  apse  at  cither  end,  containing  altars 
standing  on  raised  platforms  approached  by  steps.  Beneath 
the  eastern  platform  was  a  crypt,  or  confessio,  containing 
relics,  "  fabricated  in  the  likeness  of  the  confessionary  of 
St  Peter  at  Rome"  (Eadmer)  The  western  apse,  dedicated 
to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  contained  the  bishop's  throne.  From 
this  and  other  indications  Willis  thinks  that  this  was  the 
original  altar  end,  the  eastern  apse  being  a  subsequent 
addition  of  Archbishop  Odo,  ciVca  950,  the  church  having 
been  thus  turned  from  west .  to  cast,  as  at  the  already- 
described  basilica  of  St  Lawrence  at  Rome  The  choir,  as 
at  St  Clement's,  occupied  the  eastern  part  of  tho  nave,  and 
like  it  was  probably  e..clo3ed  by  breast-high  partitions. 
There  were  attached  towers  to  the  north  and  south  of  the 
n.ive.  The  main  entrance  of  the  chunch  was  under  that  to 
the  south.  At  this  suthdure,  according  to  Eadmer,  "  all 
disputes  from  the  vThole  kingdom,  which  could  not  legally 
be  referred  to  the  king's  court,  or  to  the  hundreds  and 
counties,  received  judgment."  The  northern  tower  con- 
tained a  school  for  the  younger  clergy. 

There  remains  one  oilier  English  basilican  church  to  be 
mentioned,  that  of  Brixworth  in  Northamptonshire, 
probably  erected  by  Saxulphus,  abbot  of  Peterborough, 
circa  690  A.D.  It  consisted  of  a  nave  divided  from  its 
aisles  by  quadrangular  piers  supporting  arches  turned  in 
Roman  brick,  with  small  clerestory  windows  above,  a  short 
chancel  teriniiialing  in  an  apse,  outside  which,  as  at  St 
Peter's  at  Rome,  ran  a  circumscribing  crypt  entered  by 
steps  from  the  chancel.  At  the  west  enti  was  a  square 
tower,  the  lower  story  of  which  formed  a  porrL 

Authorities  :— Viliuviiu,  De  ArchiUctur/i,  v.  i  ;  the  same,  tra.is- 
l.iteJ,  with  notes,  by  W.  Wilkin;,  R.A.  j  Cell,  Pomptiana  :  .Mont- 
faucoD,  AnliquitU  ExpliquUs,  iii.  178  ;  Canina,  Eriijizii  di  linma 
Jr.tica  ;  Donaldson,  Archilcctura  iVumismalira ;  Ciampini,  VcUri 
Monumerli:  Allatius,  De  Hfcrnt.  Grae.  I'empHs,  ep.  ii.  §  3  ;  Seroiix 
d'Aplncoiirt,  L'/li'loire  de  I'Art  par  la  Monumens ;  Bunsen  and 
Planner,  Btschreibung dcr  Sladl  Horn;  Gulcnsohn  and  Knapp,  Sasit- 
it'oi;  Hiibsch,  AtUhristlkhe  KireU :  Lctarouilly,  EdiJUrs  de  Rome 
moderne  :  Von  Quant,  Allchristlirhe  Bauwerke  i-<»i  P.nienno;  Texier 
«nd  PuIUd,  Bi/znnline  Auhiltclure:  Pe  Vopu((,  E'lliurs  de  la  Trrre 
Siiti':  Couehaud,Aj7feM  Byuinlints;  Ferginsnn,i/i.«/ori/  n/Arehi"e- 
lull;  MiluiaD,  llislory  ef  ChTiitianity,  ii  239-343; iii.  3(3     'F,  V  > 


BASILICA,  a  code  of  law,  drawn  up  ia  the  Creelc 
language,  with  a  view  to  put  an  end  to  the  uncertainty 
which  prevailed  throughout  the  empire  of  the  East  in  the 
9th  century  as  to  the  authorized  sources  of  law.  This 
uncertainty  had  been  brought  about  by  the  conflicting 
opinions  of  the  jurists  of  the  Gth  century  as  to  the  proper 
interpretation  to  be  given  to  the  legislation  of  the  Emperor 
Justinian,  from  which  had  resulted  a  system  of  teaching 
which  had  deprived  that  legislation  of  all  authority,  and 
the  imperial  judges  at  I'xst  were  at  a  loss  to  know  by  what 
rulis  of  law  they  were  to. regulate  their  decisions.  An 
endeavour  had  been  made  by  the  Emperor  Leo  the  Isaurian 
to  remedy  this  evil,  but  his  attempted  reform  of  the  law 
had  been  rather  calculated  to  increase  its  uncertainty ; 
and  it  was  reserved  for  Basilius  the  Macedonian  to  show 
himr.elf  worthy  of  the  throne,  which  he  had  usurped,  by 
purifying  the  administration  of  justice  and  once  more 
reducing  the  law  into  an  intelligible  code.  There  has  been 
considerable  controversy  as  to  the  part  which  the  Emperor 
Basilius  took  in  framing  the  new  code.,^  There  is,  however, 
no  doubt  that  he  abrogated  in  a  formal  manner  the  ancient 
laws,  which  had  fallen  into  desuetude,  and  the  more 
probabte  opinion  would  seem  to  be,  that  he  caused  a  revision 
to  be  made  of  the  ancient  laws  which  were  to  coutinue  in 
force,  and  divided  them  into  forty  books,  and  that  tbi.' 
code  of  laws  was  subsequently  enlarged  and  distributed 
into  sixty  books  by  his  son  Leo  the  Philosopher.  A  furthei 
revision  of  this  code  is  stated  to  have  been  made  by  Con- 
stantinus  Porphyrogcnitus,  the  son  and  successor  of  Leo 
but  this  statement  rests  only  on  the  authority  of  Theodoru: 
Balsamon,  a  very  learned  canonist  of  the  12lh  century, 
who,  in  his  preface  to  the  ifomocanon  of  Patriarch  Photius, 
cites  passages  from  the  Basilica,  which  difl'er  from  the  text 
of  the  code  as  revised  by  the  Emperor  Leo.  The  weight  ol 
authority,  however,  is  against  any  further  revision  of  the 
code  having  been  made  after  the  formal  revision  which  il 
underwent  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Leo,  who  appointee 
a  commission  of  jurists  under  the  presidency  of  Sympathius. 
the  captain  of  tho  body-guard,  to  revise  the  work  of  hit 
father,  to  which  he  makes  allusion  in  the  first  of  his  Novfllce. 
This  latter  conclusion  is  the  more  probable  from  the  circum- 
stance, that  the  text  of  the  code,  as  revised  by  the  Empcroi 
LCo,  agrees  with  the  citations  from  the  Basilica  \\hith 
occur  in  the  works  of  Michael  Psellus  and  Michael  Atta- 
liates,  both  of  them  high  dignitaries  of  the  court  of  Con- 
stantinople, who  lived  a  century  before  Balsamon,  and  who 
are  silent  as  to  any  second  revision  of  the  code  having 
taken  place  in  the  reign  of  ConstantinusPorphyrogcnitus, 
as  well  as  with  other  citations  from  the  BasiUca,  which  are 
found  in  the  writings  of  Mathneus  Blastarcs  and  of  Con- 
stantinus  llcrraenopulos,  both  of  ■nhom  wrote  shortly 
after  Balsamon,  and  the  latter  of  whom  was  far  too  learned 
a  jurist  and  too  accurate  a  lawyer  to  cite  any  but  the  officii) 
text  of  the  code. 

Authors  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  origin  of  the  term 
Basilica,  by  which  the  code  of  the  Emperor  Leo  is  now 
distinguished.  The  code  itself  appears  to  have  been  origi- 
nally entitled  The  Revision  of  the  Anaerit  Laws  (»J  &vaKii 
dapcri^  Tuiv  TToXaMv  vopiui)  ;  next  there  came  into  use  thf 
title  ri  i^TjKovTalSif^Xcx!,  derived  from  the  division  of  th( 
work  into  sixty  books:  and  finally,  before  the  conclusior 
of  tho  lOtli  centur)',  tho  code  came  to  be  designated 
o  /3ao-i.\iKo's,  or  TO  Pa<TiXiKa.,  being  elliptical  forms  of  c 
/?uo'iXiKos  io;xot  and  ri  /SocrtXiKa  vo'/iifia,  namely  the 
Imperial  Law  or  the  Imperial  Constitutions.  This  expl.v 
nation  of  the  term  "  Basilica"  is  more  probable  than  the 
derivation  of  it  from  the  name  of  the  father  oftheEinperoi 
Leo.  inasmuch  as  tho  Byzantine  jurists  of  thn  lllh  and 
12th  centuries  ignored  alt<.j:fthcr  the  part  which  the 
Emperor  Basilius  had  taken  in  initiating  the  legal  reforn.s, 


B  A  S  — B  A  S 


which  were  completed  by  hia  sod  ;  besides  the  name  of  the 
father  of  the  Emperor  Leo  was  written  /3ao-iA.fios,  from 
which  substantive,  according  to  the  genius  of  the  ancient 
Greek  language,  the  adjective  /SacriAtJcds  could  not  well  be 
derived. 

No  perfect  MS.  has  been  preserved  of  the  text  of  the  Basilica, 
and  the  existence  of  any  portion  of  the  code  seems  to  have  been 
ignored  by  the  jurists  of  Western  Europe,  until  the  important  bear- 
ing of  it  upon  the  study  of  the  Komaa  law  was  brought  to  their 
attention  by  Vighus  Zuichemus,  professor  of  the  Roman  law  in  the 
university  of  Padua,  in  his  preface  to  his  edition  of  the  Greek 
Paraphrase  of  Theophilus,  published  in  1533.  A  century,  however, 
elapsed  before  an  edition  of  the  aiity  books  of  the  Basilica,  as  far 
as  the  MSS.  then  known  to  exist  supplied  materials,  was  published 
in  seven  volumes,  by  Carolus  Annibal  Fabrotus,  under  the  patron- 
age of  Louis  Xlll.  of  France,  who  as.'^igned  an  annual  stipendof  two 
thousand  livres  to  the  editor  during  its  publication,  and  placed  at 
his  disposal  the  royal  printing-pre.=is.  This  edition,  although  it  was 
a  great  undertaking  and  a  work  of  considerable  merit,  was  a  very 
imperfect  representation  of  the  original  code.  A  newly  restored, 
and  far  more  complete  text  of  the  sixty  hooka  of  the  Ba.sihca,  has 
recently  issued  from  the  press  of  Johannes  Ambrosius  Barth  at 
Leipsic,  iu  six  volumes,  edited  by  Professor  Charles  WUham  Ernest 
Heimbach  of  the  university  of  Jena,  assisted  by  his  brother  GnstavMs 
Ernest  Heimbach.  Thj  is  one  of  the  moet  important  literary  works 
of  the  19th  century.  Th9  learned  editor  lived  long  enough  to 
witness  the  completion  of  tho  text  of  the  Basilica  by  the  publication 
of  the  fifth  volume  in  1850.  He  died  in  1S66,  leaving  behind  him 
a  valuable  historical  introduction  to  the  code,  and  a  manual  of  its 
contents,  which  are  phnttd  In  tl.e  sixth  and  last  volume,  published 
at  Leipsic  in  1870.  Several  .M>^  .  which  contain  portions  of  the 
code  or  of  works  bearing  direttiy  on  the  code,  have  been  available 
for  this  edition,  which  were  not  accessible  to  Fabrotus  when  be 
published  his  edition  in  1617.  Amongst  others  may  be  mentioned — 
M3.  Coislin  151,  of  the  11th  c&ntury,  now  in  the  Bibliothfeque 
Nationale  in  Paris,  which  came  direct  from  .Mount  Athos  into  the 
bands  of  Chancellor  Seguier,  and  which  contains  a  general  index  of 
the  contents  of  the  sixty  bool<s  of  the  Basilica  ;  MS.  Coislin  152, 
of  the  13th  century,  also  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  in  Pans  ;  a 
Palimpsest  MS.  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  (roi)  aylov  ritpou),  which 
was  discovered  in  1838  by  Dr  C.  E.  Zacliarue  von  Lingenthal,  in  the 
palace  of  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  in  Constantinople.  The  text  of 
four  books  of  the  Code  has  been  restored  by  Dr  C.  E.  Zacha^-iK  von 
Lingenthal  from  this  MS.,  and  is  printed  in  an  appendix  to  the 
third  volume  of  Heimbach's  edition.  A  further  MS.  deserves 
notice,  being  No.  853  in  the  Vatican  Library  at  Rome  ;  it  belongs 
to  the  14th  century,  and  is  the  only  MS.  which  contains  the  work 
known  as  Tipu£Uiis.  Tliis  MS.  has  been  very  carefully  col- 
lated by  Gustaviis  E.-nest  Heimbach,  and  the  text  of  a  portion  of 
Tipucitus  has  been  printed  from  this  MS.  in  the  appendix  to  the 
second  volume  of  S^eirabach's  edition,  the  remaining  portions  of  the 
work  having  been  incorporated  by  Heimbach  into  the  text  of  the  re- 
stored code.  It  may  seem  strange  that  so  important  a  body  of  law  as 
the  Basilica  should  not  have  come  down  to  us  in  its  iritegrity,  but  a 
letter  has  been  preserved,  which  was  addressed  by  Mark  the  patriarch 
of  Alexandria  to  Theodorus  Balsamon,  from  which  it  appears  that 
copies  of  the  Basilica  were  in  the  12th  century  veiy  scarce,  as  the 
patnarch  was  unable  to  procure  a  copy  of  the  work.  The  great 
bulk  of  the  code  waa  an  obstacle  to  the  multiplication  of  copies  of 
it,  whilst  the  necessity  for  them  w.is  in  a  great  degree  superseded  by 
the  publication  from  time  to  time  of  s)-nop8es  i^nd  cnfheindia  of 
its  contents,  composed  by  the  most  eminent  jurists,  of  which  a 
very  full  account  will  be  found  in  the  Histmre  du  Ih-oil  Byzantin, 
by  the  advocate  Mortreuil,  published  in  Paris  in  1816. 

BASILICATA,  or,  as  it  is  alsso  called,  Potenza,  a 
province  of  It>ily,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Capitanata,  N.E. 
by  Terra  di  Bari,  E.  by  Otranto  and  tho  Gulf  of  Taranto, 
S.  by  Calabria  Citra,  S.W.  by  the  Mediterranean,  W.  by 
Principato  Citra,  and  N.W.  by  Principato  Ultra.  It  has 
an  area  of  4120  English  square  miles,  and  is  divided  into 
the  four  districts  of  Lagonogro,  Matera,  Melfi,  Potenza.  The 
population  in  H71  was  500,543.  In  the  N.W.  of  the 
territory  the  Apennines  divide  into  two  branches,  the  one 
runnini;  eastward  to  Terra  di  Bari,  and  tho  other  southward 
to  Calabria.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Bradano,  Bascnto, 
Salandrclla,  Agri,  and  Sinno,  all  flowing  into  the  Gulf  of 
Taranto.  The  principal  productions  are  maize,  wine, 
Unen,  hemp,  ond  tobacco  ;  swine,  goats,  and  ehecp,  arc 
numorou'.  ;  and  tho  produce  of  the  silkworm  forms  a  con- 
Fid^rable  brar'-h  of  industry.     The  cotton  plant   thrives 


well  .on  low  grounds  near  the  sea.     The  chief  towns  art 
Potenza,  Melli,  FtancaviUa,  Rionero,  and  Tursi. 

BASILIDES,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Gnostic, 
flourished  probably  about   120  a.d.     Extremely  little   is 
known  of  his  bfe.    He  is  said  to  have  been  born  in  Syria 
and  to  have  studied  at  Alexandria,  and  this  is  probably 
correct.      There    is,    to    some    extent,   a    corresponding 
uncertainty  with  regard  to  the  precise  doctrines  held  by 
him.      Of  these  there  are  two  distinct  expositions,  the  one 
given  chietiy  by  Irenaeus,  which  has  been  long  before  the 
world,  the   other  contained    in   the   Phihsophoumena   of 
Hippolytus,  discovered  in   1842.     According  to  Irenaeus, 
the    system     of    Basilides   strongly    resembled    that    of 
Valentinus.     The  first  principle  or  root  of  all  things,  was 
the  supreme  God,  the  unknown  and  unborn  Father.     From 
Him  emanated  in  succession  voOs,  Aoyo?,  (/ipdn^o'i?,  (70(^ia, 
and  8i'i'a/jis.     From  the  last,  according  to  Irenseus,  sprang 
the  powers  who    created  the  first    heaven  ;    according  to 
Clemens  Alex.,  however,  from  8i'i'a/ii9  sprang  iinawcrivri 
and  tlpnrjvr),  and  these  seven  with  the  Father  formed  the 
first  Ogdoad,  or  octave  of  existence.     From  them  emanated 
other  powers,  by  whom  the  second  heaven  was  made,  and 
-SO  on  in  succession,  each  system  being  a  more  shadowy 
type  or  reflex    of  the  original   ogdoad.     The  number  of 
heavens    was  3G5,  whence   the  whole   series   was   calleti 
Abraxas,  or  Abrasax,  a  name  frequently  applied   to   the 
lower  deity,  or  even,  as  by  TertulUan,  to  the  supreme  God. 
The  powers  of  the  lowest  heaven,  of  whom  the  chief  was 
called  the  S.p\uiv,  created  the  earth.    This  apxwv  is  the  God 
of  the  Jews,  and  against  Him  the  other  powere  were  arrayed. 
To  alleviate  the  misfortunes  of  the  earth,  the  tow,  or  first 
emanation,  became  incarnate  and  descended   upon  earth. 
The  vov^  as  incorporeal  could  not  suffer  death  ;  accordingly, 
he  changed  forms  with  Simon  of  Cyreue,  and  stood  by  the 
cross,  laughing  at  his  enemies,  while  Simon  suffered  in  his 
place.     Salvation  is  spiritual,  p.ertains  only  to  the  soul  , 
outer  actions  are  not  in  themselves  good  or  bad.     That 
Bisilidcs  taught  this  doctrine  of  moral  indifference  is  not 
perfectly  clear, ^ut  Iren.-eus  reports  that  his  disciples  acted 
up  to  it. 

The  exposition  given  by  Hippolytus  is  widely  different. 
According  to  the  account  he  gives,  Basilides  started 
neither  with  a  dualism  of  God  and  matter  or  evil,  nor  with 
a  theory  of  emanation.  His  first  principle  was  God,  the 
unknown,  incomprehensible,  unspeakable,  non-existent  one, 
of  whomnothing  can  be  predicated,  for  nowords  are  adequate 
to  express  His  essence.  This  non-existent  God,  by  the 
exercise  of  what  may  be  called  volition,  created  the 
jrai'o--fp/ii'a,  or  seed,  which  contained  in  itself  the  germs 
of  all  things.  Id  this  chaotic  mass,  which  strongly  resembles 
the  ofioiofiEp^  of  Anaxagoras,  there  is  a  nii.\fure  of 
elements, —  ovy^io-w  apxiKi], — and  at  the  same  tune  are 
embedded  in  it  three  degrees  or  kinds  of  divine  sonship, 
consubstantial  with  the  Deity.  The  first  kind  is  refined 
and  pure,  the  second  gross,  the  third  itquiring  purification. 
As  all  things  naturally  tend  towards  Cod,  the  first  sonship 
a.scended  and  sst  beside  the  Father.  The  second  also  strove 
to  ascend  by  means  of  the  Spirit,  which  is  to  him  as  a 
wing,  but  he  could  not  rise  quite  to  the  Deity,  and  occupied 
all  inferior  position,  while  tho  wing  or  spirit  formed  tho 
firnianient.  Tho  third  sonship  still  remained  immersed  in 
matter.  Then  from  tho  world  seed  there  burst  forth  the 
great  ip\iiiv,  or  ruler,  who  ascended  as  far  as  the  firmament, 
and,  imagining  that  there  was  nothing  beyimd,  glorified 
himself  oa  the  bnghtest  and  strongest  of  all  beings.  This 
ruler,  who  is  sometimes  called  Abrnxn.s,  but  whoso  true 
name  is  ineffable,  produced  a  son  wiser  and  better  than 
himself,  by  whose  aid  he  laid  tho  foundations  of  tho  worlil. 
The  seat  of  their  rule  is  called  ths  Ogdoad,  and  it  extends 
through  all  the  cthereai  region  down  to  the  moon's  sphere. 


B  A  S  —  B  A  N 


421 


«h»re  iLe  prosscr  air  begins  Tbi3)ower  ilommion  is  ruled 
by  i  seiond  and  inferior  ap\wv,  the  God  of  the  Jew3.  who 
al*n  had  produced  a  son,  aud  their  seat  ts  called  the 
lltbdoniid.  Meauwhilc,  the  thud  sonship,  which  is  truly 
the  spiritual  element  m  the  eleit,  is  tied  to  matter,  and  is 
in  n>'ed  of  deliverance.  Freedom  is  given  by  the  truth, 
I  f  ,  by  a  knowledge  of  the  true  system  of  thins^,  and  it  is 
g!^e»  by  a  series  of  illurainations.  First  the  uuud  of  the 
^•■n  of  the  Oreat  Archon  is  enlightened,  and  he  instructs 
hi"  lather,  who  learns  wiih  fear  and  repentance  that  there 
i«  a  sphere  of  being  higher  than  his  own.  The  light  then 
I  i-ises  to  the  son  of  the  Archon  of  the   Hebdomad,  who 

kewise  instructs  his  father.  Finally,  the  mind  of  Jesus 
.:•  illuminjtt'il,  and  he  iiistruots  those  of  mankind  who  are 
;:li!e  to  receive  the  troth  There  are  tlius  three  great  stages 
in  (ho  world's  relicious  histiiry.  each  being  an  advance  on 
Its  predecessor  These  periods  are  the  Ante-Jewish,  the 
.lein.<h,  and  the  Christian  All  the  soul.>  capable  of  receiving 
the  light  ascend  upward',  while  their  bodies  return  to  the 
(irimeval  chaos,  Iheininds  of  all  others  are  shrouded  in 
tierual  night,  the  darkness  of  ignorance.  For  the  relation 
<'f  Basilides  to  other  Gnostics,  and  for  the  interpretation  of 
Ins  intensely  symbolic  e.tprcssions,  see  Gnostics. 

Tlie  1'1'luT  a^-<-'^«>iits  nf  Bjs'li'lo«i.  suoh  as  tho«^  of  Ne;inder.  Baur 
<in  l\\f  t'Kruihche  (Jnonf),  an>l  .Matter,  were  basej  for  the  modt  part 
on  Ireii;pii3  Thedis.'overyof  the  /*Ai/o5e/»AouTn«rua  threwuneipecteJ 
I'l'ht  on  the  suhjeit.  ami  the  later  eXiioMtions  generally  follow 
HiiipoUtUi  as  the  exp^inent  of  the  original  system  of  Basilides 
flilgr-nfelj  siiH  ret.nnsthe  older  view.  Full  information  is  to  be 
f'l'.n.i  in  Baiir,  Kir,hfn'jrschuhre,  i  .  I.ipsiu^.  <7n'i'.7i'cLniu.j;  Uhlhorn, 
Z>is  Bisitttifani$ch(  Systfrn;  Mau.^el,  (Jnaslic  Hcrenci. 

P. \SIL1SK. — PaaiXiamov  of  the  Greeks,  and  Tscpha 
(cockatrice)  of  the  Hebrews, — a  naiue  applied  by  the 
indents  to  a  horrid  monster  of  their  own  imagination,  to 
which  they  attributed  the  most  malignant  powers  and 
an  equally  fiendish  appearance.  The  term  is  now  applied, 
owing  to  a  cettain  fanciful  resemblance,  to  a  genus  of  Lizaids 
belonging  to  the  family  Ifiuamdn,  the  species  of  which  are 
characterucd  by  the  presence  of  a  membranous  bag  on  the 
cr.'WD  of  the  head,  which  they  can  distend  or  contract  at 
Will,  and  of  a  fin-like  rulge  along  the  back  and  part  of  the 
tail  Both  appendages  are  admirably  adapted  for  aiding 
the  basilisk  lu  swimming,  while  they  do  not  impede  Us 
movements  on  land, — its  mode  of  bfe  being  partly  aquatic, 
pirtly  arboreal  The  Mitred  Basilisk  occurs  in  Guiana,  the 
H'^oiied  Basilisk  in  Amboyna. 

B.\SING.ST(1KF.  a  market  and  borough  town  in  the 
county  of  Hants,  45  miles  from  London.     It  occupies  a 
pleasant  situation,  and  has  a  good 
ir.ido   in  corn  and  malt,   nhich  has 
been  greatly  facilitated  by  the  canal 
whii:h   joins    the    rivers    W'ey    and 
Thames.       The    parish    church,    St 
Michael's,  is  a  sp,iciou3  and  hand- 
«'ime    structure,    dating    from    the 
ficn  of  Henry  VIII.     In  the  neigh- 
bourhood 13  Basing  House,  remark- 
able for  Its  defence  by  the  marquis      *'"""'  -"•"i!>"^'''- 
'•f  U'luchcster  igainst  the  Parliamentary  forces  \i\   1645. 
Fopulation  in  1871,  5.')74. 

BASKERV'ILLE,  John,  a  celebrated  printer,  and  the 
iiiUnducer  of  many  improvements  in  type-founding,  was 
bcin  at  Wolvcrley  in  Worcestershire  in  170C,  and  died  in 
1775.  About  the  age  of  twenty  he  became  a  wiiting- 
cnister  at  Birmingham,  and  he  seems  to  have  had  a 
erea',  talent  for  caligraphy  and  caiving  in  stone.  While  at 
r.:riningham  bis  attention  was  attracted  to  the  business  of 
j.ipanning,  which  he  took  up  with  great  zeal.  He  made 
•  ■me  important  improvements  in  the  process,  and  gamed,  a 
C'lnsiJerable  fortune.  About  tlie  year  1750  he  began  to 
>".ike  experiments  in  type-founding,  and  soon  succeeded  in 


producing  types  much  superior  in  distinctness  and  elegance 
to  any  that  had  hitherto  been  employed.  He  then  set  up 
a  printing-house,  and  published  his  first  work,  a  Viryd  iii 
royal  quarto.  Horacf,  T<rrfuce,  Calullvs,  and  others  wero 
also  printed  by  him.  These  books  are  admirafclc  specimens 
of  typography;  and  BaskcrviUe  is  deservedly  ranked 
among  the  foremost  of  those  who  hav^  advanced  the  art 
of  printing  He  did  not  print  iiimj'  works,  as  the  salo 
did  not  meet  his  e.xpoctations ;  after  17G5,  indeed,  ho 
seems  to  have  put  forth  very  little.  Specimens  from  the 
Baskerville  press  are  not  easily  had,  and  are  of  considerable 
value. 

B.\SKET.  a  utensil  made  of  twigs,  rushes,  dk  strips  of 
wood,  as  well  as  of  a  v.iriety  of  other  materials,  interwoven 
together,  and  used  for  holding  or  carrying  any  commodity 
Modern  ingenuity  has  applied  many  subslc  ices  before 
unthought  of  to  the  construction  of  baskets,  such  as  iron 
and  even  glass.  But  wicker-work  being  the  oldest  as  well 
as  the  most  universal  invention,  it  alone  will  be  treated  of 
in  the  present  article.  The  process  of  interweaving  twigs, 
seeds,  or  leaves,  is  practised  among  the  rudest  nations  of 
the  world ;  and  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  universal  of  arts, 
so  also  does  it  rank  among  the  most  ancient  industries, 
being  probably  the  origin  of  all  the  textile  arts  of  the  world. 
A  bundle  of  rushes  spread  out  may  be  compared  to  the 
warp  of  a  web,  and  the  application  of  others  across  it  to 
the  woof,  also  an  early  discovery ;  for  basket-work  is 
literally  a  web  of  the  coarsest  materials.  The  ancient 
Britons  appear  to  hai'e  excelled  in  the  art  of  basket  making, 
and  their  baskets  were  highly  prized  iu  Rome  as  we  learn 
from  Martial  (xiv.  99]  :— 

"  Barbara  de  pictis  veni  ba.sca*ida  Britannig; 
Sed  me  jam  mavult  dicere  Koma  suam." 

Among  many  uncivilized  tribes  at  the  present  day 
baskets  of  a  superior  order  are  made  and  applied  to  various 
useful  purposes.  The  North  American  Indians  prepare 
strong  water-tight  "  Wattape  "  baskets  from  the  roots  of  a 
species  of  /liifi,  and  these  they  frequently  adorn  with  very 
pretty  patterns  made  from  the  dyed  quills  of  their  native 
porcupine,  Erethizon  dorsalum.  The  Indians  of  South 
America  weave  baskets  equally  u.sefiil  from  the  fronds  of 
the  Carnahuba  and  other  palms  The  Kaffres  and  Hottentots 
of  South  Africa  are  similarly  skilful  in  using  the  Ilala 
reed  and  the  roots  of  plants  ,  while  the  tribes  of  central 
Africa  and  the  Abyssinians  display  great  adroitness  in  the 
art  of  b,asket-weaving. 

Basket-m.iking,  however,  has  by  no  means  been  confined 
to  the  fabrication  of  those  simple  and  useful  utensils  from 
which  its  name  is  derived  Of  old,  the  shields  of  soldiers 
were  fashioned  of  wicker-work,  either  plain  or  covered 
with  hides ,  and  the  like  has  boen  witnessed  among  modern 
savages.  In  Britain  the  shields  of  the  ancient  warriors, 
and  also  their  huts,  even  up  to  the  so-called  palaces  of  tliu 
Saxon  monarchs,  were  made  of  wicker-wcrk ;  and  their 
boats  of  the  same  mater.al,  covered  with  the  skins  of 
animals,  attracted  the  notice  of  the  Romans.  Herodotus 
mentions  boats  of  this  kind  on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  but 
with  this  difTerence,  that  the  former  seem  to  h.ave  been  of 
tke  ordinary  figure  of  a  boat,  where.as  the  latter  were  round 
and  were  covered  with  bitumen.  Boats  of  this  shape,  about 
71  feet  in  diameter,  are  used  at  the  present  day  on  these 
rivers  ;  and  boats  of  analogous  construction  are  employed 
in  crossing  the  rivers  of  India  which  have  not  a  rapid 
current  Nothing  can  be  more  expeditious  or  more  simple 
than  the  fabrication  and  materials  of  these  vessels,  li  they 
merit  that  name.  One  may  be  made  by  sii  men  in  as 
many  hours, — only  two  substances,  hides  and  bamboo, 
almost  always  accessible,  being  used.  Window  screens, 
per;irubulator3,  chairs,  ic,  are  now  largely  made  of  basket- 


425 


B  A  S  K  E  1' 


work,  and  the  liglit  p^ny  basket  carriages  in  general  use 
are  the  representatives  of  the  Continental  Holstein  waggon 
of  the  early  part  of  the  century,  which  was  a  two-horse  bas- 
ket carriage  of  considerable  size.  In  Berlin  and  Kiel  there 
DOW  exist  large  factories  of  "  Korb  Mobel,"  devoted  to  the 
aiinufictare  of  basket-work  chairs,  tables,  stands,  frames, 
screens,  &c.,  and  the  use  of  this  description  of  furniture 
IS  very  general  in  Continental  houses. 

The  materials  which  are  actually  employed  in  the  con- 
struction of  basket  work  are  numerous  and  varied,  and  to 
the  principal  of  these  allusion  will  be  made  below.  As 
it  is,  however,  from  various  species  of  willow  that  the  largest 
supply  of  basket-making  materials  is  produced,  we  shall 
first  confine  our  attention  to  this  source.  Willows  for 
basket-work  are  extensively  grown  in  Holland,  Belgium, 
France,  and  Germaay,  whence  large  quantities  are  exported 
to  Great  Britain  and  even  to  the  United  States.  The  willows 
of  France  are  highly  esteemed  by  basket-makers  as  firm, 
clean  rods  ;  and  the  Dutch -produce  are  lowest  in  value, 
being  soft  and  pithy.  No  Continental  rods  equal  those 
of  English  growth  for  their  tough  and  leathery  texture, 
and  the  fiuest  of  all  basket-making  willows  are  now 
cultivated  in  large  quantities  in  the  valleys  of  the  Thames 
and  the  Trent.  It  was  only  in  the  early  part  of  this 
century  that  any  considerable  attention  was  given  in  Britain 
to  the  cultivation  of  willows  suitable  for  basket-making ; 
and  the  irdustry  was  first  stimulated  by  premiums-  offered 
by  the  .Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts  and 
Manufactures.  Mr  Phillips  of  Ely  was  one  of  the  most 
successful  early  cultivators  of  willows,  and  to  his  exertions 
we  owe  the  introduction  of  a  valuable  willow,  the  Brown 
Norfolk,  Salix  triandra.  Mr  Phillips's  observations  and 
experiments  largely  contributed  to  place  the  willow  cultiva- 
tion on  a  satisfactory  commercial  basis,  and  a  similar 
service  was  rendered  in  Scotland  by  Mr  Sheriffs  ;  but  the 
systematic  maintenance  of  willow liolts  has, not  been  con- 
tinued in  Scotland.  One  of  the  most  sucessful  growers  of 
willows  at  the  present  day  is  Mr  WjlUam  Scaling  of  Basford, 
Notts,  who  cultivates  a  salictum  of  aboiif  100  acres  m. 
extent.  Mr  Scaling  has  the  advantage  of  being  a  practical 
basket-maker,  and  the  facts  which  follow  regarding  the 
growth  and  varieties  of  basket-willows  are  chiefly  gleaned 
from  his  pamphlets  on  willow  cultivation. 

The  genus  Salix,  to  which  all  willows  and  osiers 
belong,  is  extremely  complex  in  its  botanical  characters, 
and  the  species  and  varieties,  as  systematically  arranged, 
are  very  numerous.  Those  cultivated  for  basket-making 
Mr  Scaling  divides  into  four  classes.  The  first  class,  which 
alone  get  the  name  of  willows  among  basket-makers,  includes 
the  rods  of  six  or  seven  different  species,  all  of  which  Mr 
Scaling  classes  with  6'a/u;/ra_.7/7/.s.  The  "  willows  "  yield 
inferior  basket-rods,  having  a  tendency  to  throw  out  side- 
shoots  which  makes  the  rods  "  rough."  The  second  class 
comprises  the  osiers,  including  about  forty  varieties  used 
by  basket-makers  all  grouped  around  the  osier,  Salix 
viminalis,  and  these  form  tho  staple  of  b-asket-making 
materials.  In  the  third  class,  which  are  known  in  the 
trade  as  "  Spaniards "  or  Spanish  willows,  are  included 
about  thirty  varietijs  which  are  classed  under  Salix 
amyytlfilina.  The  "  Spaniards  "  comprise  some  of  the  most 
useful  basket-willows,  tho  wood  being  more  dense  and 
elastic  than  is  tho  case  wnth  osiers.  The  fourth  class  cora- 
priso  tho  bitter  willows,  of  which  Siilix  purpurea  is  taken 
OS  tho  typo,  and  tho  rods  they  yield  are  known  as  "  whip- 
icord,"  "swallow  tail,"  or  "one-yard"  These  aro  tho 
'finest  of  all  willows  for  basket-making,  and  owing  to  their 
bitterness  they  aro  not  attacked  by  rabbits  and  hares, 
which  frequently  do  much  damage  to  all  other  varieties. 

It  was  long  supposed  that  willows  flourish  nowhere  but 
with   abundance  of  water.      Undoubtedlv  the  osier  class 


thrive  well  with  a  considerable  degree  of  humidity,  but  a 
dry  wc-U-drained  soil  is  best  suited  for  all  hard-wooded 
varieties.  For  the  laying  out  of  a  willow  holt,  Mr  Scaling 
recommends  that  the  land  should  be  well  drained,  cleared 
and  tilled  to  a  depth  of  ?bout  one  foot.  Willows  arc  propa- 
gated solely  from  cuttings,  which  retain  their  vitality  long, 
and  strike  with  great  facility.  The  cuttings  aro  made 
about  9  inches  long,  and  two  or  three  may  be  obtained 
from  a  single  rod.  They  should  be  planted  in  ruws  from 
16  to  18  inches  apart,  the  plants  in  each  row  being  placed 
at  interval^  of  from  8  to  12  inches  according  to  the  size  of 
the  willow  under  cultivation ;  and  the  entire  length  of  the 
cutting  should  be  pushed  into  tho  ground.  Tho  planting 
niay  be  done  at  any  time  from  late  autumn  to  early  spring 
during  the  period  of  plant  rest,  when  the  ground  is  free 
from  frost.-  At  the  end  of;  each  year  the  shoots  are  to  be 
cut  down  close  to  the  ground,  manure  is  laid  on  between 
the  rows  and  ploughed  in,  and  the  soil  should  be  kept  us 
open  and  free  from  weeds  as  arable  land.  The  produce  of 
the  first  year  will,  as  a  rule,  be  of  little  value ;  nevertheless, 
in  Mr  Scaling's  opinion,  it  is  of  consequence  that  the  rods 
should  be  cut  down.  The  second  year's  crop  should  yield 
a  good  return ;  in  the  third  year  the  plants  are  at  their 
best,  and  for  the  ten  following  years  they  should  exhibit 
undiminished  productiveness,  after  which  they  gradually 
decline  in  strength.  The  entire  cost  of  a  salictum  per  acre 
Mr  Scaling  estimates,  for  the  first  year,  at  £33,  12s.,  and 
the  return  at  £8,  1 2s.  The  outlay  for  the  next  two  years 
he  gives  as  X7,  5s.  and  £6,  15s.,  but  the  crops  of  these 
years  should  yield  £17  and  £22,  just  covering  the  cost 
of  planting,  which  is  the  ordinary  calculation  of  growers. 

The  rods  intended  for  basket-making  are  either  taken 
entire,  cut  from  the  root,  split  asunder,  or  stripped  of 
their  bark,  according  to  the  work  to  be  produced;  but 
in  all '  cases  they  are  previously  soaked  in  water,  and 
indeed  sometimes  boiled.  The  stripping  is  performed  by 
drawing  the  willows  through  a  bifurcated  iron  implement 
called  a  brake,  which  removes  the  bark,  and  the  willows 
are  then  cleaned,  as  far  as  necessary,  by  manual  opeiation 
with  a  knife.  When  they  are  bailed  previous  to  peeling  a 
very  nice  light  brown  colour  is  developed  in  the  wood  by 
the  action  of  the  tannin  contained  in  tho  bark,  and  rods 
thus  prepared  aro  much  more  durable  than  those  peeled 
white.  Next  they  are  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air,  and 
afterwards  placed  in  a  dry  situation.  But  it  is  not  the  less 
necessary  to  preserve  willows  with  th;ir  bark  in  tho  i;auie 
manner ;  for  nothing  can  bo  more  injurious  than  the 
humidity  inherent  in  the  plant ;  and  previous  to  use  they 
must  be  soaked  some  days  in  water  also.  The  barked  or 
white  osier  is  then  divided  into  bundles  or  faggots  according! 
to  size  ;  the  larger  being  reserved  to  form  the  strong  work 
in  the. skeleton  of  tho  basket,  and  the  smaller  for  weaving 
the  bottom  and  sides.  Should  the  latter  be  applied  to 
ordinary  work,  they  are  taken  whole;  but  for  iniplemenls 
of  slight  and  finer  texture,  each  osier  is  divided  into  splits 
and  skains  of  different  degrees  of  size.  Splits  are  osiers 
cleft  into  four  parts,  by  means  of  an  iraplciiient  employed 
for  that  purpose  called  a  cleaver,  which  is  a  wedge-shaped 
tool  inserted  at  the  point  or  top  end  of  tho  rod  and  rui 
down  through  its  entire  length.  These  are  next  draw: 
through  an  implement  resembling  the  common  spnko  shave 
keeping  tho  grain  of  tho  split  next  the  iron  or  stock  of  the 
shave,  while  tho  pith  is  presented  to  the  steel  edgo  of  tlio 
instrument,  which  is  set  in  an  oblique  direction  to  the 
wood:  and  in  order  to  bring  tho  split  into  a  shape  still 
more  regular,  it  is  p.asscd  through  another  implement  called 
an  upright,  consisting  of  a  flat  pieco  of  steel,  each  end  of 
which  is  fashioned  into  a  cutting  edge,  like  that  of  nn 
ordinary  chisel.  The  flat  is  bent  round,  so  that  the  twc 
cdsos  approach  each  other  at  a.  greater  or  less  interval  !■;. 


B  A  S-  B  A  S 


423 


inesjs  of  regulating  screws,  and  the  wholo  is  fixcJ'into  a 
handle.  By  passing  the  splits  between  the  two  edges  they 
are  reduced  to  skains.  the  thickness  of  which  is  determined 
l.y  the  interval  between  the  edges  of  tho  tooL 

The  implements  required  by  a  basket-maker  are  few 
and  simple.  They  consist,  besides  the  preceding,  of  knives, 
bodkins,  leads  for  keeping  the  work  steady  while  in  pro- 
cess ,  and  where  the  n  illows  are  worked  as  rods  a  heavy 
piece  of  iron  culled  a  beater  is  employed  to  beat  them  close 
ns  they  are  woven  in.  On  the  Continent,  where  fancy 
baskets  are  made,  blocks  are  required  on  which  the  webs 
of  wicker-work  are  set  to  particular  shapes. 

An  ordinary  basket  13  maje  by  preparing  the  requisite  number  of 
osieis,  and  preserving  llieir  length  considerably  greater  than  that 
of  the  finislied  work.  They  are  ranged  in  pairs  on  the  floor  parallel 
to  each  other,  at  small  intervals,  in  the  direction  of  the  longer  dia- 
meter of  the  ba.sktt ;  and  this  may  be  called  the  woof, — for,  as  we 
liave  said,  baskelwoik  is  literally  a  wob.  These  parallel  roi's  are 
then  crossed  at  right  angles  by  two  of  the  largest  osiers,  with  the 
th'ck  ends  towards  the  workman,  who  places  iiis  foot  ujion  them; 
ind  being  each  woven  alternately  over  and  under  the  parallel  pieces 
nrst  laid  down,  they  are  hy  that  means  contincd  in  their  places.  The 
*vbole  now  forms  what  is  technically  called  the  slath,  which  is  t)ie 
toundation  of  the  basket  Next  the  long  end  of  one  of  the  two  rods 
is  taken  and  woven  under  and  over  the  pairs  of  short  ends  all  round 
the  bottom,  until  the  whole  be  woven  in.  The  same  is  done  with 
Ibe  other  rod,  and  then  additional  long  osiers  are  also  woven  in, 
until  the  bottom  be  of  sufHcient  size,  and  the  woof  be  occupied  by 
them  Thus  the  bottom  or  foundation  on  which  the  superstructure 
is  to  be  raised  is  finished  ;  and  this  latter  part  is  accomplished  by 
sharpening  the  large  ends  of  as  many  long  and  stout  osiers  as  may 
be  necessary  to  form  the  ribs  or  skeleton.  These  are  forced  or 
plaited,  "scallumed,  "  between  the  rods  of  the  bottom  ''rom  theedge 
towards  the  centre,  and  are  turned  up,  "upset,'*  in  the  direction 
of  the  sieves  ;  then  other  rods  arc  woven  in  and  out  between  each  of 
them,  until  the  basket  is  raised  to  the  intended  height,  or,  more 
correctly  speaking,  the  depth  it  is  to  receive.  The  edge  or  brim  is 
finished  by  turning  down  the  perpendicular  ends  of  the  nbs,  now 
protruding  and  standing  up,  over  each  other,  whereby  the  whole  is 
hrmly  and  compactly  united.  A  handle  is  adapted  to  the  work  by 
forcing  one  or  more  rods  called  bale  sticks,  sharpened  at  the  end 
and  cut  to  the  rcfiuisile  length,  down  the  weaving  of  the  sides,  close 
together:  and  they -are  pinned  fast,  or  lied  by  means  of  the  rods 
used  in  twisting  over  the  bale  rods,  about  two  inches  from  the  brim, 
vn  order  that  the  handle,  when  completed,  may  be  retained  in  its 
proper  position.  The  osiers  are  then  either  bound  or  plaited  in  such 
fashion  as  pleases  the  taste  of  the  artist.  This  is  the  most  simide 
kind  of  basket,  from  which  others  dilTer  only  in  liner  materials  and 
Dicer  execution  ;  but  to  these  there  is  considerable  scope  for  taste 
and  fancy,  and  implements  are  produced  of  extreme  neatness  and 
ingenuity  in  construction.  The  skains  are  frequently  smoked  and 
dyed  cither  of  dull  or  brilliant  colours,  and  by  intermixit/g  them 
judiciously,  as  also  by  varnishing  over  the  colour,  a  very  good  ctTect 
is  produced. 
■•  From  the  simplicity  of  this  manufacture,  a  great  many 
individ'ials,  independent  of  profes.sed  basket-makers,  are 
occupied  in  it  ;  and  it  affords  suitable  employment  to  the 
blind  in  the  several  asylums  and  workshops  established  for 
their  reception  in  this  and  other  countries. 

In  addition  to  willows,  a  large  variety  of  other  materials 
is  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  wicker-worL  Among 
the  most  important  of  these  are  splits  of  various  species  of 
bamboo,  with  which  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  manufacture 
baskets  of  unequalled  beauty  and  finish.  The  bamboo 
wicker-work  with  which  the  Japanese  sometimes  encase 
their  delicate  eggshell  porcelain  is  a  marvellous  example  of 
manipulation,  and  they  and  the  Chinese  excel  in  the  appli- 
cation of  bamboo  wicker-work  to  furniture.  The  "canes" 
or  rattans  of  commerce,  stijms  of  species  of  Calamus  and 
Damonoropt  are  scarcely  less  important  as  a  source  of 
basket  materials.  In  India  "  Cajan  "  baskets  are  extensively 
made  from  the  fronds  of  the  Palmyra  palm,  Borasstu 
tfabelliformts ,  and  this  manufacture  has  in  recent  years 
been  established  in  the  Black  Forest  of  Germany,  where  it 
is  now  an  important  and  characteristic  staple.  Among 
the  other  materials  may  be  enumerated  the  odorous  roots  of 
the  Khus-Khus  grass,  Annthi-rum  muricatum,  and  tho 
leaves  of  various  species  of  screw  pine,  used  in  India  and 


the  East  generally.  The  fronds  of  the  palm  of  the 
Seychelles  Islands,  Lodmcea  sfyclicliai  um.  are  used  for 
very  delicate  basket-work  in  those  islands.  Strips  of  the 
New  Zealand  flax  plant,  Flwrmium  tenax,  are  made  into 
baskets  in  New  Zealand.  Esparto  fibre  is  used  in  Spain 
and  Algeria  -for  rude  fruit  baskets.  Various  species  of 
Maranta  yield  basket  materials  in  the  West  Indies  and 
South  America;  and  the  Tirite,  a  species  of  Calathea, 
is  also  similarly  employed  in  Trinidad.  Baskets  are  also 
frequently  made  from  straw,  from  various  sedges  (Cyperus), 
and  from  shavings  and  splints  of  many  kinds  of  wood. 

In  the  basket  trade  special  centres  are  recognized  as  the 
headquarters  of  various  styles  of  work  met  in  the  markets. 
Thus  Birmingham  is  recognized  as  the  source  of  wicker 
perambuhtoTs  ;  in  Southporfr  boiled  willows  are  used,  and 
the  brown  biskets  for  gardening  and  market  purposes  are 
produced,  and  at  Castle  Donnington,  in  Derbyshire,  th» 
Hat  skain  work  seen  in  fishing  baskets,  itc,  is  chiefly  made. 
In  the  department  of  Aisne,  France,  the  bercenunette  or 
bassinet  is  very  largely  manufactured,  and  in  Verdun  much 
basket-work  is  specially  prepared  to  suit  the  English 
market,  in  which  the  French  manufacturers  are  able  frci  "y 
to  compete.  The  Black  Forest  and  other  German  manu- 
facturers produce  enormous  quantities  of  light  elegant 
baskets,  which  are  largely  exported.  In  Austria  lacquered 
and  varnished  baskets  are  made  in  imitation  of  gold,  silver, 
and  steel,  and  Viennese  card  baskets,  6ic.,  are  frequently 
ornamented  with  plaques  of  painted  porcelain  inserted  in 
the  centre. 

BASNAGE,  Jacques,  pastor  of  the  Walloon  Church  at 
the  Hague,  was  born  at  Rouen  in  Normandy  on  the  Stb 
of  August  1653.  He  was  the  son  of  Henri  Basnage,  one 
of  the  ablest  advocates  in  tho  parliament  of  Normandy 
At  the  age  of  seventeen,  having  acquired  a  good  know- 
ledge of  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  as  well  as  of  the 
English,  Spanish,  and  Italian  languages,  he  went  to 
Geneva,  where  he  began  his  theological  studies  under 
Mestrezat,  Turretin,  and  Tronchin  ,  he  completed  them 
at  Sedan,  under  the  professors  Jurieu  and  Leblanc  de 
Beaulieu.  He  then  returned  to  Rouen,  where  he  was 
received  as  pastor,  in  September  1676  ,  and  in  this  capacity 
he  remained  till  the  year  1G85,  when,  the  exercise  of  the 
Protestant  religion  being  suppresse.d  at  Rouen,  ha  obtained 
leave  of  the  king  to  retire  to  Holland.  He  settled  at 
Rotterdam,  and  continued  a  minister  pensionary  there  till 
1691,  when  be  was  chosen  pastor  of  the  Walloon  Church 
of  that  cit)':  In  1709,  the  pensionary  Heinsius  secured 
his  election  as  one  of  the  pastors  of  the  Walloon  Church  at 
the  Hague,  intending  to  employ  him  not  only  ia  religious 
but  also  in  civil  affairs.  Accordingly  ho  was  engaged  in  a 
secret  negotiation  with  Marshal  d'Uxelles,  plenipotentiary 
of  France  at  the  congress  of  Utrecht, — a  service  which  he 
executed  with  so  much  success,  that  he  was  afterward? 
intrusted  with  several  important  commissions,  all  of  which 
he  discharged  with  such  ability  and  address  that  Voltaito 
said  of  him  that  he  was  fitter  to  be  a  minister  of  state 
than  tho  minister  of  a  parish.  The  Abbii  Dubois,  who 
represented  France  at  the  Hague  in  1716,  in  negotiating  a 
defensive  alliance  between  France,  England,  and  the  States- 
General,  received  instructions  to  consult  with  Basnage, 
they  accordingly  acted  in  concert,  and  tho  alliance  w,i3 
concluded  in  January  1717.  His  numerous  published 
works,  which  are  mostly  in  Fr:;nch,  include — I'ht  Ilistory 
of  the  Reiniion  of  the  Reformed  Churches;  Jeicish  Anti- 
quities ,  The  Uistory  of  the  Old  and  Xew  Testament ;  Dis- 
sertation on  Duels,  <L\:  He  died  on  the  22d  September 
1723. 

BASQUE     PROVINCES     {Provim-ias     Vascongadas). 

The  three  Spanish  provinces  known  by  this  name,  which 

j  are  distinguished  from  all  the  other  divisions  of  Spain  by 


424 


B  A  S  —  R  A  S 


the  chamcter,  language,  and  manners  of  tne  inhabitants, 
ii'id  by  the  enjoyment  of  political  privileges  which  make 
the  form  of  their  government  nearly  republican,  are  Biscay 
(Vizcaya),  Guipuzcoa,  and  Alava.  The  territory  occupied 
by  them  is  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  tha  Bay  of  Biscay,  S.  by  Soria,  E,  by  Navarra  and  part 
if  Fiance,  and  W.  by  Santander  and  Burgos.  It  coni- 
]'ri.se3  an  area  of  295S  square  miles;  population  in  1857, 
414,146.  These  three  provinces  are  more  particularly 
described  under  their  respective  heads.  The  French  Basque 
provinces  now  form  the  arrondissements  of  Bayonne  and 
Mauleon.  The  Basque  language,  which  is  also  prevalent  in 
Navarre,  is  still  spoken  by  about  000,000  Spaniards  and 
French.  Its  native  name  is  Eskuara.  It  cannot  be 
classed  with  any  Indo-European  or  Semitic  tongue,  and 
appears  to  be  of  earlier  origin,  presenting  some  grammatical 
nnalogies  with  Mongol,  Moith  American,  and  certain  East 
Airican  languages.  The  forms  of  ordinary  grammar  are 
therefore  imperfectly  applicable  to  it.  The  substantive  has 
no  distinction  of  gender ;  it  is  made  to  express,  by  means 
of  an  extensive  system  of  affixes,  all  the  ordinary  declen- 
Bional  and  conjugational  relations,  and  many  which  in  other 
languages  can  only  be  expressed  by  periphrasis.  The 
termination  of  a  word  may  thus  express  together  mood, 
tense,  person,  number,  the  case  and  number  of  th.e  object, 
and  also  the  sex,  rank,  arid  number  of  the  individuals 
addressed,  besides  other  relations.  Foreign  words  are 
thus  easily  assimilated,  but  with  modifications  to  suit 
the  Basque  ear,  the  latter  varying  'according  to  local 
dialect.  Diminutives  and  other  general  affixes  increase 
the  delicacy  of  expression,  and  a  wide  range  of  speech 
is  early  acquired  by  the  natives.  Compound  words  are 
readily  formed  by  mere  juxttiposition,  or  by  elision  of 
syllables,  with  peculiar  modi6cations  for  euphony.  The 
article  has  two  forms — a  for  the  singular,  ak  for  the  plural 
• — afiBxcd  to  the  stibstantive.  There  appears  to  be  no 
genuine  Basque  word  beginning  with  r.  In  the  usual 
Btructure  of  the  sentences  the  noun,  with  the  article 
affixed,  occupies  the  first  place ;  it  is  followed  by  the 
adjective,  then  the  adverb,  next  the  verb,  and  lastly  the 
object  with  its  prepositional  affix.  No  written  Basque  is 
known  of  earlier  slate  than  the  15th  century,  and  little 
genuine  literature  exists ;  the  orthography  is  therefore 
arbitrary,  and  the  earliest  writings  are  difficult  to  inter- 
pret. All  that  has  yet  been  noticed  regarding  manners, 
customs,  institutions,  and  legends  may  be  paralleled  by 
those  of  other  Pyrenean  peoples,  or  traced  to  foreign 
influences.  But,  through  their  moral  qualities,  physical 
situation,  and  historical  circumstances  the  Basques  have 
built  up  and  preserved  a  body  of  customs  and  institutions 
highly  original  in  the  mass.  Each  province  is  governed 
by  a  parliament  composed  of  representatives  selected 
partly  by  election,  partly  by  lot,  among  the  householders 
of  each  country  parish  or  town.  A  deputation,  named 
by  the  parliament,  ensures  the  strict  observance  of  the 
special  laws  and  customs  of  the  province,  and  negotiates 
with  the  representative  of  the  Spanish  Crown.  Delegates 
from  the  three  parliaments  meet  annually  to  consider  the 
common  interests  of  the  provinces;  they  employ  a  seal 
representing  three  interlaced  hands,  with  the  motto 
Iruracbat,  "the  three  are  one;"  but  no  written  federal 
pact  exists.  Much  speculation  regarding  the  origin  of  the 
Bisques  has  been  indulged  in  without  sufficient  special 
knowledge.  The  belief  that  they  originally  occupied  great 
part  of  Spain  and  Southern  France,  founded  on  the 
apparently  Basque  character  of  certain  local  names,  is  very 
generally  accepted.  The  best  introduction  to  all  Basque 
questions  is  Blade's  Etudes  sur  Vorigine  des  Basques,  which 
Bums  up  the  literature  of  the  subject  to  1870.  Elements 
d»    Grammaire  Basque,  by  L.  Geze,  Bayonne,  1873,  is  a. 


good  practical  grammar  and  vocabulary  with  exercises  J 
the  DklionnaWe  Basque  Franeais  of  Van  Eyss  is  a  par- 
ticularly instructive  lexicon. 

BASS  ROCK,  an  iilet  of  greenstone  and  traptufT,  about 
a  mile  in  circumference,  on  the  coast  of  East  Lothian  neai" 
the  entrance  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  in  56'  4'  N.  lat.,  and  2* 
37'  W.  long.  Purchased  from  the  Lauder  family  by 
Charles  II.  in  1G71,  it  was  afterwards  converted  into  a  place 
of  confinement  for  state  prisoners,  and  during  the  religious 
troubles  of  Scotland  numbered  among  its  captives  Peden, 
Blackadder,  and  other  Covenanting  leaders.  At  the 
Revolution  a  party  of  King  James's  adherents  got  posses- 
sion of  the  island,  and  held  out  after  the  whole  of  Great 
Britain  had  submitted.  Dismantled  of  its  fortifications  m 
1701,  the  Bass  Rock  again  became  private  property,  and 
is  now  farmed  for  the  sake  of  the  sea-fowls  that  resort 
thither  during  the  breeding  season.  See  T/ie  Bass  Bock,  its 
Civic  and  Ecclesiastical  History,  ic.  (Edin.  1848),  by 
M'Crie,  Hugh  Miller,  Anderson,  Fleming,  and  Balfour. 

BASS'S  STRAITS,  the  channel  which  separates  Tas- 
mania from  Victoria.  It  is  about  ISO  miles  in  length 
from  E.  to  W.,  and  about  140  from  N.  to  S.  The  navi- 
gation of  the  strait  is  rendered  dangerous  in  some  parts 
by  groups  of  barren  islands  and  coral  reefs  scattered  through 
it.  It  bears  the  name  of  Bass,  the  surgeon  of  a  man-of-war, 
who  was  the  first  to  discover,  in  1798,  indications  of  a 
channel  between  Tasmania  and  the  neighbouring  island- 
continent. 

BASSAHIR,  a  Eijput  hill  state  in  Hiudustdn,  under 
the  political  superintendence  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of 
the  Panjib,  situated  between  30°  56'  and  32°  8'  N.'lat..  and 
77°  34'  and  78°  52'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
the  Spiti  valley,  on  the  E.  by  Chinese  Tartary,  on  the  S 
by  the  district  of  Garhwal,  and  on  the  W.  by  several  small 
hill  states.  The  aspect  of  the  country  is  very  hilly,  and  it 
is  nowhere  less  than  4000  feet  above  sea-level.  Principal 
rivers,  the  Pabur  and  Satlej.  Estimated  population,  90,000; 
chief  towns  and  villages,  Rampur,  Chini,  SongU,  and 
Morang.  Agricultural  products — wheat,  opium,  and  Indian 
corn.  Manufactures — blankets,  shawls,  and  woollen  cloths. 
Estimated  gross  revenue  of  the  state,  £5000  a  year.  Tri- 
bute paid  by  the  chief  to  the  British  Government,  £3'cl4, 
10s.  per  annum.  Estimated  military  force  of  the  state, 
100  men. 

BASSANO,  a  city  of  Italy  in  the  province  of  Vicenza. 
It  stands  on  the  river  Brenta,  over  which  there  is  a  bridge 
180  feet  in  length,  built  by  Palladio.  It  is  surrounded 
with  walls,  and  has  six  gates,  one  of  which,  also  by 
Palladio,  is  very  much  admired.  In  the  centre  of  the  town 
is  the  tower  of  Ezzelino,  which  now  contains  a  library  and 
armoury.  The  town  contains  thirty-five  churches  (some  of 
them  with  fine  paintings),  several  religious  houses,  and 
other  public  edifices.  It  has  extensive  silk-mills,  besides 
manufactures  of  cloth,  paper,  straw  hats,  copper  wares,  <tc. ; 
and  the  printing  establishment  of  S.  R-*mondini  is  one  of 
the  most  extensive  in  Italy.  In  1796  Bonaparte  defeated 
the  Austrian  general  Wurmser  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
various  skirmishes  took  place  between  the  two  forces  in 
1801,  1805,  1813.  Maret  derived  from  the  town  hia  title 
of  duke  of  Bassano.     Population,  13,254. 

BASSANO,  GiACOMO  da  Ponte,  a  Venetian  painter, 
born  in  1510  at  Bassano.  He  was  educated  by  his  father, 
who  was.himself  an  artist,  and  then  completed  his  studies 
at  Venice.  On  the  d  ath  of  Ws  father  he  returned  to 
Bassano,  and  settled  there.  His  subjects  were  generally 
peasants  and  villagers,  cattle,  and  landscapes,  with  eome 
portraits  and  historical  designs.  His  figures  are  well 
designed,  and  his  animals  and  landscapes  h.ave  an  agreeable 
air  of  simple  nature.  His  compositions,  though  they  have  not 
much  eloquence  or  grandeur,  have  abundance  of  force  and 


B  A  S  —  B  A  S 


425 


trulli;  itie  local  colours  are  uell  observed,  the  carnations 
«re  fresh  and  bniUaat,  and  his  chiaroscuro  aod  perspective 
are  unexceptionable.  lie  is  said  to  have  finished  a  great 
iiumbcr  of  pictures ;  but  bis  genuine  worlds  are  somewhat 
lure  and  valuable, — many  of  those  which  are  called  originab 
being  copies  either  by  the  sons  of  Bassano,  or  by  others.  lie 
died  in  1592,  aged  eighty-two  Bassano's  style  varied  con 
siderably  during  his  lifrtime.  He  naturdly  was  at  first  a 
Copier  of  his  father,  but  his  productions  in  this  style  are 
not  of  great  value.  He  was  then  strongly  attracted  by  the 
lightness  and  beautiful  colouring  of  Titian,  and  finally 
fiJopted  the  style  w  hich  is  recognized  as  his  own.  Although 
he  painted  few  great  pictures,  and  preferred  humble  subjects, 
yet  his  altar-piece  of  the  Nativity  at  Bassano  is  estimated 
highly  by  the  best  judges,  and  in  Lanzi's  opinion  is  the 
finest  work  of  its  class  in  existence. 

B.^SSE-TERRE,  the  capital  of  St  Christopher's,' one  of 
the  British  West  India  Islands.  •  Population,  8500.  See 
S.\iNT  Christopher's. 

B.\SSE-T£RRE,  formerly  the  capital  of  Guadeloupe, 
one  of  the  French  West  India -Islands.     Population,  9480. 

See  GU.VDELOUPE. 

BASSEIN,  a  British  district  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Chief  Commis- 
sioner of  Burmah,  lies  between  15'  and  18°  N.  lat.,  and 
94°  and  96°  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  dis- 
tricts of  Kyouk  Phoo  and  Myanoung,  on  the  E.  by  the 
district  of  Rangoon,  and  on  the  S.  and  \V.  by  tie  Bay  of 
Bengal.  A  mountain  range  called  the  Anouk-phet  Toung- 
myeng  stretches  through  the  district  from  north  to  south 
along  the  coast  The  principal  river  of  the  district  is  the 
Irawadi,  which  debouches  on  the  sea  at  its  eastern  extremity 
through  a  delta  intersected  with  salt  water  creeks,  among 
which  the  Pymalaw,  Deay  Pyoo,  Thekadoung,  and  Nga 
Woon  or  Bassein  River  rank  as  important  arms  of  the  sea, 
Shagay-gyee  and  Engyaygyee  are  the  only  two  lakes  in  the 
district.  The  delta  of  the  Irawadi  forms,  wherever  cul- 
tivable, a  vast  sheet  of  rice,  with  cotton,  sesamum,  and 
tobacco  as  subsidiary  crops.  Bassein  district  has  an  area 
of  8954  square  miles,  of  which  only  351  are  cultivated. 
In  1871-72  the  population  amounted  to  31G,8S3,  residing 
in  65,722  houses,  and  inhabiting  1554  villages,  of  whom 
213,816,  or  67  per  cent,  were  Buddhists,  78,684  abori- 
gines, 20,810  Christians,  2119  Mahometans,  723  Hindus, 
and  12  PArsis.  Density  of  population,  3403  per  square 
mile.  The  population  consisted  of  31,309  agriculturists, 
and  285,464  non-agriculturists.  Total  revenue  in  1870- 
71,  XI  18,672,  of  which  £36,676,  or  30  per  cent.,  was 
derived  from  land.  Principal  towns  and  villages  in 
Bassein — (1),  Bassein,  population  19,.577 ;  (2),  Lay- 
royethna,  5325;  (3),  Pantanaw,  5876;  (4),  Ifaygj-ee, 
4S93;  (5),  Nga-thainkhyoung,  3178;  (6),  Kang-ycedaing, 
1500,  (7).  Shweloung,  1317;  (8),  Myoung-raya,  1477; 
(9),  Nga-poo-tau,  981  ;  and  (10),  Kyoon-pyaw,  1655. 

Bassein,  the  principal  place  of  the  district  of  the  same 
name,  situated  in  16°  45'  N.  lat.,  and  94°  50'  E.  long.,  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Bassein  River,  one  of  the  main 
arteries  by  which  the  waters  of  the  Irawadi  discharge 
themselves  into  the  sea.  It  forms  an  important  seat  of  the 
rice  trade,  and  has  great  capabilities  both  from  a  mercantile 
and  a  military  point  of  view,  as  it  commands  the  great 
outlet  of  the  Irawadi.  It  fell  before  the  British  arms,  ia 
May  1852,  during  the  second  Burmese  war.  Since  then 
the  town  population  has  rapidly  increased,  and  numbered 
19,577  in  1871,  chiefly  fishermen,  craftsmen,  traders,  and 
persons  connected  with  the  rice  commerce. 

B.\SSELIN,  Olivier,  an  old  French  poet  or  writer  of 

verses,  was  born  in  the  Val-de-Vire  in  Normandy  about 

the  middle  of  the  14th  century,  and  died  about  1418  or 

1419.     He  was  by  occupation  a  fuller,  and  had  a  mill  on 

3— 1C» 


the  small  river  Vire.  His  songs  were  sprightly  ar.d  joyous, 
and  became  famous.  The  modern  Vaudevilles  take  their 
origin  and  name  from  them,  and  were  originally  called 
Vaux-de-Vire,  laux  being  the  plural  of  val;  though, 
according  to  Menage,  the  word  is  derived  from  a  small 
town  Vaux  near  the  Vire.  Basselin's  poems  were  collected 
and  published  in  the  16lh  century  by  Jean  le  Houx,  and 
have  since  been  re-edited  by  M.  Asselin  in  1811,  and  by 
M.  Travers  in  1833.  The  latest  edition,  that  by  R  L. 
Jacob,  1858,  contains  some  other  poems  in  addition  to 
those  of  Basselin. 

B.\SSI,  Laura  Masia  Caterina,  an  Italian  lady, 
eminently  distinguished  for  her  learning,  was  born,  nt 
Bologna  in  171 1.  On  account  of  her  extraordinary  attain- 
ments she  received  a  doctor's  degree,  and  was  appointed 
professor  in  the  philosophical  college,  where  she  delivered 
public  lectures  on  experimental  philosophy  till  the  time  of 
her  death.  She  was  elected  member  of  many  literary 
societies,  and  carried  on  an  extensive  correspondence  with 
the  most  eminent  European  men  of  letters.  She  was  well 
acquainted  Xvith  classical  literature,  as  well  as  with  that  o£ 
France  and  Italy.  In  1738  she  married  Giuseppe  Verrati, 
a  physician,  and  left  several  children.      She  died  in  1778. 

B.ASSIANUS,  Joannes,  a  distinguished  professor  in 
the  law  school  of  Bologna,  the  pupil  of  Bulgarus  and  the 
master  of  Azo.  Little  is  known  of  his  origin,  but  he  ia 
said  by  Carolus  de  Tocco  to  have  been  a  native  of 
Cremona.  The  most  important  of  his  writings  which  have 
been  preserved  is  his  Summary  on  the  Aul/ientica,  which 
Savigny  regards  as  one  of  the  most  precious  works  of  the 
school  of  the  Gloss-writers.  Joannes,  as  he  is  generally 
termed,  was  remarkable  for  his  talent  in  inventing  ingenious 
forrts  for  explaining  his  ideas  with  greater  precision,  and 
perhaps  his  most  celebrated  work  is  his  "  Law-Tree,"  which 
he  entitled  Arbor  Arborum,  and  which  has  been  the  subject 
of  numerous  commentaries.  The  work  represents  a  tree, 
upon  the  branches  of  which  the  various  kinds  of  actions  are 
arranged  after  the  manner  of  fruit.  The  ci\-il  actions,  or 
actiones  strictt  juris,  being  forty-eight  in  number,  are 
arranged  on  one  side,  whilst  the  equitable  or  prcetorian 
actions,  in  number  one  hundred  and  twenty-one,  are 
arranged  on  the  other  side.  A  further  scientific  division 
of  actions  is  made  by  him  under  twelve  heads,  and  by  an 
ingenious  system  of  notation  the  student  is  enabled  to  class 
at  once  each  of  the  civil  or  praetorian  actions,  as  the  case 
may  be,  under  its  proper  head  in  the  scientific  division. 
By  the  side  of  the  tree  a  few  glosses  were  added  by  Joannes 
to  explain  and  justify  his  classification.  His  Ltctures  on 
the  Pandects  and  the  Code,  which  were  collected  by  his 
pupil  Nicolaus  Furiosus,  have  unfortunately  perished. 

I!.\SSOON,  a  musical  wind  instrument  of  the  reed 
order,  made  of  wood,  and  played  through  a  bent  mouth- 
piece of  metal.  It  has  a  compass  of  about  three  octaves, 
from  B  flat  below  the  bass  sta£f  to  C  in  the  treble  staff, 
and  may  thus  be  regarded  as  the  bass  instrument  corre- 
spondin,!;  to  the'  oboe  and  clarinet,  for  whicii  see  the 
article  Oboe. 

BASSO-RILIEVO.     See  Alto  Rilievo  and  Relief. 

BASTAR,  a  feudatory  state  in  the  Central  Provinces  of 
British  India,  situated  between  20"  10'  and  17°  40'  of  N. 
lat.,  and  80°  30'  and  82°  15'  of  E,  long.,  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  the  Ranker  znmfndiri  and  the  RAipur  district ;  on 
the  E.  by  the  BcndrA  Nawagarh  zamfndiri  and  Rdipur, 
Jaipur  state,  and  Sabarf  River;  on  the  S.  by  the  Sironchi 
district ;  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Indr.'lvatf  River  and  the 
Aherl  zamlnddri.  Extreme  length  of  the  state,  170  miles; 
extreme  breadth,  120  miles;  area,  estimated  at  13,000 
square  miles.  Total  population,  78,856,  consisting  of — 
Hindus,  29,060;  Musolmins,  1704;  aboriginal  tribes  of 
Gond  origin,  48,092.     Among  the  latter,  the  Minis  are  a 


426 


B  A  S  —  B  A  S 


tinud,  quiet,  docile  race,  and  altliougli  addicted  to  drinking 
are  not  quarrelsome.  They  inhabit  the  densest  jungles, 
and  are  very  shy,  avoiding  contact  with  strangers,  and  fly- 
in'  to  the  hills  on  the  least  alarm  ;  but  they  bear  a  good 
character  for  honesty  and  truthfulness.  Tlicy  are  very 
scantily  dressed,  wear  a  variety  of  trinkets,  with  a  knife, 
hatchet,  spear,  bow  and  arrow,  the  only  weapons  they  use. 
Their  hair  is  generally  shaved,  excepting  a  topknot,  and 
when  not  shaved  it  gets  into  a  matted,  tangled  mass, 
gathered  into  a  knot  behind  or  on  the  crown.  Tlie  i\Uris, 
a  class  of  the  M4riAs,  live  in  still  denser  jungles,  and  have 
little  or  no  communication  with  the  outside  world.  The 
MAriAs  and  tlie  JhuriAs  are  supposed  to  be  a  subdivision 
pf  the  true  Gond  family.  All  the  aboriginal  tribes  of 
Hiistdr  worship  the  deities  of  the  Hindu  pantheon  along 
V"h  their  own  national  goddess  Danteswari. 

11.,  eastern  part  of  Bastav  is  a  flat  elevated  plateau,  from  1800  to 
2)00  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  centre  and  noith-west 
porlions  are  very  mouutainous,  and  the  toiithcrn  parts  are  a  mi.K- 
ture  of  hill  and  ulain.  Oa  the  plateau  there  are  but  few  hills;  the 
9t reams  run  slowly,  and  the  country  is  a  mature  of  plain  an.l 
undulating  ground  covered  by  dense siiHoiests.  Principal  moun- 
tains of  the  district— (1),  A  lofty  range  which  separates  it  from  the 
Sironchi  district;  (2),  a  range  of  equal  height  called  the  Beli  nili 
lying  in  the  centre  of  the  district;  (3),  a  range  running  noith 
and  south  near  Naiayanpur  ;  (4),  Tangri  Dongri  range,  running 
east  and  west;  (5),  Tiifsi  Dongii,  bordering  on  the  Saban  Kiver  and 
the  Jaipur  state.  There  is  also  a  small  range  running  from  the 
River  Indravati  to  the  Godavari.  The  Indravati,  the  Sabari,  and  the 
Til  or  Talper,  are  tlie  chief  livers  of  the  district;  all  of  them  afHuents 
^of  the  Godavaii.  The  soil  throughout  the  greater  portion  of  Bastar 
'consists  of  light  clay,  with  an  admixture  of  sand,  suited  for  raising 
n  ■  and  wet  crops.  Rice,  sugar,  and  a  little  wheat  and  ^am  are 
the  agricultural  products  of  B;ist.rr.  In  tlic  jungles  the  Miri;is  and 
Maris  rear  kosri  (Panicum  italictim)  and  other  inferior  giains.  The 
aboriginal  races  generally  follow  the  nugratory  system  of  tillage, 
clearing  the  jungle  on  selected  patches,  and  after  taking  cro^js  for 
two  or  three  years  abandoning  them  for  new  ground.  Mans  do 
not  use  the  plough;  nor  do  they  possess  buffaloes,  bullocks,  or 
cows;  their  only  agricultural  implement  is  a  long-handled  iron 
hoe.  Lac,  resin,  wax,  galls,  horns,  rice,  a  red  dye  called  scndri, 
wild  arrow-root,  molasses,  teakwood,  and  tasar-silk  coeoons,  are  the 
chief  staples  of  export.  'I'he  imports,  which  considerably  exceed 
tho  exports,  consist  of  salt,  piece-goods,  brass  utensils,  cocoa-nuts, 
epper,  spices,  opium,  turmeric,  cotton,  wheat,  &c.  Iron-ore  is 
3und  towards  the  eastern  portion  of  the  state,  but  is  not  much 
worked;  gold  is  also  found  in  certain  places.  Bastar  is  divided  into 
two  portions- -that  held  by  the  Raja  or  chief  himself,  and  that  pos- 
sessed by  feudatory  chiefs  under  him.  There  is  not  a  single  made 
road  within  the  principality.  The  climate  of  Bastar  is  unhealthy- 
fever,  smallpox,  dysentery,  diarrhcea,  and  rheumatism  being  the 
prevailing  diseases.  Jagdalpur,  Bijapur,  Madder,  and  Bhupalpatnam 
are  the  only  places  of  any  note  in  the  dependency,  the  first-named 
being  the  residence  of  the  Raji  and  the  chief  people  of  the  state. 
The  grossest  ignorance  and  su|>erstition  prevail,  ana  the  people  live 
in  constant  fear  of  being  bewitched  or  ruined  by  malicious  magicians, 
'i'he  family  of  the  Raja  of  Bastar  claims  to  be  of  the  purest  Rajput 
blood,  and  traces  its  origin  to  Waraugal  in  the  Dakliin,  about  the 
commencement  of  the  Hth  century.  The  revenue  of  Bast.ir  is 
supposed  to  be  £3610;  the  tribute  paid  by  the  chief  to  the  British 
Government  is  £305,  123. 

BASTARD  13  'a  person  born  out  of  lawful  wedlock, 
i.e.,  whose  parents  have  not  been  married  previous  to  his 
birth.  The  rules  by  which  legitimacy  is  determined  vary 
chiefly  as  to  the  effect  to  be  assigned  to  the  subsequent 
marriage  of  tho  b.astard's  parents.  The  law  of  Scotland, 
and  of  most  Continental  countries,  following  the  rules  of 
the  civil  and  canon  law,  legitimizes  the  bastard  whose 
parents  afterwards  marry.  The  same  principle  was  at  one 
time  advocated  by  the  clergy  in  England,  but  summarily 
rejected  by  the  famous  statute  of  Merton  (20  Hen  III.  c. 
9).  The  English  law,  howgver,  takes  no  account  of  tho 
interval  between  the  marriage  and  the  birth ;  provided  the 
birth  happens  after  tho  marriage,  the  offspring  is  legitimate. 
The  presumption  of  law  is  in  favour  of  the  legitimacy  of 
tho  child  of  a  married  woman,  and  at  one  time  it  was  so 
strong  that  Lord  Coke  held  th.at  "  if  tho  husband  be  within 
the  four  seas,  i.e.,  within  tho  juriadiction  of  tho  king  of 


?c 


England,  and  the  wife  hath  issue,  no  proof  shall  be  admitted 
to  prove  the  child  a  bastard  unless  the  husband  hath  an 
apparent  impossibility  of  procreation."  It  is  now  settled, 
however,  that  the  presumption  of  legitimacy  may  be  rebutted 
by  evidence  showing  non-access  on  the  part  of  the  husband, 
or  any  otlier  circumstance  showing  that  the  husband  could 
not  lu  the  cpurse  of  nature  have  been  the  father  of  his 
wife's  child.  If  the  husband  had  access,  or  the  access  be 
nut  clearly  negatived,  and  others  at  the  same  time  were 
carrying  on  a  criminal  intercourse  with  the  wife,  a  child 
born  under  such  circumstances  is  legitimate.  If  the 
husband  had  access  intercourse  niu.'^t  be  presumed,  unless 
there  'is  irresistible  evidence  to  the  contrary.  Neither 
husband  nor  wife  wdl  be  permitted  to  prove  the  non-access 
directly  or  indirectly  Children  born  after  a  divorce  a 
jnensa  el  tkoro  will  be  presumed  to  be  bastards  unless 
access  be  proved.  A  child  born  so  long  after  the  death  of 
a  husband  that  he  could  not  in  the  ordin.ary  course  of 
nature  have  been  its  father  is  illegitimate.  The  period  of 
gestation  is  presumed  to  be  about  nine  calendar  months ; 
and  if  there  were  any  circumstances  from  which  an  un- 
usually long  or  short  period  of  gestation  could  be  inferred, 
spe:ial  medical  testimony  would  be  required.  A  marriage 
between  persons  withm  the  prohibited  degrees  of  affinity 
was  before  1835  not  void,  but  only  voidable,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  courts  weie  restrained  from  bastardizing  the 
ussue  after  tlie  death  of  either  of  the  parents.  Lord 
Lyndhursl's  Act  declared  all  such  existing  marriages  valid, 
but  all  future  marriages  between  persons  within  the  pro- 
hibited degrees  of  consanguinity  or  afEnity  were  made  null 
and  void,  and  the  issue  illegitimate.  (See  Marriage.) 
By  21  and  22  Vict,  c.  93,  application  may  be  made  to  the 
Court  of  Divorce  and  Matrimonial  Causes  (in  Scotland  to 
the  Court  of  Session  by  action  of  declarator)  for  a  declara- 
tion of  legitimacy  and  of  the  validity  of  a  marriage. 

The  law  relating  to  the  maintenance  of  bastard  children 
IS  governed  by  a  considerable  number  of  statutes  passed 
during  the  present  reign,  the  Acts  of  1872  and  1873  being 
the  last  The  mother  of  a  bastard  may  summon  the 
putative  father  to  Petty  Sessions  within  twelve  months  of 
the  birth  (or  at  any  later  time  if  he  is  proved  to  have  contri- 
buted to  the  child's  support  within  twelve  month:  after  the 
birth),  and  the  justices,  after  hearing  evidence  on  both  sides, 
may,  if  the  mother's  evidence  be  corroborated  in  some 
material  particular,  adjudge  the  man  to  be  the  putative 
father  of  the  child,  and  order  him  to  pay  a  sum  not  exceed- 
ing five  shillings  a  week  for  its  maintenance,  together 
with  a  sum  for  expenses  incidental  to  the  birth.  No  such 
order  is  to  be  valid  after  the  child  is  dead  or  reaches  the 
age  of  thirteen,  but  the  justices  may  in  the  order  direct 
the  payments  to  be  continued  until  the  child  is  sixteen 
years  of  age.  The  putative  father  may  appeal  to  Quarter 
Sessions.  Should  the  chdd  afterwards  become  chargeable 
to  the  parish,  the  sum  due  by  tho  father  may  bo  received 
by  the  parish  officer.  When  a  bastard  child,  whose  mother 
has  not  obtained  an  order,  becomes  chargeable  to  the 
parish,  the  guardians  may  proceed  against  the  putative 
father  for  a  contribution.  The  mother  of  an  illegitimate 
child  is  entitled  to  its  custody  in  preference  to  the  father. 
The  rights  of  a  bastard  are  only  such  as  he  can  acquire; 
for  civilly  he  can  inherit  nothing,  being  looked  upon  as 
the  son  of  nobody,  and  sometimes  called  filius  nvltius, 
sometimes //ttts  populi.  This,  however,  does  not  hold  as 
to  moral  purposes,  e.g.,  he  cannot  marry  his  mother  or 
bastard  sister.  Yet  he  may  gain  a  surname  by  reputation 
though  he  has  none  by  inheritance,  and  may  even  bo  made 
legitimate  and  capable  of  inheriting  by  the  transcendent 
power  of  an  Act  of  rarliaracnt.  All  other  children  have 
their  pri'mary  settlement  in  their  father's  parish ,  but  o 
^''lstard  has  his  in  the  parish  where  ho  was  born,  uolcsa 


BASTARD 


427 


juch  birtli  has  been  procured  by  fraud,  or  has  happened  under 
sn  order  of  removal,  in  a  state  of  vagrancy,  in  the  house  of 
correction,  or  under  certiljcate  ;  for  in  law  he  has  no  father. 
The  incapacities  attaching  to  a  bastard  consist  principally 
in  this,  that  he  cannot  be  heir  to  ?ny  one ;  for  being 
nulliusjilius,  he  is  therefore  of  kin  to  nobody,  and  has  no 
mcestor  from  whom  an  iuheritablo  blood  can  bo  derived. 
Therefore,  if  there  be  no  other  clain.ant  upon  an  inheritance 
than  such  illegitimate  child,  it  escheats  to  the  lord.  And 
IS  bastards  cannot  be  heirs  themselves,  so  neither  can  they 
have  any  heirs  but  those  of  their  own  bodies ;  for  as  all 
:ollateral  kindred  consists  in  being  derived  from  the  same 
common  ancestor,  and  a."  a  bastard  has  no  legal  ancestor, 
he  can  have  no  collateral  kindred,  and  consequently  no 
legal  heirs,  except  such  as  claim  by  a  lineal  descent  from 
himself.  And  hence,  if  a  bastard  purchase  land,  and  die 
seised  therefor .  without  issue  and  intestate,  the  land 
escheats  to  the  lord  of  the  fee.  Originally  a  bastard  was 
deemed  incapable  of  holy  orders,  and  disqualified  by  the 
fact  of  his  birth  from  holding  any  dignity  in  the  church  ; 
but  this  doctrine  is  now  obsolete,  and  in  all  other  respects 
there  is  no  distinction  between  a  bastard  and  another  man. 
By  the  law  of  Scotland  a  bastard  is  not  only  excluded 
from  his  father's  succession,  because  the  law  knows  no 
father  who  is  not  marked  out  by  marriage  ;  and  from  all 
heritable  succession,  whether  by  the  father  or  mother, 
because  he  cannot  be  pronounced  lawful  heir  by  the 
inquest  in  terms  of  the  brief;  but  also  from  the  movable 
tucccssion  of  his  mother,  because  he  is  not  her  lawful  child, 
Rnd  legitimacy  is  implied  in  all  succession  deferred  by  the 
law.  But  a  bastard,  although  he  cannot  succeed  Jure 
tanjuinis,  may  succeed  by  destination,  where  he  is  specially 
called  to  the  succession  by  entail  or  testament.  In  Scot- 
land, as  in  England,  a  bastard  can  have  no  legal  heirs 
except  those  of  his  own  body;  and  hence,  failing  his 
lawful  issue,  the  king  succeeds  to  him  as  last  heir.  In 
Scotland  bastards  maybe  legitimized  in  two  ways;  either 
by  the  subsequent  intermarriage  of  the  mother  of  the  child 
witb  the  father,  as  already  mentioned,  or  by  letters  of 
legitimization  from  the  sovereign.  With  respect  to  the  last, 
however,  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  letters  of  legitimization, 
be  their  clauses  ever  so  strong,  cannot  enable  the  bastard 
to  succeed  to  his  natural  father;  for  the  king  cannot,  by 
any  prerogative,  cut  off  the  private  right  of  third  parties. 
But,  by  a  special  clause  in  the  letters  of  legitimation,  he 
tnay  renounce  his  right  to  the  bastard's  succession,  failing 
descendants,  in  favour  of  him  who  would  have  been  the 
bastard's  heir  had  he  been  born  in  lawful  wedlock,  such 
renunciation  encroaching  upon  no  right  competent  to  any 
th'ird  party.  Formerly  bastards  in  Scotland  without  issue 
of  their  own  could  not  make  a  will,  but  this  disability  was 
removed  by  6  Will.  IV.  c.  22.  If  bastards  or  other  persons 
without  kiudred  die  intestate  without  wife  or  child,  their 
effects  go  to  the  king  as  uttimin  hfciri;  but  a  grant  is 
usually  made  of  them  by  letters  patent,  and  the  grantee 
becomes  entitled  to  the  administr.ition.  • 

The  conOict  of  laws  on  the  subject  of  legitimization  by 
•ubsequent  marriage  yields  some  curious  results.  Thus,  in 
the  case  of  BurtwhistU  v.  Varditt,  it  was  decided  that  a 
child  born  in  Scotland  of  parents  domiciled  there,  not 
married  till  after  his  birth,  is  legitimate  by  the  law  of 
Scotland,  but  cannot  take  real  estate  in  England  as  heir. 
Again,  a  domiciled  Scotchman  had  a  son  born  in  Scotland 
and  then  married  the  mother  in  Scotland.  The  son  died 
seised  of  land  in  England,  and  it  was  held  that  the  father 
could  not  inherit  from  the  son.  A  domiciled  Englishman, 
pufative  father  of  a  child  born  in  France  of  a  French 
woman,  having  afterwards  acquired  a  French  domicile, 
.Tiirried  the  mother  and  acknowledged  the  child  as  Icpi- 
:iuiate  in  the  mode  prescribed  by  the  law  of  France.     It 


was  held  that  he  could  not  legitimize  the  child  to  as  ta 
enable  it  to  share  in  a  bequest  to  his  children  by  a  person 
in  England.  The  law  of  England,  while  admitting  the 
general  maxim  that  the  status  of  legitimacy  must  be 
tried  by  the  law  of  the  country  where  it  originates,  holds 
that  the  succession  to  real  property  must  be  determined  by 
the  Ux  loci  rei  sil(e ;  so  that,  for  example,  a  legitimized 
Scotchman  would  be  recognized  as  legitimate  in  England, 
but  not  legitimate  so  far  as  to  take  lands  as  heir. 

The  statistics  of  illegitimacy  present  some  striking 
differences  and  uniformities,  but  it  is  only  in  the  case  ol 
Scotland  that  we  can  be  reasonably  certain  of  the  accuracy 
of  the  figures.  The  status  of  the  child  is  not  recorded  in 
the  English  system  of  registration,  but  is  a  matter  of 
inference  from  the  facts  stated  by  the  parents.  In  1873 
illegitimacy  varied  in  Scotland  as  follows.  The  proportion 
of  illegitimate  births  was — 

In  the  Insular  rural  dislricta 5'4  per  cent. 

,,      Mainland  rural  districts 10  8       ,, 

,,      Small  towns. 8  2       „ 

,,      Large  towns ' 7  0.      ,, 

,,      Principal  towns 91       ,, 

In  the  counties  the  percentage  varied  from  4  in  Shetland, 
Ross,  and  Cromarty,  5  in  Nairn,  and  6  5  in  Sutherland,  to 
111  in  Forfar,  11-4  in  Roxburgh,  137  in  Kincardine,  14 
in  Aberdeen,  15  8  in  Banff,  15-8  in  Elgin  and  Dumfries, 
and  134in  Wigtown.  Similar  variations  are  shown  bj 
English  statistics  for  1859.  Compare  the  highest  (Cum- 
berland, 11-4;  Norfolk,  107;  Westmoreland,  9  7)  with  tht 
lowest  (Monmouth  and  Middlesex, 4-7;  and  Surrey,  5).  Th< 
metropolis  stands  at  4  2.  With  these  local  variations  may 
be  contrasted  the  steadiness  with  which  the  general  averagi 
of  illegitimacy  is  maintained.  In  England,  for  example, 
during  nineteenyears  (1841-1859)  the  percentage  fluctuated 
between  637  and  7,  and  during  the  last  thirteen  years  ol 
the  period  between  6-4  and  6  8.  The  returns  of  the 
Registrar-General  show  rather  more  fluctuation  in  Scotlanc 
during  the  period  for  which  we  have  statistics  (1855-1673), 
the  figures  being  78  in  1855,  8'5  in  1856,  steadily  rising 
to  10  in  1863,  and  10  2  in  1866,  and  then  steadily  falUng 
to  91  in  1872,  .and  9  in  1873.  The  statistics  of  different 
countries,  so  fur  as  any  proper  comparison  can  be  mad« 
between  them,  show  differences  equally  remarkable.  The 
order  in  which  they  stand,  would  be  something  like  the 
following:^ — Sardinia  (illegitimates),  2  091  per  cent;  Hol- 
land, 3  96;  Spain,  56;  Switzerland,  59;  Tuscany,  6  ; 
England,  6  5;  Finland,  Belgium,  Sicily,  France,  78; 
Pnissia,  7  to  S ;  Austria,  Norway,  Scotland,  9  ;  Denmark, 
Sweden,  Hanover,  Iceland,  Saxony,  15;  Wuttemberg, 
Bavaria,  20  (from  Mr  Lumley's  paper  in  thg  Journal  oj 
the  SlatistUal  Societ)/  for  June  1862).  It  will  be  seen  that 
these  differences  cannot  be  explained  on  any  consideration 
of  religious  belief  or  education.  An  inquirj'  made  in  Prussu 
in  1849  yielded  the  following  results.  The  proportion  o( 
illegitimate  to  legitimate  births  was— 

Among  Protectants 1  to  10  78 

,,      t'ulholics 1  to  16  35 

,,      Mennonites  .*. 1  to  57  68 

,,      Jews 1  to  40 

English  and  Scotch  returns  show  that  the  proportion  o( 
illegitimacy  is  smaller  in  the  town  than  in  the  countrj 
districts,  but  the  same  feature  is  not  observed  in  Con- 
tinental towns,  as  appears  from  the  following  returns, 
which,  however,  can  in  most  cases  be  regarded  ai 
approximations  only  :— 

In  London  the  proportion  is. 42  per  cent. 

Birmingham,  1S45    „      4  5       ,, 

Liverpool,  ,,       ,,      4  ,, 

Manchester,       6  7       ,, 

Leeds,  , 6  4       „ 


428 


B  A  S  — B  A  S 


Glasgow,      jgj3 

rropnrtion  is     S  C 
9-4 

EJinburgh,  j  }8^« 

7  6 
8-3 

^--li^?^ 

26  75 
26  35 

St  Petersburg.  1823- 

.0     '.'. 

IS  SO 

Stockholm,  lS31-3f. 

40  7 

Vienna,  1851, 

51-7 

Jlilan.       .. 

34  0 

Fugue,     ,, 

46  7 

per  cent. 


(E  n.) 

BASTl,  a  district  of  Drilish  India,  in  tbe  Benares  divi- 
nion,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of 
the  N.W.  Provinces,  situated  between  26°  23'  and  27°  30' 
N.  lat ,  and  82°  17'  and  83°  19'  SO'  E.  long.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  independent  state  of  NepAl,  on 
the  E.  by  the  district  of  Gorakhpur,  on  the  S.  by  the 
Ghagri  River,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  district  of  Gondd  in 
Oudh.  The  district  stretches  out  in  one  vast  marshy  juain, 
draining  towards  the  south-east,  and  traversed  by  the  Rapti, 
Kuni,  Bangangi,  Masdih,  Jamwdr,  Ami,  and  KatnehiA 
rivers.  The  tract  lying  between  these  streams  consists  of 
a  rich  alluvial  deposit,  more  or  less  subject  to  inundations, 
but  producing  good  crops  of  wheat  and  barley.  Area  of 
the  district,  2787  square  miles;  population  in  1872, 
1,472.99-1  souls,  residing  in  6911  villages  or  townships, 
and  2-18,263  houses.  The  Hindus  numbered  1,247,201  ; 
the  Mahometans,  225,784,  Christians,  <fec.,  9  only.  The 
Hindus,  principally  R.ljput.  belong  to  various  clans. 
No  manufacturing  communities  exist  in  the  district,  the 
entire  population  being  cultivators.  Rice  and  millet  are 
the  chief  agricultural  products.  In  1870-71  the  total 
revenue  of  the  district  amounted  to  £141,630,  of  which 
£132,274,  or  93  per  cent,  was  from  land  ;  the  total.e.xpen- 
diture  amounting  to  £9518,  12s.  The  chief  towns  are — 
Mihdiwal.  population  8124  ;  Basti,  population  5087.  The 
cost  of  the  regular  police  force  (exclusive  of  the  village 
watch)  was  £15,896.  In  1872-73  Bastf  contained  185 
schools,  attended  by  6810  pupils.  The  land  revenue 
settlement  was  made  for  thirty  years  in  1864,  with  that 
of  the  district  of  Gorakhpur,  of  which  Bastf  formed  a  part 
till  1865,  when  it  was  erected  into  a  separate  district. 

BASTIA,  a  fortified  town  and  seaport  on  the  .eastern 
coast  of  the  island  of  Corsica,  and  the  capital  of  an  arron- 
dissemeot.  Lat.  42°  41'  36"  N,,  long.  9°  27'  22*  E.  It 
occupies  a  very  picturesque  situation,  rising  from  the  sea 
in  the  form  of  an  amjihitheatre ;  but  the  town  itself  is  ill- 
built,  and  the  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked.  The  harbour, 
which  is  defended  by  a  citadel,  has  a  narrow  and  difficult 
entrance.  Bastia  is  the  seat  of  a  royal  cou:t  for  the  island, 
and  of  tribunals  of  commerce  and  primary  jurisdiction,  and 
has  a  theatre,  a  military  and  a  civil  hospital,  a  communal 
college,  a  model  school,  a  museum,  and  a  library  of  30,000 
volumes.  Its  principal  manufactures  are  soap,  leather, 
liqueurs,  and  wax  ;  and  it  exports  oil,  wine,  coral,  and 
\ariou3  other  products,  being  the  principal  seat  of  the 
import  and  export  trade  of  thi^  island.  Bastia  dates  from 
the  building  of  the  Genoese  Castle  by  Lionello  Lomcllino 
in  1383,  and  derives  its  name  from  the  Bastion  of  St 
Charles.  Under  the  Genoese  it  was  long  the  principal 
stronghold  in  the  north  of  the  island,  and  the  residence  of 
the  governor  ;  and,  in  1553,  it  was  the  first  town  attacked 
by  the  French.  On  the  division  of  the  island  in  1797  into 
the  two  departments  of  Golo  and  Liamone,  Bastia  remained 
the  capital  of  the  former  ;  but  when  the  two  were  again 
united  Ajaccio  obtained  the  superiority.  The  city  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1745,  and  again  in  1794.  Popula- 
lion,  21,'>.'i5.  (See  view  in  Lear's  Jour,  in  Corsica,  1870  ) 
B.\STI.\T,  FcEDEElc,  the  son  of  a  merchant  of  Bayonnc, 
waa  boro  io  that  town  on  the  lOtb  of  June  1801.     After 


being  educated  at  the  Colleges  of  Saint-Sever  and  of 
Sort-ze,  he  entered  in  1818  the  counting-house  of  his  uncle 
ct  Bayonne.  Here  his  intensely  active  mind  soon  began 
to  interest  itself  in  the  study  of  the  principles  of  commerce, 
but  he  felt  no  enjoyment  in  the  practical  routine  of 
mercantile  life,  and  in  1S25  retired  to  a  property  at 
Mugron,  of  which  he  became  possessor  on  the  death  of  his 
grandfather.  Thus  withdrawn  from  society,  he  devoted 
himself  with  eagerness  to  meditation  and  study,  mastering 
the  English  and  Italian  languages  and  literatures,  speculat- 
ing on  the  problems  of  philosophy  and  religion,  digesting 
the  doctrines  of  Adam  Smith  and  Say,  of  Charles  Comte  and 
Dunoyer,  cultivating  music,  experimenting  in  farming, 
and  talking  over  all  that  he  read,  thought,  and  desired, 
with  his  able,  dearly  loved,  and  life-long  friend,  M.  Felix 
Coudroy.  He  welcomed  with  enthusiasm  the  Revolution 
of  le'SO.  In  1831  he  became  a  justice  of  peace  of  Mugron, 
and  in  1832,  a  member  of  the  Council-General  of  the 
Landes.  In  1834  he  published  his  first  pamphlet.  In 
1840  he  visited  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  spent  a  few  weeks 
in  London.  Between  1841-44  three  pamphlets  appeared 
from  his  pen,  all,  like  his  first  brochure,  on  questions  of 
taxation  affecting  local  interests.  During  this  period  an 
accidental  circumstance  led  him  to  become  a  subscriber  to 
an  English  newspaper,  the  Globe  and  Traveller,  through 
which  he  was  made  acquainted  with  the  nature  and  pro- 
gress of  the  crusade  so  vigorously  and  skilfully  carried 
on  by  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League  against  Protectionist 
doctrines  and  practices.  After  closely  studying  the  move- 
ment for  two  years  he  resolved  to  make  his  countrymen 
aware  of  its  history  and  significance,  and  to  inaugurate, 
if  possible,  a  similar  movement  in  France.  To  prepare 
the  way  he  contributed  in  1844  to  the  Jonrnal  des  Econo- 
■  mistes  an  article  "  Sur  I'influence  des  tarifs  Anglais  et 
Fran^ais,"  which  attracted  great  attention,  and  which 
he  followed  up  by  others,  including  the  first  series  of  his 
brilliant  Sophismes  Economiqucs. 

In  1845  he  came  to  Paris  in  order  to  superintend  the 
publication  of  his  Cohden  et  la  Ligue,  ou  I'agiiation  Anr/laise 
}>our  la  liberie  dcs  echanges,  and  was  very  cordially  received 
by  the  economists  of  the  capital  ;  from  Paris  he  went  to 
London  and  Manchester,  and  made  the  personal  acquaint- 
ance of  Cobdtn,  Bright,  and  other  leaders  of  the  league. 
When  he  returned  to  France  he  found  that  his  writings 
had  been  exerting  a  powerful  influence;  and  in  1846  he 
assisted  in  organizing  at  Bordeaux  the  first  French  Free 
Trade  Association.  The  rapid  spread  of  the  movement 
soon  required  him  to  abandon  the  sweet  and  fruitful  leisure 
of  his  beloved  Mugron  for  the  feverish  and  consuming 
activity  of  Paris.  During  tfap  eighteen  months  which 
followed  this  change  his  labours  were  prodigious.  He 
acted  as  secretary  of  the  central  committee  of  the  associa- 
tion, organized  and  corresponded  with  branch  societies, 
waited  on  ministers,  procured  subscriptinns,  edited  a  weekly 
paper,  the  Libre-Ec/tanr/r,  contributed  to  the  Journal  dfS 
Economisles,  and  to  tliree  other  periodicals,  addressed 
meetings  in  Paris  and  the  provinces,  and  delivered  a  course 
of  lectures  on  the  principles  of  political  economy  to 
students  of  the  schools  of  law  and  of  medicine.  The  cause 
to  which  he  thus  devoted  himself,  with  a  zeal  and  a  self- 
denial  most  aciinirablo  in  themselves,  but  fatal  to  his  own 
health  and  life,  appeared  for  a  time  as  if  it  would  be  as 
successful  in  France  as  in  England  ;  but  the  forces  in  its 
favour  were  much  weaker  and  those  opposed  to  it  were 
much  stronger  in  the  former  country  than  in  the  latter,  and 
this  became  always  the  more  apparent  as  the  struggle 
proceeded,  until  it  was  brought  to  an  abnipt  end  by  the 
Revolution  of  February  1848.  This  event  allowed  the 
socialism  and  communism  which  had  been  gathering  and 
spreading   in  secret  during    the  previous    thirty  years  if 


13  A  S  —  B  A  S 


429 


show  themselves  openly  and  bol.ily  in  singularly  favourable 
circumstances.  Louis  Blanc,  Victor  Consitl<5rant,  Pierre 
Loroux,  J.  P.  ProudliuD,  and  other  representatives  of  these 
theories  Inboured  zealously  and  effectively  to  gain  to  them 
the  needy  and  uneducated  masses  of  their  countrymen,  and 
to  discredit  as  utterly  evil  the  existing  order  of  society.  In 
this  grave  crisis  Bastiat  nobly  [lerformed  his  duty. 
Although  exhausted  by  the  far  too  heavy  labours  in  which 
he  had  been  engaged,  although  robbed  of  his  voice  by  the 
malady  which  was  preying  upon  him,  so  that  he  could  do 
but  little  to  defend  the  truth  from  the  tribune  of  the  Con- 
f  tituent  Assembly,  he  could  still  suggest  wise  counsels  in  the 
Committee  of  Finance  of  which  he  was  vice-president,  and  he 
could  still  use  his  pen  with  a  vigour  and  dexterity  which  made 
hiin  capable  of  combating  single-handed  many  opponents. 

He  wrote  in  rapid  succession  a  series  of  brilliant  and 
effective  pamphlets  and  essays,  showing  how  socialism  was 
connected  with  protection,  and  exposing  the  delusions  on 
■^vhich  it  rested.  Thus  within  the  space  of  two  years  there 
appeared  Propiiitc  et  Loi,  Justice  ct  Fraterniti,  ProprieU 
et  Sfioliation,  L'£tat,  Baccalanrkt  et  Sociuli.<me,  Proteo 
tioiiisme  et  Communisme,  Capital  el  Rente,  Maudit  Argent, 
Spoliation  et  Lvi,  Gratuite  du  Credit,  and  Cc  qu'on  voit  et 
ce  ipi'on  ne  voit  pas.  While  thus  occupied  he  was  meditating 
the  composition  of  a  great  constructive  work,  meant  to 
renovate  economical  science  by  basing  it  on  the  principle 
that  "  interests,  left  to  themselves,  tend  to  harmonious 
combinations,  and  to  the  progressive  preponderance  of  the 
general  good."  The  first  volume  of  this  work  Les 
Harmonies  Economiijnes  was  published  in  the  beginning  of 
1850,  In  the  autumn  of  that  year,  when  working  on  tue 
second  volume,  the  increase  of  his  malady  compelled  him 
to  repair  to  Italy.  After  lingering  at  Pisa  and  Florence  he 
reached  Rome,  biit  only  to  die  there  on  the  24th  of 
December  1850,  in  the  fiftieth  year  of  his  age.  An 
affecting  account  of  the  last  days  of  this  illustrious  martyr 
to  the  cause  of  economical  science  and  political  justice  was 
published  by  his  friend,  M.  Pailiottet. 

The  life-work  of  Bastiat,  in  order  to  be  fairly  appreciated, 
requires  to  be  considered  in  three  aspects.  (1  )  He  was 
the  advocate  of  free  trade,  the  opponent  of  protection. 
The  general  thoor)'  of  free  trade  had,  of  course,  been  clearly 
elated  and  solidly  established  before  he  was  born,  and  his 
desire  to  see  its  [irinciples  acted  on  in  France  was  quickened 
tind  confirmed  by  the  agifation  of  the  Anti-Com-Law 
League  for  their  realization  in  England,  but  as  no  one 
denies  it  to  have  been  a  great  merit  in  Cobden  to  have 
seen  so  distinctly  and  comprehensively  the  bearing  of 
economical  truths  which  he  did  notdiscovev,  no  one  should 
deny  it  to  have  been  also  a  great  merit  in  Bastiat.  He 
did  far  more  than  merely  restate  the  already  familiar  truths 
of  free  trade.  He  showed  as  no  one  before  him  had  done 
bow  they  were  applicable  in  the  various  spheres  of  French 
arriculture,  trade,  and  commerce.  Now,  the  abstract 
tliecjry  of  free  trade  is  of  comparatively  little  value,  its 
elaboration  so  as  to  cover  dctaiL<,  its  concrete  application, 
ond  its  varied  illustration  are  e<iually  essential.  And  in 
the.'ie  respects  it  owes  more,  perhaps,  to^Bastiat  than  to  any 
other  economist.  In  the  Snphifmes  Economijues  we  have 
the  coiopletest  and  most  etfective,  the  wisest  and  the 
wittiest  exposure  of  protectionism  in  its  principles,  reason- 
ings, nnd  conscqnences  which  exists  in  any  language.  (2). 
He  wa.s  the  opponent  of  socialism.  In  this  respect  aUo 
he  had  no  equal  among  the  cconoBni.its  of  France.  He 
ab'oc  fought  socialism  hand  to  hand,  body  to  body,  as  it 
were,  not  caricaturing  it,  not  denouncing  it,  not  criticizing 
nnder  its  name  some  merely  abstract  theorj',  but  taking  it 
a.'  actually  presented  by  its  'most  popular  representatives, 
considering  patiently  their  proposals  and  arguments,  nod 
firoving  conclusively  th.it  they  proceeded  on  faUe  principlus. 


reasoned  badly,  and  sought  to  realize  generous  aims  by 
foolish  and  harmful  means.  Nowhere  will  reason  find  a 
richer  armoury  of  weapons  available  against  socialism  than 
in  the  pamphlets  published  by  Bastiat  between  1848  and 
1S50.  These  pamphlets  will  live,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  at  least 
as  long  as  the  errors  which  they  expose.  (3).  He  attempted 
to  expound  in  an  original  and  independent  manner  political 
economy  as  a  science.  In  combating,  first,  the  Protec- 
tionists, and,  afterwards,  the  Socialists,  there  gradually  rose 
on  his  mind  a  conception  which  seemed  to  him  to  shed  a 
JliMid  of  light  over  the  whole  of  economical  doctrine,  and, 
indeed,  over  the  whole  theory  of  society,  viz.,  the  harmony 
of  the  essential  tendencies  of  human  nature.  The  radical 
error,  he  became  always  more  convinced,  both  of  protec- 
tionism and  socialism,  was  the  assumption  that  human 
interests,  if  left  to  themselves,  would  inevitably  prove 
antagonistic  and  anti-social,  capital  robbing  labour,  manu- 
factures ruining  agriculture,  the  foreigner  injuring  the 
native,  the  consumer  the  producer,  &c.,  and  the  chief 
Weakness  of  the  various  schools  of  political  economy,  be 
believed  he  had  discovered  in  their  imperfect  apprehension 
of  the  truth  that  human  interests,  when  left  to  themselves, 
when  not  arbitrarily  and  forcibly  interfered  with,  tend  to 
harmonious  combination,  to  the  general  good.  Such  was 
the  point  of  view  from  which  Bastiat  sought  to  expound 
the  whole  of  economical  science.  The  sphere  of  that 
science  he  limited  to  exchange,  and  he  drew  a  sharp  distinc- 
tion between  utility  and  value.  Political  economy  he  defined 
as  the  theory  of  value,  and  value  as  "  the  relation  of  two 
services  exchanged."  The  latter  definition  he  deemed  of 
supreme  importance.  It  appeared  to  him  to  correct  what 
was  defective  or  erroneous  in  the  conflicting  definitions  of 
value  given  by  Adam  Smith,  Say,  Ricardo,  Senior,  Storch, 
&c  ,  to  preserve  and  combine  what  was  true  in  them,  and 
to  afford  a  basis  for  a  more  consistent  and  developed 
economical  theory  than  had  previously  been  presented.  It 
has,  however,  found  little  acceptance,  and  Roscher,  Cairnes, 
and  others  seem  to  ^ave  shown  it  to  be  ambiguous  and 
misleading.  A  consequence  of  it  on  which  he  laid  great 
stress  was  that  the  gratuitous  gifts  of  nature,  whatever  be 
their  utility,  are  incapable  of  acquiring  value, — -what  is 
gratuitous  for  man  in  an  isolated  state  remaining  gratuitous 
for  him  in  a  social  condition.  Thus,  land,  according  to 
Bastiat,  is  as  gratuitous  to  men  at  the  present  day  as  to 
their  first  parents,  the  rent  which  is  paid  for  it — its  so- 
called  value — being  merely  the  return  for  the  labour  and 
capital  which  have  been  expended  on  its  improvement.  In 
the  general  opinion  of  economists  he  has  failed  to  establish 
this  doctrine,  failed  to  shew  that  the  properties  and  forces 
of  nature  cannot  be  so  ajipropriated  as  to  acquire  value. 
His  theory  of  reut  is  nearly  the  same  as  Mr  Carey's,  i.e  . 
decidedly  anti-Ricardian.  His  views  on  the  growth  of 
capital  and  interest,  on  landed  property,  competition,  con 
sumption,  wages,  and  population,  are  independent,  ond, 
if  not  unqualiliedly  true,  at  least  richly  suggestive.  His 
(Euvrei  Completes  are  in  7  vols.  The  first  contains  an 
interesting  Afemoir  by  M.  Pailiottet.  The  following  articles 
on  Bastiat  may  be  specified, —  Reybaud's  in  the  Revue  det 
Devx  Mondes,  Sept.  I,  1858  ;  Madeod's  in  his  Dictionary 
of  Political  Economy ,  and  that  of  Cairnes  in  the 
Fortnightly  Jl'^'ieu;  Oct.  1,  1870.  There  is  i  good  strfte- 
ment  of  his  distinctive  views  in  Kautz,  Geschichte  der 
NationalOtkfnomik.  ii  S78-5S4  His  Harmonics  have 
been  well  translated  by  Dr  P  J.  Stirling.  (B.  T.) 

BASTILLE  (from  ias'ir,  now  i(S(ir,  to  build),  in  the 
earKcr  use  of  the  word,  was  any  fortified  bu'ilding  fcrm.- 
ing  part  of  a  system  of  defence  or  attack  ;  and  the  came 
was  especially  applied  to  several  of  the  principal  points  in 
the  ancient  fortifications  of  Paris.  In  the  reign  of  king 
John,  or  even  eailicr,.thc  gate  of  Saint  Antoine  was  Canke4 


430 


B  A  S  — B  A  S 


by  two  towers;  and  in  1359  Hugues  Aabrlot,  at  the  com- 
mand of  Cliarles  V,,  changed  it  into  a  regular  bastille  or 
fort  by  the  addition  of  six  others  of  massive  structure, 
the  whole  united  by  thick  walls  and  surrounded  by  a  ditch 
25  feet  wide,  Varioua  extensions  and  alterations  were 
afterwards  effected ;  but  the  building  remained  substan- 
tially what  it  was  made  by  the  vigorous  provost,  a  strong 
And  gloomy  structure,  with  eight  stern  towers.  As  the 
ancient  fortifications  of  the  city  were  superseded,  the  use 
of  the  word  bastille  as  a  general  designation  gradually  died 
out,  and  it  became  restricted  to  the  castle  of  Saint  Antoine, 
the  political  importance  of  which  made  it  practically,  long 
before  it  Was  actually,  the  only  bastille  of  Paris.  The 
building  had  originally  a  military  purpose,  and  it  appears 
as  a  fortress  on  several  occasions  in  French  history.  When ' 
Charles  VIL  retook  Paris  from  the  English  in  1-136,  all 
his  opponents  in  the  city  took  refuge  in  the  Bastille,  which 
they  were  prepared  to  defend  with  vigour,  but  the  want 
of  provisions  obliged  them  to  capitulate.  In  158S  the 
duke  of  Guise  took  possession  of  the  Bastille,  gave  the 
command  of  it  to  Bussy-Leclerc,  and  soon  afterwards  shut 
up  the  whole  parliament  within  its  walls,  for  having 
refused  their  adherence  to  the  League.  When  Henri  IV. 
bacam3  master  of  Paris  he  committed  the  command  of  the 
Bastille  to  Sully,  and  there  ha  deposited  his  treasures, 
which  at  the  time  of  his  death  amounted  to  the  sum  of 
1,870,000  livres.  On  the  11th  of  January  1649,  the 
Bistilla  was  invested  by  the  forces  of  the  Fronde,  and, 
after  a  short  canuon.ade,  capitulated  on  the  13th  of  that 
month.  The  garrison  consisted  of  only  twenty-two  men. 
The  Frondeurs  concluded  a  peace  with  the  court  on  the 
1  Ith  of  March  ;  but  it  was  stipulated  by  treaty  that  they 
should  retain  possession  of  the  Bastille,  which,  in  lact, 
was  not  restored  to  the  king  till  the  21st  of  October  1651. 
In  that  year  took  place  the  famous  fight  of  the  Porte  St 
Antoine  between  Cond^  and  Turenne,  on  which  occasion 
tba  forces  of  Cond6  owed  their  safe  retreat  into  Paris  to 
the  cannon  of  the  Bastille. 

At  a  very  early  period,  however,  the  Bastille  was  em- 
ployed for  thi  custody  of  state  prisoners,  and  it  was 
ultimately  much  more  of  a  prison  than  a  fortress.  Accord- 
ing to  the  usual  account,  which  one  is  tempted  to  ascribe 
to  the  popular  love  of  poetical  justice,  the  first  who  was 
incarcerated  within  its  walls  was  the  builder  himself, 
Hugues  Aubriot.  Be  this  at  it  may,  the  duk«  of  Nemours 
?pent  thirteen  years  there  in  one  of  those  iron  cages  which 
Louis  XL  called  liia  Ji  I  let  In';  and  Jacques  d'Armagnac, 
I'uyet,  and  Chabot  were  successively  prisoners.  It  was 
not  till  the  reign  of  Louis  XIIL  that  it  became  recognized 
OS  a  regular  place  of  confinement ;  but  from  that  time  till 
its  destruction  it  was  frequently  filled  to  embarrassment 
with  men  and  women  of  every  age  and  condition. 

Of  the  treatment  of  prisoners  in  the  Bastille  very 
various  accounts  have  been  given  even  by  those  who  speak 
from  personal  experience,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it 
varied  greatly  in  different  cases.  The  prisoners  were 
divided  into  two  m:iin  classes,  those  who  were  detained  on 
grounds  of  precaution  or  by  way  of  admonitory  correction, 
nnd  those  who  lay  under  presumption  or  proof  of  guilt. 
Tbe  former  were  subject  to  no  investigation  or  judgment, 
and  the  length  of  their  imprisonment  depended  on  the  will 
of  the  king  ;  the  latter  were  brought  to  trial  in  the 
ordinary  courts  or  before  special  tribunals,  such  as  that  of 
the  Ar.siSnal, — though  even  in  their  case  the  interval  between 
their  arrest  and  their  trial  was  determined  solely  by  the  roy.'d 
decree,  and  it  was  quite  possible  for  a  man  to  grow  old  in 
the  prison  without  having  the  opportunity  of  having  his  fate 
decided.  Until  guilt  was  established,  the  prisoner  was 
rcgi.itprcd  in  the  king's  name. and — except  in  the  case  of  slate 
prisoners  of  iiuportancc,  who  were  kcjit  with  greater  strict- 


ness and  often  in  absolute  isolation — he  enjoyed  a  certait 
degree  of  comfort  and  freedom.  Visitors  were  admittec 
under  restrictions;  games  were  allowed;  and,  for  a  lonf 
time,  at  least,  exercise  was  permitted  in  open  parts  of  thi 
interior.  Food  was  both  abundant  and  good,  at  least  for  tli( 
better  class  of  prisoners ;  and  instances  were  not  unknowi 
of  people  living  below  their  allowance  and,  by  arrange 
ment  with  the  governor,  saving  the  surplus.  When  tin 
criminality  of  the  prisoner  was  established,  his  name  wa: 
transferred  to  the  register  of  the  "  commission,"  and  hi 
became  exposed  to  numerous  hardships  and  even  barbarities 
whichr  however,  belonged  not  so  much  (o  the  specia 
organization  of  the  Bastille  as  to  ih%  general  system  6; 
criminal  justice  then  in  force. 

Among  the  more  distinguished  personage;  who  were  con 
fined  in  this  fortress  during  the  reigns  of  Lcuis  XIV.,  XV. 
and  XVI.,  were  the  famous  Man  of  the  Iron  Mask,  Fouquet 
the  Marshal  Richelieu,  Le  Maistre  de  Sacy,  De  Renneville 
Voltaire,  Ce  Latude,  Le  Provost  de  Ben  mont.  Labour 
donnais,  Lally,  Cardinal  Rohan,  Linguet,  ai  d  La  Chalotais 
While  no  detestation  is  too  great  for  (hat  system  of 
"royal  pantheism"  which  led  to  the  uijust  and  ofter 
protracted  imprisonment  of  even  men  of  preat  abiUty  and 
stainless  character,  it  is  unnecessary  to-give  implicit  credenci 
to  all  ths  tales  of  horror  which  found  currency  during  thi 
excitement  of  the  Revolution,  and  which  historical  evidence 
as  well  as  a  priori  cojsideratiops,  tends  to  strip  of  theii 
more  dreadful  features,  and  even  in  many  cases  to  refutt 
altogether.  Within  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years  mud 
light  of  an  unexpected  kind  has  be^n  shed  on  the  historj 
of  the  Bastille  from  the  pages  of  its  own  records.  These 
documents  had  been  flung  out  into  the  courts  of  the  buildin  j 
by  the  Revolutionary  captors,  and  after  suffering  gnevoui 
diminution  and  damage  were  finally  stored  up  and  forgottet 
in  the  vaults  of  the  library  of  the  (so-called)  Arsenal.  Hen 
the;-  ^ere  discovered  in  1S40  by  Francois  Ravaisson,  whc 
h;i3  since  devoted  himself,  with  rare  patience,  learning,  and 
ability,  to  their  arrangement,  elucidation,  and  publicatioa 
Of  the  extent  and  value  of  his  investigations  some  idea 
may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  the  six  volumes  published 
cover  only  the  interesting  period  from  1659  to  1681. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution  the  Bastille  w.i( 
attacked  by  the  Parisians  ;  and,  after  a  vigorous  resistance, 
it  was  taken  and  razed  to  the  ground  on  the  1 4th  Jul) 
1789.  At  the  time  of  its  ciptnre  only  seven  prisoner; 
were  found  in  it,  A  very  striking  account  of  the  siege  will 
bo  found  in  Carlyle's  French  Revolution,  vol,  i.  The  sitt 
of  the  building  is  now  marked  by  a  lofty  column  of  bronze, 
dedicated  to  the  memory  of  the  patriots  of  July  1789  and 
1830.  It  is  crowned  by  a  gilded  figure  of  Mercury 
spreading  his  pinion.s  in  the  act  of  Hight. 

See  'the  Histories  of  the  Bastille  by  Renneville  (7 
torn.  12mo,  1713-24),  Fougeret  (8vo,  1833),  Dufey  d( 
I'Vonno  (Svo,  1834),  and  Arnould  (7  torn.  8vo,  1843-44); 
and  the  Memoirs  of  Linguet  (12ino,  1821,  new  cd  ), 
Carra(3  torn.  Svo,  1787),Charpentiei'(3  torn,  8vo,  1789), and 
Latude  (edited  by  Thierry,  3  lom.  ISmo,  1791-92)  ;  alsc 
Franijnis  Ravaisson,  Les  Archives  de  la  Bastille,  (6  vols 
Svo,  1866-73);  and  Charles  Louandre,  itf  fievuedes  Dem 
Mondes,  1874. 

BASTWICK,  Dn  John,  born  at  Writtle,  in  Essex,  ir 
1593,  was  a  physician  at  Colcluster,  whoso  celebrity  resti 
on  his  strong  opposition  to  the  Roman  Cathobo  ceremonial. 
About  1633  ho  printed  in  Holland  a  Latin  treatise,  entitled 
F.lenchus  Rcliijinnis  Papistic<T,v;\[h  Flaijcllum  Pontificis  eC 
F/dscoporum  Lattulium ;  and  as  the  English  prelate! 
thought  themselves  aimed  at,  he  was  fined  ill  000  in  the  Iligfc 
Commission  Court,  cxconiniui'iicatcd,  and  prohibited  frun 
practising  physic,  while  liis  books  were  ordered  to  be  burnt, 
and  the  authur   hiiM.-.clf  consigned  to  prison.      Instead  ol 


B  A  T  -DA    i" 


43 » 


recTritiiig,  however,  he  wrote  Apohijeticui  ad  Prccsules 
Anjticanos,  and  nuullier  book  called  The  Litany,  in  which 
be  exclaimed  vehemently  against  the  iiroceedinga  of  (hut 
irbitrary  court,  and  charged  the  bishops  with  an  inclina- 
tion to  popery.  Prynne  and  Burton  coming  under  the  lash 
of  the  Star-chamber  court  at  the  same  time,  they  were  all 
ccusured  as  turbulent  and  seditious  persons,  and  condemned 
to  pay  a  fine  of  £5000  each,  to  be  set  in  the  pillory,  to  lose 
their  ears,  and  to  undergo  imprisonment  for  life  in  remote 
parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  parliament  in  1640  reversed 
lliese  proceedings,  and  ordered  Bastwick  a  reparation  of 
£0000  out  of  the  estates  of  the  commissioners  and  lords 
who  had  persecuted  him.  The  civil  commotions  which 
ensued  prevented  hia  receiving  this  solatium  for  his 
sufferings;  but,  in  1014,  his  wife  had  .in  allowance  ordered 
for  her  own  and  her  husband's  maintenance  The  place 
and  time  of  his  death  are  unknown.  He  seems  ia  his 
later  years  to  have  shown  bitter  opposition  to  the 
Independents. 

BAT,  the  common  name  of  a  well  marked  group  of 
Mammals  forming  the  order  Cheiroptera  (i.e.,  wing  handed), 
distinguished  from  all  other  members  of  their  class  by  the 
possession  of  true  organs  of  flight  These  consist  of  a 
delicate  membrane  stretching  from  limb  to  limb  on  both 
sides  of  the  body,  enclosing  the  greatly  elongated  digits  of 
the  hand,  and  in  many  cases  extending  beyond  the  pos- 
terior limbs  so  as  to  include  the  tail.  Their  whole  struc- 
ture bears  evidence  of  special  adaptation  to  the  purpose  of 
sustained  flight,  while  their  mode  of  progression  on  the 
ground  is  as  awkward  as  their  aerial  movements  are  graceful. 
The  eyes  of  the  bat  are  usually  small,  but  the  organs  of 
the  other  senses  in  most  cases  attain  extraordinary  develop- 
ment The  external  ear  is  generally  large,  as  in  the  Long- 
eared  Bat  of  Britain  [PUcotus  auritus),  in  which  it  is  equal 
to  the  entire  length  of  the  body.  In  the  group  to  which 
the  Horse-shoe  Bats  (Rhinolophus  ferrum  equinum)  belong, 
the  nose  is  surrounded  with  leaf-like  appendages,  the 
purpose  of  which  is  by  no  means  well  determined,  but 
which,  probably,  are  as  useful  to  the  organ  of  smelling  as 
is  the  greatly  elongated  auricle  to  that  of  hearing.  In  all 
bats  the  wing  membrane  allbrds  a  vast  expansion  of  the 
eeuse  of  touch,  which  is  of  such  exquisite  delicacy  that  bats 
which  have  been  deprived  of  their  sight,  and  as  far  as 
possible  of  hearing  and  smelling,  are  yet  able  by  it  alone  to 
fly  about  in  perfect  security,  avoiding,  with  apparent  ease, 
all  the  obstacles  that  may  be  placed  in  their  way  By 
Pliny  and  other  early  naturalists  the  bat,  although  known 
to  suckle  its  young,  was  placed  among  Birds,  and  was 
generally  regarded  as  a  creature  of  ill  omen,  a  superstitious 
feeling  by  no  means  extinct  at  the  present  day.  Virgil,  in 
speaking  of  the  Harpies,  generally  understood  to  have  been 
bats,  describes  them  as  "  dirse  obscenxque  volucres."  Our 
English  ancestors  formed  a  more  correct  estimate  of  the 
zoological  position  of  these  creatures  as  indicated  by  the 
name  "  Hitter-mouse,"  still  given  to  the  bat  in  many  parts 
of  Britain.  Bats  are  nocturnal  or  crepuscukr  in  their 
habits,  remaining  suspended  by  day  in  the  darkest  recesses 
of  woods  and  caverns,  oi  in  the  most  inaccessible  parts  of 
jnfrcqnented  buildings,  and  coming  forth  at  twilight  in 
f  e.irch  of  food  This  in  the  species  found  in  Europe  and 
.•\merica  consists  mainly  of  insects;  while  one  species  at 
least,  the  Vampire  of  America,  sucks  the  blood  of  other 
mammals,  although  iu>  powers  in  this  respect  have  probably 
been  much.ciagg- rated.  The  Fruit-eating  Bats  (Pleropus) 
are  confined  to  the  warmer  regions  of  Asia  and  Africa, 
and  among  these  are  to  be  found  the  largest  members  of 
the  Older,  thus  the  Kalong  of  Java  {Ptcropus  javanicus) 
ncasures  5  feet  between  the  tips  of  its  wings.  In  countries 
vhcre  the  winter  cold  is  sufBciently  aevere  to  cut  off  their 
usual    Sources   of    food,    bats   hibernate.       Collecting   in 


enormous  nunjbers  in  their  usual  retreais  and  suspending 
themselves  by  their  hind  Umbs,  they  become  torpid,  and 
remain  so  till  the  return  of  spring,  bringing  w^th  it  a 
revival  of  insect  life,  restores  them  to  their  wonted  activity. 
About  130  species  of  bats  are  known,  and  these  are  widely 
distributed  over  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  extending  as 
far  northward  as  latitude  G0° ;  all  the  larger  forms, 
however,  occur  in  the  warmer  regions  of  the  earth.  Bats 
are  found  in  most  of  the  islands  of  the  Indian  and  Pacific 
Oceans,  forming  in  many  of  them  the  only  indigenous 
mammals,  a  fact  readily  explained  when  viewed  in  connec- 
tion with  their  remarkable  power  of  flight.  Fossil  remains 
of  insectivorous  Cheiroptera  have  been  found  m  the  Eocene 
and  later  Tertiary  deposits.     See  Mamualia.  ' 

B.-VTAVIA,  a  large  city  and  seaport  on  the  nortli  coast 
of  the  island  of  Java,  and  the  capital  of  all  the  Dutch 
settlements  in  the  East.  It  is  situated  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Jacatra  or  Tjiliwong,  in  a  swampy  plain  at  the 
head  of  a  capacious  bay.  The  streets  are  for  the  most  part 
straight  and  regular,  and  many  of  them  have  a  breadth  of 
from  100  to  200  feet.  In  several  cases  there  is  a  canal  in  the 
centre  lined  with  stone,  and  defended  by  low  parapets  or 
banks,  while  almost  every  street  and  square  is  fringed 
with  trees.  The  old  town  has  greatly  changed  from  what 
it  was  in  the  18th  century.  It  was  then  surrounded  by 
strung  fortifications,  and  contained  a  number  of  important 
buildings,  such  as  the  town-house  (built  in  1652  and 
restored  in  1706),  the  exchange,  the  infirmary  and  orphan 
asylum,  and  the  European  churches.  But  the  ramparts 
-Were  long  ago  demolished,  and  most  of  the  public  edifices 
have  either  falleu  into  decay  or  been  converted  ir.to 
magazines  and  warehouses.  The  great  church  which  was 
finished  in  1760,  at  an  expense  of  i'80,000,  bad  to  be  tuken 
down  in  Consequence  of  its  foundation  having  given  way. 
Canals  have  been  filled  up,  streets  have  been  altered,  and 
the  general  character  of  the  place  considerably  modified. 
All  the  European  inhabitants,  except  those  immediately 
connected  with  the  shipping,  have  removed  to  the  New 
Town,  which  has  been  gradually  formed  by  the  integration 
of  'Weltevreden  {Wellconlent),  Molenvliet  (Millstnam), 
Rijswijk  (Rice-tou-n),  Noordwijk  {Xcrlh-touTi},  Koningspleio 
(k'iny's  s^^uare),  and  other  suburban  villnges  or  statioLB. 
The  situation  of  this  modern  part  is  higher  and  healthier  , 
and  the  grandeur  and  variety  of  its  buildings  far  surj-asa 
anything  to  be  found  in  the  older  section  of  the  city.  The 
misplaced  imitation  of  Dutch  arrangements  has  been  happily 
avoided,  and  the  natural  advantages  of  the  situation  and 
climate  have  been  turned  to  account  The  houses  ar« 
frequently  separated  from  each  other  by  rows  of  trees 

As  the  chief  city  of  the  Dutch  colonies  in  the  East. 
Batavia  contiins  numerous  buildings  connected  with  the 
civil  and  military  organization  of  the  Government  1  he 
chambers  of  the  Council  of  the  East  Indies  occupy  a 
spacious  edifice  in  Rijswijk,  and  the  governor  g«>neral« 
hotel,  or  town-residence,  is  situated  in  the  same  quarter 
In  the  district  of  Weltevreden  are  the  new  palace,  the 
barracks,  and  the  artillery  school,  as  well  as  the  military 
and  civil  hospital,  which  can  accommodate  600  patients, 
and  not  far  off  ia  the  Frederik  Hendrik  citadel,  which  was 
built  in  1837,  Further  inland,  at  Meester  Cornells 
(known  for  its  lake),  is  a  school  for  under  otficers  The 
Koniugsplein  is  a  large  open  square  for  military  luanceuvrcs, 
about  390  feet  long  and  250  feet  broad,  surrounded  by 
mansions  of  the  wealthier  classes.  Noordwijk  is  princi 
pally  inhabited  by  lester  merchants  and  tubordiimie 
oOlcials.  There  is  an  orphan  asylum  in  the  district  of 
Parajiatta,  and  a  poor-house  {Diuconie  armtnhaui)  in 
Moknvlict.  Besides  those  already  mentioned,  Balavia  Lis 
various  educational  and  scientilic  institutions  uf  note  In 
1851     the    Government    founded    a    medical   school    foi 


432 


B  A  T  -  B  A  T 


Japanese,  and  in  ISCO  tho  "Gymnasium  VVilIiam  III  "  in 
wUich  a  comijrehensive  education  is  besto«sd.  A  society 
of  arts  and  sciences  was  established  in  1778,  a  royM 
physical  society  in  1850,  and  a  society  for  the  promotion 
of  industry  and  agriculture  in  1853.  In  addition  to  the 
Transactions  of  these  societies — many  of  which  contain 
valuable  contributions  to  their  respective  departments  in 
their  relation  to  the  East  Indies — a  considerable  number 
of  publications  are  issued  in  Batavia,  Among  miscellaneous 
buddings  of  importance  may  be  mentioned  the  public-hall 
known  as  the  Harmonie,  tte  freemasons' lodge,  the  theatre, 
the  clubhouse,  and  several  fine  hotels. 

The  population  of  Batavia  is  very  varied, — the  Dutch 
residents  being  a  comparatively  small  class,  and  greatly 
intermixed  with  Portuguese  and  Malays.  Hero  are  tound 
members  of  the  different  Indian  nations,  originally  si  ives  ; 
Moors  and  Ar^bs,  who  are  principally  engaged  in  naviga- 
tion, but  also  inhabit  the  Hua  Malacua  district,  and  trade 
in  gold  and  precious  stones ;  Javanese,  who  are  cultiva  ,ors  ; 
and  Malays,  chiefly  boatmen  and  sailors,  and  at'ieren.s  of 
Mahometanism.  But,  perhaps,  the  most  important  As  atic 
element  is  the  Chinese,  who  are  both  numerous  and 
industrious.  They  were  long  greatly  oppres  ed  by  the 
Dutch  Government  in  various  paltry  ways,  and  in  1  40 
they  were  massacred  to  the  number  of  12,000.  Bu  in 
spite  of  all  this  they  haye  maintained  their  position,  nd 
now  enjoy  a  happier  lot.  In  1832  the  population  was 
found  to  consist  of  2800  Europeans,  80,000  natives,  25,000 
Chinese,  1000  Arabs,  and  95b0  slaves,  a  total  of  1 18,300 
persons.  The  number  of  inhabitants  is  at  present  mu:h 
ie=a. 

Batavia  is  still  a  great  commercial  depot,  though  it    is 

had  to  contend  against   the  rivalry  of   Singapore      1  le 

bay  is  rendered  secure  by  a  number  of  islands  at  its  mouth, 

and  is  capacious  enough  for  a  much  larger  traffic  than  it 

lias  ever  seen  ;   but  it  unfortunately  grows  very  shaUow 

towards  the  shore.     Ships  of  300  or  400  tons  anchor  about 

u  mile  and  a  half  out,    tho  river  is  nav  gable  a  couple  of 

miles  inland  ior  vessels  of  30  or  4u  t^ns,  but  the  entrance 

13  narrow,  and  requires  continual  attention  to  keep  it  open. 

The  exports  dom   Batavia  to   the  other   islands  of  the 

archipelago,  and   to  the   ports  in  the   Malayan    peninsula, 

are  rice.  sago,   coffee,  sugar,  salt,  oil,  tobacco,  teak   timber 

and  planks,  Java  cloths,  brass  wares,  ic,  and  European, 

lodian,  and  Chinese  goods.     The  produce  of  the  Eastern 

l.'lands  is  also  collected  at  its  ports  for  re-exportation  to 

India,  Chin,a,  and  Europe, — namely,  gold-dust,  diamonds, 

camphor,    benzoin,    and   other    drugs  ,    edible    bird  nests, 

tifcjxmg.     rattans,    bees'    wax,    turfuise-shell     and    dyeing 

woods  from  Borneo  and  Sumatra  ;  tin  from  Bauca  ;    Spices 

from  the  Moluccas  ,    fifte  clotlis  from  Celebes  and  Bali  , 

and    pepper  from   Sumatra.      From   Bengal    are  imported 

I'pium  drugs,  and  cloths  ;   from  China,  teas,  rsw  silk,  silk 

piece-goods,    varnished    umbrellas,    coarse    Ch.'na    wares 

uiiikeen.  paper,  and  innumerable  smaller  articles  for  the 

Chinese    settlers,        British   manufactures  also  are  largel; 

introduced,     '''he  number  of  liritish  ships  that  entered  in 

1^70  waa  103,  with   a  tonnage  of  nearly  31,00)  tons,  the 

vital  number  of  vessels  of  all  nationalities  being   783,  wiili 

a  tonnage  of  nearly  194.000 

Almost  the  only  manufactures  of  any  importance  are 
the  distillation  ol  arrack,  which  is  principally  earned  on 
1  y  Chinese,  the  burning  of  lin.e  and  bricks,  and  the  I'  king 
of  pottery,  and  even  the  biickinaking  is  in  a  decaying 
condition  Tho  principal  establishment  for  monetary 
transactions  i»  the  Java  Bank.  establi.-.hcd  in  1828  wiih  a 
cafiital  of  {.'50(1,000  .  but  there  are  also  agencies  belon.ciiig 
In  the  Bank  of  llolterdam,  and  the  Chartered  Bank  of  li  dia, 
A'lstralia.  and  China,  as  well  as  a  public  savings  bank 
The  GovcniuK^ut  has  a  naval  cstablishuient  at  the  i>Hnil 


of  Onruit,  about  3ix  miles  from  the  city ;  and  among  its 
other  accommodations  is  a  largo  iron  Hoating  dock  capabit 
of  holding  vessels  40U  feet  long.  Since  18C9,  howevci, 
entrance  has  been  refused  to  merchant  ships,  which, 
consequently,  feel  the  lack  of  proper  docks  in  the  barboui. 
Proposals  to  build  these  and  to  extend  the  harbour,  though 
frequentlj'  under  discussion,  have  bad  no  result.  Tram- 
ways were  introduced  into  the  city  in  1867,  and  are  greatly 
patrouized  by  the,  native  population.  A  railway  to 
Buitenzorg.  where  the  Government  botanical  gardens  aro 
situated,  was  opened  in  1871,  the  distance  being  about  4U 
miles  inland. 

Batavia  owes  its  origin  to  the  Dutch  general  John 
Petersen  Coen,  who,  in  1C19,  touk  the  town  of  Jacatra 
(n'hich  had  been  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  old  Javajiaee 
town  of  SunJa  Calappa),  destroyed  it,  and  founded  in  its 
stead  the  present  city,  which  soon  acquired  a  flourishing 
trade  and  increased  ii  importance.  Tlie  ruins  of  Jacatra 
are  to  be  found  between  Biitavia  and  Anjul.  In  1099 
Batavia  was  visited  by  a  terrible  earthquake,  and  the 
streams  were  choked  by  the  mud  fVom  the  volcano  of 
Gunong  Salak  (7244  feet  high),  by  which  the  climate  was 
so  atl'etted  that  the  city  became  noloiious  for  its  unhealthi- 
ness.  and  was  in  great  danger  of  being  altogether  aban- 
doned. In  the  t«enty-two  years  from  1730  to  1752. 
1,100,000  deaths  aie  said  to  have  been  recorded.  General 
Daendals,  who  wa;  governor  from  1808  to  1811,  caused 
the  ramparts  of  the  town  to  be  demolished,  and  began  to 
form  the  nucleus  of  a  new  city  at  Weltevreden.  By  1816 
neaily  all  the  Europeans  had  left  the  old  town.  In  1811 
a  British  armament  was  sent  against  the  Dutch  settlements 
in  Java,  which  had  been  incorporated  by  prance,  and  to 
this  force  Batavia  surrendered  on  the  8th  of  August.  It 
was  restored,  however,  to  the  Dutch  by  the  treaty  of  1814. 
See  SlavoMDus,  Voijagcs  to  tht  Ea^t  Iiuiics ;  Barrow,  yoijut^e  to 
Coc  m  China  ;  Sir  Ceurge  SluuMon,  Embassy  to  Chnui;  Daendcl, 
Sfiutt  ^tr  Xedtirl  0  hid.  BezittKngcn :  Jungbuhn,  Rt'iscn  der  Java; 
Thorn,  Mfjn  0/ the  Conquest  of  J  Lira  ;  Sir  S.  Raffles,  Uistory  of  Java ; 
Temioiiick.  L' hide  Arckip.,  Vcth,   li'oordenbotk  v.  Kcderl.  Ind. 

BATES,\V'iLUAM  D.D.,anemineutNonconfonnistdivine, 
born  in  November    G25      He  was  admitted  to  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge  and  removed  thence  to  King's  College 
in  1G44.      He  was  one  of  the  commissioners  at  the  con- 
ference in  the  Savoy,  for  reviewing  the  public  liturgy,  and 
was  concerned  m  dj-awing  up  the  exceptions  to  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer.    Notwithstanding  thishe  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  Charles  II.  soon   after  the   Restoration,  and 
became  minister  of  St  Duustan'sin  the  West  ;    but  he  was 
afterwards   deprived    of   his  benefice    for    nonconforniity 
Bates    was   of    an    amiable   character,    and    enjoyed    the 
friendship  of  the  Lord  Keeper  Bndgeman.  the  Lord  Chan - 
I  cellor    Finch,   the   earl  of  Nottingham,    and    Archbishop 
i  TiUotson      He  published  SeUct   Livt-s  of  Jlliis'rious  an<J 
'  J'wus    PersuHS,    111    Latin  ,   and   after    his  death    all    his 
'  works,  except  his  Select   Ltves,  were  printed   in  one  vol. 
fol  ;   again  in   1723;   and  in  4  vols.  8vo,  in  1815.     Ha 
died  in  July  1699,  in  the  74lh  year  of  his  age. 

Bath,  the  chief  town  of  Somersetshire,  and,  from  the 
elegance  of  its  buildings  and  the  beauty  of  its  situation, 
one  of  the  finest  cities  in  England,  is  situated  mainly  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  Avon,  though  a  considerable  exten 
sicn  has  also  taken  place  on  the  left.  Communication  be- 
tween the  two  portions  is  afforded  by  scvi  ral  bridges,  o! 
which  the  most  important  are  the  Pulleney,  the  NoitL 
Parade,  the  Cleveland,  and  the  Grosvenor  Suspension  The 
heights  and  slopes  of  the  great  western  oolitic  range,  that 
rise  like  an  amphitheatre  from  the  river  valley,  are  covered 
with  the  terraces  and  crescents  of  the  city  It  contains 
many  fine  public  walks,  and  the  vicinity  presents  a  great 
variety  of  beautiful  landscape  Its  sheltered  position 
renders  the  climate   iiiilJ  and   agreeable.      The  houses  ire 


B  A  T  H 


433 


mostly  built  of  whit«  frcestoDe.  Jointly  with  Wells, 
Bath  U  the  head  of  a  diocese,  which  is  co  extensive  with 
the  county  of  Somerset     The  Abbey  Church  is  a  hindsome 


Sketch  GrouDd-Pian  of  Bith. 


I.  Gmidhall 

!.  Assembljr  Rooma. 

3  Theatre. 

4  Po9t-Oac«. 


6.  Market. 

6.  Pump-Room. 
7   fck)nt;'9   sad   QQceD'l 
balli. 


8.  Cioss  Rath. 

9  Rot  Until  Pump-Tloom 

10.  Kingston  Baths. 

11.  Kojal  Pilrue  B^ilba 


cruciform  edifice,  dating  from  1499,  with  a  quadrang\ilar 
tower  1G2  feet  high  rising  from  the  point  of  intersection. 
It  is  210  feet  in  length  from  E.  to  W.,and  126  in  IreaJth 
from  N.  to  S.  The  west  front  contains 
a  curious  representation  of  the  founder's 
<lrsam  of  the  angels  ascending  and  de- 
scending on  Jacob's  ladder.  In  the  in- 
terior are  the  tombs  of  Quin,  Nash,  Mai- 
thus,  Broome,  Melmoth,  and  nnmcrovis 
minor  celebrities;  while  several  of  th'- 
nionumcnts  are  from  the  chisels  of  Bacon, 
(.'hantrey,  and  Flaiman.  The  church  has 
been  recently  restored  under  the  direc- 
uon  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  at  a  cost  ol 
£20,000.  There  are  about  thirty  other  Denceol  Bishorric. 
parish  churches  or  chapels  in  Bath,  as  well  as  numerous 
'lonconfoniiist  places  of  worship.  St  Swithiu's,  Walcot, 
may  be  mentioned  as  containing  the  tombs  of  Christopher 
Anstey  and  Madame  d'Arblay.  Among  the  most  important 
educational  institutions  are  the  Free  Grammar  School, 
founded  by  F,dward  VI. ;  the  Somersetshire  College,  estab- 
lished in  1353  ,  the  Royal  School,  for  the  education  of  the 
daughters  of  military  officers,  founded  in  18G5  ,  the  Bath 
College  in  Sydney  Place  ;  the  School  of  Art  ;  the  Romaii 
Catholic  College  at  Prior  Park,  which  was  formerly  the  / 
niansion  of  Ralph  Allen,  the  friend  and  patron  of  Fielding  , 
and  the  Wt-.-Wyan  College  at  Kingswood.  "There  arc 
fevorul  buildiiig.-i  of  considerable  pretension  connected 
wiib  tkc  baths  from  which  the  town  derives  its  name. 
The  .springs  supply  sit  distinct  establishments,  namely, 
•the  King's,  Queen's,  Hot,  Cross,  Abbey,  and  Grand  Pun^p 
Room  Hotel  baths.     Of  these   the  oldest   is  the  Ki:i"'s, 


which  was  enclosed  in  12;J0.  The  putcp-room  is  85  feet 
in  length  by  56  in  breadth  and  34  in  height;  it  contains 
a  marble  atatue  to  Beau  Nash.  The  Queen's  was  built 
in  I.J97,  and  the  Cross  Bath  dates  from  1790.  The  tem- 
perature varies  in  the  different  springs  from  117°  to  120" 
Fahr.,  and  the  specific  gravity  of  the  hot  bath  is  1  002. 
Dr  Daubeny  in  1833  found  that  the  daily  evolution  of 
nitrogen  gas  amounted  to  250  cubic  feet  ;  and  Professor 
Ramsay  has  calculated  that  if  the  mineral  ingrcdieuts  of 
the  waters  were  solidified  they  would  form  in  one  year  a 
column  9  feet  in  diameter  and  140  feet  in  height.  The 
principal  substances  in  solution  are  sulphates  '^f  lime  and 
soda  and  chlorides  of  sodium  and  magnesiuia  The  waters 
are  very  beneficial  in  cases  of  palsy,  rheumatism,  gout, 
leprosy,  neuralgia,  sciatica,  chorea,  diseases  of  the  Over, 
and  cutaneous  and  scrofulous  alTections.  The  influx  of 
visitors,  varying  from  10,000  to  14,000  during  the  season, 
has  greatly  stimulated  the  adornment  of  the  town.  The 
Assembly  rooms,  built  by  Wood  the  younger,  at  a  cost  of 
X20,000,  were  opened  in  October  1771,  and  for  elegance, 
comfort,  and  convenience,  are  not  surpassed  by  any  similar 
rooms  in  the  kingdom.  The  theatre,  which  is  one  of  the 
best  out  of  London,  was  opened  in  1SC3,  the  former  building 
having  been  burnt  in  1 862.  The  Literary  and  Scientific  In- 
stilution,  founded  in  1826,  is  a  handsome  bjilding  of  the 
Doric  order,  and  contains  a  laboratory,  a  lecture-room,  a 
museum  (with  numerous  Roman  antiquitiesand  ornitho- 
logical specimens),  and  an  extensive  librarj,  in  which  is 
the  Chapman  collection  illustrative  of  the  history  of  Bath. 
The  Rev.  Leonard  Blomefield  (late  Jenyns)  las  presented 
his  fine  library  of  natural  history  and  science  (including 
his  herbarium)  to  the  institution.  The  Guild-hall,  with 
an  elegant  Grecian  front,  was  founded  in  1706  ;  and  the 
market-halb  were  reconstructed  about  1803.  Among  the 
charitable  institutions  are  the  Mineral  Wa'er  Hospital, 
opened  in  1742,  and  eitended  in  1861  ;  the  Royal  United 
H'o.'spitaljOpensd  in  1826;  Bellot'sHospital,which  dates  from 
IGll,  though  the  present  building  was  erected  in  1859; 
^t  Catherine's  Hospital,  fouuded  by  Edward  VL;  St  John's, 
founded  by  Bishop  Fitz  Joceline  in  1174;  and  the  Ear- 
and-Eye  Infirmary,  established  in  1837.  There  are  six 
banks,  besides  a  savings-bank.  The  Sydney  gardens  have 
been  open  since  1795,  and  are  frequently  employed  for 
public  exhibitions  and  amusements;  the  Victoria  Paik, 
opened  by  the  queen,  when  Princess  Victoria,  in  1830,  is 
such  as  any  city  might  be  proud  of. 
The  corporation  consists  of  a  mayor, 
fourteen  aldermen,  and  forty-two  coun 
cilUirs,  and  the  town  returns  two  mem- 
bers to  parliament.  Several  newspapers 
are  published  weekly.  The  Great 
Western  Railway  connects  Bath  with 
London,  Bristol,  Salisbury,  Wells,  Wey- 
mouth, ic,  from  the  first  of  which  it 
is  107  miles  distant;  the  Midland  line  C'lJ'  '^"'1!. 

b  connected  with  Bath  Vy  a  junction  at  Mangotsficld  ;  and 
ready  access  to  the  south  has  recently  been  obtained  by  the 
opening  of  the  Somerset  and  Dorset  line.  The  Kennet  and 
Avon  canal,  which  joins  the  Thames  at  Reading,  aflordf 
water  communication  with  the  metropolis.  The  population 
of  the  municipal  borough  was  54,240  in  1851,  52,528  in 
1801,  and  52,557  in  1871,  nearly  CO  per  cent  of  the  last 
nuniber  being  females.  In  1871  the  parliamentary  borough 
contained  53,704  persons 

According  to  the  legend  to  which  the  inhabitants  ad- 
hered till  the  middle  of  the  18th  ccnlur;:,  Bath  was  founded 
by  the  EritLsh  king  Bladud  ;  but  its  origin  cannot  be 
historically  traced'to  an  earlier  date  than  the  1st  centuiy, 
when  the  Romans  e.'.tabUsht'd  here  the  city  of  A/jtuv  Solit, 
numerous  rcmaius  of  which  have  at  various  times    been 

HI-  -  55 


434 


B  A    r  —  BAT 


discovered.  Daring  tlie  Saxon  period  the  chief  events  in 
its  annals  are  the  foundation  of  an  abbey  by  0£fa  in  775, 
and  the  coronation  of  Edgar  in  973.  In  the  reign  of 
William  Rufus  the  city  was  reduced  to  ashes,  but  it  soon 
recovered  its  prosperity  under  its  abbot  John  of  ViUuIa, 
and  his  successors.  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  granted  its 
first  charter  as  a  free  borough,  and  about  the  same  time 
the  foundations  were  laid  of  its  wool  manufactures.  In 
1 297  the  city  was  first  represented  in  parliament ;  in  1447 
it  obtained  a  charter  from  Henry  VI.,  and  one  from  Queen 
Elizabeth  in  1590.  In  the  18th  century  it  became  the  most 
fashionable  watering-piace  in  England,  and  was  greatly 
e.xtended  under  the  direction  of  the  architects  Wood. 

See  Warner's  Hlstonj  and  Antiquities  of  Balk,  1301  ;  Blainwar- 
ing's  Collectanea ;  C.  P.  Kussell,  On.  the  Growth  of  Bath,  re,icl  before 
the  Arch.  Inst.,  1S53  ;  Ancient  Landmarks  of  Bath,  by  C.  E. 
Davis;  Wright's  Hist.  Giddcto  Bath,  1S04  ;  Earle's  Guide  to  Bath, 
IS64  ;  Lyeli's  Inaugural  Address  before  Brit.  Assoc,  1864  ;  Sir  G. 
J  ail;  son's  A  rchives  of  Bath,  2  vok. ,  1 873  ;  Peach,  Rambles  about  Bath, 
1S75  ;  Scarth,  Aqaa:  Soils,  or  A'olices  of  Roman  Bath,  18t)4. 

B.\TH,  a  city  and  port  of  the  United  States  of  North 
America,  chief  town  of  the  county  of  Sagadahock  in 
.Maine.  It  is  situated  on  the  W  bank  of  the  Kennebec, 
about  twelve  miles  from  the  sea,  and  forms  a  station  on 
the  branch  railway  from  Brunswick  to  Rockland.  The 
prosperity  of  the  to\yu  depends  almost  entirely  on  its  ship- 
[iing  and'  fisheries  ;  and  its  manufacturing  industries  a'-e 
nearly  all  auxiliary  to  the  one  department  of  shipbuilding, 
in  which  it  competes  with  the  chief  American  centres  of 
the  trade.  It  has  a  fine  custom-house  built  of  granite.  The 
city  was  settled  in  175G,  incorporated  in  1780,  and  raised  to 
the  rank  of  a  city  in  1850.     Population  (1870),  7371. 

BATH,  Kn-iguts  of  the.     See  Hee.\ldry  and  IC.n'igiit- 

HOOD. 

BATHGATE,  a  town  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of 
Linlithgow,  19  miles  from  Edinburgh,  aiid  26  from  Glas- 
gow, with  both  which  it  has  direct  communication  by 
railway.  The  town  is  u-regularly  built,  and  has  no  buildings 
of  importance  except  a  well-endowed  academy.  The  district 
IS  rich  in  limestone,  coal,  shale,  and  ironstone,  which  aCTord 
employment  to  a  large  part  of  the  population.  Paraffin 
and  chemicals  are  extensively  manufactured,  and  there  are 
glass-works  and  flour-mills.      Population  (1871),  4491. 

B.ATHS.  In  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  word  a 
bath  is  the  immersion  of  the  body  in  a  medium  different 
from  the  ordinary  one  of  atmospheric  air,  which  medium 
is  usually  cnmuion  water  in  some  form.  In  another  sense 
it  includes  the  nature  of  the  different  media  that  may  be 
used,  and  of  the  various  arrangements  by  which  they  are 
applied.  Perhr'.ps  the  simplest  method  of  presenting  a  general 
view  of  the  whole  subject  is  first  to  give  an  outline  of  the 
history  of  baths  in  all  ages,  and  next  to  give  some  account 
of  the  principles  on  which  baths  act  on  the  human  system. 

Ancient  Baths. — Bathing,  as  serving  both  for  cleanliness 
and  for  pleasure,  has  been  almost  instinctively  practised  by 
nearly  every  people  The  most  ancient  records  mention 
bathing  in  the  rivers  Nile  and  Ganges.  From  an  early  ])oriod 
the  Jews  bathed  in  running  water,  used  both  hot  and  cold 
baths,  and  employed  oils  and  ointments.  So  also  did  the 
Greeks ;  their  earliest  and  commonest  form  of  bathing  was 
swimming  in  rivers,  and  bathing  in  tliein  was  jiraclised  by 
both  sexes.  Warm  baths  were,  according  to  Homer,  used 
after  fatigue  or  exercise.  The  Athenians  a|>pear  for  a  long 
time  only  to  have  had  private  baths,  but  afterwards  they 
had  public  ones  •  the  latter  seem  to  have  originated  among 
the  Lacedaemonians,  who  invented  the  hot  air  bath,  at 
least  the  form  of  it  called  after  them,  the  Lacontcuni. 
Although  the  baths  of  the  Greeks  were  not  so  luxurious  as 
those  of  some  other  nations,  yet  cfTeminate  people  were 
accused  among  them  of  u.smg  warm  baths  in  excess ;  and  the 
bath  servants  appear  to  have  been  rogues  and  thieves,  as 


in  later  and  larger  establishments  The  I'ersians  must  have 
had  handsomely  equipped  baths,  for  Alexander  the  Qrea.( 
admired  the  luxury  of  the  baths  of  Darius. 

Cut  the  baths  of  the  Greeks,  and  probably  of  all  Eastern 
nations,  were  on  a  small  scale  as  compared  with  those  which 
eventually  sprung  up  among  the  Romans.  In  early  times 
the  Romans  used  after  exercise  to  throw  themselves  into 
the  Tiber.  Next,  when  ample  supplies  of  water  were 
brought  into  the  city,  large  piscince,  or  cold  swimming 
baths,  were  constructed,  the  earliest  of  which  appear  to 
have  been  the  piscina  publica  (312  B.C.),  near  the  Circus 
Masimus,  supplied  by  the  Appian  aqueduct,  the  lavacrum 
of  Agrippina,  and  a  bath  at  the  end  of  the  Clivus  Capi- 
tolinus.  Next,  small  public  as  well  as  private  baths  were 
built ;  and  with  the  empire  more  luxurious  forms  of  bathing 
were  introduced,  and  warm  became  far  more  popular  than 
•  cold  baths. 

Public  baths  or  balneae  were  first  built  in  Rome  after 
Clodius  brought  in  the  supply  of  water  from  Prseneste. 
After  that  date  baths  began  to  be  common  both  in  Rome 
and  in  other  Italian  cities  ;  and  private  baths,  which  gradu- 
ally came  into  use,  were  attached  to  the  villas  of  the  wealthy 
citizens.  Ma:cenaswas  one  of  the  fii-stwho  built  public  baths 
at  his  own  expense.  After  his  time  each  emperor,  as  he 
wished  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  people,  lavished  the 
revenues  of  the  slate  in  the  construction  of  encrraous  build- 
ings, which  not  only  contained  suites  of  bathing  apartments, 
but  included  gymnasia,  and  sometimes  even  theatres  and 
libraries.  Such  enormous  establishments  went  by  the  name 
of  IhermcE.  The  principal  thermae  were  those  of  Agrippa 
21  B.C.,  of  Nero  05  a.d.,  of  Titus  81,  of  Domitian  95,  of 
Commodus  185,  of  Caracalla  217,  and  still  later  those  of 
Diocletian  302,  and  of  Constantine.  The  technical  skill  dis- 
played by  the  Romans  in  rendering  their  walls  and  the  sides 
of  reservoirs  impervious  to  moisture,  in  conveying  and  heat- 
ing water,  and  in  constructing  flues  for  the  conveyance  of 
hot  air  through  the  walls,  was  of  the  highest  order. 

The  Roman  baths  contained  swimming  baths,  warm 
b.iths,  baths  of  hot  air,  and  vapour  baths.  The  chief  rooms 
(which  in  the  largest  baths  appear  to  have  been  mostly 
distinct,  whereas  in  smaller  baths  one  chamber  was  made 
to  do  duty  for  more  than  a  single  purpose)  were  the  fol- 
lowing : — ^1.)  The  apodyterium  or  spolialorium,  where  the 
bathers  undressed  ;  (2.)  ilie  alipterium  or  uncluarium,v;her6 
oils  and  ointments  were  kept  (although  the  bathers  often 
brought  their  own  pomades),  and  where  the  aliptoe  anointed 
the  bathers;  (3.)  The  frigidaritim  or  cool  room,  cella 
friijida,  in  which  usually  was  the  cold  hath,  the  piscina  or 
baptiMerium ;  (4.)  The  tcpidarium,  a  room  moderately 
heated,  in  which  the  bathers  rested  for  a  time,  but  which 
was  not  meant  for  bathing  ;  (5.)  The  calidariunijOr  heating 
room,  over  the  hypocaustum  or  furnace ;.  this  in  its  com- 
monest arrangement  had  at  one  end  a  warm  bath,  the  alveus 
or  calida  lavalio ;  at  the  other  end  in  n  sort  of  alcove  was 
(6.)  The  sudatorium  or  laconicum,  which  usually  bad  a 
labrum  or  large  vessel  containing  water,  with  which  bathers 
sprinkled  themselves  to  help  in  rubbing  otT  the  perspira- 
tion. In  the  largest  baths  the  laconicum  was  probably  ii 
separate  chamber,  a  circular  domical  room  with  recesses  in 
the  sides,  and  a  largo  opening  in  the  top  ;  but  there  is 
no  well-preserved  specimen,  unless  that  at  Pisa  may  be 
so  regarded.  In  the  drawing  of  baths  from  iho  therma) 
of  Titns  (fig.  1),  the  laconicum  is  represented  as  a  small 
cupola  rising  in  a  corner  of  the  calidanum.  It  is  knowu  that 
th«  temperature  of  the  laconicum  was  regulated  by  drawing 
up  or  down  a  metallic  plate  or  clypeus.  Some  think  that 
this  clypeus  was  directly  over  the  flames  of  the  hypocaustum, 
and  that  when  it  was  withdrawn,  the  llaiues  must  have 
eprung  into  the  laconicum.  Otiiers,  and  apparently  they 
have   V'itrjvius  on  their  side,  think  that  the  clypeus  was 


BATHS 


435 


(lr.inii  u[)  or  Juivn  only  from  the  aperture  in  the  rouf,  and 
lii:it  11  rugulated  (lie  lein|)erature  simply  by  giving  more  or 
less  free  exit  to  the  hot  air.  The  question  must  for  the 
present  remain  unsettled  ;  if  the  laconicum  was  only  one 
end  of  the  calidarium,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  that  end  of 
the  room  was  kept  so  much  hotter  than  the  rest  of  it ;  on 
the  other  hand  to  have  ha(l  flames  actually  issuing  from 
the  laconicum,  must  have  caused  smoke  and  soot,  and  have 
been  very  unpleasant.  The  most  usual  order  in  which  the 
rooms  were  emptoyod  seems  to  have  litea.  the  following, 
but  there  does  not  appear  to  have  been  any  nbsolute 
uniformity  of  practice  then,  any  more  than  in  modern 
Egyptian  and  Turkish  baths.  Celsus  recommends  the 
bather  first  to  sweat  a  little  in  the  tepidarium  with  his 
clothes  on,  to  bo  anointed  there,  and  then  to  pass  into  the 
calidarium  ;  after  he  has  sweated  freely  there  he  is  not  to 
descend  into  the  solium  or  cold  bath,  but  to  have  plenty 
of  water  poured  over  him  from  his  head, — first  warm,  then 
tepid,  and  then  cold  water, — the  water  being  poured  longer 
aver  his  head  than  on  the  rest  of  the  body;  next  to  be  scraped 
with  the  strigil,  and  lastly  to  be  rubbed  and  angipted. 

The  warmest  of  the  heated  rooms,  i.e.,  the  calidarium 
ind  laconicum,  were  heated  directly  from  the  hypocaustum, 
over  which  they  were  built  or  suspended  {suspeiisura) ; 
while  from  the  hypocaustum  tubes  of  brass,  or  lead,  or 
pottery  carried  the  hot  air  or  vapour  to  the  •..•alls  of  the 
Dther  rooms.  The  walls  were  usually  hollow,  so  that  the 
hot  air  could  readily  circulate. 

The  water  was  heated  ingeniously.  Close  to  the  furnace, 
about  4  inches  olf,  was  placed  the  calidarium,  the  copper 
[afifnum)  for  boiling  wiiter,  near  which,  with  the  same 
interval  between  them,  was  the  copper  for  warm  water,  the 
tepidarium,  and  at  the  distance  of  2  feet  from  this  was  tho 
receptacle  for  cold  water,  or  the  frigidarium,  often  a 
plastered  reservoir.  A  constant  communication  was  kept 
up  between  these  vessels,  so  that  as  fast  as  hot  water  was 
drawn  off  from  the  calidarium  a  supply  was  obtained  from 
the  tepidarium,  which,  being  alrea^-  heated,  but  slightly 
reduced  the  temperature  of  the  hotter  boiler.  The 
tepidarium,  again,  was  supplied  from  the  frigidarium,  and 
ihat  from  an  aqueduct.  In  this  way  the  heat  which  was 
not  taken  up  by  tlie  first  boiler  passed  on  to  the  second, 
ond  instead  of  being  wasted,  helped  to  heat  the  second — a 
principle  which  has  only  lately  been  introduced  into  modern 
furnaces.  In  the  case  of  the  lar''e  therma;  the  water  of  an 
aqueduct  was  brought  to  the  caslellum,  or  top  of  the  build- 
ing, and  was  allowed  to  descend  into  chambers  over  the 
hypocaustum,  where  it  was  heated  and  transmitted  in  pipes 
to  the  central  buildingai  Remains  of  this  arrangement  arc 
to  be  seeh  in  the  baths  of  Caracalla.  The  general  plan  of 
such  buildings  will  be  more  clearly  understood  after  an 
examination  of    the  accompanying  illustrations.       (n  the 


of  tlie  chamber  named  concamerata  siulatio.  The  vcsscl.i 
for  water  arc  inscribed,  accuidiug  to  thoir  tempcratuic,  v>ith 
the  same  names  as  some  of  the  chambers,  fngidaiium,  tepi- 
danuiii,  and  oalidarinm. 


I'^io.  1.  —  Homan  BatLs. 


well-known  drawing  (tig.  1)  found  in  the  baths  of  Titus,  the 
name  of  each  part  of  the  building  is  inscribed  on  it.  The 
small  dome  inscribed  laconicum  directly  over  the  furnace, 
ind  having  the  clypeus  over  it,  will  be  observod  in  the  corocr 


Fia.  2.  -Grouiid-riau  of  Ibe  Ballis  of  Poniiicii. 

The  baths  of  Pompeii  (as  shown  in  fig.  2)  were  a  doublo 
set,  and  were  surrounded  with  tabcrna;  or  shops,  which  are 
marked  by  a  lighter  shade.  There  were  streets  on  four 
sides  ;  and  the  reservoir  supplying  water  was  across  the 
street  iu  the  building  on  the  left  hand  of  the  .cut.  Thcie 
were  throe  public  entrances— 21a,  216,  21c— to  the  men's 
baths  and  one  to  the  women's.  The  furnace's  (0)  heated 
water,  which  was  conveyed  on  one  side  tOithe  larger  baths 
of  the  picn,  on  the  other  to  the  women's.  Euteiing  from 
the  street  at  21c  there  was  a  lalrina  on  tlioleft  hand  (22). 
From  this  it  was  usual  to  proceed  to  a  court  (20)  surrounded 
by  pillars,  where  servants  were  in  attendance.  There  is 
some  doubt  as  to  the  purpose  to  which  the  room  (19)  was 
devoted.  Leaving  the  hall  a  passage  conducted  to  tho 
apodytcrium  or  dressing-room  (17),  at  one  end  of  it  is  tho 
frigidarium,  baptisterium,  or  cold  plunge  bath  (IS). 
Entering  out  of  the  apodytcrium  is  tho  tepidarium,  or 
warming-room  (10),  which  most  probably  was  also  used 
as  the  alipterium  or  anointing-room.  Kiom  it  bathers 
passed  into  tho  hot  room  or  calidarium  (12),  which  ha>l  at 
one  end  the  alveus  or  calida  lavatio  (13),  at  the  other  end 
the  labrum  (11).  This  end  of  the  calidarium  seived  as  tho 
laconicum.  The  arrange- 
ments of  the  women's 
batbs  were  similar,  but 
on  a  smaller  scale.  The 
calidarium  (5)  had  the 
labrum  (7)  at  one  end, 
and  tho  alveus  (G)  was 
in  one  side  of  the  room.' 
Tho  general  arrange- 
ments of  a  calidarium  are 
well  illustrated  by  the  ac-  F'"   S.-Scction  of  Balh  .liscovfrcO  al 

,';,„    ic,„        Tuiciiliim,    showing   llie   caliJ.uiuiii 

companying  section  (fig.      jb,j„„„  . 

3)  of  a  bath  discovered  at 

Tusculum.  The  disposition  of  the  I'arts  is  tlic  same  as  at 
Pompeii.  '\V'c  here  have  the  calidarium  supported  on  the 
oillars  of  thn  fornai,  the  suspetisura.     The  alveus  (3)  is 


43f> 


BATHS 


At  one  end.  and  the  labruiu  (4)  at  the  other.  (1)  and  (2) 
arc  the  vessels  for  water  over  the  fornax  ;  and  the  pas- 
sages in  the  roof  and  walls  for  the  escape  of  heated  air  will 
be  obserred. 

A  clear  idea  of  the  rehtive  position  of  the  different  rooms, 
and  some  slight  indication  of  their  ornamentation,  will  be 
Jibtaieed  from  the  accompanying  woodcut  (fig.  4).    The  Hues 


Fio.  4 — Section  of  Baths  of  Pompeii. 

nnder  the  calidarium  and  the  labrum  (1)  may  be  observed,' 
e3  also  the  opening  in  the  roof  above.  (2),  (3),  and  (4)  mark 
the  vessels  for  water  which  are  placed  between  the  men's 
baths  on  the  left  and  the  women's  on  the  right. 

The  arrangements  of  the  thermcc  were  mainly  those  of 
the  balneaB  on  a  larger  scale.  Some  idea  of  their  size  may 
be  gathered  (rom  such  facts  as  these,  that  in  the  baths  of 
Diocletian  one  room  has  been  transmuted  into  a  church  of 
most  imposing  proportions,  and  that  the  outside  waJl.a  of 
the  baths  of  Caracalla  extend  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  on 
each  of  the  four  sides.  A  visit  to  the  remaius  of  the 
baths  of  Tilus,  of  Diocletian,  or  of  Caracalla  impresses  the 
mind  stronfiy  with  a  sense  of  the  vast  scale  on  which  they 
were  erectei,  and  Ammianus's  designation  of  thcra  as  pro- 
vinces appears  scarcely  exaggerated.  It  is  saiJ  that  the 
baths  of  Caracalla  contained  1600,  and  those  of  Diocletiflo 

Trnj  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


wiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiimiiiiinTni 


Fio.  5  — CrounJ  Pl-in  of  the  Ballis  of  Caracullb 

3200  marble  .^eat.s  for  the  use  of  the  bathers  In  the 
largest  of  the  therm,T  there  was  a  staihum  for  the  pomes 
of  the  young  men,  with  rniscd  scats  for  the  spectators. 
There  were  open  colonnades  and  seats  for  philosopucrs  and 
literary  men  to  sit  and  discourse  or  read  their  productions 
aluufj,  or  for  others  to  discuss  the  latest  ncwa.  Near  the 
{HJilicocs.  in   the  interior  open  sj^.-ice,  rows  of  trees  were 


planted  There  was  a  spkaruterium,  or  place  for  playing 
ball,  which  was  often  over  the  apodyterium  ;  but  it  must 
be  confessed  that  the  purposes  of  many  portions  of  these 
large  edifices  have  not  been  made  out  in  as  satisfactory  a 
way  as  those  of  smaller  baths.  A  more  dehnite  idea  of  the 
therms  can  be  best  got  by  an  examination  of  the  accom- 
panying plan  of  the  baths  of  Caracalla  (fig.  5).  A  good  deal 
of  the  plan  is  conjectural, — the  restorations  being  marked 
by  lighter  shading. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  plan  is  shown  a  long  oolonoade,  uhich  fac^s 
the  street,  bthir.  1  whiLlJ  was  a  serifs  of  chaiubers,  supposed  to  have 
been  separate  baihing  looms  liiilering  by  the  opeiiiDg  in  its  centre, 
t£e  \  isitur  passes  what  was  probably  au  itiuer  «.oIonnaJe  round  tlie 
main  building.  IVisiog  in  by  eittier  ol  ilie  gates  ^2,  2),  he  reaches 
the  large  chamber  (3),  which  has  been  vanuu^ly  called  the  natalio 
or  large  swimming  bath,  or  the  tepidarium  The  great  central  room 
(4)  in  all  probability  was  the  calidarium,  with  two  Ubra  (6,  6)  on 
opposite  sides,  and  with  four  alvei.  one  in  ea-.h  corner,  represente**. 
by  small  circular  dots,  tif)  has  been  regarded  by  some  as  the  laconi- 
cum,  although  it  appears  very  large  for  that  purpose.  The  rooms 
(15,  lit)  have  been  variously  described  as  bajitisteria  ami  as  laconica. 
Most  authoi-s  are  agreed  in  thiuking  that  the  large  rooms  (13)  and 
(16)  were  the  3pha.Tisteria,  or  places  lor  playing  ball. 

Retiu-ning  to  the  outside,  \li  and  (13)  and  the  corresponding  places 
on  the  other  side,  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  exedrae  for  philoso- 
I-hers,  and  places  corresponding  {o  the  Greek  systi.  f20)  and  (19) 
have  been  considered  to  be  servants'  rooms.  (22)  was  the  stadium, 
with  raised  seats  for  the  spertafors  The  sjia<-e  between  this  and 
the  la.ge  central  h  ill  (9)  was  planted  nith  tree",  and  at  (21)  the  aque- 
duct brought  water  into  the  castellum  or  reservoir,  which  was  on 
an  upj>er  story.  There  were  upper  stories  in  most  portions  of-the 
biTildiijg,  and  in  these  probably  were  the  libraries  and  small  theatre* 

The  magnificence  of  many  of  the  tbenua;  and  their  luxu- 
rious arrangements  were  such  that  some  writers,  as  Seneca, 
are  quite  lost  in  their  descriptions  of  them.  The  piscinae 
were  often  of  immense  size, — that  of  Diocletian  being  2U0 
feet  long, — and  were  adorned  with  beautiful  marbles  -The 
halls  were  crowded  with  magnificent  columns,  and  were 
ornauentod  with  the  finest  pieces  of  statuary  The  walls, 
it  has  been  SEiid,  were  covered  with  exquisite  mosaics  that 
imitated  tbe  art  ol  th^painter  in  their  elegance  of  design 
and  variety  of  colourr  The  Egvpti.in 
syenite  was  encrusted  with  the 
precious  green  marbles  of  Nu- 
inidia.  The  rooms  cont-ained  the 
works  of  Phidias  and  Praxiteles. 
A  perpetual  stream  of  water 
was  poured  into  capacious  basins 
through  the  wide  mouths  of  lions 
of  bright  and  polished  silver , 
water  Issued  from  silver,  and  was 
received  on  silver.  "  To  such  a 
pitch  of  luxury  have  we  reached," 
s-i;,s  Seneca,  "that  we  are  dis- 
satisfied if  we  do  not  tread  on 
gonis  in  our  batliii." 

The  richer  llouians  used  every 
variety  of  oils  and  pomade.^  (.tmey- 
mafa):  they  scarcely  had  true  f,o  R.'-Hingonwhirh 
soaps.  1  he  poorer  class  had  to  ,,0  suspended  famo 
be  content  with  the  flour  of  len-  of  the  articln  in  me 
hils,  an  article  used  at  this  day  '"  '•'*  AJiptenum 
ifor  the  same  purpose  byOrientals  The  most  import- 
ant bath  utensil  naa  the  strigilliis,  a  curved  instru- 
ment made  of  metal,  with  which  the  skin  was  scraped 
and  all  sordcs  removed. 

The  bath  servants  assisted  in  anointing,  in  using 
the  Rtrigillus.  and  in  various  other  menial  office.?.  The 
poorer  classes  bad  to  use  their  strigils  themselves.     The 


*  Tile  figure  represents  four  slnpifii,  in  which  the  hollow  forrollect* 
ing  the  oil  or  perspiration  trom  the  tj'^dy  may  be  obsened  Ther» 
is  also  a  small  ampulla  or  vessel  containing  oil,  meant  to  keep 
the  strigils  eniooth,  and  a  sninll  flat  patera  or  dnnking  vrs.iel.  out  of 
wliieli  it  was  customiiry  to  dnnl;  after  the  bathing  was  Duished. 


BATHS 


437 


vanous  processes  of  the  aliptae  seem  to  have  beet  earned 
on  very  syatematically. 

The  hot  baths  appear  to  have  been  open  from  1  p.m.  till 
dark.  It  was  only  one  of  the  later  emperors  that  had  them 
lighted  up  at  night.  AVhcn  the  hot  baths  were  ready  (for, 
doubtless,  the  plunge  baths  were  available  at  an  earlier 
hour),  a  bell  or  ifs  was  rung  for  the  information  of  the 
people.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  the  eighth  hour, 
or  1  o'clock,  before  their  dinner,  was  the  commonest  hour 
for  bathing.  The  bath  was  supposed  to  promote  appe- 
tite, and  some  voluptuaries  had  one  or  more  baths  after 
dinner,  to  enable  them  to  begin  eating  again;  but  such 
excesses,  as  Juvenal  tells  us,  occasionally  proved  fatal. 
Some  of  the  most  effeminate  of  the  emperor?  are  said  to 
have  bathed  seven  or  eight  times  in  the  course  of  the  day. 
In  early  times  there  was  delicacy  of  feeling  about  the  sexes 
bathing  together  ;  even  a  father  could  not  bathe  with  his 
sons,  but  latterly,  under  most  of  the  emperors,  men  and 
women  often  used  the  s.ime  baths.  There  freq.ucnlly  were 
separate  baths  for  the  women,  as  we  see  at  Pompeii,  or  at 
BaHenweilcr;  but  although  respe:table  matrons  would  not 
go  to  public  baths,  promiscuous  balhing  was  common  durmg 
the  empire. 

The  public  baths  and  thcrm.-e  were  under  the  more 
immediate  superintendence  of  the  sediles.  The  charge  made 
at  a  public  bath  was  only  a  quadrans  or  quarter  of  an  as, 
about  half  a  farthing.  Vet  cheap  though  this  was,  the 
emperors  used  to  ingratiate  themselves  with  the  populace, 
by  making-the  baths  at  times  gratuitous. 

\rherever  the  Romans  settled,  they  built  public  baths, 
and  wherever  they  found  hot  springs  or  natnral  stufae,  they 
made  use  of  them,  thus  saving  ihe  expense  of  heating,  as 
at  the  myrlfta  of  Eai;e,  or  the  aovce  solis  of  Bath.  In  the 
cities'  there  appear  to  l^ave  been  private  baths  for  hire,  as 
well  as  the  public  baths  ,  and  every  rich  citizen  had  a  set 
of  baths  attached  to  his  villa,  the  fullest  account  of  which 
LS  given  ID  the  Letters  of  Pliny,  or  in  Ausonius's  Account  of 
a  Villa  on  the  Mostlle,  or  in  Statiiis's  De  Bulneo  Etrvsco. 
Although  the  Romans  never  wholly  gave  up  cold  bathing, 
and  that  practice  was  revived  under  Augustus  by  Antonius 
Jfusa,  and  again  under  Nero  by  Charmis  (at  which  later 
time  bathing  in  the  open  sea  became  common),  yet  they 
chiefly  practised  warm  bathing  {calida  laiatw).  This  is  the 
most  luxurious  kind  of  bathing,  and  when  indulged  to 
excess,  is  enervating.  The  women  were  particularly  fond 
of  these  baths,  and  were  accused,  at  ell  events  in  some 
provincial  cities,  of  drunkenness  in  them. 

The  unbounded  licence  of  the  public  baths,  and  their 
connection  with  modes  of  amusement  that  were  con- 
demned, led  to  their  being  to  a  considerable  extent  proscribed 
by  the  early  Christians.  The  early  fathers  wrote  that 
bathing  mi^ht  be  practised  for  the  sake  of  cleanliness  or  of 
health,  hut  not  of  pleasure  .  and  Gregorj-  the  Great  s.'iw 
no  objection  to  baths  being  used  on  Sunday  About  the 
5tb  century  many  of  the  large  iheima;  in  Rome  fell  into 
decay  The  rutting  off  of  the  aqu'ducts  by  the  Iluns,  and 
the  gradual  decrease  of  the  population,  contributed  to  this. 
Still  it  is  doubtful  whether  bathing  was  ever  disused  to 
the  extent  that  is  usually  represented.  It  was  certainly 
kept  up  in  the  East  in  full  vigour  at  Alexandria  and  at 
Brusa.  Hot  V.ithing,  and  especially  hot  air  and  vapour 
fcalhs,  were  adopted  by  the  Mahometans  ;  and  the  Arabs 
brought  them  with  Ihi m  into  Spain.  The  Turks,  at  a  later 
time,  carried  ;l;fm  high  up  the  Danube,  and  the  Mahometans 
spread  or,  it  may  be  more  correct  to  say,  revived  their  use  in 
Persia  and  in  Hindustan.  The  Cnisaders  also  contributed 
to  the  spread  of  baths  in  Europe,  and  hot  vapour  baths  were 
(•(tecially  recommended  for  tJie  leprosy  so  prevalent  in  those 
aa^-s.  After  the  commcnccmi'nl  of  the  13lh  century  there 
were  few  large  cities  in  Europe  without  hot  vapour  baths. 


We  have  ftill  accounts -of  their  regulations. — how  the 
Jews  were  only  allowed  to  visit  them  once  a  week,  and  how 
there  were  separate  baths  for  lepers.  In  England  tLey 
were  called  hothouaes.  Erasmus,  at  the  date  of  the 
Reformation,  spoke  of  them  as  common  in  Trance, 
Germany,  and  Belgium  ;  he  gives  a  lively  account  of  the 
mixture  of  all  classes  of  people  to  be  found  in  them,  and 
would  imply  that  they  were  a  common  adjunct  to  inns. 
They  seem  after  a  time  to  have  become  less  common, 
though  Montaigne  mentions  them  as  being  still  io  Rome  in 
his  day-  In  England  the  next  revival  of  baths  was  at  the 
close  of  the  17th  century,  under  the  Eastern  name  of 
Hummuns,  or  the  Italian  name  of  Bagnios.  As  these,  like 
more  recent  revivals  of  them,  were  avowedly  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  Turkish  baths,  that  species  of  bath  must  be 
briefly  noticed.  But  before  doing  £0,  we  must  observe  that 
there  were  several  considerable  epochs  in  the  history  of 
baths,  one  in  the  commencement  of  the  18th  century,  when 
rioyer  and  others  recalled  attention  to  cold  bathing,  of 
which  the  virtues  had  long  been  overlooked.  In  the  middle 
of  the  century  also,  Russell  and  others  revived  sea  bathing 
in  England,  and  were  followed  by  others  on  the  Continent, 
until  the  value  of  sea-bathing  became  fully  app>reciated. 
Later  in  the  same  century  the  experiments  of  Currie  on  the 
action  of  complete  or  of  partial  baths  on  the  system  in 
disease  attracted  attention  ,  and  though  forgotten  for  ft 
while,  they  have  borno  abundant  fruit  in  more  recent 
times. 

JJulem  Biillis. — It  IS  uncertain  how  far  the  Turkish  and 
Egyjitian  and  even  the  Ri'.^sian  baths  arc  to  be  regarded 
merely  as  successors  of  the  Roman  baits,  because  the 
prmciple  of  vapour  baths  has  been  known  to  many"  nations 
in  a  very  early  period  of  civilization.  Thus  the  Mexicans 
and  Indians  were  found  using  small  vapour  baths  The 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Ireland  and  of  biotland  had  some 
notion  of  their  use,  and  the  large  vapour  baths  ol  Japan,  now 
so  extensively  employed, are  probably  of  itdcpendent  origin. 
We  extract  at  some  length  account.*  of  Turkish  and  of  Russian 
baths,  as  they  illustrate  the  practice?  of  the  ancient  Rojian 
and  of  modern  Turkish  baths.  The  fiist  is  taken  fum 
Lane's  «ork  Oh  the  Modem  Egyptians  — "The  building 
consists  of  several  apartnicnls,  all  of  which  are  paved 
with  marble,  chiefly  white  The  inner  apaitmcMs  are 
co\ered  W'th  domes,  which  have  a  number  of  small  glazed 
apertures  /or  the  admission  of  light.  The  bather,  on 
entering,  if  he  has  a  natch  or  purse,  gives  them  m  charge 
to  the  keeper  of  the"bath.  The  ser\.'nt  ol  the  bath  takes 
off  his  shoes,  and  supplies  him  with  a  pair  of  wooden 
clogs  The  irst  aparlment  has  generally  three  or  four 
Iccuans  (raised  jiarts  of  the  floor  used  as  couches)  cased 
with  marble,  and  a  fountain  of  cold  watcr.nvhich  rises  irvia 
an  octagonal  basement  in  the  centre.  One  of  the  leewans, 
which  is  meant  for  the  higher  classes,  is  furnished  with 
cushions  or  mats. 

"  lu  warm  weaihcr  bathers  usually  undress  m  this  room  ,' 
■an  winter  they  undress  in  an  inner  room,  called  the  hty- 
louual,  or  first  chamber,  beiween  which  and  the  last 
aparlment  there  is  a  passage  often  with  two  or  three  latrires 
off  It.  This  is  the  first  of  the  healed  chamVcra.  It  gene- 
rally has  two  raised  scats.  The  bather  receives  a  napkin  in 
which  to  put  his  clolhss.  and  another  to  put  round  his 
waist ,  this  reaches  to  the  knees,  a  third,  if  he  requires  it, 
is  brought  him  to  wind  round  his  head,  leaving  the  top  of 
it  bare  ,  a  fourth  to  put  over  his  chest,  atd  a  fjth  to  ti^ver 
his  back.  When  the  bather  has  undressed,  the  attcnoant 
opens  to  him  the  door  of  the  inner  and  pni-cipal  npartmeiit. 
Thid  in  general  has  four  Itewar.s.  whith  gives  it  tie  form 
of  ft  cross,  and  in  the  centre  a  feunlain  of  Lot  water  rises 
from  a  small  shallow  basin.  The  centre  roeni.  with  the 
adjoining  cjcs,  forms  almost   a    square.     The  bcytowwal 


438 


jB  a  T  H  S 


already  mentioned  ia  one  of  tliem.  Two  small  chambers 
which  adjoin  ea;h  other,  one  containing  a  tank  of  hot 
water,  the  other  containing  a  trough,  over  which  are  two 
taps,  one  of  hot  and  one  of  cold  water,  occupy  the  two 
other  angles  ;  while  the  fourth  angle  of  the  square  is 
occupied  by  tho  chamber  which  contains  the  fire,  over 
which  13  the  boiler. 

"  The  bather  having  entered  this  apartment  soon,  per- 
ejnres  profusely  from  the  humid  heat  which  is  produced 
by  the  hot  water  of  tanks  and  fountains,  and  by  the  steam 
of  the  boiler.  The  bather  sits  on  one  of  the  marble  seats, 
or  lies  on  the  leewan,  or  near  one  of  the  tanks,  and  the 
operator  then  commences  h;s  work.  The  operator  first 
cracks  aloud  every  joint  in  the  body.  He  makes  the 
vertebrs  of  the  back  and  even  of  the  nock  crack.  The 
limbs  are  twisted  with  apparent  violence,  but  so  skilfully, 
that  no  harm  is  ever  done.  The  operator  next  kneads  the 
patient's  flesh.  After  this  he  rubs  the  soles  of  the  feet 
with  R  kind  of  rasp  of  baked  clay.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  rasps,  one  porous  and  rough,  one  of  fine  smooth  clay. 
Those  used  by  ladies  are  usually  encased  in  thin  embossed 
silver.  The  next  operation  is  nibbing  the  bather's  flesh 
with  a  small  coarse  woollen  bag,  after  which  the  bather 
dips  himself  in  one  of  the  tanks.  He  is  next  taken  to  one 
of  the  chambers  in  the  corner,  and  the  operator  lathers 
the  bather  with  fibres  of  the  palm  tree,  soap  and  water. 
The  soap  is  then  washed  off  with  water,  when  the  bather 
having  finished  washing,  and  enveloped  himself  in  dry 
towels,  returns  to  the  beytowwal  and  reclines.  Here  he 
generally  remains  ati  liour  to  an  hour  and  a  half,  sipping 
coffee  and  smoking,  while  an  attendant  rubs  the  soles  of 
the  feet  and  kneads  the  body  and  limbs.  The  bather  then 
dresses  and  goes  out." 

The  following  description,  of  a  Russian  bath  is  from 
Kohl's  Russia: — "The  passage  from  the  door  is  divided 
into  two  behind  the  check-taker's  post,  one  for  the  male, 
one  for  the  female  guests.  We  first  enter  an  open  space, 
in  which  a  set  of  men  are  sitting  in  a  state  of  nudity  on 
benches,  those  who  have  already  bathed  dressing,  while 
those  who  are  going  to  undergo  the  process  take  off  their 
clothes.  Round  this  space  or  apartment  are  the  doors 
leading  to  tho  vapour-rooms.  The  bather  is  u^ihered  into 
them,  and  finds  himself  in  a  room  full  of  vapour,  which  is 
surrounded  by  a  wooden  platform  rising  in  steps  to  near 
the  roof  of  the  room.  The  bather  is  made  to  lie  down  on 
o:ie  of  the  lower  benches,  and  gradually  to  ascend  to  the 
higher  and  hotter  ones.  The  first  sensation  on  entering 
tho  room  amounts  almost  to  a  feeling  of  suffocation.  After 
you  have  been  subjected  for  some  time  to  a  temperature 
which  may  rise  to  145",  the  transpiration  reaches  its  full 
activity,  and  tlie  sensation  is  very  pleasant.  The  bath 
attendants  come  and  flog  you  with  birchen  twigs,  cover  you 
with  tho  lather  of  soap,  afterwards  rub  it  off,  and  then 
Ii'ild  you  over  a  jet  of  ice  cold  water.  Tho  shock  is  great, 
but  is  followed  by  a  pleasant  feeling  of  great  comfort  and 
of  alleviation  of  any  rheumatic  pnins  you  may  have  had. 
In  regular  establishments  you  go  after  this  and  lie  down  on 
a  bed  for  a  time  before  issuing  forth.  But  the  Russians 
often  dress  in  the  open  air,  and  instead  of  using  the  jet  of 
cold  water,  go  and  roll  themselves  at  once  iii  the  snow." 

Turkish  baths  have,  vr.ih  various  modifications,  become 
popular  in  Europe.  The  Russian  baths  were  introduced 
into  most  German  towns  about  half  a  century  ago.  They 
had  a  certain  limited  amount  of  popularity,  but  did  uot 
take  litm  root.  Another  class  practically  owes  its  origin  to 
Ur  liartcr  and  Mr  Urquhart.  It  professed  to  be  founded 
on  the  Turkish  bath,  but  in  re.ility  it  was  much  more  of  a 
hot  air  balb,  i  /•,,  more  devoid  of  vapour  than  cither  Roman 
or  Turkish  balhscver  were,  for  it  is  doubtful  whether  in 
any  case  the  air  of  the  laconicum   was  free  from   vapour 


These  baths,  with  their  various  modifications,  have  become 
extremely  popular  in  Great  Britain,  in  Germany,  and  in 
Northern  Europe,  but  have,  curiously  enough,  never  been 
used  extensively  in  France,  notwithstanding  llie  familiarity 
of  the  French  with  Turkish  baths  in  Algiers. 

In  England  hot  air  baths  are  now  employed  very  exten- 
sively. They  are  often  associated  with  Turkish  and  electric 
baths,  and  with  the  usual  processes  of  hydropathic  treat- 
ment. 

Bathing  among  the  ancients  was  practised  in  various 
forms.  It  was  sometimes  a  simple  bath  in  cold  or  in  tepid 
water ;  but  at  least,  in  the  case  of  the  higlier  orders,  it 
usually  included  a  hot  air  or  vapour  bath,  and  was  followed 
by  affusion  of  cold  or  warm  water,  and  generally  by  a 
plunge  into  the  pisciiix  In  like  manner  th"  order  varies 
in  which  the  different  processes  are  gone  through  in  Turkish 
baths  in  modern  Europe.  Thus  in  the  new  baths  in 
Vienna,  the  process  begins  by  immersion  in  a  large  basin  of 
warm  water.  Sudation  is  repeatedly,  interrupted  by  cold 
douches  at  the  will  of  the  bathers,  and  aftfr  the  bath  they 
are  satisfied  with  a  short  stay  in  the  cooling  room,  where 
they  have  only  a  simple  sheet  rolled  round  them.  In 
Copenhagen  and  in  Stockholm  the  Oriental  baths  have 
been  considerably  modified  by  their  association  with  hydro- 
pathic practices. 

This  leads  us  to  notice  the  introduction  of  hydropathy. 
Although  cold  baths  wero  in  vogue  for  a  time  in  Rome, 
warm  baths  were  always  more  popular.  Floyer,  as  we 
have  seen,  did  something  to  revive  their  use  in  England  ; 
but  it  was  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  afterwards  that  a 
Silesian  peasant,  Priessnitz,  introduced,  with  wonderful 
success,  a  variety  of  operations  with  cold  water,  the  most 
i'iiportaut  of  which  was  the  packing  the  patient  in  a  wet 
sheet,  a  process  which  after  a  time  is  followed  by  profuse 
sudation.  Large  establishmeuts  for  carrying  out  this  mode 
of  bathing  and  its  modifications  have  within  the  last  thirty 
years  been  erected  in  many  places  on  the  Continent  and 
in  Great  Britain,  and  have  enjoyed  a  largo  sh.are  of 
popularity. 

But  the  greatest  and  most  important  development  of 
ordinary  baths  in  modern  times  has  taken  place  in  England, 
and  has  been  extending  grad",ally  to  the  Continent.  The 
English  had  long  used  affusion  and  swimming  baths 
freely  in  India.  Cold  and  hot  baths  and  shower  baths 
have  been  introduced  into  private  houses  to  an  extent 
never  known  before;  and,  from  18t2  downwards,  public 
swimming  baths,  besides  separate  baths,  have  been  supplied 
to  the  public  at  very  moderate  rates,  in  some  cases  asso- 
ciated with  wash-houses  for  the  poorer  classes.  Their 
number  has  increased  rapidly  in  London,  and  in  the  prin- 
cipal Continental  cities.  Floating  baths  ;a  rivers,  always 
known  in  some  Oerman  towns,  have  become  common  where- 
ever  there  are  flowing  streams.  The  better  supply  ol  most 
European  cities  with  water  has  aided  in  this  movement. 
Aui()le  enclosed  swimming  batlis  have  of  late  years  been 
erected  at  many  sea-side  [il.ices.  When  required,  the  water, 
if  not  heated  in  a  boiler,  is  rai.sed  to  a  sufficient  temperature 
by  tho  aid  of  hot  water  pipes  or  of  steam  ,  and  j;as  has 
been  utilized  for  healing  small  quantities  of  water  for  baths 
in  private  houses.  As  to  sopar.ile  baths  they  used  to  be  ol 
wood,  painted  ;  they  are  now  most  frequently  of  metal, 
painted  or  lined  with  porcelain  enamel.  Tho  swimming 
baths  arc  lined  with  cement,  tilos,  or  marble  and  porcelain 
slabs  ;  and  in  some  of  tho  newest  baths  a  good  deal  of 
ornamentation  and  painting  of  the  walls  and  ceiling  of  the 
apartments,  in  imitation  of  theaneient.s,  has  been  attempted. 
We  have  thus  traced  in  outline  ihe  history  of  baths 
through  successive  ages  down  to  the  present  time.  The 
medium  of  the  baths  spoken  of  thus  far  has  been  water, 
vnr.iiur,   or  dry    hot   air.       But   baths   of    more  complex 


B  A  T  H  S 


439 


I'Uurt,  and  of  tbc  greatest  variety,  Lave  been  in  use  fmui 
llie  earliest  ages.  The  best  known  mcJia  are  the  various 
nmieral  waters  and  sea-waler.  Tliesc,  and  baths  impreg- 
nated  with  their  gases,  eaiinut  here  be  considered  in 
detail  ;  we  can  do  little  more  than  enuuieralc  a  few  of 
the  artificial  baths.  Of  baths  of  mincrut  substacccs, 
those  of  sand  are  the  oldest  and  best  known  ,  the  practice 
of  arenalwn  or  of  burying  the  body  m  the  sand  of  the  sea- 
shore, or  Hi  heated  sand  near  some  hot  spring,  is  very 
ancient,  as  also  that  of  applying  heated  sand  to  various 
parts  of  the  body.  Within  the  last  few  years  establish- 
ments have  been  introduced  into  various  Eurojiean  cities 
where  hot  dry  sand  is  methodically  applied,  liaths  of 
fiful  earth  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  and  are  little 
used  out  of  Germany.  The  peat  earth  is  carefully  pre 
pared  and  pulverized,  and  then  worked  up  w'llh  water 
into  a  [lasty  consistence,  of  which  the  temperature  can  be 
regulated  before  the  patient  immerses  Limsulf  in  it. 

There  are  various  baths  that  may  be  termed  cheimcut,  in 
which  chlorine  or  nitromuriatic  acid  is  added  to  the  water 
of  the  bath,  or  where  fumes  of  sulphur  are  made  to  rise 
and  envelop  the  body. 

Of  veijelabU  baths  the  number  is  very  large.  Leys  of 
wine,  in  a  state  of  fermentation,  have  been  employed.  An 
iuiinenso  variety  of  aromatic  herbs  have  been  used  to 
impregnate  water  with.  Of  late  years  fuci  or  sea  weed 
have  been  added  to  baths,  under  the  idea  of  conveying 
into  the  system  the  iodine  which  they  contain  ;  but  by  far 
the  most  popular  of  all  vegetable  baths  are  those  made  with 
an  extract  "got  by  distilling  certain  varieties  of  pme  leaves. 
They  are  pleasant  and  stimulating. 

The  strangeness  of  the  baths  of  animal  substances,  that 
have  been  at  various  times  in  use,  is  such  that  their  employ- 
ment seems  scarcely  credible.  That  baths  of  milk  or  of 
whey  might  be  not  unpopular  is  not  surprising,  but  baths 
of  blood,  in  .some  cases  even  of  human  blood,  have  been 
used  ;  and  baths  of  horse  dung  were  for  many  ages  in  high 
favour,  and  were  even  succeeded  for  a  short  time  by  baths 
of  guano. 

Eiectrical  or  galvanic  baths  have  been  popular  of  late 
years,  in  which  galvanic  action  is  communicated  to  the 
patient  while  in  baths. 

Baths  also  of  compressed  air,  in  which  the  patient  is 
subjected  to  the  pressure  of  two  or  three  atmospheres,  have 
been  in  use  at  certain  places  for  some  years. 

A  jun  bath  {insolatio  or  heliosis),  exposing  the  body  to 
the  sun,  the  head  being  covered,  was  a  favourite  practice 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  This  list  of  artificial  baths 
might  be  readily  increased. 

We  have  hitherto  spoken  of  general  baths,  but  there  are 
many  vaneties  of  local  ones,  the  use  of  which  has  become 
bomewhat  more  definite  than  it  used  to  be,  before  the 
jirinciplcs  of  hydropathy  were  understood.  Some  of  these 
are  Jillusion,  half-baths,  full  baths,  sitz  baths,  wave  baths, 
local  baths,  shower  and  spray  baths,  douches,  foineiilations, 
injections,  wrapping  up  in  the  wet  sheet.  Sonic  of  these 
processes,  though  by  no  means  of  novel  origin,  require  a 
few  words  of  explanation. 

Pouches  were  used  by  the  ancit-nts,  and  have  always 
bfcn  an  important  mode  of  applying  water  to  a  circum- 
Firibcd  portion  of  iho  body.  They  arc,  in  fact,  spouts  of 
water,  varying  in  size  and  temperature,  apjilied  with 
niorc  or  less  force  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  ag.i.nst 
particular  parts  A  douche  exercises  a  certain  amount  of 
friction,  and  a  continued  impulse  on  the  spot  to  which  it 
>s  applied,  which  stimulr.te  the  skin  and  the  parts  beneath 
It,  quicken  the  circulation  of  the  capillaries,  and  thus 
favour  the  absorption  of  abnormal  deposits.  It  wakes 
up  the  slumbering  activity  of  the  tissues  and  helps  to 
remove  con;:estion3  from  the  deeper  seated  oignns      'i'- 


clTe -ts  of  the  douche  are  so  powerful  that  it  cannot  be 
applied  for  a  long  time  continuously.  After  every  two  or 
three  minutes  there  should  be  an  interval  m  its  use.  It  ia 
obvious  that  a  douche  is  capable  of  many  local  apphca-" 
tious,  on  the  description  of  which  it  is  heit;  luipossible  to 
enter.  Nor  need  we  say  that  the  douche  must  -bemused 
w  ith  great  care  in  the  case  of  nervous  and  excitable  people, 
and  better  not  ut  all  when  any  irritation  or  inflammation 
IS  present.  Douches  are  uivaluable  in  old  neufalgias,  in 
tie  sequela;  of  rheumatism,  and  in  thickened  joints. 

Thp^Ailteniation  of  hot  and  cold  douches,  which  fot  some 
unknown  reason  has  got  the  name  of  i'cossarse,  is  a  very 
poaerful  remedy  from  the  strong  action  and  reaction  which 
It  produces,  and  is  one  of  very  gieat  value.  The  shower 
bath  may  be  regarded  as  a  "Union  of  ai^  immense  number 
of  fine  douches  projected  on  the  head  and  shoulders.  It 
has  been  long  in  use  in  England,  and  produces  a  strong 
elTect  on  the  nervous  system.  An  ingenious  contrivance 
for  giving  ci.'cular  spray  balhs,  by  which  water  is  pro- 
pelled laterally  in  fine  streams  against  every  portion  of  tho 
surface  of  the  body,  is  now  found  in  most  establishments. 

To  all  these  modes  of  acting  onThe  cutaneous  surfai-o 
and  circulation  must  be  added  dry  rubbing,  as  practised 
by  the  patient  with  the  flesh  glove,  but  much  more  thor- 
oughly by  the  bath  attendanis,  if  properly  instructed. 

Action  of  BijJhs  oil  the  Ilvmun  Systan. — We  shall  now 
inquire  shortly  into  the  theory  of  the  operation  of  the  baths 
and  of  the  bathing  processes,  of  which  we  have  briefly 
traced  the  history. 

The  primary  operation  of  balhs  is  the  action  of  heal,  and 
cold  on  the  cutaneous  surfaces  through  the  medium  of  water. 

The  first  purpose  of  baths  is  simply  that  of  abstersion 
and  cleanliness,  to  remove  any  foreign  impurity  from  the 
surface,  and  to  prevent  the  pores  from  being  clogged  by 
their  own  secretions  or  by  desquamations  of  cuticle.  It 
need  scarcely  be  said  that  such  objects  are  greatly  promoted 
by  the  action  of  the  alkali  of  soaps  and  by  friction  ;  that 
the  use  of  warm  water,  owing  to  its  immediate  stimulation 
of  the  skin,  promotes  the  se[)aration  of  sordes;  and  that  the 
vapour  of  water  is  still  more  cfiicient  than  water  itself. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  water  acts  on  the  Eystem  by 
being  absorbed  through  the  skin.  The  question  has  been 
frequently  discussed ;  but  the  great  majority  of  observer.^ 
believe  that,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  no  water  13 
absorbed,  or  if  any,  so  minute  a  quantity  that  it  is  not 
worth  considering.  And  further,  as  we  have  alluded  to 
medicated  baths,  it  is  proper  to  say  that,  according  to  the 
latest  authorities,  no  foreign  bodies,  under  the  ordinary 
circumstances  of  a  bath,  are  absorbed  into  the  system  ; 
although  when  a  portion  of  skin  has  been  entirely  ciearej 
of  Its  sebaceous  secretion,  it  is  possible  that  a  strong 
solution  of  salts  may  be  partially  absorVicd.  In  the  case 
of  mc>dicated  baths  we  therefore  only  look  (in  addition  to 
the  action  of  heat  and  cold,  or  more  pi  "perly  to  the  abstrac- 
tion or  communication  and  retentun  of  heat)  to  any 
stimulant  action  on  the  skin  «hich  the  ingredients  of  the 
bath  may  possess. 

The  powerful  intUicnce  of  water  on  the  capillaries  of  ilie 
sk'n,  and  the  mode  and  extent  of  that  operation,  depend 
primarily  on  the  temp.erature  of  the  fluid  ;  for  the  influence 
of  the  mechanical  pressure  on  the  body  of  the  water  ipf  a 
lialh,  which  has  been  calculated  at  nearly  one  pound  on 
each  square  inch  of  the  surface,  has  never  been  accurately 
detcrnii.ied.  Balhs  have  therefore  to  be  considered 
according  to  their  tcmperalure  ,  and  thcefTccts  of  cold  and 
of  hot  baths  have  to  be  studied.  But  we  may  as  well  first 
point  out  one  or  two  general  facts.  The  human  .-ystcin  bears 
changes  of  temperature  of  the  air  niuch  better  than  thanfjcj 
of  the  temperature  of  water.    While  (he  temperature  of  the 


440 


E  A  T  H  S 


&ir  at  75°  is  perhaps  too  warm  for  tlie  feelings  of  many 
people,  a  continued  bath  at  that  temperature  is  felt  to  be 
cold  and  depressing.  Again,  a  bath  of  98°  to  102"  acts  far 
more  excitingly  than  aii-  of  the  same  temperature,  both 
because,  being  a  better  conductor,  water  brings  more  heat 
to  the  body,  and  because  it  suppresses  the  perspiration, 
which  is  greatly  augmented  by  air  of  that  temperature. 
Further,  a  temperature  a  few  degrees  below  blood  heat  is 
that  of  indifferent  baths,  which  can  be  borne  longest 
without  natural  disturbance  of  the  system. 

Cold  baths  act  by  refrigeration,  and  their  effects  vary 
according  to  the  degree  of  tempeiature.  The  effects  of  a 
cold  bath,  the  temperature  not  being  felow  50°,  are  these: — 
there  is  a  diminution  of  the  tempeiature  of  the  skiii  and  of 
the  subjacent  tissues;  the  blood  at  first  rises  in  temperature 
nearly  4°,  but  soon  subsides  again,  this  diminution  of 
temperature  of  the  blood  usually  not  taking  place  in  the 
bath,  but  shortly  after  leaving  it  There  is  a  certain  feeling 
of  shock  diffused  over  the  whole  surface,  and  if  the  cold  is 
intense  it  induces  a  slight  feeling  of  numbness  in  the  skin. 
It  becomes  pale  and  its  capillaries  contract.  The  further 
action  of  a  cold  bath  reaches  the  central  nervous  system, 
the  heart  and  the  lungs,  as  manifested  by  the  tremor  of  the 
limbj  it  produces,  along  with  a  certain  degree  of  oppression 
of  tbe  chest  and  a  gasping  for  air,  while  die  pulse  becomes 
small  and  sinks.  After  a  time  reaction  takes  place,  and 
brings  redness  to  the  skin  and  an  increase  of  temperature. 

The  colder  the  water  is,  and  the  more  powerful  and 
dapreseing  its  effects,  the  quicker  and  more  active  is 
the  reaction.  Very  cold  baths,  inythmg  below  50°,  cannot 
be  borne  long.  Lowenng  of  the  temperature  of  the  skin 
may  be  borne  down  to  9°,  but  a  f  irther  reduction  may  prove 
fatal  The  diminution  of  temp  jrature  is  much  more  rapid 
when  the  water  is  in  motion,  or  when  the  bather  moves 
about ,  because,  if  the  water  is  still,  the  layer  of  it  in 
immediate  contact  with  th«  body  gets  warmed  to  a  certain 
degree. 

The  effects  of  hydropathy  depend  on  the  power  of 
abstracting  heat  from  the  body,  and  of  stimulating  it  by 
the  application  of  cold  water  The  action  is  depressing  or 
e.sciting,  according  as  the  withdrawal  of  heat  or  the  stimu- 
lation predominates. 

A  great  deal  depends  on  the  form  of  the  bath ;  thus  one 
may  have — (I.)  Its  depressing  operation, — with  a  loss  of 
heat,  retardation  of  the  circulation,  and  feeling  of  weari- 
Less,  when  the  same  water  remains  in  contact  with  the  skin, 
and  there  is  continuous  withdrawal  of  heat  without  fresh 
stimulation.  This  occurs  with  fuU  or  sitz  baths,  with  partial 
or  complete  wrappmg  up  the  body  m  a  wet  sheet  which 
remains  unchanged,  and  with  frictions  practised  without 
removing  the  wet  sheets.  (2.)  Itsejciting  operation, — with 
quickening  of  the  action  of  the  heart  and  lungs,  and  feeling 
of  glow  and  of  nervous  excitement  aad  of  increased  muscular 
power.  These  sensations  are  produced  when  the  layer  of 
water  nest— the  body  and  heated  by  it  is  removed,  and 
fresh  cold  water  causes  fresh  stimulus.  These  effects  are 
produced  by  full  baths  with  the  wster  in  motion  used  only 
for  a  short  time,  by  frictions  when  I  he  wet  sheet  is  removed 
from  the  body,  by  douches,  shower  baths,  bathing  in  rivers, 
(tc.  The  depressing  operation  comes  on  much  earlier  in 
»ery  cold  water  than  in  warmer  ,  and  m  the  same  way  the 
exciting  operation  comes  on  faster  With  the  colder  than 
with  the  warmer  water.  The  short  duration  of  the  bath 
makes  both  its  depressing  and  its  exciting  action  less  ,  its 
longer  duration  increases  them  ,  and  if  the  baths  be  con- 
tinued too  long,  the  protracted  absliactiou  of  animal  beat 
m.iy  prove  very  depressing. 

\Vt  sliall  not  attempt  to  give  more  than  those  few  hints 
about  hydropathic  processes,  and  .ihall  merely  remark  that, 
undaj  iheni  the  system  is  stibjected  to  alternate  periods  of 


excitement  and  of  itst.  Thert'' is  persisteit  loweruig  ol 
the  temperature  of  the  body,  with  contraction  of  the 
capillaries  and  local  ausmia.  This  is  succeeded  by  the 
reverse,  or  by  local  hyperseraia.  There  is  powerful  excite- 
ment of  the  vascular  and  nervous  systems.  The  processes 
of  absorption  and  of  excretion  are  stimulated,  -  ..There  is  a 
great  increase  of  perspiration.  The  -transformation  ci 
tissue  IS  materially  quickened. 

We  must  next  consider  the  operation  of  warm  baths  of 
different  tenipei-atures. 

Tepid,  85°  to  95°.— The  effects  of  a  bath  of  this  tem- 
perature are  confined  to  the  peripheral  extn  mitiet  of  the 
nerves,  and  are  so  sLght  that  they  .io  not  reach  the  central 
system.  There  is  no  reaction,  and  the  anims-i  temf  eralure 
remains  unchanged.  Baths  of  this  kind  can  be  bcrne  for 
hours  with  impunity. 

Warm  baihs  from  96°  (o  lOl". — In  these  the  action  of  the 
leat  on  the  peripheral  surface  is  propagated  to  the  lentra.' 
system,  and  causes  reaction,  which  manifests  itself  u 
'■  moderately  increased  flow  of  the  circulating  fluids  to  the 
surface,  and  in  an  increased  frequency  of  pulse.  It  appean 
to  supply  a  slight  stimulus  to  the  renewal  of  tissue. 
i  AVith  a  hot  bath  from  102°  up  to  110°  the  centra) 
nervous  and  circulating  systems  ars  more  affected.  The 
frequency  of  the  pulse  increases  rapidly,  the  respiratior 
becomes  quickened,  and  is  interruptec  by  deep  inspirations. 
The  skin  is  congested,  and  the  retained  animal  heat  bursts 
out,  causing  a  profuse  perspiration. 

Very  hot  bath. — Everything  above  110°  feels  very  hot  ; 
anything  above  120°aknost  scalding.  Baths  of  from  119° 
to  126°  have  caused  a  rise  of  2°  to  ih°  in  the  temperature 
of  tbe  blood.  Such  a  bath  can  only  be  borne  for  a  few 
minutes.  It  causes  violent  reflex  action  on  the  heart  and 
the  arterial  system,  excessive  congestion  of  tbe  skin,  and 
violent  perspiration. 

In  the  use  of  hot  baths  a  certain  amount  of  vapour 
reaches  the  parts  of  the  body  not  coveted  by  the  water, 
and  is  also  inhaled. 

Vapour  baths  produce  profuse  perspirotiou,  and  act  in 
cleansing  the  skin,  as  powerful  hot  water  bcths  do.  Vapour, 
owing  to  Its  smaller  specific  heat,  does  rot  act  so  fast  as 
water  on  the  body.  A  vapour  bath  cat  be  borne  for  a 
much  longer  time  when  the  vapour  is  not  inhaled.  Vapour 
baths  can  be  borne  hotter  than  water  baths,  but  can- 
not be  continued  so  long,  as  vapojr,  b  mg  a  bad  con- 
ductor, prevents  radiation  of  heat  from  the  body.  A  higher 
heat  than  122'  is  not  borne  comfortably.  The  vapuur 
bath,  though  falhng  considerably  short  of  the  temperature 
of  the  hot  air  batli,  heats  the  blood  considerably  more. 

Hot  air  baths  differ  from  vapour  baths  in  not  in;pediDg 
ihe  respiration  as  the  latter  do.  by  depositmg  moisture  in 
the  bronchial  tubes.  The  lungs,  instead  of  having  to  heat 
the  inspired  air,  are  subjected  to  a  temperature  abo\e  their 
own.  hot  air  baths,  jay  of  135',  produce  more  profuse 
perspiration  than  vapour  baths.  If  very  hot,  they  raisi 
the  temperature  of  the  body  by  several  degrees. 

Vapour  baths,  hot  an  baths,  and  many  hydnpathic 
processes  agree  in  producing  violent  sudation,  and  also  fre- 
quently in  subjecting  the  body,  whde  in  a  state  of  perspiration, 
to  the  action  of  water  of  a  comparatively  low  temperature. 
Of  perspiration  we  shall  only  s.\v,  that  it  is  sensible  and 
insensible  :  30  02.  may  be  considered  to  be  about  its  average 
amount  in  tbe  twenty-four  hours  ,  of  this,  which  is  chiefly 
water  about  j  of  an  oz  consists  of  urea  and  of  other 
peculilr  substances,  A  iran  has  been  known  to  lose  S  B) 
in  a  Russian  bath,  some  think  more  ni.ay  be  lost  As  per- 
spiration eliminates  water  and  effete  matter  from  the  system, 
and  also  aids  in  respu-ation,  it  is  obvious  that  its  regulation 
must  have  an  important  effect  on  the  ccunoni/. 

In  comparing  the  general  effects  of  hot  and  cold  baths,  it 


B  A  T  —  B  A  1 


441 


may  be  saiJ  that  while  the  former  tend  to  check  cutaneous 
iransiiiration,  the  latter  favour  it.  It  is  supposed,  but  ia 
scarcely  proved,  that  cold  baths,  by  the  stimulus  they  give, 
increase  the  reaction  of  the  gastric  and  other  lluids  of  the 
stomach,  and  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  that  warm  baths 
rather  serve  to  retard  it.  Either  hot  or  cold  baths,  but 
especially  the  litter,  favour  the  secretion  of  urine.  Whether 
narm  or  cald  baths,  like  the  breathing  of  hot  or  cold  air, 
have  any  effect  on  the  eshalatioQ  of  carboaic  a^id  Las  not 
been  determined. 

The  warm  bath  causes  swelling  and  congestion  of  the 
capillaries  of  the  surface  in  the  first  instance  ;  when  the 
stimulus  of  heat  is  withdrawn  their  contraction  ensues. 
A  cold  bath,  again,  first  causes  a  contraction  of  the 
capillaries  of  the  surface,  which  is  followed  by  their 
expansiuu  whsn  reaction  seta  in.  A  warm  bath  elevates 
the  temperature  of  the  body,  both  by  bringing  a  supply  of 
heal  to  it  and  by  preventing  the  radiation  of  heat  fruui  it. 
It  can  be  borne  longer  than  a  cold  bath.  It  draws  blood  to 
the  surface,  while  a  cold  bath  favours  internal  congestions. 
There  is  in  both  cases  increased  oxidation  or  waste  of  the 
tissues ;  but  with  the  warm  bath  there  is  less  call  made  on 
the  system,  as  oxidation  depends  chiefly  on  increased  heat, 
which  in  the  case  of  the  warm  baths  is  artificially  supplied. 
The  reason  why  a  man  when  much  exhausted  feek  a  hot 
bath  refreshing,  while  he  cannot  bear  a  cold  one,  may  be 
that  the  increased  heat  conveyed  to  him  by  the  warm  bath 
helps  the  process  of  oxidatiiin,  and  thus  relieves  his  system. 
Cold  refreshes  by  exciting  the  functions,  heat  by  physically 
relieving  their  action  ;  a  hot  bath  calms  by  reducing  the 
loss  of  heat,  and  by  supplying  a  certain  amount  of  it. 
Very  hot  baths,  it  is  true,  act  like  cold  baths,  as  stimulants 
to  the  heart  and  nervous  centres  ;  but  they  do  it  more 
gradually  and  with  less  shock  to  the  system  than  cold  baths. 
The  general  result  of  this  comparison  would  show  that 
warm  are  a  milder  remedy  than  cold  baths,  and  are 
applicable  often  when  the  system  does  not  possess  power 
of  reaction  sufficient  to  make  the  use  of  the  latter  expedient. 

As  regards  the  use  of  baths  simj.>ly  for  the  promotion  of 
health,  it  follows,  from  what  has  been  stated,  that  warm 
baths  are  best  suited  for  the  delicate,  for  the  very  young, 
and  for  the  old  ,  cold  bath'  for  the  strong  and  active,  in 
whom  the  p  nvers  of  reaction  are  unimpaired.  It  would  be 
out  of  place  to  say  much  here  about  the  use  of  baths  in 
medicine.  Warm  baths  according  to  their  degree  of  heat 
are  of  great  value  in  relaxing  spasms,  in  calming  the  nervous 
system,  and  in  neuralgias,  chronic  rheumatism,  and  gout. 
Turkish  baths  are  useful  in  these  last  afTectiuns,  and 
wherever  it  is  of  importance  that  there  should  be  free 
action  of  the  skin.  Cold  baths,  again,  are  more  useful 
when  the  system  requires  tonics,  and  when  it  can  bear  the 
shock  of  cold  affusion ;  when  diseases  of  the  system, 
es[iecially  of  the  nervous  system,  are  more  functional  than 
organic  It  is  obvious  that  the  cold-water  cure,  including, 
as  it  does,  copious  sudation,  combines  in  a  certain  degree 
the  etfects  of  both  kinds  of  baths. 

But  baths  often  produce  injurious  effects  when  used 
injudiciously.  Long  continued  warm  baths  are  soporific, 
and  have  owing  to  this  action  often  caused  death  by  drown- 
ing. The  effects  of  very  hot  baths  are  swimming  in  the 
liead,  vomiting,  fainting,  conge.-ition  of  the  brain,  and,  in 
some  instances,  apoplexy. 

The  symptoms  seem  to  point  to  paralysis  of  the  action  of 
the  hoait  It  is  therefore  very  evident  how  cautious  those 
should  bo,  in  the  use  of  hot  baths,  who  have  weak  hearts 
or  any  obstruction  to  the  circulation.  Fat  men,  and  those 
who  are  full-blooded  or  predisposed  to  epilepsy,  should  avoid 
■them  I'rotracted  indulgence  in  warm  baths  is  relaxing, 
and  has  been  esteemed  a  sign  of  effeminacy  in  all  ages 
Sleepiness,  though  it  wilJ  not  follow  the  first  ininicrsioii  iii 


a  cold  bath,  is  one  of  the  effects  of  protracted  coli  baths  , 
depression  of  the  temperature  of  the  surface  that  excesds  9° 
becomes  dangerous.  The  risk  ia  cold  baths  is  congestion 
of  the  internal  organs,  as  often  indicated  by  the  lips  getting 
blue.  Extremely  cold  baths  are,  therefore,  very  unsafe 
wherever  there  ia  a  tendency  to  internal  congestion  ,  and 
they  are  always  dangerous  when  the  system  ia  exhausted 
by  fatigue. 

We  shall  conclude  with  a  few  words  of  advice  about 
ori.linary  bathing  for  hygienic  purposes  : — Wherever  it  is 
practicable,  bathing  should  be  over  before  1  p.m.  It  is  not 
to  be  thought  of  w  hen  the  stomach  is  loaded,  or  after  much 
wine.  The  shorter  the  bath  is,  especially  if  the  water  be 
cold,  and  the  bather  cannot  swim,  the  better, — say  five 
minutes.  He  should  swim  if  jiossible,  and  then  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  is  long  enough.  Bathing  should  not  be  practised 
more  than  once  a  day.  When  one  is  overheated,  but  not 
exhausted,  it  is  advisable  to  bathe  at  once,  without  waiting 
to  cool.  After  hot  air  or  vapour  baths  care  must  be  taken 
that  cold  be  not  caught,  although  the  more  enthusiastic 
advocates  of  such  baths  declare  that  there  is  no  risk  of  this. 

For  the  literature  of  baths  in  earlier  periods  we  would  refer  to  the 
ATchiUcturc  of  Vitruvius,  and  to  Luciau's  Bippias  ;  to  A.  Baccius, 
Dc  Thermis  VeUrum  (in  GriEvii  Thcsaur.  Aniiqititat.  Boman.,  1694, 
vol.  xii.);  to  dLOieToDS  Roman  Baths,  London,  1772;  toUtU'syom- 
;)fi07ia,  London, 1836;  toBechi, MascoBurb(mico,u.i^'b'2;  loBecker'e 
Gallus,  and  to  the  article  "  Balnea  "  by  Rich,  in  Dr  Smith's  Diction 
ary  of  Gruk  and  Roman  Antiquities.  Some  of  the  more  iniportanl 
works  on  the  use  of  water  extenially  are  those  of  Kloyer,  Enijuiry 
into  the  Right  Vie  of  Il'atcr,  London,  1697  ;  F.  riollnian,  lie  Aijtia 
Afedicina  Universalis  Halle,  1712;  Lucas,  Theorit  and  C'sc  cf  L'a(/ti, 
Dublin,  1772 ;  James  Currie,  Medical  Reports  on  the  Effccli  oj  P'olcr, 
Liverpool,  1788;  ilarcard,  Utber  die  Natur  uwd  die  Gchrauch  der 
Bader,  Hanover,  1793.  Some  of  the  best  works  on  Hydropathy 
are  those  of  E.  Johnson  and  Petri,  and  the  veiy  complete  Manuals 
of  Fleury  and  of  Benl  Barde.  There  aie  many  separate  brochures 
on  Turkish  baths  by  Urquhart,  Brereton,  Haushtou,  Barter,  Bar- 
tholomew, Luther,  and  a  separate  work  by  Sir  John  Fife.  A  con- 
siderable amount  of  inforntation  legarding  bathing  may  also  be  found 
in  Dunlop's  Philosophy  of  the  Batti.  ^J.  Mj 

BATHURST,  a  town  of  New  South  Wales,  on  the 
Macquarie  River,  122  miles  W.S.W.  of  Sydney,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  railw.ay.  It  stands  in  a  fertile 
plain  on  the  western  side  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  and  is  the 
centre  of  an  important  gold  field.  Founded  in  1815  by 
Governor  Macquarie,  and  named  in  honour  of  Lord 
Bathurst  (the  third  earl),  it  soon  became  a  place  of  con- 
siderable size,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  municipality 
in  18C2.  It  is  built  in  rather  a  spacious  style,  with  broad 
and  regular  streets  running  at  right  angles.  Many  of  the 
buildings  are  large  and  handsome ;  and  it  possesses 
nQmerous  churches  and  schools,  a  theatre,  a  hospital,  and 
various  societies.     Population  in  1871,  5030 

BATHURST,  Allen  BATnuEsr,EARLOF,  a  distinguished 
statesman  in  Queen  Anne's  reign,  was  born  in  the  year 
1684.  After  completing  his  education  at  Cambridge,  he 
was  c'ected  in  1705  to  represent  the  borough  of  Cirencester. 
He  distinguished  himself  particularly  in  the  struggles  and 
debates  relative  to  the  union  of  England  and  Scotland, 
firmly  5U[>porting  a  measure  which  he  thought  calculated  to 
strengthen  the  Government  and  add  to  the  prosperity  of 
the  country.  Though  he  was  content  to  act  a  subor- 
dinate part  in  the  opposition  planned  by  Harley  and  St 
John,  bis  intimate  friends,  in  order  to  sap  the  credit  of  the 
duke  of  Marlborough  and  his  adherents,  nevertheless  he 
did  good  service  to  his  party  by  arraigning,  with  more 
eloquence  than  tnith,  the  conduct  of  the  general  and  of  the 
earl  of  Godolphin,  whom  he  accused  of  lavishing  the 
treasures  of  the  nation  On  conquests  more  splendid  than 
serviceable.  The  loss  of  tho  battle  of  Almaiiza,  which 
happened  about  this  time,  seconded  his  efforts  and  those  of 
his  associates  in  dispelling  what  they  called  the  intoxicatioL 
of  iorn»cr  successo,  and  disparaging  achievcme''*9  which 

I'.l     —    5- 


442 


B  A  T  — B  A  T 


reScct  immortal  honour  on  the  British  name.  But  his 
personal  regard'  for  Lord  Somers,  president  of  the  council, 
suffered  no  abatement,  although  they  were  of  different 
opinions  in  politics ;  and  when  Somera  waa  deprived  of 
oiEce,  Bithurst  acted  with  such-  tenderness  and  delicacy 
as  to  preserve  his  esteem  in  a  private  station.  In  con- 
sideration of  his  zeal  and  services,  the  queen,  in  1711, 
advanced  him  to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  Baron  Bathurst, 
of  Battlesden,  in  Bedfordshire.  In  the  Upper  House  he 
distinguished  himself  by  impeaching  the  directors  of  the 
notorious  South  Sea  scheme,  and  by  resisting  the  bUl 
brought  in  against  Atterbury.  He  was  a  determined 
opponent  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole ;  and  when,  after  an 
obstinate  struggle,  that  minister  was  forced  to  resign  his 
various  posts,  Lord  Bathurst  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council, 
and  made  captain  of  the  gentlemen  pensioners,  an  office 
which  he  resigned  in  1744.  In  1757  he  wus  appointed 
treasurer  to  George  III.  (then  Prince  of  Wales),  and  con- 
tinued in  the  list  of  privy  councillors  at  that  monarch's 
accession  to  the  throne ;  but,  on  account  of  his  advanced 
age,  he  declined  to  take  any  further  part  in  politics. 

Lord  Bathurst  was  not  less  distinguished  as  a  patron  of 
literature  than  as  an  active  statesman.  Congreve,  Vanburgb, 
Swift,  Prior,  Fiowe,  Addison,  Pope,  Arbuthnot,  Gtay,  and 
most  of  the  men  of  genius  of  his  own  time,  cultivated  his 
friendship,  and  were  proud  of  his  correspondence.  Pope, 
in  his  Epistle  on  the  Use  of  Riches,  which  is  addressed  to 
Lord  Bathurst,  compliments  his  friend  in  acme  highly  char- 
acteristic lines.  Sterne  also  speaks  of  him  in  terms  of 
affectionate  admiration.  He  received  further  elevation  to 
an  earldom  in  1772,  and  lived  to  see  his  second  son  Henry 
promoted  to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  Baron  Apsley,  and 
several  years  lord  high  chancellor  of  Great  Britain..  By 
his  marriage  with  Catherine,  daughter  of  Sir  Peter  Apsley, 
Lord  Bathurst  had  four  sons  and  five  daughters.  He  died 
after  a  few  days'  illness,  at  his  seat  near  Cirencester,  Sep- 
tember 16,  1775,  in  the  ninety-first  year  of  his  age. 

BATHURST,  Rauh,  uncle  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
in  the  year  1620.  He  studied  divinity  in  Trinity  College, 
Osford;  but,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  he 
changed  the  course  of  his  studies,  and,  applying  himself  to 
medicine,  took  the  degree  of  doctor  in  that  faculty.  By  dint 
of  assiduous  application,  he  soon  rose  to  eminence  in  his 
profession;-  and  in  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth  was 
appointed  physician  to  the  state.  At  the  Restoration, 
however,  he  quitted  the  practice  of  physic ;  was  elected  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  president  of  his  college ; 
and,  having  entered  holy  orders,  was  made  chaplain  to 
the  king,  and  afterwards  dean  of  Welb.  Soon  after,  he  filled 
the  office  of  vice-chancellor  of  Oxford,  and  was  nominated 
by  King  William  and  Queer,  Mary  to  the  see  of  Bristol ; 
but  this  honour  he  declined.  To  the  accomplishments  of 
an  orator,  philosopher,  and  poet,  he  added-<an  inexhaustible 
fund  of  wit.  Ridicule — of  which  he  was  an  .absolute 
master — was  the  weapon  with  which  he  used  to  correct  the 
delinquents  of  his  college.  His  poetical  pieces  in  the  Masa 
Anglicanos  are  excellent  of  their  kind  ;  he  wrote  also 
several  other  poems,  both  in  English  and  Latin.  Ho  died 
June,  14,  1704,  in  hL"i  eighty-fourth  year.  {Life  and 
Remains,  by  Th.  Warton,  1761.) 

BATHYCLES,  a  Greek  sculptor,  bom  at  Magnesia  on 
the  Msander,  known  for  his  sculptures  on  the  throne  of 
the  statue  of  Apollo  at  Amycla;  near  Sparta,  which 
Pausanias  saw  and  describe.")  (iii.  18,  6).  His  date  is 
uncertain,  but  cannot  well  be  later  than  between  563-549 
n.c.  The  statue  itself  existed  before  his  time.  For  an 
attempt  to  reconstruct  this  throne  see  Brunn,  Rhein. 
My-seum  (now  serios),  vol.  v.  p.  325. 

BATON- ROUOi;,  a  town  in  the  state  of  Louisiana, 
North  America,  situated  on  a  bluff  on  the  left  bank  of  the 


Mississippi,  120  miles  above  New  Orleans.  It  has  a  court 
house,  state  penitentiary,  national  arsenal  and  barracks, 
military  hospital,  deaf  and  dumb  asylum,  and  state  uuiver- 
sity.  Baton-Rouge  was  one  of  the  first  settlements  of  tha 
French.  In  1849  it  was  made  the  capital  of  the  state,  but 
has  since  given  place  to  New  Orleans.  Occupied  by  the 
Federal  troops  after  the  capture  of  that  city,  it  was  defended 
in  1862  by  General  Williams  against  the  attack  of  tho 
Confederates  under Breckenridge.  Populationin  1870,6593. 
BATONI,  PoitPEO  GiKOLAMO,  a  native  of  Lucca,  who 
was  regarded-  in  Italy  as  a  great  painter  in  the  ISth 
century,  and  who  unquestionably  did  much  to  rescue  tha 
art  from  the  intense,  mannerism  into  which  it  had  fallen 
during  the  century  preceding.  His  paintings,  however, 
are  not  of  the  highest  order  of'  merit,  though  they  are 
generally  graceful,  well  designed,  and  harmoniously 
coloured.  HiS  best  production  is  thought  to  be  his  group 
of  Peace  and  War.  Batoni  painted  an  unusual  number  of 
pictures,  and  was  also  celebrated  for  his  portraits.  He  w^ 
born  in  1708.  and  died  at  Rome  in  1787. 
BATOUM.     See  Batim. 

BATliACHUS,  according  to  Pliny  (ixrvi  42),  the  name 
of  a  Greek  ai;chitect  who,  along  with  Sauras  (both  natives 
of  Sparta),  was  employed  by  Metellus  in  the  construction 
of  certain  temples  in  Rome.  The  story  goes  that,  being 
forbidden  to  inscribe  their  names  on  the  buildings,  these 
two  architects  gained  their  end  by  placing  the  figures  of  a 
frog  [batrachos)  and  a  lizard  {saura)  on  the  base  of  the 
columns.  But  it  is  possible  that  the  fanciful  use  of  such 
figures  for  ornament  in  later  times  may  have  led  to  the 
invention  of  both  the  names. 

BATTALION  is  the  tactical  unit  of  infantry.  It  is  tha 
term  applied  to  the  most  numerous  body  of  dismounted 
men  which  one  commanding  officer  can  personally  super- 
intend. It  consists  of  from  four  to  ten  companies,  is 
always  commanded  by  a  field  officer,  and  has  a  normal  war 
strength  of  about  1000  men.  Two  or  more  battalions  con- 
stitute a  regiment ;  two  or  more  regiments  a  brigade ;  two 
or  more  brigades  a  division;  two  or  more  divisions  a  corps 
d'armee;  and  two  or  more  corps  d'ai^iee  an  army.  In  the 
British  service,  however,  there  are  several  regiments  con- 
sisting of  but  one  battalion.     See  Army. 

BATTAS,  a  people  in  the  northern  portion  (^f  Sumatra, 
which  regards  itself  as  the  oldest  in  the  island,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished by  a  pertinacious  adherence  to  ancient  customs. 
The  Batta  is  of  middle  height,  his  colour  is  a  light  brown, 
and  his  hair  is  black  and  is  worn  long.  He  is  dirty  in  his 
dress  and  dwelling,  and  eats  any  kind  of  food  that  presents 
itself,  though  he  lives  chiefly  on  rice.  A  little  iron-work, 
earthenware,  and  cloth  constitute  the  only  industrial 
products  of  the  tribe.  The  houses  are  of  wood,  roofed 
with  palm-leaf  ribs ;  and  the  villages  are  defended  by 
earthen  walls  and  bamboo  palisades.  The  people  show  s 
very  peaceful  disposition,  but  are  valorous  when  occasion 
demands.     Cannibalism  b  practised. 

Hatta  err  Batctk  Language. — Up  to  the  publication  o) 
Dr  H.  N.  van  der  Tuuk's  essay  Over  schrift  en  vitspraak 
der  Tohasche  taal  (1855),  the  first  fruits  of  an  eight  years' 
residence  amongst  the  Battas,  our  knowledge  of  tho  Batak 
lanj^iage  was  confined  to  lists  of  words  more  or  less 
complete,  chiefly  to  be  found  iji  Marsden's  iliscellnneoui 
Works,  in  Junghuhn's  Battatander,  and  in  the  T()Jschrifi 
van  het  Dataviaasch  Genootschap,  vol.  iii.  (1855).  By  his 
exhaustive  works  (Bataksch  Leeshoek,  in  4  vols.,  1861-2; 
Bataksch-nederduitsch  Woordenhoeh,  1861;  Tohasche  Spraak-  ^ 
kunst,  1864-7)  tliat  eminent  Dutch  savant  has  made  the 
Batak  language  the  most  accessible  of  the  various  t  uguca 
spoken  in  Sumatra.  According  to  him,  the  Batak  language 
is  nearest  akin  to  tlie  Old  Javanese  and  Tagal,  whereas  a 
recent  WTitcr  (A.  Schreiber,  Die  Battas  in  i/irem  Vtrhitltnist 


B  A  T  —  B  A  T 


443 


ru  den  italaUn  von  Sumatra,  1874)  ha3  endeavoured  to 
prove  its  closer  afiBnity  wilh  the  Malay  proper.  Like  most 
languages  spoken  by  lea  civilized  tribes,  the  Batak  is  poor 
in  general  terms,  but  abounds  in  terms  for  special  objects. 
The  number  of  dialects  is  three,  viz.,  the  Toba,  the 
Mandailing,  and  the  Dairi  dialects;  the  first  and  oocond 
have  again  two  subdivisions  each.  .  The  Battas  further 
possess  six  peculiar  or  recondite  modes  of  speech,  such  as 
;he  luUa  andung,  or  language  of  the  wakes,  and  the  hata 
ooda,  or  the  soothsayer's  language.  A  fair  acquaintance 
.vith  reading  and  writing  is  very  general  among  thora. 
Their  alphabet  is  said,  with  the  Rejang  and  Lampong 
vlphabets,  to  be  of  Indian  origin.  The  language  is  written 
jn  bark  or  bamboo  staves  from  bottom  to  top,  the  lines 
being  arranged, from  left  to  right.  The  Batak  literature 
jonsists  chiefly  in  books  on  witchcraft,  in  stories,  riddles, 
incantations,  <fcc.,  and  is  mostly  in  prose,  occasionally 
varied  by  verse.  See  on  it  the  fourth  volume  of  the 
Batak  Leesbofk,  or  Reader,  above  mentioned. 

BATTERINQ  RAM  (Aries),  a  miUtary  engine  used 
before  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  for  beating  down  the 
walls  of  besieged  fortresses.  It  consisted  of  a  long  heavy 
beam  of  timber,  armed  at  the  extremity  with  iron  fashioned 
lomething  like  the  head  of  a  ram.  In  its  simplest  form 
thei  beam  was  carried  in  the  hands  of  the  soliders,  who 
assailed  the  walls  with  it  by  main  force.  The  improved 
ram  was  composed  of  a  longer  beam,  in  some  cases 
extending  to  120  feet,  shod  with  iron  at  one  end,  and 
suspended,  either  by  the  middle  or  from  two  points,  from 
another  beam  laid  across  two  posts.  This  is  the  kiud 
described  by  Josephus  as  having  been  used  at  the  siege  of 
Jerusak'm  (B-  J-,  iii.  7,  19).  It  was  covered  over  with  a 
roof,  shell,  or  screen  of  boards  (called  the  testudo)  to 
protect  tho  men  employed  in  working  it  from  the  stones, 
darts,  and  other  missiles  discharged  by  the  besieged  from 
the  walls.  It  was  also  provided  with  wheels,  which  greatly 
facilitated  its  operations.  A  hundred  soldiers  at  a  time, 
and  sometimes  even  a  greater  number,  were  employed  to 
work  it,  and  the  parties  were  relieved  in  constant  succes- 
sion. Josephus  says  that  no  wall  could  resist  tho  continued 
application  of  the  ram. 

BATTERY  is  the  tactical  unit  of  artillery.  It  is  the 
ferm  applied  to  the  largest  number  of  fully  equipped  mobile 
g\ms  which  can  be  personally  superintended  by  one  man. 
Batteries  may  be  dinded  into  the  four  classes  of  horse, 
field,  mountain,  and  position  artillery  batteries.  In 
England,  France,  and  Germany  batteries  consist  of  six 
guns;  in  Austria  and  Russia  of  eight  guns  each.  Tho 
guns  of  horse  field  artillery  are  drawn  by  from  four  to 
eight  horses,  the  usual  number  being  six.  Each  battery 
has  a  certain  number  of  men  told  off  for  the  service  of  tho 
gun  called  gunners,  and  others  to  manage  the  draught 
called  drivers.  In  the  horse  artillery  the  gunners  are 
mounted  on  horses,  in  field  batteries  they  are  carried  on 
the  limbers  and  waggons,  in  mountain  and  position  bat- 
teries both  gunners  and  drivers  usually  walk.  Both  horse 
and  field  batteries  are  recognized  tactical  units  of  an 
army,  and  are  maintained  in  an  eflicient  state  in  time  of 
peace.  Position  batteries  are  organized  generally  in  time 
(if  war,  are  possessed  of  the  heaviest  guns  consistent  <vith 
mobility,  and  are  useful  in  certain  special  cases,  such  as  the 
attack  or  defence  of  a  fortified  position,  the  bombardment 
of  a  town,  (tc.  Mountain  batteries  consist  usually  of  light 
guns  mounted  on  tho  backs  of  mules,  and  are  adapted 
solely  for  warfare  in  mountainous  countries.  See  Artil- 
LRRY.  The  term  battery  is  also  applied  to  the  companies 
of  dismounted  artillerymen  necessary  to  fight  fortress  and 
siege  guns;  to  separate  groups  of  guns  in  permanent  works; 
and  to  tho  earthworks  constructed  f-^-  the  p'otection  "f 
guns  in  siege  operations. 


BATTERY,  as  a  law  term,  is  the  unlawful  beating  of 
another.     See  Assault,  vol.  ii.  p.  724. 

BATTEUX,  Charles,  a  French  writer  on  philosophy 
and  the  principles  of  literature,  was  born  near  Vouziers 
in  1713,  and  died  in  17(:0.  In  1739  he  came  to  Paris, 
and  after  having  taught  with  success  in  the  colleges  of 
Lisieux  and  Navarre,  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Greek 
and  Roman  philosophy  in  the  College  of  France.  In  1746 
he  published  his  treatise  Beaux  Arts  reduiis  d.  vne  menu 
Principe,  in  which  he  extended  the  iVristotelian  definition 
of  the  art  of  poetry  to  art  of  all  kinds.  His  Cours  dt 
Belles-Lettres,  5  vols.,  17G5,  was  afterwards  included  ■^"itb 
some  minor  wntings  in  the  large  treatise  Principes  de  la 
Littiratxtre,  1774.  The  rules  for  composition  there  laid 
down  are,  perhaps,  too  methodical  and  pedantic.  His 
philosophical  writings  were  La  Morale  d'Epicure  tiree  d^ 
ses  propres  Scrils,  1 7oS,  and  tho  Ilistoire  de  Causet  Premieres, 
1769,  a  survey  of  the  history  of  philosophy  which  is  by  no 
meana  devoid  of  merit.  In  consequence  of  the  freedom  with 
which  ho  attacked  in  this  work  the  abuse  of  authority  in 
matters  of  philosophy,  he  was  removed  from  his  professorial 
chair.  His  last  and  most  extensive  -work  was  a  Cour^ 
d'etudes  d,  I'usage-da,  Sieves  df'l'ecole  militaire,  45  vols. 

B  ATTICALO  A,  the  chief  town  of  a  district  in  the  Easteni 
Province  of  Ceylon,  situated  on  an  island  in  lat.  7°  44'  N. 
.and  long.  81°  52'  E.  It  is  of  importance  for  its  haven  and 
the  adjacent  salt  lagoons.  The  inhabitants  are  principally 
natives;  but  there  is  a  fort  and  an  English  settlement. 
Population  of  town,  3353,  and  of  dustrict,  93,220. 

BATTLE,  an  engagement  between,  two  armies,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  skirmishes,  or  minor  actions,  fought 
between  their  smaller  sections.  A  battle  is  said  to  be 
general,  where  the  whole,  or  tho  greater  part,  of  each  army 
is  brought  into  action ;  and  partial,  where  only  brigades, 
divisions,  or  some  corps  d'armiio  out  of  several  upon  the 
ground,,  are  engaged.  However  the  numbers  may  varj-, 
the  great  principles  to  be  applied  in  delivering  battle  are 
at  root  in  all  ages  the  same.  It  is  no  doubt  true  that, 
in  the  circumstances  under  which  battles  are  fought,. there 
is  nothing  invariable ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  scarcely  pos- 
sible to  suppose  two  cases  alike  in  everj*  particular,  or  even 
resembling  each  other  in  all  their  leading  features.  From 
tho  very  nature  of  things,  the  minor  data  of  the  problem 
are  variable ;  but  the  grand  principles — those  which  de- 
pend on  moral  elements — continue  immutably  the  same. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  material  elemonts  which  enter 
into  the  calculatioia.of  a  general  are  constantly  changing ; 
and  it  is  this  circumstance  which  affords  scope  for  the 
exercise  of  his  genius,  his  sagacity,  and  his  military  science. 
But  it  would  be  manifestly  absurd  to  maintain  that,  because 
the  lesser  conditions  are  so  frequently  altered,  the  great 
principles  of  the  art  are  changed  with  them.  The  issue 
of  battle  is  indeed  always  uncertain, — because  the  calcula 
tions  of  Uie  general  may  be  defective,  his  combinations 
unscientific,  his  foresight  limited,  or  his  temperament  rast 
and  impetuous ;  and  because,  even  where  none  of  thesi 
causes  of  failure  exist,  events  which  no  human  sagacitj 
could  have  divined  or  provided  against  may  occur  tc 
defeat  the  vrisost  plans.  But  all  this  implies  that  if  ever) 
contingency  could  have  been  foreseen  and  properly  met 
the  result  would  not  have  been  doubtful,  and  that  th« 
grand  chances  are  always  on  tho  side  of  him  who,  being 
provided  with  sufficient  means  for  his  end,  forms  his  plar 
with  the  greatest  sagacity,  and  executes  it  with  corro- 
sponding  vigour  and  ability.  For,  variable  as  tho  results 
of  battles  appear,  decisive  success  has  in  all  ages  followed 
tho  combinations  of  great  commanders;  and  victory  in  the 
long-run  has  seldom  failed  to  pay  homage  to  science.  And 
this  is  because  those  principles  which  science  has  established 
a"  u"'v«"-sft!ly  applicable  depend  on  ccrtaiu  fixed  laws  la 


444 


BATTLE 


buman  nature,  which  ages  have  not  changed  since  history 
was  first  written.     That  undisciplined  forces,  for-example, 
are  easily  shaken  by  panic  arising  out  of  any  such  sudden 
disaster  as  the  fall  of  their  general,  was  as  true  in  the  day 
when  Ahab,  for  this  reason,  disguised  himself  at  Bamoth- 
Gilead  as  it  is  now.     That  infantry,  thoroughly  broken  up 
and  exposed  on  open  ground,  may  be  taken  or  destroyed 
by  a  very  inferior  number  of  cavalry,  was  illustrated  no 
less  by  Hannibal  at  Cann.-e  than  by  Murat's  charge  round 
the  allied  right  at  Dresden.     The  feeling  that  there  wus 
no  safe  retreat  open  in  case  of  disaster  was  as  fatal  to  the 
Persians  at  Marathon  as  to  the  French  at  Leipsic.     The 
crushisg  effect  of  heavy  columns  pressing  against  a  line 
(•.vhich,  as  only  the  outer  part  of  the  column  can  act,  is 
purely  moral)  was  quite  as  conspicuous  in  the  victory  of 
Epaminondas  at  Mautinea  as  when  Napoleon  cut  his  enemy's 
centre  through  at  Austerlitz.     Above  all,  military  history, 
from  the  earliest  times,  proves  two  facts  of  prime  import- 
ance to  commanders  in  every  action  •   the  one,  that  the 
best  troops  become  unsteady   when  their  flank  is  gained, 
just  as  a  single  man  in   a  struggle  desires  to  face  fairly 
the   adversary  about  to  rush  on  him ;  the  other,  that  a 
comparatively  email  body  coming  fresh  into  action  with 
troops  exhausted  by  the  exertions   and    nervous  tension 
of  a  battle,  has  an  advantage  over  much  larger  numbers. 
And  being  thus   fixed,   these   principles   obviously   yield 
certain  general  rides,  to  which  every  prudent  commander  of 
any  age  strives  to  conform.      Circumstances  may  lead  him 
to  violate  them,  but  the  examples  of  Leipsic  and  Waterloo  are 
there  to  prove  that,  even  with  the  greatest  of  generals,  the 
result  may  be  ruinous.     In  the  first  case,  the  French  were 
forced  to  fight  with  their  backs  to  a  river,   in  the  second, 
by  a  combination  they  were  not  prepared  for  their  flank 
was  struck  by  the  Prussians  when  they  were  fully  engaged 
with  Wellington  in  front ;  and  total  defeat  ensued  in  both. 
A  battle  is  not  only  the  most  imposing,  but  also  the 
most  important  event  in  war.     It  is  the  consummation  to 
which  all  previous  combinations  necessarily  tend  ;  it  is  that 
grand  act  which  may  decide  the  fate  of  empires  as  well  as 
armies.     The  highest  and  dearest  interests  of  nations,  nay, 
even  of  humanity  itself,  may  be  involved  in  its  issue.     Tt 
cannot,  therefore,  be  uninstructive  to  look  briefly  at  the 
theory  of  those  received  principles  by  the  skilful  application 
of  which  the  fate  of  battles  has  in  all  ages  been  determined. 
All  the  methods  in  which  a  battle  can  be  fought  may  be 
reduced  to  three  for  abstract  purposes,  each  governed  by  a 
distinct  principle      The  first,  the  purely  defensive,  consists 
in  waiting  for  the  enemy,  in  a  position   chosen  for   *he 
purpose,  the  object  being  simply  that  of  maintaining  it 
successfully   against   him.     Theorists   almost   universJly 
condemn  this,  and  that  with  good  apparent  reason ;  for  there 
is  something  peculiarly  trying  to  the  moral  endurance  of 
even  the  best  troops  in  feeling  that  they  are  pinned  to  one 
spot  to  await   the  a-ssaults   of   the   enemy   without   any 
prospect   of   retaliation.       But   the   rule   is   not   without 
exceptions,  as  is  plainly  proved  by  comparing  the  two  great 
examples  of  purely  defensive  actions  fought  during  the 
campaigns  of  1862-63  in   America, — Fredericksburg  and 
Gettysburg.     The   defender   in    each    case   was  perfectly 
eucccssful,  beating  off  his  assailant  with  tremendous  loss ; 
but    the    results    were   very    opposite.      Lee's   victory  at 
rredericksburg  stopped,  indeed,  the  advance  upon  Richmond 
for  the  time,  but  did  not  seriously  affect  the  course  of  the 
war.     Meade,  on  the  other  hand,  by  boating  the  Confede- 
rates off  at  Gettysburg,  completely  turned  the  tide  of  the 
campaign, and  compelled  Lee  to  abandon  all  idea  of  invading 
the  J^orlh  and  oommonce  a  difEcult  retreat  to  Virginia  ; 
while  ibencefurth  Washington  was  saved  from  all  danger  of 
being  separated  from  .the  states  that  supported  the  union. 
This  was  because  the  position  fnaintaincd  at  Fredericksburg 


was  no  more  than  one  point  on  a  single  line  of  advance 
direct  upon  Richmond,  whereas  that  of  Gettysburg  was  so 
completely  the  key  to  the  whole  of  the  campaign  of  Mary- 
land, that,  whUst  it  was  held  by  Meade,  it  was  impossibh 
for  Lee  to  advance  beyond  it  or  any  part  of  the  north 
eastern  states.  The  failure  to  carry  it  therefore  paralyzed 
the  whole  scheme  of  the  Confederates  for  transferring  the 
burden  of  the  struggle  to  hostile  soil.  And  from  a  com- 
parison of  the  varying  consequences  of  these  actions,  so 
simdar  in  their  course,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  defensive 
battle  is  justified  only  when  the  position  to  be  maintained 
is  one  of  vital  consequence  for  the  enemy  to  seize  in 
order  to  carry  on  further  operations  v.ith  success.  Lee 
has  been  fairly  condemned  by  even  friendly  critics  for 
not  turning  his  defensive  attitude  at  Fredericksburg  into 
an  offensive  on  the  repulse  of  the  enemy's  attack.  No  one 
blames  Meade  for  the  like  conduct  at  Gettysburg,  because 
his  holding  his  ground  fully  accomplished  all  that  it  waa 
necessary  for  him  to  do.  But  such  an  instance  as  this  last, 
it  should  be  added,  can  but  rarely  occur. 

The  second  system  is  the  entirely-offensive, — in  plain 
words,  the  attacking  the  enemy  wherever  found,  with  all 
force  available.  As  it  carries  with  it  the  moral  power 
which  in  all  ages  is  found  to  accompany,  until  some  decided 
check  occur,  bodies  of  discipUned  men  moving  freely 
forward  to  the  assault,  and  as  it  gives  the  leader  the  power 
of  choosing  the  weaker  points  of  his  adversary's  Line  on 
which  to  concentrate  his  blows,  so  it  has  ever  been  the 
favourite  with  bold  and  skilful  generals  leading  good  troops. 
Frederick  and  Napoleon  alike  preferred  it,  and  won  some 
of  their  chiefest  victories  by  using  it  freely.  Wellington 
employed  it  with  marked  success  in  the  latest  phases  of 
the  Peninsular  War  in  1813-14.  Grant  adopted  it 
avowedly  in  his  great  struggle  with  Lee  in  Virginia  in 
18G4.  And  the  Prussians  fought  on  this  principle  through- 
out the  two  great  wars  of  18C6  and  1870-71.  History, 
however,  shows  that  it  is  only  fully  justified  when  the 
attacking  general  has  a  force  decidedly  superior  either  in 
numbers  or  in  moral  power;  or  when,  as  in  the  famous 
case  of  Frederick  at  Leuthen.he  possesses  such  extraordinary 
skiU  in  manoeuvring  as  to  give  him  all  the  advantages  of 
long  odds,  although  engaged  against  superior  numbers.  It 
has  the  serious  defect  that  if  the  defence  prove  more 
successful  than  was  expected,  the  assailant  may  have  to 
bring  up  successively  and  exhaust  all  his  forces,  and  thus 
leave  himself  without  any  reserve  to  meet  a  sudden  onset 
from  the  opposite  side.  In  such  case  defeat  probably 
entails  the  complete  wreck  of  the  hitherto  offensive  army, 
and  with  it  possibly  the  loss  of  the  campaign. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  prudent  commanders  ore  wont, 
where  the  choice  lies  with  them,  to  select  the  third  mode, 
the  defensive-offensive,  or  a  combination  of  the  two  pre- 
ceding. This  consists  in  taking  up  a  position  with  the 
design  of  awaiting  the  adversary's  attack  on  it,  but  also  of 
watching  the  opportunity  afl'orded  by  the  exhaustion  of  his 
army  in  its  assaults,  or  by  his  extending  it  too  widely  in 
choosing  the  best  points  from  which  to  make  them,  in  order 
to  pass  suddenly  to  the  offensive.  Wellington  is  justly 
famous  for  the  success  with  which  he  employed  this  form 
of  action.  But  it  is  one  of  the  highest  tests  of  generalship 
to  know  exactly  when  most  fitly  to  use  either.  And  as 
Napoleon  won  three  at  leust  of  his  most  striking  victories, 
— Marengo,  Austerlitz,  and  Dresden, — by  passuig  nt  the 
right  moment  suddenly  from  an  apparently  passive  attitude 
of  defence  to  a  vigorous  offensive,  so  Wellington,  after  all 
the  world  had  come  to  regard  him  as  great  only  on  the 
defensive,  used  the  strictly  offensive  form,  with  the  like 
success,  at  Vitoiia,  Orthoz,  and  Toulouse,  the  l.'iat  of  these 
three  actions  being  one  of  such  apparent  temerity  as  can 
hardly  be  paralleled  in  modern  history,  and  yet  perftctly 


B  A  T  —  B  A  T 


445 


iuHified  by  his  instinctive  knowledge  of  the  demoralized 
■Ijce  of  the  enemy  whose  position  he  undertook  to  foice. 
Marlborough,  who  as  a  fighter  of  great  battles  has  ne^'er 
been  surpassed,  and  who,  like  Wellington,  led  a  mixed  army 
of  English  and  allies,  appears  to  have  always  had  a  decided 
preference  for  the  offensive; — so  little  does  nationality 
supply  any  just  rule  for  selecting  either.  Marlborough's 
choice,  in  all  probajility,  was  adopted  from  the  compara- 
tively passive  attitude  of  his  various  adversaries  at 
Blenheim,  Ramillies,  and  Malplaquet,  which  tempted  a  bold 
offensive  on  his  par;.  Lee,  though  certainly  addicted  to  the 
strictly  defensive,  which  was  suited  to  his  inferiority  of 
numbers  and  to  the  strong  nature  of  the  ground  he  usually 
occupied,  had  the  true  instinct  (as  was  especially  shown  in 
bis  great  victory  at  ChincellorsviUe)  of  seizing  any  special 
opportunity  oQered  by  the  carelessness  of  an  adversary  who 
brought  against  him  apparently  overwhelming  forces.  And 
in  the  Lite  war,  although  the  German  generals  elsewhere 
continually  took  that  bold  oPensive  which  was  justified  at 
first  by  superior  numbers,  and  later  by  the  increasingly  high 
spirits  of  their  troops,  yet  n  the  most  important  and 
bloodiest  action  of  the  whole.  Mars-la-Tour,  they  were  con- 
tent, after  it  had  been  well  legun  by  their  own  attack,  to 
pass  to  the  completely  defensive, — it  being  evident  that  by 
merely  maintaining  the  position  they  had  taken  up  across 
the  French  line  of  retreat  from  Metz,  all  the  immediate 
advantage  possible  from  victory  would  be  won. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  may  be  afTirmed  that  no  theory 
is  sound  which  prescribes  or  forbids  the  use  of  any  of 
the  three  methods,  or  lays  down  strict  rules  for  the  applica- 
tion of  any  of  them.  Defence  is,  however,  the  natural 
attitude  of  the  weaker  party,  as  Clausewitz,  the  greatest  of 
all  theoretical  writers  on  war,  has  carefully  pointed  out 
Under  what  conditions  it  is  to  be  accepted,  or  how  long  ad- 
hered to  when  once  assumed,  are  problems  wbisb  it  requires 
true  genius  to  grapple  with  successfully ;  for  they  can  only 
be  solved  rightly  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  hour, 
perhaps  of  the  moment.  To  see  a  crucial  instance  illustrated 
by  a  failure,  we  may  look  at  Gravelotte.  There  Bazaine 
was  forced  by  the  case  to  fight  on  the  defensive.  An 
opportunity  occurred  in  the  day,  on  the  decided  repulse  of 
the  German  right-wing  under  Steinmetz,  of  striking  such  a 
counterblow  as,  from  Napoleon's  hand,  would  probably  have 
forced  a  victory  over  even  the  great  odds  possessed  by  the 
German  commander.  But  Bazaine  had  no  spark  of  the 
inatinctive  genius  needed.  He  lost  the  opportunity, and  with 
it  the  battle, — the  loss  entailing  the  last  hope  of  rescuing  his 
host  from  the  dangerous  and  indeed  ignominious  position 
in  which  previous  errors  of  judgment  had  placed  it. 

In  conclusion,  in  order  to  demonstrate  the  undying  truth 
of  the  main  principle  of  battle,  ^^ich  is  that,  the  general 
conditions  being  equal,  the  moral  advantage  is  invariably 
at  the  outset  with  the  offensive  rather  than  the  defensive, — 
With  the  army  that  feeli  itself  moving  forward  rather  than 
that  which  slaids  still, — it  is  well  to  refer  to  the  recent 
discussion  on  the  effect  of  breech  loading  arms.  It  was 
almost  universally  assumed  by  theorists,  especially  by  thos« 
of  Prussia  herself,  when  she  first  put  the  needle-gun  into 
her  soldiers'  hani.^,  that  the  power  of  the  new  weapon 
would  be  most  perceptible  in  defence,  for  which  its  more 
rapid  fire  seemed  so  specially  adapted.  The  Prussian 
I'istructions,  drawn  up  before  1S06,  avowedly  followed 
this  view  Those  who  compiled  them  overlooked  the  fact 
that  the  moral  power  of  the  weapon  would  of  itself  tend  to 
carry  those  who  bore  it  forward,  and  add  an  additional 
»dvatjt,ige  to  those  the  assailant  had  before  in  his  greater 
show  of  vigour  and  activity,  and  his  power  of  searching 
o'lt  the  weaker  parts  of  his  enemy's  position  and  throwing 
his  troops  in  force  upon  them.  History  has  "reversed  the 
.'•russiaa  theory,  and  proved  afresh  how  powerful  for  victory 


is  the  moral  element  in  the  soldiers'  character  For,  out: 
of  the  opening  events  of  I  SCO,  and  the  vast  encouragement 
tlie  Prussians  experienced  in  their  first  collisions  with 
Benedek's  army,  has  been  evolved  the  most  audacious  and 
aggressive  series  of  actions  any  nation  ever  fought.  Certain 
Prussian  writers  have  since  the  war  of  1,870-71  gone  almost 
to  the  opposite  extreme,  and  claimed  absolute  superiority  for 
the  offensive  under  all  circumstances,  forgetting  that,  against 
a  stronger  army,  or  even  one  perfectly  equal  in  all  other 
respects  and  well  posted,  it  must  .nevitably  be  as  dangerous 
as  it  proved  when  confidently  tried  by  Napoleon's  marshal* 
against  British  troops  under  Wellington. 

The  various  so-called  "orders of  battle  "of  which  theore- 
tical writers  treat,  believing  that  they  see  a  close  similarity 
in  the  dispositions  of  well-led  armies  from  the  days  of  the 
Grecians  down  to  our  own,  are,  so  far  as  such  similarity 
really  exists,  founded  entirely  on  one  or  other  of  the  moral 
elements  already  mentioned,  above  all,  on  the  desire  to  gain 
the  enemy's  flauk.  The  late  General  Winfield  Scott,  one 
of  the  few  commanders  who  could  boast  that  he  had  more 
than  once  seen  the  back  of  English  infantry  in  fair  fight, 
declared  that  this  desire  is  so  instinctive  that  it  is  impossible 
to  array  two  bodies  of  disciplined  troops  against  each  other 
without  one  at  least  soon  striving  for  this  advantage.  But 
so  far  as  this  and  other  like  universal  principles  are  applied 
to  the  actual  drawing  up  of  an  army  at  any  period  in  a 
special  order  of  battle,  the  arrangements  must  in  practice 
vary  with  the  arms  and  discipline.  This  subject,  in  fact, 
forms  part  of  that  special  art  which  treats  of  the  handling 
of  troops  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  and  falls  under  the 
head  of  "  tactics,"  for  which  see  the  article  War.  The 
mechanism  of  battles  raiiat  vary  continually ;  the  great 
leading  principles  we  have  spoken  of  cannot  change. 

See  Jomini,  Traili  d--s  Grandcs  Opimlions  ililitaires  ;  The 
Archduke  Charles's  Strategy  (2d  and  3'1  voU.) ;  RoRniat.  Considera- 
tions dt  I'Arl  dc  la  Oucrre  ;  Clausewilz's  work  On  War;  Bogu- 
slawaki's  Tactical  Deduction!  from  the  (Car  <>/■  1S70-71  ;  SchcrH's 
Sludien,  "Die  Schlacht;"  above  all,  Napoleon's  criticisms  on  other 
generals  in  his  .Vcmoirs.  (C.  C.  C  ) 

BATTLE,  a  market-tow-n  in  the  county  of  Sussc.v.  on 
the  Sonth  Eastern  Railw.iy,  5G  miles  from  London  It 
is  situated  in  a  valley,  and  consists  of  one  street.  lis 
name  is  derived  from  the  conflict  in  106i3,  which  insured 
to  William  the  Norman  the  crown  of  England.  The  abbey 
founded  by  him  forms  a  most  magnilicent  pile  of  ruins, 
•and  the  ancient  gatehouse  is  still  in  good  preservation. 
The  place  is  now  celebrated  for  its  gunpowder  manufac- 
tories.    Population  of  the  parish  in  1£71,  3405. 

BATTQS,  the  founder  of  the  Creek  colony  of  Cyrcne  in 
Libya,  whither  he  had  been  directed  by  the  oraclo  at  Delphi 
(about  GjO  B.C.).  The  Greeks  who  accompanied  him  wcie, 
like  himself,  natives  of  Thera  (Santoiin),  and  partly  des- 
cended from  the  tdce  of  the  .Miny.-e.  The  origin  of  the 
colony  as  told  ia  Thera  (lltfnhlui,  iv.  150)  was  a« 
follows  : — 

Grinus,  kirg  of  that  island,  had  gone  utteoded  by  Pattus  au.' 
others  to  coas'ilt  the  oracle  at  Delphi,  «nd  was  told  by  it  to  "fojnd 
a  city  in  Libya."  They  knew  not  where  Libjanas,  »nd  could  take 
00  actiou  Seven  years  after  there  fell  a  di  ought  on  Thera,  and  tlie 
oracle,  being  again  questioned,  repeated  the  conmund  to  fouod  a 
town  in  Libya,  ileasencors  were  now  sent  to  Crete  to  see  if  anyone 
there  knew  vtbere  this  district  was.  They  met  a  fisherman.  Coroluus, 
whr*  said  that  he  had  once  li-en  driven  to  Platea,  an  island  of  Lib\n, 
whither  he  agieed  to  conduct  thera.  To  make  sure,  Ihcy  went  «ilh 
hiao  ;  and  having  landed  on  riatta,  they  again,  UaMDg  Corot  lua 
there  with  provisions  for  some  months,  returned  to  Tliero  to  collect 
colonists,  of  whom  oa  many  as  two  50  oareil  galleys  could  convey 
,«et  out  with  B.attus  as  their  lender.  In  Cyrcne  itself,  however,  a 
different  etorj'  of  the  origin  of  the  colony  was  told.  Kiearchus,  it 
was  said,  king  of  Axus  in  Crete,  having  married  a  second  wife,  who 
persuaded  him  to  get  rid  of  I'lironime,  tljo  dau(;hter  of  his  first  wife, 
a^^ecd  with  a  merchant  from  Thera  that  he  s-hould  take  her  in  hia 
ship  and  let  her  down  into  the  sc.a.  The  merchant,  true  to  the  U  Iter 
of  his  bargain,  let  her  doivn,  but  with  a  rope  about  her  by  which 
ho  AnvQ  her  up  again,  and  took  bee  to  Thera,  wlicre  she  m.nincit 


44t. 


BAT 


Polymnestus,  a  descendant  of  the  irinyse,  anJ  bore  him  a  son,  who, 
becanse  of  his  stutteriDg,  was  called  Battns.  Oa  growing  to  man- 
hood, Battus  inquired  at  the  oracle  of  Delphi  about  his  voice,  and 
when  told  to  **  found  a  town  in  Libya,"  was  unable  to  understand 
the  response.  Afterwards,  owing  to  misfortunes,  the  Therseans 
sent  to  Delphi  for  advice,  and  were  again  ordered  to  send  a  colony 
to  Cyrene,  under  Battus,  which  they  now  did,  landing  first  in  Platea, 
and  afterwards  removing  to  Cyrene  itself. 

Herodotus  (iv,  155)  thinks  that  the  name  of  Battus, 
being  the  word  for  "  king  "  in  Libya,  had  been  applied  to 
the  leader  of  the  colony  after  his  arrival  there,  and  that  it 
had  no  reference  to  his  stuttering.  Battus  having  ruled 
forty  years  (about  630-590  B.C.)  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Arcesilaus,  who,  after  a  reign  of  sixteen  years,  of  which 
nothing  is  known,  was  followed  by  Battus  11.  Of  this 
dynasty,  known  as  the  Battiadce,  the  names  were  alternately 
Battus  and  Arcesilaus,  there  being,  as  the  oracle  predicted, 
probably  after  the  fact,  four  of  each.  Under  Battus  ITj, 
surnamed  the  Prosperous,  the  population  of  Cyrene  was 
increased  by  a  large  number  of  colonists  from  aU  parts  of 
Greece  invited  by  a  promise  of  lind.  To  find  land  for  all 
it  was  necessary  to  dispossess  many  of  tho  native  Libyans, 
who  therefore  sought  and  obtained  the  aid  of  an  Egyptian 
army,  which,  howeVer  was  completely  defeated.  Amasis, 
the  next  king  of  Egypt,  proved  friendly  tt)  Cyrene.  The 
reign  of  Arcesilaus  II.  (about  554-544  b.c.)  is  known  only 
for  the  disastrous  battle  with  the  Libyans,  who  had  been 
stirred  to  revolt  by  his  brothers,  in  which  ho  lost  7000 
hopbtes.  He  himself  soon  after  fell  iU,  and  was  strangled 
by  his  brother  Learchus.  The  disgrace  of  the  ruling  family 
being  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  next  heir,  Battus  III., 
was  lame,  the  oracle  at  Delphi  was  consulted,  and  advised 
tliat  affaire  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  Demonax  of 
JIantinea,  who  distributed  the  people  into  three  tribes, 
and  arranged  a  form  of  self-government  for  them.  Battus, 
retaining  the  royal  lands  and  sacred  ofEces  of  a  king, 
acquiesced.  Not  eo  his  wife  Pheretime  and  son  Arcesilaus, 
who  bestirred  themselves, — the  former  in  Cyprus,  the 
latter  in  Samoa, — to  raise  forces  to  recover  the  sovereignty, 
and  ultimately  succeeded ;  but  in  his  success  Arcesilaus 
in.  forgot  the  commands  of  the  oracle  (Herod.,  iv.  163), 
and,  among  other  cruelties  to  the  vanquished,  burned  alive 
a  number  of  them  who  had  escaped  to  a  tower.  To  avoid 
the  consequences  he  retired  to  the  town  of  Barca,  but  was 
there  slain  in  the  market-place  by  some  fugitives  from 
Cyrene.  His  mother,  Pheretime,  who  had  been  regent  in 
his  absence,  now  obtained  from  Aryandes,  the  Persian 
satrap  of  Egypt,  an  army  to  take  vengeance  on  the  people 
of  Barca,  After  a  fruitless  siege  of  nine  months  (Herod., 
IV.  200)  a  treaty  of  peace  was  solemnly  sworn  to  by  the 
Persian  general,  and  was-instantly  broken  in  spirit,  though 
not  in  letter,  when  tho  gates  of  Barca  were  thrown  open. 
Pheretime,  ruthless  in  her  cruelties  towards  those  who  had 
boon  connected  with  her  son's  murder,  herself  died  soon 
after,  a  wretched  death,  in  Egypt.  Of  Battus  IV.  nothing 
is  known.  Arcesilaus  IV.,  with  whom  the  dynasty  ended 
(about  460—445  B.C.),  obtained  twice  the  victory  in  the 
chariot  race  at  the  Pythian  games,  and  for  this  was  cele- 
brated by  Pindiir  in  two  odes  (Pyih.,  iv.  and  v.). 

BATU,  a  thickly-wooded  island  lying  off  the  north- 
western coast  of  Sumatra,  40  mUes  in  length  by  10  in 
average  breadth,  almost  immediately  uuder  the  equinoctial 
line  Cocoa-nuts,  oil,  and  trepang  are  exported.  It  is 
the  seat  qf  an  active  volcano.  The  inhabitants  are  a  colony 
from  the  island  o(  Nias. 

BATDM,  a  seaport  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the 
panhaUc  of  Trebizond,  and  110  miles  N.E.  of  the  city  of 
that  name.  It  is  situated  on  the  Black  Sea,  not  far  from 
the  mouth  of  tho  Chorak,  and  the  harbour  Ls  the  safest  and 
most  important  on  tho  eastern  coast.  There  is  deep  water 
«lose  to  Uio  shore,  and  protection  is  afforded  by  the  high 


-^A  U 

overhanging  cliffs  of  a  spur  of  the  Gouriel  Mountains.  The 
situation  of  the  town  is  marshy  and  unhealthy  ;  and  the 
place  itself  is  "  filthy  in  the  extreme."  It  is  now  the  seat 
of  a  mutessarif,  or  deputy-governor ;  and  the  Turkish 
authorities  are  fortifying  it  with  several  strong  batteries. 
A  dilapidated  ronak,  or  governor's  house,  two  mosques, 
and  a  Greek  church  are  almost  the  only  buildings  that 
relieve  the  meanness  of  the  squalid-looking  huts  ;  but  the 
natural  and  political  position  of  the  place  render  it  of 
commercial  and  military  importance.  "There  is  a  custom- 
house, a  Russian  consulate,  and  a  steamer  agency  ;  and  the 
Russian  steamers  regularly  use  the  harbour  as  a  port  of 
transshipment,  their  own  harbour  at  Poti  being  insecure. 
A  considerable  contraband  trade  is  carried  on  across  the 
frontiers,  as  well  as  a  moderate  amount  of  regular  exporta- 
tion by  sea.     The  population  does  not  exceed  2000. 

BAUDELAIRE,  Chaeles,  who  would  have  been  pleased 
to  be  considered  as  a  master  in  the  French  Satanic  school 
of  poetry,  was  born  at  Paris  in  April  1821.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  man  of  some  distinction,  who  had  been  the 
friend  of  Condorcet  and  of  Cabanis.  The  poet's  life 
contained  no  episode  mora  important  than  a  voyage  to  the 
East  Indies,  where  he  resided  for  some  time,  and  whence 
he  brought  perhaps  the  Oriental  languor  and  the  curious 
delight  in  perfumes  which  make  themselves  felt  in  many 
of  his  verses.  Baudelaire  returned  to  Paris  while  still  a 
very  young  man,  and  sought  the  literary,  or  at  least  what 
is  called  the  Bohemian  society  of  the  capital  He  admired 
M.  Th^ophile  Gautier,  as  M.  Qautier  had  admired  Victor 
Hugo,  and  his  poems  are  all  conceived  in  the  school  of 
Romanticism.  Romanticisr.i,  or,  to  define  it  rather  widely, 
the  school  of  revolt  against  French  academic  taste,  the 
search  for  remote  experiences,  the  artistic  reproduction  of 
the  excesses  and  vagaries  of  passion,  found  in  Baudelaire 
its  most  reckless  disciple.  Some  portions  of  his  verses,  Les 
fleurs  du  Mai,  appeared  originally  in  the  Rame  dea  Deux 
Mondes,  and  when  they  were  published  in  a  volume,  had 
the  misfortune  to  attract  the  notice  of  the  police.  When 
so  many  low  unwholesome  works  were  published  without 
scandal,  it  was  an  error  to  attract  notice  to  the  verses  of 
Baudelaire.  The  chief  notes  of  his  poetry  aica  perverse 
delight  in  loathsome  subjects,  a  curious  reaction  towards 
Christianity  and  repentance,  a  pleasure  in  tho  last  refine- 
ments of  art,  above  all  an  unsleeping  self-consciousness 
and  affectation.  Less  unpleasant  than  his  Fleurs  du  Mai, 
are  his  exquisite  and  gem-like  PciUs  Fo'emes  en  Prose,  and 
his  volumes  of  subtle  and  ingenious  criticism.  Baudelaire 
diedin  1867  at  the  age  of  f  orty -six,  after  a  long  illness.  H* 
will  possibly  be  best  remembered  for  his  translation  of  the 
works  of  Edgar  AUen  Po^,  one  of  the  most  accurate  and  bril- 
liant translations  in  literature.  The  impression  left  on  the 
reader  by  Baudelaire's  Ufe  and  industry  is  rather  a  painful 
one.  It  is  difficult  to  be  blind  to  tho  fact  that  he  lived  for 
notoriety,  and  that  he  preferred  to  gain  notoriety  by  a 
distinguished  activity  in  the  least  wholesome  fields  of 
letters.  His  poems  represent  the  high-water  mark  of  the 
tide  of  Romanticism  ;  and  it  may  be  hoped  that  tho  taste 
for  lepers  and  corpses  in  poetry  will  now  gradually  decline. 
The  best  edition  of  his  works,  prose  and  verse,  is  that 
published  by  Michel  Levy,  Paris.  Some  of  his  suppressed 
poems  were  printed  in  Brusseb,  under  the  title  Lea  Epaves. 
BAUHIN,  Oaspard,  tho  son  of  an  eminent  French 
physician,  who  had  to  leave  his  native  country  on  becom- 
ing a  convert  to  Protestantism,  was  born  at  Basel  in  1560. 
Early  devoting  himself  to  medicine,  he  pursued  hisstudj"* 
at  I'adua,  MontpoUier,  and  some  of  tho  celebrated  schools 
in  Germany.  In  his  journeys  through  various  parts  of 
Europe  ho  collected  a  number  of  plants  which  had  escaped 
his  elder  brother's  notice.  Returning  to  Basel  iu  1580,  he 
was  admitted  to  the  degreeof  doctor,  and  gave  private  lectures 


B  A  U  —  B  xV  U 


447 


In  botany  and  anatomy.  In  1532  be  was  appointed  to  the 
Greek  professorship  in  tliat  university,  and  in  10S8  to  the 
chair  of  anatomy  and  botany.  He  was  afterwards  made 
city  physician,  professor  of  the  practice  of  medicine,  rector 
of  the  university,  and  dean  of  iiis  faculty.  He  published 
several  works  relative  to  botany,  of  which  the  most  valuable 
is  his  Pinax  Theatri  Botanici,  seu  Index  iti  Theophrasti, 
Dioscoridis,  Plinii,  et  botaniconim  qui  a  secido  scripserunt 
opera,  4io.  The  confusion  that  began  to  rise  at  this  tijne 
from  botanical  writers  describing  the  same  plant  under  differ- 
ent names  rendered  such  a  task  highly  necessary;  and  though 
there  are  many  defects  in  the  execution,  the  Pinax  of  Bauhin 
18  still  a  useful  key  to  all  the  writers  before  his  time. 
Another  great  work  which  he  planned  was  a  Thcatrum 
liotanicum,  meant  to  be  comprised  in  twelve  parts  folio,  of 
which  he  finished  three  ;  only  one  however  was  published. 
He  also  gave  a  very  copious  catalogue  of  the  plants  growing 
in  the  environs  of  Basel,  and  edited  the  works  of  Matthio- 
lus  with  considerable  additions.  Ho  likewise  wrote  on 
anatomy ;  his  principal  work  on  this  subject  is  Tkeatrum 
Anatomicum  injhiitis  tocis  auctum,  4to,  Frankfort,  162 J, 
which  is  a  kind  of  pinax  of  anatomical  facts  and  opinions. 
He  died  in  1G24. 

BAUHIN,  Jean,  brother  of  the  above,  was  born  at 
Basel  in  1541.  He  studied  atTiibingen  under  the  celebrated 
botanist  Fuchs,  and  afterwards  travelled  with  Conrad 
Oesner,  and  collected  plants  in  the  Alps,  in  France, 
and  in  Italy.  He  first  practised  medicine  at  Basel,  where 
he  was  elected  professor  of  rhetoric  in  1560.  He  then 
resided  for  some  time  at  Yverdun,  and  in  1570  was  in- 
vited to  be  physician  to  the  duke  of  Wiirtemberg  at  Mont- 
b6Liflrd, — a  situation  ia  which  he  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  He  devoted  his  time  chiefly  to  botany,  on  which 
he  bestowed  great  labour.  He  likewise  prosecuted  other 
branches  of  natural  history,  and  published  an  account  of 
Medicinal  Waters  Ihrovghout  Europe.  His  great  work  on 
plants  was  not  completed  at  his  death,  which  happened  in 
1613.  A  society  at  Yverdun  published  in  1619  the  "Pro- 
dromus;"  but  it  was  not  till  1650  and  1651  that  the  work 
itself  appeared,  in  three  vob.  folio,  entitled  Historia 
Plantarum  nova  et  abmtutiisima,  cum  auctwum  consensu  et 
dissensu  circa  eas.  It  was  long  considered  a.  standard 
work,  and,  with  all  its  defects,  it  entitles  its  author  to  a 
high  place  among  the  founders  of  botanical  science. 

BAUME,  An  TCI  NE,  a  French  chemist,  distinguished  for 
his  success  in  the  practical  application  of  the  science,  was 
born  at  Senlis  in  1723.  He  was  the  son  of  an  innkeeper, 
and  bad  to  contend  with  the  disadvantages  of  a  defocfive 
education,  in  spite  of  which  he  prosecuted  his  scientific 
researches  with  great  success.  He  was  apprenticed  to  the 
cslebratcd  chemist  Oeoffroy,  and  in  1702  was  admitted  a 
member  of  the  college  of  pharmacy ;  soon  after  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  chemistry  at  that  establishment. 
He  carried  on  a  commercial  establishment  in  Paris  for  the 
preparation,  on  an  extensive  scale,  of  drugs  for  medicine 
and  the  arts,  such  as  the  acetate  of  lead,  the  muriate  of  tin, 
mercurial  salts,  and  antimonial  preparations.  At  the  same 
time  ho  published  a  number  of  papers  on  chemical  science, 
and  on  arts  and  manufactures.  He  established  the  first 
manufactory  of  sal-ammoniac  in  Franco,  a  substance  which 
before  that  time  had  been  obtained  from  Egypt.  He  was 
the  first  also  who  devised  and  set  on  foot  a  process  for 
bleaching  raw  silk.  Having  acquired  a  competency  by  the 
Bucce.13  of  these  diBTerent  uudertakings,  he  retired  from 
trade,  and  devoted  his  time  to  the  application  of  chemistry 
to  the  arts.  Uo  improved  the  process  for  dyeing  scarlet  at 
the  manufactory  of  the  Gobelins,  and  announced  a  cheap 
process  fur  purifying  saltpetre.  By  the  Revolution  he  lost 
his  fortune,  but  this  cahmity,  instead  of  disheartening  him, 
Etimulatcd  him  to  resume  bis  trade.     He  v/as   chosen  a 


correspondent  of  the  Institute  in  1796,  and  died  in  1604, 
at  the  age  of  seventy -six.  Many  of  his  papers  are  published 
in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Scimces.  Of  his  separate 
publications,  the  following  may  be  mentioned  here  ■.  Dis- 
sertation sur  [Ether,  in  12mo  ;  Plan  d'un  Court  de  Chimie 
Experimenlale,  1757,  in  12mo  ,  Opusades  de  Chimie,  1793, 
in  Svo ,  £limms  de  Phannacie  Theorique  et  Pratique,  1  vols. 
8vo  .  Chimie  Expertmentate  et  Raisonnee,  3  vols.  Svo, 
1773. 

BAUMGARTEN,  Alexajtder  Gottlieb,  a  German 
philosopher,  born  at  Berlin  in  1714.  He  studied  at  Halle, 
and  afterwards  became  proiessor  of  philosophy  at  Frankfort 
on  the  Oder,  in  which  city  he  died  in  the  year  1762.  He 
was  a  disciple  of  Leibnitz  and  WolfT,  and  was  particularly 
distinguished  for  his  jesthetical  speculations,  having  been 
the  first  to  develop  and  establish  the  Theory  of  the  Beautiful 
as  an  independent  science.  Baumgarten,  of  course,  is  not 
to  be  looked  upon  as  the  founder  of  aesthetics,  but  he  did 
good  service  in  severing  it  from  the  other  philosophic 
disciplines,  and  in  marking  out  a  definite  object  for  its 
researches.  The  very  name  (^sthdici)  which  Baumgarten 
was  the  first  to  use  for  the  science  of  the  Beautiful,  though 
now  very  generally  adopted  for  the  sake, of  convenience, 
indicates  the  imperfect  and  partial  nature  of  his  analysis, 
pointing  as  it  doss  to  an  element  so  variable  as  feeling  or 
sensation  as  the  ultimate  ground  of  judgment  in  questions 
pertaining  to  beauty.  The  principal  works  of  Baumgarten 
are  the  following  :  Disputatioms  de  nonnullu  ad  poema 
pertinentibus ;  ^sthetica ;  Melaphysica ;  Ethica  philo- 
sophica  /  Inilia  phUosophiai  practices  primer.  For  an 
account  of  his  speculations  on  the  theory  of  the  Beautiful 
see  .(Esthetics,  vol.  L  p.  217. 

BAUMGARTENCBUSIUS,  Ludwig  Friedrich  Otto, 
a  distinguished  German  theologian,  was  born  in  July  1 788  at 
Merseburg.  In  1805  he  entered  the  university  of  Leipsic, 
and  studied  theology  and  philosophy.  In  1812  he  was 
appointed  extraordinary  professor  of  theology  at  Jena, 
where  he  remained  to  the  end  of  his  life,  rising  gradually 
to  the  head  of  the  theological  faculty.  In  the  midst  of  his 
labours  as  professor  and  author,  he  was  struck  down  ky 
apoplexy,  and  died  on  the  31st  May  1843.  Baumgarten- 
Crusius  lectured  on  almost  all  the  theological  disciplines, 
with  the  exception  of  church  history  ;  but  his  great  strength 
l.iy  in  the  treatment  of  the  history  of  dogma.  His  com- 
prehensive knowledge,  accurate  scholarship,  and  wide 
sympathies  gave  peculiar  value  to  his  lectures  and  treatises, 
on  the  development  of  church  doctrine.  His  published 
works  were  \-ery  numerous,  the  most  important  being — 
Lchrlrach  der  Christlichen  Sittentekre,  1S26 ;  Grundzuge 
der  biblischen  Theologie,  1828;  Lehrbuch  der  Dogmcn- 
rjeschichtf.,  1832  ;  Compendium  der  Dogmengeschichie,  IS-lO. 
The  last,  perhaps  his  best  work,  was  left  unfinished,  but 
was  completed  in  1846  by  H.ise  from  the  author's  notes. 
Commentaries  on  several  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, gathered  from  his  papers,  were  also  published  after 
his  death. 

BAUR,  Ferdin.\nd  CnnisTiAN,  the  distingtiished  leader 
of  the  Modern  Tiibingen  School  of  Theology,  was  born  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Cannstadt  on  the  21al  June  1792. 
The  son  of  a  Wiirtemberg  pastor  he  entered,  at  the  age  of 
thirteen,  the  well-known  seminary  at  Blaubeuren,  to  which 
his  father  had  some  years  before  been  transferred  as  deacon. 
Thence  he  passed,  in  the  year  1809,  to  the  university  at 
Tiibingen.  Solid  and  somewhat  reserved  in  character,  ho 
was  indefatigable  in  his  studies,  but  did  not  come 
prominently  to  the  front  till  near  the  close  of  his  academic 
career.  His  intellectual  development  proceeded  slowly 
from  step  to  step.  For  a  time  he  was  attracted  and 
considerably  influenced  by  the  study  of  Bengcl,  the  great 
head  of  the  preceding  orthodox  school,  which  had  given 


448 


i3  A  U  R 


Tubingen  its  reputation  in  the  18th  century,  feoth  Bengel 
himself  in  his  noble  personality,  and  the  historical  chara:ter 
of  his  critical  labours  on  the  New  Testament,  remarkable 
for  their  time,  had  a  charm  for  the  youthful  student  of  the 
19th  century.  With  historical  interest  Eaur  combined  a 
Bpecial  interest  in  tte  philosophy  of  religion,  but  as  yet 
without  betraying  any  opposition  to  the  supernatural  stand- 
point of  the  older  theology.  His  earliest  literary  produc- 
tion— a  review  of  Kaiser's  Biblical  Theology  (Bengel's 
Archiv  fur  Theologie,  ii.  656)  in  1817 — shows  nothing  of 
this  opposition.  It  required  a  change  of  circumstance,  as 
well  as  a  new  impulse  of  intellectual  excitement,  to  direct 
his  thoughts  into  the  bolder  current,  in  which  they  were 
destined  to  run,  and  in  their  course  so  largely  '.o  affect  the 
stream  of  contemporary  thought. 

In  1817  he  was  called  as  professor  to  Blaubeiren,  which 
he  had  left  as  a  pupil  eight  years  before.  It  was  his 
business  here  to  direct  the  historical  and  p  ilosophical 
studies  of  the  youth,  and  his  keen  and  coraprehen  live  genius 
soon  found  a  congenial  subject  of  investigation  in  the 
relations  of  Christianity  to  preceding  modes  of  thought. 
The  result  of  his  investigations  appeared  in  his  Syiaholik 
und  Mijlhologie,  in  1824.  This  was  his  first  elaborate 
work,  the  precursor  of  all  his  special  studies  in  religious 
history  and  the  developmeut  of  religious  thought.  Ani- 
mated by  a  thorough  and  enlightened  spirit  of  learning, 
and  valuable  as  a  contribution  to  the  knowledge  of 
classical  antiquity,  it  was  yet  dominated  by  a  theological 
interest,  and  showed  how  truly  this  was  the  prevailing  bias 
of  the  author's  mind.  It  showed,  moreover,  how  from  this 
early  period  he  combined,  in  almost  equal  force,  the  three 
great  elements  of  culture — philological,  philosophical,  and 
theological — which  his  later  works  discovered  in  such 
maturity. 

This  publication  drew  attention  to  Baur's  marked  abilities, 
and,  on  a  vacancy  occurring  in  the  theological  faculty  at 
Tiibingen,  he  was  promoted  after  some  I  esitation  to  the 
chair  of  historical  theology  in  that  fanous  university, 
destined  from  his  labours  to  acquire  a  yet  more  notable 
reputation.  This  took  p  a>;e  in  1826;  and  for  thirty-four 
years  Baur's  life  was  parsed  at  Tiibingen  in  an  unceasing 
round  of  academic  work — while  his  name  continued  to 
gather  from  his  successive  writings  an  increasing  lustre  and 
inrtuence.  All  accounts  agree  in  testifying  to  his  mar- 
vellous industry  and  unceasing  toil  of  research,  bis  con- 
Bcientiouune-ss  and  self-sicriiice  as  a  teacher,  and  .he 
unobtrusive  enthusiasm  and  digirily  with  which  he  dis- 
charged all  the  duties  entrusted  to  him,  not  only  as  a  pro- 
fessor, but  as  for  some  time  the  head  of  the  Stij'l,  or  college 
of  residence  for  the  Protestant  div  nitj  students.  His 
theological  opinions,  trenchant  and  al.rming  as  they  must 
have  sometimes  appeared,  never  rr  ide  any  separation 
betwixt  him  and  his  cf'lleagues  in  the  theological  faculty. 
All  acknowledged  his  power  and  eirnestuoss;  and  the 
multitudes  who  thronged  his  lectu-e  rooms  carried  the 
impulses  of  his  thought  throughout  Cermany  and  Switzer- 
land. His  manner  was  somewhat  reserved  and  silent; 
all  bis  enthusiasm  was  put  into  his  work,  and  was  felt 
more  as  an  underglow  animating  his  lectures  and  writings 
than  as  a  demonstrative  power  creating  a  temporary  noise. 
He  lived  for  theological  science:  nothing  else  seems  to 
have  occupied  him  or  drawn  him  aside.  When  we  add  to 
this  the  fact  that  any  faith  in  supernatural  religion,  with 
which  he  began  his  labours  as  a  professor,  ere  long  dis- 
appeared, and  that  the  great  aim  of  all  his  studies  and 
researches  was  to  find  the  natural  factors  or  principles  out 
of  which  Christianity  arose  in  the  world,  there  is  presented 
to  us  a  btiange  picture  of  theological  enthusiasm  It  may 
Fccm  an  inconsistent  and  unhappy  picture.  Yet  there  is 
»oniething  heroij  if  also  pathetic  in  such  intense  application 


to  the  study  of  Christian  pnencmena,  and  such  thorougL 
and  earnest  aims  to  reach  the  truth  regarding  ihem,  nith 
cut  the  faith  which  witnesses  to  the  reality  of  a  personal 
d  vine  life,  behind  the  phenomena  and  revealed  in  them 

Baur  at  first,  like  almost  all  his  contemporaries,  owned 
tie  influence  of  Schleiermacher.  The  Gtaubenstthre  of 
the  latter,  which  appeared  ii.  1821,  is  said  to  have  affected 
him  deeply,  and  moulded  his  thought  for  some  time.  But 
there  was  too  Little  affinity  betwist  the  men, — the  one 
mystic  and  spiritual,  the  other  intellectual  and  objective, 
— to  permit  this  influence  to  be  permanent.  From 
Schleiermacher  Baur  passed  to  Hegel,  whose  commanding 
genius  laid  its  spell  upon  him  as  upon  others.  The  Heje- 
lian  philosophy  became  the  jiermanent  and  pervasive 
element  of  his  intellectual  Ufe.  Its  great  doctrine  of 
opposites,or  of  extremes  finally  tfrminatmg  in  a  conciliation, 
is  found  more  or  less  to  under' le  all  his  thought,  and  to 
furnish  the  key  to  his  most  daring  speculations  on  the 
origin  and  growth  of  Christianity. 

It  wasnnt,  however,  till  nearly  ten  years  after  his  settle- 
ment at  Tiibingen  that  his  theological  views  underwent 
a  decided  change,  and  that  the  special  tendency  known 
as  that  of  the  Modern  Tiibingen  School  was  fully  developed. 
The  earlier  period  of  Baur's  academic  life  was  not  unfruitful, 
but  did  not  mark  him  o9'  in  any  striking  manner.  Even 
his  treatise  on  the  ChrUt-pa'ly  in  the  Corinthian  Church 
and  the  Antaijonism  betwixt  (he  Pauline  and  Petrine  Chris- 
iwniVy,  which  appeared  in  ISiil.aud  which  maybe  said 
to  contain  the  germs  of  his  future  system,  was  published 
peaceably  (in  the  I'ubin^tn  Ztitschrij't)  along  with  the 
effusions  of  Sleudel,  one  of  bis  co-pruf^essors  most  devoted 
to  supernaturalism.  His  answer  to  Mohler's  famous  Svm- 
bolik  (1833)  attracted  a  widosjiread  reputation,  and  fixed 
attention  upon  him  as  one  of  the  ablest  defenders  of  German 
Protestantism.  Masterly  and  ingenious  as  Mohlei's  bonk 
was,  it  was  felt  that  baur  had  not  only  fairly  met  but 
overthrown  its  chief  position.  Put  nith  all  his  reputation 
as  a  powerful  writer  and  controver.iialist,  he  had  hardly  ai 
yet  made  his  mark  as  a  new  thinker 

The  second  anc  distinctive  period  of  his  iotellectual 
develupment  is  dated  from  the  year  1S.J5,  when  Strauss's 
Ltien  Jesu  appearjd,  and  spread  tomniotiou  in  the  theo- 
logical mind  of  Germany,  la  th;  same  year  Baur  pub- 
lished his  great  work  on  Gnosticism,  in  which  he  had 
obviously  quite  passed  bcyoud  the  influence  of  Schleier- 
macher. A  brief  work  on  tJie  So-calUd  Pastoral  £/)i<,tU3 
in  the  same  year  showed  him  at  work  in  an  independent 
critical  direction,  and  ready  to  take  a  now  start  in  theo- 
logical inquiry.  This  start,  or  at  least  the  lengths  to  which 
it  carried  him,  have  been  by  many  attributed  to  the  effect  of 
Strauss 's  worL  But  he  ha-s  himself  plainly  denied  this, 
and  claimed  an  iudeficndent  origin  for  his  own  specula- 
tion!. "I  ha<l  beiniii,"  he  says  {Kirchenyeschiclile  des  19 
JahrhnndcJts,  305),  "  my  critical  inquiries  long  before 
Strauss,  and  set  cut  from  an  entirely  difl'erent  point  of 
view.  My  study  of  the  two  epistles  to  the  Corinthians  led 
me  first  to  seize  clearly  the  relation  of  the  apostle  Paul  ti. 
the  other  apostles.  I  was  convincid  that  in  the  letters  I'l 
the  apostle  themselves  there  was  enough  from  which  t. 
infer  that  this  rcbtion  was  something  very  diU'ercnt  fiom 
that  usually  supposed, — that,  in  short,  instead  of  being  a 
relation  of  harnr  ny  it  was  one  of  sharp  opposition,  so 
much  so  that  od  the  part  of  the  Jewish  Chiistians  the 
authority  of  the  apostle  was  held  everywhere  in  dispute. 
A  closer  investigt  tion  of  the  Pseudo-Clementine  homilies, 
to  whose  siguifici  iico  in  reference  to  the  earliest  period  of 
Christian  history  Neander  first  drewattcntiuii,  led  me  to  a 
dearer  understa  ding  of  this  opposition  ;  and  it  alwxiys 
bi-rame  mure  evident  to  me  that  the  contrast  of  the  two 
parties  in  thc.\p(Stolic  and  sub-Apostolic  age  must  be  traced 


B  A  U  II 


449 


not  merely  in  the  formation  of  the  rctrine  tiaditioh  but  as 
having  exercised  au  iiupurtant  influence  upon  the  com- 
position of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles." 

This  supposed  conflict  betwixt  Petrinism  and  Paulinism, 
or,  in  other  words,  betwixt  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christianity, 
lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  Baur's  critical  labours.  Ilis 
speciality  as  a  New  Testament  scholar  and  critic  was  the 
tirmncsB  with  wliich  he  laid  hold  of  what  he  believed  to 
be  the  only  genuine  foundation  of  historical  Cfhristianity 
in  St  Paul,  and  his  four  great  epistles  to  the  Corinthians, 
to  the  Galatiaus,  and  to  the  Romans.  These  epistles  were 
to  him  alone  unchallengeable  as  the  authentic  wTitings  of  the 
,Teat  apostlo  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  antagonism  of  which 
tie  made  so  much  appeared  to  him  everywhere  to  pervade 
them.  The  epistles  to  the  Ephesians,  to  the  Colossians, 
und  to  the  Philippians,  and  the  short  letter  to  '^hilenion, 
were  at  the  best  doubtfully  genuine.  They  seemed  to 
Liin  to  bear  traces  of  a  later  Gnosticism  in  many  of  their 
expressions,  while  he  altogether  rejected  the  apostolical 
charactei;  of  the  Pastoral  Epistles.  These  letters,  as  well 
as  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  were  to  him  writings  not 
of  the  1st  but  of  the  2d  century,  proceeding  not  from 
the  Pauline  School,  but  from'  the  >CathoIic  and  Concilia- 
tory School,  which  towards  the  middle  and  end  of  the 
2d  century  lought  to  adjust  and  harmonize  the  earlier 
conflicting  elements  of  Petrinism  and  Paulinism.  This 
impress  of  conciliation  and  compromise  appeared  to  him 
to  be  specially  stamped  upon  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and 
to  be  the  true  explanation  of  the  relations  there  depicted 
betwixt  St  Peter  and  St  Paul. 

Such  were  the  views  advocated  by  Baur  in  a  succession 
of  writings  on  the  Pastoral  Epistles  (18.'55)and  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans  (1836) ;  but  especially  in  his  great  work  on 
the  Apostlo  Paul  (ISIO),  which  may  be  said  to  sum  up  the 
result  of  his  critical  labours  on  the  P.itiline  writings. 

Then  in  a  further  series  of  critical  investigations  he 
turned  his  attention  to  the  Gospels.  He  dealt  with  them 
as  a  whole,  "  their  relation  to  one  another,  their  origin,  and 
character,"  in  a  treatise  which  appeared  in  1847,  and  in 
1851  he  devoted  a  special  volume  to  the  gospel  of  St 
Mark,  The  result  of  his  investigations  in  this  direction 
was  to  satisfy  him  that  all  the  Gospels  owe  their  origin 
more  or  less  Ut  the  same  tendencies  or  traces  of  party  design, 
which  he  everywhere  discovers  in  the  first  Christian  age. 
Our  present  Gospels  are  not,  in  his  view,  tlie  most  ancient 
documents  of  tlio  kind  possessed  by  the  church.  Before 
Ibem  there  was-  a  primary  cycle  of  evangelical  tradition, 
known  by  various  names — as  the  gospel  of  the  Hebrews,  of 
St  Peter,  of  the  EbionilBs,  of  the  Egyptians,  ic.  In  the 
existing  canon  the  Gospel  of  St  Matthew  resembles  those 
earlier  narratives  most  closely.  It  reproduces  most  com- 
pletely the  char.tcter  of  the  primitive  Jewish  Christianity, 
yet  not  %vithout  important  later  modifications.  The  Gospel 
(if  St  Luke  is,  of  course,  of  Pauline  origin,  yet  also 
retouched  with  a  view  to  the  conciliatory  tendencies  of  the 
(Church  of  the  2d  century  and  the  influence  of  the  Pctrine 
tradition.  That  of  St  Mark  is  of  later  date  than  either, 
.And  boars  the  most  evident  traces  of  adaptation.  Of  all 
!  he  gospels  it  is  the  most  suspected  by  the  Tubingen  School. 
The  Fourth  Gospel,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  duGiiite  work', 
but  of  the  2d,  not  of  the  1st  century.  An  examination  of 
)t»  contents,  its  inc.do  of  composition,  and  its  general  plan 
clearly  reveals  its  dogmatic  and  idealistic  character.  The 
liislvrical  data  are  merely  a  background  to  the  speculative 
ideas  which  it  unfolds.  The  prologue  by  itself  is  Bufficient 
proof  of  its  logical  method  and  purpose,  while  the  contrasts 
which  evprywhere  pcrv«de  it  betwixt  light  and  darkness, 
IK*  and  death,  the  Spirit  and  the  flesh,  Christ  and  the 
children  of  the  devil  and  the  dramatic  force  and  propriety 
with  which  these  contrasts  arc  handled  throughout,  point  to 


the  same  conclusion.  Turthcr,  the  differences  betwixt  (he 
Apocalypse  and  the  Eourtli  Gospel  are  held  to  show  con 
clusivcly  that  they  could  nut  have  proceeded  from  tlie  same 
author. 

In  addition  to  these  critical  labours  Baur  distinguisbeo 
himself  by  a  scries  of  elaborate  historical  monographs  on 
special  doctrines  of  Christianity,  for  example  his  Uislory  of 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement  in  I83S,  and  his  Ilittory  <^ 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  Incarnation,  in  3  volumes, 
in  1841-3.  His  unceasing  activity  further  produced  a 
Handbook:  of  the  History  of  Dogma  in  1817,  an  interesting 
tract  on  the  Chi,/  Epochs  of  Ecclesiastical  History  (1602), 
an  admirable  digest  of  his  general  views  on  the  origin  and 
growth  of  the  early  church  under  the  title  of  The  Christian 
Church  of  the  First  I'hree  Centuries  (1853).  A  further 
volume  of  general  Church  History  from  the  ••th  to  the  Cth 
century,  appeared  from  his  pen  just  before  his  death  (1859), 
and  subsequently  three  volumes  containing  the  History  of 
the  Church  of  the  Middle  Ages  (1861),  the  History  of  the 
Church  of  more  recent  times  (1SG3),  and  the  Christian 
History  of  the  IDth  century  (18G3).  Finally,  in  1805, 
appeared  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Christian  Dogma. 

His  death  took  place  on  the  2d  December  18C0.  He 
lies  buried  in  the  cemetery  at  Tiibingen,  not  far  from  the*' 
poet  L'hland,  with  the  simple  inscription  on  his  tomb, 
"  F.  C.  B.-iur,  Theolog."       . 

Such  an  amount  and  variety  of  authorship  sufiiciently 
show  Baur's  indefatigable  industry  and  enthusiasm  as  a 
theologian ;  and  when  it  is  remembered  that  all  his  works 
are  of  a  strictly  scientific  character  indicating  everywhere 
original  research,  and  a  penetrating  and  systematic  inti.1- 
ligcnce  which  never  slumbers,  however  it  may  be  mistaken, 
it  is  evident  that  there  are  few  names  in  the  recent 
history  of  theology  that  claim  more  significance  than 
that  of  Ferdinand  Christian  Baur.  Of  the  value  of  his 
labours  and  the  extent  to  which  his  theological  views  may 
be  said  to  have  verified  themselves  in  the  modern  mind 
which  has  continued  profoundly  agitated  by  the  problems 
v.hich  he  started,  this  is  not  the  place  to  speak.  It  need 
only  be  said  that,  while  many  of  his  opinions  are  strongly 
contested,  and  some  of  the  most  enliglitencd  recent  investi- 
gations prove  that  he  has  greatly  exaggerated  the  anta- 
gonisms of  the  early  church,  and  post-dated  most  of  tho 
writings  of  the  Kew  Testament,  it  is  at  the  same  time 
.vdmitted  by  nil  advanced  scholars  that  he  has,  even,  in  his 
exa,ggeralion3,  contributed  to  a  clearer  view  of  the  great 
principles  at  work  i.-  the  1st  and  2d  centuries  and  the  lines 
of  spiritual  movement  along  which  the  Christian  church 
moved  to  its  historical  formation  and  development.  No 
student  since  Baur  can  fail  to  recognize  the  distinctive 
influences  of  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christianity,  and  the 
extent  to  which  this  distinction,  anl  in  some  cases  anta- 
gonism, are  impressed  upon  the  New  Testament  WTilings. 
To  him  also  and  his  school  must  be  attributed  the  modern 
idea  that  the  surest  historical  foot-hold  of  Christianity  is  in 
the  four  great  Pauline  epistles.  These,  more  than  any 
other  New  Testament  writings,  lie  in  the  clear  dawn  of 
the  sun  rise  which  enlightened  tho  world.  The  Gospels 
remain,  not  indeed  in  a  mist  of  unauthentic  story,  hut  m 
compar.ative  shadow.  They  como  only  gradually  into  the 
light  after  a  long  dim  undergrowth  in  the  rich  soil  of 
Primitive  Christianity.  There  is  much  to  be  said  against 
I'.iur's  views  of  their  later  origin  in  the  2d  century.  Tho 
more  this  century  is  studied  the  less  does  it  seem  capable 
of  originating  such  marvellously  fresh  products  of  spiritual 
intelligence.  But  it  is  not  the  less  certain  that  the 
Synoptic  Gospels  took  their  present  form  only  by  degrees, 
and  that  while  they  have  their  root  in  the  Apostolic  Aee 
and  the  Apostolic  mind,  they  are  also  fashioned  1  y  lal«f 
influences,   and  adapted  to   sjiccial    wants   in    the    Vai^ 


450 


B  A  U— B  A  V 


Ghurch.  They  ire  the  deposits,  in  short,  of  Christian 
tradition,  handed  down  first  of  all,  and  probably  for  a  con- 
siderable period,  in  an  oral  form,  before  being  committed  to 
writing  in  such  a  form  as  we  now  have  them.  This,  which 
is  now  an  accepted  conclusion  with  every  historical  school  of 
theologians  in  England  no  less  than  in  Germany,  conserva- 
tive no  less  than  radical,  is  largely  the  result  of  the 
Tubingen  investigations.  It  may  have  been  understood 
before,  but  its  historical  significance  was  not  appreciated. 
Id  short,  if  we  distinguish  Baur's  method  from  his  special 
opinions  it  is  hardly  possible  to  overrate  his  influence  as 
•  theologian.  His  professed  methgd  was  to  seek  for  the 
solution  of-great  spiritual  as  of  great  intellectual  phenomena 
in  a  closer  and  more  minute  study  of  all  the  documents 
and  data  purporting  to  record  or  explain  these  phenomena, 
and  to  run  out  such  lines  of  fact  as  he  found  to  their  true 
consequences.  His  great  genius  and  learning  enabled  him 
to  read  the  meaning  of  certain  features  of  Primitive 
Christianity  hitherto  imperfectly  discerned,  and  to  point 
future  inquirers  along  the  true  road  of  discovery.  Un- 
happily, his  own  opinions  were  influenced  not  merely  by  his 
study  of  facts,  but  by  a  great  speculative  system  which 
dominated  his  intelligence,  and  prevented  him  from  seeing 
what  still  seems  to  most  minds  not  less  informed  than  his 
own  the  only  credible  explanation  of  the  vast  spiritual 
movement  whose  forces  and  developments  occupied  his 
Lfelong  study.  (J.  T.; 

BAUTAJN,  Louis  Eugene  Maeie,  &  French  philosopher 
and  theologian,  was  born  at  Paris  in  February  1796,  and 
died  in  October  1867  At  the  Ecole  Normale  he  came 
under  the  influence  of  Cousin,  whose  views  on  most 
philosophic  points  he  at  first  accepted.  In  1816  he  adopted 
the  profession  of  higher  teaching,  and  was  soon  after  called 
to  the  chair  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Strasburg. 
He  continued  in  this  position  for  many  years,  delivering  a 
parallel  course  of  lectures  as  professor  of  the  literary  faculty 
in  the  aame  city.  The  strong  reaction  against  merely 
speculative  philosophy,  which  carried  away  such  men  as  De 
Maistre  and  De  Lamennais,  was  not  without  influence  on 
Bautain.  In  1828  he  took  orders,  and  resigned  his  chair 
at  the  university.  For  several  years  he  remained  at  Stras- 
burg, leclHiring  at  the  Facvflty  and  at  the  College  of 
Juilly;  but  in  1849  he  set  out  for  Paris  as  vicar  of  the 
diocese.  At  Paris  he  obtained  considerable  reputation  as 
an  orator,  and  in  1853  was  made  professor  of  moral  theology 
at  the  theological  faculty.  This  post  he  held  till  his  death. 
Bautain  is  rather  a  scholastic  than  a  modern  philosopher. 
His  view  of  the  relation  between  reason  and  faith  is  essen- 
tially the  same  as  that  of  Anselm  and  his  great  successors. 
Revelation  is  supposed  to  give  materials  which  could  not 
otherwise  have  been  attained  by  the  human  mind,  and 
philosophy  supplies  the  scientific  exposition  or  evolution  of 
these  facts.     Theology  and  philosophy  thus  form  one  com- 


prehensive science ,  yet  the  system  is  far  removed  (rcia 
Rationalism.  Bautain  in  fact,  like  Pascal,  Newman,  aud 
others,  depreciates  reason  in  order  to  exalt  faith.  He 
points  out,  following  chiefly  the  Kantian  criticism,  thaf 
reason  is  limited  in  application,  and  can  never  yield  know- 
edge  of  things  as  they  are  in  themselves.  But  in  addition 
to  reason,  we  have,  according  to  him,  another  faculty  which 
may  be  called  Intelligence,  and  through  which  we  are  put 
in  connection  with  the  world  of  spiritual  and  invisiblo 
truth.  This  intelligence  does  not  of  itself  yield  a  body 
of  truth  ,  it  merely  contains  the  germs  of  the  higher  ideas, 
aud  these  seeds  are  made  productive  by  being  brought  into 
contact  with  revealed  facts.  This  fundamental  conception 
Bautain  works  out  in  detail  in  the  departments  of  psycho- 
logy and  morals.  His  works,  to  which  we  can  only  refer, 
are  well  deserving  of  attention.  The  most  important  of 
them  are — Philosophie  du  Christianisme,  1833;  Psyc/iotogU 
Erperimentale,  1839  (new  edition  entitled  Esprit  H amain 
et  ses  FacullSs,  1859)  ;  Philosophie  Morale,  1842  ;  Ueliijion 
et  Liberie,  1848;  La  Morale  de  I'EvangiU  comparSe  aux 
divers  systhmes  de  Morale,  1855. 

BAUTZEN  (in  Wendish  Budissin,  which  is  equivalent 
to  "  town  "),  the  capital  of  Saxon  Upper  Lausatia,  occupies 
an  eminence  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Spree,  680  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  32  E.N.E.  from  Dresden.  Lat. 
51°  1 1'  10'  N.,  Jong.  14°  25'  50'  E.  The  town  is  well 
built  aTid  surrounded  by  walls,  and  has  extensive  suburbs 
partly  lying  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  It  has  a  cathe- 
dral wMch  is  used  by  both  Protestants  and  Roman 
CatholicSj  and  five  other  churches,  a  handsome  town-house,  an 
orphan-asylum,  several  hospitals,  a  mechanics'  institute,  a 
famous  gymnasium,  a  normal  and  several  other  schools, 
and  two  public  libraries.  Its  general  trade  and  manufac- 
tures are  considerable,  including  linen,  cotton,  acd  woollen 
goods,  tobacco,  leather,  paper,  saltpetre,  gunpowder,  ic. 
Population  in  1871,  13,165  Bautzen  was  already  in 
existence  when  Henry  the  Fowler  conquered  Lausatia 
in  928.  't  became  a  town  and  fortress  under  Otto  L, 
his  successor,  and  speedily  attained  considerable  wealth 
and  importance,  for  a  good  share  of  which  it  was  indebted 
to  the  pilgrimages  which  were  made  to  the  "Arm  of 
St  Peter,"  preserved  in  one  of  the  churches.  It  suffered 
greatly  during  the  Hussite  war,  and  still  more  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  in  the  course  of  which  it  was  besieged 
and  captured  by  the  Electoral  Prince,  John  George  (1620), 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Wallenstein  (1633),  and  was  burned 
and  taken  by  the  Electoral  Prinee  of  Saxony.  At  the 
Peace  of  Prague  in  1635  it  passed  with  Lausatia  to  Saxony 
as  a  war  indemnity.  The  battle  of  Bautzen  was  fought 
here  on  the  21st  and  22d  of  May  1813,  between  the  French 
under  Napoleon  and  the  allied  forces  of  Russia  and  Prussia, 
in  which  after  severe  losses  on  both  sides,  the  latter  wer* 
defeated. 


BAVARIA 


Phynioai 
fMUuOJ. 


BAVARIA  (in  German,  Bayem),  a  kingdom  of  Southern 
Germany,  forming  part  of  the  German  Empire,  con- 
sists of  two  distinct  portions,  Bavaria  proper  and  the  Pala- 
tinate of  the  Rhino,  which  are  separated  by  the  grand 
duchies  of  Badon  and  Hesse.  Bavaria  proper  contains  an 
area  of  about  26,895  miles,  and  the  Palatinate  rather  less 
than  2282,  making  the  whole  extent  of  the  kingdom  about 
'  29,177  square  miles. 

The  frontier  of  Bavaria  proper  on  the  north-cast,  towards 
Bohemii,  consists  of  a  long  range  of  mountains  known  as 
the  Bi'hmcrwald ;  while  the  north  is  occupied  by  the 
Fichtelgebirge  and  the  Frankcnwald,  which  separate  Bavaria 
(rum  Rcuss,  Mciningen,  and  Hcssc-Darmstadt    The  ranges 


last  named  seldom  exceed  the  height  of  3000  or  4000 
feet ;  but  the  ridg5s  in  the  south,  towards  the  Tyrol,  form 
part  of  the  system  of  the  Alps,  and  frequently  attain  an 
elevation  of  9000  or  10,000  feet.  On  the  west  it  is  bounded 
by  Wiirtemberg,  Baden,  and  Uesse-Darnistadt  The  whole 
of  the  country  belongs  to  the  basins  of  the  Danube  and 
the  Main ;  by  far  the  greater  portion  being  draine'l  by 
the  former  river,  which,  entering  from  Swabia  as  a  navig- 
able stream,  traverses  the  entire  breadth  of  the  kingdom, 
with  a  winding  course  of  200  miles,  and  receives  in  iti 
passage  the  lUer,  the  Lech,  the  Isar,  and  the  Inn  from  the 
south,  and  the  Naab,  the  Altmiihl,  and  the  Wornltz  from 
the  north.     The  Inn   is'  navigable   before  it  enters   tbr 


13  A  V  A  11  J   A 


451 


CdvaiiaQ  territory,  and  afterwards  receives  the  Salza,  a 
large  river  flowing  from  Uppex  Austria.  The  Isar  does  not 
become  navigable  till  it  has  passed  Munich ;  and  the  Lech 
18  a  stream  of  a  similar  size.  The  Main  traverses  the 
northern  regions,  or  Upper  and  Lower  Franconia,  with  a 
very  winding  course,  and  greatly  facilitates  the  trade  of 
the  provinces.  The  district  watered  by  the  southern  tnbu- 
laries  of  the  Danube  consists  for  the  most  part  of'an 
extensive  plateau,  with  a  mean  elevation  of  2390  feet.  In 
tha  mountainous  parts  of  the  country  there  are  numerous 
lakes,  and  in  the  lower  portions  considerable  stretches  of 
m;irshv  gro'und.     The  climate  of   Bavaria  differs  greatly 


.■  ,     SRetcb  Map  of  Bavana  Proper. 

according  to  the  character  of  the  region,  being  cold  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Tyrol  but  warm  in  the  plains  adjoining  the 
Danube  and  the  Main.  On  the  whole,  the  temperature  is 
in  the  winter  months  considerably  colder  than  that  of  Eng- 
land, and  a  good  deal  hotter  during  summer  and  autumn. 

The  extent  of  forest  is  more  than  twice  that  of  the 
land  under  wood  in  Great  Britain.  It  fonns  more  than 
a  fourth  of  the  total  area  of  Bavaria,  while  in  Britain 
the  proportion  is  less  than  a  twenty-si.tth.  This  is 
owing  to  various  causes — the  extent  of  hilly  and  moun- 
tainous country,  the  thinness  of  the  population,  and  the 
necessity  of  keeping  a  given  extent  of  ground  under  wood 
for  the  supply  of  fuel.  Nearly  a  third  of  the  forests  are 
public  property,  and  furnish  a  considerable  addition  to  the 
rerenuei  They  are  principally  situated  in  the  provinces  of 
Uppyr  Bavaria,  Lower  Bavaria,  and  the  Upper  Palatinate. 
The  level  country,  including  both  Lower  Bavaria  (extending 
northwards  to  the  Danube),  and  the  western  and  middle  parts 
of  Kranconia,  is  very  productive  in  rye,  oats,  wheat,  barley, 
and  millet,  and  also  in  hemp,  flax,  hops,  madder,  and  (in 
Warm  situations)  in  vines.  The  last  are  grown  chiefly  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Lake  of  Constance  and" on  the  banks  of 
the  Main,  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course,  while  the 
most  extensive  hop-growing  district  is  central  Franconia. 
Pf'tatoea  are  cultivated  in  all  the  provinces,  but  e:pecially  in 
the  Pttltttiiiute  and  in  the  Spessart  district,  which  lies  in 
the  north-wi;3t  within  a  curve  of  the  Main.  The  southern 
division  of  Swabia  and  Upper  Bavaria,  where  pasture-land 
predominates,  form  a  cattle-breeding  district,  and  the  dairy 
produce  is  extensive,  no  less  than  11,000  tons  i-f  cheese 
•nd  2386  tt)ns  of  butler  being  sold  in  the  course  of  a  year. 
Tbe  fornMr  finds  a  market  all  over  Germany,  and  is  also 


e.tported  to  Austria,  trance,  and  other  countries,  while 
Northern  Germany  is  the  chief  consumer  of  the  latter.  Tha 
greater  proportion  of  the  land  throughout  the  kingdom  is 
in  the  hands  of  peasant  proprietors,  the  extent  of  the 
separate  holdings  difi"ering  very  much  in  different  districts. 
The  largest  peasant  property  may  be  about  170  English 
acres,  and  the  smallest,  except  in  the  Palatinate,  about  50'. 

According  to  the  returns  for  1863  the  number  of  cattle  Livestock, 
in  the  kingdom  was  3,185,688;  sheep,  2,058,638  ;  swine, 
920,522  ;  and  goats,  150,855.  Oxen  are  largely  employed 
in  agricultural  operations' instead  of  horses.  The  cattle,  as 
a  general  rule,  are  kept  in  sheds,  and  not  pastured  in  the 
fields. 

Of  mineral  deposits  Bavaria  possesses  a  great  variety.  Mineral* 
The  quantity  of  iron  ore  is  very  large  both  in  the  south 
and  north,  the  number  of  mines  being  between  200  and 
300.  Coal-mines  are  likewise  numerous,  especially  in  the 
districts  of  Amberg,  Kiasingen,  Steben,  Munich,  and  the 
Rhine  Palatinate.  The  produce  in  1867  was  nearly  351,000 
tons.  Of  quicksilver  there  are  several  mines,  chiefly  in  the 
Palatinate  of  the  Rhine ;  and  small  quantities  of  copper, 
manganese,  and  cobalt  are  obtained.  There  are  numerous 
quarries  of  excellent  marble,  alabaster,  gypsum,  and  build- 
ing stone ;  and  the  porcelain-clay  is  among  the  finest  in 
Europe.  To  these  may  be  added  graphite,  emery,  steatite, 
barytes,  felspar,  and  ochre,  in*  considerable  quantities  ; 
excellent  lithographic  stone  is  obtained  at  Solnhofen ; 
and  gold  and  silver  are  still  worked  to  an  insignificanf 
extent.  Salt  is  annually  prepared  on  a  large  scale,  being 
obtained  partly  from  brine  springs  and  partly  from  mines. 
The  principal  localities  are  Halle,  Berchtesgaden.  Traun- 
stein,  and  Rosenheim.  The  gross  production  in  1866  was 
41,119  tons,  and  the  value  at  the  works  amounted  to 
XC2,869.  In  the  following  year  the  Government  monopoly, 
which  had  existed  so  long,  was  abolished,  and  free  trade 
was  established  in  salt  between  the  members  of  the 
customs-union,  a  change  which  has  led  to  a  considerable 
import  of  salt  from  Prussia. 

A  great  stimulus  was  given  to  manufacturing  industry  Manufao- 
in  Bavaria  by  the  law  of  1868,  which  abolished  the  last  turei 
remains  of  the  old  restrictions  of  the  guilds,  and  gave  tho 
whole  country  tho  liberty  which  had  been  enjoyed  by  the 
Rhine  Palatinate  alone.  The  chief  manufacturing  centres 
are  Nuremberg  and  Munich  for  hardware,  and  Augsburg 
for  cloth  goods ;  but  various  other  towns  are  rising  into 
importance.  In  Franconia  are  numerous  paper-mills,  and 
saw-mills  are  naturally  common  in  the  forest  districts.  A 
considerable  quantity  of  glass  is  manufactured,  especially 
in  the  Bohmerwald,  and  wooden  wares  are  largely  pro- 
duced at  Ammergau  and  Berchtesgaden.  The  preparation  of 
tho  favourite  national  drink  forms  an  important  industry, — 
the  breweries  throughout  the  kingdom  numbering  upwards 
of  5000.  Among  the  most  remarkable  are  the  breweries 
of  Erlangen.  Other  articles  of  manufacture  arc  leather, 
tobacco,  and  earthenware. 

The  exports  from  Bavaria  consist  chiefly  of  salt,  timber,  Tni*. 
cattle,  pigs,  corn,  and  madder ;  and  the  imports  comprise 
sugar,  tobacco,  raw  cotton  and  cotton-goods,  silks  and 
linen,  iron  and  iron-wares.  As  most  of  the  imports  are 
introduced  indirectly  through  other  ZoUverein  states,  no 
custom-house  register  is  kept  of  the  total  amount. 

The  highroads  in  Bavaria  extend  in  all  over  9000  Commun>- 
milcs.  In  18G9  there,  were  rather  more  than  1600  miles  "t'oi. 
of  railway  in  operation,  and  nearly  300  were  in  course  of 
construction.  Tho  greater  proportion  is  in  the  hands  of 
tho  Government,  and  the  remainder  belongs  to  the  Eastern 
Company  and  the  United  Railway  Companies  of  the  Rhine 
Palatinate.  The  principal  cau.il  in  the  kingdom  is  th» 
Ludwigs-canal,  which  connects  the  Rhine  with  the  Danube, 
extending  from  Bamberg  on  the  Rcgnilz  to  Dirlfurt  on 


452  B  AY 

the  AlttnuM,  There  is  an  extoasive  network  of  telegraphs, 
jiU  of  which  belong  to,  and  are  worked  by,  the  Govern- 
iment  post-office. 
Sation-.l  "  The  BaTariaua  proper  form  a  distinct  section  of  the 
cbnrsru:  ;  German  race,  speaking  a  well-defined  dialect  of  the  High 
German ,  but  a  large  portion  of  the  population  of  the 
country  is  of  Swabian  origin.  The  national  character 
resembles  that  of  the  Austrians,  being  generally  marked  by 
fidelity  and  loyalty  In.matters  of  religion  they  are  credu- 
lous and  even  superstitious ;  and  the  will  of  their  superiors 
is  received  by  the  lon-er  orders  with  great  deference  both 
'u  political  and  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Independence  of 
thought  and  action  have,  however,  been  gradually  increas- 
ing ;  and  now  that  the  country  has  become  part  of  the 
German  empire,  a  rapid  transfusion  of  intellectual  and 
political  life  is  apparently  taking  place. 

The  present  form  of  government  is  founded  partly  on 
i^iong-established  usage  and  partly  on  a  constitutional  act, 
passed  in  May  1818,  and  modified  by  subsequent  acts,  o( 
which  the  most  important  was  passed  in  18-18-9.-  The 
monarchy  is  hereditary,  with  a  legislative  body  of  two 
houses.  The  title  of  the  sovereign  is  simply  king  of  Bavaria ; 
that  of  his  presumptive  heir  is  crown-prince  of  Bavaria. 
The  executive  power  is  vested  al;  -'gether  in  the  king,  whose 
person  is  declared  inviolable,  the  responsibility  rests  with 
the  ministers,  whose  functions  are  nearly  the  same  as  those 
of  ministers  in  England  ;  and  there  are  offices  for  foreign 
affairs  for  the  home  department,  for  religion  and  education, 
for  the  treasury,  the  army,  and  the  administration  of  justice. 
These  are  all  situated  in  Munich,  the  capital.  The  upper 
house  of  the  Bavarian  parliament,  known.as  the  Chamber 
of  the  Reichsi-dthe,  comprises  the  princes  of  the  blood-royal, 
the  two  archbishops,  the  barons  or  heads  of  certain  noble 
families,  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop  and  Protestant  clergjTnan 
appointed  by  the  Crown,  aad  any  other  members  whom  the 
king  may  nominate  either  as  hereditary  peers  or  as  coun- 
sellors for  life ;  but  these  last  must  not  exceed  a  third  of 
the  hereditary  members.  The  lower  house,  or  Chamber 
of  Representatives  {Wahlhavimer),  consists  of  about  150 
deputies,  who  formerly  were  chosen  in  definite  proportions 
from  the  different  classes  of  the  community,  an  eighth  part 
from  the  nobility,  another  eighth  from  the  clergy,  a  fourth 
part  from  the  burghers,  and  the  remaining  half  from  the 
landed  proprietors;  but  since  1848  they  may  be  selected 
without  any  such  restrictions.  A  general  election  takes 
place  once  in  si.T  years,  one  deputy  being  allowed  for  every 
7000  families  in  the  kingdom.  The  election,  however,  is 
indirect, — electoral  proxies,  or  Wahlmdnner,  to  whom  the 
real  election  is  entrusted,  being  chosen  by  the  general  body 
of  electors  at  the  rate  of  one  proxy  to  every  500  men.  The 
king  generally  convenes  the  parliament  once  a  year,  and  by 
the  constitution  it  is  obligatory  on  him  to  do  so  at  least 
once  in  three  years. 
twnniA  "  •  The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  budget  for  the  year 
1874-5,  in  marks  (equal  to  Is.  sterling) : — 

REOEirra. 
Direct  Taxa.  Karfci. 

Land  tax 11,43S,S:3 

Tax  on  buildings 1,995,088 

Tax  on  licences 2,820,000 

Tax  on  capital 1,628,671 

Tftz  onincome 857,U3 

.  18,739,123 

Indirect  Taxet.  .  ^    _ 

Rfpstration        ..10,889,00« 

SUmp-duty.™. ..  8,286,029 

Molt  tax........... 17,727,137 

CMtoma......::. 1,3H,171 

35,240,343 

Oar^  forward,  £1,985,466 


A   R  I  A 

Brought  forward.  Sl,9S(i.49C 

Jioyalties  and  Stale  Estabtiskmaits. 

Mrnesand  Salt-works 8,788,285 

Coinage 245,045 

Iwilwars 58,281,257 

Tost-office 7,705,261 

Telegraphs 1,315,029 

Ludwig  canal 138,581 

*  Sundries 437,772 

- — —      76,911.240 

Domains S«i,212,2/7 

Special  duties.". ~:.^       55.366 

Other  receipts .-;.....        598,188 

Surplus  of  eleventh  financial  period !'.  10,851,423 

Imperial  subsidy 34,580,760 

.^Iiare  of  French  iudp^^nity *.;,  ..*»...        857,143 

Total  receipts... «,..,-«« '.212,051,868  U.'.rks, 

•or  £10,602.693 

DlSBUr-Sr.MF.NTS. 

Public  debt..... ;=... 27,581,400 

Ciril  list 6,415,470 

Council  of  state 104,955 

Parliamentary  expenses 346,005 

Royal  household  and  foreign  affairs 671,091 

Justice 11,764,618 

Home  department 18,209,522 

Treasury 2,3p9,553 

Religion  and  education....: 18,476,318 

Contribution  to  imperial  funds 14,747,691 

.i^rmy 34,580,760 

Pensions  to  widows  and  orjihans 1,689,771 

Reserve  fund „ 899,409 

Total 136,846,594 

Expenses  of  administration ...  75, 205, 274 

212,051,868  Herks. 
or  £10,602,593 

The  Bavarian  army  forms,  since  the  23d  November  ArmJ. 
1870,  a  separate  portion  of  the  army  of  the  German 
empire,  with  a  distinct  administration ;  but  its  organiza- 
tion is  subject  to  the  general  imperial  rules,  and  in  time  of 
war  it  is  placed  under  the  command  of  the  emperor.  It 
comprises  two  corps  d'arime,  each  divided  into  two  divi- 
sions. In  time  of  peace  its  infantry  consists  of  26,.')90 
men,  distributed  in  sixteen  regiments  ;  besides  which 
there  are  ten  battalions  of  chussenrs,  5500  strong,  and 
thirty-two  battalions  oi  landwchr ;  the  cavalry  numbers 
7200  men  divided  into  ten  regiment.s,  and  the  artillery 
amounts  to  5528  men  in  six  rcgmients  ;  there  are  also  two 
battalions  of  pioneers  and  as  many  of  the  military  train. 
In  time  of  war  the  total  force  is  raised  to  149,892,  oi 
rather  more  than  trebled. 

The  districts  of  Lower  Bavaria,  Upper  Bavaria,  and  the  Eeligwo. 
Upper  Palatinate  are  almost  wholly  Catholic,  while  in  the 
Rhine  Palatinate,  Upper  Franconia,  and  especially  Miudlo 
Franconia,  the  preponderance  is  on  the  side  of  the  Pro- 
testants. The  exercise  of  religious  worship  in  Bavaria  is 
altogether  free.  The  Protestants  have  the  same  civil  rights 
OS  the  Catholics,  and  the  sovereign  may  bo  either  Catholic 
or  Protestant.  Of  the  Roman  Cathobc  Church  the  heads 
are  the  two  archbishops  of  Munich-Froising  and  Bamberg, 
and  the  six  bishops  of  Eichstiidt,  Spire,  Wiirzburg,  Atigs- 
burg,  Regensburg,  and  Passau,  of  whom  the  first  three  ;iro 
sulfragans  of  Bamberg.  The  "  Old  Catholic "  party  has 
recently  taken  considerable  bold  of  the  country,  aud  has 
organized  congregations  in  all  the  more  important  towns. 
Among  the  Protestants  the  highest  authority  is  the  general 
consistory  of  Munich.  The  proportion  of  tho  different 
religions  in  1871  was  as  follows: — Roman  Catholics, 
3,464,3C4;  Protestants,  1,.'?42,592;  Jews,  50,662  ;  lesscj 
Christian  sects,  6453  ;  other  religions,  379. 

Bavaria  was  formerly  as  backward  in^reeard  to  educa- 


B  A  V  A  R  I  A 


453 


tion  as  Austria,  or  any  part  of  the  south  of  Germany;  but 
latterly  considerable  ell'urta  have  been  made  to  lessen  the 
prevailing  ignonince.  At  Munich  there  are  scientific  and 
literary  academies,  as  well  as  a  university,  a  lyceum,  a 
gymnasium,  and  other  public  schools.  The  university  has 
a  very  numerous  attendance  of  students,  ranking  third  in 
the  new  German  empire ;  and  there  are  two  provincial 
universities  on  a  small  scale,  one  (Catholic),  at  Wiirzburg, 
the  other  (Protestant)  at  Erlangen  in  Franconia.  In  the 
kingdom  at  large  there  are  ten  lyceums,  twenty-eight 
gymnasia,  about  sixty  progymnasia,  besides  ten  normal, 
twenty-sii  trade,  three  polytechnic,  and  upwards  of  7000 
common  schools.  These  certainly  form  a  great  contrast  to 
the  indifference  and  neglect  of  former  times  ;  and  the 
Government  continues  to  evince  much  solicitude  for  the 
diffusion  of  instruction.  Technical  schools  here,  as  in  other 
parts  of  Germany,  have  been  established  for  the  purpose  of 
affording  to  mechanics  more  suitable  education  than  they 
could  otherwise  obtain,  including  mathematics,  mechanics, 
drawing,  chemistry,  architecture,  itc.  These  schools  are 
supported  by  the  commune,  aided  when  necessary  by  the 
province,  and  commissioners  are  annually  sent  by  Govern- 
ment to  examine  aud  report  upon  them  to  the  minister  of 
trade.  The  course  extends  over  three  years,  from  the  age 
of  twelve  to  fifteen,  after  which  pupils  may  enter  one  of 
three  polytechnic  schools,  where  a  still  higher  co  irse  of 
instruction  is  imparted,  also  extending  over  three  years  ; 
but  engineers  have  a  siiccial  fourth  year's  course.  A  build- 
ing school  was  established  at  JIunich  in  1S23,  and  is 
chiefly  intended  for  carpenters  and  masons,  who  are  there 
instructed  in  architecture,  drawing,  geometry,  stone-cutting, 
modelling  ornaments,  itc. 

The  duchy  of  Bavaria  during  the  Middle  Ages  consisted 
of  the  southern  half  of  the  present  kingdom,  and  Lay  almost 
all  to  the  south  of  the  Danube,  extending  about  100  miles 
from  that  river  to  the  Tyrol,  and  somewhat  more  from 
Swabia  on  the  west  to  Austria  on  the  east.  The  addition 
in  1623  of  the  Upper  Palatinate,  a  province  of  full  3000 
square  miles,  to  the  north  of  the  Danube,  gave  tlie  elector 
a  territory  of  about  15,000  square  miles,  with  a  population 
of  less  than  1,000,000,  which  in  a  century  and  a  half  had 
increased  to  about  1,500,000.  In  1778  the  succession  of 
the  Rhenish  branch  of  the  reigning  family  added  the  Pala- 
tinate of  the  Rhine,  and  in  180G  a  large  augmentation 
was  effected  by  Napoleon,  who  presented  the  king  with 
the  districts  of  the  Lower  Main  and  the  Rezat,  and  with 
part  of  those  of  the  Upi)cr  Main  and  the  Upper  Danube  ; 
not  to  mention  Tyrol,  which  was  afterwards  restored  to 
Austria.  Some  slight  changes  have  taken  place  in  the 
extent  of  the  kingdom  since  then  ;  but  its  general  character 
has  not  been  affected.  The  most  important  cession  of 
recent  ye.ars  was  that  of  part  of  Franconia  in  1866  to  Krussia, 
amounting  to  291  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
'S2,9T6  inhabitants.  The  following  table  gives  the  present 
and  former  division  of  the  kingdom  and  its  population  in 
!818,  184C,  and  1871  respectively:— 


CM  Circle. 

New  Circles, 

Area 
in 

FopulAlloii. 

EvS- 



Miles.      18U. 

1S46.          1871. 

bar 

Upper  Raviiria 

CiSC,  583,407  705,SU  841,707 

I  ower  DanuVie 

Lower  Hiivaria 

4141  450,895'543,709l(J03,7S!> 

licgon 

Upper  Palatinate 

3717  403,4811467,6061497,86! 

I'Ppcr  Maia 

Uprier  Franconia 
Mi(5(Ue        „ 

2092  394.954  501.163;i41,OC:i 

r.oial 

2900  437,833  527,806  583. 600 

i.'iwer  Main 

Lower         „ 

3230 

501,212  592,080,586,132 

1  [[fr  Danube 

Swobia 

3651 

487,951558.436  582,773 

IlhMll: 

Uhinc  P.alalinat 

22S2'446,108  008,470615,035 

The  t.,l.il  population  in  1871,  including  the  trooi'S  then 
absent  lu   rmiice,  amounted  to  <,'5C3,H50.     The  dciiUly 


Upper  Palatinate  .. 
Upper  Franconia  .. 

Middle  Franconia 

Lower  Franconia.  . 
Swubia 


of  population  varies  considerably  in  the  different  districts 
from  about  273  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  in  the  Palar 
tinate  to  128  in  Upper  Bavaria.  As  represented  by  the 
increase  of  each  successive  census  the  growth  of  the  popu- 
lation is  rather  slow,  but  a  large  amount  of  emigration  to 
America  and  elsewhere  iLas  to  be  taken  into  account.  A 
very  considerable  number  of  the  people  are  urban,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  list  of  principal  towns  (arranged 
in  the  order  of  the  circles   with  their  populations  : — 

Uurer  Bavaria  jWunicl.  .'cyiilal)   ;6D,693 

upper  uavaria ,^  i„„j,,^jjdt_^ .^ jj  ,57 

i  Lamisbut 14,140 

Lower  liavaria I  Passau _ 13,379 

Straubing ....^ 11,150 

Ratisbon  <or  RegcnsbuTg)..  £9,185 

Amberg : ..  lI,6SS 

Bambeifi ,, 25.733 

Bayreulh ." 17,841 

Hof ...........  18,010 

Nuremberg 83,214 

FuTth ......_ 24,577 

Ansbach 12,636 

Erlangen... ..rv...^ 12,510 

Wurzburg 40.005 

Scbweinriirt.     .-  10,325 

AschafTenbuig  ..■^ 9,212 

Augsburg 51,220 

Kemplen 11,823 

I  Kaiserslauter; ; 17,i98 

Palatinate  of  Rhine  .<  Spire 13,223 

(  Keustadt _,  9,320 

The  name  in  German,  Bayern,  or  Baiern,  is  derived," 
like  Latin  Boiaria,  from  Boii,  the  name  of  a  Celtic  people' 
by  whom  the  country,  which  then  formed  part  of  Rha;tia, 
Vindelicia,  and  Noricum,  was  inhabited  in  the  time  of 
Augustus.  After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  power  the  natives 
were  governed  by  chieftains  of  their  own  till  the  era  of 
Charlemagne,  who  subjugated  this  as  well  as  most  other 
parts  of  Germany.  After  his  death  Bavaria  was  governed 
by  one  of  his  grandsons,  whose  successors  bore  the  title  of 
iNIargrave,  or  Lord  of  the  Marches.  In  the  year  920  the 
ruling  margrave  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  duke,  which 
continued  the  title  of  his  successors  for  no  less  than  seven 
centuries.  During  this  period  Bavaria  was  connected  with 
Germany  n.itionally  by  langu.age  and  politically  as  a 
frontier  province,  but  in  civilization  was  almost  as  back- 
ward as  Austria,  and  was  greatly  behind  Saxony,  Franconia, 
and  the  banks  of  the  Rhine.  At  last,  in  1620,  the  reign- 
ing duke,  having  rendered  great  service  to  Austria  again.^t 
an  insurrection  in  Bohemia,  received  an  important  accession 
of  territory  at  the  expen.se  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  and  waj 
appointed  one  of  the  nine  electors  of  the  empire.  II 13 
successors  continued  faithful  members  of  the  Germanic 
body  and  allies  of  Austria  until  1771,  when  the  elector 
Max  Emanuel  began  to  assist  Louis  XIV.  of  France  by 
threatening  and  attacking  Austria,  so  as  to  prevent  her 
from  co-operating  eiTiciently  with  England  and  Holland. 
This  induced  the  duke  of  JIarlborough,  in  the  spring  of 
1704,  to  march  his  army  above  300  miles  from  the  bank.s 
of  the  Meuse  to  invade  Bavaria,  the  fate  of  which  wuh 
decided  by  the  battle  of  Blenheim  on  the  13th  August 
1704.  For  ten  years  from  this  date  the  elector  and  his 
remaining  forces  served  in  the  French  armies,  and  his 
country  was  governed  by  imperial  commission  until  the 
peace  of  Utrecht,  or  more  properly  that  of  Baden,  in  1714, 
reinstated  him  in  his  dominions. 

His  son  Charles  Albert,  who  succeeded  him  in  1726. 
untaught  by  these  disasters,  renewed  his  connection  with 
France;  and,  in  1740,  on  the  death  of  the  emperor  of 
Germany,  came  forward  as  a  candidate  for  the  iinpeiial 
crown.  He  obtained  the  nomination  of  a  majority  of  the 
electors,  and  ovciran  a  considcr.ible  part  of  the  Au.*tri;m 
territory;  but  his  triumph  was  of  short  duration,  for'  tnrj 
arnii',-8  of  Marie  TIierLsa  not  only  rcfiiilsed  the  Bavannns, 


454 


B  A  X  —  B  xV  X 


but  obtained  iq  1744  posseasioD  of  the  electorate.  The 
elector  died  soon  after,  aad  hia  son  Maximilian  Joseph 
recovered  his  domioioQs  ouly  by  renouncing  the  preten- 
sions of  his  father. 

Bavaria  now  remained  tranquil  above  thirty  years,  until 
1777,  when,  by  the  death  of  Maicimilian,  the  younger  line 
of  the  house  of  VVittelsbach,  the  line  which  had  long  ruled 
in  Bavaria,  became  extinct.  The  next  heit  was  Charles 
Theodore  the  Elector  Palatine,  the  representative  of  the 
elder  line  of  WitteUbach  ,  but  Austria  unexpectedly  Uid 
claim  to  the  succession,  and  took  military  possession  of 
part  of  the  country.  This  called  into  the  field,  on  the  side 
of  Bavaria,  Frederic  II.  of  Prussia,  then  advanced  in  years  • 
but,  before  any  blood  had  been  shed,  Austria  desisted  from^ 
.her  pretensions,  on  obtaining  from  Bavana  the  frontier 
district  which  bears  the  name  of  lunviertel,  or  the  Quarter 
of  the  Inn 

Bavaria  again  remained  at  peace  until  the  great  contest 
between  Germany  and  France  began  in  1793,  when  she 
was  obliged  to  furnish  her  coutingent  as  a  member  of  the 
empire.  During  three  years  her  territory  was  untouched  ; 
but  in  the  summer  of  1796,  a  powerful  French  army  under 
Morcau  occupied  her  capital,  forced  her  to  sign  a  separate 
treaty  with  France,  and  to  withdraw  her  contingent  from 
the  imperial  army.  The  next  war  between  France  and 
Austria,  bejun  in  1799,  ending  ( isaslrously  for  the  latter, 
the  influence  of  France  id  the  empire  was  greatly 
strengthened,  so  that,  when  the  Austnans  once  more  took 
up  arms,  in  lt<05,  Bavaria  was  the  firm  ally  of  France, 
and  for  the  first  time  found  advantage  in  the  connection, — 
its  elector,  Maximilian  Josepb,  receiving  from  Napoleon 
the  title  of  king  and  several  additions  of  territory. 

Bavaria  continued  to  support  the  French  interest  with 
her  best  energies  till  1813,  when,  on  condition  of  her  late 
acquisitions  being  secured  to  her,  she  waa  led  to  join  the 
Allies,  and  her  forces  contributed  largely  to  the  ultimate 
defeat  of  Bonapart«.  In  1818  MasimiUan  presented  bis 
country  with  a  constitution,  of  rather  a  mixed  character, 
ia  which  an  attempt  was  made  at  once  to  satisfy  the 
growing  desire  fur  political  liberty  and  to  maintain 
the  kingly  power  At  the  same  time  several  beuefiiial 
meaaures.  such  as  the  abolition  oT  serfdom,  were  eflfected 
in  the  earlier  sessions  of  the  new  parliament  In  1825 
Maximilian  was  succeeded  by  bis  son  Louis,  who  dis 
tinguished  himself  as  a  promoter  of  the  fine  arts,  but  proved 
biinaelf  destitute  of  political  capacity,  and  in  consciousness 


of  his  disagreement  with  the  spirit  of  his  times,  abdicated 
in  March  1848  in  favour  of  his  SOD  Maximilian  1'  It 
was  not  long  before  the  difficulties  of  the  new  king  were 
distinctly  brought  to  view  by  the  insurrection  of  the  demo- 
cratic party  in  WestphaUa.  By  the  assistance  of  Prussia 
the  rising  was  quelled,  and  punishment  was  60  ru'li- 
lessly  inflicted  by  the  tribunals  that  the  trials  became 
known  as  the  bloody  assizes.  An  anti-liberal  reaction 
set  in,  and  many  of  the  political  gains  of  former  years 
were  consequently  lost.  In  1864  King  Louis  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  of  the  same  name  (Louis  11.),  and  at  this  time 
the  great  question  on  the  future  hegemony  of  Germany 
was  being  agitated  throughout  the  country.  In  the  war 
of  1866  the  Bavarian  Government  and  people  threw  m 
their  lot  with  Austria,  shared  in  the  contest,  and  were 
involved  in  the  defeat  and  loss.  On  the  withdrawal  of 
Austria  from  the  German  confederation  a  change  of  policy 
was  introduced,  and  the  Government  veered  round  to 
the  interests  of  Prussia,  a  course  which  was  confirmed  by 
the  Franco-German  War  of  1870,  when  Bavaria  took  an 
active  part  with  Prussia  against  the  com-non  enemy.  Much 
ferment,  however,  remained  m  the  country,  and  religious 
elements  were  introduced  into  the  politual  discussions. 
The  clerical,  or.  as  it  styles  itself,  the  patriot  party,  is 
opposed  to  Prussian  influence,  and  conte,fid3  for  "  particu 
larism,"  wishing  to  maintain  a  greater  degree  of  mdepend- 
eace  for  Bavaria  than  seems  to  be  compatible  with 
imperial  unity.  For  a  number  of  years  the  Government 
has  been  in  the  hands  ^f  the  Liberal  party.  Thus  a  scries 
of  the  most  important  measures  have  been  passed  With  a 
liberal  tendency,  and  the  country  is  being  graiiially 
assimilated  to  the  more  advanced  states  of  Northern 
Germany  The  focus  oi  the  Liberal  party  is  the  Pala,tiriaie 
of  the  Rhine,  while  tha  "  patriots  "  are  mainly  recruited 
from  the  districts  of  Old  Havana.  The  decisive  tiiunipti 
of  the  former  was  marked  by  the  treaty  of  Novemler  23, 
1870,  between  Bavaria  and  the  Confederation  of  N(  them 
Germany,  which  was  followed  by  the  recognition  of  the 
king  of  Prussia  as  the  bead  of  a  new  German  .mpi:" 
At  the  same  time  a  greater  degree  of  independence  was 
granted  to  Bavana  than  to  the  other  members  of  the 
Confederation  ,  it  was  freed  from  the  domiciliary  sucveil 
lance  of  the  empire,  and  allowed  to  retain  the  administration 
of  Its  own  postal  and  telegraph  systems,  while  its  army  hiu< 
a  st>parate  organuation,  and  during  peace  is  under  lbs 
command  of  the  Bavarian  king. 


BAXAB,  or  BoxaB,  a  town  of  Hjndu^n,  in  the  province 
of  Behar,  district  of  ShAhib4d,  on  the  south  bank  of  ths 
Ganges,  in  25° 32' N.lat,  84° 3'  E  long  The  fort.though  of 
small  size,  was  important  from  its  commanding  tha  Ganges, 
but  is  now  dismantled.  The  place  is  distinguished  by  i 
celebrated  victory  gained  on  the  23d  October  1764  by  the 
British  forces  undiir  Major  (afterwards  Sir  Hector  ^  Munro, 
over  the  united  armies  of  Suji  udDaulah  and  K  isiin  Ali 
Kh4a  The  action  raged  from  9  o'clock  till  noon,  when 
the  enemy  gave  way  Pursuit  wasi,  however,  frustrated 
by  SujA-udDaulah  sacrificing  a  part  of  his  army  to  the 
safety  of  the  remainder  A  bridge  of  boats  had  been  con- 
structed over  a  stream  about  2  miles  distant  fnun  the  field 
of  battle,  and  this  the  enemy  destroyed  beforo  their  rear 
had  passed  over.  Through  this  act  2000  troops  were 
drowned,  or  othurwise  lost,  but  destruclivi!  as  wiw  this 
proceeding,  it  was,  soya  Major  Munro,  "  the  best  pieiu  of 
gyncralahip  Siijiud-Danlah  showed  that  day,  because  if  I 
had  crossed  the  rivulet  with  the  army,  I  shoidd  either 
l.ttve  taken  or  drowned  his  whole  army  in  the  KnrumnAsA, 
aai  come  up  with  hi»  trnasurc  and  jewels,  and   Kasiin  Ali 


Khan's  jewels,  which  I  wa.s  informed  amounted  to  betucra 
two  and  three  mtUions."     I'opiilalioo  in  1S12,  13,446 

BAXTEK,  Andrew,  on  able  metapbysuiaii.  the  sod  oi 
a  merchant  in  Old  Aberdeen,  was  born  in  1686  or  1  i.''7, 
and  educated  at  King's  College  there.  After  leaving  Ilia 
university  he  acted  for  some  years  as  tutor  to  various  young 
g.'ntlenitn,  among  others  to  Lord  (Jray,  Lord  Blanlyre, 
and  Mr  Hay  of  DrummeUier.  In  1733  he  published  in 
quarto,  but  without  date.  An  hnjuiry  vilo  (ht  S'ntuir  of 
Ihf  Human  S"iil,  wherein  its  iiiiinatenaiily  is  deduced  (luui 
the  pniiii|iles  of  rca.son  and  philosophy  In  174  1  lie  wnt 
abroad  with  Mr  Iluy,  and  residid  bcveiul  ycira  at  Ulrerht, 
from  which  place  he  uiade  excuraions  into  Flaiider.s,  Fr.inie, 
and  (Jcrniany.  He  returned  to  iSmilaiij  m  1747,  uud 
resuled  at  Whiltinghiim,  in  Uaddiiigloiisliirc,  IdJ  bis  dinlh, 
which  occurred  on  Aprd  23,  17.')0  His  principal  work, 
besides  the  Inijuiry,  was  a  short  dialogue  cntitlcil  iLiiho, 
five  Cosnuitluuna  pnerilis,  DiaJuifus  m  i^uo  firtititi  flrtu-'uta 
df  mun<U  orciine  rt  oritatti  pri'^Htnunfur,  Ac.  Tlua  waA 
afterwards  greatly  cnlntgcd.  mid  publislit'd  in  English  m 
two  vdtunics  8v(i       III  17.^0  wiui  published  au  appcfldij  141 


BAXTER 


4o5 


bis  Tnijuiry  into  Cte  feature  of  the  Human  Soul,  in  which 
lie  eudeavourcd  to  remove  some  difficujties  which  had  been 
ttarted  against  his  notions  of  the  fw  inertia  of  matter,  by 
Maclaarin,  in  his  Account  of -Sir  Isaac  Newton's  PhUoso- 
pkical  Dtacoveries.  To  this  Baxter  pre&zed  a  dedica- 
tion to  John  Wilkes,  with  whom  he  had  formed 
acquaintance  abroad.  The  Inqniri/  is  a  work  of  no 
small  ability.  The  author  begins  by  eiaiaining,  after  the 
principles  of  the  Newtonian  philosophy,  the  properties  of 
matter.  All,  save  one,  result  from  forces  which  act  on 
matter.  The  one  essential  property  of  matter  \s  its  mac- 
livity,  vis  inertice,  or  resistance  to  motion.  From  this  single 
fact  it  at  once  follows  that  all  action  or  movement  must  be 
the  effect  of  some  immaterial  cause,  «.^.,  of  God.  The  spon- 
taneous motions  of  the  body  are  not  of  the  same  kind  as 
the  mechanical  movements  of  the  external  universe,  and 
are  accordingly  to  be  ascribed  to  a  special  immaterial  force, 
or  spirit,  the  soul.  From  the  immateriality  of  the  soul  its 
immortality  is,  of  course,  deduced.  Nor  does  the  conscious 
existence  of  the  soul  depend  upon  that  of  the  body  ,  it  lives 
after  death.  Baxter  supports  his  argument  by  a  long 
analysis  of  the  phenomena  of  dreams,  which  he  ascribes 
to  direct  spiritual  inBuence,  and  Bnally  attempts  to  prove 
that  matter  is  not  eternal  A  second  edition  of  the  Inquiry 
was  published  in  1737,  and  a  third  in  1745. 
f'  BAXTER,  Richard,  oneof  the  mosteminentof  English 
divines,  styled  by  Dean  Stanley  "  the  chief  of  English 
Protestant  Schoolmen,"  was  born  at  Rowton  in  Shrop- 
shire, at  the  house  of  his  maternal  grandfather,  on 
November  12,  1615.  His  family  connections  were 
favourable  to  the  growth  of  piety.  But  his  early 
education  was  much  neglected,  and  he  did  not  study  at 
any  university,  a  circumstance  worthy  of  notice,  con- 
sidering the  eminent  learning  to  which  he  afterwards 
attained  His  best  instructor  was  a  Mr  John  Owen,  master 
of  the  Free  School  at  Wroxeter.  His  diligence  in  the  ac- 
quirement of  knowledge  was  remarkable,  and  from  the  6r3t 
he  had  a  strong  bent  towards  the  philosophy  with  which 
religion  is  conc»rned,  —  Mr  Francis  Garbel  of  Wroxeter 
being  the  director  of  these  studies.  For  a  short  time  his 
attention  was  turned  to  a  court  life,  and  he  went  to  London 
under  the  patronage  of  Sir  Henry  Herbert,  master  of  the 
revels,  to  follow  that  course,  but  he  vervsoon  returned  home 
with  a  fixed  resolve  to  cultivate  the  pursmt  of, divinity 
Practical  rather  than  speculative  theology  seems  to  have 
occupied  his  mind,  and  he  therefore  presented  himself  for 
ordination  without  any  careful  examination  of  the  Church  of 
England  system.  He  was  nominated  to  the  mastership  of 
the  Free  Grammar  School,  Dudley,  in  which  place  he  com- 
menced bis  ministry,  having  been  ordained  and  Lcensed  by 
Thornborough,  bishop  of  Worcester.  His  popularity  as 
a  preacher  was.  at  this  early  period,  very  great ;  and  he 
was  soon  transferred  to  Bridgnorth,  where,  as  assistant  to 
a  Mr  Madstard,  he  established  a  reputation  for  the  vigorous 
discharge  of  the  duties  of  his  office 

During  this  tune  lie  tuok  a  special  interest  in  the 
-ontroversy  relating  to  Noncopforniily  and  (he  English 
Ohurcb.  Ho  snnn.  nn  some  poiDtn,  became  alietialed  from 
ib<!  Church  ,  aii'l  after  Ije  requirement  of  what  is  railed 
'  ;b«  el  cetera  oath."  he  rejected  Episcopacy  in  its  Ei'gUsh 
fcm.  He  could  not,  however,  be  called  more  than  a 
modcrata  Noncanformist  ;  and  gjich  he  continued  to  be 
throughout  bis  life  Though  commonly  denominated  a 
IVe&byleriao.  he  had  no  exclusive  allaulinient  to  Presby- 
lerinni'T),  and  often  manifested  a  willingness  to  accept  a 
modi6ed  Epiicopalunism  All  forms  of  church  government 
vre  regarded  by  him  as  subservient  to  the  true  purposes 
uf  religion. 

One  of  iheBrst  measu.'es  of  IbaLung  Parliament  was  to 
-(feci  the  reformation  of  the  clergy  ,    and.  with   this  view. 


a  committee  wj,s  ap;>oiated  to  receive  complaints  against 
them.  Among  the  complainants  were  the  inhabitants  of 
Kidderminster,  a  town  which  had  become  famous  for  iis 
ignorance  and  depravity.  This  state  of  matters  was  co 
clearly  proved  that  an  arrangement  was  agreed  to  on  the 
p.irt  of  the  vicar,  by  which  he  aDowed  X60  a  year,  out  of 
his  income  of  £200,  to  a  preacher  who  should,  be  chosen 
by  certain  trustees.  Baxter  was  invited  to  deliver  a  sermon 
before  the  people,  and  was  unammously  elected  as  the 
minister  of  the  place.  This  happened  in  1641,  when  he 
was  twenty-six  years  of  age. 

His  ministry  contmued,  with  very  considerable  interrup- 
tions, for  about  nineteen  years ,  and  during  that  time  be 
accomplished  a  work  of  reformation  in  Kidderminster  aci 
the  neighbourhood  which  is  as  notable  as  anything  of  tie 
same  kind  upon  record.  Civdized  behaviour  succeeded  to 
brutality  of  manners  ;  and,  whereas  the  professors  of 
religion  had  been  but  small  exceptions  to  the  mass,  the 
unreligious  people  became  the  exceptions  in  their  turn. 
He  formed  the  ministers  in  the  country  around  him  into  an 
association  for  the  better  fulfilment  of  the  duties  of  their 
calling,  uniting  them  together  irrespective  of  their  differ' 
ences  as  Presbyterians,  Episcopalians,  and  Independents. 
The  spirit  in  which  he  acted  may  be  judged  of  from  The 
Reformed  Pastor,  a  book  published  m  relation  to  the 
general  ministerial  efforts  he  promoted.  It  drives  home 
the  sense  of  clerical  responsibiUty  with  extraordinary  pewer. 
The  result  of  his  action  is  that,  to  this  day  his  memory  is 
cherished  as  that  of  the  true  apostle  of  the  district  where 
he  laboured. 

The  interruptions  to  which  his  Kidderminster  life  was 
subjected  arose  from  the  condition  of  things  occasioned  by 
the  Civil  War.  Worcestershire  was  a  cavalier  countj;,  and 
a  man  in  Baxter's  position  was,  while  the  war  continued, 
exposed  to  annoyance  and  danger  in  a  place  like  Kidder- 
minster. He  therefore  removed  to  Gloucester,  and  after- 
wards settled  in  Coventry,  where  he  for  the  most  part 
remained  about  two  years,  preaching  regularly  both  to  the 
garrison  and  the  citizens.  After  the  battle  of  Naseby  he 
took  the  situation  of  chaplain  to  Colonel  Whalley's  regiment, 
and  continued  to  hold  it  till  February  1647. 

His  eonneclion  with  the  Parliamentary  army  was  a  very 
characteristic  one.  He  joined  it  that  he  might,  if  possible, 
counteract  the  growth  of  the  sectaries  in  that  field,  and 
maintain  the  ciuse  of  constitutional  government  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  republican  tendencies  of  the  time.  He  regretted 
that  he  kid  not  previously  accepted  an  offer  of  Cromwell 
to  become  chaplain  to  the  Ironsides,  being  confident  in  his 
power  of  persuasion  under  the  most  difficult  circumstances. 
Hb  success  in  converting  the  soldiery  to  his  views  does  not 
seem  to  have  bctn  very  great,  but  he  preserved  his  own 
consistency  and  fidelity  in  a  remarkable  degree.  By  public 
disputation  and  private  conference,  as  well  as  by  preaching, 
he  enforced  his  doctrines,  both  ecclesiastical  and  political, 
and  shrank  no  more  from  urging  what  he  conceived  to  be 
the  truth  upon  the  most  powerful  officers  than  be  did  from 
instiucting  the  meanest  followers  of  the  camp.  Cromwell 
shunned  his  society  ,  but  Baxter  having  to  preach  before 
bun  after  he  had  assumed  the  Protectorship,  chose  for  his 
subject  the  old  topic  of  the  divisions  and  distractions  of  the 
church,  and  in  isubsequent  interviews  not  only  opposed 
him  about  libeitj'  of  conscience,  but  spoke  in  favour  of  the 
monarch)  he  li.-id  subverted  There  is  a  striking  proof  of 
Bax  cr's  insighO  into  character  in  his  account  of  what 
happened  under  these  circumstances  Of  Cromwell  be 
says,  "  I  saw  that  ftbat  he  learned  must  be  from  himsoU  " 
It  IS  worthy  of  notice  that  this  intercourse  with  Cromwell 
occurred  when  Baxter  was  suHimoned  to  London  to  assist 
in  setthng  "  the  fundamenlala  of  religion,"  and  niode  11  ? 
memorable    dedaratjoo  in  anJKCi   lo    the  oUcCtmn.  ilia* 


456 


BAXTER 


what  he  had  proposed  as  fundamental "  might  be  subscribed 
by  a  Papist  or  Socinian."  "So  much  the  better,"  was 
Baxter's  reply,  "and  scrrauch  the  fitter  it  is  to  be  the 
matter  of  concord." 

After  the  Restoration  in  IGGO  Baxter  settled  in  London. 
He  preached  there  till  the  Ejectment  Act  took  efftct  in 
1662,  and  was  employed  in  seeking  for  such  terms  of  com- 
prehension as  would  hive  permitted  the  moderate  dissenters 
with  whom-  he  acted  to  have  remained  in  the  Church  of 
England.  In  this  hope  he  was  sadly  disappointed.  There 
was  at  that  time  on  the  part  of  the  ruj^rs  of  the  church 
no  wish  for  such  comprehension,  and  their  object,  in  the 
negotiations  that  took  place,  was  to  excuse  the  breach 
of  faith  which  their  rejection  of  all  reasonable  methods  of 
concession  involved.  The  chief  good  that  resulted  from 
the  Savoy  Conference  was  the  production  of  Baxter's  Re- 
formed Liturr;ij,  a  w'ork  of  remarkable  excellence,  though 
it  was  cast  aside  without  consideration.  The  same  kind 
of  reputation  which  Baxter  had  obtained  in  the  country 
he  secured  in  the  larger  and  more  important. circle  of  the 
metropolis.  '  The  power  of  his  preaching  was  universally 
felt,  and  his  capacity  for  business  placed  him  at  the  head 
'of  his  party.  That  he  should  have  been  compelled  by  4he 
activity  of  party  spirit  to  remain  outside  the  National 
Church  is  to  be  deeply  regretted.  He  had,  indeed,  been 
made  a  king's  chaplain,  and  was  offered  the  bishopric  of 
iHereford,  but  he  could  not  accept  the  offer  without  virtually 
iessenliiig  to  things  as  they  were;  after  his  refusal  he  was  not 
allowed,  even  before  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity, 
to  'oe  a  curate  in  Kidderminster,  though  he  was  wiUing  to 
eerve  that  office  gratuitously.  Bishop  Morley  even  pro- 
hibited him  from  preaching  in  the  diocese  of  Worcester. 
The  whole  case  illustrates  afresh  the  vindictive  bitterness 
of  ecclesiastical  factions  in  the  heat  of  party  contests,  and 
especially  in  the  hour  of  secular  triumph. 

From  the  Ejectment  of  1662  to  the  Indulgence  of  1GS7, 
Bister's  life  was  constantly  disturbed  by  persecution  of  one 
kind  or  another.  He  retired  to  Acton  in  Middlesex,  for 
the  purpose  of  quiet  study,  and  was  dragged  thence  to  prison 
on  an  illegal  accusation  of  keeping  a  conventicle.  He  was 
taken  up  for  preaching  in  London  after  the  licences 
granted  in  1672  were  recalled  by  the  king.  The  meeting- 
house which  he  had  built  for  himself  in  Oxendon  Street 
was  closed  against  him  after  he  had  preached  there  but  once. 
He  was,  in  1 GSO,  seized  in  his  house,  and  conveyed  away  at 
the  risk  of  his  life;  ond  though  he  was  released  that  he  might 
die  at  home,  his  books  and  goods  were  distrained.*  He  was 
in  168-t  carried  three  times  to  the  sessions'  house,  being 
scarcely  able  to  stand,  and  without  any  apparent  cause  was 
made  to  enter  into  a  bond  for  j£400  in  security  for  his  good 
behaviour. 

But  his  worst  encounter  was  with  Judge  Jeffreys  in  May 
16S5.  He  had  been  committed  to  the  King's  Bench  Prison 
for  his  Para-phrase  on  the  New  I'estament,  which  was 
ridiculously  attempted  to  be  turned  into  a  seditious  book, 
and  was  tried  before  Jeffreys  on  this  accusation.  The 
scene  of  the  trial  is  well  known  as  among  the  most  brutal 
perversions  of  justice  which  have  occurred  in  England. 
Jeffreys  himself  acted  like  an  infuriated  madman  ;  but 
there  were  among  his  blackguardisms  some  sparks  of 
intelligence. 

Mr  Kothpram,  one  of  liig  counsel,  said  that  Baxter  frequently 
atten'led  divine  service,  went  to  the  sacrament,  and  p(Tsna<led  others 
t»  do  so  too,  as  was  certainly  and  publii-ly  known ;  and  had,  in  the 
book  chRrged  against  him,  spoken  very  moderately  and  honourably 
of  Ike  bishops  of  the  Church  of  Enghind.  "  Baxter  for  bishops  1  " 
Je(Tr«y5  exclaimed,  "that's  a  merry  conceit  indeed;  turn  to  it, 
turn  to  it."  Upon  thi<i,  RotliiTam  read  out: — "Tliat  prcat  respeet 
is  du«  to  those  truly  called  to  bo  bishops  nmong  us,  or  to  "that 
I  Mtposc.  "Ay,"  said  Jeilreys.  "this  is  your  rresbytcrian  cant — 
Inly  called  to  ba  bishops— that  is  himself  nnd  such  rxscals,  called 
l<  be  b)<hc',<s  of  Kiel  lermiusler  and  oihTSuih  places,  bishops  set 


apart  by  snch  factious,   snivelling  Prcshj-terians  as  hiu.£cl>\     a 
ICiddermioster  bishop  he  means. ' 

That  was  sharp,  however  coarse  ;  for,  putting  the  case 
vulgarly,  it  was  "  a  Kidderminster  bishop "  that  Baxter 
meant.  He  was  sentenced  U>  pay  DOO  marks,  to  lie  in 
prison  till  the  money  was  paid,  and  to  be  bound  to  his 
gsod  behaviour  for  seven  years.  It  was  even  asserted  at 
the  time  that  Jeffreys  proposed  he  should  be  whipped  at 
the  cart's  tail  through  London.  The  old  man,  for  he  w«a 
now  seventy,  remained  in  prison  for  two  years. 

During  the  long  time  of  oppression  and  injury  which 
followed  the  Ejectment,  Baxter"  was  sadly  afflicted  in  body. 
His  whole  lite  was  indeed  one  continued  disease,  but  in 
this  part  of  it  his  pain  and  languor  had  greatly  increased. 
Yet  this  was  the  period  of  his  greatest  activity  as  a  writer. 
He  was  a  most  voluminous  author,  his  separate  works,  it  is 
said,  amounting  to  168.  A  considerable  proportion  of 
these,  including  folios  and  quartos  of  the  most  solid  descrip- 
tion, were  published  by  him  while  thus  deprived  of  the 
common  rights  of  citizenship.  How  he  composed  them  is 
matter  of  wonder.  They  are  as  learned  as  they  are  elabo- 
rate, and  as  varied  in  their  subject  as  they  are  faithfully 
composed.  Such  treatises  as  the  Christian  Directory,  the 
Methodus  Theologice  Ckristiance,  and  the  Catholic  Theology, 
might  each  have  occupied  the  principal  part  of  the  life 
of  an  ordinary  man.  One  earthly  consolation  he  had  in 
all  his  troubles;  he  was  attended  upon  by  a  loving  and 
faithful  wife,  whom  he  had  married  in  the  Ejectment 
year.  She  was  much  younger  than  himself,  and  had  been  , 
brought  up  as  a  lady  of  wealth  and  station  ;  but  she 
adhered  to  him  in  all  his  wanderings,  sharing  his  sufferings, 
and  following  him  to  prison  ;  and  she  has  her  reward  in 
that  Breviate  of  the  Life  of  Mrs  Margaret  Baxter,  which, 
while  it  records  her  virtues,  reveals  on  the  part  of  her 
husband  a  tenderness  of  nature  which  might  otherwise  have 
been  unknown. 

The  remainder  of  Baxter's  life,  from  1687  onwards,  was 
passed  in  peace  and  honour.  He  continued  to  preach  and 
to  publish  almost  to  the  end.  He  was  surrounded  by 
attached  friends,  and  reverenced  by  the  religious  world. 
His  saintly  behaviour,  his  great  talents,  and  his  wide 
influence,  added  to  his  extended  age,  raised  him  to  a 
position  of  unequalled  reputation.  He  died  in  London  on  the 
Sth  of  December  1691,  being  seventy-six  years  old,  and  was 
buried  in  Christ  Church.  His  funeral  was  attended  by  a 
very  large  concourse  of  people  of  all  ranks  and  professions, 
including  churchmen  as  well  as  dissenters.  A  similar 
tribute  of  general  esteem  was  paid  to  him  nearly  two  cen- 
turies later,  when  a  statue  was  erected  to  his  memory  at 
Kidderminster  in  July  1875.  On  that  occasion  clergy  of 
all  denominations,  among  whom  the  bishop  of  Worcester 
and  the  dean  of  Westminster  were  conspicuous,  took  part  in 
the  proceedings. 

Tht.'e  are  few  persons  of  whom  we  can  form  a  more 
distinct  conception  than  we  can  of  Richard  Baxter.  Ilia 
face  is  quite  familiar  to  us.  His  thin  and  stooping  figuro 
we  seem  to  have  seen.  We  can  imagine  the  glance  of  his 
piercing  eye.  Who  has  not  smiled  at  tlie  intensity  ol 
his  argumentative  nature 'l  He  thought  every  one  was. 
amenable  to  reason — bishops  and  levellcru  included.  Scb 
him  contending  with  the  military  sectaries  in  the  church 
at  Chesham,  from  morning  to  night,  when  "  he  took  tho 
reading-pew,  and  Pichford's  cornet  and  troopers  took  the 
gallery."  Follow  him,  undeterred  by  his  former  want  of 
SUCCCS.1,  to  the  church  at  Bcndloy,  where  h.i  disputed  nil 
day  with  Mr  Ponibs  about  infant  baptism.  Itead  his 
correspondence  with  Dr  John  Owen  relative  to  the  union  o( 
Presbyterians  with  Independents,  in  which  his  eagerness 
amusingly  contrasts  with  Owen's  hesitation.  Watch  hiiu 
hnur    nflcr   hour  in    hand-to  hand    "-ontroveray    with    Dr 


B  A  Y    •  B  A  \ 


45V 


Uuuiiing  at  lue  Savoy  Conference,  ulien  all  the  town 
looked  at  I  hem  as  at  two  boxers  in  a  ring.  These  are 
but  specimens  of  other  like  exhibitions.  And  yet  he  was 
as  far  as  possible  from  being  a  quarrelsome  man.  It  was 
in  charity,  for  his  opponents  that  he  fought.  His  pertina- 
city in  contention  was  the  fruit  of  the  sinceiity  of  his 
aims.  He  must  have  been  a  delightful  companion  to  those 
who  shared  hia  religious  or  scholastic  sympathies.  How 
pleasant  and  profitable  it  would  have  been  to  witness  the 
intimate  intercourse  at  Acton  between  him  and  Sir  Matthew 
Hale  I  Uo  was  at  once  a  man  of  fixed  belief  and  large 
appreciation,  so  tiat  his  dogmatism  and  his  liberality 
sometimes  came  iotb  collision.  There  wis  a  universality  in 
his  genius  which  distinguishes  him  from  most  other  men. 
His  popularity  as  a  preacher  was  deservedly  preeminent; 
but  no  more  diligent  student  ever  shut  hintself  up  with  his 
books.  He  was  singularly  fitted  for  intellectual  debate, 
but  his  devotional  tendency  was  equally  strong  with  his 
logical  aptitude.  Some  of  hi^  writings,  from  their  meta- 
physical subtilty,  will  always  puzzle  the  learned ;  but  he 
could  write  to  the  level  of  the  common  heart  without  loss 
of  dignity  or  pointedncss.  His  Jieasons  for,  the  Christian 
Religion  is  still,  for  its  evidential  purpose,  better  than  most 
Works  of  its  class.  His  Poor  Alan's  Family  Book  is  a 
manual  that  continues  to  be  worthy  of  its  title.  His 
Saints'  Everlasting  lies!  will  always  command  the  grateful 
admiration  of  pious  readers.  Perhaps  no  thinker  has 
exerted  so  great  an  influence  upon  Nonconformity  as 
Baxter  has  done,  and  that  not  in  one  direction  only,  but 
in  every  form  of  development,  doctrinal,  ecclesiastical,  and 
practical.  He  is  the  type  of  a  distinct  class  of  the  Chris- 
tian ministry, — that  class  which  aspires  after  scholarly 
training,  prefers  a  broad  to  a  sectarian  theology,  and 
adheres  to  rational  methods  of  religious  investigation  and 
appeal.  The  rational  element  in  him  was  very  strong 
lie  had  a  settled  hatred  to  fanaticism.  Even  Quakerism 
Lc  could  scarcely  endure.  An  infusion  of  ideal  sentiment 
would  have  been  beneficial  to  the  conduct  of  his  life,  as 
well  as  to  his  expositions  of  truth.  The  ministers  of  whom 
Le  was  the  type  are  to  be  found  in  all  divisions  of  the 
Christian  church,  but  with  characteristic  modifications. 
Sometimes  their  rationalism  is  most  distinctive,  sometimes 
their  learning,  sometimes  their  sympathetic  feeling.  But 
Baxter  excels  most  of  the  men  he  thus  represents 
'in  his  union  of  those  qualities,  as  well  as  in  the  intense 
sense  of  religion  by  which  he  was  attvted.  Religion  was 
with  him-  all  and  in  all, — that  by  which  all  besides  was 
measured  ,  and  to  whose  interests  all  else  was  sub- 
ordinated. 

A  good  Life  of  Baxter,  by  the  Rev.  William  Orme,  was 
prefixed  to  his  Practical  Works  (published  in  23  volumes) ; 
Dr  Calamy  abridged  his  Life  and  Times.  The  abridgment 
forms  the  first  volume  of  the  account  of  tho  ejected 
ministers^  but  whoever  refers  to  it  should  also  acquaint 
himself  with  the  reply  to  the  accusations  which  had  been 
brought  against  Baxter,  and  which  will  be  found  in  the 
second  volume  of  Calamy's  Continuation.  Sir  James 
Stephen's  interesting  paper  on  Baxter,  contributed  origin- 
tlly  to  the  Edinliiirijh  I'eview,  is  reprinted  in  the  second 
volume  of  his  Essaus.  Ihe  best  recent  estimates  of  Baxter 
are  those  given  by  Principal  Tulloch  i-i  his  English  Puri- 
tanism and  its  Leadas,  ajid  by  Dean  Stanley  in  his  address 
at  the  inauguration  of  the  statue  to  Baxter  atKidderminster. 
But  most  valuable  of  all  is  Baxter's  autobiography,  called 
■Heli'/uitr  Baxtcriancv,  or  Mr  Richard  liaxter's  Xarrative  of 
the  mnsl  memorable  Passages  of  his  Life  and  Times.  It  is 
almost  as  real  us  a  personal  knowledge  of  its  subject 
could  have  been.  The  account  he  gives  at  (he  end  nf 
Part  T.  of  the  spiritual  changes  he  had  undergone  will 
neTer  oea-ie  to  be  regarded  as  a  rare  and  profoundly 
3— ;■' 


interesting  instance  of  faitliiul  self-knowledge,  and  it  has 
served  the  cause  of  Christian  charity  more,  probably,  than 
any  treatise  ever  written  on  the  subject. 

There  are  two  testimonies  to  Baxter's  worth  whicli, though 
they  have  frequently  been  quoted,  cannot  be  omitted  from 
pny  fair  notice  of  him.  Dr  Barrow  said  that  "  his  practical 
writings  were  never  mended,  and  his  controversial  one* 
seldom  confuted," and  Bishop  Wiikins  asserted  that  "it  ho 
had  lived  in  the  primitive  time  he  had  been  one  of  the 
fathers  of  the  church:" 

BAYARD,    PlEURE   DO    TeRRAIL,    CnEVALIER    DE,    W<19 

born,  of  a  noble  family,  at  tho  chateau  Bayard,  Dauphind, 
in  1-17G.  He  served  as  a  page  to  the  duke  of  Savoy  ui.'.il 
Charles  VIII.,  attracted  by  his  graceful  bearing,  placed  him 
among  the  royal  followers  under  the  count  de  Ligny.  As 
a  youth  he  was  distinguished  for  comeliness,  aflability  of 
manner,  and  skill  in  the  tilt-yard.  In  1494  he  accom- 
panied Charles  VIII.  into  Italy,  and  was  knighted  after 
the  battle  of  Fornova,  where  he  had  captured  a  standard. 
Shortly  afterwards,  entering  Milan  alone  in  pursuit  of  the 
enemy,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  but  was  set  free  without  a' 
ransom  by  Ludovic  Sforza.  His  powers  and  daring  w'ere 
conspicuous  in  the  Italian  wars  of  this  period.  Oh  one 
occasion  it  is  said  that,  single-handed,  he  made  good  tho 
defence  of  a  bridge  over  the  Garigliano  against  about  200 
Spaniards,  an  exploit  tliat  brought  him  such  renown  that 
I'>^pe  Julius  II.  sought  to  entice  him  into  the  Papal  service, 
but  unsuccessfully.  The,  captaincy  of  a  company  in  the 
royal  service  was  given  him  in  1508,  and  the  following  year 
he  led  a  storming  party  at  the  siege  of  Brescia  Here  his 
intrepidity  in  first  mounting  the  rampart  cost  him  a  severe 
wound,  which  obliged  his  soldiers  to  carry  him  into  a 
neighbouring  house,  the  rfeeidence  of  a  nobleman,  whose 
wife  and  daughters  he  protected'  from  threatened  insult. 
On  his  recovery  he  declined  a  gift  of.  2500  dncats,  with 
which  they  sought  to  reward  him.  At  this  time  his 
general  was  the  celebrated  Gaston  de  Foix,  Who  acted 
greatly  in  accordance  with  his  advice,  and,  indeed,  fell  at 
the  battle  of  Ravenna  through  neakcting  it.  In  1013, 
when  Henry  VIII.  of  England  routed  the  French  at  th 
battle  of  the  Spurs,  Bayard,  in  trying  to  rally  his  country- 
men, found  his  escape  cut  off.  Suddenly  riding  up  to  an 
English  officer  who  was  resting  unarmed,  he  summoned 
him  to  jdeld,  and  the  knight  complying.  Bayard  in  return 
gave  himself  up  to  his  prisoner.  He  was  taken  into  the 
English  camp,  but  on  relating  this  gallant  incident  was 
immediately  set  free  by  the  king  without  ransom.  On 
the  accession  of  Francis  I.  in  1515  he  was  made  lieutenant- 
general  of  Dauphini!  ;  and  after  the  victory  of  Marignaiio, 
to  which  his  valour  largely  contributed,  he  had  the  honour 
of  conferring  knighthood  on  his  youthful  sovereign.  'When 
war  again  broke  out  between  Francis  I.  and  Charles  V., 
Bayard,  with  J  000  men,  held  MiJzieres,  a  town  which  had 
been  declared  untenable,  against  an  anny  of  30,000,  and 
after  six  weeks  compelled  Nassau  to  raise  the  siege.  This 
stubborn  resistance  saved  Central  France  from  invasion, 
as  the  king  had  not  Ihcn  sufficient  forces  to  with- 
stand the  inii't-rinlists.  All  France  rang  with  the 
achievement.  I'-irliaiiunt  thanked  B.iyard  as  the  saviour 
of  his  couhlry,  the  King  made  him  a  knight  of  the 
order  of  St  Michael,  and  comininder  in  his  owii  jimne 
of  !00  gens  d'armes,  un  honour  till  then  reserved  for/ 
princes  of  the  blood.  After  fillayhig  a  re\Mlt  at  Oi'nu.i,- 
and  .-iliiving  with  the  greatest  assiduity  to  check  a  prsliliiue 
in  r)auphin(5.  Bayard  was  sent,  in  1023,  into  Italy  with 
Admiral  Bonivet,  who,  being  defeated  at  Rebec,  iniploicd 
him  to  a-ssume  the  command  nnJ  sa^c  the  army,  lie 
repulsed  the  foremost  pursuers,  but  in  guarding  the  rear  at 
the  passage  of  the  Sesia  was  mortally  wounded.  He  had 
him'-.elf  placed  against  a  tree  that  ho  might  die  facing  tlit 


458 


B  A  Y  —  13  A  Y 


enemy,  and  to  iJourbon,  who  came  up  and  expressed  pity 
forhiin,  he  replied.  "My  lord,  I  thank  you,  but  pity  is  not  foe 
me,  who  die  a  true  man,  serving  my  king ;  pity  is  for  you 
who  bear  arms  against  your  prince,  your  country,  and  your 
oath."  He  expired  after  repeating  the  Miserere.  Uia 
body  was  restored  to  his  fnends  and  interred  near  Grenoble. 
Chivalry,  deprived  of  fantastic  extravagance,  ia  perfectly 
mirrored  in  the  character  of  Bayard.  He  combined  the 
merits  of  a  skUfal  tactician  with  the  romantic  heroism, 
joiety,  and  magnanimity  of  the  ideal  knight-errant.  Even 
adversaries  experienced  the  fascination  of  his  virtues,  and 
joined  in  the  sentiment  that  he  was,  as  his  contemporaries 
called  him,  "  Le  chevalier  sans  peur  et  sans  reproche." 
(C/-  Walford's  Chevalier  Bayard  ) 

BAYAZID,  or  Bajazid,  a  city  of  Turkish  Armenia,  in 
the  pashalic  of  Erzeroum,  50  miles  S.S.  VV.  of  Erivan, 
situated  on  the  side  of  a  rugged  mountain  that  forms,  as 
it  were,  a  bastion  of  the  Ala-dagh  chain.  It  contains  two 
churches,  three  mosques,  and  a  monastery,  that  of- Kara 
Killeesea,  which  is  famous  for  the  beauty  of  its  architecture, 
as  well  as  for  its  antiquity  and  grandeur.  The  summit  of 
the  mountain  is  occupied  by  the  ruinous  Ak  Serai,  or  palace, 
which  was  built  by  Mahmoud  Pasha.  The  Pasha's  tomb,  a 
work  of  considerable  richness,  is  in  the  neighbouring  mosque. 
The  position  of  the  town,  on  the  frontiers  of  Turkey  and 
Persia  and  on  the  high  road  between  Armenia  and  Azerbi- 
jan,  gives  it  a  certain  importance.  It  was  captured  by 
the  Russians  in  1828  and  again  in  1854,  when  they 
destroyed  the  fortifications  on  their  departure.  The 
population,  which  has  decreased  greatly  within  the  last  forty 
years,  now  numbers  about  5000.  Long  43°  26'  E  ,  lat.  39" 
24'  N. 

BAYEUX,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Bessin,  and  now 
the  chief  town  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  department  of 
Calvados,  in  France  It  is  situated  in  a  fruitful  valley  on 
the  River  Anre,  17  miles  W.N.W.  of  Caen.  Many  of  its 
houses  are  of  considerable  antiquity,  especially  in  the  Rue 
St  Malo  and  Rue  St  Nicholas,  one  in  the  former  street 
being  a  fine  specimen  of  the  woodwork  of  the  15tb  century. 
The  cathedral  is  a  majestic  edifice  for  the  most  part  of  the 
12th  century,  though  the  crypt  probably  dates  from  the 
time  of-  Odo  (1047).  There  are  said  to  be  no  fewer  than 
2976  capitals  in  its  construction,  all  sculptured  diS'erently. 
Bayeux  is  the  .seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  has  tribunals  of 
primary  jurisdiction  and  commerce,  a  communal  college, 
and  an  extensive  library.  The  former  episcopal  palace  is 
now  the  town-house,  and  the  seminary  is  turned  into 
barracks.  The  chief  manufactures  are  linen  and  cotton 
goods,  hosiery,  lace,  and  pottery.  Important  fairs  are  held 
for  the  sale  of  horses  and  cattle.  Under  the  Romans  the 
town  bore  the  name  of  Augustodurus,  and  was  the  seat  of 
a  military  establishment.  During  the  Middle  Ages  it  was 
frequently  burnt,  and  passed  from  one  lordship  to  another 
till  it  was  incorp':rated  in  the  duchy  of  Normandy. 
Nothing,  perhaps,  has  done  more  for  its  fame  than  the 
possession  of  the  Norman  tapestry,  which  is  now  deposited 
in  the  town-house  It  consists  of  a  strip  of  linen  200  feet 
long  by  20  inches  wide,  worked  in  coloured  worsted,  and 
contains  fifty-eight  distinct  scenes  connected  with  the  life 
of  William  the  Conquerer.  Seven  colours  only  are  em- 
ployed, dark  and  light  blue,  red,  yellow,  buff,  and  dark  and 
light  green.  In  spite  of  the  doubts  that  have  been  cast  on 
the  date  of  this  tapestry,  it  seems  almost  certain  that  it  is 
contemporaneous  with  the  events  it  depicts,  and  it  may  even 
possibly  be,  as  tradition  would  have  it,  the  work  of  Queen 
Matilda  herself.  (See  Bruce's  Bayeux  Tapestry,  4to, 
1355  ;  Freeman's  Norman  Conquest ;  Macquoid's  Through 
Normandy,  1874) 

BAYLE,  PiERRB,  author  of  the  famous  Historicat  and 
Cr.'.KC.l  Diclionirii^  was  born  on  the  18th  November  ir><" 


at  Carlat-le-Comte,  near  Foix,  in  the  south  of  Irjnce.  H& 
was  educated  at  first  by  his  father,  a  Calvinist  minister, 
and  was  afterwards  sent  to  an  academy  at  Puy-Lanrens, 
where  he  studied  with  such  assiduity  as  seriously  to  injure 
his  health.  After  a  short  residence  at  home  he  entered  a 
Jesuit  college  at  Toulouse.  While  there  he  devoted  much 
of  his  time  to  controversial  works  on  theology,  and  ended 
by  abjuring  Calvinism  and  embracing  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith.  In  this,  however,  he  continued  only  seventeen 
months,  abruptly  resuming  his  former  religion.  To  avoid 
the  punishment  intiicted  on  such  as  rehipsed  from  the 
Catholic  Church,  he  withdrew  to  Geneva,  where  he  resumed 
his  studies,  and  for  the  first  time  became  acquainted  with 
the  philosophical  writings  of  Descartes,  For  some  years  lie 
acted  as  tutor  in  various  families  ,  but  in  1675,  when  a 
vacancy  occurred  in  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  the  Protes- 
tant university  of  Sedan,  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  compete 
for  the  post,  and  was  successful.  In  1681  the  university 
at  Sedan  was  suppressed,  but  almost  immediately  afterwards 
Bayle  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  and  history  at 
Rotterdam.  Here  in  1682  he  published  his  famous  letter 
on  comets,  and  his  critique  of  Maimbourg's  work  on  the 
history  of  Calvinism.  "The  great  reputation  achieved  by 
this  critique  stirred  up  the  envy  of  Bayle's  colleague, 
Jurieu,  who  had  written  a  book  on  the  same  subject,  and 
who  afterwards  did  all  in  his  power  to  injure  his  former 
friend.  In  1684  Bayle  began  the  publication  of  his 
Kouvelles  de  la  Republique  drs  Lettres,  a  kind  of  journal  of 
literary  criticism,  which  was  continued  with  great  success 
for  several  years.  In  1690  appeared  a  work  entitled 
Alts  anx  Refugies,  which  Jurieu  attributed  to  Bayle,  whom 
he  attacked  with  the  bitterest  animosity.  After  a  long 
quarrel  Bayle  was  deprived  of  his  chair  in  1693.  He  was 
not  much  depressed  by  this  misfortune,  being  at  the  time 
closely  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  his  great  Dictioiiarj-, 
which  appeared  in  1697  A  second  edition  was  called  for 
in  1702.  The  few  remaining  years  of  Bayle's  life  were 
devoted  to  miscellaneous  writings,  arising  in  many  instances 
out  of  criticisms  made  upon  his  Dictionary.  He  died  on 
the  28th  December  1706.  after  some  months'  suffering 
from  chest  disease,  which  he  would  not  permit  to  interfere 
with  his  literary  labours  Bayle's  erudition,  despite  the 
low  estimate  placed  upon  it  hy  Leclerc,  seems  to  have 
been  very  considerable.  He  was  an  ardent  student,  and 
his  reading  was  varied  and  extensive.  As  a  critic  ha  was 
second  to  none  in  his  own  time,  and  even  yet  one  can 
admire  the  lightness  and  delicacy  of  his  touch,  and  the 
skill  with  which  he  handles  his  subject.  The  Nouvetle- 
de  la  Republique  des  Lett  res  was  the  first  thoroughgoing 
attempt  to  popularize  bterature,  and  it  was  eniinentl\ 
successful  The  Dictionary,  however,  is  Bayle's  master 
piece,  and  in  it  appear  to  perfection  his  various  qualities, 
— extensive  and  curious  information,  fiueiicy  of  style,  and 
that  light  sceptical  spirit  which  has  became  closely  associated 
with  his  name  Bayle's  scepticism  is  of  a  peculiar  kind. 
It  is  not  a  distrust  of  the  power  of  human  knowledge 
grounded  on  a  scientific  investigation  of  the  nature  of 
thought  in  itself.  It  is  rather  the  scepticism  of  the  literary 
man  of  the  world,  who  in  his  reading  has  encountered  so 
many  opposing  and  well-supported  arguments  on  aU  sub- 
jects, that  he  feels  inclined  to  hold  thut  no  certainty  can 
ever  be  attained.  On  this  account,  |K."rliaps,  his  sceptical 
criticism,  though  it  did  much  to  hberato  thought  from  the 
bonds  of  authority,  has  had  little  influence  on  pure  philo- 
sophy. Examples  of  Bayle's  critical  mode  of  investigation 
may  be  seen  in  his  articles  on  the  Greek  sceptical  philo.so- 
phers,  particularly  those  on  ryrrhonism,  Zcno,  Carneadca, 
and  Chrysippus 

Soe  Dcs  Mnizcaux,  Tie  de  Bayle;  FfUfrbnch,  Pirrrt  Bayle,  ISSSi 
T^Htini-A-,,   '''^ihsopliie  en  Fromtiau  xvii'"*  SU-^'i. 


B  A  Y  —  B  A  Z 


459 


BAYONET.     Xce  Ar.M3  and  AnMOUB,  vol.  i:  p.  558. 

BAYONNE,  probably  the  ancicct  /7jp>!rdum,  Baiotium 
(ivitas,  or  Baiotimm,  a  Crst-class  fortified  city  of  France,  and 
the  capital  of  an  arrondi-ssement,  in  the  department  of  the 
Lower  Pyrenees.  It  is  well  built,  and  agreeably  situated 
at  tho  conQuence  of  the  Nive  and  Adour,  about  three  miles 
from  the  sea.  A  bar  at  tho  mouth  of  the  river,  with  13 
or  15  feet  of  water  at  spring  tides  aiid  9  to  11  feet  at 
neaps,  formerly  prevented  largo  vessels  from  entering 
e.xcept  at  high  water;  but  works  have  been  in  progress  by 
which  the  obstruction  will  be  greatly  lessened,  if  not  alto- 
gether removed.  The  citadel  is  one  of  the  finest  works  of 
Vauban,  and  the  cathedral  is  a  large  and  elegant  Gothic 
structure  of  the  12th  centvry.  Bayonne  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric,  and  has  courts  of  primary  jurisdiction  and  com- 
merce, an  exchange,  a  mint,  a  theatre,  naval  and  commercial 
docks,  and  schools  of  commerce  and  navigation,  as  well  as 
distilleries,  sugar-rcGncries,  and  glass-works.  It  is  like- 
wise the  centre  of  the  13th  military  division.'and  possc.'sses 
one  of  the  finest  arsenals  in  France,  and  a  military  hospital 
for  2000  patients.  Its  export  trade  is  considerable,  par- 
ticularly in  grain,  wine,  fish,  chocolate,  liqueurs,  cream  of 
tartar,  hams,  rosin,  turpentine,  and  timber.  The  Nive  and 
Adour  divide  the  town  into  three  nearly  equal  parts,  com- 
municating with  each  other  by  bridges.  Great  Bayonne, 
which  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nive,  contains  the  old 
cistle ;  Little  Bayonne,  where  the  new  castle  stands,  is 
situated  between  the  Nivo-and  the  Adour;  and  Saint 
Ksprit,  formerly  a  suburb,  occupies  the  right  bank  of  the 
Adour.  The  last  is  inhabited  almost  exclusively  by  J^v/s. 
Bayonne,  though  often  besieged,  has  never  been  taken, 
and  is  one  of  the  few  pl.ices  that  refused  to  participate 
in  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew.  The  last  siege  was 
by  the  English  in  1814,  and  was  interrupted  by  the  news 
of  Napoleon's  surrender.  The  bayonet  derives  its  name 
from  this  place,  where  it  is  said  tc  have  been  invented. 
Population  in  1872,  26,335. 

See  Bilasquo  ami  DuLiurens,  iSlttdis  Hislorijucs  yiir  !a  ville  de 
B n/onne,  3  vols.,  wiiich  troat3  of  tho  history  down  to  1451. 

B.\ZA  (the  medi.-eval  liasliana),  a  city  of  Spain  in  the 
province  of  Granada,  situated  in  a  fruitful  valley  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  not  far  from  the  river  of  its  own  name. 
In  the  time  of  the  Moors  it  was  one  of  the  three  most 
important  cities  in  the  kingdom  of  Granada,  carrying  on 
an  extensive  trade,  and  numbering  no  fewer  than  50,000 
inhabitants.  It  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards  in  1489 
after  a  seven  months'  siege.  The  city  still  contains  various 
remains  of  Moorish  architecture,  as  well  as  its  ancient 
cliurch,  which  had  been  converted  into  a  mosque;  and  in 
the  neighbouring  plain  have  been  discovered  from  time  to 
time  numerous  relics  of  antiquity,  both  Floman  and 
medieval.  The  principal  trade  of  the  place  is  at  present 
in  hemp;  its  popul.-Uion  numbers  7270.  It  is  tho  birth- 
place of  Ribera,  the  historian  of  Granada.  In  1810  Soult 
defeated  a  large  Spanish  army  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 

BAZARD,  Armand,  a  French  socialist,  the  founder  of 
a  secret  political  society  in  France,  corresponding  to  the 
C.ubonari  of  Italy,  and  a  warm  adherent  of  St  Simon,  was 
b..rn  at  Paris  in  1791.  Ho  took  part  in  the  defence  of 
Paris  in  1815,  and  afterwards  occupied  a  subordinate 
bitiiation  in  the  prefecture  of  the  Seine.  About  the  year 
1S20  he  \inited  some  p.atriotic  friends  into  a  society,  which 
\»  ;3  .-ailed  Amis  de  la  Virile.  From  this  was  developed  a 
ciTiplcte  system  of  Carbonarism,  tho  peculiar  principles  of 
wl.iuh  were  introduced  from  Italy  by  two  of  Bazard's 
fru  nds.  Bazard  himself  was  at  tho  head  of  the  central 
bwiy,  and,  while  taking  a  general  lead,  contributed  exten- 
sively to  the  Carbonarist  journ.al,  L' Arislnrque.  An 
ur.-ucccssful  outbreak  at  Bclfort  ruined  the  society,  and  the 
leaders  were   compelled  to  conceal  themselves.     Ba7.ard, 


after  remaining  for  some  time  in  obscurity  in  Pari.s,  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  ends  of  those  who  wished  well  to 
tho  people  would  bo  most  easily  attainnl,  not  through 
political  agitation,  but  by  effecting  a  radical  change  in  their 
social  condition.  This  train  of  thinking  naturally  drew 
him  towards  the  socialist  philosophers  of  the  school  of  St 
Simon,  whom  he  joined.  He  contributed  to  their  journal, 
Le  Producleur  ;  and  in  1828  began  to  give  public  lectures 
on  the  principles  of  the  school,  which  wore  well  attended. 
His  most  important  work,  however,  was  the  first  volume  of 
the  Exposition  de  la  Doctrine  de  St  Simon  (2  vols.,  1828- 
30),  by  far  the  best  account  of  that  peculiar  phase  of 
socialism.  The  second  volume  was  chielly  by  Eufantin, 
who  along  with  Bazard  stood  at  the  head  of  the  society, 
but  who  was  superior  in  metaphysical  power,  and  was 
prone  to  push  his  deductions  to  extremities.  The  two 
leaders  differed  in  opinion  with  regard  to  the  emancipation 
of  women,  which  Bazard  disapproved.  An  open  quarrel  took 
place  in  1831,  and  Bazard  found  himself  almost  deserted 
by  the  members  of  the  society.  He  attacked  Enfantin 
violently,  and  in  a  warm  discussion  between  them  he  was 
struck  down  by  apoplexy.  After  lingering  for  a  few  months 
he  died  on  the  29th  July  1832. 

,  B.4ZIGAUS,  a  tribe  of  Indians,  inhabiting  different 
parts  of  the  peninsula  of  Hindustan.  They  are  recognised 
by  several  appellations,  as  Btefgars,  Panchpiri,  Kuujr.'\,  or 
N.its  ;  they  follow  a  mode  of  life  distinguishing  them  from 
tho  Hindus,  among  whom  they  dwell ;  they  abstain  from 
intermixing  their  families  with  the  Hindus,  and  from  any 
intercourse  by  which  they  can  be  united.  They  are  dis- 
persed throughout  the  whole  of  India,  partly  in  wandering 
tribes,  partly  adhering  to  fixed  residences,  but  the  greater 
proportion  load  a  nomadic  life. 

"The  Bizfgars  are  divided  into  seven  castes  ;  but  besides 
those  who  are  united  into  sects  or  castes,  there  are  indi- 
viduals who  wander  about  endeavouring  to  pick  up  a  pre- 
carious livelihood.  Although  the  B.izlgars  arc  distinguished 
by  their  manners  and  customs  from  the  natives  of  Hin- 
dr.sldn,  their  features  do  not  certainly  discriminate  them 
as  a  separate  race.  Some  of  their  women  arc  reputed  very 
beautiful,  and  are  thence  sought  after  in  those  temporary 
alliances  common  in  the  East.  The  Bizlgars  more  espe- 
cially distinguished  by  that  name  are  the  most  civilized  of 
tho  whole ;  they  are  Mahometans  in  food,  apparel,  and 
religion.  The  Panchpfri  profess  no  system  of  faith,  in 
preference  adopting  inditferently  that  of  any  village  whither 
their  wanderings  may  guide  them.  Some  traverse  the 
country  as  Mahometan  fakirs,  and  live  on  the  chance 
bounty  of  devotees ;  and  a  particular  association  among 
them,  of  bad  repute  or  abject  superstition,  has  been  accused 
of  .sacrificing  human  victims.  Tho  chief  occupation  of  the 
Biizigars  seems  to  consist  in  feats  of  address  and  agility  to 
amuse  the  public,  in  which  both  males  and  females  .ire 
equally  skilful.  The  former  are  extremely  athletic,  and  the 
women  aro  taught  dancing,  which,  instead  of  the  graceful 
motions  seen  in  the  north,  consists  principally  of  a  display 
of  lascivious  gestures.  Most  of  the  men  are  adroit  jugglers, 
tumblers,  and  actors.  Both  males  and  females  pursue  a  sys- 
tematic course  of  debauchery,  so  that  few  live  beyond  forty, 
and  many  do  not  attain  their  thirtieth  year.  From  the 
pursuits  of  the  females  being  productive  to  their  parents, 
their  marriages  aro  deferred  to  a  later  period  than  is  usual 
in  India.  The  females  who  do  not  attend  the  juggling 
exhibitions  of  the  men,  or  their  feats  of  activity,  practise 
physic  and  cupping,  and  perform  a  kind  of  tattooing  on  the 
skin  of  the  Hindus  of  their  own  sex,  called  godnd.  The 
men,  besides  their  usual  occupations,  collect  medical  herbs, 
which  are  prepared  by  their  wives  ns  curatives,  especially 
of  the  complaints  of  their  own  sex.  In  Ibis  manner,  or  by 
the  .sale  of  trinkets,  they  find  cniplovmaiit  in  the  li.i-na. 


460 


B  A  Z  —  B  E  A 


though  these  occupations  afford  them  but  a  precarious  sub- 
sistence. Some  tribes  also  go  about  exhibiting  ■nild  beasts, 
or  offering  for  sale  mats  fabricated  by  themselves.  Before 
the  establishment  of  the  British  Government  in  Bengal,  the 
BAzigars  were  subject  to  the  arbitrary  exactisns  of  a  tax- 
gatherer,  whom  they  greatly  dreaded,  and  the  apprehension 
of  the  renewal  of  that  officer's  powers  has  proved  a  consider- 
able impediment  to  investigating  their  manners  and  customs. 

The  Bdzfgars  are  supposed  to  present  many  features 
analogous  to  the  gipsies  scattered  over  Europe  and  Asia, 
where  they  subsist  as  a  race  distinct  from  all  the  other 
inhabitants  of  the  countries  frequented  by  them.  The 
Bizfgars,  as  well  as  the  gipsies,  have  a  chief  or  king  ; 
each  race  has  a  peculiar  language,  different  from  that 
of  the  people  among  whom  they  reside ;  and  the 
analogy  of  the  languages  is  so  decided,  that  it  is  difScuit 
to  deny  that  they  have  had  a  common  origin.  Another 
resemblance,  which  has  probably  been  lost  in  the 
lapse  of  time,  is  supposed -to  consist  in  the  three-stringed 
viol  introduced  into  Eiu'ope-by  the  jugglers  of  the  13th 
century,  which  is  exactly  similar  to  the  instrument  now 
used  in  HindustAn.  Disjoined,  these  analogies  may  not 
carry  conviction  of  the  identity  of  the  European  gipsies 
with  the  Indian  BAzfgars  ;  but,  on  combining  the  whole,  it 
does  not  seem  unlikely,  that  if  Asia  was  their  original 
country,  or  if  they  have  found  their  way  from  Egypt  to 
India,  they  may  also  have  emigrated  farther  at  a  period  of 
remote  antiquity,  and  reached  the  boundaries  of  Europe. 

BAZZI,  Giovanni.     See  Soddoma. 

BDELLIUM,  a  fragrant  gum-resin  of  a  dark-reddish 
colour,  bitter  and  pungent  to  the  taste.  It  is  closely  allied 
to  myrrh,  and  like  it  is  produced  from  one  or  more  species 
of  Bahamodendron, — the  Googul  resin,  or  Indian  bdellium, 
yielded  by  B.  muhd,  being  considered  by  Dr  Birdwood  to 
be  the  bdellium  of  Scripture,  and  the/38«'AAiov  of  Dioscorides. 
Bdellium  is  little  imported  into  Europe,  but  it  is  exten- 
sively used  in  Indian  pharmacy,  both  human  and  veterinary  ; 
and  it  is,  like  myrrh,  employed  for  incense  in  temples.  A 
variety  of  the  gum-resin  known  as  African  bdellium  is 
produced  on  the  East  African  -Wast,  but  nothing  is  cer- 
tainly known  regarding  its  botanical  source. 
.'  BEACHY  HEAD,  a  promontory  on  the  coast  of  Sussex, 
between  Hastings  and  Brighton,  near  which  the  French  de- 
feated the  English  and  Dutch  fleet  in  1 690.  It  consists  of  a 
perpendicular  chalk  cliff  530  feet  high.  A  lighthouse, 
with  a  revolving  light  285  feet  above  high-water  mark, 
was  erected  in  1828  on  the  second  cliff  to  the  westward,  in 
long.  0°  1'  E.,  lat.  50°  44'  N. 

BEACONSFIELD,  .a  market-town  in  the. county  of 
Buckingham,  23  miles  from  London,  on  the  road  to 
Oxford.  It  consists  of  four  streets  crossing  each  other- at 
right  angles,  and  before  the  opening  of  the  railways  was 
rather  a  busy  place.  At  one  time,  indeed,  it  was  the  scat 
of  a  considerable  manufacture  of  ribbons.  The  poet 
Waller  and  Edmund  Burko  lived  in  the  neighbourhood, 
and  both  arc  buried  in  the  town.  Beaconsfield  gave  the 
title  of  viscountess  to  the  late  wife  of  the  Right  Hon.  B. 
Disraeli.     Population  of  parish  in  1871,  1524. 

BEAD,  a  small  globule  or  ball  used  in  necklaces,  and 
made  of  different  materials,  as  pearl,  steel,  garnet,  coral, 
diamond,  amber,  glass,  rock-crystal,  and  seeds.  The 
Boman  Catholics  make  great  use  of  beads  in  rehearsing 
their  Ave-Mariax  and  Poter-nostcrs,  and  a  similar  custom 
obtains  among  the  religious  orders  of  the  East.  A  string 
orf  .such  beads  is  called  a  ro.sary.  Glass  beads  were  used  by 
the  Spaniards  to  barter  with  the  natives  of  South  America 
for  gold  when  they  first  established  themselves  on  that 
continent,  and  to  this  day  they  are  a  favourite  article  of 
trathc  with  all  savage  nations.  Beads  of  glass  are  sent  in 
ecormoKA   quant  it  Ira  to  Zanzibar,  and  to  all  other  ports 


from  which  a  trade  with  the  interior  of  Africa  is  carried 
on,  as  they  form  almost  the  only  convenient  medium  of 
exchange  with  the  native  tribes.  The  qualities  and 
varieties  recognized  in  the  Zanzibar  market  are  said  to 
number  more  than  400,  and  the  trade  there  is  almost 
entirely  in  the  hands'  of  the  Banyans.  Large  quantities 
are  also  sent  to  India,  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  and  the 
Polynesian  Islands ;  and  in  the  more  primitive  parts  of 
Europe  beads  are  in  considerable  demand.  Under  the  name 
of  bugles  a  very  great  quantity  of  small,  mostly  cylin- 
drical, beads  are  used  in  lace-making,  and  for  the  ornamen- 
tation of  ladies'  dresses,  the  demand  in  this  form  fluctuat- 
ing greatly  according  to  the  demands  of  fashion.  Venice 
is  the  principal  centre  of  the  manufacture  of  glass  beads 
of  all  kinds.  The  exports  therefrom  during  the  ten  years 
ending  with  1871  amounted  to  313,201  quintals,  of  the 
value  of  61,240,296  Italian  lire.  In  the  manufacture  of 
ordinary  beads,  as  conducted  at  Venice,  rods  or  canes  of 
glass  of  the  colour  and  quality  desired  first  are  drawn  out, 
either  pierced  or  unpierced.  The  rods  may  either  be  of 
transparent  glass,  or  of  opaque  coloured  enamel  -glass 
(svialti),  or  may  have  complex  patterns  produced  by  the 
twisting  of  threads  of  coloured  glass  through  a  transparent 
body,  characteristic  of  Venetian  glass.  From  these  rods 
rounded  beads  are  pinched  off,  and  Rie  more  costly  kinds, 
made  in  imitation  of  precious  stones,  A-c.,are  cut  and  faceted. 
Imitation  pearls,  the  making  of  which  forms  an  impor- 
tant part  of  the  bead  industry,  are  blown  by  the  blow- 
pipe from  a  milky-white  glass.  The  pearly  lustre  is  com- 
municated by  the  infiltration  of  a  substance  obtained  from 
the  scales  of  the  bleak  Lenciscus  alburnvs.  The  more 
costly  imitation  pearls  receive  several  co.ats  of  the  pearly 
substance,  and  have  weight  and  solidity  added  by  filling  up 
the  interior  of  the  pearl  with  wax.  Gold,  silver,  and 
various  coloured  lustres  are  frequently  substituted  for  the 
pearly  substance  in  the  manufacture  of  blown  beads. 

BEAN,  the  seed  of  certain  leguminous  plants  cultivated 
for  food  all  over  the  world,  and  furnished  chiefly  by  the 
geti-.ra Faba,  P/iaseotus,  Dolichos,  Cajanus,  and  Sn/'a.  The 
common  bean,  in  all  its  varieties,  as  cultivated  in 
Britain  and  on  the  continents  of  Europe  and  America,  is 
the  produce  of  the  Faba  milgaris.  The  French  bean,  kidney 
bean,  or  haricot,  is  the  seed  of  the  Fhaseolus  imlffaris;  but 
in  India  several  other  species  of  this  genus  of  plants  arc 
raised,  and  form  no  small  portion  of  the  diet  of  the  in- 
habitants. From  the  genus  Dolichos,  again,  the  natives  of 
India  and  South  America  procure  beans  or  piilse,  of  no 
small  importance  as  articles  of  diet,  such  as  the  1). 
ensi/ormis,  or  sword  bean  of  India,  the  Lima  beans,  iSic. 
Besides  these  there  are  numerous  other  pulses  cultivated 
for  the  food  both, of  man  and  domestic  animals,  to  v.  liich 
the  name  beans  is  frequently  given.  The  common  bean  is 
even  more  nutritious  than  wheat;  and  it  contains  a  \crj 
high  proportion  of  nitrogenous  matter  under  the  form  of 
legumin,  which  amounts  on  an  average  to  24  per  cent.  It 
is;  however,  a  rather  coarse  food,  and  dillicult  of  digestion, 
and  is  chie/Iy  used  to  feed  horses,  for  wliidi  it  is  admirably 
adapted.  In  England  French  beans  are  chiefly,  almost 
exclusively,  used  in  the  green  state ;  the  wliole  pod  being 
eaten  as  a  table  vegetable,  or  prepared  as  a  pickle.  It  is 
wholesome  and  nutritious;  and  in  Holland  and  Germany  the 
pods  are  preserved  in  salt  by  almost  every  family  for  winter 
and  .ipring  use.  The  green  pods  are  cut  across  obliquciy, 
most  generally  by  a  machine  invented  for  the  piirpose, 
and  salted  in  barrels.  When  wanted  for  use  lliey  are 
steeped  in  fresh  water  to  remove  the  salt,  and  broiled  or 
stewed  ;  they  form  an  agreeable  addition  to  the  diet 
at  a  time  when  no  other  vegclalile  may  be  had.  Under 
the  name  of  carob  brans  or  locusts,  the  legnino  of  Ceralmtla 
silii/iii  is  cultivated  on  the  shores  of  the  Mcditcrrnnco" 


B  E  A  —  B  E  A 


461 


BDd  used  as  foo^^  'jr  cattle.  The  slicUs  of  the  carob  bean 
contain  a  large  proportion  of  sugar,  and  are  often  con- 
sumed as  a  dainty  by  children.  These  beans  were  formerly 
supposed  to  be  the  locusts  eaten  by  John  the  Baptist,  and 
hence  have  been  called  St  John's  bread.  The  Tonka,  or 
Tonquin  bean,  is  the  produce  of  Dipterix  odorala,  a  legu- 
minous seed  with  a  fine  odour,  used  in  perfumery  and 
largely  for  scenting  snuff.  The  Calabar  ordeal  bean  is 
a  highly  poisonous  leguminous  seed.  There  are  also  several 
non-leguminous  seeds  to  which  the  popular  name  bean  is 
attached.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  sacred 
Egyptian  or  Pythagorean  bean  (Kdumhium  specioium), 
and  the  Ignatius  bean  (probably  Slri/chnos  muitijlora),  a 
source  of  strychnine.  For  the  cultivation,  &c.,  of  the 
common  bean,  Eoe  Ageicultuke,  voL  i.  p.  360.  The 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  made  use  of  beaas  in  gather- 
ing the  votes  of  the  people,  and  for  the  election  of  magis- 
trates. A  white  bean  signified  absolution,  and  a  black 
one  condemnation.  Beans  had  a  mysterious  use  in  the 
Umuralia  and  parentalia,  where  the  master  of  the  family, 
after  washing  bis  hands  three  times,  threw  black  beans 
over  his  head  nine  times,  continuing  to  repeat  the  words, 
"  I  redeem  myself  and  my  family  by  these  beans," 

BE.\R,  the  common  name  of  the  Ursidoe,  a  typical  family 
of  Plantigrade  Mammals,  distinguished  by  their  massive 
bodies,  short  limbs,  and  almost  rudimentary  tails.  With 
the  single  exception  of  the  Honey  Bear,  all  the  species  have 
forty-two  teeth,  of^^which  the  incisors  and  canines  closely 
resemble  those  of  the  purely  carnivorous  mammals ;  while 
the  molars,  and  especially  that  known  as  the  "  carnassial," 
have  their  surfaces  tuberculated  so  as  to  adapt  them  for 
grinding  vegetable  substances.  As  might  have  been  sup- 
posed from  their  dentition,  the  bears  are  truly  omnivorous  ; 
but  most  of  the  family  ssem  to  prefer  vegetijble  food, 
including  honey,  when  a  sufficient  supply  of  this  can  be 
had.  The  Grizzly  Bear,  however,  is  chiefly  carnivorous ; 
while  the  Polar  Bear,  in  a  state  of  nature,  is  believed  to  be 
almost  wholly  so.  The  strength  and  ferocity  of  different 
fipecies  and  of  different  individuals  of  the  same  species 
seem  to  depend  largely  on  the  nature  of  their  diet, — those 
restricted  to  purely  vegetable  food  showing  an  approach  to 
that  mildness  of  disposition  characteristic  of  herbivorous 
animals. 

Bears  are  five-toed,  and  are  provided  with  formidable 
claws,  but  these  are  not  retractile  as  in  the  cats,  and  are 
thus  better  fitted  for  digging  and  climbing  than  for  tearing. 
Most  of  the  bears  climb  trees,  which  they  do  in  a  slow, 
lumbering  fashion,  and,  in  descending,  always  come  hind- 
quarters first.  The  Grizzly  Bear  is  said  to  lose  this  power 
of  climbing  in  the  adult  state.  In  northern  countries  the 
bear  retires  during  the  winter  season  into  caves  and  the 
hollows  of  trees,  or  allows  the  falling  snow  to  cover  it, 
where  it  remains  dormant  till  the  advent  of  spring,  about, 
which  time  the  female  usually  produces  her  young. 
These  are  born  naked  and  blind,  and  it  is  commonly  five 
weeks  before  they  see,  or  become  covered  with  hair.  Before 
hibernating  they  grow  very  fat,  and  it  is  by  the  gradual 
consumption  of  this  fat — known  in  copimerce  as  bear's 
grease — that  such  vital  action  as  is  necessary  to  the  con- 
tinuance of  life  is  sustained. 

The  bear  family  is  widely  distributed,  being  found  in 
every  quarter  of  the  globe  except  Australia,  and  in  all 
climates,  from  the  highest  northern  latitudes  yet  reached 
by  man  to  the  warm  regions  of  India  and  Malaya.  In  the 
north-west  comer  of  Africa  the  single  representative  of  the 
family  found  on  that  continent  occurs.  Of  the  remaining 
species  described  in  Gray's  recent  monograph  of  this  family, 
three  are  European,  six  American,  and  eight  Asiatic  ;  while 
one  species— the  Polnr  Bear — is  common  to  the  Arctic 
regions  of  both  hemispheres.     In  addition  to  these,  the 


best  known  species  arc  peculiarly  rich  ia  varieties.  Bcirs 
have  been  recently  divided  into  three  groups, — sea  bears, 
land  bears,  and  honey  bears. 

(1.)  Sea  bears,  of  which  the  Polar  or  White  Bear 
( Thalasiarctos  maritimxis)  is  the  only  species  known,  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  groups  by  having  the  soles  of 
the  feet  covered  with  close-set  hairs, — a  beautiful  instance 
of  special  adaptation  to  the  wants  of  the  creature,  the 
bear  being  thereby  enabled  to  walk  more  securely  on  the 
slippery  ice.  In  the  whiteness  of  its  fur  also,  it  shows  such 
an  assimilation  in  colour  to  that  of  surrounding  nature  as 
must  be  of  considerable  service  in  concealing  it  from  its 
prey.  The  food  of  the  White  Bear  consists  chiefly  of  seals 
and  fish,  in  pursuit  of  which  it  shows  great  power  of 
swimming  and  diving,  and  a  considerable  degree  of  saga- 
city. It  also  feeds  on  the  carcases  of  whales,  and  on  birds 
and  their  eggs,  and  is  said  to  eat  berries  when  these  can  be 
had.  That  it  can  sustain  life  on  a  purely  vegetable  diet  ia 
proved  by  instances  on  record  of  its  being  fed  for  years  on 
bread  only,  in  confinement.  These  bears  are  strong  swim- 
mers, Captain  Sabine  having  found  one  "  swimming 
powerfully  forty  miles  from  the  nearest  shore,  and  with  no 
ice  in  sight  to  afford  it  rest."  They  are  often  carried  on 
floating  ice  to  great  distances,  and  to  more  southern  lati- 
tudes than  their  own,  no  fewer  than  twelve  Polar  bears 
having  been  known  to  reach  Iceland  in  this  way  during 
one  winter.  The  female  always  hibernates,  but  the  male 
may  be  seen  abroad  at  all  seasons.  In  bulk  the  White 
Bear  exceeds  all  other  members  of  the  family,  measuring 
nearly  9  feet  in  length,  and  often  weighing  1  GOO  fti. 

(2.)  Land  bears  have  the  soles  of  the  feet  destitute  of 
hair,  and  their  fur  more  or  less  shaggy.  Of  these  the  Brown 
Bear  (Ursus  arctoa, — 'Apia-oi  of  Aristotle)  is  found  in  one 
or  other  of  its  varieties  all  over  the  temperate  and  north 
temperate  regions  of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  from  Spain 
to  Japan.  Its  fur  is  usually  of  a  brownish  colour,  but  there 
are  black,  blackish-grey,  and  yellowish  varieties.  It  is  a 
solitary  animal,  frequenting  the  wooded  part.s  of  the  regions 
it  inhabits,  and  living  on  a  mixed  diet  of  fruits,  vegetables, 
honey,  and  the  smaller  animals.  In  winter  it  hibernates, 
concealing  itself  in  some  hollow  or  cavern.  It  does  not  seek 
to  attack  man;  but  when  baited,  or  in  defence  of  its  young, 
it  shows  great  courage  and  strength,  rising  on  its  hind  legs 
and  endeavouring  to  grasp  its  antagonist  in  an  embrace. 
Bear-baiting,  till  within  comparatively  recent  times,  was  a 
favourite  sport  throughout  Europe,  but  along  with  cock- 
fighting  and  badger-baiting,  has  gradually  disappeared 
before  a  more  humane  civilization.  It  was  a  favourite 
pastime  among  the  Romans,  who  imported  their  bears  from 
Britain,  a  proof  that  the  animal  was  then  comparatively 
abundant  in  that  country  ;  indeed,  from  reference  made  to 
it  in  early  Scottish  history,  the  bear  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  extirpated  in  Britain  before  the  end  of  the  11th 
century.  It  is  now  found  in  greatest  abundance  in  Norway, 
Russia,  and  Siberia,  where  the  bear  hunt  is  the  favourite 
sport,  and  where,  when  dead,  its  remains  are  highly  valued. 
Among  the  Kamchatkans  "  the  skin  of  the  bear,"  says 
a  traveller,  "  forms  their  beds  and  their  coverlets,  bonnets  for 
their  heads,  gloves  for  their  hands,  and  collars  for  their 
dogs.  The  flesh  and  fat  are  their  dainties.  Of  the  intestines 
they  make  masks  or  covers  for  their  faces,  to  protect  them 
from  the  glare  of  the  sun  in  the  spring,  and  use  them  as  a 
substitute  for  glass,  by  extending  them  over  their  windows. 
Even  the  shoulder-blades  are  said  to  be  put  in  requisition  for 
cutting  grass."  In  confinement  the  Brown  Bear  is  readily 
tamed  ;  and  advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  facility  with 
which  it  can  sustain  itself  on  the  hind  feet  to  teach  it  to 
dance  to  the  sound  of  music.  It  measures  4  feet  in  leni^h, 
and  is  about  2J  feel  high 

The  .\merican  Black  Bear  (Ursiu  americanut)  occun 


462 


73  E   \  —  B  E  A 


throughout  tlie  wooded  parts  of  the  North  American  con- 
tineat,  whence  it  is  being  gradually  driven  to  make  room 
for  man.  It  is  similar  in  size  to  the  Brown  Bear,  but  its 
fur  is  of  a  soft  even  texture,  and  of  a  shining  black  colour, 
to  which  it  owes  its  commercial  value.  At  th".  beginning 
of  the  present  century  Black  Bears  were  killed  in  enormous 
numbers  for  their' furs,  which  at  that  time  were  highly 
valued.  In  1803  the  skins  imported  into  England 
numbered  25,000,  but  the  imports  have  since  decreased  to 
one-half  of  that  number  They  are  chiefly  used  for  military 
accoutrements.  This  is  a  timid  animal,  feeding  almost  solely 
on  fruits,  and  lying  dormant  during  winter,  at  which  period 
it  is  most  frequently  killed.  It  is  an  object  of  superstitious 
reverence  to  the  Indians,  who  never  kill  it  without 
apologizing  and  deploring  the  necessity  which  impels  them 
to  do  so. 

The  Grizzly  Bear  {Ursus  ferox)  approaches  the  Polar 
Bear  in  size,  while  it  exceeds  that,  and  all  other  American 
mammals,  in  -ferocity  of  disposition  and  in  muscular 
strength.  It  is  said  to  attack  the  bison,  and  has  been 
known  to  carry  otT  a  carcase  weighing  1000  Bb  for  a  con- 
siderable distance  to  its  den,  there  to  devour  it  at  leisure. 
It  also  eats  fruit  and  other  vegetables.  Its  fur  is  usually 
of  a  yellowish  brown  colour,  coarse  and  grizzled,  and  of 
little  value  commercially,  while  its  flesh,  unlike  that  of 
other  bears,  is  uneatable  even  by  the  Indians.  It  is  found 
in  greatest  abundance  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Kocky 
Mountains.  The  Syrian  Bear  ( Ursus  syriacux)  occurs  on 
Mount  Lebanon  and  throughout  Syria,  and  is  probably  the 
species  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  having  destroyed  the 
"  forty-and-two  children"  who  nrocked  Elisha,  It  is  of  a 
dirty  yellowish  colour,  and  feeds  mainly  on  vegetables.  The 
Bruang  or  Malayan  Bear  (Helarctos  malayamis)  is  of  a  jet 
black  colour,  with  a  white  semilunar  mark  on  the  chest, 
and  attains  a  length  tsf  4J  feet.  Its  food  consists  almost 
solely  of  vegetables  and  honey,  but  the  latter  is  its 
favourite  food, — the  extreme  length  and  pliability  of  the 
tongue  enabling  it  to  scoop  out  the  honey-combs  from  the 
hollows  of  trees.  It  is  found  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  and 
Islands,  and  is  readily  tamed. 

(3.)  Honey  bears  are  distinguished  from  the  other  groups 
by  the  absence  of  two  upper  incisors,  and  the  very  extensile 
character  of  the  lips.  Of  these  there  is  but  one  species, 
the  Sloth  or  Honey  Bear  (Melursus  tabiatus).  This  animal, 
from  its  striking  outward  resemblance  to  a  sloth,  was,  when 
first  brought  to  this  country,  described  as  a  species  oi'Brady- 
pus.  It  is  about  the  size  of  the  Brown  Bear,  is  covered 
with  long,  black  hair,  and  is  of  e.xtremely  uncouth;  aspect. 
It  inhabits  the  mountainous  regions  of  India,  is  readily 
tamed,  and  is  the  bear  usually  exhibited  by  the  Hindoo 
jugglers.     It  feeds  on  fruits,  honey,  and  white  ants, 

Fossil  remains  of  extinct  bears  first  occur  in  strata  of  the 
Pliocene  age.  Those  of  the  Great  Cave  Bear(  Ursua  spelaus), 
found  abundantly  in  certain  caverns  of  Central  Europe  and 
Asia,  show  that  it  must  have  exceeded  in  size  the  Polar  Bear 
of  the  present  day.  Its  remains  are  also  found  in  similar 
situations  in  Britain  associated  with  those  of  an  allied 
»pec'\e3  (Ursus  priiais). 

rsEAR  LAKE,  Great,  an  extensive  sheet  of  fresh 
water  in  the  north-west  of  Canada,  between  65°  and  67° 
N.  lat.,  and  117°  and  123°  W.  long.  It  is  of  a  very 
irregular  shape,  has  an  cstimatod' area  of  14,000  square 
miles,  and  is  upwards  of  200  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
Bear  Lake  River  carries  its  waters  into  the  Mackenzie  River. 
BEARD.  The  tradition  that  Adam  was  created  with  a 
beard  ^which  may  be  described  as  bushy  rather  than 
flowing),  is  recorded  on  ancient  monuments,  and  especially 
•D  an  antique  sarcophagus,  which  is  one  of  the  ornaments 
ef  the  Vatican.  The  Jews,  with  the  Orientals  generally, 
»scm.  to  have  accepted  the  tradition  for  a  law.     The  beard 


was  a  cherished  and  a  sacred  'hiog.  Israel  brougCf  it  safe. 
cut  of  the  bondage  of  universally  shaven  Egypt,  and  :Ue 
beard  was  the  outward  and  visible  sign  of  a  true  man.  To 
rudely  touch  his  beard  was  to  cruelly  assail  his  dignity. 
Children  and  other  kinsfolk  might  gently  touch  it  as ~a  sign 
of  love ;  a  fugitive  might  reverentially  raise  his  hand  to  :t 
when  praying  for  succour ;  and  he  who  put  his  hand  on 
his  own  beard  and  swore  by  it  bound  himself  by  the  most 
solemn  of  oaths,  to  violate  which  would  render  him 
infamous  among  his  feUow-men.  To  touch  the  beard  in 
the  allegiance  of  love  established  peace  and  trustfulness 
between  the  two  parties.  When  Joab  went  in  to  Amasa 
he  took  the  beard  of  the  latter  to  kiss  him,  saying  the 
while,  "  Art  thou  in  health,  my  brother )"  Therefore  it 
was  that  Amasa  took  no  heed  of  the  sword  in  Joab's  hand, 
which  Joab  at  once  thriist  beneath  the  other's  fifth  rib. 
The  Scriptures  abound  with  examples  of  how  the  beard  and 
its  treatment  interpreted  the  feelings,  the  joy,  the  sorrow, 
the  pride,  or  the  desfiondency  of  the  wearer. 

Although  the  Jews  carried  their  beards  with  them  from 
their  bondage  in  Egypt,  the  Egyptians  were  not  at  all 
insensible  of  the  significance  of  that  appendage.  They  did 
not  despise  the  type  of  manhood.  Accordingly,  on  days 
of  high  festival  they  wore  false  beards,  as  assertions  of 
their  dignity  in  the  scheme  of  creation,  and  they  repre- 
sented their  male  deities  with  beards  "  tip-tilted "  at  the 
ends.  The  general  reader  having  laudable  curiosity  on 
this  matter  may  be  safely  referred  to  the  pages  of  Hero- 
dotus,— a  writer  who  has  much  to  say  pertinently  to  the 
subject,  and  who,  after  being  maligned  as  the  second 
father  of  lies,  is  now  praised  for  his  modesty,  and  relied  on 
for  his  trustworthiness,  _  -  _     ., 

The  modern  Mahometans,  especially  those  who  have 
most  come  in  contact  with  Europeans,  have  a  good  deal 
fallen  away  from  old  conservative  ideas  respecting  the 
beard.  Once,  this  glorious  excrescence,  as  it  was  held  to 
be,  was  made,  by  the  followers  of  Islam,  a  help  to  salva- 
tion. The  hairs  which  came  from  it  in  combing  were 
preserved,  broken  in  two,  and  then  buried.  The  breaking 
was  a  sort  of  stipulation  with  some  angel  who  was  supposed 
to  be  on  the  watch,  and  who  would  look  to  the  safe 
passage  of  the  consigners  of  the  treasure  into  the  paradise 
of  never-failing  sherbet  and  ever-blooming  houris.  The 
first  sultan  who  broke  through  the  orthodox  oppression  of 
beardedness  was  Selim  I.  (1512-20).  This  act  was  a 
violent  shock  to  the  whole  body  of  the  faithful,  and 
especially  of  the  Mufti.  The  very  highest  priest  alone 
could  dare  to  remonstrate  with  so  absolute  a  "monarch. 
Selim  put  aside  the  remonstrance  with  a  joke.  "  I  have 
cut  off  my  beard,"  he  said,  "in  order  that  ray  vizier  may 
have  nothing  to  lead  me  by!"  But  a  crafty  minister  can 
find  on  the  face  of  the  most  beardless  and  cruel  of  despots 
wherewithal  to  lead  him  in  the  way  the  minister  would 
have  him  go.  Still,  the  fact  that  the  Prophet  never  let 
razor  reap  a  harvest  on  his  chin,  for  possession  of  the 
hairy  produce  of  which  all  Islam  would  have  fought  with 
affectionate  fury,  long  made,  and  still  makes,  the  beard  a 
part  of  religion.  The  sultan  and  the  shah,  chiefs  of  the 
two  parties  in  their  church,  have  pretty  fair  apologies  for 
beards ;  but  this  is  far  below  the  bearded  glories  of  the 
days  before  the  Prophet,  when  the  kings  of  Persia  tied  up 
their  bearded  plaits  with  gold  thread,  and  the  princes  of 
Nineveh  went  abroad  with  beards  curled  and  oiled,  like  the 
Assyrian  bulls  themselves.  It  has  been  said  that  in  Asia 
wars  have  been  proclaimed  on  alleged  grievances  connected 
with  shaving.  Tartars  and  Persians,  and  Chinese  and 
Tartars,  are  reported  to  have  resorted  to  sang;iinary  arbi- 
tration on  the  question  of  clipping  or  shaving.  Probably 
they  who  declared  the  war  were  as  clever  in  finding  a 
prcliMt  as  the  more  civilized  aggressors  of  mocb  later  davB... 


BEARD 


463 


II  n.  ._.,.  ,u  burupo  and  begiu   wiib  classical   times, 

'  b.T.  IMu'     - 

ibo  veultli  of  Ormus  and  of  led, 
Or  nhf-rn  the  gorgeous  East,  with  rirhest  hand, 
Stiowers  on  her  kiugs  barbaric  pearl  arrU  gold,— 

«u  may  rsmembcr  tbat  the  Greeks  and  nomans  onco  styled 
A3  barbarians,  or  bearded,  unshaveo  savage?,  all  nations 
who  were  out  of  the  pale  of  their  own  customs  and  religion. 
Nevertheless,  the  young  Roman,  anxious  for  beard  and 
moustache,  used  to  apply  the  household  oil  to  his  chin  and 
cheeks,  in  order  to  bring  thereon  that  incipient  fringe 
which  would  entitle  him  to  be  called  "  barbatulus."  The 
full-furnisbed  man  was  "barbatus."  It  was  not  till  the 
beard  ceased  to  be  universally  worn,  and  Sicilian  barbers 
set  up  in  Rome  (about  300  B.C.),  that  the  Romans  began 
to  apply  the  word,  translated  "  barbarous,"  to  the  rude 
men  and  manners  of  the  early  ager,  and  of  the  beard 
iiQiversal.  But,  after  all,  we  may  sli  1  see,  in  old  counter- 
feit presentments,  that  the  fashional  le,  clipped  beard  of 
young  Roman  "swells"  in  the  last  djya  of  the  Republic, 
and  of  some  of  tho  emperors  from  the  time  of  Hadrian,  is 
not  nearly  so  majestic  as  the  flowing  hair  depending  from 
the  chin  of  Nurua  Pompilius.  Nero  offered  some  of  the 
hair  of  his  beard  to  Jupiter  Capitolifus,  who  could  have 
furnished  a  dozen  emperors  from  his  own.  Hdmor,  Virgil, 
F'lioy,  Plutarch,  Strabo,  Diodorus,  Juvenal,  Persius,  are 
amon^  the  writers  who  furnish  material  for  a  volume  on 
beards  One  Roman  emperor,  Julian,  wrote  a  work  on 
the  subject,  which  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  as  fierce 
a  denunciation  against  beards,  as  King  James's  Blast 
was  against  tobacco;  but  Julian  in  his  Misnpogon, 
or  Enemy  of  the  Beard,  descants  satirically  "  with  pleasure 
and  even  with  pride,"  says  Gibbon,  "  on  the  length  of  his 
nails  and  the  inky  blackness  of  bis  hands,  protests  that 
although  the  greatest  part  of  his  body  was  covered  with 
hair,  the  u.te  of  the  r.izor  was  confined  to  his  head  alone, 
and  celebrated  with  visible  complacency  the  shaggy  and 
populous  beard  which  he  fondly  cherished,  after  the  example 
of  the  philosophers  of  Greece"  Persius  undoubtedly 
associated  wisdom  with  the  beard.  He  exhausted  the 
whole  vocabulary  of  praise  when  he  designated  Socrates 
by  the  term  Mayistcr  Barliatits.  In  this,  however,  there 
is  less  wit  than  in  the  rejoinder  of  the  young  ambassa^ 
dor  to  a  king,  who  had  expressed  bis  wrath  at  having  a 
beardless  youtb  sent  to  bim  as  au  envoy.  "  If,"  said 
the  latter,  "  my  master  had  thought  you  would  have  laid 
8o  much  account  on  a  beard,  be  would  have  sent  you 
a  goat " 

The  most  notable  circumstance  in  the  history  of  the 
beard  among  the  Greeks  is  that  of  its  abolition, — in  the 
Macedonian  army,  at  least,  for  strategic  reasons.  Alex- 
ander the  Great  abolished  the  beards  of  his  soldiers,  for 
the  sufficient  reason  that  they  gave  handles  to  their  enemies 
whereby  to  lay  hold  of  them.  The  Macedonian  warriors 
probably  obeyed  with  reluctance,  but  obedience  was  as 
much  a  matter  of  course  as  it  was  with  the  Ephori  who, 
by  Lacedemonian  law,  had  to  undergo  what  seemed  the 
ridiculous  ceremony  of  being  shaved,  merely  to  show  their 
ready  obedience  to  legal  enactment.  As  they  were  mortal 
men,  it  may  bo  supposed  that  acquisition  of  office  was 
happy  compensation  for  the  loss  of  a  beard. 

i-olh  is  equivalent  for  tho  older  term  of  Barbarian. 
One  13  about  as  unjust  in  its  application  as  tho  other. 
Gothic  rudeness  is  often  illustra'ed  by  tho  rase  of  the 
"  ugly  rush "  made  by  tho  northern  warriors  into  the 
Capitol,  where  the  conscript  fathers  sat  in  silence  and 
fearlessness,  wailing  events.  One.  of  these  unlettered 
•oldiers  lifted  his  hand  to  the  beard  of  «n  old  legislator, 
who,  taking  it  for  insolt,  emote  the  Ooth  to  the  ground. 
I*t  OS  do  the  Golh  the  justice  of  belifeving  that,  owed  by 


the  stern  mute  majeei.)-  of  vho  acuiuuis,  be  raised  Lis  In.Tid 
reverentially  to  the  beard.     At   all  events,  the  taking  i^ 
with  such  prompt  and  painful  action  was  dearly  paid  for 
the  swift  retaliation  which  followed. 

If  tho  phrase  be  not  too  light  for  use,  we  would  say  that 
as  beards  existed  before  barbers,  the  Europeans,  like  all 
other  people,  were  originally  a  bearded  people.  The  beard 
is  perhaps  more  general  now  in  Germany  than  elsewhere  i-o 
Europe ;  and  Germany  affords  an  example  of  the  longest 
beard  known,  out  of  fairy  story,  in  the  person  of  the  painter 
Johan  Mayo,  whose  beard  was  so  long  that  when  he  stood 
upright  it  still  trailed  on  the  ground  ;  accordingly,  he  often 
doubled  it  up  in  his  girdle.  Germany  knows  him  as  JobD 
the  Bearded,  just  as  it  does  one  of  its  emperors  as  Frederick 
Barbarossa ;  but  many  nations,  ancient  and  modern,  can 
boast  of  men  and  monarcbs  who  have  been  nicknamed 
from  their  beards. 

When  Peter  the  Great  levied  a  tax  on  Russian  beards, 
he  was  only  following  a  preceden  which  once  existed  in 
England.  Noble  chins  were  assessed  at  a  rouble ;  your 
commoner  chin  at  a  copec.  It  caused  commotion,  and  there 
was  much  compulsory  shaving  of  those  who  did  not  pay. 
Beards  are  not.  now  valued  in  Russia.  He  who  wears  one 
seems  to  acknowledge  that  he  has  no  very  high  place  in 
the  social  scale.  On  the  other  hand,  beards  were  highly 
treasured  in  Spain  till  the  time  of  Philip  V.,  who  was 
unable  to  cultivate  one.  As  was  to  be  expected,  this 
infirmity  set  the  fashion  of  affecting  the  infirmity ;  but 
beardless  dons  were  wont  to  exclaim  with  a  sigh,  "  Since 
we  have  lost  our  beards,  we  have  lost  our  souls  I "  Thub, 
they  unconsciously  adopted  something  akin  to  the  super- 
stition of  the  Roskolniki,  a  sect  of  schismatics  who  obstin- 
ately maintained  that  tho  divine  image  resided  in  the 
beard.  Portugal  was  not  behind  Spain  in  appreciating 
the  beard.  When  tho  Portuguese  admiral,  Juan  de  Castro, 
borrowed  a  thousand  pistoles  from  the  city  of  Goa,  ho  lent 
in  pledge  one  of  his  whiskers,  saying,  "  All  the  gold  in 
the  world  cannot  equal  this  natural  ornament  of  my  valour." 
In  these  modern  days  one  would  not  think  much  of  the 
security  of  such  a  material  guarantee,  nor  of  the  modesty 
of  the  admiral  who  might  have  the  face  to  offer  it 

As  Spaniards  denuded  their  chins  because  their  king 
tould  not  grow  a  beard,  so  the  French  grew  beards,  long 
after  tljey  had  gone  out  of  fashion,  because  their  king 
found  it  necessary  to  do  so.  Francis  tho  First,  having 
wounded  his  chin,  concealed  the  ugly  scar  by  covering  it 
with  a  beard;  and  all  loyal  chins  forthwith  affected  to  have 
Bears  to  conceal.  But  when  fashion  and  loyalty  were 
united  the  beard  was  carefully  tended.  It  was  not  as  in 
the  time  of  the  idle,  helpless,  and  long  haired  kings,  who 
were  less  potential  than  their  chief  officers,  when  tho  wild, 
dirty,  and  neglected  beard  was  a  type  of  that  majesty,  made 
up  of  shreds  and  patches,  which  used  to  be  paraded  before 
the  people  on  a  springless  cart.  Three  hairs  from  a  French 
king's  beard  under  the  waxen  seal  stamped  on  royal  letter 
or  charter,  were  supposed  to  add  greater  security  for  the 
fulfilment  of  all  promises  made  in  the  document  itself, 
lu  course  of  time  fashion  complimented  majesty  ;  a  certain 
sort  of  moustache  was  called  a  "royale,"and  the  little  tuft 
beneath  the  lower  lip  was  known  by  the  term  "  imperiala" 
As  a  rule,  tho  French  chin  assumed  the  appearance  of  that 
of  the  king  for  ihe  time  being.  The  royal  portrait  reflects 
a  general  fashion  from  which  only  the  disloyal  or  the 
indifferent  departed.  On  the  subject  of  shaving,  Talleyrand 
onco  drew  a  fine  distinction.  Rogers  asked  him  if  Napoleon 
shaved  himself.  "  Yes,"  replied  the  statesiuan  ;  "  one 
born  to  bo  a  king  has  some  one  to  shave  him  ;  but  they 
who  acquire  kingdoms  shave  themselves."  Tradition  has 
exaggerated  accounts  of  bearded  prisoners  in  the  Bastille, 
bnt  there  was  an  official  there  whose  duty  consisted  to 


^o-i 


B  E  A  K  D 


keeping  tne  captives  ^itnom  oearda.  Some  years  before 
the  Revolution  the  celebrated  lawyer  and  political  writer 
Liaguet  was  iacarcerated  there.  On  the  morning  after  his 
being  locked  up,  an  individual  entered  his  room  who 
announced  himself  as  the  barber  of  the  Bastille.  "  Very 
well,"  said  the  sharp-witted  Linguet,  "as  you  are  the 
barber  of  the  Bastille — rasez-la." 

Among  the  men  of  whom  it  was  said  of  old  that  they 
would  be  known  by  their  love  for  one  another,  the  beard 
has  been  a  cause  of  much  fierce  vmcharitableness.  The 
Greek  Church,  advocating  the  beard,  and  the  Roman 
Church,  denouncing  it,  were  not  more  forgetful  of  ever- 
blessed  charity  than  the  Belgian  Reformers,  the  close-shaven 
of  whom  wished  the  baarded  members  to  be  expelled  as 
■non-Christians.  The  tradiflon  concerning  the  Master  whom 
both  proposed  to  follow  was  logically  pleaded  by  the 
wearers  of  beards.  As  a  general  rule,  in  the  earlier  time, 
the  man  who  wor»  his  hair  short  and  his  beard  long,  was 
accounted  as  at  least  bearing  the  guise  of  respectability, — 
looking  like  a  priestly  personage.  There  is  a  series  of 
medals  of  the  popes  at  Naples,  from  Clement  VII.  (1523- 
34 )  to  Alexander  VIIL  ( 1 689-9 1 ).  All  these  are  bearded. 
Clement's  beard  is  long  and  dark ;  Alexander  wears  beard 
aud  moustaches.  Perhaps  Clement  Giulio  de'  Medici  set 
the  fashion.  Certain  it  is  that  a  few  years  before,  his 
kinsman,  Giovanni  de'  Medici,  Leo  X.  (1513-22),  was 
always  close-shaven,  and  beards  were  not  to  be  seen  on  the 
chm  of  Leo's  clerics  and  courtiers. 

In  the   13th  century  beards  are  said  to  have  first  come 

into  fashion   in    England.     If  we   may  judge  from  the 

15th  century  brasses  in  England,  few  men  of  distinction 

enough  to  be  so  commemorated  wore  beards.     Hotspur's 

fop  had  his  "  chin  new  reaped."     In  the  reign  of  Henry 

VIIL  the  fashion  had  so  revived  among  lawyers  that  the 

authorities  of  Lincoln's  Inn  prohibited  wearers  of  beards 

from  sitting  at  the  'great  table,  unless  they  paid  double 

commons ;   but   in   all   probability  this   was   before  that 

sovereign  ordered  (1535)  his  courtiers  to  "poll  their  hair," 

and  he  let  that  crisp  beard  grow  which  is  familiar  to  us  aU. 

Thence  came  a  fiscal  arrangement;  beards  were  taxed,  and 

the  levy  was  graduated  according  to  the  condition  of  the 

wearer.     In  the  Burghmote  Book  of  Canterbury  (quoted  in 

jyoles  and  Queries)  there  is  the  following  entry  : — "  2nd 

Ed.    vi.     The   Sheriflf  of   Canterbury   and   another  paid 

their  dues  for  wearing  beards,  Za.  4d.  and  Is.  8d."     In  the 

next  reign,  and  in  the  year  1555,  Queen  Mary  sent  four 

agents  to  Moscow  ;   all  were  bearded,  but  one  of  them,  a 

certain  George  Killingworth,  was  especially  distinguished 

by  a  beard  5  feet  2  inches  long,  at  sight  of  which  a  smile 

crossed  the  grim  features  of  Ivan  the   Terrible  himself. 

George's  beard  was  thick,  broad,  and  yellow  ;  and,  after 

dinner,  Ivan  played  with  it,  as  with  a  favourite  toy.     Most 

of  the  Protestant  martyrs  were  burnt  in  their  beards.     Sir 

Thomas  More,  on  the  other  hand,  put  his  out  of  the  way, 

as  he  laid  his  head  on  the  block,  with  the  innocent  joke  so 

well   known.     Elizabeth  introduced   a  new  impost   with 

regard  to  beards.     Every   beard   of   above  a  fortnight's 

growth  was  subject  to  a  yearly  tax  of  33.  4d.     The  rate 

was  as  heavy  as  the  law  authorizing  it  was  absurd.     It  was 

made   in  the  first  year  of  her  reign,  but  it  proved  abortive. 

Fashion  stamped  it  out,  and  men  laughed  in  their  beards 

at  the  idea  of  paying  for  them.   The  law  was  not  enforced, 

and  the  Legislature  left  the  heads  of  the  people  alone  till 

much  later  times,  when  necessity  and  the  costs  of  war  put 

that  tax  on  hair-powder  which  even  now  contributes  a  few 

thousands  a  year  to  the  British  Exchequer.     The  Vandyke 

board,  pointed  (as  Charles  the   First  and  the  illustrious 

i^rtist,  with  most  cavaliers,  wore  it),  was  the  most  universally 

T.'orn  for  a  time.    Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  in  the  Queen  of 

Corinth,  m..''«  oHu'""-  do-bitleM.  to  a  fa^iio"  of  wmrins 


moustache  and  beard,  coMimon  to  the  leigo  of  the  fiist 
James  as  well  as  that  of  Charles. 

*'  His  beara 
Which  now  he  puts  i"  the  posture  of  a  T, — 
The  Homan  T.     Your  T  beard  is  the  fashion,  - 
And  twol'old  doth  express  th"  enamoured  courtief 
As  full  as  your  fork-caiving  traveUer." 

John  Taylor,  the  water-poet,  notices  the  T  beard,  and 
mentions  at  least  a  score  of  the  various  ways  of  wearing 
beards  in  his  time,  not  forgetting  the  contemporary  proverb, 
"Beard  natural,  more  hair  than  wit."  Hudibias,  in  text 
and  notes,  affords  numerous  illustrations  of  this  subjecL 
The  general  idea  that  beards  did  not  come  ba  with  the 
monarchy  does  not  seem  to  be  correct,  -1  the  old  iong  (date 
1660)  is  to  be  trusted — 

"  Now  of  beards  there  be  such  a  company. 

Of  fashions  such  a  throng, 
That  'tis  very  hard  to  treat  of  the  beard, 

Tho'  it  be  never  so  long." 

Soon  after  this  time,  however,  the  beard  in  England  was 
everywhere  kept  down  by  the  razor.  .  At  the  close  of 
last  century  the  second  Lord  Rokeby  (Mat.  Robineau) 
endeavoured  to  restore  the  fashion.  "  His  beard,"  says  a 
contemporary,  "  forms  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  traits  of 
his  person."  But  too  short  a  period  had  elapsed  since  Lord 
George  Gordon,  the  hero  of  "  the  Riots,"  had  turned  Jew 
and  let  his  beard  grow,  to  allow  of  any  favour  being 
awarded  to  an  appendage  which  seemed  a  type  of  infamy. 
To  the  literature  of  the  beard  a  remarkable  addition  was 
made  iu  the  present  century  by  James  AVard,  R.A.,  the 
celebrated  animal  painter.  Mr  Ward  published  a  Defence 
of  the  Beard,  on  Scriptural  grounds ;  he  gave  eighteen 
reasons  why  man  was  bound  to  grow  a  beard,  unless  he 
was  indifferent  as  to  offending  the  Creator  and  good  taste ; 
for  the  artist  asserted  himself  as  much  as  the  religious 
zealot,  and  tho  writer  asked,  "  What  would  a  Jupiter  be 
without  a  beard  %  Who  would  countenance  the  idea  of  a 
shaved  Christ  I "  Mr  Ward  had  what  the  French  call  "  the 
courage  of  his  opinions,"  and  wore  a  beard  of  the  most 
Jupiter-Uk-e  majesty.  Mr  Muntz,  M.P.  for  Birmingham, 
followed  the  example,  but  it  was  not  adopted  by  many 
others.  A  new  champion,  however,  appeared  n  1860,  but 
on  peculiar  ground:  "  Theologos"  expressed  his  views  in  the 
title-page  of  his  work,  namely, — Shaving:  a  breach  of 
the  Sabbath,  and  a  hindrance  to  the  spread  of  the  Gospel. 
A  carrying  out  of  the  views  of  the  writer  would  lead  to  the 
full  practice  which  prevailed  among  the  Essenes,  who 
never  did  on  the  Sabbath  anything  whatever  that  they 
were  in  the  regular  habit  of  doing  on  otherdays.  "Theologos" 
points  out  that  God  gave  the  beard  to  man  as  a  protection 
for  his  throat  and  chest ;  and,  he  adds,  with  the  most 
amusing  simplicity,  "  Were  the  beard  in  any  other  position 
its  benefit  and  purpose  might  be  doubted  ;  but  situated 
where  it  is,  no  physiologist  will  dare  to  deny  its  intention." 
Since  this  naive  assertion  was  made,  the  beard,  but  not  aa 
a  consequence,  has  grown  into  favour ;  and  though  not 
universal,  it  is  at  least  general,  and  a  familiar  sight  to  us 
all. 

There  is  a  disagreeable  branch  of  the  subject,  demanding 
only  a  passing  word,  namely,  bearded  women,  herma- 
phroditic creatures,  who  have  occasionally  been  found  in  all 
conditions  of  life,  from  princesses  in  "  marble  hails "  to 
objects  shown  in  exhibition-rooms  or  in  vans  at  country  fairs. 

"Yon  should  be  women," 
says  Macbeth, 

"And  yet  your  beards  forbid  me  to  interpret 
That  you  are  so." 

Sir  Hugh  Evans  expressed  the  suspicion  which  att&chod  to 
a  bearded  woman,  when  he  said  of  Falstaff,  disguised  as 
Mother  Prat,  "  By  yea  and  no.  I  think  the  'omaa  is  a  lyitch 


B  E  A  — B  E  A 


465 


indeed ;  I  liic  not  when  a  'oman  has  a  great  peard  ;  I  spy  a 
preatpeard  under  her  mutiler."  The  detestation  withwhicha 
bijarded  woman  and  a  rod-haired  man  were  visited  in  France 
is  almost  s:ivagely  illustrated  in  the  following  old  lines: — 

Homme  roux  et  fentnto  bai-bue, 
De  treiite  p;is  loin  le  salue, 
Avccque  trois  pieiTca  au  iwing, 
Tour  t'en  aider  ^  ton  besoing." 

(J.  DO.) 

BEARN,  formerly  a  small  frontier-province  in  the  south 
of  Fi-anci ,  now  included  within  the  department  of 
Ki^ses-PyrcQ^es,  was  bouudeu  on  th*'\V.  by  Soule  and 
'  ower  Navarre,  on  tho  N.  by  Chalosse,  Tursan,  and 
Aatarac,  E.  by  Bigorre,  and  S.  by  the  Pyrenees.  Its 
name  can  be  traced  back  to  the  town  of  Beneharnum, 
which  first  appears  in  the  Antonme  Itinerary.  The  popu- 
lation is  mainly  of  Basque  origin,  with  possibly  a  certain 
miiture  of  Greek  blood  from  the  ancient  colonies  of  that 
people.  The  Basque  language,  in  spite  of  4he  dilfusion  of 
French,  is  still  maintained  in  the  district ;  and  it  is  asserted 
that  traces  of  old  Hellenic  names  are  not  infrequent. 
B&irn  begins  first  to  take  rank  as  a  separate  viscounty 
under  Louis  the  Pious.  From  its  first  viscounts,  who  were 
descended  from  the  dukes  of  Gascony,  it  passad  about 
1134,  by  failure  of  the  male  line,  to  the  Catalonian  family 
of  Moncado  ;  and  after  the  people,  who  were  hostile  to  all 
connection  with  Spain,  had  .several  times  chosen  their  own 
leaders,  it  passed  to  the  family  of  Foix,  from,  whom  it  was 
transmitted  through  the  houses  of  Grailly  and  D'Albret  to 
the  Bourbons,  who,  in  the  person  of  h'enry,  IV.,  made  it 
an  apanage  of  the  crown  of  France.  It  was  not  till  1G20, 
however,  that  it  was  formally  incorporated  ;  and  even  till 
1790  it  continued  to  be  governed  by  its  own  constitution 
or  system  of  Fors,  which  only  exists  in  the  form  in  which 
it  was  drawn  up  in  128S,  though  mention  is  made  of  it  as 
early  as  1080.  The  parHamont  of  Btiarn  consisted  of  two 
sections,  the  first  composed  of  the  clergy  and  the  nobles, 
and  the  second  of  mayors  and  councillors  (or  Jurats)  from 
forty-two  towns  or  communities.  It  mot  every  year,  and 
was  always  presided  over  by  the  bishop  of  Lescar.  .  A 
body  of  commissioners,  called  the  abriije  des  elats,  or 
epitome  of  parliament,  was  selected  from  the  menibers — 
twelve  fron  the  nobles  and  twelve  from  tho  third  estate — 
for  the  purpose  of  deciding  any  business  that  might 
demand  attention  during  the  time  between  the  regular 
sessions.  The  administration  of  justice  devolved  in  the 
last  resort  on  a  cour  mnjour,  or  greater  court,  which  was 
changed  by  Henry  d'Albret  into  a  sovereign  council  under 
the  presidency  of  the  chancellor  of  Navarre  and  B(;arn,  and 
afterwards,  by  Louis  XIII.,  into  a  parlement  of  the 
ordinary  type.  Histories  of  Beam  have  been  written  by 
Belloy(lf.08),  Marca  (1640),  DOlhagafay  (1G09),  Faget  de 
Baure  (1818),  Mazure  (1839). 

BEATON,  David,  archbishop  of  St  Andrews  and 
earainal,  was  a  younger  son  of  John  Beaton  of  Balfour  in 
the  county  of  Fife,  and  is  said  to  have  been  born  in  the 
year  1494.  Ue  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  St 
Andrews  and  Glasgow,  and  afterwards  studied  at  Paris. 
His  first  preferment  was  the  parsonage  of  Campsie  and  the 
chancellorship  of  the  church  of  Glasgow,  to  which  he  was 
j)rcsonted  in  the  year  1519  by  his  uncle  James  Beaton, 
then  archbishop  of  Gla.sgow.  When  James  Beaton  was 
translated  to  St  Andrews  he  resigned  the  rich  abbacy  of 
Arbroath  in  his  nephew's  favour,  under  reservation  of  one 
half  of  the  revenues  to  himself  during  his  lifetime.  The 
great  ability  of  Beaton  and  the  patronage  of  his  uncle 
ensured  his  rapid  promotion  to  liigh  offices  in  the  church 
n;id  kingdom.  Ue  was  sent  by  King  James  V.  on  parlous 
Diissioiis  to  France,  and  in  1528  was  appointed  keeper  of 
Ihe  privy  seal      He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  negotiatiecs 


connected  with  the  king's  marriages,  first  with  Magdalen 
of  France  and  afterwards  with  Mary  of  Lorraine.  At  the 
French  court  he  was  held  in  high  estimation  by  King 
Francis  I.,  and  was  presented  to  the  bishopric  of  Jlirepoix 
in  Languedoc,  to  which  he  is  said  to  have  been  consecrated 
on  5th  December  1537.  On  the  20th  of  December  1538 
he  was  appointed  a  cardinal  priest  by  Pope  Paul  III., 
under  the  title  of  St  Stephen  m  the  CoeUan  Hill.  He 
was  the  only  Scotsman  who  had  been  named  to  that  high 
office  by  an  undisputed  right,  Cardinal  Wardlaw,  bishop 
of  Glasgow,  having  received  his  appointment  from  the  Anti- 
pope  Clement  VI 1.  On  the  death  of  Archbishop  James 
Beaton  in  1539,  the  cardinal  was  raraed  to  the  primatial 
see  of  Scotland.  He  showed  his  sense  of  the  additional 
responsibility  he  had  now  undertaken  by  requesting  the 
Pope  to  relieve  him,  to  some  extent,  by  the  nomination  of  a 
suffragan  or  coadjutor  in  the  diocese  of  St  Andrews  ;  and 
this  was  effected  by  the  appointment  to  that  office  of 
William  Gibson,  dean  of  Rcstalrig,  who  received  consecrar 
tion  as  titular  bishop  of  Libaria. 

Beaton  was  one  of  King  James's  most  tnistcd  advisers, 
and  is  said  to  have  taken  a  part  in  dissuading  him  from 
his  proposed  interview  with  Henry  VIII.  at  York.  On 
the  death  of  James  in  December  1542  ho  attempted  to 
assume  office  as  one  of  the  regents  for  the  infant  sovereign 
Mary,  founding  his  pretensions  on  an  alleged  wiU  of  the 
late  king  ,  but  his  claims  were  disregarded,  and  the  Earl 
of  Arrau,  head  of  the  great  house  of  Hamilton,  and  next 
heir  to  the  throne,  was  raised  to  the  regency.  The 
cardinal  was  imprisoned  by  order  of  the  regent,  but  after 
some  time  was  set  at  liberty.  He  was  subsequently 
reconciled  to  Arran,  and  in  September  io43  crowned  the 
young  queen  at  Stirling.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  raised  • 
to  the  highest  office  under  the  regent,  that  of  Chancellor 
of  Scotland,  and  was  appointed  legate  a  latere  by  the  Pope. 
The  cardinal,  in  virtue  of  the  latter  dignity  and  of  his 
primatial  authority,  claimed  precedence  over  Archbishop 
Dunbar  of  Glasgow,  even  within  the  precincts  of  the 
cathedral  of  St  Kentigern.  This  ledAo  an  unseemly  brawl 
between  the  attendants  of  the  two  archbishops,  as  set  forth 
in  a  formal  complaint  made  by  the  cardinal  to  the  Pope, 
and  related  at  more  length  and  with  characteristic  glee  by 
Knox.  The  attention,  however,  of  the  cardinal  was 
directed  to  matters  of  more  importance  than  disputes  with 
a  brother  metropolitan. 

The  two  questions  which  agitated  Scotland  at  this  timo 
were  the  struggle  for  ascendency  between  the  supporters  of 
English  and  French  influence,  and  that  between  the  friends 
of  the  hierarchy  and  the  teachers  of  the  Reformed  opinions, 
— questions  which  frequently  became  complicated  in  conse- 
quence of  the  assistance  given  by  France  to  the  bishops, 
and  the  encouragement  which,  for  political  reasons,  the 
king  of  England  secretly  gave  to  the  adherents  of  the 
Reformation.  In  this  contest  the  cardinal  supported  the 
interests  of  France,  resolutely  opposing  the  selfish  intrigues 
of  King  Henry  and  his  party,  which  had  for  their  object 
the  exliiiclion  of  the  ancient  independence  of  the  Scottish 
kingdom  and  its  subjeclion  to  the  supremacy  of  England. 
H.id  he  been  content  with  this  he  would  have  won  for 
himself  the  gratitude  of  his  countrymen  ;  but  his  evil  deeds 
as  an  ecclesiastic  made  them  overlook  his  patriotic  exertions 
as  a  statesman.  During  the  lifetime  of  his  uncle  he  had 
taken  his  .share  in  the  persecuting  policy  of  the  hierarchy, 
and  the  same  line  of  conduct  was  still  more  systematically 
adojited  after  his  elevation  to  the  primacy.  Having  won 
over  the  regent  to  his  opinions  he  became  more  open  and 
severe  in  his  proceedings.  The  popular  accounts  of  tho 
persecution  are  no  doubt  exaggerated,  and  it  sometimes 
ceased  for  considerable  periods  so  far  a3cai)ital  punishments 
niTe  suncerned.      When  the  sufferers  were  of  hunihlc  rank 

III.  -   SO 


4GG 


B  E  A  —  B  E  A 


general  atteclion  was  not  much  directed  to  thera.  It  was 
otberwiae  wheii  i  more  ilis'.i.iguiibed  victim  was  selected 
ill  the  person  of  George  Wishart.  This  preacher,  whose 
ecclesiastical  opinions  resembled  those  of  Patrick  Hamiltou 
ond  Hamilton's  teacher,  Francis  Lambert,  returned  to 
Scotland  after  an  absence  of  several  years  about  the  end  of 
1544.  His  sermons  produced  a  great  effect,  and  he  was 
protected  by  several  of  the  bardns  who  were  leading  men 
in  the  English  faction.  These  barons,  with  the  knowledge 
and  approbation  of  King  Henry,  were  engaged  in  a  plot 
against  the  cardinal;  in  which  his  assassination  was  con- 
templated as  the  speediest  mode  of  removing  the  chief 
obstacle  to  the  influence  of  England.  Of  the  reality  of  the 
plot  and  the  intentions  of  the  conspirators  there  can  be  no 
doubt :  whether  Wishart  was  aware  of  these  has  been  a 
matter  of  controversy  during  the  present  century.  There 
are  strong  suspicions  against  him  but  no  sufficient  evidence  ; 
and  all  the  presumptions  which  may  be  drawn  from  his 
personal  character  are  entirely  in  his  favour.  The  cardinal, 
though  ignorant  of  the  details  of  the  plot,  perhaps  sus- 
pecting Wishart'a  knowledge  of  it,  and  in  any  event 
desirous  to  seize  one  of  the  most  eloquent  supporters  of 
the  new  opinions,  endeavoured,  with  the  aid  of  the  regent, 
to  apprehend  him,  but  was  baffled  in  his  efforts  for  some 
time.  He  was  at  last  successful  in  seizing  the  preacher, 
and  bringing  him  a  prisoner  to  his  castle  of  St  Andrews. 
On  the  L'Sth  of  February  1546  Wishart  was  brought  tj 
trial  within  the  cathedral  church,  before  the  cardinal  and 
other  ecclesiastical  judges,  the  regent  declining  to  take  any 
active  part.  He  defended  his  opinions  with  temper  and 
moderation ;  but  as  he  admitted  certain  of  them  which 
were  held  by  his  judges  to  be  heretical,  he  was  condemned 
to  death  and  burnt. 

The  persecution   of   Wishart,   and   the   meekness    with 

which  he  bore  his  sufferings,  produced  a  deep  effect  on 

the  mind  of  the  Scottish  people,  and  the  cardinal  became 

an    object  of  general  dislike.     Those  who  hated  him  on 

other  grounds  were  encouraged  to  proceed  with  the  design 

they   had    formed   against  him.     Naturally  resolute  and 

fearless,  he  seems  to  have  undervalued  the  strength  and 

character  of -Ilia  enemies,  and  even  to  have  relied  on  the 

friendship  efxome  of  the  conspirators.     He  crossed  over 

to  Angus,  and  took  part  in  the  magnificent;  ceremonials  of 

the  marriage  of  his  illegitimate  daughter  with  the  heir  of 

the  Earl  of  Crawford.     On  his  return  to  St  Andrews  he 

tootup  his  residence  in  the  castle.     The  conspirators,  the 

chief  of  whom  were  Norman  Leslie,  Master  of  Rothes,  and 

William  Kirkaldy  of  Grange,  contrived  to  obtain  admission 

at  daybreak  of  the  29th  of  May  154G,  and  murdered  the 

cardinal   under   circumstances   of   horrible   mockery   and 

atrocity.   The  assassination  excited  very  diCTerent  feelings 

among  the  partisans  on  either  side.     The  zealous  adherents 

of  the  Church  of  Rome,  as  a  matter  of  course,  viewed  it  as 

a  cruel  murder  aggravated  by  sacrilege  ;  the  most  violent 

of  the  Protestant  party  justified  and  even  applauded  it. 

Those  who,  without  any  strong  feelings  either  way;  disliked 

the  cardinal  on  account  of  his  arrogance  and  cruelty,  spoke 

of  the  deed  as  a  wicked  one,  but  hardly  professed  to  regret 

the  victim.     Ignorant  of  the  treasonable  designs  of  his 

enemies,  viewing  him  as   the  champion   of   ecclesiastical 

supremacy,  and  attributing  to  him  all  the  evils  of   the 

unsuocessful  war   with   England,  they   looked   upon   his 

death    as   an   advantage  to   the  Scottish  kingdom.     The 

men  of  that  age  were  too  much  accustomed  to  such  violent 

deeds  to  entertain  a  great  abhorrence  of  assassination,  and 

Buch  feelings  and  crimes  were  not  confined  to  the  adherents 

of  the  Ucformatinn.    A  few  years  afterwards  Martinuzzi,  the 

cardinal  archbisliopof  Gran,  was  murdered  by  the  express 

oiimmand  of  a  Roman  Catholic    prince,  Ferdinand,  king 

of  tha  Romans,  brother  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 


The  character  of  Beaton  has  already  Leon  indicaleu. 
As  a  statesman  he  was  able,  resolute,  and  in  his  genera! 
policy  patriotic.  Aa  an  ecclesiastic  he  maintained  the 
privileges  of  the  hierarchy  and  the  dominant  system  of 
belief  conscientiously,  but  always  with  harshness  and  some- 
times with  cruelty.  The  immoralities  of  the  cardinal, 
like  his  acts  of  persecution,  were  exaggerated  by  his  oppo- 
nents ;  but  his  private  life  was  undoubtedly  a  scandal 
to  religion  and  the  church,  and  has  only  the  poor  excuse 
that  it  was  not  worse  than  that  of  most  of  his  order  at 
the  time.  The  authorship  of  the  writings  ascribed  to  him 
in  several  biographical  notices  rests  on  no  better  authority 
than  the  apocryphal  statements  of  Dempster.         (o.  o.) 

BEATTIE,  James,  a  Scottish  poet  and  writer  on 
philosophy,  was  bom  at  Laurencekirk  on  (he  25th  October 
1735.  His  father,  a  small  farmer  and  shopkeeper,  died 
when  he  was  very  young;  but  an  elder  brother  took  charge 
of  the  boy,  and  observing  his  aptitude  for  learning  sent  him 
to  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  where  he  gained  a  bursary. 
In  1753  he  was  appointed  schoolmaster  of  Fordoun,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Grampian  hills,  amongst  splendid  scenery, 
which  impressed  itself  deeply  on  Beattie's  somewliat 
poetical  mind.  In  l7o8  he  obtained  a  situation  as  under- 
master  in  the  grammar  school,  Aberdeen,  and  two  years 
later  he  was  made  professor  of  moral  philosophy  at  Mari- 
schal College.  Here  he  became  closely  acquainted  with 
Reid,  Campbell,  Gerard,  and  others,  who  formed  a  kind  of 
literary  or  philosophical  society,  in  which  speculative 
questions,  above  all  the  views  of  Hume,  were  canvassed 
and  criticized.  In  1770  Beattie  published  his  £ssai/  on  the 
NaUire  and  Iminulabilily  of  Truth,  in  which  he  attacked 
Uelvetius  and  Hume,  and  advocated  the  doctrine  after- 
wards familiarly  known  as  that  of  Common  Sense.  The 
work  had  an  astonishing  success,  and  its  author,  when  on 
a  visit  to  London  in  1773,  was  received  with  the  greatest 
honour  by  the  king  himself.  About  the  same  time  he 
received  a  pension  of  £200  a  year.  In  1773  and  1774  ha 
published  the  first  and  second  parts  of  The  Minstrel,  which 
were  received  with  great  favour,  and  gained  for  the  author  a 
fresh  accession  of  popularily.  His  later  writings  are  partly 
literary,  such  as  the  Essays,  17GG  ;  Dissertations,  1783, 
partly  philosophical  ;  Evidences  of  Christianity,  1781  ; 
Elements  of  Moral  Science,  1790-93.  Beattie  was  unfor- 
tunate in  bis  domestic  life.  His  wife,  whom  he  married 
in  1767,  was  afflicted  with  insanity,  a  disease  which  she 
appears  to  have  inherited  from  her  mother.  Two  sons, 
all  iis  family,  died  just  as  they  were  attaining  manhood. 
The  elder,  James  jlay  Beattie,  a  young  man  of  great 
promise,  who  at  the  age  of  nineteen  had  been  associated 
with  his  father  in  the  professorship,  died  in  1790.  The 
younger  brother  died  in  1796.  Beattie  never  recovered 
his  second  blow.  His  mind  was  nearly  overthrown  by  it ; 
his  spirit  was  completely  broken,  and  although  he  still 
lectured,  ho  neither  wrote  nor  studied.  In  1799  he  was 
attacked  fith  palsy,  and  continued  to  sufTcr  from  that 
disease  for  three  years.  He  died  on  the  18th  August 
1803.  Beattie's  fame  rests  now  solely  on  his  poems.  The 
much  celebrated  Essay  on  I'rufh  is  a  work  of  no  philoso- 
phic ability,  and  is  disfigured  by  the  violent  and  intem- 
perate language  of  tlie  author.  His  other  writings  on 
philosophical  subjects,  such  as  tho  Elements  of  Moral 
Science,  are  excessively  weak,  and  have  fallen  into  well- 
deserved  oblivion.  The  Minstrel,  however,  is  a  work  which 
will  always  retain  a  considerable  share  of  popular  favour. 
The  ground-plan  is  simple  and  well  conceived, — to  trace  tha 
development  of  poetic  genius  in  a  youth  from  his  earliest 
years  up  to  tho  time  when  ho  becomes  able  to  take  his 
place  as  a  minstrel.  There  runs  through  tho  poem  a  fine 
vein  of  quiot  reflection,  interspersed  with  animated  de- 
scriptions of  natural  scenery.     The  vcrsiQcatiou  is  smooth 


B  E  A  — B  E  A 


467 


am)    melodious.     (See  Lift  of  BecUtie,  by  Lis  frieud  Sir 
\V.  lorbes,  1806.) 

EE.VUCAIRE  {if:.,  Btllitm  Quadrum,  the  beautiful 
square),  a  towo  of  France,  department  of  Card,  and 
Brrondissemcut  of  Ximes.  Lat.  43°  4S'  32"  N.,  long,  i" 
3S'  SO'  E.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhone, 
opposite  Tarascon,  with  wBich  it  is  conneotcd  by  a  magni- 
ficent suspension-bridge  of  four  spans  and  1456  feet  in 
length.  The  town  is  generally  well  built,  but  has  no  public 
buildings  worthy  of  notice,  aud  the  streets  are  narrov?  and 
crooked.  Its  ancient  castle  of  JBclIicadro  is  now  in  ruins. 
It  gives  name  to  the  canal  which  communicates  with  the 
sea,  and  also  connects  it.  with  theLanguedoc  canal,  fdnning 
p.irt  of  the  line  of  communication  between  the  Khon'e  and 
the  Garonne.  It  is  also  connected  with  Nimes  and  Alais- 
by  a  railway  opened  in  1839.  The  manufactures  are  few 
and  unimportant  The  town  derives  its.celsbrity  from  the 
great  July  fair,  which  has  been  held  here  annually  since 
the  13th  (or  14th)  century,  and  to  which  merchants  come 
from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  evep  from  Persia  and 
Armenia.  The  extensive  meadow,  called  Magdalen's,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Rhone,  is  set  apart  for  the  gathering, 
and  almost  every  kind  of  article,  whether  of  convenience 
or  luxury,  is  there  exhibited.  Though  the  fair  is  now  less 
frequented  than  formerly,  it  is  said  that  still  as  many  as 
100,000  persons  attend.  There  are  stone  quarries  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  town,  and  the  manufacture  of. linen 
and  woollen  stuffs  is  carried  on.-  Population  in  1872, 
7858. 

Ikaucaire  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Ugcmum,  and  several 
remains  of  the  Koinan  city  have  been  discovei-ed,  as  well  as  (in  1734) 
ibe  road  that  led  from  Ninies.  It  was  a  fortress  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
aud  belonged  in  succession  to  the  counts  of  Aries,  the  archbishops  of 
Aries,  the  counts  of  Toulouse,  and  the  viscounts  of  Nnrbonne.  In 
the  l'2th  century  it  is  frequently  mentioned  by  tho  troubadours. 
Presented  in  1S15  to  Simon  de  Montfort,  it  was  next  year  taken 
possession  of  .by  Count  liaimund  VI.  ;  and  in  12'26  I,,oui3  Vlll. 
made  himself  master  of  it.  In  tho  ware  of  tho  League  it  suffered 
severely,  and  in  1632  its  castle  was  destroyed  by  Richelieu; 

BE.\.UCHAMP,  Alphonsb  de,  French,  historian-  and 
man  of  letters,  was  born  at  Monaco  in  1767,  and  died  in 
1832.  In  1784  he  entered  a  Sardinian  regiment  of  marines, 
but  on  the  outbreak  of  war  with  the  French-  Republic,  he 
refused  to  fight  in  what  he  considered  an  unjust  cause,  and 
\va3  imprisoned  for  sever.il  taonthi  After  being  liberated 
he  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  where  he  obtained  a  post 
in  one  of  the  Government  offices.  On  the  fall  of 
Robespierre,  Beauchamp  was  transferred  to  the  bureau  of 
the  minister  of  police,  and  charged  with  the  superintendence 
of  the  press  This  situation  opened  up  to  him  materials 
of  which  he  made  use  in  his  first  and  most  popular  historical 
work,  llisloire  de  la  Vendee  ei  des  Chouans,  3  vols.,  1806. 
The  book,  received  with  great  favour  by  the  people,  waa 
displeasing  to  the  authorities.  The  third  edition  was  con- 
fiscated; its  writer  was  deprived  of  his  post,  and  in  1809 
was  compelled  to  leave  Paris  and  take  up  his  abode  in 
Rheims  In  1811  he  obtained  permission  to  return,  and 
again  received  a-  Government  appointment  This  he  had 
to  rc.iign  oq  the  Restoration,  but  was  rewarded  with  a 
email  pension,  which  was  continued  to  his  widow  after  his 
death 

IV;auchnmp  wrote  oxtonsivcly  for  tho  public  jonmals.  His  hls- 
tcnc.il  ami  Lin'-nphical  works  are  numerous  and  important.  Tho 
W-.t  knoKTi  of  liicm  are  i—Ifutoire  it  la  Conqultc  da.  Pfrou,  18P7  ; 
J/utloire  ciu  Brail,  1815;  I/istoire  de  la  JUvoltUion  du  PUmmt, 
lSi3  ;  Vu  d'.  Louia  XVIIl.,  1821.  The  Utmoira  de  Fouchi  have 
also  been  ascrilK-d  to  him. 

BEAUIIARXAIS,  Eucfejfn  de,  stepson  of  Napoleon 
I.,  was  born  at  Paris,  September  3,  1781.  His  father,  tho 
Vicomto  Alexander  do  Beauharnais,  had  been  a  member  of 
'lie  N.itionaJ- Convention,  and  for  soma  time  commanded 
>he  republican  army  of  tho  north.    His  want  of  success  in 


the  Peld,  however,  brought  him  under  the  suspicion  of  tl.<) 
Revolutionary  leaders ;  he  was  tried  on  a  charge  of  treasou, 
and  was  exe'cuted  on  23d  June  j794.  After  the  marriage 
of  Napoleon  with  the  Vicamtesse  Josephine  Beauharnais,  her 
son  Engine  accompanied  the  army  of  Italy  aud  acted  a* 
aide  de-camp  to  his  step-father,  by  whom  he  was  treated 
with  the  greate.<;t  affection  and  favour.  He  was  rapiJly_ 
promoted  ;  and  after  the  establishment  of  the.  empire,  was 
made  prince  and  viceroy  of  Italy.  In  1806  he  was  adopted 
by  Napoleon.  During  the  great  campaign  of  1809  he  had 
the  command  of  the  Italian  army,  and  by  his  skilful  con- 
duct materially  contributed  to  the  success  of  the  emperor. 
In  1812  he  commanded  a  corps  of  the  grand  army;  and 
after  the  departure  of  Napoleon  and  flight  o^'Murat',  had 
the  entire  charge  of  the  broken  French  forcev*.-  The  disas- 
trous campaigns  of  181-3  and  1814  deprived  liim  of  bia 
viccroyalty,  aud  he  retired  to  Munich,  the  capital  of  the 
king  of  Bavaria,  vhose  daughter  he  had  married  in  1800. 
There  he  continued  to  reside,  with  the  title  -of  dilko  of 
Leuchtenberg,  till  his  death  in  1824. 

BEAUMANOIR,  Philippe  de,  d'distingiiishe*  writer 
on  French  law,  "was  born  in  the  early  part  of  the  13th 
vcentury,  aud  died  in  1296.  The  few  facts  known  regarding 
his  life  areto  be  gathered  from  legal  documents  in  which 
his  name  occurs.  From  these  it  appears  that  in  1273  ha 
filled  the  post  of  bailti  at  Senlis,and  in  1280  held  a  similar 
office  at  Clermont.  He  is  also  occasionally  referred  to  'as 
presiding' at  the  assizes  held  at  various  towns.  Ilia. great 
work  is  entitled  Coutumes  de  Beauvoisis.  and  was  first 
published  by  De  la  Thaumassifere-  in  169,0.  •  A  second 
edition,  with  introduction,  -was  published  by  Beugnpt  in 
1842.  It  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  works  bearing  on 
old  French  law,  and  was  frequently  referred  to*with  high 
admiration  by  MontesquieUi 

BEAUMARCHAIS.  Pierre  Acgustin  Caron,  better 
known  by  his  acquired  title  De  Beaumakchais,  tho 
most  distinguished  French  comic  dramatist  next  to  Moliere, 
andaraan  of  inuch  importance  during  the  pre-Revolutionary 
■period,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1732.  'His  father,  who  was 
a  watchmaker,  brought  him  up  to  the  same  trade.  He 
was  an  unusually  precocious  aud  lively  boy,  shrewd,  saga- 
cious, and,  like  his  sisters,  passionately  fond  of  music,  and 
imbued  with  a  strong  desire  for  rising  in  tho  world.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-one  he  invented  a  new  escapement  for 
watches,  which  was  pirated  by  a  rival  maker.  Young 
Caron  at  once  published  his  grievance  in  the  newspapers, 
and  had  the  matter  referred  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
who  decided  in  his  favour.  This  affair  brought  him  into 
notice  at  court ;  he  was  appointed,  or  at  least  choso  to  dub 
himself,  watchmaker  to  the  kin^  who  had  called  him  in  to 
examine  Mme.  de  Pompadour's  watch.  His  handsome 
&g>iTe  and  cool  assurance  soon  began  to  make  their  way  at 
court,  where  he  so  earnestly  desired  to  obtain  a  footing. 
Nor  was  it  long  before  his  wish  was  accomplished.  The 
wife  of  an  old  court  official,  conceiving  a  violent  passion  for 
young  Caron,  persuaded  her  husband  to  make  over  his 
office  to  his  rival,  and  on  her  husband's  death,  a  few  months 
later,  married  the  handsome  watchmaker.  Caron  at  tho 
same  time  assumed  the  title  De  Beaumarchais ;  and  four 
years  later,  by  purch.asing  the  office  of  secretary  to  the 
king,  obtained  a  title  of  nobility. 

While  employed  at  court  his  musical  talents  brought 
him  under  the  notice  of  the  king's  sisters,  who  engaged  him 
to  teach  them  the  harp.  Jn  this  way  be  obtained  access  to 
the  best  society  of  the  court,  and  by  a  fortunate  accident 
was  enabled  to  make  use  of  the  princesses'  friendship  to 
confer  a  slight  favour  on  the  great  banker  Paris-Duveriiey. 
Duverney  testified  his  gratitude  in  a  most  substantial 
manner ;  he  bestowed  shares  in  several  of  his  speculations 
upon  Bciumarrhais,  and  the  latter,  whose  business  talcntj 


4G8 


B  E  A   -  B  E  A 


were  of  a  high  uraer,  soon  realized  a  handsome  fortune. 
In  1764  he  took  a  journey  to  Spain,  partly  with  commercial 
obiects  in  view,  but  principally  on  account  of  the  Clavijo 
affair,  which  waa  afterwards  made  famous  by  the  Goezman 
memoirs,  and  by  Goethe's  drama.  [Four  years  later  he  made 
his  first. essay  on  the  stage  with  the  sentimental  drama 
Eugenie,  which  was- followed  after  an  interval  of  two  years 
by  La  Deux  Amu.  Neither  had  more  than  moderate 
euccess,  and  it  was  clear  that,  though  the  author  might  be 
unaware  of  it,  his  strength  did  not  lie  in  the  grave  and 
sentimental.  Meantime  the  clouds  of  the  first  great  storm 
in  Beaumarchais's  life  were  gathering  round  him.  He  was 
very  generally  disliked  as  an  upstart,  and  there  were  many 
ready  to  seize  the  first  opportunity  of  hurling  him  from  the 
position  he  had  attained.  Duverney,  his  great  benefactor, 
died  in  1770  ;  but  some  time  before  his  death  a  duplicate 
settlement  of  the  affairs  between  him  and  Beaumarchais 
Lad  been  drawn  up,  in  which  the  former  acknowledged  him- 
self debtor  to  the  latter  for  16,000  francs.  Duverney's 
heir.  Count  la  Blache,  a  bitter  enemy  of  Beaumarchais, 
denied  the  validity  of  this  document,  though  without  directly 
stigmatizing  it  as  a  forgery.  The  matter  was  put  to  trial. 
Beaumarchais  gained  his  cause,  but  his  adversary  at  once 
carried  the  case  before  the  parliament,  and  in  the  early  part 
of  1773  that  body  was  preparing  to  give  its  decision  on  the 
report  of  one  of  its_members,  SI.  Goezman.  Beaumarchais 
was  well-nigh  in  despair ;  ruin  stared  him  in  the  face  ,  he 
was  looked  upon  not  only  with  dislike  but  with  suspicion 
and  contempt.  Worst  of  all,  he  was  unable  to  obtain  an 
interview  with  Goezman,  in  whose  hands  his  fate  rested. 
At  last,  just  before  the  day  on  which  the  report  was  to 
be  given  in,  he  was  informed  privately  that,  by  presenting 
200  louis  to  Mme.  Goezman  and  15  to  her  secretary, 
the  desired  interview  might  take  place  ;  if  the  result 
should  prove  unfavourable  the  money  would  be  refunded. 
The  money  was  sent  and  the  interview  obtained ;  but 
the  decision  was  adverse,  and  200  louis  were  returned, 
the  15  going  as  business  expenses  to  the  secretary. 
Beaumarchais,  who  had  learned  that  there  was  no  secretary 
€av6  Mme.  Goezman  herself,  insisted  on  restitution  of 
the  15  louis,  and  the  lady,  in  her  passion,  denied  all 
knowledge  of  the  atfair.  Her  husband,  who  seems  not 
to  have  been  cognisant  of  the  transaction  at  first,  and  who, 
doubtless,  thought  the  defeated  litigant  would  be -easily 
put  down,  at  once  brought  an  accusation  against  him 
in  parliament  for  an  attempt  to  corrupt  a  judge.  The 
battle  was  fought  chiefly  through  the  Memoires,  or  reports 
published  by  the  adverse  parties,  and  in  it  Beaumarchais's 
success  was  most  complete.  All  iis  best  ■qualities  were 
drawn  forth  by  the  struggle  ;  his  wit,  energy,  and  cheer- 
fulness seemed  to  be  doubled  ;  and  for  vivacity  of  style,  fine 
satire,  and  broad  humour,  his  famous  Memoires  have  never 
been  surpassed.  Even  Voltaire  was  constrained  to  envy 
them.  Nor  was  ths  effect  of  the  struggle  apparent  only  in 
Beaumarchais  himself.  He  was  attacking  the  parliament 
through  one  of  its  members,  and  the  parliament  was  the 
universally  detested  body  furmed  by  the  chancellor 
Maupeou.  The  Memoires  were,  therefore,  hailed  with 
genera!  delight ;  and  the  author,  from  being  perhaps  the 
most  unpopular  man  in  France,  became  at  once  the  idol  of 
the  people.  The  decision  in  the  ease,  however,  so  far  as 
law  went,  was  agains^  him.  Tho  parliament  condemned 
him  au  lldme, — i.e.,  to  civic  depradation  ;  but  he  obtained 
restitution  of  hia  rights  within  two  years,  and  finally 
triumphed  over  his  adversary  La  Blacbc. 

During  tho  next  few  years  his  empioynien'.  was  of  a 
somewhat  singular  nature.  He  was  engaged  by  tb«  king 
in  .'ecret  service,  principally  to  destroy  certain  scurriloufl 
pamphlets  concerning  Mme  du  Barry,  the  publication  cl 
which  had   been   threatened.      His  visits  to  England,  ou 


these  missions,  in  which  he  was  very  successful,  ied  bim  to 
take  a  deep  interest  in  the  impending  struggle  between  the 
colonies  and  the  mother  country.     His  sympathies  were 
entirely  with  the  Americans;   and  by  his  unwearied  exer- 
tions he  succeeded  in  inducing  the  French  Government  to 
give  ample,  though  private,  assistance  in  money  and  arms 
to  the  insurgent  colonists.     He' himself,  partly  OD  his  onu 
aocount,  p.irtly  as  an  agent,  carried  on  an  enormous  traffic 
with  America.     During  the  same  period  he  hadjaid  the 
foundations  of  a  more  enduring  fame  by  his  two  famous 
comedies,  the  best  of  their  clasa.since  those  of  McUorc 
The  earlier,  Le  Barhier  de  Seville,  alter  a  short  prohibition 
was  put  on  the  stage  in  1775.     The  first  representatiot 
was  a  complete  failure.     Beaumarchais  had  overloaded  tho 
last  scene  with  allusions  to  the  facts  of  his  own  case-and 
the  whole  action  of  the  piece  was  laboured    and   heavy. 
But  with  undaunted  energy  he  set  to  work,  cut  down  and 
remodelled  the  piece  in  time  for  the  second  representation, 
when  it  achieved  a  complete  success.     The  intrigues  which 
were  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  a  licence  for  the  second 
and  more  famous  comedy  Le  Mariage  de  Figaro  are  highly 
amusing,  and  throw  much  light  on  the  unsettled  state  of 
public  sentiment  at  the  time.     The  play  waa  completed  in 
1781,    but   the   opposition   of  Louis  XVL,   who  saw  its 
dangerous  tendencies,  waa  not  overcome  till   1784.     The 
comedy   had   an   unprecedented   success.     The   princip.d 
character  in   both  plays,   the  world-famous  Figaro,  is  a 
completely   original    conception ;   and   for    mingled   wit, 
shrewdness,   gaiety,   and  philosophic   reflection,  may  not 
unjustly  be  ranked  alongside  of  the  great  Tartulfe.     To 
English   readers   the   Figaro  plays    are  generally  known 
through  the  adaptations  of  them  in  the  grand  opems  of 
Mozart  and  Rossini ;   but  in  France  they  long  retained 
popularity  as  acting  pieces.     Beaumarchais's  later  produc- 
tions, the  bombastic   opera  Tarare,  and  the  drama    The 
Guilty  Mother,  which  was  very  popular,  are  hardly  worthy 
of  his  genius. 

By  his  writings  Beaumarchais  contributed  greatly,  though 
quite  unconsciously,  to  hurry  on  the  events- that  led  to  the 
Revolution.  At  heart  he  hardly  seems  to  have  been  a 
republican,  and  the  new  state  of  affairs  did  not  benefit 
him.  Hia  popularity  had  been  somewhat  lessened  by  th^ 
affairs  Bergasse  and  Mirabeau,  and  his  great  wealth  and 
splendid  mansion  exposed  him  to  the  enmity  of  tho 
envious.  A  speculation  into  which  he  entered,  to  supply 
the  Convention  with  muskets  from  Holland,  proved  a 
ruinous  failure.  He  was  charged  with  treason  to  the 
Republic,  and  was  obliged  for  some  time  to  take  refuge  in 
Holland  and  England.  His  memoirs  entitled,  Mes  Six 
£poques,  detailing  bis  sufferings  under  the  Republic,  are 
not  unworthy  of  the  Goezman  period.^  His  courage  and 
happy  disposition  never  deserted  him ;  he  was  gay  and 
hopeful  up  to  the  time  of  hb  death,  which  took  place 
suddenly  in  May  1799. 

LoDifiiip,  Beaumarchais  et  son  Temps,  1856;  Eng.  tmns.  of  tlio 
same  by  H.  S.  Edwanis,  4  vols.,  1856.  Beaiimaichais's  worka 
have  been  published  by  Cudiu,  7  vols.,  1809;  and  by  Fume,  6  vols., 
1827 

BEAUMARIS  (formerly  Bornovor,  and  deriving  its 
present  French  name  of  Beau  Marais  from  Edward  I.),  a 
borough  and  market-town  of  Anglesea,  North  Wales,  ll 
is  situated  on  the  Bay  of  Beaumaris,  at  the  northern 
entrance  of  the  Menai  Straits,  in  lat.  53°  IG'  N.,  long.  4° 
5'  W.  Tho  town  consists  of  several  streets ;  and  at  the 
extremity  of  the  principal  one  stands  the  castle.  This 
fortress  was  built  by  Edward  I.  about  1295.  It  covers  a 
great  extent  of  ground,  but  its  imposing  eO'ect  is  somowh.it 
lessened  by  its  low  position,  which  waa  so  dcsignedMhal 
the  fosse  might  communicate  with  the  sea,  so  that  vcs-^^ls 
'  mi|;ht  unload  beneath  the  walls.    The  chapel,  dedicated  to 


B  E  A  -  B  E  A 


160 


the  Virgin,  is  a  Spacious  slructure,  containing  several  fine 
monuments.  A  freo  school  waa  founded  here  in  ICOIi. 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  townhaU,  county  hall, 
prison,  cualomhousc,  assembly-room,  and  national  school. 
Beaumaris  has  no  manufactures  and  comparatively  little 


trade,  but  is  much  frequented  as  a  bathing-place.  It 
unites  with  Holyhead,  Auilwcb,  and  Llangefni  in  return- 
ing a  member  to  parliament  The  bay  affords  good 
anchorage,  baring  seven  fathoms  of  water  at  the  lowest 
ebb.     Population  in  1871,  2'J'Jl. 


BEAUMONT    AND    FLETCHER 


rp  FIE  critical  memoir  pre6ied  by  Mr  Dyce  to  the  c.ly 
.!_  good  and  soholir-like  edition  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher 
has  summed  up  once  for  all,  in  fulness  of  perfect  order, 
what  little  can  now  be  known-  of  their  lives.  It  may 
suBice  here  to  extract  from  this  complete  and  careful 
record  a  few  main  facts  and  necessary  dates,  taking  as 
little  note  as  need  be  of  any  supplementary  or  hypothetical 
matters.  Six  or  seven  years  before  the  birth  of  his  brother 
in  art,  John  Fletcher  was  born  in  December  1579  at  Eye 
in  Sussex,  and  baptized  on  the  20th  of  the  same  month. 
Richard  FIftcher,  his  father,  afterwards  queen's  chaplain, 
dean  of  Peterborough,  and  bishop  successively  of  Bristol, 
Worcester,  and  London,  was  then  minister  of  the  parish 
in  which  the  son  waa  bom  who  was  to  make  their  n:;me 
inimortaL  That  son  was  just  turned  of  seven  when  the 
dean  distinguished  and  disgraced  himself  as  the  spiritual 
tormentor  of  the  last  moments  on  earth  of  Mary  Stuart. 
When  not  quite  twelve  he  was  admitted  pensioner  of 
Bene't  College,  Cambridge,  and  two  years  later  was  made 
one  of  the  Bible-clerks :  of  this  college  Bi.shop  Fletcher 
had  been  president  twenty  years  earlier,  and  six  months 
"before  his  son's  admission  had  received  from  its  authorities 
a  first  letter  of  thanks  for  various  benefactions,  to  be 
followed  next  year  by  a  second.  Four  years  later  than 
this,  when  John  Fletcher  ivanted  five  or  six  months  of  his 
seventeenth  year,  the  bishop  died  suddenly  of  over  much 
tobacco  and  the  displeasure  of  Queen  Elizabeth  at  his 
second  marriage, — this  time,  it  appears,  with  a  lady  of 
such  character  as  figures  something  too  frequently  on  the 
stage  of  his  illustrious  son.  He  left  eight  children  by  his 
first  marriage  in  such  distress  that  their  uncle,  Dr  Giles 
Fletcher,  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  Russian  commonwealth 
which  is  still  held  in  some  repute,  was  obliged  to  draw  up 
a  petition  to  the  queen  on  their  behalf,  which  was  sup- 
ported by  the  intercession  of  Essex,  but  with  what  result 
is  uncertain.  From  this  date  wo  know  nothing  of  the 
fortunes  of  John  Fletcher,  till  the  needy  orphan  boy  of 
seventeen  reaj'pears  as  the  brilliant  and  triumphant  poet 
whose  name  is  linked  fur  all  time  wHth  the  yet  more 
glorious  name  of  Francis  Beaumont,  third  and  youngest 
eon  of  Sir  Francis  Beaumont  of  Grace-Dieu,  one  of  the 
justices  of  the  Common  Pleas, — born,  according  to  general 
report,  in  1586,  but,  according  to  more  than  one  apparently 
irrefragable  document,  actually  born  at  least  a  year  earlier. 
The  first  record  of  his  existence  is  the  entry  of  his  name, 
together  with  those  of  his  elder  brothers  Henry  and  John, 
as  a  gentleman-commoner  of  Broadgatcs  Hall,  Oxford,  now 
supplanted  by  Pembroke  College.  But  most  lovers  of  his 
fiine  will  care  rather  to  remember  the  admirable  lines  of 
Wordsworth  on  the  "  eager  child  "  who  played  among  the 
rocks  and  woodlands  of  GraceDicu  ;  though  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  even  the  boy's  first  verses  were  of  the 
peaceful  and  pastoral  character  attributed  to  them  by  the 
great  laurcite  of  the  lakes.  That  passionate  and  fiery  genius 
which  was  so  soon  and  (pr  so  short  a  time  to  "shake  the 
buskined  stage"  with  heroic  and  tragic  notes  of  pa.s.sion  and 
of  sorrow,  of  scorn  and  rage  and  slighted  love  and  jealousy, 
must  surely  have  sought  vent  from  the  first  in  fancies  of  a 
morp  ardent  and  ambitious  kind ;  and  it  would  be  a 
likelier  conjecture  that  fthen  Frank  Beaumont  (as  wo  know 
on  more  outhorilies  than  one  that  he  was  always  called  by 


his  contemporaries,  even  in  the  full  flush  of  his  adult  fame  — 
"  never  more  than  Frank,"  says  Hcywood)  went  to  college 
at  the  ripe  age  of  twelve,  he  had  already  committed  a 
tragedy  or  two  in  emulation  of  Tamburlaine,  Andronicus. 
or  Jeronymo.  The  date  of  his  admission  was  4th  February 
1597  ;  on  April  22d  of  the  following  year  his  father  died  ; 
and  on  the  3d  of  November  1000,  having  left  Oxford 
without  taking  his  degree,  the  boy  of  fifteen  was  entered  a 
member  of  the  Inner  Temple,  his  two  brothers  standing 
sponsors  on- tha . grave  occasion.  But  the  son  of  Judge 
Beaumont  was  no  fitter  for  success  at  the  bar  than  the  son 
of  Bishop  Fletcher  for  distinction  in  the  church  :  it  is 
equally  difficult  to  imagine  either  poet  invested  with  either 
gown.  Two  years  later  appeared  the  poem  of  Salm.icis 
and  J/ermaphroditvs,  a  voluptuous  and  voluminous  expan- 
sion of  the  Ovidian  IcgenJ,  not  on  the  whole  discreditable 
to  a  lad  of  seventeen,  fresh  fi^m  the  popular  love-poems  of 
Marlowe  and  Shakespeare,  which  it  naturally  exceeds  in 
long-winded  and  fantastic  diffusion  of  episodes  and  concits. 
At  tweuty-two .  Beaumont  prefijced  to  the  magnificent 
masterpiece  of  Ben  Jonson  some  noticeable  verses  in 
honour  of  his  "  dear  friend  "  the  author ;  and  in  the  sarno 
year  (1607)  appeared  the  anonymous  comedy  of  2'he 
WoTna-nrllater,  u.suaUy  assigned  to  Fletclftr  alor.e ;  but 
being  as  it  is  in  the  main  a  crude  and  puerile  imitation  of 
Jonson's  manner,  and  certainly  more  like  a  man's  work  at 
twenty-two  than  at  twenty-eight,  internal  evidence  would 
seem  to  justify,  or  at  least  to  excuse,  those  critics  who  in 
the  teeth  of  high  authority  and  tradition  would  transfer 
from  Fletcher  to  Beaumont  the  principal  responsibility  for 
this  first  play  that  can  be  traced  to  the  hand  of  either. 
As  Fletcher  also  prefixed  to  the  first  edition  of  Vulpone  a 
copy  of  commendatory  verses,  we  may  presume  that  their 
common  admiration  for  a  common  friend  was  among  the 
earliest  and  strongest  influences  which  drew  together  the 
two  great  poets  whose  names  were  thenceforward  to 
be  for  ever  indivisible.  During  the  dim  eleven  years 
between  the  death  of  his  father  and  the  dawn  of  his 
fame,  we  cannot  but  imagine  that  the  career  of  Fletcher 
had  been  unprosperous  as  well  as  obscure.  From  seven- 
teen to  twenty  eight  his  youth  may  presumably  have 
been  spent  in  such  painful  struggles  for  success,  if  not 
for  sustenance,  as  were  never  known  to  his  younger 
colleague,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  was  entered  at  Oxford 
a  few  months  after  Fletcher  must  in  a'u  likelihood  have 
left  Cambridge  to  try  his  luck  in  London  ;  a  venture 
most  probably  resolved  on  as  soon  as  the  youth  had  found 
his  family  reduced  by  the  father's  death  to  such  ruinous 
straits  that  any  smoother  course  can  hardly  have  been  open 
to  him.  Entering  college  at  the  same  age  as  Fletcher  had 
entered  fix  years  earlier,  Beaumont  had  before  him  a 
brighter  and  briefer  line  of  life  than  his  elder.  But  wh.it- 
ever  may  have  been  their  respective  situations  when,  either 
by  happy  chance  or,  as  Mr  Dyce  suggests,  by  the  go()d 
offices  of  Jonson,  they  were  first  brought  together,  their 
intimacy  soon  became  so  much  clo.scr  than  that  of  ordinary 
brothers  that  the  household  which  they  shared  as  bachelors 
was  conducted  on  such  thoroughly  communistic  principles 
as  might  have  satisfied  the  most  trenchant  theorist  who 
ever  proclaimed,  as  the  cardinal  point  of  his  doctrine,  a 
complete  and  absolute  community  of  bed  and  board,  with 


470 


BEAUMONT     AND     FLETCHER 


all  goods  therew  appertaining,  cut  in  the  year  following 
that  in  which  the  two  younger  poets  had  united  in  noinage 
to  Jonson,  they  had  entered  into  a  partnership  of  more 
importance  than  this  in  "  the  same  clothes  and  cloak,  &c.," 
with  other  necessaries  of  life  specified  by  Aubrey.  In 
160?,  if  we  may  trust  the  reckoning  which  seems  trust- 
worthiest,  the  twin  stars  of  our  stage  rose  visibly  together 
for  the  first  time.  The  loveliest,  though  not  the  loftiest, 
of  tragic  plays  that  we  owe  to  the  comrades  or  the 
successors  of  Shakespeare,  Philaster,  has  always  been 
regarded  as  the  first-born  issue  of  their  comicon  genius. 
The  noble  tragedy  of  Thierry  and  Theodoret  has  generally 
lieen  dated  earlier  and  assigned  to  Fletcher  alone  ;  but  we 
can  be  sure  neither  of  the  early  date  nor  the  single  author- 
ship. The  main  body  of  the  play,  comprising  both  the 
great  scenes  which  throw  out  into  full  and  final  relief  the 
character  of  either  heroine  for  perfect  good  or  evil,  bears 
throughout  the  unmistakable  image  and  superscription  of 
Fletcher;  yet  there  are  parts  which  for  gravity  and  steady 
strength  of  style,  for  reserve  and  temperanoe  of  eS'ect,  would 
seem  to  suggest  the  collaboration  of  a  calmer  and  more 
patient  hand  ;  and  these  more  equable  and  less  passionate 
parts  of  the  poem  recall  rather  the  touch  of  Massinger 
than  of  Beaumsnt.  In  the  second  act,  for  example,  the 
regular  structure  of  the  verse,  the  even  scheme  of  the  action, 
tho  exaggerated  braggardism  which  makes  of  the  hero  a 
mere  puppet  or  mouthpiece  of  his  own  'self-will,  are  all 
qualities  which,  for  better  or  for  worse,  remind  us  of  the 
strength  or  the  weakness  of  a  poet  with  whom  we  know 
that  Fletcher,  before  or  after  his  alliance  with  Beaumont, 
did  now  and  then  work  in  common.  Even  the  Arbaces  of 
Baaumont,  though  somewhat  too  highly, coloured,  does  not 
"  write  himself  down  an  ass,"  like  Thierry  on  his  first 
entrance,  after  the  too  frequent  fashion  of  Massinger's 
braggarts  -and  tyrants ;  does  not  proclaim  at  starting  or 
display  with  mere  wantonness  of  exposure  his  more 
unlovely  qualities  in  the  naked  nature  of  their  deformity. 
Compare  also  tho  second  with  the  first  scene  of  the  fourth 
act.  la  style  and  metre  this  second  scene  is  as  good  an 
example  of  Massinger  as  the  first  is  of  Fletcher  at  his  best. 
Observe  especially  in  the  elaborate  narrative  of  the 
pretended  self-immolation  of  Ordella  these  distinctive 
notes  of  the  peculiar  style  of  Massinger ;  the  excess  of 
p.irenthetic  sentences,  no  less  than  five  in  a  space  of  twenty 
lines ;  the  classical  common-place  of  allusion  to  Athens, 
Rome,  and  Sparta  in  one  superfluous  breath  ;  the  pure 
and  vigorous  but  somewhat  level  and  prosaic  order  of 
language,  with  the  use  of  certain  cheap  and  easy  phrases 
familiar  to  Massinger  as  catchwords  ;  tho  flat  and  feeble 
terminations  by  means  of  which  the  final-  syllable  of  one 
verse  runs  on  into  the  next  without  more  pause  or  rhythm 
than  in  a  passage  of  prose ;  thi  general  dignity  and 
giovity  of  sastained  and  measured  expression.  These  are 
tho  very  points  in  which  the  stylaof  Massinger  dififers  from 
that  of  Fletcher ;  whose  lightest  and  loosest  verses  do  cot 
ovcMap  each  other  without  sensible  distinction  between  the 
end  of  one  lino  and  tho  beginning  of  tho  next ;  who  is 
often  too  fluent  and  facile  to  be  choice  or  forcible  in  bis 
diction,  but  seldom  if  ever  prosaic  or  conventional  in  phrase 
or  allusion,  ond  by  no  means  habitually  given  to  weave 
thoughts  within  thoughts,  knit  sentence  into  sentence,  and 
hang  whole  paragraphs  together  by  the  help  of  loops  and 
brackets.  From  these  indications  wc  might  infer  that  this 
poem  belongs  altogether  to  a  period  later  than  the  death 
of  Beaumont;  though  even  during  bis  friend's  life  it 
appears  that  Fletcher  was  once  at  least  allied  with 
Massinger  and  two  lesser  dramatists  in  tho  composition  of 
some  play  now  unknown  to  men. 

Hardly  eight  years  of  toil  and  triumph,  of  joyous  nnd 
glorious  life,  were  spared  by  destiny  to  the  younger  poet 


between  the  date  assigned  to  the  first  radiant  revelation  of 
his  genius  in  FhUaster  and  the  date  which  marks  ihe  end 
of  all  his  labours.  On  the  Uth  of  March  iG16  Francs 
Beaumont  died, — according  to  Jonson  and  tradition,  "ere 
he  was  thirty  years  of  age,"  but  this  we  have  seen  to  be 
inconsistent  with  the  registry  of  his  entrance  at  Oxford. 
If_  we.  may  trust  tho  elegiac  evidence  of  friends,  he  died 
of  his  own  genius  and  fiery  overwork  of  brain  ;  yet  from 
the  magnificent  and  masculine  beauty  of  his  portrait  one 
should  .certainly  never  have  guessed  that  any  strain  of 
spirit  or  stress  of  invention  could  have  worn  out  so  long 
before  its  time  so  fair  and  royal  a  temple  for  so  bright  and 
affluent  a  souL  A  student  of  physiognomy  will  not  fail  to 
mark  the  points  of  likeness  and  of  diiference  between  the 
faces  of  the  two  friends ;  both  models  of  noble  manhood, 
handsome  and  significant  in  feature  and  expression  alike ; — 
Beaumont's  the  statelier  and  serener  of  the  two,  with  clear 
thoughtful  eyes,  full  arched  brows,  and  strong  aquiline 
nose,  with  a  little  cleft  at  the  tip ;  a  grave  and  beautiful 
mouth,  with  full  and  finely  curved  lips  ;  the  form  of  face  a 
long  pure  oval,  and  the  imperial  head  with  its  "  fair  large 
front"  and  clustering  hair  se'.,  firm  'and  carried  high  with 
an  aspect  at  once  of  quiet  command  and  kingly  observation: 
Fletcher's  a  more  keen  and  fervid  face,  sharper  in  outline 
every  way,  with  an  air  of  bright  ardour  and  glad  fiery 
impatience;  sanguine  and  nervous,  suiting  the  complexion 
and  colour  of  hair;  the  expression  of  the  eager  eyes  and 
lips  almost  recalling  that  of  a  noble  hound  in  act  to 
break  the  leash  it  strains  at ; — two  heads  as  lordly  of 
feature  and  as  expressive  of  aspect  as  any  gallery  of  great 
men  can  show.  That  spring  of  1616,  we  may  note  in 
passing,  was  -the  darkest  that  ever  dawned  upon  England 
or  the  world;  for,  just  forty-eight  days  afterwards,  it 
witnessed,  on  the  23d  of  April,  the  removal  from  earth  of 
the  mightiest  genius  that  ever  dwelt  among  men.  Scarcely 
more  than  a  month  and  a  half  divided  the  death-days  of 
Beaumont  and  of  Shakespeare.  Some  three  years  earlier 
by  Mr  Jyce's  estimate,  when  about  the  age  of  twenty-eight, 
Beaumont  had  married  Ursula,  daughter  and  coheiress  to 
Henry  Isley  of  Sundridge  in  Kent,  by  whom  he  left-  two 
daughters,  one  of  them  posthumous.  Fletcher  survived 
his  friend  just  nine  years  and  five  months ;  he  died  "  in 
the  great  plague,  1625,"  and  was  buried  on  the  29th  of 
August  in  St  Saviour's,  South wark ;  not,  as  we  might  hava 
wished,  beside  his  younger  fallow  in  fame,  who  but  three 
days  after  his  untimely  death  had  addrd  another  deathless 
memory  to  the  graves  of  our  great  men  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  which  he  had  sung  in  such  uoble  verse.  Djang 
when  just  four  months  short  of  forty-six,  Fletcher  had  thus, 
as  well  as  we  can  Bow  calculate,  altogether  some  fourteen 
years  and  six  months  more  of  lifo  than  the  poet  who 
divides  with  him  the  imperial  inheritAnce.  of  their  common 
glory. 

The  perfect  union  in  genius  and  in  friendship  which 
has  made  one  name  of  the  two  namcis  of  these  great  twin 
brotiiers  in  song  is  a  thing  so  admirable  and  so  delightful 
to  remember,  that  it  would  seem  ungracious  and  unkindly 
to  claim  for  either  a  precedence  w'.iich  we  may  be  sure  ho 
would  have  been  eager  to  disclaim.  But  if  a  distinction 
must  be  made  between  the  Dioscuri  of  English  poetry,  wo 
must  admit  that  Beaumont  was  the  twin  of  heavenlior 
birth.  Only  as  Pollux  was  on  ono  side  a  demigod  of 
diviner  blood  than  Castor  can  it  bo  said  that  on  any  side 
Beaumont  was  a  poet  of  higher  and  purer  genius  than 
j  Fletcher ;  but  so  much  must  be  allowed  by  all  who  havo 
eyes  and  cars  to  discern  in  tho  fabric  of  their  common 
work  a  distinction  without  a  difference.  Few  things  are 
stranger  than  the  avowal  of  so  grea(.  and  exquisite  a  critic 
as  Coleridge,  that  ho  could  trace  no  faintest  lino  of  demar- 
cation between  the  plays  which  w>!  owe  mainly  to  Boauiuuiil 


I 


•BEAUMONT    AND    FLETCHER 


471 


Kod  tho  plays  which  we  owe  solely  to  Fletcher.  To  othera 
thi.i  lioe  has  alnays  appeared  i<i  almost  every  case  unmis- 
takable. Were  it  as  bard  and  broad  as  the  line  whioh 
marks  off,  for  example,  Shakespeare's  part  from  Fletcher's 
io  The  Two  Nuble  Kinsmen,  the  harmony  would  of  course 
be  lost  which  now  informs  every  work  of  their  common 
genius,  and  each  play  of  their  writing  would  be  such  another 
piece  of  magnificent  patchwork  as  that  last  gigantic  heir  of 
Shakespeare's  invention,  the  posthumous  birth  of  his  part- 
ing Muse  whioh  was  suckled  at  the  breast  of  Fletcher's  as 
a  child  of  godlike  blood  might  be  reared  on  the  milk  of 
a  mortal  mother — or  in  this  case,  we  might  semetimes  be 
tempted  to  say,  of  a  she-goat  who  left  in  tho  veins  of  the 
heaven-born  sucklir.g  somewhat  top  much  of  his  nurse 
Amalthaea.  That  question  however  belongs  in  any  case 
more  properly  to  the  sludyvo'f  Shakespeare  than  to  the 
present  subject  in  hand.  It  may  suflice  here  to  observe 
that  the  contributions  of  Fletcher  to  the  majestic  temple 
of  tragedy  left  incomplete  by  Shakespeare  show  the  lesser 
workman  almost  equally  at  his  best  and  at  his  worst,  at  his 
weakest  and  at  bis  strongest.  In  the  plays  which  we  know 
by  evidence  surer  than  tho  most  trustworthy  tradition 
to  be  the  common  work  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  there 
is  indeed  no  trace  of  such  incongruous  and  iucompatible 
admixture  as  leaves  the  greatest  example  of  romantic 
tragedy — for  Cymheline  and  the  Winla''s  Tale,  though  not 
guiltless  of  blood,  are  in  their  issues  no  more  tragic  than 
Pericles  or  the  Tanpest — an  unique  instance  of  glorious 
imperfection,  a  hybrid  of  heavenly  and  other  than  heavenly 
breed,  di.*proportioned  and  divine.  But  throughout  these 
noblest  of  the  works  inscribed  generally  with  the  names  of 
both  dramatists  we  trace  on  every  other  page  the  touch  of 
a  surer  hand,  we  hear  at  every  other  turn  the  note  of  a 
deeper  voice,  than  we  can- ever  recognize  in  the  work  of 
Fletcher  alone.  Although  the  beloved  friend  of  Jonson, 
and  in  the  held  of  comedy  his  loving  and  studious  disciple, 
yet  in  that  tragic  field  where  his  freshest  bays  were  gathered 
Beaumont  was  the  worthiest  and  the  closest  follower  of 
Shakespeare.  In  the  external  but  essential  matter  of  ei- 
prcssii)n  by  rhythm  and  metre  he  approves  himself  always 
a  student  of  Shakespeare's  second  manner,  of  the  style  in 
which  the  graver  or  tragic  part  of  his  historical  or  romantic 
pl.ij-s  is  mostly  vn-itten  ;  doubtless,  tho  most  perfect  model 
that  can  be  studied  by  any  poet'  who,  like  Beaumont,  is 
great  enough  to  be  ip  no  danger  of  sinking  to  the  rank  of 
a  more  copyist,  but  while  studious  of  the  perfection  set 
before  him  is  yet  conscious  of  bis  own  personal  and  proper 
quality  of  genius,  and  enters  the  presence  of  the  master  not 
as  a  servant  but  as  a  son.  The  general  style  of  his  tragic 
or  romantic  verse  is  as  simple  and  severe  in  its  purity  of 
note  and  regularity  of  outline  as  that  of  Fletcher's  is  by 
comparison  lax,  effusive,  exuberant  The  matchless  Euency 
and  rapidity  with  which  the  elder  brother  pours  forth  the 
stream  of  his  smooth  swift  verse  gave  probably  the  first 
occasion  for  that  foolish  rumour  which  has  not  yet  fallen 
duly  silent,  but  still  murmurs  here  and  there  its  suggestion 
that  the  main  office  of  Beaumont  was  to  correct  and  contain 
wiihin  bounds  the  over-flowing  invention  of  his  colleague. 
The  poet  who  while  yet  a  youth  bad  earned  by  his  unaided 
mastery  of  hand  such  a  crown  as  was  bestowed  by  the 
noble  love  and  tho  loving  "envy"  of  Ben  Jonson  was, 
according  to  this  tradition,  a  mere  precocious  pedagogue, 
C'.  only  to  revise  and  restrain  the  too  liberal  effusions  of 
1)13  elder  in  genius  as  in  years.  Now,  in  every  one  of  the 
(.'ays  common  to  both,  the  real  difficulty  for  a  critic  is  nut 
to  trace  the  hand  of  Beaumont,  but  to  detect  tho  touch  of 
Fletcher.  Throughout  tho  better  part  of  every  such  play, 
and  above  all  of  their  two  masterpieces,  Philaslcr  and  The 
Mmd't  TragfAy,  it  should  be  clear  to  the  most  sluggish  or 
Cirsory  of  readers  that  he  has  not  to  do  with  the  author  of 


Valenlinian  and  The  Double  Marriage.  In  those  admirable 
tragedies  the  style  is  looser,  more  fluid,  more  femiuine. 
From  the  first  sccue  to  the  last  we  are  swept  as  it  were 
along  the  race  of  a  running  river,  always  at  full  flow  of 
light  and  buoyant  melody,  with  no  dark  reaches  or  perilous 
eddies,  no  stagnant  pools  or  sterile  sandbanks ;  its  bnght 
course  only  varied-  by  sudden  rapids  or  a  stronger  ripple 
hero  and  there,  but  in  rough  places  o°r  smooth  still  stirred 
and  sparkling  with  summer  wind  and  sun.  But  in  those 
tragic  poems  of  which  the  dominant  note  is  the  note  of 
Beaumont's  genius  a  subtler  chord  of  t'jought  is  sounded, 
a  deeper  key  of  emotioii  is  touched,  than  ever  was  struck 
by  Fletcher.  The  lighter  genius  is  palpably  subordinate 
to  the  stronger,  and  loyally  submits  itself  to  the  impression 
of  a  loftier  spirit.  It  is  true  that  this  distinction  is  never 
grave  enough  to  produce  a  discord  :  it  is  also  true  that  tho 
plays  in  which  the  predominance  of  Beaumont's  mind  and 
style  is  generally  perceptible  make  up  altogether  but  a 
small  section  of  the  work  that  bears  their  names  conjointly  ; 
but  it  is  no  less  true  that  within  this  section  the  must 
precious  part  of  that  work  is  comprised.  Outside  it  we 
shall  find  no  figures  so  firmly  drawn,  no  such  clearness  of 
outline,  no  such  cunning  of  hands  as  we  recognize  in  the 
three  great  studies  of  BcUario,  Evadnc,  and  Aspatia.  In 
his  male  characters,  as  for  instance  in  the  parts  of  Philaster 
and  Arbaces,  Beaumont  also  is  apt  to  show  something  of 
that  exaggeration  or  inconsistency  for  which  his  colleague 
is  perhaps  more  frequently  and  more  heavily  to  blame; 
but  in  these  there  is  not  a  jarring  note,  not  a  touch 
misplaced ;  unless,  indeed,  a  rigid  criticism  may  condemn 
aa  unferaiiiine  and  incongruous  with  the  gentle  beauty  of 
her  pathetic  patience  the  device  by  which  Aspatia  procures 
herself  the  death  desired  at  the  hand  of  Amintor.  This  is 
noted  as  a  faidt  by  Mr  Dyce;  but  ni:iy  well  be  forgiven  for 
the  sake  of  the  magnificent  scene  which  follows,  and  the 
highest  tragic  effect  ever  attained  on  the  stage  of  either 
poet.  That  this  as  well  as  the  greater  part  of  those  other 
scenes  which  are  the  glory  of  the  poem  is  due  to  Beau- 
mont might  readily  be  shown  at  length  by  the  process  of 
comparison.  The  noble  scene  of  regicide,  which  it  was 
found  expedient  to  cancel  during  the  earlier  years  of  the 
Restoration,  may  indeed, be  the  work  of  Fletcher;  but  the 
part  of  Evadne  must  undoubtedly  be  in  the  main  assigned 
to  the  more  potent  hand  of  his  fellow.  There  is  a  fine 
harmony  of  character  between  her  naked  audacity  in  the 
second  act  and  her  fierce  repentance  in  the  fourth,  which  is 
not  unworthy  a  disciple  of  the  tragic  school  of  Shakespeare  ; 
Fletcher  is  less  observant  of  the  due  balance,  less  heedful 
of  the  nice  proportions  of  good  and  evil  in  a  faulty  and 
fiery  nature,  compounded  of  perverse  instinct  and  passionate 
reaction.  From  him  we  might  have  had  a  figure  as 
admirable  for  vigour  of  handling,  but  hardly  in  such 
perfect  keeping  as  this  of  Beaumont's  Evadne,  the  mur- 
deress-Magdalen, whose  penitence  is  of  one  crimson  colour 
with  her  sin.  Nor  even  in  Fletcher's  Ordella,  worthy  as 
the  part  is  throughout  even  of  the  precious  and  exquisite 
praise  of  Lamb,  is  there  any  such  cunning  touch  of 
tenderness  or  delicate  perfume  of  pathos  as  in  the  parts  of 
Bcllario  and  Aspatia.  These  have  in  them  a  bitter  sweet- 
ness, a  subtle  pungency  of  mortal  sorrow  and  tears  of 
divine  delight,  beyond  the  reach  of  Fletcher.  His  highest 
studies  of  female  character  have  dignity,  energy,  devotion 
of  the  heroic  type ;  but  they  never  touch  us  to  the  quick, 
never  waken  in  us  any  finer  and  more  profound  sense  than 
that  of  applause  and  admiration.  '  There  is  a  modest  pathos 
now  and  then  in  his  pictures  of  feminine  submission  and 
slighted  or  outraged  love ;  but  this  submission  he  is  apt  to 
make  too  servile,  this  love  too  dog-hkc  in  its  abject 
devotion  to  retain  that  tender  reverence  which  so  many 
generations  of  renders  have  paid  to  the  sweet  memories  cf 


472 


BEAUMONT     AND     F  L  E  T  C  II  F.  R 


Aspatia  and  Bellaiio.  To  excite  compassion  was  enougl 
for  Fletcher,  as  ia  the  masculine  parts  of  his  v/ork  it  was 
enough  for  him  to  excite  wonder,  to  sustain  curiosity,  to 
goad  and  stimulate  by  any  virid  and  violent  means  the 
interest  of  readers  or  spectators.  The  single  instance  of 
noble  pathos,  the  one  scene  he  has  left  us  which  appeals 
to  the  higher  and  purer  kind  of  pity,  is  the  death  of  the 
ehild  Heiigo  in  Dondaca, — a  scene  which  of  itself  would 
have  sufficed  to  enrol  his  name  for  ever  on  the  list  of  our 
great  tragic  poets  To  him  we  may  probably  assign  the 
whole  merit  of  that  fiery  and  high-toned  tragedy,  with  all 
its  spirit  and  splendour  of  national  and  martial  passion;  the 
conscious  and  demonstrative  exchange  of  courtesy  between 
Roman  and  Briton,  which  is  one  of  the  leading  notes  of  the 
.poem,  has  in  it  a  touch  of  overstrained  and  artificial 
chivalry  characteristic  of  Fletcher;  yet  the  parts  of  Cara- 
tach  and  Poeoius  may  be  counted  among  the  loftiest  and 
most  equal  of  his  creations.  But  no  surer  test  or  better 
example  can  be  taken  of  the  distinctive  quality  which 
denotes  the  graver  genius  of  either  poet  than  that  supplied 
by  a  comparison  of  Beaumont's  Triumph  of  Love  with 
Fletcher's  Triumph  of  Death.  Each  little  play,  in  the  brief 
course  of  its  single  act,  gives  proof  of  the  peculiar  touch 
and  special  trick  of  its  author's  hand :  the  deeper^  and 
more  delicate  passion  of  Beaumont,  the  rapid  and  ardent 
activity  of  Fletcher,  have  nowhere  found  a  more  noticeable 
vent  for  the  expression  respectively  of  the  most  tender  and 
profound  simplicity  of  quiet  sweetness,  the  most  buoyant 
and  impatient  energy  of  tragic  emotion. 

In  the  wider  field  of  their  comic  or  romantic  drama  it 
is  yet  easier  to  distinguish  the  respective  work  of  either 
hand.  The  bias  of  Fletcher  was  towards  mixed  comedy ; 
his  lightest  and  wildest  humour  is  usually  crossed  or  tem- 
pered by  an  infusion  of  romance  ;  like  Shakespeare  in  this 
one  point  at  least,  he  has  left  no  single  play  without  some 
touch  on  it  of  serious  interest,  of  poetic  eloquence  or  fancy, 
however  slight  and  fugitive.  Beaumont,  evidently  under 
the  imperious  influence  of  Ben  Jonson's  more  rigid  theories, 
seems  rather  to  have  bent  his  genius  with  the  whole  force 
of  a  resolute  will  into  the  form  or  mould  prescribed  for 
comedy  by  the  elder  and  greater  comic  poet.  The  admir- 
able study  of  the  worthy  citizen  and  his  wife,  who 
introduce  to  the  stage  and  escort  with  their  applause  TIte 
Kniyht  of  the  Burning  Pestle  through  his  adventurous 
career  to  its  untimely  end,  has  all  the  force  and  fulness  of 
Jonson's  humour  at  its  best,  with  more  of  freshness  and 
freedom.  In  pure  comedy,  varied  with  broad  farce  and 
mock-heroic  parody,  Beaumont  was  the  earliest  as  well  as 
the  ablest  disciple  of  the  master  whose  mantle  was  after- 
wards to  be  shared  among  the  academic  poets  of  a  younger 
generation,  the  Randolphs  and  Cartwrights  who  sought 
shelter  under  the  shadow  of  its  voluminous  folds.  The 
best  example  of  the  school  of  Jonson  to  be  found  outside 
the  ample  range  of  his  own  work  Ls  The  Scornful  Lady, 
a  comedy  whose  exceptional  success  and  prolonged  popu- 
lirity  must  have  been  due  rather  to  the  broad  etfect  of  its 
forcible  situations,  its  wealth  and  variety  of  ludicrous 
incidents,  and  the  strong  gross  humour  of  its  dialogue, 
than  to  any  finer  quaHty  of  style,  invention,  or  'character. 
It  is  the  only  work  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  which  a 
critic  who  weighs  the  meaning  of  his  words  can  admit  to 
be  as  coarse  as  the  coarsest  work  of  Ben  Jonson.  They 
ore  prone,  indeed,  to  indulge  elsewhere  in  a  wanton  and 
eiubcrant  licence  of  talk  ;  and  Fletcher,  at  least,  is  liable 
to  confuse  the  shades  of  right  and  wrong,  to  deface  or 
clTacc  the  boundary  lines  of  good  and  evil,  to  stain  the 
ermine  of  virtue  and  palliate  the  nakedness  of  vice  with 
the  same  indecorous  and  incongrnous  laxity  of  handling. 
Often,  in  mere  haste  to  despatch  the  business  of  a'play,  to 
bu4dlc  up  a  cata'itropbo  or  throw  out  some  particular  scene 


into  sharp  and  immediate  relief,  he  wiil  sacrifice  all  seeuN 
liness  and  consistency  of  character  to  the  present  aim  of 
stag3  effect,  and  the  instant  impression  of  strong  incident 
or  audacious  eloquence.  His  heroines  are  too  apt  to  ".tte'r 
sentiments  worthy  of  Diana  in  language  unworthy  of  Doll 
Tearsheet.  But  in  this  play  both  style  and  sentiment  are 
throughout  on  a  lower  level,  the  action  and  emotion  are' 
of  a  baser  kind  than  usual ;  the  precept  of  Aristotle  and 
the  practice  of  Jonson  have  been  so  carefully  observed  and 
exaggerated  that  it  might  almost  be  said  to  offer  us  in  one 
or  two  places  an  imitation  not  merely  of  the  sorrier  but  of 
the  sorriest  qualities  of  human  nature  ;  and  full  as  it  is 
of  spontaneous  power  and  humorous  invention,  the  comedy 
extolled  by  the  moral  Steele  (with  just  so  much  of  reserva- 
tion as  permits  him  to  deprecate  the  ridicule  cast  upon  the 
clerical  character)  is  certainly  more  offensive  to  artistic 
law  and  jesthetic  judgment  by  the  general  and  ingrained 
coarseness  of  its  tone,  than  the  tragi-comedy  denounced 
by  the  immoral  Dryden  as  exceeding  in  licence  hia 
own  worst  work  and  that  of  his  fellow  playwrights ,  aa 
imputation,  be  it  said  in  passing,  as  groundless  as  the 
protest  pleaded  on  their  behalf  is  impudent ;  for  though 
we  may  hardly  agree  with  the  uncompromising  panegyrist 
who  commends  that  play  in  particular  to  the  approval 
of  "  the  austere  scarlet "  (remembering,  perhaps,  that 
Aristophanes  was  the  chosen  bedfellow  of  Chrysostom), 
there  is  at  least  no  such  offence  against  art  or  tr.sla 
in  the  eccentricity  of  its  situations  or  the  daring  of  its 
dialogue.  The  buoyant  and  facile  grace  of  Fletcher's  ttyle 
carries  him  lightly  across  quagmires  in  which  a  heavier- 
footed  poet,  or  one  of  slower  tread,  would  have  stuck  fast, 
and  coi35  forth  bemired  to  the  knees.  To  Beaumont  bis 
stars  had  given  as  birthright  the  gifts  of  tragic  pathos  and 
passion,  of  tender  power,  and  broad  strong  humour  ;  to 
Fletcher  had  been  allotted  a  more  fiery  and  fruitful  force 
of  invent,  m,  a  more  aerial  ease  and  swiftness  of  act-.on,  a 
more  various  readiness  and  fulness  of  bright  exulierant 
speech.  The  genius  of  Beaumont  was  deeper,  swoeter, 
nobler  than  his  elder's  :  the  genius  of  Fletcher  more  brilliant, 
more  supple,  more  prodigal,  and  more  voluble  than  his 
friend's.-  Without  a  taint  or  a  shadow  on  his  fame  of  such 
imitative  servility  as  marks  and  degrades  the  mere  hench- 
man or  satellite  of  a  stronger  poet,  Beaumont  may  fairly  be 
said  to  hold  of  Shakespeare  in  his  tragedy,  in  his  comedy 
of  Jonson ;  in  each  case  rather  as  a  kinsman  than  as  a 
client,  as  an  ally  than  as  a  follower:  but  the  more  special 
province  of  Fletcher  was  a  laud  of  his  own  discovering, 
where  no  later  colonist  has  ever  had  power  to  settle  or  to 
share  his  reign.  With  the  mixed  or  romantic  comedy  of 
Shakespeare  it  has  nothing  iii  common  except  the  admix- 
ture or  alternation  of  graver  with  lighter  interest,  of  serious 
wiih  humorous  action.  Nothing  is  here  of  his  mai;ic 
exaltation  or  charm  of  fairy  empire.  The  rare  and  rash 
adventures  of  Fletcher  on  that  forbidden  track  are  too  sure 
to  end  in  pitiful  and  shameful  failure.  His  crown  of 
praise  is  to  have  created  a  wholly  new  and  wholly  delightful 
form  of  mixed  comedy  or  dramatic  romance,  dealing  merely 
with  the  humours  and  sentiments  of  men,  theh-  passions 
and  their  chances ;  to  have  woven  of  all  these  a.  web  of 
emotion  and  event  with  such  gay  dexterity,  to  have 
blended  his  colours  and  combined  his  effects  with  such 
exquisite  facility  and  swift  light  snreness  of  touch,  that 
we  may  return  once  and  again  from  those  heights  and 
depths  of  poetry  to  which  access  w.is  forbidden  him, 
ready  as  ever  to  enjoy  as  of  old  the  fro.sh  incompatible 
charm,  the  force  and  ease  and  grace  of  life,  which  fill  and 
animate  the  radiant  world  of  his  romantic  invention. 
Neither  before  him  nor  after  do  we  find,  in  this  his  siiecial 
field  of  fancy  and  of  work,  more  than  shadows  or  tchneg 
o^  his  coming  or  departing  genius.     Admirable  as  aie  hif 


BEAUMONT  AND  FLETCHER 


173 


tragedies  aiiuMy  mentiiiueii,  rich  La  splendid  eloquence 
and  strong  in  large  grasp  of  character  as  is  tho  Roman 
history  of  The  false  Om,  full  of  interest  and  vigour  as  is 
the  bbttcr  part  of  Hollo  Duke  of  Normandy,  and  subKme 
in  the  loveliness  of  passion  as  Is  the  one  scene  of  perfect 
beauty  and  terror  which  crovrns  this  latter  tragedy, 
Fletcher  may  claim  a  yet  higher  and  more  special  station 
among  his  great  dramatic  peers  by  right  of  his  comic 
and  romantic  than  by  right  of  his  tragic  and  historic 
plays.  '  Even  in  these  he  is  more  a  romantic  than  a  tragic 
poet.  The  quality  of  his  genius,  never  sombre  or  subtle  or 
;Tofound,  bears  him  always  towards  fresh  air  and  sunshine. 
!!i3  natural  work  is  in  a  midday  world  of-  fearless  boyish 
I.Kighter  and  hardly  bitter  tears.  There  is  always  more  of 
rainbow  than  of  storm  in  his  skies  ;  their  darkest  shadow 
is  but  a  tragic  twilight.  What  with  him  is  the  noon  of 
night  would  seem  as  sunshine  on  the  stage  of  Ford  or 
Webster.  There  is  but  one  passage  in  all  these  noble  plays 
which  lifts  ns  beyond  a  sense  of  the  stage,  which  raises  our 
admiration  out  of  speech  into  silence,  tempers  and  trans- 
figures our  emotion  with  a  touch  of  awe.  And  this  we  owe 
to  the  genius  of  Beaumont,  exalted  for  an  instant  to  the 
very  tone  and  manner  of  Shakespeare's  tragedy,  when 
Amintor  stands  between  the  dead  and  the  dying  woman 
whom  he  has  unwittingly  slain  with  hand  and  tongue. 
The  first  few  lines  that  drop  from  his  stricken  lips  are 
probably  the  only  verses  of  Beaumont  or  Fletcher  which 
might  pass  for  Shakespeare's  even  with  a  good  judge  of 

style — • 

"  This  eartli  of  mine  doth  tremble,"  &c. 

But  in  Rotcher's  tragedy,  however  we  may  be  thrilled 
and  kindled  with  high  contagious  excitement,  we  are  never 
awed  into  dumb  delight  or  dread,  never  pierced  with  any 
sense  of  terror  or  pity  too  deep  or  even  deep  enough  for 
tears.  Even  his  Brunhalts  and  Martias  can  hardly  persuade 
us  to  forget  for  the  moment  that  "  they  do  but  jest,  poison 
in  jest."  A  critic  bitten  with  the  love  of  classification 
might  divide  those  plays  of  Fletcher  usually  ranked  toge- 
ther  as  comedies  into  three  kinds  :  the  first  he  would  class 
under  the  head  of  pure  comedy,  the  next  of  heroic  or 
romantic  drama,  the  third  of  mixed  comedy  and  romance  ; 
in  this,  the  last  and  most  delightful  division  of  the  poet's 
work  the  special  qualities  of  the  two  former  kinds  being 
equally  blended  and  delicately  harmonised.  The  most 
perfect  and  triumphant  examples  of  this  class  are  The 
Spanish  Curate,  Monsieur  Thomas,  The  Custom  of  the 
Country,  and  The  Elder  Brother.  Next  to  these,  and  not 
too  far  below  them,  we  may.  put  The  Liitle  French  Lawyer 
(a  play  which  in  its  broad  conception  of  a  single  eccentric 
humour  suggests  the  collaboration  of  Beaumont  and  the 
influence  of  Jonson,  but  in  style  and  execution  throughout 
is  perfect  Fletcher),  The  Humorous  Lieutenant  (on  which 
an  almost  identical  verdict  might  be  passed),  Women 
Pleased,  Beggar^  Bush,  and  perhaps  we  might  add  The 
Fair  Maid  of  the  Inn;  in  most  if  not  in  all  of  which  the 
balance  of  exultant  and  living  humour  with  serious  poetic 
interest  of  a  noble  and  various  kind  is  held  with  even 
hard  and  the  skill  of  a  natural  master.  In  pure  comedy 
Jliite  a  Wife  and  Have  a  Wife  is  the  acknowledged  and 
consummate  masterpiece  of  Fletcher.  Next  to  it  we  might 
cl.vi9,  for  comic  spirit  and  force  of  character,  Wit  witlioul 
Motify,  The  Wildgoose  Chase,  The  Chances,  and  The  Aoble 
Gniileman, — a  broad  poetic  farce  to  whose  overflowing  fun 
and  masterdom  of  extravagance  no  critic  has  ever  done 
justice  but  Leigh  Hunt,  who  has  ventured,  not  without 
rea-^on,  to  match  its  joyous  and  preposterous  audacities  of 
eu  pcrlative  and  sovereign  foolery  wiiu  the  more  sharp-edged 
«;.'aio  and  practical  merriment  of  King  and  no  King,  where 
the  keen  prosaic  huuiuur  of  Bcssus  and  his  swordsmen  is 
t.%  typical  of  the  .comic  style  in  which  Beaumont  had  been 


trained  up  under  Ben  Jonson  as  the  high  interest  and 
graduated  action  of  the  serious  part  of  the  play  are 
characteristic  of  his  more  earnest  genius.  Among  the 
purely  romantic  plays  of  Fletcher,  or  those  in  which  the 
comic  effect  is  throughout  subordinate  to  the  romantc, 
The  Kniyht  of  Malta  seems  most  worthy  of  the  highest 
place  for  the  noble  beauty  and  exaltation  of  spirit  which 
informs  it  with  a  lofty  life,  for  its  chivalrous  union  of 
heroic  passion  and  Cathohc  devotion.  This  poem  is  the 
fairest  and  the  first  example  of  those  sweet  fantastic  paint- 
ings in  rose-colour  and  azure  of  visionary  chivalry  and  ideal 
holicdss,  by  dint  of  which  the  romance  of  more  recent  days 
has  sought  to  cast  the  glamour  of  a  mirage  over  the  darkest 
and  deadliest  "  ages  of  faith."  The  pure  and  fervet  t 
eloquence  of  the  style  is  in  perfect  keeping  with  the  high 
romantic  interest  of  character  and  story.  In  the  san  e 
class  we  may  rank  among  the  best  samples  of  Fletchei's 
wcrkmanship  Tlie  Pilgrim,  The  Loyal  Subject,  A  Wife  f  r 
a  Month,  Love's  Pilgrimage,  and  The  Lover's  Progress, — ri.  h 
all  of  them  in  excjuisite  writing,  in  varied  incident,  n 
brilliant  effects  and  graceful  or  passionate  interludes.  1  n 
The  Coxcomb  and  The  Honest  Man's  Fortune — two  plays 
which,  on  the  whole,  can  hardly  be  counted  among  the  b  at 
of  their  class — there  are  tones  of  homelier  emotion,  touches 
of  a  simpler  and  more  pathetic  interest  than  usual ;  and 
here,  as  in  the  two  admirable  first  scenes  between  Leucippus 
and  Bacha,  which  relieve  and  redeem  from  contempt  the 
tragic  burlesque  of  Cupid's  Eevengef  the  note  of  Beaumont's 
manner  is  at  once  discernible. 

Even  the  most  rapid  revision  of  the  work  done  by  these 
great  twin  poets  must  impress  every  capable  student  with 
a  sense  of  the  homage  due  to  this  living  witness  of  their 
large  and  liberal  genius.  The  loss  of  their  names  from 
the  roll  of  English  poetry  would  be  only  less  than  the  loss 
of  the  few  greatest  inscribed  on  it.  Nothing  could  suppiy 
the  want  oif  their  tragic,  their  comic  or  romantic  drama  ; 
no  lafgor  or  more  fiery  planet  can  ever  arise  to  supplant 
or  to  eclipse  the  twin  lights  of  our  zodiac.  Whatever  their 
faults  of  shortcoming  or  excesSj  there  is  in  their  very  names 
or  the  mere  thought,  of  their  common  work  a  kind  of 
special  and  personal  attraction  for  all  true  lovers  of  high 
dramatic  poetry.  There  is  the  glory  and  grace  of  youth 
in  all  they  have  left  us  ;  if  there  be  also  somewhat  too 
much  of  its  graceless  as  well  as  its  gracious  qualities,  yet 
there  hangs  about  their  memory  as  it  were  a  music  of  the 
morning,  a  breath  and  savour  of  bright  early  manhood,  a 
joyous  and  vigorous  air  of  free  life  and  fruitful  labour, 
which  might  charm  asleep  for  ever  all  thought  or  bhime  of 
all  mortal  infirmity  or  folly,  or  any  stain  of  earth  that  may 
have  soiled  in  passing  the  feet  of  creatures  half  human  and 
half  divine  while  yet  they  dwelt  among  men.  For  good  or 
for  evil,  they  are  above  all  things  poets  of  youth  ;  wo 
cannot  conceive  of  them  grown  grey  in  the  dignity  of 
years,  venerable  with  the  authority  of  long  life,  and 
weighted  with  the  wisdom  of  experience.  In  the  Olym- 
pian circle  of  the  gods  and  the  giants  of  our  race  who  on 
earth  were  their  contemporaries  and  corrivals,  they  seem 
to  move  among  the  graver  presences  and  figures  of  sedater 
fame  like  the  two  spoilt  boys  of  heaven,  lightest  of  foot 
and  heart  and  head  of  all  the  brood  of  deity.  Shakespeare 
may  have  smiled  as  Jonson  may  have  nodded  approval  of 
their  bright  swift  work,  neither  of  these  great  ciders  grudg- 
ing his  praise  to  the  special  charm  which  won  for  it  a  pre- 
ference during  one  generation  at  least  even  over  their  own 
loftier  and  weightier  verse ;  and  indeed  the  advance  in 
natural  case,  in  truth  and  grace  of  dialogue,  is  alike  mani- 
fest whether  we  turn  to  such  of  their  comic  characters  ofi 
Valentine  and  Don  John,  Rutilio  and  Monsieur  Thomas, 
from  the  Truewit  of  Jonson  or  even  from  the  Mcrcutio  of 
Shakespeare  ;   the   one  too   stiff  with  classic  starch,  the 

Til.  —  60 


474 


B  E  A  —  B  E  A 


other  too  full  of  mere  verbal  catches  and  forced,  conceits,  ' 
to  persuade  us  that  cither  can  in  any  age  have  fairly 
represented  the  light  free  talk  and  facile-humour  of  its 
youth.  In  another  field  than  this  Beaumont  and  Fletcher 
hold  as  high  and  secure  a  station  of  their  own  as  any_ 
poet  of  their  race.  In  perfect  workmanship  of  lyrical 
jewellery,  in  perfect  bloora  and  flower  of  song-writing, 
they  equal  all  compeers  whom  they  do  not  excel  ;  the 
blossoms  of  their  growth  in  this  kind  may  be  matched  for 
colour  and  fragrance  against  Shakespeare's,  and  for  morning 
freshness  and  natural  purity  of  form  exceed  the  finest 
grafts  of  Jonson.  The  Faithful  Shepherdess  alone  might 
speak  for  Fletcher  on  this  score,  being  as  it  is  simply  a 
lyric  poem  in  semi-dramatic  shape,  to  be  judged  only  as 
such,  and  as  such  almost  faultless ;  but  in  no  wise  to  be 
classed  for  praise  or  blame  among  the  acting  plays  of  its 
author,  whose  one  serious  error  in  the  matter  was  the 
submission  of  his  Dryad  to  the  critical  verdict  of  an 
audience  too  probably  in  great  part  composed  of  clowns 
and  satyrs  far  unlike  the  loving  and  sweet-tongued  sylvan 
of  his  lovely  fancy.  And  whether  we  assign  to  him  or  to 
Beaumont  the  divine  song  of  melancholy  {mcestius  lacrymis 
SinxonideU),  perfect  in  form  as  Catullus  and  profound  in 
sentiment  as  Shelley,  which  Milton  himself  could  but 
echo  and  expand,  could  not  heighten  or  deepen  its  exquisite 
intensity  of  thought  and  word  alike,  there  will  remain 
witness  enough  for  the  younger  brother  of  a  lyric  power  as 
pure  and  rare  as  his  elder's. 

The  excess  of  influence  and  popularity  over  that  of  other 
poets  usually  ascribed  to  the  work  of  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher  for  some  half  century  or  so  after  their  own  time 
has  perhaps  been  somewhat  overstated  by  tradition. 
Whatever  may  have  been  for  a  season  the  fashion  of  the 
stage,  it  is  certain  that  Shakespeare  can  show  two  editions 
for  one  against  them  in  folio;  four  in  all  from  1623  to 
1685,  while  they  have  but  their  two  of  1647  and  1679. 
Nor  does  one  see  how  it  can  accurately  or  even  plausibly  be 
said  that  they  were  iu  any  exact  sense  the  founders  of  a 
school  either  in  comedy  or  in  tragedy.  Massinger,  for 
some  years  their  survivor,  and  in  some  points  akin  to  them 
as  a  workman,  cannot  properly  be  counted  as  their  disciple ; 
and  DO  leading  poet  of  the  time  had  so  much  in  common 
with  them  as  he.  At  first  sight,  indeed,  his  choice  of 
romantic  subject  and  treatment  of  foreign  stories,  gathered 
from  the  fertile  tale-Cfellers  of  the  south,  and  ranging  in 
date  from  Boccaccio  to  Cervantes,  may  seem  to  mark  him 
out  as  a  member  of  the  same  school ;  but  the  deepest  and 
most  distinctive  qualities  of  his  genius  set  it  far  apart  from 
theirs ;  though  undoubtedly  not  so  far  that  any  discrepancy 
or  discord  should  impair  the  excellence  or  injure  the  keep- 
ing of  works  in  which  he  took  part  with  Fletcher.-  Yet, 
placed  beside  theirs,  the  tone  of  his  thought  and  speech 
seems  by  comparison  severe  as  well  as  sober,  and  sad  as  well 
as  severe.  Their  extravagant  and  boyish  insanity  of  pro- 
etrate  royalism  is  not  more  alien  from  his  half  pensive  und 


half  angry  undertone  of  political  protest  than  his  usur.lly 
careful  and  'complete  structure  of  story  froni  their  fre- 
quently lax  and  slovenly  incoherence  of  character  or  plot, 
than  his  well  composed  and  proportioned  metre  from  tbeir 
lighter  and  looser  melodies,  than  the  bitter  insistence  and 
elaborate  acrimon}'  of  his  judicial  satire  on  hypocrisy  or 
oppression  from  the  gaiety  or  facility  of  mood  which 
suffers  them  in  the  shifting  of  a  scene  to  redeem  their  worst 
chajracters  by  some  juggler's  trick  of  ccnversion  at  the  last 
moment  allowed  them  to  wind  up  a  play  with  universn! 
reconciliation  and  an  act  of  oblivion  on  all  hands.  They 
could  hardly  have  drawn  with  such  steady  skill  and  explicit 
finish  an  Overreach  or  a  Luke;  but  the  strenuous  and  able 
work  of  Massinger  at  its  highest  point  of  success  has  no- 
breath  in  it  of  their  brighter  and  more  immediate  inspira- 
tion. Shirley,  on  the  other  hand,  may  certainly  be  clashed 
as  a  pupil  who  copied  their  style  in  water-colour;  his- 
best  tragedy  and  his  best  comedy.  The  Traitor  and  The 
Lady  of  Phasure,  might  pass  muster  undetected  among, 
the  plays  of  Fletcher,  and  might  fairly  claim  to  take  rank 
above  the  lowest  class  of  these.  In  the  finest  work  of 
Middleton  we  recognize  an  almost  exact  reproduction  of 
Fletcher's  metrical  effects, — a  reverberation  of  that  flowing 
music,  a  reiteration  of  those  feminine  final  notes.  In  his 
later  tragi-comedies,  throughout  his  masterpiece  of  Women 
beware  Womai,  and  in  the  noble  scenes  which  make  up 
the  tragic  or  serious  part  of  The  Changeling  or  The  Spanish 
Gipsy, — wherever,  in  a  word,  we  find  the  admirable  but 
unequal  genius  of  this  poet  at  its  best — we  find  a  likeness 
wholly  wanting  in  his  earlier  and  ruder  work,  which 
undoubtedly  suggests  the  influence  of  Fletcher.  Other 
instances  of  imitation,  other  examples  of  discipleship, 
might  perhaps  be  found  among  lesser  men  of  the  next 
generation;  but  the  mass  of  succeeding  playwrights  began 
in  a  very  short  time  to  lower  the  style  and  debase 
the  scheme  of  dramatic  poetry ;  and  especially  to  loosen 
the  last  ties  of  harmony,  to  deface  the  very  form  and 
feature  of  tragic  verse.  In  Shirley,  the  last  and  least 
of  those  iu  whom  the  lineal  blood  of  the  old  mx<;ters  was 
yet  discernible,  we  find  side  by  side  with  the  fine  ancestral 
indications  of  legitimate  descent  exactly  such  marks  of 
decadence  rather  than  degeneracy  as  we  might  have  antici- 
pated in  the  latest  heir  of  a  long  line  which  began  with 
the  rise  of  Marlowe,  "son  of  the  morning,"  in  the  highest 
heaven  of  our  song,  to  prepare  a  pathway  for  the  sun. 
After  Shakespeare  there  was  yet  room  for  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher ;  but  after  these  and  the  other  constellations  had 
set,  whose  lights  filled  up  the  measure  of  that  diviner 
zodiac  through  which  he  moved,  there  was  but  room  in 
heaven  for  the  pallid  moonriso  of  Shirley ;  and  before 
this  last  reflex  from  a  sunken  sun  was  itself  eclipsed,  the 
glory  had  passed  away  from  our  drama,  to  alight  upon  that 
summit  of  epic  song  whence  Milton  held  communion  with 
darkness  and  the  stars.  (a.  c.  s.) 


BEAUNE,  the  chief  town  of  an  arrondissement  in 
France,  in  the  department  of  Cote-d'Or,  situated  on  the 
River  Bourzeoise,  twenty-three  miles  S.S.VV.  of  Dijon,  on 
the  railway  from  Paris  to  Lyons.  The  town  is  of  poor 
appearance,  but  has  several  buildings  of  interest,  such  as 
the  churches  of  NOtrc  Dame  and  Saint  Pierre,  both  of  the 
l"2th  century,  the  hospital,  founded  by  Nicholas  Rollin  in 
1443,  and  the  belfry  of  the  old  town-house.  Of  more 
modern  erection  are  the  public  baths,  the  theatre,  the 
communal  college,  and  the  library.  In  the  18th  century 
there  were  no  fewer  than  seven  mona.stic  buililings  in  the 
tnwn  besides  a  Bernardino  abbey,  a  Carthusian  convent. 


and  a  society  of  priests  engaged  in  educational  pursuitj. 
Beauiio  enjoys  considerable  commercial  prosperity  as  the 
principal  seat  of  the  Burgnndian  wine-trade ;  it  also 
manufactures  cloth,  cutlery,  and  leather,  and  has  dye-works, 
flour  mills,  and  distilleries.     Fopulatioo  in  1871,  10,415. 

Beaunc  appears  as  a  fortified  place  as  early  as  the  7th  century-, 
and  for  some  tinie  was  the  c.ipit.il  of  a  sejiaratc  duchy.  United  to 
Burgundy  in  1'2'J7,  it  became  the  first  scat  of  the  Uurgnudian  par- 
liament, or  Jours  O'cn/ranx,  and  was  tlio  reaidcneu  of  several  of  the 
dukes.  On  the  death  of  Charles  the  Bold,  it  sided  with  his  daughter, 
hutwa-sbeiiieKedand  t:ikenliy  LouisXI.  in  147S.  It  sutfered  severely 
in  the  w.ir3  of  the  League,  prosiicred  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  miJ 
was  ;;rrjitly  injured  by  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Naotw 


B  E  A  —  B  E  A 


475 


liKAUSOBRE,  Isaac  de,  a  learned  Protestant  writer, 
of  French  origin,  was  born  at  Niort  in  1659,  and  after 
studying  theology  at  tho  Protestant  Academy  of  Sauinur, 
was  ordained  at  tho  ago  of  twenty-two.  He  was  forced 
into  Holland  to  avoid  the  execution  of  a  sentence  con- 
demning him  to  make  the  amemle  honorable  for  having 
broken  the  royal  signet,  which  was  put  upon  the  door  of  a 
church  of  the  reformers  to  prevent  the  [niblic  profession  of 
their  religion.  He  went  to  Berlin  in  lOO-t^  and  was  made 
chaplain  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  counsellor  of  the  royal 
consistory.  He  died  in  1738,  aged  seventy-nine,  afler 
having  published  several  works,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned — (1.)  Defense  de  la  Doctrine  des  Jie/ormes,  sur 
la  Providence,  sur  la  Predestination,  sur  la  Grdce,  et  sur 
CEucharistie  (Mag''eburg,  1G94-8);  (2.)  A  translation  of 
the  New  Testament,  with  Notes,  jointly  with  M.  Lenfant 
(1718),  much  esteemed  among  Protestants;  (3.)  Disserta- 
tion, sur  les  Adamites  de  Bohcme,  a  curious  work;  (4.) 
Histoire  Critique  de  Manickie  et  du  Jfanichcis/ne,  2  torn. 
4to  (Amst.,  1734-9),  a  very  learned  and  valuable  work, 
discussing,  as  Gibbon  observes,  "  many  deep  questions 
of  Pagan  and  Christian  theology,  and  forming  a  rich 
treasury  of  fa^ts  and  opinions;"  (5.)  Several  dissertations 
in  tlie  BiUiotheque  Britannique.  Beausobro  had  strong 
sense  with  prjfound  erudition,  and  was  one  of  the  best 
writers  of  his  time,  and  he  preached  as  he  wrote,  with 
spirit  and  ability. 

BEAU VA IS,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment  in  the  department  of  Oise,  situated  in  49°  2G'  N.  lat. 
and  2°  14'  E.  long.,  about  45  miles  N.  of  Paris,  in  a  valley 
at  the  junction  of  the  Avelon  and  the  Therain.  The 
town  is  irregularly  built,  but  possesses  several  edifices  of 
historical  and  architectural  interest.  Chief  among  these  is 
the.cathedral  of  Saint  Pierre,  begun  in  1225,  continued  at 
intervals  till  the  IGth  century  by  various  ambitiaus 
projectors,  and  still  incomplete.  Its  stained  glass  windows 
nre  both  ancient  and  beautiful,  though  they  are  rivalled  by 
those  of  Saint  Etienne,  another  of  the  older  churches  in  the 
town.  Contiguous  to  the  cathedral  is  a  basilica  of  the 
Cth  century,  one  of  the  oldest  buildings  of  the  kind  in 
France.  The  episcopal  palace,  now  used  as  a  court-house, 
was  built  in  the  1  Gth  century.  Among  tho  secular  buildings 
are  the  town-house,  dating  from  1754,  the  college,  which 
was  formerly  an  Ursuline  convent,  a  library  with  up- 
wards of  15,000  volumes,  a  natural  history  museum,  a 
theatre,  a  hospital,  and  barracks.  The  industry  of 
Bcauvais  comprises,  besides  the  weaving  of  tapestry,  which 
dates  from  1GG4,  the  manufacture  of  velvet  and  various 
kinds  of  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  leather,  and  earthen- 
ware. An  extensive  trade  is  carried  on  in  grain  and  wine, 
and  the  products  of  the  industrial  establishments.  Beauvais 
was  known  to  tho  Romans  as  Ccesaromagus,  and  took  its 
present  name  from  the  Gallic  tribe  of  the  Bcllovaci,  whose 
capital  it  wa.s.  In  the  9th  century  it  was  erected  into  a 
coMitship,  which  about  1013  passed  to  the  bishops  of 
Beauvais,  who  ultimately  became  peers  of  France.  In 
134G  tho  town  had  to  defend  itself  against  the  English, 
who  again  besieged  it  in  1433.  The  siege  which  it  sull'cred 
in  1472  at  the  hands  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy  was 
rendered  famous  by  the  heroism  of  the  women,  under  the 
leadership  of  Jeanne  Hachette,  whose  memory  is  still  cele- 
brated by  a  procession  on  tho  14th  of  October  (the  feast 
of  Ste  Angadreme),  :n  which  the  women  take  precedence 
of  the  men.     Population  in  1871,  15,542. 

BEAVER,  tho  English  name  of  a  genus  of  Mammals 
belonging  to  tho  order  Rodentia,  tho  two  known  species  of 
which  are  among  the  largest  members  of  that  gronp.  Both 
beavers,  European  and  American,  measure  about  2  feet  in 
length,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  is  about  10  inches 
long,  and  are  covered  with  the  fur  to  which  they  owe  their 


chief  comaicrciai  value.  This  consists  of  two  kinds  of  hair, — 
the  one  close-set,  silky,  and  of  a  greyish  colour ;  the  other 
much  courser  and  longer,  and  of  a  reddish  brown.  Beavers 
are  essentially  aquatic  in  their  habits,  never  travelling  by 
land  unless  driven  to  it  by  necessity.  Their  hind  feet  are 
webbed  to  the  nails,  and  in  swimming  those  only  are  used, 
tho  front  legs  remaining  motionless  by  the  side.  They 
dill'er  from  all  other  rodents  in  possessing  a  broad  horizon- 
tally flattened  tail,  somewhat  oval  in  form  and  covered 
with  scales,  which  they  use  as  an  aid  to  their  progress 
through  the  water,  and  not  as  a  trowel  for  plastering  their 
mud  houses  as  was  formerly  supposed.  The  front  incisor 
teeth  in  each  jaw  have  a  sharp  chisel-like  edge,  and  are  so 
formed  as  to  preserve  this  through  life.  They  consist  of 
an  outer  layer  of  orange-coloured  enamel,  and  a  broad 
inner  layer  of  a  softer  substance.  As  the  creature  gnaws, 
the  softer  material  is  worn  away  more  rapidly  than  the 
enamel,  which  thus  protrudes  in  a  sharp  ridge.  There  is  a 
continuous  growth  at  the  roots  of  those  teeth  to  repair  the 
constant  waste  that  goes  on  at  the  cutting  edge,  so  that 
should  one  of  the  incisors  be  destroyed,  the  opposite  tooth, 
meeting  with  no  check  to  its  enlargement,  will  grow  to  an 
enormous  length ;  and  beavers  have  been  found  in  which 
this  abnormal  growth  had  proved  fatal  by  preventing  the 
other  teeth  from  coming  together.  Tho  enamel  is  exceed- 
ingly hard ;  and,  until  superseded  by  English  files,  those 
teeth,  fixed  in  wooden  handles,  were  used  by  the  North 
American  Indians  in  carving  their  weapons  of  bone.  The 
question  whether  the  American  and  European  beavers  are 
the  same  or  difi'crent  species,  has  given  rise  to  some  con- 
troversy ;  but  it  is  now  generally  conceded,  chiefly  on 
anatomical  grounds,  that  they  are  distinct,  although  in 
outward  appearance  they  are  almost  identical 

The  European  Beaver  (Castor fiber)  was  at  one  time  an  in- 
habitant of  the  British  Isles,  having  been  found,  according  to 
Pennant,  in  certain  Welsh  rivers  as  late  as  the  12th  century, 
while  fossil  remains  of  it  occur  in  various  parts  of  the 
country.  In  Scandinavia  beavers  are  now  extinct, — tho 
last  known  specimen  having  been  killed  in  1844.  Isolated 
pairs  are  still  occasionally  met  with  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rhone,  the  Wcscr,  and  the  Elbe ;  and  a  oonsiderabic 
number  are  to  be  found  in  one  of  the  parks  belonging  to 
the  emperor  of  Austria,  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  where 
they  are  strictly  preserved.  They  also  occur,  though 
sparingly,  in  Russia  and  Poland,  in  the  streams  of  the  Ural 
Mountains,  and  in  those  which  flow  into  the  Caspian  Sea. 
They  are  said  to  live  in  burrows  on  the  banks  of  rivers, 
like  the  common  water  rat,  and  to  show  little  of  the  archi- 
tectural instinct  so  conspicuous  in  the  American  species; 
this,  however,  is  probably  more  owing  to  unfavourablo 
external  conditions  than  to  want  of  the  faculty,  for  there  is 
at  least  one  well-authenticated  instance  of  a  colony  of 
beavers,  on  a  small  stream  near  Magdeburg,  whose  habi- 
tations arid  dam  were  exactly  similar  to  those  found  in 
America. 

The  American  Beaver  {Castor  canadensis)  extends  over 
that  part  of  the  American  continent  included  between 
the  Arctic  circle  and  the  tropic  of  Cancer  ^  owing,  how- 
ever, to  the  gradual  spread  of  population  over  part  of 
this  area,  and  still  more  to  the  enormous  quantity  of  skins 
that,  towards  tho  end  of  last  century  and  the  beginning 
of  the  present,  were  exported  to  Europe,  numbering  about 
200,000  annually,  this  species  was  in  imminent  danger  of 
extirpation.  More  recently  the  employment  of  silk  and  of 
the  fur  of  the  South  American  Coypu  in  the  manufacture 
of  hats,  so  lessened  tho  demand  for  beaver  skins  that  tho 
trapping  of  these  animals  became  unprofitable  ;  and  being 
thus  little  sought  after  for  many  years,  they  liave  again 
become  abundant  in  such  of  their  old  haunts  os  have  not 
yet  been  oi^runied  by  nan,   so.thiit  the  trads  in  beaver 


476 


B  E  C  — B  E  C 


skjc3  has  DOW  .nearly  attaiaed  its  formei  proportions. 
Solitary  beavers,  always  males,  and  known  as  "old 
bachelors,"  or  idlers,  are  found  inhabiting  burrows  similar 
to  those  seen  in  Europe.  These  are  generally  found  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  new  townships,  and  are  supposed 
to  be  individuals  that  have  remained  after  the  colony 
had  broken  up,  or  that  from  some  cause  or  another 
have  been  expelled  from  the  society  of  their  fellows.  The 
American  Beaver,  however,  is  essentially  social,  inhabit- 
ing lakes,  ponds,  and  rivers,  as  well  as  those  narrow 
creeks  which  connect  the  lakes  together.  They  generally, 
however,  prefer  flowing  ■  waters,  probably  on  account  of 
the  advantages  afforded  by  the  current  for  transporting 
tlie  materials  of  their  dwellings.  They  also  prefer  deepish 
water,  no  doubt  because  it  yields  a  better  protection  from 
the  frost.  When  they  build  in  small  creeks  or  rivers,  the 
waters  of  which  are  liable  to  dry  or  to  be  drained  off, 
instinct  leads  them  to  the  formation  of  dams.  These  differ 
in  shape  according  to  the  nature  of  particular  localities. 
Where  the  water  has  little  motion  the  dam  is  almost 
straight ;  where  the  current  is  considerable  it  is  curved, 
with  its  convexity  towards  the  stream.  The  materials 
mide  use  of  are  drift  wood,  green  willows,  birch,  and  pop- 
lars ;  also  mud  and  stones  intermixed  in  such  a  manner 
as  must  evidently  contribute  to  the  strength  of  the  dam ; 
but  there  is  no  particular  method  observed,  except  that  the 
work  is  carried  on  with  a  regular  .sweep,  and  that  all  the 
parts  are  made  of  equal  strength.  "  In  places,"  says 
Hearne,  "  which  have  been  long  frequented  by  beavers 
undisturbed,  their  dams,  by  frequent  repairing,  become  a 
sulid  bank,  capable  of  resisting  a  great  force  both  of  ice 
nnd  water;  and  as  the  willow,  poplar,  and  birch  generally 
take  root  and  shoot  up,  they  by  degrees  form  a  kind  of 
regular  planted  hedge,  which  I  have  seen  in  some  places 
so  tall  thaf  birds  have  built  their  nests  among  the 
branches."  Their  houses  are  formed  of  the  same  materials 
as  the  dams,  with  little  order  or  regularity  of  structure, 
and  seldom  contain  more  than  four  old,  and  six  or  eight 
young  beavers.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  some  of 
the  larger  houses  have  one  or  more  partitions,  but  these 
are  only  posts  of  the  main  building  left  by  the  sagacity  of 
the  builders  to  support  the  roof,  for  the  apartments,  as 
some  call  them,  have  usually  no  communication  with  each 
other  except  by  water.  The  beavers  carry  the  mud  and 
stones  with  their  fore  paws,  and  the  timber  between  their 
teeth.  They  always  work  in  the  night,  and  with  great 
expedition.  They  cover  their  houses  late  every  autumn 
with  fresh  mud,  which  freezing  when  the  frost  sets  in, 
becomes  almost  as  hard  as  stone,  and  thus  neither  wolves 
nor  wolverines  can  di.sturb  their  well-earned  repose. 

The  favourite  food  of  the  American  Beaver  is  the  plant 
called  Nuphar  luteum,  which  bears  a  resemblance  to  a 
cabbage  stalk,  and  grows  at  the  bottom  of  lakes  and  rivers. 
They  also  gnaw  the  bark  of  birch,  poplar,  and  willow  trees. 
But  during  the  bright  summer  days  which  clothe  even  the 
far  northern  regions  wiih  a  luxuriant  vegetation,  a  more 
varied  herbage,  with  the  addition  of  berries,  is  consumed. 
When  the  ice  breaks  up  in  spring  they  always  leave  their 
embankments,  and  rove  about  until  a  little  before  the  fall 
of  the  leaf,  when  they  return  again  to  their  old  habitations, 
nnd  lay  in  their  winter  stock  of  wood.  They  seldom  begin 
to  repair  the  houses  till  the  frost  sets  in,  and  never  finish 
the  outer  coating  till  the  cold  becomes  pretty  severe.  When 
they  erect  a  new  habitation  they  fell  the  wood  early  iu 
summer,  but  seldom  begin  building  till  towards  the  end 
of  Augu.>it. 

The  flesh  of  the  American  Beaver  is  usually  eaten  by  the 
Indians  and  the  Canadian  voyageurs ;  and  when  roasted  in 
the  skill  it.  is  esteemed  a  delicacy.  It  is  said  to  tiuste  like 
pork.     The  '•asloreui.i  of  the  beaver  is  a  substance  con- 


tained in  two  pyrifonn  sacs,  situated  near  tho  organs  of 
reproduction,  of  a  bitter  taste,  and  slightly  foetid  odour, 
at  one  time  largely  employed  as  a  medicine  for  deraingement 
of  the  nervous  system,  as  hysteria,  etc.,  but  now  little  used. 
Fossil  remains  of  both  beavers  are  found  in  the  Tertiary 
beds  of  the  continents  still  inhabited  by  them,  accompanied 
in  each  case  by  remains  of  an  extinct  species.  The  latter 
appear  from  their  remains  to  have  been  much  larger  than 
those  now  existing. 

BECCAFUMI,  DpMENico,  was  a  distinguished  painter 
of  the  school  of  Siena  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century. 
In  the  early  days  of  the  Tuscan  republics  Siena  had  been 
in  artistic  genius,  and  almost  in  political  importance,  the 
rival  of  Florence.  But  after  the  great  plague  in  1348  the 
city  declined  ;  and  though  her  population  always  comprised 
an  immense  number  of  skilled  artists  and  artificers,  yet  her 
school  did  not  share  in  the  general  progress  of  Italy  in 
the  loth  century.  About  the  year  1500,  indeed,  Siena 
had  no  native  artists  of  the  first  importance ;  and  her 
public  and  private  commissions  were  often  given  to 
natives  of  other  cities.  But  after  the  uncovering  of  tho 
works- of  Raphael  and  Michel  Angelo  at  Rome  in  150S, 
all  the  schools  of  Italy  were  stirred  with  the  desire  of 
imitating  them.  Among  those  accomplished  men  who  now, 
without  the  mind  and  inspiration  of  Raphael  or  Michel 
Angelo,  mastered  a  great  deal  of  their  manner,  and  initiated 
the  decadence  of  Italian  art,  several  of  the  most  accom- 
plished arose  in  the  school  of  Siena.  (See  articles  Peruzzi 
and  SoDDOMA.)  Among  these  was  Domenico,  born  about 
1-188,  of  a  peasant,  one  Giacomo  di  Pace,  who  worked  on 
the  estate  of  a  well-to-do  citizen  named  Lorenzo  Beccafumi. 
Seeing  some  signs  of  a  talent  for  drawing  in  his  labourer's 
son,  Lorenzo  Beccafumi  took  tho  boy  into  his  service  and 
presently  adopted  him,  causing  him  to  learn  painting 
from  masters  of  the  city.  Known  afterwards  as  Domenico 
Beccafumi,  or  by  the  nickname  of  Mecarino,  signifying  the 
littleness  of  his  stature,  the  peasant's  son  soon  gave  proof 
of  extraordinary  industry  and  talent.  In  1509  he  went  to 
Rome  and  steeped  himself  in  the  manner  of  the  great  men 
who  had  just  done  their  first  work  in  the  Vatican.  Return- 
ing to  his  native  town,  Beccafumi  quickly  gained  employ- 
ment and  a  reputation  second  only,  if  second,  to  Soddonia. 
He  painted  a  vast  number  both  of  religious  pieces  for 
churches  and  of  mythological  decorations  for  private 
patrons,  many  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen  whore  they 
were  executed:  But  the  work  by  which  he  wiU  longest  be 
remembered  is  that  which  he  did  for  the  celebrated  pave- 
ment of  the  cathedral  of  Siena.  For  a  hundred  and  fifty 
years  the  best  artists  of  the  state  had  been  engaged  laying 
down  this  pavement  with  vast  designs  in  commtssoviox^, — 
white  marble,  that  is,  engraved  with  the  outlines  of  the  sub- 
ject in  black,  and  'having  borders  inlaid  with  rich  patterns 
iu  many  colours.  From  the  year  1517  to  1544  Beccafumi 
W.1S  engaged. in  continuing  this  pavement.  lie  made  very 
in^';enious  improvements  in  the  technical  processes  employed, 
ami  laid  down  multitudinous  scenes  from  the  stories  of 
Ahab  and  Elijah,  of  Melchisedec,  of  Abraham,  and  of 
Moses.  These  are  not  so  interesting  as  the  simpler  work 
of  the  earlier  schools,  but  are  much  more  celebrated  and 
more  jealously  guarded.  Such  was  their  fame  that  the 
agents  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  at  the  time  when  he  was 
collecting  for  NVTiitehall,  went  to  Siena  expressly  to  trj'  and 
purchase  the  original  cartoons.  But  their  owner  would 
not  part  with  them,  and  they  arc  now  the  properly  of  the 
cathedral  works.  The  subjects  have  been  engraved  on  wood, 
by  the  hatxl,  as  it  seems,  of  Beccafumi  himaelf,  who  at  ona 
lime  or  another  essayed  almost  every  branch  of  fine  art. 
He  made  a  triumphal  arch  and  an  immen.se  mechanical 
horse  for  the  proccscion  of  Charles  V.  on  his  entry  inlo 
Siena.     In  his  later  days,  being  a  solitary  liver  aud  lu.j 


B  E  C-B  E  C 


477 


tinually  at  work,  he  is  said  to  bave  accelerated  his  death 
by  ovar-eiertion  upoa  the  processes  of  brooze-casting.  He 
died  in  1551.  (Vasari,  ed.  Leinonuier,  j.  170-197  , 
Ugurgien,  Povipc  Cia7iese  ;  O.  Milaiiesi,  Doeumtmli,  dc.) 

BECCARIA,  Cesar  Bonesana,  Marqcis,  a  celebrated 
writer  oD  the  principles  of  jurisprudence  and  national 
economy,  was  born  at  Milan  in  the  year  1735.  He  was 
educated  in  the  Jesuit  College  at  Parma,  and  showed  at 
jrst  a  great  fondness  and  aptitude  for  mathematics.  The 
study  of  Montesquieu  seems  to  have  directed  his  attention 
towards  economical  questions  ;  and  his  hrst  publication  (in 
1762)  was  a  tract  on  the  derangement  of  the  currency  in 
the  Milanese  states,  with  a  proposal  for  its  remedy.  Shortly 
after,  m  conjunction  with  his  friends  the  Verris,  he  formed 
a  literary  society,  and  began  to  publish  a  small  journal,  in 
imitation  of  the  Speclalor,  called  /I  Caffi.  In  17C4 
Beccana  published  his  brief  but  justly  celebrated  treatise 
Dn  Dditti  e  dflle  Pene  ("  On  Crimes  and  Punishments  "). 
The  weighty  reasonings  of  this  work  were  expounded  with 
all  the  additional  force  of  a  clear  and  animated  style.  It 
pointed  out  distinctly  and  temperately  the  grounds  of  the 
right  of  punishment,  and  from  these  principles  deduced 
certain  propositions  as  to  the  nature  and  amount  of 
punishment  which  should  be  inflicted  for  any  crime.  The 
book  had  a  surprising  success  Within  eighteen  months  it 
passed  through  six  editions.  It  was  translated  into  French 
by  Morellet  in  17C0,  and  published  with  an  anonymous 
commentary  by  Voltaire.  An  English  translation  appeared 
in  17G8,  and  other  countries  followed  the  examplp.  Many 
of  the  reforms  m  the  penal  codes  of  the  principal  European 
nations  are  traceable  to  Beccaria's  treatise.  In  November 
1768  the  marquis  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  public  law 
and  economy,  which  had  been  founded  expressly  for  hira 
at  the  Palatine  College  of  Milan.  His  lectures  on  political 
economy,  which  are  based  on  strict  utilitarian  principles, 
are  irt  marked  accordance  with  the  theories  of  the  English 
school  of  economists.  They  are  published  in  the  collection 
of  Italian  writers  on  political  economy  (Scrittori  Classici 
Italiant,  vols.  xi.  and  xu.)  In  1771  Beccaria  was  made  a 
member  of  the  supreme  economic  council  ,  and  in  1791  he 
was  appointed  one  of  the  board  for  the  reform  of  the 
judicial  code.  In  this  post  his  labours  were  of  very  great 
value.  He  died  in  1793.  A  notice  of  his  life  will  be  found 
prehied  to  his  lectures,  referred  to  above. 

BECCARIA,  Giovanni  Battista,  a  distinguished 
electrician  and  practical  astronomer,  was  born  at  Mondovi 
on  the  2d  of  October  1716,  and  entered  the  religious  order 
of  the  Pious  Schools  in  1732.  He  became  professor  of 
experimental  physics,  first  at  Palermo  and  then  at  Rome, 
and  Was  appointed  to  a  similar  situation  at  Turin  in  1748. 
He  was  afterwards  made  tutor  to  the  young  princes  de 
{.'hablftis  and  de  Carignan,  and  continued  to  reside 
principally  at  Turin  during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  In 
May  1755  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  to  which  he  afterwards  communicated  several 
papers  relating  to  his  favourite  pursuits.  He  died  on  the 
27th  of  May  1781.  Beccaria's  name  is  associated  with  no 
great  discovery  in  physical  science  ;  but  he  did  much,  both 
iu  the  way  of  experiment  and  exposition,  to  spread  abroad 
the  researches  of  Franklin  and  others  in  the  science  of 
electricity.  His  own  experiments,  which  were  skilfully 
conducted,  demonstrated  a  number  of  curious  facts  bearing 
on  the  relations  of  electricity  to  meteorological  phenomena, 
to  chemical  action,  and  to  some  other  points  which  have 
been  since  more  thoroughly  investigated.  His  principal 
work  was  the  treatise  DM EUttricismo  A  rtijidaU  e  A'nii/rale, 
1753,  which  was  translated  into  English  in  1776.  He  also 
contributed  a  number  of  papers  to  the  Philosophical 
Tranfaelhns.  In  1759  he  was  commissioned  to  measure 
an  arc  ot  the  meridian  in  lh«  neichbonrhood  of  Turin. 


The  result,  which  he  published  in  the  Gradut  Tam-inauu, 
1774,  IS  not  now  considered  perfectly  correct. 

BECCLES,  a  market-town  and  municipal  borough,  in 
the  county  of  Suffolk,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Kiver 
Waveuey,  32  miles  N.N.E.  of  Ipswich.  It  consists  of 
several  streets,  is  well  built,  and  contains  a  tine  old  parish 
church,  enlarged  and  repaired  in  1859,  several  dissenting 
chapels,  a  free  school,  founded  in  the  reign  of  James  1., 
a  free  grammar  school,  a  handsome  town-hall,  a  custom- 
house, and  a  corn  exchange.  Malting  is  carried  on  to  soma 
extent;  and  by  means  of  the  river,  which  is  navigable  from 
Yarmouth,  a  considerable  trade  in  coals  and  produce  ia 
carried  on.  Tlie  incorporation  of  the  town  dates  from 
1584.     Population  in  1871,  4844. 

BECERRA,  Caspar,  a  distingui-nhed  Spanish  painter 
and  sculptor,  was  bom  at  Balza  in  1520.  He  studied  at 
Rome,  it  is  said  under  Michel  Angelo,  and  assisted  Vasari 
in  painting  the  hall  of  the  ConccLlena.  He  abo  contributed 
to  the  celebrated  anatomical  plates  of  Valverde.  After  his 
return  to  Spain  he  was  extensively  employed  by  Philip  II., 
and  decorated  many  of  the  rooms  in  the  palace  at  Madrid 
with  frescoea  He  also  painted  altar  pieces  for  several 
of  the  churches,  most  of  which  have  been  destroyed.  His 
fame  as  a  sculptor  almost  surpassed  that  as  a  painter.  His 
best  work  was  a  magnificent  figure  of  the  Virgin,  which 
was  destroyed  durmg  the  French  war.  Becerra  died  ia 
1570.  The  most  competent  judges  assign  to  him  the  chief 
share,  in  the  establishment  of  the  fine  arts  in  Spain. 

BECHE-DE-MER,  or  Trepang,  an  important  food 
luxury  among  the  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  other  Eastern 
peoples,  connected  with  the  production  of  which  a  very 
considerable  commerce  exists  in  the  Eastern  Archipelago, 
the  coasts  of  New  Guinea,  and  generally  on  the  coral  reefs 
of  the  Pacific.  It  consists  of  several  species  of  echinoderms, 
generally  referred  to  the  genus  Uolotkuria  ;  but  very  many 
varieties,  widely  distributed  in  Eastern  seas,  are  prepared 
and  sold  in  Chinese  and  Japanese  markets.  The  creatures, 
which  exist  on  coral  reefs,  hive  bodies  from  6  to  15  inches 
long,  shaped  like  a  cucumber,  hence  a  name  they  receive,  — 
sea  cucumbers.  The  skin  is  sometimes  covered  with 
spicules  or  prickles,  and  sometimes  quite  smooth,  and  with 
or  without  "  teats  "  or  ambulacral  feet  disposed  in  rows. 
Five  varieties  are  recognized  in  the  commerce  of  th  Pacific 
Islands,  the  finest  of  which  is  the  "  brown  with  teats," 
which  are  worth,  at  the  place  of  their  preparation,  £30  per 
ton.  The  large  black,  which  come  next  in  value,  bring 
X25  per  ton  ;'  the  small  black  X20,  red  bellied  £15,  and 
white  £12.  The  finest  of  these  sell  for  as  much  as  £100 
per  ton  in  China,  where  they  are  used  in  the  gelatinous 
soups,  which  form  an  important  article  of  food  in  that 
empire.  The  preparation  of  the  creatures  when  caught  is 
very  simple.  They  are  boiled  for  about  twenty  minutes, 
after  which  they  are  split  up  and  gutted,  when  they  are 
ready  for  drying.  The  drying  is  conducted  in  large  sheds 
on  hurdles  placed  above  a  brisk  fire.  The  dried  B&ches-de- 
mer  being  very  hygrometric,  it  is  necessary  that  they  be 
immediately  packed  up  and  shipped  on- the  conclusion  of 
the  drying  process ;  and  unless  they  are  thoroughly  dry 
decomposition  sets  in  rapidly  and  destroys  the  entire  cargo. 

BECHER,  Jon  ANN  JoAcni.M,  a  celebrated  chemist,  born 
at  Spire  in  1 635.  His  father,  a  Lutheran  clergyman,  died 
while  he  was  very  young,  and  the  boy  was  compelled  to 
support  himself  by  teaching.  Ho  was  a  diligent  student, 
and  acquired  a  very  extensive  acquaintance  with  chemistry 
and  allied  sciences.  In  1666,  after  having  travelled 
through  some  parts^  Europe,  ho  was  tnade  professor  of 
medicine  at  Mentz.  He  then  removed  to  Mituicl-.,  where 
he  superintended  the  magnificent  laboratory.  His  some 
what  turbulent  and  nnbeuding  disposition  obliged  him  to 
leave  Bavaria,  and  he  proceeded  to  Vienna,  where  he  gained 


478 


B  E  C  — B  E  C 


the  friendship  of  Zinzeadorl  He  was  maae  member  of 
the  council  of  commerce,  and  proposed  various  commercial 
Bchemea  to  the  Austrian  Government.  He  soon  quarrelled 
with  Zinzendorf  ;  and  about  1 678  we  find  him  at  Haarlem. 
After  a  short  time  he  visited  England  and  Scotland, 
inspecting  their  mines.  He  died  in  1682,  it  is  said  at 
London.  He  wrote  many  works,  the  principal  of  which 
are — (\),Phj/sica  Subterrj>7iea^  which  was  printed  at  Leipsic 
in  1703  and  1739,  in  8vo,  with  a  small  treatise  by  E. 
Stahl,  entitled  Specimen  Becheriannm ,  (2),  ExpertTnerUum 
ckymurum novum,  8vo;  {Z),Char'ax:t€r pro Notitia Linguarum 
universali ,  (4 1,  InstUutioiies  Chym\c(Ey  seu  Manuductw  ad 
tkiloxophiam  Hermeticam,  4to  ;  (5),  InstitiUiones  Chymicce, 
stu  (EJipus  Ckemicuit  12mo  ;  (6),  Experimmtum  novum  ac 
ciiriosum  (U  ^finiaria  arenaria  perpetua,  <fec.  In  some 
respects  he  anticipated  Stahl,  whose  phlogistic  theory  is 
an  extension  of  what  he  says.  He  was  also  the  discoverer 
of  boracic  acid. 

BEOHWANA,  or  Betjdajia,  the  name  of  a  nation 
extending  over  a  large  tract  of  the  interior  of  South 
Africa,  lying  between  22°  and  23'*  S.  lat.  and  22**  and  29' 
E.  long.  There  are  remains  as  well  as  traditions  indicating 
that  they  once  occupied  lands  further  to  the  south  and  north 
of  their  present  boundaries.  The  country  is  bounded  on 
the  W.  by  what  may  be  called  the  southern  Sahara  ;  on  the 
E.  by  the  Limpopo,  and  on  the  N.  by  the  Matebele,  a  tribe 
which  escaped  the  power  of  the  Chaka,  the  bloody  ehief  of 
the  Zulus.  The  country,  though  hilly  and  undulating, 
abounds  in  grassy  plains  and  considerable  forests  of  acacia. 
Trees,  however,  are  scarce,  as  the  grass  is  generally  buraed 
oS*  every  year ;  and  the  young  wood  is  thus  not  allowed 
time  to  grow.  The  natives  also,  in  order  to  get  fresh  garden 
ground  and  obtain  branches  to  raise  their  houses  and  make 
fences,  are  constantly  destroying  trees,  and  thus  increasing 
the  dryness  and  sterility  of  the  country.  It  is  evident,  from 
the  dry  beds  of  what  were  once  rivers  and  from  remains  of 
ancient  forests,  that,  at  an  early  period,  the  country  must 
have  been  abundantly  watered.  From  the  many  cattle 
folds  and  walls  of  defence  scattered  over  the  country,  and 
ruins  of  ancient  towns,  it  is  also  evident  that  at  that  period 
etcne-dykes  were  very  common. 

The  number  of  the  Bechwana  has  been  variously 
estimated,  and  according  to  some  amounts  to  more  than 
200,000.  Their  language  is  copious,  with  but  few  slight 
dialectic  differences,  being  entirely  free  of  the  Hottentot 
elements  found  in  the  Katfre  and  Zulu.  The  power  of  the 
language  which,  like  the  Kaffre  and  Zulu,  belongs  to  the 
Banta  family,  formerly  unwritten,  may  be  conceived  when 
it  is  known  that,  besides  elementary  and  educational  works, 
the  whole  of  the  Bible  has  been  translated  into  it  and  is 
now  read  by  thoosAnds. 

The  Bechwana  are  divided  into  numerous  tribes,  all  inde- 
pendent of  each  other,  and  each  governed  by  its  own  chiefs 
and  councillors.  The  names  of  some  of  the  principal  tribes 
are  Batlapee,  Barolong,  Bangwaketse,  Bakhatla,  ^akuena, 
Bamangwato,  and  Batauana,  the  last  living  near  the  lake 
Ngarai,  first  visited  by  Dr  Livingstone.  There  are 
numerous  minor  divisions,  with  laws  and  customs  very 
similar.  With  the  exception  of  the  Balala  (the  poor 
inhabiting  the  country),  they  are  not  nomadic,  but  live  in 
towns  of  considerable  size,  containing  from  5000  to  40,000. 
Doubtless,  their  former  warlike  habits  had  the  tendency  to 
induce  them  to  congregate  for  security  ;  for  latterly  they 
live,  for  the  sake  of  agriculture  and  pasturage,  in  many 
formerly  uninhabited  places. 

Though  from  time  immemorial  they  had  been  engaged  in 
ronstant  strife  with  each  other,  and  thus  inured  to  warfare, 
they  were  no  match  for  the  warlike  Kaffre  and  butchering 
/iuluaitti  Matebele.  Since  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
f  moDg  the  Bt>cbwnTia   their  claunLih  sirifes  have  cear.ed  . 


and,  being  a  people  of  industrious  habits,  %na  acute  ooservera 

of  whatever  may  mcrease  their  property  and  comfort,  they 
go  in  great  numbers  to  Cape  Colony  and  other  parts  where 
tbey  can  obtain  labour  and  wages,  being  prized  as  servants. 
This  enables  them  to  return  enriched  to  their  homes  m  a 
few  years. 

The  gavemment  of  the  Becliwana  may  be  said  to  be  both  mon- 
archical aod  patriarchal,  and  of  a  comparatively  mild  character, 
the  king,  &s  chief,  seldom  eiercisinj;  bis  individual  authonty  inde- 
pendent of  his  council. ors  and  eubonlinat*  chiefs.  They  have  their 
public  assemblies  (parliaments),  but  only  whencucumsiafloes.  chtetly 
in  reference  to  war,  require.  These  are  generally  characterized  by 
great  freedom  of  speech,  and  sometimes  the  king  s  shortcomings  are 
unsparingly  dealt  with.  All  is  taken  in  good  part,  and  there  is  no 
interruption  of  the  speaker  occupying  the  arena.  The  king  gener- 
ally closes  the  meeting  with  a  long  8p*;ech,  referring  to  the  subjects 
which  each  speaker  had  either  supported  or  condemned,  not  forgei- 
ing  to  endeavour  to  clear  his  own  character  of  any  imj>ututiv.n. 
These  public  assemblies  are  now  of  very  rare  occurrence. 

The  Bechffana  aro  well  formed,  dati  brown  or  bronze,  and  the 
majority  handsome  and  not  assimilated  to  the  negro  type.  In  most 
the  lower  part  of  the  face  projects,  but  the  skull  exhibits  no  diller- 
ence  from  the  European  type,  and  many  have  broad  high  foreheads, 
while  there  is  nothing  to  be  seen  like  tho  bent-out  legs  o,  ih»  negro. 
The  lipa  are  generally  thicker  than  in  Europeans,  and  many 
have  the  nostrils  wider  The  hair  is  not  wool,  but  simp'y  hair 
curled  and  frizzled.  They  possess  the  knowledge  of  smelting  iron 
and  copper  ore,  and  make  hoes  for  husbandry,  spears,  battle-axes, 
tools,  and  a  great  variety  of  ornaments,  chiefly  of  brass  and  other 
alloys.  They  prepare  the  skins  of  animals,  and  fabricate  a  variety 
of  utensils.  Agriculture  and  bouse-building  (in  which  more  skill 
and  labour  are  required  than  with  African  huts  in  general,  the 
houses  beiuff  always  roond  and  admirably  adapted  to  resist  high  and 
storviiy  winds)  are  the  work  of  the  women,  while  the  men  mate  the 
garments,  hunt,  and  go  to  war  when  requirt- J, 

The  wealth  of  the  Bechwana  consists  in  their  cattle,  which  they 
tend  with  the  greatest  care,  manifesting  a  shrewd  discrimination  of 
localities  and  pasture  suited  to  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats.  Living  in  a 
warm  climate,  they  require  few  garments  ;  but.  though  to  a  European 
they  a['pear  scantily  dressed,  both  sexes  are  strictly  decent,  and  are 
disgusted  by  the  comparative  nudity  of  tiie  LLalire  and  Matebele. 
Circumcision  is  practised,  and  for  that  purpose  youths  are  selected 
from  1 0  to  1 3  years  of  age  ;  these  retire  from  the  towns,  the  place  lo 
which  they  are  being  cousidered  sacred  till  the  season  of  seclusion,, 
a  month  or  more,  is  over,  when  they  aro  allowed  to  return  lo  their 
friends,  and  are  looked  on  as  men  ready  to  go  to  war  The  people 
have  many  ceremonies  and  superstitions,  believing  in  the  intiueuce  of 
witchcraft  and  charms,  but  no  one  of  these  has  the  most  remoto 
reference  to  reli^on.  They  have  no  knowledge  whatever  of  idols,  or 
anything  intended  to  represent  an  invisible  power,  and  consequently 
have  nothing  of  a  religious  character.  They  do  not  possess  a  vestige 
of  worship.  With  regard  to  a  divine  Being  their  ideas  are  vague  in 
the  extreme.  The  name  morimo,  from  mo,  a  pergonal  pronoun,  and 
rimo,  from  gorimo  (above),  instead  of  being  applied  to  something  or 
some  one  heavenly— the  Creator,  Upholder,  and  Ruler  of  all — ia  ap- 
plied to  something  that  does  harm,  that  inflicts  death,  or,  according 
to  some,  a  noxious  creature  that  sometimes  emerges  from  a  hole  to 
do  miscliief.  So  little  do  the  natives  care  about  it,  that  it  never 
enters  into  their  minds  to  have  recourse  to  a  charm,  or  anything  of 
a  fetish  character,  to  ward  off  the  iufiuenfe  it  might  be  thought  to 
possess.  They  never  allow  their  thoughts  to  pierc«  beyond  lh« 
moment  of  death,  which  is  to  them  the  finale  of  man's  existence. 
Among  some  of  the  interior  nations  there  is  a  belief  in  the  manes 
of  dead  kings  of  note,  but  not  of  the  commonalty.  Dr  Moffat 
was  once  present  when  Moselekatse,  the  king  of  the  Blatabele,  in 
a  meeting  in  the  midst  of  his  nobles,  in  the  dark,  consulted  t!ie 
sjtirit  of  Machobane,  his  long  deceased  father.  Whatever  worship 
tlie  Bechwana  of  old  may  have  had,  they  have  none  now,  not  even 
of  any  of  the  animals — the  fish,  crocodile,  monkey,  A;c  — from  which 
Bome  of  the  tribes  arc  named.  They  have  a  superstitious  dread  ot 
some  things,  which,  in  moat  if  not  in  all  coses,  originates  with  the 
rainmaker.  Thi?  is  a  notable  character  among  nil  the  interior 
tribes,  and  postesses  supreme  influence  over  the  native  mind,  lie 
has  only  to  speak  and  it  is  done,  whatever  his  orders  may  be.  He 
pretends  to  give  medicine  to  the  clouds,  and  has  recourse  to  all  sorts 
of  tncks  and  demands  on  his  impatient  dupes  in  order  to  gain 
time.  Very  frequently,  when  all  fails,  he  falla  a  sacnfice  to  their 
wrath. 

The  coQDtry  of  the  Beohwana  south  of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  i« 
healthy,  and  admirably  suited  for  pulmonarv  complaint*.  The 
temperature  ranges  from  zero  to  105  ,  and  when  it  exccedf  thin, 
as  It  Bometimes  does,  heavy  ihuudcrstorma  follow,  oud  nol  uo- 
frenucntly  bail  falls  of  great  size.  The  principal  products  are  t 
vanuty  of  apccies  of  millet  (//o/iMw  Scrt/hum),  kidney  b*aM. 
pumpKins,  water  melons,  sweet  reed,  ic 


B  E  C  —  B  K  D 


479 


"The  rfsources  anJ  capnbililits  of  the  country  ^re  small.  Hitherto 
the  6i|)ort9  havo  bren  principally  ontrich  Tcatbers,  ivory,  and  cattle  ; 
but  the  lirst  two  are  beconie  very  scarce  siace  the  introduction  of 
ih«  horse  and  rifle.  The  elephant  13  now  found  principally  in  tbo 
r^-gions  where  the  tsit^e  fly  abound.^,  and  wbefo  horses  canntt  live, 
while  the  ostrich  betakes  itself  to  tbo  deserts.  (R.  M.) 

BECK,  or  Beek,  David,  an  eminent  portrait  painter, 
born  in  1621,  at  Aruhcim  in  Ouolderland.  He  was 
trained  by  Vandyck,  from  -horn  ho  acquired  the  fine 
manner  of  pencilling  and  sweet  style  of  colouiing  peculiar 
to  that  great  master.  He  posses.sed  likewise  that  freedom 
of  hand  and  readiness,  or  rather  rapidity  of  execution,  for 
.  which  Vandyck  was  so  remarkable,  insomuch  that  when 
King  Charles  L  observed  the  expeditious  manner  of  Beck's 
painting,  he  exclaimed,  "  Faith  !  Beck,  I  believe  you  could 
paint  riding  post."  He  was  appointed  portrait-painter  and 
chamberlain  to  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden,  and  ho 
executed  portraits  of  most  of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  to 
adorn  her  gallery.  He  lived  in  the  highest  favour  with  his 
royal  mistress,  and  with  difficulty  obtained  a  .short  leave  of 
absence  from  her  court.  He  died  soon  after  (1656)  at  tho 
Hague,  not  without  suspicion  of  having  been  poisoned. 

BECKER,  Wllhelm  Adolf,  a  classical  archaeologist  of 
distinction,  was  born  at  Dresden  in  179G.  Ho  was  at  first 
destined  for 'a  commercial  life,  but  was,  in  1812,  sent  te  the 
celebrated  school  at  Pforta,  whence,  in  181G,  he  passed  to 
the  University  of  Leipsic.  Hero  he  had  the  good  fortune  to 
study  under  the  famous  Hermann.  After  holding  subordin- 
ate posts  at  Zerbst  and  Meissen,  he  was,  in  1836,  appointed 
extraordinary  professor  of  classical  archaeology  at  Leipsic  ; 
and  six  years  later  he  was  raised  to  tho  professorship 
of  antiquities  in  the  s,ime  university.  He  died  at  Meissen 
in  September  ISIG.  The  works  by  which  Becker  is  most 
widely  known  are  the  Gallus,  oder  romische  Scencn  aus  der 
Zeit  des  Augustus,  1838,  and  the  Charicles,  oder  Bilder 
altgriechischen  Sitte,  1840.  The  author  shows  not  only  a 
complete  mastery  of  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities,  but  a 
very  happy  faculty  of  imparting  life  to  the  dry  bones  of 
the  science.  Both  works  have  been  translated  into  English. 
Perhaps  more  useful  for  scholars  is  tho  great  Uandbuch  der. 
rum.  AUerthiimer,  5  vols.  (1843-64),  completed  after 
Seeker's  death  by  Marquardt,  and  of  which  a  second  and 
enlarged  edition  1,3  now  in  course  of  publication. 

BECKET.  or  A  Becket,  Thomas.  See  A  Becket,  voL 
L  p.  31.    . 

BECKFORD,  Whliam,  an  English  author,  the  son  of 
Alderman  Beckford,  who  was  noted  for  his  manly  reply 
to  George  IIL  on  the  presentation  of  an  address  from  the 
city  of  London,  was  born  in  1761.  At  tho  age  of  nine  he 
inherited  a  large  fortune  from  his  father;  and  in  early  life 
he  travelled  in  Italy,  Sicily,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  resided 
some  time  near  Cintra,  where  he  had  a  princely  residence. 
Ho  afterwards  returned  to  E'jgland,  and  after  selling  his 
old  bouse  of  Fonlhill  began  to  build  a  magnificent 
residence  there,  on  which  he  expended  in  about  eighteen 
years  the  sum  of  £273,000.  This,  together  with  its 
splendid  library  and  pictures,  he  sold  to  Mr  Farquhar  in 
1822  ;  but  soon  after  one  of  the  towers,  2G0  feet  high, 
fell,  destroying  part  of  the  villa  in  the  ruins.  Beckford, 
however,  began  tho  erection  of  another  lofty  structure  on 
I.an.sdownc-hill,  near  Bath,  where  he  continued  to  reside 
till  his  death  in  1844.  He  was  a  powv.rful  and  original 
writer.  His  first  work,  BioyrnpAzV-o/  Memoirs  of  Extraor- 
dinary Paintrrs,  which  appeared  in  1780,  was  a  slight 
sarcastic j'ru  d'e.iprit.  In  1784  ho  published  in  French  the 
singular  tale  entitled  History  0/  the  Caliph  Vathck,  which 
B0»n  afterwards  appeared  in  English,  and  has  taken  its 
place  as  one  of  the  finest  productions  of  richly  luxuriant 
imagination.  In  1834  his  first  Continental  lour  appeared 
nndcr  the  title  of  Letters  from  Italy,  xcith  Sletchet  nf 
Spcin  and  Portugal,  a  work  never,  perhaps,  surpassed  for 


striking  description  ana  lefined  sarcasra.  His  latest  pro- 
duction, published  in  1835,  was  entitled  liecolUctious  of 
an  Excursion  to  Atcobaza  and  Batallia  in  1794.  All  these 
works  exhibit  cultivated  taste  and  a  remarkable  power  of 
vivid  description.  He  left  two  daughters,  the  eldest  of 
whom  was  married  to  the  10th  duke  of  Hamilton. 

BECKMANN,  Jouann,  the  author  of  the  Uistory  of 
Inventions,  was  bom  in  1739  at  Hoya  in  Hanover,  where 
his  father  was  postmaster  and  receiver  of  taxes.  His 
mother,  who  was  left  a  widow  before  he  was  seven  years 
of  age,  sent  him  to  school  at  Stade;  and  in  1759  he  repaired 
to  the  University  of  Gottingen  with  tho  intention  of 
studying  theology,  which,  however,  he  soon  abandoned  in 
favour  of  natural  science.  The  death  jf  his  mother  in 
1762  having  deprived  him  of  his  former  means  of  support, 
he  accepted,  at  the  offer  of  Busching,  the  professorship  of 
natural  history  in  the  Lutheran  Academy,  St  Petersburg. 
This  office  bo  soon  relinquished,  and  journeyed  through 
Sweden,  where  he  inspected  the  manner  of  working  the- 
mines,  and  formed  the  acquaintanceship  of  Linna;uB  at 
Upsala.  In  1766  ho  was  appointed  professor  at  Gottingen. 
There  ho  lectured  on  various  arts  and  on  political  and 
domestic  economy,  and  was  in  the  habit  of  leading  his 
students  into  the  workshops  that  they  might  acquire  a 
practical  as  well  as  a  theoretical  knowledge  of  different 
processes  and  handicrafts.  While  thus  engaged  he  deter- 
mined to  trace  the  history  and  describe  the  present 
condition  of  each  of  the  arts  and  sciences  on  which  ho  was 
lecturing,  being  perhaps  incited  by  the  Bibliothecce  of 
Haller.  But  even  Beckmann's  industry  and  ardour  were 
unable  to  overtake  the  amount  of  study  necessary  for  this 
task.  He  therefore  confined  his  attention  to  several 
practical  arts  and  trades ;  and  to  these  labours  we  owe.  his 
Notices  on  the  Uistory  of  Discoveries  in  the  Common  Arts 
of  Life, — a  work  in  which  he  relates  the  origin,  history, 
and  recent  condition  of  the  various  machines,  utensils,  itc, 
employed  in  trade  and  for  domestic  purposes.  In  1772 
Beckmann  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Gottingen,  and  he  contributed  valuable  scientific  disserta- 
tions to  its  proceedings  until  1783,  when  he  withdrew 
from  all  further  share  in  its  work.  After  having  been 
admitted  into  almost  all  the  learned  societies  of  Germany, 
and  after  having  impressed  on  the  minds  of  his  numerous 
students  a  tendency  to  pursuits  of  practical  utility,  Beck- 
mann died  on  the  3d  of  February  181 1.  His  works  display 
great  natural  sagacity,  as  well  as  profound  and  varied 
research.  Besides  tho  History  of  Inventions  he  wrote  an 
interesting,  but  unfinished.  History  of  the  Earliest  Voyages 
made  in  Modern  Times,  and  produced  editions  of  a  work 
ascribed  to  Aristotle,  of  the  Wonderfid  Histories  of  Anti- 
gonus  Carystius,  and  of  Marbodius's  Treatise  on  Stones. 
These  editions  display  a  rare  union  of  physical  knowledge 
with  philological  learning.  Beckmann  was  a  man  ot 
extreme  modesty  ;  and  his  candour  and  sincerity,  as  well  as 
his  affability  to  those  who  studied  under  him,  were  acknow- 
ledged with  one  consent  by  his  colleagues  and  hb  scholars. 

BEDARRIEUX,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Hirault,  situated  on  the  River  Orb,  with  a  station  on  tho 
branch  railway  from  Bfoiers  to  Oraissesac.  It  is  a  neat  and 
well-built  town,  and  carries  on  a  variety  of  industries,  among 
the  most  important  of  which  are  the  weaving  of  cottcn  and 
woollen  cloth  and  the  manufacture  of  hats,  paper,  leather, 
and  oil  ;  while  at  Clairac  in  the  neighbourhood  thera  are 
glass-works  and  a  copper-foundry.  Most  of  tho  produce  is 
exported  to  Africa  nnd  the  Levant.  Not  far  from  the  town 
there  is  a  thermal  establishment  open  all  the  year  round. 
In  the  3nd  of  tho  18lh  century  the  population  was  ocly 
250;   in  1872  it  was  SOS."). 

BEDDOES,  TnoMAfl,  a  physician  and  scientific  writer, 
was   born  at  Shiffnall,  in  Shropshire,   ISth  April    1T60. 


480 


B  E  D  — B  E  D 


From  hia  infancy  he  was  rcmartablc  for  his  love  of  books. 
His  father,  who  ^vas  a  tanner,  wished  him  to  follow  the 
same  calling  ;  but,  mainly  through  his  grandfather's  recogni- 
tion of  his  abilities,  he  T/iis  educated  for  one  of  the  learned 
professions.  After  studying  at  Bridgnorth  grammar  school 
and  Plymhill,  in  Staffordshire,  he  entered,  when  about 
sixteen  years  of  age,  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford.  There 
he  proved  himself  an  e.xcellent  linguist,  while  especially 
devoting  himself  to  science.  Having  taken  his  bachelor's 
degree  at  twenty-one,  he  studied  at  London  for  the  medical 
profession  under  Sheldon.  >^In  1783  he  became  master  of  arts, 
and  in  1784  he  removed  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  remained 
about  three  years.  In  1784  he  published  a  translation  of 
Spallauzani's  Dissertations  on  Natuial  Uistory,  and  in 
1785  produced  a  translation,  with  original  notes,  of 
Bergman's  Essays  on  Elective  Attraclvms.  He  took  his 
degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  at  Oxford  in  1786,  and,  after 
visiting  Paris,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  Lavoisier, 
was  appointed  reader  in  chemistry  at  Oxford  University. 
Uis  lectures  there  attracted  large  and  appreciative 
audiences ;  but  his  advocacy  of  the  French  Revolution 
exciting  a  clamour  against  him,  he  resigned  his  readership 
ia  1792,  and  took  up  his  abode  with  a  friend  at  Ketley,  in 
Shropshire.  WhUe  resident  there  he  published  Observations 
on  the  Nature  of  Demonstrative  Evidence,  in  which  he 
maintains  that  geometry  is  founded  on  experiment,  and 
the  History  of  Isaac  Jenkins,  a  story  which  powerfully 
bxhibits  the  evils  of  drunkenness,  and  of  which  40,000 
copies  are  reported  to  have  been  sold.  He  endeavoured 
for  many  years  subsequently  to  realize  his  project  of  a 
pneumatic  ins:titution,  in  which  the  efficacy  of  certain  gast's 
in  curing  diseases  could  be  tested.  While  working  for  this 
object  he  was  assisted  by  the  father  of  Maria  Edgewnrlh, 
Eichard  Lovell  Edgeworth,  one  of  whose  daughters  became 
his  wife  in  1794.  He  was  ultimately  enabled,  by  the 
liberality  of  Wedgwood,  to  establish  the  proposed  institu- 
tion (1798),  and  was  fortunate  in  securing  as  its  superin- 
tendent Mr  (afterwards  the  famous  Sir  Humphrey)  Davy, 
who  had  already  given  proofs  of  uncommon  endowments, 
and  many  of  whose  discoveries  were  made  in  its  laboratory. 
Among  the  first  results  of  the  pneumatic  institution  was  the 
discovery  of  the  chemical  properties  of  nitrous  oxide,  in 
regard  to  which,  as  in  many  other  cases,  Beddoes  jshowed 
himself  over-sanguine  and  speculative.  The  original  aim 
of  the  institution  was  gradually  abandoned  ;  it  became  an 
ordinary  sick-hospital,  aad  was  relinquished  by  its  projector 
id  the  year  before  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1808. 
Beddoes  was  a  man  of  great  powers  and  wide  acquirements, 
which  he  directed  to  noble  and  philanthropic  purposes. 
Ho  strove  to  effect  social  good  by  popularizing  medical 
knowledge,  a  work  for  which  his  vivid  imagination  and 
glowing  eloquence  eminently  fitted  him.  In  his  manner 
of  theorizing  he  considerably  resembled  his  contprnporary, 
the  once  celebrated  Erasmus  Darwin.  Besides  the  writings 
mentioned  above,  he  was  the  author  of  Pohtiral  Pamphlets 
( 1795-97),  a  popular  Essay  on  Consumption  (1779),  which 
won  the  admiration  of  Kant,  an  Essay  on  Fever  (1807), 
and  Hygeia,  or  Essays  Mural  and  Medical  (1807).  A 
life  of  Beddoes  by  Dr  John  E.  Stock  was  published  in 
1810. 

BEDDOES,  TnoMAS  Loveh.,  a  modern  English 
dramatist  of  peculiar  and  almost  unique  genius,  was  I  ho  son 
of  the  preceding,  and  was  born  at  Clifton,  20th  July  1803. 
He  received  his  education  at  the  Charter  House,  and 
subsequently  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  at  both  of 
which  places  he  dis[ilaycd  a  rugged  independence  of 
character,  combined  with  eccentricity  of  demeanour  and  an 
aversion  lo  the  ordinary  course  of  study.  Wlfile  still  nn 
uodsrgradiiale,  he  published  his  liride's  Traijedy,  a  piece 
lei8    chnractrnz.'d    by    originality    than   his    aubscqucut 


performances,  and  altogether  in  ihe  t.is.o  of  the  Elizabethan 
revival  of  the  day  lu'li  ited  by  the  publication  of  Lamb's 
Specimens.  The  notice  it  obtained  from  Barry  Cornwall 
and  other  representatives  of  this  ichuol,  encouraged  him  to 
devote  himself  altogether  to  the  cultivation  of  dramatic 
poetry;  and  he  speedily  produced  a  number  of  superb 
fiagiiients,  ranging  down  from  the  ambitiuus  but  unfiiiislied 
sketches  for  tragedies  to  be  entitled  Toniimond  and  The 
Second  Brother,  to  short  descriptive  passages  of  a  few  lines 
each,  unsurpassed  for  originality  of  conception  and  con- 
densed force.  His  genius,  unfortunately,  though  highly 
poetical,  was  in  no  respect  dramatic  ;  he  entirely  huked  the 
power  of  constructing  a  plot  and  deducing  iharacter  from 
action  ;  and  his  endeavours  to  achieve  a  conqilete  work 
proved  abortive  until  1,^29,  when  the  stiaiigely  fascin.atii.g 
but  fantastic  and  incoherent  drama  of  Death's  Jest  /loci,, 
or  The  Fool's  Tragedy,  was  laboriously  put  together  from 
a  series  of  abortive  attempts.  By  this  time  Beddoes  had 
become  a  resident  in  Germany,  and  a  zoalous  student  of 
physiology,  which,  by  aO'ording  another  outlet  for  that 
intense  curiosity  respecting  the  mysteries  of  life  and  death 
which  had  hitherto  been  the  mainspiing  of  his  poetical 
efforts,  greatly  contributed  to  repress  the  external  manifes- 
tations of  his  genius.  Dissatisfaction  with  his  tragedy, 
which  he  never  cared  to  publish  during  his  lifetime,  and 
the  gradual  disuse  of  his  native  language,  cons]iired  to 
reduce  him  to  silence.  He  led  for  several  years  an 
unsettled  life  on  the  Continent,  devoted  to  anatomical 
research,  and  actively  participating  in  liberal  and  demo- 
cratic movements  in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  until  his 
death  in  1849  from  the  effects  of  an  accident.  His  luernry 
remains  were  published  in  1891  by  his  fiieiid  Mr  Keloull,! 
with  a  most  interesliiig  memoir,  and  coiiious  selections' 
from  his  graphic  and  striking  correspondence,  which  i» 
distinguished  by  all  the  characteristics  of  his  verse.] 
Beddoes  is  a  poet  for  poets,  and  few  other  leaders  will 
enjoy  him.  He  is  "of  iniiigination  all  compact;"  his 
works  scarcely  contain  a  single  passage  of  purely  subjective 
feeling.  He  is,  perhaps,  the  most  concrete  [met  of  his 
day;  the  most  disposed  to  express  sentiment  by  imagery 
and  material  symbolism.  In  this  he  re.scnibles  Keats,  and 
may  be  termed  a  Golhic  Keats,  the  Teutonic  counter[iart 
of  his  more  celebrated  contemporary's  Hellenism.  The 
spirit  of  Gothic  architecture  seems  to  live  in  his  verse,  its 
giandeur  and  grotesqueiiess,  its  mystery  and  its  gloom. 
His  relation  to  the  Elizabethan  diamatists,  nioicover,  is 
neaily  the  same  as  that  of  Keats  to  the  Elizabelhan 
pa.storal  poets;  but  the  resemblance  is  one  of  innate 
temperaru'iit :  ho  borrowed  nothing,  cither  from  his  Eliza- 
liethan  precursors  or  the  chief  objects  of  his  admiration 
among  his  contemporaries,  Keats  and  Shelley.  The  want 
of  constructive  power  which  mars  his  dramas  is  even  more 
prejudicial  to  his  lyrics;  but  some  few  songs,  where  the 
right  key-note  has  been  struck  from  the  first,  rank  among 
the  most  perfect  in  our  language.  The  leading  fealurt's  of 
Bcd'loes's  personal  character  were  uncompromising  inde- 
pendence, sterhng  integrity,  and  a  thorough  disdain  foi 
the  opinion  of  the  world.  IIU  life  was  entirely  devoir.' 
to  ideal  aims,  and  his  tastes  were  of  the  most  simple  ni 
philosophic  character.  The  asjierity  of  his  demeaiu.ui 
rei'clled  strangers,  but  he  was  highly  valued  by  the  few 
who.se  intimacy  he  condescended  to  encourage. 

BEDE,  BuDA,  or  B.eda  (commonly  called  The  Venerablo 
Bede),thcfatherof  English  history,  the  most  learned  English- 
man and  most  eminent  writer  of  his  age,  was  born  about  tht 
year  073,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Monkwearmouth.  in  the 
N.K  of  the  county  of  Durhr'.ni.  The  .--lory  of  his  life  is 
told  by  himself  at  the  conclusion  of  his  most  famous  and 
most  important  woik  :  "Thus  much  of  the  EcclrsiuMlnal 
Histoiy    of    Britain,  and    more  especially  of  the  EiiglisU 


B  E  D  E 


481' 


iiutian,  as  far  n%  1  (?6uld  learn  cither  from  the  writings  of 
ibe  nncicnts,  or  tlic  tradition  of  our  ancestors,  or  of  my  own 
kn<'wlcd^e,  has,  with  the  help  of  God,  been  digested  by 
tne,  Bcde,  the  servant  of  God,  and  priest  of  the  monastery 
of  the  blesscil  apostles  Peter  and  Paul,  which  is  at  AVear- 
mouth  and  Jarrow  ;  who  being  born  in  the  territory  of  that 
»jme  monastery,  was  given,  at  seven  years  of  age,  to  be 
educated  by  the  most  reverend  Abbat  Benedict,  and  after- 
wards by  Ccolfiid  ;  and  spending  all  the  remaining  time 
of  my  life  in  thit  monastery,  I  wholly  applied  myself  to 
the  study  of  Scripture;  and,  amidst  the  obsenance  of 
regular  di3ci|ilinc,  and  the  daily  care  of  singing  in  the 
church,  I  always  took  delight  in  learning,  teaching,  and 
writing.  In  the  nineteenth  year  of  my  age  I  received 
deacon's  orders;  in  the  thirtieth,  those  of  the  priesthood. 
.  .  .  From  which  time,  till  the  fifty-ninth  year  of  my 
age,  I  have  made  it  my  business,  for  the  use  of  me  and 
mine,  to  compile  out  of  the  works  of  the  venerable  Fathers, 
and  to  interpret  and  explain  accoiiling  to  their  meaning 
these  following  pieces"  (a  list  of  his  writings  follows). 
The  two  associated  monasteries  here  mentioned  were 
founded  by  Benedict  Biscop  on  the  lands  between  thb  Wear 
■  nd  the  Tyne  granted  to  him  by  King  Ecgfrith.  This 
.earned  and  pious  abbot  was  "  the  first  person  who  intro- 
duced in  England  constructors  of  stone  edifices,  as  well  as 
makers  of  glass  windows"  (Will,  of  Malmesb.)  But  a 
greater  honour  attaches  to  him  as  having  collected  in  his 
visits  to  Rome  a  large  quantity  of  valuable  books,  which, 
deposited  in  the  noble  buildings  he  erected,  had  much  to 
do  with  the  extensive  learning  of  his  celebrated  pupil. 
Bedc,  after  three  years  at  Wearmouth,  removed  with  the 
Abbot  Ceolfrid  to  the  newly  founded  J'rrow  monastery, 
where  he  pursued  to  the  close  of  his  life  those  studies  in 
every  department  of  literature  and  science  within  his  reach, 
the  results  of  which  we  have  in  his  numerous  works. 

Bede's  industry  was  marvellous,  alike  in  acquiring  and  in 
communicating  his  stores  of  knowledge.  Besides  the  usual 
manual  labours  of  the  monasterj-,  the  duties  of  the  priest, 
.■uid  his  additional  occupation  as  a  teacher,  he  succeeded  in 
writing  upwards  of  forty  distinct  treatises,  which  together 
form  what  may  be  looked  upon  as  an  early  encyclopa;dia. 
Of  these  treatises  twenty-five  are  on  Biblical  subject.?, 
inoiuding  commentaries  on  most  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  and  the  Apocrypha.  The  remainder 
consist  of  lives  of  sair  s  and  martyrs  ;  lives  of  the  ALbats 
of  this  Monaster!/  ;  his  Ecdesiastkal  Uisfory  of  our  Island 
and  Xation  ;  treatises  on  Tlit  Nature  of  Things,  astronomy, 
chronology,  arithmetic,  medicine,  philosophy,  gramiriar, 
rtictoric,  poetry,  music ;  together  with  a  Book  of  Hymns, 
nnd  a  Book  of  Epigrams  in  heroic  or  elegiac  verse.  While 
SKliibiting  little  original  thought  or  discovery,  except  in  his 
hi.-lorical  works,  and  partaking  of  the  credulity  of  his  tim», 
Bede  excels  in  good  judgment,  and  in  thoroughly  digesting 
and  clearly  arranging  and  expounding, in  simple  Latin,  what 
he  g.ithered  in  his  wide  range  of  reading  in  classical  and 
llieological  authors.  His  Biblical  works  arc  principally 
made  up  of  extracts  from  the  Fathers,  especially  from  St 
Augustine — his  interpretations  following  the  allegorical 
mode  of  the  Middle  Ages,  as  suggested  by  his  own  declara- 
tion :  "  He  who  knows  how  to  interpret  allegorirally  will 
see  thai  the  inner  sense  excels  the  simplicity  of  the  letter, 
as  apples  do  Ieave,«."  The  scientific  treatises  are  founde^l 
on  the  Bible,  and  the  science  of  the  ancients  as  contained 
in  such  writers  as  I'liny.  Bede's  historical  works,  on  the 
other  hand,  and  es]  ecially  his  great  historical  work,  are 
remarkable  for  the  patience  indicated  in  the  tearch  after 
all  trustworthy  sources  of  information,  for  his  careful 
statement  of  these  various  sources,  for  the  sincerity  and 
luve  of  truth  manifc-l  throughout,  and  for  the  pleasant 
8.- -vuess  with  wlii  b  the  story  is  told. 


In  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  Bede  declined  the  dignity 
of  abbot ;  for,  he  said,  "  the  otfice  demands  household  care, 
and  household  care  brings  with  it  distraction  of  mind,  which 
hinders  the  prosecution  of  learning."  But  his  reputation  as 
a  scholar,  combined  with  "  aptness  to  teach,"  made  very 
famous  the  school  of  Jarrow,  w  here  it  is  recorded  COO  monks, 
besides  strangers  from  a  distance,  were  at  one  time  in  attend- 
ance. The  influence  and  authority  of  the  modest  teacher 
on  Tyneside  were  acknowledged  throughout  the*  West  of 
Europe,  of  which  Northumbria  became  now  for  a  period 
the  literary  centre.  By  the  renown  of  its  schools,  its 
libraries,  and  its  learning,  chiefly  represented  by  him,  that 
kingdom  had  some  recompense  for  the  height  of  military 
glory  it  had  reached  in  Bede's  youth,  and  from  which  it 
had  recently  fallen  at  Necbtansmere.  Pope  Sergius,  by  a 
letter  to  Coelfrid,  sought  Bede's  presence  and  counsel  at 
Rome,  but  it  is  almost  certain  the  invitation  was  not  acted 
upon.  In  another  way,  we  can  scarcely  doubt,  he  efljciently 
helped  the  Papal  court.  Born  about  ten  years  after  Rome 
gained  her  final  victory  over  lona  at  the  Synod  of  Whitby, 
and  four  years  after  Theodore  arrived  at  Canterbury  to 
complete  the  ecclesiastical  conquest,  the  character  and 
writings  of  Bede  must  have  strengthened  the  dominion  of 
the  hierarchy  in  the  North  of  England.  His  positivs 
efforts  may  have  been  confined  to  his  three  treatises  on  the 
time  of  celebrating  Easter — one  of  the  main  questions  in 
dispute.  But  indirectly,  his  historical  works  had  the  same 
tendency,  exalting,  as  they  do,  the  missionaries  from  Italy, 
while  not  ignoring  the  zealous  labours  of  the  followers  of 
Columba.  In  himself,  too,  the  people  of  Northumbria, 
the  scene  of  contest,  beheld  one  who  brought  honour  to 
them  as  a  fellow-countryman, — honour  for  which,  at  the 
same  time,  they  were  indebted  to  the  now  dominant  church 
that  had  given  him  his  training  and  opportunities  of  study. 
History,  confirmed  by  the  evidence  of  his  writings,  is  loud 
in  praise  of  Bede's  humble  piety  as  well  as  his  learning. 
A  long  letter  of  his  pupil  Cuthbert  has  been  preserved, 
giving  a  simple  and  touching  account  of  his  death,  which 
probably  took  place  in  735.  Though  "  he  suffered  in  his 
stomach,  and  drew  his  breath  with  pains  and  sighs,"  he  was 
full  of  thanksgiving  and  rejoicing,  singing  psalms,  conversing 
with  his  pupils,  and  dictating  an  Anglo  Saxon  translation 
of  the  Gospel  according  to  John.  He  was  bliried  in  the 
church  at  Jarrow,  but  his  bones  were  stolen  by  a  monk  from 
Durham  and  placed  beside  those  of  St  Cuthbert.  There 
they  continued  until  the  middle  of  the  12lh  century,  when 
they  were  enclosed  in  a  splendid -shrine  by  Bishop  Pudsey. 
This  shrine  was  demolished  and  the  relics  scattered  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  there  only  remaining  now  at  Durham 
the  Latin  inscription,  which  concludes  with  the  well-know  n  * 
line — 

"  Ilac  sunt  ID  fossa  Bedae  veneraMlis  ossa  ' 

The  origin  of  the  title  "Vener.ible"  cannot  be  traced, 
but  it  appears  as  early  as  836  ;  and  succeeding  ages  have 
gladly  owned  the  justness  of  the  appellation.  For  centuries 
his  theological  and  educational  works  held  a  high  po.<.ition 
as  authorities  and  even  as  text  books.  The  chief  monument 
of  his  labours  and  erudition  is  his  Kalafiaslical  History, 
which  gives  us  the  most  and  the  best  of  our  knowledge  of 
the  history  of  England  until  731, four  jears  before  his  death. 

( 

Bcdf'9  works  ntre  piiMishcd  in  6  vols,  fol.,  Paris,  1544,  ISl.l, 
1J54,  editions  DOB  r.iie  ;  8  lols.  (ol,  BmoI,  lf63,  and  Cologne  1612 
nnd  ICfS;  12  vols.  8vo,  «ilh  Enpli.'.h  traniilution,  cdilfd  ly  Dr 
Giles.  London,  1543-44.  MSS  of  the  Uistery  are  at  Cambiidge 
nnd  Brit  JIus.  Alficd  trnnslnlod  it  into  Anglo-Saxon  Other 
Iranslnliors  are  ly  Stapelton,  ISC'  :  .'ohn  Stevens,  1T23;  and  W. 
Hurst,  1RI4.  Stevens's  translalion  improved,  edited  by  Ci'o,  is 
published  along  with  the  Afiglu-Saion  Chrcniclr,  in  RrLn's/r.li- 
qiiarian  Library,  1847.  All  Die  Jiistcriral  woika  IraijMattd  br. 
Stevenson  forDi'part  of  vol.  i.  of  Vu  Churdi  Bisleriani  qf  Eiy/tand,^ 
1853-54 


48!i 


B  E  D  — B  E  D 


BEDELL,  William,  bishop  of  Kilmore  and  Ardagb,  ia 
Ireland,  was  born  at  Black  Notley,  in  Essex,  in  1570.     He 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  took  orders,  and,  after  leaving 
the  university,  settled  for  some  years  as  clergyman  in  Bury 
St  Edmunds.     He  was  then  appoinljed  chaplain  to  Sit  H. 
Wotton,  English   ambassador  at    Venice.     In    that   town 
Bedell  remained  for  eight  year"   acquiring  great  leputation 
as  a  scholar  and  theologian.     He  translated  the  Booh  of 
Common  Prayer  into  Italian,  and  was  on  terms  of  closest 
friendship  with  Sarpi  (Fra  Paolo),  the  famous  historian  of 
the  Council  of  Trent.     In  1615,  some  time  after  his  return 
to  England,  he  was  appointed  to  the. rectory  of  Hornings- 
heath,  in  Suffolk,  which  he  held  for  twelve  years.     He 
was    then    called  to    the   provostship   of   Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  relinquished  that  office  after  two  years  for  the 
united  bishoprics  of   Kilmore  and  ArdagL     As  bishop  he 
won  the  respect  and  love  of  his  people  by  the  uprightness 
and  purity  of   his  conduct.     He  set  himself  diligently  to 
reform  the  abuses  of  his  diocese,  and  personally  undertook 
the  duties  generally  discharged  by  the  bishop's  lay  chancellor. 
In   1641,  when  the  Protestants  were   being  massacred  in 
the  Irish  rebellion.   Bedell's  house  was  not  only  left  un- 
touched, but  became  the  place  of  refuge  for  many  fugitives. 
In  the  end,  however,  the  rebels  insisted  upon  the  dismissal  of 
all  who  had  taken  sheJter  in  his  house,  and  on  the  bishop's 
refusal  he  was  seixed  and  imprisoned  with  some  others  in 
the  ruined  castle  of  Loughboughter.      Here  he  was  detained 
for  several  weeks,  and  when  released,  rapidly  sank  from  the 
/effects  of  exposure  on  his  weakened  constitution.     He  died 
on  the  7th  February  1642.    His  life  was  written  by  Burnet. 
BEDFORD,     the    county    town    of     Bedfordshire,    a 
municipal  and   parliamentary  borough    and    market-town, 
situated  in  a  fertile  vale  on  both  sides  of  the  River  Ouse, 
which  is  here  crossed  by  a  handsome  stone  bridge  of  five 
arches.     It  is  50  miles  N.W.  of  lK)ndon,  and  has  exce'Uent 
railway  accommodation  as  well  as  a  navigable  river.      It  is 
a  station  on  the  main  line  of  the  Midland  Railway.      The 
town  consists  chiefly  of  one  long  wide  street,  intersected 
by    smaller   ones  at    right   angles.     It  is  well  built,  and 
numerous  villas  and  small  streets   have  been   erected   on 
the  west  side  since  the  opening  of  the  Midland  main  line 
in  1868.     It  has  five  parish  churches,  four  of  which  con- 
tain architectural  features  of  interest.    St  Paul's  has  lately 
undergone    considerable    restoration,   and    the    tower   and 
;8pire  have  been  rebuilt.     St  Peter's  has  been  enlarged,  but 
>the  ancient  tower  remains,  in  which  are  to  be  seen  examples 
of  Saxon  work.     St  Mary's  has  a  fine  Norman  tower,  but 
the  remainder  of   the  church  has  at  different  times  been 
restored.       St    John's    has   also   been   restored,    but    the 
original  tower  remains.     St  Cuthbert's  is  a  recent  erection 
in  the  Norman  style.     A  district  church,  dedicated  to  the 
Holy  Trinity,  was  opened  in  1841.     There  are  also  Inde- 
pendent, Methodist,  Baptist,  Roman  Catholic,  and   other 
chapels.      Bedford,  in   proportion   to    its    size,   has    more 
public  endowments  than  any  other  place  in  the  kingdom, 
for  which  it  is  c'liefiy  indebted  to  Sir  VV.  Harper,  Lord 
Mayor  of  lyondon  in  1561,  who  founded  here  a  free  school, 
and   conveyed   for    its   support,  and    for  portioning    poor 
maidens,  a  piece  of  ground  in  London,  the  surplus,  if  any, 
to  be  given  to  the  poo:.     This  ground  has  gradually  ri.scn 
in  value  so  as  now  to  produce  nearly  £14,000  annually. 
It   supports    grammar,    modern,    preparatory,    and    other 
schools.     Formerly  much    of   this  large  endowment    was 
appropriated  to  eleemosynary  purposes,  which  did  not  tend 
to  the  elevation  of  the  character  of   the  people  ;    but  since 
the  enactment  of  a  scheme  of   the  Endowed  Schools  Com- 
mission in  1874,  the  whole  ninount  is  expended   upon  the 
schools,  except  a  small  proportion  for  the  endowment  of 
forty-five   alms  houses.  '  The    grammar  school    has   eight 
jkhibilioQS  of  £70  per  annum  each,  at  Oxfurd,  Cambridge, 


or  Dublin.  Among  the  pubhc  buildings  are  the  schools, 
the  shire-hall,  the  jail,  the  infirmary,  the  county  library  and 
assembly  rooms,  and  the  new  corn  exchange.  The  com- 
mercial prosperity  of  this  town  is  greatly  aided  by  the 
works  of  the  Messrs  Howard  and  others,  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  agricultural  implements,  ic.  1  here  are  also 
manufactures  of  straw  and  lace  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Bedford  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  six  aldermen,  and  eigbtEeo 
councillors;  and  it  sends  tv.o  members  to  parliament.  It 
is  exceptionally  well  provided  with  sanitary  appliances, 
having  a  new  complete  system  of  sewerage  and  water-works ; 
and  the  sewage  is  conveyed  to  a  farm  about  a  mile  from 
the  town  and  utiUzed  at  once  for  growing  crops  of  grass, 
roots,  and  corn.      Population  in  1871,  16,850. 

BEDFORD  LEVEL,  the  name  given  to  a  flat  district 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  England,  comprising  the  greater 
part  (amounting  to  450,000  acres)  of  the  marshy  district 
called  the  Fens,  the  whole  Isle  of  Ely  in  Cambridgeshire, 
and  a  portion  of  the  north  of  that  county,  30,000  acres  of 
Suffolk,  63,000  acres  of  Norfolk,  57,000  of  Huntingdon, 
about  8000  of  Northamptonshire,  and  the  south-eastern 
portion  of  Lincolnshire.  The  extent  of  the  whole  tract  is 
GO  miles  in  length,  from  Milton  in  Cambridge  to  Toynlon 
in  Lincoln  ;  its  breadth  is  about  40  miles,  from  Peterborough 
in  Northampton  to  Brandon  in  Suffolk.  The  boundary  on 
three  sides  is  irregular,  giving  it  something  of  a  horse-shoe 
shape,  vrith  the  opening  terminated  by  the  sea  on  the  north. 

Tl»i3  district  obtained  its  present  name  from  the  agreement  of 
Francis  earl  of  Be>lt'ord,  thepruioipal  landholder,  and  thirteen  other 
adventurers,  with  Charles  !.  m  1034,  to  drain  the  level,  on  condi- 
tion of  receiving  95,000  acres  of  the  reclaimed  land.  The  district 
has  within  historic  times  undergone  remarkable  changes.  In  the 
time  of  the  Komans  it  was  a  den.ie  forest,  which,  as  a  stronghold  of 
the  Britons,  those  invaders  de.stroyed.  !t  then  bei'ame  a  awarap, 
through  which  the  lazy  waters  of  the  Ouse,  the  Welland,  the  Nene, 
and  Wisbeach,  crept  to  the  sea.  Id  the  13th  century  the  sea 
here,  aa  in  other  parts  of  N.W.  Europe,  burst  its  Inmndaries,  and 
the  inundated  land  became  a  pestilential  swamp.  The  first  attempt 
drain  this  morass  seems  to  have  been  made  in  the  year  1436,  and 
embankments  and  ditches  were  formed  at  a  great  expense.  These, 
however,  were  swept  away  during  the  ensuing  winter  by  the  flood- 
ing of  the  Kiver  Ouse.  Another  partial  attempt  at  drainage  wa3 
made  by  Bishop  Moreton  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI 1.,  but  this  also 
proved  a  failure.  An  Act  was  passed  in  the  44th  year  of  Queea 
Elizabeth  lor  elTecling  its  reclamation  ;  but  the  first  etfectual  at- 
tempt at  reclaiming  it  was  not  made  until  1634,  as  already  men* 
tioned,  and  many  embankments  and  canals  were  constructed  &t 
vanous  intervals  at  an  expense  above  one  million  sterling.  Three 
years  after  the  agreement  of  the  earl  of  Bedford  and  his  partners 
with  the  king,  alter  an  outlay  of  £100,000  on  the  part  of  tne  com- 
pany, the  contract  was  annulled,  on  the  fraudulent  pli-^  that  the 
works  were  insufficient;  and  t.,!  olfer  was  made  by  King  Charles  to 
undertake  its  completion  on  condition  of  receiving  67,000  acres  in 
addition  to  the  amount  originally  agreed  on.  This  unjust  attempt 
was  frustrated-  by  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  ;  and  no  fiirther 
attempt  at  drainage  was  made  till  1649,  when  the  Tarliament  rein- 
et-ated  the  earl  of  Bedford's  successor  in  his  father's  rights.  After 
an  aldilioiial  outlay  of '£300,000,  the  adventurers  reciivod  95,000 
ar.ies  of  reclaimed  land,  according  to  the  coutract,  w^bich,  however, 
fell  far  short  of  repaying  the  expense  of  the  undertaking.  In  1664 
a  royal  charter  was  obtained  to  incorporate  the  company,  which  still 
exists,  and  carries  on  the  concern  under  a  governor,  6  buiUlTs,  20 
conservators,  and  a  commonalty,  each  of  whom  mu.tt  possess  100 
acres  of  land  in  the  level,  and  hius  a  voice  in  the  election  of  officers. 
The  conservators  must  each  pos.seS3  not  less  than  '2^0  acres,  th* 
governor  and  bailitfs  each  400  acres.  The  original  adventurers  had 
allotments  of  land  according  to  their  interest  of  thoonginal  95,000 
acres  ;  but  Charles  II  ,  on  gianting  the  charter,  took  cure  to  secure 
to  the  crown  a  lot  of  12.000  acres  out  ol  the  9r>,000,  which,  how- 
ever, is  held  under  the  directors,  whereas  the  allotments  ai-e  not 
lield  in  common,  though  subject  to  tho  laws  of  the  corporation. 
The  level  waa  liivideil  in  1697  into  three  parts,  called  the  North, 
Miihlle.  and  South  Levels — the  second  being  separated  from  the, 
others  by  the  Neno  and  Old  lU'ilfurd  riveni. 

Since  then  exten.'iivc  works  have  at  dilferert  limes  bc5n  carried 
on  to  complete  the  drailmge  of  this  district  ;  but  the  most  elTeclual 
are  under  the  Acts  of  15'J7  and  11**9.  foi  "  Iniprovin,;  tlic  oiitfal!  of 
the  Nene,"  "The  Navigation  of  tile  Wisbeacli,"  and  "The  Fm- 
h,iiiking  of  the  Salt  Marshes  between  the  cali.il  calleil  Kirder'e' 
Cut  and  the  aea."     Vc^la  of   SOO  to  W  tws  but'Ji;u  c>"  ■    ' 


B  E  D  —  B  E  D 


,483 


tMine  up  to  the  town  of  Wi^.oeach  at  uit  ti'ifs,  ami  those  of  from 
500  to  600  long  at  siTin^j  tidea.  Thi*  ilrairnoK  of  the  lower  lands, 
wliich,  like  the  Dutch  Hoiders,  ore  below  low-water  n-ark,  waa  earned 
la  by  windroilb,  but  these  have  now  Keen  alruo.st  suj^rsoiled  by 
jteam-cngines;  lo  the  North  Level  the  drainage  i3  etfeeted  by  sluicea 
Ai  the  result  of  these  extensive  ojieratious,  the  level  now  abouoda  ui 
ncA  pasture  and  corn  tanda. 

BEDFOIIDSHIKL,  one  of  the  south  oiidlaqd  counties 
of  England,  surrounded  by  the  counties  of  Buckingham, 
Northiimpton,  Huntingdon, Cambridge,  and  Hertford.  Ilia 
the  fourth  smallest  county,  containing  only  2'J5,509  acres 
or  401  square  miles.  Its  e.xtrcme  length  from  north  to 
south  is  about  47  miles,  and  its  width  21  miles.  The  great 
Ouse,  which  Hows  through  the  county  eastward,  is  navi- 
gible  from  Bedford  to  the  sea  at  King's  Lynn.  The  Mid- 
land and  Great  Northern  Railw.iys  intersect  the  county,  also 
the  Bletchley  and  Cambridge  branch  of  the  London  and 
North-Western.  The  3urf.ice  of  the  county  is  for  the  most 
part  level,  but  the  northern  half  is  undulating,  with  a 
subsoil  generally  of  boulder-clay  and  Oxford-clay.  A  tine 
tract  of  land  south  of  B'.'dford  is  bounded  by  a  range  of 
lower-greensand  running  east  and  west,  presenting  beautiful 
woodland  scenery,  parallel  to  which,  along  the  Hertford- 
shire border,  tho  Chiltern  chalk  range  rises  to  -^>00  feet 
above  tho  sea  level  and  400  feet  above  the  level  of  Bedford. 
The  county  is  generally  devoted  to  corn-growing,  but  the 
OusB  valley  has  <.  large  breadth  of  rich  pasturage,  and  all 
along  the  west  side  of  the  Ortvit  Northern  railway  is  a 
suody  loam,  on  which  onions,  potatoes,  and  market  produce 
*re  grown-  Agricultural  implemeut  and  other  engineering 
■vorks  employ  about  1000  hands  at  Bedford  and  Luton; 
while  the  female  industry  of  the  county  is  pillow-lace,  and 
in  the  south  straw-plait.  The  plait  is  made  up,  chiefly  at 
Dunstable  and  Luton,  into  hats  and  bonnets,  which  are  ex- 
ported to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Luton  is  the  most  populous 
town  in  the  county,  slightly  exceeding  the  county  town  of 
Bedford.  The  county  rate  assessment  is  £585,840.  and 
the  expenditure  in  1H7.3  was  XI  1,802.  The  county  be- 
longs to  tho  diocese  of  Ely,  and  coincides  with  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Bedford.  It  contains  9  hundreds  and  124 
parishes.  It  is  in  the  Norfolk  circuit,  and  assizes  are  held 
twice  a  year.  A  court  of  quarter-sessions  sits  at  Bedford, 
and  the  petty  sessional  divisions  are  seven.  Two  members 
are  returned  to  parliament  for  the  county  and  two  (or  the 
towu  of  Bedford.  The  titles  derived  from  the  county  are 
that  of  duke  to  the  house  of  Russell,  and  of  baron  of 
Bletsoe  to  the  family  of  Lord  St  John,  and  tho  largest 
landowners  are  the  duke  of  Bedford  and  Mr  Whitbread  of 
SouthilL  The  most  distinguished  residence  in  the  county 
19  Woburn  Abbey  (duke  of  Bedford),  near  the  town  of  that 
name.  It  was  formerly  a  Cistercian  abbey,  granted  at  the 
Reformation  by  Henry  VIII.  to  the  family  of  Russell,  the 
fourth  duke  of  which  house  erected  the  present  edifice.  It 
is  a  very  grand  and  capacious  pile,  situated  in  an  extensive 
park,  and  is  furnished  with  a  large  and  valuable  collection 
of  paintings  and  statues.  Luton  Hoo  is  also  an  extensive 
mansion,  which  vvas  reco-.utructed  and  improved  for  the 
third  earl  of  Bute  by  tm-.  tirothers  Adam.  A  library,  14G 
feel  in  length,  furnished  with  a  valuable  collection  of  books, 
and  a  large  selection  of  paintings  of  some  of  the  first  masters, 
chiefly  of  the  Italian  school,  are  its  distmguishing 
ornaments.  Besides  these  there  are  other  mansions  which 
aro  highly  deserving  of  notice,  especially  that  of  Mr 
Whitbread  at  Southill  ;  Wrest  Park,  beluugiug  to  the 
Dowager  Countess  Cowper  ,  llawnes  House,  to  tho  Rev. 
Lord  John  Thyone  ,  Sutton,  to  Sir  John  M  Burgoyne  ,  and 
Oakley  House,  to  the  marqujs  of  Tavistock. 

There  aro  a  general  infirmary  and  fever  hospital  at 
Bedford  ,  near  Are,sey  is  the  Three  Counties  Lunatic 
Asylum  (iVr  Beds,  Herts,  and  Huols)  provided  for  685 
palieols  .  Ht  Carlton  is  the  juvenile  couDtv  ivforma'^ry  ; 


at  Kempslon  the  coui^Cy  school  (3Du  boys),  also  the  Military 
Brigade  Depot  Connected  with  the  county  are  the  militia 
(18th  Light  Infantry),  the  duke  of  Manchester's  cavalry 
volunteer  corj«,  and  the  ritio  volunteers. 

The  population  of    the  county  stood   at  the  four   last 
decennial  enumerations  as  follows  : — 


Tear. 

Ualisa 

FenioJca 

Toitl. 

Bonsca. 

1841 
1851, 
1861, 
1871. 

6-.M90 
69.941 
63.940 
69.046 

65.746 
64.537 
71.347 
77,211 

107,938 
1-24.478 
135.287 
146.257 

21.96 
25.481 
28,314 
32,098 

Tn  the  year  1871  the  number  of  agricultural  labourer! 
was  15,962,  of  straw  plaiters  23,508  (90  per  cent,  being 
females),  and  of  lacemakers  6051,  all  females.  The  towns 
and  their  populations  in  1871  were  as  follows: — Lufoo, 
17,317,  Bedford,  16,850;  Leighton-Buzzard,  4Ci;6,  Dua. 
stable,  4553;  Biggleswade,  424  4. 

When  the  Romans  lauded  in  Britain  Bedfoidshire 
formed  a  portion  of  the  district  of  theCatticuchlaui,  whose 
sovereign  or  chief,  Casaibclenus  or  Cassivelauaus,  coin 
manded  the  united  forces  which  opposed  Julius  Caesar. 
When,  in  the  year  310,  the  Emperor  Constantine  ruled  the 
whole  island,  and  divided  it  into  five  provinces,  Bedford- 
shire was  included  in  the  third  division  called  I'lavia 
Ccesarieiiaii,  and  remained  so  till  the  final  abandonment 
of  Britain  by  the  Romans.  Uuder  the  Saxon  heptarchy  it 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Mercia,  until  with  the  rest 
of  the  island  it  was  united  to  the  kingilom  of  the  West 
Saxons,  which  was  divided  by  Alfred  into  counties, 
hundreds,  and  tylhings,  when  this  county  first  received 
its  present  name. 

Thire  are  many  remains  of  Roman,  Saion,  and  Norman 
antiquititJ.  Traces  of  a  Roman  station  are  to  be  seen  at 
Sandyjiear  Potton,  and  at  Maiden-Bower  near  Dun.stable. 
Leighfon-Buzzard,  or  Beaudesert,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  Roman  camp.  The  ancient  Icknield  and  Watling  Streets 
pa.ssed  through  the  county  ,  and  the  remains  of  both  may 
be  definitely  traced,  as  well  as  of  some  others  constructed 
by  the  Romans. 

BEDNOR,  a  town  of  Hinduslin,  in  the  territories  of 
the  RAj4  of  Mysore,  situated  in  13°  50'  N.  lat.,  and  75°  Q' 
E.  long.  In  1645  the  seat  of  government  of  the  Rdj4s  of 
Ikeri  was  transferred  to  this  place  ,  as  the  inhabitAUts  o£ 
the  former  capital  removed  with  the  court,  Bednor  became 
a  city  of  great  importance,  containing,  it  is  said,  20,000 
houses,  besides  huts.  It  was  taken  and  plundered  by 
Haidar  All  in  1763,  who  ordered  it  to  be  called  Haidar- 
nagar.  It  is  still,  however,  known  by  its  original  name  of 
Bednor.  At  that  time  it  was  estimated  at  8  miles  in  cir- 
cumference. In  1783  it  surrendered  to  a  British  detach- 
ment under  General  Matthews,  but  being  shortly  after 
invested  by  Tipn  Sultin,  the  garrison  capitulated  on  con- 
dition of  safe  conduct  to  the  coa.>:t.  Tipu  violated  tho 
stipulation,  put  General  Matthews  and  the  principal  oflScers 
to  death,  and  impnsoned  the  remrJndei  of  I  he  foric. 
At  Tipu's  death  it  contained  1500  houses,  besides  huts. 
The  district  of  Bednor  is  situated  on  the  summit  of  that 
range  of  hills,  the  Western  Ghats,  which  overlooks  the  pro- 
vinces of  Canara  and  Malabar.  la  consequence  of  its 
elevation  above  the  sea,  and  the  steepoeas  of  the  r.ountain 
chain,  which  riaes  like  a  wall  to  the  height  of  4000  or  5000 
feet,  the  clouds  of  the  south-west  monsoon  aro  here  inter- 
cepted, and  their  contents  precipitated  ou  the  table-land 
In  deluges  of  rain,  which  continue  for  six  months  in  the 
year,  and  are  extremely  favourable  to  vegetation.  Its 
products  are  pepper,  betel-nut,  cardamums,  and  sandal 
wood.  Cattle  of  small  size  are  also  bred.  The  imports  are 
salt,  ric*.  cocoa-nuts,  oil,  turmeric,  and  cotton  cloths. 

BEDOUINS,  tho  portion  of  the  Arab  race  that  live  \B 
\.y<\  HA«>rt  in  tenta.     See  *a*RiA,  vol  ij.  n   246,.^ 


484 


BEE 


THE  bee,  from  its  singular  instincts,  its  active  industry, 
and  the  useful  products  resulting  from  its  labours, 
has,  from  the  remotest  times,  attracted  general  attention 
and  interest.  No  nation  upon  earth  has  had  so  many 
historians  as  this  remarkable  class  of  insects.  The  patience 
end  sagacity  of  the  naturalist  have  had  an  ample  field  for 
exercise  in  the  study  of  the  structure,  physiology,  and 
domestic  economy  of  bees  ;  their  preservation  and  increase 
have  been  objects  of  assiduous  care  to  the  agriculturist ; 
and  their  reputed  perfection  of  policy  and  government  have 
long  been  the  theme  of  admiration,  and  have  supplied 
copious  materials  for  argument  and  allusion  to  the  poet  and 
the  moralist  in  every  age.  It  is  a  subject  that  has  been 
celebrated  by  the  muse  of  Virgil,  and  illustrated  by  the 
philosophic  genius  of  Aristotle.  Cicero  and  Pliny  record 
that  Aristomachus  devoted  sixty  years  to  the  study  of 
these  insects ;  and  Philiscus  is  said  to  have  retired  into 
a  remote  wood,  that  he  might  pursue  his  observations  on 
them  without  interruption.  A  very  great  number  of  authors 
have  written  express  treatises  on  bees .  periodical  works 
have  been  published  relating  exclusively  to  their  manage- 
ment and  economy ;  and  learned  societies  have  been 
established  for  the  sole  purpose  of  conducting  researches  on 
this  subject. 

In  so  complicated  a  branch  of  natural  history,  correct 
observation  and  induction  require  laborious  and  long- 
continued  efforts.  But,  on  the  subject  of  bees,  the  inquirer 
after  truth  had,  besides,  many  obstacles  to  encounter  from 
the  very  general  diffusion  of  errors,  which  had  been 
transmitted  without  due  examination  from  one  author  to 
another.  The  history  of  the  opinions  of  successive  writers 
sufficiently  proves  how  gradual  and  slow  has  been  the 
growth  of  an  accurate  knowledge  of  these  insects, — what 
■s  now  known  being  the  result  of  the  persevering  labours 
of  ages.  The  accumulation  of  curious  and  interesting  facts, 
indeed,  which  has  accrued  from  the  researches  of  Swam- 
Inerdam,  Maraldi,  Reaumur,  Schirach,  Huber,  Dzierzon,  and 
Von  Siebold,  constitutes  almost  a  new  science.  It  will  there- 
fore be  proper,  in  this  place,  to  give  a  connected  and  sys- 
tematic account  of  the  natural  history  of  the  bee  ;  and  the 
principal  features  of  internal  conformati(?n  will  be  described 
along  with  the  particular  functions.  Our  descriptions  will 
apply,  more  especially,  to  the  common  and  best- known 
species,  the  Apis  mcUifica,  which  is  the  one  particularly 
prized  on  account  of  the  rich  products  it  affords. 

We  shall  begin  with  a  brief  account  of  the  different  sorts 
of  bees  inhabiting  the  hive,  and  of  the  respective  ofEccs  of 
each;  we  shall  then  proceed  to  consider  their  comparative 
physiology,  incluiling  the  leading  particulars  relating  to 
the  functions  of  their  various  organs,  sensitive  powers,  in 
Btincts,  secretions,  and  diseases.  We  sh?ll  also  explain 
the  theory  of  parthenogenesis  and  the  impregnation  of 
queens,  and  shall  follow  the  bees  in  their  different  labours, 
from  the  period  when  the  swarm  h:is  settled  in  a  new 
habitation, — detailing  the  complex  structure  of  their  combs, 
their  curious  processes  of  architecture,  and  the  pains  they 
bestow  on  rearing  their  progeny,  and  in  sending  forth  new 
swarms;  and,  in  the  last  place,  we  shall  notice  the  best 
P  systems  of  modern  bee-keeping,  and  give  some  account  of 
hives  and  apiarian  implements. 

The  leading  feature  in  the  natural  history  of  bees,  and 
one  which  distinguishes  them  from  almost  all  other  insects, 
is  their  singular  distribution  into  three  different  kinds,  con- 
stituting to  all  appearance  so  many  different  raodificr.tions 
of  sex.  The  drone  (fig.  1),  which  is  characterized  by  a 
thicker  body,  a  round  head,  a  more  flattened  shape,  and 


more  obtusely  terminated  abdomen,  within  which  are  con-  Ftmctions 
tained -the  male  organs  of  generation,  is  undoubtedly  the  °f '•"    - 
male  of   the    species.      It  is  distinguished  also    by   tlie   !!™"'     j 
absence  of  a  sting,  and  by  the  humming  noise  that  accom-  workere. 
panics  its  flight.     The  queen-bee  (fig.  2),  which  is  unrsquivo-  - 


Fia.  1.  —  Drone. 


Fio.  2  —Queen-Bee. 


Fia.  3.— Worker 
Bee. 


cally  recognized  as  the  female,  is  larger  than  any  of  the 
others,  has  the  abdomen  of  greater  length,  and  is  provided 
with  a  sting  and  two  ovaria  of  considerable  size.  The 
worker  bees  (fig.  3)  compose  the  third  class,  and  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  smallness  of  their  size,  their  lengthened 
proboscis,  the  peculiar  structure  of  their  legs  and  thighs, 
which  are  adapted  to  the  collection  of  certain  materials 
obtained  from  vegetables,  and  by  the  apparent  absence  of 
every  trace  of  generative  organs, — we  say  apparent,  because, 
as  will  be  shown,  rudiments  of  ovaria  do  exist,  which, 
however,  are  not  perceptible  without  a  very  minute  and 
careful  dissection.  Till  recently  the  worker  bees  were 
regarded  as  devoid  of  sex,  and  were  accordingly  termed 
neuters.  It  is  their  function  to  perform  all  the  laborious 
offices  for  the  community,  to  construct  the  interior  of  their 
habitation,  to  explore  the  country  in  search  of  nourishment 
and  other  materials,  to  collect  and  bring  them  to  the  hive, 
and  apply  them  to  different  purposes,  to  attend  upon  the 
queen,  and  supply  aU  her  wants,  to  defend  the  hive  from 
the  attacks  of  depredators,  and  to  carry  on  hostilities  against 
the  various  enemies  of  the  tribe.  The  life  of  the  queen  ia 
chiefly  engrossed  with  the  duties  of  laying  eggs.  The  drones 
producing  neither  wax  nor  honey,  and  depending  on  the 
rest  for  their  subsistence,  are  idle  spectators  of  the  others* 
labours.  They  appear  to  be  formed  only  for  the  momentary 
but  important  duty  of  impregnation,  since  they  perish 
when  this  purpose  is  accomplished.  There  is  commonly 
only  one  perfect  queen  existing  at  a  time  within  each  hive, 
and  she  usually  appears  to  be  treated  by  all  tht  other  bees 
with  every  mark  of  afl'ection  and  of  deference.  The 
number  of  workers  is  very  different  in  different  hives; 
sometimes  there  are  only  a  few  thousands ;  at  other  times 
frCMn  twenty  to  forty,  or  even  fifty  thousand.  The  drones, 
even  in  the  spring,  seldom  compose  more  than  one-thirtieth 
or  one-fortieth  of  the  whole ;  and,  at  other  seasons,  there 
are  none  to  be  found  in  the  hive  when  a  fertile  qui  en  is 
present.  In  order  to  form  some  estimate  of  the  number, 
of  bees  which  can  occupy  a  certain  space.  Hunter  counted 
what  number  of  drowned  bees  could  be  contained  in  an 
alehouse  pint,  and  found  it  to  be  2 1 00  ;  so  that  if  a  swarm 
were  to  fill  two  quarts,  their  numbers  would  bo  nearly 
9000.  Reaumur,  with  the  same  view  of  ascertaining  their 
numbers,  employed  the  more  accurate  method  of  weighing 
them;  ho  found  that  a  collection,  weighing  one  ounce, 
consisted  of  33G  bees,  and,  therefore,  that  16  ounces,  or 
one  pound,  would  consist  of  537G  bees. 

Notwithstanding  the  difference  in  conformation,  instincts,  Kc»l  n*- 
and  bflices  between  the  queen-bee  and  the  workers,  it  is  "'  jj^^ 
now  established  on  the  most  incontrovertible  evidence  that      ' 
they  both  originally  proceed  from  the  same  kind  of  cpg 
or  larv-1.  which  is  capable  of  being  converted,  according  to 


vrorkoiL 


B  E  E 


485 


circumstances,  either  into  a  worker  or  a  queen.  It  has 
been  proved  that  the  former,  although  exhibiting  no  appear- 
ance of  sexual  organs  on  a  superficial  examination,  are  in 
reality  females,  and  have  the  rudiments  of  these  organs, 
which,  however,  not  being  ^  developed,  are  incapable  of 
exercising  their  proper  functions  although  it  sometimes 
happens  that  they  become  saWcientj/  so  to  enable  a  worker 
to  lay  unfecundated  ej^gs.  It  may  bo  remarked  that  the 
idea  of  the  worker  bees  being  radically  females  had  been 
juggested  long  ago  by  Dr  NVarder  in  his  Monarchy  of  Bees, 
is  which  he  terms  them  "  True  Amazons ;  "  but  no  atten- 
tion had  been  paid  to  his  opinion.  The  real  merit  of  this 
great  discovery,  which  affords  a  key  to  a  multitude  of 
hitherto  inexplicable  facts,  unquestionably  belongs  to 
Schirach.  When  first  announced  to  the  world  it  was 
received  with  suspicion  by  the  greater  number  of  natura- 
lists, and  with  complete  incredulity  by  others.  It  was, 
indeed,  at  variance  with  the  whole  tenor  of  the  observations 
of  Swammerdam,  Maraldi,  and  Reaumur.  «\Viihelmi,  the 
brother-in-law  of  Schirach,  though  an  eye-witness  of  tho 
experiments  from  which  this  theory  had  been  deduced,  for 
a  long  time  refused  to  adniit  the  doctrine,  but  at  length' 
■  became  one  of  its  most  strenuous  supporters.  It  is  noticed 
in  a  vein  of  sarcastic  ridicule  by  John  Hunter  in  his 
otherwise  excellent  paper  on  bees  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions.  Needham  wrote  a  Memoir  for  the  Imperial 
Academy  of  Brussels  in  1777  for  the  express  purpose  of 
refuting  it,  and  he  then  inveighs  in  strong  language  against 
those  naturalists  who  had  deigned  to  give  it  the  least 
countenance.  Bonnet,  after  exercising  a  laudable  scep- 
ticism, and  making  a  diligent  inquiry,  in  which  he  displays 
a  genuine  spirit  of  philosophy,  yielded  a  reluctant  assent. 
But  the  truth  of  the  doctrine  has  since  been  placed  beyond 
the  roach  of  controversy  by  a  multiplied  series  of  obser- 
vations and  experiments  in  different  parts  of  Europe  and 
America. 

Wotrition.  In  considering  the  physiology  of  the  bee,  the  first 
fonction  that  claims  our  notice  is  that  of  nutrition.  The 
food  of  bees  is  principally  of  two  kinds,  namely,  tho  fluid 
secretions  of  vegetables  contained  in  the  nectaries  of  the 
flowers,  and  the  dust  of  the  anthers,  which  has  been  termed 
by  botanists  the  pollen,  but  which,  when  collected  by  the 
bees,  has  received  a  variety  of  appellations,  such  as  farina, 
bee-bread,  ic.  Occasionally,  however,  we  find  bees  feeding 
upon  other  saccharine  substances  besides  honey,  such  as 
honey-dew,  syrup,  ic. 

Orgiu  for      The  organs  by  which  they  collect  food  are  extremely 

wDMiiDg  complex,  comprising  instruments  adapted  to  the  reception 
ot  liquid  aliment  as  well  as  those  fitted  for  the  division 
of  solid  materials.  Iteaumur  has  given  a  most  elaborate 
description  of  these  organs,  and  corrects  some  errors  into 
which  Swammerdam  had  fallen.  For  the  purpose  of  taking 
up  fluids,  bees  are  provided,  in  common  with  all  hymen- 
optcrous  insects,  with  a  long  and  flexible  proboscis   or 

PnboKift  trunk,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  lengthened  tongue, 
'  though,  strictly  speaking,  it  is  formed  by  a  prolongation 
of  tho  under  lip.  It  is  not  tubular,  aj  Swammerdam  had 
supposed,  but  solid  throughout;  and  the  minute  depression 
at  Its  extremity  is  not  the  aperture  of  any  canal  through 
which  liquids  can  bo  absorbei  The  trunk  of  the  bee  per- 
forms strictly  the  ollice  of  a  tongue,  and  not  that  of  a  tube 
for  suction  ;  for  when  it  takes  up  honey  or  any  other  fluid 
aliment,  tho  under  or  the  upper  surfaces  are  more  imme- 
diately applied  to  it,  and  rolled  from  side  to  side,  and  the 
bee  thus  licks  up  what  adheres  to  it,  while  tho  extremity 
of  the  trunk  is  frequently  not  applied  at  all  to  the  substance 
taken  up.  The  trunk  is  supported  on  a  pedicle,  which 
odmits  of  being  bent  back  or  propelled  forwards,  and  thus 
can  retract  or  stretch  out  the  trunk  to  a  considerable  extent. 
Protection  is  given  to  it  by  a  double  sheath  ;  the  exter- 


nal part  consisting  of  two  scales  furnished  by  the  expansion 
of  one  of  the  portions  of  the  labial  palpi,  and  the  internal 
formed  by  tho  prolongation  of  the  two  external  portions  of 
the  jaw.  The  whole  member  thus  consists  of  live  principal 
parts,  on  which  account  .Fabricius  termed  it  lingva 
quinqucfida. 

For  the  purpose  of  mechanically  dividing  solid  materials,  Mni.libi-*. 
the  mouth  is  furnished  with  two  strong  mandibles  and  four 
palpi ;  they  are  but  little  employed  in  eating,  but  are  of 
great  use  in  enabling  the  insect  to  seize  and  break  dowa 
hard  substances  for  other  purposes.  In  the  worker  bee 
all  these  parts  are  of  larger  dimensions  than  in  the  other 
kinds.  The  teeth  are  two  in  number,  and  have  the  form 
of  concave  scales  with  sharp  edges ;  they  are  fixed  to  the 
ends  of  the  jaws,  and  play  horizontally  as  in  other  insects. 
Reaumur  describes  and  dehneates  a  large  aperture  above 
the  root  of  the  proboscis,  which  is  so  surrounded  with  fleshy 
parts  as  not  to  be  readily  seen  unless  the  proboscis  be 
extended  and  bent  downwards.  This  he  considers  as  tho 
mouth  or  orifice  of  the  gullet ;  on  the  upper  side  of  which, 
and  of  course  opposite  to  the  root  of  the  proboscis,  a  small 
fleshy  and  pointed  organ  is  seen,  which  he  regards  as  the 
tongue,  assisting  in  the  deglutition  of  the  food.  Through 
this  orifice,  it  is  presumed,  all  the  aliment,  whether  liquid 
or  solid,  passes ;  the  former  being  conveyed  to  it  by  the 
trunk,  which,  by  its  contractile  power,  presses  forward  the 
fluids  it  has  collected  between  itself  'and  the  inner  sheath, 
and  the  latter  being  received  directly  after  its  comminutioo 
by  the  teeth,  behind  which  it  is  situated.  Latreille, 
however,  whose  authority  is  great  on  a  point  of  this  nature, 
thinks  that  Reaumur  has  deceived  himself  with  regard  to 
such  an  aperture,  and  disbelieves  its  existence.  He  con- 
ceives that  the  food  simply  passes  on  by  the  sides  of  the 
tongue,  finding  its  way  from  thence  into  the  oesophagus 
and  so  on  to  the  stomach. 

The  bee  has  two  stomachs.  The  first  is  a  large  transparent  Stomub* 
membranous  bag,  pointed  in  front  and  swelling  out  into  two 
pouches  behind.  It  performs  an  office  in  some-  respects 
analogous  to  that  of  the  crop  in  birds ;  for  it  receives  and 
retains  for  a  time  the  fluid  of  the  nectaries,  which  does  not 
appear  to  differ  in  any  respect  from  honey.  Hunter 
observes  that  whatever  time  the  contents  of  this  reservoir 
may  be  retained  he  never  found  them  altered  so  as  to  give 
the  idea  of  digestion  having  taken  place.  The  coats  of  this 
reservoir  are  muscular,  by  which  means  it  is  capable  of 
throwing  up  the  honey  into  the  mouth,  so  that  it  is 
regurgitated  into  the  honey  cells  or  imparted  to  other  bees. 
None  of  it  ever  passes  out  from  the  extremity  of  the  trunk 
as  Swammerdam  had  believed.  For  the  purpose  of  diges- 
tion a  second  stomach  is  provided,  which  takes  its  origin 
from  the  p)iddle  of  the  two  posterior  lobes  of  the  former, 
and  is  of  a  lengthened  cylindrical  shape.  Its  communica- 
tion with  the  intestine  is  not  direct,  but  takes  place  by  a 
projecting  or  inverted  pylorus,  thickest  at  its  most  prominent 
part,  with  a  very  small  opening  in  the  centre,  of  a  peculior 
construction.  This  inward  projecting  part  is  easily  seen 
through  the  coats  of  the  reservoir,  especially  if  full  of  honey 
A  similar  kind  of  structure  takes  place  at  the  communica- 
tion of  the  first  with  the  second  stomach,  and  having  the 
properties  of  a  valve,  must  efl"ectual!y  prevent  all  regurgit* 
tion  from  the  latter  into  the  former. 

The  pollen,  or  fertilising  dust  of  flowers,  is  collected  by  Co!!..-ii.ir» 
tho  bees  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  the  young.  It  is  stored  of  poUin 
in  tho  cells  until  required,  and  then  partly  digested  by  the 
nurses  with  honey,  and  a  kind  of  chyle  formed  of  it. 
\Micn  natural  pollen  cannot  be  obtained  the  bees  will 
eagerly  take  farina,  either  of  rye,  chestnuts,  or  pease,  *3  a 
substitute,  which  appears  to  answer  the  same  jiurpose.  The 
bees,  by  means  of  the  pencil  of  hair  which  grows  on  the 
tarsi,  first  collect  a  certain  quantity  of  pollen,  and  thea 


486 


B  E  F 


knead  it  t<igethi:t  111..U  a  ball,  and  place  it  in  the  space 
situated  at  the  middle  joint  or  tibia  of  the  hinder  leg, 
which  has  beea  termed  the  basket.  This  portion  of  the 
leg  is  smooth  and  concave,  somewhat  hke  the  bowl  of  a 
spoon,  with  stout  hairs  of  moderate  length  rising  from  its 
left  edge  and  nearly  straight  Other  hairs  on  the  right 
side  are  much  longer  and  are  curved,  rising  up  with  a  high 
arch  and  crossing  more  than  half  the  width  of  the  hollow, 
making  a  large  basket  like  enclosure  for  a  load  of  pollen. 
In  ordur  to  gather  large  quantities  at  once,  the  bees  are 
Bumetimes  observed  to  roll  their  bodies  on  the  flower,  and 
then  bri;sbing  off  the  pollen  which  adheres  to  thera  with 
the  feet,  fonu  it  into  two  masses,  which  they  dispose  of  a.s 
beforo  mentioned  ;  and  it  is  said  that  in  moist  weather, 
when  the  particles  of  pollen  cannot  be  readily  made  to 
ailhere,  they  return  to  their  hive  dusted  all  over  with  pollen, 
which  they  then  brush  off  with  their  feet.  The  part  in 
Nature's  economy  thus  unconscioQsly  performed  by  the  bee 
in  cummon  mth  other  insects  is  moat  important.  By  this 
mean.s  the  pollen  is  carried  from  flower  to  flower,  or  from 
the  stamens  to  the  pistils,  and  plants  are  made  fertile  which 
■  without  such  aid  would  often  remain  barren. 

It  was, long  the  received  opinion  that  wax  was  but  a 
inoditicatioti  of  pollen,  which  required  for  this  conversion 
only  a  sUght  pressure  and  a  kind  of  kneading  by  the  feet 
of  the-  bees.  But  it  has  been  completely  proved,  by  the 
researches  of  Onchet,  Hunter,  and  Huber,  that  was  is 
a  secretion  from  the  abdomen  of  the  bee,  and  that  it 
depends  uot  at  all  on  the  pollen  which  the  insect  may  con- 
sume (indeed,  it  is  doubtful  if  it  consumes  any),  but  on  the 
quantity  of  huoey  or  other  .laccharine  substance  which  it 
receives  into  its  stomach.  The  first  light  thrown  on  this 
subject  was  lu  a  letter  of  Wilhelmi  to  Bonnet  in  17C8,  in 
which  he  says  that  war,  instead  of  being  ejected  by  the 
mouth,  enides  from  the  rings  which  enclose  the  posterior 
part  of  the  body.  Of  this  we  may  satisfy  ourselves  by 
drawing  out  the  bee  from  the  cell  ia  which  it  is  working 
with  wax,  by  means  of  the  point  of  a  fine  needle-;  and  we 
may  perceive,  in  proportion  as  the  body  is  elongated,  that 
the  wax  will  make  its  appearance  under  the  rings  in  the 
form  of  small  scales.  Duchet,  in  his  Culture  (U»  AbeilUs, 
gives  a  full  statement  of  the  principal  circumstances  attend- 
ing the  production  of  wax,  which  he  very  justly  ascribes  to 
the  Conversion  of  honey  into  this  substance  in  the  body  of 
the  bee.  These  facts  appear  to  have  been  entirely  over- 
looked till  the  subject  was  again  brought  forward  by 
Hunter,  in  his  paper  in  the  PhUusophical  Transactions  for 
1792.  Huber  was  engaged  in  prosecuting  his  inquiries 
on  this  subject  at  the  same  period  with  Hunter,  and 
discovered,  iu  17'J3,  the  existence  of  regular  receptacles  or 
pouches,  from  the  coats  of  which  the  wax  is  secreted,  and 
within  which  it  accumulates  till  its  edges  raise  the  scales, 
and  become  apparent  externally.  These  plates  of  wax  are 
withdrawn  by  the  bee  itself,  or  some  of  its  fellow-labourers, 
and  are  applied  in  a  manner  hereafter  to  bo  described. 

Huber  has  shown,  by  a  series  of  well-conducted  experi- 
ments, thijt,  in  a  natural  state,  the  quantity  of  wax  secreted 
is  in  proportion  to  the  consumption  of  honey,  but  that  an 
equal  .or  even  greater  quantity  will  be  formed  if  the  bee 
be  fed  on  a  solution  of  sugar  in  water.  Warmth  and  rest 
promote  this  process  of  secretion  ;  for  the  bees,  after  feeding 
plentifully  ou  saccharine  food,  hang  together  in  a  cluster 
without  moving,  for  several  hours,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  large  plates  of  wax  are  found  under  the  abdominal 
nngs.  This  happened  when  bees  were  confir.jd  and 
restricted  from  any  other  sort  of  nourishment,  whilst  those 
that  Were  fed  on  pollen  and  fruits  alone  did  not  produce 
any  wax.  In  the  second  volume  of  Huber'a  NouitlUi 
Obtervitlionj  tur  Us  Abcillc*,  ho  describes  minutely  the 
anatomy  of  the  pouches  or  receptacles  f^r  the  wax.  which 


are  parts  peculiar  to  the  working  bees,  being  totally  absent 
in  the  males  and  queens.  The  cavities  are  lined  with  a 
membrane,  which  presents  a  number  of  folds,  forming  an 
hexagonal  net- work,  not  unlike  the  appearance  in  the  second 
stomach  of  ruminant  quadrupeds,  and  evidently  destined 
to  perform  the  ofiice  of  secretion. 

Among  the  secretions  pecuUar  to  the  bee,  the.  poison  Poisos 
which  is  poured  into  the  wounds  made  by  the  sting  deserves 
to  be  noticed.  It  is  said  to  owe  its  mischievous  efficacy 
to  certain  pungent  salts.  If  a  bee  is  provoked  to  strike 
its  sting  against  a  plate  of  glass,  a  drop  of  poison  wiU  be 
discharged  ;  and  if  this  is  placed  under  a  microscope,  the 
salts  may  be  seen  to  concrete,  as  (he  liquor  dries,  into  clear 
oblong,  pointed  crj-.stals.  The  sting  consists  of  a  finely,  suog 
pointed  tubular  instrument,  open  along  the  whole  length 
of  its  upper  surface,  this  ppening:  fceitig  closed  by  two 
slender  horny  barbs  each  having  about  ten  serrations  on 
its  outer  edge.  These  barbs  are  not  projected  in  advance 
of  the  sting  as  usually  described,  neither  are  they  within 
the  sting,  but  complete  its  outer  tubular  surface,  down  the 
centre  of  which  the  poison  b  injected  from  a  little  bag  at 
the  root  of  the  sting.  The  serrations  prevent  the  worket' 
bee  from  withdrawing  its  sting  from  an  enemy ;  and,  con- 
sequently, it  is  torn  from  the  body,  witli  a  portion  of  the 
intestines,  causing  the  death  of  the  bee. 

Respiration  is  effected  by  means  totally  different  froa 
those  which  are  usual  in  the  higher  classes  of  the  Animai 
Kingdom.     As  the    blood,  or  fluid  corresponding  to  the 
blood,  cannot  be  presented  to  the  air  in  any  separate  organ, 
the  air  must  be  conducted  to  the  blood  wherever  such   ■» 
fluid  is  met  with.     For  this  purpose  trachea,  or  air-tubes, 
having  several  external  openings  or  spiracles,  are  made  to 
ramify  like   arteries,  and   are  distributed    in  an    infinite 
number  of  branches  to  every  part  of  the  body.     The  con- 
dition of  3  hive  of  bees  in  which  many  thousand  individuals, 
full  of  animation  and  actiWty,  are  crowded  together  in  a 
confined  space,  having  no  communication  with  the  external 
aJr  but  by  means  of  a  very  small  aperture  iu  the  lowest 
part,  which  aperture  is  frequently  obstructed  by  a  throng 
of  bees  passing  in  and  out  during  sultry  wtather,  would 
without  some  precautions  be  of  all  possible  conditions  the 
one  least  favourable  to  hfe.      Bees  cannot  exist  in  an  impure 
atmosphere  any  more  than  creatures  of  a  larger  growth. 
And  on  examining  the  air  of  a  populous  hive  it  is  found  Vfuiiin 
scarcely  to  differ  in  purity  from  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  ®'  ''" '' 
The  means  by  which  this  is  effected  observation  has  shown 
is   by    the  rapid  Wbration  of  the    bees'  wings,  a  certain 
number   being  told  off  to  imitate  the  action  of  flying,  for 
which  purpose  they  fasten  themselves  with  their  feet  to 
the    floor    of   the    hive,  so  that  the  whole  effect  of    that 
impulse  which,  were    they  at   liberty,   would  carry  them 
forwards  with  considerable  velocity  is  exerted  on  the  air, 
wflich  is  therefore  driven  backwards  in  a  powerful  current. 
Some  bees  occasionally  perform  these  ventilating  motions  on 
the  outside    of    the  hive,  near   the   entrance,  but  a  still 
greater  number  are  employed   in  this  oflico  within  doors. 
Sometimes  twenty  are  thus  occupied  at  once,  and  each  bee 
continues  its  motions  for  a  certain  time,  occasionally  for 
nearly  half  an  hour,  and  is  then  relieved  by  another,  which 
takes  its  place.     So  rapid  a  motion  of  the  wings  ia  thus 
produced    that  they  cannot  be   seen    except   at  the   two 
extremities  of  the  arc  of  vibration,  which  is  at  least  one  of 
90'.     This  is  the  occasion  of  that  humming  sound  which 
is  constantly  beard  from  the  interior  of  the  hive  when  the 
bees  are  in  a  state  of  activity.     The  immediate  cause  of 
these  actions  is  probably  some  imprcssiou  made  on  thoii 
organs  by  the  presence  of  vitiated  air,  for  a  bee  may  i"^ 
made  to  vcntibto  itself  by  placing  near  it  substances  which 
have  to  it  an  unpleasant  odour. 

The  connection  between  an  active  resppation  and  a  high 


13  E  E 


487 


fcopen-  temperature  is  remarkably  cxcm|ilificd  in  bees, ,  aiJioug 
an  of  til!  «[,ich,  in  consequence  of  their  collecting  togetber  in  large 
"^  ■  Dumbers,  tUe  heat  is   not  readily  dissipated,  and  admits 

alao  of  being  easily  ascertained  by  tlio  thermometer. 
Hunter  found  it  to  vary  from  73"  to  84°  Fahr.  ;  and  Hubor 
observed  it  on  some  occasions  to  rise  suddenly  from  about 
92"  to  above  104" 
SeojlUvo  The  physiology  of  the  external  senses  in  a  cla^s  of 
powers.'  animals  of  a  nature  so  remote  from  our  own  species  must 
necessarily  be  very  imperfectly  ujidcrslood  by  us.  The 
infinite  diversity  of  character  presented  by  the  different 
tribes  of  insects,  as  well  as  of  other  animals,  naturally  sug- 
gests the  idea  thai  external  objects  produce  on  their  sentient 
organs  impressions  widely  dilTercnt  from  those  which  they 
communicate  to  ourselvc.^  The  notions  we  form  of  their 
senses  must  not  only  bo  liable  to  great  inaccuracy,  but  may 
often  be  totally  inadequate  representations  of  the  truth. 
,  A  finer  organisation  and  more  subtile  perceptions  would 
alone  suffice  to  extend  the  sphere  of  their  ordinary  senses 
to  an  inconceivable  degree,  as  the  telescope  and  the  micro- 
scope Lave  with  us  extended  the  powers  of  vision.  But 
they  possess  in  all  probability  other  organs  appropriated  to 
unknown  kinds  of  impressions,  which  must  open  to  them 
ovcnues  to  knowledge  of  various  kinds  to  which  wo  must 
ever  remain  total  strangers.  Art  has  supplied  us  with 
rainy  elaborate  modes  of  bringing  within  our  cognizance 
some  of  the  properties  of  matter  which  nature  h.as  not 
immediately  furnished  us  with  the  means  of  detecting. 
But  who  will  compare  our  ihermometers,  spectroscopes,  or 
hygrometers,  however  elaborately  constructed,  with  those 
refined  instruments  with  which  the  lower  orders  of  animals, 
,  and  particularly  insects,  are  so  liberally  provided  1 

F«tntlons  fbe  antenni;,  which  are  so  universally  met  with  in  this 
•ft|j«  clas»  of  animals,  are  doubtless  organs  of  the  greatest 
wlenna  importance  in  conveying  impressions  from  without.  Their 
continual  motion,  the  constant  use  which  is  made  of  them 
in  examining  objects,  the  total  derangement  in  the  instincts 
of  thoee  insects  which  have  been  deprived  of  them,  point 
them  out  as  exquisite  organs  of  sense.  To  impressions  of 
touch  arising  from  the  immediate  contact  of  bodies  they 
are  highly  sensitive,  but  their  motions  evidently  show  that 
they  are  affected  by  '■bjects  at  some  distance.  They  are, 
no  doubt,  alive  to  all  the  tremulous  movement  of  the  sur- 
rounding air,  and  probably  communicate  perceptions  of 
Borne  of  its  other  qualities.  Composed  of  a  great  number 
of  a'ticulations,  they  are  exceedingly  flexible,  and  can 
readily  embrace  the  outline  of  any  body  that  the  bee  wishes 
to  examine,  however  small  its  diameter.  Newport,  in  a 
paper  publi.^lied  in  the  Transactions  of  Ike  Entomotogicnl 
Society,  says  he  is  convinced  from  experiments  that  the 
antennajare  auditory  organs  ;  and  that  however  varied  may 
be  their  structure,  they  are  appropriated  to  the  perception 
and  transmission  of  sound  The  majority  of  modern 
physiologists  and  entomologists  coincide  in  this  view,  and 
the  weight  of  authority  in  favour  of  it  is  certainly  very  great, 
comprising  as  it  docs  Suher,  Scarpa,  Schneider,  IJorkhauscn, 
Bo.isdorf,Caru3,S:raus  niirckheim,Oken,Burmeister,Kirby 
andSvx;nce,Lespi5,  and  Hicks.  Nevertheless, other  eminent 
entomologists,  as,  tor  instance,  Lyonct,  KQster,  Rolmeau- 
Desvoidy,  Vogt.  a-id  Erichson,  regard  these  organs  as  the 
scat  of  smell  Tlio  question  may  be  considered  as  yet 
ui.determinrd.  and  it  is  possible  thr't  they  arc  the  organs  of 
eomo  sense  of  which  we  know  nothing,  and  which  we  con- 
sequently cannot  describe.  It  is  by  these  instruments 
that  the  bee  is  enabled  to  execute  so  many  works  in  tiic 
interior  of  the  hive,  from  which  the  light  must  bo  totally 
excluded.  Aided  by  them  it  builds  its  combs,  pours  honey 
into  its  magazines,  feeds  the  larv.-p,  and  ministers  to  -every 
want  which  it  appears  to  discover  and  judge  of  solely  by 
the  sense  of  touch.     The  antcnn.-c  appear  also  to  >••'  'ha 


piiiicipal  means  employed  for  mutual  comraunicatioii  of 
impressions.  The  different  modes  of  contact  constitute  a 
kind  of  language  which  seems  to  be  susceptible  of  a  great 
variety  of  modifications,  capable  of  supplying  every  sort  of 
information  for  wlich  they  have  occasion. 

The  sense  residing  in  the  antennae  appears  to  be  on  many  Vision, 
occasions  supplementary  to  that  of  vision,  ^vhich  in  bees,  as 
in  other  insects,  is  loss  perfect  than  in  the  larger  animals. 
During  the  night,  tlicrefore,  they  are  chietly  guided  in 
their  movements  by  the  former  of  these  senses.  In  full 
daylight,  however,  they  apjicar  to  enjoy  the  sense  of  vision 
in  great  perfection.  A  bee  alights  unerringly  on  the  flowers 
in  search  of  nectar  or  pollen,  and  as  truly  at  its  own  hive's 
entrance  on  its  arrival  there.  When  returning  from  tho 
fields  to  its  hive  it  seems  to  ascertain  the  proper  direc- 
tion by  rising  with  a  circular  flight  into  the  air ;  it  then 
darts  forward  with  unfailing  precision,  passing  through  the 
air  in  a  straight  lino  with  extreme  rapidity,  and  never 
failing  to  alight  at  the  entrance  of  its  own  hive,  though 
whether  its  course  be  determined  by  vision  alone  we  are 
unable  to  say. 

Their  perceptions  of  heat  and  cold  are  extremely  delicate.  Percep- 
Tlie  influence  of  the  sun's  rays  excites  them  to  vigorous 'ions  of 
action.  Great  cold  will  reduce  them  to  a  state  of  torpor,  j«'"P«i"»' 
and  inferior  degrees  of  cold  are  unpleasant  to  them  ;  a 
temperature  of  40°  Fa-hr  will  so  benumb  a  bee  as  to  de- 
prive it  of  the  power  of  flight,  and  it  will  soon  perish 
unless  restored  to  a  warmer  atmosphere.  When,  however, 
bees  are  in  the  usual  winter's  cluster  in  the  hive,  they  will 
bear  a  very  great  degree  of  cold  without  injury.  In  America 
hives  often  stand  where  the  external  temperature  is  as 
low  as  20°  below  zero,  and  from  the  condensed  vapour 
within  the  hive,  the  bees  may  be  found  in  a  solid  lump  of 
ice,  and  yet,  with  returning  spring,  they  awake  to  life  and 
activity.  The  degree  of  cold  which  bees  can  endure  has 
not  been  ascertained,  though  it  is  no  doubt  considerable. 
They  survive  the  winter  in  many  cold  pans  of  Russia,  in 
hollow  trees,  without  any  attention  being  paid  to  them  ; 
and  their  hives  are  frequently  made  of  the  bark  of  trees, 
which  does  not  afford  a  very  complete  protection  from  the 
effects  of  frost.  Many  bees  which  are  thought  to  die  of 
cold  in  winter  die  in  reality  of  famine  or  damp.  A  rainy 
summer  and  cold  autumn  often  prevent  their  laying 
in  a  sulficient  store  of  provisions;  and  the  hives  should, 
therefore,  be  carefully  examined  in  the  after-part  of  the 
season,  and  the  amount  of  food  ascertained.  Mr  Whits 
judiciously  observes,  that  bees  which  stand  on  the  north 
side  of  a  building  whose  height  intercepts  the  sun's 
beams  all  the  winter  will  waste  less  of  their  provisions 
than  others  which  stand  m  the  sun  ,  for,  coming  forth 
seldom,  they  eat  little,  and  yet  are  as  forward  in  the 
spring  to  work  and  swarin  as  those  which  had  twice  as 
much  honey  left  with  them  the  preceding  autumn.  They 
show  by  their  conduct  that  they  are  sensible  of  changes 
in  the  slate  of  tho  weather  for  some  time  before  we  can 
perceive  such  alterations.  Sometimes  when  working  with 
great  assiduity  they  will  suddenly  desist  from  their  labours, 
none  will  stir  out  of  tho  hive,  while  all  the  workers  thai 
are  abroad  hurry  home  in  crowds,  and  press  forn-ard  so  a» 
to  obstruct  the  entrapcc'of  the  hive.  Often,  when  Ihcy 
are  thus  warned  of  tho  approach  of  bad  weather,  we  can 
disiinguish  no  alteration  in  the  state  of  the  atmosphere. 
Gathering  clouds  somelimes  produce  this  effect  on  I  hem  ; 
but  perhaps  they  possess  some  species  of  hygromctrical 
sense  unconnected  with  any  impression  of  vision.  Ilubcr 
supposes  that  it  is  the  rapid  diminution  of  li[.'hl  that 
alarms  them,  for  if  the  sky  be  uniforiiil)  overcast  they 
proceed  on  their  excursions,  and  even  the  first  drops  of  a 
shower  do  not  make  theiii  return  nilh  any  grcal  prccipi- 
inncv. 


488 


BEE 


Their  tasfe  is,  perhaps,  the  lu'osl  imperfect  of  their 
ssnses.  They  use  scarcely  any  discrimination  in  the  collec- 
tion of  honey  from  different  flowers.  They  are  not  repelled 
by  the  scent  or  flavour  of  such  as  are  extremely  offensive 
to  our  organs,  and  scruple  not  to  derive  supplies  from  such 
as  are  highly  poisonous,  lir  some  districts  in  America  it 
is  well  known  that  honey  acquires  in  this  way  very  dele- 
terious properties.  The  qualities  of.  honey  are  observed  to 
vary  much  according  to  the  particular  situation  from  which 
it  is  obtained.  In  their  selection  of  flowers  they  are 
•guided  by  the  quantity  of  honey  they  expect  to  meet  with, 
and  in  no  respect  by  its  quality.  That  gathered  from  ivy 
blossoms  in  England  is  sometimes  so  bitter  and  nauseous 
as  to  be  useless  for  our  eating,  although  the  bees  consume 
it  readily.  But  their  smell  must  be  sufficiently  acute  to 
enable  them  to  discover  honey  at  great  distances,  and  in 
concealed  situations  direct  experiment  has  indeed  proved 
this  to  be  the  case.  Huber  found  that  they  proceeded 
immediately  towards  boxes  which  contained  honey  con- 
cealed from  view  ;  and  such,  in  fact,  is  the  situation  of 
the  fluid  of  the  nectaries  in  flowers.  Some  odours,  and 
especially  all  kinds  of  smoke,  are  highly  obnoxious  to  them ; 
and  this  is  also  the  case  with  ammonia  and  other  volatile 
chemical  agents,  upon  receiving  the  impression  of  which 
they  immediately  set  about  ventilating  themselves  in  the 
usual  manner.  The  odour  of  the  poison  of  their  sting 
produces  similar  effects,  exciting  them  to  immediate  rage 
and  hostility.  It  has  been  observed  that  bees  recognize  the 
presence  of  a  stranger  in  their  hive  by  the  smell ;  and  in 
joining  two  stocks  into  one,  if  the  bees  are  united  without 
precautions,  a  battle  will  probably  ensue.  To  obviate 
this  bee-keepers  are  in  the  practice  of  strongly  scenting 
both  families  by  means  of  peppermint,  tobacco  smoke,  or 
other  strong-smelling  agent ;  this  overpowering  the  bees' 
natural  scent,  they  are  unable  to  distinguish  their  own 
party  from  the  intrudere,  and  peace  is  insured.  The  sense 
of  vision  does  not  appear  to  aid  them,  for  where  Ligurians 
are  added  to  common  black  bees  the  effect  is  the  same, 
although  in  colour  the  two  varieties  are  very  different.  In 
the  introduction  of  an  alien  queen  to  a  stock  it  is  also 
usual  to  imprison  the  new  sovereign  within  the  hive  which 
she  is  to  rule  until  she  has  acquired  the  peculiar  scent  of 
her  future  subjects,  who  will  then  make  no  objections  to 
her,  while  had  she  been  at  once  set  at  liberty  she  would 
probably  have  met  her  death. 

Although  it  is  clear  that  insects  possess  the  power  of 
emell,  yet  the  particular  organ  of  this  sense  has  never  been 
Bccuratoly  ascertained,  and  the  opinions  of  naturalists  have 
been  much  divided  on  the  subject.  These  opinions  have 
been  supported  more  by  arguments  drawn  from  the  analogy 
of  what  happens  in  other  classes  of  animals  than  by  direct 
experiment  on  insects  themselves.  We  know  that  in  all 
animals  respiring  by  means  of  lungs,  the  organs  of  smell 
are  placed  at  the  entrance  of  the  air-passages;  and  it  has 
often  been  concluded  that  in  like  manner  the  stigmata,  or 
the  orifices  of  the  air-tubes,  are  the  seat  of  this  sense  in 
insects.  Ruber's  opinion  was  that  in  the  bee  this  sense 
resides  in  the  mouth  itself,  or  in  its  immediate  vicinity. 
Here,  indeed,  would  be  its  proper  station  if  this  faculty  bo 
intended,  as  wo  may  reasonably  suppose  it  to  be,  to  apprise 
the  individual  of  the  qualities  of  the  food  prior  to  its  being 
eaten.  When  the  mouth  of  a  bee  was  plugged  up  with 
paste,  which  was  allowed  to  dry  before  the  insect  was 
Bet  at  liberty,  it  remained  quite  in.sensibl^e  tc  the  same 
odours  to  which  it  had  before  manifested  the  strongest 
repugnance. 

■  It  ia  generally  supposed  that  bees  possess  the  sense  of 
hearing.  The  common  practice  of  making  a  loud  noise  by 
c^rum-s  and  kettles  in  order  to  attract  a  swarm  is  founded 
on  this   supposition.     But  the  evidence  ia  by  no  means 


conclusive,  for  we  fir.d  that  they  are  not  disturbed  by  a 
loud  clap  of  thunder,  or  by  the  report  of  a  gun,  or  by 
any  other  noise  that  may  happen  to  arise  round  them.  Sir 
John  Lubbock,  who  has  made  a  great  many  observations 
in  this  direction,  says  that  he  could  never  find  them  tako 
notice  of  any  sound  he  made  even  when  it  was  close  to 
them.  He  tried  them  with  a  violin,  dog  whistle,  shrill 
pipe,  and  set  of  tuning  forks,  also  by  shouting,  ic,  close 
to, their  heads,  but  in  spite  of  his  utmost  efforts  the  bees 
took  no  notice,  not  even  by  a  twitch  of  the  antennae  show- 
ing they  heard.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  they  are 
capable  of  emitting  a  variety  of  sounds  which  appear 
expressive  of  anger,  fear,  satisfaction,  and  other  passions  ; 
and  it  would  seem  that  they  are  even  capable  of  communi- 
cating certain  emotions  to  one  another  in  this  manner, 
Huber  observed  _^that  the  young  queens  not  yet  Liberated 
from  their  cocoons  sent  forth  a  peculiar  piping  sound,  and 
this  is  answered  by  the  old  queen,  who  apparently  must 
hear  the  note  of  her  aspiring  rival. 

A  certain  cry  or  humming  noise  from  the  queen  will 
strike  with  sudden  consternation  all  the  bees  in  the  hive, 
and  they  remain  for  a  considerable  time  motionless  and 
Btupified.  Hunter  has  noticed  a  number  of  modulations 
of  sound  emitted  by  bees  under  different  circumstances, 
and  has  instituted  an  inquiry  concerning  the  means 
employed  by  them  in  producing  these  sounds ;  for  an 
account  of  this  see  his  paper  in  the  Philosophical  I'rans- 
actions. 

If  the  function  of  Sensation  in  insects  be  involved  in  doubt  rmtlon 
and  obscurity,  the  knowledge  of  those  more  interior 
faculties,  which  are  the  springs  of  voluntary  action,  is  hid 
in  still  deeper  mystery.  Bufl'on  refuses  to  allow  bees  any 
portion  of  intelligence,  and  contends  that  tlie  actions  W8 
behold,  however  admirably  they  are  directed  to  certain 
ends,  are  in  fact  merely  the  results  of  their  peculiar 
mechanism.  Other  philosophers,  .-uch  as  Reaumur  and 
Brougham  [Works,  vol.  vi.),  have  gone  into  the  opposite 
extreme,  and  have  considered  them  as  endued  with  extra- 
ordinary wisdom  and  foresight,  as  animated  by-  a  disin- 
terested patriotism,  and  as  uniting  a  variety  of  iporal  and 
intellectual  qualities  of   a  higher  order.     The   truth,  no  . 

doubt,  lies  between  these  overstrained  opinions ;  but  it  ia 
nevertheless  extremely  difficult  to  decide  in  what  degree 
these  respective  principles  operate  in  the  production  of  the 
effects  we  witness.  The  term  instinct  should  properly  be 
regarded,  not  as  denoting  a  particular  and  definite  principle 
of  action,  whose  operation  we  can  anticipate  in  any  new  or 
untried  combination  of  circumstances,  but  as  expressive  of 
our  inabihty  to  refer  the  phenomena  we  contemplate  to  any 
previously  known  principle.  Thus  the  actions  which  an 
animal  performs  in  obedience  to  the  calls  of  appetite  are 
not  properly  said  to  be  instinctive  ;  nor  can  the  term  be 
applied  to  actions  which  are  the  consequence  of  acquired 
knowledge,  and  of  which  the  object  is  with  certainty  fore- 
seen by  the  agent.  But  when  an  animal  acts  apparently 
under  a  blind  impulse,  and  produces  effects  useful  to  itself 
or  to  the  species,  which  cfi'ccts  it  could  not  have  previously 
contemplated  as  resulting  from  those  actions,  it  is  then 
customary  to  say  that  it  is  under  the  guidance  of  instinct, 
that  is,  of  some  unknown  principle  of  action.  It  will  be 
proper,  therefore,  to  keep  this  distinction  in  view  in  judging 
of  the  voluntary  actions  of  the  lower  animals. 

In  no  department  of  natural  history  is  it  more  necessary 
to  be  aware  of  the  proper  import  of  the  term  instinct,  than 
in  studjTng  the  phenomena  presented  by  the  bee  ;  for  no- 
whore  is  it  more  difficult  to  discriminate  between  Iho  regular 
openAtion  of  implanted  motives  and  the  result  of  acquired 
knowledge  and  habits.  The  most  striking  feature  of  their 
history,  and  the  one  which  apparently  lays  the  foundntiou 
for  those  extraordinary  quaUties  which  raise  them  abov< 


BEE 


^89 


the  level  of  other  insects,  is  the  disposition  to  social  union. 
It  may  in  general,  indeeJ,  be  remarked,  that  animals 
which  associate  together  so  as  to  form  large  communities, 
display  a  higher  degree  of  sagacity  than  those  which  Jead 
a  solitary  life  This  is  especially  observable  among  insects. 
The  spider  and  Formica  leonis  may  exhibit  particular 
talent^',  or  practise  particular  stratagems  m  the  pursuit  and 
capture  of  their  prey  ,  but  their  history  is  limited  to  a  single 
generation,  -.'.nd  embraces  none  of  those  interesting  relations 
which  eiist  between  individuals  composing  the  gregarious 
tribes,  such  as  the  ant,  the  wasp,  and-  the  bee.  Among 
these  we  trace  a  community  of  wants  and  desires,  and  a 
mutual  intelligence  and  sympathy,  which  lead  to  the  con- 
stant interchange  of  good  offices,  and  which,  by  introducing 
z  systematic  division  of  labour,  amidst  a  unity  of  design, 
leads  to  the  execution  of  public  works  on  a  scale  of  astonish- 
ing magnitude.  The  attachment  of  bees  to  their  hive, 
which  they  defend  with  a  courage  and  self-devotion  truly 
admirable,  their  jealousy  of  intruders,  their  ready  co- 
operation in  all  the  labours  required  for  the  welfare  of  the 
community,  their  tender  care  of  their  young,  the  aflfection 
and  homage  which  they  bestow  on  their  queen,  imply 
qualities  such  as  we  could  hardly  persuade  ourselves  could 
animate  a  mere  insect,  on  which  we  are  in  the  habit  of 
proudly  looking  down  as  placed  in  one  of  the  lowest  orders 
uf  created  beings 

We  shall  content  ourselves  at  present  with  these  general 
observations,  as  the  instances  which  serve  to  illustrate  their 
mor^J  and  intellectual  character  belong  properly  to  the 
history  of  the  different  processes  they  follow  in  the  con- 
(rtruction  of  their  combs,  the  hatching  and  rearing  of  their 
progeny,  and  the  mode  of  conducting  their  migrations. 
To  these  subjects,  therefore,  we  shall  now  proceed  ;  and 
in  order  to  present  the  most  connected  and  complete 
account  of  their  economy,  we  shall  begin  the  history  from 
the  period  when  a  new  swarm  has  just  occupied  a  hive, 
and  when  all  the  arrangements  for  their  habitation,  and 
the  construction  of  the  cells  in  which  their  eggs  and 
provisions  are  to  be  deposited,  are  yet  to  be  effected. 
/nptft.  The  first  care  of  the  worker  bees,  on  their  settlement  in 

j""  •*  ^^'  their  new  abode,  is  to  clean  it  out  thoroughly.     AVhile  one 
*■  set  of  bees  is  thus  employed,  another  is  distributed  about 

'he  country  in  order  to  procure  the  proper  materials  for 
blocking  up  the  small  holes  and  chinks  of  the  hive,  and  for 
laying  a  firm  foundation  for  the  edifice  which  is  to  be  con- 
Propolu.  strucled  ■within  it.  The  substance  which  is  principally 
employed  in  this  preliminary  stage  is  propolis,  a  species  of 
glutinous  resin,  of  an  agreeable  aromatic  odoUr,  and 
reddish-brown  colour,  in  process  of  time  becoming  darker, 
and  acquiring  a  firmer  consistence.  According  to  the 
analysis  of  Vauquelin  (Afi-m.  Soc.  Agricult.  Dcpartcm. 
Sirine),  it  is  composed  chiefly  of  resin,  with  a  small  propor- 
tion of  wax,  and  of  acid  and  aromatic  principles.  It  is 
•  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  oils,  both  fixed  and  volatile, 
and  tinges  the  solvent  of  a  beautiful  red  colour.  Cadet 
has  since  ascertained  in  it  the  presence  of  benzoic  and  gallic 
acids.  Reaumur  had  not  been  able  to  discover  from  what 
plants  the  bees  collect  this  substance.  Riem  asserts  that  it 
is  chiefly  from  pines  and  other  trees  of  the  fir  kind.  The 
observations  of  Huber  have  assisted  in  the  solution  of  this 
question.  On  placing  branches  of  the  wild  poplar  tree 
before  the  hive,  he  found  that  the  bees  eagerly  seized  upon 
the  varnish  which  ejudcs  from  the  buds  ;  and  examining 
the  chemical  [>riipertiesof  this  varnish,  he  identified  it  with 
the  propolis  with  which  the  inside  of  the  hive  is  bncd. 

The  propolis  adheres  so  strongly  to  the  legs  and  feet  of 
the  bee  which  has  collected  it,  that  it  cannot  be  detached 
without  the  assistance  of  its  fellow-labourers.  For  this 
purpose  the  bee  lh;it  is  loaded  [•resents  its  legs  to  the 
workers  in  the  Imc,  which  curry  off  with  their  jaws  this 


adhesive  substance,  and  immediately  apply  it,  while  yet 
ductile,  all  round  the  interior  of  the  hive,  and  particularly 
over  all  the  projecting  parts  ;  hence  its  name,  of  Greek 
derivation,  signifying  be/ore  tht  ctty.  In  like  manner  all 
the  foreign  bodies  that  are  introduced  into  the  common 
habitakion  and  are  too  heavy  for  removal  are  covered  over 
with  this  resinous  substance.  If  a  snail,  for  instance, 
should  happen  to  introduce  itself  into  <he  hive,  after 
despatching  it  with  their  stings,  they  encrist  it  over  with 
propolis. 

The  next  object  of  their  labours  is  the  construction  of  ( onetmo 
the  combs,  the  future  receptacles  for  the  eggs  with  which  t'on  of  ti 
the  queen  is  pregnant  and  which  are  row  to  be  laid.  The  '"nil's, 
material  employed  is  wax  ;  and  the  bees,  for  the  purpose  of 
secreting  this,  are  actively  employed  in  collecting  honey. 
When  they  have  filled  their  crops  with  honey  they  hang 
together  iu  a  thick  cluster  from  the  top  of  the  hive,  and 
thus  remain  in  a  state  of  inactivity  for  a  considerable 
period,  during  which  time  the  secretion  of  wax  is  proceed- 
ing. It  may  be  seen  collected  in  lamina-  under  the  abdo- 
minal .scales,  whence  it  is  removed  by  the  hind  legs  of  the 
bee,  transferred  to  the  fore  legs,  and  from  thence  taken  up 
by  the  jaws.  In  this  operation  they  are  often  assisted  by 
their  companions,  who  even  sometimes  directly  seize  upon 
the  wax  from  under  the  abdomen  of  those  who  are  before 
them.  When  a  sufficient  quantity  of  material  has  thus 
been  collected  together,  the  process  of  building  is  com- 
menced ;  but  in  order  to  understand  the  subsequent  opera- 
tions it  is  necessary  to  have  a  correct  idea  of  the  form  of 
the  cells  which  compose  the  combs  We  shall,  therefore, 
proceed  to  give  some  account  of  the  structure  when  it  has 
attained  its  perfect  state. 

The  combs  of  a  beehive  are  formed  in  parallel  vertical  Forrns  of 
strata,  each  of  which  is  about  an  inch  in  thickness,  the  "'*  ^omb* 
distance  between  the  surfaces  of  adjoining  strata  being 
about  half  an  inch,  a  space  which  allows  for  the  passage  of 
the  bees  over  both  surfaces.  The  combs  generally  extend 
the  whole  breadth  of  the  hive,  and  nearly  the  whole  length 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom.  They  consist  of  thin  partitions 
which  enclose  hexagonal  cells,  opening  on  both  surfaces  of 
the  comb  and  closed  by  a  partition  which  is  common  to  those 
on  both  sides,  and  occupies  the  middle  distance  between 
the  two  surfaces.  This  partition  is  not,  however,  a  plane, 
but  is  composed  of  a  collection  of  rhombs.  Three  and 
sometimes  four  of  these  rhombs  incline  to  one  another  at  a 
certain  angle  from  the  bottom  of  each  cell,  which  thus  has 
the  shape  of  a  flattened  pyramid,  of  which  the  base  is 
towards  the  mouth  of  the  cell.  The  geometric  form  of 
each  individual  cell  is  therefore  a  hexagonal  prism,  termi- 
nated by  a  trihedral  pyramid,  the  three  sides  of  which  are 
rhombs  which  meet  at  the  apex  by  their  obtuse  angles, 
and,  forming  oblique  angles  with  the  sides  of  the  prism, 
truncate  a  portion  of  these,  and  convert  them  from  rect- 
angles, which  they  would  be  in  a  rcgtilar  prism,  into 
trapeziums.  Of  the  two  angles  of  these  trapeziums 
adjoining  the  b.ase  of  the  pjTamid  one  must  be  acute  and 
the  other  obtuse,  the  acute  angle  of  one  trapezium  being 
next  to  the  acute  angle  of  the  adjoining  trapezium,  and  tiic 
obtuse  angle  being  in  like  manner  next  to  another  obtuse 
angle  of  the  preceding  trapezium  ;  so  that  in  going  round 
the  base  we  meet  with  pairs  of  acute  and  of  obtuse  angles 
alternately  succeeding  each  other.  The  two  adjoining 
acute  angles  of  the  trapezium  are  adjoining  to  two  of  ibo 
terminal  rhombs  which  here  present  their  acute  angles,  so 
that  at  these  points  a  solid  angle  of  four  planes  is  formed, 
all  the  angles  being  acute.  Each  pair  of  obtuse  angles  o' 
the  trapezia,  on  the  other  hand,  are  adjacent  to  the  obtuse 
angle  of  one  of  the  rhombs  only,  thus  composing  a  solid 
angle  of  three  planes  of  which  the  angles  are  all  obtuse; 
and  these  two  kinds  of  solid  angles  succeed  ore  anolbor 


490 


BEE 


alternclii/  all  roind  the  base  of  the  pyramid,  there  being 
three  of  each  kind  and  six  in  all.  The  asis  of  each  cell 
coincides  not  with  the  axis  of  the  cell  on  the  opposite 
surface,  but  with  one  of  ita  angles  ,  so  that  each  of  the 
three  obtuse  angles  at  the  base  of  the  terminal  pjramid  cor- 
responds to  the  central  parts  of  ihree  of  the  colls  on  the 
opposite  side,  and  each  of  the  sides)  of  the  pyranLd  which 
closes  a  cell  on  one  side  contributes  in  part  to  the  enclos- 
ing of  three  of  the  cells  on  the  opposite  side.  We  may 
easily  satisfy  ourselves  that  such  is  the  case  by  piercing 
the  centres  of  each  of  the  three  planes  which  close  the 
bottom  of  a  cell  with  a  pin,  when  on  turning  the  comb  the 
three  pins  will  be  found  to  have  passed  into  three  different 
celb  on  the  opposite  side 
Oeoraetrle  A  Structure  of  this  kind  is  obviously  the  oje  of  all 
ftoperties  others  calculated  to  afford  the  greatest  space  for  each  cell 
f  ihe  cella  ^jjjj  (.[jg  sjnje  quantity  of  materials.  It  is  easy  to  perceive, 
in  the  first  place,  that  in  a  plane  surflce,  when  a  nUmber  of 
email  spaces  are  to  be  divided  by  partitions,  the  hexagonal 
form  is  the  one  which  comprehends  the  largest  space  com- 
patible with  the  extent  of  the  lines'  which  enclose  them  ; 
for  the  equilateral  triangle,  the  square,  and  the  regular 
hexagon,  are  the  only  regular  forms  that  admit  of  being 
joined  together  in  the  same  plane  without  leaving  interstices ; 
and  the  proportion  of  the  area  to  the  periphery  in  every 
polygon  increases  as  the  figure  consists  of  a  greater  number 
of  sides,  and  is,  therefore,  greater  in  the  hexagon  than  in 
either  of  the  other  two.  The  truth  of  this  proposition  was 
perceived  by  Pappus  ,  and  even  its  application  to  the  subject 
of  the  honeycomb  was  made  by  that  ancient  geometrician. 
But  the  determination  of  the  formand  inclination  that  should 
bo  given  to  the  partitions  that  close  the  bottom  of  the  cells, 
and  which  may,  of  course,  belong  equally  to  those  on  both 
sides  of  the  comb,  is  a  problem  much  more  complicated  and 
difficult  of  solution.  It  has  exercised  the  skill  of  several 
modern  mathematicians  of  great  eminence.  Reaumur 
proposed  to  Kbnig,  pupil  of  the  celebrated  Bemouilli,  and 
an  expert  analyst,  the  solution  of  the  problem  • — To  find 
the  construction  of  a  hexagonal  prism  terminated  by  a 
pyramid  composed  of  three  equa'  and  similar  rhombs  (and 
the  whole  of  given  capacity),  si'ch  that  the  solid  may  be 
made  with  the  least  possible  quantity  of  materials; — which 
in  other  words  was  asking  him  to  determine  the  angles  of 
the  rhombs  that  should  cut  the  Hexagonal  prism  so  as  to 
form  with  it  the  figure  of  the  least  possible  surface,  since 
the  hexagon  being  given,  this  decided  both  their  dimensions 
and  their  intersections  with  the  sides  of  the  cell.  Maraldi 
had  previously  measured  the  angles  of  the  rhombus  and 
found  them  to  be  109'  28'  and  '0"  32'  respectively  ;  but 
Kbnig  was  not  aware  of  this  untj  after  he  had  solved  the 
problem,  and  assigned  109°  26'  and  7(f  34'  as  the  angles, 
whoQ  he  had  sent  hrm  the  Memoir)  of  the  Academy  of 
Scumce f(rr  1712,  containing  Maraldi'a  paper;  and  Kbnig 
was  equally  surprised  and  pleased  to  find  how  nearly  the 
actual  measurement  agreed  with  the  result  of  his  investiga- 
tion. The  measurement  of  Maraldi  is  correct,  and  the  bees 
have,  with  rigorous  accuracy,  s'.wd  the  problem,  for  the 
error  turns  out  to  bo  in  Konig  9  solution  The  construc- 
tion of  cells,  then,  is  demonstratca  to  bo  such  that  no  other 
ihaX  could  bo  conceived  would  take  so  little  material  and 
labour  to  afford  the  same  room. 

Eoscovich,  who  has  also  given  a  solution  of  the  same- 
problem,  supposes  that  the  equality  of  inclination  of  the 
planes  gives  greater  facility  to  the  construction  of  the  comb, 
and  might,  therefore,  be  a  motiv  •  of  preference,  indepcn- 
doDtly  of  the  greater  economy  ;  wax  Maclaurin  has 
offered  a  solution  of  this  problem,  and  has  demonstrated 
by  simple  geometry,  that  the  m  St  advantageous  form  is 
that  which  results  from  the  suppi  )cd  equality  of  the  three 
flaoe  angles  forming  the  solid  ingles  at  the  liaso.      lie 


estimates  the  saving  of  wax  by  partition  so  constructed, . 
above  what  would  be  required  for  a  flat  partitioUj  at  one- 
fourth  of  the  wax  which  would  be  wanted  Xtj  complete  the 
truncated  sides  of  the  cells,  so  as  to  form  them  into 
rectdngles.  L'Hudlier,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Berlin 
Academy,  has  given  a  demonstration  which  is  remarkable 
for  its  simplicity,  and  for  its  involving  none  but  elementary 
propositions  ;  he  values  the  economy  of  wax  at  ^\  cf  the 
whole  wax  employed.  Le  Sage,  as  appears  from  the  life 
of  that  philosopher  by  Profsssor  Prevost,  has  shown  that 
this  celebrated  problem  reduces  itself  to  the  finding  of  the 
angle  at  which  two  planes  with  a  given  inclination  (such  as 
120°)  can  be  cut  by  a  third  plane,  so  as  to  make  all  the 
angles  resulting  from  the  section  equal  to  one  another. 

But  a  more  essential  advantage  than  even  the  economy 
of  wax  results  from  this  stricture,  namely,  that  the  shole 
fabric  has  much  greater  strerigth  than  if  it  were  composed 
of  planes  at  right  angles  to  one  another  ;  and  when  we 
consider  the  weight  they  have  to  support  nhen  stored  with 
honey,  pollen,  and  the  young  brood,  besides  that  of  the 
bees  themselves,  it  is  evident  that  strength  is  a  material 
requisite  in  the  work. 

It  has  often  been  a  subject  of  wonder  hew  such 
dirainutive  insects  could  have  adopted  and  adheied  to  so 
regular  a  plan  of  architecture,  and  what  principles  can 
actuate  so  great  a  multitude  to  co-operate,  by  the  most 
effectual  and  systematic  mode,  in  its  completion.  Buffon  Buffon'i 
has  endeavoured  to  explain  the  hexagonal  form  by  the  theory  of 
uniform  pressure  of  a  great  number  of  bees  all  working  at  ""^  roim». 
the  same  time,  exerted  equally  in  all  directions  in  a  limited  ^^^^  ' 
space  ;  and  illus!  rates  hs  theory  by  supposing  a  number 
of  similar  cylinders  comjressid  together,  and  taking  the 
form  of  hexagonal  prisms  by  the  uniform  expansion  of  each. 
The  analogy  of  tl  e  forms  produced  by  the  law  of  crystal- 
lization,— of  the  figures  assumed  by  various  organs  in  the 
animal  and  veget;  ble  wjrld,  such  as  the  skin  of  the  bat, 
and  the  inner  coat  of  t'le  second  stomach  of  ruminant 
quadrupeds, — is  dso  ad'Juced  by  this  captivating  but 
superficial  writer  il  support  of  his  argument.  But  however 
plausible  this  thecry  may  at  first  sight  appear,  it  wiU  uot 
stand  the  test  of  a  .Ljrious  examination.  The  explana- 
tion he  has  attempfed  applies  no  further  than  to  Ihe 
inclination  of  the  sides  of  the  cells;  but  he  did  not  tike 
into  account,  perhaps  from  not  baring  studied  the  subject 
mathematically,  the  inclinations  and  forms  of  the  planes 
which  close  each  cell,  and  so  curiously  conspire  on  buth 
sides  to  serve  a  similar  office,  while  they  at  the  sathe  time 
accurately  fulfil  a  refit  ed  geometrical  condition.  But  it  ia 
sufficient  confutation  of  the  whole  theory  to  show,  that 
it  is  directly  at  varian  e  vrith  the  actual  process  employed 
by  the  insects  in  the  construction  of  their  combs. 

It  might  be  suppotxd  that  bees  had  becu  provided  by 
nature  with  instruments  for  building  of  a  form  somewhat 
analogous  to  the  angles  of  the  cells;  but  in  no  part,  either 
of  the  teeth,  antennx,  c  r  feet,  can  any  such  correspondence  * 
bo  traced.  Their  shape  in  no  respect  answers  to  that  of 
the  rhombs,  which  arc  constructed  by  their  means,  any 
more  than  the  chisel  of  the  sculptor  resembles  the  statue 
which  it  has  carved.  The  shape  of  the  head  is  indeed 
triangular,  but  its  three  angles  arc  acute,  and  are  different 
from  that  of  the  planes  of  the  cells.  The  form  of  the  plates 
of  wax,  as  they  are  moulded  in  tho  pojches  in  which  this 
substance  is  secreted,  is  an  irregular  jwntagon,  in  no  respect 
affording  a  model  for  any  of  tho  parts  which  compose  the 
honeycomb.  Ilunter,  obserring  that  the  tiicknoss  of  the 
partition  was  nearly  cq/al  to  that  of  th  .  scale  of  wax, 
thought  that  the  bees  apply  these  scales  immediately  to  the 
formatior  of  the  partition,  by  merely  cementing  them 
together.  Reaumur,  notwithstanding  the  use  of  glass  hives, 
had  not  been  able  to  discover  the  mystery  of  their  procca 


BEE 


401 


of  archit*."tlTe,  but  inferred,  from  what  he  eaw,  that  the 
wax  was  rejected  from  the  stoniach  in  the  form  •■>{  a  wLite 
frothy  liquor.  No  naturalist,  luJced,  i>rior  to  Huber,  had 
been  able  to  follow  thi^e  msec  J  in  their  labours,  on  account 
of  their  crowding  together  in  a  thick  nuss  while  they  are 
'building;  but  the  expedients  resorted  to  by  that  philosopher 
have  unfolded  the  whole  proccs:,  which  he  has  given  with 
great  detail  in  the  second  volume  of  his  Ol/servationa  siir  les 
Abeitles.  Huber  witnessed  the  whole  of  their  actions,  and 
«aw  that  each  bee  drew  out,  with  its  h  nd  feet,  one  of  the 
plates  of  wax  from  under  the  scale  w  lere  it  was  lodged, 
and  carrying  it  to  the  mouth  in  a  vertiial  position,  turned 
it  round,  so  that  every  part  of  its  edge  vas  made  to  pass  in 
succession  under  the  cutting  edge  of  th)  jaws;  it  was  thus 
soon  divided  into  very  small  frasments  while  at  the  same 
time  a  frothy  liquor  was  poured  upon  it  from  the  tongue, 
80  AS  to  form  it  into  a  perfectly  plastic  mas-i.  This  liquor 
gave  the  wax  a  whileiicas  and  opacity  which  it  did  not 
possess  originally,  and  rendered  it  at  the  same  tune 
tenacious  and  ductile.  A  quantity  of  wax  thus  prepared 
for  use  IS  accumulated,  and  applied  to  further  the  work  in 
the  manner  we  are  presently  to  describe. 

But,  in  considering  the  process  by  which  the  comb  is 
formed,  a  circumstance  should  be  pointed  out,  which  seems 
not  to  have  been  particularly  noticed  by  any  author  except 
Huber,  and  yet  it  is  one  of  essential  importance  in  studjang 
this  process  of  architecture,  namely,  that  the  cells  in  the 
outside  row  on  each  side  are  of  a  form  very  different  from 
those  of  the  subsequent  rows.  As  they  take  their  origin 
■from  a  plane  surface,  two  of  the  sides  necessary  to  complete 
the  hesagon  are  cut  off  by  this  plane,  so  that  the  general 
form  of  the  oritice  ia  pentagonal;  an'  the  bottom  of  the 
cells  on  one  side  is  composed  of  two  qual  rhombs  only, 
ftnd  on  the  other  side  of  two  trapezoid  1  planes,  with  one 
rhomb.  Such  a  modification  of  shape  was  necessary,  in 
nrder  to  jirepare  the  way  for  the  regi  brly-fonncd  cells 
which  were  to  follow. 

The  foundations  of  the  combs  are  laid  by  the  bees  raising 
n  solid  block  or  plate  of  wai  of  a  semicircular  form.  In 
this  they  scoop  out  a  small  vertical  channel,  of  the  size-o/ 
an  ordinary  cell.  The  sides  of  this  channel  are  then 
htrenglhcned  by  additions  of  wax.  On  the  opposite  side 
two  other  channels  are  formed,  ono  on  each  side  of  the 
(lane  opposite  to  the  former  channel.  The  extremities  of 
ih;se  channels,  which  at  first  present  a  curved  outline,  are 
then  fashioned  into  straight  walls,  forming  an  angle  at  each 
Tertcx.  The  bottom  of  each  cell  being  thus  sketched  out, 
the  design  is  completed  by  raising  walls  round  the  eidcs. 
Different  bees  generally  work  on  the  opposite  sides  at  the 
same  time,  and  appear  to  have  some  perception  of  the 
thickness  of  the  partitions,  and  of  the  situation  of  the 
orpoaite  walls,  in  which  they  are  perhaps  guided  by  slight 
promincnce-s,  occasioned  by  the  depressions  which  cor- 
respond to  them  on  the  other  side  ;  and  they  scrape  off  the 
wax  in  those  places  whore  its  thickness  is  greatest,  that 
is,  where  the  bees  on  the  other  side  had  accumulated  ma- 
terials. In  this  way,  then,  in  constructing  the  successive 
rows,  the  axis  of  each  cell  \vill  be  found  to  occupy  the  most 
retiring  parts  of  the  partition,  and  will  bo  opposite  to  the 
junction  of  three  of  the  opposite  cells 

Soon  after  the  bees  have  completed  the  found.ations,  and 
constructed  a  few  of  the  cells  of  the  central  comb,  they 
begin  two  others,  ond  on  each  side,  at  the  proper  distance, 
and  in  this  manner  continue  to  forn  others  in  succession,  in 
proportion  as  tho  former  are  advanced.  Ttcir  object  at 
first  seems  U>  be  to  extend  the  surface  of  the  work  so  as  '.o 
odmit  of  the  greatest  possible  number  of  workers  being 
employed  at  ono  and  the  same  lime.  In  this  way,  then, 
the  work  proceeds  from  all  points  at  once,  new  cells  being 
fccguD  before  tho  former  are  completed,  so  that  the  wh"!" 


comb,  while  it  is  in  progress  of  construction,  has  a  semi- 
lenticular  shape,  broader  at  the  top,  and  tapering  below 
and  towards  the  sides.  It  cxtenjs  downwards,  however, 
more  rapidly  than  in  any  other  direction,  and  its  surfaces 
dc  not  bieoiiic  parallel  to  each  other  till  the  last  stage  of 
the  building  proccs.s.  When  this  is  completed,  the  whole 
Is  further  strengthened  by  an  additional  coating  of  propolis 
round  the  margin  of  all  the  cells  ;  and  the  junctions  of 
every  plane,  both  of  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  the  cells,  are 
also  soldered  together  by  a  lining  of  the  same  substance. 
The  edges  of  the  combs  are  also  secured  lu  their  situations 
by  being  glued  to  the  side  of  the  hive  and  supported  by 
fresh  abutments  of  propolis.  Sometimes  "  mixture  of  wax 
and  propolis,  manufactured  by  the  bees  themselves,  is 
employed  as  the  cementing  material.  The  first  coating  of 
this  compound  substance  is  denominated  Commoms  by 
Pliny,  and  described  as  hanng  a  bitter  taste;  the  second", 
or  (*!e  Pissoceros  of  the  same  author,  is  stated  to  be  of  a 
thinner  consistence,  and  more  adhesive  than  the  former, 
v.diile  the  thu"d  substance,  or  Propolis,  is  completely  solid. 

The  cells  recently  constructed  are  white,  but  become* 
gradually  darker,  and,  when  very  ancient,  are  almost  black. 
It  is  therefore  easy  to  distinguish  in  a  hive  the  successive 
periods  of  formation  of  different  portions  of  the  combs. 
From  the  researches  of  Huber,  it  appears  that  these  varia 
tions  of  colour  are  not  owing  to  any  changes  in  the  wax 
itself,  but  to  additional  coatings  of  a  peculiar  varnish, 
consisting  of  propolis  and  a  colouring  matter.  The  latter 
differs  materially  from'  propolis,  being  wholly  insoluble  in 
alcohol.  It  loses  its  colour  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  or 
the  light  of  the  sun.  Its  origin  has  not  yet  been  discovered, 
nor  has  the  mode  in  which  it  is  ap[.Iied  been  clearly  made 
out,  although  Huber  presumes,  from  his  observation,  tnat 
the  bees  spread  it  by  means  of  their  mandibles,  since  he 
has  seen  them  rub  these  against  the  side.s  of  the  cells, 
and  noticed  that  they  acquired  a  jelluw  colour  from  the 
operation. 

Royal  cells  are  only  formed  when  it  is  necessary  that  Itoyil 
queens  should  be  reared,  either  from  their  being  required  "*!'» 
to  lead  off  swarms,  or  from  the  tact  of  the  colony  being 
queenless  through  accidental  circumstances. 

The  comb  of  the  hive  may  be  said  to  be  the  furniture  Cell 
and  storehouse  of  the  bees,  which  by  use  must  wear  out,  liiuog» 
but,  independently  of  this,  it  will  m  time  become  unfit  for 
use,  by  the  accumulation  of  cocoons,  which  are  never 
removed.  These  line  tire  whole  cell,  sides,  and  bottom. 
Hunter  counted  above  twenty  different  linings  lu  one  cell, 
and  found  tho  cell  about  one-quarter  or  one-third  filled  up. 

Lord  Brougham  made  some  intere.'iling  observations  on 
the  cells  of  bees  By  boiling  the  comb  in  alcohol  after  it 
had  been  bred  in,  he  succeeded  in  dissolving  the  wax. 
leaving  the  lining  only,  which  was  found  to  be  an  extremely 
thin  transparent  or  sutBi-transparent  film,  resenibling  gold- 
beaters'skm,  without  a  wrinkle.  The  linings  from  old  cells 
with  thick  walls  kept  the  shape  of  the  cells  most  distinctly. 
They  had  angles  and  planes  as  well  defined  as  those  of  wax 
in  the  new  comb,  but  they  did  not  consist  of  a  single  film 
like  the  cells  where  one  brood  only  had  been  raised. 
They  had  one  film  within  anothei,  and  could  be  separated, 
so  that  as  many  as  five  ot  six  ctiuld  be  extricated  from  the 
same  cell ,  each  of  these  had  the  hexagon  form,  and  the 
first  two,  and  sometimes  three,  had  the  rhorr.boidal  form 
of  the  base  also,  but  the  innermost  ones  had  the  rhom- 
buses less  and  less  distinctly  marked,  till  the  last  one  or 
two  of  all  had  spherical  instead  of  pyramidal  bases.  The 
film  adhered  so  closely  to  the  wax  as  to  defend  it  from 
tho  action  of  the  solvent 'and  even  from  that  of  heat, 
preventing  it  from  melting  for  a  considerable  time.  The 
film  fitted  the  wax  cells  so  completely  that  there  never  was 
foux''  *lie  least   wrinkle   or   laxity,   each    being   tensely 


t92 


BEE 


itretched  in  all  its  parts  without  any  interval  in  any  part. 
The  whole  of  each  cell  was  one  entire  piece  of  film  going  all 
round  the  prism  and  all  through  the  pyramid  without  any 
lireach,  section,  or  joining ;  neither  maceration  nor  even 
boiling  in  turpentine,  ether,  or  caustic  potash  had  any 
effect  on  the  61m. 

A  film  of  the  same  substance,  transparent  but  consider- 
ably thicker,  was  found  to  line  the  queen-cells,  assuming 
the  pear  or  flask-like  shape  of  the  wax,  and  a  very  remark- 
able fact  was  observed.  The  film  was  not  always  in  the 
inside ,  it  sometimes  lay  imbedded  in  the  wax,  at  least  a 
layer  of  wax  was  laid  over  it  of  sensible  thickness,  indeed 
considerably  thicker  than  some  plates  of  the  common  cell, 
and  sometimes  much  thicker.  As  a  queen-cell  is  never 
used  but  once,  never  more  than  a  single  film  can  be  found 
in  it.  How  this  lining  is  formed  has  never  been  satis- 
factorily determined,  but  it  must  be  in  one  of  two  ways, 
— either  by  the  larva  forming  a  cocoon  round  itself  and  of 
an  oblong  figure  inside,  sufficient  to  contain  it  when  it 
changes  its  position  from  a  coil  perpendicular  to  the  axis 
cf  the  cell  into  an  oblong  worm  placed  in  the  axis,  or  by 
the  larva  lining  the  walls  of  the  cell.  In  the  former  case 
the  cocoon,  originally  made  somewhat  of  the  shape  of  the 
larva,  must  afterwards  be  applied  by  it  or  by  the  chrysalis 
BO  as  to  line  and  adhere  to  the  walls ;  in  the  latter  case  the 
walls  are  lined  at  first  by  the  act  of  weaving  or  spinning. 
But  there  are  difficulties  attending  both  these  hypotheses 
and  the  inferences  to  which  they  lead — inferences  in  either 
case  as  extraordinary,  to  say  the  least,  as  anything  observed 
in  the  economy  of  the  bee.  If  the  cocoon  is  formed  loose 
and  round,  then,  when  the  transformation  takes  place,  the 
pupa  must  press  against  every  part  of  the  cell,  so  as 
to  apply  the  film  all  round  and  equally  in  every  part. 
The  extraordinary  part  is  the  perfect  adaptation  of  the 
cocoon  to  the  cell.  There  is  no  wrinkle  whatever.  It 
fits  exactly  in  overy  part,  both  the  planes  and  the  dihedral 
angles  and  the  trihedral  angles.  The  extreme  fineness  of 
the  texture  may  facilitate  its  fitting  so  many  different 
shapes.  But  how  is  the  size  sufficient  and  not  more  than 
suflScieat  in  any  one  place  ?  If  we  only  consider  what 
extreme  complexity  and  difficulty  there  would  be  in 
forming  a  cocoon — which  should  increase  at  every  hair's 
breadth,  and  increase  in  a  ratio  varying  at  different  points, 
and  should,  on  .-eaching  its  maximum  size,  continue  after- 
wards stationary  in  dimensions — we  shall  be  convinced 
how  insu[ierable  the  difficulties  of  the  workmanship  would 
be  to  any  artist  ever  so  expert  or  careful.  But  even  thi.s 
is  not  all,  for  as  the  web  is  ".o  be  afterwards  by  the  sup- 
position applied  to  the  circumscribed  walls,  the  extent  of 
the  curved  surface  of  the  cocoon  inscribed  must  be  less 
than  that  of  the  surface  which  it  is  afterwards  to  line  if 
that  curve  is  wholly  concave  to  the  axis,  in  other  words,  if 
it  have  no  points  of  contrary  flexure.  In  order,  therefore, 
that  it  may  be  exactly  equal  to  the  walls  which  it  is  to  fit 
exactly,  the  cocoon  must  be  of  a  form  wholly  different  from 
that  of  the  larva  that  made  it.  It  must  bo  convex  at  some 
points  and  concave  at  others  to  the  larva ;  it  must  be 
loose  and  baggy,  and  the  progress  of  its  bagging  or  biing 
loose  must  vary  at  every  point  in  order  that  when  applied 
to  the  walla  it  may  exactly  fit  thcin  at  every  part.  The 
performance  of  such  a  work  by  the  larva  appears  scarcely 
conceivubla.  Astonishing  as  the  known  and  ascertained 
works  of  the  perfect  insect  are,  this  would  surpass  them  in 
a  proportion  that  might  almost  be  called  infinite.  If  we 
adopt  the  second  inference,  we  get  rid  entirely  of  the 
former  difficulty  ,  for  the  operation  of  forming  the  film 
upon  the  walls  is  certainly  much  more  easy.  With  the 
utmost  nicety  and  precision,  there  is  never  a  break  to  be 
found,  and  there  is  no  part  thicker  than  the  rest,  so  that  but 
one  layer  is  applied  everywhere  ;  and  the  larva  knows  s"  og 


curately  where  it  has  begun  as  always  to  leave  off  on  coming 
round  to  that  point  without  ever  going  again  over  the  same 
ground  for  half  a  hair's  breadth.  The  material  is  also  very 
remarkable.  A  very  high  magnifying  power  shows  no 
threads  or  separate  pieces  of  any  kind  ;  in  the  great  bulk 
of  the  texture,  it  is  for  the  most  part  solid  and  perfectly 
transparent.  There  are  interspersed  irregularly  a  few  fibres 
but  it  should  seem  as  if  the  whole  was  a  mucilage  spread 
over  the  walls  rather  than  any  webs  of  woven  threads.  But 
though  the  difliculties  attending  the  other  theory  are  cot 
found  in  this,  it  has  difficulties  of  a  different  kind  and 
equallystartling.  The  first  that  strikes  us  immediately  is  the 
use  of  the  cocoon  formed  on  the  waxen  walls.  The  cell  was 
already  made,  and  of  the  required  form  and  dimensions, 
in  which  the  larva  could  be  lodged  and  grow  and  undergo 
its  transformations.  How  was  the  lining  it  with  the  film 
to  assist  the  process  1  If  the  cocoon  had  been  of  another 
form  and  wrapt  round  the  larva,  it  might  have  served  some 
such  purpose  of  covering  or  support ;  but  here  the  cocoon 
exactly  fits  the  cell  and  in  nowise  alters  its  form,  and  only 
by  an  exceedingly  small  portion  its  capacity.  And  how 
are  the  second  and  subsequent  cocoons  to  be  accounted 
for  1  The  cell  had  been  already  completely  lined  with  the 
film,  and  the  additional  lining  could  add  nothing  to  the 
advantage,  whatever  it  was,  which  the  first  lining  gave  the 
larva  and  chrysalis.  (See  Brougham's  Works,  vol.  vi.  pp. 
312-364.) 

Such  is  the  general  outline  of  the  architectural  labours  DifTerenB 
of  the  bee.  A  number  of  modifications  are,  however,  met  k'Tis  uf 
with,  adapting  them  to  various  purposes  and  to  new  cir-  '^""■ 
cumstances.  The  cells  are  required  to  be  of  difiirent  sizes 
for  the  nurture  of  different  sorts  of  larvie.  The  smallest, 
which  are  also  the  most  numerous,  are  appropriated  to  the 
larvae  of  the  working  bees ;  a  larger  sort  receive  those  cf 
the  males ;  and  a  small  number  of  very  large  cells  are 
destined  for  the  education  of  the  young  queens,  and  are 
therefore  called  royal  ceUs.  The  first  set  are  generally  five 
and  one-third  lines  in  depth,  and  two  and  a  half  in  diameter  ; 
the  second  are  from  seven  to  seven  and  a  half  lines  in 
depth,  and  three  and  three-fourths  in  diameter ;  while  the 
royal  cells  are  above  one  inch  deep,  one-third  of  an  inch 
wide,  and  their  walls  are  much  thicker  than  those  of  any 
other  cells.  Other  cells,  again,  are  set  apart  as  magazines 
of  honey  or  of  pollen  ;  they  are  made  deeper  than  the 
common  cells,  sometimes  as  deep  as  two  inches,  and  their 
axes  are  inclined  to  the  horizon,  so  that  their  mouths  are 
in  the  highest  part,  that  their  liquid  contents  may  be  nior^! 
easily  retained.  Wkcn  these  are  filled  they  are  closed  up 
by  the  bees  with  a  wall  of  wax,  and  opened  only  when 
necessity  requires. 

Tho  regularity  of  the  cells  is  often  disturbed  in  conse-  Cell*  of 
quence  of  the  admixture  of  rows  of  larger  cells  with  those  transilioF 
of  smaller  dimensions  ;  but  the  pyramidal  partitions  are 
adapted  by  successive  gradations  to  these  changes,  60 
that  in  many  rows  of  what  may  be  called  cells  of  transition, 
tho  bottom  presents  four  planes  instead  of  three,  two  being 
trp.peziums,  and  llie  other  two  irregular  hexagons.  These 
irregularities  are  met  with  chiefly  in  tho  combs  most 
distant  from  the  central  one.  When  an  abundant  supply  of 
honey  induces  the  bees  to  lay  up  a  large  quantity  in  store, 
they  build  up  for  this  purpo.se  tlie  walls  of  common  colls, 
80  as  to  give  them  a  greater  depth.  The  royal  cells  are 
often  raised  from  the  ruins  of  a  number  of  other  cells, 
which  are  destroyed  to  make  room  for  them  ;  they  aro 
usually  built  on  the  edge  of  some  of  the  shorter  combs,  and 
often  in  tho  very  centre  of  the  hive.  Sometimes  there  i» 
but  one  ,  at  other  times  as  many  aa  sixteen  have  been 
counted  in  the  same  hive.  They  are  formed  of  a  mi.xl"ro 
of  propolis  and  wax  ;  their  form  is  oblong,  resembling 
that  of  a  pear ;   their  position  is  always  vertical,  so  tb»» 


BEE 


493 


when  they  rise  from  the  midst  of  other  cclLs,  they  fire  placed 
against  the  ipouths  of  those  cells,  aud  project  beyond  the 
common  surface  of  the  comb.  They  arc  perfectly  smooth 
OQ  the  inner  surface,  while  their  outer  side  is  covered  with 
a  kind  of  hexagonal  fretwork,  as  if  iuteuded  for  the  founda- 
tion of  regular  cells 
loiprtgna-  The  impregnation  of  the  queenhee  was  formerly  in- 
Uon.  Tolved  in  iho  deepest  obscurity,  and  has  given  rise  to  a 

multitude  of  very  fanciful  opinions.  Some  have  denied 
that  any  intercourse  with  the  male  was  ne<:e3sary  for  the 
feciindation  of  tho  eggs.  Swammerdam  supposed  that  the 
mere  effluvia  proceeding  from  the  males  where  they  were 
collected  in  clusters  was  sutficiently  active  to  produce  this 
effect  by  penetrating  the  body  of  the  female.  Huber 
proved  by  decisive  experiment  that  no  such  consequence 
resulted  from  these  ellluvia.  Maraldi  imagined  that  the 
eggs  were  fecundated  by  the  drones  after  being  deposited 
io  the  cells  in  the  same  way  that  the  spawn  of  fishes  is 
rendered  prolific  by  the  milt.  Mr  Debraw  of  Cambridge 
gave  an  account,  in  a  paper  published  in  the  Pkiloso- 
p/iicat  Transactions,  of  a  milk-like  Quid  he  had  seen  in 
the  cells.  But  this  appearance  Huber  showed  to  be  a  mere 
optical  illusion  arising  from  the  reflection  of  light  at  the 
bottom  of  the  cells.  When  the  males  are  excluded  from 
the  hive  the  queen  is  as  fertile  and  the  eggs  as  prolific  as 
when  they  are  present.  Hattortf  supposed  that  the  queen 
is  capable  of  inipregnating  herself,  an  opinion  which  was 
supported  by  Schirach  and  Wilhelmi,  and.  was  even 
favourably  received  by  Bonnet,  as  it  in  some  measure 
accorded  with  his  discoveries  respeeting  the  aphis. 
Linnoeus  was  of  opinion  that  an  actual  union  between  the' 
sexes  took  place,  and  Reaumur  fancied  he  had  seen  this 
happen  within  the  hive.  There  is,  however,  great  reason 
to  think  he  was  mistaken.  It  has  since  been  clearly  proved 
that  copulation  takes  place  in  the  air  during  flight,  and  if 
the  queen  is  confined  to  the  hive  either  by  bad  weather, 
or  malformation  or  mutilation  of  her  wings,  although  she  may 
be  surrounded  by  drones,  she  never  becomes  impregnated ; 
and  if  she  does  not  find  a  mate  within  three  weeks  of  her 
birth,  the  power  of  sexual  intercourse  seems  to  become 
lost.  If  a  hive  containing  a  virgin  queen  be  attentively 
watched  on  fine  days  the  queen  will  be  observed  preparing 
(or  her  matrimonial  flight,  and  after  having  attentively 
surveyed  her  home  so  as  to  be  able  to  recogni/.e  it  again 
she  flies  to  a  considerable  height  in  the  air  ;  and  if  her  errand 
is  successful,  in  half  an  hour  she  returns  to  the  hive  with 
unequivocal  proofs  of  the  intercourse  that  has  taken  place, 
for  she  has  in  fact  robbed  the  drone  of  the  organs  concerned 
in  this  operation  ;  and  the  drone,  thus  mutilated,  is  left  to 
perish  on  the  ground.  From  its  being  necessary  that  the 
queen  should  fly  to  a  dista  .ce  in  order  to  be  impregnated, 
Huber  infers  the  necessity  of  a  great  number  of  drones 
being  attached  to  the  hive,  that  lijcro  may  be  a  suflicient 
chance  of  her  meeting  one  of  them  during  her  aerial  excur- 
sion. 
,  The  phenomenon  that  sometimes  occurred  in  a  bee  hive, 
.  of  tho  queen  laving  eggs  that  produced  males  only,  had  for 
ages  puzzled  philosophers  without  any  satisfactory  solution, 
and  it  was  reserved  for  Dzierzon  to  promulgate  a  new  and 
startling  theory  of  reproduction,  which,  in  the  words  of  its 
distinguishod  author,  is  said  to  have  "  explained  all  tho 
phenomena  of  the  bee-hive  as  perfectly  as  the  Copernican 
hypothesis  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens."  Dzierzon  first 
expressed  his  views  upon  the  reproduction  of  bees  in  the 
year  1845.  The  principal  points  of  this  theory  may  be 
shortly  expressed  thus  :— Uf.  That  the  queen  (female  bee), 
to  become  good  for  anything  (i.t..  to  breed  workers),  must 
be  fertilized  by  a  drone  (tho  male),  and  that  the  copulation 
takes  place  only  in  the  air  ;  that  drone  eggs  do  not  require 
fecuodation,  but  that  tho  co-operation  of  the  drone  is  abso- 


lutely necessary  when  worker  beca  arr  to  be  produced; 
that  in  copulation  the  ovaries  are  not  feeuudaled,  but  the 
seminal  receptacle  (or  speriiiatheca),  a  little  vesicle  or  sac 
opening  into  the  oviduct,  which  in  the  young  queen  is  filled 
with  a  limpid  fluid,  is  saturated  with  semen,  after  w  hich  it 
is  more  clearly  distinguishable  from  its  white  colour;  and  that 
the  supply  of  semen  received  during  copulation  is  sufficient 
for  her  whole  lifetime.  The  copulation  takes  place  once 
for  all,  and  (as  already  stated)  only  in  the  open  air ; 
therefore  no  queen  which  tas  been  lame  in  her  wings  from 
birth  can  ever  be  perfectly  fertile,  that  is,  capable  of  pro- 
ducing both  sexes,  as  copulation  never  lakes  place  in  the 
interior  of  the  hive.  2d,  All  eggs  which  come  to  maturity 
ill  the  ovaries  of  a  queen-bee  are  only  of  one  and  the  same 
kind,  and  when  they  aro  laid  without  coming  in  contact 
with  the  male  semen,  become  developed  into  male  bees. 
This  theory  of  Dzierzon's  has  since  been  amply  confirmed 
by  numberless  experiments,  although  what  jiower  the  queen 
possesses  (or  how  she  exercises  it)  of  determining  what 
eggs  shall  receive  fecundation  and  what  not,  is  yet  a 
mystery.  Certain  it  is  that  when  the  queen  lays  an  egg 
in  a  drone  cell,  a  drone  is  produced  ;  and  Von  Siebold, 
who  made  many  most  skilful  microscopical  examinations) 
of  eggs,  aflirms  that  among  fifty-two  eggs  taken  from 
worker  cells,  examined  by  hira  with  the  gicatosl  care  and 
conscientiousness,  thirty-four  furnished  a  positive  result, 
namely,  the  existence  of  seminai  filaments,  in  which 
movements  could  even  be  detected  in  three  eggs';  and 
among  twenty-seven  eggs  from  drone  cells,  examined 
with  the  same  care  and  by  the  same  method,  he  did  not 
find  one  seminal  filament  in  any  single  egg  either  exter- 
nally or  internally.  On  the  passage  of  the  eggs  from  the 
ovary  through  the  oviduct  they  pass  the  opening  of  the 
spermatheca,  from  which  some  eggs  receive  a  portion  of 
the  seminal  fluid, — these  produce  workers  ;  other  eggs  pass 
without  receiving  the  fluid, — these  produce  drones.  What 
it  is  that  governs  the  deposition  or  non-deposition  of  the 
seminal  fluid  on  the  egg  is  unknown.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  the  smaller  diameter  of  the  worker  cells  exerts 
somp  mechanical  pressure  on  the  queen's  organs,  which 
may  cause  the  seminal  fluid  to  be  extrudctl  as  the  egg 
passes,  while  the  drone  cells  being  larger  this  pressure  is 
not  by  them  exerted,  and  the  egg  passes  unfecundated.  If 
the  spermatheca  of  an  impregnated  queen  be  examined 
under  the  microscope  its.  contents  will  be  found  to  contain 
many  thousands  of  spermatozoa,  the  characteristic  move- 
ments of  which  are  very  visible.  The  contents  of  the 
spermatheca  of  a  virgin  or  drone-breeding  queen,  similarly 
examined,  will  be  found  a  limpid  fluid  only  without  a 
'trace  of  spermatozoa. 

The  fact  that  the  eggi  of  an  unimpregnafcd  queeu  will 
hatch  and  produce  drones  may  be  easily  verified,  and  b 
now  undisputed.  By  depriving  a  colony  of  its  queen  lite 
in  the  year,  a  young  queen  will  be  reared  ;  and  the  drones 
having  been  killed  long  before,  no  impregnation  can  take 
place,  yet  the  queen  will  infallibly  lay  eggs  which  hatch 
into  drones;  these  eggs  are  laid  indiscriminately  in  drone 
and  worker  cells,  tho  bees  bred  in  the  latter  being  stunted 
in  their  growth.  If  now  the  spcrmatliera  be  examined,  no 
spermatozoa  will  bo  found  present.  The  same  result  wi  1 
be  found  if,  in  the  summer,  the  virgin  queen  be  deprived 
of  her  wings  and  so  i!'nde  unable  to  fly. 

If  the  impregnation  of  the  queen  be  delayed  beyond,  as  n^nrilrd 
elsevhero   stated,    the   twenty-first   day  of  her   life,   she  imiT.-pn» 
becomes  Incapable  of  receiving  impregnation,  and  begins  '""' 
soon   after  to  lay  the  eggs  of   drones,  and  produces  no 
other   kind  of   eggs   during   her  life.     This  very  curious 
and    unexpected    fact    was    discovered    by   Uubcr;   and 
has  been  satisfactorily  established  by  his  verj'  numerous 
[  and  varied  rxpcrimenls.  although  its  cxolaoalion  is  rerhar* 


494 


BEE 


iletamor- 

}th03i9  of 

Iho  larvx. 


attended  with  insuperable  diilicultieS^.  -The  abdomen  of  a 
queen  that  i3  unimpregnated  is  much  more  slender  than 
"that  of  one  which  is  completely  fertile ;  but,  on  dissection, 
the  ovaries  are  found  expanded  and  full  of  ova. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  concerning  the  genera- 
tion of  bees,  is  the  existence  occasionally  of  prolific  workers, 
the  discovery  of  which  we  owe  to  Reims.  Although  it 
^as  doubted  by  Bonnet,  its  reality  has  been  fully  confirmed 
oy  the  researches  of  Huber  and  subsequent  observers,  and 
it  explains  what  was  before  inexplicable— the  production 
of  eggs  in  hives  absolutely  destitute  of  a  queen.  It  is 
also  remarkable  that  the  eggs  thus  produced  are  always 
those  of  drones,  but  this  is  ejiplained  by  the  fact  that  Iheso 
fertile  workers  have  not  received,  and,  in  fact,  are  unable  to 
receive,,  impregnation  from  the  drona  The  origin  of  these 
abnormal  egg-layers  is  accounted  for  from  their  having 
passed  the  larva  state  in  cells  contiguous  to  the  royal 
ones,  and  from  their  having  at  an  early  period  devoured 
some  portion  of  the  stimulating  jelly  which  was  destined 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  royal  brood,  their  ovaries  thus 
receiving  a  partial  development ;  ^r  when  a  colony  is 
deprived  of  its  queen  late  in  the  autumn,  and  an  attempt 
to  raise  a  queen  from  jome  unknown  cause  has  failed,  a 
larva  has  suiEciently  advanced  to  develop  into  a  fertile 
worker. 

As  soon  as  a  sufficient  number  of  cells  have  been  con- 
structed, the  queen  begins  to  deposit  her  eggs.     Unlike 
;.~'^it  insects  the  queen-bee  deposits  eggs   ten   or  eleven 
rr-'-'hs  in   the   year  in  temperate   climates,    although  it 
is  probable  this  is  not  the  case  when  the  winter  is  much 
more  severe  than   in   Britain.     Young  queens  ordinarily 
commence  ovipositing  thirty-six  hours  after  impregnation. 
What   power,  if  any,  the  queen   has  in  determining  the 
sex  of  her  eggs  is  unknown,  but,  as  already  noticed,  eggs 
that  will  produce  workers  or  queens  will  always  be  found 
laid  in  worker  cells,  and  those  that  will  produce  drones  wUl 
also  be  found  in  their  appropriate  cells.     A  queen  of  a  new 
swarm  wiU  rarely  produce  drones  the  first  year ;   instinct, 
seemingly,  teaching  her  they  will  not  be  required.     In  the 
early  spring,  if  a  clean  empty  piece  of  drone  comb  be  put 
into  the  centre  of  the  brood  nest,  the  queen  .will  usually  fill 
it  with  drone  eggs,  and  this  circumstance  is  taken  advantage 
of  by  scientific  apiarians  to  secure  a  supply  of  drones  for  the 
impregnation  of  early  hatched  queens.     When  the  eggs  are 
about  to  hatch,  the  bees  eagerly  seek  for  that  species  of 
nourishment  on  which  the  larvae  are  to  be  fed.     This  con- 
sists of  pollen  with  a  proportion  of  honey  and  water,  which 
is  partly  digested  in  the  stomach  of  the  bees,  and  made  to 
vary  in  its  quality  according  to  the  age  of  the  young.    The 
egg  of  a  bee  is  of  a  lengthened  oval  shape  with  a  slight 
curvature  and  of   a  bluish  white  colour.     It  is   hatched 
without  requiring  any  particular  attention  on  the  part  of 
tho  bees,  except  that  a  proper  temperature  bo  kept  up, 
in'  which  case  three  days  are  sufficient  for  the  exclusion 
of  the  larva.     This  has  the  appearance  of  a  small  white 
worm   without   feet,   which    remains   generally  coiled   up 
■  at  the  bottom  of  the  cell.     The  bees  feed  it  with  great 
assiduity  with  the  kind  of  chyle  above  described,  and  in 
every  respect  exhibit  towards  it  tho  greatest  care  and  atten- 
tion.    Ilunter  says  a  young  boe  might  easily  be  brought 
up  by  any  person   who    would   bo  attentive   to  feed   it. 
As  it  grows  up  it   ca.st3   its   cuticle   like   tho   larvffi   of 
other  insects.     In   the  course  of  five  or  six  days  it  has' 
ottaincd   its  full  size,  and  nearly  fills  tho  cell  in  which 
it  is  lodged.     It  now  ceases  to  eat,  and  the  bees  close  up 
its  cell  with  a  covering  of  wax,  or  rather  an  admixture  of 
war  and  projjolis,  which  they  possess  tho  art  of  amalgamat- 
ing.    During  tho  next  thirty-six  hours  tho  larva  is  engaged 
in  spinning  its  cocoon,  and  in  three  days  more  it  a.S3umes 
tho  pupa  state.     It  is  now  iwrfectly  while,  and  every  part 


of  the  future  bee  may  be  distinguished  through  its  trans- 
parent covering.  In  the  course  of  a  week  it  tears  asunder 
its  investing  membrane,  and  makes  its  way  through  the  outer 
wall  of  its  prison  in  its  perfect  form.  Reckoning  from  the 
time  that  tke  egg  is  laid,  it  is  only  on  tho  twenty-first  day 
of  its  existence  that  this  last  metamorphosis  is  completed. 
No  sooner  has  it  thus  emancipated  itself  than  its  guardians 
assemble  round  it,  caress  it  with  their  tongues,  and  supply 
it  plentifully  with  food.  They  clean  out  the  cell  which  it 
had  been  occupying,  leaving  untouched,  however,  the 
greater  part  of  the  web,  which  thus  serves  to  bind  together 
still  more  firmly  the  sides  of  the  comb.  The  colour  of  the 
bee  when  it  quits  the  cell  is  a  light  grey.  For  several 
days,  sometimes  a  week  or  two  after  birth,  the  worker  bees 
occupy  themselves  within  the  hive,  net  flying  abroad  during 
that  time,  their  principal  employment  then  being  that  of 
nurses ;  and  many  old  observers  thought  them  a  differenj 
class  altogether  from  tho  honey -gatherers  and  wax-makers. 
Tho  metamorphosis  of  the  male  bee  follows  the  same 
course,  but  requires  four  days  longer  for  its  .completion, 
occupying  twenty-five  days  from  the  time  of  the  egg  being 
laid  to  the  attainment  of  the  perfect  state. 

\Vhen  from  the  egg  or  young  larva  it  is  the  intention  of 
the  bees  to  raise  a  queen,  their  attention  is  more  incessantly 
bestowed  upon  it,  the  cell  being  enlarged  as  elsewhere 
described.  It  is  supplied  with  a  peculiar  kind  of  food, 
which  appears  to  be  more  stimulating  thao-that  of  ordinary 
bees.  It^as  not  the  same  mawkish  taste,  and  is  evidently 
acid.  It  is  furnished  to  the  royal  larva  in  greater 
quantities  than  can  be  consumed,  so  that  a  portion  always 
remains  behind  in  the  cell  after  the  transformation.  As  a 
proof  that  any  worker  egg  or  young  larva  not  more  than 
three  days  old  may  be  made  to  produce  a  queen,  the 
experimenter  has  only  to  supply  to  such  an-  one  a  portion  of 
royal  jelly,  and  the  nurses  will  enlarge  its  cell  and  continue 
so  to  feed  it,  when  in  due  time  a  queen  will  be  produced. 
The  growth  of  the  larva  and  the  development  of  all  its 
organs  are  very  much  accelerated  by  this  treatment,  so 
that  in  five  days  it  is  prepared  to  spin  its  web,  and  the 
bees  enclose  it  by  building  up  a  wall  at  the  mouth  of  its 
cell  The  web  is  completed  in  twenty-four  hours  ;  two 
days  and  a  half  are  spent  in  a  state  of  inaction,  and 
then  tho  larva  transforms  itself  into  a  pupa.  It  remains 
between  four  and  five  days  in  this  state,  and  thus^  on  the 
sixteenth  day  after  the  egg  has  been  laid,  the  perfect 
insect  is  produced.  When  this  change  is  about  to  take 
place,  the  bees  gnaw  away  part  of  the  wax  covenng  of  the 
cell  till  at  last  it  becomes  pellucid  from  its  extreme  thinness. 
This  not  only  must  facilitate  the  exit  of  the  bee,  but  m:»y 
possibly  be  useful  in  permitting  the  evaporation  of  the 
superabundant  fluids. 

But  tho  queen  bee,  although  perfectly  formed,  is  not 
always  at  liberty  to  como  out  of  her  prison,  for  if  the 
queen-inothcr  bo  still  in  tho  hive  waiting  a  favourable 
state  of  tho  weather  to  lead  forth  another  swarm,  the  bees 
do  not  suiler  the  young  queens  to  stir  out  ;  they  even 
strengthen  the  covering  of  the  cell  by  an  additional  coating 
of  wax,  perforating  it  with  a  small  hole  through  which  the 
prisoner  can  thrust  out  her  tongue  in  order  to  be  fed  by 
those  who  guard  her.  Tho  royal  prisoners  continually  utter 
a  kind  of  plaintive  cry,  called  by  bee-keepers  "  piping,"  and 
this  appears  to  bo  answered  by  tho  mother  queen.  The 
modulations  of  this  piping  are  said  to  vary.  The  motive 
of  this  proceeding  on  the  part  of  the  bees  who  guard  them 
is  to  bo  found  in  tho  implacable  hatred  which  the  old  queen 
boars  against  all  those  of  her  own  sex,  and  which  impels 
her  to  destroy  without  mercy  all  tho  young  queens  that 
como  within  her  reach.  Tho  workers  aro  on  this  account 
very  solicitous  to  prevent  her  even  approaching  the  royul 
cella  while  there  Ls  any  prospect  of  a  swarm  being  about 


First  occtt 
patioos 
of  the. 
workers. 


Metimof- 
phosia  of 
the  drone 


Me'-amor- 
phosis  of 
the  queech. 


RivuUhip 
of  the 
queens 


I 


BEE 


49.'> 


I  to  issue.     TLcy  establisU  themselves  as  a  guard  aroiinJ 

'  ;hc3e  cells  ,  and,  forgetling  tbeir  allegiance  on  this  occasion, 

actually  beat  her  otl  as  often  as  she  endeavours  to  come 
near  them.  If,  on  the  uther'band,  the  swarming  season  is 
over,  or  circumstances  jircvent  any  further  swarms  from 
being  sent  otT,  the  bees  do  not  iuterpose  any  obstacle  to  the 
fury  of  the  old  (lueen;  which  immediately  begins  the  wuik 
of  dLStruction,  transiixirig  wilh  her  sling  oue  after  the 
other  the  whole  of  the  royal  brood,  svhile  they  are  yet 
confined  in  their  cells.  It  is  observed  by  Uuber,  that  the 
royal  larva  construct  only  imperfect  cocoons,  open  behind, 
and  enveloping  only  the  head,  thorax,  and  first  ring  of  th'e 
ibdomen  ;  and  he  conceives  that  the  intention  of  Nature 
m  this  apparent  imperfection  is,  that  they  may  be  exposed 
to  the  mortal  sting  of  the  queen,  to  whom  they  may  be 
given  up  as  a  sacritice. 

When  the  old  queen  has  taken  her  departure  along  with 
the  first  swarm,  the  young  queens  are  liberated  in  succes- 
sion, at  intervals  of  a  few  days,  in  order  to  prevent  their 
attacking  and  destroying  one  another,  which  would  be  the 
infallible  consequence  ot  their  meeting.  This  eilerrninating 
warfare  is  prevented  by  the  vigilance  of  the  bees  which 
guard  them,  so  long  as  new  swarms  are  expected  to  go  off. 
When  a  young  queen  is  liberated,  she  is,  like  others 
of  her  se.x,  an.xious  to  get  rid  of  her  rivals,  and  even 
at  that  early  age  seeks  to  destroy  her  sisters,  which  are 
still  confined  in  the  other  royal  cells;  but  as  often  as  she 
approaches  them  she  is  bit,  pulled,  aud  chased  without 
ceremony  by  the  sentinels.  But  when  the  season  is  too 
far  advanced  for  swarming,  or  if  two  or  more  queens  should 
happen  to  emerge  at  the  same  moment,  they  mutually  seek 
each  other  and  fight  till  one  is  killed,  and  the  survivor. is 
immediately  received  as  the  sovereign  of  the  hive.  The 
bees,  far  from  seeking  to  prevent  these  battles,  appear  to 
excite  the  combatants  against  each  other,  surrounding  and 
bringing  them  back  to  the  charge  when  ihey  are  disposed 
to  recede  from  each  other,  and  when  cither  of  the  queens 
shows  a  disposition  to  approach  her  antagonist,  all  the  bees 
forming  the  cluster  instantly  give  way  to  allow  her  full 
liberty  for  the  attack.  The  first  use  which  the  conquering 
queen  makes  of  her  victory  is  to  secure  herself  against  fresh 
diingers  by  destroying  all  her  future  rivals  in  the  royal  cells , 
while  the  other  bees,  which  are  spectators  of  the  carnage, 
share  in  the  spoil,  greedily  devouring  any  food  which  may 
be  found  at  the  bottom  c'  the  cells,  and  even  sucking  the 
fluid  from  the  abdomen  of  the  pupsa  before  they  toss  out 
the  carcasses. 
3wirMng.  We  are  now  to  direct  our  attention  to  the  migrations  of 
bei:fl,  by  which  new  colonics  similar  to  that  which  had 
originally  peopled  the  parent  hive  are  founded.  The  final 
eauaes  of  this  phenomenon  are  suthciently  obvious,  but  it 
does  not  so  clearly  appear  to  what  circumstances  it  is 
immcdiiitely  owing.  The  increasing  population  of  a  hive 
probably  occasions  inconvenience  from  want  of  room  ;  the 
incieusc  of  heat  aud  the  greater  vitiation  of  the  air  become 
•tin  Uioro  serious  as  the  summer  advances.  The  spring 
is,  accordingly,  the  commencement  of  the  swarming  season. 
No  swarming,  indeed,  will  ever  take  place  while  the  weather 
is  colli,  or  until  the  hive  is  well  stocked  with  eggs.  The 
%«ecnbcc,  in  consequence  of  the  great  number  of  eggs  she 
Las  been  laying,  is  now  reduced  to  a  more  slender  shape, 
and  is  wtU  fitted  for  flight ;  her  aversion  for  the  royal 
brood,  w  hich  she  seems  to  foresee  will  in  a  short  time  become 
nb  c  to  dispute  the  throne  wilh  Lcr,  and  the  vain  attempts 
she  makes  to  destroy  them  in  the  cradle,  in  which  attempts 
she  is  invariably  repelled  by  the  bees  who  guard  them, 
produce  in  her  a  constant  restlessness  and  agitation  which, 
as  Hubcr  rcprcfcnts  it,  rises  to  n  degree  of  delirium.  This 
frenzy,  from  whatever  cavi.sc  it  may  originate,  is  communi 
catod  to  tlio  workers;  they  may  bo  seen  hurrying  to  and 


fro  in  the  combs  wilh  evident  marks  of  impatience.  Tuo 
heat  of  the  hive  is  increased  by  their  tumultuous  move- 
ments; it  Sometimes  rises  suddenly  on  these  occasions  from 
92'  to  above  101^  A  general  buzz  is  heard  throughout 
the  hive.  This  state  of  things  occurs  from  time  to  tmie 
for  some  days  before  the  swarm  is  actually  on  the  wing  ; 
and  the  interval  is  occupied  in  making  preparations  for  the 
approaching  expedition;  provisions  are  collected  in  greater 
q\iantity  by  the  workers.  Hunter  killed  several  of  those 
that  came  away,  and  found  their  crops  full,  while  thoso 
that  remained  in  the  hive  had  their  crops  not  nearly  so. 

On  the  day  on  which  the  swarm  quits  the  hive,  few  of  Depatlun 
the  workers  roam  to  any  distance,  but  several  are  seen  per-  of  tl>« 
forSaing  circles  in  the  air  round  the  hive.  The  noiso  is  On  '"*""■ 
a- sudden  hushed,  and  all  the  bees  enter  the  hive;  this 
silence  announces  their  immediate  departure.  A  few 
workers  appear  at  the  door,  turn  towards  the  hive,  ajid 
striking  with  their  wings,  give,  as  it  were,  the  signal  for 
flight.  All  those  which  are  to  accompany  the  expedition 
rush  towards  the  door,  and  issue  forth  with  wonderful 
rapidity,  rising  in  the  air  and  hovering  for  some  time,  as  if 
in  order  to  wait  for  the  assemblage  of  the  whole  troop  ;. 
then,  having  selected  a  rallying  point,  generally  on  so»ne- 
tree  or  bush,  some  alight,  being  joined  immediately  by 
others  until  the  whole  number  is  collected  in  one  mass  of 
bees.  It  does  not  always  happen  that  the  queen  is  the 
first  to  alight  or  is  with  the  cluster  at  all  ;  but  if  she  be- 
not  there  the  bees  soon  discover  it  and  disjierse  in  search 
of  her — if  they  fail  to  find  her  they  return  to  the  parent 
hive.  Thither  the  queen  sometimes,  from  weakness  or  other 
causes,  returns,  and  is  immediately  attended  by  the  rest. 
But  if  the  weather  be  fine,  the  expedition  is  only  deferred 
for  one  or  two  days,  and  they  again  take  their  departure. 
If  their  return  be  owing  to  the  loss  of  their  queen,  they 
remain  a  fortnight  or  longer  before  the  attempt  to  nii:;rato 
is  renewed,  and  then  the  swarm  is  much  larger  than  before, 
which  renders  it  probable  that  they  have  waited  for  the 
queen  that  was  to  gooff  with  the  next  swarm.  Sometimes, 
when  everything  indicates  an  approaching  emigration,  the 
passage  of  a  cloud  across  the  sun  will  su.spend  all  their 
operations,  and  the  previous  bustle  gives  place  to  a  state  of 
perfect  calm.  But,  if  the  day  be  not  fnr  advanced,  tho 
breaking  out  of  sunshine  will  renew  tiie  commotioji,  and 
determine  the  moment  of  actual  llight. 

The  swarm  having  rested  for  some  time  on  the  first 
landing-place,  and  collected  the  whole  of  ilj  numbers,  soars 
again  iu  the  air,  keeping  in  a  close  phalanx,  and  directing 
its  course  with  great  velocity  to  the  spot  which  their  guides 
had  selected, — giving  out,  at  the  same  time,  a  loud  and 
acute-toiicd  hum  by  the  action  of  their  wings. 

The  parent  hive,  thus  dc'^rted  by  its  queen  and  a  largo 
proportion  of  its  inhabitants,  is  bur.ily  occupied  in  repair 
ing  its  loss.  The  bees  which  remain  quietly  pursue  their 
kibours ;  the  young  brood,  soon  arriving  at  maturity,  Bucecssioii 
quickly  fill  up  every  deficiency  ;  and  young  queens,  being  of  swam* 
allowed  tlieir  liberty,  one  after  the  other,  conduct  in  their 
turns  new  swarms,  in  the  same  m.inner  as  the  first.  Tho 
second  swarm  is  not  sent  off  till  after  the  space  of  from 
five  to  ten  days  after  the  first.  The  following  swarms 
succeed  quicker  to  each  other,  but  consist  of  smaller  numbers 
than  the  earlier  ones.  If  it  happen  that  two  queens  aro 
found  in  a  swarm,  either  the  swaiin  divides  itself  into  two, 
and  have  separate  destinations,  or  a  single  combat  between 
the  queens  decides  on  which  of  them  the  empire  is  to 
devolve.  Sometimes,  indeed,  they  appear  not  to  pejceive 
each  other,  and  tho  parties  belonging  to  each  construct 
separate  combs  within  tho  s.amc  liive  ;  but  no  eooncr  do 
these  combs  come  in  contact,  and  thus  give  occas-ion  to  Ujo 
queens  meeting  each  other,  lh;>n  a  contest  begins  whiili 
terminates  only  liy  the  death  of  one  of  the  rival  quecr.i 


4yb 


BEE 


Successive  swarms  are  sent  off  as  long  as  the  increase  of 
population  permits ;  and  the  number  thus  produced  in  a 
season  depends  on  a  variety  of  circumstances,  such  as  the 
abundance  of  flowers,  the  warmth  of  the  climite,  and 
capacity  of  the  hive.  Bosc,  while  he  was  French  consul 
in  Carolina,  found  a  stock  of  bees  in  the  woods  which  had 
been  robbed  of  its  wax  and  honey  by  the  negroes ;  he  con- 
trived to  convey  the  bees  in  his  hat  to  a  hive  in  his  garden. 
He  obtained  from  this  hive  eleven  swarms  before  the  end  of 
autumn ;  and  these,  again,  gave  him  the  same  number  of 
secondary  swarms,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  year  he  had 
twenty-two  hives  stocked  from  the  one  he  had  thus  saved 
from  destruction.  In  Britain  a  hive  commonly  sends 
off  only  two  and  sometimes  three  swatms  in  the  course  of 
the  summer ;  and  prudent  apiarians  will  be  satisfied  with 
one  swarm  only,  returning  aU  subsequent  ones  to  the  parent 
hive,  which  would  otherwise  become  very  weak.  When 
bar-frame  hives  are  used,  the  issue  of  after-swarms  is  easily 
end  surely  prevented  by  destroying  all  queen-ceUs  but  one 
ftfter  the  issue  of  the  first  swarm. 
>fassacr8  Very  few  drones  accompany  the  new  colonies,  so  that 

of  the  almost  all  those  produced  in  the  spring  remain  in  the  hive, 

dronea.  gyj  ^jjgn  the  queens  are  impregnated,  and  no  new  swarms 
are  about  to  take  place,  the  workers,  who  had  till  then 
suffered  them  to  live  unmolested  in  the  hive,  are  on  a 
sudden  seized  with  a  deadly  fury  towards  them,  and  a 
scene  of  carnage  ensues.  This  usually  happens  in  June, 
July,  or  August.  They  chase  their  unhappy  victims  in 
every  quarter,  till  they  seek  a  refuge  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Jiive,  where  they  collect  in  crowds,  and  are  indiscriminately, 
and  without  a  single  e.tception,  massacred  by  the  working 
bees,  who,  with  implacable  fury,  bite,  maim,  and  throw 
them  out  of  the  hive.  So  great  is  their  antipathy  to  all 
the  race  of  drones,  that  they  destroy,  at  the  same  time,  the 
male  eggs  and  larvae,  and  tear  open  the  cocoons  of  their 
pups,  in  order  to  devote  them  to  one  common  destruction. 
This  sacrifice  of  the  males  is  not,  however,  the  effect  of  a 
biind  and  indiscriminating  instinct;  for  if  a  hive  be  deprived 
of  its  queen,  the  massacre  does  not  take  place,  while  the 
hottest  persecution  rages  in  all  the  surrounding  hives.  In 
this  case  the  males  are  allowed  to  survive  the  winter. 
Provision  '  Having  thus  got  rid  of  the  useless  m'ouths  which  con- 
fer the  sii.ned,  without  any  advantage  to  the  public,  a  large  portion 
winter.  qJ  jjjgjj.  provisions,  the  bees  spend  the  remainder  of  the 
summer  in  collecting  stores  of  honey  and  of  pollen  for  the 
ensuing  winter.  Their  gleanings  are  now  less  abundant 
than  in  the  spring,  and  require  more  labour  in  the  search 
end  collection.  But  at  this  season  the  leaves  of  many  kinds 
of  trees,  which  are  covered  in  the  morning  with  a  saccha- 
rine fluid  that  exudes  from  them,  furnish  them  with  a 
•pecies  of  nourishment,  which,  though  of  very  inferior 
quality  to  the  nectarial  fluid,  still  contributes  to  their 
eupport.  Fruit  is  also  attacked  by  bees,  after  the  cuticular 
covering  has  been  broken  through  by  birds  or  snails. 
They  also  find  nutriment  in  the  honeydew,  which  is  an 
excrementitious  fluid  deposited  on  the  leaves  of  plants  by 
certain  species  of  aphides.  Often,  however,  these  resources 
Mutual  (le-  fail,  and  'the  hive  is  threatened  with  famine.  On  these 
lireditioua.  occasions  the  distressed  bees  frequently  betake  themselves 
to  plunder  ;  and  if  a  weak  or  queenless  hive  can  be  dis- 
covered they  begin  a  furious  onset,  which  costs  great 
numbers  their  lives.  If  the  invaders  should  fail  in  their 
attempt  to  force  the  entrance  they  retreat,  and  are  not 
punued  by  those  whom  they  have  assailed  ;  but  if  they 
luccccd  in  making  good  the  assault,  the  war  continues  to 
rage  in  the  interior  of  the  hive  until  one  side  finds  itself 
beaten,  in  which  case,  should  the  conquerors  bo  the 
inva/lent,  the  invaded  will  generally  join  their  forces,  and 
help  their  late  enemies  to  carry  of  their  plunder,  and  at 
once  become  members  of  the  lately  hostile  hiva 


The  life  or  a  queen-bee  will  sometimes  exteud  l^o  three  Length 
or  four  years,  but  her  fertility  decreases  after  her  second  We. 
breeding  season.  When  absent  from  '  the  hive  on  her 
matrimonial  excursions  she  very  often  becomes  a  prey  to  a 
bird,  and  not  seldom  on  her  return  mistakes  her  hive, 
when  she  is  probably  killed  by  the  stranger  bees,  or  by  the 
queen  on  whose  territory  she  has  intruded.  Drones  seldom 
die  a  natural  death  ;  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  duration 
of  the  lives  of  individuals,  but  normally  they  are  hatched 
about  May  and  slaughtered  by  the  workers  in  June,  July,  or 
August ;  should  the  hive  be  queenless,  however,  the  workers 
do  not  harm  the  drones,  and  some  will  then  live  far  into 
the  \.inter  or  even  to  the  following  spring.  The  life  of  a 
worker  is  greatly  dependent  on  the  season  of  the  year  and 
the  amount  of  labour  performed.  The  modern  method  of 
introducing  a  fertile  Ligurian  queen  (Apis  liguslka)  into 
a  queenless  stock  of  the  common  black  bee  {Apis  mdlijka), 
in  order  to  obtain  pure  stocks  of  the  former  variety,  has 
plainly  demonstrated  the  short  life  of  the  worker  bee.  If  the 
Ligurian  queen  be  introduced  in  May,  when  bees  are  busyi 
aiid  work  abundant,  in  from  six  to  eight  weeks  thereafter 
scarcely  a  black  bee  will  be  found  in  the  hive,  although  at 
the  time  of  the  introduction  multitudes  of  young  larvae 
were  present,  which  probably  would  not  all  be  fully  deve- 
loped for  nearly  three  weeks ;  therefore,  in  the  season  of 
hardest  work,  the  inhabitants  of  the  hive  would  seldom 
attain  the  age  of  six  weeks.  But  if  the  experiment  of  the 
queen's  introduction  be  deferred  until  October,  then  not 
until  the  following  May  will  the  black  bees  have  become 
extinct.  And  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  if  a  hive  be  deprived 
of  its  queen  in  October  (and  none  other  supplied),  then 
the  workers,  having  no  labour  to  perform  either  in  replen- 
ishing stores  or  attending  on  the  larvse,  will  possibly  in 
May  be  found  still  living,  although  somewhat  reduced  in 
numbers.  Such  a  colony,  however,  generally  becomes  a 
victim  to  robbers  when  the  activity  of  spring  arrives,  for  h 
queenless  stock  rarely  makes  much  defence  of  its  storea 
In  fine  winter  days,  when  the  sun  shines  brightly,  numbers 
of  bees  are  tempted  abroad,  which  easily  become  benumbed 
by  cold,  fall  to  the  ground,  and  die.  Insectivorous  birds 
also  make  victims  of  great  numbers  at  such  times,  other 
insect  food  being  scarce  ;  so  that,  probably,  in  winter  and 
early  spring,  more  workers  die  from  accident  than  by 
natural  decay.  The  fecundity  of  the  queenbee  is,  however, 
adequate  not  only  to  repair  these  losses,  but  to  multiply 
the  population  in  a  very  high  progression.  Apis  li'jusiica 
has  the  reputation  of  being  more  prolific  than  A.  mcllijica ; 
and  a  young  and  vigorous  queen  will,  in  the  fine  weather 
of  a  warm  May  and  June,  deposit  as  many  as  2000  eggs 
per  day  for  several  weeks  in  succession,  and  this  fertility 
is  of  much  longer  continuance  in  America  and  other  warm 
climates  than  in  England.  In  England,  eggs  are  deposited 
and  young  reared  ten  or  eleven  months  in  the  year,  when 
the  colony  is  strong  in  numbers  and  well  supplied  with 
stores  ;  but  the  increase  in  the  cold  months  seldom  equals 
the  decrease  by  deaths. 

The  loss  of  the  queen  is  ao  event  which  has  the  most  Losj^of 
marked  influence  on  the  conduct  of  the  workers.  Although  q«^. 
the  queen  is  constantly  an  object  of  attention  and  of  affection 
to  the  whole  community,  they  arc  not  immediately  sensible 
of  her  absence  when  she  is  removed  from  the  hive.  The 
ordinary  labours  are  continued  without  interruption,  atid  it 
is  not  till  a  whole  hour  has  elapsed  that  symptoms  of 
uneasiness  are  manifested,  and  it  is  even  then  only  partially 
displayed.  The  inquietude  bcg\ns  in  one  part  of  the  hive, 
the  workers  become  restless,  abandon  the  young  which 
they  were  feeding,  run  to  and  fro,  and,  by  striking  each 
other  with  their  antcnn.T,  communicate  the  alarming 
intelligence  very  quickly  to  their  companions.  The  ferment 
eoon   extends  to   the  whole   community ;  the   bees  rush 


ItM 


BEL 


497 


precipitatoly  out  of  llic  hive,  and  seek  for  their  lost  queen 
ia  every  direclioo  This  slate  of  confusion  coutinues  for  a 
day  or  two,  after  which  tranquillity  is  again  established; 
they  return  to  their  labours;  and,  seleaiing  an  egg,  or  one  of 
the  larvae  that  is  not  more  than  three  days  old,  they  break 
down  two  of  the  contigiious  cells,  sacrificing  the  larvae  con- 
tained in  them,  and  proceed  to  build  up  one  royal  cell  from 
their  ruins.  They  then  supply  the  worm  with  the  food 
iiccessary  to  promote  its  quick  growth,  and  leaving 
■untouched  the  rhomboidal  bottom  they  raise  around  it  a 
cylindrical  enclosure  In  three  days  the  larva  has  grown 
to  such  a  size  as  to  require  an  extension  of  its  lodging,  and 
mast  inhabit  a  cell  nearly  of  a  pyramidal  figure,  and 
hanging  perpendicularly.  A  new  pjTaniidal  tube  is  there- 
fore constructed  with  the  wax  of  the  surrounding  cells, 
which  is  soldered  at  right  angles  to  the  first,  and  the  bees, 
working  downwards,  gradually  conti'act  its  diameter  from 
the  base,  which  is  very  wide,  to  the  point.  In  proportion 
as  the  worm  grows,  the  bees  labour  in  extending  the  cell, 
and  bring  food,  which  they  place  before  its  mouth  and 
round  its  body,  forming  a  kind  of  coiled  zone  around  it. 
The  worm,  which  can  move  only  in  a  spiral  direction,  turns 
incessantly  to  take  its  food  before  its  head;  it  insensibly 
descends,  and  at  length  arrives  at  the  orifice  of  the  cell. 
It  then  transforms  itself  into  a  pupa,  is  enclosed  with  a 
covering  of  wax,  as  before  described,  and,  in  the  space  of 
ten  to  sixteen  days  the  original  loss  is  thus  repaired  by  the 
birth  of  a  new  queen.  Schirach  found  thai,  if  a  number 
of  bees  be  confined  with  even  a  single  larva,  which  in  the 
natural  course  would  have  become  a  worker  bee,  they 
immediately  set  .ibout  giving  it  the  royal  education  above 
described,  and  thus  raise  it  to  the  dignity  of  queen. 

The  discovery  that  queens  may  be  reared  at  will  has 
been  confirmed  by  recent  experiment,  and  is  now  largely 
taken  advantage  of  by  apiarians  both  in  Europe  and 
America,  to  facilitate  the  making  of  artificial  swarms  and 
otherwise  increase  the  production  of  bees.  By  the  aid  of 
small  frame  hives  called  nucleus  boxes,  which  only  materi. 
ally  differ  from  the  larger  or  mother  hive  by  containing 
frames  less  in  number  and  in  size  (generally  three),  a  stock 
of  fertile  queens  is  kept  on  hand  ready  to  supply  any  colony 
requiring  a  sovereign,  or  to  exchange  an  old  queen  for  a 
young  one,  or  a  Ligurian  queen  for  an  ordinary  English 
one.  An  example  of  the  method  of  rearing  these  queens 
is  as  follows  : — A  full  comb  containing  young  worker  larvae 
and  eggs  is  taken,  with  all  its  attendant  bees,  and  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  nucleus  box,  flanked  on  both  sides  by 
other  combs  containing  honey.  Sufficient  young  bees,  which 
have  not  flown,  aro  now  added  to  cover  well  the  brood 
comb,  in  order  that  proper  heat  may  be  kept  up  to  mature 
the  brood.  As  soon  as  the  members  of  this  small  com- 
munity find  themselves  without  a  queen,  a  dreadful  uproar 
eniues  ;  and,  probably,  should  there  be  bees  among  them 
who  know  their  way  home,  they  will  desert,  but  enough 
will  usually  remain  to  carry  on  the  desired  work  ;  if  not, 
more  young  bees  must  be  added.  These  may  be  known 
by  their  fresher  and  gr(^'cr  appearance.  After  a  few  hours 
tho  commotion  will  subside,  and  the  bees  will  proceed  to 
the  construction  of  royal  cells,  and  take  proper  care  for 
tho  feeding  and  hatching  of  tho  larva;  selected  for  royal 
honours.  Generally  on  the  second  day,  tho  foundations 
of  royal  cells  are  perceptible,  tho  number  of  these  vary 
from  one  or  two  to  as  many  as  sixteen.  In  from  ten  to 
eiitecD  days,  according  to  tho  age  of  selected  eggs  or  larva;, 
tho  yonng  queens  will  arrive  at  maturity ;  and  as  the  first 
at  liberty  will  destroy  the  others  if  allowed,  the  apiarian 
in  good  time  cuts  out  the  sealed  royal  cells,  which  aro  dis- 
tributed by  grafting  on  other  combs  into  newly-formed 
nuclei,  or  into  such  hives  as  require  a  queen.  The  young 
<lueeQS,  00  iLeir  emergence  from  the  pupa  state,  are  now 


The  advan- 
tages of 
^iupeiuuin. 
erafy 
quecus. 


Queen 

C'jmbut. 


e-Ach  at  the  head  of  a  colony,  where  they  remain  until  they 
become  fertde  in  the  natural  way,  and  are  then  ready  fur 
such  purposes  as  they  are  required  for. 

In  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Germany  a  large  business  is  Impor(« 
done  in  Ligurian  queen-raising  for  export.  Great  numbers  of  queen*, 
those  queens  come  to  England  and  America  in  little  wooden 
boxes,  accompanied  by  sufficient  workers  to  develop  enough 
heat.  The  price  in  Italy  varies,  according  to  the  season, 
from  five  francs  in  October  to  twelve  francs  in  March  ; 
but  few  !ire  raised  until  May,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
their  obtaining  impregnation.  To  overcome  this  difficulty 
in  the  autumn  some  colonies  are  purposely  kept  queenless, 
whose  drones  remain  in  existence.  The  advantage  of 
having  fertile  queens  at  the  bee-master's  disposal  is  very 
great.  WTien  a  swarm  issues  the  young  queen  is  not 
usually  mature,  and  has  to  become  impregnated.  Should 
unfavourable  weather  ensue,  a  still  further  delay  occurs ; 
and  the  virgin  queen,  on  her  excursion,  is  liable  to  be  lost 
or  killed.  Should  no  such  accident  occur,  it  may  still  be 
two  or  three  weeks  before  ovipositing  again  commences, 
and  this  in  the  very  height  of  the  breeding  season  ;  while 
if  the  skilful  bee-master,  first  taking  the  precaution  to 
destroy  any  existing  queen  cells,  can  immediately,  on  the 
issue  of  the  swann,  introduce  the  queen  and  her  retinue 
from  a  nucleus  hive,  no  time  is  lost,  and  probably  20,000 
to  40,000  eggs  will  be  deposited  in  the  time  that  would 
otherwise  have  been  lost.  By  this  system  of  nucleus 
queen-rearing,  it  may  be  fairly  calculated  that  the  increase 
of  population  may  be  doubled.  While  the  hive  remains 
without  a  queen  swarming  can  never  take  place,  be  the 
hive  ever  so  crowded. 

Huber  has  made  the  singular  observation  that  two  queens, 
however  inveterate  may  be  their  mutual  hostility,  neve.^ 
actually  destroy  each  other,  and  that  when  in  the  course  of 
their  contest  they  are  placed  in  such  a  relative  position 
th.it  each  has  it  in  her  power  to  strike  a  mortal  blow  on  the 
other  with  its  sting,  they  suddenly  separate,  and  part  with 
every  appearance  of  being  panic-struck.  The  final  cause 
of  the  instinct  that  prompts  this  conduct  is  sufficiently 
obvious,  as,  without  it,  the  hive  would  be  altogether 
deprived  of  a  queen. 

Bees  recognise  the  person  of  their  own  queen.  If  a  Alien 
str.inger'^enter  the  hive,  they  seize  and  surround  her  until  queem 
a  ball  of  bees  is  forned  one  or  two  inches  in  diameter ;  in 
which  imprisonment  the  unfortunate  monarch  is  kept  until 
death  puts  an  end  to  her  misery,  for  it  is  very  remarkable 
the  bees  seldom  sting  a  queen.  -A  hive  that  has  lost  its 
queen  may,  however,  by  certain  precautious  be  induced  to 
accept  a  substitute.  The  most  common  way  of  attaining 
success  in  this  operation  is  to  imprison  the  stranger  queen 
in  a  small  cage  of  wire  gauze  or  perforated  zinc  ;  this 
being  suspended  between  two  central  combs  or  fixed  upop. 
one,  the  bees  become  accustomed  to  the  odour  and  appear- 
ance of  their  new  sovereign,  and  after  the  lapse  of  one  or 
two  days  will  readily  accept  her.  If  a  supernumerary  queen 
be  introduced  into  the  liivc,  she  is  laid  hold  of  by  the 
bees  and  presented  to  the  reigning  queen,  while  a  ring  is 
formed  by  the  bees,  who  continue  to  be  spectators,  and 
even  promoters  of  the  combat,  in  which  one  or  other  of 
the  queens  is  destined  to  perish.  Schirach  and  Reims  had 
imagined  that,  in  these  circumstances,  the  stranger  met 
her  death  from  the  hands  of -the  working  bees,  but  this 
mistake  has  been  corrected  by  Huber,  who  gives  the 
account  above  stated. 

We  have  next  to  relate  the  results  of  cyperiments  of  a 
more  cruel  kind,  which  illustrate  several  points  in  the 
physiology  of  these  insects.  The  amputation  of  the  four, 
wings  of  the  queen  did  not  interfere  with  her  laying  eggs, 
and  the  workers  did  not  show  her  the  less  attention  i^n 
account  of  her  being  thus   mutilated.     Of  course,  if  I'n 


4<,I8 


BEE 


operation  be  performed  before  she  is  impregnated,  she 
remains  barren,  since  it  is  necessary  for  the  sexual  congress 
that  she  should  fly  out  of  the  hive.  The  amputation  of  a 
single  antenna  appeared  to  be  productive  of  no  bad  conse- 
quence of  any  kind  ;  but  the  removal  of  both  the  antenuse 
was  followed  by  singular  effects  The  queen  which  had 
suffered  this  operation  ran  about  in  apparent  confusion, 
dropping  her  eggs  at  random,  and  was  incapable  of  directing 
her  tongue  with  precision  to  the  food  that  was  offered  her. 
At  times  she  appeared  desirous  of  esc.iping  from  the  hive  ; 
and  when  this  was  prevented,  she  returned  in  a  state  of 
delirium,  was  indifferent  to  the  caresses  of  the  workers,  and 
eceived  another  similarly  mutilated  queen  that  was  pre- 
sented to  her  without  the  least  symptom  of  disUke.  The 
vorkers,  on  the  other  hand,  received  the  stranger  queen 
.fith  great  respect,  although  the  first  still  remained  in  the 
hive.  Athirdqueen.notmutilated,  was  next  introduced;  she 
was  very  ill  received  and  immediately  detained  and  kept  a 
close  prisoner,  being  evidently  regarded  as  an  intruder. 
When  the  queen  deprived  of  her  antennae  was  allowed  to 
quit  the  hive,  she  was  followed  by  none  of  the  workers, 
and  was  abandoned  to  her  fate. 
Bnemiso  o'  The  wasp  and  the  hornet  have  long  been  known  as  the 
^"-^  determined  enemies  of  the  bee,  committing  great  ravages 

among  these  weaker  insects  ;  they  attack  them  individually, 
but  oftener  commit  their  aggressions  in  large  armies,  on 
which  occasions  numbers  perish  on  both  sides.  In  some 
parts  of  America  wasps  have  multiplied  to  so  great  a 
degree  as  to  render  it  impossible  to  rear  bees.  Among 
quadrupeds  the  ant-eater  occasionally  devours  them.  The 
bear  and  the  badger  overturn  the  hives,  and  plunder  their 
contents.  Rats  and  mice  are  very  formidable  enemies,  as 
they  attack  the  bees  at  all  seasons,  and  especially  during 
the  torpid  state  of  the  insects,  when  they  are  incapable  of 
revenging  the  aggression.  The  woodpecker  may  succeed 
in  breaking  through  the  hive,  and  then  speedily  destroys 
all  its  inhabitants ;  the  swallow,  the  sparrow,  the  tit- 
mouse, the  cuckoo,  the  Merops  apiastcr,  or  bee-eater,  and 
poultry  of  every  kind,  prey  upon  them  separately.  A'Ccord- 
ing  to  Bosc,  they  are  also  food  for  the  shrikes  and  for  the 
Falco  apivorus.  Lizards  watch  for  them,  and  seize  them 
as  they  alight  near  the  hive.  Toads  occasionally  devour 
them.  They  are  in  some  danger  from  the  larger  kinds  of 
ipiders,  and  of  Lihdlulos,  as  also  from  the  Phitanihvs 
apivorus  of  Fabricius.  But  the  most  insidious  and  dc- 
itructive  enemies  of  these  insects  are  moths,  two  species  of 
which,  Galltria  mdloncila  and  Achroia  grisdla,  insinuate 
themselves  into  the  hive,  and  deposit  their  eggs  on  the 
combs  in  such  numbers,  that  the  hive  is  soon  overrun 
vith  the  larvae,  the  combs  destroyed,  and  the  bees  event- 
ually forced  to  vacate  the  hive.  In  America  and  in  Italy 
these  moths  are  much  more  troublesome  than  in  England. 
On  the  Continent  of  Europe  bees  are  also  troubled  with 
a  parasite  called  the  bee  louse  (Braula  caeca),  some- 
times us  many  as  50  or  100  being  found  on  a  single  bee, 
and  as  they  live  by  suction  they  are  great  pests.  This 
insect  is  not  frequently  found  in  England  except  accom- 
panying imported  Ligurian  bees. 
Oiscnsesof  Bees  ar3  subject  to  few  diseases,  but  these  few  are  some- 
**''*  times  veiy  fatal    Dysentery  occasionallycommits  great  havoc 

in  a  hive,  and  is  usually  caused  by  the  neglect  of  sanitary 
meaauicM,  by  close  confinerncnt,  want  of  ventilation,  and 
damp  Dysentery  is  in(lic;iteil  by  the  appearance  of  Ihoexcre- 
uieiit  within  llic  hive,  which  the  bees  in  a  healthy  state  are 
particularly  careful  to  exclude.  It  is  often  induced  by  the 
bce.t  being  forced  into  undue  excitement  in  cold,  ungcnial 
weather.  The  disease  known  generally  by  the  name  of  "  foul 
brijod"  is  the  most  fatal  of  all ;  it  is  highly  contagious, — the 
infiction  frotn  it<  presence  remaining  in  the  hives,  combs, 
and  honey  long  after  the  bees  are  exterminated.     Dysentery 


is  a  disea.-e  of  the  perfect  insects-  only.  Foul  brood  is  coft- 
fined  to  the  laryi',  which,  having  grown  to  near  maturity, 
die  and  putrefy  after  being  sealed  over  by  the  bees.  Th 
workers  seem  totally  unable  to  remove  the  foul  mass  which 
thus  remains  to  spread  infection  all  around.  The  seed  of 
the  disease  is  believed  to  lie  in  the  presence  of  the  sportt 
of  a  microscopical  fungus  (ificrococcus),  and  long  scientific 
discussions  and  experiments  have  been  made  on  the  Con- 
tinent to  demonstrate  this,  particularly  .by  Drs  Prcusz  and 
Schbnfeld.  The  devastation  caused  in  apiaries  by  this 
disease  is  sometimes  fearfuL  Dzierzon  relates  that,  in 
1  SIS,  he  had  nearly  the  whole  of  his  colonies  destroyed  by 
it,  more  than  500  being  destroyed,  and  only  10  escaping. 
Quinby  also,  in  America,  has  lost  as  many  as  100  stocks  in 
a  single  year  by  this  pestilence.  And  when  once  fully 
developed  a  total  destruction  of  all  hives  and  combs  infected 
appears  to  be  the  only  way  of  eradica,ting  it.  Honey  from 
a  loul  brood  hive  will  carry  the  germs  of  the  disease  to 
any  bees  which  may  consume  it.  The  presence  of  this 
dise.ase  may  be  detected  by  the  foul  smell  emanating  from 
the  hive,  and  from  the  circumstance  of  many  cells  remain- 
ing covered  longer  than  naturally  occurs  when  there  are 
living  pupre  within  them. 

In  the  uianagemont  of  bees  a  great  deal  must,  of  course,  Pasturag* 
depend  on  supplying  them  with  an  abundant  pasture.  A 
rich  corn  country  is  well  known  to  be  to  them  as  a  barren 
desert  during  a  great  portion  of  the  year.  Hence  the 
judicious  practice  of  shifting  them  from  place  to  place 
according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  season.  It  was  the 
advice  of  Celsus  that,  after  the  vernal  pastures  were  con- 
sumed, bees  should  be  transported  to  places  abounding 
with  autumnal  flowers  ;  and  in  accordance  with  that  advice 
they  werejn  ancient  times  annually  carried  from  Achaia  to 
Attica,  and  from  Euba-a  and  the  islands  of  the  Cydades 
to  Scyrus.  In  Sicily,  also,  they  were  brought  to  Hybia 
from  other  parts  of  the  island.  So  also  in  Scotland, 
so  soon  as  the  "  bright  consummate  flowers  "of  summer  are 
on  the  waae,  the  people  of^  the  Lowlands  despatch  their 
hives  in  cart-loads  to  the  blooming  heather  of  themountoin 
pastures,  where  a  neVercnding  paradise  of  sweets  is  spread 
before  them.  It  is,  indeed,  to  be  regretted  that  our  moor- 
lands are  not  more  utilized  for  this  object  thai)  they  are. 
The  very  air  of  the  Highland  hills  is  often  redolent  with 
rich  perfume,  giving  earnest  of  a  bountiful  harvest;  only 
a  solitary  bee  is  seen  here  and  there,  labouring  with  wearied 
wing  among  the  inexhaustible  stores  of  nature,  and  scarcely 
able  to  regain  with  its  burden  its  lonely  shieling  in  the 
di.stant  vale.  Considering  the  poverty  of  the  peasantr)', 
and  their  frequent  want  of  occupation,  it  is  to  be  lamented 
that  so  easy  and  pleasant  a  source  of  emolument  should  be 
so  much  neglected  by  them.  In  consequence  of  this 
neglect  a  largo  sum  is  paid  every  year  to  foreign  nations 
for  articles  that  could  be  raised  at  home,  in  every  respect 
superior,  with  very  little  outlay  cither  of  labour  or  of 
capital. 

We  learn  from  Pliny  that  the  practice  of  removing  bees 
from  place  to  place  was  frequent  in  the  Roman  territories. 
"  As  soon,"  he  says,  "  as  the  spring  food  for  bees  has  failed 
in  the  valleys  near  our  towns,  the  hives  of  bees  are  put 
into  boats,  and  carried  up  against  the  stream  of  the  river  in 
lie  night,  in  search  of  better  pasture.  The  bees  go  out 
in  the  morning  inquest  of  provisions,  and  return  regularly 
to  their  hives  in  the  boats,  with  the  stores  they  have 
collected.  This  method  is  continued  till  the  sinking  of  the 
boats  to  a  certain  depth  in  the  water  shows  that  the  hives 
are  sufficiently  full ;  and  they  are  then  carried  back  to 
their  former  homes,  whi'rc  their  honey  is  taken  out  of 
them."  And  this  is  still  the  practice  of  the  Italians  who 
live  near  the  banks  of  the  Po,  the  river  which  Pliny 
instanced  particularly  iu  the  passage  above  quoted. 


BEE 


499 


'  kwp 


H.  Mai'ltt  relates,  in  Dis  description  of  Egvpt,  that,  "Id  spite 
of  the  Ignoraiue  oiij  ruilicity  which  have  got  possession  of  Ihji 
couutrv,  llivrc  >et  remain  in  it  several  footpiiutsof  the  iiulu.stiy 
■od  skill  uf  the  ancient  E^'ypliaDs.  One  of  ibeir  most  admirable 
contrivances  is  sending  their  bees  annually  into  distant  countiii  J, 
io  order  to  procure  sustenance,  at  a  time  when  they  could  not  hnd 
any  at  home,  and  afterwards  bringing  them  back, — like  sliepherds 
who  sliou'd  ti.ivcl  with  their  dock,  and  make  thein  feed  as  they  go. 
It  was  observed  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Lower  Egypt,  that  all 
plants  blossomed,  and  the  fruits  of  the  earth  ripened,  above  six  weeks 
earlier  ui  Upper  Egypt  than  with  them.  They  found  thai  the  same 
law  applied  to  their  bees  ;  and  the  means  they  then  made  use  of  to 
enable  these  usefully  industrious  uisects  to  rejp  advantige  from  llie 
rn'^re  forward  state  of  nature  there,  were  exactly  the  same  as  are  now 

Sractised  for  the  like  purpose  in  that  country.  About  the  end  of 
ctober,  all  such  inhabitants  of  Lower  Egypt  as  have  hives  of  bees, 
embark  them  on  the  Mile,  and  convey  them  up  that  river  into  Upper 
Egypt,  observing  to  lime  the  journey  so  that  they  arrive  there  just 
when  the  inundation  is  withdrawn,  the  lauds  have  been  sown,  nod 
the  flowers  begin  to  bud.  The  hives  thus  sent  are  marked  and  num- 
bered by  their  respective  owners,  and  placed  pyramiilally  in  boats 
prepared  for  the  purpose.  After  they  have  remained  some  days  at 
their  furthest  station,  and  are  supposed  to  have  gathered  all  the  wax 
nod  honey  tLey  could  6nd  in  the  fields  within  two  or  three  leagues 
Around,  their  conductora  convey  them  in  the  same  boats  two  or 
three  leagues  lower  down,  and  there  leave  the  laborious  insects  as 
long  time  as  is  necessary  for  them  to  collect  all  the  riches  of  this 
spot  Thus  the  nearer  they  come  to  the  place  of  their  more  perma- 
nent abode,  they  find  the  productions  of  the  earth,  and  the  plants 
which  alTord  them  food,  forward  in  proportion.  In  fine,  about  the 
beginning  of  February,  after  having  travelled  through  the  whole 
length  of  Egypt,  gathering  all  the  rich  produce  of  thedelightful  banks 
of  the  Nile,  they  arrive  at  the  mouth  of  that  river,  towards  the  oct-aii, 
from  whence  they  originally  set  out.  They  aro  now  returned  to  their 
several  homes,  great  care  being  taken  to  keep  an  exact  register  of 
every  district  from  which  the  hives  were  sent  iu  the  beginning  of  the 
season,  their  numbers,  the  names  of  the  persons  who  sent  them,  and 
hkc.viseof  the  mark  or  number  of  the  boat  in  which  they  were  placed." 

In  many  parts  of  France  floating  bec-housea  aro  also 
common ;  there  aro  on  board  one  barge  three  to  five 
score  of  bee-hives,  well  defended  from  the  inclemency  of  an 
ttccidental  storm.  The  owners  allow  their  barges  to  f3oat 
gently  down  the  river,  the  bees  continually  choosing  their 
flowery  pasture  along  the  banks  of  the  stream,  and  thus  a 
single  floating  bee-house  yields  the  proprietor  a  consider- 
able income.  They  have  also  a  method  of  transjiorling 
their  bees  by  land  which  is  well  worth  imitation.  Those 
hives  being  selected  whose  combs  are  firm  and  not  likely 
to  be  broken  by  jolting,  thirty  tc  forty  of  them  are  carefully 
packed  in  tiers  in  a  cart,  which  proceeds  slowly  on  its 
travels.  If  the  season  be  sultry,  they  journey  only  at 
nigbt  the  hives  being  covered  up  with  a  cloth.  On  arriv- 
ing it  a  suitable  locality  the  hives  are  taken  out  of  the 
cart,  set  upon  the  ground,  and  the  bees  go  forth  in  search 
of  food.  In  the  evening,  as  soon  as  .they  are  all  returned, 
the  hives  are  shut  up,  and  being  placed  again  in  the  cart 
jthey  proceed  on  their  journey.  When  the  caravan  lias 
arrived  at  its  destination,  the  colonies  aro  distributed  in 
the  gardens  or  Gelds  adjacent  to  the  houses  of  the  dilferent 
peasants,  who,  for  a  very  small  remuneration,  undertake  to 
•look  after  them. 

On  the  continents  of  Europe  and  America  bee-keeping 
is  carried  on  in  a  much  larger  and  more  scientific  manner 
than  iu  the  United  Kingdom,  where  the  coltageis  still,  in 
the  greater  majority  of  instances,  use  only  the  ancient  straw 
skcp  or  hive,  and  know  no  other  method  of  depriving  the 
colonies  of  their  stores  than  the  barbarous  and  wasteful 
practice  of  smothering  them  with  brimstone.  In  Russia 
the  proWnco  of  Pullowa  boasts  of  600,000,  and  Ekater- 
inoslaw  h.i3  400,000  hives.  In  Western  Russia  the  industry 
thielly  flourishes  in  the  province  of  Kowno,  where  the 
Tchmudo  tribe  are  almost  wholly  engaged  in  bee-keeping  ; 
and  in  Eastern  Russia  the  Finnic  tribe  are  enthusiastic 
apiarians.  In  Siberia  bee-keeping  is  mostly  carried  on 
filiout  the  All.ii  mountains,  and  in  Caucasia  by  the 
.Merctinzes  and  Orusinians.  In  Southern  Russia  artificial 
hives  are  used,  while  in  North  Kusfia  the  bee:  are  kept  in 


a  natural  manner  in  the  forests.  The  principal  reasona 
why  bee-culture  is  so  industriously  carried  on  in  Russia  are, 
lirst,  because  the  peasants  use  honey  instead  of  sugar, 
and,  .secondly,  because  wait  tapers,  !o  the  value  of  1,200,000 
roubles  aro  required  for  the  churches.  Mr  Buschen  states 
that  the  quantity  of  honey  annually  produced  iu  European 
Russia  is  000,000  to  700,000  lb.  In  Hungary  and  Ger- 
many apiaries  of  2000  to  5000  colonies  are  said  to  be  not  in- 
frequent; and  great  numbers  are  in  the  autumn  often  found 
congregated  together  on  the  heaths.  In  1873  the  aggregate 
number  of  slocks  in  Germany,  including  Uauover  and  Uesse 
Cassel,  Wjjs  found  to  be  1 , 153,704  stocks  ,  Ravaria  alonehad 
33S,897.  The  German  Government  encourages  bee  culture 
in  every  possible  manner;  teachers,  pain  by  the  state, 
travel  through  the  rural  districts  teaching  the  best  methods 
of  cultivation;  and  all  schoolmasters,  before  tcceiN-ing  their 
diplomas,  have  to  pass  an  examination  in  this  subject.  Bee- 
clubs  in  the  villages  are  common,  money  for  prizes  and 
expenses  being  in  part  supplied  by  the  Government.  The 
result  of  this  fostering  care  is  that  Germany  produces  many 
skilful  apiarians,  who  contribute  greatly  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  science.  In  the  United  States  bee-farming  is  largely 
carried  on  as  a  distinct  trade,  every  scientific  appliance 
being  eagerly  brought  into  use.  The  country  also  seems 
to  be  particularly  productive  of  honey -secreting  flowers,  and 
consequently  large  harvests  are  gathered.  Iu  1874  one  bee- 
farm  alone,  that  of  Mr  Harbison,  situated  in  San  Diego 
county,  California,  produced  150,000  tt)  of  honey,  of  a. 
market  value  of  §30,000,  from  2000  stocks  of  bees.  The 
honey-bee  of  both  varieties  (/I/jm  7;ieWi_/!<;a  and  A.  ligustica) 
has  also  been  introduced  into  South  Africa  and  New 
Zealand,  where  it  flourishes  amazingly. 

Apiaries  attd  Uiies. 

Having  thus  given  at  considerable  length  the  uatural  Apinnes 
history  of  the  hive-bee,  we  proceed  to  describe  the  most  »°<i  I'vet^ 
approved  hives,  kc,  in  use  in  a  well-managed  apiary. 
Greater  attention  to  this  useful  appendage  to  the  cottage 
would  not  only  be  productive  of  coinmercial  advantage,  but 
would  tend  to  improve  the  condititin  of  the  peasantry.  It 
is  not  generally  known,  indeed,  what  profitable  results  may 
be  obtained,  at  a  trifling  cxjiense  of  time  and  labour,  from 
bee-keeping.  Even  supposing  the  first  cost  of  a  swarm  to 
be  one  guinea,  which  is  a  high  price,  the  cottager,  with 
proper  care  and  management,  will  clear,  in  five  years,  a 
net  profit  of  nearly  j£C0,  and  have  besides,  at  the  end  of 
that  period,  ten  good  stocks  of  bees  in  his  garden. 

The-principal  objects  to  be  considered  in  the  construction 
and  management  of  an  apiary,  are,  first,  to  secure  the 
prosperity  and  multiplication  of  the  colonics,  and  then  to 
increase  the  amount  of  their  productive  labour,  and  to 
obtain  their  products  with  facility  and  with  the  Ic-ast  possible 
detriment  to  the  stock.  The  apiary  should  aflord  to  the 
bees  shelter  against  moisture  and  the  extremes  of  heat  and 
of  cold,  and  especially  against  sudden  vicissitudes  of 
temperature.  The  hives  should  render  every  facility  for 
constructing  the  combs  and  rearing  the  yourg,  they  should 
allow  of  every  part  of  the  combs  being  occasionally -in- 
spected, and  of  their  being  removed  when  necessary ;  andi 
while  due  attention  is  paid  to  economy,  they  should  be 
made  of  materials  that  will  insure  durability.  Much 
ingenuity  has  been  disjilayed  by  dilferent  apiarians  in  the 
construction  of  hives  to  unite  in  the  greatest  possible 
degree  all  these  advantages  ;  but  there  is  still  great  room 
for  improvement  on  the  hives  that  ore  in  common  use. 

While  some  cultivators  o)  bees  have  been  chiefly  anxiou* 
to  promote  their  multiplication,  and  prevent  the  escape  of 
the  swarms  in  the  natural  way  by  procuring  what  are 
termed  "artificial  swarms,"  vjhich  is  effected  by  various 
t2<'ans,    others   have   taken    into   consideration   only    tli« 


500 


BEE 


abundance  of  the  products  which  they  jneld,  and  the  best 
way  oi  extracting  them  from  the  hive,  without  showing  any 
particular  solicitude  as  to  the  preservation  of  the  bees 
themselves ;  tlill  another  class  of  apiarians  have  had  more 
particularly  in  view  the  prosecution  of  researches  in  the 
natural  history  and  economy  of  bees.  The  hive  invented 
by  Hubci  was  in  his  time  a  great  advance  for  the  purpose 
last  named  He  gave  it  the  name  of  "  ruche  en  livre  ou 
en  feuillets  "  from  its  opening  and  shutting  somewhat  in 
the  manner  of  the  leaves  of  a  book.  It  had,  however, 
many  inconveniences  which  are  remedied  in  some  hives  of 
more  modern  construction,  and  Ruber's  leaf-hive  is  now 
rarely  used,  although  it  may  claim  the  distinction  of  having 
been  the  first  of  the  frame  hires  which  are  now,  with  many 
modifications,  generally  acknowledged  to  be  the  only  ones 
capable  of  giving  the  maximum  of  prosperity  to  the  bees 
and  producing  a  large  honey  harvest,  combined  with 
affording  facilities  for  observation  and  manipulation. 
The  old  cylindrical  straw  skep  or  hive  is  still  generally 
used  among  the  cottagers  of  England,  although  abandoned 
in  many  other  countries.  While  very  excellent  for  warmth 
and  ventilation,  it  has  the  disadvantage  that  its  interior  is 
inaccessible  for  information  ;  and  the  fixity  of  its  combs 
precludes  many  manipulations  which  the  skilful  apiarian  is 
called  upon  to  perform.  This  was  well  known  to  the 
ancients,  who,  to  remedy  it,  fitted  the  crowns  of  their 
hives  with  movable  wooden  bars,  from  which  the  bees  built 
their  combs,  but  still  they  were  attached  by  their  sides  to 
the  hive  and  required  to  be  cut  away  before  they  could  be 
removed, — these  operations  greatly  disturbing  the  bees. 
In  1851,  Dzierzon  in  Germany,  and  Langstroth  in  America, 
two  of  the  most  skilful  apiarians  of  the  present  day,  simul- 
taneously designed  or  invented  the  bar-frame  hive,  the 
principle  of  which,  with  many  varieties  of  detail,  is  found 
in  all  the  best  hives  now  in  use.  A  well-known  English 
example  of  this  kind  of  hive  is  the  "  Woodbury  "  (fig.  4), 
named  after  its  designer, 
Mr  Woodbury  of  E.\eter. 
This  consists  of  a  square 
wooden  box.  Hi  inches  in 
diameter  (inside  measure), 
«nd  9  inches  deep,  covered 
by  a  top  or  crown-board 
cither  loose  or  lightly 
screwed  down.  This  board 
has  a  circular  hole  in  the 
centre,  2J  inches  in  dia- 
meter, for  feeding  purposes, 
and  when  not  in  use  is 
covered  with  perforated  zinc  or  a  block  of  wood.  The 
lloor-board  is  18  inches  square,  with  an  entrance  cut  in  it 
forming  a  channel  about  4  inches  wide  and  §ths  of  an  inch 
deep.  At  the  part  where  the  front  of  the  hive  crosses  it 
gradually  slopes  upwards  inside  the  Live.  An  alighting- 
board  for  the  bees  is  fixed  to  the  front  of  the  floor  board 
opposite  the  entrauco,  and  projects  3  or  4  inches ;  a 
wooden  ridge  roof  covers  all.  The  interior  of  the  hive  is 
fitted  with  ten  frames  ;  they  .are  made  of  light  lath,  about 
^ihs  of  an  inch  wide,  the  top  bars  being  gtlis  and  the  sides 
and  bottom  rails  /.^ths  of  an  inch  in  thickness  respectively. 
The  top  bars  are  1.5|  inches  in  length,  and  project  into 
notches  cut  into  rabbets  at  the  back  and  front  of  the  hive 
to  receive  them  The  rabbets  arc  ^ths  of  an  inch  deep,  and 
the  notches  in  thcni  are  of  the  smie  depth,  so  that  tlio 
projections  in  the  bars  rest  flush  in  tliem,  leaving  a  space  of 
Jths  clear  above  the  frames,  over  which  the  bees  can  travel. 
Tiic  ten  frames  occupy  equal  portions  of  the  interior  space  ; 
if  this  bo  divided  into  ten  equal  divisions,  the  centre  of 
each  will  be  exactly  the  point  at  which  the  centre  of  each 
bar  frame  should   rest;    tliese   points  will   be   1  ;°j   indies  | 


Fio.  4. — Tlie  Woodbury  Frame 
tlive. 


apart.  In  these  frames  it  is  intended  that  the  bees  shall 
build  their  combs  ;  and  when  they  have  done  so,  any  frame 
may  be  quietly  lifted  out  of  the  hive  with  all  tEe  bees  upon 
it,  whether  for  ej^amination  or  for  division  of  the  stock  for 
an  artificial  swarm.  To  induce  the  bees  to  build  straight  in 
the  frames  a  thin  strip  of  comb  is  usually  attached  to  the 
underside  of  the  top  bar,  or  a  thin  line  of  molten  wax 
poured  down  the  centre  of  the  bar  will  answer  the  purpose, 
as  the  bees  will  follow  the  guide  thus  laid.  For  the 
purpose  of  providing  storage-room  for  honey  an  upper 
storey,  called  a  "  super,"  is  added  to  the  hivf,  of  the  same 
diameter  but  of  less  height,  3  to  5  inches  usuidly  sufiicing, 
as  when  filled  it  may  be  taken  off  and  an  empty  one  substi- 
tuted. Before  a  super  be  placed  in  position,  the  crown-board 
should  be  removed,  and  a  thin  board,  called  au  "  adapter," 
substituted ;  this,  in  place  of  the  round  central  hole,  has 
near  each  side  a  long  aperture,  ^\ths  of  an  inch.wide,  which 
gives  passage  to  the  workers,  but  not  to  the  queen  and 
drones — the  latter  being  useless  there,  and  itbeing  desirable 
the  queen  should  not  oviposit  in  the  super. 

Elegant  supers  are  made  of  glass  globes,  or  propagating 
glasses,  which  the  bees  will  readily  use  if  enticed  into  them 
by  a  few  pieces  of  elean  white  comb. 

Many  improvements  have  been  made  on  the  Woodbury 
hive,  tending  still  further  to  the  comfort  and  well-being 
of  the  bees,  as  well  as  to  the  furtherance  of  scientific 
study;  and,  perhaps,  the  hive  that  may  be  said  to  combine 
most  of  these  advantages  is  one  designed  by  Mr  Frank 
Cheshire,  and  known  as  the  "Cheshire  Hive''  (figs.  5  and  C). 


XT  W 

Fia.  5.— The  Cheshire  Fiamo       Fia.  5.— Section  of  Cheshire  Hire. 

To  afford  the  bees  the  maximum  of  comfort  and  to  economize 
their  heat,  the  walls  of  this  hive  are  made  double,  enclosing 
an  air  space.  The  Woodbury  frames  are  used,  but  rest  on 
the  thi  1  edge  of  a  strip  of  zinc  within  the  hive  at  the  back 
and  front,  which  prevents  the  bees  fixing  them  with  pro- 
jiolis.  The  floor-board  is  constructed  to  slide  in  a  groove 
beneath  the  hive,  and  the  entrance  can  be  cnfaigcd  or 
diminished  at  pleasure  by  a  pair  of  sliding-shutters  ;  the 
hive  is  complete  with  stand  and  roof,  and  altogether  leaves 
little  to  be  desired. 

The  adoption  of  frame  hives  has  greatly  facilitated  the 
scientific  study  of  the  insects'  habits,  the  nrtifici;il 
multiplication  of  colonies,  and  the  appropriation  of  their 
surplus  stores  without  injury  to  the  bees.  It  is  quite 
a  secondary  consideration  what  size  or  pattern  of  frame  is 
used,  or  how  the  frames  arc  suspended  in  the  hive,  provided 
the  princii'le  of  movable  frames  be  adojitcd  ;  mid  although 
much  ingenuity  has  been  exercised  by  scientific  men  to 
design  a  hive  embracing  every  possible  advantage  regardless 
of  cost,  the  roughest  timber  and  coarsest  workmanship  will 
give  as  good  results  as  the  most  elaborate.  Fram  ?  hives 
are   exceedingly    well    calculated    for    procuring   artiiJcinl 


BEE 


501 


Fia. 


7.— Tlie  Stewarton 
Hive. 


swarms.  They  allow  U3  to  judge  by  inspection  whether 
the  population  be  sufficient  to  admit  of  division,  if  the 
brood  be  of  the  proper  age,  if  drones  exist  or  are  ready  to 
bo  produced  for  impregnating  the  young  queens, — all  of 
which  circumstances  are  material  to  tho  success  of  the 
operation.  Wooden  hives  are  generally  made  square,  but 
not  invariably  so.  The  "  Stewarton  hive"  (tig.  7),  largely 
and  succcsafiilly  used  in  Scotland, 
is  octagonal,  aad  the  "  Quinby  hive  " 
of  America  is  much  deeper  from 
back  to  front  than  it  is  wide.  The 
Stewarton  is  not  properly  a  frame, 
but  a  biir-hive,  although  frames  aro 
sometimes  titled  to  it.  It  usually 
consists  of  three  octagon  breeding- 
boxes,  14  inches  in  diameter  by  6 
inches  deep,  each  furnished  with 
nine  bars  placed  equidistant,  thespaces 
between  being  occupied  by  movable 
slides  of  wood  working  in  grooves 
in  the  bars.  The  hive  has  shuttered 
windows  back  and  front,  handles  to 
lift,  and  hooks  to  weigh  with,  as  well 
as  little  buttons  to  prevent  displace- 
ment ;  each  breeding-box  has  an  en- 
trance-way i  inches  wide  and  half  an 
inch  high,  with  a  sliding-door  to  close  it  wholly  or  par- 
tially. There  are  dlso  two  supers  or  honey  boxes,  the  same 
diameter  as  the  stock  boxes,  but  only  i  inches  deep ;  these 
aro  furnished  with  wider  bars,  seven  in  number,  and  a  floor- 
board completes  the  whole,  which,  being  made  of  but  h  inch 
wood,  requires  protection  from  the  weather. 

For  thoso  persons  who  are  unable  to  handle  bees  with 
impunity,  but  are  yet  desirous  of  studying  their  economy, 
a  glass  covered  observatory  hive  has  been  deemed  a 
necessity.  Several  have  been  designed  for  this  purpose, 
but  none  of  them  have  been  found  to  be  a  he.althy  abode 
fur  tho  bees, — glass  being  a  cold  and  ungenial  material, 
on  which  tho  moisture  of  the  hive  condenses  during  tho 
winter  to  the  detriment  of  health  of  the  inhabitants.  In 
the  summer,  however,  bees  may  be  kept  in  a  glass  hive 
without  great  loss,  although  with  no  gain  ;  such  a  hive 
may  be  constructed  of  a.  double  sash,  thickly  glazed  back 
aud  front,  of  just  sufficient  width  for  one  comb  only  and 
space  to  allow  the  bees  free  passage  over  both  sides  of  the 
comb.  A  ver)'  excellent  hive  in  English  use  is  that  known 
as  the  "  Woodbury  unicomb,"  which  is  so  constructed  that 
six  ftamcs  may  be  taken  out  of  an  ordinary  hive,  and  hung 
up  in  a  double  perpendicular  row  between  the  two  sashes, 
permitting  their  return  in  the  autumn  to  their  original  hive. 
Egress  and  ingre.ss  is  given  to  the  bees  by  a  tunnelled 
channel  to  the  centre  of  the  hive  on  the  floor  line;  and  by 
means  of  a  turn-table  the  hive  may  be  revolved  to  bring 
both  sides  under  alternate  observation,  together  with  all  its 
inhabitancs  and  their  works.  Tho  common  straw  hive,  or 
sleep,  of  the  cottagers  is  too  well  known  to  require  descrip- 
tion, and  although  it  is  greatly  inferior  to  frame  hives,  it 
will  doubtless  long  retain  a  place  from  its  easy  make  and 
little  cost.  A  great  iminovement  now  generally  in  use  is  tho 
adoption  of  a  round  hole  in  the  centre  of  the  crown,  about 
2J  inches  in  diameter,  which  will  permit  the  bees  access  to 
the  super,  and  afford  facilities  to  the  bee-master  for  feeding 
his  stock.  The  capacity  of  these  hives  should  be  about  a 
bushel,  when  the  ai)iary  is  situated  in  a  good  honey  locality. 
To  a  German  apiarian  we  are  indebted  for  the  invention 
■  of  a  machine  c.illed  the  honey-extractor,  whicli,  with  some 
eubsequent  improvements,  forms  a  most  iiiiport.Tnt  aid  in 
large  apiaries  to  increa.se  the  yield  of  honey.  By  this 
appliance  tho  frames  of  full  honeycomb  are  i;i  a  few  .seconds 
emptied  of  their  contents  without  injury  to    the  combs 


which  are  ready  at  once  to  be  returned  to  the  hive  to  bo 
refilled,  ttus  saving  to  the  bees  great  labour  in  comb- 
building,  and  enabling  them  to  take  tho  utmost  advantage 
of  a  favourable  houey-tinie,  which  usually  is  but  short. 
Honey  is  saved  too,  which  the  bees  cat  in  comb-building ; 
for  it  has  been  calculated  that  bees  consume  20  lb  of  honey  in 
producing  1  Ih  of  wax.  There  are  various  patterns  of  the 
machine,  but  the  principle  of  all  may  be  said  to  be  tho 
same,  that  of  centrifugal  force.  The  apparatus  consists  of 
a  cylindrical  metal  reservoir,  with  a  tap  at  the  bottom  ;  and 
within  is  contained  a  perpendicular  quadrangular  frame, 
two  sides  of  which  are  covered  with  wire-netting,  and 
against  these  the  full  honeycombs,  with  their  cells 
previously  uncapped,  are  placed.  This  framework  is  tlicu 
set  revolving  by  means  of  a  handle  and  cog-wheels,  or  other 
motive  power,  when  the  honey  is  flung  out  against  tho 
sides  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  combs  completely  emptied  to 
be  returned  to  the  bees  to  clean  and  refill.  The  loss  of  this 
honey,  and  the  excitement  caused  by  the  cleaning  the  wet 
combs,  seem  to  induce  the  bees  to  work  their  hardest  to 
replace  their  stores  ;  and  with  a  strong  colony  an  enormous 
amount  of  honey  is  obtainable  in  a  good  locality  and 
season.  It  has  been  recorded  that  one  stock  in  America 
gathered  600  lb  in  a  single  season,  and  harvests  of  200  U> 
and  300  Bt)  are  Yiot  uncommon  there. 

Bee-Keepinr;. 

We  shall  now  give  a  short  exposition  of  the  modern, 
humane,  and  scientific  system  of  bee-keeping,  which  is 
probably  destined  at  no  distant  day  to  supersede  the  igno- 
rance and  cruelty  of  past  ages. 

A  description  has  already  been  given  of  examples  of  the  Stocking  * 
best  movable  bar  and  frame  hives,  and  the  system  they  h^me  Live, 
represent  should  alone  be  adopted,  i.e.,  every  comb  in  tlia 
hives  should  be  movable  and  interchangeable.  In  stocking 
these  it  is  usual,  first,  to  hive  the  swarm  in  an  old-fashioned 
straw  sknp ;  and  in  tho  evening,  after  all  the  bees  aro 
quietly  settled,  suddenly  to  shake  them  down  against  the 
entrance  of  the  hive  or  on  the  top  of  the  frames,  when  the 
astonished  insects  will  immcdiatly  take  refuge  in  their 
future  home.  Should  continuous  bad  weather  occur  after 
hiving  a  swarm,  the  bees  must  be  fed,  for,  as  they  have  as 
yet  no  stores,  they  >vill  otherwise  starve. 

For  feeding  bees  a  multitude  of  appli.inces  have  beenF«f.lins 
invented,  but  they  may  all  give  place  to  a  common  widelw". 
mouth  pickle  bottle  ;  this  is  filled  with  syrup,  the  mouth 
tied  over  with  a  double  fold  of  net,  or  plated  inverted  en 
apiece  of  perforated  zinc  or  vulcanite  over  tho  feeding-hole 
of  the  crown-board  of  the  hive.  The  supply  can  be  regu- 
lated to  the  bees  by  the  number  and  size  of  tho  holes 
through  which  they  are  allowed  to  suck.  In  cold  ncatlier 
ivhcn  much  moisture  would  be  hurtful  in  the  hive,  barley- 
sugar  may  be  advantageously  used  as  a  substitute  for 
syrup.  The  former  is  made  by  boiling,  for  ten  minutes, 
2  lb  of  loa{-s«gar  in  a  pint  of  water,  a  little  vinegar  being 
added  to  prevent  crystaDiZation.  The  prosperity  and  profit 
of  an  apiary  in  a  great  measure  depend  on  judicious  feeding. 
It  is  bad  economy  to  stint  the  bees  in  food.  In  the  early 
spring  slow  and  continuous  feeding  (a  few  ounces  of  syrup 
each  d.iy)  will  stiinulato  the  queen  to  oviposit,  by  which 
means  the  stocks  are  rapidly  strengthened  aad  throw  oft 
early  swarms.  Upon  tho  emergence  of  these,  if  a  young 
fertile  queen  be  immediately  supplied,  the  hive  is  ready 
again  to  swarm  in  a  remarkably  short  time.  It  is  a  singular 
fad  that  if  stimulating  feeding  has  been  for  some  time 
pursaed,  and  the  supply  be  intermitted  and  nothing  coming 
in  from  the  fields,  the  bees  will  destroy  all  the  young  larva; 
and  eggs,  instinct  seeming  to  teach  the  wise  insects  that 
the  calls  on  the  resources  of  Ihn  colony  in  the  way  of  food 
for  the  young  will  be  more  than  it  can  bear. 


502 


BEE 


WgUr 


Artifiuia! 
«wtniiiDg. 


An  abundant  supply  of  water  is  essential  to  the  healthy 
conditiun  of  bees.  'I'hey  consume  a  large  quantity,  and 
often  stop  to  drink  at  the  edge  of  staijuant  pools,  and  seem 
even  to  prefer  putrid  and  urinous  waters  to  purer  streams,  as 
if  their  saliue  and  pungent  qualities  were  grateful  to  them. 

Where  the  bee-keeper  has  the  use  of  a  honeyextractor, 
and  a  large  produce  of  honey  is  his  desideratum,  the  combs 
can  be  emptied  as  fast  as  they  are  filled;  and  at  the  close 
of  the  season  the  bees  may  be  deprived  of  the  whole  of 
their  honey  if  syrup  be  supplied  to  them  in  its  place. 
This  is  of  much  less  value,  and  answers  every  purpose  for 
winter  stores.  No  hive  should  be  trusted  to  the  exigencies 
of  winter  with  a  less  weight  of  sealed  comb  than  15  lb. 
Honey  may  also  be  gathered  into  supers  ;  and  the  bees 
in  good  seasons  will  readily  build  their  combs  there, 
but  should  be  entiiTed  to  do  so  with  a  few  pieces  of  nice, 
white  decoy-comb  placed  withio.  The  management  of  the 
Stewarton  hives  may  be  described  as  follows: — Two  of 
the  breeding-bo.xes  having  had  their  bars  furnished  with 
guide-con>b,  are  lashed  together,  the  sliding-door  of  the 
upper  one  run  in  and  the  slides  of  the  lower  withdrawn, 
■when  the  two  boxes  become  virtually  one ;  a  prime  swarm 
of  bees  b  introduced,  and  eight  or  ten  days  thereafter, 
another  prime  swarm  being  hived  in  the  third  breeding-box, 
it  is  placed  under  the  other  two.  The  lower  of  the  two 
first  boxes,  now  the  central,  has  its  door  run  in  and  the 
slides  of  the  lower  withdrawn.  The  second  swarm  of 
beestviil  soon  run  up  and  fraternise  with  the  others  ;  and 
the  next  morning  the  lowermost  box  may  be  removed,  and 
the  entrance  opened  of  the  one  above.  The  space  provided 
by  the  two  boxes  will  be  found  ample  for  breeding  ;  and 
when  full,  the  strong  stock  formed  by  the  double  swarm 
■will  soon  be  glad  to  occupy  the  super  then  to  be  added, 
to  which  commuuication  should  bo  afforded  by  withdraw- 
ing the  outer  slide  on  each  side  only.  Should  the  season 
prove  favourable  the  super  will  soon  be  filled,  and  when 
nearly  so  another  should  be  placed  on  the  top,  and  the 
first  may  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  honey  cell-s  are  scaled 
over.  All  supers  must  be  warmly  wrapped  up  or  padded, 
or  the  bees  will  be  found  reluctant  to  occupy  them. 

By  the  judicious  management  of  supers,  and  the  use  of 
the  honfay-extractor,  swarming  m.iy  be  in  a  great  measure 
controlled  ;  for  if  many  swarms  issue,  the  result  must  be 
that  little  honey  will  be  gathered  ;  all  the  energies  of  the 
reduced  population  being  ex'^rted  to  procure  food  for  and 
attend  to  the  young  A  su[ier  put  on  the  hive  before  the 
bees  have  made  preparations  for  swarming  by  the  construc- 
tion of  queen  cells,  &c.,  will  generally  prevent  swarming, 
but  not  iiivarjably  The  be.'  keeper  must,  therefore,  decide 
whether  ho  prefers  an  intre.ise  of  his  stocks  or  a  large 
honey  harvest,  and  manage  his  bees  accordingly. 

It  often  happens  that  bees  give  every  indication  of  an  inten- 
tion to  swarm,  and  cluster  idly  outside  the  hive  in  large 
numbers  for  days  or  even  weeks  before  they  really  emigrate, — 
all  this  time  keeping  their  owner  in  suspense  ;  and  possibly 
the  swarm  comes  off  at  last  without  being  observed.  This 
is  very  tantalising,  but  may  all  be  prevented  by  means  of 
artificial  swarming,  the  mode  of  proceeding  for  which  varies 
according  to  the  kind  of  hive  in  use.  Considering,  first, 
straw  skcps,  the  common  hive  of  the  country,  tlie  operation 
to  lie  pursued  is  known  as  "driving."  This  is  not  new,, 
having  been  described  by  Dr  Warder  in  the  last  century. 
Thi'  mode  usually  ado[ited  is  as  follows : — Towards  noon, 
on  a  fine  day,  when  many  of  the  bees  are  abroad,  inject  at 
the  hive's  entrance  a  pulT  or  two  of  tobacco  smoke,  and 
with  the  hands  give  a  smart  smack  on  each  side.  The  effect 
is  that  the  whole  of  the  inhabitants  are  struck  with  extreme 
terror  ;  and  after,  perhaps,  an  alarmed  sally  to  the  entrance, 
every  bee  rushes  to  the  cells  to  fill  itself  with  honey. 
ikUowiiig  two  or  three  minutes  for  them   to   cfTect  their 


purpose,  the  hive  is  boldly  inverted  and  an  empty  hive  ot 
the  same  size  placed  ca  it  mouth  to  mouth.  A  long  towel 
is  now  bound  round  the  junction  to  con6nc  the  bees,  and 
the  operator,  with  two  sticks  or  the  palms  of  his  hands, 
keeps  up  a  continuous  smart  rapping  on  the  sides  of  the 
full  hive,  and  after  a  few  minutes  the  bees  will  all  streano 
up  into  the  empty  hive,  generally  not  more  than  fifteen 
minutes  having  elapsed  before  the  first  hive  is  denuded  of 
its  inhabitants.  It  should  now  be  placed  on  the  stand 
of  some  other  strong  stock  (previously  removed),  whose 
returning  bees  will  form  a  population  to  nurse  the  young 
and  rear  a  queen  if  one  be  not  supplied  by  the  apiarian. 
If  the  swarm  is  to  be  at  once  sent  away  to  a  distance 
exceeding  l|  miles,  the  hive  may  be  returned  to  its  old 
stand,  and  so  be  peopled  by  the  remainder  of  its  c!d 
inhabitants  who  were  at  work.  But  Lf  the  swarm  is  to 
remain  near,  it  should  be  placed  on  the  old  stand,  as  the 
bees,  on  their  next  flight,  wiU  return  to  the  locality  they 
know  so  well.  "Driving"  should  also  be  pursued  in  the 
autumn,  when  it  is  desired  to  appropriate  the  honey  of  the 
hive.  The  driveu  bees  should  then  be  added  to  another 
stock,  which  they  will  advantageously  strengthen.  Where 
frame  hives  are  in  use,  the  following  method  may  be 
adopted  : — First,  lift  out  the  frames  and  search  until  the 
queen  be  found,  when  she,  with  the  frame  she  is  on,  must 
be  placed  in  the  centre  of  a  new  hive,  and  be  flanked  on 
both  sides  by  another  comb  as  full  of  sealed  brood  as  can 
be  obtained.  Fill  up  both  hives  with  new  frames  furnished 
with  empty  combs,  or  gaide-conibs  only  if  the  former  be 
not  available,  and  shake  into  (or  before  the  entrance  of) 
the  hive  where  the  queen  is  sufficient  bees  to  form  a  large 
swarm.  Many  will  fly  back  to  their  old  home,  but  all  the, 
young  bees  will  remain.  This  hive  should  then  be  removed 
to  some  distance  and  the  old  one  replaced.  If  the  swarm 
is  to  be  sent  to  a  distance,  the  bees  may  he  simply  shaken 
off  the  combs  into  (or  in  front  of)  a  new  hive  (taking  care 
the  queen  is  with  them),  which  should  be  temporarily 
placed  on  the  spot  whore  t'.ie  old  one  has  just  stood.  The 
bees  will  en'er  it,  and  when  all  is  quiet  it  should  be 
removed  and  the  old  one  reinstated.  The  bees  that  return 
from  the  field*  will  form  a  population  for  the  domicile  which 
they  wdl  find  in  the  familiar  place.  Before  in  any  manner 
operating  on  bees,  it  is  advisable  to  puif  a  little  smoke  into 
the  hive.  This  alarms  them  and  causes  them  to  fill  their 
honey-pouches,  and  a  bee  in  this  state  never  volunteers  an 
attack  ;  but  it  is  always  prudent  to  cover  one's  face  and 
hands,  as  horae-retuming  bees  are  sometimes  inclined  to 
resent  the  disturbance  to  their  family.  India-rubber  gloves, 
with  gauntlets  and  veil  of  leno,  will  afford  ample  protection ; 
the  latter  should  be  a  simple  bag,  open  at  top  and  bottom, 
but  with  half  a  yard  of  clastic  sewn  in  the  top,  through 
which  should  bo  pa.sscd  the  crown  of  a  broad-brimmed  hat; 
the  coat  should  be  buttoned  over  the  lower  part.  Bee-keepera 
who  meddle  much  with  their  bees  soon  become  accustomed 
to -stinging  and  do  not  suffer  much.  Experiments  have 
been  made  to  ascertain  the  number  of  stings  required  to 
inoculate  the  blood,  aod  it  has  been  stated  that  about  thirty, 
at  the  rate  of  three  or  four  a  day,  will  suffice,  after  which 
the  ell'oct  of  the  bee-poison  is  trivial.  Pcr^ions  unaccustomed 
to  the  poison,  however,  often  snfl'er  severely. 

Wo  conclude  by  observing  that  the  honey-bee'  (Apia 
mtj/ijko)  is  supposed  to  be  of  Asiatic  origin.  It  was 
imported  from  Europe  to  America,  where  it  is  now  found 
wild  in  great  numbers,  and  at  a  vast  distance  from  human 
habitations.  An  excellent  treatise,  7'/ic  llnncyBce,  ill 
A'dtiinil  //isturi/,  Pliysuitoiji/,  and  Mana^jniicnt,  was  pub- 
lished in  1827  by  Dr  Edward  Bevan.  It  contains  soma 
of  the  best  practical  remarks  on  the  subject  that  nre  any- 
where to  be  met  with,  and  gives  a  fair  account  of  the 
l.ibours  of   the  author's  predecessors,  Reaumur,  Hunter, 


B  E  E— D  E  E 


503^ 


Huber,  Keys,  -Vicat,  and  Dunbar.  The  Rev.  L.  L. 
Langstroth,  of  New  York,  has  aUo  written  a  very  excellent 
v.)luine  on  Tlie  Ilive  and  Iluney-Btt.  ^o  Pastor  Dzierzon, 
tbe  Baron  von  Uerlepsch,  and  Von  Siel)oId  of  Germany, 
wr'  are  indebted  for  nuny  accurate  and  valuable  oUserva- 
tiona  on  physiology  and  hive  management;  and  a  Mamial 
of  Beeheeping,   written    in    1S75    by   Mr  John    Hunter, 


secretary  of  the  British  Beekeepers'  Aasoolalion,  containa 
imicli  practical  information  on  scienti&cand  profitable  bee- 
keeping. We  may  add  that  the  above  association,  estab- 
lished in  1874  under  the  presidency  of  Sir  John  Lubbock, 
ia.'the  first  vigorous  etfort  made  in  England  to  extend  and 
improve  this  neglected  although  valuabk  branch  of  rural 
economy.  (J-  B.) 


BEECH,  a  well-known  trc2,  the  Fajus  syhatuxt.  For 
the  cultivation  aiid  properties  of  it  see  Arbokiculture, 
vol.  li.  p.  317.  The  nama  beech  is  from  the  Anglo  Saxon 
hoc,  bece,  or  beoce  (Ger.  Buche,  Swedish,  bok),  words  meaning 
at  once  a  book  and  a  beech-tree.  The  connection  of  the 
beocb  with  the  graphic  arts  is  supposed  to  have  originated 
in  the  fact  that  the  ancient  Runic  tablets  were  formed  of 
thin  board-i  of  beech-wood.  "  The  origin  of  the  word," 
ga_\3  Prior  {Popular  Namts  of  Bntuh  Plants),  "  is  identical 
with  that  of  the  Sanskrit  bokS,  letter,  bdk^s,  writings ;  and 
this  correspondence  of  the  Indian  and  our  own  is  interest- 
ing as  evidence  of  two  things,  viz.,  that  the  Brahmins  had 
the  art  of  writing  before,  they  detached  themselves  from 
the  common  stock  of  the  Indo-European  race  in  Upper 
Asia,  and  that  we  and  other  Germans  have  received  alpha- 
betic signs  from  the  E.ast  by  a  northern  route,  and  not  by 
the  Mediterranean."  Beech-mast,  the  fruit  of  the  beech- 
tree,  was  formerly  known  in  England  as  buck  ;  and  the 
county  of  Buckingham  is  so  named  from  its  fame  as  a.beech- 
growing  country.  Buckwheat  {Bucliewehen)  derives  its 
name  from  the  similarity  of  its  angular  seeds  to  beech-mast. 
The  generic  name  Fagus  is  derived  from  <^ay«^  to  eat; 
but  the  <f>Tiyi^  of  Thcophrastus  was  probably  the  sweet  chest- 
nut (<isculii$)  of  the  Romans.  Beech-mast  has  been  used 
6»  food  in  limes  of  distress  and  famine;  and  in  autumn  it 
yields  an  abundant  supply  of  food  to  park-deer  and  other 
game,  and  to  pigs,  which  arc  turned  into  beech-woods  in 
order  to  utilize  the  fallen  mast.  In  France  it  is  used  for 
feeding  pheasants  and  domestic  poultry.  Well-ripened 
beech-mast  yields  from  17  to  20  per  cent,  of  a  non-drying 
oil,  suitable  for  illumination,  and  said  to  be  used  in  some 
parts  of  France  and  other  Continental  countries  in  cooking, 
and  as  a  substitute  for  butter 

BEECUEY,  Frederick  Willia.m,  a  distinguished  naval 
officer  and  navigator,  son   of  Sir  William   Beechey,  R.A., 
was  born  in  Loudon,  in  1796.     In  1306.  at  the  (igeof  ten, 
he  entered  the  navy,  and  was  for  several  years  e  igaged  in 
active  service  during  the  wars  with  France  and  America. 
In    1818  he  served    under    Franklin  in  Buchan's  Arctic 
expedition,  of  which  at  a  later  period  he  published  a  nar- 
rative ;  and  in  the  following  year  he  accompanied  Parry  in 
the  "  Hecla."     In  1821  he  took  part  in  the  survey  of  the 
Mediterranean  coast]  under  the  direction  of  Captain,  after- 
wards Admiral,  Smyth.    He  and  his  brother,  U.  \V.  Beechey, 
made  an  overland  survey  of  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  of 
which  a  full  and  valuable  account  was  published  in  1827. 
In   1825  he  was  appointed  to  the  "  Blossom,"  which  was 
intended   to   explore    Behring's    Straits    in    concert    with 
Franklin    and    Parry.     He  passed  Behring's   Straits   and 
penetrated  as  f.u  as  lat.  71'  23'  31"  N'.,  and  long.  156°  21' 
30'  W.,  reaching   a    point   only  140  miles  west  of  that 
reached  by  Franklin's  expedition  from  the  Mackenzie  River. 
The  whole  voyage  lasted  mpre  than  three  years  ;  and  in  the 
course  of   it  Beechey  discovered    several   islands    in    the 
Pacific,  and   an    excellent   harbour    near  Cape  Prince  of 
Wales.     A  full  narrative  of  his  voyage  was  published  in 
1325-28.     From  1835  to  1847  Captain  Beechey  was  em- 
ployed on  the  coast  survey  of  South  America  and  Ireland. 
Ho  was  then  appointed  by  Government  to  preside  over  the 
Marine  Department  of  the  Board  of  Trade.     In   1854  h» 


was  made  rear-admiral,  and  in  the  following  year  wa« 
elected  president  of  the  Geographical  Society.  He  died  on 
the  ;i9th  Nov.  1356. 

BEECHEy,.SiR  William,  R.A.,  a  fashionable  portrait, 
painter,  born  at  Burford  in  December  1753,  was  originally 
bred  as  a  conveyancer,  but  a  strong  love  for  painting 
induced  him  to  become  a  pupil  at  the  Royal  Academy  ia 
1772.  Some  of  his  smaller  portraits  gained  him  consider- 
able reputation  ;  he  began  to  be  employed  by  the  nobihty, 
and  in  1793  became  associate  of  the  Academy.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  mpde  portrait-painter  to  Queen  Charlotte,  an 
appointment  which  increased  his  celebrity.  He  painted  the 
portrait.-!  of  the  members  of  the  royal  family,  and  of  nearly 
all  the  most  famous  or  fashionable  persons  of  the  lime. 
What  is  considered  his  finest  production  is  a  review  of 
cavalry,  a  large  composition,  in  the  foreground  of  which 
he  introduced  portraits  of  George  III.,  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  the  duke  of  York,  surrounded  by  a  brilliant  stall  on 
horseback  It  was  painted  in  1798,  and  obtained  for  the 
artist  the  honour  of  knighthood,  and  the  rank  of  R.A. 
The  earlier  portraits  of  Beechey  were  carefully  drawn  and 
well  finished  ;  but  in  his  later  days  the  extent  of  his 
employment  rendered  him  less  careful  in  his  design.  His 
works  are  generally  vigorous,  but  are  wanting  in  grace  and 
dignity.  He  was  a  good,  but  not  an  eminent  portrait 
fuintcr.  lie  died  in  January  1839,  at  the  advanced  age 
of  eighty-six 

BEELZEBUB.  The  name  of  the  supreme  god  among 
all  the  SyroPhanician  peoples  was  Baal,  i.e.,  lord  or  owntrr ; 
and  by  adding  to  it  zehub,  insect,  the  proper  name  Baal- 
zebub  was  formed,  the  god  of  Ekron  according  to  2  Kings 
i.  2,  the  fly-god,  the  averter  of  insects,  similar  to  the  Zci5 
dn-o7ivio5,  /iviaypof,  and  the  Hercules  fiui'aypo? ;  so  that 
Clemens  Alexandrinus  s|)eaks  of  a  Hercules  dwd/tmot 
worshipped  in  Rome.  Hug's  hypothesis  that  this  Philis- 
tine god  was  the  dung-beetle,  the  Scarabwvs  pMulariua, 
worshipped  in  Egypt,  cannot  be  accepted.  Beelzebub  wae 
so  na^ned  not  from  his  form,  but  from  Jus  supposed  power 
of  driving  a^ay  noxious  flies.  In  the  New  Testament 
the  word  is  applied  to  Satan,  the  ruler  or  prince  of  the 
demons  (Matt.  x.  25,  xiL  24,  27  ;  Mark  iiL  22  ;  Luke 
xL  15,  18,  19).  But  the  best  Greek  MSS.  read  B<€A(c- 
/JovX,  Beelzebul,  in  the  Gospels, — an  orthography  followed 
by  the  latest  critical  editions,  though  the  Syriac  and  Vul- 
gate versions  have  Beelzebub,  which  is  also  reconmiended 
by  Jerome.  What  is  the  origin  of  Beelzebub  1  The  most 
obvious  derivation  of  it  is  -'lir^y?,  Uaal  (or  lord)  of  the 
dwelling,  a  name  of  Saturn  among  tho  Phoenicians,  accord- 
ing to  Movers,  synonymous  w ilh  PVO'-'i'?-  So  it  may  mean 
Baal  of  the  hcaivnly  dwelling  or  habitation,  just  as  Satan 
is  termed  in  the  epistle  to  the  Ephcsians  (ii.  2)  "prince  of 
the  power  of  the  air."  Others  suppose  that  Beelzebul  arose 
from  Beelzebub  by  a  pun  on  the  part  of  the  later  Jews, 
who  rtishcd  to  throw  ridicule  on  idols  by  forming  the 
appellation  lord  of  dung, — '?J  or  ^3/  meaning  dung  in  the 
Targurnic  and  Talmudic  dialects.  This  is  improbable, 
because  Beelzebul  was  not  a  current  name  in  Jewish  litei.a- 
ture.  Somewhat  dilTerent  is  the  opinion  of  Lightfoot, 
based   upon   various  Talmudic  passages,   in  which  ::bul. 


504 


B  E  E  — B  E  E 


dung,  or  a  dun>fhill,  ia  applied  to  an  idol  or  idolatry 
and  the  verb  ^3?,  to  dung,  to  sacrificing  to  an  idol,'  so  that 
bl3I"7y3  is  not  a  proper  name,  but  a  general  and  common 
one,  equivalent  to  the  lord  of  idolatry,  prince  of  the  demons, 
the  most  devilized  of  all  devils  =  ap\wv  rZ>v  Zai^ioviuiv.  In 
this  way  the  word  7l3t  has  the  secondary  sense  of  idol, 
and  Baalzebul  has  no  connection  with  the  proper  name 
Beeliebub.  The  passages  m  question  are  far  from  support- 
ing the  hypothesis.  Zebul  is  not  a  Hebrew  word.  It  has 
not  the  sense  of  idol  in  Chaldee.  In  the  Targums  zebel 
has  no  other  signiBcatum  than  dung.  A  nickname  or 
opprobrious  epithet  13  not  a  real  name  or  the  signification 
of  a  word  properly  so  called.  All  that  the  quotations  fairly 
imply  is,  that  an  ignominious  name  was  sometimes  given  to 
idols  or  idolatry,  dung,  or  a  thing  of  dung.  Hence  Light- 
foot  and  those  who  follow  him,  such  as  Gesenius  and 
Schleusner,  are  in  error.  If  zebul  be  a  part  of  the  name 
Beelzebul  added  to  it  designedly,  it  is  more  probable  that 
it  was  meant  to  express  contempt  for  a  leading  god  of  the 
heathen.  But  it  is  exceedingly  doubtful  whether  it  was 
common  as  earJy  as  the  New  Testamant.  According  to 
the  Gospels,  the  Jews  attributed  the  power  of  expelling 
demons  which  Jasus  possessed  to  his  connection  with 
Satan,  the  ruler  of  the  demons  ;  and  their  notions  of 
Satanic  influence  forbid  the  idea  of  applying  the  name 
dung-god  (if  such  was  its  meaning)  to  a  being  like  the  devil. 
We  reject  the  two  leading  derivations  of  the  word'  Beel- 
zebul, whether  that  sanctioned  by  Lightfoot  and  Buxtorf, 
lord  of  dung,  which  is  adopted  by  Fritzsche  and  DeWette; 
or  lord  of  tlie  divelling,  followed  by  Paulus,  Jahn,  and 
Hitzig.  Meyer  ingeniously  supposes  that  the  latter  is 
favoured  by  the  words  of  Matthew  i.  25,  where  oiVoSfcr- 
irdn)<;  IS  thought  to  be  assigned  to  Jesus  significantly,  in 
allusion  to  BctA^f/Sou'A;  and  as  SttrTronjs  corresponds  to 
7y3,  an  analogous  word  must  be  found  for  oTkos,  viz., 
7Ut.  The  reasoning,  however,  is  fallacious.  The  reading 
in  Matthew  x.  25  is  not  certain, — Lachmann  following  the 
Vatican  MS.  in  giving  T<p  oikoSco-ttott;  instead  of  the 
usual  Toc  oiKoSto-TTOTTji'.  Then,  again,  the  passage  is  unique 
in  saying  that  the  Jews  gave  Jesus  the  sm'name  Beelzebul. 
We  learn  from  Matth.  xii.  24  that  they  said  he  cast  out 
demons  "  by  Beelzebul,  prince  of  the  demons,"  which  does 
not  agree  with  x.  25,  but  is  a  more  inteUigible  and  likely 
statement.  That  they  actually  called  Jesus  Beelzebul  is  a 
doubtful  assertion,  notwithstanding  Meyer's  aflirmation  to 
the  contrary.  The  change  of  the  final  letter  from  &  to  / 
seems  to  have  been  accidental.  Such  alterations  are  not 
unusual,  as  Bab-el-mandel  from  Bab-el-mandeb,  Eabbuli 
from  Rabbuni,  Ambakum  from  Ilabakkuk.  L,  being  a 
softer  sound  than  6,  was  a  natural  change.  Why  the  name 
Beelzebul  was  applied  to  Satan  at  the  time  of  Christ  is 
obscure.  Probably  it  originated  in  no  specific  reason.  The 
appellation  of  a  leading  god  was  readily  transferred  to  the 
devil  It  is  therefore  idle  to  inquire  on  what  grounds  the 
Jews  assigned  to  the  Beelzebub  of  Ekron  the  peculiar 
position  of  "  prince  of  the  demons."  The  Philistine  god 
had  become  but  a  name. 

Lightfoot's  Horce  Hebraeica  et  Talmudica,  Works,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
183,  189,  429,  ed.  Strypo,  1684;  Selden,  De  dia  Syrw,  SynUigms, 
ii.  cup.  vi.  p.  301,  &c.,  ed.  Lugd.  Bat.  1629;  Gesenius,  articles 
"Bel  »nd  "Beelzebub"  in  Ersch  und  Orubir'n  Enq/dopaedu; 
Baitorf,  Lexiccm  Chnldaicum  Tulmmlinim  et  Rnbbinicum,  pp.  833, 
334;  Winer's  RialvX.rlcrhuch,  a.  vv.  "Baal,"  "Beelzcbab;"  Men  in 
SchtnkeV)  Bihtl-lexicon.  vol.  i.  p.  329  ;  De  Wctta's  KrUixh-extgt- 
tv)cht4  Ilandhuch  ins  N.  T.:  Meyer's  Kommtntar  ucber  dot  Neue 
TmUnnent;  Movera's  Die  Phanmtr,  i.  p.  260.  'S.  D.) 

BEER.    See  Brewino. 

BEERSIIEB  A,  now  Bie-esSeba,  a  place  in  the  southern- 

>  8m  nierotol.  Beraehoth,  fol.  12, 13;  and  ifidrash  Shir,  fol.  2.  1. 


most  part  of  Canaan,  27  mUes  S.E.  from  Gaza,  celebrated 
for  the  sojourn  of  the  patriarchs.  The  name,  signifying 
the  well  of  the  oath,  was  bestowed  in  allusion  to  the  cove- 
nant made  there  between  Abraham  and  Abimelech,  and  is 
frequently  referred  to  in  the  Scriptures  in  describing  the 
extent  of  the  country — "from  Dan  to  Beerskeba."  The 
place  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome  in  the  4th 
century  as  a  large  village,  and  the  scat  of  a  Roman 
garrison.  At  a  later  period  it  seems  to  have  been  one  of 
the  episcopal  cities  of  Palestine,  and  some  of  its  churches 
were  standing  in  the  14th  century.  Hardly  any  remains 
of  its  buildings  are  now  left,  but  its  two  wells  are  still 
open,  and  afi'ord  an  abundant  supply  o'  pure  water,  which 
stands  in  the  larger'at  a  depth  of  44  J  feei,  and  in  the  smaller 
at  a  depth  of  12.     (See  Robinson's  Besearches,  i.  301.) 

BEET.  A  considerable  number  of  varieties  of  the  genus 
Beta  (Nat.  Ord.  Chenopodiacece)  are  cultivated  for  use  on 
account  of  their  large  fleshy  roots.  The  beets  which  are 
grown  as  root-plants,  under  the  names  of  mangel-wurzel  or 
mangold,  field-beet,  and  garden  beet,  are  generally  supposed 
to  be  cultivated  varieties  of  the  sea-beet  (B.  maritima). 
The  cultivation  o'f  beet  as  a  field  crop  is  treated  under 
AoEiCDLTXJRE  (vol.  L  p.  381);  and  in  relation  to  the 
production  of  sugar,  for  which  purpose  certain  varieties  of 
beet  stand  next  in  importance  to  the  sugar  cane,  see 
SuGAE.  The  garden-bset  has  been  cultivated  from  very 
remote  times  as  a  salad  plant,  and  fcir  general  use  as  a  tabl& 
vegetable.  The  variety  most  generally  grown  has  long, 
tapering,  carrot-shaped  roots,  the  "  ilesh  "  of  which  is  of  a 
uniform  deep  red  colour  throughout,  and  the  leaves  brown- 
ish red.  It  is  boiled  and  cut  into  slices  for  being  eaten  cold  ; 
and  it  is  also  prepared  as  a  pickle,  as  well  as  in  various 
other  forms.  Beet  is  in  much  more  common  use  on  the 
Continent  as  a  culinary  vegetable  than  in  Great  Britain, 
where  it  has,  however,  been  cultivated  for  upwards  of  two 
centuries.  The  leaves  of  the  white  Sicilian  beet  and  the 
Swiss  chard  beet,,  both  varieties  of  Beta  cicla,  are  used  for 
salads  and  otherwise  as  culinary  vegetables. 

BEETHOVEN,  LuDwio  van.  is  in  music  what  Shake- 
speare is  in  poetry,  a  name  before  the  greatness  of  which 
all  other  names,  however  great,  seem  to  dwindle.  He 
stands  at  the  end  of  an  epoch  in  musical  history,  marking 
its  climax  ;  but  his  works  at  the  same  time  have  ushered 
in  a  new  phase  of  progress,  from  which  everything  that  is 
great  m  modern  music  has  taken  its  nse.  This  historic 
side  of  his  genius  will  have  to  be  further  dealt  with  when 
the  progress  of  musical  art  is  traced  in  its  continuity.  (See 
article  Music,  histonc  section.)  At  present  we  have  to  con- 
sider Beethoven  chiefly  as  a  man  and  an  individual  artist, 
showing  at  the  same  time  the  reciprocal  relations  between 
his  life  and  his  work.  For  although  the  most  ideal  artist 
in  that  rnost  ideal  of  arts — music — he  is  always  inspired 
by  the  deepest  sense  of  truth  and  reality.  The  grand 
note  of  sadness  resounding  in  his  compositions  is  the 
reverberation  of  personal  suffering.  He  was  a  great  artist 
only  because  he  was  a  great  man,  and  a  sad  man  withaL 

"The  family  of  Beethoven  is  traceable  to  a  village  near 
Lowen  in  Belgium,  in  the  17th  century.  In  1650  a 
member  of  this  family,  a  lineal  ancestor  of  our  composer, 
settled  in  Antwerp.  Beethoven's  grandfather,  Louis,  owing 
to  a  quarrel  with  his  family,  left  Belgium  for  Germany, 
and  came  to  Bonn  in  1732,  where  his  musical  talents  and 
his  beautiful  voice  did  not  long  remain  unnoticed.  The 
archbishop  of  Cologne,  an  art-loving  prelate,  received  him 
amongst  his  court-musicians  ;  and  the  same  position  after- 
wards was  held  by  Ludwig's  son,  Johann,  our  composer's 
father.  The  latter  was  married  to  Maria  Magdalena 
Keverich,  daughter  of  a  cook,  and  widow  of  a  valet-de-fhafnbre 
of  the  elector  of  Treves.  The  day  of  our  composer's  birth 
is  uncertain;  he  was  baptised  Dec.  17,  1770,  and  received 


BEETHOVEN" 


505 


tlia  aanie  of  his  paternal  grandfather  Louis,  or,  in  its  Ger- 
manized form,  Liidmg.     Beethoven  himself  seems  to  have 
coQiidered  the  ICth  December  of  the  said  year  iis  birthday, 
but  documentary  evidenc    is  wanting.     At  one  period  of 
his  life  he  beheved  hiirse'f  to  have  been  bom  in  1772, 
being  most  likely  deceived  on  the  point  by  his  father,  who 
tried  to  endow  his  son  and  pupil  with  the  prestige  of  mira- 
culous precocity.     No  less  uncertain  than  the  data  is  the 
exjct  place  of  the  great  composer's  birth  ;   two  houses  in 
IJono  claim  the  honou    o!   having  been  the  scene  of  the 
important  event.     The  ycath  of    Beethoven   was   passed 
ur.der  by  no  means  hajpy  circumstances.    His  father  was 
of  a  rougli  and  violent  temper,  not  improved  by  his  passion 
for  into.\icatingdrini£,  nor  by  the  dire  poverty  under  which 
the  family  laboured.     His   chief   desire  was  to  reap  the 
eirliest  possible  advantage  from  the  musical  abilities  of  his 
eon,  who,  in  consequence,  had  at  the  age  of  five  to  submit  to 
a  severe  training  on  the  violin  under  the  father's  super- 
vision.    Little  benefit  was  derived  from  this  unsystematic 
mode  of  instruction,  which,  fortunately,  was  soon  abandoned 
for  a  more  methodical  course  of  pianoforte  lessons  under  a 
musician  of  the  name  of    Pfeiffer.     Under  him  ard  two 
other  masters.  Van  der  Eden  and  Neefe,  Beethoven  made 
rapid  progress  as  a  player  of  the  organ  and  pianoforte  ; 
his  proficiency   in  the  theoretical    knowledge  of  his   art 
the  aspiring  composer  soon  displayed  m  a  set  of  Varia- 
tions on  a  March  published   m    1783,  with    the  inscrip- 
tion on  the  title-page,  "  par  un  jeujie  amateur,   Louis  van 
Beethoven,  dgi  dix  aiis,"  a  statement  the  inaccuracy  of  which 
the  reader  will  be  able  to  trace  to  its  proper  source.     In 
1  'd5    Beethoven    was   appointed   assistant  of    the  court- 
organist  Neefe  ;  and  in  a  catalogue  rauonni  of  the  musicians 
attached  to  the  court  of  the  archbishop,  he  is  described  as 
"of  good  capacity,  youi  g,  of  good,  quiet  behaviour,  and 
poor."     The  elector  of  Cologne  at  the  time  was  Max  Franz, 
a  brother  of    the   Emperor  Joseph,    who  seems   to    have 
recognized  the  first  sparks  of  genius  in  the  quiet  and  Utile 
communicative  youth.    By  him  Beethoven  was,  in  1787,  sent 
for  a  short  time  to  Vienna,  to  receive  a  few  lessons  from 
Mozart,  who  is  said  to  have  predicted  a  great  future  for 
his  youthful    pupil.     Beethoven  soon   returned   to  Bonn, 
where  he  remained  for  the  next  five  years  in  the  position 
already  described.     Little  remains  to  be  said  of  this  penod 
of  apprenticeship.      Beethoven  conscientiously  studied  his 
art.  and  reluctantly  saw  himself  compelled  to  alleviate  the 
difficulties  of  his  family  by  giving  lessons.     This  aversion 
to  making  his  art  useful  to   himself    by  imparting  it  to 
others  remained  a  characteristic  feature  of  our  master  dur- 
ing  all  his  life.     Of  the  compositions  belonging  to  this 
tune  nothing  now  remains  ;  and  it  must  be  confessed  that, 
compared  with  those  of  other  masters,  of  Mozart  or  Handel, 
for   instance,   Beethoven's  early  years   were    little    fertile 
with  regard  either  to  the  quantity  or  the  quality  of  the 
works  produced.      Aciongst  the  names  connected  \vith  his 
•lay  at  Bonn  we  mer  tion  only  that  of  his  first  friend  and 
protector.  Count  Waldstein.  to  whom  it  is  said  Beethoven 
owed  bis  appointment  at  the  electoral  court,  and  his  first 
journey  to  Vienna.     To  the  latter  city  the  young  musician 
repaired  a  secoud  time  in  1792,  in  order  to  complete  his 
•tudies  under  Haydn,  the  greatest  master  then  living,  who 
had  become  acquainted  with  Beethoven's  talent  as  a  pianist 
and  composer  on  a  pri  nous  occasion.    The  relation  of  these 
two  great  men  was  m  t  to  be  fruitful  or  pleasant  to  either 
of  them.     The  mild,  easiygoing  nature  of   the  senescent 
Viennese  master  was  little  adapted  to  inspire  with  awe,  or 
«vcn  with  sympathy,  the  fiery  Khemsh  youth.     Beethoven 
in  after  life  asserted  that  he  had  never  learned  anything 
from  Uaydn,  and  seems  even  to  have  doubted  the-  latter's 
intention  of  teaching  him  in  a  proper  manner.     He  seems  to 
faave  had  more  confidence  in  the  instruction  of  Albrechta- 


berger,  a  dry  but  thorough  scholar.  He  however,  and 
all  the  other  masters  of  Beethoven  agree  ic  the  statement, 
that  being  taught  was  not  much  to  the  liking  of  their  self- 
willed  pupiL  He  preferred  acquiring  by  his  own  toilsome 
experience  what  it  would  have  been  easier  to  accept  on  the 
authority  of  others.  This  autodidactic  vein,  inherent,  it 
seems,  in  all  artistic  genius,  was  of  immenie  importance 
in  the  development  of  Beethoven's  ideas  and  mode  of  ex- 
pression. 

In  the  meantime  his  worldly  prospects  seemed  to  be  of 
the  brightest  kiad.  The  introductions  from  the  archbishop 
and  Count  Waldstein  gave  him  admittance  to  the  drawing- 
rooms  of  the  Austrian  aristocracy,  an  aristocracy  unrivalled 
by  that  of  any  other  country  in  its  appreciation  of  artistic 
and  especially  musical  talent  Vienna,  moreover,  had  been 
recently  the  scene  of  Mozart's  truimphs  ;  ai  d  that  prophet's 
cloak  now  seemed  to  rest  on  the  shoulderi  of  the  young 
Rhenish  musician.  It  was  chiefly  his  original  style  as  a 
pianist,  combined  with  an  astonishing  gift  of  improvisation, 
that  at  first  impressed  the  amateurs  of  the  capital ;  and 
it  seems,  indeed,  that  even  Haydn  expected  greater  things 
from  the  executive  than  from  the  creative  talent  of  his 
pupiL  .  It  may  be  added  here,  that,  according  to  the 
unanimous  verdict  of  competent  witnesses,  Beethoven's 
greatness  as  a  pianoforte  player  consisted  more  in  the  bold, 
impulsive  rendering  of  his  poetical  intentions  than  in  the 
absolute  finish  of  his  technique,  which,  particularly  in  hia 
later  years,  when  his  growing  deafness  debarred  him  from 
self-criticism,  was  somewhat  deficient. 

As  a  composer  Beethoven  appeared  before  the  public 
of  the  Austrian  capital  in  1795.  In  that  year  his  Three 
Trios  for  Pianoforte  and  Strings  were  published.  Beetho- 
ven called  this  wi  rk  his  Opus  1,  and  thus  seems  to  disown 
his  former  compcsitions  as  juvenile  attempts  unworthy  of 
remembrance,  i  e  was  at  that  time  twenty-five,  an  age  at 
which  Mozart  ha  reaped  some  of  the  npest  fruits  of  his 
genius.  But  Bei  thoven's  works  are  not  like  those  of  the 
earlier  master,  the  result  of  juvenile  and  all  but  unconscious 
spontaneity  ;  they  are  the  bitter  fruits  of  thought  and  sor- 
row, the  results  of  a  passionate  but  conscious  stnfe  for 
ideal  aims.  Before  considering  these  works  in  their  chie^ 
features,  we  will  add  a  few  more  remarks  as  to  the  hfe 
and  character  of  I  heir  Author.  The  events  of  his  outward 
career  are  so  few  i  nd  of  so  simple  a  kind  that  a  continuous 
narrative  seems  hardly  required.  The  numerous  admirers 
whom  Beethoven's  art  had  foun('i  amongst  the  highest 
circles  of  \  lenna, — Archduke  Rude  f,  his  devoted  pupil  and 
friend,  amongst  th'  number, — determined  him  to  take  up  his 
permanent  residence  in  that  city,  which  henceforth  he  left 
only  for  occasional  excursions  to  Baden,  Modling,  and 
other  places  in  the  beautiful  surroundings  of  the  Austrian 
capital.  It  was  here,  in  his  lonely  walks,  th.at  the  master 
received  new  impulse  from  his  admiring  intercourse  with 
nature,  and  that  most  of  his  grandest  works  were  concewed 
and  partly  sketched.  Except  for  a  single  artistic  tour  to 
Northern  Germany  in  1796,  Beetaoven  never  left  Vienna 
for  any  length  of  time.  A  long-projected  journey  to 
England,  in  answer  to  an  invitation  of  the  Londoi> 
Philharmonic  Society,  was  u  timately  made  impossible  by 
lU  health.  Beethoven's  reputation  as  a  composer  soon 
became  established  beyond  tlie  limits  of  his  own  country, 
n:)twithstanding  the  charges  cf  abstruseness,  unpopularity, 
and  the  like,  vhich  he,  like  most  men  of  original  power, 
had  to  submit  to  from  the  obtuse  arrogance  of  contem- 
porary criticisn.  The  summit  of  his. fame,  so  far  as.il 
manifested  itsdf  iu  personal  honours  conferred  upon  him, 
was  reached  ir  1815,  when  Beethoven  celebrated  by  a 
Symphony  th?  victories  of  the  Allies  over  the  French 
oppressor,  and  was  rewarded  by  the  applause  of  the 
sovereigns  of  Lurope,  assembled  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 


606 


BEETHOVEN 


In  the  same  ycoj  he  received  the  freedom  of  that  city,  an 
honaur  much  valued  by  him.  After  that  time  his  imme- 
diate popularity  began  to  some  extent  to  decline  before 
the  eohemeral  splendour  of  the  composers  of  the  day ;  and 
the  great  master  saemed  henceforth  to  speak  more  to  coming 
generatioiis  than  to  his  ungrateful  contemporaries.  When, 
however,  ,011.  rare  occasions  he  emerged  from  his  solitude, 
the  old  spell  of  his  overpowering  genius  proved  to  be 
unbroken.  In  particular,  mention  must  be  made  of  that 
Tiemorabla  Academic  (concert)  in  1824,  at  which  his  0th 
5ymphony,  and  parts  of  the  grand  Afissa  Soiemnis,  were 
performed,  producmg  a  storm  of  applause — inaudible, 
alas !  to  the  composer,  who  had  to  ,.be  turned  round  by 
one  of  the  singers  to  realize,  from  the  waving  of  hats  and 
handkerchiefs,  the  etTect  of  his  work  on  the  excited 
multitude. 

The  last-mentioned  incident  leads  us  to  one  of  the  most 
tragic  features  of  Beethoven's  life.  By  the  bitter  irony  of 
fate,  he  who  had  given  to  thousands  enjoyment  and  eleva- 
tion of  the  heart  by  the  art  of  sound,  was  himself  deprived 
>f  the  sense  ef  hearing.  The  first  traces  of  beginning 
leafness  showed  themselves  as  early  as  1797,  and  were  per- 
ceived by  the  master  with  an  anxiety  bordering  on  despair. 
Physicians  and  quacks  were  consulted  with  eagerness,  but 
all  their  efforts  ([.^artly  impaired,  it  must  be  confessed,  by 
the  unruly  disposition  of  the  patient)  proved  unable  to  stem 
the  encroaching  evil.  The  Royal  Library  of  Berlin  pos- 
sesses a  melancholy  collection  of  ear-trumpets  and  sunihr 
instruments,  partly  made  erpressly  for  Beethoven  to  assist 
his  weaker^ed  sense,  but  all  to  no  avail.  In  his  latter  years 
conversation  with  him  could  be  carried  on  by  writing  only, 
and  of  the  charms  of  his  own  art  he  was  wholly  deprived. 
But  here,  again,  the  victory  of  mind  over  matter, — of 
genius  over  circumstance,  —  was  evinced  in  the  most 
triumphant  manner.  It  has  been  asserted,  not  without 
reason,  that  the  euphonious  beauty  of  some  of  Beethoven's 
vocal  compositions  has  suffered  through  his  inability  to 
listen  to  them  ;  but  how  grand  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  spectacle  of  an  artist  deprived  of  all  intercourse  with 
what  to  him  in  this  world  was  dearest,  and  yet  pouring 
forth  the  lonely  aspirations  of  his  soul  in  works  all  the  more 
sublime  as  we  seem  to  hear  in  them  the  voice  of  the  inner- 
most spirit  of  mankind,  inaudible  to  the  keen  ears  of 
other  mortals.  If  in  this  manner  the  isolation  of  Beethoven 
further  sublimated  his  efforts  as  an  artist,  it,  on  the  other 
hand,  poignantly  intensified  his  sufferings  as  a  man.  His 
was  a  heart  open  to  the  impressions  of  friendship  and 
lov«,  and,  in  spite  of  occasional  roughness  of  utterance, 
yearning  for  the  responsive  affection  of  his  kind.-  Tt  is 
deeply  touching  to  read  the  following  words  in  the  master's 
last  will,  written  during  a  severe  illness  in  180J2  : — "  Ye 
men,"  Beethoven  writes,  "  who  believe  or  say  that  I  am 
inimical,  rough,  or  misanthropical,  how  unjust  are  you  to 
me  in  your  ignorance  of  the  secret  cause  of  what  appears 
to  you  in  that  light.  .  .  .  Born  with  a  fiery,  lively  temper, 
Slid  susceptible  to  the  enjoyment  of  society,  I  have  been 
compelled  early  to'  isolate  myself  and  lead*  a  lonely  life  ; 
whenever  I  tried  to  overcome  this  isolation,  oh  !  bow  dyubly 
bitter  was  thep  the  sad  experience  of  my  bad  hearing,  which 
repelled  mo  again  ;  and  yet  it  was  impossible  for  me  to 
tell  people,  'Speak  louder,  shout,  for  I  am  deaf.'" 

Domestic  troubles  and  discomforts  contributed  in  a 
minor  degree  to  darken  the  shadow  cast  over  our  master's 
life  by  the  misfortune  just  alluded  to.  Although  by  no 
means  loacnsible  to  female  beauty,  and  indeed  frequently 
enraptured  in  his  grand,  chaste  way,  with  the  charms  of 
some  lady,  Beethoven  never  married,  and  was,  in  con- 
sequence, deprived  of  that  feeling  of  home  and  comfort 
which  only  the  unceasing  care  of  refined  womanhood  can 
bes'nw.     Hi»  helplessness  and  icnorance  of  worldly  mailers 


completely  exposed  him  to  the  ill-treatment,  J  servants, 
frequently,  perhaps,  excited  by  his  own  morbid  suspicions 
and  complaints.  On  one  occasion  the  great  master  v/as 
discovered  with  his  face  bleeding  from  the  scratches 
inflicted  by  his  own  val«t.  It  was  from  amidst  such 
surroundings  that  Beethoven  ascended  to  the  sublime  eleva- 
tion of  such  works  as  his  Missa  Solemms  or  his  9tti 
Symphony.  But  his  deepest  wounds  were  to  be  inflicted 
bv  dearer  and  nearer  hands  than  those  of  brutal  domestics, 
Beethoven  had  a  nephew,  rescued  by  him  from  vice  and 
misery,  and  loved  with  a  more  than  father's  affection. 
His  education  the  master  watched  with  unceasing  care. 
For  him  he  hoarded  with  anxious  parsimony  the  scanty 
earnings  of  his  artistic  labour.  Unfortunately,  the  young 
man  was  unworthy  of  such  love,  and  at  last  disgraced  his 
great  name  by  an  attempt  at  suicide,  to  the  deepest  grief 
of  his  noble  guardian  and  benefactor. 

Beethoven  died  on  March  27,  1S27,  during  a  terrible 
thunderstorm.  It  ought  to  fill  every  Englishman's  heart 
with  pride  that  it  was  given  to  the  London  Philharmonic 
Society  to  relieve  the  anxieties  of  Beethoven's  deathbed  by 
a  liberal  gift,  and  that  almost  the  last  utterances  of  the 
dying  man  were  words  of  thanks  to  his  friends  and  admirers 
in  this  country. 

Beethoven's  compositions,  138  in  number,  comprise  all 
the  forms  of  vocal  and  instrumental  music,  from  the  sonata 
to  the  symphony, — from  the  simple  song  to  the  opera  and 
oratorio.  In  each  of  these  forms  he  displayed  the  depth  of 
his  feeling,  the  power  of  his  genius  ;  in  some  of  them  he 
reached  a  greatness  never  approached  by  his  predeces-^^ors 
or  followers.  His  pianoforte  sonatas  have  brought  the 
technical  resources  of  that  instrument  to  a  perfection 
previously  unknown,  but  they  at  the  same  time  embody  an 
infinite  variety  and  depth  of  emotion.  His  nine  symphonies 
show  a  continuous  climax  of  development,  ascending  from 
the  simpler  forms  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  to  the  colossal 
dimensions  of  the  Choral  S>/mphony,  which  almost  seems 
to  surpass  the  possibilities  of  artistic  expansion,  and  the 
subject  of  which  is  humanity  itself  with  its  sufTerings  and 
ideals.  His  dramatic  works — the  opera  FidfUo,  and  the 
overtures  to  Ejmont  and  Coriolanus — display  depth  of 
pathos  and  force  of  dramatic  characterization.  Even  his 
smallest  songs  and  pianoforte-pieces  reflect  a  heart  full  of 
love,  and  a  mind  bent  on  thoughts  of  eternal  things. 

Beethoven's  career  as  a  composer  is  generally  divided 
into  three  periods  of  gradual  progress.  We  subjoin  a  li.st 
of  his  most  important  compositions,  grouped  accurdiug  to 
the  principle  indicated. 

The  first  period  extends  to  the  year  1800.  At  the 
beginning  we  see  Beethoven  under  the  influence  of  his  great 
predecessors,  Haydn  and  Mozart,  but  progressing  in  rapid 
strides  towards  independence  of  thought  and  artistic  power. 
To  this  time  belong  Three  Trios  for  Pianoforte  and  Strings, 
Op.  1 ;  Sonata  for  Pianoforte  in  E  flat.  Op.  7  ;  Trio  for 
Pianoforte  und  Strings  in  B  flat,  Op.  1 1 ;  Sonate  Pathetique; 
First  Concerto  for  Pianoforte  and  Orchestra  in  C,  Op.  15 ; 
Adelaida  (composed  1797);  also  the  celebrated  Septuor, 
Op.  20,  and  the  First  Symphony,  Op.  21  (the  last  two  works 
published  in  1800). 

The  second  period,  from  1800-1814,  marks  the  climax 
of  formal  perfection.  The  works  of  this  time  show  the 
highest  efforts  of  which  music  as  an  independent  art  is 
capable.  We  mention  the  .Mass  in  C,  Op.  86;  our  master's 
only  operi,  Ftdclio,  and  his  overture  and  incidental  music 
to  Goethe's  Eijmont ,  the  Symphonies,  Nos.  2-8,  amongst 
which  those  called   the  J\iitoral,  the  Eroica,^  and  those 


'  This  sympliony  was  originally  nTitten  io  celebration  of  Napoleon, 
at  Ileal  liDie  consul  of  the  French  Republic.  Wlun  IkcthoveD  beard 
of  Li«  assuming  tlio  Imperial  tillp,  he  tore  off  lb"  dcdicatioi]  and 
trampled  it  under  fool. 


E  E  — B  E  G 


501 


fn  C  mioor  nnd  A  major  deserve  special  mention  ;  Concerto 
for  the  Violin,  Op.  61  ;  Concerti  for  the  Pianoforte,  Noa. 
3-5  ;  Overtures  to  Prometheus,  Coriolanus,  FiJclio,  and 
Kiny  Strphcn  ;  also  numerous  sonatas  for  the  pianoforte, 
quartets,  quintets,  anj  other  pieces  of  chamber  music. 

The  third  period  may  bo  described  as  that  of  yioelic 
music, — a  distinct  poe^ic  idea  becoming  the  moving  prin- 
ciple before  which  the  forms  of  absolute  music  have  to 
yield,  lieethoven  has,  by  the  works  belonging  ta  this 
class,  ushered  in  a  new  phase  of  music,  as  will  be  further 
shown  in  the  historical  sketch  of  the  art.  We  name  that 
unequalled  master-piece  of  symphonic  art,  the  Ninth  or 
Charal  6ijmphony ;  the  Missa  Solemn  is  ;  the  Sonatas  for 
Pianoforte,  numbered  respectively  Op.  101,  102,  106, 
109,  110,  111  ;  the  marvellous  Quartets  for  Strings,  Op. 
127,  130,  132,  135 ;  also  the  33  Variations  on  a  Valse  by 
Diabelli,  Op  120. 

For  fuller  information  on  the  great  master's  life  and 
works  than  our  limited  space  has  permitted  us  to  give,  we 
refer  the  reader  to  the  biographical  and  critical  works  of 
Schindlcr,  Thayer,  Xohl,  Marx,  and  Nottebohm.     (f.  h.) 

BEETLE,  a  name  commonly  applied  to  those  insects 
which  form  the  order  Coleoptera  ("  sheathwinged  "),  and 
which  are  readily  distinguished  from  all  others  by  the 
nature  of  the  two  upper  wings.  These  are  formed  of  a 
hard,  horny  substance  known  as  chilin  ;  and,  although  use- 
less in  flight,  they  serve  as  shields  for  the  protection  of  the 
delicate  v/ings  underneath,  while  in  many  cases  their  hard- 
ness protects  the  beetle  itself  from  the  attacks  of  insecti- 
vorous birds.  In  some  instances  the  elytra,  as  those  upper 
wings  are  called,  are  firmly  soldered  together,  and  such 
species  are  thus  rendered  incapable  of  flight.  Owing  to 
the  beauty  of  many  of  the  exotic  species,  and  the  ease  with 
which  they  can  be  preserved,  beetles  have  been  collected 
with  great  diligence  by  entomologists,  so  that  nearly  80,000 
Bpecies,  it  is  estimated,  have  already  been  described. 
Among  the  members  of  so  large  a  group  it  need  hardly  be 
said  that  the  greatest  diversity  exists  in  form  and  habits. 
They  are  all,  however,  provided  with  a  masticatory  moutli ; 
and  in  such  predatory  species  as  the  Tiger  Beetles,  the 
mandibles  are  largely  developed,  and  often  armed  with 
acute  teeth.  Many  of  them  are  carnivorous,  feeding  on 
other  insects,  and  on  decaying  animal  matter ;  but  the 
larger  proportion  live  on  the  fruits,  leaves,  and  stems  of 
plants,  in  many  instances  doing  great  damage  to  cereal 
crops  and  forest  trees.  In  Germany,  in  the  year  1783,  a 
million  and  a  half  of  trees  are  said  to  have  been  destroyed 
in  the  Uarz  Forest  alone  by  means  of  two  small  species  of 
wood-boring  beetles  ;  and  in  North  America  at  the  present 
time  the  potato  crop  is  being  annually  blighted  by  the 
devastations  of  the  larva:  of  what  is  known  as  the  Potato 
hiei\e(Doryphora  decemlineata).  Beetles  iriidergo  complete ' 
metamorphosis,  passing  from  the  larva  to  the  pupa  stage, 
in  which  they  sometimes  remain  for  several  years  before 
emerging  as  fuJl-formcd  insects  ;  others,  however,  undergo 
all  the  changes  from  egg  to  beetle  in  a  few  months.  Many 
of  those  insect  i,  such  as  the  Goliath  and  Hercules  Beetles, 
attain  gigantic  proportions,  measuring  often  6  inches  long, 
exclufiivo  of  antennoe,  and  2  inches  broad  ;  and  many  bear 
on  the  upper  sjrface  of  their  bodies  curious  hornlike  pro- 
jections. 0th  ;rs,  as  the  Diamond  Beetle  of  Brazil,  are 
adorned  with  the  rno-st  brilliant  colours,  showing  a.  beautiful 
metallic  lustre ;  and  the  elytra  of  such  species  arc  now 
largely  used  by  jewellers  in  the  manufacture  of  personal 
ornaments.     See  Coleoptera  and  I.nsects. 

BEGAS,KAi!i.,a  distinguished  Gennaii historical  painter, 
was  born  at  Ilcinsberg  in  1794,  and  died  in  1854.  His 
father,  a  retired  judge,  destined  him  for  the  legal  profession, 
but  the  boy's  tastes  pointed  definitely  in  another  direction. 
Even  at  school  bo  was  remarked  for  his  wonderful  skill  in 


drawing  and  pairtiin^,  anvi  in  1810  he  was  pcrmiited  to 
visit  Paris  in  order  to  perfect  himself  in  his  art.  He 
studied  for  eighteen  months  in  the  atelier  of  Gros,  and 
then  began  to  work  independently.  In  1814  his  copy  of 
the  Madonna  dclla  Sedia  was  bought  by  the  king  of 
Prussia,  who  was  attracted  by  the  young  artist,  and.  did 
much  to  advance  him.  He  was  engaged  to  paint  several 
large  Biblical  pictures,  and  in  1825,  after  his  return  from 
Italy,  continued  to  produce  paintings  which  were  placed  ia 
the  churches  of  Berlin  and  Potsdam.  Some  of  these  wer» 
historical  pieces,  but  the  majority  were  representations  of 
Scriptural  incidents.  Begas  was  also  celebrated  as  a  portrait 
painter,  aud  supplied  to  the  royal  gallery  a  long  series  of 
portraits  of  eminent  Pnissian  men  of  letters.  At  his  deatb 
he  hold  the  post  of  court  painter. 

BEGBAZAAU,  or  Beibazaar,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
in  the  Anatolian  province'  of  Angora,  situated  on  the 
Sangarius  or  Sakaria,  about  52  miles  \V.  of  the  provincial 
capital.  Its  houses  are  two  stories  in  height,  and  roofed 
with  shingles.  Carpet-weaving  is  carried  on  in  the  town, 
and  ricp,  cotton,  and  fruits  arc  cultivated  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. The  pears  that  are  sold  in  Constantinople  as  the 
produce  of  Angora  are  really  grown  by  the  people  of 
Bcgbazaar.  Numerous  remains  of  ancient  works  in  marble 
are  found  throughout  the  town.     Population,  4750. 

BEGHARDS  and  BEGUINES.  The  nature  and 
history  of  the  Beghards  is  one  of  the  obscurest  problems 
iu  mcdi:eval  times,  and  nothing  very  certain  has  been 
ascertained.  During  the  Middle  Ages  there  were  formed, 
alongside  of  the  regular  orders,  companies  of  men  and 
women  who  devoted  themselves  to  a  religious  life,  but  did 
not  bind  themselves  by  strict  vows.  The  design  was  to  enable 
men  and  women,  who  did  not  mean  to  separate  thems  e» 
entirely  from  the  world,  to  lead,  nevertheless,  what,  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  was  esteemed  (he  religious  life.  Such  com- 
panies were  the  Tertiarii  of  the  Dominican  and  Franciscan 
orders,  and  at  first  the  Beghards  and  Beguincs  were 
similarly  constituted.  The  first  notices  we  have  of  them 
tell  us  that,  in  the  end  of  the  12th  century,  in  several  of 
the  towns  of  the  Netherlands,  companies  of  women  formed 
themselves  together,  under  a  simple  rule,  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  care  of  the  sick  and  for  other  charitable  objects. 
They  were  generally  widows  and  maidens  of  high  rank,  and 
were  called  Beghina;,  or  Beguinoe,  or  Begutt-TS.  The  origin 
of  the  word  is  very  obscure.  Some  time  later,  companies 
of  men  were  formed  in  a  similar  way,  and  under  the  same 
rule.  They  took  no  vows,  and  were  at  liberty  to  leave  tha 
company  when  they  liked.  The  men  were  vailed  Beghards. 
In  the  14th  century  these  Beghards  seem  to  have  attached 
themselves  to  the  P'ranciscans,  and  to  have  been  instni- 
mental  in  exciting  to  revolt  that  portion  of  the  order  which 
rebelled  against  the  Pope.  For  some  period,  indeed,  the 
terms  Fratricelli  or  Spirituales  (the  two  names  for  the  rebel 
Franciscans)  are  used  synonymously  with  Beghards.  It  is 
believed  that  the  Arabian  pantheism  of  Averroes  had 
became  diffused  among  many  of  the  mystical  sects,  and  that 
societies,  originajly  purely  religious,  had  become  partly 
political.  We  know,  at  all  events,  that,  in  the  14lh  centur}', 
the  Beghards  were  in  close  alliance  with  the  communistic 
and  pantheistic  "  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit."  Clement 
V.  denounced  them  at  the  Council  of  Vienna,  and  launched 
two  bulls  against  them  ;  the  Inquisition  was  ordered  to 
suppress  them  ;  and  Pope  John  XXII.,  while  he  protected 
the  Beguines,  persecuted  the  Beghards.  Such  Beghards  as 
still  remained  were  absorbed  in  the  Tertiarii  of  the 
Franciscans  in  the  17lh  century  ;  but  small  communities  of 
Bcmincs — Beguinages,  as  they  are  called — still  exist  in 
the  Netherlands,  and  in  their  organization  are  somewhat 
similar  to  many  Anglican  sisterhood?.  .{Cf.  Mosheim,  D« 
Beghardi*   et   Beguinabui,   the   book    upon    the    oubject. 


508 


B  E  H       B  E  H 


and  Haliii'a  Gesckv:hte  d^jr  A'^tzcr  vii  MUteialter.     For  tlie 
meaning  of  the  word  see  bu  Caiige,  Gloss) 

BEHAR,  a  province  of  British  India,  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal,  situated  between 
24"  and  28°  N.  lat.,  and  83°  and  89°  E.  long.  It  coiniirises 
the  districts  of  Chainpiran,  Tirhut,  ShAhdbid,  SArdn,  Patni, 
Purniah,  Bhdgalpur,  and  the  SantAl  parganis ;  and  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  independent  kingdom  of  NepAl ; 
■on  the  E.  by  the  Rdjshihl  and  Bard  win  divisions  of  Bengal 
proper  ;  on  the  S.  by  the  Chhotd  Ndgpur  division  ;  and  on. 
the  \V.  by  the  North- Western  Provinces.  The  general  aspect 
of  the  country  is  flat,  except  in  the  district  of  Monghir, 
where  detached  hills  occur,  and  in  the  south-east  of  the 
province,  where  the  Rijmahal  and  SantAl  ranges  abut  upon 
the  plains. 

Bchar  abounds  in  ercat  rivers,  such  as  the  Ganges,  with  its 
Irihutaries,  the  Ghagra,  Gaadak,  Kusi,  Mahananda,  and  Sod.  The 
Ganges  enters  the  province  near  the  town  of  Baxar,  flows  eastward, 
and  passing  the  towns  of  Dinajpur,  Patna,  Monghir,  and  Colgong, 
leaves  the  province  at  lUjmahal.  It  divides  the  province  into  two 
almost  equal  portions;  north  of  the  river  lie  the  districts  of  S.iran, 
Champaran,  Tirhut,  Kurniah,  and  part  of  llonghir  and  Bhagalpur, 
and  south  of  it  are  Shdhabad,  Patna,  Gaya,  the  Kantal  parganas,  and 
the  rest  of  Monghir  and  Bhagalpur.  The  Ganges  and  ila  northern 
tributaries  are  navigable  by  country  boats  of  large  burden  all  the 
year  round.  The  Son  tthe  most  important  of  the  southern  tribu- 
taries) enters  the  province  in  the  extreme  south-west,  and  forming 
for  a  short  distance  its  boundary  in  that  direction,  flaws  north,  past 
Uhotasgarh  and  Arab,  separating  the  districts  of  Sbahabad  from 
those  of  Gayi  and  Patn,i,  and  joins  the  Ganges  opposite  Chapra.  It 
has  a  very  wide  bed,  and  pours  down  its  waters  with  great  velocity 
during  the  rains.  The  principal  hills  within  the  province  are  the 
Moher  hill  in  the  district  of  Gaya,  1620  feet;  Santal  pargani  hills, 
800  to  1600  feet;  R;ijmah.al  and  Monghir  hills,  160O  feet;  and 
Uijgarh  hill  in  Patna,  1200  feet  above  sea-level. 

liehar  Province  contains  eight  districts,  with  an  area  of  42,417 
square  niilea,  and  a  total  population  in  1872  of  19,736,101  souls, 
inhabiting  48,285  vill.ages  or  townships,  and  3,252,036  houses; 
persons  per  square  mile,  465;  per  village,  409.  The  males  num- 
bered 9,797,649,  or  49  6  per  cent,  and  the  females,  9.938,452, 
or  60'4  percent.,  of  the  total  population.  Of  the  provincial  popula- 
tion, 16,526,850,  or  837  per  cent.,  were  Hindus  ;  2,636,053,  or 
134  per  cent.,  Mahometans  ;  64  Buddhists;  8063  Christians; 
and  565,081,  or  2'9  per  cent,  of  unspecified  religion,  mostly 
aborigines.  Of  the  male  adults,  3,613,231  are  returned  as  agricul- 
turists, and  2,489,557  non-agriculturists.  The  aboriginal  tiibes 
consist  of  the  Bhars,  Cherus,  Dhangars,  Kanjh.irs,  Kharwars,  Kols, 
Mais,  Naiyas,  Nats,  Paharias,  Santals,  and  Tharus.  The  census  of 
J 872  returned  49  towns  as  containing  upwards  of  5000  inhabitants, 
jiaiticulars  of  which  will  be  found  in  the  accounts  of  the  districts 
within  which  they  are  situated.  Rice,  wheat,  barley,  pulses,  maize, 
and  various  kinds  of  millets,  form  the  principal  food-grains  of  the 
province.  Rice  is  the  main  staple  of  food  ;  but  in  elevated  and  dry 
localities,  wheat,  moi^e,  millet,  and  peas  are  substituted.  Potatoes, 
cabbages,  &c. ,  were  introduced  by  Europeans,  and  are  now  largely 
cultivated.  Many  kinds  of  fruits  and  vegetables  are  also  produced. 
The  commercial  staples  consist  of  oil-seeds,  opium,  indigo,  sugar, 
cotton,  and  saltpetre.  Upwards  of  800,000  tons  of  oil-seeds  were 
•exported  from  lich.ar  in  1872.  The  principal  marts  for  oil-seeds  are 
Rcvelgnnj,  in  the  Sdran  district,  and  Koshri  in  Tirhut.  The'' 
cultivation  of  opium  is  a  Government  monopoly,  and  no  person  is 
allowed  to  grow  the  poppy  except  on  account  of  Government.  The 
Itehar  Opium  Agency  has  its  headquarters  at  the  town  of  Patna. 
Annual  engagomnnts  are  entered  into  by  the  cultivators,  under  a 
system  of  pecuniary  advances,  to  sow  a  certain  quantity  of  land  with 
poppy,  and  the  whole  produce  in  the  form  of  opium  is  delivered  to 
Government  at  a  fixed  rate.  The  area  under  poppy  cultivation  in 
tlie  Behar  Agency  in  1872  amounted  to  330,.925  acres.  The  Bchar 
indigo,  generally  called  Ti.hut  indigo,  yields  about  one-half  of  the 
total  produce  of  that  dye  which  is  annually  exported  from  Calcutta. 
In  the  Bhagalpur  division  there  are  44  factories,  yieldinff  on  an 
average  about  500  tons  of  indigo  a  year.  In  tho  i'atn.-i  division, 
indigo  cultivation  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  north  of  the 
Ganges,  in  tho  districts  of  Tirhut,  Saran,  and  Ch.imparan,  which 
in  1872  contained  104  factories,  including  outworks,  and  yichlcd 
1958  tons  of  the  dye.  Tlie  indigo  industry  is  almost  entirely 
Conducted  by  Kuropcans,  and  the  total  capital  invested  in  the 
bii'iinesB  in  liehar  is  estimritcd  at  upwards  of  a  million  sterling. 
Largo  quantities  of  sugar  are  exported,  but  the  cotton  grown  in  the 
province  is  not  sufficient  for  the  requirements  of  the  people,  and 
has  to  be  supplemented  by  imports  of  raw  cotton  and  English  piece 
guo'B.  Saltpetre  is  largely  rofinod  in  Tirhut,  S;irQn,  and  Champaran, 
and  is  exported  both  by  rail  and  river  to  Calcutta;  the  quantity 


exported  by  river  in  1872  being  22,749  ton5.  The  mtnufacturr* 
of  less  importance  are  tasar-silk,  paper,  blankets,  brass  utensils,-, 
fire-arms,  carpets,  coarse  cutlery  and  haj-dware,  leather,  ornaments 
of  gold  and  silver,  Ac.  Of  nunerals — le.id,  silver,  and  copper  exist 
in  the  Bhagalpui-  division,  but  the  mines  are  not  wovkid.  One 
coal  mine  is  worked  in  the  Santal  parganas.  Before  the  construc- 
tion of  railways  in  India,  the  Gange.?  and  the  Grand  Trunk  road 
afforded  the  sole  means  of  communiration  from  Calcutta  to  tbu 
North-Western  Provinces.  But  now  the  railroad  is  the  great  high- 
way which  connects  Upper  India  with  Lower  Bengal.  The  East 
Indian  Railway  runs  throughout  the  length  of  the  province  ;  total 
length  of  rail,  upwards  of  500  miles.  Besides  the  Grand  Trunk 
road,  the  other  important  roads  in  the  province  are — (1),  Road  from 
Synthia  Railway  Station  to  Bhagalpur;  (2),  Darjiling  road,  from 
Kar^golato  Siliguri;  (3),  from  Shahrghat' on  the  Grand  Trunk  road 
to  Fatn.a  city,  and  thence  to  Tirhut  town.  There  arc  also  many  local 
roads  under  the  management  of  the  district  road  committees.  The 
gross  revenue  of  the  province  in  1872  amounted  to  £1,696,952,  of' 
which  £1,184,906,  or  74  per  cent.,  was  from  land.  In  1872  the  8 
districts  of  the  province  were  divided  into  37  executive  subdivisions, 
and  contained  52  civil  judges  and  80  magistrates.  The  total  police 
force  (regular,  municipal,  and  village)  consists  of  60,023  men;  cost, 
£210,943.  In  1872  there  were  215  Government  and  aided  schools, 
attended  by  9454  pnpils,  and  maintained  at  a  total  cost  of  £17,835, 
of  which  Government  contributed  £10,328.  These  are  exclusive  of 
unaided  schools.  The  census  of  1872  returned  the  total  number  of 
schools,  aided  and  unaided,  in  the  province  at  4781.  Bengali  is  the 
language  in  tho  eastern  part  of  the  province;  but  Hindi,  one  of  the 
dialects  of  Sanskrit,  is  the  language  of  the  rest.  The  Mahometan 
population  use  Hindustani  or  Urdu,  a  language  of  modern  origin,  \ 
formed  from  the  fusion  of  Persian  and  Arabic  with  Hindi.  The 
climate  of  Behar  is  very  I- Jt  from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  end! 
of  June,  when  the  rains  set  in,  which  continue  till  the  end  of 
September.  The  cold  season,  from  October  to  the  first  half  of 
March,  is  the  pleasantest  time  of  the  year.  The  total  rainfall  in  J872 
varied  from  32  to  60  inches  in  different  localities  ;  mi^mum  tem- 
perature in  December,  53";    maximiuu  in  ilay,  105'. 

In  ancient  times  Behar  comprised  the  dominions  of  the 
kings  of  Magadha,  who  at  one  time  were  the  lords  para- 
mount of  India,  and  whose  court  is  represented  ns  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  that  ever  existed.  Alexander  the  Great 
when  he  invaded  India  intended  to  push  his  conquests  to 
Palibothra,  the  capital  of  Magadha,  whose  monarch  he  heard 
could,  oppose  'him  with  30,000  cavalry,  600,000  infantry, 
and  9000  elephants.  Their  highest  point  of  grandeur  was 
supposed  to  have  been  attained  at  the  time  of  Seleucus 
Nicator,  one  of  the  immediate  successors  of  Alexander,  who 
invaded  Magadha.  According  to  the  Greek  historians  he 
was  victorious,  but  this  is  doubtful,  as  he  relinquished  all 
the  Macedonian  conquests  to  the  east  of  the  Indus,  and  gave 
his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Chandra  Gupta,  the  reigning 
king.  At  this  time  Magasthenes  was  appointed  to  represent 
him  at  Magadha  court.  The  Magadha  monarchs  encouraged 
arts  and  learning,  constructed  roads,  and  sent  their  fleets 
across  the  Bay  of  Bengal  to  colonise  Java,  Bali,  and  other 
islands  in  the  Indian  Archipelago.  The  Magadha  kingdom 
flourished  from  the  4th  century  before  the  Christian  era  to 
the  5th  century  after  it.  But  ancient  Behar  .^is  far  more' 
•celebrated  in  another  respect.  Six  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era  it  was  the  cradle  of  Buddhism  when  that 
religion  was  in  its  infant  state.  It  sent  its  missionaries 
to  Ceylon,  China,  Thibet,  and  Tarlary,  and  the  religion  they 
taught  is  still  followed  by  300  millions  of  people.  Behar 
is  a  sacred  spot  in  the  eyes  of  tho  Chinese  and  other 
Buddhist  nations.  In  1202  a.d.  Behar  fell  into  the  hands 
of  tho  Mahometans  without  a  st  niggle,  and  from  this 
time  it  formed  one  of  the  three  subahs  or  provinces  under 
the  rulers  of  Bengal.  In  the  time  of  Akbar  it  comprised 
the  seven  sarMrs  of  Jlonghir,  Champ.^ran,  II.\j(pur,  SAran, 
Tirhut,  RohtAs,  and  Behar.  It  came  into  tho  jiossession  of 
tho  East  India  Company  with  the  acquisition  of  the  DlwAnl 
in  1705,  when  the  province  was  united  with  Bengal.  Irv 
1857  two  zamfnd.lrs,  Umar  Sinh  and  Kuin.Ar  Sinh,  rebelled 
against  tho  British  Government,  and  for  some  months  held 
the  ruinous  fort  of  Roht.^s  against  tho  Engli.sh. 

Beuar,  a  magisterial  S'lbilivision,  and  a  town  of  Pi^tnn 
district     The  Subdivision  was  lormod  in  1840..  Il  hiu 


13  E  11  — B  E  li 


50^ 


an  area  of  792  square  miles,  with  a  total  population  of 
570,883  souls,  the  average  popu'ation  per  square  mile  being 
721.  Beuar  'lows  13  situated  in  25°  10'  N.  lat.,  and  85:° 
35'  E.  long.  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  a  subah  cr 
governorship  under  the  Mahometans,  but  at  present  it 
is  merely  a  subdivisional  town.  Population  in  1872  : — 
Hindus,  31,006;  Mahometans,  13,282;  others,  7  ;  total, 
4-1,295.  Municipal  income,  £1100;  expenditure,  £1120 ; 
rate  of  ta.xation,  Cd.  per  he.id  of  population. 

BEHBEHAX,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of  Fars, 
pleasantly  situated  in  the  middle  of  a  highly-cultivated 
plain,  which  is  watered  by  the  Rivers  Zab  and  Jerahi.  The 
walls  are  about  three  miles  in  circumference  ;  and  there 
is  a  castle  called  Kalih  Ndranj,  or  Orange  Castle,  in  the  S.E. 
corner.  The  population  is  variously  estimated  at  10,000 
and  at  4000,  the  latter  more  probably  correct,  as  the  place 
has  suffered  from  plague  and  oppression. 

BEHEM,  or  Behaim,  Martin,  a  well  known  navigator 
and  cartographer,  was  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1436. 
Having  entered  the  service  of  Portugal,  he  was  ajipointed, 
in  1434,  to  act  as  geographer  in  the  expedition  of  Diego  Cam 
to  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  and  on  his  return  to  Lisbon 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood  in  reward  for  his 
services.  He  was  afterwards  employed  by  the  king  in 
various  capacities,  and  visited  the  capital  from  time  to  time 
in  connection  with  his  engagements  ;  but,  after  his  marriage 
in  148G,  his  principal  residence  seems  to  have  been  at 
Fayal.  in  the  Azores,  where  his  father-in-law.  Job  Huerter, 
held  the  rank  of  governor  of  the  Flemish  colony.  On  a 
visit  to  his  native  city  in  1492,  he  coiistructed  a  terrestrial 
globe,  in  which  he  incorporated  the  discoveries  of  Marco 
Polo  and  other  recent  travellers.  The  globe  is  still  preserved 
in  the  family,  and  fcas  frequently  ,been  reproduced  by 
engraving.  (See  Doppelma}^,  Hist.  Nachricht  .v.  Niimherg. 
Mathem.  u.  Kiinstler,  1730;  PigSfelta,  Prem.  voy.  autour 
du  Monde,  1802;  and  atlas  to  Vivien  de  Saint  Martin's 
UUt.  dt  la  Geoff.,  1874.)  Behem's  scientific  attainments 
have  been  Tery  variously  estimated, — some  placing  him  in 
the  very  first  rank'  among  the  geographers  of  his  time, 
while  others  maintain  that  he  hardly  reached  the  level  of 
the  ordinary  Portuguese  chart-makers.  Blunders  of  16 
degrees  are  found  on  hia' globe  in  the  localization  of  places 
which  he  himself  visited,  while  in  the  contemporaneous 
maps  errors  of  more  than  one  degree  were  comparatively 
rare.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  he  had  no  share  in 
Transatlantic  discovery ,  and  though  Columbus  and  he 
were  in  Portugal  at  the  same  time,  no  connection  between 
the  two  has  been  established.  He  died  at  Lisbon  in  1506, 
or,  according  to  his  tombstone,  1507. 

See  Slurr,  Diplomat.  Cesch.  des  bcrilhmtcn  Eitters  Behaim,  1778  ; 
Humboldt,  Krit.  Untersuchungen,  1836  ;  Clilllony,  Gcsch.  </« 
Srrfahrr.rs  ,V.  Behaim,  1853  ;  Leiewell,  Geog.  du  moijen  dge,  1857  ; 
Vntrmnnn'a  itiUhril.,  1858;  Peschcl,  Zcitaller  der  Enldukungcn, 
•nJ  Gesch.  d>.r  Erdiuude,  1865  :  Breusinc,  Zur  Gesch.  der  Geoqr., 
1809. 

BEHISTUN,  BiHSUTDN,  or  Bisutun,  the  ancient  Eaghi- 
Btan  {Muns  Bajistanus),  a  precipitous  mountain  or  rock  in 
Persia,  remarkable  for  the  extensive  inscriptions  of  a  very 
early  date  still  preserved  on  some  parts  of  its  escarpment. 
It  lies  27  miles  E.  of  Kirmanshah,  in  the  province  of 
Irak  Ajemi.  The  principal  inscription  is  cuneiform,  and 
relates  to  the  victories  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  who  is 
represented  in  a  sculptured  centre-piece  as  receiving  the 
homage  of  a  number  of  captives,  upon  one  of  whom  he  has 
planted  his  foot.  The  labour  expended  on  the  work  must 
have  been  very  great  The  surface  of  the  rock  has  been 
carefully  smoothed,  and  pieces  have  had  every  6rcvice  or 
hollow  filled  up  with  lead ;  the  accuracy  and  regularity 
Cf  the  characters  is  almost  unexampled  ,  and  the  whole 
ef  the  tablets  have  been  carefully  coated  with  a  siliceous 
Varnish  to  preserve  them  from  the  weather      Of  the  other  j 


inscriptions  the  first  is  in  Greek  and  the  sciH>nd  m  Arabic^ 
but  neither  is  of  any  great  importance.  It  was  not  till  1846 
that  the  Darius  tablets  were  translated  by  Sir  Henry  Raw 
linson,  who  has  given  a  complete  account  of  his  labours  in 
iheJoum.  Roy.  As.  Soc.  The  prinopnl  notice  of  Behistun 
in  the  Greek  or  Roman  writers  is  that  of  Diodorus  Siculus, 
who  tells  how  Semiraniis  visited  the  place  on  her  march  from 
Babylon  to  Ecbatana,  and  caused  her  own  image  to  be  sculp- 
tured on  the  rock.  He  interprets  the  name  of  the  mountain 
by  Aio5  opoi,  the  Hill  of  Jove,  which  is  not  very  difl"erent 
from  that  proposed  by  modern  scholars — "  the  dwelling  of 
the  gods."  (Seeyo!(r«.  R.  Geog.  Soc.,  1839  ;  Joum.  Roy. 
As.  Soc.,  "'ols.  X.  and  xU.;  Ker  Porter's  Travels:  Benfey's 
Keitinschriftcn,  1847.) 

BEHMEN,  Jacob.    See  Boedme. 

BEHN,  ArHRA,  an  English  authoress  ef  some  celebrity, 
was  born  of  a  good  family  in  Canterbury  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  probably  in  1642.  Her  father,  whose  name  was- 
Johnson,  having  received  the  appointment  of  lieutenant- 
general  of  Surinam,  proceeded  to  the  West  Indies,  taking- 
with  him  his  whole  family.  Mr  Johnson  died  on  the  voyage; 
but  his  family  reached  Surinam,  and  resided  there  for  some 
years.  Here  Aphra  learned  the  history,  and  acquired  <v 
personal  knowledge,  of  the  American  prince  Oroonoco  and 
his  beloved  Imoinda,  whose  adventures  she  has  related  in 
her  novel  Oroonoco.  On  her  return  to  London  she  is  said 
to  have  married  Mr  Behn,  a  merchant  of  Dutch  extrac- 
tion residing  in  that  city,  of  whom  nothing  but  the  name- 
has  ever  been  known,  if  anything  more  even  existed.  The 
wit  and  abilities  of  Mrs  Behn  brought  her  into  high 
estimation  at  court,  and  Charles  11.  employed  her  to  trans- 
act some  affairs  of  importance  abroad  during  the  Dutch 
war.  For  this  purpose  she  went  to  Antwerp,  where  she 
skilfully  contrived  to  penetrate  so  far  into  the  secrets  of 
state  as  to  accomplish  the  objects  of  her  mission  ;  and  in 
the  latter  end  of  1666,  by  means  of  the  influence  she  had 
gained  over  one  Van  der  Albert,  she  wormed  out  of  hitn 
the  design  formed  by  De  Ruyter,  in  conjunction  with  the 
family  of  the  De  Witts,  of  sailing  up  the  Thames  and  burn 
ing  the  English  ships  in  their  harbours.  This  she  com- 
municated to  the  English  court,  but  although  the  event 
proved  her  intelligence  to  have  been  well  founded,  it  was- 
at  the  time  disregarded, — which  circumstance,  together 
with  the  disinclination  shown  to  reward  her  for  her  services, 
determined  her  to  drop  all  further  thoughts  of  political 
affairs.  She  returned  to  England,  and  had  a  narrow 
escape  on  the  voyage  home,  the  vessel  in  which  she  sailed 
having  foundered.  From  this  period  she  appears  to  hav» 
supported  herself  by  her  writings.  Her  works  are  nume 
rous,  and  all  of  them  are  of  a  lively  and  amatory  character. 
Her  dramas  are  sometimes  well  constructed,  but  they  art 
among  the  worst  specimens  of  the  later  Stuart  literature. 
Of  her  short  tales,  or  novelettes,  the  only  one  possessing 
any  merit  is  the  story  of  Oroonoco,  which  was  made  the 
basis  of  Southeme's  most  popular  tragedy.  Mrs  Behn  died 
on  the  16th  of  April  1689,  and  was  interred  in  the  cloisters  of 
Westminster  Abbey.  Her  works  have  passed  through  many 
editions,  the  latest  being  that  published  by  Pearson,  1872. 

BEHRING'S  ISLAND,  the  most  westerly  of  the  Aleu- 
tian group  in  the  North  Pacific,  in  55°  22'  N.  lat.,  166°  R 
long.  It  is  rocky  and  desolate,  and  is  only  remarkable 
as  being  the  place  where  the  navigator  Behring  was  wrecked 
and  died  in  1741.     Population  2500. 

BEHRING'S  STRAIT,  the  narrow  sea  between  the 
N.E.  part  of  Asia  ahd  the  N.W.  part  of  North  America, 
connecting  the  North  Pacific  with  the  Arctic  Ocean.  At 
the  narrowest  part.  East  Cape  in  Asia  approaches  within 
about  36  miles  of  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  on  the  American 
shore.  The  former  is  in  66°  6'  N.  lat.,  169°  38'  W.  long.; 
and  the  latter  in  65°  46'  N.  lat.,  163°  15   W.  long.     North. 


510 


B  E  I  —  B  E  K 


end  south  of  these  points  the  coasts  on  both  iidcs  rapidly 
diverge.  They  are  steep  and  rocky,  ;ind  considerably 
indented.  The  Asiatic  coast,  extending  f.-om  Cape  Serdtzy 
to  Cape  Chukotzky,  a  distance  of  about  400  miles,  presents 
several  large  and  commodious  bays.  The  strait  is  in  general 
from  23  to  30  fathoms  in  depth,  and  contains  a  few  small 
islands  known  as  the  Diomede  Islands.  Haze  and  fugs 
greatly  prevail,  and  the  temperature  is  low.  The  strait 
derives  its  name  from  Vitus  Bering  or  Behring,  a  German 
in  the  Russian  service,  who  discovered  it  in  the  year  1728. 
It  was  subsequently  explored  and  described  with  great 
accuracy  by  Captain  Cook,  in  1788.  (See  Arctic  Papers 
fiir  Expedition  o/1875.) 

BEIRA,  a  province  of  Portugal,  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
the  provinces  of  Traz-os-Montes  and  Minho,  E.  by  Spain, 
S.  by  Alemtejo  and  Portuguese  Estreraadura,  and  W.  by 
the  Atlantic.  Area  about  858G  square  miles.  Population 
in  1871,  1,204,282.  It  is  administratively  divided  into 
the  districts  of  Aveiro,  Coimbra,Yizeu,Guarda,  and  Castello 
Branco,  while  it  is  popularly  regarded  as  consisting  of 
the  three  sections  of  Beira-Alla  or  Upper  Beira,  Bcira- 
Baixa,  or  Lower  Beira,  and  Beira-Mur,  or  Maritime  Beira. 
Except  along  the  coast,  the  surface  is  for  the  most  part 
mountainous, — the  highest  point,  in  the  Serra  de  Estrella, 
being  7524  feet.  Besides  the  Douro,  which  is  far  the 
largest,  the  Aguada,  the  Mondego,  the  Vouga,  and  the 
Zezere  are  the  principal  rivers,  The  soil,' except  in  the 
Valleys,  is  dry  and  rocky,  and  large  stretches  are  covered 
with  heath.  The  principal  agricultural  productions  are 
luaize,  wheat,  garden  vegetables,  and  fruit.  The  olive  is 
largely  cultivated,  the  oil  forming  one  of  tho  chief  articles 
of  export ;  and  good  wine  is  also  produced.  In  the  flat 
country  between  C'oimbra  and  Aveiro  the  marshy  land  is 
laid  out  in  rice -fields,  or  in  pastures  for  herds  of  cattle  and 
horses.  The  rearing  of  sheep  is  not  so  well  attended  to  as 
formerly,  except  in  Upper  Beira.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  Lamego  swme  are  reared  in  considerable  numbers,  and 
furnish  the  well-known  Lisbon  hams.  There  is  compara- 
tively little  manufacturing  industry  in  the  province,  with 
the  exception  of  the  production  of  woollen  cloth,  which 
Occupies  a  large  part  of  the  population  in  the  district  of 
Ciistollo  Branco  or  Covilhao.  Silver  and  lead  ores  exist  in 
the  mountains,  but  are  neglected.  Iron,  coal,  and  marble 
arij  worked  to  some  extent,  and  millstones  are  quarried  in 
Some  places.  Salt  is  obtained  in  considerable  quantities 
from  the  lagunes  along  the  coast.  There  is  a  striking 
difference  of  character  between  the  inhabitants  of  the  lower 
and  more  elevated  regions  of  Bcira,  the  former  being 
sociable  and  courteous,  if  also  indolent  and  lax  in  morals ; 
while  the  latter  are  grave  and  reserved,  hardy  and  industri- 
ous. The  principal  towns  in  the  province  are  Coimbra, 
Vizcu,  Aveiro,  Omar,  and  Lamego.  The  heir-apparent  to 
the  throne  of  Portugal  has  the  title  of  Prince  of  Beira. 

BEIT  EL  FAKIH  (i.-e,,  Jlotise  of  the  Saint),  an  un- 
willed town  in  Arabia,  in  the  province  of  Yemen,  77  miles 
N.E.  of  Mocha,  and  about  17  from  the  coast,  in  43°  23' 
E.  long.,  13°  32'  N.  lat.  It  is  situated  on  a  barren,  sandy, 
plain,  protected  against  the  predatory  incursions  of  the 
Arabs  by  a  castle,  in  which  the  governor  resides.  It 
was  founded  in  tho  17th  ccntury.by  tho  inhabitants  of  the 
seaboard  town  of  Alafaka,  who  were  led  to  seek  a  new 
eettlemeni  from  their  onco  famous  harbour  being  rendered 
useless  by  coral  banks  ;  and  it  soon  became  tho  greatest 
seat  of  the  coffcft-trade  in  the  world.  The  prosperity  of 
the  city  was  considerably  diminished  under  the  Wahabecs 
and  Mehcmet  Ali  of  Egyjjt,  though  even  during  his 
domination  it  ia  sta',cd  to  have  had  30,000  inhabitants.  It 
is  still  engaged  in  the  coffee-trade,  and  also  deals  in  iucensc, 
gum,  and  pearls.  Most  of  the  common  houses  are  merq 
griwi-roofed  huts,   but  here  and  there  are  ancient  stone 


buildings.  Tjo  most  remarkaoicof  these  is  the  mosque  ol 
Akhmed-Ihn-Musa,  which  is  older  than  the  city  itself 
The  principal  ports  at  which  the  ciports  are  shipped  are 
Lohaya,  about  32  miles  N.W,,  and  Hodeida,  37  miles  S. 
Population,  8000. 

BE.JA,  a  city  of  the  province  of  Alemtejo,  in  Portug.il, 
36  miles  S.  of  Evora.  it  is  surrounded  with  walls,  is  th« 
see  of  a  bishop,  and  contains^out  C600  inhabitants,  whc 
are  for  the  most  part  occupied  ii^cultivation,  and  especialljl 
in  breeding  cattle. 

BEJAR,  a  fortified  town  of  Sphin,  in  thi  province  ol 
Salamanca,  situated  on  the  River  Cuerpo  de  Hombre,  in  n 
deep  and  fertile  valley  of  the  Sierra  de  Bejar,  about  45 
miles  S.  of  the  provincial  capital.  Its  streets  are  narrow, 
but  well  paved,  and  most  of  the  houses  are  old.  The 
manufacture  of  cloth  is  carried  on,  and  there  is  a  consider- 
able trade  in  cattle  at  the  annual  fair.  There  are  saline 
springs,  with  a  temperature  of  104°  to  108°  F.  A  ducal 
family  takes  its  title  from  the  city,  and  has  a  palace  with- 
in its  walls.     Population,  10,083. 

BEKE,  Charles  Tilstone,  a  distinguished  English 
traveller,  geographer,  and  Biblical  critic,  was  born  in 
London,  October  10,  1800.  Educated  for  the  pursuits  ol 
commerce,  he  afterwards  studied  law  for  a  short  tmie  al 
Lincoln's  Inn,  but  finally  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
historical,  geographical,  and  ethnographicar  subjects.  The 
first-fruits  of  his  researches  appeared  in  his  work  entitled 
Origines  Biblicce,  or  Researches  in  Primeval  History,  which 
was  published  in  1834.  As  an  attempt  to  reconstruct  the 
early  history  of  the  human  race  from  geological  dates,  il 
naturally  raised  a  storm  of  opposition  on  the  part  of  those 
who  felt  it  their  duty  to  defend  the  traditional  readings  of 
the  book  of  Genesis.  For  about  two  years  (1836  to  1838) 
Dr  Beke  held  the  post  of  British  Consul  in  Saxony.  From 
that  time  till  his  death  his  attention  was  devoted  to 
geographical  studies,  chiefiy  of  Africa  and  the  Nile  Valley. 
Aided  by  private  friends,  he  visited  Abyssinia  in  connec- 
tion with  tho  political  mission  under  Major  Harris,  and 
explored  districts  which  up  to  that  time  Lad  remained 
unknown  to  Europeans.,  The  valuable  results  of  this 
journey,  which  occupied  him  from  1840  to  1843,  he  gave 
to  the  world  in  1845  in  the  work  entitlel  Abyssinia,  a 
Statement  of  Facts,  &c.  Once  again,  after  an  interval  o( 
more  than  twenty  years,  he  went  to  Abyssinia,  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  from  King  Theodore  the  release  of  Mi 
Rassam  and  other  British  captives.  In  this  he  succeeded, 
but  the  king  afterwards  changed  his  mind  and  continued  to 
detain  the  prisoners.  lu  1848  he  made  an  unsuccessful 
attempt, to  explore  the  Upper  Nile  ;  his  labour  was  repaid, 
however,  by  a  largo  amount  of  information  abont  the 
countries  which  hg  traversed.  The  ardour  with  which  he 
pursued  his  chosen  path  was  shown  by  his  undertaking  in 
his  seventy-fourth  year  a  journey  to  Palestine,  for  tho  purpose 
of  determining  the  real  position  of  Mount  Sinai.  He  con- 
ceived that  it  was  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah ; 
and  his  exploration  convinced  him  that  his  view  was  right. 
It  has  not,  however,  commended  itself  to  general  acceptance, 
Dr  Beke  died  at  Bromley,  in  Kent,  July  31,  1874. 

■  Pr  Ruke's  writing's  arc  very  numerous.  Among  the  more  impor" 
tant,  besides  those  alrc.idy  numcd,  are — An  JCssay  on  the  Nile  and 
its  Tributaries,  1847  ;  On  the  Smirccs  vf  the  Kile,  1849;  and  Tkt 
lirilish  Captives  in  A  byssinia,  1SG5.  lie  coLtrilii  ted  a  large  num- 
ber of  Memoirs  and  Papers  to  tho  Roynl  Gcograiihical  Society,  thfl 
British  Association,  tlio  Philological  Society,  the  AUiencntin,  the 
Archceolor^a,  tlio  Kili'rtfntrijh  New  Philosophical  Journal,  &c.,  &c. 
lie  wa?  a  fellow  of  tho  Royal  Geopraphical  Society,  and  for  his  con- 
tributions to  our  knowledge  of  Abyssinia  received  its  gold  medal, 
and  also  that  of  the  Geogrnithical  Society  of  Franco.  For  his 
Origines  liittliea:  the  degree  of  rii.D.  was  conferred  on  liiin  by  tlifl 
University  of  Tiibingcn.  lie  was  also  a  fellow  of  the  Society  o! 
Antiauaries.  la  1870  he  received  the  grant  of  a  pcua^n  oo  ili< 
civil  list. 


BE   K  —  B  E   L 


511 


BEKES,  a  tnarkel-town  of  Hungary,  formerly  a  royal 
f;(.o  city,  and  the  capital  of  tbo  couniy  of  the  Kiiwe  naoie, 
SiiualcJ  at  tbo  conBuence  of  tbo  U'Uiie  and  Black  Korus, 
II  luilcs  N.N.W.  of  Gyula,  ^\bich  is  now  tbe  ca|iitiil. 
Tbc  iubabitants,  principally  Calvini3t3,  amount  to  22,500, 
Q^iJ  are  cbietly  engaged  io  agriculture  and  tbe  rearing  of 
ciltle.  Count  Wcnkhcim  bas  a  Cfie  civile  in  tbe  town, 
nbicti  W13  at  one  time  strongly  foitiGcd.  Long  20°  41' 
oT  E,  iat.  4C'46'  IG"  N. 

CEKiCF.R,  Balthazar,  a  celebrated  Dulcb  divine,  was 
Lorn  in  Frivsland  in  1C;S1.  He  «a3  the  autbcr  of 
eeceral  works  in  pbiloaopby  and  Ibcology,  wbicb  from  tbeir 
freedom  of  tbougbt  and  critical  rationjiism  excited  con- 
Biderab  e  enmity  againsl  bim.  Uis  most  celebrated  pro- 
duction was  Ibe  work  entitled  Die  Btlooveide  WerctU,  or 
•  T/ti  World  licwitcU'.tl,  in  wliich  he  examined  critically  iho 
[•benomena  generally  ascribed  to  spiiitunl  agency,  and 
txiniicd  with  much  force  tbe  many  absurdities  regarding 
tbo  power  of  Satan  that  had  become  articles  of  Christian 
f  uib.     The  oJium  thfologicum  was  Cercely  roused  by  ibis 

I !;,  and  Bckker   was  deposed    from    tbo   olfice   of   tbe 

nniiisl  y.  He  resided  at  Amsterdam  till  bid  death  in 
1'.'.'- 

l;L!l\KEri,  or  W'ui.FF,  Klizmietu,  a  Dutch  novelist, 
»a3  bum  in  173S.  She  was  niariied  to  Adrian  Wolff, 
ft  Uoforujed  clergyman,  but  is  always  known  under  her 
niaiilcn  name.  Alter  tbo  death  of  her  husband  in  1777, 
sho  resided  for  some  lime  in  France,  with  her  close  friend, 
Agdtba  Dekcn.  She  was  exposed  to  some  of  tbe  dangers  of 
the  French  Uevolulion,  and,  i\,  is  said,  escaped  the  guillotine 
only  by  her  greit  presence  of  uiind.  In  1795  she  returned 
to  Holland,  and  resided  at  the  Hague  till  her  death  in 
liOl  Her  novels  were  written  in  conjunction  with 
Agailia  Ucken,  and  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  dotcimine 
the  exact  (jualilies  contributed  by  each.  Tbe  I/tslorie  van 
William  Leetnd  (1785),  Jlistorie  iMn  Sara  liuryirltart 
(I7UU),  Abraham  Blankaait  (1787),  Conulie  Wildsc/iul 
(1703-90),  have  been  extremely  popular.  Some  of  them 
have  boon  translated  into  German  and  French.  * 

BEKKEFt,  I.MSiANUEL,  a  distinguished  philologist,  was 
born  at  Berliu  in  1785,  and  died  7th  June  1871.  He 
Completed  his  classical  education  at  the  university  of  Hallo 
under  the  famous  F.  A.  Wolf,  who  was  accustomed  to 
epcak  of  him  a3  his  most  promising  pupil.  In  1810  he 
was  appointed  to  a  professorship  in  the  university  of 
Berlin.  For  several  years,  between  1810  and  1821,  he 
travelled  in  France,  Italy,  England,  and  paits  of  Germany, 
examiuing  classical  manuscripts  and  gathering  materials 
for  bis  great  editorial  labours.  Some  detached  iruits  (if  his 
researchod  were  given  in  the  Anecdota  GrcBca,  i  vols., 
18U-21  ;  but  the  full  result  of  his.  unwearied  industry  and 
ability  is  to  be  found  in  the  enormous  array  of  classical 
works  edited  by  him.  Tbc  most  f.imous  are  Plato,  10 
vols, 1814-21  ;  Oatoret  Allici,  7  vols.,  1823  ;  ArisMelu 
(the  Bcilin  edition),  4  vols  ,  1831-36  ;  Thucydidts,  3  vols  , 
1821  ;  Aristophanes,  3  vols.,  1825;  Sfxtus  Empiricus,  1842. 
He  also  edited  24  volumes  of  the  Byzantine  hiatorians. 
liekker  confined  himself  entirely  to  textual  recension  and 
criticism,  and  contributed  little  to  tlie  extension  of  general 
•oholarship.  He  was  well  read  in  the  old  French  litera- 
ture, particularly  that  of  I'rovence.  and  contributed  many 
j>apers  on  it  to  tbo  Memoirs  oj  tke  B(rlin  Academy. 

BEL.    See  Baal. 

BEL,  or  BEl.ifS,  Matthias,  an  Hungarian  divine  and 
historian,  was  born  in  1 084,  and  was  educated  partly  :il 
Hulle.  In  1719  ho  was  made  ro'lor  of  the  evangelical 
Lyceum  at  Prcsburg,  where  he  remained  till  his  death  in 
l"49.  His  great  work  was  the  History  of  Hungary  (A'o(i/ia 
rlungari<t  nova  historicogmnrciphica),  4  vols.,  1735-42, 
which  was  not  completed.     Otatr  works  devoted  to  the 


history  of  his  native  country  3re-^IJan'jari<canU(juce  ct  novae 
prodrumus,  1723  ;  Adpuratut  ad  l/ijtorta'n  I/ungaria; 
1735-40.   He  also  wrote  on  the  literature  of  the  Uungaiians. 

BEL  AND  THE  DRAGON,  ono  of  tbo  apocryphal 
books  of  the  Old  Testament.     See  AroCRYPDA. 

BELA,  or  Bevla,  a  town  of  Baluchistan,  capital  of  tbe 
province  of  Luson  the  northeastern  bank  of  the  River  Poor- 
ally,  2U3  miles  N.  of  Kbclat.  Long.  00°  4'  E.,  Iat.  20°  1'  N. 
About  one  third  of  the  town  in  the  western  quarter  is 
encompassed  by  a  mud  wall.  Tbe  streets  are  narrow  ;  but 
from  the  elevated  situation  of  tbo  town,  and  its  rocky  site, 
they  are  always  clean,  even  in  wet  weather.  Tbo  bazaar  is 
very  neat.  Tbo  governor's  residcnco  is  surrounded  by  a 
castellated  mud  nail,  wliich  also  encloses  a  dome  covered 
mosque.      I'opulation  about  5000. 

BELBEIS,  or  Belbevs,  a  town  of  Upper  Egypt,  in  the 
province  of  Kelyubieh,  on  the  eastern  arm  of  tbc  Nile,  28 
miles  N.N.E.  of  Cairo.  It  was  formerly  considered  tbo 
bulwark  of  the  kingdom  on  that  side,  and  was  defended  by 
strong  fortifications,  but  these  were  suflTered  to  fall  into 
decay  till  1708,  when  Napoleon  ordered  them  to  be  put  in 
repair.  In  1 103-4  it  was  besieged  for  three  months  by  the 
Crusader?  under  Amalric,  who  at  length,  in  1 103,  captured 
and  pillaged  it.  The  present  population  is  not  supposed  to 
exceed  5000. 

BELE.\1,  a  town  of  Tortug-al,  now  regarded  as  a  suburb  of 
Lisbon.     See  Lisbon. 

B  ELFAST,  the  chief  manufacturing  and  commercial  town 
of  Ireland,  a  mmiicipal  and  parliamentary  borough,  the 
capital  of  Uister,  and,  sinco  1850,  the  county  town  of 
Antrim,  in  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  large  sOburb 
of  Ballymacarret   on   the   other   side  of   the   river,  it  is 


1.  Ti-nce'i  Dock. 
i.  Clarendon  Docfc. 
9   QticL-n't  Brtd(;c. 
t.  Albeit  UilJue 
I.  Tiliilt;  Cliuiili. 


fl.  St  Ano'i  ChurrK 

7.  St  Gcoicc'i  CliQich. 

8.  riMlM  Cliuich. 

9   .St  .ltnl,irlil  s  Cntliod 
10.  AcaJcinlcftI  In^tilulc. 


II.  Linen  HilL 

U   Cornmcrclal  BigK 

is.  CuMom  nouse. 

U.  Town-llall. 

U    Ccniiil  Rail  S<a. 


mainly  compri.^cd.  '  It  is  situated  in  ht.  54°  36'  8  5'  K., 
and  long.  5  55'  537'  W.,  at  the  moutb  of  the  Lagan, 
which  flows  into  Belfast  Lough  (Carrickfergus  Bay),  and 
is  built  on  an  alluvial  depDsit  and  land  reclaimed  from  the 
sea,  the  greater  portion  of  which  is  not  more  than  6  feet 
above  high-water  mark,  it  was  thus  for  a  long  period  ex- 
posed to  occas  onal  inundations,  and  wa.<  somewhat  subject 
to  epidemics;  but  its  situation,  improved  by  drainage,  has 
become  more  healthy,  while  the  environs  are  agreeable  and 
picluresqun 


512 

The  etymology  of  the  name  and  the  origin  of  the  town 
are  equally  uncertain,  and  there  is  not  a  bingle  monument 
of  antiquarian  interest  upon  which  to  found  a  conjecture. 
About  the  beginni  ng  of  the  1  Gth  century  Belfast  is  described 
as  a  "  town  and  fortress,"  but  it  was  in  reality  a  mere 
fishing-village  in  the  .hands  of  the  house  of  O'NeiL  This 
sept  had  all  along  been  opposed  to  the  English,  and  had 
forfeited  every  baronial  right ;  but  in  1552  Hugh  O'Neil 
of  Clandeboye  promised  allegiance  to  the  reigning  monarch, 
and  obtained  the  castle  of  Carrickfergus,  the  town  and 
fortress  of  Belfast,  and  all  the  surrounding  lands.  His 
turbulent  successors  having  been  routed  by  the  English, 
the  town  and  fortress  fell  into  the  hands  of  Sir  Thomas 
Smyth,  a  favourite  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  but  were  afterwards 
forfeited  by  him  to  the  Lord-Deputy  Sir  Arthur  Chichester, 
who,  in  1G12,  was  created  Baron  Chichester.  At  tliis  time 
the  town  consisted  of  about  120  houses,  mostly  built  Of 
mud  and  covered  with  thatch,  while  the  castle,  a  two- 
storied  building,  was  roofed  with  shingles.  In  1G32 
Thomas  Wentworth,  Earl  Stafford,  was  appointed  first 
lord-deputy  of  Ireland,  and  Belfast  soon  shared  largely  in 
the  benefits  of  his  enlightened  policy,  receiving,  among 
other  favours,  certain  fiscal  rights  which  his  lordship  had 
purchased  from  the  corporation  of  Carrickfergus.  Two 
years  after  the  rebellion  of  1641  a  rampart  was  raised 
round  the  town,  pierced  by  four  gates  on  the  land  side. 
In  16G2,  as  appears  by  a  map  still  extant,  there  were  150 
houses  within  the  wall,  forming  five  streets  and  as  many 
lanes ;  and  the  upland  districts  around  were  one  dense 
forest  of  giant  oaks  and  sycamores,  yielding  an  unfailing 
supply  of  timber  to  the  woodmen  of  Carrickfergus. 

Throughout  the  succeeding  fifty  years  the  progress  of 
Belfast  surpassed  that  of  most  other  towns  in  Ireland.  Its 
merchants,  in  1686,  owned  forty  ships,  of  a  total  carrying 
power  of  3300  tons,  and  the  customs  collected  were  close 
upon  £20,000.  When  King  William  arrived  at  Belfast  in 
]  690  there  were  only  two  places  of  worship  in  the  town, 
the  old  corporation  church  in  the  High  Street,  and  the 
Presbyterian  meeting-house  in  Rosemary  Lane, — the  Roman 
Catholics  not  being  permitted  to  build  their  chapels  within 
the  walls  of  corporate  towns. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  18th  century  Belfast  had 
become  knowii  as  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  and  what 
■was  then  thought  a  handsome,  thriving,  and  well-peopled 
town,  with  many  new  houses  and  good  shops.  During  the 
civil  commotions  which  so  long  afilicted  the  country,  it 
Buffered  less  than  most  other  places ;  and  it  soon  after- 
wards attained  the  rank  of  the  "  greatest  town  for  trade 
in  the  north  of  Ireland."  James  Blow  and  Co.  introduced 
letterpress  printing  in  1696,  and  in  1704  issued  the  first 
copy  of  the  Bible  produced  in  the  island.  In  September 
1737,  Henry  and  Robert  Joy  started  the  Belfast  yews 
Letter,  which  not  only  still  maintains  its  existence,  but  has 
long  been  at  the  head  of  the  Irish  Conservative  press. 
Twenty  years  afterwards  the  town  contained  1800  houses 
and  8549  inhabitants,  556  of  the  latter  being  members  of 
the  Church  of  Rome.  It  was  not,  however,  till  1789  that 
Belfast  obtained  the  regular  communication,  which  towns 
of  less  importance  already  enjoyed,  with  Dublin  by  stage 
coach, — a  fact  which  is  to  bo  explained  by  the  badness 
of  the  roads  and  the  steepness  of  the  hills  between  Newry 
and  Belfast. 

The  increased  freedom  of  trade,  with  which  Ireland  was 
favoured,  the  introduction  of  the  cotton  manufacture  by 
Robert  Joy  in  1777,  the  establishment  in  1791  of  ship- 
building on  an  extensive  scale  by  William  Ritchie,  an 
energetic  Scotchman,  combined  with  the  rope  and  canvas 
manufacture  already  existing,  supplied  the  inhabitants  with 
employment,  and  increased  the  demand  for  skilled  labour. 
The  population  now^iijade  rapid  strides  as  well  by  ordinary 


BELFAST 


extension  as  by  immigration  from  the  rural  districts,  _At 
the  close  of  last  century  there  were  about  20,000  inhabi- 
tants in  the  boroush,  and  this  total  had  risen  in  1821  to 
37,277,  in  1831  to  53,287,  in  1841  to  70,447,  in  1851 
to  87,0.62,  in  1861  to  121,602,  and  in  1871  to  174,412— 
males  79,815,  and  females  94,597.  In  1875  the  popula- 
tion is  estimated  at  200,000.  At  the  last  census  the  fol 
lowing  were  the  religious  professions  of  the  population,, 
viz.,  Presbyterian,  60,249;  Catholic,  55,675  ;  Episcopal 
4G,423  ;  Methodist,  G775;  Unitarian,  1498;  and  various,. 
3892.  The  number  of  persons  who  could  read  and  write- 
at  the  same  date  was  95,98G ;  who  conld  read,  only  71,700  ; 
and  who  were  illiterate,  46,726,  or  about  27  per  cent,  of 
the  whole.  The  number  of  houses  in  1871  amounted  to 
29,918,  viz,  inhabited,  27,961;  uninhabited,  1761;  and 
building  196. 

Belfast  Lough  is  exceedingly  picturesque,- whether  entered 
by  the  Antrhn  or  by  th-s  Down  side  of  the  channel  The 
outer  harbour  is  one  of  the  safest  in  the  kingdom,  great 
improvements  having  been  made  within  the  last  thirty  yeara 
on  the  more  immediate  entrance  to  the  port.  The  course- 
of  the  Lagan,  which  runs  past  the  quays  and  down  to- 
Gramoyle,  was  originally  most  tortuous  and  somewhat 
difficult  to  navigate;  but,  about  1840,  the  late  WiUiara 
Dargan  was  employed  to  make  a  straight  cut  from  tho- 
lower  part  of  the  harbour  and  to  deepen  the  channel,  so- 
that  ships  of  large  draught  can  be  brought  to  the  quays, 
which  extend  for  about  a  mile  below  Queen's  Bridge  or., 
both  sides  of  the  river.  There  are  also  seven  extensiva 
docks  and  tidal  ba-sius  supplied  with  the  necessary  con- 
veniencies  for  the  shipping.  Tlie  following  table  of  vessels- 
entered  inwards  shows  the  increase  of  shipping  frequenting: 
the  port :  — 


Tear. 

No.  o( 
Tesselg. 

Tonnage. 

Tear. 

Ko.  of 
Veascls. 

Tonnage. 

1723 
1786 
1805 
1815 
1835 

370 

770 

840 

2060 

2550 

9,180 
31,287 

64,585 
183,441 
290,769 

1845 
1855 
1861 
1871 
1873 

3655 
5211 
6737 
8213 
8417 

^45,537 

763,505 

902,578 

1,223,821 

1,397,407 

The  exports  from  Belfast  being  largely  conveyed  by- 
steamer  to  London,  Liverpool,  and  Glasgow,  and  thence- 
trans-shipped  to  their  destinations,  do  not  .appear  in  the- 
Board  of  Trade  returns,  as  only  the  direct  business  with 
foreign  countries,  which  does  not  reach  any  consider- 
able amount,  is  registered  in  those  tables.  Thus  other 
ports  get  credit  for  business  which  really  belongs  to  Belfast. 
The  best  illustration  of  this  is  afforded  by  the  Board  of 
Trade  returns  for  1858.  Belfast  is  there  stated  to  have 
exported  goods  that  year  to  the  amount  of  £9,344,  while 
tho  actual  sum  was  £8,569,504.  In  1810  the  total  value 
of  exports  was  £2,904,820,  and  ia  1835  £4,341,791; 
in  1S52  the  amount  was  £6,573,198,  and  for  1866  it  ran 
up  to  £11,915,000.  For  some  years  past  no  official  data 
have  been  published  on  this  subject,  but  it  may  bo  ssiiAy 
estimated  that  the  gross  value  of  the  exports  from  Belfast 
exceeds  £20,000,000  annuall.v. 

The  amount  of  customs  and  excise  collected  at  the  jiort 
in  1762  was  £32,900,  and  in  1810  the  sum  was  £428.174. 
As  trade  increased  with  London  and  Liverpool,  a  large 
share  of  the  duties  on  goods  disposed  of  in  Bclfiist  was  paid 
to  the  merchants  of  those  ports.  In  1821  the  customs 
amounted  to  £306,243,  and  in  1848  to  £376,767.  The 
customs  paid  in  Belfast  in  1851  reached  £369,415,  which, 
added  to  that  paid  in  London  and  Liverpool  (£184,750), 
made  a  total  of  £551,165.  Daring  the  year  1874  the  duty 
paid  in  BoU'ast  on  tea,  wine,  spirits,  and  tobacco,  amounted 
to  £1.215,191. 

For  nearly  o  century  past  the  flax  manufacture  of  Ulster- 


B  E  L  — B  E  L 


513 


has  been  gradually  concentrating  itself  in  Belfast.  The  in- 
troduction there  in  1830,  by  T.  and  A.  MulhoUand,  of 
machinery  for  the  spinning  of  linen  yarn,  was  followed  by 
a  rapid  extension  of  the  industry,  and  in  IStl  there  were 
2  tO.OOO  spindles  aJ  work.  The  succeeding  ten  years  showed 
still  greater  increase.  In  1851  there  were  561,000  spindles 
in  operation  throughout  Ireland,  030,000  in  1861,  and 
903,000  in  1871,  of  which  about  f oar-fifths  had  been  set 
lip  in  Belfast.  Linen  yarns  from  Belfast  form  a  consider- 
able item  in  the  total  e.xport  of  manufactures.  For  some 
time  after  the  trade  was  started,  the  average  annual  export 
was  only  about  1,000,000  lb  weight ;  but  in  IboO  five  tmies 
that  quantity  was  despatched;  in  1862, 15,085,600  lb,  and 
in  1864,  24,075,520  B). 

The  weaving  of  linen  by  means  of  power-looms,  though 
long  carried  on  in  Dundee,  Leeds,  and  other  great  seats  of 
manufacture,  is  of  comparatively  recent  introduction  into 
Belfast, — being  hardly  known  there  five-and-twenty  years 
ogo.  In  1850,  however,  there  were  3000  looms  engaged  ; 
in  1866  there  were  10,500,  and  that  number  has  now 
(1875)  increased  to  about  12,500.  A  number  of  these 
have  been  fitted  up  for  the  damask  trade,  but  the  great 
proportion  are  used  for  plain  linens,  "sets"  of  which  of 
great  fineness  are  worked.  The  extent  .of  the  linen  trade 
may  be  indicated  by  the  number  of  persons  employed, 
which  amounted  in  1871  to  8507,  or  about  5  per  cent,  of 
the  population. 

Cotton-spinning,  which  at  one  period  formed  a  most 
extensive  industry  in  Belfast,  Jias  greatly  fallen  off, — nearly 
all  the  mills  having  been  converted  to  tho  spinning  of  flax. 
The  enterprise  of  the  citizens  of  Belfast  was  well  sup- 
ported by  the  liberal  system  of  tenure  for  building  purposes 
granted  by  the  'late  Lord  Donegall  and  his  ,predecessors. 
Sites  for  mills,  factories,  and  other  public  works  were 
obtained  on  very  reasonable  terms,  and  for  all  religious  and 
charitable  objects  those  lords  of  the  soil  bestowed  ground 
free  of  rent.  In  1851  the  places  of  worship  in  I5elfast 
open  for  service  iolonged — 11  to  the  Episcopalians,  21  tu 
Presbyterians,  8  to  Woslcyans,  and  4  to  Roman  Catholics. 
Since  then  there  has  been  a  large  increase  in  the  number ; 
and  there  are  now  19  Episcopalian  churches,  28  Presby- 
terian, IG^Vealeyan  Methodist,  6  Roman  Catholic,  3 
Unitarian,  and  7  or  8  belonging  to  various  other  sect?. 

The  River  Lagan  is  crossed  by  three  bridges,  of  which 
the  principal  is  tho  Queen's  Bridge,  opened  in  January 
1813,  and  built' on  the  site  of  the  Old  Long  Bridge,  which 
dated  from  1686.  Like  most  modern  towns  which  iave 
rapidly-risen  through  commerce  and  manufactures,  Belfast 
cannot  boast  of  many  architectural  beauties.  It  would 
eeein  as  if  its  people  had  been  too  deeply  absorbed  tn  the 
bustle  of  business  to  think  of  testhetic  superfluities.  More 
recently,  however,  a  higher  style  of  building  has  been 
adopted  ;  and  some  of  tho  warehouses  and  shops  show 
great  taste  in  design  and  finish  of  workmanship. 

Tho  public  buildings  most  worthy  of  notice  are  tho 
White  and  Brown  Linen  Halls,  tho  Corn  Exchange,  tho 
Commercial  Buildings,  tho  Museum,  the  Albert  memorial 
monument,  tho  Northern,  Belfast,  Ulster,  and  Provincial 
Banks,  tho  new  theatre,  the  town-hall,  and  tho  range  of 
buildings  containing  the  offices  for  the  customs,  the  inland 
revenue,  and  the  postal  departments.  The  county  lunatic 
asylum  is  in  tho  suburbs  of  tho  town  ;  and  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Queen's  College  there  is  an  extensive  and  well- 
kept  botanic  garden. 

Tho  chiaf  educational  establishments  are  the  Royal 
Academical  Instilutioi  the  Queen's  College  (built  of  brick 
in  tho  Tudor  style  and  opened  in  1849),  tho  Government 
School  of  Design,  tho  General  Assembly's  College,  the 
Catholic  Institute,  and  the  Wcsleyan  Institute  ;  and  a!ti> 
gether,  in  proportion  to  its  extent,  no  town  in  the  king- 


dom  is  better  supplied  with  educational  appliances  than 
Belfast. 

Belfast  is  governed  by  a  cprporation  of  40  members — 
a  mayor,  10  aldermen,  and  29  councillors ;  and  all  mattsrs 
connected  with  tlie  docks  and  shipping 'are  under  the 
harbour  commissioners,  an  important  body  elected  by  the 
.ratepayers.  The  borough  returns  two  members  to  par- 
liament, and  the  county  assizes  are  held  there,  as  well  aa 
the  quarter  sessions,  recorder's  court,  and  petty  sessions. 

BELFORT,  Bii'ORT,  or  Bedfoet,  a  second-class  fortified 
town  of  France,  was  formerly  in  the  department  of  Upper 
Rhine,  and  capital  of  an  arrondissemcnt ;  but  since  the 
peace  of  1871,  it  has. given  name  to  a  separate  territory  not 
as  yet  incorporated  with  any  department.  It  is  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sauvoureuse,  38  miles  S.S.W  of 
Colmar,  at  the  intersection  of  several  important  roads  and 
railways,  by  which  it  maintains  a  considerable  trade  vrith 
Germany  and  Switzerland.  It  contains  a  handsome  church, 
— St  Cristopho,  erected  in  the  18th  century, — a  college,  a 
large  public  library,  a  synagogue,  a  theatre,  and  an 
hospital  There  are  several  iron  foundries,  and  iron-wire 
and  tin-plate  factories ;  and'  the  manufacture  of  hats  and 
leather  is  also  carried  on.  Belfort,  however,  derives  its 
chief  importance  from  tho  citadel  and  entrenched  camp, 
which  render  it  one  of  the  most  valuable  military  posts 
on  the  French  frontier,  defending  as  they  do  the  entrance 
into  the  country  through  the  opening  between  the  Vosges 
and  the  Jura.  Tho  citadel  dates  from  the  13th  century, 
and  the  town  itself  was  first  regularly  fortified  in  1688  by 
Vauban.  In  November  1870  siege  was  laid  to  the  place 
by  the  German  forces,  but  the  French  garrison  managed 
to  hold  out  till  the  16th  of  February  1871,  when  they 
capitulated  with  the  sanction  of  the  Government,  and 
marched,  out  with  the  honours  of  war.  The  conquerors 
finally  evacuated,  the  place  in  July  1871.  At  the  census 
of  1872  the  population  of  the,  tpwa  was  found  to  be 
8014. 

BELGAM  [Belgaum],  a  district  of  British  India  in  tha 
Bombay  Presidency,  extending  from  15°  30'  to  16°  15'  N. 
lat.,  and  74°  to  76?  30'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  the  state  of  Miraj,  on  the  N.E.  by  the  Ralddgi  collccto- 
rate,  on  the  E.  by  the  states  of  Jiuikhandi  and  Mudhol, 
on  tie  S.  by  tho  coUectorates  of  Dhirwdr  and  KAnari,  on 
the  S.W.  by  the  Portuguese  territory  of  Ooa,  and  on  tho 
W.  by  the  states  of  Siwantwiri  and  KollL-lpur.  Tho. 
princinal  rivers,  none  of  which  are  navigable,  are  the  Krishnit, 
flowing  through  tho  northern  ;  tho  OhitaprabliA,  through 
the  centre ;  and  the  Miliprabhil,  through  the  southern 
portion  of  the  collectorate.  To  the  N.  and  E.  tlie  country 
is  open  and  well  cultivated,  but  to  the  S.  it  is  intersected 
by  spurs  of  the  Saliyiidri  range,  thickly  covered  in  soma 
places  with  forest  Area,  4591  square  miles.  Population, 
938,750  souls,  or  204  to  tho  square  mild ;  57  per  tent. 
Hindus,  7  5  per  cent.  Mahometans,  5  per  cent.  Buddhists, 
■5  Christians,  and  -01  Parsis.  Mar.^thi  and  Kanarcso  aro 
both  spoken,  tho  former  chiefly  in  tho  W.  and  S.  of  tha 
district,  and  the  latter  in  tho  N.  and  E.  The  chief  occu- 
pation of  the  people  is  agriculture,  tho  other  industries 
being  spinnmg  and  weaving,  manufactures  in  wood  and 
metals,  pottery,  andshoomaking.  There  is  also  a  consider- 
able trade  in  cloth  and  silk.  The  principal  agricultural 
products  are  rice,  taw-.-lri,  rAgi,.  wheat,  bijra,  sugar-cane, 
barley,  and  pulses.  Tobacco  is  cultivated  to  a  small  extent. 
The  entire  revenue  of  the  district  amounts  to  £233,371,  of 
which  X179,321  is  derived  from  the  land  revenue,  and 
£17,597  from  tho  local  fund  cess.  Of  tho  remainder 
£15,444  is  derived  from  stamps,  £14,996  from  excise, 
assessed  taxes  yield  £2344,  and  forests  £3609.  Of  a  total 
area  of  4591  square  miles,  189463  square  miles  are  re- 
turned as  cultivable,  and  1729'7,  or  37J  percent,  of  the 


;u 


B  E  L  — B  E  L 


total  area,  are  actually  under  cultivation.  The  last  settle- 
meut  of  the  land  revenue  was  made  for  a  period  of  thirty 
years  at  various  times  between  1848  aud  1864.  The  total 
imperial  expenditure  in  the  district  amounts  to  £98,097. 
The  following  towns  have  a  population  of  more  than  5000 
inhabitants: — Belgaum,  26,947;  Gohak,  12,612;  Athani, 
11,588;  Nipini,  9371;  Tenikanmardi,  5296;  Housal, 
9001;  Saakeshwar,  8905;  Sawaddti,  '8180;  Murgod, 
7181;  Ketur,  7166;  Sddalgi,  6863;  Minoli,  6232; 
Chiiadi,  6184;  Nandigha.r,  5748;  Bxikiri,  5364;  and 
Konganoli,  5143.  Municipalities  have  been  established  in 
the  first  five  of  these  towns,  the  necessary  revenue  being 
raised  by  octroi  dues,^  except  in  the  case  of  Tenikanmardi  ^ 


where  a  house  tax  has  been  levied.  The  district  contains 
113  schools,  with  an  attendance  of  7624  pupils,  or  08  of 
the  entire  population.  Of  the  total  nvimber  of  schools,  2, 
with  an  attendance  of  198  pupils,  are  private  institutions, 
receiving  Government  aid.  There  is  a  stipendiary  police  of 
684  men.  The  Kurirs,  a  wandering  and  thieving  tribe, 
the  Kamais,  professional  burglars,  and  the  Biruds,  cattle- 
stealers  and  highwajTnen,  are  special  criminal  classes.  Of 
these  the  Bdruds  are  the  most  troublesome.  The  district 
of  Belgiim  was  ceded  to  the  East  India  Company  by  the 
PeshwA,  under  the  treaty  of  June  1817,  for  the  maintenance 
of  a  subsidiary  force  to  be  provided  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment. 


BELGIUM 


Eitent&Dd   DELGIUM  (Fr.  Bel<jiqu(,  Ger.  Bdgien),  is  one  of  the 

boiu.u.r.c3.   £_)     smaller  of  the  European  states,  among  which  it  ranks 

1 6th  in  point  of  area  and  8th  according  to  population.     It 

lies  between  lat.  49"  30'  and  51°  30'  N.,  and  long.  2°  32' 


and  6°  7'  E. ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Holland,  E.  by 
Dutch  Limbourg,  Luxembourg,  and  Rhenish  Prussia.  S. 
and  S.W.  by  France,  and  N.W.  by  the  North  Sea.  It  is 
somewhat  triangular  in  form,  the  longest  side — that  which 


jf   o   R    r   B 

S      E     ^ 


Sketch  Map  of  Belgium. 


Bdjoins  France — being  384  miles  in  length.  The  length 
of  its  other  boundaries  arc, — towards  Holland  268  miles, 
Germany  59,  Luxembourg  80,  and  the  Nortli  Sea  41.^  Its 
greatest  length  from  N.W.  to  S.E.  (from  Ostcnd  to  Arlon)  is 
174  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  from  N.  to  S.  1 05.  It  has 
an  area  of  2,945,593  hectares,  equal  to  7,278,968  English 
ncrcs,  or  11,373  square  miles, — being  about  one-eighth  of 
Iho  area  of  Great  Britain.  This  country  is  divided  into 
nine   provinces, — Antwerp   in   tlio   N.,    West    and   East 


Flanders  and  Ilainault  in  the  W.,  Namur  in  the  S. 
Luxembourg  in  the  S.E.,  Lii5go  and  Limbourg  in  the  K 
aud  Brabant  in  the  centre. 

Belgium  is  in  general  a  very  flat  coimtty  having  f.  v. 
elevations,  and  these  rarely  exceeding  2000  feet  in  hoi^-'  ' 
They  arc  principally  to  bo  found  in  the  K  and  S.E.,  win!.) 
the  N.  and  N.'iV.  parts  of  tlie  country  bear  a  considerable 
resemblance  to  IlolL-md.  The  elevations  of  Belgium  tako 
their  rise  in  France,  and  extend  generally  in  a  N.E.  direo- 


BELGIUM 


515 


lion.  A  chain  proceeding  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
sources  of  the  Saone  separates  the  waters  of  the  Meuse 
from  those  of  the  Moselle,  passca  Arlon  aud  Neufchaleau, 
then  extends  in  a  north-eastern  direction  towards  Bastogne, 
and  finally  enters  Prussia.  A  branch  of  this  chain  goes  off 
at  Neufcbateau,  proceeds  northward  towards  Lidge,  passes 
St  Hubert,  and  separates  the  Ourlho  from  the  Meuse.  A 
part  of  the  Ardennes  also  extends  into  Belgium,  and 
separates  the  basin  of  the  Meuse  from  that  of  the  Scheldt. 
It  proceeds  in  a  north-eastern  direction,  passing  Fontaine 
I'Evt-que,  Gembloujt,  Uaraillies,audTongrc3,  then,  gradually 
decreasing  in  hei'^bt,  it  turns  northward  to  Asch,  and  after- 
wards N.W.  to  Ilechtal,  Lomuiel,  and  Turniiout.  A  series 
of  heights  on  the  frontier  of  France,  near  Chiniay,  extends 
in  a  N.W.  direction  towards  Namur,  and  separates  the 
Meuse  from  the  Sambrc. 

The  provinces  of  Liege,  Lu.iembourg,  and  Namur  pres?nt 
the  grejiti-st  irregularities  of  surface.  This  [lart  of  ihe 
country  is  intersected  by  numerous  ravines  and  streams 
wilh  steep  and  rocky  banks,  by  deep  valleys,  aud  by  ridge: 
of  hilb,  which  often  have  precipitous  and  rocky  escarpments. 
The  vegetation  hero  is  of  a  very  poor  and  languid  character. 
The  greater  part  of  the  region  is  covered  with  dense  forests, 
marshy  and  uncultivated"  plateaus  or  poor  pasture  land, 
aad  corn  is  very  rarely  cultivated.  Descending  towards 
the  coast  the  forests  become  less  extensive  ;  and  rye,  oats, 
and  potatoes  take  the  place  of  the  pasture  land.  In  the 
western  and  north  western  provinces  are  extensive  and 
well-watered  plains,  which,  from  their  great  fertility  and 
the  high  state  of  their  cultivation,  are  the  boast  of  the 
Belgians  and  the  admiration  of  stranger:. 

In  the  provinces  bordering  on  the  sea  the  land  is  in 
gnme  places  so  low  as  to  require  to  be  protected  from 
inundation  by  dikes.  Theso  parts  are  called  polders. 
Numerous  places  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers  are  also 
protected  by  embankments ;  these  are  called  interior 
polders.  About  a  sixtieth  part  of  the  kingdom  (50,000 
hectares,  or  193  square  miles)  is  thus  artificially  gained 
from  the  sea  and  rivers. 

The  coast  of  Belgium  is  said  to  bo  undergoing  a  change 
similar  to  that  of .  Scandinavia, — in  some  i>arts  a  gradual 
elevation,  and  in  others  a  gradual  depression.  Nieuport  is 
said  to  be  on  the  axis  of  this  change,  from  which,  northward 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt,  the  sea  is  continually  gaining 
upon  the  land,  while  southward  to  Pas  de  Calais  it  is  losing. 

The  principal  rivers  are  (ho  Scheldt,  Meuse,  and  Yr.cr, 
with  their  tributaries.  The  Scheldt  is  navigable  during  its 
entire  course  through  Belgium,  and  has  a  general  direction 
from  S.W.  to  N.K.,  passing  through  the  province  of 
Hain.iult,  along  the  eastern  boundary  of  West  Flanders, 
traversing  East  Flanders,  and  finally  forming  the  boundary 
between  the  provinces  of  East  Flanders  and  Antwerp.  Its 
entire  length  through  Belgium  is  108  miles.  The  Meuse 
has  a  course  nearly  parallel  to  that  of  the  Scheldt,  traversing 
the  provinces  of  Namur,  Li(5go,  and  Limbourg.  It  is  115 
niilos  iu  length,  during  the  whole  of  which  it  is  navigable. 
Tlie  small  river  of  Yzor,  which  enters  the  sea  at  Nieuport, 
is  navigable  for  about  26  miles.  Tho  navigable  riyers 
c  ■unected  with  the  Scheldt  are, — the  Uylc,  which  after 
receiving  the  Nctho  at  the  village  of  Kumpst,  takes  the 
name  of  Ruppcl,  and  joins  tho  Scheldt  nearly  opposite  to 
Huppelsmonde ;  the  Great  and  Little  Nclhc,  which  after 
•heir  junction  take  tho  name  of  Nethe,  and  fall  into  the 

'yle;  the  Demer,  also  an  allluent  of  tho  Dyle;  the  Dcndcr, 

hich  enters  the  Scheldt  at  Dcndermondo  ;  the  Durme, 
•  hich  joins  it  near  Thielrodc  :  and  the  Lys  at  Ghent, 
i'he  entire  navigable  length  of  these  streams  is  230  English 
miles.  The  navigable  rivers  of  the  Meuse  are  the  Amblere 
«n.!  the  Vesdrc,  affluents  of  the  C  ^rthe  ;  the  Ourthc,  which 
joins  the  Mouse  at  Li('go  ;   and  the  Sambrc,  which  joins  it 


at  Namur.  Tie  navigable  length  of  these  is  142  miles. 
The  small  river  of  Yperlee,  which  joins  the  Yzcr,  is  navigable 
for  about  9  toi  e? .  The  other  streams  are  the  Senne,  the 
Maine,  the  Semo/,  and  the  I./esse. 

Besides  these  navigable  rivers,  Belgium  has  n  number  of  CsoAlfc 
canals  for  inland  navigation,  some  of  which  are  used  also 
for  irrigation.  They  are  twenty-nine  in  number,  and  their 
entire  length,  is  605,440  tiieties,  or  376  English  miles. 
The  principal  of  these  are  the  canals — from  Bruges  to 
Ostend,  from  Brussels  to  Charleroi,  from  Bocholt  to  Heren- 
thill,  from  Brussels  to  Willebroeck,  from  Ghent  to  Bruges, 
from  Li^go  to  Maestricht,  from  Maestricht  to  Bois-le-Duc, 
from  Fommeroeul  to  Antoing,  from  Plasschcndacle  to 
Nieuport,  the  Louvain  canal,  the  Lieve,  and  the  Moevaert. 
Each  of  these  cana's  is  upwards  of  12  miles  in  length,  and 
the  longest,  that  from  lirussels  to  Charleroi,  upwards  of 
46  miles.  The  entire  length  of  the  river  and  canal  navi- 
gation of  Belgium  is  1006  English  miies. 

".eijium  possesses  a  number  of  mineral  springs,  (he 
p.'ncipal  of  which  are  the  hot  springs  of  Cha..dfi)ntaiiie, 
situat  ;d  about  five  miles  from  Lii!ge,  and  the  mineral  spring 
of  Toiigres ;  but  the  most  celebrated  waters  are  those  of 
Spa.  The  ferruginous  springs  of  Huy  were  formerly  in 
considerable  repute,  but  ai&  now  little  used. 

The  climate-of  Belgium  is  similar  to  that  of  England,  ciiRiaio. 
but  is  a  little  colder  iq-  winter  and  hotter  in  suHimer. 
In  the  south-eastern  parts  the  atmosphere  is  more  pure  and 
bracing  than  in  the  lower  parts  towards  the  N.W.,  where 
it  is  frequently  damp  and  hazy.  Frost  rarely  appears 
before  the  middle  of  October  or  after  the  middle  of  April 
Observations  made  at  Brussels  from  1833  to  187?  give  t]ie 
mean  annual  temperature  as  SO^-e  Fahr., —  tho  mean  maxi- 
mum being  57°'2,  and  tho  mean  minimum  44''1  Fahr. 
Durng  that  period  there  were  no  frosts  in  the  five  months 
froH'.  May  to  September  inclusive,  and  snow  fell  only  eight 
times  in  May  and  four  times  in  October.  The  average 
nunibor  of  foggy  days  annually,  from  1833  to  1862,  was 
60,  and  with  thunder  15.  The  annual  average  of  days  on 
wh-ch  rain  fell  was  197  and  the  quantity  of  rain  28  04 
inclies,  or  3  inches  less  than  the  rainfall  at  London. 

The  population  of  Belgium  ill  1831  was  3,785,814  ;  in  PopuUuoa. 
l'-40,  4,073,162;  in  1850,  4,426,202.;  in  1860,4,731,957, 
a>;d  in  1873,  5,253,821,  being  2,645,147  mates  and 
2  608,674  females.  The  following  table  shows  the  popula- 
ti  m  of  the  different  provinces  in  each  of  the  years  1831, 
l;'.50,  and  1873  (31st  December)  :— 

1S.31. 

Antwerp  3I9,9-I2 

I'.nbant D61,S28 

East  FlnnJors 7-f2,973 

West  FhnJers 608,220 

)Iainault 613,179 

Uige 375,C30 

Limbourg  160,090 

Luxembourg 160,762 

Namur 21.3,781 


1850. 

1873. 

420,556 

513,543 

734.617 

922,463 

783,450 

654.366 

631.137 

682.921 

733,740 

932,036 

467,843 

623,165 

188.198 

202,922 

192,588 

200,009 

274,073 

316.331 

S,765.8U      4,426,202     5.253.821 

The  principal  towns  are — Brussels,  with  180,172  inhabi- 
tants; Antwerp,  141,910;  Ghent,  128,424;  Lifge,  1 13,77*; 
Bruges,  48.113;  Verviers,  38,875;  Tournay,  31,923; 
Malines,  38,540;  Louvain,  32,314.- 

Belgium  n  the  meat  densely  populated  country  of  Europe,  having 
on  an  average  178  inliabitaiits  to  tho  square  kilometre,  winch  i» 
equivalent  to  461  to  the  square  mile.  The  density  ditlers  greatly 
in  the  sevtral  provinces,  being  as  high  as  285  per  square  kilonjeire 
iu  East  Fl.-.nciers,  2S1  in  Rralmnt,  and  250  in  Flainault ;  and  as  low 
aa  86  in  Nain'jr,  84  iu  Limbourg,  ami  47  in  Lujcmbourg.  The 
general  census  of  1866  gives  134,001  as  under  one  year  of  age; 
049,077  between  one  and  five  years,  and  494,332  between  five  and 
ten';  while  299,711  were  from  sixty  to  seventy,  115,216  from 
seventy  to  eighty.  23,890  from  eighty  to  ninety,  1292  from  ninety 
to  a  buiidred.  xud  12  a  huudrcd  and  upwards.      Tho  number  uj 


516 


B  E  L  G  I  U  I^I 


nnmarricd  persons  was  3,011,566  of  married  persons  1,528,543, 
of  widowers  and  widov^s  287,724.  As  regards  their  places  of  birth, 
8,348,506  had  been  born  in  the  same  commune  in  which  they  liveii; 
1,881,231  had  been  bom  in  another  commune  of  the  same  province; 
288,672  had  been  bom  in  another  province  of  the  kingdom,  13,044 
in  the  ceded  districts  of  Luxembourg  or  Limbonrg,  26,435  in  other 
parts  of  Holland,  32,021  in  France,  20,701  in  Germany,  3003  in 
Knfland,  and  2S92  in  other  countries.  In  1873  the  births  were 
17ij]708,  being  87,128  males,  and  83,580  females,  or  104  males  to^ 
100  females, — giving  one  birth  to  every  30'3  of  the  population, 
and  151  births  to  a  hundred  deaths.  Of  the  births  158,685  were 
lc<ntimate  and  12,123  illegitimate,  or  13  legitimate  births  to  1 
illegitimate.  The  proportion,  however,  varies  much  in  the  ditfereut 
provinces, ,  being  7 '5  to  1  in  Brabant,  and  37  to  1  in  Luxembourg.' 
The  number  of  marriages  that  took  place  was  40,698,  and  of  deaths 
112,873.  Of  the  latter,  24,282  were  under  one  year,  and  16,730 
between  one  and  five  years  of  age  ;  315  males  and  62  females  were 
by  suicide,  2068  were  from  accidents,  and  69  were  murdered.  The 
immigrations  were  15,792,  and  the  emigrations  79S1. 

UngnMca  The  languages  spoken  in  Belgium  are  French  or  Walloon 
(a  dialect  of  the  ancient  French),  and  Flemish  or  Dutch. 
French  is  the  language  of  the  upper  and  educated  classes, 
and  is  generally  understood  even  in  the  Flemish  parts  of 
the  kingdom.  In  1866  those  speaking  French  or  Walloon 
amounted  to  2,04:1,784;  Flemish  or  Dutch,  2,406,991; 
French  and  Flemish,  308,361  ;  German,  35,356 ;  French 
and^German,  20,448;  Flemish  and  German,  ,1625  ;  and 
the  three  languages,  4966.  The  French  or  Walloon  is  the 
prevailing  language  in  the  provinces  of  Hainault,  Li^ge, 
Luxembourg,  and  Namur ;  the  Flemish  or  Dutch  in 
Antwerp,  Brabant,  the  two  Flanders,  and  Limbourg. 

Govern-  Since  the  formation  of  Belgium  into  an  independent  state, 

tnect  jjje  Government  has  taken  a  laudable  interest  in  all  that 
concerns  the  advancement  and  happiness  of  the  people ; 
and  not  being  trammelled  by  a  respect  for  old  laws  or 
useless  customs,  it  has  adopted,  as  far  as  possible,  the  most 
improved  systems  of  other  countries.  The  whole  system 
of  government  is  based  upon  the  broadest  principles  of 
rational  freedom  and  liberality.  All  power  emanates  from 
the  peoplo,  and  can  be  exercised  only  according  to  law. 
The  people  are  upon  a  strict  equality  in  the  eye  of  the  law ; 
personal  liberty  is  guaranteed  to  aU.  as  well  as  entire 
freedom  in  opinion  and  in  religious  worship.  AU  the 
religious  ser-its  are  endowed.by  the'stato,  and  large  grants 
are  also  given  annually  for  educational  and  charitable 
purposes.  Home  is  inviolable,  nor  can  any  one  be  deprived 
of  hisproperty  unless  for  tho  good  of  the  state  and  for  a 
suitable  indemnity.  Justice  is  open  to  all,  as  well  as  the 
means  of  education,  and  tho  benefit.?  of  the  public  charities. 
The  press  is  free,  and  civil  death  is  abolished.  Any  one 
may  address  petitions,  to  the  public  authorities  signed  by 
one  or.more  persons.  Trial  by  jury  is  established  for  all 
criminal  and  political  charges,  and  for  offences  of  tho  press. 
The  contents  of,  letters  are  inviolable,  and  the  post-oiHce  is 
responsible  for  all  letters  committed  to  it. 

The  government  is  a  constitutional  representative  and 
hereditary  monarchy.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in 
the  king,  the  chamber  of  representatives,  and  the  senate. 
The  judicial  power  is  exercised  by  fixed  tribunals,  freed 
from  all  authoritative  influences,  judging  publicly,  and 
assigning  reasons  for  their  decisions.  Affairs  exclusively 
provincial  or.  communal  are  managed  by  the  provincial  or 
communal  councils. 

"""■  The  royal  succession  is  in  tho  direct  male  line  in  the 

order  of  primogeniture,  to  the  exclusion  of  fcinalcs  and 
their  descendants.  Tho  king's  person  is  declared  sacred, 
and  his  ministers  are  held  responsible  for  the  acts  of  the 
Government.  No  act  of  the  king  can  have  effect  unless 
countersigned  by  ono  of  his  ministers,  who  thus  becomes 
tho  responsible  party.  The  king  convokes,  prorogues,  and 
dissolves  tho  chambers,  and  makes  rules  and  orders 
necessary  for  the  execution  of  the  laws,  but  has  no  power 
to  suspend  or  dispense  with   the  execution  of  tlic  liws 


themselves.  lie  nominates  to  civil  and  military  oSices, 
and  commands  the  sta  and  land  forces.  He  declares  war, 
and  concludes  treaties  of  peace,  of  alliance,  and  of  com- 
merce,— communicating  the  same  to  the  chambers  as  far  as 
may  be  consistent  with  the  interest  and  safety  of  the  st>ita 
He  sanctions  and  promulgates  the  laws,  and  has  the  power  of 
remitting  or  reducing  the  punishments  pronounced  by  the 
judges,  except  in  the  case  of  his  ministers,  to  whom  he  can 
extend  pardon  only  at  the  request  of  one  of  the  chambers. 
In  default  of  male  heirs  the  king  may  nominate  his  suc- 
cessor with  the  consent  of  the  chambers.  The  regency  can 
only  be  conferred  upon  one  person,  and  no  change  in  the 
constitution  can  be  made  under  his  rule. 

The  people  are  represented  in  the  Legislature  by  the 
Chamber  of  Representatives  and  the  Senate,  the  members 
of  which  are  chosen  by  the  people.  Each  chamber  deter- 
mines the  manner  of  exercising  its  own  powers,  and  every 
session  nominates  its  president  and  vice-presidents,  and 
forms  its  bureau.  No  petition  can  be  presented  personally  ; 
and,  every  resolution  is  adopted  by  the  absolute  majority, 
except  in  some  special  cases,  when  two-thirds  of  the  votes 
of  the  members  are  required  to  be  favourable ;  in  the  c.i.'ie 
■  of-  an  equality  of  voies  the  proposition  is  thrown  out. 
The  chambers  meet  annually  in  the  month  of  November, 
and  should  sit  for  at  least  forty  days  ;  but  the  king  has 
the  power  of  convoking  them  on  extraordinary  occasions, 
and  of  dissolving'  them  either  simultaneously  or  separately. 
On  dissolution  a  new  election  must  take  place  withm 
forty  days,  and  a  meeting  of  the  chambers  within  two 
months.  An  adjournment  cannot  be  made  for  a  period 
exceeding  one  month  without  the  consent  of  the  chambers. 

The  Chamber  of  Representatives  is  composed  of  deputies  Chambei 
chosen  directly  by  the  people  paying  a  certain  amount  of  Represei 
direct  taxes.  The  number  of  deputies  is  fixed  according  to  '"** 
the  population,  and  cannot  exceed  one  member  for  every 
40,000  inhabitant? ;  at  present  they  amount  to  124.  To 
be  eligible  for  membership  it  is  necessary  to  be  a  Belgian 
by  birth  or  to  have  received  the  grand  naturalization,  to  be 
in  the  pc'oession  of  the  civil  and  political  rights  of  the 
kingdom,  to  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty-five  years, 
and  to  be  resident  in  Belgium.  The  members  not  residing 
in  the  town  where  the  chamber  sits  receive,  during  the 
session,  an  indemnity  of  200  florins  (£16,  133.  4d.)  each 
per  month.  The  members  are  elected  for  four  years,  one- 
half  going  out  every  two  years,  except  in  the  case  of  a 
dissolution,  when  a  gsneral  electioil  takes  place.  This 
chamber  has  the  parliamentary  initiative  and  the  preliminary 
vote  in  all  cases  relating  to  the  receipts  and-exponses  of 
the  state,  and  to  the  contingent  of  the  army. 

The  electors  of  the  Chamber  of  Representatives  have  Senate 
also  the  nomination  of  tho  members  of  the  Senate.  To  be 
eligible  as  a  senator  it  is  necessary  to  bo  a  Belgian  by 
birth  or  to  have  received  the  grand  naturalization,  to  be 
in  the  enjoyment  of  civil  and  political  rights,  to  be  domi- 
ciled in  Belgium,  to  be  forty  years  of  age,  and  to  pay 
at  least  10^0  florins  (.£84)  of  direct  taxes.  In  those  pro- 
vinceswhoro  the  number  of  those  paying  1000  florins  of 
taxes  does  not  amount  to  ono  in  every  6000  inhabitants, 
this  proportion  is  made  up  by  those  paying  the  highest 
amount  below  that  sum.  The  permanent  deputations  o' 
tho  provincial  councils  annually  prepare  a  list  of  those  who 
are  eligible  to  the  Senate.  In  1874  the  number  of  these 
was  453.  At  the  ago  of  eighteen  the  heir-presumptive  to 
the  throne  has  a  scat  in  the  Senate,  but  lie  has  no  voice  io 
its  deliberations  till  he  attain  the  age  of  twenty-five.  The 
senators  receive  no  indemnity.  They  are  elected  for  eight 
years,  one-half  going  out  every  four  years,  except  in  the 
case  of  a  dissolution.  The  Senate  is  composed  of  half  as 
many  members  as  the  Chamber  of  luprcscutatives,  tho 
cumber  at  present  being  62. 


B  E  L  G  I  U  :\I 


517 


Mijustrrs. 


eon. 


In  order  to  be  a  general  elector  if  ia  necessary  to  be  a 
Belgiaa  by  birtU  or  to  have  received  the  grand  naturaliza- 
tioa,  fo  be  twenty  one  years  of  age,  and  to  pay  direct  taxes 
to  the  amount  of  at  least  20  florins  (333.  4d.)  In  1S74 
tho  total  number  of  general  electors  was  111,135,  or  at  the 
ra'.o  of  21  "15  per  1000  of  the  population. 

The  kin^  appoints  and  dismisses  his  ministers  at  pleasure. 
Ni)  member  of  the  royal  family,  can  be  a  minister,  nor 
any  but  a  T3elgian,  or  one  who  has  received  the  grand  natu- 
ralization. Ministers  have  a  right  of  admission  to  the 
chambers,  and  may  demand  a  hearing ;  but  they  have  no 
voice  in  the  deliberations  unless  they  are  members.  The 
chambers  can  at  any  time  require  the  presence  of  the 
rjiuisters.  No  act  or  writing  by  the  king  can  free  a 
minister  from  responsibility.  The  Chamber  of  Represen- 
tatives has  the  power  of  accusing  the  ministers,  and  of 
bringing  them  before  the  court  of  cassation,  which  alone 
has  tho  right  of  judging  them,  in  all  cases  of  offences 
committed  in  the  exercise  of  their  functions.  There  are 
BIX  ministers,  viz.,  of  foreign  affairs,  of  the  interior,  of  justice, 
of  finance,  of  war,  and  of  public  works. 
httur»Uz»-  Naturalization  is  of  two  kinds,  the  one  conferring  on  the 
foreigner  all  the  civil  and  political  rights  belonging  to  a 
Belgian,  with  certain  exceptions  specified  by  law,  such  as 
the  right  to  vote  in  the  choice  of  members  for  the  legisla- 
tive chimbers  or  of  sitting  there;  to  obtain  these  the  grand 
nataraii^ation  is  requisite.  The  registration-fee  for  the 
fc.-mer  is  500  francs ;  for  tho  latter,  1000.  Since  1831 
only  47  have  received  the  grand  naturalization  and  1527 
the  ordinary. 

For  civil  purposes  the  provinces  are  divided  into  26 
arrondissements,  204  justice-ofpeace  cantons,  and  2528 
oommunes  ;  and  for  miUtary  purposes,  into  41  arrondisse- 
ments,  303  military  cantons,  and  2568  communes. 

In  each  province  is  a  governor  named  directly  by  the 
king,  for  the  purpose  of  superintending  and  securing  the 
due  execution  of  the  laws,  and  a  provincial  council,  com- 
posed of  Belgian  citizens  at  least  twenty-five  years  of  age, 
residing  in  the  province,  and  in  the  enjoyment  of  civil  and 
political  rights.    The  number  of  members  of  each  provincial 
council  is  made  to  depend  upon  the  population,  and  varies 
in  the  ditlerent  provinces  from  one  for  every  1 1,500  of  the 
population  in  Brabant  and  Hainault,  to  one  for  every  5000 
in  Limbourg  and  Luxembourg.    Each  canton,  however,  is 
entitled  to  be  represented  by  at  least  one  member,  and  the 
number  of  members  for  each   canton  depends  upon  the 
population  according  to  the  scale  fixed  for  the  province. 
The  total  number  of  members  in  1874  was  559, — Antwerp 
council  having  53;  Brabant,  73;  East  Klanders,  80;  West 
Flandors,   69;    Hainault,  76;   Liege,  67;  Limbourg,  40; 
Luxembourg,  41;   and  Namur,  55.     The  electors  of  the 
members  of  the  provincial  councib  were  formerly  the  same 
OS  the  electors  of  tho  legislative  chambers,  but  in  1872  the 
provincial  franchise  was  lowered,  and  the  number  of  electors 
in  1874  was  219,619,  or41S0  to  1000  inhabitants.    Apro- 
vincial  elector  requires  to  be  a  Belgian  or  to  have  received 
naturalization,  and  to  pay  taxes  to  the  amount  of  20  francs 
(I63.)     Members  of  the  chambers,  governors,  and  persons 
in  the  employment  of  the  state  or  province,  are  ineligible 
as  councillors.     The  councils  have  an  annual  session  of 
not  more  than  four  weeks;  but  the  king  can  convoke  them 
on  extraordinary  occasions.      Those  not  residing  in   the 
provincial  capital  receive  an  indemnity  during  the  session. 
Each  provincial  council  appoints  a  permanent  deputation 
for  conducting  business  in  tho  interval  between  the  sessions, 
particularly  in  matters  requiring  immediate  attention.     It 
is  composed  of  six  members  chosen  for  four  years,  one-half 
going  out  every  two  years. 

These  councils   aro  of  the  highest   importance   to  the 
country.     They  watch  over  the  interests  of  their  several 


Divisioct. 


'roiriuriiil 
o/cm-icut 


provinces,  prepare  the  budgets,  direct  taxation,  and  super- 
intend public  works.  They  give  a  healthy  impulse  to 
agriculture,  trade,  and  commerce  ;  direct  the  construction 
of  roads,  canals,  and  bridges ;  and  extend,  the  benefits  of 
education  and  religion  throughout  the  country.  The  com- 
.munes  have  tho  power  of  appeal  to  the  king  if  they  consider 
themselves  aggiievcd  by  any  of  the  acts  of  the  provincial 
council,  or  of  the  permanent  deputation. 

Matters  exclusively  communal  are  managed  by  communal  Commaa»l 
councils.  The  councillors  are  Belgian  citizens  in  the  full  govern- 
enjoyment  of  ciril  and  political  rights,  and,  except  in  some  ™^ 
special  cases,  resident  in  the  commune.  They  are:  -elected 
for  six  years,  one-half  going  out  every  three  years.  The 
number  of  the  councillors  is  from  7  to  31,  in  proportion  to 
the  population  -of  the  commune,  which  varies  from  under 
1000  to  upwardsof  70,000  inhabitants.  Commnnal' electors 
require  to  be  Belgians  or  to  have  received  naturalization, 
and  to  pay  taxes  to  the  amount  of  10  francs  (4s.)  The  total 
number  of  electors  in  1874  was  347,441,  being  6613  per 
1000  of  the  population.  Communes  with  less  than  20,000 
inhabitants  have  two  aldermen,  and  those  having  more 
than  that  nimiber  have  four.  There  is  also  in  each  com- 
mune a  burgomaster,  who,  as  well  as  the  aldermen,  is 
chosen  by  the  king  from  among  the  members  of  the  com- 
munal council. 

Full  liberty  is  guaranteed  ~to  aW  in  tho  exercise  of  the  Kcligioa 
public  or  private  rites  of  their  worship  ;  nor  does  tho  state- 
interfere  in  any  way  in  matters  of  religion,  except  where 
the  public  safety  may  be  concerned  or  the  laws  infringed. 
Almost  the  entire  population  of  Belgium  is  Roman  Catholic, 
tiere  being  only  about  15,000  Protestants  and  3000  Jews. 
The  ministers  of  each  denomination  are  paid  by  the  state, 
— the  amount  so  paid  in  1873  being  4,648,757  francs,  or 
£185,950,  of  which  Roman  Cathoues  received  4,568,200 
francs,  Protestants  09,336,  Jews  11,221. 

The  kingdom  is  divided  into  six  Roman  Catholic  dio-  Romnn 
ceses, — the  archbishopric  of  MaUnes,  and  the  bishoprics  of  CathuUcs. 
Bruges,  Ghent,  Lidge,  Namur,  and  Touraay.  Tho  arch- 
bishopric has  three  vicars-general,  and  a  chapter  of  twelve 
canons;  and  each  of  the  bishoprics,  two  vicars-general, 
and  a  chapter  of  eight  canons.  In  1873  there  were  156 
deaneries,  233  rectories,' 2788  chapels  of  ease,  148  public 
chapels,  and  1745  vicariates. 

The  temporal  affairs  of  the  churches  are  managed  by  a 
vestry-board  and  a  board  of  wardens.  There  is  an  ecclesi- 
astical seminary  in  each  xliocese,  and  scholarships  are 
annually  given  by  the  state  to  certain  of  the  students  upon 
the  presentation  of  the  chief  of  tho  diocese.  The  state  also 
'  contributes  to  the  sakries  of  the  professors  by  an  annual 
grant  to  each  of  tho  seminaries,  except  that  of  Li6ge  which 
has  sufficient  funds  otherwise.  The  provinces  are  bound 
to  provide  and  maintain  suitable  buildings  for  these  semi- 
naries. There  are  a  number  of  religious  houses  in  Belgium 
for  males  and  females,  whose  lives  are  spent  in  pious  con- 
templation, teaching,  and  visiting  the  sick.  The  number 
of  these  houses  in  1866.was, — ^for  males  178,  and  for  females 
8144;  tho  number  of  persons  in  the  former  was  2991,  and 
15,205  in  the  latter. 

The  Protestant  Evangelical  Church  is  under  a  synod,  pnusa' 
composed  of  tho  clergymen  of  tho  body  and  a  representar  uiu 
tivo  from  each  of  the  churches.  It  sits  in  Brussels  once 
a  year,  when  each  member  is  required  to  be  present,  or  to 
delegate  his  powers  to  another  member.  Tho  Anglicih 
Church  has  eight  pastors  and  as  many  chapels  in  Belgium, 
— three  in  Brussels  and  one  iu-  each  of  the  towns  Antwerp, 
Bruges,  Ghent,  Ostcnd,  and  Spa. 

Tho  Jews  have  a  central  synagogue  at  Brussels,  three  Jew*, 
branch  synagoguce  of  tho  fiist-class  at  Antwerp,  Obent^ 
and   Liige,  and   two   of  the   sccond-chiss  at  Arlon   and 
Namur.     The  civil  and  religious  affairs  arc  conducted  by  a 


518 


B  E  L  G  I  U  I\l 


consistory  of  nine  members,  six  of  whom  are  appointed  by 
the  central,  and  one  by  each  of  three  first-class  synagogues. 
The  grand  rabbi,  who  is  at  the  head  of  this  body  in  Bel- 
gium, is,  ex  officio,  a  member  of  the  consistory. 
F-i.'.-::ii.in.  The  Belgian  Government  has  shown  itself  thoroughly 
alive  to  the  great  importance  of  a  general  diffusion  of 
education  among  the  people.  Numerous  public  schoob  and 
literary  and  scientific  institutions  are  established  through- 
out the  country,  supported  out  of  the  communal,  provincial, 
or  Government  funds.  Different  classes  of  inspectors  are 
appointed  to  visit  and  report  upon  the  state  of  education 
in  their  various  districts.  Prizes,  scholarships,  and  oiher 
rewards  are  bestowed  upon  those  that  distinguish  them- 
selves most  in  the  prosecution  of  their  studies.  Religious 
and  moral  instruction  is  under  the  direction  of  the  sect  to 
which  the  majority  of  the  pupils  belong ;  but  those  con- 
nected with  other  sects  may  be  exempted  from  attendance 
on  this  course.  Normal  schools  have  also  been  established 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  trained  and  efficient  teachers. 
The  schools  are  open  to  all,  and  gratuitous  instruction  is 
provided  for  those  who  may  not  otherwise  have  the  means 
of  acquiring  it.  Yet,  with  all  these  advantages,  there  are 
BtiU  many  among  the  lower  classes  growing  up  in  ignorance. 
According  to  the  census  of  1866,  out  of  a  population  of 
♦,827,833,  only  2,279,891  were  able  to  read  and  write, 
giving,  if  we  exclude  all  of  seven  years  of  age  and  under, 
only  58  per  cent,  of  the  population.  This  proportion 
varied  considerably  in  the  different  provinces,  being  as  high 
es  77  in  Luxembourg  and  71  in  Namur,  and  as  low  as  48 
in  East  and  51  in  West  Flanders.  In  1843  only  49  per 
cent,  of  those  who  took  part  in  the  balloting  for  the  militia 
were  able  to  read  and  write;  in  1853,  56;  in  1863,  62; 
and  in  1873,  74.  Out  of  42,313  in  1873,  8678  were  un- 
able to  read  or  write,  2027  could  read  but  could  not  write, 
13,887  were  able  to  read  and  wnte,  and  16,836  had  re- 
ceived a  superior  education.  This  shows  that  it  is  not 
enough  merely  to  provide  the  means  of  education  in  order 
to  secure  an  educated  population.  In  the  industrial  locali- 
ties the  parents  are  generally  anxious  to  get  their  children 
admitted  as  soon  as  possible  into  workshops  and  manufac- 
tories, and  in  rural  districts  they  are  engaged  in  tending 
cattle  or  in  field  labour. 

The  educational  institutions  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes,  viz.,  primary,  middle,  superior,  and  special 
:  A  law  passed  in  1842  enacted  that  there  should  be  at 
least  one  primary  school  in  every  commune,  except  in 
certain  cases  where  primary  education  is  already  sufficiently 
provided  for  by  private  schools,  or  where  one  school  may 
serve  for  several  neighbouring  communes.  The  communes 
may  also  adopt  one  or  more  private  schools,  possessing  the 
legal  qualifications,  to  occupy  the  place  of  the  communal 
BcbooL  The  branches  taught  are  reading,  writing,  and 
the  elements  of  arithmetic  ;  the  rudiments  of  the  language 
spoken  in  the  locality, — French,  Flemish,  or  German  ; 
moral  and  religious  instruction ;  and  the  legal  system  of 
weights  and  measures,  in  most  schools  taught  practically. 
In  ma.ny  of  ihe  schools  gymnastics,  -music,  the  elements 
of  drawing,  the  outlines  of  history  and  geography,  and  the 
rudiments  of  the  natural  sciences,  are  also  taught  The 
communes  are  obliged  to  afford  gratuitous  instruction  to  all 
the  children  within  their  bounds  whose  parents  are  in  poor 
circumstances  or  arc  otherwise  unable  to  educate  them. 
Prfinary  The  primary  schools  are  under  the  surveillance  of  the 
•ohoola.  communal  authorities  and  Government  inspectors  ;  and  the 
imparting  of  moral  and  religious  instruction  is  superintended 
by  delegates  from  the  religious  bodies.  Each  province 
has  a  general  inspector  of  the  primary  schools,  who  is 
ippointcd  by  the  king,  and  inspects,  at  least  onre  a  year, 
ail  the  communal  schools  in  his  district.  Under  him  are  the 
cantonal  inspcctois,  who  must  visit  the  schools  in  their  dif> 


tricts  at  least  twice  a-year.  In  1S72  the  primary  schools  sub- 
mitting to  inspection  were — communal,  3949 ;  adopted,  469; 
private,  IS;  andboarding,  22;  besides  which  there  were  990 
private  schools  and  230  boarding  schools  not  under  inspec- 
tion. Of  the  inspected  schools  1353  were  for  boys,  1284  for 
girls,  and  1831  for  both  sexes;  and  of  the  non-inspected 
267  were  for  boys,  693  for  girls,  and  261  for  both  sexes. 
The  total  number  of  primary  schools  was  5678,  giving  on 
an  average  2'21  schools  to  each  commune,  and  T13  to  each 
1000  of  the  populatioiL  The  total  number  of  scholars 
attending  these  schools  was  618,937  (or  12'3  per  cent,  of 
the  population),  of  whom  313,165  were  boys  and  305,772 
girls;  518,141  were  at  inspected  schools,  and  100,796  at 
n on-inspected.  The  number  of  scholars  attending  the 
communal  schools  was  449,940,  of  whom  325,432  were 
instructed  gratuitously ;  and  attending  the  adopted  schools 
63,594,  of  whom  42,521  were  receiving  gratuitous  instruc- 
tion. The  total  number  of  teachers  and  assistants  was 
10,629,  of  w'hom  5394  were  males  and  5235  females;  of 
these,  4656  maleS  and  2977  females  were  in  the  communal 
or  adopted  schools.  The  teachers  in  the  communal  schools 
are  appointed  by  the  communal  councils,  which  have  the 
power  of  suspending  them  for  a  period  not  exceeding  three 
months,  the  Government  decreeing  as  to  their  absolute  dis- 
missal or  reinstatement.  They  are  required  to  have  at- 
tended, for  at  least  two  years,  the  classes  of  a  normal  schooL 

Besides  the  primary  schools  properly  so  called,  there  are 
in  many  localities  other  establishments  where  primary 
instruction  is  communicated,  as  the  infant,  adult,  manu- 
facturing schools,  <tc.  The  infant  schools  are  for  children 
between  two  and  six  years  of  age.  There  were  in  lt)72, 
780  of  these  schools,  of  which  212  were  communal,  220 
private  but  under  inspection,  and  348  private  and  non- 
inspected.     The  total  number  of  pupils  was  78,181. 

In  the  adult  schools  the  branches  taught  are  generally 
the  same  as  in  the  communal  primary  schools.  The  com- 
munal councils  are  invited  to  establish  such  schools,  and  of 
late  years  considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  this 
direction.  In  1863  the  number  of  adult  schools  was  1194, 
within  aU  188,890  scholars;  and  in  1872,  2351,  with 
199,957  scholars.  In  the  latter  year  1454  of  the  schools 
were  communal,  74  private  inspected,  and  82S  private 
non-inspected.  Of  the  scholars  98,558  were  males,  and 
101,399  females  ;  56,880  were  at  communal  schools,  where 
54,630  were  receiving  gratuitous  instruction,  and  7362  at 
adopted  schools,  where  7179  were  gratuitously  instructed. 
There  arealso  primary  schools  annexed  to  prisons,  hospitals, 
and  depots  of  mendicants,  and  reform  schools.  The  number 
of  these  in  1872  was  97,  and  of  scholars  6485.  Consider- 
able sums  are  given  by  Government  for  providing  food, 
clothing,  and  other  necessaries  for  the  poor  children  attend- 
ing the  primary  and  infant  schools. 

The  expenses  of  public  primary  education  fall  in  the  first 
instance  on  the  commune ;  and  in  case  of  insufficiency  of 
funds,  the  province,  and  finally  the  state,  come  to  its 
.issistanco.'  Each  commune,  however,  must  contribute  a 
sum  equal  to  at  least  two  per  cent,  upon  its  direct  taxa- 
tion before  being  cniltled  to  claim  any  assistance  from  the 
province  or  state.  The  total  expenditure  for  public  primary 
education  was, — in  1843,  2,651,639  francs;  in  1853. 
4,465,411;  and  in  1863,  9,372,259.  In  1872  it  was 
16,200,843  or  £648,033,  of  which  1,326,659  francs  were 
school  foes  received,  506,512  public  or  private  donations, 
5,863,561  were  contributed  by  the  communes,  1,584,010 
by  the  provinces,  and  6,643,415  by  the  state. 

The  middle  schools  are  divided  into  two  classw,  those  M-.ad 
sui)ported  by  the  Government,  and  those  maintained  by  the  'thoo 
communes.  The  former  arc  of  two  kinds — (1),  th«  royal 
athen.Turn."!,  called  also  the  middle  superior  schools;  and  (2), 
tho  middle  inferior  schools,  or  the  middle  schools  propH'y 


BELGIUM 


519 


•o  called,  including  the  former  superior  primary,  as  well 
as  the  schools  formerly  kuowo  as  mdustnal  and  commer- 
cial schools. 

There  are  ten  royal  athenseuma,  two  in  Hainault,  and  one 
in  each  of  the  other  provinces,  \iz.,  in  the  towns  of 
Antwerp,  Brussels,  Bruges,  Ghent,  Mons,  Tournay,  Li(?ge, 
Hasselt,  Arlon,  and  Namur.  In  each  of  these  are  two 
cours-53,  the  one  for  the  humanities  and  the  other  for  a 
professional  education.  The  professional  course  is  divided 
into  a  lowerdivision, comprehending  a  course  of  three  classes, 
each  cf  one  year,  and  an  upper  division,  with  three  sections, 
the  commercial,  industrial,  and  scientific,  each  divided  into 
two  classes,  and  extending  over  two  years.  In  1872  the 
number  of  students  at  the  athenjeums  was  3562,  of  whom 
C23  were  in  the  .preparatory  classes,  1157  in  the  humanity 
tection,  and  1782  in  the  professional. 

Iij  the  state  middle  schools  the  courses  are  arranged  io 
as  to  occupy  three  years.  To  some  is  annexed  a  prepara- 
tory section,  making  a  year  more  The  number  of  these 
Khools  in  1872  was  50,  with  9012  scholars. 

The  communal  middle  schools  are  of  two  grades,  a  first 
and  second, — the  former  embracing  1 7  schools,  the  latter 
16.  They  ought  to  be  based  upon  the  same  principles,  and 
teach  the  same  branches  as  the  royal  atlien.tums  and 
middle  schools.  In  1872  the  number  of  scholars  in  the 
first  or  higher  grade  of  schools  was  1381,  of  whom  239 
were  in  the  preparatory  classes,  730  in  the  humanity 
section,  and  412  in  the  professional.  The  number  of 
scholars  in  the  lower  grade  of  schools  was  1828,  of  whom 
1274  were  in  the  lower  sections  and  554  in  the  higher. 
Most  of  these  schools  have  libraries,  museums  of  natural 
history,  aud  chemical  laboratories  attached  to  them.  There 
are  in  addition  to  these  75  unendowed  colleges,  of  which 
45  are  Episcopal  and  11  Jesuit. 

The  educational  staff  consists  of  a  prefect  of  studies 
in  the  athenaiums,  and  a  rector  in  the  middle  schooLs,  pro- 
fessors, regents,  and  masters.  The  prefects,  professors, 
rectors,  and  regents  are  nominated  by  the  king,  and  the 
masters  and  teachers  by  the  minister  of  the  interior.  The 
diploma  of  a  professor  afp'tge.  of  either  degree  is  bestowed 
by  a  special  jury  after  a  searching  examination.  It  is  given 
without  regard  to  the  place  where  the  candidate  has  studied. 
The  prefects  and  rectors  reside  on  the  premises,  and  have  the 
general  direction  and  management  of  the  institutions  over 
which  they  are  placed.  Each  has  to  report  annually  as  to 
the  state  and  condition  of  the  institution  under  his  care, 
and  to  register  the  conduct  and  progress  of  the  scholars. 

The  middle,  like  the  primary  schools,  are  subjected  to  a 
regular  system  of  inspection.  The  literary  and  scientific 
branches  are  under  the  superintendence  of  two  inspectors 
and  an  inspector-general  nominated  by  the  king.  To  one 
of  the  inspectors  is  especially  confided  the  mathematical 
anj  j.-.tural  sciences,  and  to  the  other  the  humanities ; 
iho  •)...'.,:  branches,  as  history,  geography,  and  the  coni- 
metcial  :r.ien(.js,  may  be  committed  to  either  of  the 
inspectors  or  to  the  inspector-general.  The  inspector  has 
to  examine  and  report  upon  the  state  and  discipline  of  each 
establishment,  the  methods  employed  in  teaching,  the 
progress  made  by  the  pupils,  aud  the  m^rit  and  zeal  of  the 
teachers.  The  conscil  de  pre/ectionnement  for  the  direction 
and  improvement  of  middle  education  is  composed  of  from 
eight  to  ten  members,  mostly  professors  in  the  universities, 
presided  over  by  the  minister  of  the  interior  or  his  deputy, 
and  meets  at  least  four  times  a  year.  A.  general  competi- 
tion takes  place  annually  among  the  scholars  of  the  athe- 
nxums  and  colleges  receiving  grants  from  Government,  to 
which,  however,  scholars  from  other  esfabli-shmcnts  may 
be  admitted.  The  examinations  are  both  written  and  oral  ; 
and  the  rewards  are  of  three  kinds,  prizes,  accetsits,  and 
iouourable  mention. 


The  amount  contributed  by  the  state  to  the  athenjeums 
in  1872  was  407,575  francs,  to  the  state  middle  schools 
418,589,  and  to  the  communal  middle  schools  184,079 
The  amount  contributed  by  the  communes  to  the  athenaeums 
was  291,937  francs,  to  the  state  middle  schools  169,330. 
and  to  the  communal  middle  schools  232,359. 

The   superior   instruction    establishments  are   the  four  UaWersi- 
universities, — two  belonging  to  the  state,  atChent  and  Li6ge,  I'm. 
the  free  university  at  Brussels,  and  the  Catholic'  university 
at  Louvain. 

Each  of  the  state  universities  has  faculties  of  philosophy 
and  literature,  science,  law,  and  medicine.  In  each  there 
arc  8  professors  in  philLisophy,  9  in  the  sciences,;?  in  law, 
and  8  in  medicine.  One  or  two  additional  professors  may 
be  added  to  each  of  the  faculties  in  case  oL  necessity.  Tho 
professors  are  nominated  by  the  king,  and  cannot  exercisa 
any  other  profession  without  the  consent  of  the  Govern- 
ment. 

Attached  to  each  university  are  a  number  of  ayreges 
named  by  the  king.  Their  title  is  honorary,  and  they  are 
chosen  from  among  those  students  who  have  most  distin- 
guished themselves  at  tho  public  comjietitions  or  final 
examinations,  from  professors  of  middle  instruction,  or  from 
members  of  the  civil  or  military  body  of  engineers.  They 
are  nominally  attached  to  oue  of  the  faculties,  but  are  not 
jirohibited  from  exercising  any  of  the  liberal  piofessions, 
and  in  case  of  any  of  the  professors  being  unable  to  per- 
form his  duties,  a  substitute  is  chosen  from  among  the 
ajrer/cs  attached  to  that  faculty. 

The  universities  are  under. the  management  of  a  rector, 
a  secretary,  deans  of  faculty,  the  senatus  academicus,  and 
the  board  of  assessors.  The  rector  is  nominated  by  tho 
king  for  three  years,  and  has  the  direction  of  all  academic 
matters.  The  secretary  is  appointed  annually  by  the -king 
from  a  list  of  two  candidates  nominated  by  the  senatus 
academicus.  The  deans  of  the  faculties  are  chosen  annually 
by  the  professors  of  each  faculty,  and  have  the  right  of 
convoking  the  professors  of  their  faculty.  The  senatus 
and  the  board  of  assessors  are  convoked  by  the  rector ;  the 
former  is  composed  of  the  professors,  under  the  presidency 
of  the  rector,  and  the  latter  of  the  rector,  secretary,  and 
the  deans  of  faculty. 

Each  student  pays  annually  for  enrolment  1 5  francs,  -and 
then  takes  out  a  ticket  for  the  branches  of  the  cour-so  in 
rfhich  he  intends  to  take  bis  examinations.  For  philosophy 
and  literature,  and  for  law,  the  annual  ticket  costs  250  francs, 
and  200  francs  for  the  other  faculties.  The  instructions 
are  given  in  the  French  language.  Subsidies  are  accorded 
byOovernmeiit  to  the  universities  for  the  libraries,  botauical 
gardens,  c.ibiiiets,  ic. ;  but  the  towns  of  Li(Jg3  and  Ghent 
are  bound  to  maintain  the  buildings.  The  sum  granted 
by  the  state  to  tho  two  universities  in  1873  was  937,919 
francs. 

Attached  to  the  university  of  Ghent  is  a  school  for  civil 
engineers.  The  preparatory  course  extends  over  two  years, 
and  comprehends  tho  mathematical,  physical,  and  natural 
sciences  necessary  to  the  subsequent  courses.  The  special 
course  is  divided  into  two  sections,  the  one  for  engineers  of 
roads  and  bridges,  and  tho  other  for  architectural  engineers. 
This  course  continues  for  two  or  three  years.  Tho  third 
course,  which  lasts  for  three  years,  is  for  industrial 
engineers  or  persons  engaged  in  arts  or  manufacturea 
They  are  instructed  in  tho  application  of  tho  various 
sciences  to  the  arts  and  manufactures,  particularly  to  the 
mechanical  arts. 

Similar  to  tho  above  is  tho  mining  school  attached  to  the 
university  of  Lidgo.  The  first  course  is  preparatory  to  the 
other  two.  Tho  special  course  includes  all  the  branches 
necessary  to  a  mining  engineer.  The  third  course  is  for 
those  desirous  of  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  mining,  min- 


520 


BELGIUM 


Bpeclal 


erals,  (fee,  more  particularly  as  connected  with  the  arts  and 
rnanafactures.     Thia  last  course  extends  over  three  years. 

Tie  free  university  of  Brussels  has  faculties  of  philosophy 
and  literature,  of  science,  of  law,  and  of  medicine,  courses 
in  which  are  given  by  ordinary  and  extraordinary  professors 
and  agregea.  Each  student  pays  annually  15  francs  for 
enrolment,  and  a  fee  of  200  or  250  francs  for  the  courses 
ID  any  of  the  faculties.  The  fee  for  single  classes  is  gene- 
rally 50  francs.  An  annual  subsidy  of  10,000  francs  is 
allocated  to  the  university  by  the  provincial  council  of 
Brabant,  and  the  permanent  deputation  has  the  right  of 
annually  presenting  ten  youths  of  the  province  for  gratui- 
tous instruction.  A  subsidy  of  50,000  francs  is  also  allo- 
cated annually  by  the  communal  council  of  Brussels.  Ihe 
university  is  governed  by  an  administrative  council,  com- 
posed partly  of  permanent  members  and  partly  of  members 
chosen  annually  bytbe  professors  of  the  four  faculties  and 
the  former  students  of  the  university.  This  council  is  pre- 
sided over  by  the  burgomaster  of  Brussels,  who  has  a  casting 
vote  in  its  proceedings. 

The  Catholic  university  of  Louvain  is  governed  by  a 
grand  rector,  nominated  and  revocable  by  the  episcopal 
body.  A  vice  rector  is  afso  nominated  by  the  episcopal 
body  on  the'  advice  of  the  grand  rector.  The  rector 
nominates  the  secretary  and  other  functionaries  of  the 
university.  The  faculties  are  philosophy  and  literature,  the 
mathematical,  physical,  and  natural  sciences,  law,  medicine, 
and  theology.  The  courses  of  the  five  faculties  are  given  by 
ordinary  and  eiitraordinary  professors  and  lecturers, 
nominated  by  the  episcopal  body  on  the  presentation  of 
the  rector.  The  enrolment-fee  for  the  first  year  is  10 
francs,  and  5  francs  annually  thereafter.  The  annual  fee 
for  courses  in  the  faculties  varies  from  200  to  250  francs, 
exc»pt  the  theological  courses,  which  are  gratuitous.  It 
has  an  extensive  library,  cabinets  of  mineralogy,  zoology, 
(fee,  and  a  botanical  garden.  The  numbers  of  the  students 
at  each  of  the  universities  in  1874  were — Ghent,  222  ;  Li^ge, 
618  ;  Brussels,  680;  and  Louvain,  909. 

A  competition  takes  place  annually  among  the  scholars 
of  superior  instruction,  and  at  these  coLipetitions  two  gold 
medals  are  given  in  each  of  the  faculties.  There  are  also 
twelve  travelling  scholarships  given  annually,  tenable  for 
two  years,  to  such  students  as  have  taken  their  doctor's 
degree  with  tlie  highest  distinction  and  wish,  to  travel,  to 
enable  them  to  visit  foreign  countries  ;  and  about  sixty  bur- 
saries of  400  francs  each  are  given  annually  to  poor  students 
to  enable  them  to  prosecute  their  studies.  Besides  these 
there  are  connected  with  the  universities  a  number  of 
private,  bursaries,  the  management  and  bestowal  of  which 
are  in  the  hands  of  particular  persons  or  corporations  in 
terms  of  the  acts  of  foundation. 

The  special  educational  institutions  of  Belgium  are  of 
various  kinds,  and  aro  generally  in  a  very  efficient  state. 
They  include  (in  addition  to  the  engineering  and  mining 
schools  already  mentioned)  normal  schools,  military  schools, 
navigation  schools,  ifec,  and  academies  and  schools  of 
design,  painting,  sculpturei  music,  etc. 

There  are  two  Government  normal  schools  for  primary 
teachers,  one  at  Lierre  and  the  other  at  Nivelles. — the 
former  having  twelve  and  the  latter  thirteen  professors, 
with  a  rector  each.  The  course  extends  over  three  years,  and 
during  the  lust  year  of  attendance  the  pupils  are  exercised 
in  teaching  in  the  primary  schools  of  the  town.  There 
are  also  seven  episcopal  normal  schools,  in  which  similar 
branches  are  taught,  except  that  the  principles  of  the  Catholic 
religion  are  more  particularly  inculcated.  The  chief  diocesan 
nominates  the  rectors  and  professors.  The  course  lasts  for 
iour  years.  Besides  these  there  are  several  private  normal 
«chooIa  for  males  and  females,  one  or  more  institutions  for 
the  training  of  female  teachers  by  each  province,  and  normal 


primary  sections  attached  to  the  middle  schools  of  Bruges, 
Ghent,  Huy,  Virion,  and  Couvin. 

Bursaries  of  200  francs  each  are  annually  given  by 
Government  to  assist  poor  students  attending  the  normal 
schools  ;  and  students  of  promise,  who  have  taken  diplomas 
at  either  of  the  Government  primary  normal  schools,  may 
be  admitted  to  the  normal  school  of  middle  instruction  at 
Nivelles.  The  course  here  is  for  tw;  years.  There  are 
also  for  the  training  of  teachers  for  the  superior  middle 
institutions,  the  normal  school  of  the  humanities  at  I.ioge, 
and  the  normal  school  of  the  sciences  at  Ghent.  Candi- 
dates for  admission  must  be  young  men  of  superior  talents, 
qualifying  them  to  perform  creditably  the  duties  of  pro- 
fessor, and  they  must  pass  certain  examinations.  The 
branches  taught  in  both  schools  extend  over  three  years 
In  the  school  at  Liege  there  are  fourteen  bursaries  of  600 
francs  each,  given  to  the  poorer  students,  the  recipients 
becoming  bound  to  act  as  professors  in  one  of  the  middle 
schools  for  five  years.  There  are  five  bursaries  of  500 
francs  in  connection  with  the  school  at  Ghent. 

There  is  a  military  school  at  Brussels  for  training  officers  Miliurj 
for  the  army.  The  number  of  scholars  in  1873  was  129.  schools. 
The  courses  are  divided  into  two  sections  ;  the  one.  which 
extends  over  two  years,  is  preparatory  to  the  second,  which 
also  extends  over  two  years,  and  is  divided  into  special 
branches  qualifying  for  the  infantry,  cavalry,  or  marines. 
A  school  has  been  established  in  Lierre  for  the  purpose  of 
educating  the  sons  of' the  military  for  the  army.  The  course 
extends  over  five  years,  and  the  pupils  generally  enter  the 
army  about  the  age  of  sixteen.  They  are  placed  in  the 
army  according  to  their  proficiency,  some  as  sub-officers 
and  corporals,  others  as  common  soldiers.  The  pupils  id 
1873  were  252. 

Each  regiment  has  a  regimental  school  for  training 
young  men  in  the  army  for  subalterns,  and  a  number  of 
evening  schools  for  affording  the  means  of  education  to 
the  so'  aery.  Attendance  at  one  of  these  schools  is  obli- 
gatory on  all  subalterns  and  corporals  whose  education  is 
not  complete,  according  to  their  position. 

There  is  at  Messines  a  Royal  Institution  for  the  educa- 
tion of  daughters  of  military  men  who  have  died  or  been 
disabled  in  the  service  of  their  country.  They  are  admitted 
from  seven  to  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  remain  till  their 
eighteenth  year.  They  are  instructed  in  branches  necessary 
to  qualify  them  as  governesses,  teachers,  domestic  servants, 
itc,  and  situations  r.re  pro\'ided  for  them  on  leaving. 

Schools  of  navigation  have  been  established  at  Antwerp  Navigation 
and  Ostend  for  furnishing  properly  educated  masters  for  "Ijoo'*- 
merchant  vessels,  where  instruction  is  given  gratuitously. 
Certificates  of  qualifications  as  master  or  mate  are  given 
by  a  jury  of  examiners.  There  has  also  recently  been 
formed  at  Antwerp  a  superior  institute  of  commerce  to 
afford  instruction,  theoretical  and  practical,  in  the  com- 
mercial sciences,  the  course  extending  over  two  years. 

A  Government  agricultural  institute  was  established 
at  Gembloux  in  1860  for  affording  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical instruction  in  agriculture  and  kindred  subjects. 
There  are  seven  professors  and  three  assistants,  and  a 
demonstrative  gardener.  The  course  lasts  for  three  years. 
Students  in  1873,  71.  There  is  a  similar  institution  at 
Ghent,  which  in  1873  had  31  students.  A  school  of 
practical  horticulture  and  arboriculture  was  established  at 
Vilvorde  in  1855,  which  in  1873  had  23  students;  the 
course  is  for  three  years.  -\  simdar  institution  at  Oend- 
brugg  has  been  closed  since  1871.  There  is  also  a  veten- 
nary  college  at  Brussels  with,  in  1873,  84  students.  The 
course  is  for  four  years. 

The  academies  and  schools  of  design,  painting,  sculpture,  AcoJcmlev 
etc  ,  are  divided  into  three  classes  : — 1   The  royal  academies 
of  the  fine  arts,  in  which  painting,  sculpture,  architecture 


BELGIUM 


521 


ana  eograviog  are  taught  in  the  most  efficient  manner ;  2. 
Academies  Of  design  established  in  the  principal  towns,  and 
giving  instructions  in  designing,  architecture,  and  the  prin- 
ciples of  geometry  and  perspective  drawing  ;  3.  Schools  of 
design  established  in  all  the  larger  towns  for  instructing 
young  persons  and  artisans  in  the  elements -of  designing 
and  architecture.  In  1873  there  were  76  such  academies 
and  schools  in  the  kingdom,  ha'nng  99CC  pupils. 
AraJemiM  The  Royal  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts  at  Antwerp  is 
of  One  arts  principally  intended  to  afford  gratuitous  instruction  in 
painting,  sculpture,  architecture,  and  engraving,  and  to 
propagate  and  encourage  a  taste  for  the  6ne  arts.  In  1873 
there  were  1CG5  scholars.  A  competition  in  one  of  the 
branches  of  the  fine  arts  is  annually  held  in  Antwerp,  the 
laureate  at  which  receives  a  pension  of  3500  francs  annually 
for  four  years,  to  enable  him  to  perfect  himself  in  his  art 
in  Germany,  France,  and  Italy.  The  second  prize  is  a  gold 
medal  of  300  francs.  The  Royal  Academy  of  the  Fine 
Arts  at  Brussels  is  an  institution  similar  to  that  at  Antwerp. 
Instruction  is  gratuitous,  and  the  vacancies  are  filled  up  by 
competition. 
.Musical  The  Royal  Musical  Conservatory  at  Brussels  is  under  the 

coiiserva-      direction  of  the  minister  of  the  interior,  aided  by  a  com- 
'*  mission  of  seven  members  nominated  by  the  king,  with  the 

burgomaster  of  Brussels  as  honorary  president.  The 
instruction  is  gratuitous,  and  includes  vocal  and  instru- 
mental music,  composition,  and  the  Italian  languagj.  ■  The 
number  of  scholara  iu  1S73  was  529.  There  are  six 
bursaries  of  250  francs,  and  ten  of  125  francs,  in  connec- 
tion with  this  institution.  There  is  a  similar  establishment 
at  Lidge,  with  (in  1873)  694  scholars.  Music,  both  vocal 
and  instrumental,  is  much  cultivated  in  Belgium  ;  and 
musical  schcols  and  societies  are  established  in  almost  all 
the  principal  towns  and  throughout  the  country.  In  1873 
there  were,  besides  those  mentioned,  108  musical  schools 
and  societies,  with  7440  nr  embers.  A  competition  in 
musical  composition  takes  pla(e  every  two  years  at  Brussels, 
the  laureate  receiving  a  pention  of  3500  francs  for  four 
years,  to  enable  him  to  study  in  France,  Germany,  and 
Italy.  The  second  prize  is  o  gold  modal  of  the  value  of 
300  francs. 
UkrneJ  Belgium  possesses  a  great  Fumber  of  learned  societies,  as 

•wietiri  the  Royal  Medical  Academy,  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Science,  Literature,  and  Ait,  ic.  The  Royal  M;dical 
Academy  has  its  seat  at  Brussels.  It  is  divided  in'.o  six 
sections,  and  has  36  titular  and  18  assistant  -members, 
with  24  corresponding  and  an  indefinite  number  of  honorary 
members.  Each  of  the  sections  has  certain  branc  hes  of 
medical  science  assigned  to  it  The  academy  answers  any 
questions  that  may  be  proposed  to  it  by  the  Goveinmcnt, 
upon  matters  connected  with  public  hygiene,  and  mates 
rcsi-'-ches  in  all  subjects  connected  with  or  tending  to 
ad  -nedlcal  science.     Gold  medals  are  given  annually 

for  ttk.  essays  on  prescribed  subjects.    It  receives  an 

annual  g>-nt  of  20,000  francs  from  the  state. 
Acailomy  The  Koyal  Academy  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art  also 
of  Kituto.  has  its  seat  at  Brussels.  It  is  divided  into  three  classes, 
for  the  sciences,  literature,  and  the  fine  arts  ;  the  first  two 
are  each  subdivided  into  two  sections,  and  the  last  into 
branches,  for  painting,  sculpture,  engraving,  architecture, 
and  music  Each  class  is  composed  of  30  members,  50 
foreign  associates,  and  not  more  than  ten  native  corre- 
spondents. Each  class  proposes  annually  certain  subjects 
for  essays,  to'  which  gold  medals  of  the  value  of  600  francs 
arc  adjudged.  The  academy  receives  an  annual  grant  of 
40,000  francs  from  the  state.  Connected  with  this  academy 
is  a  royal  commission  of  history  for  the  purpose  of  searching 
for  and  editing  old  chronicles  and  documents  tending  to 
throw  light  upon  the  early  history  of  the  countrj-.  There 
has  also  just  (1876)  been  instituted  by  the  king  a  pr""  "f 
3— 1!»» 


25,000  francs  (£10uu;  to  be  given  annually  for  the  best 
wori  published  on  a  subject  previously  announced  of 
interest  to  Belgium.  Every  fourth  year  the  competition  is 
to  be  open  to  foreigners. 

There  is  a  Government  inspector-general  of  science, 
literature,  and  art,  who  has  the  general  superintendence  of 
that  department,  under  the  minister  of  the  interior.  Under 
him  are  two  administrative  boards,  the  ono  for  literatuie 
and  science,  and  the  other  for  the  fine  arts. 

The  Royal  Observatory  for  astronomical  and  meteoro-  Royal  ob- 
logical  observations  b  under  the  management  of  a  director  str'^tory. 
and  three  assistants.     In  the  observatory  are  instruments 
specially  provided  by  Government  for  the  use  of  young 
men  desirous  of   making  meteorological   or  astronomical 
observations. 

The  Royal  Museum  of  Brussels,  for  the  reception  of  Momuioj. 
objects  in  natural  history  belonging  to  the  state,  ia  undci 
the  direction  of  a  council  of  five  members  appointed  by  the 
king.  There  is  also  a  museum  of  industry,  containing 
models  and  plans  of  machines  used  in  arts,  manufactures, 
and  agriculture.  Annexed  to  this  museum  is  a  school 
where  instruction  is  given  gratuitously  in  the  construction 
of  such  machines.  It  possesses  a  chemical  laboratory, 
library,  .tc.  There  is  also  a  royal  museum  of  war  instru- 
ments at  Brussels,  and  in  1870  a  royal  botanic  garden  was 
laid  out  for  aiding  iil  the  study  of  botany  and  horticulture. 
The  royal  museum  of  pai'.itiiig  and  sculpture  is  under  the 
direction  o/"a  commission,  composed  of  a  president  and  six 
members  nominated  by  the  king,  and  charged  with  the 
collection  of  works  of  ancient  and  modern  masters  for  the 
museum.  A  triennial  exhibition  of  works  of  living  artists, 
Belgian  and  forirfgn,  in  painting,  sculptuve,  engraving, 
architecture,  and  lithof^phy,  is  held  at  Brussels.  There  are 
similar  exhibitions  held  in  Antwerp,  Ghent,  Li<5ge,  Bruges, 
<tc.  The  geographical  establishment  at  Brussels  has  a  con- 
siderable collection  of  books  and  maps,  a  garden,  a  herb« 
arium,  collections  of  rocks,  lava,  fossils,  itc. 

Besides  the  Lbniries  belonging  to  different  societies,  PiibHc 
associations,  A-c,  there  are  a  number  of  pubhc  libraries  inlibmnes. 
Belgium.  The  principal  of  these  is  the  royal  library  of 
Brussels.  It  contained  in  1871  about  301,500  volumes, 
22,221  manuscripts,  53,550  engravings,  and  19,517  medals 
and  coins.  This  is  the  only  library  that  receives  copies  of 
copyright  works.  The  public,  library  of  Ghent  is  connected 
with  the  university.  It  has  80,000  volumes  and  COO 
manuscripts,  besides  pamphlets,  itc.  The  Licige  public 
library  has  68,000  volumes,  about  26,000  pamphlets,  and 
430  manuscripts.  The  public  library  of  the  Louvam 
university  is  the  most  ancient  in  Belgium,  and  is  particularly 
rich  in  works  of  ancient  history,  theology,  and  literature, 
including  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Oriental.  These 
libraricb  are  open  daily  for  consultation,  and  in  ulirmst  ail 
of  them  volumes  arc  lent  out  at  the  discretion  of  the  con- 
servators. 

The  archives  of  BelgKim  contain  a  great  numbei  of 
interesting  and  valuable  documents  connected  with  ihe 
history  of  the  country.  These  are  carefully  preservi..!, 
classified,  and  catalogued.  The  general  archives  of  ilio 
kingdom  at  Brussels  contain  upwardsof  lOO.OOUdocumeius, 
and  the  archives  of  Antwerp  upwardsof  70,000.  Tliusc  at 
Bruges,  Ghent,  Li(5gc,  Mons,  Namur,  Tournay,  Uassult, .«nd 
Arloii  are  ancient  and  important.  The  archives  of  the  city 
of  Bruges,  at  one  time  the  grand  commercial  entrepot  of 
Europe,  contain  a  number  of  valuable  papers  bearing  upon 
the  events  of  which  this  city  was  the  theatre  in  the  -Middle 
Ages.  Unfortunately,  they  do  not  go  further  back  thau 
1280,  the  previous  documents  having  been  all  destroyed  by 
an  extensive  fire  in  that  year. 

The  benevolent  and  charitable  institutions  of  Belgium 
arc  nuinTi.iii  anH  open  to  all.    The    duty  of  supporting 


522 


BELGIUM 


OaritaUe  '.hcm  falls  ia  the  first  instance  upon  the  commun^  after- 
iDstitu.  wards  upon  the  province,  and  finally,  in  case  of  necessity, 
*^^'  upon  the  state.    They  are  divided  into  three  classes  : — (1.) 

Those  affording  assistance  or  an  asylum  to  the  poor  in  case 
of  age,  infirmity,  disease,  want  of  work,  Ac,  including 
dispensaries,  foundling  and  maternity  hospitals,  deaf-mute 
and  blind  institutions,  &c.;  (2.)  Those  more  particularly 
designed  for  the  prevention  and  suppression  of  vagabondage 
and  beggary,  as  depots  of  mendicity  and  reform  schools; 
and  (3.)  Those  specially  intended  to  foster  a  spirit  of  in- 
dependence and  foresight  among  the  working  classes,  as 
savings-banks,  and  assurance  and  mutual  assistance  so- 
cieties. 

Every  town  of  importance  and  many  of  the  rural  com- 
munes have  hospitals  for  the  aged,  infirm,  and  indigent. 
Asylums  for  incurables  are  also  numerous,  but  much  less 
80  than  the  former.  Parm  hospitals  have  been  established 
in  the  rural  communes  of  the  two  Flanders,  where  the 
inmates  contribute  by  work  to  their  own  maintenance. 
They  form  small  agricultural  colonies  of  old  people  and 
children,  mutually  assisting  each  other.  The  products  of 
the  farms  generally  sufiice  for  their  maintenance. 

Foundling  hospitals  are  established  in  Antwerp,  Brussels, 
Louvain,  Bruges,  Ostend,  ic.  The  children  generally 
remain  only  for  a  short  time  in  the  hospitals.  They  are 
pensioned  out4o  inhabitants  of  the  rural  communes  till 
their  twelfth  y«ar,  at  which  period  the  wardship  of  the 
hospital  terminates.  Inspectors  are  appointed  to  visit  the 
children  quarterly,  to  report  upon  their  physical  condition, 
see  that  they  are  attending  school,  <tc.  There  are  mater- 
nity hospitals  at  Brussels,  Lnuvain,  Ghent,  Li^ge,  Bruges, 
Nieuport,  an.l  Tournay,  in  several  of  which  courses  of 
midwifery  are  given.  Maternity  societies  for  aiding 
females  with  money,  medicine,  ikc,  are  formed  in  many  of 
'the  towns.  There  are  a  number  of  lunatic  asylums,  which 
in  1873  had  in  all  6801  patients,  of  whom  6024  were 
paupers.  A  colony  of  lunatics  has  been  formed  in  the 
commune  of  Gheel,  province  of  Antwerp,  where,  under  the 
direction  of  a  permanent  committee,  they  are  pensioned 
out  among  the  inhabitants,  and  generally  employed  in 
agricultural  labours.  There  are  also  a  number  of  insti- 
tutions for  the  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the 
blind. 

To  prevent  the  misery,  and  frequently  the  crime,  arising 
from  the  want  of  employment  among  the  working  classes, 
charity  workshops  have  been  established  in  Ghent,  Lidge, 
and  other  towns.  These  are  accessible  to  all  workmen 
without  employment  and  in  poor  circumstances.  The 
able-bodied  are  paid  according  to  their  work,  and  the  aged 
and  infirm  according  to  their  necessities.  The  workshops 
of  apprenticeship  and  improvement  are  intended  not  only 
to  supply  work  to  the  unemployed,  but  principally  to 
initiat«  the  people  in  the  exercise  of  new  or  improved 
branches  of  industry,  and  to  instruct  the  young  men  in 
some  trade  or  profession  by  which  they  may  bo  able  to 
gain  an  honest  livelihood.  They  have  been  found  of  great 
benefit  to  many  of  the  poorer  classes  who  would  otherwise 
have  been  brought  up  as  vagrants  and  beggars.  The 
apprenticeship  generally  lasts  from  four  to  six  months. 
Similar  to  these  are  the  manufacturing  schools,  intended 
principally  for  girls,  where  they  are  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  lace,  (tc.  These  are  sii[iporteil  partly  liy  the 
state  and  partly  by  the  province  and  commune,  but  many 
of  them  are  private.  In  1872  there  were  of  these  insti- 
tutions— 29  communal,  144  private  but  subject  to  inspec- 
tion, and  294  non-inspected.  The  total  number  of  persons 
was  26,739,  of  whom  10G7  were  in  communal  establish- 
ments, 9649  private  inspected,  and  16,023  non-inspected; 
25,065  were  females  and  1174  males. 
There  are  three  dcpfits  of  mendicity  or  workhouses  in 


the  kinjilom,  at  Bruges,  Iloogstraetcn.and  Reckheim.  In 
1873  they  contained  1819  persons.  A  reform  school  was 
founded  in  Ruysselede  in  1848  for  male  vagrants  ami 
mendicants  under  eighteen  years  of  age.  It  contains 
about  500  members,  employed  in  cultivating  a  large  farm 
of  128  hectares.  At  a  short  distance  is  a  similar  institu- 
tion for  400  girls  and  infants,  between  two  and  seven  years 
of  age.  There  is  also  a  similar  school  for  girls  and  infants 
at  Beernem. 

In  each  commune  is  a  bureau  de  bienfaisance,  for  assist- 
ing  the  poor  with-inoney,  food,  clothing,  &c.,  and,  wbero 
there  are  no  hospitals,  providing  them  with  medical 
attendance-  and  medicines.  It  also  contributes  to  the 
maintenance  and  education  of  poor  children,  foundlings, 
deaf-mutes,  and  lunatics.  There  are  also  Sfonts  de  Ptet^., 
or  charitable  institutions  for  lending  money  to  the  pour 
upon  the  security  of  pledges,  in  twenty  of  the  larger  towns. 
Caisses  de  preooyance,  both  general  and  special,  and  mutual 
aid  societies — to  succour  the  members  in  sickness,  pay  their 
funeral  expenses,  and  aid  their  families — are  numerous. 

The  judicial  system  of  Belgium  consists  of  courta  and  Judicial 
tribunals  of  various  kinds,  as  the  court  of  cassation,  the  system, 
courts  of  appeal,  and  of  assize,  tribunals  of  primary  instance, 
of  commerce,  ic.  The  court  of  cassation  or  annulment 
aits  at  Brussels,  and  is  divided  into  two  chambers,  the  one 
for  civil  and  the  other  for  criminal  matters.  It  is  com- 
posed.of  a  president-general,  a  president  of  the  chamber, 
and  fifteen  councillors.  It  decides  upon  appeals  against 
judgments  pronounced  in  the  other  courts  and  tribunals  in 
contravention  of  legal  forms.  There  are  three  courts  of 
appeal:  one  at  Brussels,  for  the  provinces  of  Antwerp, 
Brabant,  and  Hainault ;  another  at  Ghent,  for  the  two 
Flanders  ;  and  a  third  at  Li(5ge,  for  Li^ge,  Linibourg, 
Luxembourg,  and  Namur.  In  the  capital  of  eaih 
province  is  a  court  of  assize,  composed  of  a  councillor, 
deputed  from  one  of  the  courts  of  appeal,  who  presides, 
and  two  judges  chosen  from  among  the  presidents  Hud 
judge^  of  the  primary  tribunal,  where  the  court  is  held. 
Crimes,  graver  misdemeanour?,  political  offences,  and  abuses 
of  the  press  are  judged  by  the  courts  of  assize.  In  each 
judiciary  arrondissement  is  a  tribunal  of  primary  instance, 
judging  in  misdemeanours  belonging  to  the  cnrrectiomil 
police,  in  civil  matters,  and  in  commercial  ufiair.i  where 
there  is  no  commercial  tribunal.  The  numbi'r  of  judges 
varies  from  three  to  ten  in  eac-h  tribunal.  Tribunals  of 
commerce  are  established  by  law  in  snvnral  principal  towns 
They  judge  definitively  in  nvil  matter.^  of  nut  di'To  than 
2000  francs,  but  above  that  sum  their  decisions  ure  subject 
to  appeal,  as  in  the  tribunals  of  primary  instance.  In 
several  of  the  manufacturing  towns  are  councils  of  pruil 
hommes,  compcscd  of  master  tradesmen  and  workmen. 
They  decide  in  «11  questions  and  disputes  arising  between 
masters  and  workmen.  For  all  cfiminal  and  political  cases, 
as  well  as  otfenccs  of  the  press,  trial  by  jury  is  established. 
The  jury  is  composed  nf  twelve  persons  chosen  by  lot  from  a 
leet  of  thirty.  Justices  of  the  peace  and  judges  of  the 
tribunal!)  are  chosen  directly  by  the  king.  The  councillors 
of  each  ciiurt  of  iippcal,  and  the  presidents  and  vice-presi- 
dents of  the  tribuiiiils  if  primary  instance  in  its  district, 
are  chosen  by  the  king  ftomtwo  double  lists  of  candidates, 
the  one  presented  by  the  court  of  ap[ital,  and  the  other 
by  the  provincial  cuuncil  The  councillors  of  the  court 
of  cassation  arc  named  by  the  king  from  two  double  lists, 
the  one  presented  by  the  senate,  and  the  other  by  the 
court  of  cassation.  The  jidges  arc  apjioinlcd  for  life,  and 
cannot  be  suspended  or  deposed  but  by  a  judgment.  They 
cannot  hold  any  salaried  <iirice  under  the  Government,  or, 
at  least,  must  perform  the  duties  of  it  gratuitously.  Tho 
duties  of  public  minister  at  the  court  of  cassation  are 
exercised    by   a   procurator  general,    and    two    advocates 


B  1!:  L  G  I  U  M 


523 


general  ;  and  by  a  royal  procurator  with  substitutes  before 
eacli  of  the  tribunals  of  primary  instance  and  courts  of 
assize  and  apijcil. 

Councils  of  war  are  held  in  the  chief  place  of  each 
|jro%'ince,  with  the  exception  of  Limbourg,  which  is  joined 
to  Liiige,  and  of  Luxembourg,  which  is  united  with  Niimur. 
They  decide  in  crimes  and  misdemeanours  committed  in 
their  provinces  by  the  military  of  a  rank  not  higher -than 
captain.  The  niilitary  court  for  the  whole  of  Belgium  has. 
its  seat  at  Brnssels.  It  is  composed  of  five  members,  oruc 
of  whom  is  a  councillor  of  the  appeal  court  of  B  -ussels, 
delegated  annually  to  preside ;  the  rest  are  general  or 
superior  officers  chosen  by  lot  every  month.  All  ofGcers  of 
a  grade  superior  to  thai  of  captain  are  amenable  to  this 
court.  It  also  decides  on  appeals  from  the  provincial  or 
other  military  courts. 

Besides  the  ordinary  police,  there  are  commissaries  of 
police,  royal  procurators,  j'^i^cj  ({'instruction,  Ac.  The  com- 
mis.'taries  of  police,  and  in  the  communes  where  these  are 
wanting  the  burgomactcrs  or  delegated  aldermen,  are 
specially  charged  with  searching  out  and  pronng  all  con- 
traventions of  the  police  laws.  The  royal  procurators  are 
charged  w-ith  discovering  and  prosecuting  for  all  ofTeirces 
•oming  within  the  Jurisdiction  of  the  courts  of  assize  or  the 
lorrectional  tribunals  of  police.  There  is  at  l&ist  one  juye 
cTnutrvction,  or  examining  judge,  in  each  arrondissement 
who  is  specially  charged  with  the  collection  of  evidence, 
and  with  bringing  the  culprit  before  the  tribunal  There 
is  a  council  chamber  composed  of  at  least  three  judges, 
including  the  Juye  d'instruction,  for  the  preliminary 
examination  of  culprits. 

The  prisons  are  of  three  kinds — (1),  cent- J  prisons; 
(2),  houses  of  surety;  and  (3),  houses  of  arrest.  The 
central  prisons  are — (1),  the  central  penitentiary  at  Ghent 
for  different  classes  of  criminals  ;  (2),  the  penitentiary  at 
Louvain,  on  the  solitary  system,  for  prisoners  condemned 
to  more  than  one  year's  imprisonment,  except  those  con- 
demned to  imprisonmeut  for  life;  (3),  the  penitentiary  and 
reformatory  for  young  criminals  at  Namur ;  (4),  the 
penitentiary  and  reformatory  at  St  Hubert  for  young 
delinquents  belonging  to  the  rural  population,  acquitted 
but  put  at  the  disposal  of  Government ;  (5),  the  branch 
penitentiary  and  reformatory  at  Namur  for  young  criminals 
and  young  delinquents,  acquitted,  belonging  to  the  town 
populations.  The  number  in  the  prisons  in  1873  was 
1563,  in  the  reformatories  751.  .  The  houses  of  surety  are 
established  in  the  capital  of  each  province,  where  there  is 
a  court  of  assize,  and  the  houses  of  arrest  are  in  the  capital 
of  each  arrondissement,  the  seat  of  a  court  of  primary 
instai^ce,  where  there  is  not  already  a  house  of  surety.  In 
these  houses  are  confined  the  prisoners  whoso  term  does 
not  exceed  six  months  if  the  prison  is  a  common  one,  and 
three  years  if  on  the  solitary  system.  The  number  of 
prisoners  in  these  prisons  in  1873  was  2437.  In  connec- 
tion with  many  of  these,  schools,  workshops,  and  circulating 
libraries  have  been  establbhcd.  The  prisoners  are  employed 
in  various  kinds  of  work.  Those  condemned  to  compulsory 
labour  receive  no  remuneration,  but  those  condemned  to 
eolitary  or  correctional  irrDrisonment  receive  a  part  of  the 
produce  of  their  labour,  which  in  the  case  of  the  latter 
is  frequently  applied  in  mitigation  of  their  punishment. 
Premiums  are  also  given  for  good  conduct,  zeal,  and  progress 
in  their  labours.     ■ 

Since  1830  the  agricultural  state  of  the  country  has 
been  much  improved.  A  superior  council  of  agriculture  is 
•pecially  charged  with  the  promotion  and  superintendence 
of  the  agricultural  interesU  of  the  country ;  and  in  each 
of  the  provinces  a  commission  of  practical  men  is  nomi- 
n.atcd  to  encourage  the  introduction  of  improvements  in  the 
dilfereut  branches  of  agriculture  and  report  annually  upon 


the  state  of  agriculture  in  then'  provinces.  Every  five  years 
a  grand  agricultural  exhibition  of  horses,  cattle,  agricultural 
implements,  and  produce  is  held  in  Brussels,  at  which  a 
number  of  gold  and  silver  medal.^,  ic,  are  given  as  prizes. 
Local  e-xhibitions  are  also  held  frequently  in  the  various 
districts. 

The  agriculturists  above  twelve  years  of  age,  including 
female  ser\'ants,  form  one-fourth  of  the  entire  population,! 
Females  arc  extensively  engaged  in  agricultural  work,  being 
to  the  males  as  61  to  100.  In  ISCG  the  number  of  horses 
Mas  283,103;  of  cattle,  1,242,445;  sheep,  580,097;  swine, 
032,301.  To  improve  the  breeds  of  horses  a  Government 
stud  of  stallions  is  maintained  at  Tervueren. 

The  cultivated  land  of  Belgium  amounts  to  2,663,753 
hectares,  or  6,582,123  acres,  of  which  1,339,795  hectares 
are  in  the  hands  of  the  proprietors,  and  1,323,958  are  let 
to  tenants.  In  West  Flanders  four-fifths  are  in  the  hands 
of  tenants  ;  jn  Luxembourg  nearly  five-sixths  are  in  the' 
hands  of  th«  proprietors;  and  in  most  of  the  other  provincps 
about  one-half  is  let  to  tenants.  The  land  is  divided  into 
numerous  and  mostly  small  patches  (nearly  000,000).  Of 
these  43  per  cent,  do  not  exceed  50  ares;  there  are  12  per 
cent,  not  exceeding  one  hectare,  or  2i  acres,  29  per  cent,  not 
e.xceeding  5  hectares,  7i  per  cent,  not  exceeding  10  hectares, 
and  less  than  8  per  cent,  of  greater  extent.  The  Belgians, 
particularly  in  Flanders,  are  averse  to  the  introduction 
of  improvements  in  their  agricultural  operations,  and 
their  implements  are  generally  rude  and  clumsy.  TL;ir 
lands  are,  however,  cultivated  with  great  caro  and  are 
very  productive.  Of  the  cereal  crops  rye  is  the  most  ex- 
tensively cultivated,  and  forms  an  important  article  of 
food  for  the  working  classes.  AVheat  and  oats  are  also 
extensively  cultivated,  the  former  particularly  in  the  pro- 
vijices  of  Hainault,  Brabant,  and  West  Flanders.  Com- 
paratively little  barley  is  raised.  Hops,  chicory,  tobacco, 
rape  and  other  oleaginous  plants,  hemp,  flax,  madder, 
beei,  itc,  are  common.  Of  these  the  mo.st  extensively 
oultivated  is  fla.t,  principally  in  the  two  Flanders. 
TiXiacco  was  much  more  extensively  grown  a  few  years 
4go  tliAU  at  present ;  it  is  now  almost  entirely  confined  to 
the  two  Flanders  and  Hainault.  The  chicory  plant  is 
principally  raised  in  Hainault.  The  cultivation  of  beet  for 
the  cxtra6tion  of  sugar  is  continually  increasing,  and 
numerous  establishments  have  been  formed  for  its  prepara- 
tion. The  leguminous  plants,  pease,  beans,  and  tares,  are 
used  print^ipally  as  fodder  for  cattle ;  the  most  common 
arc  beans.  The  beet  root  is  even  more  extensively  cultivated 
as  fodder  than  as  an  industrial  plant,  particularly  in  the 
provinces  of  West  Flanders,  LiiJge,  Hainault,  and  Brabant 
Potatoes  are  largely  grown  in  all  the  provinces ;  and,  next 
to  potatoes,  turnips  are  the  most  extensively  cultivated  of 
the  alimentary  roots.  The  fallow  ground,  formerly  con- 
siderable, is  now  only  of  small  extent,  being  principally 
sown  in  fodder  crops.  Clover  is  the  principal  fodder  crop. 
The  number  of  hectares  occupied  with  the  principal  crops  in 
1800  were— wheat,  283,042;  oats,  221,743;  rye,  288,906; 
barley,  43,017  ;  beans,  24,263;  pease,  tares,  ic,  13,045, 
potatoes,  171,397;  flax,  57,045;  colza,  20,412;  beetroot  for 
sugar,  18,074;  turnips,  carrots,  Jic,  28,800;  hemp,  hops, 
chicory,  tobacco,  ic,  13,775.  Vegetable  gardens  occupied 
37,329  ;  meadow,  305,805  ;  fallow,  53,891. 

Belgium  is  rich  in  various  kinds  of  minerals,  as  coal  Miaeralk 
iron,  calamine,  <Sic.,  which  form  a  valuable  source  of  employ 
ment  to  many  thousands  of  its  inhabitants. 

The  coal  may  be  divided  into  two  great  basins.  The 
western  basin  is  the  most  important,  and  has  an  estimated 
extent  of  90,051  hectares  (or  about  222,400  acres), — 
75,725  in  the  province  of  Hainault,  and  14,326  in  Namur. 
The  extent  of  the  eastern  bed  is  estimated  at  44,063 
hectares,—  41,745  in  the  province  of  Lii^p"-  and  2317  •'•> 


524- 


BELGIUM 


Mantt- 
ia.tiirei. 


Namur.  AIJ  varieties,  from  anthracite  to  the  richest  gas- 
cocvl,  are  founi  In  1873  there  were  285  coal-mines  in 
the  country,  employing  107,902  persons,  and  producing 
15,778,401  tons  of  coal  valued  at  337,637,360  francs. 
The  iron  districts  are  the  arrondissement  of  Charleroi,  and 
the  provinces  of  Namur,  Lii^ge,  and  Luxembourg.  Besides 
the  iron-mines  in  Charleroi,  Hainault  contains  a  copper- 
mine,  commenced  in  1849,  and  calamine  and  blende  mines. 
Iron  13  also  found  in  small  quantities  in  the  arrondisse- 
ments  of  Mons  and  Tournay.  In  Namur  the  iron  ore  is 
rich  and  plentiful,  and  constitutes  the  principal  mineral 
wealth  of  the  province.  Veins  of  lead  and  zinc  are  also 
'wrought  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  iron-mines  of 
Luxembourg  are  much  inferior  to  those  of  Namur.  The 
principal  are  those  of  Durbuy,  Ruette,  Grandcourt,  Halanzy, 
and  Musson.  The  ferruginous  basins  of  Theux  and  La 
Keid  are  of  the  greatest  importance,  both  as  public  works, 
and  from  the  quantity  of  ore  that  they  furnish.  Lead  and 
zinc  are  found  here  almost  always  in  the  same  bed. 
Alumiferous  schist  is  common  in  several  parts  of  the 
province.  In  1873  the  different  metallic  mines  yielded 
13,952  tons  of  blende,  28,630  of  calamine,  11,280  of  lead, 
30,651  of  pyrites,  and  503,563  of  huddled  iron  ore. 
The  number  of  workmen  employed  in  these  mines  was 
3758.  Under  the  minister  of  the  interior  the  mines  are 
superintended  by  a  corps  of  mining  engineers  ;  each  of  the 
six  mining  districts  has  an  ordinary  engineer,  and  each  of 
the  two  divisions  a  chief  engineer.  A  sub-engineer  is 
appointed  over  a  certain  number  of  mines. 

Marble  is  abundant  in  many  parts  of  Belgium  ;  and  the 
black  marbles,  as  those  of  Dinant  and  Gochene,  may  rival 
the  finest  productions  of  other  countries.  There  are  also 
numerous  quarries  of  freestone,  granite,  limestone,  slate, 
ic.  The  principal  quarrying  provinces  are  Namur  and 
Hainault.  In  1873  there  were  2230  quarries  in  the 
country,  employing  22,435  men,  and  yielding  the  value  of 
38,353,171  francs. 

The  number  of  works  in  1873  for  the  preparation  of  iron 
was  331 ;  steel,  3 ;  lead,  7  ;  copper,  6 ;  zinc,  1 ;  alum  1 ;  glass, 
72  ;  and  41,845  workmen  were  engaged.  The  value  of  the 
iron  manufactures  was  upwards  of  246,000,000  francs  ; 
glass,  46,000,000;  zinc,  38.000,000;  steel,  7,700,000; 
copper,  6.000,000;   lead,  4,700,000,  ic. 

.Notwithstanding  many  vicissitudes,  flax,  the  most  ancient, 
'  still  forms  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  industry 
in  the  country.  In  1866,  57,045  hectares  of  land  were 
occupied  in  the  cultivation  of  flax,  and  a  considerable 
number  in  hemp.  The  declared  value  of  flax  and  hemp 
yarn  imported  in  1872  was  10,427,000  francs;  of  flax 
yarn  exported,  80,904,000;  of  hemp,  7,155,000 ;  and  of 
ilax  and  hemp  cloths,  37,170,000. 

Cotton  also  forms  an  important  branch  of  industry,  which 
is  at  present  in  a  more  flourishing  condition  than  at  any 
former  period.  In  1872  the  value  imported  of  raw  cotton 
was  57,241,000  francs;  cotton  yarn,  5,214,000;  and  cotton 
cloths,  12,754,000;  the  value  exported  of  cotton  yarn, 
6,358,000;  cotton  cloths,  10,083,000. 

The  manufacture  of  woollens  forms  also  as  important 
branch  of  industry.  The  wool  for  this  purpose  is  principally 
imported  from  Prussia,  Saxony,  <tc.,  the  native  produce 
being  small  in  quantity  and  chiefly  used  in  hosieiy.  In 
1872  the  value  of  the  wools  imported  was  160,079,000 
Irancs;  yarn,  6,902,000;  manufactured  stiifl"3,  23,814,000; 
exported  wool,  10,291,000;  yarn,  64,023,000;  manufac- 
tured 8tun"3,  44,850,000. 

In  1806  the  numbers  employed  in  the  various  flai.hemp, 
woollen,  and  cotton  manufactures,  were  114,547  males  and 
71,111  fcjnalcs.  The.  chief  of  the  other  manufactures 
are  silk,  lace,  ribbons,  beer,  spirits,  vinegar,  sugar,  salt, 
bricka  and  tilca,  porcelain,  earthenware,  glass,  crystal,  paper. 


leather,  ropes,  (fee.  In  IS'72  the  excise  duties  on  beer  a,._ 
vinegar  amounted  to  15,547,605  francs;  spirits,  16,946,225, 
foreign  wmes,  4,765,800;   and  sugar,  7,510.388. 

In  1850,  2165  sailing  and  steam  vessels,  of  314,797  tons,  Conimerci 
entered  Belgium;  in  1860,  3780  vessels  of  667,287  tons  ;  in 
1870,  5658  vessels,  of  1,575,293  tens  ;  and  in  1872,  6134 
vessels,  of  1,878,106  tons.  Of  the  last  3082  were  steam 
vessels,  of  1,158,484  tons.  In  1850  the  number  of  ves- 
sels that  left  Belgium  was  2214,  tonnage  235,745  ;  in 
1860,  3959,  tonnage  694,225,  in  1870,  5406,  tonnage 
1,534,513;  and  in  1872,  6241,  tonnage  1,907,530.  Of  the 
last  3081  vessels,  with  1,169,254  tons,  were  steamers. 
The  numbers  and  tonnage  of  vessels  entering  from  and 
leaving  for  difi"erent  countries  lu  1872  were  as  follows ; 


Ihw 

&RDa 

OrrrwAEDS. 

England 

Vessels. 

ToaiiaKe. 

England 

Vessels. 

TonnagB. 

3176 

843,779 

4178 

1,214,979 

Russia..  .     . 

444 

178,371 

Sweden    oud 

Sweden   and  | 
Norway..    \ 

638 

155,597 

Norway 
United  States., 

544 

121 

124,354| 
94,7901 

United  States.. 

173 

UC,622 

Germany.. 

236 

79,780 

Argentine  Kep. 

169 

95,575 

Prance 

2U9 

65,913 

Germany 

312 

87,785 

Russia —    •  ... 

148 

66,646 

France 

218 

62,182 

Argentine  Rep. 

44 

38,308 

Chili  and  Peru 

49 

60,514 

Expressed  in  millions  of  francs  the  value  of  the  imports  in 
1850  was  236;  of  the  exports,  263  ;  of  goods  in  transit,  206 : 
in  1860 — imports,  516;  exports,  469;  in  transit,  408  :  in 
1870 — imports,  520;  exports,  690;  in  transit,  857-  and 
in  1872 — imports,  1277;  exports,  1051  ;  in  transit,  1049. 
Of  the  imports  in  1872,  315  were  from  France,  230  from 
England,  164  from  Holland,  158  from  the  Gcrmao 
ZoUverein,  80  from  the  United  States,  77  from  the  Argen- 
tine Repubhc,  62  from  Russia,  35  from  Uruguay,  24  from 
Brazil,  and  23  from  Sweden  and  Norway.  Of  the  e.^ports 
320  were  to  France,  237  to  England,  223  to  the  German 
ZoUverein,  120  to  Holland,  18  to  Switzerland,  17  to  the 
Hanseatic  towns,  14  to  the  United  States,  12  to  Italy, 
and  11  to  Russia  Of  the  goods  in  transit  434  were 
from  the  German  ZoUverein,  32]  from  France,  96  from 
England,  and  92  from  Holland;  341  were  to  the  Gerraan 
ZoUverein,  245  to  England,  237  to  France,  and  121  to  Hol- 
land. The  values  of  the  principal  articles  of  merchandise 
imported  for  home  consumption  expressed  in  millions  of 
francs  were — wool,  160;  grain  of  all  kinds,  126;  rawhides, 
71  ;  iron  ore  and  cast  and  wrought  iron,  61  ;  cotton,  57  ; 
resins,  48  ;  minerals  and  metals,  47  ;  coH"oe,  42  ;  wood  for 
building,  41 ;  grease  and  tallow,  37;  silks,  30;  horned  cattle, 
29  ;  oleaginous  seeds,  29  ,  woollen  stufl"s,  23  ;  feimeuted 
liquors,  21  ;  oils,  17;  machinery,  10.  The  values  of  the 
principal  exports  were — coal,  85  ;  flax,  SO ;  wrought  iron, 
69  ;  woollen  yarn,  64  ;  raw  hides,  53  ;  woollen  stutfs,  44  ; 
raw  sugar,  41  ;  machinery,  39  ;  flax  and  hemp  stulTs,  37  ; 
grain  of  all  kinds,  37  ;  flax  and  hemp  yarn,  31  ;  grease  and 
tallow,  25;  paper,  21;  nsins,  21;  unwTought  zinc,  21; 
coke,  20;  cotton  stuffs,  18;  glass  and  crystal  wares,  17  ; 
wool,  16;  candles,  15;  butter,  14;  arms,  13.  The' values 
of  the  principal  goodS  in  transit  were — flax  and  hemp  stuSs, 
204;  wool,  147;  woollen  stuU"s,  102;  haberdashery  and 
hardware,  39  ;  silks,  38 ;  cist  and  wrought  iron,  35 ;  cotton, 
33  ;  grain  of  all  kinds,  30 ;  cofl'ee,  23  ;  woollen  yarn,  20; 
flax  and  hemp  yarn,  19  ;  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  IS  ;  cottoD 
stulfs,  17  ;  fermented  liquors,  10  ;  glass  and  crystal  wares, 
16;  machines,  13.  In  1872  the  exports  from  Belgium  to 
the  United  Kingdom  were  £13,211,04  4,  and  the  importa 
from  the  United  Kingdom  to  Belgium  £0,499,002. 

There   arc   twenty-three    chambers   of    commerce   and  Cbwnlien 
manufacture  established  in  the  principal  towns,  the  members  of  coni- 
nf  which  are  u^minated  by  the  king  from  a  triple  li-it  ol  ""'>•■«■ 


B  E  L  G  I  U  M 


525 


uadidates  presented  to  him  by  the-  chambers.  The 
members  of  each  vacy  in  number  from  nine  to  twenty-one, 
one-third  going  out  annually.  They  present  to  the  Govorh- 
uieot  or  legislative  chambers  their  views  as  to  the  best 
lueaos  of  increasing  tho  commercial  and  industrial  pros- 
perity of  the  country,  rtport  annually  upon  the  state  of 
their  districts,  and  give  useful  information"  or  direction  to 
the  provincial  gr  civic  authorities  under  their  administra- 
tion. There  is  a  superior  council  of  industry  and  com- 
merce, composed  of  two  delegates  chosen  annually  by  each 
of  the  chambers  of  commerce  of  Antwerp,  Brussels,  Uhent^^ 
I.i(Sge,  Mons,  and  Charleroi,  one  elected  by  each  of  the  other 
chambers  of  commerce,  and  a  certain  number  of  members 
chosen  by  the  king,  not  exceeding  a  third  of  tho  others. 
The  president  and  two  vice-presidents  are  nominated  by  the 
king  for  each  session.  The  council  considers  matters  afTect- 
ing  commerce  and  industry,  and  such  questions  connected 
therewith  as  may  bo  submitted  to  it  by  the  Government. 

Belgium  possesses  a  great  number  of  commercial  and 
financial  associations,  joint-stock  companies  for  carrying  on 
public  works  or  other  enterprises,  assurance  companies, 
private  banking  companies,  railway  companies,  ifcc  It  has 
eight  commercial  exchanges,  under  the  direction  of  Govern- 
ment, namely,  in  Antwerp,  Brussels,  Ghent,  Bruges,  Ostend, 
Mons,  Tormonde,  and  Louvain.  In  1822  the  General 
Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  National  Industry 
was  formed  at  Brussels,  under  a  royal  charter  for  27  years, 
which  has  since  been  extended  to  1875  and  1905.  It  has 
a  social  capital  of  15,500,000  florins,  divided  into  shares 
of  500  florins  each,  beiiing  interest  at  5  per  cent.  The 
administrative  body  consists  of  a  governor,  six  directors, 
a  secretary,  and  a  treasurer.  It  discounts  bills,  receives 
money  at  interest,  grants  loans  and  advances  on  titles  and 
other  deposits,  (fee.  The  National  Bank,  instituted  by  charter 
granted  in  1850  and  renewed  1872,  has  its  seat  at  Brussels, 
and  has  branches  in  all  the  provincial  capitals  and  several 
other  towns.  Its  capital  is  50,000,000  francs,  in  shares  of 
1000  francs  eacL  It  pays  a  dividend  of  5  per  cent,  upon 
the  shares,  and  one-third  at  least  of  the  profits  exceeding 
6  per  cent,  goes  to  form  a  sinking  fund.  The  administra- 
tion consists  of  a  governor  nominated  by  the  king,  six 
directors,  and  a  council  of  censors.  The  banking  operations 
are  superintended  byaGoverninent  commissary;  andareport 
upon  its  state  is  presented  to  the  Government  every  month. 
The  state  funds  are  deposited  in  this  bank.  The  Bank  of 
Belgium,  chartered  in  1835,  has  a  capital  of  50,000,000 
franca.  Its  seat  is  at  Brussels.  The  Bank  of  Flanders, 
established  in  Ghent,  has  a  capital  of  10,000,000  francs. 


After  England,  there  is  no  country  in  Europe  where,  Roaa«. 
in  proportion  to  its  extent,  the  roads  are  more  numerous 
or  better  kept  than  in  Belgium.  They  are  of  three  kinds, — 
those  maintained  by  the  state,  and  those  by  the  provinces 
and  communes.  The  total  length  of  the  two  latter  cannot 
be  given  with  accuracy;  that  of  the  firstis  1187  leagues. 

A  bill  was  passed  in  1831  authori2ing  the  establishment  Rjiil'"'»s'»- 
of  a  system  of  railroads,  of  which  Malines  was  to  form  tha 
centre,  and  the  line  from  Brussels  to  Malines,  opened  May 
5,  1835,  was  the  first  railway  in  operatioL  on  the  Continent. 
The  Government  railways  are  wrought  on  account  of  the 
Government,  and  are  under  special  administration.  Tha 
total  length  of  the  various  lines  of  railway  in  operation  in 
1873  was  616  leag\ies(of  5000  metres), of  which  125  Icaguea 
belonged  to  the  state,  and  543  were  conceded  to  others ; 
of  the  former  117  leagues  were  double  lines.  The  amount 
expended  by  Government  in  the  construction  of  rail- 
ways to  the  end  of  1873  was  361,287,299  francs,  or 
X14,451,491. 

In  1 849  a  system  of  postage  was  introduced  into  Belgium  Postago. 
similar  to  that  in  this  country.  In  1873  the  total  number 
of  letters  that  passed  through  the  post-office  was  55,054,859 ; 
newspapers,  52,771,524;  and  packets  of  printed  matter, 
25,697,33.  In  1860  the  numbers  were— letters,  23,960,846; 
newspapers,  26,358,020;  and  book  parcels,  6,668,452. 

The  first  electric  telegraph,  which  was  that  between  Telcerapnt 
Brussels  and  Antwerp,  was  introduced  into  tho  country  id 
1846  by  an  English  company.  A  law  passed  in.  1850 
authorized  the  Government  to  purchase  this,  as  also  to 
establish  telegraphs  on  all  the  lines  of  railway.  The  tele- 
grams sent  out  in  1873  were  1,739,817  to  different  parta 
of  the  country,  and  676,393  to  other  countries,  besides 
153,330  in  transit. 

For  an  account  of  the  Ilelgian  army  and  civic  guard,  see 
Army,  voL  ii  p.  615. 

The   following    table  shows  the    annual   income 
expenditure  for  yarious  years  :  • »  . 


Income.  .    ExpCDditnra 

1844 198,810,508  fr.  195,185,657 

1850 132,877,187  118,730,904 

1860 155,621,571  159,025,377 

1865 169,055,072  188,793,737 

1870  .;. 190,.'i37,002  216,907,800 

1871  207,70.1,993  238,191,223 

1872 213,352,689  251,974,513 

The  details  of  the  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  last 
three  of  these  years,  arranged  under  their  several  heads, 
are  as  follows  : — 


and  R«7i>nus 
and  Kx- 

pendilu/e. 


lABi  tax 

Revikot. 

ExrG:n>rn:RB. 

1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

Franca. 
19,176,009 
12,174,694 

4,374,797 

440,020 

22,057,152 

29,405,085 

39,633,635 

3,444,497 

4,114,555 
41,825,031 
11,839,645 

1,961,882 

Franca, 
19,272,846 
12,404,060 

5,103,814 

628,251 

20,839,678 

25,219,641 

44,800,269 

2,413,004 

6,123,508 
67,172,844 
13,486,213 

1,335,067 

Franca. 
20,258,082 
13,230,067 

5,509,728 

672,377 

18,943,388 

27,024,218 

49,277,477 

2,555,137 

4,723,694 
68,428,526 
10,970,012 

1,859,493 

Franca. 
42,080,891 

4,367,879 
14,620,711 

3,819,005 
13,179,716 
39,804,403 
59,116,612 
13,308.096 
946,553 
25,063,874 

Franca. 
47,628,453 

4,366,898 
14,616,530 

4,277,056 
li,056,431 
51,032,306 
44,005,577 
13,545,257 
839,598 
43,924,117 

Franca. 
48,765,178 

4,288,619 
14,473,638 

4,374,445 
14,714,368 
69,341,272 
39,690,956 
13,930,193 

1,403,490 
61,056,352 

Personal  tax 

TmJe  licences 

Kent  of  mines 

Custom  duties 

Exciso  duties 

Stamp  duties 

Public  works  

War.    .    . 

Domains,  Forests,  Jw 

Tosvolfice 

Itnilwftyx,  4c. 

Financo 

Deficiencies  k  Repayments 
Special  «crvic«s v.. 

ToUl 

fttiacelluieoQt 

Rcimbunemeot* 

Total 

190,637,002 

207,70.';,993 

213,362,689 

216.907,800 

238,191,223 

25i;974,5J3 

Tho  public  debt  of  Belgium  at  tho  end  of  1873  amounted 
u>  966,920,.')  13  francs  or  jE3S,676,820.  Except  the  share 
of  the  old  debt  of  tho  Netherlands  which  fell  to  it,  most 
of  the  national  debt  has  been  incurred  in  tho  construction 
ol  railways  and  other  works  of  public  utility. 


In 'the  time  of  the  Romans  this  portion  of  the  Nether-  Hiatnry. 
lands  was   included  in  Gaul,  and  formed    part   of   that 
division  of  it  which  w.is  known  as  Gallia  Bdgica,     It  was 
inhabited  mostly  by  Celtic  tribes,  but  there  were  also  not 
a  few  of  German  race.     Tho  latter  were  subsequently  largely 


526 


B  E  L  G  1  U  lAI 


increase3  by  irraptioiis  from  the  north,  ao  that  in  the  5th 
aod  Gth  centuries,  under  the  rule  of  the  Franks,  they 
(ormed  the  principal  element  of  the  population.  For 
several  centuries  the  history  of  the  Franks  is  the  history  of 
tho  Netherlands.  Afterwards  the  country  was  divided 
tnto  a  number  of  iodependent  duchies,  counties,  and  free 
cities.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  duchies  of 
Brabant,  I.imbourg,  and  Luxembourg,  the  counties  of 
Flanders,  Hainault,  and  Namur,  the  bishopric  of  Liege, 
the  lordship  of  Malines,  iko.  Of  these  the  county  of 
Flander.s  rose  to  be  superior  to  all  tho  others,  and  became 
distinguished  for  its  industry  and  commercial  activity.  In 
1385  the  male  line  of  tho  counts  of  Flanders  became 
extinct,  and  their  possessions  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
dukes  of  Burgundy,  who  soon  after,  in  various  ways,  came 
into  possession  of  the  whole  of  the  Netherlands.  In  order 
to  strengthen  their  power  they  sought  to  repress  the  spirit 
of  liberty,  and  to  do  away  with  the  free  institutions  that 
had  sprung  up  in  the  country  ,  but  notwithstanding  this 
tho  people  continued  to  increase  in  wealth  and  prosperity, 
and  industry  and  commerce  flourished  more  and  more 
among  them.  In  1477  Mary  of  Burgundy,  cmly  daughter 
and  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold,  married  the  Archduke 
Maximilian,  son  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  IV.,  and  thus  the 
Netherlands  cfime  into  the  possession  of  the  House  of 
Austria.  Maximilian  succeeded  to  the  imperial  throne  in 
1493,  and  the  following  year  ho  resigned  the  government 
of  the  Netherlajida  to  his  son  Philip,  then  a  youth  of 
neventesn  years  of  age.  The  latter,  in  1496,  married 
Joanna,  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Castile,  and 
died  in  1500,  leaving  to  succeed  him  a  son  who  afterwards 
became  Charles  V.  During  the  reign  of  this  monarch  the 
Protestant  religion  began  to  spread  in  the  country,  though 
It."*  adherents  were  suVjjected  to  much  persecution.  His  son 
and  successor,  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  by  his  cruel  persecu- 
tions and  his  attempt  to  establish  the  Inquisition  in  tho 
country,  drove  the  people  into  open  rebellion.  The  duke 
of  Alva,  who  was  sent  at  the  head  of  a  Spanish  army  to 
reduce  them  to  subjection,  perpetrated  upon  them  the  most 
horrid  cruelties,  devastating  the  country  in  every  direction, 
and  erecting  scaffolds  in  every  city.  At  length  the  nurthern 
p..>rtion  of  the  Netherlands  succeeded  in  establishing  its 
ir.dopendence,  and  became  the  repubbc  of  the  Seven  United 
Provinces,  while  the  southern  portion,  or  Belgium,  cimtinuud 
under  the  rule  of  Spain.  In  1598  Philip  ceded  Belgium 
to  his  daughter  Isabella  and  her  liu.'iband  the  Archduke 
Albert,  under  whom  it  formed  a  distinct  and  independent 
kingdom.  Attempts  were  then  made  to  restore  the 
prosperity  of  the  country  and  improve  its  internal  condi- 
tion ;  but,  unfortunately,  Albert  died  without  leaving  issue 
in  1G21,  and  the  countiy  again  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Sji.un. 

F^r  many  years  Belgium  continued  to  share  in  tho 
declining  fortunes  of  Spain  ;  and  in  the  wars  that  broke 
out  between  that  power  and  France  and  Holland,  it  was 
exposed  to  tho  first  utt<ick,  and  peace  was  usually  purchased 
at  tho  expense  of  somo  part  of  its  territory.  By  tho  tre.ity 
oi  tho  I'yreiii-es  (1G5'J)  the  county  of  Artois,  Thigiiville, 
and  _  other  districts  were  ceded  to  France.  Subsequent 
Fiencli  conquests,  confirmed  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chajjello 
(10G8),  took  away  Lille,  Charleroi,  C)udenarde,  Courtray, 
find  other  places.  These  were,  indeed,  [lartly  lestored  to 
Belgium  by  the  peace  of  Nimeguen  (IG79);  but,  on  tho 
I'lhor  h.and,  it  lost  Valenciennes,  Nieu[iort,  Cambray,  St 
Omcr,  Ypres,  and  Cliarlemont,  which  were  only  in  part 
recovered  by  tho  peace  of  Kyswick  (1097).  After  the  con- 
clusion oi  this  last  treaty  tho  Spanish  Ooverninent 
attempted  to  restore  prosperity  to  Belgium  by  the  introduc- 
tioD  of  new  customs  laws,  and  by  other  means,  particularly 
bjr  the  construction  of  canals  to  counteract  the  injury  done  to 


its  commerce  by  the  closing  of  the  navigation  of  the  Scheldt 
by  the  Dutch.  But  these  attempts  were  of  httle  avail  in 
consequence'of  the  breaking  out  of  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  which  was  only  brought  to  an  end  by  tho  peace 
of  Utrecht  in  1713.  By  this  treaty  Belgium  was  assigned 
to  Austria,  and  took  the  name  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands. 
Yet  such  was  the  enfeebled  state  of  the  country  that  Holland 
retained  the  right,  which  had  been  conceded  to  her  during 
the  late  war,  of  garrisoning  the  principal  fortresses  on  the 
French  frontier,  and  her  right  to  close  the  navigation  of 
the  Scheldt  was  also  recognised.  In  1722  a  commercial 
company  was  formed  at  Ostend  by  Charles  VI.,  but  this 
was  sacrificed  in  1731  to  the  iealousy  of  the  Dutch. 
During  the  Austrian  War  of  Succession  almost  the  whole 
country  fell  into  the  hands  oi  ^hc  French,  but  was  restored 
to  Austria  by  the  peace  of  Aix  la-ChapeUe  (1748).  Belgium 
was  undisturbed  by  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1766-63),  and 
during  the  long  peace  which  followed  enjoyed  considerable 
prosperity  under  the  mild  rule  of  JIaria  Theresa,  whose  repre- 
sentative here.  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine,  conducted  affairs 
with  great  judgment  and  moderation.  Thecmpressdid  much 
for  the  advancement  of  education,  founding,  among  other 
institutiouSjtheBelgiaiiAcademyof  Sciences,  and  opposed  the 
undue  power  of  the  clergy.  Her  son  and  successor,  Joseph 
II.,  got  into  difficulties  with  Holland,  and  compelled  that 
power  to  withdraw  her  garrisons  from  tho  frontier  towns, 
but  was  unsuccessful  in  his  attempts  to  free  the  navigation 
of  the  Scheldt.  It  was,  however,  in  his  attempts  to  reform 
internal  abuses  that  he  failed  most  signally  here  as  in  other 
parts  of  his  dominions.  -'He  excited  the  religious  feeluigs 
I  of  the  people  against  him,  by  attempting  to  curb  the  power 
of  the  priests,  and  he  offended  the  states  by  seeking  to 
overturn  the  civil  government.  Numbers  of  the  malcon- 
tents left  tb'-  country,  and  organized  themselves  as  a  military 
force  in  Holland.  As  the  discontent  became  more  general 
the  insurgents  returned,  took  several  forts,  defeated  the 
Austrian"  at  Turnhout,  and  overran  the  country.  On  11th 
December  1789,  the  people  of  Brussels  rose  against  the 
Austrian  gamson,  and  compelled  it  to  capitulate,  and  on 
the  27th  the  states  of  Brabant  declared  their  independence. 
The  other  provinces  followed,  and,  on  11th  January  1790, 
the  whole  formed  themselves  into  an  independent  state 
under  the  name  of  United  Belgium,  with  a  congress  to 
manage  its  affairs.  After  the  death  of  Joseph  II.  his 
successor,  Leopuld  II.,  issued  a  [iroclamation  on  3d  March 
1790,  wherein  he  promised  the  restoration  of  the  former 
constitution  if  the  people  would  return  to  their  allegiance. 
This,  however,  they  refused  to  do,  and  they  also  rejected 
the  proposal  of  a  congress  to  meet  at  the  Hague  for  the 
settlement  of  their  dilTerences.  In  the  end  of  November, 
therefore,  a  strong  Austrian  army  was  sent  into  Belgium, 
and  the  country  was  subdued  without  any  great  opposition. 
The  constitution  as  it  existed  at  the  end  of  tho  reign  of 
Maria  Theresa  was  restored,  an  amnesty  was  proclaimed  for 
past  offences,  and  the  opposition  of  tho  states  was  put  down. 
The  short  period  of  peace  which  followed  was  terminated 
by  the  breaKing  out  of  the  war  with  revolutionary  France. 
The  battle  of  Jeinappcs  (7tk  Nov.  1792)  made  tho  French 
masters  ofTthe  country  to  the  south  of  Lii^ge;  and  the  battle 
of  Fleurus  (20th  Juno  1794)  put  an  end  to  tho  Austrian 
rule  in  Belgium.  The  treaty  of  Campo  Fonnio  (1797)  and 
the  subsequent  treaty  of  Luneville  (1801)  confirmed  the 
conquerors  in  tho  possession  of  the  country,  and  Belginni 
became  an  integral  part  of  France,  being  governed  on  the 
same  fociting,  receiving  the  Code  Napoleon,  and  sharing 
in  the  fortunes  of  the  Kepublic  and  of  the  Empire.  (See 
FiiANCE.)  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  and  tlio  conclusion 
of  tho  first  peace  of  Paris  (3(>lh  May  1814),  Belgium 
was  for  some  months  ruled  by  an  Austrian  governor- 
general,   after   which  it   was  united  with   Holland   undur 


BELGIUM 


G2r 


Prince  William  Frederick  of  Nassau,  who  took  the  title  of 
king  of  the  Netherlands  (23d  March  1815).  The  Congress 
of  Vienna  (3Ist  May  1815)  determined  th^  relations  and 
fixed  the  boundaries  of  the  new  kingdom  ;  and  the  new 
constitution  was  promulgated  on  the  24th  of  August 
following,  the  king  taking  the  oath  at  Brussels,  Sept.  27. 

The  union,  however,  was  not  a  particularly  fortunate  or 
happy  one..  It  was  brought  about  by  the  allied  powers 
with  little  regard  to  the  wishes  or  inclinations  of  the  people, 
their  main  object  being  to  fo>m  hero  a  strong  kingdom  to 
serve  as  a  check  upon  the  ambitious  designs  of  France. 
The  character,  habits,  language,  and  religion  of  the  Belgians 
were  all  against  such  an  alliance  Through  their  connec- 
tion and  intercourse  with  France  they  had  acquired  much 
of  the  spirit,  habits,  and  ideas  of  the  people  of  that  country ; 
while  the  slow,  staid,  conservative  habits  and  ideas  of  the 
Dutch  were  repugnant  to  them.  The  Belgians  were  chieHy 
engaged  in  agriculture  and  the  manufdctures,  while  the 
Dutch  were  mainly  given  to  commerce  and  the  fisheries. 
The  French  was  the  common  language  of  Belgium,  at  least 
is  the  higher  circles  end  in  all  public  proceedings.  But 
tha  principal  difficulty  arose  from  the  difference  in  religion. 
The  Roman  Catholic  clergy  of  Belgium  were  from  the  first 
opposed  to  a  union  with  a  Protestant  country  like  Holland, 
und  the  great  mass  of  the  people  were  very  ignorant,  and 
much  under  the  influence  of  the  priests  NevertlKiless, 
had  a  mild  and  conciliatory  policy  been  adopted  by  the 
Dutch  it  would  have  done  much  to  remove  or  lessen  these 
difficulties  This,  however,  was  not  done.  Belgium  was 
regarded  too  much  in  the  light  of  a  conquered  country,  at 
whose  expense  they  might  lawfully  enrich  themselves. 
Though  the  population  of  Belgium  was  3,400,000  and  that 
of  Holland  only  2,000,000,  the  latter  had  as  many  reprc- 
eentiitiv68  in  the  Statts-general  as  the  former.  This  fre- 
quently rendered  decision  on  important  legisliitive  questions 
a  matter  of  extreme  doubt  and  difficulty.  In  matters  that 
affected,  or  were  believed  to  affect,  the  two  countries  in 
diOerent  or  opposite  ways,  the  decbion  often  depended  on 
the  occidental  absence  of  a  member  on  the  one  side  or  the 
other.  The  use  of  the  French  language  was  also  attempted 
to  be  abolished  in  all  Government  and  judicial  proceedings. 
Tke  great  majority  of  the  public  offices  were  filled  by 
Dutchmen,  and  the  government  was  conducted  principally 
in  the  interests  of  Holland.  In  1830,  of  the  seven  Govern- 
ment ministers  only  one  w.'^  a  Belgian ;  in  the  ministry 
of  the  interior,  of  1 1 7  officials  only  1 1  were  Belgians  ;  in 
the  minirtry  of  war,  of  102  officials  only  3  were  Belgians  , 
and  umoug  19G7  officers  of  the  army,  only  288  were 
Belgians.  The  partisans  of  Holland  attempt  to  explain 
away  these  facts,  but  with  only  very  partial  success ;  both 
sides,  however,  acquit  the  king  of  any  intentional  unfair- 
ness, and  consider  that  he  was  led  to  act  as  he  did  by 
force  of  circumstances.  TBe  Belgians  admit  that  he  always 
manifested  a  sincere  regard  for  their  welfare,  but  accuse 
him  of  giving  too  ready  an  acquiescence  to  what  they 
tauntingly  called  the  schemes  of  their  Dutch  cousins. 

Notwithstanding  these  drawbacks  Belgium  enjoyed 
during  her  union  with  Holland  a  degree  of  prosperity  that 
was  quite  remarkable.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country 
was  largely  developed,  the  iron  manufactures  of  Liijge 
rapidly  advanced  in  prosperity,  the  woollen  manufactures 
of  7er\Mer3  received  a  similar  impulse,  and  many  large 
establishments  were  formed  at  Ghent  and.  other  places 
where  cotton  good^were  fabricated  which  rivalled  those  of 
"England  and  far  surpassed  those  of  France.  The  extensive 
colonial  and  foreign  trade  of  the  Dut<'h  furnished  them 
with  new  markets  for  their  produce  ;  while  the  opening  of 
the  navigation  of  tho  Scheldt  raised  Antwerp  to  a  place  of 
the  fii»t  cojnmcrcial  importance.  The  Government  also  did 
cucb  in  the  woj  of  improving  the  internal  communicationa 


of  the  co\intry,  in  repairing  the  roads  and  canals,  and  form- 
ing new  ones,  deepening  and  widening  rivers,  and  the  like. 
Nor  was  the  social  and  intellectual  improvement  of  cha 
people  by  any  means  neglected.  A  new  university  was 
formed  at  Li^ge,  normal  schools  for  the  instructioo  of 
teachers  were  instituted,  and  numerous  elementary  schools 
and  schools  for  higher  instruction  were  established  over 
the  country.  That  the  Government  should  take  upon  itself 
the  direction  and  regulation  of  the  education  of  the  people 
was  particularly  hateful  to  the  priests,  still  more  so  were  the 
attempt*  subsequently  made  to  improve  the  education  of 
the  priests  themselves.  The  king  had  determined  that  no 
priest  should  be  inducted  who  had  not  passed  two  years  in 
the.  study  of  the  lilerae  humaniores  before  his  ordination  ; 
and  he  appropriated  a  college  at  Louvain  for  that  purpose, 
some  of  the  professors  in  which  were  not  priests,  but  laymen 
arid  Protestants.  This  gave  great  offence  to  the  prelates 
and  clergy,  and  some  of  the  former,  who  had  indulged  in 
very  intemperate  bnguage,  were  prosecuted.  These  pro-" 
ceedings  were  at  the  time  applauded  and  encouraged  by, 
the  active  party  of  the  Liberais,  but  afterwards  these  saw  it 
their  interest  to  join  with  the  most  bigoted  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  against  the  Government.  With  the  vie\y  of  termi- 
nating these  differences  the  king  in  1827  entered  into  a 
concordat  with  the  Pope,  settling  the  right  of  nomination 
to  the  bishoprics,  and  providing  that  the  education  of  tha 
priests  should  be  under  the  control  of  the  prelates,  but  that 
ifi  the  seminaries  professors  should'  be  appointed  to  teach 
the  sciences  as  well  as  what  related  to  ecclesiastical  matters 
This,  however,  vas  far  from  satisfying  the  more  violent  of 
the  clergy;  and  the  two  most  opposite  parties,  the  Catholic 
Ultramontanes  and  the  French  Liberals,  united  their  efforts 
to  effect  the  overthrow  of  the  Government  The  Liberals 
affected  a  zeal  for  the  Catholic  faith,  and  urged  the  clergy 
to  make  extravagant  demands  upon  the  Government,  which 
they  knew  if  granted  would  be  hurtful  to  it,  and  if  refused 
would  increase  the  agitation  then  going  on.  Brussels 
was  at  this  time,  too,  a  city  of  refuge  for  the  intriguing 
and  discontented  of  almost  every  country  of  Europe,  and 
the  press  teemed  with  Libels  not  only  against  the  Belgian 
Government,  but  also  against  almost  every  other,  so  tl.at 
the  people  were  constantly  kept  in  a  high  state  of  political 
excitement.  At  length  the  Government  took  proceedings 
against  some  of  the  more  notorious  of  the  inflammatory 
writers,  .and  several  of  them  were  banished  from  tho 
kingdom. 

Matters  were  in  this  state  when  the  n^-s  of  the  success 
of  the  Paris  revolution  of  1830  reached  Belgium  Num- 
bers of  the  propagandists  came  to  Brussels,  where  they 
paraded  the  streets  and  tilked  loudly  in  the  public  places 
of  the  glories  of  the  Revolution  and  of  the  future  des- 
tinies of  France.  The  first  outbreak  occurred  on  the  25th 
of  August,  just  a  month  after  the  commencement  of  thai 
of  Paris.  A  play,  called  Za  MudU,  which  abounds  in 
passages  well  calculated  to  inflame  the  populace  in  their 
then  excited  state,  was  performed  in  the  theatre,  and  when 
the  curtain  fell  the  audience  rushed  out  into  the  street 
shouting,  "  Imitons  les  Parisiens."  They  were  speedily 
joined  by  others,  and  the  mob  at  once  proceeded  to  deeds 
of  violence,  destroying  or  damaging  a  number  of  public 
Buildings,  manuf.ictorics,  and  private  houses.  The  guards 
and  posts  in  the  centre  of  the  city  were  overcome  or  quietly 
surrendered;  the  troops  were  drawn  out,  but  they  were  loo 
few  in  number  to  contend  with  the  insurgents,  and  they  eilhtr 
rctl'eatcd  to  their  barracks  or  were  withdrawn  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  city,  where  they  piled  their  arms  in  front  of.  tbj 
king's  palace,  and  renounced  alJ  attempts  at  suppressing  tb-j 
tumult.  A,  numbei  of  the  more  influential  and  the  middle- 
class  citizens  now  enrolled  themselves  into  a  burgher  guard 
for  the  projection  of  life  and  property,  and  to  interpoas  lu 


528 


BELGIUM 


a  manner  between  iiie  contending  parties.  The  intelligence 
of  these  events  in  the  capital  soon  spread  throughout  the 
provinces  ;  and  in  most  of  the  large  towns  similar  scenes 
were  enacted,  commeuci[\g  with  plunderings  and  outrages 
by  the  mobs,  followed  by  the  institution  of  burgher  guards 
for  the  maintenance  of  peace.  The  burgher  guard  of 
Brussels  was  most  anxious  to  terminate  the  dispute  without 
recourse  being  had  to  extreme  measures.  They  demanded 
the  dismissal  of  the  minister,  Van  Maanen,  who  was 
obnoxious  to  the  people,  and  a  separate  administration  for 
Belgium  without  an  entire  separation  of  the  two  countries. 
The  Government  neither  agieed  to  make  these  concessions 
nor  did  it  resolve,  upon  actual  force,  but  adopted  a  sort  of 
middle  course  which,  by  allowing  things  to  go  on,  ended 
in  converting  a  popular  not  into  a  complete  revolution. 
The  hcir-apparent,  the  prince  of  Orange,  was  sent  on  a 
peaceful  mission  to  Brussels,  but  furnished  with  such 
limited  powers  as,  in  the  circumstances,  were  utterly 
inadequate.  On  his  arrival  a  conference  was  held,  which 
extended  over  several  days  ;  and  at  the  final  meeting  on  3d 
Sept.,  when  a  number  of  the  members  of  the  States-general 
were  present,  the  prince  had  become  so  convinced  that 
nothing  but  a  separate  administration  of  the  two  countries 
would  restore  tranquillity,  that  he  promised  to  use  his 
influence  with  his  father  to  bring  about  that  object — the 
persons  present  on  their  part  assuring  him  tlat  they  would 
heartily  unite  in  maintaining  the  dynasty  of  the  House  of 
Orange.  The  king  summoned  an  extraordinary  States- 
general,  which  met  at  the  Hague,  13th  Sept.,  and  was 
opened  by  a  speech  from  the  throne,  which  was  firm  and 
temporate,  but  by  no  means  definite.  The  proceedings  of 
the  body  were  dilatory,  and  the  conduct  of  the  Dutch 
deputies  exasperated  the  people  of  Belgium  bej'ond  measure. 
The  moderate  party  in  the  country  gradually  lost  their 
infiuence,  and  those  who  were  in  favour  of  violent  measures 
prevailed,  while  the  warlike  demonstrations  made  by  the 
troops  kindled  a  feeling  of  animosity  and  stimulated  pre- 
giirations  for  defence.  Although  the  States  were  still 
Bitting  at  the  Hague,  the  king's  army  was  gradually 
approaching  Brussels.  It  consisted  of  14,000  well-appointed 
troops  under  the  command  of  Prince  Frederick  ;  but  its 
movements  wore  too  tardy  if  force  was  to  be  employed, 
and  it  was  entirely  out  of  place  if  conciliatory  me.isitres 
were  to  prevail  On  20th  September  the  council  resolved 
to  take  possession  of  Brussels,  believing  that  the  inhabitants 
were  eager  to  receive  the  troops,  and  that  their  presence 
there  would  tend  to  restore  peace;  and  orders  were  sent  to 
I'nnce  Frederick  to  that  effect.  On  the  23d  the  troops 
advanced  towards  the  city,  and,  with  little  opposition, 
occupied  the  upper  or  court  portion  of  it,  which  is  situated 
on  a  hill,  by  which  the  rest  of  the  town  is  commanded. 
The  fighting  continued  for  three  day.s  without  any  definite 
result,  when  the  prince  ordered  a  retre.at.  The  news  of  this 
soon  reached  Ghent,  Bruges,  Ostcnd,  and  other  towns, 
which  at  once  declared  in  favour  of  separation.  A 
Provisional  Government  was  formed  at  Brussels,  which 
declared  Belgium  to  bo  an  independent  state,  and  summoned 
a  national  congress  for  the  regulation  of  its  affairs.  The 
council  of  the  king  now  consented  to  separate  administra- 
tions for  the  two  kingdoms,  but  it  was  too  late  to  restore 
peace.  Antwei-p  was  the  only  important  town  which 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  ,  and  the  army  on 
leaving  Brusseb  had  fallen  back  on  this  town.  In  the  end 
of  October  an  insurgent  army  had  arrived  before  the  gates, 
^^bich  were  opened  by  the  populace  to  receive  them,  and 
the  troops,  under  General  Chassci,  retired  within  the  citadel. 
A  truce  was  concluded  between  the  parties,  but  the  Belgian 
officers  were  unable  to  restrain  the  fury  of  the  populace 
«ho,  with  such  weapons  as  they  had,  attacked  the  cit.adel. 
The  general  ordered  a  cannonade  and  bombardment  of  the 


town,  which  continued  for  two  days,  destroying  a  niiUibei 
of  houses  and  large  quantities  of  merchandise.  A  suspen 
sion  of  hostilities  then  took  place,  but  the  misrepresentations 
and  exaggerations  of  the  proceedings  which  spread  did 
much  to  inflame  the  minds  of  the  Belgians  still  farther 
against  the  Dutch. 

A  convention  of  representatives  of  the  five  great  powers 
met  in  London,  in  the  beginning  of  November,  at  the 
request  of  the  king  of  the  Netherlands,  but  its  attention 
was  mainly  directed  to  bringing  about  peace,  and  through 
it  both  sides  were  brought  to  consent  to  a  cessation  cf 
hostilities.  On  the  10th  November  the  national  congress 
assembled  at  Brussels,  consisting  of  200  deputies  chosen 
from  the  different  provinces.  Three  important  questions 
were  decided  by  that  assembly  : — (1.)  The  independence  of 
the  country, — carried  unanimously;  (2),  a  constitutional 
hereditary  monarchy, — by  a  majority  of  174  against  13  in 
favour  of  a  republic  ;  and  (3),  the  perpetual  exclusion  .of 
the  Orange  Nassau  family, — by  a  majority  of  IGl  against  28 
in  favour  of  delay.  On  20th  December  the  conference  of 
London  proclaimed  the  dissolution  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands,  at  the  same  time  that  it  claimed  for  itself  tbo 
right  of  interfering  even  against  the  will  of  both  countries 
to  regulate  the  conditions  of  partition.  On  the  2Sth  of 
January  1831  the  congress  proceeded  to  the  election  of  a 
king,  and  out  of  a  number  of  candidates  the  choice  fell  on  the 
duke  of  Nemours,  second  sou  of  Louis  Philippe,  but  he 
declined  the  office.  The  congress  then  resolved  on  the 
election  of  a  regent  as  a  temporary  measure,  and  they 
selected  Baron  Surlet  de  Chokier,  who  was  installed  on  the 
25th  of  February.  This,  however,  did  little  to  restore 
tranquillity  to  the  country,  and  the  partisans  of  the  prince 
of  Orange  were  still  actively  intrigumg  in  his  favour.  At 
length,  in  the  month  of  April,  a  proposition  was  privately 
made  to  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg,  widower  of  the- 
Princess  Charlotte  of  England,  with  the  view  of  ascertaining 
whether,  if  chosen,  he  would  accept  the  crown.  It  is 
remarkable  that  though  hi.'?  name  was  mentioned  he  was 
not  among  the  number  of  candidates  brought  forward  on 
the  previovis  occasion.  Ho  answered  in  the  affirmative, 
but  strictly  abstained  from  giving  any  authority  to  exertion 
being  made  in  his  favour.  After  many  stormy  discussions 
the  election  at  length  took  place  on  the  4th  of  June,  when 
152  votes  out  of  196,  (our  only  being  absent,  determined 
that  Prince  Leopold  should  be  proclaimed  king  of  the 
Belgians,  under  the  express  condition  that  ho  "would  ac- 
cept the  constitution  and  swear  to  maintain  the  nation.il 
independence  and  territorial  integrity."  Leopold  at  once 
accepted, and  made  bis  public  entry  into  Brusselson  tbe2Ul, 
when  he  was  received  with  great  cordiality.  Hesubscquently 
vi?itfid  other  parts  of  the  kingdona,  and  was  everywhere  re- 
ceived with  demonstrations  of  loyally  and  respect.  While 
this  was  going  on  news  suddenly  arrived  that  the  Dutch  were 
preparing  to  invade  the  country  with  a  large  army.  This 
had  been  brought  together  bo  secretly  that  the  Belgians 
were  unaware  of  its  existence  till  it  was  about  to  cross  the 
frontier.  It  comprised  45,000  infantry  and  6000  cavalry, 
with  72  pieces  of  artillery,  while  Leopold  could  scarcely 
bring  forward  25,000  men  to  oppose  it.  On  the  2d  of 
August  the  whole  of  the  Dutch  army  had  crossed  the 
frontier.  Leopold  collected  his  forces,  such  as  they  were, 
near  Louvain  in  order  to  cover  his  capital  The  Dutch 
army  advanced  to  the  attack  ('Jth  August) ,  and  though 
the  king  displayed  great  bravery  and  determination,  he 
was  unable  to  impart  his  spirit  to  his  undisciplined  troo]>3. 
who  were  speedily  routed,  the  king  himself  .and  his  staff 
making  a  narrow  escape  from  being  taken  prisoners.  He, 
however,  made  good  his  retreat  to  the  capital  ;  and  a 
French  army,  which  was  ready  to  enter  the  country,  the 
advanced,  and  thf  I'rinci;  of  Orange  saw  the  ncccssitv  t 


B  E  L  G  I  U  31 


529 


f^treating.  A  convention  was  concluded  between  him  ahd 
ihe  French  genera],  in  consequence  uf  which  he  returned 
to  Holland  and  the  French  army  repassed  the  frontier. 

Leopold  now  proceeded  with  vigour  to  strengthen  his  posi- 
tion, and  to  restore  order  and  confidence.  French  officers 
were  selected  lor  the  training  and  disciplining  of  the  army, 
the  •ivil  list  was  arranged  with  economy  and  order,  and 
the  other  branches  of  the  public  service  were  reformed  or 
rearranged.  He  kept  on  the  best  terms  with  the  Roman 
Catholic  clergy  and  the  Roman  Catholic  nobility ;  and  his 
subsequent  marriage  with  a  daughter  of  the  French  king 
(9th  August  lS32),.and  i  contract  that  the  children  of  the 
marriage  should  be  educated  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith, 
did  much  to  inspire  confidence  in  his  good  intentions. 
While  these' things  were  going  on  the  conference  in  London 
was  engaged  in  determining  the  terms  of  peace,  and  a  pro- 
ject of  a  treaty  for  the  separation  of  the  two  states  was 
drawn  up  and  declared  to  ba  ■"  final  and  irrevocable." 
The  first  basis  of  separatiou  had  determined  that  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Luxembourg,  which  belonged  to  the  king  of 
Holland  as  grand-duke,  should  continue  to  belong  to 
Holland.  By  the  subsequent  treaty  of  the  eighteen  articles, 
BsLgium  received  the  right  to  treat  for  the  purchase  or 
redemption  of  Luxembourg  from  Holland  on  fair  terms. 
These  articles  were  adopted  by  the  Belgian  congress  in 
July  1831,  but  the  king  of  Holland  rejected  them,  and 
followed  up  his  rejection,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  invasion 
of  Belgium.  The  terms  of  the  treaty  which  followed  this 
invasion  were  much  more  favourable  to  Holland  than  those 
of  the  previous  one  ;  for  the  feeble  resistance  that  Belgium 
had  been  able  to  make  had  affected  very  unfavourably  the 
directing  powers,  who  considered  that,  m  the  interests  of 
the  poaco  of  Europe,  their  first  duty  was  to  strengthen  the 
defensive  power  of  Holland.  The  new  proposals,  there- 
fore, caused  great  excitement  in  Belgium,  and  met  with 
niuch  opposition  ;  but,  eventually,  they  were  adopted  by  a 
majority  of  59  to  38  in  the  Chamber  of  Representatives, 
and  35  to  8  in  the  Senate. 

The  treaty  was  signed  on  15th  November,  and  its  condi- 
tions were  embraced  in  twenty-four  articles.  By  these 
articles  the  grand-duchy  of  Luxembourg  was  to  be  divided, 
but  the  fortress  of  Luxembourg  was  to  remam  in  the  hands 
of  the  king  of  Holland  as  grand-duke,  who  was  also  to 
receive  a  portion  of  Limbourg  for  the  part  of  Luxembourg 
ceded  to  Belgium.  The  district  of  Maestricht  was  also 
partitioned,  the  fortress  of  that  name  remaining  with 
Holland ;  the  Scheldt  was  to  be  open  to  the  commerce  of 
both  countries  ,  and  the  national  debt  was  apportioned— 
to  Belgium  sixteen  thirty-firsts,  and  the  rest  to  Holland.  It 
was  also  declared  that  Belgium  "  shall  form  an  independent 
and  perfectly  neutral  state."'  This  agreement  was  ratified 
by  the  Belgian  and  French  sovereigns  on  the  20th  and  2-lth 
November,  by  the  British,  6th  December  ;  but  the  Austnan 
and  Prussian  sovereigns  did  not  accede  to  it  till  18th 
April  1S32,  and  the  Russian  not  till  4th  May.  The  Dutch 
6tUl  continued  to  protest  against  it,  and  maintained  their 
possession  of  .\ntwerp.  .■Vfter  fruitless  efforts  on  the 
part  of  the  great  powers  to  obtain  their  acquiescence, 
France  and  England  resolved  to  have  recourse  to  force. 
On  the  5t'h  November,  therefore,  their  combined  fleets 
s.iiled  Tor  the  coast  of  Holland,  and  on  the  18th,  a  French 
army,  under  the  command  of  Marshal  OiSrard,  crossed  the 
Belgian  frontier  to  besiege  Antwerp.  The  garrison  con- 
sisted of  only  about  5000  men,  while  the  besieging 
force  numbered  60,000  Operations  commenced  30th 
November,  and  the  siego  m  a  military  point  of  view 
is  a   memorable  one.     The  garrison    surrendered    to    the 


'  See  Parlliimenl«r7  pap«r,    Au?.   1970, — K-therlandt,    Beljxum. 
nJ  Luxaniour^  Tratliu  of  \iZ\.  1339.  and  1847. 


French  on  23d  December,  on  tuc  olst  the  fortress 
was  handed  over  to  the  Belgians,  and  some  days  after- 
wards the  French  troops  recrossed  the  frontier.  Long 
and  complicated  diplomatic  negotiations  followed,  but 
matters  were  at  length  adjusted,  and  on  the  2l8t  of  May 
1833  a  convention  was  agreed  to  and  signed  by  all  the 
parties.  The  House  of  Orange  still  numbered  many 
partisans  in  Belgium,  whose  proceedings  embarrassed  the 
Government ;  and  in  Brussels,  and  some  of  the  other  towns, 
the  people  rose  up  against  them,  pillaging  the  houses  of 
some  of  the  leaders,  and  were  appeased  with  difficulty. 
The  king  now  gave  his  attention  to  the  improvement  of 
the  manufactures  and  commerce  of  Belgium  ;  and  on  1st 
May  183-1  he  sanctioned  the  law  which  was  to  create  the 
first  railroad  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

In  1835  the  alien  bill  gave  rise  to  considerable  discus- 
sion, but  it  was  at  length  carried.  Its  object  was  to  give 
Government  the  power  to  send  out  of  the  kingdom,  or  to 
compel  to  reside  in  a  particular  place,  any  foreigner  whose 
conduct  was  calculated  to  endanger  the  public  peace.  In 
1836  an  Act  to  re^'ulate  the  municipal  form  of  government 
in  the  towns  and  communes  was  passed.  The  election  of 
the  members  of  the  municipal  councils  was  continued  in 
the  citizens,  but  the  appointment  of  the  burgomaster  and 
magistrates  wag  vested  in  the  king  from  among  the 
members  of  the  councils.  The  manufactures  and  commerce 
continued  to  flourish  and  extend,  and  the  formation  of 
railways  was  actively  carried  on.  .\s  Holland  had  not  yet 
acceded  to  all  the  conditions  of  the  twenty-four  articles, 
Belgium  atill  kept  possession  of  the  whole  of  Limbourg 
and  Luxembourg  except  the  fortress  of  the  latter,  with  a 
small  area  round  it,  which  was  occupied  by  Prussian  troops. 
These  territories  had  been  treated  in  every  way  as  a  part 
of  Belgium,  and  had  sent  representatives  fo  both  chambers 
Great  indignation  was  therefore"  felt  at  the  idea  of  their  being 
separated,  when  Holland,  on  1-tth  of  March  1838,  signi- 
fied Its  readiness  to  accept  the  conditions  of  the  treaty. 
The  chambersargued  that  Belgium  had  been  induced  to  agree 
to  the  twenty-four  articles  in  1832  in  the  hope  of  thereby 
at  once  terminating  all  harassing  disputes,  but  that  as 
Holland  did  not  then  accept  them,  the  conditions  were  no 
longer  binding,  and  the  circumstances'  were  now  quite 
changed.  They  urged  that  Luxembourg  in  eflect  formed 
an  integral  pan  of  their  territory,  and  that  the  people  were 
totally  opposed  to  a  union  with  Holland.  They  offered  to 
pay  for  the  territory  in  dispute,  but  the  treaty  gave  them 
no  right  of  purchase,  and  the  proposal  was  not  entertained. 
The  two  chambers  unanimously  voted  addresses  to  the 
king,  expressing  a  hope  that  the  integrity  of  Belgium 
would  be  maintained.  Similar  addresses  were  sent  from 
ail  parts  of  the  countryi  and  the  people  w-ere  roused  to  a 
great  state  of  excitement.  The  king  wan  at  one  with  bis 
people,  and  every  preparation  was  made  for  war.  But  the 
firmness  of  the  alhed  powers,  and  their  determination  to 
uphold  the  conditions  of  the  treaty,  at  last  brought  the 
king,  though  with  extreme  reluctance,  to  give  in  to  their 
views  After  violent  discussions  the  Chamber  of  Repre- 
sentatives gave  Its  adhesion  on  10th  March  1839,  and 
some  days  later  the  Senate  followed  the  example..  The 
treaty  wiis  signed  at  London  on  the  19th  of  April.  The 
annual  payment  by  Belgium  for  its  share  of  the  nation.Tl 
debt,  which  had  been  fixed  at  8,400,000  florins,  was  reduced 
to  5,000,000  flonns,  or  £416,666,  with  quittance  of  arrears 
prior  to  1st  January  1839.  When  this  excitement  was  at 
its  height  the  Bank  of  Brussels  failed,  and  much  misery 
and  distress  among  the  people  was  the  result.  This  was 
immediately  followed  by  the  failure  of  the  Brussels  Savings- 
Bank,  but  the  Govornment  instantly  came  forward  and 
Euamuteed  the  claims  thereupon,  amounting  to  1,500,000 

IIL  —  67 


'y-.iO 


BELGIUM 


The  Belgian  revolution  owed  its  success  to  the  union 
of  the  Roman  Catholics  and  the  Liberals  ,  and  the  king 
bad  been  verj'  careful  to  maintain  the  alliance  between 
these  two  parties.  This  continued  to  be  the  character  of 
the  Government  up  to  1840,  but  by  degrees  it  had  been 
l>ecoming  more  and  more  conservative,  and  was  giving 
rise  to  dissatisfaction.  A  imnistry  was  formed  on  more 
liberal  principles,  but  it  clashed  with  the  Catholic 
aristocracy,  who  had  the  majonty  in  the  Senate.  Disputes 
arose  which  caused  grt.it  excitement  among  the  people, 
and  the  cabinet  resigned.  A  new  niinistrj'  was  then 
formed,  under  fit.  Nothomb,  of  a  unionist  or  mixed  kind. 
In  1842  a  new  law  for  the  organization  of  public  primary 
instruction  was  passed,  which,  however,  did  not  meet  with 
the  approval  of  the  clergy.  In  1844  a  commercial  treaty 
was  concluded  with  the  German  ZoUverein ;  .and  soon  after 
siindar  treaties  were  formed  with  France  and  Holland. 
The  Nothomb  ministry  retired  in  1845,  Snd  for  seven 
months  M.  Van  de  Weyer  attempted  to  carry  on  affairs 
with  a  mixed  ministrj- ,  but  he  found  it  impossible  to 
maintain  harmony  among  thedifTerent  factions.  A  Catholic 
administration  was  then  formed,  which  was  attacked  with 
the  greatest  fury  by  the  Liberals.  The  latter  summoned  a 
Liberal  congress  to  meet  at  Brussels  (l4th  June  1846), 
composed  of  delegates  from  the  different  Liberal  associations 
throughout  the  country.  Threshandred  delegates  met  and 
deliberated  with  the  greatest  calmness,  drawing  up  an  Act 
of  Federation  and  a  programme  of  BelgiaiT  Liberalism. 
The  elections  of  1847  gaye  a  majority  in  favour  of  the 
Liberals  ;  the  cabinet  resigned,  and  a  Liberal  administration 
took  Its  place  and  formally  announced  a  new  policy. 
Hence  it  happened  that  when  next  year  France  was  m 
revolution  and  her  king  a  fugitive,  Belgium  remained  calm 
and  unshaken.  When  the  news  reached  Brussels  the  king 
convoked  a  council  of  his  ministers  and  offered  to  resign  if 
they  thought  that  it  would  avert  calamity  or  'conduce  to 
the  public  welfare.  The  ministers  replied  that  a  constitu- 
tional monarchy  was  best  htted  ior  the  people,  and  that  a 
republic  was  neither  according  to  their  wishes  nor  adapted 
to  their  character.  The  democratic  societies  of  Brussels 
attempted  a  revolutionary  movement,  but  met  with  hitle 
success.  At  this  time  a  new  electoral  law  was  issued  lower- 
ing the  franchise  to  20  florins'  worth  of  property  (33s.  4d.), 
by  which  the  number  of  electors  was  at  once  doubled  ;  and 
soon  after  another  law  reduced  the  qualification  for  muni- 
cipal councils  to  46  francs  {36s.)  These  tiurely  concessions 
gave  general  satisfaction,  and  completely  disarmed  the 
extreme  democratic  party  ,  so  that  when  an  expedition  was 
organized  in  fans  against  the  throne  of  Leopold,  with  the 
countenance  and  aid  of  certain  members  of  the  French, 
Government,  it  met  with  no  s.vmpathy  and  totally  (ailed  in- 
its  object.  On  the  night  of  the  24th  March  the  conspira- 
tors, to  the  number  of  about  800  French  and  100  Belgians, 
arrived  at  Quievrain  by  tram,  but  they  ware  at  once  sur- 
rounded by  the  military  and  peasants  and  made  prisoners. 
Alarmed  at  this  attempt  the  Government  strongly  reinforced 
the  frontier  towns  wi;h  troops,  and  was  thus  able  to 
repulse  a  more  formidable  invasion  that  took  place  a  few 
days  later.  Belgium,  however,  suffered  severely  from  the 
ebock  given  to  commercial  credit  and  general  industry. 
The  discounts  at  the  bank,  which  in  1847  had  been 
ICO.200,000  francs,  sank, -in  1848,  to  86,900,000  franca, 
and  the  current  accounts  fell  from  183,000,000  francs  to 
96,000,000  francs  The  panic  soon  rendered  the  payment 
of  notes  in  cash  impossible  ,  and  the  Government,  by  a 
law  passed  28th  March  1848,  suspended  cash  payments,  and 
iinthorized  the  bank  to  issue  inconvertible  notes  to  a  hmiled 
fXlent.  By  this  sca-sonabla  measure  public  credit  was 
itstorcd,  snd  indu.stry  speedily  revived 

The   attention    of    the    Government    was    now    largely 


directed  to  the  stimulating  of  private  industry  and  tl.f 
carr>'iiig  out  of  public  works  of  great  practical  utility,  a.- 
the  extension  of  radways  and  the  opening  up  of-  othei 
internal  means  of  communication.  Commercial  treaties 
were  also  entered  into  with  various  countries  with  the 
view  of  providing  additional  outlets  for  industrial  pro- 
ducts. The  king  elso  sought  as  much  as  possible  to 
remove  from  the  domain  of  politics  every  irritating  question, 
believing  that  a  union  of  the  different  parties  was  most  for 
the  advantage  of  the  state.  In  1850  the  question  of 
middle  class  education  was  settled.  In  August  of  that 
year  the  .whole  country  between  Brussels  and  the  French 
frontier  suffered  greatly  from  excessive  rains  ;  the  country 
for  many  leagues  was  flooded,  many  lives  were  lost,  and  the 
destruction  of  property  was  very  great  On  25th  Septem- 
ber the  king  laid  the  foundation  stone  of  a  monument  in 
Brussels  to  commemorate  the  national  congress  which  in 
1S31  had  fashioned  the  new  destinies  of  the  country,  and 
on  11th  October  the  queen  died  In  1852  the  Liberal 
cabinet  was  overthrown,  and  a  ministry  of  conciliation  was 
formed.  A  bill  was  passed  authorizing  the  army  to  bs 
raised  to  100,000  men  including  reserve.  The  elections  of 
1854- modified  the  parhamentary  situation  by  increasing  the 
strength  of  the  Conservatives  ;  the  ministry  resigned  and 
a  new  one  was  formed  under  M.  de  Decker,  of  moderate 
Cathohcs  and  Progressives.  At  the  Pang  conference 
of  1856,  which  settled  the  peace  with  Russia,  the  French 
minister.  Count  Walewski,  complained  of  Belgium  per- 
mitting to  issue  from  its  press  publications  the  most  hostile 
and  insulting  to  France  and  her  government,  in  which 
revolt  and  assassination  were  openly  advocated.  The 
remarks  caused  great  indignation  in  Belgium.  In  1857 
violent  discussions  took  place  between  the  Liberal  party  and 
the  Roman  Catholics  on  the  question  of  the  administration 
of  chanties  throughout  the  kingdom.  Since  1830  the 
idmioistration  of  these  had  been  vested  in  the  secular 
power,  and  the  Catholic  party  had  long  sought  to  get  this 
power  into  their  own  hands.  When,  therefore.  M.  de 
Decker,  <vho  supported  thefr  views,  became  head  of  the 
ministry,  the  priests  made  every  exertion,  even  by  bribery, 
to  influence  the  elections  so  as  to  obtain  a  majority  in  their 
favour.  In  April  the  ministry  of  M.  de  Decker  brought  IQ 
a  iiill  practically  abolishing  the  existing  law  on  the  subject 
The  bill  met  with  the  most  nolent  opposition  ,  the  discus- 
sions, which  extended  oier  27  sittings  and  were  charac- 
terized by  great  animosity,  revealed  a  growing  spirit  of 
exaction  and  intolerance  on  the  pait  of  the  clergy  ,  but 
eventually  it  was  carried  by  a  uiajonty  of  CO  to  4  1  The 
result  caused  great  excitement  among  the  people,  the 
Liberal  deputies  wcr6  cheered,  and  the  principal  Catholic 
speakers' hooted  and  insulted.  The  agitation  extended  to 
the  provinces,  and  the  military  had  to  be  called  out  U> 
restore  peace  Eventually  the  bill  was  withdrawn,  and 
the  ministers  gave  in  their  resignations.  The  elections  for 
the  communal  councils  gave  a  great  majority  in  all  the  im- 
portant towns  in  favour  of  the  Liberals.  A  new  Liberal 
ministry  was  formed  under  M,  Uogier.  In  1860  the  com- 
munal octrois,  or  the  taxes  on  articles  of  food  brought 
into  the  towns,  were  abolished  ;  and  in  1 863  the  navigation 
of  the  Scheldt  was  made  free  This  last  year,  also,  a  treaty 
of  commerce  and  navigation  was  concluded  with  England. 
The  elections  of  July  1804  gave  a  majority  to  the  Liberals 
in  the  Chamber  of  Representatives,  and  the  ministry  of  M. 
Rogier  continued  in  otljce. 

On  the  lOlh  December  1865  King  Leopold  died,  a.'ter  a 
reign  of  34  years,  lie  was  greatly  beloved  by  his  people, 
and  much  respected  by  the  other  sovereignc  of  Europe, 
He  was  repeatedly  chosen  to  decide  in  international  dis- 
putes ,  and  the  grievances  of  hostile  Gove.rDmenls  were 
not  uiifrequently    submitted,  to    him.       His    well-kuowD 


B  E  I,  —  B  E  L 


531 


honesty  and  integrity  of  purpose,  his  reflective  and  well- 
balanced  intellect,  his  hnbil  of  close  and  accurate  reasoning, 
bi3  grave  and  serious  deportment,  all  eminently  fitted  him 
for  the  oBTice  of  arbiter.  To  him  Belgium  owed  much. 
Id  difficult  circumstances  and  cntical  times  he  managed  its 
affairs  with  great  tact  and  judgment  ,  by  conciliatory 
measures  be  reconciled  and  kept  at  peace  opposing  factions  ; 
and  by  his  well-known  devotion  to  the  best  interests  of 
the  country  he  secured  the  confidence  and  esteem  of  all 
classes  of  the  people.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son 
Leopold  11..  wbo  was  inirtiediately  proclauned  king,  and 
took  the  oath  to  the  constitution  on  17th  December  In 
1866  a  body  of  English  volunteers,  to  the  numtier  of  1100, 
visited  Belgium  by  invitation,  and  met  with  a  most  cordial 
reception  from  the  king  and  all  classes  of  the  people,  and 
took  part  m  the  Tir  National  The  following  year  a  body 
of  Belgian  volunteers,  numbenng  about  2400,  came  over  to 
England,  where  they  were  warmly  welcomed,  and  engaged 
in  the  shootins  contests  at  Wimbledon.  In  18G8  serious 
riots  took  place  m  the  muung  districts,  which  were  not 
put  down  till  the  military  had  been  called  out ;  the  effective 
army  was  raised  from  eO,0;iO  to  100,000  men,  and  the 
yaarly  contingent  from  10,000  to  12.000  Attempts  were 
also  (hade  to  obtain  a  revision  of  the  elementary  education 
law  of  1842 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  between  France  and  Germany 
in  1870,  Belgium  saw  the  difficulty  and  danger  of  her  posi- 
tion,and  lost  no  time  m  providing  for  contingencies.  A  large 
war  credit  was  voted,  the  strength  of  the  army  was  raised, 
and  large  detachments  were  moved  to  the  frontier.  The  feel- 
ing of  danger  to  Belgium  also  caused  great  excitement  in. 
England,  particularly  after  the  contents  of  the  secret  treaty 
— which  revealed  the  aggrandismgschemesof  France  against 
Belgium — became  known.  The  British  Government  de- 
clared its  intention  to  maintam  the  integrity  of  Belgium  in 
accordance  with  the  treaty  of  1839.  and  it  induced  the  two 
belligerent  powers  to  sign  treaties  to  that  effect.  In  the 
event  of  either  power  violating  the  neutrality  of  Belgium, 
England  was  to  co-operate  with  the  other  in  such  manner 
as  might  be  mutually  agreed  upon  to  secure  the  integrity 
of  the  couniry  It  was  at  first  feared  that  Belgian  territory 
might  bo  violated  by  the  necessities  of  one  or  other  of  the 
belligerent*,  but  this  was  not  the  ca.<-.e.  A  considerable 
portion  of  the  French  army^routed  at  Sedan  did,  indeed, 
take  refuge  in  Belgian  territory  ;  but  they  laid  down  their 
itrms  according  to  convention,  and  were  "mterneci"  m  the 
king's  dominions 

In  1870  the  Liberal  party,  who  had  been  in  power  for 
thirteen  years,  was  overthrown  by  a  union  of  the  Catholics 
with  the  Radicals  or  Progressionists,  joined  by  not  a  few 
Liberals,  to  whom  the  opposition  of  the  Government  to 
certain  reforms  had  given  offence  A  ministerial  crisis 
followed,  which  was  terminated  by  the  advent  to  otfice  of  a 
Catholic  cabinet,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Baron  d'Anethan. 
A  new  election  took  place  in  August  1870,  which  gave 
them  a  majority  in  both  houses, — arcsnlt  brought  about  in 
no  small  degree  by  the  excitement  consequent  on  the 
breaking    oui    of    the    Franco-German    war.     The    Baron 


d'Anethan  steered  his  cour^^  ,^iudently,  ftsd  increased  the 
power  of  the  Ultramontanes  considerably  by  carrying  a 
reform  bill,  which  widened  the  basis  of^rcprcsentation  a-s 
regarded  the  provincial  and  communal  councils,  by  iutio- 
ducing  large  masses  of  the  Catholic  lower  orders  to  the 
privilege  of  the  franchise.  It  added  nearly  one-half  to  the 
number  of  electors  for  the  provincial  councils,  and  more 
than  a  fourth  to  those  for  the  communal  councils.  The 
Liberals  were  very  much  dissatisfied  ;  and  towards  the  end 
of  the  year  the  mob  m  Brussels  took  up  the  question,  and 
tumults  broke  out  which  the  police  and  civic  guard  bad  to 
put  down  by  force.  They  demanded  the  dismissal  of  the 
ministers,  to  which  the  king  at  length  consented;  and  a 
new  ministry  was  formed  under  M.  de  Theux.  The 
communal  elections  of  1872  were  the  occasion  of  a  sharp 
struggle  throughout  the  kingdom  between  the  church 
party  and  the  Liberals,  but  success  remained  chiefly  with 
the  latter.  The  electiuns  of  June  1874  resulted  in  a  con- 
siderable reduction  of  the  Ultramontane  majority  within 
the  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of  Representatives,  without 
a'ctually  converting  it  into  a  mmority.  In  July  of  thot 
year  a  conference  of  representatives  of  the  leading  powers 
of  Europe  was  held  in  Brussels,  with  the  view  of  uitroduc- 
ing  certain  changes  in  the  usages  of  war,  but  no  definite 
result  was  arn.ved  at  In  May  and  June  1875,  religious 
disturbances  broke  out  in  various  parts,  which  were 
attended  with  serious  consequences.  At  Brussels,  Ghent, 
and  other  places,  religious  proces^ons,  which  partook  of 
the  character  of  party  demonstrations,  were  attacked  by 
mobs  of  (he  populace,  and  many  persons  were  injured. 
These  disturbances  were  only  put  a  stop  to  by  energetic 
•measures  on  the  part'of  those  lo  authonty,  and  the  inflicj 
tion  of  severe  punishments  on  the  delinquents. 

The  attention  of  foreign  states  has  of  late  been  particu- 
larly directed  to  Belgium,  in  consequence  of  certain  remon- 
strances addressed  to  it  by  Germany  on  the  subject  of  its 
international  relations  and  Us  duties  towards  foreign  powers. 
This  arose  from  an  obscure  Belgian,  named  Duchesne, 
having  written  to  a  French  archbishop,  offering  to  assassi- 
nate Prince  Bismarck  for  a  consideration.  He  was  taken 
and  tned  by  the  Belgian  Government,  but  it  was  found 
that  the  law  had  provided  no  punishment  for  the  offence 
which  he  had  committed.  ■  This  led  to  a  remonstrance  on 
the  part  of  the  German  Government,  which  was  couched  m 
.such  terms  as  to  afford  ground  for  the  gravest  fears,  on  the 
part  of  Belgium  and  of  foreign  states,  as  to  what  might 
be  the  result.  The  correspondence,  however,  was  carried 
on  m  a  friendly  spirit  On  both  sides,  satisfactory  eiplana 
tions  followed,  and  the  Belgian  Government  passed  a  measure 
making  such  offences  as  thai  of  Duchesne  crimuiaL 

See  Alison's  iHslory  of  Europe  ,  Tkt  Btlgu  Knolution  of  1830,\ 
by  C.  White,.2  vols  ,  1835  ;  Belgium  and  the  Twcniy-foui  Arhclet, 
by  C.  White.  1S8S;  tiisloire  dc  la  Belgique,  by  Tbeodore  Juste,  2 
\ol3.  4tn,  1853 ;  La  KcvolxiCm  Belm  de  1830,  by  Th  Jusn;;  ^  vols., 
1872  ;  Memoirs  of  Leopold  I..  li_v  Tli  Juste,  2  vols  .  Lourton,  l$(i8j 
Napoleon  111  el  la  Belmqvt,  by  Th  Juste,  1870  ;  Mcmdrs  of  Van 
dt  IVeyer.  by  Th.  Juste,  2  vols  ,  1871  ;  The  Annual  KcgMOr  tor 
various  years  ,  Annuaire  Stdttstique  de  ta  Belgique,  1874  ,  AUno' 
luuh  Koijal de  Beli/ijue,  1875-  (D.  K  ) 


BELGRADE  (in  Servian,  Bielgorrxt,  or  White  Town), 
(he  capital  of  the  Servian  principality,  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Save  and  the  Danube,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  latter  slreair,.  opposite  the  Austrian  town  and 
fortress  of  Semlin  Lat  44'  47'  N.,  long.  20°  28'  E  It 
IS  buil*.  both  on.  and  at  the  side  of,  a  northern  spur  of  the 
Avala  heights,  the  rocky  summit  being  crowned  'by  its 
ciice  famous  citadel,  which  still  remains  very  much   as  it 


was  left  by- Prince  Eugene,  except  that  on  the  E..  S.,  aaa 
W.  the  glacis  has  been  changed  into  a  promenade.  The 
town  was  formerly  divided  into  three  parts,  namely,  the 
Old  Town,  the  Kassian  Town  {Sai'a  ma/iala  or  Save- 
district),  and  the  Turkish  towil  {Dorco!,  or  .Cross-road). 
A  great  change  has,  however,  taken  place  in  the  course 
of  the  present  century,  and  the  old  divisions  are  only 
partially   applicable,   while    there    Las    to   be    added    the 


532 


B  E  L  — 13  E  L 


Tirasiia,  an  importint  recent  suburban  extension  along 
the  line  of  the  aqueduct  or  Tirazi.  Since  1860  great 
activity  ha3  bi^n  shojvn  in  building,  and  the  Old 
Town  13  gradually  being  regulated  according  to  a  definite 
plan.  The  general  appearance  of  the  place  is  growing 
more  and  more  European ;  its  mosques  and  minarets, 
protected  from  actual  demolition  by'a  Turkish  treaty,  are 
falling  into  ruin  from  neglect.  As  the  seat  of  the  Servian 
Government,  and  the  residence  of  the  prince  and  the 
archbishop,  Belgrade  possesses  a  royal  and  an  episcopal 
palace,  a  foreign  and  a  home  office,  and  other  public 
buildings.  Its  educational  institutions  are  remarkably 
numerous,  consisting  of  a  high  school,  several  normal 
schools,  a  gymnasium,  a  theological  seminary,  a  military 
academy,  an  industrial  school,  and  an  upper  school  for 
girls.  There  is  a  theatre  devoted  to  the  development  of 
the  national  drama ;  and  in  the  same  building  with  the 
high  school  there  is  preserved  a  valuable  collection  of 
national  antiquities  as  well  as  an  extensive  library.  Besides 
the  mosques,  the  ecclesiastical  buildings  include  a  cathedral 
and  several  Greek  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel  in 
the  Austi'ian  embassy,  and  an  evangelical  church.  Among 
places  of  historical  interest  are  the  ruins  of  Prince  Eugene's 
palace,  and  the  monument  in  the  Topjidere  park  on  the 
spot  where  Prince  Michael  was  assassinated  in  18G8.  The 
cit-adel  has  been  already  mentioned;  a  commandant's  resi- 
dence, barracks,  and  a  military  hospital  are  among  its  sub- 
sidiary buildings.  Though  its  situation  is  highly  conducive 
to  mercantile  activity,  the  commerce  of  Belgrade  is  not  so 
great  as  would  naturally  be  anticipated.  It  holds,  however, 
direct  coniinercial  relations  not  only  with  Vienna  and  Con- 
stantinople but  with  Manchester.  There  are  only  two 
monetary  establishments,  one  known  as  the  "  First  Bank," 
and  the  other  a  bank  of  credit.  The  principal  industrial 
products  of  the  city  are  cotton-stuffs,  carpets,  leather,  and 
tire-arms.  Belgrade  is  identified  with  the  ancient  Singi- 
dunum,  and  was  the  station  of  the  Lsgio  IV.  Flavia  Felix. 
It  has  from  its  earliest  existence  been  a  place  of  military 
importance,  and  in  modern  times  has  sustained  many 
sieges,  and  repeatedly  passed  from  the  hands  of  the 
Austriaus  to  those  of  the  Turks.  It  was  taken  by  Soliman 
II.  in  1521,  and  retaken  by  the  Auatrbns  in  1688,  but 
again  lost  in  1690.  In  1717  it  surrendered  to  Prince 
Kugene,  The  imperialists  retained  it  till  1739,  when  the 
Turks  invested  and  reduced  it.  Austria  again  took  it  in 
1789,  but  it  was  restored  at  the  peace-  of  1791.  lu  the 
year  ISOti  the  Servian  insurgents  succeeded  in  carrying 
It.  In  1862  it  was  bombarded  from  the  citadel  on  account 
of  a  Contest  lagiiig  between  the  Turkish  and  Seivi^n 
inhabitants,  but  live  years  later  it  was  completely  evacuated 
by  the  foreign  forces,  and  the  citadel  received  a  gariibon  of 
Servian  soldiers.  The  only  mark  of  Turkish  occuijatiun  is 
the  banner  which  continues  to  be  shown  from  its  walls  along 
with  the  national  colours.     Population  iu  1872,  26,671. 

BELIEF  (ttict-tc!.  Fides,  Foi,  Otnuhe),  with  its  synonyms 
Assurance,  Confidence,  Conviction,  Cicdence,  Trust,  Per- 
suasion, Faith,  is  in  popular  language  taken  to  mean  tbe 
acceptation  of  something  as  true  which  is  not  known  io  be 
true,  the  mental  altitude  being  a  conviction  that  is  not  io 
strong  as  certainty,  but  is  stronger  than  mere  opinion. 
For  the  grounds  of  such  conviction,  ordinary  language  refers 
at  oncu  to  probable  as  opposed  to  intuitive  or  demonstra- 
tive evidence.  Such  popular  ])hra30.s  do  not,  of  course, 
umouut  to  a  definition  of  belief ;  but  this  is  not  to  be 
expected  from  them,  especially  if,  as  may  be  laid  down 
with  some  confidence,  no  logical  definition  of  the  process 
be  possible.  It  may  bo  described  and  marked  off  from 
similar  or  contrasted  states,  but  a  rigidly  scientific  defini- 
tion of  what  ai)pears  to  be  a  simple,  ultimate  fact  is  not 
attainable.     The  general   explanation,  however,  la  so  far 


unsatisfactory  in  that  it  throws  no  light  upon  the  most 
interesting  question  with  regard  to  belief,  its  province, 
and  does  not  tell  us  what  are  the  objects  of  belief  as 
opposed  to  those  ^of  knowledge.  To  answer  this  it  is 
necessary  to  describe  somewhat  more  minutely  the  mental 
process  under  examination. 

1.  Unfortunately  for  purposes  of  analysis,  the  word 
belief  is  used  in  a  variety  of  relations  which  seem  at  first 
sight  to  have  but  little  in  common.  We  are  said  to  believe 
in  what  lies  beyond  the  limits  of  our  temporal  experience, 
in  the  supersensible,  in  God  and  a  future  life.  Again,  wg 
are  said  to  believe  in  the  first  principles  or  ultmiate 
verities  from  which  all  trains  of  demonstration  must  start  ; 
as  conditions  of  demons_tration,  tliese  are  themselves  in«ie- 
monstrable,  and  are  tUerefore  objects  of  belief.'  Wo 
receive  by  belief  perceptions  of  single  matters  of  fact, 
which  from  their  very  nature  cannot  be  demonstrated.- 
We  believe  from  memory  the  facts  of  past  experience  ;  we 
have  expectation  or  belief  in  future  events.  We  accept 
truths  on  the  evidance  of  testimony ;  and  finally,  wa 
believe  that  our  actual  consciousness  of  things  is  in  harmony 
with  reality.  From  this  unsystematic  arrangement  of 
objects  of  belief  it  will  be  possible  to  elimiiiate  certain 
classes  by  noting  in  the  first  instance  what  we  are  not  said 
to  believe,  but  to  know.  By  knowledge  niay  be  understood 
generally  the  couvi,-tion  of  truth  which  rests  on  grounds 
valid  for  all  iutelligence,  and  which  is  expressed  in  proposi- 
tions necessary  both  foi  our  thinking  and  for  reality.  At 
the  same  time  we  are  commonly  and  correctly  said  to  know 
states  of  consciousness  when  they  ;ire  immediately  present, 
together  with  their  differences,  similarities,  connections,  and 
relations  to  self.  Whatever  is  necessarily  connected  with  pre- 
sent experience,  and  can  be  logically  deduced  from  it,  is  also 
matter  not  of  belief  but  of  knowledge.  Again,  we  know 
all  propositions  of  apodictic  certainty,  such  as  those  of 
mathematics  and  logic.  Mathematical  propositions  tarry 
us  beyond  mere  thinking  ;  the  laws  which  tiow  from  tlia 
relations  of  spaca  and  time  are  not  only  thought  but  known 
to  be  true  oi  all  objects  of  sensible  experience,  for  no  objects 
whatsoever  eaii  form  part  of  that  C'cperiencc  save  under  these 
quantitalife  conditions.  It  ia  therefore  an  error  to  say 
tliat  we  believe  abstract  mathematical  laws  apply  to 
objei;t3  ;  we  know  this  with  absolute  certainty.  So  also 
our  cognisance  of  logical  principles,  such  as  the  laws  of 
identity  and  contiadit:tioii,  is  matter  of  knowledge,  of 
iiioight.'iiot  of  belief.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  know, 
ledge  extends  to  facts  imincdutcly  present  in  conscious- 
ueas,  and  to  certain  relations  true  ol  all  facts  of  sensible 
experience;  but  in  neither  of  tliese  classes  of  cognition  doe.') 
there  seem  to  be  given  an  absolute  guarantee  for  the  exist- 
eh.:e  of  any  fact  which  is  not  immediately  before  us. 
That  one  object  presented  to  us  is  known  seems  to  give  no 
actual  knowledge  that  another  object  ideally  connected  widi 
it  has  at  tho  same  time  real  being.  Mathematical  and  logical 
laws  are  absolutely  true  of  all  experience  to  which  they 
apply,  but  this  truth  gives  no  certainty  that  there  will  bo 
experience.  If  there  be  objects  of  experience  at  all,  they 
must  be  subject  to  mathematical  and  logical  law  ;  but  the 
question  remains,  is  there  any  ground,  absolutely  necessary 
and  compelling  assent,  for  holding  that  there  will  be  such 
experience.'     This  is   an  old  matter  of  debate  ;   it  lies  at 


1  This  has  been  i>ointc<i  out  by  a  long  line  of  tbinkers,  from  An*- 
totlc  to  Jaoohi  and  Hamilton. 

'  So  knowledRf  through  the  semes  is  called  Offettbarung  by  Jacobi 
and  Lotzc  (.ViA-»(iA;'i«miw,  iii.  548). 

»  Cf.  Lotze,  Mxk.,  in.  647.  "When  one  affirms  that  every  object 
or  thouRht  H  identical  with  itself,  th.it  the  siuiie  under  the  tame  con- 
ditions b.'w  tho  same  coosequcuees,  under  dilTerent  conditions  different 
eonsci|uonce,'i.  th.it  a  cause  yirecedes  every  efTect, — all  those  arounivci-sal 
truths,  wlucb  tell  us,  indeed,  what  must  bo  or  take  place  if  tl'/'.'t  tbould 


B  E  L  I  E  1' 


533 


ihe  very  root  of  the  distinction  bctweeh  knowledge  auJ 
philosophical  belief,  and  leads  directly  into  the  decpt'St 
problems  of  metaphysical  science,  its  solution  dependinLj 
upon  the  answer  given  to  the  doubt  whether  or  not  our 
thinking  is  merely  formal,  receiving  materials  and  working 
them  up  in  forms  which  may  have  no  correlates  in  reality. 
Hume,  who  in  this  connection  has  given  the  impulse  to  all 
subsequent  British  thinking,  laid  his  finger  with  unerring 
precision  on  the  crucial  point,  and  deliberately  relegated  all 
matters  of  fad  to  the  province  of  belief  According  to  him, 
knowleSge  never  passes  beyond  immediate  intuition  of 
ideas  and  their  relations.  Whenever  we  touch  upon  real 
existence,  past  or  future,  belief,  not  knowledge,  is  our 
instrument.  An  adequate  discussion  of  the  difEculty 
would  lead  beyond  the  limits  of  the  present  inquiry;  it 
may  suffice  to  indicate  generally  what  can  be  said  on  one 
typical  point  of  the  debate.  Is  the  supposition  of  a  causal 
connection  among  phenomena  merely  belief,  or  is  it  a 
necessary  condition  of  knowledge  1  If  the  latter,  then  our 
thinking  carries  us  with  apodictic  certainty  beyond  present 
experience  of  facts,  for  every  causal  judgment  is,  ipso  facto, 
universal,  and  therefore  extends  to  all  or  any  time.  Now, 
no  proof  of  the  universality  of  law  among  phenomena  can 
ever  be  given  from  empirical  grounds,  for  all  such  attempts 
virtually  involve  the  very  principle  in  question.  It  is  a 
necessary  presupposition,  without  which  knowledge  would 
be  impossible.  Its  contrary  is  certainly  not  self^iontradic- 
tory,  if  by  self^ontradiction  be  meant  impossibility  of 
representation,  for  chaos  can  be  pictured ;  but  the  power 
jf  imagination  is  surely  not  the  criterion  of  truth.  It  is 
the  power  of  knowing  objects  that  is  in  question,  and  the 
non-existence  of  the  causal  relation  among  phenomena 
would  render  actual  experience  impossible.  Objects  cannot 
be  known  save  under  this  supposition.  A  similar  line  of 
argument  directed  towards  others  of  the  notions  involved 
in  what  Kant  has  called  synthetical  judgments  a  priori, 
would  show  that  such  notions  are  constitutive  of  our  ex- 
perience, that  thought  penetrates  deeply  into  phenomena, 
und  that  phenomenal  relations  are  but  types  of  the  forms 
of  real  cognition.  It  might,  of  course,  still  be  maintained 
that  all  these  synthetical  propositions  are  only  formal, — are 
only  true  if  experience  be  given, — and  that  a  wide  field 
is  still  left  for  belief.  Under  certain  conditions  this  may 
be  admitted.  A  doubt  as  to  the  very  existence  of  experi- 
ence is  hardly  a  valid  argument,  but  that  there  should  be 
specific  connections  of  phenomena,  permanent  and  con- 
stant— that,  for  example,  the  same  cause  should  continue  to 
have  the  same  effects — may  seem  not  quite  a  matter  of 
knowledge.  The  real  element  of  doubt  in  such  a  case  is 
not,  however,  whether  the  same  cause  under  the  same 
conditions  shall  give  the  same  eft'ects,  but  whether  in  any 
definite  instance  we  have  attained  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  cause  itself,  and  whether  the  conditions  wiU  recur. 
The  first  of  these  doubts  is  overcome  in  the  ordinary  pro- 
gress of  knowledge ;  the  other  concerns  the  empirical 
appearance  of  the  effects,  relates  therefore  to  what  may  bo 
calli^  the  contingent,  and  forms  the  object  of  belief. 

It  follows  from  what  has  been  said  that  we  exclude 
from  the  province  of  belief  primitive  truths  and  facts  of 
immediate  experience,  with  such  phenomena,  past  or  future, 
as  are  connected  causally  or  by  rational  links  with  facts 
immediately  known.  There  is  still  a  widi  field  left  for 
belief  (a.)  In  the  stage  of  knowledge  which  wo  call 
sensible  cognition  belief  introduces  itself;  for  conscious- 
ne.-^,  which  unhesitatingly  affirnis  the  correspondence  of  its 
content  with  reality,  readily  eihibita  its  falsity  when  sub- 
mitted to  analysis.     The  belief,  though  firm,  is  shown  to 

k»  B  ca««  of  lh(?tr  tpplicitlon,  but  wTiicb  tcU  as  notbiii^  of  tbe  rta] 
•xiil«occ  of  ftny  CIS*.' 


Ds  erroneous, — to  be  merely  the  rapid  summation  of  a 
number  of  signs,  which  themselves  do  not  come  clearly 
before  consciousness,  and  are  therefore  accepted  without 
examination,  (h.)  In  memory  of  our  own  past  experience 
belief  is  involved.  V\'hen  I  remember,  I  have  present  to 
consciousness  ideas  which  represent  past  reality.  To  have 
ideas  simply  is  to  imagine ;  to  have  ideas  which  we  are  con- 
vinced represent  past  experience  is  to  have  imagination  plus 
belief,  i.e.,  to  remember.  It  should  be  observed  that  we  ara 
frequently  said  to  trust  our  memory,  to  believe  that  what 
we  remember  is  true.  This  phraseology  is  objectionable ; 
we  cannot  properly  be  said  to  trust  our  memory,  we  simply 
use  it.  In  the  very  fact  of  remembering  is  involved  the 
reference  to  past  reality  which  is  the  essence  of  belief,  (c.) 
We  believe  testimony,  i.e.,  we  accept  as  true  facts  not  in 
our  experience,  and  which  possibly  may  never  be.  In  thus 
case  our  belief  is,  that  under  certain  conditions  we  should 
have  the  experience  which  from  the  testimony  we  can 
picture  to  ourselves,  (d.)  Expectation,  so  far  as  merely 
contingent  elements  are  concerned,  is  a  pure  case  of  belief. 

2.  So  far  as  we  have  yet  seen,  all  objects  of  belief  have 
been  or  may  be  objects  of  knowledge ;  and  the  most  promi- 
nent distinction  between  the  two  is  the  presence  in  the  one 
of  an  actual  intuition  and  its  absence  in  the  other.  This 
distinction,  however,  as  we  have  pointed  out,  is  not 
absolute ;  all  thinking  of  reality  is  not  belief.  Belief  is 
rather  the  thinking  of  reality  which  is  determined  by 
grounds  not  necessarily  valid  for  all  intelligence,  but  satis- 
factory for  the  individual  thinker.  The  difference  between 
imagination  and  the  thought  of  some  reality  does  not  seem 
capable  of  further  analysis ;  it  expresses  an  ultimate  fact. 
Attempts,  however,  have  been  made  to  work  out  a  psycho- 
logy of  belief,  and  to  point  out  the  characteristics  differen- 
tiating ideas  believed  in  from  mere  pictures  of  the  mind. 
These  have  been  generally  due  to  British  thinkers;  and,  sinco 
the  time  of  Hume,  the  problem  has  become  one  of  consider- 
able importance.  Locke,  who  marked  out  very  carefully 
the  province  of  belief  and  considered  its  grounds,  made  no 
attempt  to  analyse  the  state  itself.  Hume,'  however,  puts 
the  question  clearly  before  himself  and  returns  an  unhesi- 
tating answer.  "  As  it  is  certain,"  he  says,  "there  is  a 
great  difference  betwixt  the  simple  conception  of  the 
existence  of  an  object  and  the  belief  of  it,  and  as  this 
difference  lies  not  in'  the  parts  or  composition  of  the  idea 
which  wo  conceive,  it  follows  that  it  must  be  in  the  manner 
in  which  we  conceive  it.  When  we  are  convinced  of  any 
matter  of  fact,  we  do  nothing  but  conceive  it  along  with  a 
certain  feeling,  different  from  what  attends  the  reveries  of 
imagination."  "  This  feeling  is  nothing  but  a  firmer  con- 
ception or  3  faster  hold  that  we  Lake  of  the  object." 
"  This  manner  of  conception  arises  from  a  customary  con- 
junction of  the  object  with  something  present  to  the 
memory  or  sen.ses."  From  the  last  sentence  to  the  elaborate 
theory  of  James  Mill  is  but  a  short  step.  According  to 
Mill,  belief  is  a  case  of  co,>3taut  association  ;  an  idea  is 
believed  which  is  irresistibly  called  up  in  connection  wish 
present  experience.  Thus  in  memory,  the  ideas  cf  the  pa.<;t 
experience  are  irresistibly  associated  with  the  idea  of 
myself  experiencing  them,  and  this  irresistibility  constitutes 
belief  Expectation,  again,  is  the  irresistible  suggestion  by 
present  experience  of  a  consequent  or  train  of  consequents!. 
And  to  memory  and  expectation  all  ordinary  cases  of 
belief  may  be  reduced. 

Both  these  theories  are  dcfecti-re  in  the  same  point, — the 
analysis  of  wh.it  is  meant  by  object  in  general,  .ind,  con- 
sequently, of  what  is  involved  in  thinking  of  an  object. 
Hume's  is  open  to  the  special  objection  that  he  makes  tho 

*  A  theory  somewhat  similar  lo  that  of  Hume  is  worked  out  by  V; 


r);54 


B  E   L  I   E   1' 


diBerencs  belweea  tlia  believed  and  imagined  idea  the 
same  as  that  between  impression  and  idea,  which  is  an 
ultimate  distinction,  and  yet  holds  the  difference  to  be 
merely  one  of  degree.  In  Hill's  account  of  memory  it  may 
be  pointed  out  that  the  ideas  of  past  experience,  and  of 
myself  as  having  had  the  experience,  contain  in  themselves 
the  very  element  which  is  supposed  to  be  got  out  of  their 
conjunction.  With  regard  to  expectation  it  is  clear  that 
ideas  irresistibly  suggested  by  present  experience  are  by  no 
means  necessarily  believed,  and  further,  that  many  of  our 
beliefs  do  not  arise  from  any  such  association.  J.  S.  Mill,' 
who  subjects  the  association  theory  of  belief  to  a  searching 
examination,  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  distinction 
between  thinking  of  a  reality  and  representing  to  ourselves 
an  imaginary  picture  is  ultimate  and  primordial  With 
his  opinion  later  investigators,  as  Mr  Sully,^  concur. 

Professor  Bain,  in  opposition  to  other  psychologists,  holds 
that  belief  is  not  so  much  an  intellectual  state  as  a  "  phase 
of  our  active  nature,  otherwise  called  the  will."     "  It  is  a 
growth  or  development  of  the  will  under  the  pursuit  of 
intermediate   ends."      When,    for   instance,    we   perform 
certain  acts  as  means  towards  a  desired  end  with  as  much 
vigour  as  if  we  were  realizing  the  end  itself,  "  we  are  in  a 
very   peculiar   situation,   not   implied   iu   desire."      This 
situation  is  belief,  which  is  essentially  "an  anticipation  of 
the  pleasure  "  of  attaining  the  end.     Belief  being  a  form  of 
activity,  our  primitive  state  is  one  of  compkte  confidence. 
The  mind  is  filled  with  its  present  experience,  and  con- 
fidently believes  that  the  future  will  resemble  it.     Ideas 
are  so  strongly  taken  up  by  the  mind  that  they  are  accepted 
aa  real,  and  influence  the  wiU.     The  various  di.sappoint- 
ments  of  this   primitive  confidence  give  rise  to  definite 
avoidances  of  certain  actions,  and  to  pursuit  of  others,  in 
order  to  escape  pain  or  gain  pleasure.     Action  directed 
towards   these    intermediate  ends   involves,  or  rather  is, 
belief.     This  theory  has  to  explain  expectation  and  memoiy. 
With  regard  to  the  first,  "  we  make  light  of  the  difference 
'between-the  conceived  future  and  the  real  present ;"  or  in 
other  words,   "  we  are  disposed  to  act  iu   any  direction 
where  wo  have  never  been  checked."     Our  primitive  disposi- 
tion to  act  is  equivalent  to  full  expectation.     It  may  be 
pointed  out  that  this  explanation  throws  no  light  on  ex- 
pectation  of   events  in  which  our  activity  could   by  no 
possibility  be  involved.     But  the  theory  seems  to  break 
down  entirely  when  applied  to  memory.     There  is  first  to 
be  explained  the  fact  of  memory,  and  then  it  has  to  be 
shown  how  reference  to  activity  is  contained  iu  it.     "  In 
surrendering  our  mind  to  the  idea  still  remaining,  and  so 
imparting  a  momentary  quasi-reality,  we  have  an  experience 
possessing  the  characteristic  features  of  present  reility." 
"We  really  make  no  radical  difference  between  a  present 
and  a  proximate  past."     This,  iu  the  first  place,  would 
api  ly  only  to' certain  cases  of  memory.     Secondly,  impart- 
ing a  quasi-reality  is  not  an  explanation  of  the  peculiar 
phenomenon  of  an  idea  representing  the  past.    It  is  an  error, 
eveu  on  Professor  Bain's  own  principles  (see  note  to  Mill's 
Anali/sis,  i.  312;  Emotions  and  Wilt,  2d  ed.  525),  to  speak 
of   belie/  in   a   present    reality,   while    here    memory   is 
explained  as  a  pseudo-realization  of  the  ideas.    Nor  is  he 
more    successful    in   referring   memory   to   activity.      To 
identify  my  re.morabranco  of  having  run  up  against  a  wall 
'  to  avoid  a  carriage  with  the  conviction  that,  should  such  a 
danger  recur,  I  should  again  run  up  against  the  wall  (see 
Emotionsand  iri7;,2d.  ed., 5 5 4), is  absurd.   The  whole  theory 
icoms  but  an  instance  of  a  not  uncommon  error  in  psycho- 
logy,— the  confusion  of  the  test  or  measure  of  a  thing  with 
the  thing  itself.     Belief  is  truly  a  motive  to  action,^  and  all 

'  Notes  to  J.  Mill's  ^nalysis,  i.     Cf.  Dissertalions,  in. 

•  Sensatwn  nnd /ntitittnn.     (On  tho  "Development  of  Relicf,\ 

'  It  ia  so  .lenn-4  by  Dii-  '  f-nl.  and  Moral  St..  372):  who  Gnls 


that  has  been  said -of  it  by  Professor  Bain  would  hold  good 
of  it  in  this  relation  ;  to  identify  the  two  is  to  run  together 
totally  distinct  processes. 

Modern  German  psychology  has  not  approached  the  pro- 
blem of  belief  from  the  same  side  as  the  Eughsh.  Beneke 
alone,  by  his  analysis  of  tact  (see  Ldabiuh  der  Fsych., 
§  158,  and  System  der  Loyik,  i.  268,  seq.),  has  opened  up  a 
somewhat  fresh  vein  of  thinking.  His  hints  have  been 
carried  out  by  Germar  {Diealte  Streitfrane,  Glauben  ojer 
Wissen,  1856),  who  gives  the  following  definition  of  belief : 
"  If  the  consciousness  (of  the  truth  of  what  we  think) 
arises  from  tact,  and  therefore  without  conbciousness  of 
the  factors  or  grounds  through  which  it  is  produced,  it  is 
called  beliofj;  it  is  elevated  to  knowledge  when  these 
factors-  are  brought  before  consciousness "  (p.  58).  Ii. 
general  the  example  of  Kant  has  been  followed,  who  looked 
upon  the  question  as  belonging  not  so  much  to  psychology 
as  to  the  theory  of  knowledge.  His  own  discussion  of  the 
subject  and  his  distinction  between  Meinen,  Glauben,  and 
Wissen  have  powerfully  influenced  later  thought.  Accord- 
ing to  him,  Glaube  (belief,  in  the  sense  of  Fides  as  opposed 
to  Credulitas,  Foi  as  opposed  to  Croyance)  should  be  con- 
fined to  such  propositions  as  rest  on  grounds  subjectively 
not  merely  sufficient  but;  necessary  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  pro- 
positions believed  in  are  recognized  as  the  demands  of 
our  moral  or  practical  reason,  and  their  truth  can  never  bo 
disproved,  for  such  disproof  would  be  radically  inconsistent 
with  the  moral  nature  which  we  are  conscious  of  possessing. 
Our  confidence  in  their  truth  is  unwavering  and  practi 
cal,  i.e.,  leading  to  action  ;  for  without  them  wg  could 
not  act  in  conformity  with  our  moral  nature.  Never- 
theless, -of  the  objects  of  such  propositions  we  can  never 
have  scientific  knowledge. 

3.  Kant's  distinction  of  ifeinwig  and  Glaube  leads  us 
directly  to  the  one  species  of  belief  which  has  not  yet  been 
considered.  All  objects  of  belief,  so  far  as  has  yet  appeared, 
might  come  within  our  temporal  experience ;  but  we  are  said 
to  believe  in  the  supersensible,  which  from  its  very  defini- 
tion seems  to  surpass  experience  and,  consequently,  kuow- 
ledge.  To  such  belief  the  name/ai(A  is  properly  restricted, 
and  in  its  nature  it  differs  somewhat  from  the  beUef  hitherto 
discussed.  There  is  not,  of  course,  included  in  it  the 
specifically  theological  notion  of  faith  as  Fiducia  {quce  est 
apprehci^io  meriti  QcavOpuiirov  approprialiva  ad  me  et  te  in 
individuo) ;  it  corresponds  rather  to  the  Sotitia  and  ylwe;!- 
sit-s,  which  are  also  elements  in  theological  faith,  and  may 
be  defined  as  the  subjective  expression  of  man's  relation  to 
God.  \Mien  understood  in  this  sense,  religious  belief  is 
by  no  means  a  mere  feelinj,  though  it  contains  feeling  as 
one  of  the  stages  in  its  development,  for  mere  feeling  is  in 
itself  bUnd  and  valueless,  whereas  faith  is  intelligent  or 
rational.  Nor  is  it  a  blank  faith  which  would  have  the 
same  value  whatever  wefe  the  objects  believed  in,  for 
religious  belief  has  a  definite  content ;  it  is  the  acceptation 
of  certain  facts  aud  truths  and  the  active  realization  oi 
them.  As  its  content  is  definite  (for  if  it  were  not  so,  the 
religions  of  Christ  and  of  Mahomet,  of  Buddha  and  of 
Zoroaster,  would  stand  on  the  same  level,  all  having  sub- 
jective faith  or  conviction),  belief  of  necessity  involves 
knowledge,  rational  construction  of  the  facts  believed. 
Faith  is  but-  the  lower  stage  of  completed  insight,  and 
in  its  own  development  follows  the  natural  order  of  progress 
iu  knowledge,  which  begins  with  feeling  and  intuition, 
rises  through  concrete  representation  into  logical  connection, 

prcat  drfficuUy  in  reconciling  his  llieory  with  ordinary  phraseology. 
Such  an  expression  as  the  following  has  a  curious  ring  : — "  Belief  if 
identical  with  the  activity  or  active  disposition,  at  the  moment,  and 
with  reference  to  the  thin^  bdieved." — (Note  to  Anaiijsu,  i.'395.) 

•  With  this  view  may  bo  compared  much  of  what  is  said  by  J.  H. 
Ken-man,  GrunTTuzr  o/  Assert ;  sec  specially  73,  231 


1)  E  L  — P,  !•:  L 


535 


and  finally  culiiiiiiatcs  in  national  cognition.  So  religious 
belief,  wbich  is  primarily  "little  more  than  a  vague  feeling 
of  somctliing  over  and  beyond  the  present  state  of  exist- 
ence, combined  with  the  dim  sense  of  our  own  finite  and 
dependent  condition,  gradually  rises  to  a  Lighcr  stage,  and 
in  its  efforts  to  attain  some  cognizance  of  llie  supersensible, 
begins  even  to  attach  itself  to  natural  objects.  But  as  it 
can  find  in  these  no  satisfaction,  it  is  compelled  to  con- 
struct some  representations  of  the  supernatural  which  shall 
harmonize  with  our  spiritual  wants.  In  the  formation  of 
these  religious  ideas  we  are  not  left  without  help,  nor  are 
they  to  be  looked  upon  as  mere  figments  of  the  mind. 
The  revelation  which  lias  been  given  in  nature,  both 
physical  and  moral,  and  in  the  special  experience  to  which 
the  nau;o  is  more  frequently  applied,  furnishes  matter 
which  is  laid  hold  of  and  pressed  into  the  service. 
Religious  belief  or  faith  always  attaches  itself  to  representa- 
tions, intuitions,  or  facts ;  it  gives  what  Newman  has 
called  Real  as  opposed  to  JS'olional  Assent.  Rut  it  is  not 
the  less  necessary  that  faith  sliould  be  raised  to  insight, 
and  that  we  should  construe  in  terms  of  thought  what 
religious  experience  brings  before  us  as  direct  intuition. 
There  must  be  theology  as  well  as  religion.  Nothing  is 
believed  which  is  not  held  to  be  so  connected  with  the 
rational  nature  of  man  as  irretrievably  to  injure  that  nature 
should  its  truth  be  overthrown.  This  is  not  to  put  know- 
ledge in  place  of  f.iith,  if  knowledge  be  understood  to 
apjily  only  to  the  logically  necessary  ;  nor  is  it  to  assert  that 
what  have  been  called  truths  of  revelation  could  have  been 
discovered  by  natural  reason.  Knowledge,  however,  can- 
not be  confined  to  the  abstract  understanding  ;  and  nothing 
is  more  delusive  than  the  total  opposition  of  revelation  and 
reason.  "  What  is  then  in  the  nature  of  things,"  says 
Augustine,  "  that  God  has  done  unreasonably  t"  To  affirm 
that  reason  does  not  of  itself  discover  the  truths  of  reve- 
lation, is  simply  to  bring  against  it  the  reproach  it  may 
well  bear,  that  it  does  not  create  experience.  Reason  has 
not  to  make  new  facts,  but  to  accept  given  experience,  and 
evolve  from  it  the  pure  elements  of  thought  which  it  con- 
tains, and  in  which  its  truth  consists.  Faith,  therefore, 
precedes  knowledge,  as  Anselm  used  to  say;  but  its 
priority  is  that  of  time,  not  of  authority.'  , 

4.  There  remains  to  be  taken  into  account  the  interesting 
question  of  the  gro  inds  and  motives  for  belief.  It  is,  of 
course,  necessary  to  distinguish  between  these  two  ;  the 
cause  of  a  belief  ma  if  not  be  exactly  a  reason  for  it.  Relief, 
though  natural,  is  not  always  rational,  but  frequently  rests 
■with  happy  unconsciousness  on  foundations  utterly. inade- 
quate to  its  support.  Rut  if  wo  disregard  this  distinction 
and  include  both  causes  and  reasons  under  the  title 
principles  of  belief,  these  may  be  divided  into  three  classes 
— (1),  Testimony;  (2),  Feelings,  Desires,  or  Wishes  ;  (S), 
Evidence  of  Reason.  These  are  rarely  dissevered  in  actual 
practice.  Testimony,  to  the  reception  of  which  the  name 
belief  is  frequently  restricted,  is  familiar  enough  to  require 
no  extended  notice.  Our  natural  tendency  is  to  accept  all 
testimony  as  true  ;  it  is  experience  alone  that  teaches 
caution.  Where  from  the  nature  of  the  case  no  such 
experience  is  to  be  had,  credulity  settles  down  into  firm  and 
ineradicable  conviction.  The  majority  of  men  would  be 
astonished  to  find  how  much  their  belief  depends  upon  the 
society  into  which  they  have  been  born  and  in  which  they 
live.  Dogmas  at  first  forced  upon  a  people  gradually 
become  ingrained  in  the  minds  of  those  brought  up  in 
habitual  contact  with  them.  There  is  hardly  a  limit  to 
the  possibility  of  instilling  beliefs  through  continued 
custom,  and  no  resistance  to  analysis  is  so  strong  as  that 
offered  by  mere  customary  opinion,  which  has  impercep- 

Sm  Scotus  Erigena,  De  Divir  Jfalur.,  I.  69. 


til'ly  mlroduscd  itself  into  the  very  life's  blood  of  those 
who  share  it.. 

The  feelings,  though  not  so  directly  a  source  of  convic- 
tions as  testimony,  exercise  an  extensive  and  complex 
infiuence  on  belief.  It  has  always  been  a  popular  saying 
that  a  man  believes  what  he  wishes — that  "  the  wish  is 
father  to  the  thought; "  and  there  can  bo  no  doubt  that 
the  su[)erior  force  given  to  an  idea  by  the  concentration  on 
it  of  desire  or  allcction,  causes  it  to  bulk  so  largely  in 
consciousness  as  to  exclude  the  thought  of  its  non-realiza- 
tion. The  very  idea  of  a  result  opposed  to  what  we 
earnestly  desire  is  unpleasant  enough  to  make  us  resolutely 
shut  it  out  of  sight.  This,  however,  is  but  a  partial 
and  limited  effect.  We  know  very  well  that  our  belief  is 
only  occasionally  swayed  by  our  wishes,  and  that- necessity 
too  often  constrains  us  to  believe  what  we  willingly  would 
not.  Our  volition  cannot  directly  compel  belief.  Rut  the 
ffccling.s  play  a  more  important  part;  for  it  is  by  their 
means  primarily  that  wo  stretch  beyond  the  field  of  direct 
knowledge  and  complete  our  limited  experience  with  what 
we  feel  to  be  necessary  for  the  harmony  of  our  moral  and 
religious  nature.  We  believe  that  without  which  our 
nature  would  be  dissatisfied,  and  this  belief  takes  its  rise  in 
the  feelings, — the  blind  expressions  of  intellectual  want, — 
which  form  the  first  stage  towards  completed  insight. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  do  more  than  refer  to  the 
rational  grounds  for  belief.  'WHicrevcr  our  knowledge  of  any 
object  or  law  is  incomplete,  belief  is  ready  to  step  in  and 
fill  up  the  gap  by  some  hypothesis,  which  is  in  conformity 
with  our  experience,  is  rationally  connected  with  the  facts 
to  be  explained,  and  is  not  yet  known  to  be  true.  Great 
portions  of  our  so  called  scientific  knowledge  are  nothing 
but  rational  belief, — hypotheses  unverified,  perhaps  even 
unvcrifiable, — and  the  settlement  of  the  conditions  or 
legitimacy  of  such  presumptions  forms  the  principal  part 
of  inductive  logic. 

Besides  the  works  already  referred  to,  the  following  treat  of  belief 
in  general  ; — Fechner,  Drei  Motivt  und  GriinJe  des  Gtnulens,  1863; 
Uiiici,  Qlauhcniind  iViss^ri,  Sp^kulation  tind  cxdcCe  Wissensdinft, 
1S58  ;  of  relisioiis  belief  in  paiticalar,  in  addition  to  works  on 
dogmatic  theology  or  i>hilosoiiby  of  religion:— Seliwarz,  Dus  Wtscn 
dcr  Jicligiim,  1847;  Ashcr,  l/er  religiose  Glaitbe,  I860;  J.  Kbstlin, 
I)er  Glaube,  ISCO  ;  Venn,  Hulsean  Leeturcsfor  1869.      (R.  AD.) 

BKLISARIUS  (Sclavonic,  i?f/iV:ar,  "  White-Prince  "). 
the  greatest  general  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  was  born 
about  505  A.D.,  at  Germania,  on  the  borders  of  Illyria. 
As  a  youth  he  served  in  the  body-guard  of  Justinian,  who 
appointed  him  commander  of  the  Eastern  army.  Ue  won 
a  signal  victory  over  the  Persians  in  530,  and  success- 
fully conducted  a  campaign  against  them,  until  forced,  by 
the  rashness  of  his  soldiers,  to  join  battle  and  suffer  defeat 
in  the  following  year.  Recalled  to  Constantinople,  ho 
married  .\ntonina,  a  profligate,  daring  woman.  During  the 
sedition  of  the  "  green"  and  "  blue  "  parties  of  the  circus 
he  did  Justinian  good  service,  effectually  crushing  the  rebels 
who  had  proclaimed  Hypatius  emperor.  In  533  the 
command  of  the  expedition  against  the  Vandal  kingdom  in 
Africa,  a  perilous  office,  which  the  rest  of  the  imperial 
generals  shunned,  was  conferred  on  Belisarius.  With 
15,000  mercenaries,  whom  he  had  to  train  into  Roman 
discipline,  he  took  Carthage,  defeated  Gclimer  the  Vandal 
king,  and  carried  him  captive,  in  534,  to  grace  the  first 
triumph  witnessed  in  Constantinople.  In  reward  for  theio 
services  r.elisarius  was  invested  with  the  consular  dignity, 
and  medals  were  .struck  in  his  honour.  At  this  time  the 
Ostrogothic  kingdom,  founded  in  Italy  by  Theodoric  the 
Great,  was  shaken  by  internal  dissensions,  of  which 
Justinian  resolved  to  avail  himself.  Accordingly,  Belisarius 
invaded  Sicily;  and,  after  storming  Naples  and  defending 
Rome  for  a  year  against  almost  the  entire  strength  of  the 
Goths  in  Italy,  he  concluded  the  war  by  the  capture  of 


0^6 


B  E  L  -  B  E   L 


Ravenna,  and  with  it  of  the  Gothic  >i.iiig  Vitigea.  So  con- 
fpicuous  were  Belisarius's  heroism  and  military  skill  that 
the  Ostrogotlis  offered  to  acknowledge  him  Emperor  of  the 
West,  But  his  loyalty  did  not  waver ;  he  rejected  the  pro- 
posaLand  returned  to  Constantinople  in  540.  Next  year  he 
was  sent  to  check  the  Persian  king  Nushirvan ;  but,  thwarted 
by  the  turbulence  of  his  troops,  he  achieved  no  decisive  result. 
On  his  return  to  Constantinople  the  intrigues  of  Antonina, 
whom  he  had  confined  on  account  of  her  illicit  amours, 
caused  him  to  be  stripped  of  his  dignities  and  condemned 
to  death,  and  he  was  only  pardoned  by  humbling  himself 
before  his  imperious  consort.  The  Goths  having  meanwhile 
reconquered  Italy,  Belisarius  was  despatched  with  utterly 
inadequate  forces  to  oppose  them.  Nevertheless,  during 
five  campaigns  his  strategic  skill  enabled  him  to  hold  his 
enemies  at  bay,  until  he  was  removed  from  the  command, 
and  the  conclusion  of  the  war  entrusted  to  his  rival  Narses. 
Belisarius  remained  at  Constantinople  in  tranquil  retire- 
ment until  559,  when  an  incursion  of  Bulgarian  savages 
spread  a  panic  through  the  metropolis,  and  men's  eyes  were 
once  more  turned  towards  the  neglected  veteran,  who  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  a  mixed  multitude  of  peasants  and 
soldiers,  and  •  refjelled  the  barbarians  with  his  wonted 
courage  and  adroitness.  But  this,  like  his  former  victories, 
Bfimulated  Justinian's  envy.  The  saviour  of  his  country 
was  coldly  received  and  left  unrewarded  by  his  suspicious 
sovereign.  Shortly  afterwards  Belisarius  was  accused  of 
complicity  in  a  conspiracy  against  the  emperor  ;  his  fortune 
was  Confiscated,  and  himself  flung  into  prison.  His  last 
years  are  shrouded  in  uncertainty,  as  they  are  not  dealt 
•vith  in  the  circumstantial  history  of  Procopius  ;  but  he 
seems  to  have  been  liberated  and  reinstalled  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  his  hard-won  honours  before  his  death  in  565. 
The  fiction  of  Belisarius  wandering  as  a  blind  .beggar 
through  the  streets  of  Constantinople,  which  has  been 
adapted  by  Marmontel  in  his  Belisaire,  and  by  various 
painters  and  poets,  seems  to  have  been  invented  by  Tzetzes, 
a  writer  of  the  i2th  century.  Gibbon  justly  calls  Belisarius 
the  Africanus  of  New  Rome.  But  for  his  successes,  which 
were  achieved  with  most  insignificant  means,  the  effete 
Byi:antine  empire  would  have  been  dismembered  among 
Vandals,  Persians,  and  Goths.  He  was  merciful  as  a  con- 
queror, stern  as  a  disciplinarian,  enterprising  and  wary  as 
a  general ;  while  his  courage,  loyalty,  and  forbearance  seem 
to  have  been  almost  unsullied.  Like  Corbulo,  the  faithful 
general  of  Nero,  he  was  suspected  and  persecuted  by  an 
ungrateful  master;  and,  like  him,  he  restored  the  old  dis- 
eiplina  to  the  troops  and  the  ancient  lustre  to  the  Roman 
arms  in  a  corrupt  and  nerveless  age.  (Cf.  Mahon's  Life  of 
Belisarius  ;  Finlay's  Greece  under  the  Romans  ;  Procopius ; 
Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall,  ch.  41-43.) 

BELIZE,  the  capital  of  British  Honduras,  and  the  only 
triding-port  in  the  colony.  It  is  situated  on  the  sea-coast, 
at  the  mouth  of  a  river  of  the  same  name,  in  lat.  1 7°  29' 
N.  and  long.  88"  8'  W.  It  consists  of  one  principal  street 
along  the  shore  with  a  number  of  offshoots,  is  for  the  most 
part  well  built,  and  has  a  governor's  house,  a  fort,  a  court- 
house, a  jail,  a  Gothic  church,  a  hospital,  and  a  number 
of  schools.  The  exports  are  principally  mahogany,  rose- 
wood, cedar,  logwood,  cocoa-nuts,  fustic,  and  sugar.  In 
1872,  379  vessels,  most  of  them  British,  with  a  total 
tonnage  of  32,345  tons,  entered  the  port.  Regular  steam- 
boat communication  has  been  established  with  Kingston, 
Jamaica.     The  population  is  about  5000. 

BELKNAP,  Jeremy,  an  American  clergyman  and 
nuthor,  was  born  at  Boston  in  1744  and  died  in  1798. 
Ho  WIS  educ'itcd  at  Harvard  University,  whera  ho 
graduated  in  1762.  In  1767  he  was  called  to  a  Congrega- 
tional church  in  Dover,  New  Uanipshiro,  and  remained 
there  for  twenty  years.     H»  then  removed  to  the  Federal 


street  cUurcli  in  Boslou,  ¥.hich  ue  held  till  nis  deatu. 
His  principal  works  are — History  of  Sew  Hampshire, .Z 
vols:,  1784-92  ;  American  Biography,  2  vols.,  1794-98; 
The  Foresters,  1792. 

BELL  (from  Ang.  Sax.  Wtoi,  to  resound,  akin  topf(7/),an 
open  percussion  instrument  varying  in  shape  and  material, 
but  usually  cup-like  or  globular  and  metallic,  so  constructed 
as  to  yield  one  dominant  note.  This  definition  excludes  on 
the  score  of  sound  the  cauldrons  of  Dodona  {Dodonoei  lebetai 
of  the  Greek  oracular  temples),  and  also  the  Chinese  or 
Indian  gongs,  and,  on  the  score  of  shape,  all  drums, 
cymbab,  the  metal  plates  of  the  Romans,  and  resonant  bars 
of  metal  or  wood  still  used  by  many  savage  tribes. 

Antiquaries  have  worried  themselves  and  their  readers 
about  the  antiquity  of  bells  and  to  small  purpose.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  bells  of  gold  (Exod.  xxviii.  32,  35) 
were  anything  but  jangling  ornaments  of  some  kind  worn 
by  the  high  priest;  but  Mr  Layard  believes  that  he  has 
found  some  small  bronze  bells  in  the  palace  of  Niraroud. 
We  may  gather  generally  that  small  bells  long  preceded 
large  ones,  which  latter,  however,  were  used  in  India  and 
China  long  before  they  were  known  in  Europe. 

The  Romans  used  bells  for  various  purposes.  Luciari, 
180  A.D.,  mentions  an  instrument  (C^e;)i_V(/7'a)  mechanically 
constructed  with  wat€r,  which  rang  a  bell  as  the  water 
flowed  to  measure  time.  Bells  summoned  the  Romans  to  the 
public  baths;  they  were  also  used  in  processions,  and  so 
passed  naturally  into  the  service  of  the^yestem  Church.  The 
first  recorded  application  of  them  to  churches  is  ascribed  by 
Polydore  Vergil  to  Paulinus  (circa  400  A.D.)  He  was 
bishop  of  Nola,  a  city  of  Campania  (hence  nola  and  campana, 
the  names  of  certain  bells).  It  has  been  maintained  that 
Pope  Sabinianus,  604,  first  used  church  bells  ;  but  it 
seems  clear  that  they  were  introduced  into  France  as  early 
as  550.  In  680  Benedict,  abbot  of  VVearmouth,  imported 
them  from  Italy  ;  and  in  the  7th  century,  Bede  mentions 
them  in  England.  St  Dunstan  hung  many  in  the  lOlh 
century;  and  in  the  11th  they  were  not  uncommon  in 
Switzerland  and  Germany.  It  is  incredible  that  the  Greek 
Christians,  as  has  been  asserted,  were  onacquainted  with 
bells  till  the  9th  century  ;  but  it  is  certain  that,  for  political 
reasons  after  the  taking  of  Consli-ntinople  by  the  Turks, 
in  1453,  their  use  was  forbidden,  lest  they  should  provide 
a  popidar  signal  for  revolt. 

Several  old  bells  are  extant  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  and 
Wales ;  the  oldest  are  often  quadrangular,  made  of  thin 
iron  plates  hammered  and  rivetted  together.  Dr  Reeves 
of  Lusk  described  in  1850  St  Patrick's  bell  preserved  at 
Belfast,  called  Clog  an  eadhachta  Fhatraic,  "  the  bell  of  St 
Patrick's  will."  It  is  6  inches  high,  5  broad,  4  deep,  adorned 
with  gems  and  gold  and  silver  filagree-work  ;  it  is  inscribed 
1091  and  1 105,  but  is  probably  alluded  to  in  Ulster  annals 
in  552.  For  Scotch  bells,  see  Illustrated  Calalogue  oj 
ArchcEological  Museum,  Edinburgh,  for  1856. 

The  four-sided  bell  of  the  Irish  missionary  St  Gall,  646i 
is^reserved  at  the  monastery  of  St  Gall,  Switzerland.  In 
tlieso  early  times  bells  were  usually  small ;  even  in  the 
11th  century  a  bell  presented  to  the  church  at  Orleans 
weighing  2600  ft>  was  thought  large.  In  the  13th  century 
larger  bells  were  cast  The  bell,  Jacqueline  of  Paris,  cast 
1400,  weighed  15,000  lb;  another  Paris  bell  of  1472, 
25,000  !b,  ard  the  famous  Amboise  bell  at  Rouen,  1501, 
3'">,364  lb.  But  there  we  have  reached  the  threshold  of  the 
golden  age  of  bells,  of  which  more  anon. 

Before  we  enter  on  the  history  and  manufacture  of  the 
bell  in  Europe  it  is  worth  while  to  enumerate  the  different 
kinds  of  bells  named  by  llioronymu's  Magius  in  his 
work  De  Tintinnabuiir : — 1.  Tintinnahulum,  a.  little  bell, 
otherwise  called  tinnioliii,;,  for  refectory  or  dormitory, 
according  to  Bclcthus,  but  Durandus  names  sjuilla  for  tli 


BELL 


refectory  ;  2.  Pelniius,  or  larger  "  broad-brimmed  hat " 
bell ;  3.  Codun,  oiiticc  of  trumpet,  a  Greek  hand-bell ;  4. 
jYcla  (sec  ante),  a  very  small  bell,  u.sed  in  the  choir,  accord- 
ing to  Durandus ;  5.  Campami  (sec  ante),  a  large  bell, 
first  used  in  the  Latiri  churches  iu  the  steeple  (Uiirandus), 
in  the  tower  (Belethus) ;  6.  Squilla,  a  shrill  little  bell. 
We  read  of  cymbalum  for  tlic  cloister  (Durandus),  or 
campanella  for  the  cloister  (Beleth\is) ;  nolula  or  dupta  in 
the  clock  ;  nynum  in  the  tower.  Theie  was  also  a  bell 
called  corrvjiuncula,  to  summon  the  monks  at  scourging 
time. 

We  shall  now  give  a  brief  account  of  the  manufa-ture  of 
the  bell  proper,  i..-.,  the  church  bell  of  the  hust  five  cen- 
turies. It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  early  bell-founders 
understood  all  the  principles  of  construction,  mixture  of 
metals,  lines,  and  proportions  which  go  to  form  our  notion 
of  a  good  bell.  As  the  Amati  or  Stradiuarius  violin  is  the 
result  of  innumerable  cxpeiimcnts  extending  over  centuries, 
so  tlie  bells  of  Van  den  Gheyn  (1550)  and  Uemony  (1G50) 
disengaged  themselves  after  ages  of  empirical  trials 
as  the  trae  models,  and  supplied  the  finished  type  for  all 
succeeding  bell-\vorkers. 

iiell-metal  is  a  nu.vture  of  copper  and  tin  in  the  propor- 
tion of  4  to  1.  In  Henry  Ill.'s  leign  it  was  2  to  1. 
In  Mr  Layard's  Nineveh  bronze  bells,  it  was  10  to  1.  Zinc 
and  lead  are  used  in  small  bells.  The  thickness  of  the 
bell's  edge  is"  llStli  of  its  diameter,  and  its  height  is 
twelve  times  its  thickness. 

Bells,  like  viols,  have  been'  made  of  every  conceivable 
shape  within  certain  limits.  The  long  narrow  bell,  the 
qoadrangiiiar,  and  the  mitre-shaped  in  Europe  at  least  indi- 
cate antiquity,  and  the  graceful  curved-inwardly-midway 
and  full  truiiii>ct-mouthed  bell  indicates  an  age  not  earlier 
than  the  10th  century. 

The  bell  is  first  designed  on  paper  according  to~the  scale 
of  measurement.  Then  the  crook  is  made,  which  is  a  kind 
of  double  wooden  conip:iss,  the  legs  of  which  are  respec- 
tively curved  to  the  shape  of  the  inner  and  outer  sides  of 
tlie  bell,  a  space  of  the  e.\act  form  and  thickness  of  the 
bell  being  left  betwixt  them.  The  compass  is  pivotted 
on  a  stake  driven  into  the  bottom  of  the  casting-pit. 
A  stuffing  of  brickwork  is  b..ilt  round  the  stake,  leaving 
room  for  a  lire  to  be  lighted  inside  it.  The  outside  of  this 
stufli.ig  is  then  padded  with  fine  soft  clay,  well  mixed  and 
bound  together  with  calves'  hair,  and  the  inner  leg  of  the 
compass  run  ronnd  it,  bringing  it  to  the  exact  shape  of  the 
msido  of  the  bell.  Upon  this  core,  well  smeared  with 
grease,  is  fashioned  the  false  clay  bell,  the  outside  of  which 
IS  defined  by  the  outer  leg  of  the  compass.  Inscriptions 
are  now  moulded  in  wax  on  the  outside  of  the  clay-bell  ; 
these  are  carefully  smeared  with  grease,  then  lightly  covered 
with  the  finest  clay,  and  then  with  coarser  clay,  until  a  solid 
mantle  is  thickened  over  the  outside  of  the  clay  bell.  A  fire 
is  now  lighted,  and  the  whole  baked  hard  ;  the  grease  and 
wax  inscriptions  steam  out  thiough  holes  at  the  top,  leaving 
the  sham  clay  bell  baked  hard  and  tolerably  loose,  between 
the  core  and  the  copeoT  mantle.  The  cojie  is  then  lifted,  the 
clay  bell  broken  up,  the  cope  let  down  again,  enclosing  now 
bfiweeu  itself  and  the  care  the  exact  shape  of  the  bell. 
The  metal  is  then  boiled,  and  run  molten  into  the  mould. 
A  large  bell  will  take  several  weeks  to  cool.  When 
cxtlicatcd  it  ought  to  be  scarcely  touched,  and  should 
hardly  require  tuning.  This  is  called  its  maiden  stale, 
and  It  is  one  bo  soughr  after  that  many  bells  are  left  rough 
and  out  of  tune  in  older  to  claim  it. 

A  good  l>ell,  when  struck,  yields  one  note,  so  that  any 
person  with  an  ear  for  music  can  say  what  it  is.  This  note 
is  called  the  cvusoininl,  and  when  it  i.s  distinctly  heard 
the  bell  is  said  to  be  "  true."  Any  bell  of  Dioder.ite  size 
fUllle  bells  cannot  •well  be  experimented  upon*   may  be 


tested  in  the  following  manner : — Tap  the  bell  just  on  the 
curve  of  the  top,  and  it  will  yield  a  note  one  octave  above 
the  consonant.  Tap  the  bell  about  one  quarter's  distance 
from  the  top,  and  it  should  yield  a  note  which  is  the  quint 
or  fifth  of  the  octave.-  Tap  it  two  quarters  and  a  half  lower, 
and  it  will  yield  a  tierce  or  third  of  the  octave.  Tap  it 
strongly  above  the  rim  where  the  clapper  strikes,  and  the 
quint,  the  tierce,  and  the  octave  will  now  Eound 
sinmltancouely,. yielding  th^  consonant  or  key-note  of  the 
bell. 

If  the  tierce  is  too  sharp  the  bell's  note  {i.e.,  the  con- 
sonant) wavers  betwpen  !\  tone  and  a  half-tone  above  it ; 
if  the  tierce  is  Hat  the  note  wavers  between  a  tone  and  a 
half-tone  below  it ;  in  either  case  the  bell  is  said  to  be 
"  false."  A  sharp  tierce  can  be  flattened  by  filirig.away  the 
inside  of  the  bell  just  w-hero  the  tierce  is  struck  ;  but  if 
the  bell  when  cast  is  found  to  have  a  flat  tierce  there  is  no 
remedy.  The  consonant  or  key  note  of  a  bell  can  be  slightly 
sharpered  by  cutting  away  the  iuner  rim  of  the  bell,  or 
flattened  by  filing  it  a  little  higher  up  inside,  just  above 
the  rim.  (See  H.  R.  Haneis's  Music  and  Murals,  5th 
edition,  p.  429.) 

The  quality  of  a  bell  depends  not  only  on  the  casting  and 
the  fineness  and  mixture  ,of  metals,  but  »ipon  the  due 
proportion  of  metal  to  the  calibre  of  the  bell.  The  larger 
the  bell  the  low-er  the  tune ;  but  if  we  try  to  make  a  large 
E  bell  with  metal  only  enough  for  a  smaller  F  bell,  the  K 
bell  will  be  puny  and  poor.  It  has  been  calculated  that 
for  a  peal  of  bells  to  give  the  pure  chord  of  the  ground 
tone  or  key-note,  third,  fifth,  and  octave,  the  diameters  are 
required  to  be  .as  thirty,  twenty-four,  twenty,  fifteen,  and 
the  weights  a*  eighty,  forty-one,  twenty-four,  and  ten. 

The  history  of  bells  is  full  of  romantic  interest.  In 
civilized  times  they  have  been  intimately  associated,  not 
only  with  all  kinds  of  religious  and  social  rights,  but  with 
almost  every  important  historical  event.  Their  influence 
upon  architecture  is  not  less  remarkable,  for  to  th^iu 
indirectly  we  probably  owe  all  the  most  famous  toweis  in 
the  world.  Grose  in  his  Antiquilies  observes,  "  Towers  at 
first  scarcely  rose  above  the  roof,  being  intended  as  lanterns 
for  the  admission  of  light,  an  addition  to  the  height  wad 
in  all  likelihood  suggested  on  the  more  common  use  of 
bells." 

Bells  early  summoned  soldiers  to  arms,  as  well  as  citizens 
to  bath  oc  senate,  or  Christians  to  church.  They  sounded 
the  alarm  in  fire  or  tumult ;  and  the  rights  of  the  burghers 
in  their  bells  were  jealously  guarded.  Thus  the  chief  bell 
in  the  cathedral  often  belonged  to  the  town,  not  to  the' 
cathedral  chapter.  The  curfew,  the  Carolus,  and  St  Mary',-< 
bell  in  the  Antwerp  tower  all  belong  to  the  town  ;  the  re^it 
are  the  property  of  the  chapter  Ue  who  commanded  the 
bell  commanded  the  town ;  for  by  that  sound,  at  a 
moment's  notice,  he  could  rally  and  concentrate  hia 
adherents.  .  Hence  u  conqueror  commonly  acknowledged 
the  political  importance  of  bells  by  nielting  them  down  ; 
and  the  cannon  of  the  conquered  was  in  turn  melted  p  to 
supply  the  garrison  with  bells  to  be  used  in  thesuppio.MOn 
of  levolts.  Many  a  bloody  chapter  in  history  has  been 
rung  in  and  out  by  bells. 

On  the  third  day  of  Foster  1282,  at  the  ringing  of  the 
Sicilian  vespers,  8000  French  were  massacred  in  cold  blood 
by  Juhn  of  Procida,  who  had  thus  j>lanned  to  fi^e  Sicily 
fruin  Charles'  of-  Anjou.  On  the  21th  of  August,  St 
Bai  tholoniew's  day,  1671,  bells  ushered  in  the  mass,iLre  of 
the  Huguenot.s  in  France,  to  the  number,  it  is  Said,  of 
100,000.  bells  have  rung  alike  over  slaughtered  and 
ransomed  cities  ;  and  f.  r  and  wide  throughout  Europ*  in 
the  hour  of  victory  or  irreparable  la^s.  At  the  news  of 
Nciaon's  triumph  and  ilcath  at  Trafalgar,  the  bells  of  Cheater 
rang  a  merry  peal  alternated  with  one  deep  toll,  and  similar 

III.  —  OS 


;>38  BELL 

striking  incidents  could  be  iiiJcfinitcly  mu!tii>licJ.  It  was, 
bowever,  in  the  low  countries  of  Belgium  and  Holland, 
distracted  with  incessant  civil  wars,  that,  for  purely  political 
reasons,  bells  acquired  unique  importance. 

But  their  religious  and  civil  uses  may  be  further  noticed. 
The  Ave  Mary  bell  tolled  at  6  and  12  to  remind  men  of 
prayer  to  the  Virgin  ;  the  vesper  bell  for  evening  prayer  ; 
the  compline  was  for  the  last  service  of  the  day.  The 
eaiictus,  often  a  handbell,  rung  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass ; 
the  passing  bell,  at  death.  The  curfew  (couvre  fen), 
introduced  by  the  Conqueror  into  England,  rang  at  8  o'clock 
to  e.ttinguishall  lights.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  and 
in  university  towns  at  8  and  6  o'clock  tells  are  still  rung. 
At  Antwerp  cathedral  we  find  the  Cloche  de  Triomphe,  by 
Dumery  ;  sixteen  bells  at  Sotteghem  and  several  at  Ghent 
and  elsewhere  bear  the  same  maker's  name.  The  Horrida, 
or  ancient  tocsin  at  Antwerp,  said  to  date  from  1316,  is  long- 
shaped  and  is  now  unused.  The  curfew  in  the  same  tower 
rangs  at  5,  12,  and  8.  The  Santa  Maria  (4i  tons)  first 
.-ang  when  Carl  the  Bold  entered  Antwerp  1467.  St 
Antoine  is  another  celebrated  bell,  and  the  favourite  Carolus, 
given  by  Charles  V.  ("A  tons),  is  made  of  copper,  silver, 
and  gold,  and  valued  at  i:20.000.  At  Strasburg  we  have 
the  Holy  Ghost  bell,  with  motto,  "  O  Rex  glorire  ChristoE 
veni  cum  pace,"  and  date  1375,  3  nonas  August!  (8  tons), 
only  rung  when  two  fires  are  seen  in  the  town  at  once. 
The  recall  or  storm  bell  warns  travellers  in  the  plain  of  the 
storm  coming  from  the  Vosges  Mountains.  The  Thor  or 
gate  bell,  for  shutting  and  opening  gates  of  the  city,  has 
been  cast  three  times  (IGIS,  1641,  and  1651);  it  bear's 
the  following  inscription  : — 

"  Dieses  Thor  Glocke  das  erst  mal  .schallt 
Als  man  1618  sahlt 
Dass  RIgte  jahr  regnet  man 
Nach  doctor  Luther  Jubal  jalir 
Dag  Bos  hinaus  das  Gut  liiiiein 
Zu  lauten  soil  igr  arbeit  sejii. " 

The  Mittags,  or  12  o'clock  bell,  taken  down  in  the  French 
Revolution,  bore  the  motto — 

*'  Vo,x  ego  sum  vit® 
Voco  vos— orate— venite," 

From  all  this  it  will  appear  that  these  Continental  bells 
acquired  a  strong  personality  from  the  feelings  and  uses 
with  which  they  were  associated;  and,  indeed,  they  were 
foimallj'  christened  with  more  ceremony  than  we  give  to 
christening  our  ships,  and  were  then  supposed  to  have  the 
power  of  driving  away  evil  spirits,  dispersing  storms,  iSrc. 

BcU-founding  attained  perfection  in  Holland  in  the  I6th 
and  17th  centuries;  and  the  names  of  Hemony,  Dumery, 
and  the  Van  den  Gheyns  stand  out  as  the  princes  of  the 
art.  Their  bells  are  still  heard  throughout  the  Low 
Countries,  and  are  plentiful  at  Amsterdam,  Bruges,  Ghent, 
Louvain,  Mechlin,  and  Antwerp.  These  bells  are  frequently 
adorned  with  bas  reliefs  of  exquisite  beauty,  such  as 
feather"",  forest  leaves,  fruit,  flowers,  portraits,  or  dancing 
groups,  and  inscribed  with  Latin,  sometimes  bad,  but 
strong,  quaint,  and  often  pathetic.  Wo  give  the  preference 
to  lleinony's  small  bells,  and  to  Van  den  Ghcyns's 
large  ones.  The  names  of  Deklerk,  Claes  Noorden  and 
Julmnn  Albert  de  Grave  (1714),  Claudo  and  Josc]ih 
riiimcre  (1664),  Bartholomew  Goethale  (1680),  and 
Andrew  Stcillcrt  (1563)  also  occur  in  Belgium.  Tho 
following  illustrate  the  nature  of  inscriptions  and  mottoes 
common  in  Belgium  : — "  Non  sunt  loquclx  ncque sermones 
audiantur  voces  corum,  F.  Ucmony,  Amstclodamia,  1658;" 
"  Laudate  Domini  oinnes  gentes,  F.  Hemony,  1674 ; "  and 
ou  a  Ghent  bell— 

"  Mynoni  naem  is  Roelant 
Als  ick  dippe  dan  ist  brancit 
A'»  ick  luydc  doQ  ia  storm  in  Vlsnderlaud. 


A  common  inscription  runs — 

*'  Funera  plango,  Fulgura  fi-ango,  Sabbata  yxr^^, 
Excito  lentos,  Dissipo  vento.s,  Faco  crueutos.  " 

A.  few  other  inscriptions  which  occur  on  bells  in  France 
and  England  may  be  quoted.  The  beU  in  the  cathedral  ai 
Rouen,  already  mentioned,  which  was  melted  down  by  the 
Revolutionists  in  1793,  bore  the  words — 

*•  Je  suis  George  d'Ambois 
Qui  trcnte  cinque  mille  pois 
Mais  lui  qui  nie  pescra 
Treutc  six  mille  me  tvouveia." 

Bells  of  the  parish  church  atWinniiigton,Bedfordshire,had-- 
**  Nomina  canipanis  haec  indita  sunt  quoque  noslris, " 
1st  bell.  — "  Hoc  signum  Petri  pulsatur  nomine  Christ!  " 
2d     ,,        *'  Nomen  Man:dalene  campana  sonat  rat-lode." 
3d     ,,         '*  Sit  noraen  Domini  bencdictum  semper  in  eum  " 
4th  ,,         "  Musa  Kaphaelis  sonat  auribus  Immanuelis." 
5th  ,,         "  Sum  Rosa  pulsata  mundique  llaria  vocata." 

By  an  old  chartulary  it  appears  that  the  bells  of  the  Priory 
of  Little  Dunmow,  in  Esses,  were  in  the  year  1501  new 
cast  and  baptized — 

"Prima  in  honore  Sancti  llichaelis  Archangeli. 

Secunda  in  honore  Sancti  Johannis  Evangclisti 

Teitia  in  honore  S.  Johannis  Baptisti. 

Quarta  in  honore  Assumptionis  beata?  Marije. 

Quinta  in  honore  sanctse  Trinitatis  et  omnium  sanctorum." 

In  the  little  sanctum  at  Westminster,  Edward  III.  built  a 
clocher,  and  placed  in  it  bells  for  St  Stephen's  chapel,  round 
the  largest  of  which  was  cast — 

"  King  Edward  made  meo  thirtye  thousand  weight  and  three 
Take  me  down  and  wey  mee, 
And  more  you  shall  fynd  mee." 

Some  of  the  music  played  on  the  carillon  clavecin  is 
still  extant.  We,  may  specially  mention  the.  morccavi 
furjuh  discovered  by  the  Chevalier  van  Elenyck,  in  the 
archives  at  Louvain,  the  work  of  the  celebrated  organist 
and  carilloneur  Matthias  van  den  Gheyn  (published  by 
Schott  and  Co.,  Brussels  and  London).  This  music  is  as 
fine  in  its  way  ds  Bach  or  Handel. 

Quite  lately  several  carillons  have  been  put  up  in 
England  ;  and  one  (1875)  is  in  contemplation  for  St  Paul's 
cathedral.  The  new  carillon  machinery  by  Messrs  Gillett 
and  Bland  of  Croydon,  now  employed  almost  everywhere  in 
connection  with  clocks  and  carillons,  is  incomparaljly 
superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  on  the  Continent.  By 
its  aid  the  hammer,  which  falls  on  the  outside  of  the  bell, 
is  raised  mechanically  instead  of  by  tho  action  of  the  fist  ot 
finger  on  the  key;  and  all  that  the  stroke  ou  the  key  does 
is  to  let  it  slide  off  like  a  hair-trigger,  and  drop  on  the  bell. 
Thus  the  touch  of  the  modern  carillon  clavecin  bids  fair 
to  rival  that  of  tho  organ.  The  same  firm  has  also  invented 
a  bell  piano.  The  chief  carillons  in  England  at  present 
arc  at  Boston  church,  Lincolnshire,  Worcester  cathedral, 
Bradford  town-hall,  Rochdale  town-hall,  and  Shorcditch. 
Several  good  peals  of  bells  in  London  are  immortalized  in 
the  common  nursery  rhyme— r 

'*  Gay  go  up  and  Gay  go  dow... 
To  ring  the  bells  of  London  town.' 

Bell-ringing  by  ropo  is  still  a  popular  art  in  England. 
The  first  regular  jiml  of  bells  in  this  country  was  sent  in 
1456  by  Pope  Calixtus  III.  to  King's  College,  Cambridge, 
and  was  for  300  years  tlic  largest  peal  in  England.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  1 6th  century  sets  of  eight  bells  were 
hung  in  a  fcv/  large  churches.  In  1668  a  famous  work  oa 
bells,  Tintinalor/ia,  by  T.  W.  [Wliite],  appeared,  intro* 
ducing  a  sort  of  bell-notation  by  printing  the  bells  1,  2,  3, 
4,  (tc,  on  slips  of  paper  in  different  orders  according  to 
the  cliangcs  rung.  Of  these  changes  there  is  a  great 
variety,  sjioken  of  technically  as  hunting,  dodging,  snap- 
ping, place-making,  plain-liob,  bob-triple,  bob-major,  boU 
mnjor  reversed,  double  bob-uiajor,  grandsiic-bob-cator,  io, 


BELL 


539 


1  he  following  numbers  show  hiw  three  bells  can  ring  six 
changes  :-l,  2,  3;  I,  3,  2;  2,  1,  3  ;  2,  3, 1  ;  3,  1,  2  ;  3,  2,1. 
Koor  belU  ring  four  times  aa  many  as  three,  i.e.,  twenty- 
four ;  five  bolls  ring  five  times  as  many  as  four,  or  120. 
And  it  m;iy  thus  be  shown  that  it  would  take  ninety-one 
years  to  ring  all  the  changes  upon  twelve  belU  at  two 
strokes  a  second  ;  whilst  twenty-four  bells  would  occupy 
more  than  117  billions  of  years! 

Bell-ringing  is  conducted  as  follows ; — Ropes,  hang 
through  holes  in  the  bell-chamber,  and  are  usually  fastened 
to  a  wheel  for  leverage,  round  which  the  rope  passes. 
There  is  a  great  knack  in  handling  the  rope.  The  6rst 
half-poll  "drops"  the  beU,  the  second  "sets"  it;  it  next 
swings  up  to  the  slur-bar,  then  it  swings  down  and  up  to 
the  other  side,  the  clapper  striking  as  it  ascends.  Eight 
bells  make  the  most  perfect  peal,  tuned  in  the  diatonic 
scale. 

Bells  are  struck  in  three  ways,- -(1)  with  a  hammer  on  the 
outside,  let  off  either  by  a  tambour  or  revolving  drum, 
similar  in  appearance  to  the  prickly  cylinder  of  a  musical 
box,  which  drum  can  be  fitted  with  tunes  or  chimes  by 
musical  nuts  or  spikes,  and  altered  at  will ;  (2)  the  bell  can 
also  be  struck  by  hand,  as  in  the  common  stand  of  small 
bells  to  be  seen  occasionally  in  the  London  streets,  the 
player  having  a  hammer  in  each  hand ;  or  (3)  the  clapper  may 
strike  the  bell  internally,  either  being  pulled  by  a  rope,  the 
bell  lx;ing  stationary,  or  by  the  bell  swinging  to  and  fro. 
If  the  hammer  or  clapper  be  too  light  the  tone  of  the  bell 
13  not  properly  drawn  ;  if  too  heavy  it  will  pulverize  or 
crack  the  bell  in  time; 

Great  reforms  are  needed  in  the  hanging  of  bells,  a 
subject  to  which  the  Americans  have  given  much  atten- 
tion. What  Me-ssrs  Gillett  and  Bland  are  in  England  with 
reference  to  carillon  machinery,  the  Meneelys  of  New  York 
are  to  the  ordinary  mechanism  and  hanging  of  bells. 
There  is  hardly  a  cathedral  tower  in  England  where  the 
hanging  of  one  or  more  bells,  or  the  oscillation  of  the  tower, 
is  not  justly  complained  of.  When  a  bell  is  hard  to  ring  it 
is  usually  on  account  of  its  hanging.  The  leverage  is 
wrongly  applied ;  the  wood-work  is  crowded  against  the 
masonry,  and  many  of  the  finest  towers  have  thus  become 
unsafe. 

There  are  a  few  bells  of  world-wide  renown,  and  several 
others  more  or  less  celebrated.  The  great  bell  at  Moscow, 
Tiar  Kolokol,  which,  according  to  the  inscription,  was  cast 
in  1733,  was  in  the  earth  103  years,  and  was  raised  by  the 
Emperor  Nicholas  in  1836.  The  present  bell  seems  never 
to  have  been  actually  hung  or  rung,  having  cracked  in  the 
furnace.  Photographs  of  it  are  now  common,  as  it  stands 
on  a  raised  platform  in  the  middle  of  a  square.  It  is  used 
as  a  chapeL  It  weighs  about  440,000  lb;  height,  19  feet  3 
inches  ;  circumference,  60  feet  9  inches  ;  thickness,  2  feet ; 
Weight  of  broken  piece,  1 1  tons.  The  second  Moscow  bell, 
the  largest  in  the  world  in  actual  use,  weighs  1 23  tons.  The 
great  bell  at  Peking  weighs  53  tons  ;  Nanking,  22  tons ; 
Oliniitz,  17  tons;  Vienna  (1711),  17  tons;  Notre  Dame 
(1680),  17  tons;  Erfurt,  one  of  the  finest  bell  metal,  13 
tons;  Great  Peter,  York  Minster,  which  cost  £2000  in 
1845,  10  tons  ;  St  Paul's,  5  tons  ;  Great  Tom  at  Oxford,  7 
tons ;  Great  Tom  at  I  incoln,  5  tons.  Big  Ben  of  the 
Westminster  clock  tower  (cracked)  weighs  between  13  and 
14  tons;  it  was  cast  by  George  Mears  under  the  direction 
of  Edward  Beckett  Denison  in  1858.  Its  four  quarters 
were  cast  by  Warner  in  1856.  The  Kaiscrglockc  of  Cologne 
calhK<lral,  lately  recxst  (1875),  weighs  25  tons. 

On  the  varied  uses  past  and  present  of  small  bells  a 
Tolume  might  be  WTittcn.  Octaves  of  little  bells  have 
been  introduced  into  organs  and  utilized  in  the  orchestra, 
flandringcrs  are  still  common  Aroughout  the  country — 
one  man  with  a  bell   fitted  with  a  clapper,  in  each  hand, 


ringing  but  two  notes  of  the  tune  in  his  turn.  Upright 
stands  of  bells  without  clappers,  struck  with  wands, 
may  often  be  seen  in  the  streets.  Bells  for  horses, 
dogs,  cows,  sheep,  <tc.,  have  already  been  alluded  to. 
In  Italy  and  elsewhere  they  are  often  made  of  baked 
earth ;  these  have  a  very  sweet  sound,  and  cost  about  ;• 
penny.  For  sledges  and  harness  they  are  of  metal,  and 
worn  usually  in  bunches.  A  bunch  of  twelve  costs  about 
two  francs.  On  the  Italian  lakes  and  elsewhere  a  bell 
fixed  to  a  floating  cork  marks  the  spot  where  lines  or  nets 
are  laid  for  fish.  Hunting-hawks  were  formerly  supplied 
with  small  bells  to  facilitate  recovery. 

Whilst  some  uses  of  bells  have  gone  out,  new  ones  have 
come  in.  A  few  instances  will  give  the  reader  some  idea 
of  the  indefinite  number  of  services  to  which  they  have 
been  applied.  The  expression  to  curse  with  book,  bell,  and 
candle,  alludes  *o  an  old  form  of  exorcism,  in  which  the  bell 
was  used  to  scare  the  evil  spirit — a  function  also  attributed 
to  larger  bells.  Bearing  the  bel!  alludes  to  the  prize  of  a 
silver  bell  usually  given  at  horse-races  to  the  winner  ;  hence 
comes  what  is,  after  all,  only  the  bell  reversed  and  used  as  a 
drinking  vessel — the  prize  cup.  The  diving  bell  no  more 
comes  within  the  scope  of  the  present  article  than  the  dome 
of  a  mosque.  Certain  uses  of  small  bells  are  fast  disap[M!ar- 
ing.  The  dustman's  bell  is  now  seldom  heard.  The  town- 
crier,  with  his  "  Oh,  yes  "  (oya,  hear  ye),  has  been  banished 
to  the  provinces.  The  5  o'clock  postman,  with  his  hand-bell 
to  coUeot  letters,  went  out  when  the  present  postal  system 
came  in.  On  the  other  hand  the  muiEn-bell,  the  railway-bell, 
the  dock-bell,  the  half-hour  bells  at  sea,  and  the  stage-bell 
survive ;  whilst  new  applications,  unknown  to  our  forefathers, 
have  been  introduced.  Few  people  are  aware  that  house- 
bells  worked  with  wires  are  scarcely  100  years  old.  Long 
before  them,  no  doubt,  handbells  had  to  a  great  extent  super- 
seded the  use  of  the  horn,  whistle,  rattle,  clapping  of  hands, 
and  hammering  on  the  door  with  a  stick,  and  fir-ebells  were 
in  frequent  use.  The  old  bell-pulls,  which  still  linger  in 
country  inns  and  mansions,  have  been  replaced  by  spring 
handles  in  the  wnll.^,  and  these  are  disappearing  from 
hotels  and  clubs  in  favour  of  electric  bells,  now  so  common 
in  railway  stations  in  connection  with  the  telegraph,  A 
current  of  electricity  sets  a  small  hammer  in  motion,  and, 
in  the  dark,  the  stream  of  sparks  between  the  hammer  and 
bell  is  clearly  visible.  In  a  word,  then,  it  is  plain  tliat  the 
whole  of  civilized  life  is  set  to  bell  music  in  one  shape  or 
another ;  and  although  the  more  important  uses  of  bolls 
have  been  enumerated,  time  would  fail  to  mention  all  their 
lowly  but  not  less  useful  functions, — such  as  the  familiar 
dinner  bell,  yard  bell,  school-bell,  factory-beU,  jail-bell,  small 
portable  cupola  spriug-bell  (pressed  with  the  hand),  spring 
signal  door-bell  (used  in  shops),  safety-bell  on  swinging  coil 
(fastened  to  shutters  or  doors) ;  and,  not  to  forget  the  nur- 
sery, the  coral  and  bells,  bell-rattles — which  call  to  mind, 
and  are  probably  relics  of,  the  old  fool's  cap  and  bells  and 
fool's  Wand  with  its  crown  of  jingling  baubles,  or  it  may 
be  that  the  fool's  baubles  are  copies  of  the  child's  play- 
things. 

The  Rev.  H.  T.  Ellacorabe,  author  of  various  works  on 
bells,  gives  in  bis  Chiming  a  complete  catalogue  of  bell 
literature.  B.  n  ) 

BELL,  Db  Andrew,  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
England  well  known  fur  his  philanthropic  efforts  in  (he  Dr  A  iioil 
cause  of  education,  ai.d  more  particularly  for  hi.s  success  io 
extending  the  monitorial  system  of  instruction  in  schools, 
was  born  at  St  Andrews  iu  1753.  He  graduated  at  the 
university  of  that  town,  and  afterwards  spent  some  years 
in  America.  In  1789  he  wa-s  chaplain  at  Furt  St  Ueorgr, 
and  minister  of  St  Mary's  church,  Miidra.s.  While  in  ttds 
pwiMon  he  occupied  himself  with  instructing  tho  orfihau 
children  of  th"-  "■diUiry  asylum,  bd''  '  -^vinB  been  obbg^d 


540 


BELL 


from  scarcity  of  teachers  to  introduce  the  system  of  mutual 
tuition  by  the  pupils,  found  the  scheme  answer  so  well  that 
ne  became  convinced  of  its  universal  applicability.  In 
179^',  after  his  return  to  London,  he  published  a  small 
pamphlet  explaining  his  views.  No  public  attention  was 
drawn  towards  the  plan  tdl  the  following  year,  when  Mr 
Joseph  Lancaster,  a  dissenter,  opened  a  school  in  South- 
wark,  conducting  it  in  strict  accordance  with  Bell's  prin- 
ciples. The  success  of  the  method,  and  the  strong  support 
given  to  Lancaster  by  the  whole  body  of  dissenters,  gave 
Immense  impetus  to  the  movement.  Similar  schools  were 
established  in  great  numbers ;  and  the  members  of  the 
Chnrch  of  England,  becoming  alarmed  at  the  patronage  of 
these  schools  resting  entirely  iu  the  hands  of  dissenters, 
resolved  to  set  up  similar  institutions  in  which  church 
principles  should  be  inculcated.  In  1807  Dr  Bell  was  called 
upon  to  organize  a  system  of  schools  in  accordance  with 
these  views.  For  his  valuable  services  he  was  in  some 
degree  recompensed  by  his  perferment  to  a  prebend  of 
Westminster,  and  to  the  mastership  of  Sherborn  Hospital, 
Durham.  He  died  in  1832  at  Cheltenham,  and  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey.  His  great  fortune  was  bequeathed 
almost  entirely  for  educational  purposes.  Of  the  £120,000 
given  in  trust  to  the  provost  of  St  Andrews,  two  city 
■ministers,  and  the  professor  of  Greek  in  the  university,  half 
was  devoted  to  the  founding  of  the  important  school, 
called  the  Madras  College,  at  St  Andrews;  £10,000  was 
left  to  each  of  the  large  cities,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Leith, 
Inverness,  and  Aberdeen,  for  school  purposes  ;  and  £  1 0,000 
was  also  given  to  the  Royal  Naval  School.  (See  Southey's 
Life  of  Dr  Bell.) 

BELL,  Sir  Chaelfs,  K.H.,  the  youngest  son  of  the 
Eev.  William  Bell,  a  clergyman  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
cf  Scotland,  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  November  1774.  His 
mother  Margaret  Morice,  the  elder  daughter  of  an  Epis- 
copal clergyman,  was  remarkable  for  her  piety  and  general 
accompliahments,  and  she  exercised  a  powerful  influence 
over  her  gifted  sons.  The  father,  William  Bell,  after  a 
life  of  contending  with  difEcultiee,  died  on  20th  of  Sep- 
tember 1779,  aged  seventy-five,  leaving  his  wife  and  six 
children  very  slenderly  provided  for.  Of  these  six  children, 
three  became  distinguished  men,  namely,  Johu  Bell,  the 
anatomist  and  surgeon  ;  George  Joseph  Bell,  professor  of 
the  law  of  Scotland  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  ;  and 
Charles  Bell,  the  subject  of  this  notice.  After  having 
Btiidicd  two  years  at  the  High  School  and  two  years  more  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh,  Charles  embraced  the  pro- 
fession of  medicine  and  devoted  h'jnself  chiefly  to  the 
etudy  of  anatomy,  uuder  the  direction  of  his  brother  John, 
who  was  twelve  years  older,  and  who  had  already  earned  a 
reiiutation  as  an  anatomist  and  surgeon.  Regarding  his 
early  education,  he  wrote,  in  1S39,  on  a  copy  of  Petti- 
gruw'3  Medical  Portrait  Gallery,  opposite  a  remark  that 
he  had  been  educated  at  the  High  School, — "  Nonsense  ! 
I  received  no  education  but  from  my  mother,  neither  read- 
ing, writing,  ciphering,  nor  anything  else."  At  school  and 
college  he  does  not  appear  to  have  distinguished  himself, 
except  by  his  facility  in  drawing,  a  hereditary  gift  acquired 
from  his  mother.  It  was  not  until  he  entered  on  the  study 
cf  anatomy  that  he  gave  evidence  of  possessing  those  talents 
which  soon  made  him  a  worthy  rival  of  his  brother  John. 

His  first  work,  entitled  A  System  of  Dissect  iont,  exi-ilaiuing 
the  Amitoniy  of  the  Unman  Body,  the  manner  of  disjjlayinj 
'hit  Parts,  and  their  Varieties  in  Disease,  was  i>ublishe(l  in 
Edinburgh  in  1798,  while  the  author  was  still  a  pupil. 
The  "  Introduction  "  to  this  work  shows  much  originality 
of  thought,  and  an  aptitude  for  devising  new  methods  of 
preparing  animal  structures  for  dissection  and  demonstra- 
tion. The  volume  is  illustrated  by  numerous  engravings 
from  original  drawings,  and  the  text  is  clear  and  precise  iu 


language.     For  many  years  this  work  w.as  considered  to  bf 
a  valuable  guide  to  the  student  of  practical  anatomy. 

On  the  1st  of  August  1799  he  became  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  Edinburgh.  At  that  tiire 
the  fellows  of  the  college  were  in  rotation  surgoons  to 
the  Royal  Infirmary  of  Edinburgh.  In  this  position  Bell 
soon  gave  evidence  of  great  ability.  He  dissected,  drew, 
described,  mounted  preparations  of  anatomical,  physio- 
logical, or  pathological  value,  improved  on  the  modes  of 
operating  in  surgery  known  at  that  time,  and  invented 
a  method  of  making  models  of  morbid  parts,  of  which 
specimens  may  still  be  seen  in  the  museum  of  the  college. 

In  1802  he  published  a  series  of  engravings  of  original 
drawings,  showing  the  anatomy  of  the  brain  and  nervous 
system.  These  drawings  are  remarkable  for  artistic  skUl 
and  finish.  They  were  taken  from  dissections  made  by 
Bell  for  the  lectures  or  demonstrations  he  gave  on  the  nerv- 
ous system  as  part  of  the  course  of  anatomical  instruction 
of  his  brother.  In  1801  he  wrote  volume  iii.  of  The 
Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body,  by  John  and  Charles  Bell. 
This  volume  contains  the  anatomy-of  the  nervous  system, 
and  of  the  organs  of  special  sense. 

In  180i  a  new  arrangement  was  made  regarding  the 
attendance  of  surgeons  at  the  Edinburgh  Infirmary  ;  and 
Bell,  probably  as  being  junior  in  the  profession,  was  excluded 
from  the  hospital.  He  proposed  to  the  managers  to 
pay  £100  a  year,  and  to  transfer  to  them,  for  the  use  of  the 
students,  the  museum  he  had  collected,  on  condition  that  ha 
should  be  "  allowed  to  stand  by  the  bodies  when  dissected 
in  the  theatre  of  the  infirmary,  and  to  make  notes  and 
drawings  of  the  diseased  appearances."  This  euthusiaitio 
proposal  was  rejected,  and  the  consequence  was  that  Bell 
went  to  London  in  November  1804. 

From  that  date,  for  neajly  forty  years,  he  kept  up  a 
regular  correspondence  with  his  brother  George,  much  of 
which  has  recently  been  published  (Letters  of  Sir  Char'.n 
Sell,  (L-c,  1870).  The  earlier  letters  of  thiscorrespondsnce 
show  how  rapidly  he  rose  to  distinction  in  a  field  where 
success  was  diflicult,  as  it  was  already  occupied  by  such 
men  as  Abernethy,  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  and  Clino.  He 
quickly  made  acquaintance  with  most  of  the  scientific  men 
of  the  day,  and  apparently  won  friends  in  the  highest  social, 
professional,  and  artistic  circles.  After  having  lodged  ia 
Fludyer  Street  for  some  months,  he  settled  in  Leicester 
Street  Leicester  Square,  and  immediately  commenced  a 
counl  oF  lectures  on  anatomy  and  surgery.  Here  he  also 
locate  his  museum,  which  was  sent  to  him  from  Edinburgh ; 
and  his  letters  indicate  that  this  was  the  subject  of  much 
interest  to  scientific  and  professional  men.  He  lectured  to 
painters,  directed  private  dissections,  gave  demonstrations 
to  surgeons,  and  gradually  acquired  a  surgical  practice. 

Before  leaving  Edinburgh  in  1801,  he  had  written  his 
work  on  the  Anatomy  of  ixpressiun.  It  was  published  in 
London  soon  after  his  arrival,  and  at  once  attracted  attention. 
His  practical  knowledge  of  anatomy  and  his  skill  as  an  artist 
qualified  him  in  an  exceptional  manner  for  such  a  work. 
The  object  of  this  treatise  was  to  describe  the  arrangements 
by  which  the  influence  of  the  mind  was  propagated'to  the 
muscular  frame,  and  to  give  a  rational  explanation  of  the 
muscular  movements  which  usually  accompany  the  various 
emotions  and  passions.  One  special  feature  of  the  author's 
.lystcm  was  tlio  importance  attributed  to  the  respiratory 
arrangements  as  a  source  of  expression.  He  also  showed 
how  the  physician  and  surgeon  might  derive  iuformation 
regarding  the  nature  and  extent  of  important  diseases  by 
observing  the  expression  of  bodily  sulTering.  This  work, 
ajiarl  from  its  value  to  artists  and  [wychologisls,  is  of 
interest  historically,  as  there  is  no  doubt  the  investigations 
of  the  author  into  the  nervous  supply  of  the  muscles  of 
expression  induced  him  to  prosecute  inquiries  which  led  to 


BELL 


541 


bis   great  discoveries  in   the  physiology  of   the   nervous 
eystera. 

In  1807  Bell  6rst  published  hia  i<Iea  of  a  new  anatomy 
of  the  brain,  in  which  he  announced  the  discovery  of  the 
different  functions  of  the  nerves  corresponding  with  their 
relations  to  different  parts  of  the  brain.  It  is  now  difficult 
to  imagine  the  confusion  which  prevailed  in  the  minds  of 
anatomists  and  physiologists  regarding  the  functions  of  the 
various  nerves  prior  to  this  discovery.  The  nerves  had 
been  noticed  by  anatomists  from  the  earliest  times,  and 
they  were  divided  into  cranial  and  spinal  nerves,  according 
03  vhey  originated  from  the  braia  or  spinal  cord.  Some 
were  supposed  to  carry  from  the  brain  the  mandates  of  the 
will  while  others  communicated  to  the  scnsorium  imprcs- 
S10C3  made  on  their  extremities,  which  resulted  in  con- 
sciousness. It  was  supposed,  however,  that  the  same 
nerve,  even  at  the  same  time,  might  in  some  mysterious 
way  transmit  either  motor  or  sensory  impressions  in 
opposite  directions.  When  a  nerve  was  cut,  the  parts 
beyond  the  incision  were  found  to  be  destitute  of  sensibility, 
and  to  be  beyond  the  influence  of  the  will.  It  was  con- 
sequently correctly  inferred  to  be  the  cord  through  which 
volition  iicted  on  the  muscles,  and  through  which  sensory 
impressions  were  transmitted  to  the  sensorium.  The  idea 
of  two  sets  of  filaments  functionally  different  in  the  same 
nerve  was  not  then  entertained.  Boerhaave  asserted  that 
then,  were  two  kinds  of  spinal  nerves,  the  one  serving  fur 
moti'  n  and  the  other  for  the  use  of  the  senses.  Haller 
state-.  "  1  know  not  a  nerve  which  has  sensation  without 
also  producing  motion."  The  first  Monro  held  a  similar 
opinion,  and  he  believed  all  those  spinal  nerves  which 
pa.ssed  through  a  ganglion  to  be  motor  nerves. 

To  Sir  Charles  Bell  we  owe  the  discovery  that  in  the 
nervcus  trunks  there  are  special  sensory  filaments,  the  office 
of  wbich  is  to  transmit  impressions  from  the  periphery  of 
the  body  to  the  sensorium,  and  special  motor  filaments 
which  convey  motor  impressions  from  the  brain  jr  other 
nerve  centre  to  the  muscles.  He  also  showed  that  some 
nerves  consist  entirely  of  sensory  filaments  and  are  there- 
fore sensory  nerves,  that  others  are  composed  of  motor 
filaments  and  are  therefore  motor  nerves,  whilst  a  third 
variety  contain  both  kinds  of  filaments  and  are  therefore 
to  be  regarded  as  sensory-motor.  Furthermore,  he  indicated 
that  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  may  be  diWded  into  separate 
parts,  each  part  having  a  special  function — one  part  mini- 
stering to  motion,  the  other  to  sensation,  and  that  the  origin 
of  the  nerves  from  one  or  ether  or  both  of  those  sources 
endows  them  with  the  peculiar  property  of  the  division 
whence  they  spring.  He  also  demonstrated  that  no  motor 
nerve  ever  passes  through  a  ganglion.  Lastly,  he  showed 
both  from  theoretical  considerations  and  from  the  result  of 
actual  experiment  on  the  living  animal,  that  the  anterior 
roots  of  the  sinnal  nerves  are  motor,  while  the  posterior 
are  sensory.  These  discoveries  as  a  whole  must  be 
regarded  as  the  greatest  in  physiology  since  that  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  by  the  illustrious  Harvey.  It  not 
only  was  a  distinct  and  definite  advance  in  scientific  know- 
ledge, but  fiom  it  flowed  many  practical  results  of  much 
importance  in  the  diagnosis  and  treatment  of  disease.  It 
is  not  surprising  that  Bell  should  have  announced  it  to  his 
friends  with  exultation.  On  2Gth  November  1S07  we  find 
him  writing  as  follows  to  his  brother  George  : — "  I  have 
done  a  more  interesting  nova  ana/omia  cerebri  human)  than 
it  is  possible  to  conceive.  I  lectured  it  yesterday.  1  pro- 
secuted it  last  night  till  one  o'clock  ;  and  I  am  sure  it  will 
be  well  received."  On  the  SIst  of  the  same  month  lie 
writes— "  I  really  think  this  new  anatomy  of  the  brain  will 
strike  more  than  the  discovery  of  the  lymphatics  being 
Bbsorbents." 

In  1807  ho  produced  8  Sj/slem  nf  Comparative  Surgery 


founded  on  the  basis  of  anatomy.  This  work  indicates  the 
author's  idea  of  the  science  of  surgery.  He  regarded  it 
almost  whoUy  from  an  anatomical  and  operative  point  of 
view,  and  there  is  little  or  no  mention  of  the  use  of 
medicinal  substances.  It  placed  him,  however,  in  the 
highest  rank  of  English  writers  on  surgery. 

In  1809  he  celinquisbcd  his  professional  work  in 
London,  and  rendered  meritorious  services  to  the  wounded 
from  Coruna,  who  were  brought  to  the  Haslar  Hospital 
at  Portsmouth.  In  1810  he  published  a  series  of  Letters 
concermn/i  the  Diseases  of  the  Urethra,  in  which  he  treated  of 
stricture  from  an  anatomical  and  pathological  point  of  view. 

In  1812  he  was  appointed  surgeon  to  the  Middlesex 
Hospital,  and  a  few  years  afterwards  professor  of  anatomy, 
physiology,  and  surgery  to  tlie  College  of  Surgeons  of 
London.  He  was  also  for  many  years  teacher  of  anatomy 
in  the  school  of  Great  Windmill  Strrot,  no  longer  in  exist- 
ence. He  acted  as  surgeon  to  the  hospital  for  twenty-four 
years,  and  delivered  many  courses  of  lectures  on  surgery  in 
that  institution.  In  1815  he  did  good  public  service  by 
devoting  all  his  skill  and  time  to  the  wounded  after  the 
battle  of  Waterloo.  On  the  formation  of  University 
College,  Gower  Street,  he  was  asked  to  place  himself  ai 
the  head  of  the  medical  department.  This  appointment  he 
held  foe  only  a  short  time,  when  be  resigned  in  conse- 
quence, it  is  said,  of  dissensions  in  the  senate. 

In  1816,  1817,  1818,  he  published  a  series  of  Quarterly 
Reports  of  Cases  to  Surgery,  treated  in  the  Middlesex 
Hospital,  in  the  Cancer  Establishment,  and  in  Prioale 
Practice,  embracing  an  Account  of  the  Anatomical  and 
Pathological  Researches  in  the  School  of  Windmill  Street. 
In  1821  he  issued  a  volume  of  coloured  plates  with 
descriptive  letterpress,  .entitled  Illustrations  of  the  Great 
Operations  of  Surgery,  Trepan,  Hernia,  Amputation,  and 
Lithotomy.  In  1824  appeared  An  Exposition  of  the  A'atvral 
System  of  Nerves  of  the  Human  Body;  being  a  Republ'ra- 
tion  Qf  the  Papers  delivered  to  t/te  Royal  Society  on  the 
suhjccl  of  the  Nerves.  In  the  same  year  he  wrote  Observa- 
tions on  Injuries  of  the  Spine  and  of  the  Thigh  Bone.  In 
1832  he  wrote  a  paper  for  the  Royal  Society  of  London  on 
the  "  Organs  of  the  Human  Voice,"  in  which  he  gave 
many  illustrations  of  the  physiological  action  of  these 
parts. 

Of  an  eminently  pious  and  reflective  mind,  he  was  ol'ten 
in  the  habit  of  pointing  out  in  his  Iccttres  what  he  regarded 
as  evidences  of  creative  design  to  be  found  in  the  anatomy 
of  the  bodies  jf  animals.  These  he  embodied  in  a  treati.^e 
on  Animal  Mechanics,  written  for  the  Society  lor  the 
Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge.  The  executors  of  the 
earl  of  Bridgewater  selected  him  as  a  (it  person  to  main- 
tain tbe  argument  which  it  was  the  purpose  of  that  noble- 
man's bequest  to  have  published.  Sir  Charles  wrote  in 
1833 — The  Hand:  its  Mechanism  and  Vital  Endoivmnils 
as  evincing  Design.  Along  with  Lord  Brougham  he  anno- 
tated and  illustrated  an  edition  of  P.iley's  Natural  Theo- 
logy, published  in  183C,  in  which  he  followed  out  bin 
favourite  line  of  thought. 

The  Royal  Society  of  London  awarded  to  him  in  1821* 
the  first  annual  medal  of  tb.it  year  given  by  George  IV. 
for  discoveries  in  science  ,  and  when  William  IV  asc<-nded 
the  throne,  Charles  Bell  received  the  honour  of  knighthood 
along  with  a  few  other  men  disting'ushed  in  science  and 
literature. 

The  chair  of  surgery  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  was 
offered  to  him  in  1830.  When  the  offer  wa.s  made  he  was 
regarded  as  one  of  the  foremost  scientific  men  in  Londun, 
and  he  had  a  large  surgical  practice.  But  bis  opinion  was 
"  London  is  a  place  to  live  in,  but  not  to  die  in  , "  nnd  he 
accepted  the  appointment.  In  Ediiibuigli  he  did  not  cam 
great  lucal  professional  pueccss ,  and,  it  luusl  be  conlcjscd. 


542 


B  E  i.  li 


be  was  not  appreciated  as  he  deserved.  But  honours  came 
thick  upon  him.  On  the  Continent  he  was  spoken  of  as 
greater  than  Harvey.  It  is  narrated  that  one  day  Roiix,  a 
celebrated  French  physiologist,  dismissed  his  class  without 
a  lecture,  saying  "  C'est  assez,  Messieurs,  vous  avez  vu 
Charles  Bell."  He  held  the  Edinburgh  chair  from  1836  to 
1S42.  During  his  professorship,  in  1838,  he  published  the 
laslituifs  of  Surgery,  arranged  in  Oie  order  of  the  Lectures 
delivered  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh  ;  and  in  1841  be' 
wrote  a  volume  of  Practical  Essays,  two  of  which  "  On 
Squinting,"  and  "  On  the  Action  of  Purgatives,"  are  of 
great  value. 

Sir  Charles  Bell  died  at  Hallow  Park  near  Worcester  on 
Thursday,  28th  April  1842,  in  his  sixty-eighth  year;  and 
he  lies  under  the  yew  tree  in  the  peaceful  churchj'ard  of 
Hallow.  His  epitaph,  written  by  his  life-long  friend  Lord 
Jeffrey,  summarizes  his  character  as.  follows  ; — "  Sacred  to 
the  memory  of  Sir  Charles  Bell,  who,  after  unfolding,  with 
unrivalled  sagacity,  patience,  and  success,  the  wonderful 
structure  of  our  mortal  bodies,  esteemed  lightly  of  his 
greatest  discoveries,  e.Kcept  only  as  they  tended  to  impress 
himself  and  others  with  a  deeper  sense  of  the  infinite 
wisdom  and  ineffable  goodness  of  the  Almighty  Creator. 
He  was  born  at  Edinburgh  1774;  died,  while  on  a  visit  of 
friend.ship,  at  Hallow  park,  in  this  parish,  1842  ;  and  lies 
buried  in  the  adjoining  churchyard."  (j.  G.  M  ) 

George  J.  BELL,  Georgb  Joseph,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
S''"-  born  at  Edinburgh  on  the  20lh  of  March  1770.  At  the 
age  of  eight  he  entered  the  High  School,  but  he  received  no 
university  education  further  than  attending  Tytler's  lectures 
on  civil  history,  Stewart's  course  of  moral  philosophy,  and 
Hume's  lectures  on  the  law  of  Scotland.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Faculty  of  Advocates  in  1791,  and  was  one 
of  the  earliest  and  most  attached  friends  of  Francis  Jeffrey. 
In  1804  he  published  a  Treati.it  on  the  Law  of  Bankrvptcy 
in  Scotland,  in  2  vols,  8vo,  which  was  gradually  enlarged 
in  subsequent  editions,  till  at  length  a  fifth  edition  was  pub- 
lish^ in  1826,  in  2  vols.  4to,  under  the  title  of  Commen- 
taries on  the  Laio  of  Scotland  and  on  the  Principles  of 
Mercantile  Jurisprudence — an  institutional  work  of  the  very 
highest  excellence,  which  has  guided  the  judicial  dehbera 
tions  of  his  own  country  till  the  present  time,  and  has 
had  its  value  acknowledfjed  by  such  eminent  jurists  as 
Story  and  Kent.  In  1821  he  was  unanimously  elected 
professor  of  the  law  of  Scotland  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh ;  and  in  1831  he  was  appointed  to  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal clerkships  in  the  Supreme  Court.  He  was  in  1833 
placed  at  the  head  of  a  commission  to  inquire  into  the 
expediency  of  making  various  improvements  in  the  Scottish 
bankruptcy  law  ;  and  iu  consequence  of  the  reports  of  the 
commissioners,  chiefly  drawn  up  by  himself,  njany  beneficial 
alterations  have  been  made  in  this  department  of  the  law. 
He  died  on  the  23d  September  1843.  A  seventh  edition 
of  the  Commentaries,  edited  Vjy  J.  Maclaren,  advocate, 
appeared  iu  1870.  Bell's  smaller  treatise.  Principles  of 
the  Law  of  Scotland  (6th  edit.  1872),  has  long  been  a 
standard  text-book  for  law  students.  The  Jlluslrations  of 
the  Principles  is  also  a  work  of  high  value. 
Henry  BELL,  Henky,  a  mechanical  engineer,  well  known  for  his 
"■"■  successful  application  of  steam-power  to  the  propulsion  of 
ships,  was  born  at  Tor[ihichen,  in  Linlithgow.shire,  iu  1767. 
Having  received  the  ordinary  educatiou  of  a  parish  school, 
he  was  apprenticed  to  his  uncle,  a  millwright,  and,  after 
qualifying  himself  as  a  ship-modeller  at  Bo'uess,  went  to 
London,  where  he  found  employment  under  Reanie,  the 
celebrated  engineer.  Keturuing  to  Scotland  in  17'J0,  he 
first  settled  as  a  carpenter  at  Glasgow  and  afterwards 
removed  to  Helensburgh,  on  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  where  bis 
wife  suijeriuteoded  a  large  inn,  together  with  the  puhlic 
b^itlis,  while  be  pursued  his  mechaoical  projects,  and  ilso 


found  occasional  employment  as  an  engineer.  It  was  not 
until  January  1812  that  he  gave  a  practical  solution  of  the 
dilEculties  which  had  beset  all  previous  experimenters,  by 
producing  a  steamboat  (which  he  named  the  "  Comet,")  of 
about  25  tons,  propelled  by  fin  engine  of  three  horse  power, 
at  a  speed  of  seven  miles  an  hour.  Although  tlie  honour 
of  priority,  by  about  four  years,  is  admitted  to  belong  to 
Eo'bert  Fulton,  an  American  engineer,  there  appears  to  be 
no  doubt  that  FMton  had  received  very  material  assistance 
in  the  construction  of  his  vessel  from  Bell  and  others  in 
this  country.  A  handsome  sum  was  raised  for  Bell  by 
subscription  among  the  citizens  of  Glasgow ;  and  he  also 
received  from  the  trustees  of  the  Kiver  Clyde  a  pension  of 
£100  a  year.  He  died  at  Helensburgh,  14th  November 
1830,  and  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  at 
Dunglass,  near  Bowling,  on  the  banks  of  the  Clyde. 

BELL,  Hexey  Gl.\ssford,  was  born  at  Glasgow  in 
1805,  and  received  his  education  at  the  High  School  of 
that  city.  He  afterwards  studied  at  Edinburgh  and  became 
intimate  with  Moir,  Hogg,  Wilson,  and  others  of  the  bril- 
liant staff  of  Blac/cu'ood's  Magazine,  to  which  he  was  drawn 
by  his  political  sympathies.  In  1828  he  became  editor  of 
the  Edinburgh  Literary  Journal,  which  proved  unsuccessful. 
He  passed  to  the  bar  in  1832.  In  1836  he  competed 
unsuccessfully  against  Sir  WiUiam  Hamilton  for  the  chair 
of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  Edinburgh  University,  and 
three  years  afterwards  was  .appointed  sheriff-substitute  of 
Lanarkshire,  an  office  which  he  held  until  1867,  when  he 
succeeded  Sir  Archibald  Alison  in  the  post  of  sheriff-prin- 
cipal of  the  county.  During  his  early  life  he  had  been  a 
versatile  author  of  poems  and  prose  sketches,  but  his  literary 
activity  was  checked  after  he  applied  himself  seriously  to 
law.  In  1831  he  published  Summer  and  Winter  Llours,  a 
volume  of  poems,  of  which  the  best  known  is  that  on  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.  He  further  defended  the  cause  of  the 
unfortunate  queen  in  a  prose  Life.  A  preface  which  he 
wrote  to  the  works  of  Shakespeare  contains  some  acute 
and  original  criticism  His  Romances  and  other  Poemt 
(18G6)  display  deeper  thought  and  less  fervour  than  his 
former  works,  but  are  mainly  interesting  as  evidence  of 
latent  poetic  genius,  the  development  of  which  was  pre- 
vented by  attention  to  other  pursuits.  Bell's  literary- tastes- 
did  not  affect  his  industry  in  his  profession,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  his  legul  labours  never  dulled  his  early  affection 
for  poetry  and  painting.  He  deserves  to  be  held  in  kindly 
remembrance  for  his  readiness  to  assist  youthful  literary 
aspirants.  During  many  years  be  took  an  active  interest 
in  social  questions,  c.'specially  in  promoting  educational  and 
sanitary  reforms.     He  died  in  January  1874. 

BELL,  Jou.v,  of  Antermony,  a  Scottish  traveller  in  the  John  B.:ll 
first  half  of  the  last  century,  was  born  in  1691,  and  edu- 
cated for  the  medical  profession,  in  which  he  took  the 
degree  of  M  D.  In  1714  he  set  out  for  St  Petersburg, 
where,  through  the  introduction  of  a  countrj'man,  lie  was 
uoininated  medical  attendant  to  Valensky,  recently  ap- 
pointed to  the  Persian  embassy,  with  whom  he  travelled 
from  1715  to  1718.  The  next  four  years  he  spent  in 
an  embassy  to  China,  passing  though  Siberia  and  the  great 
Tatar  deserts.  He  had  scarcely  rested  from  this  last 
journey  when  he  was  summoned  to  attend  Peter  the  Great 
in  his  perilous  expedition  to  Dcrbend  and  the  Ciispian 
Gates.  The  narrative  of  this  journey  he  has  enriched  with 
interesting  particulars  of  the  public  and  private  life  of  that 
remarkable  prince.  In  1738  he  was  sent  by  the  Russian 
Government  on  a  mis.sion  to  Con.slantinople,  to  which, 
accompanied  by  a  single  attendant  who  spoke  Turkish,  ho 
piocecded,  in  the  midst  of  winter  and  all  the  horrors  of  a 
barbarous  warfare,  returning  in  May  to  St  Petersburg. 
It  appears  that  after  this  ho  was  for  several  years  estab- 
lished as  a  merchant  at  Constantinople,  where  ho  married 


p.  F,  I.  —  R  E  L 


543 


\r\  1716.  In  the  following  year  he  retired  to  his  estate  oi 
Antermony  in  Scotland,  where  he  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  He  died  in  1780.  His  travels,  published 
at  Glasgow,  in  2  vols.  4to,  1763,  were  speedily  translated 
into  French,  and  widely  circulated  in  Europe. 
j,4j  Bji!  BELL,  John,  anatomist  and  surgeon,  was  born  at 
Edinburgh,  12tli  May  17G3.  He  had  the  merit  of  being 
the  first  in  Scotland  who  applied  with  success  the  science  of 
anatomy  to  practical  surgery.  While  still  a  young  man  he 
established,  in  the  face  of  much  opposition,  an  anatomical 
theatre  in  Surgeon  Square,  where  he  attracted  large  audiences 
by  his  admirable  lectures  on  anatomy,  physiology,  and 
surgery,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his  younger  brother 
Charles.  After  his  exclusion  from  the  infirmary  (to  which 
reference  has  been  made  in  the  notice  of  Sir  Charles  Bell), 
he  ceased  to  lecture,  and  devoted  his  time  to  study  and 
practice.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1820,  while  on  a  tour  in 
Italy  for  the  benefit  of  his  health.  To  great  skill  in.  his 
profession  he  united  high  and  varied  mental  abilities  and 
extensive  learning. 

His  priucipal  works  are  -.—Anctcrmy  of  the  Human  Body,  3  vols. 
Bvo,  1793-1802;  Discourses  on  the  Nature  and  Cure  of  Wouruls, 
2  vols.  8vo,  1793-95;  Principles  of  Surgenj,  3  vols.  8vo,  1601  ; 
»Dd  several  volumes  of  Engravings  illustrative  of  Human  Ana- 
tomy. His  Observations  on  Italy  were  publislied  by  his  widow 
is  1825. 

BELL,  Robert,  editor  of  the  Annotated  Edition  o/jhe 
British  Poets,  was  an  Irishman  by  birth  and  education,  but 
B  Londoner  by  a  long  residence  of  nearly  forty  years.     He 
was  born  at  Cork  in   1800,  and  was  educated  at   Trinity 
College,   Dublin.     With  the  tasks  of  a  subordinate  in   a 
Government  office  at  Dublin  he  combined  literary  pursuits, 
editing  a  political  journal  and  contributing  to  periodicals. 
In  1823  he  settled  in  London,  and  literature  was  thence- 
forward the  business  of  his  life.     As  journalist  he  edited 
the  Atlas  for  several  years;  and  afterwards  the  Monthly 
Chronicle,  Mirror,  and  Home  News.     Of  his  early  under- 
takings the   more  important  were  the  volumes  which  he 
compiled  for  Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyciopcedia,  including  the 
Lives  of  British  Admirals,  in  continuation  of  Southey's 
work  ;   Lives  of  British  Poets ;  a  History  of  Russia  ;   and 
the   continuation   of  Sir  James    Mackintosh's  History  of 
England.     He  made  himself  favourably  known  as  a  novelist 
by  The  Ladder  of  Gold  and  Hearts  and  Altars.       Among 
his  other  works  are  a  Life  of  Canning,  Wayside  Pictures  in 
France,  Belgium,  and  Germanii,  three  five-act  comedies,  and 
»  volume  entitled  Memorials  of  the  Civil  War,  based  on  the 
Fairfax  Correspondence.     He  earned  a  higher  place  and  a 
more  enduring  reputation  by  his  Annotated  Edition  of  the 
British  Poets,  of  which  the  first  volume  appeared  in   1854. 
The  series  was  carried  through  twenty-nine  volumes.     The 
works  of  each  poet  are    prefaced  by  a  carefully  prepared 
memoir,  and  accompanied  by  explanatory  and  illustrative 
notes,  of  a  really  helpful  and  often  indispensable  kind.'     In 
bis  earlier  years  Bell  had  taken  a  leading  part  in  found- 
ing the  Dublin  Historical  Society.     In  the  course  of  his 
London   life  he  became  an  active  director  of  the  Royal 
Literary  Fund.     He  was  abo  chosen  F.S.A.     In  private 
life  he  was  highly  esteemed  and  wamily  loved  for  his  open- 
heartedness,  his  genial  temper,  and  his  generous  readiness 
to  give  aid  to  fellow-workers  who  might  be  in  need.     He 
died  in  London,  at  the  age  of  sixty-seven,  April  12,  1867. 
BELLA,  Stefano  de  la,  engraver,  was  born  at  Florence 
in  1610.      He  was  apprenticed  to  a  goldsmith  ;  but  some 
prints  of  Callot  having  fallen  into  his  hands,  he  began  to 
turn  his  attention  entirely  towards  engraving,  and  studied 
the  art  under  Canta  Gallina,  who  had  also  been  the  instruc- 
tor of  Callot.     By  the  liberality  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  ho 
was  enabled  to  spend  three  years  in  study  at  Rome.     In 
1642  be  went  to  Paris,  where  Cardinal  Richelieu  engaged 
liim  to  go  to  Arras  and  make  drawings  of  the  siece  and 


taking  of  that  town  by  the  royal  army.  After  residing  a 
considerable  time  at  Paris  he  returned  to  Florence,  where 
he  obtained  a  pension  from  the  grand  duke,  whoso  son, 
Cosmo,  he  instructed  in  drawing.  He  died  in  1664.  His 
productions  were  very  numerous,  amounting  to  over  1400 
separate  pieces. 

BELLADONNA,  Dwale,  or  Deadly  Nightshade 
(Atropa  Belladonna),  a  tall  bushy  herb  of  the  natural  ordei 
SolanaceoR,  growing  to  a  height  of  4  or  5  feet,  having  leaves 
of  a  dull  green  colour,  with  a  black  shining  berry  fruit 
about  the  size  of  a  cherry,  and  a  large  tapering  root.  The 
plant  is  a  native  of  Central  and  South  Europe,  extending 
into  Asia,  and  it  is  also  found  in  waste  places  and  hedge- 
rows of  Britain,  though  it  is  a  doubtful  naiive.  The  entire 
plant  is  highly  poisonous,  and  accidents  not  unfrequently 
occur  through  children  and  unwary  persons  eating  the 
attractive-looking  fruit.  Its  leaves  and  roots  are  largely 
used  in  medicine,  on  which  account  the  plant  is  cultivated, 
chieflv  in  South  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Franee.  Both 
roots  and  leaves  contain  the  poisonous  alkaloid  atropia, 
but  in  practice  the  roots  only  are  employed  for  its  extrac- 
tion. The  proportions  in  which  atropia  is  present  in  the 
roots  range  between  06  and  025,  the  roots  of  young  plants 
being  always  richest  in  the  alkaloid.  The  percentage 
found  in  leaves  is  much  more  uniform,  being  about  0'47, 
and  extracts  and  tinctures  of  the  leaves  are  therefore  of 
much  more  constant  strength  than  if  prepared  from  roots. 
Preparations  of  belladonna  and  atropia  are  used  in  medi- 
cine as  anodynes  in  local  nervous  pains, — atropia  being 
frequently  hypodermically  injected  but  rarely  taken  inter- 
nally. They  are  also  of  great  value  in  ophthalmic  practice 
on  account  of  their  peculiar  property  of  producing  dilata- 
tion of  the  pupil,  either  when  painted  around  or  dropped 
into  the  eye.  Belladonna  is  also  used  as  an  antispasmodic 
in  hooping-cough  and  spasmodic  coughs  generally,  and 
for  various  other  medicinal  purposes.  A  remarkable  anta- 
gonism between  the  physiological  action  of  atropia  and 
the  alkaloid  of  the  calabar  bean  has  been  experiment- 
ally worked  out  by  Dr  Thomas  R.  Fraser  {Trans.  Roy.  Soc. 
Ed.,  1870-1).  To  a  more  limited  extent  also  an  anta- 
gonism between  atropia  and  morphia  and  other  alkaloids 
has  been  established  ;  and  the  researches  on  these  sub- 
stances, and  on  the  mutual  action  of  alkaloids  generally, 
have  been  continued  in  experim^t*  conducted  by  Dr  J. 
G.  M'Kendrick,  reported  to  the  British  Medical  Associa- 
tion in  1874. 

BELL.\I,  or  Bellay,  Guillaume  du,  lord  of  Langey,  a 
French  general,  who  signalized  himself  in  the  service  of 
Francis  I.,  was  bom  at  Glatigny  in  1491.  He  was  con- 
sidered the  ablest  captain  of  the  time,  and  his  great  abilities 
as  a  negotiator  occasioned  the  remark  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.,  that  "  Langey 's  pen  had  fought  more  against 
him  than  all  the  lances  in  France."  Ho  was  sent  in  1637 
as  viceroy  into  Piedmont,  where  he  took  several  towns  from 
the  imperialists.  His  address  in  penetrating  into  the  most 
secret  designs  of  the  enemy  was  extraordinary,  and  be 
spared  no  expense  for  that  end.  He  was  extremely  active 
in  influencing  some  of  the  universities  of  France  to  give  a 
judgment  agreeable  to  the  desires  of  Henry  VIII.,  when 
that  prince  wished  to  divorce  his  queen  in  order  to  marry 
Anne  Boleyn.  Langey  composed  several  works,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  was  the  history  of  his  own  times 
IMemoires,  1753,  7  vols.)  Ho  died  in  1543,  and  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  Mans,  where  a  noble  monument 
was  erected  to  his  memory.  _    , 

BELLAMY,  Jacobus,  a  Dutch  poet,  was  born  at  Flush- 
ing  in  1757.  He  was  apprenticed  when  young  to  a 
baker,  but  his  abilities  were  discovered  by  a  clergyman 
named  De  Water,  who  exerted  himself  in  the  boy's  behalf, 
and  obtained  siifficient  assistance  to  send  him,  in  1782,  ta 


544 


B  E  I>— D  E  L 


the  University  of  Utrecht.  In  17S5  appeared  his  Vader- 
landsche  Gezangm,  which  at  once  gained  him  the  highest 
reputation  as  a  poet.  Threo  years  preWously  a  small 
volume  of  his,  Gezangen  mijner  Jevgd,  published  under 
the  pseudonym  Zelandus,  had  attracted  considerable  atten- 
tion. His  longest  and,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  hia  best 
work  is  the  poetic  romance  Roosje,  1784.  Bellamy  was 
one  of  the  first  to  create  a  new  and  original  literature  in 
Holland ;  his  songs  have  had  wide  circulation  and  great 
popularity. 

BELLARMINE  (Ital.  Bellarmino),  Robert  Francis 
EoMULUS,  Cardinal,  Catholic  theologian  and  polemic,  was 
born,  October  4,  1542,  at  Montepulciano,  in  Tuscany.  He 
was  destined  by  his  father  for  state  service,  but  his  inclina- 
tions were  too  strong  to  be  restrained,  and  at  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus.  After  studying 
in  various  colleges  for  some  years,  he  was  appointed  by  the 
order  to  lecture  oa  theology  at  the  famous  Ainiversity  of 
Louvain.  His  seven  years'  residence  in  the  Low  Countries 
brought  him  into  close  relations  with  modes  of  thought 
differing  essentially  from  his  own,  and  so  compelled  him  to 
define  his  theological  principles  more  clearly  and  sharply 
than  before.  On  his  return  to  Italy  he  received  from 
Gregory  XIII.  an  appointment  in  the  newly-founded  Col- 
Ugium  Romanum,  and  began  to  deliver  lectures  on  the  prin- 
cipal points  of  difference  between  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
other  forms  of  faith.  Out  of  these  lectures  grew  his 
famous  work,  Dispvtationes  deControversiisChristianoe Fidei 
adversus  kujus  temporis  Hceretkos  (3  vols.,  1581,  1582, 
1593),  for  long  the  finest  polemical  writing  on  the  Catholic 
side,  and  still  worthy  of  consideration.  It  was  replied  to 
at  the  time  by  Chemnitz,  Gerhard,  and  Chamier,  and  con- 
tinued for  many  years  to  furnish  occasions  of  attack  to 
Protestant  theologians.  So  highly  were  Bellarmine's  abilities 
rated,  that  he  was  selected  to  accompany,  in  the  capacity 
of  divine  or  theologian,  the  legation  sent  into  France  in 
1590  by  Sixtus  V.  In  1599  he  was,  much  against  his  will, 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal,  and  two  years  later  was 
made  archbishop  of  Capua.  He  resigned  the  archbishopric 
in  1605,  being  detained  in  Rome  by  the  desire  of  the  newly- 
elected  Pope  Paul  V.  About  the  same  time  he  had  a  con- 
troversy with  James  I.  of  England,  who,  after  the  discovery 
of  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  had  passed  severe  laws  against 
Roman  Catholics.  In  ICIO  he  published  his  work  De 
Potcstate  summi  Pontificis  in  rcbvs  TemporaHbns,  directed 
against  William  Barclay,  in  which  he  asserted  boldly  and  un- 
disguisodly  the  doctrine  of  the  Pope's  temporal  sovereignty. 
For  some  years  before  his  death,  which  occurred  at  Rome, 
17th  September  1C21,  he  held  the  bishopric  of  his  native 
town.  13e!larmine,  whose  life  was  a  model  of  Christian 
asceticism,  is  one  of  the  greatest  theologians,  particularly  in 
the  department  of  polemics,  that  the  Romish  Church  has 
ever  produced.  His  works,"which  are  very  numerous,  are 
written  in,  an  easy  perspicuous  style.  The  most  important 
are  the  Disputatio  de  Controversiis,  tho  De  Potcstate 
summi  Pontificis,  Institutioncs  Uebrccicce  Linguae,  De 
Seriptoribus  Ecclcsiasticis,  De  Asccnsione  Afeniis  in  Dciim, 
A  life  of  Bellarmijio,  founded  on  an  autobiography,  was 
written  by  Fulligato,  1G24. 

BELLAY,  Joachim  du,  an  eminent  French  poet  and 
member  of  the  Pleiad,  was  born  late  in  1524,  at  Lyri!,  on 
tho  left  bank  of  the  Loire,  not  far  from  Angers.  In  the 
absence  of  documents  wo  are  thrown  upon  tho  autobio- 
graphical passages  in  his  poems  for  information  about  tho 
events  of  his  life,  and  these,  fortunately,  are  copious.  From 
these,  and  especially  from  the  beautiful  Latiii  elegy 
addressed  to  his  friend  Jean  Morel,  we  learn  that,  deprived 
early  of  both  his  parents,  he  was  left  to  the  mercy  of  an 
elder  brother,  who  allowed  liiih  to  be  brought  up  without 
othu  education  than  what  Lis  own  ardent  spirit  sojiplicd. 


Before  he  reached  manhood  this  broth£r  also  died,  and 
Joachim  found  himself  at  the  head  of  the  family,  a  vigorous, 
manly,  but  half-culturtd  youth.  Snddenlj'  he  was  struck 
down  by  illness;  and,  confined  for  many  months  to  his 
bed,  he  softened  the  long  hours  of  suffering  by  fervent 
study;  he  now  read  the  Latin  and  Greek  poets  for  thb 
first  time,  and  felt  a  passionate  desire  to  imitate  them  in 
French.  In  1548,  having  to  a  great  measure  recovered 
his  health,  he  happened  to  meet  Ronsard  in  au  inn  in 
Poitiers,  and  a  friendship  instantly  sprang  up  betwceu  them 
that  ceased  only  with  Du  Bellay's  death.  He  joined  the 
six  poets,  who,  under  Dorat,  were  forming  a  society,  the 
Pleiad,  for  the  creation  of  a  French  school  of  Renaissance 
poetry  ;  and  his  first  contribution  to  it  was  a  prose  volume, 
the  famous  Defence  et  Illustration  de  la  Langiie  fran<;oise, 
which  remains  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  perfect  pieces 
of  literary  criticism  in  existence,  and  overweighs  in  positive 
value  much  of  his  actual  poetry.  This  appeared  in  lo-!9, 
and  was  followed  within  a  twelvemonth  by  two  volumes  in 
verse,  the  Recueil  de  Poisie,  and  the  collection  of  love- 
sonnets  called  L'Olive.  The  latter  celebrate,  in  the  manner 
of  Petrarch,  the  loveliness  of  a  semi-mythical  mistress, 
understood  to  be  a  Parisienne,  and  by  name  Viole,  of  which 
Olive  is  an  anagram.  The  Rocueii  caused  a  quarrel  with 
Ronsard,  about  which  much  speculation  has  been  w.isted. 
and  which  still  remains  obscure.  It  seems  that  Ronsara 
hod  invented  a  new  form  of  the  ode,  which  he  allowed  Du 
Bellay  to  see  in  manuscript.  Ronsard's  book  was  delayed 
in  publication,  and  Du  Bellay's  odes,  written  after  his 
metrical  pattern,  appeared  first.  Eonsard's  natural  and 
passing  vexation  has  been  exaggerated  into  a  law-suit ;  but 
the  friends  were  soon  on  the  old  affectionate  footing.  In 
L'Olive  Du  Bellay  was  the  first  French  writer  to  use  the 
sonnet  with  fluency.  After  he  had  translated  two  books 
of  the  .(Eneid,  which  appeared  in  1552,  the  yearning  he  had 
always  felt  to  visit  Italy  was  appeased  by  his  being  sent 
to  Rome  in  1550  as  secretary  to  his  influential  relative, 
Cardinal  du  Bellay,  and  he  remained  in  that  city  four 
years  and  a  half.  At  first,  however,  he  was  miseruMe 
enough.  Everything  around  him  was  displeasing  to  him 
and  jarred  on  his  refined  and  sometimes  sickly  nerves.  At 
last  he  fell  violently  in  love  with  a  lady,  whose  real  nama 
was  Faustine,  but  whom  he -celebrates  under  the  ]>oetieal 
title  of  Columbaand  Columbelle.  In  his  Latin  poems  this 
sincere  and  absorbing  passion  burns  like  a  clear  flame,  more 
veiled  though  no  less  burning  in  his  French  Regrets.  Be- 
fore he  won  her  she  v/as  shut  up  from  his  sight  by  her  old 
and  jealous  husband.  Frenzied  with  grief  and  desire, 
burning  willi  fever,  exhausted  with  watching  and  physical 
sufTering, — for  his  health  was  still  very  delicate, — Du 
Bellay  walked  day  and  night  to  and  fro  before  the  house. 
At  last,  mysteriously  enough,  she  is  given  to  him  ;  and  tho 
Latin  poems  end  in  rapturous  delight.  At  this  point, 
however,  and  possibly  for  this  reason,  he  was  hurried  back 
to  Paris,  where  he  became  canon  of  Notre  Dame  in  June 
1555.  He  returned  by  Venice,  the  Grisuns,  and  Geneva, 
and  was  received  by  his  friends  in  Franco  with  transport. 
He  set  himself  to  literary  labour  of  various  kinds,  publish- 
ing his  Latin  poems  and  his  French  sonnets  called  Acj 
Antiquitez  de  Rome,  in  1558,  and  his  greatest  lyrical  work, 
tho  Regrets,  in  1559.  In  the  latter  year,  however,  a 
calumny  deprived  him  of  the  protection  of  the  cardinal, 
and  threw  him  into  the  deepest  distress  and  embarrassment. 
The  nature  of  this  charge  is  not  known,  but  it  must  havo 
quickly  passed  away,  for  later  on  in  that  year' we  lind  him 
preparing  a  new  volume  of  poems,  Lcs  Jeiix  Riistirjucs,  for 
the  press,  and  nominated  arclibishop  of  Bordeaux.  Ho 
did  not  live  to  enjoy  this  distinction,  for  on  tho  1st  of. 
Jan\iary  150O,  he  died  of  apojilexy,  anil  wr^  buried  in 
NotrcDani';  de  Paris.     Like  Ronsard  .he  was  very  deaf. 


B  E  L— B  K  i. 


54r> 


His  coUectea  wonts  um  not  appear  unlil  1568.  The  early 
i)onth  of  the  French  Ovid,  as  he  has  been  called,  was  a 
irious  loss  to  European  literafire,  for  Joachim  du  Bcllay 
was  at  the  height  of  his  power,  and  still  rapidly  advancing. 
His  poems  have  a  force,  an  occasional  sublimity,  and  a, 
direct  pathos  for  which  we  look  in  vain  among  his  contem- 
poraries ;  and  none  but  Ronsard  excelled  him  in  facility 
and  grace.  His  most  famous  poem,  Un  Vanneur  de  Ble 
aux  Venis,  one  of  the  loveliest  lyrics  of  the  age,  was 
written  shortly  before  his  death,  and  appeared  in  the  Jeux 
Rustiqufs  in  1560  ;  it  is  nominally  a  paraphrase  from 
the  Latin  of  Xaugerius.  The  st.mdard  edition  of  the 
French  works  of  Joachim  du  Bellay  is  that  published  in 
2  vols,  by  Lemerre  in  1866,  and  edited  by  Ch.  Marty- 
Lavcaur.  Spenser  translated  si.\ty  of  Du  Bellay's  Roman 
sonnets  into  English,  and  published  them  in  1591.  A 
very  delicate  essay  on  the  poet  will  bo  found  in  Mr  W. 
H.  Pater's  Studies  in  the  History  of  tK(  Renaissance, 
187.3. 

BELI,E-ISLE-EN-MER,  an  island  on  the  W.  coast  of 
France,  belonging  to  the  department  of  Morbihan.  It  is 
about  10  miles  in  length  by  4  or  5  in  breath,  and  is  divided 
into  the  four  communes  of  Palais,  Bangor,  Porte  Philippe, 
and  Locuiaria.  The  inhabitants  are  principally  engaged  in 
agriculture  and  the  fisheries,  and  in  the  preservation  of 
sardines,  anchovies,  Ac.  The  breed  of  draught  horses  in 
the  island  is  highly  prized.  The  chief  town,  Palais,  is  a 
military  town  of  the  first  class,  and  possesses  a  port  which 
is  accessible  to  vessels  of  300  tons.  It  is  evident  that 
Belle-isle  must  have  been  inhabited  from  a  very  early  period, 
as  it -possesses  several  rude  stone  monuments  of  the  class 
usually  called  Druidic.  The  Roman  name  of  the  island 
seems  to  have  been  Vindilis,  which  in  the  Middle  Ages 
became  corrupted  to  Guedel.  In  1572  the  mon'ts  of  the 
abbey  of  St  Croix  atQuimperld  sold  the  island  to  the  Retz 
family,  in  whose  favour  it  was  raised  to  a  marquisate  in 
the  following  year.  From  1761  to  1763  it  was  held  by 
English  troops.  Under  Napoleon  I.  the  refortification  of 
the  island  was  undertaken,  but  it  was  never  completed. 
In  the  state  prison  of  Nouvelle  Force  at  Palais  political 
prisoners  have  been  at  various  times  confined.  The  popu- 
lation of  Palais  in  1870  was  3375,  of  the  island  rather 
under  10,000.  The  lighthouse  is  situated  ia47°  18'  43" 
N.  lat.  and  3°  4'  43"  W.  long. 

BELLE.\U,  Remy,  French  poet  of  the  Renaissance,  and 
member  of  the  Pleiad,  was  born  at  Nogent-le-Rotrou  in 
1528.  He  became  attached  to  the  Elboeufs,  and  accom- 
panied the  head  of  the  family  in  the  expedition  against 
Naples  in  1557,  where  he  did  gooi  military  service.  On 
bis  return  he  was  made  tutor  to  the  young  Charles,  marquis 
d'Elboeuf,  who,  under  Belleau's  training,  became  a  great 
patron  of  the  muses.  Belleau  wa.v  extremely  learned  in 
the  newly-discovered  literature  of  Greece  and  Rome,  and 
joined  the  young  group  of  poets  with  ardour.  In  1556  he 
published  the  first  translation  of  Anacreon  ^vhich  appeared 
in  French,  but  this  work  had  no  great  success.  Ho  first 
became  famous  through  his  commentaries  to  Ronsard's 
Amours  in  1560,  notes  which  evinced  delicate  tasto  and 
prodigious  learning.  Like  Ronsard  and  Du  Bellay,  he  was 
extremely  deaf.  His  days  passed  peacefully  in  the  midst 
of  his  books  and  friends,  and  terminated  on  the  Cth  of 
Mdrch  1577.  His  body  was  buried  in  the  nave  of  the 
Grands  Augustins  de  Paris,  and  was  borne  to  the  tomb  on 
the  pious  shoulders  of  four  illustrious  poets,  Ronsard,  J.. 
A.  de  Baif,  Philippcs  Desportes,  and  Amadis  Jamyn.  His 
greatest  work  is  La  Dergerie,  a  pastoral  in  prose  and  verse, 
writtevi  ill  a  faded  rococo  style,  in  imitation  of  Sannazaro, 
but  containing,  as  SainteBeuve  says,  some  adorable  things. 
BcUeau  was  the  French  Herrick,  full  of  picluresqueness, 
warmth,  and  colour,  but  of  doubtful  taste  and  wanting  in 
3-20 


passion.  His  skies  drop  flowers  and  all  bis  air  is  perfumed, 
bui  one  becomes  weary  at  last  of  this  excess  of  bweetness. 
E.\tremely  popular  in  his  own  age,  he  became  undeservedly 
forgotten  in  the  next.  Regnier  said,  "  Belleau  ne  parla 
pas  comme  onparle  a  la  ville,"  and  his  lyncal  beauty  wns 
lost  on  the  trim  17th  century.  Uis  complete  works  wera 
collected  in  1578,  and  contain,  besides  the  Anacreon,  La 
Bergerie,  and  miscellaneous  odes  and  sonnets,  a  comedy 
entitled  La  Reconnue,  in  short  rhymed  lines,  which  is  not 
without  humour  and  life.  This  was  one  of  the  earliest 
productions  of  the  French  stage.  The  best  edition  of 
Remy  Belleau  is  that  published  by  Jannet  in  1867,  in  3 
vols.,  and  edited  by  A.  Gouverneur. 

■  BELLENDEN,  Jofi.n.  a  Scotch  poet,  and  th«  translator 
of  Boece's  History,  was  born  about  the  beginning  of  the 
1 6th  century,  probably  in  East  Lothian.  He  appears  to 
have  been  educated,  first  at  the  University  of  St  Andrews 
and  then  at  that  of  Pans,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor.' 
From  his  own  statement  we  learn  that  he  had  been  in  the 
service  of  James  V.  from  the  king's  earliest  years,  and 
that  the  post  he  held  was  clerk  of  accounts.  It  was  at  the 
request  of  James  that  he  undertook  his  translations  of 
Boece  and  of  Livy.  As  a  reward  for  his  labours  be  was 
appointed  to  the  archdeaconry  of  Moray,  and  was  also  made 
a  canon  of  Ross.  Belleuden,  who  was  a  strenuous  oppo- 
nent of  the  Reformation,  is  said-  to  have  died  at  Rome  m 
1550.  His  translation  of  Boece,  which  is  a  remarkable 
specimen  of  Scottish  prose,  distinguished  by  its  freedom 
and  vigour  of  expression,  appears  to  have  been  first  pub- 
bnhed  in  1536.  The  best,  edition  is  that  superintended  by 
Mr  Mailland,  2  vols.  Ito,  Edin.,  1821.  The  same  gentle- 
man edited  for  the  first  time  (Edin.,  1822)  BeUenden's 
translation  of  Livy,  which  extends  t'iily  to  the 'first  five 
books.  The  few  poetical  remains  exhibit  considerable 
taste  and  skill  in  versification. 

BELLENDEN,  Willum,  a  distinguished  classical 
scholar,  who  flourished  during  the  early  part  of  the  17th 
century,  is  said  to  have  been  a  professor  at  the  University  of 
Paris.  Nothing  is  known  with  certainty  of  his  life,  except  that 
he  held  the  office,  probably  a  sinecure,  of  Master  of  Requests. 
The  first  of  the  works  by  which  he  is  known  was  published 
in  1608,  with  the  title  Ciceronts  I'rinceps,  Rattonts  et 
Consilia  bene  gerendi  firmandique  Imptni,  ex  iis  repelita 
qnce  ex  Ciceronis  defluxere  fontibus  in  libros  xvi.  de  Statu 
Uerum  Itonuinjrum,  qui  nondum  lw:em  acceperunt.  It  is  a 
laborious  compilation  of  all  Cicero's  remarks  on  the  origin 
and  principles  of  regal  government,  digested  .and  syste- 
matically arranged.  In  1612  there  appeared  a  similar 
work,  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  consular  authority 
and  the  Roman  senate,'  Ciceronis  Consul,  Senator,  Sena- 
tusque  Romanus.  His  third  work,  Ue  Statu  Prisci  Orbis, 
1615,  is  a  good  outline  of  general  history.  All  three 
works  were  combined  in  a  single  large  volume,  entitled 
De  Statu  Libri  Tres,  1615,  which  was  first  brought  into 
due  notice  by  Dr  Parr,  who,  in  1787,  published  an  edition 
with  a  preface,  famous  for  the  elegance  of  its  Latinity  and 
the  vehemence  of  its  politics.  The  greatest  of  Belle.iden's 
works  is  the  extensive  treatise  published  posthumously  in 
1633,  Gutielmi  Bellendeni  Scott,  Magistn  tuppltcum 
Libellorum  Jlugusti  Regis  Magnce  Brilanmce,  de  tribus 
Luminibus  Romanonim  librt  sexdenm.  The  book  is  un- 
finished, and  treats  only  of  the  first  luminary,  Cicero  ;  the 
others  intended  were  apparently  Seneca  and  Pliny,  probably 
the  younger.  It  contains  a  most  elaborate  history  of  Rome 
and  its  institutions,  drawn  from  Cicero,  and  thus  forms  a 
well-arranged  storehouse  of  all  the  historic.il  notices  con- 
tained in  that  voluminous  author.  It  has  been  suspected 
that  Middleton  was  indebted  for  much  of  the  informalioo 
contained  in  his  Lt/e  of  Cicero  to  BeUenden's  little  kD("»c» 
work. 


546 


B  E  L  —  B  E  L 


BELLEROPHON  (BcXA.fpo(/)u/  or  BtXXcpoi^dmj?),  in 
Greek  Legend,  a  local  hero  of  Corintb,  hut  partly  also  coa- 
iietted  with,  and  partly  similar  to,  Perseus,  the  local  hero 
of  the  neighbouring  Argos,  the  points  of  likeness  being 
euch  as  to  suggest  that  they  had  originally  been  one  and 
the  same  hero,  while  the  difference  in  their  exploits  might 
result  £rom  the  rivalry  of  the  two  towns.  Both  are  con- 
nected with  the  sun-god  Helios  and  with  the  sea-god 
Poseidon,  the  sj-mbol  of  the  union  bein ;  the  winged  horse 
Pei^asus.  Bellerophon  was  a  son  of  Olaucus  of  Corinth, 
-7ho  is  spoken  of  as  a  son  of  Poseidon  and  in  some  way 
'aimself  a  marine  deity.  To  account  for  the  name,  i.e., 
'  slayer  of  Belleros,"  an  otherwise  unknown  hero  of  this 
name  was  invented.  But  it  is.  by  no  means  certain  that 
■  Belleros"  is  a  personal  name,  it  may  mean  nothing  more 
than  "monster." 

Tbo  first  act  of  Bellerophon  was  to  «  nture  the  horse  Pegasus, 
»hea  it  alighted  en  the  Acrocorioth  to  drink  at  the  fountaiD  of 
Peirene,  with  a  bridle  which  he  found  by  his  side  on  awaking  from 
sleep  beside  the  altar  of  Athene,  where  he  had  laid  himself  down  on 
the  advice  of  a  seer  Polyidus.  The  goddess  had  appeared  to  him  in 
a  dream,  reached  him  a  golden  bridle,  and  told  him  to  sacrifice  a 
white  bull  to  his  father  Poseidon.  The  next  incident  occurs  in 
Tinms,  at  the  court  of  Prcetus,  whose  wife,  Sthenebcea  (or  Anteia, 
as  Homer  calls  her),  failing  to  seduce  Bellerophon,  charges  him  with 
an  attempt  on  her  virtue  (Iliad,  vi.  150-211).  Proetus  now  sends 
him  to  lobates,  his  wile's  father,  the  king  ol  Lycia,  with  a  letter  or 
sealed  tablet,  in  which  were  instructions,  apparently  by  means  of 
signs,  to  take  the  life  of  the  bearer.  Arriving  in  Lycia,  he  was 
received  as  a  guest  and  entertained  for  nine  days.  On  the  tenth, 
being  asked  the  object  of  his  visit,  he  handed  the  letter  to  the  king, 
whose  first  plan  for  complying  with  it  was  to  send  him  to  .lay  the 
Chimaera,  a  monster  which  was  devastating  the  country,  uts  fore- 
part was  that  of  a  lion,  its  hindpart  that  of  a  serpent;  a  goat's  head 
6prang  from  its  back,  and  fire  was  vomited  from  its  mouth  ^  Beller- 
ophon, mounted  on  Pegasus,  kept  up  in  the  air  out  of  tie  way  of 
the  Chimsera,  but  yet  near  enoUgn  to  kill  it  with  his  spea',  or  ashe 
is  at  other  times  represented,  with  his  sword  or  with  a  3ow.  He 
was  next  ordered  out  against  the  Solymi,  a  hostile  tribe,  -and  after- 
wards against  the  Amazons,  from  both  of  which  expediti  ns  he  not 
only  returned  victorious,  but  also  on  his  way  back  slew  in  ambush 
oE  chosen  warriors  whom  lobates  had  placed  to  iutercep.  him.  His 
ilivine  origin  was  now  proved  ;  the  king  gave  him  h  s  daughtei 
in  marriage  ;  and  the  Lycians  presented  him  with  a  larg.'and  fertile 
estate  on  which  he  lived,  and  reached  the  pinnacle  of  happiness, 
surrounded  by  two  sons,  Isander  and  Hippolochus,  an  one  daugh- 
ter, Laodamia.  But,  as  in  the  case  of  Hercules,  the  gods  now 
punished  him  with  frenzy.  His  son  Isander  fell  m  battle  ;  .his 
daughter  was  slain  by  Artemis;  and  he  himself  wan  iered  in  the 
"  plain  of  madness  "  (ireStoi' '  AXTjfoi').  The  cause  of  hi )  misfortune, 
Pindar  (Islhm.,  vii.  44;  Objmp.,  xiii.  91)  says,  was  his  ambitious 
attempt  to  mount  to  the  heavens  on  Pegasus. 

The  early  relations  between  Lycia  and  Argolis  are  attested 
by  the  tradition  that  the  walls  of  Mycenae  had  been  built 
by  Cyclopes  from  Lycia.  In  both  districts  the  worship  of 
the  sun-god  had  exercised  great  influence  in  very  early  times. 
The  two  most  frequent  representations  of  Bellerophon  in 
ancient  art  are  (1)  when  he  slays  the  Chima;ra,  and  (2) 
when  he  departs  from  Argos  with  the  letter.  Among  tho 
first  is  to  be  noted  a  terracotta  relief  from  Melos  in  the 
British  Museum,  where  also,  on  a  vase  of  black  ware,  is 
what  seems  to  be  a  representation  of  bis  escape  from 
Sthenebnea. 

BELLEVILLE,  a  city  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
capital  of  the  county  of  St  Clair  in  Illinois,  situated  about 
14  miles  S  E.  of  St  Louis  on  a  rising  ground,  in  the  midst 
of  a  fertile  district.  It  is  a  thriving  commercial  and 
manufacturing  city,  well  supplied  with  water,  and  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  coal  deposits.  Its  industrial 
establishments  comprise  breweries,  flour-mills,  distilleries, 
fnundries,  and  a  woollen  factory,  and  it  possesses  a  court- 
house, banks,  a  high  school,  a  convent  for  the  education  of 
young  ladies,  and  various  other  institutions.  There  is  a 
»iifTicicnt  number  of  German  inhabitants  to  maintain  one 
il.Tily  and  two  weekly  papers  in  their  native  language. 
Population  in  1870,  8146. 


BELLEY,  the  capital  of  an  arrondissemeiit  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Ain,  France,  is  situated  near  the  Ehone,  39  mile* 
east  of  Lyons.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  founded  in  412, 
and  contains  an  episcopal  palace,  a  cathedral,  an  ecclesiaa- 
tical  school,  a  museum,  and  a  public  library.  The  principal 
industries  are  the  weaving  of  cotton  goods  and  the  culture 
of  the  silk-worm.  Important  fairs  are  held  for  the  sale  of 
cattle  and  horses.  In  the  vicinity  are  found  the  best 
lithographic  stones  in  France.  Belley  is  a  pla:e  of  con- 
siderable antiquity,  aiid  preserves  the  remains  o;  a  Roman 
temple.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  district  of  Bugey,  which 
maintained  its  separate  constitution  down  to  the  Revolu- 
tion. The  neighbourhood  is  remarkable  for  its  objects  of 
interest  both  natural  and  historical,  such  as  the  cascades 
of  Glandieux,  the  intermitting  fountain  of  Groum,  and  the 
Carthusian  abbeys  at  Arvi^res  and  Portes.  Population  "in 
1872,  3902. 

BELLINI,  the  name  of  an  honourable  Venetian  family. 
Three  members  of  this  family  fill  a  great  place  in  the 
history  of  the  Venetian  school  of  painting  in  the  I5th 
century  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th.  In  their  hands 
the  art  of  Venice  was  developed  from  a  coniition  more 
primitive  and  archaic  than  that  of  any  other  school  in  Italy, 
and  advanced  to  the  final  perfection  of  Giorgione  and  of 
Titiaa  The  first  distinguished  member  of  the  family 
was — 

1.  Jacopo  Bellini.     When  Gentile  da  Fabriano,  one  of 
the  most  refined  and  accomplished  of  the  religious  painters 
of  the  Umbrian   Apennines,  came  to  practise  at  Venice, 
where  art  was  backward,  several  young  men  of  the  city 
took   service   under   jiim  as  pupils.     Among   these  were 
Giovanni    and   Anto  )io   of  Murano,  and  Jacopo  Bellini. 
The  Umbrian  master  left  Venice  for  Florence  in  1422,  and 
the  two  brothers  of  Murano  stayed  behind  and  presently 
founded  a  school  of   their   own.     (See   Vivaeini.)    But 
Jacopo  Bellini  foUowed  his  teacher  to  Florence   in   the 
capacity  of /'vmii/!;s.     It  was  the  time  when  a  new  spirit 
had  just  broken  out   in   Florentine   art,   and   when   the 
leaders  of   that  school — Ghiberti   and  Donatello,  Andrea 
del  Castagno,  Paolo  Uccello,  Masaccio — had  made  immense 
progress  in  many  ways  at  once, — in  the  sciences  of  anatomy 
and  perspective,  in  classical  grace  and  stjle,  in  the  truth 
and  sincerity  of  nature, — sj  that  from  t'aem  the  young 
Venetian  found  much  more  to  learn  than  even  from  his 
Umbrian  teacher  as  to  the  possible  perfections  of  the  art. 
The  little  evidence  left  us  proves  that  he  made  good  use  of 
bis  opportunities.     Bi.t  his  works  are  as  rare  as  the  events 
of  his  life,  after  his  service  in  Florence  with  Gentile  da 
Fabriano,  are  uncertain.     That  service  presently  got  him 
into  trouble.     The  Umbrian,  as  a  stranger  coming  to  paint 
in  Florence,  was  jealously  looked  on.     One  day  a  group  of 
young  Florentines  ,'ook  to  throwing  stones  into  his  shop, 
and  the  Venetian    ;)upil  ran  out  and   put  them  to  flight 
with   his   fists.     Thiaking  this  might  be  turned  against 
him,  he  went  and  took  service  on  board  the  galleys  of  the 
Florentine  state ;  but,  returning  after  a  year,  he  found  he 
had  in  his  absence  been  tried  for  assault  and  condemned 
in  a  heavy  fine.     He  was  arrested  and  put  in  prison,  hut 
the  matter  was  afterwards  compromised  upon  a  public  act 
of  penance  to  which  Jacopo  submitted.    Whether  he  accom- 
panied his  master  to  Rome  in  142G  we  cannot  tell,  but 
there  is  evidence  to  sh  )w  that  he  was  practising  on  his  own 
account  in  Venice  in  H20,  and  probably  as  soon  as  1427. 
Neither  can  we  fix  tho  date  of  his  marriage ;   but  it  was 
probably  about  the  ti  lie  of  his  return  to  his  native  state, 
for  we  know  that  he  had  grandchildren  before  1458.     The 
remainder  of  his  life  nas  spent  between  Venice,  Verona, 
and  Padua.     At  Venice,  besides  other  work,  he  painted  a 
great  scries  from  the  lives  of  Christ  an  J,  tlic  ,  Virgin  in  tln' 
church  of   St   John    the   Evangelist.     This   has   entirelj 


B  E  L  L  I  N  i 


547 


perished.  In  tlie  citliedral  of  Verona  there  was,  uiifil  il 
w.ii 'lestroyed  by  tbe  barbarii-m  of  thu  18th  century,  an 
iniportaot  Crucifixion  from  his  hand.  In  the  archbishop's 
pjlaoc  of  the  same  city  another  Crucifixion  still  remains, 
but  greatly  injured.  At  Padua  Jacopo  appears  to  have 
lived  several  years,  and  to  have  founded  there  a  school 
which  became  the  rival  of  the  school  of  Squarcione.  There 
his  sons.  Gentile  and  Giovanni,  grew  up  ;  there  his  daughter 
Niccolosia  found  a  husband  in  Andrea  Maiitegna,  the 
)nost  famous  of  the  scholars  of  Squarcione.  (See  Man- 
TECNA.)  In  Jacopo  Bellini  the  Venetian  school  had  not 
yet  found  its  .<;pecial  and  characteristic  manner.  But  he 
holds  a  position  of  great  importance,  as  having  been  the 
first  to  fertilize  Ver.etiaa  soil  with  the  science  and  genius  of 
Florence.  From  no  extant  pictures  of  his  can  his  manner 
be  judged  so  well  as  from  the  book  of  his  sketches,  which 
has  become  the  property  of  the  British  Museum.  This,  in 
spite  of  fading  and  decay,  is  a  unique  and  invaluable 
possession,  containing  a  vast  number  of  original-  studios 
tinted  or  drawn  with  pen  or  ink,  and  including  composi- 
tions from  Scripture  and  the  lives  of  the  saints,  from 
classical  fable,  and  from  natural  history  in  surprising 
variety. 

2.  Gentile  Bellini  was  the  elder  of  the  two  sons  of 
Jacopo.  To  the  precise  date  of  his  birth  we  have  no  clue. 
Both  he  and  his  brother  Giovanni  served  together  under 
their  father  Jacopo  as- his  pupils  as  long  as  he  lived. 
After  his  death  each  of  them  practised  his  art  indepen- 
dently in  their  native  city;  but  a  warm  and  unbroken 
atfection  is  recorded  to  have  always  subsisted  between  the 
brolliers.  In  1404  Gentile  was  commissioned  to  paint  the 
doors  of  the  great  organ  in  St  Mark's  with  figures  of  the 
four  saints — Mark,  Jerome,  Theodore,  and  Francis.  The 
next  year  ho  painted  for  the  church  of  Sta  Maria  dell' 
Orto  a  picture  of  the  apotheosis  of  Lorenzo  Giustiniani, 
patriarch  of  Venice.  From  1465  until  1471-  we  cannot 
tr.icc  his  occupations  with  precision,  though  there  are 
scviral  extant  works  that  can  be  assigned  to  the  interval. 
On  the  21st  of  September  1474,  ho  was  appointed  to 
restore  and  renew  the  existing  painted  decorations  in  the 
hall  of  the  Great  Council  in  the  Ducal  .Palace.  These 
were  in  part  frescoes,  the  work  of  his  father's  master. 
Gentile  da  Fabriano.  Some  of  them  Gentile  Eellmi 
restored,  and  some  were  so  ruined  that  he  had  to  destroy 
them  and  put  in  their  place  new  work  of  his  own.  The 
practice  of  painting  in  oil  upon  canvas  had  lately  been 
brought  to  Venice  byAntonello  of  Messina,  The  new 
medium,  besides  yielding  richer  effects,  resisted  damp  and 
salt  better  than  the  old;  and  all  the  painters  of  Venice 
were  eagerly  learning  its  use.  Gentile  adopted  it  in  the 
hall  of  the  Great  Council.  In  1479  the  Sultan  Mahomet 
sent  word  to  the  Signoria  of  Venice  that  he  desired  the 
services  at  Constantinople  of  a  good  painter  of  their  state, 
at  the  same  time  inviting  the  doge  to  the  wedding  of  his 
son.  The-  doge  declined  to  go,  but  the  Signoria  chose 
Gentile  Bellini  to  be  sent  with  two  assistants  at  the  expense 
of  the  state  and  to  paint  for  the  Turk,  first  electing  his 
younger  brother  Giovanni  to  fill  his  place  in  the  works  at 
the  Ducal  Palace  until  he  should  return.  He  was  admir- 
ably received,  and  painted  the  portraits  of  the  sultan  and 
many  of  his  officers,  besides  that  piAure  of  the  reception 
of  a  Venetian  embassy  by  the  grand  vizier  which  is  now 
at  the  Louvre  (No.  C8).  It  is  a  well-known  and  doubtful 
sinry  how  the  sultan  alleged  that  a  picture  of  Gentile's 
showed  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  appearance  of  the 
muscles  of  the  neck  after  decapitation,  and  to  convince  the 
]iainter  had  a  slave  decapitated  in  his  presence,  and  how 
this  made  Gentile  uncomfortable  and  anxious  to  get  away. 
He  ro*turned  at  the  end  of  1480,  bringing  gifts  and 
honours;  and  from  that  time  he  and  Giovanni  were  engaged 


together  for  the  sla.te  on  the  decoration  of  the  great  hall- 
Gentile  painted  tJiere  four  great  subjects  from  the  ctory  of 
Barbarossa,  which  unhappily  perished  in  the  fire  of  1577 
It  is  recorded  that  in  14SC  the  young  Titian  entered  his 
workshop  as  a  pupil.  Three  of  the  most  important  of  his 
Works  date  from  the  last  five  or  six  years  of  the  century, 
and  were  done  for  the  school  of  St  John  the  Evangelist  at 
Venice.  They  represent  the  cure  of  a  sick  Venetian  by  a 
relic  of  the  cross,  the  procession  iu  honour  of  the  same 
relic  in  the  piazza  of  St  Mark,  and  the  miracle  of  the 
recovery  of  the  relic  from  the  Grand  Canal  (Academy  of 
Venice,  Nos.  543,  555,  52!)).  In  1506  Gentile  was  so 
busy  as  to  write  that  he  could  not  accept  a  commission 
proposed  by  Francesco,  marquis  of  Mantux  The  next 
winter  he  fell  sick,  and  made  his  will,  bequeathing  his 
father's  sketch-book  above  described  to  his  brother  John, 
on  condition  that  the  brother  should  finish  the  picture  of 
the  Sermcn  of  St  Mark  which  the  sick  man  had. then  on 
hand.  He  died  oti  the  23d  of  February  1507.  It  is  by 
his  science  and  spirit  in  the  treatment  of  animated  and 
dignified  processional  groups,  with  many  figures  and 
architecture  of  masterly  pers|iective,  that  we  chiefly  know- 
Gentile  Bellini.  He  is  a  workman  of  infinite  precision,  and 
a  fine  colourist,  though  his  manner  has  some  of  the  hardness 
of  the  earlier  times.  To  conduct  the  school  of  Venice  to 
its  final  liberty  and  splendour  was  thewoik  of  his  young-er 
brother,  the  great 

3.  GioviNNi  Bellini.     His  birth  it  is  no  less  impossible 
to  fix  with  accuracy  than  that  of  his  brother.     His  earlie.«f 
work,  done  at  Padua,  shows  strongly  the  stern  influence 
of  his   brother-in-law  Andrea    Mantegna.     The    Kational 
Gallery  has  a  Christ  on  the  Mount,  painted  by  Giovanni, 
probably  about- 1455,  and  apparently  in  direct  competition 
with  a  picture  of  the  same  subject  by  Mantegna  himself, 
similarly  conceived,  which  belongs  to  the  Baring  Gallery. 
The  characteristics  of  the  style  formed  at  Padua  by  Man- 
tegna and  Giovanni  Bellini,  and  maintained  by  the  former 
all  his  life,  are  a  great  intensity  and  vehemence  of  expres- 
sion, an  iron  severity  and  unmatched  firmness  and  strength 
of  draughtsmanship;  a  tendency,  in  draperies,  to  imitate  the 
qualities  of  sculpture;  a  love  of  the  dilliculties  of  perspec- 
tive; a  leaning  towards  the  antique,  which  these  masters 
learned  to  transform  and  reanimate  with  a  more  pa.^iionat8 
energj'and  an  austerer  strength  of  their  own.     Of  the  two, 
Bellini  is  always  the  more  reserved  and  simple,  the  more' 
inclined  to  work  from  nature  and  the  less  from  the  antique, 
and  he  has  the  richer  choice  in  colour;  but  there  are  works 
;u  which  they  are  indistinguishable.   The  period  when  Bellini 
painted  in  this  first  manner  and  in  tempera  may  be  roughly 
fixed  (though  there  is  often  great  unccrtainy  as  to  the  dates 
if  his  pieces,  and  though  at  all  times  he  seems  occasionally 
to  have  recurred  to  his  early  practice)  between   1455  and 
1472.     It  is  probable  that  the  famous  picture  of  the  Cir- 
cumcision now  at  Castle  Howard,  which  was  repeated  more 
than  once  by  the  master  'aiinself,  and  many  times  over  by 
bis   pupils   and  assistants,  was    painted  before   this  date. 
The  altar  pieces  on  a  great  scale,  which  are  the  noblest 
iionument   of  his  middle    period,  were  certainly  painted 
ufter  it.     Of  these  the  chief  were  the  Virgin  and  Sainls,  m 
a  chapel  of  the  church  of  Saints  Giovanni  and  Paolo  at 
Venice,  which  perished  along  with  Titiau's  Peter  Marl;  .- 
in  the  fatal  fire  of  1807;  a  great  Coronation  of  the  Virgin, 
in  the  church  of  St  Dominic  at  Pesaro;   a  Transfiguration, 
now  in  the  museum  of  Naples  ;  a  Virgin  and  Saints,  painted 
for  the  church  of  S.  Giobbe,  now  in  the  Academy  at  Venice 
(No.  36).    These,  and  the  multitude  of  Madonnas  and  other 
devotional  pictures  painted  by  Giovanni  Bellini  during  the 
thirty  years  following  his  change  of  manner  and  adoption  of 
the  oil  medium,  are  among  the  noblest  products  of  the  re- 
ligious art  of  the  world.  .  They  otand  alone  in  their  union  of 


548 


B  E  L—  13  E  L 


((picndour  with  solemnity;  they  have  the  manful  energy  of 
Mantegna  without  his  harshiioss,  and  the  richness  of  Gior- 
gione  without  his  luxury.  Succeeding  pictures  show  an 
increase  of  this  richness,  aid  a  character  more  nearly  tender. 
An  altar  piece,  painted  (r.v  the  church  of  San  Zaccaria,  seems 
to  indicate  a  transition,  and  that  the  venerable  master  is 
aequiring  all  the  softer  splendour  and  keeping  pace  with 
Giorgione  and  Titian,  the  young  pupils  of  the  school.  Nay, 
at  the  very  close,  of  his  career,  Bellini  left  the  old  devo- 
tional cycle  in  which  he  had  produced  works  so  moving 
and  august,  and  painted  for  Alphonso  of  Ferrara  a  myth- 
ology in  the  most  gorgeous  manner  of  the  ripe.Venetian 
school.  This  is  the  Feast  of  the  Gods,  now  at  Alnwick 
C'.istle,  a  picture  to  which  Titian  set  the  finishing  touches, 
!»nd  to  which  the  companion,  by  Titian  himself,  is  now  at 
Madrid.  Bellini  died  on  the  20th  of  November  1516,  full 
of  years  and  honours.  We  hare  seen  that  he  was  associated 
with  his  brother  in  the  decoration  of  the  Great  Hall  of  the 
Council  in  1-479.  In  14S3  he  was  appointed  Pittore  del 
Dominio,  and  exempted  from  the  charges  of  his  guild.  All 
the  painters  of  the  state  at  one  time  or  another  were 
associated  with  him  or  passed  through  his  school.  Among 
the  most  distinguished  of  h'^  scholars  and  assistants  who 
will  not  need  separate  mention,  we  may  name  Marco 
Basaiti  and  Vincenzo  Catena,  many  of  whose  works  pass 
for  their  master's.  He  was  the  honoured  associate  of 
statesmen  and  men  of  letters.  In  1506,  when  Albert 
Diirer  visited  Venice,  where  he  was  subject  to  some  annoy- 
ances, he  found  the  noble  old  man  not  only  the  most 
courteous  of  the  Venetian  artists  in  his  reception  of  a 
stranger,  but  the  best  in  his  profession  ("  der  best  im 
gemeU"). 

Arany  pictures  in  various  galleries  pass  as  portraits  of 
one  or  (jther  of  the  Bellini.  But  of  those  that  are  styled 
likenesses  of  Giovanni,  none  can  be  proved  authentic, 
while  the  only  certain  portrait  of  Gentile  is  a  medal  by 
Camclio.  (Vasari,  ed.  Leraonnier,  vol.  v.  pp.  1-2S;  San- 
aovino,  Veit.  descr.,  125,  seq.  ;  Ridolfi,  i.  90-99;  Crowe 
and  CavalcascUe,  History  of  Painting  in  North  Italy,  vol. 
i.  pp.  100-193.)  (s.  c.) 

BELLINI,  Lorenzo,  physician  and  anatomist,  was  born 
at  Florence  in  1643.  After  completing  his  studies  in  general 
literature  he  went  to  Pisa,  where,  assisted  by  the  generosity 
of  the  grand  duke  Ferdinand  II.,  he  studied  under  two  of 
the  most  learned  men  of  that  age,  Oliva  and  Borelli,  the 
former  of  whom  instructed  him  in  natural  philosophy  and 
the  latter  in  mechanics.  He  likewise  studied  medicine 
under  Redi,  and  mathematics  under  Marchetti.  At  the 
early  age  of  twenty  he  was  chosen  professor  of  philosophy 
nt  Pisa,  but  did  not  long  continue  in  this  office;  for  he  had 
acquired  such  a  reputation  for  skill  in  anatomy,  that  the 
grand  duke  procured  him  a  professorship  in  that  science, 
and  was  himself  a  frequent  auditor  at  his  lectures.  After 
a  long  residence  in  Pisa,  he  was  invited  to  Florence  and 
appointed  physician  to  the  grand  duke  Cosmo.  He  was 
olso  made  senior  consulting  physician  to  Pope  Clement  XI. 
Bellini  died  in  1703,  in  the  sixtieth  ^car  of  his  age.  His 
works  were  published  in  a  collected  form  in  1708  (2  vols. 
4to),  and  reprinted  in  1732. 

BELLINI,  Vincenzo,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
operatic  composers  of  tho  modern  Italian  school,  was  born  at 
Catania  in  Sicily,  November  3,  1802.  Ho  was  descended 
from  a  family  of  musicians,  both  his  father  and  grandfather 
having  been  composers  of  some  reputation.  After  haviuj; 
received  his  preparatory  musical  education  at  homo,  he 
entered  the  conservatoire  of  Naples,  where  he  studied  sing- 
ing and  composition  under  Tritto  ai.d  Zingarelli.  He  soon 
began  to  write  pieces  for  various  instruments,  as  well  as  a 
caniata  and  several  masses  and  other  sacred  compositions. 
His  first  opera.  Adclton  e  Sauina,  was  performed  in   1824 


at  a  small  theatre  of  Naples  ,  his  second  dranutic  worft, 
Buiiica  e  Fernando,  saw  the  light  two  years  later  at  the 
San  Carlo  theatre  of  the  same  city,  and  made  his  name 
known  in  Italy.  His  next  work,  II  PiraCa,  was  written 
for  the  celebrated  Scala  theatre  in  Milan,  to  words  by 
Felice  Romano,  with  whom  Bellini  formed  a  umoQ  ff 
friendship  to  be  severed  only  by  his  death.  The  splendid 
rendering  of  the  music  by  Tamburini,  Rubini,  and  other 
greatltalian  singers,  contributed  greatly  to  the  success  of  the 
work,  which  at  once  established  the  European  reputation  of 
its  composer.  Almost  every  year  of  the  short  remainder  of 
his  life  witnessed  the  production  of  a  new  operatic  work, 
each  of  which  was  received  with  rapture  by  the  audiences  of 
France,  Italy,  Germany,  and  England,  and  some  of  which 
retain  their  place  on  the  stage  up  to  the  present  day.  \Vc 
mention  the  names  and  djtes  of  four  of  Bellini's  operas 
familiar  to  most  lovers  of  modern  It.ilian  music,  viz.  ; — / 
Montecchi  e  Capuleti  (1S29).  in  which.the  part  of  Romeo 
has  been  a  favourite  with  all  the  great  contraltos  of  the 
last  seventy  years  ;  La  Sonnambula  {\S3\) ;  Norma,  Bel- 
lini's best  and  most  popular  ireation  (1832),  and  /  Puri- 
tani  (1834),  written  for  the  Italian  opera  in  Paris,  and 
to  some  extent  under  the  influence  of  French  music.  In 
1833  Bellini  had  left  his  country  to  accompany  to  England 
the  great  singer  Pasta,  who  had  created  the  part  of  his 
Sonnambvla.  In  1834  heacc(pted  an  invitation  to  wTite  an 
opera  for  the  national  Grand  Opera  in  Paris.  While  he  was 
carefully  studying  the  French  language  and  the  cadence 
of  French  verse  for  the  purpose,  he  was  seized  with  a  sudden 
illness  and  died  at  his  villa  in  Puteaux  near  Paris,  September 
21,  1835.  This  unexpected  interruption  of  a  career  so 
brilliant  sheds,  as  it  were,  a  gloom  of  sadness  over  the 
whole  of  Bellini's  life,  a  sadness  which,  moreover,  was 
foreshadowed  by  the  character  of  his  works.  His  operatic 
creations  are  throughout  ro['lete  with  a  spirit  of  gentle 
melancholy,  frequently  monotonous  and  almost  always 
undramatic,  but  at  the  same  time  irresistibly  sweet,  and 
almost  disarming  the  stern  demands  of  higher  criticism 
which  othcnvise  would  be  conipelled  to  reprove  the 
absence  of  both  dramatic  vigour  and  musical  depth.  To 
the  feature  just  mentioned,  combined  with  a  rich  flow  of 
cmitilena,  Bellini's  operas  owe  their  popularity,  and  will 
owe  it  as  long  as  the  audiences  of  our  large  theatres  are 
willing  to  tolerate  outrages  oc  rhyme  and  reason  if  sung 
by  a  beautiful  voice  to  a  pleasing  tune.  In  so  far,  how- 
ever, as  the  defects  of  Bellini's  style  are  characteristic 
of  the  school  to  which  he  belongs,  they  fall  to  be  con- 
sidered in  a  general  treatment  of  the  whole  subject.  See 
Mfsic. 

BKLLTNZON.A,  or  Bei.lenz,  one  of  the  three  towns 
which  at",  the  capital  in  turn  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  Tessin 
or  Ticino.  It  is  built  on  two  hills,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
Ticino  at  the  entrance  of  the  Riviera  valley,  and  is  so  situated 
as  completely  to  bar  the  passage  by  that  route  between 
Italy  and  Germany.  Its  fortifications,  which  were  of  great 
strength  during  the  Middle  Ages,  have  been  partially  re- 
stored. There  are  three  cartles,  the  Castello  Grande,  Cor- 
bario,  and  Di  Mezzo,  which  belonged  to  the  three  cantons  of 
Uri,  Untcrwalden,and  Schwyz  respectively ;  the  f  rst  of  these 
is  now  used  as  an  armoury  and  prison.  The  abbey  church 
is  a  fine  building  of  the  IClh  century,  and  contains  some 
paintings  of  value.  The  Augustini:in  convent  is  now  used 
as  a  Government  house.  The  inundations  of  the  river  are 
prevented  from  injuring  (he  town  by  a  large  dyke,  built  by 
the  French  iu  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  A  considerable 
transit  trade  is  carried  on  «ith  Italy,  and  tlicrc  is  a  famous 
manufacture  of  aapia  di  crdro  from  the  blossom  and  rind 
of  the  orange.  Bellinzona  was  in  existence  at  least  as 
early  as  1242,  when  it  was  conquered  by  Otto  Vi.sconti. 
It  wj*  long  ou  object  of  contest  between  the  Swiss  and  the 


E  K  L  - 


li  E  L. 


549 


Milanese  ;  in  the  loih  century  it  was  tlie  scene  of  a  famous 
batilo,  in  wLicIi  tbe  Swiss  were  defeated;  and  it  finally 
|)as3cd  into  the  hands  of  the  three  cantons  of  Uri,  Unter- 
wjlden,  and  Schwyz  after  the  battle  of  Maiignanoiu  1515. 
Population  in  1870,  2051. 

DIXL.M.V.V,  Kac.l  Mikjel,  the  greatest  lyrical  poet  of 
Sweden,  was  born  at  Stockholm  on  the  4th  of  February 
1740.  llis  father,  who  held  a  responsible  oflicial  position, 
was  descended  from  a  family  that  had  already  distin- 
guished itself  in  the  fine  arts;  his  mother,  a  gifted  and 
beautiful  woman,  early  instructed  him  in  the  elements  of 
poetry  and  music.  When  quite  a  child  he  suddenly  de- 
vch  ped  his  extraordinary  gift  of  improvising  verse,  during 
the  delirium  of  a  severe  illness,  weaving  wild  thoughts 
together  lyrically,  and  singing  airs  of  his  own  composition. 
From  this  time  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  poetic  art,  and 
receired  great  encouragement  from  the  various  eminent 
men  whp  met  round  his  father's  table,  among  whom  was 
(Dalin,  the  favourite  poet  of  the  day.  As  early  as  \~^>7  ho 
published  a  book  of  verse,  a  translation  of  Schweidnitz's 
Ki'angdical  Thoughts  of  Dtath,  and  for  the  ne.xt  few  years 
wrote  a  great  quantity  of  poems,  imitative  for  the  most 
part  of  Dalin.  In  1760  appeared  his  first  characteristic 
work,  The  Moon,  a  satirical  poem,  which  was  revised  and 
cdiled  by  Dalin.  But  the  great  work  of  his  life  occupied 
him  from  1765  to  1760,  and  consists  of  the  collections  of 
dithyrambic  odes  known  as  FrcJman's  Epistles  and 
fr'-lman's  SongtS.  These  were  not  printed  until  17'J0. 
Tho  mode  of  their  composition  was  extraordinary.  No 
poetry  can  possibly  smell  less  of  the  lamp  than  Bellm.in's. 
He  was  accustomed,  when  in  the  presence  of  none  but 
confidential  friends,  to  announce  that  the  god  was  about  to 
visit  him.  lie  would  shut  his  eyes,  take  his  zither,  and 
begin  to  improvize  a  long  Bacchic  ode  in  praise  of  love  or 
wine,  and  sing  it  to  a  melody  of  his  own  invention.  The 
genuineness  of  these  extremely  singular  fits  of  inspira- 
tion could  not  be  doulited.  The  poems  which  Bellman 
wrote  in  tho  usual  way  were  tame,  poor,  and  without 
character.  The  FreJmaii's  Epistles  glow  with  colour, 
ring  with  fierce  and  mysterious  melody,  and  bear  the 
c'car  impress  of  individual  genius.  These  torrents  of 
rhymes  are  not  without  their  method ;  wild  as  they 
seem,  they  all  conform  to  the  rules  of  style,  and  among 
those  that  have  been  preserved  there  are  few  that  are 
not  perfect  in  form.  The  odes  of  Bellman  breathe  a 
passionate  love  of  life;  he  is  amorous  of  existence,  and 
kei-n  after  pleasure,  but  under  all  the  frenzy  there  is  a 
I>-ilho3,  a  yearning  that  is  sadder  than  tears.  The  most 
dissimilar  elements  arc  united  in  his  poems  ;  in  a  badchanal 
hymn  the  music  will  often  fade  away  into  a  sad  elegiac  vein, 
and  the  rare  picturesqueness  of  his  idyllic  pictures  is  trarnied 
into  rich  colour  by  the  geniality  of  his  humour.  lie  is 
sometimes  frantic,  sometimes  gross,  but  alwsi^s  ready,  at 
his  wildest  moment,  to  melt  into  reverie.  A  great  Swedish 
critic  has  remarked  that  the  voluptuous  joviality  of  Bellman 
is,  after  all,  only  "  sorrow  clad  in  rose-colour,"  and  this 
underlying  pathos  gives  his  poems  their  undying  charm. 
His  later  works,  The  Temple  of  Bacchus,  a  journal  called 
Wh.it  you  Will,  a  religious  anthology  entitled  Zion'sUotidatj, 
»nd  a  translation  of  Gellert's  Falilcs,  are  comparatively 
unimpnrtant.  Ho  died  on  the  11th  of  February  1795. 
Scvcml  statues  exist  of  Bellman.  One  represents  him 
naked,  crowned  with  ivy,  and  striking  the  guitar;  the  best 
is  (he  splendid  colossal  bust  by  Bystrom,  which  adorns  the 
public  gardens  of  Stockho'.m,  which  was  erected  by  the 
Swedish  Academy  in  1829.  Bellman  had  a  grand  manner, 
a  fine  voice,  and  great  gifts  of  mimicry,  and  was  a  favourite 
companion  of  King  Oustavus  III.  The  best  edition  of  his 
works  is  one  lately  published  at  Stockholm,  edited  by  J.  G. 
Carltin. 


BELLOXA,  iu  Homan  ilythology,  the  goddess  of  war, 
corrc»pondiug  to  the  Greek  Enyo,  and  called  now  the  sister 
or  daughter  of  Mars,  now  his  charioteer  or  his  nurtc.  Her 
worship  appears  to  have  bicn  promoted  in  Rome  chicfiy 
by  the  family  of  the  Claudii,  whose  Sabine-origin,  together 
with  their  use  of  the  name  of  "Nero,"  has  suggested  an 
identification  of  Bellona  with  the  Sabine  war  goddess  Ncrio. 
Her  temple  at  Rome,  founded  by  Appius  Claudius  Ckcus, 
296  D.c,  stood  in  the  Campus  llartius,  near  the  Flaminian 
Circus,  and  outside  the  gates  of  the  city.  It  was  there 
that  the  senate  met  to  discuss  the  claims  of  a  general  to  a 
triumph,  and  to  receive  ambassadors  from  foreign  states. 
In  front  of  it  was  the  columim  lellica  where  the  ceremony  of 
declaring  war  w.as  performed.  From  this  native  Italian  god- 
dess is  to  be  distinguishad  the  Asiatic  Bellona,  whose  wor- 
ship was  introduced  into  Rome  from  Comana.in  Cappadocia, 
apparently  by  Sulla,  to  whom  she  had  appeared,  urging 
him  to  march  to  Rome  and  bathe  in  the  blood  of  his  ene- 
mies. For  her  a  new  temple  was  built,  and  a  college  of 
priests  (Bellonarii)  instituted  to  conduct  her  fanatical  rites, 
the  prominent  feature  of  which  was  to  lacerate  themselves 
and  s])rinkle  the  blood  on  the  spectators.  To  make  the 
scene  more  grim  they  wore  black  dresses  from  head  to  foot. 

BELLOT,  JosEru  Rene,  one  of  the  heroes  and  victims 
of  Arctic  ex])loration,  was  born  at  Paris,  March  18,  1620. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  entered  the  Naval  School,  in  which 
he  studied  two  years,  and  earned  a  high  reputation.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  the  French  exiicdition  of  1845 
against Tamatave  in  Madagascar;  and  although  he  was  not 
yet  twenty  he  received  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour 
at  the  clo,se  of  that  year.  He  was  afterwards  attached  to 
the  stair  of  the  station,  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
Enseigne  cle  Vaisseau  in  November  1847,  and  in  1851 
obtained  permission  to  join  the  English  expedition  then 
preparitig  to  go  out,  under  the  command  of  .Captain 
Kennedy,  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin.  On  this  occasion 
he  displayed  great  courage,  presence  of  mind,  and  self- 
deyotion,  rendered  important  services,  and  made  the 
discovery  of  the  strait,  which  bears  his  name,  between 
Boothia  Fel'ix  and  Somerset  Land.  Early  in  1S52  he  was 
promoted  lieutenant.  In  the  same  year  he  accomjianied, 
as  a  volunteer,  the  expedition  sent  out  by  the  English 
Government  under  Captain  IngleCeld  on  the  same  quest. 
His  intelligence,  his  devotion  to  duty,  and  his  courage  won 
him  the  esteem  and  admiration  of  all  with  whom  he  was 
associated.  While  making  a  perilous  journey  with  two 
comrades  across  the  ice,  for  the  purpose  of  communicating 
with  Captain  Inglefield,  he  was  overtaken  by  a  storm, 
August  21,  and  being  blown  into  an  0|iening  between  the 
broken  masses  of  ice  was  seen  no  more.  A  pension  was 
granted  to  his  family  by  the  Enqieror  Napoleon  111.,  and 
an  obelisk  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  front  of  Greenwich 
Ilo'pit.-il. 

BELLOWS  AND  BLOWING-MACHINE  arc  machines 
for  producing  a  current  of  air,  chiefly  in  order  to  assist  the 
combustion  of  a  fire. 

The  common  bellows  now  in  use  probably  represents  one 
of  the  oldest  contrivances  for  this  purpo.se.  It  consists  of 
two  Hat  boards,  of  oval  or  triangular  shape,  connected 
round  their  edges  by  a  piece  of  leather  so  as  to  form  an 
air  chamber.  The  leather  is  kept  from  collapsing,  on 
separation  of  the  boards,  by  two  or  more  hoops,  which  act 
like  Uie  ribs  in  animals.  The  lower  board  has  a  hole  in 
its  centre  covered  inside  by  a  leather  flap  or  valve  opening 
inwards  ;  it  has  also  fastened  to  it  a  metal  pipe  or  nozzle, 
of  smaller  aperture  than  the  valve.  On  raising  the  upper 
board,  the  air  from  without  lifts  the  valve  and  enters  the 
cavity;  then  on  pressing  down  the  top  board,  this  air  is 
conipre.'scd,  shuts  the  valve,  and  is  driven  through  the  pipe 
with  a  velocity  corresponding  to  the  pressure. 


550 


BELLOWS 


Tlie  blast  here  is,  of  course.not  continuous, but  in  puffs,— 
A  certain  interval  being  needed  for  refilling  the  bellows  after 
each  dbcharge.  Tliis  drawback  was  remedied  by  the 
invention  of  double  bellows.  To  understand  their  action, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  conceive  an  additional  board  %vith 
vdve,  like  the  lower  board  of  the  single  bellows,  attached 
by  leather  under  this  lower  board.  Thus  two  similar 
cavities  are  obtained,  separated  by  the  lower  board  of  what 
was  the  single  bellows.  The  lowest  board  is  held  down  by 
a  weight,  and  another  weight  presses  the  top  board. 
When  the  lowest  board  is  raised  it  forces  air  into  the  upper 
cavity,  and  the  valve  of  the  middle  board  prevents  return 
of  this  air.  The  lowest  board  being  then  depressed,  air 
enters  the  lower  cavity  from  without,  and  this  in  its  turn 
is  next  forced  into  the  upper  cavity.  The  weighted  top 
board  is  meanwhile  continuously  pressing  the  air  of  the 
npper  cavity  through  the  nozzle.  While  the  blast  thus 
obtained  is  continuous,  it  is  not  wholly  free  from  irregu- 
larities. ...         .....  ..     _     , 

The  cornmon  smiths'  bellows,  made  on  the  principle 
just. indicated,  are  generally  of  circular  form,  as  shown  in 
figs.  1  and  2.     A  is  the  blast  pipe,  B  the  movable  lowest 


Fuji 


K;  ;o    1  ar.i  2. — Ccninion  Smiths'  Bellows. 

board,  C  the  fixed  middle  board  (into  which  the  pipe  is 
inserted),  and  D  the  movable  upper  board  pressed  by  a 
weight.  The  lowest  board  is  moved  by  means  of  the  lever 
L  and  the  chain  li  working  on  the  roller  R.  The  weight 
required  to  produce  a  certain  fnrce  of  blast  is  easily  deter- 
nnned;  if  the  diameter  of  the  bellows  be  1  foot,  the  area 
will  be  113'19  inches,  and  the  upper  board  will  require  a 
weight  of  565  lb  for  a  blast  equivalent  to  a  pressure  of 
^  E)  on  the  square  inch,  or  a  velocity  of  207  feet  per 
second,  which  is  well  suited  for  a  smith's  forge.  By  a 
simple  arrangement  for  altering  the  diameter  of  the  pipe 
the  force  of  the  blast  may  be  varied. 

It  may  bo  noted  that  in  some  parts  of  the  Continent  a 
simple  fonn  of  bellows  is  made  of  two  wooden  boxes,  each 
open  on  one  side,  and  the  one  just  fitting  into  the  other. 
The  open  sides  being  opposed  to  each  other,  the  upper 
e.. closing  box  is  made  to  move  up  and  down  over  the 
other,  with  which  it  is  jointed  at  one  part,  and  which  is 
provided  with  a  nozzle,  and  a  valve  opening  inwards. 
The  change  of  capacity  produces  a  blast.  There  is  con- 
siderable loss  of  air,  however,  from  the  boxes  not  exactly 
fitting. 

The  blowing-machines  now  almost  exclusively  used  for 
bliist  furnaces  are  of  the  cylinder  and  piston  type  (which 
is  the  principle  adopted,  it  may  be  remarked,  in  a  small  hand 
bellows  used  by  the  Chinese).  At  first  the  blowing 
cylinders  were  single-acting,  that  is  to  say,  they  Lad  tho 
power  of  propelling  a  blast  only  when  the  piston  was 
moving  in  one  direction.  With  two  or  more  of  these 
Idowing  cylindera  attached  to  one  crank  shaf^,  worked  by 


a  water-wheel,  a  tolerably  steady  pressure  of  air  was 
obt.iined.  But  in  these  and  other  respects  considerable 
progress  has  been  realized 

The  cylinder-engines  of  tbe  present  day  (which  ara 
generally  driven  by  steam)  may  be  classed  in  two  chief 
systems,  according  as  the  cylinder  is  placed  horizontally  or 
vertically.  In  the  former  case  the  steam  and  blast  cylinders 
are  usually  in  one  line,  the  same  rod  carrying  the  pistons  of 
both,  and  being  guided  on  both  sides,  whUe  a  fly-wheel  is 
employed  as  regulator.  In  the  vertical  systems  the  steam 
and  blowing  cylinders  are  sometimes  similarly  connected, 
but,  in  the  larger  engines,  they  are  generally  placed  one  at 
each  end  of  a  beam  connecting  their  pistons.  The  vertical 
engines  have  been  most  popular  in  England  and  in  soma 
parts  of  the  Continent  (as  Silesia),  but  the  other  type 
(almost  exclusively  used  in  Westphalia  and  on  the  Rhine) 
is  now  adopted  in  several  English  works. 

The  general  action  of  many  of  these  machines  may  b9 
illustrated  by  the  large  blowing  engine  at  the  Dowlau 
iron-works,  erected  in  1851.     Fig.  3  is  a  rsjpresentatir.n  of 


n 


Fio.  3.  — Soi  tloli  of  C.'iinaor  of  Blowing'  tngil... 

its  blast  cylinder,  the  piston  of  which,  made  air-tight  by 
packing,  is  moved  by  the  oscillating  .beam  of  the  engine. 
The  cover  of  the  cylinder,  and  also  its  bottom,  have  several 
openings,  furnished  with  valves'  v.  which  open  inwards 
Other  .valves  v ,  above  and  below,  open  into  a  lateral 
chamber  B,  which  is  connected  by  the  aperture  O  to  tha 
different  tuyeres  of  the  furnaces.  Suppose,  now,  the 
piston  is  at  the  top  and  begins  to  be  forced  down.  The 
air  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cylinder  becomes  more  and 
more  rarefied,'  and  the  difference  of  density  between  it  and 
that  of  the  blast  in  chamber  B,  causes  the  upper  valve  v 
to  bo  applied  firmly  to  the  metallic  surface  before  which  it 
is  hung.  The  upper  valves  r,  on.  the  other  hand,  will  be 
raised  by  the  external  air  which  enters  to  compensate  the 
rarefaction.  The  same  motion  of  tho  piston  compresses 
the  air  below  it,  causing  tho  lower  valves  v  {which  open 
inwards)  to  bo  firmly  closed,  while  tho  valve  v  will  be 
raised  and  admit  the  air  into  chamber  B,  whence  it  passes 
to  the  furnace.  When  tho  piston  is  raised  the  reMirso 
takes  place;  tho  lower  portion  of  the  cylinder  receives  air 
from  without,  and  the  upper  discharges  its  air  through  tho 
pipes  leading  to  the  furnace.  Thus  a  nearly  continuous 
flow  is  obtained.  To  ensure  regularity  the  pipe  0  is  made 
to  communicate  with  a  closed  reservoir  of  wrought  iron, 
where  tho  variations  are  destroyed  by  the  elasticity  of  tho 
air  itself.  The  cylinder  here  figured  is  141  inches  in 
diameter,  ■with  a  stroke  of  12  feet,  and  discharges  about 


BELL  0  ^^'  « 


551 


41.000  cubic  feet  per  minute,  at  a  i")ressure  of  3^  lb  to  the 
»4'iare  inch. 

U'bere  it  is  desirable  to  make  small  blast  engines  do  the 
work  of  large  ones,  compensating  smallness  of  size  with 
velocity,  it  becomes  necessary  that  the  air  v;.Ive3  be  moved 
otherwise  than  by  th:  simple  action  of  the  air  itself.  The 
best  fo.m  of  such  an  arrangement  is  that  devised  by  Mr 
Slate,  in  which  there  is  an  annular  slide  valve  placed 
outside  the  blast  cylinder ;  it  receives  its  motion  from  a 
•rank  connected  with  the  dy-wheel  shaft.  Thus,  with  lap 
and  lead  of  the  valve  properly  proportioned,  a  high  velocity 
can  be  attained,  and  '.he  tremor  and  jar  that  are  observable 
in  some  of  the  large  engines  are  entirely  absent.  Two 
Buch  engines  working  together,  with  their  cranks  at  right 
angles,  give  such  a  uiiiform  blast  that  no  rcgulator^f  auy 
kind  is  needed.  In  Fossey'a  engine,  which  appeared  in 
the  Exhibition  of  1862,  the  slide  valves  are  replaced  by 
discs  with  radialpertorations,  which  are  put  in  slow  rotatory 
motion  by  gearing  connected  with  the  main  shaft. 

The  blast  engines  with  slide  "alves,  however,  have  not 
proved  so  advantageous  in  practice  as  was  anticipated, 
<)wing  to  the  large  amount  of  friction  on  the  valve  surfaces, 
greater  liability  to  derangement,  and  the  wear  and  tear 
Fcsulting  from  such  rapid  motion. 

As  a  recent  example  of  eagines  of  the  vertical  type, 
with  steam  and  air  cylinders  in  one  lino  (which  have  now 
come  a  good  deal  into  use  in  the  north  of  England)  we 
ini-vy  briefly  notice  the  compoun  1  cylinder  blowing  engines  at 
the  Lackenby  Iron- Works,  Middlesborough.  These  engines 
were  described  by  Mr  .\lfred  Hill  before  the  Institution  of 
Mechanical  Engineers  in  1871,  Fig  4  (copied  from  the 
drawings  by  permission  of  the  Institute  ami  of  Mr  Uill) 
presents  them  in  vertical  section. 

They  consist  of  a  high  pressure  non-condensing  engine 
and  a  low  pressure  condensing  engine,  the  latter  supplied 
by    steam    from    the    former, — this    arrangement    being 
adopted  for  econoraicil  reasons.     A  ie  the  high  pressure 
cylinder  (32  inches  in  diameter)  and  C  the  low  pressure 
(80  inches).     Both  engines  have  a  stroke  of  54  inches; 
and  a  peculiarity  is  that  they  are  coupled  by  cranks  placed 
directly  opposite  each  other  instead  of,  as  usual,  at  right 
angles, — a  light  lly-wheel  being  relied  on  to  carry  them  over 
the  dead  .'entres.     This  secures  a  better  balance   of  the 
engines,  and  expansion  of  the  steam  in  both  cylinders  in 
th'  most  advantageous  manner  ;  it  also  obviates  the  danger 
of  breakages  common   in  the  case  of  right-angle  cranks, 
which  probably  arises  from  the  tendency  to  suduen  accelera- 
tion of  one  engine  over  the  other  at  the  commencement  of 
each  stroke, — full  steam  pressure  being  then  upon  both 
pistons  simultaneously,  whilst  the  resistance  of  the  blast 
pressure    is    acting    against    only    one   of    the    blowing 
pistons.      In  the  blowing  cylinders  B,  the  inlet  valves  in 
the  bottom  are  circular  disc  valves  of  leather,  eighteen  in 
number.     The  inlet  valves  T  on  the  top  of  the  cylinder 
are  arranged  in  ten  rectangular  boxes,  having  openings  in 
their  vertical  sides,   inside  which   are   hung_  leather  tlap 
valves.     The  box  covers  are  made  hollow,  and  are  carried 
down  between  the  backs   of   the  leathern  Haps  (so  as  to 
diminish  the  air  space  as  much  as  possible).      The  outlet 
valves  o  for  air  are  ten  in  number,   at  each  end  of   the 
cylinders,  and  are  hung  against   Hal  gratings,  which  are 
Oied  round  the  circumferenie  of  the  cylinder.      Enclosing 
each  cylinder  is  an  air-tight  wrought-iron  case  M,  into  which 
the  blast  is  delivered,  and  a  branch  at  one  side  (not  shown 
in  tjgure)  conveys  the  blast  to  the  main.     The  area  of  the 
inlet  valves  is  6G0  square  inches,  or  about  Jib  the  area  of 
the  piston;  that  of  the  outlet  valves  is  about  Jth.    For  details 
of  the  balanced  slide  valves  of   the  steam  cylinders,  the 
surface  condenser  D,  the  circulating  pump  E,  the  air-pump  F, 
the  feed  pumps  0,  ic ,  we  must  refer  to  Mr  Hills  paper. 


The  capacity  of  -each  blowing  cylinder  is  167  cubic  feet ; 
consequently,  the  total  quantity  of  blast  supplied  from  both 


Fio.  4. — Vertical  Section  of  Lackciiby  Blowing  Engines. 


cylinders  at  the  regular  speed  of  24  revolutions  per  minute 
is  15,072  feet  per  minpte,  measured  at  atmospheric 
pressure  ;  thus  the  supply  of  blast,  including  loss  by 
leakage,  amounts  ta  190,000  cubic  ft-et  per  ton  of  iron 
made.  The  pressure  of  blast  in  the  blast-main  is  very  free 
from  fluctuations, — owing,  doubtless,  to  its  large  size,  12^ 
times  the  joint  capacity  of  the  two  blowing  cylindere.  The 
indicated  power  of  the  engine  is  found  to  give  a  total  of. 
290  horse ;  that  of  the  two  blowing  cylinders  258. 

Among  the  more  powerful  blowing  engines  of  piston  and 
cylinder  type  at  present  in  use,  may  be  mentioned,  besides 
that  at  Dowlais  referred  to  above,  those  of  Woolwich 
docky.ird,  employed  for  supplying  air  to  forty  forge  fires, 
the  Kirkless  Hall  engines,  constructed  from  Robert  Wilsun's 
designs  for  the  Wigan  Iron  and  Coal  Company,  and  the 
seven  engines  of  Schneider  and  Co.  at  Creusot,  three  of 
which  are  horizontal  engines  of  an  old  type,  and  the  other 
four  direct-acting  vertical  engines.  Descriptions  of  these- 
will  be  found  in  various  standard  works  on  metallurgy  and 
engineering.  For  a  description  of  the  large  blowing  and 
exhausting  engines  lately  constructed  for  the  new  Post- 
Office  in  London,  see  Kni/,ueeripy,  20th  February  1S74. 

An  ingenious  m(de  of  obtr.ining  a  blast  is  adopted  in 
S.ivoy,  Carniola,  and  in  some  parts  of  America  ;  it  is  the 
trompe  or  water-b'')wing  engine.  A  flow  of  a  few  yards 
of  water  is  required.  From  the  bottom  of  a  reservoir 
water  is  admitted,  by  removal  of  a  plug  from  a  conical- 
shaped  aperture,  into  a  large  vertical  wooden  pipe,  which 
tenuinates   below  in   a  wind    chest.     Thu  water,  falliug 


552 


B  E  L  L  0  W  S 


in  streamlets,  carries  down  with  it  air  drawn  in  through 
sloping  holes  near  the  top  of  the  pipe.  The  wind  chest 
below  has  an  opening  for  escape  of  the  water,  and  the  air 
passes  out  from  another  part,  in  a  regular  stream,  by  a 
nozzle  pipe.  To  facilitate  separation  of  the  water  and  the 
air,  it  is  found  advantageous  to  fix  a  small  platform  under 
the  bottom  of  the  pipe,  on  which  the  water  may  impinge 
in  its  fall  The  tension  of  the  blast  is  determined  by  the 
height  from  which  the-  water  falls  ;  but  this  height  seldom 
exceeds  27  feet,  which  gives  a  pressure  of  from  li  to  2  lb 
to  the  square  inch.  While  the  blast  obtained  is  very 
equable,  there  is  the  serious  drawback  that  the  air  supplied 
is  always  more  or  less  laden  with  moisture.  The  action  of 
the  trompe  has  been  investigated  by  Mr  Rodwell  (Philoso- 
tihical  Maff.,  lS6i,  IS07). 

Another   kind   of   blowing  engine,  in    which  water  is 
employed,  is  that  invented  by  Mr  Street ;   in  its  simpler 
form  it  consists  of  a  barrel-shaped  vessel,  supported  hori- 
zontally  by  the  two  ends   of  its  axis.     The  cylinder  is 
divided   longitudinally   by   a  plane   extending   from  the 
imiddle  of  the  internal  surface  above  (the  barrel  being  in 
its  position  of  rest)  to  near  the  opposite  side.     Supjxjse 
the  cylinder  partly  filled  with  water  and  made  to  turn  a 
little  wiy  round  on  its  axis,  the  air  on  one  side  will  be 
compressed  by  the  water,  while  that  on  the  other  will  be 
rarefied.     A  valve  opening  outwards  from  the  condensed 
side  adtdits  the  air  to  a  cavity  from  which  a  nozzle  pipe 
proceeds   while  a  valve  opening  inwards  on  the  rarefied 
eide  admits  external  air.     With  additional  and  correspond- 
ing valves,  the  process  is  repeated  on  the  reverse  oscillation 
of  the  cylinder.     Thus  by  swinging  the  cylinder  from  side 
to  side,  by  a  crank  and  rod  connected  with  the  engine, 
alternate  puffs  of  air  are  propelled  into  a  regulative  air  chest 
of  special  construction,  which  then  supplies  a  steady  blast. 
Fan-blast  machines  are  frequently  employed,  especially  to 
urge  the  fire  of  steam  boilers,  and  in  puddling  and  reheating, 
and  in  the  cupola  furnaces  where  anthracite  is  burnt,  or  coke 
used  for  remelting  pig-iron  in  foundries.     In  one  common 
form  the  fan  consists  of  four  spokes  of  a  rimless  wheel, 
tipped  with  vanes  and  made  to  rotate  in  a  cylindrical  chest, 
in  which  it  has  often  a  slightly  eccentric  position.     There 
are  openings  on  both  sides  round  the  spindle  for  admission 
of  air,  which,  sucked  in  by  the  centrifugal  action  of  the  fan 
as  it  quickly  rotates,  flows  towards  the  vanes,  and  is  driven 
through  an  exit  pipe  attached  to  another  part  of  the  cylinder. 
There   are   numerous   varieties   of  these  engines.     An 
American  machine,  introduced  into  England  a  few  years 
ago  by   Mr   Ellis,  has   found   considerable    favour. i     It 
is  represented  in  section  in  fig.  5.     It  coLsists  of  an  iron 
cyUndrical   casing    A,    open   about   a   fourth  part  Cf  its 
circumference  (a  to  b)  for  admission  of  air,  and  an  exit  pipe 
B.     Inside  the  casing  is  another  cylinde;',  placed  eccen- 
trically to  it,  and  which  always  fits  close  up  against  the 
wooden  packing  C.     This  cylinder  acts  as  driver  fo;   the 
three  fan  blades  or  pistons  D,  which  are  capable  of  passing 
out  and  in  through  longitudinal  slits  in  its  circumference. 
There  is  a  shaft  passing  through  the  small  cylinder,  and 
concentric  with  it  at  the  end.%  but  cranked  in  the  middle 
part  so  as  to  become  concentric  with  the  casing.     The  inner 
cylinder  revolves  round  the  axis  of  the  ends  of  the  shaft, 
and  on  the  cranked  part  revolve  the  fan  blades  or  pistiJns, 
driven  by  the  cylinder.     The  outer  extremities  of  the  fan 
blades  follow  closely  the  inside  face  of  the  casing.     The 
crank    is   placed   opjiosite  to  the  point  where   the  inner 
cylinder  touches  the  inside  of  the  casing,  always  retaining, 
it  raust  bo  remembered,  the  same  position ;   when  passing 
this  point,  the  blades  are    wholly    withdrawn  inside  the 
cylinder,  but    when  passing  the   opposite  point  they  are 
Ihrujt  cut  to  the  fullest  extent,  and  are  always  working 
into  or  out  of  the  inner  cylinder  as  it  revolves.     Tlie  air 


is  thus  continually  being  drawn  in  at  thts  upper  opening, 
compressed,  and  delivered  by  the  lower  one 

b 


Fio  6.  —Rotary  Blower. 


Tio.  b. — tiection  of  au  Ameriran  Blowing-Machine. 

The  rotary  blower,  invented  by  Messrs  Root  of  Con- 
nersville,  Ind.,  is  one  which  has  of  late  years  found 
extensive  use  both  in  America  and  Europe.  The  arrange- 
ment differs  in  some  essential  features  from  that  of  the 
ordinary  fan  ;  it  acts  by  regular  displacement  of  the  air  at 
each  revolution,  as  shown  in  fig  G.  A  pair  of  horizontal 
shafts  geared  together  at  both 
ends  traverse  a  case  of  the 
form  of  two  semi-cylinders 
separated  by  a  rectangle  equal 
in  depth  to  the  diameter  of 
the  semi-cyl;nder3,  and  in 
width  to  the  distance  be- 
tween the  centres  of  the 
shafts.  These  shafts  carry  a 
pair  of  solid  arms,  each  hav- 
ing a  section  somewhat  re- 
sembling a  figure  of  eight , 
the  action  of  which,  as  they  revolve,  takes  the  air  in  by  an 
aperture  at  the  bottom  of  the  machine,  and  expels  it  with 
considerable  pressure,  if  required,  at  the  top.  The  gearing 
outside  serves  merely  to  keep  the  revolving  pieces  in  their 
proper  position,  and  the  power  is  applied  directly  to  each 
shaft.  One  of  these  machines,  employed  to  give  the  blast 
in  a  pneumatic  railway  under  Broad  way.  New  York,  delivers, 
when  worked  to  maximum  speed,  a  volume  of  100,000 
cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute.  The  engine  is  also  much 
used  in  the  Bessemer  steel-works  of  this  country. 

Among  the  exhibits  at  a  recent  exhibition  of  the  Franklin 
Institute  in  America,  was  shown  a  new  form  of  blower, 
acting  much  on  the  same  principle  as  the  Root  blower,  but, 
according  to  the  report  of  the  committee,  offering  certain 
advantages  over  the  latter.  From  a  cross  section  of  the 
chamber  it  appears  that  three  drums  of  equal  size  me 
enclosed  in  it,  two  in  a  line  below  and  one  above  ;  the 
upper  one  is  provided  with  wings,  and  the  two  lower  have 
wide  slots  along  their  entire  length,  allowing -the  wings  to 
enter  in  the  course  of  rotation.  The  function  of  the  two 
lower  drums  is  to  supply  alternately  abutments  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  the  air.  They  are  caused  to  revolve  in  proper 
relation  with  the  motion  of  the  up[x;r  drum  by  spur-wheels 
on  the  journals,  which  mesh  into  another  spur-wheel  on  the 
shaft  of  the  upper  drum.  In  the  moving  parts  of  tbis 
machine  there  are  no  parts  that  come  into  actual  contact 
except  the  teeth  of  the  spur-wLccIs.     The  report  allows  the 


B  E  L  — B  E  L 


553 


superiority  uf  this  rotary  Wuwcr  vl  Dakcr,  inter  alia,  as 
regards  dui.il'i!ity,  little  pulsation,  absence  of  internal  fric- 
tion anil  of  lliB  ni-eu  ot  lubrication,  suitability  for  blowing 
either  hot  or  cold  air,  and  less  power" required  for  the 
amount  of  air  discharged.  A  fuller  account  of  it  will  be 
found  in  the  American  Artisan  for  March  1875. 

For  the  arrangement  of  bellows  in  organs  sec  the  article 
Organ.  (a.  b.  m.) 

BELLUN'O,  the  ancienl  Btlitnum,  is  the  capital  of  a 
province  of  Northern  Italy,  and  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
.<;ituated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Piave  and  the  Ardo,  in 
long.  12°  S'  ■IC  E.  und  lat.  4G=  T  4G"  N.  •  Besides  the 
dihedral,  which  was  built  by  Palladius,  there  are  fifteen 
churches,  a  theological  seminary,  a  gymnasium,  a  theatre, 
and  a  library.  A  society  of  arts  and  sciences  and  a  cham- 
ber of  com:iierce  have  their  meetings  in  the  city.  Water 
ii  supplied  from  the  neighbouring  hills  by  a  remarkable 
.-iqueduct.  The  principal  industries  are  the  manufacture  of 
silk,  wax, leather,  and  pottery  ;  and  a. considerable  trade  is 
carried  on  in  wood.      Fupulation,  15,509. 

BELON,  PlEHRE,  French  naturalist,  was  born  about 
1517  at  the  hamlet  of  Soulleticre,  in  Maine.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Paris  and  took  the  degree  of  doctor.  He  after- 
wards travelled  in  Germany,  and  heard  some  lecturer  at  the 
famous  University  of  Wittenberg.  On  his  return  to  France 
he  was  taken  under  the  patronage  of  the  Cardinal  de  Tour- 
non,  who  furnished  him  with  means  for  undertaking  an 
extensive  scientific  journey.  Belon  started  in  15-16, 
travelled  through  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  jVrabia,  and 
Palestine,  and  returned  iu  1549.  A  full  account  of  his 
travels,  with  illustratious,  was  published  in  1553.  It 
passed  through  several  editions,  and  was  translated  into 
Latin  and  German.  Belon,  who  was  highly  favoured  both 
by  Henry  11.  and  by  Charles  IX.,  was  assassinated  one 
evening  in  April  1564,  when  coming  through  the  Bois  de 
Boulogne.  Besides  the  narrative  of  his  travels  he  wrote 
s^jveral  scientific  works  of  considerable  value,  particularly 
the  llisloire  NaturelU  dcs  Estranges  Poissons,  1551,  and 
L'llistoire  de  la  Mature  des  Oyseaujc,  1555. 

BELPASSO,  a  lown  of  Sicily,  on  the  slopes  of  Etna,  in 
the  province  of  Catania,  and  about  8  miles  from  the  city 
of  that  name.  In  1669  it  was  destroyed  by  an  eruption. 
The  inhabitants  rebuilt  their  town  on  a  new  site  at  Mezzo 
Campo,  but,  finding  the  locality  unhealthy,  they  afterwards 
returned  to  their  original  position.     Population,  7620. 

BELPER,  a  market-town  ^{  Derbyshire,  situated  on  the 
binks  of  the  Derwent,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  stone 
bridge.  It  is  7  miles  north  of  Derby,  on  the  Midland 
Iliilway.  For  a  considerable  period  one  of  the  most  (lour- 
ishiug  towns  in  the  country,  it  is  principally  indebted 
for  its  prosperity  to  the  establishment  of  cotton-works  by 
Messrs  Strutt  in  1777.  It  also  manufactures  linens,  silks, 
hosiery,  nails,  and  earthenwares ;  it  has  three  churches, 
(jieral  chapels  for  Independents,  Methodists,  Baptists,  &c., 
a  mechanics'  institution,  and  a  subscription  library.  In 
the  neighbourhood  arc  the  remains  of  a  mansion  where 
John  of  Gaunt  used  to  reside.     Population  (1871),  S527. 

BELSHAM,  Thomas,  a  Unitarian  clergyman,  was  born 
at  Bedford  in  1750.  He  was  educated  at  the  Dissenting 
Academy  at  Da/entry,  where  for  seven  years  he  acted  as 
assistant  tutor.  After  three  years  spent  in  a  charge  it 
\Vorcester,  he  returned  as  head  of  the  Davcntry  Academy, 
B  post  which  he  continued  to  hold  till  17.S9,  when,  having 
adopted  Unitarian  principles,  ho  r.'.signcd  all  connection 
with  the  institution.  He  superintended  during  its  brief 
existence  a  new  college  at  Hackney,  and  was  then  called 
to  the  charge  of  the  Gravel  Pit  congregation,  which  had 
been  formerly  held  by  the  famous  Priestley.  Iq  1805  he 
was  ajipointed  to  the  Essex  Street  chaptl,  where  he 
remained  till  his  death  in  1S29.  E-.lsbam's  first  work  of 
3—20* 


importance,  Jieiiew  oj  Sir  Willerfcrrcct  Treatise  entitled 
Practical  View,  1798,  was  written  after  his  conversion  to 
Unitarianism.  His  most  popular  work  was  the  Etiidencei 
of  Christianity ;  ■  the  most  important  was  his  translation 
and  exposition  of  the  Epistles  of  St  Paul.  He  was  also 
the  author  of  a  work  on  philosophy,  Elementa  of  tht  Fhilo- 
sojjhy  of  the  Uuman  Mind,  ISOl,  which  id  entirely  ba:>ed 
on  Hartley's  psychology.  Belsham  is  one  of.  the  most 
vigorous  and  able  writers  on  the  Unitarian  side, 

BELSHAM,  William,  brother  of  the  preceding,  wa* 
born  in  1752,  and  died  in  1827.  His  productions  were 
mainly  historical  and  political  writings,  advocating  the 
politics  of  the  Whig  part,,.  Several  detached  historical 
treatises  were  collected  together,  and  published  in  1806 
under  the  title,  Ilistoi-y  of  Great  Britain  to  the  conclxuion 
of  the  Peace  of  Amiens  in  1802,  12  vols. 

BELSHAZZAR,  the  name  of  a  Babylonian  prince 
mentioned  in  the  book  of  Daniel.  According  to  tho 
account  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  Daniel,  Belshazzar  was  king 
of  Babylon  at  the  time  of  the  capture  of  the  city  by  the 
Medes  and  Persians,  and  was  slain  when  the  city  was 
surprised  during  a  festivah  No  ancient  historian  mentions 
the  name  of  Belshazzar  among  the  successors  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  there  has  been  considerable  controversy  as  to 
the  identity  of  the  unfortunate  monarch.  The  successors 
of  Nebuchadnezzar,  according  to  the  copyis'a  of  Berosus, 
were  as  follows : — Evil-nierodach,  two  years,  son  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  ;  Neriglissar,  or  Nergalsharezer,  four 
years,  son-in-law  of  Nebuchadnezzar  ;  Laborosoarchod,  nino 
months,  son  of  Neriglissar  ;  Nabonidus,  seventeen  years,  not 
of  the  royal  family.  Niebuhr  and  some  others  identified 
Belshazzar  with  Evil-merodach  ;  other  scholars  with  Nerig- 
lissar ;  and  a  third  section,  including  Ewald  and  Browne, 
identified  him  with  Nabonidus.  There  is  no  necessity 
now  to  argue  against  these  and  similar  views,  as  they  are 
set  aside  by  the  Babylonian  cuneiform  inscriptions,  which 
show  that  Bel-sar-uzur,  or  Belshazzar,  was  the  name  of  the 
eldest  son  of  Nabonidus,  the  last  king  of  Babylon.  In 
some  of  his  latter  inscriptions  Nabu-nahid  or  Nabonidus 
mentions  his  eldest  son  Belsar-uzur  in  such  terms  as  to 
lead  to  the  impression  that  the  young  prince  was  associated 
with  himself  on  the  throne ;  and  this  explains  several 
dilTicuIties  between  the  historians  and  the  book  of  Daniel 
with  respect  to  the  capture  of  Babylon.  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Babylonian  forces  Nabonidus  lied  to  Borsippa,  while 
the  young  prince  Belshazzar  was  left  in  charge  of  Babylon, 
the  capital,  which  was  closely  besieged  by  the  Modes  and 
Persians.  The  historians  all  say  that  Nabonidus,  the 
last  king  of  Babylon,  'subnvitted  to  the  conquerors  at 
Borsippa  after  the  taking  of  his  capital,  while  the  book  of 
Daniel  states  that  Belshazzar  was  slain  on  the  night  of  the 
capture  of  Babylon.  These  two  statements  have  been 
supposed  to  contradict  each  other,  but  we  now  know  that 
they  refer  to  two  totally  distinct  princes  whose  fates  were 
quite  different.  The  inscriptions  of  Nabonidus  which 
mention  Belshazzar  are  found  on  clay  cylinders  from 
Mugheir  and  other  Chaldean  sites,  and  they  were  first 
discovered  and  publi..jed  by  Sir  Henry  Bawlinson,  to 
whom  we  owe  this  rectification  in  ancient  history.  One 
of  these  passages  in  a  prayer  reads:  "  Me  Nabu-nahid, 
king  of  Babylon,  from  sin  against  thy  great  divinity,  do 
thou  save  me,  and  health  and  long  days  numerous  do 
thou  multiply.  And  of  Bel-sar-uzur, — my  eldest  son,  the 
delight  of  my  heart  in  the  worship  of  thy  great  divinity, 
his  heart  do  ihou  establish,  and  may  he  not  consort  with 
sinners  "  The  other  texts  are  after  the  same  form,  and 
give  no  new  details  as  to  Belshazzar, — the  account  in  iho 
fifth  chapter  of  Daniel  containing  all  that  is  known  of  his 
history.  The  numerous  works  written  on  this  subject 
before  the   discovery   of  the   cuneiform    inscnjition*    are 


554 


"B  E  L  -H  K  N 


now  of  little  value ;  all  that  is  tnown  with  any  certainiy 
oa  the  matter  will  be  fouod  in  Rawlinson's  Vreat  Mvn- 
archies,  2d  edition,  vol.  iii. 

BELT,  Great,  and  Little  Belt,  two  straits  which 
jonaect  the  Baltic  Sea  with  the  Cattegat.  The  former,  with 
4  depth  of  from  5  to  20  fathoms,  and  a  breadth  of  about  15 
miles,  runs,  from  S.S.E.  to  N.N.W.,  between  the  islands 
of  Zealand  and  Fiinen  ;  while  the  Little  Belt,  which  is 
only  about  half  as  wide,  with  a  narrow  entrance  from  the 
Cattegat,  separates  Fiinen  from  the  mainland  of  Schleswig. 
The  navigation  of  both  is  rather  dangerous  for  large  vessels, 
owing  to  the  number  of  sandbanks  and  small  islands  ;  and 
'on  that  account  the  Sound,  which  lies  to  the  east,  is  the 
■_  channel  preferred  by  shipping. 

BELTANE,  or  Beltein,  a  festival  originally  common  to 
nil  the  Celtic  peoples,  of  which  traces  were  to  be  found  in 
Ireland  and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  down  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century.  The  name  is  compounded  of 
bel  or  beat,  the  Celtic  god  of  light,  and  lin  or  teine,  meaning 
fire.  The  principal  Beltane  celebration  was  held  annually 
in  the  begmning  (generally  on  the  first  day)  of  May,  though 
'.the  name  is  also  applied  to  a  similar  festival  which  occurred 
in  the  beginning  of  ■  November.  According  to  Cormac, 
archbishop  of  Cashel  about  the  year  90S,  who  furnishes 
the  earliest  notice  of  Beltane,  it  was  customary  to  kindle,  in 
very  close  proximity,  two  fires,  between  which  both  men  and 
cattle  were  driven,  under  the  belief  that  health  was  thereby 
■promoted  and  disease  warded  off.  (See  Transactions  of 
the  Irish  Academy,  xiv.  pp.  100;  122,  123.)  Of  the 
celebration  in  more  recent  times  an  account  is  given  by 
Armstrong  in  his  Gaelic  Dictionary,  s.  v.  "Bealtainn."  The 
whole  subject  is  fully  treated  by  J.  Grimm  in  his  Deutsche 
Mythologie,  c.  xx. 
,     BELUCHISTAN.     See  Baxuchistan. 

BELVEDERE,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Calabria  Citra,  on  the  Mediterranean,  32  miles  N.W.  of 
Dosenza.  It  possesses  a  castle  and  a  maidens'  hospital,  and 
is  beaiitifully  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  hilL  Population 
between  5000  and  6000. 

BELZONI,  Giovanni  Battista,  one  of  the  most  enter- 
prising and  successful  Egyptian  explorers,  was  born  of 
humble  parentage  at  Padua  in  1778.  When  about  eighteen 
years  of  age  he  appears  to  have  removed  to  Eome,  and  for 
a  short  time  became  a  monk.  In  1 798  the  occupation  of 
the  city  by  the  French  troops  drove  him  from  Rome.  He 
wandered  through  Holland,  and  in  1803  came  to  England. 
Here  for  some  time  he  was  compelled  to  find  subsistence 
for  himself  and  his  wife,  an  Englishwoman,  by  exhibiting 
on  the  streets  athletic  exercises  and  feats  of  agility.  Through 
the  kindness  of  Mr  Salt,  who  was  ever  afterwards  his 
patron,  he  was  engaged  at  Astley's  amphitheatre,  and  his 
circumstances  soon  began- to  improve.  In  1812  he  set  out 
on  his  travels,  passing  through  Lisbon  and  Madrid  to 
Egypt,  where  his  friend,  Mr  Salt,  was  British  consul.  He 
was  desirous  of  laying  before  the  pasha  Mehemet  Ali  a 
hydraulic  machine  for  raising  the  waters  of  the  Nile. 
Though  the  experiment  with  this  engine  was'  successful, 
the  design  was  abandoned  by  the  pasha,  and  Belzoni 
resolved  to  continue  his  travels.  lie  visited  Thebes  and 
removed  with  great  skill  the  colossal  statue,  commonly 
called  young  Memnon,  which  he  shipped  for  England.  He 
also  pushed  his  investigations  into  tlie  great  temple  of 
Edfoo,  visited  Elephantina  and  Philoe,  discovered  the  temple 
of  Abusimbel,  made  excavations  at  Carnac,  and  opened  up 
a  splendid  tomb  in  the  Beban-el-Molouk.  He  was  the  first 
to  penetrate  into  the  second  gre.at  pyramid  of  Ghizeh,  and 
.lie  first  to  visit  the  oasis  west  of  Lake  Maoris.  In  1819 
he  returned  to  England  and  published  in  the  following  year 
a  most  interesting  account  of  his  travels  and  discoveries. 
LI'.'  also  exhibited  for  8ome  time  at  the  Epyptian  Hall  fac- 


similes of  the  great  lomt)  at  Reban-el-Molouk.  in  j823 
he  again  set  out  for  Africa,  inteuding  to  penetrate  to  Tim- 
buctoo.  He  reached  Benin,  but  was  seized  with  dysentery 
at  a  village  called  G-ito,  and  died  December  3,  1823. 

BEMBO,  PiETRO,  Cardinal,  wasliora  at  Venice  on  the 
20th  of  May  1470.  While  still  a  boy  he  accompanied  his 
father  to  Florence,  and  there  acquired  a -love  for  that 
Tuscan  form  of  speech  which  he  afterwards  cultivated  ia 
preference  to  the  dialect  of  his  native  city.  Having  com- 
pleted his  studies,  which  included  two  years'  devotion  to 
Greek  under  Lascaris  at  Messina,  ho  chose  the  ecclesiastical 
profession.  After  a  considerable  time  spent  in  vanous 
cities  and  courts  of  Italy,  where  his  learning  already  made 
him  welcome,  he  accompanied  Julio  de'  Medici  to  Eome, 
where  he  was  soon  after  appointed  secretary  to  Leo  X.  On 
the  Pontiff's  death  he  retired,  with  impaired  health,  to  Padua, 
and  there  lived  for  a  number  of  years  'engaged  in  literary 
labours  and  amusements.  In  1529  he  accepted  the  office 
of  historiographer  to  his  native  city,  and  shortly  afterwards 
was  appointed  librarian  of  St  Mark's.  The  offer  of  a 
cardinal's  hat  by  Pope  Paul  III.  took  him  in  1539  again 
to  Rome,  where  he  renounced  the  study  of  classical  litera- 
ture and  devoted  himself  to  theology  and  classical  history, 
receiving  before  long  the  reward  of  his  conversion  in  the 
shape  of  the  bishoprics  of  Gubbio  and  Bergamo.  *  He  died 
on  the  18th  of  January.  1547.  Bembo,  as  a  writer,  is  the 
beau  ideal  of  a  purist.  The  exact  imitation  of  the  style 
of  the  genuine  classics  was  the  highest  perfection  at  which 
he  aimed.  This  at  once  prevented  the  graces  of  spontaneity 
and  secured  the  beauties  of  artistic  elaboration.  One  can- 
not fail  to  be  struck  with  the  Ciceronian  cadence  that 
guides  the  movement  even  of  his  Italian  writings. 

His  works  include  a  Eistory  of  Venice  from  HS7  to  1513,  dia- 
logues, poems,  and  what  we  would  now  call  essays.  Perhaps  tlie 
most  famous  are  a  little  treatise  on  Italian  prose,  and  a  dialogue 
entitled  Gli  Asolani,  in  which  Platonic  affection  is  explained  and 
recommended  in  a  rather  long-winded  fashion,  to  the  amusement  of 
the  reader  who  remenibcrs  the  relations  oi  the  beautiful  llorosin* 
with  the  author.  The  edition  of  Petrarch's  Italian  Poeiru,  pubiishei 
by  Aldus  in  1501,  and  the  Tenerirw,  which  issued  from  the  same 
press  in  1502,  were  edited  by  Bembo,  who  was  on  intimate  term! 
with  the  great  typographer.  See  Operedc  P.  JSevibo,  Venice,  1729; 
Casa,  Vita  di  Bembo,  m  2d  vol.  of  his  works. 

BENARES,  a  division,  district,  and  city  of  British  India, 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the 
N.W.  Provinces.  Benares  Division  lies  between  24° 
and  28"  N.  lat,  and  82°  and  85°  E.  long.  It  ia^bounHeH 
on  the  N.  by  Uudh,  the  Dudb,  and  Bundelkhaud";  on  the 
E.  by  Nepil ;  on  the  S.  by  Bengal ;  and  on  the  W.  by 
Rlwa.  It  comprises  the  districts  of  MirzApur,  Ghizipur, 
Azimgarh,  Bastl,  and  Gorakhpur ;  has  an  area  of  18,314 
square  miles  ;  and  a  total  population  in  1872,  of  8,178,147, 
of  whom  7,286,415,  or  891,  were  Hindus;  889,335,  or 
109,  Mahometans;  1797  Christians  and  others. 

Benabes,  a  District  of  British  India,  in  the  division  of 
the  same  name,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  the  N.W.  Provinces,  lies  between  25°  7'  and 
25°  32'  N.  lat.,  and  82°  45'  and  83°  38'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  British  district  of  Jaunpur,  on  the  N  E. 
by  GhAzipur,  on  the  S.E.  by  Sb.^hibAd,  on  the  S.  and  S.W. 
by  MirzApur,  and  on  the  W.  by  MirzApur  and  Jaunpur. 
The  surface  of  the  country  is  remarkably  level,  with  nume- 
rous deep  ravines  in  the  calcareous  conglomerate.  This 
substratum  when  burnt  affords  good  lime,  and  forms  an 
excellent  material  for  roads  in  its  natural  state.  The  soil 
is  a  clayey  or  a  sandy  loam,  and  verj'  fertDe,  eicept  in  the 
tracts  called  Usur,  which  are  impregnated  with  soda,  nitre, 
and  other  salts. 

Principal  rivers — the  Ganges ;  the  Karamnlsd,  which  neparate* 
Benares  district  from  that  ot  Shahiibiid  ;  the  Gumti,  separating  it 
from  Jaunpur  and  Gh;'uiijur;  tho  Bania-n.-iki,  which  falls  liito  tie 
Ganges  near  Benares  city.  Area,  09619  square  miles,  of  which  738 
arc  uador  cultivation.  31J'39cu'f'""''iiebut  not  actually  under  cultiT»« 


b  li  N  A  R  E  S 


555 


ncn,  «nd  the  rest  uncttllivablc  w!k.-t*.  Pi.pulaMsn  io  1872,  793,609, 
— Ill)  p*irceut  t-eing  Hindus,  10  [kt  ceax.  MahomeUofl,  and  Cliris- 
tiaa5,  Ac,  oamberiDg  345.  Fnucipal  crops — wheat,  barley,  pulse 
ofvanoua  kinds,  miUet,  maue.  oiJ-seeda,  tobaco  ,  satBower,  opium, 
loear  uine,  and  caatoroU  swd.  Manufactures  —  sugar,  opiuni, 
iDCigo.  'Totlon  cloth,  coarse  woollens,  silk,  and  leather.  Prmciiia] 
roa-ls— (1),  From  Calcutu  to  Benares,  and  thence  towards  Alla- 
habad .  (2),  »  continuation  of  the  Calcutta  road  through  the  toivn 
of  Benares  to  the  Sikrol  cantonment,  and  thence  towards  Jaiinpur  ; 
l3i.  from  Ghazipur  to  Mirzapur  by  Sikrol;  and  (4),  from  Benares  city 
\o  Chanif  The  East  Indian  fiailway  passes  through  the  djstnct, 
and  the  Ganges  is  naingable  all  the  year  round.  Gross  revenue  in 
IS'O-il.  tl40,617,  of  which  £S9,286,  or  63  per  cent.,  was  derived 
from  land.  In  1872-73  the  district  contained  642  schools,  attended 
by  12,782  pupils.  Only  two  towns  in  the  district  contain  above 
i'lOO  inhabitants,  viz  .  Benares  and  Ramna;4Er  The  climate  of 
Benares  is  cool  in  winter,  but  very  wann  in  the  hot  season.  Mean 
wmperarure  in  1872.  *77'6*  Kahr. .  averse  annual  ramlall  for  the 
nine  years  ending  1972,  34  03  inches. 

From  a  very  rem'ot«  period  Benares  formed  the  seat  of  a 
Hindu  kingdom,  said  to  have  been  (ouaded  by  one  Kasi 
RAji,  1200  years  DC.  Subsequently  it  became  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  Kanauj,  which  in  1 193  a.d.  was  conquered 
by  Muhammad  of  Ghor.  On  the  downfall  of  the  Pathan 
dynasty  of  Dehli,  about  1599,  it  was  incoiTJorated  with  the 
ilughul  empire.  On  the  dismemberment  of  the  Dehli 
empire  it  was  seized  by  Safdar  Jang,  the  Naw4b  Vazir  of 
Oudh,  by  whose  grandson  it  was  ceded  to  the  East  India 
Company  by  the  treaty  of  1775.  The  subsequent  history 
of  Benares  contains  two  imiwrtant  events,— the  rebellion 
of  Chait  Sinh,  occasioned  by  the  unjust  demands  of  Warren 
Hastings  for  money  to  c^irry  on  the  MarhattA  war  ,  and 
the  mutiny  of  the  Native  regiments  in  1857,  on  which 
occasion  the  energy  and  coolness  of  the  European  officials 
(chiefly  of  General  Neill)  carried  the  dtstnct  successfully 
through  the  storm. 

Benares,  the  most  populous  city  m  the  North-Western 
Provinces,  and  the  headquarters  of  the  commissioner  of  the 
division.  13  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Ganges,  in 
25°  7'  N  lal.  and  83"  4'  E.  long.  According  to  the  census 
of  1872,  the  population  amounted  to  175,188,  viz.,  89,763 
males,  and  85,425  females,— 133,549,  or  76-23  per  cent, 
being  Hindus.  41.374,  or  23"7  per  cent,  Mahometans) 
others,  265  Gross  municipal  income  in  1871,  £16,069; 
expenditure,  £14.331.,  average  rate  of  municipal  taxation, 
lb    lOd.  per  head. 

The  town  of  Benares— the  religious  centre  of  Hinduism 
— IS  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  on  the  globe.  The  Rev. 
Mr  Sherring,  m  his  S'icred  C"y  of  lh(  Hindus  (1868), 
statei — "Twenty-five  centuries  ago,  at  the  least,  it  was 
famous.  When  Babylon  was  struggling  with  Nineveh  for 
supremacy,  when  Tyre  was  planting  her  colonies,  when 
Athens  was  growing  in  strength,  before  Rome  had  become 
known,  or  Greece  had  contended  with  Persia,  or  Cyrus  had 
adJ'jd  lustre  to  the  Persian  monarchy,  or  Nebuchadnezzar 
had  captured  Jerusalem  and  the  inhabitants  of  Judea  had 
been  carried  into  captivity,  she  bad  already  risen  to  great- 
ness, if  not  to  glory.  Nay,  she  may  have  heard  of  -the 
fame  of  Solomon,  and  have  sent  her  ivory,  her  apes,  and 
her  peacocks  to  adorn  his  palaces  ;  while  partly  with  her 
gold  he  may  have  overlaid  the  temple  of  the  Lord."  Hiouen 
Th.sang,  the  celebrated  Chinese  pilgrim,  visited  Benares  in 
the  7ih  century  a.d  ,  and  described  it  as  containing  thirty 
Buddhist  monasteries,  with  about  3000  monks,  and'abouta 
hundred  temples  of  Hindu  gods.  Even  after  the  lapse  of 
«o  great  a  time  the  city  u  still  in  its  glory,  and  as  seen 
.Vom  the  river  it  presents  a  scene  of  great  picturesqueness 
and  grandeur  The  Ganges  here  fonns  a  fine  sweep  of 
about  4  miles  in  length,  the  city  being  situated  on  the 
outside  of  the  curvo.  o:>  the  northern  bank  of  the  river, 
vfhich  1?  the  most  clov.-ited  It  is  about  3  miles  in  length, 
by  I  in  breadth  nsmg  from  the  river  in  the  form  of  an 
-■nphithralrc,    ai.d    is   thickly  studded   with    domes    and 


minarets.  The  bank  of  the  river  is  entirely  lined  with 
stone,  and  there  are  many  very  fine  gluils  or  landing-places 
built  by  pious  devotees,  and  highly  ornamented.  These 
are  generally  crowded  with  bathers  and  worshippers. 
Shrines  and  temples  lino  the  bank.  The  internal  street.'' 
are  so  winding  and  narrow  that  there  is  not  rooa 
for  a  carriage  to  pass,  and  it  is  ditlicult  to  penetrate  then 
even  on  horseback.  Their  level  is  considerably  lowci 
than  the  ground-floors  of  the  houses,  which  have  geuerally 
arched  rows  in  front,  with  little  shops  behind  them  ;  and 
above  ihese  they  are  richly  embellished  with-  verandahs, 
galleries,  projecting  oriel  windows,  and  very  broad  over- 
hanging eaves  supported  by  carved  brackets.  The  houses 
are  buUt  of  Chaiiar  stone,  and  are  lofty — none  being  less 
than  two  stories  high,  most  of  them  three,  and  several  of 
five  or  si.x  stories.  The  Hindus  are  fond  of  painting  the 
outside  of  their  houses  a  deep  red  colour,  and  of  covering 
the  most  conspicuous  parts  with  pictures  of  flowers,  men, 
women,  bulls,  elephants,  and  gods  and  goddesses  in  all  the 
multiform  shapes  known  in  Hindu  mythology.  The  number 
of  temples  is  very  great ;  they  are  mostly  small,  and  iire 
placed  in  the  angles  of  the  streets,  under  the  shadow  of  the 
lofty  houses,  Theix  forms  are  not  ungraceful,  and  many 
of  them  are  covered  over  with  beautiful  and  elaborate 
carvings  of  flowers,  animals,  and  palm  branches,  rivalling 
in  richness  and  minuteness  the  finest  specimens  of  Gothic 
or  of  Grecian  architecture. 

Benares,  having  from  time  immemori.il  been  a  holy  city, 
contains  a  vast  number  of  Brihmans,  who  either  subsist  by 
charitable  contributions,  or  are  supported  by  eudowments 
in  the  numerous  religious  institutions  of  the  city.  Hindu 
religious  mendicants,  with  every  conceivable  boddy  deform- 
ity, literally  line  the  principal  streets  on  both  sides.  Some 
have  their  legs  or  arms  distorted  by  long  continuance  in 
one  position  ;  others  have  kept  their  hands  clenched  uritil 
the  finger  nails  have  pierced  entirely  through  their  handa 
But  besides  an  immense  resort  to  Benares  of  poor  pilgrims 
from  every  part  of  India,  as  well  as  from  Thibet  and 
Burinah,  numbers  of  rich  Hindus,  in  the  decline  of  life, 
retire  thither  to  pass  the  remainder  of  their  days,  or 
temporarily  to  wash  away  their  sins  in  the  sacred  water  of 
the  Ganges.  These  devotees  lavish  largo  sums  in  indis- 
criminate charity,  and  it  is  the  hope  of  sharing  in  such 
pious  distributions  that  briugs  together  the  concourse  of 
religious  mendicants  from  all  quarters  of  the  country. 

Besides  its  religious  interest,  Benares  is  important  as  a 
wealthy  city  and  a  place  of  considerable  trade ;  the  bdzirs 
are  filled  with  the  richest  goods,  and  there  is  a  constant 
bustle  of  business  in  all  the  principal  streets.  A  large 
trade  is  earned  on  in  the  sugar,  saltpetre,  and  indigo  which 
are  produced  in  the  district.  Silk  and  shawls  are  manu- 
factured in  the  city  ;  and  Benares  is  especially  famous  for 
its  gold  embroidered  cloths,  called  Kinkdb  (Kincob),  and  for 
its  told  filagree  work.  A  large  quintity  of  English  piece 
goods  here  finds  a  market,  being  eith'^r  sold  for  consumption 
in  the  neighbourhood,  or  sent  to  othe'  parts  of  the  country. 
The  principal  English  institution  in  Benares  is  the  Govern- 
ment or  Queen's  College,  as  it  is  called,  conducted  by  a  staff 
of  professors  from  England.  There  are  two  distinct  and 
separate  depart.mc/its  in  the  college — Sanskrit  and  English. 
The  Sanskrit  college  was  founded  by  Government  in  1791. 
There  are  three  missions  in  Benares — the  Church  of 
England,  the  London,  and  the  Bajdist  Missionary  Society. 
The  mission  in  connection  with  the  Church  of  England 
was  established  in  1817.  The  mission  has  a  church  capable 
of  holding  between  300  and  400  persons,  two  normal  schools 
for  training  Christian  teachers,  a  large  college,  and  several 
girls'  schools.  The  mUsion  of  the  London  .Mis.^ionary 
Society  was  inaugurated  in  1821,  and  is  situated  in  the 
suburbs  of  the  ci'"      A   substantial  church  was  crecind 


556 


B  EN  — BE  N 


About  1 8-16.  TLe  mission  of  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society 
was  founded  in  1817,  originally  as  an  outpost  of  the 
Serampur  mission.  It  maintains  an  orphanage  for  the 
support  and  education  of  native  children.  With  regard  to 
the  ci\-il  station,  which  is  situated  a  short  distance  from 
the  town,  Mr  Sherring  says, — 

"  The  foreign  residents  of  Benares  live  chiefly  at  Sikrol,  an  exten- 
sive suburb  on  the  north-west  side  of  the  city.  This  station  is 
divided  by  the  Bama  River,  to  the  south  of  which  the  Kreat«r  jjor- 
tion  of  the  milit.ir>- cantonments,  and  buildings  connected  therewith, 
are  situated,  and  likewise  the  English  church,  Government  college, 
medical  hall,  the  old  mint,  the  residence  of  the  Maharaja  of  Benares, 
the  missionaries  of  the  Church  of  England  and  of  the  t-ondon  and 
the  Baptist  Societies,  the  courts  of  the  civil  and  sessions  judge,  the 
deputy -judge,  and  the  judge  of  small  causes.  To  the  north'of  the 
liver  are  the  houses  of  the  civil  officers  of  Government,  the  courts  of 
the  commissioner  of  the.  division,  and  of  the  collector  and  other 
magistrates  of  the  district ;  several  bungalows  inhabited  by  deposed 
Hajas  and  other  natives  ;  the  Wards'  Institution,  for  the  residence 
of  sons  of  native  noblemen  under  special  charge  of  Government,  and 
while  pursuing  their  studies  at  Que«n's  College;  the  beautiful  public 
gardens,  supported  by  subscription  ;  the  swimming  bath  ;  the  jail,  in 
which  as  many  as  1700  prisoners  are  sometimes  confined  ;  the  lunatic 
asylum,  with  110  patients  ;  the  blind  and  leper  asylum,  with  130 
inmates,  founded  in  1825  by  Raja  Kali  Sankar  Ghoshil ;  and  the 
cemetery-  A  hospital  and  four  dispensaries  are  situated  in.  various 
paits  of  the  city,  and  afford  gratuitous  relief  to  numerous  patients 
daily." 

BENAVENTE,  a  decayed  town  of  Spain,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Zamora,  situated  on  a  gentle  eminence  near  the 
River  Esla.  It  formerly  gave  title  to  the  Pimentals,  a 
powerful  family  of  counts,  which  is  now  merged  in  that  of 
the  dukes  of  Osuna.  The  ancient  castle  still  exists  in  a 
rumous  condition.  Among  the  numerous  churches,  for 
which  the  town  was  once  remarkable,  are  Santa  Maria 
del  Azogue,  dating  from  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  and 
San  Juan  del  Mercado,  which  once  belonged  to  the 
Knights-Templars,  and  still  contains  sonie  very  old  sepul- 
chral monuments.  Silk-spinning  is  carried  on  by  the 
inhabitants,  who  number  4536. 

BENBOW,  John,  English  admiral,  the  sou  of  a 
Shropshire  gentleman,  was  born  at  Shrewsbury  about 
1650.  He  went  to  sea  when  very  young,  and  at  the  age 
of  thirty  became  master  of  a  merchautman.  When  trading 
to  the  Mediterranean  in  1686,  he  beat  off  a  Sallee  pirate 
with  such  bravery  that  James  II.,  who  took  a  keen  interest 
in  ships  and  seamen,  made  him  captain  of  a  man-of-war. 
On  the  accession  of  William  III.  ha  was  employed  to 
protect  English  commerce  in  the  Channel,  a  duty  which  he 
vigilantly  discharged.  After  taking  part  v^th  great 
intrepidity  in  the  bombardment  of  St  Malo  (1693),  and 
superintending  the  blockade  of  Dunkirk  (1696),  he  sailed 
in  1698  for  the  West  Indies,  where  he  compelled  the 
Spaniards  to  restore  several  English  vessels  which  they  had 
seized.  On  his  return  he  was  appointed  vice-admiral,  and 
was  frequently  consulted  by  the  king.  In  1701  he  was 
sent  again  to  the  West  Indies,  a  station  declined  by  his 
seniors  from  fear  of  the  French  strength  in  these  waters. 
In  August  1702  his  ship,  the  "Breda,"  gave  chase  off  Santa 
Martha  to  a  French  squadron  under  Du  Casso ;  and 
although  unsupported  by  his  consorts,  he  kept  up  a  ninning 
fight  for  five  days  with  the  moat  stubborn  courage.  While 
boarding  the  sternmost  French  vessel  he  received  two  severe 
wounds  ;  and  shortly  afterwards  his  right  leg  was  shattered 
by  a  chain  shot,  desjiito  which  he  remained  on  the  quarter- 
deck till  morning,  when  the  flagrant  disobedience  of  the 
captains  under  him,  and  tho  disabled  condition  of  his 
ship,  forced  him  reluctantly  to  abandon  the  chase.  After 
his  return  to  Jamaica,  where  his  subordinates  were  tried  by 
court-martial,  he  died  of  his  Wounds  on  November  4, 
1702.  _  Ho  possessed  inflexible  resolution  and  great  naval 
skill,  and  secured  his  high  rank  through  his  unaided 
Tuerits.  (Cf.  Yonge's  lliat.  of  thr  Uritish  Navj/,  vol.  L; 
Campbell's  Bnlish  Admirals,  vol   iil) 


BE\CH,  or  B.iKC,  nas  various  legal  significations. 

Free-Bench  signifies  that  estate  in  copyhold-lands  which 
the  wife,  being  espoused  a  virgin,  has,  after  the  decease  of 
her  husband,  for  her  dower,  dum  sola  et  casta  futrit, 
according  to  the  custom  of  the  manor.  With  respect  to 
this  free-bench  different  manors  have  different  customs. 

Queen's  Bench  is  one  of  the  three  superior  courts  of 
Common  Law  at  Westminster,  the  others  being  the 
Common  Pleas  and  the  Exchequer.  Although  for  many- 
years  these  tribunals  have  possessed  co-ordinate  jurisdiction, 
there  are  a  few  cases  in  which  each  possesses  exclusiva 
authority,  and  in  point  of  dignity  precedence  is  given  to 
the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  the  Lord  Chief-Justice  of 
which  is  also  styled  Lord  Chief-Justiceof  England,  and  is 
the  highest  permanent  judge  of  the  Crown.  All  three 
courts  trace  their  origin  to  the  avla  regia.  The  Court  of 
Exchequer  attended  to  the  business  of  the  revenue,  the 
Common  Pleas  to  private  actions  between  citizens,  and  the 
Queen's  Bench  retained  criminal  cases  and  such  other 
jurisdiction  as  had  not  been  divided  between  the  other  two 
courts.  By  1 1  Geo.  IV.  and  1  WUL  IV.  c.  70,  §  8,  the 
Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber  was  constituted  as  a  court  of 
appeal  for  errors  in  law  in  all  three  courts.  Like  the  Court 
of  Exchequer  the  Queen's  Bench  assumed,  by  means  of  au 
ingenious  fiction,  the  jurisdiction  in  civU  matters,  which 
properly  belonged  to  the  Common  Pleas.  The  functions 
peculiar  to  the  Queen's  Bench  are  its  jurisdiction  in  criminal 
matters,  and  the  general  control  it  exercises  over  inferior 
magistrates  and  other  public  oSicsrs.  Of  late  years  the  court 
has  consisted  of  one  Lord  Chief-Justice  and  (five  puisne 
judges.  Jnder  the  Judicature  Act,  1873,  the  Court  of 
Queen's  Bench  becomes  the  Queen's  Bench  Division  of  the 
High  Court  of  Justice;  and  appeals  will  in  future  be  taken 
to  the  Court  of  Appeal  instead  of  the  Exchequer  Chamber. 

The  Court'  of  Common  Pleas  is  sometimes  called  -the 
Common  Bench. 

Sittings  in  Banc  fin  the  courts  of  Common  Law)  are 
the  sittings  of  the  full  court  for  the  hearing  of  motions, 
special  cases,  ic,  as  opposed  to  the  nisi  prius  sittings  for 
trial  of  facta,  where  usually  only  a  single  judge  presides. 

BENCHERS,  in  the  Inns  of  Court,  the  senior  members 
of  the  society,  who  are  invested  with  the  government  of 
the  body  to  which  they  belong. 

BENCOOLEN,  the  chief  town  of  a  Dutch  residency  in 
the  S.  W.  of  Sumatra.  It  is  situated  on  the  coast  at  the 
mouth  of  a  river  of  the  same  name,  in  3°  50'  S.  lat  and 
102°  3'  E.  long.  The  locality  is  low  and  swampy,  and 
most  of  the  houses  are  raised  on  bamboo  piles.  The  bay 
is  a  mere  open  roadstead  fringed  with  coral  reefs,  and 
landing  is  dilEcult  on  account  of  the  surf.  A  lighthouse 
has  been  recently  erected  by  the  Dutch  authorities.  At  one 
time  there  was  a  very  extensive  trade  carried  on  with 
Bengal,  the  Cororaandel  coast,  and  Java,  but  it  has  greatly 
declined.  The  principal  exports  are  pepper  and  camphor.. 
The'  town,  which  was  formerly  6  miles  to  the  north,  wa:i 
removed  to  its  present  site  in  1714.  It  is  defended  by  a 
fort;  and  possesses  an  old  and  a  new  government-house,  a 
council  chamber  and  treasury,  a  hospital,  i-c.  The  church 
was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1833...  Bcncoolcn 
was  formerly  the  chief  establishment  possessed  by  tha 
English  East  India  Company  in  the  island,  and  for  a  few 
years  constituted  a  distinct  presidency.  In  1719  the 
settlers  were  expelled  by  the  natives,  hut  were  soon  per- 
mitted to  return.  In  1760  all  the  English  settlements  on 
tho  coast  of  Sumatra  were  destroyed  by  a  French  fleet 
under  Comte  d'Eataing.  They  were  afterwards  re-estab- 
lished and  secured  to  tho  British  ;  but  in  1825  they  were- 
finally  ceded  to  the  Netherlands  in  exchange  for  the  Dut<di 
settlements  on  tho  continent  of  India.  Population  of  the 
district  in  1871,  160  Europeans  and  128,34.'<  natives 


B  E  N  -  B  E  N 


557 


I 


t^ENDER,  a  town  of  Russia,  the  capital  of  a  district  in 
the  province  of  Bessarabia,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Dniester,  35  miles  from  Kisheneff,  in  46°  49'  N.  lat. 
aod  29°  29'  E.  long.  It  possesses  three  Greek  churches, 
a  Konian  Catholic  church,  a  dissenting  place  of  worship, 
four  synagogues,  and  a  mosque.  Its  industrial  estaWish- 
nieots  include  a  tobacco-factory,  candle-works,  and  brick- 
kilns. An  important  trade  is  earned  ott.  by  means  of  its 
harbour  on  the  Dniester  and  the  road  that  leads  to  Odessa, — 
the  greater  part  of  the  ships  discharging  their  cargoes  here 
to  he  conveyed  by  land  to  Odessa  aud  Jassy.  The  i)riu- 
cipal  articles  of  trade  are  corn,  wine,  wool,  cattle,  tallow, 
and  especially  timber,  which  is  floated  down  the  Dniester. 
The  citadel  is  separated  from  the  town  by  an  eminence, 
which  bears  the  name  of  the  Suwaroff  mound  ;  in  its  eaotern 
part  is  a  wooden  castle  with  towers.  There  are  also  four 
suburbs  to  the  town,  which  in  1867  had  a  populaiion  of 
24,443,  tbegreater  proportion  of  them  being  Jews.  Asearly 
as  the  1 2th  century  the  Genoese  had  a  settlement  on  the 
site  of  Bender.  The  Moldavians  called  the  place  Teegeen, 
and  the  name  of  Bender  was  only  bestowed  by  the  Turks 
in  the  end  of  the  14th  century.  In  1709  Charles  XII., 
after  the  defeat  of  Poltava,  collected  his  forces  here  in  a 
camp  which  they  called  New  Stockholm,  aud  continued 
there  till  1711.  Bender  \*as  thrice  taken  by  the  Russians, — 
by  Panim  in  1770,  Potemkin  in  1789,  and  Meyend&rf  in 
1 806, — but  it  was  not  held  permanently  ty  Russia  till  the 
Bucharest  peace  of  1812. 

BENDER- ABBASI,  a  town  of  Persia  in  tue  province  of 
Kirman,  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  in 
i7°  13'  N.  lat.  and  56°  7'  E  long.,  about  12  miles  N.W. 
of  the  ieland  of  Ormuii.  It  is  surrounded  with  walls,  but 
the  houses  are  of  a  very  poor  description.  The  old  Dutch 
factory  is  still  standing,  and  serves  as  the  occasional  resi- 
dence of  the  Imam  of  Moscat,  to  whose  domain  the  town 
belongs.  There  is  a  comparatively  small  trade  in  the 
export  of  tobacco  and  fruits  and  the  import  of  cotton-cluth 
and  pottery.  The  port  is  sTiallow  and  inconvenient ;  and 
it  is  evident  that  changes  of  the  coast  Line  by  silting  up 
and  denudation  have  considerably  altered  the  character  of 
the  place  since  the  time  when,  under  the  name  of  Gombrcon, 
it  ranked  as  one  of  the  first  seaports  of  Persia,  In  1C12 
the  Portuguese  had  established  Fort  Komoran  here,  but  it 
was  destroyed  in  1614,  and  they  were  expelled  by  Shah 
Abbas  I.  The  English,  however,  were  permitted  to  build 
a  factory,  and  about  1620  the  Dutch  obtained  the  same 
privilege.  On  the  capture  of  the  island  of  Ormuzin  1622 
by  the  English  and  Persians,  a  large  portion  of  its  trade 
was  diverted  to  the  town,  which  derived  its  name  of  Bender- 
Abbasi,  or  I/arbour  of  Abbas,  from  the  shah.  During 
the  rest  of  the  17th  century  the  trafnc  was  very  great,  all 
the  neighbouring  nationalities  and  merchants  from  the 
principal  countries  of  Europe  frequenting  its  markets  ;  but 
in  the  18th  century  this  prosperity  declined,  and  most  of 
the  trade  was  removed  to  Jjushire.  In  1759  the  English 
factory  was  destroyed  by  the  French  ;  and  though  it  was 
aftcrv;ards  re-established,  it  has  long  been  abandoned.  The 
ruins  of  the  factory  and  other  buildings  lie  to  the  west  of 
the  present  town.     Population  about  9000. 

BENEDICr,  St,  the  founder  of  the  celebrated  Bene- 
dictine order,  is  the  most  illustrious  name  in  the  early 
historj-  of  AVcstem  monasticism.  To  him  more  than  to  any 
other  the  monastic  system,  which  was  destined  to  exercise 
euch  an  influence  for  centuries,  owes  its  extension  and 
organization.  Benedict  was  born  at  Nursia  iu  Umbria 
about  the  year  480.  He  belonged  to  an  old  Italian  family, 
and  was  early  sent  to  Rome  to  be  educated.  But  the 
disorder  and  vices  of  the  capital  drove  him  into  solitude 
while  still  a  youth.  It  was  a  time  of  public  peril  and 
social  ruin.     The  Roman  empire  was  irumblinp  to  pieces, 


shaken  by  the  successive. inroads  oT  barbarians,  and  a  prey 
to  every  species  of  violence  and  corruption.  Young  Bene- 
dict fled  from  the  wickedness  around  him.  He  gave  up  his 
literary  studies  and  preferred  to  be  wisely  ignorant 
{scienter  nesciens).  This  is  the  statement  of  his. biographer 
Gregory  the  Great,  from  whom  come  all  the  details  that 
we  know  of  Benedict's  life.  It  is  needless  to  say  that 
many  of  these  details  are  of  such  a  character  that  it  is 
impossible  for  modern  historical  criticism  to  accept  them  in 
their  literal  meaning.  It  is  of  no  use,  however,  trying  to 
disentangle  the  truth  from  the  falsehood-  The  reader  can 
easily  make  allowance  for  the  imaginative  exaggerations  of 
the  story. 

When  Benedict  fled  from  Rome  he  took  refuge  ia  a 
solitary  gorge  formed  by  the  Anio,  in  its  picturesque  course, 
about  40  miles  from  the  city.  There,  in  a  dark  inacces- 
sible grotto  near  Subiaco,  he  found  seclusion  and  shelter. 
A  neighbouring  monk  supplied  him  with  food  let  down  by 
a  Tope,  with  a  small  bell  attached,  wtich  gave  notice  of  the 
approach  of-  th«  food.  Once  the  devil  broke  the  rope,  but 
his  maUce  was  foiled  by  the  pious  ingenuity  of  the  monk. 
Other  and  graver  dangers  as<;ailed  him.  The  Evil  Oue 
took  the  shape  of  a  beautiful  woman,  with  whose  image 
the  youthful  recluse  had -been  familiar  in  Rome,  and  so 
worked  upon  his  senses  that  ho  was  on  the  point  of 
abandoning  his  solitude  in  search  of  the  beauty  which 
haunted  him.  Bwi  summoning  all  his  fortitude  he  stripped 
himself  of  the  vestment  of  skins  which  was  his  only 
covering,  rushed  naked  amongst  the  thorns  and  briars 
which  grew  around  his  retreat,  and  roUc-d  himself  amongst 
them  till  he  had  extinguished  the  impure  flaiie  which 
devoured  him.  No  impulses  of  sensual  passion  ever 
revisited  him.  But  trials  of  a  different  kind  assaded  him. 
After  spending  about  three  years  in  retirement  a  neigh'oour- 
ing  convent  of  monks  insisted  upon  choosing  him  as  their 
head. .  He-  warned  them  of  the  severity  of  the  rule  he 
would  be  bound  to  ^exercise,  but  they  would  not  be 
dissuaded  from  their  purpose.  He  had  hardly  commenced 
his  ofllce,  however,  when  they  broke  out  into  fierce  resent- 
ment against  him,  and  attempted  to  poison  him.  The  cup 
containing  the  poison  was  no  sooner  ta'kcn  into  the  hands 
of  Benedict  than  it  burst  asunder  ;  and,  calmly  rt?proving 
them  loi  their  ingratitude,  he  left  them  and  withdrew  ouce 
more  into  his  soUtude. 

By  this  time,  however,  the  fame  of  Benedict  had  spread, 
and  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  remain  inactive.  Multi- 
tudes gathered  around  him,  and  no  fewer  than  twelve 
select  cloisters  were  planted  in  the  lonely  valley  of  the 
Anio  and  on  the  adjacent  heights.  Young  patricians  from 
Rome  and  elsewhere  were  attracted  to  these  fraternities; 
and  amongst  them  one  of  the  name  of  Mauius  (St  JIaur), 
who  began  to  share  in  popular  eiteem  something  of  the 
sanctity  and  miraculous  endowments  of  Benedict,  and  who 
was  destined  to  be  his  successor.  But  with  increasing 
fame  came  also  jealousy  of  his  position  aud  duties.  A 
renewed  attempt  was  made  by  an  envious  priest  to 
administer  poison  to  the  saint ;  and,  miraculous  interposi- 
tions having  again  come  to  his  rescue,  the  same  priest,  by 
name  Florcutius,  had  recourse  to  the  diabolical  device  of 
Rending  seven  lewd  girls  within  the  precincts  of  the 
monaster.',  to  seduce  the  monks  by  their  gestures  aiid 
sports.  Benedict  determined  to  depart  from  a  neighbour- 
hood so  full  of  danger,  notwithstanding  the  long  period  of 
thirty  years  during  which  he  had  laboured  to  cousecmte  it 
and  spread  abroad  the  blessings  of  an  ascetic  Christianity. 
He  journeyed  southwards,  and  at  hngth  settled  at  Mont6 
Cassino,  an  isolated  and  picturesque  hill  near  the  river 
Garigliano.  There  at  this  time  nn  ancient  temple  oi 
Apollo  still  stood,  to  which  the  ignorant  peasants  brought 
Mirir  offerings.    Bencdirt.'"l'!^h^il'-cnlliiisiasra,proc'"  ■'•  d 


558 


BENEDICT 


to  demolish  the  temple  and  to  erect  in  its  place  two 
oratories,  one  to  St  John  the  Baptist  and  the  other  to  St 
Martin,  whose  ascetic  fame  had  travelled  to  Italy  from  the 
south  of  GauL  Around  these  sacred  spots  gradually  rose 
the  famous  monastery  which  was  destined  to  carry  the 
name  of  its  founder  through  the  Christian  world,  and  to 
give  its  laws,  as  Milraan  says,  "  to  almost  the  whole  of 
Western  monasticism." 

Benedict  survived  fourteen  years  after  he  had  began  this 
great  work.  His  sanctity  and  influence  grew  with  his 
years,  in  illustration  of  which  it  is  told  how  the  barbarian 
king  Totila,  who  made  himself  master  of  Rome  and  Italy, 
sought  his  presence,  and,  prostrating  himself  at  his  feet, 
accepted  a"  rebuke  for  his  cruelties,  and  departed  a  humbler 
and  better  man.  His  last  days  were  associated  with  the 
love  and  devotion  of  his  sister  Scolastica,  who  too  had 
forsaken  the  world  and  given  herself  to  a  religious  life 
with  an  enthusiasm  and  genius  for  government  hardly  less 
than  his  own.  She  had  established  a~nunnery  near  Monte 
Cassino  ;  but  the  rules  of  the  order  permitted  the  brother 
and  sister  to  meet  only  once  a  year.  He  had  come  to  pay 
his  accustomed  visit.  They  had  spent  the  day  in  devout 
converse,  and,  in  the  fulness,  of  her  affection,  Scolastica 
entreated  him  to"  remain,  and  "  speak  of  the^joys  of  heaven 
tdl  the  rooriiing."  Benedict  was  not  to  be  prevailed  upon, 
when  his  sister  burst  into  a  flood  of  tears,  and  bowed  her 
bead  in  prayer.  Immediately  the  heavens  became  overcast ; 
thunder  was  heard,  a'nd  the  rain  fell  in  torrents,  so  that  it 
was  impossible  for  Benedict  to  depart  for  the  night,  which 
was  spent  in  spiritual  exercises.  Three  days  later 
Benedict  saw  in  vision  the  soul  of  his  sister  entering 
heaven,  and  in  a  few  days  afterwards  his  own  summons 
came.  "He  died  standing,  after  partaking  of  the  holy 
communion,  and  was  buried  by  the  side  of  his  sister. 

The.  Benedictines,  or  followers  of  St  Benedict,  were 
those  who  submitted  to  the  monastic  rule  «vhich  he  insti- 
tuted. Thia  rule  will  be  generally  described  in  the  article  on 
Monasticism.  It  is  suflicient  to  say  here  that  its  two  main 
principles  were  labour  and  obedience.  It  was  the  dis- 
tinction of  Benedict  that  ho  r.ot  merely  organized  themonks 
into  communities,  but  based  their  community-life,  in  a  great 
degree,  on  manual  labour,  in  contrast  to  the  merely  medi- 
tative seclusion  which  had  hitherto  been  in  vogue  both 
in  the  East  and  the  West.  Probably,  not  even  the  founder 
himself  foresaw  all  the  prospective  advantages  of  his  law, 
which,  was  destined  not  merely  to  make  many  a  wilder- 
ness and  solitary'  place  to  rejoice  with  fertility,  but  to  ex- 
pand, morteovfer,  into  a  noble  intellectual  fruitfulness,  which 
has  been  the  glory  of  the  Benedictine  order.  The  law  of 
obedience  was  absolute,  but  was  tempered  by  the  neces- 
sity on  the  part  of  the  superior  of  consulting  all  the  monks 
assembled  in  a  council  or  chapter  upon  all  important 
business.  The  al>bot  or  superior  was  also  elected  by  all 
the  monks,  whose  liberty  of-  choice  was  unrestricted.  No 
right  of  endowment  properly  subsisted  within  the-  mon- 
astery ;  and  the' vow  of  siabilUy  once  undertaken  after  the 
expiry  of  the  year  of  novitiate  could  never  bo  recalled. 
Food  and  clothing  were  of  the  simplest  kind,  and  all  duly 
regulated  ;  and  the  intervals  of  labour  were  relieved  by  a 
continually  recurring  round  of  religious  service  from  prime 
to  evensong.  The  Benedictine  rule  spread  almost  univer- 
sally in  the  West, — not  in  rivalry  of  any  other  rule,  but  as 
the  more  full  and  complete  development  of  the  mona.stic 
system.  In  France  and  England  especially  it  took  rapid  root; 
and  "  in  every  rich  valley,  by  the  side  of  everj'  clear  and  deep 
stream,  arose  a  Benedictine  abbey" — a  centre  of  local 
good  and  Christian  civilization.     See  Aubev.  (j.  T.) 

BENEDICT.     Fourteen  popes  bore  the  name  of  Bene- 
dict— 

Benedict  I.  (573-8)  succeeded  John  III, and  occupied 


the  Papal  chair  during  ^he  incursions  of  the  Lombards,  and 
during  the  series  of  plagues  and  famines  which  followed 
these  invasions.  (Paul.  Diacon.,  De  Gest.  Lonc/ob.,  ii.  10.) 
Benedict  II.  (684-685)  succeeded  Leo  II.,  but  although 
chosen  in  683  he  was  not  ordained  tUl  684,  because  the  leave 
of  the  Emperor  Constantine  was  not  obtained  until  soma 
months  after  the  election.     (Paul.  Diacon.,  op.  cit.  vi.  63.) 

Benedict  III.  (855-858)  was  chosen  by  the  clergy  and 
people  of  Rome,  but  the  election  was  not  conflrmed  by  th« 
Emperor  lothair,  who  appointed  an  anti-pope,  Anastasius. 
Benedict  was  at  last  successful,  and  the  schism  helped  to 
weaken  tho  hold  of  the  emperors  upon  the  popes.  The 
mythical  Pope  Joaii  is  usually  placed  between  Benedict  and 
his  predecessor  Leo  I'V. 
Benedict  IV.  (900-903). 

Benedict  V.  (964-965)  was  elected  by  the  Tlomans  on 
t"he  death  of  John  XII.  The  Emperor  Otho  did  not  approve 
of  the  choice,  and  carried  off  the  pope  to  Hamburg,  where 
he  died. 

Benedict  'VI.  (972-974)  was  chosen  with  great  cere- 
mony and  installed  pope  under  the  protection  of  the 
Emperor  Otho  the  Great.  On  the  death  of  the  emperor 
the  turbulent  citizens  of  Rome  renewed  their  outrages,  and 
the  pope  himself  was  strangled  by  order  of  Crescentius,  the 
son  of  the  notorious  Theodora. 

Benedict  Vil.  (975-983)  belonged  to  the  noble  family 
of  the  counts  of  Tusculum,  and  governed  Rome  quietly 
for  nearly  nine  years,  a  somewhat  rare  thing  in  those  days. 

Benedict  VIIL  (1012-1024),  also  of  the  family  of 
Tusculum,  was  opposed  by  an  auti-pope,  Gregory,  who 
compelled  him  to  flee  from  Rome.  He  was  restored  by 
Henry  of  Saxony,  's-hom  he  crowned  emperor  in  1014.  la 
his  pontificate  the  Saracens  began  to  attack  the  southern 
coasts  of  Europe,  and  effected  a  .settlement  in  Sardinia. 
The  Normans  also  then  began  to  settle  in  Italy. 

Benedict  IX.  (1033-1056),  the  son  of  Alberic,  count 
of  Tusculum,  and  nephew  of  Benedict  VUI.,  obtained  tho 
Papal  chair  by  simony.  He  was  deposed  in  1044,  and 
Sylvester  was  chosen  in  his  stead.  The  result  was  a  long 
and  disgraceful  schism  (cf.  Mittler,  De  Schismale  in  Ecd. 
Horn,  sub  Ponlif.  Bencd.  IX.) 

Benedict  X.  (1058-9)  scarcely  deserves  to  be  reckoned 
a  pope.  He  reigned  nine  months.  It  \a  important,  how- 
ever, to  remember  that  his  election  is  one  of  the  latent 
made  by  Roman  factions,  and  under  his  successor  the 
mode  of  election  by  the  cardinals  was  adopted. 

Benedict  XI.  (1303-1304)  succeeded  the  famous  Boni- 
face VIII.,  but  was  unable  to  carry  out  his  Ultramontane 
policy.  He  released  Philip  the  Fair  of  France  from  the 
excommunication  laid  on  him  by  Boniface,  and  practically 
ignored  the  bull  Unam  Sanclavu  Tho  popes  who  imme- 
diately succeeded  him  were  completely  under  the  influence 
of  the  kings  of  France,  and  removed  the  Papal  seat  from 
Rome  to  Avignon. 

Benedict  Xn.(I334-1342)  succeeded  Vopc  John  XXII.. 
but  dill  not  carry  out  the  policy  of  his  predecessor.  Ho 
practically  made  peace  with  the  Emperor  Louis,  and  as  far 
as  possible  came  to  terms  with  the  Franciscans,  who  wera 
then  at  war  with  the  Roman  see.  Ho  was  a  reforming 
pope,  and  tried  to  curb  the  luxury  of  the  monastic  orders, 
but  without  much  success.  (Baluze,  Vitts Ponlif .  Avenion.,  i.) 
Benedict  XIII.  Two  popes  assumed  this  title — (1.) 
Petfr  de  Luna,  a  Spaniard,  who  was  chosen  by  tho  French 
cardinals  on  the  death  of  Clement 'VII.  in  1394.  On  th(} 
death  of  Urban  V.  in  1389  the  Italian  cardinals  had  chosen 
Boniface  IX.;  the  election  of  Benedict  therefore  perpetuated 
tho  great  schism.  The  greater  portion  of  tho  church  refused 
to  recognize  him,  and  in  1397  the  Freuch  Church,  which 
hadsupportod  him,  withdrew  from  allegiance  to  both  popes, 
and  iu  1398  Benedict  was  imprisoned  in  his  own  palaco  a« 


B  E  N  —  B  E  >i 


650 


AvigaoD.  rhe  Coaacil  of  Constance  brougLt  this  state  of 
■natters  to  on  end.  Benedict  abdicated  in  1417,  but  was 
recognized  by  Scotland  and  Spain  until  bis  death  in  1424. 
Hig  name  does  not  appear  in  the  Italian  list  of  popes. 
{C/.  i)\xyay,  J/ Ut.duSchi.fmf,  137S-142S).  (2.)  Vincemo 
Marco  Onini,  who  succeeded  Innocent  Xlll.  in  1724.  He 
at  first  called  himself  Benedict  XIV.,  but  afterwards  altered 
the  title.  He  was  a  reforming r'popo,  and  cndcaTouied  to 
put  down  the  luxury  of  the  Italian  priesthood  and  of  the 
cardinalate.      Ho  died  in  1730. 

Benedict  XtV.  (1740-175S)  belonged  to  a  noble  family 
of  Bologna.  Elected  to  the  Papal  chair  in  a  time  of  great 
difficulties,  chiefly  caused  by  the  disputes  between  Roman 
Catholic  nations  about  the  election  of  bishops,  he  managed 
to  overcome.most  of  them.  The  disputes  of  the  Holy  Sec 
with  Kiples.  Sardinia,  Spain,  Venice,  and  Austria  were 
settled.  Perhaps  the  most  important  act  of  his  pontificate 
waa  the  promulgation  of  his  famous  laws  about  missions 
in  the  two  bulls.  Ex  quo  tingulari  and  Omnium  lolicitu- 
dinum.  In  these  bulls  ho  denounced  the  custom  of  accom- 
modating Christian  words  and  usages  to  e.Tpress  heathen 
ideas  and  practices,  which  had  been  extensively  done  by 
the  Jesuits  in  their  Indiari  and  Chinese  missions.  The 
consequence  of  these  bulls  was  that  most  of  the  so-<alled 
converts  were  lost  t6"the  church. 

BENEFICE,  a  term  first  applied  under  the  Roman 
empire  to  portions  of  land,  the  usufruct  of  which  was 
granted  by  the  emperors  to  their  soldiers  or  others  for  life, 
as  a  reward  or  bcneficium  for  past  services,  and  as  a  retainer 
for  future  services.  A  list  of  all  such  bcneficia  was  recorded 
in.the  £ook  of  Benefices  {Liber  Beneficiorum),  which  was  kept 
by  the  principal  registrar  of  benefices  (Primiscrinius  Bene- 
ficiorum). In  imitation  of  the  practice  observed  under 
the  Rom.in  empire,  the  term  came  to  be  applied  under  the 
feudal  sy.stem  to  portions  of  land  granted  by  a  lord  to 
his  vassal  for  the  maintenance  of  the  latter  on  condition 
of  his  rendering  military  service;  and  such  grants  were 
originally  for  life  only,  and  the  land  reverted  to  the  lord 
on  the  death  of  the  vassal.  In  a  similar  manner  grants 
jf  land,  or  of  the  promts  of  land,  appear  to  have  been 
made  by  the  bishops  to  their  clergy  for  life,  on  the  ground 
of  some  extraordinary  merit  on  the  part  of  the  grantee. 
The  validity  of  such  grants  was  first  formally  recognized 
by  the  Council  of  Orleans,  511  a.d.,  whi»h  forbade,  how- 
ever, under  any  .  circumstances,  the  alienation  from  the 
bishoprics  of  any  lands  so  granted.  The  next  following 
Council  of  Orleans,  o33,  broke  in  upon  this. principle, 
by  declaring  that  a  bishop  could  not  reclaim  from  his 
clergy  any  grants  made  to  them  by  his  predecessor,  except- 
ing in  cases  of  misconduct.  This  innovation  on  the  ancient 
practice  waa  confirmed  by  the  subsequent  Council  of  Lyons, 
506,  and  from  this  period  these  grants  ceased  to^be  re- 
garded as  personal,  and  their  substance  became  annexed 
to  the  churches, — in  other  words,  they  were  henceforth 
enjoyed  jure  tituli,  and  no  longer  jure  personali.  ,  How. 
and  when  the  term  Irneficia  earae  to  be  applied  to  these 
episcopal  grants  is  uncertain,  but  they  are  designated  by 
that  term  in  a  canon  of  the  Council  of  Mayencc,  813. 

The  term  benefice,  according  to  the  canon  law, 
implies  always  an  ecclesiastical  office,  propter  quod  bene- 
fii-ium  datur,  but  it  docs  not  always  imply  a  cure  of  souls. 
It  has  been  defined  to  be  the  right  which  a  clerk  has  to 
enjoy  certain  ecclesiastical  revenues  on  condition  of  dis- 
charging certain  services  prescribed  by  the  canons,  or  by 
usage,  or  by  the  conditions  under  which  his  office  has  been 
founded.  These  services  might  be  those  of  a  secular  priest 
with  cure  of  souls,  or  they  might  be  those  of  a  regular 
pries',  a  member  of  a  religious  order,  without  cure  of 
souls  ;  but  in  every  case  a  benefice  implied  three  things  : 
I.  An  obligation  to  discharge  the  duties  of  an  office,  which 


fs  altogether  s^-riritua'  2.  The  right  to  enjoy  the  fruita 
attached  to  that  office,  which  is  the  benefice  itself ;  3.  The 
fruits  themselves,  which  are  the  temporalities.  By  keep- 
ing these  distinctiuDS  in  view,  the  right  of  patronage  in 
the  case  of'  secular  benefices  becomes  intelligible,  being  in 
fact  the  right,  which  was  originally  vested  in  th^  donor  of 
the  temporalities,  to  present  to  the  bishop  a  clerk  to  be 
admitted,  if  found  fit  by  the  bishop,  to  the  office  to  which 
those  temporalities  are  annexed.  Nomination  or  presenta- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  patron  of  the  benefice  is  thus  the 
first  requisite  in  order  that  a  clerk  should  become  legally 
entitled  to  a  benefice.  The  next  requisite  is  that  he 
should  be  admitted  by  the  bishop  as  a  fit  person  for  the 
spiritual  office  to  which  the  benefice  is  annexed,  and  the 
bishop  is  the  judge  of  the  sufficiency  of  the  clerk  to  be  so 
admitted.  By  the  early  constitutions  of  the  Church  of 
England  a  bishop  was  allowed  a  space  of  two  months  to 
inquire  and  inform  himself  of  the  sufficiency  of  every 
prtsentee.  but  by.thfi  ninety-fifth  of  the  canons  of  1604 
that  interval  has  been  abridged  to  twenty-eight  days,  within 
which  the  bishop  must  admit  or  reject  the  clerk.  If  the 
"bishop  rejects  the  clerk  within  that  time  he  is  liable  to  a 
duplex  querela  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  or  to  a  quars 
impcdit  iii  the  common  law  courts,  and  the  bishop  must 
then  certify  the  reasons  of  his  refusal  In  cases  where 
the  patron  is  himself  a  clerk  in  orders,  and  wishes  to  be 
admitted  to  the  benefice,  he  must  proceed  by  way  of  peti- 
tion, instead  of  by  deed  of  presentation,  reciting  that  the 
benefice  is  in  his  own  patronage,  and  petitioning  the 
bishop  to  examine  him  and  admit  him.  Upon  the  bishop 
having  satisfied  himself  of  the  sufficiency  of  the  clerk,  he 
proceeds  to  institute  him  to  the  spiritual  office  to  which 
the  benefice  is  annexed,  but  before  such  institution  *can 
take  place,  the  clerk  is  required  to  make  a  declaration 
of  assent  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  Religion  and  to 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  according  to  a  form  pre- 
scribed in  the  Clerical  Subscription  Act,  28  and  29 
Vict.  c.  122,  to  makea  declaration  against  simony  in  accord- 
ance with  that  Act,  and  to  take  and  subscribe  the  oath  of 
allegiance  according  to  the  form  in  31  and  32  Vict.  c.  72. 
The  bishop,  by  the  act  of  institution,  commits  to  the 
clerk  the  cure  of  souls  'attached  to  the  office  to  which  the 
benefice  is  annexed.  In  cases  where  the  bishop  himself  is 
patron  of  the  benefice,  no  presentation  or  petition  is 
required  to  be  tendered  by  the  clerk,  but  the  bishop  having 
satisfied  himself  of  the  sufficiency  of  the  clerk,  collates  him  to 
the  benefice  and  office.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  bishop 
himself  should  personally  institute  or  collate  a  clerk,  he  may 
issue  a  fiat  to  his  vicar-general,  or  to  a  special  commissary 
for  that  purpose.  After  the  bishop  or  his  commissary  has 
instituted  the  presentee,  he  issues  a  mandate  under  seal, 
addressed  to  the  archdeacon  or  som"*  oiher  neighbouring 
clergyman,  authorizing  him  to  induct  the  clerk  into  his 
benefice, — iu  other  words,  to  put  him  into  legal  possession 
of  the  temporalities,  which  is  dono  by  some  outward  form, 
ar.d  for  the  most  part  by  delivery  of  the  bell-rope  to  the 
clerk,  who  thereupon  tolls  the  bell.  This  form  of  induction 
is  required  to  give  the  clerk  a  legal  title  to  his  "  bcnejicium,^' 
although  his  Admission  to  the  office  by  institution  is  sufficient 
to  vacate  any  other  benefice  which  he  may  already  possess. 
By  the  Lateran  Council  of  1215,  which  was  received  by 
the  Church  of  England,  no  clerk  can  hold  two  benefices 
with  euro  of  souls,  and  if  a  beneficed  clerk  shall  take  a 
second  benefice  with  cure  of  souls,  ho  vacates  tpso  facto 
his  first  benefice.  Dispensations,  however,  could  be  easily 
obtained  from  Rome,  before  the  reformation  of  the  Church 
of  England,  to  enable  a  clerk  to  hold  several  ecclesiastical 
dignities  or  benefices  at  the  same  lime,  and  by  25  Henry 
VIII.  c.  21,  the  power  to  grant  such  dispensations,  wh;>.h 
had  been  exercised  previously  by  the  court  of  Rome,  waa 


560 


13  E  N  — B  E  N 


traasferred  to  the  archbishop  of  Cauterbury,  certain  ecclesi- 
astical persons  having  been  declared  by  a  previous  statute 
(21  Heary  VIII.  c.  13)  to  be  entitled  to  such  dispensations. 
The  system  of  pluralities  earned  with  it,  as  a  necessary 
consequence,  systematic  non-Fegidence  on  the  part  of  many 
incumbents,  and  delegation  of  their  spiritual  duties  in 
respect  of  their  cures  of  souls  to'assistant  curates.  The 
eviU  attendant  on  this  system  were  found  to  be  so  great 
that  in  1838  an  Act  of  Parliament,  1  and  2  Vict.  c.  106, 
was  passed  to  abridge  the  holding  of  benefices  in  plurality, 
and  it  was  enacted  that  no  person  should  hold  under  any 
Circumstances  more  than  two  benefices,  and  this  privilege 
was  made  subject  to  the  restriction  that  his  benefiees  were 
within  tea  statute  miles  of  each  other.  By  a  subssquent 
Act,  13  and  1-t  Vict.  c.  98,  the  restriction,  has  been  further 
narrowed,  and  no  spiritual  person  may  now  hold  two  bene- 
fices except  the  churches  of  such  benefices  are  within  three 
miles  of  each  other  by  the  nearest  road,  and  the  annual 
value  of  one  of  such  benefices  does  not  exceed  one  liundred 
pounds.  By  this  statute  the  term  benefice  is  defined  to 
mean  benefice  with  cure  of  souls^nd  no  other,  and  therein 
to  comprehend  all  parishes,  perpetual  curacies,  donatives, 
endowed  public  chapels,  parochial  chapelries,  and  chapelries 
or  districts  belonging  or  reputed\to  belong,  or  annexed  or 
reputed  to  be  annexed,  to  any  church  or  chapel. 

A  bcne6ce  la  avoided  or  vacated — 1,  by  death  ;  2,  by  resignation, 
ir  the  bishop  is  wUling  to  accept  the  resignatioa;  3,  by  cession,  upon 
tlie  clerk  being  instituted  to  another  benefice  or  some  other  prefer- 
TOent  incompatible  with  it  ;  4,  by  deprivation- and  sentence  of  an 
ecclesiastical  court ;  5,  by  act  of  law  in  consequence  of  simony  ;  6, 
by  default  of  the  clerk  in  neglecting  to  read  publicly  in  the  church 
the  Book  of  Conimnn  Prayer,  and  to  declare  His  assent  thereto 
within  two  months  after  his  induction,  pursuant  to  13  and  11  Car. 
11    c  4,  §  vi. 

The  number  of  benefices  with  or  without  cure  oT  souls  in  the 
Church  of  England,  before  the  first  statute  to  abridge  pluralities 
was  passed  in  1833  (1  and  2  Vict.  c.  106),  was  about  11,000. 
These  benefices  were  served  by  some  10,000  clergy,  of  whom  rather 
more  than  5000  were  incumbents  holding  one  or  more  livings,  and 
soraeofthem  altogether  non-resident ;  the  remainder  were  assistant, 
curates,  for  the  most  part  residing  in  one  parish  and  having  full 
ch.arge  of  another.  The  effect  of  the-  Pluralities  Act  in  the  cJiupje 
of  about  30-year3  has  been  to  produce  a  remarkable  and  most  salu- 
tary change.  It  was  compute?!  in  1S67  that  the  parochi,al  benefices 
were  12.SS3  in  number,  and  the  parochial  clergy  17,869,  of  whom 
4931  only  were  assistant-curates.  The  patronage  of  6403  of  these- 
benefices  was  in  private  hands,  whilst  the  patronage  of  6183  was  at 
the  disposal  of  the  Crown,  or  of  public  bodies  or  public  functionaries. 
An  appro-ximate  statement  of  the  yearly  value  of  all  the  benefices  in 
England  and  Wales,  the  number  of  which  has  unilcrgone  a  con- 
siderable increase  since  1867.  was  drawn  up  in  1874  by  Mr  J,  K. 
Aston  tor  a  select  committee  of  the  House  of  Lords  on  Church 
Patronage.  From  this  statement  it  appears  that  the  yearly  value 
of  all  the  twnefices  in  public  patronage  is  about  £1,825.805,  whilst 
the  value  of  those  in  private  patronage  is  about  CI, 803,226  ; 
l)ut  in  Mr  Aston's  opinion  these  estimates  are  below  the  actual 
value.  (T.  T.) 

BENEKE,  FaiEDEicn  Edqard,  a  distinguished  German 
psychologist,  was  born  at  Berlin  on  the  17th  February 
1798,  He  was  educated  under  Bernhardi  at  the  Uymna 
Slum  Fredericianum,  and  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Halle  and  Berlin.  He  directed  his  attention  in  the  first 
instance  to  theology,  coming  under  the  influence  of 
Schleiermacher  and  De  Wette,  but  afterwards  to  pure 
philosophy,  studying  particularly  English  writers,  and 
the  German  modifiers  of  Kantianism,  such  as  Jacobi,  Fries, 
and  Schopenhauer.  In  1820  he  published  his  Theory  of 
Knowledge,  his  Empirical  Psychology  as  llie  Foundation  of 
all  Knowledge,  and  his  inaugural  dissertation  De  Verit 
Philosopkice  Iniliis.  In  all  these  writings  appeared  very 
etrongly  his  fundamental  view,  that  philosophical  speculation 
tmist  bo  limited  to  the  facts  of  inner  ex])ericnce,  and  that 
0  true  psychology,  which  is  the  basis  of  all  knowledge, 
must  be  formed  by  treating  these  facts  according  to  the 
iiyid  methods  of  physical  science.  His  marked  opposition 
tj  the  philosophy  of  Hegel,  then  dominant  in  B'.'rlin,  came 


tQ  the  front  still  more  clearly  in  the  short  tract.  Next 
Foundation  of  Mdaphysics,  intended  to  be  the  prograinme 
fur  his  lectures  as  primt-docent,  and  in  the  able  treatise, 
Grouiol-woi'k  of  a  -Physic  of  Fthics,  written  in  direct 
antagonism  to  K'l.nl'i  Mel aphysic  of  Ethics,  and  attempting 
to  deduce  ethical^^principles  from  a  basis  of  empirical  feel- 
ing. In  the  same  year  (1822)  his  lectures  were  prohibited 
at  Berlin,  according  to  his  own  belief  through  the  influence 
of  Hegel  with  the  Prussian  authorities,  who  also  prevented 
him  from  obtaining  a  chair  from  the  Saxon  Government. 
He  retired  to  Giittingen,  lectured  there  for  some  years,  and 
was  then  allowed  to  return  to  Berlin.  In  1832  he  received 
an  appointment  as  Professor  ExtraorJitiarius  in  the 
university,  which  he  continued  to  hold  till  his  death.  On 
1st  March  ISo-t  he  disappeared  from  his  home  ;  and  some 
months  later  his  body  was  found  in  the  canal .  near 
Charlottenburg,  There  was  some  suspicion  that  he  had 
committed  suitide  in  a  fit  of  mental  depression. 

Beneke  was  a  most  prolific  writer,  and  besides  the  works  men- 
tioned above,  published  large  treatises  in  the  sevcril  departments  of 
philosophy,  both  pure  and  as  applied  to  education  and  ordinary  life. 
A  complete  list  of  his  \vritings  will  be  found  in  the  appendi.':  to 
Drcssler's  edition  of  ihe  Lehrbuch  der  Psi^cholojie  als.Nalunoissia- 
sclia/l,  1861. 

The  distinctive  peculiarity  of  Beneke'a  s}-5tem  consists,  first,  in 
the  firmness  with  which  he  maintained,  and  the  consistency  with 
which  he  carried  out  the  proposition,  that  in  empirical  psychology 
is  to  bo  found  the  basis  of  all  philosophy  ;  and  secondly,  in  his  rigid 
treatment  of  mental  phenomena  by  the  genetic,  or,  as  Professor 
Bain  has  called  it,  the  natural  history  method.  According  to  him, 
the  formed  or  perfected  mind  with  its  defined  faculties  is  a  develop- 
ment.'from  simple  elements,  and  the  first  problem  of  philosophy  is 
the  determination  of  these  elements  and  of  the  laws  or  processes  by 
which  the  development  takes  place.  In  his  jVcue  Psychologic  (es'^aj's 
iii.,  viii.,  and  i.v. ),  he  clearly  marked  out  his  position  with  regard  to 
his  predecessors  and  contemporaries,  and  bolh  there  and  in  the  \\u 
troduction  to  his  Lchrbuck,  signalized  as  the"  two  great  stages  in  the 
progress  of  psychology  the  negation  of  innate  ideas  by  Locke,  anil 
of  taealties,  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term,  by  Herbart. 
The-next  step  was  made  by  himself,  when  he  insisted  that  psycho- 
logy must  be  treated  as  one  of  the  natural  sciences.  As  is  the  case 
with  them,  its  content  is  given  by  experience  "alone,  and  diticrs 
from  theirsonly  in  being  the  object  of  tlie  internal  as  opposed  to  the  ex- 
ternal sense.  Butby  a  scientific  psychology  Hcneke  in  no  wise  meant 
what  is  now  almost  invariably  thought  of  under  tliat  designation, 
a  psychology  founded  on  physiology.  These  two  sciences,  in  his 
opinion,  -had  quite  distijact-provinces,  and  gave  no  mutual  assistance. 
Just  as  little  help  is  to  be  expected  from  the  science  of  the  body  as 
from  mathematics  and  metaphysics,  both  of  which  had  been  pressed 
by  Herbart  into  the  service  of  psychology.  The  true  method  of 
study  is  that  applied  with  so  much  success  in  the  physical  sciences, — 
critical  examination  of  the  given  experience,  and  reference  of  it  to 
ultimate  causes,  which  may  not  be  themselves  perceived,  but  are 
nevertheless  hypotheses  necessary  to  account  for  the  facts.*  (See.OQ 
method,  A'eiw  Psijck.,  essay  i.l 

Beneke,  therefore,  starting  from  tlie  two  assumptions  that  there  is 
nothing,  or  at  least  no  formed  product,  iuiwite  in  the  mind,  and  that 
definite  faculties  do  not  originally  exist,  and  from  the  fact  that  our 
minds  nevertheless  actually  nave  a  definite  content  and  definite  modes 
of  action,  proceeds  to  state  somewhat  dogmatically  his  scientifically 
verLllable  hypotheses  as  to  the  primitive  condition  of  the  soul,  and 
-tile  laws  according  to  which  it  dcvelo^is.  Originally  the  soul  is 
p.xsscssef!  of,  oris,  an  immense  variety  ol  powci's,  faculties,  or  forcer 
(conceptions  which  Beneke,  in  oppositiou  to  Herbart,  holds  to  bt 
metaphysically  justifiable),  ditfering  from  one  another  only  in  ten- 
acity, vivacity,  receptivity,  and  grouping.  These  primitive  imma- 
terial forces,  so  closely  united  as  to  form  but  one  being  (es-sence), 
acquire  defiuitcnessor  form  through  tlie  action  upon  them  of  stim'li 
or  excitants  from  the  outer  world.  This  action  of  external  impres- 
bions  which  ore  appropriated  by  the  internal  powers,  is  the  fii-st 
fundamental  process  in  the  genesis  of  the  completed  mind.  Jf  the 
union  of  impression  and  faculty  be  siidjciently  strong,  consciousness 
(not  5f//-consciousnes3)  arises,  and  definite  sensations  and  perceptions 
begin  to  be  formed.  These  primitive  sensations,  however,  are  not 
to  be  identified  with  the  sensations  of  the  sneci:.!  senses,  for  each  ol 
those  senses  is  a  system  of  many  powers  wliich  have  grown  into  a 
definite  unity,  have  been  educated  by  experience.  From  various 
facts  of  ordinary  experience  it  must  be  concluded  that  a  second 
fundamental  iirocess  is  incessantly  going  on.  viz.,  the  formation  of 
new  powers  of  faculties,  which  takes  place  principally  during  sleefi. 
The  third  and  most  important  process  results  from  the  fact  that  tl  ^ 
combination  between  stiniulus  and  jiowcr  may  be  weak  or  strcug 


B  E  N  —  B  E  N 


561 


if  weak,  then  ftie  tiro  elements  are  said  to  be  tnovauie,  ana  tncy 
may  flow  over  from  one  to  anottier  of  the  already  formed  psychical 
products.  Any  formed  faculty  dots  not  cease  to  erist  on  the  re- 
moval of  its  stimulus;  in  virtue  of  its  fundamental  property,  ten- 
acily,  it  sinks  back  as  a  trace  (Spur)  into  unconsciouancss,  whence 
it  may  be  recalled  by  the  application  to  it  of  another  stimulus,  or 
by  the  attraction  towards  il  of  some  of  the  movable  elements  or 
newly-formed  origioftl  powers.  These  traces  and  the  flowing  over 
of  the  movable  elements  are  the  most  important  conceptions  in 
Beneke's  psychology  ;  by  means  of  them  he  gives -a  rationale  of  re- 
proJuction  and  association,  and  strives  to  show  that  all  the  formed 
faculties  are  simply  developments  from  traces  of  earlier  processes. 
I^astly,  similar  forms,  according  to  the  degree  of  their  similarity, 
attract  one  another  or  tend  to  form  closer  combinations. 

All  psychical  phenomena  are  explicable  by  the  relation  of  impres- 
sion and  i>ower,  and  by  the  flow  of  movable  elements ;  the  whole 
process  of  mental  development  ia  nothin;;  but  the  result  of  the  action 
and  interaction  of  the  above  simple  lawa.  In  general  this  growth 
may  be  said  to  take  the  direction  of  rendering  more  and  more  definite 
by  repetition  and  attraction  of  like  to  like  the  originally  indefinite 
activities  of  the  primary  faculties.  Thus  the  sensations  of  the 
special  senses  ore  gradually  formed  from  the  primary  sensuous  feel- 
ings {Sinnliche  EmpfiTidungeyi)  ;  concepts  aro  formed  from  intui- 
tions of  individuals  by  the  attraction  of  the  common  elements,  and 
the  conse^iuent  flow  towards  them  of  movable  forms.  Judgment  is 
the  springing  into  consciousness  of  a  concept  alongside  of  an  intui- 
tion, or  of  a  higher  concept  alongside  of  a  lower.  Reasoning  is 
merely  a  more  complex  judgment.  Nor  are  there  special  faculties 
of  judging  or  reasoning.  Tne  understandiag  is  simply  the  mass  ot 
concepts  lying  in  the  nackground  of  unconsciousness,  ready  to  be 
called  up  and  to  Uow  with  force  towards  anything  closely  connected 
with  them.  Even  memory  is  not  a  special  faculty;  it  is  simply  the  ' 
fundamental  property  of  tenacity  posseased  by  the  original  faculties. 
The  very  distinction  between  the  great  classes,  Knowledge,  Feeling, 
and  Will,  may  be  referred  to  elementiiry  differences  in  the  original 
relations  of  faculty  and  impression. 

To  follow  Beneke  into  the  details  of  any  one  of  his  psychological 
developments  would  be  impossible  within  moderate  compass.  It 
may  be  sufficient  to  say,  that  on  nearly  all  questions  concerning  the 
psychical  mechanism,  his  works  contain  a  mass  of  unusually  rich 
and  instructive  material."  They  are  particularly  deserving  of  care- 
ful comparison  with  the  association  psychology  of  modern  British 
thinkers,  most  of  whose  results  and  processes  will  be  found  there 
thoroughly  handled  and  worked  into  a  comprehensive  system. 

In  logic,  metaphysics,  and  ethics,  Beneke's  speculations  are 
completely  dependent  on  the  results  of  the  psychological  analysis. 
Thus  thinking  has  been  by  him  separated  into  analytical  and 
riynthetical.  The  first,  which  consists  essentially  in  the  subsump- 
tion  of  one  concept  under  another,  is  the  subject  of  elementary, 
pure,  or  formal  logic,  which,  as  an  art,  has  to  lay  down  the  universal 
rules  according  to  which  such  subsumption  takes  place.  Logical 
reasoning,  which  adds  nothing  to  our  kiiowledg*",  but  merely  clears 
it  up,  is  at  bottom  a  substitution  of  one  notion  for  another.  In  the 
elaborate  theory  of  syllogism,  foimded  on  this  principle,  Beneke  to 
tfome  extent  anticipates  Hamilton's  New  Analytic.  (It  cannot, 
h."twerEr,  be  thought  that  Hamilton  borrowed  his  princifile  from 
Beneke,  op  the  latter  seems  to  have  suspected  ; — see  Dressler's  re- 
mark, Lehrbiich  der  Psy.,  299.  The  two  approached  the  matter 
from  quite  difl"erent  sides,  and  the  peculiarity  of  Hamilton's  system, 
the  definite,  explicit,  quantification  of  the  predicate,  is  by  no  means 
necessarily  implied  in  anything  said  by  Beneke.)  Synthetical 
thinking,  on  the  other  hand,  leads  to  new  knowledge,  but  in  its 
progress  it  makes  use  of  principles  involving  the  relation  of  thought 
X')  e.'ustence,  and  which,  therefore,  find  justification  in  metaphysics. 
In  that  science  Beneke's  fundamental  proposition  is  that  m  inner 
fxpcricnr«  we  cognize  things  as  they  arc,  whereas  in  outer  experience 
we  only  know  their  effects.  Real  being  is  given  in  our  intuitions, 
from  which  we  gradually  form  a  notion  of  self,  and  then  of  other 
conscious  beings  like  ourselves.  The  inference  to  the  real  existence 
of  external  things  is  an  unconscious  rcasoninf',  involving  the  same 
cl».'ments  as  tho  inference  to  the  existence  of  other  conscious  beings. 
The  relations  which  givedefmiteness  and  universality  to  experience, 
iiuch  OS  substance  and  cause,  are  known  directly  in  inner  experience, 
in  the  systematic  relations  of  the  several  psychical  elements,  and 
are  transferred  by  us  to  outer  beings.  In  this  part  of  his  meta- 
physical theory  Beneke  ow.'s  much  to  Schleiermachcr. 

In  his  ethical  theory,  which  is  worked  out  with  great  fulness,  and 
which  was,  in  his  own  opinion,  his  most  valuable  contribution  to 
philosophv,  Beneke  is  thoroughly  empirical.  The  worth  of  an 
object  is  defined  to  be  the  degree  of  pleasurable  feeling  with  which 
it  affects  us,  and  ethical  judgments  are  founded  oaibe  relations  of 
worth  among  the  feelings  with  which  we  regard  objects.  There  is 
»  gradation  of  moral  .woPth.  because  there  are  higher  and  lower 
tirulties  ;  and,  as  the  menial  constitutions  of  all  men  are  funda- 
meoully  alike,  this  gradation  of  worth  becomes  a  nonn  or  general 
rule  for  estimating  moral  qualities.  An  estimate  founded  on  this 
BofC?al  scale  appears  as  morally  oeccaiary,  or  as  duty. 


The  special  value  of  Beneke's  work*,  as  has  been  already  said, 
consists  in  the  many  specimens  of  acute  psychological  analysii 
scattered  throughout  them.  As  a  complete  explanation  of  psychical 
facts,  the  theory  seems  singularly  defective.  The  original  hypo- 
theses, peculiar  to  Beneke  and  on  which  the  whole  depends,  are 
hastily  assumed,  are  nevor  subjected  to  critical  exammatiou.  and 
after  all,  like  Locke's  earlier  theory,  rest  on  a  clumpy  mechanical 
metaphor.  As  is  the  case  with  all  empincal  theones  of  mental 
development,  the  higher  categories  or  notions,  which  are  apparently 
shown  to  result  from  the  simple  elements,  are  really  presupposed  at 
every  step.  Particularly  unsatisfactory  is  the  account  of  conscious- 
ness, which  is  said  to  arise  from  the  union  ol'  impression  and  faculty. 
The  necessity  of  consciousness  for  any  mental  action  whatsoever  is 
apparently  granted,  but  the  conditions  involved  in  it  are  never 
discussed  or  referred  to.  So  too  the  explanation  of  the  origin  of 
tho  notions,  substance  and  cans*,  always  a  crucial  test  for  an  em- 
pirical theory,  is  completely  irreconcilable  with  the  fundamental 
principle  of  the  system.  The  same  defect  apiwars  in  the  account  ol 
ethical  judgment;  no  amount  of  empirical  fact  can  ever  yield  tho 
notion  of  aosolute  duty.  It  is  not,  perhaps,  to  be  altogether  attri- 
buted to  the  ideal  character  of  German  speculation,  that  Ueneko 
has  been  almost  entirely  neglected,  and  that  his  results  have  found 
acceptance  mainly  with  practical  teachers.  Undoubtedly,  for  th« 
science  of  education  his  minute  analysis  of  temperament  and  care- 
ful exposition  of  the  means  whereby  the  young,  unformed  mind  may 
be  trained  are  of  infinite  value  ;  but  the  truth  of  many  of  his  doc- 
trines on  these  pomta  lends  no  support  to  the  fundamental  hypo- 
theses, from  which  indeed  they  might  be  almost  entirely  severed. 

Among  German  writers,  not  professed  followers  of  i3eueke,  but 
who  have  been  largely  influenced  by  him,  may  be  mentioned 
Ueberweg  {particularly  in  the  first  part  of  his  Logic)  and  Fortlagc- 
la  England,  perhaps  the  only  writer  who  shows  traces  of  acquaint- 
ance with  his  works  is  Slorell  {Introd.  to  Mental  Philosophy)  The 
most  eminent  members  of  the  school  are  Dressier  fwhose  Beneke 
Oder  Scdenlchre  als  NatuTwisscnschaft  is  an  admirable  exposition), 
Dittes,  and  Raue.  The  compendium  by  the  last-named  author  has 
passed  through  four  editions  in  Germany,  and  has  been  translated 
into  French,  Flemish,  and  English.  The  English  translation,  EU- 
m^nt^of  Psychology^  1871,  gives  a  lucid  and  succinct  view  of  the 
whole  system. 

BENEVENTO,  a  city  of  Italy,  the  capital  of  a  province, 
situated  on  a  hill  near  the  confluence  of  the  Calore  and  the 
Sabato,  32  miles  N.E.  of  Naples.  The  town  is  surrounded 
by  walls,  and  was  formerly  defended  by  a  castle  of  tho 
12th  century,  which  now  contains  Government  offices  and 
a  prison.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Beneveninm, 
and  is  largely  built  of  its  ruins.  Except  Rome,  few  cities 
can  boast  of  so  many  remains  of  antiquity.  Of  these  the 
most  beautiful  and  perfect  is  the  arch  of  Trajan,  erected  in 
1 14  A.D.,  53  feet  in  height,  and  consisting  of  a  single  arch 
of  Parian  marble  of  the  Corinthian  order,  highly  orna- 
mented with  basso  and  alto  rilievos,  which  represent 
various  events  in  the  reign  of  that  emperor.  It  now  forms 
one  of  the  gates  of  the  city  (Porta  Avrea).  Of  the 
amphitheatre  the  remains,  now  known  as  Grottoni  Hi 
Mappa,  are  in  a  very  ruinous  condition,  and  the  arena  ia 
occupied  by  houses  of  a  mean  description.  Benevento  is 
the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  cathedral  of  the  12th 
century  in  the  Lombardo-Saracenic  style,  in  front  of  which 
is  an  Egyptian  obelisk  of  granite  covered  with  hiero- 
glyphics. Among  its  other  buildings  may  be  mentioned 
the  town-haJl,  the  diocesan  seminary,  the  lyceum,  which 
was  formerly  a  Jesuit  college,  and  several  hospitals.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  leather,  parchment,  and  plated 
goods.     A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  grain. 

Bencventnm,  or,  as  it  was  originally  called.  Maloeis  or  Maleven- 
tum,  seems  to  have  been  of  Samnite  foundation.  In  263  DC  it 
was  colonized  by  the  Romans,  who  had  probably  been  in  possession 
of  it  for  some  time.  During  the  eecond  Tunic  war  two  of  the 
most  important  battles  were  fought  in  the  neighbourhood.  It  con- 
tinued to  be  a  very  flourishing  city  till  the  close  of  the  empire,  and 
from  its  position  on  the  I'm  Afpia,  it  often  comes  into  qotice. 
About  545  A. P.  it  was  sacked  by  Totila,  but  before  long  bad  ro. 
covered  its  prosperity.  Being  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  duchy  by 
Alboin,  king  of  the  Lombanls,  it  continued  in  poscession  of  its  own 
dukes  till  1053,  when  the  emperor,  Henry  111  ,  who  had  rendered 
himself  master  of  the  city,  exchanged  it  with  Leo  IX.  for  th« 
bi.shopric  of  BamlHTg.  From  that  time  it  continued  in  Papal  pos* 
se.ision  till  ISOfl.  when  the  Em|K?ror  Napoleon  1.  bestowed  it.  With 
the  title  of  prince,  on  Talleyrand. 

n.  -  :i 


562 


BENGAL 


BENGAL  (or,  as  it  is  otten  more  precisely  designated, 
"  Lower  Bengal "),  the  largest  and  most  populous  of 
the  twelve  local  governments  of  British  India,  comprising 
the  lower  valleys  and  deltas  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra, 
lies  between  19°  18'  and  23°  15'  N.  lat.,  and  between  82° 
and  97°  E.  long.  Excluding  Assam,  which  was  erected  into  a 
separate  administration  in  February  1874,  Bengal  now  in- 
cludes the  four  great  provinces  of  Bengal  Proper,  Behar, 
Orissa,  and  Chhoti  or  ChutiA  Nigpur  ;  and  forms  a  Lieu- 
tenant-Governorship with  an  area  of  203,473  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  64,444,379  souls.  Including  Assam, 
which,  until  the  spring  of  1874,  was  a  part  of  Bengal, 
the  area  was  248,231  square  miles,  and  the  population 
66,856,859.  This  great  Lieutenant-governorship,  excluding 
Assam,  contains  one-third  of  the  total  population  of  British 
India,  and  yields  a  revenue  of  £17,687,072,  or  over  one- 
third  of  the  aggregate  revenues  of  the  Indian  empire.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Assam,  Bhutan,  and  Nepil ;  on 
the  S.  by  Burmah,  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  Madras  ;  on  the 
W.  by  an  imaginary  line  running  between  it  and  the 
adjoining  lieutenant-governorship  of  the  North-Western 
•Provinces,  and  by  the  plateau  of  the  Central  Provinces ; 
and  on  the  E  by  the  unexplored  mountainous  region  which 
separates  it  from  China  and  Northern  Burmah.  The  terri- 
tory, thus  hemmed  in,  except  at  its  north-western  angle,  by 
the  unchangeable  land-marks  of  nature,  consists  chiefly  of 
two  broad  river  valleys.  By  the  western  one,  the  Ganges 
brings  down  the  wealth  and  the  accumulated  waters  of 
Northern  India.  The  eastern  valley  forms  the  route  by 
which  the  Brahmaputra,  after  draining  the  Thibetan  pla- 
teau far  to  the  north  of  the  Himalayas,  and  skirting  round 
their  passes  not  far  from  the  Yangtse-Kiang  and  the  great 
river  of  Cambodia,  ends  its  boisterous  journey  of  1800 
miles.  These  valleys,  although  for  the  most  part  luxuriant 
alluvial  plains,  are  diversified  by  spurs  and  peaks  thrown 
out  from  the  great  mountain  systems  which  wall  them  in 
on  the  north-east  and  south-west.  They  teem  with  every 
product  of  nature,  from  the  fierce  beasts  and  irrepressible 
vegetation  of  the  tropics,  to  the  stunted  barley  which  the 
hill-raan  rears,  and  the  tiny  furred  animal  which  he  hunts 
within  sight  of  the  unmelting  snows.  Tea,  indigo,  turmeric, 
lac,  waving  white  fields  of  the  opium-poppy,  wheat  and 
innumerable  grains  and  pulses,  pepper,  ginger,  betel-nut, 
quinine  and  many  costly  spices  and  drugs,  oil-seeds  of 
sorts,  cotton,  the  silk  mulberry,  inexhaustible  crops  of  jute 
and  other  fibres ;  timber,  from  the  feathery  bamboo  and 
coronetted  palm  to  the  jron-hearted  nil  tree — in  bhort, 
every  vegetable  product  which  feeds  and  clothes  a  people, 
and  enables  it  to  trade  with  foreign  nations,  abounds.  Nor 
is  the  country  destitute  of  mineral  wealth.  The  districts 
near  the  sea  consist  entirely  of  alluvial  formations  ;  and, 
indeed,  it  is  stated  that  no  substance  so  coarse  as  gravel 
occurs  throughout  the  Delta,  or  in  the  heart  of  the  pro- 
vinces within  400  miles  of  the  river  mouths.  But  aiuid 
the  hilly  spurs  and  undulations  on  either  side,  coal,  and 
iron  and  copper  ores,  hold  out  a  new  future  to  .BenJ^al,  as 
capital  increases  under  the  influence  of  a  stable  government, 
and  our  knowledge  of  the  country  becomes  more  exact. 
The  coal  fields  on  the  west  have  for  exactly  a  century  been 
worked  by  English  enterprise;  iu  1868  they  yielded 
564,933  tons,  and  more  in  the  two  following  years.  Iu 
the  ca.st,  the  coal  tneasures  of  Assam,  which  province  was 
eeparutod  from  Bengal  in  1874,  still  await  the  opening 
oit  of  the  country  and  improved  facilities  of  transport.  The 
climate  varies  from  the  gnOwy  regions  of  the  HiraAlayas 
to  the  tropical  vapour-bath  of  the  Delta  and  the  buruiiig 


winds  of  Behar.  The  ordinary  range  of  the  tutiiiijoifttM  otr 
the  plains  is  from  about  52°  Fahr.  in  the  coldest  month 
to  103°  in  the  shade  in  summer.  Anything  below  50°  is 
considered  very  cold ;  and  by  care  in  the  hot  weather 
the  temperature  of  well-built  houses  rarely  exceeds  95°. 
The  rainfall  also  varies  greatly;  from  500  to  600  inches 
per  annum  at  Chari  Piinji  (Cherra  Poonjee)  on  the 
range  between  Silhet  and  Assam,  to  an  average  of 
about  37  inches  in  Behar,  and  about  65  inches  ou  tha 
Delta. 

The  Rivers. — But  the  secret  of  Bengal  is  its  rivers. 
These  untaxed  highways  bring  down,  almost  by  the  motive 
power  of  their  own  current,  the  crops  of  Northern  India  to 
the  sea- board, — an  annual  harvest  of  wealth  to  the  trading 
classes,  for  which  the  population  of  the  Lower  Provinces 
neither  toU  nor  spia  Lower  Bengal,  indeed,  exhibits  the 
two  typical  stages  in  the  life  of  a  great  river.  In  the  nor- 
thern districts  the  rivers,  like  our  English  ones,  run  along 
the  valleys,  receive  the  drainage  from  the  country  on  either 
side,  absorb  broad  tributaries,  and  rush  forward  with  an 
ever  increasing  volume.  But  near  the  centre  of  the  pro- 
vinces the  rivers  enter  upon  a  new  stage  of  their  career. 
Their  main  channels  bifurcate,  and  each  new  stream  so 
created  throws  off  its  own  set  of  distributaries  to  right  and 
left.  The  country  which  they  thus  enclose  and  intersect 
forms  the  Delta  of  Bengal  Originally  conquered  by  the 
fluvial  deposits  from  the  sea,  it  now  stretches  out  as  a  vast 
dead  level,  in  which  the  rivers  find  their  velocity  checked, 
and  their  current  no  longer  able  to  carry  along  the  silt 
which  they  have  brought  down  from  Northern  India.  The 
streams,  accordingly,  deposit  their  alluvial  burden  in  their 
channels  and  upon  their  banks,  so  that  by  degrees  their 
beds  rise  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  country.  In 
this  way  the  rivers  in  the  Delta  slowly  build  themselves 
up  into  canals,  which  every  autumn  break  through  or  over- 
flow their  margins,  and  leave  their  silt  upon  the  adjacent 
flats.  Thousands  of  square  miles  in  Lower  Bengal  annually 
receive  a  top-dres?ing  of  virgin  soil,  brought  free  of  expense 
a  quarter  of  a  yeax-'s  journey  from  the  Himilayas, — a 
system  of  natural  manuring  which  renders  elaborate  til- 
lage a  mere  waste  of  labour,  and  which  defies  the  utmost 
power  of  over-cropping  to  exhaust  its  fertility.  As  the 
rivers  creep  further  down  the  Delta,  they  become  more  and 
more  sluggish,  and  their  bifurcations  and  interlaciiigs  more 
complicated.  The  hist  scene  of  all  is  a  vast  amphibious 
wilderness  of  swamp  and  forest,  amid  whose  solitudes  their 
network  of  channels  insensibly  merges  into  the  sea.  Here 
the  perennial  struggle  between  earth  and  ocean  goes  on, 
and  all  the  ancient  secrets  of  land-making  stand  disclosed. 
The  rivers,  finally  checked  by  the  dead  weight  of  the  sea, 
deposit  their  remaining  silt,  which  emerges  as  banks  or 
blunted  promontories,  or,  after  a  year's  battling  with  tho 
tide,  adds  a  few  feet  or,  it  may  be,  a  few  inches  to  the  fore- 
shore. 

The  Ganges,  which  enters  on  the  western  frontier,  and 
runs  diagonally  acro.'is  Bengal,  gives  to  the  country  its 
peculiar  character  and  a.^pcct.  About  200  miles  from  its 
mouth  it  spreads  out  into  numerous  branches,  forming  a 
large  delta,  composed,  where  it  borders  on  tho  sea,  of  a 
labyrinth  of  creeks  and  rivers,  ruiming  through  the  dense 
forests  of  tlie  Sundarbans,  and  exhibiting  during  the 
annual  inund.ation  the  appearance  of  an  immense  sea.  At 
this  time  the  rice  fields  to  tho  cxtont  of  many  hundreds 
of  square  miles  are  submerged.  The  scene  presents  to  a 
European  eye  a  panorama  of  singular  novelty  and  interest; 
— rice  fields    -•overcd  with  wal  ^r  to  a  great   depth ;   tho 


BENGAL 


563 


cars  of ~  grain  floating  on  the  surface  ;  the  stut.t..uuu3 
iiiibankments,  which  restrain,  without  altogether  prevent- 
ing, the  excesses  of  the  inundations ;  and  peasants  in  all 
quarters  going  out  to  their  daily  work  with  their  cattle  in 
canoes  or  on  rafts.  The  navigable  streams  which  fall  into 
the  Ganges  intersect  the  country  in  every  direction,  and 
afford  great  facilities  for  internal  communication.  In 
many  parts  boats  can  approach  by  means  of  lakes,  rivulets, 
and  watercourses,  to  the  door  of  ainost  every  cottage. 
The  lower  region  of  the  Ganges  is  the  richest  and  most 
productive  portion  of  Bengal,  abounding  in  valuable  pro- 
duce. Another  mighty  river  by  which  Bengal  is  intersected 
is  the  Brahmaputra,  the  source  of  whose  remotest  tributary 
i?  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  same  mountains  which  give 
rise  to  the  Ganges.  These  two  rivers  proceed  in  diverging 
courses  until  they  are  more  than  1200  miles  asunder;  and 
again  approaching  each  other,  intermix  their  waters  before 
they  reach  the  ocean.  The  other  principal  rivers  in  Bengal 
are  the  Ghagra,  Son,  Gandak,  Kusi,  Tisti ;  ihc  Hilgli 
(Hoogly),  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Bhiigirathl  and 
Jalangi ;  and  farther  to  the  west,  the  Damodar  and  Riipni- 
riyan  ;  and  in  the  south-west,  the  Mahdnadf,  or  great  river 
of  Orissa.  In  a  level  country  like  Bengal,  where  the  soil 
is  composed  of  yielding  and  loose  materials,  the  courses  of 
the  rivers  are  continu.aUy  shifting,  from  the  wearing  away 
of  their  different  banks,  or  from  the  water  being  turned 
off  by  obstacles  in  its  course  into  a  diflcrent  channel.  As 
this  channel  is  gradually  widened  the  old  bed  of  the  river 
is  left  dry.  The  new  channel  into  which  the  river  flows 
is,  of  course,  so  muck  land  lost,  while  the  old  bed  con- 
stitutes an  accession  to  the  adjacent  estates.  Thus,  one 
man's  property  is  diminished,  while  that  of  another  is 
enlarged  or  improved ;  and  a  distinct  branch  of  jurisprud- 
ence has  grown  up,  the  particular  province  of  wliich  is  the 
definition  and  regulation  of  the  alluvial  rights  alike  of 
private  property  and  of  the  state. 

The  PEorLE. — Within  the  provinces  under  the  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor of  Bengal  dwell  a  great  congeries  of 
peoples,  of  widely  diverse  origin,  speaking  different  lan- 
guages, and  representing  far  separated  eras  of  civilisation. 
They  amounted  in  1S72  (including  Assam,  which  then 
formed  part  of  Bengal),  to  06,856,859  souls,  or  over  a 
million  and  a  quarter  more  than  the  whole  inhabitants  of 
England  and  Wales,  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark  (with 
Jutland),  Greece,  and  all  the  Ionian  Islands,  with  the  total 
white  population,  Indians  and  Chinese,  of  the  United 
States.  The  problem  of  government  in  Bengal,  however, 
is  not  one  of  numbers.  It  is  intensified  and  infinitely 
complicated  by  the  fact,  that  while  this  vast  population  is 
ruled  by  a  single  head,  it  consists  of  elements  so  dissimilar 
as  to  render  it  impracticable  to  place  them  under  any  one 
system  of  administration.  They  exhibit  every  stage  of 
human  progress,  and  every  type  of  human  enlightenment 
and  superstition, — from  the  sceptical  educated  classes, 
represented  by  the  Hindu  gentleman  who  distinguishes 
himself  at  a  London  Inn  of  Court  and  liarangues  the 
British  public  in  the  Brighton  Pavilion,  or  from  a  metro- 
politan platform,  to  the  hill  chieftain,  who  lately  sacrificed 
an  idiot  on  the  top  of  a  mountain  to  obtain  a  favourable 
decision  in  a  Privy  Council  appeal.  A  large  section  of  the 
people  belongs  to  the  august  Arjan  race,  from  which  we 
ourselves  descend,  having  a  classical  language  more  kin- 
dred to  our  own,^lhan  those  of  the  Welsh  or  Scottish 
Highlanders.  Wo  address  the  Deity  and  His  earthly 
representatives,  our  father  and  mother,  by  words  derived 
from  roots  common  to  the  Christian  and  the  Hindu.  Nor 
docs  the  religious  instinct  assume  a  wider  variety  of  mani- 
festations, or  exhibit  a  more  striking  series  of  metamor-' 
ptoses,  amon-;  the  European  than  among  the  Indian 
•rauchss  of    the  rice.     Theodore  Parker  and  Comte  arc 


better  kSown  to  the  rising  generation  of  Hindus  in  Bengal 
than  any  Sanskrit  theologian.  On  the  same  bench  of  a 
Calcutta  college  sit  youtis  trained  up  iii  the  strictest 
theism,  others  indoctrinated  in  the  mysteries  of  the  Hindu 
trinity  and  pantheon,  with  representatives  of  every  link  la 
the  chain'  of  superstition — from  the  harmless  offering  of 
flowers  before  the  family  god  to  the  cruel  rites  of  Kili, 
whose  altars  in  the  most  civilised  districts  of  Bengal,  aa 
lately  as  the  famine  of  1860,  were  stained  with  human 
blood.  Indeed,  the  very  word  Hindu  is  one  of  absolutely 
indetcrniiuate  meaning.  The  census  ofiicers  cmjjloy  it  aa 
a  convenient  generic  to  include  42i  millions  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Bengal,  comprising  elements  of  transparently 
distinct  ethnical  origin,  and  separated  from  each  other  by 
their  bnguage,  customs,  and  religious  rites.  But  Hinduism, 
understood  even  in  this  wide  sense,  represents  oniy  one  of 
many  creeds  and  races  found  within  Bengal.  The  other 
groat  historical  cxiltus,  which,  during  the  last  twelve  cen- 
turies, did  for  the  Semitic  peoples  what  Christianity 
accomplished  among  the  European  Aryans,  has  won  to 
itself  one-third  of  the  whole  population  of  Bengal.  The 
Muhammadana  exceed  20J  millions  of  souls ;  and  the 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal  is,  so  far  as  numbers  go,  as 
great  a  Musalmin  power  as  the  Sulldn  of  Turkey  himself. 
Amid  the  stupendous  catastrophes  of  the  seasons,  the  river 
inundations,  famines,  tidal  waves,  and  cyclones  of  the  lower 
provinces  of  Bengal,  the  religious  instinct  works  with  a 
vitality  unknown  in  European  countries,  where  the  forces 
of  nature  have  long  yielded  to  the  control  of  man.  Until 
the  British  Government  stepped  in  with  its  police,  and 
canals,  and  railroads,  between  the  people  and  what  they 
were  accustomed  to  consider  -the  dealiiijs  of  Providence, 
scarcely  a  year  passed  without  some  terrible  manifestation 
of  the  power  and  the  wrath  of  God.  "Marhatti  invasions 
from  Central  India,  piratical  devastations  on  the  sea-board, 
banditti  who  marched  about  the  interior  in  bodies  of  50,000 
men,  floods  which  drowned  the  harvests  of  whole  districts, 
and  droughts  in  which  a  third  of  the  population  starved 
to  death,  kept  alive  a  sense  of  human  powerlessness  in 
the  presence  of  an  Omnipotent  fate  with  an  intensity 
which  the  homilies  of  a  stipendiary  clergy  fail  to  awaken. 
Under  the  Muhammadans  a  pestilence  turned  the  capital 
into  a  silent  wilderness,  never  again  to  be  re-peopled. 
Under  our  own  rule,  it  is  estimated  that  10  millions 
pcrislied  within  the  Lower  Provinces  alone  in  the  famine 
of  17C9-70;  and  the  first  surveyor-general  of  Bengal 
entered  on  his  maps  a  tract  of  many  hundreds  of  square 
miles  as  bare  of  villages,  and  "  depopulated  by  the 
Maghs." 

Popular  RELioioNs.--The  people  of  Bengal,  thus  con- 
stantly reminded  by  calamity  of  a  mysterious  Supreme 
Power,  have  always  exhibited  deep  earnestness  in  their  own 
modes  of  propitiating  it,  and  a  singular  susceptibility  to 
new  forms  of  faith.  Great  tidal  waves  of  religion  have 
again  and  again  swept  over  the  provinces  within  even  tho 
brief  period  of  the  Christian  era.  IslAm  was  one  of  many 
reformed  creeds  oflercd  to  them,  and  several  circumstances 
combined  to  render  its  influence  more  widely  spread  and 
mere  permanent  than  that  of  lis  rivals.  It  was  the  creed 
of  the  governing  power  ;  its  missionaries  were  men  of  zeal, 
who  spoke  to  the  popular  heart ;  .it  brought  the  good  news 
of  the  unity  of  God  and  the  equality  of  man  to  a  priest- 
ridden  and  a  caste-ridden  people.  Above  all,  the  initiatory 
rite  made  relapse  impossible,  and  rendered  the  convert  and 
his  posterity  true  believers  for  ever.  Forcible  conversions 
are  occasionally  recorded,  with  several  well-known  instances 
of  Hindus  becoming  apostates  from  tlicir  ancient  faith  to 
purchase  pardon  for  crimes.  Such  cases,  howuvcr,  were 
few  in  number,  and  belonged  to  the  higher  ranks.  It 
would  also  appear  that  a  Mujhul  adventurer  now  and  then 


Su4 


B  E  N  G   A  i. 


circumciso'l  off  hand  the  villages  allotted  to  him  iu  fief.  | 
But  it  was  nc!  to  such  measures  that  Islim  owed  its  per-  | 
m:iMc;rit  success  in  Bengal.  It  a[ipealed  to  the  people,  uiid 
it  ueiived  tho  great  mass  of  it.-s  converts  from  amonp;  tLe 
poor.  It  bri.uglit  in  a  t.'uor  fonccptiovi  of  God,  a  nobler 
ideal  of  the.  life  of  in.m,  au'l  ••Ixred  to  the  teeming  low 
castes  of  lien;^al,  who  had  sat  for  ages  despised  and  abject 
on  the  outermost  pale  of  the  Hindu  community,  free 
entrance  iiito  a  new  social  urgaiiis'xtion.  So  far  as 
local  tradition  and  the  other  fragmentary  evidence  which 
survives  enable  a  modern  iiiquirer  to  judge,  the  creed  of 
Muhammad  was  here  spread  neither  by  violence  nor  by  any 
ignoble  means.  It  succeeded  because  it  deserved  to  suc- 
ceed. Nevertheless,  it  has  conspicuoubly  failed  to  alter 
the  permanent  religious  conceptions  of  the  people.  The 
initiatory  rite  separated  the  Musalm.'uis  from  the  rest  of  the 
Bengali  population,  and  elevated  the  heterogenous  low-caste 
converts  into  a  respectable  community  of  their  own.  But 
the  proselytes  brought  their  old  superstitions  with  them 
into  their  new  faith.  •  Their  ancient  rites  and  modes  of 
religious  thought  reasserted  themselves  with  an  intensity 
that  could  not  be  suppressed,  until  the  fierce  white  light  of 
Seniiiic  monotheism  almost  flickered  out  amid  the  fuligi- 
nous exhalations  of  Hinduism.  A  local  writer,  speaking 
from  personal  acquaintance  with  the  MusalmAn  peasantry 
in  the  noithern  districts  of  Lower  Bengal,  states  that  not 
one  in  ten  can  recite  the  brief  and  simple  halmd  ,or  creed, 
whose  constant  repetition  is  a  matter  of  almost  unconscious 
habit  with  Muhammadans.  He  describes  them  as  "  a  sect 
which  observes  none  of  the  ceremonies  of  its  faith,  which 
is  ignorant  of  the  simi)le.st  formulas  of  its  creed,  which 
worships  at  the  shrines  of  a  rival  religion,  and  tenaciously 
adheres  to  practices  which  were  denounced  as  the  foulest 
abominations  by  its  founder."  Fifty  years  ago  these  sen- 
tencCii  would  havij  truly  described  the  Muhammadan 
peasantry,  not  only  in  the  northern  districts,  but  through- 
out all  Lower  Bengal.  In  the  cities,  or  amid  the  serene 
palace  lifq  of  the  JIusalmin  nobility  and  their  religious 
foundations,  a  few  Maulvis  of  piety  and  learning  calmly, 
carried  on  the  routine  of  tlieir  faith.  But  the  masses  of 
the  rural  Musalmdns  had  relapsed  into  something  little 
butter  than  amongrel  breed  of  circumcised  low-caste  Hindus. 
Since  then,' one  of  those  religious  awakenings  so  character- 
istic of  India  has  passed  over  the  Muhammadans  of  Bengal. 
Itinerant  preachcj, generally  from  the  north,  have  wandered 
from  district  to  district,  calling  on  the  people  to  return  to 
tlio  true  faith,  and  denouncing  God's  wrath  on  the  indif- 
ferent and  unrepentant.  A  great  body  of  the  Bengali 
Musalmdiis  have  purged  themselves  of  the  taint  of  Hin- 
duism, and  shaken  otf  the  yoke  of  ancient  rural  rites.  The 
revival  has  had  a  threefold  effect — religious,  social,  and 
[lolitical.  It  has  stimulated  the  religious  instinct  among 
au  impressionable  people,  and  produced  an  earnest  desire 
to  cleanse  the  worship  of  God  and  His  prophet  from  idolatry. 
This  stern  rejection  of  ancient  superstitions  has  widened 
the  gulf  between  the  Muhammadans  and  the  Hindus. 
Filty  years  ago  the  Bengali  Musalmins  were  simply  a 
recognised  caste,  less  widely  separated  from  the  lower 
onlers  of  the  Hindus  than  the  latter  were  from  the  Kulin 
Brdhmons.  Therowere  certain  essential  points  of  diS'erence, 
of  a  doctrinal  sort,  between  the  Hindu  and  Muhammadan 
villager ;  but  they  had  a  great  many  rural  customs  and 
even  religious  rites  in  common.  The  Muhammadan  hus- 
bandman theoretically  recognised  tho  one  Semitic  God ; 
but  in  a  country  subject  to  floods,  famines,  tho  devastations 
of  banditti,  and  tho  ravages  of  wild  Ijcasts,  he  would  .have 
deemed  it  a  .smiple  policy  to  have  neglected  tho  Hindu 
festivals  in  honour  of  Krishna  and  Durg.1  The  Bengali 
peasantry  no  longer  look  to  their  gods,  but  to  the  oflicer  in 
charts  of  tho  diatriet,  for  protection ;  and  when  he  fail.s  I 


ttiem,  instead  of  offering  expiatory  sacrifices  to  Kalf,  they 
petition  Government,  or  write  violent  letters  lo  the  v^na- 
cular  press,  'i'he  reforuied  JIuhammadan  husbandmea 
now  stand  aloof  from  the  vUlage  lites  of  the  Hindus.  They 
have  ceased  to  be  msrely  a  separate  caste  in  the  rural  or- 
ganisation, and  have  bei;unie  a  distinct  community,  keeping 
as  much  apart  from  their  nominal  co-religionists  of  tha  old 
unreformed  faith  as  from  the  idolatrous  Hindus.  This 
social  isolation  from  the  surrounding  Hindus  is  the  second 
effect  of  th«  MusalmAn  revival  in  Bengal.  Its  third  result 
is  political,  and  all'ects  oursolvea,  A  Muhammadan  Ilka 
a  Christiaa  revival  strongly  reasserts  the  duty  of  self- 
abnegation,  and  places  a  multitude  of  devoted  instruments 
at  the  disposal  of  anj'  man  who  can  convince  them  that  his 
schemes  are  identical  with  the  will  of  God.  But  while  a 
return  to  the  primitive  tcachi^igs  of  Christ  means  a  return 
to  a  religion  of  humanity  and  love,  a  return  to  Muhamma 
dan  first  principles  means  a  retmii  to  a  religion  of  iutoler- 
ance  and  aggression.  The  very  essence  of  Musalmdn 
Puritanism  is  abhorrence  of  the  Infidel.  The  whole 
conception  of  Islam  is  that  of  a  church  either  actively 
luilitant  or  conclusively  triumphant — forcibly  converting 
the  World,  or  ruling  with  a  rod  of  iron  the  stiS-necked 
unbsliever.  The  actual  state  of  India,  where  it  is  thp 
Musalmins  who  are  in,  subjection,  and  the  unbeliever  who 
governs  them,  is  manifestly  not  in  accord  with  the  primitive 
ideal ;  and  many  devout  Muhamniad.ins  of  the  reformed 
faith  have  of  late  years  endeavoured,  by  plots  and  frontier 
attacks,  to  remoye  this  anomaly.  Tho  majority  are  not 
actively  hostile,  but  thoy  stand  aloof  from  our  institutions, 
and  refuse  to  coalesce  with  the  system  which  tho  British 
Government  has  imposed  on  Bengal.  Their  rebel  camp 
beyond  our  frontier  has  forced  us  into  three  expedi- 
tions, which  has  broken  their  military  power ;  .and  the 
calm,  inexorable  action  of  the  courts  has  stamped  out  tha 
chronic  abetment  of  rebellion  by  Muhammadans  withia 
Bengal. 

Besides  the  42J  millions  aggregated  under  the  name  fif 
Hindus,  and  the  20A  millions  of  Musalmins,  a  great  residua 
remains.  These  consist,  with  the  exception  of  two  very 
small  bodies  of  Christians  and  Buddhists,  of  semi-aboriginal 
and  distinctly  non-Aryan  races.  They  number  over  3^ 
millions,  equalling  almost  e.tactly  the  population  of  Scot- 
land. These  peoples  dwell,  for  the  most  part,  among  tho 
lofty  ranges  and  primeval  forests  which  wall  in  Bengal  on 
the  north,  east,  and  south-west,  or  upon  the  spurs  and  hilly 
outworks  which  these  mountain  systems  have  thrown 
forward  upon  the  luwlands.  Some  of  them  represent  ths! 
simplest  types  of  social  organisation  known  to  modern 
research.  Their  rudimentary  communities  are  separated 
by  religion,  custom,  and  language  from  each  other  and  from 
the  dwellers  on  the  plains.  Many  of  them,  till  lat'.'ly, 
looked  upon  war  as  the  normal  condition  of  human  society, 
and  on  peace  as  an  unwelconio  temporary  break  in  their 
existence.  For  ages  they  have  regarded  the  lowland 
Hindus  as  their  natural  enemies,  and  in  turn  have  been 
dealt  with  as  beasts  of  chase  by  the  niore  civilised  inhabi- 
tants of  the  valleys.  Within  the  present  generation  human 
sacrifice  continued  to  be  an  obligatory  rite  among  them — 
a  rite  so  deeply  graven  upon  their  village  institutions,  and 
so  essential  to  tho  annually  recurring  festivals  of  their 
religious  year,  as  to  seriously  occupy  the  Indian  legis- 
lature, and  to  require  a  special  agency  to  suppress  it. 
To  this  day  instances  of  the  detestable  practice  occur ; 
and  their  extreme  jealou.sy  of  anything  like  foreign  rule 
renders  it  tho  wisest  policy  to  leave  them  as  much  as 
possible  under  their  own  hamlet  communities  and  petty 
chiefs.  Nevertheless,  they  form  the  most  hopeful  ma- 
terial yet  discovered  in  Bengal  for  the  humanising  in- 
fl''cncc3    of   Chrh^tianity,    and    of    that   higher   level    of 


BENGAL 


oo.> 


morality   and    religious   hopo   \\kich    Christian   missions 
represent. 

Government. — Nor  are  the  diversities  in  race  and  reli- 
gion among  the  CtiJ  millions  of  Bengal  less  marked  than 
their  ditTcrent  capacities  for  sclf-guveminent,  and  the  vary- 
ing degrees  to  nhieh  tbcy  can  be  subjected  to  administrative 
eontrul.  They  exhibit  every  stage  of  political  develoj)- 
iiicnt,  from  the  great  municipality  based  upon  English 
models,  with  [lowcrs  of  sclf-Uixation  and  a  public  debt  of 
its  own,  down  to  the  primitive  hill  hamlet,  which  pays  no 
rent,  acknowledges  no  higher  tenure  th.m  the  aboriginal 
one  of  priority  uf  occup.ition,  clings  to  its  ancient  system 
of  nomadic  husbandry,  and  is  scarcely  aware  of  any  power 
superior  to  that  of  its  own  tribe  fathcra.  Including  Assam, 
which  up  to  Kebruary  1874  formed  a  part  of  Bengal,  the 
territories  under  the  Lieutenant  Governor  consist  of  live 
great  provinces,  each  of  which  speaks  a  language  of  its 
own,  and  has  a  separate  political  and  ethnical  history. 
For  administrative  purposes  these  6vc  provinces  are  divided 
into  58  districts,  of  which  36  are  regulation  districts,  whose 
advanced  state  has  rendered  it  expedient  to  place  them 
under  the  complete  system  of  Auglulndian  l.iw  ;  while  2U 
are  non-regulatiou  districts,  in  which  this  has  not  yet  been 
found  practicible.  The  latter  contain  teiritories  of  three 
distinct  classes.  The  first  of  them  consists,  for  the  most 
part,  of  newly-acquired  territory,  to  which  the  general 
regulations  have  never  been  e.\tended  in  their  entirety. 
The  second,  of  tracts  inhabited  by  primitive  races  specially 
exempted  from  the  operation  of  the  regulations,  to  whom 
a  less  formal  code  of  law  is  better  adapted.  The  third,  of 
semi-independent  or  tributary  states,  administered,  or  partly 
administered  by  British  officers.  The  mauagemcnt  of  the 
whole  is  firmly  concentrated  in  a  single  man,  the  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor of  Bengal,  who  is  answerable  to  the  Govern- 
ment of  India,  and  through  it  to  Her  Majesty's  ministers 
and  Parliament.  Llis  responsibility  is  divided  by  no 
executive  council,  as  in  Madras  or  Bombay.  All  orders 
issue  through  his  secretaries  in  his  own  name;  and  although 
his  policy  is  subject  to  the  watchful  control  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  India,  represented  by  the  Viceroy,  yet  to  the 
I  ieutenant-Governor  personally  belongs  the  rejiutation  or 
disgrace  of  a  successful  or  an  inglorious  administration. 
In  making  laws  for  his  people  he  is  assisted  by  a  legislative 
council,  composed  partly  of  his  principal  officers,  partly  of 
leading  members  of  the  non-official  European  and  Native 
communities.  In  his  legislative,  as  in  his  executive  func- 
tions, a  power  of  control,  amounting  if  needful  to  veto, 
rests  with  tho  Government  of  India — a  power  which,  from 
the  English  talent  for  harmonious  proconsular  rule,  is 
very  seldom  exercised.  The  administration  is  conducted 
by  a  body  of  covenanted  civilians,  supplemented  by  a  few 
military  officers  in  tho  less  civilised  districts,  and  aided  by 
a  stafiF  of  subordinate  officials.  The  civilians  are  appointed 
direct  from  England,  enter  into  a  bond  with  the  Secretary 
of  State,  and  give  securities  for  tho  discharge  of  their 
highly  responsible  duties.  In  1871  they  numbered  200 
men.  The  military  officers  belong  to  the  staff  corps  of 
the  Bengal  army,  and  are  employed  to  the  number  of  52 
in  tho  backward  tracts,  which  do  not  reciuiro  so  exact  an 
administration,  and  cannot  afford  to  pay  for  the  cost  of  it. 
The  subordinate  district  officials  are  appointed  in  Bengal 
by  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  and  consist  chiefly  of  natives 
and  Anglo-Indians ;  but  several  departments,  such  as  the 
educational,  telegraph,  and  public  works,  arc  now  officered 
lo  a  certain  extent  by  gentlemen  engaged  direct  from 
England,  Tho  revenues  raised  in  the  territories  under  tho 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal  amounted  in  1871-72  to 
Xl 7,687,072.  Of  this  sum,  XI  0,7 13,636  accnied  from 
the  imperial  taxes  laid  on  by  tho  Government  of  India, 
•ind  X973,436,  from  provincial,  municipal,  and  rural  taxa- 


tion. The  total  cost  of  government  was  only  X6, 338,063, 
leaving  a  surplus  fiom  this  single  one  of  the  Indian  local 
governments  of  XI  1,348,104.  It  is  scarcely  too  much  to 
say,  that  so  long  as  the  British  power  retains  the  port  of 
Calcutta  and  the  rich  provinces  under  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Bengal,  it  would  have  sufficient  revenue  to 
effect  the  reconquest  of  India  if  any  accident  should  happen 
in  the  Panj.^b  or  north-west.  The  vast  income  which  the 
Lower  Provinces  yield  is  not  altogether  derived  from  tkcir 
people.  China  pays  an  annual  tribute  of  over  5  millioirs 
in  the  shape  of  opium  duty,  and  the  inland  parts  of  India 
contribute  about  a  third  of  a  million  to  the  customs  of 
Bengal.  Taking  the  total  thus  obtained  frcm  other  terri- 
tories at  a  little  over  G  millions,  the  population  under  the 
Lieutenant  Governor  of  Bengal  pays,  in  round  figures,  Hi 
millions  a  year,  or  about  3s.  Od,  a  head.  This  includes- 
imperial,  provincial,  municipal,  and  rural  taxation  of  every 
sort. 

The  return  which  the  Government  gives  for  this  light 
taxation  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as  follows  ; — It  assures 
to  the  provinces  absolute  protection  from  foreign  enemies 
The  army  employed  in  the  territories  under  the  Lieutonant- 
Goveriior  of  Bengal  numbers  only  11,554  otlicersand  men, 
exclusive  of  a  detachment  of  Madras  Native  infantry 
stationed  at  Cattack,  in  Orissa,  and  numbering  about  600 
men — making  a  gross  total  of  troops  in  Bengal  of  about 
12,000  men.  Of  this  small  force  4062  are  massed  in 
Calcutta  and  its  environs,  with  a  view  to  their  proximity 
to  the  sea-board,  rather  than  with  an  eye  to  the  internal 
requirements  of  the  country."  6892  guard  the  frontie'rs, 
with  detachments  on  the' line  of  radway,  which  now  forms 
the  great  highway  of  Bengal  ;  a  detachment  of  about  600 
effective  troops  of  the  Madras  Native  infantfy  is  stationed 
in  Orissa.  Taking  12,000  as  the  total  military  force 
stationed  in  Bengal,  3000  consist  of  European  troops  and 
English  officers,  and  9000  of  Native  officers  and  men. 
The  Government  is  a  purely  civil  one,  the  existence  of  any 
armed  force  being  less  realised  than  in  the  quietest  county 
of  England ;  and  of  the  60|  millions  of  people  under  tho 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal,  probably  40  millions  go 
through  life  without  once  seeing  the  gleam  of  a  bayonet  or 
the  face  of  a  soldier.  Internal  order  and  protection  to 
person  and  property  are  secured  by  a  large  army  of  pohce. 
This  force  consists  of  two  elements  :  a  regular  constabulary 
introduced  by  the  English  Government,  numbering  33,913 
men  in  1871,  and  costing  X584,059  to  the  state  ;  and  an 
indigenous  jiolice  developed  out  of  the  rural  watch  of  tlio 
ancient  Uiudu  commonwealth,  numbering  184,645  men, 
and  costing  X435, 330  a  year,  paid  by  grants  of  land,  or  by 
the  villages  and  landowners.  The  total  number  of  tho 
Bengal  police  amounts  therefore  to  217,558,  or  one  man 
to  every  307  of  the  population;  and,  excluding  uninhabitoii 
swamps  and  hill  jungles,  about  one  policeman  to  each 
square  mile  of  area.  This  minute  supervision  costs  jubt 
over  a  million  sterling  a  year,  being  at  the  rate  of 
X4,  2s.  1  id.  per  square  mile,  or  3Jd.  per  head  of  th« 
population. 

A  great  system  of  state  education  has  been  rapidly 
developed  since  1854.  In  1871-72  the  Government  and 
aided  schools  numbered  4383,  with  7292  tearJicrs,  and 
163,280  pupils, — maintained  at  a  total  cost  of  X194,716, 
of  which  Government  contributed  rather  under  one-half, 
or  X69,649.  The  total  annual  cost  of  education  per  pupil 
was  XI,  12s.  9d.,  of  which  Government  bore  under  one-half, 
or  15s.;  tho  remainder  being  obtained  from  school  fees, 
local  subscriptions,  itc.  Besides  these,  there  were  10,907 
ascertained  schools  not  receiving  aid  from  tho  state,  witb 
1 1,026  teachei-3,  and  169,917  pupils.  In  addition  to  these, 
there  is  a  vast  uumber  of  petty  hedge  schools  in  Bengal,  of 
"hich  no  statistics  exist     The  total  of  state  and  ascertairud 


566 


BEN  G'A  L 


pnvate  schools  in  1871,  was  15,2jO,  with  13,318  teachers, 
and  333,197  pupils. 

The  cheapness  of  labour,  as  compared  with  European 
countries,  enables  the  Government  to  perform  its  other 
functions  at  an  equally  small  cost.  It  has  brought  courts 
fery  near  to  the  door  of  the  peasant,  and  established  a 
iystem  of  registration  by  which  proprietary  rights  and 
transfers  are  cheaply  and  absolutely  ascertained.  A  great 
department  of  public  works  has  spread  a  network  of  roads 
over  the  country,  connecting  Bengal  by  railways  with  other 
parts  of  India,  and,  in  districts  wb'oh  specially  require  it, 
is  endeavouring  to  exercise  some  degree  of  control  over  the 
rivers  and  the  natural  water-supply,  on  which  the  safety 
of  a  tropical  people  depends  An  organised  system  of 
emigration  watches  over  the  movements  of  the  landless 
classes,  from  the  overcrowded  or  unfertile  districts  of  the 
west  to  the  rich  under-populated  territories  on  the  east. 


ana  lo  colonies  beyond  the  seas.  Chaiii.iMe  dispensaries 
and  a  wi;Il-equipped  medical  department  strangle  to  com- 
bat the  diseases  and  epidemics  which  from  time  imme- 
morial have  devastated  the  Delta,  and  place  the  opera- 
tions of  European  surgery  within  the  reach  of  the  poorest 
peasant.  The  whole  cost  of  civil  administration  for  the 
66J  millions  of  Bengal  amounts,  as  already  stated,  to 
XC,33S,9CS,  or  under  Is.  lid.  per  head.  An  unfet- 
tered vernacular  press  makes  known  the  views  of  the 
people"  to  their  rulers,  and  municipal  institutions  are 
developing  the  ancient  Hindu  capacity  for  self-govern- 
ment from  the  village  to  the  municipal  stage  of  huraaa 
society. 

LoCjO.  Division3. — The  following  table  exhibits  ih& 
four  proWnces  at  present  under  the  Lieutenant-Governor 
of  Bengal,  along  wi  h  Assi>,m,  •I'hich  until  February  1874 
was  \\-ithin  it. 


Area,  Population,  and  Languages  of  the  Five  Provinces  of  Loiver  Bengal  {including  Assam)  in  1872. 


■PrOTlDCCS. 


Bengal, 

Uehar,  

f)ri3Sa  (including  tlie  Tributary  States), 

Cliota  Nagpnr, 

Assam  (separated  in  1874) „ 


Total, 


Area  ia 
square 
mik-a. 


94,539 
42,417 
20,901 
43,901 
43,473 


248,231 


ropolaUOQ. 


36,769,733 

19,736,101 

4,317,999 

3,825,571 

2,207,453 


66,856,859 


Average 
popula- 
tion per 
6q.  mile. 


389 

463 

181 

87 

51 


269 


,  Percent- 
age of 
entire 
area. 


Percent 

age  of 

the  whole 

population. 


38-08 
17-09 
9  63 
17  C9 
17-51 


10000 


Languages. 


55-00 

29  52 

6-46 

5-72 

3-30 


10000 


Bengali  and  Hindustani. 

Hindustani  and  Hindi. 

Urij-a,  and  aboriginal  tongues  and  patois. 

Bengali  and  aboriginal  tongues. 

Assamese,  Bengali,  and  aboriginal  tongues. 


The  word  BemgaL  is  derived  from  Sanskrit  geography, 
end  applies  strictly  to  the  country  stretching  south- 
wards from  Bhigalpur  to  the  sea.  The  ancient  Banga 
furmed  one  of  the  five  outlying  kingdoms  of  Arj-an 
India,  and  was  practically  conterminous  with  the  Delta 
of  Bengal  It  derived  its  name,  according  to  the  etymo- 
logy of  the  Pandits,  from  a  prince  of  the  Mahdbh.lrata, 
to  whose  portion  it  fell  on  the  primrtive  partition  of  the 
country  among  the  Lunar  race  of  Dehli.  Bnt  a  city  called 
BingilA,  near  Chittagong,  which,  although  now  washed 
pway,  is  supposed  to  have  existed  in  the  Muhammadan 
period,  appears  to  have  given  the  name  to  the  European 
world.  The  word  BAngili  was  first  used  by  the  Musal- 
mans  ;  and  under  their  rule,  like  the  Banga  of  old  Sanskrit- 
times,  it  applied  specifically  to  the  Gangetic  delta,  althoug'i 
the  latter  conquests  to  the  east  of  the  Brahmaputra  wer*- 
eventually  included  within  it.  In  their  distribution  of  the 
country  for  fiscal  purposes,  it  formed  the  central  province 
of  a  governorship,  with  Behar  on  the  N.W.,  and  Orissa  on 
the  S.W.,  jointly  ruled  by  one  deputy  of  the  Dehli  emperor. 
Under  the  English  the  name  has  at  different  periods  borne 
-♦ery  different  significations.  Francis  Fernandez  applies  it 
to  the  country  from  the  extreme  east  of  Chittagong  to  Point 
Palmyras  in  Orissa,  with  a  coast  line  which  Purchas  esti- 
mates at  600  miles,  running  inland  for  the  same  distance, 
and  watered  by  the  Ganges.  -  This  territory  would  include 
the  Muhammadan  province  of  Bengal,  with  parts  of  Behar 
and  Orissa.  The  loose  idea  thus  derived  from  old  voyagers 
became  stereotyped  in  the  archives  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany. All  its  north-eastern  factories,  from  Balasor,  on  the 
Orissa  coast,  to  PatnA,  in  the  heart  of  Behar,  belonged  to 
the  "  Bengal  Establishment,"  and  as  our  conquests  crept 
higher  up  the  rivers,  the  terra  came  to  bo  applied  to  the 
whole  of  Northern  India.  The  Presidency  of  Bengal,  in 
contradistinction  to  those  of  Madras  and  Bombay,  eventu- 
ally included  all  the  British  territories  north  of  the  Central 
Provinces,  from  the  mouths  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra 
to  the  Ilimilayas  and  the  Panj.'ib.  The  term  Bengal  con- 
tinues to  be  officially  cmplovcd  in  this  sense  by  the  military 


department  of  the  Government  of  India.  But  during  the 
last  forty  years  the  tendency  to  a  more  exact  order  of  civil 
administration  has  gradually  brought  about  a  corresponding 
precision  in  the  use  of  Indian  geographical  names.  The 
North- Western  Provinces  date  their  separate  existence  from 
1831.  Since  that  year  they  stand  forward  under  a  name 
of  their  own  as  the  North-Westem  Pro-vinces,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  Lower  Provinces  of  Bengal.  Later 
annexations  have  added  new  territorial  entities,  and  the 
northern  Presidency  is  now  mapped  out  into  four  separate 
governments — the  North-Westeru  Provinces,  Oudh,  Panjib, 
and  Lower  Bengal.  Three  of  the  provinces  of  the  present 
Lieutenant-Governorship  of  Bengal — namely,  Bengal  proper, 
Behar,  and  Orissa — consist  of  great  river  valleys ;  the  fourth, 
ChhotA  or  Chutii  NAgpur,  is  a  mountainous  region  which 
separates  them  from  the  Central  India  plateau.  Orissa 
embraces  the  rich  deltas  of  the  MahAnadl  and  the  neigh- 
bouring rivers,  bounded  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal  on  the  S.E., 
and  waUed  in  on  the  N.W.  by  tributary  hUl  states.  Pro- 
ceeding westward,  the  province  of  Bengal  proper  stretches 
along  the  coast  from  Orissa  to  British  Burmah,  and  inland 
from  the  sea-board  to  the  HimAlayas.  Its  southern  por- 
tion is  formed  by  the  united  deltas  of  the  Ganges  and 
Brahmaputra;  its  northern  consists  of  the  valleys  of 
these  great  rivers  and  thoir  tributaries.  Behar  lies  on  the 
north-west  of  Bengal  proper,  and  comprises  the  higher 
valley  of  the  Ganges,  from  the  spot  where  it  issues 
from  the  territories  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the 
North-Westem  Provincea  Between  Behar  and  Orissa, 
but  stretching  further  westward  and  deep  into  the 
hill  countrj',  lies  the  province  of  Chhoti  •  or  Chuti4 
NAgpur. 

Administrative  Divisions. — For  administrative  pur- 
poses, the  Lieutenant-Governorship  of  Bengal,  excluding 
the  recently  separated  province  of  Ass.*^  (see  under 
that  heading),  is  divided  into  47  districts.  The  details 
of  the  area  and  population  of  these,  presented  in  the 
following  tabic,  are  taken,  with  few  cycr;dioDS,  from  ti? 
census  rcturtis  of  18713 : — 


BENGAL 


567 


BENGAL  PROPER 

BardwaD,   *.... 

Bankuri,    

BLrbhum,   

Midnapur, 

Uu^Ii  with  Hi.«rab,    .. 

24  Pargands 

CalcutU,    

Nadiyd, 

Je53or 

Murehi'dabad 

Dinajpar,  

ilalda(u 

Rajshifit,    

Rangpur,   

Bogii,    

Pibna,    

DarjUing 

Jalpaiguri,* 

Kuch  Beliar,* 

Dacca,     

Farijpur,   ..-. 

Bakarganj, 

Maimaosiub, 

Silhet,     

Chittagong,    

Noakhali,  

Tipperah 

ChitUgong  Hill  Tracts, 
Hill  Tipperah  State,    .. 


Total, 


BEIIAR. 

29.  Patni,  

30.  Cava, 

31.  Shihabad 

32.  Tirhut,   

33.  Siran 

34.  Champaran 

35.  Mongnir,    

3a.  Bhagalpur 

37.  Purniah 

38.  Santdl  PargaDaa, 

Total,  


ORISS.i. 

39.  Cattack,. 

40.  Puri,  

41.  lialasor , 

42.  Tributary  States, 

Total,  


chhotX  NioruR. 

43.  Haziribigh,  ■ 

44.  Lohdrja^.!,    

4.'i.  Singhbhura,  

4ti.  Manblium 

47.  Tributary  States 

Total,   

Grand  'i . . .: 


Ana— 


523 
346 
344 

082 
424 
788 
8 
421 
653 
578 
126 
813 
234 
476 
501 
966 
234 
906 
307 
897 
,496 
935 
293 
383 
498 
557 
655 
6S2 
86* 


84,198 


2,101 
4,718 
4,385 
6,343 
2,654 
3,531 
3,913 
4,327 
4,957 
5,488 


42,417 


3,178 

2,473 

2,0«6 

16,184 


23,901 


7.021 

12.044 

4,503 

4,914 

15,419 


PopuJtUOD. 


2,034,745 
526,772 
095,921 

2,540,963 

1,483,556 
2,210,047 

447,601 
1,812,795 
2,075,021 
1,353,626 
1,501,924 

676,426 
1,310,729 
2,149.972 

639,467 

1,211,594 

94,712 

418,665 

532,565 
1,852,993 
1,012,589 
2,377,433 
2,349,917 
1,719,539 
1,127,402 

713.934 

1,533,931 

69,607 

35,262 


36,564,708 


1,679,363 

.487.786 

■576,908 

2,285,568 

1,186,435 

1,307,087 

291,194 

821,032 

915,413 

733,056 

702,235 

350,298 

286,870 

857,298 

130,644 

361,314 

69,831 

182,375 

793,789 
420,988 
827,393 
817,063 
859,234 
301,133 
130,253 
540,156 
593 


MuhtmmadaDS.   Chiibtiaus 


348,024 

13,500 

111,795 

157,047 

299,025 

837,853 

133,131 

934.106 

1,151.936 

603,564 

793,215 

310,890 

1,017,979 

1,291,465 

556,620 

847,227 

6,248 

144,930 

Details  not 

1,050.131 

538,299 

1.540,965 

1,5J9,635 

854,131 

795.013 

633,053 

993,554 

1,378 

Details  not 


roviilfttion 

|p«i  aquAr«    l.itnri  Itemiofc. 

I      mile. 


890 

70 

249 

613 

2,583 

13,767 

21,356 

5,977 

1,142 

,     537 

270 

43 

103 

73 

22 

93 

556 

30 

available. 
7,844 
463 
4,852 
124 
159 
1,034 
652 
146 
31 
available. 


6,468 
25,416 

6,969 

97,735 

613 

1,310 

1,920 

1,630 

6,530 

16,469 

6,203 

9,195 

5,777 

1,136 

2,181 

2.955 

13.077 

504 

1.229 

2.339 

4.223 

12.195 

6.015 

30,169 

76 

65 

67,600 


17.972,219 


1,559,638 
1,949,750 
1,723.974 
4.334.706 
2,063,660 
1,440,815 
1,812,986 
1,826.290 
1,714,795 
1,259,287 


19,736,101 


1,494,784 

769,674 

770,232 

1,233,309 


4,317,999 


771.876 
1,237,123 
■>' 5,023 
995,570 
405,980 


43.901       3,825,571 


194,417'   04,414,379 


1,863,291 
1.729,899 
1,590,643 
3,854,991 
1,822,048 
1,240,264 
1,613.546 
1,639.949 
1,022.009 
650,210 


16,526,350 


1,430,040 
739,636 
738,396 
879,655 


3.787,727 


647.991 
741.952 
209,632 
827,936 
139,781 


2.667.292 


40,854,088 


17,534.774 


192.933 
219,332 
132,671 
62.H,605 
24i,590 
199,237 
132,269 
169,426 
690.149 
79,786 


63.641 


2,636,053 


40,013 

11.536 

13,378 

3,995 


74,472 


72,333 
68,211 

2,437 
33,622 

2,348 


169,006 


20,414,305 


2,700 
203 
461 
716 
207 
1,307 
1,M2 
632 
403 
392 


8,063 


2,314 
676 
630 
303 


3,723 


1,573 

12,781 
852 
592 


15,798 


91,225 


335,567 


659 

316 

199 

394 

16 

7 

16,029 

16,333 

2,234 

528,899 


665,135 


22,417 

17,876 

12,423 

399,356 


452,077 


49.978 
424.179 
202.052 
133.420 
203,851 


1,073,475 


2,426,254 


578 
S91 
518 
500 
1,045 
793 
65,950 
530 
607 
625 
364 
373 
687 
619 
459 
616 

77 
144 
407 
640 
677 
432 
373 
319 
451 
459 
578 

10 
9 


438 


742 
413 
393 
691 
773 
408 
463 
422 
346 
229 


£306.454 

45,065 

73,223 

203,409 

144,848 

2,440 

170,287 

105,080 

103,184 

135,883 

175,566 

32,414 

102,651 

96,062 

44,160 

24,066 

6.376 

26,547 

4S.'996 
32.764 

151.128 
84.955 
43,311 
76,089 
56,161 

100,322 


£2,' 13,002 


£145,050 

136,261 

174,591 

176,702 

211,936 

61,578 

81,015 

67,925 

127,693 

12,154 


465  j  £1,184,906 


470 
311 
373 


180 


110 
103 

92 
203 

26 


£83,416 
45,362 
40,424 


£169.702 


331 


C7.041 
9.732 
5,934 
6,562 


£29,279 


£3,796,868 


'  The  cen»tt«  of  tk«  Dnin  of  Jalpaipirl  was  UVen  in  1869-70,  at  the  time  of  the  land  Bottlcment,  and  the  details  of  the  popolatioB, 
according  to  religion,  were  not  ascertained  for  this  part  of  the  distncL     The  dulails,  therefore,  do  not  agree  »itb  the  total  population. 
Ceaao^  taken  at  the  time  of  settlement     Petaih  not  ascertained. 

'  Tills  aru  It  «iq1ui1t»  of  6341  square  milca  of  unsunteved  Sundarbana,  and  one  or  two  minor  traa* :  tot*l  area  of  all  BenKaL  203.471 
Miuire  milei.  -— o— •       • 


568 


BENGAL 


Primcipal  Crops. — The  cliicr  products  of  tbe  province 
have  been  already  cnnmerateJ.  The  great  staple  crop  is 
rice,  of  which  thero  are  three  harvests  in  the  year, — the 
boro,  or  spring  rice ;  dus,  or  autumn  rice ;  and  diti/in,  or 
winter  noe.  Of  these  the  last  or  winter  rice  is  by  far  the 
most  cxtensivoly.cultivated,  and  forms  the -great  harvest  of 
the  year.  The  dman  crop  is  grown  on  low  land.  lu  May, 
after  the  6rst  fall  of  rain,  a  nursery  ground  is  ploughed  three 
times,  and  the  seed  scattered  broadcast.  When  the  seed- 
lings make  their  appearance  another  field  is  prepared  for 
transplantmg.  By  this  time  the  rainy  season  has  thoroughly 
set  in,  and  the  field  is  dammed  up  so  as  to  retain  the  water. 
Jt  is  then  repeatedly  ploughed  until  the  water  becomes 
worked  into  the  soil,  and  the  whole  reduced  to  thick  mud. 
The  young  rice  is  then  taken  from  the  nursery,  and  trans- 
planted in  rows  about  9  inches  apart.  If,  by  reason  of  the 
backwardness  of  the  season,  the  nursery  ground  cannot  be 
prepared  by  the  sowing-time  in  April  or  May,  the  Aman 
rice  is  not  transplanted  at  all.  In  such  a  case  the  husband- 
men in  July  or  August  soak  the  paddy  in  water  for  one 
day  to  germinate,  and  plant  the  germinated  seed  not  in  a 
nursery  plot,  but  in  the  larger  fields,  which  they  would 
otherwise  have  used  to  transplant  the  sprouts  into.  It  is 
very  soldom,  however,  that  this  procedure  is  found  ncccs- 
Bary.  Aman,  rice  is  much  more  e.xtensively  cultivated  than 
dus,  and  in  favourable  years  is  the  most  valuable  crop,  but 
being  sown  in  low  lands  is  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  exccs- 
8iv3  rainfall.  Harvest  takes  place  in  December  or  January, 
./I  MS  rice  is  generally  sown  on  higli  ground.  The  tield  is 
ploughed  when  the  early  rains  set  in,  ten  or  twelve  times 
over,  till  the  soil  is  reduced  nearly  to  dust,  the  seed  being 
sown  broadcast  in  April  or  May.  As  soon  as  the  young 
plants  reach  G  inches  in  height,  the  land  is  harrowed  for 
the  purpose  of  thinning  the  crop  and  to  clear  it  of  weeds. 
Tho  crop  is  harvested  in  August  or  September.  Boro,  or 
epring  rice,  is  cultivated  on  low  marshy  land,  being  sown 
in  a  nursery  in  October,  transplanted  a  month  later,  and 
harvested  in  March  and  April.  An  indigenous  description 
of  rice,  called  uri  or  jaradkitn,  grows  in  certain  marshy 
tracts.  The  grain  is  very  small,  and  is  gathered  for  con- 
sumption only  by  the  poorest.  No  tabulated  statistics  of 
cultivation  e.xist ;  but  in  1872-73  the  quantity  of  rice 
exported  from  Bengal  to  foreign  ports  amounted  to  288,955 
tons,  of  the  value  of  £1,085,170.  Oil-seeds  are  very 
largely  grown  over  the  whole  of  Bengal,  particularly  in  the 
Behar  and  As^am  districts.  The  principal  oil-seeds  are 
san'i/ia  (mustard),  ^7(sesamura),  and  (wi,  or  ;;iasiH(i  (linseed). 
E.xports  of  oil-seeds  are  principally  confined  to  linseed,  of 
which  107,723  tons  were  exported  in  1872-73,  of  the  value 
of  Xl,077,318.  Jute  (pat  or  kosta)  now  forms  a  very 
important  commercial  staple  of  Bengal.  The  cultivation 
of  this  crop  has  rapidly  increased  of  late  years.  Its  prin- 
cipal scat  of  cultivation  is  Eastern  Bengal,  where  the  sup- 
perior  varieties  are  grown.  The  crop  grows  on  either  high 
or  low  lands,  is  sown  in  April,  and  cut  in  August.  In  1872 
the  area  under  jute  cultivation  in  Bengal  was  estimated  at 
925,899  acres,  and  tho  yield  at  49G,703  tons.  Jute  exports 
from  Bengal  amounted  in  1872-73  to  353,097  tons,  value 
X4, 127, 9-13.  Jute  manufactures,  in  the  shape  of  gunny 
bags,  cloth,  rope,  ifec,  were  also  exported  to  tho  value  of 
£187,149.  Indigo  cultivation  and  manufacture  is  princi- 
pally carried  on  with  European  capital.  In  Bengal  proper 
tho  industry  Las  languished  of  late  years,  and  the  area 
under  indigo  cultivation  greatly  fallen  off.  In  Behar,  on 
tho  other  hand,  the  area  of  indigo  lands  has  increased.  The 
annual  out-turn  for  all  Bengal  is  estimated  at  about  75,000 
rnaunds,  valued  at  nearly  two  millions  sterling.  Two 
crops  of  indigo  are  raised  in  the  year;  one  sown  in  April 
or  May  before  the  setting  in  of  the  r.iins,  and  cut  in  .\ugust 
or  Si:ptcmber ;  tho  other  sown  in  October  as  the  waters 


subside,  and  cut  in  the  fo!;owiug  July.  The  crop  of  1872 
was  considerably  above  the  average,  the  toUil  exports 
amounting  to  5962  tons,  of  the  value  of  £2,70-1,080.  Tea 
cultivation  is  the  other  great  industry  carried  on  by  Euro- 
pean capital.  The  cultivation  is  principally  confined  to 
Assam,  which  province  was  recently  separated  from  tho 
Lieutenant-Governorship,  and  to  Ihe  northern  Bengal  dis- 
trict of  DArjiling.  In  the  other  localities  in  which  tea  is 
grown,  Chhoti  Nigpur  ar.d  Ohitt-agong,  cultivation  is  at 
present  only  carried  on  on  a  small  scale.  Tea  cultivation 
has  enormously  extended  of  late  years,  and  the  gardens  are, 
as  a  general  rule,  well  filled  with  plants,  highly  cultivated 
and  carefully  managed.  Including  Assam,  the  total  arcc 
held  under  the  Waste  Land  Rules  by  persons  connectcu 
with  the  tea  industry,  amounted  in  1872  to  80-1,582  acres 
Of  this  area  70,341  acres  are  returned  as  actually  cultivateii 
with  tea,  but  this  is  probably  too  low  an  estimate.  TI19 
exports  of  tea  in  1872-73  amounted  to  17,041,070  tti, 
valued  at  £1,507,501.  Besides  what  is  exported,  there  is 
an  increasing  local  consumption  of  Indian  tea.  In  ISGC 
the  total  out-turn  of  tea  did  not  exceed  one  million  lb. 
Tho  cultivation  of  opium  is  a  Government  monopoly;  no 
person  is  allowed  to  grow  the  poppy  except  on  account  oi 
tho  Government.  The  manufacture  is  carried  on  at  two 
separate  agencies, — that  of  Benares  in  the  North- Western 
Provinces,  of  which  the  head  station  is  at  Ghizipur ;  and 
that  of  Behar,  with  its  head  station  at  Patn.l  Annual 
engagements  are  entered  into  by  the  cultivators,  under  a 
system  of  pecuniary- advances,  to  sow  a  certain  quantity  of 
land  with  poppy,  and  the  whole  produce  in  the  form  of 
opium  is  delivered  to  Goyernment  at  a  fixed  rate.  The 
area  under  poppy  cultivation  in  the  Behar  agency;  situated 
entirely  within  Bengal,  in  1872,  amounted  to  330,925 
acres;  in  the  Benares  agency  to  229,430  acres,  total, 
500,355  acies,.  The  number  f  chests  of  opium  sold  at  the 
Government  sales  in  Calcutta  in  1872,  was  42,075,  the 
amount  realised  was  £0,007,701,  and  the  net  revenue, 
£4,259,370.  The  .  cultivation  of  the  cinchona  plant  in 
Bengal  was  introduced  as  an  experiment  about  I8G2,  in  a 
valley  of  tho  lliniilayas  in  DArjiling  district,  and  the  enter- 
prise has  already  attained  a  point  which  promises  success. 
There  are  now  (1874)  about  2000  acres  of"  Government 
cinchona  plantations  in  DArjiling. 

MiNEUAL  Products. — A  brief  statement- has  already 
been  given  of  the  principal  minerals  of  Bengal.  The  coal 
mines  of  RAnlganj,  within  BardwAn  district,  however, 
demand  somewhat  more  special  notice.  In  this  field  there 
were,  in  1872,  altogether  44  mines  worked,  of  which  19 
turn  out  more  than  10,000  tons  of  coal  per  annum  apiece. 
In  the  larger  and  better  mines,  coal  is  raised  by  steam  [)ower 
from  pits  and  galleries  ;  and  in  the  smaller  mines  or  work- 
ings, by  hand  labour  from  open  quarries.  In  the  UAnlgarj 
coal- field  alone,  01  steam  engines,  with  an  aggregate  of  807 
horse-power,  are  at  work.  Only  one  seam  or  set  of  seams 
of  less  thickness  than  8i  feet  is  worked,  and  the  average 
thickness  of  the  seams  at  the  RAnlganj  mines  is  about  15 
or  10  feet.  The  pits  are  mostly  shallow,  very  few  are  more 
than  150  feet  deep.  The  Bengal  Coal  Company,  with  in 
mines  at  RAnfganj  and  westwards,  is  able  to  raise  from 
them  220,000  tons  of  coal  annually.  Salt  manufacture 
was  formerly  a  Government  monopoly,  principally  carried 
on  along  the  sea-coast  of  Orissa  and  in  Midnapur  district. 
An  account  of  the  manufacture  of  salt  by  means  of  evapora- 
tion by  fire  is  given  in  the  account  of  Balasor  (7.V.)  Tho 
process  of  manufacture  by  means  of  solar  evaporation  will 
bo  described  in  the  account  of  Puiii  district.  Government 
abandoned  its  monopoly  of  salt  manufacture  many  years 
ago,  and  it  is  now  carried  on  by  private  parties  on  their 
own  account,  subject  to  a  Government  duty  in  Bent:al  of 
8s.  8d.  a  cwt.  levied  at  the  place  of  production.     S;dt  duticc 


VOZTTL 


PLATE  IV 


B  E  N  G  A  i. 


oG9 


».iry  in  different  parts  of  India,  necessitating  the  main- 
tenance of  ex[)cnsivc  and  cumbrous  customs  lines.  Tliis 
year  (1874)  an  attempt  has  been  made  towards  the  abolition 
of  the  Oriasa  customs  line,  by  means  of  a  ^aduated  scale  of 
salt  duty  within  Orissa,  rising  by  degrees  from  the  Madras 
duty  of  4s.  10.1.  a  cwt.  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  province, 
to  the  Bengal  duty  of  83.  8d.  a  cwt.  in  the  extreme  north. 
At  the  present  day  the  greater  quantity  of  salt  consumed 
in  Bengal  is  imported  by  Liverpool  ships  from  the  Cheshire 
mines.  In,  1872  the  Bengal  salt  duty  yielded  a  net  revenue 
of  £2,610,236. 

Tbade. — No  complete  statistics  of  the  internal  trade  of 
Bengal  exist.  The  Ganges,  the  Brahmaputra,  and  on  a 
much  smaller  scale,  the  Mah.iuadi  in  Orissa,  with  the 
Eastern  Bengal  Railway  and  the  great  East  Indian  Line, 
■  form  the  main  arteries  of  conimerce.  From  these  main 
channels  a  network  of  minor  streams,  and  a  fairly  adequate 
altliongh  not  yet  complete  system  of  raised  roads,  radiate 
to  the  remotest  districts.  The  chief  articles  of  internal 
tratlic  are  the  vegetable  and  mineral  productions  enumerated 
above.  The  larger  transactions  of  commerce  arc  conducted 
in  the  great  cities,  such  as  Calcutta  and  Patna,  and  in  a 
number  of  purely  market  centres,  such  as  Nawabganj  and 
Sir.ljganj,  which  have  recently  grown  up  under  British  rule. 
The  smaller  operations  of  trade  are  cifccted  by  means  of 
Village  markets  and  countless  AnVi  or  open  air  weekly  bazdrs 
in  every  district.  The  external  trade  of  Bengal  is  practi- 
cally confined  to  Calcutta.  There  are  about  ten  other  ports 
on  the  Bay  of  Bengal,.the  most  important  of  which  is  the  rice 
[■ort  of  Chittagong.  But  for  general  purposes  the  foreign 
and  interportal  commerce  of  Calcutta  may  be  taken  to  re- 
present that  of  the  province.  In  1871-72  it  stood  thus: 
exports  from  Calcutta,  £32,771,152;  imports,X21,365,677; 
total,  £54,136,829.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  rice, 
opium,  indigo,  jute,  tea,  oil-seeds,  silk,  cotton,  and  fibres. 
Chief  imports,  Manchester  goods,  woollens,  salt,  coal,  iron, 
metals,  liquors,  and  oilmen's  stores. 

HiSTORV. — The  history  of  so  large  a  province  as  Bengal 
forms  an  integral  part  of  the  general  history  of  India. 
(See  India.)  The  northern  part,  Behar,  formed  a  powerful 
kingdom  in  Sanskrit  times,  and  its  chief  town,  Patn.'t,  is 
identified  as  the  Paliholhra  of  the  Greeks.  The  Delta  or 
southern  part  of  Bengal  lay  beyond  the  ancient  Sanskrit 
polity,  and  was  governed  by  a  number  of  local  kings 
belonging  to  a  pre-Aryan  stock.  The  Chinese  travellers. 
Fa  Iliang  in  the  5th  century,  and  Hiouen  Thsang  in  the 
7th  century,  found  the  Buddhist  religion  prevailing  through- 
out Bengal,  but  already  in  a  fierce  struggle  with  Hinduism — 
a  struggle  which  ended  about  the  9th  or  10th  century  in  the 
general  establishment  of  the  latter  faith.  Until  the  end  of 
the  12th  century  Hindu  princes  governed  in  a  number  of 
petty  principalities,  till,  in  1199,  Muhammad  Bakhtiyar 
Khiiji  was  appointed  to  lead  the  firet  MusalmAn  invasion 
into  Bengal  The  Muhammadan  conquest  of  Behar  dates 
from  1200  A.D.,  and  the  new  power  speedily  spread  south- 
wards into  the  Delta.  From  about  this  date  until  1340 
Bcng.-il  was  ruled  by  governors  appointed  by  the  Muham- 
m.idan  emperors  in  the  north.  From  1340  to  1539  its 
governors  asserted  a  precarious  independence,  and  arrogated 
the  position  of  sovereigns  on  their  own  account.  From 
1510  to  1576  Bengal  passed  under  the  rule  of  the  Path.'in 
or  Afgh.^n  dynasty,  which  comiuoidy  bears  the  name  of 
Sher  Shdh.  On  the  overthrow  of  this  house  by  the  power- 
ful arms  of  Akbar,  Bengal  was  incorporated  into  the 
Mughul  empire,  and  administered  by  governors  appointed 
by  the  Dehli  emperor,  until  the  treaties  of  1765,  which 
placed  Bengal,  Behar,  and  Orissa  under  the  administration 
of  the  East  India  Company.  Until  1854  Bengal  remained 
under  the  Governor  General  of  India  as  governor,  his  place 
being  supplied,  during  his  absence  in  other  parts  of  India. 


by  a  deputy-governor  from  among  tlie  members  of  his 
council.  By  the  statute  10  and  17  Vict.  cap.  95,  these 
two  great  offices  were  separated,  and  Bengal  erected  into  a 
Lieutenant-Governorship.  The  first  lieutenant-governor  was 
appointed  in  1834,  and  the  constitution  of  the  Government 
of  Bengal  5till  continues  on  this  basis,  except  that  the  lieu- 
tenant-governor is  now  appointed  subject  to  the  approval 
of  Her  Majesty.  In  a  brief  sketch  like  the  present  it  is 
impossible  to  attempt  further  historical  details  beyond  a 
bare  list  of  the  successive  rulers,  and  the  dales  of  their 
accession. 

First  Period. 
EaHy  Muhammadan  Conquerors  of  Bengal. 


A  D, 

AH. 

Governors  of  Bengal. 

Emperors  of 
llir.iluatan. 

Kincaof 
EiieluilL 

1204 

eoolBakhtivar  Klulji 

Kutab 

Jpha 

120G 

602 

-Muhamniad  SUcraa 

Do. 

Do. 

1203 

605 

AM  Mardan 

Do. 

Do. 

1212 

009 

Ghyas  Uddin 

AUamsb 

Do. 

1227 

624 

Nasir  Uddin 

Do. 

Henry  111. 

1230 

627 

Ala  Uddin 

Do. 

Do. 

1237 

634 

Tughan  K!i:in 

Sulldnd  nizii 

Do. 

12-14 

642 

Taimur  Kh.'m 

Bahrain  11. 

Do. 

1246 

644  Saif  Uddin  ' 

j  Nasir  Uddin  1 
}    Mubaijuuad  t 

Do. 

1253 

651  Mulk  Uzbek 

Do; 

Do. 

12r,7 

656Jalal  UdJin 

Do. 

Do. 

I2:iS 

657  Irsilan  Kh,ia 

Do. 

Do. 

1200 

659|Tatar  Kluin 

Do. 

Do. 

1277 

676!Tugliral  Khan 

Balia 

Edward  I. 

1282 

681INa3ir  L'ddiii 

Do. 

Do. 

1320 

725lKadr  Klian 

Muhammad  III.  jEdward  II. 

Second  Period. 

Independent  Muhammadan  Kings  of  Bengal. 

1340 

741|Fakir  Uddin 

Jluliammad  III. 

Edward  III 

1343 

743  Ilyaa  Sh.Ui 

Do. 

Do. 

1358 

760  Sikandar  Sli.ih 

Firuzlll. 

Do. 

1367 

769GliivasUdd.n  II. 

Do. 

Do. 

1373 

775 

Sultan  Asal.ituj    ' 

Do. 

Do. 

1383 

785 

Sams  UdJin 

Do. 

Richard  II. 

1385 

7S7 

Kajii  Ganes 

Do. 

Do. 

13»2 

794  Jalal  Uddin 

^^uhammad  IV. 

Do. 

1409 

812Ahm^d  Sh.ih 

iMalmmd  III. 

Henry  IV. 

1426 

830 

Na.sir  Sh.ih 

iMuUiiik  II. 

Heniy  VI. 

1457 

862 

Barbck  Sliiih 

Btlcili  Ladi 

Do. 

1474 

879 

Yusaf  Sli.ih 

IV 

Edward  IV. 

1482 

887 

Fathi  Sliah 

Do. 

Do. 

H91 

896 

Sultan  Sbahzadeh 

Sikandar 

Hen rv  VII. 

1492 

897 

Firuz  Sh.Ui 

D... 

D'o. 

1494 

899 

M.ahmud  Shdh 

Do. 

Do. 

1495 

900,JIuzafrar  Shah  '■ 

Do. 

Do. 

1499 

905  llusain  Shah 

Do. 

Do. 

1520 

927  Nasirat  Sh.ih 

Ibraliin, 

Henry  Vlil. 

1533   940:iM,lhmud  Shah                  Huiiuyim 

Do. 

Third  Pekiod. 

Bengal  binder  Afghan,  or  Pathan  Dynasty..    (Sher  Shdh.) 

1539 

946  Khizir  IChdn 

Sher  Sh.ih 

Henry  Villi 

1545 

952  .Muhammad  Sui 

Salim  Shdh 

Da          1 

1555 

962  Babiidur  Sh,ih 

Muhamniad  Adii 

.Mary 

1560 

968  Jalal  L'ddir, 

Do. 

Eliz.ibetb 

1564 

971  Sulainian  Kcrdnl 

Do. 

Do. 

1573    aSllDiud  Khin 

Akbar 

Do. 

Fourth  Period. 

Goverxors  0]  Bengal  under  the  Mughul  Dynasty. 

1576   9S4  Klun  Jali'iD 

Akbar 

Eli  abeth 

15791  937|Mujairjr  Khia 

Do. 

Do. 

1560    988'RdjiTo(laimal 

Do. 

Do. 

1582   990Klidn  Aim 

Do. 

Do. 

15S4    992Sli;ihbai  Khan 

Do. 

Do. 

1589    997  HiijA  Minsinh 

Do. 

Do. 

lC06jl015jKul!il  Uddiu  Kokaltish  ' 

Jalidnrir 

James  I. 

160711010  Jihdnpi'r  Kuli                   1 

Do 

Do. 

670 


BENGAL 


Fourth  VEMOU—Continjied. 


A.D 

,VII 

Governors  of  BcDgal 

tinp-.orsof 

llMidu9iaa. 

Kings  o( 
England. 

■  1 

160»10I7 

Shaikh  Islam  Khin 

Jah.in''ir 

James  I. 

I6I3I1022 

Kasim  Khan 

Uo. 

Do. 

1618 

1028 

Ibraliim  Khan 

Do. 

Do^ 

1622 

1032 

Shah  Jahan 

Do. 

Do. 

1625 

1033 

Kbanazad  Khan 

Do. 

Charles  I. 

1626 

1035 

Mukarram  Khan 

Do. 

Do. 

1627 

1036 

Fidai  Khun 

Do. 

Do. 

1C281037 

Kasim  Khan  Jabuui 

Shah  Jahan 

Do, 

16321042 

/Uim  Kh:.n 

Dp. 

Do. 

1637 

1047 

Islam  Khan  Mushcdi 

Do. 

Do. 

1639 

1049 

Sultan  Shuja 

Do. 

Do. 

1660 

1070 

Mir  Jamla 

Auranjjzeb 

Charles  II. 

1664 

1074 

Shaista  Khan 

Do. 

Do, 

1077 

1087 

Fidai  Khan 

Do. 

Do. 

1678 

1088 

Sultan  Muhammad  Azim 

Do. 

Do. 

16S0 

1090 

Shaista  Khan 

Do. 

Do. 

1639 

1099 

Ibrahim  Khan  11. 

Do. 

William  III. 

1697 

1108 

Azim  Ushan 

Do. 

Anne 

1704!lll6 

Murshid  Kuli 

Do. 

George  II. 

172Dll39'Shuji  Uddin  Khin 

Muhammad  Shah 

Do. 

1739!ll5rSarraraz  Khin 

Do. 

Do. 

1740'1153'Ali  Vardi  Kh.in 

Do. 

Do. 

1756jU70iSiraj  Ud  Dauli 

Alamgir 

Do. 

The  above  chronology  is  taken  from  Stewart's  History  0/  Bengal. 

Fifth  Period 
Governors  of  Bengal  and  Governors-General  of  India  under 
the  East  India  Company,  1765-1854. 
1765,  Lord  Olive;    1767,   Harry  Verelst ;   1769,    John  Cartier ; 
1772,    Warren    Hastings;     1785,    Sir    John    Macpherson ;    1786, 
Marquis  Cornwallis;  1793,  Sir  John   Shore  (Lord  Teijnmouth)  ; 
1793,  Sir  Aiured  Clarke   (yro.  tern.)  ;    1793,   Marquis  Wellesley  ; 
1805,  Marquis  Cornwallis  ;  1806,  Earl  of  Minto  ;  1813,  Marquis  of 
Hastings;  1823,  John  Adam  (pj-p.  (em.);  1823,  Earl  Amherst :  1823, 
Lord   William  Cavendish  Bentinck  ;    1835,  Sir  Charles   Metcalf ; 
1836,  Earl  Auckland;  1842,  Karl  of  EUenborough  ;  1844,  Viscount 
Hardiuge  ;  1348,  Marquis  of  Dalhousie. 

Sixth  Period. 
Bengal  under  Lieutenant-Governors,  1854-1874. 

Sir  Frederic  Halliday  ;  Sir  John  Peter  Grant ;  Sir  Cecil  Beadon  ; 
Sir  William  Grey  ;  Sir  George  Campbell ,  Sir  Richard  Temple. 

English  connection  with  Bengal.— The  East  India  Com- 
pany formed  its  earliest  settlements  in  Bengal  in  the  first 
half  of  the  17th  century.  These  settlements  were  of  a  purely 
commercial  character.  In  1620  one  of  the  Company's 
factors  dates  from  Patni  ;  in  1624-36  the  Company  estab- 
lished itself,  by  the  favour  of  the  emperor,  on  the  ruins  of 
the  ancient  Portuguese  settlement  kit  Pippli,  in  the  north 
of  Orissa  ;  in  1640-42  the  patriotism  of  an  English  sur- 
geon, Mr  Gabriel  Boughton,  obtained  for  us  establishments 
at  Balasor,  also  in  Orissa^  and  at  Hijgll,  some  miles  above 
Calcutta.  The  vexations  and  extortions  to  which  the 
Company's  early  agents  were  subjected  more  than  once 
almost  induced  them  to  abandon  tho  trade,  and  in  1677-78 
they  threatened  to  withdraw  from  Bengal  altogether.  In 
1685,  the  Bengal  factors,  driven  to  extremity  by  the 
oppression  of  the  Mughul  governors,  threw  down  the 
gauntlet;  and  after  various  successes  and  hair-breadth 
escapes,  purchased  from  the  grandson  of  Auraugzeb  in 
1696,  the  villages  which  have  since  grown  up  into  Calcutta, 
the  metropolis  of  India  During  the  next  fifty  years  the 
English  had  a  long  and  hazardous  stiTiggle  alike  with  tlio 
Mughul  governors  of  the  province  and  the  Marhattd  armies 
which  invaded  it.  In  1756  this  struggle  culminated  in 
tlic  great  outrage  known  as  the  Bl.ick  Hole  of  Calcutta, 
followed  by  Clive's  battle  of  Plassey  and  capture  of  Cal- 
cutta, which  avenged  it.  That  battle,  and  tho  subse- 
quent years  of  confused  fighting,  established  our  mihtary 
supremacy  in  Bengal,  and  procured  the  treaties  of  1765,  by 
which  tho  provinces  of  Bengal,  Behar,  and  Orissa  jia.isoil 


under  our  administration.  To  Warren  Hastings  (1772-8.'>) 
belongs  the  glory  of  consolidating  our  power,  and  convert- 
ing a  military  occupation  into  a  stable  civd  government. 
To  another  member  of  the  ciril  service,  John  Shore,  after- 
wards Lord  Teignmoulh  (1786-93),  is  due  the  formation 
of  a  regular  system  of  Anglo-Indian  legislati'-  1.  Acting 
through  Lord  Cornwallis,  then  Goveruor-Ge'  y^i\,  he  ascer- 
tained and  defined  the  rights  of  the  landho'  j^,-3  in  the  soil. 
These  landholders  under  the  native  sysr  .m  bad,  for  the 
most  part,  started  as  collectors  of  the  revi  /lUes,  and  gradu- 
ally acquired  certain  prescriptive  rights  a  .  quasi-proprietors 
of  the  estates  entrusted  to  them  by  thf  Government.  In 
1793  Lord  Cornwallis  declared  their  rights  perpetual,  and 
made  over  the  land  of  Bengal  to  the  previous  quasi-proorie- 
tors  or  zaminddrs,  on  condition  of  i\s  pajmicnt  of  a  fixed 
land  tax.  This  great  piece  of  lej^islation  is  known  as' 
the  Permanent  Settlement  of  the  Ii..nd  Uevenue.  But  the 
Cornwallis  code,  while  defining  t'/.e  rights  of  the  proprie- 
tors, failed  to  give  adequate  ro\.<)gnition  to  the  rights  of 
the  under-tenants  and  tho  cu'  .ivators.  His  Regulations 
formally  reserved  the  latter  c'/ass  of  rights,  but  did  not 
legally  define  them,  or  enable  the  husbandmen  to  enforce 
them  in  the  courts.  After  half  k  century  of  rural  disquiet,  the 
rights  of  the  cultivators  were  ii,t  length  carefully  formulated 
by  Act  X.  of  1859.  This  m»:a.sure,  now  known  as  the  land 
law  of  Bengal,  efl'ected  for  the  rights  of  the  under-holders 
and  cultivators  what  the  f'ornw.allis  code  in  1793  had 
effected  for  those  of  the  suj/'jrior  landholders.  The  status 
of  each  class  of  person  interested  in  the  soil,  from  the 
Government  as  suzerain,  through  ihc  :ami7iddrs  01  superior 
landholders,  the  intermediate  tenure-holders,  and  the  under- 
tenants, down  to  the  actual  cultivator,  is  now  clearly 
defined.  The  Act  dates  from  the  first  year  after  the 
transfer  of  India  from  the  Company  to  the  Crown ;  for, 
meanwhile,  the  mutiny  had  burst  out  in  1857.  The  trans- 
actions of  that  revolt  chiefly  took  place  in  Northern  India, 
and  will  be  found  under  the  article  on  the  North-Western 
Provinces ;  the  uprising,  although  fierce  and  for  a  tiiuo 
perilous  to  our  supremacy,  was  quickly  put  down.  In  Bengal 
it  began  at  BARr.ACKPUK  (?■!'.),  w-as  commum'cated  to 
Dacca  in  Eastern  Bengal,  and  for  a  time  raged  in  Behar, 
producing  the  memorable  defence  of  the  billiard-room  at 
Arrah  by  a  handful  of  civilians  and  Sikhs, — one  of  the  most 
splendid  pieces  of  gallantry  in  the  history  of  the  British 
arms.  Since  1858,  when  the  country  passed  to  the  Crown, 
the  history  of  Bengal  has  been  one  of  steady  and  peaceful 
progress.  The  two  great  Unes  of  railway,  the  East  Indian 
and  the  Eastern  Bengal,  have  been  completed;  and  a  third, 
the  Northern  Bengal  Railway,  is  now  in_ progress.  Trade 
has  enormously  expanded  ;  new  centres '5f  commerce  have 
spruug  up  in  spots  which  not  long  ago  were  silent  jungles; 
new  staples  of  trade,  such  as  tea  and  jute,- have  rapidly 
attained  importance  ;  and  the  coal-fields  and  iron  ores  aie 
beginning  to  open  up  prospects  of  a  new  and  splendid  era 
in  the  internal  development  of  the  country. 

The  best  account  of  Bengal  as  at  present  con.stituted  is  to  be 
found  in  Iheailmiiiistration  reports  of  Sir  George  Campbell,  I(. C.S.I. , 
when  lieutenautgnvernor  ot  Bengal,  in  1871-72  and  1872-73. 
'I'hese  reports  are  of  an  oUicial  character,  and  embody  the  results  of 
the  census  of  1872.  Among  noii-othci.il  works  Coluuel  Daltnu's 
great  volume  on  7'he  Ethnolvgy  of  Vciigal  holds  a  conspicuous  pl.icc. 
lliis  s[)k'ndid  quarto  condenses  the  personal  observ.-xtions  of  a  long 
career  spent  among  the  people.  Stewart's  History  of  Bengal,  a  work 
which  wa.s  admirable  when  first  published,  is  now  fil'ty  years  out  of 
date,  and  stands  in  much  need  of  re-editing.  The  journals  of  tlie 
.Asiatic  societies  in  London,  I'aris,  and  especially  Calcutt.a,  arc  still 
the  great  storehouses  for  original  leseurch.  The  Calcutta  Review 
contains  many  valuable  articles,  which  tho  index  to  its  first  fifty 
volumes  renders  easily  available.  The  piosent  writer  has  endea- 
voured in  his  Annals  0/  Rural  Deugal,  lUid  in  his  two  volumes  on 
Orissa;or,  the  ricissiludcs  of  an  Indian  Prox-iiicemuier  Native  avd 
British  Rule,,  to  present  to  the  general  reader  the  result  of  hi-  re- 
«.ii.hej  with  reg.ird  to  this  jiart  uf  India.  (WW    111 


B  E  N  —  B  E  ^ 


571 


BENOAZI,  a  seaport  town  on  the  norinern  coast  of 
Africa,  and  capital  of  the  province  of  liarca,  is  situated  on 
a  narrow  strip  of  land  between  the  Gulf  of  Sidra  and  a 
salt  lake,  in  30°  T  N.  lat  and  20°  3'  E.  long.  Though  for 
the  most  part  poorly  built,  it  has  one  or  two  buildings  of 
some  pretension — an  ancient  castle,  a  mo3que,  a  Franciscan 
monastery.  Government  buildings,  and  barracks.  The  wells 
in  the  town  being  brackish,  drinking  water  has  to  be 
brought  from  the  village  of  Sowani.  The  hairboar  is  almost 
rendered  useless  by  accumulations  of  sand,  and  ships  have 
to  discharge  by  means  of  lighters.  Legitimate  trade  has 
recently  been  neglected  by  the  inhabitants,  who  find  it 
more  profitable  to  furnish  slaves  to  the  Alexandrian  mar- 
ket The  exports,  which  consist  chiefly  of  sheep,  wool, 
barley,  wheat,  butter,  and  salt,  amounted  in  1874  to 
£279,000,  while  the  imports,  of  which  the  most  important 
item  is  cloth  goods,  were  valued  at  £162,600.  Consuls 
are  maintained  at  Bengazi  by  England  and  Italy,  and 
France  is  represented  by  a  vice-consuL  The  population, 
estimated  in  1862  at  6000  or  7000,  has  since  undergone 
various  fluctuations,  and  Buffered  especially  from  an  epi- 
demic in  1872.  , 

BENGEL,  JoHK  AiBERT,  a  .celebrated  Biblical  scholar 
and  critic,  was  born  at  Winnenden,  in  VViirtemberg,  on 
the  24th  June  1687.  His  father,  who  was  one  of  the 
ministers  of  that  town,  having  died  when  Bengel  was  only 
six  years  old,  his  education  was  taken  in  hand  by  a  friend 
of  his  father  named  Spindler,  who  having  afterwards  be- 
come a  master  in  the  gymnasium  at  Stuttgart,  carried  the 
boy  thither  with  him,  and  superintended  his  education 
until  he  entered  the  University  of  Tubingen  in  the  year 
1 703.  \VTiile  at  the  university,  the  works  to  which,  among 
others,  he  gave  special  attention  as  private  studies  were 
those  of  Aristotle  and  Spinoza  and  so  thoroughly  did  he 
make  himself  acquainted  with  the  metaphysics  of  the  latter, 
that  he  was  selected  by  one  of  the  professors  to  prepare 
materials  for  a  treatise  De  Spmosismo  which  the  pro- 
fessor afterwards  published.  He  himself  used  to  e.tpress 
his  "great  thankfulness  for  the  beneflt  which  ho  had  de- 
rived from  the  study  of  metaphysics  and  mathematics,  in 
respect  of  the  clearness  of  thought  which  they  imparted, 
wliich  was  of  the  utmost  value  to  him  in  the  analysis  and 
exposition  of  the  language  of  Scripture."  Aiter  taking  his 
degree,  Bengel  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  theology, 
to  which  the  grave  and  religious  tone  of  his  mind,  deep- 
ei.ed  and  strengthened  by  his  early  training  and  discipline, 
naturally  inclined  him.  Like  other  young  men  of  thought- 
ful character,  before  acd  since,  he  had  to  struggle  with 
doubts  and  diSiculties  of  a  religious  nature,  and  ho  alludes, 
with  much  feeling,  to  the  "  many  arrows  which  pierced  his 
poor  heart,  and  made  his  youth  hard  to  bear."  It  is  in- 
teresting to  know  that  at  this  early  date  his  attention  was 
directed  to  the  various  readings  of  the  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment, and  that  one  cause  of  his  mental  perplexities  was 
the  difiScuIty  of  ascertaining  the  true  reading  among  the 
great  number  of  those  which  were  presented  to  his  notice. 
In  1707  Bengel  entered  the  church,  and  was  appointed  to 
the  parochial  chi.-ge  of  Metiingen-unter-JJrach.  Here  he 
remained  only  b.ie  year,  and  during  that  time  devoted 
himself  to  thj  study  of  the  writings  of  Spcner,  Artidt,  A. 
H.  Franke,  an"". Chemnitz.  The  profound  impression  which 
the  works  of  these  men  made  upon  his  mind  was  never 
effaced,  and  may  be  traced  in  that  vein  of  devotional,  not 
tosayjjietistic,  feeling  which  runs  through  all  his  religious 
compositTions.  In  1708  Bengel  was  recalled  to  Tiibingen 
to  undertake  the  office  of  litpetmt  or  theological  tutor. 
Here  he  remained  until  1713,  when  he  was  appointed  the 
head  of  a  seminary  recently  established  at  Denkcndorf 
Qnd  intended  as  a  preparatory  school  of  theology.  Before 
entering  on  his  duties  there,  he  made  a  Literary  journey 


through  the  greater  part  of  Germany,  to  acquaint  himself 
with  the  various  systems  of  education  which  were  in  use, 
in  order  to  qualify  himself  for  the  better  discharge  of  his 
official  duties.  In  prosecuting  the  journey  be  visited  with 
laudable  impartiality  the  seminaries  of  the  Jesuits  as  well 
as  those  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches.  Among 
other  places  he  visited  Heidelberg  and  Halle,  and  had  his 
attention  directed  at  the  former  city  to  the  canons  of  Scrip- 
ture criticism  published  by  Gerhard  von  Mastricht,  and  at 
the  latter  to  Vitringa's  Anacrisis  ad  Apocalypsin.  The  in- 
fluence exerted  by  these  upon  his  theological  studies  will 
be  apparent  when  we  come  to  notice  Lis  works  upon  tho 
criticism  and  interpretation  of  Scripture.  For  twenty- 
eight  years — from  1713-1741 — he  discharged  bis  import- 
ant duties  as  head  of  the  school  of  Denkcndorf  with  dis- 
tinguished ability  and  success,  devoting  all  his  energies  to 
the  religious  and  intellectual  improvement  of  his  students. 
It  is  impossible  to  read  the  extracts  from  his  diary  and 
correspondence,  which  have  been  preserved,  without  being 
struck  with  the  spirit  of  fervent  piety,  combined  with 
sagacity  and  good  sense,  which  characterized  his  manage- 
ment of  the  institution.  These  twenty-eight  years  were 
the  period  of  Bengel's  greatest  intellectual  activity,  many 
of  the  works  on  which  his  reputation  rests  being  included 
within  them.  In  1741  he  was  appointed  prelate  of  the 
cloister  of  Herbrechtingen,  an  office  which  be  held  for  eight 
years.  In  1749  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  consis- 
torial  counsellor  and  prelate  of  Alpirsbach,  with  a  residence 
in  Stuttgart.  Bengel  henceforth  devoted  himself  to  tha 
discharge  of  his  duties  as  a  member  of  the  consistory.  A 
question  of  considerable  difficulty  was  at  that  time  occu- 
pying the  attention  of  tho  church  courts,  viz.,  the  manner 
in  which  those  who  separated  themselves  from  the  church 
were  to  be  dealt  with,  and  the  amount  of  toleration  which 
should  be  accorded  to  meetings  held  in  private  houses  for 
the  purpo.se  of  religious  edification.  The  civil  power  (the 
duke  of  Wiirtemberg  was  a  Roman  Catholic)  was  dispo.'^ed 
to  have  recourse  to  measures  of  repression,  while  the  mem- 
bers of  the  consistory,  recognizing  the  good  elTccts  of  such 
meetings,  were  inclined  to  concede  a  considerable  degrea 
of  liberty.  Bengel  exerted  himself  on  thei  side  of  the 
latter.  The  admirer  pf  Spencr,  the  founder  of  the  colUgia. 
pieCatis,  could  not  but  show  himself  favourably  disposed 
to  meetings  held  for  religious  purposes,  and  while  main- 
taining the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  church,  he  was  au 
advocate  for  all  reasonable  freedom  being  accorded  to  those 
who  felt  themselves  bound  on  grounds  of  conscience  to 
withdraw  from  her  communion.  The  good  efl'ects  of  this 
policy  may  be  seen  at  this  day  in  the  attitude  taken  up 
by  those  who  in  Wiirtemberg  have  separated  from  tho 
church.  Bengel's  public  poittion  necessarily  brought  hinx 
into  contact  with  many  individuals  of  celebrity,  by  whom 
he  was  consulted  on  all  important  theological  and  ecclesi- 
astical questions.  In  a  single  year  he  received  no  fewer  than, 
1 200  letters.  In  the  year  1 75 1  the  University  of  Tiibingen, 
his  own  a/ma  mater,  conferred  upon  him  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  divinity.  Bengel's  life  was  now  drawing  to  a  close. 
He  died,  after  a  short  illness,  in  1752,  aged  sixty-five  year.* 
and  four  months.  He  himself  is  reported  to  have  said, 
"  I  shall  be  forgotten  for  a  while,  but  I  shall  again  como 
into  remembrance ;"  and  his  favourite  pupil  Oetinger  re- 
marked of  him,  "  His  like  is  not  left  in  Wiirtemberg." 

Tho  works  on  which  Bengel's  ri'pututioD  rests  fts  a  [biblical  schnlir 
and  critic  are,  his  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  imd  bis 
Gnomon  or  Ezegctical  Commcntart/  on  tlie  same. 

(A.)  His  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  was  published  in  ity^ 
at  Tubincen  in  1734,  and  in  8vo  at  Stottgart  in  the  wme  year,  but 
without  tho  critical  apparatus.  So  early  as  1725  ho  had  given  an 
account  in  his  Prodromus  A'oW  Tcstamfnti  Gtoki  recU  caut/ipic 
mlornandt  of  the  principles  on  which  his  intended  edition  was  to  Ix; 
l.ised.  In  preparation  for  his  work  Bencel  was  able  to  avail  himiwLf 
of  tho  collations  of  upwaids  of  twenty  MSS. ,  none  of  tbeiB,  howeytr  . 


572 


B  E  xN  -  B  E  N 


•  of  Tcat  importance,  twelve  of  «liii-li  liaJ  been  eollatcd  by  himself. 
In^coDslituting  tlio  test,  be  imp.'sed  upon  himself  the  singular 
restriction  of  not  inserting  any  various  reading  which  had  not  al 
ready  been  printed  in  some  preceding  edition  of  the  Greek  text. 
I'Vom  this  rule,  however,  he  deviated  in  the  case  of  the  Apocalypse, 
V  here,  owing  to  the  corrupt  state  of  the  text,  he  felt  himself  at 
liherty  to  introduce  some  readings  on  manuscript  authority.  In 
liie  lower  margin  of  the  page  he  inserted  a  selection  of  various  read- 
JH-'s,  the  relative  importance  of  which  he  denoted  by  the  first  five 
]etl.ur3  of  the  Creek  alphabet  in  the  following  manner  :— a  was  em- 
ployed to  denote  the  reading  which  in  his  judgment  was  the  true 
one,  although  ho  did  not  venture  to  place  it  in  the  to.\t ;  B,  a  read- 
ing better  than  that  in  the  text ;  y,  one  equal  to  the  tc.Mual  read- 
ing; 5  aiifi  €,  readings  inferior  to  those  in  the  text.  Stephens's 
division  into  verses  was  retained  in  the  inner  margin,  but  the  text 
was  ilivided  into  paragrat)h3.  The  te.xt  was  followed  by  a  critical 
apparatus,  the  first  part  of  which  consisted  of  an  introduction  to  the 
criticism  of  the  New  Testament,  in  the  thirty-fourth  section  ef 
,^vhich  he  laid  down  and  explained  his  celebrated  canon,  '*  Proclivi 
Scriptioni  prastui  arduct"  (**The  more  didicult  reading  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  that  which  is  more  easy"),  the  soundness  of  which,  as  a 
peiicral  principle,  has  been  recognized  by  succeeding  critics,  al- 
though.it  was  objected  to  by  lUa  great  opponent  Wetstein,  who, 
nevertheless,  •found. !-'  himself  ultimately  obliged  to  lay  down  some- 
thing nearly  to  the  same  eCfect"  (Scrivener).  The  second  part  of 
the  critical  apparatus  was  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  the  various 
'readings,  and  here  Bengel  ado[ttcd  the  plan  of  stating  the  evidence 
bolh  ar/ainst  and  in  favour  of  a  particular  reading,  thus  placing 
before  the  reader  the  materials  for  forming  a  judgment.  It  is  a 
proof  of  Uengel's  great  critical  sagacity  that  he  was  the  first  de- 
".hnitely  to  propound  the  theory  of  families  or  recensions  of  MSS. 
His  investigations  had  led  him  to  see  that  a  certain  affinity  or  re- 
•eeiublanre  existed  amongst  many  of  the  authorities  for  the  Greek 
text— MSS.,  versions,  and  ecclesiastical  writers;  that  if  a  peculiar 
■Tcading,  e.g.,  were  found  in  one  of  these,  it  was  generally  found 
alio  in  th»  other  members  of  the  same  class  ;  and  this  general  re- 
lationship seemed  to  point  ultimately  to  a  common  origin  for  all 
the  authorities  which  presented  such  peculiarities.  Although  dis- 
posed at  tiist  to  divide  the  various  documents  into  three  classes,  he 
•tinally  adopted  a  classification  into  two — the  African,  or  older  family 
-of  documents,  and  the  Byzantine,  or  more  recent  class,  to  which  he 
■alt.ichcd  only  a  subordinate  value.  The  theory  was  afterwards 
a'loptcd  by  Semler  and  Griesbach,  and  worked  up  into  an  elaborate 
-system  by  the  latter  critic.  Bengel's  labours  on  the  text  of  the 
"(JieekTestamcntwere  received  with  great  disfavour  in  many  quarters. 
Like  Walton  and  Mill  before  him,  he  had  to  encounter  the  opposi- 
'tioii  of  ignorant  and  fanatical  individuals  who  believed  that  the 
-certainty  of  the  Word  of  God  was  endangered  by  the  importance 
attached  to  the  various  readings,  as  if  the  received  text  were  pos- 
•sessed  of  iiifalliblo  authorit)'.  One  of  his  opponents,  Provost  Kohl- 
Teif,  publicly  challenged  !iim  to  put  the  enemies  of  criticism  to 
silence  by  admitting  that  even  the  various  readings  were  given  by 
inspiration,  in  order  to  meet  the  necessities  of  various  classes  ot 
reatlers !  Wetstein,  on  the  other  hand,  accused  him  of  excessivo 
caution  in  not  making  freer  use  of  his  critical  materials.  In  answer 
to  thi'se  strictures,  Cengel  published  a  Dcfeme  of  the  Qreek  Text  of 
his  A'cw  Testament,  which  he  prefixed  to  his  harmony  of  the  Four 
Oo^pcts,  published  in  1736,  and  wliiri  contained  a  sufhcient  answer 
to  the  misrepresentations,  especially  of  Wetstein,  which  had  been 
br^'ugh^  against  him  from  so  many  diUerent  quarters.  The  text  of 
Bei'gel  long  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  amongst  scholars,  and  was 
frequently  reprinted. 

(15  )  The  other  great  work  of  Cengel,  and  that  on  which  his 
reputation  as  an  exegeto  is  mainly  based,  is  his  Onomon,  or  Exe- 
g':tic(il  Annotations  on  the  Ncvj  Testament,  published  in  1742.     It 
was  ilie  niiit  of  twenty  years'  labour,  and  exhibits  with  a  pregnant 
brevity  of  expression,  which,  it  has  been  said,  '*  condenses  more  mat- 
ter into  a  line  than  can  be  extracted  from  pages  of  other  writers," 
the  results  of  his  study  of  the  sacred  volume.     He  modestly  entitled 
Ilia  work  a  Gtwmon  or  index,  his  object  being  rather  to  guide  the 
reacier  to  aseeitain  the  meaning  for  himself,  tlian  to  save  him  from 
tlie  trouhlo  of  personal  investigation.     The  principles  of  interpreta- 
tion on  which  ne  proceeded  were,  to  import  nothing  into  Scripture, 
but  to  draw  mU  of  it  everything  that  it  really  contained,  in  con- 
rnnnity  with  grammatico-historical  rules  ;  not  to  be  hairi>ered  by 
(Ir>giiiatieAl  colisidc'rations  ;  and  not  to  be  inlluenced  by  the  symholi- 
Cttl  bonks.     Bengel's  hope  that  the  Gnomon  would  help  to  rekindle 
A  flesh  interest  in  the  study  of  the  New  Te.staraent  was  fully  rea- 
lized,   .it  has  passed  through  many  editions  (latest  1850),  has  been 
tninfiUtcd  into  German  and  into  English,  and  is  still  one  of  the 
■books  most  highly  prized  by  the  expositor  of  tlie  New"  Testament. 
It  is  a  striking  testimony  to  its  value  that  John  Wesley  largely 
availed  himself  of  it  in  writing  his  Expository  Nota  upon  the  New 
Tot.tmont,  1755,  saying  that  ho  "  believed  he  would  much  better 
«iTve  iho  interests  of  religion  by  translating  from  the  Gnomon  than 
l»y  writing  muny  vnhinies  of  bis  own  notes.  *     Later  commeututor.H 
llBTo  uot  failed  In  f^Uuw  Wesley's  example. 


Besides  tlie  two  works  already  descri!-ed,  Bcngrl  w.is  the  editor 
or  author  of  many  others,  classical,  |iatiij>tic,  ecelesiastictil,  and 
expository,  wliich  our  limits  do  not  allow  us  to  discuss.  We  can 
only  name  two,  viz.,  Ordo  Tcviporuvi,  a  tieaiise  on  the  chronology 
of  Scripture,  in  which  he  enters  upon  sp'oeulations  regarding  tlio 
end  of  the  world,  and  au  Exposition  of  the  Apoealypsc^  whic-li  en- 
joyed for  a  time  extraordinary  popularity  in  Germany,  and  was 
translated  iuto  several  foreign  languages. 

For  full  details  regarding  Bengel  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
Memoir  of  his  Life  and  ii'ritinys,  by  J.  C.  F.  Burk,  translated  luto 
English  by  Kev.  R.  F.  Walker,  London,  1837.  (F.  C.) 

BENGUELA,  a  country  on  the  western. coast  of  Africa, 
situated  to. the  south  of  Angola,  between  10°  and  17°  S. 
lat.,  and  e.xtending  froin  the  River  Coanza,  to  the  Cunene, 
which  is  otherwise  known  as  Nourse,  Tlio  das  Troinbas, 
Rio  dos  Elephantes.  The  country  rises  from  the  coa*t 
inwards  till  it  attains  a  decidedly  mountainons  character. 
There  is  great  abundance  bolh  of  .vegetable  and  animal 
life  ;  and  the  higher  regions  contain  mines  of  copper, 
silver,  iron,  and  salt.  Tlie  inhabitants  belong  to  the 
Congo  race  and  speak  the  Bunda  language.  In  1G17  the 
Portuguese  under  iSIanoelCerveiraPeieira  founded  the  town 
of  S.  Felipe  de  Benguela  near  the  mouth  of  the  Cavaco, 
on  the  Bahia  das  Vacas  (Santo  Antonio,  or  Cone's  Bay), 
in  12°  34'  S.  lat.  and  13°  20'  E.  long.  It.tv'as  long  the 
centre  of  an  important  trade,  especially  iu  slaves,  but  has 
now  greatly  declined.  There  is  but  little  tralBc,  and  no 
manufactures.  Besides  the  churches  of  S.  Felipe  and  S. 
Antonio,  the  hospital,  and  the  fortress,  there  are  only  a 
few  stone-built  houses.  The  negro  town  of  Catombcla, 
about  8  miles  distant,  is  in  a  more  flourishing  condition. 
A  short  way  below  Benguela  is  Bahia  Tarta,  wliere 
salt  is  manufactured  and  sulphur  e.vcavatcd.  The  lowu 
of  Old  Benguela  is  situated  about  130  miles  to  the  N.  ; 
and  about  80  miles  in  that  dircQtion  lies  the  Presidio  of 
Novo  Redondo,  where  fortification!!  were  erected  in  ITGi). 
Among  the  more  important  inland  towns  are  Bih6,  Bai- 
lundo,  and  Caconda,  in  the  last  of  which  the  Portuguese 
have  long  had  a  fortress.  The  southern  portion  of  Ben- 
guela forms  the  separate  government  of  Mossamedes,  of 
which  the  capital  of  the  same  name  is  situated  on  the 
Bay  of  Mossamedes  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Bcro  (Rio 
das  Mortes).  The  bay  was  formerly  called  Angra  do 
Negro,  and  received  its  present  designation  in  honour  of 
Baron  Mossamedes  about  1785.  The  town,  which  is 
known  to  the  natives  as  Mossongo-Biftolo,  was  not  founded 
till  1840.  The  population  of  the  whole  territory  of  Ben- 
guela is  estimated  at  about  140,000. 

BENICARLO,  a  city  of  S[iain,  in  the  province  of  Cos- 
tellon,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  surrounded 
by  ancient  walls,  and  has  a  ruined  castle.  1  he  manufacliiro 
of  brandy  is  carried  on,  and  the  town  is  celebrated  for  its 
red  wine,  which  is  annually  e.'tported  to  Bordeaux  for 
mixing  with  clarets  and  other  French  wines.  Tho  v.ihio 
of  wine  exported  in  1869  w.as  XOoOO.  Population,  7000. 
BENIN,  a  country,  city,  and  river  of  Western  Africa, 
to  the  west  of  the  main  channel  of  the  Niger.  The  name 
was  formerly  applied  to  the  whole  slretcli  of  coast  from 
the  Volta,  in  0'^  40'  E.  long.,  to  the  Rio  del  Rey  or  Riuuibi, 
in  8°  40'  E.  long.,  including  what  is  now  known  as  the 
Slave  Coast,  the  whole  delta  of  the  Niger,  and  a  small 
portion  of  tho  country  to  the  eastward  ;  and  some  trace  of 
this  earlier  application  remain.'!  in  tho  name  of  Bight  of 
Iknin,  s\j'i\\  given  to  that  part  of  the  sea  which  washes  the 
Slave  Coast.  The  kingdom  of  Benin  seems  ,at  one  time 
to  have  been  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  Western  Africa, 
and  was  known  to  Europeans  in  tho  17th  century  as  the 
Great  Benin.  Budagry  and  Lagos,  now  British  posses- 
sions, are  both  Beninese  colonies.  Benin  has  now  been 
long  in  a  state  of  decline,  and  tho  territory  is  broken  up 
into  independent  states  of  uo  individual  importance.  Such 
ciOiernnce,  'tidecd,  as  still  exists  is  rather  ethnographical 


B  E  N  —  B  E  N 


573: 


than  territorial ;  but  it  may  be  regarded  as  bounded  on 
the  E.  by  the  Niger,  N.  by  the  Yoruba  country,  and  W. 
by  Rgbi  The  soil  is  highly  fertile  and  produces  palms, 
rice, beans,  maize,kokos,plantains, cotton,  sugar,  audGuinca 
pepper,  in  great  abundance.  The  papaw  and  Afric.ia 
plum  grow  wild,  and  excellent  tobacco  can  be  raised. 
Many  parts  of  the  country  are  covered  with  almost  im- 
penetrable forests  and  swamps,  but  towards  the  north 
there  is  fine  pasture  land,  in  which  the  natives  rear  both 
cjttle  and  horses  of  considerable  value.  Of  trees  the 
cotton  wood,  the  tamarind,  and  the  mangrove  are  the 
most  frequent  The  population  is  pretty  dense,  and  it  is 
said  that  in  the  most  flourishing  state  of  the  kingdom  the 
king  could  collect  100,000  men.  His  rule  is  absolute, 
and  he  is  revered  by  lus  subjects  as  a  species  of  divinity. 
It  is  a  crime  to  believe  that  the  king  either  eats  or  sleeps ; 
and  all  offences  against  lum  are  punished  with  the  utmost 
severity.  The  religion  and  mythology  agree  with  the 
great  system  of  Yoruba  and  Oro ;  the  chief  god  is  wor- 
shipped with  human  sacrifices  to  an  appalling  extent. 
The  people,  at  tho  same  time,  do  not  indulge  in  wanton 
cruelty ;  they  usually  stupefy  tho  victims  before  putting 
them  to  death.  The  houses,  at  least  of  the  better  classes, 
ore  built  on  a  plan  similar  to  that  of  the  Romans,  with 
a  regular  atrium  and  implvvium.  The  Beninese  weave 
their  cotton  into  a  fine  kind  of  muslin,  which  is  worn 
in  huge  bulging  petticoats  by  people  of  wealth,  while 
the  lower  orders  are  content  with  a  simple  Betuko  or 
kilt.  The  capital  of  the  kingdom,  or  city  of  Benin,  is 
situated  about  73i  miles  inland  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Rio  Formoso  or  Benin  River,  about  5°  35'  E.  long,  and  6° 
25'  N.  lat.  It  covers  a  large  extent  of  ground,  but  is  so 
broken  up  into  separate  portions  by  intervening  spaces  of 
jungle,  that  no  proper  estimate  can  be  formed  of  its  popula- 
tion. The  Obwe,  or  King's  quarter,  alone  is  supposed  to 
have  upwards  of  15,000  inhabitants;  but  at  the  time  of 
Burton's  visit  in  1862  many  of  the  houses  were  empty  and 
falling  to  ruin.  The  next  city  in  importance  is  Wari(Owari, 
Awerri,  or  Owheyre,  called  Jaku  by  the  natives),  which  is 
situated  about  130  miles  S.S.E.  of  the  capital,  and  some 
7  or  10  miles  from  the  sea,  on  ah  island  surrounded  by  a 
branch  of  the  Niger  distinguished  by  the  same  name.  It 
was  formerly  described  as  consisting  of  two  parts  about 
half  a  mile  distant  from  each  other,  but  now  consists  of 
one  long  and  straggling  line  along  the  shore.  The  popu- 
lation previously  stated  at  5000  is  reduced  by  Burton  to 
2000.  The  town,  however,  has  its  own  king,  who  has 
long  asserted  his  independence  of  the  monarch  of  Benin. 
The  houses  are  neatly  built  of  clay,  coloured  with  red 
ochre,  and  frequently  ornamented  with  rudely  carved 
pillars.  The  port  of  Gwato  (or  as  it  is  variously  called, 
Gato,  Agatho,  or  Agatton)  lies  about  30  miles  N.N.E.  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Benin  River,  is  a  pl.ace  of  some  import- 
ance for  the  palmoil  trade,  and  has  a  special  interest  as 
the  place  where  Belzoni,  the  traveller,  died  and  was 
buried.  Numerous  factories  are  scattered  along  the  creeks 
of  tho  delta  for  the  purposes  of  trade,  but  all  the  larger 
European  settlements  have  disappeared.  Since  the 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade  the  chief  export  of  the  country 
is  palm-oil,  in  return  for  which  salt,  silk  stuffs,  guns  and 
gunpowder,  coral  (which  is  the  official  decoration  of  the 
higher  dignities),  beads,  iron,  brass,  and  brandy  are  im- 
ported. The  common  internal  currency  is  the  cowrie-shell 
The  River  Benin,  called  by  the  natives  Uwo  Ko  Jakri,  or 
Outlet  of  Jakri,  is  about  two  miles  broad  at  its  mouth  ; 
but  it  is  crossed  by  a  very  extensive  bar  cf  mud  and  sand, 
on  which  there  is  only  12  feet  of  water  at  spving  tides. 
Ships  of  CO  tons  can  ascend  as  far  as  Gwato. 

Bcnia  was  discovered  by  the  Portugucsu  about  the  year  1485, 
till]  they  urried  on  (or  some  time  «'bh&k  trade  in  slavos,  who  were 


curried  to  Elmina,  and  sold  to  the  mtircs  of  the  CM  Coast. 
John  111.  of  Portugal,  however,  proliibitcd  this  liaflic  ;  aiitl,  u 
the  situation  was  found  veryuuhcaUhy,  the  scttlemeot  was  ordered 
to  bo  withdrawn.  Many  tmces  of  the  Portuguese  occuration  are- 
still  to  be  found,  aod  one  of  the  most  striking  proofs  of  their  influ- 
ence is  the  fact  tha;  a  corrupt  Lusitanian  dialect  is  still  spoken  by 
the  older  natives.  The  Dutch  afterwards  established  factories,  aud 
maintained  them  for  a  considerable  time,  cliicfly  with  a  view  to- 
the  slave  trade.  In  IV'SS  Captain  Landolphe  foundeil  a  factory 
called  Barodo,  mx:  the  native  village  of  VJbobi,  for  the  French 
Comp.ignied'Oy  tierc;  and  it  lasted  till  1792,  when  it  was  destroyed 
by  the  English.  See  Bosman  's  Description  c/  the  Coast  of  Oumea 
in  1705  (in  vol.  ivi.  of  Pinkerton's  Voyages^  \  William  Smith's 
New  Voyage  to  Guinea,  1711 ;  Adams's  Ikmarks  on  the  Wcsl  Coast' 
of  Africa,  1823:  Clapperton's  Second  Expedition,  1829;  Lander'* 
Travels,  1832  ;  Ilurton's  My  Wanderings  in  IVcsl  Africa,  1S63. 

BENJAMIN  (i'P;^3,  Sept.  V.ivta^{v),  the  youngest 
son  of  the  patriarch  Jacob,  by  Rachel.  Uis  motlier,  dying 
in  childbed,  gave  hira  tho  name  Benoni,  "  Son  of  my  pain," 
which  was  changed  by  his  fatlier  to  Benjamin,  meaning 
probably  "Son  of  the  right  hand,"  that  is,  "Son  of  pros- 
perity" (Get ;  XXXV.  10-18).  Of  his  personal  history  little 
is  recorded.  lie  was  the  favourite  of  bis  father  and 
brothers,  and  seems  to  have  been  of  an  amiable  though 
somewhat  weak  character.  In  this  respect  he  strikingly 
contrasts  with  the  tribe,  whose  history  was  foretold  in  the 
dying  prophecy  of  Jacob,  "Benjamin  shall  ravin  as  a 
wolf"  (Gen.  xlix.  27).  Tho  tribe  of  Benjamin,  thougli  llio 
least  numerous  of  Israel,  became  nevertheless  a  consider- 
able race.  In  the  desert  it  counted  35,400  warriors- 
(Num.  i.  37),  and  at  the  entrance  of  Israel  into  Canaan  even 
as  many  as  45,600  (N'um.  xxvi.  41).  The  portion  allotted, 
to  this  tribe  was  encompassed  by  the  districts  of  Ephraim, 
Dan,  and  Judah.  I )  the  time  of  the  judges  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  became  in/olved  in  a  civil  war  with  the  other 
eleven  tribes,  which  terminated  in  its  almost  utter  ex- 
tmction,  600  men  alone  escaping  (Judges  xix.,  xx.)  The 
tribe  speedily  revived,  however ;  in  the  time  of  David 
it  numbered  59,434  able  warriors,  and  in  that  of  Asa, 
280,000.  This  tribe  had. tho  honour  of  giving  the  first; 
king  to  the  Jewj,  Saul  being  r  Benjamite.  After  the- 
dcath  of  Saul,  the  Benjaraites  decla'-ed  themselves  for  his 
son  Ishboshfcth,  until,  after  the  assassination  of  that  prince, 
David  became  kirg  of  all  Israel.  Da^-id  having  expelled 
the  Jebusites  from  Zion,  and  made  it  his  own  residence, 
the  close  alliance  that  previously  existed  between  the 
tribes  of  Benjamin  and  Judah  was  cemented  by  the  cir- 
cumstance that,  while  Jerusalem  belonged  to  tho  district  of 
Benjamin,  that  of  Judah  was  immediately  contiguous  to  it. 
At  the  division  of  the  kingdom  after  the  death  of  Solomon, 
Benjamin  espoused  the  cause  of  Judah,  and  they  formed  a 
kingdom  by  themselves.  Indeed,  the  two  tribes  stood 
always  ia  such  a  close  connection  as  often  to  be  included 
under  the  single  name  Judah. 

BEN'JAMIN,  of  Tudela,  in  Navarre,  a  celebrated  Jewish 
rabbi  of  the  12th  century,  whose  Itinerary  is  a  literary 
curiosity.  He  visited  Constantinople,  Egypt,  Assyria,  and 
Persia,  pjnetrating  to  tho  frontiers  of  China.  Ho  was 
credulous  but  his  work  contains  some  curious  notices  of  the 
countries  he  visited.  It  was  translated  from  the  Hebrew 
into  Latii  by  Arias  Montanus  in  1575,  and  appeared  in 
a  French  version  by  Baratier  in  1734,  and  again  in  1830. 
The  latest  English  translation  is  that  by  Asher,  1840. 

BEX  NET,  "H  E.N  It  Y,  Earl  of  Ariington,  a  distinguished' 
statesman  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  was  bori  of  an 
ancient  family  in  Middlesex,  in  the  year  IG18.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  civil  war  ho  was  appointed  under- 
secretary to  JiOrd  Digby,  secretary  of  stato.  He  afterwards- 
entered  himself  as  a  volunteer  for  tho  royal  cause,  and  did 
the  king  good  service,  especially  ai  Andovcr  in  Uain[ishirc, 
where  he  was  severely  wounded.  He  was  made  secretary 
to  the  Duke  of  York,  received  the  honour  of  knighthood- 
from  Charles  II.  at  Bniccs  in  1.658.  "nd  was  sentaseavoj, 


574 


B  E  N  — B  E  N 


to  the  court  of  Sprxin.  Upon  the  return  of  the  king  to 
England  he  was  called  home,  made  keeper  of  the  privy 
purse,  atid  principal  secretary  of  state.  In  1670  be  was  of 
the  council  distinguished  by  the  title  of  the  Cabal,  and  one 
of  those  who  advised  the  shutting  up  of  the  exchequer. 
In  1672  he  was  made  Earl  of  Arlington  and  Viscount 
Thetford,  and  soon  after  knight  of  the  garter. 

"  Henry  Bennet,  Lord  Arb'ngton,  then  secretary  of  state,  had, 
since  he  came  to  manhood,  resided  principaUy  on  the  Continent, 
and  had  learned  that  cosmopoUtan  indifference  to  constitutions  and 
reUgions  which  is  often  observable  in  persons  whose  life  had  been 
passed  in  vagrant  diplomacy.  If  there  was  any  form  of  government 
ne  liked,  it  was  that  of  Franca  If  there  was  any  church  for  which 
he  felt  a  preference,  it  was  that  of  Rome.  He  had  some  talent  for 
conversation,  and  6om<  talent  also  for  transacting  the  ordinary 
business  of  office.  He  had  learned,  during  a  life  passed  in  travel- 
ling and  negotiating,  the  art  of  accommodating  bis  language  and 
deportment  to  the  society  in  which  he  found  himself.  His  vivacity 
in  the  dosct  amused  tie  king  ;  his  gravity  in  debates  and  confer- 
ences imposed  on  the  public  ;  and  he  had  succeeded  in  attaching  to 
himself,  partly  by  services  and  partly  by  hopes,  a  consiiierable 
Bumberof  personal  retainers." — (Macaulay'si?!s(.,  vol  i.  pp.  220-21.) 

He  died  in  1685.  His  Letters  to  Sir  William  Temple 
were  published  after  his  death.. 

BBiNNETT,  jAJitES  Gordon,  American  journalist, 
originator  and  editor  of  the  New  York  Herald,  was  by 
birth  a  Scotchman.  He  was  born  at  Newmills  in  Banff- 
shire, about  1800.  Destined  for  the  priesthood  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  he  was  educated  in  a  seminary 
nt  Aberdeen.  But  it  became  evident  that  he  was  naturally 
unfit  for  the  priestly  calling  ;  and  hia-aversion  ripened  into 
a  determination  to  escape  from  it.  The  reading  of  Frank- 
lin's Autoliography  led  him  to  resolve  on  emigration  to 
America,  and  in  thf  spring  of  1819  he  sailed  for  the  New 
World.  Landing  at  Halifax,  he  earned  a  poor  living 
there  for  a  short  time  by  giving  lessons  in  French,  Span- 
ish, and  bookkeeping;  he  passed  next  to  Boston,  where 
starvation  almost  threatened  him  till  he  got  employment 
in  a  printing-office;  and  in  1822  he  went  to  New  York. 
An  engagement  as  translator  of  Spanish  for  a  newspaper 
took  him  for  a  few  months  to  Charleston,  South  Carolina. 
On  his  return  to  New  York  he  projected  a  school,  gave 
lectures  on  political  economy,  and  did  subordinate  work 
for  the  journals.  In  1825  he  made  his  first  attempt  to 
establish  a  journal  of  his  own  ;  and  the  next  ten  years 
were  occupied  in  a  variety  of  similar  attempts,  which 
proved  futile.  During  that  period,  however,  he  became 
Washington  correspondent  of  the  Inquirer;  and  his  letters, 
■written  in  imitation  of  the  letters  of  Horace  Walpole, 
attracted  attention.  Notwithstanding  all  his  hard  work 
and  his  resolutely  abstemious  life,  he  was  still  a  poor  man. 
It  was  not  till  1835  that  he  struck  the  vein  which  was  to 
reward  and  enrich  him.  On  May  6  of  that  year  appeared 
the  first  number  of  a  small  one-cent  paper,  bearing  the  title 
of  New  York  Herald,  and  issuing  from  a  cellar,  in  which 
the  proprietor  and  editor  played  also  the  part  of  salesman. 
"  He  started  with  a  disclaimer  of  all  principle,  as  it  is  called, 
all  party,  all  politics ;'  and  to  this  he  certainly  adhered. 
By  his  immense  industry  and  practical  sagacity,  his  un- 
acrupulousness,  variety  of  news,  spicy  correspondence, 
supply  of  personal  gossip  and  scandal,  the  paper  became  a 
great  commercial  success.  Bennett  continued  to  edit  the 
Jlerald  till  his  death.  The  successful  mission  of  Stanley 
to  Central  Africa  in  search  of  Dr  Livingstone,  of  whom 
Tiothing  had  long  been  heard,  was  underf.aken  by  his  desire 
and  at  his  expense;  and  he  thus  showed  in  the  last  year 
«f  his  life  the  inextinguishable  spirit  of  enterprise  which 
li^d  animated  him  throughout  his  whole  career.  He  died 
1.1  .Vew  York,  June  2,  1872. 

BENNETT,  John  HnoHEs.for  twenty-six  years  professor 
of  the  institutes  of  medicine  at  Edinburgh  University,  was 
ifom  in  London  on  the  31st  August  1812.     He  was  edu- 


cated at  Exeter,  and  being  destined  for  the  medical  pro- 
fession was  articled  to  a  surgeon  in  Maidstone.  In  1833 
he  began  his  studies  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  1837  graduated 
with  the  highest  honours.  During  the  next  four  years  he 
studied  in  Paris  and  Germany,  and  on  his  return  to  Edin- 
burgh in  1841  published  a  work  on  cod-liver  oil,  the  recom- 
mendation of  which  as  a  remedy  in  all  consumptive  diseases 
made  his  name  widely  knowu.  In  1848  he  obtained 
the  chair  of  institutes  of  medicine,  having  already  gained 
high  reputation  as  an  extra-academical  lecturer  and  teacher. 
In  1871  his  health  gave  way;  he  retired  to  -the  south  of 
France,  and  in  1874  resigned  his  professorship.  In 
August  1875  he  was  able  to  be  present  at  the  meeting  of 
the  British  Medical  Association  in  Edinburgh,  on  which 
occasion  he  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  The  fatigue  he 
then  underwent  brought  on  a  relapse,  and  he  was  com- 
pelled to  have  the  operation  of  hlhotomy  performed.  He 
sank  rapidly  and  died  on  the  25th  September.  Professor 
Bennett  was  an  able  teacher,  and  his  original  investiga- 
tions entitle  him  to  a  high  place  in  the  history  of  medicine. 
His  publications  are  very  numerous,  including  many 
articles  in  medical  journals  and  several  exhaustive  treatises. 
Of  these  the  best  known  are  Clinical  Lectures,  1858  (5th 
ed.,  1868);  Treatise  on  Physiology,  1858,  contributed  to 
the  8th  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Bntannica ;  Text- 
book of  Pkijsiology,  1870. 

BENNETT,  Sir  William  Sterndale,  was  considered, 
for  more  than  the  last  20  years  of  his  life,  the  head  of 
the  musical  profession  in  England  by  the  unanimous 
verdict  of  both  Ei.glish  and  foreign  musicians.  At  bis 
death  he  received  the  highest  honour  England  can  confer 
upon  her  sons — a  grave  in  Westminster  Abbey.  He 
was  bom  in  1816  at  Sheffield,  where  his  father  was 
organist.  HaWng  lost  his  father  at  an  early  age,  he  was 
brought  up  at  Cambridge  by  his  grandfather,  from  whom 
he  received  his  first  musical  education.  In  1826  he 
entered  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and  remained  a 
pupil  of  that  institution  for  the  next  ten  years,  studying 
pianoforte  and  composition  under  Cipriani  Potter,  Dr 
Crotch,  W.  H.  Holmes,  and  C.  Lucas.  It  was  during  this 
time  that  he  wrote  several  of  his  most  appreciated  works, 
not  uninfluenced  it  seems  by  the  contemporary  movement 
of  musical  art  in  Germany,  which  country  be  frequently 
visited  during  the  years  1836—42.  At  one  of  the  Rhenish 
musical  festivals  in  Dusseldorf  he  made  the  personal 
acquaintance  of  Mendelssohn,  and  soon  afterwards  re- 
newed it  at  Leipsic,  where  the  talented  young  Englishman 
was  welcomed  by  tno  leading  musicians  of  the  rising 
generation.  He  played  at  one  of  the  celebrated  Gewand- 
haus  concerts  his  third  pianoforte  concerto,  which  was 
received  by  the  pubbc  in  a  manner  flattering  both  to  the 
pianist  and  the  composer.  We  still  possess  an  enthusiastic 
account  of  the  event  from  the  pen  of  Robert  Schumann, 
whose  genial  expansive  nature  was  always  open  to  new 
impressions.  Ho  never  tired  of  Bennett's  praise,  whom 
he  pronounced  to  be  "the  most  musical  of  all  English- 
men," and  whom,  in  a  private  letter,  be  goes  so  far  as  to 
call  "  an  angel  of  a  musician."  But  even  Schumann  could 
not  wholly  conceal  from  himself  the  influence  which  Men- 
delssohn's compositions  exercised  on  Bennett's  mode  of 
utterance,  an  influence  which  precluded  the  possibiLty  of  an 
original  development  to  a  degree  almost  unequalled  in  the 
history  of  music,  excepting  perhaps  the  case  of  the  Danish 
composer  Niels  W.  Gade,  who  like  Bennett  was  attracted 
to  Leipsic  by  the  fame  of  Mendetoohu,  and  who  hke  him 
ofl'ered  his  own  artistic  individuality  at  the  shrine  of  the 
German  composer's  genius.  According  to  a  tradition,  the 
late  Professor  Hauptmann,  after  Ustening  to  a  composition 
by  Gade,  is  said  to  have  pronounced  the  sarcastic  sentence, 
"This  sound.i  so  much  Like  Mendelssohn,  that  one  might 


B  E  N  — B  E  N 


575" 


almo<;t  suppose  it  to  be  written  by  SteraJalo  Bennett." 
It  would  lead  U3  too  far  ou  the  present  occasion  to  poiut 
out  how,  by  this  subserviency  of  tho  leading  English 
musician  to  a  foreign  composer,  the  national  development 
of  English  art  was  iin[ieded  in  a  deplorable  manner.  -  11  is 
great  success  on  the  Continent  established  Hennett's  posi- 
tion in  England.  He  settled  in  London,  devoting  himself 
chiefly  to  practical  teaching.  For  a  short  time  he  acted 
'as  conductor  of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  in  which  capacity, 
however,  ho  earned  little  success,  lie  was  made  musical 
professor  at  Cambridge  in  1S5(5,  and  in  18G8  principal  of 
tho  Royal  Academy  of  Music.  In  1871  he  received  the 
honour  of  knighthood.  He  died  in  1875.  Owing  most 
likely  to  his  professional  duties  his  latter  years  were  not 
feilile,  and  what  he  then  wrote  was  not  superior,  scarcely 
equal,  to  the  productions  of  his  youth.  The  principal 
charm  of  Bennett's  compositions  (not  to  mention  his  abso- 
lute mastery  of  the  musical  form)  consists  in  the  tender- 
ness of  their  conception,  rising  occasionally  to  sweetest 
lyrical  intensity,  but  also  bordering  now  and  then  on  that  ex- 
cessive scntimeiitalism  from  which  his  master  Mendelssohn 
kept  not  always  aloof.  It  must,  however,  be  acknowledged 
that  Bennett's  was  a  thoroughly  refined  nature,  incapable 
of  grand  dramatic  pathos,  but  also  free  from  all  inarti.stic 
pindering  to  the  taste  of  the  vulgar.  Barring  the  opera, 
Bennett  tried  his  band  at  almost  all  the  dilferent  forms  of 
vocal  and  instrumental  writing.  As  his  best  works  in 
various  branches  of  art,  we  mention,  for  pianoforte  solo, 
and  with  accompaniment  of  the  orchestra,  his  three  sketches. 
The  Like,  the  Millslream,  and  the  Fountain,  and  his  3d 
pianoforte  concerto ;  for  the  orchestra,  his  Symphony  in  G 
minor,  and  his  overture  The  Naiads;  and  for  voices,  his 
cantata  The  May  Queen,  written  for  tho  Leeds  festival  in 
1858.  He  also  wrote  a  sacred  cantata,  The  Woman,-.oJ 
Samaria,  first  performed  at  the  Birmingham  Musical 
Festival  in  1SG7.  Shortly  before  his  death  he  produced 
a  sonata  called  the  Maid  uf  Orleans,  an  elaborate  piece  of 
programme-music,  descriptive  of  the  deeds  and  sufferings 
and  the  final  triumph  of  the  French  heroine  according  to 
Schiller's  tragedy. 

BENSERADE,  Isaac  de,  a  French  poet,  was  born  in 
1C12  at  Lions-la- Foret  in  Normandy.  He  made  himself 
known  at  court  by  his  verses  and  his  wit,  and  had  the 
good  fortune  to  please  the  cardinals  Richelieu  and  Mazarin. 
He  wrote — 1.  A  Paraphrase  upon  Job;  2.  Verses  for 
Ballets  or  Interludes  ;  3.  Rondeaus  upon  Ovid  ;  4.  Several 
Tragedie.i.  A  sonnet  of  his,  which  he  sent  to  a  young 
lady  with  his  paraphrase  on  Job,  having  been  placed  in 
competition  with  the  Urania  of  Voiture,  a  dispute  on  their 
relative  merits  hnig  divided  the  whole  court  and  the  wits 
into  two  parties,  who  were  respectively  styled  the  Johelins 
and  the  Uranists.  Some  years  before  his  death  in  1G91 
Benserado  retired  to  Chantilly,  and  devoted  himself  to  a 
translation  of  the  Psalms,  which  ho  nearly  completed. 

BENSON,  GEoncE,  a  learned  dissenting  minister,  was 
born  at  Great  Salkeld,  in  Cumberland,  in  1C99.  His 
mental  capacity  was  so  precocious,  that  at  11  years  of  ago 
he  was  able  to  read  the  Greek  Testament.  He  afterwards 
Btudied  at  an  academy  at  Whitehaven,  whence  he  removed 
to  tho  University  of  Glasgow.  In  1721  ho  was  chosen 
pastor  of  a  congregation  of  dissenters  at  Abingdon,  in 
Berk.shire,  where  he  continued  till  1729,  when  he  became 
the  choice  of  a  congregation  in  Soiithwark  ;  and  in  1740 
he  was  appointed  by  the  congregation  of  Crutchcd  Friars 
colleague  to  the  learned  Dr  Lardner.  His  Defence  of  the 
Reasonableness  of  Prayer  appeared  in  1731,  and  he  after- 
wards published  Paraphrases  and  Notes  on  the  Epistles  to 
the  Thessalonians,  Timothy,  Titus,  and  Philemon,  adding 
dissertations  on  several  important  subjects,  particularly 
on  inspiration.     In  1735  he  published  bis  History  of  the 


First  Planting  of  Christianity,  in  2  vols.  4to,  a  worK  of 
great  learning  and  ability.  He  also  wrote  the  HeasonabU- 
jiess  of  the  Christian  Religion,  tho  History  of  tlu  Life  of 
Jesrus  Christ,  a  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Seven  Catholio 
Epistles,  and  several  other  works,  which  gained  him  great 
reputation  as  a  scholar  and  theologian.     He  died  in  1763. 

BENTHAM,  Jeremy,  was  born  on  tho  15th  February 
1748,  in  Red  Lion  Street,  Houndsditch,  Loudon,  in  which 
neighbourhood  hisgrandfatherandfathersucccssively  carried 
on  busiuess  as  attorneys.  Ilia  father,  who  was  a  wealthy 
man,  and  possessed  at  any  rate  a  smattering  of  Greek, 
Latin,  and  French,  was  thought  to  have  demeaned  himself 
by  marrying  the  daughter  of  an  Andover  tradesman,  who 
afterwards  retired  to  a  country  house  near  Reading,  where 
young  Jeremy  spent  many  happydays.  Tho  boy's  talents 
justified  the  ambitious  hopes  which  his  parents  entertained 
of  his  future.  \\Tien  three  years  old  ho  read  eagerly  such 
works  as  Rapin's  History,  and  began  tho  study  of  Latin. 
A  year  or  two  later  ho  learnt  the  violin  and  French 
conversation.  At  Westminster  school  ho  obtained  a 
reputation  for  Greek  and  Latin  verse  writing ;  and  he  was 
only  thirteen  when  he  was  matriculated  at  Queen's  College 
Oxford,  where  his  most  important  acquisition  seems  to 
have  been  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  Sanderson's  logic. 
He  became  a  B.A.  in  17G3,  and  in  the  same  year  entered 
at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  took  his  seat  as  a  student  in  the 
Queen's  Bench,  where  he  listened  with  rapture  to  the 
judgments  of  Lord  Mansfield.  He  managed  also  to  hear 
Blackstone's  lectures  at  O.xford,  but  says  that  he  imme- 
diately detected  the  fallacies  which  underlay  the  rounded 
periods  of  the  future  judge. 

Bentham's  family  connections  would  naturally  have 
given  him  a  fair  start  at  the  bar,  but  this  was  not  the 
career  for  which  he  was  preparing  himself.  He  spent  his 
time  in  making  chemical  experiments  and  in  speculating 
upon  legal  abuses,  rather  than  in  reading  Coke  upon 
Littleton  and  the  Reports.  On  being  called  to  the  bar  he 
"  found  a  cause  or  two  at  nurse  for  him,  which  he  did  his 
best  to  put  to  death,"  to  the  bitter  disappointment  of  his 
father,  who  had  confidently  looked  forward  to  seeing  hira 
upon  the  -woolsack.  The  first  fruits  of  Bentham's  studies, 
the  Fragment  on  Government,  appeared  in  1776.  This 
masterly  attack  upon  Blackstone's  praises  of  the  Eng- 
lish constitution  waa  variously  attributed  to  Lord  Mans- 
field, Lord  Camden,  and  Lord  Ashburton.  One  important 
result  of  its  publication  was  that,  in  1781,  Lord  Shelburne 
called  upon  its  author  in  his  chambers  at  Lincoln's  Inn. 
Henceforth  Bentham  was  a  frequent  guest  at  Bowood, 
where  he  saw  the  best  society,  and  where  he  met  Miss 
Caroline  Fox,  to  whom  he  -afterwards  made  a  proposal  of 
marriage.  In  1785  Bentham  started,  by  way  of  Italy  and 
Constantinople,  on  a  visit  to  his  brother.  Sir  Samuel 
Bentham,  who  became  a  general  in  the  Russian  service ; 
and  it  was  in  Russia  that  ho  wrote  his  Defence  of  Usury. 
Disappointed  in  the  hope  which  ho  had  entertained, 
through  a  misapprehension  of  something  said  by  Lord 
Lansdowne,  of  taking  a  personal  part  in  tho  legislation  of 
his  country,  he  settled  down  to  the  yet  higher  task  of 
discovering  and  teaching  the  principles  ujwn  which  all 
sound  legislation  must  proceed.  His  fame  spread  widely 
and  rapidly.  He  was  made  a  French  citizen  in  1792  ;  and 
his  advice  was  respectfully  received  in  most  of  the  states  of 
Europe  and  America,  with  many  of  the  leading  men  of 
which  he  maintained  an  active  correspondenca  His 
ambition  was  to  be  allowed  to  prepare  a  code  of  law  for 
his  own  or  some  foreign  country.  During  nearly  a  quarter 
of  a  century  he  was  engaged  in  negotiations  with  Govern- 
ment for  the  erection  of  a  "  Panopticon, "  which  would 
render  transportation  -unnecessary.  The  scheme  was 
eventually  abandoned,  »nd  Bentham  received  £23,000  by 


57(5 


B  E  N  T  H  A  M 


way  of  corapensation.  In  18C3  he  established  the  West- 
viinsler  Review.  Some  idea  of  the  extent  of  Bentham's 
literary  labours  may  be  derived  from  the  fact  that  his 
Works,  as  edited  with  biographical  notices  by  Dr  Bowriug 
in  1S43,  fill  eleven  volumes  octavo,  of-  closely  printed^ 
'dpuble  columns.  Bentham  died  on  the  6th  of  June  1832, 
in  his  85th  year,  at  the  house  in  Queen's  Square  Place, 
whicE  he  had  occupied  for  fifty  years.  In  accordance  with 
his  directions,  his  body,  after  beiug  dissected  in  the.pre- 
6enco  of  his  friends,  was  embalmed,  and  is  still  preserved, 
seated  in  his  wonted  dress,  in  University  College,  London. 

Bentham's  life  was  a  happy  one  of  its  kind.  His  con- 
stitution, weakly  in  childhood,  strengthened  with  advancing 
years  so  as  to  allow  him  to  get  through  an  incredible, amount 
of  sedentary  labour,  whiie  he  retained  to  the  last  the  fresh 
and  cheerful  temperament  of  a  boy.  An  ample  inherited 
fortune  permitted  him  to  pursue  his  studies  undistracted 
by  the  necessity  for  making  a  livelihood,  and  to  "maximize 
the  results  of  his  time  and  labour  by  the  employment  of 
amanuenses  and  secretaries.  He  was  able  to  gather  around 
him  a  group  of  congenial  friends  and  pupils,  such  as  the 
Mills,  'the  Austins,  and  Bowring,  with  whom  he  could 
discuss  tte  problems  upon  which  he  was  engaged,  and  by 
whom  several  of  his  books  were  practically  rewritten,  from 
tho  mass  of  rough  though  orderly  memoranda  which  the 
master  had  himself  prepared.  Thus,  for  instance,  was  the 
llationale  of  Judicial  £vidmce  written  out  by  J.  S.  Mill, 
and  the  Ilook  of  Fallacici  by  Bingham.  The  services 
which  Dumont  rendered  in  recasting,  as  well  as  translating, 
the  works  of  Bentham  were  still  more  important. 

The  popular  notion  that  Bentham  was  a  morose  visionary 
is  far  removed  from  fact.  It  is  true  that  he  looked  upon 
general  society  as  a  waste  of  time,  and  that  he  disliked 
poetry  as  "  misrepresentation  ";  but  he  intensely  enjoyed 
conversation,  gave  good  dinners,  and  delighted  in  music, 
in  country  sights,  and  in  making  others  happy.  These 
features  of  Bentham's  character  are  illustrated  in  the 
graphic  account  given  by  the  American  minister,  Mr  Rush, 
of  an  evening  spent  at  his  house  in  the  summer  of  the 
year  1818.  i"  If  Mr  Bentham's  character  is  peculiar,"  he' 
says,  "  so  is  his  place  of  residence. .  It  was  a  kind  of 
blind-alley,  the  end  of  which  widened  into  a  small,  neat 
courtyard.  There  by  itself  stands  Mr  Bentham's  house. 
Shrubbery  graced  its  area,  and  flowers  its  window-sills. 
It  was  like  an  oasis  in  the.  desert.''  Its  name  is  the 
Hermitage.  'Mr  Bentham  received  me  with  the  simplicity 
of  a  philosopher,  I  should  have  taken  him  for  70  or 
upwards.  Everything  inside  the  house  was  orderly.  The 
furniture  seemed  to  have  been  unmoved  since  the  days  of 
bis  fathers,  for  I  learned  that  it  was  a  patrimony.  A 
parlour,  library,  and  dining-room  made  up  the  suite  of 
apartments.  In  each  was  a  piano,  the  eccentric  master  of 
the  whole  being  fond  of  music  as  the  recreation  of  his 
literary  hours.  It  is  a  liniquc,  romantic-like  homestead. 
Walking  with  him  into  the  garden,  I  found  it  dark  with 
tha  shade  of  ancient  trees.  They  formed  a  barrier  .igainst 
all  intrusion.  The  company  was  small,  but  choice.  Mr 
Brougham  ;  Sir  Samuel  Komilly ;  Mr  Mill,  author  of 
the  well  known  work  on  India;  M.  Ehimont,  the  learned 
Genevan,  once  tho  associate  of  Wirabeau,  were  all  who 
eat  down  to  table.  Mr  Bentham  did  not  talk  much. 
vHo  had  a  benevolence  of  manner  suited  to  the  philan- 
thropy of  his  mind.  H(/  seemed  to  bo  thinking  only  of 
the  convenience  and  pleasure  of  his  guests,  not  as  a  rule  of 
nrtificial  breeding  as  from  Chesterfield  or  Madame  Genlis, 
l)ut  from  innate  feeling.  Bold  as  aro  bis  opinions  in  his 
works,  hero  ho  was  wholly  unobtrusive  of  theories  that 
might  not  have  commended  the  assent  of  all  present. 
When  ho  did  converse  it  was  in  simple  language,  a  con- 
trut  to  Lis  later  writings,  where  an  involved  style  and  the 


use  of  new  or  universal  words  are  drawbacks  upon  the 
speculations  of  a  genius  original  and  profound,  but  with 
the  faults  of  solitude.  Yet  some  of  his  earlier  productions 
are  distinguished  by  classical  terseness." — (ResiJinceal  the 
Court  of  London,  p.  2SC.)  Bentham's  love  of  flowers  and 
music,  of  green  foliage  and  shaded  waits,  couies  clearly 
out  in  this  pleasant  picture  of  his  home  life  and  social 
surroundings. 

Whether  or  no  he  can  be  said  to  have  foufTdcd  a  school,  bii 
doctrines  have  become  so  far  part  of  the  common  thought  of 
the  time,  that  there  is  hardly  an  educated  inan  who  does  not 
accept  as  too  clear  for  argument  tiuths  which  were  invisible 
till  Beiiiham  pointed  them  out.  His  sensitively  honour- 
able nature,  which  in  early  life  had  caused  him  to  shriuk 
from  asserting  his  belief  in  Thirty-nine  articles  of  faith 
which  he  had  not  examined,  was  shocked  by  the  enormous 
abuses  which  confronted  him  on  commencing  the  study  of 
the  law.  He  rebelled  at  hearing  the  system  uudcr  which 
they  flourished  described  as  the  perfection  of  human  reason. 
But  he  was  no  merely  destructive  critic.  He  was  deter- 
mined to  find  a  solid  foundation  for  both  morality  and 
law,  and  to  raise  upon  it  an  edifice,  no  stone  of  which 
should  be  laid  except  in  accordance  with  the  deductions 
of  the  severest  logic.  This  foundation  is  "  the  greatest 
happiness  of  the  greatest  number,"  a  formula  adopted  from 
Beccaria.  The  pursuit  of  such  happiness  is  taught  by  the 
"utilitarian"  philosophy,  a  phrase  used  by  Benthaju 
himself  in  1802,  and  therefore  not  invented  by  Mr  J.  S. 
Mill,  as  he  supposed,  in  1823.  In  order  to  ascertain  what 
modes  of  action  are  most  conducive  to  the  end  in  view,  and 
what  motives  are  best  fitted  to  produce  them,  Bentham  was 
led  to  construct  marvellously  exhaustive,  though  somewhat 
mechanical,  tables  of , 'motives.  With  all  their  elaboration, 
these  tables  are,  however,  defective,  as  they  omit  some  of 
the  highest  and  most  influential  springs  of  action.  But 
most  of  Bentham's  conclusions  may  be  accepted  without 
any  formal  profession  of  the  utilitarian  theory  of  morals. 
They  are,  indeed,  merely  the  application  of  a  rigorous 
common  sense  to  the  facts  of  society.  That  the  proxi- 
mate ends  at  which  Bentham  aimed  are  desirable  hardly 
any  oue  would  deny,  though  the  feasibility  of  the  means 
by  which  ho  proposes  to  attain  them  may  often  be  ques- 
tioned ;  and  much  of  the  new  nomenclature  in  which 
ho  thought  fit  to  clothe  his  doctrines  may  be  rejected 
as  uuneccssary.  To  be  judged  fairly,  Bentham  must  ba 
judged  as  a  teacher  of  the  principles  of  legislation.  With 
the  principles  of  private  morals  he  really  deals  only  so  far 
as  is  necessary  to  enable  the  reader  to  appreciate  tho 
impulses  which  have  to  be  controlled  by  law. 

As  a  teacher  of  legislation  he  inquires  of  all  institutions 
whether  their  utility  justifies  their  existence.  If  not,  he  is 
prepared  to  suggest  a  new  form  of  institution  by  wluch 
the  needful  service  may  be  rendered.  While  thus  engaged 
no  topic  is  too  large  for  his  mental  grasp,  none  loo  small 
for  his  notice  ;  and,  what  is  stdl  rarer,  every  topic  is  seen 
in  its  due  relation  to  the  rest.  English  institutions  had 
n'ever  before  been  thus  comprehensively  and  dispassionately 
surveyed!  Such  improvements  as  had  been  necessitated 
were  mere  makeshifts,  often  made  by  stealth.  The  rude 
symmetry  of  the  feudal  system  had  been  long  ago  destroyed 
by  partial  and  unskilful  adaptations  to  modern  commercial 
life,  effected  at  various  dates  and  in  accordance  with  various 
theories..  The  time  had  come  for  deliberate  reconstruction, 
for  inquiring  whether  the  existence  of  many  admitted  cviU 
was,  as  ib  was  said  to  be,  unavoidable;  for  proving  that 
the  needs  of  society  may  be  classified  and  provided  for  by 
contrivances  which  shall  not  cla-ih  with  one  another  because 
all  shall  be  jiarts  of  a  consistent  whole.  This  task  Bentham 
undertook,  and  he  brought  to  it  a  mind  absoluK-lr  free 
I  from  professional  or  class  feeling,  or  any  other  species  oi 


1)  E  X  -  B  E  N 


5T7 


pri-jujici.'.  lie  inippcd  out  llic  wL.'li'  sulycct,  diiiJing 
end  subJiviiliiig  il  ill  accoivlancc  «illi  llie  principle  of 
"  dicliulmny."  Having  ruachcJ  liis  ulliuiatc  suUilivisiuiis 
be  subjects  each  to  tbe  most  tborough  and  ingenious 
discussion.  His  earlier  writings  cxbibit  a  lively  and  easy 
style,  which  gives  place  iu  his  later  treatises  to  sentences 
which  are  awkward  from  their  effort  after  unattainable 
'.ccuracy,  and  from  the  newly-invenled  ledinical  nomcn- 
.•laturo  in  which  lliey  arc  expresied  Many  of  Bcntham's 
(ihrases,  such  as  "  internaliuiial,"  "utilitarian,"  "codifica- 
tion," are  valuable  additions  to  our  language;  but  the 
iiajority  of  them,  especially  those  of  Greek  derivation,  have 
ikon  no  root  in  it.  His  neology  is  one  among  many  in- 
iances  of  his  contempt  for  the  past  and  his  wish  to  be  clear 
jf  all  association  v\i!h  it.  His  was,  indeed,  a  typically 
logical,  as  opposed  to  an  historical,  mind  For  the  history 
of  institulioiii,  which  in  the  hands  of  Sir  Henry  Maine  is 
becoming  a  new  and  intciesting  branch  of  science,  Bentham 
cared  nothing  Had  bo  possessed  such  a  knowledge  of 
Roman  law  as  is  now  not  uncommon  in  England,  he 
must  doubtless  have  taken  a  different  view  of  many 
subjects.  The  logical  and  historical  methods  can,  however, 
seldom  be  combined  without  confusion  ;  and  it  is  perhaps 
fortunatf  that  iJeuthain  devoted  his  long  life  to  showing 
how  much  may  be  done  by  pursuing  the  former  method 
exclusively.  His  writings  have  been  and  remain  a  store- 
house of  instructioa  for  statesmen,  an  armory  for  legal 
reformers.  .  "  Pillt5  par  tout  le  monde,"  as  Talleyrand  said: 
of  him,  "il  est  toujours  riche."  To  trace  the  results  of  his 
leaching  in  England  alone  would  be  to  write  a  history  of 
the  legislation  of  half  a  century.  Upon  the  whole 
administrative  machinery  of  government,  upon  criminal 
law,  aud  upon'  procedure,  both  criminal  and  civil,  his 
influence  has  been  most  salutary ;  and  the  great  legal 
rcvohilion  which  has  just  accomplished  the  fusion  of  law 
and  equity  is  not  obscurely  traceable  to  the  same  source. 
Those  of  Benlliam's  sugges'.ioiis  which  have  hitherto  been 
carried  out  have  affected  the  matter,  or  contents,  of  the 
law  There  seems  at  length  some  reason  to  hope  that  his 
snggeslions  for.  the  improvement  of  its  form  and  expression 
are  about  to  receive  the  attention  wliich  they  deserve. 
The  services  rendered  by  Bentham  to  the  world  would  not, 
however,  be  exhausted  even  by  the  practical  adoption  of 
every  one  of  his  rccoramendntions.  Tlicre  are  no  hmits  to 
the  good  results  of  his  introduction  of  a  true  method  of 
reasoning  into  the  moral  and  political  sciences. 

The  best  edition  of  Bentham's  works  is  that  edited  by 
Dr  Bowring,  in  11  vols.  8vo,  the  publication  of  which  was 
completed  in  1843.  It  contains  a  selection  from  his  cor- 
respondence, and  some  biographical  statemtnts.    (t.  e.  n.) 

BENTIN'CK,  LoaD  William  Georoe  Frederick 
Cavendish,  better  known  as  Lord  George  Bcntinck,  the 
second  son  of  the  fourth  duke  of  Portland,  by  Henrietta, 
sister  to  the  Viscountess  Canning,  was  born  February  27, 
1.S02.  He  .appears  to  have  been  ednentcd  at  home  till, 
at  the  age  of  sevcr.lecn,  he  obtained  his  commission  as 
cornet  in  the  lOlh  Ilussnrs.  On  retiring  from  the  army, 
be  acted  for  some  time  as  private  secretary  to  bis  uncle 
.Mr  Canning,  then  prime  minister;  in  which  capacity  he 
give  proofs  of  high  ability  for  the  conduct  of  public 
business.  In  1828  he  succc^ed  his  uncle  Lord  William 
Bentinck  as  member  for  Lynn  Regii,  and  continued  to 
represent  that  constituency  during  the  'remaining  twenty 
years  of  his  life.  Till  within  three  years  of  his  death- 
Lord  George  Bentinck  was  little  known  out  of  the  sport- 
ing world.'  His  early  attempts  at  public  speaking  afforded 
no  indication  of  the  abilities  which  the  subsequent  course 
of  political  events  served  to  develop  so  conspicuously.  His 
failures  in  the  House  of  Commons  seem  to  have  dis- 
couraged him  from  the  attempt  to  acquire  icpufalion  as  a 


[■uliiician.  The  nalun.l  energy  of  his  character,  however, 
found  scope  in  another  aicna.  As  one  of  the  leaders  on 
"the  luif,'' he  was  there  distinguished  by  that  integrity, 
judgment,  and  indomitable  determination,  which,  when 
brought  to  bear  upon  matters  of  weightier  importance, 
[ilaccd  him,  with  a  rapidity  almost  unexampled,  in  iLfl 
foremost  rank  of  British  senators.  On  bis  first  entrance 
into  parliament  he  belonged  to  what  may  be  called  the 
in»derate  Whig  party,  and  voted  in  favour  of  Catholic 
emancipation,  as  also  for  the  Reform  Bill,  though  he 
opposed  Some  of  its  principal  details.  Soon  after,  how. 
ever,  he  joined  the  ranks  of  the  Opposition,  with  whom  he 
sided  u[)  to  the  important  era  of  18-)G.  AVhen,  in  that 
year.  Sir  Robert  Peel  openly  declared  in  fa»our  of  free 
trade,  the  advocates  of  the  corn-laws,  then  without  a 
leader,  after  several  ineffectual  attempts  at  organization, 
discovered  that  Lord  George  Bentinck  was  the  only  man 
around  whom  the  several  sections  of  tbe  Opposition  could 
be  brought  to  rally.  His  sudden  elevation  to  so  pro- 
minent a  position  took  the  public  mind  by  surprise  ;  but 
he  soon  gave  convincing  evidence  of  powers  so  formidable, 
that  the  position  of  the  protectionist  party  at  once  assumed 
an  imposing  aspect.  Towards  Sir  Robert  Peel,  in  particular, 
his  hostility  was  marked  and  uncompromising.  Believing, 
33  he,  himself  exjiressed  it,  that  that  statesman  and  his 
political  colleagues  had  "  hounded  to  the  death  his  illustri- 
ous relnlive"  Mr  Canning,  he  combined  with  his  opposi- 
tion as  a  i)olitical  leader  a  degree  of  [lersonal  animosity 
that  gave  additional  force  to  the  poignancy  of  his  invectives. 
On  entering  on  his  new  position,  he  at  once  abandoned  bis 
favourite  pursuits,  disposed  of  his  magnificent  stud,  forsook 
all  connection  with  the  turf,  and  devoted  his  whole  tinie 
and  energies  to  the  laborious  and  trying  duties  of  a  parlia- 
mentary leader.  Apart  from  the  question  of  the  corn- 
laws,  his  [xjlitics  were  strictly  independent.  In  opposition 
to  the  rest  of  his  party,  he  supported  the  bill  for  removing 
tie  Jewish  disabilities,  and  was  favourable  to  the  scheme 
for  the  payment  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  in  Ireland 
by  the  landowners.  As  he  had  held  no  high  office  under 
Guvcrumeut,  his  qualifications  as  a  statesman  never  found 
scope  beyond  the  negative  achievements  of  a  leader  of 
Opposition;  but  it  may  be  safely  aftirined  that  nothing 
but  his  untimely  death  couhl  have  debarred  him  from 
acquiring  a  distinguished  position  among  the  statesmen  of 
Britain.  This  event,  caused  by  the  rupture  of  a  vessel  in 
the  heart,  took  place  suddenly  on  the  21st  September 
1848,  while  his  lordship  was  proceeding  on  fqpt  to  visit  a 
friend  in  the  country.  —  (See  /.onl  George  Bdiliiuk;  a  Puli' 
lical  Biiigrnpli'j,  by  B.  Uisracli,  1851  ) 

BENTIVOGLIO,  Giovanni,  was  born  at  Bologna-ahout 
1438,  seven  years  before  the  murder  of  his  father  Anni- 
bale,  then  the  cldcf  magistrate  of  the  republic.  In  1-1C2 
Giovanni  contrived  to  make  himself  master  of  the  state, 
wliich  be  continued  to  rule  with  a  stern  sway  for  nearly 
half  a  century  ;  but  bis  encouragement  of  the  fine  arts, 
and  his  decoration  of  the  city  by  sumptuous  edifices,  gilded 
his  usurpation.  He  was  finally  expelled  by  Pope  Julian 
11.,  in  1506,  and  died  in  the  state  of  Milan  at  the  age  oi 
seventy.  , 

BENTIVOGLIO,  Gcioo,  Cardinal,  an  eminent  stalest 
man  and  historian,  was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1579.  Aftet 
studying  at  Padua,  be  went  to  reside  at  Rome,  and  was 
received  with  great  favour  by  IVpc  Clement  VllL,  who 
made  him  a  prelate.  He  was  sent  as  nuncio  into  Flanders, 
and  afterwards  to  France  ;  and  when  he  returned  to  Rome 
he  was  intrusted  by  Louis  Xlll.  with  the  management  of 
the  French  affairs  at  that  court.  In  1G21  ho  was  made  a 
cardinal,  ami  in  1641  received  the  bishopric  of  Tcfraci^a. 
He  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  and  on 
the  death  of  Urban  public  opinion  marked  out  BentivogKo 


578 


B  E  N  —  B  E  .N 


for  hU  successor.  He  died  suddenly,  however,  before  tlie 
clBCtion  took  place.  Uis  principaj  works  are,  Delia  Guerra 
di  Fiandria,  1632-39  ;  lielasioni  di  C.  Bentivoglio  in  tempo 
detU  sue  Numiature  di  Fiandria  e  di  Francia,  1G31  ; 
Afemorie,  1618;  Lettere,  1C31. 

BENTLEY,  UicnARD  (boru,  1662;  died,  1742),  wag 
born  at  Oulton,  a  township  in  the  parish  of  Rothwell,  in 
the  West  Riding  of  Yorlishire.  His  grandfather  had 
Buflfered  in  person  and  estate  in  the  royal  cause,  and 'the 
family  were  in  consequence  in  reduced  circumstances^ 
Bontley's  mother,  the  daughter  of  a  stonemason  in  Oulton/ 
was  a  woman  of  exrellent  understanding  and  some  educa- 
tion, as  she  was  able  to  give  her  son  his  first  lessons  in 
Latin.  From  the  grammar  school  of  \Vake6eld  Richard 
Ecntlcy  passed  to  St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  being 
admitted  subsizar  in  1676.  He  afterwards  obtained  a 
Bcholarship,  but  never  succeeded  to  a  fellowship,  being 
appointed  by  his  college,  before  he  was  twenty-one,  head- 
master of  Spalding  grammar  school.  In  this  post  he  did 
not  remain  long,  being  selected  by  Dr  StillingSeet,  Dean 
of  St  Paul's,  to  be  domestic  tutor  to  his  son.  This  appoint- 
ment introduced  Boiitley  at  once  to  the  society  of  the 
most  eminent  men  of  the  day,  threw  open  to  him  the  best 
private  hbrary  in  England,  and  brought  him  into  familiar 
intercourse  with  Dean  Stillingflect,  a  man  of  sound  under- 
etanding,  who  had  not  shrunk  from  ejrploring  some  of  the 
more  solid  and  abstnii;e  parts  of  ancient  learning.  The 
example  of  such  a  patrun  seconding  his  natural  inclinations 
drew  Bentley  into  a  course  of  thorough  reading,  which, 
however,  took  a  philological  rather  than  a  philosophical 
direction.  The  six  years  which  he  passed  in  StiUingfleet's 
family  were  employed,  with  the  restless  energy  character- 
istic of  the  man,  in  exhausting  the  renuins  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  writers,  and  laying  up  those  stores  of  knowledge 
upon  which  he  afterwards  drew  for  his  various  occasions. 

In  1689  Stillingfleet  became  bishop  of  Worcester,  and 
Bentle/s  pupil  went  to  reside  at  Oxford  in  Wadham 
College,  accompanied  .by  his  tutor.  Bentley's  introduc- 
tions, and  hia  own  merits,  placed  him  at  once  on  a  footing 
of  intimacy  with  the  most  distin^ished  scholars  in  the 
xiniyersity — Mill,  Hody,  Edward  Bernard.  Here  he  revelled 
iti  the  MS.  treasures  of  the  Bodleian,'Corpus,  and-  other 
college  librariea.  He  projected,  and  occupied  himself  with 
ooUections  for,  vast  bterary  schemes.  Among  these  are 
BpeciaUy  mentioned  a  cnrpus  of  the  fragments  of  the 
Greek  poets,  and  an  edition  of  the  Greek  lexicographers. 
But  his  first  publication  was  in  connection  with  a  writer  of 
much  inferior  note.  The  Oxford  press  was  about  bring- 
ing out  an  edition  (the  editio  princeps)  of  the  Chronicle  oj 
John  Malalas,  from  the  unique  MS.  in  the  Bodleian  ;  and 
the  editor,  Dr  Mill,  had  requested  Bentlc-y  to  look  through 
the  sheets,  and  make  any  remarks  on  the  text.  This 
originated  Bentley's  Epistola  ad  Millium,  which  occupies 
less  than  one  hundred  pages  at  the  end  of  the  Oxford 
Malalas  (c  Tlieatro  Sheldoniano,  1G91,  8vo).  This  short 
tractate,  at  once  placed  Bentley  at  the  head  of  all  living 
English'  scholars.  The  ease  with  wliii-h,  by  a  stroke  of 
the  pen,  he  restores  passages  which  had  been  k-ft  in  hope- 
less corruption  by  the  editors  of  the  Chronicle,  the  ccrtaiiity 
of  the  emendation,  and  tJie  command  over  the  relevant 
material,  are  in  a  style  totally  different  from  the  careful 
and  laborious  learning  of  Hody,  Mill,  or  Chdmcad.  To 
the  staalLcircle  of  classical  students  it  was  .it  once  apparent 
that  there  had  arisen  in  England  a  critic,  whose  attain- 
ments were  not  to  be  measured  by  the  ordinary  ac.iJcmical 
standard,  but  whom  these  few  pages  had  eufliced  to  place 
by  the  side  oi  the  great  Grecians  of  a  former  age.  Un- 
fortunately this  mastery  over  critical  science  was  accom- 
panied by  a  lone  of  self-assertion  and  presumptuous  con- 
fidence,   which    not   only    cbtcked    admiration,    but    was 


calculat;.:  :;  rouse  enmiiy.  Dr  ItloLi,  inaccu,  rSentley's 
biographer,  has  charged  him  with  an  indecorum  of  which 
he  was  not  guilty.  "  In  one  place,"  writes  Dr  Monk,  "  he 
accosts  Dr  Mill  as  uj  ^lanihiov,  an  indecorum  which  neither 
the  familiarity  of  friendship,  nor  the  licence  of  a  dead 
language,  can  justify  towards  the  dignified  head  of  a 
house."  But  the  object  of  Bentley's  apostrophe  is  not  his 
correspondent  Dr  Mill,  but  his  author  John  Malalas, 
whom  in  another  place  he  playfully  appeals  to  as  "Syrisce. 
From  this  publication,  however,  dates  the 'origin  of- those 
mi.\cd  feelings  of  admiration  and  repugnance  which  Bentley 
through  his  whole  career  continued  to  excite  among  hi.' 
contemporaries. 

In  1690  Bentley  had  taken  deacon's  orders  in  the 
Established  Church.  In  1692  he  was  nominated  firbt 
Boyle  lecturer,  a  nomination  which  was  repeated  in  1694. 
He  was  olTered  the  appointment  a  third  time  in  1695,  but 
declined  it,  being  by  that  time  involved  in  too  many  ether 
undertakings.  In  these  first  series  of  lectures  he  endea- 
vours to  present  the  Newtonian  physics  in  a  popular  form, 
and  to  frame  them  into  a  proof  of  the  existence  of  an  in- 
telligent Creator.  The  second  series,  preached  in  1694, 
has  not  been  pubUshed,  and  is  believed  to  be  lost. 
Scarcely  was  Beutley  in  priest's  orders  before  he  was 
preferred  to  a  prebeudal  stall  in  Worcester  cathedral. 
And,  in  1693,  the  keepership  of  the  royal  library  becoming 
vacant  by  the  death  of  Henri  de  Justel,  great  efforts  were 
made  by  his  friends  to  obtain  the  place  for  Bentley.  But, 
though  there  was  a  High  Church  candidate  (Edmund 
Gibson)  backed  by  the  archbishops,  the  court  interest 
prevailed,  and  the  place  was  given  to  Mr  Thynne.  Mr 
Thyiine,  however,  wanted  only  the  salary  and  not  tho 
office,  and  was  prevailed  on  to  cede  the  place  to  Bentley 
for  an  annuity  of  XI 30  for  life,  the  whole  emoluments 
being  but  £200  and  apartments  iii  St  James's  Palace. 
To  these  preferments  were  added,  in  1695,  a  royal 
chaplaincy,  and  the  living  of  Hartlobury.  He  was  also 
about  the  same  time  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
And  the  recognition  of  Continental  scholars  came  in  tho 
shape  of  a  dedication,  by  Gnvius  (John  George),  preUxed 
to  a  dissertation  of  Albert  Uubcns,  De  mta  Th.  Mallii, 
published  at  Utrecht  in  1094. 

While  these  distinctions  were  being  accumulated  upon 
Bentley,  his  energy  was  making  itself  felt  in  many  and 
various  dircctiojis.  His  first  care  was  the  royal  hbrary, 
the  queen's  library,  as  it  was  commonly  called.  He  made 
great  ctVorts  to  retrieve  this  collection  from  the  dilapidated 
condition  into  which  it  had  been  allowed  to  fall.  He 
employed  the  mediation  of  the  earl  of  Marlborough  to  beg 
tlie  grant  of  some  additional  rooms  in  the  palace  for  tho 
books.  The  rcKims  were  granted,  but  Marlborough  charac- 
teristically kept  them  for  himself.  Bcntley  enforced  the 
law  against  the  publishers,  and  thus  added  to  the  hbrary 
nearly  1000  volumes  which  had  been  neglected  to  bo 
delivered.  He  was  commissioned  by  the  University  of 
Cambridge  to  obtain  Greek  and  Latin  founts  for  their 
chissical  books,  and  he  had  accordingly  cast,  in  Holland, 
those  beautiful  types  which  a|ipcar  in  the  Cambridge  books 
of  that  date.  He  assisted  Evelyn  in  his  Aiimismala.  All 
Bentley's  literary  appearances  at  this  time  were  of  this 
accidental  character.  Wo  do  not  find  him  settling  down  to 
the  steady  execution  of  any  of  the  great  projects  with  which 
he  had  started.  He  designed,  indeed,  in  1694,  an  edition 
of  Phdostratus,  but  easily  abandoned  it  to  Olearius,  "  to 
the  joy,"  says  F.  A.  Wolf,  "of  Olearius  and  of  no  one  else." 
He  supplied  Gr;uviu3  with  collations  of  Cicero,  and  Joshua 
Barnes  with  a  Warning  as  to  the  apuriousness  of  the 
Fpistlfs  of  Furipidcs,  which  was  tbrown  away  upon  that 
blunderer,  who  printed  the  epistles  and  declared  that  no 
one  could  doubt  their  genuineness  but  a  man  "  perfrictJB 


I 


r.  E  N  T  I,  F  ^' 


579 


jrciitis  aut  judicii  imminuli."     Bciitley  fiipplioJ  lo  CIrx- 
viars's  Ciilliviaclius  a  masterly  collection  of  llie.  fragmeiila. 

I'lie  Dissndition  on  the  Epistles  of  Phalaris,  the  work  on 
wbith  lii.iilley'3  fame  in  great  part  resta,  origin^ited  in  the 
saino  casual  way.  Wotton  being  about  to  bring  out  a 
sccuud  edition  of  his  book  on  Ancient  and  Modern  Learning, 
claimed  of  Bcntlcy  iLe  fulfilment  of  an  old  promise  to  write 
a  paper  exposing  iLe  spuriousness  of  tbe  t'pistles  nf  I'halaris. 
Tliis  paper  was  resented  as  an  insult  by  iLe  Christchurch 
editor  of  Phalaris,  Hon.  Charles  Boyle, 'afterwards  carl  of 
Orrery.  Assisted  by  his  college  friends,  Boyle  wrote  a 
reply,  "a  tissue,"  says  Mr  Dyce,  "  of  superficial  learning, 
ingenious  sophistry,  dexterous  malice,  and  happy  raillery." 
The  reply  T\a3  hailed  by  the  public  as  crushing,  and  went 
immediately  into  a  second  edition.  It  was  incumbent  on 
Benlley  to  rejoio.  This  he  did,  in  what  I'orsoii  styles 
'■  I  hat  immortal  dissertation,"  to  which  no  answer  was,  or 
cuulJ  be,  given. 

In  the  year  1700,  Benlley,  then  in  his  3Sth  year, 
received  that  main  prt^'erineiit  which,  says  De  Quiiicey, 
■■  was  at  once  his  reward  and  his  scourge  foj-  the  rest  of  his 
life."  The  six  coniinisiiioners  of  ecclesiastical  patronage 
unanimously  rccomniended  Bentley  lo  the  Ciowii  for  the 
headship  of  Trinity  College. 

Tiiuily  College,  the  must  splendid  foundation  in  the 
Uuiveiiity  of  Cambridge,  and  in  the  scientific  and  literary 
rcpntation  of  its  fellows  the  most  eminent  society  in  either 
imiversity,  had,  in  1700,  greatly  fallen  from  its  high  estate. 
It  was  not  that  it  was  more  degraded  than  the  other 
colleges,  but  its  foiiner  lustre  made  the  abuse  of  endow- 
ments in  its  case  more  conspicuous.  The  eclipse  bad  taken 
place  during  the  reaction  which  followed  IGCO,  and  was 
owing  lo  causes  which  were  not  peculiar  tp  Trinity,  but 
whiih  induenced  the  natiou  at  large.  The  names  of 
Pearson  and  Barrow,  and,  greater  than  either,  that  of 
Xcwlon,  adorn  iho  college  annals  of  this  period.  But 
these  were  quite  exceptional  men.  They  had  not  inspired 
the  rank  and  file  of  fellows  of  Trinity  withjiny  of  their  own 
love  for  learning  or  science.  Indolent  and  easy-goiiig 
clerics,  without  duties,  without  a  pursuit,  or  any  conscious- 
ness of  the  obligation  'of  endowments,  they  haunted  the 
college  for  the  pleasant  life  and  the  good  things  they  found 
there,  creating  sinecure  olTices  in  each  other's  favour, 
jobbing  the  scholarships,  and  making  the  audits  mutually 
pleasant.  Any  excuse  served  for  a  banquet  at  the  cost  of 
"  the  house,"  and  the  celibate  imposed  by  the  stalutco  was 
made  as  tolerable  .as  the  decorum  of  a  respectable  position 
permitted.  "  To  such  a  society  Bcntlcy  came,  obnoxious  as 
a  .lohnian  and  an  intruder,  unwelcome  as  a  man  of 
!■  irning,  whose  interests  lay  outside  the  walls  of  the 
college.  Bentley  rejOied  lb  their  concealed  dislike  with 
open  contempt,  and  proceeded  to  ride  roughshod  over  their 
liiile  arrangoracnts.  He  inaugiirated  many  beneficial 
r.  iorms  in  college  usages  and  discipline,  executed  extensive 
iinpruvctneniri  m  the  buildings,  and  generally  used  his 
•Miiinent  st;ilion  for  tho  promotion  of  the  interests  of 
K'.irning.  both  in  the  college  and  in  the  university.  But 
this  noble  energy  was  attended  by  a  doinineering  temper, 
an  overweening  contempt  for  the  feelings,  and  even  for  the 
rights,  of  others,  and  an  unscrupulous  use  of  means  when 
a  good  end  could  bo  obtained.  Bentley,  at  the  summit  of 
classical  learning,  disdained  to  associate  with  men  whom  he 
regarded  as  illiterate  priests.  He  treated  them  with 
contumely,  whdo  he  was  diverting  their  income  to  public 
purposes.  The  continued  drain  tipun  iheir  purses — on  one 
occasion  tho  whole  dividend  of  the  year  was  absorbed  by 
the  rebuilding  of  the  chapel — was  the  grievance  which  at 
l.ist  roused  the  fellows  lo  make  a  resolute  stand.  After 
ten  years  of  stubborn,  but  inefTcrlual  resistance  within  the 
college,  they  bad  recourse,  in  1710,  lo  the  last  remedy — an 


appeal  to  the  visitor.  Their  [ictition  is  an  ill  drawn 
invective,  full  of  general  couiplaint<^,  and  not  alleging  any 
special  delinquency.  Eeutleys  reply  (7/ie  Present  HtMt  of 
Tiinity  College,  d-c,  8vo,  Lond.  1710)  is  m  his  most 
crushing  style.  Tho  fellows  amended  their  position,  and 
put  ill  a  fj-esh  charge,  in  which  they  articled  Cflyfout 
Ee|«irate  breaches  of  the  statutes  as  having  been  comiuittod 
by  the  master.  Bentley,  called  upon  to  answer,  demurred 
to  the  bishop  of  Ely's  jurisdiction,  alleging  that  the  Crown 
was  visitor.  He  backed  his  application  by  a  dedication  of 
his  Horace  to  the  lord  treasurer  (llarky).  The  Crown 
lawyers  decided  the  point  agaiust  him;  the  case  was  beard, 
and  a  sentence  of  ejection  from  the  mastership  ordered  to 
be  drawn  up,  but  before  it  was  executed  the  bishop  of  Ely 
died,  and  the  process  lapsed. 

This  process,  though  it  had  lasted  nearly  five  years,  was 
only  a  prologue  lo  the  great  feud,  the  whole  duration  of 
which  was  twenly-uine  years.  Space  will  not  allow  of  ita 
vicissitudes  being  here  followed.  It  must  suffice  to  say 
that  Bentley  was  sentenced  by  the  bishop  of  Ely  (Greene) 
to  be  ejected  from  the  mastershqi,  and  by  Convocation  to 
be  stripped  of  his  degrees,  and  that  he  foiled  both  the 
visitor  and  the  uuivcrtlty. 

Bentley  survived  the  extinction  of  this  thirty  years' 
war,  two  years.  Surrounded  by  his  granilchildren,  he  ex- 
perienced the  joint  pressure  of  age  and  infirmity  as  hghtly 
as  is  consistent  with  the  lut  of  humanity.  Ue  continued 
to  amuse  himself  with  reading,  and  though  nearly  confined 
lo  his  arm-chair,  was  able  to  enjoy  the  society  of  his  friends, 
and  several  rising  scholars,  Maitland,  John  Taylor,  his 
nephews  Eichard  and  Thomas  Bentley,  with  whom  he 
discussed  classical  subjects.  He  was  accustomed  to  say 
that  he  should  live  to  bo  SO,  adding  that  a  life  of  that 
duration  was  long  enough  to  read  everything  worth  reading. 
He  fulfilled  his  own  prediction,  dying,  of  a  pleurisy,  Htli 
July  1742,  when  he  was  a  few  months  over  fcO.  Though 
accused  by  his  enemies  of  being  grasping,  he  left  not  more 
than  X5000  behind  him.  A  few  Greek  MSS.,  brought  from 
Mount  Alhos,  he  left  to  the  college  library  ;  his  books  and 
papers  to  his  nephew,'  Richard  Bentley.  Hichard,  who  was 
a  fellow  of  Trinity,  at  his  death  in  1780,  left  the  papers 
to  the  college  librarj-.  The  books  were-'acQuired,  by 
purchase,  by  the  British  Museum. 

Of  his  personal  hnliits  some  anecdotes  are  related  by 
his  grandson,  Richard  Cumberland,  in  vol.  i.  of  his  Memoirs 
(lond.  1807).  The  hat  of  formidable  dimensions,  which 
he  always  wore  during  reading  to  shade  his  eyes,  and  his 
preference  of  port  to  claret,  arc  traits  embodied  in  Pope's 
caricature  (Duiteiad,'h.  4),  »vhich  bears  in  other  respects 
little  resemblance  to  the  oiiginal.  He  did  not  take  up  tbe 
habit  of  smokiug  till  he  was  70.  Ue  held  the  archdeaconry 
of  Ely  with  two  living.?,  but  never  obtained  higher  prcfw- 
cnce  in  the  church.  He  was  olTered  the  (then  poor) 
bishopric  of  Bristol,  but  refused  it,  and  being  asked  what 
preferment  he  would  consider  worth  his  acceptance,  replied, 
"  That  which  would  leave  him  no  reason  to  wish  for  a 
removal." 

Dr  Bentley  married,  in  1701,  Joanna,  daughter  of  Sir 
John  Bernard  of  Brompton.  Their  union  lasted  forty 
years.  Mrs  Benlley  died  in  1740,  leaving  a  son,  Richard, 
and  two  daughters,  one  of  whom  married,  in  172S,  Mr 
Denison  Cumberland,  grandson  of  Ruhard  Cumberland, 
bishop  of  Peterborough,  and  father  of  Richard  Cumber- 
land the  dra,raatic  author. 

The  Life  of  Kichard  Dentley,  by  Bishop  Monk  (4lf>, 
Lond.  1830;  2d  ed.,  2  vols.  Svo,  1833),  gives  in  (uU  de- 
tail an  interesting  account  of  the  Trimly  College  feud,  and 
the  other  inciilents  of  his  hero's  life  But,  though  himself 
a  Greek  scliolar  of  celebrity  and  an  editor  of  Euripides, 
Dr  Monk  appears  to  have  had   but  an  miperfcct  coinprc- 


5tt0 


B  E  N  —  B  E  N 


tension  of  the  consummate  genivis  and  vast  acqu'renients 
of  the  subject  of  his  biography.  He  regrets  that  Bentley 
wasted  bis  time  upon  conjectural  criticism,  instead  of  ap- 
plying himself  to  the  deistical  controversy.  The  Eemnris 
upon  a  late  Discourse  of  Freethinking,  by  Phileleutheriis 
Lipsiensis,  8vo,  1713,  to  which  Dr  Monk  alludes,  is  indeed 
a  very  characteristic  piece  of  writing ;  but  it  gives  no 
mere  idea  of  what  Bentley  was  as  a  master  of  ancient  learn- 
ing than  does  his  pamphlet,  Tlie  Present  Slate  of  Trinity 
College,  quoted  before.  Indeed,  of'  all  Bentley's  publica- 
tions there  ia  not  one  which  can  be  taken  as  an  adequate 
sample  of  the  critic,  as  a  work  at  once  monumental  and 
characteristic.  Bentley  is  most  imperfectly  represented 
by  any  one  of  his  books.  They  have  all  the  same  occa- 
sional stamp.  This  is  the  case  not  only  with  the  most 
popular  of  these,  the  Dissertation  on  Phalaris.  The  Ilora- 
tiua  of  1712  was  brought  out  to  propitiate  public  opinion 
at  a  critical,  period  of  the  struggle  with  the  fellows  of 
Trinity ;  the  proposals  for  a  recension  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment text,  1720,  had  a  similar  origin  ;  the  Terentivs  of 
1725  was  occasioned  by  his  resentment  of  Hare's  conduct. 
The  Milton  was  undertaken  at  the  request  of  Queen  Caro- 
line, but  also  at  an  anxious  conjuncture  of  the  great  quarrel. 
Nearly  all  his  lesser  performances  were  called  forth  by 
iriends  invoking  his  aid  for  their  own  scliemes.  What  he 
wrote,  he  wrote  with  rapidity,  nither  with  precipitation. 
If  we  try  to  form  our  idea  of  the  man,  not  from  this  or 
that  extempore  effusion,  but  from  all  that  he  did  or  was, 
■we  shall  find  that  Bentley  was  the  first,  perhaps  the  only 
Englishman  who  can  be  ranked  with  the  great  heroes  of 
classical  learning.  Before  hira  we  have  only  Selden  to 
name,  or,  in  a  more  restricted  field,  Gataker  and  Pearson. 
But  Selden,  with  stupendous  learning,  wanted  that  whith 
Bentley  shared  with  Scaliger  or  Wolf,  the  freshness  of 
original  genius  and  confident  mastery  over  the  whole  region 
of  his  knowledge.  "  Bentley  is  not,"  saya  Mahly,  "  one 
among  the  great  classical  scholars,  but  he  inaugurates  a 
new  era  of  the  art  of  criticism.  He  opened  a  new  path. 
With  him  criticism  attained  its  majority.  When  scholars 
had  hitherto  offered  suggestions  and  conjectures,  Bentley, 
xvith  unlimited  control  over  the  whole  material  of  learning, 
gave  decisions."  The  modern  German  school  of  philology, 
usually  so  unjust  to  foreigners,  yet  does  ungrudging  homage 
to  the  genius  of  this  one  Englishman.  Bentley,  says 
Bu'nsen,  "  was  tlie  founder  of  historical  philology."  And 
Bern.iys  says  of  his  corrections  of  the  Tristia,  "  corrup- 
tions which  had  hitherto  defied  every  attempt  even  of  the 
mightiest,  were  removed  by  a  toucli  of  the  fingers  of  this 
British  Samson,"  The  English  school  of  Hellenists,  by 
which  the  18th  century  was  distinguished,  and  which  con- 
tains the  names  of  Dawes,  Markland,  Taylor,  Toup,  Tyr- 
■whitt,  Porson,  Dobrec,  Kidd,  and  Monk,  wa.s  the  creation  of 
Beniley.  And  even  the  Dutch  school  of  the  same  period, 
though  the  outcome  of  a  native  tradition,  was  in  no  small 
degree  stimulated  and  directed  by  "Bentley's  example. 
Kuhnken  has  recorded  the  powerful  effect  produced  upon 
the  young  Hemsferhuys  by  Ei-ntley's  letter  to  him  on  the 
occasion  of  his  Pollux;  at  fir.'it  humiliated  to  despair  by 
tho  revelation  to  him  of  his  own  ignorance  ;  then  stimu- 
lated to  Ligher  effort  by  the  consideration  that  commenda- 
tion from  such  a  man  was  not  words  of  mere  compliment. 
iBentley  was  a  source  of  inspiration  to  a  following  genera- 
tion of  scholars.  Himself,  he  sprang  from  the  earth  without 
forerunners,  without  antecedents.  Self-taught,  he  created 
hia  own  science.  It  was  his  misfortune  that  there  was  no 
contemporary  guild  of  learning  in  England  by  which  his 
power  could  be  measured,  and  his  eccentricities  chccke<l. 
In  the  Plicdaris  controversy  his  academical  adversaries  had 
not  sufficient  knowledge  to  know  how  absolute  tbei'  defeat 
was.     Garth's  couplet — 


"So  diamon^ls  tike  a  lustre  Horn  titpir  foil, 
And  to  a  Beullcy   lis  we  owe  a  lio^le    — 

expressed  the  belief  of  the  wits,  or  literary  world,  of  the 
time.  It  was  not  only  that  he  had  to  live  with  inferiors, 
and  to  waste  his  energy  in  a  struggle  forced  upon  hiiii  by 
the  necessities  of  his  official  position,  but  the  wholesome 
stimulus  of  competition  and  the  encouragement  of  a  sym- 
pathetic circle  were  wanting.  In  a  university  wl:ere  the 
instruction  of  youth,  or  the  religious  controversy  of  the 
day,  were  the  only  known  occupations,  Bentley  was  au 
isolated  phenomenon,  and  we  can  hardly  wonder  that  ho 
should  have  flagged  in  his  literary  exertions  after  his  ap- 
pointment to  the  mastership  of  Trinity.  All  his  vast 
acquisitions  and  all  his  original  views  seem  to  have  been 
obtained  before  1700.  -After  this  period  he  acquired  little, 
and  made  only  spasmodic  effurts — the  Horace,  the  Terence, 
and  the  Milton.  The  prolonged  mental  concentration, 
and  mature  meditation,  of  which  alone  a  great  work  can 
be  born,  were  wanting  to  him. 

BiBLiocKAPQT. — 1.  'Ejiislola  ad  MiUiurtj,  at  end  of  Mnhlx 
Chronicon,  Oxen.  IC91  ;  2d  ed.,  1713.  2.  The  Folly  and  Lhtrca. 
soniablcncis  of  Atheism,  4to,  Loud.  1693  (Ut  Coyle  Lecture).  3. 
Liissertation  on  riuitaris,  kc  ,  at  end  of  Wotton's  Rcjlcctiort^^  &c. , 
8vo,  bond.  1C97;  2d  ed.,  much  enlarged,  ir,99  ;  3d  cd  ,  Loud. 
1777  ;  reprinted,  12mo.  Berlin,  1S75  ;  Lalin  translation  by  Len- 
nep,  4to,  Groningan,  1777.  4.  Noratius,  4to,  Cantab.  1711.  5. 
liimarks  wi  a  late  Discourse  of  Freetkinhing,  by  Philcleullienia 
Lipsiensra,  8vo,  Lond.  1713  ;  8th  ed-,  Camb.  1713  ;  translated  inlo 
French  by  Armand  de  ia  Chapelle,  Arast,  1738.  6.  Emendatiovf^ 
in  Mcnandri  et  Philemonis  Itcliquios,  8vo,  Cantab-  1713.  7.  Ao- 
posats  for  a  nctv  edition  of  the  Greek  Teslavient,  4to,  Lond.  1721. 
8.  Tcrcntius,  4to,  Cantab.  1720.  9.  Milton's  Paradise  lost,  Jto, 
Lond.  1732.  10-  Manilius  Astrtmoniir^m,  4to,  Lond.  1739.  11. 
Critica  Sacra;  Notes  on  the  Oreek  and  l.ut'.ri  Text  of  the  t^'etu  Tes- 
tament, cd.  by  A.  A.  Ellis,  8vo,  Camb.  1 362. 

The  If'orks  of  Richard  £attley,  D.D,  collected  and  edited  by 
the  Rev.  Alexander  Dyce,  3  vols.  8vo,  Lond.  1836.  These  voliinic* 
contain  the  Dissertation  on  Phalaris,  in  its  enlarged  and  in  its 
originalform  as  it  was  appended  to  Wotton's  Kefledions,  1696  ;  llie 
Boyle  Lectures  of  1692  ;  Itcvxarks  upon  a  Discourse  of  Frcethinkiiig, 
1713  ;  Proposals  for  prinii-ng  a  ncio  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament, 
1721 ;  Epistola  ad  Millium,  1691 ;  and  some  smaller  p'cces.  BetUlci 
et  Doctorum  Firorrim  ad  eum  Fpistoler,  4to,  Lond.  1807  ;  2d  ed  , 
enlarged,  Svo,  Lips-  1825.  Correspondence,  2  vols.  Svo,  Lond.  1842- 
Monks  Life  of  Bentley,  4to,  Lond.  1830  ;'  2d  ed.,  2  vols-  8vo-,  Lond. 
1833.  Richard  Beniley,  Eine  Biographie,  von  Jacob  Mahly,  8vo, 
Leips.  18C8. 

BENZOIC  ACID,  an  organic  acid  present  in  larg» 
quantity  in  gum  benzoin,  and  found  also  in  dragon's  blood 
(the  resin  of  Calamus  Draco)  and  some  allied  substances. 
It  is,  besides,  prepared  by  numerous  reactions  from  organic 
substances,  being  now  largely  made  from  naphthalin,  one 
of  the  products  of  the  distillation  of  coal  tar.  Benznic 
acid  is  extracted  from  gum  benzoin  by  the  process  of  sub- 
limation. The  rosin,  coarsely  powdered,  is  submitted  to 
a  heat  of  3U0'  Fahr.  in  a  close  vessel,  by  which  the  acid 
is  expelled  and  may  bo  condensed  in  receivers.  By  llie 
sublimation  process  tlie  acid  carries  away  with  it  a  small 
portion  of  essential  oil,  which  gives  its  peculiar  sweet  odour 
to  sublimed  benzoic  acid.  It  may  also  be  separated  fium 
gum.  benzoin  by  boiling  the  powdered  gum  in  lime,  fillciiiig 
off  the  compound  of  resin  and  lime,  and  concentrating  the 
remaining  solution  of  beiizoatc  of  calcium,  from  which 
benzoic  acid  is  precipitated  by  hydrochloric  acid.  Tho 
benzoic  acid  may  then  be  purified  by  sublinialion,  but 
thus  prepared  it  is  destitute  of  odour.  It  cryslallizes  into 
beautiful  wbitc  silky  flexible  needles,  and  yicKl-s  on  heating 
an  "acrid,  irritating  vapour  which  excites  coughing.  It  is 
distinguished  from  the  closely  allied  sulisfance,  cinnainic 
acid,  by  withstanding  the  action  of  boiling  dilute  nitric 
acid,  which  changes  the  other  into  bitter  almond  oil,  the 
hydride  of  benzoyl.  Benzoic  acid  is  rarely  employed  in 
niedicirie  alone,  but  in  composition  as  benzoatc  of  ammani.-i 
it  acts  as  a  stimulant  of  mucous  membranes,  and  is  occ.i- 
sionally  given  in  chrotiic   bronchial  affections.     It  is  an 


I 


i 


B  E  N--B  E  R 


581 


ingredient  in  some  ollinnjl  tinctures,  such  as  the  com- 
pouixl  tincture  of  caniphor,  and  amuioniated  tdncture  of 
opium. 

BEN'ZOIN,  ClnM,  somctinies  called  Gum  BENJAiflU,  a 
fragrant  gum  resin  obtained  from  Sli/rax  •Jienzoin,  a 
tree  of  cousideraWo  size,  a  native  of  Sumatra  and  Java, 
nnd  introduced  into  Siara,  Borneo,  ic.  The  guniresin  is 
obtained  by  making  incisions  in  the  bark  of  trees  after 
they  have  attained  six  years  of  age,  when  the  benzoin 
exudes,  and  after  hardening  in  the  air  is  carefully  scraped 
off  with  a  knife.  A  tree  produces  on  an  average  about 
3  lb  annually  for  10  or  12  years.  The  produce  of  the  first 
three  years  is  known  as  "  head"  benzoin,  and  is  esteemed 
the  finest  and  most  valuable  ;  that  produced  in  lator  years 
goes  by  the  name  of  "  belly ''  benzoin  ;  and  after  the  trees 
are  cut  down  a  small  quantity  of  a  dark-coloured  aud  very 
inferior  quality  is  obtained,  which  is  called  "  foot"  benzoin. 
In  commerce  the  gum-resin  is  distinguished  as  Siam  or 
Sumatra  benzoin,  according  to  the  localities  from  which  it 
is  derived.  Siam  benzoin  is  generally  regarded  as  the  best, 
and  of  it  two  varieties  are  distinguished.  The  finest  qua- 
lity is  Siam  benzoin  "  in  tear,"  it  being  in  smaU  flattened 
drops,  from  the  size  of  an  almond  kernel  downwards. 
"  Lump  "  Siam  benzoin  consists  of  agglutinated  masses  of 
such  tears,  or  of  tears  imbedded  in  a  darker  coloured  resinous 
matrii.  Tear  benzoin  varies  in  colour  from  a  pale  yellow 
to  a  reddish  brown  colour,  aud  lump  benzoin  has  a  con- 
glomerate-like structure  from  the  dissemination  of  almond- 
shaped  tears  throughout  the  substance.  Sumatra  benzoin 
has  neither  so  strong  nor  so  agreeable  an  odour  as  that  of 
Siam,  but  the  finest  qualities  arc  not  found  iu  the  English 
market,  being  bought  up  for  use  in  the  religious  rites  of 
the  Greek  Church  in  Russia.  Sumatra  benzoin  occurs  in 
larger  rectangular  masses  of  a  greyish  tint,  with  few  large 
tears  in  it,  but  containing  small  white  opaque  pieces,  with 
chips  ol  wood  and  other  impurities,  in  a  translucent  matrix. 
Benzoin  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  three  rosins,  distin- 
guished by  their  behaviour  towards  solvents,  and  of  benzoic 
acid,  with  sometimes  cinnamic  acid  in  addition  ;  in  some 
specimens  of  Sumatra  benzoin  cinnaiaic  acid  has  been  found 
entirely  replacing  benzoic  acid.  Usually  benzoin  contains . 
from  12  to' 18  per  cent  of  benzoic  acid,  the  opaque  white 
portions  containing  less  than  the  brown  resinous  substance. 
It  also  contains  traces- of  a  highly  odorous  essential  oil, 
like  styrol,  the  aromatic  oil  present  in  storax.  The  quan- 
tity of  benzoin  exported  from  Sumatra  in  1871  was  about 
1G,00U  cwt,,  while  Siam  sent  out  only  405  cwt.,  but 
very  great  quantities  are  used  as  incense  in  the  religious 
ceremonies  of  the  East,  which  indeed  is  the  principal  object 
for  which  it  is  brought  into  the  commerce  of  Western 
nations.  In  medicine  benzoin  is  seldom  administered  except 
B3  an  adjunct  to  pectoral  medicines.  A  compound  tincture 
of  benzoiu  is  applied  to  flabby  ulcers,  and  to  excised  wounds 
after  the  edges  have  been  brought  together.  In  these  con- 
nections benzoin  has  a  popular  reputation  under  the  name 
of  Friars'  or  Monks'  Balsam,  which  is  a  compound  tincture 
of  benzoin,  and  it  forms  an  ingredient  in  court  or  black 
sticking-plaster  Benzoin  diminishes  the  tendency  towards 
rancidity  in  fats,  a  circumstance  turned  to  8CC0Uat  in  the 
Adepx  bcnmalus  of  pharmacy. 

BERANGER,  Pierhe  Jean  de,  the  national  song-writer 
of  France,  was  born  at  Pans  on  the  19th  August  1780. 
The  aristocratic  particle  before  the  name  was  a  piece  of 
groundless  vanity  on  the  part  of  his  father,  which  the  poet 
found  useful  as  u  diitiuction.  He  was  descended,  in 
truth,  from  a  country  innkeeper  on  the  one  side,  and,  on 
the  other,  from  a  tailor  in  the  Rue  Montorgueil.  Of  edu- 
cation, in  the  narrower  sense,  he  had  but  little.  From  the 
roof  of  his  first  school  he  beheld  the  capture  of  the  n,xs- 
tille,  und  this  stirring  memory  was  all  that  he  acquired. 


Later  on  he  passed  some  time  in  a  school  at  P^rcnne, 
founded  by  one  Bellenglise  on  the  principles  of  Rousseau, 
where  the  boys  were  formed  mto  clubs  and  regiments,  and 
taught  to  play  solemnly  at  politics  and  war.  Bdranger 
was  president  of  the  clubj  made  speeches  .  before  such 
members  of  Convention  as  passed  through  Peronne,  and 
drew  up  addresses  to  Tallien  or  Robespierre  at  Paris.  In 
the  meanwhile  he  learned  neither  Greek  nor  Latin — not 
even  French,  it  would  appear ;  for  it  was  after  he  left 
school,  from  the  printer  Laisney,  that  he  acquired  the  ele- 
ments of  grammar.  His  true  education  was  of  another 
sort.  In  his  childhood,  shy,  sickly,  and  skilful  with  his 
hands,  as  he  sat  at  home  alone  to  carve  cherry  stones,  he 
was  already  forming  for  himself  those  habits  of  retirement 
and  patient  elaboration  which  influenced  the  whole  tenor 
of  his  life  and  the  character  of  all  that  he  wrote.  At 
Peronne  he  learned  of  his  good  aunt  to  be  a  stout  republi- 
can ;  and  from  the  doorstep  of  her  inn,  on  quiet  evenings, 
he  would  listen  to  the  thunder  of  the  guns  before  Valen- 
ciennes, and  fortify  himself  in  his  passionate  love  of  Franco 
aud  distaste  for  all  things  foreign.  Although  he  could 
never  road  Horace  save  in  a  translation,  he  had  been  edu- 
cated on  Tclemaque,  Racine,  and  the. dramas  of  Voltaire, 
and  taught,  from  a  child,  in  the  tradition  of  all  that  ia 
highest  and  most  correct  in  French. 

After  serving  his  aunt  for  some  time  in  the  capacity  of 
■waiter,  and  passing  some^tirae  also  in  the  printing  office  of 
one  Laisney,  he  was  taken  to  Paris  by  his  father.  Here 
he  saw  much  low  speculation  and  many  low  royalist 
intrigues.  In  1802,  in  consequence  of  a  distressing  quari 
rel,  ha  left  his  father  and  began  life  for  himself  in  th« 
garret  of  his  ever  memorable  song.  For  two  years  he  di<l 
hterary  hackwork,  when  he  could  get  it,  and'  wrote  pa^ 
torals,  epics,  and  all  manner  of  ambitious  failures.  At  the 
end  of  that  period-  (1804)  he  wrote  to  Lucien  Bonaparte, 
enclosing  some  of  these  attempts.  He  was  then  in  bad 
health,  and  in  the  last  stage  of  misery.  His  watch  was 
pledged.  His  wardrobe  consisted  of  one  pair  of  boots,  one 
greatcoat,  one  p.iir  of  trousers  with  a  hole  in  the  knee,  and 
"three  bad  shirts  which  a  friendly  hand  wearied  itself  in 
endeavouring  to  mend."  The  friendly  hand  w.is  that  of 
Judith  Frere,  with  whom  he  had  been  already  more  or  less 
acquainted  since  1796,  and  who  continued  to  be  his  faithful 
companion  until  her  death,  three  months  before  his  own, 
in  1857.  She  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Lisette  of 
the  songs  ;  the  pieces  addressed  to  her  (La  Bonne  VieilU, 
Maudil  Printanps,  <fec.)  are  in  a  very  different  vein. 
Lucien  Bonaparte  interested  himself  in  the  young  poet, 
transferred  to  him  his  own  pension  of  1000  francs  from 
the  Institute,  and  set  him  to  work  on  a  Death  of  Nero. 
Five  years  later,  through  the  same  patronage,  although 
indirectly,  Beranger  became  a  clerk  in  the  university  at  a 
salary  of  another  thousand. 

Meanwhile  he  had  WTittcn  many  songs  for  convivial 
occasions,  and  "  to  console  himself  under  all  misfortunes  ;" 
some,  according  to  M.  Boitcau,  had  been  already  publislicj 
by  his  father ;  but  he  set  no  great  store  on  them  himself  ; 
and  it  was  only  in  1812,  while  watching  by  the  sick-bcJ 
of  a  friend,  that  it  occurred  to  him  to  write  down  the  best 
he  could  remember.  Ne.\t  year  he  was  elected  to  the 
Caveau  Modcrne,  and  his  reputation  as  a  song-wTitcr  began 
to  spread.  Manuscript  copies  of  Let  Gucux,  Le  Sciiahiir, 
above  all  of  i<  lioi  d'  Yvetot,  a  satire  against  Napoleon,  whom 
lie  was  to  magnify  so  much  in  tlic  sequel,  passed  from 
hand  to  hand  with  acclamation.  It  w.as  thus  that  all  his 
best  works  went  abro.ad  ;  one  man  sang  thorn  to  another 
over  all  tho  land  of  France.  lie  w.as  the  only  poet  of 
modern  times  who  coald  altogether  hevc  dispensed  with 
printing. 

His  first  collcctioD  escaped  censure.     "  We  must  pardon 


58'2 


B  E  R  —  B  E  R 


hiany  thincs  to  the  author  of  the  /toi  d'Yrelot,"  said  Louis 
XV'llI.  The  second  {1821)  was  more  daring.  The  apalliy 
of  the  Liberal  camp,  he  says,  had  conviuced  him  of  the 
need  for  some  bugle  call  of  awakening.  This  publication 
lost  him  his  situation  in  the  university,  and  subjected  him 
to  a  trial,  a  fine  of  500  francs,  and  an  imprisonment  of 
three  months  Imprisonment  was  a  small  affair  for  Ber- 
anger.  AtSainte  Ptlagie  he  occupied  a  room  (it  had  just 
been  quitted  by  Paul  Louis  Courier),  warm,  well-furnished, 
and  preferable  in  every  way  to  his  own  poor  lodging, 
where  the  water  froze  on  winter  nights.  He  adds,  on  the-, 
occasion  of  his  second  imprisonment,  that  he  found  a  cer- 
tiiri  cliarm  in  this  quiet,  claustral  existence,  with  its  regu- 
lar hours  and  long  evenings  alone  over  the  fire.  This 
second  impnsonmeDt  of  nine  months,  together  with  a  fine 
and  e.tpenses  amounting  to  1100  francs,  followed  on  the 
appearance  of  his  fourth  collection.  The  Governpient  pro- 
posed through  Laffitte  that,  if  he  would  submit  to  judg- 
ment without  appearing  or  making  defences,  he  should 
only  be  condemned  in  the  smallest  penalty.  But  his  pub- 
lic spirit  made  him  refuse  the  proposal ;  and  he  would  not 
even  ask  permission  to  pass  his  term  of  imprisonment  in  a 
Afaison  de  Sante,  although  his  health  was  more  than 
usually  feeble  at  the  time.  "  When  you  have  taken  your 
stand  in  a  contest  with  Government,  it  seems  to  me,"  he 
wrote,  "  ridiculous  to  complain  of  the  blows  it  inflicts  on 
you,  and  impolitic  to  furnish  it  with  any  occasion  of  gene- 
rosity." His  first  thought  in  La  Force  was  to  alleviate  the 
condition  of  the  other  prisoners. 

In  the  revolution  of  iily  he  took  no  inconsiderable 
part.  Copies  of  his  song,  Le  Vieux  Drapeaii,  were  served 
out  to  the  insurgent  crowd.  He  had  been  for  long  the 
intimate  friend  and  adviser  of  the  leading  men  ;  and  dur- 
ing the  decisive  week  his  counsels  went  a  good  way 
towards  shaping  the  ultimate  result.  "  As  for  the  repub- 
lic, that  dream  of  my  whole  life,"  he  wrote  in  1831,  "I 
did  not  wish  it  should  be  given  to  us  a  second  time 
unripe."  Louis  I'hilippe,  hearing  how  much  the  song- 
writer had  done  towards  his  elevation,  expressed  a  wish  to 
see  and  speak  with  him  ;  but  Beranger  refused  to  present 
himself  at  court,  and  used  his  favour  only  to  ask  a  place 
for  a  friend,  and  a  pension  for  Rouget  de  I'lslc,  author  of 
the  famous  Marseillaise,  who  was  now  old  and  poor,  and 
whom  he  had  been  already  succouring  for  five  years. 

In  1848,  in  spite  of  every  possible  expression  of  Lis 
reluctance,  he  was  elected  to  the  assembly,  and  that  by  so 
large  a  number  of  votes  (4471)  that  he  felt  himself  obliged 
to  accept  the  office.  Not  long  afterwards,  ^nd  with  great 
difficulty,  he  obtained  leave  to  resign.  This  was  the  last 
public  event  of  Berangcr's  life.  He  continued  to  polish 
his  songs  in  retirement,  visited  by  nearly  all  the  famous 
men  of  France.  Ho  numbered  among  his  friends  Chateau- 
briand, Thiers,  LafHtte,  Michelet,  Lamennais,  Mignet. 
Nothing  could  exceed  the  amiability  of  his  private  charac- 
ter ;  60  poor  a  man  has  rarely  been  so  rich  in  good  actions; 
lie  was  always  ready  to  receive  help  from  his  friends  v.lien 
he  was  in  need,  and  always  forward  to  help  others.  His 
correspondence  is  full  of  wi.sdom  and  kindness,  with  a 
Bniack  of  Montaigne,  and  now  and  then  a  vein  of  pleasantry 
that  will  remind  the  English  reader  of  Charles  Lamb.  Ik- 
occupied  some  of  his  leisure  in  preparing  his  own  memoirs, 
and  a  certain  treatise  on  Sdeial  and  Pulitical  iluralily, 
intended  for  the  people,  a  work  he  had  much  at  heart, 
but  judged  at  last  to  bo  beyond  his  strength.  He  died  on 
the  16th  July  1857.  Itwa.i  feared  that  his  funeral  would 
be  the  signal  for  some  political  disturbance;  but  the 
Government  took  immediate  measures,  and  all  wont  quietly. 
The  streets  of  Paris  were  lined  with  soldiers  and  full  of 
townsfolk,  silent  and  uncovered.  From  time  to  time  cries 
arose  : — "  Honneur,  ilonneur  d,  Dirangcrl" 


The  son^s  of  Beranger  would  scarcely  be  called  songs  in  England. 
Tlicy  are  elatorate,  wiiltcn  iii  a  clear  and  sr^iikling  style,  full  of 
wit  and  incision.  It  is  not  so  much  for  any  lyrical  flow  i»s  for  the 
happy  turn  of  the  phrase  that  thi>y  claim  superiority.  Whether 
the  subject  be  gay  or  serious,  light  or  passionate,  the  medium 
remains  untroubled.  The  special  merits  of  the  songs  are  moiits  to 
be  looked  for  rather  in  English  prose  than  in  English  verse.  He 
worked  deliberately,  never  wrote  more  than  fifteen  songs  a  year  and 
often  less,  and  was  so  fastidious  that  he  has  not  preserved  a  quarter 
of  what  he  finished.  "  I  am  a  raod  little  bit  of  a  poet,"  he  says 
himself,  "clever  in  the  craft,  and  a  conscientious  worker,  to  whom 
old  airs  and  amodest  choice  of  subjects  (/t- com  ou  jc  me  suis  cofjini), 
have  brought  some  success."  Nevertheless,  he  makes  a  figure  of 
importance  in  literary  history.  When  he  first  began  to  cultivate 
the  chajuon,  this  minor  form  lay  under  some  contempt,  and  was 
restricted  to  slight  subjects  and  a  humorous  guise  of  treatment. 
Gradually  he  filled  these  little  chiseled  toys  of  verbal  periection 
with  ever  more  and  more  of  sentiment.  From  a  date  comparatively 
early  he  had  determined  to  sing  for  the  people.  It  was  for  this 
reason  that  he  fled,  as  far  as  possible,  the  houses  of  his  iulluential 
friends,  and  came  back  gladly  to  the  garret  and  the  street  corner. 
Thus  it  was,  also,  that  he  came  to  acknowledge  obligations  to  i^niile 
Debrau.x,  who  had  often  stood  between  him  and  the  masses  as 
interpreter,  and  given  him  the  key-note  of  the  popular  humour. 
Now,  he  had  observed  in  the  songs  of  sailors,  and  all  who  labour, 
a  prevailing  tone  of  sadness  ;  and  so,  as  he  grew  more  masterful  in 
this  sort  of  expression,  he  sought  more  and  more  after  what  is 
deep,  serious,  and  constant  in  the  thoughts  of  common  men.  The 
evolution  was  slow  ;  and  we  can  see  in  his  own  works  examples  of 
every  stage,  from  that  of  witty  indilTerence  in  fifty  pieces  of  the 
first  collection,  to  that  of  grave  and  even  tragic  feeling  in  Z^-s  Sou- 
venirs du  Pcupk  OT  Le  Vicux  Vagabond.  And  this  innovation  in- 
volved another,  which  was  as  a  sort  of  prelude  to  the  great  romantic 
movement.  For  the  chanson,  as  he  says  himself,  opened  up  to  hira 
a  path  in  which  his  genius  could  develop  itself  at  ease  ;  he  escaped, 
by  this  literary  postern,  from  strict  academical  requirements,  and 
had  at  his  disposal  the  wliole  dictionary,  four-fiflhs  of  which, 
according  to  La  Harpe,  were  forbidden  to  the  use  of  more  regular 
and  pretentious  poetry.  If  he  still  kept  some  of  the  old  vocabulary, 
some  of  the  old  imagery,  he  was  yet  accustoming  people  to  hear 
moving  subjects  treated  in  a  manner  more  free  and  simple  than  here- 
tofore ;  so  that  his  was  a  sort  of  conservative  reform,  j^receding  the 
violent  rerolution  of  Victor  Hugo  and  his  aimy  of  uncompromising 
romantics.  He  seems  himself  to  have  had  glinimering.->  of  some 
such  idea  ;  but  he  \rithheld  his  full  approval  Irora  the  new  move- 
ment on  two  grounds  : — first,  because  the  romantic  school  misused 
somewhat  brutally  the  delicate  organism  of  the  French  language  ; 
and  second,  as  he  wrote  to  Sainte-iicuve  in  li;3"2,  bee.-iuse  thty 
adr.pttd  the  motto  of  "Ait  for  art, "  and  set  no  object  of  public 
usefulness  before  them  as  they  wrote.  For  himself  (and  this  is  the 
third  point  of  importance)  he  had  a  strong  sense  of  political  respoL- 
sibility.  Public  interest  took  a  far  higher  pl.ace  in  his  estimation 
than  any  private  passion  or  favour.  He  had  little  toleration  for 
those  erotic  poets  who  sing  tlieir  own  loves  and  not  tire  conjinon 
sorrows  of  mankind,  "  who  forget,"  to  quote  his  own  words,  "  for- 
get beside  their  mistress  those  who  labour  before  the  Lord." 
Hence  it  is  that  so  many  of  his  pieces  are  political,  and  so  many,  iQ 
the  later  times  at  least,  insi)ired  wi(h  a  socialistic  spirit  of  indigna- 
tion and  revolt.  It  is  by  this  s.icialism  that  he  becomes  truly 
modern,  and  touches  hands  with  Burns. 

The  following  books  may  t)e  consulted  ; — Ma  Bw'jrapfiu  (his  own 
memoirs)  ;  Vie  de  Btrane/er,  by  Paul  Boiteau,  ISGl  ;  Corie^-'y>i<t- 
ance  de  Beranger,  edited  by  Paul  Boiteau,  4  vols.  ISGO  ;  Berunyer 
el  Lavteiinnis  {hy  Napoleon  Pe}Tat),  1857  ;  Qnnrtinte-Cinq  lettns  di 
B^a^grr  ]>uhhies  par  Madame  Louise  Colet  (almo.^i  worthless^  1857; 
Biiini[i(r,sesttmis,  sesnmtvtis,  ct  s<scriti<juci,  by  A.  A  mould,  2  vols., 
1S6-1  ;  J.  Janin,  Beramjer  et  snn  Tewps,  2  vols.,  ISGtJ;  also  Saiiile* 
Bcuve's  I'ortraiis  Contemporains,  \ol.  i.  (R.  L.  S.J 

BERAF,  a  province  of  British  Indi.i,  forming  a  Com- 
missioncrsaip,  is  situated  between  ly  30'  and  '2.1°  46'  N. 
lat.,  and  70°  and  7'J°  13'  E.  long.  Area,  about  17,500 
square  miles  ;  population,  'JJ  millions.  The  province 
consists  of  the  districts  assigned  to  the  British  Covern- 
nient  by  his  Highness  the  NizAra  of  HaidarAb.-id, 
under  the  treaties  of  1853  and  18(>1.  Tlio.^e  districts 
are  AmrAotf,  'Elichpur,  Wtln,  AkoU,  BuIdiiiiA,  and 
BAsiin.  Berar  province  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  E. 
by  the  Ccntrid  Provinces,  on  the  8.  by  the  Nizim's 
dominions,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  NizAiu's  territory,  the 
Bombay  district  of  Khandesh.  and  by  llicCcnlnil  Provinces. 
The  AjantA  range  intersects  the  whole  proN'ince  from  W. 
to  Iv,  and  divides  it  into  two  distinct  sections — the 
Pay.HuhAt    or    lowland    country,  bounded   on   the  N.   by 


i3  E  R  A  R 


583 


the  Giwilgarh  range  of  the  Sitpuri  hills,  which  form,  the 
Donhem  boundary  between  Bcrar  and  the  Central  Tro- 
vinces,  and  on  the  &  by  the  AjantA  range,  and  the 
DdUghit  or  uplaod  country  of  the  Ajaola  hills,  occupying 
the  whole  sonthern  part  of  the  province.  Tlie  Payanghit 
is  a  wide  valley  running  up  eastward  between  the  Ajanl4 
range  and  the  Oin-ilgarh  hills,  from  40  *o  30  miles  in 
breadth.  This  tract  contains  all  the  best  bind  in  Berar,  it 
is  full  of  deep,  rich,  black  alluvial  soil,  called  regdr,  of 
almost  inetiiaustible  fertility,  and  it  undulates  just  enough 
to  maintain  a  natural  system  of  drainage.  Here  .^nd  there 
are  barren  tracts  where  the  hills  jut  out  far  into  the  plain, 
covered  with  stones  and  scrub  jungle,  or  where  a  few 
isolated  flat  -  topped  hills  occur.  There  is  nothing 
picturesque  about  this  broad  strip  of  alluvial  country,  it  is 
destitute  of  trees  except  near  the  villages  close  under  tha 
hills;  and  apart  from  the  PiirnA,  which  intersects  if  from 
east  to  west,  it  has  hardly  a  perennial  stream.  In  the  early 
autumn  i'.  13  one  sheet  of  cultivation,  but  after  the  beginning 
of  the  hot  season,  when  the  crops  have  been  gathered,  its 
monotonous  pLiia  is  relieved  by  neither  verdure,  shade,  nor 
water.  The  aspect  of  the  country  above  the  passes  which 
lead  to  the  BilAghAt  is  quite  ditferent.  The  trees  are 
finer  and  the  groves  more  frequent  than  in  the  valley 
below  ;  water  is  more  plentiful  and  nearer  to  th©  surface. 
The  highl.mds  fall  southwards  towards  the  NiiAm's  country 
by  a  gradual  series  of  ridges  or  steppes.  The  principal 
rivers  of  the  province  are  the  Taptf,  which  forms  a  portion 
of  its  north-western  boundary  ;  the  Furni,  which  intersects 
the  valley  of  the  Payanghit  ;  the  WardhA,  forming  the 
whole  western  boundary  line  ;  and  the  PAingangi,  marking 
the  southern  boundary  for  nearly  its  whole  dbtauce.  The 
only  natural  lake  is  the  Salt  Lake  of  Sunir.  There  are  no 
large  tauka  or  artificial  reservoirs. 

The  total  area  of  the  province  in  1869-70  was  returned  at  between 
17,000  and  18,000  squaro  uiilea,  of  wLioli  about  one-half  is  culti- 
vat^'d,  one-fourth  cultivable  but  not  cultivated,  and  the  remaiaiBg 
ono-fourth  uncultivable  waste.  The  great  crops  are  cotton  of  a 
eupcrior  quality,  andjodror  millet  The  acre.ige  under  the  ditfer- 
ent crops  in  18t39-70  is  thus  returned — Jodr^  1,812,093  acres  ; 
cotton,  1,409,430;  wheat,  473,438;  pulses,  493,009;  bajrd, 
n7,'.i73  ;  rice,  44,793;  liusecd,  61,394;  hemp,  8978;  kardi, 
67.192;  tobacco,  32,284;  castor  oil,  2fJ05  ;  sugar  cane,  7947; 
oi)i'iin,  247  ;  other  croj.s,  SM,992;  total,  5,356,275  acres,  oc  8369 
B«iuare  milci^.  The  uncultivated  products  consist  of  dyes  gunis, 
fruiU  and  roots  of  vaiious  trees  and  creepers,  honey  and  beeswax, 
and  jungle  hbres.  The  land  settlement  of  the  province  is  now  being 
made  for  a  period  of  thirty  years,  based  upon  the  Bombay  system 
of  survey  and  settlement  according  to  tields.  Manufactures  are 
very  few,  and  consist  principally  of  cotton  clotli,  mostly  of  coarse 
quality,  stout  carpets,  saddlery,  and  a  little  silk  weaving.  In 
1809-70  the  total  value  of  the  unports  was  returned  at  £7,350,085, 
and  the  experts  at  £5,755,399.  For  internal  communication  six 
first-class  roads  have  been  constructed  out  of  the  general  revenues 
of  the  province  : — (1),  From  Amnioti  to  Klichpur,  31  miles  ;  (2), 
from  badnori  to  Morsi,  384  ;  (3),  from  Kariuji  to  Murtiz-ipur,  21  ; 
(4),  from  B.idneri  to  Amrdoti,  5  ;  (5),  from  AkolA  to  Basim,  50  ; 
(61,  from  AkoU  to  Akot,  31  milea.  The  Njgpar  br-mch  of  the 
Great  Indian  Peninsular  Hallway  traverses  the  province  from  east 
to  west  for  about  150  miles,  with  short  olT-shoots  to  the  great  cotton 
marts  of  Ehamg-aon  and  Amraoti. 

The  census  of  1867  returned  the  total  population  of  Berar  pro- 
vince at  2,231,565  souls,  dwclLiug  in  495,760  houses,  comprising 
6694  towns  and  villages  ;  average  density  of  population,  123  per 
inuare  mile  ;  average  number  of  persons  per  house,  45  ;  proportion 
01  males  in  total  population,  51  7  per  cent.  Classified  according  to 
religion,  the  Hindus  number  1,912,501,  or  8570  per  cent  of  the 
total  population  ;  Mahometans,  154,951,  or  6  94  per  cent  ; 
iborigincs,  163,059,  or  7  36  per  cent.  ;  Christians,  903  ;  Tarsi's,  75  ; 
and  Jews,  16.  The  Mahometan  i>opulatjon  of  the  province  is 
descended  from  the  men  who  originally  accompanied  from  the  north 
the  Musalm.in  invaders  of  the  Deccan.  Among  the  aboriginal 
tribes,  the  most  numerous  are  the  Gonds.  Ands,  Korkus,  Kolis,  and 
Kolams.  The  nrinciral  towns  in  the  province  are— (1)  Elichpur, 
the  capital  of  the  old  kingdom,  and  still  Ihe  most  populous  town', 
although  not  a  place  of  any  commercial  importance,  popula- 
tion 27,782  ;  (2.)  Amrioti,  the  richest  town  in  the  province,  and 
e  ruing  and  flourishing  scat  of  commerce,  pop  23,410  ;  (3.)  Akoli, 


riop.  12,235;  (4.)  Akot,  a  large  cotton  mart,  pop.  14,606;  (5) 
kuhuja,  i>op.  11,750  ;  \,G  )  tLhamgaoo,  a  lai^  uiid  prosperous  cotton 
mart,  pop.  9432. 

Tho  total  imperial  revenue  of  Berxr  province  in  1869-70 
amounted  to  £704,109,  of  which  the  Und  revenue  gave  £457.343  ; 
cicis*,  £114,513;  salt  wells,  £650;  mi»ceJlaneou^  £39,413; 
sUmns,  £45,947  ;  forests,  £18,462  ;  and  customs  (salt),  £27,780. 
Local  funds  and  cessts  amounted  to  £132,229,  or  a  total  revenue 
from  imperial  and  local  sources  for  the  province  of  £836,338. 
For  the  protection  of  person  and  property  Berar  province  con 
tains  67  police  stations,  with  61  outposts— totdl  strength  of 
regular  police,  2613  of  all  ranks,  exclusive  of  the  \'illage  watch. 
The  olily  troope  located  in  the  province  are  tbos£  of  the  HaidartilKid 
contingent  At  Elichpur  a  regiment  of  mf-nlry  with  a  detach- 
ment of  cavalry  and  a  battery  of  artillery  Is  sUition'ed  ;  infantry 
detachments  are  also  stationed  at  Amraoti  and  Akol:^  The  provi- 
sion for  education  consisted  in  March  1870  of  341  schools,  attended 
by  14,898  pupils.  Of  ihese  2  are  high  schools,  one  at  Akold  and 
oneat  AmrrioO,  with  217  pupils;  44  middle-class  schools  with  3747 
pupils;  267  primary  schools  with  10,148  pupils  ;  27  female  schools 
with  730  pupils  ;  and  I  Normal  school  for  the  training  of  masters. 

The  climate  of  Berar  differs  very  little  from  that  of  the  Deccao 
generally,  except  that  in  the  Payanghit  valley  the  hot  weather  is 
exceptionally  severe.  Here  tho  freshness  of  the  cold  season 
vanishes  after  the  crops  have  been  taken  off  the  ground,  but  the 
heat  does  not  very  sensibly  increase  until  the  end  of  March.  From 
May  1st,  until  about  the  middle  of  June  when  the  rains  set  in,  tha 
sun  is  very  powerful,  but  without  the  scorching  winds  of  upper 
fndia.  The  nights  are  comparatively  cool.  During  the  rains  the 
air  is  moist  ana  coul.  In  the  Balaghat  country  above  the  AjanliL 
hills  the  thermometer  always  stands  much  lower  than  in  the  valley. 
The  average  rainfall  for  the  whole  province  is  said  to  be  about  27 
inches  in  the  valley,  and  above  30  inches  in  the  BaliighAt  highlands, 
la  1869  the  raiufall  registered  in  each  of  the  six  districts  aver- 
aged 33  inches  for  tlie  whole  province.  The  average  mean  tem- 
perature registered  ut  Akola  in  the  same  year  was  nearly  81'  Fahr. 
The  early  history  cf  Berar  belongs  to  thai!  of  the 
Deccan.  The  province  suffered  repeated  invasions  of 
Mahometans  from  the  north,  and  on  the  collapse  of  the 
Bdhmani  dynasty  in  ij2C,  Berar  formed  one  of  the  five 
kingdoms  under  independent  Mahometan  princes,  into 
which  the  Deccan  split  up.  In  the  beginning  of  th* 
seventeenth  century  the  province  was  invaded  by  .Princs 
Murad  Mirza,  son  of  the  Emperor  Akbar,  and  annexed  to 
tho  Dchli  empire.  It  did  not  long  enjoy  the  blessings  ol 
tranquillity,  for  on  the  rise  of  .the  MarhattA  power  about 
IG50,  the  province  became  a  favounte  field  of  plunder. 
In  1671  the  MarhattA  general,  Prafcip  Rdo,  extended 
his  ravages  as  far  east  as  KarinjA,  and  exacted  from  the 
village  officers  a  pledge  to  pay  cliautk.  In  170-1  things 
had  reached  their  worst ;  the  MarhattAs  swarmed  through 
Berar  "like  ants  or  locusts,"  and  laid  bare  whole  districts. 
They  were  expelled  in  1704  byZuliikir  Khan,  one  of  Aurang- 
zeb's  best  generals,  but  they  returned  incessantly,  levying 
black-mail  in  the  shape  of  chauth  and  sardcshmvkJii,  with 
the  alternative  of  fire  and  sword.  Upon  tlie  death  of  Aurang- 
zeb  the  MarhattAs  consolidated  their  predominance  in 
Berar,  and  in  1817  their  demand  for  chaxdh,  or  a  fourth, 
and  sardeahmnkM,  or  a  tenth  of  the  revenue  of  the  province, 
was  conceded  by  the  governor.  But  in  1720-24  the 
viceroy  of  the  Deccan,  under  the  title  of  Nizim-ul-mulk, 
gained  his  independence  by  a  series  of  victories  over  the 
imperial  generals,  and  from  that  time  till  its  cession  to 
England  in  1853,  Berar  was  always  nominally  subject  ta 
the  HaidaribAd  dynasty.  The  MahrattA  riders  posted  thcii 
oflicers  all  over  the  province,  they  occupied  it  with  tbeii 
troops,  they  collected  more  than  half  the  revenue,  and  they 
fought  among  themselves  for  possession  of  the  right  to 
collect  ,  but,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  jmrgands  ceded 
to  the  PeshwA,  the  NizAm  maintained  his  title  as  dt  juri 
sovereign  of  the  country,  and  it  was  always  admitted 
by  the  MarhattAs.  In  the  MarhattA  war  of  1803,  the 
British  under  General  VVellesley,  afterwards  the  duke  o< 
Wellington,  assisted  by  the  NizAiu,  cmshed  the  MarhattA 
power  in  this  part  of  the  country,  by  utterly  defeating 
them  at  ArgAon  on  the  28th  November  1803,  and  a  few 
days  afterwards  at  GAwilgarh.     On   tho  Iftb  Decembei 


"584 


B  E  R  —  B  E  R 


1803  the  MarhatU  chief  signed  a  treaty,  in  which  he 
resigned  all  claim  to  territory  and  revenue  west  of  the 
Wardha,  but  retained  NarnAli  and  Giwilgarh  in  his  posses- 
sion. By  this  treaty  the  whole  of  Berar  was  made  over  in 
perpetual  sovereignty  to  the  NizAm.  From  that  time  till 
IS  13  the  history  of  the  province  consists  of  a  long  list  of 
internal  dissensions  and  ci^Tl  wars.  These  troubles  reduced 
the  state  to  the  verge  of  bankruptcy.  The  pay  of  the 
Niz.w's  irregular  force,  maintained  under  the  treaty  of 
1800,  fell  into  arrears,  and  had  to  be  advanced  by  the 
British  Government.  There  were  also  other  unsatis6ed 
claims  of  the  Government  on  the  NizAm,  and  in  1853  his 
whole  debt  amounted  to  £-450,000.  Accordingly,  in  that 
year  a  new  treaty  was  concluded  with  the  NizAm,  under 
wliich  the  existing  HaidaribAd  contingent  force  is  main- 
tained by  the  British  Government,  in  lieu  of  the  troops 
V'hich  the  Nizdm  had  been  previously  bound  to  furnish  on 
demand  in  time  of  war  ;  while  for  the  payment  of  this  con- 
tingent and  other  claims  on  the  Nizim,  districts  then 
yielding  a  gross  reveniie  of  £500,000  per  annum,  incluil- 
'.ng  the  present  province  of  Befar,  were  assigned  to  our 
Government..  By  this  treaty  his  highness  was  released 
from  the  obligation  of  furni^ing  a  large  force  in  time  of 
war  ;  the  contingent  ceased  to  be  a  part  of  .the  Nizdm's 
army,  and  became  an  auxiliary  force  kept  up  by  the  British 
Government  for  the  Nizim's  use.  The  treaty  was  revised 
in  1560,  and  as  a  reward  for  services  rendered  by  the 
Kizim  in  1857,  two  of  the  districts  formerly  assigned  to 
U3  were  restored  to  him,  and  the  territory  of  the  lii^ji  of 
Sur4pur,  which  had  been  confiscated  in  consequence  of 
the  rebellion  of  the  chief,  was  added  to  the  Nizim's 
dominions. 

B^RARD,  Fr^d^rio,  a  French  physician  and  writer  on 
psychology,  was  born  at  Montpellier  in  1789.  He  was 
educated  at  the  famous  medical  school  of  that  town,  and 
afterwards  proceeded  to  Paris,  where  he  was  for  some  time 
employed  in  connection  with  the  Dktionnaire  des  Sciences 
Medicales.  He  returned  to  his  native  city  in  1 8 1  G,  and 
published  a  work  upon  the  principles  of  the  school  of 
Montpellier.  In  182ihewas  called.to  a  chair  of  medicine 
at  Paris,  which  he  held  for  three  years,  being  then  nomi- 
nated professor  of  hygiene  at  Montpellier.  His  health 
gave  way  under  his  labours,  and  he  died,  in  1828,  at  the 
early  age  of  39.  A  posthumous  work.  Esprit  des  Dixtrines 
Medicates  de  Montpellier,  was  printed  in  1830.  Bi5rard's 
fiiost  important  production  is  his  treatise,  Des  liapports  du 
Physique  et  du  Moral.  According  to'him,  consciousness  or 
Internal  perception  reveals  to  us  the  existence  of  an  im- 
material thinking,  feeling,  and  willing  subject,  the  self  or 
Eoul.  Alongside  of  this  there  is  the  vital  force,  the 
h'.itritive  power,  which  uses  the  physical  frame  as  its 
Org\n.  The  soul  and  the  principle  of  life  are  in  constant 
reciirocal  action,  and  the  first  owes  to  the  second^  not  the 
formi.tion  of  its  faculties,  but  the  conditions  under  which 
Ihey  ate  evolvwl.  (See  Dam  iron,  Phil,  en  France  au 
XIX''  Siicle.) 

BEI'.BER,  or  EL-MEcnEREF,  a  town  of  considerable  size 
6n  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile,  some  distance  below  the 
confluci'.co  of  the  Atbara,  in  about  18°  N.  hit.  and  34°  E. 
long,  it  is  of  importance  as  one  of  the  main  stations  on 
Ihe  direct  route  from  Khartoum  to  Cairo,  and  as  the 
darting  place  of  caravans  for  Suakin,  on  the  eastern 
toast. 

BERBERA,  one  of  the  most  important  seaports  on  the 
toast  of  the  Somali  country,  in  E;Uit  Africa,  ICO  miles 
10.S.E'<  of  Zeyla,  and  nearly  opposite  Aden,  in  10°  2G'  N. 
hit  and  about  45°  4'  E.  long.  It  seems  at  one  time  to 
Lavo  been  a  town  of  some  size,  as  there  are  still  remains  of 
ao  .aqueduct  extending  inland,  for  several  miles  ;  but  its 
permanent  inhabitants  have  for  a  long  [Mjriod  been  vtrv 


few.  From  November  to  April,  however,  it  becomes  the 
general  resort  of  from  ten  to  twenty  thousand  persons  from 
all  the  ueighbouiing  countries.  The  Habr  aucl-Soinali,  iu 
whose  distiict  the  town  'is  'situated,  come  down  to  the 
place  iu  the  beginning  of  October,  with  poles  and  mats  and 
skins,  and  of  these  slight  materials  erect  huts  and  ware- 
houses, which  are  rented  from  them  by  the  merchants,  who 
begin  to  arrive  as  soon  as  the  south-west  monsoon  changes 
into  the  north-east  wind.  The  chief  disadvantage  of  the 
locality  is  that  water  has  to  be  brought  a  distance  of 
several  miles  from  the  wells  of  Baraka.  (See  J.  R.  G.  Soc, 
18-19,  p.  5i,  et  seq.;  Petermann's  J/i((/(a7.  1800,  p.  427, 
and  187,1,  p.  40;  BoUet.  d.  Soc.  Geogr.  Ital,  1873.) 

BERDICE,  the  eastern  division  of  British  Guiana,  ^(.e 
GriANA. 

BERCUEM,  or  Berchem.Nichol.^s,  an  eminent  painter, 
boru  at  Haarlem  in  1024.  He  received  instruction  from 
his  father,  and  from  tlie  painters  Van  Goyen,  Wils,  and 
Wceniny.  His  pictures,  of  which  he  produced  an  immense 
number,  wove  in  great  demand,  as  were  also  his  etchings 
and  drawings.  His  landscapes  are  highly  esteemed  ;  and 
many  of  them  liavo  been  finely  engraved  by  John  Visscher, 
an  eminent  artist  in  his  own  line.  The  distinguishing 
characteristics  of  Berchem's  works  are — breadth  and  just 
distribution  of  lights,  grandeur  of  the  masses  of  shadow, 
truth  and  simplicity  of  the  figures,  just  gradation  of 
distances,  brilliancy  and  transparency  of  colouring,  correct- 
ness of  design,  aiiJ  elegance  of  composition.  lie  died  in 
16S3. 

BERCHTESGADF.N,  or  BiiuciiTOLSG.vnKN,  a  Email 
town,  beautifully  situated  on  the  south-eastern  confines  of 
Bavaria,  and  long  celebrated  for  its  extensive  mines  of 
rock-salt,  which  were  worked  as  early  as  1174.  Ficsh 
water  is  brought  into  the  mine,  and,  acting  upon  the  salt 
rock,  becomes  brine.  It  is  then  run  off  iu  pipes  to  a 
reservoir  in  the  vicinity;  whence,  by  two  hydraulic 
nriachiues,  it  is  raised  1500  feet,  and  conducted  to  'I'rauu- 
stein  and  Rosenheim,  about  forty  miles  farther  inland.. 
The  town  contains  three  old  churches,  and  some  good 
houses.  Its  inhabitants,  amounting  to  17G0,  are  principally 
•mployed  in- the  mines  and  in  the  manufacture  of  eah, 
while  others  are  engaged  in  making  those  toys  and  other 
small  articles  of  wood,  horn,  and  ivory,  for  which  the  place 
has  long  been  famous.  The  vicinity  comprehends  the  mosl 
picturesque  portion  of  Bavaria.  The  district  of  Bercbtes- 
gaden  was  formerly  an  independent  spiritual  princijiality, 
founded  in  1109,  and  secularized  in  1803.  The  abbey  is 
now  a  royal  castle,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  a  bunting- 
lodge  was  built  by  King  Max  II.  in  1852. 

BERDIANSK,  a  seaport  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Taurida,  situated  on  the  north-west  shore  of  the 
Sea  of  AzolT,  near  the  entrance  of  the  River  Berdianka  into 
the  Berdiansk  Gulf,  in  4G°45'  N.  lat.  and  30°  47'  E.  long. 
Berdiansk  was  founded  in  1827,  at  the  suggestion  of 
VorontzofT,  and  by  the  following  year  was  a  regular  settle- 
ment, which  in  1835  was  recognized  as  a  town,  and  raised 
in  1812  to  bo  capital  of  a  circle.  In  1838  its  population 
■was  3200,  which  had,  in  spito  of  the  damage  done  to  llio 
town  in  1855  by  the  English  fleet,  increased  in  18C0  to 
9702.  At  that  time  it  possessed  two  Greek  churches  and 
one  Lutheran,  and  a  Jewish  and  a  Karaite  synagogue.  Its 
secular  buildings  comjirised  a  custom-house,'  a  hospital,  a 
public  library,  and  a  theatre.  The  principal  industries  of 
the  place  are  the  making  of  lir! -ks  and  tiles,  the  boiling  of 
tallow,  and  the  manufacture  of  macaroni.  As  a  port  it  is  of 
great  importance.  The-roads  are  protected  from  every  wind, 
except  the  south,  wliiclj  occasions  a  heavy  surf ;  but  this 
disadvantage  has  been  lessened  by  the  formation  of  a  niolo 
in  1803.  Another  inconvenience  of  the  situation,  however, 
is  Ihe  rapid  filling  up  of  the  port,  which  renders  necessary 


B  E  R  — B  E  R 


585 


tha  removal  of  the  wharves  from  time  to  time  nearer  to  the 
8Ci.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  wheat,  barley,  linseed, 
rapeseed,  rye,  and  oats;  and  the  imports  include  hardwares, 
fruits,  oilj  and  petroleum,  the  last-named  being  used  for  the 
lighting  of  the  town.  Large  deposits  of  coal  exist  in  the 
basin  of  the  Azoff,  and  Berdiansk  would  afford  the  greatest 
f.cilities  for  its  exportation.  In  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood aro  valuable  salt-lagoons.  Population  in  1SG7, 
12,223. 

BERDICHEFF,  a  town  of  Russian-Poland,  in  the  gor- 
ernmentof  Kieff,  24  miles  from  Jitoiiiir,  on  the  Gnilopyat, 
and  not  far  from  the  borders  of  Volhynia,  to  which  it 
historically  belongs.  It  consists  of  about  a  dozen  main 
streets  and  a  large  number  of  cross  lanes,  by  far  the  largest 
proportion  of  the  houses  being  built  of  wood  or  brick. 
Besides  the  cathedral  of  the  Assumption,  linished  in  1S32, 
there  are  three  or  four  other  Greek  churches,  several  syna 
gogues,  and  places  of  worship  for  Roman  Catholics  and 
others,  besides  a  Carmelite  conv«nt.  The  market,  the  ex- 
change, the  theatre,  the  Jewish  almshouse,  and  the  Elizabeth 
hospital,  are  among  the  most  important  secular  buildings. 
A  large  number  of  schools  are  maintained  An  extensive 
trade  is  airried  on,  both  with  the  surrounding  country  and 
with  Germany,  in  peltry,  silk  goods,  iron  and  wooden  wares, 

alt-fish,  grain,  cattle,  and  horses.  Five  great  markets  are 
'leld  yearly,  the  most  important  being  on  12th  June  and 

loth  August  ,  Among  numerous  minor  industries  may  be 
mentioned  the  manufacture  of  tobacco,  soap,  candles,  oil, 
bricks,  anU  leather.  The  population  amounted  in  1867 
to  52,563,  the  Jews  forming  about  50,000  of  the  whole 
number. 

I  RcrdichefT  is  a  jilaco  of  some  antiquity.  In  the  treaty  of  demar- 
cation between  t!io  Lithuanians  and  the  Poles  in  1546,  it  is  as.-iigned 
to  the  former.  In  tho  16th  century  the  Kievan  waiwode,  Yonut 
Tecshkevitch,  built  a  castle  in  the  village  ;  and  in  1627  h«  founded  a 
monastery  Iter  Cannelite  monks,  to  which  h  shortly  afterwards 
tiresonted  tho  castle.  The  monks  built  thcras'lves  a  crypt,  and,  as 
Berdicheir  was  subject  to  the  incursions  of  Cossacks  and  Tatars, 
surrounded  their  monastery  with  rampart  and  ditch.  In  1647, 
however,  it  was  taken  and  plundered  by  Chmelnetzki,  and  the 
monks  who  had  escaped  did  not  return  till  1663,  and  only  obtained 
possession  of  their  former  property  in  1717.  In  1765  Stanislas 
Augustus,  at  tho  request  of  Prince  Kadzevil,  allowed  the  city  to  hold 
ten  yearly  markets,  and  from  that  date  its  commercial  prosperity 
began.  In  1768  Casimir  Pulavski,  leader  of  the  confederacy  of 
Barr,  (led,  after  the  capture  of  that  city,  to  BerdichelT,  and  there, 
with  700  men,  maintained  himself  during  a  siege  of  25  days. 
During  the  Polish  domination,  Bcrdichcff  was  in  the  Vratislau 
waiwodeship;  after  its  annejation  to  Russia  it  was  assigned  to 
Jitomir  and  Volhj-nia;  and  in  18<5  it  was  raised  to  be  capital  of  a 
circU.  In  the  beginning  of  the  ISth  century  it  had  passed  from 
the  Teeshkevitch  to  the  Zavpsh  family,  and  from  them  was 
transferred  by  a  marriage  settlement  to  the  Radzevils. 

F.EREXGARIUS,  a  celebrated  media;val  theologian, 
was  horn  at  Tours,  998  a.d.  Ho  was  educated  in  the 
famous  school  of  Fulbert  of  Chartrcs,  and  early  acquired  a 
great  reputation  for  learning,  ability,  and  piety.  Appointed 
IB  1031  superintendent  of  the  cathedral  school  of  his 
native  city,  he  taught  with  such  success  as  to  attract  pupils 
from  all  parts  of  France,  and  powerfully  contributed  to 
I  diffuse  an  interest  in  the  study  of  logic  and  metaphysics, 
and  to  introduce  that  dialectic  development  of  theology 
which  is  designated  tho  scholastic.  The  earliest  of  his 
writings  of  which  wo  have  any  record  is  an  Exhortalory 
fiiscmiTse  to  the  hermits  of  his  district,  written  at  their 
own  request  and  for  their  spiritual  edification.  It  shows  a 
clear  discernment  of  the  dangers  of  tho  ascetic  life,  and  a 
deep  insight  into  the  significance  of  the  Aug\istinian 
doctrine  of  grace.  About  lO-lO  Berengar  was  made  arch- 
deacon of  Angers.  It  was  shortly  after  this  that  rumours 
began  to  apro.id  of  his  holding  heretical  views  regarding 
the  sacrament  of  the  supper,  ilo  had  submitted  the  doc- 
trine of  tnnsubstantiation  (already  generally  received  both 
a— 21* 


by  priests  and  people,  aithough  it  iiad  been  first  UDequivo* 
cally  taught  and  reduced  to  a  regular  theory  by  Paschasius 
Radbert  only  in  831)  to  an  independent  examination,  and 
had  como  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  contrary  to  reason, 
unwarranted  by  Scripture,  and  inconsistent  with  the  teach* 
ing  of  men  like  Ambrose,  Jerome,  and  Augustine.  Ha 
did  not  conceal  this  conviction  from  his  scholars  ond 
friends,  and  through  them  the  report  spread  widely  that 
he  denied  the  common  doctrine  respecting  the  Eucharist. 
His  early  friend  and  school  companion,  Adclmunn,  arch- 
deacon of  Liiigc,  wrote  to  him  letters  of  expostulation  on 
the  subject  of  this  report  in  1046  and  1018;  and  a  bishop, 
Hugo  of  Langres,  wrote  (about  1049)  a  refutation  of  tha 
views  which  he  had  himself  heard  Berengar  express  in 
conversation.  Berengar's  belief  v.-as  not  shaken  by  their 
arguments  and  exhortations,  and  hearing  that  Lanfranc, 
the  most  celebrated  theologian  of  that  agCj  strongly 
approved  the  doctrine  of  Paschasius  and  condemned  that 
of  Ratramnus,  he  wrote  to  him  a  letter  expressing  his 
surprise,  and  urging  him  to  reconsider  the  question.  The 
letter  arriving  at  Bee  when  Lanfranc  was  ab.=ent  at  Rome, 
was  sent  after  him,  but  was  opened  before  it  reached  him, 
and  brought  under  the  notice  of  Pope  Leo  IX.  Because; 
of  it  Berengar  was  condemned  as  a  heretic,  without  being 
heard,  by  a  synod  at  Rome  and  another  at  Vercelli,  both 
held  in  1050.  His  enemies  in  France  cast  him  into  prison;! 
but  the  bishop  of  Angers  and  other  powerful  friends,  of 
whom  he  had  a  considerable  number,  had  sufficient  influ-, 
ence  to  procure  his  release.  At  the  Council  of  Tours 
(1054)  he  found  a  protector  in  tho  Papal  legate,  the 
famous  Hildebrand,  who,  satisfied  himself  with  the  fact 
that  Berengar  did  not  deny  the  real  presence  of  Christ  in 
the  sacramental  elements,  succeeded  in  persuading  the 
assembly  to  be  content  with  a  general  confession  from  him 
that  tho  bread  and  wine,  after  consecration,  were  the  body 
and  blood  of  the  Lord,  without  requiring  him  to  define 
how.  Trusting  in  Hikiebraiid's  support,  and  in  the  justice 
of  his  own  cause,  he  presented  himself  at  tho  Synod  of 
Rome  in  1059,  but  found  himself  surrounded  by  fierce 
and  superstitious  zealots,  who  forced  him  by  the  fear  of 
death  to  signify  his  acceptance  of  the  doctrine  "  that  tha 
bread  and  wine,  after  consecration,  are  not  merely  a  sacra- 
ment, but  the  true  body  and  the  true  blood  of  Christ,  and 
that  this  body  is, touched  and  broken  by  the  hands  of  the 
priests,  and  ground  by  the  teeth  of  the  faithful,  not  mvrcly 
in  a  sacramental  but  ia  a  real  manner."  He  had  no  sooner 
done  so  than  he  bitterly  repented  his  weakness  ;  and  act- 
ing, as  he  himself  says,  on  the  principle  that  "  to  take  an 
oath  which  never  ought  to  have  been  taken  is  to  estrange 
one's  self  from  God,  but  to  retract  w^hat  one  has  wrong- 
fully sworn  to,  is  to  return  back  to  God,"  when  he  got  safe 
again  into  France  he  attacked  the  transubstantiation  theory 
more  vehemently  than  ever.  He  continued  for  about 
sLxteen  years  to  disseminate  his  views  by  writing  and 
teaching,  without  being  directly  interfered  with  by  eilbcr 
his  civU  or  ecclesiastical  superiors,  greatly  to  the  scandai 
of  the  multitude  and  of  the  zealots,  in  whose  eyes  Berengar 
was  "  ille  apostolus  Satanac."  and  the  academy  of  Tour? 
the  "  Babylon  nostri  temporis."  An  attempt  was  mr.de  at 
the  Council  of  Poitiers  in  1075  to  allay  the  apitatiot 
caused  by  the  controversy,  ,but  it  failed,  and  Berengai 
narrowly  escaped  death  in  a  tumult  raised  ,by  fanatics. 
Hildebrand,  now  Gregory  VII.,  next  summoned  him  to 
Rome,  and,  in  a  synod  held  there  in  1078,  tried  once  more 
to  obtain  a  declaration  of  his  orthodoxy  by  means  of  a  con- 
fession of  faith  drawn  up  in  general  terms  ;  but  even  this 
strong-minded  and  strong-willed  Pontiff,  although  sincerely 
anxious  to  befriend  the  persecuted  theologian,  and  fully 
alive  to  the  monstrous  character  of  the  dogma  of  transub- 
stantiation  as   propounded    by    Pope   Nicholas    II.    a.ni, 


58G 


B  E  R  —  B  E  K 


Cardinal  Humbert  at  the  symKi  held  in  1059,  was  at 
length  forced  to  yield  to  the  demands  of  the  multilude  and 
its  leaders  ;  and  in  another  synod  at  Rome  (1079),  finding 
that  he  was  only  endangering  his  own  position  and  reputa- 
tion, he  turned  unexpectedly  upon  Berengar  and  com- 
manded him  to  confess  that  he  had  erred  in  not  teaching 
a  change  as  to  substantial  reality  of  the  sacramental  bread 
and  wine  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  "  Then," 
says  Berengar,  "  confounded  by  the  sudden  madness  of  the 
Pope,  and  because  Ood  in  punishment  for  my  sins  did  not 
give  me  a  steadfast  heart,  I  threw  myself  on  the  ground, 
and  confessed  with  impious  voice  that  I  had  erred,  fearing 
the  Pope  Would  instantly  pronounce  against  me  the  sentence 
of  condemnation,  and,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  that  the 
populace  would  hurry  roe  to  the  worst  of  deaths."  He  was 
kindly  dismissed  by  the  Pope  not  long  after,  with  a  letter 
recommending  him  to  the  protection  of  the  bishops  of 
Tours  and  Angers,  and  another  pronouncing  anathema  on 
o'.l  who  should  do  him  any  injury  or  call  him  a  heretic. 
He  returned  home  overwhelmed. with  shame  and  bowed 
down  with  sorrow  for  having  a  second  time  been  guilty  of 
a  great  impiety.  He  immediately  recalled  his  forced  con- 
fe.'ision,  and  besought  all  Christian  men  "  to  pray  for  him, 
80  that  his  tears  might  secure  the  pity  of  the  Almighty." 
tie  DOW  saw,  however,  that  the  spirit  of  the  age  was 
against  him,  iuid  hopelessly  given  over  to  the  belief  of 
what  he  had  combated  as  a  deliision.  He  withdrew,, 
therefore,  into  solitude,  and  passed  the  rest  of  his.  life  in 
retirement  and  prayer  on  the  island  of  St  Come  near  Tours. 
He  died  there  in  1088.  In  Tours  his  memory  was  held 
in  great  respect,  and  a  yearly  festival  at  tis  tomb  long 
commemorated  his  saintly  virtues. 

Berengar  left  behind  him  a  considerable  number  of 
followers.  All  those  who  in  the  Middle  Ages  denied  the 
substantial  presence  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ'  tn  the 
Eucharist  were  commonly  designated  Berengarians.  These 
eo-called  Berengarians  differed,  of  course,  in  many  respects 
from  one  another,  even  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the 
supper.  Berengar's  own  views  on  the  subject  may  be 
thus  summed  up  : — 1.  That  bread  and  wine  should  become 
flesh  and  blood  and  yet  not  lose  the  properties  of  bread 
and  wine  was,  he  held,  contradictory  to  reason,  and  there- 
fore irreconcilable  with  the  truthfulness  of  God.  A  change 
which  would  leave  behind  the  properties  or  predicates  of 
bread  and  wine,  yet  take  away  their  substances,  the  subjects 
iof  these  predicates,  seemed  to  him  inherently  incredible. 
In  working  out  the  proof  of  this  position  he  showed  very 
considerable  dialectical  "skill.  At  the  .-same  time  he  em- 
ployed ,  so  many  arguments,  based  on  what  is  called 
nominalism,  that  his  theory  of  the  Eucharist  has  been 
described  by  M.  de  Remusat  as  "  nominalism  limited  to  a 
single  question."  2.  He  admitted  a  change  (conversio)  of 
the  bread  and  wine  into  thq  body  of  Christ,  in  the  sense 
that  to  those  who  receive  them  they  are  transformed  by 
grace  into  higher  powers  and  influences — into  the  true,  the 
intellectual,  or  spiritual  body  of  Christ — so  as  to  sustain 
and  impart  the  life  eternaL  Christ  does  not  descend  from 
heaven  to  be  portioned  out  by  the  hands  of  priests  and 
received  into  the  mouths  of  communicants,  but  the  hearts 
of  true  believers  asceud  to  Christ  in  heaven,  receive  into 
^themaclves  his  true  and  imperishable  body,  ■and.  partake 
ithcreof  in  a  spiritual  manner.  The  unbelieving  receive  the 
iCitemal  sign  or  sacramfntum  ;  but  the  believing  receive  in 
addition,  truly  although  invisibly,  the  reality  represented 
by  the  sign,  the  res  sacramenti.  Bereijgar  draws  his 
.reasons  for  this  view  from  Scripture.  In  confirmation  of 
its  correctness  ho  adduces  the  testimonies  of  the  earlier 
church  teachers.  3.  He  rejected  the  notion  that  the  sacra- 
ment of  tho  altar  was  a  constantly  renewed  sacrifice,  and 
hold  it  to  bo  merely  a  commemoration  of  the  one  sacrifice 


of  Christ.  4.  He  dwelt  strongly  on  the  importance  of  moo 
looking  away  from  the  externals  of  the  sacrament  to  the 
spirit  of  love  and  piety  which  they  presuppose,  and  th» 
divine  power  and  grace,  through  the  operation  of  which 
alone  they  can  become  channels  of  religious  life.  The 
transubstantiation  doctrine  seemed  to  him  full  of  evil, 
from  its  tendency  to  lead  men  to  overvalue  what  was 
sensuous  and  transitory  in  the  sacrament,  and  to  neglect 
what  was  spiritual  and  eternal.  5.  He  rejected  with  in 
dignation  the  miraculous  stories  told  to  confirm  the  doctrin* 
of  transubstantiation.  He  saw  in  these  legends  unworthy 
inventions  originated  to  awe  and  influence  ignorant  and 
superstitious  minds.  On  this  account  he  was  falsely 
accused  of  denying  miracles  altogether.  6.  Reason  and 
Scripture  seemed'to  him  the  only  grounds  on  which  a  true 
doctrine  of  the  Lord's  supper  could  be  rested.  He  had  s 
confidence  in  reason  very  rare  in  the  1 1th  century,  but  was 
no  rationalist.  He  attached  little  importance  to  mere 
ecclesiastical  tradition  or  authority,  and  none  to  the  voice 
of  majorities,  even  when  sanctioned  by  the  decree  of  a 
Pope.  In  this,  as  in  other  respects,  he  was  a  precursor  of 
Protestantism. 

The  opinions  of  Berengar  are  to  he  ascertained  from  tlie  works 
written  in  refutation  of  them  by  Adelmann,  Laufranc,  Guilnuiud, 
&c. ;  from  the  fragments  of  the  De  so^r.  ccsna  adv.  Lanfr.  lif>cr, 
edited  hj  Staudlin  (1820-29) ;  and  from  the  Lihcr  posterioT,  editi'O 
by  A.  F.  and  F.'T.  Vischer(1834).  See  also  the  BeTcngarius  Tutw 
CTisis  of  Leasing  (1770),  and  especially  of  Sudendorf  {1650),  the 
Church  Histories  of  Gieseler,  ii.  396-411  (Eng.  transl.),  and  Ne.in- 
der,  vi.  221-260  (Eng.  transl.);  Prantl's  Gcschichte  dcr  Lo<j>k,  li. 
70-75,  and  Uaureau's  Bisloire  de  la  Philosophic  Scolastiqur.  i  225- 
238. 

BERENICE,  an  ancient  city  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  Red  Sea,  in  23°  5G'  N.  lat.  and  35°  34'  E.  lon§  near 
the  bead  of  the  Svius  Immundus  or  Foul  Bay.  It  was 
founded  or  enlarged  by  Ptolemy  II.,  and  grew  into  great 
importance  as  an  entrepot  for  the  trade  between  Asia  and 
Africa.  Its  harbour  was  sheltered  on  the  northeast  by  an 
island  that  had  topaz  deposits,  and  in  the  neighbourhood 
were  emerald  mines.  The  ruins  of  a  temple  in  the 
Egyptian  style,  but  with  Greek  ornaments,  are  among  the 
most  important  discovered  on  the  site. 

BERENICE,  the  name  of  several  Egyptian  and  Jewish 
princesses.     The  two  most  generally  known  are — 

1;  Berenice,  the  daughter  of  Magus,  king  of  Cyrene,  and 
the  wife  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  of  Egypt.  During  her  hus- 
band's absence  on  an  expedition  to  Syria,  she  dedicated  her 
liair  to  Venus  for  his  safe  return,  and  placed  it  in  the  temple 
of  the  goddess  at  Zephyriuin.  The  hair  having  by  some 
unknown  means  disappeared,  Conon,  the  mathematician, 
explained  the  phenomenon  in  courtly  phrase,  saying  that  it 
had  been  carried  to  the  heaven*  and  placed  among  the 
stars.  The  name  Coma  Berenices,  applied  to  a  constellation, 
commemorates  this  incident.  Only  a  few  linos  remain  of 
the  poem  in  which  Callimachus  celebrated  the  transforma- 
tion, but  there  is  a  fine  translation  of  it  by  Catullus. 

2.  Bkrenioe,  daughter  of  Agnppa  I.,  king  of  Juda'a, 
and  born  probably  about  28  a.d.  She  was  first  marrieU 
to  her  uncle,  Herod,  after  whose  death  she  lived  for  some 
years  with  her  brother  Agrippa,  not  without  scandal.  Her 
second  husband  was  Polemo,  king  of  Cilicia,  but  she  soon 
deserted  him,  and  returned  again  to  Agnppa,  with  whom 
she  was  living  when  Paul  ujipearod  before  hini  at  Cafsarea. 
During  tho  devastation  of  Judoea  by  the  lioR'ans,  she  fas- 
cinated Titus,  whom  she  aicmnpaniod  to  Rome,  and  who 
would  willingly'  have  married  her  had  it  not  been  for  the 
hatred  cherished  by  the  people  against  tho  Jewish  race. 

BEREZINA,  a  river  of  Russia,  in  tho  government  of 
Minsk,  forming  a  tributary  of  tho  Dnieper.  It  rises  ir 
the  marshes  of  BoresofT,  and  has  a  course  of  more  thai 
330  miles,  for  the  most  part  through  low-lying  but  weU 


b  E  K  —  li  Ji   K 


587 


wooded  country.  Its  «idtb  increases  from  40  or  60  feet 
near  Bobruisk  to  100  feet  at  the  mouth  of  the  Svesloch, 
one  of  its  western  tributaries.  As  a  navigable  river,  and 
forming  a  portion,  of  the  great  canal  system  which  unites 
the  Black  Sea  with  the  Baltic,  it  is  of  great  importance  for 
the  commerce  of  the  country,  but  unfortunately  it  is  sub- 
iect  to  severe  floods.  The  principal  ports  along  its  course 
are  Boresoff,  Berezino,  Yakshetzec,  Bobruisk,  and  ParichL 
In  history  the  river  has  been  rendered  famous  by  the  cross- 
ing of  the  army  of  Napoleon  in  1812.  See  Stucken- 
bcrg's    Ilydrographk,    iii,    and    CaiuiU;    Giildenstadt'a 

BEREZOFF,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Russia,  capital  of  a  circle 
in  Tobolsk,  700  miles  N.  of  that  city,  situated  on  three 
hills  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sosna,  1.3  miles  above  its  mouth, 
and  on  the  Bogul,  a  tributary  of  the  Sosna,  in  63°  05'  N.  lat. 
and  64'  7'  E.  long.,  at  a  height  of  297  feet  above  the 
sea-leveL  Berezoff  was  founded  in  1503  for  the  collection 
of  taxes  near  the  Ostyak  settlement  of  SQmgllt-Bozh,  which 
means  in  Russian  Beresovi-Gorod,  or  Birch-town.  Berezoff 
was  more  than  once  exposed  to  destructive  conflagrations, 
as,  for  example,  in  1719.  In  the  second  quarter  of  the 
18th  century  BerezofT  was  appointed  a  place  of  banishment 
for  certain  important  royal  families.  In  1727  Prince  Men» 
schikoif  was  sent  thither  with  his  sons  and  two  daughters, 
of  whom  the  eldest,  Mary,  was  the  first  bride  of  Peter  II.; 
and  in  1730  he  was  followed  by  Prince  Ivan  Dolgoruki, 
with  his  wife,  father,  mother,  three  brothers  and  three 
sisters,  of  whom  Catherine  was  the  second  bride  of  Peter 
IL  In  1742  General  Osterman  was  sent  to  Berezoff  with 
his  wife,  and  died  there  in  1747.  In  1782  the  town  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  chief  town  of  a  district  of  the  Tobolsk 
government  In  1808  it  was  again  burned  down.  In 
1860  it  had  two  stone  churches,  a  cathedral  called  the 
Resurrection  of  the  Lord,  near  which  lie  buried  Mary 
Menschikofl'  and  some  of  the  Dolgorukis,  and  the  church  of 
Our  Lady's  Conception,  built  on  the  site  of  the  Menschikoff 
building.  There  are  in  the  town  a  departmental  school,  a 
lazaretto,  and  a  stranger's  hospital  The  trade,  which  is 
of  considerable  importance,  consists  of  furs,  mammoth 
bones,  dried  and  salted  fish,  <tc.  There  is  a  yearly  market, 
in  which  the  transactions  amount  to  £9000.  Popubtion 
in  1860,  1462. 

BERG  (Ducatua  Monten.su),  a  former  duchy  of  Germany, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  bounded  on  ttae  N.  by  the 
duchy  of  Cleves,  E.  by  the  countship  of  Marl:  sod  duchy  of 
Westphalia,  and  on  the  S.  and  W.  by  the  bishopric  ol 
Cologne.  Ita  area  was  about  1 1 88  square  miles.  The  district 
was  raised  in  1108  to  the  rank  of  a  countship,  but  did  not 
become  a  duchy  till  the  14th  century,  after  it  had  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  Jiilich  family.  On  the  extinc- 
tion of  this  house  in  1609,  Austria  laid  claim  to  the  duchy 
as  an  imperial  fief ;  but,  in  keeping  with  the  wishes  of  the 
inhabitants,  it  was  administered  conjointly  by  the  electors 
of -Saxony  and  Brandenburg  and  the  Elector  Palatine  till 
1624,  when  by  the  Diisseldorf  treaty  the  last  of  the  three 
obtained  the  solo  authority.  In  1806  it  was  bestowed  by 
Napoleon,  along  with  the  duchy  of  Cloves  and  other  pos- 
•essions,  on  Murat,  who  bore  the  titlo  of  grand  duke  of 
Berg  ;  and  after  Murat's  elevation  to  the  throne  of  Naples,  it 
was  transferred  to  Louis,  the  son  of  the  king  of  Holland. 
By  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815  it  was  made  over  to 
Prussia,  and  now  forms  a  flouri-shing  part  of  her  territory. 

BERGAMA,  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  with  2000  in- 
habitants.    See  Pkboamus. 

BERGAMO,  a  northern  province  of  Italy,  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  Sondrio,  E.  by  TjtoI  and  Brescia,  S.  by  Cre- 
mona, and  W.  by  Milan  and  Como.  The  northern 
portion  is  mountainous  and  well  wooded,  while  the  southern 
belongs  to  the  alluvial  plain  of  Lombardy.     To  the  N.  and 


\V.  of  Lake  Iseo  there  are  numerous  mineral  wells,  the 
most  important  of  which  arc  those  of  Trescoro.  Marble  is 
abundant  in  the  mountains,  and  there  are  valuable  iron 
mioes.  A  t  an  early  period  the  wealth  of  the  capital  appeara 
to  have  been  increased  by  the  working  of  copper  mines  in 
the  district.  (See  Fijiazzi,  Sulle  antiche  miniere  di  Ber- 
gamo, Milan,  liS60.)  The  vine  and  flax  are  largely  grown, 
and  the  culture  ol  the  silk-worm  is  extensively  carried'  on. 
The  people  sp«ak  a  rough  dialect,  and  are  liable  to-  be 
laughed  at  by  the  other  Italians.  The  two  stock  characters 
of  popular  Italian  comedy,  Uarlequiu  or  Trufl"aldino  and 
the  sly  Brighella,  were  both  at  one  time  represented  as 
natives  of  the  Bergamo  district. 

Bergamo,  the  capital  of  the  above  province,  is  situated 
between  the  Brembo  and  Scrio,  two  tributaries  of  the  Adda, 
39  miles  N.E.  of  Milan,  on  the  railway  that  runs  from 
Venice  to  the  Lake  of  Como.  It  consists  of  a  new  and 
an  old  town,  the  latter  known  as  the  Ci«d,  or  city,  being 
built  on  a  hill,  while  the  former,  or  Borgo  S.  Leonardo, 
occupies  the  level  ground  below.  On  the  eastern  side  there 
are  also  two  important  suburbs,  S.  Caterina  and  J^alazzo. 
Bergamo  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  a  prefect,  and  pos- 
sesses a  school  of  art  known  as  the  Accademia  Carrara, 
a  museum,  a  lyceum,  a  library  contained  in  the  Palazzo 
Vecchio  or  Broletto,  a  musical  institute,  two  theatres,  and 
various  scientific  societies.  There  are  also  a  lunatic  asylum, 
a  hospital,  and  other  charitable  institutions.  Among  its 
numerous  churches  may  be  mentioned  S.  Maria  Maggiore, 
which  dates  from  1173,  and  the  neighbouring  CoUeoni 
chapel,  the  old  Arian  church  of  San  Alessandro  della  Croce, 
S.  Bartolommeo,  and  S.  Grata.  The  principal  objects  of 
industry  in  the  city  are  silk,  cotton,  and  woollen  goods, 
iron-wares,  waxcloth  and  wax  candles,  and  plaj-ing  cards. 
A  large  fair,  called  the  Fiera  di  S.  Alessandro,  is  annually 
held  in  the  new  town.  It  dates  from  the  10th  century, 
and  is  of  great  importance,  especially  for  the  silk  trade. 
Bergamo,  or  Bergomum,  was  a  municipal  town  during  the 
Roman  empire,  and,  after  being  destroyed  by  Attila, 
became  one  of  the  rm«£  flourishing  cities  of  the  Lombard 
kings,  who  made  it  the  capital  Of  a  duchy.  In  the  15  th 
century  it  was  appropriated  and  fortified  by  the  Venetians. 
In  1509  it  was  occupied  by  Louis  XIL  of  France,  who 
retained,  it  for  seven  years,  and  then  restored  it  to  Venice. 
In  1796  the  French  again  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
city,  and  constituted  it  the  capital  of  their  department  of 
Serio.  Bergamo  was  the  birthplace  of  Tiraboschi,  Rubini, 
and  DonizettL     Population,  37,363. 

BERGAMOT,  Oil  op,  an  essential  oil  obtained  from  the 
rind  of  the  fruit  of  a  species  of  Citrus,  regarded  by  Risso 
as  C.  bergamia,  but  not  generally  believed  to  constitute  a 
distinct  sptcies.  The  bergamot  is  a  small  tree  with  leaves 
and  flowers  like  the  bitter  orange,  and  a  round  fruit  nearly 
3  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  thin  lemon-yellow  smooth  rind. 
The  tree  is  cultivated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Reggio,  in 
Calabria,  whence  the  entire  supply  of  bergamot  oil  is  drawn. 
The  oil  is  contained  in  small  vesicles  in  the  rind,  from  which 
it  can  be  expressed  by  simple  pressure  in  the  hand.  An 
old  method  of  obtaining  the  oil,  now  almost  superseded,  is 
by  skinning  the  fruit,  and  pressing  the  outside  of  the  rind 
against  a  sponge.  The  rind  being  turned  over  so  that  the 
outside  becomes  concave,  the  vesicles  are  easily  ruptured  by 
hand  pressure  ajrainst  the  sponge,  which  absorbs  the  oil 
as  it  escapes.  The  oil  is  now  obtained  by  placing  several 
fruits  in  a  saucer  shaped  apparatus,  the  surface  of  which 
is  cut  into  radiating  6har[>-tdged  grooves.  Against  the 
sharp  edges  of  this  dish  the  fruits  are  rapidly  revolved  by 
means  of  a  heavy  cover  placed  above  it,  which  is  moved  by 
a  cog  wheel.  "The  oil  vessels  are  ruptured  by  pressure 
against  the  knife  cdgc.i,  and  the  oil  which  exudes  falls 
through  small  perforations  in   the  bottom  into  a  vestal 


588 


B  E  R  — B  E  E 


placed  nnderneath.  It  is  allowed  to  rest  till  a  greasy  sub- 
gtance — bergamot  camphor — deposits,  after  which  it  is 
bottled  for  use.  Bergamot  oil  is  a  limpid  greeaish-yellow 
fluid  of  a  specific  gravity  of  0  8C9,  of  a  powerful  but  plea- 
sant citrine  odour  and  an  aromatic  bitterish  taste.  It  con- 
sists of  a  mixture  of  two  essential  oils,  the  most  volatile 
of  which  is  a  pure  hydrocarbon  isomeric  with  oil  of  turpen- 
tine; the  other,  containing  oxygen,  being  regarded  as  a 
hydrate  of  lemon  oil.  The  chief  use  of  bergamot  oil  is  in 
perfumery  and  as- a  flavouring  material  in  cookery.    .   .   -•- 

BERGEN,  a  city  and  seaport  on  the  west  coast  of  Norr 
way,  capital  of  the  province  of  South  Bergen,  in5°29'E.  long, 
and  60°  23'  N.  lat.  It  is  situated  on  a  rocky  promontory 
at  the  head  of  a  deep  bay  called  the  Vaag,  has  a  fine  harbour 
with  two  good  entrances,  and  is  surrounded  by  hills,  some 
of  which  attain  the  height  of  2000  feet.  Towards  the  sea 
it  is  defended  by  the  ancient  fortress  of  Bergenhuus,  the 
citadels  of  Fredericksberg  and  Sverresberg,  and  some  lesser 
works.  The  appearance  of  the  town,  which  rises  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheatre  and  is  generally  well  built,  is 
decidedly  picturesque,  with  its  wooden  houses  painted  of 
various  colours.  It  contains  a  cathedral,  several  churches, 
of  which  the  oldest,  St  Mary's,  dates  from  the  12th  cen- 
tury, hospitals,  a  lazaretto,  a  national  museum,  a  diocesan 
coUege,  a  naval  academy,  a  school  of  design,  public  lib- 
raries, various  charitable  institutions,  and  a  theatre.  '  It  is 
the  seat  o.  a  bishopric,  and  possesses  a  tribunal  of  secondary 
jurisdiction  and  on^  of  the  threo  public  treasuries  of  Nor- 
way. Bergen  has  a  considerable  export  trade,  which  con- 
sists of  stockfish,  lobsters,  fish-roes,  herrings,  whale  oil, 
horns,  skins,  rock  moss,  and  timber,  and  is  chiefly  carried 
on  with  the  northern  countries  of  Europe.  In  1867  the 
number  of  steamships  that  entered  the  port  was  164,  with 
a  tonnage  of  28,454.  The  imports  of  that  year  amounted 
to  £92,600,  and  the  exports  to  £344,000.  Bergen  was 
founded  in  the  llth  century  by  Olaf  the  Peaceful,  king  of 
Norway.  In  1445  the  Hanseatic  League  established  a 
factory  in  the  city,  and  continued  to  have  almost^  the  sole 
control  of  the  trade  till  1558,  when  it  was  expelled  by 
the  Norwegians,  who  found  its  presence  oppressive.  '  There 
is  still  a  kind  of  German  colony  in  the  place,  which  keeps 
up  the  Hanseatic  tradition,  and  the  old  German  church, 
hospital,  and  "factory"  or  contor'ave  still  extant,  the 
latter  furnishing  excellent  warehouse  accommodation,  A 
large  part  of  the  town  was  burnt  down  in  1855,  and  has 
since  been  rebuilt  in  a  more  regular  and  open  manner.  It 
is  the  second  largest  town  in  Norway.  Population  (1870), 
30,232. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM,  a  town  of  Holland,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  North  Brabant,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  River 
Zoom,  near  its  confluence  with  the  East  Scheldt,  in  51° 
29  N.lat.  and  4°  17'  E.  long.  It  is  about  15  miles  N. 
of  Antwerp,  and  22  W.S.W.  of  Breda.  The  houses  are  well 
bailt,  the  market-place's  and  squares  handsome  and  spacious. 
It  posaosses  a  port  and  an  arsenal,  and  contains  a  'town- 
house,  a  Latin  school,  and  an  academy  of  design  and  archi- 
tecture. The  tower  of  the  old  castle  is  remarkable  for  an 
increase  of  its  breadth  from  the  bottom  upwards,  and  for  its 
liability  to  be  rocked  when  struck  by  a  strong  ^ind.  There 
ore  numerous  tile-works  and  potteries  of  fine  ware  ;  and  a 
considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  anchovies  caught  in  tho 
Scheldt. 

In  the  13th  ceutury  Dergen-op-Zoom  became  the  scat  of  Count 
Gerhard  of  Wcsemacl,  who  SMrroundcd  it  with  walls.  In  1533  it 
was  erected  by  Ch'arle?  V.  of  Germany  into  a  marquisatc,  which  was 
BncccssiveJy  hold  by  tho  families  of  Bcrghes,  ilcrode,  Witthera, 
s'lleercuborgb,  HohcnioUern.  Tour  d'Auverpne,  and  Sulzbach,  and 
thua  passed  to  tho  house  of  Bavari.i,  which,  however,  in  1801  abdi- 
cated ita  richts  in  favour  of  the  Dutch  republic.  In  1576  the  town 
ioinod  the  United  Netherlands,  and  w'w  snortly  afterwards  fortified . 
D  *586  It  was  uDsucctssfolly  besieged  by  the  doke  of  Ponua  (see 


Motley's  United  Netherlands,  chap,  xx.),  and  in.  1605  it  waa  eucl^ 
denly  attacked  by  Du  Terail  {Ibid.  chap,  xliv.)  In  1622  it  defied 
tho  utmost  attempts  of  Spinola,  who  was  forced  to  abandon  the 
enterprise  after  a  siego  often  weeks  and  the  loss  of  1200  men.  Its 
fortifications  were  greatly  strengthened  in  16S8  by  Cooehoora,  wKo, 
it  was  believed,  had  almost  rendered  it  impregnable  ;  and  in  1725 
they  were  further  extended.  In  1747,  however,  the  town  was  taken 
by  the  French  general  Lowendal.  Restored  at  the  end  of  the  war, 
it  w.T",  again  in  1795  taken  by  Pichegru.  Tho  English,  under  Sir 
Thomas  Graham,  afterwards  Lord  Lynedoch,  in  March  1814  made 
an  attempt  to  take  it  by  a  coup  dc  main,  but  were  driven  back  with 
great  loss  by  the  French,  who,  however,  surrendered  the  place  by 
the  treaty  of  peace  m  the  following  May. 

BERGERAO,  the  chief  town  of  an  arrondissement  ia 
the  department  of  Dordogne,  in  France,  situated  in  a  f  sr- 
tUe  plain,  30  miles  S.S.W.  of  P^rigueux,  on  both  banks  of 
the  Dordogne,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  fine  bridi^c  ot 
five  arches  ■and  rendered  navigable  by  a  large  dam.  ""  The 
town  is  rather  poorly  buUt,  and,  in  spite  of  its  age,  con- 
tains no  monuments  of  antiquarian  interest.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  place  of  great  industrial  activity,  has  a  communal 
college,  tribunals  of  primary  jurisdiction  and  commerce, 
and  a  public  library ;  and  maniifactures  paper,  iron  and 
copper  wares,  hats,  hosiery,  and  leather.  The  wines  of  the 
neighbourhood  are  in  good  repute,  and  form  an  important 
article  in  the  trade  of  the  town,  which  is  principally  car- 
ried on  with  Bordeaux  and  Libourne.  Bergerac  owes  its 
origin  to  the  abbey  of  St  Martin,  which  was  founded  in 
1080,  and  during  the  English  invasions  it  played  an  im- 
portant part  as  a  fortress.  In  the  16th  century  it  was  a 
-very  flourishing  and  populous  place,  but  most  of  ita  inhabi- 
tants having  embraced  Calvinism  it  suffered  greatly  during 
the  religious  wars.  Its  fortifications  and  citadel  were  de- 
molished by  Louis  XIII.  in  1621,  and  it  was  injuriously 
affected  by  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Popu- 
lation in  1872,  8679. 

BERGMANN,  Torbeek  Olof,  Swedish  chemist  and 
naturalist,  was  born  at  Catherinberg,  West  Gothland,  in 
1735.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  entered  the  Univsrs'.ty 
of  Upsala,  and  distinguished  himself  by  extraordinary  assi- 
duity in  study,  directing  his  attention  more  particularly  tO' 
the  natural  sciences.  During  a  residence  at  home  rendered 
necessary  by  his  weak  health,  he  employed  himself  in  col- 
lecting specimens  of  insects  and  plants,  which  he  forwarded 
to  Linnaeus,  who  was  much  pleased  with  them.  In  1756 
he  gained  great  reputation  by  his  memoir  on  the  Coco;* 
aquaticus,  which,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  Linnffius,  fa& 
proved  to  be  nothing  but  the  ovtim  of  a  certain  species  of 
leech.  Some  years  later  he  was  made  professor  of  physics- 
at  Upsala,  and  published  numerous  scientific  memoirs.  Ia 
1707  the  chair  of  chemistry  and  mineralogy  having  becoa?  -. 
vacant  through  the  resignation  of  Wallerius,  Eergmain. 
resolved  to  become  a  candidata  He  had  not  hither;';  de- 
voted special  attention  to  chemistry,  but  in  a  very  sliort. 
period  by  incredible  application  ho  produced  as  evidence 
of  his  fitness  for  tho  post  a  paper  on  the  composition  of 
alum,  which  is  sliU  regarded  as  a  masterpiece.  He  Vas 
appointed  to  the  chair,  which  he  hold  till  his  death  in  1784. 
In  1776  he  had  declined  an  oS'er  from  the  king  of  Prussia 
inviting  him' to  sottlo  in  Berlin.  Bergmann  was  an  un- 
usually acute  and  sagacious  analytical  chemist,  and  made 
extensive  and  constant  use  of  the  laboratory.  He  described 
very  carefully  the  properties  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  gave- 
a  valuable  analysis  of  mineral  waters.  His  researches  in. 
mineralogy,  to  which  he  applicc  his  geometrical  knowledge, 
were  even  more  important,  and  led  the  way  to  Hauy's 
discovery  and  classification.  -  The  theory  of  elective  or 
chemical  alBnitics,  which  he  worked  out  very  fully,  has  had 
great  influence  in  the  history  of  chemistry.  A  coUectioc 
of  Bergmann's  papers  was  published  from  1779  to  J78;\ 
OpvfaUa  I'fiyxica  ci  Clumica,  6  vols.  They  hove  twn 
translated  iuto  French,  German,  and  English. 


BERKELEY 


589 


BERKELEY,  a  market-town  in  the  county  of  Glouceater, 
ticir  tho  iliver  Severn,  on  the  Midland  Rid\T3y.  It  is 
pi  -asantly  situated  on  a  gentle  eminence,  in  a  null  pastoral 
vsio  to  which  it  gives  name,  and  which  is  celebrated  for  its 
dr.iries,  producing  the  famous  cheese  known  as  "double 
Gloucester."  The  town  his  a  handsome  church,  a  grammar 
sclioul,  a  town-hall,  a  market-house,  and  some  trade  in  coal, 
timber,  malt,  and  cheese.  Berkeley  was  the  birthplace  of 
the  celebrated  Dr  Jenner,  whoso  remamsare  interred  in  tho 
church.  Berkeley  castle,  on  an  eminence  S.E.  of  the 
3wn,  was  built  m  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  out  of  tho  ruins 
of  a  nunnery  which  had  been  in  existence  some  time  before 
the  Conquest.  It  suETcrcd  considerably  during  the  civil 
wars  of  the  17th  century,  but  is  still  one  of  the  noblest 
baronial  castles  existing  in  England.  It  is  noted  as  the 
scene  of  the  barbarous  murder  of  Edward  [I.  Since  the 
time  of  Henry  11.  it  h;is  been  in  the  hands  of  the  Berkeley 
famdy.  Population  of  the  parish  in  1871,  4607, — about  a 
fourth  of  the  number  being  in  the  town. 

BF^RKELEY,  George,  bishop  of  Cloyne,  one  of  the 
most  subtle  and  original  English  metaphysicians,  was  born 
on  the  12th  March  1085,  at  Dysert  castle,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Nore,  about  two  miles  below  Thomastown,  Ireland. 
Not  much  is  known  of  his  family,  who  seem  to  have  been 
connected  with  the  noble  English  house  of  the  same  Jiame. 
His  father,  William  Berkeley,  was  an  otlicer  of  customs, 
and  appears  to  have  had  at  one  time  the  rank  of  captain  in 
the  army.  Wo  know  next  to  nothing  of  the  mental 
character  of  either  him  or  his  wife.  Gcorgj,  their  eldest 
sou,  was  entered  in  1096  at  the  famous  Kilkenny  school, 
of  which  he  was  not  the  only  pupil  afterwards  distinguished. 
He  was  remarkably  well  advanced  in  studies  for  his  years, 
and  in  1700  was  qualified  to  matriculate  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  There,  for  the  first  time,  we  begin  to  have  a  fair 
knowledge  of  tho  circum.Mtances  in  which  he  was  placed, 
and  of  the  peculiar  mental  qualities  with  which  he  was 
endowed.  From  his  own  account,  and  from  the  few 
notices  of  contemporaries,  we  can  gather  that  his  was  a 
mind  of  peculiar  subtilty,  keen  to  probe  to  the  very  founda- 
tion any  fact  presented  to  it,  and  resolutely  determined  to 
rest  satisfied  with  no  doctrine  which  had  only  the  evidence 
of  authority  or  custom,  and  was  not  capable  of  being 
realized  in  consciousn&ss.  This  turn  of  mind  naturally  led 
him  somewhat  oO'  the  beaten  track  of  university  studies  ; 
ho  was  not  understood  by  his  college  companions,  and 
began  to  be  looked  upon  as  either  the  greatest  dunce  or 
the  greatost  genius  in  the  university.  To  such  a  reputation 
his  eccentricity  of  manner,  which  seems  to  have  resulted 
from  his  occasional  absorption  or  passionate  enthusiasm, 
largely  contributed.  Of  tho  greatest  importance  for  the 
development  of  his  rare  powers  in  a  definite  direction  was 
tho  general  condition  of  thought  at  tho  time  of  his  residenco 
at  Dublin.  The  older  text-books  of  physics  and  philosophy 
wero  no  doubt  in  use  (Dublin  m  this  respect  has  always 
been  conservative),  but  alongside  of  them  tho  influences  of 
tho  new  mode.'  of  thinking  wero  streaming  in.  Tho 
opposed  physical  systems  of  Descartes  and  Newton  had 
begun  to  bo  known  ;  tho  new  and  powerful  calculus  was 
being  handled  ;  the  revolution  in  metaphysical  speculation 
inaugurated  by  Descartes  had  reached  Dublin ;  and,  above 
all,  tho  Lrst  great  English  work  on  pure  philosophy,  tho 
/■."jy  of  Locke,  had  been  translated  into  Latin,  and  its 
doctrines  wero  being  eagerly  and  minutely  discussed  by  tho 
young  Trinity  College  students.  Add  to  this  the  undoubted 
influence  exercised  by  tho  presence  in  Dublin  of  such  men 
an  the  university  provost,  Peter  Browne,  afterwards  bishop 
of  Cork,  and  King,  archbishop  of  Dublin  from  1703,  and 
it  will  readily  be  seen  that  Berkeley,  to  use  Professor 
Fraser's  words,  "entered  an  atmosphere  which  was 
beginning  to  be  charged  with  the  elements  of  reaction 


against  traditional  scholasticism  in  physics  aud  in  meta- 
physics." 

Although  more  competent  than  any  man  of  his  time  tg 
appreciate  these  new  movements  of  thought,  Berkeley  did 
not  neglect  the  routine  work  of  the  university.  He  had  a 
distinguished  career,  was  made  scholar  in  1702,  took  his 
B.A.  degree  in  1704,  and  obtained  a  fellowship  in  1707. 
That  his  interest,  however,  was  mainly  directed  towards 
subjects  purely  philosophical,  is  evidenced  partly  by  the 
share  he  took  in  setting  alloat  a  speculative  society  in  which 
the  problems  suggested  by  Descartes  and  Locke  seem  to 
have  been  discussed  with  infinite  vigour,  but,  above  all,  by 
his  Common  Place  Book,  containing  his  thoughts  on  physics 
and  phdosophy  from  about  the  year  1703.  This  curious 
document,  one  of  the  most  valuable  autobiographical 
I  records  in  existence,  throws  a  flood  of  light  on  the  growth 
of  Berkeley's  own  conceptions,  and  enables  us  to  understand, 
far  more  clearly  than  vm  otherwise  could,  the  significance 
of  his  first  published  works.  In  the  Common  Place  Book, 
if  in  any  writing,  is  to  be  found  the  keen  consciousness  of 
possessing  a  fresh,  creative  thought,  the  application  of  which 
will  change  the  whole  aspect  of  speculative  science.  The 
very  first  sentences  refer  to  some  new  principle,  and  tho 
whole  book  thereafter  is  occupied  turning  over  aud  over 
again  the  new  conception,  showing  the  different  aspects  it 
assumes,  and  the  various  appUcations  it  has,  bringing  it 
face  to  face  with  possible  objections,  and  critically  con- 
sidering the  relation  in  which  it  stands  to  the  fundamental 
thoughts  of  his  great  predecessors,  Descartes,  Malebranche, 
and  Locke.  So  far  as  reading  goes,  the  Common  Place 
Book  shows  but  a  slight  acquaintance  with  ancient  or 
scholastic  philosophies ,  it  is  evident  that  the  author  does 
not  appreciate  Spinoza ;  he  does  not  refer  to  Leibnitz ; 
Malebranche  is  frequently  mentioned,  but  hardly  in  such  a 
way  as  to  manifest  sympathetic  understanding  of  him  , 
Norris,  the  English  follower  of  Malebranche,  seems  to  be 
unnoticed ;  More  a^d  the  Mystics,  when  referred  to,  are 
quoted  on  isolated  points,  and  to  their  system  the  young 
philosopher  evidently  felt  no  attraction.  Descartes  and 
Locke,  above  all  the  latter,  are  his  real  masters  in  specula- 
tion, and  it  is  from  the  careful  consideration  of  their  systems 
that  the  nev,-  principle  has  sprung  to  light.  And  what  is 
this  principle?  As  Professor  Fraser  has  said,  there  are 
many  wiiys  of  expressing  it,  and  Berkeley  himself  has 
never  given  any  very  definite  enunciation.  To  put  it  in  a 
form  as  nearly  as  possible  resembling  tho  statements  in 
the  Common  Place  Book,  it  may  bo  expressed  in  tho  pro- 
position that  no  existence  is  conceivable  and  therefore 
possible  which  is  not  cither  conscious  spirit  or  the  ideas 
{i.e.,  objects)  of  which  such  spirit  is  conscious.  Existing 
things  consist  of  ideas  or  objects  perceived  or  willed,  whilo 
perception  and  volition  are  inconceivable  and  impossible 
save  as  the  operations  of  mind  or  spirit.  In  the  language 
of  a  later  philosophy,  tho  principle  is  that  of  the  absolute 
synthesis  of  subject  and  object;  no  object  e.\ists  apart  from 
mind.  Mind  is  therefore  the  deepest  reality  ;  it  is  the 
priu$  both  in  thought  and  in  existence,  if  for  the  moment 
wo  assume  the  popular  distinction  between  these  two. 
From  this  primitive  truth,  which,  it  seems  to  Berkeley, 
merely  requires  carcfid  consideration  in  order  to  be  at  onco 
accepted,  he  never  wavers.  Let  attention  be  but  confined 
to  the  only  possible  meaning  which  existence  can  have,  and, 
Berkeley  thinks,  the  principle  must  appear  self-eWdcnt. 
Thus  he  puts  in  a  new  light  tho  perennial  problems  of 
philosophy,  and  instead  of  discussing  the  nature  and 
relations  of  assumed  cntilic-s  such  as  matter,  substance,  or 
cause,  would  ask  us  to  consider  whether  or  not  these  have 
any  significance  apart  from  tho  perceptions  or  volitions  of 
conscious  spirit,  what  in  that  case  they  do  rae^in,  and 
whether  the  supposed  difEculties  connected  with  them  do 


590 


BERKELEY 


not  vanish  when  their  true  interpretation  is  thoroughly 
grasped.  Of  all  these  difficulties  that  concerned  with  the 
nnture  of  naatter  is  of  greatest  importance  to  Berkeley. 
From  misconceptions  of  the  true  nature  of  material  sub- 
stance have  flowed,  according  to  him,  the  materialism, 
scepticism,  and  infideUty  which  disfigured  the  age ;  and  all 
these  are  completely  banished  by  the  new  principle.  The 
applications  of  his  principle  and  his  own  inclinations  led 
Berkeley  into  other  departments  of  science  which  he  was 
not  so  well  qualified  to  handla  The  first  result  of  the 
principle,  as  he  conceived  it,  is  undoubtedly  empiricism  in 
the  theory  of  cogffition.  The  ultimate  eLements  of  know- 
ledge are  the  minima  of  consciousness,  presentative  or 
representative ;  pure  thought  and  abstract  ideas  are  not 
capable  of  being  realized  by  the  mind,  and  are  therefore 
impossible.  The  only  mathematical  processes  to  which  these 
minima  can  be  subjected  are  addition  and  subtraction ;  and 
consequently  great  part  of  the  Qommon  Place  Book  is 
occupied  with  a  vigorous  and  in  many  points  exceedingly 
ignorant  polemic  against  the  fundamental  conceptions  of 
the  fluxional  and  infinitesimal  calculus,  a  polemic  which 
Barkeley  carried  on  to  the  end  of  his  days. 

He  soon  began  to  appear  as  an  author.  In  1707  he 
published  two  short  tracts  on  mathematics,  and  in  1709 
the  New  Theory  of  Vision,  in  which  he  applied  his  aew 
principle,  though  without  stating  it  explicitly.  The  new 
theory  is  a  critical  examination  of  the  true  meaning  of  the 
externality  which  is  apparently  given  in  visual  conscious- 
ness, and  which,  to  the  unphilosophical  mind,  is  the 
BtroDgest  evidence  of  the  independent  existence  of  outer 
objects.  Such  visual  consciousness  is  shown  to  be  ulti- 
mately a  system  of  arbitrary  signs,  symbolizing  for  us 
certain  actual  or  possible  tactual  experience— in  fact,  a 
language  which  we  learn  through  custom.  The  difference 
between  the  contents  of  the  visual  and  the  tactual  con- 
sciousness is  absolute  ;  they  have  no  element  in  common. 
The  visible  and  visual  signs  are  definitely  connected  with 
tactual  experiences,  and  the  association  between  them, 
which  has  grown  up  in  our  minds  through  custom  or  habit, 
rests  upon,  or  is  guaranteed  by,  the  constant  conjunction 
of  the  two  by  the  will  of  the  Universal  Mind.  But  this 
synthesis,  whether  on  the  objective  side  as  the  universal 
thought  or  course,  of  nature,  or  on  the  subjective  side  as 
mental  association,  is  not  brou;;ht  forward  prominently  by 
Berkeley.  It  was  at  the  same  lime  perfectly  evident  that 
a  quite  similar  analysis  might  have  been  applied  to  tactual 
consciousness,  which  does  not  give  externality  in  its  deepest 
significance  any  more  than  visual ;  but  it  was  with  deli- 
berate purpose  that  Berkeley  at  first  drew  out  only  oue 
side  of  his  argument  In  1710  the  new  doctrine  received 
its  full  statement  in  the  Principles  of  Human  Knowledge, 
where  externality  in  its  ultimate  sense  as  independence  of 
all  mind  is  considered';  where  matter,  as  an  abstract,  un- 
perceived  substance  or  cause,  is  shown  to  be  an  impossible 
and  unreal  conception  ;  where  true  substance  is  affirmed  to 
be  conscious  spirit,  true  causality  the  free  activity  of  such  a 
spirit,  while  physical  substantiality  and  causality  in  their 
now  meaning  are  held  to  be  merely  arbitrary  but  constant 
relations  among  phenomena  connected  subjectively  by 
suggestion  or  association,  conjoined  objectively  in  the 
Universal  Mind.  In  ultimate  analysis,  then,  nature  is 
conscious  experience,  and  forms  the  sign  or  symbol  of  a 
divine,  universal  intelligence  and  will. 

In  the  preceding  year  Berkeley  had  been  ordained  as 
deacon,  and  in  1711  he  delivered  his  Discourse  on  Passive 
Obedience,  in  which  ho  deduces  moral  rules  from  the 
intention  of  God  to  promote  the  general  happiness,  thus 
working  out  a  theological  utiliUarianism,  which  may  with 
advantage  be  compared  with  the  later  expositions  of  Austin 
kod  MilL     From  the  year  1707  he  hod  been  engaged  as 


college  tutor;  in  1712  he  paid  a  short  visit  to' England, 
and  in  April  of  the  following  year  he  was- presented  by 
Swift  at  court.  His  splendid  abilities  and  fine  courteous 
manners,  combined  with  the  purity  and  uprightness  of  his 
character,  made  Mm  a  universai  favourite.  While  in 
London  he  published  his  Dialogues  (1713),  a  more  popular 
exposition  of  his  new  theory;  for  exquisite  facility  of 
style  these  are  perhaps  the  finest  philosopfiical  writings  in 
the  English  language.  In  November  of  the  same  year  he 
became  chaplain  to  Lord  Peterborough,  whom  he  accom- 
panied on  the  Continent,  returning  in  August  1714.  He 
travelled  again  in  1715  as  tutor  to  the  son  of  Dr  Ashe,  and 
was  absent  from  England  for  five  years.  On  his  way 
home  he  wrote  and  sent  to  the  French  Academy  the  essay 
Be  Motu,  in  which  is  given  a  full  account  of  his  new  con- 
ception of  ca'isality,  the  fundamental  and  all-comprehensivB 
thought  in  his  philosophy.  In  1721,  during  the  disturbed 
state  of  social  relations  consequent  on  the  bursting  of  the 
the  great  South  Sea  bubble,  he  published  an  Essay  toward* 
preventing  the  Ruin  of  Great  Britain,  which  shows  the 
intense  interest  he  took  in  aD  practical  affairs.  In  the  same 
year  he  returned  to  Ireland  as  chaplain  to  the  duke  of  Graf- 
ton, and  was  made  divinity  lecturer  and  university  preacher. 
In  1722  he  was  appointed  to  the  deanery  of  Dromore,  a  post 
which  seems  to  have  entailed  no  duties,  as  we  find  him 
holding  the  offices  of  Hebrew  lecturer  and  senior  proctor 
at  the  university.  The  following  year  brought  him  an 
unexpected  addition  of  fortune,  Miss  Vanhomrigh,  Swift's 
Vnnessa,  having  left  him  half  her  property.  It  would 
appear  that  he  had  only  met  her  once  at  dinner.  In  1724 
he  was  nominated  to  the  rich  der.nery  of  Derry,  but  had 
hardly  been  appointed  before  he  was  using  every  effort  to 
resign  it  in  order  to  devote  himself  to  his  enthusiastically 
conceived  scheme  of  founding  a  college  in  the  Bermudas, 
and  extending  its  benefits  to  the  Americans.  With  in- 
finite exertion  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  Government 
a  promise  of  £20,000,  and,  after  four  years  spent  in  pre- 
paration, sailed  in  September  1728,  accompanied  by  some 
friends  and  by  his  wife,  daughter  of  Judge  Forster,  whom 
he  had  married  in  the  preceding  month.  Their  destina- 
tion was  Rhode  Island,  where  they  resolved  to  wait  for  the 
promised  grant  from  Government  Three  years  of  quiet 
retirement  and  study  were  spent  in  the  island.  Berkeley 
bought  a  farm,  made  many  friends,  and  endeared  himself 
to  the  inhabitants.  But  it  gradually  became  apparent 
that  Government  would  never  hand  over  the  promised 
grant,  if  indeed  they  had  ever  seriously  contemplated  doing 
so.  Berkeley  was  therefore  compelled  reluctantly  to  give 
up  his  cherished  plan.  Soon  after  his  return  he  published 
the  fruits  of  his  quiet  studies  in  Alciphron,  or  the  Minute 
Philosopher  (1733),  a  finely  written  work  in  the  form  of 
dialogue,  critically  examining  the  various  forms  of  frco- 
thinking  in  the  age,  and  bringing  forward  in  antithesis  to 
them  his  own  theory,  which  shows  all  nature  to  be  the 
language  of  God.  The  work  was  extremely  popular.  In 
1734  he  was  raised  to  the  bishopric  of  Cloync,  and  at  once 
went  into  residence.  The  same  year,  in  his  Analyst,  he 
attacked  the  higher  mathematics  as  leading  to  frcethink- 
ing;  this  involved  him  in  a  hot  controversy.  The  Querist, 
a  practical  work  in  the  form  of  questions  on  what  would 
now  be  called  social  or  economical  philosophy,  appeared 
in  three  parts,  1735,  1736,  1737.  In  1744  was  pub- 
lished the  Siris,  partly  occasioned  by  the  controversy  with 
regard  to  tar-water,  but  rising  far  above  the  petty  circum- 
stance from  which  it  took  its  rise,  and  in  its  chain  of 
reflections  revealing  the  matured  thoughts  and  wide  reading 
of  Its  author,  while  opening  up  hidden  depths  in  the 
Berkeleian  metaphysics.  In  1751  his  oldest  son  died,  and 
in  1752  he  removed  with  his  family  to  0.xford  for  the  sake 
of  his  sou  George  who  was  studying  there.     On  the  eTcn- 


B  E  n  —  B  E  R 


591: 


ing  of  the  14th  January  1753,  be  expired  suddenly  and 
painlessly  in  the  uiidst  of  his  family.  And  thus  quietly 
closed  one  of  the  purett  and  most  beautiful  lives  on  record. 
His  remains  were  deposited  in  Christ  Church,  Oiford. 

Although  Berkeley's  new  priniiple  is  susceptible  of  brief  stitc- 
mcnt,  it  13  by  no  means  equally  possible  to  pivc  in  short  compass 
an  adequate  account  of  its  systematic  application  to  the  several  pro- 
blems of  I'liilosophy.  It  may  be  suCQcicnt  here  to  indicate  gene- 
rally the  iclation  of  the  new  conception  to  preceding  systems,  and 
to  inquire  how  far  the  principle  is  metaphysically  justifiable.  In 
tlie  philosophies  of  Descartes  and  Log^e  a  large  share  of  attention 
had  been  directed  to  the  idea  ol  matter,  which  was  held  to  be  the 
abstract,  uuperccifed  background  of  real  experience,  and  was  sup- 
posed to  give  rise  to  our  ideas  of  external  things  through  its  action  on 
llic  sentient  mind.  Knowledge  being  limited  to  the  ideas  produced 
could  never  extend  to  the  unperceived  matter,  or  substance,  or 
cause  which  produced  them,  and  it  became  a  problem  for  specula- 
tive science  to  determine  the  grounds  lir  the  very  belief  in  its 
existence.  Philosophy  seemed  obout  to  end  in  scepticism  or  in 
materialism.  Now  llerkeley  put  this  whole  problem  in  a  new  light 
by  pointing  out  that  a  preliminary  question  must  be  raised  and 
answered.  Before  wc  deduce  results  from  such  abstract  ideas  as 
cause,  substance,  matter,  wo  must  ask  what  in  reality  do  these 
mean, — what  is  the  actual  content  of  consciousness  which  cor- 
responds to  these  words  f  Do  not  all  these  ideas,  when  held  to 
represent  something  which  exists  absolutely  apart  from  all  know- 
ledge of  it,  involve  a  contradiction  I  Are  they  not  truly,  when  so 
regarded,  inconceivable,  and  mere  arbitrary  figments  which  cannot 

fioNsibly  be  realized  in  consciousness  t  In  putting  this  question,  not 
ess  than  in  answering  it,  consists  Berkeley's  distinct  originality  as 
a  philosopher.  The  essence  of  the  answer,  as  has  been  already  seen, 
is  that  the  universe  is  inconceivable  apart  from  mind, — that  exist- 
ence, OS  such,  denotes  conscious  spirits  and  the  objects  of  conscious- 
ness. Matter  and  external  things,  in  so  far  as  they  are  thought 
to  have  an  existence  beyond  the  circle  of  consciousness,  are  im- 
|K:>ssible,  inconceivable,  absurd.  External  things  arc  things  known 
to  us  in  immediate  perception.  To  this  conclusion  Berkeley  seems, 
in  the  first  place,  to  have  been  led  by  the  train  of  rellecticn  that 
naturally  conducts  to  subjective  or  egoistic  idealism.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  overstep  the  limits  of  self-consciousness  ;  whatever  words  I 
use,  whatever  notions  I  have,  must  refer  to  and  find  their  meaning 
in  facts  of  consciousness.  And  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  certain 
earlier  aspects  of  his  theorj',  where,  for  example,  it  appears  as  a 
mere  analysis  of  what  is  meant  by  reality^  it  does  not  rise  above 
this  subjective  stand-point.  But  this  is  by  no  means  the  whole  or 
even  the  principal  part  of  Berkeley's  philosophy  ;  it  is  essentially  a 
theory  of  causality,  and  this  is  brought  out  gradually  under  the 
pressure  of  diflicultics  in' the  first  solution  of  the  early  problem.  To 
merely  subjective  idealism,  sense  percepts  dilTcr  from  ideas  of  im- 
agination in  degree,  not  in  kind;  both  belong  to  the  individual  mind. 
To  Berkeley,  however,  the  difference  is  fundamental ;  sense  ideas  are 
not  due  to  our  own  activity,  they  do  not  result  from  our  will ;  they 
must  therefore  bo  produced  by  some  other  will, — by  the  divine 
intelligence-  Sense  experience  is  thus  the  constant  action  upon  our 
minds  of  supremo  active  intellect,  end  is  not  the  consequence  of 
dead  inert  matter.  It  might  appear,  therefore,  that  sensible  things 
had  an  objective  existence  in  the  mind  of  God  ;  that  an  idea  so  soon 
as  it  passes  out  of  our  consciousness  passes  into  that  of  God.  This 
is  an  interpretation,  frequently  and  not  without  some  justice,  put 
upon  Berkeley's  own  expression.  But  it  is  not  a  satislnctory 
aecount  of  his  theory. '  Berkeley  is  compelled  to  see  that  an  imme- 
di..tc  perception  is  not  a  thiity,  and  tlmt  what  we  consider  per- 
manent or  substantial  is  not  a  sensation  but  a  group  of  qualities, 
which  in  ultimate  analysis  means  sensations  either  immediately  felt 
or  such  as  our  experience  has  taught  us  would  be  felt  in  conjunction 
with  these.  Our  belief  in  the  reality  of  a  thing  may  therefore  be  said 
to  mean  assurance  that  this  association  in  our  minds  between  actual 
and  possible  sensations  is  somehow  gnaranteed.  Further,  J'erkeley's 
own  theory  would  never  permit  him  to  speak  of  possible  sensations, 
meaning  by  that  the  ideas  of  sensations  called  up  to  bur  minds  by  pre- 
Etiit  experience.  He  could  never  have  held  that  these  afforded  any 
ezpl.ination  of  the  permanent  existence  of  real  objects.  His  theory 
isq^uitc  distinct  from  this,  which  reallyamounts  to  nothing  more  than 
subjective  idealisra.  External  things  are  produced  by  the  will  of  the 
divine  intelligence;  they  are  caused,  and  caused  in  a  regular  order ; 
there  exist  in  the  divine  mind  archetypes,  of  which  sense  experience 
may  be  said  to  be  the  realization  in  our  finite  minds.  Our  belief  in 
the  permanence  of  something  which  corresponds  to  the  association 
in  our  minds  of  actual  and  possible  sensations  means  belief  in  the 
orderliness  of  nature  ;  and  that  is  merely  assuranee  that  the  nniverse 
is  pervaded  and  regulated  by  mind.  Human  science  is  occupied  in 
endcavonring  to  decipher  the  divine  ideas  which  find  realization  in 
our  limited  experience,  in  trying  to  interpret  the  divine  language 
of  which  natural  things  are  the  words  and  letters  and  in  striving 
to  bring  human  conceptions  into  harmony  with  the  divine  tlioughts. 


Instead,  therefore,  of  fate  or  necessity,  or  matter,  or  the  unknown,' 
a  living,  active  mind  is  louked  upon  as  the  ceiitie  and  sjuing  of  lh« 
universe,  and  this  is  the  essence  of  the  Bcikeleian  metaphysics.       i 

It  may  be  safely  said  that  the  deeper  aspects  of  Berkeley's  nev# 
thought  have  been  almost  universally  neglected  or  misunderstood.' 
Of  his  spiritual  empiricism  only  one  side  has  been  accepted  by  late* 
thinkers,  and  has  Deen  looked  upon  as  the  whole.  The  subjective 
mechanism  of  association  which  with  Berkeley  is  but  part  of  tha 
true  explanation,  and  is  dependent  on  the  objective  realization  ia 
the  divine  mind,  has  been  received  as  in  itself  a  satisfactory  theory.) 
Sunt  Cogitalioiiis  has  been  regarded  by  thinkers  who  profess  them* 
selves  Derkeleians  as  the  one  proposition  warranted  Dy  conscious- 
ness ;  the  empiricism  of  his  philosophy  has  been  eagerly  welcomed, 
wliile  the  spiritual  intuition,  without  which  the  whole  is  to  Berkeley 
meaningless,  has  been  cast  aside.  For  this  he  is  himself  in  no  small 
measure  to  blame.  The  deeper  spiritnul  intuition,  present  from  lh« 
first,  was  only  brought  into  clear  relief  in  order  to  meet  difljcullies 
in  the  earlier  statements  ;  and  the  extension  of  the  intuition  itself 
beyond  the  limits  of  our  own  consciousness,  which  completely 
removes  his  position  from  mere  subjectivism,  rests  on  foundations 
uncritically  assumed,  and  at  first  sight  irreconcilable  with  certain 
positions  of  his  system.  The  necessity  and  univcrsolily  of  tho 
juilgnientsof  cnus«lily  an4  substantiality  are  taken  for  granted;  and 
there  ia  no  investigation  of  tho  place  held  by  these  not'ions  in  th« 
mental  constitution.  Tho  relation  between  the  divine  mind  and 
finite  intelligence,  at  first  thought  as  that  of  agent  and  recipient,  ia 
complicated  and  obscure  when  the  necessity  for  explaining  the 
permanence  of  real  things  comes  forward.  The  divine  archetypes, 
according  to  which  sensible  experience  is  regulated  and  in  whitii  it 
finds  its  real  objectivity,  are  dilTerent  in  kind  from  mere  sense  ideas, 
and  the  question  then  arises  whether  in  these  we  have  not  again  the 
"things  as  they  are,"  which  Berkeley  at  first  so  contemptuously 
dismissed.  He  leaves  it  undetermined  whether  or  not  our  know- 
ledge of  sense  things,  which  is  never  ©ntircly  presentative,  in- 
volves some  reference  to  this  objective  course  of  nature  or  thought 
of  the  divine  mind.  And  if  so,  what  is  the  nature  of  the  notions 
necessarily  implied  in  the  simplest  knowledge  of  a  thing,  as  distinct 
from  mere  sense  feeling  ?  That  in  knowing  objects  certain  thoughts 
arc  implied  which  are  not  presentations  or  their  copies,  is  at  times 
dimly  seen, by  Berkeley  himself;  but  he  was  content  to  propound  a 
question  with  regard  to  those  notions,  and  to  look  upon  tlum  ns 
merely  Locke's  ideas  of  relation.  Such  ideas  of  relation  are  in  truth 
the  stumbling-block  in  Locke's  philosophy,  and  Berkeley's  empiri- 
cism is  equally  far  from  accounting  for  them. 

With  all  these  defects,  however,  Berkeley's  new  conception  marks 
a  distinct  stage  of  progress  in  human  thought.  His  true  j^lace  in 
the  history  of  speculation  may  be  seen  from  the  simple  observation 
that  the  difficulties  or  obscurities  in  his  scheme  are  really  the  points 
on  which  later  philosophy  has  turned.  He  once  for  all  lifted  the 
problem  of  metaphysics  to  a  higher  level,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
his  great  successor,  Hume,  determined  the  form  into  which  later 
metaphysical  questions  have  been  thrown.  i 

The  classical  edition  of  Berkeley's  works  is  that  by  Professor 
Fraser  (4  vols. — vols,  i.-iii.,  Works;  vol.  iv.,  Lift,  Lettas,  and 
Dissertation  cm  Ms  phUosophy,  Clarendon  Press,  1871),  who  has  been 
the  first,  there  and  in  various  essays,  to  exhibit  the  true  form  of 
Berkeley's  philosophy.  See  also  Uebcrweg's  notes  to  his  translation 
of  the /'"'"«■;'/«  (ISC'J);  Kraulh's  American  edition  of  the/'n'nn;</«, 
with  Prcrf.  Fraser's  introduction  and  notes,  and  a  translation  of 
those  of  Ueberweg;  Collyns  Simon,  Universal  Immatfrialism 
(1847);  Nature  and  Elements  of  the  External  H'or/d  (1862)^ 
Friedrich,  Ucher Berkeley's  Idealismvs  {1870).  -Discussions  on  various 
points  of  Berkeley's  doctrine  will  bo  found  in  Fichte's  Zeitschrift,' 
vol.  Ivi.  sqq. ;  Jlill's  IXssertations,  vols.  ii.  and  iv.  ;  Huxley, 
Critiques  and  Addresses,  p.  320,  sqq.:  I'enier,  Jlemains,  vol.  ii.  Two 
odvcrse  reviews  of  the  Theory  of  Vision  may  also  be  noted — Bailey, 
Hcricw  of  Berkeley's  Theory  of  Vision  (1842)  ;  and  Abbott,  Sight 
.and  Tffueh  (1864) ;  with  the  last  may  be  compared  Monck,  Spact 
and  Vision.  (R.  AD.)    ; 

•.  BERKHAMPSTEAD,  Gkeat,  a  market-town  of  Engv 
land,  in  the  county  of  Herts,  2G  miles  N.W.  of  London, 
on  the  Junction  Canal  and  the  North-Wcstern  Eaihvay. 
It  has  a  spacious  cruciform  church,  with  a  tower  of  tli<i 
ICth  century,  a  market-house,  erected  in  18C0,  which  U\^ 
eludes  a  corn  exchange  and  a  library,  a  grammar  school,  a 
free  school,  several  almshouses,  a  jail,  ic.  Straw-plaiting 
and  the  manufacture  of  small  wooden  wares  are  the  prin-> 
cipal  industries.  The  town  is  of  considerable  antiquity. 
and  was  one  of  the  royal  residences  under  the  Mercian 
kings,  a  distinction  which  it  again  enjoyed  under  Henry  IF.^ 
The  castle,  at  that  time  a  fortress  of  some  importance,  wa» 
bestowed  on  tho  Black  Prince,  and  since  then  the  maooj 
has   remained  an   apanace   of  tli(  Encccssive  prioccs   (>(. 


592 


BERKSHIRE 


i^ales.     The  poet  Cowper  was  born  in  the  rectory  in  1731. 
Population  in  1872,  4083. 

BERKSHIRE,  one  of  the  south-eastern  counties  of 
England,  bounded  on  the  N.E.  by  Buckinghamshire,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Thames ;  N.  by  Oxfordshire 
and  a  BmaU  portion  of  Gloucester ;  W.  by  Wilts ;  S.  by 
Hants ;  and  S.E.  by  Surrey.  It  is  of  a  very  irregular 
figure,  extending  from  east  to  west  fully  60  miles  ;  while 
from  north  to  south,  in  its  widest  part,  it  is  about  35  miles, 
and  in  its  narrowest  part,  at  Reading,  not  more  than  7. 
Area,  450,132  acres. 

In  respect  to  the  character  of  its  surface  and  soil,  the 
county  may  be  conveniently  regarded  as  consisting  of  two 
divisions — the  eastern,  containing  the  six  districts  east  and 
inclusive  of  Bradfield,  and  the  western,  embracing  the  re- 
maining six  districts.  The  surface  of  the  eastern  division  is 
partly  level  and  partly  undulating,  and  in  many  places,  as 
at  Windsor,  it  is  beautifully  wooded.  The  highest  ground 
is  at  Bagshot  Heath,  a  sandy  plateau  460  feet  high,  at  the 
60uth-east  comer  of  the  county.  The  character  of  the  soil 
in  the  eastern  division  is  considered  poorer  than  in  the 
westj  and  consists  mostly  of  blue  clay  and  gravel,  resting 
on  a  chalk  formation.  In  this  division,  tillage,  dairy 
farming,  and  manufacturing  are  more  extensively  pursued 
than  in  the  other,  and  it  is  consequently  more  thickly 
populated.  The  western  or  upland  division  contains  a 
iarge  proportion  of  elevated  ground,  and  its  soil  is  a  reddish 
gravelly  loam.  Here  a  line  of  chalk  hills,  reaching  from 
Aldworth  to  Ashbury  (whicli  includes  the  Ilsley  Downs), 
runs  east  and  west,  separating  the  two  fertile  valleys  of  the 
Kennet  and  the  Thai.'cs.  Another  range  of  chalk  downs, 
known  as  the  Cuckamsley  Hills,  extends  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Wantage  to  the  border  of  Wiltshire,  the  highest 
point  being  White-Horse  Hill,  893  feet  high.  In  this 
part  of  the  county  the  rearing  of  sheep  is  largely  carried 
on,  while  in  the  district  of  Hungerford,  which  is  situated 
in  the  basin  of  the  Kennet,  the  soil  allows  a  large  breadth 
of  tillage,  and  a  greater  number  of  persons  are  engaged 
in  agricultural  pursuits  there  than  any  other  district  in  the 
county. 

Wheat  and  beans  are  extensively  cultivated ;  and  a  species 
of  peat  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Kennet  yields  ashes  that 
are  of  great  value  to  the  soils  near  that  river.  In  the  vales 
of  Kennet  and  White-Horse  dairy  farming  predominates. 
Near  Faringdon  pigs  are  extensively  reared,  and  the  breed 
is  celebrated.  The  estate  of  Pusey,  in  the  district  of  Far- 
ingdon, presents  one  of  the  best  examples  of  high  class 
farming,  while  in  the  eastern  division  the  model  farms  in 
the  district  of  Wokingham,  the  property  of  John  Walter, 
Esq.,  M.P.  for  the  county,  may  be  referred  to  as  the  best 
epecimens  of  the  recent  improvements  in  agriculture.  Mr 
Walter's  mansion  at  Bearwood,  too,  is  au  instance  of  a  bar- 
onial residence  seldom  equalled  in  extent  and  admirable 
disposition. 

Few  parts  of  England  are  better  supplied  with  the  faci- 
lities of  water  communication  than  the  county  of  Berks 
It  is  connected  by  means  of  the  Thames  with  London  on 
the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  with  the  Severn  at  two 
separate  points  on  that  river ; — one  through  the  Thames 
and  Severn  canal,  some  miles  below  Gloucester,  the  other 
tbrougli  the  River  Kermot  and  the  Kennet  and  Avon  canal 
by  Bath  and  Bristol.  Besides  the  navigable  rivers,  it 
enjoys  the  benefit  of  the  Wilts  and  Berks  canal,  which 
connects  the  Thames  at  Abingdon  with  the  Avon  at  Trow- 
bridge in  Wiltshire,  and  communicates  with  the  Kennet 
and  Avon  canal.  The  other  rivers,  which  all  finally  fall 
into  the  Thames,  arc  the  Ock,  the  Loddon,  the  Enbomo, 
and  tbo  I^amboum 

The  turnpike  roads  are  generally  good.  The  principal 
of  these  are  the  roads  from  London  to  Bath  and  Oxford, 


both  of  which  enter  the  tounty  at  Maidenhead,  and  seoo 
afterwards  separate,  the  former  running  S.W.  to  Read- 
ing, the  latter  nearly  N.W.  to  Henley.  Eight  branches  ol 
railway  intersect  the  county,  viz.,  the  Greit  V/'estern,  from 
Maidenhead  to  Reading,  and  from  Reading  to  Shriven  ham ; 
the  branch  from  Didcot  to  Hincksey  and  Oxford  ,  the 
Berks  and  Hants  railway  branches  from  Reading  to  Morti- 
mer and  Basingstoke,  and  from  Reading  to  Newbury  and 
Hungerford ;  the  Reading,  Guildford,  and  Reigate  lina^ 
and  the  Reading,  Wokingham,  and  Staines  branch  of  tfib 
South-Western  Railway. 

Berkshire  is  nut  a  manufacturing  county,  although  the 
woollen  manufacture  was  introduced  here  as  long  ago'as 
the  time  of  the  Tudors.  There  are  some  paper-mills,  phr- 
ticularly  in  the  neighbo"rhood  of  Newbury,  and  an  exten- 
sive biscuit  manufactory  at  Reading.  The  chief  trade 
consists  in  agricultural  produce. 

From  its  vicinity  to  the.  metropolis,  the  salubrity  of  tlie 
climate,  and  the  general  beauty  of  the  country,  few  counties 
have  more  numerous  seats  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  than 
are  to  be  found  in  Berkshire.  Among  these  stands  pre- 
eminent the  royal  castle  of  Windsor,  the  favourite  residence 
of  our  monarchs  during  many  centuries.  There  may  also 
be  mentioned  Wytham  Abbey  (ea.rl  of  Abingdon) ;  Ash- 
down  Park  and  Hamstead  Marshall  (earl  of  Craven) ; 
Coleshill  (earl  of  Radnor) ;  Shrivenham  House  (Viscount 
Barrington);  Easthampstead  Park  (marquis  of  Downshire); 
Englefield  House  (R.  Benyon,  Esq.,  M.P.);  Aldermastctn 
House  (Higford  Burr,  Esq.)  ;  South  Hill  Park  (Rt.  Hon. 
Sir  W.  O.  Hayter,  Bart.) ;  Pusey  House  (Sydney  Bouverie 
Pusey,  Esq.);  Bearwood  (John  Walter,  Esq.,  M.P.);  and 
Lockinge  House  (Col.  Loyd  Lindsay,  V.C,  M.P.) 

The  county  comprises  20  hundreds,  6  municipal  boroughs, 
and  14J  parishes,  besides  14  others  chiefly  or  partially  in- 
cluded in  Berks.  The  county  is  in  the  diocese  of  Oxfowl 
and  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Canterbury.  It  forms 
an  archdeaconry  by  itself,  and  is  divided  into  the  four  rural 
deaneries  of  Abingdon,  Newbury,  Reading,  and  Walling- 
ford.  It  is  in  the  Oxford  circuit,  and  the  assizes  are  held 
at  Reading.  County  courts  are  held  at  Abingdon,  Fax- 
ingdon,  Hungerford,  Maidenhead,  Newbury,  Reading, 
Wallingford,  Wantage,  Windsor,  and  Wokingham. 

Berkshire  returns  3  members  to  parliament  for  the 
county,  2  for  the  borough  of  Reading,  and  1  for  each  of 
the  boroughs  of  Abingdon,  Wallingford,  and  Windsor. 

At  the  three  decennial  enumerations  the  population  of 
the  county  was  as  follows  ; — 


Homes. 

1851. r...    ,     .35,075 

18C1  37,321 

1S71 4I,S21 


Popula'.loa. 

170,065 
170.256 
196,475 


poi  cciiL 
6 
4 
lU 


The  chief  increase  has  taken  place  in  the  eastern  dimioD 
of  the  county,  where  the  density  of  the  population  amounted 
in  1871  to  about  1  person  to  I'D  acre;  wLile  in  the 
\vcstern  it  was  1  person  to  3'5  acres.  The  principal  towns 
in  the  county  are  Reading  (pop.  32,324),  Winihior  (11,709), 
Newbury  (0602),  Maidenhead  (0173),  Abingdon  (5799), 
Wantage  (3295),  and  Wallingford  (2972).  Tbo  popula- 
tion of  the  parliamentary  districts  diflers  from  the  above,  as 
these  districts  include  persons  located  beyond  the  bound- 
aries of  the  boroughs. 

Antiquities,  both  Roman  and  Saxon,  are  numerous  id 
various  parts  of  this  county.  Watling  Street  enters  Berk- 
shire from  Bedfordshire  at  the  village  of  Streatlcy,  and 
leaves  it  at  Newbury.  Another  Roman  road  passes  from 
Reading  to  Newbury,  where  it  divides  into  two  branches, 
one  passing  to  Marlborough  in  Wiltshire,  and  the  other 
to  Cirencester  in  Gloucestershire.  A  branch  of  Icknield 
Street  passes  from  Wallincford  to  WantAge.     Near  Wan- 


B  E  R  -  B  E  R 


iige  ia  a,  Homan  camp,  of  a  quadrangular  form ;  and  there 
are  other  remains  of  encampments  at  East  Hampstead  near 
Wokingham,  at  Pusey,  on  White-Horse  Hill,  and  at  Siiio- 
din  Hill,  near  WallingforJ.  At  Lawrence  Waltham  there 
is  a  Roman  fort,  and  near  Dench*ortIi  a  fortress  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Canute  the  Dane,  called  Cherbury  Castle. 
Harrows  are  very  numerous  in  the  downs  in  the  N.W.  of 
tlie  county,  particularly  between  Lambourn  and  Wantage. 
Dragon  Hill  is  sup{)03ed  to  have  been  the  burying-placc  of 
a  British  prince  called  Uther  Pendragon,  and  near  to  it  is 
IJffington  Castle,  supposed  to  be  of  Danish  construction. 
On  White-Horse  Hill,  in  the  same  vicinity,  is  the  rude 
figurs  of  what  ia  called  a  horse,  although  it  bears  a  greater 
resemblance  to  a  greyhound.  It  has  been  formed  by  cut- 
ting away  the  turf  and  leaving  the  chalk  bare.  It  oc- 
copies  nearly  an  acre  of  land,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
«xecuted  by  Alfred  to  celebrate  a  victory  over  the  Danea 
in  the  reign  of  his  brother  Ethelred,  in  the  year  872.  This 
memorial,  not  having  been  "scoured"  for  many  years,  is 
nearly  obliterated  by  the  growth  of  the  turf  over  the  chalk. 
It  is  part  of  the  property  of  the  earl  of  Craven. 

Berkshire  comprehended  the  principality  inhabited  by 
the  Atrebates,  a  tribe  of  people  who  originally  migrated 
from  Gaul.  Under  the  Romans  it  formed  part  of  Britannia 
Prima,  and  during  the  Saxon  heptarchy  was  included  in  the 
kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons.  When  Alfred  divided  the 
country  into  shires,  hundreds,  and  parishes,  it  obtained  the 
name  of  Berocscire,  which  was  subsequently  changed  to 
that  which  it  now  bears.  It  was  frequently  the  scene  of 
military  operations  from  the  time  of  OfTa  down  to  the 
troubles  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  During  the  civil  war 
two  battles  were  fought  at  Newbury.  In  1643,  after  a 
fiiege,  Reading  was  taken  by  the  Parliamentary  forces,  and 
the  Royalist  party  were  expelled  from  the  whole  of  the 
county  except  Wallingford. 

BERLIN  is  the  chief  city  of  the  proviitce  of  Branden- 
burg, the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  and  since 
1871  the  metropolis  of  the  German  empire.  It  is  situated 
in  52'  30'  16'  N.  lat.  and  13°  23'  16'  R  long.,  and  lies 
about  120  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Baltic.  Its  longest 
day  is  16  hours  47  minutes  ;  its  shortest  day  is  7  hours  36 
minutes.  Its  average  annual  temperature  is  482°  Fahr., 
the  maiimuhi  recorded  beat  being  OOS'ln  1819,  !Hid  the 
maximum  cold  -  161°  Fahr.  in  1823.  The  average  rain- 
fall is  2174  Prussian  inches,  and  Berlin  h:is  on  the  average 
120  rainy,  29  snowy,  and  17  foggy  days  in  a  year. 

The  city  is  buUt  on  what  was  originally  in  part  a  sandy 
and  in  part  a  marshy  district  on  both  sides  of  the  River 
^pree,  not  far  from  its  junction  with  the  Havel,  one  of  the 
principal  tributaries  of  the  Elbe.  By  its  canals  it  has  also 
oircct  water  communication  with  the  Oder.  The  Spree 
Tises  in  the  mountain  region  of  Upper  Lusatia,  is  navi- 
gable for  the  last  97  English  miles  of  its  course,  enters 
Berlin  on  the  S.E.  as  a  broad  sluggish  stream,  retaining 
an  average  width  of  420  feet,  and  a  depth  of  6  or  7  feet, 
until  it  approaches  the  centre  of  the  city,  where  it  has  a 
sudden  fall  of  4  feet,  and  leaves  the  city  on  the  N.W.,  after 
r:ceiving  the  waters  of  the  Panke,  again  as  a  dull  and 
sluggish  stream,  with  an  average  width  of  only  160  feet, 
but  with  its  depth  increased  to  from  1 2  to  14  feet.  Within 
the  boundaries  of  the  city  it  feeds  canals,  and  di\-ides  into 
bcanches,  which,  however,  reunite.  The  river,  with  its 
canals  and  branches,  is  crossed  by  about  50  bridges,  of 
which  very  few  have  any  claim  to  architectural  beauty. 
Among  thase  lattijr  may  bo  mentioned  the  Schlossbriicke, 
built  after  designs  by  Schinkcl  in  tho  years  1822-24,  with 
its  eight  colossal  figures  of  whito  marble,  representing  tho 
ideal  stages  of  a  warrior's  career.  Tho  statues  are  for  tho 
ipost  part  of  high  artistic  merit.  They  stand  on  granite 
icdwtals,  aud  arc  tho   work   of  Drake,  WoUT,  and  other 


eminent    sculptors.      The   Kurfiirstenbru  i?T<-» 

bridge  which  merits  notice,  on  account  of  ti..        "JJo 
bronze  statue  of  the  Great  Elector  by  which  it  is  aao. 

The  etymology  of  tho  word  "  Berlin"  is  doubtful.  Somt . 
derive  it  from  CeRic  roots — ber,  small,  short,  and  lyn,  a 
lake.  Others  regard  it  as  a  Wend  word,  meaning  a  free, 
open  place.  Others,  again,  regard  it  as  coming  from  the 
word  werl,  a  river  island.  Professor  Paul  Cassel,  in  a 
recently  published  dissertation,  derives  it  from  the  German 
word  "  Briihl,"  a  marshy  district,  and  the  Slavonic  termina- 
tion "in;"  thus  Briihl,  by  the  regular  transmutation  Biirhl 
(compare  Germ,  brennen  and  Eng.  burn),  Biirhlin.  The 
question  is  likely  to  remain  in  tiie  stage  of  more  or  lass 
probable  conjecture. 

Similar  obscurity  rests  on  the  origin  of  'the  city.  The 
hypotheses  which  carried  it  back  to  the  early  years  of  the 
Christian  era  have  been  wholly  abandoned.  Even  the 
Margrave  Albert  the  Bear  (d.  1170)  is  no  longer  unquestion- 
ably regarded  as  its  founder,  and  the  tendency  of  opinion 
now  is  to  date  its  origin  from  the  time  of  his  great-grand- 
eons,  Otho  and  John.  ^When  first  alluded  to,  what  is  now 
Berlin  was  spoken  of  as  two  towns.  Coin  and  Berlin.  The 
first  authentic  document  concerning  the  former  is  from  the 
year  1237,  concerning  the  latter  from  the  year  1244,  and 
it  is  with  these  dates  that  tho  trustworthy  history  of  the 
city  begins.  Fidicin,  in  his  Diplomatische  Beitrdge  zur 
Oeschichie  der  Stadl  Berlin,  vol  iii.,  divides  the  history  of 
the  town,  from  its  origin  to  the  times  of  the  Reformation, 
into  three  periods.  The  first  of  these,  down  to  the  year 
1307,  is  the  period  during  which  the  two  towns  had  a 
sei)ai-ate  administration;  the  second,  from  1307  to  1442, 
dates  from  the  initiation  of  the  joint  administration  of  the 
ytwo  t-jwns  to  its  consummation.  The  third  period  extends 
from  .'442  to  1539,  when  the  two  towns  embraced  the 
reformed  faith. 

In'thfc  year  1565  the  town  had  already  a  population  of  Progrew. 
12,000.  About  ninety  years  later,  after  the  close  of  the 
Thirty  Yeai-s'  War,  it  had  sunk  to  6000.  At  the  death  of 
the  Great  Elector  in  1688,  it  had  risen  to  20,000.  The 
Elector  Frederick  III.,  afterwards  King  Frederick  I.,  sought 
to  make  it  worthy  of  a  royal  "  residence,"  to  which  rank  it 
had  been  raised  in  1701.  From  that  time  onwards  Berlin 
grew  steadily  in  extent,  splendour,  and  population.  Frederick 
the. Great  found  it,  at  his  accession  in  1740,  with  90,000 
inhabitants.  At  the  accession  of  Frederick  William  IV.  iu 
1840  it  had  331,894,  and  in  the  month  of  July  1874, 
thirty-four  years  later,  the  population  had  nearly  trebled, 
the  exact  numbers  in  tli.it  year  being  949,144.  The  two 
original  townships  of  Coin  and  Berlin  have  grown  into  the 
sixteen  townships  into  which  the  city  is  now  divided,  cover- 
ing about  25  English  square  miles  of  land,  and  Berlin  now 
takes  its  place  as  the  fourth,  perhaps  the  third,  greatest  city 
in  Europe,  surpassed  only  by  London,  Paris,  and  possibly 
Vienna.  Its  importance  is  now  such  that  a  bill,  at  present 
submitted  by  the  Government  to  the  consideration  of  the 
Legislature,  proposes  to  raise  it  to  the  rank  of  a  province 
of  the  kingdom. 

Progress  and  pro.=^pcrity  have,  however,  been  chequered 
by  reverses  and  humiliations.  The  17th  century  saw  the 
Imperialists  and  Swedes,  under  Wallenstein  and  under 
Gustaviis  Adolphus,  as  enemies,  within  its  walls  ;  tho  18tb 
century,  the  Austrians  and  Rus.'sians,  during  the  Seven 
Years'  War;  the  ISth  century.  Napoleon  I.  and  the  French; 
and  the  year  1848  witnessed  the  bloody  scenes  of  the 
March  Revolution.  But  the  development  of  constitutional 
government,  aud  the  triumphs  of  18C6  and  1870,  have 
wiped  out  the  memory  of  these  dark  spots  in  tho  history  of 
tho  Prussian  capital. 

The  town  has  grown  in  splendour  as  it  has  increased  in 
numbers.     Daniel,  in  the  fourth  volume  of  his  Handbook 


BERLIN 


p  -^.aphy,  gives  the  numoer  of  its  public  buildings  as 
( Jo.  Of  these,  its  churches  are  the  structures  which  lay 
slaim  to  the  highest  antiquity,  four  of  them  dating  from 
the  1 3th  and  1 4th  centuries.  But  in  respect  of  its  churches, 
both  in  their  number  and  their  beauty,  Berlin  is,  relatively 
Bpeaking,  probably  the  poorest  of  the  capitals  of  Christen- 
dom. It  has  only  48  churches  and  chapels  belonging  to 
the  State  Church,  5  Roman  Catholic  churches  and  chapels, 
8  foreign  and  free  chapels,  and  3  synagogues,  lo  satisfy 
the  religious  wants  of  a  million  of  people.  Kor  are  these 
over-filled.  Dr  Schwabe,  the  statistician,  fixes  the  number 
of  actual  worshippers  in  all  the  churches  on  an  average 
Sund.iy  at  less  than  2  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population. 
On  the  1st  of  December  1871   the  difTeretit  creed.'*  were 


found  to  be  represented  in  the  folio..iJg  proportions  :— 
732,301  were  Protestants  of-  the  State  Church, '2570  Dis- 
senters, 51,517  Eoman  Catholics,  36,015  Jews,  34  of  non- 
Christian  creeds,  3854  persons  whose  creed  was  uncertain. 
In  secular  public  buildings  Berlin  is  very  rich.  Enter- 
ing the  city  at  the  Potsdam  Gate,  traveriJng  a  few  hundred 
yards  of  the  Leipzigerstrasse,  turning  into  the  Wilhelm- 
strasse,  and  following  its  course  until  it  reaches  the  street, 
Unter  den  Linden,  then  beginning  at  the  Brandenburg  Gate 
and  going  along  the  Unter  den  Linden  until  its  termina- 
tion, there  wilt  be  seen  within  the  limits  of  half  an  hour's 
walk  the  following  among  other  buildings,  many  of  them 
of  great  architectural  merit : — The  Admiralty,  the  Upper 
Houie  of  the  Prussian   Lem'slntiire,  the   Imperial  Parlia 


of  Ueilii 


JJJAAIimoMcw  la. 


A,  Schloss  Bi-Uclic  (Cusllf  RndBe) 

B,  Ijinge  or  Kui  fiiratcn  Brilckc 

C.  MoQument  to  hedcrick  tht  Great. 

D.  Monument  to    Frederick  WUllaa]  I 

IIL 
1   Briti.^h  Embaaey 
3.  Admiralty 
1  luilu^trtal  (0«wcrbc)  Miueum. 


4.  Pftlaco  of  Prinrca  Alciandci    and 

Gcorcc 
fi.  Mlrilsiry  of  the  Inlenot. 

6.  Aijuarium. 

7.  Husslan  Embn^sy 

5.  Royal  Academy. 
9.  University, 

10  Talace  of  the  Emperor. 


18.  MUn<c  (Mint). 

19.  Koyal  Thcatro 
I'O.  Circus  flient). 

21.  Palace  of  the  General  Staff 

'."-*.  Kuiiiincri,'ericlit  (Ctiamberl. 

I'.'t.  Count  liaczvnflkt's  rtcluroOallerj. 

;<,  Ciiiliolle  UoipllaL 

25.  Iiilinnury, 


ment,  the  War  Office,  the  residence  of  the  Minister  of 
Commerce,  the  palaces  of  Prince  Carl  and  the  Princca 
Pless  and  Radziwill,  the  Foreign  Office,  the  Imperial  Chan- 
cery, the  palaces  of  tho  Ministers  of  the  Royal  House  and 
of  Justice,  the  palaces  of  tho  Princes  Alexander  and  George, 
the  Brandenburg  Gate,  the  Royal  School  of  Artillery  and 
Engineering,  the  residences  and  offices  of  the  Ministers  of 
the  Interior  and  of  Worship,  the  Russian  Embassy,  the 
Great  Arcade,  the  Nctherland  Pal.iceand  tho  palace  of  the 
Emperor,  the  Royal  Academy,  tho  University,  the  Royal 
Library,  the  Opera,  the  Arsenal,  the  palace  of  the  Crown 
Pnnce,  the  palace  of  the  Commandant  of  Berhn,  the  Castle 
Bridge,  the  Academy  of  Architecture,  the  Castle,  the 
Cathedral,  the  Old  and  New  Museums,  and  the  National 


11    Royal  Library 

\i  Opera. 

lil    Konicswnchc, 

14  Zcu^hiius  (Aioeniil). 

15.  Palace  of  the  Ciown  Pi  Inec 

16.  Palace  of  tho   Commatidaut  of 

Berlin. 
17   nauakademlc  (Architecture) 

Gallery.  At  a  short  distance  from  this  line  are  the  Ex- 
change, the  Rathhaus,  the  Mint,  the  Bank,  and  the  Royal 
Theatre.  Further  away  are  the  various  barracks,  the 
palace  of  the  general  staff,  and  tho  eight  railway  termini. 
Berlin  differs  from  other  great  capitals  in  this  respect,  that 
with  the  exception  of  the  castle, — a  large  building  enclosing 
two  courts,  and  coiitiiiniiig  more  thatf  GOO  rooms,  and 
which  dates  back  in  its  origin  to  the  1  6th  'entur)', — all  its 
public  buildings  are  comparatively  nKidcrn,  dating  in  their 
present  form  from  tho  18th  and  19th  centuries.  The 
public  buildings  and  monutncnts  which  render  it  famous, 
such  as  the  palaces,  museums,  theatre,  exch.ir>go,  bank, 
rathhaus,  the  Jewish  synagogue,  tho  monument.-  and  co- 
lumns of  victory,  date  almost  \nthout  cxceptjoD  from  Utef 


BERLIN 


52ry 


than  1814,  the  close  of  the  great  conflict  with  Napoleon  I. 
The  Exchange,  finished  in  lSG3,.at  a  cost  of  £180,000 
sterling ;  the  Synagogue,  a  proud  building  in  Oriental  style, 
finished  in  18C6,  at  a  cost  of  £107,000;  and  the  Rath- 
haus,  finished  in  1869,  at  a  cost  of  £500,000  sterling,  in- 
cluding the  land  on  which  it  stands,  are  the  most  recent 
of  its  great  buildings.  The  New  National  Gallery  is  nearly 
completed,  and  the  Imperial  Bank  is  being  rebuilt.  It  is 
probable  that  no  city  in  the  world  can  show  so  large  a 
number  of  fine  structures  so  closely  clustered  together. 

Up  to  a  very  recent  date  Berlin  was  a  walled  city. 
Those  of  its  nineteen  gates  which  still  remain  have  only 

,  in  historical  or  architectural   interest     The  principal  of 
t.hese  is  the  Brandenburg  Gate,  an  imitation  of  the  Propy- 

■  laoa  at  Athens.  It  is  201  feet  broad  and  nearly  65  feet 
high.  It  is  supported  by  twelve  Doric  columns,  each  44 
feet  in  height,  and  surmounted  by  a  car  of  victory,  which, 
taken  by  Napoleon  to  Paris  in  1807,  was  brought  back  by 
the  Prussians  in  1814.  It  has  recently  been  enlarged  by 
two  lateral  colonnades,  each  supported  by  16  columns. 
Btrwti  The  streets,  about  520  in  number,  are,  with  the  excep- 

ion  of  the  districts  in  the  most  ancient  part  of  the  city, 
long,  strait,-  and  wide,  lined  wilt  high  houses,  for  the  old 
typical  Berlin  house,  with  its  ground  floor  and  first  floor, 
is  rapidly  disappearing.  The  Unter  den  Lindea  is  3287 
feet  long  by  160  broad.  The  new  boulevard,  the  Kiiniggratz- 
erstrasse,  is  longer  still,  though  not  so  wide.  The  Fried- 
richstrasse  and  the  Oranienstrasse  exceed  2  English  miles 
in  length.  The  city  has  about  60  squares.  It  has  25 
theatres  and  1 4  large  halls  for  regular  entertainments.  It 
'has  an  aquarium,  zoological  garden,  and  a  floral  institution, 
Hospital*,  with  park,  flower,  and  palm  houses.  It  has  several  hospi- 
tals, of  which  the  largest  is  the  Charity,  with  accommo- 
dation for  I5(f0  patients.  The  Bethany,  Elizabeth,  and 
Lazarus  hospitals  are  attached  to  establishments  of  Pro- 
testant deaconesses.  The  St  Hedwig's  hospital  is  under 
the  care  of  Roman  Catholic  sisters.  The  Augusta  hospital, 
under  the  immediate  patronage  and  control  of  the  empress, 
is  in  the  hands  of  lady  nurses,  who  nurse  the  sick  without 
assuming  the  garb  and  character  of  a  religious  sisterhood. 
The  people's  parks  are  the  Humboldt's  Hain,  the  Friedrich's 
Hain,  the  Hasenheide,  and,  above  all,  the  Thiergarten,  a 
■"  wood  covering  820  Prussian  acres  of  ground,  and  reaching 

up  CO  the  Brandenburg  Gate. 

As  has  been  seen,  the  population  has  trebled  itself  within 
the  last  34  years,  naturally  not  so  much  by  the  excess  of 
birttis  over  deaths,  as  by  an  unbroken  current  of  immigra- 
tioa  In  1873  the  births  were  35,054,  the  deaths  26,427, 
leaving  an  excess  of  8527  births.  But  the  increase  in  the 
population  of  the  city  in  the  same  year  was  50,184,  leaving 
41,657  as  the  increase  through  the  influx  from  without. 
It  wUl  thus  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  only  a  minority  of  the 
population  are  native  Bcrliners.  In  the  census  of  1867  it 
was  found  that,  taking  the  population  above  20  years  of 
age,  only  one-third  were  natives  of  the  city.  The  immi- 
gration is  almost  exclusively  from  the  Prussian  provinces, 
and  among  these  principally  from  Brandenburg  and  from 
the  eastern  and  north-eastern  provinces.  In  1871  it  was 
lound  that  out  of  every  10,000  inhabitants,  9725  were  Prus- 
sian subjects,  105  were  from  other  German  states,  55  from 
foreign  lands,  and  47  were  of  a  nationality  not  as';ertained. 
The  foreign  element  almost  vanishes,  and  the  German 
element  is  represented  principally  by  the  north,  so  that  in 
blood  and  manners  Berlin  remains  essentially  a  north- 
eastern German  city,  i.e.,  a  city  in  which  German,  Wend, 
and  Polish  blood  flows  commingled  in  the  veins  of  the 
citizens.  In  past  times  Berlin  received  a  strong  infusion 
of  foreign  blood,  the  influence  of  which  is  perceptible  to 
the  present  day  in  its  intellectual  and  social  life.  Suth 
names  as  Savigny,  LancijoUe,  De  la  Croix,  De  Ic  Coq,  Du 


Bois-ReymonJ,  tell  of  the  French  refugees  who  found  t 
home  here  in  the  cold  north  when  expelled  from  tlieir  own 
land.  Daniel,  iahis  Geography,  vol.  iv.  p.  155,  says  that 
there  was  a  time  when  ivery  tenth  man  in  the  city  was  a 
Frenchman.  Flemish  and  Bohemian  elements,  to  say  no- 
thing of  the  banished  Salzburgers.  were  introduced  in  a 
similar  manner.  Add  to  these  the  86,013  Jews  now  resi- 
dent in  the  city,  anfl  the  picture  of  the  commingled  races 
which  make  up  its  population  is  pretty  complete. 
,  The  826,341  inhabitants- of  the  city  were  found  at  the 
lensus  of  1871  to  be  living  in  14,478  dwelling-houses,  and 
to  consist  of  178,159  householis  These  numbers  show 
that  the  luxury  of  a  single  house  for  a  siugle  family  is  rare, 
and  thij  holds  good  also  of  the  wealthier  classes  of  the 
people.  These  numbers  fall  far  short  of  the  present  (1875) 
number  of  houses  and  of  households,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  fact  that  the  value  >l  the  household  property  of  the 
city  in  1874  exceeded  that  of  U71  by  £18,000,000 
sterling  of  which  the  greatest  parf.  falls  lo  newly-built 
houses  or  houses  enlarged.  In  1871  the  average  number 
of  persons  comprised  in  a  household  Vas  found  to  be  4  6, 
the  number  of  households  dwelling  in  a  house  12  3,  and 
the  number  of  persons  dwelling  in  a  house  57'1.  Theae 
numbe  s  throw  light  on  the  moral  and  social  life  of  the 
city,  and  compared  with  the  past,  show  the  change  in  the 
domestic  habits  of  the  people.  In  1540  the  average 
number  of  inmates  in  a  house  was  6,  in  1740  it  was  17, 
in  1867  it  had  risen  to  32,  and  in  1871  to  57.  Between 
the  years  1864  and  1871  the  one-storied  houses  of  the  city 
decreased  8  per  cent.,  the  two  and  three-storied  houses  4J 
per  cent.,  while  the  number  of  four-storied  houses  increased 
11  per  cent.,  and  the  five-storied  and  higher  houses  50  per 
cent.  With  the  increase  of  high  houses,  the  underground 
cellar  dwellings,  which  form  so  striking  a  feature  in  the 
house  architecture  of  the  city,  increase  in  a  like  proportion, 
and  these  and  the  attics  are  the  dwellings  of  the  poor.  Id 
1867  there  were  14,292  such  cellar  dwellings,  in  1871  they 
had  increased  to  19,208.  Taking  the  average  of  1867 — 
4'  inmjtes  to  a  cellar  dwelling — we  get  '  6,832  persons 
living  under  ground.  In  1871  there  were  4565  dwellings 
which  contained  no  room  which  could  be  heated.  This 
class  of  dwelling  had  doubled  between  the  two  census 
years  of  1867  and  1871.  Taking  3  inmates  (the  ascer- 
tained average  of  1867)  to  such  adwelling,  we  have  13,695 
persons  who  pass  the  winter  in  unheated  dwellings,  in  a 
climate  where  the  cold  not  un/requently  sinks  below  the 
zero  of  Fahrenheit.  Of  the  remaining  dwellings  of  the 
city,  95,423  had  only  one  room  which  could  be  heated. 
This  number,  at  4  persons  to  a  dwelling,  give  us  an  insight 
into  the  domestic  life  of  381,692  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
city;  that  is,  with  the  13,695  persons  mentioned  above, 
of  nearly  half  the  population.  Such  dwellings  engender 
no  feeling  of  home,  and  the  habits  of  the  people  arc  m  a 
certain  sense  nomadic.  In  1872,  74,568  changes  of  dwell- 
ing took  place,  involving  an  expense  at  a  very  moderate 
calcuktion  of  £"5S,900.  In  the  poorer  townships  there 
were  70  removals  to  every  100  dwellings  I 

The  rate  of  mortality  is  high.  In  1873,  a  favonraWe 
year,  it  was  28  to  every  1000  of  the  popularion.  Taking 
the  deaths  as  a  whole,  58  per  cent,  were  of  children  under 
10  years  of  age.  The  rate  of  raortahty  is  on  the  increase. 
Professor  Virchow,  in  a  report  to  the  municipal  authorities, 
stated  that,  dividing  the  last  15  years  into  periods  of  5 
years  each,  the  geieral  mortality  in  each  of  the  three  period* 
was  as  5,  7,  9.  The  mortality  of  children  under  1  year  in 
the  same  three  periods  was  as  5,  7, 1 1 ;  that  is,  it  had  more 
than  ioublcd.  In  the  year  1872,  out  of  27,800  death*. 
11,136  were  of  children  under  1  year. 

The  city  is  well  supplied  with  water  by  works  con- 
structed by  an  English  company,  which  have  now  beoom* 


596 


B  E  R  T-  I  N 


the  property  of  the  city.  English  and  German  coiupanies 
supply  the  city  with  gas.  A  system  of  underground 
drainage  is  at  present  in- process  of  construction.  Internal 
communication  is  kept  up  by  means  of  tramways,  omni- 
buses, and  cabs.  In  1873  there  were  54  tram-carriages,  185 
omnibuses,  and  4i24:  cabs  Licensed,  served  by  10,06u  horses. 

Police.  Berlin  is  governed  by  the  president  of  pohce,  by  the 

municipal  authorities,  and  in  military  matters  by  the 
governor  and  commandant  of  the  city.  The  police  presi- 
dent stands  under  the  minister  of  the  interior,  and  has 
the  control  of  all  that  stands  related  to  the  maintenance  of 
public  order.  The  municipal  body  consists  of  a  burgomaster- 
in-chief,  a  burgomaster,  a  body  of  town  councillors  (Stadt- 
rathe),  and  a  body  of  town  deputies  (Stadtverordnete). 
For  municipal  purposes  the  city  is  divided  into  16  town- 
ships and  210  districts.  For  police  purposes  the  work  is 
divided  into  six  departments,  and  an  extra  department  for 
the  fire  brigade  and  street  cleaning,  and  the  town  into  si.x 
larger  and  fifty  smaller  districts.'  At  the  head  of  each 
larger  district  is  a  police  captain,  at  the  head  of  each 
smaller  district  a  police  lieutenant. 

.V.tools.  .  With  the  exception  of  a  few  of  the  higher  schools,  which 
are  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  provincial  authori- 
ties, the  Berlin  schools  are  either  under  the  direct  supervi- 
sion of  the  municipal  body  or  of  its  committee  for  school 
purposes.  The  schools,  public  and  private,  are  divided 
into  higher,  middle,  and  elementary.  In  1872  there  were 
2-1  higher  public  schools.  Of  these,  10  wore  gymnasia  or 
schools  for  the  highest  branches  of  a  learned  education. 
I :i  these  schools  there  were  138  classes  and  5073  pupils, 
of  whom  2142  Were  o^er,  and  2931  under,  14  years  of  age. 
The  second  class  of  high  schools,  the  so-called  Eealscbulen, 
give  instruction  in  Latin,  but  otherwise  devote  almost 
exclusive  attention  to  the  departments  of  mathematics, 
science,  history,  modern  languages,  and  the  requirements 
of  the  higher  stages  of  general  or  commercial  life.  Of  this 
class  of  school  there  were  also  10,  with  143  classes,  5770 
pupils,  of  whom  1931  were  over,  and  3S39  under,  14 
years  of  age.  The  remaining  4  high  schools  were  for 
girls,  with  54  classes,  2522  pupils,  of  whom -529  were 
over,  and  1993  under,  14  years-  of  age.  In  addition  to 
these  public  schools  there  were  7  higher  schools  for  boys, 
with  55  classes  and  2098  pupils,  and  3G -higher  schoolsior 
girls,  with  243  classes  and  6629  pupils. 

Within  the  last  five  years  (1875)  no  new  school  of  this 
class  has  been  established,  but  several  are  in  process  of 
erection.  Between  1S69  and  1873  the  city  voted  about 
j£328,747  sterling  for  the  purchase  of  sites,  and  for  enlarging 
and  rebuilding  schoolsof  this  class ;  and  the  sum  still  required 
for  schools  of  this  class,  up  to  1877,  is  i!352,500  sterling. 
The  total  number  of  schools  of  all  sorts,  higher,  middle, 
end  elementary,  public  and  private,  in  1S72,  was  232,  with 
1072  boys'  classes,  1009  girls'  classos,'and  4  mixed  classes — 
together,  2085  ;  attended  by  50,316  boys,  44,959  girls— 
together,  95,275  children,  of  whom  7309,  or  735  per 
cent.,  were  over  14  years  of  age.  The  extent  to  which 
the  schools  aro  used  under  the  law  of  compulsory  eduoa- 
tum  is  very  difficult  to  determine.  In  1867  there  were 
103,383  children  of  the  school  age.  but  only-71,814,  or 
C95  per  cent.,  were  in  the  schools.  Dr  Schwabc,  by  a 
criticism  of  these  numbers,  reduces  the  percentage  of  non- 
attendance  to  1-3  percent.,  and  njiuntains  that  even  those 
are  not  all  to  be  regarded  as  absolutely  without  instruc- 
tion. In  1871  it  was  found  that  out  of  every  10,000  per- 
son.s  of  70  years  of  age  and  upwards,  there  were  1520  who 
could  neither  read  nor  write  ;  and  that  out  of  a  like  num 
bcr  from  CO  to  70,  there  were  SOO;  50  to  60,  446;  40  to 
60,  1.34,  30  to  40,  l.-iS;  25  to  30,  155;  20  to  25,  71 ;  15 
to  20,  58,  and  fn.m  10  to  15,  48. 

The  scbola-ttic  life  of  Berlin  culmioatcs  in  ila  university, 


which  is.  of  course,  not  a  municipal,  tut  ,i  n.itional  institn-  ra:n;rjtx 
tion.  It  !3,  with  the  e.xceptinn  uf  Bonn,  the  _\uuiigcst  of 
the  Prussian  universities,  but  the  first  of  tliom  all  in  in- 
tiuence  aud  reputation.  •  It  was  founded  in  ISIO.  Prussia 
had  lost  her  celebrated  university  of  Halle,  when  that  oity 
was  included  by  Napoleon  in  his  newly  created  "  kingdom 
of  Westphalia."  It  was  as  a  weapon  of  war,  as  well  as  a 
nursery  of  learning,  that  Frederick  William  LIL,  and  the 
great  men  whose  names  are  identified  with  its  origin, 
called  it  into  existence,  for  it  was  felt  that  knowledge  and 
religion  are  the  true  strength  and  defence  of  nations. 
William  V.  Humboldt  was  at  that  time  at  the  head 
of  the  educational  department  of  the  kingdom,  and  men 
like  Fichte  and  Schleiermacher  worked  the  popular  mind. 
It  was  opened  on  the  loth  of  October  ISIO.  Its  fiftt 
rector  was  Schmalz  ;  its  first  deans  of  faculty,  Schleifer- 
raacher,  Biener,  Hufeland,  and  Fichte.  Within  the  first 
ten  years  of  its  existence  it  counted  among  its  professor? 
such  names  as  De  Wette,  Neander,  Marheineke  ;  Savigiiy, 
Eichhorn  ;  Bockh,  BekUer,  Hegel,  Raumer,  Woltf,  Niebubr, 
and  Buttmann.  Later  followed  such  names  as  Hengsteu 
berg  and  Nitzschj  Homeyer,  Bethinan-HoUweg,  Puchta, 
Stalil,  and  Hefi'ter ;  Schelling,  Trendelenburg,  Bopp,  tfk 
brothers  Grimm,  Zumpt,  Carl  Ritter ;  and  at  the  present 
time  it  can  boast  of  such  names  as  T^vesten  and  Dornerj 
Gneist  and  Hinschius  ;  Langenbeck,  Bardclebcn,  Virchow, 
and  Du  Bois-Reymond  ;  von  Ranko,  Mommsen,  Curtius, 
Lepsius,  Hoflman  the  chemist,  and  Kiepert  the  geographer. 
Taking  ordinary,  honorary,  and  extraordinary  profe-ssors, 
licensed  lecturers  ijirivatdocenten),  and  readers  together, 
its  present  professorial  strength  consists  of  15  teachers  in 
the  faculty  of  theology,  14  in  the  faculty  of  law,  63  id  the 
faculty  of  medicine,  and  96  in  the  faculty  of  philosophy — 
together,  188.  The  number  of  matriculated  and  .un- 
matriculated  attendants  on  the  various  lectures  averages 
3000  in  the  summer  term,  and  3500  in  the  winter.  Dur- 
ing the  last  two  or  three  years,  however,  the  number  has 
been  steadily  decreasing.  Berlin,  in  point  of  numbers,  still 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  Prussian  universities,  but  no  longer 
of  the  German  universities,  being  now  outstripped  byLeipsic. 

In  addition  to  its  schools  and  its  university,  Berlin  is 
rich  in  institutions  for  the  promotion  of  learning,  scieaco, 
and  the  arts.  It  has  a  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  with  46 
members,  23  in  the  class  of  physics  and  mathematics,  and 
23  in  the  class  of  philosophy  and  history.  It  was  founded 
on  the  11th  of  June  1700,  and  the  name  of  Leibnitz  is 
associated  with  its  foundation.  It  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  a  Royal  Academy  by  Frederick  the  Great  in  1743.  Berlin 
has  also  a  Royal  Academy  of  Arts,  consisting  of  30  ordin- 
ary members  (1875),  under  the  immediate  protection  of 
the  kirtg,  and  governed  by  a  director  and  a  senate,  com- 
posed of  15  members  in  the  departments  of  painting, 
sculpture,  architecture,  and  engraving,  and  4  members  in 
the  section  for  music.  Berlin  has  also  its  academy  for 
vocal  music,  and  its  royal  high  school  for  music  in  all  its 
branches,  theoretical  and  applied,  and  learned  bodies  and 
associations  of  the  most  various  kinds.  It  has  9  public 
libraries,  at  the  head  of  which  stands  the  royal  library, 
with  710,000  vohimos  aiHl  15,000  manuscripts.  In  adJi 
tiiirt  to  these,  there  are  15  people's  libraries  established  in 
various  parts  of  the  city. 

Berlin  possesses  eight  public  museums,  in  addition  to  the 
Roy  d  Museums  and  the  National  Gallery.  The  Boyal  Mu- 
seums are  the  Old  and  the  New  Museum.s.  The  former;- 
which  stands  on  the  north-east  side  of  the  Lustgarten, 
facing  the  ca-;tle,  is  the  most  imposing  building  in  Derlin. 
It  was  huilt  in  the  reign  of  Fiodcrick  William  III.,  from 
designs  by  Schinkel.  Its  portico,  supported  by  IS  colossal 
Ionic  columns,  is  reached  by  a  wide  llight  of  steps.  Tlie 
museum  covers  47,000  square  feet  of  ground,  and  is  276 


BERLIN 


597 


fpet  long,  by  170  feet  wide  and  5-1  feet  high.  .  The  back 
and  sidi  walls  of  the  portico  are  covered  with  frescoes,  from 
designs  by  Schinkel,  executed  under  the  direction  of  Cor- 
nelius, and  representing,  in  mj-thical  and  symbolical  figures, 
the  world's  progress  from  shapeless  and  chaotic  to  organic 
and  developed  life.  The  sides  of  the  flight  of  steps  support 
the  well-known  equestrian  bronze  groups  of  the  Amazon 
by  Kiss,  and  the  Lion-slayer  by  Albert  Wolff.  Under 
the  portico  are  monuments  of  the  sculptors  Rauch  and 
Schadow,  the  architect  Schinkel,  and  the  art  critic  Winckel- 
maiin.  The  interior  consists  of  a  souterrain,  containing  the 
collection  of  antiquities,  and  of  a  first  Door,  entered  from 
the  portico  through  bronze  doors  of  artistic  merit,  made 
after  designs  by  Stiiler,  weighing  7A  tons,  and  executed  at 
a  co3t  of  £3600.  This  floor  consists  of  a  rotunda,  and  of 
balls  and  cabinets  of  sculpture.  The  second  floor,  in  a 
series  of  cabinets  running  round  the  entire  building,  con- 
tains the  national  collection  of  paintings.  These  are  divided 
into  three  classes, — the  Italian,  French,  and  Spanish ;  the 
Dutch,  Flemish,  and  Gorman  ;  and  the  Byzantine,  Italian, 
Dutch,  and  German  pictures  down  to  the  end  of  the  15th 
century^-each  of  the  classes  being  chronologically  arranged. 
The  gallery,  then  containing  1300  paintings,  was  enriched 
in  1874  by  the  valuable  pictures  of  the  Suennondl  gallery, 
purchased  by  the  nation  at  a  cost  of  £51,000.  The 
Suerraondt  gallery  was  rich  in  pictures  of  the  dd  Nether- 
land  and  German  schools,  and  of  the  Dutch  and  Fiemish 
schools  It  also  contained  a  few  Spanish,  Italian,  and 
French  pictures. 

The  New  Museum  is  connected  with  the  Old  Museum 
by  a  covered  corridor  In  its  interior  arrangements  and 
decoration  it  is  undoubtedly  the  most  splendid  structure 
in  the  city.  Like  the  Old  Museum,  it  has  three  floors. 
The  lowest  of  these  contains  the  Ethnographical  and  Egyp- 
tian Museums  and  the  Museum  of  Northern  Antiquities. 
In  the  first  floor,  plaster  casts  of  ancient,  medircval,  and 
modern  sculpture  are  found  in  thirteen  halls  and  in  three 
departments  On  the  walls  of  the  grand  marble  staircase, 
which  rises  to  the  full  height  of  the  building,  Kaulbach's 
renowned  cyclus  of  stereochromic  pictures  is  painted,  re- 
presenting the  six  grfat  epochs  of  human  progress,  from 
the  confusion  of  tongues  at  the  Tower  of  Babel  and  the 
dispersion  of  the  nations  to  the  Reformation  of  the  16th 
century  The  uppermost  story  contains  the  collection  of 
engravings  and  the  gallery  of  curiosities. 

The  National  Gallery  is  an  elegant  building,  after  do- 
signs  by  Stiller,  situated  between  the  New  Museum  and 
the  Spree,  and  is  intended  to  receive  the  collection  of  mo- 
dem paintings  now  exhibited  provisionally  in  the  apart- 
ments of  the  Academy. 

The  public  monuments  are  the  equestrian  statues  of  the 
Great  Elector  on  the  LangeBriicke,  erected  in  1703;  Ranch's 
celebrated  statue  of  Frederick  the  Great,  "  probably  the 
grandest  monument  in  Europe,"  opposite  the  emperor's 
palace,  Untcr  den  Linden  ;  and  the  statue  of  Frederick 
William  III  in  the  Lustgarten.  In  the  Thiergarten  is 
Drake's  marble  monument  of  Frederick  William  III.  ;  and 
in  the  neighbouring  Charlottenburg,  Ranch's'  figures  of  the 
same  king  and  the  Queen  Louise  in  the  mausole*im  in  the 
Part  A  second  group  of  monuments  on  the  Wilhclm's 
Hatz  commemorates  the  generals  of  the  Seven  Years'  War ; 
and  a  third,  iu  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Opera,  the 
generals  who  fought  against  Napoleon  I.  On  the  Krcuz- 
berg,  the  highest  spot  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Berlin,  a 
Gothic  monument  in  bronze  was  erected  by  Frederick 
William  III.  to  commemorate  the  victories  of  1  SI  3-15;  and 
Id  the  KOnigsplatz  the  present  empenir  has  erected  a  column 
of  victory  in  honour  of  the  triumphs  of  IS"!!,  18G6,  and 
1870.  This  monument  riser,  to  the  height  of  197  feet. 
Un  gilded  figure  of  Victory  on  the  top  being  40  feet  hi'.'h. 


Literature,  science,  and  art  are  represented  in  different 
parts  of  the  city  by  statues  and  busts  of  Rauch,  Schinkel, 
Thacr,  Beuth,  Schadow,  Winckelmann,  Schiller,  Hegel, 
Jahn  ;  while  the  monuments  in  the  cemeteries  and  churches 
bear  the  names  of  distinguished  men  in  all  departments  of 
political,  military,  and  scientific  life. 

Next  to  Leipsic,  Berlin  is  the  largest  publishing  centre  Publica- 
in  Germany.  In  the  year  1872  there  were  1540  works  ''0"«- 
published  in  Berlin,  of  which  20  per  cent,  had  to  do  with 
literature,  15  per  cent,  with  philology  and  pedagogy,  14  per 
cent,  with  law  and  politics,  7  per  cent,  with  history,  C  per 
cent,  were  military  works,  5  per  cent,  theological,  5  per 
cent,  had  to  do  with  agriculture,  and  4  per  cent,  with  medi- 
cine. Turning  to  journals  and  periodical  literature,  2C5 
newspapers  and  magazines,  daily,  weekly,  or  monthly,  ap- 
peared in  the  same  year.  The  political  journals  in  15crlin 
do  not,  hovever,  sustain  the  same  relation  to  the  political 
life  of  Germany  as  do  the  political  journals  of  London  and 
Paris  to  that  of  England  and  France. 

Berlin  is  not  only  a  centre  of  intelligence,  but  is  also 
an  important  centre  of  manufacture  and  trade.  Its  trade 
and  manufacture.-)  appear  to  be  at  present  in  a  transition 
state — old  branches  are  dying  out,  and  new  branches 
are  springing  into  existence.  Direct  railway  communica 
tion  between  the  corn  lands  of  north-eastern  Germany, 
Poland,  and  Russia  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  states  of 
Central  and  Western  Germany  on  the  other,  have  deprived 
Berlin  of  much  of  its  importance  as  a  centre  of  trade  in 
corn  and  flour  In  like  manner  the  spirit  trade  and  manu- 
facture have  suffered.  The  20,892,493  litres  'exponed  m 
1870  had  sunk  to  9,737,.'>97  litres  in  1872  On  the  other 
hand,  for  petroleum,  Berlin  has  become  an  emporium  fof 
the  supply  of  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg,  part  of  Posen, 
Silesia,  Saxony,  and  Bohemia  Silk  and  cotton  manufac- 
ture, which  in  former  times  constituted  a  principal  bmncb 
of  Berlin  man"faclure,  has  died  out  As  late  as  1849  Berlin 
h.ad  2147  silk  looms;  now  it  has  few  or  none.  Woollen 
manufacture  maintained  its  ground  for  a  time,  occupying 
about  8000  looms  and  11,404  workmen  as  late  as  1861. 
In  1874  the  number  of  hands  employed  in  spinning  and 
weaving  in  all  branches  had  sunk  to  2918.  The  chief 
articles  of  manufacture  and  commerce  are  locomotives  and 
machinery  ;  carriages ;  copper,  brass,  and  bronze  wares  ^ 
porcelain  ;  and  the  requisites  for  building  of  every  descrip- 
tion. The  manufacture  of  sewing-machines  has  assumed 
large  proportions,  from  70,000  to  75,000  being  mamifac- 
turcd  annually.  According  to  the  report  of  the  Govern- 
ment inspector  of  factories  for  the  city  of  Berlin,  presented 
to  the  minister  of  trade  and  commerce,  the  number  of 
per.wns  employed  in  all  the  Berlin  factories  in  the  year 
1874  was  64,466  By  a  "  factory  "  was  understood  any 
wholesale  manufacturing  establishment  employing  more 
than  10  persons.  In  1874  there  were  1906  such  factories 
at  work,  employing  51,464  males  and  1 1,004  females  abovs 
16  years  of  age;  1137  males  and  760  females  under  16 
and  above  14  years  of  age;  and  66  male  and  14  femalo 
children  under  1 4  years  of  age.  The  manufacture  of  steam- 
engines  and  machinery  occupied  14,737  persons;  brass- 
founding,  metallic  belt  and  lamp  manufacture,  9074  ;  car- 
pentiy,  joinery,  and  wood-carving,  4548;  printing,  3620; 
spinning  and  weaving,  2918;  sewing-machinos  and  tele- 
graphic  apparatus,  2788;  the  finer  qualities  of  paper,  2S85  ; 
porcelain  and  ware,  1741  ;  dyeing,  1712  ;  gas  works,  1518; 
tobacco  and  cigars,  1477;  manufacture  of  linen  garments, 
1355;  pianos  and  harmoniums,  1198;  dressmaking  and 
artificial  flowers,  1 127  ;  brewing,  106i.  None  of  the  other 
branches  found  occupation  for  1000  persons.  The  value  pf 
the  annual  exports  to  the  United  States  of  oitiJlcs  of 
Berlin  manufacture  has  risen  to  about  £1,000,000  sterling. 
The  exports  to  the  Brazils,  the  Argentine  Republic,  and 


098 


B  E  R  —  B  E  R 


Japan  are  also  increasing.  Berlin  is  growing  in  importance 
as  a  money  market  and  centre  of  industrial  undertakings. 
The  Berlin  Casspnverein,  through  which  the  banking  houses 
transact  their  business,  ['assed  £1,351,988,907  sterling 
throui;b  its  books  in  1872,  as  compared  with  £644,431,255 
6t«rlirig  in  1871  In  1872,23  new  banking  establish- 
ments were  enruUed  in  the  trade  register,  with  a-  capital 
of  £7,.')65,000  sterling;  and  in  the  same  year  144  new 
joint-stock  companies  were  enrolled,  representing  a  capital 
of  £18,000,000  sterling.  Since  that  time  the  tide  of 
enterprise  has  ebbed,  but  the  majority  of  these  under- 
takings continue  to  e.xist. 

In  the  progress  of  its  growth  Berlin  has  lost  much  of 
its  original  character.  The  numerical  relations  of  class 
to  class  have  been  greatly  modified.  New  political  insti- 
tutions have  sprung  into  existence,  of  which  the  Berlin  of 
the  early  years  of  Frederick  William  IV.  had  not  a  trace. 
It  has  become  the  seat  of  a  parliament  of  the  realm,  and 
of  a  parliament  of  the  empire.  Manufacture  and  trade 
have  come  to  absorb  70  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population. 
But  these  have  also  changed  their  character ;  old  branches 
which  constituted  a  marked  feature  of  its  commercial  and 
manufacturing  activity  have  almost  suddenly  died  out, 
while  new  branches  have  with  equal  rapidity  more  than 
supplied  their  place.  While  the  commercial  and  manufac- 
turiag  element  has  thus  increased,  other  elements  have 
undergone  a  relative  decline.  The  learned  professions  and 
the  civil  service  numbered  in  18C7  7'9  per  cent,  of  the 
population.  In  1871  the  proportion  had  sunk  to  Cll, 
and  since  then  the  per6entage  has  gone  on  decreasing.  In 
this  altered  state  of  affairs  Berlin  will  have  to  cherish  and 
nurture  the  scientific,  educational,  ethical,  and  relisious 
clrMH.'nts  in  bur  life  with  double  care,  not  only  to  keep  up 
her  old  reputation  abroad,  but  also  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting the  degeneration  of  her  people  at  home. 

Sources  of  information  : — Von  Klbden,  Uandbueh  dtr 
Lander-  und  Staatenkuiuie  von  Europa  ;  Daniel,  Uandbueh, 
der  Geographie,  vol.  iv.;  Fidicin,  Historisch-Diplomatische 
Dntritge  zur  Geschirhte  dcr  Stadt  Berlin,  5  vols. ;  Kbpke, 
Die  Grundung  der  Fred.  Wilhelm  Universitat  ru  Berlin ; 
Wiesc,  Das  Hijhtre  Schulwesen  in  Preussen,  3  vols.  Das 
Statialische  Jahrbvck  von  Berlin,  1867  to  1874.  Dr  H. 
Schwabe,  Resvltale  der  Yolkszdhlung  und  Volksbfschreibung 
vom  1'""  December  1871,  Berlin,  Simion.  ■    (a.  P.  D.) 

BERLIOZ,  Hkctok,  by  far  the  most  original  composer 
of  modern  France,  was  born  in  1803  at  Cote-Saint-Amire,  a 
email  town  near  Grenoble,  in  the  department  of  Isfere.  His 
father  was  a  physician  of  repute,  and  by .  his  desire  our 
composer  for  some  time  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
same  profession.  At  the  same  time  he  had  music  lessons, 
and,  in  secret,  perused  numerous  theoretical  works  on  coun- 
terpoint and  harmony,  with  little  profit  it  sjcms,  till  the 
hearing  and  subsequent  careful  analysis  of  one  of  Haydn's 
quartets  opened  a  new  vibta  to  his  migt'iidcd  aspirations. 
A  siiiilar  work  written  by  Berlioz  in  imitation  of  Haydn's 
masterpiece  w.as  favourably  received  by  his  Iriends.  From 
Pans,  where  he  had  been  sent' to  complete  his  medical 
studies,  boat  last  made  known  to  his  father  the  imalter- 
nblo  decision  of  devoting  himself  entirely  to  art,  the  answer 
to  which  coiifession'\va3  the  withdrawal  of  all  further 
pecuniary  assistance.  In  order  to  support  life  Berlioz  had 
to  accept  the  humble  engagement  of  a  singer  inthe  chofuS 
of  the  Oymnase  theatre.  Soon,  however,  ho  became  recon- 
ciled to  his  father  and  entered  the  Con.scrvatoire,  whero  he 
studied  composition  uuder  Keicha  and  Lesucur.  His  ficsl 
important  composition  was  an  opera  called  Les  /Varuv- 
Jwjrs,  of  which,  however,  only  the  overture  remains 
extant.  In  1825  he  left  the  Ciinscrvatoiro,  disgusted,  it  is 
said,  at  the  dry  |x;dantry  of  the  pmfessors,  and  began  a 
co'Tse  of  autodidactic  educutiv/U,  founded  chiefly  on  the 


works  of  Beethoven,  Cluck,  Weber,  and  other  German 
masters.  About  this  period  Berlioz  saw  for  the  first  time 
on  the  stage  the  talented  Irish  actress  Miss  Smithson,  who 
was  then  charming  Paris  by  her  impersonations  of 
Ophelia,  Juliet,  and  other  Shakespearean  characters.  The 
young  enthusiastic  composer  became  deeply  enamoured 
of  her  at  first  sight,  and  tried,  for  a  long  time  in  vain,  to 
gain  the  responsive  love  or  even  the  attention  of  his  idoL 
To  an  incident  of  this  wild  and  persevering  courtship 
Berlioz's  first  symphonic  work.  Episode  de  la  Vie  d'un 
Ariiste,  owes  its  orjgin.  It  describes  the  dreams  of 
an  artist  who,  under  the  influence  of  opium,  imagines  that 
he  has  killed  his  mistress,  and  in  his  vision  witnesses  his 
own  execution.  It  is  replete  with  the  spirit  of  contem- 
porary French  romanticism  and  of  self-destructive  Byronic 
despair.  A  written  programme  is  added  to  each  of  the  , 
five  movements  to  expound  the  imaginative  material  on 
which  the  music  is  founded.  By  the  advice  of  his  friends 
Berlioz  once  more  entered  the  Conservatoire,  where,  after 
several  unsuccessful  attempts,  his  cantata  Sardanapahis 
(1830)  gained  him  the  first  prize  for  foreign  travel,  in  spite 
of  the  strong  personal  antagonism  of  one  of  the  umpires. 
During  a  stay  in  Italy  Berlioz  composed  an  overture  to 
King  Lear,  and  Le  liiiour  d.  la  Vie, — a  BOVt  of  symphony, 
with  intervening-  poetical  declamation  between  the  single 
movements,  called  by  the  composer  a  melologue,  and 
written  in  continuation  of  the  Episode  de  la  Vie  d'un 
Artiste,  along  with  which  work  i*.  was  performed  at  the 
Paris  ConscFvatoire  in  1832.  Paganini  on  that  occasion 
spoke  to  Berlioz  the  memorable  words :  "Vous  com'mencez 
par  oil  les  autres  ont  fiui."  Miss  Smithson,  who  also 
was  present  on  the  occasion,  soon  afterwards  consented  to 
become  the  wife  of  her  ardent  lover.  The  artistic  success 
achieved  on  that  occasion  did  not  prove  to  be  of  a  lasting 
kind.  Berlioz's  music  was  too  far-'xemQfe  from  the  out- 
rent  of  popular  taste  to  be  much  admired  beyond  a  small 
circle  of  esoteric  worshippers.  It  is  true  that  his  name 
became  known  as  that  of  a  gifted  though  eccentric  com- 
poser ;  he  also  received  in  the  course  of  time  his  due  share 
of  the  distinctions  generally  awarded  to  artistic  merit,  such. 
as  the  ribbon  of  the  Legion  of  flonour  and  the  member- 
ship of  the  Institute.  But  these  distinctions  he  owed, 
perhaps,  less  to  a  genuine  admiration  of  his  compositions 
than  to  his  influential  position  as  the  musical  critic  of  the 
Journal  des  Dcbats  (a  position  which  he  never  used  or 
abused  to  push  his  own  works),  and  to  his  successes  abroad. 
In  1842  Berlioz  went  for  the  first  time  to  Germany,  where 
ho  was  hailed  with  welcome  by  the  leading  musicians  of 
the  younger  generation,  Robert  Schumann  foremost  amongst 
them.  The  latter  paved  the  way  for  the  French  composer's 
SL-:cess,  by  a  comprehensive  analysis  of  the  Episode  in 
his  musical  journal,  the  Neue  Zeitsckriftfiir  Musik.  Berlioz 
gave  successful  concerts  at  Leipsic  und  other  German 
cities,  an4  repeated  his  visit  on  various  later  occasions — in 
1852,  by  invitation  of  Li.szt,  to  conduct  hi3  opera,  Ben- 
venuto  Cellini  (hissed  off  the  stage  in  Paris),  at  Weimar ; 
and  in  1855  to  j)Toduee  his  oratorio-trilogy,  L'Enfancedu 
Chrisl,  in  the  same  city.  This  latter  work  had  been  pre- 
viou.nly  performed  at  Paris,  where  Berlioz  mystified  the 
critics  by  pretending  to  have  found  one  part  of  it,  the 
"  Flight  into  Egypit,"  amongst  the  manuscript  scores  of  a 
composer  of  the  1 7th  century,  Pierre  Ducr(5  by  name. 
Berlioz  also  made  journeys  to  Vienna  '(18GC)  und  St 
Petersburg  (1867),  where  his  works  were  received  with 
great  enthusiasm.     Ho  died  in  Paris,  March  9,  1869. 

Burlioz  has  justly  tx-cn  dMchtx-'ii  as  the  Fn'nch  repr*at'ntati\T  of 
niuiii(.^il  Komanticiitm,  and  his  works  are  in  this  n'9|>oct  closely  ci>n- 
ractpj  with  tho  conU-nii»orury  movement  io  lit«nitiuo  knoftn  by 
that  name.  The  athnity  between  him  and  Virior  Hugo,  for  in- 
jitflnoe,  ii  undeniable,  and  must  be  looked  for  derper  than  in  th« 
fanl;iit*c  eccentricities  flnd  brr'achcs  of  the  e;jtablishcd  form  common 


B  E  R  —  B  E  R 


599 


'to  both.  His  ready  acknowledgment  of  congenial  aspimtions  in 
foreign  countries,  so  adverse  to  French  natural  prejudice,  may  be 
cited  as  another  essentially  "romantic"  feature  in  Berlioz'9  character. 
la  bia  case,  however,  the  predilection  for  English  literature,  aa 
shown  in  the  choice  of  scv^Tal  of  his  moat  import.'(Ut  subjects  from 
Shakespeare,  Byron,  and  Walter  Scott,  may  bo  to  souio  extent 
explained  from  his  connection  with  Miss  Smithson,  a  striking  in- 
stance of  the  relation  between  life  and  art  in  a  man  of  higli  creative 
faculty. 

The  second  powerful  element  in  Berlioz's  compositions  is  the  in- 
fluence of  Beethovcu's  gigantic  works.  The  grand  fornn  of  the 
German  master's  symphonies  impressed  him  with  competitive  zeal, 
and  what  has  been  described  as  the  "poetical  idea"  in  Beethoven's 
creations  soon  began  to  run  riot  in  the  enthusiastic  mind  of  the 
young  medical  Btudont  But,  in  accordance  "with  the  aversion  of 
bis  natioual  character  to  indistinct  ideal  notions,  he  tried  to  con- 
doosa  the  poetical  essence  of  his  inspiration  in  the  tangible  sliape 
of  a  story,  and  in  this  manuer  became  the  father  of  what  is  generally 
called  "  programme-music'  Whether  the  author  of  such  works  as 
Harold  €>i  luilii,  or  the  Episode  dt  la  Vu  rf'uit  Ariistt^  may  lay 
«laim  to  the  prophet's  cloak  is  dilUcult  to  decide  ;  he  must  at  any 
rate  be  accepted  as  a  man  strong  in  his  own  convictions,  "a  swallower 
of  formulas,  "  and  faithful  ally  in  the  great  cause  of  n.aturo  vimis 
traditional  artificiality,  of  Shakespeare  against  pseudo-classicism. 
Under  such  c'rcuinstanccs  wo  can  hnrdly  be  surprised  at  seeing 
Berlioz  appreciated  sooner  and  more  lastingly  in  Germany  than  in 
his  own  country.  Schumann  and  Liszt  were,  as  wo  have  men- 
tioned, at  vario  IS  periods  amongst  the  foremost  promoters  of  his 
mu.-ic.  Wo  subjoin  a  list  of  tho  more  iniportaiit  works"  by 
Berl  1!  not  mentioned  a'uovc,  viz.,  the  syniplionies  JlonUo  a 
Jul  fUe  (1834),  and  Dnmiuiiwn  de  Fai^t  (ISJG);  the  operas  BiiUrke 
et  liiaidiet  (1862),  and  Z.«  Troyms  (ISGti);  a  Requiem,  and  Trislia, 
a  work  for  chorus  and  orchestra,  written  on  the  death  of  his  wife. 
Of  his  spirited  literary  productions  we  mention  his  Vcya'jt  musical 
tn.  ■AlUmajTU  el  en  lUxlU  (1345),  Les  Soirets  d'Orckextre  (1853),  A 
travers  Clfint  (1862),  and  his  incomparable  TraiU  d' Instrttmtnta- 
Hon  (1344).  The  characteristics  of  Berlioz's  literary  style  are  French 
verve  and  esprit,  occasionally  combined  with  English  humour  and 
German  depth  of  idea.  The  time  lias  hardly  yet  arrived  for  judging 
finally  of  Berlioz's  position  in  the  history  of  his  art  His  original 
ideas,  his  poetical  intentious,  nobody  can  deny  ;  tho  question  is 
whether  he  possesses  genuine  creatu'e  power  to  carry  out  these  in- 
tentions, and,  fint  of  all,  that  broad  touch  of  nature  which  leads 
from  subjective  f  iig  to  objective  rendering,  and  which  alone  can 
e-tablish  a  Listing  rapport  between  a  great  artist  and  posterity.  To 
dcji  le  this  question  tlie  performances  of  his  works  have  as  yet,  un- 
fortunately, been  too  few  and  far  between.  In  England, -particu- 
larlv,  only  a  very  small  fi.%ctioii  of  his  compositions  has  been 
hoard.  r.  H.) 

BERMUDAS,  Somer.s's  Isl.\n'D3,  or  Sum.mer  Islands, 
a  group  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  seat  of  a  British  colony, 
ill  Ut.  32°  20'  N.  and  long  Gt'DO'  W.,  about  600  miles  E.  by 
S.  from  Cape  Hattera.?  on  the  American  coast.  They  lie 
to  the  soutti  of  a  coral  reef  or  atoll,  which  extends  about 
24  miles  in  length  from  N.E.  to  S.W.,  by  12  in  breadth. 
The  largest  of  the  series  is  Great  Bermuda,  or  Long 
Island,  enclosing  on  the  east  Harrington  or  Little  Sound, 
and  on  the  west  the  Great  SouuJ,  which  is  thickly  studded 
with  islets,  and  protected  on  the  north  by  tho  islands 
of  Somerset,  Boaz,  and  Inland.  The  remaining  members 
of  the  group,  St  George's,  Pagets,  Smith's,  St  David's, 
Coooer's,  Nonsuch,  itc,  lie  to  the  east,  and  form  a  semicircle 
rojad  Castle  Harbour.  The  islauds  are  wholly  composed 
of  a  white  granular  limestone  of  various  degrees  of  hard- 
ness, from  the  crystalline  "  base  rock,"  as  it  is  called,  to 
friable  grit.  It  seems  that  they  are  in  a  state  of  subsid- 
ence and  not  of  elevation.  The  caves  which  usually  appear 
ill  limestone  formations  are  ^ell  represented,  many  of  them 
running  far  into  the  land  ani  displaying  a  rich  variety  of 
Btilagmitos  and  stalactites.  Among  tho  loss  ordinary  geo- 
logical phenomena  may  be  mentioned  the  "sand  glacier" 
at  Elbow  Bay.  Tho  surface  soil  is  a  curious  kind  of  red 
earth,  which  is  also  found  in  ochre  like  strata  throughout 
the  limestone.  It  is  generally  mixed  with  vegetable  matter 
aod  coral  sand.  There  is  a  total  want  of  streams  and 
wolls  of  fresh  water,  and  the  inhabitants  are  dependent  on 
the  rain,  which  they  collect  and  preserve  in  tanks.  The 
climate  of  tho  Bermudas  has  a  reputation  for  unhealthincss 
which  is  hardly  borne  out,  for  tha  ordinary  dsalb-rjtc  is  only 


22  per  1000.  Yellow  fe^cr  and  typhus,  however,  have  on 
some  occasions  raged  with  extreme  violence,  and  the  former 
has  appeared  four  times  within'  the  space  of  thirty  years. 
The  maximum  reading  of  the  thermometer  is  about  bo'S, 
and  its  miuimum  49, — the  mean  annual  temperature  being 
10"  Fahr.,  and  that  of  March  65".  Vegetation  is  very 
rapid,  and  the  soil  U  clad  in  a  mantle  of  almost  perpetual 
green.  The  principal  kind  of  tree  is  the  so-called  "  Bermudas 
cedar,"  really  a  species  of  juniper,  which  furnishes  timber 
for  small  vessels.  The  shores  are  fringed  with  the  man- 
grove; the  prickly  pear  grows  luxuriantly  in  the  most 
barren  districts ;  and  wherever  the  ground  is  left  to  itself  the 
sage-bush  springs  up  profusely.  The  citron,  sour  orange, 
lemon,  and  limo  grow  wild  ;  but  the  apple  and  peach  do 
not  CO  tie  to  perfection.  The  loquat,  an  introduction  from 
China  thrives  admirably.  The  gooseberry,  currant,  and 
raspbe  -y,  all  run  to  wood.  The  oleander  bush,  with  all 
its  bciiaty,  is  almost  a  nuisance.  The  soil  is  very  fertile 
in  the  growth  of  esculent  plants  ard  roots  ;  and  a  consider- 
able trade  has  grown  up  within  recent  years  between 
Bermuc  as  aud  New  York,  principally  in  arrowroot,  of 
excellent  quality,  onions,  Irish  potatoes,  and  tomatoes. 
Regular  steam  communication  between  the  island  and  that 
city  is  maintained,  the  Government  subsidizing  the  vessels. 
Tho  total  value  of  the  export  of  these  articles  in  1S72  was 
£64,030.  Medicinal  plants,  as  the  castor-oil  plant,  aloe,  and 
jalap,  come  to  great  perfection  without  culture;  and  coffee, 
indigo,  cotton,  and  tobacco  are  also  of  spontaneous  growth. 
TobaccT  curing  ceased  about  1707.  Few  oxen  or  sheep 
are  reared  in  the  colony,  a  supply  being  obtained  from 
North  America;  but  goats  are  kept  by  a  large  number  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  ass  is  the  usual  beast  of  burden.  The 
indigenous  Mammalia  are  very  few,  and  the  only  Reptilia 
are  a  small  lizard  and  the  green  turtle.  Birds,  how- 
ever, especially  aquatic  species,  are  very  numerous, — one  of 
the  commonest  being  .he  cardinal-grosbeak.  The  list  in- 
cludes the  cat-bird,  bluebird,  kingfisher,  ground-dove,  blue 
heron,  sandpiper,  moorhen,  tropic  bird,  and  Carolina  crake. 
Insects  are  comparatively  few ;  but  ants  swarm  destructively 
in  the  heat  of  the  year,  and  a  .species  of  ant-lion,  a  cicada 
(sci.ssor-grinder),  and  the  chigre  or  jigger,  are  common. 
Fish  art  plentiful  round  the  coasts,  and  the  whale-fishery 
was  once  an  important  industry.  Gold-fish,  introduced 
from  Demt  rara,  swarm  in  the  ditches. 

There  ae  two  towns  in  the  Bermudas,  St  George's, 
founded  in  1794,  and  Hamilton,  founded  in  1700,  and  in- 
corporated in  1793.  The  former  was  the  capital  till  the 
senate  and  courts  of  justice  were  removed  by  Sir  James 
Cockburn  to  Hamilton,  which  beiag  centrally  situated,  is 
much  more  convenient.  The  streets  of  St  George's  are 
close  and  tarrow,  and  tho  drainage  baa.  It  is  a  military 
station,  tho  barracks  lying  to  the  east  of  the  town.  The 
population  is  about  2000.  Hamilton,  in  the  Great  Bermuda, 
at  the  bottom  of  a  bay  which  is  entered  by  Trenblin's 
Narrow.s,  consists  of  an  irregular  half-street  fronting  a  line 
of  wharves.  Its  principal  buildings  include  a  court-bouse, 
a  legislative  assembly  house,  a  council  room,  a  library 
(1839),  a  ji.il,  and  a  large  church.  About  a  mile  from  the 
town  is  Lungton,  tho  governor's  residence.  In  Inland 
Island  is  situated  the  royal  dockyard  and  naval  establish- 
ment. A  hospital  stands  on  the  highest  point,  and  a 
lunatic  asylum  has  also  been  built.  The  bay  is  defended 
by  a  breakwater.  On  Boaz  Island  there  is  a  convict  station. 
A  causeway,  opened  in  1S71,  runs  from  St  George's  through 
Longbird  Island  westward,  across  Castle  Harbour.  The 
harbour  of  St  George's  has  space  enough  to  accommodate 
the  whole  British  navy;  yet,  till  deepened  by  blasting,  the 
entrance  was  so  narrow  as  to  render  it  almost  useless.  A 
marine  slip  \7a3  constructed  in  ISCi,  with  a  cap.icity  of 
1200  tons!    The  chief  u.iluary  establishment  is  at  Prospect 


600 


B  E  R  —  B  E  R 


Hill.  The  Government  consists  of  a  governor  appointed  by 
the  Crown,  and  a  privy  council  of  nine  members  appointed 
by  the  governor.  The  House  of  Assembly  consists  of  thirty- 
six  members,  who  receive  salaries.  The  Acta  are  usually 
|iassed  for  a  deSnite  period,  and  require  to  be  renewed 
from  time  to  time.  Much  of  the  judicial  administration  is 
left  to  unpaid  magistrates.  The  currency  of  the  colony, 
which  had  formerly  twelve  shillings  to  the  pound  sterling, 
was  assimilated  to  that  of  England  in  1842.  The 
.  colony  is  ecclesiastically  attached  tn  the  bishopric  of 
liarbados.  Both  Presbyterians  and  Wesleyana  are  en- 
dowed. There  are  numerous  schools,  and  in  1847  an 
educational  board  was  established  ,  but  the  general  educa- 
tional condition  is  unsatisfactory.  Of  2GU0  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  five  and  si-x,  only  about  1000  attend 
eohool:  Sunday  s^houls  are  of  much  greater  importance 
than  in  Enjland,  and  most  of  them  have  libraries.  The 
revenue  of  the  islands  in  1872  was  £33,256,  inclusive  of 
£\bOO  raised  by  loan;  the  gross  expenditure  was  £32,230; 
and  the  public  debt  amounted  to  £17,330.  The  population 
in  1850  was  11,092,  of  whom  4C69  were  whites;  by  the 
census  of  1371  it  had  increased  to  12,121. 

The  discovery  of  the  Bermudas  resulted  frora  the  shipwTeck  of 
Juan  Bermudez,  a  Spaniaril  (whose  name  they  now  bear),  when  on 
a  voyage  from  Spfiin  to  Cuba  with  a  cargo  of  hogs,  about  the  year 
1522.  Henry  Nlay,  au  EngHshnian,  sullereJ  the  same  fate  in  1^93; 
and  lastly.  Sir  George  Somers  shared  the  destiny  of  the  two  pre- 
cedint^  navigators  in  1GG9.  Sir  Geortje  was  the  tiist  who  established 
a  settlement  upon  them,  but  he  died  before  he  had  fully  accomplished 
.  his  design.  In  1612  the  Bermudas  were  granted  to  an  offshoot  of  the 
VirginiaCoinpany,  which  consisted  of  120  persons,  CO  of  whom,  under 
the  command  of  Mr  Henry  More,  piocceded  to  the  islands;  and  an 
accession  of  inhaljitarits  was  gained  during  the  ci\il  wars,  many 
having  sought  a  refu>«;  from  the  tyranny  of  the  ruling  party  in  thig 
distant  sanctuary,  into  the  details  of  the  history  we  cannot  enter, 
but  the  following  items  are  important.  The  first  source  of  colonial 
w\alth  was  the  growing  of  tobacco  ;  and  at  a  later  period  the  pro- 
duce of  the  salt  lagoons  at  Turk's  Island  became  a  main  article  of 
trade.  .  In  1726  Berkeley  chose  the  Summer  Islands  as  the  seat  of 
bis  projected  missionary  establishment.  The  first  newspaper,  the 
Bermuda  GazdU.  was  published  in  1734.  See  W.  F.  Williams, 
Ui3t.  and  Slut.  Account  of  Ihe  Uermudaa,  \m  ;  Godet,  Bermuda, 
ill  History,  Ac,  1660. 

BERN,  nr  Bep.n-e,  a  canton  of  Switzerland,  situated 
between  46°  !9'  ond  47°  30'  N.  lat.,  and  between  C°  50'  and 
8°  28'  E.  long.  It  extends  from  the  French  and  Alsace 
frontier  south-east  through  the  heart  of  the  Confederacy  to 
Valais,  by  which  it  is  bounded  on  the  S,,  while  it  has  the 
cantons  of  Basel,  Soleure,  Aargau,  Lucerne,  Unterv.-aldcn, 
and  Uri  on  the  E.,  and  Vaud,  Freiburg,  Neufch^tel  on 
the  W.  Bern  is  the  second  largest  canton  of  Switzerland, 
its  surface  being  estimated  at  2562  square  miles.  The 
population  in  1870  amounted  to  506,405,  of  whom  430,304 
were  Protestants,  and  06,015  Catholics,  while  1401  were 
Jews.  German  was  spoken  in  83,093  families,  and  French 
in  10,640,  the  latter  language  prcv'ailing  in  the  N.W. 
The  canton  is  naturally  divided  into  three  regions,  in  which 
the  climate  varies  with  the  elevation.  The  southern  part, 
called  the  Oberland,  is  for  its  scenery  the  most  attractive 
part  of  all  Switzerland.  Many  of  the  grandest  mountains 
of  the  Alpine  system — such  as  the  Grimsel,  the  Fiusteraar- 
horn,  the  Schreckhorn,  the  Wetterhorn,  thcEiger,  and  the 
Jungfrau — lie  along  the  frontier  chain,  and  numerous 
offshoots  and  valleys  of  great  beauty  stretch  northward 
towards  the  central  part  of  the  canton.  This  latter  district 
consists  for  the  most  part  of  an  undulating  plain,  inter- 
•persed  with  lesser  chains  and  hills, — the  soil  being  fertile 
and  well  cultivated.  The  north  is  occupied  with  the 
ranges  of  the  Jura  system.  The  principal  river  in  the 
canton  is  the  Aar,  which  drains  by  far  the  larger  proportion 
of  its  surface,  either  directly  or  by  mc^ns  of  its  numerous 
tributaries.  Of  thpep,  the  mn.qt  important  are  the  Saane, 
from  the  S. ,   the  Thiele,  which  forms  the  outlet   of  the 


lakes  of  Bienne  ana  Keufcliaiel  ;  and  the  Emme,  which 
gives  its  name  to  the  beautiful  Emmenlhal.  The  northern 
comer  of  the  canton  is  divided  between  the  basins  of  the 
Rhone  and  the  Rhine.  On  the  upper  course  of  the  Aar 
are  the  two  lakes  of  Brienz  and  Thun.  The  mineral  wealth 
of  the  country  is  neither  extensive  nor  varied ;  but  iron- 
mines  are  worked,  and  gold  is  found  in  the  River  Emnie. 
Quarries  of  sandstone,  marble,  and  granite  are  abundant. 
The  pastures  in  the  Oberland  and  the  Emmenthal  are 
excellent,  and  cattle  and  horses  of  the  best  description  are 
largely  reared.  The  latter  district  also  [)roduces  cheese  of 
excellent  quality,  which  is  exported  to  Germany  and  It;ily. 
Fruit  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  central  region  and  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  lakes  of  Brienz  and  Thun  ,  the 
vine  is  principally  grown  to  the  north  of  Lake  Bienne.  In 
the  forests,  which  are  of  considerable  importance,  the 
prevailing  trees  are  the  fir,  the  pine,  and  the  beech.  The 
industrial  productions  of  the  canton  are  cottoji,  woollen  and 
flaxen  stuffs,  leather,  watches,  and  wooden  wares  of  all 
kinds.  Bern  is  divided  into  thirty  bailiwicks  or  prefectures, 
each  with  a  local  administrator.  The  capital  is  Bern,  and 
the  other  chief  towns  are  Bienne  or  Biel,  Thun,  Burgdorf 
or  Berthoud,  Porrentruy  or  Pruntruit,  and  DiSliimont  or 
Delsberg.  The  highest  legislative  authority  is  the  Great 
Council,  the  members  of  which  aro  chosen  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  tlie  people ;  and  the  executive  power  is  in 
the  hands  of  a  lesser  council  of  nine  members,  chosen  by 
the  Great  Council  for  a  space  of  four  years.  The  educa- 
tional institutions  in  the  canton  comprise  a  university  aitd 
two  gynmasiums  in  the  capital,  and  progymnasiums  and 
colleges  at  Biel,  Thun,  Burgdorf,  Neuenstadt,  Porrentruy, 
and  D^ltimont.  There  is  a  deaf  and  dumb  institution  at 
Frienisberg,  and  a  cantonal  lunatic  asylum  at  WaKlau, 
about  a  iniie  from  Bern. 


PUd  of  Bern. 


Bekn,  the  capital  of  the  above  canton,  and,  since  1848,' 
I  the  permanent  seat  of  the  Government  and  Diet  of  the  Swiss 
Confederation.  It  is  situated  in  40°  47'  N.  lat.  and  7°  25' 
E.  long.,  at  an  elevation  of  1710  feet  above  the  sea,  on  a 
sandstone  peninsula,  formed  by  the  windings  of  the  Aar, 
which  is  crossed  on  the  south  side  of  the  city  by  an  exten- 
sive weir,  and  further  down  passes  under  four  bridges 
connecting  the  peninsula  with  the  rit^ht  bank.  It  ii  ono 
of  the  most  characteristically  Swiss  towns  ;  some  of  the 
streets  are  broad  and  regul.ir,  the  housed  being  well  built 
with  hewn  stone ;  in  others  a  peculiar  ctl'ect  is  pro- 
duced by  the  presence  of  lines  of  arcades  down  the  sides. 
Prominent  among  the  public  buildings  is  the  Federal 
Council  Uall,  or  Biimles-J<al/Jiaus,  a  tine  structure  in  tha 


13  E  R  —  B  E  R 


601 


Fl.Toniiiic  stvlc,  wbictt  was  completed  io  l-SJT.  The 
upji'.r  story  is  occupied  by  a  picture.gallery  of  some  value. 
Tho  towu  hall  dates  from  140t3,  and  was  restored  in  IStJl.' 
AinoDg  the  ecclesiastical  buildings  the  first  place  is  held 
by  the  cathedral,  a  richly-decorated  Gothic  edifice,  begun 
in  1421  and  completed  in  1573,  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
which  a  splendid  view  of  the  Alps  is  obtained.  Educational 
institutions  are  very  numerous,  comprising  a  university, 
fouu^ded  in  1834,  which  is  attended  by  250  students,  a 
gymnasium,  and  a  veterinary  school.  Attached  to  the 
niiiversity  are  a  botanical  garden  and  an  observatory  ;  and 
there  are,  besides,  a  valuable  museum,  a  public  library 
of  45,000  volumes,  especially  rich  in  works  relating  to 
Swiss  history,  and  several  literary  and  scientific  societies. 
Among  the  charitable  establishments  are  two  large  hospitals 
(the  Inselspital  and  the  Biirgcrspital),  a  foundling  hospital, 
two  orphan  asylums,  and  a  lunatic  asylum.  Another 
asylum  was  erected  io  1854,  about  2J  miles  from  the  city. 
The  penitentiary  is  capable  of  containing  400  prisoners. 
A'jioiig  other  buildings  of  interest  are  the  granary,  which, 
till  1830,  used  to  be  stored  with  corn  in  case  of  famine; 
the  clock  tower,  with  its  automatic  pantomime ;  the 
arsenal,  with  its  mediaeval  treasures ;  the  mint ;  and  the 
Murtner  Gate.  The  most  frequent  ornament  throughout 
the  city  is  the  figure  of  the  bear,  in  allusion  to  the  mythical 
origin  of  the  name  of  Bern ;  and  the  authorities  still 
maintain  a  bear's  dea  at  municipal  expense.  Although, 
properly  speaking,  not  a  commercial  city,  Bern  carries  on 
some  trade  in  woollen  cloth,  printed  calico,  muslin,  silk 
stutfs,  straw  hats,  stockings,  and  other  articles  of  home 
manufactnre.  The  climate  is  severely  cold  in  winter, 
owing  to  the  elevation  of  the  situation.  The  population, 
which  is  mainly  Protestant,  was  36,000  in  1870. 

Btra  was  founded,  or  ut  least  fortified,  by  BerthoM  V.  of 
Zahringen,  about  the  end  of  the  litli  or  beginning  of  the  13th 
C"ii*ury,  and  gradually  became  a  refuge  for  those  who  wore  oppressed 
Ly  feudal  exactions  in  the  neighbouring  countries.  In  121S  it  was 
di-.larcd  a  free  imperial  city  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  At  first 
iu  constitution  was  purely  democratic  ;  but  in  1293  a  legislative 
body  of  200  citizens  was  appointed,  which  formed  the  germ  of  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  oligarchies  in  modern  European  history. 
TIw  extension  of  territory,  gradually  elfected  by  the  valour  of  the 
lijrnese,  rendered  necessary  a  more  elaborate  and  rigid  organization 
tli-'.u  that  which  had  sufficed  while  the  limits  of  the  city  were  almost 
the  limits  of  the  state ;  and  the  power  of  the  nobility  at  home  was 
strengthened  by  every  new  success  arainst  the  enemies  of  the  cily. 
The  blow  that  decided  the  fate  of  Bern  was  struck  at  Laupen  on 
June  21,  1339,  when  Rudolph  von  Erlach  beat  .the  allied  army  of 
the  neighbouring  states.  It  continued  to  tiourish,  and  in  1352 
joined  the  Swiss  Confederation.  A  fire  destroyed  the  city  in  H05, 
but  it  was  rebuilt  on  the  same  plan,  la  the  17th  century  the 
gradually  increasing  aristocratic  tendency  reached  its  climax.  The 
adoption  of  new  burghers  was  forbidden,  and  the  burghers  projier 
were  carefully  distinguished  from  those  who  were  merely  permanent 
inliabitantsof  the  city;  the  burghers  were  divided  into  tnose  capable 
of  holding  olTice  in  the  state  and  those  destitute  of  that  privilege  ; 
and  the  privileged  class  itself,  which,  by  17S5,  numbered  only  69 
families,  was  subdivided  into  a  higher  and  a  lower  grade.  This 
elite  grew  more  and  more  exclusive  and  domineering,  and  at  last 
became  unendurable  to  thoir  humbler  fellow<itizens.  In  1718  the 
discontent  made  itself  evident  in  a  formidable  conspiracy,  of  which 
the  unfortunate  Henzi  was  one  of  the  leaders.  The  consp:r.acy  was 
crushed,  but  the  oppo-iition  broke  out  through  other  channels.  At 
last  the  French  Revolution  came  to  submerge  the  aristocracy  in  a 
general  Helvetian  republic;  and  when  the  flood  had  passed  the 
ancient  landmarks  could  not  be  replaced,  though  a  restoration  was 
attempted  with  at  first  an  appearance  of  success.  The  Liberal  party 
Las  long  been  the  strongest  in  the  canton,  which  has  at  last  returned 
alm-ist  to  democracy  ;  for.  in  1870,  the  refcrtndum  was  introduced, 
by  which  it  is  agreed  that  all  laws,  after  being  discus«e<l  by  the 
Great  Council,  shall  first  receive  the  sanction  of  the  people  before 
they  come  into  force 

BERN.XDOTTE.JEAS-BAPTisTE-JuLES.afterwardsKiNO 
CUAULES  XIV.  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  was  the  son  of  a 
lawyer  at  Pau  in  Biarn,  and  was  born  January  26,  1764. 
Ho  was  destined  by  his  parents  for  the  law,  but  chose 
the  profession  of  arms,  and  enlisted  in  1780  as  a  private  in 


the  royal  marines.  When  the  Revolution  swept  away  tlie 
arbitrary  distinction  of  classes,  and  opened  up  to  all  alike 
^the  path  of  preferment,  the  abilities  of  Bernadotte  were 
speedily  acknowledged.  In  1792  he  was  made  a  colonel, 
in  the  following  year  a  general  of  brigade,  and  soon  after 
a  general  of  division.  In  the  campaigns  of  the  Rhine  and 
of  Italy  his  military  talents  found  ample  scope  for  display; 
and  his  diplomatic  abilities  had  also  been  tested  as  ambas- 
sador at  the  Court  of  Vienna.  During  Bonaparte's  absence 
in  Egypt  Bernadotte  was  appointed  minister  of  war.  Ha 
reorganized  the  whole  army,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
conquest  of  Holland.  Notwithstanding  the  rivalry  that 
all  along  existed  between  him  and  N'apoleon,  Bernadotte 
was  made  a  marshal  on  the  establishment  of  the  empire. 
He  was  also  nominated  to  the  government  of  Hanover,  and 
tuck  part  in  the  campaign  of  1805  at  the  head  of  a  force 
of  20,000  men.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Austerlitz,  and  in  1806  he  was  created  prince  of  Ponte- 
Corvo.  In  1810  the  death  of  Prince  Augustenburg  of 
Sweden  having  left  the  throne  of  that  kingdom  without  an 
heir,  the  Swedish  States  in  Council  nominated  Bernadotte 
as  successor  to  Charles  XIII.  of  Sweden,  a  distinction  for 
which  he  was  scarcely  less  indebted  to  his  nobility  of 
character  than  to  his  military  talents.  During  the  great 
campaigns  of  1813  and  1814  Bernadotte  joined  the 
coalition  against  Napoleon,  and  it  was  his  Swedish 
contingent  that  mainly  decided  the  battle  of  Leipsic.  It 
is  stated,  on  good  authority,  that  he  had  formed  the 
ambitious  design  of  succeeding  the  emperor  on  the  Fiemh 
throne.  As  crown  prince  of  Sweden  he  devoted  his 
whole  energies  to  the  welfare  of  his  adopted  countrj-. 
Owing  to  the  infirmities  of  the  king  he  was  intrusted  with 
the  entire  conduct  of  the  government.  On  the  death  of 
Charles  XIII.,  in  February  1818,  Bernadotte  ascended  the 
throne.  For  the  events  of  his  administration,  so  conducive 
to  the  prosperity  of  that  country,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  article  Sweden.  He  died  at  Stockholm,  March  8, 
1844,  leaving  an  only  son,  Oscar,  who  succeeded  him. 

BERNARD,  St,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  Christian 
teachers  and  representatives  of  monasticism  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  was  born  at  Fontaines,  near  Dijon,  in  Burgundy, 
in  1091.  The  son  of  a  knight  and  vassal  of  the  duke  of 
Burgundy  who  perished  in  the  first  crusade,  Bernard  may 
have  felt  for  a  time  the  temptations  of  a  military  career, 
but  the  influence  of  a  pious  mother  and  his  own  inclina- 
tions towards  a  life  of  meditation  and  study  led  him  to 
the  cloister.  While  still  a  youth  he  is  said  to  have  been 
"  marvellously  cogitative  "  ("  mire  cogiiativus,"  St  Bern. 
Op.,  vol.  ii.  coL  1063),  and  the  ascendency  of  his  mind  and 
character  were  soon  shown.  He  joined  the  small  monas- 
tery of  Citeaux  in  1113  when  twenty-two  years  of  age,  and 
such  were  the  effects  of  his  own  devotion  and  eloquent 
enthusiasm  in  commending  a  religious  Lfe,  that  he  drew 
after  him  not  only  his  two  younger  brothers,  but  also  his 
two  elder  ones,  Guido  and  Gerard,  both  of  whom  had 
n.atLrally  taken  to  soldiering,  and  the  elder  of  whom  was 
married  and  had  children.  The  effect  of  his  preaching  is 
s.aid  to  have  been  that  "  mothers  hid  their  sons,  wives  their 
husbands,  companions  their  friends,"  lest  they  should  be 
drawn  away  by  his  persuasive  earnestness. 

The  monastery  of  Citeaux  had  attracted  bt  ccniard  not 
only  on  account  of  its  neighbourhood  (it  was  only  a  few 
miles  distant  from  Dijon),  but  by  its  reputation  for  auste- 
rity. The  monks  were  few  and  very  poor.  They  were 
under  an  Englishman  of  the  name  of  Stephen  Harding, 
originally  from  Dorsetshire,  whose  aim  was  to  restore  the 
Benedictine  rule  to  its  original  simplicity  and  give  a  new 
impulse  to  the  monastic  movement  In  Bernard,  Harding 
found  a  congenial  spirit.  No  amount  of  self-mortiCcatioii 
could  exceed  his  ambition.      He  strove  to  overcome  his 

III.  —  76 


G02 


B  E  R  I^   A  E  X> 


bodily  senses  altogether  and  to  live  entirely  absorbed  in 
religious  meditation.  Sleep  he  counted  a  loss,  and  cona- 
pared  it  to  death.  Food  was  only  taken  to  keep  him  from 
fainting.  The  most  menial  offices  were  his  delight,  and 
even  then  his  humility  looked  around  for  some  lowlier 
employment.  Fortunately  he  loved  nature,  and  found  a 
constant  solace  in  her  rocks  and  woods.  "  Trust  one  who 
has  tried  it,"  he  writes  in  one  of  his  epistles,  "you  will 
fiud  more  in  woods  than  ia- books;  trees  and  stones  will 
•each  you  what  you  can  never  learn  from  ma-sters." 
["  Erperto  crede  :  aliquid  amplius  invenies  in  silvis  quam 
in  libris;  ligna  et  lapides  docebunt  te  quod  a  magistris 
■>udire  non  possis,"  Epist.  106.) 

So  ardent  a  nature  soon  found  a  sphere  of  ambition  for 
tselt.  The  monks  of  Citeaux,  from  being  a  poor  and 
mknown  company,  began  to  attract  attention  after  the 
iccession  of  St  Bernard  and  his  friends.  The  fame  of  their 
self-denial  was  noised  abroad,  and  out  of  their  lowliness 
and  abnegation  came  as  usual  distinction  and  success.  The 
small  monastery  was  unable  to  contain  the  inmates  that 
gathered  within  it,  and  it  began  to  send  forth  colonies  in 
various  directions.  St  Bernard  had  been  two  years  an 
inmate,  and  the  penetrating  eye  of  the  abbot  had  discovered 
beneath  all  his  spiritual  devotion  a  genius  of  rare  power, 
and  especially  fitted  to  aid  bis  measures  of  monastic  re- 
form. He  was  chosen  accordingly  to  head  a  band  of 
devotees  who  Issued  from  Citeaux  in  1115  in  search  of  a 
new  home.  This  band,  with  Bernard  at  their  head,  jour- 
Tieyed  northwards  till  they  reached  a  spot  in  the  diocese  of 
Langrea — a  thick-wooded  valley,  wild  and  gloomy,  but  with 
a  clear  stream  running  through  it.  Here  they  settled  and 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  famous  abbey  of  Clairvaux, 
with  which  St  Bernard's  name  remains  associated  in  his- 
tory The  hardships  which  the  monks  endured  for  a  time 
in  their  new  abode  were  such  as  to  drive  them  almost  to 
despair,  and  their  leader  fell  seriously  ill,  and  was  only 
rescued  from  what  seemed  impending  death  by  the  kind 
compulsion  of  his  friend  William  of  Champeaux,  the  great 
doctor  of  the  age,  who  besought  and  received  the  direction 
of  Bernard  for  a  year  from  his  siiperior  at  Citeaux.  Thanks 
to  his  considerate  friend  the  abbot  of  Clairvaux  was  forced 
to  abandon  the  cares  of  his  new  establishment,  and  in 
retirement  and  a  healthful  regimen  to  seek  renewed  health. 
The  effect  was  all  that  could  be  desired,  and  in  a  few  years 
Bernard  had  not  only  recovered  his  strength,  but  had  bfgun 
that  marvellous  career  of  literary  and  ecclesiastical  activity, 
of  incessant  correspondence  and  preaching,  which  was  to 
make  him  in  some  respects  the  most  influential  man  of 
his  age. 

Gradually  the  influence  of  Bernard's  character  began  to 
extend  beyond  his  monastery.  His  friendship  with  William 
of  Champeaux  i.nd  others  gave  currency  to  his  opinions, 
and  from  his  simple  retreat  came  by  voice  or  pen  an  autho- 
rity before  which  many  bowed,  not  only  within  his  own 
order  but  within  the  church  at  large.  This  influence  was 
notably  shown  after  the  deatli  of  Pope  Honorius  II.  in 
1130.  Two  rival  popes  assumed  the  purple,  each  being 
able  to  appeal  to  his  election  by  a  section  of  the  cardinals. 
Christendom  was  divided  betwixt  the  claims  of  Anacletus 
II.  and  Innocent  II.  The  former  was  backed  by  a  strong 
ItaUan  party,  and  drove  his  adversary  from  Rome  and  even 
from  Italy.  Innocent  took  refuge  in  France.  The  king, 
Louis  the  Fat,  espoused  his  cause,  and  having  summoned 
a  council  of  archbishops  and  bishops,  he  laid  his  commands 
on  the  holy  abbot  of  Clairvaux  to  be  present  also  and  give 
the  benefit  of  his  advice.  With  reluctance  Bernard  obeyed 
the  call,  and  from  the  depths  of  seclusion  was  at  once 
plunged  into  the  heart  of  the  great  contest  which  was  afflict- 
ing the  Christian  world.  The  king  and  prelates  put  the 
<j.ue.stioa  before  him  in  such  a  way  as  to  in\-ite  his  decision 


and  make  firm  arbiter.  After  careful  aeliberation  he  gaT» 
his  judgment  in  favour  of  Innocent,  and  not  only  so,  bufc 
from  that  time  forward  threw  himself  with  characteristic 
fervour  and  force  into  the  cause  for  which  he  had  declared. 
Not  only  France,  but  England,  Spain,  and  Germany  were 
won  to  the  side  of  Innocent,  who,  banished  from  Rome,  iu 
the  words  of  St  Bernard,  was  "  accepted  by  the  world." 
He  travelled  from  place  to  place  with  the  powerful  abbot 
by  his  side,  who  also  received  him  in  his  humble  cell  at 
Clairvaux.  Apparently,  howeveit  the  meanness  of  the 
accommodation  and  the  scantiness  of  the  fare  (one  small 
fowl  was  all  that  could  be  got  for  the  Pope's  repast),  left 
no-  wish  on  the  part  of  Innocent  or  his  retinue  to  continue 
their  stay  at  Clairvaux.  He  found  a  more  dainty  recep- 
tion elsewhere,  but  nowhere  so  powerful  a  friend.  'Through 
the-  persuasions  of  Bernard  the  emperor  took  up  arms  for 
Innocent ;  and  Anacletus  was  driven  to  shut  himself  up 
in  the  impregnable  castle  of  St  Angelo,  where  his  death 
opened  the  prospect  of  a  united  Christendom.  A  second 
anti-pope  was  elected,  but  after  a  few  months  retired  from 
the  field,  owing  also,  it  is  said,  to  St  Bernard's  influence. 
A  great  triumph  was  gained  not  without  a  struggle,  and 
the  abbot  of  Clairvaux  remained  master  of  the  ecclesiastical 
situation.     No  name  stood  higher  in  the  Christian  world. 

The  chief  events  which  fill  up  his  subsequent  life  attest 
the  gre.atness  of  his  influence.  These  were  his  contest 
with  the  famous  Abelard,  and  his  preaching  of  the  second 
crusade. 

Peter  Abelard  was  twelve  years  older  than  Bernard,  and 
had  risen  to  eminence  before  Bernard  had  entered  the  gates 
of  Citeaux.  His  first  intellectual  encounter  had  been  with 
Bernard's  aged  friend  William  of  Champeaux,  whom  he 
had  driven  fro.m  his  scholastic  throne  at  Paris  by  the 
superiority  of  his  dialectics.  His  subsequent  career,  his 
ill-fated  passion  for  Heloise,  his  misfortunes,  his  intellectual 
restlessness  and  audacity,  his  supposed  heresies,  had  all  shed 
additional  renown  on  his  name ;  and  when  a  council  was 
summoned  at  Sens  in  1140,  at -which  the  French  king  and 
his  nobles  and  all  the  prelates  of  the  realm  •\vere  to  be  pre- 
sent, Abelard  dared  his  enemies  to  impugn  his  opinions.  St 
Bernard  had  been  amongst  those  most  alarmed  by  Abelard's 
teaching,  and  had  sought  to  stir  up  alike  Pope,  princes, 
and  bishops  to  take  measures  against  him.  He  did  not 
readily,  however,  take  up  the  gauntlet  thrown  down  by  the 
great  hero  of  the  schools.  He  professed  himself  a  "  stripling 
too  unversed  in  logic  to  meet  the  giant  practi.=;ed  in  every 
kind  of  debate."  But  "  all  were  come  prepared  for  a 
spectacle,"  and  he  was  forced  into  the  field.  To  the 
amazement  of  all,  when  the  combatants  met  and  all  suemed 
ready  for  the  intellectual  fray,  Abelard  refused  to  proceed 
with  his  defence.  After  several  passages  considered  to  be 
heretical  had  been  read  from  his  books  he  made  no  reply, 
but  at  once  appealed  to  Kome  and  left  tho  assembly. 
Probably  he  saw  enough  iu  the  character  of  the  meeting  t» 
assure  him  that  it  formed  a  very  dilTerent  audience  from 
those  wliich  he  had  bren  accustomed  to  sway  by  his  sub- 
tilty  and  eloquence,  and  had  recourse  to  this  expedient  t* 
gain  time  and  foil  his  adversaries.  Bernard  followed  up 
his  assault  by  a  letter  of  indictment  to  the  Pope  against 
the  heretic.  The  Pope  responded  by  a  sentence  of  con- 
demnation, and  Abelard  was  silenced.  Soon  alter  he  found 
refuge  at  Cluny  with  the  kindly  abbot,  Peter  the  Venerable, 
who  brought  about  something  of  a  reconciliation  betwixt  him 
and  Bernard.  The  latter,  however,  never  heartily  forgave 
the  heretic.  He  was  too  zealous  a  churchman  not  to  ,see 
the  danger  there  is  in  such  a  spirit  as  Abelard's,  and  -the 
serious  consequences  to  which  it  might  lead. 

In  all  things  Bernard  was  enthusiastically  devoted  to  Iho 
church,  and  it  was  this  enthusiasm  which  led  him  at  last 
into  the  chief  error  of    his  carter.      Bud  ncv.'s  reached 


B  E  R  —  B  E  R 


603 


France  of  the  progress  of  the  Turkish  arms  in  the  East. 
The  capture  of  EJissa  in  \IH  sent  a  thrill  of  alarm  and 
indignation  throughout  Christian  Europe,  and  the  French 
king  was  urged  to  send  forth  a  new  army  to  reclaim  the 
Holy  Land  from  the  triumphant  infidels.  The  Pope  was 
consulted,  and  encouraged  the  good  work,  delegating  to 
St  Bernard  the  office  of  preaching  the  new  crusade.  Weary 
with  growing  years  and  cares  the  abbot  of  Clairvaux  seemed 
at  first  reluctint,  but  afterwards  threw  himself  with  all 
his  accustomed  power  into  the  new  movement,  and  by  his 
marvellous  eloquence  kindled  the  crusading  madness  once 
more  throughout  Franco  and  Germany.  Not  only  the 
French  king,  Louis  VIL,  but  the  German  emperor,  Conrad 
III.,  placed  him.self  at  the  head  of  a  vast  army  and  set  out 
for  the  East  by  way  of  Constantinople.  Detained  there 
too  long  by  the  duplicity  of  the  Greeks,  and  divided  in 
counsel,  the  Christian  armies  encountered  frightful  hard- 
ships, and  were  at  length  either  dispersed  or  destroyed. 
Utter  ruin  and  misery  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  wildest 
enthusiasm.  Bernard  became  an  object  of  abuse  as.  the 
great  preacher  of  a  movement  which  had  terminated  so 
disastrously,  and  wn.te  in  humility  an  apologetic  letter  to 
the  Pope,  in  which  the  divine  judgments  are  made  as  usual 
accountable  for  human  folly.  This  and  other  anxieties 
bore  heavily  upon  even  so  sanguine  a  spirit.  ■  Disaster 
abroad  and  heresy  at  home  left  him  no  peace,  while  his 
body  was  worn  to  a  shadow  by  his  fasting  and  labours.  It 
w:)s.  as  he  said,  "  the  season  of  calamities."  Still  to  the 
last,  with  failing  strength,  sleepless,  unable  to -take  solid 
foud,  with  limbs  swollen  and  feeble,  his  spirit  was  uncon- 
querable. "  Whenever  a  great  necessity  called  him. forth," 
as  hia  friend  and  biographer  Godfrey  says,  "his  mind 
conquered  all  his  bodily  infirmities,  ho  was  endowed  with 
strength,  anc"  to  the  astonishment  of  all  who  saw  him,  he 
coidd  surpass  even  robust  men  in  his  endurance  of  fatigue." 
He  continued  absorbed  in  public  affairs,  and  dispensed  his 
rare  and  advice  in  all  directions  often  about  the  most  trivial 
a.<  well  aa  the  most  important  affairs.  Finally  the  death 
of  hut  associates  and  friends  left  him  without  any  desire  to 
live  He  longed  rather  "  to  depart  and  be  with  Christ." 
To  his  sorrowing  monks,  whose  earnest  prayers  were  sup- 
p<'.-;ed  to  have  assisted  his  partial  recovery  when  near  his 
md,  hfi  said,  "  Why  do  you  thus  detain  a  miserable  man  1 
Spare  me.  Spare  me,  and  let  uie  depart."  He  expired 
August  20,  1153,  shortly  after  his  disciple  Pope 
Lugenius  III. 

His  character  appears  in  our  brief  sketch  as  that  of  a 
noble  enthusiast,  selfish  in  nothing  save  in  so  far  as  the 
church  had  become  a  part  of  himself,  ardent  in  his  sym- 
pathies and  friendships,  tenacious  of  purpose,  terrible  in 
indignation.  He  spared  no  abuse,  and  denounced  what  he 
deemed  corruption  to  the  Pope  as  frankly  as  to  one  of  his 
own  monks).  He  is  not  a  thinker  nor  a  man  in  advance 
of  his  age,  but  much  of  the  best  thought  and  piety  of  his 
time  are  sublimed  in  hini  to  a  sweet  mystery  and  rapture 
of  sentiment  which  has  still  power  to  touch  amidst  all  its 
rhetorical  exaggerations. 

His  writings  are  very  numerous,  consisting  of  epistles, 
sermons,  and  theological  treatises.  The  best  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  of  Father  .\Iabillon,  printed  at  Paris  in  1G90 
in  2  vols  folio,  and  reprinted  more  than  once — finally  in 
1854  in  4  vols  8vo  His  bfe,  written  by  his  friend  and 
disciple  Godfrey,  is  also  contained  in  this  edi'ion  of  hia 
works.  T.) 

BERNARD,  James,  professor  of  philosophy  and  mathe- 
matics, and  oiiiusler  of  Ihe  Walloon  church  at  Lcyden, 
was  born  at  Nion.i,  in  L)aupliini5,  September  1,  lO.'iS. 
Having  studied  at  (Jeneva,  he  returned  to  France  in  IC7J, 
and  n.is  rho.-'eii  iiiiiiistcr  of  Venl<Tol,  in  Danphia^i,  whence 
ha  nftefwai  Js-  rf-mced  to  Ihe  church  of  Vinsobrcs      As  he 


continued  to  preach  the  Reformed  doctrines  in  opposition  to 
the  royal  ordinance,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  tJie  country 
and  retired  to  Holland,  where  he  was  well  received,  and 
appiointcd  one  of  the  pensionary  ministers  of  Gouda.  lo 
July  lose  he  commenced  his  Histoire  Abriyee  de  ('Europe, 
which  he  continued  monthly  til!  December  1688  In 
IG92  he  began  hia  Letlrcs  Ilisiorigues,  containing  an 
account  of  the  most  important  transactions  in  Europe  ; 
he  carried  on  this  work  till  the  end  of  1G98,  after  which 
it  was  continued  by  others.  When  Lcclerc  discontinued 
his  liihliothiqxie  Viiiversellc  in  1C91,  Bernard  wrote  tho 
greater  part  of  the  twentieth  volume  and  the  five  follow- 
ing volumes.  In  1C98  he  collected  and  published  Actes  et 
NigocialioTis  de  la  Paix  dc  liyswic,  in  four  volumes  12mo. 
In  1 G99  he  began  a  continuation  of  Bayle's  NouveUcs  de  la 
liepuhliqne  dcs  Ldlrcs,  which  continued  till  December 
1710.  In  1705  he  was  unanimously  cleeled  one  of  the 
ministers  of  the  Walloon  church  at  Leyden ;  and  about 
the  same  time  he  succeeded  M.  de  Valder  in  the  chair  of 
philosophy  and  mathematics  at  Leyden.  In  1716  he  pub- 
lished a  supplement  to  Moreri's  Dictionary,  in  two  volumes 
folio.  The  same  year  he  resumed  his  Nouvelles  de  la 
RCpvlli<jue  (Its  Ldtres,  and  continued  it  till  his  death,  on 
the  27th  of  April  1718.  Besides  the  works  above  men- 
tioned,'he  was  the  author  of  two  practical  treatises,  one 
on  late  repentance,  the  other  on  the  excellence  of  religion. 

BERNAIiD,  Simon,  French  general  of  engineers,  and 
aide-de-camp  to  Naj'oleon,  was  horn  at  Dole  in  1779.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Ecole  Polytcchniquc,  and  entered  the 
army  in  the  corps  of  engineers.  He  rose  rapidly,  and 
served  for  some  time  as  aide  de-camp  to  Napoleon.  Sub- 
sequently to  the  emperor's  fall  he  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  where  he  executed  a  number  of  extensive  military 
works,  consi^iting  of  vast  canals,  numerous  forts,  and  1400 
leagues  of  frontier  fortifications.  He  returned  to  Franco 
after  the  Revolution  of  1830,  and  in  1836  was  secretary  at 
war  to  Louis  Philippe.     He  died  in  1839. 

BERNARDIN,  St,  of  Siena,  a  celebrated  preacher, 
was  born  at  Massa  Carrara  in  1380.  His  family,  the 
Albizeschi,  was  noble,  and  his  father  was  chief  magistrate 
of  Massa.  He  lost  both  parents  before  his  eighth  year, 
and  was  educated  by  his  aunt,  a  pious  woman.  After 
completing  his  course  of  study  he  passed  some  years  as  a 
voluntary  assistant  in  the  hospital  of  Scala,  and  in  H04 
entered  the  order  of  St  Francis.  His  eloquence  as  a 
preacher  m.ade  him  celebrated  throughout  Italy,  nor  was 
his  fame  diminished  by  his  visit  to  the  Holy  Land, 
from  which  he  returned  with  fresh  zeal.  Three  cities, 
Siena,  Ferrara,  and  Urbino,  successively  sought  the  hon- 
our of  having  him  as  their  bishop,  but  without  avail.  In 
1438  he  was  nuade  vicar-general  of  his  order  in  Italy.  He 
died  on  the  20lh  May  1444,  at  Aquila  in  Abrdzro.  His 
canonization  took  place  in  1450  by  the  order  (if  Niclnilas 
V.  A  collection  of  Ins  works  was  published  in  1571  by 
Rudolfi,  bishop  of  Sinigaglia. 

BERN  AY,  the  chief  town  of  an  arrondissement  in 
the  department  of  Eure,  in  France,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Charentonne,  26  miles  VV  N.W.  of  Evreux.  It  is 
beautifully  situated  in  the  midst  of  green  wooded 
hills,  and  still  justifies  Madame  de  Ptael's  description — 
"  Bernay  is  a  basket  of  flowers."  Of  great  antiquity,  it 
still  possesses  numerous  quaint  wooden  houses  and  several 
ancient  ecclesiastical  buildings  of  considerable  interest 
The  abbey  church  is  now  used  as  a  market,  and  the  abbey, 
which  was  originally  founded  by  Judith  of  Brilanny  about 
1017,  and  uniierwent  a  restoration  in  the  I7ih  century, 
serves  for  nuinicipal  and  legal  purposes  Tho  glu,<s  nork 
in  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  de  la  Couture  i^  of  pr';al 
aiiliqiiarian  interest.  Among  the  industrial  cstablishnicnl'" 
of  the  place  are  cotton,  woollen,  and   ribband   fu'torit«  « 


G04 


B  E  II  —  B  E  R 


and  tlie  trade  is  chiefly  in  horses,  grain,  and  flax.  The 
town,  which  was  formerly  fortified,  was  besieged  by 
Duguesclin  in  1378;  it  was  taken  by  the  English  in  1418 
and  again  in  1421,  and  by  Admiral  de  CoUgay  in  1563. 
The  fortress  was  razed  in  1589.  Population  in  1872, 
5S0G. 

BERNBURG,  a  city  of  Anhalt  in  Germany,  and  for- 
merly the  capital  of  the  now  intorporated  duchy  of  Anhalt- 
Bernburg.  It  consists  of  three  parts,  the  Altstadl  or  old 
town,  the  Bergstadt  or  hill-town,  and  the  Neustadi  or  new 
town, — the  Bergstadt  on  the  right  and  the  other  two  on 
the  left  of  the  River  Saale,  which  is  crossed  by  a  rather 
massive  stone  bridge.  It  is  a  well-built  city,  the  principal 
public  buildings  being  the  Government  house,  the  church 
of  St  Mary,  the  Gymnasium,  and  the  house  of  correction. 
The  castle,  formerly  the  ducal  residence,  is  in  the  Berg- 
stadt, defended  by  moats,  and  surrounded  by  beautiful 
gardens.  The  industries  of  the  town  include  the  manu- 
f.icture  of  snufT,  paper,  starch,  and  pottery  ;  and  a  con- 
siderable traffic  is  carried  on,  especially  in  grain,  both  by 
river  and  by  railway.  Beruburg  is  of  great  antiquity.  The 
Bergstadt  was  fortified  by  Otto  III.  in  the  10th  century, 
and  the  new  town  was  founded  in  the  13th.  For  a  long 
period  the  different  parts  were  under  separate  magistracies, 
the  new  town  uniting  with  the  old  in  15C0,  and  the  Berg- 
stadt with  both  in  1824.  Prince  Frederick  Albert  removed 
the  ducal  residence  to  Ballenstedt  in  1765.  Population 
in  1872,  inclusive  of  the  domain  and  the  suburb  of  Wal- 
■dau,  15,709. 

BERNE.     See  Bern. 

BERNERS,  JuLiAXA,  prioress  of  Sopewell  nunnery, 
near  St  Albans,  was  the  daughter  of  Sir  James  Berners, 
who  was  beheaded  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  She  was 
celebrated  for  her  beauty,  her  spirit,  and  her  passion  for  field 
sports.  To  her  is  attributed  the  Treatyse  pertrynynge 
to  llawlynge,  Hnntynge,  and  Fysshynge  with  an  Angle; 
also  a  right  noble  Treatyse  on  the  Lygnage  of  Cot  Armours, 
endynge  with  a  Treatyse  which' specy/yeth  <if  Blasynge  oj 
Armys,  printed  in  folio  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde  in  1496. 
The  first  and  rarest  edition,  printed  at  St  Albans  in  1486, 
does  not' contain  the  treatise  on  fishing.  Haslewood,  who 
published  an  edition  of  the  work  (in  fac-srmiie^  of  that  of 
Wynkyn  de  Worde)  in  1811,  folio,  London,  has  examined 
*ith  the  greatest  care  the  author's  claims  to  figure  as  the 
■Earliest  female  writer  in  the  English  language.  Ilis  pre- 
liminary dissertations  contain  all  the  scanty  information 
that  is  to  be  had  concernir.g  her. 

BERNI,  Francesco,  Italian  poet,  was  born  about  1490 
■ot  Lamporecchio,  in  Bibbiena,  a  district  lying  along  the 
"Upfter  Arno.  His  family  was  of  good  descent,  but  exces- 
sively poor.  At  an  early  age  he  was  sent  to  Florence, 
where  he  remained  till  his  19th  year.  He  thjn  set  out  for 
Home,  trusting  to  obtain  some  as-sistance  from  his  uncle, 
"the  Cardinal  Bibbiena.  The  cardinal,  however,  did  nothing 
for  him,  and  he  was  obliged  to  accept  a  situation  as  clerk 
or  secretary  to  Ghiberti,  datary  to  Clement  VII.  The 
duties  of  his  office,  for  which  Berni  was  in  every  way  unfit. 
■were  exceedingly  irksome  to  the  poet,  who,  however,  made 
himself  celebrated  at  Rome  as  the  most  witty  and  inven- 
tive of  a  certain  club  of  literary  men,  who  devoted  them- 
selves to  light  and  sparkling  effusions.  So  strong  was  the 
admiration  for  Berni's  verses,  that  mocking  or  burlesque 
'poems  have  since  been  called  poesie  bernesca.  About  the 
year  1530  ho  was  relieved  from  his  servitude  by  obtaiuin" 
a  c&nonry  in  the  cathedral  of  Florence.  In  that  city  he 
died  in  1536,  according  to  tradition  poisoned  by  Duke 
Alessandro  de'  Medici,  for  having  refused  to  poison  the 
duke's  cousin, Ippohto  de'  Medici ;  butconsiderablc  obscurity 
rests  over  this  story.  Berni  stands  at  the  head  of  Italian 
couuc  or  burlesque  poets.     For  lightness,  sparkling  wit, 


variety  of  form,  and  fluent  diction,  his  verses  are  unsur- 
passed. Perhaps,  however,  he  owes  his  greatest  fame  to 
the  recisting  (Rifacimento)  of  Boiardo's  Orlando  Innamo- 
rata.  The  enormous  success  of  Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso 
had  directed  fresh  attention  to  the  older  poem,  from 
which  it  took  its  characters,  and  of  which  it  is  the  con- 
tinuation. But  Boiardo's  work,  though  good  in  plan, 
could  never  have  achieved  wide  popularity  on  account  of 
the  extreme  ruggedness  of  its  style.  Berni  undertook  the 
revision  of  the  whole  poem,  avowedly  altering  no  senti- 
ment, removing  or  adding.no  incident,  but  simply  giving 
to  each  line  and  stanza  due  gracefulness  and  polish.  Hi» 
task  he  completed  with  marvellous  success  ;  scarcely  a  lino 
remains  as  it  was,  and  the  general  opinion  has  pronounced 
decisively  in  favour  of  the  revision  over  the  original.  To 
each  canto  he  prefixed  a  few  stanzas  of  reflective  verse  in 
the  manner  of  Ariosto,  and  in  one  of  these  introductions 
he  gives  us  the  only  certain  information  we  have  concern- 
ing his  own  life.  It  should  be  noticed  that  Berni  appears 
•  to  have  been  favourably  disposed  towards  the  Reformation 
principles  at  that  time  introduced  into  Italy,  and  this  may 
explain  the  bitterness  of  some  remarks  of  his  upon  the 
church.  The  first  edition  of  the  Rifacimento  was  printed 
posthumously  in  1541,  and  it  has  been  supposed  that  a  few 
passages  either  did  not  receive  the  author's  final  revision, 
or  have  been  retouched  by  another  hand.  The  Opere 
Burlesche  have  been  published  separately.  A  partial 
translation  of  Berni's  OrUaido  was  published  by  W.  S. 
Rose,  1823.  (See  for  full  information  Panizzi's  Boiardo, 
1830-31.) 

BERNINI,  Giovanni  Lorenzo,  an  Italian  artist,  born 
at  Naples  in  1598,  was  more  celebrated  as  an  architect  and 
a  sculptor  than  as  a  painter.  At  a  very  early  age  his  great 
skill  in  modelling  introduced  him  to  court  favour  at  Rome, 
and  he  was  specially  p.atronized  by  MalTeo  Barberini,  after- 
wards Pope  Urban  VIII.,  whose  palace  he  designed.  None 
of  his  sculptured  groups  at  all  come  up  to  the  promised 
excellence  of  his  first  effort,  the  Apollo  and  Daphne,  nor 
are  any  of  his  paintings  of  particular  merit.  His  busts 
were  in  so  much  request  that  Charles  1.  of  England,  being 
unable  to  have  a  personal  interview  with  Bernini,  sent  him 
three  portraits  by  Vandyck,  from  which  the  artist  was 
enabled  to  complete  his  model.  His  architectural  designs, 
including  the  great  colonnade  of  St  Peter's,  brought  him 
perhaps  his  greatest  celebrity.  Louis  XIV.,  when  he  con- 
templated the  restoration  of  the  Louvre,  sent  for  Bernini,  but 
did  not  adopt  his  designs.  The  artist's  progress  through 
France  waa  a  triumphal  procession,  and  he  was  most 
liberally  rewarded  by  the  great  monarch.  He  died  at 
Rome  in  1080,  leaving  a  fortune  of  over  X100,000.  Few 
artists  have  had  so  wide  renown  in  their  own  day;  time 
has  enabled  us  to  judge  more  accuratelj-  of  his  merits. 

BERNOULLI,  or  Bernouilh,  a  name  illustrious  in  the 
annals  of  science,  belonging  to  a  family  of  respectability, 
originally  of  Antwerp.  Driven  from  their  country  during 
the  oppressive  government  of  Spain  for  llieir  attachment  to 
the  Reformed  religion,  the  family  sought  first  an  asylum  at 
Frankfort  (1583),  and  afterwards  at  Basel,  where  they 
ultimately  obtained  the  highest  distinctions.  In  the  course 
of  a  century  eight  of  its  members  successfully  cultivated 
various  branches  ef  mathematics,  and  contributed  ]mwer- 
fully  to  the  advance  of  science.  The  most  celebrated  of 
the  family  were  James,  Jolin,  and  Daniel ;  but,  for  the  sake 
of  jH^rspicuity  they  may  be  considered  as  nearly  as  possible 
in  the  order  of  family  succession. 

I.  James  Hernoulu  was  born  at  Basel  on  the  27th 
December  1C54.  He  was  educated  at  the  public  school 
of  Basel,  and  also  received  private  instruction  from  the 
learned  HoQ"mann,  tlien  professor  of  Greek.  At  the  conclu- 
sion of  his  philusiiphical  studies  at  the  university,  somt 


BERNOULLI 


605 


b-omelritil  figures,  wLich  fell  in  his  way,  excited  in  him  a 
p.ussion  I'or  mathematical  pursuits,  and  in  spite  of  the 
opposition  of  his  father,  who  wished  him  to  be  a  clergyman, 
ho  applied  himself  in  secret  to  his  favourite  science.  In 
1G7C  he  visited  Geneva  on  his  way  to  France,  and  sub- 
sequently travelled  to  England  and  Holland.  While  at 
Geneva  ho  taught  a  blind  girl  several  branches  of  science, 
and  also  how  to  write ;  and  this  led  him  to  publish  A 
Method  of  Teaching  Mathematics  to  the  Blind.  At  Bordeaux 
his  Universal  Tables  on  Dialling  were  constructed  ;  and 
in  London  ho  was  admitted  to  tho  meetings  of  Boyle, 
llooke,  SliUingfleet,  and  other  learned  and  scientitic  men. 

On  his  final  return  to  Basel  in  1682,  he  devoted  himself 
0  physical  and  mathematical  investigations,  and  opened  a 
■  public  seminary  for  experimental  physics.  In  the  samo 
year  he  published  his  essay  on  comets,  Conam^n  Novi 
SyitemaXis  Cometarum,  which  was  occasioned  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  comet  of  1680.  This  essay,  and  his  next 
publication,  entitled  De  Gravitate  .£theris,  were  deeply 
tinged  with  tho  philosophy  of  Descartes,  but  they  contain 
truths  not  unworthy  of  the  philosophy  of  the  Principia. 

James  Bernoulli  cannot  be  strictly  called  an  independent 
discoverer ;  but,  from  his  extensive  and  successful  applica- 
tion of  the  calculus,  he  is  well  deserving  of  a  place  by  the 
side  of  Newton  and  Leibnitz.  As  an  additional  claim  to 
remembrance,  he  wo-s  the  first  to  solve  Leibnitz's  problem 
of  the  isochronous  curve,  and  to  determine  the  catenary, 
or  curve  formed  by  a  chain  suspended  by  its  two  extremi- 
ties, which  he  also  showed  to  be  the  same  as  the  curva- 
ture of  a  sail  filled  with  wind.  This  led  him  on  to  another 
curve,  which,  being  formed  by  an  elastic  plate  or  rod  fixed 
at  one  end  and  bent  by  a  weight  applied  to  the  other,  he 
called  the  elastic  curve,  and  which  he  showed  to  be  the 
same  as  the  curvature  of  an  impervious  sail  filled  with  a 
liquid.  In  his  investigations  respecting  cycloidal  linel  and 
various-spiral  curves,  his  attention  was  directed  to  the  loxo- 
dromic  and  logarithmic  spirals,  in  the  last  of  which  he  took 
particular  interest  from  its  remarkable  property  of  repro- 
ducing itself  under  a  great  variety  of  conditions. 

In  1696  he  proposed  the  famous  problem  of  isoperi- 
metrical  figures,  and  offered  a  reward  for  its  solution. 
Thi^  problem  engaged  the  attention  of  British  as  well  as 
Continental-  mathematicians  ;  and  its  proposal  gave  rise  to 
a  painful  quarrel  between  the  brothers.  John  offered  a 
solution  of  the  problem  ;  his  brother  pronounced  \%  to  bo 
wrong.  John  then  amended  his  solution,  and  again 
offered  it,  and  claimed  the  reward.  James  still  declared 
it  to  be  no  solution,  and  soon  after  pubUshed  his  own. 
In  1701  he  published  also  the  demonstration  of  his  solu- 
tion, which  was  accepted  by  Dc  I'llopilal  and  Leibnitz. 
John,  however,  held  his  peace  for  several  years,  and  then 
dishonestly  published,  after  the  death  of  James,  another 
incorrect  solution  ;  and  not  until  1718  did  he  admit  that 
he  had  been  in  error.  Even  then  he  set  forth  as  his  own 
bis  brother's  solution  purposely  disguised. 

In  16S7  the  mathematical  chair  of  the  University  of 
Basel  was  conferred  upon  James  ;  and  in  the  discharge  of 
its  duties  he  was  so  successful  as  to  attract  students  from 
other  countries.  Some  of  his  pupils  became  afterwards  pro- 
fessors in  the  universities  of  Germany.  He  was  once  made 
rector  of  his  university,  and  had  other  di-stinctions  bestowed 
on  hira.  He  and  his  brother  John  'were  the  first  two 
foreign  associates  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris  ; 
and,  at  tho  request  of  Leibnitz,  they  were  both  received 
as  members  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin.  In  1684  he 
had  been  offered  a  professorship  at  Heidelberg  ;  but  his 
marriage  with  a  lady  of  his  native  city  led  him  to  decline 
the  invitatioiL  Intense  application  brought  on  infirmities 
and  a  slow  fever,  of  which  he  died  on  tho  16th  of  August 
1705.  with  tho  resignation  of  a  Christian  and  the  firmuesa 


of  a  philosopher.  Like  another  Archimedes,  ho  requested 
that,  as  a  monument  of  his  labours  and  an  tmblcm  of  his 
hope  of  a  resurrection,  the  logarithmic  spiral  should  be 
engraven  on  his  tombstone,  with  these  words,  Eaden 
mutata  resurgo.  , 

•'  James  Bernoulli  wrote  elegant  verses  in  Latin,  German,, 
and  French ;  but  although  these  were  held  in  high  estima- 
tion in  his  own  time,  it  is  on  his  mathematical  worka> 
that  his  fame  now  rests.  These  are — (1.)  Jacobi  Bernoulli 
BasUiensis  Opera,  Genevoe,  1744,  2  torn.  4to ;  (2.)  Arr 
Conjectandi,  opus  posthumum ;  accedunt  iraciatus  de  Serie- 
bus  Infinitis,  et  epistola  {Galtice  scripta)  de  Ludo  Piice- 
Reticularis,  Basiliae,  1713,  1  tom.  4to. 

IL  JoH>f  Bernoulli,  brother  of  tho  preceding,  wa* 
born  at  Basel  on  the  7th  August  1667.  His  education  waa. 
begun  at  six  years  of  age ;  and  after  finishing  his  literary 
studies  he  was  sent  to  NeufchStel  to  learn  commerce  and 
acquire  the  French  language.  But  at  the  end  of  a  year  ho 
renounced  the  pursuits  of  commerce,  returned  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Basel,  and  was  admitted  to  the  degree  of  bachelor 
in  philosophy,  and  a  year  later,  at  the  age  of  18,  to  that  of 
master  of  arts.  In  his  studies  he  was  aided  by  his  elder 
brother  James.  Chemistry,  as  well  as  mathematics,  seems 
to  have  been  the  object  of  his  early  attention ;  and  in  the 
year  1690  he  published  a  dissertation  on  effervescence  and 
fermentation.  The  same  year  he  went  to  Geneva,  wher& 
he  gave  instruction  in  tho  differential  calculus  to  Fatio  de 
Duiller,  and  afterwards  proceeded  to  Paris,  where  he  en- 
joyed the  society  of  Malebranche,  Cassini,  De  Lahire,  and 
Varignon.  With  the  Marquis  de  I'Uopital  he  spent  four 
months  at  his  country  house  in  the  study  of  the  higher 
geometry  and  the  resources  of  the  new  calculus.  His  inde- 
pendent discoveries  in  mathematics  are  numerous  and 
important.  Among  these  were  the  exponential  calculus, 
and  the  curv^  called  by  him  the  linea  brachistochrona,  or 
line  of  swiftest  descent,  which  he  was  the  first  to  deter- 
mine, pointing  out  at  the  same  time  the  beautiful  relation 
which  this  curve  bears  to  the  path  described  by  a  ray  or 
particle  of  light  passing  through  strata  of  variable  density, 
such  as  our  atmosphere.  On  his  return  to  his  native  city 
he  studied  medicine,  and  in  1694  took  the  degree  of  JI.D. 
At  this  period  he  married  into  one  of  the  oldest  families 
in  Basel ;  and  although  he  had  declined  a  professorship  in 
Germany,  he  now  accepted  an  invitation  to  the  chair  of 
mathematics  at  Groningen  (Commercium  Philosophicum, 
epist.  XL  and  xii.)  There,  in  addition  to  the  learned 
lectures  by  which  he  endeavoured  to  revive  mathematical 
science  in  the  university,  he  gave  a  public  course  of  experi- 
mental physics.  Dunng  a  residence  of  ten  years  in  Gron- 
ingen, his  controversies  were  almost  as  numerous  as  bis- 
discoveries.  His  dissertation  on  an  electrical  appearance 
of  the  barometer  first  observed  by  Picard,  and  discussed 
by  John  Bernoulli  under  the  name  of  mercurial  phosphorus, 
or  mercury  shining  in  vacuo  (Diss.  Physica  de  Mcrcuno 
lucenle  in  vacuo),  procured  him  the  notice  of  royalty,  and 
eng.aged  him  in  controversy.  Through  Leibnitz  .he  re- 
ceived from. the  king  of  Prussia  a  gold  medal  for  his  sup- 
posed discoveries ;  but  Ilartsoeker  and  some  of  the  French 
academicians  disputed  the  fact.  The  family  quarrel  about 
the  problem  of  isoperimetrical  figures  above  mentioned 
began  about  this  time.  In  his  dispute  with  his  brother,  in 
his  controversies  with  the  English  and  Scotch  Bi.ithe- 
inaticians,  and  in  his  harsh  and  jealous  beiiring  to  his  son 
Daniel,  he  showed  a  temper  mean,  unfair,  and  violent. 
He  had  declined,  during  his  residence  at  Groningen,  an 
invitation  to  Utrecht,  but  accepted  in  1705  the  mathe- 
matical chair  in  the  university  of  his  native  city,  vacant  by 
the  death  of  bis  brother  James  ;  and  here  he  remained  till 
his  death.  His  inaugural  discourse  was  on  the  "  new- 
analysis,"  which  ho  so  successfully  applied  ia  investigating 


606 


1^  E  R  N  O  U   L  L  I 


Various  problems  both  in  pure  and  mixed  mathematics.  At 
the  request  of  the  magistracy  ol  Basel  he  applied  himself 
to  correct  the  relaxed  discipline  of  the  university. 

He  was. several  times  a  successful  competitor  for  the  prizes 
given  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris;  and  the'subjects 
of  hi3  essays  were,  the  laws  of  motion  { Dismuis  sur  les 
Lois  de  la  Communication  du  Mouvement,  172T),  the  ellip- 
tical orbits  of  the  planets,  and  the  inclinations  of  the  plane- 
tary orbits  {Essai  d'une  Nouvelle  Physique  Celeste,  1735). 
In  the  last  case  his  son  Daniel  divided  the  prize  with  him. 
Some  years  after  his  return  to  Basel  he  published  an  essay, 
entitled  NouvelU  Thione  de  la  Manceuvre  des  I'aisseaiu:. 
It  is,  however,  his  works  in  pure  mathematics  that  are  the 
permanent  monuments  of  his  fame.  D'Alembert  acknow- 
ledges with  gratitude,  that  •'  whatever  he  knew  of  mathe- 
matics he  owed  to  the  works  of  John  Bernoulli"  He  was 
a  member  of  almost  every  learned  society  in  Europe,  and 
one  of  the  first  mathematicians  of  a  mathematical.age.  He 
was  as  keen  in  his  resentments  as  he  was  ardent  in  his 
friendships  ;  fondly  attached  to  his  family,  he  yet  disliked  a 
deserving  son  ;  he  gave  full  praise  to  Leibnitz  and  Euler, 
yet  was  blind  to  the  excellence  of  Newton.  _  Such  was 
the  vigour  of  his  constitution  that  he  continued  to  pursue 
his  usual  mathematical  studies  till  the  age  of  eighty.  He 
was  then  attacked  by  a  complaint  at  first  apparently  trifl- 
ing ,  but  his  strength  daily  and  rapidly  declined  till  the  Ist 
of  January  1748,  when  he  died  peacefully  in  his  sleep. 

His  writings  were  collected  under  his  own  eye  by  Cramer, 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Geneva,  and  published  under 
the  title  of  Johannis  Bernoulli  Open  Omnia,  Lausan.  et 
Genev.  4  torn.  4to.  His  interesting  correspondence  with 
lyeibnitz  appeared  under  the  title  of  Gul.  Leihniiii  et  Jo- 
hannis Bernoulli  Commereium  Philosophicum  et  MathemcUl- 
cum,  Lausan.  et  Genev.  1745,  2  torn.  4to 

ILL  -Nicholas  Beenouxli,  the  eldest  of  the  three  sons 
of  John  Bernoulli,  was  born  in  1695.     His  early  indications 
of  genius  were  carefully  cherished.     A.t  the  age  of  eight  he 
could  speak  German,  Dutch,  French,  and  Latin.     When 
his  father  returned  to  Basel  he  went  to  the  university  of 
that  city,  where,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  he  took  the  degree 
cf  doctor  in  philosophy,  and  four  years  later  the   highest 
cegree    m    law.      Meanwhile  the  study  of   mathematics 
?  as  not  neglected,  as  appears  not  only  from  his  giving 
instructions  in  geometry  to  his  younger  brothei    Daniel, 
tut  from  bis   writings  on   the  differential,   mtegral,  and 
e.Tponential  calculus,  and  from  his  father  considering  him, 
al  the  age  of  twenty-one,  worthy  of  receiving  the  torch  of 
S(  ienco  from  his  own  hands.     { "  Lampada  nunc  tradam  filio 
meo  natu  maximo,  juveni   xxi   annorum,  ingenio  mathe- 
niatico  aliisquc  dotibus  satis  inslruclo,"  Com.  Phil.  ep.  223). 
With  his  father's  permission   he  \a3ited  Italy  and  France, 
and  during  his  travels   formed'  friendship  with  Varignon 
and  with  Uiccati,  one  of  the  first  mathematicians  of  Italy. 
The   invitation   of    a    Venetian     nobleman    induced    him 
again  to  visit  Italy,  where  he  resided  two  years,  till  his 
return  lo  bo  a  candidate  for  the  ch.ur  of  jurisprudence  at 
Basel.      Ho   was  unsuccessful,    liut   was   soon   afterwards 
appointed  to  a  similar  ofEce  in   the   University  of  Bern. 
Here  he  resided  three  years,  his  happiness  only  marred  by 
regret  on  account  of  his  separation  from  his  brother  Daniel, 
with   whom   he  was  united    in   sentiment   and    pursuits. 
Both  were  appointed  at  the  same  time  professors  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  Academy  of  St  Petersburg ,  but  this  oflice 
Nicholas  enjoyed  for  little  more  than  eight  months.      At 
the  end  of  July  172C  he  was  cut  olf  in  the  prime  of  life  by 
\  a  lingering  fever      Sensible  of  »lie   loss  which  the  nation 
had  sustained  by  his  death,  the  Euiorcss  Catherine  ordered 
bim  a  funeral  »t  the  public  expense      Some  (jf  his  papers 
vc   published   in   his  father's  works,   and   others  in   the 
Acta  Eruditorum  and  the  Comment.  Acad.  PetropoL 


IV  Da.s!el  BEP.NOULr.i.the  second  son  of  JohjiBemoua, 
was  born  Uth  February  170U,  at  Groningen.  He  studied 
medicine  and  became  a  physician,  but  his  attention  was 
early  directed  also  to  geometrical  studies.  The  seventy  ol 
his  father's  manner  was  ill  calculated  to  encourage  the 
first  efforts  ot  one  so  sensitive  .  but  fortunately,  at  the  ago 
of  eleven,  he  became  the  pupil  of  his  brother  Nicholas. 
He  afterwards  studied  in  Italy  under  Michelotti  and  Mor- 
^aguL  After  his  return,  though  only  twenty-four  years  of 
age,  he  was  invited  to  become  president  of  an  academy  then 
projected  at  Genoa  ,  but,  decUning  this  honour,  he  was,  in 
the  following  year,  appointed  professor  ol  inathematics'  at 
St  Petersburg.  In  consequence  of  the  state  ot  his  health, 
however,  he  returned  to  Basel  in  1733,  where  he  was 
appointed  professor  ot  anatomy  and  botany,  and  after- 
wards of  experimental  and  speculative  philosophy.  In  the 
labours  of  this  oflice  he  spent  the  remaining  years  of  his 
hfe.  He  had  previously  published  some  medical  andbotani- 
cal  dissertations,  besides  his  Bxercitationes  qucedam  Mathe- 
malicce,  containing  a  solution  of  the  differential  equation 
proposed  3(  Riccati  and  now  known  by  his  name.  In 
1738  ap'ieared  his  Hydrodynamua,  in  which  the  equi- 
librium, the  pressure,  the  reaction,  and  varied  velocities  ut 
fluids  are  con.sidered  both  theoretically  and  practically  One 
of  these  problems,  illustrated  by  experiment,  deals  with 
an  ingenious  mode  of  propelling  vessels  by  the  reaction  of 
water  ejected  from  the  stern  Some  of  his  experiments  on 
this  subject  were  performed  before  .Maupertuis  and  Clairaut, 
whom  the  fame  of  the  Bernoullis  had  attracted  to  Basel. 
With  a  success  equalled  only  by  Euler,  Daniel  Bernoulli 
gained  or  shared  no  less  than  ten  prizes  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  Paris.  The  first,  for  a  memoir  on  the  con- 
strue tion  of  a  clepsydra  for  measuring  time  exactly  at  sea, 
he  gained  at  the  age  of  twenty-four  ,  the  second,  for  one 
on  the  physical  cause  of  the  inclination  of  the  planetary 
orbits,  he  divided  with  his  father ,  and  the  third,  tor  i 
communication  on  the  tides,  he  shared  with  Euler,  Mac- 
laurin,  and  another  competitor.  The  problem  of  vibrating' 
cords,  which  had  been  some  time  before  resolved  by  Tayloi 
and  D'Alembert,  became  the  subject  of  i  long  discussion 
conducted  in  a  generous  spirit  between  Bernoulli  and  his 
friend  Euler.  In  one  of  his  early  investigations  he  gave 
an  ingenious  though  indirect  demonstration  of  the  problem 
of  the  paralleiogram  of  forces.  His  labours  m  the  decline 
of  life  were  chiefly  directed  to  tbs  doctrine  of  probabilities 
in  reference  to  practical  purposes,  and  in  particular  to 
economical  subjects,  as,  for  example,  to  inoculation,  and  to 
the  duration  of  married  life  m  the  cwo  sexes,  as  well 
as  to  the  relative  proportion  of  male  and  female  births. 
He  retained  his  usual  vigour  of  understanding  till  near 
the  age  of  eighty,  when  his  nephew  James  relieved  him  of 
his  public  duties.  He  was  afllicted  with  asthma,  and  his 
retirement  was  reheved  only  by  the  society  of  a  few  chosen 
friends.  In  the  spring  of  1782,  after  some  days'  illness, 
he  died,  like  his  father,  in  the  rejiose  "f  sleep  Excluded 
by  his  professional  character  from  che  councils  of  the 
republic,  ho  nevertheless  received  ill  the  deference  and 
honour  due  to  a  first  magistrate  He  was  wont  to  mention 
the  following  as  the  two  incidents  in  his  life  which  had 
afforded  hira  the  greatest  pleasure,— that  a  stranger  whom 
he  had  met  as  a  travelling  companion  m  his  youth,  made 
to  his  declaration  •'  I  am  Darnel  Bernoulli"  the  incredulous 
and  mocking  reply,  "  And  I  am  Isaac  Newton  .'  and  that, 
while  entertaining  Konig  and  other  guests,  he  solved  with- 
out  rising  from  table  a  problem  which  that  maibcmatician 
had  submitted  a?  difficult  and  lengthy 

Like    hi?    father,   he   was  a  member  of   almost  every 

learned  society  of  Europe,  and  he  gnocceded  him  as  loreign 

1  associate  of  the  Academy  of  I  Via      sevprai  ot  his  investi- 

gallons  are   contained   id   the   carUer   volumes  ol   the  SI 


3  E  R 


BED 


GOT 


Petersburg  Memoiis  ,  and  his  separately  published  works 
are^l.)  Disserlalio  Inaugur.  Phys.  hied  de  Respiratioiie, 
Basil.,  1721  4to;  (2.)  Fosiliones  Anatomico-Botaatcce, 
Basil.,  1 721,  4to  ;  (3.)  Exercitationes qitccdam  Malhanaticce, 
Venetiis,  172-t,  4to ,  li.)  Uydrodi/namica,  Argeutorati, 
17JS.  4to. 

V  John  Beknouxll  the  youngest  of  the  three  sons  of 
John  Bernoulli,  was  born  at  Basel  on  the  18tb  May  1710. 
Ho  studied  law  and  mathematics,  and,  after  travelhng  in 
France,  was  for  five  years  professor  of  eloquence  in  the 
university  of  his  nativo  city  On  the  death  of  his  father 
be  succeeded  him  as  professor  ot  mathematics  Ho  was 
thrice  a  successful  competitor  for  the  prizes  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  Pans.  His  prize  subjects  were,  the  capstan, 
the  propagation  of  light,  and  the  magnet  He  enjoyed 
the  friendship  of  Maupo.tuis,  who  died  under  his  roof 
while  on  his  way  to  Berlin.  Ho  himself  died  in  1790. 
His  two  eons,  John  and  James,  are  the  last  noted  mathe- 
maticians of  the  family. 

VI  NicnoLAS  Bern'odlli,  cousin  of  the  three  preceding, 
and  son  of  Nicholas  Bernoulli,  one  of  the  senators  of  Basel, 
was  born  in  that  city  on  the  10th  October  1G87.  He 
visited  England,  where  he  was  kindly  received  by  Newton 
and  Halley  (Com.  Phil  ep  •  199),  held  for  a  time  the 
mathematical  chaii  at  Padua,  which  Galileo  had  once 
filled,  and  was  successively  professor  of  logic  and  )f  law 
at  Basel,  where  he  died  on  the  29th  of  November  1759. 
He  was  editor  of  the  Ars  Conjcctanii  of  his  uncle  uSires. 
His  own  works  are  contained  in  t'lo  Acta  Eruditortim, 
the  Givrnale  de'  Lettcrati  d'llalia.  and  the  Comme.-cium 
Philosophtcum 

VIL  John  BEK.s'otrLLi,  grandson  of  the  first  John 
Bernoulli,  and  son  of  the  second  of  that  name,  was  born 
at  Basel  on  the  4th  December  1744  He  studied  at  Basel 
and  at  Neufchatel,  and  when  thirteen  years  of  age  took 
the  degree  of  doctor  in  philosop  ly.  At  nineteen  he  was 
appointed  astronomer  royal  of  Berlin  Some  years  after, 
he  \isited  Germany,  France,  and  England,  and  subse- 
quently Italy,  Russia,  and  Poland  On  his  return  to 
BerLn  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  niathoniaticcl  de- 
partment of  the  academy.  Hire  he  died  on  the  10th 
July  1807  His  writings  consut  of  travels  and  astronomi- 
cal, geographical,  and  mathematical  works.  In  1774  he 
published  a  French  translation  of  Euler^  Elemenh  of 
Aljcbra  He  contributed  several  papers  to  the  Academy 
of  Berlin 

VIII.  James  Bernoclu,  yDunger  brother  o£  the  pre- 
ceding, and  the  second  of  this  name,  was  born  at  Basel  on 
the  17th  October  1759  Having  finished  his  literary 
studies,  ho  was,  according  to  custom,  sent  to  Neufchutel 
to  learn  French.  On  his  return  ho  studied  law  and  took 
a  degree.  This  study,  however,  did  not  check  his  heredi- 
tary taste  for  geometry  The  early  lessons  which  ho  had 
received  from  his  father  wero  continued  by  his  uncle 
Daniel,  and  such  was  his  progress  in  the  exact  sciences 
that  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  was  called  to  undertake 
the  dutie.'>  of  the  chair  of  experimental  physics,  which  his 
uncle's  advanced  years  rendered  him  unable  to  discharge. 
Ho  oftcrwards  accepted  the  situation  of  secretary  to 
Count  dp  Brenner,  which  afforded  hun  an  opportunity  of 
eecine  Germany  and  Italy  In  Italy  he  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Lorgna,  professor  of  mathematics  at  Verona, 
and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Italian  society  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  sciences  He  was  also  made  corre- 
eponding  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Turin  ,  and, 
while  residing  at  Venice,  he  was.  through  the  frijndly 
representation  of  Fuss,  admitted  into  the  Academy  of  St 
Petersburg  Id  1738  he  wa.">  named  ono  of  its  mathe- 
Biatical  professora  In  the  following  year  ho  married  a 
daughter  of  Albert  Euler.  soo  of  the  illustrious  Euler. 


This  marriage  wa.«  soon  u.agically  dissolved  oy  the  death 
of  the  husband,  who  was  drowned  while  bathing  in  the 
Neva  in  July  1789  Several  of  his  papers  are  contained 
in  the  first  six  volumes  of  Nova  Acta  Acad  Scien.  Jmper. 
Peiropol..  m  the  Acta  Helvetica,  in  the  Memoin  oj  the 
Academies  of  Berlin  and  Turin,  and  in  his  brother  John's 
publications  He  also  published  separately  some  juridical 
and  physical  theses,  and  a  Germau  translation  of  Mhnovret 
du  Philosopht  de  Merian. 

BEROSUS  was  a  Chaldean  priest  who  lived  in  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  his  immediate  successors. 
He  translated  the  history  of  his  native  country,  Babj'lonia, 
into  the  Greek  language,  and  dedicated  the  work  to  one  of 
the  Greek  kings  of  Syria  named  Antiochus.  His  work  is 
principally  known  through  the  fragments  of  Polyhistor 
and  ApoUodorus,  two  writers  in  the  1st  century  before 
the  Christian  era,  who  are  quoted  by  Eusebius  and  Syn 
cellus. 

The  work  of  Berosus  professed  to  commence  with  the 
creation  of  the  umverse,  and  the  history  was  earned  down 
to  his  own  time  A  few  quotations  at  second  or  third 
hand,  and  the  bare  outlines  of  his  system  of  chronology, 
are  all  that  has  been  transmitted  to  us  through  the  copyists 
of  Berosus ;  but  the  close  connection  throughout  between 
his  story  and  the  Bible,  and  the  knowledge  that  he  drew 
his  information  from  the  records  of  Babylonia,  have  always 
invested  these  f/ugments  with  great  importance, — an  im- 
pel tance  which  has  been  increased  of  late,  since  the  dis- 
covery of  several  cuneiform  inscriptions  confirming  different 
parts  oi  his  history 

The  i  istory  of  Berosus  first  described  the  chaos  before 
the  creation,  presided  over  by  the  female  Thalatth  or 
Omoroc  (the  chaotic  sea),  called  Tiamat  and  Tisallat  in 
the  inscriptions ;  sae  was  destroyed  by  Belus,  and  then 
the  god  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth  After  this 
ho  gavi  the  chronology  of  the  Babylonian  kingdom  as 
follows  — 

Tetra 

10  kings  before  the  nood  435,000 

8fl  kiiira  after  the  flood  34,080  or  33,091 

8  Median  kings .224,  or  234   or  190 

11  other  monarch \     ...(number  lost,  in  margio  48.) 

49  Chsildean  king 4S8. 

9  Arabian  kings.     245. 

45  other  kings... 626. 

After  Uieae  reigned  in  C'haldea.  Pul 

The  later  part  o  the  scheme  of  Berosus  is  lost,  but 
detached  extracts  are  quoted  by  some  ancient  historians 

In  comparing  the  notice?  of  Berosus  with  the  Baby- 
lonian and  AssjTian  inscriptions,  considerable  difficulty  is 
met  with  on  account  of  the  deficient  information  on  both 
sides.  The  absence  of  chronological  landmarks  in  the  in- 
scriptions, and  the  doubts  as  to  the  length  of  the  third  and 
fourth  periods  of  Berosus,  are  serious  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  the  chronology,  but  in  the  absence  of  more  satis- 
factory information  the  list,  of  Berosus  must  be  taken  as 
the  framework  of  Babylonian  chronology 

The  first  period  of  Berosus,  reaching  from  the  creation 
to  the  flood,  is  said  to  have  included  10  reigns  and 
432,000  years  The  List  two  of  these  names  are  the  only 
ones  found  with  any  certainty  in  the  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions,— these  are  Ubara-tJtu  and  Adra-hasis,  the  Otiartes 
and  Xisuthrus  of  Berosus  The  deluge,  which  closed  this 
period,  is  described  in  Berosus,  and  in  the  cuneiform  in- 
scriptions of  the  Izdubai  legends 

The  next  period  give  by  Berosus  includes  86  kings, 
and  a  period  of  34,080  or  33,091  years. — the  nun  ber  is 
uncertain,  and  certainly  unhistorical  It  is  probable  that 
the  later  sovereigns  of  this  period  were  historica-  and 
some  of  the  names  whicl  are  preserved  are  ordinary  Baby- 
lonian compnunda.     Three  names  in  a  fragment  of  Baby- 


608 


B  E  R  — B  E  li 


Ionian  chronology  appear  to  belong  to  this  period, — these 
are  Ilu-kassat,  Slulagununna,  Abilkisu,  who  are  given  as 
successive  sovereigns ;  and  there  is  another  probable  king 
of  the  period,  Izdubar,  who  most  likely  represents  the 
Biblical  Nimrod.  _  During  this  period  the  language  and 
people  of  Babylonia  are  supposed  to  have  been  Tura- 
nian, and  in  round  numbers  it  may  be  said  to  end  about 
2400  B.C. 

i  About  2400  B.C.,  according  to  Berosus,  Babylonia  was 
overrun  by  a  conquering  tribe  called  by  him  "  Medes." 
Ha  has  preserved  in  connection  with  this  event  the  name 
of  Zoroaster,  and  has  given  the  dynasty  8  kings,  the  length 
of  the  period  being  placed  variously  at  234,  224,  and  190 
years.  Where  our  authorities  differ  so  much  we  can  only 
make  shift  with  a  routid  number,  and  say  the  period  was 
probably  about  200  years,  from  2400  to  2200  B.C.  There 
is  one  name  in  the  inscriptions  supposed  to  belong  to  this 
period, — that  of  Kudur-nanhundi,  king  of  Elam,  who  con- 
quered Babylonia  about  2280  B.C.  Nothing  is  known  as 
to  the  race  here  called  Medes  by  Berosus,  but  it  is  con- 
jectured that  they  were  Elamites. 

The  next  period  of  Berosus  included  1 1  kings,  the  dura- 
tion of  the  dynasty  not  being  preserved.  In  the  margin 
we  have  the  number  48  years,  but  nothing  is  known  of  the 
origin  of  this  number,  and  it  appears  too  small  for  11 
kings.  Perhaps  we  may  provisionally  allow  about  200 
years  for  this  dynasty,  2200  to  2000  B.C.  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  race  or  names  of  the  monarchs. 
I  About  2000  B.C.  commenced  a  period  including,  acaord- 
ing  to  Berosus,  49  kings  and  458  years.  The  kings  are 
called  Chaldean,  and  appear  to  correspond  with  a  famous 
line  of  sovereigns  reigning  at  the  cities  of  Ur,  Karrak, 
and  Larsa,  commencing  with  the  reign  of  Urukh,  king  of 
Ur.  The  centre  of  Babylonian  power  in  their  time  lay  in 
the  south  of  the  country,  and  many  of  the  well-known 
temples  and  other  buildings  in  this  region  were  raised 
during  their  dominion.  One  of  the  monarchs  in  this  period 
bore  the  name  of  Sargon ;  he  was  very  celebrated,  and  of 
him  a  story  is  related  similar  to  that  of  the  infancy  of 
Moses.  He  is  said  to  have  been  concealed  by  his  mother 
in  an  ark  and  floated  on  the  River  Euphrates.  This  great 
period  ended  with  the  defeat  of  Rim-agn,  king  of  Larsa, 
by  Hammurabi,  who  established  a  new  dynasty,  and  made 
Babylon  the  capital  about  1550  B.  a 

The  dynasty  founded  by  Hammurabi  appears  to  be  the 
Arabian  line  of  Berosus,  which  lasted  under  9  kings  for 
245  years.  Many  of  the  kings  of  this  period  are  known 
from  the  inscriptions.  They  first  had  extensive  relations 
tvith  the  Assyrians,  and  about  1300  B.C.  Tugulti-ninip, 
king  of  Assyria,  conquered  Babylon,  and  expelled  the  last 
Arab  monarch.  From  this  time  commenced  the  direct 
inflaence  of  Assyria  in  Babylonia,  and  the  period  of  this 
■dynasty  is  counted  by  Berosus  as  52G  years.  It  probably 
ended  with  the  time  of  Pul,  a  great  king  and  conqueror, 
about  whose  personality  and  date  there  is  much  difference 
of  opinion. 

Theinext  epoch  in  Babylonian  history  is  that  of  Nabo- 
nassar,  whose  era  commenced  747  B.c.  From  his  time 
the  history  of  Babylonia  presents  a  constant  series  of  con- 
quests by  the  As.syrians,  and  revolts  against  them  by  the 
Babylonians,  down  to  the  time  of  Nabopolassar,  who,  after 
quelling  a  revolt  in  Babylonia,  was  mado  ruler  of  the 
country  by  the  king  of  Assyria,  and  afterwards  revolting 
against  hiis  master  took  Nineveh  in  concert  with  the 
MedPA 

Nebuchadnezzar,  son  of  Nabopolassar,  who  ascended  the 
throne  of  Babylon  G05  B.C.,  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
kings  in  history,  and  is  mentioned  at  length  by  Berosus, 
who  then  notices  the  revolutions  at  Babylon  until  the 
taking  of  the  city  by  Cyrua  539  B.C. 


The  history  of  Borouns  continued  down  to  t\x&-  coo 
quest  of  Alexander  the  Great,  aud  the  xeign  at  bis  patron 
Antiochus. 

The  writings  and  notices  of  Berosus  were  collected  and 
published  in  Germany  by.Jlichte,r.in  1825,  and  Ln  England 
by  Cory,  in  his  Ancient  Fragments.  Later  and  excellent 
extracts  and  notices  have  been  given  by  Canon  RawLinsoa. 
and  M.  Lenormant,  while  the  chronology  of  Berosus  ha» 
exercised  the  ingenuity  of  Brandis,  Oppert,  Lenormant, 
Rawbnson,  Hincks,  ard  many  other  scholars.  There  is.  how- 
ever, no  probability  that  any  published  system  has  correctly 
restored  the  dates  of  Berosus;  the  materials  are  at  preseut 
insufficient  for  sich  a  work.  (Cv  s.) 

BEKRI,  Charles  Ferdinand,  Doc  de,  younger  son  of 
Charles  X.  of  France,  was  born  at  Versailles  on  the  24th 
Jan.  1778.  With  his  father,  then  Comte  d'Artois,  he  had 
to  leave  France,  and  for  several  years  served  in  the  army 
of  Cond&  He  afterwards  joined  the  Russian  army,  and 
in  1801  took  up  his  residence  in  England,  where  he  re- 
mained for  thirteen  years.  During  that  time  he  married 
an  English  lady,  by  whom  he  had  two  children.  The 
marriage  was  cancelled  for  political  reasons  in  1814,  when 
the  duke  set  out  for  France.  His  frank,  open  manners 
gained  him  some  favour  with  his  fickle  countrymen,  which 
was  increased  by  his  marriage  in  1816  with  the  Princess 
Caroline  Ferdinande  Louise  of  Naples.  On  the  13th  of 
February  1820  he  was  mortally  wounded,  when  leaving  the 
opera-house  with  his  wife,  by  a  man  named  Louvel.  Seven 
months  after  his  death  the  duchess  gave  birth  to  a 
son,  who  received  tlie  title  of  duke  of  Bordeaux.  She 
was  compelled  to  foUow  Charles  X.  in  his  retirement  from 
France  after  July  1830,  but  it  was  with  the  resolution  of 
returning  speedily  and  making  an  attempt  to  secure  the 
throne  for  her  son.  In  April  1832  she  landed  near  Mar- 
seilles, but  receiving  no  support,  was  compelled  to  make 
her  way  towards  the  ever-loyal  districts  of  La  Vendue  and 
Bretagne.  Her  followers,  however,  were  defeated,  and 
after  much  suffering,  she  was  betrayed  to  the  Government 
and  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Blaye.  Here  she  gave 
birth  to  a  son,  the  fruit  of  a  secret  marriage  contracted 
with  an  Italian  nobleman,  son  of  the  Marchese  Lucchesi 
PallL  The  announcement  of  this  marriage  at  once  deprived 
the  duchess  of  the  sympathies  of  her  supporters.  She  was 
no  longer  an  object  of  fear  to  the  French  Government,  who 
released  her  in  June  1833.  She  set  sail  for  Sicily,  and 
from  that  time  tiU  her  death  in  April  1870  lived  a  retired 
life  with  ber  husband  and  his  relatives. 

BERRYER,  Pierre  Antoine,  a  French  advocate  and 
parliamentary  orator,  was  born  at  Paris,  January  4,  1790, 
in  the  midst  of  the  agitating  events  of  the  first  year  of  the 
groat  Revolution.  Berryer's  father  was  an  eminent  advo- 
cate and  parliamentary  counsellor.  The  son  was  educated 
at  the  Coll(5gc  de  Juilly,  on  leaving  which  ho  adopted,  in 
deference  to  his  father's  wishes,  the  profession  of  the  law ; 
but  his  own  leaning  at  that  time  was  to  the  church.  After 
completing  the  usual  course  of  professional  studies,  he  was 
admitted  advocate  in  1811,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
married.  In  the  great  conflict  of  the  period  betwcce» 
Napoleon  I.  and  the  Bourbons,  Berrj'cr,  like  his  father, 
w-is  an  a  dent  Legitimist;  and  in  the  spring  of  1815,  at 
the  opening  of  the  campaign  of  the  Hundred  Days,  he 
followed  Louis  XVIII.  to  Ghent  as  a  volunteer.  After  the 
second  Restoration  he  distinguished  himself  as  a  courageous 
advocate  of  moderation  in  the  treatment  of  the  military 
adherents  of  the  emperor.  He  was  engaged,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  father  and  Dupin,  in  the  unsuccessful  defence 
of  Marshal  Ncy  before  the  Chamber  of  Peers;  and  he  under- 
took alone  ihe  defence  of  General  Cambronnc  and  General 
Debelle,  procuring  the  acquittal  of  the  former  and  the  • 
pardon  of  the  latter.     Proceedings  were  «oon  after  oomi- 


B  E  R  — B  E  R 


B09 


menced  against  bim  for  some  assertions  in  one  of  his 
e^ieech^s,  bul  he  escaped  with  nothing  more  severe  than  a 
censure  by  the  Council  of  Advocates.  By  this  Unie  he 
Lad  a  very  large  buaiueas  us  advocate,  and  was  engaged  on 
bebal/  of  journalista  iii  many  press  prosecutions.  He  stood 
forward  with  a  noble  resolution  to  maintain  the  freedom 
of  the  press,  and  eevercly  censurei^  the  rigorous  measures 
of  the  police  department.  In  1830'.  not  long  before  the 
fall  of  Charles  X.,  Berrjier  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  appeared  there  as  tho  cham- 
pion of  the  king,  and  encouraged  him  in  his  tyrannical 
course.  After  the  Revolution  of  July,  when  the  Legitimists 
withdrew  in  a  body,  Berryer  alone  retained  his  seat  as 
deputy ;  and  though  avowedly  the  friend  of  the  deposed 
king,  he  took  an  independent  course,  not  making  himself 
on  unscrupulous  partizan,  but  guided  in  his  advocacy  or 
his  opposition  by  reason  and  prudence.  He  was  oii«  of 
the  influential  men  who  resisted,  but  unsuccessfully,  the 
abolition  of  the  hereditary  peerage.  He  advocated  trial 
by  jury  in  press  prosecutions,  the  extension  of  municipal 
franchises,  and  other  liberal  measures.  In  May  1S32  he 
hastened  from  Paris  to  see  the  duchess  of  Berri  on  her 
landing  in  the  south  of  France  for  the  purpose  of  organizing 
8D  insurrection  in  favour  of  her  son,  the  duke  of  Bor- 
deaux, since  known  as  the  count  of  Chambord.  Berryer 
attempted  to  turn  her  from  her  purpose ;  and  failing  in 
this  he  set  out  for  Switzerland.  He  was,  however, 
arrested,  imprisoned,  and  brought  to  trial  as  one  of  the  in- 
surgents. He  was  immediately  acquitted.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  pleaded  for  the  liberation  ot  the  countess ; 
made  a  memorable  speech  in  defence  of  Chateaubriand,  who 
was  prosecuted  for  his  violent  attacks  on  the  Qoverumeut 
of  Louis  Philippe ;  and  undertook  the  defence-  of  several 
Legitimist  journalists.  In  1834  he  defended  two  deputies 
in  a  Government  prosecution  for  libel,  and  the  same  year 
opposed  the  passing  of  a  new  rigoroua  law  against  political 
and  other  associations.  Among  the  more  noteworthy 
events  of  his  subsequent  career  were  bis  defence  of  Louis 
Napoleon  aft«r  the  ridiculous  affair  of  Boulogne,  in  184j0, 
and  a  visit  to  England  in  Deoember  184  3,  for  the  purpose 
of  formaUy  acknowledging  the  pretender,  the  duke  of 
Bordeaux,  then  livicg  in  London,  as  Henry  V.,and  lawful 
king  of  France.  This  proceeding  brought  on  him  the  cen- 
8urB  of  M.  Guizot,  then  first  minister  of  Louis  Philippe. 
Berryer  was  an  active  member  of  the  National  Assembly 
convoked  after  the  Revolution  of  February  1848,  again 
visited  the  pretender,  then  at  Wiesbaden,  and  still  fought 
iu  the  old  cause.  This  long  parliamentary  career  was 
closed  by  a  courageous  protest  against  the  coup  d'etat  of 
December  2,  1 85 1.  After  a  lapse  of  twelve  years,  however, 
he  appeared  once  more  in  his  forsaken  field  as  a  deputy  to 
the  Corps  L^gislatif.  Meanwhile  he  had  been  a  diligent 
promoter  of  the  much  talked  of  fusion  of  the  two  branches 
of  the  Bourbon  family,  and  had  distinguished  himself  at 
the  bar  by  great  speeches  on  the  tnal  of  Montalembert  in 
1858,  and  in  the  civd  proceedings  set  on  foot  by  M. 
Patterson  against  Jerome  Bonaparte  in  1860;  Berryer 
was  elected  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1854.  A 
visit  paid  by  this  famous  orator  to  Lord  Brougham  in  1865 
was  made  the  occasion  of  a  banquet  given  in  his  honour 
by  the  benchers  of  the  Temple  and  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  In 
November  I8G8  he  was  removed  by  bis  own  desire  from 
Paris  to  bis  country  scat  at  Augerville,  and  there  be  died 
on  the  29tb  of  the  same  month. 

BERTHOLLET,  Ct,AUDE  L(Ajr3,  one  of  tho  most  dis- 
tinguished chemists  of  the  French' school,  was  born  at 
.Talloire,  near  Annecy^  in  Savoy,  in  1748.  He  studied 
first  at  Chambcry,  and  subsequently  at  Turin,  where  he 
took  his  degree  as  a  physician.  In  1772  he  settled  at 
Tuiis,  and  bood  became  the  medical  attendant  of  Philip, 
3     '22 


duke  of  Orleans.  By  the  publication  of  a  volume  of 
chemical  essays,  ho  gained  such  reputation  that  be  was 
admitted  in  1 781  into  tho  Acad<5mie  des  Sciences.  He  was 
appointed  Government  superiutcndcut  of  the  establishment 
for  the  miprovement  of  dyeing,  and  in  17U1  he  published 
his  essay  ^ur  la  .Teinture,  a  work  that  first  sysematized 
and  chemically  explained  the  principles  of  the  art.  It  was 
translated  into  Eiiglisbby  Dr  William  Ilamillon,  17iJ4. 
BerthoUet  early  adopted  the  chemical  views  of  Lavoisier, 
and  took  part  with  him  m  the  formation  of  a  new  system 
of  chemical  nomenclature.  He  confirmed  and  extended 
the  discoveries  of  Priestley  on  ammonia,  discovered  ful- 
minating silver,  and  greatly  extended  our  knowledge  of 
the  dephlogisticated  marine  acid  of  Scheele,  for  which  the 
name  of  oxymuriatic  acid  was  then  proposed,  and  which  is 
now  termed  chlorine.  It  was  he  who  in  1785  first  proposed 
to  apply  it  to  bleaching.  He  discovered  the  remarkable 
salt  now  called  chlorate  of  potash  ;  and  we  owe  to  him 
also  an  excellent  essay  on  the  chemical  constitution  of 
soaps.  Berthollet's  contributions  to  chemistry  are  scattered 
through  the  pages  of  the  Journal  de  Physique,  Annates  de 
Chimie,  Memoirea  de  I'Inititut,  and  M  noires  d'Arceuil. 
At  tho  commencement  of  the  Frenc_;  Revolution  the 
scarcity  of  saltpetre  for  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  was 
much  felt ;  and  Bertbollet  was  placed'^at  the  head  of  a 
commission  for  improving  the  processes  for  obtaining  and 
purifying  this  important  product  within  the  tterritury  of 
France.  Soon  afterwards  we  find  him  one  of  a  commission 
for  improving  the  processea  in  thesra^ing  of  iron,  and  con- 
verting it  into  Btoel.  In  1732  he  was  ippointed  a  director 
of  the  mint,  and  in  1794  he  became  a  member  of  the 
committee  on  agriculture  and  the  arts;  while  he  filled  the 
office  of  teacher  of  chemistry  in  the  Polytechnic  and  Normal 
Schools  of  Paris,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  remodel- 
ling of  tho  National  lastitute  in  1795.  In  the  following 
year  Bertbollet  and  Monga  were  appointed  heads  of  a 
commission  to  select  in  Italy  the  choicest  specimens,  of 
ancient  and  modern  art,  for  the  national  galleries  of  Paris. 
In  1798  BerthoUet  accompanied  General  Bonafiarte  to 
Egypt.  On  the  overthrow  of  the  Directory  he  was  made 
a  teoator  and  a  grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 
Under  the  empire  be  was  created  a  count,  and  he  sat 
aa  a  pear  oo  the  raatoration  of  the  Bourbons.  His  last 
work  was  his  curious  essay  oa  Chewiical  Statics  (1803),  in 
which  he  controverted  the  views  »f  Bergman.  BerthoUet 
was  a  man  of  great  modesty  aad  /Unostentatious  manners. 
For  some  y^ars  he  lived  retired  at  Arcueil;  eepeciaUy  after 
the  misconduct  and  suicide  of  his  only  son.  He  died  at 
Paris  of  a  painful  amlady  bravely  born^  Kevcmber  6, 
1822.   , 

BEKTHOUD,  Ferdixand,  a  celebrated  Swiss  chrsno- 
metermaker,  was  born  in  Neufcbitel.  The  date  of  his 
birth  is  variously  given  as  1725,  1727,.and  1739.  His 
father  was  on  architect,  and  tke  sM  was  intended  for  the 
church  ;  but,  showing  a  taste  for  mechanics,  he  was  pbiced 
under  an  experienced  workman  to  be  instrncted  in  clock 
and  watch  making,  and  was  afterwords  sent  to  Paris  to 
improve  himself  in  the  knowledge  and  practice  of  the 
art.  He  settled  in  Paris  in  1745,  and  i^ppUcd  himself  to 
the  making  of  chronometers,  an  art  which  was  then  in  its 
infancy.  Ho  soon  attained  distinction  for  the  excellence 
of  his  workmanship  arul  the  accuracy  of  bis  cfarorkometers. 
Fleurieu  and  Borda,  by  order  of  the  French  Oovernnicnt, 
made  a  voyage  from  La  Rochelle  to  tho  West  Indies  and 
Newfoundland  for  the  purpose  of  testing  them,  and  they 
found  that  they  gave  the  longitude  with  an  error  of  only  a 
quarter  of  a  degree,  after  a  cruise  of  six  weeks.  Satisfac- 
tory results  were  also  obtained  in  the  expedition  of  Verdun, 
Borda,  and  Pingri,  which  was  appointed  to  try  these 
chronometcps  and  those  of  his  only  rival,  Le  Roy.     SuU/, 


610 


B  E  R  — B  E  R 


aa  Eaglish  watchmaker  establishea  lu  r-aris,  was  the  first 
.who  in  that  city  attempted  the  construction  of  chronometers 
for  fincfing  the  longitude;  and  this  he  did  in  1724.  In 
1736  the  chronometers  of  the  English  artist  Harrison  were 
tried  at  sea.  In  France,  however,  there  were  no  chrono- 
meter-makers of  note  after  Sully,  till  Pierre  le  Roy  and 
Ferdinand  Berthoud,  between  whom  there  was  some  dis- 
cussion about  the  priority  of  their  discoveries  and  improve- 
ments. Ferdinand  Berthoud's  chronometers  were  long  the 
most  esteemed  of  any  in  France.  Louis  Berthoud,  his 
nephew  and  successor,  introduced  s'ome  improvements,  and 
made  chronometers  of  a  smaller  size  and  therefore  more 
portable.  Berthoud  was  a  member  of  the  French  Institute, 
a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and  a  member  of 
the  Legion  of  Honour.  He  was  regular  in  his  habits,  and 
retained  the  use  of  his  faculties  to  the  last.  He  died  of 
hydrothorax,  at  his  country  house,  in  the  valley  of  Mont- 
morency, in  1807,  aged  about  eighty  The  principal  of 
his  published  works  are  £ssais  sur  V llorlogerie,  2d  edit, 
1786,  2  vols.  4to  ;  two  Tracts  on  Chronometers,  1773  ,  De 
la  Mesure  du  Temps,  1787,  4to  ;  Les  Longitudes  par  la 
Afesure  du  Temps,  1775,  4to  a  Tract  on  Chronometers, 
1  782,  4to  ;  Histoire  de  la  Mesure  du.  Temps  par  les  Hor- 
lor/es,  1802,  2  vols.  4to  ,  L'Art  de  conduire  et  de  regler  les 
Pendules  et  les  Montres,  1780,  1 2mo.  The  tract  last  named, 
containing  directions  suited  to  general  readers  for  regu- 
lating clocks  and  watches,  passed  through  several  editions. 

BERTINORO  (identified,  on  conjecture,  with  the  ancient 
Forum  Druentinorum),  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Emilia  and  district  of  Forli,  the  seat  of  the  bishop  of  the 
united  dioceses  of  Forlimpopoli  and  Bertinoro.  It  stands 
on  a  hill,  below  which  the  River  Ronco  flows,  and  is  cele- 
brated for  the  excelknce  of  its  wine.  Population,  6540 
Long  12°  2'  30"  E.,  lat.  44°  8'  34"  N 

BERWICK,  James  Fitzjajies,  Duke  of,  marshal  and 
peer  of  France,  was  a  natural  son  of  James,  duke  of  York, 
afterwards  James  IL  of  England,  by  Arabella  Churchill, 
sister  of  the  great  duke  of  Marlborough.  He  was  born  at 
f.loulins,  August  21,  1670.  He  received  his  education  in 
France,  studying  successively  at  Juilly,  at  the  College  of 
Plessis,  and  at  the  College  of  Flfeche.  At  the  age  of  fifteen, 
his  father  having  succeeded  to  the  throne,  he  was  sent  to 
learn  the  business  of  a  soldier  under  the  famous  general  of 
the  empire,  Charles  of  Lorraine.  He  served  his  first 
<:impaigns  in  Hungary,  and  was  present  at  the  siege  of 
tJuda  and  the  battle  of  Mohacz.  In  1G87  he  returned  to 
England,  was  made  a  Knight  of  the  Garter,  and  created 
duke  of  Berwick.  After  the  Resolution  he  served  under 
James  II.  in  the  campaign  in  Ireland,  was  in  one  engage- 
ment severely  wounded,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
the  Boyne  For  a, short  time  he  was  left  in  Ireland  as 
commander-in-chief,  but  his  youth  and  inexperience  unfitted 
him  for  the  post,  and  he  was  a  mere  puppet  in  stronger 
hands.  In  1692  he  was  recalled  to  France,  and  took 
service  in  the  French  army.  He  fought  under  Marshal 
Luxembourg  in  Flanders,  took  part  in  the  bi^ttlcs  of 
Steinkerk  and  Landen  (Neerwindcn),  and  was  taken 
prisoner  at  the  latter.  He  was,  however,  immediately 
exchanged  for  the  duke  of  Ormond,  amd  afterwards  he 
served  under  Villeroi.  In  1696  the  duke  of  Berwick  took 
ft  prominent  part  in  a  plot  for  a  Jacobito  insurrection,  but 
the  scheme  eame  to  nothing.  In  1702  ho  served  under 
the  duke  of  Burgundy,  and  in  the  following  year  became 
naturalized  as  a  Frenchman.  In  1704  he  first  took  com- 
mand of  the  Frencl^  army  in  Spain.  So  highly  was  he 
now  esteemed  for  his  courage,  abilities,  and  integrity,,  that 
all  parties  were  anxious  to  have  him  on  tlieir  side  {Eloge, 
by  MontoBquiou),  From  Spain  he  was  recalled  to  tak» 
the  commnnd  (igainst  tlie  Caimiwrds  in  LRngu«)oc,  and 
A  lion  00   tliis  oxpediUon  be  w  said  to  bav*  earned  nut 


with  remorseless  rigour  the  orders  which  he  received  from 
Versailles.  About  this  time  he  was  created  marshal  of 
France.  He  was  then  sent  again  to  Spain  to  retrieve  the 
affairs  of  that  kingdom,  and  to  prop  up  the  tottering  throne 
In  April  1707  he  won  the  great  victory  of  Almanza,  an 
Englishman  at  the  head  of  a  French  army,  over  the  earl 
of  Galway  (comte  de  Ruvigny),  a  Frenchman  at  the  head 
of  an  English  army.  The  victory  established  Philip  V.  on 
the  throne  of  Spain,  although  neither  he  nor  his  rival,  the 
archduke,  was  present  at  the  battle.  Berwick  was  made  a 
peer  of  France  and  grandee  of  Spain.  In  1708  he  became 
commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  France  in  Spam,  in 
Flanders,  on  the  Rhine,  and  on  the  Moselle.  Through  the 
four  following  years  he  gained  fresh  laurels  by  his  masterly 
defence  of  Dauphine,  and  in  1713  he  returned  to  Spain 
and  took  Barcelona  Three  years  later  he  was  appointed 
military  governor  of  the  province  of  Guienne.  In  1718  he 
found  himself  under  the  necessity  of  once  more  entering 
Spam  with  an  army;  and  this  time  he  had  to  fight  against 
Philip  V  ,  the  king  who  owed  chiefly  to  his  courage  and 
skill  the  safety  of  hi^  throna.  One  of  the  marshal's  sons, 
known  as  duke  of  Liria,  was  settled  in  Spain,  and  was 
counselled  by  his  father  not  to  shrink  from  doing  his  duty 
and  fighting  for  his  sovereign.  Many  years  of  peace 
followed  this  campaign,  and  Marshal  Berwick  was  not 
aga»n  called  to  serve  in  the  field  till  1733.  He  advisea 
and  conducted  in  1734  the  siege  of  Philipsburg  on  the 
Rhine,  and  while  the  siege  was  going  on  was:  killed  by  a 
cannon-shot,  June  12  of  that  year.  Cool,  self-possessed, 
and  cautious  as  a  general.  Marshal  Berwick  was  at  the 
same  time  not  wanting  in  audacity  and  swiftness  of  action 
in  a  real  crisis.  He  was  careful  of  the  lives  of  his  men, 
and  was  also  a  rigid  disciplinarian.  Lord  Bohngbroke  pro- 
nounced him  the  best  great  man  that  ever  existed.  Montes- 
quieu said,  "  In  the  works  of  Plutarch  I  have  seen  at  a 
distance  what  great  men  were  ;  in  JIarshal  Berwick  I  have 
seen  what  they  are."  He  married  in  1695  a  daughter  of 
the  earl  of  Clanricarde,  by  whom  he  had  the  son  already 
mentioned.  He  married  a  second  wife  in  1699,  by  whom 
he  had  another  son,  known  as  Marshal  Fitz-James.  The 
Memoires  of  Marshal  Berwick,  revised,  annotated,  and  con- 
tinued by  the  Abbe  Hosk,  were  published  by  the  marshal's 
grandson  in  1778.  An  untrustworthy  compilation  bear- 
ing the  same  title  had  been  published  about  forty  years 
earlier. 

BERWICK-UPON-TWEED,  a  seaport  town  and  muni- 
cipal and  parliamentary  borough,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tweed,  in  55°  4G'  N.  lat.  and  1°  59'  W  long.,  300  mUes 
N.  by  W.  from  London,  and  47  E.S.E.  from  Edinburgh. 
Berwick  proper  is  built  chiefly  on  the  declivity  and  flat 
summit  of  an  elevation  rising  abruptly  from  the  north 
sidt  of  the  river.  The  liberties  of  the  borough,  commonly 
called  "  Berwick  Bounds,"  containing  an  area  of  nearly 
eight  square  miles,  extend  to  the  N.  and  W.,  and  form 
the  N.E.  extremity  of  England.  The  borough  also  • 
includes  (since  1835)  the  townships  of  Tweedmouth  and 
Spittal  on  the  south  side  of  the  river, — the  latter  a  fishin/ 
and  watering  place  on  the  coast,  the  former  a  manufaetunn.- 
village  connected  with  Berwick  by  a  bridge.  The  tswi. 
has  a  pleasing  appearance  from  the  neighbouring  height^, 
especially  at  full  tide, — sea  and  river,  ramparts,  bridges  and 
pier,  buildings  ancient  and  modern,  and  the  red-tiled  roofs 
of  the  houses  contributing  to  the  view.  The  pnncipal 
streets  are  wide,  well  'milt,  and  well  paved,  there  being  a 
remarkable  absence,  in  ^o  ancient  a  town,  ol  narrow  street* 
and  old  houses. 

Berwick  is  one  of  the  few  remaining  walled  towns  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  The  present  mmparts  were  built  in  the 
rcign  of  Elizabeth.  To  the  Horth  and  east  they  at»  fonimd 
of   earth   faced    with   stone ;  bastion*  wiA   cavaliers  are 


BERWICK 


Gil 


placed  at  intervals,  and  a  ditch,  now  dry,  eztenda  to  the 
river.  Fronting  the  river  are  four-gun  and  siigun 
batteries  defending  the  entrance  to  the  harbour,  and  a 
twenty-two-gun  battery  commanding  the  south  side.  These 
ramparts    which   are    perforated    by   five   gateways,    are 


Mas  of  Berwick-uponTwcwI. 

generally    in    good    repair,   but   since    1822   have  been 
destitute  of  guns  save  for  volunteer  practice.     The  circuit 
is  about  1   mile  3  furlongs  ;   that  of  the  older  walls  was 
more   than    2   miles.     The  ruins  of   the  latter,    built  by 
Edward   I.,  and  also  surrounded  by  a  ditch,  enclose  the 
suburbs    of    Castlegate,    and     the 
Grccn.i, — the     Bshermen's    quarter. 
The  Bell  Tower,  from  which  alarms 
were  given,  and  which  is  least  dilapi- 
dated, has    beon    recently    secured 
from  further  decay.      Between  the 
extremity  of   these  old    walb   and 
the  Tweed  arc  the  remains  of  the 
old  castle,  wliich    was    allowed   to 
become  a  ruin  after  the  union  of  the 
crowna.     There  arc  no  traces  of  the 
hurchcs,  raona.'steries,  or  other  ancient  building*  of  the 
own.     .The  barracks,  built  in   1719,  accommodate  nearly 
'.00  men ;  but  they  are  now  occupied  only  by  militia,  and 
!i«  governor's  house  has  become  a  private  ifwelling. 
The  chi»f  public  building*  are  tW*  town  hall.  6nishfd  in 


Arttw  of  Berwick. 


1760,  a  stately  building,  sannounted  by  a  jpire  150  feet 
high,  which  contains  a  peal  of  eight  belb  ;  the  new  jail, 
erected  in  1849  ;  the  corn  exchange,  which  is  the  principal 
public  hall,  opened  in  1858;  a  new  infirmary;  two 
assembly  rooms  ;  Masonic  and  Good  Templar  halls.  The 
parish  church  is  a  plain  Gothic' building,  without  steeple, 
of  the  time  of  CromwelL  It  was  thoroughly  and  taste- 
fully renovated  ia  1855.  The  patronage  belongs  to  the 
dean  and  chapter  of  Durham.  A  week-day  lectureship 
is  in  the  patronage  of  the  Mercers'  Compflny,  London. 
There  are  also  in  the  borough,  including  Twecdmouth  anc 
Spittal,  three  other  churches  coni>ectcd  with  the  Church  oi 
England,  three  with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  four  United 
Presbyterian,  two  English  Presbyterian,  two  Methodist, 
one  Baptist,  and  one  Roman  Catholic.  The  only  churcb 
building  worthy  of  notice  is  Wallace  Green  United  Presby- 
terian Church,  opened  in  1859.  New  cemeteries  werfl 
opened  at  Berwick  in  1855,  and  at  Tweedmouth  in  1858. 
The  town  is  well  supplied  with  educational  institutions ; 
and  a  local  museum  was  established  in  1867,  where  lectures 
are  delivered  during  the  winter.  The  town  and  suburbs 
have  four  public  reading-rooms,  and  three  newspapers  are 
published.  Two  bridges  connect  the  town  with  the  south 
side  of  the  Tweed.  The  older,  which  is  very  substantial, 
was  finished  in  1G34,  having  taken  twenty-four  years  iu 
building.  It  has  £fteen  arches,  and  is  924  feet  long,  but 
only  17  feet  wide.  The  other,  situated  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
up  the  river,  is  a  magnificent  railway  viaduct,  126  feet  high, 
with  twenty-eight  arches,  which  extends  from  the  railway 
station — a  castellated  building  on  part  of  the  site  of  the  old 
castle — to  a  considerable  distance  beyond  the  river.  This 
bridge  was  opened  by  Queen  Victoria  in  1850. 

The  Tweed  is  navigable  as  far  as  the  old  bridge,  ard  the 
tide  flows  seven  miles  further.  The  entrance  to  the 
harbour  has  been  improved  and  protected  by  a  stone  pier, 
built  about  sixty  years  ago,  which  stretches  half  a  mile 
S.E.  from  the  north  bank  of  the  river's  mouth,  and  has  at 
the  extremity  a  lighthouse  with  two  fixed  lights.  The 
depth  of  water  at  the  bar  is  1 7  feet  at  ordinary  tides,  22  feet 
at  spring  tides,  but  the  channel  is  naurow,  a.  large  rocky 
portion  of  the  harbour  on  the  north  side  being  dry  at  low 
water.  A  long-felt  want  is  now  being  supplied  by  th« 
construction  of  a  dock,  which  was  begun  at  Tweedmouth, 
September  1873.  The  number  of  vessels  belonging  to  the 
port  (1875)  is  25  (tonnage,  1459).  There  entered  in  1873, 
422  (tonnage,  35,049),  and  there  cleared  424  (tonnage, 
35,252).  The  principal  exports  are  grain,  meal,  henings, 
burnt  ore,  metal  castings,  manures  ;  the  imports  are  bones 
and  bone-ash,  manure  stuffs,  linseed,  salt,  timber,  pig- 
iron.  The  sea-fisheries  employ  230  boats  in  white  fishing, 
294  in  herring  fishing,  and  52  in  both.  Berwick,  which 
Iras  long  been  famous  for  its  salmon  fisheries,  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Fishing  Company,  which  ocoupies  most  of 
the  stations  on  the  neighbouring  coast  and  for  some  milea 
up  the  river.  The  fish  aw  mostly  sent  to  the  Londo* 
market  There  is  an  annual  fair  hold  here  in  the  end  a( 
May,  and  the  weekly  market  on  Saturday.  There  are  four 
banking  cst'iblishraents ;  and,  on  the  whole,  the  trade  of 
the  town  is  increasing.   , 

The  ancient  charter  of  the  borough  of  Bsrwick  ws» 
confirmed  by  various  sovercigRS  from  Edward  I.  to 
James  I.,  who  added  now  officers  aiul  privileges,  but 
especially  gifted  to  the  burgesses  all  the  Ioa^s  within  the 
liberties  which  were  not  private  properly.  These  lands, 
amounting  to3077acreE,o»-fwo-thirds  of  the  whole.arc partly 
dirid«d  into  farms,  partly  into  meajlewB  occupied  or  le*  by 
the  resident  freeisen  and  freemen'*  mii1o»s.  The  annual 
vitlue  of  a  meadow,  seniority  determining  tke  allocation, 
rrfnge*  i»t  present  from  XI  1,  C.o.  t«  £2,  9«.  3d.  The 
roll'  of  freemen  cvnkairw   alioiit    1000,  of  whom  S48   aie 


G12 


BERWICK 


resident.  The  total  rental  of  tte  corporation's  property 
is  now  about  £10,800.  Since  the  Municipal  Reform  Act, 
1835,  the  borough  kas  been  governed  by  six  aldermen  and 
eighteen  councillors;  and  in  1842  "the  power  of  life 
and  death"  w.-s  removed  from  the  Quarter  Sessions 
to  the  Newcastle  Assizes.  The  custom  of  specially  men- 
tisning  Berwick-on-Tweed  after  Wales,  though  abandoned 
in  Acts  of  Parliament,  is  still  retained  in  certain  prochma- 
tions.  The  title  of  "  county  in  itself  "  also  helps  to  recall 
its  ancient  history.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Poor  Law  Union, 
and  the  rateable  value  of  the  borough  (ISTS)  is  £53,195. 
Berwick  has  sent  two  members  to  the  English  parliament 
since  the  reign  of  Mary.  The  registered  electors  number 
1 285,  of  whom  368  may  vote  as  freemen,  about  200  being 
doubly  qualified.  Population  in  1871,  8731,  or,  including 
the  conjoined  townships  (Tweedmouth,  2809,  and  Spittal, 
1742),  13,282. 

Of  the  origin  or  early  history  of  Berwick  notliing  is  known.  It 
prob.ibly  sprung  into  importance  during  the  long  struggle  betTOeen 
the  Scots  and  Saxons  for  the  possession  of  Lothian  and  the  Merse. 
Egfiid,  king  of  Northumbria,  seeking  to  extend  his  boundary  be- 
yond the  Forth,  was  routed  at  Dunnichen,  685,  and  driven  back  to 
the  Tweed.  But  it  was  not  until  the  battle  of  Cirham,  1018,  that 
the  hater  river  was  finally  secured  as  the  boundary,  and  Berwick 
obtained  the  frontier  position  to  which  it  owes  its  fame.  It  seems 
rapidly  to  have  grown  in  size,  wealth,  and  influence.  Its  name 
occurs  as  a  royal  burgh  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  I.,  along  with 
E*Jinburgh,  Roxburgh,  and  Stirling,  and  with  them,  from  David  I., 
it  elected  the  tribunal  which  from  their  number  was  called  the 
"Court  of  .the  Four  Burghs."  "The  ca.stle  of  Berwick  was  one  of 
the  strongholds  given  up  to  Henry  II.  of  England  to  be  security  for 
the  homage  due  by  William  the  Lion  as  the  price  of  his  liberty, 
but  it  was  restored  with  tlie  others  by  Richard  CcBur-de-Lion  in 
1189.  At  Berwick  took  place  several  of  the  conferences  held  be- 
tween Edward  I.  and  the  competitors  for  the  Scottish  crown,  and 
his  decision  in  favour  of  Baliol  was  given  in  the  castle,  Nov.  1292. 
Four  years  latcf  Edward  marched  north  to  punish  his  rebellious 
vassal,  and  began  his  invasion  by  an  attack  uixin  the  town  which 
was  at  once  the  key  of  the  kingdom  and  its  a)mniercial  capital. 
The  English  king,  familiar  with  the  place,  and  infuriated  by  the 
repnlae  of  his  fleet  in  the  river,  led  the  land  attack  in  person.  Being 
very  slightly  fortified  the  town  was  speedily  stormed,  and  no  mercy 
was  shown  to  the  inhabitants.  One  ntemorable  incident  is  recounted. 
A  company  of  trading  Flemings  held  out  against  the  besiegers  in 
their  fortified  building,  the  Red  Hall,  until  it  was  set  on  fire.  They 
were  bound  by  their  charter  to  defend  it  to  the  last  extremity 
against  the  English,  and  they  perished  in  the  flames.  Berwick 
never  recovered  commercially  from  the  massacre  and  pillage  of  this 
terrible  Good  Fri<iay.  Its  efforts  again  to  rise  were  hindered  by 
the  ever. renewed  Border  warfare,  and  it  gradually  sunk  to  the  rank 
of  an  ordinary  market  tow^. 

On  Edward's  return  from  his  victorious  march  through  Scotland, 
he  determined  to  make  the  town  impregnnble  with  stone  walls,  but 
before  his  commands  could  he  accomplished  it  was  recaptured  by 
the  Scots  as  a  consequence  of  the  English  defeat  at  Stirling  Bridge. 
On  Edward's  approach  the  following  year,  however,  the  Scots  re- 
tired, and  during  the  remainder  of  his  reign  it  continued  in  the 
hands  of  the  English.  Here,  in  1305,  one  quarter  of  Wallace's 
body  was  exposed,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  countess  of  Buchan 
was  suspended  in  a  cage  from  oae  of  the  castle  towers,  as  a  punish- 
ment for  courageously  performing  the  privilege  of  her  family  by 
placing  the  crown  on  King  Robert  Bruce  at  Scone.  Edward  11. 
"pent  the  winter  of  1310  at  Berwick  after  an  ineffectual  inwision  of 
tiootland.  Here,  too,  en  June  11,  1314,  the  great  English  army 
assembled  which  was  defeated  a  fortniglit  later  at  Bannockburn. 
Jn  1318thetown,  now  well  forttfied,  was  captnred  by  Bruce,  through 
the  help  of  one  of  the  garrison  ;  a  siege  by  Edward,  which  followed, 
rendered  famous  by  the  engines  employed  both  in  the  river  and 
land  attack:^,  was  not  successful.  It  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
Scots  till  13C3,  when  it  was  besieged  by  Edward  HI.,  and  the  hope 
of  relief  by  the  Scottish  army  txJing  disappointed  by  their  defeat 
at  Halidon  Hill,  about  2  miles  from  Berwick,  the  town  and  castle 
wi-re  immediitely,  according  to  ogrccracnt,  delivered  up  to 
the  Engli.sh  king.  The  next  130  years  saw  Berwick  occasionally 
airackcd  by  the  Scots,  and  sometimes  with  success,  but  they  held 
it  only  for  short  periods  until  1461,  when  Henry  VI.,  in  gratitude 
for  refuge  after  the  battle  of  Towton,  made  it  over  to  them.  In 
1482,  during  the  disputes  between  James  111.  and  his  nobles,  it 
•urrrndcr.-d  to  the  English  army,  and  was  never  retaken  by  the 
Scot*.  Henceforward  it  occupied  in  Scotland,  in  relation  to  Eng- 
land, the  position  for  long  of  Calais  in  France — an  important  strong- 
boU,  the  sole  remnant  of  wide-spread   conquest.     This  rositr*^ 


explains  the  possession  by  I5ei»,  icK,  until  the  union  of  the  crowne, 
of  a  civil  and  military  establishment  (with  lord-chancellor,  lord- 
chamberlain,  Domesday  Book,  governors  of  town  and  castle,  &.'J 
resembling  that  of  a  small  kingdom.  It  was  that  appointed  by 
Edward  I.  for  all  Scotland,  and  was  ready  to  expand,  as  it  had  been 
compelled  to  contract  its  sphere,  should  more  territory  b«  agiui 
acquired  north  of  the  Tweed. 

BERWICKSHIRE,  a  maritime  county  of  Scotland, 
forming  its  S.E.  extremity,  bounded  N.E.  by  the  Germao 
Ocean,  N.  by  Haddington,  W.  by  Midlothian,  S.W.  by 
Roxburgh,  S.  by  the  Tweed,  which  separates  it  from 
Northumberland,  and  S.E.  by  the  liberties  of  the  town  of 
Berwick.  Its  greatest  length  from  E.  to  W.  is  31 J  miles  ; 
its  greatest  breadth  19i;  area  about  464  square  miles,  or 
297,161  acres.  It  is  naturally  divided  into  three  districts, 
Lauderdale,  or  the  valley  of  the  Leader,  in  the  W.  ; 
Lammcrmuir,  the  upland  district  occupied  by  the  hills  of 
that  name,  in  the  N.;  and  the  Merse  (probably  a  corruption 
of  "March"  or  borderland),  the  largest  district,  occupying 
the  S.E.  of  the  county.  The  Lammermuirs  are  a  range  of 
round  backedhills,  whose  average  height  is  about  1000  feet, 
while  the  highest  summit,  Sayrs  Law,  reaches  1753  feet. 
From  these  hills  the  Merse  stretches  to  the  S.  and  E.,  and 
is  a  comparatively  level  tract  of  country,  traversed,  however, 
from  N.W.  to  S.E.  by  distinct  parallel  ridges.  The  coast 
line  13  lofty,  rocky,  and  precipitous,  broken  by  ravines, 
and  not  accessible,  except  at  Eyemouth  harbour,  f«r  small 
vessels,  iind  at  one  or  two  other  places  for  fishing  boats. 
St  Abb's  Head,  a  peninsular  promontory  with  a  light- 
house upon  it,  rises  to  nearly  300  feet.  The  Eye  is  the 
only  river  orf  the  county  which  falls  into  the  sea  The 
others — the  Leader,  the  Eden,  the  Leet,  and  the  Whiteadder 
with  its  tributaries,  the  Blackadder  and  the  Dye— .il!  flow 
into  the  Tweed.  Of  these  the  largest  and  most  important 
is  the  Whiteadder,  which  has  its  source  on  the  East-Lothian 
side  of  the  Lammermuirs,  and,  following  a  sinuous  course 
of  35  miles,  falls  into  the  Tweed  within  the  "  Bounds  "  of 
Berwick.  The  climate  of  Berwickshire  is  chiefly  influenced 
by  its  maritime  position.  The  winter  is  seldom  severe  in 
the  lowland  districts ;  but  spring  is  generally  a  trying 
season  on  account  of  the  east  winds,  which  often  continue 
into  summer.  Drainage  has  remedied  the  former  escessive 
humidity,  and  the  climate  is  now  excellent,  in  relation 
both  to  the  health  of  the  inhabitants>and  to  the  growth  of 
vegetation. 

Berwickshire",  geologically,  consists  of  Silurian  rocks  in 
the  hilly  region,  Devonian  or  Old  Red  Sandstone  in  the  south- 
west, and  carboniferous  limestone  in  the  Merse.  Large 
masses  of  porphyritic  and  trap  rock  occasionally  occur,  of 
which  St  Abb's  Head  is  an  example.  The  sea-clilT  to  the 
north-west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Eye  is  formed  of  con- 
glomerate or  pudding-stone.  There  is  an  interesting  and 
somewhat  famous  geological  appearance  at  a  point  called 
Siccar,  near  Cockburnspath,  where  the  sea  has  laid  cpcn 
very  plainly  the  junction  of  the  primary  and  secondary  strata. 

■rhe  soils  of  Berwickshire  are  extremely  various.  On 
the  s.ame  farm  a  great  diversity  may  be  found.'  Along  the 
rivers  is  a  deep  rich  loau",  resting  on  grawl  or  clay,  chiefly 
the  former.  '  "Th*  less  valu.ible  clay  soil  of  the  Merse  has 
been  much  improved  by  the  eS'ectivo  system  of  drainage 
which  is  everywhere  carried  oftt.  The  more  sandy  and 
gravelly  soils  are  suitable  for  the  turnip  crops,  which  are  o 
marked  agricultural  feature  of  the  county.  To  these  soil: 
the  landlords  and  tenants  of  Berwickshire  have  appUed 
themselves  with  such  intelligence,  mutual  goodwill, 
liberality,  and  spirit,  that  the  county  now  stands  in  the  first 
rank  in  regard  to  agriculture.  The  farms  are  large,  anj 
are  commonly  held  by  a  nineteen  years' lease.  Nowhere  u 
farming  conducted  more  scientifically  or  with  better  succc"is. 
According  to  the  agricultural  returns  for  1874,  the  t&ai 
acreage  under  all  kind"  of  crops,  '^aro  .faU"',  and  etaf  \ 


B  E  R  — B  E  R 


GI3 


wn  192,138,  or  more  tLan  ttree-Cfths  of  the  entire  area. 
Of  this,  63,520  acres  were  tinder  corn  crops,  34,155  under 
green  crops,  56,940  under  clover  and  grasses,  and  30,858 
permanent  pasture,  meadow,  or  grass  not  broken  up  in 
rotation  (ciclusive  of  heath  or  mountain  land).  The 
average  extent  of  land  occupied  by  each  occupant  was  194 
acres.  Wheat  was  grown  on  6373  acres;  barley  or  bero, 
on  21,409;  oats,  on  33,130;  potatoes,  on  25U3;  turiii[i3 
and  swedes,  on  30,345.  Of  live  stock  there  were  5356 
horses,  10,979  cattle,  285,578  sheep,  4527  pigs.  Though 
about  tho  twentieth  in  size  of  the  Scottish  counties, 
Berwickshire  stands  fifth  in  the  number  of  acres  under  corn 
crops,  fifth  also  in  green  crops,  and  ninth  in  the  number 
of  sheep.  Tho  farm-buildings  aro  convenient  and  well 
built.  These  include  cottages  for  the  farm-hibourers,  or 
Jiinds,  and  their  families, — the  ordinary  staff  consisting  of  a 
steward,  a  shepherd,  and  a  number  of  ploughmen  propor- 
tionate to  the  size  of  the  farm.  The  farm-labourers,  who 
arc  physically  well  developed,  are  aa  a  whole  a  frugal, 
industrious,  iutclligcnt  race.  They  are  somewhat  migratory 
in  their  habits,  being  too  ready  to  move  from  place  to  place 
year  after  year.  This  feature  in  their  character,  which  they 
may  have  by  inheritance  as  £orclcrers,haa  admirably  fitted 
them  for  colonial  life,  to  which  the  lack  of  employment  in 
mining  or  manufactures  in  the  county  has  largely  drawn 
the  surplus  population. 

The  minerals  of  Berwickshire  are  insignificant.  Coal, 
copper  ore,  and  ironstone  exist  in  such  small  quantities  that 
attempts  to  work  them  have  been  abandoned  ;  and  the  lime- 
stone is  at  too  great  a  distance  from  a  coal  district  to  warrant 
competition  with  theadjoining  counties.  The  Tweed  salmon 
Cahories  are  productive  of  an  important  trade,  and  are  so 
subject  to  vicissitudes  that  much  attention  has  been  paid  to 
them  by  means  of  legislative  enactments.  The  lesser  rivers 
.'f  tho  Merso  are  held  in  high  esteem  by  anglors.  Besides 
Eyemouth  thereare  three  villages — Burnmouth,Coldingham 
Shore,  and  Cove — engaged  in  the  sea-fisheries,  which  aro 
of  considerable  and  increasing  value.  Cod,  haddock, 
herring,  ling,  lobsters,  and  crabs  are  the  principal  produce. 
Berwickshire  cannot  boast  of  many  manufactures.  Earlstoun 
sends  out  ginghams  and  woollen  cloths.  At  Cumledge,  also, 
on  the  Whiteaddcr.  there  is  a  factory  for  heavy  woollen 
cloths ;  and  four  miles  further  down  the  river,  at  Chiriiside 
Bridge,  is  one  of  the  largest  paper  mills  in  Scotland.  The 
other  manufactures  are  all  connected  with  agriculture,  such 
(13  diiitilleries,  breweries,  tanneries,  ix.  The  trade  is  also 
mainly  agricultund.  Fairs  are  held .  at  Dunso,  Lauder, 
Coldstream,  Greenlaw,  and  Oldhamstocks ;  but  the  sales 
of  cattle  and  sheep  are  now  mostly  accomplished  at  the 
weekly  or  fortnightly  auction  marts  at  Reston,  Dunse,  and 
E.irlstoun.  The  grain  markets  are  held  at  Dunse  and 
Larlstonn.  Berwick,  from  which  the  county  derives  its 
name,  is  still  its  chief  market-town.  There  is,  however,  no 
legal  or  fiscal  connection  between  the  countyand  theborough. 

The  early  history  of  Berwick.^hire  is  to  a  great  extent 
bound  up  with  that  of  tho  ancient  frontier  town  ;  from  its 
position  it  also  suffered  much  during  the  Border  wars.  The 
most  noteworthy  antiquities  are  Coldingham  Prior}-  in  the 
E.  and  Dryburgh  Abbey  in  the  S.W.  They  were  burnt  in  the 
*aineyear,  1545,  during  the  barbarous  inroad  of  theKnglish 
army  under  tho  carl  of  Hereford.  About  four  miles  N. 
from  Coldingham  arc  the  ruins  of  Fast  Castio  ("Tho 
WoWs  Crag  "  of  the  Bride  of  Lammtrmoor),  situated  on  a 
peninsular  cUfT,  120  feet  by  00,  and  70  feet  above  the  soa. 
A  btite  further  north  is  tlie  Pease  or  Pcaths  Bridge,  built 
by  Telford,  in  178C,  over  the  deep  glen  which  forms  the 
celebrated  pa?a — of  old  one  of  the  strongest  natural  defences 
of  Scotland.  Near  it  is  Cockburnspath  Tower,  once  a  strong 
fortress,  now  in  ruins.  In  the  wtst  of  Berwickshire,  besides 
Dryburgh,  there  are,  at  Earlstoun,  the  remains  of  the  ancient 


tower  "  The  Rhymer's  Castle,"  the  traditiomil  residence  of 
Thomas  Learmont,  commouly  called  Thomas  of  Ercildoune 
or  Thomas  the  Rhymer.  About  a  mile  from  Earlstoun  is 
Cowdenknowes,  on  a  hill  above  which  grew  the  "  bonnie 
broom"  of  the  old  song.  None  of  it  bow  remains,  it  having 
been  gradually  encroached  upon  by  the  plough,  and  the  last 
of  it  killed  by  the  severe  frost  of  1861-02.  Hume  Castle, 
the  ancient  seat  of  the  llome  family,  also  towards  the  west, 
has  a  most  commanding  view,  and  is  itself  visible  from 
nearly  every  part  of  the  county.  Traces  of  Roman  occupa- 
tion and  of  ancient  British  settlements  exist  in  various  parts 
of  the  Merse.  Edin's  or  Etin's  Hall,  on  Cockbum  Law, 
about  four  miles  north  of  Dunse,  still  goes  under  the  name 
of  the  Pcch's  or  Picl's  House.  There  are  many  larce 
mansions  throughout  the  county,  the  principal  being 
Thirlestane  Castle  (earl  of  Lauderdale),  Mertoun  House 
(Lord  Polwarth),  Mellerstain  and  Lennel  House  (earl  of 
Haddington),  Nesbit  (Lord  Sinclair),  Dunse  Cattle  (Hay), 
Wedderburn  and  Paxton  (Milne  Home),  Lees  (Sir  John 
Marjoribanks),  Lady  kirk  (Baroness  Marjoribanks),  Aytoa 
Castle  (Mitchell  Innes),  Hirsel  (carl  of  Home).  The  chief 
towns  are  Greenlaw,  the  county  town,  with  a  population  of 
823;  Dunse,  2018;  Lauder,  1046,  a  royal  burgh,  which 
unites  with  the  Haddington  group  of  burghs  in  returning 
a  member  to  parliament;  Coldstream,  1724;  and  Eye- 
mouth, 2324,  the  only  seaport  of  the  county.  There  is 
one  sheriff  for  the  three  border  counties  of  Berwick,  Rox- 
burgh, and  Selkirk,  and  a  sheriff-substitute  holds  his  court 
in  l3unse.  Ju.^ticc  of  tho  Peace  courts  are  held  at  Cold- 
stream and  at  Ayton,  and  a  burgh  court  at  Lauder.  The 
county  is  divided  into  thirty-one  parishes,  and  it  returns 
one  member  to  parliament.  Population  of  Berwickshire, 
36,486— males,  17,414;  females,  19,072. 

The  fauna  and  flora  of  Berwickshire  have  been  care- 
fully described  by  the  late  Dr  George  Johnston,  and  further 
information  may  be  obtained  regarding  these  from  the 
Tr«nsac(io7is  of  Ike  Berieickthire  IfaturaluiW  Club. 

BERYL,  a  mineral  species  which  includes,  in  addition 
to  what  are  ordinarily  known  as  berjds,  the  aquamarine  or 
precious  beiyl  and  the  emerald.  The  similarity  between 
the  beryl  and  the  emerald  was  pointed  out  by  Piiny,  and 
the  only  points  of  distinction  are  the  green  colour  of  the 
emerald  and  the  somewhat  superior  hardness  of  the  beryl 
The  colour  of  the  emerald  is  generally  believed  to  be  due  to 
the  presence  of  a  minute  portion  of  oxide  of  chromium, 
although  M.  Lewy  asserts,  from  analysis  of  Muzo  emeralds, 
that  it  is  really  owing  to  the  ^)resence  of  organic  matter. 
Their  composition  is — 

B«ryl.  Eoicf»I(L 

Silica 67i'0  68  50 

j^luniina. , 16'50  IS'75 

Glucina HSO  12  iO 

Oiromium  oxide 000  0  30 

Ironoiide 100  100 

Lime .,. 0  60  0  25 

The  metal  glucinum,  from  its  presence  in  the  beryl,  is 
sometimes  termed  beryllium.  The  beryl  crystallizes  in  six- 
sided  prisms  with  the  crystals  often  deeply  striated  in  a 
longitudinal  direction  ;  its  hardness  in  the  mincralogical 
sc.ile  is  from  7  5  to  8,  and  its  specific  gravity  from  2 '67  to 
2  732.  Leaving  out  of  account  the  emerald,  tho  colours  of 
the  bcrjl  range  from  blue  through  soft  sea  green  to  a  pale 
honey  yellow,  and  in  some  cases  tho  stones  are  entirely 
colourless.  The  aquamariae  is  so  nomed  on  account  of 
its  bluish  green  colour,  "  (jvi  viridita(rm  puri  maris  imilan- 
tur''  (Pliny,  A'.  J/.,  xxxvii.  20).  The  chrj-sobcrylus,  chry- 
soprasus,  and  clirj-solithus  of  ancient  jewellery  appear  to 
some  extent  at  least  to  have  been  names  applied  to  different 
shades  of  beryl.  The  berjl  was  highly  prized  for  use  ia 
jewellery  by  the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was  cut  into  six-sided 
prisms  (cylindri)  and  mounted  as  eardrops      Some  of  the 


G14 


B  E  R  -B  E  S 


finest  examples  of  ancieut  Greek  and  Roman  gem  engraving 
are  fouad  executed  m  beryl.  "  The  grandest  intaglio  extant 
of  the  Roman  period  is  upon  an  aquamarine  of  the 
extraordinary  magnitude  of  2J  by  2J  inches:  the  bust  of 
JuLia  Titi  signed  by  the  artist"  EYOAOC  EnOIEI.  For 
nearly  a  thousand  years  it  formed  the  knosp  of  a  golden 
reliquiary  presented  by  Charlemagne  to  the  abbey  of  St 
Denys,  in  which  it  was  set  with  the  convex  back 
uppermost,  being  regarded  as  an  invaluable  emerald" 
(King's  Precious  Slones,  Gems,and  Precious  Metals).  The 
great  abundance  of  aquamarine  and  other  forms  of  beryl  in 
modern  times  has  very  much  depreciated  its  value  for  use 
in  jewellery,  but  it  is  still  set  in  bracelets,  necklaces,  itc, 
and  used  for  seals.  The  finest  aquamarine  known  is  a  large 
stone,  in  size  and  shape  somewhat  like  a  small  calf's  head, 
weighing  18  fti,  the  property  of  the  emperor  of  BraziL  A 
beryl  weighing  2900  lb  and  another  of  1076  lb  weight  have 
been  found  at  Grafton,  New  Hampshire,  in  the  United 
States ;  but  these  gigantic  stones  are  opaque,  and  of  no 
value  for  jewellery.  Beryl  is  found  widely  disseminated, 
occurring,  among  other  localities,  in  Siberia,  Canjargum  in 
Hindustan,  Rio  San  Matteo  in  Brazil,  Ehrenfriedersdorf  in 
Saxony,  and  Schlackenwald  in  Bohemia.  In  the  United 
Kingdom  it  occurs  in  the  Mourne  Mountains,  county 
Down  ;  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Killiney,  county  Dublin ; 
in  county  VVicklow  ;  in  several  places  in  Cornwall ;  and  in 
Aberdeenshire  in  the  granite  of  Rubislaw  (Davidsonite) ; 
besides  occurringin  the  alluvium  of  the  upper  reaches  of 
the  Dee  and  Don.  In  the  United  States  it  is  found  in  the 
states  of  New  Hampshire,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Con- 
necticut, and  Pennsylvania, 

BERZELIUS,  JbN3  Jakob,  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
of  modern  chemists,  was  born  on  the  20th  of  August  1779, 
at  a  farm  near  Wafversunda,  in  Ostergbtland,  Sweden. 
At  the  age  of  nine  he  was  left  an  orphan  in  the  charge  of 
his  stepfather,  A.  Elmark  of  Ekeby,  a  learned  and 
amiable  man,  gifted,  too,  it  would  seem,  with  some 
prophbtie  insight,  for  one  day  he  said  to  the  child, 
"  JaJcob,  I  think  you  will  tread  in  the  footsteps  of 
Linnaeus,  "or  be  another  Cartouche  I  "  From  that  day  a 
desire  for  distinction  as  a  man  of  science  awoke  in  the 
child's  breast.  In  1793  BerzeUus  entered  the  gymnasium 
school  at  Linkoping,  where  he  made  rapid  progress. 
During  his  holidays,  spent  in  the  country,  he  met  a  man 
who  instructed  him  in  the  elements  of  entomology,  and 
thus  gave  a  fresh  impetus  to  his  scientific  proclivities. 
The  'latter  soon  developed  into  a  passion,  and  undet 
Hornstedt  at  Linkoping  progressed  rapidly  till  he  left  the 
college  in  1796,  and  proceeded  to  the  University  of  Upsala. 
In  1798  he  began  to  study  chemistry  under  Professor 
AfzeKua ;  and  although  in  those  days  the  lectures  were 
without  practical  experiments  and  extremely  uninteresting, 
he  became  more  and  more  absorbed  in  the  study.  In 
1800  he  was  called  to  Stockholm  as  assistant  to  the  royal 
physician,  Dr  Hcdin,  and  his  success  as  a  practical  chemist 
began.  The  Italian,  Volta,  had  in  1800  invented  the 
galvanic  battery  which  beara  his  name  ;  ond  Berzelius  was 
«no  of  the  first  persons  in  Europe  to  observe  the  greatness 
of  this  discovery.  In  1802  he  published  a  treatise  on  the 
subject.  In  1803  he  b«c«mo  professor  of  physics,  and  by 
bis  lectures  rapidly  founded  a  new,  a  rational  school  of 
physiology,  and  threw  new  light  on  many  difficult  points 
connected  with  the  chemical  and  physical  characteristics 
of  animal  life.  Ih  the  same  year  ho  jjublishcd  his  Essay 
Vn  the  Division  of  Salts  through  Cahanisvi,  in  which  he 
propounds  the  electro-chemical  theory,  the  honour  of.  first 
laying  down  which  is  divided  between  Berzelius  and  Davy. 
In  conjunction  with  Hisinger,  Berzelius  then  published  in 
numbers  TrealLvx  on  P/iysicj,  Chemistry,  and  Mineralogy, 
.   work  of  the  greatest  value  for  science.     Honour  after 


honour  was  heapc3  upon  nim  ;  in  I81U  ne  was  called  to  be 
a  member  of  the  Medical  College  of  Sweden  ;  in  1808  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Two 
years  later  he  brought  out  his  famous  treatise  On  Ike 
Fixed  Proportions  and  Weights  of  Atoms.  He  then  took 
up  mineralogy  with  special  ardour,  and  published  his 
Treatise  on  the  Blowpipe ,  he  set  up  for  himself  a 
regularly  graduated  chemical  system  of  minerals,  and  the 
value  of  this  was  felt  to  be  so  great  that  the  Koyal  Society 
of  London  voted  him  its  gold  medal  for  it.  After  incessant 
labour  he  retired,  in  1832,  from  his  professorship  at  Stock- 
holm, having  never  been  connected  as  teacher  with  any  ot 
the  universities.  In  1842,  while  he  was  engnged  in  « 
chemical  experiment,  an  explosion  took  place  and  he  was 
much  injured,  but  recovered  and  continued  to  work  on 
till  the  close  of  his  days.  He  died  August  7,  1848.  After 
Linnasus,  his  is  considered  to  be  the  greatest  uamu  in 
science  of  which  Sweden  can  beast. 

BES,  the  name  of  an  Egyptian  god,  apparently  the  same 
as  that  of  the  city  Bessa.  He  is  stated  to  have  been 
worshipped  and  to  have  had  an  oracle  at  Abydos  accord- 
ing to  Ammianus  MarcelUnus,"  and  according  to  others  at 
Antinoe  or  Antinoopolis.  The  name.5fs  is  found  in  Egyptian 
monuments  attached  to  a  god  clad  in  a  lion's  skin,  the 
head  and  skull  of  the  animal  covering  his  head  and  con- 
cealing his  features;  his  legs  are  bowed  like  Ptah,  and  his 
whole  appearance  is  grotesque,  resembling  in  other  respects 
the  Greek  Hercules.  This  god  is  represented  at  a  later 
period  in  various  attitudes  and  actions,  in  adoration  to 
Harpocrates,  styled  his  lord  or  master,  playing  on  tha 
tambourine,  the  triangular  harp,  and  other  musical  instru- 
ments, brandishing  swords,  and  at  the  Roman  period  armed 
in  the  paludamentum  and  holding  a  sword  and  buckler. 
Although  supposed  to  be  a  form  of  Typhon  he  is  quite 
distinct  from  Set,  the  ass  or  gryphon-headed  god.  For  hcaci 
attire  Bes  often  wears  a  kind  of  cornice  surmounted  by  four 
o-  five  feathers  of  the  hawk.  Ho  does  not  appear  among 
the  deities  of  Egj'pt  till  about  the  19th  or  20th  dynasty,  and 
is  apparently  of  foreign  origin,  being  found  on  the  coins  of 
Gaulos,  with  Phcenician  legends,  as  if  belonging  to  that 
people  and  a  form  of  Baal.  He  appears  in  the  Ritual 
as  the  guardian  of  the. 20th  Pylon  or  doorway  of  the 
Aahlu  or  Elysian  fields,  with  his  mystical  names.  His 
head  generally  surmounts  the  little  cippi  of  Harpocrates^ 
and  some  texts  oily  him  with  the  god  Amen.  A  temple 
in  Nubia,  built  by  Tirhakah  about  C90  B.C.,  has  its  columns 
in  shape  of  this  god.  His  figures  and  busts  are  common 
in  Egyptian  art  of  a  later  age,  and  individuals  were  called 
after  him  both  in  earlier  and  later  times.^ 

BESAN(JON,  a  city  of  France,  oepital  of  the  department 
of  Doubs,  45  miles  E.  of  Dijon,  on  ihe  River  Doul'.'-., 
which  flows  round  it  on  three  sides.  It  is  well  protected 
by  strong  fortifications  and  a  citadel  on  an  almost  impreg- 
nable rock,  410  feet  above  the  river.  The  town  is  ia 
general  well  built,  and  has  three  main  streets  running  frotn 
N.  to  S.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  Gothic  cathedral 
ef  St  Joan,  a  court-house,  a  town  hall,  the  Granvello  palace, 
the  royal  college,  an  arsenal,  a  large  hospital,  barracks,  a. 
theatre,  a  library  of  300,000  volumes,  a  musouiti  and 
picture  gnllery,  and  several  handsome  fountains.  Among 
the  numeroua  Roman  remains  are  a  triumphal  arch  erected 
in  honour  of  Crispus  Cscsar,  son  of  Constantiue,  a  tlicalre, 
and  an  amphitheatra  Besanfon  is  the  seo  of  an  arih- 
bi.shrip,  has  tribunals  of  primary  jurisdiction  and  commerce, 
and  iti  the  head  court  for  the  departments  of  Doubs,  Jura, 
and  Haute  Saono.  It  possesses  also  a  universityacadeuiy, 
a   diocesan   seminary,   a   royal   academy   of  science  and 

'  Ammian.  Marcetl.,  li>,  ISi  ;  Jablonski,  Panlh,  v.c.  7  ;  WiJUo- 
Bon,  Mauners  and  Customs,  \o\.  iv.  p.  441, 
'  llircli,  (jallcry  of  Antiqviluf,  p.  47, 


BE  S  — B  E  S 


615 


belles  lettrcfi,  a  lyccum,  au  antiquarian  moscDm,  a  society 
of   agriculture,    aud    eclioola   of   medicine,   artillery,    and 
desigu,  besides  two  deaf  aud  dumb  iuatitutiona.     The  chief 
brnDcb  of  industry  is    the    manufacture  of   watches  'aDc'>*| 
jewellery.     There  are  also  some  considerable  breweries  aud 
manufactories  of  carpets,  porcelain,  hardware.  Seltzer-water, 
artificial  flowers,  ic.    .Besan^on  enjoys  a  good  position  for 
the  commerce  between  France  and  Swilzerjana.  •  Population 
in  1872,  39,808.     Long.  S"  50' 20"  E.,  lat.  47°  14'  12"  N. 
Besui^on  U  a  place  of  great  antiquity       CToder   the  DAme  of 
Feaenlio,  it  was,  in  the  time  of  Caesar,  the  thief  town  of  the  Soqaaoi. 
Under  the  Etomio  etn[»eror3  it  wa3  rich  and  prosperous,  and  Aureliao 
especially  had  a  groai  liking  for  the   phi>:o.     Many  of  the  stroeU 
•till  bear  the  old  Roman  names.     It  was  freqncntly  destroyed  and 
rebuilt  during  the  Middle  Agas,  and  the  present  city  stands  twenty 
feet  above  the  original  level.    In  the  I'Jth  century  it  passed  with  the 
rest  of  Franche-Comt^i  to  the  German  empire,  and  uas.made  a  free 
city  by  Frederick  L      In  1584,  Granvilli,  the  minister  of  Charles  V. 
became  archbishop  of  the  see,  and  aftarwards  founded  a  university 
in  the  town,  which  eiistul  till  the  Kevolution.     By  thi>  treaty  of 
Westphalia,  Besan^o  was  made  over  to  Spain,  and  many  traces  of 
Spanish  occupation  still  remain.      In  1600   Louis  XIV.  besieged  it 
ID  person,  antl  it  was  a3si;;ned  to  France  by  the  peace  of  Nimeguen. 
In  1314  and  1315  it  was  iuvested  and  bombarded  by  the  allies;  and 
iu  the  war  of  1S7U-71  it  formed  aa  important  position. in  the  move* 
meuts  of  the  French  army.  - 

BESKOW,  BERvnARD  VON,  Biron,  the  Swedish  drama- 
tist, waj  bora  at  Stockholm,  April  19,  1700.  BeskoVs 
tiist  book,  Poetical  Efforts,  published  in  1818,  made  a 
favourable  impression  with  the  public,  aud  he  wrote  the 
prize  poem  for  the  Swedish  Academy  some  years  later. 
His  dramas,  however,  are  hia  chief  claim  to  remembrance  ; 
tha.  best  are  Torkel  Knutsson,  Erik  XIV.,  Birger  and  hii 
Race,  and  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  Germatuj.  Torkel  Knuti- 
ton  b  considered  the  finest  drami  that  Swedish  literature 
possesses.  In  the  highest  sense  of  tha  word,  these  are  not, 
however,  dramas  at  all,  since  they  lack  unity  and  fail  in  the 
development  of  character,  but  they  are  grandiose  hi.storical 
studies  in  a  dramatic  form.  Bcskow's  poetry  i.s  over-decorated 
with  phrases,  and  becomes  the  prey  of  sonorous  antithesis. 
Besides  lyrical  and  dramatic  poetry,  Baroa  von  Beskow 
distinguished  himself  in  history,  philo.sophy,  politics,  and 
travels.  In  1823  ha  was  elected  president  of  the  Swedish 
Academy,  and  becime  an  enthusiastic  and  liberal  patron  of 
national  poetry  and  art.  (Eblensehlager  translated  his 
dramis  into  Danish,  and  various  persons  rendered  them 
into  Qormaa      lie  died  on  the  17th  of  October  1808. 

BESSARABIA,  a  government  in  the  S.W.  of  European 
Russia,  on  the  borders  of  .Austria  and  the  Danubian  princi- 
palities, with  an  area,  since  the  cessions  of  the  Paris  peace 
in  1850,  of  14,577  English  square  miles.  Till  the  last 
Eastern  war  Bessarabia  occupied  the  whole  space  between 
the  Dniester  and  the  Pruth  from  the  Austrian  frontier  to 
tha  Black  Sei  The  northern  portion  of  Bessarabia  is 
mountainous,  the  southern  8.it  and  low, — the  limit  between 
the  two  being  marked  by  the  so-called  upjwr  Trajan  wall, 
an  artificial  elevation  executed,  according  to  some,  in  the 
end  of  the  2d  century  a.d.,  uuderTr.ijan,  but,  according  to 
others,  in  the  3d  century,  under  Probus.  This  wall  extends 
from  the  conQuence  of  the  Botna  with  the  Dniester  to  the 
Pruth.  In  northern  or  mountainous  Bessarabia  two 
systems  of  elevations  may  be  distinguished.  The  first  is 
an  immediate  oS'shoot  of  the  Carpathians,  and  occupies 
the  whole  of  Khotcen,  or  the  north-western  dbtrict  of  the 
government.  It  rises  about  450  feet  above  the  valley  of 
tha  Dniester,  and  consists  of  strata  of  Palaeozoic  fom_ation, 
sandstones,  schists,  and  limestones.  The  second  system  is 
especially  extended  in  the  very  middle  of  Bessarabia,  and 
may  be  called  tha  Yas-sa-Orgievian  range.  It  consists  of 
limestone  of  secondary  formation,  and  its  highest  point  is 
Mount  Mepira,  about  20  miles  S.  of  Bielitz,  between 
Bakhmut  and  Paltava.  The  low  portion  of  Bessarabia 
stretches  south  from  the  Tr.ijan  wall,  with  a  length  of  133 


miles  and  a  breadth  of  '6.i,  and  is  well  known  as  thai  Budjnk 
8te|ipe9.  The  surface  is  perfectly  level ;  and  the  soil,  except 
in  the  region  along  the  shore,  consists  of  a  thick  bod  of 
loam,  'lua  province  is  washed  on  its  eastern  parts  by 
the  Black  Sea  only  for  the  distance  of  20  milea  to  the  south 
of  tha  estuary  of  the  Dniester.  Its  only  seaport  is  that  of 
Akerman,  situated  on  tha  estuary  of  the  Dniester.  Thia 
river  divides  Bessarabia  from  Kherson  and  Podolia  for  a 
distance  of  almost  000  miles.  The  shores  of  the  Dniester 
are  in  general  high  and  steep,  and  numerous  bars  obstruct 
its  channel,  particularly  at  Yampol  and  Bakat.  On  the 
Bcssarabian  bank  are  situated  the  towns  Khoteenj  Cosoka, 
and  Bender;  and  thirteen  natural  harbours  for  ships  are 
counted  along  this  side  of  the  river.  Among  tha  principal 
tributaries  are  the  Reulh,  the  Ikel,  the  Bulk,  and  Botna. 
Another  important  stream  is  the  Pruth,  of  which  the  left 
shore  skirts  the  [)roviuce  for  a  distance  of  more  than  140 
miles.  The  navigation  on  the  Pruth  is  not  important; 
its  course  is  impeded  by  bars  and  falls.  The  only 
important  lakes  in  the  goverumont  lie  along  the  coast  of 
the  Black  Sea  in  the  Akerman  district.  Marshes  extend 
along  the  Reuth  and  its  tributaries,  and  there  are  also  some 
along  the  Botua ;  they  offer  no  great  obstacles,  however,  to 
free  communication.  Bessarabia  up  to  1856  possessed 
great  quantities  of  sedimental  salt  ;■  but  after  the  cessions 
of  the  Black  Sea  coast  and  the  salt  lakes,  the  quantity 
obtained,  which  formerly  exceeded  60,000  tons,  almost 
came  to  nothing.  The  ciimat»  of  Bessarabia  is  temperate. 
The  medium  annual  teniperatnro  of  Kecsheneff,  230  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  is  SO""  Fahr.;  the  temperature  of  the 
warmest  month,  about  73°;  of  the  coldest,  about  20°  In 
the  valley  of  the  Dniester  the  climate  is  in  general  much 
healthier  than  in  that  of  the  Pruth;  the  climate  of  the 
north-west  is  much  colder,  and  spring  commences  there  tei» 
days  later. 

In  all  the  upper  part  there  are  forests,  consisting  princi- 
pally of  beech,  oak,  aud  sorb,  besides  small  quautities  of  birch. 
The  chief  forest  region  lies  along  the  heights  of  the  Orgictl' 
and  Yassa  districts  about  the  Megura  Mountains,  and 
extends  thence  east  to  the  Dniester  and  south-west  to 
Kecsheneff.  The  Khoteen  hills  are  almost  all  covered  with 
timber.  The  three  northern  districts,  Khoteen,  Bielitz, 
and  Soroka,  are  especially  suited  for  agriculture,  and  may 
be  regarded  aa  the  granary  of  Bessarabia.  The  two 
intermediate  districts  of  Orgieff  and  Koeshencff,  though 
possessing  a  «u9iciently  fertile  soil,  are  preeminently 
woodland ;  while  the  two  southern.  Bender  aud  Akerman, 
although  also  fertile,  have  a  steppe-like  character,  and  ara 
better  adapted  to  the  rearing  of  cattle. 

Bessarabia,  in  keeping  with  its  position  near  the  Danube,  played 
an  important  historic  part  in  ancient  times,  especially  in  the  begin- 
ning of  oar  era,  when  it  served  as  a  key  to  the  eastern  approaches 
of  the  Byzantine  empire.    And  thus,  from  immemorial  times,  nations 
were  ceaselo-ssly  altA^rnating  with  nations  within,  its  borders.     The 
original  inhabitants  were  the  Cymri,  succeeded  by  the  Scythians. 
Herodotus,  who  had  been  in  the  Greek  colonies  of  the  Black  Sea, 
relates  that  near  the  month  of  the  Dniester  (Tyras)  there  Lved  tie 
Tyritians,  possessing  on  the  estuary  of  that  river  the  town  of  Tyras 
-fOtcia  or,  according  to  Pliny,  Opbiusa).     In  the  2d  century  afu  t 
Christ  Bessarabia  was  occupied  by  the  Geti  and  ofTshoota  from  Uie 
BtLstroni,  and   in  106  A.D.,   tho  Geti  were  conquered  by  Trajan 
After  this  subjugation  of  the  land  by  the  liomans.    the  prescn 
Bessarabia  went  along  with  Wabichia,  Moldavia,  and  Transylvannt 
to  compose  Dacia.     In  tho  3d  century  appeared  the  Goths,  recentli 
converted  to  Christianity.     In  tho  5th  centtiry  Bessarabia  was  ovtT 
run  by  tho  Huns;  after  the  Huns,  in  the  end  of  the  6th  century 
arrived  tho  Avars  and  tho  Bulgarians;  and  last  of  all  come  tb 
Slavonians  (Lutichi  and  Tovcrtzt^,  who  built  themselves  the  towi 
of  Bielgorod.     In  the  7th  century  appeared  the  race  of  tho  Bear 
from  wnom  the  country  acquired  its  present  name.     In  Uie  0th  ecu* 
tury  arrived  the  Ugrians ;  in  tho  10th  the  Pechcncgs;  in  the  Iltb 
tlK>  Kumans,  the  Cues,  and  tho  Polovtzians;  and  in  the  13th  tho 
MongoliariM,  under  the  Iyulin<hip  of  Batia.     In  this  last  century, 
also,  tho  OeTjoese  founded  ilieir  colonies  on  the  shores  of  the  Dniester. 
In  1367  Bessarabia  formed  a  part  of  Moldavia.      Iu  1503  the  south- 


B16 


BE  S  —  B  E  T 


^\ 


;rn  portion  o(  the  country,  or  Budjak,  fell  unJar  the  power  of  tlie 
i'urks;  and  io  1560  there  settled  in  that  district  aO.OOO  Nogoitzians, 
who  had  devastated  northern  Bessarabia,  theu  inhabited  by  Roum- 
tnians.  These  Nogaitzians  aoqiiired  the  name  of  the  Bielgorod 
liorde.  Russian  armies  occupied  Bessarabia  during  all  the  Turliish. 
wars  in  the  18th  century,  and  again  in  1306-12,  when  it  was  united 
to  Russia  by  the  Bukharest treaty.  By  the  Paris  convention  of 
1Sj8,  Russia  ceded  the  districts  of  (smael  and  the  greater  pan 
of  the  Cagul  to  Turkey,  and  these  now  form  a  part  of  Roumania.  At 
present  the  government  is  divided  into  seven  districts,  those  of 
KeesheoefT,  Akerman,  Bender,  OrgielT,  Soroka,  Klioteen,  and  Yassa. 
Bender  and  Akerman  are  subdivided  into  five  cantons,  each  of  the 
others  into  four.  In  I860  the  population  numbered  983,431, 
»nd  had  a  very  varied  ethnographical  character.     Th6  principal 

lortion  consisted  of  Moldavians,  descendants  of  the  ancient  Pacians. 

he  Russuayka  or  Galioians  and  Rxyani  (that  is,  those  who  have 
inhabited  the  neyas  provinces  of  the  Turkish  empire),  amounted  to 
130,000,  mostly  found  in  the  districts  of  Khoteen,  Soroka,  Yassa,  and 
Orgieff.  Rfalo- Russians  (or  Little  Russians)  began  to  settle  in  the 
country  in  the  17th  century,  and  now  number  70,000.  The  Bul- 
garians began  their  immigration  from  the  Turkish  provinces  in 
ia08-12,  afterwards  in  1830-34,  and  finally  after  1856  ;  they 
number  60,000.  These  colonies  are  administratively  divided  into 
three  circles  :— the  Upper  Budjak,  consisting  of  19,  the  Lower  Budjak 
of  19,  and  the  lamacl  of  5,  The  Germans  began  to  settle  in  Bes- 
sarabia in  1814.  Their  colonies,  to  the  number  of  25,  are  situated 
in  the  Akerrnaa  district,  along  the  River  Cogalnika.  The  Jews, 
who  number  70,000,  live  partly  in  the  cities  Keesheneff,  Khoteen, 
&c. ,  but  are  also  settled  in  16  agricultural  colonies.  The  Gypsies, 
or  Zigan,  amount  to  10,000.  They  live  a  wandering  life;  but  in 
the  Akerman  district  two  villages,  Pharaonofo  and  Kaera^  are 
permanently  inhabited  by  them.  A  considerable  member  of  Arrae 
nians  and  Greeks  have  also  settled  la  the  country  during  the 
present  century. 

BESSARION',  Johannes,  titular  patriarch  of  Conatanti- 
no()!e,  and  one  of  the  iKustrious  Greek  scholars  who  con- 
tributed to  the  great  revival  of  lettera  in  the  15th  century, 
was  born  at  Trebizond  in  1389,  or,  according  to  others,  in 
1395.  In  1423  be  entered  the  order  of  St  Basil,  and 
•tuJied  under  the  celebrated  Platonic  scholar,  George 
Gemislus  Pletho.  In  1437  he  was  made  archbishop  of 
Nijsea  by  John  Palaeologua,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Italy 
in  order  to  bring  about  a  union  between  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Churches.  A.t  the  councils  held  in  Ferrara  and 
Florence  Bessarion  supported  tho  Roman  Church,  and 
gained  the  favour  of  Pope  Eugenius,  who  invested  him 
with  the  rank  of  cardinal  From  that  time  he  resided  per- 
minently  in  Italy,  doing  much,  by  his  patronage  of  learned 
men,  by  his- collection  of  books  and  manuscripts,  and  by 
Lis  own  writings,  to  spread  abroad  the  new  learning.  He 
held  in  succession  the  archbishopric  of  Siponto  and  the 
bishoprics  of  Sabina  and  Tusculura.  In  14G3  he  received 
the  title  of  patriarch  of  Constantinople  ;  and  it  was  only  on 
account  of  his  Greek  birth  that  Lu  was  not  elevated  to  the 
Papal  chair.  For  five  years  he  was  legate  at  Bologna,  and 
be  was  engaged  on  embassies  to  many  foreign  princes, 
among  others  to  Lours  XI.  of  France  in  1471.  Vexation 
at  an  insult  ofTered  him  by  Louis  is  said  to  have  hastened 
Ins  death,  which  took  place,  on  the  19th  November  1472, 
lit  Ravenna.  Bessarion  was  one  of  the  most  learned  scholars 
of  his  timo.  Besides  his  translations  of  Aristotle's  Mela- 
fikynics  and  of  Xenophon's  Memorabilia,  his  most  important 
work  is  B  treatise  directed  against  George  of  Trebizond,  a 
violent  Aristotelian,  acd  entitled  In  Calumniatarem.  I'lor 
tonit.  Bessarion,  though  a  Platonist,  is  not  so  thorough- 
going in  his  admiration  as  Pletho,  and  rather  strives  after 
n  reconciliation  of  the  two  philosophies.  His  work,  by 
opening  up  the  relations  of  EMatonism  to  the  main  questions 
of  religion,  contributed  greatly  to  the  extension  of  specu- 
Lilive  lliniight  in  the  department  of  theology. 

BESSEOES,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Oard,  20  mUes  north  of  Alais  by  railway,  of  importaince  for 
Its  coal  and  iron  mines  and  blast-furnaces.  Population  in 
1872,8036. 

BESSEL,  FriEnmcn  Wildelm,  a  distinguished  Prus- 
4iaa   Bstronomer,  was  boru  at  Mtlden  on  the  22d    Jnly 


17S4.  At  an  early  age  he  was  placed'  in  the  counting 
house  of  a  merchant  at  Bremen.  His  strong  desire  to 
obtain  a  situation  as  supercargo  ou  a  foreign  voyage  led 
him  to  the  study  first  of  navigation  and  then  of  mathema- 
tics. He  devoted  himself  vjytli  the  utmost  ardour  to 
mathematical  and  astronomical  calculations,  and  in  1804 
undertook  the  reduction  of  the  observations  made  on  tht 
comet  of  1G07.  His  results  were  communicated  to  Olbers, 
who  warmly  praised  the  young  astronomer,  and  in  18U(i 
recommended  him  for  the  post  of  assistant  to  Schroter  in 
the  observatory  at  LilienthaL  In  1810,  after  his  reputation 
had  been  much  extended  by  various  memoirs,,  treating  par- 
ticularly of  cometary  orbits,  he  was  appointed  director  of, 
the  new  observatory  then  being  founded  by  the  king  of 
Prussia  at  Kbnigsberg.  He  was  at  the  same  time  caade 
professor  of  astronomy  and  mathematics  in  the  university 
of  that  town.  Beasel,  from  his  keen  practical  intelligence, 
thorough  acquaintance  with  all  iiistnimental  appliances,  and 
complete  mastery  of  the  methods  of  calculation,  was  admir 
ably  fitted  for  the  post  of  observer.  The  establishment  at 
Kbnigsberg  was  one  of  the  best  of  its  kind,  and  its  observa- 
tions, published  continuously  from  1813,  are  of  great  value. 
In  1818  Bessel  completed  a  task  on  which  he  had  been 
engaged  for  several  years — the  reduction  of  Bradley's  price- 
less but  neglected  Greenwich  observations.  The  results 
were  published  in  the  volume  entitled  Fiindamenta  Astro- 
nomice,  the  importance  of  which  for  astronomical  science 
caunot  be  overrated.  By  its  publication  the  author  at  once 
took  hia  place  among  the  first  astronomers  of  Europe ;  be 
was  received  with  honour  by  tho  various  foreign  scientific 
societies,  and  was  made  a  privy  councillor  by  the  king  of 
Prussia.  Of  his  later  labours  in  practical  astronomy  perhaps 
the  most  important  is  his  determination  of  the  parallax  of 
the  star  61  Cygni,  accomplished  by  methods  of  extreme 
ingenuity  and  delicacy.  The  TahuUs  Regiommitan(e,\&ZQ, 
and  Astronomische  Untersuchungen,  2  vols.,  1841-42,  are 
continuations  of  the  Fumlamenta.  His  memoirs,  contained 
in  the  AstroUomisclte  Nackrichten,  are  exceedingly  numerous. 
A  volume  of  Popular  Cectures  was  published  by  Schumacher 
after  the  death  of  the  author  in  1846. 

BETEL  NUT.  The  name  betel  is  applied  to  two-different 
plants,  which  in  the  East  are  very  closely  associated  in  the 
puipo-ses  to  which  they  are  applied.  The  betel  nut  is  the 
fruit  of  the  Areca  or  betel  palin,  /Irfca  Catechu,  and  tljc  betel 
leaf  is  the  produce  of  the  betel  vino  or  pan,  Ckavtca  Betel, 
a  plant  allied  to  that  which  yields  black  pepper.  The  areca 
pal  in  is  a  graceful  tree,  which  appears  to  be  iudigenone  over 
a  wide  area  in  the  East,  including  Southern  India,  Ceylon, 
Siam,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  the  Phibppine  li^lands. 
in  the  whole  of  which  it  is  extensively  cultivated.  The 
fruit  of  the  palm  is  about  the  si^eof  a  small  hen's  egg.  and 
within  its  fibrous  rind  is  the  seed  or  so-called  nut,  the 
albumen  of  which  is  very  hard  and  has  a  prettily  mottled 
grey  and  brown  appearance,  .  The  chief  purpose  for  which_ 
betel  nuts  are  cultivated  and  coUected  is  for  use  as  a  masti- 
catory,— their  use  in  thLs  form  being  so  widespread  among 
Oriental  nations  that  it  is  estimated  that  one-tenth  of  the 
whole  human  family  indulge  in  betel  chewing.  For  thi.^ 
use  the  fruits  are  annually  gathered  between  the  months  of 
August  and  November,  before  they  arc  quite  ripe,  and 
deprived  of  their  husks  They  arc  prepared  by  boiling  in 
water,  cutting  up  into  slices,  and  drying  in  the  sun,  b} 
which  treatment  the  .slic<w  asi^iime  a  dark  brown  or  black 
colour.  When  chewed  a  small  piece  is  wrajipcd  up  in  a  leal 
of  the  betel  vine  or  pan,  with  a  pellet  of  shell  liineor  chunam; 
and  in  some  cases  a  little  cardamom,  ti"Teric,  or  other 
aromatic  is  added.  The  ma.sticalion  causes  a  copious  flow 
of  saliva  of  a  brick-red  colour,  and  gives  tho  mouth,  hps 
and  gums  of  tho  chewera  repulsive  appearance.  The  habit 
blackens  tlic  teeth,  but  it  is  saserted  by  those  addicted  u 


B  E  T  — B  E  T 


017 


It  that  it  strenglbene  the  gums,  sweetens  the  breath,  and 
aCiuul^ites  ibu  digu^uve  orgaus.  AoiiiQg  the  Oneiitub 
butel  13  otrt;K;J  ou  cereuiom^  visits  IQ  the  same  uauoer  as 
wiiio  Ls  pruduLeU  on  simUar  ueuisiuus  by  Europeans.  Butel 
uuts  arc  further  used  as  a  suuxce  of  catuchu,  which  ls  pro- 
cured by  bodiug  the  nut3  m  water.  The  water  of  the  tirst 
t>oiliug  becomes  red  and  thick,  and  when  this  is  lospmsatcd 
dftar  the  removal  of  the  nut3  it  forms  a  catechu  of  high 
aitringency  and  dark  colour  called  in  Bombay  "Kossa."  The 
QUts  are  again  boded,  and  the  inspissated  juice  of  the  second 
decoctiou  yields  a  weaker  catechu  of  a  brown  or  reddish 
colour  Betel  nuts  i>.re  used  to  some  extent  iu  the  united 
Kingdom  as  the  source  of  a  charcoal  tooth-powder,  which, 
however,  has  no  special  virtue,  and  they  are  also  employed 
by  turners  for  ornamental  purposes,  and  for  coat  buttons 
t>u  account  of  the  beauty  of  their  structure.  Hocently  they 
have  come  into  repute  as  a  vermifuge,  aad  have  becu 
admitted  into  the  SappUmmt  to  the  BrUish  Pharmacopeia 
(1874)  as  acure  for  tape-worm.  The  qu^intity  of  betel  nuts 
consumed  in  the  East  is  enormous.  Ceylon  alone"  exports 
tbout  70,000  cwt.  annually  ;  Travancore  has  upwards  of  a 
miUion  of  trees,  the  average  produce  of  each  being  3'JO  nuts 
annually,  or  about  6030  tons  in  all ;  Sumatra  ib  little  less 
productive,  and  the  small  island  of  Penaug,  named  from 
the  Malayan  name  for  the  tree,  is  estimated  to  contain  half 
a  million  trees.  The  nula  of  other  species  of  Ariyui  are  -ased 
by  the  poorer  classes  in  the  East  as  substitutes  for  Iho 
gunuine  betel  nut 

BETHANY  {i.e.,  probably,  the  "  House  of  Dates"),  a 
village,  now  called  El'  Azariyeh,  or  Lazarieh,  nearly  two 
miles  E.S.  E.  from  Jerusalem,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  at  a  height  of  2208  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  whole  importance  of  the  place  is  derived  frjtn  its 
connection  with  New  Testameat  history,  it  being  never 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  or  Apocrypha.  It  w.is 
the  residence  of  Lazarus  and  his  sisters,  a  favounte 
retreat  of  the  Saviour,  and  the  scene  not  only  Oi  his 
greatest  miracle  but  also  of  his  ascension,  from  the  4tb 
century  down  to  the  time  of  the  Mahometan  invas:on 
several  ecclesiastical  buildings  were  erected  on  the  sp?t, 
.but  of  these  no  distinct  traces  remain.  Lazarieh  is  a  poor 
village  of  about  twenty  families,  with  few  marks  of  anti- 
jquity  ;  and  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  hous  a  of 
Mary  and  Martha  and  of  Simon  the  Leper,  or  the  sepulchre 
of  Lazarus,  still  shown  by  the  monks,  have  any  claims  to 
the  names  they  bear. 

BETHEL  (i.e.,  in  Hebrew,  the  "  House  of  God"),  origi- 
nally called  Luz,  an  ancient  city  of  Palestine,  on  the 
borders  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  eleven  English  miles  north 
of  Jerusalem.  Of  the  origin  of  its  new  name  two  accounts 
are  given  in  Genesis,  both  of  them,  however,  connecting  it 
with  the  history  of  Jacob  After  the  conquest  of  Canaan 
by  the  I.-^raolites  Bethel  became  a  resting-place  of  the  ark, 
and  at  a  fater  date  it  was  chosen  as  a  royal  residence  and  a 
seat  of  idolatrous  worship  by  several  of  the  renegade  kings. 
It  seems  to  have  continued  to  flounsh  down  into  the 
Christi.in  era,  some  remains  still  existing  of  its  ecclesiastical 
buildings.  Its  ruins,  which  now  bear  the  name  of  Beitin, 
occupy  about  three  or  four  acres. 

BETHESDA  was  a  pool  or  public  bath  in  Jerusalem, 
where  miraculous  cures  were  believed  to  be  performed  ,  now 
usually  identified  with  the  Birket  Israel,  near  St  Stephen's 
Gate.     See  Jkrusalem. 

BETHLEHEM  (i.e.,  in  Hebrew,  the  "  House  of  Bread  "), 
a  small  town  in  Palestine,  situated  on  a  limestone  ridge, 
about  sn  miles  from  Jerusalem,  on  the  main  road  to  Hebron. 
It  was  a  place  of  great  antiquity  ,  and,  under  the  name  of 
Ephrata  is  mentioned  in  the  hiatory  of  Jacob.  From  the 
book  of  Ruth,  which  contains  the  romantic  story  of  some 
of  lis  inhabitants,  it  would  appear  to  have  had  special  con- 
i—22* 


n«ction  with  the  laud  of  Moab.  At  a  later  date  it  became 
famous  ud  the  birthplace  of  David,  but  does  not  seem  to 
have  received  auy  special  favours  at  his  hand.  It  was 
fortified  by  Uehoboam  ,  and  the  neighbouring  inn  of 
Chimham  seems  to  have  become  a  regular  rendezvous  for 
travellers  proceeding  to  Egypt.  Almost  complete  obscurity, 
however,  was  gathering  round  It  when  it  became  one  of  the 
world's  most  memorable  spots — the  birthplace  of  the 
Saviour.  Desecrated  during  the  reign  of  Hadrian  by  a 
grove  of  Adouis,  the  traditional  scene  of  the  nativity  (a 
grotto  on  the  eastern  part  of  the  ndge)  was  enclosed  by 
the  Elmpress  Helena  with  a  noble  basUica,  which  still  stands, 
surrounded  by  the  three  convents  successively  erected  here 
by  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Armenian  Churches  In  the 
neighbourhood  is  still  shown  the  traditional  grotto  where 
Jerome  spent  a  portion  of  his  life  busy  with  his  Latin 
translation  of  the  Scriptures.  Captured  by  the  Crusaders 
iu  the  1 1th  century,  Bethlehem  was  made  an  episcopal  see  ; 
but  the  bishopric  soon  sank  into  a  titular  dignity.  The 
present  village  is  well  buUt  and  clean,  aid  the  inhabitants, 
who  number  about  3C00,  profess  Christianity.  The  carving 
of  cniciflies  and  other  sacred  mement/ies  gives  employment 
to  a  number  of  persons. 

BETUUNS,  the  chief  town  of  an  arrondissement  in 
the  French  d  partment  of  Pas  de  Calais,  situated  on  a  rock 
above  the  River  Brette,  Ifi  miles  N.N.W.  of  Arras.  It  is 
strongly  fortified,  and  its  defences  are  partly  the  work  of 
Vauban.  It  has  a  tribunal  of  primary  jurisdiction,  a  com- 
munal college,  a  Gothic  church,  two  hospitals,  and  manu- 
factores  of  linen,  cloth,  and  beer.  The  trade,  chiefly  in 
grain,  cheese,  linen,  and  oil,  is  facilitated  by  the  canal, 
which  unites  the  Lawe  wi'.h  the  Lys.  The  town,  which 
dates  from  the  11th  century,  was  taken  by  the  allied  forces 
la  1710,  and  restored  to  Franco  by  the  treaty  of  UtrechL 
Population  in  1872,  4094. 

BETLIS,  BiTLts,  or  Bedlis,  a  town  of  Turkish  Armenia, 
in  the  Sandjak  of  Mft3h,situited  near  the  south-west  corner 
of  Lake  Van,  m  a  highly  cultivated  valley,  which  ia  watered 
by  the  Bitlis-chai,  a  sub-tributary  of  the  Tigris.  Partly 
owing  to  the  irregularity  of  the  ground,  the  houses  are 
scattered  without  much  attention  to  order,  and  most  of 
them  are  surrounded  with  gardens  or  orchards.  The  castle 
of  the  Bey,  a  straggling  structure,  is  situated  on  the  lava 
rock  that  bounds  the  valley ;  while  in  the  centre  of  the 
town,  on  an  eminence  so  steep  that  it  is  only  accessible  by 
a  road  winding  round  it,  stand  the  ruins  of  an  ancient 
fortress  of  great  strength.  Bctlis  is  a  great  seat  of  the 
dancing  dervishes,  who  have  twelve  convents  in  the  place 
The  Armenians,  who  form  about  a  fourth  of  the  population, 
have  four  churches  end  as  many  monasteries,  and  the 
Mahometans  possess  numerous  mosques  and  medresscs.  A 
considerable  trade  is  carried  on,  as  well  as  the  manufacture 
of  gold  and  silver  wares,  the  weaving  of  cotton-cloth  and 
carpets,  and  the  preparation  of  tobacco  According  to  an 
Armenian  tradition  Bctlis  was  founded  by  Alexander  the 
Great  In  1514  it  became  a  Turkish  possession,  and  it  has 
for  about  three  centuries  been  held  as  a  fief  by  a  Kurdish 
family.  The  population  is  variously  estimated  at  from 
10,000  to  I2,0U0. 

BETTERTON,  Tbomas,  the  best  English  actor  of  nis 
time,  was  the  son  of  Mr  Betterton,  under<ook  to  King 
Charles  I.,  and  was  born  at  Westminster  in  1635  He 
was  apprcmticed  to  Mr  Rhodes,  a  bookseller  near  Channg 
Cross.  Rhodes,  who  bad  been  wardrobe-keeper  to  the 
theatre  in  Blackfriars,  obtained  in  1659  a  licence  to  set  up 
a  company  of  players  at  the  Cockpit  in  Drury  Lane  ,  and 
there  Betteiton  made  his  first  appearance  on  the  stage. 
On  the  opening  of  the  new  theatre  in  Lincolu's-Inn-Fields 
in  1662,  Sir  William  Davenant,  the  patentee,  engaged 
Betterton  and  all  Rhodess  company  to  play  in  his  Sirtjt  oj 


G18 


B  E  T  — B  E  T 


Rhodes.  BetcertoQ  bftcame  a  great  favourite  with  the  king, 
ind  was  seat  to  Paris  to  examine  tie  French  stage,  vath  a 
yiew  to  the  introduction  of  improvements.  According  to 
Gibber  it  was  after  his  return  that  shifting  scenes  were  first 
used  in  the  English  theatre  instead  of  tapestry.  In  1670 
feetterton  married  Mrs  Sanderson,  a  good  actress  of  the 
same  company ;  and  the  marriage  was  a  very  happy  one. 
In  1693,  when  he  had  just  lost  the  little  money  he  had 
laid  by,  he  was  enabled  by  the  aid  of  his  friends  to  erect 
a  new  playhouse  in  the  Tennis  Court  in  Lincoln's-Inn- 
Fields.  It  was  opened  in  1695  with  Congreve's  Love  for 
Low.-  But  in  a  few  years  the  profits  greatly  fell  off;  and 
Betterton,  infirm  through  age,  and  labouring  under  violent 
attacks  of  the  gout,  determined  to  quit  the  stage.  On 
his  retirement  the  public  gave  him  a  benefit-night,  when, 
though  upwards  of  seventy,  he  played  the  part  of  Valentine 
in  the  comedy  of  Love  for  Love  :  the  profits  are  said  to  have 
nmounted  to  upwards  of  £500.  His  performance  of  Ham- 
let after  this  time  is  particularly  mentioned  in  the  Taller. 
In  the  spring  of  1710  he  made  his  last  appearance  on  the 
stage  in  his  celebrated  part  of  Melantius  in  The  Maid's 
Tragedy.  A  rash  attempt  to  reduce  the  swelling  of  his 
limbs  by  external  applications  threw  the  gout  into  his 
head,  and  he  died  on  the  28th  of  April  His  body  was 
interred  with  much  ceremony  in  the  cloisters  of  West- 
minster. '  Betterton  waa  author  of  several  dramatic  works 
which  were  popular  in  their  day.-  An  estimate  of  his 
character  and  abilities  is  given  in  the  Apology  for  my  Own. 
Life,  (tc,  of  his  friend  and  rival  Colley  Gibber. 

BETTINELLI,  Savebio,  Italian  Jesiiit  and  litterateur, 
was  born   at  Mantua  on  the  18th  of  July  1718.     After 
studying   under   the   Jesuits  in  his   native   city  and   at 
Balogna,  he  entered  the  society  in  1736.     He  taught  the 
belles-lettres,  from  1739  to    1744,  at  Brescia,  where  the 
Cardinal  Quirini,  Count  Mazzuchelli,  Count  Duranti,  and 
othor..^chobfs,  formed  an  illustrious  academy.     He  next 
weat   to- Bologna  to   pursue  the   study  of   divinity,  and 
there  he  enjoyed  the  society  of  many  learned  and  literary 
men.     At  the  age  of  thirty  he  went  to  Venice,  where  he 
became   professor  of   rhetoric,  and  was  on  friendly  terms 
with  the   most  illustrious  persons  of  that  city  and  state. 
The  superintendence  of  the  college  of  nobles  at  Parma  was 
entrusted  to  him  in  1751 ;'  and  he  had  principal  charge  of  the 
studies  of  poetry  and  history,  and  the  entertainments  of  the 
theatre.      He  remained  there  eight  years,  visiting,  at  inter- 
vals, other  cities  of  Italy,  either  on  the  affairs  of  his  order, 
for  pleasure,  or  for  health.     In  1755  ho  traversed  part  of 
Germany,  proceeded  as  far  as^Strasburg  and  Nancy,  and 
returned  by  way  of  Germany  into  Italy,  taking  with  him 
two  youog  sons  or  nephews  of  the  prince  of  Hohenlohe, 
who  had  requested  him  to  take  charge  of  their  education. 
He  made,  the  year  following,  another  journey  into  France, 
along  with  the  eldest  of  his  pupils ;  and  during  this  excur- 
sion he  wrote  iis  famous    Lettere  died  di    Yirgilio   agli 
Arcadi,  which  were  published  at  Venice  with  his  sciolti 
verses,  and  those  of  Frugoni  and  AlgasottL     The  opinions' 
maintained  in  these  letters  against  the  two  great  Italian 
poets  and  particularly  against  Dante,  created  him  many  ene- 
mies, and  embroiled  him  with  Algarotti.     In  1758  he  went 
into  Lorraine,  to  the  court  of  King  Stanislaus,  who  sent  him 
on  a  matter  of  business  to  visit  Voltaire.     Voltaire  presented 
him  with  a  copy  of  his  works,  with  a  flattering  inscription 
in  allusion  to  Bettinelli's  Letters  of  Virgil.     From  Geneva 
hi  returned  to   Parma,  where  he  arrived   in   1759.     He 
oflorwards  lived  for  some  years  at  Verona  and  Modona, 
enl  he  had  just  been  appointed  professor  of  rhetorie  there, 
when,  in  1773,  the  order  of  Jesuits  was  abolished  in  Italy. 
Bijltinelli  then  returned  into  his  own  country,  and  resumed 
his  literary  labours  with  new  ardoifr.     The  siege  of  Mantua 
hy  the    French  compelled   him  to  leave  the  city,  and  ho 


retired  to  Verona,  where  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship 
with  the  Chevalier  Hippolito  PindemontL  In  1797  he 
returned  to  Mantua.  Though  nearly  eighty  years  old  he 
resumed^- his  labours  and  his  customary  manner  of  life. 
He  undertook  in  1799  a  complete  edition  of  his  works; 
which  was  published  at  Venice  in  24  vols.  12mo.  Arrived 
at  the  age  of  ninety  years,  he  stiU  retained  his  gaiety  and 
vivacity  of  mind,  and  died  on  the  13th  Septepiber  1808. 
The  -works  of  Bettinelli  are  now  of  little  value.  The. 
only  one  stUl  deserving  remembrance,  perhaps,  is  the  Risor-" 
gimento  negli  studj,  nelle  Arti  e  ng"  Castumi  dopo  il  Milte,  a 
sketch  of  the  progress  of  literature,  science,  the  fine  arts, 
industry,  &c.,  in  Italy. 

BETTING  may  be  defined  as  the  staking  or  pledging 
between  two  parties  of  some  object  of  material  value  oa 
the  issue  or  contingent  issue  of  some  event  or  contest.  The 
pursuit  (it  can  hardly  be  termed  a  pastime,  science,  or  art) 
of  betting  has  been  in  vogue  from  the  earliest  days  of 
civilization,  commencing  in  the  East  with  royal  and  noblo 
gambler's,  and  gradually  extending  itself  westwards  and 
throughout  all  classes.  In  all  countries  where  the  English 
tongue  is  spoken  betting  is  now  largely  indulged  in  j  and 
in  the  United  Kingdom  it  has  spread  to  such  an  extent 
amongst  all  grades  of  society  during  the  last  twenty  years 
that  the  interference  of  the  Legislature  has  been  found 
necessary.  The  evils  it  has  been  productive  of  are  too 
well  known  to  call  for  comment  here,  and  the  principles 
require  to  be  treated  solely  from  mathematical  and  legis- 
lative points  of  view. 

The  first  principle  of  all  betting  is  that "  you  cannot  win 
where  you  cannot  lose."  Accordingly  no  bets  are  "  play 
or  pay  "  except  those  on  certain  events  enumerated  below, 
or  unless  such  a  stipulation  is  laid  down  at  the  time  the 
bet  is  made.  Betting  may  be  divided  into  "  bookmaking" 
and  "backing."  The  former  consists  in  laying  the  odds,  and,' 
theoretically  speaking,  secures  a  small  though  certain  profit, 
were  all  debts  paid  and  the  number  of  starters  for  the  event 
large.  During  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century  book- 
making  was  a  far  more  lucrative  business  than  now,  because 
betting  was  confined  to  the  wealthier  classes  and  bad  debts 
were  fewer.  Also,  betting  commenced  many  months  before 
a  great  race,  and  so  the  bookmaker  had  more  opportunities 
of  laying  against  all  the  entries,  whereas  most  betting  on 
play  or  pay  events  is  now  done  just  before  the  start.  Taking 
the  St  Leger  (always  a  play  or  pay  event)  of  1875,  the 
following  table  represents  a  £100  book  opened  a  week 
before  the  race,  according  to  the  Continental  betting 
quotations,  September  7,  1875.  Those  marked  +  did  not 
eventually  start. 


6  to 

7  „ 
7  „ 

10  „ 
10  ,. 
12  „ 

15  „ 

16  „ 
20  „ 
25  „ 
25  „ 
25  „ 
25  „ 
33  „ 
33  „ 
40  „ 
40  „ 
SO.. 
60  ,. 
50  „ 


against  Gilbert . -. £100  to  £16.13 


StCyr.. 
Earl  of  Dartrey . 
Breadnouglit .... 
Balfe 


tBay  of  Naples 

Kabagaa  II 

Styraour 

Now  Holland 

Breechloader  ...;. 

Pcrkin  Warbeck  . 

Craigmillar 

tClaremont    

tRepentaoce  Colt.. 
tSalvator 

Saint  Leper 

+  reniiilo  Bar  

tTclcscopo 

+Gart«rly  Bell 

tSister  to  Musket.. 


to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 

to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 
to 


4 

8 
8 
0 
0 
8 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
Winner. 


14 

"5 

14 

6 

10 

0 

10 

0 

8 

6 

6 

fi 

6 

5 

6 

0 

i 

0 

4 

0 

£120    i    6 

In  this  instance  twenty  horses  arc  quoted  in  the  bctlin^.     A%. 

snming  that  the  bookmaker  limls  a  customer  to  back  each  of  thcae. 

and  that  he  onroontere  no  bad  debts,  he  receives  £120,  23.  6d..  and 

has  to  [my  £100  toi  the  pereon  with  whom  he  Jtid  £100  t«  £1 


b  E  T  — B  E  T 


6ID 


■gainst  CraigmiUar,  'Jie  winner.  This  karcs  a  gnin  of  £20,  2s.  6(1. 
or  20J  per  Mjt.,  but  even  then  travelling  and  other  cipensea  have 
no'-  been  talcen  into  consideration,  and  the  fewer  hot^s  thai  are 
luelied  the  less  accordingly  will  be  the  bookmalter's  profit  In 
fact,  the  non-backing  of  any  one  horse  in  this  instance  materially 
reduces  the  profit.  The  race  in  question  was  partioularly  favoor- 
able  for  bookmakers,  both  becanse  so  many  horses  were  scratclicd 
(representing  a  gain  of  £26,  17s.  lOd.),  and  •because  at  the  date 
supposed  the  winner  was  at  such  long  odds.  At  the  actual  itart 
the  odds  against  the  beaten  horses  were  »  to  2,  and  6,  7,  9,  10,  12, 
20,  25,  25,  60,  and  66  to  1  respectively,  and  against  the  winner  20 
to  3.  This  will  b«  found  to  leave  tie  bookmaker,  had  he  com- 
menced hia  book  the  day  of  the  race,  a  pt«fit  of  £1,  125.  6d.  only, 
and  had  the  first  favourite  won  there  would  have  bc<!n  a  loss  of 
£5,  lis.  lid.  There  were  178  entries  for  this  St  Leger,  and  if  The 
book  had  been  opened  many  months  before  the  race,  and  tlie  book- 
maker had  been  able  to  obtain  customers,  the  favourites  would  have 
been  backed  at  longer  odds,  bringing  less  profit  from  this  source, 
but  then  more  eventual  non-staru-rs  are  backed,  which  is  certain 
profit.  The  chief  principles  of  bookmaking  are  the  same,  whether 
the  nomber  of  startere  for  an  event  be  unlimited,  or  two  only, 
though,  in  the  latter  case,  there  is  no  certain  profit,  as  there  are 
not  sufficient  starters  to  enable  the  bookmaker  to  save  his  stake. 
His  only  chance  then  is  that  he  has  been  circumspect  enough  to 
have  laid  his  odds  on  the  winner. 

"Backing"  is  a  very  plain  matter,  but  in  the  loDg-nin 
invariably  a  losing  method  of  betting.  It  eimply  consists 
I  a  taking  the  odds  laid  by  a  bookmaker  against  one  or 
more  starters  for  any  event  If  it  be  a  play  or  pay  event, 
and  the  possible  starter  be  scratched,  the  backer  loses  his 
money  at  once.  Although  a  backer  may  become  possessed 
oi  such  special  information  as  may  enable  him  to  win  large 
sums  occasionally,  his  losses  will  in  the  long-run  exceed 
them.  In  fact,  the  bookmaker  virtually  kicps  a  bank 
ngainst  him. 

"  Hedging"  consists  in  laying  off  at  shorter  odds  part 
of  the  sums  various  starters  may  have  been  backed 
for.  Thus,  a  backer  has  taken  £50  to  £1  about  A, 
B,  and  C  respectively  for  a  play  or  pay  event  snme  time 
before  the  date  fixed  for  the  contest  A  turns  cut  a  tion- 
etarter,  bo  there  is  a  certain  loss  oi  £\.  At  starting  the 
odds  have  come  down  to  say  2  to  1  against  B,  and  3  to  1 
against  C.  So  the  backer  lays  X50  to  £25  against  B,  and 
i50  to  £16,  13s.  4d.  against  C.  U  neither  wins  he 
receives  £41,  13s,  4d.,  out  of  which  he  has  to  pay  £S  to 
tbe  bookmaker,  leaving  a  profit  of  £38,  ISs.  4d.  Should 
B  win  he  receives  £50  from  the  bookmaker,  and 
£16,  133.  4d.  on  account  of  Cs  defeat,  out  of  which  he 
has  to  pay  £2  to  the  bookmaker  on  account  of  A  and  C, 
and  the  £50  he  has  laid  against  B,  so  the  profit  left  is 
£14,  133.  4d.  Should  C  win,  the  hedgcr  receives  £50 
from  the  bookmaker,  and  £25  on  account  of  B's  defeat, 
out  of  which  ha  has  still  to  pay  the  bookmaker  £2  on 
account-  of  A  and  B,  and  the  £50  he  has  laid  against  C, 
60  the  profit  left  is  £23. 

The  only  events  that  are  now  play  or  pay  are  the  Derby, 
Oaks,  St  Leger,  Two  Thousand  Guineas,  One  Thousand 
Guineas,  Cesarewitch,  and  Cambridgeshire  Stakes,  the 
Ascot,  Goodwood,  and  Doncaster  Cups,  and  all  handicaps 
above  £200  value,  with  two  forfeits,  the  minor  whereof 
is  not  less  than  £5.  In  all  other  betting  the  bascker  is 
entitled  to  a  start  for  his  money,  unlesa  the  contrary  is 
stipulated  at  the  time  the  bet  ia  made 

In  the  United  Kingdom  betting  has  been  tho  sotirce 
of  considerable  legislation  during  the  past  thirty  years. 
Curiously  enough,  by  the  9th  of  Queen  Anne,  if  any  one 
gained  over  £10  by  betting,  the  loser  was  entitled  to 
pursue  for  repayment  of  the  stake  if  he  had  paid  it,  and  if 
he  did  not  do  so  within  three  months  any  one  might  sue 
for  treble  the  amount  with  costs.  After  it  bad  become  a 
dead  letter  some  informers  raked  up  this  Act  in  1844,  and 
tho  result  was  the  insertion  of  a  clause  in  tbe  Gaming 
.Act,  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  109,  annulling  the  old  statute.  Dur- 
ing the  next  seven  years  betting  on  horse  races  increased  to 
MO  enormous  ejttcut     "  Li^t  shops,"  where  the  proprietors  I 


kept  a  bank  against  all  comera,  and  backers  could  stake 
their  money  in  advance  on  a  horse,  sprung  up  in  the 
metropolis  and  large  towns,  leading  to  many  acts  of  flagrant 
dishonesty.  Sir  Alexander  Cockbnm,  then  attorney-general, 
accordingly  mtroduced  the  Betting  Houses  Act,  16  and  17 
Vict  c.  119,  whereby  all  heoses  or  places  kept  for  anch 
purposes  were  brought  under  the  above-mentioned  Gaming 
Act,  and  might  be  proceeded  against  as  a  common  nuisanc* 
and  contrary  to  law, — heavy  ptnalties  being  incurred  by 
the  owners,  occupiers,  or  advertizers  of  such  houses  or  places. 
Betting  on  ra«e-courses,  or  at  Tattersall's  and  similar  private 
clubs,  where  money  is  not  received  in  advance,  was  not 
meant  to  be  interfered  with.  For  some  time  this  legislation 
had  the  desired  eflfect  till  attempts  were  made  to  evade  it 
I  by  receiving  money  through  the  post  These  were  successful 
I  till  the  summer  of  le69,  when  the  Government  suddenly 
bestirred  itself,  and  several  prosecutions  look  place.  As 
the  Act,  however,  did  not  extend  to  Scotland,  the  betting- 
house  keepers  removed  there  or  wen*  >brn?d  and  their  adver- 
tisements at  such  addresses  were  still  hgaL  This  led 
to  37  Vict  c.  14,  extending  16  and  17  Vict  c.  119  to 
Scotland,  and  making  all  advertisements  of  betting-houses, 
whether  in  or  out  of  the  United  Kingdom,  illegal.  It  came 
into  force  on  31st  July  1874,  and  almost  exterminated 
the  receiving  of  money  in  advance,  especially  as  it  is  now 
enforced  very  strictly. 

In  1866  a  system  of  betting,  termed  Pari/  muttteli,  was 
started  in  France.  It  consisted  of  agencies  where  any  one 
may  back  a  probable  starter  for  any  «um  or  sums  he  pleases. 
The  whole  of  the  money  thus  staked  on  all  starters  is  added 
together,  a  commission  deducted  by  the  agent  for  his 
trouble,  and  the  balance  divided  in  "  equal  shares,"  or  Pans 
mutuels,  amongst  those  who  have  backed  the  victor.  In 
this  instance  the  agent's  gain  is,  of  course,  certain.  It  has 
been  found,  however,  that  unlicensed  opportunities  of 
staking  money  in  advance  have  produced  the  same  evils  in 
France  as  in  England.  During  the  past  three  years  the 
French  Government  have  taken  the  matter  up  strongly,  and 
betting-houses  and  agencies  are  now  as  effectually  doomed 
on  the  French  as  on  the  English  side  of  the  ChanncL 

In  the  United  States  betting  is  also  illegal  Under  the 
Gambling  Act,  whenever  any  money  has  been  staked  for  a 
bet,  either  side  can  sue  the  stakeholder  and  recover  his 
portion  of  the  money,  either  before  or  after  the  bet  has 
been  decided.  Owing,  however,  to  the  strong  public  senti- 
ment which  naturally  condemns  such  a  course,  proceedings 
against  stakeholders  are  excessively  rare.  Any  voter 
betting  on  the  result  of  an  election  forfeits  his  franchise, 
yet  the  heaviest  betting  in  the  States  is  on  elections,  and 
the  betters  go  unchallenged  to  the  poll  (h.  f.  w.) 

BETUL,  a  hilly  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Central 
Provinces,  comprising  the  westernmost  section  of  the 
great  Sitpuri  plateau,  situated  between  21*  20'  and  22° 
36'  N.  lat,  and  77°  20'  and  78°  35'  E  long.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  Hoshangibdd  district  and  the  Makrii 
territory,  on  the  R  by  the  district  of  ChhindwirA,  on  the  S. 
by  the  commissionership  of  West  Berars,  and  on  the  W.  by 
the  district  of  HoshangibAd.  The  area  is  about  4118  square 
miles ;  the  population,  as  ascertained  by  the  census  of  1866, 
258,335.  In  1 872  the  population  had  increased  to  284,055, 
of  whom  168,788  were  Hindus,  4555  Mahometans,  937 
Buddhists  and  Jains,  1 9  Christians,  and  1 09,756  aborigines ; 
population,  C9  per  square  mile.  The  mean  elevation  of 
the  district  above  the  sea  is  about  2000  feet  The  country 
is  essentially  a  highland  tract,  divided  naturally  into  thrc» 
distinct  portions,  differing  in  their  superficial  aspects,  the 
character  of  their  soil,  and  their  geological  formation.  Th» 
northern  part  of  the  district  forms  an  irregular  plain  of  the 
sandstone  formation.  It  is  a  well-wooded  tract,  in  many 
places  stretching  out  in  charming  glades  hkc  an  EngUsh 


620 


B  E  T  —  B  E  r 


park,  but  it  has  a  very  sparse  population  and  little  culti- 
vated land.  Iq  the  extreme  north  a  line  of  hiU  rises 
abruptly  out  of  the  great  plain  of  the  Narbadi  valley.  The 
central  tract  alone  possesses  a  rich  soil,  well  watered  by  the 
MachnA  and  Simpna  rivers,  almost  entirely  cultivated  and 
studded  with  villages.  To  the  south  lies  a  rolling  plateau 
of  basaltic  formation  (with  the  sacred  town  of  Multii,  and 
the  springs  of  theRiverTapti  at  its  highest  point),  extending 
over  tlie  whole  of  the  southern  face  of  the  district,  and 
finally  merging  into  the  wild  and  broken  line  of  the  Ghits, 
which  lead  down  to  the  plains.  This  tract  ^consists  of  a 
succession  of  stony  ridges  of  trap  rock,  enclosing  valleys  or 
basins  of  fertile  soil,  to  which  cultivation  is  for  the  most 
part  confined,  except  where  the  shallow  soil  on  the  tops  ol 
the  lulls  has  been  turned  to  account. 

The  prindpal  rivers  of  the  distriot  are  the  Taptl,'  Wardha,  Bel 
Machna,  SampnS,  Morar,  and  Taw4,  The  Tapti  rises  a  fewmiles 
from  Multai,  traverses  the  southern  part  of  the  district,  and  then 
plunges  into  the  gorge  of  the  Satpura  hills,  formed  on  the  one  side 
by  the  Chikalda  hills  of  Berar,  and  on  the  other  side  by  the  wild 
lUIibhit  hills  of  Hoshangabad.  The  Wardhi  can  hardly  be  called 
a  river  of  the  district,  as  it  merely  takes  its  rise  in  the  Satpnrd  hills 
on  the  south-eastern  boundary.  The  River  Bel  also  rises  in  the  high 
plateau  of  Betul,  and  forms  one  of  the  chief  affluents  of  the  Kanhan. 
The  MachnA  and  Sampna  rise  among  the  hills  that  shut  in  the  rich 
basdn  of  the  district  They  unite  their  waters  at  the  town  of  Betiil, 
force  their  way  through  the  Satpnrd  range,  and  join  ttu  Tawi  near 
8hihpur.  The  Moran  rises  in  the  Satpura  hills  within  the  district, 
and  enters  Hoohangibid  near  the  town  of  Seoni.  The  Tawa  rises 
in  Chhindwiri,  and  flowing  for  a  short  distance  through  the  north- 
east comer  of  this  district,  eventually  joiiis  the  NarbadA  above 
Hoshangdb^.  These  are  the  rivers  of  importance  ;  but  throughout 
the  district,  and  mare  especially  amid  the  trap  formation,  there  are 
a  number  of  smaller  streams  useful  for  irrigation.  The  principal 
agricultural  products  of  the  district  are  wheat  and  pulses,  more 
than  three-fourths  of  the  open  lands  being  devoted  to  these  crops. 
The  other  products  are  cotton,  rice,  millet,  rye,  sugar-cane,  and 
opinm.  The  area  under  sugar-cane  cultivation  is  estimated  at  2400 
acres,  the  juice  extracted  from  it  being  exported  in  its  raw  state. 
The  principal  agricultural  tribe  is  the  Kuddis,  many  of  whom  are 
modern  immigrants  from  Northern  India.  The  aboriginal  Goods  are 
found  in  all  trie  wild  jungle  villages,  where  they  follow  the  nomadic 
iystem  of  cultivation  known  as  the  ddhi/a.  Extensive  forests  occupy 
(oiD»  700  sf^uare  miles  of  the  district  area,  and  yield  teak  and 
other  good  timber.  Coal  occurs  in  many  parts  of  the  district,  but 
13  not  worked,  as  except  at  one  place  not  a  single  seam  has  been 
found  exceeding  3  feet  in  thickness,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  a  seam  of 
that  thickness  can  be  profitably  mined  in  India.  District  revenues 
m  186S-69 — land  revenue,  £19,159  ;  excise,  £7219;  assessed  taxes, 
£1136  ;  forests,  £1218  ;  stamps,  £2743;  total,  £31,475.  Strength 
of  regular  constabulary  and  town  police,  333  men  ;  cost,  £3857 
per  annum. 

)  Little  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  the  district  except 
'that  it  must  have  been  the  centre  of  the  first  of  ths  four 
ancient  Qond  kingdoms  of  KherlA,  Deogarh,  Mandla,  and 
Ch4ndA.  According  to  Farishtd,  these  kingdoms  engrossed 
in  1398  all  the  bills  of  Qondwin&  and  adjacent  countries, 
and  wore  of  great  wealth  and  power.  About  the  year  1418 
Sult4n  Husain  Shih  of  Milwa  invaded  Kherli,  and  reduced 
it  to  a  dependency.  Nine  years  later  the  R4j4  rebelled,  but 
although  with  the  help  of  the  BAhmlni  kings  of  the  Deccan 
he  managed  for  a  time  to  assert  his  independence,  he  was 
finally  subdued  and  deprived  of  his  territories.  In  1467 
Kherli  was  seized  by  the  Bihmini  king,  but  wiu,  oftsr- 
warda  restored  to  Milwa.  A  century  later  the  kingdom  of 
M4lw»  became  incorporated  into  the  dominions  of  the 
emperor  of  Delhi.  In  1703  a  MusAlman  convert  of  the 
Oond  tribe  held  the  country,  and  in  1743  Raghujl  Bhonsli, 
the  Marhatt4  ruler  of  Berar,  annexed  it  to  his  dominions. 
The  MarhattAs  in  the  year  1818  ceded  this  district  to  the 
East  India  Compnny  as  payment  for  a  contingent,  and  by 
the  treaty  of  1826  it  was  formally  incorporated  with  the 
British  possessions.  Detachments  of  British  troops  were 
elationcd  at  Multii,  Betul,  and  Sh.'ihpur  to  cut  off  thb 
retreat  of  Ap4  Sihib,  the  Marhatti  general,  and  a 
«ilitoi7  force  was  quartered  at  Betul  until  June   lti62. 


The  ruined  city  of  K  hari-'t  formed  the  seat  of  government 
under  the  Gonds  and  preceding  rulers,  and  hence  the  dis- 
trict was,  until  the  time  of  its  annexation  to  the  British 
dominions,  known  as  the  "  Kherli  SarkAr."  The  town  of 
Multdi  contains  an  artificial  tank,  from  the  centre  of  which 
the  Tapti  is  said  to  take  its  rise;  hence  the  reputed  sanctity 
of  the  spot,  and  th«  accumulation  of  temples  in  its  honour. 

The  climate  of  Betul  is  fairly  salubrious.  Its  height 
above  the  plains  and  the  neighbourhjod  of  extensive 
forests  moderate  the  heat,  and  render  the  temperature 
pleasant  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  During 
the  cold  season  the  thermometer  at  night  falls  below  the 
freezing  point ;  little  or  no  hot  wind  is  felt  before  the  end 
of  April,  and  even  then  it  ceases  after  sunset.  The  nights 
in  the  hot  season  are  comparatively  cool  and  pleasant. 
During  the  monsoon  the  climate  is  very  damp,  and  at  times 
even  cold  and  raw,  thick  clouds  and  mist  enveloping  the  sky 
for  many  days  together.  The  average  annual  rainfaU  is  40 
inches.  In  the  denser  jungles  malaria  prevails  for  months 
after  the  cessation  of  the  rains,  but  the  Gonds  do  not 
appear  to  suffer  much  from  its  effects.  Travellers  and 
strangers  who  ventiire  into  these  jungles  run  the  risk  of 
fever  of  a  severe  type  at  almost  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

BETwA,  a  river  of  India,  which  rises  in  the  native  state 
of  Bhopil  in  MAlwa,  and  after  a  course  of  360  miles,  for 
the  most  part  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  falls  into  the 
Jamn4  at  Hamlrpur  in  25°  57'  N.  lat.  and  80°  17' E.  long. 

BEUDANT,  Francois  Sulpice,  a  French  mineralogist 
and  geologist,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1787,  and  died  in  1862. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Polytechnic  and  Normal  schools, 
and  in  1811  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  the 
Lyc^e  of  Avignon.  Thence  he  was  called,  in  1813,  to  the 
Lyc(5e  of  Marseilles  to  fill  the  post  of  professor  of  physics. 
In  the  following  year  the  royal-  mineralogical  cabinet  was 
committed  to  his  charge  to  be  conveyed  into  England,  and 
from  that  time  his  attention  seems  to  have  been  directet 
principaUy  towards  geology  and  cognate  sciences.  In  the 
year  1818  he  undertook,  at  the  expense  of  Government,  a 
geological  journey  through  Hungary,  and  the  results  of  his 
researches.  Voyage  Minsral'xjiqne  et  Geologique  en  Hongrie, 
3  vols.  4to,  with  atlas,  published  in  1822,  established  for 
him  a  European  reputation.  He  was  about  the  same  time 
appointed  to  the  professoiship  of  mineralogy  in  the  Paris 
Faculty  of  Sciences.  His  treatises  on  physics  {Traite  de 
Physique,  Cth  ed.,  1838)  and  on  mineralogy  aad  geology 
(Cours  Elementaire  de  Minerahgie  et  Giulogie,  1841)  were 
very  popular.  Beudant  also,  when  holding  the  post  of 
inspector  of  the  university,  published  a  valuable  French 
grammar 

BEUL6,  Cbarles  Ernest,  a  French  archaeologist  and 
man  of  letters,  was  born  at  Saumur  29th  June  1826,and  died 
4th  April  1874.  He  was  educated  at  the  Ecolo  Normale, 
and  in  1852  was  sent  to  Athens  as  one  of  the  professors  in 
the  Ecole  Fran^aise  established  there.  At  first  distinguished 
as  a  man  of  fashion,  he  afterwards  devoted  himself  with 
intense  vigour  to  archiEological  researches.  He  bad  the 
good  fortune  to  discover  the  proiiylwa  of  the  Acropolis,  and 
his  work,  VAcropole d'AMnes  (2  vols.  1854),  was  pubbshed 
by  order  of  the  minister  of  public  instruction.  Promotion 
and  distinctions  followed  rapidly  upon  his  first  successes. 
He  was  made  doctor  of  letters,  rl>evalier-of  the  Legion  of 
Honour,  professor  of  archeology  at  the  Bibliothfequ© 
Imp6riale,  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and 
perpetual  eocrctary  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  Like 
too  many  French  men  of  letters,  ho  joined  eagerly  id 
poblical  au'airs,  with  which  the  last  few  years  of  his  life 
were  entirely  occupied.  The  most  important  of  his  writing* 
are  Eludes  tur  le  Ptloponnhe,  18.')5  ;  Let  Monnaie* 
cCAlhenes,  1858;  Ilistoire  de  la  Sculpture  avant  Phuiicu, 
1864  ;   JIUlmre  de  VArl  Grcc,  1S7U. 


B  E  D  -  B  E  Y 


621 


BEUTHE>f,  the  chief  low  »  of  a  circle  io  the  government 
of  Oppeln  in  i'russian  Silesia,  on  the  railway  between 
Oppeln  and  Cracow,  about  50  miles  from  the  former.  It 
13  the  centre  of  the  mining  district  of  Upper  Silesia,  and  its 
population,  which  numbered  15,711  in  1871,  is  mainly 
engaged  in  mining  operations.  Cloth  and  linen  weaving, 
however,  is  also  carried  oa  Bcuthen  is"  an  old  town, 
and  was  formerly  the  capital  of  tho  lordship  of  Beulheu, 
which  belonged  to  the  couiUs  of  Donnersmark.  It  is  •fre- 
quently called  Ober  Beuthen  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
following. 

BEUTHEN,  or  Nieder  Beuthen,  a  town  in  the 
government  of  Liegnitz,  in  Silesia,  on  the  Oder,  and  the 
capital  of  the  mediatized  principality  of  CarolathBeuthen. 
The  chief  industries  of  the  place  are  straw-plaiting,  boat- 
building, and  the  manufacture  of  pottery ;  and  a  con- 
siderable traffic  is  mrncd  on  by  means  of  the  river. 
Population  in  1871,  3S"26 

BEVERLEY,  a  market  and  borough  town  in  the  East 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  about  a  mile  from  the  River  Hull, 
with  which  it  communicates  by  means  of  a  canal  called  the 
Beverley  Beck  It  coasiists  principally  of  one  long  wide 
street,  upwards  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  terminated  by  an 
ancient  gateway  Tho  magnificent  collegiate  church  of  St 
John  is  in  size  and  splendour  superior  to  many  cathedrals. 
Having  been  erected  at  different  times  it  exhibits  various 
styles  of  Gothic  architecture  The  west  front  is  said  by 
liickman  to  be  the  finest  of  its  kind  in  England.  It  is  334 
feet  in  length  from  east  to  west ;  the  breadth  of  the  nave 
and  side  aisl*  is  6-t  feet  ;  the  transept  is  167  feet  long; 
and  the  two  towers  at  the  west  end  arc  200  feet  in  height 
One  of  its  most  remarkable  monuments  is  the  Percy  shrine. 
St  Mary's  church  is  also  an  exceedingly  handsome  and 
spacious  Gothic  building.  The  market-place,  which  com- 
prises an  area  of  nearly  4  acres,  is  ornamented  with  an 
octangular  market-cross.  Tho  grammar  school  is  of  great 
antiquity,  and  has  two  fellowships,  six  scholarships,  and 
three  exhibitions  at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  There 
are  several  national  and  two  infant  schools,  a  blue-coat 
school,  a  mechanics'  institute,  a  news-room,  several  banks,  a 
theatre,  a  jail,  and  a  cattle-markeL  There  is  a  large  trade  in 
grain,  timber,  and  coal  The  tanning  of  leather  is  the 
principal  industry  ;  but  there  are  also  several  important 
nianufactories  of  agricultural  implements  and  of  artificial 
manures,  as  well  as  whiting-fa"tories,  corn  and  linseed  mills, 
and  breweries  and  malt-kilna.  It  formerly  rerun  ed  two 
membcra  to  parliament,  but  was  disfranchised  in  1870. 
Population  of  municipal  borough  in  1871,  10,218. 

BEVERIvEY,  a  seaport  of  Massachusetts  in  the  United 
Stales,  situated  on  a  branch  of  Ann  Harbour,  and  connected 
with  Salem  by  a  bridge  built  in  1788  It  is  IC  miles  N.E. 
of  Bcistob,  on  the  Eastern  Railway,  and  is  connected  with 
Gloucester  by  a  branch  line.  The  principal  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  shoes;  and  a  considerable  number  of  people 
are  employed  in  the  coasting  trade  and  fisheries  Popula- 
tion in  1870,  6507 

BEVERLEY,  John  of,  a  celebrated  prelate,  who 
flourished  during  the  7th  and  8th  centuries,  was  born  at 
Harpham  in  Norlhumbria.  He  received  hi?  education  at 
Canterbury,  and  after  his  return  to  the  north  was  the 
instructor  of  the  Venerable  Bedo.  In  685  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Hagolstad  or  Hexham,  and  two  years  later  was 
promoted  to  the  archbishopric  of  York.  He  resigned  his 
see  in  717,  and  retired  to  a  college  which  he  had  founded 
some  years  before  at  Beverley,  where  he  died  in  721.  He 
was  celebrated  for  his  scholarship  as  well  a.s  for  bis  virtues. 
The  following  works  are  ascnbtd  to  him  : — Pro  Luca 
Exjxinentio  (an  expoHitiun  of  Luke),  lloviiliix  in  EvangeHa  ; 
EpUtolce  ad  Herebaldum,  Audenam,  et  Berlinvm  ;  Epistolae 
ad  lloldam  abbatiuam. 


BETWPLEY,  a  market  and  borough  t^wn  in  the  parish 
of  Ribbesford,  in  the  county  of  Worcester,  12U  miles  from 
London,  on  the  Severn  Valley  Railway.  It  is  well  budt, 
and  stands  on  an  eminence  near  the  River  Severn,  over 
which  there  is  an  elegant  bridge,  erected  in  1797.  It  has 
a  town  hall,  a  free  grammar  school,  and  several  charities  , 
'  and  manufactures  combs,  brass  and  iron  wares,  leather,  and 
malt.  It  returns  one  member  to  parliament  Population  of 
parliamentary  borough  in  1871,  7614. 

Bewdley,  or,  as  it  was  formerly  called,  Beoulieu,  was  a  place  of 
sunie  importance  io  the  13th  century,  ami  had  the  right  of  fcaiic- 
tuary  tor  those  who  eheJ  blood.  Henry  Vkl.  built  a  ]>al0ce  in  Ih« 
town  for  his  son  Arthur,  who  was  married  then  by  proxy  to  Cathe* 
fine  of  Aragon  ;  but  no  remains  of  the  building,  which  was  greally 
injured  during  the  wars  of  the  17th  century,  can  now  be  traeed. 
The  town,  which  was  incorporated  by  Edward  IV.,  fornietly  be- 
longed to  the  Marches  of  Wales,  but  was  assigned  to  Worccaler- 
shire  by  Henry  VIII. 

BEWICK,  TuoMAS,  who  may  be  considered  as  the 
reviver  of  wood-engraving  in  England,  was  born  at  Cherry- 
bum,  near  Newcastle  on-Tyne,  in  August  1753.  His  father 
rented  a  small  colliery  at  Mickleybank,  and  sent  his  son 
to  school  at  Mickley.  He  proved  a  poor  scholar,  but 
showed,  at  a  very  early  age,  a  remarkable  talent  for 
drawing.  He  had  no  tuition  in  the  art,  and  no  models 
save  natural  objects.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  wa.i 
apprenticed  to  Mr  Beilby,  an  engraver  in  Newcastle.  In 
his  office  Bewick  engraved  on  wood  for  Dr  Hutlon  a  series 
of  diagrams  illustrating  a  treatise  on  mensuration.  He 
seems  thereafter  to  have  devoted  himself  entirely  to 
engraving  on  wood,  and  in  1775  he  received  a  premium 
from  tho  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts  and 
Manufactures  for  a  woodcut  of  the  "  Huntsman  and  the 
Old  Hound."  In  1784  appeared  his  Select  Fables,  the 
engravings  in  which,  thoygh  far  surpassed  by  his  later 
productions,  were  incomparably  superior  to  anything  that 
had  yet  been  done  in  that  line.  The  Quadrupeds  appcuted 
in  1790,  and  his  great  achievement,  that  with  which  his 
name  is  inseparaHy  associated,  the  British  Birds,  waa 
published  from  17.7-1804.  Bewick,  from  his  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  habits  of  animals  acquired  during  his 
constant  excursions  into  the  country,  was  thoroughly 
qualified  to  do  justice  to  his  great  task.  Of  his  other 
productions  the  engravings  for  Goldsmith's  Traveller  and 
Deserted  Village,  for  Parnell's  Uerirtit,  for  Somerville's 
Chase,  and  for  the  collection  of  Fables  of  jEsop  and  others, 
may  be  specially  mentioned.  Bewick  was  for  many  years 
in  partnership  with  his  former  master,  and  in  later  life  had 
numerous  pupils,  several  of  whom  gained  distinction  as 
engravers.  He  died  on  tho  8th  November  1828.  His 
autobiography  (Memoirs  of  Thomas  Bewick,  by  Uimutf, 
8vo,  London)  appeared  in  1862. 

BEYLE,  Marie-Henri,  better  known  as  De  Stendhal, 
the  most  celebrated  of  his  many  noms  de  plume,  waa  born 
at  Grenoble  on  tho  23d  January  1783.  His  father  was  an 
avocat  at  the  parliament  of  Grenoble,  and  his  family,  though 
not  noble,  was  of  good  descent.  His  early  education  was 
conducted  mainly  by  priests,  who  seem  to  have  misunder 
stood  his  very  peculiar  character,  and  for  whom  he  ever 
afterwards  entertained  a  profound  aversion  and  contempt. 
At  the  age  of  twelve  he  was  scut  to  the  Ecolc  Centrale, 
newly  established  at  Grenoble,  and  continued  in  attendance 
for  four  A  cars,  during  which  time  he  distinguished  himself 
in  all  his'  studios  In  1799  he  was  preparing  to  become  a 
candidate  for  the  6cole  Polytechnique  when  his  plans  were 
disturbed  by  an  offer  from  M.  Dam,  a  distant  relative,  of 
some  appointment  connected  with  the  ministry  for  war. 
In  the  following  year  he  accompanied  M.  Daru  to  Milan,  on 
the  chance  of  some  suitable  post  offering  itself.  He  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  Marengo ;  and  carried  away, 
apparently,   by   the    miUlary    enthusiasm    consequent    on 


6--2 


B  E  Y  —  B  t:.  Y 


Napolton's   brilliant    victories,   he   suddenly   enlisted    aa 
quartermaster  ia  3  dragoon  regitnent.     In  a  month's  time 
he  was  made  eutlieutenant,  and  for  about  a  year  and  a 
half  acted  as  aide-de-camp  to  General  Michaud.     But  the 
routine  of  garrison  life,  to  which  he  was  soon  afterwards 
condemned,  made  him  heanJy  tired  of  a  military  career. 
On  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Amaens  (1802)  he  threw 
up  his  commission,  and  went  to  reside  with  his  family  at 
Grenoble.     From  them  he  obtained  means  to  take  up  his 
abode  in  Paris,  where  for  some  time  he  continued  to  devote 
himself  to  study  and  literary  work.     In  1805  he  suddenly 
accepted    a   situation  as  clerk    in  a  mercantile  house   at 
Marseilles,  and  remained  there  nearly  a  year, — in  fact,  till 
the  actress,  for  whose  sake  he  had  taken  this  curious  step, 
married  a  wealthy  Russian.     In  the  following  year  he  again 
accompanied  M.  Daru  into  Germany,  and  was  appointed  to 
superintend  the  possessions  of  the  emperor  in  Brunswick. 
Whatever  German  he  learnt  there  was  afterwards  completely 
forgotten.     In  his  official  capacity  as  connected  with  the 
commissariat  he  took  part  in  the  ill-fated  Russian  campaign 
of   1812,  and  remained  loyal  to  the  fallen  emperor.     He 
declined  to  lay  himself  out  for  employment  under  the  new 
regime,  and  retired  to  Milan,  where  he  resided  till  1821. 
His  early  works,  chiefly  on  painting  and  music,  date  from 
this  period  of  his  life.     The  Lettres  Icritea  de  Vienne  our 
Haydn,  euivies  d'une  Vie  de  Mozaii,  dc,  which  appeared  in 
1814  under  the  pseudonym  of  Alexandre  C^sar  Bombet, 
were  mainly  plagiarised  from  Carpani.     With  some  slight 
alterations  the  work  was  reproduced  in  1817  as   Vic5  de 
Haydn,    Mozart,    et    Mctastaae.       In    the   same   year   he 
published,  under  various  assumed  names,  Histoire  de  la 
Peinture    en     Italie,    which    contains    some    good    but 
unsystematic  criticism,  and    Rome,  Naples,  et  Florence  en 
1817.     In  1821  he  was  compeUed  to  return  to  France,  an 
unfounded  suspicion   that  he   was  a  French   spy  having 
somehow  arisen  at  Milan.     During  the  following  nine  years 
he  resided  at  Paris,  and  gradually  began  to  acquire  his  high 
reputation  as  an  acconplished  litterateur  and  man  of  the 
world.     He  was  an  admirable  talker  and  full  of  anecdote, 
which  in  his  opinion  ought  to  form  the  staple  of  conversa- 
tion.    His  fine   analytic   powers   were  displayed   to   full 
advantage   in   the  curious  work,  De   VAmour,  which   he 
published  in  1 822,  but  the  book  did  not  find  an  appreciative 
audience.     The  Vie  de  Rossini,  which  followed,  was  more 
successful ;  and  the  pamphlet  Racine  et  Shakespeare  did 
good  service  for  the  cause  of  Romanticism  in  its  struggle 
with  the  rigid  classical  canons  of  older  French  literature.    In 
1829  appeared  his  Promenades  dans  Rome,  fuU  of  informa- 
tion, criticism,  and   original   observation,   but   somewhat 
chaotic  in  form.     He  was  appointed  consul  at  Trieste  in 
1830,  and  three  years  later  he  quitted  that  place  with  the 
greatest  joy  for  a  similar  post  at  Civita  Veccbia.     There 
he    remained    till    1841,    with    frequent    ab.sences,   one 
extending  from  1836  to  1839,  during   which  he  paid  a 
short  visit  to  London.    In  1841  his  health  gave  way,  and  he 
returned  to  Paris,  where  he  died  on  the  22d  March  1842. 

Beyle,  during  his  lifetinie,  was  known  to  liut  a  very  small  circle 
nf  readers  ;  within  the  last  twenty  years,  however,  his  popularity 
has  greatly  incrc-xfied,  and  his  mai.y  fine  powers  have  received  due 
r«cognition.  It  is  not  probable  that  he  will  ever  have  a  very  ex- 
tended influence;  his^writingsare  "caviare  to  the  general,"  and  can 
only  be  appreciated  by  those  qualified  to  talce  plea.iure  in  the  cynical 
reflections  of  mere  epotism.  For  Beyle's  philosophical  creed,  so  far 
as  he  can  be  said  to  iiave  had  one,  was  materialism,  and  Iiis  ideal 
of  humanity  sesthetirally  refined  selfishness.  His  strength  lay  in 
keen  criticism  and  in  acute  psychological  analysis,  qualities  which 
gave  value  to  his  writings  on  art,  but  debarred  him  from  success  in 
the  department  of  fiction.  His  principal  novels,  Le  Range  et  le 
'  Voir,  and  La  Chartreuse  de  Parme,  fell  comparatively  dead,  though 
;he  latter  was  re-joived  with  extravagant  eulogy  by  Balzac,  and  lias 
recently  become  more  popular.  His  genius  was  too  analytic  to  be 
"Uitcd  for  romance  writings  ;  the  novels  want  consistency  of  pint 
•  'id  nioUvc  power  in  the  characters.     La  Clutrtreuse,  however,  the 


best  of  them,  givcs  an  adm....ule  picture  of  the  involved  intrignes 
of  a  small  Italian  court,  a  subject  with  which  Beyle  was  specially 
qualified  to  deal.  The  peculiar  value  of  all  his  writings  coEsi3t.a 
in  the  amount  of  thinking  which  they  excite,  though  it  must  Lf 
confessed  that  the  subjects  are  frequently  unworthy  of  the  attention 
devoted  to  them.  The  fullest  account  of  Beyle  is  that  by  A.  A. 
Paton,  Henry  BeyU,  a  Critical  arid  Biographical  Study,  1874.  See 
also  Colomb's  prefaces  to  La  Chartreuse  and  the  Romans  et  Now- 
velles,  Merimee's  preface  to  the  Correspondance  InedUe,  and  Satnte- 
Beuve's  articles  in  the  Causenes  du  Lundi. 

BEYROUT,  Beirout,  or  Bairdt,  the  most  important 
seaport  town  of  Syna,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
in  the  pashalic  of  Acre,  57  miles  W.N.W.  of  Damascus. 
It  IS  situated  on  rising  ground  on  the  northern  side  of 
the  promontory  of  the  Jebel-er-Rosheh,  which  forms  the 
spacious  bay  of  St  George's,  a  short  distance  to  the  west 
of  the  mouth  of  a  stream  to  which  it  gives  its  name — Nahr- 
Beinit,  the  ancient  Magoras.  The  surrounding  hiUs  consist 
of  reddish  sand,  interspersed  with  rocks,  and  covered  with  a 
hght  soil  The  roadstead  to  the  N.E.  of  the  town  is 
sheltered  from  the  S.W.  wind,  but  is  eiposed  to  the  W. 
and  the  N.W.  The  ancient  harbour  is  now  choked  up, 
and  aU  that  remains  of  the  artificial  erections  is  a  pier  or 
causeway  at  the  N.W.  extremity  of  the  town,  at  which 
boats  can  discharge.  It  is  supported  on  arches  of  unequal 
sizi,  and  is  partly  constructed  of  ancient  marble  columns, 
many  of  which  still  stand  a'ong  its  front,  and  are  used  for 
mooring  the  lesser  vessels.  In  1874  the  authorities 
determined  to  construct  a  small  harbour,  and  £10,000  was 
allotted  for  the  purpose.  The  city  proper  is  an  irregular 
square,  open  towards  the  sea,  and  surrounded  on  the  land 
sides  by  a  substantial  tower-flanked  wall,  built  by  Djezzat 
Pasha.  At  the  N.W.  corner  are  two  castellated  buildings, 
buUt  on  the  rocks.  The  streets  are  wider  than  is  usual  in 
Syrian  towns,  and  are  paved  with  large  stones ;  the  houses 
are  for  the  most  part  lofty  and  spacious.  Formerly,  ther? 
were  deep  channels  of  water  flowing  down  the  middle  ot 
the  streets,  but  these  have  been  removed.  The  suburbs 
of  the  city,  which  extend  around  it  with  a  radius  of  a  milo 
and  a  half,  are  beautifully  situated,  iotersperscd  with 
gardens,  and  planted  with  fruit  trees.  During  the  hot 
season  the  wealthier  inhabitants  remove  inland  to  the 
villages  of  Beit-Miry,  Brumanah,  or  Shemlin,  on  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  Lebanon.  Besides  the  mosques,  bazaars, 
and  other  native  buildings  with  which  it  is  provided,  the 
city  of  Beyrout  possesses  numerous  European  edifices  and 
institutions.  There  are  six  Roman  Catholic  convents  or 
monasteries,  with  churches  and  schools  attached,  and  the 
sisters  of  eharity  maintain  an  orphanage  and  hospital. 
The  Prussians  support  a  well-organized  school,  under  the 
managemjnt  of  a  Protestant  sisterhood,  and  the  American 
missionaries  have,  among  other  establishments,  a  hospital 
and  medi  ;al  school.  A  girl's  school  was  begun  in  1860  by 
Mrs  Thompson,  and  a  ragged  school  in  1863.  A  native 
Christian  communaity  has  been  for  some  time  in  existence ; 
and  in  1847  a  native  society  of  arts  and  sciences  was 
established.  Formerly  regarded  as  the  port  of  Damascus, 
Beyrout  has  now  become  by  far  the  more  important  of  the 
two  cities.  It  is  the  seat  of  various  consular  establish- 
ments, and  possesses  a  quarantine,  a  custom-house,  and 
post-oflices.  It  exports  sUk,  wool,  bitumen,  rags,  sponges, 
and  skins,  and  imports  European  goods  for  a  large  part 
of  Syria.  In  1871  the  value  of  the  exports,  which  were 
destined  chiefly  for  Franco  and  England,  was  £530,000 ; 
while  that  of  the  imports,  which  were  mainly  from  Eng- 
land and  Germany,  amounted  to  £1,240,000.  The 
coasting  trade,  carried  on  by  ?mall  native  craft,  consists 
principally  of  timber,  firewood,  charcoal,  and  straw.  A 
lighthouse,  98  feet  high,  was  erected  in  1664  on  the 
neighbouring  capo  of  Ras  Beyrout.  A  carriage  road  was 
constructed  by  a  French  company  about  18C3,  connect- 
ing Beyrout   with  Damascus.     An  English  company  com- 


B  E  Z— 15  E  Z 


823 


plf-tcd  in  1874  an  citensive  system  of  water-worKs,  by 
wkich  a  largf  sUpply  is  brought  from  the  Nahr-el-Kelb  (the 
I^og  River  or  Lycua),  a  distance  of  9  miles  j  the  aqueduct 
IS  takea  at  one  place  through  a  tunnel  1040  yards  long, 
and  the  water  is  brought  to  two  reservoirs  at  the  entrance 
of  the  town,  each  of  a  capacity  of  110,000  cubic  feet; 
public  fountains,  barracks,  and  mosques  are  supplied  free 
of  charge.  The  population  is  of  a  various  character, 
comprising  Druses,  Maronitcs,  Greeks,  Turks,  Arabs,  and 
other  races  or  nationalities.  It  was  greatly  increased 
about  1860  by  an  immigration  of  Christian  natives  who 
had  fled  from  persecution  in  Mount  Lebanon,  Hasbeya,  and 
Damascus.  Estimated  at  only  1 5,000  in  1838,  the  number 
of  inhabitants  had  risen  in  1871  to  70,000. 

Di-yrout  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and  may  perhaps  be  iden- 
U6ed  with  tlie  Berothah  of  t)ie  Piitjenicians.  For  a  time  at  least  it 
was  under  the  suprenmcy  of  Sidon.  Destroyed  by  Trypho,  the 
Syrian  usurper,  about  140  bc,  it  was  restored  by  the  elder  Aprippa 
almut  41  A.D.,  raised  to  t)ie  rauk  of  a  Roman  colony,  and  eoorned 
with  an  amphitheatre  and  various  splendid  buildiuga.  In  the  3d 
century  it  became  the  scat  of  a  achool  of  jurisprudence,  which  long 
maintained  its  reputation,  and  was  attended  by  several  eminent 
men.  During  the  reign  of  Justinian,  in  fact,  Beyrout  was  the  only 
place  in  the  f  mpire,  except  Rome  and  CoDStantino|^le,  where  law  was 
permitted  to  be  taught,  and  of  the  three  the  Syrian  school,  under 
the  management  of  Theophilus  and  Dorotheus,  appears  to  have 
tlood  highest  in  general  estimation.  But  the  injury  inflicted  on 
the  city  by  an  earthquake  m  .^51  led  to  the  removal  of  the  school 
to  Sidon.  and  not  long  after  the  building  in  which  it  had  been  held 
was  totally  consumed  by  6re.  In  the  time  of  the  Crusades  Beyrout 
again  rose  into  importance,  and  was  captured  by  Baldwin  I.  in  111  1, 
after  a  two  months'  siege.  Early  In  the  !7th  century  it  became  a 
chief  seat  of  the  Druses,  who  retained  their  possession  till  17C3,when 
it  wag  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  In  1772  it  was  bom- 
barded and  plundered  by  a  Russi.nn  fleet,  and  in  1840  it  waa  nearly 
destroyed  by  the  attack  of  the  English  under  Admiral  Stopford. 

BEZA,  Tdeodore,  or  more  correctly  De  Bfe;?E,  was  born 
8t  Vezolai  in  Burgundy  on  the  24th  July  ITilO.  His 
family  wls  of  good  descent,  and  hLs  parents  were  noted  for 
their  piety  and  genei-osity.  While  an  infant  lie  was 
adopted  by  his  uncle,  Nicholas  de  Beza,  a  counsellor  of  the 
parliament  of  Paris,  who  took  his  nephew  to  live  with  him, 
and  superintended  his  educaticn  with  the  greatest  care. 
At  the  age  of  ten  he  was  put  under  the  tuition  of  Melchior 
Wolmar,  a  German,  who  resided  at  Orleans.  Beza  studied 
under  him  for  seven  years  at  Orleans  and  at  Bourges,  and 
from  him  received  the  impulse  which  guided  his  after  life. 
Wolmar,  who  was  an  excellent  scholar,  belonged  to  the 
Reformed  Church,  and  his  pupil  not  only  learned  from  him 
the  principles  of  the  Reformed  faith,  but  acquired  the 
habit  of  diligent  and  critical  study  of  Scripture.  After  the 
return  of  Wolmar  to  Germany  in  1535,  Beza  with  great 
reluctance  departed  for  Orleans  in  order  to  begin  the  study 
of  law.  His  tasks  lay  altogether  in  the  direction  of  classics 
and  poetry,  and  to  this  period  of  Iiis  life  must  be  referred 
the  composition  of  many  of  the  licentious  poems,  the 
publication  of  which  cost  him  so  much  regret,  and  has 
brought  upon  him  such  calumny.  After  four  years  he 
obtained  the  degree  of  licentiate  in  hw,  and  leaving  Orleans, 
took  up  his  abode  in  Paris.  He  was  young,  ardent,  and 
poetical,  of  high  rank,  surrounded  with  friends,  and  amply 
supplied  with  funds, — for,  though  he  was  not  in  orders,  ho 
enjoyed  the  proceeds  of  two  benefices.  It  waa  small  wonder 
that  under  these  circumstances  he  should  have  jielded  to 
the  temptations  of  Paris,  and  have  eagerly  seized  the 
pleasures  that  presented  themselves.  But  the  extent  of 
bis  dissipation  has  been  enormously  exaggerated;  more 
finrticularly  has  his  connection  with  the  woman  whom  he 
afterwards  married  been  the  occasion  of  calumny  and  mis- 
representation. A  severe  illness  at  last  recalled  to  his 
mind  the  teachings  of  his  old  master  Wolmar,  and  brought 
clearly  before  him  the  contrast  his  conduct  presented  to 
thftm      Immediately  on  his  recovery,  in  October  1548,  ho 


retired  to  Geneva,  publicly  fulfilled  his  promise  to  marry 
the  woman  with  whom  he  had  formerly  lived,  and  joined 
the  Reformed  Church.  In  the  following  year  he  was  mada 
professor  of  Greek  at  the  academy  of  Lausanne,  where  he 
remained  for  ten  years,  communicating  frequently  with 
Calvin  at  Geneva.  During  this  time  he  completed  Clement 
Marot's  French  translation  of  the  Psalms,  and  began  the 
extended  labours  on  the  New  Testament,  which  resulted 
in  his  famous  translation  and  commentary.  His  venera- 
tion for  Calvin,  already  great,  was  strengthened  by  closer 
intercourse ;  he  vigorously  defended  the  execution  of 
Servetus ;  and  in  1558  he  gladly  removed  to  Geneva. 
He  was  ajipointed  professor  of  Greek  in  the  academy,  and 
assisted  Calvin  in  his  theological  lectures.  Soon  by  his 
vigorous  teaching,  his  numeroiu  writings,  and  his  success 
in  foreign  embassies,  he  came  to  be  looked  upon,  as  the 
most  prominent  man  in  the  church  of  Geneva  next  to 
Calvin  ;  and  after  the  death  of  the  latter  in  15G4,  he  waa 
nominated  his  successor' as  teacher  of  theology,  and  gene- 
rally recognized  as  the  leader  of  the  Calvinist  party.  His 
enormous  activity  enabled  him  not  only  to  manage  the 
internal  afifairs  of  the  church,  and  to  carry  on  the  important 
negotiations  ■  with  France  and  other  powers,  but  also  to 
compose  several  theological  works  of  considerable  value. 
Old  age  did  not  rob  him  of  his  energy;  for  in  1597  he 
was  able  to  give  a  satirical  refutation  of  the  story  sprctd 
about  by  the  Roman  Catholics  that  he  had  apostatized  on 
his  death-bed.  He  resigned  aU  his  official  functions  in 
IGOO,  and  died  on  the  13th  October  1605,  at  the  advanced 
age  of  86. 

Beza'a  works  were  very  numerous,  and  some  of  them,  such  as 
Ilistoire  u^Usutstiquc  cUs  i^lises  riformUs  du  royaume  di  Francf, 
Ctmfessio,  Tractaliorus  Theologian,  are  still  of  value.  His  reput.i- 
tion,  however,  rested,  and  still  perhaps  rests,  on  his  editions  and 
translations  of  the  New  Testament,  which  did  much  for  the  cau.se 
of  the  Reformation.  See  Schlosser,  Leben  dei  Tluodor  JSesa,  etc, 
18(W  ;  Raum,  Theodor  Beia,  2  vols.,  1S4.3-51  (incomplete).  A 
biography  of  him  was  written  by  one  of  his  favounle  pupils, 
AiittMiie  La  Faye. 

BEZIERS,  a  city  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Hiirault,  the  capital  of  an  arrondisseinent  of  the  same 
name.  It  is  beautifully  situated  on  a  hill,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  River  Orbe,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Langueduc 
canal,  38  miles  S.W.  of  Montpellier.  It  is  surrounded  by 
old  walls  flanked  with  towers,  round  which  is  a  promenade 
planted  with  trees,  and  has  a  fine  ol'd  Gothic  cathedral. 
Saint  Nazaire,  dating  from  the  12th,  13th,  and  14  th 
centuries,  several  churches,  an  old  episcopal  palace,  now 
used  for  the  Government  offices,  aicommunal  college,  ait 
agricultural  society,  a  theatre,  and  a  public  library.  It  manu- 
factures silk  stockings,  starch,  gloves,  brandy,  confectionery, 
paper,  leather,  and  gfass,  and  has  a  considerable  trade.  B^ziers 
is  of  great  antiquity,  and  has  the  remains  of  an  amphi- 
theatre, a  causeway  across  the  marsh  of  Cap-estang,  and 
other  Roman  works.  The  Romans  established  a  colony 
there,  and  it  was  the  headquarters  of  ihe  ssvcnth  legion, 
under  the  title  of  Biilerra  Scptimatiorum.  The  present  name 
occurs  in  the  form  Bcsara  as  early  as  Festua  Avicnus 
(5th  or  6th  century).  The  town  was  completely  destjoycd 
in  1209  by  the  forces  of  Simon  de  Montfort  in  the  crusade 
against  the  Albige«ses,  on  which  occasion  60,000  persons 
were  massacred.  The  walls  of  the  town  were  r»fcuilt  ia 
1 289  ;  but  it  again  suffered  severely  in  the  civil  and  reli- 
gious wars  of  the  16tb  century,  and  aM  its  fortifications 
were  destroyed  in  1632.       Population  in  1872,  30,067. 

BEZIQUE,  a  gome  at  cards  (probably  from  Sp.  btsieo, 
little  kiss,  in  allusion  to  the  meeting  of  the  queen  and 
knave,  an  important  feature  in  the  game).  There  is  a 
group  of  card  games  which  possess  many  features  in  com- 
mon. The  oldest  of  these  is  manage,  then  fnUow  brua- 
guemhiUe,  I'homme  di  brou,  britcan  or  briaqtie,  and  diiq-ccius. 


624 


B  E  Z  1 


B^ique  (also  called  besi  and  Irsif/ue)  appears  to  have  been 
founded  on  these;  it  is,  in  fact,  brisque  played  with  a 
double  pack,  and  with  certain  modificatioDs  rendered  neces- 
sary by  the  introduction  of  additional  cards. 

In  playing  Wzique,  two  packs  of  cards  from  which  the  twos, 
threea,  fours,  fives,  and  sfxt-a  have  been  rejected,  are  shutlled  to- 
gether and  used  as  one.  The  packs  should  have  backs  similarly 
coloured  or  ornamented. 

The  players  cut  for  deal,  and  the  highest beeique  card  deals.  Tho 
cards  rank  as  follows :— Ace,  ten,  king,  queen,  knave,  nine,  eight, 
seven. 

The  non-dealer  cuts  the  pack  to  the  dealer,  who  reunites  the 
separated  packets,  and  deals  three  cards  to  his  adversary,  three  to 
himself,  then  two  to'each,  and  again  three  to  each.  The  top  card 
of  those  remaining  {called  tho  stock)  is  turned  up  for  trumps.  The 
stock  is  placed  face  downwards  between  the  players,  and  sliglitly 
spread.  The  players  then  take  up  the  cards  dealt  to  them,  and  the 
non-dealer  plays  any  card  out  of  his  hand,  and  the  dealer  plays  a 
card  to  it  from  his  hand,  the  two  cards  thus  played  constituting  a 
trick.  There  is  no  restriction  as  to  the  card  to  be  played;  the 
second  player  need  not  follow  suit,  nor  win  the  trick.  If  he  wins 
the  trick  by  playing  a  higher  card  of  the  suit  led,  or  a  trump,  the 
load  falls  to  him.  In  case  of  ties  the  leader  wins.  Whoever  wins 
the  trick  leads  to  the  next ;  but  before  playing  again  each  player 
takes  a  card  frcrtn  the  stock,  and  adds  it  to  his  hand,  the  winner  of 
the  trick  taking  the  top  card  of  those  face  downwards,  and  his 
adversary  the  next  card.  This  alternate  playing  and  drawing  a 
card  each  continuea  nntil  tho  stock  (including  tae  trump  card  or 
card  exchanged  for  it,  which  is  taken  up  last)  is  exhausted.  The 
tricks  remain  face  upwards  on  the  t^ble,  but  must  not  be  searched 
during  the  play  of  the  hand. 

The  objects  of  the  play  are — 1.  To  promote  in  the  hand  various 
■combinations  of  cards,  which  when  declared  entitle  the  holder  to 
certain  scores;  2.  To  win  aces  and  tens;  3.  To  win  the  ao-caWcd 
iast  trick. 

A  declaration  can  only  be  made  by  the  winner  of  a  trick  imme- 
diately after  he  has  won  it,  and  before  he  draws  from  the  stock.  It 
U  effected  by  placing  the  declared  cards  (one  of  which  at  least  mnst 
not  have  been  declared  before)  face  upwards  on  the  table.  Declared 
cards  are  left  face  up  on  the  table  ;  but  they  still  form  part  of  the 
hand,  and  can  be  led  or  played  just  as  though  they  had  not  been 
declared.  A  player  is  not  bound  to  declare,  although  he  may  win 
a  trick  and  hold  scoring  cards.  A  card  led  or  played  cannot  be 
declared.  More  than  one  declaration  may  he  made  to  one  trick, 
provided  no  card  of  one  combination  forms  part  of  another  that  is 
declared  with  it.  Thus  four  knaves  and  a  marriage  (see  table  of 
ftv:orea)  may  be  declared  at  the  same  time  ;  but  a  player  cannot  de- 
clare king  and  queen  of  spades  and  knave  of  diamonds  together  to 
score  marriage  and  b^zique  with  those  three  cards.  He  must  first 
declare  one  combination,  say  b^zique ;  and  when  he  wins  another 
trick  he  can  score  marriage  by  declaring  the  king.  A  decliratiou 
cannot  be  made  of  cards  that  have  already  all  been  dclan^d.  Thoa, 
if  four  knaves  (one  being  a  b^zique  knave),  and  four  qceons  (one  be- 
ing a  b^zinue  queen)  have  been  decl.ired»  the  knavo  and  quocn 
already  declared  cannot  he  declared  again  as.bezique.  To  eccre  all 
the  combinations  with  these  cards,  after  the  knaves  are  declared 
and  another  trick  won,  bezique  must  next  be  mode,  after  which,  on 
winniag  another  trick,  the  three  queens  can  be  added,  and  four 
5UC0US  scored.  Again,  if  a  se<jucnce  in  trumja  ia  declared,  marriage 
of  the  king  and  nueen  on  the  table  cannot  afterwards  take  jtlace. 
To  score  both,  the  marriage  should  be  declared  first,  and  after  win- 
ning another  trick  tho  remaining  sequence  cards  should  Iw  added. 
Lastly,  a  card  once  declared  can  only  be  used  again  in  declaring  in 
combinations  of  a  dilfcrent  class.  Kor  example  :  the  btizique  queen 
can  bo  declared  in  Wzique,  marriage,  and  foiir  queens  ;  but  having 
once  been  declarod  \ix  single  bezique,  she  caunot  form  part  of 
another  ein^lo  bezique  ;  having  bi'cn  married  once,  she  caimot  be 
married  again  ;  and  having  taken  part  in  one  set  of  four  queens, 
•bp  cannot  take  part  in  another. 

The  seven  of  trumps  may  bo  cither  dwl.ircd  or  exchanged  for 
thft  tum-up  after  winning  a  trick,  and  before  dr.T.wing.  When  ex- 
changed, the  turn-up  is  taken  into  tlic  player's  hand,  and  the  seven 
put  in  itd  plnco.  Tiie  second  seven  is,  of  course,  declared,  as  it 
would  be  absurd  to  exchange  one  seven  for  another.  A  seven  when 
declared  is  not  left  on  the  tabic,  but  is  simply  shown. 

Tahlt  of  Btsiquc  Scores. 

Srven  of  trumps,^  turned  up,  dealer  marks 10 

Seven  oftniwpSt  declared  ^cxcuangcd,  player  marks...  10 

Afarruvje  (king  and  queen  of  any  r.uit)  declared 20 

Hoijai  marriage  (king  and  queen  of  trumps)  declared ^0 

'  Some  players  do  not  turn  up  a  card  for  trumps,  but  make  the 
Irwiip  suit  dci>cnd  on  tho  first  ^parri^qo  dochrcd.  The  turning  up 
x\M  i«  tho  bc^t. 


QUE 

Bizique^  (queen  of  spades  and  knave  of  diamonds)  de- 
clared  .,  <o 

Double  benque^  (all  the  four  bezique  cards)  declared.  ^I'W 

Four  aces  (any  four,  whether  dupliealos  or  not),  declar«-d  luu 

/■(jfir  irm^s  (any  four)  declared «o 

Four  ^u^TW  (any  four)  declared ., oo 

/"aiw  X-TMr&s  (any  four)  declared ...  40      " 

Sequence  (ace,  ten,   king,  queen,   knave  of-  trumps)  de- 
clared.     2.^1* 

Aces  and  it-Tts,*  in  tricks,  the  winner  for  each  one  marks  19 

Last  trick,^  the  winner  marks l(j 

The  winner  of  the  last  trick  can  declare  anything  in  his  hana 
(subject  to  the  limitations  with  regard  to  declaring  already  ex 
pUiued).  After  this  all  declarations  cease.  The  winner  of  the  last 
tiick  takes  the  last  card  of  the  stock,  and  the  loser  the  turn  up 
card  {or  seven  exchanged  for  it).  All  cards  on  the  table,  that  havt 
been  declared  and  not  played,  are  taken  up  by  their  owuers.  Tht 
last  eight  tricks  are  then  played,  but  the  rules  of  play  alter.  The 
winner  of  the  last  trick  leads.  The  second  player  must  follow  suit 
if  able,  and  must  win  the  trick  if  able,  and  if  not  able  to  fuUow 
suit,  ho  must  win  the  trick  if  he  can  by  trumping.  The  winner  ol 
tho  trick  leads  to  the  next.  The  tricks  are  only  valuable  for  llu 
aces  and  tens  they  may  contain,  if  a  player  revokes  in  the  Usi 
eight  tricks,  or  does  not  win  tho  card  led,  if  able,  the  last  eigh* 
tricks  belong  to  his  adversary. 

When  a  deal  is  over,  the  non-dealer  in  the  previous  hand  deals, 
and  so  on  alternately  until  tlie  g:ime  ia  won  by  one  of  the  players 
reaching  1000.  All  the  scores  are  reckoned  by  tens,  but  there  is  no 
reason  why  they  should  not  be  reckoned  by  units,  tho  game  in  that 
case  bcin^  100  up.  The  score  may  be  kept  by  means  of  a  b^^iqut 
board  and  pegs,  or  by  a  numbered  dial  and  band,  or  by  counters. 

Penalties.  —  If  the  dealer  gives  too  few  cards  the  number  n)u3t 
bo  completed  from  tho  stock,  or  the  non-doaler,  not  having  louked 
at  his  cards,  may  have  a  fresh  de^l. 

If  the  dealer  gives  his  adversary  too  many  cards  the  player  who 
has  too  many  must  not  draw  until  his  number  is  reduced  to  seven 

If  the  dealer  gives  himself  too  many  cards  the  non-dealer  may 
draw  the  surplus  fcards  and  add  them  to  the  stock,  unless  the  dealer 
has  looked  at  his  hand,  when  he  is  liable  to  the  penalty  for  playing, 
with  nine  cards  (infTo). 

A  card  exposed  in  dealing  gives  tho  adversary  the  option  of  a 
fresh  deal. 

If  a  player  draws  out  of  his  .turn,  and  the  adversary  discovers  tht. 
error  before  he  draws,  he  may  add  20  to  his  score,  or  deduct  20  from 
his  adversary's. 

If  the  winner  of  a  trick  when  drawing  lifts  two  cards,  the  adver- 
sary may  have  them  exposed,  and  take  his  choice.  If  the  loser  of  a 
trick  lifts  two  cards,  the  adversary  may  look  at  the  one  improperly 
lilted,  and  at  the  next  draw  that  card  and  the  next  are  turned  face 
up,  and  the  player  not  in  fault  has  his  choice  of  them. 

■If  a  player  plays  with  seven  cards  his  adversary  may  add  20  to 
his  own  Bcojv,  or  deduct  20  from  the  offender's.  The  player  with  s 
card  short  must  take  two  canU  at  his  next  draw. 

If  at  any  time  during  the  play  of  the  hand  one  player  is  found  to 
hold  nine  cards,  the  other  having  but  eight,  the  adversary  cf  the 
player  with  nine  cards  may  add  200  to  his  own  sccwe,  or  deduct  3*-)0 
irom  the  otfender'a.  The  player  with  nine  cards  must  play  to  the 
next  trick  without  drawing. 

There  is  no  penalty  at  two  handed  bezique  for  exposing  a  card 
from  the  hand,  or  fof  leading  out  of  turn,  At  three  or  four  handed 
bezique,  a  card  exposed  or  led  out  of  turn  must  remain  on  the  tabic, 
and  nothing  can  be  subsequently  declared  in  combination  with  it 

'  Wben  clubs  or  hearts  are  trumps,  the  Wziquo  cards  are  queen  o^ 
spades  and  knave  of  diamonds.  Wheu  sjjadcs  or  diamonds  are  trumps, 
tho  bezique  cards  are  queen  of  clubs  and  knave  of  hearts.  Some 
players  object  to  tins  oltoratiou,  but  it  is  a  great  improvomeiii  to  Uw 
gan^" 

'  If  single  Wiziquo  is  declared  first,  and  then  tho  two  other  bfiique 
cards  (uldcd,  600  is  scored  in  addition  to  the  40  alre.tdy  scored  ,  but  \t 
all  fnur  are  declared  together  only  600  can  ba  ei-ored,  and  not  &40. 

*  The  winner  of  a  trick  'conUunlng  two  aces  or  two  tens,  or  out  ol 
oarh.  of  course  marks  20  Tho  best  plan  is  to  score  aces  and  tens  im- 
mediately they  are  won  ;  but  some  players  only  score  them  at  the  end 
of  tho  band.  When  this  mode  is  adopted,  the  wmner  of  a  trick  cub- 
taininp  an  aco  or  ten  takes  the  tricks  ou  the  table  and  turns  them  fac* 
downwards  in  front  of  himself,  and  after  tho  baud  is  over  looks  through 
his  packet  to  ascertain  the  number  of  oces  and  lens  it  tont-'iins.  Wheo 
scoring  !n  this  way  it  occasiomilly  happens  tliat  both  players  con  score 
out.  in  whicli  case  precedence  is  given  to  tho  winner  of  tho  so-called 
last  trick. 

■The  so-called  last  trick  Is  tho  last  before  the  stock  is  exhausted. 
When  two  cards  of  the  stock,  vu  ,  tho  injinp  and  auothei  cnrd, 
remain  on  the  table,  the  pluyur  winning  the  tnrk  is  said  to  win  t)tt> 
last  trick,  ootwilbslanHiriy  thai  there  are  still  eight  trick*  to  bo 
playtxl 


B  E  Z  I  Q  U  E 


G25 


When  a  card  is  led  ©ut  cf  turn,  if  all  the  other  players  play  to  it, 
tlie  error  cannot  he  rectified.' 

Thkee  and  Four  Hanof.d  U£ziqt?e. —  WJtrn  three  play,  three 
j)ackaarfU3cd  together.  All  play  ngainst  each  ofrier.  The  dealer  deals 
tohia  left;  the  ]  "layer  first  dealt  to  nas  the  6rst  lead.  The  rotation  of 
dealincgoeatw  the  Jfft  A  second  double  b<:'/.iquo,  counting 600,  may 
be  decFared  to  a  bezique  on  the  table,  which  has  already  been  used  for 
double  b^ique.  Triple  btziqiie  scores  1500.  All  the  cards  of  the 
triple  b^que  must  be  on  the  table  at  the  same  time  and  unplayed 
to  a  trick.  All  may  be  dcclart-d  together,  or  a  double  btzique  may 
1«  adJed  to  a  ainglo  one,  or  a  third  beziquc  may  be  added  to  a 
double  bezique  alrraily  declared.  Th^  game  is  2000  up.  In  play- 
ing the  last  eight  tricks,  the  third  hand,  if  not  able  to  follow  suit, 
nor  to  win  the  tnck  by  truiuping,  may  throw  away  any  card  he 
pleases. 

When  four  play,  four  packs  are  shuffled  together  and  used  a<i  one. 
The  players  may  srore  independently,  or  they  may  play  as  partners. 
A  ?econJ  double  bezique  or  triple  bezique  may  be  scored  as  before  ; 
to  form  them  the  Wziques  may  be  declared  from  the  hand  of  either 
I»artner  A  player  may  declnre  wlicn  he  or  his  partner  Ukes  a 
thrk.  In  playing  the  last  eight  tricks,  the  winner  of  the  last  trick 
and  the  adversary  to  bis  left  play  their  cards  against  each  other, 
ami  then  tlie  other  two  similarly  play  theirs. 

Hint?  to  Players. — The  following  hints,  wliich  merely  touch 
on  the  elements  of  the  play,  may  assist  the  U'ginner  : — 

The  lend  is.  as  a  rule,  disadvantogeous.  Therefore  do  not  win  the 
triik  unless— (1)  you  want  to  declare  ;  or  ',2)  you  wish  to  mnke  an 
ace  or  ten  of  the  suit  led  ;  or  (3)  an  ace  or  a  ten  is  led  which  you 
desire  tn  win. 

SrvpMs,  eights,  and  nines  in  plain  suits  are  valueless.  In  trumps 
Ih^v  sbnuld  be  kept  to  ol»tain  the  lead  with.  It  is  very  important 
to  keep  one  small  trump  in  hand  if  possible.  Knares  also  are  of 
but  lililc  value  (except  Lczique  and  trump  knaves),  and  may  be 
thruwn  away  freely. 

It  19  of  more  importance  to  win  aces  anj  tens  or  to  make  tncks 
with  titera  than  at  tirst  sight  appears.  Experienced  players  prefer 
a  numWr  of  small  scores  to  sacrificing  them  for  the  chance  of  a 
large  one  Therefore  it  is  not  considered  good  play  as  a  rule  to  go 
lor  four  aces  unless  you  have  three,  and  are  in  no  difficulty  as  to 
your  plav.  Rather  make  tricks  with  the  acrs,  and  especially  capture 
lens  with  them.  Whenever  you  are  second  player,  and  can  win  a 
trick  with  a  ten,  take  it,  except  in  tnimps,  of  which  the  ten  is  kept 
for  si-quence. 

When  in  difficulties,  lead  an  ace  or  a  ten  in  preference  to  a  king 
or  qneon.  As  a  rule,  if  you  try  for  aces,  you  have  to  sacrifice  some 
other  score,  and  are  pretty  sure  to  lose  some  of  the  aces  after  declar* 
ing  thera. 

If  driven  to  lead  an  ace  or  a  ten,  and  your  opponent  does  not  win 
it.  Icaii  another. 

Endeavour  to  recollect  in  what  suits  the  aces  and  tens  have  been 
phiyed.  so  that,  when  leading,  you  may  choose  suita  of  which  the 
most  aces  and  tens  are  out.  Similarly,  if  vour  adversary  declares 
aces,  avoid  leading  the  suits  of  the  declared  aces  ;  and,  in  discard- 
ing, rrt:iin  those  caids  which  are  least  likely  to  be  taken  by  aces 
and  ten?. 

Hnving  a  choice  between  playing  a  possible  scoring  card,  or  a 
email  tiump,  or  a  cird  that  yon  have  declared,  generally  play  the 
hsl  so  as  to  conceal  your  hand. 

Do  not  iwirt  with  a  se^juenco  card  early  in  the  hand,  even  if  you 
have  a  duplicate,  as  playing  it  shows  that  you  aie  likely  to  hold  the 
duplirate.  and  you  thus  free  your  opponent's  game,  as  he  will  im- 
nieiliatrly  use  his  trump  sequence  cards  to  win  all  the  aces  ami  tens 
you  lead 

Also,  do  not  part  with  bezique  cards  until  near  the  end  of  the 
band,  even  after  declaring  bczique,  because  by  so  doing  you  give  up 
all  chance  of  double  b^^ique  If  you  draw  or  hold  a  third  bezique 
card,  sacrifice  ever)'thing,  even  sequence  cards,  for  the  chance  of 
a  double  beziqiie. 

Avoid  declaring  combinations  uhich  show  your  advei"sary  that  he 
cannot  make  sequence  or  double  bezique.  Hy  keeping  him  in  the 
d  irk  you  hamper  bis  game,  and  are  very  likely  to  cause  him  to 
reli»in  frnm  tniinping  your  aces  or  tens  For  example,  if  ejirly  in 
the  hand  you  hold  Iwn  tnimp  queens  and  two  h^ziqnc  queens,  you 
should  postpt^iift  dcclaiiiig  thera  as  long  as  possible,  or  even  sacrifice 
the  score  altogfther. 

You  may  often  judge  during  the  play  of  the  hand  what  combina*' 
lions  your  adversary  is  goinj:  for.  Thus,  if  he  discirds  kmgs  he  is 
prnUil'ly  strong  in  queens,  and  vice  vrrsa-  If  in  doubt  tis  to  whether 
you  should  keep  kings  or  queen?,  you  of  course  choose  the  comb. na- 
linn  he  is  not  trj'ing  for.  With  attention  and  exj«nenre  it  is 
surprising  how  much  may  be  infcnTd  ns  to  your  adversary's  game, 
and  hnw  greatly  your  own  line  of  play  may  bo  thus  directed. 

It  is  as  a  rule  right  to  win  the  lust  liiek,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
nilver^arj*  from  declshng,  for  which  purpos*i  load  the  ace  of  trumps. 
Wben  within  a  few  tritks  of  the  end  of  the  hand,  you  may  often 
nrfvent  your  opponent  from  acoring  eeoucnce  by  leading  oiit  your 
Li::))  trumps. 


In  playing  the  last  eight  tricks  vour  object  is  «impiy  to  make  as 
many  acca  and  tens  as  you  can,  atij  to  win  those  of  your  advpi>nry. 

Polish  Bezique  (also  called  Opai  lithique  and  Ftld- 
nxski)  differs  from  ordinary  b-jzi'^ue  iu  the  following  par- 
ticulars : — 

Whenever  a  scoring  card  is  played,  the  winner  of  the  tnrk  place* 
it  face  upwards  in  front  of  hmi  (the  siime  with  both  card?  if  two 
scoring  cards  are  played  to  a  trick),  forming  rows  of  aces,  kings, 
queens,  knaves,  and  tnimp  tens  (called  opcrt  cards).  Cards  of  tne 
same  denomination  are  placed  overlapping  one  another  leu£tl>wrs« 
from  the  player  towards  his  adversary  to  econonuse  spaie.  Wben 
a  scoiing  eard  is  placed  among  the  open  cards,  all  the  sevens  eight.% 
nines,  and  plain  suit  tens  in  the  tricks  are  turned  down  0|-cn 
cards  cannot  be  played  a  second  time,  and  can  only  tte  usj-d  in  de* 
claiing.  Whether  so  used  or  not  they  remain  fao?  upwards  on  the 
table  until  the  end  of  the  hand,  inclu'iing  the  la^l  ciglit  iiicks  A 
player  can  declare  after  winning  a  trick  and  before  oiawjnj  again, 
when  the  trick  won  contains  a  card  or  card?,  which  added  to  his 
open  cards  complcto  any  combination  that  scores,  tvery  declara- 
tion must  include  a  card  played  to  the  tricW  last  won  Ares  and 
tens  mu^t  be  scored  as  soon  as  won,  and  nut  at  the  end  of  the  band. 
The  seven  of  trumps  can  be  exchanged  by  the  winner  of  the  tnrk 
containing  it ;  and  if  the  turn-up  card  is  one  that  can  be  u>ed  in 
declaring,  it  becomes  an  open  card  when  exchanged.  The  seven  of 
trumps  when  not  exchanged  is  scored  for  by  the  player  wisuing 
the  trick  containing  it. 

Compound  dcdaralxons  arb  allowed,  i.e.,  cards  a(Jae(l  to  the  op*"!! 
cards  can  at  once  Ih*  used,  without  waiting  to  win  another  tuck,  id 
as  many  combinations  of  difTcrcnt  classes  as  they  will  form  *ith  ihe 
winner's  open  cards.  For  example  ■  A  has  three  open  kings,  and 
he  wins  a  trick  containing  a  king.  Before  drawing  again  he  place* 
the  fourth  king  with  the  otlier  three,  and  scores  SO  for  kings.  This 
lit  a  simple  declaration.  But  suppose  the  card  led  was  the  queen 
of  trumps,  and  A  wins  it  with  the  king,  and  he  lias  the  following 
open  cards — three  kings,  three  queens,  and  ace.  ten,  knave  of  trumps. 
He  at  once  declares  royal  m:trriage  (40);  four  kmgs  (SO);  lour 
queens  (60)  ;  and  sequence  (250) ;  and  scores  in  all.  4Su  Again :  are 
of  spades  is  turned  up,  and  aee  of  hearts  is  led.  The  second  j  layer 
has  two  open  aces,  and  wins  the  ace  of  hearts  with  the  seven  of 
trumps  and  exchanges  He  6*;ore8  for  the  exchan;v,  10;  for  the 
ace  ot  hearts,  10  ;  for  the  ace  of  spades,  10  ;  and  adds  the  accR  to 
his  open  cards,  and  scores  100  for  aces  ;  in  all,  130  If  a  declara- 
tion or  part  of  a  compound  declaration  is  omitted,  and  the  winner 
of  the  triek  draws  again,  he  cannot  amend  his  score. 

The  ordinary  i-ulc  holds  that  a  second  declaration  cannot  be  made 
of  a  card  already  declared  in  the  same  cXtiSS.  Thus  :  a  queen  onre 
married  cannot  be  married  again  ;  a  fifth  king  added  to  four  already 
declared  does  not  entitle  to  another  score  for  kings. 

The  fundamental  point  to  V-e  borne  in  mind  is.  tb.it  no  decl.im- 
tion  can  be  effected  by  means  of  cards  held  in  the  hand.  Thus. 
A  having  three  open  queens  and  a  queen  in  hand  cannot  add  it  to 
his  open  cards.  He  must  win  another  trick  containing  a  queen, 
when  he  can  declare  queens. 

Dec l.i rations  continue  during  the  play  of  the  last  eight  tricks 
just  the  same  as  during  the  play  of  the  other  cards 

The  game  is  2000  up.  After  each  deal  it  is  advisable  to  shnfTle 
thoroughly  ;  otherwise  a  number  of  small  cards  will  niu  together  in 
the  Rtoik,  and  impair  the  interest  of  the  game.  It  i.^  also  advisable 
to  adopt  the  change  in  the  bcriqiie  cards  rccomniendid  for  ordinary 
bezique,  otherwise  the  scores  oi  one  hand  may  run  very  high,  aiid 
of  the  other  very  low,  which  spoils  the  pnine.  The  lead  i."  even 
more  disadvantageoiis  than  at  ordinary  l-tv.ique.  It  is  impottant 
nnt  to  lead  cards  that  can  be  won  by  bezique  cards.  It  is  often 
advis.ible  to  win  wilh  a  high  card  though  able  to  win  with  a  low 
one  ;  thus  having  king,  nine  of  a  suit  of  which  the  eight  is  led.  if 
you  win  the  trick,  you  should  take  it  with  tlie  king.  It  m  not  of 
so  much  consequence  to  win  aces  and  tens  (esperially  the  liilter)  as 
at  oi-dinary  bezique.  It  is  a  difficult  point  in  the  ganie  to  decide 
whether  to  win  tricks  with  sequence  cards,  on  the  rhanee  of  event- 
nally  scoring  sequence,  or  to  reserve  tiunips  for  the  last  eight  tnrk- 
As  a  rule,  if  the  hnnd  is  well  advanced,  and  you  are  l<;ully  ofl  in 
trumps,  win  triiks  witli  sequence  caids,  and  es|-ecially  il  y»ni  tiaia 
duplicate  sequence  cards  mnkc  them  both.  If  b.idly  off  m  irnmps 
towards  the  end  of  a  hand,  and  your  odvenuin'  may  «in  double 
bezique,  keep  in  hand  an  ace  or  Xeu  of  the  bezique  suit,*".  a.«  when  it 
comes  to  the  last  eight  tricks  (in  which  suit  must  bv  follow edj,  you 
may  prevent  the  score  of  ilouhle  lierique. 

Grand  Bkzique  (also  called  Chinese  Bhique)  is  plnyed 
like  ordinary  bi^zique,  except  as  follows  ; — 

Four  packs  ar<  shufUcd  together  and  used  as  one,  and  nine  cardf) 
are  dealt  to  each  player,  by  three  at  a  time  to  each.  When  a  com- 
binaticn  ts  declared,  end  one  of  "the  cards  com|>osing  it  is  plavd 
away,  another  declaration  can  V^  completod  (after  uinnmg  a  trick) 
with  the  same  canls.  Thus:  A  declares  four  aces,  anil  uses  one  tf>  win 
a  trick,  or  throws  erne  aw.iv      A  has  a  Ijfth  ace  in  hand  and  wins  a 

IIL   —   79      ■ 


&2G 


13  H  A  —  B  H  A 


trick,  he  can  adJ  it  to  tlie  tliwc  remaining  dcclare.l  acea,  and  score 
four  acps  again,  and  so  on.  Marriagi-s  can  hn  di'pl;irej  over  and  over 
a"ain  ;  tliifs  king,  queen  of  lioaits  are  declared,  and  the  player  dr.avvs 
another  king  of  licai  ts.  He  plays  the  declared  king  and  wins  the  trick, 
be  can  then  marry  the  queen  again.  Some  players  object  to  this, 
calling  it  big.imy  ;  but  if  only  permitted  after  the  declared  king  is 
played,  it  is"njt  bigamy,  but  the  m.arriage  of  a  widow.  Bcziquc 
foUoivs  the  same  rule  :  if,  say.  the  knave  is  played  away,  another 
knave  makes  .another  bezique  ,  and  so  on  with  double  and  triple 
beziqua,  if  the  former  declared  cards  which  remain  unplayed  can  be 
matched  from  cards  in  hand  to  make  the  requisite  combinations. 
Sequence  can  be  declared  over  and  over  again,  and  compound 
declarations  made  among  the  declared  cards  ar«  now  generally 
alloived.  The  sevens  of  trumps  do  not  count,  nor  does  the  last 
trick,  01  at  all  events  these  only  count  by  agreement.  The  game 
is  3000  up.  The  great  points  to  aim  at  are  to  declare  four  aces  or 
setjuence.  which  can  then  be  declared  over  and  over  again,  if  fresh 
acei  or  aaquence  cards  are  taken  into  hand  (the  duplicate  sequence 
cards  being  first  played  away).  With  fair  chance  of  sequence  every- 
thin<»  else,  even  aces  or  ehaooe  of  double  bezique,  should  be  sacri- 
6ce(f  (H.  J.) 

BH.40ALPUR,  a  division  or  commissionership  of 
British  India,  under  tho  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal, 
comprising  the  districts  of  BhAgalpur,  Monghir,  SantAl 
Parganiis,  and  Purniah,  lies  between  23'  and  27°  N.  lat., 
and  85"  and  89°  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
tb'-  independent  state  of  Nepil  and  the  British  district  of 
Dirjiling ;  on  the  E.  by  the  districts  of  Jalpdiguri,  DinAjpur, 
MAldah,  Murshidabdd,  and  Bfrbhiim  ;  on  the  S.  by  the 
districts  of  Birbhiim,  Minbhiim,  and  HazAribagh  ;  and  on 
the  Vf.  by  the  districts  of  Gay,i,  Pata,i,  and  Tirhut. 
According  to  the  census  report  of  1872,  BhAgalpur  division 
"ontained  an  area  of  18,685  square  miles,  with  a  tetal 
population,  of  6,013,358  (i.e.,  354  to  the  square  mile),  in- 
habiting 19,247  villages  and  1,801,497  houses.  Of  this 
population,  4,925,714,  or  74'5  per -cent.,  are  Hindus; 
1,121,630,  or  17-0  per  cent.,  Mahometans;  24G9  Chris- 
tians ;  53  Buddhists  ;  553,493,  or  8'5  per  cent,  of  unspeci- 
fied religion,  chiefly  consisting  of  aboriginal  tribes. 

BhAgalpue,  a  district  of  British  India  in  the  division 
of  the  same  name,  under  the  Lieutenant-Governor  of 
Bengal,  situated  between  26°  35'  30"  and  24°  32'  39"  N. 
lat.,  and  87°  33'  51"  and  86°  21'  32"  E.  long.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  independent  state  of  NepAl,  on 
the  E.  by  the  districts  of  Purniah  and  the  SantAl  ParganAs, 
on  the  S.  by  the  SantAl  ParganAs  and  HazirfbAgh,  and  on 
tho  W.  by  the  districts  of  Monghir  and  Tirhut.  BhAgalpur 
is  a  long  and  narrow  district,  divided  into  two  unequal 
parts  by  the  River  Gan.ges.  In  the  southern  portion  of  the 
district  the  scenery  in  parts  of  the  hill-ranges  and  the  high- 
lands which  connect  them  is  very  beautiful.  The  hills 
are  of  the  primary  formation,  with  fine  masses  of  contorted 
gneiss.  The  ground  is  broken  up  into  picturesque  gorge.'* 
and  deep  ravines,  and  the  whole  is  covered  with  fine  forest 
trees  and  a  rich  undergr9wth.%  Within  this  portion  also  lis 
the  lowlands  of  BhAgalpur,  fertile,  well  planted,  well 
watered,  and  highly  cultivated.  The  country  north  of  tliB 
Ganges  is  level,  but  beautifully  diversified  with  trees  and 
verdure.  Three  fine  rivera  flow  through  the  district — the 
Ganges,  Ku.si,  and  Ohagrf.  The  Ganges  runs  a  cofirsc  of 
60  miles  through  BhAgalpur,  is  navigable  all  the  yoar 
round,  and  has  an  average  width  of  three  miles.  The 
Kusf  rises  in  the  HimAlayas  and  falls  into  the  Ganges 
near  Colgong  (KahlgAon),  within  Bh.Agalpur.  It  is  a  fine 
stream,  navigable  up  to  the  foot  of  the  hills,  and  re- 
ceives tho  Ghagrf  eight  miles  above  its  debouchure. 

Tte  census  of  1872  disclosed  a  population  of  1,S2G,200  souls. 
Inhabiting  2739  towns  or  villages  ;  and  329,372  houses,  giving  an 
average  or  422  per  square  mile,  667  per  village,  and  ."i'S  per  house. 
Of  the  total  population,  1,039,949,  or  89-8  percent,  are  Hindus; 
It!9,'l26,  or9-3  per  cent,  Mahometan3;532  Christians;  19  Buddhists; 
18.364,  or  '9  per  cent.,  of  nnapocified  religions,  cbieHy  of  aborigin.al 
tribes,  consisting  of  hillmen,  Niits.  Santiita,  tc.  In  the  early  days 
of  nritish  administration  tlieso  hill  people  gave  tuuih  trotible. 
They  were  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  country  whom  the  Aryan 


conquerors  had  driven  back  into  the  barren  nills  and  unhealti.^^ 
forests.  This  they  avenged  from  generation  to  g-.-neration  by 
plundering  and  ravaging  the  plains.  The  efforts  "to  subdue  or 
restrain  these  marauders  proved  fruitless,  till  Augustus  Cleveland, 
the  collector  of  Bh;igalpur  In  the  latter  half  of  last  century,  won 
them  by  mild  measures,  and  successfully  made  over  the  protection 
of  the  district  to  the  very  hill  people  who  a  few  years  before  liad 
been  its  scourge,  llice,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  Indian  com,  various 
kinds  of  railkt,  pulses,  oil-seeds,  tobacco,  cotton,  indigo,  opium, 
flax  and  hemp,  and  sugar-cane,  are  the  principal  agricultural  pro- 
ducts of  Bli.agalpur  di-stiict.  The  jungles  afford  good  pasturage  lo 
tlie  hot  weather,  and  abound  in  lac,  .silk  cocoons,  catechu,  resiii,  and 
the  viahud  fruit,  which  is  both  used  as  fruit  and  for  the  maim- 
factura  of  spirits.  Iron,  gold,  coal,  and  building  stone  are  found, 
but  no  iron  or  coal  is  at  present  smelted  or  worked.  Gold  is  washed 
from  the  river  sand  in  small  particles.  Silk  cloth,  called  tasar,  and 
pots  similar  to  Chinese  ware,  are  the  principal  manufactures  of 
Bliagalnur.  Princip-Al  seats  of  trade— Bh;igalpur,  Ghogha,  Colgong 
(Ivaiilg.ion),  Pirpainti,  and  Sultanganj  on  the  East  Indian  Railway; 
Umarpur,  Puraini,  Chandpur,  Belhar,  Jaipur,  Kataria,  Sabalpur, 
Panjwara,  and  Chandan,  in  the  south  of  the  district  ;  and  Bibjmr, 
Krishnaganj,  Mur.aliganj,  and  Pratapganj  north  of  the  Ganges. 
Besides  nine  principal  roads  with  a  total  length  of  St5S  miles,  which 
form  the  means  of  external  and  internal  communication,  62  miles  of 
the  East  Indian  Railway  connect  Bhdgalpur  with  Calcutta  and 
Upper  India.  For  administrative  purposes  Bh.agalpur  district  is 
divided  into  four  magisterial  subdivisions,  viz.,  the  headquarters 
subdivision,  and  those  of  Banki,  lladhupuna,  and  Supul ;  and  for 
police  purposes  into  twelve  Ihdnds.  A  regular  police.  600  strong,  was 
maintained  in  1872  at  a  total  cost  of  ±9569,  or  an  average  of  one 
man  to  every  7"06  square  miles,  and  2979  of  th»-  population. 
Besides  the  regular  police  there  were,  in  1S72,  3666  village  watch- 
men, supported  at  an  estimated  cost  of  £5700,  paid  by  the  land- 
holders and  villagers,  exclusive  of  the  service  lands  which  they 
enjoy  rent  free.  The  total  net  revenue  of  the  district,  in  1870-71, 
amounted  to  £139,5'1»,  of  which  £72,161.  or  51'71  per  cent.,  was 
derived  from  the  laud  ;  expenditure.  £82.570.  For  tho  education 
of  the  people  there  were,  in  1872.  1-1  Government  and  aided  schools, 
attended  by  876  pupils,  and  maintained  at  a  total  cost  of  £2313.  of 
which  Government  contributed  £929.  The  unaided  schools  num- 
bered 314,  attended  by  3593  pupils.  The  climate  of  Bh.-igalpur 
partakes  of  the  character  both  of  the  deltaic  districts  of  Bengal  and 
of  the  districts  of  Behar,  between  which  it  is  situated.  The  hot 
season  sets  in  about  the  end  of  March,  continues  till  the  beginning 
of  June,  the  temperature  at  this  time  rising  as  high  as  110°  Fahr. 
The  rains  usually  begin  at  the  end  of  June  and  last  till  the  middle 
of  September  ;  average  annual  rainfall,  5.^i  inches.  The  cold  season 
commences  at  the  beginning  of  November  and  lasts  till  March. 
During  December  and  January  the  temperature  falls  as  low  as  41" 
Fahr.  The  average  annual  temperature  is  78°.  BhAgalpur  formed 
a  part  of  the  ancient  Sanskrit  kingdom  of  Anga.  In  Later  times  it 
was  included  in  the  powerful  Hindu  kingdom  of  Magadhaor  liehar, 
and  in  the  7th  century  a.d.  it  was  an  independent  state,  with  the 
city  of  Champa  for  its  capital.  It  afterwards  formed  a  part  of  the 
Mahometan  kingdom  of  Gaur.  and  was  subsequently  subjugated 
by  Akbar.  who  declared  it  to  be  a  part  of  the  Deldi  empire. 
Bhagalpur  passed  to  the  East  India  Company  by  the  grant  of  the 
Emperor  Sh.ih  Al.am  in  1705.  W.  U.) 

BHAGALPUR,  the  principal  town  of  the  district  and 
division  of  the  same  name,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ganges,  here  seven  miles  wide,  in  25°  11'  N.  lat.  and 
87°  E.  long.  The  town  is  two  miles  in  length  and  a  mile 
in  width,  but  lies  in  a  low,  open  valley,  and  consists  of 
scattered  market-places  meanly  built.  Its  most  interesting 
objects  are  two  ancient  round  towers,  each  about  70  feet 
high.  Adjacent  to  the  town  are  the  two  Clevel;uid  monu- 
ments, one  erected  by  Governmenf,  and  tho  other  by  tho 
Hindus,  to  the  memory  of  the  civilian,  who,  at  the  end 
of  last  century,  "  by  conciliation,  confidence,  and  benevo- 
lence, attempfed  and  accomplished  the  entire  subjection  of 
the  lawless  and  sav.age  inhabitauts  of  the  Junglatcrry  of 
H.Ajmahal."  BhAgalpur  is  the  headquarters  of  the  coro- 
missioner  of  the  division  and  of  the  judge  aiul  coUgctor  of 
tho  district ;  it  is  also  a  station  of  the  East  Indian  Railway. 
Its  Government  school  was  .attended  by  301  [nipWs  in  1872. 
In  tho  same  yc.ir  the  town  contained  {i  populnfion  of 
09,678  soul.s,  of  whom  50,073,  or  72  per  cent.,  are  Hindus^ 
18,455,  or  20  per  cent.,  Mahometans;  19  were  Buddhists, 
342  Cliristians,  and  189  uncla.ssified.  Miuiicipid  iiuonio, 
in  1872,  £2951,  Os.;  expenditure.  £3470,  14.^.;  incidence  of 
municipal  taxation,  lOJd.  per  head  of  the  town  popuhition. 


B  H  A  —  B  PI  A 


627 


t5HAM6,  or  Banmo  .(in  Chinese,  Tsinggai),  a  city  of 
Upper  Eurmah,  situated  in  24°  16'  N.  lat.  and  95°  54' 47" 
r..  loDg.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Irawady,  a  short  distance 
below  its  confluence  with  the  Tapeng,  and  about  300  miles 
u[)  the  river  from  llandalay  the  capital  It  was  formerly 
a  very  flonrishing  city,  and  the  chief  town  of  a  Shan  priu 
cipality ;  and  though' greatly  decayed,  it  is  still  the  seat  of 
a  Burmese  governor  and  the  centre  of  a  considerable  trads. 
At  the  time  of  Dr  John  Anderson's  visit  in  the  year 
18C8  {Erpedition  to  Western  Yunnan,  1871),  it  consisted 
of  about  500  houses  of  sun-burnt  brick,  and  had  an 
estimated  population  of  2500,  partly  Shans  and  partly 
Chinese.  The  latter  possess  a  temple  and  theatre,  and 
there  were  remains  of  ancient  pagodas  and  other  buildings. 
In  the  neighbourhood  are  ruins  of  two  cities,  called  Tsam- 
pcnago,  both  of  considerable  extent.  Special  attention  has 
been  directed  to  Bhamo  as  an  important  position  for  the 
developnjent  of  commerce  between  British  India  and 
Western  Yunnan,  no  fewer  than  four  practicable  routes 
leading  eastward  from  the  city  to  Momein. 

BUANDARA,  a  district  of  British  India,  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Chief  Commissioner  of  the  Central 
Provinces,  situated  between  20°  and  22°  N.  lat.,  and  79° 
and  81°  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  districts 
of  Seonf  and  Bildghdt,  on  the  E.  by  the  district  of  Riipur, 
on  the  S.  by  the  district  of  ChdndA,  and  on  the  W.  by  the 
district  of  NAgpur.  To  the  north,  north-east,  and  east,  a 
natural  boundary  line  is  marked  out  by  lofty  hills,  inhabited 
by  Gonds  and  other  aboriginal  tribes,  while  the  west  and 
northwest  are  comparatively  open.  Small  branches  of  the 
Sitpuri  range  make  their  way  into  the  interior  of  the 
district.  The  Ambagarh,  or  Sendurjharf  hills,  which  skirt 
the  south  of  the  Chandpur  pargani,  have  an  average  height 
of  between  300  and  400  feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain. 
The  other  elevated  tracts  are  the  BalAhi  hills,  the  Kanherl 
hills,  and  the  NawegAon  hills.  The  WaingangA  is  the 
principal  river  iu  the  district,  and  the  only  stream  that  does 
not  dry  up  in  the  hot  weather, — its  affluents  within  the 
district  being  the  Bdwantharf,  Bighnadf,  Kanhin,  and 
Chulban.  "There  are  3648  smalt  lakes  and  tanks  in 
3handir4  district,  whence  it  is  called  the  "  lake  region  of 
NAgpur;"  they  afford  ample  means  of  irrigation.  More 
than  one-third  of  the  district  lies  under  jungle,  which  yields 
gum,  medicinal  fruits  and  nuts,  edible  fruits,  lac,  honey, 
and  the  blossoms  of  the  mahud  tree  {Bassia  lati/otia) ,  which 
are  eaten  by  the  poorer  classes,  and  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  a  kind  of  spirit  Tigers,  panthers,  deer,  wild  hogs, 
and  other  wild  animals  abound  in  the  forests,  and  during 
the  rainy  season  many  deaths  occur  from  snake-bites. 

Bhandnrd  district  contains  an  assessed  area  of  3H8'6J  squnro 
mile<i,  or  2,015,114  acres,  of  which  819,922  acres  «ere  under  cfilti- 
vation  in  1869;  30,845  acres,  grazing  lands;  550,922  acre?,  culti- 
vable but  not  under  cultivation  ;  and  613,425  acres  uncultivable 
waste.  The  census  of  1872  gave  the  total  area  of  the  district  at 
3922  square  miles,  and  returned  the  population  at  564,819  (144  to 
the  S(|U.-irc  mile),  residinp  in  106,121  houses  and  1589  villages. 
Of  the  total  population,  472,151,  or  83  60  per  cent.,  were  Hindus  ; 
10,696,  or  189  percent..  Mahometans;  520  Buddhists  or  Jains  ; 
^1  Christians;  and  81,379,  or  14'41  per  cent.,  were  aboriginal 
tribes  of  unspecified  religion.  The  Hindu  population  is  chiefly 
divided  into  the  following  castes  :—Bidhinans,  "  Pardesis,"  or 
fon-igners  (generally  lUjpuls),  Ponwdrs,  Lodhis,  Kunbis,  Koris, 
KaldTs,  Tells,  Dhmiars,  Koshtis,  Goiris,  and  Dher^.  Theinhabit- 
onts  are  rude  and  ucpolishcd  in  their  manners,  and  slothful  in  their 
habiU.  The  agricultural  products  of  the  district  consist  of  rice, 
wheat,  grain,  pulses,  peas,  sugar-cane,  oil-seeds,  and  cotton  ;  the 
following  being  an  estimate  of  the  acrcipo  under  dilTerent  crops  : — 
rice,  543,019  acres;  wheat,  86,064;  other  food  grains,  147,982; 
oilseeds,  27,068  ;  sug.-vrcane,  12,561  ;  fibres,  197  ;  tobacco,  558  ; 
and  vegetables,  2128  acres— totil,  819,477  acres,  or  1280-43  squuro 
miles.  Iron  is  the  chief  mineral  product.  Gold  is  also  found  in 
the  bed  of  the  Son  Nadi,  but  docs  not  repay  the  trouble  of  searching 
for  it.  L;it*ritc,  shale,  and  sandstone  occur  all  over  the  district  — 
t'.e  l;ir;:rst  quarries  being  near  Bhandar.i  town,  at  Kornmbi,  and  in 
the  Balahi  hills.     Native  cloth,  brass  w.rrcs,  jiot-slone  wares,  carl- 


wheels,  straw  and  reed  baskets,  and  a  suiall  quantity  of  silk,  form 
the  only  manufactures  of  the  district.  Cotton,  salt,  wheat,  rice, 
oil-seeds,  hardware,  English  piece  good»,  tobacco,  silk,  dyes,  .-xnd 
cattle,  are  its  chief  articles  of  imjwrt ;  and  country  cloth,  tobacco, 
and  hardware  its  exports.  Tim  Great  Eastern  Road  is  the  only 
well  raised,  bridged,  and  metalled  road  in  the  district;  but  there 
are  also  five  or  six  second-class  roads,  unmetalled  and  unbddged, 
but  levelled,  and  sloped  at  the  croesings  of  water-courses.  The 
revenue  demand  for  1868-69  amounted  to  £40,296,  Sa.  from  land, 
£5592,  2s.  from  excise,  £3774,  188.  from  stamps,  £2553,  lOs.  from 
forests,  £5051,  lOs.  from  assessed  taxes— total,  £57,268,  88.  The 
regular  police  force  of  442  men  was  maintained  in  1868  at  acostol 
£5584,  lOs.,  exclusiveof  the  village  watch.  In  1868  the  district  con. 
tained  33  Govemaient  and  78  pnvato  schools,  affording  instruction 
to  7109  boys  and  215  girls.  Four  towns  have  upwards  of  5000 
inhabitants:  (1.)  Bhandard— population,  11,433;  municipal  income, 
£486;  expenditure,  £645, 6s. ;  rate  of  taxation,  10|d.  per  head  ;  (2.) 
Tumsal — population,  73G7;  municipal  income,  £1305;  expenditure, 
£554,  10s.;  rate  of  taxation,  3s.  6Jd.  per  head;  (3.)  Mohan- 
population,  6183;  municipal  revenue,  £198;  ei^  .nditure,  £244.  26. ; 
rate  of  taxation,  7id.  per  Lead  ;  (4.)  Pauni— population,  8976  ; 
municipal  revenue,  £174,  lOs. ;  expenditure,  £233,183.;  rat««f  taja- 
tion,  4  Jd.  per  head.  Bhanddrd  district  contains  25  semi-independent 
chiefships,  having  an  fireaof  1509  square  miles,  and  a  population  n( 
166,005  souls  in  1866.  These  little  states  are  exempted  from  the 
revenue  system,  and  only  pay  a  light  tribute.  Their  territory,  how- 
ever, is  included  within  tne  returns  of  area  and  population  above 
given.  The  climate  of  BlMnddrd  is  unhealthy, — the  prevailing 
diseases  being  fever,  small-pox,  and  cholera.  Nothing  is  known  o( 
the  early  history  of  the  district.  Tradition  savs  that  at  a  remcte 
period  a  tribe  of  men,  called  the  Gaulis  or  6aulars,  overran  arJ 
conquered  it.  At  the  end  of  the  17th  century  it  belonged  to  tt.t 
Gond  R.ija  of  Deogarh.  In  1738  it  was  conquered  by  the  Marbattas, 
who  governed  it  till  the  year  1854,  when  it  lapsed  to  the  British 
Govciunjent,  the  Rajd  of  Ndgpur  having  died  without  an  heir. 

Bbamda'rX,  the  principal  town  and  headquarters  of  th( 
district  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the  Waingang.! 
about  38  miles  east  of  Nigpur.  The  town  is  kept  neal 
and  clean,  is  well  drained,  and  is  considered  healthy.  In 
1872  it  contained  a  total  population  of  11,433  souls,  ol 
whom  9057  were  Hindus,  1450  Mahometans,  58  Bud- 
dhists and  Jains,  54  Christiaus,  and  214  of  unspecified 
religion.  For  income,  &c.,  see  above.  I'he  town  enjoys  a 
considerable  trade  in  cotton  cloth  and  the  local  hardware. 

BHANG,  an  East  Indian  name  for  the  hemp  plant. 
Cannabis  saliva,  but  applied  specially  to  the  leaves  dried 
and  prepared  for  use  as  a  narcotic  drug.  The  hemp  plant, 
as  cultivated  in  the  Bengal  Presidency  and  the  North-West 
Provinces,  yields  a  peculiar  resinous  exudation,  which  is 
altogether  wanting  in  the  hemp  grown  on  account  of  its 
fibre  in  European  countries.  For  this  resinous  exudation, 
in  which  its  virtues  as  a-drug  reside,  hemp  is  cultivated  in 
Kashmir,  Bokhira,  Yarkand,  and  Central  Asia  generaUy, 
besides  North  India,  and  in  certain  parts  of  East  Africa, 
where,  according  U>  Captain  Burton,  it  is  grown  "  before 
every  cottage  door."  In  India  the  products  of  the  plant 
for  use  as  a  narcotic  and  intoxicant  are  recognized  under 
the  three  names  and  forms  of  Bhang,  Gunja  or  Ganja, 
and  Churrus  or  Charas.  Bhang  consists  of  the  lorger 
leaves  and  capsules  of  the  plant  on  which  an  cfRorcsenco 
of  resinous  matter  has  occurred.  The  leaves  are  in  broken 
and  partly  agglutinated  pieces,  having  a  dark-green  colour 
and  a  heavy  but  not  unpleasant  smell.  Bhang  is  used  in 
India  for  smoking,  with  or  without  tobacco;  it  is  prepared 
in  the  form  of  a  cake  or  manjan,  and  it  is  made  into  an 
intoxicating  beverage  by  infusing  in  cold  water  and  str.iin- 
ing.  Gunja  is  the  flowering  or  fruit-bearing  tops  of  the 
female  plants.  It  is  galliired  in  stalks  of  several  inches 
in  length,  the  tops  of  which  form  a  matted  mass,  from  the 
agglutination  of  flowers,  seeds,  and  leaflets  by  the  abundant 
resinous  exudation  which  coats  them  ■  Churrus  is  the 
resinous  substance  separated  from  the  plant.  According 
to  Dr  O'Shaughnessy  it  is  obtained  by  men  dressed  in 
leathern  aprons  brushing  forcibly  through  the  growing 
stalks,  and  the  resin  which  thereby  adheres  to  the  Icalliei 
is  scraped  ofl"  with  knives.     It  is  slated  (hat  in  Nepal  lli» 


628 


B  H  A  —  B  FI  A 


leather  covering  is  dispensed  witt,  and  the  resin  gathered 
on  the  naked  bodies  of  coolies,  who  brush  through  the 
standing  stalks.  Dr  Royle  says,  "  the  glandular  secretioa 
is  collected  from  the  plants  on  the  hills  by  the  natives 
pressing  the  upper  part  of  the  young  plants  betweeti  the 
oalms  of  their  hands,  and  scraping  off  the  secretion  which 
adheres."  The  preparation  known  as  hashish  among  the 
Arabs  is  similar  to  the  gunja  of  India,  and  is  used  in  the 
same  manner.  The  use  of  preparations  of  hemp  among 
the  Mussulman  and  Hindu  population  of  India  is  very 
general ;  and  the  habit  also  obtains  among  the  population 
of  Central  Asia,  the  Arabs,  and  Egyptians,  extending  even 
to  the  negroes  of  the  valley  of  the  Zambesi  and  the 
fIot;entot3  of  South  Africa.  The  habit  appears  to  date 
from  very  remote  times,  for  Herodotus  says  of  the  Scythians, 
that  they  creep  inside  huts  and  throw  hemp  seeds  on  hot 
stones.  The  seeds  "  soon  send  forth  a  virulent  intoxicating 
smoke,  which  fills  the  close  tent,  and  the  people  inside, 
being  overpowered  with  the  intoxicating  effects,  howl  with 
excitement  and  dglight."  The  observations  of  Dr  O'Shaugh- 
nessy  on  the  effects  of  the  drug  on  the  native  population  of 
India  led  him  to  conclude  that  it  alleviates  pain,  and  causes 
a  remarkable  increase  of  appetite,  unequivocal  aphrodisia, 
and  great  mental  cheerfulness.  Its  violent  effects  are 
delirium  of  a  peculiar  kind,  and  the  production  of  a  cata- 
leptic condition.  Sir  Robert  Christison  says,  that  "  for 
energy,  certainty,  and  convenience,  Indian  hemp  is  the 
next  anodyne,  hypnotic,  and  antispasmodic  to  opium  and 
its  derivatives,  and  often  equal  to  it."  Preparations  are 
used  in  British  pharmacy  in  the  form  of  tincture  and. 
extract  prepared  from  gunja,  and  it  is  understood  to  form 
an  ingredient  in  the  patent  medicine  chlorodyne. 

BHARAICH,  a  district  of  British  India,  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Chief  Commissioner  of  Oudh,  situated 
between  28°  23'  and  27°  4'  N.  lat,  and  82°  11'  and  81°  9' 
E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  independent 
state  of  NepAl,  on  the  E.  and  S.E.  by  the  district  of 
Gond4,  on  the  S.W.  by  the  distnct  of  BAra  Binki,  and 
on  the  W.  by  the  districts  of  Sltdpur  and  KherL  BharAich 
district  consists  of  three  tracts; — (1),  in  the  centre,  an 
elevated  triangular  plateau,  projecting  from  the  base  of 
the  Himalayas  for  about  50  mdes  in  a  south-easterly 
direction — average  breadth  13  miles,  area  670  square  miles: 
<2),  the  great  plain  of  the  GhagrA,  on  the  west,  about  40 
feet  below  the  level  of  the  plateau  ;  and  (3),  on  the  east, 
another  lesser  area  of  depression.  -The  Tardi,  or  the  forest 
and  marshy  tracts  along  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Himi- 
l.iyaa,  gradually  merge  within  the  district  into  drier  land, 
the  beds  of  the  streams  become  deeper  and  more  marked, 
the  marshes  disappear,  and  the  country  assumes  the  ordin- 
ary appearance  of  the  plain  of  the  Ganges.  The  Ghagri 
skirts  the  district  for  114  miles ;  and  the  Raptl,  with  its 
br.inch  the  Bhakli,  drains  the  high  grounds. 

District  area,  2398  square  miles,  since  the  rcilLstribution  of  terri- 
tory in  1889  ;  prior  to  this  its  area  was  2682  square  miles.  In 
1872  the  district  contamod  a  total  population  of  774,640  souls,  re- 
Miling  in  121,90.^  hou.se8  and  1965  villages  ;  of  which  676,313  were 
Hindus,  98,124  Mahometans,  aud  40  Christians,  and  the  rest  of 
uiicla-ssilied  religions.  Of  the  Hindupopulation  the  IJrahmans  uumtier 
71,215;  Kshatriyas,  20,514;  Ahirs,  91,479;  Cbimdrs,  56,32'J  ; 
Kuriiils,' 79,723.  Principal  crops  and  estimated  acreage: — rice, 
K>7,i)('0  acres;  Indian  corn,  76,000;  wheat,  73,000  ;  barley,  84,000; 
arid  rape-seed,  25,000  acres.  Besides  these,  other  kinds  of  oil-seeds, 
pulses,  sugar,  cotton,  opium,  indigu,  fibres,  tobacco,  and  vegetables  are 
alio  cultivated.  Total  assessed  area  of  the  district,  1,348,104  acres  ; 
of  which  8"6,441  are  under  cultivation,  511,663  cultivable  grazing 
land,  and  187,247  uncultivable  waste.  Land  tax,  £114,507  ;  rale 
per  cultivated  acre,  2s.  9d.  O'f  the  population  495,761  aro  agri- 
culturist-s,  and  278,889  non-agriculturists.  There  are  no  raanufiic- 
turrs  of  any  note  in  the  district,  but  each  brge  village  has  its  little 
coloLY  of  weavers,  and  fiToworks  aro  mado  in  Bharaich  and  Nan- 
piro  Kcvcnuo  in  1S71,  £130,000  ;  of  which  £116,000,  or  89  per 
cent.,  was  derived  from  the  laud.  District  civil  expenditure, 
ilO.147.     The  last  land  revenue  aflttlomontwaa  completed  in  1371 


and  e.tpires  at  different  pcrioda  between  I897anil901.  Tlic  regular 
police  number,  besides  the  village  watch,  i05  men,  miiuUiuied  at  B 
cost  of  £5850.  Education  is  backward.  The  central  school  at 
Bharaich  has  105  pupils-,  and  3  Anglo-vernacular,  with  41  ver- 
nacular village  schools  throughout  the  district,  have  1649  pupils. 
Principal  towns  : — (1.)  Bharaioh,  built  on  the  extreme  edge  of  the 
plateau  described  above,  whera.it  sinks  sharply  down  upon  the 
plains  of  Oudh :  height  above  sea-level,'  420  feet ;  population, 
18,889;  municipal  income  in  1871,  £2177,  14s.;  rate  of  taxatiou, 
23.  34d.  per  head  ;  (2.)  Nanpara,  population,  6S58  ;  municipal  in- 
come in  1871,  £337,  83.;  rate  of  ta.xation,  ll|d.  per  head;  (3.) 
Jainal,  population,  4510. 

BHARTPUR,  or  Bhurtpoke,  a  native  state  of  Rijputinl 
in  Upper  India,  under  the  political  superintendence  of  tht 
British  Government,  lying  between  26°  48'  and  27°  50'  N. 
lat.,  and  76°  54  and  77°  49'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  the  British  district  of  Ourg4on,  on  the  N.E.  by 
MathurA,  on  the  E.  by  Agra,  on  the  S.  and  S.W.  by 
the  RAjput  states  .of  Karauli  and  Jaipur,  and  on  the 
W  by  the  state  of  Alwar.  Length  from  north  to  south, 
about  77  miles;  greatest  breadth,  50  miles;  area,  1974 
square  miles.  The  country  is  generally  level,  about  700  feet 
above  the  sea.  Small  detached  hills,  rising  to  200  feel  in 
height,  occur,  especially  in  the  northern  part.  These  hills 
contain  good  building  stone  for  ornamental  architecture, 
and  in  some  of  them  iron  ore  is  abundant.  The  Bangangi 
is  the  only  river  which  flows  through  the  state.  It  takes 
its  rise  at  Manoharpur  in  the  territory  of  Jaipur,  and  flow- 
ing eastward  passes  through  the  heart  of  the  Bhartpui 
state,  and  joins  the  Jarana  below  Agra. 

In  1871-72  the  population  of  Bhartpar  amounted  to  743,710 
souls,  consisting  chiefly  of  Jats  professing  Hinduism,  to  which  tribe 
the  Raja  or  chief  of  the  state  belongs.  The  Jats  are  one  of  the 
ancient  Indo-Germanic  races  of  India  ;  by  religion,  Musalmans  in 
the  west  of  Hindustan,  Hindus  in  the  east,  and  Sikhs  in  the 
Panjab.  The  Jats  make  excellent  cultivators,  hardworking,  thrifty, 
and  energetic  in  the  arts  of  peace  as  in  those  of  war.  Principal 
crops  : — wheat,  Indian  corn,  cotton,  pulses,  and  sugar.  The  want 
of  water  is  much  felt ;  but  the  soil,  though  in  many  places  sandy, 
is  rendered  highly  productive  by  well-irrigation.  The  saline  tracts 
yield  salt  of  an  inferior  quality.  Chief  routes  :  — Mathuri  to  Mhas 
(Ifhow)  via  Bhartpur  town  ;  Mathuri  to  Nasirabad,  through 
Bhartpur  town  ;  Mathura  to  Alwar,  through  Dig  town  ;  Agra  to 
Feroipur,  through  the  towns  of  Bhartpur,  Dig,  and  Kumbher  ;  Agra 
to  Ajmir,  by  Waer.  Principal  towns  :— Bhartpur,  Dig,  Waer, 
Kumbher,  and  Biana. 

Bhartpur  rose  into  importance  under  Siiraj  Mall,  who 
bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  destraction  of  the  Dehli 
empire.     Having  built  the  forts  of  Dig  and  Kumbher  in 
1730,  he  received  in  1756  the  title  of  RAji,  and  subse- 
quently joined   the   great   MarhattA   army   with   30,000 
troops.   But  the  misconduct  of  the  Marhatt4  leader  induced 
him  to  abandon  the  confederacy,  just  in  time  to  escape  the 
murderous  defeat  at  PAniput.     Suraj   Mall  raised  the  Jit 
power  to  its  highest  point;  and  Colonel  Dow,  in  1770, 
estimated  the  RAjA's  revenue  (perhaps  extravagantly)  at 
£2,O0D,00O,  and  his  military  force  at  60,000  ot  70,000 
men.    In  1803  the  East  India  Company  concluded  a  treaty, 
offensive  and  defensive,  with  Bhartpur.     In'  1804,  how- 
ever, the  RAji  assisted- the  Marhattis  against  the  BritisL 
The  English  under  Lord  Lake  captured  the  fort  of  Dig 
and  besieged  Bhartpur,  but  was  compelled  to  raise  tho 
siege  after  four  attempts  at  storming.    A  treaty,  concluded 
01)  17th  April  1805;rguarantced  the  RAjd's  territory;  but 
he  became  bound  to  pay  X200,000  as  indemnity  to  the 
East  India  Company.     A  dispute  as  to  the  right  of  the 
succession  again  led  to  a  war  in  1825,  and  Lord  Comber- 
mere  captured  Bhartpur  with  a  besieging  force  of  20,000 
men,  after  a  desperate  resistance,  on  tho   18th  January 
1826.     The  fortifications  were  dismantled,  the  hostUe  chief 
being  deported  to  Benares,  and  an  infant  son  of  the  former 
R-'ijA  installed  under  a  treaty  favourable  to  the  Company. 
In   1853  tho  Bhartpur  ruler  died,  leaving  a  minor  heir. 
Tho   state    came    under    British    management,   and    the 
admiuiatralion  has  been  improved,  tho  revenue  increased, 


B  H  A  — B  H  A 


629 


a  system  of  irrisation  developed,  new  tanks  and  wells  con- 
Biructed,  and  an  excellent  system  of  roads  and  public 
buildings  organized.  In  1871-72  tbe  revenue  of  the 
bbartpur  state  amounted  to  X2G1,957.  For  educational 
purposes  one  college  and  147  schools,  with  3908  studouts, 
are  maiutained  at  un  annual  expenditure  of  X1821.  The 
military -force  of  the  st.ite  consists  of  1500  cavalry,  1500 
infantry,  and  200  artillery.  The  police  force  numbers 
2200  men.  Owing  to  the  hot  wiuds  blowing  from  Kaj 
putAnA,  the  climate  of  Bhartpur  u  extremely  sultry  till  the 
setting  in  of  the  periodical  rains.  Bhartpur  city,  the  capi- 
tal, lies  in  27°  12'  N.  lat.  and  85°  49'  E.  long. 

BUATGAON,  a  town  of  Northern  India,  in  the  Nepil 
valley,  situated  in  27°  37'  N.  lat.  and  85°  22'  E.  long.  It 
IS  a  celebrated  pbce  of  Hindu  superstition, the  favourite 
residence  of  the  Bnihmans  of  Nep.^il,  and  contains  more 
families  of  that  order  than  either  Kdtm.indu  or  Patu.  It 
contains  12,000  houses,  and  its  palace  and  buildings  gene- 
rally are  of  a  more  striking  appearance  than  in  other  No- 
pAlcse  towns.  The  town  is  said  to  possess  many  Sanskrit 
libraries. 

BK.VTNI.iR,  or  Bh,\ttis,  a  people  of  the  northern 
part  of  HindustAn,  inhabiting  the  tract  of  country  now 
included  within  the  British  district  of  His.sar,  formerly 
called  BhatiAni,  the  eastern  frontier  of  which  is  situated 
125  miles  north-west  of  Dehli.  The  Bhattis  present  many 
peculiarities  in  manners  and  customs,  distinguishing  them 
ifom  the  other  people  of  HindustAn.  They  consist  of  two 
distinct  races — the  one  being  composed  of  Mahometans 
of  RAjput  descent,  who  constitute  the  influential  class,  and 
who  report  among  themselves  that  their  ancestors  eniigrated 
some  centuries  ago  from  the  district  of  Jasalmir,  and  after 
various  vicissitudes  settled  in  the  Bhatniir  country;  the 
other  comprising  the  common  people,  known  as  JAts,  who 
have  adopted  the  religion  of  their  superiors,  and  are  con- 
sequently treated  with  great  moderation.  Most  of  these 
people  are  descended  from  dwellers  on  the  western  bank  of 
the  Satlej,  who  were  invited  by  a  RijA  of  the  Bhattis  to 
cross  the  river  and  settle  in  his  country.  Though  tillers 
of  the  soil,  the  Bhattis  are  more  generally  characterized 
as  shepherds  ;  and  though  they  arc  mostly  restricted  to  the 
territory  whence  their  name  is  derived,  virions  tribes  of 
them  are  to  be  found  in  the  Panjib,  and  they  are  also 
scattered  over  the  high  grounds  to  the  east  of  the  Indus. 

Notwithstanding  they  are  Mahometans,  their  customs 
are  in  some  respects  at  variance  with  those  observed  by  the 
majority  of  the  followers  of  the  prophet,  particularly  in  the 
females  appearing,  without  reserve,  unveiled  in  public,  and 
in  their  oisociatiug  openly  with  the  men.  The  wives  of  the 
RAjput  chiefs  form  an  exception. 

The  territory  above  described,  anterior  to  British  sway, 
was  under  the  dominion  of  a  prince  or  RAjA,  whose  authority 
was  acknowledged  by  inferior  chi-ofs.  This  potentate  could 
bring  20,000  or  30,000  men  into  the  field,  but  they  were 
quite  undisciplined,  and  despised  the  necessary  principle 
of  subordination.  His  revenue  arose  chiefly  from  the 
plunder  his  troops  secured;  for  their  wars  were  directed 
more  to  predatory  purposes  than  to  open  contest,  and  the 
RAjA,  iiir.tead  of  repressing  the  ravages  of  this  immense 
banditti,  willingly  participated  in  the  spoils. 

While  under  the  influence  of  native  rule  the  Bhattis 
appe.ir  to  have  formed  a  collection  of  hordes  of  freebeotcre. 
They  have  been  described  as  of  a  cruel,  savage,  and  fero- 
cious disposition,  entertaining  an  abhorrence  of  the  usages 
of  civilized  life — thieves  from  their  earliest  infancy,  and 
during  their  predatory  incursions  into  the  neighbouring 
districts,  not  scrupling,  though  unresisted,  to  add  murder 
to  robbery. 

Many  of  the  Bhattis  appear  to  be  constantly  changing 
their  residence  from  place  to  place  as  subsistence  fails. 


Their  exports  are  horses,  camels,  bullocks,  buffilocsr  and 
ghl;  occasionally  they  sell  some  surplus  grain  above  what 
is  necessary  for  their  own  consumption,  but  their  traffic  is 
very  inconsiderable.  A  largo  portion  of  the  country  is 
unproductive,  but  aloug  the  banks  of  the  River  GbAgar, 
from  BhatniAr  to  the  town  of  SlrsA,  and  also  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  NaiwAl  (NalA,  or  watercourse),  the  sod  is  uncommonly 
rich,  and  well  adapted  for  cultivation.  The  inundations  of 
these  rivers  fertilize  their  banks,  and  the  subsidence  of  the 
waters  leaves  a  broad  margin  prepared  for  plentiful  crops 
of  wheat,  rice,  and-barley,  which  amply  reward  the  labours 
of  the  husbandman. 

The  former  capital  of  the  Bhattis  was  BhatniAr,  which 
lies  in  a  situation  almost  inaccessible  to  an  enemy,  for  no 
w.ater  is  to  be  procured  within  12  miles  but  what  supplies 
the  inhabitan-ts.  It  was  taken,  however,  in  1398  by 
Timur,  more  recently  by  the  military  adventurer  George 
Thomas,  and  finally  in  1805  by  the  RijA  of  BikAnir,  «ho 
still  retains  authority  over  it.  The  principal  town  is  Slrsa, 
between  which  and  BhAwalpur  a  route  for  commercial  pur- 
poses has  been  opened.  Numbers  of  the  Bhattis  have 
emigrated  from  their  native  country  to  establish  them- 
selves in  the  western  parts  of  the  dominions  of  Oudh  ;  and 
several  families  of  them  are  to  be  met  with  in  Ruhilkhand. 
They  are  practised  travellers,  and  well  trained  to  emigra- 
tion by  the  laborious  journeys  undertaken  in  crossing  the 
great  desert  to  the  west  of  their  territorie.s.  During,  the 
independence  of  their  native  rulers,  expeditions  were  fre 
quently  made  in  large  parties  for  the  purpo.fe  of  preda- 
tory incursions  on  peaceable  countries  more  remote ,  and 
these  banditti  displayed  both  skill  and  determination 
m  attaining  their  object.  Camels  previously  laden  with 
provisions  were  despatched  to  ditl'ereiit  stations  in  the 
desert,  which  is  about  130  miles  in  breadth,  and  their 
loads  deposited  there.  The  most  intelligent  of  the  party 
about  to  follow  were  then  selected  as  guides,  and  enforced 
the  most  implicit  obedience  on  their  companious  during 
the  journey,  which  closed  at  the  frontier  of  the  hostile 
country,  or  rather  that  against  which  their  hostility  was 
directed.  The  guides  by  long  experience  bepame  expert 
without  compass  or  landmark,  and  .seldom  failed  to  con- 
duct the  party  to  the  appointed  station  where  the  provi- 
sions were  deposited,  and  thence  across  the  remainder  of 
the  desert  in  safety.  If  accidentally  they  missed  the 
points  of  rendezvous,  or  those  where  alone  their  necessities 
could  be  relieved,  they  were  exposed  to  inevitable  destruc- 
tion. The  adventurers  steered  their  course  by  the  sun  in  the 
day-time,  and  by  the  polar  star  at  night ,  and  by  similar 
aids  they  were  enabled  to  retrace  the  w.iy  they  had  travelled. 
The  history  of  the  Bhattis  has  attracted  the  notice  of 
few  European  authors.  They  seem  to  have  carried  on 
frequent  wars  with  neighbouring  states,  and  were  the  most 
formidable  enemies  opposed  to  the  RAji  of  BikAnir.  The 
latter,  however,  invaded  their  territories  in  the  beginning 
of  the  present  centurj',  and  obtained  some  temporary 
advantages.  He  erected  a  fortress  in  Batinda,  now  a  pus- 
se.ssion  of  the  RAjA  of  PatlAlA,  and  this  contributed  to 
overawe  them  for  a  time,  and  repressed  their  incursions 
into  his  own  dominions,  as,  independently  of  the  garrison, 
he  stationed  a  large  body  of  cavalry  in  the  fort,  whost 
frequent  sallies  and  captures  of  cattle  annoyed  the  Bhattis 
so  much  that  they  contemplated  a  total  emigration  from 
their  own  country.  But  George  Thomas,  the  miliUiry 
adventurer  already  noticed,  an  Irishman  by  birth,  who, 
endowed  with  singular  talents  and  intrepidity,  had  iounded 
for  himself  an  independent  state  in  the  north-west  of  India, 
was  then  at  war  with  the  province  of  BikAnir.  Having 
reached  its  frontiers,  the  Bhattis  solicited  his  alliance,  and, 
to  induce  him  to  espouse  their  caust  the  more  readily, 
otfcred  hiin  40,000  ru'^-r-s  if  he  would  reduce  (he  obnoxious 


630 


B  H  A  — B  H  O 


fort.  In  the  prosecution  of  tlie  war  several  actions  ensued, 
and  various  fortresses  were  taken  ;  but  it  would  appear 
that  one  of  the  Bhatti  chiefs  at  variance  with  General 
TLuinas  commenced  hostilities  against  him  about  the  periotl 
now  alluded  to ;  and  in  this  new  warfare  with  his  late 
allies  his  forces  were  so  much  reduced  by  repeated  en- 
counters, that,  being  scarcely  able  to  stand  an  engagement, 
he  fortiOed  his  camps.  The  Bhattis,  after  frequent  attacks, 
withdrew  their  troops  by  night ;  whereupon  General 
Thomas  took  and  burned  Fathi4b4d  and  other  places,  and 
might  have  occupied  the  whole  country,  had  not  a  neigh- 
bouring chief  concluded  sn  alliance  with  the  Bhattis,  and 
soDt  1000  cavalry  to  their  aid.  General  Thomas  retreated 
to  Jaijar,  a  town  within  his  own  territory,  leaving  the 
Bhattis  in  possession  of  their  capital 

The  triumphs  of  the  British  arms  proved  fatal  to  the 
European  adventurers  who  at  that  period  had  established 
themselves  in  Northern  India,  and  the  arrangements  made 
with  Sindia  brought  the  British  into  contact  with  the 
country  of  the  Bhattis,  against  whom  they  were  compelled 
in  1810  to  march  a  force,  wbich  expelled  the  chief,  and 
transferred  the  greater  part  of  the  terrftory  to  his  sou,  who 
had  voluntarily  proceeded  to  the  British  camp. 

EHAWALPUR,  a  feudatory  state  in  North-Western 
India,  under  the  political  jurisdiction  of  the  Lieutenants 
Governor  of  the  Panj4b,  lying  between  27°  41'  and  30°  25' 
N  lat,  and  69°  30'  and  73°  58'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  Sind  and  Panjib,  on  the  E.  and  S.E.  by  the 
British  district  of  Hissar  and  the  K4jpnt  states  of  BikAnir 
and  Jasalmfr,  and  on  the  S.VV.  by  Sind.  The  state  con- 
tains an  estimated  area  of  about  22,000  square  miles; 
greatest  length  from  NE  to  S.W.,  310  miles;  greatest 
breadth,  1 10  miles.  Only  a  sixth  part  of  the  total  ^rea  is 
capable  of  cultivation. 

Thornton  tbiis  (Inscribes  the  geopral  aspect  of  the  state; — *'  Bhd- 
v:alpur  is  a  remarkal'ly  level  country,  there  beinp  do  considerable 
<miiieiice  within  ita  limits,  a3  tlie  occasional  sana-hills,  seldom  ex- 
ceeding 50  or  60  feet  in  height,  cannot  be  considered  exceptions. 
The  cultivable  part  extends  along  the  river  line  for  a  distance  of 
ftbout  10  miles  in  breadth  from  the  left  or  eastern  bank.  In  the 
«an''y  pert  of  the  desert  beyond  tliis  strip  of  fertility  both  men  and 
beeara,  leaving  the  beaten  path,  sink  a*  if  in  loo.'^e  snow.  Htie, 
l».  the  sand  is  raised  into  ever-cbanj^ng  hills  by  the  force  of  the 
v.ind  sweeping  over  it.  In  those  parts  of  the  desert  which  have  a 
1-ftrd  level  soil  of  clay,  a  few  stunted  mimosas,  acacias,  and  other 
«hn:bs  are  produced,  together  with  rue,  various  bitter  and  aromatic 
plaorj,  and  occasionally  tufts  of  gr.ass.  Much  of  the  soil  of  the 
dcMert  appears  to  be  alluvial  ;  there  are  numerous  traces  of  streams 
havir;g  formerly  p.-isjed  over  it,  and  still,  where  irrigation  is  at  all 
practicable,  fertility  in  the  clayey  tract  follows  ;  but  the  rains  are 
ecanty,  the  wells  few  and  generally  100  feet  deep  or  more." 

The  Ghari.  a  gri-at  stream  formed  by  the  united  waters  of  the 
I'lias  and  Satlcj,  the  Indus,  and  the  Panjnad,  are  the  princijial 
liveis  of  the  state,  affording  a  continuous  river-line  of  300  or  360 
nili-s  in  length.  In  187:i  the  population  was  estimate!  at  472.791, 
■the  majority  of  whom  are  Mahometans,  consisting  of  Jats  of  Hinda 
descent,  Boluchi.'i,  and  Afghans.  The  principal  productsare  woollen 
and  cotton  cloths,  silk  goods,  indigo,  cereals,  alum,  saltjietre,  &c. 
These  form  the  jtrincipal  exports  ;  the  iraporta  are  inconsiderable. 
■Value  of  external  trade  in  1872,  £358,000;  internal  trade,  £Hi,7(<0. 
Trincipal  trade  routes: — (1^,  From  Bikinir  to  Central  Asia  ria 
Ill..iwalpur  ;  (2),  from  Jasalniir  to  AfghAnistan  ;  (3),  from  Bhi- 
waliur  to  Sind  In  1872  the  gross  revenue  of  the  state  was  re. 
tuii.Mi  as  £197,344;  estimated  military  force,  2679.  Princip.al 
towns  — Bhiiwalpur,  the  capital,  situated  on  a  branch  of  the  Uiver 
CLara ;  Ahmadpur,  Uch,  Khanpur,  and  Alichinabad. 

Tlio  state  was  a  dependency  of  the  Durinl  kingdom 
ill  its  dismeniburinent,  when  BhAwalpur  became  iiide- 
pcrjdent.  On  the  rise  of  Banjit  Singh,  the  khAn  of 
Hli.'iwalpur  tendered  his  allegiance  to  the  British  Govern- 
ment, and  received  a  hfe-pension  of  XIO.OOO  per  annum 
for  hi.-,  services  in  the  Sikh  war.  The  present  niler  is  a 
minor  (187!)),  and  the  state  is  now  under  British  manage- 
ment, under  which  it  has  greatly  prospered  The  I'atij.-ib 
f  \duiiniblratiou  licuort  for  1871-72  states  that  on  the  do-;: 'i 


of  tie  late  chief,  when  BhAwalpur  <^me  under  British 
management,  "  the  treasury  was  empty,  the  Government  in 
debt,  the  army  disorganized,  the  canals,  on  which  cultiva- 
tion mainly  depends,  neglected,  while  a  general  sense  of 
insecurity  prevailed;  biit  now  (1871-72)  there  is  a  cash 
balance  of  XS0,000  in  hand,  the  state  debts  have  been  paid 
off,  the  revenue  has  reached  £200,000  a  year  (or  doubUi 
what  it  was  three  years  ago),  while  the  ordmary  expendi- 
ture is  about  £160,000,  the  canab  have  been  greatly  in- 
creased in  number  and  efficiency,  waste  lands  have  been 
brought  under  cultivation,  population  has  increased,  and 
the  army  has  been  reorganized." 

BHIL,  a  tribe  and  a  British  political  agency  in  Central 
India.  The  political  agency  comprises  the  following  native 
states:— (1.)  DhAr,  revenue  in  1871-72,  £00,000,  expen- 
diture £55,000;  (2.)  Bakhtnagar,  revenue  £5933,  expen- 
diture £4495  ;  (3.)  JabuA,  revenue  £1 1,000,  expenditure 
the  same;  (4.)  AllrAjpur,  revenue  £12,095,  expenditure 
£10,783  ;  (5  )  Matwash,  revenue  £620,  expenditure  £334  ; 
(6.)  Jobat,  revenue  £1500,  expenditure  £1200  ;  (7.)  Kati- 
wArA;  (8.)  Ratanmall;  (9.)  AmjherA,  DektAn,  SAgar,  BAng, 
BankAnir,  and  ManAwan,  belonging  to  SindhiA;  and  (10.) 
PitlAwad  and  ChtkAldA,  belonging  to  HolkAr.  The  Bhil 
agency  comprises  an  area  of  8160  square  miles,  with  a 
pyptdation  of  240,000  souls,  and  consists  of — (1)  MAnpup 
ParganA  (British);  (2)  BarwAnfstate  (under  British  manage- 
ment in  1S71-72);  (3.)  JamniA,  BAjgash,  Garhi,  and  other 
BhumiA  chiefdoms  ;  (4.)  Holkar's  districts  south  of  the 
Vi ndhy an  range  ;  and  (5.)  Dewas  or  BAgod  PargauA.  The 
Bhil  agency  was  formed  in  1825,  when  the  Bhil  corps  was 
organized,  with  a  view  to  utilizing  the  warlike  instincts  of 
the  Bhil  tribes.  This  brave  body  of  men  have  done  good 
service,  and  gradually  put  down  the  predatory  habits  of 
their  countrymen.  The  Bhil  tribes  chiefly  inhabit  the 
rocky  ranges  of  the  Vindhya  and  SAtpurA  mountains,  and 
the  banks  of  the  NarbadA  and  the  Tap  11.  In  common  with 
other  hill  tribes,  the  Bhils  are  supposed  to  have  been 
aborigines  of  India,  and  to  have  been  driven  to  their  pre- 
sent fastnesses  at  the  time  of  the  Hindu  invasion.  They 
are  of  dark  complexion  and  diminutive  stature,  but  active, 
and  capable  of  enduring  great  fatigue.  Various  efforts  have 
been  made  by  the  British  Government  to  reclaim  this  people 
from  their  predatory  habits,  and  in  1869-70  the  official 
report  stated  that  "  the  Bhils  of  MAnpur  are  becoming 
reconciled  to  the  life  of  cultivators,  though  not  yet  willing  to 
take  out  leases." 

BHOPAL,  a  British  political  agency  in  Central  India, 
comprising  31  native  administrations  classified  as  follows: — 
First,  BhopAl,  a  treaty  state,  its  ruler  haying  the  power  of  life 
and  death ;  second,  RAjgarh  and  Narsinghg.irh,  the  rulers  of 
which  receive  salutes,  and  exercise  independent  civil  and  cri- 
minal jurisdiction,  but  submit  proceedings  in  cases  of  heinous 
crime  for  the  political  agent's  review;  third,  Kilchipur, 
KurwAl,  and  Makstidnagar,  the  chiefs  of  which  receive  no 
salute,  but  possess  independent  authority,  except  in  heinous 
offences  ;  fourth,  PathArf,  BasiiudA,  and  Muhammadgarh, 
lesser  chiefships,  under  the  more  direct  supervision  of  the 
political  agent ;  LarAwAt,  the  chief  of  this  is  ajdylrd&r  or 
holder  of  a  grant  of  land  under  life  tenure,  and  is  subor- 
dinate to  the  political  agent  in  all  matters  of  administration; 
fifth,  sixteen  petty  chiefs  called  (hiikurs  and  jdriirddrs ; 
sixth,  four  districts  of  other  native  states  not  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  this  agency.  The  BhopAl  political  agency 
is  subordinate  to  (he  Central  India  agency. 

BiiorAi.,  a  native  state  in  Malwa  in  Central  India, 
under  the  political  superintendence  of  the  British  Go 
vcrnment,  lying  between  22°  32'  and  23°  40'  K.  hit., 
and  76°  25' and  78°  50'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  the  state  of  Gwalior  and  the  British  district  of 
Pi.iir-iA.  on  the   N.E    and  fj. E.   by   ihu  SAgar  und  Nei- 


li  11  u  — B  II  i: 


G31 


bnai  tcrrltoiy,  on  the  S.W.  by  tlie  possessions  of  HolkAr 
and  Sindliii,  and  on  the  N.W.  by  SindLid's  districts  and 
Oinatwiri.  Length  of  the  state  from  E.  to  \V'.,  157 
D/ilcs;  breadth  from  N.  to  S.,  7G  miles;  estimated  area, 
C704  square  miles.  The  surface  of  the  country  is  uneven, 
being  traversed  by  the  Vindhya  ranges,  a  peak  of  which 
near  Raysen  is  upwards  of  2500  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  general  inclination  of  the  country  is  towards  the 
north,  in  which  direction  mo*»  of  the  streams  of  the 
state  flow,  while  others,  passing  through  the  Vindhyan 
rangei,  flow  to  the  Narbadi  The  population  of  the  state 
is  estimated  at  GC3,C50,  comprising  Hindus,  Mahomet- 
ans, and  the  Gunds,  an  aboriginal  tribe.  Principal  crops : 
wheat,  Indian  corn,  oil-seeds,  pulses,  opium.  Chief  routes  : 
(I),  from  Sugar  through  the  town  of  Bhopil  to  the  British 
cantonment  of  Mhow;  (2),  from  Bhilsd  to  Hoshangdbad 
and  thence  to  iMhow  ;  (3),  from  HoshangAbid  to  Nimach ; 
(4),  from  Jabalpur  through  HoshangibAd  to  Mhow.  Prin- 
cipal towns  :  Lhopil  the  capital,  Islimnagar,  Asht.A,  Sihor, 
and  Riisen.  In  1871-72  the  annual  income  of  the  state 
was  estimated  at  £2-10,000.  Bhopdl  state  was  founded  in 
1723  by  Dost  Muhammad  Khin,  an  AfgliAn  adventurer. 
In  1818  a  treaty  of  dependence  was  concluded  between 
the  chief  and  the  British  Government.  Since  then  BhopAl 
Las  been  steadily  loyal  to  the  British  Government,  and 
during  the  mutiny  it  rendered  good  services.  The  present 
ruler  is  a  lady,  and  both  she  and  her  mother,  who  preceded 
her  as  head  of  the  state,  have  displayed  the  highest  ca- 
pacity for  administration.  Both  have  been  appointed 
Knights  of  the  Star  of  India,  and  their  territory  is  the 
best  governed  native  state  in  India. 

BHUTAN,  an  independent  kingdom  in  tho  Eastern 
Himilayas,  between  26°  and  28°  N.  lat.,  and  89°  and  93° 
E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  tho  N.  by  'lliibet ;  on  the 
E  by  a  tract  inhabited  by  various  uncivilized  independ- 
ent mountain  tribes ;  on  the  S.  by  the  British  province 
of  Assam,  and  the  district  of  Jalp.'iiguri  ;  and  on  the  W. 
by  the  independent  native  state  of  Sikim.  The  whole  of 
Bliutdn  presents  a  succession  of  lofty  and  nigged  moun- 
tains abounding  in  picturesque  and  sublime  scenery.  "  The 
jirospcct,"  says  Captain  Turner,  "  between  abrupt  and 
lofty  prominences  is  inconceivably  grand  ;  hills  clothed 
to  their  very  summits  with  trees,  dark  and  deep  glens, 
and  the  high  tops  of  mountains  lost  in  the  clouds,  con- 
stitute altogether  a  scene  of  extraordinary  magnificence 
and  sublimity."  As  might  be  expected  from  its  physical 
structure,  this  alpine  region  sends  out  numerous  rivers  in 
a  southerly  direction,  which,  forcing  their  passage 
through  narrow  deBles,  and  precipitated  in  cataracts  over 
the  precipices,  eventually  pour  themselves  into  the  Brah- 
maputra. One  torrent  is  mentioned  by  Turner  as  falling 
over  80  great  a  height  that  it  is  nearly  dissipated  in  mid-air, 
and  looks  from  below  like  a  jet  of  steam  from  boiling  water. 
Of  the  rivers  traversing  Bhutin,  tho  most  considerable  ia 
tho  ManAs,  flowing  in  its  progress  to  the  Brahmaputra 
under  the  walls  of  TAsgAon,  below  which  it  is  unfordable. 
At  the  foot  of  TAsgAon  Hill  it  is  crossed  by  a  suspension 
bridge.  The  other  principal  rivers  are  the  MAchu,  Tchin- 
cliu.  Torshi,  MAnchi,  and  DharlA. 

Previous  to  the  British  annexation  of  the  PwArs  from 
IHiutAn,  the  area  of  the  kingdom  was  reckoned  at  20,000 
eq.  miles.  The  population  of  the  country  now  remaining  to 
BhutAn  was  estimated  in  18G4  at  20,000  souls.  Later 
information,  however,  points  to  a  larger  figure.  The 
people  are  industrious,  and  devote  themselves  to  agricul- 
ture, but  from  the  geological  structure  of  tho  country,  and 
from  the  insecurity  of  property,  regular  husbandry  is 
limited  to  comparatively  few  spots.  The  people  are 
oppressed  and  poor.  "  Nothing  that  a  BhutiA  possesses  is 
lii)  own,"  wrote  the  British  envoy  in  1864  ;  "  ho  is  at  all 


times  liable  to  lose  it  if  it  attracts  the  cupidity  of  any  one 
more  powerful  than  himself.     The  lower  classes,  whether 
villagers   or   public   servants,  are  little  better   than    the 
slaves  of  higher  officials      In  regard  to  Ihcm  no  rights  of 
property  are  observed,  and  they  have  at  once  to  surrender 
anything  that  is  demanded  of  them.     There  never  wa.-s,  I 
fancy,  a  country  in  which  the  doctrine  of  '  might  is  right' 
formed  more  comjiletely  the  whole  and  sole  law  and  cus- 
tom of  the  laud   than    it   does    in    BhutAn.     No   oflicial 
receives  a  salary  ,  he  has  certain  districts  made  over  to 
him,  and  he  may  get  what  he  can  out  of  thein  ,  a  cerlais 
portion  of  his  gains  he  is  compelled  to  send  to  the  DarbAr, 
and  the  more  he  extorts  and  the  more  he  sends  to  his 
superior,  the  longer  his  tenure  of  office  is  likely  to   be  " 
Captain  Pemberton  thus  describes  their  moral  condition — 
"  I  sometimes  saw  a  few  persons  in  whom  the  demoralizing 
influences  of  such  a  state  of  society  had  yet  left  a  trace  of 
the  image  in  which  they  were  originally  created,  and  where 
the  feelings  of  nature  still  exercised  their  accustomed  in. 
fluence,  but  the  exceptions  were  rare,  and  although  I  have 
travelled  and  resided  amongst  various  savage  tribes  on  our 
frontiers,  I  have  never  yet  known  a  people  so  Wholly  degraded 
as  the  BhutiAs."     Physically  the  BhutiAs  are  a  fine  race, 
although   dirty  in   their  habits  and  persons.     Their  food 
consists  of  meat,  chiefly  pork,  turnips,  rice,   barley-meal, 
and  tea  made  from  the  brick-tea  of  China.     Their  favourite 
drink  is  chong,  distilled  from  rice  or  barley  and  millet,  and 
Marud,   beer   made    from   fermented    millet.      A   loose 
woollen  coat  reaching  to  the  knees,  and  bound  round  the 
waist  by  a  thick  fold  of  cotton  cloth,  forms  the  dress  ol 
the  men ;  the  women's  dress  is  a  long  cloak  with   loose 
sleeves.     The  houses  of  the  BhutiAs  are  of  three  and  font 
stories  ;  all  the  floors  are  neatly  boarded  with  deal  ;  and  on 
two  sides  of  the  house  is  a  verandah  ornamented  with 
carved    work    generally   painted.     Tho  BhutiAs  are  neat 
joiners,  and  their  doors,  windows,  and  panelling  are  perfect 
in  their  way.     No  iron-work  is  used  ;  the  doors  open  on 
ingenious  wooden  hinges.     The  appearance  of  the  houses 
is  precisely  that  of  Swiss  chalets,  picturesque  and  com- 
fortable— the  only  drawback   being  a  want  of  chimneys, 
which  the  BhutiAs  do  not  know  how  to  construct.     The 
people  nominally  profess  the  Buddhist  religion,  but  in 
reality  their  religious  exercises  are  confined  to  the   pro- 
pitiation of  evil  spirits,  and  the  mechanical  recital  of  a 
few  sacred  sentences.     Around  the  cottages  in  the  moun- 
tains   the  land  is  cleared  for  cultivation,  and  produces 
thriving  crops  of  barley,  wheat,  buckwheat,  millet,  mus- 
tard,   chillies,    ic.       Turnips   of    excellent    quality    are 
extensively  grown  ;  they  are  free  from  fibre  and  remark- 
ably  sweet.     The   wheat  and  barley   have  a  full   round 
grain,  and  the  climate  is  well  adapted  to  tho  production 
of  both  European  and  Asiatic  vegetables.     Potatoes  ha^e 
been  introduced.     The  BhutiAs  lay  out  their  fields  in  a 
series  of  terraces  cut  out   of  the  sides  of  tho  hills  ;  each 
terrace  is  rivetted  and  supported  by  stono  embankment"!, 
sometimes    twenty    feet    high.     Every  field  is  carefully 
fenced  with  pine  branches,  or  protected  by  a  stone  wall. 
A  complete  system  of  irrigation  permeates  the  whole  culti- 
vated part  of  a  village,  the  water  being  often  brought  from 
a  long  distance  by  stone  aqueducts.     BhutiAs  do  not  care 
to  extend   their  cultivation,  as   an  increased   revenue  is 
exacted  in  proportion  to  the  land  cultivated,  but  devote 
their  whole  energies  to  make  the  land  yield  twice  what  it 
is  estimated  to  produce.     The  forests  of  BhutAn  abound 
in  many  varieties  of  stately  trees.     Among  them  arc  the 
beech,  aah,   birch,   maple,   cypress,  and  yew.      Firs  and 
pines  cover  the  mountain  heights  ;  and  below  these,  but 
still  at  an  elevation  of  eight  or  nine  thousand  feet,  i^  a 
zone   of   vegetation,  consisting   princi[ially  of   oaks   and 
rhododendrons.     The  cinnamon  tree  is  also  found.     Soaic 


G32 


BHUTAN 


of  the  roots  and  brancnes  were  examined  by  Turner  during 
his  journey  to  Thibet ;  but  the  plant  being  neither  in 
blossom  nor  bearing  fruit,  it  was  impossible  to  decide 
whether  it  was  the  true  cinnamon  or  an  inferior  kind  of 
cassia.  The  leaf,  however,  corresponded  with  the  descrip- 
tion given  of  the  true  cinnamon  by  Linnaeus.  The  lower 
ranges  of  the  hills  abound  in  animal  life.  Elephants  are 
so  numerous  as  'to  be  dangerous  to  travellers ;  but  tigers 
arc  not  common,  except  near  the  River  Tist4.  Leopards 
atuund  m  the  Hah  valley;  deer  everywhere,  some  of  them  of 
a  very  large  species.  The  musk  deer  is  found  in  the  snows, 
and  the  barking  deer  OQ  every  hill  side.  Wild  hogs  are 
met  with  even  at  great  elevation;.  Large  squifrels  are 
common.  Bears  and  rhinoceros  are  also  found.  Pheas- 
ants, jungle  fowls,  pigeons,  and  other  small  game  abound. 
The  Bhutiis  are  no  sportsmen.  They  have  a  superstitious 
objection  to  firing  a  gun,  thinking  that  it  offends  the 
deities  of  the  woods  and  valleys,  and  brings  dovn\  rain. 
A  species  of  horse,  which  seems  indigenous  to  Bhutin, 
and  is  used  as  a  domestic  animal,  is  called  idnr/an,  from 
T4ngast4n,  the  general  appellation  of  that  assemblage  of 
mountains  which' constitutes  the  territory  of  Bhutdn.'  It 
is  peculiar  to  this  tract,  not  being  found  in  any  of  the  neigh- 
bouring countries  of  Assam,  Nep.'^l,  Thibet,  or  Bengal,  and 
unites  in  an  eminent  degree  the  two  qualities  of  strength 
and  beauty.  The  tdngan  horse  usually  stands  about 
thirteen  hands  high,  is  short  bodied,  ileanliiubed,  deep  in 
the  chest,  and  extremely  active,  his  colour  usually  inclining 
to  piebald.  In  so  barren  and  rude  a  country  the  manufac- 
turing industry  of  its  people  is,  as  might  be  expected,  in  a 
low  stage,  the  few  articles  produced  being  all  destined  for 
home  consumption.  These  consist  of  coarse  blankets  and 
cotton  cloths  made  by  the  villagers  inhabiting  the  .southern 
tract.  Leather,  from  the  hide  of  the  buffalo,  imperfectly 
tanned,  furnishes  tbe  soles  of  snow  boots.  Circular  bowls 
are  neatly  turned  from  various  woods.  A  small  quantity 
of  paper  is  made  from  a  plant  described  as  the  Daphne 
papyrifera.  Swords,  iron  spears,  and  arrow-heads,  and  a 
few  copper  caldrons  fabricated  from  the  metal  obtained  in 
the  country,  complete  the  list  of  manufactures.  The 
foreign  trade  of  Bhutdn  has  greatly  declined.  In  1809 
the  trade  between  Assam  and  Bliut.'in  amounted  to  X20,000 
per  annum,  the  Ipc,  madder,  silk,  ercndi  cloth,  and  dried 
fish  of  Assam,  being  exchanged  for  the  woollens,  gold-dust, 
salt,  musk,  horses,  and  silk  of  Bhutin.  At  present  very 
little  trade  is  carried  on  by  Bhutdn  %vith  the  neighbouring 
countries.  The  military  resources  of  the  country  are  on 
an  insignificant  scale.  Beyond  the  guards  for  the  defence 
of  the  various  castles,  there  is  nothing  like  a  standing 
array.  The  total  military  force  was  estimated  by  the 
British  envoy'in  1864  at  6000.  •  The  climate  of  Bhutdn 
varies  according  to  the  difference  of  elevation.  At  the 
lime  when  the  inhabitants  of  Pundkhd  (the  winter  resi- 
dence of  the  Rdjds)  are  afraid  of  exposing  themselves  to  the 
blazing  sun,  those  of  Ghdsi  experience  all  the  rigour  of 
winter,  and  are  chilled  by  perpetual  snows.  Yet  these 
places  are  within  sight  of  each  other.  The  rains  descend 
10  floods  upon  the  heights ;  'but  in  the  vicinity  of  Tdsi- 
eudon,  the  ca]iital,  they  are  moderate  ;  there  are  frequent 
showers,  but  nothing  that  can  be  compared  to  the  tropical 
rains  of  Bengal.  Owing  to  the  great  elevation  and  steep- 
ness of  the  mountains,  dreadful  storms  arise  among"  the 
hollows,  often  attended  with  fatal  results. 

fliitory. — Bhutdn  formerly  belonged  to  a  tribe  called 
bythe  Bhutids  Tephn,  generally  believed  to  have  been  the 
peo^ilo  of  Kuch  Bchar.  About  two  hundred  years  ago 
eomo  Thibetan  soldiers  subjugnted  llio  Tcplnis,  took  pos- 
eossion  of  the  country,  and  settled  down  in  it  At  the 
hood  of  the  Bhutdn  government  there  arc  nominally  two 
tupremo  authorities,  the  Dharm  R.Ajd,  the  spiritual  head. 


and  the  Deb  RAja,  tuo  temporal  iviicr.  To  aid  inesi* 
Rdjds  in  administering  the  country,  there  is  a  louniil  of 
permanent  ministers,  called  the  Leuehen.  Pmrticallv, 
however,  there  is  no  gever-.ment  all.  Subordinate  utiicers 
and  rapacious  governors  of  forts  wield  all  the  power  of  the 
state,  and  tyranny,  ojipiession,  and  anarchy  reign  oier 
the  whole  country.  The  Dharm  Rdjd  su.cceeds  as  uii 
incarnation  of  the  deity.  On  the  death  of  a  Dharni  Kdj.'i 
a  year  or  two  elapses,  and  the  new  incarnation  then  re- 
appears in  the  shape  of  a  child  who  generally  happens  to 
be  born  in  the  family  of  a  principal  olhcer.  Tlie  child 
establishes  his  identity  by  recoguiEiiig  the  cooking  utensils, 
(tc.,  of  the  late  Dharm  Rdjd  ;  he  is  then  trained  in  a 
monastery,  and  on  attaining  his  majority  is  recognized  as 
Rdjd,  though  he  exercises  no  more  real  autbonly  in  his 
majority  than  he  did  in  his  infancy.  The  Deb  Rdjd  is-jn 
theory  elected  by  the  council.  In  practice  he  is  m(;rely 
the  nominee  of  whichever  of  the  two  governors  of  East 
and  West  Bhutdn  happens  for  the  time  to  be  the  moio 
powerful  The  relations  of  the  British  with  Bhutdn  com- 
menced in  1772,  when  the  BLutids  invaded  the  principality 
of  Kuch  Behar,  a  dependency  nf-'Bengal.  'J  he  Kuch  Behar 
Rdjd  applied  for  aid,  and  a  force  under  Captain  James 
was  despatched  to  his  assistance  ;  the  invaders  were  ex- 
pelled and  pursued  into  their  own  territories.  Upon  the 
intercession  of  Tesh'u  Lama,  then  regent  of  Thibet,  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded  in  1774  between  the  East  India 
Company  and  the  ruler  of  Bhutdn.  In  1783  Captain 
Turner  was  deputed  to  Bliuldn,  with  a  view  of  promoting 
commercial  intercourse,  but  his  mission  proved  unsuccess- 
ful. From  this  period  liitle  intercourse  took  place  with 
Bhutdn,  until  the  occujiation  of  Assam  by  the  British  lu 
1826.  It  was  then  discovered  that  the  Bhutids  hud 
usurped  several  tracts  of  low  land  lying  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains,  called  the  Uwdrs  or  passes,  and  for  these  they 
agreed  to  pay  a  small  tribute  They  failed  to  do  so,  how- 
ever, and  availed  themselves  of  the  command  of  the  passes 
to  commit  depredations  within  the  British  territory.  Ca]>- 
tain  Pemberton  was  accordingly  deputed  to  Bhutdn  to 
adju.st  the  points  of  diflerence.  But  his  negotiations.yielded 
no  definite  result;  and  every  other  means  of  obtaining 
redress  and  security  proving  unsuccessful,,  the  Assam 
Dwdrs  were  wresteil  from  the  Bhutids,  and  (he  British 
Government  consented  to  pay  to  Bhutdn  a  sum  of  £1000 
per  annum  as  compensation  for  the  resumption  of  their 
tenure,  during  the  good  beh.aviour  of  the  I'^hutids.  Con- 
tinued outrages  and  aggressions  were,  however,  committed 
by  the  Bhutids  on  British  subjects  iu  the  Dwdrs.  Not- 
withstanding repeated  remonstrances  and  threats,  scarcely 
a  year  passed  without  the  ornurrence  of  several  raids  in 
Briti-sh  territory  headed  by  Bluitid  oflicials,  in  which  they 
plundered  the  inhabitants,  massacred  them,  or  carried  them 
away  as  slaves.  In  1863  Mr  Ashley  Eden  was  sent  as  an 
envoy  to  Bhutdn  to  demand  reparation  for  these  outrages. 
Ue  did  not  succeed  in  his  mission  ;  he  was  subjected 
to  the  grossest  insults  ;  and  under  compulsion  signed  a 
treiity  giving  over  the  disputed  territory  to  I'.huldn,  and 
making  other  concessions  which  the  Bhutdn  Government 
demanded.  On  Mr  Eden's  reiurn  the  viceroy  at  oneo 
disavowed  his  treaty,  sternly  stopped  the  former  allow- 
ance for  the  Assam  Dwdrs,  and  demanded  the  immedi- 
ate restoration  of  all  British  subjects  kidnapped  during 
the  last  five  years.  The  Bhutids  not  coiniilying  with 
this  demand,  the  Governor  General  issued  a  proclamation, 
dated  the  12th  November  18GI,  by  which  the  elevei» 
Western  or  Bengal  Dwdrs  were  forthwith  incorporated 
with  the  Queen's  Indian  dominions.  No  resi>lnnco  was 
at  first  offered  to  the  annexation  ;  but,  siiddenly,  iit 
January  1865,  the  Blnitids  surprised  the  Eiii;lisli  yflx- 
risiMi  at   Diwdngiri,   and    the   post    w.xs  abandoned  wilb 


13  1  A-  f?.  I  B 


633 


the  loss  of  two  moTintain  train  guns.  TLis  cisaster  wa3 
iooii  retrieved  by  General  Tumba,  aiij  the  Bhutids  were 
corDpelleti  to  sue  for  peace,  which  was  concluded  on  the 
I  ".h  November  1865.  The  BhuLAu  Government  formally 
Coded  all  the  eighteen  DwArs  of  Bengal  and  Assam,  with 
'he  rest  of  the  territory  taken  from  them,  and  agreed  to 

iberate  all  kidnapped  British  subjects.  As  the  revenues  of 
'.{hutdn  mainly  depended  on  these  DwArs,  the  British 
Government,  in  return  for  these  concessions,  undertook  to 
^lay  the  Deb  and  Dhirm  Rijis  annually,  subject  to  the 

ondition  of  their  continued  good  behaviour,  an  allowance 
'>eginning  at  £2500  and  rising  gradually  to  a  maximum  of 

ivice  that  amount.  Since  that  time  nothing  of  importance 
•las   occurred,  and   the  annexed  territories   have  settled 

lown  into  peaceful  and  prosperous  British  districts. 

BIAFRA,  a  tr.-ict  of  country  on  the  coast  of  Western 
Africa,  on  a  bay  or  bight  of  the  same  name.  Lander, 
ill  Jescending  the  Niger,  arrived  in  the  Bight  of  Biafra, 
*nd  thus  left  no  doubt  that  the  system  of  interraraiBed 
river-channels,  extending  from  Benin  to  Biafra,  constitutes 
the  delta  of  that  river.  The  Bight  of  Biafra,  or  Mafra,  is 
the  most  eastern  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  between 
Capes  Formosa  and  Lopez  ;  it  contains  the  islands  of 
Fernando  Po,  Prince's,  and  St  Thomas's. 

BIANCHINr,  Fra.vcis,  a  learned  Italian  astronomer 
and  antiquary,  was  born  at  Verona  in  1GG2,  of  a  noble 
and  ancient  family.  lie  was  educated  at  Padua,  and  de- 
voted himself  especially  to  mathematics  and  classics.  In 
I  iiS4  he  went  to  Rome,  and  wis  made  librarian  to  Cardinal 
Ottoboni,  afterwards  Pope  Alexander  VIII.  He  was  made 
canon  of  Sta  Maria  da  la  Rotoula,  and  afterwards  of  St 
Lorenzo  in  Damaso.  His  first  work  seems  to  have  been  a 
tiBatiso  directed  against  the  Copernican  system;  it  was 
published  about  IGSO.  In  1697  appeared  the  first  and 
only  volume  of  his  Universal  Ilislori/,  coming  down  to  the 
(.lose  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  His  later  works,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Uesperi  et  Phosphori  nova  Phceiiomena,  a 
8eries  of  observations  on  Venus,  were  ehielly  upon  the 
ruins  escavalcd  (5n  the  Via  Appia  and  Mount  Palatine. 
Ho  died  in  172;i 

BIARRITZ,  a  watering-place  in  the  south  of  France,  in 
tha  department  of  Basscs-Pyr^n^es,  on  the  seacoast  about 
five  miles  south-west  of  Bayonne.  From  a  mere  fishing 
village,  with  a  few  hundred  inhabitants,  in  the  beginning 
or  the  century,  it  rose  rapidly  iuto  a  place  of  importance 
under  the  patronage  of  the  late  emperor  Napoleon  III.  and 
thfl  empress,  with  whom  it  was  a  favourite  resort.  Excellent 
balhiog-grouud  is  afforded  by  the  Vieux  Port  and  the  various 
flieltered  bays  into  which  the  cliffs  of  this  part  of  the  copsi 
are  carved  by  the  swell  of  the  Atlantic  ;  and  the  irregular 
cuiinencea  and  promontories  supply  attractive  sites  for  the 
f  .'■I'ction  of  villas.  The  climate  is  delightful  and  bracing ;  and 
the  bareness  of  the  neighbourhood  has  been  considerably 
relieved  by  fir  plantations.  Except  tho  ruins  of  tVe  caslla 
of  Atalaye,  tho  lighthouse  of  Port  Hart,  the  Villa  Eug('nie, 
erected  for  the  empress  in  1855-1  Sort,  the  new  French 
church,  the  English  Protestant  church,  and  the  casino, 
there  is  no  building  with  special  claim  to  notice ;  the 
bathing  establishments,  cafds,  and  hotels  are  matters  of 
course,  but  these  are  at  least  not  unworthy  the  famo 
of  the  town.  Since  1863,  when  it  was  decided  that 
the  construction  of  a  new  port  was  a  matter' of  public 
ti!:lity,  large  sums  of  money  have  been  expended  in  the 
atli  mpt  to  form  a  satisfactory  breakwater,  but  the  severity 
of  the  winter  storms  has  frequently  interrupted  the  work. 
The'  permanent  population  of  Biarritz,  according  to  the 
census  of  1871,  was  3164;  and  the  autumn  visitors  are 
estimated  at  from  12,000  to  15,000. 

Si'e  Kusscll,  Biarritz  and  tfu  Basqnr  dyurUries,  1873. 

CIASj  0  native  of   Prieoe,  one  of  the  seven  sages  of 


Greece,  was  tho  son  of  Teutamus,  and  flourished  about 
the  middle  of  the  6th  century  B.C.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  eloquent  siKakers  of  his  time,  and  is  celebrated  as 
having  never  used  his  talents  for  purposes  of  mere  gain, 
but  as  having  devoted  them  to  the  service  of  the  injured 
and  oppressed  Many  stories  are  told  illustrative  of  the 
nobility  of  his  character  in  this  and  other  respects^  Ac- 
cording to  one  of  these,  when  his  native  town  was  taken 
by  an  enemy,  and  the  inhabitants  were  carrjTxig  ofif  what- 
ever seemed  to  each  most  valuable,  one  of  them,  observing 
Bias  without  any  burden,  advised  him  to  follow  his  example. 
"  I  am  doing  so,"  said  he,  "  for  I  carry  all  my  valuables 
with  me."  His  fellow-citizens  honoured  him  with  a  splendid 
funeral,  and  dedicated  to  him  a  sanctuary  which  they 
called  Teutamium.  He  is  said  to  have  written  an  heroic 
poem  on  the  affairs  of  the  lonians,  in  order  to  show  them 
how  they  might  be  most  prosperous.  A  great  number  of 
the  short,  pithy,  ethical  sayings  or  apophthegms  character- 
istic of  the  Greek  sages  arc  ascribed  to  Bias.  Of  these  a 
few  spei'imens  may. be  given — "  Be  slow  to  enter  on  an 
undertaking,  but  when  you  have  begun,  persevere  to  the 
end;"  "Know,  and  then  act;"  "Hear  much,  speak 
little;"  "Do  not  praise  an  unworthy  man  on  account  of 
his  wealth;''  "Take  (i.e.,  gain  your  end)  by  persuasion, 
not  by  force ; "  "  He  is  unfortunate  who  cannot  bear  mis- 
fortune ;"  "  So  order  your  affairs  as  if  your  life  were  to  be 
both  long  and  short."  Bias  is  the  author  of  th-3  famous 
and  often  imitated  reproof  to  the  impious  sailors,  who  in 
the  midst  of  a  tempest  were  calling  on  the  gods — "  Be 
quiet,"  said  he,  "  lest  the  gods  discover  that  you  are  here." 
(Diog.  Laert.,  i.  82-88  ;  Stobajus,  Floril.  ,  Muliach,  Fra^. 
Ph.  Grcec,  i.  203,  sqq.) 

BIBERACH,  a  town  of  VViirtemberg,  in  the  circle  of  the 
Danube,  a  capital  of  a  bailiwick  23  miles  S.S.W.  of  Ulm. 
It  is  situated  on  the  River  Riss,  a  small  tributary  of  the 
Danube,  partly  on  level  ground  and  partly  on  hills,  and 
still  has  a  somewhat  mediaeval  appearance  from  the  remains 
of  its  ancient  walls  and  towers.  Its  principal  church  dates 
from  the  12th  century,  and  it  possesses  a  hospital  with 
very  extensive  endowments.  The  main  objects  of  its' 
varied  industry  are  toys,  cloth  goods  of  diQ'erent  kinds, 
lace,  paper,  and  leather  ;  and  there  are  also  bell-foundries 
and  brewerie.s.  In  the'  neighbourhood  is  the  watering- 
place  called  Jordansbad.  Biberach  appears  as  a  village  in 
the  8th  century,  and  in  the  15th  it  became  a  free  imperial 
city.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  it  underwent  various 
vicissitudes,  and  was  for  a  good  while  held  by  the  Swedes. 
In  1707  it  was  capturc<l  and  put  to  ransom  by  the  French, 
who  afterwards,  in  1796  and  I  SCO,  defeated  the  Auslrians 
in  the  neighbourhood.  In  1803  the  city  was  deprived 
of  its  imperial  freedom  and  assigned  to.  Baden  ;  and  in 
180G  it  was  transferred  to  Wiirtemberg.  Biberach  is  the 
birthplace  of  the  sculptor  Natter  and  the  painter  Neher; 
and  Wicland,  who  was  born  at  the  neighbouring  village 
of  Oberholzheim,  spent  a  series  of  years  in  the  town. 

BIBIRINE,  or  Bebeeri.ne,  an  alkaloii  obtained  from 
the  bark  and  fruit  of  the  grcenhcart  tree,  Nectandra 
Rudiaei,  called  bibiru  or  sipiri  in  Guiana,  where  the  tree 
grows.  The  alkaloid  was  discovered  about  the  year  1835 
by  Hugh  Rodie,  a  surgeon  resident  in  Dcmerara,  who 
found  it  possessed  great  efficacy  as  a  febrifuge,  and  it 
was  recommended  by  him  as  a  substitute  for  quinine. 
Tho  sulphate  of  bibirine  has  a  place  in  the  British  phar- 
macopoeia, and  is  in  considerable  use  iu  medicine  'as  a 
bitter  tonic  and  febrifuge.  Bibirine  has  been  shown  by 
Walz  to  be  apparently  identical  with  an  alkaloid  obtained 
from  the  common  box,  Buivs  semperrirens,  called  buxine, 
and  this  opinion  is  to  some  extent  confirmed  by  DrFliicki- 
gcr.  Tho  Bulphato  of  bibirine  found  in  commerce  is  a 
dark  brown  substance  iii  thin  translucent  scales. 

UI.  —  8o 


634 


BIBLE 


Bible  fTlHE  word    BiBLE,  wbicb  in   English,  as  in   Media;va! 

I  Latin,  la  treated  as  a  singular  noun,  is  in  its  original 
Greek  form  a  plural. — ra  Ptfikla,  the  {sacred)  booh,— 
correctly  expressing  the  fact  that  the  sacred  writings  of 
CbristendoiD  ai.  made  up  of  a  number  of  independent 
records,  which  set  before  us  the  gradual  development  of 
the  religion  of  revelation.  The  origin  of  each  of  these 
records  forms  a  distinct  critical  problem  ;  and  for  the 
discussion  of  these  questions  of  detail  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  articles  on  separate  Biblical  books.  The  present 
article  seeks  to  give  a  general  account  of  the  historical  and 
literary  conditions  under  which  the  unique  literature  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  sprang  up,  and  of  the  way  in 
which  the  BibUcal  books  were  brought  together  in  a 
canonical  collection  and  handed  down  from  age  to  age. 
The  Biblical  development  is  divided  into  two  great  periods 
by  the  manii'eslatioii  and  historical  work  of  Christ.  In  its 
pre-Christian  stage  the  religion  of  revelation  is  represented 
tiS  a  covenant  between  the  spiritual  God  and  His  chosen 
people  the  Hebrews.  In  accordance  with  this  and  in  allusion 
to  Jer.  xxxi.  31,  Jesus  speaks  of  the  new  dispensation 
founded  in  His  death  as  a  new  covenanl  (1  Cor.  xi.  25). 
Hence,  as  early  as  the  2d  century  of  our  era  the  two  gi3at 
divisions  of  tlio  Bible  were  known  as  the  books  of  the  Old 
and  of  the  New  Covenant  respectively.  Among  Latin- 
Bpeaking  Christians  the  Greek  word  for  covenant  was  often 
Tc'iiiiieDt.  incorrectly  rendered  testament,  and  thus  Western  Christen- 
dom still  uses  the  names  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
Keli^'iii  of  Old  Testamen'T. — Struggle  and  Prcgrtss  of  Spiritual 
lsi«.^l.  Religion.  Priest^s,  Prophets,  &c. — The  pre-Christian  age  of 
the  Biblical  religion  falb  into  a  period  of  religious  produc- 
tivity and  a  subsequent  period  of  stagnation  and  mainly 
oouservative  traditions.  Tha  period  of  productivity  is  also 
a  period  of  contest,  during  which  the  spiritual  principles 
,  of  the  religion  of  revelation  were  involved  in  continual 
struggle  with  polytheistic  nature-worship  on  the  one  hand, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  with  an  unspiritual  conception  of 
Jehovah  as  a  God  whose  interest  in  Israel  and  care  for  His 
sanctuary  were  independent  of  moral  conditions.  In  this 
long  struggle,  which  began  with  the  foundation  of  the 
theocracy  in  the  work  of  Moses,  and  did  not  issue  in  con- 
clusive victory  until  the  time  of  Ezra,  the  spiritual  faith 
was  compelled  to  show  constant  powers  of  new  develop- 
ment,— working  out  into  ever  clearer  form  the  latent  con- 
trasts between  true  and  false  religion,  proving  itself  fitter 
than  any  other  belief  to  supply  all  the  religious  needs  of 
the  jieople,  and,  abovo  all,  finding  its  evidence  in  the  long 
providential  history  in  which,  from  the  gr.;at  deliverance 
of  the  Exodus  down  to  the  Captivity  and  the  Restoration, 
the  reality  of  Jehovah's  kingship  over  Israel,  of  Uis 
redeeming  love,  and  of  His  moral  government,  wore  vindi- 
cated by  the  most  indispul;ibie  proof.s.  As  it  was  only  the 
deliverance  from  Egypt  and  the  theocratic  covenant  ot 
Sinai  that  bound  the  Hebrew  tribes  into  national  unity, 
the  worship  of  Jehovah  was  always  acknowledged  as  the 
national  religion  of  Israel  But  from  Joshua  to  Samuel 
national  feeling  was  far  weaker  than  tribal  jealousy  ;  and 
in  the  political  disintegration  of  the  people  the  religion  of 
Jehovah  siiincd  ready  to  be  iost  in  local  superstitunis. 
rnesi>  uud  Ounug  this  pcrioil  the  chief  centre  of  nionolheisni  was  the 
propbi'ti.  s.iiK  tuary  and  priesthood  of  the  ark  ;  and  it  was  from  the 
priestly  circle  that  Samuel  arose  to  reunite  the  nation  by 
lecalling  it  to  the  religion  of  Jehovah,  and  thus  to  |)repuro 
the  way  for  the  splendid  age  of  David  and  Solomon  But 
thoiij;h  Saiiiuel  was  by  education  a  priest,  it  waa  not  as  a 
l>ric.it,  but  as  a  pio|'hct  that  ho  accomplLshed  this  work. 


In  all  ages  a  priesthood  is  conservative,  not  creal.ve;  and 
it  was 'only  as  a  growing  and  creative  power  that  the  still 
undeveloped  spiritual  religion  could  bve.  While  it  was 
the  business  of  the  priest  faithfully  to  preserve  religious 
tpaditions  already  acknowledged  as  true  and  venerable,  the 
characteristic  of  the  prophet  is  a  faculty  of  spiritual  intui- 
tion, not  gained  by  human  reason,  but  coming  to  him  as  a 
word  from  God  himself,  wherein  he  apprehends  religious 
truth  in  a  new  Ught,  as  bearing  in  a  way  not  manifest  to 
other  men  on  the  practical  necessities,  the  burning  questions 
of  tho  present.  Unlike  the  priesthood,  the  prophets  never 
formed  a  regular  guild.  It  was  an  axiom  that  the  gift  of 
prophecy  was  bestowed  by  the  inward  and  immediate  call 
of  Jehovah.  But  from  the  time  of  Samuel  we  find  a  regular 
succession  of  prophets  working  out  the  spiritual  jiroblems 
of  the  national  faith  with  ever  increasing  clearness,  and 
gathering  round  them,  sometimes  in  regularly  formed  com- 
munities, a  circle  of  disci(^les  and  sympathizers  which, 
though  never,  perhaps,  numerically  considerable,  embraced 
the  names  of  David  and  other  leaders  of  Hebrew  history, 
and  impressed  the  stamp  of  prophetic  influence  on  every 
part  of  the  national  life.  From  this  time  the  priests  holJ 
only  the  second  place  in  the  history  of  the  Old  Testament 
religion  ;  sometimes  they  even  appear  as  the  opponents  i/f 
the  prophetic  party,  whose  progressive  ideas  are  distasteful 
to  their  natural  conservatism  and  aristocratic  instincta 
But  on  the  whole,  the  more  enlightened  ministers  of  the 
central  sanctuary  continued  to  share  with  the  prophets  the 
tajik  of  upholding  a  lofty  religious  tradition,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  both  characters  were  united  in  one  person.  It 
was,  in  fact,  only  through  the  priests  that  the  ideas  of  the 
pri:n)hcts  could  receive  public  sanction  in  the  ordinances  of 
religion,  as  it  was  only  through  rulers  like  David,  or  Heze- 
kiah,  or  Jehu,  that  they  could  iufluenco  tlje  pohtical  conduct 
of  affairs. 

A  just  insight  into  thtr  work  of  the  prophetic  party  in  False 
Israel  was  long  rendered  diiBcult  by  traditional  prejudices,  views  of 
On  the  one  hand  the  predictive  element  in  prophecy  proph^y 
received  undue  prominence,  and  withdrew  attention  fiom 
the  influence  of  the  prophets  on  the  religious  life  of  their 
own  time  ;  whQe,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  assumed,  in 
accordance  with  Jewish  notions,  that  all  the  ordinances,  and 
almost,  if  not  quite,  all  the  doctrines  of  the  Jewish  church 
in  the  post-canonical  period,  existed  from  the  earliest  days 
of  the  theocracy.  The  prophets,  therefore,  were  conceived 
partly  as  in3[iired  preachers  of  old  truths,  partly  as  pre- 
dicting future  events,  but  not  as  leaders  of  a  great  dcvel  ip- 
ment,  in  which  the  religious  ordinances  as  well  as  t.'ie 
religious  beliefs  of  the  Old  Covenant  advanced  from  a 
relatively  crude  and  imper.'ect  to  a  relatively  mature  end 
adequate  form. 

The  proof  that  this  latter  view,  and  not  the  traditional 
conception,  is  alone  true  to  history  depends  on  a  variety  of 
arguments  which  cannot  hero  bo  reproduced      That  the 
rebgious  ideas  of  the  Old  Testament  were  in  a  state  of 
growth  during  the  whole  prophetic  period  became  manifest 
as  soon  a.i  the  laws  of  grammatico-historical  exegesis  were 
fairly  applied  to  the  Hebrew  Scriptures     That  the  eacrcd 
ordinances    were   subject   to   variation    was   less   readily  ITie  |in»- 
admitted,  because  the  admission  involved  a  change  of  view  plwts  auJ 
a,s  to  the  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  ;   but  hero  also  the  ""■  '"** 
facts  are  decisive.     For  example,  the  law  in  Exod.  xx.  24, 
f.,  contemplates  the  worship  of  Jehovah  on  other  altars 
than  that  of  the  central  sanctuary  (r/.    Dcut.   ixxiii.    1'.'). 
This  practice,  accordingly,  was  follnwed  by  Saniiu-1,  nnd  was 
fully  approved  by  Elijah  (1  Kings  xix.  11}     But  :he  wnroLip 


BIBLE 


635 


P'ipulW 

rrltfjioo. 


of  Jehovah  on  tin  bigh  places  or  local  eanctuariea  was 
constantly  exposed  to  superstitious  corruption  and  heathen 
admixture,  and  so  is  frequently  attacked  by  tho  prophets 
of  the  8th  century  It  was  undoubtedly  under  their 
influence  that  Ilezekiah  abolished  tho  high  places.  Tho 
cbolitioQ  was  not  permanent ;  but  in  tho  reign  of  Josiab, 
tho  next  reforming  king,  wo  find  that  the  principle  of  a 
single  sanctuary  can  claim  the  support  not  only  of  prophetic 
teachin;;,  but  of  a  written  lawbook  found  in  the  temple, 
and  acknowledged  by  the  high  priest  (2  Kings  iiiL,  xxiii.) 
The  legislation  of  this  book  corresponds  not  with  the  old 
.  law  in  Exodus,  but  with  the  book  of  Deuteronomy.  But 
perhaps  the  clearest  proof  that,  during  the  period  of  pro- 
photic  inspiration,  there  was  no  doctrine  of  finality  with 
regard  to  the  ritual  hiw  any  more  than  with  regard  to 
religious  ideas  and  doctrines,  lies  in  the  last  chapters  of 
Ezekiel,  which  sketch  at  tho  very  era  of  tho  Captivity  an 
outline  of  s.acred  ordinances  for  tho  future  restoration. 
From  these  and  similar  facts  it  follows  indLsputably,  that 
the  true  and  spiritual  religion  which  the  prophets  and  liko- 
minded  priests  liiamtained  at  once  against  heathenism  and 
against  unspiritual  worship  of  Jehovah  as  a  mere  national 
deity  without  moral  attributes,  was  not  a  hnished  but  a 
growing  system,  not  finally  embodied  in  authoritative 
documents,  but  propagated  mainly  by  direct  personal  efforts. 
At  the  same  time  these  personal  efforts  were  accompanied 
and  supported  by  the  gradual  rise  of  a  sacred  literature. 
Thoiigh  tho  priestly  ordinances  were  mainly  publi-shed  by 
oral  dadsipns  of  tho  priests,  which  are,  in  fact,  what  is 
usually  meant  by  the  word  law  (Torah)  in  writings  earlier 
than  tho  Captivity,  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that 
the  priests  possessed  written  legal  coUectii^n.s  of  greater  or 
less  extent  from  tb")  time  of  Moses  downwards.  Again, 
the  example  of  Ezekiel,  and  the  obvious  fact  that  the  law- 
book found  at  the  time  of  Josiah  contained  provisions 
which  were  not  up  to  that  time  an  acknowledged  part  of 
the  law  -of  the  land,  makes  it  probable  that  legal  provisions, 
which  the  prophets  and  their  priestly  allies  felt  to  be 
necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  tho  truth,  were  often 
embodied  in  legislative  progTammcs,  by  which  previous 
legal  tradition  was  gradually  modilJed.  Then  the  prophets, 
especially  when  they  failed  to  produce  immediate  reforma- 
tion, began  from  the  8tb  century,  if  not  still  earlier,  to 
:oramit  their  oracles  to  writing;  and  these  wTitten  pro- 
phecies— circulating  widely  in  a  nation  which  had  attained 
0  high  degree  of  literary  culture,  .ind  frequently  cited  by 
Later  seers — dis.seminatcd  prophetic  teaching  in  a  permanent 
form  Long  before  this  time  music  and  song  had  been  prac- 
tised in  the  prophetic  circle  of  Samuel,  and  were  introduced 
under  David  into  tho  service  of  the  sanctuary.  Another 
important  vehicle  of  religious  instruction  was  the  written 
history  of  the  nation,  wliicli  could  not  fail  to  be  generally 
set  forth  in  the  theocratic  spirit  in  which  all  loftier 
Hebrew  patriotism  had  its  root  And,  indeed,  the  literary 
diffusion  of  spiritual  ideas  was  not  confined  to  the  direct 
efforts  of  priests  and  prophets  In  spite  of  the  crass  and 
unspiritual  character  of  the  ma.ss  of  the  people,  the  noblest 
traditions  of  national  life  were  entwined  with  religious  con- 
victions, and  the  way  in  v  hich  a  prophet,  like  Amos,  could 
arise  untrained  from  among  the  herdsmen  of  the  wildcriicss 
of  Jndah,  shows  how  deep  and  pure  a  current  of  spiritual 
faith  flowed  among  the  more  thoughtful  of  tho  laity. 
I'rophecy  lUolf  may  from  ono  point  of  view  be  regarded 
simply  as  the  brightest  efflorescence  of  the  lay  element  in 
the  religion  of  Israel,  tho  same  element  which  in  subjective 
form  underlies  many  of  tho  Psalms,  and  in  a  shape  less 
highly  developed  tinged  tho  whole  proverbial  and  popular 
literature  of  the  nation;  for  in  tlw  Hebrew  commonwealth 
popular  literature  had  not  yet  sunk  to  represent  the  lowest 
impulses  of  national  life. 


Clou  of  the  Old  Testament- Development.  Formation  oj 
the  Canon. — The  struggle  between  spiritual  and  unspiritual  Tlie  Exilr 
religion  was  brought  to  a  crisis  when  the  prophetic  piedic  ai'd  '5e- 
tions  of  judgment  on  national  sin  were  fulfilled  in  the  fall  storaiioo. 
of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  The  aierely  political  worshi]) 
of  Jehovah  as  the  tutelary  god  of  the  state  was  now  reduced 
to  absurdity.  Faith  in  the  covenant  God  was  impossible 
except  on  the  principles  of  spiritual  belief.  Nor  did  the 
restoration  by  Cyrus  afl"ect  this  result.  No  political  future 
lay  before  the  returning  exiles,  and  continued  confidence  in 
the  destiny  of  the  race  was  not  separable  from  the  religions 
ideas  and  Messianic  hopes  of  the  prophets.  To  obey  the 
law  of  Jehovah  and  patiently  to  await  the  comin" 
Deliverer  was  the  only  distinctive  vocation  of  the  com- 
munity that  gathered  in  the  new  Jerusalem ;  and  after 
a  period  of  misfortune  and  failure,  in  which  the  whole 
nation  seemed  ready  to  collapse  in  despair,  this  vo'-a- 
tion  was  clearly  recognized  and  embodied  in  permanent 
institutions  in  the  reformation  of  Ezra  and  Nehcmiah  (44.5  R<-iorm.-> 
D.c.)  But  with  this  victory  the  spiritual  religion  passed  J'""  ■""* 
into  n  stationary  state.  Tho  spirit  of  prophecy;  long  '•''''■'^''^ 
decadent,  expired  with  Malachi,  the  younger  contemporary  - 
of  Nehcmiah  ;  and  the  whole  concern  of  the  nation  from 
this  time  downwards  was  simply  to  preserve  the  .sacred 
inheritance  of  the  past  The  E.xile  had  so  utterly  broken 
all  continuity  of  national  life,  that  that  inheritance  could 
only  be  sought  in  the  surviving  monuments  of  sacred 
literature.  To  these,  more  than  to  tho  expiring  voice  of 
prophecy  in  their  niidst,  the  founders  of  the  new  theocracv 
turned  for  guidance.  The  books  that  had  upheld  the 
exiles'  faith,  when  all  outward  ordinances  of  religion  wrro 
lacking,  were  ahso  the  fittest  teachers  of  the  restored  com- 
munity.  Trevious  reformers  had  been  statesmen  or  pro- 
phets. Ezra  is  a  scribe  who  comes  to  Jerusalem  armed, 
not  with  a  fresh  message  from  the  Lord,  but  with  "(he 
book  of  the  law  of  Moses."  This  law  book  was  the  PeiTta 
teuch,  and  the  public  recognition  of  it  as  the  rule  of  the 
theocracy  was  the  declaration  that  the  religious  ordinance."* 
of  Israel  had  ceased  to  admit  of  development,  and  the  first 
step  towards  the  substitution  of  a  canon  or  authoritative 
collection  of  Scriptures  for  tho  living  guidance  of  the 
prophetic  voice.  A  .second  step  in  the  same  direction  i/» 
ascribed  to  Nehemiah  by  a  tradition  intrinsically  probablf . 
though  of  no  great  external  authority.  He,  it  is  8;i:d, 
collected  a  library  which,  besides  documents  of  temper.. ry 
importance,  embraced  "tho  books  about  the  kings  i.'id 
prophets,  and  the  writings  of  David"  (2  Mac.  ii.  1'.. ) 
Certainly  a  complete  body  of  the  remains  of  the  proph  i*. 
with  an  authentic  account  of  the  hi.story  of  tho  period  of 
their  activity,  must  soon  have  been  felt  to  be  scarofly 
second  in  importance  to  the  law  ;  and  so  Nehemiah  may 
very  well  be  supposed  to  have  begun  the  collection  which 
now  forms  the  secosd  part  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  embracing, 
under  the  gener.al  title  of  The  Proplicts,  the  historical  books  .Sccor.fl 
of  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings  (Earlier  Pro]>hcls),  and  canon, 
tb-;  four  prophetic  books  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and 
the  twelve  minor  prophets  (/,a«fr /'rop^o^i).  The  mention 
of  the  writings  of  David  implies  that  Nehemiah  also  began 
the  formation  of  the  third  and  tost  part  of  Hie  Hebrew 
canon,  which  comprises,  undJr  the  title  of  Kelubim  (Scrip  Tlnrfi 
tures,  Hagiographa),  the  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  tho  five  canon. 
MegUIot  or  rolls  (Canticles,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Eerie- 
siastcs,  Esther),  and,  finally,  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and 
Chronicles.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  this  part  of  Ibe 
collection  was  not  completed  till  long  after  Nehcmiah'a 
time ;  for  to  say  nothing  of  the  disputed  dates  of  Ecclesiiistes 
and  Daniel,  tho  book  of  Chronicles  contains  gcncalogiej) 
which  go  down  at  least  to  the  close  of  the  Persian  jieriod. 
The  miscellaneous  charactc  of  the  Ketubim  seemi".  in 
(act,  to  show  that  after  the  Law  and  the  I'rophcti  «if» 


G36 


B  I  B  T.  L 


closed,  the  third  part  of  the  canon  was  open  to  receive 
additions,  recommended  either  by  their  religious  and  his- 
torical value,  or  by  bearing  an  ancient  and  venerable  name. 
And  this  was  the  more  natural  because  the  Hagiographa 
had  not  the  same  place  in  the.  synagogue  service  as  was 
accorded  to  the  Law  and  the  Prophets. 

The  time  and  manner  in  which  the  collection  was  abso- 
lutely closed  is  obscure.     The   threefold  division  of   the 
sacred  writings  is  referred  to  in  the  prologue  to  the  Wisdom 
of   Sirach   (Ecclesiasticus)   about    130    B.C.,   but   Jewish 
tradition  indicates  that  the  full  canonicity  of  several  books, 
especially  of  Ecclesiastes,  w-as  not  free  from  doubt  till  the 
■me  of  the  famous  R.  Akiba,  who  perished  in  the  great 
national  struggle  of  the  Jews  with  the  Emperor  Hadrian 
(Mishna,   Jadaim,    3 ;    Edaiot,    5).     The   oldest   list   of 
canonical  books,  given  by  Josephua  (c.  Apion.,  i.  8),  is  of 
somewhat  earUer  date.     Josephus  seems  to  have  had  quite 
our  present  canon ;  but  he  took  Ruth  along  with  Judges,  and 
viewed  Lamentations  a',  part  of  the  book  of  Jeremiah,  thus 
Numtxtof   counting  twenty-two  books  instead  of  the  twetity-four  of 
canonical  •    the  Talmudic  enumeration  and  of  the  present  Hebrew  Bible. 
tiooks.  There  is  other  evidence  that  only  twenty-two  books  were 

reckoned  by  the  Jews  of  the  first  Christian  century  ;  and 
it  appears  that  this  number  was  accommodated  to  that  of 
ihe  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  Even  in  the  time  of 
Jerome,  Ruth  and  Lamentations  were  not  uniformly 
reckoned  apart.  The  expansion  of  the  Talmudic  twenty- 
four  to  the  thirty-nine  Old  Testament  books  of  the  English 
version  is  eS'ected  by  reckoning  the  minor  prophets  one  by 
one,  by  separating  Ezra  from  Nehemiah,  and  by  subdividing 
the  long  books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles.  In  this 
reckoning,  and  in  the  very  different  order  of  the  books, 
we  follow  in  the  main  the  Alexandrian  Greek  and  Vulgate 
Latin  versions.  But  the  Alexandrian  differed  from  the 
Altiaa-  Hebrew  canon  in  more  important  points.  The  line  of 
'^'■''  distinction  between  inspired  and  human  writings  was  not 

"'■'■°^-  so  sharply  drawn  ;  and  the  Greek  Bible  not  only  admitted 
additions  to  several  of  the  Hagiographa,  but  contained 
other  apocryphal  books,  of  some  of  which  Greek  vas  the 
original  tongue,  while  others  were  translations  of  Hebrew 
or  Aramaic  writings.      See  Apocrypha. 

In  turning  now  to  a  literary  and  critical  survey  of  the 
Old  Testament  books,  we  shall  find  it  convenient  to  depart 
from  the  division  of  the  Hebrew  canon,  in  favour  of  a 
classification  suggested  by  the  order  of  the  books  followed 
in  the  English  version  and  in  most  other  translations.  The 
Old  Testament  literature  is  made  up  of  historical,  poetico- 
didactic,  and  prophetic  writings,  and  under  tficse  three 
heads  we  will  arrange  what  remains  to  be  said  on  the 
subject. 

U'sloncal  Boohs. — These  form    two    parallel  scries   of 

sacred  liistory.     The  books  from  Gcnc.'iis  to  Kings  give  a 

continuous  story  (with  some  episodical  additions)  from  the 

creation  to  the  fall  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.     The  book 

TheChroai-  of  Chronicles  covers  the  same  ground  on  a  narrower  plan, 

«ifs.  contracting  the  early  history  into  genealogical  lists,  and 

occupying  itself  almost  entirely  with  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 

iind  especially  with  matters  connected  with  the  temple  and 

its  worship.     The  narrative  of  the  chronicler  is  continued 

ia  the  books  or  rather  book  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  which 

incorporates  original  memoirs  of  these  two  reformers,  but 

otherwise  is  so  exactly  in  the  style  of  the  Chronicles  that 

critics  are  practically  agreed  in  ascribing  the  whole  to  a 

single  author,  probably  a  Levite,  who,  as  we  have  already 

seen,  caijnot  have  written  before  the  close  of  the  Persian 

eiijpire.     The  questions  that  arc  raised  as  to  the  work  of 

.   Ihc  jbronicler  belong  less  to  the  general  history  of  Biblical 

ltc'->turc  than    to   special    introduction.      We   pass   on, 

then  fore,  to  the  larger  and  more  important  series.     The 

Pcntatouch  aud  the  so-called  earlier  prophets  form  together  a 


single  continuous  narrative.  It  is  plain,  however,  tuat  the  Genesis  to 
whole  work  is  not  the  uniform  production  of  one  pen,  but  Kings— 
that  in  some  way  a  variety  of  records  of  diflerent  ages  an(i  '-.'""S'" 
styles  have  been  combined  to  form  a  single  narrative  '^  "^' 
Accordingly^  Jewish  tradition  bears  that  Moses  wrote  the 
Pentateuch,  Joshua  the  book  named  after  him,  Samuel  tho 
book  of  Judges,  and  so  forth.  As  all  Hebrew  history  is 
anonymous, — a  sure  proof  that  people  had  not  yet  learned 
to  lay  weight  on  questions  of  authorship, — it  i-s  not  probabla 
that  this  tradition  rests  on  any  surer  ground  than  con- 
jecture ;  and,  of  course,  a  scribe  who  saw  in  the  sacred 
books  the  whole  outcome  of  Israel's  history  would  naturally  • 
leap  to  the  conclusion  that  the  father  of  the  Law  was  the 
author  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  that  the  other  leaders  of 
Israel's  history  could  not  but  be  the  writers  of  a  great  part 
of  the  Scriptures.  A  more  careful  view  of  the  books  them- 
selves shows  that  the  actual  state  of  the  case  is  not  so 
simple.  In  the  fir.st  place,  the  limits  of  the  individual 
books  are  certainly  not  the  limits  of  authorship.  The 
Pentateuch  as  a  law-book  is  complete  without  Joshua,  but 
as  a  history  it  is  so  planned  that  the  latter  book  is  its 
necessary  complement.  {C'f-,  for  example,  Exod.  xvi.  35, 
Josh.  V.  12;  Gen.  1.  24,  25;  Exod.  xiii.  19;  Josh.  xxiv.  32.) 
In  truth,  an  author  who  wrote  after  the  occupation  of 
Canaan  could  never  have  designed  a  history  which  should 
relate  all  God's  promises  tc  Israel  and  say  nothing  of  their 
fulfilment.  But  in  its  present  shape  the  Pentateuch  is 
certainly  subsequent  to  the  occupation,  for  it  uses  geo- 
graphical names  which  arose  afto^that  time  (Hebron,  Dan), 
refers  to  the  conquest  as  already  accomplished  (Deut.  ii 
12,  c/.  Num.  XV,  32;  Gen.  xii.  6),  and  eveit  presupposes 
the  existence  of  a  kingship  in  Israel  (Gen.  xsxvi.  31),  And 
with  this  it  agrees,  that  though  there  are  marked  difl'ercnces 
of  style  and  language  within  the  book  of  Joshua,  each  style 
finds  its  counterpart  in  some  section  of  the  Pentateuch. 
In  the  subsequent  books  we  find  quite  similar  phenomena. 
The  last  chap'  ,rs  of  Judges  cannot  be  separated  from  the 
book  of  Samuel,  and  the  earlier  chapters  of  Kings  are 
obviously  one  with  the  foregoing  narrative  ;  while  all  three 
books  contain  passages  strikingly  akin  to  p.arts  of  the 
Pentateuch  and  Joshua  (c/.,  for  example,  the  bock  of 
Deuteronomy  with  Josh,  xxiii.,  1  Sam.  xii,,  1  Kings  viii.) 
Such  phenomena  not  only  prove  the  futility  of  any  attempt 
to  base  a  theory  of  authorship  on  the  present  division  into 
books,  but  suggest  that  the  history  as  we  have  it  is  not  one 
narrative  carried  on  from  age  to  age  by  successive  addi- 
tions, but  a  fusion  of  several  narratives  which  partly 
covered  the  same  ground  and  were  combined  into  unity  by 
an  editor.  This  view  is  supported  by  the  fact,  that  even  as  Duplicrv* 
it  now  stands  the  history  sometimes  gives  more  than  one  Uistorie* 
account  of  the  same  everit,  and  that  the  Pentateuch  often 
gives  several  laws  on  the  same  subject.  Of  the  latter  we 
have  already  had  one  example,  but  for  our  present  argu- 
ment the  ma\n  point  is  not  diversity  of  enactment,  which 
may  often  be  only  apparent,  but  the  existence  within  the 
Pentateuch  of  distinct  groups  of  laws  partly  taking  up  the 
same  topics.  Thus  the  legislation  of  Exod.  xx. -xxiii.  is 
partly  repeated  in  ch.  xxxiv.,  and  on  the  passover  and 
feast  of  unleavened  bread  we  have'  at  least  six  laws,  which 
if  not  really  discordant,  are  at  least  so  divergent  in  form 
and  conception  that  they  ranpiot  be  all  from  the  same  pea 
(Exod.  xii.  1-28,  xiii.  3-10,  xxni  15,  xxxiv.  18;  Lev. 
xxiii.  5-14,  Deut.  xvi.)  Of  historical  duplicates  the 
most  celebrated  are  the  twofold  history  of  tho  creation 
and  tile  flood,  to  which  we  must  recur  presently.  The 
same  kind  of  thing  ia  found  in  the  later  bouks ;  for 
example,  in  the  account  of  (he  way  in  which  Saul  became 
king,  where  it  is  scarcely  po.ssible  to  avoid  tho  conclusicio 
that  1  Sam.  xL  1-11  should  att.irh  directly  to  ch.  %■  16 
{cf  i:  7),     But  tho  extent  to  which  the  historical  books  are 


BIBLE 


G3^ 


the  PcnUi 


Pricllv, 
prupiift»c. 
mil  popti. 


mide  up  of  parallel  narratives  whicn,  though  they  cover  the 
barao  period,  do  not  ntjcessarily  record  the  same  events,  was 
trst  clearly  seen  after  Astruc(1753  ad.)  obser/ed.tiiat  the 
respective  uses  of  Jehovah  (Lord)  .ind  Elohim  (God)  as  tlie 
name  of  the  Deity  aS'ord  a  criterion  by  which  two  docuojcnts 
can  bo  dissected  out  of  the  book  of  Genesis.  That  the 
way  in  which  the  two  nimes  are  used  can  only  be  due  to 
ditl'ercnce  of  authorship  is  now  generally  adnutlod,  for  the 
alternation  corresponds  with  such  important  duplicates  as 
the  two  accounts  of  creation,  and  is  regularly  accompanied 
through  a  great  part  of  the  bouk  by  unmistakable 
peculiarities  of  language  and  Ihoupht,  so  that  it  is  still 
possible  to  reconstruct  at  least  the  Elohim  document  with 
a  completeness  which  makes  its  original  independence  and 
homogeneity  matter  of  direct  observation.  The  character 
of  this  narrative  is  annalistic,  and  where  other  material 
fads  blanks  are  supplied  by  genealogical  li^ts.  Great 
weight  is  laid  on  orderly  development,  and  the  name 
Jehovah  is  avoided  in  the  history  of  the  patriarchs  in  order 
to  give  proper  contrast  to  the  Mosaic  period  (cf.  Gen. 
ivii  1  ;  Exod.  vi.  3) ;  and,  accordingly,  we  find  that  the 
unmistakable  secondary  marks  of  this  author  run  through 
the  whole  Pentateuch  and  Joshua,  though  the  exclusive 
use  of  Elohim  ceases  at  Exod.  vi.  Of  course  the  disappear- 
iince  of  this  criterion  makes  it  less  easy  to  parry  on  an 
e.^act  reconstruction  of  the  later  parts  of  the  document  ; 
but  on  many  points  there  can  be  no  uncertainty,  and  it  is 
clearly  made  out  that  the  author  has  strong  priestly 
tendencies,  and  devotes  a  very  large  proportion  of  his  space 
to  liturgical  matters.  The  separation  of  this  document 
may  justly  bo  called  the  point  of  departure  of  positive 
criticism  of  the  sources  of  the  Old  Testament ;  and  present 
controversy  turns  mainly  on  its  relation  to  other  parts  of 
ihe  Pentateuch.  Of  these  the  most  important  are — I. 
The  Jehovistic  narrative,  which  also  begins  with  the  crea- 
tion, and  treats  the  early  history  more  in  the  spirit  of 
prophetic  theology  and  ideajism,  containing,  for  example, 
the  narrative  of  the  fall,  and  the  parts  of  the  history  of 
Abraham  which  are  most  important  for  Old  Testament 
theology.  That  this  narrative  is  not  a  more  supplement 
to  the  other,  but  au  independent  whole,  appears  most  plainly 
in  the  story  of  the  flood,  where  two  distinct  accounts  have 
certainly  been  interwoven  by  a  third  hand.  2.  Many  of 
ths  finest  stories  in  Genesis,  especially  great  part  of  the 
history  of  Joseph,  agree  with  the  Elohim-docuinent  in  the 
name  of  God,  but  are  widely  divergent  in  other  respects. 
Since  the  researches  of  Hupfeld.  a  third  author,  belonging 
to  northern  Israel,  and  specially  interested  in  the  ancestors 
of  the  northern  tribes,  is  generally  postulated  for  these 
Gectioiis.  His  literary  individuality  is  in  truth  sharply 
marked,  though  the  limits  of  hia  contributions  to  the 
/Pentateuch  are  obsicure. 

It  will  be  remembored  that  we  have  already  seen  that 
three  currents^f  influence  run  through  the  OLi  Tesitamcnt 
development, — the  traditional  lore  of  the  priests,  the 
teaching  of  the  prophets,  and  the  religibus  life  of  the  more 
enbghtened  of  the  people.  Now,  in  the  three  main 
sections  of  the  early  history  just  enumerated  we  find  the 
counterpart  of  each  of  these.  The  priestly  narrative  of  the 
Elohist,  the  prophetic  delineation  of  the  Jeh'ovi.st,  the  more 
picturesque  and  popular  story  of  the  third  author,  embody 
three  tendencies,  wh«ch  are  not  merely  personal  but 
national,  and  which  constantly  reappear  in  other  part-s  of 
Hebrew  literature.  Up  to  the  book  of  Joshua  ail  three 
run  side  by  side.  But  the  priestly  interest  found  little 
scope  in  the  subsequent  history  ;  and  from  the  time  of  the 
Judges  we  can  generally  distinguish  o  My  sections  marked  by 
prophetic  pragmatism  and  others  which,  though  distinctly 
religious  and  even  theocratic,  are,  so  to  speak,  virritten  from 
•  lAvman's  stand-points     The  latter  comprise  a  largo  part 


of  Jiidgcs,  and  by  far  the  greatest  part  of  Samuel,  as  well 
as  the  beginning  of  Kings,  To  the  modern  niiiid  this  part 
of  the  narrative,  which  is  rich  in  colour  and  delad,  is  by 
far  the  most  interesting,  and  it  is  with  sincere  rcgrei  that 
we  pass  at  1  Kings  xi  to  a  division  of  the  history  for 
which  the. chief  sources — cited  as  the  Chronicles  of  llJe 
Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  respectively — treat  almost 
exclusively  of  the  (•Jtcr  political  life  of  the  nation.  Id 
striking  contrast  fo  the  uniformity  of  this  narrative  are  the 
interspersed  histories  of  Elijah  and  other  northern  prophets. 
These  histories  are  very  remarkable  in  style  a.^  even  in 
language  ;  and.  conlaiuing  tome  of  the  noblest  passages  of 
the  Old  Testament,  form  onc-of  many  proofs  of  the  unusual 
literary  genius  of  the  kingdom  of  Ephraini  But  how  are 
these  various  narratives  related  to  each  other  1  This 
question  is  not  easy  to  answer.  In  general  the  third  or  lay 
element  of  the  hii^tory  seems  to  stand  nearest  to  the  events 
recorded,  and  even,  perhaps,  to  form  the  direct  basis  of  the 
prophetical  matter;  while,  occasionally,  old  lists  of  names 
and  places,  poetico-historical  pieces,  and  the  like,  form  a 
still  deeper  stratum  in  the  story.  (Poetical  pieces  in  the 
DcMk  of  the  Wars  of  Jehmah,  Num.  xxi.  14  ;  book  of  Jashar 
[the  upright],  Josh  i,  13,  2  Sam  i.  Lists  like  2  Sam. 
xsiii.)  Whether  the  same  hands  or  only  (he  same  tend- 
encies as  appear  in  the  non-Levitical  jxirts  of  Genesis  nn 
on  as  far  as  the  book  of  Kings,  is  a  question  which,  though 
answered  in  the  afllimative  by  Schrader  and  others,  cannot 
be  viewed  as  decided.  Even  the  date  of  these  elements 
of  the  Pentateuch  is  obscure,  but  in  the  8th  centur) 
Rosea  refers  quite  clearly  to  passages  of  both.  Thus  fai 
there  is  tolerable  agreement  among  critics  ,  but  the  Levi- 
lical  or  Elohistic  history  is- the  subject  of  violent  controversy, 
which,  however,  turns  mainly  on  the  analysis  of  the  leg.il  Thr  u«. 
parts  of  the  Pentateuch  These  contain  other  elements  "'  tl"  r. 
besiiles  those  already  enumerated,  of  which  we  need  only  '"«'"^'> 
mention  the  brief  code  which  follows  the  Decalogue 
in  Exod.  xx'.-xxiii.,  and  the  great  repetition  of  the  law  in 
a  prophetic  spirit  which  occupies  the  major  part  of  Deu- 
teronomy. Both  these  codes  may  be  called  popular  in 
tone  They  are  precepts  not  for  the  priests,  but  for  the 
whole  people  ,  and  the  former  is  the  fundamentnl  sketch 
of  thewhole  theocratic  constitution,  which  the  latter  i'evelops 
and  to  some  extent  alters  Now  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  Deutero- 
presents  a  quite  distinct  type  uf  style  which,  as  has  been  °<""y 
already  mentioned,  recurs  from  lime  to  time  in  passages  of 
the  later  books,  anl  that  in  such  a  connection  as  to  suggest 
to  many  critics  since  Graf  the  idea,  that  the  Deuteronomic 
hand  is  the  hand  of  the  last  editor  of  the  whole  history 
from  Genesis  to  Kings,  or,  at  least,  of  the  non-Levitical 
parts  thereof.  This  conclusion  is  not  stringent,  for  a  good 
deal  may  te  said  in  favour  of  the  view  that  the  Deuteronomic 
style,  which  is  very  capable  of  imitation,  was  adopted  by 
writers  of  different  periods.  But  even  so  it  is  difficult  to 
suppose  th.at  the  legislative  part  of  Deutoiciiomy  is  as  old 
as  Moses.  If  the  law  of  the  kingdom  in  Deut  xvu.  was 
known  in  the  time  of  the  Judges,  it  is  impossible  to  com 
prebend  Judg.  viii.  23,  and  above  all  1  Sam.  viii  7  That 
the  law  of  high  places  given  in  this  part  of  the  Pentateuch 
was  not  acknowledged  till  the  time  of  Josiah,  and  was  not 
dreamed  of  by  Samuel  and  Elijah,  we  have  already  seen. 
The  Deuteronomic  law  is  familiar  to  Jeremiah,  the  younger 
contemporary  of  Josiah,  but  is  referred  to  by  no  prophet  of 
earlier  date.  And  the  whole  theological  stand-point  of  the 
book  agrees  exactly  with  the  period  of  prophetic  literature, 
and  gives  the  highest  and  most  spiritual  view  of  the  law, 
to  which  our  Lord  himself  directly  attaches  liis  teaching, 
and  which  cannot  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
theocratic  development  without  making  the  whole  history 
unintelligible.  Beyond  doubt  the  book  is, as  already  hinted, 
a  prophetic  legislative  programme  ;  and  if  the  author  put 


638 


BIBLE 


his  work  in  the  month  of  Moses  instead-of  .giving  it,  with 
Ezekiel,  a  directly  prophetic  form,  he  did  so  not  in  pious 
fraud,  but  aiiBply  because  his  object  was  not  to  give  a  new 
law,  but  to  expouDd  and  develop  Mosaic  pnnciples  in 
relation  to  new  needs.  ■  And  as  ancient  writers  are  not 
accustomed  .to  distinguish  historical  data  from  historical 
deductions,  he  naturally  presents  his  views  in  dramatic  form 
in  the  mouth  of  Moses.  If  then  the  Deuteronomic  legisla- 
tion is  not  earlier  than  the  prophetic  period  of  the  8th  and 
7th  centuries,  and,  accordingly,  is  subsequent  to  the  elements 
of  the  Pentateuchal  history  which  we  have  seen  to  be 
known  to  Hosea,  rt  is  plain  that  the  chronology  of  the  com- 
position of  the  Pentateuch  may  be  said  to  centre  m  the 
question  whether  the  Levitico-Elohistio  document,  which 
embracas  most  of  the  laws  in  Leviticus  with  large  parts  of 
Exodi  3  and  Numbers,  is  earlier  or  later  than  DeuleroDomy. 
The  answer  to  this  question  turns  almost  whoUy  on 
archsological  inquiries,  for  there  is,  perhaps,  no  yutte  con- 
clusive reference  to  the  Elohistic  record  in  the  prophets 
before  the  Exile,  or  in  Deuteronomy  itself.  And  here 
arises  the  great  dispute  which  divides  cntics,  antl  makes 
oui  whole  construction  of  the  origin  of  the  historical  books 
uncertain.  The  Levitical  laws  give  a  graduated  hierarchy 
of  priests  ind  Levites ;  Deuteronomy  regards  all  Levites 
aa  at  least  pos;sible  priests.  Round  this  difference,  and 
points  allied  to  it,  the  whole  discussion  turns  We  know, 
mainly  from  Ezek.  xliv.,  that  before  the  Eiile  thfe  strict 
hienirchical  law  was  not  in  force,  apparently  never  had  been 
in  force.  But  can  we  suppose  that  the  very  idea  of  such 
8  hierarchy  is  the  latest  point  of  hturgicaJ  development  1 
If  so,  the  Levitical  element  is  the  latest  thing  m  the 
Pentateuch,  or,  m  truth,  m  the  historical  series  to  which 
the  Pentateuch  belongs;  or,  on  the  opposite  view,  the 
hierarchic  theory  existed  as  a  legal  programme  long  before 
the  Eyjle,  though  it  was  fully  carried  out  only  after  Ezra. 
As  all  the  more  elaborate  symbolic  observances  of  the  ntual 
law  are  bound  np  with  the  hierarchial  ordinances,  the  solu- 
tion of  this  problem  has  issues  of  the  greatest  importance 
for  the  theology  as  well  as  for  the  literary  history  of  the 
Old  Testament. 
Fmiod  of  And  now  a  single  word  on  the  way  in  which  these  various 
Mvenii  elements,  mirroring  so  many  aides  of  the  national  Ufe,  and 
e  eni«Dt»     (jating  from  so  various  ages,  came  to  be  fused  into  a  single 

into  ODe  I  :         °  ,  -7  ,*,  ., 

canxtive.  "istory,  and  yet  retained  so  much  of  their  own  identity. 
The  Semitic  genius  doe*  not  at  all  lie  in  the  direction  of 
organic  structure.  In  architecture  in  poetry,  in  hiitory, 
the  Hebrew  adds  part  to  part  instead  of  developing  a  single 
Tiction.  The  temple  was  an  aggregation  of  small  cells,  the 
longest  Psalm  is  an  acrostic,  and  so  the  longest  Bibhcal 
history  is  a  stratification  and  not  an  organism.  This  process 
was  facilitated  by  the  habit  of  anonymous  writing,  and  the 
Bceompanying  lack  of  all  notion  of  anything  like  copynght 
If  a  man  copied  a  book  it  was  his  to  add  and  modify  as  he 
pleased,  and  he  w?.s  not  in  the  leasV  bound  to  distinguish 
the  old  from  the  niiw.  If  he  had  two  books  before  him  to 
which  he  attached  equal  worth,  he  took  large  extracts  from 
both,  and  harmonized  them  by  such  additions  or  modihc-v 
tiuns  as  he  felt  to  i>e  necessary.  But  in  default  of  a  keen 
cense  for  organic  unity  very  little  hannony  was  sought  in 
points  of  internal  structure,  though  great  skill  wai  often 
eliown,  as  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  in  throwing  the  whole 
material  into  a  balanced  scheme  of  external  arrangement 
On  such  principles  minor  narratives  were  fused  together  one 
afiBT  the  other,  and  at  length  in  exile  a  final  n-dactor  com- 
pleted tha  gmat  work,  on  the  first  part  of  which  Ezra  based 
his  reformation,  while  the  latter  part  was  thrown  into  the 
Bocond  canon.  The  cnnons  combinatio'B  of  the  fonctioas 
of  copyist  and  author  which  fa  here  presupposed  did  not 
wholly  disapiK-ar  till  a  pretty  late  dal«  ;  and  where,  as  in 
(h(  bboks  of  SamuaL  we  kave  two  raOeosioDS  of  tha  text, 


-one  in  the  Hebrew  and  one  in  the  Septuagint  translatioa, 
the  discrepancies  are  of  such  a  kind  that  cnticism  of  the 
text  and  analysis  of  its  sources  are  separated  by  a  scaical^ 
percepCiWe  line. 

Poetical  Books. — The  ongin  of  some  leading  pecoliarities 
of  Hebrew  poetry  has  been  recently  refenedbyAssyriologista 
to  Accadian  models ;  but  however  this  may  be,  the  key  to 
the  whole  development  of  the  poetical  literature  of  Israel  is  Charaotor 
found  in  the  same  psychological  characteristics  of  the  race  istics  of 
which  are  impressed  on  the  vocabulary  and  grammatical  H^re* 
structure  of  the  language.  The  Hebrew  tongue  is  sensuous,  P"*'' 
mobile,  passionate,  almost  incapable  of  expressing  an  abstract 
idea,  or  depicting  a  complex  whole  with  repose  and  sj-mmetry 
of  parts,  but  fit  to  set  forth  with  great  subtilty  individual 
phases  of  nature  or  feehng.  It  is  the  speech  of  a  nation 
whose  naturally  quick  perceptions  minister  to  an  emotional 
temperament  and  an  imperious  will,  which  subordinates 
knowledge  to  action  and  desire,  and  habitually  contemplates 
the  universe  through  the  medium  of  personal  feeling  or 
practical  purpose.  To  speak  with  the  philosophers,  the 
Hebrew  character  is  one  of  predominant  subjectivity,  eager 
to  reduce  everything  to  a  personal  standard,  svrift  to  seize 
on  aH  that  touches  the  feelings  or  bears  directly  on  practical 
wants,  capable  of  intense  effort  and  stubborn  persistence 
where  the  motive  to  action  is  personal  affection  or  desire, 
but  indisposed  to  theoretical  views,  unfit  for  contemplation 
of  things  as  they  are  m  themselves  apart  from  relation  to 
the  thinker.  In  the  poetry  of  such  a  nation  the  leading 
current  must  necessarily  be  lyncal,  for  the  lyric  is  the 
natural  vehicle  of  mtense  and  immediate  personal  feeling. 
The  earliest  Hebrew  poems  are  brief,  pregnant  expressions 
of  a  smgle  idea,  full  of  the  fire  of  passion,  full,  too,  of  keen 
insight  mto  nature,  m  her  power  to  awake  or  sustain  human 
emotion  ,  but  recording  this  insight  not  with  the  pictorial 
fulness  of  western  art,  but  in  swift,  half-formed  outlines, 
in  metaphor  piled  on  metaphor,  without  regard  to  any  other 
principle  of  proportion  or  verisimilitude  than  the  emotional 
harmony  of  each  broken  figure  with  the  dommant  feeling. 
Such  a  poetry  could  not  but  find  its  highest  scope  in  the 
service  of  spiritual  rehgion.  The  songs  in  Exod.  xv.  and  Loodmirto 
Judg.  V.  prove  the  early  ongin  of  a  theocratic  poetry ;  but  in  U>e 
the  proper  penod  of  Hebrew  psalmody  begins  with  David,  ^^^  "* 

and  its  history  is  practically  the  history  of  the  Psalter,  j^^ ^^^^ 

Here,  as  in  the  case  of  the  historical  books,  we  have  to  begin  Psataa. 
by  questioning  the  tradition  contained  m  the  titles,  which 
ascribe  seventy-three  Psalms  to  David,  and  besides  him 
name  as  authors  Asaph,  the  sons  of  Korah,  Solomon,  Moses, 
Heman,  Ethan.  Again  the  tendency  is  to  refer.as  much  as 
possible  to  familiar  names.  There  is  no  reason  to  bebeve 
that  any  title  is  as  old  as  the  Psalm  to  which  it  is  prefixed, 

-and  some  titles  are  certainly  wrong  ;  for  example,  the  author 
of  the  elegy  on  Saul  and  Jonathan  could  not  possibly  have 
written  Ps.  lixxvi.,  which  is  a  mere  cento  of  remiiiiscences 
from  other  poems.  On  the  other  hand  the  titles  are  not 
purely  arbitrary.  They  se^m  to  supply  useful  hints  as  to  the 
earlier  collections' from  which  our  present .  Psalter  was  made 
np.  The  Korahite  and  Asaphite  Psalms  may  probably  have 
been  denved  from  collections  in  the  hands  of  these  families 
of  singers ,  and  tha  so-called  "  Psalms  of  David "  were 
very  Ukdy  frotn  collectibns  which  raally  contained  poems 
by  David  and  other  eorly  singers.  The  assertion  that  no 
Psalm  13  certainly  DaWd'a  is  hyper-seeptical,  and  few  Devt4 
remains  of  ancient  literature  bav«  an  authorship  so  well 
attested  as  the  18th  or  even  as  the  7th  Psalm.  Thsee, 
along  with  the  indubitably.  Davidic  poems  in  the.  book  ef 
Samuel,  give  a  euCSeiently  clear  image  of  (k  "very  uniqu* 
genius,  .and  make  the  ascription  of  several  other  poems  to 
David  extremely  probable.  So,  tog^  a  very  strong  argt^ 
mcnt  daims  Psalm  ii.  for  Solomon,  and  in  later  time*  we 
ha.TC  sore  Uodmarks  lo  tks.ptiaUQt  of  Habbkloik  (Qab  &.) 


I 


B  I  B  T.  E 


639 


rii.«tleli; 
rbvlliii). 


Pmti.  J 
wiidoi.i- 


and  Eezekiah  (l3a.  rxxviii.)  But  the  greater  part  of  the 
lyrics  of  tho  OM  TeaUnient  remain  anonymous,  and  we 
can  only  group  the  Psalms  in  broad  masses,  diatinguished 
by  diversity  of  historical  situation  and  by  varying  degrees 
of  freshness  and  personality.  As  a  rule  the  older  Psalms 
are  the  most  personal,  and  are  not  written  for  the  congre- 
gation, but  flow  from  apresent  neeessityof  individuaI(tIiough 
not  individualistic)  spiritual  life.  This  current  of  productive 
psalmody  runs  apparently  from  David  down  to  tho  Exile, 
losing  in  the  course  of  centuries  something  of  its  original 
freshness  and  fire,  but  gaining  a  more  chastened  pathos 
and  a  wider  range  of  spiritual  sympathy.  Psalm  li., 
obviously  composed  during  the  desolation  of  the  temple, 
marks,  perhaps,  tho  last  phase  of  this  development.  The 
epoch  of  the  return  was  still  not  without  poetic  freshness, 
as  somo  of  the  so-called  Songs  of  Degrees  (Pilgrim-songs  i) 
prove.  But  on  the  whole  the  Psalms  of  the  second  temple 
are  only  reflections  of  old  ideas,  cast  mainly  in  direcUv 
liturgical  form,  or  at  least  embodying  the  experience  »f  tr.e 
nation  rather  than  of  tho  individual.  The  date  of  the  latest 
Psalms  is  much  disputed.  Most  Unes  of  evidence  suggest 
that  the  collection  was  complete  before  the  latest'  books  of 
the  canon  were  written,  but  many  expositors  find  in  in- 
diviJu.al  Psalms  (44,  74,  79,  S3,  ic.)  clear  traces  of  the 
Maccabee  age. 
.ta  Through  the  whole  period  of  Hebrew  lyric,  represented 
not  only  by  the  Psalter,  but  by  the  Lamentations,  tradi- 
tionally ascribed  to  Jeremiah,  and  by  various  scattered  pieces 
in  Prophets  {e.g.,  Isa.  xii. )  and  in  hi.'itoncal  books  {e.g.. 
Num.  xxi.  17;  1  Sam.  li. ),  there  is  little  change  in  form  and 
poetic  structure.  From  first  to  last  tho  rhythm  con.iists 
not  in  a  rise  and  fall  of  accent  or  quantity  of  syllables,  but 
in  a  pulsation  of  sense,  rising  and  falling  through  the 
parallel,  antithetic,  or  otherwise  balanced  members  of  each 
I'ersc.  (So-called  llebreio  Parallelism ;  better,  Sense- 
"■liythm.)  Beyond  this 'one  law  of  rhythm,  which  is  itself 
less  an  artificial  rule  than  a  natural  expression  of  the  prin- 
ciple, that  all  poetic  utterance  must  proceed  in  harmonious 
undulation,  and  not  in  the  spasm  of  unmodulated  passion, 
the  Hebrew  poet  was  subject  to  no  code  of  art,  though 
Btrophical  arrangements,  sometimes  marked  by  a  refrain, 
are  not  uncommon  ;  while  poems  of  acrostic  structure 
(alphabetic  Psalms)  are  found  not  exclusively  in  the 
most  recent  literature  (Ps.  ix.,  x.  form  a  single  undoubtedly 
old  acrostic).  The  later  are  on  tho  whole  longer  than  the 
earlier  poems.  But  this  is  due  not  to  increased  constructive 
power,  but  to  a  dilluser  style,  a  less  vigorous  unity  of 
feeling  and  thought,  and  a  tendency  to  ring  many  varia- 
tions on  one  key.  A  wider  range  of  artistic  power  ap- 
pears in  tlio  Song  of  Solomon,  a  lyrical  drama,  in  which, 
according  to  most  crities,  the  pure  love  of  the  ShuLa- 
mito  for  her  betrothed  is  exhibited  as  victorious  over 
tho  seductions  of  Solomon  and  his  harem.  As  the 
motive  of  tho  piece  is  political  as  well  as  ethical,  it  is 
most  naturally  a.ssigned  to  the  early  pcrioji  of  the 
northern  kingdom. 

The   remaining  poetical  books  of    tho  Old   Testament 

-    belong  to  a  dilTcrent  category.     Unfit  for  abstract  specu- 

''•  latrion,    valning    no   wisdom    that    is    not   practicil,   and 

treasuring  ^lp   such    wisdom    in    sententious    rhythmical 

form, — enforced  by  symbol  and  metaphor,  and  warm  with 

th?    breath    of    human  interest, — tlie    Hebrew   is  a  poet 

even  in    his    philosophy.       Side    by   •lide   with    the   ode 

t|)e   earliest   Hebrew  literature  shows  us  the  Mash.^l,  or 

nmilUviU,    sometimes   in    tho   form   of    biting    epigram 

(Num.  xxL   27,  f.)   or  sarcastic  parable  (Judg.  ix.   8  ,  2 

'  Kings  XIV.  8),  sometimes  as  the  natural  vehicle  of  general 

moral  teaching.     The  greatest  name  in  the  early  proverbial 

wisdom  of  Israel  is  that  of  Solomon  (1   Kings  •-.  32),  and 

^jT(/1ifl   d'.nbt'  Tnnny  nf,his   nplutrinni.*  ar»  to  h**  f<ittr.rl  in 


the  book  of  Proverbs:  Yet  this  book  is  not  all  Saiomomc  Prov>rb«. 
The  last  two  chapters  are  ascribed  to  other  names,  and 
part  of  the  collection  was  not  put  in  shape  till  the  time  of 
Hezekiah  (xxv.  1),  whocan  have  had  no  infallible  criterion 
of  authorship  by  Solomon,  and  must  not  be  credited  with 
critical  intentions.  In  truth,  the  several  sections  of  the 
book  are  varied  enough  in  colour  to  make  it  plain  that  we 
have  before  us  the  essence  of  the  wisdom  of  centuries, 
while  the  introductory  address  in  chaptero  L-ix.  shows  how 
a  later  age  learned  to  develop  the  gnoir.ic  style,  so  as  to  fit 
it  for  longer  compositions.  Th<>  lundamental  type  of 
Hebrew  philosophy  remains.  Luvfcver,  unchanged,  even  in 
the  book  of  Eculesiastes,  which  bears  every  mark  of  a  very  Ecciex- 
late  date,  long  after  the  Exile.  On  the  other  hand,  a  fresh  asus 
and  creative  development,  alike  in  point  of  form  and  of 
thought,  is  found  in  the  book  of  Job,  which,  in  grandly  joi,. 
dramatic  construction,  and  with  wonderful  discrimination 
of  character  in  the  several  Bjxiakera,  sums  up  the  wholo 
range  of  Hebrew  speculation  on  the  burning  question  of 
Old  Testament  religion,  tho  relation  of  alBi,..ion  to  the 
justice  and  goodness  of  God  and  to  the  personal  merit  and 
demerit  of  the  suiTerer.  Like  the  other  noblest  parts  of  the 
Old  Testament,  the  book  of  Job  has  a  comparatively  early 
date.  It  was  known  to  Jeremiah,  aad  may  be  pkusibly 
referred  to  the  7th  century  B.C. 

In  the  book  of  Job  we  find  poetical  invention  of  incidents, 
attached  for  didactic  purposes  to  a  name  apparently 
derived  from  old  tradition.  There  is  no  valid  a  priori 
reason  foi^  denying  that  the  Old  Testament  may  contain 
other  examples  of  the  same  art.  The  book  of  Jonah  is  Jin.ih 
generally  viewed  as  a  case  in  point.  Esther,  too,  has  been  Esther 
viewed  as  a  fiction  by  many  who  are  not  over  sceptical 
critics  ;  but  on  this  view  a  book  which  finds  no  recognition 
in  the  New  Testament,  and  whose  cauonicity  was  long 
suspected  by  the  Christian  as  well  as  by  the  Jewish  Church, 
must  sink  to  tho  rank  of  an  apocryphal  production. 

In  the  poetical  as   in   tho  historical  books  anonjinous  Freoi  m 
writing  is  the  rule  ;  and  along  with  this  we  observe  great  *»!<«"  ^1 
freedom  on  the  part  of  readers  and  copjnsts,  who  not  only  "'"1'-'^'"  * 
made  verbal  changes  {c/.   Ps.  xiv.  with  Ps.  liii),  but  com- 
posed new  poems  out  of  fragments  of  others  (Ps.  cviii.  with 
IviL  and  be)     In  a  large  part  of  the  Psalter  a  later  hand 
has  systematically  substituted  Elohim  for  Jehovah,  and  an 
imperfect  acrostic,  like  Ps.  ix.,  x.,  cannot  have  proceeled 
in    its    present   form    from    the  first  author.     Still  more 
remarkable  is  the  case  of  the  book  of  Job,  in  which  the 
speeches  of    Elihu   quite  break   the  connection,  ainl  are 
almost  universally  assigned  to  a  later  hand. 

Prophetical  Booh. — We  have  already  seen  that  the  Liti>r,.r» 
earliest  prophecies  of  certain  date  are  of  the  8th  century,  notivity  ii 
though  there  is  a  probability  that  Joel  fluunshed  in  the  rroplieu. 
9th  century,  in  the  reign  of  Joa.sh  of  Judah,  and  that  thf 
opening  verses  of  Amos  are  cited  from  his  book.  On  th( 
other  hand,  the  old  school  of  prophecy,  whose  members 
from  Samuel  to  Kli.sha  were  men  of  action  rithir  than  o1 
letters,  was  not  likely  to  leave  behind  it  any  written 
oracles.  The  prophets  generally  spoke  under  the  imrnodi.-itc 
influence  of  the  Spirit  or  "  hand  of  Jehovah."  What  tliry 
WTote  was  accondary,  and  was,  no  doubt,  greatly  abridged. 
The  most  instructive  account  of  the  literary  activity  of  a 
prophet  is  given  in  Jer.  xxx\'i.  Jeremiah  did  not  b.-u'ii  to 
wTite  till  he  had  been  more  than  twenty  years  a  proplieL 
Some  prophetic  books,  like  that  oi  /.nios,  oeim  tc  have 
been  composed  at  one  time  and  with  unity  of  jiljn.  Other 
prophets,  liko  Isaiah,  published  several  books  suiiiming  up 
portions  of  their  ministry.  In  one  or  two  cises,  isjiecijily 
in  that  of  Eiekiel,  tho  prophet  writes- oracles  which  w.  :r 
apparently  never  spoken.  Before  the  Exi!  ■  there  vna 
circulation  of  individual  prophetic  book..,  and  taili.T 
prophets  quote  from  thtir  [  rcdccessors.     But  the  L«k  i.f 


640 


BIBLE 


Propheci 
^re  often 


InWmal 

evidence 
of  dfltf. 


collecting  and  editing  the  remains  ■  of  tLe  prophets  was 
hardly  undertaken  till  the  commencement  of  the  second 
canon ;  and  uy  this  time,  no  doubt,  many  writings  had 
been  lost,  others  were  more  or  less  fragmentary,  and  the 
tradition  of  authorship  was  not  always  complete.  It  was, 
indeed,  more  important  to  have  an  oracle  authenticated  by 
the  name  of  its  author  than  to  know  the  writer  of  a  history 
ajoDyrac„3.  ^j.  ^  pg^lm,  and  many  prophets  seem  to  have  prefixed  their 
names  to  their  works.  But  other  prophecies  are  quite 
monymous,  and  prophets  who  quote  earlier  oracles  never 
give  the  author's  name.  (A  famous  case  occurs,  Isa.  xv.,  xvi., 
yhere  in  xvi.  13,  for  since  that  tiTne  read  long  ago.)  Now 
;ll  the  remains  of  prophecy,  wtiether  provided  with  titles 
jr  not,  were  ultimately  arranged  in  four  books,  the  fourth 
of  which  names,  in  separate  titles,  twelve  authors  ;  while 
the  first  three  books  are  named  after  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  and  actually  mention  no  other  names  in  the  titles 
of  the  several  prophecies  of  which  they  are  made  up.  .  But 
is  it  safe  to  assume  that  every  anonymous  prophecy  in  these 
books  must  be  by  the  author  of  the  next  preceding  prophecy, 
which  has  a  title  1  Certainly  any  such  assumption  can  only 
be  provisional,  and  may  be  overthrown  by  internal  evidence. 
But  internal  evidence  of  date,  it  is  said,  cannot  apply  to 
prophetic  books  in  which  the  author  looks  in  a  supernatural 
way  into  the  future.  The  value  of  this  argument  must  be 
tested  by  looking  more  closely  at  the  actual  contents  of  the 
prophetic  bonks.  The  prophecies  contain — Ist,  reproof  of 
present  sin  ;  2d,  exhortation  to  present  duty ;  3d,  encourage- 
ment to  the  godly  and  threatening  to  the  wicked,  based  on 
the  certainty  of  God's  righteous  purpose.  In  this  last  con- 
nection prophecy  is  predictive.  It  lays  hold  of  the  ideal 
elements  of  the  theocratic  conception,  and  depicts  the  way 
in  which,  by  God's  grace,  they  shall  be  actually  realized  in 
a  Messianic  age,  and  in  a  nation  purified  by  judgment  and 
mercy.  Bat  in  all  this  the  prophet  starts  from  present  sin, 
present  needs,  present  historical  situations,  'There  is  no 
reason  to  think  that  a  prophet  ever  received  a  revelation 
which  was  not  spoken  directly  and  pointedly  to  his  own 
time.  If  we  find,  then,  that  after  the  prophecy  of  Zechariah 
i.-viii.,  which  is  complete  in  itself,  there  begins  at  ch.  ix.  a 
neu  oracle,  quite  distinct  in  subject  and  style,  which 
speaks  of  an  alliance  between  Judah  and  Israel  as  a  thing 
subsisting  in  the  prophet's  own  time,  which  knows  no 
oppressor  later  than  Assyria  and  Egypt,  and  rebukes  forms 
of  idolatry  that  do  not  appear  after  the  Exile; — if,  in  short, 
t;j«  whole  prophecy  becomes  luminous  when  it  is  placed  a 
little  after  the  time  of  Hosea,  and  remains  absolutely  dark 
if  it  is  ascribed  to  Zechariah,  we  are  surely  entitled  to  let  it 
speak  for  itself.  When  the  principle  is  admitted  other 
applications  follow,  mainly  in  the  book  of  Isaiah,  where  the 
anonj-mous  chapters,  xl.-lxvi.,  cannot  be  understood  in  a 
natural  and  living  way  except  by  looking  at  them  from 
the  historical  stand-point  of  the  Exile.  Then  arises  a 
further  question,  whether  all  titles  are  certainly  authentic 
and  conclusive  ^  and  here,  too,  it  is  difficult  to  answer  by 
an  absolute  affirmative.  For  example,  in  Isa.  xxx.  6,  the 
title,  "  The  burden  of  the  beasts  of  the  south,"  interrupts 
the  connection  in  a  most  violent  way.  This  is  not  a  solitary 
instance,  but  on  the  whole  the  titles  are  far  more  trust- 
worthy in  the  prophecies  than  in  the  Psalms,  and  partly 
on  this  account,  but  mainly  from  the  direct  historical 
bearing  of  prophetic  teaching,  we  can  frame  a  completer 
history  of  written  prophecy  than  of  any  other  part  of  Old 
Testament  Lterature.  Wo  have,  on  the  one  hand,  a  series 
of  prophets — Amo!(,  Hosea,  and  the  anonymous  author  of 
Zech.  ix.-iL — who  preached  in  the  northern  kingdom,  but 
are  not  descendants  of  the  school  of  Elisha,  \vhich  had  so 
decayed  under  court  favour  from  flio  dynasty  of  Jehu,  that 
Amos  had  to  be  sent  from  the  wilderness  of  Judah  to  take 
ui)  again  the  forgotten  word  of  the  Lord.     In  Judah  prcipur 


S-ortheni 


we  have  the  great  Assyrian  prophets,  Isaiah  with  his 
younger  contemporary  Micah,  the  powerful  supporters  of 
the  reformation  of  Hezekiah,  labouring  one  in  the  capital, 
the  other  in  the  country  district  of  the  Philistine  border. 
To  the  Assyrian  period  belongs  also  Nahum,  who  wrote, 
perhaps,  in  captivity,  and  foretold  the  fall  of  Nineveh. 
Then  comes  Zephaniah  about  the  time  of  the  Scythian 
ravages,  followed  by  the  prophets  of  the  Chaldean  period  ; 
first  Habakkuk  and  then  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  men  of  a 
heavier  spirit  and  less  glowing  poetic  fire  than  Isaiah,  no 
longer  upholding  the  courage  of  Judah  in  the  struggle  with 
the  empire  of  the  East,  but  predicting  the  utter  dissolution 
of  existing  things,  and  Ending  hope  only  in  a  new  covenant 
— a  new  theocracy.  In  the  period  of  Exile  more  than  one 
anonymous  prophet  raised  his  voice ;  for  not  only  the 
"Great  Unnamed"  of  Isa.  xL-lxvi.,  but  the  authors  of 
other  Babylonian  prophecies,  are  probably  to  be  assigned 
to  this  time.  In  the  new  hope  of  deliverance  the  poetic 
genius,  as  well  as  the  spiritual  insight  of  prophecy,  awakes 
to  fresh  life,  and  sets  forth  the  mission  of  the  new  Israel  to 
carry  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord  to  all  nations.  But  the 
spirit  of  the  new  Jerusalem  had  little  in  common  with 
these  aspirations,  and  in  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malacbi, 
prophecy  retains  cot  much  of  its  old  power  except  an  un- 
compromising moral  earnestness.  The  noble  poetry  of  the 
old  prophets,  which  even  in  the  time  of  Ezekiel  had  begun 
to  give  way  to  plain  prose,  finds  no  counterpart  in  these 
latest  oracles ;  and  imaginative  power  is  shown,  whene  it 
still  exists,  in  the  artificial  structure  of  symbolic  visions. 
No  important  new  ideas  are  set  forth,  and  even  the  tone  of 
moral  exhortation  sometimes  reminds  us  more  of  the 
rabbinical  maxims  of  the  fathers  in  the  Mishna,  than  of  the 
prophetic  teaching  of  the  8th  century.  And  as  if  the  spirit 
of  prophecy  foresaw  its  own  dissolution,  Malachi  looks  not 
to  the  continued  succession  of  prophets,  but  to  the  return 
of  Elijah  as  the  necessary  preparation  for  the  day  of  the 
Lord.  In  this  sketch  of  the  prophetic  writings  we  find  no 
place  for  the  book  of  Daniel,  which,  whether  .composed  in 
the  early  years  of  the  Persian  empire,  or,  as  modern 
critics  hold,  at  the  time  of  the  Macckbee  wars,  presents  so 
many  points  of  diversity  from  ordinary  prophecy  as  to 
require  entirely  separate  treatment.  It  is  in  point  of  form 
the  precursor  of  the  apocalyptic  books  of  p«st-canonic!j 
Judaism,  though  in  its  intrinsic  qualities  far  Buperier  to 
these,  and  akin  to  the  prophets  proper. 

Further  History  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon  'Wi  the 
Jewish  Church. — Under  this  head  we  confine  ourselves 
to  points  which  lead  up  to  the  reception  of  tie  Old  Testa- 
ment by  Christendom. *Thcse  are  mainly  two: — (1),  the 
history  of  the  Hebrew  text,  which  we  now  possess  only  in 
the  recension  established  by  Jewish  scribes  at  a  time  later 
than  the  Christian  era ;  (2),  the  history  of  those  verjions 
which  arose  among  Jews,  but  have  influenced  Cl)ristendom. 

The  Text  of  the  Old  Testament. — Semitic  alphabets  have 
no  full  provision  for  distinguishing  vowels,  and  the  oldest 
writing,  before  orthography  became  fixed,  was  negligent  in 
the  use  even  of  such  vowel  letters  as  exist.  For  a  long 
time,  then,  not  only  during  the  use  of  the  old  Phocoician 
character,  but  even  after  the  more  modern  square  or  Baby 
Ionian  letters  were  adopted,  the  Written  text  of  the  Bible 
was  consonantal  only,  leaving  a  certain  scope  for  variety  of 
pronunciation  and  sen.';e.  But  even  the  consonantal  text 
was  not  absolutely  fixed.  The  loose  state  of  the  laws  of 
spelling  and  the  great  similarity  of  several  letters  made 
errors  of  copying  frequent.  The  text  of  Micah,  for 
example,  is  often  unintelligible,  and  many  hopeless  errors 
are  older  th.in  the  oldest  versions.  But  up  to  the  time  of- 
the  Alexandrian  version,  MSS.  were  in  circulation  which 
differed  not  merely  by  greater  or  less  accuracy  of  tranfl- 
cription,  but  by  jirc^tntiug  such  differences  of  recension  aa 


propbeu 


ChaMeaD 
period. 


Daniel 


rf 

* 


Tbecons"!'  • 
auiol  ivM     } 


Pliirftlily  of 
reo«u3iou^ 


BIBLE 


04! 


rould  not  arise  by  accident.  Tlio  Greek  text  of  Jeremiah 
IS  vastly  different  from  that  of  the  Uobrow  Bible,  and  it  is 
not  certain  that  the  latter  is  ahvays  best.  In  the  books  of 
Samuel  the  Qrook  enables  ua  to  correct  many  blunders  of 
the  Hebrew  text,  but  shows  at  the  same  time  that  copyists 
used  gre;it  freedom  with  details  of  the  text.  For  the 
Pentateuch  we  have,  in  the  copies  of  the  Sain-aritans,  a  third 
recension,  often  but  not  always  closely  allied  to  the  Greek. 
The  three  recensions  show  important  variations  in  the 
chronology  of  Genesis ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  tJie 
Book  oj  Jubilees,  a  Jewish  treatise,  which  cannot  be  much 
older  than  the  Christian  era,  perhaps  not  much  older  than 
the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  state,  sometimes  agrees  with 
the  Samaritan  or  with  the  Alexandrian  recension.  Up  to 
this  time,  then,  tLere  wrw  no  aksolulely  received  text. 
h.-c<>iveJ  or  But  soon  after  the  Christian  era  all  thia  was  changed,  and 
M j-iaortlic  hy  a  process  which  wc  cannot  follow  in  detail,  a  ainglo 
recension  became  supreme.  The  change  was,  no  doubt, 
connected  with  the  rise  of  an  overjrawrt-niul  fantastic 
aystem  of  interpretation,  which  found  lessons  in  the  smallest 
peculiarity  of  the  text ,  but  Lagarde  has  made  it  probable 
that  no  crilie*l  process  was  used  to  fix  the  standard  re- 
cension, and  that  all  existing  MSS.  ace  derived  from  a 
single  archetype,  which  was  followed  even  in  its  marks  of 
deletion  and  other  accidental  peculiarities.  (Lag'irde, 
Anmerkn.  rur  (p-inch.  Uehcrsdzung  der  Prov.,  1863,  p.  1  ; 
cf.  Noldeke  in  Uilgenfeld's  Zcitschr.,  1°"  ,•,  p.  445.)  Then 
the  received  text  became  the  obi.c;  of  farther  care,  and 
the  Massorets,  or  "  possessors  of  tradition"  with  regard  to 
the  text,  handed  down  a  body  of  careful  directions  as  to 
the  true  orthography  and  pronunciation.  The  latter  was 
fixed  by  the  gradual  invention  of  subsidiary  marks  for  the 
vowels,  ic,  an  invention  developed  in  slightly  divergent 
forms  in  the  Babylonian  and  Palestinian  schools  of  Jewish 
scholarship.  The  vowel  points  were  not  known  to  Jerome, 
but  the  system  was  complete  before  the  9th  century, 
presumably  several  hundred  years  before  that  time.  All 
printed  Bibles  follow  the  Western  punctuation,  but  old 
Karaite  M.SS.  with  the  Babylonian  vowels  exist,  and  ^re 
DOW  in  course  of  publication.  It  is  from  the  Massoretic 
text,  with  Massoretic  punctuation,  that  the  English  version 
and  most  Protestant  translations  are  derived.  Older  Chris- 
tian versions,  so  far  as  they  are  based  on  the  Hebrew  at 
all  (Jerome's  Latin,  Syriac),  at  least  follow  pretty  closely 
the  received  consonantal  text. 

Jewish  Versions. — Versions  of  the  Old  Testament  became 
necessary  partly  because  the  Jews  of  the  Western  Dispersion 
adopted  the  Greek  lapg-jage,  partly  because  even  in  Pales- 
tine the  Old  Hebrew  wa-' gradually  supplanted  by  Aramaic. 
S-itJigiut  The  chief  seat  of  the  Hellenistic  Jews  was  i'.i  Eiypt,  and 
here  arose  the  Alexandrian  version,  commonly  laio   o  as  the 
Septuagint  or  Version  of  the  LXX.,  from  a  fable  that  it 
was  composed,  with  miraculous  circumstances,  by  seventy- 
two  Palestinian  scholars  summoned  to  Egypt  by  Ptolemy 
Philodelphus.     In  reality  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
version  was  gradually  completed  by  several  authors  and  at 
different  times      The  whole  is    probably   older  than  the 
middle  of  the  2d  century  B.C.     We  have  already  seen  that 
the  text  that  lay  before  the  translators  was  in  many  parts 
not  that  of  the  present  Hebrew.     The  execution  is  by  no 
means  uniform  ;  and,  though  there  are  many  good  render- 
ings, the  defects  are  so  numerous  that  the  Greek-speaking 
'i      Jews,  as  well  as  the  largo  section  of  the  Christian  church 
\      which  long  depended  directly  or  indirectly  on  this  version, 
■     were  in  many  places  quite  shut  out  from  a  right  un  Jerstand- 
1  ing  of  the  Old  Testament.     Nevertheless,  the  authority  of 
(  the   version    wa3    very   great,    its    inspiration    was   often 
as'serted,  and  'ts  interpretations  exercised  a  great  influence 
in  Jewish  and  Christian  thought,  though  among  the  Jews 
it  vu:>  to  &  certain  extent  displaced  by  the  version  of  the 
3-i!;> 


proselyte  .■\quila  {2d  century  of  our  era;,  which  foUowec 
with  slavish  exactness  the  letter  of  the  Hebrew  text. 

Among  the  Jews  who  spoke  Aramaic,  trauslations.intt  I  iriroms. 
the  vernacular  accompanied,  instead  of  supplanting  the 
use  of  the  original  text,  which  was  read  and  then  orally 
paraphrased  in  the  synagogues  by  interpreters  or  Methur- 
gemanim,  who  used  great  freedom  of  embelUshment  and 
application.  This  practice  naturally  led  to  the  formation 
of  wTittea  Targunis,  or  Aramaic  translations,, which  have 
not,  however,  reached  us  in  at  all  their  earliest  form.  It 
used,  indeed,  to  be  sujiposcd  that  the  simple  uud  literal 
Targum  of  Onkelos  on  the  Pentateuch  was  earlier  than  the 
time  of  Christ.  But  recent  inquirers  have  been  led  to  see 
in  it,  and  in  tho  linguistically  cognate  Targum  on  the 
Prophets  (Targum  of  Jonathan),  products  of  the  Babylonian 
schools,  in  which  the  freedom  of  the  early  paraphrastic 
method  was  carefully  avoided.  Upon  this  view  the  date 
of  these  Targums  is  some  centuries  after  the  Christian  era. 
On  the  other  hand,  an  older  style  of  paraphrase  is  pre- 
served in  the  Palestinian  Targums,  which  neveitheless 
cont;un  in  their  present  form  elements  later  than  the  Baby- 
lonian versions.  The  Targum  of  Pscudo  Jonathan  on  tho 
Pentateuch  is  apparently  the  latest  form  of  the  free  Pales- 
tinian version,  fuU  of  legendary  adornments  and  other 
additions  to  the  text  Other  fragments  of  Palestinian 
translation,  known  as  the  Jerusalem  Targum,  and  referring 
to  individual  passages  of  the  Pentateuch  and  Prophets, 
probably  represent  an  nailier  stage  in  tho  growth  of  ths 
Aramaic  versions.  There  are  also  Targums  on  the  Hagio- 
grapha,  which,  however,  h;ive  less  importance,  and  do  nut 
seem  to  have  had  so  changeful  a  history.  The  Targums 
as  a  whole  do  not  offer  much  to  the  textual  critic.  They 
are  important,  partly  from  the  insight  they  give  into  an 
early  and  in  part  pre-Christian  exegesis,  partly  from  their 
influence  on  later  Jewish  expositors,  and  through  them  on 
Christian  versions  and  expositions.  In  some  cases  the 
literal  or  Babylonian  Targums  have  a  text  differing  from 
tho  Massoretic.  But  it  is  not  unlikely  that  if  we  had  a 
satisfactory  text  of  the  Targums  (towards  which  almost 
nothing  has  hitherto  been  done),  these  variations  would 
6nd  their  explanation  in  the  Eastern  text  and  the  Assyrian 
punctuation. 

New  Testament. — Relation  of  the  Earliest  Christianity 
to  llie  Literary  and  Intellectual  Activity  of  the  Age. — In  the  The 
literature  of  Palestine  at  tho  time  of  Christ  we  distinguish  acril.si. 
a  learned  and  a  popular  element.     The   learned  class  or 
scribes  were  bu.sy  on  their  twofold  structure  of  Halacha, 
or  legal  tradition  and  inference,  supplementing  and  "  hedg- 
ing in  "  the  Pentr.teuchal  law,  and  Haggada,  or  fantastic 
exegesis,  legendary,  ethical,  or  theosophic,  under  which  the 
religious   directness  of  the  Old  Testament  almost  wholly 
disappeared.     The  popular  religious  literature  of  the  day  Popu!«r 
seems    again   to    have   been   mainly   apocalyptic.       (See  »P"f»- 
Apocalyptic  Literature.)     The  people  never  wearied  of  'JP'-"- 
these  mysterious  revelations  couched  in  strange  symbolic 
and  enigmatic  forms,  and  placed  in  the  mouths  of  ancient 
patriarchs  and  worthies,  which  held  forth  golden  visions  of 
dehvcrance  and  vengeance  in  a  shape  n  hich,  because  crasser 
and  jarlhlier,  was  also  more  palpable  than   the  spiritual 
hopes  of  tho  old  prophets.    Beyond  the  limits  of  Palestine 
thought   took   a    wider   range.     In  adopting  tho   Greek  Helleitiim. 
language  the  Hellenistic  Jews  had  also  become  open  to  the 
influences  of  foreign  speculation,  and  the  schools  of  Alex- 
andria, whose  greatest  teacher,   Philo,  was  contempor-— ' 
with  the  foundation  of  Christianity,  had  in  great  nieasi 
exchanged  the  faith  of  the  Old  Testament  for  acomplicati 
system  of  metaphysicotheological  speculations   upon  tl 
Absolute  Being,  the  Divine  Wisdom,  the   Logos,  and  lb 
like,  which  by  the  aid  of  allegorical  interpretation  wci 
made  to  appear  as  the  true  Icadiin/;  of  Hebrew  anliquitj 


GL 


BIBLE 


To  these  cuirciita  of  thought  the  relntiou  of  the  earliest 
Christianity,  entirely  absorbed  in  tlie  one  great  fact  of  the 
manifestation  of  God  in  Christ  crucified,  risen,  and  soon  to 
return  in  glory,  was  for  the  most  part  hostile,  when  it  was  not 
.merely  superficial.  With  the  spirit  of  the  scribes  Jesus  had 
^  openly  joined  issue.  In  the  legal  tradition  of  the  elders  he 
saw  the  commandment  of  God  annulled  (Matt,  xv.)  It 
was  His  part  not  to  destroy  but  to  fill  up  into  spiritual 
completeness  the  teaching  of  the  old  dispensation  (Matt,  v.); 
and  herein  He  attached  himself  directly  to  the  prophetic 
conception  of  the  law  in  Deuteronomy  (Matt.  xxii.  H ,  ff) 
And  not  only  in  His  ethical  teaching  but  in  His  personal 
ecnse  of  fellowship  with  the  Father,  and  in  the  inner  con- 
cciousncss  of  His  Messianic  mission,  Jesus  stood  directly 
on  the  Old  Testament,  reading  in  the  Psalms  and  Prophets, 
which  so'vainly^^exCTcised  the  unsympathetic  exegesis  of 
the  scribes,  the  direct  and  unmistakable  image  of  His  own 
experience  and  work  as  the  founder  of  the  spiritual  king- 
dckm  of  God  {cf. especially,Luke  xxiv.  2b, ff.)  Thus  Jesus 
found  His  first  disciples  among  men  who  were  strangers  to 
the  theological  culture  of  the  day  (Acts  iv.  13),  cherishing 
no  literature  but  the  Old  Testament  witness  to  Christ,  and 
claiming  no  wisdom  save  the  knowledge  of  Him.  At  first, 
indeed,  the  church  at  Jerusalem  was  content  to  express  its 
new  life  in  simple  exercises  of  faith  and  hope,  without  any 
attempt  to  define  its  relation  to  the  past  dispensation,  and 
without  breaking  with  the  legal  ordinances  of  'he  temple. 
But  the  spread  of  Christianity  to  the  Gentiles  compelled 
the  principles  of  the  new  religion  to  measure  themselves 
openly  with  the  Judaism  of  the  Pharisees.  In  the 
heathen  mission  of  Paul  the  ceremonial  law  was  ignored, 
and  men  became  Christiana  without  first  becoming  pro- 
selytes. The  stricter  Pharisaically-trained  believers  were 
horror-stricken.  The  old  apostles,  though  they  could  not 
refuse  the  right  hand  of  fellowship  to  workers  so  manifestly 
blessed  of  God  as  Paul  an^  Barnabas,  were  indisposed  to 
throw  themselves  into  the  new  current,  and  displayed 
considerable  vacillation  in  their  personal  conduct.  Paul 
and  his  associates  had  to  fight  their  own  battle  against  the 
Cfnstant  efforts  of  Judaizing  emissaries,  and  the  rabbinical 
training  acquired  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel  enabled  the 
B.oostle  of  the  heathen  to  meet  the  Judaizers  on  their  own 
f— ound,  and  to  work  out  the  contrast  of  Christianity -and 
Pharisaism  with  a  thoroughness  only  possible  to  one  who 
knew  Pharisaism  from  long  experience,  and  had  learned  the 
gospel  not  from  the  tradition  or  teaching  of  men  but  by 
revelation  of  Jesus  Christ  (Gal   i.  12). 

The  relation  of  the  first  Christians  to  the  current  apoca- 
lyptic was  of  a  diflferent  kmd.  The  Messianic  hopes 
already  current  among  the  first  hearers  of  the  gospel  were 
unquestionably  of  apocalyptic  colour  And  though  the 
cfintents  of  Christian  hope  were  new,  and  expressed  them- 
o.lves  in  a  revival  of  prophetic  gifts  (1  Cor,  xii.  10  ,  Acts 
xi  27,  (be),  it  was  not  a  matter  of  course  that  apocalyptic 
forms  should  be  at  once  dropped,  especially  as  Old  Testa- 
ment prophecy  itself  had  inclined  in  its  later  stages  towards 
an  increasing  concreteness  in  delineating  the  Messianic 
kingdom,  and  so  had  at  least  formed  the  basis  for  many 
apocalyptic  conceptions.  The  apocalyptic  books  continued 
to  be  read,  as  appears  from  the  influence  of  the  book  of 
Enoch  on  the  epistle  of  Jude  ,  and  after  the  new  spirit  of 
prophecy  had  died  away  a  Christian  apocalyptic  followed 
the  Jewish  models.  But  the  way  in  which  a  genuine 
■Christian  prophecy,  full  of  "  the  testimony  of  Jesus"  (Rev. 
iix.  10),  retained  not  a  little  of  the  apoc.ilyptic  manner 
(mainly,  it  ia  true,  in  dependence  on  the  book  of  Daniel), 
appears  cleariy  in  the  Revelation  of  John,  which,  whether 
■we  accept  the  prevalent  tradition  of  its  apostolic  authorship, 
or,  with  some  ancients  apd  many  moderns,  ascribe  it  to  a 
<d.'rr-/>nl  John,  is  at  Icasl  an  nndisputed  monument  of  the 


propUecy  of  the  apostolic  age  (according  to  modem  critics, 
earlier  than  the  fall  of  Jerusalem). 

The  influence  on  Christianity  of  Hellenistic  philosophy,  Helleoiaik- 
and,  in  general,  of  that  floating  spirit  of  speculation  which  tiiought  i- 
circulated  at  the  time  in  the  meeting-places  of  Eastern  and  ""  '-''i"'*'' 
Western  thought,  was  for  the  most  part  later  than  the  New 
Testament  period.  Yet  the  Alexandrian  education  of  a 
man  like  ApoUos  could  not  fail  to  give  some  colour  to  his 
preaching,  and  in  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  -whose  author, 
a  man  closely  akin  to  Paul,  is  not  a  direct  disciple  of  Jesus 
(Heb.  ii.  3),  the  theological  reflection  natural  to  the  second 
generation,  which  no  longer  stood  so  immediately  under 
the  overpowering  influence  of  the  manifestation  of  Christ, 
is  plainly  afi'ected  in  some  points  by  Alexandrian  views. 
In  the  case  of  other  books  the  assertion  of  foreign  speculative 
influences  is  generally  bound  up  with  the  denial  of  the 
authenticity  of  the  book  in  question.  That  the  gospel  of 
John  presents  a  view  of  the  person  of  Christ  dependent  on 
Philonic  speculation  is  not  exegetically.  obvious,  but  is 
simply  one  side  of  the  assertion  that  this  gospel  is  an 
unhistorical  product  of  abstract  reflection.  In  the  same  way 
other  attacks  on  the  genuineness  of  New  Testament  writings 
are  backed  up  by  the  supposed  detection  of  Orphic  elements 
in  the  epistle  of  James,  and  so  forth. 

Motives  and  Origin  of  the  first  Christian  Literature. — 
We  have  seen  that  the  earliest  currents  of  Chris'tian  life  and 
thought  stood  in  a  very  secondary  relation  to  the  intellectual 
activity  of  the  period.  The  ouly  books  from  which  the 
Apostolic  Church  drew  largely  and  freely  were  those  of  the 
Old  Testament,  and  the  Christian  task  of  proclaiming  the 
gospel  was  not  in  the  first  instance  a  hterary  task  at  alL 
The  first  writings  of  Christianity,  therefore,  were  of  an 
occasional  kind.  The  care  of  so  many  churches  compelled 
Paul  to" supplement  his  personal  efi'orts  by  epistles,  in  which  The  rpi*- 
the  discussion  of  incidental  questions  and  the  energetic  ties, 
defence  of  his  gospel  against  the  Judaizers  is  interwoven 
with  -broad,  applications  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 
the  gospel  to  the  whole  theory  and  practice  of  Christian 
life.  In  these  epistles,  and  generally  in  the  teaching  of 
Paul  and  his  associates.  Christian  thought  first  shaped  for 
itself  a  suitable  literary  vehicle.  It  was  in  Greek  that  the 
mission  to  the  Gentiles  was.  carried  on,  for  that  language 
was  everywhere  understood.  Already  in  the  mouths  of 
Hellenistic  Jews  and  in  the  translation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment the  KOLVi],  or  current  Greek  of  the  Macedonian  period, 
had  been  tinctured  with  Semitic  elements,  and  adapted  to 
express  the  ideas  of  the  old  dispensation.  Now  a  new 
modification  was  necessary,  and  soon  in  the  circle  of  the 
Pauline  churches  specifically  Christian  ideas  became 
inseparably  bound  up  with  words  which  to  the  heathen 
had  a  very  different  sense.  Whether  the  epistolary  way 
of  teaching  was  used  upon  occasion  by  the  older  apostles 
before  the  labours  of  Paul  is  not  clear ;  for  most  scholars 
have  declined  to  accept  the  ingenious  view  which  sees  in 
the  epistle  of  James  the  carUcst  writing  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  other  epistles  are  certainly  later,  and  the  way  in 
which  several  of  them  are  addressed,  not  to  a  special  com 
munity  in  reference  to  a  special  need  but  to  a  wide  circl' 
of  readers,  seems  to  presuppose  a  formed  custom  of  teach 
ing  by  letter  which  extended  from  Paul  not  only  to  so  like- 
minded  a  writer  as  the  author  of  Hebrews  (Apollos  or 
Barnabas  1)  but  to  the  old  apostles  and  their  associates. 

Besides  epistles  we  have  in  the  New  Testament  a  solitary 
book  of  Christian  prophecy  and  a  fourfold  account  of  the 
gospel  history,  with  a  continuation  of  the  third  gospel  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  The  origin  and  mutual  relations 
of  the  gospels  form  at  the  present  momciH  the  f:c]d'-of 
numerous  controversies  ^hich  can  only  be  dealt  with  ivi 
separate  articles.  \W  must  here  confino  oursolvcn  to  Uu* 
or  two  poiut«  of  general  bcariug- 


BIBLE 


•Hd 


S\-nnptic         .levrish   disciples  were   accustoir.cd   to  retain  the  o.-al 
C^»r«ik        toaehing  of  their  masters  ivilU  extraordinary  teiiiicuy  aud 
terbal   exactness    of    inemory   (Mishna,    Abolh,    lii.     8, 
Edaiotk,  L  3),  and  so  tbe  words  of  Jesus  might  for  some 
time  be  handed  down  by  merely  oral  tradition.     But  did 
the  gospel  coutinue  to   be  taught  orally  alone  np  to  the 
tune  when  the  extant  gospels  were  written  1  or  must  we 
iisumo  the  esistcncc  of  earlier  evangelical  writings  forra- 
uig  a  link  between  oral  tradition   and   the  narratives  we 
now  possess  1   The  earliest  external  evidence  on  this  ])oint 
13  given  in  the  prologue  to  Luke's  gospel,  which  spciiks 
of   many    previous  essays   towards   a   regularly   digested 
Evangelical  historj*  on  the  basis  of  the  tradition  f whether 
exclusively  oral  or  partly  written  is  not  expressed)  of  eye- 
witnesses who  had  loliowed  the  whole  course  of  Christ's 
ministry.     It  seems  to  be  implied  that  if  the  eye-witnesses 
wrote  at  all.  they,  at   least  so  far  as  was  known  to  Luke, 
did  not   compose  a   regular  narrative  but   simply    threw 
together  a  mass  of  reminiscences      This  understanding  of 
the  words  of  the  evangelist  ourees  very  well  with  the  uni- 
form tradition  nf  the  »ld  church  as  'o  the  second  gospel, 
vii..    that    it     was    cnraposed     by     Mark   from    material 
furnished  bv  Peter     Tliis  tradition  coes  oack  to  Papias  of 
Hierapolis.  about  l.'iO  \  d  .  but  it  is  a  lair  question  whether 
the  second  gospel  as  we  nave  it  is  not  an  enlarged  edition 
of  Mark's  original  wnrk.     On  the  other  band  ecclesiastical 
tradition  recognizes  'he  apostle  Matthew  as  the  author  of 
the  6r3t  gospel,  but  does  so  in  a  way  that  really  bears  out 
the  statements  of  Luke.      For  the  tradition  that  Matthew 
wrote  the  6rst  cospel  is  alw.iys  combined  with  the  state- 
ment that  he  wrote  in   Hebrew  f  Aramaic).     But  from  the 
time  of  Krasmus  the  best  Greek  scholars  have  been  con- 
vinced that  the  gospel  is  not  a  translation.      Either,  then, 
the  whole  tradition  of  a  directly  apostobc  Aramaic  gospel 
IS  a  mistake,  caused  by  the  existence  among  the  .ludaizir.g 
Christians  in  Palestine  of  an  apocryphal  "  Gospel  according 
to  the  Hebrews,"  which  was  by  ihein  ascribed  to  Matthew, 
but  was,  111  fact,  a  corrupt  edition  of  our  Greek  gospel  ; 
or,  on   the  othei  hand,   what    Matthew    really    wrote    tn 
Aramaic  was  different  from  the  book  that  now  bears  his 
name,  and  only  formed  an  important  part  of  the  material 
from  which  it  draws        The  latter  solution  is  naturally 
suggested  by  the  oldest  form  of  the  tradition  ;  for  what 
Papias  says  of  Matthew  is   that  he  wrote  to    \oyia,   tlu 
oraclef, — an  expression  which,  though  much  disputed,  seems 
to  be  most  fairly  understood  not  of  a  complete  gospel  but 
of  ti  collection  of  the   words   of   Christ.      And  if   so,   all 
the  earliest  external  evidence  points  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  synoptical  gospels  are  nonaposlolic  digests  of  spoken 
and  written  apostolic  tradition,  and  that  the  arrangement 
of  the  earlier  material  in  orderly  form  took   place   only 
cradually  and  bvjjiaiiy  ess.iys.     With  this  the   internal 
evidence  agrees.  !  Tbe  three  first  gospels  are  often  in  such 
remarkable  accor^^ven  in  minute  and  accidental  points  of 
expression,  that  it  is  certain  either  th.at  they  copied  one 
onothor  or  that  all  have  some  sources   in  common.     The 
first  explanation  is  inadequate,  both  from  the  nature  of  the 
discrepancies  that  accompany  the  agreement  of  the  three 
narratives,  and  from  the  impossibility  of  assigning  absolute 
ITiciilr  to  any  one  gospel.     For  example,  even  if  we  suppose 
that  the  gospel  of  Mark  was  used  by  the  other  two  authors, 
nt  conversely  that  Mark  was  made  up  mainly  from  Matthew 
and  Luke, it  is  still  necessary  to  postulate  one  or  more  earlier 
siiurces  to  explain  residuary  phenomena.     And  the  longer 
t'lc  problem  is  studied  the  more  general  is  the  conviction 
of  Titles,  that  these  sources  cannot  possibly  have  been 
,  Qerely  oral. 
<        It  appears    from    what    we  have  already   seen,   that  a 
^  crnsiderable  portion  of  the   New  Testament  i.<<  m.ade  up 
ol   writings  not  directly  nposlnliral.land  a   main   t>r<.l.I'^:n 


ot  criticism  is  to  determine  the  relation  of  these  wntiiigr, 
especially  of  the  gospels,  to  apostolic  teaching  and  tiaJ;tioii. 
iJut  behind  all  such  qucsiions  as  the  relative  priority  ol 
Matthew  or  of  Mark,  the  weight  to  be 'assigned  to  the 
testimony  of  Papias,  and  so  forih,  lies  a  series  uf  questions 
much  more  radical  in  character  by  which  the  whole  theo- 
logical world  is  at  present  agitated.  Can  we  s.ay  of  all  the 
New  Testament  books  that  they  are  either  directly  apostolic, 
or  at  least  stand  in  immediate  dependence  on  genuine 
apostolic  teaching  which  they  honestly  represent  i  or  must  T.ionjei! 
we  hold,  with  an  inCuential  school  of  modern  critics,  that  a  ►^hool 
large  proportion  of  the  books  are  direct  forgeries,  written 
in  the  interest  of  theological  tendencies,  to  which  they 
sacrifice  without  hesitation  the  genuine  history  and  teaching 
of  Christ  aud  his  apostlesi  There  are,  of  course,  positions 
intermediate  to  these  two  views,  and  the  doctrine  of  tend- 
encies is  not  held  by  many  critics  even  of  the  Tubingen 
school  in  Us  extreme  form  Yet.  as  a  matter  of  fact,  every 
book  m  the  New  Testament,  with  the  exception  of  the 
four  great  epistles  of  St  Paul,  is  at  present  more  or  less  the 
subject  of  controversy,  and  interpolations  are  asserted  even 
in  these.  The  details  of  such  a  coiitrovvrsy  can  only  be 
handled  in  separate  articles,  but  a  few  general  remarks  may 
be  useful  here 

The  arguments  directed  by  modern  critics  against  the  E«'»rn«i 
genuiceDess  or  credibility  of  New  Testament  books  do  not  e*"i<-nco. 
for  the  most  part  rely  much  on  external  evidence  Except 
in  one  or  two  cases'  (particularly  that  of  2d  Peter)  Uie 
external  evidence  in  favour  of  the  books  is  as  strong  as  one 
cair /airly  expect,  even  where  not  altogether  decisive  We 
.shall  see  when  we  come  to  speak  of  the  canon  that,  towards 
the  close  of  the  2d  century,  the  four  gospels,  the  Acts, 
thirteen  epistles  of  Paul,  the  first  epistles  of  Pttcr  and 
John,  and  the  book  of  Revelation,  were  received  in  the  most 
widel;  separated  churches  with  remarkable  unanimity. 
Before  this  time  the  chain  of  evidence  is  less  complete. 
All  our  knowledge  of  the  period  that  lies  between  the 
apostles  and  the  great  teachers  o(  the  Old  Catholic  Church 
towards  the  close  of  the  2d  century  is  fragmentary.  We 
possess  but  scanty  remains  of  the  literature,  and  the  same 
criticism  which  seeks  to  bring  down  many  Kew  Testament 
books  into  this  period  questions  the  genuineness  of  many 
of  the  writings  which  claim  to  date  from  the  first  half  of 
the  2d  century,  and  so  are  appealed  to  by  conservative 
writers.  But  on  the  whole,  what  evidence  docs  exist  is  of 
a  kind  to  push  back  all  the  more  important  writings  to  an 
early  date.  The  gospel  of  John,  for  example,  is  one  of  ' 
the  books  which  negative  critics  are  most  determined  in 
rejecting.  Yet  the  fairest  writers  of  the  school  (llilgenfeld, 
Keim)  admit  that  it  was  known  to  Justin  Martyr  in  the 
middle  of  the  2d  century,  though  they  think  that  besides 
our  four  gospels  he  had  a  fifth  of  apocryphal  character. 
But  references  of  an  earlier  date  can  hardly  be  denied  ;  and 
the  gospel  may  be  traced  almost  to  the  beginning  of  the 
century  by  the  aid  of  fragments  of  the  Gnostic  Basilides 
and  of  the  epistles  of  Ignatius.  The  Tiibingen  school, 
indeed,  maintain  that  the  fragments  preserved  by  Hip- 
polytus  are  not  from  Basilides,  but  from  a  later  writer 
of  his  school,  and  utterly'  reject  the  Ignatian  cpisllcsL 
But  it  cannot  be  said  that  they  have  proved  their  cast 
beyond  dispute.  They  have  at  most  shown  that,  if  tho 
gospel  must  on  otlicr  grounds  be  taken  as  spurious,  tbe 
external  e\idence  may  be  pushed  aside  as  not  absolutL-ly 
insuperable  On  the  other  hand  they  try  to  bring  positive 
proof  that  certain  books  were  unknown  in  circles  where,  if 
genuine,  they  must  have  circulated.  But  such  a  negative 
is  in  its  very  nature  diflirult  to  prove.  Probably  the 
strongest  argument  of  the  kind^  is  that  brought  to  show 
lliat  Papias  did  not  know  the  gospel  of  John.  Bui  we 
know  Papias  only  through  Eusebiu.i     and  though  tbe  latter 


G44 


BIBLE 


is  careful  to  mention  all  references  to  disputed  books,  it 
does  not  appear  that  it  was  part  of  hia  design  to  cite 
testimony  to  a  book  so  universally  allowed  as  John's  gospcL 
And  Papias  does  give  testimony  to  th«  first  epistle  of  John, 
which  is  hardly  separable  from  the  gospel.  On  the  whole, 
then,  we  repeat  that,  on  the  most  cardinal  points,  the 
external  evidence  for  the  New  Testament  books  is  as  strong 
»s  can  fairly  be  looked  for,  though  not,  of  course,  strong 
enough  to  convince  a  man  who  is  sure  a  prion  that  this  or 
that  book  is  unhistorical  and  must  be  of  late  date. 

The  strength  of  the  negative  critics  hes  in  internal 
evidence.  And  in  this  connection  they  have  certainly 
directed  attention  to  real  ditEeolties.  many  of  which  still 
await  their  explanation.  Some  of  these  difficulties  are  net 
properly  connected  with  the  Tiibir.gen  position.  The 
genuineness  of  2d  Peter,  which,  indeed,  is  very  weakly 
attested  by  external  evidence,  was  suspicious  even  to 
Erasmus  and  Calvin,  and  no  one  will  assert  that  the  Pauline 
authorship  of  1st  Timothy  is  as  palpable  as  that  of  the 
epistle  to  the  Romans.  So,  again,  it  is  undeniable  tkat 
the  epistle  to  the  Colossians  and  the  so-called  epistle  to 
the  Ephesians  differ  considerably  in  language  and  thought 
from  other  Pauline  epistles,  and  that  their  relation  to  one 
Tii«  Tubin-  another  demands  explanation.  But  in  the  Tubingen  school 
i»a  theory,  all  minor  diificalties,  each  of  which  might  be  solved  in  detail 
without  any  very  radical  procedure,  are  brought  together  as 
phases  of  a  single  extremely  radical  theory  of  the  growth 
of  the  New  Testament.  The  theory  has  two  bases,  one 
philosophical  or  dogmatical,  the  other  historical ;  and  it 
cannot  be  pretended  that  the  latter  basis  is  adequate  if  the 
former  is  struck  away.  Philosophically  the  Tubingen 
school  starts  from  the  position  so  clearly  laid  down  by 
Strauss,  that  a  miraculous  interruption  of  the  laws  of  nature 
stamps  the  narrative  in  which  it  occurs  as  unhistorical,  or, 
at  least,  as  more  cautious  writers  put  the  case,  hampers  the 
narrative  with  such  extreme  improbability  that  the  positive 
evidence  in  favour  of  its  truth  would  require  to  be  much 
stronger  than  it  is  in  the  case  of  the  New  Testament  history. 
The  application  of  this  proposition  makes  a  great  part  of 
the  narrative  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts  appear  as  unhistorical, 
and  therefore  late ;  and  the  origin  of  this  late  literature  is 
sought  by  regarding  the  New  Testament  as  the  monument 
of  a  long  struggle,  in  the  course  of  which  an  original  sharp 
antagonism  between  the  gospel  of  Paul  and  the  Judaizing 
gospel  of  the  old  apostles  was  gradually  softened  down  and 
harmonized.  The  analysis  of  the  New  Testament  is  the 
resurrection  of  early  parties  in  the  church,  each  pursuing 
its  own  tendency  by  the  aid  of  literary  fiction.  In  the 
genuine  epistles  of  Paul  on  the  one  hand,  and  in  the 
Revelation  and  some  parts  of  Matthew  on  the  other,  the 
original  hostility  of  etknic  and  Jewish  Christianity  is 
sharply  defined  ;  while  after  a  series  of  intermediate  stages 
the  Johannine  writings  present  the  final  transition  in  the 
2d  century  from'  the  contests  of  primitive  Christianity  to 
the  uniformity  of  the  Old  Catholic  Church.  This  general 
position  has  been  developed  in  a  variety  of  forms,  more  or 
less  drastic,  and  is  supported  by  a  vast  mass  of  speculation 
and  research;  but  the  turning  points  of  the  controversy 
may,  perhaps,  be  narrowed  to  four  questions— (1.)  Whether 
in  view  of  Paul's  undoubted  conviction  that  miraculous 
powers  were  exercised  by  himself  and  other  Christians  (1 
Cor.  liL  9, /.  ;  2  Cor.  xii.  12)  the  miracle  criterion  of  a 
secondary  narrative  can  be  maintained  1  (2.)  Whether  the 
book  of  Acts  is  radically  inconsistent  with  Paul's  own 
account  of  his  relations  to  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  and 
whether  the  antithesis  of  Peter  and  Paul  is  proved  from 
the  epistlns  of  the  latter,  or  postulated  in  accordance  with 
the  Uegelian  law  of  advance  by  antagonismi  (3.)  Wbcther 
the  gospel  of  John  is  necessarily  a  late  fiction,  or  docs  not 
rather  supply  in  its  ideal  delincatioD  of  Jesus  a  necessary 


supplement  to  the  synoptical  gospels  which  can  only  be 
understood  as  resting  on  true  apostolic  retniQisceDce  I  (4  ) 
Whether  the  external  evidence  for  the  several  books  and 
the  known  facts  of  church  histoiy  leave  time  for  the  suc- 
cessive evolution  of  all  the  stages  of  early  Christianity 
which  the  theory  postulates'! 

The  ChrzsUan  Canon  of  the  Old  and  A'ew  Testaments. —  Christ,. 
We  have  already  seen  that  the  Apostolic  Church  continued  cancn- 
lo  use  as  sacred  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  whose  authority  '-'■''  '""'' 
derived  fresh  confirmation  from  the  fulfilment  of  the  pro- "°°'' 
phecies  m  Christ.  The  idea  that  the  Old  Testament  revela- 
tion must  now  fall  back  into  a  secondary  position  as 
compared  with  inspired  apostolic  teaching  was  nut  for  a 
moment  entertainedL  Still  less  could  the  notion  of  a  bodv* 
of  New  Testament  Scriptures,  of  a  collection  of  Christian 
writings,  to  be  read  like  the  Old  Testament  in  public 
worship  and  appealed  to  as  authoritative  in  matters  of 
faith,_take  shape  so  long  as  the  church  was  conscious  that 
she  had  in  her  midst  a  living  voice  of  inspiration.  The 
first  apostolic  writings  were,  as  we  have  seen,  occasional, 
and  it  was  not  even  matter  of  course  that  every  epistle  of 
an  apostle  should  be  carefully  preserved,  much  less  that  it 
should  be  prized  above  his  oral  teaching.  Paul  certainly 
wrote  more  than  two  epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  and  even 
Papias  is  still  of  opinon,  when  he  collects  reminiscences  of 
apostolic  sayings  from  the  mouths  of  the  elders,  that  what 
he  reads  in  books  cannot  do  him  so  much  good  as  what  he 
receives  "from  a  living  and  abiding  voice."  Nay,  the 
very  writers  who  are  the  first  to  put  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment books  on  a  precwely  similar  footing  (e.g.,  Tertullian) 
attach  equal  importance  to  the  tradition  of  churches  which 
had  been  directly  taught  by  apostles,  and  so  were  presumed 
to  possess  the  "  rule  of  faith  "  in  a  form  free  from  the 
difficulties  of  exposition  that  encumber  the  written  word. 
In  the  first  instance,  then,  the  authoritative  books  of  the 
Christian  church  were  those  of  the  Old  Testament;  and  in 
the  time  of  the  apostles  and  their  immediate  successors  it 
was  the  Hebrew  canon  that  was  received.  But  as  most 
churches  had  no  knowledge  of  the  Old  Testament  except 
through  the  Greek  translation  and  the  Alexandrian  canon, 
the  .Apocrypha  soon  began  to  be  quoted  as  Scripture.  The 
feeUng  of  uncertainty  as  to  the  proper  number  of  Old 
Testament  books  which  prevailed  in  the  2d  century  is  illus- 
trated by  an  epistle  of  MeLito  of  Sardis,  who  journeyed  to 
Palestine  in  quest  of  light,  and  brought  back  the  pre- 
sent Hebrew  cacon,  with  the  omission  of  the  book  of 
Esther.  In  the  3d  century  Origen  knew  the  Hebrew 
canon,  but  accepted  the  Alexandrian  additions,  apparently 
because  ho  considered  that  a  special  providence  had 
watched  over  both  forms  of  the  collection.  Subsequent 
teachers  in,  the  Eastern  Church  gradually  went  back  to 
the  Hebrew  canon  (Esther  being  still  excluded  from  full 
canonicity  by  Athanasius  and  Gregory  of  Nazianzus),  dis- 
tinguishing the  Alexandrian  additions  as  d>ayiyi'ai(iKo,iHva — 
books  used  for  ecclesiastical  lessons.  In  the  Western 
Churcli  the  same  distinction  was  made  by  scholars  like 
Jerome,  who  introduced  for  merely  ecclesiastical  books 
the  somewhat  incorrect  name  of  Apocrj-pha ;  but  a  laser 
view  was  very  prevalent  and  g.uned  ground  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  till  at  length,  in  opposition  to  the  Protestant.«, 
the  Council  of  Trent  accepted  every  book  in  the  Vulgate 
translation  as  canoaicaL 

We  turn  now  to  the  New  Testament  collection.     The  ^ 
idea  of  canonicity — the  right  of  a  book  to  be   cited   as 
Scripture — was  closely  connected  with  rcgiTlar  use  in  public  , 
worship,  and  so  the  first  step  towards  a  New  Testament 
canon    was   doubtless   the   establishment  of  a  c<jstom  of 
reading  in  the  churches  individual  epistles  or  gospels.     The  j 
first  I>uginning3  of  this  custom  must  have  been  very  early,   j 
The  reference  to  Luke  m  i   Tim.  v.   13  ia  disputed,  oiut  I 


BIBLE 


645 


2  Vet.  iu.  16  is  usually  taken  as  one  of  man>  arguments 
against  the  g  jnuineness  of  that  epistlo ;  but  a  citation  from 
Alatthew  is  certainly  referred  to  as  Scripture  in  the  epistle 
of  Barnabas  But  such  recognition  of  an  individual  gospel 
is  a  long  wr  y  removed  from  the  recognition  of  an  apostolic 
canon.  Th )  apostolic  writings  continued  to  be  very  par- 
tially diffusid,  and  readers  used  such  books  as  they  had 
access  to,  o' ten  failing  to  distinguish  between  books  of 
genuine  valie  and  worthless  forgeries.  For  most  readers 
were  very  uncritical,  and  there  was  an  enormous  floating 
mass  of  sj'Urious  and  apocalyptic  literature,  including 
recensions  of  the  gospel  altered  by  heretical  parties  to  suit 
their  own  views.  It  was  perhaps  in  contest  with  the 
heretics  of  the  2d  century  that  the  necessity  of  forming  a 
strict  list  of  really  authoritative  writings  came  to  be  clearly 
felt ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  heretics,  generally  hostile  t« 
the  Old  Testament,  seem  to  have  been  among  the  first  to 
form  collections  of  Christian  writings  for  themselves.  Thus 
Marcion,  in  the  middle  of  the  2d  century,  selected  for 
himself  on  dogmatical  grounds  ten  Pauline  epistles,  and  a 
gospel  which  seems  to  have  been  based  on  Luke.  Up  to 
this  time  perhaps  no  formal  canon  of  sacred  writings  had 
been  put  forth  by  the  Catholic  Church.  But  in  the  second 
half  of  the  century  the  notion  of  an  authoritative  New 
Testament  collection  appears  in  full  development,  and  there 
is  an  amount  of  agreement  as  to  the  contents  of  the  canon, 
which  implies  that,  in  spite  of  the  loose  way  in  which 
apocryphal  books  circulated  side  by  side  with  genuine 
works,  the  church  had  no  great  difficulty  in  drav-ing  a 
sharp  line  between  the  two  classes  when  this  was  'elt  to 
be  necessary.  At  the  time  of  tho  great  teachers  of  the 
close  of  the  2d  century  (Irena;us,  Tertullian,  Clement)  we 
find  a  twofold  collection,  the  Gospel  and  the  Apostles.  The 
Gospel  compriaes  the  four  evangelists;  and  this  number  was 
already  so  absolutely  fixed  as  to  admit  of  no  further  doubt. 
Quite  beyond  dispute  were  also  the  main  books  of  the 
Apostoticon,  the  Acts,  thirteen  epistles  of  Paul,  1st  Peter, 
1st  John,  and  the  Apocalypse.  The  Muratorian  fragment 
which  contains  a  list  twenty  or  thirty  years  older  than  the 
3d  century  omits  1st  Peter,  but  adds  Jude,  2d  and  3d 
John  (1),  aad  (as  a  disputed  book)  the  Apocalypse  of  Peter. 
The  Shepherd  of  Hermas  might  also  bo  read,  but  it  is 
pointed  out  that  it  is  of  quite  recent  date  and  not  of 
prophetic  or  apostolic  authority.  From  this  time  forward, 
Antjiego  then,  the  controversy  is  narrowed  to  a  few  books,  occupying 
"•  '^'-  a  middle  position  between  the  large  mass  of  our  present 
New  Testament,  which  was  already  beyond  dispute,  and 
the  spurious  literature  which  was  quite  excluded  from 
ecclesiastical  use.  Absolute  uniformity  was  not  at  once 
attainable,  foe  various  churches  had  quite  independent 
usages ;  and,  as  we  see  from  the  Muratoriap  canon,  a  book 
might  receive  a  certain  ecclesiastical  recognition  without 
being,  therefore,  viewed  as  strictly  canonical  This  dubious 
margin  to  the  canon  wasof  very  uncertain  limits,  and  Clement 
of  Alexandria  still  uses  many  apocryphal  books  which 
found  no  acknowledgment  in  other  parts  of  the  church. 
Gradually  the  list  of  books  which  have  even  a  disputed 
claim  to  authority  is  cut  down.  In  the  time  of  Eusebius 
the  Shepherd  of  Hermas  was  still  read  in  some  churches, 
and  several  other  book.i — the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  the  Acts  of 
Paul,  the  Revelation  of  Peter,  the  Teachingsof  the  Apostles — 
appear  as  controverted  writings.  But  all  these  are  plainly 
on  the  verge  of  rejection,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  2d  and 
3d  John,  Jude,  James,  and  2d  Peter  are  gradually  gaining 
ground.  This  process  continued  to  go  on  without  inter- 
ruption till  at  length  the  whole  class  of  disputed  books 
(antiUsoTnena)  melted  away,  and  only  our  present  canon 
was  left  on  tho  one  hand,  and  books  of  no  authority  or 
repute  upon  the  other.  Thus  the  Council  of  Laodicca  was 
able  wholly  to  forbid  the  ecclesiastical  use  of  uncanonical 


books  (SCO  A.D.)  and  tho  only  uncertain  point  remaining 
in  the  tradition  of  the  Eastern  Church  was  the  position  of 
the  Apocalypse,  which  had  gradually  fallen  into  suspicion, 
and  was  not  fully  reinstated  till  the  5th  century.  The 
Western  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  was  long  dubious  as  to 
the  epistle  to  tho  Hebrews,  which  was  received  <viihout 
hesitation  in  the  East,  as  the  Apocalj-psc  continued  to  be 
in  the  West  The  age  of  Augustine  and  Jerome  saw  the 
close  of  the  Western  canon. 

TrantPivsion  and  Diffusion  of  the  Bible  in  the  Christian  Church 
be/ore  the  Invention  of  Printing, 

Under  this  head  we  have  to  speak — 1st,  of  the  transmission  of  tha 
original  text ;  2d,  of  the  ancient  versions. 

1.  Tub  Original  Text— 0/ii  Testament.— The  rapid  spread  of  Ten  of 
Christianity  among  the  Gentiles  of  tho  West  made  Greek  the  sacred  0.  T. 
language  of  Christendom.  Not  only  is  Greek  the  language  of  the 
New  Testament,  but  it  was  in  the  Septuaglnt  version  that  tho  Old 
Testament  was  first  circulated  in  the  most  important  Gentile 
churches.  Hebrew  was  almost  unknown  even  to  learned  Christians, 
and  in  fact  the  current  (Jewish  as  well  as  Christian)  doctrine  of  the 
inspiration  of  tho  Septuagint,  and  a  suspicion  that  the  Hebrew  text 
haii  been  falsified  by  the  Jews,  made  the  study  of  the  original 
appear  unprofitable.  A  juster  vi,ew  of  the  value  of  Hebrew  studies 
was  formed  by  the  two  greatest  scholars  of  the  patristic  period, 
Origen  and  Jerome.  But  the  Septuagint  continued  to  enjoy  an 
authoritative  place  in  the  Eastern  Church  ;  and  tho  Latin  Church, 
though  it  finally  adopted  Jerome's  translation  from  the  Hebrew  in 
place  of  the  older  translation  from  the  Greek,  was  not  led  by  thia 
change  to  take  any  interest  in  further  study  of  the  original.  The 
Hebrew  Bible  continued  to  be  the  peculiar  possession  of  the  Jews, 
of  whoso  labours  in  fixing  and  transmitting  a  standard  text  we  have 
already  spoken.  It  was  not  till  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century 
that  Christian  scholars  began  to  take  a.  lively  interest  in  the 
"  Hebrew  verity; "  and  what  has  been  done  since  that  time  to  repair 
80  many  centuries  of  neglect  belongs  to  the  history  of  the  printed 
text  or  of  exegesis. 

A^ew  Testament. — The  original  copies  of  the  New  Testament  Text  of 
writings  were  probably  mitten  on  papyrus  rolls,  and  were  so^jon  N.  T. — 
worn  out  by  frequent  use,  that  we  do  not  even  possess  any  historical  external 
notice  of  their  existence.  They  must,  however,  have  been  written  feature* 
in  uncial  or  largo  capital  letters,  without  division  of  words  or 
punctuation,  without  accents,  breathings,  &c,  and  probably  with- 
out any  titles  or  subscriptions  whatever.  The  earUest  transcripts 
comprised  only  portions  of  the  New  Testament,  the  gospels  being 
oftenest  copied,  and  the  Pauline  oftener  than  the  catholic  epistles. 
Even  after  the  canon  became  fixed.  MSS-  of  the  whole  New  Testa- 
ment, or  of  the  whole  Greek  Bible,  were  comparatively  rare;  The 
order  of  the  several  books  was  not  quite  fixed  ;  but  the  cathohc 
epistles  generally  followed  the  book  of  Acts.  It  may  also  bo  noted 
that  in  the  oldest  MSS.  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  precedes  the 
pastoral  epistles.  In  coui»e  of  time  various  changes  were  intro- 
duced in  the  externals  of  the  written  text.  Parchment  and  vellum 
took  the  place  of  papyrus,  and  form  tlie  material  of  the  oldest 
extant  copies.  The  uncitol  character  held  ita  ground  till  about  the 
10th  century,  when  the  use  of  a  cursive  or  running  hand  became 
general.  Attempts  to  indicate  the  punctuation  go  back  as  far  as 
the  4th  or  6th  century  The  oldest  IISS.  use  for  this  purpose  an 
occasional  simple  point,  or  a  small  blank  space  in  the  line.  Another 
system  was  to  write  the  text  in  short  lines  (ffrtxoi)  accommodated 
to  the  sense.  The  author  of  this  stichomttry  was  Euthalius  of  Alex- 
andria in  the  second  half  of  the  6th  century,  who  appUed  it  to  tho 
epistles  and  Acts.  The  same  plan  was  afterwards  extended  to  the 
gospels  ;  bnt  vellum  was  too  costly  to  allow  of  its  general  adoption. 
The  present  system  of  pnnetuation  was  first  used  in  printed  books. 
Breathings  and  accents  were  not  in  common  use  down  to  the  end 
of  the  7th  century;  but  occasional  traces  of  them  seem  to  occur  con- 
siderably earlier. 

Another  device  for  the  moro  convenient  use  of  the  Now  Testa- 
ment was  the  division  of  tho  text  into  sections  of  various  kindB. 
The  gospels  were  divided  by  Ammonius  of  Alexandria  (220  a.l.) 
into  Siort  chapters  (Ammonian  sectiooa,  itt^xiAaiii),  constructed  to 
facilitate  tho  comparison  of  corresponding  passages  of  the  several 
gospels.  These  sections  are  markecf  on  the  margin  of  most  MSS. 
from  the  5th  century  onwards  ;  and  in  general  a  reference  is  also 
given  t«  tho  so-called  canons  of  Euscbins,  which  are  a  kind  of  index 
to  the  sections,  enahUng  the  reader  to  find  tho  parallel  passages. 
Another  division  of  tho  gospels  into  larger  sections  (TfT^o^  breves) 
is  also  found  in  MSS.  of  the  5tb  century,  and  a  similar  division  of 
the  other  books  into  chapters  (K<^<£Aaia)  came  into  use  not  much 
later.  The  chapters  of  toe  Acts  and  the  catholic  epistles  were  the 
work  of  Euthalius.  Our  present  chapters  arc  mucn  later.  They 
were  invented  by  Cardinal  Hugo  of  S.  Carua  in  the  13tb  century, 
ncro  firat  apphed  to  the  Latin  Bible,  and  "^  atiil  nnknnwo  in  th* 


(Ho 


BIBLE 


"aaccrn  ChurelL     The  preaeul  system  of  vctscs  first  appears  in  the 
niition  prioted  by  Robert  Stephens  in  the  year  1551, 

The  titles  and  subscriptions  of  the  New  Testament  books  are 
mother  point  on  which  a  succession  of  changes  has  taken  place. 
The  oidost  MSS.  have  much  shorter  titles  than  those  which  the 
English  version  adopted  from  the  later  Greek  tezt ;  and  the  sub- 
scriptions, with  their  would-be  historical  infonnation,  are  not  only 
late,  but  worthless.  Those  appended  to  the  epistles  of  St  Paul  are 
attributed  to  Euthalius. 

More  important  than  these  external  matters  are  the  variations 
which  in  course  of  time  crept  into  the  test  itself.  Many  of  these 
variations  are  mere  slips  of  eye,  ear,  memory,  or  judgment  on  the 
part  of  a  copyist,  who  had  no  intention  to  do  otherwise  tl*<iu  tollow 
what  lay  before  him.  But  transcribers,  and  espeoiajy  early 
transcribers,  by  no  means  aimed  at  that  minute  acciL'^i;y  which  is 
expected  of  a  modern  critical  editor.  Corrections  were  made  in  the 
interests  of  grammar  or  of  style,  slight  changes  were  adopted  in 
order  to  remove  difficulties,  additions  came  in,  especially  from 
parajtel  narratives  in  the  gospels,  citations  from  the  Old  Testament 
were  made  more  exact  or  more  complete.  That  all  this  was  done  in 
perfect  good  faith,  and  simply  because  no  strict  conception  of  the 
duty  of  a  copyist  existed,  is  especially  clear  from  the  almost  entire 
absence  of  deliberate  fdlsification  of  the  text  in  the  interests  of 
doctrinal  controversy.  To  detail  all  the  sources  of  various  readings 
would  be  out  of  place  ;  it  may  suffice  to  mention,  in  addition  to 
what  has  been  already  said,  that  glosses,  or  notes  originally  written 
on  the  margin,  very  often  ended  by  being  taken  into  the  text,  and 
that  the  custom  of  reading  the  Scriptures  In  public  worship  naturally 
brought  in  liturgical  additions,  such  as  the  doxology  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer;  while  the  commencement  of  an  ecclesiastical  lesson  torn 
from  its  proper  context  had  oftea  to  be  supplemented  by  a  few 
explanatory  words,  which  soon  came  to  be  regarded  as  part  of  the 
oneiDaL 

Up  to  a  certain  point  the  varioos  readings  due  to  so  many 
different  causes  constantly  became  more  and  more  numerous;  but 
the  number  of  independent  readings  which  could  arise  and  be  per- 
petuated was  limited  by  various  circumstances.  A  general  simi- 
larity necessarily  prevailed  in  associated  groups  of  copies,  which 
were  either  derived  from  the  same  archetype,  or  written  by  the 
same  copyist,  or  corrected  by  comparison  with  a  single  celebrated 
MS.  Causes  such  as  these,  combined  with  local  ]»eculiariti68  of 
style  and  taste,  and  with  the  fact  that  the  New  Testament,  like 
Christianity  itself,  was  sent  forth  from  central  mother  churches  to 
newly-formed  communities  all  around,  gave  a  decided  local  colour- 
ing to  the  text  current  in  certam  regions  ;  so  that  we  are  still  able 
to  speak  in  a  general  way  of  an  Alexandrian,  a  Western,  a  Byzan- 
tine, and  perhaps  also  (with  Teschendorf)  of  an  Asiatic  text.  Rut 
of  couise  no  ancient  local  text  remained  uninfluenced  by  copies 
from  other  regions.  The  comparison  of  copies  became  more  and 
more  extended  in  range  as  the  ciiurch  grew  and  consolidated  into  a 
homogeneous  form  ;  and  though  old  readings,  which  hod  obtained  a 
firm  hold  in  certain  communities,  were  not  easily  eradicated,  it  at 
length  became  almost  impossible  for  any  important  new  error  to 
escaps  detection.  Most  vanations  of  any  consequence  which  are 
found  in  existing  MSS.  are  known  to  be  as  old  as  the  4th  century, 
and  other  readings  existed  then  which  no  MS.  is  known  to  contaim 
The  variations  of  early  copies  were  most  completely  smoothed 
Into  uniformity  in  the  later  Byzantine  MSS.,  after  the  Mahometan 
conquest  had  overthrown  Creek  teammg  in  Syria  and  Egypt.  The 
Bcribes  of  Constantinople  spent  great  pains  on  tho  text  in  accordance 
with  their  own  notions  of  what  was  proper,  and  gave  it  a  form 
which  is  certainly  smoother,  rorrecter,  and  more  uniform  than  that 
of  older  MSS.  Bat  precisely  these  peculiarities  show  that  this 
late  recension  is  remote  from  the  original  shape  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment writings,  and  compel  us  to  seek  the  true  text  by  study  of  early 
ttS3.,  especially  of  the  still  existing  uncial  copies. 

The  manuscripts  are  of  six  classes,  containing  respectively  the 
gospels,  the  Acts  with  the  catholic  epistles,  tiie  Pauline  epistles, 
the  Apocjilypse,  the  ecclesiastical  lessons  from  the  gospels,  the 
lessons  from  the  Acts,  and  epiatloa.  Copies  belonging  to  tho  last 
two  classes  are  called  lectionarics,  and  lectionaries  of  the  gospels 
are  called  evangelistaria.  Each  MS.  is  referred  to  by  critics  by 
ft  special  mark.  Uncial  MSS.  are  denoted  by  a  capital  letter, 
A  standing  for  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  B  for  the  Vaticanus,  and 
soon.  Cursives  and  lectionanes  are  -denoted  bv  Arabic  numerals. 
It  is  to  be  obvservcd  that  tho  same  letter  in  a  diifercnt  part  of  the 
New  Testament  does  not  necessarily  refer  to  the  same  MS.  *  Thus 
Cod.  D  of  the  gospels  and  Acts  is  the  Codex  Bczte,  but  D'  of  the 
Pauline  epistles  is  tho  Claromontanus.  If  we  reckon  fragments,  the 
Dumber  of  uncial  MSS.  is  56  of  the  gospels,  14  of  the  Acts,  6  of  the 
cathobc  epistle.'t,  15  of  the  Pauline  epi.stles,  5  of  the  Apocalyijso". 
But  many  of  these  art  extremely  short  fragments.  The  number" of 
cursives  and  loctionarics  is  enormous,  so  that  altogether  there  are 
Dearly  a  thousand  MSS.  for  the  gospels,  and  as  manj-  more  forthe 
rest  of  the  New  TesUment  Not  nearly  iill  the  cursive  copies  have 
been  thoroughly  examined,  and  most  of  thum  have  small  value, 
though  some  comp«uativ«ly  recant  MSS.  are  important  from  tho 


fact  that  they  represent  an  ancient  (est  Lectionaifw,  even  when 
uncial,  are  little  esteemed  by  most  critics.  Gnvco -Latin  codices 
which  have  the  Greek  and  Latin  in  parallel  columns  vere  fonneiily 
suspected  of  correcting  the  Greek  text  by  the  Latin,  but  their  value 
is  now  generally  recognised. 

The  oldest  copies  oi'  the  Greek  Testament  are  the  Coiiex  Sinairicus  Uociai 
(S)  and  the  Codes  Vaticanus  (B),  both  of  the  4th  cen  "jury.  Next  copies, 
in  age  come  the  Alexandrian  manuscript  (A)  and  the  Codex 
Ephraemi  (C),  both  of  which  are  referred  to  the  5th  ctmtuiy.  All 
of  these  copies  were  originally  complete  Bibles,  with  th'.*  Old  as  well 
as  the  New  Testament.  N  is  still  complete  as  rega  ds  the  New 
Testiunent;  A  and  B  have  lacunae;  C  is  very  imperfeC,  and  barely 
legible,  the  ancient  Avriting  having  been  almost  removed  by  a 
mediceval  scnbe  to  make  way  for  the  writing  of  Epl  raem  Syius. 
[<,  A,  B,  C,  are  the  four  great  first-rate  unci^ils,  and  will  be  found 
more  fully  described  in  separate  articles.  Besides  these  there  ara 
one  or  two  fragments  as  old  as  the  5th  century  (1,  P,  T). 

A  quite  peculiar  place  is  held  by  the  Graeco  Latin  Codex  Bezce 
at  Cambridge  (D),  which  dates  from  the  6th  century,  but  presenti  _ 
a  text  full  of  the  most  singular  interpolations.  Tlie  other  uD'-ials 
of  the  gospels  are  less  important,  either  from  their  fragmentary 
state  or  from  the  character  of  their  text.  The  later  uncials  are 
hardly  more  valuable  than  good  cursives. 

The  most  important  MS.  of  the  Acts,  in  addition  to  those  already 
mentioned,  is  E,  the  Codex  Laudianua,  Gi^eco-Latin  of  the  6th 
century,  in  the  Bodleian  at  Oxford.  For  the  Pauline  epistles  we 
may  mention  D,  or  Codex  Claromontanus,  at  P«n9,  also  Gneco- 
Latin  of  the  6th  century,  and  H,  or  Codex  Coisliuianus,  of  tie 
same  century,. of  which  there  are  12  leaves  at  Pans  and  2  at  St 
Petersburg.  Uncial  authority  is  most  scanty  for  the  Apocalypse, 
for  which  the  Vaticanus  is  defective.  B  of  the  Apocalypse  is  an 
uncial  of  the  8th  century. 

2.  The  Christian  Versions. — "We  have  seen  that  the  early  O'-i* 
church  adopted  the  LX5.,  not  so  much  in  the  character  of  a  vtr... .►!»». 
version,  as  in  that  of  an  authoritative  original.  Although  several 
attempts  were  made  in  the  2d  century  of  our  era  to  produce  a  better 
Greek  rendering  of  the  Old  Testament,  not  one  of  these  seems  to 
have  had  its  origin  in  the  Catholic  Church.  Aquila  was  a  Jew, 
whose  closely  verbal  rendering  was  designed  to  serve  the  subtilties 
of  Rabbinic  exegesis.  Synimachus  and  Theoclotion  were  probably 
Ebionites.  The  former  was  an  excellent  ma.3ter  of  Greek,  who 
happily  corrected  many  clumsy  renderings  of  the  LXX.,  but  inclined 
too  much  to  paraphrase,  and  to  the  obliteration  of  characteristic 
figures  and  bold  expressions.  Theodotion  made  less  extensive 
changes,  and  aimed  only  at  necessary  corrections.  His  rendering 
of  Danrtl  was  so  manifest  an  improvement  that  it  entirely  displaced 
the  old  version,  and  is  still  regularly  printed  as  part  of  the  LXX. 

In  the  Christian  Church  the  importance  of  these  new  versions,  Onpfi^ 
and  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of  the  LXX. — which,  apart  from  He.\..)-la. 
its  original  defects,  had  been  much  corrupted  in  successive  transcrip- 
tions— were  first  clearly  set  forth  by  Ongen  in  his  Hexaplar  edition 
of  the  Old  Testament  This  great  work  takes  its  name  from  the 
six  columns  in  which  it  was  arranged,  containing  respectively  the 
Hebrew  in  the  proper  character,  the  i;ame  in  Greek  letters,  the  versions 
of  Aquila,  Symmachus,  and  Theodotion,  and  a  text  of  the  LXX., 
partly  corrected  by  comparison  of  MSS.,  partly  emended  by  recourse 
to  the  Hebrewi  The  venations  of  several  less  important  versions 
were  also  noted.  The  complete  Hexapla  whs  too  huge  a  work  to 
be  transcribed  and  circulated  as  a  whole.  It  lay  in  the  library  at 
Caisarea,  and  was  only  occasionally  consulted  by  scholars  ;  but  the 
column  containing  Origeu's  emended  text  of  the  luXX.  was  pub- 
lished in  separate  transcripts  by  Eusebius  and  Pamphilus,  and 
attaine4  so  great  a  circulation  that  in  the  I'aK'.stinian  churches,  as 
we  learn  from  Jerome,  it  quite  displaced  the  older  text.  In  com- 
posing his  Hexaplar  text,  Origen  was  careful  to  distinguish  his  own 
improvements  from  the  ori^al  LXX.  by  the  use  of  asterisks  and 
other  marks,  In  later  copies  these  marks  were  unfortunately  often 
omittt'd.  The  Hexaplar  text  became  mixed  up  with  the  true  LXX., 
and  the  modem  critic  is  sometimes  tempted  to  forget  how  much  the 
Eastern  Church  owed  to  thie  first  attempt  to  go  back  to  the  Hebrew 
Old  Testament,  in  his  impatience  at  tlio  obliteration  by  the  adoption 
of  Hexaplar  corrections  of  important  divergences  of  the  LXX.  from 
the  MasRoretic  text.  Our  knowledge  of  the  other  columns  of  Origcn's 
great  edition  is  fragmentary,  and  is  derived  partly  from  citations  in 
ancient  authors,  partly  from  notes  in  MSS.  ol  the  Hexaplar  LXX., 
or  of  the  Syriac  translation  of  it  composed  by  Paul  of  Tela  i6)6 
AD.)  The  best  collection  of  these  fragments  is  that  edited  by  Eield 
(Oriycjiis  Hcxaplorum  qua:  sxipcrsunt,  Oxford,  1867-1875). 

The  first  origin  of  translation»  of  the  Christian  Scriptures  into 
the  vernacular  of  non-Hellenic  churches  is  involved  in  much 
obscurity.  Apart  from  the  probablo  existence  of  early  Aramaic 
gosiK-b,  there  is  no  euro  trace  of  a  Christian  literature  in  any  other 
tongue  than  Greek  till  late  in  tho  2d  century.  Even-in  tho  churc^^es 
of  Oaul,  Greek  was  the  recognized  language-of  Christian  authorship. 
In  Pome  the  lit^irary  use  of  Greek  extended  into  the  3d  ccnturr  ; 
and  i\i  the  eurlifst  days  of  tliO  Koman  Church,  Greek  uaa  tne 
language  of  public  worahip.     Even  in  remoter  dibtricts  the  demand 


I 


\  m 


BIBLE 


o47 


f?T  a  Teroacular  BiMe  cm  hftrJly  have  come  from  the  e.iiic;ucd  and 
n^Atiin^  classes,  but  aros<;  ralhor  from  the  custom  of  reading  Kssuns 
fruin  Scripture  in  iho  congregation.  The  caxliest  Christi.in  trau»!a- 
lions  are  the  Peshito  or  "  Simple  "  version  in  Syria,  and  ihc  Old 
Lfttin  in  Africa,  monuments  of  the  early  vijjour  of  two  great  cburcliea 
un  the  e-istcm  and  wc&tern  outskirts  of  Hellenic  culture. 

It  is  s-'-ircely  probable  that  either  of  tlieae  versions  is  older  than 
the  middle  of  the  2d  century.  The  Syriac,  wtiich  claims  to  be  first 
considtrfd,  wan  alreaily  an  old  version,  containing  obsoleta  expres-' 
imns,  in  the  time  of  S.  Ephraem,  who  dieO  373  a.d.  Internal 
ccarks  of  antiquity  axe  found  in  the  relation  of  the  Old  Testament 
to  a  very  early  Jewish  exeficsia,  and  c3|>et:iaUy  in  the  omission  frnm 
the  Xew  Testament  of  2  Peter,  2  and  3  Jo)in,  Jude,  and  Revelation. 
On  the  othtr  hand,  there  is  no  certiin  reference  to  this  version  by 
authors  earlier  than  Ephraem  ;  and  the  data  alTordcd  by  the  history 
of  the  canon,  and  by  a  comparison  of  the  earliest. remains  of  Syriac 
literalurt, — the  hymns  of  IJardesancs,  who  died  abcut  225 — are  not 
aullicicnt  to  supply  the  lack  of  direct  information.  Some  critics 
«tiU  date  the  version  from  tho  bcj^inning  of  the  2d  ccolury,  while 
otJv'rs  would  bring  it  down  into  the  3d.  Even  tht*  close  of  the  3d 
century  has  Wen  named  ;  hut  thus  view  rests  on  the  unlikely  sup- 
{y*ition  that  the  omission  of  five  New  Testament  books  was  due  lo 
later  theological  intlucnces,  and  was  not  an  original  peculiarity  of 
the  Tersion.  The  translation  is,  on  the  whole,  excellent.  The  Old 
Testament  is  taken  from  the  Hebrew,  and,  though  sometimes 
dependent  on  Jewisli  exegesis,  and  in  oth^r  p-irts  strongly  influ- 
enced by  the  LXX  ,  is  decidedly  superior  to  the  Targums.  The 
FeHhito  was  the  received  version  in  all  branches  of  the  much- 
divided  Syrian  churches.  But  it  did  nut  stand  alone.  The 
llexaplar  version  of  Paul  of  Tela,  and  tho  slavishly  literal  Philox- 
eaian  (50S  a.d. — revised  a  century  later  by  Thomas  of  Hharkel), 
were  presumably  designed  in  the  service  of  Biblical  criticism. 
More  obscure  is  the  origin  and  purpose  of  the  fragmentary  version 
of  the  f:nspf  Is  published  by  Curcton  in  1858,  and  by'him  supposed 
td  be  older  than  the  Peshito. 

In  the  history  of  the  Old  Latin  version  almost  nothing  is  certain,, 
eave  that  it  originated  in  Africa,  before  the  time  of  Tcrtxillian,  and 
that  it  assumed  such  Protean  sha[>ea  in  the  harids  of  transcribers 
that  it  is  to  this  day  uncertain  whether  several  distinct  renions  are 
aot  included  in  the  general  name  of  the  Old  Latin.  Jerome,  in- 
deed, speaks  only  of  great  variations  between  copy  and  copy;  but 
Augustine  telb  us  that  the  '*  Itala"  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  other 
Latin  interpretations.  Hence  MSS.  of  the  Old  Latin  are  often 
called  copies  of  the  Itala  ;  but  in  truth  no  one  knows  what  tho 
Itala  is,  for  it  is  mentioned  only  by  Augustine,  and  by  him  only  once. 

A  version  which  at  best  was  a  rude  and  over-IitenO  rendering  of 
theGreek  Bible,  in  an  unpolished  provincial  dialect,  and  which  had 
not  even  that  fixed  form  which  is  so  necessary  in  a  Bible  for  ecclesi- 
astical use,  could  not  continue  to  scn'e  the  needs  of  the  great  Latin 
Church;  and  towards  the  close  of  the  4tli  century  a  work  of  revision 
vat  un*lei  taken  at  the  instance  of  Damasus,  bishop  of  Rome,  by 
Jerome,  the  most  learned  of  the  Western  doctors.  *  Jerome  began  by 
correcting  the  New  Testament,  making  only  such  changes  as  seemed 
absolutely  in:  ^ralive.  In  the  Old  TesUment  he  first  revised  the 
Psalter  aftei  ne  LXX.,  producing  the  version  known  as  the  Roman 
Psalt*T  from  its  adoption  in  the  Homan  liturgy.  A  second  revision, 
based  on  the  Hexnplar  text,  forms  the  Gallican  Psalter,  long  used 
in  Gaul  and  other  churches  beyond  the  Alps.  Then  Jerome  pro- 
ceeded lo  revise  other  books  on  the  basis  of  the  Hexaplar  Greek  ; 
but,  finding  this  h.ilf-measure  unsatisfactory,  he  finally  rendered 
the  Old  Testament  directly  from  tho  Hebrew.  The  work  was  com- 
pleted 405  A.D.,  and  though  often  dependent  on  Aquila,  and 
especially  on  Symmachus,  it  bears  high  witness  to  the  scholarship 
of  the  author,  and  is  perhaps  tlie  best  of  the  ancient  versions.  In 
Bpite  of  its  merits  the  now  version  was  much  attacked,  and  made 
way  in  public  estimation  by  very  slow  degrees.  It  was  not  till  the 
Blh  century  tliat  tho  Old  I^tin  was  entirely  sujwrseded  in  the' 
Roman  Church,  and  the  circuLition  of  the  old  and  new  versions  side 
by  side  was  long  a  fertile  source  of  corniptions  in  the  text  of  both. 
At  length  the  complete  supremacy  of  Jerome's  Latin  was  marked 
by  the  transference  to  it  of  the  name  of  tho  Vulgate  Version^  which 
^n  older  times  was  given  to  the  LXX. 

The  Eg>-ptian  versions  (Memphitic  in  the  dialect  of  lower  Egypt, 
Thebaic  or  Sahidic  for  upper  Egypt)  supplied  the  needs  of  the  only 
great  Christian  population  of  tlic  early  church  which  was  not  able 
to  use  the  Greek,  the  Latin,  or  iLe  Syriac  Tho  most  recent 
inquirers  arc  disposed  toUlieve  that  Eg>pt  received  the  Bible  in 
the  vernacular  almost  as  aoon  as  Syria.  The  version  was  taken 
from  tho  Creek,  which  was  also  the  source  of  various  later  transla- 
tion!!—tho  Ethiopic.  tho  Armenian  (5th  century),  tho  Georgian  (6th 
century),  the  Slavonic  (9tb  century)— fruits  of  the  gradual  diffusion 
of  Christianity  in  the  remotest  regions  of  the  ancient  world.  The 
Gothic  version  of  UlfiJaa — the  earliest  written  monument  of  the 
Teutonic  languages— is  of  the  4th  centnry,  and  was  also  from  tho 
Creek.  Only  fragments  of  this  translation  remain  to  uii,  mainly  in 
the  famous  ailrer-lettcred  MS.  of  the  CiL  or  Oth  caxX^ry '{Codex 
^raenUus)  in  the  library  o(  Uj>saL 


Thus  far  the  history  of  the  versmns  r-  f^rd."*  the  triumphs  of 
Christianity.  The  Arabic  versions  on  the  C9utrary,  owe  their ori^m 
-to  the  spread  of  Islam,  uhc^i  the  language  of  the  conquering  Sara- 
cens displaces]  the  ancient  dialects  of  S^Tia  and  Egypt.  This  chuige 
did  not  diminish  the  authority  of-the  old  ecclesiastical  versions,  or 
displace  them  from  their  position  in  the  servicer  of  the  church.  The 
ed:bcation  of  the  unlearned  was  secured  by  reading  the  lessons  in 
the  vulgur  tongue,  as  well  as  in  Syrac  or  Coptic ;  and,  accord- 
ingly, the  numerous  Christian  Arabic  versions  are  miinly  taken  not 
from  the  original  tongues,  but  from  the  versions  whose  use  they 
were  designed  to  supplement.  In  like  manner  the  rise  of  the  I'ew- 
Persian  language  and  literature' produced  a  Persian  version  of  the 
Syriac  New  Testament  Of  parLs  of  the  Old  Testament  there  are 
Arabic  and  Pereiau  translations  directly  from  the  Hebrew,  but 
these  are  the  work  of  Jewish  scholars.  The  Arabic  versions  of  the 
Pentateiuh  and  Isaiah,  by  R.  Saadias  Caon,  in  the  10th  ceutur>*, 
are  among  the  most  important  monuments  of  ancient  Jewish  learning. 

In  the  West  as  in  tho  Enst  the  disintegration  of  the  Roman 
empire  was  associated  with  the  rise  of  new  national  dialects,  and 
I^^tin  ceased  to  Iw  understood  by  tiie  laity.  But  the  Roman  Church 
was  too  intent  on  the  preservation  of  her  homogeneous  organization, 
her  visible  unity  of  worship,  to  allow  the  vulgar  tongues  to  supplant 
the  old  liturgical  bnguage,  or  even  to  introduce  a  bilingual  service. 
Tho  use  of  the  Bible  in  a  form  intelligible  to  the  illiterate  was 
shifted  from  the  sphere  of  public  worship  to  that  of  private  edifica- 
tio.i  and  instruction  ;  and  for  the  latter  purpose  the  necessities  of  a 
barbarous  age  seemed  lo  demand  explanatory  paraphrases,  Bible 
narratives  in  metre,  and  the  like,  rather  than  literal  rendering  of 
tEFWKoIe  Scriptures.  Thus,  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  Caeduion'a 
poetical  version  of  the  Bible  history  dates  from  604  A.D.,  while 
t)ie  earliest  prose  tniuslalions  of  parts  of  the  Latin  Bible  (gospela, 
psalms,  kc.)  do  not  seem  to  be  older  than  tho  5th  century.  In 
Germany,  in  like  manner,  metrical  versions  of  the  gosj^j]  are 
among  the  earliest  attempts  to  convey  the  Bible  to  the  i»eop]e. 
Ottfrid's  hanaony  of  the  gospels  in  High  German,  and  the  (oem 
calleil  UCliand  (Saviour),  iti  (Did  Saxon,  date  from  the  9th  century; 
and  the  prose  translation  of  the  so-called  Gospel  Harmony  of  Tatian 
— from  the  Latin  of  Victor  of  Capua — belongs  to  the  same  age.  A 
complete  an^  literal  translation  of  the  Vulgate  existed  in  Germany 
perhaps  as  early  aa  the  beginning  of  th3  14th  century.  Among 
uatio  3  whose  speech  was  descended  from  the  vulgar  Latin,  the 
work  of  translation  naturally  began  later.  The  earliest  remains  of 
Romance  versions  are  thought  to  be  as  old  as  the  11th  century  ; 
but  tho  work  uf  banslation  assumed  important  dimensions  mainly, 
in  coiuieetion  with  tho  spirit  of  revolt  against  the  Church  of  Home 
which  rose  in  tho  12th  and '13th  centuries.  The  study  of  the  Bible 
in  the  vulgar  tongue  was  a  characteristic  of  the  Cathari  and 
Waldenses,  and  the  whole  weight  of  the  church's  authority  waa 
turned  against  the  use  of  the  Scriptures  by  the  laify.  The  prohibi- 
tion of  the  Bible  In  the  vulgar  tongue,  put  forth  at  the  Council  of 
Toulouse  in  1229,  was  repeated  by  other  councils  in  various  part* 
of  tho  church,  but  failed  to  quell  the  rising  interest  in  the  Scrip- 
tures. In  England  and  in  Bonemia  the  Bible  was  translated  by  the 
reforming  parlies  of  Wyclif  and  Huss  ;  and  tho  early  presses  of  the 
15th  century  sent  forth  Bibles,  not  only  in  Latin,  but  in  French, 
Spanish,  ludian,  German,  and  Dutch. 

The  PrinUd  Text. 

Thongli  the  Latin  Bible  was  the  first  book  printed,  the  original  Printed 
text  was  for  some  time  neglected.  The  Jews  of  Italy  led  the  way  Hebrew 
with  several  editions  of  parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  commencijig  Biblea. 
with  the  Psalter  of  1475.  The  beautiful  edition  of  Soncino{14SS)  waa 
the  first  complete  Hebrew  Bible,  and  was  soon  followed  by  the  edition 
of  Brescia,  used  by  Luther  (1404).  At  length  Christians  interested 
themselves  in  the  work.  The  Antwerp  printer,  Daniel  Bomberg, 
established  a  Hebrew  press  in  Venice,  from  which  he  sent  forth  a 
series  of  Bibles  and  other  books.  The  famous  Rabbinical  Bible  of 
1517,  edited  by  Felijt  Pratensis,  a  converted  Jew,  is  known  as  the 
first  Bomberg  Bible,  and  is  especially  valuable  for  the  text  of  tho 
Targums,  which  it  prints  in  parallel  columns  with  the  Hebiew.  The 
second  Rabbinical  Bible  of  Bomberg  was  edited  by  It,  Jacob 
Cliayim  (who  also  became  a  Christian),  and  contains  tlie  fir^t  printed 
edition  of  the  Massora,  with  a  text  carefully  corrected  in  accordance 
with  Massoretic  precepts.  This  edition  at  once  attained  a  great 
reputation.  It  was  several  times  reprinted,  and  most  subsequent 
editions  are  directly  or  indirectly  dependent  on  it.  The  only  ear'y 
edition  which  rivals  its  fame  is  the  Complutensian  Polyglott,  pub- 
lished at  Alcala  in  1517,  at  the  expense  of  Cardinal  Ximenes.  Ti.o 
Hebrew  of  this  polyglolt  exhibits  a  peculiar  text,  independent  it 
tho  Italian  editions.  Later  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  present 
little  or  no  advance  on  the  early  prints  ;  and  most  recent  editions, 
ar«  decidedly  inferior.  Of  Hebrew  Bibles,  with  various  readingfcj 
from  MS.  authority,  the  best  known  are  Kennicott's  (Oxford,  1770, 
1780)  and  Do  Rossi's  (Parma,  1784-17^8).  The  latter  collection  ifc 
by  far  the  best,  but  neither  has  done  much  for  the  improvement  ol 
iLe  text     In*  fact'  the  dilTcrcDCcs  between  really  good   MS3.   c*^ 


048 


i>  1  ii  L  E 


ponerally  vt-ry  minute  ;  an^i  where  the  current  text  b  corrupt  it  is 
tot  from  MSS.,  but  from  the  versions,  or  from  conjecture,  that  help 
I'lust  be  sought.  On  the  other  haml,  a  more  accurate  edition  ot 
the  >[asso'retic  text  is  certainly  wanteii.  But  such  an  edition  must 
pay  special  regard  to  vowel  points  and  accents,  which  Kennicott  and 
lii;  Rossi  neglect,  and  must  consult  MSS.  of  the  Massora  as  well  as 
of  the  text.  The  most  valuable  edition  which  notes  variations  not 
aifi^cting  the  consonantal  text  is  the  Mantuan  Bible  of  174'2,  1744, 
With  the  notes  of  Norzi  (R.  Jedidiah  Solomon  of  NorciaV  The  bf^t 
recent  texts  arc  S.  P.acr's  Leipsic  editions  of  Genesis  (1S69),  Psalms 
(1 561),  and  Isniah  (1872),  Among  easily  acopssible  editions  of  the 
whole  Old  Testament,  those  of  Jahlon3ky  (Berlin.  1699)  and  J.  H. 
Michaelis  (Hallf,  1720)  have  the  best  reputation, 
rn-  ^  The  Greek  New  Testament  was  first  printed  in  the  Coraplutensian 

t«it  o'  Polyglotfc  (1514),  but  a  delay  in  the  publication  enabled  Frobcu  of 

New  Testa-  Bisel  to  preoccupy  the  market  with  an  edition  hastily  prepared  by 
aieni.  Eiosmus  from  very  recent  codices.     In  subsequent  editions  a  good 

many  changes  were  made,  partly  after  the  Coraplutensian  text,  and 
in  '.he  third  edition  (1522)  the  spurious  passage,  1  John  v  7,  appeared 
for  the  first  time.  But  it  was  still  a  recent  and  therefore  an  un- 
satisfactory text  that  was  represented,  and  this  radical  defect  was 
cut  corrected  by  the  editors  who  followed  Erasmus,  though  some  of 
them,  and  notably  Th.  Beza,  possessed,  and  to  some  extent  used, 
butter  BISS.  than  Krasmaa  consulted.  Their  beauty  and  conveni- 
ence, rather  than  the  merit  of  their  text,  procured  a  great  currency 
for  the  editions  of  Robert  Stephens  {0  mirijlcam  editions,  1546, 
1.^49  ;  royal  edition,  1550),  and  his  text  of  1550,  or  the  Elzevir  text 
of  1624,  which,  though  mainly  based  on  Beza,  is  very  nearly 
i  lentical  with  the  other,  cjime  to  be  regarded  as  the  "received 
l'*xt,"  which  subsequent  editors  were  long  afraid  to  change.  But 
materials  for  a  better  text  were  gradually  accumulated  bv  Walton 
in  the  London  Polyglott  (1657),  Curcellxua  (1658),  Fell  (1075), 
arid  above  all  by  John  Mill  in  his  great  edition  of  1707.  These 
1 1  hours  were  viewed  with  much  je-Iousyby  the  hyper-orthodox; 
and  even  as  late  as  1751,  Wetstein,  after  long  ami  most  valuable 
studies,  could  find  a  publisher  only  on  consideration  that  his 
amendments  on  the  received  editions  should  not  stand  in  the  text. 
Some  important  steps,  however,  were  taken  in  the  interval  between 
Mill  and  Wetstein.  Bentley  sketiMied  in  17iO  the  plan  of  an  edition 
wliicli  should  restore  the  text  of  the  4th  century;  ii,nd  Beugel  in 
1734  actually  published  an  amended  text,  though  readings  which 
bid  not  been  given  in  any  previous  edition  were  admitted  only  in 
tlie  Apocalypse.  Bengel  was  the  first  who  classed  MSS.  under 
families,  as  Asiatic  and  African  respectively.  The  next  great 
critical  editor  after  Bengel  and  Wetstein  was  J.  J.  Grlesbach,  wnose 
chief  edition  appeared  1796,  1S06.  Griesbach  gave  an  exaggerated 
importance  to  the  doctrine  of  families  of  MSS.;  and  his  edition 
WAS  constructed  on  the  principle  of  adhering  to  the  received  text, 
unless  the  reasons  to  the  contrary  were  irresistible;  but  his  industry 
and  critical  skill  give  him  a  very  high  place  anion jj  editors, 
riricsbach  was  followed  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Scholz,  whose 
hijours  were  more  pretentious  thnn  valuable  ;  and  at  length  the 
great  critic  Lachmann  (1842,  1850)  threw  aside  all  traditional  re- 
spect for  the  received  text,  and  sought  to  restore  the  text  of  the  4th 
Ci;ntury  by  the  aid  of  a  veiy  small  number  of  .select  MSS.,  together 
with  the  Latin  versions  as  given  in  the  oldest  copies,  and  the  citations 
of  the  earliest  fathers.  The  idea  was  fruitful,  though  the  material 
employed  wag  bio  scanty.  Since  Lachmann  published  his  edition  our 
knowledge  of  the  most  ancient  authorities  has  been  greatly  increased. 
New  MSS.  have  been  added,  notably  Tischendorf's  X  ;  and  the  MSS. 
formerly  known  Lave  been  edited  or  collated  with  much  greater 
accuraoy.  The  most  distinguished  labourers  in  this  work  were 
Tiachendorf  and  Tregtdles.  In  addition  to  numerous  editions  and 
collations  of  ancient  copies,  Tischcndorf  put  forth  a  series  of 
critical  editions,  of  which  tho  eighth  (Leipsic,  1865-1372)  contains 
the  complotest critical  commentary  yet  poblishcd.  Thegreatedition 
of  Tregelles  (1857-72)  rests  exclu^iively  on  tho  most  -.ancient 
ftMthority,  resembling  Laolimann's  work  in  conception,  though 
i:-ing  much  more  copious  materials.  This  etlition,  as  well  as 
1  H':^hondorra  VI I L,  lacks  the  proUrj&meJia,  botli  editors  having 
been  struck  down  by  paralysis  Iwfore  their  work  was  complete. 

The  recent  versions,  subsequent  to  the  invention  of  printing  and 
the  revived  study  of  tho  original  tonguca,  demand  a  word  in  con- 
clusion. Nf'.w  Litin  versions  naturally  accompanied  many  of  tho 
i^.irly  editions  of  tlie  original  t4^xt-  Thus  Erasmus  gave  many  cor- 
Tertion.';  of  the  Vulgate  in  his  Greek  Testament,  the  Compluteiisian 

fives  an  interlinear  version  of  tlie  LXX.,  tbo  Genoa  Polyglott 
'^Iter  of  1516  gives  rcmlerings  both  of  tho  Hebrew  and  of  the 
Chaldoe.  Even  Huch  works  as  these,  designed  as  they  were  for 
8t:holars,  gavft  ofTenco  from  their  appearance  of  undermining  the 
authority  of  tho  Vtilgato ;  and  it  wa.-^  the  Reformation,  in  its  revolt 
against  mere  human  authority,  that  first  demanded  open  circulation 
of  vernacular  versions  from  the  original  tongues.  Prom  tho  time  of 
L'lther's  version  (New  Testament,  l.')22;  complete  Bible,  1534)  we 
may  di.^tinguish  four  classes  of  versions. 

lat,  Vcrsioos  adopted  bv  I'rotestant  countri<'9  or  ''*>»"re>>i;3.   Such 


Rffnt 
v«r*ioija. 


are  Luther's  Bible  in  Germany;  the  Dutch  Hihle  of  the  Commt&stoh 

of  the  Synod  of  Dovt,  It^S?  ;  the  English  Authorized  Version  ut 
1611  ;  the  Genevan  French  Bible,  formed  by  sncceasive  revisions  of 
Olivetan's  version  of  1535  ;  the  Danish  of  1550,  based  on  Luther, 
revised  in  1C07,  1647  ;  the  Swedish.  1541.  Most  of  these  national 
Bibles  were  preceded  by  earlier  Protestant  versions,  which  they 
supersede.  See  especially  English  Bible.  Revisions  of  the  na- 
tional versions  have  of  late  years  been  undertaken  in  Norway, 
Holland,  and  Germany,  as  well  as  in  England. 

2d.  Versions  which  never  held  auy  other  place  than  that  of  private 
contributions  to  Biblical  exegesis.  Such  are — among  older  works— 
the  Latin  Old  Testament  of  Junius  and  Tremellius,  and  the  New 
Testament  of  Beza.  These  versions  belong  to  the  history  of 
exegesis. 

od,    Missionary  versions. 

4Lh,  Roman  Catholic  versions.  The  Council  of  Trent  declared 
the  Vulgata  version  authentic,  and  forbade  interpretations  of 
Scripture  not  in  conformity  with  the  consent  of  the  fathers 
Vernacular  versions  subject  to  ihese  restrictions  were  published 
as  the  antidote  to  Protestant  Bibles.  Such  are  the  Rhemish  and 
Douay  versions  in  English.  Other  Roman  Catholic  versions  owe 
their  origin  to  evangelical  tendencies  within  the  church.  Jansenism, 
in  particular,  produced  the  French  version  of  DeSacy  (Moua,  1667), 
and  otherwise  stimulated  the  study  of  Scripture. 

Literature. — Full  discussion  of  some  of  the  topics  glanced 
at  in  this  article  must  be  sought  in  treatises  on  individual 
books  or  critical  problems  of  the  Old  and  New  TcstamenL'^. 
But  on  most  potiUs  it  will  be  snlTicicnt  to  refer  to  works  on 
Biblical  Introduction.  The  history  of  this  branch  of 
theology  with  lists  of  the  principal  older  books — some 
of  which,  including  the  writings  of  R.  Simon,  Carpzov, 
and  Eichhorn,  are  still  of  value — is  given  in  most  recent 
works  on  the  subject.  Of  these  it  may  be  sufficient  to 
mention  for  the  Old  Testament — De  VVette's  Einleitunfj^ 
rewritten  by  Schrader  (Berlin,  18G0),  full  of  condcnr.ed 
information;  Bleok's  posthumous  Einteitunf^  (3d  edition, 
1S70),  less  complete  m  detail  and  now  rather  behind 
date,  but  very  clear  and  instructive;  Keil's  Einleitung 
(3d  edition,  1873),  which  is  strictly  conservative.  The  two 
last  are  translated.  Kuenen's  Hcstorisck-Kriiisch  Ondei'' 
zoehj  of  which  there  is  a  French  translation,  is  very  full, 
but  the  author  has  considerably  changed  his  views  in  the 
History  of  the  Rdigion  of  Is^-ad  (liaarlera,  1800-70)  of 
which  there  is  an  English  transUtion.  Ewald's  History  of 
Israel  is  important,  and  is  also  accessible  to  the  English 
reader;  with  it  must  be  taken  his  books  on  the  Prophets 
and  Poets  of  the  Old  Covenant.  Kecent  English  literature 
on  the  Old  Testament  is  not  very  remarkable,  but  Dr  S. 
Davidson's  Introduction  gives  a  full  account  of  foreign 
investigations.  The  history  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
Christian  church  has  been  written  by  L.  Diestel  (Geschichte 
des  Alten  Teatamrtftes,  u.s.w.,  Jena,  1809).  For  the  New 
Testament,  De  Wetto,  Bleck,  and  Davidson  may  again  be 
consulted.  A  very  instructive  book  is  Reuss's  Oeschichte 
dn-  llciligcn  Schrifteii  Nexien  Testaments  (5th  edition,  Bruns- 
wick, 1874).  The  most  recent  general  work  proceeding 
from  the  Tubingen  school  is  llilgenfeld's  IIi£tori>t,:hr 
Kritische  Einleitung  in  das  Neup.  TeMainent  (Leipsic,  1875). 
On  the  canon  there  are  several  imiKirtatit  works  by  Credner 
in  Gorman,  and  an  English  History  of  the  Canon  of  thM 
New  Tcstanumt,  by  Dr  Westcott  (4th  edition,  1875).  On 
the  text  of  the  New  Testament  the  English  reader  may  con- 
sult Trdgclles's  volume,  contributed  to  Home's  Introduction 
(1S5G),  and  Scrivener's  Plain  Introduction  to  the  Criticism 
of  the  New  Testament  (2d  edition,  1874).  Lc  Long's 
liihliotJicca  Sacra,  continued  by  Mascli  (Hallc,  1778-1790) 
gives  a  full  account  of  edition.^  of  the  original  text  and 
versions,  which  may  be  supplemented  by  reference  to  Ds 
Rossi's  Annates  lIihr<Tn-typoqraphtri  (XV.  Cnxt.,  Pamia, 
1795;  MDL  to  AfDXL/Winn^i,  1799),  and  Reuss's 
liiUiotheca  Novi  Testanientt  Cnrri  (Uruiiswick,  1872). 
Detailed  references  to  other  recent  books  will  bo  found 
in  *h,»  "  orks  already  cited.  'w.  e.  s  '^ 


BIBLE     SOCIETIES 


049 


BIBLE  SOCIETILS,  associations  for  extending  the 
circulation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  For  a  long  period  this 
object  has  been  pursued  to  a  considerable  extent  by  several 
religious  institutions,  such  as  the  Society  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel  in  Wafes,  formed  by  the  Rev.  Tbomaa 
Gouge,  one  of  the  two  thousand  ministers  ejected  by  the 
Act  of  Uniformity  in  1002;  the  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge,  founded  in  1C9S;  the  Society  for 
sending  Missionaries  to  India,  established  in  the  year 
i70.'<  by  Frederick- IV.,  King  of  Denmark,  and  which 
numbered  among  its  agents  the  celebrated  missionary, 
Christian  Frederick  Schwartz ;  the  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge  in  the  Highlands  and  Islands  of 
.Scotland,  formed  in  Edinburgh' in  1709;  the  Moravian 
.Missionary  Society,  founded  in  1732,  the  Book  Society 
for  Promoting  Religious  Knowledge  among  the  Poor, 
which  was  formed  in  London  in  1750,  and  numbered 
among  its  earliest  friends  Dr  Doddridge  and  the  -Eev. 
James  Hervey ;  and  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  founded 
in  1779.  But  the  first  British  association  which  had  in 
view  the  single  purpose  of  dissemimiting  the  Scriptures 
was  the  Naval  and  Military  Bible  Society,  established 
in  the  year  1780,  which  has  done  immeuse  service  to  the 
army  and  navy  of  Great  Britaia  The  sphere  of  its  opera- 
tions, however,  was  comparatively  hmited,  and  in  1804  the 
British  and  Foheion  Bible  Society,  the  greatest  agency 
ever  devised  for  the  ditTusion  of  the  Word  of  God,  was 
founded.  The  proposal  to  institute  this  asso'^iation  origi- 
nated with  the  Rev.  Mr  Charles  of  Bala,  whose  philan- 
thropic labours  in  Wales  were  greatly  impeded  by  the 
scarcity  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  principality,  and  it  was 
largely  fostered  at  the  outset  by  members  of  the  com- 
inittee  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society.  The  exclusive 
object  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  is  to  pro- 
mote the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures,  both  at  home  and 
abroad,  and  its  constitution  admits  the  co-operation  of  all 
persons  disposed  to  concur  in  its  support.  The  committee 
of  management  consists  of  3C  laymen,  6  of  them  being 
foreigners  resident  in  or  near  the  .metropolis,  and  of  the 
remaining  30,  one-half  are  members  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  the  other  half  members  of  other  Christian 
denominations. 

Tho  proceedings  of  this  society  gave  rise  to  several 
controversies,  one  of  which  related  to  tho  fundamental  law 
of  the  society  to  circulate  the  Bible  alone  without  notes  or 
comments.  On  this  ground  it  was  vehemently  attacked 
by  Bishop  Mars^i  and  other  divines  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, who  insisted  that  the  Prayer-Book  ought  to  be  given 
along  with  the  Bible.  Another  controversy,  in  which  the 
late  Dr  Andrew  Thomson  of  Edinburgh  took  a  prominent 
part,  related  to  the  circulation  on  the  Continent,  chiefly  by 
affiliated  societies,  of  the  Apocrypha  along  with  the 
canonical  books  of  Scripture  In  1826  it  was  resolved  by. 
the  committee  that  the  fundamental  law  of  the  society  be 
fully  and  distinctly  recognized  as  excluding  the  circulation 
of  the  Apocrypha.  This  step,  however,  failed  to  satisfy 
al!  the  supporters  of  the  society  in  Scotland,  who  pro- 
ceeded to  form  themselves  into  independent  associations. 
A  third  senous  controversy  by  which  the  society  has  been 
agitated,  was  occasioned  by  tho  alleged  inaccuracy  of  some 
of  the  translations  issued  under  its  authority;  and  a  fourth 
referred  to  the  admissibility  of  non-Trinitarians  to  the 
privilege  of  co-operatioi\.  The  refusal  of  the  society  in 
1831  to  alter  its  constitution  so  as  formally  to  exclude 
»iich  persons,  led .  to  tho  formation  of  the  Trinitarian 
Hible  Society.  This  has,  however,  V  :en  exceedingly  limited 
lii  its  operations,  and  the  original  society  stands  unnvalled. 

By  a  law  ol  the  British  »nil  Foreign  Bible  SocictT,  no  trantlntions 
•  re  adopted  or  circulated  in  the  Lingunges  of  the  United  Rin^ddm 
•tcept  the  Authorued  Version      For  other  crmotres  tlie  best  atieiecit 


or  received  versions  are  printed  ;  and  in  f  e  case  of  new  trahslationi, 
every  effort  is  made  to  ascertain  their  strict  fidelity  aDd  genenil 
literary  merit,  ilost  of  the  versions  for  countries  not  yet  enJigbt- 
ened  by  Christianity  are  made,  by  resident  loissionaries  ,  and  t£ese 
the  society  prints  at  the  iiutance  of  the  missionary  societies  for 
whose  use  they  are  chiefly  intended.  Thcae  versions  are  ma.le, 
wherever  practicable,  from  tho  ori^oal  Hebrew  or  Greek  teit.  The 
society  has  had  a  share,  direct  or  indirect,  in  the  translation,  print- 
ing, or  distribution  of  Scrijiturcs  in  210  languages  or  dialects,  the 
number  of  versions  thus  printed  being  209.  Altogether  the  society 
lias  put  into  circulation  ueaily  74  million  Bibles,  Testaments,  anj 
Portions  (i.e.,  single  books  of  the  Bible);  and  ita  expenditure  for 
this  purpose  has  amounted  to  £7,750,000. 

In  the  course  of  1874  there  were  issued  from  the  society's  depdts 
at  home  and  abroad,  no  fewer  than  2,619,427  Bibles,  Testaments, 
and  Portions.  The  free  iucoiue  for  1874-S  amounted  to  £119,093, 
78.  7d. ;  adding  the  contributions  for  special  objects,  .nd  the  pro- 
ceeds by  sale  oif  Scriptures,  a  total  is  reached  of  £222,191,  6s.  6d. 
The  payments  for  transl.-iting,  prmting,  and  circulating  the  Scnp- 
turt«  were  only  £681  in  the  first  year  of  the  society's  existence; 
while  in  1874-75  they  were  £217,390,  13s.  Id. 

Immediately  after  the  foundation  of  the  society  an  extensive  cor- 
respondence was  oi)ened  with  ministers  and  laymen  in  all  parts  o( 
the  world. 

AuxiliaTy  and  Branch  Societies  were  gradually  formed  in  every 
district  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  in  the  colonies.  These  became 
centres  whence  the  Scriptures  might  be  obtained  at  cost  pnce,  and 
in  cases  of  special  need  at  even  less.  There  are  at  present  in  tha 
United  Kingdom  4496  auxiliaries  and  branches,  beside*  1208  m  the 
British  colonies.  Many  of  these  are  managed  by  ladies.  Juvenile 
associations  have  also  been  organized  in  many  localities. 

AgtnU  have  been  appointed  both  at  home  and  abroad  to  investl. 
gate  local  requirements,  to  supply  information  for  the  guidance  of 
the  committee,  and  to  suggest  the  best  means  of  carrying  out  the 
great  purpose  of  the  society. 

DtpCts  for  the  sale  of  Scriptures  have  likewise  been  opened  In. 
almost  every  town  of  England,  and  in  many  pUcea  abroad. 

Colportage  is  employed  to  some  extent  in  England,  and  very 
largely  on  the  Continent  and  in  India. 

Grants  to  Societies  are  made  on  vanous  conditions.  When  applied 
for  by  missionary  societies  and  philanthropic  institutions,  copies 
of  the  Scriptures  are  supplied  vtry  freely  ;  while  grants  of  money 
and  pa]ier  are  made  to  other  societies  in  aid  of  tho  translation  and 
printing  of  the  Scriptures,  when  good  reasons  are  seeu  for  the  ex- 
penditure. 

It  may  be  added  that  thesocietydoesnot  encourage  the  ;ra(ut<ou 
distribution  of  Bibles  and  Testanients,  except  under  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances. 

The  first  English  New  Testament  printed  by  the  society  was 
issued  in  September  1305.  Stereotype  printing  had  jnst  been  intro- 
duced ;  and  this  invention,  coupled  witii  the  society's  plan  of  sell- 
ing the  Scriptures  at  a  very  low  price,  brought  about  a  speedy 
and  genera!  reduction  in  the  price  of  English  Bibles.  Besides  this 
indirect  benefit  which  has  thus  been  secured  to  English  readers,  the 
investigations  and  exertions  of  the  society  first  revealed,  and  then 
relieved,  the  great  scarcity  of  Bibles  which  had  previously  existed. 
To  show  what  the  deficiency  was,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  1812 
inquiry  was  made  into  the  case  of  17.000  familiea  in  the  metropolis 
when  it  was  discovered  that  half  of  them  did  not  possess  a  bitiJe 
at  all 

The  efforts  of  the  society  in  India  are  organized  upon  a  scale  and 
with  a  completeness  scarcely  nvalled  olsefthcr©.  Bible  circutaticn 
in  India  owes  its  origin  mainly  to  the  zeal  of  tho  Serampore  mis- 
sionaries, especially  of  Carey,  Marshman,  and  Ward,  whose  labours 
had  liegun  shortly  before  the  Bible  Society  was  formed.  It  was 
stimulated. by  the  exertions  of  Dr  Claudius  Buchanan,  and  by  the 
establiahment  of  the  college  at  Fort  William.  Gradually  auxiliary 
societies  were  formed  at  important  centres — such  as  Calcutta,  Bom- 
Kay,  Madras,  .-Vllahabad,  &c.  One  of  these  auxilianea  alone — that 
at  Madras — circulated  in  1874-75  over  120,000  copiea,  and  employed 
65  native  colporteurs.  The  assistance  afforded  by  the  society  to 
Inilia  and  Ceylon  in  grants  of  money,  paper,  and  booke-^iocluduig 
£27,230  supplied  to  Dr  Carey  and  his  a&sociates — ainonnta  to  no 
le.s3  a  sum  than  £361,193. 

When  the  society  began  to  inquire  into  the  stateof  the  Continent, 
the  dearth  of  Scriptures  was  found  to  be  greater,  if  possible,  t^ian  at  ; 
home.  Thus,  in  Lithuania,  among  18,000  Germans.  7800  Polish, 
and  7000  Lithuanian  families,  not  a  Bible  was  to  be  found.  One 
half  of  the  population  of  Holland  appeared  to  be  without  the  S:np- 
tures.  In  Poland  a  Bible  could  hardly  be  obtained  at  any  prn-e. 
In  the  district  of  Dorpat  (Esthonia),  contoiDing  1  U6,000  inhadilants, 
not  200  Testaments  were  to  be  found,  and  there  wer«  Christii»n 
pastors  who  did  not  pos-sess  the  .Scriptures  in  the  di.ilect  In  whuh 
they  preached  Into  Iceland,  with  a  {«f)u)atnin  of  50,0(.'0,  of  wh-  m 
almost  all  could  read,  not  elxive  40  or  50  copies  had  penetrated  ; 
while  in  Sweden  e  single  auxihary  found  13,900  faoiiliet  t"l»lly 
unprovided 


g:o 


BIBLE     SOCIETIES 


:Such  W2j  ibc  atate  of  things  abroad  when  the  society  was  estab- 
lished. CorreapoiidtfUCG  was  at  once  opened  with  well-known 
laeo  like  Oberlin,  Knapp,  and  Herzog  ;  the  society's  foreign  secre- 
tary and  ctjents  personally  visited  the  districts,  and  various  sab- 
Eidiary  societies  were  formed.  The  highest  patronage  was  (ften 
obtained  for  these,  the  emperor  of  Russia,  the  kings  of  Prussia, 
Davaria.SweJen,  and  Wiirtem berg,  and  many  others, entering  heartily 
into  the  work.  Some  of  the  societies  thus  formed  were,  however, 
suppressed  through  the  influence  of  Rome.  More  than  15,000,000 
copies  have  been  printed  by  thera  up  to  the  present  time. 

Of  all  the  foreign  Bible  sotjit'ties,  by  far  the  mo«t  remarkable  was 
that  established  in  Russia,  in  the  year  1812,  under  the  presidency 
of  Prince  Galitzin,  and  with  the  direct  approval  and  support  of  the 
Emperor  Alexan.tcr  I.  An  imperial  ukase  was  issued,  giving  forma) 
saoctton  to  the  project;  all  communities  joiued  to  speed  it  on  its 
way;  2S9  auxilinries  were  rapidly  formed;  the  Scriptures  were 
piinted  in  nearly  3D  languages,  including  Modern  Russ;  861,000 
copies  were  circulated  ;  and  at  the  time  of  its  suspension  in  1826  it 
'had  been  aided  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  to  the 
extent  of  £1C.833. 

Besides  thus  encouraging  Bible  circulation  through  friendly  counsel 
and  pecuniary  aid,  the  Bntish  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  done 
and  13  doing  a  direct  wnrk  on  the  Continent,  some  illustration  of 
wliich  may  be  gathered  froro  the  following  particulars  :-^ 

The  first  French  Bible  printed  by  the  society  was  prepared  for  the 
prisoners  of  war  in  1805.  After  the  peace  was  concluded,  measures 
\vore  taken  to  form  centres  of  Bible  circulation  through  the  country. 
As  a  result  of  these  movements,  various  Bible  societies  sprang  up. 
I'cpSts  havo  alsa  been  opened  in  Paris  and  many  other  large  towns; 
irjd  special  provision  has  been  made  for  the  provincials  of  the  west, 
by  the  preparation  of  Basque  and  Breton  veraiona.  There  have  been 
piinted  by  the  society,  in  the  French  tongue,  upwards  of  seven  and 
u  half  million  copies  of  the  Scriptures. 

Id  1835,  whcD  Mr  W.  P.  TidJy  went  out  as  agent  for  tho  society 
in  Belgium,  hardly  a  Bible  was  to  Yte  found  in  the  country,  and 
i-vangelistic  eMorts  were  rare,  t)i rough  the  vehement  opposition 
which  they  encountered.  A  stall  of  colporteurs  was  appointed,  and 
through  their  efforts  a  large  supply  of  Scriptures  was  distributed. 
'I'his  Ted  to  the  foripation  of  several  Protestant  communities. 

The  society's  agent  in  Germany  superintends  the  movements  of 
between  60  and  70  colporteurs,  and  reports  a  yearly  circulation  of 
about  300,000  copies.  The  services  rendered  during  the  Fiaiico- 
I'russian  war  were  so  signal  as  to  call  forth  not  only  the  gratL-lul 
appreciation  of  the  Germans,  but  a  written  acknowledgment  from 
tne  emperor,  who  is  himself  an  annual  iuhsciiber  to  the  society. 

Klfurts  were  made  by  Or  Pinkerton  in  1816  to  establish  a  National 
Bible  Society  for  Austria  ;  but  through  the  influence  of  the  I'ope 
the  emperor  was  induced  to  reject  the  proposal.  A  new  beginning 
was  raado  in  1850,  when  in  less  tlian  two  years  41,659  copies  of  the 
Scriptures,  in  Geriuau,  Bohemian,  and  Hungarian,  were  put  into 
circulation.  Fresh  opposition  was,  Iiowevcr,  soon  awakened,  and 
the  authorities  ordered  the  whole  stock  on  hand  to  be  withdiawn 
fiom  tho  country.  In  compliance  with  tliis  order,  Mr  E.  Milluid, 
the  society's  agent,  retired  to  Prussia,  where  he  laboured  for  several 
years  with  marked  success  After  a  wlule  he  was  permitted  to 
teturo  to  Vienna,  and  to  open  depots-ftt  such  centres  as  Peslh, 
Trieste,  Klaiiscnburg,  and  Prague.  By  these  means,  and  thiough 
a  large  staff  of  colporteurs,  he  has  issued  during  the  past  ten  years 
l,iir)0,000  copies. 

Very  little  direct  work  was  done  in  Italy  until  the  Revolution  of 
1848.  Then  tho  society  glailly  hailed  the  opportunity  of  entering 
the  country;  but  9(>on  the  duur  was  again  closed.  The  Pope  issued 
ej)  encyclical  in  184',1,  in  which  the  condemnation  of  Bible  societies 
was  emphatically  repeated.  As  a  consequence,  3000  New  Testa- 
raonts;  just  printed  at  Florence,  were  seized,  presses  were  confiscated, 
paper  and  type  carried  olf,  and  tlie  society's  agent  compelled  to 
retire.  All  this  is  now  altered.  .  Tho  headquarters  of  the  society's 
Italian  agency  are  at  Rome,  and  the  Scriptures  are  distributed 
from  depots  and  by  colporteurs  in  all  jmrts  of  ihf*  peninsula, 

Little  could"  be  done  in  Spain  prior  to  tho  Revolution  of  1868, 
which  threw  ojjcn  the  country  ond  established  roligious  liberty. 
All  available  means  were  then  adoj)ted  for  printing  and  circulating 
tlio  Snanish  Bible.  Tho  issues  worn  the  Madrid  dojiGt  have  e» 
ccedou  haif  a  million  copies,  hut  during  the  recent  civil  troubles 
tlio  movomonts  of  the  colporteurs  have  been  much  restricted. 

Between  300,000  and  400,000  copies  of  the  Scriptures  have  been 
printed  in  the  Portuguese  tongue. 

Mr  Puter:=?on  paid  a  visit  to  Sweden  in  1809  on  behalf  of  the 
Focicty,  and  found  tho  poor  almost  entirely  without  tho  Scriptures. 
Thus  in  one  dit-rcic  10.000  families  were  discovered  withovit  a  liiblo 
i'»  their  possessiun.  An  agonoy  was  catihlished  in  1831.  Sprri;il 
^-rants  havo  hpcn  mado  to  tho  army  and  navy,  and  for  the  students 
iM  Uie  tioiv»;rsities.  'The  total  j.ssues  sinco  1832  huvo  bctm  over 
1'. 000.000,  and  that  in  a  population  of  less  khan  4.00u,000. 

To  f^ivo  even  on  oulliiio  of  the  work  done  by  tlie  British  ond 
Foreign  Ilible  Society  in  the  more  remote  parts  of  the  world  would 
bo  to  write  a  volume.     All   the  giuit  uiissionary  societies  are  its 


debtors.  Its  undenominational  character  has  secured  what  cotj-'? 
hardly  otherwise  have  been  attained  — the  use  of  the  same  version 
by  missionaries  of  different  churches  ;  and  it  has  often  proved  a 
healer  and  a  peacemaker  abroad,  while  it  has  b'en  a  bond  of  union 
at  home.  To  the  linguist  and  to  the  comparative  philologist  its 
operations  are  of  intense  interest  ;  and  tlie  boon  conferred  on  the 
thought  and  language  of  many  ita  lions  through  its  versions  of  the 
Scriptures  is  well-nigh  inestimable. 

The  Edinburgh  Bible  Society  originated  in  tbo  con- 
troversy respecting  the  circulation  of  the  Apocrypha,  and 
was  composed  of  Protestants  professing  their  belief  in  the 
doctrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  and  disposed  to  co-operate  iu 
promoting  the  dissemination  of  the  Scriptures. 

The  Scottish  Bible  Society  was  instituted  upwards  of 
forty  years  ago.  At  the  time  of  its  establishment,  the 
other  Bible  societies  in  Scotland  employed  their  funds 
chiefly  in  circulating  the  Scriptures  in  foreign  countries. 
This  association  was  intended  exclusively  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  Bible  at  home,  and  its  funds  were  at  first 
derived  from  collections  made  in  the  parish  churches 
within  the  Synod  of  Lothian  and  TweeddaJe. 

The  Scotch  Bible  societies  wero  amalgamated  in  18G1, 
and  took  the  name  of  the  National  Bible  Society  of 
Scotland.  During  the  year  1874  the  society  issued 
340,908  Bibles,  Testaments,  and  "  Portions,"  its  receipts, 
including  the  proceeds  of  sales,  amounting  to  £26,840. 

The  first  Bible  society  in  America  is  believed  to  have 
been  established  by  a  few  Baptists  in  New  York  in  1804  ; 
its  object  was  to  purchase  and  lend  Bibles  for  a  month  at 
a  time.  The  Philadelphia  Bible  Society,  which  was 
instituted  December  12,  1808,  was  for  some  years  the  only 
association  in  the  country  for  the  gratuitous  distributipn 
of  the  sacred  Scriptures.  The  America:*  Bible  Society 
was  formed  at  New  York,  May  8,  1817.  It  has  numerous 
auxiliaries  throughout  the  several  states  of  the  Union.  In 
1875  its  income  amounted  to  $577,569.  Its  issues  during 
that  year  were  926,900  Bibles  and  Testaments,  and  since 
its  formation  31,893.332. 

Among  other  societies  may  be  mentioned  the  Bible 
Translation  Society,  whose  versions  embody  the  views  of 
the  Baptists,  and  the  Portedsian  Bible  Society  (named 
from  Bishop  Porteus),  for  the  circulation  of  Bibles  marked 
so  as  to  show  the  practical  bearing  of  each  chapter. 

It  is  believed  that  there  are  altogether  about  70  Bible 
societies  in  the  world.  The  issues  of  tlie  7  leading 
societies  may  be  summarized  as  follows  : — 

The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 73,750.5:^8 

The  American  Hihle  Society 31.89."^.332 

The  National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland 4.563,669 

The  Prussian  Bible  Society  at  Berlin 4.080.413 

The  Hibernian  Bible  Society 3.9G2.531 

The  Wurteral>erg  Bible  Society, l,27S).yt;tJ 

The  Netherlands  Bible  Society 1,258,643 

Tutul 120,702,142 

The  monopoly  of  the  right  to  print  the  Bible  in  England 
is  still  possessed  by  tho  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge, and  her  Majest/s  printer  for  England,  But  after 
a  controversy,  which  was  carried  on  for  some  time  with 
great  warmth  n840-41),  the  prices  of  the  common  Bible.": 
and  Testaments  were  grcutly  reduced,  and  they  have 
gradually  attained  their  present  remarkal'le  cheapness. 

In  Scotland,  on  the  expiry  of  the  monopoly  in  1839, 
Parliament  refused  to  renew  the  patent,  and  a])pointed  a 
Bible  Board  for  Scotland,  with  power  to  grant  licences 
to  print  tiie  Authorized  Version  of  the  8cri|iture9.  This 
step  produced  a  great  reduction  in  the  price  of  the  sacred 
volume,  antl  its  circulation  was  considerably  iucronscd. 

Sec  Owen's  History  of  the  First  Toi  Yoirso/thf  /}rttish 
and  Foreitjn  /tihle  Socitty ;  liihle  Triuin^Jn^,  a  Julnltt 
Mi-morial  for  the  BritUh  and  Forcvpi  UihU  Society; 
Drpnu's  History  o/ the  BiUe  Society,  1850.         (tt.  BD.) 


Go  I 


BIBLIOGEAPHY 


THE  term  Bibliography  has  passed  through  difTercnt 
meanings.  The  PipKioypatfxK  of  the  Greeks,  like  the 
libraruu  of  the  Romans,  was  a  mere  copyist  WTien  the 
name  bMiographie  was  adopted  by  the  French,  it  was 
used,  03  late  as  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  to  signify 
ekiU  in  deciphering  and  judging  of  ancient  manuscripts. 
•Its  spoctal  application  to  printed  books. may  be  said  to  date 
from  the  BMiojrapkie  Instructive  of  De  Bare  in  17G3  ; 
not  that  he  appears  to  have  coined  the  new  meaning  of  the 
term,  but  his  work  first  popularized  the  study  which  the 
growth  of  libraries  and  the  commerce  in  literature  had 
created. 

Bibliography,  thus  understood,  may  be  defined  as  the 
ecience  of  books,  having  regard  to  their  description  and 
jjroper  dnssification.  Viewing  books  simply  as  vehicles  of 
learning,  il  would  undoubtedly  be  correct  to  extend  our 
inquiry  to  the  period  when  the  only  books,  so  called,  were 
manu.scripts.  And  such  is,  in  fact,  the  view  adopted  by 
bibliographers  like  Peignot,  Namur,  and  Hartwell  Home. 
Bu  a  survey  so  extensive  is  open  to  practical  objections. 
In  the  first  place,  bibliography  as  a  scienca  was  unknown 
iiutil  long  after  printing  had  laid  its  first  foundations,  and 
indeed  made  it  a  necessity,  with  requirements  increasing 
■with  the  multiplied  productions  of  the  press.  The  materials 
for  comparative  study  were  wanting  in  an  age  when  books 
•B-ere  regarded  as  isolated  treasures,  to  be  bought  at  prices 
corresponding  with  their  scarcity.  In  the  second  place, 
the  critical  study  and  comparison  of  ancient  manuscripts, 
their  distribution  into  families  deduced  from  one  or  more 
archetypes,  and  the  (investigation  of  ancient  systems  of 
writing,  embrace  a  subject  so  wide  in  its  scope  and  special 
in  its  character,  that  convenience  of  treatment,  confirmed 
as  it  is  by  the  facts  of  history,  would  alone  suggest  the 
propriety  of  distinguishing  between  manuscript  and  printed 
bibliography.  This  distinction  it  is  here  proposed  to 
observe,  the  subject  of  MSS.  being  reserved  for  the  article 
Paxsogkapht,  the  name  which  in  its  maturity  it  received. 

Amid  much  variety  of  treatment  in  detail,  two  main 
divisions  underlie  the  general  study  of  bibliography,  viz., 
maierial  and  literary,  according  as  books  are  regarded  with 
icfercnce  to  their  form  or  their  substance.  The  former 
belongs  chiefly  to  the  bookseller  and  book-collector;  the 
latter  to  the  literary  man  and  the  scholar.  Material 
bibliography  treats  of  what  Savigny  terms  the  "  aussere 
Biicherwesen,"  or  the  external  characteristics  of  books,  their 
forms,  prices  and  rarity,  the  names  of  the  printers,  the  date 
and  place  of  publication,  and  the  history  of  particular  copies 
or  editions.  It  involves  a  knowledge  of  tj-pography,  not, 
indeed,  as  a  mechanical  process,  but  in  its  results,  and,  in 
fact,  of  all  the  constituent  part  of  books,  as  a  means  of 
identifying  particular  productions.  Its  full  development  is 
•due  to  the  gradual  formation  of  a  technical  science  of  books. 
•ConsiJer.^tions  of  buying  and  selling,  which  were  first 
reduced  to  a  system  in  Hollartd,  and  afterwards  advanced 
to  their  present  complete  form  in  France  and  England,  gave 
an  impetus  to  this  branch  of  bibliography.  The  growth  of 
private  libraries,  especially  during  the  lajt  century  in  France, 
promoted  a  passion  among  rich  amateurs  for  rare  and  curious 
books ;  and  literary  antiquarians  began  to  study  those 
extrinsic  circumstances,  apart  from  the  merit  of  their  con- 
tents, which  went  to  determine  their  marketable  value,  and 
to  reveal  the  elements  of  rarity. 

Literary,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  intellectual 
bibliography  treats  of  books  by  their  contents,  and  of  their 
connHotiuii  la  a  Uterary  point  of  view.  It  has  been  sub- 
tivided  into  pure  and  applied,  according  as  its  functino"! 


became  more  complex  with  the  spread  of  printed  books 
and  the  increasing  requirements  of  learning.  Catalogues 
expanded  into  dictionaries,  whose  object  was  to  acquami 
literary  men  with  the  most  important  works  in  every  branch 
of  learning.  Books  were  accordingly  classified  by  their 
contents,  and  the  compiler  had  to  distinguish  between 
degrees  of  relative  utility,  so  that  students  might  know 
what  books  to  select.  This  duty,  which  devolved  in  mos* 
cases  on  men  of  learning,  has  led  French  writers  in 
particular  to  exaggerate  the  province  of  bibliography. 
"La  bibliographie,"  says  Achard,  "  dtaut  la  plus  ^tendue 
de  toutes  les  sciences,  semble  devoir  les  renfenner  toutee ; " 
and  Peignot  describes  it  under  his  proposed  title  of 
Bibliologie,  as  "  la  plus  vaste  et  la  plus  universelle  do  toutes 
les  connaissances  humaines."  Ve  know  of  no  excuse  for 
such  pretensions  beyond  this,  that  books  represent,  in  iis 
transmissible  form,  the  sum  total  of  all  kinds  of  knowledge. 
The  bibliographer  has  to  determine  the  genuineness,  not 
the  authenticity  of  a  book ;  its  identity  of  authorship  or 
publication,  not  the  correctness  of  its  contents.  When  he 
pronounces  judgment  on  its  intrinsic  merits  he  usurps  the 
office  of  the  critic.  Some  works,  indeed, — like  Baillet's 
Jugemfw  .des  Sava7U,  tur  les  Principaiuc  Ouvrages  des 
Auleurs,  augmentds  par  M.  de  la  Monnoye,  8  vols.,  Amst., 
1724;  Blount's  Censura  Celehriorum  Auctorum,  London, 
1690;  Morhof's  Polyhistor  LUeranus,  Pkdosophicui,  et 
Practiciu,  the  best  edition  of  which  is  that  of  Fabricius  in 
1747  ;  the  Onomcuticon  Literanum  of  Saxius,  Utrecht,  7 
vols.,  1759-90  ;  and  the  Censura  Literaria  of  Sir  Egerton 
Brj'dges,  10  vols.,  1805-9,— are  collections  of  critical 
bibliography  of  extreme  value  to  the  literary  historian;  but 
there  is  a  wide  difference  in  design  between  compilations 
even  of  this  kind  and  works  devoted  to  original  criticism.  In 
like  manner  the  proper  objects  of  cbssification  have  been 
neglected  by  many  bibliographers,  who  have  indulged  in 
refinements  of  method,  uot  as  a  means  of  facilitating 
reference,  but  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  a  philosophical 
system  of  leorning.  Pretensions  such  as  these,  have, 
unfortunately,  dona  much  to  discredit  bibliography  as  g 
science  of  practical  application,  by  investing  It  with  a  falsf 
air  of  mystery,  and  exposing  it  to  the  charge  of  empiricism. 
Its  real  value,  in  a  literary  aspect,  depends  on  the  recognt 
tion  J.  its  purpose  as  ancillary  to  the  study  of  literatu.'e ; 
not,  in  short,  as  an  end,  but  as  a  means  to  the  attainment 
of  knowledge,  by  the  investigation  of  its  sources. 

France  must  be  regarded  as  the  real  mother  of  biblio- 
graphy.' Italy  was  the  field  in  which  book-collections  first 
began  on  a  large  scale,  and  that  country  can  boast  of  names 
like  Magliabecchi,  Apostolo  Zeno,  Bandini,  Audiffredi, 
Mazzuchelli,  and  Morelli,  besides  pro\-incial  works  lika 
Moreni's  Bibliografia  detla  Toscana,  and  Gamba's  Serie  di 
Tesli.  But  the  labours  of  French  bibliographers,  especially 
after  Naudi,  converted  a  study,  more  or  le.is  desultory,  into 
a  science  and  a  systematic  pursuit.  In  Germany,  poor  in 
public  and  almost  destitute  of  private  libraries,  bibliography 
has  been  studied  almost  exclusively  in  its  literary  aspect. 
Belgium  has  shown  much  recent  activity ;  but  neither 
Holland,  Spain,  nor  Portugal  can  show  any  modern  work 
of  importance.  In  England  the  paucity  of  bibliographers 
is  the  more  to  be  regretted  from  the  wealth  of  her  resources. 
Richard  do  Bury,  in  his  Phiiobiblum,  bad  descanted  on  the 
charms  of  book-collecting  as  early  as  the  1 4  th  century;  but 
Blount's  Censura,  published  in  1690,  was  the  only  regular 


1  The  term  biblioynoste  originated  with  the  Abhi  Rivp  ;  wordi 
•imilarly  compounded,  and  inrolving  Faocirul  nicatieA  of  disticctioA. 
are  comnon  smong  French  wntcrc  oo  ILU  lumect  iPtignot). 


G52 


B  J  T^.  L  I.  0  G  R  A  P  H  Y 


treatise  on  bibliogra[)liy  up  to  fliat  date.  OldyB,  wooae 
JJritun  Librarian  first  appeared  in  173/  but  was  never 
completed,  was  among  the  first  iu  this  country  to  divert  the 
public  taste  from  an  exclusive  attention  to  new  books,  by 
makmg  the  merit  of  old  ones  the  subject  of  critical 
discussion ;  and  Maittaire,  who  was  second  master  of 
Westminster  School,  and  who  died  in  1747,  first  established 
:he  study  of  bibliography  in  England  on  a  solid  basis.  The 
labours  of  Dibdinwe  shall  have  occasion  frequently  to  refer 
to ,  they  mark  a  new  phase  of  bibliography  in  England 
which  followed  the  opening  up  of  the  Continent  after  the 
great  war  with  France.  The  science  in  America  has  been 
cultivated  only  recently ;  but  the  names  of  Cogswell, 
Ticknor,  and  Jewett  are  already  well-known  to  biblio- 
graphers. 

I     The  Constituent  Parts  of  Books,  and  Differences  of 
EditiOTU. 

The  history  of  the  materials  used  for  early  manuscripts — 
ei  subject  fruitful  in  research — lies  outside  the  limits  we 
h-  '9  proposed  for  bibliography  as  the  study  of  printed 
literature.  Fortunately  for  the  spread  of  books,  in  the 
modern  sense  of  the  term,  the  invention  of  printing  was 
preceded  by  the  important  discovery  of  the  art  of  making 
piper  from  linen  rags.  The  precise  date  of  this  discovery 
13  not  Known,  nor  are  writers  agreed  as  to  the  country  in 
which  it  was  made;  but  it  seems  to  be  ascertained  that  this 
kind  of  paper  was  in  general  use  in  Europe  before  the  end 
of  the  14th  century.  Caxton  and  the  other  early  English 
printers  appe.ar  to  have  used  paper  of  foreign  manufacture. 
Such  questions,  among  others,  as  the  relative  priority  of 
different  editions,  or  th^roductions  of  different  presses, 
are  frequently  to  be  determined  by  a  comparison  of  the 
constituent  elements  of  the  books  themselves  ;  but  the 
subject  b  too  technical  to  b_e  noticed  in  detail.  The 
question  as  to  the  origin  of  printing  belongs  strictly  to  a 
consideration  of  that  art ;  but  as  its  history  and  its  progress 
are  illustrated  by  the  productions  of  different  pre.sses,  the 
bibliographer  will  find  much  matter  of  interest  in  the 
principal  works  devoted  to  the  subject.  Prominent  among 
these  are  the  Afonumenta  Ti/pographua  of  Wolfius,  Ham- 
burg, 1740;  Meerman's  Origines  Typograpkicee ;  Prosper 
Marchand's  Hutoire  de  I'urigine  et  des  premiers  progrcs  de 
V I mpr imerie, A' iO, — a  valuable  supplement  to  which  was 
published  by  M.  Mercier,  Abb(S  de  Saint  Leger,  in  1773, 
and  republished  in  1775  ;' and  Lambinet's  Recherchfs  h.s- 
toriques,  htteraires,  et  critiques  snr  I'origme  dc  CIviprimerie, 
lirst  published  at  Brussels  in  1799. 

An  accurate  knowledge  of  the  different  forms  of  books 
is  necessary  to  the  bibliographer,  as  without  it  no  book 
can  be  correctly  described ;  and  however  easy  such 
knowledge  may  appear,  it  is  yet  certain  that  errors  in  this 
respect  have  been  committed  even  by  experienced  biblio- 
graphers, and  that  doubts  have  been  entertained  as  to  the 
existence  of  editions,  owing  to  their  forms  having  been 
inaccurately  described.'  These  mislaies  generally  proceed 
from  this,  that  there  are  different  sizes  of  paper  com- 
prehended under  the  same  name.  But  the  water-lines  in 
the  sheets  afford  a  test,  as  they  are  uniformly  perpendicular 
in  the  folio  and  octavo,  and  horizontal  in  the  quarto  and 
duodecimo  sizes.  la  the  infancy  of  printing  the  sizes  were 
generally  folio  and  quarto,  and  sorajjhavc  supposed  that  no 
books  were  printed  m  the  smaller  forms  till  after  1480; 
but  M.  Peignot  instances  many  editions  in  the  smallest 
forms  of  an  earlier  date  ;  as  may  be  seen  in  the  article 
"  Formal "  of  the  supplement  to  his  Dictionnaire  de 
BOiholngir.  The  subject  of  water-marks  is  treated  at  length 
in  Sotheby's  Principia  Typographica. 

I  Seo  Coulanl,  TraiU  BUvunlaire  de  EMiaamphie.  rp.  38,  39. 


The  respective  merits  of  different  editions  can  be 
ascertained  often  only  by  minute  inquiries.  It  is  a  principal 
object  of  the  bibliographical  dictionaries,  to  be  afterwards 
mentioned,  to  point  out  those  editions  of  important  works 
which  such  inquiries  have  discovered  to  be  the  best. 
There  are  many  particulars  in  which  one  edition  may  diffei 
from  or  excel  another.  There  may  be  differences  oj 
grounds  of  preference  in  size,  in  paper,  and  in  printing. 
Later  revision  by  the  author  may  give  his  work,  when  it 
comes  to  be  reprinted,  a  completion  differing  largely  from 
what  it  had  at  the  first ;  while  the  first  edition  exhibits 
his  orginal  thoughts  as  they  came  fresh  from  his  pen.  One 
edition  may  derive  its  superiority  from  being  furnished 
with  notes,  an  index,  or  a  table  of  contents.  Plates  make 
great  differences  in  the  value  of  editions,  and  even  in  tho 
value  of  copies  of  the  same  edition.  In  the  beautifully 
engraved  edition  of  Horace  by  Pine,  a  small  error  in  the 
first  impressions  serves  as  a  test  whether  any  copy  contains 
the  best  engravings  of  those  elegant  vignettes  which 
illustrate  that  edition.  The  medal  of  Augustus,  on  page 
108  of  the  second  volume,  has  in  the  first  copies  the 
incorrect  reading  Post  Est  instead  of  Potest;  this  wa.s 
rectified  in  the  after  impressions  ;  but  as  the  plates  had 
meanwhile  sustained  some  injury,  the  copies  which  show 
the  incorrect  reading  are  of  course  esteemed  the  best. 
Dibdin,  in  his  Bibliomania,  points  out  this  as  an  instance 
of  preference  founded  on  a  defect ;  but  the  real  ground  of 
preterenee  is  the  superiority  of  the  impressions,  ascertained 
by  the  presence  of  this  trifling  defect.  There  are  sometimes 
differences  between  copies  of  the  same  edition  of  a  work.* 
Walton's  Polyglot  Bible  is  a  celebrated  instance.  The 
printing  of  that  great  work,  for  which  Cromwell  liberally 
allowed  paper  to  be  imported  free  of  duty,  was  begun  in 
1653  and  completed  in  1G57,  and  the  preface  to  it  in 
some  copies  contains  a  respectful  acknowledgement  of 
this  piece  of  patronage  on  the  part  of  the  Protector ; 
but  in  other  copies  the  compliment  is  expunged,  and 
replaced  by  some  invectives  against  the  republicans, — 
Walton  having  on  the  Restoration  printed  another  pre- 
face to  the  copies  which  had  not  by  that  time  been  dis- 
posed of.-* 

II.  Early  Printed  Booh. 

The  first  productions  to  which  the  name  of  Books  has 
been  applied,  were  printed,  not  with  movable  types,  but 
from  solid  wooden  blocks.  These  consisted  of  a  few  leaves 
only,  on  which  were  impressed  images  of  saints  and  other 
historical  pictures,  with  a  text  or  a  few  explanatory  lines. 
The  ink  was  of  a  brownish  hue,  and  glutinous  quality,  to 
prevent  it  from  spreading.  These  are  known  by  the  name 
of  Image  Books,  or  Block  Books,  and  are  generally  supposed 
to  have  succeeded  the  earlier  impressions  for  playing  cards, 
which  are  dated  back  to  the  end  of  the  14tji  century. 
Strictly  speaking,  they  were  the  immediate  precursors, 
rather  than  the  first  specimens  of  typography  ;  in  fact,  they 
mark  the  transition  to  that  art  from  engraving.'  Peignot 
puts  their  number  at  seven  or  eight,  but  others  hav& 
extended  it  to  ten.  They  belong  chiefly  to  the  Low 
Countries,  and  Avore  often  reprinted,  as  is  generally  thought, 
during  the  lirst  half  of  the  15tli  century,  and,  indeed,  after 

'  Tlie  Voyafje  to  Cadiz  is  soraelimeg  wantir.p  in  HakUiyt's  Navuja- 
tions,  1593-1600.  A  rcprtnt  is  oftrn  inserted  to  supply  thi.s  want, 
wliicli  may  be  known  from  the  original  by  its  having  only  seven  p.ira- 
praphs  in  p.  607,  vol.  i.,  where.-iH  the  original  has  eight.  The  ori- 
ginal ends  on  p.  619,  the  reprxnt  on  p.  C20. 

>  See  vol.  1.  of  Dr  Clarke's  BMwgraphieal  Dwtionary  for  som» 
curious  details  on  this  point, 

*  Mr  Holt,  who  contends  that  printing  preceded  engravirp.  ascriS-* 
the  date  of  1423  on  the  St.  ChnMophcr  lo  a  forgery  for  1493.  an* 
asserts  that  no  ropy  of  the  Jiihha  Pavpmtm  was  known  ljef<>re  1485^ 
See  Notts  and  Queries,  4th  series,  ii.  265. 


B   1    b   L   1   U  (j    K    A    1'   H    Y 


653 


the  discovery  of  printing,  properly  so  ciUed  One  of  the 
oust  celebrated  13  the  BU'Ua  Pauperam}  cousistmg  of 
forty  leaves,  prioted  on  one  bide,  so  as  to  make  twenty 
when  pasted  together,  on  which  passages  from  Scnpture 
are  represented  by  means  of  figures,  witb  inscription!.  It 
appears  to  have  been  originally  mteuJed  (or  the  use  o(  those 
p«or  persons  who  could  not  afford  to  buy  complete  copies 
of  the  Bible.  Some  fugitive  sheets  still  attest  the  primitive 
attempts  at  printing,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word. 
The  LfttfTa  oj  JnJulornce  ol  Pope  Nicholas  V  .  two  editions 
of  which,  on  a  small  sheet  of  parchment,  were  printed  in 
1404,  6i  the  earliest  period  of  the  impression  of  metal 
types,  with  a  dale  subjoined  '  The  earliest  known  book, 
however,  of  any  magnitude,  and  probably  the  tirst  thus 
printed,  was  the  undated  edUio  princeps  of  the  Bible,  com- 
monly known  as  the  Mazarin  Bible,  ftom  a  copy  having 
been  found  by  De  Bute  in  the  library  of  the  Cardinal  It 
13  undated,  but  authorities  generally  concur  in  ascribing  it 
to  a  period  between  1450  and  1455.  The  work  is  usually 
divided  into  two  volumes,  the  first  containing  3'24,  and  the 
second  317  pages,  each  page  consisting  of  two  columns. 
The  characters,  which  are  Gothic,  are  large  and  handsome, 
and  resemble  manuscript.  No  fewer  than  twenty  copies 
are  known  to  be  extant  '  The  first  printed  book  with 
a  date  is  the  Psaller  of  Fust  and  Scholler.  printed  at 
Mcntz  in  1457,  as  a  somewhat  pompous  colophon  announces 
It  was  found,  in  16G5  in  the  Castle  of  Ambras,  near 
Innsbruck,  where  the  Archduke  Francis  Sigismund  had 
collected  a  quantity  of  M6S  and  printed  books,  taken 
chieliy  from  the  library  of  Corvmus  A  lew  other  copies 
are  in  existence,  one  of  which  was  bought  unJer  Louis 
XVIII.  for  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris  tor  the  sum  of 
12,000  francs.  Whether  the  types  employed  were  wooden 
or  metallic  has  been  dispute  1  between  Van  Praet  and  Uidot 
As  a  specimen  of  early  printing  the  work  is  magnificent  , 
It  contains  richly  embellished  capitals  in  blue,  red,  and 
purple. 

Besides  these  monuments  of  infant  typography,  a  special 
interest  attaches  to  the  productions  of  the  15th  century. 
They  are  us'ially  known  as  J ncunabula.  a  term  applied  to 
them  by  modern  German  writers.  Brunet.  lollowiug 
Santander.  esiiraates  their  number  at  16.000  or  20.00U  , 
but  It  13  probable  that  many  duplicates  are  includea  in  this 
reckoning.  They  came  luto  demand  chiefly  at  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century,  and  especially  about  1740,  at  the  third 
centenary  of  printing  The  passion  for  them  at  first  was 
indiscriminate,  but  jireference  afterwards  was  given  to  the 
presses  of  Mayence,  Bamberg,  Cologne,  Strasburg,  Home, 
and  Venice. 

As  re.'ards  these  early  printed  books,  a  knowledge  of 
typogmphy  is  necessar)'  to  the  bibliographer,  to  enable  bim 
to  verify  their  identity.  A  brief  reference  to  some  of  their 
leading  peculiarities  must  suffice  here.     The  printers  name, 

*  Socall<'<l  firs!  by  Ueiavclitn. /dft  g^^-ilf  ti'unt  eolUctUfn  compUlt 
d EiUmpti.  d»c  .1771  Dibdin.  lo  his  BM.  Spmceriana,  «nd  Oulfv, 
in  bu  tluloty  of  Bnjraiinj,  hive  fi-.en  fac-sirailes  of  thr  Grnres  in 
levfral  o(  the  block-books.  Sec  •Iso  FslkenMcio's  OuOiichu  drr 
llwh'Uyckt'kHmt  in  lArer  Enu'e^uru)  und  Axis'nlduni),  llo.  1811' 
Schclnorn  a  .iman  Lu.;  tbe  Borki  of  Mmti'.re,  D.  Clement,  Foumier] 
MeeriDnnn.  Pipillon.  and  l)e  Bure ;  and  J.  P.  Berjeau  s  C<ualoj\ir 
AiiiuiTi  du  (iiira  xi/lographiquej,  1865  Heinceken  wu  the  chief 
authority  until  recently,  when  Lis  viewj,  e.«[.cci«lly  on  the  cnrooology  of 
the  block-books.  ba»«  been  much  conlMled.  Soihcby  s  Princtpui  Tvpo- 
graphxca.  3  ron  .  1853.  Is  the  most  imfortant  work  on  thi>  lubjed  in 
lite  years  Tht  author  has  also  attempted  to  clucidau*  the  chancier 
of  the  wjier-mirks  of  the  penod 

'  Dibdu.  s  BM   Spmter.,  i.  xlit 

•  Before  the  diwovery  of  tbe  Mauno  Bible,  the  Blmberj  Bible  of 
rSjter  generally  passed  for  the  first  pnnu.l  book  Schelhorr  has 
»-ntten  a  trealise  maintaining  its  pnorilv  of  i?t  As  to  the  .Maiann 
H.ble.  see  an  article  by  Dibdin  in  Valpy  ,  CUutiaxI  Journal  No  8 
The  k:uJ  of  tj|,e»  employed  upon  it  has  been  lie  luojeet  of  much 
dispute. 


and  the  date'  and  place  of  printing  were  at  first  omitted, 
the  printer  imitating  the  reticence  of  the  copyist,  and  the 
book  being  a  mere  (ac-simtle  of  the  manuscript.  In 
Germany  and  the  Low  C'ountries  few  dated  books  are  found 
belore  1476  or  l4StJ  Title-pages  appear  to  have  come  in 
a  few  years  later  ,  none  of  Caiton'a  works,  with  ono 
doubtful  exception,  have  any.  Titles  to  chapters  were  first 
used  in  the  Bputtea  of  Cicero.  1470.  According  lo  Palmer, 
the  use  of  signatures,  or  letters  at  the  bottom  of  the  page 
to  guide  the  bookbinder  in  tbe  arrangement  of  the  sheets, 
began  with  Zarot  in  a  Terence  printed  by  him  at  Milan  in 
14  70  Marolles  ascribes  them  to  John  of  Cologne,  whc 
printed  at  Venice  in  1474,  and  tho  Abb*  Rive  to  John 
Koelhof,  a  printer  of  Cologne  They  were  in  use  in  that  city 
in  1475,  and  at  Pans  the  next  year,  but  were  not  employed 
by  Caxton  until  1450  Catch-worda,  which,  like  signatures, 
preceded  the  numbering  of  pages,  are  found  m  MSS.  of  the 
1 1th  century,  and  were  first  applied  to  printing  by  Vindelin 
de  Spira  at  Venice.  Their  purpose,  to  direct  the  binder, 
had  been  previously  supplied  by  Jitjulera,  or  alphabetical 
tables  of  the  first  word  of  chapters,  which  were  introduced 
about  1 4G9.  The  earliest  system  of  numbering  was  applied, 
not  to  pages,  but  to  leaves,  a  large  Roman  figure  being 
placed  at  the  top  of  the  recto  in  each  leaf  The  characters 
were  uniformly  Gothic — tho  foundation  of  our  Black- 
letter — until  1407,  when  Gothic  was  supplanted  by  the 
Roman  type,  introduced  in  that  year  at  Rome,  and  improved 
on  by  Jensou  at  Venice.  It  was  tirst  used  in  'England  by 
Pynson.  /laJifa  were  first  used  by  Aldus  m  his  Virgil  of 
loMl  ,  they  are  said  to  have  been  suggested  to  bim  by 
Petrarch's  writing,  and  were  employed  to  compress  matter 
into  his  small  octavos  without  the  inconvenience  of  abbre- 
viations Hebrew  characters  began  at  Soncino,  id  the  duchy 
of  Milan,  in  1482,  and  at  Naples  in  1487  The  only 
points  first  used  were  the  colon  and  full  stop ,  but  Aldus 
improved  punctuation  by  giving  a  Utter  shape  to  the 
comma  and  adding  the  semicolon  With  Caxton  oblique 
strokes  took  tbe  place  of  commas  and  periods.  The  form  of 
the  earliest  books  was  chiefly  folio  and  quarto.  Almost 
every  page  aboundedin  abbreviations  or  contractions.  Blank 
spaces  were  left  for  capitals  and  the  first  letters  of  periods, 
which  were  afterwards  filled  up  by  the  iUummator.  Thir 
Basel  press  was  noted  for  its  ornamental  initials  ;  and 
Calliergus  at  Rome  and  the  Pans  printers  excelled  to 
decorative  printing  of  this  kind.  The  taste  for  embellish- 
ment led  to  ornamental  title-pages  about  1490,  the  usual 
ornament  at  first  being  the  "author  at  his  desk."  The 
custom  of  coloured  frontispieces  appears  to  have  pre- 
vailed until  the  end  of  last  century  Decorated  borders 
appear  in  the  first  page  of  some  of  Sweynheun  and  Pan- 
nartz's  productions  ;  few  ornament.^,  however,  were  intro- 
duced into  the  body  of  the  test  before  the  tirst  Hebrew 
publications  '  The  Aulus  OV//iuj  of  1409  by  the  same 
printers  is  cited  as  the  first  book  with  a  preface ;  and  their 
Apulexws  of  the  same  year  contains  the  earliest  marginal 
notes  For  further  information  on  tho  characteristics  of 
early  printed  books  the  reader  will  do  well  to  consult 
Palmer  s  Gmfrai  Uutory  of  Pniuing  (a  work  ascribed 
Aiefly  to  George  Psalmanazar) ;  Jungendres,  De  Aitit 
C liaractcnsticu  Librorum  a  Typographiac  Incunabulu  ad 
annum  1500  impretsorutn  ,  and  Marolle's  Recherclia  sur 
iOriyme  des  Signatures  et  des  Chi/res  de  Paje. 

*  The  date  was  sometimes  computed  by  Olympiads,  as  In  tbo 
Ausonii  Epiyrammata.  pnnicd  at  Venice  in  H72.  Middlelon,  who 
has  written  to  provo  that  the  Olford  Sxjiosilw  S.  Jerontmi  of  H68 
contains  a  falsi^ed  date,  quotes,  as  an  example,  the  Decor  PutUarum 
of  Jcnson,  at  Venice,  which  ts  dated  M61,  instead  of  1471,  in  order, 
he  says,  to  give  prionty  to  the  printer  OTcr  John  de  Spira,  whoM  best 
work  appeared  in  H69  ( irorti,  in    236). 

'  For  this  clasa  of  booka  «e  De  Rojsii  A  nnatet  Utbrcw-  Tmo-jraphicL 
1795-99  ' 


654 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


The  devices  of  ttia  early  pnnlera  are  of  importance  to 
the  bibliographer,  since  questions  occur  as  to  the  early 
editions  which  can  only  be  ascertained  by  discovering  the 
printer's  name.  The  invention  of  marks  or  vignettes  is 
ascribed  by  Laire  {Index  lAbrorum  Scbc.  XV.,  ii.  146)  to 
Aldus  ;  he  traces  them  to  a  Greek  Psalter  of  1495.  A 
device,  however,  consbting  of  two  shields  occurs  in  Fust 
and  Schoffer's  Bible  of  1462.  They  were  not  used  by 
Ulric  Zell,  the  first  printer  at  Cologne,  nor  by  the  fathers 
of  the  Paris  or  Venetian  presses.  Monograms  or  ciphers 
were  frequently  employed,  with  initial  letters  of  names  or 
other  devices  curiously  interwoven,  and  tnese  furnish  a 
trustworthy  clue  to  identity.  The  monograms  of  the 
Early  English  printers  are  explained  in  Ames's  Typogra- 
phical Antiqvities.  Of  tha  devices  of  dLEferent  presses  the 
best  fac-similes  are  given  in  Dibdin's  Bibliographical 
Decameron,  vol.  ii.  Orlandi's  Origine  e  Progressi  della 
Stampa,  Bologna,  4to,  1722, 'is  a  work  of  indifferent  merit. 
The  T/iesauriu  Symbolorum  ac  Emblematum  of  Scholtz, 
published  at  Nuremberg  in  1730,  and  Spoerlius's  Inlra- 
ductio  in  NoCitiam  insignium  Typographorum,  of  the  same 
year,  are  the  best  and  most  interesting  authorities  on  this 
Kubject. 

The  incunabula  of  the  various  early  presses  have  been 
treated  separately  by  different  writers.  Schwarz  in  1740 
and  Wurdtwein  in  1787  reviewed  the  productions  of  the 
Mentz  press.  Those-of  Nuremberg  were  noticed  by  Roder 
in  1742 ;  and  a  catalogue  of  them,  in  the  library  of  that 
town,  was  compiled  by  Saubert  in  1643.  In  Italy,  the 
Roman  press  is  represented  by  Michael  Canensio  in  1740, 
and  more  particularly  by  Audiffredi  in  1783,  who  aftec- 
wards  extended  his  researches  to  all  early  Italian  produc- 
tions. The  books  issued  from  MUan  between  1465  and 
1500  have  been  noticed  by  Saxius ;  the  Parmese  editions 
by  Affo  in  1791;  those  of  the  Spiras  at  Venice  by  Pelle- 
grini in  1794;  those  of  Friuli  by  Bnrtolini  in  1798;  and 
those  of  Ferrara  by  Anionelli  in  1830.  The  early  Paris 
press  has  been  copiously  treated  by  Chevillier,  and  that  of 
Lyons  by  P^ricaud,  1840.  For  Spain  there  is  Caballero  in 
1793;  and  the  works  printed  in  the  Low  Countries  are 
reviewed  at  length  in  Meermann's  Uitvindung  den  Bock- 
d)-ukkonst,  Amsterdam,  1767.  Herbert,  Ames,  and  Dibdin 
well-nigh  exhaust  the  subject  of  early  English  bibliography. 
The  different  collections  of  incunabula  in  public  or  private 
libraries  have  been  noticed  in  more  or  less  detail.  Seemiller 
in  1785  catalogued  upwards  of  1800  editions  of  the  15th 
century  at  Ingolstadt..  Those  in  the  Magliabecchian 
library  at  Florence  have  been  descfibed  by  Fossi  (or  rather 
Follini)in  1793-95.  The  collection  of  Lomeniede  Bricnne 
is  known  through  the  labours  of  the  elder  De  Bure  and  hU 
continuator,  Laire;  and  the  treasures  of  Count  Buutourlin 
were  catalogued  by  Audin  de  Rians.  Lambeth  library 
contains  many  specimens,  which  have_  been  noticed  by 
Maitland  ;  and  the  splendid  collection  of  Eari  Spencer  at 
Althorp  has  met  with  a  worthy  exponent  in  Dibdin.' 

Foi  more  general  information  on  this  subject  the  render  i.iay  con- 
sult the  following  works  : — Index  Librorum  ab  inventa  Typoyrnjihia 
ad  annum  1500,  cum  notis,  2  vols.  1731.  Tins  work,  by  [..lire, 
IS  one  of  the  most  useful  of  its  kinJ,  and  it  1iq3  the  advantage 
of  four  indexes,  which  furnish  a  ready  reference  to  its  contents. 
Do  Bure,  in  the  seventh  volume  of  his  Bibliographie  Iristructive, 
has  given  a  list  of  IStli  century  books,  cl.is.scd  in  the  order  of  the  dif- 
ferent towns.  M.  La  Serna  Santander's  Dictionnaire  Ciblio- 
graphvjue  choisi  du  quimiimt  siicU,  3  vols.,  1805,  is  a  very  learned 
and  txact  work,  and.  like  Laire's  Index  above  mentioned,  cm- 
briceaonly  the  rarest  and  moit  interrstmg  publications  of  the  15th 
century.     See  also  the  Ltttrta  de  VAbbl  de  St.  i.   (Mercier  de  St. 


•  BthlioOieca  Spcnccriana.  To  this  were  afterwards  added  his 
Mdet  Althorpiana,  with  a  •nppleraent,  1822,  and  Ibo  volume  on  tho 
faitano  Library,  with  j  general  Index.  1821.  The  beauty  of  tho 
lie.iimiltj  alone  would  cnlilJo  these  worka  U>  the  frunl  rouk  of  Un.ks 
i/n  blbliogiaphy. 


U-ger),  au.  Baron  ae  B.  (ITciss),  I'.iris,  17S5.  Maittaire's  Annalo 
Typographici  ab  artis  inventte  ongine  is  a  mine  of  learning  and  re- 
search. The  6rst  volume,  published  in  1719,  embraces  the  period 
from  the  origin  of  printing  to  1500,  but  his  researches  into  printed 
literature  extended  in  the  third  volume  to  1557  ;  and  there  is  nn 
appendix  which  affords  a  partial  continuation  to  1664.  A  supple- 
ment to  this  elaborate  work,  by  Denis,  in  2  vols.  4to,  appeared  at 
Vienna  in  1789,  and  contains  6311  articles  omitted  by  Maittaire. 
Panzer's  Annales  Typographici  was  founded  on  the  preceding  woik, 
and  consisted  of  eleven  volumes,  which  were  published  at  Nuiembi-rg 
between  1793  and  1803.  It  was  intendca  to  be  limited  to  Iho 
15th  century,  but,  after  the  appearance  of  the  lilth  volume,  the 
period  was  extended  to  the  year  1536.  German  publications  wei© 
reserved  for  a  separate  work,  which  bears  the  title  of  Annalcn  der 
dttcren  deutschen  LiUratur.  The  Bepcrtoriwn  Bibliographicum  of 
Lud.  Hain,  4  vols.  1826-33,  contains  an  alphabetical  list  of  no 
less  than  16,299  lx)oks  printed  during  the  15th  century,  which  are 
described  with  rare  minuteness  and  accuracy.  The  author's  labour* 
were  terminated  by  death,  when  he  had  advanced  as  far  as  UG. 
The  addition  of  bibliographical  notices,  pointing  out  first  edition* 
and  books  of  remarkable  rarity  and  price,  would  have  much  enhanced 
itsinterest  and  value.  The  Literatur  d.  ersten  100  Jaltre  nach  d.  Erfin- 
dung  d.  Typpgraphie,  by  Chr.  F.  Harless,  wasp  ublished  at  Leipsic  in 
1840.  Its  object  differs  from  thatof  the  preceding  works,  in  making 
the  notice  of  early  editions  subordinate  to  his  purpose  of  illustrat- 
ing thereby  the  transition  and  progress  of  contemporary  learning. 

m.  Eare  and  Curious  Books. 

This  branch  of  what  Ebert  terms  "restricted"  biblio- 
'graphy  belongs  peculiarly  to  the  book-coUector  and  book- 
seller, if  regard  be  had  especially  to  the  inclinadons  of 
purchasers,  the  actual  demand,  and  the  marketable 
value  of  books.  Rarity  and  price  depend  very  much 
on  each  other  ;  rarity  makes  them  dear,  and  dearness  makes 
them  rare.  Hallam  asserts  that  the  price  of  .-books  was 
reduced  four-fiftha  by  the  inventing  of  printing.  From  a 
letter  of  Andreas,  bishop  of  Aleria,  to  the  pope,  in  his 
preface  to  the  Epistles  of  Jerome,  it  would  seem  that  100 
golden  crowns  was  the  maximum  demanded  for  a  valuable 
MS.,  and  that  the  first  printed  books  were  sold  for  about 
4  golden  crowns  a  volume.  At  any  rate,  one  natural  effect 
of  printing  was  to  restrict  the  number  of  rare  books  to  a 
separate  chiss.  Cailleau,  who  has  been  followed  by  most 
other  writers  on  this  subject,  distinguishes  between  absolute 
and  relative  rarity.  The  former  term  is  applied  to  those 
books  or  editions  of  which  only  a  small  number  has  been 
printed.  Such  for  the  most  part  are  works  printed  for 
private-circulation,  as  those  of  the  Strawberry  Hill  Press, 
wlich  are  very  scarce  and  enormously  dear.  This  class  of 
Engliah  books  is  treated  in  the  Bibliographical  Catalogue 
of  Books,  privately  printed,  by  John  Martin,  1834,  repub- 
lished, with  additions,  in  1854,  8vo.  Much  of  the  value 
attached  to  editions  of  the  15th  century  arises  from  the 
limited  number  of  impressions.  They  were  seldom  more 
than  300 ;  John  of  Spira  printed  only  100  copies  of  his 
I'li»y  and  Cicero  ;  and  printers  had  the  example  of  Sweyn- 
heim  and  Pannartz,  who  were  reduced  to  poverty  by  their 
surplus  copies,  to  avoid  exceeding  the  current  demand. 
Suppressed  works  belong  to  the  same  category,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  success  of  prohibition.  Others  owe  their 
scarcity  to  accidental  destruction  ;  as,  for  instance,  tho 
second  volucneof  Hevelius's  Machina  Calestis,  1679,  which 
would  have  shared  the  fate  of  the  remainder  of  his  works, 
on  the  burning  of  bis  house,  had  the  author  not  previously 
given  some  copies  to  his  friends.  At  the  great  fire  of 
London  in  1666  there  were  some  works  of  Dugdale,  among 
other  writers,  as  well  as  the  first  volume  of  Prynnc's  Records 
of  the  Tower,  of  which  only  A  few  copies  escaped  ;  but 
their  value  has  been  reduced  by  subsequent  ini|)rciisioiis. 
The  same  kind  of  rarity  attaches  to  Editions  de  luxe,  chiefly 
made  for  rich  amateurs  ;  to  large  paper  copies  and  tall  copies, 
i.e.,  copies  of  a  work  published  on  paper  of  ordinary  size 
and  barely  cut  down  by  the  binder  ;  and  to  books  (irinted 
on  colouro'l  pajicr.  A  list  of  the  last-named  is  given  by 
Duclos   and    Cailleau    ^nd    repriii'i"'    by    Hmne    in    l-is 


BIBLIOGRAPH\ 


(5.")5 


Tntroductwn  to  Billlography.  It  includes  an  edition  of 
Sterne's  Sentimynlal  Journey,  three  copies  only  of  which 
were  printed  at  Paris  in  1S0"2,  on  rose-coloured  paper,  and 
the  complete  Worh  of  Voltaire,  edited  by  Beauniarchais 
(ICehl,  1785),  twenty-five  copies  of  which  were  struck  off 
on  blue  paper,  after  some  had  been  requested  by  Frederick 
the  Great  for  his  own  use,  on  account  of  the  weakness  of 
his  eyesight.  Vellum  copies,  again,  have  been  much  prized 
by  collectors.  They  belong  to  the  early  days  of  printing, 
especially  co  the  AJdine,  Verard,  and  Giunti  presses,  and 
to  those  of  the  first  English  printers.  Few  were  made 
between  the  latter  half  of  the  IGfh  and  the  beginning  of 
the  last  century  ;  but  the  art  was  revived  in  France  by 
Didot  and  Bodoni,  and  the  folio  Horace  of  1799  by  the 
former  ls  a.  chef  d'osuvre  ai  its  kind.  The  Royal  Library 
at  Paris  has  a  sumptuous  collection  of  vellum  copies,  which 
have  been  elaborately  described  by  Van  Praet.'  At  the  sale 
of  the  M'Carthy  library,  the  Psalter  of  Fust  and  Schdffer 
on  vellum  was  bought  by  Louis  XVIIL  for  12,O0O  francs. 
The  Lbraries  of  Earl  Spencer  and  the  duke  of  Devonshire 
contain  the  finest  specimens  in  this  country.  The  relatiue 
rarity  of  books  is  due  to  a  variety  of  causes,  chiefly  con- 
nected with  the  peculiar  nature  of  their  contents.  Amung 
works  of  this  kind,  generally  speaking,  are  local  histories, 
lives  of  learned  men,  books  of  antiquities,  or  of  curious 
arts,  those  written  in  languages  little  known,  macaronic 
treatises,  and  catalogues  of  private  libraries.  Works  like 
the  Acta  Sanctorum,  in  53  volumf,^,  however  accessible  in 
public  though  not  in  private  libraries,  are  rare  in  this  sense 
of  the  term.  The  class  of  publications  known  as  Aiia,  con- 
taining the  sayings  and  doings  of  men  great  in  their  day,  has 
become  comparatively,  scarce.  The  first  of  these  was  the 
Scaligerana  of  IGGO.  The  pubUc  fastened  upon  them  at 
first  with  avidity,  but  the  number  of  such  productions  created 
in  time  a  distaste  for  them  (see  Ana,  voL  i.,  pp.  784-5). 
Burton's  Anatomy  of  Mtlanclioly,  which  fascinated  Dr 
Johnson,  is  an  instance  of  undeserved  neglect  For  a  long 
time  It  fell  into  disuse,  and  from  being  a  waste-paper  book, 
became  extremely  rare,  until  reprinted  in  recent  times. 
Fugitive  pieces,  like  political  broadsides,  share  the  penal- 
ties of  an  ephemeral  interest.  The  King's  Pamphlets,  so 
c.dled  from  having  been  presented  by  George  IIL  to  the 
British  Museum,  are  the  largest  collection  of  this  kind 
in  En;iland.  It  qwes  its  origin  Co  the  industry  of  the  book- 
seller Thom.ison.' 

In  a  literary  sense,  a  bo»k,  to  deserve  the  title  of  rare, 
ehould  be  a  work  of  some  merit,  and  not  one  whose 
obscurity  is  due  to  its  worthlessness.  Curious  books, 
however,  depend  very  much  on  the  pleasure  of  the  curious  ; 
ond  the  follies  and  caprice  of  collectors  are  summed  up  in 
the  word  Bibliomania.  Some  copies  of  Tubervilles  Book 
of  Hunting,  ICU,  were  bound  in  deer-skin;  Mr  Jeffery, 
the  bookseller,  enclosed  Mr  Fox's  historical  work  in  fox's- 
skin  ;  and  a  story  is  told  of  Dr  Askew  having  caused  a 
book  to  bo  bound  in  human  skin,  for  the  payment  of  which 
he  was  prosecuted  by  the  binder.  German  bibliographers 
reproach  us  with  an  undue  passion  for  book  curiosities. 
lithliomanta  forms  the  title  of  an  amusing  work  by  Dr 
Dibdin,  who,  though  accused  of  a  leaning  to  this  weakness, 
knew  well  how  to  value  the  intelligent  study  of  books. 
The  practice  was  satirized  as  early  as  the  time  of  Brandt, 

'  Catato'/ue  da  titrres  imprimis  sur  Velin  dc  la  Bihliothique  du  Rot, 
IS22~'Z4,  6  vols.  S«o  his  supplemcnt-il  calaloguo  of  simUar  books  in 
other  libranes,  1821,  4  vols,  royal  8vo.  Panzer,  as  he  ioforms  us  id 
his  £ssaisur  V UUtoire  du  Parcheminet  du  Vdin,  1812,  iDteudcd,  but 
did  oor  oxocuto.  a  compruheusivo  work  oa  voUuiii  curiosities.  See  also 
H<  h<illiom'9  AtiUTTi.  Litter.,  vol.  i. 

*  See  Oldys's  DUsertaXion  on  Pamphlets,  and  the  feon  Libtltoram  of 
Mylf*  Davis,  a  risumi  of  which  is  given  in  Disraeli's  Amenities  of 
Literature.  Aungervyle  d»  Bury  ailmiltcd  Pa!]/t«li  eziyki  into  his 
Lbr.vv 


(see  his  6'hip  of  Fools.)  It  prevailed  in  England  chief!} 
during  last  century,  and  reached  its  height  at  the  Kail 
of  tho'duke  of  Roxburghe's  library  in  1812.'  The  time, 
however,  has  passed  away  when  the  passion  for  collecting 
rare  and  curious  books,  without  regard  to  their  usefulness, 
merit,  or  beauty,  was  too  often  a  failing  with  well-educated 
persons.  The  love  of  uncut  and  large-paper  copies  of 
vellum  and  first  editions,  and  of  illustrated  books,  has 
been  belter  regulated  since  book-madness  was  attacked 
by  the  Abb6  Rive,  Dibdin,  Dr  Ferrier,  and  the  Rev. 
James  Beresford ;  and  modern  book-clubs  like  the  Rox- 
burgho  (1812),  the  Bannatyne  (1823),  the  Maitland  (1823), 
and  the  Surtees  (1834)  Societies,  the  Abbotsfurd  Club 
(1834),  and  the  Early  English  Text  Society,,  have  done 
important  service  to  bibliography  by  reprinting  scarce  old 
books. 

Detached  notices  of  rare  and  curious  books  are  to  bo  found  in  the 
catalogues  of  private  libraries,  especially  tliMe  compiled  by  French 
writers  during  the  last  century.  Beloe'a  Anecdotes  of  LitercUur* 
cuDtains  much  interesting  matter  on  scarce  books  and  their  prices. 
'I'he  following,  however,  are  the  chief  works  on  this  subject: — Hal- 
lervorJ's  Bibliutheai  curiosa,  Frankfort,  1CS7  ;  Beyer's  Menwriet 
kistorico-crUicee  librorum  rariorum,  Dresden  and  l.eipsic,  1734  ; 
Vogt's  Catatogus  historico-criiicus  librorum  rariorum,  the  best 
edition  of  which  appeared  at  Frankfort  in  1793.  The  author applun 
the  epithet  rare  with  more  judgment  than  bis  predecessors.  A 
supplement  to  his  work  was  the  Flonleijium  kisloricocriticum 
librorum  rariorum  of  Gerdesius,  first  published  in  1710,  and  again 
in  1763.  The  Bibliothique  curieuse,  ou  CaCaloyue  raisouui  dcs 
Hvres  rarcs  et  diffieilcs  d  trouver,  by  D.  Clement,  Uottingen,  1750- 
60,  is  compiled  on  a  more  extensive  plan  than  any  of  the  preceding. 
Although  consisting  of  9  volumes  4to,  it  only  extend.^  to  tho 
letter  H,  terminating  there  in  consequence  of  tho  author's  death. 
Cfenient  is  generally  blamed  for  a  very  profuse  and  inaccurate  ap- 
plication of  his  own  nomenclature:  his  notes,  moreover,  arecramme.) 
with  citations,  and  tediously  minute,  but  tiiey  abound  with  curioiis 
morsels  of  literary  history^  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  worit 
was  not  completed.  S.  Kngel,  Bibliotheca  Seltciisnma,  Bern,  8»o, 
1743;  T.  Sinceri,  Notiiia  historico-crUica  librorum  rariorum,  Frank- 
fort, 1753;  ISibliographie  Itistructive,  ou  Traite  di  la.  connaissanee 
dis  tivres  rarcs  et  sinyuliers,  by  \V.  F.  Do  Hure,  Paris,  1763-68,  7 
vols.  This  work  did  much  to  popularize  I'lMiogrupby  in  France. 
The  author  criticizes  parts  of  Cleriieut's  dictionary,  but  recognize* 
the  general  merit  of  that  work.  De  IJure  published  a  supplement 
in  1760,  containing  a  cat.'ilugiie  of  rare  and  curias  books  in  the 
library  of  Gaiguat,  Dicitonrtaire  typographique,  historique,  et 
critique,  des  tivres  rarcs,  e'.imf.t,  el  ruherches  en  totis  genres,  par 
J.  B.  L.  Osmont,  2  vols.  8vo,  i'aris,  1768.  This  work  contains  a 
fuller  account  of  Italian  books  l^an  the  preceding,  Diclionnair* 
bibliographique,  historique,  et  crUique,  des  livres  rares,  pricieui, 
singuliers,  etc.,  by  Andre  Charles  Catlleau,  3  vols.  8vo,  Paris,  1790. 
This  work  was  compiled,  according  to  M.  Barbier  and  othen*,  by 
the  Abb^  Duclos,  and  was  republished  in  ItiOO,  with  a  supple- 
mentary volume,  by  M.  Bninet.  Notes  are  ellixed  to  unpriced 
books,  stating  their  value.  Jiilttotfuxa  Librorum  rariorum  ifniver' 
salts,  by  Jo.  Jac.  Bauer,  7  vols.  8vo.,  1770-91.  i'eignot  in  his 
Itepcrtoire  des  Bibi  ographies  specialcs,  curicuses,  et  instructives\  8vo, 
Fans,  1310,  has  written  on  the  elumeuta  of  rarity,  and  the  dillereat 
classes  of  rare  books. 

^  IV.   The  Classics. 

Fortunately  for  the  preservation  of  ancient  literature, 
the  discovery  of  printing  coincided  very  closely  with  the 
full  development  of  that  zeal  for  classical  learning,  which 
had  begun  with  the  15th  century.*  To  Italy  belongs  the 
chief  glory  of  first  embodying,  in  an  imperishable  form, 
those  materials  which  the  industry  of  Poggio  and  others 
had  rescued  from  the  dust  of  monastic  libraries.  In  rapid 
succession  tho  first  editions  of  the  classics  issued  from 
Italian  presses ;  no  less  than  fifty  of  these  are  enumerated 
by  Panzer.  Apuleius,  Aulus  Gellius,  Ccesar,  Livy,  Lucan, 
Virgil,  and  portions  of  Cicero,  were  prioted  by  Sweynheim 
and  Pannartz  at  Romo  before  1470;  while  the  rival  pre-^s 
of   tho   Spiras   at   Venice  boasted   of   Plautua,    Tacitus, 

*  At  this  sale  the  Valdarfer  Boccafcio  of  1471  fell  to  the  Marr^iii 
of  Btaodford,  aft«r  a  spirited  competitioD  with  Earl  Spencer,  .t* 
£2260. 

■'  llalhm's  Lit.  of  Europe,  i.  140  ;  Roscoe'a  fjyrento  dt  Vniu-^ 


O-iG 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Priicuin,  SMiut,  Catullus,  TiluUus,  and  Propertivs.  From 
lirescia  came  Lucretius,  from  Vicenza,  Ciaudian  ;  Ferrara 
and  Naples  gave  birth  to  Martial  and  Seneca.  In  Ger- 
many, France,  and  the  Low  Countries,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  progress  at  first  was  slow.  Few  classics  were  printed 
out  of  Italy  before  HSO,  or,  indeed,  until  the  last  ten  years 
of  that  century.  The  De  Officiis  of  Cicero,  it  is  true, 
had  appeared  at  Mentz  in  h465, — the  first  portion  of  *ny 
classical  work  committed  to  the  press,  unless  precedence 
is  given  to  the  De  Oralore  of  Sweynheim  and  Pannartz 
at  Subiaco.  But  with  that  exception  the  first  impressions 
Df  Terence  and  Valerius  Maximus  at  Strasburg,  and  of 
3'xllust,  and,  perhaps,  Florus  at  Paris,  are  all  that  Cis- 
alpine presses  contributed  of  that  kind  within  the  period 
under  review.  The  first  appearance  of  Velleius  Pater- 
cuius  at  Basel  and  of  Anacreo7i  and  Menander  at  Paris 
■was  not  until  the  next  century  was  well  advanced.  In 
Spain  the  first  classical  book  was  a  Sallust  of  1475. 
In  Eng.and,  the  earliest  was  a  Terence,  printed  by  Pynson 
in  1497;  but,  besides  that,  Virgil,  Sallust,  and  Cicero's 
OJicei,  together  with  two  Greek  books,  were  the  only 
classics  published  down  to  1540.  A  complete  edition  of 
Cicero,  printed  in  1585  at  London,  was  the  chief  Latin 
work  up  to  that  date.  A  neat  edition  of  Homer's  Iliad 
appeared  in  1501,  and  the  first  impression  of  Herodotus  in 
this  country  came  out  in  the  same  year  at  Cambridge. 
Our  early  printers  were  co  tent  with  French  translations 
for  their  versions  and  abri  gments  ;  and  Gamn  Douglas, 
in  the  preface  to  his  trans,  on  of  Virgil,  records  his  indig- 
nation at  the  injustice  done  to  the  "divine  poet"  by  the 
secondhand  translation  of  Caxton. 

Most  of  the  Latin  classics  had  appeared  in  print  before 
tlio  art  was  employed  on  any  Greek  author.  This  was  due 
rather  to  the  want  of  adequate  editorship  than  to  any 
indifference  to  Greek  in  Italy;  for  the  taste  for  that' 
language  had  steadily  increased  since  the  arrival  of  tlie 
learned  Greeks  from  Constantinople,  and  the  want  of 
liiinted .editions  became  general  before  the  close  of  the  10th 
century.  To  Aldus  belongs  the  glory  of  ministering  to 
that  desire,  by  publishing,  in  quick  succession  and  with 
singular  beauty  and  correctness,  almost  all  the  principal 
a-itiiors  in  that  tongue.  Beginning  in  1494  with  Musoeus's 
Hero  and  Leander,  he  printed  before  15 IC,  the  year  of  his 
(lejth,  upwards  of  sixty  considerable  works  in  Greek  litera- 
tire.  The  list  includes  the  first  impressions  ol  Aristophanes, 
I firod/)tus,  T/ieocritus,  Soplmcles,  Tkucydides,  Euripides, 
Demosthenes,  Pindar,  and  Plato.  The  editio  princeps  of 
Aristotle  is  the  finest  of  his  productions.  Himself,  in 
e  -veral  cases,  editor  as  well  as  printer,  he  had  the  assist- 
aiico  of  the  most  lea.  i  scholars  of  the  day ;  and  the 
liindy  size  of  bis  octavos,  which  he  substituted  for  the 
injre  cumbrous  quartos  after  bis  removal  from  Venice, 
aid  id  to  the  pi)[)ularity  of  his  editions.  Within  two  years 
nfti  Aldus  commenced  his  labours,  Greek  printing  began 
.^t  r.orence  with  the  works  of  Callimachus,'  Apollonius 
Ilbodius,  and  Lucian  ;  at  PiOine,  however,  the,carhest  work 
was  the  Pindar  of  Calliergus  in  1515.'  At  Paris  the  first 
Greek  press  of  importance  was  established  in  1507  by 
Oourmunt,  but  the  days  of  its  chief  celebrity  date  from  his 
successors  Coliiics  and  Stci)hcns.  Aldus,  though  the 
most  prolific,  was  not  the  earliest  Greek  printer.  The  first 
entire  work  in  that  langu:ige  was  the  Grammar  of  Con- 
Btantine  Lascaris,  printed  by  Zarot  at  Milan  in  1176. 
Homer's  Dalrachomyomachia  was  the  earliest  printed 
Greek  classic ;   his  complete  works  first  appeared  in   the 


'  Tliis  fditic  princeps  is  amon^  the  scarcest  of  Greek  eapita]  leUcT 

^r-t'lucthiiu. 

'  Koscoe'M  /,«  X.,  li.  207-8.  Crtek  iype«.  according  to  ranker,  lia'I 
.Ir^t  beon  used  in  a  ticavise  of  Jcruinc.  pnntej  at  Home  tn  HG8  ;  aud 
it'.aclieJ  passages  are  foun;!  in  some  of  tlie  Crst  copies  of  Latiu  autliuis 


Florence  Homer  of  14SS,  a  volume  which.  Gibbon  observes. 
"dis;>lays  all  the  luxury  of  the  tj'pographical  art."  Beside? 
these  works,  the  Orations  of  Isocrates  had  appeared  in 
1493.  .Aldus  has  been  unduly  eulogized  by  his  biographer, 
M.  Renouard,'  who  has  represented  him  as  having  given 
an  entirely  new  direction  to  the  art  of  printing,  and  indeed 
to  the  literary  taste  of  Europe.  His  taste  for  Greek  he 
had  imbibed  from  the  age  :  he  saw  that  there  was  a  great 
and  growing  want  of  Greek  books,  and  his  peculiar  praise 
lies  in  this,  that  he  applied  himself  to  supply  it  with  much 
more  constancy  and  skill  and  with  much  more  learning 
than  any  other  printer  of  that  period.  His  preface  to 
Aristotle's  0;v7anon,  published. in  1595,  amply  recognizes 
the  demand  for  Greek  books.  "Those,"  he  says,  "who 
cultivate  letters  must  be  supplied  with  books  nectssary  for 
that  purpose ;  and  till  this  supply  is  obtained  I  shall  not 
be  at  rest."* 

The  absolute  rarity  of  the  first  editions  of  the  classics  it 
is  difficult  to  determine  with  precision.  They' have  been 
much  prized  by  collectors,  especially  during  last  century, 
though  their  price  has  fluctuated  considerably  at  different 
times.  The  date  of  some,  as  for  instance,  of  Juvaial,  Q. 
Cvrtius,  and  Horace,  is  conjectural ;  and  the  last-named 
is  one  of  four  classics. — Lucin,  Plutarch,  and  Florus  being 
the  other  three, — of  which  the  printer  is  unknown.  The 
Naples  edition  of  Horace  of  1474  is  called  by  Dibdin'tlie 
"  rarest  classical  volume  in  the  world,"  and  it  was  chiefly 
to  possess  this  book  that  Earl  Spencer  bought  the  famous 
library  of  the  duke  of  Cassano.  Of  the  first  edition  of 
Lucretius  only  two  copies  are  believed  to  exist ;  and  not 
one  in  its  integrity  of  Azzoguidi's  ediiio  pnnceps  of  0»id. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  several  ckissical  authors,  of 
whom  the  second  and  even  later  impressions  ore  far  the 
most  valuable  and  scarce.  The  intrinsic  merit  of  th« 
editiones  principes  of  the  classics  is  too  unequal  to  admit 
of  any  general  description.  Their  chief  value,  in  a  literary 
sense,  consists  in  the  security  afforded  by  printing  against 
the  further  progress  of  transcriptional  error ;  but  it  wtiuld 
be  a  great  mistake  to  imagine  that  the  text  was-  then  finally 
established.  Maittaire  gives  precedence  to  their  authority 
as  equivalent  to  that  of  the  M.SS.  from  which  they  wero 
taken,  but  the  question  obviously  turns  on  the  character  of 
those  MSS.  themselves.  Later  discoveries  and  the  progress 
of  critical  research  confirm  the  testimony  of  many  of  tlia 
first  editors,  in  their  prefaces,'  regarding  the  insufliciency 
and  mutilated  character  of  their  materials.  Thus  Gra;viu3 
observes  of  the  celebrated  edilio  princepi  of  Cicero's  He 
Ojiicits  by  Fust,  that  it  was  printed  from  a  very  inaccurate 
manuscript.  Schelhorn,  in  his  Amwnilates  Literarice, 
insists,  with  good  reason,  on  tho  want  of  collation  among 
the  first  editors.  Frequently  the  first  manuscript  that 
offered  itself  was  hastily  committed  to  the  press,  in  order 
to  lake  advantage  of  the  recent  discovery  ;  and  fragments 
of  different  manuscripts  were  patched  together  to  form 
Opera  Omnia  editions,  without  regard  to  the  relative 
authority  of  their  contents.  On  the  other  hand  there  are 
first  editions  which  represent  a  single  lost  archetype,  and 
whoso  value,  therefore,  cannot  be  exaggerated,  while  others 

»  Annalrs  de  t Imprimrrit  dcs  Ahits.  Pans,  1S25,  aniUliirJ  crtilioo 
in  1331.  ItcnouarJ  aftcrw.irjs  publislicil  a  similar  work  OD  tlie  family 
of  the  learned  printers,  Robcn  and  Henry  Stephcu.'i,  AniMles  dt 
i lm}rrimcru  des  £slicnn(s.  Pans.  lSii7,  2  vols.  Svo. 

'  The  preface  is  translated  in  Roscoe  s  Lea  X.,  i.  110. 

'  Tlio  bibliography  of  lirsl  editions  of  the  cLiasics  is  trcitcd  copiously 
by  tins  writer  in  bis  Jntroduclwu  to  the  Clussics,  his  JJilil.  i^jvnccnana, 
and  his  Catato(iue  of  the  Cassano  Collietion.  The  prices  of  viany 
valuable  first  editions  ai  a  sale  in  London  in  1821  are  given  at  the 
end  of  the  laitnicntioncd  work.  See  also  a  curious  chapter  on  "  Firct 
Editinns  "  in  Marchaud's  JItStoire  dt  i'lminmerit. 

'  These  prefaces  have  been  edited  by  Iiotflt:d,  with  on  introdutli -a 
of  soiuu  luenl. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


G.-)? 


represent  copies  of  undoubted  merit.  La  (./range  assures 
lis,  in  the  preface  to  liia  I'rench  translatiou  of  Senera,  that 
be  oever.  la  any  caaeof  diilicuJty,  consulted  the  first  edition 
of  1475,  without  CudJng  a  solution  of  bis  doubts.  The 
fact  is  that  each  edilio  pnnceps  must  be  judged  by  itself. 
It  is  to  such  scholars  aa  TuruebiLs,  Muretus,  and  Lipsius 
that  we  owe  a  juster  estimale  of  their  relative  value,  than 
prevailed  in  the  early  days  of  printing.  Victorius  has  been 
called  the  "  Sospitalor  Ciceronis  ,"  and  the  real  restorers 
of  Greek  learning  are  to  be  found  in  Scaliger,  Casaubon, 
Budaeus,  Camerarius,  and  Stephens.  The  t«lt  of  the 
classics  has  been  slowly  and  laboriously  constructed,  and  la 
•orno  cases,  as  with  Aristophanes,  Dion  Cassius,  and  Pliuy, 
oniong  others,  a  manuscript,  discovered  in  modern  times, 
has  superseded  entirely  the  authority  of  early  editions. 
This  branch  of  the  subject  is  fully  treated  in  an  article  in 
the  EdMurgh  Review  on  "  Classical  Manuscripts  and  First 
Editors  "  (Jan.  IS73). 

Sets  of  the  classics,  more  or  less  complete,  have  been 
published  at  different  times,  and  for  different  purposes. 
Among  the  earbest  and  most  important  are  the  Delplan 
editions,  prepared,  by  order  of  Louis  XIV.,  at  the  instance 
vi  the  duke  dc  Montausier,  for  the  u.so  of  the  Dauphin. 
The  duke  bad  been  in  the  habit  of  studying  the  classics  oa 
his  campaigns,  and  the  want  of  books  of  reference  appears 
to  have  suggested  to  him  the  idea  of  a  uniform  series  of  the 
principal  classics,  with  explanatory  notes  and  illustrative 
comments.  On  his  becoming  governor  to  the  Dauphin,  the 
^chcmo  was  carried  into  eiccution  ;  and  Uuct,  bishop  of 
Avranches,  a  preceptor  of  the  prince,  was  entrusted  with 
the  choice  of  authors  and  editors,  and  with  the  general 
supervision  of  the  series.  A  list  of  the  editors  is  given  by 
Baillot  in  his  Critiques  Grammairtens.  The  collection, 
which,  including  Danet's  Diclionary  of  Antiquities,  extends 
to  sixty-four  volumes  quarto,  is  of  very  unequal  merit  ; 
but  the  copious  verbal  indicss,  which  were  added  by  the 
direction  of  iluet,  afford  a  useful  means  of  reference  to 
particular  passages.  Only  Latin  classics,  however,  are 
included  in  the  series ;  and  "  it  is  remarkable,"  as  Dr 
Aikin  observes,'  "  that  Lucan  is  not  among  the  number 
Ho  was  too  tliuch  the  poet  of  bberty  to  suit  the  age  of 
Louis  XIV."  The  entire  collection,  enlarged  with  the  notes 
of  the  Yariorum  editions,  was  rcpublL^hed  in  1819-1830, 
by  A.  J.  Valpy,  forming  in  all  185  vols.,  8vo.  These 
VariMfxim  classics  number  upwards  of  400  volumes,  and 
■were  edited  in  the  course  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries 
A  complete  collection  is  very  rare  ;  Peignot  mentions  one 
belonging  to  M.  Mel  de  SaintrCeran,  which  was  sold  for 
3000  livres.  For  the  names  of  the  authors  and  com- 
mentators see  De  Bure's  Bihliorjrapkie,  vol  vii.  p  680,  and 
Osraont's  Diclionnaire,  vol.  ii  p.  411.  The  editions  most 
prized  by  collectors  aro  the  Elzevirs  and  the  Foulises  The 
Jilsei'irs,  or  properly  Elscviers,  were  a  family  of  famous 
printers  and  booksellers  at  Amsterdam,  no  fewer  than 
tifteen  of  whom  cirried  on  the  business  in  succession  from 
1580  to  1712.  Their  P/uiy  (1G35),  r,rr,a  (IC3G),  and 
Cicero  (1G42),  are  the  masterpieces  of  their  press  ;  the  last 
of  the  family  brouglitout  editions  in  12mo  and  IGmo.'  A 
full  list  of  their  imblications  is  given  in  Brunet's  Manufl, 
vo\\.,adfin.  The  Anuales  d<  I'/mprimerie  Elsevtrienve, 
by  Pieter,  1851  and  185S,  supei-sedcs  the  authority  of 
previous  works  on  that  subject,  and  contains  much  curious 
r'search  The  project  of  rcpnntinc;  the  Elzevir  editions, 
-which  originated  in  1743  with  the  Abbd  Lciiglet-Dufrcsnr.y, 
led  to  the  famous  Barbou  collection,  commenced  by  Cou- 
siclicr  and  continued  liy  Joseph  G.xsjiaid  CirlKiii,  one  of 
.'he  family  of  Paris  printers  and  booksellers  of  that  name, 

'  WilliiMil  i1ispar«(j)iii;  llie  ElieVirj,  il  mutt  be  rcnnii;tici«l  Ibat 
llij-r  ifxt»  were  mere  pc-imprfwions,  and  diJ  not  rest,  like  tho3o  of 
Mass  aud  the  StO|ihen3,  on  micieut  .M.S9t 


and  extending  finally  to  7G  volumes  in  12mo.  Lemairet 
liMiollieca  Ctassica  LcUina,  181y-26,  which  \\t\3  dedicated 
to  Loms  XVIII.,  is  one  of  the  best  collections  of  l.atio 
classics  which  exists  in  France,  although  the  hst  of  authors 
is  incomplete,  and  the  notes  far  too  voluminous.  The 
whole  series  extends  to  154  volumes  in  8vo.  The  editions 
of  Robert  and  Andrew  Fouks,  printers  at  Glasgow,  were 
the  finest  which  Britain  produced  during  the  1 8th  cen- 
tury. Their  c/ief  d'oeuvre  was  th»  Horace  of  1744,  each 
printed  sheet  of  which,  probably  after  the  example  of 
Robert  Stephens  at  Paris,  was  hung  up  m  the  coUcge  of 
Glasgow,  and  a  rewjird  offered  for  the  discovery  of  any 
error. 

Among  the  most  useful  bibliographical  nccounts  of  the  classics 
may  be  mentioned  the  foUowitig: — A  View  of  the  Vanoiu  EdiCioTuof 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Ctnssia,  with  Remarks,  by  Dr  Harnood, — this 
work,  first  pubUehcd  in  1776,  is  still  a  conveiiieiit  mauual  of  re- 
ference ;  Dcgli  Autori  Clasnci,  sacn  e  jrrofam,  Graex  et  Laiinx, 
BMictKa  pm-laiite,  2  vols.,  Venice,  1793,  a  conipilotion  ol  the 
Abbi  Boni  and  Bartholomew  Gamba,  and  containing  a  translation 
of  the  preceding  ;  Dibdin's  Jntroduelion  to  the  Knowledge  oj  Ran 
and  Valuablt  Editiana  of  the  Classia,  first  published  in  I6u2,  and 
greatly  enlarged  in  subsequent  editions,  containing  a  full  account 
of  Polyglot  Bibles,  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  editions  of  the  Scptua- 
gint  and  New  Testament,  and  of  lexicons  and  grammars ,  A 
Manual  of  Classical  Bibliography,  by  J  W  JIoss,  2  vols.,  162i. 
noticing  at  length  the  different  translations  of  the  classics,  the 
prices  obtained  for  the  rarer  editions  at  public  sales  being  also 
s|)ecifie<l;  A  View  of  the  English  Editions  and  Translatitms  of  Gretk 
and  Latin  Authors,  by  Brugemaun,  London,  1797;  Engelmann  a 
Ribliotheca  Sci-iptorum  Classicorum,  Leipsic,  1 84  7-53,  containing 
an  account  of  German  editions  between  1700  and  1852,  while  GreeK 
and  l..atin  clas.*;ics  printed  in  Germany  and  Fiance  are  noticed  in  the 
Repertoire  de  la  liueraturt  ancimne,  by  F.  Scholl,  Paris,  1808. 
Handbuch  der  Classisclfn  Litcratur,  by  G.  f).  Fuhrmann,  Halle, 
16.17-10,  6  vols.  8vo.  ,  Ilcbenstrcit's  Dtctionarium,  Vienna,  1828  , 
and  the  Uandtrwih  der  Classischeiu  Ribliographte,  Leipsic,  1830-34, 
— all  of  them  works  of  considerable  merit  The  improved  editions, 
byHarless  and  Eniesti,  of  the  Ribliotheca  Grau-a  and  Biilwlheea 
Latina  of  Fabncius  are  well  known  as  immense  magazines  o( 
cla.ssiral  lor^?,  but  they  extend  over  a  much  wider 'field  of  inquiry 
than  IS  embraced  by  bibliography. 

V.  Anonymous  and  Pseudonymous  Booh. 
Books  of  this  class  originate,  generally  speaking,  cither 
from  the  necessities  or  the  caprice  of  authorship.-  Their 
number,  however,  has  been  such  as  to  occupy,  at  an  early 
time,  the  attention  of  bibliographers.  In  1GG9  Frederick 
Geisler,  professor  of  public  law  at  Leipsic,  published  a 
dissertation,  De  Xomiuum  Mutatione,  which  he  reprinted 
in  IG71,  with  a  short  catalogue  of  anonymous  and  pseudo- 
nymous authors.  About  the  same  time,  a  similar  but 
more  extensive  work  had  been  undertaken  by  Vincent 
Placcius,  professor  of  morals  and  eloquence  at  Hamburg, 
which  was  [mblishcd  in  1674  with  the  title  Dt  Scnptn  et 
Sanptonbus  anonymis  atqve  pseudonymui  Syntayma,  in 
which  the  writer  invited  information  from  learned  men  u> 
Europe.  Four  years  later,  John  Decker,  a  German  lawyer, 
published  his  Conjectura:  de,  Smplis  adespotis,  pscudepi- 
r/ra/ihts,  <t  supposititiis,  which  was  republished  io  1C86, 
with  the  addition  of  two  letters  on  the  same  subject,  one 
by  Paul  Vindingius,  a  professor  at  Copenhagen,  and  the 
other  by  the  celebrated  Peter  Bayle  In  1689  appeared 
the  Centuria  plagianorum.  et  jisevdonymorum  of  John 
Albert  Fabncius,  as  well  as  a  letter  to  Placcius  from  John 
Mayer,  a  clergyman  of  Hamburg,  under  the  title — Disser- 
tatio  Epistoliea  ad  Plnccium,  qua  anonymorvmet pseudony- 
morum  farrago  ea/iibitur.  The  complete  fruits  of  Placcius'a 
researches  were  pubhshcd  after  his  death  in  a  folio  volume 
at  Hamburg  in  1708,  by  Matthew  Drcycr,  a  lawyer  of  that 
city.  The  work  was  now  entitled  Theatrum  Anotiymorum 
el  Pseudrmymorum  ;  and,  besides  an  Introduction  by  Dicyer 
and  a  Life  of  Placcius  by  Fabncius,  it   contains,  id  ao 

5  Baiilet,  in   his   JuQenfm-t   des  Sawins,  i.   1690,    notices  mtmu) 
motives  for  concealed  authorship. 

in  -  8t 


65b 


BIBLIOGRAPHl 


Appendix,  tlie  before-noticed  treatises  of  Geisler  and 
Decker  with  the  relative  letters  of  Vindingius  and  Bayle, 
and  the  Dissertation  of  Mayer.  This  elaborate  work  con- 
tains notices  of  six  thousand  books  or  authors ;  but  it  is 
ill-arranged  ana  frequently  inaccurate,  besides  being 
cumbered  with  citations  and  extracts,  equally  useless  and 
fatifruing 

The  subject  of  false  and  fanciful  names  attached  to  books 
had  been  undertaken  ia  France  by  Adrien  Baillet,  nearly 
about  the  same  period  that  Placcius  commenced  his 
inquiries.  In  1690  this  author  published  his  Auteurs 
Deguises  ;  but  this  is  little  more  than  an  introduction  to 
an  intended  catalogue  which  Baillet  never  completed, 
being  deterred,  as  Niceron  says,  by  the  fear  lest  the  expo- 
sura  of  concealed  authors  should  in  some  way  or  other 
involve  him  in  trouble  In  this  piece,  which  was  reprinted 
in  the  sixth  volume  of  De  La  Monnoye's  edition  of  BaUlol's 
Juge-meiis  des  SavaM,  there  are  some  curious  literary 
anecdotes,  especially  with  reference  to  the  passion  which 
prevailed  after  the  revival  of  letters  for  assuming  classi- 
cal names.  In  Italy  these  names  were  so  generally 
introduced  into  families,  that  the  names  of  the  saints, 
hitherto  the  common  appellatives,  almost  disappeared  from 
that  country.  A  similar  rage  for  assuming  the  names  ot 
celebrated  authors  was  common  among  French  writers  in 
the  18th  century. 

The  taste  for  this  kind  of  research,  which  tiie  work  of 
Placcius  had  diffused  in  Germany,  produced  several  supple- 
ments to  it  in  that  country  In  the  De  Libris  anonymis 
et  pseudonymis  Schediasnia,  published  by  Christopher 
Augustus  Neumann  in  1711,  there  is  a  dissertation  on  the 
question.  Whether  it  is  lawful  for  an  author  either  to 
withhold  or  disguise  his  namel  which  question  he  decides 
in  the  afBrmative  But  the  most  considerable  of  these  sup- 
plements was  that  published  in  1740  by  John  Christopher 
Mylius,  librarian  at  Hamburg.  It  contains  a  reprint  of 
the  Schediasma  of  Neumann,  with  remarks,  and  a  list  of 
3200  authors,  in  addition  to  those  noticed  by  Placcius. 
The  notices  of  Mylius,  however,  are  Limited  to  books  in 
Latin,  French,  and  German.  The  younger  De  Bure 
occupied  himself  partially  with  these  researches :  his 
omissions  were  supplied  by  M.  N(5e  de  la  Rochelle  in  his 
Table  destinh  ct  la  Recherche  de)  Livres  anonyynes  qui  ont  He 
annonch  dans  la  Blbliographie  Instructive,  Pans,  1782. 
The  names  of  several  anonymous  writers  were  discovered 
by  Rollin  in  his  TraitS  des  Eludes,  byjordaa  in  his  Histoire 
d'un  voyage  lilteraire  Jail  ere-17S3;  and  by  Eayle  in  his 
Rcponse  aiuc  Questions  d'un  provincial.  In  1758  the  Abb(5 
de  la  Porte  published  his  France  htteraire}  which  was 
republished  with  large  additions  in  1769  by  the  Abb6  da 
HebraLL  Both  editions  contain  numerous  errors,  many  .of 
which,  unfortunately,  were  reproduced  by  Ersch,  hbrarian 
of  the  university  at  Jena,  jn  his  enlarged  pubhcation  of 
1797-1806,  a  work  in  other  respects  of  solid  merit  and 
utiUty.  The  Dictionnaire  des  Anonymcs  of  the  Ahhi 
Duclos  is  serviceable  but  incomplete  ;  it  has  been  abridged 
by  Fournier  in  his  Dictionnaire  portatif  de  DiUiographie, 
Paris,  180.'). 

Among  later  authorities  may  be  mentioned  Weller's 
Maskirte  Literaiur  der  dlteren  und  neuercn  Sprachen, 
Leipsic,  1858,  and  Die  falschen  und  fingirten  Druckorte, 
■1858, -and  the  Dictionnaire  des  Pseudonymes,  by  O.  Heilly, 
1809,  Conspicuous  in  merit  is  the  Dictwnnair'e  des 
Omrrages  Anonymes  et  Pseudonymes,  by  M.  Barbier,  librariiin 
to  Napoleon  I.,  the  last  edition  of  which  is  as  recent  as 
1872.  It  comprises  a  vast  number'of  articles,  but  the  [ilan 
does   not  extend   to    foreign    productions,   except    those 

'  Quirard's  France  r.Miraire,  Paris,  1846,  contains  t  cnoious  list 
ot  (octa  works  fmrn  170"  'o  384fi. 


which  have  been  traLilated  into  French.  His  labours  have 
been  supplemented  and  impro\ed  upon  by  De  Manne,  in 
his  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  of  1868,  and  by  Qui^rard  in  his 
Supercheries  litteraires  devoilees  18-17-53.  The  list  of 
anonymous  writers  in  France  includes  Pascal,  La  Roche- 
foucauld, and  Cardinal  Richelieu.  The  authorship  of 
Montesquieu's  Esprit  des  Lois  was  disguised,  on  its 
appearance  in  1748,  as  was  the  Antirilackiavel,  written  by 
Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  and  published  by  Voltaire,  who 
himself  wrote  several  works  anonymously.  For  Italian 
literature  there  are  Vine.  Lancetti's  Pseudonima,  published 
at  Milan  in  1836;  and  Melzi's  Diiionario  di  Opere 
Anonime-ePseudonime  diScrittori  /to/iaret, Milan,  1848-59.* 
In  England  the  practice  of  anonymous  writing,  in  spite  <'f 
the  example  of  journalism,  has  never  largely  prevailed  ; 
but  the  Letters  of  Junius  are  a  conspicuous  example  of 
authorship  successfully  concealed.  The  Ecce  Homo  la  a 
recent  instance  among  the  works  of  current  celebrity.  The 
Handbook  of  Fictitious  Names,  by  Olphar  Hanist,  London, 
1868,  is  a  useful  and  amusing  guide,  especially  to  English 
authors  of  the  hghter  literature  of  this  century.  Works  of 
this  class,  however,  are  most  applicable  to  countries  in 
which  the  liberty  of  the  press  has  been  most  restricted. 

VI.   Condemned  and  Prohibited  Books.  . 

Books  supposed  hurtful  to  the  interests  of  government, 
religion,  or  morality  have  been  sometimes  condemned  to 
the  flames,  sometimes  censured  by  particular  tribunals,  and 
sometimes  suppressed.  Such  methods  of  destruction  have 
been  followed  in  various  countries,  with  regard  both  to 
their  own  and  to  foreign  productions ;  and  lists  have  beeu 
published  from  time  to  time  of  the  works  so  .interdicted. 

Heathen  antiquity  supplies  some  instances  of  the  burning 
of  obnoxious  books,  such  as  the  reported  destruction  of  the 
works  of  Protagoras  at  Athens,  and  of  astrological  works, 
as  well  as  the  writings  of  Labieuus,  by  Augustus  at  Rome. 
Some  Greek  works,  alleged  to  have  been  found  in  the  tomb 
of  Numa  in  181  B.C.,  and  ascribed  to  him,  were  burnt  by 
order  of  the  Senate  ;  the  story  of  their  discovery,  however, 
is  a  mere  fabrication.  Tacitus  mentions  a  History  by 
Cremutlus  Cordus,  which  the  Senate,  to  flatter  Tiberius, 
condemned,  because  it  designated  C.  Cassius  the  last  of 
the  Romans.'  Diocletian,  according  to  Eusebius,  caused 
the  Scriptures  to  be  burnt,  but  the  early  Christian  Church 
was  not  slow  in  following  the  example  of  intolerance,  and 
the  charge  of  heresy  was  a  ready  instrument  for  putting 
down  works  alleged  to  be  injurious  to  the  faith.  The  first 
recorded  instance  is  that  of  Anus,  whose  vn'itings  were 
condemned  to  the  flames  at  the  Council  of  Nicjra,  Constan- 
tine  himself  threatening  with  death  those  who  should 
harbour  any  copies.  The  same  fate  befell  the  works  of 
Nestonus  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  and  those  of  Eutyches 
atChalcedon.  Pagan  works  were  prohibited  at  the  Council 
of  Carthage  in  400.  Aristotle  was  forbidden  by  the 
church  in  the  13th  century,  but  the  restriction  was  i-clased 
in  favour  of  the  universities  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.  A  list 
of  prohibited  books  is  found  in  a  decree  of  a  council  at 
Rome  as  early  as  494.'  But  the  chief  rigours  of  persecu- 
tion began  %vith  the  Inquisition,  and  the  crusade  against 
literature  increased  in  severity  with  the  multiplication  of 
books  through  the  press.  In  1515  the  Council  of  Laternn 
at  Ftome  appointed  clerical  censors  to  examine  all  works 
before  publication,  as  if,  to  use  Milton's  indignant  remon- 
strance, "  St  Peter  had  bequeathed  to  them  the  keys  of  the 


*  Soo  Petztioldt's  chapter  on  "Maskirte  Literaiur,"  in  liis  fi^/ioMwa 
Biiilio'jraphica. 

^  S'-.c  the  chaptei"  on  "Book-Censors".)"  Bpi-i'rBnL  ^  Hittory  qf 
inventions. 

«  Lahbc'"  Cone.  u.   ~H  OfH-Qi  • 


B  I  B  L  I  0  G  Tx  A  P  II  Y 


659 


press  as  well  as  of  Paradise."'  In  1543  Caraffa  issued  an 
order  that  no  book  should  bo  printed  without  leave  from 
the  Inquisition,  aud  booksellers  were,  accordingly,  required 
to  send  in  catalogues.  Brunet  mentions,  however,  a  list  of 
prohibited  authors,  prepared  by  order  of  Charles  V.,  which 
was  printed  at  Brujiseb  in  1540,  and  is  the  earliest  of  its 
kind.  An  Index  gmeralis  scriptorum  intcrdtctorum  was 
published  by  the  Inquisition  at  Venice  in  1543,  and  similar 
catalogues  followed  from  the  universities  of  Paris  and 
Louvain.  The  first  Index  of  the  Court  of  Rome  appeared 
ia  1558.  and  was  reprinted  in  1559.  The  subject  was 
discussed  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  who  delegated  the  nght 
of  supervision  to  the  Pope,  and  the  result  was  the  Index 
TridcrUinus  of  Pius  IV., — tha  first  strirtly  Papal  Index, — 
which  was  printed  by  Aldus  at  Homo  in  1564.  Thence 
began  a  long  series  of  literary  proscriptions,  which  was 
continued  by  the  Congregation  of  the  Index,*  and  of  which 
one  of  the  immediate  etfects  was  to  drive  printing  to 
Switzerland  and  Germany.  The  right  of  dictating  what 
books  should  or  should  not  be  read  was  a  consequence  of 
the  claims  of  the  Papacy  over  the  conscience  and  morals 
of  mankind ;  and  the  vitality  of  persecution  has  been 
oreserved  within  the  Romish  Church  by  the  consistent 
exorcise  of  such  pretensions.  The  bibliography  of  these 
Expurgatory  Indexes  has  been  copiously  treated.'  Among 
the  earlier  victims  were  Galileo  and  Copernicus;  and 
English  literature  is  represented  by  such  names  as  Gibbon, 
Robertson,  B  'on,  Hallam,  Milton,  Locke,  Whately,  and  J. 
Stuart  Mill  ^n  Spain  the  power  of  the  Inquisition, 
provoked  by  tl  '  invasion  of  Lutheranism,  was  wielded  by 
Fernando  de  V  ides,  whose  catalogue  of  1559  formed  the 
model  of  that  sued  by  Pius  IV.  in  the  same  year.  An 
edict  of  Philip  II.  was  published  at  Antwerp  in  1570,  and 
a  general  Index  of  all  books  suppressed  by  royal  authority 
appeared  at  Madrid  in  1790.  It  is  noticeable  that  Smith's 
Wealth,  of  Natirjna  has  been  proscribed  in  that  country, 
"  on  account  of  the  lowness  of  its  style  and  the  looseness 
of  its  morala"  A  list  of  books  suppressed  in  France 
between  1814  and  1850  has  been  edited  by  Pillet.  For 
the  more  general  notices  of  prohibited  literature,  we  refer 
our  readers  to  Klotz's  De  Librii  auctorihus  suu  fatatihus, 
1761  ;  to  Stnivius's  Bibliot/uca  IlitL  Litter,  vol.  iii.  c.  9  ; 
Vj  the  Dissertations  in  the  seventh  volume  of  Schelhom's 
AiTioenitatea  lAterarice,  which  contain  much  curious  infor- 
mation ;  to  Brunet's  Livree  Svpprimes  et  Condamnia ;  and 
to  Peignot's  Dictionnairt  Critique  et  Bibliographique  des 
prineipavx  Livres  ccmdamnes  au  feu,  supprimis,  ou  censures, 
2  vols.,  Paris,  1806.  This  ast  work  is  agreeably  written, 
and  gives  a  copious  list  of  authorities  on  the  subject ;  but 
its  enumeration  of  principal  works  is  far  from  complete, 
and  comparatively  few  English  books  are  mentioned. 

A  comprehensive  account  of  works  condemned  or  sup- 
pressed in  England  has  yet  to  be  written,  but  an  article 
in  the  Edinburgh  Review*  supplies  some  interesting 
materials  on  this  subject.  Peacock's  Precursor,  which  the 
author  burnt  with  his  own  hand,  is  an  early  instance, 
before  the  invention  of  printing.  The  "  war  against 
books,"'  however,  began  under  Henry  VIII.,  the  sudden- 


'  lAberty  of  CnHeerued  Printing. 

*  A  complete  list  of  their  utaloguea  ii  given  m  Petiholdt's  BibL 
Dibliogr.,  "  Verbotene  Literatur.'* 

'  See  thfl  Index  Lxbrorum  prohihitorum  a  Pontificis  av£toritate,  in 
■uum  DMiolhtca  BodUiana,  by  Tho.  James,  1627  ;  Francus,  De 
PapUlarum  Indicitnu,  Leipsic,  1684;  Tlusaunu  /liblwgraphicui  ez 
Indicibuj  LUrrorum  prohibitorum  umgejlxu,  Dreadoo,  1743.  Caroot, 
Id  1826,  published  a  complete  list  of  all  booka  condemned  by  the  court 
of  Rome  from  the  dato  of  printing  to  1825,  with  the  dates  and  decrees 
of  thetr  condemnation.  The  be^t  known,  tbongh  not  the  latest,  edition 
tf  the  Indtzvhs  Issued  by  Piu.i  VU.  in  1819. 

•  "Suppreased  and  Ceniural  Booki'vol.  cmxiv.  July  1871. 

'  Sm  the  final  chaptat  tn  Duraoli'a  Amcnitfj'  of  Lucralure.      A 


ness  of  wiiose  brcich  with  Rome  is  snown  by  the  circum- 
stance that,  whereas  in  152G  anti-popery  books  were  con- 
demned as  heretical,  in  1535  all  books  favouring  popery 
were  decreed  to  be  seditious.  Several  of  the  early  trans- 
lations of  the  Biblo  were  suppressed, — Tyndal's  version 
among  others.  As  many  copies  of  that  work -83  the 
superior  clergy  could  buy  up,  were  publicly  burnt  at  St 
Pavil's  on  Shrove  Tuesday,  1527,  Fisher,  bishop  of  Rochester, 
preaching  a  sermon  on  the  occasion.  An  edition  of  the! 
Bible  was  suppressed  for  a  misprint,  the  printer  having 
omitted  the  word  "  not "  in  the  seventh  commandment, 
but  a  copy  survives  in  the  Bodleian.  A  general  burning 
of  unlicensed  books  was  ordered  by  the  king  in  1530,  the 
Supplication  of  Beggars,  a  well-known  invective  against 
Wolsey,  being  included  in  the  list.  Another  cataloguo 
was  issued  in  1546  by  proclamation,  and  the  Act  3  and  i 
Edward  VI.  made  a  raid  against  missa'.s  and  books  of 
devotion  The  regulations  of  the  Star  Chamber  in  1585 
claimed  the  power  of  licensing  and  seizing  books,  and  their 
scrutiny  was  as  rigorous  as  that  of  the  Inquisition.  Never- 
theless the  reign  of  Elizabeth  was  fruitful  in  "schismatic 
and  libellous  tracts."'  A  notable  offender  was  Cardinal 
Allen's  Admonition,  containing  a  furious  attack  on  the 
queen,  of  which  a  copy  remains  in  the  British  Museum ; 
and  the  famous  .Martin-Marprelate  tracts  raised  a  storm  of 
opposition.  In  1 607  DrCowell's /.aw /)lWlo;^ar3/ was  burnt 
by  order  of  the  House  of  Commons,  for  its  assertions  of 
divine  right  in  favour  of  James  L  ;  and  tho  King's  Book 
of  Sports  incurred  the  same  fate  at  the  hands  of  the  Puritans 
in  1644.  The  persecutions  of  the  Star  Chamber  include  the 
punishment  of  Prynne  for  his  Uistriomastix,  and  the  still 
more  barbarous  mutilation  of  Dr  Alexander  Leighton  for 
his  two  works,  The  Looking  Glass  of  the  Holy  War,  1624, 
and  Zion's  Plea  against  the  Prelacy,  1628.  Milton's 
Eocoi'o/cAaa-TTj?  and  the  Defensio  pro  Populo  A  nglicano  were 
suppressed  after  the  Restoration.  Defoe's  Shortest  Way 
with  the  Dissenters  was  burnt  by  Parliament  in  1703;  and 
sixty  years  later  Wilkes's  North  Briton  incurred  the  same 
fate.  The  last  instance  of  authorized  book-burning  in 
Great  Britain  was  in  1779,  when  the  Commercial  Restraints 
of  Ireland  considered,  by  the  Hon.  Hely  HutchinsoD,  was 
given  to  the  flames. 

This  branch  of  bibliography _ha3  a  peculiar  interest  to 
the  literary  historian.  It  serves  to  indicate,  for  the  most 
part,  periods  of  political  excitement  or  religious  intolerance. 
Fortunately,  however,  tho  efiicacy  of  persecution  has  been 
frustrated  by  the  disseminating  power  of  the  press.  Punitis 
ingeniis,  gliscit  auctoritas,  is  the  reflection  of  Tacitus ;  and 
experience  has  abundantly  proved  that  it  is  easier  to 
destroy  an  author  than  his  book.  Melancholy  as  are  the 
records  of  literary  martyrdom,  there  remains  this  satisfac- 
tion that,  in  the  main,  the  policy  of  oppression  has  defeated 
its  own  ends. 

VII.  Catalogues  and  Bibliographical  Dictionariet. 

Tho  first  catalogues,  after  tho  invention  of  printing,  were 
those  of  tho  early  printers,  who,  as  booksellers,  published 
sale-lists  of  their  works,  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
learned.  The  most  ancient  of  these  catalogi  officinales — 
the  humble  predecessors  of  Bohn's  gigantic  catalogue — is  a 
simple  leaf,  entitled  Librt  Gran  impresti,  printed  by 
Aldus  in  1498.  The  list  consists  of  fourteen  articles, 
distributed    into   five   classes,  —  grammar,    poetry,    logic, 

cunou.i  list  of   Lutheran  worki  prohibited  In  England  U  given    in 
Strype's  Eccl.  Memorials,  i   165 

*  The  registers  of  the  Stationers'  Company  contain  entries  of  bocUa 
oniered  for  "  immediate  condagration"  In  1599.  Sec  Sotesand  ^^m<'s^ 
3d  it.nea,  xii.  436.  Volume  li.  of  Wged'*  Athen.  Oxon.  waa  burr.t  at 
Oxford  in  169.')  by  the  ajiparitor  of  the  uslvenlty,  for  iome  alJege4 
rellections  on  *be  memor?  of  Lord  Clarendon. 


CGO 


B  I  B  L  I  0  G  K  A  P  H  Y 


philosophy,  and  theology,  and  may  be  reg-irdtd  m  one  of 
tha  first  attempts  to  apply  a  system  of  classification  to 
printed  books.  Its  interest  is  enhanced  by  its  containing 
the  price  of  the  booka  advertised  for  sale.  The  increasing 
coff'merce  in  literature  was  at  once  a  cause  and  a  conse- 
quence of  similar  catalogues  ,  and  the  example  of  Aldus 
was  followed  by  the  Stephens,  and  by  Colines,  Wechell,  and 
Vascosan,  and  other  French  printers  of  the  first  half  of  the 
1  6th  century,  whose  lists  are  given  in  vols.  li.  and  iii.  of 
Maittaire's  AnnaUs  Typographici,  the  divisions  of  subjects 
increasing  with  the  spread  of  printed  literature.  In 
England  the  earliest  known  sale-list  of  printed  books  was 
published  by  Andrew  Maunsell,  a  London  bookseller,  m 
K'Do,  and  contains  the  titles  of  many  works  now  lost  or 
forgotten.  In  ISS-t  or  15C4  '  appeared  the  first  printed 
catalogue  of  the  Frankfort  book-fair,  published  by  George 
Weller,  a  bookseller  at  Augsburg,  and  in  1C04  it  was 
followed  by  the  general  Easter  catalogue,  printed  by  per- 
mission of  the  Government.  These  catalogues  of  the 
different  book-fairs  were  collected  together  in  1592  by  Cless 
•^whose  researches  included  all  books  printed  since  1500 
— and  by  Draudiua  in  his  Bibliotheca  Classica  (1611). 
The  same  has  been  done  by  Georgi  in  his  Ducker  Lexicon 
(1758),  a  catalogue  of  all  works  printed  in  Europe  up  to 
1750. 

The  growth  of  the  book-trade  naturally  promoted  the 
spread  of  collections,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  17th, 
and  especially  during  the  18th  century,  book-catalogues  of 
every  description  multiplied  rapidly.  Their  progress  is 
copiously  treated  of-  in  Nichols's  Literary  Anecdotes,  vol. 
iii.  pp.  608-693.^  Most  private  collections,  at  first,  appear 
to  have  been  bought  and  sold  en  bloc  i  and  it  was  through 
the  catalogues,  compiled  in  many  instances  by  learned  and 
well-qualified  librarians,  that  a  more  critical  and  discriminat- 
ing estimate  of  their  contents  was  formed.  P.  Garnier  in 
167S  prepared  an  excellent  catalogue  of  the  library  of  the 
Jesuit  College  de  Clermont  at  Paris,  using  the  materiab, 
like  other  brbliographers  after  him,  for  a  classified  system 
of  his  o^TL  Dr  Johnson  and  Oldys  were  the  joint  editors 
of  the  £ibliotheca  Uarlnana,  which  they  prepared  for 
Osborne  the  bookseller,  who  bought  the  library  of  the  earl 
of  Oxford  ,  and  Maittaire  drew  the  scheme  of  arrangement. 
The  earliest  catalogues  of  public  libraries  were  simple 
inventories,  disposed  in  alphabetical  order,  with,  at  most, 
a  few  biographical  notices  interspersed  ;  yet  they  paved  the 
way,  in  the  hands  of  Conrad  Gesner,  for  the  study  of 
"  pure"  bibliography.  The  compilation  of  catalogues 
raisonnes  was  deferred  till  the  18th  century,  when  the 
labours  of  French  librarians  or  booksellers,  such  as  Piget, 
Prosper  Marchand,  Martin,  Barrois,  Baillet,  and  the  De 
Bures,  created  by  that  means  a  public  taste  for  books.  The 
greatest  work  W  this  kind  was  the  French  BMiotheqve 
lioyalt,  begun  in  1739,  and  Cm-shed  in  10  vols,  in  1753. 
Part  i.,  relating  to  printed  books,  was  superintended  by  the 
Abb^s  Sallier  and  Boudot.  In  a  perfect  catalogue  raisonne 
alphabetical  arrangement  is  dispensed  with  ,  every  work 
occupies  its  proper  place  in  regard  to  the  light  it  throws  on 
the  subject  treated,  and  the  ground  traversed  by  the  author. 
"  Catalogues  of  this  sort,"  says  Dibdin,  "  are  to  biblio- 
praphers  what  repoits  are  to  lawyers,"  and  Maittaire  terms 
them  "  proces-vcrbaux  littdraireSj  servant  k  decider  une 
infinili  de  questions  qui  sY-levent  sur  la  bibliologie."  The 
consolidation  of  tiicse  detached  catalogues  was  a  conse- 
quence of  the  increased  requirements  of  learning,  and  the 
BihtiotlieciT,  or  registers  of  particular  libraries,  supplied  the 

*  liO  Miro  .(Mir.T^iisl.  M  fluoteil  ijy  Faliricius,  eay8  1554;  Lnbbe, 
Roiminn,  and  Hcutuann,  quoting  frum  tlie  5.imc  source,  soy  15G4. 

•  Spo  also  Clfllcau's  l/ict.  /libho^wjihiqne:  ;  Dibdin's  Jiil/iwrnania, 
85-193,  vnirs  :  ami  the  "Catjogue  doa  liibliothiques  Particulierea  " 
•<,tliO(^id  of  IIMiog.  Universe!'-  (Ma-ucls-Uorel),  I'an.s  1867. 


first  materials  fur  a  general  dicluniiry  of  reference.  BiMio- 
graphy,  thus  represented,  is  the  cudex  dipUmuiticus  or 
literary  history,  with  a  field  of  research  co-extensive  with 
the  innummerable  productions  of  the  press.  But  a  uni- 
versal dictionary  of  this  kind  is  but  a  dream  of  biblio- 
graphers; nor  would  any  single  compiler  be  equal  to  the 
task.  The  Bibliotheca  Universalis  of  Gesner  in  1545  is  the 
earliest  and  almost  the  only  effort  of  this  nature.  His  work 
professed  to  include  the  titles  of  all  known  books,  existing 
or  lost,  but  he  confined  himself  to  those  in  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Latin.  The  first  volume  is  clas.sed  alphabetically, 
according  to  the  authors'  names  ;  the  second  contains  a 
distribution  of  subjects,  and  is  divided  into  nineteen  books 
Balthazar  Ostern,  in  1625,  published  a  BMiotheque 
Unvverselle,  or  catalogue  of  printed  books  from  1500  tu 
1624.  A  general  survey  of  printed  literature  might  be 
made  to  the  end  of  the  ICth  century;  but  the  idea  is  now 
wholly  chimerical,  since  the  number  of  books  surpasses  all 
human  calculation.  The  BibUolfteca  Britannica,  vi  O'enanl 
Index  of  Briti»h  and  Foreign  Literature,  by  Dr  Watt  of 
Glasgow,  published  in  1824,  4  vols.,  is  perhaps  the  nearest 
modern  exposition  of  Gesner's  idea.  All  so-called  general 
dictionaries  are,  in  fact,  written  on  a  selective  principle  of 
some  kind,  the  only  means,  as  Baron  de  KeifTenberg 
remarks,  of  achieving  utility  and  completeness.  Ersch,  tho 
founder  of  modern  bibliography  in  Germany,  published  his 
Allgemeines  liepertorium  der  Literatur  in  1793-1809, 
but  the  first  really  comprehensive  work  in  that  country 
was  Ebert's  Allgemeines  Btbliograpkisc/tes  Lexicon,  Leipsic, 
1821-1830,  an  English  translation  of  which  was  printed 
at  Oxford  in  1837,  4  vols.  8vo.  Kaiser's  rollstandige) 
Biickerlexicon,  and  Ueinsius's  Allgemeines  Bucherlextcun, 
with  the  continuation  by  Schultz,  are  useful  works  of 
reference;  but  their  contents,  as  might  be  expected,  are  far 
from  justifymg  the  epithet  of  universal.  Osmont,  CaiUeau, 
and  other  French  compilers  on  a  large  scale,  limited  their 
notices  to  rare  and  remarkable  books  ;  and  De  Bure  lu 
his  Bibliographie  Instructive  only  included  productions  oC 
inferior  repute,  because  his  original  materials  were  too  scanty 
to  illustrate  all  the  divisions  of  a  complete  system  anc 
comprise  what  he  termed  a  "  Corps  de  Bibliographio 
choisie."  Brunei's  Manuel  du  Libraire  was  the  first  work 
which  embraced  in  alphabetical  order  what  was  most 
precious  in  the  literature  of  all  times  and  nations.  It  was 
first  published  in  three  volumes,  8vo,  id  1810,  and  has 
since  passed  through  several  editicns.  It  is  far  richer  in 
English  and  German  books  than  any  of  the  preceding 
compilations,  and  its  plan  is  such  as  to  afioid  all  the 
advantages  both  of  a  dictionary  and  a  classed  catalogue. 
As  apractical  work  of  reference,  whether  to  the  bibliographer 
or  the  student,  it  is  the  most  complete  dictionary  jet 
published  on  a  scale  so  comprehensive.  The  Bibliograplue 
Universelle  (Manuels-Roret),  Paris,  1 857  contains  a  copious 
list  of  the  leading  works  on  the  diflcrent  subjects  of  learn- 
ing, which  are  arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  and  a  succinct 
summary  of  the  principal  editions  of  an  author's  work, 
including  the  ancient  classics.  Among  works  avowedly 
devoted  to  special  bibliography,  some  are  limited  to  the 
productions  of  certain  epochs.  The  first  century  of  printing 
has  been  an  attractive  subject  of  researi'h,  as  has  been 
noticed  above  in  tho  chapter  on  early  printed  books.  The 
Bibliographie  de  la  France  was  the  first  trastworthy  com- 
pilation of  annual  literature  in  that  country.  Of  more 
immediate  value  for  purely  literary  purposes  arc  those 
dictionaries  or  catalogues  which  are  restricted  to  particular 
branches  of  knowledge;  and  they  have  the  advantage  of 
being  able  to  ensure  greater  fulness  and  accuracy,  from 
tho  limited  scope  of  their  contents,  than  is  available  in  a 
work  professedly  general  "Through  the  want, of  such," 
said  Oldvs.  "  how  many  author?  have  wc  whooreconsuniinn 


B  I  B  L  1  (J  <..    K   A   r  II   \ 


661 


their  time,  their  ijuiet,  and  their  wits,  in  searching  (or  either 
what  IS  post  finding,  or  already  found  "  A  catalogue,  in 
short,  might  be  made  of  superQuous  writings  by  authors 
who  have  dug  m  mines  of  Utenturo  already  exhausted. 
The  tendency,  however,  of  modern  bibliography  is  fortunately 
to  subdivide  the  field  of  literature,  and  the  student  of  any 
special  department  of  learning  need  be  at  no  loss  for 
authorities  to  consult.  Bale's ///ajtrium  Majoris  Brttannice 
Scnptorum Summanum  {\io8).  John  Pits's  De  icadrmvns 
tt  Illustnbus  AHgli<e  Scnptoribus  (1019),  Bu^hop  Tanners 
Bihhothtca  Bntaimico-Hibfrnica  (l"48j.  and  Nicolsons 
UiJloruat  Ltbrants.  4to,  1776.  are  the  earlie-st  catalogues, 
on  a  large  scale,  of  our  national  literature  A  list  of  Saxon 
writers,  by  Wanley.  forms  the  second  volume  of  Htckess 
Tliesaurui  A  Cmltcal  DiCtmnary  of  English  Ltlerature 
and  British  and  American  Aullwrt.  by  S  A.  .Mlibone.  3 
»ols .  18J9-1S72.  is  an  industrious  work  The  BMto- 
irapKer'i  Manual  if  Entflish  Literature,  by  W  T.  Lowndes, 
IS  indispensable  to  the  collector  ,  and  for  a  first  attempt  of 
the  kind,  displays  a  singular  degree  of  accuracy  and 
research  His  Bntuh  Librarian,  or  Bonk  Collector's  G-uide, 
1839,  purported  to  give  a  classed  catalogue  of  books  on 
English  literature  printed  in  Great  Britain  ,  he  lived, 
however  to  complete  only  six  numbers  of  the  division — 
liflicrion  and  us  Uistory  Dr  Adam  Clarke's  Bibliographical 
Dictionary.  6  vols  1803.  is  restricted  to  works  in  the 
learned  and  Eastern  languages  .  his  Bibliographical 
i/iscetlany.  published  in  1806  as  a  supplement,  contains, 
among  other  matter,  a  full  account  of  the  English  transla- 
tions of  the  classics  To  foreign  literature  belong,  among 
others,  QuCrard  s  La  France  Litttrairr.  and  the  Bibtiothcque 
Histonquf  of  Le  Lons  .  the  BMiotheca  Belgica  of  J  F 
Foppens,  2  vols,  1739.  Btbholhcca  Hispana,  Noia 
rt  Vetus.  by  Kichnlas  Antonio,  1783-88,  Hayms 
Biblioteca  Italiana  .  Worm  s  Danskf.  I^'orske.  og  IsLandske 
Lardt  LejTKon.  1771-84.  Nyerup  and  Krafts  Almindcligt 
Litteratar  Lexicon.  2  vols.  1820.  Georgi  s  AUgemewifS 
Europaisches  Buchcr- Lexicon.  1742-58,  and  others  which 
space  forbids  us  to  enumerate 

The  works  devoted  to  special  branches  of  knowlcdga  form 
1  host  in  themselves,  and  we  can  only  mention  a  tew  of 
them,  by  way  of  illustration.  To  theology  belong  such  works 
as  Le  Long's  BMiotheca  Sacra,  1723  and  the  BMiotheca 
Theologia  Selects,  by  Walchius,  1757,  as  well  as  his 
BiblMheca  Patrutica.  new  edition,  1S34.  Judaicliteratiire 
.•9  represented  by  Furst.  and  Hebrew  writers  by  VV'olfius. 
1715-33  Liponius.  a  learned  German  divine  of  the  17th 
century,  devoted  separate  BMioiheccr  to  theology,  law, 
philosophy,  and  medicine,  which  were  collected  in  his 
BMiotheca-Reaiu.  His  Bi>ili'jth>ca  Jurxdica  has  received 
several  supplements  by  other  writers,  and.  li  much  the  most 
valuable  of  his  series.  Bridgman  s  L'lial  BMingmphy.  and 
the  valuable  work  of  M  Camus,  L'ttrts  sur  la  proiesf^uin 
d'Avocat  et  BilAioth-que  choitu  des  Ln-res  de  Droit,  deserve 
especial  notice  The  Biblioth/ca  Huitorva  of  Metisel 
relates  to  historical  works  of  all  ages  and  nations.  An 
excellent  catalogue  of  books  oi  voyascs  and  travel  is  given 
in  the  B'bliotheque  Vnivrrsetle  det  Voyages,  by  M  Boucher 
de  la  Richardcrie,  dvols..  Pans.  1808  Dr  Voungs  Cata- 
logue of  Works  relating  to  Saturat  Philosophy,  the  Cata- 
logut  BMii'tlucct  HisiontT  .\aturaiu^  Jo-'ephi  Banks,  by 
Dr  Dryander,  ^»nd  "EnjeLmaun  s  BMiotheca  Histcmco- 
naturalu.  Leipsic,  1846  (supplement.  1801,>.  the  BMio- 
theca Mathematics  of  Murhard,  Lalaudes  MMiographie 
Astnmomifpie,  and  the  BMunjraphte  Agrtfnomvpte.  are 
Icadin;^  works,  written  on  the  same  principle  of  selection. 
British  Topography  was  treated  by  Gmifh  in  1780.  and  by 
Upcott  in  1818  Nisards  Histoire  des  Livres  pofndaires, 
ou  at  tfi  Littcraturf  du  Colportage,  1854.  a  cunous  and 
Amusing  work,  may  also  be  mentioned.     CEttingers  Billio- 


grapkie  Biographique  contains  a  copious  catalogue  of  purely 
biographical  works. 

For  a  comprehensive  work  of  reference  on  special 
biographies  we  cannot  do  better  than  refer  our  readers  lo 
the  BMiotheca  BiUiographica,  by  Dr  Julius  Fetzholdt 
Leipsic,  1SG6  Part  i.  relates  to  works  on  bibliography  , 
part  11  to  the  bibhography  of  different  nations  and  part 
ui  to  works  connected  with  special  branches  of  learning, 
wh.ch  are  classified  into  leading  divisions  The  Repertoire 
BiUiograpkujue  Universel  of  M  Peignot  is  i  uselul  but  ill- 
arranaed  work  ;  it  dates  back,  moreover,  lo  1812  The 
progress  of  knowledge  and  research,  especially  with  regard 
to  scientific  subjects,  obviously  throws  works  of  this  descrip- 
tion soon  out  of  date  to  the  student,  who  desires  to  be 
acquainted  with  the  most  recent  as  well  as  the  earlier 
authorities.  As  landmarks,  however,  of  the  state  i>l 
knowledge  at  different  epotUs,  they  are  full  of  interest  lo 
the  Literary  bibliographer. 

VIII.    On  the  Cia.<sir!<ation  of  B'loks 

The  different  methods  adopted  trom  iime  to  time  of 
classing  books  accorduie  to  iheir  subiect  matter  has 
occasioned  a  variety  of  so-called  system^  ot  bibliography 
which  It  IS  important  to  notice  but  wbicli  space  lorbid* 
us  to  describe  in  detaU  A  distinction  musi  be  observed 
between  a  scheme  of  arrangenieni  applied  to  a  panicuhir 
library,  and  iimiied  therelure  ty  iis  contents,  and  one  which 
embrices  in  its  divisions  and  subdivisions  the  entire  raii^e 
of  literature  Nothing,  on  either  head,  is  learnt  from  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  .  the  classed  catalogue  of  the  library 
of  St  Emmeran  at  Ratisbon.  compiled  lo  13-17  and  con 
taming  twelve  divisions,  is  cued  as  the  earliest  specimen  of 
Its  kind  'See  Libraries  '  The  most  ancient  system, 
in  the  wider  sense  ol  the  term,  is  .iscribed  to  ihe  Chinese, 
who  in  the  I -Uh  century  distributed  ihe  held  ol  human 
knowledge  into  classes  niimhenos:  irom  luurteen  to  twenty, 
with  sectional  subdivisions  to  each 

Classified  systems  suggested  by  or  devised  for  particular 
libraries  after  pnnting  had  mulliphed  their  coutenis. 
onginated  chiefly  with  librarians  or  compilers  of  catalogues 
In  15S7  lean  Baptiste  Cardooa  wrote  four  treatises  on  the 
principal  libraries  of  his  day  His  description  of  the  library 
oi  the  Esconal  was  followed  in  1635  by  Anas  Montanus. 
whose  catalogue  divided  ihe  books  there  according  to 
languages  separating  MSS  from  printed  works,  and 
distributed  the  whole  into  sixty-four  classes.  Their 
number  was  reduced  by  Casiri  in  his  BMiotk<que  Arabico- 
Espagnole  de  CEsmnal.  Madnd,  176D  In  1631  John 
Rhodius  proposed  a  scheme  lor  the  arrangement  of  the 
university  library  at  Padua,  which  has  been  recently 
published  in  the  Serapeum  by  Dr  Hoffman,  from  a  manu- 
script found  in  the  town  library  at  Hamburg,  under  the 
title  of  Etn  bibliolhekansihes  GutacJiten  abgegeben  im  Jahre. 
1631  His  method  is  very  similar  lo  that  of  Claudius 
Clement,  in  his  .Musn  site  Biblwtfucce  tarn  pniHitce  quam 
publica     exstnictio.     inslructic,     niia     wnit.     1635  A 

catalo^e  of  the  libran,'  ot  the  Canon  de  Cordes.  which 
was  purchased  by  Mazann.  was  compiled  m  1643  by  his 
libranan.  Gabriel  Naude.  whose  Addition  d  la  vie  de  Louit 
XI  contains  much  cunous  matter  on  bibliography,  but 
who  IS  best  known,  perhaps,  from  his  defence  of  the 
mas-sacre  of  St  Bartholomew  His  Dissrrtatio  de  instr^rnda 
BMiotheca  had  previously  appeared  in  1627  in  a  French 
vers.on.  entiiled  ^i-u  pour  dresser  une  BMiotheque  an 
English  translation  of  which  was  published  by  John 
Evelvn  in  1061  .  it  was  followed  by  several  treatises  ol 
the  same  kind,  containing  minui*  instructions  to  hbranans  ' 

'  David  KoUers  SvlJcoe  atitfuot  fcriptorvm  de  bene  prd^ntinH.t  m 
omanda  bibticUucn,  1728,  conuiua  •  (aJ'  ■i-fouol  o(  »ilUrnti~  «p  l> 


662 


BIBLIOGRAriir 


F,  Raat^sard  publishsd  in  1C07  a  rrojet  cCune  nouveUi 
mWtait  -our  drcssir  un  catalogue,  which  serrea  to  Ulustrato 
t;v»  differaoce  between  amngiag  a  catalogue  and  a  library. 
Naud(S  ficds  fault  Vith  the  far-fetched  refinements  of  his 
jiredecassors,  aad  his  divisioQS  have  the  merit  of  being  more 
pimple  and  precise.  "  It  13  certain,"  says  Mr  Edwards, 
"  that  s  good  catalogue  will  require  A  much  mora  minute 
classification  than  would  be  either  useful  or  practicable  in 
the  presses  of  a  library."'  A  confusion  between  these  two 
distinct  objects  has  largely  pervaded  the  "system"  of 
aven  later  writers,  who  have  supposed  the  same  nicety  and 
exactness  to  be  equally  necessary  and  equally  practicabfe 
ia  both  VVTiere  there  itf  a- classed  catalogue,  the  grand 
objects  of  a  systematic  arrangement  are  sufficiently  provided 
for,  independently  of  the  location  of  the  books  on  which 
so  oounh  fanciful  lore  has  been  expended^  If  there  be  no 
classed  catalogue,  it  is  tolerably  clear  that,  for  purposes  of 
Convenient  and  ready  reference,  a  minute  classification  of 
books  oa  the  shelves,  however  accurate,  may  tend  only  to 
hewildef  and  confuse^  Simplicity  is  the  readiest  means  to 
aid  the  tnemory  and  airidge  the  labour  of  the  librarian  , 
and  this  object  can  be  attained  by  a  much'  more  elementiry 
<2ivi8ioa  of  books  than  could  be  tolerated  in  any  classified 
catjJogtse  ezteodiug  to  details. 

TheSS  remarks  apply  largely_to  th&  ordinary  systeia  of 
modern.  French  bibliographers,  the  origin  of  which  is 
variously  S^cribed  to  Bouillaud,  Gamier,  and  Martin. 
Priority  of  date  appears  to  belong  to  Bouillaud,  for  his 
Bibliotheca  Tkuana,  or  sale- catalogue  of  the  famous  library 
v'  De  Ttou,  had  existed  in  MS.  some  time  before  it  was 
«dited  by- Quesnel  in  1679.  His  system  embraces  five 
classes,  theology,  jurisprudence,  history,  philosophy,  and 
literature, — the  last  including  heterodos  and  miscellaneous 
vorks.  The  catalogue  by  P.  Garuier  of  the  library  of 
Clermont,  entitled  Systema  Bihliotkecce  Collegii  Parisicnsis 
SocietaUit  Jesu,  was  published  two  years  previously.  The 
-headings  embrace  461  subdivisions,  of  which  74  belong  to 
■i.hsology,  68  to  philosophy  (a  class  clumsily  and  confusedly 
arranged),  227  to  history,  and  72  to  jurisprudence.  In 
1709  appeared  Prosper  Marchand's  system,  developed  in 
ilis^  Catalogus  bibliuhicx  Joackimi  FauUner.  In  his 
prefics  he  attacks  the  system  of  Naud6,  tind  after 
treating  of  the  different  methods,  viz.,  the  order  of  nature, 
of  nations,  of  languages,  of- time,  and  alphabetical,  sums 
op  his  divisions  into  theology,  or  divine  knowledge ; 
philosophy,  or  human  knowledge,  separated  into  belles 
Icttres  and  sciences ;  and  history,  or  the  knowledge  of 
events.-  Bouillaud's  system,  as  modified  by  JIarchand,  was 
adopted  by  Gabriel  Martin  in  most  of  the  catalogues, 
amounting  (o  nearly  150,  which  h{v/{iublished  between  1711 
and  1760,  ana,  afterwards,  with  some  enlargement  of 
subdivisions,  by  De  Euro  in  his  Bibliographie  Instructive. 
The  result  of  their  successive  labours,  which  13  known  as 
"  the  system  of  the  Paris  booksellers,"  is  the  one  commonly 
adopted  in  France,  and  consists  of  theology,  jurisgiTidence, 
sciences  and  arts,  literature,  and  history.  Some  cUhnges, 
it  is  truo,  wore  afterwards  proposed.  M.  Ameilhon,  in  a 
paper  publisher!  in  1799  in  the  jVanoirs  of  the  French 
Institute,  suggested  as  primitive  classes, —grammar,  logic, 
morab,  jurisprudence,  metaphysics,  physics,  arts,  belles 
lottres,  and  history, — his  Revolutionary  sympathies  induc- 
j.ig  him  to  discard  theology  ironi  the  list-  But  the  system, 
fiualiy  elaborated  by  Martin,  survived  to  govern  the 
classification  of  the  principal  libraries  in  his  country.     Of 

lh»t  dot#  A  chapter  o*  Morhof'S  Polyhxatar  ii  dOTOtdd  to  tUo  ,inmo 
f 'bject.  S««  ilso  Uibail:,  Op.  Omn.,  ed.  17fS,  vol  7  ;  «niMiHiiict'-i 
J-i}trru-nt  da  Sniwiu  im<i  MsfJa'»i>iaJV  it'ur.t  DMiothiiac  Uni- 
vtrulic  ^ppc»r»4  In  13!7." 

.4  L  ^'  .''-<'''"<1».  "•">»'"  if  LArarw,  iL  783.  gjs  his  tiuptcTOOn 
*  Cl»«iacBlurj  S/jWrat " 


the  varions  innovations,  the  system  of  I3aur.c:i  in  h',^ 
Mhr^ire^  tur  la  Cla^iificatioit,  dts  Luins  d'une  giandt 
BiblioiheiiHe,  1800,  is  frequently  cited  as  the  best.  Since 
then  the  Paris  scheme  has  been  modified  by  bibUographci.s 
like  Barbier,  Achard,  and  Brunei ,  by  M.  ilcrlin  in  his 
catalogue  of  the  library  of  Baron  Silvestre  de  Sacy  (1842); 
and  by  M.  Albert,  m  his  Eecherches  sur  les  pi-mnpes fonda- 
merUaux  de  la  classification  d'une  Bibliotlteque.  Paris,  1847. 
Olenin's  system  (1608).  for  the  Imperial  library  at  St 
Petersburg,  separated  sciences  from  arts,  and  ictroduct-tl 
philology  as  a  distinct  class.  Dr  Conyers  Middleton  iit 
1723  submitted  a  scheme  to  the  senate  of  Cambridge  for 
the  classification  of  the  university  library ,  the  classes  pro- 
posed by  him  being  these — theology,  history,  jurispnidouce, 
philosophy,  mathematics,  natural  history,  medicine,  b»ltes 
lettres .  (ttfro;  humanwres),  and  miscellaneous  HartwcU 
Home's  Outlines  for  the  Classification  of  a  Librari/,  hascil 
on  the  Pans  system,  were  submitted  about  the  same  time 
to  the  Trustees  of  the  Bntish  iluseum.  A  scrviceablo 
"  Scheme  for  Town  Libraries  "  is  embodied  la  the. chapter 
of  Mr  Edward's  book  previously  quoted. 

Of  the  more'  general  "  systems,"  based  on  _a  survey  of 
the  field  of  human  knowledge,  and  not  immediately  directed 
to  the  requirements  of  a  library,  a  brief  notice  must  suffice. 
The  earliest  system,  in  this  sense  of  the  word,  is  com- 
monly ascribed  to  Conrad  Gesn.er.  the  founder,  as  Dibdia 
calls  him,  of  pure  bibliography.  Vet  he  was,  in-  fact,  pre- 
ceded, however  feebly,  by  Alexo  Vanegas,  whose  work, 
published  at  Toledo  in  1540,  forms  the  first  imperfect  type 
of  future  efforts  of  that  kind.  His  divisions  are  fourfold, 
viz.:  "Original — of  the  harmony  between  predestination 
and  free  will ;  Jfatural — of  the  philosophy  of  the  visible 
world  ;  Rational — of  the  function  and  use  of  reason ; 
Revealed— ot  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures.",,  Gesner*."!, 
however,  was  the  first  comprehensive  attempt  at  a  general 
encyclopcedia  of  literature,  constructed  in  the  form  of  ^  a 
catalogue.  His-system  was  first  published  in  1548  as  an 
index  of  matters  to  his  Bibliotheca  Universalis,  under  the 
title  of  Pandectarvm.  sive  Pariitionwn  Umversalium'Libri 
XXL^  Florian  Trctter,  a  Bavarian  Benedictine,  published  at 
Augsburg  in  1560  a  Methode  de  classer  lea  Livres,  which 
Peignot  describes  as  "plus  que  mediocre."  In  1587  ap- 
peared the  Tableaux  accomplis  detous  les  arts  liberaux,  by 
Christofle  de  Savigny,  which  Biunet  asserts  was  the  model 
of  Bacon's  "  Encyclopjedical  Tree,",  but  which  was  substan- 
tially the  system  of  Gesner.  The  well-known  speculation* 
of  Bacon  as  to  the  genealogy  of  knowledge  were  embodied 
by  D'/vlembert  in  his  Dlscours  preliminaire  A  VEncyclo- 
pedie  Mithodique,  Amst.,  1767.  They  were  also  made  tlia 
basis  of  other  schemes  by  Eegnault-Wariii,  Laire,  Ferrario, 
and  especially  Peignot,  whose  system  was  '  divided  into 
three  primitive  classes,  viz.,  history,  philosophy,  and 
imagination,  with  the  addition  of  bibliography,  as  an  intro- 
ductory class.  Girard's  system  was  embodied  in  at* 
Eneyclopidie  ou  Dictionnaire  raisonni  des  Scimcts,  dcs  Arts, 
et  des  Metiers,  edited  in  1751  by  Diderot  and  d'Alembert; 
the  latter  of  whom  undertook  the  part  relating  to  mathe- 
matics. Camus  in  1798  took  man  in  a  state  of  n.attire,  and 
then  classed  his  library  in  the  order  in  which  this  "  man  of 
nature  "  is  supposed  to  form  his  imiiressioiis  of  the  univer-se. 
The  divisions  of  Thiibaut  in  1802  comprised— (1),  Coa- 
naissances  instrumentales  ;  (2),  Couoaissances  essentiellcs?, 
and  (3),  Coanais.sances  do  convenanci's,  and  were  founded 
on  a  somewhat  similar  principle  to  that  adopted  in  1822 
by  the  Marquis  Fortia  d'Urban,  in  his  Nouveau  Systime  da 
Bibliograpkie  alphabitiqve,  who'  prefaced  hia.clflsses  *ilb 

'  For  a  full  account,  s*e  (be  nrticle  -'CcsnM' '  07.  Cdvierj  w  (IH 
JJiojrapku  Oniterselie.      Hia  Biiliolhrca  was  reprinted,  and  grnatif 
enlarged,  by  Simler,  Ip  1574.    Connd  Lycosthencs  afterw.-irrt!  [..iblislied , 
an  abridgneot,  mi  a  supplement  «■«  .vliicd  bj  V«rdirr.  , 


BIBLlUUKAril    Y 


GG3 


^rucyclopxdia;.  Amp&re,  ia  1S34,  in  his  £siai  rur  la 
Hhilosophie  (lea  Sciences,  Las  disfigured  his  system  with  a 
needlessly  technical  nomenclature. 

Much  unnecessary  retinemeDt  has  been  expended  by 
German  writers  ai  this  subject.  The  system  of  Leibnitz, 
however,  in  1713,  is  well  suited  to  practical  purposes. 
Uis  leading  classes  are  these — theology,  jurisprudence, 
medicice,  intellectual  philosophy,  mathematics,  natural 
philosophy,  philology,  history,  and  miscellaneous.'  The 
scheme  of  the  Jena  Repertorium,  published  in  1793, 
contains  10  primitive  classes,  and  no  less  than  1200  sub- 
divisions. The  system  of  Denis,  formerly  keeper  of  the 
imperial  library  at  Vienna,  was  developed  in  hi.s  EinUitung 
in  die  DiUhcrkunde,  2d  edition,  1795  ,  he  classifies  learning 
into  theology,  jurisprudence,  philosophy,  medicine,  mathe- 
matics, history,  and  philology.  Krug's  systemfoUowed  in 
1796,  and  Schleiermacher's  in  1802.  Wuttig's  Universal- 
Dibiiographie,  1862,  aimed  at  embracing  in  a  systematic 
sarvey  the  collected  literature  of  the  current  time. 

In  England  the  classification  of  learning  has  been 
treated  as  a  branch  of  philosophy  rather  than  of  biblio- 
ijraphy.  Locke's  Essay  on  the  Human  Underatandvig 
contains,  in  book  iv.  o.  21,  a  "Division  of  the  Sciences;" 
and  Benthani  has  an  "  Essay  on  Nomenclature  and  Classi- 
fication "  in  his  Chrestomathia,  though  it  does  not  appear 
that  he  intended  it  to  apply  to  the  distribution  of  books. 
Coleridge,  in  his  Universal  Dictionary  of  Knowledge, 
1  SI  7,  aimed  at  combining  the  advantages  of  a  ohilosophical 
and  alphabetical  arrangement,  and  adopted  four  leiiding 
classes,  viz., — pure  sciences,  mixed  sciences,  history,  and 
literature,  raclading  philology  Lord  Lindsay's  Progression 
by  Antagonism,  liiio,  contains  another  method,  based  on 
his  theory  of  the  divisions  of  human  thought. 

For  further  information  on  this  branch  of  the  subject 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Peignot'a  article  on  "  Systeme  "  in 
his  DictioHiaire  de  BMiologie,  and  especially  to  the  chapter 
on  "  BibUographical  Systems "  in  Petzholdt's  BMiotlieca 
BMiographiea,  Lcipsic,  1866.  Many  of  the  above-named 
schemes,- particularly  those  of  high,  philosophical  preten- 
sions, are  fanciful  in  theory,  and  quite  unsuited  to  the 
practical  requirements  of  a  catalogue  of  reference.  The 
seven  classes  of  Denis  were  based  on  the  words  of  Solomon, 
"  Wisdom  hath  builded'  a  house ;  she  hath  hewn  out  her 
seven  pilUrs ;"  and  Naud^  mentions  a  writer  who  proposed 
to  class  all  sorts  of  books  under  the  three  heads  of  morals, 
sciences,  and  devotion  ;  and  who  assigned,  as  the  grounds 
of  this  arrangement,  (he  words  of  the  Psalmist,  Discipli- 
nam,  Bonitatem,  et  Scienliam  doce  me.  There  aro  obvious 
objections  to  all  bibliographical  systems  which  aspire  to 
follow  the  genesis  and  remote  affinities  of  the  different 
branches  of  knowledge.  The  truth  is  that,  when  biblio- 
graphers speculate  in  this  field  with  a  view  to  catalogue- 
making,  they  entirely  forget  their  proper  province  and 
objects.  The  compilation  of  a  good  catalogue  of  an  exten- 
sive library  is  quite  difficult  enough,  without  indulging  in 
refined  abstractions-onthe  genealogy  of  human  knowledge. 

As  regards  works  and  collections  which  cannot  with 
propriety  be  limited  to  any  one  division  of  knowledge,  it 
would  be  advisable 'to  refer  them  to  an  additional  or 
miicellanout  cbss,  as  has,  in  fact,  been  done  by  some 
writers.  Camns  proposes  to  enter  such  works  in  the  class' 
in  which  their  authors  most  excelled ;  but  this  plan  would 
obviously  produce  much  confusion.  While,  however,  a 
iBisccUaneous  class  might  properly  indicate  the  collective 
editions  of  an  author's  works,  yet  his  separate  treatises 
should  be  entered  under  the  subjects  to  which  they  belong. 
A  system  of  cross-reference  ia  in  many  cases  unavoidable, 

'  M««  Lf  ibnitimi  Tlibliotheca  Publlcx  secaDdam  dutes  sclentianim 
ordJr^uJa  ( ii'orks,  toI.  y.) 


if  completeness  of  general  design  is  to  be  combined  with  the 
cardinal  object  of  a  classed  catalogue,  namely,  that  of 
showing  what  has  been  written  by  the  authors  specified 
therein  on  the  different  branches  of  knowledge  as  they  may 
be  best  arranged. 

IX.  Bibliography  in  General 
It  has  been  our  object  in  this  article  to  institute  such  a 
division  of  the  subject,  as  should  enable  us  to  point  out  the 
best  sources  of  information  in  regard  to  all  its  branches. 
Some  works  still  remain  to  be  noticed  which  treat  gene. 
rally  of  all  matters  relating  to  bibliography,  though  their 
scope  and  purpose  differ  according  to  the  new  of  the 
science  adopted  by  the  writer.  A  comprehensive  and 
judicious  digest  of  bibliographical  lore  is  stjU  wanted,  but 
there  are  several  works  which  .  may  be  consulted  with 
advantage.  Cailleau's  Essai  de  BibUograpkie,  appended 
to  his  /^K:<«onnoi>«of  1790,  isanintercsting  treatise.  The 
EinUitung  in  die  Bucherkunde  of  M.  Denis,  1795-96,  is 
an  excellent  work  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first,  of 
them  relating  to  bibliography,  and  the-  second  to  literary 
history.  The  Traite  £lemetUaire  de  Biblvigraphie,  by  S. 
Boulard,  Paris,  1806,  was  intended  to  serve  as  au  intro- 
duction to  all  works  on  that  subject  written  up  to  the  date 
of  Its  appearance.  The  labours  of  Peignot,  besides  his 
works  on  suppressed  and  rare  books  already  noticed, 
include — (1),  the  Manuel  BiUiographique,  ou  Essai  tur  la 
connoistance  des  livres,  des  formats,  dca  editions,  de  la 
maniire  de  composer  uiie  Bibliothigve,  etc,  1801  ;  and  (2), 
the  Dictionnaire  raisonne  de  Bibliotogie,  2  vols.  8vo,  1802. 
The  plan  of  this  work,  as  Brunei  admits,  is  well  conceived, 
and  furnishes  a  convenient  mode  of  reference.  Bibliography 
is  certainly  indebted  to  this  industrious  compiler,  but  his 
details  have  in  many  respects  been  rendered  obsolete  by 
subsequent  research,  and  his  vague  notions  of  the  scope 
and  objects  of  his  study  have  frequently  led  him  into  con- 
fusion and  extravagance.  A  Manuel  du  Btbliophite,  by  the 
same  author,  appeared  at  Dijon  in  1823.  The  Cours 
Elementaire  de  Bibliograp/iie,  by  C.  F.  Achard,  Marseilles, 
3  vols.  8vo,  1807,  derives  its  chief  value  from  its  excellent 
summary  of  the  different  systems  of  classification  applied 
to  books.  We  learn  from  the  introduction,  that  M.  Francois 
de  Neufch&teau,  when  Minister  of  the  Interior,  ordered  the 
librarians  of  all  the  departments  to  deliver  lectures  on 
bibliography,  but  that  the  plan,  which  indeed  appears 
fanciful,  entirely  failed,  the  librarians  having  been  found 
qiute  incapable  of  prelecting  upon  their  vocation.  The 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Bibliography,  by  Thos. 
Hartwell  Home,  2  vols,  in  1,  8vo,  London,  1814,  is  per- 
haps the  most  useful  book  of  this  kind  in  the  English 
language,  though  the  compiler  would  have  done  better  to 
restrict  himself  to  printed  books,  instead  of  ranging  dis- 
cursively over  the  whole  field  of  MS.  literature.  His  book 
is  cliiefly  translated  and  compiled  from  French  bibliographi- 
cal works,  and  will  be  found  useful  to  those  who  have  not 
access  to  them.  Besides  some  excellent  specimens  of 
early  typography,  it  contains  full  lists  of  authorities  on 
bibliography  and  literary  history,  and  a  copious  account 
of  libraries  both  British  and  foreign.  Tho  Studio  Biblio- 
graphico,  by  Vincenzo  Mortillaro,  Palermo,  1832,  is  an 
Italian  treatise  of  considerable  merit.  P.  Namur's  Biblio- 
graphie  pala:ographico-diplomatico-bibUogique,  Li^ge,  1838, 
embraces  many  subjects  outside  the  pro\ince  of  bibhograpby 
proper.  The  Librarian's  Manual,  by  Reuben  A.  Gnili 
New  York,  1858,  is  a  compendious  book  of  reference  for 
the  student  in  search  of  authorities  £nough  has  been  said 
to  show  that  the  different  branches  of  bibliography  have  been 
treated  with  considerable  industry ;  but  there  is  room  for 
further  effort,  if  bibliographers  wUl  recognize  the  chief  Value 
of  their  science  as  the  handmaid '^' litemtnre.     ^E.F.  T.)    . 


G64 


B I B— B I C 


BIBULUS.  Tlie  best-knowa  of  those  who  bore  this 
surname,  which  belonged  to  the  Gens  Calpurnia  at  Rome, 
W13  Marcus  Calpuroius  Bibulus,  elected  consul  with  Julius 
Caesar,  59  B.C.  He  was  the  candidate  put  forward  by  the 
oristocratical  party  in  opposition  to  L.  Lucceius,  who  was 
of  the  party  of  Caesar;  and -bribery  was  freely  used  (with 
the  approval,  says  Suetonius,  of  even  the  rigid  Cato)  to 
secure  his  election.  But  he  proved  no  match  for  his  able 
colleafnie.  He  made  an  attempt  to  oppose  the  agrarian  law 
introduced  by  C«3ar  for  distributing  the  lands  of  Campania, 
but  was  overpowered  and  even  personally  ill-treated  by  the 
violence  of  the  mob.  After  making  vain  complaints  in  the 
senate,  he  shut  himself  up  in  his  own  house  during  the 
remaining  eight  months  of  his  consulship,  taking  no  part 
in  public  business  beyond  fulminating  edicts  against 
Caesar's  proceedings,  which  only  provoked  an  attack  upon 
his  house  by  a  mob  of  Caesar's  partizans.  When  the 
interests  of  Csesar  and  Pompey  became  divided,  Bibulus 
supported  the  latter,  and  joined  in  proposing  his  election 
as  sole  consul  (52  B.C.)  Nest  year  he  went  iuto  Syria  as 
pmconsul,  and  claimed  credit  for  a  victory  gained  by  one 
iif  his  ofiScers  over  the  Parthians,  who  had  invaded  the 
jirovince,  but  which  took  place  before  his  own  arrival  in 
the  country.  After  the  expiration  of  his  government  there, 
Pompey  gave  him  the  command  of  his  fleet  in  the  Ionian 
Sea.  Here  also  he  proved  himself  utterly  incapable ; 
distinguishing  himself  chiefly  by  the  cruel  burning,  with 
all  their  crews  on  board,  of  thirty  transport  vessels  which 
had  conveyed  Caesar  from  Brundisiura  to  the  coast  of 
Epirus,  and  which  he  had  captured  on  their  return,  having 
failed  to  prevent  their  passage.  He  died  soon  afterwards 
of  fatigue  and  mortiflcation.  By  his  wife  Portia,  daughter 
of  Cato,  afterwards  married  to  Brutus,  he  had  three  sons. 
The  two  eldest  were  murdered  in  Egypt  by  some  of  the 
soldiery  of  Gabinius ;  the  youngest,  Lucius  Calpurnius 
Bibulus,  fought  on  the  side  of  the  republic  at  the  battle  ol 
Philippi,  but  surrendered  to  Antony  sooii  afterwards,  and 
was  by  him  appointed  to  the  command  of  his  fleet.  He 
died  while  governor  of  Syria  under  Augustus. 

BICHAT,  Marie-Fran90I3-Xavi£R,  a  celebrated  French 
anatomist  and  physiologist,  was  born  at  Thoirette  in  the 
di^parlment  of  Ain,  in  1771.     His  father,  who  was  himself 
a  -physician,    was   his   6rst   instructor.     He   entered   the 
College  of  Nantua,  and  afterwards  studied  at  Lyons.     In 
luathematics  and  the  physical  sciences  he  made  rapid  pro- 
gress.    Becoming  passionately  fond  of  natural  history  he 
ultimately  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  anatomy  and 
surgery,,  under  the  guidance  of  Petit,  chief  surgeon  to  the 
HStel  DieU  at  Lyons.     He  resumed  for  a  time  his  early 
studios,  restricting  himself,  however,  within  such  limits  as 
did  not  interfere  with  his  medical  pursuits.     Petit  soon 
discerned  the  superior  talents  of  his  pupil,  and,  although 
the  latter  had  scarcely  attained  the  age  of  twenty,  employed 
him  constantly  is  his  assistant.    The  revolutionary  disturb- 
ances compelled  Bichat  to  fly  from  Lyons  and  take  refuge 
in  Paris  about  the  end  of  the  year  1793.     Ho  there  became 
a  pupil   of  the  celebrated   surgeon  Desault.      One   day, 
volunteering  to  supply  the  place  of  an  absent  pupil  who 
was  to  have  recapitulated  the  lecture  of  the  day  before, 
he  acquitted  himself  so  admirably  that  Desault  was  strongly 
impressed  with   his  genius ;   and  from  that  time   Bichat 
became  an  inmate  in  his  house,  and  was  treated  as  his 
adopted  son.     For  two  years  he  actively  participated  in  all 
the  labours  of  Desault,  prosecuting  at  the  same  time  his 
own  researches  in  anatomy  and  physiology.     The  sudden 
death   of  Desault  in   1795  was  a  severe  blow  to  Bichat. 
His  first  care  was  to  acquit  himself  of  the  obligations  ho 
owed  his  benefactor,  by  contributing  to  the  support  of  his 
widow   and    her  son,  and   by  conducting  to  a  close   the 
fourth  volume  of  Desault's  Journal  de  Chirurgie,  to  which 


he  added  a  biographical  memoir  of  its  auVhor.  His  next 
object  was  to  reunite  and  digest  in  one  body  the  surgical 
doctrines  which  Desault  had  published  in  various  periodical 
works.  Of  these  he  composed,  in  1797,  the  book  entitled 
Qi^uvres  Chirurgicales  de  Desault,  on  Tableau  de  sa  Doctrine, 
et  de  sa  Pratique  dans  le  Traitemeiit  des  Maladies  Extemes, 
a  work  in  which,  although  he  professes  only  to  set  forth 
the  ideas  of  another,  he  develops  them  with  the  clearness 
and  copiousness  of  one  who  is  a  master  of  the  subject.  Hcs 
was  now  at  liberty  to  pursue  the  full  bent  of  his  genius, 
and,  undisturbed  by  the  storms  which  agitated  the  political 
world,  he  directed  his  full  attention  to  surgery,  which  it 
was  then  his  design  to  practise.  We  meet  with  many 
proofs  of  his  industry  at  this  period  in  the  Recueil  de  In 
Socieie  Medicale  d  Emulation,  an  association  of  whicli 
Bichat  was  one  of  the  most  active  members.  In  1797 
he  began  a  course  of  anatomical  demonstrations,  and 
his  success  encouraged  him  to  extend  the  plan  of  his 
lectures,  and  boldly  to  announce  a  course  of  operative 
surgery.  Bichat's^  reputation  was  now  fully  established, 
and  he  was  ever  after  the  favourite  teacher  with  the  Paris 
students.  In  the  following  year,  1 7  98,  he  gave,  in  addition 
to'  his  course  on  anatomy  and  operative  surgery,  a  separate 
course  of  physiology.  A  dangerous  attack  of  haemoptysis 
interrupted  for  a  time  these  heavy  labours ;  but  the  danger 
was  no  sooner  past  than  he  plunged  into  new  engagements 
with  the  same  ardour  as  before.  He  had  now  scope  in  his 
physiological  lectures  for  a  fuller  exposition  of  his  original 
views  on  the  animal  economy,  which  excited  much  attention 
in  the  medical  schools  at  Paris.  Sketches  of  these  doc- 
trines were  given  by  him  in  three  papers  contained  in  the 
Memojrs.  of  the  Sociele  Medicale  d' Emulation.  The 
doctrines  were  afterwards  more  fully  developed  in  his 
Traite  sur  les  Membranes,  which  appeared  in  IbOO.  In  the 
notes  to  a  small  work,  in  which  he  gave  in  a  condensed 
form  the  lessons  of  Desault  on  the  diseases  of  the  urinary 
passages,  are  found  the  germs  of  many  of  Bichal's  peculiar 
views. 

His  next  publication  was  the  Recherches  Physiologiquea 
sur  la  Vie  et  sur  la  Mori  (1800),  which  consists  of  two 
dissertations.  In  the  first  he  explains  his  classification 
of  functions,  and  traces  the  distinction  between  the  animal 
and  ocganic  functions  in  all  its  bearings.  In  the  second 
he  investigates  the  connection  between  life  and  the  actions 
of  the  three  central  organs,  the  heart,  lungs,  and  brain. 
But  the  work  which  contains  the  fruits  of  his  most  profound 
and  original  researches  is  the  Anatomic  Gensrale,  pubhshed 
in  4  vols.  8vo  in  1801. 

Before  Bichat  had  attained  the  age  of  eight-and-twenty 
he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  H6tel  Dieu,  a  situation 
which  opened  an  immense  field  to  hi?  ardent  spirit  of 
inquiry.  In  the  investigation  of  diseases  he  pursued  the 
same  method  of  observation  and  experiment  which  had 
characterized  his  researches  in  physiology.  He  learned 
their  history  by  studying  them  at  the  bedside  of  his 
patients,  and  by  accurate  dissection  of  their  bodies  after 
death.  He  engaged  in  a  series  of  e.taminalions,  with  a 
view  to  ascertain  the  changes  induced  in  the  various  organs 
by  disease,  and  in  less  than  six  months  he  had  opened 
above  six  hundred  bodies.  Ho  was  anxious  also  to  deter- 
mine, with  more  precision  than  had  been  attempted  before, 
the  eS'ects  of  remedial  agents,  and  instituted  with  this  view 
a  aeries  of  direct  experiments  on  a  very  extensive  scale. 
In-this  way  ho  procured  a  vast  store  of  valuable  materiiils 
for  his  course, of  lectures  on  the  Materia  Mcdica,  the  com- 
pletion of  which  was  prevented  by  his  death ;  but  a  great 
p.irt  of  tlio  facts  were  embodied  in  the  inaugural  disserta- 
tions of  his  pupils.  Latterly,  he  .also  occupied  himself  with 
forming  a  new  classification  of  diseases. 
I      Bichat  commenced  a  new  work  on  anatomy,  in  nlub 


D  I  C  —  B  I  D 


G6/; 


ttsc  organs  were  arranged  according  to  his  peculiar  classi- 
tieatioa  of  their  funcuons,  under  the  title  of  Analomie 
Dcscn}>tu'e,  but  he  Lved  only  to  publish  the  first  two 
vDlumes.  It  was  continued  on  the  same  plan,  and  com- 
pleted in  five  volumes  by  his  assistants  MM.  Buissoa  and 
lioux.  His  death  was  occasioned  by  a  fall  from  a  stair- 
case at  the  Hotel  Dieu,  which  threw  him  into  a  fever. 
Exhausted  by  excessive  labour,  and  enfeebled  by  constantly 
breathing  the  tainted  air  of  the  dissecting-room,  he  sank 
under  the  attack  and  died  on  the  22d  July  1802,  attended 
to  the  last  by  the  widow  of  his  benefactor,  from  whom  he 
had  never  been  separated.  His  funeral  was  attended  by 
above  six  hundred  of  his  pupils,  and  by  a  large  number  of 
the  physicians  of  Paris.  His  bust,  together  with  that  of 
Desault,  was  placed  in  the  Hotel  Dieu  by  order  of  Napoleon. 

BICYCLE.  As  the  derivation  of  the  term  implies,  the 
chief  component  parts  of  this  machine  consist  of  two 
wheels.  The  word  is  applied  to  those  two-wheeled  machines 
which  have  been  brought  to  their  present  state  of  perfection 
for  human  locomotion  during  the  past  five  years.  Shortly 
after  the  close  of  the  great  Continental  war  in  1815,  the  first 
bicycle  was  introduced  into  England  from  France.  It  was 
at  the  best  an  awkward  afl'air,  composed  of  a  couple  of 
lie.ivy  wooden  wheels  of  equal  diameter,  one  behind  the 
other,  and  joined  together  by  a  longitudinal  wooden  bar  on 
which  the  rider's  seat  was  fixed,  the  mode  of  propulsion 
being  the  pushing  the  feet  against  the  ground.  That  such 
a  cumbersome  method  of  locomotion  soon  died  a  natural 
death  is  not  to  be  wondered  at.  For  t.e  next  fifty  years 
no  real  progress  was  made,  as  various  kinds  of  levers  and 
other  attempted  appliances  were  found  too  intricate.  In 
18G0  M.  Michaux  of  Paris  conceived  the  idea  of  making 
the  front  or  driving  wheel  much  larger  than  the  hind 
wheel;  and  very  soon  afterwards,  M.  Magee,  another 
Parisian,  still  further  improved  bicycles  by  making  them 
entirely  of  steel  and  iron.  The  principle  of  crank  action 
attached  to  revolving  axles  having  also  become  developed, 
the  pastime  of  bicycling  was  entirely  revoluti-.mized.  India- 
rubber  tyres  and  strong  beaks  were  brought  into  requisition 
to  relieve  jolting  ;  and  now-a-days  a  crack  racing  bicycle 
with  a  driving-wheel  from  55  to  GO  inches  diameter  does 
not  exceed  50  lb  in  weight,  or  about  half  the  weight  of  one 
of  the  old  wooden  machines.  Tricycles  have  been  tried, 
but  no  great  amount  of  speed  will  over  be  got  out  of  them 
until  the  friction  and  weight  can  bo  materially  reduced. 

The  diameter  of  the  front  or  driving  wheel  of  the  modern 
bicycle  varies  from  2i  to  5  feet,  according  to  the  length  of 
the  rider's  legs.  When  it  is  meant  for  racing,  most  of  the 
component  parts  are  lighter,  and  the  rest  for  relieving  the 
legs  when  going  down  hilJ  is  dispensed  with.  The  rider 
sits  astride  a  small  saddle,  and  the  motive  power  is  obtained 
from  the  feet  working  the  crank  treadles  attached  to  the 
revolving  axle  of  the  driving-wheel.  There  being  no 
lateral  support  to  the  machine,  the  first  thing  to  be  learnt 
13  balancing,  after  which  it  is  best  to  begin  riding  down 
a  gentle  gradient  without  using  the  treadles.  Steering, 
which  is  managed  by  a  transverse  handle  attached  to  the 
driving-wheel  and  placed  in  front  of  the  rider,  should  be 
mastered  in  the  eamo  manner,  after  which  the  feet  and 
legs  may  be  brought  into  play  on  the  treadles  and  speed 
gradually  acquired.  Falls  are  inevitable  at  first,  and  they 
are  best  avoided  by  slightly  turning  the  driving-wheel  in 
the  direction  the  machine  is  inclining,  not  the  contrary 
way.  Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  all  bearings,  <tc.,  oiled 
from  time  to  time,  in  order  to  prevent  friction  and  so 
lessen  speed.  With  the  exception  of  sk.ating,  bicycling  is 
the  quickest  means  of  locomotion  that  man  possesses.  A 
fair  bicyclist  can  outstrip  a  horse  in  a  day,  whilst  an  expert 
can  do  so  in  an  hour.  Bicycling  has  rapidly  grown 
in  favour  during  the  past  two  years ;   and  long  tours  are 


now  made  with  the  greatest  case.  Where  ttie  roads  are 
fairly  level,  and  in  a  tolerably  good  state  of  repair,  the 
bicycle  is  unsurpassed  as  a  means  of  sell  locomotion.  In 
hilly  and  mountainous  countries,  where  there  are  no  made 
roads,  or  where  they  are  much  broken  up  and  heavy,  it  is 
next  to  useless,  although  india-rubber  tyres  to  a  certain 
extent  relieve  the  jolting  over  rough  ground.  Lightness, 
gr(!at  strength,  and  the  best  of  workmanship  are  necessary 
in  the  manufacture  of  bicycles  in  order  to  prevent  serious 
accidents.  It  is  in  the  two  former  requisites  that  steel  and 
india-rubber  have  such  an  advantage  over  iron  and  wood. 

.'Vs  a  proof  of  the  perfection  to  which  bicycle-ridiug  baa  now  been 
brou^^lit,  the  following  best  performances  on  record,  over  a  prepared 
cinder  p.ith,  may  be  mcntioneii,  viz.  : — 


Miles. 

Hours. 

Ula. 

Sec. 

MilM. 

Itouro. 

tlln. 

SCO. 

4 

0 

1 

32J 

10 

0 

34 

41 

i 

0 

2 

\n 

2') 

1 

12 

38 

1 

0 

3 

0 

30 

1 

52 

43 

2 

0 

6 

31 

40 

2 

31 

48 

3 

0 

9 

53 

50 

3 

9 

21 

4 

0 

13 

19? 

t.;o 

4 

11 

i!4 

6 

0 

16 

41 

70 

4 

5i3 

35 

6 

0 

20 

55 

SO 

6 

46 

43 

7 

0 

24 

23 

90 

6 

42 

21 

8 

0 

23 

5      ' 

100 

7 

33 

43 

9 

0 

31 

2 

106 

7 

58 

54} 

The  last  of  these,  a.s  one  of  the  London  daily  journals  remaikcd, 
fairly  ranks  as  the  most  extraordinary  performance  on  record  nf 
any  man,  animal,  or  machine."  Tlw  di-itance  from  Tunbridge  to 
l.iverjiool,  234  miles,  has  been  accomplished  in  18  hours  35  minutes. 
A  hundred  miles  a  day,  over  fair  roads,  has  often  been  achieved  for 
several  days  together,  and  many  such  journeys  are  recorded.  A 
ride  of  800  miles,  from  London  to  John  O'Groats,  was  made  in  14 
days,  over  unexceptionally  hilly  and  heavy  roads,  in  June  1S73. 

BIDA,  an  inland  town  of  Africa,  situated  in  about  N. 
lat.  9°  5'  and  E.  long.  6'  5',  sixteen  miles  N.  of  the  River 
Niger  or  Quorra,  and  lying  N.N.W.  of  the  town  of  Egga. 
IJida,  which  was  visited  by  Dr  Baikie  in  18C2,  is  a  large 
town,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Nupo. 

BIDDLE,  John,  frequently  called  the  father  of  English 
Unitarianism,  was  born  in  1G15  at  Wotton-under-Edge  in 
Gloucestershire.  He  was  educated  at  the  grammar  school 
of  his  native  town,  and  then  proceeded  to  Magdalen  Hall, 
Oxford.  He  graduated  as  bachelor  of  arts  in  1C38  and  as 
master  in  lG-11,  and  was  then  appointed  to  the  mastership 
of  the  free  school  in  the  city  of  Gloucester.  While  con- 
ducting this  school  in  an  admirable  manner  he  diligently 
prosecuted  his  theological  studies ;  and  the  results  he 
arrived  at  were  of  such  a  nature  as  to  draw  down  upon  him 
the  reprobation  of  the  civic  authorities.  He  circulated 
privately  a  tract  called  Twelve  Arguments  drajen  out  of 
Scripture,  wherein  the  commonly-received  opinion  touching 
the  deity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  clearly  and  fully  refuted  ; 
and  towards  the  close  of  1G15  he  was  summoned  before  tha 
Parliamentary  committee  then  sitting  at  Gloucester.  By 
them  he  w;vs  committed  to  prison,  though  he  was  at  the 
time  labouring  under  a  dangerous  fever.  He  was  released 
on  bail  after  an  imprisonment  of  some  duration,  and  was 
then  called  before  the  Parliament,  which  desired  to  inquire 
into  his  views.  After  tedious  proceedings  Biddle  was 
committed  to  custody,  in  which  he  remained  for  five  years. 
During  that  time  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westminster 
had  discussed  his  opinions,  and  in  defence  he  published  his 
Twelve  Arguments.  The  book  was  at  once  ordered  by 
Parliament  to  be  .seized  and  burned  by  the  hangman. 
Notwithstanding  this,  Biddle  issued  two  tracts,  one  a 
Confession  of  Faith  uith  regard  to  the  Holy  Trinity,  the 
other  Testimonies  of  Irenceus,  d-c,  concerning  (he  one  God 
and  the  Persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  These  were  sup* 
pressed  by  Government,  and  the  Assembly  of  Divines 
eagerly  pressed  for  the  passing  of  an  Act  by  which  heretics 
like  Biddle  could  be  put  to  death.  This,  however,  was 
resisted  by  the  army,  and  by  many  of  the  Independent 
Parliamentarians  ;  and  after  the  death  o'  the  king,  Biddle 

in.   —  3.1 


boo 


B  I  D  — B  I  E 


was  allowed  to  reside  in  Staffordsnire  under  surveillance. 
In  1651  the  general  Act  of  Oblivion  gave  him  complete 
freedom,  and  his  adherents  soon  began  the  practice  of 
meeting  regularly  for  worship- on  Sundays.  They  were 
called  Biddellians,  or  Socinians,  or  Unitarians,  the  name 
which  has  now  become  associated  with  their  opinions. 
Diddle  was  not  left  long  in'  peace.  He  translated  some 
Socmian  books,  among  others  the  Life  of  Sof.inus,  and 
published  two  catechisms,  which  excited  a  fury  of  indigna- 
tion against  him.  He  was  summoned  before  the  Parliament 
and  imprisoned.  The  dissolution  of  that  body  again  set 
him  at  liberty  for  a  short  time,  but  he  was  presently 
brought  up  for  some  expressions  used  by  him  in  a  discus- 
sion with  a  BaptiBt  clergyman.  He  was  put  upon  trial, 
and  was  only  rescued  by  Cromwell,  who  sent  him  out  of 
the  way  to  one  of  the  Scilly  Islands,  and  "after  three  years 
released  him.  But  in  1G62  he  was  again  arrested,  and 
fined  XI 00.  As  he  was  unable  to  pay  this  sum,  he  was  at 
once  committed  to  prison,  where  fever,  caused  by  the 
pestilential  atmosphere,  ca,rried  him  off  on  the  22d  Sep- 
tember 1662. 

BIDEFORD,  a  municipal  borough,  market-town,  and 
seaport,  in  the  county  of  Devon,  eight  miles  S.W.  of 
Barnstaple,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  It  is 
situated  on  the  slopes  of  two  hills  which  rise  from  the  banks 
of  the  River  Torridge,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Taw, 
about  four  miles  from  the  sea.  The  two  portions  of  the 
town  are  united  by  a  bridge  of  fourteen  arches,  built,  it 
IS  said,  in  the  14th  century,  and  widened  in  186-t.  The 
bridge  forms  a  favourite  promenade,  and  is  endowed  fur 
its  repair  with  lands  that  produce  an  annual  rent  of  £300 
or  £-100.  Many  of  the  houses  in  the  town  are  built  in  the 
ancient  fashion  with  bricks  and  wooden  framework.  The 
old  cb&vch  of  St  Mary,  with  the  exception  of  the  tower, 
was  taken  down  and  rebuilt  in  1804,  and  the  town-hall 
is  also  of  modern  erection.  In  addition  to  these 
buildings  Bideford  possesses  several  large  churches  and 
Echpols,  a  union  workhouse,  assembly-rooms,  a  hospital  for 
aged  poor,  a  reading-room,  and  a  literary  and  scientific 
institution.  Bideford  was  already  a  place  of  some  si^e 
under  the  Saxons,  received  the  right  of  holding  a  market 
in  1271,  and  was  made  a  free  borough  in  1573.  In  the 
ICth  and  17th  centuries  it  was  a  place  of  great  trade, 
and  in  some  respects  was  only  exceeded  by  Exeter  and 
London.  The.  weaving  of  silk  was  introduced  in  1650, 
and  after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantos  received 
extensive  development  from  some  French  refugees.  Bide- 
ford now  manufactures  earthen  wares,  ropes,  sails,  and 
leather,  builds  ships,  and  has  a  considerable  trade  both 
domestic  and  foreign.  Vessels  of  500  tons  can  come  up  to 
Its  quay.  It  exports  oak-bark,  grain,  and  its  own  manufac- 
tures, and  imports  timber  from  Canada  and  the  Baltic, 
with  fruits,  wines,  aad  brandies  from  the  south  of  Europe. 
The  value  of  itsiinpc)rt3"was,  in  1873,X13,310.  Anthracite, 
coarse  potters'  clay,  and  a  mineral  paint  are  found  in  the 
neighbourhood.  Population  of  municipal  borough  in  1871, 
C969. 

BIDPAI,  more  commonly  known  under  the  corrupted 
name  of  Pilpay,  is  the  suppo.scd  author  of  a  famous  collec- 
tion of  Hindu  fables.  Nothing  is  known  of  Bidpai  be- 
yond the  name,  which,  ijid«;d,  occurs  only  in  the  Arabic 
version,  but  the  history  of  the  collection  of  stories  is  curious 
'and  interesting  The  origin  of  them  is  undoubtedly  to  bo 
'found  in  the  I'antcha  Tatilra,  or  Five  Sections,  an  exten- 
sive body  of  fables  or  apologues.  A  second  collection, 
called  the  HUnpadeaa,  has  become  more  widely  known  in 
Euro[)o  than  the  first,  on  which  it  is  apparently  founded. 
In  the  6th  century  a.d.,  a  translation  into  Pehlvi  of  a 
number  of  these  old  fables  was  made  by  Barzuyeh,  a  phy- 
sician at  the  court  of  Nushirvan,  king  of  Persia.    No  traces 


of  this  Persian  translation  can  now  be  founa,  but  nearly 
two  centuries  later,  Abdallah-ibn-Mokaffah  translated  the 
Persian  into  Arabic ;  and  his  version,  which  is  known  .13 
the  "Book  of  Kalilah  and  Dirana,"  from  the  two  jackaU 
in  the  first  story,  became  the  channel  through  which  a 
knowledge  of  the  fables  was  transmitted  to  Europe.  It 
was  translated  into  Greek  by  Simeon  Sethus  towards  the 
close  of  the  11th  century;  his  version,  however,  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  retranslated  into  any  other  European 
language.  But  the  Hebrew  version  of  Rabbi  Joel,  made 
somewhat  later,  was  translated  into  Latin  by  John  of  Captia, 
and  in  that  form  oecame  widely  known.  Since  then  the 
fables  have  been  translated  into  nearly  every  European 
tongue.  There  are  also  versions  of  them  in  the  modern 
Persian,  Malay,  Mongol,  and  Afghan  languages. 

See  Wilson's  analysis  of  the  Pantcha  Tantra,  ia  the  Mem  of 
the  Hoi/at  Asiat.  Soc,  i.  ;  De  Sacy's  introduction  to  his  edition  of 
tlie  Kalihih  and  Dimiia,  1816  ;  articles  by  the  same  in  Xotic^si  et 
EjJr.  des  MSS.  de  la  Bib.  diL  Red,  vols.  ix.  and  x.  ;  WoltT,  Sidpai's 
Fabcln,  2  vols.  1837  ;  Loiseleur  des  Longchamps,  Essai  sur  tc9 
Fables  fndiennes,  1838  ;  Benfey,  Pantcha  Tantra,  2  vols.  1859. 

BIEL  (or  in  French  Bienne),  a  town  of  the  canton  of 
Bern,  in  Switzerland,  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Jura 
Mountains,  near  the  northern  end  of  the  lake  to  which  it 
gives  Its  name.  It  is  well  built,  and  possesses  a  town-house 
of  some  antiquity,  a  remarkable  church,  a  hospital,  a  gymna- 
sium, and  an  industrial  school.  There  is  considerable 
industrial  activity  in  Biel,  especially  in  the  manufacture  of 
cotton,  leather,  iron  wire,  and  watches.  Founded  in  the 
11th  or  12th  century,  Biel  continued  under  the  authority 
of  the  bishopric  of  Basel  till  the  beginning  of  the  15th, 
when  it  formed  an  alliance  with  Bern,  Soleure,  and  Freiburg. 
Its  defence  against  the  French  in  1798  is  commemorated 
by  an  obelisk  on  a  neighbouring  eminence.  Its  incorpora- 
tion-with  Basel  dates  from  1815.     Population,  8113. 

BIEL,  Gabriel,  frequently  but  erroneously  styled  the 
last  of  the  scholastics,  was  born  at  Spire  about  the  middia 
of  the  15th  century.  He  Eeld  for  some  time  a  pastoral 
charge  at  Mainz,  and  afterwards  removed  to  Urach.  On 
the  foundation  of  the  University  of  Tubingen  in  1477  he 
was  appointed  to  the  professorship  of  theology,  and  wa.i 
twice  afterwards  promoted  to  the  dignity  of  rector.  Some 
years  before  his  death,  in  1495,  he  entered  a  religious  fra- 
ternity. Biel  was  a  follower  of  William  of  Occam,  and 
professes  only  to  develop  systematically  the  principles  of 
his  master.  His  great  work,  CoUectorium  super  Libros' 
Smit-ntiarum  G.  Occami  (1508,  1512,  and  various  dates),  is 
an  admirably  clear  and  consistent  account  of  the  nominalist 
doct>rine,  and  presents  the  complete  system  of  scholastic 
thought  regarded  from  that  point  of  view.  The  strong 
empirical  individualism  of  the  work,  tending  necessarily 
to  limit  the  province  of  rca.son  and  extend  that  of  faith, 
together  with  scattered  utterances  on  special  points,  which 
gained  for  Biel  the  title  of  Papista  Antipapieta,  had  con- 
siderable influence  in  giving  form  to  the  new  doctrines  of 
Luther  and  Melanchthon.  From  its  lucidity  and  relative 
completeness  Biel's  work  is  the  best  specimen  of  the  final 
aspect  of  scholasticism.  His  other  works  have  also  been 
frequently  reprinted.  With  regard  to  the  title  Uttimiis 
Scholasticontm,  often  bestowed  on  Bid,  it  has  been  pointed 
out  by  all  the  best  authorities  that  such  a  designation  is 
quite  inappropriate  ;  sdiola-sticism  did  not  cease  even  in 
(JeTiuany  with  Biel,  and  it  continued  to  flourish  long  after 
his  time  in  the  universities  of  Spain.  (Stdckl,  Pkil.  </. 
Mitteuih.,  ii.  §269;  Roscher,  Ges.  d.  NaUonalokonomik, 
pp.  21-28.) 

BIELAU,  frequently  distinguished  as  Langcn  Biclau, 
the  longest  village  in  the  Prussian  monarchy.  It  is  situated 
in  thii  government  of  Bruslau  in  Silesia,  on  a  tributary  of 
the  Piela,  and  cxtcuds  for  a  distance  of  rather  more  than 
four  miles.      Its   industrial    cst«lilishment3    nre   numerous 


B  I  E  —  p.  I   E 


GO? 


co<l  importani,  the  coituti  manulactory  alone  employing 
2O00  looms  ;  while  bleaching,  dyeing,  printing,  tile-making, 
aud  sugar-refining  are  all  extensively  carried  on.  There  13 
an  old  castle  in  the  village  belonging  to  Count  Sandreczky. 
Population  in  1871,  13,070. 

BIELAYA  TSEllKOV  (ie..  White  Church),  a  township 
of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Kieff,  32  miles  S.S.W.  of 
Vasilko,  on  the  main  road  from  Kieff  to  the  Crimea,  m  4a° 
47'  N.  lat.  and  30"  7'  E.  long.  First  mentioned  in  1155, 
Bielaya  Tserkov  was  destroyed  during  the  Mongolian  in- 
vasion, but  afterwards  recovered  its  prosperity.  In  1550 
a  castle  was  built  in  the  town  by  Prince  Piunsky,  waiwode 
of  Keiff,  and  various  immunities  were  bestowed  on  the 
inhabitants.  A  Polish  army  occupied  Ihu  place  in  1651, 
and  from  that  time  it  was  alternately  subject  to  Poland  and 
to  independent  hetmans.  In  1774  it  received  a  charter 
fnim  Stanislas  Augustus,  and  in  1 793  was  united  to  Russia. 
The  principal  buildings  of  Bielaya  Tserkov  include  two 
Greek  churches,  one  Roman  Cathohc  church,  two  syna- 
gogues, a  hospital,  and  a  gymnasium  (founded  in  1S46).  In 
commercial  activity  the  town  only  yields  to  Kieff,  Berdicheff, 
and  Uman — the  chief  articles  of  trade  being  cattle  and 
grain.  There  are  eleven  annual  fairs,  three  of  which  last 
for  ten  days  each.  The  sales  at  these  fairs  amount  to  up- 
wards of  £28,000.  Population  in  I860,  12,075,  of  whom 
7319  are  Jews. 

BIELEFELD,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  province  of  West- 
phalia, the  capital  of  a  circle  in  the  government  of  Minderi. 
It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Osning,  and  consists  of  two 
portions,  separated  by  the  River  Lutter,  which  were  first 
united  into  one  town  in  1520.  Among  its  public  buildings 
and  institutions  are  the  old  town  church,  with  a  curious 
carved  altar  piece,  the  town  house,  the  gjninasium,  and  the 
provincial  industrial  school.  On  the  height  above  the  town 
IS  the  old  castle  of  Sparrenberg,  for  a  long  lime  employed  as 
a  prison.  It  was  founded  about  the  12th  century,  and 
originally  bore  the  name  of  Lowenberg.  Bielefeld  is  the 
centre  of  the  Westphalian  linen  trade,  and  contains  exten- 
sive factories  and  bleachfields-.  The  Ravensberg  factory 
has  upwards  of  24,000  spindles,  and  the  Vorwarts,  10,700. 
Tobacco,  glass,  cement,  cast-iron,  leather,  tiles,  4c.,  arc  also 
manufactured  in  the  town.  Bielefeld  is  mentioned  as  early 
as  the  9th  century,  as  BclanielJe,  and  rose  into  importance 
in  the  1 1th  or  12th  as  the  ca)>ital  of  the  countship  of 
Ilavcnsburg.  It  joined  the  Hanseatic  league  in  1270, 
and  about  the  same  time  began  to  engage  in  the  linen 
manufacture,  which  was  greatly  extended  during  the 
16th  and  17th  centuries  by  a  number  of  refugees  from 
the  Netherlands.  In  1666  the  town  passed  with  the  count- 
ship  to  the  duchy  of  Brandenburg.  Population  in  1871, 
21,834. 

Bl  ELEFF,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Tula, 
and  82  miles  from  that  city,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oka, 
in  53°  48'  N.  lat.  and  35°  9'  E.  long.  It  is  first  mentioned 
in  1147  ;  it  belonged  to  Lithuania  in  the  end  of  the  14th 
century  ;  and  iu  1468  it  was  raised  *.o  the  rank  of  a  princi- 
pality, dependent  on  that  country,  by  Basil  Romanovitch, 
'.vho  had  come  thi'her  from  Odocff.  In  the  end  of  the  15th 
century  this  principality  began  to  scpar.Ve  from  Lithuania 
and  attach  itself  to  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Mo.scow ;  and  by 
the  peaceful  treaty  of  Ivan  III.  with  Alexander  the 
Lithuanian  BicletTvas  ultimately  united  to  Russia.  In  the 
16th  century  it  suffered  greatly  from  the  Tatars,  especially 
in  the  years  1507,  1512,  1530,  1536,  and  1544.  In  1538 
Ivan  the  Terrible  exiled  Prince  John  of  Bieleff  to  Vologda, 
and  in  1565  declared  the  lordship  his  own  property.  In 
1607  Nikivitch  Romanoff,  general  of  the  Emperor  Basil 
Ivanovitch,  gained  a  complete  victory  in  ihe  neighbourhood 
igainst  the  rebellious  Prince  Mosalsky.  Transferred  in  1 708 
<tom  ihc  Smolensk  to  the  Kicvan  government.  Bieleff  passed 


in  1719  to  the  Balgorod  district  of  Orloff,  ai,d  in  1777 
was  made  a  departmental  town  of  the  government  of  Tula. 
In  1S2G  the  Empress  Elizabeth  Alexievna  died  in  Bieleff 
on  her  way  from  Taganrog  to  St  Petersburg.  The  buildings 
of  the  town  .nclude  nineteen  churches  and  two  monasteries, 
a  hospital,  a  widow's  asylum,  a  foundling  institution,  an 
almshouse,  a  prison,  and  a  theatre.  A  public  library  was 
founded  in  1858  in  memory  of  Basil  Zhukovsky,  who  was 
born  in  a  neighbouring  village.  The  industrial  establish- 
ments comprise  tallow-boiling  premises,  oil  manufactories,  a 
tannery,  a  sugar-refinery,  a  distillery,  Ac.  In  extent  of  trade 
Bieleff  ranks  next  in  the  government  to  Tula — the  most 
important  articles  being  grain,  hemp,  oil,  and  tallow.  A 
great  fair  is  held  from  the  28th  of  August  to  the  10th  of 
September.  The  population  in  1860  was  8063,  by  far  the 
greater  proportion  belonging  to  the  Greek  Church. 

BIELGOROD  {i.e.,  White  Town),  a  town  of  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  Kursk,  87  miles  S.S.W.  from  that  city, 
in  50°  36'  N.  lat.  and  36°  37'  E.  long.,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  North  Donctz,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Vizelka. 
It  occupies  a  high  chalk  bill,  from  which  are  annually 
quarried  about  112  tons.  The  dale  of  the  founding  of 
Uielgorod  is  uncertain,  because  it  has  been  confounded  with 
two  other  places  of  the  same  name.  In  Karamsin's  Historic 
it  is  mentioned  that  Ihe  Grand  Duke  Theodore  Ivanovitch 
in  1593  sent  to  found  Biclgorod  on  the  ruins  of  Siever  ; 
and  it  is  certain  that  ancient  remains  are  still  to  be  seen  in 
this  cily.  In  the  17th  century  Bielgorod  suffered  ceaselessly 
from  Tatar  incursions,  against  which,  by  conptind  of  the 
Emperor  Michael  Theodorovilch,  there  was  built  (from 
1633  to  1740)  an  earthen  wall,  ^^^th  twelve  forts,  extending 
upwards  of  200 miles  from  the  Vorskla  to  the  Don.  The.<* 
defences  were  called  the  Bielgorod  line,  along  which,  in  the 
reign  of  Alexias  Michaelovitch,  there  were  settled  emigrantt 
from  Cherkas,  Zimbar,  Corsun,  and  elsewhere.  In  16C6 
an  episcopal  see  was  established  in  the  town,  and  the 
archbishops  lived  there  till  1833,  when  they  were  trans- 
ferred to  Kursk.  In  1779  Bielgorod  was  made  the  chief 
town  of  a  circle  in  the  Kursk  government.  There  are  twc 
cathedral  churches  in  the  place.  Trinity  and  Assumption, 
both  built  in  the  16th  century,  as  well  as  fifteen  other 
churches,  two  monasteries,  a  theological  seminary,  an  alms- 
house, and  a  hospital.  In  1862  a  bank  was  established 
with  a  capi'-il  of  between  £10,000  and  £15,000.  Only  a 
lew  of  the  houses  are  built  of  stone.  Wax-candles,  tallow- 
candles,  leather,  soap,  and  bricks  »re  mauufacturcd,  and  a 
considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  grain  and  cattle.  There 
are  three  annual  fairs  on  the  lOlh  Friday  after  Easter,  the 
29th  June,  and  15lh  August  respectively.  Population  ib 
1860,  1 1,722,  almost  all  belonging  to  the  Greek  Church. 

BIELITZ,  a  town  of  Austrian  Silesia  in  the  circle  of 
Teschcn,  on  the  Biala  River,  a  sub-tributary  of  the  Vistula, 
ind  opposite  the  Galician  town  of  Biala,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  a  bridge.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  superin- 
tendent of  all  the  Protestants  in  Moravia,  and  the  residence 
of  the  Sulkowsky  family,  in  favour  of  whom  the  lordship 
of  Bielitz  was  raised  to  a  duchy  in  1754.  The  castle  is  a 
fine  building  of  some  antiquity,  surrounded  by  a  beautiful 
park.  The  principal  industries  of  the  town  arc  the  spin- 
ning of  flax  and  the  printing  and  dyeing  of  cloth,  the  last 
especially  being  carried  on  with  great  success.  A  valuable 
traffic  is  maintained  not  only  in  the  produce  of  the  factories 
but  also  in  Hungarian  wine  and  Galician  salt.  The  town 
was  founded  in  the  13th  century,  and  in  the  15lh  and  16th 
was  a  fortified  place.  It  is  connected  by  means  of  a 
branch  line  with  the  Kaiser  Ferdinand  Northern  Railwav. 
Population  in  1869,  10,721. 

lilELLA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Novam.  3S 
miles  N.E.  of  Turin,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rniL 
It  is  built  partly  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  and  parllj  on  tlif 


0(58 


B  I  E  — B  I  G 


banks  of  two  small  streams  called  tie  Cervo  and  Aurena, — 
the  palatial  old  houses  of  the  upper  portion  being  now 
inhabited  by  the  poorer  classes.  Several  of  the  streets 
have  arcades  along  the  sides.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
and  has  a  cathedral,  an  episcopal  palace,  and  a  theological 
seminary.  The  principal  industries  are  the  manufacture  of 
cloth  and  paper,  and  the  trade  consi.=;ts  mainly  in  oil, 
chestnuts,  and  silk.     Population  in  1870,  11,935. 

BIELOPOLT,  a  town  of  Russia  in  the  government  of 
Kharkoff,  near  the  Vuira  and  Kriuga,  37  miles  N.W.  from 
the  town  of  Sum,  in  51°  9'  N.  lat.,  and  34°  19'  E  long. 
It  was  founded  in  1672.  A  very  extensive  trade  in  wheat, 
salted  fish,  salt,  pitch,  and  timber  is  carried  on  by  the 
inhabitants,  who  number  upwards  of  12,000. 

BIELOSTOK  (in  Polish  Bialvstok),  a  town  of  Russia, 
ifj  the  government  of  Grodno,  in  53^  S'  N.  lat.  and  23"  9' 
E.  long.,  50  miles  S.W.  of  Grodno  on  the  River  Biela,  a 
tributary  of  the  Suprasla.  Founded  in  the  14th  century  it 
■was  long  an  important  proprietary  village  belonging  to  the 
Veselovskis.  In  the  ,17th  century  it  passed  to  the 
Branetskis,  at  whose  solicitation  Augustus  III.,  in  1749, 
raised  it  to  the  rank  of  a  borough  and  gave  it  civic  rights. 
This  increased  its  prosperity,  and  after  the  third  partition  of 
Poland  in  1793,  the  Prussian  Government,  to  wl;om  it  had 
been  assigned,  made  it  the  seat  of  an  administrative 
department.  By  the  peace  of  Tilsit  in  1807,  Bielostok 
was  given  to  Russia  along  with  the  department  of  the  same 
name,  which  in  1808  was  divided  into  the  four  districts  of 
Bielostok,  Bielsk,  Sokol,  and  Drogotchin.  The  public 
buildings  of  Bielostok  comprise  a  Greek  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  church,  several  synagogues,  a  hospital,  a  castle 
(used  as  a  prison),  a  gymnasium,  an  institution  for  the 
daughters  of  the  nobility,  and  various  other  schools.  There 
are  three  cloth  factories  and  an  extensive  brewery  ;  cotton 
and  woolspfnning  are  both  carried  on,  and  leather,  oil,  soap, 
and  tallow  are  manufactured.  There  is  also  an  important 
trade  in  grain,  wood,  and  various  industrial  articles.  In 
1860  the  population  was  16,544,  no  fewer  than  11,288 
being  Jews. 

BIENHOA,  the  capital  of  one  of  the  six  provinces  of 
Lower  Cochin-China,  situated  about  20  miles  to  the  north- 
west of  Saigon,  on  a  canal  that  connects  it  with  that  city. 
It  was  captured  by  the  French  admiral  Bonard  in  1861, 
and  is  now  one  of  the  fortified  posts  in  the  French  posses- 
sions. Sugar-mills  were  started  in  1869  by  an  English 
company  ;  but,  owing  to  the  jealousy  of  the  Anamites, 
they  had  soon  to  be  closed.  '  The  population  of  the 
"  Inspection  "  of  Bienhoa  is  19,260. 

BIEZHETZ,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of 
Tver,  and  181  miles  from  that  city,  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Mologa,  in  57°  46'  N.'  lat.  and  36°  43' E.  long. 
On  the.  left  bank  of  the  river  lies  the  suburban  village  of 
Shtap,  chiefly  inhabited  by  the  lower  orders.  Biezhetz  is 
mentioned  in  the  chronicles  of  1137.  On  the  fall  of 
Novgorod,  to  which  it  had  belonged,  it  was  incorporated 
with  the  grand-duchy  of  Moscow  ;  and  in  1771  it  was 
added  to  the  government  of  Tver.  Candles,  leather,  brandy, 
beer,  flour,  malt,  oil,  and  bricks  are  all  manufactured  ;  but 
a  more  importaut  branch  of  industry  is  the  making  of  bags 
for  grain  and  flour.  There  are  two  v^eekly  markets  and 
two  annual  fairs.     Population  in  I860,  5423. 

BIGAMY,  according  to  the  statute  now  in  force  (24  and 
25  Vict.  c.  100,  §  57),  is  the  offence  committed  by  a  person 
who  "  being  married  shall  marry  any  other  person  during 
the  life  of  the  former  husband  or  wife."  In  the  canon 
law  the  word  had  a  rather  wider  meaning,  and  the  marriage 
of  a  widow  came  within  its  scope.  At  the  Council  of  Lyons 
(1274  A.D.)  bigamists  were  stripped  of  their  privilege  of 
clergy.  This  canon  vaa  adopted  and  explained  by  the 
English  statute  4  Edward  I.  st.  3,  c.  5  ;  and  bigamy,  there- 


fore, became  a  usual  counterplea  to  the  claim  of  hen^Jii  of 
clergy.     However,   by  1   Edward   VI.  c.   12,  §  16,  every 
person  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  clergy  is  to  be  allowed  the 
same,    "  although  he  hath  been  divers  times  married  to 
any  single  woman  or  single  women,  or  to  any  widow  or 
widows,  or  to  two  wives  or  more."   A  bigamous  marriage,  by 
the  ecclesiastical  law  of  England,  is  simply  void.     By  the 
statute  1  James  I.  c.  11,  confirmed  by  later  statutes,  the 
offence  was  made  a  felony.     It  is  immaterial  whether  the 
second   marriage    has   taken   place   within    England  and 
Ireland  or  elsewhere,  and  the  offence  may  be  dealt  with  in 
any  county  or  place  where  the  defendant  shall  be  appre- 
hended or  be  in  custody.     The  following  clause  embodies 
the  necessary  exceptions  to  the  very  general  language  used 
in  the  definition  of  the  ofTence  : — "  Provided  that  nothing 
in    this   section    contained    shall   extend   to   any   second 
marriage  contracted  elsewhere  than  in  England  and  Ireland 
by  any  other  than  a  subject" of  Her  Majesty,  or  to  any 
person  marrying   a  second  time  whose  husband  or  wife 
shall  have  been  continuously  absent  from  such  person  for 
the  space  of  seven  years  then  last  past,  and  shall  not  have 
been  known  by  such  person  to  be  livifag  within  that  time, 
or  shall   extend  to  any  person   who  at  the  time  of  such 
secoud  marriage  shall  have  been  divorced  from  the  bond 
of   the  first   marriage,   or  to   any   person    whose   former 
marriage  shall  have  been  declared  void  by  any  court  of 
competent  jurisdiction."     The  punishment  is  penal  servi- 
tude for  not  more  than  seven  nor  less  than  five  years,  or 
imprisonment  with  or  without  hard  labour,  not   exceeding 
two  years.     A  valid  marriage  must  be  proved  in  the  first 
instance   in   order   to  support  a   charge   of   bigamy.     A 
voidable  marriage,  such  as  were  marriages  between  persons 
within  the  prohibited  degrees  before  5  and  6  Will.  IV.  c. 
54,  will  be  sufiicient,  but  a  marriage  which  is  absolutely 
void,  as  all  such  marriages  now  are,  will  not.     For  example, 
if  a     Oman  marry  B  during  the  lifetime  of  her  husband  A, 
and  after  A's  death  marry  C  during  the  lifetime  of  B,  her 
marriage  with  C  is  not  bigamous,  because  her  marriage 
with  B  was  a  nullity.    In  regard  to  the  second  marriage 
(which    constitutes  the  offence)  the  English  courts   have 
held  that  it  is  immaterial  whether,  but  for  the  bigamy,  it 
would  have  been  a  valid  marriage  or  not.     An  uncle,  fur 
example,   cannot  marry  his   niece ;   but  if  being  already 
married  he  goes  through  the  ceremony  of  marriage  with, 
her  he  is  guilty  of  bigamy.     In  an  Irish  case,  however,  it 
has  been  held   that  to   constitute  the  offence  the  second 
marriage  must  be  one  which,  but  for  the  existence  of  the 
former  marriage,  would  have  been  valid.     ^Vith  reference 
to  the  case  in  which  the  parties  to  the  first  marriage  have 
been  divorced,  it  may  be  observed  that  no  sentence  or  act 
of  any  foreign  country  can  dissolve  an  English  marriage  a 
vinculo  for  grounds  on  which  it  is  not  liable  to  be  dissolved 
a  vinculo  in  England  (R.  v.  Lolley,  in  RusseU  and  Ryan's 
Criminal   Cases,   237).     Hence,   a  divorce  a  vinculo  for 
adultery,  in  a  Scotch  court,  of  persons  married  in  England 
is  not  within  the  statute. 

In  Scotland,  at  the  date  of  the  only  statute  respecting 
bigamy,  that  of  1551,  cap.  19,  the  offence  seems  to  have 
been  chiefly  considered  in  a  religious  point  of  view,  as  a  sort 
of  perjury,  or  violation  of  the  solemn  vow  or  oath  which 
was  then  used  in  contracting  marriage ;  and,  accordingly, 
it  was  ordained  to  be  puni.sbcd  with  the  proper  pains  of 
perjury.  But  this  injunction  has  not  in  every  instance 
been  complied  with  ;  and,  from  considerations  of  policy 
or  expediency,  the  court  has  long  been  in  the  habit  of  in- 
flicting an  arbitrary  punishment,  suited,  as  nearly  as  may 
be,  to  the  degree  of  guilt  brought  home  to  the  prisoner. 
Neither  marriage  need  bo  regular,  but  it  is  not  yet  settled 
whether  a  marriage  constituted  by  habit  and  repute,  or  1 
promise  subseqvente  copula,  can  be  relevantly  libelled  in 


B  I  G  — B  I  J 


HGO 


cTisrge  of  bigamy.  The  parties  to  the  first  marriage  must, 
of  course,  have  beeu  lawfully  entitled  to  marry.  It  is  a 
good  defence  that  the  accused  was  dirorced  from  hu  first 
wife  before  contracting  the  second  marriage,  even  though 
the  decree  should  afterwanls  have  been  set  aside,  unless  it 
has  been  obtained  corruptly  and  set  aside  for  that  reason. 
It  is  also  a  good  defence  that,  at  the  time  of  contracting 
the  second  marriage,  the  accused  had  reasonable  grounds 
for  believing  the  other  spouse  to  be  dead.  To  constitute 
the  crime  of  bigamy,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  second 
marriage  should  be  such  that,  but  for  the  fust  marriage,  it 
would  have  been  legal  The  punishment  is  imprisonment, 
and  occasionally  penal  servitude. 

BIONON,  Jeuome,  a  French  lawyer,  was  born  at  Paris 
in  \diO.  Ho  was  uncommonly  precocious,  and  under  his 
father's  tuition  had  acquired  an  immense  mass  of  knowledge 
before  he  waS  ten  years  of  age.  In  1600  was  published  a 
work  by  him  entitled  C horographie,  on  Description  de  la 
Terre  Sainle.  The  great  reputation  gained  by  this  book 
introduced  the  author  to  Henry  IV.,  who  placed  him  for 
some  time  as  a  companion  to  the  duke  of  Vendome,  and 
afterwards  made  him  tutor  to  the  Dauphin.  In  IGO-t  he 
wrote  his  Discourse  on  the  City  of  Rome,  &nA  in  the  follow- 
ing year  his  Summary  Treatise  on  the  Election  of  the  Pope. 
He  then  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  law,  wrote  in 
1610  a  treatise  on  the  precedency  of  the  kings  of  France, 
which  gave  great  satisfaction  to  Henry  IV.,  and  in  1613 
edited,  with  I'arnod  notes,  the  Formulce  of  the  jurist  Mar- 
culfe.  Iq  10-0  he  was  made  advocate-general  to  the  grand 
council,  and  i;.ortly  afterwards  a  councillor  of  state,  and 
io  1626  he  b;;am9  advocate-general  to  the  parliament  of 
Paris.  In  K'rl  he  resigned  his  official  dignity,  and  in 
1642  was  appointed  by  Richelieu  to  the  charge  of  the  royal 
library      He  died  in  1656. 

BIQORDI,  DoME.vico.    See  Ghirlaj^daio. 

B[JAIN"AQAR,  or  Bijan.^oar,  an  ancient  city  in  the 
Boutb  of  India,  oaco  the  capita!  of  a  great  Hindu  empire, 
but  now  in  ruins,  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Tumbhadrii  River,  directly  opposite  to  Annagundi,  in  15° 
19'  N.  lat.  and  76°  32'  E.  long.  The  city  has  been 
enclosed  with  strong  stone  walls  on  the  east  side,  and  is 
bounded  by  the  river  on  the  west,  the  circumference  of  the 
whole  appearing  to  be  about  eight  miles.  The  streets  of  this 
city,  from  30  to  40  yards  wide,  can  be  traced  between  the 
immense  piles  of  rocks  crowned  with  pagodas ;  and  one 
street  yet  remains  perfect.  The  building  of  this  metro- 
polis was  begun  in  1336.  Between  the  kings  of  the 
principality,  of  which  it  was  the  capital,  and  the  Mahometan 
sovereigns  of  the  Deccan  constant  hostility  was  maintained. 
In  1564  RAm  lUji,  the  king  of  Bijaiiiagar,  was  totally 
overthrown  on  the  plains  of  TelikotA,  by  a  combination  of 
the  four  Mahometan  sovereigns  of  the  Deccan,  who  imme- 
diately marched  to  the  metropolis,  which  they  abandoned 
to  pillage.     From  that  time  it  has  lain  in  ruins. 

BIJ.XPUR,  or  BiJAiPUR,  in  Southern  India,  the  ancient 
capital  of  an  independent  sovereignty  of  the  same  name, 
and  once  an  extensive,  splendid,  and  opulent  city\  but  now 
retaining  only  the  vestiges  of  its  former  grandeur.  It  is 
situated  in  a  fertile  plain,  in  16°  50'  N.  lat.  and  75°  48'  E. 
long.,  and  is  a  place  of  great  extent,  consisting  of  three  dis- 
tinct portions — the  citadel,  the  fort,  and  the  remains  of  the 
city.  The  cil.adel,  a  milo  in  circuit,  is  a  place  of  great 
strength,  well  built  of  the  most  massive  materials,  and  en- 
corn  passed  by  a  ditch  1 00  yards  wide,  formerly  supplied  with 
water,  but  now  nearly  filled  up  with  rubbish,  so  that  its 
original  dtpth  cannot  bo  discovered.  It  was  built  in  1480, 
by  Yusaf  Adil  Sh.ih,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  BijApur. 
The  fort  consists  of  a  rampart  flanked  by  numerous  towers, 
a  ditch,  and  a  covered  way.  Its  defences,  which  are  not  less 
than  six  miles   io  circumference,  were  completed  by  Ali 


Adil  Sh4h  in  1506.  'iTio  interior  formerly  contained  tho 
king's  palace,  the  houses  of  the  nobility,  large  magazines, 
and  extensive  gardens.  At  present,  though  considcrablo 
portions  of  the  area  are  covered  with  buildings  or  ruins, 
there  is  room  for  corn-fields  and  extensive  enclosures. 
Outside  the  fort  are  remains  of  a  vast  city,  now  for  the 
most  part  in  ruins,  but  the  innumerable  tombs,  mosques, 
caravanserais,  and  other  edifices,  whicb  have  resisted  tho 
havoc  of  time,  afford  abundant  evidence  of  tho  ancient 
splendour  of  the  place.  It  is  asserted  by  the  natives  that 
BijApur  contained,  according  to  authentic  records,  1600 
mosques  and  nearly  1,000,000  houses.  The  number  of 
houses  is  certainly  overrated  ;  that  of  the  mosques,  in  tha 
opinion  of  recent  travellers,  is  no  exaggera'tion.  The  outer 
wall  of  the  city  on  the  western  side  runs  nearly  south 
and  north,  and  is  of  great  extent.  It  is  built  of  stone,  is 
of  prodigious  thickness,  and  is  about  20  feet  in  height,  with 
a  ditch  and  rampart;  and  at  intervals  of  100  yards  are 
capacious  towers,  built  of  large  hewn  stones.  The  whole  is 
now  in  a  ruinous  condition, — the  wall  and  the  towers  having 
in  many,  places  fallen  into  the  ditch,  and  in  other  parlj 
being  covered  with  rubbish.  Several  mosques  and  mauso- 
leums, adorned  with  all  the  embellishments  of  Eastern 
architecture,  are  still  to  bo  seen  in  BijApur.  The  fort  in 
the  interior  is  adorned  with  many  of  these  edifices,  in 
rather  better  preservation  than  the  outworks.  Among  these 
is  the  great  mosque,  which  is  97  yards  long  by  55  broad. 
The  wings,  which  are  15  yards  broad,  project  73  yards  from 
the  north  and  south  ends,  enclosing  on  three  sides,  with 
the  body  of  the  mosque,  a  large  reservoir  of  water  and  a 
fountain.  The  mausoleum  of  Sultan  Muhammad  Shah  is 
a  plain  building,  153  feet  square,  over  which  is  reared  a 
dome  117  feet  in  diameter  at  its  greatest  concavity,  and 
called  by  the  natives  the  grand  cupola.  Tho  mosque  and 
mausoleum  of  Ibrahim  Adil  Sh.-ih,  king  of  BijApur,  which 
was  probably  completed  about  the  year  1 620,  is  said  to  have 
cost  £1,700,000,  and  to  have  occupied  thirty-six  years  in  its 
construction.  It  is  built  on  a  basement  1 30  yards  in  length 
by  5  2  in  breadth,  and  raised  1 5  feet.  On  this  is  a  plain  build- 
ing, 1 15  feet  by  76,  covered  by  an  immense  dome  raised  on 
arches.  The  mausoleum  is  a  room  57  feet  square,  enclosed 
by  two  verandahs,  13  feet  in  breadth  and  22  feet  in  height. 
There  are,  besides,  many  other  public  buildings  more  or 
less  injured  by  time  and  the  violence  of  the  Marhattis.  ^ 
Almost  all  the  buildings,  the  palaces  of  the  fort  excepted, 
are  of  massive  stone,  and  in  the  most  durable  style ;  and 
at  the  same  time  the  workmanship  is  minutely^  elegant. 
Among  the  curiosities  of  the  capital  is  the  celebrated 
monster  gun,  stated  to  be  the  largest  piece  of  cast  brass 
ordnance  in  the  world.  It  was  captured  from  the  king  of- 
Ahmadnagar  by  the  king  of  Bij-Apur  about  the  middle  of 
the  17th  century.  An  inscription  on  tho  gun  recording 
that  fact  was  eiazed  by  Aurangzcb,  who  substituted  the 
present  inscription,  stating  that  ho  conquered  Bij.Apur  in 
1085.  The  city  is  well  watered,  having,  besides  numerous 
wells,  several  rivulets  running  through  it. 

After  the  dissolution  of  the  great  BAhmani  dynasty  of  tho 
Deccan  in  1489,  a  race  of  iud;pendent  sovereigns  arose, 
who  ruled  over  tha  new  kingdom  of  Bijnpur,  extending 
on  tho  east  from  the  couflucn  ;e  of  the  Bhimi  and  the 
Krishii.i  to  the  sea-coast,  on  the  West  from  Ooa  to  Bombay. 
Their  rule  endured  through  several  generations,  until  at 
length,  in  1050,  ShAh  JahAn  compelled  them  to  become 
tributary  to  the  empire  ;.and  shortly  after,  their  monarchy 
was  totally  subverted  by  his  successor  Aurangzeb.  The 
city  and  territory  of  BijApur  remained  annexed  to  Dehli 
till  1724,  when  the  Nizdra  established  his  independence  in 
the  Deccan,  and  included  BijApur  within  his  dominions. 
His  sway  over  this  porlion  of  his  acquisitions,  was,  how 
ever,  of  brief  duration  ;  for,  being  defeated  by  tho  PcsbwA 


070 


B  I  J  -  B  I  L 


io  17C0.  he  was  constrained  to  purchase  peace  by  its 
cession  to  the  MarhattAs.  Upon  the  fall  of  the  Peshw4 
in  1818,  Bijipur  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  and 
•was  by  them  included  in  the  territory  assigned  to  the  RAjil 
of  SatirA. 

The  place,  as  already  intimated,  is  rich  in  monumetiwj 
of  the  bygone  period  when  Bij.'lpur  was  the  capital  of  a 
powerful  and  flourishing  Mahometan  kingdom.  Such 
traces  of  the  past  it  is  always  desirable  to  preserve  to  the 
greatest  possible  extent,  as  they  furnish  the  best  com- 
mentary upon  the  history  of  the  times  in  which  they  were 
raised,  and,  indeed,  constitute  their  history,  so  far  as 
manners  are  concerned.  It  is  fortunate  that  their  value 
was  duly  appreciated  by  the  late  KAjA  of  SatirA,  who  took 
great  pains  to  preserve  them;  and  that  the  British  Govern- 
ment, participating  in  the  same  feeling,  has,  since  the 
country  passed  into  its  possession,  manifested  great  zeal 
in  rescuing  these  magnificent  relics  from  the  ravages  of 
time.  Bijdpur  is  distant  130  miles  S.E.  of  Satara,  and 
245  S.E.  of  Bombay. 

BIJNAUR,  a  district  of  British  India,  under  the  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor of  the  North-West  Provinces,  lying  be- 
tween 29°  r  and  29°  58'  N.  lat,,  and  78°  1'  and  78°  55' 
E.  long.,  is  bounded  on  the  N.E.  bj  the  British  district  of 
Garhwal,  on  the  E.  and  S.E  by  the  British  district  of 
MoridibAd,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  British  districts  of 
Mirat,  Muzaffarnagar,  and  SahAranpnr.  The  aspect  of 
the  country  is  generally  a  level  plain,  but  the  northern 
part  of  it  rises  towards  the  HiraAlayas,  the  greatest  eleva- 
tion being  1342  feet  above  the  sea-level  The  Koh  and 
RAmgangA  are  the  only  streams  that  flow  through  the 
district. 

Population  in  1872,  737,152  souls,  inhabiting  158.583  houses, 
•ind  2002  villages  or  townships  Area  of  tlie  district,  1902  square 
iiiUes  J  persons  per  square  mile,  388 ;  per  village,  358  ;  and  per 
house,  4  8.  The  Hindus  numbered  493,601,  or  67  per  cent,  of  the 
total  population;  Mahometans,  243,455,  or  S3  per  cent.;  and 
Christians  and  others  of  unspecified  religions,  96  souls.  Of  the  area 
of  the  district  (namely,  190294  square  miles),  1036'14  square 
miles  are  under  cultivation  ;  432  C3  square  miles  cultivable,  but 
not  actually  under  cultivation  ;  and  the  remainder  uncultivable 
waste.  Principal  crops  ; — Sugar-cane,  cotton,  rice,  pulses,  oil-seeds, 
pnd  different  kinds  of  millet.  Principal  lines  of  road  : — (1.)  Najib- 
at>dd  to  Hardwar  and  Srinagar  ;  (2.)  fih'rat  to  Bijnaur,  Kiratpur, 
and  Najibdbdd  ;  (3.)  Bijnaur  to  NagindanH  Bardpur  ;  (4.)  Naiib.ttdd 
to  Nagind,  Nehtaur,  Chdndpur,  and  Baslitd  ;  (5.)  Jloridabdd  to 
Sahora,  Nagind,  and  Najibdbdd  ;  and  (6.)  Nurpur  to  Dhdmpur, 
Sherkot,  and  Afzalj^ash,  on  to  Kal.dgash.  In  1870-71,  the  total 
revenue  of  Bijnaur  district  amounted  to  £143,958,  of  which  £127,316, 
or  88  per  cent.,  was  derived  from  land.  For  the  protection  of 
person  and  property,  a  regular  police  force  of  436  strong  is  main- 
tained, eiclusive  ot  tlievillage  watch.  In  1872-73,  Bijnaur  district 
contained  334  schools,  attended  by  5819  pupils.  The  following 
thirteen  towns  contain  a  population  exceeding  5000  souls ( — (1.) 
Bijnaur,  the  lioadqiiartrra  town  of  the;  district,  in  29°  22'  36"  N.  lot, 
and  70°  10'  30"  E.  long.;  population,''l2,8C5  ;  municipal  income  in 
1572,  £1040, 16s. ;  expenditure,  £681,  8s.;  rale  of  taxation.  Is.  7  Jd. 
per  head-  (2.)  Siolidrd,  population,  8340;  municipal  income, 
i.94,  183,  4d  :  expenditure,  £83,  8s.  6d. :  (3.1  Sdhaspur,  population, 
6309;  not  a  nuinicipalt  own:  (4.)  Najibdbad,  population,  17,418, 
municipal  revenue,  £1584,  43. ;  expenditure,  £1425,  I6s.-  (5.)  Shir- 
kot,  po|iulation,  12,586  ;  municipal  revenuc,£173,  14s,  6d. ;  expen- 
diture. £130,  17s.  4d.;  (6.)  Dhdmpur,  population,  6555;  muni- 
cipal revenue.  £521,  16s.;  expenditure,  £429,  12s.:  (7.)  Mondiwar, 
population,  7622;  municipal  revenue,  £66,  19s.  3d.;  cxi'cndilurc, 
I.II5,  13s.  8d.:  (8.)  Afzalgash,  population,  8,350;  municipal  re- 
venue, £100,  Is,  Id.;  expenditure,  £115,  18s.  lid.:  (9.)  Nahlnr, 
population,  9392;  municipal  revenue,  £147,  8s.  Id.;  expenditure, 
£84,  33.  7d.:  (10.)  Jalidlu,  populnlion,  0979  ;  not  a  municipal  town: 
(II.)  Chdndpur,  population,  12,033  ;  municipal  income,  £506,  ISs,  ; 
expenditure,  £378,  2s.;  (12.)  Nagind,  population,  19,696;  municipal 
income,  £925,  123.;  expenditure,  £779,  16s.:  (13.)  Kiratpur,  popu- 
lation, 9579  ;  municipal  income,  £117.  14s.;  expenditure,  £91,  123. 

Until  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century  Bijnaur  belonged  to  the 
brnvc  Iloliilla  Afgh.ans,  whose  subjugation  forms  so  deep  a  blot  on 
flic  ciiricr  of  Warren  II»slings.  lu  1774  the  mercenai-y  arms  of 
Brit.iiri  Kubjecti-d  lliis  pcorilo  to  the  oppressive  nili!  of  the  Niiwdb 
of  Oiidh,  who  in  turn  ceded  the  district  to  the  Kast  India  Coni- 
|>onv  in  1802, 


EIKANIR,  a  native  state  of  R;ijput.1nA,  under  ti... 
political  superintendence  of  the  British  Goveinmrnt.  lies 
between  27°  30'  and  29°  55'  N.  lat.,  and  72°  30'  and  75° 
40'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  th^  Panjab,  on 
the  E.  by  the  British  districts  of  Handni  and  »ShekAwati, 
on  the  S.  by  the  native  state  of  Jodhpur  or  MArwAr,  and 
on  the  \V.  by  the  native  states  of  Jasalmt^r  and  BhAwalpur 
Length  of  the  state  from  E.  toW.  200  miles  ;  breadth,  ICO 
miles,  area,  17,676  square  miles.  The  natural  aspect  of 
the  country  is  one  desolate  tract,  without  a  single  per- 
manently running  stream.  Its  surface  is  overspread  wilh 
undulating  sand-hills,  of  from  20  to  100  feet  above  the 
average  level,  and  so  loose  that  men  and  quadrupeds 
stepping  off  the  beaten  track  sink  as  if  in  snow  Two 
streams,  the  Kituri  and  GAgar  attempt  to  flow  through  this 
dismal  region,  but  are  lost  in  its  sands.  Water  is  very 
scarce,  and  is  raised  from  wells  of  from  250  to  340  feet 
in  depth.  A  few  shallow  salt  lakes  are  filled  by  rain  water, 
but  they  dry  up  on  the  setting  in  of  hot  weather,  leaving 
a  thick  crust  of  salt  on  their  beds^  which  is  used  for 
commercial  and  domestic  purposes.  The  population  of 
the  state  has  been  estimated  at  539,000,  consisting  chrefiy 
of  JAts,  EAjputs  (to  which  race  the  chief  belongs),  and  other 
Hindu  tribes,  inhabiting  1814  villages,  which,  according  to 
Elphinstone,  are  composed  of  "  a  few  round  huts  of  straw, 
with  low  walls  and  conical  roofs,  like  little  stacks  of  corn  " 
Bajrd  and  moth  (two  species  of  millet)  and  water  melons  are 
almost  the  only  agricultural  products.  The  inhabitants 
are  very  poor  They  live  chiefly  by  pasturage, — rearing 
camels,  and  horses  of  a  fine  breed,  which  fetch  good  prices 
From  the  wool  which  their  sheep  yield  fliey  manufacture 
every  article  of  native  dress  and  good  blankets.  The  other 
industries  are  leather  work,  sugar-refining,  goldsmith's  work, 
iron,  brass,  copper,  stone  masonry,  tanning,  weaving, 
dyeing,  and  caipentry.  In  1870-71  the  total  revenue 
amounted  to  £111,546,  and  the  expenditure  to -£123,196. 
The  state  is  in  debt,  and  is  said  to  be  badly  managed,  the 
present  MahArAjA  being  entirely  guided  by  favourites.  The 
military  force  of  the  state  amounts  to  5000  regulars,  horse 
and  foot.  BikAnir  was  invaded  by  the  adventurer  George 
Thomas  in  1799,  who  levied  from  the  EAjA  a  black  mail 
of  £20,000.  The  RAjA  entered  into  a  treaty  of  dependence 
with  the  British  Government  in  1818  Principal  towrs — 
BikAnir,  the  capital,  Churu,  RAjgarh,  Eatangarh,  and  Eeni. 
The  town  of  BikAnir  is  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall,  G  feet 
thick,  15  to  30  feet  high,  and  3J  miks  in  circuit,  with  five 
gates  and  three  sally-ports  Estimated  population.  60.000. 
The  citadel  is  half  a  mile  north-east  of  the  city,  and  is 
surrounded  by  a  rampart  with  bastions. 

BILASPUR,  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Central  ' 
Provinces,  forms  the  northern  section  of  Ihe  Chhattisgarh 
plateau,  and  is  situated  between  21°  45'  nnd  23°  10'  N. 
lat.  and  81°  30'  and  83°  15'  E.  long  It  is  bounded  on 
Ihe  N.  by  the  native  states  of  EewA  and  KoriA  ;  on  the  E. 
by  the  Udaijiur  tributary  state  of  ChhotA  Ndgpur,  and  the 
di.'.trict  of  yambalpur  ;  en  the  S.  by  the  RAipur  district  ; 
.ind  on  the  W.  by  the  hilly  tracts  of  MandIA  and  BAlAghAt. 
Extreme  length  of  the  district  north  and  south,  106  miles ; 
extunie  breadth  from  cast  to  west,  136  miles;  area,  7798 
square  miles.  BilAspur  district  forms  the  upper  half  of  the  ' 
basin  of  the  River  MahAnadi.  It  is  almost  enclosed  on 
the  north,  west,  and  cast  by  ranges  of  liills,  while  its 
soulheni  boundary  is  generally  open  and  accessible,  well 
cultivated,  and  closely  dotted  with  villages  embedded  in 
groups  of  fruit  trees.  The  principal  hills  arc— (1),  the 
MaikAl  range,  situated  in  tlie  north  western  extremity  of 
the  district ;  (2),  a  chain  of  hills  formmg'imrt  of  tho  Vind- 
hyan  range,  on  the  north  ;  (3),  the  Korb.i  hills,  nn  offshoot 
of  the  Viiiilhy!is,  on  tho  eastern  boundiiry,  and  (4),  the 
K'^n.'ikliin  blo<'''  of  >>'ls.  in  tl"»  vViuilv  hf  the  MaliAn.idi 


B  I   L  A  «  P  U   K 


H71 


River.  The  Maliioa  !i  is  the  princiiul  river  of  tLe  district, 
and  governs  the  whole  drainage  and  river  system  of  the 
surrounding  country.  It  takes  its  rise  in  a  mountain- 
ous region  which  is  described  as  the  wddest  of  ail  wild  parts 
of  the  Central  Provinces,  crosses  the  liili-ipur  boundary 
near  Seorliiiriin,  and  after  a  course  of  25  miles  in  the 
southeastern  extremity  of  tho  district  enters  Sambalpur 
district.  Within' Bilispur  the  river  is  everywhere  navigable  ' 
for  SIX  months  in  the  year.  Minor  rivers — tho  SakrI, 
Himp,  Tesu4,  Agar,  Maniiri,  Arp.'i,  Kharod,  I^iligar,  .loiik, 
and  Barerl.  The  most  important  allluenlsof  the  Mahilnadi 
ara  the  Seonath  and  Hasdu.  Besides  the  natural  water 
supply  afforded  by  the  rivers,  Bilispur  abounds  in  tanks, — 
lliese  numbering  7018,  as  shown  in  the  settlement  stat'.stic.i. 
The  census  of  1872  disclosed  a  total  population  of  715,308, 
of  whom  435,379,  or  60  8G  per  cent.,  are  Hindus ;  7024,  or 
98  per  cent.,  Mahometans;  6  Buddhists;  37  Christians; 
and  272,952,  or  38  15  per  cent.,  belong  to  aboriginal 
tribes,  such  as  Oonds,  Kanwars,  Bhumias,  Biujwars, 
DhanwArs,  &c  Among  the  Hindus,  the  ChAmirs  and 
Paukis  deserve  particular  notice.  The  former,  who  form 
the  shoemaker  and  leather-dealing  caste  of  the  Hindu 
community,  had  always  been  held  in  utter  coutempt  by  the 
oilier  Hindu  castes.  But  between  1820  and  1830  a 
religious  movement,  having  for  its  object  their  freedom 
from  the  trammels  of  caste,  was  inaugurated  by  a  member 
of  the  caste,  named  Ghdsl  Dis,  who  preached  the  unity  of 
God  and  the  equality  of  men.  Ghdsl  D.i3  gave  himself 
out  as  a  messenger  of  God ;  he  prohibited  the  adoration  of 
idols,  and  enjoined  the  worship  of  the  Supremo  Being 
without  any  visible  sign  or  representation.  The  followers 
of  the  now  faith  call  themselves  Satndmis,  or  tho  worshippers 
of  Hitttidm  or  God.  They  do  not  keep  the  Hindu, festivals, 
and  they  defy  the  contempt  of  the  Brihmans.  Ghdsl  Dis, 
tho  founder  of  tho  faith  was  their  first  high  priest.  He 
died  in  1850;  his  son  succeeded  him,  but  was  assassinated 
(it  wa3  said  by  the  I:  iiidus),  and  the  grandson  is  the 
(iresent  high  priest.  The  Chdmirs  in  Bilispur  number 
104,338,  or  21  per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  The 
Paiikis,  who  form  about  a  sixth  of  the  population,  are  all 
Kabirpanthls,  or  followers' of  Kabir,  a  religious  reformer 
of  tho  15th  century.  There  is  no  great  difl'erence  between 
the  Kabir  Paukis  and  the  SatnAmJs.  They  both  abstain 
from  meat  and  liquor,  marry  at  the  age  of  puberty, 
ordinarily  celebrate  their  ceremonies  through  the  agency 
of  tho  elders  of  their  own  caste,  and  bury  their  dead 
Thu  I'ankis  worship  the  Supreme  Being  under  the  name 
<if  Kabir,  and  the  Chim&rs  under  the  name  of  Satndm ; 
while  each  community  has  a  high  priest  to  whom  reverence 
is  paid.  At  present  tho  majority  of  the  Pankis  are  culti- 
vators, though  formerly  all  were  weavers.  Tho  Gonds  are 
the  most  numerous  among  the  aboriginal  tribes,  the  census 
of  1872  returning  them  at  107,359,  or  15  per  cent,  of 
the  total  district  population  ;  but  so  great  an  intermixture 
h:ia  taken  place  between  them  and  the  Hindu  races  that 
tbey  have  lost  their  language  and  most  of  their  ethnical 
characteristics,  such  as  he  flat  forehead,  squat  nose,  pro- 
minent nostril,  dark  skin,  <tc.,  and  arc  scarcely  distin- 
guishable from  the  other  classes  of  tho  Hindu  labouring 
|)opulation.  lo  addition  to  some  of  the  Hindu  deities 
'  which  they  worship,  the  GondsOiave  their  own  gods — 13ara 
Deva  an.l  DiiU  Ueva  The  K.inn.ir3  are  the  next  largest 
8cction  of  the  aboriginal  population,  and  number  28,419 
souls.  Tho  upper  class  among  them  claim  to  be  Rijputa, 
and  are  divided  into  numerous  septs.  Although  an 
aboriginal  tribe,  the  census  returns  them  as  a  Hindu  caste. 
All  the  northern  landholders  of  Bil.iipur  belong  to  this 
tribe,  which  consequently  occupies  an  influential  position. 

Hie/-.  uhi-.Tt.  pulori,  oil  ifi-N,  «nil  ccUon  arc  iKc  cliicf  jgricullural 
fitajUca.     Tbi;  cr:i3iitf  of  |67J  rt:lurii:*  llif  toial  area  of  tlic  district 


at  7798  square  miles,  of  which  20S9  square  mile»  aro  unj<;r  cnltlta- 
tion.  Tho  followiDg  13  the  aiiprox;.iiate  acreago  uuilir  diirerti.i 
crops  —Rice,  882,218  acres;  whtat,  7»,2c3  ;  other  food  Krain., 
223.4<3;  oilseeds,  66,ga9  ;  sugar-cane,  6688;  cotlon,  72.SV;2 
opium  121 ;  tobacco,  2317;  and  vegvuiblcs,  12,329  ;  lolal.  1,337,483 
acres,  or  20S9  81  si|uarc  miles.  Of  the  populaiion,  43?, 880  live 
by  ag,  iculture,  while  270,518  are  non-agrieulturuu.  The  chief 
wealtt  of  the  district  coiisitts  in  its  agricultural  produce,  and  it  i> 
not  ini  ptly  termed  "the  land  of  plenty  "  by  the  Banjaroi  or  traders, 
who  find  here  an  mcxhaustible  store  of  aurplus  produce  for  eipon 
Searciiy  of  food  is  almost  unknown.  Cral  ami  iron  .ire  tho  nuucrula 
of  tho  district;  tho  former  is  not  worked,  and  the  latter  hut  veiy 
slightly,  the  annual  out-turn  being  reported  at  about  15  tons  only. 
Sandstone,  for  bjilding  purposes,  is  quarried  near  Bilispur  and 
Seorinardin.  The  forests  prouuce  timber,  edible  and  medicinal  roots 
and  plants,  lac  and  tasar-silk  cocoons,  Imiwrts  in  1667-88— sugar, 
£5274  ;  metals  and  hardware,  ilO,«85  ;  English  piece-g.ioda, 
£11,194;  cattle,  £9240;  miscellaneouls,  £10,531  ,  total,  £47.224. 
Kx[io',ts— rice  (as  asceruiued).  £8659  ;  wheat,  £6303  ,  other  edible 
grains.  £150;  cotton,  £16,407;  molasses,  £297  ;  oil  seeds,  £18, 
lac,  £15,603  ;  miscellaneous,  £5609  ;  total,  £53,546.  Among  local 
industries  the  most  important  is  the  wiaving  trade.  It  is  estimated 
that  cotton  and  silk  cloths  to  the  vilue  of  £95,000  are  every  yeai 
nianul'actureJ.  The  Iralhc  routes  of  the  district  are  tivo  id  number, 
the  three  most  important  of  which  are  rugged  and  inaccessible,  un- 
fit for  wheeled  carriages,  admitting  export  or  import  only  by  means 
of  pack-bullocks  during  six  months  of  the  year.  Tho  other  two  aie 
kiniply  tMcks  across  the  hills  and  through  the  jungle.  The  revenue 
divisions  of  the  district  correspond  with  its  physical  features  ,  the 
hilly  area,  covering  about  50uii  square  miles,  is  almost  entirely  held 
by  large  landed  proprietors  called  Zam\->uia.rs,  who  have  always 
occupied  a  somewhat  independent  position.  The  open  country, 
wTth  an  area  of  3000  square  miles,  is  known  as  the  Khalsd  jorisdic. 
tion,  or  the  tract  under  direct  revenue  management  through  Govern- 
ment officers.  I'endri,  Matin,  Uprori,  Kendi,  L&pha,  Chhun, 
Korbd,  Champi,  Sakti,  lihatgiion,  ■  Bildigarh,  Katangi,  Pandana, 
Kawardd,  and  Madanpur,  are  the  15  Zainindilrts  comprising  the 
hilly  area,  of  which  Sakti  and  Kawarda  have  been  acknowledged  aa 
feudatories.  Bilispur,  Mungeli,  and  Scorindrain  are  the  three  par- 
ijanda  in  tho  Klullsd  tract.  In  1863-69,  the  revenues  of  the  district 
were  as  follows;  — Land-Ux,  £27, 195 ;  excise,  £892;  stamps,  £2234; 
forest,  £431  ;  assessed  taxes,  41222  ;  total,  £31,977.  For  the  pro- 
tection of  person  and  property,  Government  mainuined  in  1868-69 
a  regular  police  of  310  olficers  and  men,  at  a  total  annual  cost  of 
£4363f,  besides  the  village  watch  or  rural  constabulary.  The  execu- 
tive staff  of  the  district  consists  of  the  deputy-commissioner,  with 
two  assistants  and  several  sub-collectora.  Bildspur  contained,  in 
1868-69,  33  Government  and  58  private  schools,  attended  by  3076 
pupils.  Besides  Bilispur,  to  be  separately  noticed  below,  there 
are  only  four  towns  of  any  importance  in  the  district:  —  Kalanpur, 
the  seat  of  the  ancient  Kijas,  situated  at  the  base  of  the  Eendi,  off- 
shoots of  tho  Vindhyau  range,  highly  attractive  to  antiquanaus 
and  aichxologists  on  account  of  its  greet  antiquity;  it  is  now  in  a 
dilapidated  and  deserted  state.  Population,  5111.  Mungeli,  a 
rising  market-town,  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Hiver  Agar.  Pop- 
ulation, 3542.  Kawardi,  population,  6590.  SeoriuAiiin,  on  the 
Mahanadl,  a  favourite  residence  of  tho  Katanpur  court  in  former 
days,  contains  a  temple  of  the  Hindu  god  Nardyan,  from  which  it 
denves  its  name.  Population  abdut  1600.  The  climate  of  the  dis- 
trict, though  relaxing,  la  not  oppressive.  Cholera  occasionally 
hreaics  out  in  the  epidemic  form,  being  generally  disseminated  by 
the  Jaganndth  pilgrims  from  Central  India,  whose  route  to  Orissa 
lies  through  the  district.      Fever  and  sinall|»ox  also  prevail. 

The  early  history  of  the  district  is  very  obscure.  From 
remote  ages  it  was  governed  by  kings  of  the  Haihai 
dynasty,  known  as  the  Chhattisgarh  RijAs,  OD  account  of 
thirty-six  forts,  of  which  they  were  the  lords.  A  genealo- 
gical list  of  kings  of  this  dynasty  has  been  careftdly 
kept  up  to  the  fifty-fifth  representative  in  tho  year  1740, 
when  the  country  was  seized  without  a  struggle  by  the 
MarhattAs  of  NAgpur.  From  1818  to  1830  Bilispur  came 
under  the  management  of  the  British  Oaveroment,  the 
MarhattA  chief  of  Nigpur  being  then  a  minor.  In  IS54 
the  country  finally  lapsed  to  the  British  Government,  the 
chief  hanng  died  without  issue.  During  the  Sepoy  mutiny 
a  bill  chief  of  the  district  gave  some  trouble,  but  he  was 
speedily  captured  and  executed. 

Bu-Xsi'CR,  the  chief  town  of  the  district  of  tho  eanio 
name,  is  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  tho  River  Ar])A. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  a  hshenvoman,  named 
Bdisa,  three  hundred  years  ago,  and  still  retains  her 
name.    .The  place,  however,  came  to  note  only  about  one 


R  T  L  — B  I  L 


anndred  yeare  ago,  when  a  Marhattd  official  took  up  his 
•ibode  there,  and  began  to  build  a  fort  which  was  never 
completed.  In  1862  it  was  made  the  headquarters  of  the 
district,  and  is  now  a  rising  town.  It  lies  in  22°  2'  N. 
lat.  and  82°  5'  E.  long  The  population  was  estimated  in 
1870  at  6190,  but  Bildspur  is  not  mentioned  in  the  census 
of  1872  as  containing  upwards  of  5000  inhabitants. 

BILBAO,  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  Spain,  and  capital 
^>(  the  province  to  which  it  gives  its  name,  is  situated  in 
43°  14'  N.  lat.  and  2°  56'  W.  long.,  in  a  small  but  beautiful 
And  fertile  valley,  bounded  on  three  sides  by  mountains, 
dbout  six  miles  from  the  sea,  on  the  banks  of  the  River  Ansa, 
which  is  also  known  as  the  Nervion,  or,  in  Basque,  as  the 
IbaizabaL  ■  The  old  town  lies  on  the  left  bank,  while  the 
new  town,  which  b  by  far  the  more  important,  rises  on  the 
»ight  in  handsome  terraces.  Communication  across  the 
fiver  is  afforded  by  several  bridges,  of  which  the  oldest,  San 
Antonio,  is  of  stone,  and  dates  from  the  Hth  century  ;  the 
iecond  Was  finished  in  1827,  the  third  in  1847,  and  the 
/ouith,  an  iron  structure,  in  1868.  The  houses  in  the 
principal  streets  are  built  of  hewn  stone,  and  are  several 
itories  high,  with  projecting  eaves  that  give  shelter  both- 
from  aun  and  rain.  Many  of  the  streets  are  very  narrow, 
and  they  have  an  appearance  of  cleanliness  and  quiet.  For 
a  long  time  no  carts  or  carriages  were  permitted  to  enter 
the  city  for  fear  of  polluting  and  injuring  the  pavement, 
and  the  transport  of  goods  was  carried  on  in  trucks. .  The 
principal  promenades  are  the  Paseo  del  Arenal,  which  lies 
jilong  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  the  Carapo  Volantin  in 
the  .same  neighbourhood,  and  the  Paseo  de  los  Canos,  so 
,  called  from  its  forming  the  roof  of  the  great  aqueduct  for 
conveying  the  water  of  the  river  to  the  town.  The  public 
buildings  comprise  several  churches,  of  which  the  oldest, 
Santiago,  is  of  earlier  date  than  the  city  itself,  the  town- 
hall,  the  palace  of  the  Diputacion  Provincial,  an  arsenal,  a 
hospital,  a  theatre,  and  an  abattoir.  Of  the  educational 
institutions  the  most  important  are  the  Colegio  General  de 
Tiicaya,  a  nautical  academy,  and  the  schools  supported  by 
the  board  of  trade  for  gratuitous  instruction  in  design, 
architecture,  languages,  and  mathematics.  A  bank  of  issue 
and  discount  was  founded  in  1837.  The  industrial  estab- 
lishments include  iron  and  steel  foundries  (for  which  the 
town  was  at  one  time  famous),  anchor-forges,  potteries, 
glass-works,  paper-mills,  and  a  cotton  factory  ;  and  leather, 
sail-cloth,  ropes,  and  tobacco  are  also  manufactured.  The 
exports  consist  mainly  of  grain  and  flour,  iron,  zinc,  and 
lead  ore,  wine,  madder,  liquorice,  lamb  and  goat  skins, 
chestnuts,  and  oil  The  wool  trade  has  ceased  for  many 
years,  and  shipbuilding  has  greatly  declined.  A  great 
etimulus  was  given  to  the  import  trade  by  the  construction 
of  the  Bilbao  and  Tudela  railway,  which  was  completed  in 
1863;  but  the  prosperity  of  the  place  is  hindered  by  its 
distance  from  the  sea.  Large  sums  of  money  have  been 
spent  in  improving  the  river,  but  ships  of  any  size  have  to 
discharge  at  Portugalete,  the  average  depth  on  the  bar  being 
13J  feet'  at  high  tides.  In  spite  of  this  disadvantage, 
however,  Bilbao  ranks  as  one  of  the  principal  trading  porta 
in  Spain.  In  1870  the  total  tonnage  of  the  ships  that 
entered  was  160,952,  and  the  value  of  the  imports  amounted 
to  X2, 075, 900.  There  is  regular  steam  communication 
with  London  and  Liverpool.  Population,  17,649.  Bilbao, 
or  Belvao,  was  founded  about  1 300  by  Don  Pedro  Lopez 
de  Ilaro,  and  soon  rose  into  importance.  It  was  captured 
by  the  French  in  1795,  and  was  again  held  by  them  from 
1808  to  1813.  During  the  Carlist  contest  it  was  gallantly 
defended  against  Zumalacarregui  in  1835. 

BILDERDIJK,  Willem,  a  modern  Dutch  poet,  by  some 
Qoitsidercd  to  be  the  most  eminent  that  his  country  has 
produced,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1756.  In  1776, 
after  completing  a  wide  course  of  study  at  Lcvdcn  Univer- 


sity, he  gained  the  prize  from  the  LeyQen  Society  of  Art 
for  his  poem  on  the  Influence  of  Poetry  ore  States  and 
Governments.  In  the  following  year  he  gained  another 
prize  for  his  poem  Love  of  Fatherland,  and  in  1779  he 
translated  the  (Edipus  Tyrannus  of  Sophocles.  In  178(> 
he  left  Holland  on  account  of  the  disturbed  state  of  public 
affairs,  and  after  residing  some  time  in  Germany  crossed  to 
England,  where  he  remained  till  1806.  Returning  then  to 
his  native  country  he  was  received  with  great  favour  by 
the  new  king  Louis  Napoleon,  who  made  him  president  of 
the  recently  founded  Institute  of  Holland.  He  died  on 
the  18th  December  1831.  His  finest' poetical  works  are 
the  Buiienleven,  or  Rural  Life,  a  free  imitation  of  Delille  , 
De  Mensch;  similarly  taken  from  Pope ;  Die  Ziehte  der 
Geleerden,  the  Maladies  of  the  Learned  ;  Die  Ondergany 
der  eerste  Wereld,  the  Destruction  of  the  First  World. 
Some  of  his  dramatic  and  epic  poems  are  also  highly 
esteemed.  His  second  wife,  besides  some  original  work, 
translated  the  Roderick  of  Southey,  who  was  very  intimate 
with  Bilderdijk,  and  resided  for  some  time  with  him. 

BILE.     See  Physiology. 

BILFINGER,  George  Ber.nhard,  was  born  on  the  23d 
January  1693,  at  Cannstadt  in  Wiirtemberg.  His  father 
was  a  Lutheran  minister.  By  a  singularity  of  constitution, 
hereditary  in  his  family,  Bilfinger  came  into  the  world 
with  twelve  fingers  and  as  many  toes.  From  his  earliest 
years  he  showed  the  greatest  inclination  to  learning.  He 
studied  in  the  schools  of  Blaubeuern  and  Bobenhausen, 
and  afterwards  entered  the  theological  seminary  of 
Tiibingen.  The  works  of  Wolff,  which  he  studied  in 
order  to  learn  mathematics,  soon  inspired  him  with  a  taste 
for  the  Wolffian  philosophy  and  that  of  Leibnitz, —  a 
passion  which  made  him  neglect  for  some  time  his  other 
studies.  Returning  to  theology,  he  wished  at  least  to  try 
to  connect  it  with  his  favourite  science  of  philosophy ;  anc 
in  this  spirit  he  composed  the  treatise  entitled  DUucida- 
tiones  PhilosophiccE,  De  Deo,  Anima  Humana,  Mundo,  die. 
This  work,  containing  nothing  original,  but  giving  an 
admirably  clear  representation  of  Wolff's  philosophy,  met 
with  great  success,  and  contributed  to  the  advancement  of 
the  author,  who  was  appointed  soon  after  to  the  office  of 
preacher  at  the  castle  of  Tiibingen,  and  of  reader  in  the 
school  of  theology.  He  soon  after  left  for  Halle,  in  order 
to  attend  the  lectures  of  Wolff;  and,  after  two  years  of 
study,  returned  to  Tubingen,  where  the  Wolffian  \  hilosophy 
was  not  yet  in  favour.  He  found  his  protectors  there 
cooled,  saw  his  lectures  deserted,  and  perceived  himself 
shunned,  from  the  dislike  of  his  new  doctrines  ;  his 
ecclesiastical  views  also  suffered  from  the  same  cause. 
By  the  intervention  of  Wolff  he  received  an  invitation 
to  Petersburg,  where  Petel'  L  wished  to  appoint  him 
professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics,  and  member  of  his 
new  aciidemy.  He  was  received  in  that  city,  where  he 
arrived  in  1725,  with  the  consideration  due  to  his  abilities. 
The  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris  having  proposed  about 
this  time  the  famous  problem  on  the  cause  of  gravity^ 
Bilfinger  gained  the  prize,  which  was  a  thousand  crowns. 
His  reputation  was  so  much  increased  by  this  success  that 
he  was  almost  immediately  recalled  to  his  native  country 
by  the  Dake  Eberhard  Ludwig  of  Wiirtemberg.  He  quitted 
St  Petersburg  in  1731,  and  in  1735  the  Duke  Charles 
Alexander  appointed  him  privy  councillor.  After  careful 
preparation  Bilfinger  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  new  office, 
and  Boon  approved  himself  one  of  the  best  and  most 
enlightened  ministers  that  his  country  had  yet  produced. 
Under  his  wise  administration  the  commerce,  public 
instruction,  and  agriculture  of  Wiirtemberg  flourished,  and 
the  state  was  raised  to  a  position  it  had  not  before 
attained.  Bilfinger  died  at  Stuttgart  on  the  18th  Feb- 
ruary 1750. 


BILL 


673 


BILL  means  generilly  a  statement  in  writing,  and  is 
■lerived  from  the  Latin  bulla.  The  word  is  used  in  a  great 
(Bany  special  api'Iications. 

Bill,  in  I'mliamcnt,  ia  a  form  of  statute  submitted  to 
either  House,  wLieb,  after  passing  both  Houses  and  receiv- 
ing the  royal  assent,  becomes  an  Act.  The  modern  system  of 
legislating  by  means  of  bill  and  statute  appears  to  have  been 
introduced  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VL,  superseding  the  older 
mode  of  proceeding  by  petitions  from  the  Commons,  assented 
to  by  the  king,  and  afterwards  enrolled  by  the  judges.  A 
bill  consists  of  a  preamble,  reciting  the  necessity  for  legis- 
lation, and  clauses  which  contain  the  enactments.  The 
procedure  with  regard  to  bills  is  much  the  same  in  both 
Houses.  Leave  having  been  obtained,  the  bill  is  presented 
by  the  member  in  charge  of  it,  and  the  first  reading  is 
usually  allowed  without  op|>«sition.  At  the  second  reading 
the  principle  of  the  bill  is  placed  in  issue  ;  the  usual  form 
of  amendment  is  that  the  bill  be  re.id  a  second  time  that 
day  three  or  six  months,  the  direct  rejection  of  bills  being 
incompatible  with  the  courtesy  of  the  House.  The  next 
stage  is  the  committee,  in  which  the  different  clauses  are 
gone  through  in  detail  by  the  House  sitting  under  the 
presidency  of  a  chairman  of  committees.  Two  principles 
must  be  observed  in  reference  to  amendments: — (1),  The 
amendment  must  not  be  irrelevant  to  the  subject-matter 
of  the  clause  ;  nor  (2),  must  it  propose  to  leave  out  all  the 
words  of  the  clause  after  the  initial  "  That  "  in  order  that 
new  words  may  be  introduced.  The  bill  having  been  fully 
considered  the  committee  rises,  the  speaker  resumes  the 
chair,  and  the  chairman  of  committee  reports  the  bill  to  the 
House,  which  is  up  to  this  time  supposed  to  be  ignorant  of 
the  proceedings  of  the  committee.  A  bill  may  be  referred 
to  a  select  committee  (the  cours^  followed  with  private 
bills)  or  recommitted  as  often  as  the  House  desires.  On  the 
third  reading  the  judgment  of  the  House  is  expressed  on 
the  entire  bill  as  it  leaves  the  hands  of  the  committee  ;  and 
after  the  third  reading  the  motion  that  the  bill  do  pass  is 
usually  allowed  without  opposition.  The  bill  is  then 
eommunicated  to  the  other  House,  where  it  passes  through 
the  same  stages.  Should  the  one  House  make  amendments 
on  a  bill  sent  up  by  the  other,  the  latter  considers  the  amend- 
raenl-s,  and  if  they  are  not  agreed  to  the  bill  is  laid  aside, 
or  postponed  for  three  or  six  months,  or  a  message  is  sent 
with  reasons  for  disagreertient,  or  a  conference  between  the 
Houses  is  requested.  P  wing  passed  through  both  Houses 
the  bill  receives  the  royal  assent,  and  therevvith  the 
"  complement  and  perfection  of  a  law."  Bills  are  divided 
into  public  and  private;  the  latter  includes  every  bill 
for  "  the  particular  interest  or  benefit  of  any  person  or 
persons,"  whether  individuals  or  corporations.  They  are 
brought  in  upon  the  solicitation  of  parties  interested,  and 
the  payment  of  fees  is  an  indispensable  element  of  their 
progress.  Occasionally  there  is  some  difficulty  in  assigning 
a  bill  to  its  proper  class,  e.;;.,  in  bills  relating  to  the  metro- 
polis, which,  on  account  of  the  magnitude  of  the  interests 
involved,  are  sometimes  treated  as  public  bills,  although 
having,  according  tothe  definition, a  purely  private  character. 
Piivate  bills  are  subject  to  special  regulations,  and  in  case 
of  opposition  the  proceedings  before  the  select  committees 
assume  the  form  of  an  ordinary  litigation.  The  chairman 
of  committees  in  the  Lords,  and  the  chairman  of  ways  and 
means  in  the  Commons,  are  required  to  watch  unopposed 
bills.  •  Certain  bills  can  only  originate  in  one  or  other  of 
the  two  Houses,  e.g.,  money  bills  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  bills  for  the  restitution  of  honours  and  blood  in  the 
HoDSQ  of  Lords ;  and  any  bill  concerning  the  privileges  of 
either  Uouso  should  originate  in  the  House  to  which  it 
relates. 

A  BillofExchanoe  is  defined  as  "anunconditionalwrit- 
tcu  order  from  A  to  B,  directing  B  to  pav  to  C  a  sum  certain 
.t— ^4 


of  money  therein  named."  A  is  called  the  drawer,  B  the 
drawee,  and  C  the  payee.  When  the  drawer  has  undertaken 
to  pay  the  bill  he  is  called  the  acceptor.  Contrary  to  the 
general  rule  in  the  law  of  England  the  bKDcfil  of  a  contract 
arising  on  a  bill  of  exchange  is  assignable,  and  consideration 
will  be  presumed  unless  the  contrary  appear.  Bills  of 
exchange  are  believed  to  have  been  in  use  in  the  Hth 
century,  but  the  first  recorded  decision  of  an  English  court 
regarding  tlieni  occurs  in  the  reign  of  James  L  The  courts 
long  regarded  them  with  jealousy  as  an  exception  to  the 
common  law,  and  restricted  their  use  to  the  class  of  merchants, 
but  their  obvious  utility  overcame  the  scruples  of  the  judges. 
The  law  on  this  subject  has  been  evolved  in  a  long  series 
of  judicial  decisions.  The  following  are  a  few  of  its  leading 
principles  : — A  bill  to  be  transferable  must  contain  a  direction 
to  the  order  of  the  payee  or  to  bearer.  If  payable  to  order 
it  must  be  transferred  by  endorsement ;  but  if  to  bearer, 
it  may  be  transferred  by  mere  delivery.  A  bla7ik  endorse- 
ment {ey.,  the  mere  signature  of  the  endorser)  makes  the 
bill  payable  to  bearer ;  a  special  endorsement  directa 
payment  to  a  person  named,  or  his  order.  Every  endorser 
of  a  bill  is  in  effect  a  new  drawer,  and  is  liable  to  every 
succeeding  holder  in  default  of  acceptance  or  payment 
Just  as  the  original  drawer  contracts  to  pay  the  payee,  if  the 
acceptor  do  not,  so  the  endorser  contracts  that,  if  the 
drawer  shall  not  pay  the  bill,  he,  on  receiving  due  notice 
of  the  bill  being  dishonoured,  will  pay  the  holder  what  the 
drawee  ought  to  have  paid.  An  endorsement  is  held  to 
admit  "  the  signature  and  capacity  of  every  prior  party," 
and  an  endorser,  in  default  of  acceptance  or  payment,  has 
a  right  of  action  against  all  those  whose  names  were  on  the 
bill  when  it  was  endorsed  to  him.  When  a  bill  is  trans- 
ferred by  delivery  without  endorsement  it  is  generally 
regarded  as  sold,  and  the  instrument  is  taken  with  all  its 
risks.  There  are,  however,  some  exceptions  to  this  rule,  as 
in  the  case  of  payment  by  bill  for  a  precedent  debt,  Ac, 
and  the  transferor  will  be  held  responsible  if  he  knows  at 
the  time  of  sale  that  the  bills  are  good  for  nothing.  When 
a  bill  is  payable  to  bearer  it  circulates  like  money,  and 
the  bona  fide  possessor  is  considered  the  true  owner.  Bills 
should  be  presented  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  drawer  or 
his  agent  for  acceptance,  which  must  be  in  writing  on  the 
bill  They  should  be  presented  for  payment  at  the  proper 
time,  and  the  laws  of  commercial  countries  usually  allow 
three  days  of  grace  after  the  day  on  which  the  bill  becomes 
due.  If  the  bill  is  not  duly  presented  by  the  holder,  the 
antecedent  parties  are  relieved  from  liability.  If  the  bill 
is  not  accepted,  or  after  acceptance  not  paid,  the  holder 
must  give  notice  of  dishonour  to  the  antecedent  parties 
within  a  reasonable  time,  otherwise  their  liability  will  bo 
discharged.  When  a  foreign  bill  is  dishonoured  the 
custom  of  merchants  requires  that  it  should  be  prodsled. 
The  protest  is  a  solemn  declaration  by  a  notary  written 
under  a  copy  of  the  bill  that  payment  or  acceptance  has 
been  demanded  and  refused.  Bills  and  notes,  by  the  usage 
of  trade,  carry  interest  from  the  date  of  maturity.  If  in 
an  action  on  a  bill  it  turn  out  that  the  bill  h.is  been  lost, 
the  action  may  still  be  maintained  provided  that  au 
indemnity  is  given  against  the  claims  of  any  other  persons 
upon  the  instrument.  The  Act  18  and  1 9  Vict.  c.  67,  gives  a 
summary  process  to  the  plaintiff  in  an  action  on  a  bi'l  of 
exchange  or  promissory  note  conuncnced  within  six  months 
after  the  same  has  become  due  or  payable.  L'ulcss  the 
defendant  has  obtained  leave  to  appear  and  has  appeared 
to  the  action,  the  [ilaintilf  may  sign  final  judgment  for  the 
amount  with  costs.  The  defendant,  if  he  wishes  to  defend 
the  action,  must  pay  the  money  into  court  or  show  by 
affidavit  such  facts  as  may  be  sufficient  to  induce  the  judge 
to  give  him  leave. 

Foreign  Bills  (as  distinguished  from  Inland  Bills)  era 


674 


B  I  L  — B  I  L 


bills  drawn  or  payable  abroad.  By  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  97, 
§  7,  bills  or  nutes  drawn  on  one  part  and  payable  in  any 
other  part  of  the  British  Isles  are  inland  bills.  Foreign 
bills  are  usually  drawn  in  sets  or  parts,  each  containing  a 
condition  to  be  payable  only  so  long  as  the  others 
continue  unpaid. 

When  a  bill  is  accepted  by  the  drawee  without  considera- 
tion, and  merely  in  order  that  the  drawer  may  be  able  to 
raise  money  upon  it,  it  is  called  an  accommodation  bilL 
Both  parties  are  liable  to  the  holder;  but,  as  between  them- 
selves, the  drawer  is  the  principal  and  the  acceptor  a  sort 
of  surety.  When  acceptance  has  been  refused  and  the  bill 
protested,  a  stranger  may  accept  it  "  supra  protest,  in 
linnour  of  the  drawer  or  endorser."  The  effect  of  this  is  to 
render  the  acceptor  liable  if  the  drawer  does  not  pay,  and 
the  party  for  whose  honour  it  was  made,  and  parties  ante- 
cedent to  him,  become  liable  to  the  acceptor.  Payment 
for  the  honour  of  one  of  the  parties  may  likewise  be  made 
by  a  mere  stranger  when  a  bill  has  been  protested  for  non- 
payment, who  thereupon  acquires  a  claim  against  such 
person  and  all  those  to  whom  he  could  have  resorted. 

The  negotiability  of  promissory  notes  and  bank  cheques 
is  for  the  must  part  regulated  by  the  same  principles  as 
bills  of  exchange.  A  promissory  notfi  is  a  "  promise  in 
writing  to  pay  a  specified  sum  at  a  time  therein  limited,  to 
a  person  therein  named  or  his  order  or  to  bearer." 
Cheques  which  are  inland  bills  of  exchange  drawn  on 
a  banker  have  become  subject  to  certain  peculiar- usages. 
See  Exchange. 

A  Bill  of  Lading  is  a  document  signed  by  the  master 
of  a  general  ship  and  delivered  to  the  owners  of  goods 
conveyed  therein.  It  is  usually  made  out  in  several  parts 
or  copies,  of  which  the  shipper  retains  one  and  sends 
one  or  more  to  the  consignee,  while  the  master  keeps  one 
for  his  own  guidance.  The  following  is  the  usual  form  : — 
Shipped  in  good  order  and  well  conditioned  by  (^4.  B., 
merckani]  in  and  upon  the  good  ship  called  YThe  Good 
Intent],  whereof  [C.  /)  1  is  master  fur  this  present  voyage, 
and  now  riding  at  anchor  in  the  \I'ort  o/  Southampton], 
and  bound  to  [Cadiz  in  Spain,  tiaenty  cases  of  hardware 
and  fifty  bales  of  cotton  goods],  being  marked  and  numbered 
as  in  the  margin,  and  are  to  be  delivered  in  the  like  good 
order  and  well  conditioned  at  the  aforesaid  port  [of  Cadiz], 
the  act  of  God,  the  Queen's  enemies,  fire,  and  all  and  every 
other  dangers  and  accidents  of  the  seas,  rivers,  and  naviga- 
tions of  whatever  kind  or  nature  what.'ioever  excepted,  unto 
[E.  F ,  merchant],  or  to  his  assigns,  he  or  they  paying 
freight  for  the  said  goods  [  ]  per  case,  and  [  ] 

per  bale  freight,   with  primage  and  average  accustomed. 
In  witness  whereof.  Ac 

Every  ^ill  of  lading  requires  a  sixpenni-  stamp  By  the 
mercantile  law  a  bill  of  lading  is  a  negotiable  instrument, 
and  the  property  in  the  goods  may  be  transferred  by 
endiirsement.  By  18  and  19  Vict  a  1 11,  every  consigner  of 
goods  named  on  a  bill  of  lading,  and  every  endorser  to 
whom  the  property  of  the  goods  mentioned  therein  passes 
by  reason  of  the  consignment  or  endorsement,  shall  have 
transferred  to  and  invBsted  in  him  lUl  rights  of  suit,  and  be 
subject  to  the  same  liabilities  in  respect  of  the  goods  as  if 
the  contract,  contained  in  the  bill  of  lading  had  been  made 
with  himself 

A  Bill  of  Sale  is  an  assignment  of  personal  property. 
It  is  frequently  made  by  way  of  security,  the  property  re- 
maining in  possession  of  the  vendor.  For  the  protection  of 
creditors  from  secret  or  fraudulent  sale,  the  Bills  of  Sale  Act, 
lR54,and  the  Amendment  Act,  29  and  30  Vict.  c.  96,  were 
|':i<sod.  By  these  Acts  a  bill  of  sale  of  personal  chattels 
ni:i(le  at  any  liiiio  by  a  defendant  in  an  action  will  bo  void 
B^  against  a  plaiiitifT  on  whose  behalf  a  writ  of  execution 
in  such  action  shjll  be  pued  out  and  delivered,  so  far  43 


regards  any  personal  chattels  in  defendant's  possesiion  at 
or  after  the  time  of  executing  such  writ,  unless  such  bill  of 
sale  shall  be  duly  registered  for  public  inspection  in  the  . 
Court  of  Queen's  Bench  within  twenty-one  days  of  its 
date.  The  registration  must  be  renewed  once  in  every  five 
years  during  the  subsistence  of  the  security. 

Bii-L  IN  Chanceey.     A  suit  in  the  Court  of  Chancery 
was  generally  commenced  by  a  bUl,  addressed  to  the  lord 
chancellor,  containing  a  statement  of  the  plaintiff's  case, 
and  praying  for  relief.     By  the  Chancery  Amendment  Act, 
1862,  it  is  enacted  that  "every  bill  shall  contain  as  con- 
cisely as  may  be,  a  narrative  of  the  material  facts,  matters, 
and   circumstances    on    which    the    plaintiff   relies ;   such 
narrative  being  divided   into   paragraphs   numbered  con 
secutively,  and  each  paragraph  containing  as  nearly  as  may 
be  a  separate  or  distinct  statement  or  allegation  ;  and  shall 
pray  specifically  for  the  relief  which  the  plaintiff  may  con- 
ceive himself  entitled  to,  and  also  for  general  relief."     By 
the  Judicature    Act,  1873,  a  new  form    of   procedure  is 
established  for  all  the  superior  courts.    See  Action,   (e.  r.) 
BILLETING.      The   law   as   to   billeting    soldiers   is 
regulated  by  the  provisions  of  the  Annual  Mutiny  Act 
(38  Vict.  c.  7,  §§  63-67).     Constables  of    parishes  and 
places,  police  officers,  high  constables,  and  other  chief  oflBcers 
and  magistrates  may  billet  officers  and  soldiers  on  actual 
service,  with  their  horses  and  baggage,  in  victualling  house, 
inn,  hotel,  livery  stable,  ale-house,  or  the  house  of   any 
seller  of  wine  by  retail  to  be  drunk  in  such  house,  01  the 
houses  of  persons  selling  brandy,  spirits,  strong  waters, 
cider,  or  metheglin  by  retail ;  but  no  officer  or  soldier  shall 
be  billeted  in  any  private  houses,  or  in  any  canteen  under 
the  authority  of  the  War  Department,  nor   on   persons 
keeping  taverns  only  being  vintners  of  the  city  ef  London, 
nor   on   distillers,    nor   on   shopkeepers   whose   principal 
dealing  is  more  in  other  goods  than  in  brand/  and  strdng 
waters,  so  as  such  distillers  and  shopkeepers  do  not  permit 
tippling  in  such  houses.     If  the  victualler  has  not  sufficient 
accommodation  in  his  own  house  he  must  find  it  in  the 
immediate     neighbourhood.       The    following    sums    are- 
allowed  as  compensation  : — For  hot  meal,  to  be  supplied 
each  day  to  soldiers  on  the  march,  lOd.,  with  2^d.  for  a 
bed  ;  for  other  soldiers,  entitled  to  bed,  candles,  use  of  fire 
and  cooking  utensils,  4d.  per  diem  for  each  soldier ;  for 
ten   pounds  of  oats,   twelve  of  hay,  and  eight  of  straw, 
Is  9d.  per  diem.     Military  officers  miist  not  act  as  justices 
in  billeting. 

BILLLAKDS  is  a  well-known  indoor  gdme  of  skill, 
played  on  a  rectangular  table  with  ivory  balls,  which  are 
driven  into  pockets  and  against  each  other  according  to 
certain  defined  rules.  Of  the  origin-  of  billiards  compara- 
tively little  is  known, — some  considering  that  the  game' 
was  invented  by  the  French,  and  others  that  it  was 
improved  by  them  out  of  an  ancient  German  diversion. 
Even  the  French  themselves  are  doubtful  on  this  point ; 
for,  while  it  is  generally  asserted  that  Henrique  Devigno, 
an  artist,  who  lived  in  the  reign  Of  Charles  IX.,  gave  form 
and  rule  to  the  pastime,  the  Dictionnaire  Universel  and 
the  Acadcmie  des  Jrux  ascribe  its  invention  to  the  English. 
Bouillet  in  the  first  work  says — "  Billiards  appear  to  be 
derived  from  the  game  of  bowls.  It  was  anciently  known 
in  England,  where,  perhaps,  it  was  invented.  It  was 
brought  into  France  by  Louis  XIV.,  whose  physician 
recommended  this  exercise."  In  the  other  work  quoted 
we. read — "  It  would"  seem  that  the  game  was  invented  in 
England."  Strutt,  a  rather  doubtful  authority,  notwith- 
standing the  reputation  attained  by  his  Sports  and  Pastimes 
of  the  People  of  England,  considers  it  probable  that  it  was 
the  ancient  game  of  Paille-maillo  on  a  table  instead  of  on 
the  ground  or  floor, — an  improvement,  ho  says,  "  which 
answered  two  good  purposes :   it  precluded  the  necessity  of 


BILLIARDS 


G75 


tDo  player  to  kneel  or  stoop  exceedingly  when  he  struck 
the  bowl,  and  accommodated  the  game  to  the  limits  of  a 
chamber."  Whatever  its  origiu,  and  wliatover  the  manner 
in  which  it  was  originally  played,  it  is  certain  that  it  was 
common  in  the  time  of  Shakespeare,  who  makes  Cleopatra, 
in  the  absence  of  Antony,  invite  her  attendant  to  join  in 
the  pastime — 

'*  Let  US  to  billiards  • 
Come,  Charmian." — Ant.  andCUo.  Act.  ii.  sc.  5. 

Billiards  was  originally  played,  it  seems,  in  a  method 
even  now  adopted  in  the  rustic  game  of  Rural  Bilhards,  by 
driving  a  ball  through  a  ring  which  revolved  on  a  pin  or 
jiick  fixed  to  the  table  or  floor.  In  Cotton's  CompUcU 
Gamester,  published  in  1674,  we  are  told  that  this  "most 
gentile,  cleanly,  and  ingenious  game'"  was  first  played  in 
Italy,  though  in  another  page  he  mentions  Spain  as  its 
birthplace.  At  that  date  billiards  must  have  been  well 
enough  known,  for  we  are  told  that  "  for  the  '!xcellency  of 
the  recreation,  it  is  much  approved  of  and  played  by  most 
nations  of  Europe,  especially  in  England,  there  being  few 
towns  of  note  therein  which  hath  not  a  public  billiard  table', 
neither  are  they  wanting  in  many  noble  and  private 
families  in  the  country."  Since  Cotton  every  compiler  of 
books  on  games  has  had  more  or  less  to  say  about  billiards ; 
though,  curiously  enough,  Hoyle,  who  is  often  quoted  as  an 
authority,  makes  no  mention  whatever  of  the  game.  It  is 
only  in  the  later  editions  and  continuations  of  Hoyle  that 
billiards,  bagatelle,  cricket,  etc.,  find  place.  It  is  not, 
indeed,  till  our  own  day  that  anything  like  a  scientific 
treatise  on  billiards  has  appeared,  or  that  the  game  itself 
has  been  lifted  out  of  the  tavern — whence,  in  spite  of  its 
Listo.-ians'  praises,  it  gradually  descended — to  its  present 
more  favoured  position  as  a  harmless  and  amusing  indoor 
game. 

The  Tabic. — The  shape  of  the  table  has  varied  from 
time  to  time,  probably  to  suit  the  dimensions  of  the  room 
in  which  it  was  placed.  At  first  it  was  square,  with  a 
hole  or  pocket  at  each  corner  to  receive  the  balls  driven 
forward  with  a  cue  or  mace  ;  then  it  was  lengthened  and 
provided  with  two  other  pockets ;  and  occasionally  it  has 
been  made  round,  oval,  triangular,  or  octagonal,  with  or 
without  pockets  according  to  the  game  required.  The 
cannon  game  in  France  is  played  on  a  pocketless  table  8  feet 
by  A  ;  the  same  game  of  the  United  States  is  played  on  a 
table  10  feet  by  6,  commonly  made  without  pockets  ;  but 
in  England  the  regular  table  of  the  clubs  and  public  rooms 
is  a  massive  structure  of  timber,  with  a  bed  or  surface  of 
elate  or  metal  12  feet  long  by  6  feet  wide,  or  two  equal 
squares  of  5  feet  lOi  inches  across  within  the  cushions. 
It  is  covered  by  a  fine  green  cloth,  and  surrounded  by 
clastic  india-rubber  cushions,  at  the  junctions  of  which 
are  netted  pockets; — one  at  each  corner,  and  one  midway  at 
each  of  the  longer  sides.  The  table  must  be  perfectly  level 
and  sufliciently  firm  to  prevent  vibration  ;  and  its  usual 
height  from  the  floor  to  the  surface  is  3  feet.  The  space 
required  between  table  and  wall  is  at  least  four  feet. 
Smaller  tables  for  use  in  private  houses  have  lately  been 
introduced.  \Vhcther  large  or  small,  each  table  is  provided 
with  a  baulk  line  and  semicircle  and  several  marks  or  spots 
to  regulate  the  mode  of  play.  The  baulk  hno  is  drawn 
straight  across  the  table  28  inches  from  the  bottom  or 
lower  cushion,  and  from  it  is  struck  a  semicircle  of  from 
21  to  23  inches  in  diameter.  In  the  middle  of  the  baulk 
line  is  the  baulk  spot,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  table  the 
centre  spot.  Thirteen  inches  from  the  top  cushion  is  the 
red-ball  spot,  and  half-way  between  the  centre  and  the  top 
cushion  is  the  pyramid  spot, — all  these  spots  being  on  a  lino 
which,  if  drawn  from  end  to  end,  would  divide  the  table 
into  two  oblong  halves. 

Gamea. — The  principal  games  are  three  in  number, — 


billiards  proper,  pyramids,  and  pool ;  and  from  these  spring 
a  variety  of  others.  The  object  of  the  player  in  each  game, 
however,  is  to  drive  one  or  other  of  the  balls  into  one  or 
otlier  of  the  pockets,  or  to  cau.se  the  striker's  ball  to  come 
into  successive  contact  with  two  other  balls.  The  one 
stroke  is  known  as  a  hazard,  the  other  as  a  cannon  ;  and 
from  hazards  and  cannons,  together  with  misses,  forfeitures, 
and  foul  strokes,  are  reckoned  the  points  of  the  game. 
When  the  ball  is  forced  into  a  pocket  the  stroke  is  called  a 
winning  hazard  ;  when  the  striker's  ball  falls  into  a  pocket 
after  contact  with  the  object  ball,  the  stroke  is  a  losing 
hazard  ;  and  these  hazards  count  two  or  three  to  the 
player's  score  according  as  they  are  made  from  the  white 
or  the  red  ball — two  points  for  the  white,  three  for  the 
red.  Two  points  are  scored  for  the  cannon,  three  for  a  coup 
— a  terra  used  when  the  player's  ball  runs  into  a  jjocket 
without  striking  a  ball ;  and  one  point  for  a  miss,  whether 
given  purposely  or  accidentally.  Tliese  strokes  are  all  made 
with  a  cue,  which  is  a  long  stick  of  ash,  or  other  hard 
wood,  gradually  tapering  to  the  end,  which  is  tipped  with 
leather  and  rubbed  with  chalk  to  prevent  it  slipping  off  the 
surface  of  the  ball  struck.  The  mace  or  hammer-headed 
cue,  once  common,  is  no  longer  used,  even  by  ladies.  The 
cue  is  taken  in  the  right  hand,  generally  between  the  fingers 
and  thumb,  and  not  grasped  in  the  palm  ;  and  with  the 
left  hand  the  player  makes  a  bridge,  by  resting  the  wrist 
and  the  tips  of  the  fingers  on  the  table,  arching  the  latter, 
and  extending  the  thumb  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  a 
passage  in  which  the  cue  may  slide.  The  player  then 
proceeds  with  his  game,  according  to  the  following  rules  : — 

Billiarda  proper,  or  the  English  game,  consists  of  winning  and 
losing  hazards,  cannons,  and  forfeitures.  It  is  usually  played  50  or 
100  points,  reckoned  as  already  exi'lained,  three  for  each  red  hazard, 
two  for  each  white  hazard,  and  two  for  each  cannon.  Public  matches 
between  adepts  are  played  100,  500,  or  1000  up,  but  the  rules  which 
govern  them  are  the  same.  The  remarks  within  brackets  are  ei- 
planatory. — 1.  The  game  of  billiards  proper  commences  by  stringing 
lor  the  lead  and  choice  of  balls.  [The  players  standing  behind  the 
baulk  line,  strike  each  a  ball  from  the  semicircle  up  to  the  top 
cushion,  and  he  whose  ball  on  its  return  stops  nearest  the  bottom 
cushion  has  the  choice  of  lead  and  balls.]  2.  The  red  ball  is  placed 
on  the  spot  at  the  commencement  of  the  came,  and  replaced  when 
it  is  pocketed  or  forced  over  the  table.  ["  Breaking  the  balls"  is 
the  replacing  them  as  at  the  beginning  of  a  game.  The  balls  are 
said  to  be  "broken  "  when  the  firat  player  has  struck  the  red  or 

fivcn  a  miss  ;  and  the  player's  ball  when  off  the  table  is  said  to 
t  "  in  hand."]  3.  The  player  who  makes  one  stroke  in  a  gnme 
must  finish  that  game  or  consent  to  lose  it.  [Intended  to  meet  casea 
of  dispute.]  4.  In  the  case  of  foul  strokes,  the  adversary  has  the 
option  of  either  allowing  the  striker  to  proceed,  of  having  the  ball 
replaced,  or  of  breaking  the  balls.  No  score  can  be  reckoned  for  a 
foul  stroke.  [The  following  are  foul  strokes:— If  the  player  move 
a  ball  in  the  act  of  striking  ;  if  ho  play  wilh  the  wrong  ball  ;  if  he 
touch  a  ball  twice  in  making  a  stroke  ;  if  he  play  at  a  ball  while  it  is 
running  ;  if  he  touch  a  ball  with  his  hand,  cue,  or  pcr.«on,  otherwise 
than  is  necessary  for  the  stroke  ;  if  he  in  any  w.iy  touch  his  oppo- 
nent's ball.]  5.  If  the  adversary  neglect  to  observe  or  to  claim  a 
foul  stroke,  the  player  proceeds  with  his  game,  and  all  the  points 
he  makes  are  marked.  6.  If  a  ball  spring  from  the  table  and  hit 
a  bystander,  so  as  to  prevent  it  falling  to  the  floor,  it  is  considered 
off  the  table.  [The  penalty  in  such  a  case  is  that  the  other  ]il.i_ver 
goe.^  on,  or  if  the  b.ill  has  not  struck  another  ball  before  flying  off 
the  table,  the  loss  of  three  points,  as  for  a  coup.)  7.  Balls  lying 
within  the  baulk  line  cannot  bo  played  at  with  a  ball  in  hand,  «• 
cept  the  player  whose  ball  is  in  hand  first  pl.iy  at  a  cushion  beyond 
or  outside  the  baulk  line.  6.  A  line-ball  cannot  be  played  at  by 
the  striker  whose  hM  is  in  hand,  other  than  by  playing  his  ball 
out  of  baulk  against  t  cushion.  [A  line-ball  is  when  the  centre  of 
the  ball's  surface  lies  exactly  on  the  line  across  the  table.  The 
marker  or  umpire  must  decide  as  to  whether  such  ball  is  within  <.r 
without  the  line]  9.  A  ball  in  hand  striking  a  ball  in  baulk  with- 
out having  been  firat  played  out  of  baulk,  must  bo  rtnlaced  and 
played  over  again.  10.  All  misses  must  be  given  with  the  point  of 
the  cue.  [This  rule  is  sometimes  neglected,  and  the  player  allowed 
to  give  his  miss  wilh  the  butt  end  ol  his  cue.)  11.  Should  the  spot 
be  occupied  so  that  the  red  ball  cannot  be  placed  on  it  after  being 
pocketed,  it  must  bo  placed  on  the  contre  spot,  or,  if  that  also  be 
occupied,  on  the  pyramid  9i>bL  fin  some  clubs  the  custom  is  to 
place  the  red  ball  on  the  centre  spot,  or  on  the  baulk  line  sj^ot,  «e- 


676 


BILLIARDS 


cArding  to  agrocmert]  12.  No  points  ■iic  recKoncd  for  a  ball  or 
balls  forced  off  the  table  after  contact  with  the  object-ball,  and 
the  adversary  goes  on  without  breaking  the  balls.  13.  If  the  balls 
be  chunked  in  the  course  of  play,  no  cannon  or  hazard  made  with 
6uch  changed  ball  can  be  scored  ;  the  balls  must  be  broken,  and  all 
points  made  with  the  wrong  ball  deducted  from  the  striker's  score. 
[In  such  case,  however,  the  adversary  has  the  privilege  of  playing 
with  the  changed  ball,  of  re-changing  the  balls  and  playing  on 
from  their  respective  positions,  or  of  having  the  balls  broken.]  14. 
The  player  whose  ball  is  in  hand  cannot  score,  unless  he  plaj  his 
ball  out  of  baulk  before  striking  the  object-ball.  [In  such  tjse  the 
stroke  must  i.e  re-made.]  15.  If  in  drawing  bank  his  cue  from  a 
ball  on  the  brink  of  a  pocket  the  striker  hole  his  ball,  he  loses  three 
points,  as  for  a  coup.  16.  A  ball  accidentally  moved  by  the  marker 
or  a  looker-on  must  be  replaced.  17.  A  b*ll  wilfully  removed  or 
obstructed  in  its  course  causes  the  loss  of  the  offender's  game.  18 
H  the  striker's  ball  lie  touching  his  opponent's  ball,  or  the  red  ball, 
no  score  on  that  side  can  follow.  [After  the  stroke  the  next  player 
proceeds  with  his  game,  either  by  breaking  the  balls,  or  playing 
from  the  spot  where  his  ball  stopped.  When  balls  touch,  the 
plaj%r  may  either  run  into  a  pocket,  or  play  on  to  a  thiid  ball ;  then 
the  red  is  spotted  and  the  adversary  plays  on  from  baulk  ;  or  if 
the  first  player  fail  to  do  either,  the  balls  remain  as  they  fall,  and 
the  other  goes  on.] 

These,  with  the  exception  of  some  remarks  about  the 
conduct  of  strangers,  the  payment  of  wagers,  and  so  on, 
are  l4ie  rules  by  which  the  English  game  of  billiards  is 
universally  governed.  The  principal  modifications  of  this 
game  are  the  four-handed  game,  which  is  ordinary 
billiards  by  four  players  in  sides  of  two,  each  player  being 
allowed  to  instruct  his  partner ;  i  la  loyale,  or  the  game 
of  three  ;  the  white  winning  game,  consisting  entirely  of 
winning  hazards;  the  white  losing  game;  the  red  winning 
game ;  the  red  losing  game ;  the  cannon  game  ;  and  the 
American  game.  This  last  is  played  with  four  balls,  two 
white  and  two  coloured,  and  consists  entirely  of  winning 
hazards  and  cannons.  There  is  also  a  Russian  game,  called 
carline  or  Caroline,  not  unlike  Anierican  billiards;  a 
German  game,  Wurst-partie,  in  which  a  certain  number  of 
balls  are  placed  in  a  row  across  the  t^ble ;  the  Spanish,  or 
skittle  game,  which  the  Germans  call  Kxigel-partie  ;  and 
French  billiards  or  the  cannon  game  formerly  universal  Dn 
the  Continent,  and  now  very  popuhr  in  the  United  States, 
where  the  best  players  are  Frenchmen  or  men  of  French  ex- 
traction. Of  these  tames,however,it  is  unnecessary  to  speak, 
as  they  arc  all  much  inferior  to  billiards,  and  can  be  easily 
played  by  any  one  familiar  with  the  established  English 
game.  The  lesser  varieties  of  billiards — choice  of  balls,  in 
which  each  player  selects  the  ball  he  plays  with  ;  bricole, 
in  which  the  player  strikes  his  ball  against  a  cushion  and 
,  endeavours  to  reach  his  opponent's  ball  from  the  rebound  ; 
bar-hole,  so  called  from  a  pocket  or  pockets  being  barred 
Or  stopped  for  one  of  the  players ;  one  pocket  to  five ; 
winning  against  losing  ;  the  nomination  game,  which  is 
ordinary  billiards,  in  which  the  player  is  obliged  to  name 
his  stroke  before  attempting  it,  and  failing  to  make  it 
g:iins  nothing,  or  gives  unnamed  cannons  ard  hazards  to  his 
opponent ;  the  commanding  game ;  the  go-back  game,  which 
is  played  by  an  adept  against  a  tyro,  the  latter  scoring  all 
he  makes  and  the  former  going  .back  to  nothing  every 
time  his  adversary  makes  a  winning  or  losing  hazard , — all 
these  are  So  barren  of  interest  and  so  seldom  played  as 
barely  to  deserve  mention 

As  to  the  science  of  the  game,  there  is  really  little  to  be 
taught  io  books  ;  practice  and  instruction  from  an  adopt 
will  better  enlighten  a  tyro  as  to  the  mysteries  of  the  side- 
stroke,  the  drag,  the  screw,  the  following  ball,  the  spot- 
stroke,  ic,  than  any  amount  of  verbal  explanation.  It 
may.  however,  be  as  well  to  refer  briefly  to  these  several 
points,  in  order  to  render  this  notice  as  complete  a.i  the 
space  at  command  will  admit. 

TIio  aid*  utrnlce  is  made  by  striking  the  object-ball  on  the  side 
Mih  till)  point  of  the  cue.  .The  effect  of  such  a  mode  of  striking  Ihe 
■•.ill  18  to  ninko  it  travel  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  according  ns  it 
It  ttnick  *ilh  a  Binding  or  slightly  circular  motion;  and  ils  j'ur 


pose  is  to  causo  the  ball  to  proceed  in  a  direction  •  're  or  iess  slant- 
ing than  is  usual,  or  ordinary,  when  the  ball  is  struck  in  or  about 
the  centre  of  its  circumference.  Many  hazards  and  cannons,  quiie 
impossible  to  be  made  with  the  central  stroke,  are  accomplished 
with  ease  and  certainty  by  the  side-stroke.  In  the  hands  of  a  dex- 
terous player  this  stroke  is  both  elegant  and  effective.  The  acrew, 
or  twist,  is  made  by  striking  the  ball  low  down,  with  a  sharp,  suil- 
dcn  blow.  According  as  the  ball  is  struck  nearer  and  nearer  to  the 
cushion,  it  stops  dead  at  the  point  of  concussion  with  the  object- 
ball,  or  recoils  by  a  series  of  reverse  revolutions,  in  the  manner 
familiar  to  the  schoolboy  in  throwing  forward  a  hoop,  and  causing  it 
to  return  to  his  hand  by  the  twist  given  to  its  first  impetus.  Tlio 
following-ball  is  made  by  striking  the'"ball  high,  with  a  flowing  or 
following  motion  of  the  cue.  Just  as  the  low-stroke  impedes  the 
motion  of  the  ball,  the  follow  exjicdites  it  In  the  drag  the  hall  is 
struck  low  without  the  sudden  jerk  of  the  screw,  and  with  less  than 
the  onward  push  of  the  follow.  The  spot-stroke  is  a  winning  hazard 
nvade  by  pocketing  the  red  ball  in  one  of  the  corners  from  the  spot 
1"he  great  art  is,  first,  to*  make  sure  of  the  hazard,  and  next,  lo 
K-ave  the  striking  ball  in  such  a  position  as  to  enable  the  player  to 
make  a  similar  stroke  in  one  or  other  of  the  corner  pockets.  To 
such  perfection  has  the  spot-stroke  been  brought,  that  the  winning 
hazard  has  been  repeated  more  than  two  hundied  and  fifty  times 
consecutively.  W.  Cook,  the  finest  of  English  players,  on  November 
29,  1873,  in  a  game  with  the  ex-champion,  Joseph  Bennett,  made  a 
break  of  936,  the  long?st  on  record.  In  this  great  performanco 
Cook  made,  in  all,  no  fewer  than  292  spot-hazards,  260  of  which 
were  made  consecutively.  John  Roberts,  jun.,  of  Manchester,  has 
also  made  an  extraordinary  break,  800,  the  majority  by  the  spot- 
stroke.  Without  the  spot-hazard,  the  longest  break  hitherto  mide 
is  probably  less  than  200. 

The  perfection  of  billiards  is  to  be  found  in  the  nice  coml)ination 
of  the  various  strokes,  in  such  fashion  as  to  leave  the  balls  in  a 
favourable  position  after  each  individual  hazard  and  cannon  ;  and 
this  perfection  can  only  be  attained  by  the  most  constant  and  un- 
remit^ng  practice. 

Pyramids  is  played  by  two  or  four  persons — in  the 
latter  case  in  sides,  two  and  two.  It  is  played  with 
fifteen  balls,  placed  close  together  in  the  form  of  a  triangle 
or  pyramid,  with  the  apex  towards  the  player,  and  a  white 
striking  ball.  The  centre  of  the  apex  ball  covers  the  second 
or  pyramid  spot,  and  the  balls  forming  the  pyramid  should 
lie  in  a  compact  mass,  the  base  in  a  straight  line  with  tho 
cushion. 

Pyramids  is  a  game  entirely  of  winning  hazards,  and  Jie  who  suc- 
ceeds in  pocketing  the  greatest  number  of  balls  wins.  Usually  the 
pyramid  is  made  of  fifteen  red  or  coloured  balls,  with  the  striJiing 
ball  white.  Thit  white  ball  is  common  to  both  players.  Having 
decided  on  the  lead,  the  first  player,  placing  his  ball  in  the  baulk- 
semicircle,  strikes  it  up  to  the  pyramid,  with  a  view  either  to  lodge 
a  ball  in  a  pocket  or  to  get  the  white  safely  back  into  baulk. 
Should  he  fail  to  pocket  a  red  ball,  the  other  player  goes  on  and 
strikes  the  white  ball  from  the  place  at  which  it  stopped.  When 
either  succeeds  in  making  a  winning  hazard,  he  plays  at  any  other 
ball  he  chooses,  and  continues  his  bicak  till  he  ceases  to  score;  and 
so  the  game  is  continued  by  alternate  breaks  until  the  last  red  ball 
is  pocketed.  The  game  is  commonly  played  for  a  stake  upon  Hio 
whole,  and  a  proportionate  sum  upc'U  each  liall  or  life, — as,  for 
instance,  Ss.  game  and  Is.  balls.  The  player  nins  a  life  by  pocket- 
ing a  rod  ball  or  forcing  it  over  the  Uible  ;  atid  loses  a  Ufe  by  run- 
ning his  own,  the  white,  ball  into  a  pocket,  missing  the  red  balls, 
or  intentionally  giving  a  miss.  In  this  game  the  baulk  is  no  pro- 
lecti  n  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  player  can  pocket  any  ball  wherever  it 
lies,  eitlier  within  or  without  the  baulk  line,  and  whether  the  white 
be  in  hand  or  not.  This  liberty  is  a  great  and  certain  advantage 
under  fnany  circumstance's,  especially  in  the  hands  of  a  good  player. 
It  is  not  a  very  uncommon  occurrence  for  an  ndipt  lo  pocket  six  or 
eight  balls  in  a  single  break.  Both  Cook  and  Roberts  have  been 
known,  indeed,  to  pocket  the  whole  fifteen.  If  fo^r  persons  play 
at  pyramids,  the  rotation  is  decided  by'cllanco,  and  each  plays 
alternately,  —  partners,  as  in  billiards,  bcinRallowed  to  advise  emli 
other,  each  going  on  and  continuing  to  play  as  long  as  ho  con,  tai) 
ceasing  when  he  misses  a  haznrd.  Foul  strokes  are  reckoned  as  ii; 
billiards,  except  os  regards  balls  touching  each  other.  If  two  baiis 
touch,  the  player  proceeds  witli  his  game  and  scores  a  point  for 
every  winning  hazard.  When  all  the  red  balls  but  one  are  pocketed, 
he  who  m.idc  the  last  hazaid  plays  with  the  wlrite  and  his  opponent 
with  the  red  ;  and  so  on  altcrnntely,  till  the  game  terminates  bv  t!ie 
holeing  of  one  or  other  hA\.  The  pyr.imid  balls  nro  usually  a  little 
,>;nialhT  thnn  the  billiard  balls;  the  foimcr  are  about  2  inches  in 
diiiineter,  the  latter  2,',  inches  to  2J  inches. 

Losing  rijrawitis,  seldom  played,  i:i  the  reverse  of  the  Inst  jicd 
game,  and  consists  of  losing  haznids,  each  player  using  th.  same 
striking  ball,  and  taking  a  l«ll  from  the  pyramid  for  every  losing 


B I L— B 1 L 


t)77 


haiar  j.  As  ia  tlie  other  game,  the  baulk  is  no  protection.  Another 
»anety  of  pyramids  is  knovra  as  Sfull-out,  a  game  at  which  auy 
raoibcr  of  pcrsoos  may  play.  The  p>-ramij  is  formed  as  before,  and 
the  company  play  m  rotation.  For  each  winning  hazard  the  striker 
receives  from  each  player  a  small  stake,  and  for  each  losiag  h^xzani 
he  pays  a  like  sum,  till  the  game  is  concluded  by  picketing  the 
white  or  tbe  last  coloured  balL 

Pool,  a  game  which  may  be  played  by  two  or  more 
persons,  consists  entirely  of  winning  hazards.  Each  player 
subscribes  a  certain  stake  to  form  the  pool,  and  at  starting 
hai  three  chances  or  lives.  He  is  then  provided  with  a 
coloured  or  numbered  ball,  and  the  game  commences  thus : — 
Ths  white  ball  is  placed  on  the  spot  and  the  red  is  played 
at  it  from  the  baulk  semicircle.  If  the  player  pocket  the 
white  he  receives  the  price  of  a  life  from  the  owner  of  the 
white ;  but  if  hs  fail,  the  next  player,  the  yellow,  plays  on 
the  red;  and  so  on  alternately  till  all  have  played,  or  till  a 
bill  be  pocketed.  When  a  ball  is  pocketed  the  striker 
p'.ays  on  the  ball  nearest  his  own,  and  goes  on  playing  as 
long  as  he  can  score. 

The  orilcr  of  play  is  usually  as  follows  :— The  white  ball  is  spotted  ; 
red  plays  upon  white ;  yellow  upon  red  ;  then  blue,  brown,  green, 
black,  and  spot-white  follow  in  the  order  of  succession  named, 
white  playing  on  spot-white.  The  order  is  similar  for  a  larger 
Dumber,  but  it  is  not  common  for  more  than  seven  or  eight  to  join 
in  a  pool.  Tbe  player  wina  a  life  for  every  ball  pocketed,  and 
receives  the  sum  agreed  on  for  each  life  from  the  owner  of  that 
ball  He  Icsa  a  life  to  th?  owner  of  the  ball  he  plays  on  and  misses  ; 
or  by  making  a  losing  hazard  after  striking  such  ball ;  by  playing  at 
the  wrong  ball ;  by  running  a  coup  ;  or  by  forcing  his  ball  over  tbe 
table.  Rules  governing  the  g.ime  provide  for  many  other  incidents. 
A  ball  in  baulk  may  be  played  at  by  the  striker  whose  ball  is  in  his 
hand.  I  f  the  striker's  ball  be  angled — that  is,  so  placed  in  the  jaws 
of  the  pocket  as  not  to  allow  him  to  strike  the  previously-played 
ball — ha  may  have  all  the  balls  except  his  own  and  the  object  ball 
removed  from  the  table  to  allow  him  to  try  bricole  from  the  cushion. 
In  some  clubs  and  public  rooms  an  angled  ball  is  allowed  to  be  moved 
an  inch  or  two  from  the  corner ;  but  with  a  ball  so  removed  the  player 
must  not  take  a  life.  When  the  striker  loses  a  life,  the  neit  in  rota- 
tion plays  at  the  ball  nearest  his  own  ;  but  if  the  player's  ball  happen 
to  be  in  hand,  he  plays  at  the  ball  nearest  to  tlie  centre  spot  on  the 
bvilk  line,  whether  it  be  in  oroutof  baulk.  In  such  a  case  tlie  striker 
c  in  play  from  any  part  of  the  semicircle.  Any  ball  lying  in  the  way 
of  tbe  striker's  ball,  and  preventing  him  from  taking  fair  aim  and 
re  iching  the  object-ball,  must  be  removed,  and  replaced  after  tbe 
stroke.  If  there  be  any  doubt  as  to  the  nearest  ball,  the  distance 
must  be  Measured  by  the  marker  or  umpire  ;  and  if  the  distance  be 
equal,  the  ball  to  be  played  upon  most  be  decided  by  chance.  If  the 
striker  first  pocket  the  bill  he  plays  on  and  then  runs  his  own  into 
a  pocket,  he  loses  a  life  to  the  player  whose  bill  he  pocketed,  which 
kill  is  then  to  be  considered  in  hand.  The  first  player  who  loses 
all  his  three  lives  can  "star;"  that  is,  by  paying  into  the  pool  a 
sum  equal  to  his  original  stake,  he  is  entitled  to  as  many  lives  as 
the  lowest  number  on  the  marking  board.  Thus  if  the  lowest 
Dumber  be  two,  he  stars  two  ;  if  one,  he  stars  one.  Only  one  star 
is  allowed  in  apool ;  ond  when  there  are  only  two  players  left  in,  no 
star  can  be  purchased.  The  price  of  each  life  must  be  paid  by  the 
player  losing  it,  immediately  after  tho  stroke  is  made  :  and  the 
stak^  or  pool  is  finally  won  by  tho  player  who  remains  longest  in 
the  girae.  In  the  event,  however,  of  the  two  players  last  left  in 
the  pxil  having  an  equal  number  of  lives,  they  m.iy  either  pUy  for 
the  whole  or  divide  the  stake.  The  latter,  the  n»iial  course,  is  fol- 
lowed eitnept  when  the  combatants  agree  to  play  out  the  game. 
When  tlirt-c  players  are  left,  each  with  one  life,  and  the  striker 
makes  a  miss,  tho  two  remaining  divide  the  pool  without  a  stroke  — 
this  rule  being  intended  to  meet  the  possible  case  of  two  pUyers 
combining  to'take  Advantage  of  a  thiril.  When  the  striker  h.os  to 
play,  be  may  ask  which  ball  ho  has  tD  play  at,  and  if  being  wrongly 
informed  ho  play  at  tho  wrong  ball,  he  docs  not  lose  a  life.  In 
clubs  and  public  rooms  it  is  usual  for  the  marker  to  call  the  order 
and  rotation  of  play  :  *'  Red  upoj  white,  and  yellow '•  your  player  ." 
and  when  a  bill  has  been  pocketed,  tho  fact  is  notifiei) — •'  Biuwn 
upon  blue,  and  green's  your  player,  in  hand  ,"  and  soon  till  there  are 
odIv  two  or  throe  players  left  in  the  pool. 

There  are  some  varieties  of  the  game  which  need  brief  mention. 

Single  Pool  is  the  white  winning  hazanl  game,  played  for  a  stake 
and  so  mnch  for  each  of  three  or  more  lives.  Kxch  persom  has  a 
ball,  aiually  white  and  spot-white  The  white  is  spotted,  and  the 
other  plays  on  it  from  the  baulk  semicircle  ;  and  then  each  pUvs 
»lt«rnately,spotting  his  ball  after  m.ikir.g  a  hazard  Fore.icli  winning 
hazard  the  striker  receives  a  life  ;  for  each  losing  hazard  ho  pays  a 
I'fo  ;  and  the  taker  of  the  three  lives  wins  the  game.  No  $t.ar  is 
tlloir«d  in  single  pool      Tlie  rules  regulating  pool  arc  observ&L 


yearest  Ball  Fool  is  playeil  by  any  number  of  persons  with  the 
ordinaiy  coloured  balls,  and  in  the  same  order  of  succession.  AH 
the  rules  of  pool  are  followed,  except  that  the  baulk  tj  a  protection. 
The  white  is  sjiolted,  and  tho  red  plays  On  it ;  after  that  each 
striker  plays  upon  the  ball  nearest  the  upper  or  outer  side  of 
the  baulk  line  ;  but  if  all  the  balls  lie  within  the  baulk  line,  and 
the  striker's  ball  be  in  hand,  he  must  play  up  to  the  top  cuahiuii, 
or  place  his  ball  on  the  spot.  If  his  ball  be  not  in  band,  be  plays 
at  the  nearest  ball,  wherever  it  may  lie. 

Black  or  Ectrlasling  Pool  is  played  by  any  number  of  persons  in 
tbe  ordinary  w.iy,  except  that  the  game  is  for  lives  only,  without  a 
subscribol  stake.  After  the  coloured  balls  are  distributed  a  black 
ball  is  placed  on  the  centre  spot.  At  this  the  first  striker  plays. 
Any  player,  having  pocketed  a  coloured  ball,  may  play  at  the  black  ; 
and  if  he  succeed  in  holing  it,  he  receives  not  only  the  life  he 
took  from  the  coloured  ball,  but  the  value  of  a  life  from  each  player 
On  the  contrary,  if  he  mike  a  losing  hazard  olf  the  black  ball,  mis* 
it,  or  force  his  own  ball  otf  the  table,  lie  p.iys  a  life  to  each  player. 
No  ball  can  be  removed  to  allow  the  striker  to  play  on  the  black, 
but  the  latter  may  be  removed  to  allow  tbe  sinker  to  play  at  the 
proper  object-ball.  Any  person  may  join  the  pool  at  any  time,  but 
cannot  play  in  that  round  ;  and  he  may,  on  giving  notice  of  h|s 
intention,  retire  at  the  end  of  a  clear  round,  until  which  time  his 
ball  remains  on  the  table,  and  siands  its  chance  with  the  rest.  The 
price  per  life  is  determined,  as  in  the  other  pool  games,  previously 
to  commencing  ;  and  it  is  usual  for  the  m.irker  or  leader  of  the 
game  to  notify  the  conclusion  of  each  clear  round. 

SkiUU  Pool  is  played  by  any  number  of  persons  with  three  balls,  a 
red  and  two  white,  and  twelve  skittles — ten  of  which  are  white,  an-l 
two  black.  The  skittles  and  balls  are  arranged,  according  to  a  set 
design,  on  the  table,  and  the  game  is  played  for  small  stjlces  dt  icr- 
mined  by  the  number  of  skittles  knocked  over,  after  sinking  at  • 
ball.  It  is  an  amusing,  but  unscientific  game,  encumbered  with 
rules  which  cannot  be  understood  without  a  diagram. 

Penny  Pol  is  the  last  of  the  pool  games  needing  notice.  It  is 
played  as  ordinary  pool,  with  the  same  order  of  rotation,  by  any 
number  of  players.  Instead,  however,  of  subscribing  for  a  pool, 
and  confining  each  player  to  three  lives,  there  is  no  subscribed 
stake,  and  the  players  vl»y  on  as  long  as  they  like,  a  penny  being 
paid  by  the  owner  to  the  taker  of  each  life  ;  winning  hazards  re- 
ceiving, and  losing  hazards,  niisses,  and  coups  paying  ;  each  player 
proceeding  in. turn  as  in  regular  pool. 

Much  might  be  written  on  tne  scientific  principles  of  the  side- 
stroke,  the  angles  of  incidence  and  reflection,  Ac. ;  but  the  theories 
advanced  on  these  topics  would  lead  us  farther  into  the  region  of 
mathematics  than  is  necessary  for  a  description  of  the  several  games 
played  on  the  billiard  table  The  scientific  features  of  billiards  are 
discussed  at  more  or  less  length  in  several  of  the  following  works  :— 
Praclical  TruUise  on  Ihe  Game  of  Billiards,  by  E.  White,  1807  (this 
was  partly  a  translation  of  a  French  treatise,  published  in  1805,  and 
partly  a  compilation  from  the  article  in  the  Academic  UniverselU  da 
Jeitx,  issued  in  the  same  year,  and  since  frequently  re-edited  and 
reprinted) ;  he  ituflt  da  Jtux.  Paris,  1820  ;  Tht  jVoWs  Gavu  of 
Billiards,  by  Monsieur  Mingand,  Paris,  1834  ;  a  translation  of  the 
same,  by  John  Tnurston.  London,  1335  ;  KcntBeld  on  Biltiaid<, 
London.  1339  founded  principally  on  the  foregoing  works;  Bil- 
liards, Game  500  up,  by  Edward  Russell  Mardon,  London,  1849 , 
Turner  On  Billiardi,  a  scnes  of  d'Lograms  with  instructions,  Not- 
tingham, 1349  ;  Tlie  Billiard  Book,  by  Captain  Crawley,  London, 
1366-75 ;  Roberts  On  Billiards.  1353  ;  Pmciical  Billiards,  by  Fred. 
Hardy,  edited  by  W.  Dufton.  1367  :  Billiards,  by  Joseph  U-nnelt, 
ex-cbampion.  1873  There  are  besides  numerous  handbooks  of  more 
or  less  value.  <0.  F.  P.) 

BILLITON,  or  Blitosc,  an  island  of  the  East  Indies, 
belonging  to  the  Dutch,  situated  between  Sumatra  and 
Borneo,  in  lat.  3°  S.  and  lon:^  103°  E.  It  is  of  a  circular 
form,  about  ^0  miles  in  length  by  45  in  breadth  ,  and  lias  an 
aret, according  to  Melvill  van  Carnbee,  of  2500  square  luilcs 
The  weather  is  subject  to  rapid  changes,  but  the  usual 
temperaturt!  varies  from  80°  to  87°  Fahr.  The  nights  aic 
very  cool.  The  ."urface  in  the  north  is  Lilly, — Tadjein.  llie 
highest  peak,  being  32S0  feet  in  height.  The  scacoasl  is 
inaccessible  and  surrounded  witli  rocks,  and  the  best  harbour 
is  still  that  at  the  chief  town  of  Tandjong  Padan.  The 
navigation  bctivcen  the  island  and  Borneo  is  very  dangerous. 
Horses,  bululocs,  cattle,  sheep  and  goata,  ducks,  geese, 
fowls,  and  pigeons  arc  the  domestic  animals  of  Biliiton  , 
and  among  its  wild  animals  are  deer,  goals,  jackals, 
monkeys,  civet-calii,  tiger-cats,  and  porcupines.  The  scai 
furnish  a  supembunHaiice  of  fish  On  the  rocks  alons  the 
coast  are  found  tortoises,  trcpang,  and  edible  birds'-njests, 
wliicli  aip  articles  of  export      Tbe  forests  supply  wo<|d  of 


67B 


B  I  L  — B  I  N 


different  kinds  for  shipbuilding,  in  which  the  inhabitants 
are  very  expert.  There  are  important  mines  both  of  iron 
and  tin,  the  former  being  used  in  the  island  and  the  latter 
exported  to  the  Netherlands.  The  quantity  of  tin  obtained 
in  1871  was  49,850  picols,  or  60,532  cwts.  The  chief  im- 
ports are  rice,  cotton  goods,  pottery,  and  cocoa-nuts.  The 
population  in  1871  amounted  to  19,837,  of  whom  only  59 
were  Europeans.  The  natives  are  of  middle  height  and 
strongly  built,  and  have  expressive  features.  The  island 
was  formerly  under  the  sultan  of  Palembang,  by  whom  it 
was  ceded  to  the  English  in  1812.  As  no  mention  was 
inade  of  it  in  the  treaty  between  the  English  and  Dutch  in 
1814,  the  former  at  first  refused  to  renounce  their  possession, 
and  only  recognized  the  Dutch  claim  in  1824.  Till  1852 
it  was  dependent  on  Banka,  but  at  that  date  was  raised  to 
a  sub-residency. 

See  Tijdschrift  v.  Kederl.  Indie,  vols.  xii.  and  xv.  ;  Court's 
Rtlatiomt  of  Brit.  Gov.  with  the  State  of  Palembang,  1821  :  Croor- 
kewit,  Banka,  Malakka,  en  BiUit(m,l8i2;  Veth,  IFoordenboek  van 
Nederl.  Jndig,  1869. 

BILM A,  or  Kawar,  a  town  in  the  heart  of  the  African 
desert,  and  the  capital  of  the  wandering  tribe  called  the 
Tibboos.  The  place  is  mean  and  poor,  surrounded  with  a 
mud  wall  In  its  vicinity  are  a  number  of  lakes,  the  waters 
of  which,  on  evaporation  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  yield  a 
quantity  of  very  pure  and  fine  salt,  which  is  the  object  of  an 
extensive  and  important  trade  with  the  countries  in  Central 
Africa.  The  largest  of  these  lakes  is  at  Agram,  situated 
about  four  miles  to  the  westward.  Near  Bilma  is  a  small 
circular  spot,  kept  green  by  a  fine  spring,  but  immediately 
to  the  south  begins  the  most  dreary  part  of  the  African 
desert,  over  which  the  caravans  travel  for  fifteen  days 
without  discovering  the  slightest  trace  of  vegetable  life. 
During  Nachtigal's  visit  in  1870  the  temperature  during 
the  day  rarely  sank  below  1 1 3°  Fahr. 

BILSA,  a  town  of  Hindustan,  in  the  territory  of  GwAlior 
or  the  possessions  of  Sindhid,  cituated  on  the  BetwA  River 
in  lat.  23°  SO'  N.  and  long.  77°  50'  E.  It  is  enclosed  with 
a  stone  wall,  and  defended  by  square  towers  and  a  ditch. 
The  suburbs  without  the  walls  are  not  very  extensive,  but 
the  streets  are  spacious,  and  contain  some  good  houses. 
The  town  and  the  surrounding  country  are  celebrated  all 
over  India  for  the  excellent  quality  of  the  tobacco,  which  is 
bought  up  with  great  eagerness  and  exported.  Population 
about  3000.      Distance  south  from  Gwilior,  190  miles. 

BILSTON,  formerly  Bilsreton,  a  marketrtown  of  Eng- 
land, in  the  county  of  Stafford,  2J  miles  S.E.  of  Wolver- 
hampton, indebted  for  its  importance  to  the  iron  trade, 
which  it  carries  on  iu  various  departments.  In  the  vicinity 
are  very  productive  mines  of  coal  and  ironstone,  as  well 
as  sand  of  the  finest  quality  for  casting,  and  grinding- 
stones  for  cutlers.  Bilston  contains  numerous  furnaces, 
forges,  rolling  and  slitting  mills  for  the  preparation  of  iron, 
and  a  great  variety  of  factories  for  japanned  and  painted 
goods,  brass-work,  bells,  and  similar  articles.  The  town 
itself  is  very  irregularly  built ;  but  it  has  some  handsome 
buildings,  as  St  Leonard's  and  St  Mary's  chapels,  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  chapel.  The  population  of  township, 
which  is  under  an  improvements  commission,  and  forms 
part  of  the  parliamentary  borough  of  Wolverhampton,  was, 
in  1871,  24,188. 

BINGEN,  the  ancient  Bingium,  a  town  of  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  in  the  province  of  Rhenish 
Hesse,  15  miles  W.  of  Mentz.  It  is  situated  almost 
opposite  Riidesheim,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  at  the 
coni-uence  of  the  Nahe  (or  Kava),  which  is  crossed  near  its 
mouth  by  an  iron  railway  biidge  resting  on  old  Roman 
foundations.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  wine, 
grain,  and  cattle  ;  and  .tobacco,  starch,  and  leather  arc 
manufactured.      A    short    way    down    the    '"hino    i.s    the 


Btngerloch,  a  famous  whirlpool,  the  dangers  of  which  were 
almost  removed  by  blastings  undertaken  by  the  Prussian 
Government  in  1834  ;  while  about  half-way  between  it 
and  the  town  rises  on  a  rock,  in  the  middle  of  the  stream, 
the  tower  of  Bishop  Hatto.  On  a  height  immediately  to 
the  south-east  is  the  ruined  castle  of  Klopp,  originally 
founded  by  Drusus,  and  higher  still  on  the  Rochuaberg  the 
celebrated  chapel  of  St  Eoch.      Population  in  1871,  593S. 

BINGHAM,  Joseph,  a  learned  scholar  and  divine,  was 
,born  at  Wakefield  in  Yorkshire,  in  September  1668.  He 
was  educated  at  University  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he 
was  made  fellow  in  1689,  and  college  tutor  in  1691.  A 
sermon  preached  by  him  from  the  university  pulpit,  St 
Mary's,  on  the  meaning  of  the  word  "  Person "  in  the 
Fathers,  brought  upon  him  a  most  unjust  accusation  of 
heresy.  He  was  compelled  to  give  up  his  fellowship  and 
leave  the  university;  but  he  was  immediately  presented  by 
Dr  John  Radcliffe  to  the  rectory  of  Headbnurnworthy,  near 
Winchester.  In  this  country  retirement  be  began  his 
laborious  and  valuable  work  entitled  Origines  Ecclesiasticce, 
or  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church,  the  first  volume  of 
which  appeared  in  1708  and  the  tenth  in  1722.  Notwith- 
standing his  learning  and  merit,  Bingham  received  no 
higher  preferment  than  that  of  Headbournworthy  till  the 
year  1712,  when  he  was  collated  to  the  rectory  of  Havant, 
near  Portsmouth,  by -Sir  Jonathan  Trelawney,  bishop  of  Win- 
chester. Nearly  all  his  little  property  was  lost  in  the  great 
South  Sea  bubble  of  1720.     He  died  August  17,  1723. 

BINGLEY,  a  thriving  market-town  in  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  on  the  River  Aire,  5i  miles  from  Bradford, 
on  the  Midland  Railway.  The  inhabitants  are  principally 
engaged  in  manufactures  of  worsted,  cotton,  paper,  and 
iron.  The  town  is  well  built,  and  has  a  neat  church,  a 
grammar  school,  and  several  charities.  The  population  of 
the  Local  Board  District,  which  includes  a  part  of  Jlickle- 
thwaite,  was  9062  in  1871. 

BINNEY,  Thomas,  an  English  Nonconformist  divine, 
was  bom  at  Newcastlo-on-Tyne  in  1 798,  and  died  February 
24,  1874.  After  spinding  seven  years  in  the  employment 
of  a  bookseller  he  entered  the  theological  college  of  Wym- 
ondley,  Herts,  with  the  vieti  of  studying  for  the  ministry. 
His  first  pastoral  charge  was  that  of  the  Congregational 
church,  at  Newport,  Isle  of  Wight,  to  which  he  was  in- 
ducted in  1824.  Five  years  Inter — in  1829 — be  accepted 
a  call  to  the  historic  Weigh  House  chapel,  London.  Here 
he  at  once  established  what  prc-ed  to  be  a  lasting  popu- 
larity, and  it  was  found  necessaiy  to  build  a  much  larger 
place  of  worship  on  Fish  Street  Hill,  to  which  the  congre- 
gation removed  in  1834.  An  address  delivered  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  laying  of  the  foundation  s'oneof  the  new  building 
was  afterwards  published,  with  an  appendix  containing  a 
strongly  .worded  opinion  as  to  the  bai'e.ful  influence  of  the 
Church  t)f  England,  which  naturally  gave  rise  to  much 
angry  comment  and  a  prolonged  and  Wttcr  controversy. 
Throughout  his  whole  career  Binney  was  a  vigorous  and 
intelligent  opponent  of  the  st.atc  church  pri<iciple,  but  thoise 
who  inferred  from  one,  perhaps  unguarded,  ^itateracnt  thiit 
he  was  a  narrow-minded  political  dissenter  did  him  injus- 
tice. His  liberality  of  view  and  breadth  of  ecclesiastical 
sympathy  entitle  him  to  rank  on  questions  of  Nonconfnrmily 
among  the  most  distinguished  of  the  school  of  Richanl 
Baxter.  Accordingly,  in  his  later  years  he  was  rot  only 
recognized  by  general  consent  xs  the  foremost  name  among 
all  sections  of  English  Nonconfoimists,  but  mmnl,'\iiicd 
friendly  relations  with  m.iny  of  the  leading  dignitaries  of 
the  Established  Church.  He  continued  in  the  acti'^o  dis- 
charge of  the  duties  of  the  ministry,  though  latterly  witb 
the  help  of  a  colleague,  until  1871,  when  he  resigned. 
In  1845  he  paid  a  visit  to  Canada  and  the  Unil<-<' 
States,  and  in  1857  he  set  out  on  a  tour  to  the  Australia-. 


B  I  N  ^B  I  0 


679 


colonies,  which  extended  over  a  period  of  two  years. 
Thou"h  he  oot  infre<.]uciitly  fell  markedly  below  bia  own 
standard  of  excellence,  Binncy  exercised  au  induence  as  a 
preacher,  especially  with  young  men,  such  as  few  have 
wielded  f6r  so  long'a  period.  A  manly,  vigorous  intellect, 
fearless  independence  of  judgment,  a  lively  imagination, 
showing  itself  chiefly  in  frequent  flashes  of  happy  illustra- 
tion, a  keen,  sarcastic  humour  chastened  but  of  deliberate 
purpose  not  altogether  repressed,  a  direct  forcible  style,  a 
commanding  presence,  and  a  pleasant  musical  voice  suffi- 
ciently account  for  his  popularity.  He  was  the  pioneer 
in  a  much  needed  improvement  of  the  forms  of  service  in 
^foDConformist  churches,  and  gave  a  special  impulse  to  con- 
gregational psalmody  by  the  publication  of  a  book  entitled 
The  Service  of  Song  in  die  House  of  the  Lord.  Of  numerous 
other  works  the  best  known  is  his  Is  it  Possible  to  Make 
the  Best  of  Both  Worlds  I  an  expansion  of  a  lecture  delivered 
to  young  men  in  Exeter  Hall,  which  attained  a  circulation 
of  30,000  copies  within  a  year  of  it5  publication.  A  very 
happy  specimen  of  his  peculiar  powers  as  an  author  is  his 
Money,  a  Popular  Exposition  m  Rouijk  iVoles  (18G4), 
which  also  had  a  large  circulation. 

BINTANO,  one  of  the  islands  which  mark  the  south 
side  of  the  Strait  of  Singapore.  The  latter  is  the  exit 
towards  China  and  Siam  of  the  great  channel  which  we 
eall  the  Straits  of  Malacca.     Bintang  lies  between  lOl"  13' 


and  104°  40'  E.  long.,  ivith  a  central  latitude  of  0»  52'  N. 
It  has  an  area  of  aboiit-440  square  miles,  and  is  surrounded 
by  many  rooks  and  small  islands,  making  navigation 
dangerous.  The  soil  is  DOt  fertile,  and  much  of  it  is 
swampy.  The  chief  product  is  gambir,  of  which  upwards 
of  4000  tons  are  annually  exported,  with  pepper  and  soma 
other  spices  and  fruits.  The  island  is  a  good  deal  visited 
by  Malay  and  Chinese  traders.  The  highest  hill  in  it 
is  1385  feet  high,  and  there  are  five  rivers,  but  these  navi- 
gable only  by  small  boats. 

Binding  13  mentioufd  by  Marco  Polo  nnilcr  ihe  name  of  PcrUam, 
wliich  is  not  far  froui  the  grnuino  Malay  narao  Beiitun,  said  to  mean 
a  balf-nioon,  and  to  apply  properly  to  the  mountain  just  mentioned. 
The  n«ine  appears  on  a  medieval  Javanese  inscriptioD,  aa  that  ol 
one  of  the  numerous  kingdoms  conquered  by  the  sovereigns  reigning 
at  Majapahit,  in  Java. 

After  tilt  Portuguese  conquest  of  Malacca  (1511),  the  expelled 
Malionjetan  ilyna-sty  took  up  itji  residcnrrj  on  Bintang,  where  it  long 
cherished  pirates.  The  islimd  still  belongs  nominally  to  the  repre- 
sentative of  these  kings  ef  Malacca,  whom  we  usually  style  the  sul- 
tan of  Joli6r,  the  Dutr.h  tlie  sultan  of  Lingea.  Supreniary  is,  how. 
ever,  claimed  and  exercised  by  the  Dutcli,  whoso  port  of  Ahio  or 
Riouw,  founded  as  a  rival  to  Singapore,  stands  on  a  small  ialand  oil 
the  western  coast  of  Bintang. 

Bintang,  regarded  as  the  r«sidence  of  the  exjMjlled  suttjins  of 
Malacca,  is  the  Hintao  whereof  Camoens  speaks  as  the  persistent  fa* 
of  Portuguese  Malacca* — 

"  Xo  reino  de  Bintoo,  qur  tantos  dan<a 
2'erd  a  Malaca  viuito  tempo /eiios." 


BIOLOGY 


THE  Biological  sciences  are  those  which  deal  with  the 
phenomena  manifested  Ly  living  matter  ;  and  though 
it  13  customary  and  convenient  to  group  apart  such  of  these 
phenomena  as  are  termed  mental,  and  such  of  them  as  are 
exhibited  by  men  in  society,  under  the  heads  of  Psychology 
and  Sociology,  yet  it  must  be  allowed  that  no  natural 
boundary  separates  the  subject  matter  of  the  latter  sciences 
from  that  of  Biology.  Psychology  is  inseparably  linked 
with  Physiology;  and  the  phases  of  social  life  exhibited  by 
animals  other  than  man,  which  sometimes  curiously  fore- 
shadow human  policy,  fall  strictly  within  the  province  of 
the  biologist. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  biological  sciences  are  sharply 
marked  off  from  the  abiological,  or  those  which  treat  of 
the  phenomena  manifested  by  not-living  matter,  in  so  far 
as  the  properties  of  hving  matter  distinguish  it  absolutely 
from  all  other  kinds  of  things,  and  as  the  present  state  of 
knowledge  furnislies  us  with  no  hnk  between  the  living 
and  the  not-living. 

These  distinctive  properties  of  living  matter  are — 

1.  Its  chemical  composition — containing,  as  it  invariably 
does,  one  or  more  forms  of  a  complex  compound  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  the  so-called  protein  (which 
has  never  yet  been  obtained  except  as  a  product  of  living 
bodies)  vmited  with  a  large  proportion  of  water,  and  forming 
the  chief  constituent  of  a  substance  which,  in  its  primary 
unmodified  state,  is  known  as  protoplasm. 

2.  Its  universal  disintegration  and  waste  by  oxidation; 
and  its  concomitant  reintegration  by  the  intussusception  of 
nttw  matter.  • 

A  process  of  waste  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of 
the  molecules  of  the  protoplasm,  in  virtue  of  which  they 
break  up  into  more  highly  oxidated  products,  which  cease 
to  form  any  part  of  the  living  body,  is  a  constant  con- 
comitant of  IL'c.^  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  carbonic 
acid  is  always  one  of  these  waste  products,  while  the  others 
contain  tho  remainder  of  the  carbon,  tho  nitrogen,  the 
hydrogen,  and  the  other  elements  which  may  enter  into 
the  composition  of  the  protoplasm. 

The  Dew  matter  taken  in  to  make  itood  this  ronstjint 


loss  is  either  a  ready-formed  protoplasmic  material,  supplied 
by  some  other  living  being,  or  it  consists  of  the  elements 
of  protoplasm,  united  together  in  simpler  combinations, 
which  con.sequently  have  to  be  built  up  into  protoplasm 
by  the  agency  of  the  living  matter  itself.  In  either  case, 
tho  addition  of  molecules  to  those  which  already  existed 
takes  place,  not  at  the  surface  of  the  living  mass,  but  by 
interposition  between  the  existing  molecules  of  the  latter. 
If  the  processes  of  disintegration  and  of  reconstruction 
which  characterize  life  babnce  one  another,  the  size  of  the 
mass  of  living  matter  remains  stationary,  while,  if  the  re- 
constructive process  is  the  more  rapid,  the  living  body  grows. 
But  tho  increase  of  size  which  constitutes  growth  is  the 
result  of  a  process  of  molecular  intus-susception,  and  there- 
fore differs  altogether  from  tho  process  of  growth  by  accre- 
tion, which  may  bo  observed  in  cr}'stals  and  is  effected 
purely  by  the  external  addition  of  new  matter — so  that,  in 
the  well-known  aphorism  of  Linnoeus,  the  word  "  grow." 
as  applied  to  stones,  signifies  a  totally  different  process  from 
what  is  called  "  growth  "  in  plants  and  animals. 

3.    Its  tendency  to  undergo  cyclical  changes. 

In  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  all  living  matter  pr»- 
ceeds  from  pre-existing  living  matter,  a  portion  of  the  latter 
being  detached  and  acquiring  an  independent  existence. 
The  new  form  takes  on  the  characters  of  that  from  which 
it  arose  ;  exhibits  the  same  power  of  propag.-iting  itself 
by  means  of  an  offshoot ;  and,  sooner  or  Later,  bke  its  pre- 
decessor, ceases  to  live,  and  is  resolved  into  more  highly 
oxidated  compounds  of  its-  elements. 

Thus  an  individual  living  body  is  not  only  constantly 
changing  its  substance,  but  its  size  and  form  are  under- 
going continual  modifications,  the  end  of  which  is  the  death 
and  decay  of  that  individual ;  tho  continuation  of  the  kind 
being  secured  by  the  detachment  of  portions  which  tend 
to  run  through  tho  same  cycle  of  fonns  as  the  parent.  No 
forms  of  matter  which  arc  either  not  Uviiig,  or  have  noi 
been  derived  from  living  matter,  exhibit  these  three  pro- 
perties, nor  any  approach  to  the  remarkable  phenomena 
defined  under  the  second  and  third  heads.  But  in  addi- 
tion to  these  distinctive  characters,  living  matter  has  some 


680 


B  I  O  L  0  G  Y 


other  peculiarities,  the  chief  of  wliich  are  the  dependence 
of  all  its  activities  upon  moisture  and  upon  heat,  within 
a  limited  range  of  temperature,  and  the  fact  that  it  usually 
possesses  a  certain  structure,  or  organization. 
Lift  con-  As  has  been  said,  a  large  proportion  of  water  enters  into 
ditioned  by  the  composition  of  all  Living  matter;  a  certain  amount  of 
moistum.  drying  arrests  vital  activity,  and  the  ccfeplete  abstraction 
of  this  water  is  absolutely  incompatible  with  either  actual 
JT  potential  life.  But  many  of  the  simpler  forms  of  life 
may  undergo  desiccation  to  such  an  extent  as  to  arrest  their 
vital  manifestations  and  convert  them  into  the  semblance 
of  not-living  matter,'and  yet  remain  potentially  alive.  That 
is  to  say,  on  being  duly  moistened  they  return  to  life  again. 
And  this  revivification  may  take  place  after  months,  or  even 
years,  of  arrested  life. 

The  properties  of  living  matter  are  intimately  related  to 
temperature.  Not  only  does  exposure  to  heat  sufficient  to 
decompose  protein  matter  destroy  life,  by  demolishing  the 
molecular  structure  upon  which  life  depends;  but  aU  vital 
activity,  all  phenomena  of  nutritive  growth,  movement, 
and  reproduction  are  possible  only  between  certain  limits 
of  temperature.  As  the  temperature  approaches  these 
limits  the  manifestations  of  life  vanish,  though  they  may  be 
recovered  by  return  to  the  normal  conditions ;  but  if  it 
pass  far  beyond  these  limits,  death  takes  place. 

This  much  is  clear ;  but  it  is  not  easy  to  say  exactly 
what  the  limits  of  temperature  are,  as  they  appear  to  vary 
in  part  with  the  kind  of  living  matter,  and  in  part  with 
the  conditions  of  moisture  which  obtain  along  with  the 
temperature.  The  conditions  of  life  are  so  complex  in 
the  higher  organisms,  that  the  experimental  investigation 
of  this  question  can  be  satisfactorily  attempted  only  in 
the  lowest  and  simplest  forms.  It  appears  that,  in  the 
dry  state,  these  are  able  to  bear  far  greater  extremes 
both  of  heat  and  cold  than  in  the  moist  condition.  Thus 
Pasteur  found  that  the  spores  of  fungi,  when  dry,  could 
be  exposed  without  destruction  to  a  temperature  of 
120°-125''  C.  (248'-257°  Fahr.),  while  the  same  spores, 
when  moist,  were  all  killed  by  exposure  to  100°  C.  (212° 
Fahr.)  On  the  other  hand,  Cagniard  de  la  Tour  found 
that  dry  yeast  might  be  exposed  to  the  extremely  low 
temperature  of  solid  carbonic  acid  (-60°  C.  or  -76° 
Fahr.)  without  being  killed.  In  the  moist  state  he  found 
that  It  might  be  frozen  and  cooled  to  -  5°  C.  (23°  Fahr.), 
but  that  it  was  killed  by  lower  temperatures.  How- 
ever, it  is  very  desirable  that  these  experiments  should 
be  repeated,  for  Cohns  careful  observations  on  Bacteria 
show  that,  though  they  fall  into  a  state  of  torpidity, 
and,  like  yeast,  lose  all  their  powers  of  exciting  fer- 
mentation at,  or  near,  the  freezing  point  of  water,  they 
are  not  killed  by  exposure  for  five  hours  to  a  temperature 
below  -  10°  C.  (14°  Fahr.),  and,  for  some  time,  sinking 
to  18°  C.  (  -  0°'4  Fahr.)  Specimens  of  Spirillum  volutans, 
which  had  been  cooled  to  this  extent,  began  to  move 
about  some  Utile  tmae  after  the  ice  containing  ■  them 
thawed.  But  Cohn  remarks  that  Eurilence,  which  were 
frozen  along  with  them,  were  aU  killed  and  disorganised, 
and  that  the  same  fate  had  befallen  the  higher  Infusoria 
and  liotifera,  with  the  exception  of  some  encysted  Yorti- 
cellce,  in  which  the  rhythmical  movements  of  the  contrac- 
tile vesicle  showed  that  life  was  preserved. 

Thus  it  would  appear  that  the  resistance  of  living 
matter  to  cold  dependjs  greatly  on  the  special  form  of  that 
matter,  and  that  the  limit  of  the  Euglena,  simple  organism 
as  it  is,  is  much  higher  than  that  of  the  Bacterium. 

Considerations  of  this  kind  throw  some  light  upon  the 
apparently  anomalous  conditions  under  which  many  of  the 
lower  plants,  such  as  Protococcus  and  the  Diatomacetr,  and 
some  of  the  lower  animals,  such  as  the  Radioiaria,  are 
obsorved  to  flourish.     I'rotococcut  has  been  fijund,  not  only 


on  tue  snows  of  great  heights  in  temperate  latitudes,  t'jl 
covering  extensive  areas  of  ice  and  snow  in  the  Arctic 
regions,  where  it  must  be  exposed  to  extremely  low  tem- 
peratures,— in  the  latter'case  for  many  months  together  ; 
while  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  seas  swarm  with  Diatomacea 
and  Radioiaria.  It  is  on  the  Diatomacece,  as  Hooker  haa 
well  shown,  that  all  surface  life  in  these  regions  ultimately 
depends  ;  and  their  enormous  multitudes  prove  that  their 
rate  of  multiplication  is  adequate  to  meet  the  demands 
made  upon  them,  and  is  not  seriously  impeded  by  the  low 
temperature  of  the  waters,  never  much  above  the  freezing 
point,  in  which  they  habitually  live. 

The  maximum  limit  of  heat  which  living  matter  car 
resist  is  no  less  variable  than  its  minimum  limit.  ICiihnt 
found  that  marine  Amcehce  were  killed  when  the  tempera- 
ture reached  35°  C.  (95°  Fahr.),  while  this  was  not  the 
case  with  fresh-water  Amoeboe,  which  survived  a  heat  of 
5°,  or  even  10°,  C.  higher.  And  Actinophrys  Eicliornii 
was  not  killed  until  the  temperature  rose  to  44°  or  45°  C. 
Didymium  serpula  is  killed  at  35°  C. ;  while  another 
Myxomycete,  jEthalium  septicum,  succumbs  only  at  40°  C. 

Cohn  ("  Untersuchuiigen  iiber  Bacterien,"  Beitrdge  zur 
Biohgie  der  Pflanzen,  Heft  2,  1872)  has  given  the  results 
of  a  series  of  experiments  coHducted  with  the  view  of 
ascertaining  the  temperature  at  which  Bacteria  are  de- 
stroyed, when  living  in  a  fluid  of  definite  chemical  com- 
position, and  free  from  all  such  complications  as  must 
arise  from  the  inequalities  of  physical  condition  when 
solid  particles  other  than  the  Bacteria  co-exist  with  them. 
The  fluid  employed  contained  O'l  gramme  potassium  phos- 
phate, 01  gr.  crystallised  magnesium  sulphate,  0  1  gr.  tri- 
basic  calcium  phosphate,  and  0'2  gr.  ammonium  tartrate, 
dissolved  in  20  cubic  centimetres  of  distilled  water.  If 
to  a  certain  quantity  of  this  "  normal  fluid  "  a  small  pro- 
portion of  water  containing  Bacteria  was  added,  the 
multiplication  of  the  Bacteria  went  on  with  rapidity, 
whether  the  mouth  of  the  containing  flask  was  open  or 
hermetically  closed.  Hermetically-sealed  flasks,  contain- 
ing portions  of  the  normal  fluid  infected  with  Bacteria, 
were  submerged  in  water  heated  to  various  temperatures, 
the  flask  being  carefully  shaken,  without  being  raised  out 
of  the  water,  during  its  submergence. 

The  result  was,  that  in  those  flasks  which  were  thus 
subjected,  for  an  hour,  to  a  heat  of  G0°-62°  C.  (140°-143° 
Fahr.),  the  Bacteria  underwent  no  development,  and  the 
fluid  remained  perfectly  clear.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
smiilar  experiments  in  which  the  flasks  were  heated  only 
to  40°  or  50°  C.  (104°-122°  Fahr.),  the  fluid  became  turbid, 
in  consequence  of  the  multiplication  of  the  Bacteria,  in  the 
course  of  from  two  to  three  days. 

Both  in  Kiihne's  and  in  Cohn's  experiments,  which  last 
have  lately  been  confirmed  and  extended  by  Dr  Roberts  of 
Manchester,  it  was  noted  that  long  exposure  to  a  lower 
temperature  than  that  which  brings  about  immediate 
destruction  of  life,  produces  the  same  effect  as  short  ex- 
posure to  the  latter  temperature.  Thus,  though  all  the 
Bacteria  were  killed,  with  certainty,  in  the  normal  fluid,  by 
short  exposure  to  temperatures  at  or  above  60°  C.  (140° 
Fahr.),  Cohn  observed  that,  when  a  flask  containing  in- 
fected normal  fluid  was  heated  to  50°-n2°  C.  (123°-125° 
Fahr.)  for  only  an  hour,  the  consequent  multiplication  of 
the  Bacteria  was  manifested  much  earlier,  than  in  one 
which  had  been  exposed  for  two  hours  to  the  same 
temperature. 

It  appears  to  be  very  generally  held  that  the  simpler 
vegetable  organisms  are  deprived  of  life  at  temperatures  as 
high  as  GU°  C.  (140°  Fahr.);  but  Alg<r  have  been  fonod 
living  in  hot  spring.i  at  much  higher  temporatures,  namely, 
from  168°  to  208°  Fuhr.,  for  which  latter  surprising  fact 
we  have  the  high  authority  of  Doscloieeaux.     It  is  uo  ex- 


13  I  0  L  0  O  Y 


681 


planation  of  these  pnenomena,  but  only  another  mode  of 
stating  them,  to  say  thil  these  organisms  hare  become 
"accustomed"  to  such  temperatures.  If  this  degree  of 
heat  were  absolutely  iiicom[>3tible  with  the  activity  of 
living  matter,  the  plants  ci>uld  no  more  resist  it  than  they 
could  become  "  accustomed  "  to  being  made  red  hot.  Habit 
may  modify  subsidiary,  bnt  cannot  affect  fondamental, 
conditions. 

Recent  investigations  point  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
immediate  cause  of  the  arrest  of  vitality,  in  the  first  placei, 
and  of  its  destruction,  in  the  second,  is  the  coagulation  of 
certain  substances  m  the  protoplasm,  and  that  the  latter 
contains  various  coagulable  matters,  which  solidify  at  differ- 
ent temperatures.  And  it  remains  to  be  seen,  how  far  the 
death  of  any  form  of  living  matter,  at  a  given  temperature, 
depends  on  the  destruction  of  its  fundamental  substance 
at  that  heat,  and  how  far  death  is  brought  about  by  the 
coagulaOon  of  merely  accessory  compounds. 

It  may  be  safely  said  of  all  those  living  things  which 
are  large  enough  to  enable  us  to  troat  the  evidence  of 
'  microscop's,  that  they  are  heterogeneous  optically,  and  that 
their  different  parts,  and  especially  the  surface  layer,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  interior,  differ  physically  and  chemically ; 
while,  in  most  living  things,  mere  heterogeneity  is  exchanged 
for  a  definite  structure,  whereby  the  body  is  distinguished 
into  visibly  different  parts,  which  possess  different  powers 
or  functions.  Living  things  which  present  this  visible 
structure  are  said  to  be  vrganited ;  and  so  widely  deea 
organization  obtain  among  living  beinga>  that  organized 
and  living  are  not  unfrequently  used  as  if  they  were  terms 
of  co-eitensive  applicability.  This,  however,  is  not  exactly 
accurate,  if  it  be  thereby  implied  that  all  living  things  have 
a  visible  organization,  as  there  are  numerous  forms  of  living 
matter  of  which  it  cannot  properly  be  said  that  they 
possess  either  a  definite  structure  or  permanently  specialized 
organs  :  though,  doubtless,  the  simplest  particle  of  living 
•  oiatter  must  possess  a  highly  complex  molecular  strnctnre, 
which  is  far  beyond  the  reach  of  vision 

The  broad  distinctions  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  exist 
between  every  known  form  of  living  substance  and  every 
other  component  of  the  material  world,  justify  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  biological  sciences  from  all  others.  But  it 
must  not  be  supposed  that  the  differences  between  living 
and  not-living  matter  are  such  as  to  justify  the  assmnption 
that  the  forces  at  work  m  the  one  are  different  from  those 
which  are  to  be  met  with  m  the  other.  Considered  apart 
from  the  phenomena  of  consciousness,  the  phenomena  of 
life  are  all  dependent  upon  the  working  of  the  samo 
physical  and  chemical  forces  as  those  which  are  active 
in  the  rest  of  the  world.  It  may  be  convenient  to  use 
the  terms  "  vitality"  and  "  vital  force"  to  denote  the  causes 
of  certain  great  groups  of  natural  operations,  as  wo  employ 
tLe  names  of  "  electricity"  and  "  electrical  force"  to  denote 
others  ;  but  it  ceases  to  be  proper  to  do  so,  if  such  a  name 
implies  the  absurd  assumption  that  "electricity"  and 
"vitality"  are  entities  playing  the  part  of  efficient  causes 
of  electrical  or  vital  phenomena  A  mass  of  living  proto- 
plasm is  simply  a  molecular  machine  of  great  complexity, 
the  total  results  of  the  working  of  which,  or  its  vital  pheno- 
mena, depend, — on  the  one  hand,  upon  its  construction, 
and,  on  the  other,  upon  the  energy  supplied  to  it ;  and  to 
speak  of  "  vitality  "  as  anything  bnt  the  name  of  a  scries  of 
operations  is  as  if  one  should  talk  of  the  "  horologity"  of 
a  clock. 
Cla*5in<3.         Li\-ing  matter,  or  protoplasm  and  the  products   of  its 

Hod  of  ti..  metamorphosis,  may  be  regarded  under  four  aspects  : 

pbenomei..      (1.)  h   has  a  certain  citomul  and  internal  form,  the 
latt«t  being  more  usually  called  structure  ; 

(2.)  It  occupies  »  certain  position  ili  space  and  in  time  ; 
(3.^  It  is  tl.o  subject  of  the  operation  of  certain  forcea 


in  virtue  of  which  it  undergoes  internal  changes,  modiScs 
external  objects,  and  is  Liodihed  by  them  ,  and 

(4.)  Its  form,  place,  and  powers  are  the  effects  of  ci.r- 
taui  causes. 

In  correspondence  with  these  four  aspects  of  its  subject, 
biology  is  divisible  into  four  chief  sub<li%-i3ions — I.  Mor- 
phology ;  II  DlSlRlBCTION;  III.  PnvsiOLOCY,  IV. 
MTXOliOQt. 

I.    MOEPHOLOGY. 

So  far  as  living  beings  have  a  form  and  structur?,  they 
fall  within  the  province  of  Analomij  and  Histolo^,  the 
latter  being  merely  a  name  for  that  ultimate  optical  analysis 
of  living  structure  which  can  be  carried  out  only  by  the 
aid  of  the  microscope. 

And,  in  so  far  as  the  form  and  structure  of  any  living 
being  are  not  constant  during  the  whole  of  its  existence, 
but  undergo  a  series  of  changes  from  the  commencement 
of  that  existence  to  its  end,  living  beings  have  a  Develop- 
ment. The  history  of  development  is  an  account  of  the 
anatomy  of  a  living  being  at  the  successive  periods  of  its 
existence,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  one  anatomical 
stage  passes  into  the  next. 

Finally,  the  systematic  statement  and  generalization  of 
the  facts  of  Morphology,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  arrange 
living  beings  in  groups  according  to  their  degrees  of  like- 
ness, is  Tcuonomy. 

The  study  of  Anatomy  and  Development  has  brought  to. 
Light  certain  generalizations  of  wide  applicability  and 
great  importance. 

1.  It  has  been  said  that  the  great  majority  of  living  Most  planu 
beings  present  a  very  definite  structure.     Unassisted  vision  ^d  »"'■ 
and  ordinary  dissection  suffice  to  separate  the  body  of  any  "^    ^" 
of  the  higher  animals,  or  plants,  into  fabrics  of  different  pf^ji^ 
sorts,  which  always  present  the  same  general  arrangement 
in  the  same  organism,  but  are  combined  in  different  ways 
in  different  organisms.     The  discrimination  of  these  com- 
paratively few  fabrics,  or  tissuei,  of  which  organisms  are 
composed,  was  the  first  step  towards  that  ultimate  analysis 
of  visible  structure  -which  has  become  possible  only  by  the 
recent  perfection  of  microscopes  and  of  methods  of  pre- 
panUion. 

Histology,  which  embodies  the  results  of  this  analysis, 
shows  that  every  tissue  of  a  plant  is  composed  of  more  oi 
less  modified  structural  elements,  each  of  which  is  termel 
a  cell ;  which  cell  in  its  simplest  condition,  is  merely  a 
spheroidal  msss  of  protoplasm,  surrounded  by  a  coat  or  sac 
— the  cell-ioall — which  contains  cellulose.  In  the  various 
tissues,  these  cells  may  undergo  innumerable  modifications 
of  form— the  protoplasm  may  bSconie  differentiated  into  a 
nncleoswith  its  nucleolus,  a  primordial  utricle,  and  a  cavity 
filled  with  a  watery  fluid,  and  the  cell-wall  may  be  vari- 
ously altered  in  compositioaor  in  stnicture,  or  may  coalesce 
with  others.  But,  however  extensive  these  changes  may 
be,  the  fact  that  the  tissues  are  made  up  of  morphologically 
distinct  units — the  cells — remains  patent.  And,  if  any 
doubt  could  exist  on  the  subject,  it  would  be  removed  by 
the  study  of  development,  which  proves  that  every  plant 
commences  its  existence  as  a  simple  cell, identical  in  iis 
fundamental  characters  with  the  less  modified  of  those 
cells  of  which  the  whole  body  is  composed 

But  it  is  not  necessary  to  the  morphological  unit  of  the 
plant  that  it  should  be  always  provided  with  a  cell-wall. 
Certain  plants,  such  as  Prolococcus,  spend  longer  or  shorter 
periods  of  their  existence  in  the  condition  of  a  mere  spher- 
oid o£  protoplasm,  devoid  of  any  cellulose  wall,  wlule,  at 
other  times,  the  protoplasmic  body  becomes  enclosed  within 
a  cell-wall,  fabricated  by  its  .superficial  layer. 

Therefore,  just  as  the  nucleus,  the  primordial  utricle, 
and  the  central  fluid  arc  no  essential  constituents  of  the 


682 


BIOLOGY 


morphological  unit  of  the  plant,  but  represent  results  of  its 
metamorphosis,  so  the  cell-wall  is  equally  unessential ;  and 
either  the  term  "  cell "  must  acquire  a  merely  technical 
significance  as  the  equivalent  of  morphological  unit,  or 
some  new  term  must  be  invented  to  describe  the  latter. 
On  the  whole,  it  is  probably  least  inconvenient  to  modify 
the  sense  of  the  word  "  cell" 

The  histological  janalysia  of  animal  tissues  has  led  to 
results  and  to  diflitulties  of  terminology  of  precisely  the 
same  character.  In  the  higher  animals,  however,  the 
modifications  which  tbe  cells  undergo  are  so  extensive,  that 
the  fact  that  the  tissues  are,  as  in  pTaats,  resolvable  into  an 
aggregation  of  morphological  units,  could  never  have  been 
established  without  the  aid  of  the  study  of  development, 
which  proves  that  the  animal,  no  less  than  the  plant,  com- 
mences its  existence  as  a  simple  cell,  fundamentally  iden- 
tical with  the  less  modified  cells  which  are  found  in  the 
tissues  of  the  adult. 

Though  the  nucleus  is  very  constant  among  animal  cells, 
it  is  not  universally  present ;  and  among  the  lowest  forms 
of  animal  life,  the  protoplasmic  mass  which  represents  the 
morphological  unit  may  be,  as  in  the  lowest  plants,  devoid 
of  a  nucleus.  In  the  animal,  the  cell-wall  never  has  the 
character  of  a  shut  sac  containing  cellulose  ;  and  it  is  not 
a  little  difficult,  in  many  cases,  to  say  how  much  of  the  so- 
called  "  cell-wall"  of  the  animal  cell  answers  to  the  "  pri- 
mordial utricle "  and  how  much  to  the  proper  "  cellulose 
cell-wall "  of  the  vegetable  cell.  But  it  is  certain  that  in 
the  animal,  as  in  the  plant,  neither  cell-wall  nor  nucleus 
are  essential  constituents  of  the  cell,  inasmuch  as  bodies 
which  are  unquestionably  the  equivalents  of  cells — true 
morphological  units — are  mere  masses  of  protoplasm,  de- 
void alike  of  cell-wall  and  nucleus. 

For  the  whole  living  world,  then,  it  results  :-.-that  the 
morphological  unit — the  primary  and  fundamental  form  of 
life — 13  merely  an  individual  mass  of  protoplasm,  in  which 
no  further  structure  is  discernible  ;  that  independent  living 
forms  may  present  but  little  advance  on  this  structure ; 
and  that  all  the  higher  forms  of  life  are  aggregates  of  such 
morphological  units  or  cells,  variously  modified. 

Moreover,  all  that  is  at  present  known  tends  to  the  con- 
clusion, that,  in  the  complex  aggregates  of  such  units  of 
which  all  the  higher  animals  and  plants  consist,  no  cell  has 
arisen  otherwise  than  by  becoming  separated  from  the  pro- 
toplasm of  a  pre-existing  cell;  whence  the  aphorism  "Omnis 
celtula  e  cellula." 

It  may  further  be  added,  as  a  general  truth  applicable 
to  nucleated  cells,  that  the  nucleus  rarely  undergoes  any 
considerable  modification,  the  structures  characteristic  of 
the  tissues  being  formed  afthe  expense  of  the  more  super- 
ficial protoplasm  of  the  cells  ;  and  that,  when  nucleated 
cells  divide,  the  division  of  the  nucleus,  as  a  rule,  precedes 
that  of  the  whole  ceU. 

2.  In  the  course  of  its  development  every  cell  proceeds 
from  a  condition  in  which  it  closely  resembles  every  other 
dil'ffcrenUft-  '^^"'  *'"'°"S'i  '>■  series  of  stages  of  gradually  increasing 
•..<.ii.  divergence,  until  it  reaches  that  condition  in  which  it  pre- 

sents the  characteristic  features  of  the  elements  of  a  special 
tissue.  The  development  of  the  cell  is  therefore  a  gradual 
progress  from  the  general  to  the  special  state. 

The  like  holds  good  of  the  development  of  the  body  as 
a  whole.  However  complicated  one  of  the  higher  animals 
or  plants  may  be,  it  begins  its  separate  existence  under  the 
form  of  a  nucleated  cell.  This,  by  division,  becomes  con- 
verted into  an  aggregate  of  nucleated  cells ;  the  parts  of 
this  aggregate,  following  different  laws  of  growth  and 
multiplication,  give  rise  to  tho  rudiments  of  the  organs; 
and  the  parts  of  these  rudiments  again  take  on  those  modes 
of  growth  and  multiplication  and  metamorphosis  which  are 
ccedful  to  convert  the  rudiment  into  the  perfect  structure. 


DcveloD' 
nit»nt  a 


The  development  of  the  organism  as  a  whole,  therefore, 
repeats  in  principle  the  development  of  the  cell.  It  is  a 
progress  from  a  general  to  a  special  form,  resulting  from 
the  gradual  differentiation  of  the  primitively  similar  mor- 
phological imits  of  which  the  body  is  composed. 

Moreover,  when  the  stages  of  development  of  two 
animals  are  compared,  the  number  of  these  stages  which  are 
similar  to  one  another  is,  as  a  general  rule,  proportional  to 
the  closeness  of  the  resemblance  of  the  adult  forms;  whence 
it  follows  that  the  more  closely  any  two  animals  are  allied 
in  adult  structure,  the  later  are  their  embryonic  conditions 
distinguishable.  And  this  general  rule  holds  for  plants  n^i 
less  than  for  animals. 

The  broad  principle,  that  the  form  in  which  the  mor'' 
complex  living  things  commence  their  development  is 
always  the  same,  was  first  expressed  by  Harvey  in  his 
famous  aphorism,  "Omne  vivum  exovo,"  which  was  intended 
simply  as  a  morphological  generalization,  and  in  no  wise 
implied  the  rejection  of  spontaneous  generation,  as  it  is 
commonly  supposed  to  do.  Moreover,  Harvey's  study  of 
the  development  of  the  chick  led  him  to  promulgate  that 
theory  of  "  epigcnesis,"  in  which  the  doctrine  that  develop- 
ment is  a  progress  from  the  general  to  the  special  is  im- 
plicitlycontained.  « 

Caspar  F.  Wolff  furnished  further,  and  indeed  conclu- 
sive, proof  of  the  truth  of  the  theory  of  epigenesis ;  but, 
unfortunately,  the  authority  of  Haller  and  the  speculations 
of  Bonnet  led  science  astray,  and  it  was  reserved  for  Von 
Baer  to  put  the  nature  of  the  process  of  development  in  its 
true  light,  and  to  formulate  it  in  his  famous  law. 

3.  Development,  then,  is  a  process  of  differentiation  by 
which  the  primitively  similar  parts  of  the  living  body 
become  more  and  more  unlike  one  another. 

This  process  of  differentiation  may  be  effected  in  several  Mod 


ways. 


diffcreutia- 


(1.)  The  protoplasm  of  the  germ  may  not  undergo  divi-  *'""' 
sion  and  conversion  into  a  cell  aggregate  ;  but  various  parts 
of  its  outer  and  inner  substance  may  be  metamorphosed 
directly  into  those  physically  and  chemically  different 
materials  which  constitute  the  body  of  the  adjlt.  This 
occurs  in  such  animals  as  the  Infusoria,  and  in  such  plants 
as  the  unicellular  Algce. 

(2.)  The  germ  may  undergo  division,  and  be  converted 
into  an  aggregate  of  cells,  which  cells  give  rise  to  the 
tissues  by  undergoing  a  metamorphosis  of  the  same  kind  as 
that  to  which  the  whole  body  is  subjected  in  the  preceding 
case. 

The  body,  formed  in  either  of  these  ways,  may,  as  a  whole, 
undergo  metamorphosis  by  differentiation  of  its  parts,  and 
the  differentiation  may  take  place  without  reference  tc  any 
axis  of  symmetry,  or  it  may  have  reference  to  such  an  axis. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  parts  of  the  body  which  become  dis- 
tinguishable may  correspond  on  the  two  sides  of  the  axis 
(bilateral  symmetry),  or  may  correspond  along  several  hncs 
parallel  with  the  axis  (radial  symmetry). 

The  bilateral  or  radial  sj-mmetry  of  the  body  may  b« 
further  complic.ited  by  its  segmentation,  or  separation 
by  divisions  transverse  to  the  axis,  into  parts,  each  of 
which  corresponds  with  its  predecessor  or  successor  in  the 
series. 

In  the  segmented  body,  the  segments  may  or  may  not 
give  rise  to  symmetrically  or  asymmetrically  disposed  pro- 
cesses, which  are  appendages,  using  that  word  in  its  most 
general  sense. 

And  tho  highest  degree  of  complication  of  structure,  in 
both  animals  and  plants,  is  attained  by  the  body  when  it 
becomes  divided  into  segments  provided  with  appendages; 
when  the  segments  not  only  become  verj-  diffcrtnt  from  one 
another,  bnt  some  coalesce  and  lose  their  primitive  distinct- 
ness ;   and  when  the  appcndacrcs  and  the  segments  into 


BIOLOGY 


683 


which  they  are  subdiviJea  eimilarly  become  differentiated 
aad  coalesce. 

It  IS  m  virtue  of  such  processes  that  the  flowers  ol 
plants,  and  the  heads  and  limbs  of  the  Arihropoda  and  of 
the  Verttbrata,  among  anmjals,  attain  their  extraordinf.ry 
diversity  and  complication  of  structure.  A  flower-bud  is  a 
segmented  body  or  axis,  with  a  certain  number  of  whorls 
of  appendages  ;  and  the  perfect  flower  is  the  result  of  the 
gradual  differentiation  and  confluence  of  these  pnmitively 
similar  segments  and  their  appendages.  The  head  of  an 
insect  or  of  a  crustacean  is,  m  like  manner,  composed  of  a 
number  of  segments,  each  with  its  pair  of  appendages, 
which  by  differentiation  and  confluence  are  converted  into 
the  feelers  and  variously  modified  oral  appendages  of  the 
adult. 

In  some  complex  organisms,  the  process  of  differentiation, 
by  which  they  pass  from  the  condition  of  aggregated  embryo 
cells  to  the  adult,  can  be  traced  back  to  the  laws  of  growth 
of  the  two  or  more  cells  mto  which  the  embryo  ceO  is 
divided,  each  of  these  cells  giving  rise  to  a  particular  por- 
tion of  the  adult  organism.  Thus  the  fertilized  embryo 
cell  in  the  archegonmm  of  a  fern  divides  into  four  cells, 
one  of  which  gives  nso  to  the  rhizome  of  the  young  fern, 
another  to  its  first  rootlet,  while  the  other  two  are  con- 
verted into  a  placenta-like  mass  which  remains  embedded 
ID  the  prothallus. 

The  structure  of  the  stem  of  C''rra  depends  upon  the 
different  properties  of  the  cells,  which  are  successively 
derived  by  transverse  division  from  the  apical  cell.  An 
tntcr-nodal  cell,  which  elongates  greatly,  and  does  not 
divide,  is  succeeded  by  a  nodal  cell,  which  elongates  but 
little,  and  becomes  greatly  subdivided  ;  this  by  another 
intor-nodal  cell,  and  so  on  in  regular  alternation.  In  the 
same  way  the  structure  of  the  stem,  in  all  the  higher 
plants,  depends  upon  the  laws  which  govern  the  manner  of 
division  and  of  metamorphosis  of  the  apical  cells,  and  of 
their  continuation  in  the  cambium  layer. 

In  all  animals  which  consist  of  cell- aggregates,  the  cells 
of  which  the  embryo  is  at  first  composed  arrange  them- 
selves by  the  splitting,  or  by  a  process  of  invagination,  of  the 
blastoderm  into  two  layers,  the  epiblast  and  the  hypoblast, 
between  which  a  third  intermediate  layer,  the  mesoblast, 
appeal's,  and  each  layer  gives  rise  to  a  definite  group  of 
organs  in  the  adult  Thus,  in  the  Vertebra'a,  the  epiblast 
gives  rise  to  the  cerebro-spinal  axis,  and  to  the  epidermis 
and  its  derivatives  ;  the  hypoblast,  to  the  epithelium  of  the 
alimentary  canal  and  its  derivatives  ,  and  the  mesoblast,  to 
all  the  intermediate  structures.  The  tendency  of  recent 
inquiry  is  to  prove  that  the  several  layers  of  the  germ 
evolve  analogous  organs  in  invertebrate  animals,  and  to  indi- 
cate iho  possibility  of  tracing  the  several  germ  layers  back 
to  the  blastomeres  of  the  yelk,  from  the  subdivision  of 
which  they  proceed. 

"0.11.  -.y  jt  is  conceivable  that  all  the  forms  of  life  should  have  pre- 
sented about  the  same  differentiation  of  structure,  and 
should  have  differed  from  one  another  by  superficial  charac- 
ters, each  form  passing  by  insensible  gradations  into  those 
most  like  it.  In  this  case  Taxonomy,  or  the  classification 
of  morjihological  facts,  would  have  bad  to  confine  itself 
to  the  formation  of  a  serial  arrangement  representing  the 
serial  gradation  of  these  forms  in  nature. 

It  is  conceivable,  again,  that  living  beings  should  have 
differed  as  widely  in  structure  as  they  actually  do,  but  that 
the  interval  between  any  two  extreme  forms  should  have 
been  filled  up  by  an  unbroken  series  of  gradations  ;  in  which 
case,  again,  classification  could  only  effect  the  formation  of 
Senas — the  strict  definition  of  groups  would  be  as  impos 
jiblo  as  in  the  former  case. 

.':>  s  matter  of  fact,  living  beings  differ  enormously,  no* 


only  m  differentiation  of  structure,-  but  in  the  modes  in 
which  that  differentiation  is  brought  about ;  and  the  in- 
tervals between  extreme  forms  are  not  filled  up  in  the  exist- 
ing world  by  complete  senes  of  gradations.  Hence  it  anses 
that  living  beings  are,  to  a  great  extent,  susceptible  of  classi- 
fication into  groups,  the  members  of  each  group  resembling 
one  another,  and  differing  from  all  the  rest,  by  certain 
definite  peculiarities. 

No  two  living  beings  are  exactly  alike,  but  it  is  a 
matter  of  observation  that,  among  the  endless  diversities 
of  living  things,  some  constantly  resemble  one  anuther  so 
closely  that  it  is  impossible  to  draw  any  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  them,  while  they  differ  only  in  such  characters 
as  are  associated  with  sex.  Such  as  thus  closely  resemble 
one  another  constitute  a  morpltoloyical  species ;  whOe  dif- 
ferent morphological  species  are  defined  by  constant  char- 
acters which  are  not  merely  sexual. 

The  comparison  of  these  lowest  groups,  or  morphological 
species,  with  one  another,  shows  that  more  or  fewer  of 
them  possess  some  character  or  characters  in  common — 
some  feature  in  which  they  resemble  one  another  and  ditfei 
from  all  other  species — and  the  group  or  higher  order  thus 
formed  is  a  genxis.  The  generic  groups  thus  constituted 
i  are  susceptible  of  being  arranged  in  a  similar  manner  into 
groups  of  successively  higher  order,  which  are  known  as 
families,  orders,  classes,  and  the  like. 

The  method  pursued  in  the  classification  of  living  forms 
is,  m  fact,  exactly  the  same  as  that  followed  by  the  maker 
of  an  index  in  working  out  the  heads  indexed.  In  an 
alphabetical  arrangement,  the  classification  may  be  truly 
termed  a  morphological  one,  the  object  being  to  put  into 
close  relation  aU  those  leading  words  which  resemble  one 
another  in  the  arrangement  of  their  letters,  that  is, 
in  their  form,  and  to  keep  apart  those  which  differ  in 
structure.  Headings  which  begin  with  the  same  word, 
but  differ  otherwise,  might  be  compared  to  genera  with 
their  species  ;  the  groups  of  words  with  the  same  first  two 
syllables  to  families  ;  those  with  identical  first  syllables  to 
orders ;  and  those  with  the  same  initial  letter  to  classes. 
But  there  is  this  difference  between  the  index  and  the 
Taionomic  arrangement  of  living  forms,  that  in  the  former 
there  is  none  but  an  arbitrary  relation  between  the  various 
classes,  while  in  the  latter  the  classes  are  similarly  capable 
of  co-ordination  into  larger  and  larger  groups,  until  all 
are  comprehended  under  the  common  definition  of  linug 
beings. 

The  differences  between  " artificial " and  "natural  "  dassi-  Artiftcia) 
fications  are  differences  in  degree,  and  not  in  kind.  In  »nd  natur«l 
each  case  the  classification  depends  upon  likeness  ;  but  in  an  ^z  ^ 
artificial  classification  some  prominent  and  easily  observed 
feature  is  taken  as  the  mark  of  resemblance  or  dissemblance  ; 
while,  in  a  natural  classification,  the  things  classified  are 
arranged  according  to  the  totality  of  their  morphological 
resemblances,  and  the  features  which  are  taken  as  the  markt 
of  groups  are  those  which  have  been  ascertained  by  ob- 
.servation  to  be  the  indications  of  many  likenesses  or  un- 
likenesses.  And  thus  a  natural  classification  is  a  great 
deal  more  than  a  mere  index.  It  is  a  statement  of  the 
marks  of  similarity  of  organization  ;  of  the  kinds  of  struc- 
ture which,  as  a  matter  of  experience,  are  found  universtillj 
associated  together ;  and,  as  such,  it  furnishes  the  whole 
foundation  for  those  indications  by  which  conclusions  as  tc 
the  nature  of  the  whole  of  an  animal  are  drawn  from  o 
knowledge  of  some  part  of  it. 

When  a  palaeontologist  argues  from  the  characters  of  a 
bone  or  of  a  shell  to  the  nature  of  the  animal  to  which 
that  bone  or  shell  belonged,  he  is  guided  by  the  empirical 
morphological  laws  established  by  wide  observation,  that 
such  a  kind  of  bone  or  shell  is  associatt^  with  such  and 
»u'-h  structural  feature*  in  the  rest  of  the  body,  and   no 


r>84 


BIOLOGY 


Geojn  aphi- 

cal  distri- 

butlOQ. 


r  eological 
;  istribu- 


Continuity 
:>f  succes- 
sion of 
fonn3  of 
hie  ID  time 


Others,    Aod  it  is  these  empirical  laws  which  are  embodied 
and  expressed  in  a  natural  classificatioa. 

II.    DlSTKIBUTIOW. 

Living  beings  occupy  certain  portions  of  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  inhabiting  either  the  dry'rland  or  the  fresh  or 
salt  waters,  or  being  competent  to  maintain  their  existence 
in  either.  In  any  given  locality,  it  is  found  that  those 
different  media  are  inhabited  by  different  kinds  of  living 
beings  ;  and  that  the  same  medium,  at  different  heights 
in  the  air  and  at  different  depths  in  the  watT,  has  dif- 
ferent living  inhabitants. 

Moreover,  the  living  populations  of  localities  which  differ 
considerably  in  latitude,  and  hence  in  climate,  always  pre- 
sent considerable  differences.  ,  But  the  converse  proposition 
is  not  true  ;  that  is  to  say,  localities  which  differ  in  longi- 
tude, even  if  they  resemble  one  another  in  climate,  often 
have  very  dissimilar /aancE  aadjiorae. 

It  has  been  discovered  by  careful  comparison  of  local 
faunae  and  florae  that  certain  areas  of  the  earth's  surface 
are  inhabited  by  groups  of  animals  and  plants  which  are 
not  found  elsewhere,  and  which  thus  characterize  each  of 
these  areas.  Such  areas  are  termed  Provinces  of  Distribu' 
lion.  There  is  no  parity  between  these  provinces  in  extent, 
nor  in  the  physical  configuration  of  their  boundaries  ;  and, 
in  reference  to  existing  conditions,  nothing  can  appear  to 
be  more  arbitrary  and  capricious  than  the  distribution  of 
living  beings. 

The  study  of  distribution  is  not  confined  to  the  present 
order  of  nature  ;  but,  by  the  help  of  geology,  the  naturalist 
is  enabled  to  obtain  clear,  though  too  fragmentary,  evidence 
of  the  characters  of  the  faunae  and  florae  of  antecedent 
epochs  The  remains  of  organisms  which  are  contained 
in  the  stratified  rocks  prove  that,  in  any  given  part  of  the 
earth's  surface,  the  living  population  of  earlier  epochs  was 
different  from  that  which  now  exists  in  the  locality ;  and 
that,  on  the  whole,  the  difference  becomes  greater  the 
farther  we  go  back  in  time.  The  organic  remains  which  are 
found  in  the  later  Cainozoic  deposits  of  any  district  are 
always  closely  allied  to  those  now  found  in  the  province 
of  distribution  in  which  that  locality  is  included  ;  while  in 
the  older  Cainozoic,  the  Mesozoic,  and  the  Palaeozoic  strata, 
the  fossils  may  be  similar  to  creatures  at  present  living  in 
some  other  province,  or  may  be  altogether  tinlike  any  which 
now  exist. 

In  any  given  locality,  the  succession  of  living  formsmay 
appear  to  be  interrupted  by  numerous  breaks — the  asso- 
ciated species  in  each  fossiUferous  bed  being  quite  distinpt 
from  those  above  and  those  below  them.  But  the  ten- 
dency of  all  palKontological  investigation  is  to  show  that 
these  breaks  are  only  apparent,  and  arise  from  the  incom- 
pleteness of  the  series  of  remains  which  happens  to  have 
been  preserved  in  any  given  locality.  As  the  area  ov«r 
which  accurate  geological  investigations  have  been  carried 
on  extends,  and  as  the  fossiUferous  rocks  found  in  one 
locality  fill  up  the  gaps  left  in  another,  so  do  the  abrupt 
demarcations  between  the  faun*  and  florae  of  successive 
epochs  disappear — a  certain  proportion  of  the  genera  and 
species  of  every  period,  great  or  small,  being  found  to  bu 
continued  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  into  the  next  suc- 
ceeding period.  It  is  evident,  in  fact,  that  the  changss  in 
tho  living  population  of  the  globe  which  have  taken  place 
during  its  history,  have  been  effected,  not  by  the  sudden 
replacement  of  one  set  of  living  being.'!  by  another,  but  by 
a  process  of  alow  and  gradual  introduction  of  new  species, 
accompanied  by  the  extinction  of  the  older  forms. 

It  ia  a  remarkable  circumstance,  that  in  all  jiarts  of  the 
glfbe  in  which  fussiliferous  rocks  have  yet  been  e.^auiined, 
the  6uccei>?ivc  terms  of  the  scries  of  living  forms  which 


have  thus  succeeded  one  another  are  analogous.  The  life 
of  the  Mesozoic  epoch  is  everywhere  characterized  by  the 
abundance  of  some  groups  of  species  of  which  no  trace  is 
to  be  found  in  either  earlier  or  later  formations  ;  and  the 
like  is  true  of  the  Palaeozoic  epoch.  Hence  it  follows,  liot 
only  that  there  has  been  a  succession  of  species,  but  that 
the  general  nature  of  that  succession  has  been  the  same  all 
over  the  globe ;  and  it  is  on  this  groimd  that  fossils  are 
so  important  to  the  geologist  as  marks  o(  the  relative  ago 
of  rocks. 

The  determination  of  the  morphological  relations  of  the 
species  which  have  thus  succeeded  one  another  is  a  problem 
of  profound  importance  and  difficulty,  the  solution  of  which, 
however,  is  already  clearly  indicated.     For,  in  several  cases, 
it  is  possible  to  show  that,  in  the  same  geographical  area,  a 
form  A,  which  existed  during  a  certain  geological  epoch, 
has  been  replaced  by  another  form  B,  at  a  later  period  ; 
and  that  this  form  B  has  been  replaced,  still  later,  by  a 
third  form  C.     When  these  forms,  A,  B,  and  C,  are  com- 
pared together  they  are  found  to  be  organized  upon  the 
same  plan,  and  to  be  very  similar  even  iii  most  of  the  de- 
tails of  their  structure;  but  B  differs  from  A  by  a  slight 
modification  of  some  of  its  parts,  which   modification  is 
carried  to  a  still  greater  extent  in  C. 
•   In  other  words.  A,  B,  and  C  differ  from  one  another  in  Progr<s^ivi 
the  same  fashion  as  the  earlier  and  later  stages  of  the 'P''^ '-''"■ 
embrj'o  of  the  same  animals  differ  ;  and  in  successive  epochs'""'  "  ■ 
we  have  the  group  presenting  that  progressive  specialLza- |^fp  .^ 
tion  which  characterises  the  development  of  the  individual  tiiue 
Clear    evidence    that  this   progressive    specialization    of 
structure  has  actually  occurred  has  as  yet  been  obtained  in 
only  a  few  cases  (e.g.,  Eijuidije,  Crocodilia),  and  these  are 
confined  to  the- highest  and  most  complicated  forms  of  Lfe; 
while  it  is  demonstrable  that,  even  as  reckoned  by  geolo- 
gical time,  the  process  must  have  been  exceedingly  slov,. 

Among  the  lower  and  less  complicated  forms  the  en- 
dence  of  progressive  modifications,  furnished  by  eoinpari- 
son  of  the  oldest  with  the  latest  forms,  is  slight,  or  absent ; 
and  some  of  these  have  certainly  persisted,  with  very  little 
change,  from  extremely  ancient  times  to  the  present  day. 
It  is  as  important  to  recognize  the  fact  that  certain  forms 
of  life  have  thus  persisted,  as  it  is  to  admit  that  others  have 
undergone  progressive  modification. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  successive  terms  in  the  series  Gco-jr.-iphi 
of  living  forms  are  analogous  in  all  parts  of  the  globe,  f"' ''"•'"" 
But  the  species   which    constitute  the  corresponding   or  ^ji^.j^,,, 
homotnxic  terms  in  the  series,  in  different  localities,  are  not  fau,,,,,  -.oj 
identical,.    And,  though  the  imperfection  of  our  knowledge  floia? 
at  present  precludes  positive  assertion,  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  geographical  provinces  have  e.tisted  through- 
out the  period  during  which  organic  remains  furnish  us 
with  evidence  of  the  existence  of  life.     The  wide  distribu- 
tion of  certain  Pal<eozoic  forms  docs  not  militate  against 
this  view ;  for  the  recent  investigations  into  the  nature  of 
the  deep-sea  fauna  have  shown  that  numerous  Crustacea, 
Echinodermata,  and   other  invertebrate  animals,  have  as 
wide  a  distribution  now  as  their  analogues  po3ses"!ed  in  the 
Silurian  eooch. 

III.    PUYSIOLOCT. 

Thus  far  living  beings  have  been  regarded  merely  as 
definite  forms  of  matter,  and  Biology  has  presented  no 
considerations  of  a  different  order  from  those  which  meet  the 
student  of  Mineralogy.  But  living  things  are  not  only 
natural  bodies,  having  a  definite  form  and  mode  of  struc- 
ture, growth,  and  development.  They  are  machines  in 
action  ;  and,  under  this  asjicct,  the  phenomena  which  they 
present  have  no  parallel  in  the  mineral  world. 

The  actions  of  living  matter  are  termed  its  /unctions; 
and  these  functions,  varied  as  they  are,  may  be  reduced  to 


Living 
beings  op 

niftclliirvs 

in  Htliun 


BIOLOGY 


685 


ibreo  categories.  Tlicy  areteitlier — (1),  functions  which 
affect  the  material  curi^iosition  of  ibe  body,  and  determine 
its  mass,  wLich  is  the  balance  of  the  processes  of  waste  on 
the  one  hand  and  those  of  assimilation  on  the  other.  Or 
(2),  thej  are  functions  which  subserve  the  process  of  re- 
production, which  is  essoulially  the  detachment  of  a  part 
endowed  witb  the  power  of  developing  into  an  independent 
whole.  Or  (3),  they  are  functions  in  virtue  of  which  one 
part  of  the  body  is  able  to  eiert  a  direct  iriQuence  on 
another,  and  the  body;  by  its  parts  or  as  a  whole,  becomes 
a  source  of  molar  motion.  The  first  may  be  termed  susUn- 
lalive,  the  second  generative,  and  the  third  correlative 
functions. 

Of  those  three  classes  of  functions  the  first  two  only  can 
be  said  to  be  invariably  present  in  living  beings,  all  of 
which  arc  nourished,  grow,  and  multiply  But  there  are 
dome  forms  of  life,  such  as  many  Fumji,  which  are  not 
known  to  possess  any  powers  of  changing  their  form;  in 
which  the  protoplasm  exhibits  no  movements,  and  reacts 
»i[ion  no  stimulus;  and  in  which  any  influence  which  the 
different  parts  <rf  the  body  exert  upon  one  another  must 
be  transmitted  indirectly  from  molecule  to  molecule  of  the 
common  mass.  In  most  of  the  lowest  plants,  however, 
and  in  all  animals  yet  known,  the  body  either  constantly 
or  temporarily  changes  its  form,  cither  with  or  without  the 
application  of  a  special  stimulus,  and  thereby  modifies  the 
relations  of  its  parts  to  one  another,  and  of  the  whole  to 
surroundiig  bodice  ;  while,  in  all  the  higher  animals,  the 
different  parts  of  the  body  are  able  to  affect,  and  be 
affected  by,  one  another,  by  means  of  a  special  tissue,  termed 
nerve.  Alolar  motion  is  effected  on  a  large  scale  by  means 
of  another  special  tissue,  muscle ;  and  the  Organism  is 
broueht  into  relation  with  surrounding  bodies  by  means  of 
a  third  kind  of  special  tissue — that  of  the  sensory  organs — 
by  mcana  of  which  the  forces  exerted  by  surrounding 
bodies  are  transmuted  into  affections  of  nerve. 

In  the  lowest  forms  of  life,  the  functions  which  have 
been  enumerated  are  seen  in  their  simplest  forms,  and 
they  are  exerted  indifferently,  or  nearly  so,  by  all  parts  of 
the  protoplasmic  body ;  and  the  like  is  true  of  the  functions 
of  the  body  of  even  the  highest  organisms,  so  long  as  they 
are  in  the  condition  of  the  nucleated  cell,  which  constitutes 
the  starting  point  of  their  development  But  the  first  pro- 
cess in  that  development  is  the  division  of  the  germ  into  a 
number  of  morphological  units  or  blastomeres,  which, 
eventually,  give  rise  to  cells ;  and  as  each  of  these  pos- 
sesses the  same  physiological  functions  as  the  germ  itself, 
it  follows  that  each  morphological  unit  is  also  a  physio- 
logical unit,  and  the  multicellular  mass  is  strictly  a  com- 
pound organism,  made  up  of  a  multitude  of  physiologically 
inde])cndent  cells.  The  physiological  activities  manifested 
by  Itie  complex  whole  represent  the  sum,  or  rather  the 
resultant,  of  the  separate  and  independent  physiological 
activities  resident  in  each  of  the  simpler  constituents  of 
that  whole. 

The  morphological  changes  which  the  cells  undergo  in 
the  course  of  the  further  development  of  the  org.inism  do 
not  affect  their  individuality ;  and,  notwithstanding  the 
mollification  and  confluence  of  its  constituent  cells,  the 
adult  organism,  however  complex,  is  still  an  aggregate  of 
morphological  unit>(.  Nor  is  it  jess  an  aggregate  of  physio- 
logical units,  each  of  which  retains  its  fundamental  inde- 
pendence, though  that  independence  becomes  restricted  in 
various  ways. 

EAch  cell,  or  that  element  of  a  tissue  which  proceeds 
from  the  modification  of  a  cell,  must  needs  retain  its 
Bustcatativo  functions  bo  long  as  it  grows  or  maintains  a 
condition  of  equilibrium  ;  but  the  most  completely  mcta- 
iDirjihoeed  cells  show  no  trace  of  the  generative  function, 
ajid  many  exhibit  no  correlative  functions.      On   the  other 


Land,  those  cells  of  the'iSHultorganism  which  are  the  un- 
metamorphosed  derivatives  of  the  germ,  exhibit  all  ths 
primary  functions,  not  only  nourishing  themselves  and 
growing,  but  multiplying,  and  frequently  showing  more  or 
less  marked  movements. 

Organs  are  parts  of  the  body  which  perform  particular 
functions.  In  strictness,  perhaps,  it  is  not  quite  right  to 
speak  .  '  organs  of  sustentation  or  generation,  each  of  these 
functions  being  necessarily  performed  by  the  morphological 
unit  which  is  nourished  or  reproduced.  What  are  called 
the  organs  of  these  functions  are  the  apparatuses  by  which 
certain  operations,  subsidiary  to  sustentation  and  genera- 
tion, are  carried  on. 

Thus,  in  the  case  of  the  sustentative  functions,  all  those 
organs  may  be  said  to  contribute  to  this  function  which 
are  concerned  in  bringing  nutriment  within  reach  of  the 
ultimate  cells,  or  in  removing  waste  matter  from  them ; 
while  in  the  case  of  the  generative  function,  all  those  organs 
contribute  to  the  function  which  produce  the  cells  from 
winch  germs  are  given  off ;  or  help  in  the  evacuation,  or 
fertilization,  or  devclojiraent  of  these  germs 

On  the  other  hand,  the  correlative  functions,  so  long  as 
they  are  exerted  by  a  simple  undifferentiated  morphological 
unit  or  cell,  are  of  the  simplest  character,  consisting  of 
those  modifications  of  position  which  can  be  efi'ected  by 
mere  changes  in  the  form  or  arrangement  of  the  parts  of 
the  protoplasm,  or  of  those  prolongations  of  the  proto- 
plasm which  are  called  pseudopodia  or  cilia.  But,  in  the 
higher  animals  and  plants,  the  movements  of  the  organism 
and  of  its  parts  are  brought  about  by  the  change  of  the 
form  of  certain  tissues,  the  property  of  which  is  to  shorten 
in  one  direction  when  exposed  to  certain  stimuli.  Such 
tissues  are  termed  contractile ;  and,  in  their  most  fully 
developed  condition,  muscular.  The  stimulus  by  which 
this  contraction  is  naturally  brought  about  is  a  molecular 
change,  either  in  the  substance  of  the  contractile  tissue 
itself,  or  in  some  other  part  of  the  body ;  in  which  latter 
case,  the  motion  which  is  set  up  in  that  part  of  the  body 
must  be  propagated  to  the  contractile  tissue  through  the 
intermediate  substance  of  the  body.  In  plants  there  seems 
to  be  no  question  that  parts  which  retain  a  hardly  modified 
cellular  structure  may  serve  as  channeb  for  the  transmis- 
sion of  this  molecular  motion  ;  whether  the  same  is  true  of 
animals  is  not  certain.  But,  in  all  the  more  complex 
animals,  a  peculiar  fibrous  tissue — nerve — serves  as  the 
agent  by  which  contractile  tissue  is  affected  by  change* 
occurring  el.sewhere,  and  by  which  contractions  thus  ini- 
tiated are  co-ordinated  and  brought  into  harmonious  com- 
bination. WTiile  the  sustentative  functions  in  the  highei 
ferras  of  life  are  still,  as  in  the  lower,  fundamentally  de- 
pendent upon  the  powers  inherent  in  all  the  physiological 
units  which  make  up  the  body,  the  correlative  functions 
are,  in  the  former,  deputed  to  two  sets  of  specially  modified 
units,  which  constitute  the  muscular  and  the  nervous  tissues. 

When  the  different  forms  of  life  arc  compared  together  DnisPon  i> 
as  physiological  machines,  they  are  found  to  difl'er  as  r''.''"''oR'- 
machines  of  human  construction  do.  In  the  lower  forms,  "  ^  ''""^' 
the  mechanism,  though  perfectly  well  adapted  to  do  the 
work  for  which  it  is  required,  is  rough,  simple,  and  weak ; 
whilc,in  the  highcr.it  is  finished.complicated,  and  powerful 
Considered  as  machines,  there  is  the  same  sort  of  difference 
between  a  polj-pe  and  a  horse  as  there  is  between  a  distalT 
and  a  spinning  jenny.  In  the  progress  from  the  lower  t« 
the  higher  organism,  there  is  a  gradual  differentiation 
of  organs  and  of  functions.  Each  function  i."  separated 
into  many  parts,  which  are  severally  entrusted  to  distinct 
organs.  To  use  the  striking  phrase  of  Milne- Edwards,  in 
passing  from  low  to  high  organisms,  there  is  a  division  of 
physiological  labour.  And  exactly  the  same  process  is 
observable  in  the  development  of  any  of  the  hifjhcr  orgao- 


686 


B  I  0  L  0  G   i^ 


Isms;  60  that,  physiologically,  as  well' as  morphologically, 
development  is  a  progress  from  the  general  to  the  special 
Thus  far,  the  physiological  activities  of  living  matter 
have  been  considered  in  themselves,  and  without  refereuce 
to  anything  that  may  a£Feot  them  in  the  world  outside  the 
liviDg  body.     But  living  matter  acts  on,  and  is  powerfully 
affected  by,  the  bodies  which  surround  it;  and  the  study  of 
the  influence  of  the  "  conditions  of  existence  "  thus  deter- 
mined constitutes  a  most  important  part  of  Physiology. 
Conditions       The  susteutative  functions,  for   example,  can  only  he 
of  pxisv      exerted  under  certain  conditions  of  temperature,  pressure, 
°°"-  and  light,  in  certain  media,  and  with  supplies  of  particular 

kinds  of  nutritive  matter;  the  sufficiency  of  which  supplies, 
again,  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  competition  of  other 
organisms,  which,  striving  to  satisfy  the  same  needs,  give 
rise  to  the  passive  "  struggle  for  existence."     The  exercise 
of  the  correlative  functions  is  influenced  by  similar  condi- 
tions, and  by  the  direct  conflict  with  other  organisms,  which 
constitutes  the  active  struggle  for  existence.     And,  finally, 
the  generative  functions  are  subject  to  extensive  modifi- 
cations, dependent  partly  upon  what  are  commonly  called 
external   conditions,  and   partly   upon   whoUy   unknown 
ogencies. 
Reprxiiio        In  the  lowest  forms  of  life,  the  only  mode  of  generation 
tion  by     '  at  present  known  is  the  division  of  the  body  into  two  or 
fiasiou  iM   morg  parts,  each  of  which  then  grows  to  the  size  and 
^""^'  assumes  the  form  of  its  parent,  and  repeats  the  process  of 

ag.im»  •      multiplication.     This  method  of  multiplication  by  fission 
genesii         is  properly  called  generation,  because  the  parts  which  are 
separated  are  severally  competent  to  give  rise  to  individual 
organisms  of  the  same  nature  as  that  from  which  they 
arose. 

In  many  of  the  lowest  organisms  the  process  is  modified 
BO  far  that,  instead  of  the  parent  dividing  iatatwo  equal 
parts,  only  a  small  portion  of  its  substance  is  detached,  as 
a  bud  which  develops  into  the  likeness  of  its  parent. 
This  is  generation  by  gemmation.  Generatioii  by  fission 
and  by  gemmation  are  not  confined  t"  the  simplest  forms 
of  life,  however.  On  the  contrary,  both  modes  of  multipli- 
cation are  common  not  only  among  plants,  but  among 
animals  of  considerable  complexity. 

The  multipUcation  of  flowering  plants  by  bulbs,  that  of 
annelids  by  fission,  and  that  of  polypes  by  budding,  are 
well-known  examples  of  these  modes  of  reproduction.  In 
all  these  cases,  the  bud  or  the  segment  consists  of  a  multi- 
tude of  more  or  less  metamorphosed  cells.  But,  in  other 
instances,  a  single  cell  detached  from  a  mass  of  such  un- 
differentiated cells  contained  in  the  parental  organism  is  the 
foujidation  of  the  new  organism,  and  it  is  hard  to  say 
whether  such  a  detached  cell  may  be  more  fitly  called  a 
bud  or  a  segment — whether  the  process  is  more  akin  to 
fission  or  to  gemmatioa 

In  all  these  cases  the  development  of  the  new  being 
from  the  detached  germ  takes  place  without  the  influence 
of  other  living  matter.  Common  as  the  process  is  in 
plants  and  in  the  lower  animals,  it  becomes  rare  among 
the  higher  animals.  In  these,  the  reproduction  of  the  whole 
organism  from  a  part,  in  the  way  indicated  above,  ceases. 
At  most,  we  find  that  the  cells  at  the  end  of  an  amputated 
portion  of  thp  organism  are  capable  of  reproducing  the  lost 
part ;  and,  in  the  very  highest  animals,  even  this  power 
vanishes  in  the  adult ;  and,  in  most  parts  of  the  body, 
though  the  undifferentiated  cells  are  capable  of  multi- 
plication, their  progeny  grow,  not  into  whole  organisms 
like  that  of  which  they  form  a  part\  but  into  element!  of 
the  tissues. 

Throughout  almost  the  whole  scries  of  living  beings, 
however,  we  find  concurrently  with  the  process  of  agamo- 
gmetis,  or  asexual  generation,  another  method  of  genera- 
tioo,  in  which  the  develooment  of  the  germ  into  an  orgauism 


resembling  the  parent  depends  on  an  influence  exerted  by  Sexu*,  re- 
living matter  different  from  the  gemu  This  is  gamogenesis.  produ-.lior. 
or  sexual  generation.  Looking  at  the  facts  broadly,  and 
without  reference  to  many  exceptions  in  detail,  it  may  be 
said  that  there  is  an  inverse  relation  between  agamogenetic 
and  gamogenetic  reproduction.  In  the  lowest  organisms 
gamogenesis  has  not  yet  been  observed,  while  in  the  highest 
agamogenesis  is  absent.  In  many  of  the  lower  forms  of 
Life  agamogenesis  is  the  common  and  predominant  mode 
of  reproduction,  while  gamogenesis  is  exceptional ;  on  the 
contrary,  in  many  of  the  higher,  while  gamogenesis  is  the 
rule,  agamogenesis  takes  place  exceptionally.  In  its 
simplest  condition,  which  is  termed  "  conj-ugation,"  sexual 
generation  consists  in  the  coalescence  of  two  similar  masses 
of  protoplasmic  matter,  derived  from  different  parts  of  the 
same  organism,  or  from  two  organisms  of  the  same  species, 
and  the  single  mass  which  results  from  the  fusion  develops 
into  a  new  organi.<!m. 

In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  there  is  a  marked 
morphological  difference  between  the  two  factors  in  the 
process,  and  then  one  is  called  the  male,  and  the  other  the 
female  element.  The  female  element  is  relatively  large, 
and  undergoes  but  little  change  of  form.  In  all  the  higher 
plants  and  animals  it  is  a  nucleated  cell,  to  which  a  greater 
or  less  amount  of  nutritive  material,  constituting  the  food- 
yelk,  may  be  added. 

The  male  element,  on  the  other  hand,  is  relatively  small 
It  may  be  conveyed  to  the  female  element  by  an  out- 
growth of  the  wall  of  its  cell,  which  is  short  in  many 
Algce  and  Fungi,  but  becomes  an  immensely  elongated 
tubular  filament,  in  the  case  of  the  pollen  cell  of  flowering 
plants.  But,  more  commonly,  the  protoplasm  of  the  male 
cells  becomes  converted  into  rods  or  filaments,  which  usu- 
ally are  in  active  vibratile  movement,  and  sometimes  are  pro- 
pelled by  numerous  cUia.  Occasionally,  however,  as  in 
many  NcTnatoidea  and  Arthropoda,  they  are  devoid  of 
mobiUty. 

The  manner  in  which  the  contents  of  the  pollen  tube 
affect  the  embryo  cell  in  flowering  plants  is  unknown,  as 
no  perforations  through  which  the  contents  of  the  pollen 
tube  may  pass,  so  as  actually  to  mix  with  the  substance  of 
the  embryo  cell,  have  been  discovered ;  and  there  is  the 
same  difficulty  with  respect  to  the  conjugativo  processes  of 
some  of  the  Cryptogamia.  But  in  the  great  majority  oi 
plants,  and  in  all  animals,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
substance  of  the  male  element  actually  mixes  with  that 
of  the  female,  so  that  in  all  these  cases  the  sexual  pro- 
cess remains  one  of  conjugation ;  and  impregnation  is 
the  physical  admixture  of  protoplasmic  matter  derived 
from  two  sources,  which  may  be  either  difl"erent  parts  of 
the  same  organism,  or  different  organisms. 

The  effect  of  impregnation  appears  in  all  cases  to  be  Iiuncdiat 
that  the  impregnated  protoplasm  tends  to  divide  into  por  ">•  "'^■ 
tions  (blastomeres),  which  may  remain  united  as  a  single  {"'','"^7'  " 
cell-aggregate,  or  some  or  all  of  which  may  become  sepa- 1.,.,, 
rate  organisms.     A  larger  or  shorter  period  of  rest,  in  many 
cases,  intervenes  between  the  act  of  impregnation  and  the 
commencement  of  the  process  of  division. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  female  cell  which  directly  receives 
the  influence  of  the  male  is  that  which  undergoes  division 
and  eventual  development  into  independent  germs ;  but 
there  are  some  plants,  such  as  the  Florideoe,  in  which  this 
is  not  the  case.  In  these  the  protoplasmic  body  of  the 
trichogyno,  which  unites  with  the  molecular  spcrmato/xiida, 
does  not  undergo  division  itself,  but  transmits  some  influ- 
ence to  adjacent  cells,  in  virtue  of  which  they  become 
subdivided  into  independent  germs  or  spores. 

There  is  still  much  obscurity  respecting  the  reproductive 
procossps  of  the  Infusoria  /'but,  in  the  Vorticellidir,  it  would 
Bppear  that  conjugation  merely  deteTmines  a  condi<'on  of 


BIOLOGY 


687 


the  whole  organism,  which  gives  rise  to  the  division  of  the 
endopiast  or  so-called  nucleus,  by  which  germs  arc  thrown 
off ;  and  if  this  be  the  case,  the  process  would  h*ve  some 
analogy  to  what  takes  place  in  the  Floridece. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  process  of  conjugation  by  which 
two  distinct /JtjDor/xK  combine  into  that  extraordinary  double 
organism,  the  Diploioon  paradoxum,  does  not  directly  give 
rise  to  germs,  but  determines  the  development  of  the  sexual 
organs  in  each  of  the  conjugated  individuals  ;  and  the  same 
process  takes  place  in  a  large  number  of  the  Infusoria,  if 
what  arc  supposed  to  be  male  sexual  elements  in  them  are 
really  such. 

The  process  of  impregnation  in  the  Floridece  is  remark- 
ably interesting,  from  its  bearing  upon  the  changes  which 
fecundation  is  Jino«n  to  produce  upon  parts  of  the  parental 
organism  other  than  the  ovum,  even  in  the  highest  animals 
and  plants. 

The  nature  of  the  influence  exerted  by  the  male  clement 
upon  the  female  is  wholly  unknown.  No  moqihological 
distinction  can  be  drawn  between  those  cells  which  are 
capable  of  reproducing  the  whole  organism  without  im- 
pregnation, and  those  which  need  it,  as  is  obvious  from 
what  happens  in  insects,  whore  eggs  which  ordinarily  re- 
quire impregnation,  exceptionally,  as  in  many  moths,  or 
regularly,  as  in  the  case  of  the  drones  among  bees,  develop 
without  impregnation.  Even  in  the  higher  animals,  such 
as  the  fowl,  the  earlier  stages  of  division  of  the  germ  may 
take  place  without  impregnation. 

In  fact,  generation  may  be  regarded  as  a  particular 
case  of  cell  multiplication,  and  impregnation  simply  as  one 
of  the  many  conditions  which  may  determine  or  affect  that 
process.  111  the  lowest  organisms,  the  simple  protoplasmic 
mass  di  rides,  and  each  part  retains  all  the  physiological  pro- 
perties of  the  whole,  and  consequently  constitutes  a  germ 
whence  the  whole  body  can  be  reproduced.  In  more  ad- 
vanced organisms,  each  of  the  multitude  of  cells  into  which 
the  embryo  cell  is  converted  at  first,  probably  retains  all,  or 
nearly  all,  the  physiological  capabilities  of  the  whole,  and  is 
capable  of  serving  as  a  reproductive  germ  ;  but  as  division 
goes  on,  and  many  of  the  ceUs  .which  result  from  di^-ision 
acquire  special  morphological  and  physiological  properties,  it 
seems  not  improbable  that  they,  in  proportion,  lose  their 
more  general  characters.  In  proportion,  for  example,  as  the 
tendency  of  a  given  cell  to  become  a  muscle  cell  or  a  car- 
tilage cell  is  more  marked  and  definite,  it  is  readily  con- 
ceivable that  its  primitive  capacity  to  reproduce  the  whole 
organism  should  be  reduced,  though  it  might  not  be  alto- 
gether abolished.  If  this  view  is  well  based,  the  power  of 
reproducing  the  whole  organism  would  be  limited  to  those 
cells  which  had  acquired  no  special  tendencies,  and  conse- 
quently had  retained  all  the  powers  of  the  primitive  cell 
in  which  the  organism  commenced  its  existence.  The  more 
extensively  diffused  such  cells  were,  the  more  generally 
might  multiplication  by  budding  or  fission  take  place  ;  the 
more  localized,  the  more  limited  would  be  the  parts  of  the 
organism  in  which  such  a  process  would  take  place.  And 
even  where  such  cells  occurred,  their  development  o.  non- 
development  might  be  connected  with  conditions  of  nutri- 
tion. It  depends  on  the  nutriment  supplied  to  the  female 
larva  of  a  bee  whether  it  shall  become  a  neuter  or  a  sexually 
perfect  female ;  and  the  sexual  perfection  of  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  internal  parasites  is  similarly  dependent 
upon  their  food,  and  perhaps  on  other  conditions,  such  as 
the  temperature  of  the  medium  in  which  they  live.  Thus  the 
gradual  disappearance  of  agamogenesis  in  the  higher  animals 
would  be  relatea  with  that  increasing  specialization  of 
function  which  is  their  essential  characteristic ;  and  when 
it  ceases  to  occur  altogether,  it  may  be  supposed  that  no  cells 
are  left  which  retain  unmodified  the  powers  of  toe  primi- 
tive embrvo  ceU.     The  oreanism  is  like  3  society  in  which 


every  one  is  so  engrossed  by  his  special  business  that  he  has 
neither  time  nor' inclination  to  many. 

Even  the  female  elements  in  the  highest  organisms, 
little  as  they  dilTer  to  all  appearance  from  UHdifferentiated 
cells,  and  though  they  are  directly  derived  from  epithelial 
cells  which  have  undergone  very  little  modification  from 
the  condition  of  blastomcres,  are  incapable  of  full  develop- 
ment unless  they  are  subjected  to  the  influence  of  tho 
male  element,  which  may,  as  Caspar  Wollf  suggested,  be 
compared  to  a  kind  of  nutriment.  But  it  is  a  living  nutri- 
ment, in  some  respects  comparable  to  that  which  would  be 
supplied  to  an  animal  kept  alive  by  transfusion,  and  its 
molecules  transfer  to  the  impregnated  embrj'o  cell  all  the 
special  characters  of  the  organism  to  which  it  belonged. 

The  tendency  of  the  germ  to  reproduce  the  characters  Hireaiuuj. 
of  its  immediate  parents,  combined,  in  the  case  of  sexual  trans- 
generation,  with  the  tendency  to  reproduce  the  characters  °"^''"»- 
of  the  male,  is  the  source  of  the  singular  phenomena  of 
hereditary  transmission.  No  structural  modification  is  so 
slight,  and  no  functional  peculiarity  is  so  insignificant  in 
either  parent  ibat  it  may  not  make  its  appearance  in  the 
offspring.  But  the  transmission  of  parental  peculiarities 
depends  greatly  upon  the  manner  in  which  they  have  been 
acquired.  Such  as  have  arisen  naturally,  and  have  been 
hereditary  through  many  antecedent  generations,  tend  to 
appear  in  the  progeny  with  great  force ;  while  artificial 
modifications,  such,  for  example,  as  result  from  mutilation, 
are  rarely,  if  ever,  transmitted.  Circumcision  through  in- 
numerable ancestral  generations  does  not  appear  to  have 
reduced  that  rite  to  a  mere  formality,  as  it  should  have 
done,  if  the  abbreviated  prepuce  had  become  horeditary  in 
the  descendants  of  Abraham  ;  while  modern  lambs  are  born 
with  long  tails,  notwithstanding  the  loug-continued  prac- 
tice of  cutting  those  of  every  generation  short.  And  it 
remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  supposed  hereditary  trans- 
mission of  the  habit  of  retrieving  among  dogs  is  really  what 
it  seems  at  first  sight  to  be  ;  on  the  other  side,  Brown- 
Sequard's  case  of  the  transmission  of  artificially  induced 
epilepsy  in  guinea-pigs  is  undoubtedly  very  weighty. 

Although  the  germ  always  tends  to  reproduce,  directly  Vanaiioo. 
or  indirectly,  the  organism -from  which  it  is  derived,  the 
result  of  its  development  differs  somewhat  from  tho  parent. 
Usually  the  amount  of  variation  is  insignificant ;  but  it 
may  be  con.''iderable,  as  in  the  so-called  "  sports ; "  and 
such  variations,  whether  useful  or  useless,  may  bo  trans- 
mitted with  great  tenacity  to  the  offspring  of  the  subjects 
of  them. 

In    many   plants   and   animals    which    multiply   both  Tbe  alter- 
asexually  and  sexually,  there  is  no  definite  relation  be-  "atiou  o( 
tween  the  agamogenetic  and  the  gamogenetic  phenomena,  S^"'™- 
The  organism  may  multiply  asexually  before,  or  after,  or 
concurrently  with,  the  occurrence  of  sexual  generation. 

But  iu  a  great  many  of  the  lower  organisms,  both 
animal  and  vegetable,  the  organism  (A)  which  results 
from  the  impregnated  germ  produces  offspring  only  agamo- 
genetically.  It  thus  gives  rise  to  a  series  of  independent 
organisms  (B,  B,  B,  .  .  .),  which  are  more  or  less  dilTerenl 
from  A,  and  which  sooner  or  later  acquire  generative  organs. 
From  their  iihpregnated  germs  A  is  reproduced.  The  pro 
cess  thus  described  is  what  has  been  termed  the  "  alterna 
tion  of  generations  "  under  jts  simplest  form, — for  example 
as  it  is  exhibited  by  the  Salpce.  In  more  complicated  cases, 
the  independent  organisms  which  correspond  \nth  B  may 
give  rise  agaraogenetically  to  others  (B,),  and  these  to 
others  (Bj),  and  so  on  (t.g.,  Aphis).  But,  however  long 
the  series,  a  final  term  appears  which  develops  sexual 
organs,  and  reproduces  A.  The  "  alternation  of  genera- 
tions "  is,  therefore,  in  strictness,  an  alternation  of  asexual 
with  sexual  generation,  in  which  the  products  of  the  one 
process  differ  from  those  of  the  other. 


688 


BIOLOGY 


The  Hydrozoa  offer  a  complete*' series  of  gradations 
between  those  cases  in  which  the  term  B  is  represented  by 
a  free,  self-novirLshiijg  organism  (i: g  ,  Cyancea),  through 
those  in  which  it  is  free  but  unable  to  feed  itself  (Caly 
coph/rridce),  to  those  in  which  the  sexual  elements  are 
developed  id  bodies  which  resemble  free  zobids,  but  are 
never  detached,  and  ara  mere  generative  organs  of  the  body 
on  which  they  are  developed  [Cordylophora). 

In  the  last  case,  the  "  individual  "  is  the  total  product 
of  the  development  ol  the  impregnated  embryo,  alJ  the 
parts  of  which  remain  in  material  continuity  with  one 
another  The  multiplication  of  mouths  and  stomachs  m  a 
CoT'lijlaphora  no  more  makes  it  an  aggregation  of  different 
individuals  than  the  multiplication  of  segments  and  legs  in 
a  centipede  converts  that  Arthropod  into  a  compound 
annual  The  Cordylirphora  is  a  differentiation  of  a  whole 
into  many  parts,  and  the  use  of  any  terminology  which 
implies  that  it  results  from  the  coalescence  of  many  parts 
into  a  whole  is  to  be  deprecated 

In  CordylopiMTa  tie  generative  organs  are  incapable  of 
maintaining  a  separate  existence  ,  but  in  iiearly  allied 
Hydroioa  the  unquestionable  homologues  of  these  organs 
become  free  zobids,  in  many  cases  capable  of  feeding  and 
growing,  and  developing  the  sexual  elements  only  after 
they  have  undergone  considerable  changes  of  form.  Mor- 
phologically, the  swarm  of  Medusce  thus  set  free  from  a 
Hydrozooii  are  as  much  organs  of  the  latter,  as  the  multi- 
tudinous pinnules  of  a  Comat-ula,  with  their  genital  glands, 
are  organs  of  the  Echinoderm.  Morphologically,  there- 
fore, the  etpiivalent  of  the  individual  Comatula  is  the 
Hydrozoic  stock  +  all  the  Medusce  which  proceed  from  it. 

No  doubt  It  sounds  paradoxical  to  speak  of  a  million  of 
Aphides,  fur  example,  as  parts  of  one  morphological  indivi- 
dual ;  but  beyond  the  momentary  shock  of  the  paradox  no 
harm  is  done  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  asexual  Aphides 
are  held  to  be  individuals,  it  follows,  as  a  logical  conse- 
quence, not  only  that  all  the  polypes  on  a  Cordylophora 
tree  are  "  feeding  individuals,"  and  all  the  genital  sacs 
"generative  individuals,"  while  the  stem  must  be  a 
"  stump  individual,"  but  that  the  eyes  and  legs  of  a  lobster 
are  "ocular"  and  "locomotive  individuals."  And  this 
conception  is  not  only  somewhat  more  paradoxical  than  the 
other,  but  suggests  a  conception  of  the  origin  of  the  com- 
plexity of  animal  structure  which  is  wholly  inconsistent 
with  fact 

IV      ^TIOLOOY. 

Morphology,  Distribution,  and  Physiology  investigate 
md  determine  the  facts  of  Biology.  ^Etiology  has  for  its 
■bject  the  ascertainment  of  the  causes  of  these  facts,  and 
ilie  explanation  of  biological  phenomena,  by  showing  that 
ibey  constitute  particular  cases  of  general  physical  laws. 
It  is  hardly  needful  to  say  that  jetiology,  as  thus  conceived,- 
is  in  Its  infancy,  and  that  the  seething  controversies,  to 
which  the  attempt  to  found  this  branch  of  science  made 
in  the  Origin,  of  Species  has  given  rise,  cannot  be  dealt  with 
in  the  limits  of  this  article.  At  most,  the  general  nature 
of  the  problems  to  be  evolved,  and  the  course  of  inquiry 
needful  for  their  solution,  may  be  indicated. 

In  any  investigation  into  the  causes  of  the  phenomena  of 
life,  the  first  question  which  arises  is,  whether  we  have 
any  knowledge,  and  if  so,  what  knowledge,  of  the  origin 
of  living  matter? 

In  the  case  of  all  conspicuous  and  easily-atudied  organ- 
isms, it  has  been  obvious,  eince  the  study  of  nature  began, 
bioB'-'neals  "''^'  'iving  beings  arise  by  generation  from  living  beings 
M,i  ).io.  "f  *  ^'''®  kind  ;  but  before  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, learned  and  unlearned  alike  shared  the  conviction 
that  this  rule  was  not  of  universal  application,  and  that 
inultitudcs  of  the  smaller  and  more  iibscuro  or"anisuis  were 


living 
ojkltcr — 


genesis. 


produced  by  the  fermentation  of  uot-li^^Ilg,  and  e^rcciilly 
of  putrefying  dead  matter,  by  what  was  then  termed  gmer- 
alio  aeifuivoea  or  spontanea,  and  is  now  called  abiojcn-sii. 
Redi  showed  that  the  general  belief  was  erroneous  la  a 
multitude  of  instances;  SpaUanzani  added  largely  to  Cie 
list ,  while  the  investigations  of  the  scientific  helmintholo 
gi-jts  of  the  present  century  have  eliminated  a  further 
category  of  cases  in  which  it  was  possible  to  doubt  the 
applicability  of  the  rule  "  omne  vivum  e  vivo  "  to  the  more 
complex  organisms  which  constitute  the  present  fauna  and 
flora  of  the  earth.  Even  the  most  extravagant  supporters 
of  abiogenesis  at  the  present  day  do  not  pretend  that 
organisms  of  higher  rank  than  the  lowest  Fungi  and 
Protozoa  are  produced  otherwise  than  by  generation  from 
pre-existing  organisms.  But  it  is  pretended  that  Baetcrin. 
Torulae,  certain  Fungi,  and  "  Monads  "  are  developed  under 
conditions  which  render  it  impossible  that  these  orgaiiunu 
should  have  proceeded  directly  from  living  matter 

The  experimental  evidence  adduced  in  favour  of  this 
proposition  is  always  of  one  kind,  and  the  reasoning  ui 
which  the  conclusion  that  abiogenesis  occurs  is  based  may 
be  stated  in  the  following  form  : — 

All  living  matter  is  kUled  by  being  heated  to  n  degrees 

The  contents  of  the  closed  vessel  A  have  been  heated  to 
n  degrees. 

Therefore,  all  living  matter  which  may  have  existed 
therein  has  been  killed. 

But  living  Bacteria,  &c.,  have  appeared  in  these  contents 
subsequently  to  their  being  heated 

Therefore,  they  have  been  formed  abiogenetically. 

No  objection  can  be  taken  to  the  logical  form  of  this 
reasoning,  but  it  is  obvious  that  its  applicability  to  any 
particular  case  depends  entirely  upon  the  validity,  in  that 
case,  of  the  first  and  second  propositions. 

Suppose  a  fluid  to  be  full  of  Bacteria  in  active  motion, 
what  evidence  have  we  that  they  are  killed  when  that  fluid 
is  heated  to  n  degrees  1  There  is  but  one  kind  of  con- 
clusive evidence,  namely,  that  from  that  time  forth  no 
hving  Bacteria  make  their  appearance  in  the  liquid,  sup- 
posing it  to  be  properly  protected  from  the  intrusion  of 
fresh  Bacteria.  The  only  other  evidence,  that,  for  example, 
which  may  be  furnished  by  the  cessation  of  tho  motion  of 
the  Bacteria,  and  such  slight  changes  as  our  microscopes 
permit  us  to  observe  in  their  optical  characters,  is  siuiply 
presumptive  evidence  of  death,  and  no  more  conclusive 
than  the  stillness  and  paleness  of  a  man  in  a  swoon  are 
uroof  that  he  is  dead.  And  the  caution  is  the  more  neces- 
sary in  the  case  of  Bacteria,  since  many  of  thom  naturally 
pass  a  considerable  part  of  their  existence  in  a  condition 
in  which  they  show  no  marks  of  life  whatever  save  growth 
and  multiplication 

If  indeed  it  could  be  proved  that,  in  cases  which  are  not 
open  to  doubt,  living  matter  is  always  and  invariably 
killed  at  precisely  the  same  temperature,  there  might  be 
some  ground  for  the  assumption,  that,  in  those  which  are 
obscure,  death  must  take  place  under  the  same  circum- 
stances. But  what  are  the  facts  1  It  has  been  pointed 
out  at  tho  commencement  of  this  article,  that  the  range  oi 
high  temperatures  between  the  lowest,  at  which  some  living 
things  are  certainly  killed,  and  the  highest,  at  wliich  others 
certainly  live,  is  rather  more  than  100°  Fahr.,  that  is  to 
say,  between  104"  Fahr.  and  20S°  Fahr.  It  makes  no  sort 
of  difference  to  the  argument  how  living  beings  have  come 
to  be  able  to  bear  such  a  temperature  as  the  last  mentioned; 
the  fact  that  they  do  so  is  suflicicnt  to  prove  that,  under 
certain  conditions,  such  a  temperature  is  not  sufficient  to 
destroy  life. 

Thus  it  appears  that  there  is  no  ground  for  the  assump 
tion  that  all  living  matter  is  killed  at  some  given  tempera 
ture  between  104°  and  208°  Fahr. 


BIOLOGY 


G8fl 


But,  furlhcr,  there  is  very  strong  reason  (or  beiieving 
that  the  inlluoiice  of  temperature  on  life  is  greatly  modified, 
tira-t,  by  the  nature  of  the  medium  in  which  organisms  are 
placed,  and,  secondly,  by  the  length  of  time  during  which 
any  given  temperature  is  kept  up. 

On  this  point  recent  experiments  made  by  Dr  Roberts 
of  Manchester  are  of  great  importance.  He  foaiid,  for 
etample,  33  every  other  careful  experimenter  has  done, 
that  ordinary  infusion  of  hay  boiled  for  a  few  minutes  wus 
sterilized,  that  is  to  say,  no  development  of  Bacteria  took 
place  in  it,  however  long  it  might  bo  kept;  while  if  the 
infusion  was  rendered  alkaline  with  ammonia  or  liquor 
potasste,  it  was  not  sterilized  except  after  an  exposure  to 
the  heat  of  boiling  water  for  more  than  an  hour.  Some- 
times it  became  productive  after  two  hours,  and  once  after 
three  hours  of  such  exposure.  Is  it  to  be  imagined  that,  in 
the  case  of  the  alkalized  tiay  infusion,  the  heat  applied 
really  killed  the  Bacteria  which  existed  in  the  infusion, 
and  that  Bacteria  of  identically  the  game  kind  were 
generated  afresh  out  of  the  dead  matter?  or  is  it  more 
probable  that  the  powers  of  resistance  of  the  Bacteria  to 
heat  were  simply  increased  by  the  alkalinity  of  the  infusion? 
The  statement  of  the  questions  surely  render  it  unnecossar^- 
to  answer  them. 

Dr  Robeits  further  proves  that  there  are  two  factors  in 
the  inducticm  of  sterilization,  the  degree  of  heat  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  duration  of  its  application  on  the  other.  A 
longer  exposure  to  a  lower  temperature  was  equivalent  to 
a  shorter  exposure  to  a  higher  temperature.  "  For  example, 
speaking  roughly,  an  exposure  of  an  L  ur  and  a  half  to  a 
heat  of  212°  Fahr.  appeared  to  be  equivalent  to  an  ex- 
posure for  fifteen  minutes  to  a  heat  of  228°  Fahr." ' 

It  is  hard  to  conceive  what  explanation  can  be  ofl'ered  of 
this  fact,  except  that, under  theconditionsof  the  experiment, 
the  organisms  were  either  all  affected  by  the  first  incidence 
of  the  heat  in  such  a  way  as  only  to  arrest  some  of  their 
vital  functions,  and  to  leave  a  potentiality  of  life  in  them, 
Biich  as  exists  in  some  kinds  of  dried  living  matter  ;  or  that 
lliey  individually  differed  very  much  in  their  powers  of 
resistance,  and  that  some  were  able  to  withstand  heat 
much  longer  than  others. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  will  be  evident,  that  no 
experimental  eWdenco  that  a  liquid  may  be  heated  tc  n 
degrees,  and  yet  subsequently  give  rise  to  living  organisms, 
is  of  the  smallest  value  as  proof  that  abiogencsis  has  taken 
place,  and  for  two  reasons : — Firstly,  there  is  no  proof 
that  organisms  of  the  kind  in  question  are  dead,  except 
their  permanent  incapacity  to  grow  and  reproduce  their 
kind  ;  and  secondly,  since  we  know  that  conditions  may 
largely  modify  the  power  of  resistance  of  such  organisms 
to  heat,  it  is  far  more  probable  that  such  conditions  existed 
in  tlie  experiment  in  question,  than  that  the  organisms 
ivcrc  generated  afresh  out  of  dead  matter. 

Not  only  is  the  kind  of  evidence  adduced  in  favour  of 
ibiogenesis  logically  insufficient  to  furnish  proof  of  its 
iM.Turrenco,  but  it  may  be  stated  as  a  well-based  induction, 
that  the  more  careful  the  investigator,  and  the  more  com- 
plete his  mastery  over  the  endless  practical  difficulties 
which  surround  experimentation  on  this  subject,  the  more 
certain  are  his  experiments  to  give  a  negative  result ;  while 
positive  results  are  no  less  sure  to  crown  Ihe  efforts  of  the 
clumsy  and  the  careless. 
iliio-  It  is  argued  that  a  belief  in  abiogencsis  is  a  necessary 

*"^'^''  ""'■'^'"'■y  f™™  tlio  doctrine  of  Evolution.  This  may  bo  true 
r.n«tf  °^  '''°  °'^'^""'<^°'=''  *^f  abiogencsis  at  some  time  ;  but  if  the 
'oluiiuD.  P''"^'^'''  '^''*y.  or  any  recorded  epoch  of  geological  time,  be  in 
question,  the  exact  contrary  holds  good.  If  all  living  beings 
have  been  evolved  from  pre-existing  forms  of  life,   it  is 

'  rri~-fedings  of  (A<  Royal  Society,  No.  1S2,  p   290. 


enough  that  a  oiuglo  panicle  ol  living  protopbsm  should 
once  have  appeared  on  the  globe,  as  the  result  of  no  matter 
what  agency.  In  the  eyes  of  a  consistent  evolutionist  any 
further  independent  formation  of  protoplasm  wDuld  be  sheer 
waste. 

The  production  of  living  matter  since  the  time  of  its 
first  appearance,  only  by  way  of  biogenesis,  implies  that 
the  specific  forms  of  the  lower  kinds  of  life  have  undergone 
but  little  change  in  the  course  of  geological  time,  and  this 
is  said  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  doctrine  of  evolu- 
tion. But,  in  the  first  place,  the  fact  is  not  inconsis- 
tent with  the  doctrine  of  evolution  properly  understood, 
that  doctrine  beijig  perfectly  consistent  with  either  the 
progression,  the  retrogression,  or  the  stationary  condition 
of  any  particular  species  for  indefinite  periods  of  time; 
and  secondly,  if  it  were,  it  would  be  so  much  the  worse 
for  the  doctrine  of  evolution,  iuasmuch  as  it  is  un- 
questionably true,  that  certain,  even  highly  organized, 
forms  of  life  have  persisted  without  any  sensible  change 
for  very  long  periods.  The  Terebratula  psittacea  of  the  Pcrsistpm 
present  day,  for  example,  is  not  distinguishable  from  that  '>!'*'  "' 
of  the  Cretaceous  epoch,  while  the  highly  organised  Telco- 
stoan  fish,  Beryx,  of  the  Chalk  differed  only  in  minute 
specific  characters  from  that  which  now  lives.  Is  it  seri- 
ously suggested  that  the  existing  Terebralulce  and  Beryces 
are  not  the  lineal  descendants  of  their  Cretaceous  ancestors, 
but  that  their  modern  representatives  have  been  inde- 
pendently developed  from  primordial  germs  in  the  interval  1 
But  if  this  is  too  fanfa-tic  a  suggestion  for  grave  con- 
sideration, why  are  we  to  believe  that  the  Globigerince 
of  the  present  day  are  not  lineally  descended  from  the 
Cretaceous  forms?  And  if  their  unchanged  generations 
have  succeeded  one  another  for  all  the  enormous  time 
represented  by  the  deposition  of  the  Chalk  and  that  of  the 
Tertiary  and  Quaternary  deposits,  what  difficulty  is  there 
in  supposing  that  they  may  not  have  persisted  unchanged 
for  a  greatly  longer  period  ? 

The  fact  is,  that  at  the  present  moment  there  is  not 
a  shadow  of  trustworthy  direct  evidence  that  abiogenesis 
does  take  place,  or  has  taken  place,  within  the  period 
during  which  the  existence  of  life  on  the  globe  is  recorded. 
But  it  need  hardly  be  pointed  out,  that  the  fact  does  not  in 
the  slightest  degree  interfere  with  any  conclusion  that  may 
be  arrived  at  deductively  from  other  considerations  that, 
at  some  time  or  other,  abiogenesis  must  have  taken  place. 

If  the  hypothesis  of  evolution  is  true,  living  matter  must 
have  arisen  from  not-living  matter  ;  for  by  the  hypothesis, 
the  condition  of  the  globe  was  at  one  time  such  that  living 
matter  could  not  have  existed  in  it,'  life  being  entirely 
incompatible  with  the  gaseous  state.  But  living  matter 
once  originated,  there  is  no  necessity  for  another  origina- 
tion, since  the  hypothesis  postulates  the  unlimited,  though 
perhaps  not  indefinite,  modifiability  of  such  matter. 

Of  the  causes  which  have  led  to  the  origination  of  living  The  origio 
matter,  then,  it  may  be  said  that  we  know  absolutely  o'  sin-cici. 
nothing.  But  postulating  the  existence  of  living  matter 
endowed  with  that  power  of  hereditary  transmission,  and 
with  that  tendency  to  vary  which  is  found  in  all  such 
matter,  Mr  Darwin  has  shown  good  reasons  for  believing 
that  the  interaction  between  living  matter  and  surround 
ing  conditions,  which  results  in  the  survival  of  the  fittest, 
is  sufficient  to  account  for  the  gradual  evolution  oi  plants 
and  animals  from  their  simplest  to  their  most  complicated 
forms,  and  for  the  known  phenomena  of  Morphology, 
Physiology,  and  Distribution. 

*  It  makes  no  difference  if  we  adopt  Sir  W.  Tbomson's  hypolh«ih. 
and  suppose  that  the  gcrma  of  living  thinps  have  been  Iraosponcd  to 
our  globe  from  some  other,  seeing  that  there  is  as  much  reason  for 
supposing  that  all  stellar  and  planetary  comjionentl  of  the  universe  ar* 
or  have  been  gaseous,  as  that  the  earth  has  passed  through  this  sf'^ge 


690 


BIOLOGY 


[VEGITTABLE. 


The  causes 
of  vaha- 


Dcvelop- 
m'-T.t  a 
recapitula- 

tK>D  of 
an' estral 
biatury. 


Pliylogeny. 


I'uIa*nnto- 
Ingy  the 
bistorico] 
baaia  of 
Ibo  doc- 
trine of 
tvolution. 


Mr  Darwin  has  further  endeavoured  to  give  a  physical 
explanation  of  hereditary  transmission  by  his  hypothesis  of 
Pangenesis  ;  while  he  seeks  for  the  principal,  if  not  the  only, 
cause  of  variation  in  the  influence  of  changing  conditions. 

It  is  on  this  point  that  the  chief  divergence  exists 
among  those  who  accept  the  doctrine  of  Evolution  in  its 
general  outlines.  Three  views  may  be  taken  of  the  causes 
of  variation  : — ■ 

a.  In  virtue  of  its  molecular  structure,  the  organism 
may  tend  to  vary.  This  variability  may  either  be  indefinite, 
or  may  be  limited  to  certain  directions  by  intrinsic  condi- 
tions. In  the  former  case,  the  result  of  the  struggle  for 
existence  would  be  the  survival  of  the  fittest  among  an 
indefinite  number  of- varieties  ;  in  the  latter  case,  it  would 
be  t  he  survival  of  the  fittest  among  a  certain  set  of  varieties, 
the  nature  and  number  of  which  would  be  predetermined 
by  the  molecular  structure  of  the  organism. 

b.  The  organism  may  have  no  intrinsic  tendency  to  vary, 
but  variation  may  be  brought  about  by  the  influence  of 
conditions  external  to  it.  And  in  this  case  also,  the  varia- 
bility induced  may  be  either  indefinite  or  defined  by  in- 
trinsic limitation. 

c.  The  two  former  eases  may  be  combined,  and  variation 
may  to  some  extent  depend  upon  intrinsic,  and  to  some 
extent  upon  extrinsic,  conditions. 

At  present  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  such  evidence  as 
would  justify  the  positive  adoption  of  any  one  of  these 
views  exists. 

If  all  living  beings  have  come  into  existence  by  the 
gradual  modification,  through  a  long  series  of  generations, 
of  a  primordial  living  matter,  the  phenomena  of  embryonic 
development  ought  to  be  explicable  as  particular  cases  of 
the  general  law  of  hereditary  transmission.  On  this  view, 
a  tadpole  is  first  a  fish,  and  then  a  tailed  amphibian,  pro- 
vided with  both  gills  and  lungs,  before  it  becomes  a  frog, 
because  the  frog  was  the  last  term  in  a  series  of  modifica- 
tions whereby  some  ancient  fish  became  an  urodele  amphi- 
bian ;  and  the  urodele  amphibian  became  an  anurous  amphi- 
bian. In  fact,  the  development  of  the  embryo  is  a  recapitu- 
lation of  the  ancestral  history  of  the  species. 

If  this  be  so,  it  follows  that  the  development  of  any 
organism  should  furnish  the  key  to  its  ancestral  history  ; 
and  the  attempt  to  decipher  the  full  pedigree  of  organisms 
from  80  much  of  the  family  history  as  is  recorded  in  their 
development  has  given  rise  to  a  special  branch  of  bioloKical 
speculation,  termed  phylogmy. 

In  practice,  however,  the  reconstruction  of  the  pedigree 
of  a  group  from  the  developmental  history  of  its  existing 
members  is  fraught  with  difficulties.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  the  series  of  developmental  stages  of  the  individual 
organism  never  presents  more  than  an  abbreviated  and 
condensed  summary  of  ancestral  conditions ;  while  this 
summary  is  often  strangely  modified  by  variation  and 
adaptation  to  conditions ;  and  it  must  be  confessed  that,  in 
most  cases,  we  can  do  little  better  than  guess  what  is  genuine 
recapitulation  of  ancestral  forms,  and  what  is  the  effect 
of  comparatively  late  adaptation. 

The  only  perfectly  safe  foundation  for  the  doctrine  of 
Evolution  lies  in  the  historical,  or  rather  archsological, 
evidence  that  particular  organisms  have  arisen  by  the 
gradual  modification  of  their  predecessors,  which  is  fur- 
nished by  fossil  remains.  That  evidence  is  daily  increasing 
in  amount  and  in  weight ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
comparison  of  the  actual  pedigree  of  these  organisms  with 
the  phenomena  of  their  development  may  furnish  some 
criterion  by  which  the  validity  of  phylogenetic  conclusions, 
deduced  from  the  facts  of  embryology  alone,  may  be  satis- 
factorily tested. 

BtWiojrra/j/iy.— Haeckel,  Generellc  iforpholoffie ;  H. 
Spencer,  Principles  of  Bvology.  (t.  h.  b.) 


LIMITS  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  VEGETABLE 
KINGDOM. 

The  fundamental  difference  which  seoaratcs  tie  itge- 
lahle  kingdom  from  the  animal  kwgjom  is  to  b<  found 
in  the  modes  of  nutrition  which  obtain  in  each.  If  we 
compare  a  plant  and  animal  reduced  to  their  simplest 
terms,  and  consisting,  therefore,  in  each  case  of  f.  single 
cell,  i.e.,  of  a  minute  mass  of  protoplasm  invested  wuh 
a  cell-wall,  while  the  unicellular  plant  draws  its  nutri- 
ment by  simple  imbibition  through  the  cell-wall  from 
the  surrounding  medium — a  process  which  implies  that 
all  its  nutriment  passes  into  it  in  a  liquid  form — the 
unicellular  animal  is  able  to  take  in  sohd  nutriment  by 
means  of  interruptions  in  the  continuity  of  the  cell-wall, 
and  is  also  able  afterwards  to  reduce  this  solid  food,  if  of 
a  suitable  composition,  to  the  liquid  state.  And  not 
merely  is  there  a  difierence  of  this  kind  in  the  mode,  there 
is  also  one  no  less  important,  although  less  general,  in  the 
materials  of  nutrition.  While  under  present  terrestrial 
conditions  those  substances,  or  chemical  combinations, 
which  are  required  for  the  nutrition  of  animal  organisms, 
are,  as  far  as  we  know,  nowhere  spontaneously  produced 
— that  is  to  say,  nowhere  apart  from  the  influence  of 
living  organisms — materials  derived  wholly  from  the  in- 
organic world  are  sufficient  to  sustain  directly  nearly  the 
whole  of  vegetable  life,  and  therefore,  indirectly,  of  all 
other  life  as  well  Roughly  speaking,  whilj  plants  are 
able  to  use  for  the  purposes  of  nutrition  binary  compounds, 
such  as  carbon  dioxide  (CO,),  water  (H.^),  and  ammonia 
(NHJ,  animals  are  essentially  dependent  on  the  same 
elements  as  enter  into  these  compounds,  but  mostly  in  a 
higher  state  of  chemical  aggregation  than  the  binary. 
Plants,  therefore,  are  the  "  hewers  of  wood  and'drawers  of 
water"  for  other  living  things.  And  this  property  which 
they  so  largely  possess  of  constructing,  from  materials  not 
directly  available  for  animal  nutrition,  substances  which 
are  so,  is  found  to  be  uniformly  attended  with  the  presence 
of  a  peculiar  green  colouring  matter,  known  as  chlorophyll, 
with  which  a  portion  of  th^e  protoplasm  of  their  cells  is 
tinged.  Many  plants,  however,  such  as  the  whole  group 
of  Fungi,  as  well  as  som(  flowering  plants,  draw  their 
nutriment  from  compounds  derived  from  other  organisms, 
and  therefore  in  a  higher  state  of  chemical  aggregation  than 
those  the  green  plants  make  use  of.  So  far  they  approach 
animals  in  the  mode  of  their  nutrition. 

At  first  sight  it  might  seem  a  probable  hypothesis 
that  the  part  played  by  green  plants  is  one  which  has 
always  been  filled  by  them  from  the  earliest  appearance  of 
life  upon  the  earth.  It  must,  however,  be  noticed  that 
the  presence  of  chlorophyll  in  the  organism  depends  upon  a 
specialization  of  some  only  of  its  constituent  cells,  and  of 
part  only  .of  the  protoplasmic  contents  of  those  cells.  The 
inference,  which  appears  to  be  justified  by  general  biologi- 
cal principles,  is  that  such  a  specialization  is  not  a  thing  of 
primary  origin,  but  has  been  gradually  attained.  We  are 
thus,  therefore,  led  to  the  supposition  that  the  very  earhest 
plants — probably  belonging  to  the  same  stock  as  the  very 
oldest  animals — were  destitute  of  chlorophyll,  and  were 
nourished,  as  Fungi  are  now,  by  the  imbibition  of  sub- 
stances fitted  for  their  nutrition,  but  which,  in  the  condi- 
tions that  accompanied  the  first  appearance  of  life  upon 
the  earth's  surface,  were  produced  independently  of  any 
organisms.  The  development  of  chlorophyll  would,  there- 
fore, on  this  view,  have  to  be  regarded  as  a  later  acquire- 
ment. 

It  is  necessary  to  bear  some  considerations  oi  this  kind 
in  mind  in  order  to  clearly  apprehend  tho  relation  to  one 
another  of  the  different,  phases  of  nutrition  which  the 
vegetiiblo  kingdom  includes.    The  plants,  for  example,  which 


VEGETABLE.] 


BIOLOGY 


091 


we  collectively  term  Fun<ji  m^y,  and  probably  do,  include 
descendants  of  the  original  stock  which  existed  before  plants 
possessed  chlorophyll  at  all.  No  doubt  also  Fungi  com- 
prise plants  which  are  destitute  of  the  chlorophyll  possessed 
by  their  near  allies,  in  consequence  of  the  degeneration  due 
to  a  parasitic  mode  of  life.  Amongst  Flowering  Plants  we 
cannot  doubt  that  this  has  bifen  tho  case  with  Cuscuta, 
OrobancKe,  Lalhrcea,  and  many  others.  But  besides  plants 
which  are  actually  parasitic,  there  are  other  degraded  allies 
of  green  plants,  which  are  content  to  work  up  again  the 
imperfectly  broken  down  products  of  decay.  Such  plants 
are  termed  Saprophytes,  many  examples  of  them  exist 
nmongst  the  Orchidacccg,  such  as  Neotlia,  Epipogium,  and 
Corallorrhisa.  They  live  upon  the  products  of  the  decom- 
position of  vegetable  matter,  and  have  more  or  less  com- 
|ilelcly  lost  tho  characteristic  green  tint  of  chlorophyll, 
which  would  be  useless  to  them  if  they  possessed  it.  IJut 
perhaps  the  most  curious  case  of  the  occasional  disposition 
of  even  green  plants  to  seize  upon  nutritive  matter  in  an 
available  state  of  chemical  aggregation,  is  that  which  is  met 
with  in  the  numerous  eiamples  now  known  of  insectivorous 
plants. 

In  these  latter  cases  we  certainly  find  morphological 
adaptation  of  considerable  complexity  for  purposes  of 
nutrition.  But  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  generally  this 
is  certainly  the  exception  rather  than  the  rnle.  In  the 
animal  kingdom  it  is  very  difTerent.  Amongst  plants, 
however,  adaptations  of  structure  which  have  reference  to 
reproduction  assume  far  greater  importance,  and  these  have 
to  a  large  extent  to  be  "relied  upon  for  taxonomic  purposes. 
Even  in  tho  highest  plants  the  physiological  division  of 
labour  is  very  small  compared  with  the  extent  to  which  it 
exists  amongst  animals.  From  plants  of  tho  simplest 
structure  up  to  tho  most  complicated,  the  plan  of  nutrition 
retains  the  same  broad  features.  There  are  few  physiolo- 
gical facts  of  real  importance  to  be  observed  il  tho  highest 
terms  of  the  series  which  may  not  be  equally  well  studied 
in  the  lower 

Amongst  such  of  the  lower  plants  as  are  aquatic  in 
their  mode  of  life  the  protoplasm  of  individual  cells  is  often 
broken  up  into  fragments,  very  minute  in  size,  which 
are  set  free  in  the  surrounding  fluid,  and  being  furnished 
with  cilia  or  motile  filamentous  prolongations  of  their 
protoplastn,  rapidly  dispefsa  themselves  over  a  consider- 
able area.  Such  locomotive  organisms  are  usually  called 
luospores.  After  a  time  each  is  invested  with  a  cell-wall 
composed  of  cellulose;  this  differs  entirely  in  composi- 
tion from  protoplasm,  especially  in  containing  no  nitrogen. 
The  production  of  the  cell-wall  is  not  therefore  to  be 
regarded  as  a  modification  of  any  part  of  the  proto- 
plasm, but  as  a  segregation  of  particles  of  cellulose  which 
were  intermixed  with  it ;  such  a  segregation  goes  on 
repeatedly,  wherever  life  exists  in  plant  tissues.  Starch, 
which  i_s  identical  in  ultimate  composition  with  cellulose, 
we  know  to  be  fabricated  from  inorganic  materials  in  the 
chlorophyll-granules  (which  are  specialized  portions  of 
protoplasm)  under  the  influence  of  light.  Cellulose  is 
derived  from  the  starch  so  manufactured,  and  is  dispersed 
in  a  state  probably  of  molecular  subdivision  throughout  the 
protoplasm. 

Tho  cellulose  wall  is  not  apparently  essential  to  the  con- 
ception of  a  vegetable  cell,  but  it  is,  perhaps,  not  going  too 
far  to  say  that  its  existence  has  conditioned  almost  all  the 
histological  and  morphological  peculiarities  of  plant  con- 
struction. The  cell,  as  already  pointed  out,  although 
bounded  with  what  is  relatively  a  tough  and  even  rigid 
cell-wall,  is  by  no  means  debarred  from  further  nutrition 
and  growth.  If  destitute  of  chlorophyll,  it  may  take  in 
nutrient  matter,  which  only  requires  some  moderate  elabor- 
ritioa  to  suit  it  for  incorporation  with  the  protoplasm.     If, 


on  the  other  hand,  chlorophyll  be. present,  it  will  do  agood 
deal  of  preliminary  work  in  preparing  the  substances 
which  then,  as  before,  the  protoplasm  will  further  appro- 
priate and  work  upon.  In  either  case  the  protoplasm  of 
the  cell  will  grow,,  and  as  the  processes  which  have  been 
described  are  generally  accompanied  by  the  imbibition  of 
fluid,  the  cell-wall  is  subjected  in  consequence  to  a  con- 
siderable tension.  The  cell-wall,  under  these  circumstances, 
grows  also,  and  the  experiments  of  Traube  seem  to  show  that, 
given  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  known  to  take  place, 
this  growth  is  almost  entirely  a  physical  process.  Carried 
beyond  a  certain  point,  tension  must  result  in  rupture  , 
but  just  short  of  this  there  appears  to  be  a  limit  at  which 
the  intercalation  of  new  molecules  of  cellulose  is  permitted, 
and  so  the  surface  of  the  cell-wall  is  enlarged.  In  (Edo- 
ijunium  there  is  a  peculiar  anangement  in  which  fracture 
actually  does  take  place  repeatedly.  A  circular  cleft  is 
formed,  which  is  repaired  within  by  the  apposition  of  an 
annular  splice. 

To  the  growth  of  a  cell  so  conceived  there  would  seem  to 
be  no  limit,  and  in  the  Siplu)phyce<x,  of  which  YaucKeria  is 
a  well-known  type,  there  is  apparently  none.  The  vege- 
tative portion  of  these  organisms,  however  complicated,  is 
always  formed  by  the  extension  of  a  single  cell ;  the  pro- 
toplasm is  continuous  throughout  every  part,  and  except 
when  zoospores  are  formed  is  never  segmented. 

This,  however,  is  a  rare  arrangement.  Generally  speak- 
ing, there  comes  a  time  when  the  protoplasm,  by  a  phase 
of  contractility,  divides  itself  into  two  masses,  and  between 
these  a  partftion  of  cellulose  is  formed  in  the  same  way 
as  the  coat  of  the  naked  zoospores  already  alluded  to. 
Each  cell  so  formed  possesses  all  the  capacity  for  nutri- 
tion and  growth  which  the  whole  possessed.  It  divides 
therefore  in  its  turn,  and  in  this  way  we  get  tho  tirst  in- 
dication of  an  aggregate  of  cells.  In  the  lower  plauts  the 
cell  is  complete  in  itself ;  in  tue  higher,  its  independence 
is  more  or  less  merged  in  that  of  the  others  with  which  it 
is  associated. 

This  aggregation  seems  to  bcgm  in  a  purely  mechanical 
way.  In  Pleu.rococcus,  for  example,  cell  division  repeated 
a  few  times  may  produce  aggregation  of,  at  any  rate,  four 
cells.  If  it  were  not  that  the  adhesion  of  these  cells  seems 
afterwards  to  fail,  there  would  be  no  reason  why  the  mere 
process  of  cell  division  should  not  produce  larger  aggregates. 
But  the  cell-wall  common  to  two  adjacent  cells  splits  through 
its  middle  lamina,  and  the  two  neighbouring  cells  part 
company.  In  Ilydrodictyon  we  have  a  remarkable  example 
of  the  formation  of  an  aggregate  synthetically,  owing  to 
the  action  of  some  cause  which  is  quite  imperfectly  under- 
stood, but  which  is  probably  purely  physical  An  enor- 
mous number  of  zoospores  are  formed  from  the  contents  of 
a  parent  cell,  and  these,  after  tumultuously  moving  wnlhui 
its  ca\'ity,  come  to  rest,  and  at  the  same  time  arrange 
themselves  in  the  well-known  net-like  fashion  which  is 
characteristic  of  tho  full-grown  plant.  The  mechanical 
persistence  of  aggregates  of  cells  formed  by  normal  cell 
division  is  obviously  the  step  which  led  to  the  evolution  of 
such  organisms  as  Volvox  and  Ulva,  since  these  are  merely 
aggregates  of  simple  types,  such  sua  Chtamydococcus  and 
Pleurococcus. 

At  first  the  independence  of  the  individual  aggregated 
cells  would  be  little  impaired.  In  a  Spirogyra  or  Oscilla- 
{pria,  for  example,  the  number  of  ceils  present  in  a  fila- 
ment is  probably  a  matter  which  doea  not  affect  the  cells 
themselves  individually,'  and  which  conversely  they  have 
no  power  of  influencing.  The  constituent  cells  might  go 
on  dividing,  and  so  form  filaments  of  unlimited  length, 
but  which  occasionally  would  be  liable  to  be  broken  up  by 
arbitrary  accident.  In  Clculophora,  however,  the  cells  of 
a  filament  cease  after  a  time  to  dinde  traiisTcrsely.  and 


692 


BIOLOGY 


[vegetable. 


branch  by  the  production  of  Tateral  swellings,  which  are 
elongated  and  then  divided  off  by  cellulose  partitions.  It 
seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  branching  in  this  case 
simply  means  that  one  part  of  the  cell-wall  is  weaker,  less 
fitted  to  withstand  internal  tension,  than  the  rest.  If  the 
cell-wall  were  uniform  it  would  stretch  uniformly,  and  the 
want  of  uniformity  in  the  cell-wall  may  probably  be 
traced  to  its  being  part  of  an  aggregate.  The  string  of 
cells  IS  moored  by  one  end,  and  any  motion  of  the  water 
will  cause  it  to  assume  an  oblique  position.  It  is  then 
unequally  influenced  by  gravity  and  by  light,  and  these 
two  forces  are  known  to  be  competent  to  modify  growth 
in  an  unsymmetrical  manner  under  such  circumstances. 

Reasoning  of  this  kind  will  at  any  rate  suggest  the  way 
in  which  the  specialization  of  individual  cells  would  be  a 
rosult  of  their  aggregation.  With  this  specialization  they 
v.ould  lose  an  increasing  amount  of  their  capacity  for  in- 
dependent existence.  Specialization  of  function  will,  of 
course,  be  reflected  in  corresponding  morphological  modifi- 
cations, and  thus  a  mechanical  aggregate  of  independent 
cell  elements  gradually  passes  into  a  physicdogical  aggregate 
of  interdependent  ones. 

One  obvious  penalty  of  specialization  is  the  loss  of  the 
power  of  reproduction  by  individual  cells  when  detached. 
Amongst  plants,  however,  even  the  hignest  types  preserve 
some  measure  of  it.  It  is  sufficient  to  adduce  the  common 
horticultural  method  of  propagating  Begonias  from  fragments 
of  the  leaves.  Such  a  mode  of  reproduction  in  one  of  the 
highest  plants  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  which  exists  in 
PUurococcus,  and  although  reproduction  from  fragments  of 
structures  so  specialized  as  a  leaf  is  comparatively  rare,  there 
are  in  almost  all  plants  provisions  for  agamogenesis,  which 
depend  upon  the  retention  by  fragments  of  the  organism 
of  this  capacity  for  independent  existence.  And  it  may 
even  happen  that  the  perpetuation  of  the  race  for  consider- 
able periods  may  come  to  depend  upon  such  a  property. 
One  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  this  is  the  distri- 
bution over  the  British  Isles  of  the  American  water-weed 
(Anacharis),  of  which,  nevertheless,  only  the  female  plant 
exists  in  this  country.  If  we  had  the  male,  we  should  have 
a  good  instance  (and  others  might  be  given)  of  gamo- 
genesis  and  agamogenesis  proceeding  side  by  side  in  in- 
dividuals of  the  same  generation,  although  probably  not 
without  the  two  processes  reacting  upon  one  another. 
Throughout  the  vegetable  kingdom,  however,  we  find  gamo- 
genesis  and  agamogenesis  occurring  in  separate  generations, 
which  are  often  extremely  different.  .  The  two  modes  of 
reproduction  are  then  subject  to  a  cyclical  arrangement, 
and  the  comparison  of  the  forms  under  which  this  cdter- 
nation  of  generations  occurs  in  different  groups  throws  a 
good  deal  of  light  upon  their  taxonomic  relations.  It  will 
be  convenient  to  use  the  word  "  Sporophore  "  for  the  agamo- 
genetic  generation,  in  which  special  cells  (spores)  are  de- 
tached from  the  parent  to  serve  as  a  means  of  propagation  ; 
while  for  tho  gamogenetic  generation,  in  which  conjugar 
tion  takes  place,  or  in  which  special  cells  (oospheres)  are 
fertilized  by  antherozoids,  and  become  oospores,  "Oophore" 
may  be  employed. 

Our  present  knowledge  has  rather  added  to  than  dimi- 
nished the  difficulty  of  devising  evenaplausible  phylogenetic 
classification  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Greater  success 
has,  however,  been  attained  m  establishing  the  primary 
and  larger  secondary  groups,  so  as  to  allow  us  to  feel  some 
confidence  that  they  are  really  natural  assemblages.  The 
relation  of  thes«  groups  to  one  another  is  a  problem,  the 
more  than  approximate  solution  of  which  will  probably 
have  to  b«  some  time  postponed.  Many  of  them  appear  t» 
represent  tho  later  developments  of  simpler  types  or  aggre- 
gilcs  than  anj-thing  that  these  groups  at  present  contain. 
Ihe  EquuetaacT.  for  example,  arc  extremely  ancient,  yet 


we  know  of  no  form,  living  or  extinct,  which  enables  us 
to  trace  the  connection  of  their  very  remarkable  organiza 
tion  with  that  of  other  groups.  In  the  animal  kingdom 
the  "  recapitulation  theory"  steps  in,  and  obtains  from  the 
study  of  the  development  of  the  organisai  that  kind  of 
information  which  is  waj^ting  amongst  plants  as  to  the 
simpler  ancestral  forms  of  the  different  vegetable  types. 
This  information,  however,  is  drawn  in  the  animal  king- 
dom to  a  large  extent  from  the  phenomena  presented  by 
the  differentiation  of  the  sustentative  organs  of  the  embryo. 
For  reasons  already  pointed  out,  there  is  nothing  analogous 
to  this  amongst  plants,  where  the  rapid  extension  of  sur- 
face is  usually  the  primary  object  to  be  attained.  The 
earliest  stages  in  the  development  of  any  plant  are  subject 
to  conditions  so  simple  that  there  is  Lttle  room  for  special- 
ization, and  the  economy  of  nutrition  has  probably  gene- 
rally led  to  the  suppression  of  recapitulative  structural 
details. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  we  derive  little  help  from  re- 
capitulation in  studying  the  process  of  development  in 
plants,  from  the  unicellular  stage  of  spore  or  oospore,  it 
proves  extremely  suggestive,  if  we  take  in  the  whole  cycle 
comprised  between  two  processes  of  gamogenesis,  and  com- 
pare the  relations  to  one  another  of  the  gamogenetic  and" 
agamogenetic  generations,  or  using  the  nomenclature  intro- 
duced above,  of  the  Oophore  and  Sporophore. 

Thallophyta. 

EndUcher,  in  1836,  divided  the  vegetable  kingdom  into 
Thallophyta  and  Cormophyta;  and  these  divisions  still  hold 
good,  though  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  frame  characters 
which  will  strictly  limit  them.  With  the  exception  of  the 
absence  in  the  one,  and  presence  in  the  other,  of  the 
"  oppijsition  of  stem  and  root,"  none  of  the  distinctions 
which  Endlicher  pointed  out  are  available  now.  Through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  Thallophyta  anj-thing  Uke  a 
distinct  segmentation  of  an  axis  furnished  with  lateral 
appendages  is  altogether  wanting.  As  thus  limited  by  the 
absence  of  a  clear  differentiation  of  root,  stem,  and  lateral 
appendages,  this  sub-kingdom  comprises  an  assemblage  of 
plants,  which  were  divided  by  Bishop  Agardh,  in  1821,  into 
the  three  well-known  groups  of  Algce,  Fungi,  and  Lichem. 
And  to  these,  for  reasons  which  will  be  presently  pointed 
out,  must  be  added  the  hitherto  problematical  group  of 
CharacecE. 

It  has  long  been  seen  that,  with  respect  to  the  three 
former  groups,  it  was  impossible  to  assign  morphological 
characters  which  would  separate  them  strictly  one  from  the 
other.  Accordingly,  Berkeley  and  Lindley  were  compelled 
to  fall  back  on  distinctions  of  a  physiological  kind.  Algae 
were  defined  to  be  generally  aquatic  in  their  mode  of  life; 
Fungi  and  Lichens,  on  the  other  hand,  were  aerial. — but 
the  former  drew  their  nutriment  from  the  "  substratum," 
while  the  latter  obtained  it  from  the  air 

There  are  several  grounds  on  which  this  arrangement 
appears  to  need  reconsideration. 

Contrasting,  in  the  first  place,  Algcc  and  Fungi,  we  now 
know  that  the  plants  belonging  to  the  former  group  ii- 
variably  contain  chlorophyll,  while  those  belonging  to  thi 
latter  are  equally  devoid  of  it  In  their  morphological 
aspects,  however,  the  two  groups  present  a  remarkable 
parallelism. 

Now,  the  importance  of  the  presence  or  absence  of 
chlorophyll,  and  the  difference  in  the  mmle  of  bfe  which 
results,  would  have  greater  weight  for  classificntory  pur- 
poses, were  we  not  familiar  with  instances  in  other  parts 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom  in  which  it  proves  to  have  no 
value  at  all.  >Araong8l  flowering  plants  we  are  acquamtcd 
with  many  cises  where  plants  closely  alhed  in  structu™  u- 


VEGETABLE.] 


BIOLOGY 


693 


others  in  which  chlorophyll  is  Dormally  developed,  are 
entirely  destitute  of  it.  These  coDsiderations  have  re- 
cently led  Cohn  and  Sachs  to  treat  Fungi  and  Al(/cc  as  an 
asserabbge  of  organisms  the  cUissification  of  which  is  to 
be  attempted  on  purely  morphological  grounds.  But  the 
issemblage  of  plants  formed  by  Algce  and  Fungi  which 
thus  appear  to  require  classification  anew,  has  been  further 
increased  by  the  addition  of  two  other  groups,  both  re- 
garded quite  recently  as  entirely  distinct,  la  1S68  Schwen- 
dener  proposed  his  now  well-knovvn  theory  as  to  the  true 
nature  of  Lichens ;  and  although  his  views  have  been 
vigorously  attacked,  chiefly  by  writers  who  seemed  to 
feel  that  they  had  a  vested  interest  in  their  autonomy, 
ihe  weight  of  testimony,  in  the  case  of  those  who  have 
examined  the  matier  in  a  wider  spirit,  Lis  been  to  strongly 
confirm  Schwendener's  hypothesis.  Lichens  must  now  be 
regarded  as  composite  structwes,  partly  consisting  of  an 
alga,  partly  of  a  fungus.  Quito  lately  Sachs  has  pointed 
out  (iu  the  4th  edition  of  his  Lehrbuch  der  liotanik)  that 
CharacecE  may  be  compared  with  the  structure  and  mode 
jf  reproduction  of  some  of  the  Floridece. 

Sachs  has  proposed  a  classification  of  the  Thallophyta, 
which  appears  to  be  the  best  that  our  present  knowledge 
idmits  of.  Ho  di\-ides  them  into  four  classes — Prolophjla, 
Zygosporece,  Oosporece,  and  Carposporea. 

1.  The  Protophyta  include  the  simplest  plants,  and  those 
in  which  at  present  gamogenesis  is  not  known  to  occur.  In 
the  Cyaiiophyceae  the  protoplasm  of  the  cells  is  destitute  of 
a  nucleus,  and,  besides  containing  chlorophyll,  is  tinged  with 
1  peculiar  bluish  colouring  matter,  known  by  the  name  of 
phycocyan.  In  Palmellacece  this  peculiar  pigment  is  absent. 
Euglenece  is  a  group  of  well-known  but  Uttle  understood 
organisms,  which  must  also  be  placed  here  provisionally. 
To  these  must  be  added  ScAizomycetes  (Bacteria),  which  are 
iho  agents  of  putrefactive  changes  in  nitrogenous  organic 
matters,  and  Saccharomycet  (yeast),  which  bring  about  the 
['henomena  known  as  "  fermentation."  The  Schizomycetes 
aiippar  to  bo  allied  in  some  respects  to  Chroocouacece  and 
OscUtatoriacfce  amongst  the  Cyanophycece.  The  true  posi- 
tion of  Saccliaromyces  must  for  the  present'bo  held  as  pro- 
blematical ;  we  are  still  without  evidence  to  conclusively 
decide  in  favour  either  of  its  autonomy  or  of  its  being  a 
peculiar  condition  of  a  member  of  some  group  of  Fungi  of 
more  complei  development. 

2.  The  Zygoiporcm  are  an  assemblage  of  organisms, 
none  of  the  members  of  which  attain  any  high  degree 
of  morphological  complexity,  and  in  all  the  subordinate 
divisions  of  which  the  simplest  form  of  gamogenesis, 
known  as  conjugation,  has  been  observed  to  t.ike  place. 
Conjugation  only  differs  from  the  normal  process  of  fer- 
tilization in  the  two  protoplasmic  bodies  which  take  part 
in  it  being  precisely  simdar  iu  bulk  and  form.  Till  Thwaites 
pointed  out  the  contrary  in  184S,  it  w-os  not  supposed  to 
bo  entitled  to  recognition  as  a  sexual  process.  But  fer- 
tilization, as  ordinarily  understood,  only  differs  in  the  two 
conjugating  bodies  being  unlike — that  is,  in  their  having 
undergone  differentiation  into  antherozoid  and  Oosphere,  the 
male  and  female  bodies  respectively. 

The  Zygnsporece  may  be  divided,  perhaps  artificially, 
into  two  groups,  according  as  the  conjugating  cells  are 
motile  or  non-motile. 

In  many  of  the  simpler  green  Algce  it  has  long  been 
known  that  two  kinds  of  zoospores,  differing  in  size,  are 
produced.  To  these  the  terms  macrozoospore  and  micro- 
zoospore  may  be  applied.  The  function  of  the  macrozoo- 
Bpores  is  purely  agamogenetic.  The  microzoosporcs,  on 
the  other  hand,  meet  in  pairs,  and  fuse  into  a  single  pro- 
toplasmic body,  which  Areschoug  has  termed  a  zygozoo- 
upore. 

The  process  was  first  observed  by  Pringsheim  in  Pjn- 


doriiui.  It  bas  also  been  observed  in  Chlamydomonai. 
On  these  grounds  Sachs  has  placed  the  whole  group  of  tho 
Volvocinacece  amongst  the  Zygosporece.  This  has,  however, 
been  reasonably  objected  to  by  Cohn,  inasmuch  as  in  £u- 
doHna  as  described  by  Carter,  and  in  Votvox  as  observed 
by  himself,  there  is  a  true  process  of  fertilization  by  means 
of  antherozoids,  and  not  a  simple  conjugation.  It  may  bo 
allowed,  therefore,  provisionally  to  break  up  the  Votfo- 
cinaceae,  or  rather  to  restrict  the  name  to  the  two  last-named 
genera,  which  may  then  be  removed  to  the  nert  ckiss,  using 
that  of  Pandorineac  for  Volvocinoccous  forms,  which  or.iy 
exhibit  conjugation.  Hydrodictyecc  should  probably  be 
placed  here,  and  also  ConfervaciKe  and  Ulvae^re  in  which 
the  conjugation  of  zoospores  has  been  observed  by  Ares- 
choug. 

Sachs  has  proposed  to  associate  with  the  Zygosporea  the 
MyxomyceUt,  in  which  the  formation  of  the  plasmodium 
is  a  kind  of  complex  conjugation.  Closely  allied  in  some 
respects  to  the  Muxomycetca  are  Chytridiiuae  and,  mere 
doubtfully,  Proiomycea. 

In  the  second  division,  in  which  the  conjugating  cells  are 
non-motUe,  must  be  placed  all  the  more  familiar  instances 
of  the  process — the  I)fnnidifa€,  the  Diatomaceae,  the  Zygnt' 
macecE,  and  the  Zygomycetes  as  a  fungoi^l  type. 

3.  The  OosporecE  must  include  the  Volvocinaceci,  \n  the 
limited  sense  already  explained,  and  also  SpharopUa — a 
form  divorced  on  much  the  same  grounds  from  Con/ervaeece. 
Fucui  iffords  the  best  known  type  of  reproduction  belong- 
ing to  this  group.  The  antherozoids  are  ciliate  bodies  dis- 
charged Ivom  antheridia  ;  the  oonpher&a  are  naked  proto- 
plasmic masses  originally  contained  in  oogonia.  The 
antherozoids  gather  round  them  in  such  numbers  as  to 
impart  to  thera  a  movement  of  rotation.  They  eventually 
completely  blend  with  the  oosphere,  which  becomes  sur- 
rounded with  a  coat,  and  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  fluid 
in  which  it  has  hitherto  been  suspended.  ■  It  is  now  -an 
oospore,  and  speedily  undergoes  a  process  of  cell  division, 
which  gives  rise  to  an  individual  of  tho  now  generation. 
Near  the  Fucaceae  a  place  must  probably  be  assigned  to 
the  Phaeosporece.  The  remaining  groups  which  fall  into 
Oosporex  are  Coeloblaslce  and  (Kdogonieae.  Calobl<uta 
have  their  protoplasm  unsegmented  throughout  the  vejeta- 
tive  portions  of  the  organism.  They  include  forms  which 
are  partly  algoid,  such  as  Vauckeria  and  the  Siphophycea 
generally,  partly  fungoid,  as  Peronotporeae  and  SaproUgniece. 
In  all  other  respects,  except  the  presence  or  absence  of 
chlorophyll,  they  closely  agree  with  one  another,  and  the 
consideration  of  this  fact  has  led,  perhaps  more  than  any 
other  fact,  to  the  breaking  down  of  the  barrier  between 
Algae  and  Fungi 

4.  The  CarposporecE^  agree  with  the  Oosporece  in  so  far 
that  the  two  sexual  organs  contribute'  in  very  different 
proportions  to  the  formation  of  the  sexual  product.  While 
the  male  only  stimulates  its  development,  the  female 
supplies  the  material  for  the  whole  subsequent  growth. 

The  female  organ,  or  carpogonium,  may  consist  of  one  oi 
more  cells.  The  male  organ  varies  very  considerably  in  the 
different  subordinate  groups.  Fertilization  may,  as  in  tho 
Oosporece,  be  effected  by  antherozoids  (which  may  be  actively 
motile  or  passively  locomotive),  or  by  a  kind  of  conjugation, 
or  even  by  a  mere  apposition  of  the  male  organ  and  subse- 
quent diffusion  of  the  fertilizing  medium.  The  product  of 
the  act  of  fertilization  is  sometimes  a  single  cell  developing 
directly  into  a  new  individual  (Chara).  In  other  cases  the 
fertilized  female  organ  produces  zoospores,  and  still  more 
commonly  a  multicellular  mass  in  which  spores  are  finally 
developed.  This  involves  an  alternation  of  the  gcnoratious 
of  the  type  of  that  met  with  in  the  sporocarp  of  Muiirineac, 

■  '5.>i!  Sachs'i  LrhrhuA.  4lh  e.i.  pp.  2«-2<3 


G94 


13  i  U  L  O  a  Y 


[VEGEIADLE. 


And  we  may  have  every  grade  of  development,  from  the 
simplest  case,  in  which  the  sporocarp  appears  as  a  mere 
appendage  of  the  parent  plant  of  inconsiderable  dimensions, 
to  the  most  extreme  condition  in  the  other  direction,  in 
which  the  sporocarp  is  capable  of  independent  growth,  and 
therefore  represents  a  second  generation  which  is  entirely 
distinct  {sporopkore).  The  sporocarp  also  diflfers  essen- 
tially from  the  oospore  in  the  fact  that  cells  contribute  to 
its  formation  which  have  not  been  directly  influenced  by 
fertilization,  and  that  in  consequence  the  part  of  the  fruit 
which  produces  the  spores  is  surrounded  by  what — for 
want  of  a  more  convenient  term — we  may  call  the  pericarp, 
in  which  no  spores  are  developed,  and  which  serves  as  a 
mere  protective  investment,  or  is  subsequently  drawn  upon 
for  purposes  of  nutrition.  In  Pliycomyces,  which  belongs 
to  ZygosporecB,  it  is  noteworthy  that  there  is  a  kind  of 
anticipation  of  the  development  of  a  protective  investment 
to  the  zygospores. 

The  principal  types  of  the  Carposporece  include  all  the 
more  highly  developed  forms  both  of  Algae  and  iFungi. 

In  ColeochoEteoB  the  carpogonium  terminates  in  an  open 
canal,  and  fertilization  is  effected  by  motile  antherozoids. 

In  Floridece,  in  the  simplest  type  [Nemalion),  the  car- 
pogonium resembles  that  of  Coleochixtece,  only  ther  terminal 
tube  (trichogyne)  is  closed  end  not  open.  Fertilization  is 
effected  by  passively  motile  antherozoids,  which  adhere 
to  the  trichogyne.  In  Ceramiece  the  carpogonium,  even 
before  fertilization,  consists  of  numerous  cells,  a  lateral  row 
of  w;hich — the  trichophore — bears  the  trichogyne.  Neither 
trichogyne  nor  trichophore,  however,  take  any  part  ia  the  de- 
velopment of  the  sporocarp.  The  pericarp  is  produced  by 
a  process  of  budding  from  cells  beneath  the  carpogonium. 

In.  the  genus  Dudresnaya  the  process  of  fertilization  be- 
comes very  complicated,  and  in  fact  involves  a  double  pro- 
cess, of  which  the  first  stage  consists  in  the  application  of 
antherozoids  to  a  trichogyne ;  and  the  second  in  the  de- 
velopment from  below  the  trichophore  of  a  "  conducting 
filament "  which  conveys  the  fertilizing  influence  to  the 
terminal  cells  of  a  number  of  smaU  branches,  with  which 
it  successively  conjugates ;  at  each  point  of  conjugation 
a  sporocarp  is  developed.  Amongst  the  Ceramiece  there 
is  something  comparable  to  this  double  process ;  the  fer- 
tilizing influence  which  is  conveyed  by  antherozoids  to  the 
trichogyne  must  afterwards  be  communicated  by  a  process 
of  diffusion  from  the  trichophore  to  the  cell  from  which  the 
spores  are  developed. 

Characem  are  now  to  be  regarded  as  a  reduced  type  o( 
CarpotpoTtae.  The  carpogonium  is  supported  by  two  basal 
cells  with  oblique  septa,  which  it  seems  quite  reasonable 
to  accept  as  tlie  rudiments  of  a  trichophore.  There  is,  of 
course,  no  trichogyne,  and  fertilization  is  effected  by  motile 
antherozoids,  and  the  pericarp  is  developed  before  instead 
of  after  this  process.  In  Chara  the  main  axis  is  clothed 
with  a  peculiar  cortical  tissue,  which  grows  over  it  from  the 
nodes,  and  is  clearly  comparable  with  that  which  exists  in 
the  Ceramiecs. 

Fungi  contribute  to  the  Carposporem  the  Ascomycdes, 
^cidiomycetes,  and  Basidiomycctes.  In  the  first  and  last 
of  these  groups  the  existence  of  a  sexual  process  preceding 
the  development  of  the  sporocarp  is  now  known.  Aseobotus 
has  been  studied  by  Janczewski,  and  the  es.seutial  features 
of  the  sexual  process  are  closely  comparable  to  those  of 
Ceramiea:.  The  carpogonium  consists  of  a  row  of  cells ; 
the  terminal  one  is  fertilized  by  the  ramified  "  poUinodium," 
and  from  the  central  cell  of  the  carpogonium  a  number  of 
filaments  branch  out  which  bear  the  asci,  while  the  peri- 
carp is  formed  by  the  branchmg  of  the  mycelium  bclo\y 
the  carpogonium. 

Lic/uncs,  in  so  far  as  the  hyphx-  and  fructification  are 
concerned,   are    essentially    ascomycetous    fungi      Their 


gonidia  are  referable  to  "different  groups  of  alga:.  The  two 
sets  of  organisms  live  together  io  a  kind  of  modified  com- 
mensality.  The  algae  are  able  to  sustain  their  companion 
fungus  without  succumbing  to  the  demands  of  its  nutritiuu. 

-       COKMOPHYTA. 

Alternation  of  generations  exists  amongst  the  Thallo- 
phyla.  But,  as  in  CEdogonium,  it  assumes  the  form  of  an 
occasional  occurrence  of  gamogenesis  after  more  or  less 
prolonged  periods  of  agamogenesis ;  a  series  of  sporophorcs 
is  interrupted  by  the  intercalation  of  an  oophore.  Amongst 
the  Cormophyta,  however,  we  have  generally  a  regular  alter- 
nation of  oophore  and  sporophore.  Both  may,  however, 
propagate  themselves  by  the  detachment  of  more  or  less 
specialized  gemmae.  But  apart  from  this,  the  agamogenetic 
production  of  spores  and  the  garaogenetic  production  of 
oospores  regularly  follow  one  another. 

Cohn,  in  a  classification  of  Cryptogams  published  in 
1872,  established  the  groups  Bryophyta  and  Pteridopkyta, 
which,  added  to  Pkanerogamce,  constitute  the  groups  into 
which  Cormophyta  appear  best  susceptible  of  division. 

1.  Bryophyta. — In  such  a  case  as  CEdogonium,  sporophore 
and  oophoro  each  attain  a  tolerably  equal  degree  of 
vegetative  development.  In  others,  however,  this  may 
be  very  much  curtailed  in  one  or  the  other  generation. 
Amongst  the  Thattophyta  the  sporophore  not  uncommonly 
suffers  this  reduction.  Thus  in  Mucor  the  zygospore  only 
develops  a  short  filament,  which  terminates  in  a  spo- 
rangium filled  with  spores.  If  we  suppose  the  filament 
suppressed,  the  spores  belonging  to  the  second  genftration 
will  be  produced  directly  from  the  oospore  itself.  Thus, 
amongst  the  Coelohlaslce,  in  Cystopus  the  oospore  produces 
zoospores,  and,  according  to  Cienkowski,  this  is  also  the 
case  with  Volvox.  In  such  cases  the  oospore  itself  is  the 
sporophore.  Amongst  the  Bryophyta  there  is  an  alternation 
of  generations  which  is  hardly  less  abridged.  The  oophore — 
which  in  Hepaticce  is  often  a  thalloid  body,  while  in  mosses 
it  is  a  leafy  plant — bears  female  organs  (archegonia)  and 
male  organs  (antheridia).  The  oospore,  or  fertilized  central 
cell  of  the  archegonium,  gives  rise  to  a  complicated  struc- 
ture which  produces  the  spores.  The  first  division  of  the 
oospore  appears  to  be  inclined  to  the  axis  of  the  arche- 
gonium. The  sporophore  is  retained  in  a  kind  of  attach- 
ment to  the  oophore,  and-  never  attains  to  any  vegetative 
development  of  its  own.  From  the  fact  that  the  vege- 
tative structure  of  some  Hepaticce  is  thalloid  and  leafless 
(Aneura),  while  in  others  {Marchanlttt)  leaves  arp  present 
in  a  very  reduced  condition,  it  ma!y  be  inferred  that  the 
former  have  lost  their  leaves  rather  than  that  they  repre- 
sent an  original  leafless  condition.  The  ancestral  type  of 
the  Bryophyta  was  probably  more  lil-e  a  moss  than  like  any 
of  the  Uepaticoe.  And  it  is  worth  while  considering  what 
claims  Chara  may  have  to  be  regarded  as  a  transition  from 
the  Thattophyta,  of  which  it  is  an  anomalous  type  in  its 
possession  of  distinct  lateral  appendages  to  the  axis.  Cohn 
placed  it  amongst  the  Bryophyta ;  but  its  removal  to 
the  Thattophyta  probably  assign  i  it  its  true  position 
The  investment  of  the  carpogoniuiu,  however,  cannot  have 
more  than  an  analogy  with  an  archcgorium.  The  fertilized 
carpogonium  (sporocarp)  might  perhaps  be  regarded  as  a 
very  reduced  form  of  that  of  the  Bryophyta,  producing 
only  a  single  spore.  It  is  certainly  an  interesting  and  it 
may  be  a  significant  point,  that  the  spore  of  Characeci 
produces  in  germinating  a  filamentous  chain  of  cells,  appa 
rontly  comparable  to  the  protonema  of  mosses,  and  from 
this  the  fully  developed  sexual  plant  is  produced  as  a 
lateral  bud. 

2.  Ptcridophijta  are  sli,irply  divided  from  Bryophyta  by 
the  high  vegetative  development  of    the  sporophore  and 


I,.  OLE.] 


B  I  O  L  0  Ci   Y 


G'J.") 


grailu.illy  increasing  suppression  of  tlmt  of  llic  ooplifirc. 
This  never,  however,  as  in  tlio  succeeding  group,  cum- 
plctely  losc3  its  independence  of  the  sporopluire. 

The  wliclo  direction  of  the  attempts  at  classifying  t!io 
i'teiij(jj:hyla,  which  correspond  to  the  so-called  vascular 
Cryptogams,  has  been  completely  changed  by  Fankhanser's 
<liscovery  of  tho  long  sought  reproduction  of  Lycopodium. 
1 1  proves  to  be  totally  unlike  that  of  Sclayiiielta,  which,  from 
the  close  agreement  that  exists  between  the  two  types  in 
every  other  respect,  it  might  have  been  expected  to  closely 
resemble.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  formation  of  a  nitoiceci- 
ous  subterranean  prothallus,  it  may  be  compared  to  Oj>/iio- 
glossece.  Yet,  as  Sachs  has  pointed  out,  it  is  impossible 
to  use  tliis  striking  divergence  fur  tho  purpose  of  breaking 
up  a  group  of  plants  which  in  all  respects  is  perfectly  con- 
gruous. Tho  anomaly  of  forms  so  closely  allied,  cihibiting 
t»o  modes  of  gamogenesis,  has  now,  however,  found  a 
p.irallel  amongst  the  Filicales,  m  which  group  Rliiiocaypea: 
bcem  to  fiud  their  proper  place. 

The  PieriJ(ij>li)jtii  are  divisible  into  three  probably  natural 
classes,  which  may  bo  briefly  defined  by  the  fullowing 
characters,  in  ihcniselves,  no  doubt,  artificial : — 

i  Filicales. — Leaves  highly  developed  and  bearing 
tiumerous  sporangia. 

ii.  Equiselaceos. — Leaves  rudimentary,  reduced  to  sheaths 
on  tho  barren  stems,  the  fertile  ones  bearing  5-10  spor- 
angia. 

iii.  DichotomcB. — Leaves  small,  simple;  sporangia  soli- 
tary. 

The  Filicales  include,  according  to  the  arrangement  pro- 
posed by  Sachs,  three  orders.  In  Stipulalce  tho  sporangia 
are  not  trichonies,  but  aro  either  wholly  endogenous  pro- 
<lucts  as  in  Ojihinijlossum,  or  are  formed  from  cellular  pro- 
tuberances, and  the  tissue  beneath  the  epidermis  takes  part 
in  tho  formation  of  spores  {Maraitiacctr).  In  Filices  pro- 
[ler  tho  sporangia  are,  as  already  mentioned,  trichomcs, 
and  these  aro  developed  upon  the  normal  frouds.  In 
liliizocarpece  tho  sporangia  are  borne  by  metamorphosed 
leaves,  which  aro  united  into  a  capsular  body  in  a  way  com- 
parable to  that  in  which  carpels  bearing  ovules  are  united 
into  a  syncarpous  ovary.  The  germination  of  the  spores 
also  presents  important  differences  in  the  djfferent  orders 
amongst  the  Stipulalce.  In  Opkioylossacca;  it  gives  rise  to 
a  tuberous  monoecious  oophoro  (prothallium),  destitute  of 
chlorofihyll.  In  Osmunda  the  prothallium  exhibits  some 
tendency  to  become  dioecious ;  it  resembles  tho  normal 
typo  of  prothallium  in  ferns,  but  has  a  kind  of  mid  rib, 
and  produces  adventitious  shoots  from  marginal  cells. 
Tliesc .  shoots  become  detached,  and  constitute  a  mode  of 
agamogenesis.  Such  a  structure  cannot  fail  to  recall  the 
thalloid  Jfepaticce,  which  also  possess  a  mode  of  agamo- 
genesis- by  means  of  gcminules  (e.g.,  Marcliantia).  In 
'RliizocarpccE  Iho  dioecious  condition  of  the  oophoro  has 
been  carried  so  far  that  it  is  indicated  even  in  tho  spores 
themselves ;  tho  microsirores  are  male,  the  macrospores 
female.  Id  Salvinia  there  is  a  rudimentary  prothallium 
bearing  tho  antheridia  ;  and  a  last  trace  of  such  a  structure 
appears  to  exist  in  Marsilca  and  Pilularia.  The  macro- 
spore  also  develops  a  prothallium,  in  which  numerous 
nrchcgonia  are  produced,  one  only  of  which  is  fertilized. 
The  developmcut  of  the  prothallium  is  so  far  external  to 
tho  macrosporo  that  it  effects  its  rupture  at  the  apical 
papill.v  In  tho  lihiiocarpea:  the  development  of  the  oophore 
has  been  almost  entirely  compressed  within  the  limits  of  the 
Spore. 

£ijuisetacececa,]l  for  little' remark  as  regards  tho  oophoro. 
It  is  dioecious,  and  irregidarly  branched,  but  in  other 
respects  there  is  a  close  agreement  with  tho  oophoro  of 
ferns. 

The  Dichotomy  present  in  the  morphology  6f  the  oophore 


a  parallel  scries  with  tho  Filicales.  The  I.yropodiacctt 
develop  from  the  singlo  form  of  spores  which  they  possess 
a  mona'cious  subterranean  prothaUium  bke  that  of  Ophio- 
ghssece.  Thn  Ligulata:  (comprising  Stlagiitella  and  Jsoela) 
produce,  like  Hltizocarpecr,  microspores  and  macrospores 
In  this  group  the  suppression  of  the  oophore  is  carried  still 
further;  tho  microspores  possess,  according  to  MiUardct,  tho 
merest  rudiment  of  a  mafe  prothallium.  Tho  macrospores 
produce  a  female  prothallium,  which  is  an  endogenous 
structure  in  even  a  higher  degree  than  in  tho  Ithizocarpem. 
The  first  divisions  of  the  oospore  have  not  as  yet  befei 
sullicicntly  studied.  Dut  while  in  Ferns  projier,  Z'yuue- 
tacece  And  Ophioglossacece,  tho  first  septum  is  more  or  less 
inclined  to  the  axis  of  tho.archegoiiium,  it  is  parallel  with 
it  in  ]!lii!ocarpfcs  (a  position  into  which  a  very  oblique 
inclination  would  readily  pass),  while  in  SdKjiutlla  it  is  at 
right  angles  with  it. 

3.  Fhanerngamce. — In  at  any  rale  two  of  tho  three 
groups  of  the  Pleridophyta  wo  see  that  llio  progressive 
tendency  of  the  oophoro  (prothallium)  is  to  lose  its  iiidc- 
pcudenco.  In  OpUioglossea:,  Filices,  and  F'jiiisclacro',  its 
growth,  iiule|icndent  of  the  spore,  often  conlinucs  for  a  con- 
siderable period.  In  A'AiJocar/jftc  and  Lycnpodiacese,  where 
male  and  female  spores  are  produced,  the  oophoro  remains 
attached  to  the  spore,  although  protruding  from  it.  In 
Isoeles  it  fills  the  cavity  of  tho  macrosporc  as  a  mass  of 
tissue,  and  the  bounding  wall  is  only  ruptured  to  allow 
tho  access  of  the  anthcrozoids  to  the  archegonia.  In  the 
Phanerogamce  even  so  small  an  assertion  of  iiidcpendcnco 
as  this  is  suppressed.  The  macrosporo  (embryo  sac)  is 
never  detached  from  tho  sporophore  previous  to  fcrtilizi. 
tion,  and  the  oophore,  which  is  moderately  developed  in  tho 
Gymnospirm.ee,  but  in  the  Ant/iospermce  is  reduced  to  tbo 
merest  rudiment,  always  remains  entirely  enclosed  williin 
the  macrosporo. 

In  the  G ymnospermes  the  endosperm  is  the  homologuo  of 
the  prothallium  (oophore).  The  so-called  "coriiusrula"  aro 
the  archegonia,  or  rather  the  central  cells  of  reduced  arche- 
gonia (secondary  embryo  sacs  of  Henfrey).  The  neck  of  tho 
archegonium  is  represented  by  the  "  rosette"  first  described 
by  Uofmeister.  Strasburger  has  pointed  out  that  a  small 
portion  of  the  contents  of  the  central  cells  is  divided  off  at 
the  upper  end,  and  this  is  the  rudiment  of  the  canal  cell 
which,  running  the  length  of  the  neck  of  tho  archegonium 
in  the  Pryophyta  and  Pleridophyta,  leaves  a  pervious  track 
by  its  deliquescence  for  the  access  of  the  anthcrozoids  to 
the  central  cell.  Strasburger  considers  all  the  rest  of  the 
contents  of  the  embiyo-sac  to  bo  the  equivalent  of  the 
oospherc.  The  result  of  fertilization  is  to  cause  a  trans- 
verse [)artition  of  tho  lower  part  of  tho  oonphcre,  ns  in 
Sehxffinella.  From  the  lower  cell  thus  constitulcd,  by  suc- 
cessive longitudinal  and  transverse  partitions,  the  susjicnsora 
are  developed,  tho  ends  of  each  of  which  bear  an  embryo. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  the  development  of  a  suspenaor  ns 
an  intermediate  structure  between  the  fertilized  oospberf 
and  tho  embryo  is  also  met  with  in  Selayinetla. 

It  only  remains  to  point  out,  as  far  as  they  are  understood, 
the  comparable  structures  in  Angiofpcrmct.  Here  the  priv 
thallium  (oophore)  has  completely  disappeared,  unless  wc 
regard,  with  Sachs,  the  "antipodal  cells"  as  a  last  rudi- 
mentary trace ;  their  appearance  is,  however,  inconstant. 
Within  the  cmbrjosac  (macrosporo)  "embryo-vesicles"  arc 
formed, usually  two  or  three  in  number.  One  of  these  is  the 
oosphere,  and  may  bo  compared  to  tho  central  cell  of  on 
evanescent  archegonium,  to  which  another  of  the  "  tnibryo- 
vesicles"  performs  the  function  of  a  canal  cell;  for  while  it 
is  that  which  is  usually  in  nearest  proximity  to  tho  pollen 
tube,  it  only  apparently  transmits  tho  fertilizing  influence, 
fn  a  few  cases  this  dormant  embryo-vesicle  is  replaced 
I'V  a  somewhat  more  highly  developed  arrangement — the 


090 


B  I  0  — B  I  0 


filamentary  apparatus — ^the  homology   of   which,  with   a 
canal  cell,  is  more  obvious. 

The  foregoing  sketch  indicates,  in  a  very  brief  manner, 
the  outlines  of  the  classification  of  the  vegetable  Idngdom, 
which  has  been  constructed  in  the  light  of  the  most  recent 
studies  of  the  comparative  structure  of  different  types.  It 
is  suflScient  to  say,  that  a  detailed  consideration  of  the 
ne7  relations  in  which  many  of  the  groups  now  stand  to 
one  another  by  no  means  diminishes,  but  strongly  confirms, 
the  soundness  of  the  arrangement. 

The  following  table  gives  the  classification  in  a  synoptic 
form : — 

VEGETABILlA. 

SuB-KiNGDOM  A.  THALLOPHYTA, 

With  Chlorophyll  '  Without  Chlorophyll 

(Alg*.)  (Fungi.) 

Class  1.   Protophyta. 


i.   Cyanophycc<z. 
Chroococcaceae. 
Oscillatorieee,  &c.. 
ii.   Pallrmllacax. 
'i  Eugleaeffi.] 


i.  Schizomyceta, 
j\.  Saccharemycta. 


Class  2.  Zygospores. 

a.  Conjugating  cells  motile. 

i.  Pandorinetz.  i.  Myxomyceies 

[}  HydroJictyete.]^ 


ii.   C(mfervace(E. 
iii.  UlviKxoB. 


ii.  Chytridine<e. 


13.  Conjugating  cells  non  motile. 


iv.  Conjugalae. 

Desoiidies,  &c. 


[?  Protomyces] 

iii.  Zygomycetes. 

Mucorini,  tc. 


Class  3.  O0SPORE.S. 


i.  Vohocinece. 
ii.  Sph(FTople(e. 
iii    C<elollastce 

Siphophycea. 
ip!   (EdogonictE. 
V    Pw:acet7 

[PhiEosporetc. 


i.    Ccdohlastx, 
Ancylistese. 
Saproleguiea. 
Feronospore». 


Class  4.    CARPOSPOEtLa. 

W^'h  Chlorophyll.  Without  ChloropLy;' 

(AiG^.)  (Fungi.) 

i.   CoUochatetE.  L  Asctmiycelcs- 

Lichenes,  Ac. 
ii.   Horidea.  i!    ^ddiomyatcs. 

Nenialieae. 
Ceramies,  tc. 
iii.  Charcuxa.  iii.   Basidiomyceics 

Sdb-Kingdom  B.  CORMOPHYTA_ 
Series  I.  Bryofhyta. 
Class  1.  Musci. 
Class  2.   Hepaticoo. 

Series  II.  Pteridopuyta. 

Class  1.  Filicales. 

i.  Stipvlatce 

OphioglosseiE, 
Marattiat'cj* 

ft.  Filias- 

iii.  Iikizr>carpece. 

Class  2.  Equisetacese. 

Class  3.  Dichotoma^ 

i.   Lycopodiacca:. 
Lycopodie® 
Psilutea^. 
Phylh^glosscae. 
ii.  Ligulattx. 

SclagincUeaE. 
Isoeteae. 

Series  III.  PeANE|R0GAMj;. 

Class  1.  Gymnospermae. 

Class  2.  Angiusperms. 

i.  Monocotyledones. 
ii.   Du:ofytcdo'n€s. 

See  A  Text-Book  of  Buiany^  Mi/rpfu>Ivgieal  and  Physiological,  I'y 

Julius  Sachs  (3d  edition),  trauslatfd  by  A.  W.  BcDiiett,  assisted  by 

!  W.  T.  Thisclton  Dyer;  Lehrbuck  dcr  Bfluriik,  von  DrJnhws^nchs, 

I  vierte  Auflage  ;    Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science^   new 

I  scries,  vols,  i.-xv.  (W.  T.  T.  D.) 


BION,  the  second  of  the  three  Greek  bn^iolic  poets,  was 
born  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Smyrna, — accordin;^  to 
Suidas,  at  Phlossa  on  the  River  Meles.  The  few  facts 
known  to  us  of  hia  life  are  to  be  gathered  from  the  beautiful 
'E7riTa<^to?  BiWos  of  his  friend  and  scholar  Moschus.  From 
his  account  it  appears  that  Bion  left  his  native  country  and, 
during  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  resided  in  Sicily  and  cul- 
tivated the  form  of  poetry  peculiarly  a.ssociated  with  that 
island.  He  was  contemporary  with  Theocritus  and  some- 
what older  than  Moschus.  His  death  was  due  to  poison, 
administered  to  him  by  some  jealous  rivals  who  afterwards 
suffered  the  penalty  of  their  crime.  The  subjects  of  his 
verses  are  described  by  Moschus  as  "  Love  and  Pan  ;"  but 
though  his  works  are  included  in  the  general  class  of 
bucolic  poetry,  they  have  little  of  the  pastoral  imagery  and 
description  characteristic  of  Theocritus.  They  breathe  a 
more  refined  air  of  sentiment,  and  show  traces  of  the  over- 
strained reflection  frequently  observable  in  later  develop- 
ments of  pastoral  poetry.  The  longest  and  best  of  his  e.\- 
tant  works  is  the  Lamenl/or  Adonis  ('EjriTa'</)io9  'A8wi'iSo5), 
the  prototype  of  many  modern  poems.  His  other  pieces  are 
short  and  in  many  cases  fragmentary.  Two  of  the  Idylls 
{\\s.  and  XX  )  of  Theocritus  arc  frequently  ascribed  to  him. 
Uioa  and  Moschus  are  edited  separately  by  Hermann  (1S49) 


and  Ziegler  (1869).  The  best  annotated  editions  are  those 
of  Heiudorf  (1810),  Meineke  (185G),  Ahrens  (1655-9), 
Fritsche  (1870),  all  of  which  contain  also  the  works  of 
Theocritus.  The  Epilapkius  AdoniJis  is  edited  separately 
by  Ahrens,  1854. 

BIOT,  Jean  Baptiste,  French  physicist,  was  born  at 
Paris,  21st  April  1774.  After  leaving  schuol  he  served 
for  a  short  time ,  in  the  artillery,  but  again  resumed  his 
studies  at  the  Ecole  Polytechniquc.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  mathematics,  and  was  ajipointed  to  a  professor- 
ship at  Beauvais.  There  he  carried  on  his  researches  with 
the  greatest  assiduity,  and  g.iined  the  acquaintance  and 
friendship  of  Laplace,  from  whom  he  solicited  and  obtained 
the  favour  of  reading  the  proofsheets  of  the  Mecaniqxie 
Celeste.  In  1 800  he  was  recalled  to  Paris  as  professor  of 
physics  at  the  Coll(?ge  de  France.  Three  years  later  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  a  dis- 
tinction rarely  accorded  to  one  so  young  as  he  was.  In 
1803  Biot,  in  concert  with  Arago,  investigated  the  refr.tct- 
ing  properties  of  gases,  and  in  the  following  year  accom- 
panied Gay-Luasac  in  his  balloon  ascent.  He  was  again 
associated  with  .Arago  in  the  grc.it  undertaking  of  the 
measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  in  Spnin.  and  at  a 
later  date  n817-18)  he  crossed  over  to  Biiliiir-  and  ni-ja- 


B  I  R  —  B  I  R 


697 


sured  carefully  the  length  of  the  seconds'  pendulum  along  an 
arc  extending  to  the  extreme  north  of  Shetland.  In  1814 
he  was  made  a  oheyalicrof  the  Legion  of  Honour,  an  order 
of  which  he  became  a  commander  in  1849.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  and  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions  and  BellesLettres,  as  well  as  of  must  foreign 
scientific  societies.  In  1840  he  received  the  Rumford  gold 
medal  for  his  researches  in  polarized  light.  He  died  at 
an  advanced  age  in  18G2.  Biot's  researches  extended  to 
almost  every  branch  of  physical  science  ;  but  his  greatest 
discoveries  were  made  in  the  department  of  optics,  mainly 
in  connection  with  the  polarization  of  light.  lie  had  a 
thorough  command  of  the  best  methods  of  analysis,  and 
applied  mathematics  rigidly  and  .successfully  to  physical 
phenomeua.  His  various  dissertations  in  the  Memoirs  of 
the  Academy  are  very  numerous ;  a  selection  of  the  more 
valuable  was  published  in  1858.  His  systematic  works — 
Traite  Elementaire  d' Astronomu:  Physique  (18U5,  3d  cd., 
1841-57,  G  vols.),  Traite  de  Physique\\i\(i,  4  vols.),  /'rem 
FH^inenCairede  Physujue  Ej]}erimentale{lS\7,  3d  ed.,  1824, 
3  Vols  ), — are  of  great  merit,  though  necessarily  in  some 
respects  behind  the  present  state  of  physical  science. 

lUR,  or  BiRBJiK  (the  former  being  its  Arabic  and  the 
latter  its  Turkish  name),  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the 
paslialik  of  Rakka,  built  on  the  side  of  a  chalky  range  of 
hills  that  skirts  the  left  bank  of  the  Euphrat-es,  about  90 
mUes  N.E.  of  Aleppo,  in  long.  38°  6'  E.,  and  lat.  36°  48' 
N.  It  consists,  of  about  2000  houses,  surrounded  by  a 
dll.ipidated  wall  and  protected  t)y  the  citadel  of  Kalai-Beda, 
which,  with  its  earthquake-shattered  interior,  occupies  a 
precipitous  eminence  cut  off  from  the  town.  Bir  is  situated 
on' the  main  route  from  Aleppo  to  Orfa,  Ciarbekr,  and  the 
Persian  frontier,  and  had  formerly  a  considerable  trade 
with  Baghdad  by  means  of  the  river.  It  is  now  a  post  and 
telegraph  station.  A  ferry  seems  to  have  croe.sed  the 
river  at  this  spot  from  time  immemorial,  Abraham  himself 
having  made  use  of  it,  according  to  tradition,  on  his  passage 
from  Haran  to  Canaau.  The  town  is  identified  vrith  the 
ancient  Birtha  or  Britha,  where  the  emperor  Julian  rested 
on  his  march  to  llaogamalcha,  and  found  quarters  for  his 
army  in  one  extensive  palace.  In  the  English  Euphrates 
expedition  Bir  was  frequently  visited,  Fort  William,  one 
of  the  principal  places  of  rendezvous,  being  about  2  miles 
further  down  on  the  other  side  of  the  river.  (See  view  in 
Chesney's   Xarrative  of  Euphrates  Expedition,  1868.) 

BIRBUUM,  a  district  of  British  India,  within  the 
Birdwdn  division,  under  the  lieutenant-governor  of  Bengal, 
situated  between  24°  23'  10"  and  23"  34'  54"  N.  lat.,  and 
88°  3'  54"  and  87°  7'  41'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  the  districts  of  Sant.il  Pargands  and  Bhdgalpur;  on 
the  E.  by  the  districts  of  MurshidAbAd  and  BardwAn  ;  ou 
the  S.  by  the  River  Ajai,  separating  it  from  the  district  of 
BardwAn ;  and  on  the  W.  by  the  districts  of  the  SaiitAl 
P.irganis.  The  census  of  1872  returned  the  area  of  the 
district  at  1344  square  miles,  and  the  total  population  at 
695,921  Bouls,  residing  in  2471  villages  and  159,904 
houses.  Pressure  of  population  per  square  mile,  518  ;  per 
village,  282  ;  per  house,  4-3.  Of  the  total  population, 
676,908, or  82-9  per  cent.,  were  Hindus;  111,795,  or  161 
per  cent.,  Mahometans;  249  Christians;  and  3440,  con- 
fisting  principally  of  aboriginal  tribes,  of  unspecified 
religions.  Tho  eastern  portion  of  the  district  is  the  ordi- 
nary alluvial  plain  of  the  Gangetic  Delta ;  the  western  part 
consists  of  undulating  beds  of  lateritc  resting  on  a  rock 
Iwisis,  and  covered  with  small  scrub  jungle.  The  Ajai, 
Bakheswar,  and  Mor  or  Maurakshf,  are  the  principal  rivers 
of  the  district,  but  they  are  merely  hill  streams  and  only 
navigable  in  tho  rains.  fUco,  wheat,  sugar-cane,  pulses, 
oil  seeds,  and  mulberry  form  the  agricultural  products  of 
the  district.    The  chief  manufactures  are  silk,  silk  cloth,  and 


lacquered  ware.  The  principal  seats  of  trade  are  DubrAjpur, 
HAmbAzAr,  Bolpur,  SinthiA,  Purandarpur,  KrinnAhAr,  Mu- 
hammad BAzAr,  and  Ahmadpur.  The  total  net  revenue  of 
the  district  in  1870-71  amounted  to  X97,979  ;  the  civil  ex- 
penditure to  £27,278.  The  land  tax  forms  the  most 
important  it«m  of  revenue.  In  1870-71  it  amounted- to 
£73,261,  paid  by  556  estates,  held  by  2036  proprietors, 
under  the  Permanent  Settlement  as  in  other  parts  of  Bengal 
The  district  and  municipal  police  force  amounted  to  320 
officers  and  men,  at  a  total  costof  £5895  in  1871.  Besides 
these  there  were  8554  men  of  the  village  watch,  maintained 
at  a  total  cost  of  £23,074,  paid  by  service  lands  aud  by 
the  villagers.  In  1872  Bfrbhiim  contained  604  schools, 
attended  by  9338  pupils,  costing  £989  to  the  state  for  the 
education  of  its  people.  There  are  seven  principal  roads 
in  the  district,  the  total  mileage  being  191,  and  tho  average 
cost  of  their  maintenance  £1784.  Thirty-three  miles  of  the 
East  Indian  Railway  lie  within  the  district.  Until  lately 
Birbhiim  was  considered  to  be  the  healthiest  district  in 
Bengal ;  but  during  the  past  few  years  epidemic  fever  has 
made  havoc  among  the  rural  population  of  the  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  district. 

BfRBHtiM,  or  SurI,  the  principal  town  and  administrative 
headquarters  of  the  district  of  tho,  same  niimo,  is  situated 
in  23°  54'  25'  N.  lat.,  and  87°  34'  23'  E.  long.  In  1872 
it  contained  a  population  of  9001,  of  whom  6746  were 
Hindus,  2056  Mahometans,  187  Christians,  and  12  of 
unspecified  religions.  Municipal  income  of  the  town  in 
1871,  £483,  18a.;  expenditure,  £473,  8s.;  rate  of  muni- 
cipal taxation,  Is.  8d.  per  head. 

BIRCH  (Betula),  a  genus  of  arboraceous  planta  consti- 
tuting the  principal  portion  of  the  natural  order  Betulaccae. 
The  various  species  of  birch  are  mostly  trees  of  medium 
size,  but  several  of  them  are  merely  shrubs.  They  are  as  a 
rule  of  a  verj-  hardy  character,  thriving  best  in  northern 
latitudes, — tho  trees  having  round,  slender  branches,  and 
senate  deciduous  leaves,  with  barren  and  fertile  catkins  on 
the  same  tree  and  winged  seeds.  The  bark  in  most  of  the 
frees  occurs  in  fine  soft  membranous  layers,  the  outer 
cuticle  of  which  peels  off  in  thin  white  papery  sheets.  The 
common  birch  (B.  alba)  grows  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  Europe,  and  also  in  Asia  Minor,  Siberia,  and  North 
America,  reaching  in  the  north  to  the  extreme  limits  of  forest 
vegetation,  and  stretching  southward  on  the  European  con- 
tinent as  a  forest  tree  to  45'  N.  lat.,  beyond  which  birches 
occur  only  in  special  situations  or  as  isolated  trees.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  wide-spread  and  generally  useful  of  forest 
trees  of  Russia,  occurring  in  that  empire  in  vast  forests,  in 
many  instances  alone,  and  in  other  cases  mingled'with 
pines,  poplars,  and  other  forest  trees.  The  wood  is  highly 
valued  by  carriage-builders,  upholsterers,  and  turners,  on 
account  of  its  toughness  and  tenacity,  and  in  Russia  it  is 
prized  as  firewood  and  a  source  of  charcoal.  A  very 
extensive  domestic  industry  in  Russia  consists  in  the 
manufacture  of  wooden  spoons,  which  are  made  to  the  ex- 
tent of  30,000,000  annually,  mostly  of  birch.  Its  pliant 
and  flexible  branches  are  made  into  brooms ;  and  in  ancient 
Rome  the  fasces  of  the  lictors,  with  which  they  cleared  the 
way  for  the  magistrates,  were  made  up  of  birch  rods.  A 
si  ailar  use  of  birch  rods  has  continued  among  pedagogues 
to  times  so  recent  that  the  birch  is  yet,  literally  or  meta* 
phorically,  the  instrument  of  school-room  discipline.  Tho 
bark  of  the  common  birch  is  much  more  durable,  and  in- 
dustrially of  greater  value,  than  the  wood.  It  is  imperme- 
able to  water,  and  is  therefore  used  in  northern  countries  for 
roofing,  for  domestic  utensils,  for  boxes  aud  jars  to  contain 
both  solid  and  liquid  substances,  and  for  a  kind  of  bark 
shoes,  of  which  it  is  cstim.ited  25  millions  of  pairs  are 
annually  worn  by  the  Ru.'ssian  peasantry.  The  jars  and  boxes 
of  birch  bark  made  by  Russian  peasants  are  often  stamped 

IIL   —   SS 


.098 


B  I  R  —  B  I  R 


with  very  effective  patterns  By  dry  distillation  the  bark 
yields  an  emipyreumatic  oil,  called  dlogoU  in  Russia,  used 
in  the  preparation  of  Russia  Icither ;  to  this  oil  the  peculiar 
pleasant  odour  of  the  leather  is  due.  The  bark  itself  is 
used  in  tanning;  and  by  the  Samoiedes  and  Kamchatkans 
it  is  ground  up  and  eaten  on  account  of  the  starchy  matter 
it  contains.  A  sugary  sap  is  drawn  from  the  trunk  in 
the  spring  before  the  opening  of  the  leaf-buds,  and  is 
fermented  into  a  kind  of  beer  and  vinegar  The  whole 
tree,  but  especially  the  bark  and  leaves,  has  a  very  pleasant 
resinous  odour,  and  from  tlie  young  leaves  and  buds  an 
essential  oil  is  distilled  with  water  The  leaves  are  used 
as  fodder  in  northern  latitudes  The  species  which  belong 
)ioculiarly  to  America  {B.  lenta,  exctlsa,  nigra,  papyracea, 
<kc.)  .'e  generally  similar  in  appearance  and  properties 
to  B.  alba,  and  have  the  same  range  of  applications.  The 
largest  and  most  valuable  is  the  black  birch  {B.  Unta),  found 
abundantly  over  an  extensive  area  in  British  North  America, 
growing  60  to  70  feet  high,  and  2  to  3  feet  in  diameter. 
It  is  a  wood  most  extensively  used  for  furniture  and  for 
carriage  building,  being  tough  in  texture  and  bearing  shocks 
well,  while  much  of  it  has  a  handsome  grain,  and  it  is  sus- 
ceptible of  a  fine  polish.  The  bark,  which  is  dark  brown  or 
reddish,  and  very  durable,  is  used  by  Indians  and  back- 
woodsmen in  the  same  way  as  the  bark  of  B.  alba  is  used 
in  Northern  Europe.  Concerning  the  canoe  or  paper  birch 
(B.  papyracea),  which  some  regard  as  a  variety  of  the  white 
birch,  Mr  Bernard  R.  Ross,  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
writes  : — "The  canoe  or  p^iper  birch  is  found  as  far  north 
as  70"  N.  on  the  American  continent,  but  it  becomes  rare 
and  stunted  in  the  Arctic  circle.  It  is  a  tree  of  the  greatest 
value  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Mackenzie  RlTer  district  in 
British  North  America.  Its  bark  is  used  for  the  con- 
struction of  canoes,  p.nd  for  drinking-cups,  dishes,  ,and 
baskets.  From  the  <vood,  platters,  axe  handles,  snow-slloe 
frames,  and  dog  sledges  are  made,  and  it  is  worked  into 
articles  of  farnkure  which  are  susceptible  of  a  good  polish. 
The  sap  which  flows  in  the  spring  is  drawn  off  and  boiled 
down  to  an  agreeable  spirit,  or  fermented  with  a  birch-wine 
of  considerable  alcoholic  strength.  The  bark  is  also  used 
by  the  Christianized  American  Indians  as  a  substitute  for 
paper."  A  species  (B.  Bkoiputtra)  growing  on  the  Hima- 
layan Mountains,  as  high  up  as  9000  feet,  yields  large 
quantities  of  fine  thin  papery  bark,  extensively  sent  down 
to  the  plains  as  a  substitute  for  wrapping-paper,  for  covering 
the  "  snakes  "  of  hookahs,  and  for  umbrellas.  It  is  also 
.tnid  to  be  used  as  writing  paper  by  the  mountaineers  ; 
and  in  Kashmir  it  is  in  general  use  for  roofing  houses. 

BIRCH,  Thomas,  historical  and  biographical  writer, 
and  one  of  the  early  trustees  and  benefactors  of  the 
British  Museum,  was  born  in  London,  November  23,  1705. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  coffee-mill  maker,  and  was  to  have 
followed  his  father's  business ;  but  his  active  mind  and 
ambition  of  higher  pursuits  led  him  into  the  paths  of 
literature.  His  parents  were  members  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  and  therefore  he  had  not  the  advantages  of  a 
university  training.  But  by  persevering  application  to 
ttudy  and  to  teaching  he  qualified  himself  for  the  ministry 
of  the  Church  of  England.  In  1728  he  obtained  a  curacy, 
and  in  the  same  year  he  married.  His  wife  died  in  the 
following  year.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  December  1731, 
and  was  soon  after  recommended  to  the  favour  of  Philip 
Yorke,  then  attorney-general,  afterwards  Lord  Chancellor 
ond  earl  of  Hardwicke,  to  whom  ho  owed  his  successive 
preferments  in  the  church.  His  first  benefice  was  the 
vicarage  of  Ulting  in  Essex.  In  1734  he  was  appointed 
domestic  chaplain  to  the  carl  of  Kilmarnock,  who  was 
beheaded  for  his  share  in  the  rebellion  of  '45.  He 
ftfterwards  hold  successively  benefices  in  Pembrokeshire, 
Gloucestershire,  and  the  city  of  London.     His  last  church 


preferment  was  to  the  rectory  of  Depdcn  in  Essex,  to 
which  he  was  presented  in  February  1701.  In  his  latli-r 
years  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  princess  Amelia. 
His  literary  attainments  procured  him  election  as  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  February  1735,  and  in  the 
following  December  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries.  He  held  the  office  of  Secretary  to 
the  Royal  Society  for  thirteen  years  1752-1705.  From 
the  university  of  Aberdeen  he  received  the  degrees  first  of 
M.A.,  and  afterwards  (1753)  of  D.D.  The  degree  of  D.D. 
was  also  conferred  on  him  about  the  same  time  by  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Dr  Birch  was  engaged  in  :i 
large  number  of  literary  undertakings.  His  appetite  and 
his  capacity  for  hard  work  were  extraordinary.  Besides 
his  diversified  labours  of  compilation  and  editing,  he 
transcribed  many  volumes  in  the  library  of  Lambeth  Palace, 
and  carried  on  an  extensive  correspondence  with  literary 
men.  He  was  an  early  riser ;  and  amidst  all  his  labours 
he  found  time  to  take  part  in  social  enjoyments.  He  was 
only  in  his  sixty-first  year  when  he  was  killed  by  a  fall 
from  his  horse  in  Hampstead  Road,  January  9,  17GG.  He 
bequeathed  his  books  and  manuscripts,  with  part  of  his 
pictures  and  prints,  to  the  British  Museum.  The  rest  of 
his  property,  in  value  about  £500,  he  gave  to  be  invested 
in  Government  securities,  the  interest  to  be  ajiplied  in 
augmenting  the  salaries  of  the  three  assistant  librarians. 

His  principal  publications  were — 1.  The  General  Dictionarji,  Jlis- 
torical  ajid  Critical,  including  a  new  translation  of  Bayle,  and  inter- 
spersed with  several  thousand  new  lives,  in  10  volumes  fol.,  1734- 
1741.  2.  Thurloe's  Slale  Papers,  7  voU.  folio,  1742.  3.  Dr  Ciul- 
worth's  Intellectual  System,  improved  from  the  Latin  edition  of 
Mosheim  ;  his  Discourse  on  the  true  Kotion  of  the  Lord's  Supper; 
and  two  Servnons,  with  an  Account  of  his  Life  arid  Writimjs,  2 
vols,  ^to,  J7/3.  4.  The  Lye  of  the  Honourable  Robert  Boyle,  1744, 
prefixed  to  an  edition  of  that  piiilosopher's  works.  5.  The  Lues 
of  Illustrious  Persons  of  Great  Britain,  to  accompany  the  cnRiav- 
ings  of  Houbraken  and  Vcrtue,  1747-1752.  6.  An  Inquiry  into 
thi  Share  which  King  Charles  /.  had  in  the  Transacticms  of  the  Karl 
of  Glamorgan,  1747,  8vo.  T .  An  tv\\\\on  o{  Speriser  s  Faery  Queen, 
1751,  3  vols.  4to,  with  prints  from  ilesigns  liy  Kent.  8.  The  Mis- 
cellaneous J^'orks  of  Sir  ITaller  Baleiyh,  with  his  Lif",  1751,  2  wis. 
8vo.  9.  The  Theological,  Moral,  Dramatic,  and  Poetical  IVorks  of 
Mrs  Catherine  Cockbum,  with  a  Life,  1751,  2  vols.  8vo.  10.  The 
Life  of  Dr  Tillotson,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  compiled  chiefly  from 
his  Original  Papers  a^id  Letters,  1762,  Svo.  11.  Miltoji's  Prose 
ll^orks,  1753,  2  vols.  4to,  with  a  Life.  12.  Memoirs  of  the  Reign  vf 
Queen  Elisabeth,  from  the  year  1531  till  her  death;  illustrated 
.from  the  original  papers  of  Anthony  Bacon,  Esq.,  and  from  other 
MSS.,  1754,  2  vols.  4to.  13.  The 'History  of  the  Boyal  Society  of 
London,  1756  and  1757,  4  vols.  4to.  14.  7'he  Life  of  Henry  Prxvee 
of  IVales,  eldest  son  of  James  I.,  compiled  chiefly  from  his  own 
apers  and  other  MSS.,  1760,  Svo.  15.  The  Letters,  SpeecAes,  d-e., 
of  Lord  Chancellor  Baccm.  His  numerous  communications  to  the 
Royal  Society  may  be  seen  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions. 

BIRD,  William,  an  English  composer,  and  one  of  the 
best  organists  of  his  time,  was  born  about  1540,  and  died 
at  London,  4th  July  1023.  He  was  appointed  organist  of 
Lincoln  cathedral  in  1563;  and  in  1575  he  and  his  master 
Tallis  were  gentlemen  of  the  chapel  royal,  and  organists  to 
Queen  Elizabeth.  Bird  was  the  earliest  English  composer 
of  madrigals,  and  some  of  his  numerous  sacred  composi- 
tions are  still  much  esteemed.  Most  of  them  were  pub- 
lished during  his  lifetime  under  a  patent  from  Queen 
Elizabeih,  which  secured  to  him  and  Tallis  the  sole  right 
to  print  and  sell  music.  Between  1575  and  101 1  there 
were  issued  under  this  patent  eight  different,  collections  of 
his  works,  witE  such  titles  as  Cantiones  San-ce  ;  Gradualia  ; 
fsalmes,  Songs,  and  Sonets,  &c.  The  vocal  canon  i^'on 
nobii  Domine,  generally  attributed  to  him,  i.s  well  known, 
and  often  sung.  He  also  wrote  a  niiniler  of  pieces  for 
Queen  Elizabeth's  Virginal  Book,  and  other  similar  collec- 
tions. In  his  compositions  there  is  a  freedom  and  elegance 
rarely  found  in  the  music  of  his  period.  A  full  account  of 
Bird's  life  by  E.  F.  Rimbault  is  jircfixod  to  one  of  bis 
Masses,  published  by  the  Musical  Anliminrian  Society. 


G99 


BIRDS 


/tHATOMY  OF  BIRDa 

IN  the  consideration  of  the  Anatomy  of  Birds,  clussi- 
6cation  will  be  quite  a  secondary  matter,  and  merelj 
imployed  for  the  elucidation  of  internal  structure.  Some 
sort  of  grouping,  however,  is  indispensable;  and  that  is 
accordingly  adopted,  as  the  most  convenient  for  the  morpho- 
logist,  which  wa3  first  propos2d  by  Professor  Huiley,'  with 
the  introduction  of  certain  modihcations  rendered  necessary 
by  the  present  writer's  own  researches — researches,  it  may 
be  added,  which  have  been  carried  on  in  constatit  com- 
munication with  that  investigator. 

A  little  examination  will  show  that  the  groups  made  by 
consideration  of  any,  even  the  most  important,  morpho- 
logical modifications,  cannot  be  superimposed  upon  groups 
made  by  reference  to  the  whole  sum  of  the  characters  of 
the  Bird.  This  may  be  easily  explained.  About  half  the 
known  Birds,  5000  or  thea'abouts,  belong,  according  to 
0.  R.  Gray,  to  Professor  Huxley's  group,  the  Coraca- 
morplue.  The.se  birds  undergo  a  peculiar  metamorphosis 
of  the  naao-palatal  structures,  and  are  called  by  Pro- 
fessor Huxley  the  jEfjilhoynalhee  on  that  account.  Now 
all  the  Coracomorphae  have  the  asgithognathous  palate,  but 
so  also  have  the  Cypselidix,  or  Swifts,  which  are  placed  by 
this  author  with  the  Humming-birds  and  Goatsuckers,  both 
of  which  groups  are  simply  schizognathous.  Moreover, 
below  the  Pas.serine  types,  and  only  next  above  the  Semi- 
struthious  Tinamous,  we  find  the  Hemipods,  Turnicidce, 
or  Turnicunorpfiee,  and  these  have  an  ajgithognathous 
palate.  So  also  has  another  type,  Thinocorus,  which  lies 
on  the  same  low  zoological  level  as  the  Hemipods.  This 
latter  bird  is  essentially  a  small  Geranomorph,  but  it  is 
below  the  true  Cranes,  and  unites  in  its  palate  characters 
belonging  to  the  Ostriches  below  it  and  the  Passennes 
which  ascend,  zoologically,  far  above  it. 

The  difficulty  of  applying  this  very  valuable  morpho- 
logical grouping,  and  making  it  fit  in  with  one  that  is 
more  general  and  distinctively  zoological  (that  is,  having 
reference  to  every  character,  external  and  internal),  does 
not  take  away  anything  of  real  value  from  it.  "To  the 
anatomist  such  •>  mode  of  viewing  the  various  types  is 
perfectly  natuPa.,  however  hard  it  may  be  to  satisfy  the 
pure  zoologist  as  to  its  great  value.  Certainly,  the  struc- 
tures of  the  skull  and  face  govern  the  whole  body,  as  it 
were;  every  pther  part  of  the  organism  corresponds  to 
what  is  ob.servablo  there.  Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that 
ihe  true  mode  of  studying  any  kind  of  creature  is  that  of 
its  dtvflopmenl ;  and  the  head  undergoes  the  most  remark- 
able morphological  changes. 

In  the  following  scheme  we  have  added  one  new  mor- 
phological group  to  Professor  Huxley's  classification.  This 
group  includes  the  Woodpeckers  and  Wrynecks,  Pick/ce 
and  Yungidae.  Zoologically  it  forms  the  family  Ccteo- 
mnrphae  (Huxley) ;  its  morphological  term  is  Sauro<jnatha 
(Parker). 

*  "  Od  the  ClassiGcation  of  Birda  ;  and  of  the  taxonomic  value  of 
the  modiflcationa  of  certain  of  the  cranial  bones  observable  in  tliat 
cUi«,"  Procetdings  of  the  Zoological  Society,  April  11,  18C7,  pp. 
415-472.  This  classification  is  somewhat  modified  in  a  later  paper 
by  the  same  author,  in  which  a  very  masterly  description  is  given  of 
the  Gallinaceous  group  (Alecloromorpha,  Huilcy),  "  On  the  Classifica- 
tion and  Distribution  of  the  AUctoTomorpha t^ai  jleteromorpha,"  ibid., 
May  14,  1868,  pp.  293-319.  The  same  author  repeats,  in  essentially 
the  same  form,  the  original  classiBcation  in  his  Anatomy  of  the  Verte- 
brated  AnimaU  (1871,  p.  272).  The  materials  from  which  the  modi- 
fied views  hero  given  have  been  taken  are  in  a  series  of  contributions 
by  Mr  Farker  to  the  Transactions  o/  the  Linncan  and  Zoological 
Societies  now  (1375)  paasing  through  the  press.  For  flgui«s  of  l!ie 
■kcleton  see  Mr  F.yton's  Oitculoijm  Avium. 


)  hvcry  one  who  lias  laboured  at  the  anatomy  of  tlai 
class  must  have  been  struck  by  its  marvellous  uniformity  ; 
almost  countless  numbers  of  species  are  found  passing 
insensibly  into  one  another,  and  dilTering  in  the  sl'ightcit 
manner.  The  best  modern  zoologists  are  at  times  almost 
at  their  wits'  end  to  know  by  what  characters  they  may 
distinguish  their  genera  and  species.  This  has  been  well 
put  by  Professor  UuxJey  {Anat.  of  Vert.  Anim.)  He  says 
(p.  272) — "Though  this  class  contains  a  great  number  of 
specific  forms,  the  structural  modifications  which  they 
present  are  of  comparatively  little  importance ;  any  two 
birds  which  can  be  selected  differing  from  one  another  far 
less  than  the  extreme  types  of  the  Lacertilia,  and  hardly 
more  than  the  extreme  forms  of  the  Chclonta,  do.  Hence 
the  characters  by  which  the  following  groups"  (see  subjoined 
table)  "  are  separated  appear  almost  insignificant  when 
compared  with  those  by  which  the  divisions  of  the  Reptilia 
are  iiicbcated." 

MoRPHOLOoiCAi.  Classification  op  Bibds. 

A.  The  metacarpals  not  ankylosed  together.     The  tail  longer  ihao 

the  body. 

I.  Saurur£. 

1.  Archccopterygidx. 

B.  The  metacarpals  ankylosed   together.      The    tail    considerably 

shorter  than  the  body. 

A.  Tho  sternum  devoid  of  a  keel. 

II.  RATIT.E. 

a.  The  wing  with  a  rudimentary,  or  very  short,  humerus 

and  with  not  more  than  one  ungual  LhaUox. 
a.  A  hallux. 

2.  Apterygidae  (the  Kiwis). 

6.  No  hallux. 

3.  Dinomithidot  (the  Moas). 

4.  Casuariid(z  (the  Cassowaries  and  Emeus). 

b.  The  wing  with  a  long  humerus,  and  with  two  ongiisl 

phalanges. 

a-  The  ischia  uniting  immediately  beneath  the 
s'acrum,  and  the  ^ubes  free. 
6.  Khciiiix  (the  American  Ostriches).' 

fl.  The  ischia  free,  and  the  pubes  uniting  in  a 
ventral  symphysis. 

6.  Struthiontdx  (the  Ostriches). 

B.  The  sternum  provided  with  a  keel.' 

III.    CaRINAT£. 

a.  The  vomer  broad  behind,  and  interposing  between  Ihe 

pterygoids,  tho  palatines,    and  the   basisphenoidal 
rostrum  (Dromeeognathae). 

7.  Tinamomorpha:  (the  Tinamous). 

b.  The  vomer  narrow  belund  ;  the  pterygoids  and  pala- 

tines articulating  largely  with  the  basisphenoidal 
rostrum. 

a.  The  maxillo-palatines  free.' 

i.  The   vomer   pointed  lo    front  (Schizo- 
gnathffi). 

8.  Charadr\omorph(K  (the  Plovers). 

9.  Cecomorpha  (the  Gulls). 

-0.  Sphcniscomorphce  (the  Penguins),. 
.J.  Geranomorphae  (the  Cranes).' 

12.  Alcctoromorphcc  (the  Fowls). 

13.  Pteroclomorphce  (the  Sand-Grouse). 

14.  Pensleromorphte  (the  Pigeons). 

15.  Hetcromorphce  (tho  Hoazins). 

16.  Coccygomorpha  (part),  (the  Goatsuckers). 

'  The  keel  is  but  little  developed  in  Strigops  {Priitacuke),  in  Vidut 
{Didida;),  and  in  Aptomis  {Rallidoe), 

*  Profe.Hsor  Huxley  here  gives  in  a  note  two  exceptions,  namely, 
dux  and  Dicholophus.  The  latter  bird,  the  Cariama,  is,  however,  ax 
Mr  Parker  has  shown,  a  low,  gruiform,  rapacious  bird,  havinR  It* 
maxillo-palatines  united  by  suture,  and  being  an  example  of  n  bir^ 
with  imperfect  direct  desmognathism, 

*  With  tbe  Axception  of  Thinocorus,  tee  belov. 


700 


BIRDS 


[iXATOJU'. 


17.  Troehilon}orph€B  (the  Hummiiig-birils). 

ii.  The   vomer  truncated  in  front  (^^i- 
thognathes). 

18.  OeraTurmoTphcE   (part),    (the   exceptional    sub- 

family ThiruKoriruz,'Ihinqcoms). 

19.  Tumieomorpha  (the  Hemipojs). 
2u.  Oypselomorphoc  (the  Swifts). 

21.  Cvracomorpkcc  (the  Passerines). 

iii.  The  vomerine  halves  permanently  dis- 
tinct, and  the  "  maxillo-palatines  ar- 
rested  (Saurognathee). . 
22    CeleomorphcE  (the  Woodpeckers). 

6.  The  maxillo-palatines  united,  either  by  coa- 
lescence with  the  ossified  septum  nasi ;  or, 
2d,  by  meeting  at  the  mid-line  and  form- 
ing a  suture  ;  or,  5d,  in  the  fullest  degree, 
by  complete  ankylosis  of  the  right  and  left 
plates. 

23.  Aelomorphce  (the  Birds  of  Prey). 

24.  Psittacomorphce  (the  Parrots). 

25.  Coccygomorphce  (the  Cuckoos,  Kingfishers,  and 

Trogons). 

26.  C/unomorphcE  (the  Anserine  Birds). 

27.  AmphimorphcE  (the  Flamingoes). 
2%.' PdargomorpTia  (the  Storks). 

29.  Dyspor(nncrrp}uz  (the  Cormorants). 

The  above'  scheme  is  a  nail  in  a  sure  place ;  and  on  it, 
lor  the  present,  we  may  hang  all  that  we  know,  or  are 
learning,  of  the  anatomical  structure  of  this  class  of  Verte- 
brates. That  which  relates  to  the  Carinaice  must,  how- 
ever, be  regarded  merely  as  a  list  of  Birds  having  a  similar 
facial  structure. 

For  the  general  ornithologist  it  is  very  suggestive  and 
helpful,  and  will  save  him  from  looking  merely  on  outward 
appearances;  for  the  study  of  struct. re  and  development 
is  looking  into  the  heart  of  the  matter. 

The  Skull. 

To  both'  the  zoologist  and  the  palaeontologist  an  ex- 
planation of  the  skeleton  will  be  of  the  greatest  value,  for 
the  framework  must  of  necessity  be  correlated  to  the 
nervous  system,  and  also  govern  the  development  of  the 
muscles.  It  will  here  form  the  first  and  the  largest  part 
of  our  work.  And  as  all  things  in  the  skeleton  are  con- 
formed to  the  modifications  of  the  skull,  and,  moreover,  as 
the  skull  is  the  most  knotty  problem  to  the  morphologist, 
it  will  receive  the  attention  due  to  its  superior  importance. 

Instead  of  describing  the  adult  skull,  and  then  showing 
how  it  develops,  it  would  seem  to  be  better  to  follow  the 
stages  of  its  growth,  and  thus  see  the-  meaning  of  the 
parts,  and  what  metamorphic  changes  take  place  to  give  it 
its  adult  characters.  Space  will  not  permit  any  detail  of 
the  general  embryology  of  the  Bird,  but  the  skull  will  be 
described  from  the  time  when  the  rudiments  of  the 
cbondro-cranium- are  first  fairly  visible,  that  is,  about  the 
fifth  day  of  incubation.' 

As  the  Schizognathoiu  type  of  skull,  such  as  is  seen  in 
the  Fowl,  is  the  simplest  variety  found  in  the  CaHnatcn,  it 
will  be  the  most  convenient  for  comparison  with  that  of 
the  Ratiice  and  the  Tinamous  (the  Dromasognathnus  variety) 
below,  and  the  Desmognathous,  and  other  kinds  seen  in 
Birds,  above  the  Gallinacem  in  the  zoological  scale. 

The  Cranium  of  the  Fowl — First  Stage. — The  chondro- 
cranium  may  be  seen  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifth  day  of  incubation,  although  the  cartilage 
has  aa  yet  but  little  consistence,  its  cells  being  imperfectly 
soldered  together.     The  head  of  the  skull  at  this  stage  still 


*  The  whole  development  of  the  Chick  is  explained  in  a  masterly  and 
lucid  manner  by  Messrs  Foster  and  Balfour  in  their  excellent  work. 
The  £U)n^nii  of  Embryoloriy,  London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.  Part  I., 
1874.  The  description  of  the  fowl's  skull  here  given  is  principally 
from  Mr  Parker's  papcr^AtZ.  Trans.,  1 8C8,  plates  81-87,  pp.  7.15-807. 
Ff.r  a  detailed  description  of  the  anatomy  of  birds,  sec  Dr  H.  O. 
PrTlm's  Kltusen  und  Ordnun/im  lies  Thirrrrichs,  1809,  Ots  Band, 
IV.  Xbthrilurg,  "  Viigel." 


Sliall  of  CMck  after  four  days  of  incnba- 
tlon,  with  head  three  lines  looR.  first  stage,  from 
above.  X  9  diameteTfl.  Most  of  the  brain  has  been 
removed.  c.v.K  first  cerebral  vesicle:  ;^^fj..  pitui- 
tary apace :  fr..  trabeculse  cranU  ;  ly..  lingula  formed 
by  junction  of  trabecuias  with  the  paracboidal 
cartilages  on  each  iide  of  nctochord  {nx):  e.,  eye; 
c/.,  cochlea;  5.,  quadi  ate  cartilage;  A  j.c  hnrizont«l 
flemlcircular  canal;  6,  foramen  ovale ;  9,  hj-pogloa- 
Ml  nerve. 


shows  the  "  viscbral  clefts;"  and  it  is  bent  upon  itself  by  what 

is  called  the  mesocephalic  flexure,  ^\'hen  the  membranous 
roof  of  the  skull  and  the  brain  are  removed  at  this  stage, 
the  whole  floor  is  not  seen  from  above,  the  fore-part  being 
bent  under  and  looking  backwards. 

In  the  hinder 
half  of  the  skull- 
floor,  behind  the 
eyeballs,  we  see  a 
broad  plate  of  tis- 
sue (fig.  1,  comp. 
fig.  4,  i.v.)  which 
is  -passing  rapidly 
from  the  condition 
of  stellate  cells 
into  proper  hyaline 
cartilage. 

This  plate  is 
divided  at  the  mid- 
line by  a  straight, 
somewhat  beaded 
rod  of  soft  indif- 
ferent tissue,  which 
does  not  chondrify; 
it  is  rounded  at  its  f,o  1 
fore  -  end.  This 
truly  azygous  part 
is  the  notochord 
(tj.c),  or  primary 
axis  of  the  skeletal 
parts  of  the  em- 
bryo ;  it  lies  directly  beneath  the  neur.i!  axis,  and  is  one 
of  the  parts  earliest  visible  to  the  enibryologist.  The 
broad  plate  on  each  side  is  seen  to  be  hollow,  and  to 
contain  a  pear-shaped  diverticulum  of  the  primordial  ear- 
sac  {cl.),  which  is  planted,  as  it  were,  in  the  very  sub- 
stance of  the  basal  plate,  at  its  middle.  The  outer 
granular  covering  of  the  ear-sac  becomes  cartilage,  and  so 
does  the  basal  plate — the  "  investing  mass  "  of  Rathke, 
the  "  parachordal  cartOage  "  of  Huxley.^ 

But  the  process  by  which  these  two  separate  morpho- 
logical territories  become  converted  into  solid  cheese-like 
cartilage  is  carried  on  blindly,  as  it  were,  and  no  distinc- 
tion of  parts  is  at  present  traceable ;  evident  differentiation 
of  morphological  territories  is  often  late  in  the  higher 
tj-pes  jof  vertebrata.  The  tissue  which  surrounds  the 
spinal  chord  where  this  part  passes  into  the  brain  is  still 
soft ;  it  will  chondrify  soon  to  form  the  occipital  arch. 
The  bulbous  end  of  the  notochord  ends  a  little  behind  an 
oval  membranous  space  or  fontanelle  in  the  skuU-floor — the 
pituitary  space  (pt.s.).  Near  the  end  of  the  notochord, 
on  each  side,  the  cartilage  suddenly  narrows,  for  here  we 
are  in  front  of  the  impacted  ear-sacs;  at  this  part  a 
bending  of  the  narrow  anterior  end  of  the  parachordal 
rounded  notch  (5)  is  formed,  over  which  the  trigeminal 
nerve  p;iS3es.  The  anterior  margin  of  the  notch  (after- 
wards formed  into  the  foramen  ovale)  is  formed  by  the 
cartilage;  its  actual  extremity  looks  forward  and  outward, 
towards  the  eyeball.  At  present  the  bands  which  are 
continued  forward,  surrounding  the  pituitary  space,  are 
superimposed  upon,  and  indistinct  from,  the  ends  of  the 
parachordal  cartilages;  in  the  next  stage  they  will  be  seen 
more  distinctly.  These  flat  bands  of  dense  granular  tissue 
are  the  trabecules  cranii  of  Rathke  (Ir.),  and  they  were 
supposed  by  him  to  be  mere  continuations  of  the  para- 
chordal bands,  an  error  corrected  some  years  ago  by  Pro- 
fessor Huxley.  These  little  rafters  of  the  cranium  bend 
gently  round  the  oval  pituitary  space ;    they  then   com- 

•  See  Huxley  on  "  MentilTfinchus."  Proceedings  of  Zoological  S/^ciety, 
Mi'cl)  17.1374.  D  la?. 


SKULL.J 


B  I  E  D  S 


701 


pleteiy  unite  into  a  broad  inter  nnsal  plate,  wliicb  is  bent 
over  upoa  itself  so  as  to  appear  on  the  under  surface  of 
the  face. 
Tha  inter-nasal  plate  is  arched  and  winged — the  rudi- 


/>» 


cA.    cin 


?ic.  ?.— The  same  as  flg.  1,  seen  'rom  below,  fjt..  fronto-nasal  piale;  n..  ex- 
ternal nostril;  m.,  mouth;  irir.p.  DinxUIo-pulatlne.  rotitiilDlng  pterygo- 
palatine bar  (p7.  ;'j  );  m*..  Meckel's  roti.  or  free  mandibular  bar;  c/l..  ecrato- 
hyal;  bJi^  basi.hynl;  £  f-r.  cerato-branchial :  t.br^  epi-bi-ancbial ;  b.br^  bas\- 
braucbial ;   1,  2,  3i  iat,  2d,  and  3d  visceral  clefts. 

mentary  condition  of  the  nasal  sacs,  the  apertures  of  which 
are  seen  beneath  the  arched  part  below  (fig.  2,  n.) 

The  trabecuko,  antero-iuferiorly,  become  free  again ; 
these  free  extremities  are  the  ventral  ends  of  this  the  first 
visceral  arch ;  they  form  the  pith  of  the  flat,  emarginate 
rudimentary  neb.  This  part  is" called  the  "fronto-nasal 
process"  (fig.  2, /.n.) 

On  the  sides  of  the  face  behind  the  mouth  are  seen  slits 
(fig.  2,  1,  2,  3)  ;  these  arc  the  "visceral  clefts,"  which 
are  always  developed  in  embryonic  vcrtebrata.  Between 
these  clefts  the  tissue  of  the  "  me-soblast "  is  thickening 
into  cartilaginous  rods ;  these  rods  are  the  post-oral  vis- 
ceral arches,  the  rudiments  of  the  lower  jaw  and  hyoid 
bone.  But  beneath  the  eye  is  seen  an  arcuate  bar  of 
tissue  more  solid  than  its  surroundings ;  this  is  the  pterygo- 
palatine rod.  It  13  developed  in  the  maxillo-palatine  pro- 
cess of  the  mandibular  or  first  post-oral  arch  ;  it  represents 
the  bar  of  cartilage  which,  in  the  Frog,  connects  the  man- 
dibular suspensorium  witli  the  ethmoidal  region.* 

The  firsl  viscen»l  arch,  then,  runs  along  in  front  of  the 
parachordal  cartilages  ;  the  tmbeculae  cranii  arc  its  right 
and  left  jHoifdM.  "TIio  hcwI  arch  can  only  be  under- 
stood by  reforonco  to  tho  development  of  the  lower  types 
of  Vertebmta;  for  in  tho  Shark,  Skate,  Newt,  and  Frog  the 
pterygo-palatino  portion  is  not  a  distinct  cartilage,  but  runs 
forward  as  a  proc-ss  of  the  suspensory  part  of  the  lower 
jaw.  But  this  early  division  of  a  visceral  arch  into  an 
antero-suporior  and  a  postero-inferior  bar  is  very  constant 
in  the  next  or  second  visceral  arch  from  the  Skate  up  to 
Man.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  the  cartilaginoxu  stage 
is  tho  second ;  in  the  first  stage  the  skeletal  parts  are 
membranous.  They  are  formed  of  soft  stellate  cells  in  tho 
mesoblast.2 

At  present  the  subocular  pterygopalatine  bar  is.  very 
little  denser  than  tho  tissue  in  which  it  is  imbedded,  but 
the  mandible  itself  is  fast  passing  into  cartilage.  Already 
IV  i:  in  two  pieces,  a  suspensory  piece  (figs.  1  and  2,  q.), 
and  i  free  rod  (mk.);  the  upper  piece  becomes  the  quad- 
rate, and  the  lower,  longer  part  the  articulo-Mcckelian  bar. 
The  processes  of  the  tuberous  upper  piece  are  indi.stinct, 
fcut  it  is  sinuous  below  where  it  articulates  with  the  thick 


'  SCO   nrticle  AaroiBi*,  vol.  i.    p.  755,  fig.  9,  bclwceii  pd.  and 
/-I 

CO  Fo'lcr  »n4  Cn'J'niir's  v,ork,  p.  223. 


,•  0 


.end  of  the  free  bar.  The.ie  bars  iiearly,  but  not  quite, 
meet  in  the  rudimentary  chin,  the  ventral  end  of  the  lower 
jaw.  Properly  speaking,  the  hyoid  arch  is  composed  of 
two  visceral  arches  ;  but  the  term  is  now  applied  strictly  to 
the  first  of  these,  namely,  tho  second  visceral,  or  the  arch  of 
the  tongue.  At  present  this  arch  has,  with  the  one  in 
front  of  it,  its  cmtero-superior  piece  quite  soft ;  it,  too,  is 
late  in  itg  development.  The  two  lower  pieces  (fig.  2,  c.h.) 
form  the  skeleton  of  the  tongue.  They  are  the  cerato- 
hyal3,-and  between  these  is  a  small  basi-hyal  (b.h.)  answer- 
ing to  the  first  basi-branchial  of  a  fish.  The  third  post-oral 
arch  is  very  similar,  but  it  ia  larger,  and  its  upper  piece  is 
already  fast  chondrifying.  That  corresponds  to  the  first 
epi-branchial  of  a  Fish,  the  lower  piece  to  the  first  cerato- 
branchial,  and  the  median  wedge  to  the  second  basi- 
branchiaL-' 

Cranium  of  Fowl — Second  Sla/je. — In  from  twenty-four 
to  thirty  hours,  or  about  the  bejinaing  of  the  sixth  day 
of  incubation,  the  chondro-craniura  of  the  chick  has  under- 
gone sundry  and  notable  changes.    A  sectional  view  (fig.  3i 


act 


Fio.  3.~Read  of  Chidt^  second  stage,  after  five  days  of  Incubation;  length  of 
head.  4  lines ;  X  6  diameters;  a  vcrlicol  section,  c.p.l.  c.r.2.  c  r.3.  Ist.  3d,  and 
3d  cerebral  vesicles;  1,  2.  Jocalitics  of  first  and  second  nerves  (olfactory  and 
optic);  prt..  prenasal  cartilage;  tth^  ethmoid;  a.cf., anterior  clinoid  wall;  prcL, 
postei-lor  cllnold  wall;  n.c„  notocliord;  oc,  occipital  condyle  (from  tills  point 
to  p.ct.  the  CArtitagc  Is  parachordal);  t.o.  exoccipital;  i.e..  internal  carotid 
artery;  pa,  palatine;  p^..  pterygoid  region;  mk..  Meckel's  cartilage;  cA. 
ceroto-hyal;  6A,  bosi-hyal;  p.s..  prcsphenoidal  region. 

shows  that  the  hinder  and  front  cartilages,  parachordal 
and  trabecular,  are  applied  to  each  other  unconformably, 
the  parachordal  tracts  rising  high  between  the  second  and 
third  cerebral  vesicles,  and  forming  tho  posterior  pituitary 
wall,  a  shelving  structure  in  which  the  axial  skeleton  ends. 

A  bird's-eye  view  of  the  hinder  skull-floor  at  this  stage 
(fig.  4)  shows  that  the  dorsal  or  hinder  ends  of  the  trabc- 
cuke  have  opened  out,  like  a  pair  of  callipers,  and  that  the 
out-turned  ends  of  the  parachordal  cartilages  are  fused  with 
the  inner  margin  of  these  apices.  The  bud-shaped  process, 
v/hich  has  almost  freed  itself  from  the  rest,  opposite  tho 
bulbous  end  of  the  notochord,  is  the  true  apex  of  the  first 
visceral  bar,  or  trabecula;  in  the  next  stage  it  is  far  more 
distinct  and  instructive.  Turning  again  to  the  vertical 
section  (fig.  3),  we  see  that  the  commissure  of  the  trabe- 
culje,  or  inter-nasal  plate,''  has  now  become  a  high  wall  of 
cartilage,  separating  not  only  the  nasal  sacs,  but  also  tho 
eyeballs. 

That  part  of  the  septum  which  now  looks,  not  only 
downwards,  but  is  also  turned  somewhat  backward  (fig  3, 
eth.),  will  ultimately  lie  in  the  upper  part  of  the  nasal  and 
frontal  regions.     A  new  thing  has  appeared,  namely,  an 

•See  Porker  "On  tho  S.ilmon's  bitull,"  Phil.  Tram,  1873,  jlals 
6,  fip.  3.  Sec  ftlso  plato  2  of  Ihe  s.-irue  nniier  for  the  8ub<liviston, 
in  n  TeloostcaTi  Fish,  of  the  hyoid  arch. 

*  This  corrcspondfl  to  tho  fintlened,  narrow  mosethmmd  of  Mclo* 
branchus.    See  Amphibia.  7ol.  i.  pp.  750  757   flgs.  II,  12. 


702 


BIRDS 


AXATOMV. 


ezygous  cartilaginous  bud  at  the  mid-line  of  the  fronto- 
uasal  process  ;  it  is  about  to  become  the  axis  of  the  beak, 
and  will  turn  forwards 
and  upwards.  This  is 
the  prenasal  or  basi- 
trabecular  cartilage,  a 
notable  morphological 
element  up  here, 
amongst  the  Birds,' 
and  down  amongst  the 
lower  or  cartilaginous 
types  of  Fishes.  At 
the  present  it  corre- 
sponds exactly  to  the 
state  of  the  Green 
Turtle's  skidl  (chondro- 
cranium)  at  the  time 
of  hatching,  and  in 
tliat  type  it  stops  at 
this  stage,  not  raising 
itself  into  3  forth- 
standing  rostrum. 

The  mouth,  which  in 
the  first  stage  was  a 
large  four-sided  cleft, 
with  produced  comers, 
and  clean  beneath  the 
head,  as  in  a  Skate,  is 
now  a  space,  the  axis 
of  which  points  more  forward  than  downward,  a  good  step 
towards  its  eventual  direction.  The  further  development 
of  the  facial  arches  will  be  best  studied  in  older  specimens 
at  the  end  of  this,  the  second  stage ;  but  at  its  commence- 
ment there  is  wanted  the  condition  of  the  ardero-superior 
segment  of  the  hyoid,  or  second  post -oral  arch.  This  has 
not  been  worked  out  in  the  Fowl's  chick,  but  in  an  embryo 
of  the  House  Martin  {Chetidon  urbita),  corresponding  to 
the  stage  given  in  our  third  figure  as  to  development. 

In  this  instance  the  quadrate  and  articular  Meckelian 
cartilages  have  acquired  very  nearly  their  proper  form 
(fig.  5,  2-,  ar.,  mk.),  the  suspensorial  part  having  a  free  for- 


Fro,  4.  5kul]  of  Chid  whnse  head  was  fivB  llne^ 
long,  more  than  half  of  bird'3*€ye  view,  x  12 
diameters.  Lettering  as  above,  with  addition 
of  i.e.,  investing  mass,  or  pai-achordal  cartil- 
age: ic^  internal  carotid  artery;  8.  forainen 
for  vagus  nerve.  Here  the  lingiila  (/p.)  showa 
the  apex  of  the  trabecQjffi  exlemally. 


fin.  6  — F'iciftl  arches  of  Hon*c  Martin  ICfifUdcn  wl>tea\  middle  of  Inctjb.^tlon, 
X  70  diameters,  tj^  quudrutc.  with  orbital  process  or  "podicle"  In  froht, 
'•otic  process"  bohlnd.  snd  articular  facet  beiow;  ar,  articular  part'  of 
mandible;  mjt..  Meckel's  cartilage  (cut  through);  m.i(,  medlo-siapedlal  (the 
line  from  the  letters  only  reaches  Ao/^iray  tothls bar);  f,it,  siipra-stapcdlal ; 
tit.  estrs-slapedial;  tit.  Infra-stapedlal  (soft);  ,/Ji,  stylo-hyal;  l.co^  lym- 
l*snlc  wing  of  exoc^ipltal ;  .'p..  longuo;  cAji,  ccrato-byol;  My.,  basl-hyal; 
itr^  basi-braochlal;  to-.  1.  1b(  branciiial  or  Ihyro-byaL 

n'aid   and   inward   looking   process,   the   "pedicle,"   and 
a  hnckward   ttirued   nroces.s,  the   '.'otic   process,"  articu- 


lating with  the  auditory  sac  (this  is  drawn  as  cut  away 
in  part,  and  only  that  which  is  conjoined  to  the  occi- 
pital cartilage  (l.e.o.)  is  given).  Just  below  and  behind 
the  otic  process  of  the  quadrate,  exactly  where  in  riper 
embryos  we  find  the  fenestra  ovalis,  having  fitted  into  it 
the  elegant  oval  base  of  the  "  columella  auris,"  there  is 
in  this  instance  a  curious  trowel  of  cartilage,  continuous 
by  the  upturned  end  of  its  handle  with  the  very  substance 
of  the  ear-capsule.  The  solid  sickle-shaped  cartilage  be- 
hind this  is  the  "  tympanic  ■wing  "  of  the  exoccipital  (i.e.o.) 
Here  we  have  the  wanting  upper  and  anterior  segment  of 
the  hyoid  arch,  corresponding  to  the  separately  developed 
pterygo-palatine  bar,  its  "  serial  hOmologue."  The  blade 
or  free  end  of  the  trowel  is  concave  on  the  under  side,  and 
is  thick  above  and  at  its  margin  on  the  outside  j  it  is 
pointed  above  and  below.  A  ligament  connects  the  upper 
point  with  the  ear-capsule  behind  the  quadrate,  and  an- 
other tract  of  soft  indifferent  tissue  reaches  downwards  to  a 
small  bar  of  cartilage,  which  looks  backwards  and  a  little 
downwards.  This  little  cartilage  {st.k.)  is  only  connected 
with  the  distal  piece  {chy.)  by  fibrous  tissue  ;  it  is  the  sty lo- 
hyal,  and  corresponds  to  what  is  permanent  in  the  Crocodile. 
The  bar  itself  is  the  "  medio-stapedial "  (m.st.);  it  will  soon 
segment  itself  off  from  the  ear-capsule,  bringing  away  with 
it  an  oval  piece  of  the  periotic  wall ;  that  oval  part  is  the 
true  stapes.  The  broad  part  of  the  "  blade  "  is  the  extra- 
stapedial,  and  on  it  will  be  stretched  the  membrani  tym- 
pani.  It  precisely  corresponds  now  -with  that  of  that  old 
Lacertian  Hatteria  or-  Sphenodon} 

The  "  stylo-hyal "  wiU  stDon  be  conjoined  to  the  extra- 
stapedial  plate,  and  the  (afterwards)  chondrified  band  ■n'ill 
be  the  "  infra-stapedial."^ 

In  a  few  hours  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the 
chick's  skull  are  very  noticeable  and  important ;  these  are 
recorded  as  the  end  of  the  second  stage. 

A  side  view  of  the  chondro-cranium  'fig.  6),  the  mem- 


Fw  6 —.Skull  of  Oiick,  second  stage,  heads  lines  long,  X  R  diameters.  Outer 
view,  with  brain  and  roof  removed  to  show  chondro-eranlum.  Letters  as  In 
figs.  1-4.  with  the  addition  of  a/jt.,  aJinasal  cai-tilage;  at.i.,  aliicptal ;  a/.c, 
ahethraoldal;  pp.,  pars  plana;  a.s.,  aliephenold;  p/,  post-frotitAl  (sphenoltc 
region);  so.,  super-occipital;  tl^  stapes;  /r.,  foromeo  rotandiim;  ^.t.c,  poB- 
teiior  semicircular  canal. 

brano-cranium  above  the  brain  being  removed,  shows  how 
fast  the  life-processes  are  moulding  the  embryonic  head 
into  the  fashion  seen  in  the  adult ;  no  traco  of  bone  has 
a'ppeared,  save  in  the  sides  of  the  mandible.  The  roof  of 
the  skull  never  chondrifies,  but  is  covered  in  by  secondary 
bones.  Like  the  skull  of  an  adult  Shark  or  Skate,  the  whole 
chondro-cranium  is  one  continuous  structure — all  save  the 
post-oral  arches.  The  auditory  mass  is  now  enrironed  by 
cartilage  stretching  over  the  back  of  the  head — the  occipi- 
tal, and  by  wing-like  growths  that  wall-in  the  bulk  of  the 
brain  behind  the  eyes — the  alisphcnoid  (a.s.)     The  high 

*  Se«  Huxley  "  On  the  Tleprescntatives  of  the  Malleus  and  Incus  of 
tlio  Mamm.ilia  in  the  othor  Vertebrata,"  Proc,  Zool.  jScc.,  May  27, 
13«9,  pp.  3yi-397,  figs.  1-4. 

*  For  a  comparison  of  these  parts  with  tlic  ossicula  nwiitits  of  fho 
.Marnntal,  see  also  Parker  "  On  the  Structtiro  and  DcTdopniont  of  Ibo 
SkviU  in  the  Pig,"  Phil.  Trwu.   1874  {>.  331. 


ffKDLL.J 


13  T  K  D  S 


703 


nrbito-nasal  wall  is  one  cootinuoua  pbte  of  cartilage,  eeem- 
ingly  only  a  crest  upgrowing  from  the  coalesced  tract  of 
the  traboculse.  The  arched  wings  of  this  part,  which  we 
saw  in  the  first  stage,  can  be  seen  to  be  marked  off  into 
three  regions — an  aliethmoid  {cd.e.),  an  aliseptal  (al.t.),  and 
an  alinasal  {al.n.);  in  the  latter  is  the  external  nostril,  and 
dividing  the  eye  from  the  noso  is  a  flat  partition,  the  part 
plana  (p.p.)  Between  the  nasal  openings  and  their  cur- 
tains and  valves,  the  prenasal  cartilage  {p.n),  still  arcuate, 
is  yet  rising  in  front ;  whilst,  behind  and  above,  the  great 
middle  wall  (eth.)  terminates  by  a  bud  of  cartilage,  which 
marks  the  fore  end  of  the  cranial  cavity,  and  the  groove  on 
each  side  below  this  is  for  the  nerve  of  smell  (1).  The 
oval  pituitary  space  has  become  a  neat  round  opening, 
through  which  the  internal  carotid  arteries  enter;  it  never 
chondrifies  below,  and  has  to  -be  floored  afterwards  by 
secondary  bone.  The  upper  hyoid  element  {st.)  has  now 
freed  itself  from  the  periotic-carlilage,bringi:ig  away  so 
much  as  serves  for  the  dilated  dorsal  end,  and  thus  leaving 
an  open  window  {fenestra  ovalis),  to  which  this  forms  the 
accurately  fitted  shutter.  In  front  of  this  small  cartilage, 
ttie  quadrate  (7.)  shows  almost  its  adult  form,  and  the 
double  lower  condyle  fits  into  a  sinuous  concavity  on  the 
end  of  Meckel's  cartilage  {mk.)  This  free  bar — the 
mandible — sends  backwards  a  posterior,  and  inwards  an 
internal  angular  process.  The  later  and  feebler  pterygo 
palatine  sickles  are  now  formed  internally  of  small  thin- 
walled  spheroidal,  and  externally  of  fusiform,  cells  of  a 
larger  size.  They  ossify  before  chondrification  can  take 
place. 

Interposed  between  the  skin  of  the  palate  and  fauces 
)ielow.  and  the  basis  cranii  above,  is  a  thick  mat  of  granu- 
lar tissue,  which  does  not,  however,  chondrify,  but  ossifies 
as  the  parasphenoid  and  basi-temporal  bones. 

Cranium  of  Fowl — Thirds  Stage. — After  about  three  or 
four  days,  that  is,  about  the 
middle  of  the  second  week  of 
incubation,  the  chondrocra- 
nium  has  not  only  undergone 
great  changes  in  size  and 
form,  it  is  also  now  beginning 
to  become  an  osteo-cranium. 
All  that  is  cartilaginous  "has 
acquired  a  neat  finish  (figs.  7, 
8);  the  occipital  condyle  (o.c.) 
is  perfect;  the  super-occipital 
arch  is  complete ^fig.  8,  so.); 
and  bone  is  forming  in  three 
placoS  in  theocciput  (n.c  ,  e.o.), 
and  the  boue  {pa. a.)  which  un- 
derlies the  orbital  septum  has 
grafted  itself  upon  the  carti- 
lage of  the  basi-sphenoidal 
region.'  That  bone,  the  para- 
sphenoid ( r.b.a  ),  and  the  other 
investing  bones,  are  now  grow- 
ing in  the  tissue  between  the 
skin  and  the  cranio  facial  ele-  ^^ 
ments  ;  those  that  can  be  seen 
below  are  shown  in  figure  8, 
the    remainder    can     be     de- 


scribed in  riper  stages.     The  '"'•  7.— Sknii  of  nirk.  thiM  «iatm, 

part  of  baja)  rcKioD,  from  abovf;. 
X  13  dlAiocrcn.  a.f.  root  of  all- 
splH-nolil;  b.t.,  baal-Bphenold.  Tlio 
notochord  (n.e.)  Is  tccn  to  lie  In  an 
op«n  apaco  In  front — the  poKtcHor 
basl-cranlal  fontanellft—and  to  bo 
bonr  behind ;  tho  bony  matter  la  tbo 
rudiment  of  the  boal-occlpltal. 


downward  bend  (not  shown 
in  the  figure)  of  the  prenasal 
rostrum  (p. 71.)  is  but  gentle; 
this  long  spatulate  continua- 
tion of  the  base  of  the  orbito- 
nasal septum,  the  "  ba.si-trabecular  bar,"  or  foremost  key-' 
Btorie  piece  of  the  body,  is  now  at  its  fullest  height  of 
Krowth,  and   ready  to   decline.-     It  is  now  the  accurate 


counterpart  of  the  axis  of  the  cutwater  ol  aucti  Fishes  as  tue 
Skate,  Saw-fish,  and  Shark.     Those  who  look  for  the  luider- 


tnxp  — 


Fio.  8.— Skull  of  CftiVi.  third  »Taee.  onder  Tiew.  X  Iff  diameters.  Aroond  lb« 
larse "prenasal  rarttlage  jj.t,.,  which,  behind,  ront  Into  the  6eptQni  nasi,  aic  aees 
the  preiraxillailea  (^x.)  These  are  the  comiiienccmcnt  of  a  chain  of  apllola 
running  to  the  qandrate  (^,).  vir..  mr.,  maxillary  :  mx p..  Ita  timer  procehs;  ^, 
JOKBl;  qj..  quadrato-jugal.  Within  these  are — pa.  palatine ;  p^.,  plorygold  ;  r.bt. 
rostiliio  of  busl-sphenoid  (parasphenoid):  ttd&  is  sprcadioe  Into  the  baal- 
aphennldal  region,  flanked  by  the  llngtilic.  and  above  and  behind  are  the  bII- 
ephenolda  (oj)  In  the  broad  part  are  tho  following,  tflz..  h  t,  bast-temporals; 
ly.  tympanic  cavity  ;/m..  foramci>n]agnuin;  b.t.o^  the  booy  cxocclpltals:  i  o, , 
supur-occlpltai.    Other  letters  as  above. 

lying  unity  of  the  various  types  may  here  see  How  fit  this 
unpaired  rod  is  Xo  have  modeliud  on  it  all  kinds  of  beaks 
of  Birds.  On  this  bar  a  tri-radiato  patch  of  bone  is  formed 
right  and  left,  learing  it  as  yet  uncovered  below,.above,  and 
at  the  fore-end.  JbcsQ  are  tho  young  premajfTlari'es,  and 
nro  bones  that  in  most  Birds,  as  in  OsscoUs  Fishes,  over- 
shadow an4  starve  the  upper  jaw-bones,  or  maxillaries 
proper,  so  large,  relatively,  in  most  other  types.  Already 
they  have  each  a  palatine,  a  nasal,  and  a  dentary  process. 
The  machinery  of  the  first  post-oral  is  shown  (fig.  8),  all 
save  the  free  mandible,  which  will  be  described  in  a  more 
advanced  stage.  The  quadrate  (7.)  is  ossifying;  the  ptery- 
goid and  palatines  (pg.,  pa.)  are  ossified;  they  are  very 
simple  bars.  Between  the  premaxillary  and  the  qundrate 
are  bones  that  have  been  formed  in  the  outer  part  of  the 
"  maxiUo-palatine  process  "  of  the  embrj'o ;  they  ure  the 
feeble  maxillary,  with  its  ingrowing  maxillo-palatinc  plate, 
and  the  irtiU  feebler  jugal  and  quadrato-jugal  {mx.,  nur.p., 

J.,  gJ.) 

On  the  midline  a  grooved  style  of  bone,  the  rostrum  of 
the  pniasphnooid,  carries  the  rounded  lower  edge  of  the 


704 


BIRDS 


[anatomy. 


inter-orbital  septum,  and  has  grafted  itself  upou  the  cartilage 
of  the  pituitary  ring,  causing  it  also  to  ossify.  On  each 
side,  behind  these  new  bony  patches,  a  free  tongue  of 
cartilage  is  seen.  These  tongues  are  the  apices  of  the 
trabecular  bars.  They  are  better  seen  in  the  partial  view 
(fig.  7).  Underflooring  the  fore-half  of  the  main  skull  base, 
close  behind  the  pituitary  ossifications,  the  thick  mat  of 
sub-mucou3  tissue  is  fast  becoming  bony.  There  is  a  right 
and  left  squarish  patch,  very  large  and  elegant ;  in  the 
grooved  mid-line  a  few  osseous  points  are  also  seer., 
ready  to  grow  right  and  left  into  the  two  plates,  and  to 
make  them  one.  These  are  the  basi-temporals  (b.t.)  They 
soon  coalesce  with  the  ossifying  basi-sphenoid  above,  and 
they  represent  the  handle  of  the  dagger-shaped  para- 
sphenoid  of  the  Frog.'  The  super-occipital  region  {s.o.)  is 
still  soft,  and  the  exoccipitals  do  not  reach  to  the  condy- 
loid foramina  (9).  They  begin  at  the  hole  for  the  vagus, 
and  run  to  the  selvedge  at  the  foramen  magnum  (8,  /.to.) 
The  kidney-shaped  transverse  condyle  (o.c.)  has  ia  its 
substance  the  diminishing  notochord  (n.c),  which,  however, 
is  better  seen  in  the  partial  upper  view  (fig.  7,  n.c.)  This 
figure  shows  that  the  notochord  has  tried,  as  it  were,  to 
break  up  into  three  fusiform  segments.  The  hinder  of 
these  is  enclosed  in  an  ectosteal  sheath,  which  will  affect 
with  bony  growth  the  neighbouring  cartilage,  right  and 
left,  to  form  the  basi-occipital.  The  fore-part  is  narrower, 
and  lies  in  an  open  space,  the  counterpart  of  the  mem- 
branous floor  ("  posterior  basi-cranial  fontanelle  " — 
Rathke),  which  lies  behind  the  pituitary  space  in  the 
Snake's  embryo.  On  each  side  of  the  middle  notochordal 
spmdle  are  seen  the  elegant  mammillary  elevations  caused 
by  the  enclosed  cochlece  (d.)  The  internal  carotids  {i.e.) 
are  seen  creeping  through  the  pituitary  hole,  and  on  each 
side  the  ossification  has  been  set  up,  which  forms  the 
true  endo-skeletal  basi-sphenoid.  On  each  side  of  the 
posterior  pituitary  or  clinoid  wall,  the  cartilage  is  pinched 
in  to  let  the  great  trigeminal  nerves  pass  over ;  but 
two  parts  of  intensest  interest  are  seen  on  each  side  of 
these  shallow  notches.  These  are  the  apices  of  the  trabcculse 
{Ig.),  free-ended,  curved  tongues  of  cartilage,  with  dark  cells 
io  their  interior,  and  fixed  to  the  out-turned  anterior  ends 
of  the  parachordal  cartilages,  just  where  the  new  bony 
matter  is  seen.  The  meaning  of  these  parts  that  make  the 
pituitary  region  was  not  seen  at  the  time  by  the  author  of 
t'je  paper  we  are  quoting  (Parker  "  On  the  Fowl's  Skull"); 
further  research  was  needed,  and  his  figures  are  of  much 
greater  value  than  his  descriptions. 

Cranium  of  Fowl — Fourth  Stage. — At  the  beginning  of 
the  third  wrek  of  incubation  the  chondro-craniura  is  not 
only  perfect  as  to  form,  but  it  has  also  so  much  increased 
its  bony  territories  as  to  make  it  very  useful  for  comparison 
with  ehondrosteous  skuUs  of  the  lower  types.  When  every 
investing  bone  has  been  removed,  we  get  such  a  structure 
as  13  shown  (from  above)  in  fig.  9.  Here  the  cranial  basin 
has  a  short  and  fenestrate  floor,  and  doubly-winged  sides, 
which  are  gently  scooped  above,  and  form  a  pair  of  sym- 
metrical ledges  on  which  the  widest  part  of  the  brain  rests ; 
whilst  the  flcor  dips  much  lower  down,  where  the  medulla 
oblongata  and  the  pituitary  body  rest.  The  scooped 
fenestrate  aluphenoids  (a.s.)  look  inward,  but  fail  to  reach 
the  median  line  by  a  great  space,  which  space  is  filled  in 
by  no  orbital  wings,  such  as  we  should  see  in  a  Lizard, 
Turtle,  or  Mammal.  The  whole  orbital  region  ia,  in  the 
ekull,  a  steep  wall,  having  a  retral  crest  on  its  fors  part, 
this  crest  being  the  rudiment  of  the  large  sheet  of  cartilage 
{tegmen  cranii),  which  is  thrown  over  the  brain  in  the 
young  Salmon.*  This  wall  (p.J.),  this  crest,  and  the  elegant 
cartilaginous  awning  in  front  of  the  crest,  containing  valves 

>  S<!c  «rticle  AMTOinu,  vol.  i  p.  753,  fig.  5,  p.s. 
•  ouo  "  Solmoa's  Skull,"  cj>.  cil.,  pla'.e  4,  fig  2,  t-cr. 


and  folded  curtains  of  most  cunning  construction  (see  figs 
10  and  11) — all  these  have  grown  out  of  that  inter-naaaJ 


Fio.  9.— Sitall  ot  Ctiiek,  fourth  etagc.  hcnd  nearly  l\  inch  loog,.t)eRlDDln(C  o» 
third  week.  X  4  dliimetei-s.  The  atidiliona)  letters  are — a.t./,  aliapJlepoidal 
fenestra;  p.b/..  postenor  basi-cranial  fontanelle;  pro^  piootic  bone,  o  i-C, 
anterior  aemicircular  canal:  (.e  0.  tympanic  wing  of  exocc.pital ;  6.0 ,  baai- 
occipital;  6a,  forameD  rotundum;  5.  loranien  ovale. 

plate  formed  by  the  trabeculx  as  their  commissure  .(figs. 
1  and  2,  tr.) 

Morphologically  considered,  these  are  added  and  distinct 
elements,  but  their  differentia- 
tion from  the  trabeculse  can- 
not be  seen  well  until  now, 
an4  even  now  it  is  imperfect. 
The  leafy  coverings  of  cartilage 
ate  seen  to  dip  down  on  each 
side  of  the  prenasal  spatula  in 
front,  and  the  cartilage  at  this 
part  forms  a  coiled,  valvular 
nose-lid  —  the  "  alinasal  re- 
gion."    From  this,  in  its  in- 

side,  there  hangs  a  curtain,  all  •-.  ^\-^^^^^:^-<^>'^^ 
of  cartilage  (fig.  10,  n.tb.},  the  ... 

"alinasal  turbinaL"  It  cui-ves 
towards  the  septum,  and  then 
turns  upwards  below  to  become 
parallel  to  the  inturncd  nasal 
wall  (l.n.w.)  Behind  the  ali- 
nasal comes  the  aliseptal 
region  (al.s.) ;  and  when  cut  acrosij  at  the  notch  behind  it 
and  the  hinder  part  of  the  roof,  it  shows  a  doubly  coiled 
outgrowth,  the  "  inferior  turbinal''  (fig.  11,  i.tb.)  The 
hinder  region  or  "  aliethmoid  "  is  the  true  olfactory  region ; 
the  roof  suddenly  turns  inward,  and  is  coiled  upon  iwelf, 
so  as  to  form  the  bagi>ipe-shapcd  upper  turbinals,  whose 
■swollen  faces  look  inwards  to  the  uie.scthmoid.  Behind 
their  mlurned  part  they  send  down  a  cartilaginous  curtun, 
the  pars  plana,  or  antorbitet  plate,  the  forofAc-J  o* 


j>j>. 


through  the  external  nostiUti.  x  d 
diameters.  J.n.,  wptum  nasi;  a- o, 
alluHMLl;  n.tb.,  alinasal  tr.rbiuti'' , 
Iji.tc^  lateraJ  nasal  wall ;  n  px..  r."**) 
proceSBCB  of  premaxllIarlfB ;  dpi.. 
(leiitary  processes  of  the  Sfuiic ; 
p.px„  palaline  proccBScsof  thcsaine. 
^i,.  j)aIatUie;  rnx,  niaxillniy.  Od 
eai'h  bIUu  of  tlio  thiek  liKne  of  the 
seiiium  thu  uasfU  nci'vcs  are  acec. 


•iuvh 


BKUL'..] 


BIRDS 


705 


does  not  develop   any  oivious   "  middle  turbinal "  as  in 
Man. 

The  ditlcrentiation 
of  distinct  raoriiholo- 
gical  regions,  which  did 
not  become  obvious  ia 
the  memhtano  cranium, 
can  now  be  seen  to 
some  extent  in  the  well- 
developed  cartilage.  As 
in  the  Jiatitcc,  Iho 
orbitonasal  septum  was, 
in  the  second  stage,  a  p,^  „  _;(„„,j„,  j„,|„„  ,,;,„  „,„,rtie  cs.v*, 

continuous  sheet  of  car-       fu>tber  buck,  x  S  dinmelcis     1/6..  Infeiior 
.  ,  1  tuibloal;  a/.<.  nUs(;plAl;  n.  nnsal  bono. 

tilage.'  ... 

Looking  upon  the  trabeculae  a3  the  first  facial  archi 
correlated  to  and  supplied  by  the  orbi to  nasal  nerve,  we  see 
why  there  should  be  a 
segmentation  of  this 
uppermost  and  foremost 
part  of  the  face  into  a 
Buspensorium  and  a  free 
arch,  such  a3  ia  seen  ne.xt 
behind  in  the  mandible. 

This  segmentation  has 
commenced,  and,  oddly 
enough,  that  part  of  tlio 
trabecular  commissure 
which  will  bo  absorbed 
has  not  lost  its  original 
llap-shape  (sec  fig.  12,  tj* 
cf.c,  s.v.l.)  Tlie  hour- 
glass -  shaped  window 
liere  formed  by  mota- 
morphic  action  will  be- 
come a  notch  in  a  d.iy 
or  two,  and  the  fl;it 
region  of  the  trabecula; 
will  bo  absorbed.  Thus 
we  gut  the  Tinamine 
stage;-  for  in  that  inter- 
mediate form  between 
_the  Ratito  and  Carinale^ 
types — the  'I'inamou  — . 
the     mctanvjrphic    pro-  ■«-"'    '  " 

.>/>3<^oo     n-i,     .i.,,.„J     n  •  1     '"  "— Axl«l  nnrt  o(  lU  >»me  »kull.  X  4 

cesses    are  iiajea    mia-     dumctos.   Tr.cnew  icjtcn»ien  "..eroovo 

for  nasal  ncive;  e/.e,  c'lanlo-faclal  cleft; 
rv.l.,  aupe  -vmiiciine  lamina:  />,f..  pei"pcn- 
dicul.ir   elhmoul:  io./^   Inter-otbital   f«D- 

iheStruth.oGaUinaccous  "'"•  »■'- "'""oM'benoid.  . 
"marches."  Beueath  the  rctral  stJimoidal  spike  is  seen  the 
olfactory  groove  (1.);  whilst  in  front  of  the  craniofacial 
fenestra  (c.f.c),  the  orbito-nasal  nerve  («.«.)  grooves  the 
septum,  gets  bridged  over  by  it,  and  creeps  down  to  its  own 
proper  facial  bar — the  trabeculaj.  And  the  result  of  the 
metamorphosis  in  this  Carinate  bird  is  the  formation  of  a 
pear-shaped  fenestra  (i.o.f.)  between  the  eyeballs.  This 
window  was  not  cut  out  by  Nature  in  a  fit  of  economy  (as 
the  mere  leleologists  vainly  speak),  but  is  a  fairly  com- 
menced separation  of  the  common  crest  of  the  coalesced 
trabeculae  from  the  ethmoid  forwards  and  the  prosphenoid 
behind  (p.f.,  p.s.) 

The  notch  behind  the  cartilaginous  frame  of  this  window 
is  formed  by  membrane  into  the  optic  foramen.  A 
line  drawn  horizontally  along  the  base  of  the  fenestra,  and 
another  vertically  to  the  upper  margin  of  its  narrow  end, 
Vo'jld  mark  out  the  starved  preephenoid,  without  aloe,  of 
His  bird  ;  for  the  raesethmoid  aud  the  basi-sphonoid  {p.e., 

'  Sea  Parker  "On  Ostrich  Skull,"  Phil.  Tram.,  1868,  plat«  7, 
(Iff  ?,  pt .  and  plat*  8,  fig.  10,  p  r 

•  "un  OalillL  Skull."  I'bla  15,  Cg.  8,  t.n.,p,t ,  e/.o. 

3-2.5 


■way,  and  ihe  bird   is  a 
native,  so   to   speak,  of 


b.s.)  meet  below  the  fenestra.  Underneath  the  inter-orbital 
plate  the  parasphenoid  balk  (quite  distinct)  is  seen,  and 
underneath  the  basal  bones  the  basi-tcmporal  slab  (b.t.) 
Turning  again  to  the  bird's-eye  view  (fig.  9.),  we  see  that 
the  notochord  is  now  enclosed  in  a  spearhead-shaped  bone, 
the  basi-occipital  (b.o.)  It  is  ridged  above  by  the  enclosed 
notochord,  and,  behind,  the  swelling  halves  of  the  condj-le 
(o.c)  are  seen.  This  basal  bone  is  truncated  in  front, 
and  forms  the  hmder  margin  of  the'  wide  rounded  "pos- 
terior basicranial  fontanelle"  (p.b/.)  On  each  side  are 
the  exoccipitals  (e.o.),  and,  above,  the  perfected  occipital 
arch  has  a  pair  of  super-occipitals  (s.o.)  as  in  man.  The 
outer  occipital  region  is  grooved  to  receive  the  investing 
bones,  and  has  tympanic  wings  to  enlarge  and  protect  that 
cavity.  On  each  side  of  the  fore-part  of  the  basi-occipital 
is  seen  the  cochlea  (c/.) ;  and  in  the  ledge  above  the  main 
periotic  bone,  the  prootic  (pro.)  is  largely  spreading  (the 
two  lesser  ossicles  are  appearing,  but  will  be  better  shown 
in  the  next  stage).  The  foramen  ovale  (.">)  is  very  large ; 
it  is  bounded  behind  by  the  prootic,  and  in  front  by  the 
alisphcnoid  (a.s)  This  "great  wing"  has  a  large  central 
fenestra,  round  which  the  bone  has  crept.  In  somewhat 
younger  specimens  this  bony  matter  was  in  two  palckrs, 
one  above  and  another  below  the  fenestra.  The  same 
thing  may  be  seen  in  arboreal  birds,  as  the  ComnR.ii 
Sparrow. 

The  stem  of  the  alisphenoid  almost  meets  its  fellow- 
process  over  the  posterior  clinoid  wall  ip.cl.)  In  the 
stem  is  seen  a  "  foramen  rolundum."  Outside,  the  ali- 
sphenoid has  a  thick,  secondary,  post-frontal  (sphenotic)  wing 
(/)/.)  The  round  pituitary  space  is  walled  in  with  bone.  Its 
secondary  paraspheiioidal  floor  has  been  removed.  We 
reserve  a  description  of  the  fast-growing  roof  bones  for  the 
next  stage,  when  they  are  most  instructive  for  comparison 
with  those  of  Fishes  and  Reptiles. 

Cjaniumof  Foivt — Fifth  Stage. — In  a  day  or  two  after 


J'/' 


ttn.  lS.-^RIp«  CMcfi  heaa.  t|  Inch  innii;  to"tr  tIctt.  x  3  dlamtlfrt.  Til* 
diI'IiiIoiiaI  Icltcmaiev.  ▼omcr:  /.  ItLlii.vrrnt:  /..  from  ill ;  nj .  fu»lacblao  bpt> 
IvC;  piJ*.,  pofterlar  ptcxJ^oM  piu«CI»v»:  IJ-,  »Q^an'^>«l 

III.  —  So 


BIRDS 


[a.vato.mv. 


batching,  the  skull  of  th=  chicken  13  escellent  fur  com- 
parison, as  in  CaWle,  so  in  the  Fowl  and  Us  relations,  "  their 
young  ones  are  in  good  liking  "  as  soon  as  they  appear  , 
hence  they  are  strong  in  bone  and  sinew  very  early,  the 
growth-processes  taking  place  rapidly. 

The  under  view  (fig.  13)  shows,  behind  the  orbits,  a  strong 
cranial  box.  Synchondroses  of  the  remainder  of  the  chondro- 
cranium  divide  the  endo  skeletal  bone-tcrritories  ,  and  that 
organic  attraction  which  causes  the  perfect  correlation  of 
the  shallow _ with  the  deeper  layers  of  the  inesoblast,  has 
given  LIS  here  bony  encasements,  that  not  only  fill  in  what 
was  wanting  in  the  chondro-cranium,  but  also  overlie  and 
double  the  strength  of  the  ossified  cartilage  itself.  All 
(3  p-'it  and  finished  now,  and  now  is  the  nick  of  time  in 


txo  H  — Florliontal  eectton  of  skull. base  of  same  C^ifV*.  X  i  (llnmeTcrs.    a.ir^ 
tnleiior  tjTQpanlc   recess;  it.,   stapes;  7,  ponlo  mollis   passuKc  (niealua  in* 

ICtKUS). 

winch  can  bo  seen  most  of  the  sutures,  so  soon  to  be 
obliterated  by  the  almost  universal  ankylosis  that  takes  place 
afterwards — a  process  by  which  Nature,  in  the  Bird,  rapidly 
fills  in  nearly  all  her  footprints.  Here  she  is  as  hard  to 
bind  as  Proteus  himself ;  and  the  morphological  worker  is 
often  sore  bestead  to  catch  all  the  transformations.  If  the 
chick  were  to  retain  throughout  life  its  present  fonn  of 
face,  it  would  much  resemble  a  Hemipod.  We  have  seen 
how  Its  skull  becomes  metamorphosed  from  a  lower  into  a 
higher  and  a  still  higher  type  day  by  day. 

This  ba-sal  view  shows  that  the  bony  pieces  of  the 
occipital  arch  are  fast  forming  a  strong  ring,  after  the 
manner  of  a  vertebra.  The  keystone  piece  {so.)  is  nnw 
one  bone,  with  the  remains  of  the  suture  above.  The 
notochord  still  e.'sists  in  the  basal  piece  (6.0.),  and  is  seen 
in  the  condyle,  the  dimple  of  which  is  caused  by  it.  Tlie 
basi-temporal  plate  (6.(.)  is  now  a  low  triangle,  with  its 
base  behind;  the  base  is,  as  it  were,  gnawed,  the  jagged 
edge  joining  the  overlying  spheno-occipital  by  a  squamous 
suture.  This  thick  plate  is  emarginate  in  front,  below  the 
meeting  of  the  eustachian  tubes  (eu.),  and  this  notch  is 
the  mark  of  the  original  symmetry  of  this  double  bone. 
Grooved  gently  at  the  midline,  the  basitemporal  is 
mammillato  on  each  side,  these  elegant  swellings  being 
due  to  the  cochlea"  that  are  encysted  in  the  ossifying 
cartilage  above.  Behind,  it  is  eared,  and  over  thQ3e 
ears  the  internal  carotids  creep  as  they  seek  llie  pituitary 
space  ready  to  form  tho  "circle  of  Willis."  The  bone 
obove  and  in  front  of  the  basi-temporal  is  a  compound 
of  the  roalral  parasphenoid  and  the  proper  basi-spho- 
noid.  Altogether,  this  is  a  very  extensive  and  multi- 
form element.  Directly  in  front  of  the  basi-temporal 
it  is  scooped  at  the  meeting  of  the  eustachian  tubes — 
diverticula  of  the  first  visceral  cleft.  In  front  of  that  part 
tho  rostrum  ia  soon  a  free  structure,  grooved  for  the  intor- 
orbital  oeptum  ;  but  behind  and  above  the  basi  temporal 
the  bonv  mass  b  all  one,  and  it  has  an  upper  and  a  lower 
wing  on  each  side  behind  the  strong  wall  which  it  has 
built  around  the  pituiury  well  The  upper  of  these 
wind'  Me  ossiflcalions  of  that  carlil;igc  which  wc  saw  was 


formed    by   coalescence   ot    the   sub-apical    part    of    the 
trabecular  with  the  fore-end  of  the  parachordal  [iUtes. 

The  large  posterior  basi  cranial  fuiitjiielle  has  now  be- 
come the  deep  chink  which  exists  as  a  ditch  between  these 
post-pituitary  banks  (fig.  14,  pb/.)  On  the  upper  surfjca 
the  chink  reaches  the  basi-uccijiital  ,  in  the  hon/uutal 
section  (fig.  14)  it  is  cut  away  behind 

The  lower  and  outer  pair  of  wings  of  the  basi-spheiioid 
are  very  large  (figs.  13  and  14),  they  build,  on  each  sf^.e, 
the  anterior  tympanic  recess  (a.t.r.),  and  their  starting 
point  of  growth  is  from  the  tree  apices  of  the  trabecule, 
which  are  Ihus  /tat/iered  with  these  large  coiled  lamina;  ol 
periosteal  bone  that  enclose  another  diverticulum  of  tht 
first  visceral  cleft,  which  lies  over  the  eustachian  passage 

Close  in  front  of  the  eustachian  groove  the  soldered  part  ol 
the  rostrum  widens  into  a  pair  of  projections,  and,  upon  these, 
obhquely  placed  facets  of  cartilage  are  attached  for  articula- 
tion with  counterpart  cartilages  on  the  pterygoid  bones  (/y  J 

These  perfectly  distinct  cartilages  are  the  result  of  a 
peculiar  metamorphosis  of  tlie  outstanding  (basi-pterygoid) 
spurs  of  the  trabecules.  In  the  J!atUa\  as  in  Lizards  and 
Serpents  on  the  one  hand  and  Maiuiiials  on  the  other,  the^e 
external  pterygoid  plates  or  processes  are  a  direct  out- 
growth of  cartilage,  the  posterior  conjugational  spurs  that 
grow  out  for  union  with  the  pterygo-palatiiie  arcade.' 
Like  the  subdivision  of  the  ethmo-trabecular  wall,  this 
segmentation  of  originally  continuous  cartilage  is  of  the 
highest  morjihological  importance.  Several  other  things 
of  this  kind  will  be  found  in  this  cla.ss,  where  the  Vertebrate 
pattern  has  been  specialized  and  metamorphosed  to  its  highest 
degree,  as  if  to  produce  types  that  should  be  as  imagines  in 
relation  to  the  forms  beneath  them.  Tho  remainder  of  the 
rostrum  just  runs,  pointed,  to  the  edge  of  the  craniofacial 
cleft  (fig.  \<i,r.b.s.  lo-a.p.)  In  front  of  this  notch  the  septum 
nasi  is  seen,  narrow  and  rounded,  and  it  terminates  bcluw 
in  the  starring  prenasal  {s.n.,p.n.)  Around  and  in  front  of 
that  rod  the  now  single  premaxillary  clings;  it  has  its  under 
surface  grooved  to  tho  end,  where  that  rod  lay,  its  sides 
developed  into lhesharpdentaryiegion(fig.  13, (/./>.!;.), and  its 
under  part  growing  backwards  as  two  nearly  parallel  bands, 
the  palatine  processes  (ppx.),  that  articulate  with  the 
palatine  bones  (pa.)  These  latter  bones  run  backwards  in 
the  same  gently  diverging  manner,  and  then  curve  inw.irds 
to  be  tied  the  one  to  the  other,  before  they  bend  outward 
again,  foot  like,  to  articulate  with  the  pterygoids  (/ij.)  These 
palatines  are  very  simple  ;  they  give  ofl'  from  their  main  bars 
merely  a  scooped  lamina,  growing  towards  tho  s<<ull  base, 
becoming  the  ethmo-palatine  in  front;  and  this  part  articu- 
lates with  a  splint  of  the  trabecular  arch,  the  sn.all  styli- 
form  vomer  {v.),  which  is  notched  behind,  bluntly  pointed 
in  front,  and  primarily  azygous. 

The  pterygoids  (pg.)  are  stout  little  bony  mallets,  with 
a  pad,  as  if  of  leather — the  cartilaginous  articular  meniscus. 
Where  each  bone  gliilcs  on  the  similarly  padded  trabecular 
region  these  facets  look  upwards  and  inwards.  The  end 
of  the  palatine  is  articulated  by  strong  fibres  to  a  sinuous 
Hutch  on  the  fore-end  of  the  pterygoid.  This  notch  is 
bounded  by  the  basi-pterygoid  facet  below,  and  by  a 
stunted  "  meso-pterygoid  process  "  above,  which  rides  over 
tho  palatine.  It  is  arrested  in  the  Gallinacccr,  and  never 
becomes  segmented  olf  (see  below).  The  hinder  end  of 
tho  pterygoid  is  scooped  below  to  articulate  with  tho 
counterpart  knob  on  the  front  face  of  tho  quadrate.  A 
joint  cavity  is  formed  here.  Above  that  joint,  and  looking 
ujiwards  and  forwards,  is  a  very  stunted  "  cpi-ptorygoid  " 
process,  which  clings  to,  and  is  strongly  strapped  upon, 
the  quadrate  by  fibrous  tissue. 

'  3i>c  Phil  Tram.  1860  plat*  7.  fig  i,  a.p.  ;  uid  i6-'-  Jjri, 
lloir  a<,  fig  2,  rjij. 


I 


8K\JLL.l 


B  III  D  S 


707 


Tbe  large  quadrate  bone  (figs.   13  and  15,  q.)  has  Ha 
free  pedicle  or  orbital  proce&s  still  soft  above.    Its  otic 


these  are  the  frontals  (/■.),  which  form  the  upper  crescent  of 
the  large  circle  of  the  eye.   '  They  flattop  in  front,  where 


Fid  IA.— !v(ini^  skull,  side  Vimv,  x  3  tliatni-ieis.  Li'lteis  as  abuve.  with  the 
(bVllnoQ  of — p..  pailtinl,  li .  dt-titaiy.  ju.,  suriingiit.tr.  o-,  angulAr.  pap., 
ponterior  angular  procCM:  ■  a^.  lulvinal  angutai  piuccss;  a;-,  aiticulaie. 

process  has  a  larger  rounded  head  for  the  squamosal 
(sq),  and  a  lesser  rouuded  head  for  tbe  prootic  within.- 
in  front  of  tlie  otic  process  is  a  sort  of  trochanter  or  spur. 
Below,  the  articular  facet  is  somewhat  divided,  by  a  shal- 
low fossa,  into  an  outer  larger  and  an  inner  lesser  facet. 
The  otic  process  passes  through  the  front  of  the  tympanic 
cavity  (first  cleft),  and  becomes  involved  iu  the  mombraua 
thereto  attached,  namely,  the  membrana  tympani.  It  was 
mistaken  by  anatomists  of  the  last  generation  for  the  true 
tympanic  bone.  Behind  this  bone  (see  fig.  13)  there  are 
seen  two  holes,  the  inner  of  them  leads  to  the  auditory 
fenestrse  (ovalis  and  rotunda),  and  the  outer  is  the  opening 
into  a  gallery  which  communicates,  by  means  of  diploe, 
with  one  on  the  other  side.  These  are  the  "  upper  tym- 
panic recesses,"  and  have  their  counterparts  in  the  Croco- 
dile. Resides  the  pterygoid  and  palatine,  in  that  part 
of  the  mandibular  arch  which  is  folded  over  the  mouth, 
— for  the  iirst  post-oral  enfdUls  itself  to  make  all  the  lower 
and  much  of  the  upper  jaw, — there  are  in  the  outer  part 
of  the  ma.tillo-fialatine  process  three  bones  formed  on  each 
side,  as  we  have  seen. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  bony  icIUhyic  maxillary  (nur.), 
with  a  bony  foot,  that  grows  inwards  and  backwards  in  a 
f.ilcate  manner,  to  articulate  with  the  sides  of  the  fore-end 
of  the  vomer.  These  are  the  maxillo-palatiue  processes 
(nuc.  p.)  Behind  the  maxillary,  overlapping  its  jugal  pro- 
cess, is  the  styloid  jugal  (/)  ;  and  behind  this,  and  over- 
lapping it,  the  quadratojugal,  which  is  hooked  to  fit  in 
llio  side  of  the  base  of  the  quadrate  behind  (qj.,  q.) 
There  is  a  small  joint  cavity  at  this  place. 

The  side  view  (fig.  15)  illustrates  the  above  description; 
but  it  also  fhows  much  that  is  not  visible  below.  The 
section  (fig.  IG)  helps  us  still  further. 

The  roofing  bones  are  now  well  seen ;   the  largest  of 


ase.  '■''■ 

Fio.  16-— LongltMiflnally  TCitliul  sccllotxof  the  B.inie  skuil.  stiowlng  axial  parl^ 
cranial  cavity,  and  inner  view  of  mandilile.  X  3  dUmeteri.  i  o/,  iincr-orblt*! 
space,  or  "feiieslra;"  a  p..  anterior  pterygoid  piovcss.  or  "basi  pterygoid  ;  "* 
op.  opisitioiic;  a. I.e..  anterior  aeniiciiciiiar  cuDiil;  *c..  sinuj  canal;  tp., 
Bi'Icnial  bone.  Tlie  small  bony  centie  between  ttie  prootic  (pro.)  abd  tlis 
auper-occipltiU  Uo.)  it  tbe  epiotic. 

they  are  overlapped  by  the  nasals  and  nasal  processes  of 
the'premaxillaries  (ti.px.) — a  peculiarly  ornithic  character 
amougst  tho  higher  vertebrata.  The  orbital  rim  is  very 
neat  and  perfect ;  the  main  part  of  the  bone,  covering  tho 
hemisphere,  is  a  convex  radiating  scale.  Inside  the  orbit 
the  bone  sends  inwards  a  thin  scooped  orbital  process 
(/.),  on  whoso  convex  surface  the  sloping  brain  rests. 
This  fails  to  invest  the  fontanclle,  and  the  orbito-sphenoids, 
as  yet,  are  not.  Tho  somewhat  oblong  and  also  convex 
parietals  (p.)  stop  up  the  gap  as  fax  as  to  the  occipital 
arch  ;  tbcy  are  much  smaller  than  the  frontals.  Both  the 
parietals  and  frontals  are  flanked  and  in  some  degree  over- 
lapped by  tho  squamosals  (.57.),  which  are  more  irregular  in 
shape  than,  but  are  fully  as  large  as,  the  panctals.  Half 
the  inner  face  is  seen  within  (fig.  16,  sq.);  the  whole  upper 
ed'^e  behind  is  hidden  in  this  \-iew,  and  much  of  the  lower 
part,  which  forms  a  strong  cave  over  the  huge  ear  mass. 
The  lower  edge  has  a  cup  for  tba  quadrate  main  head. 
On  the  outside  (fig.  15)  there  is  to  he  noticed  a  variable 
cartilaginous  tract ;  it  takes  in  all  the  elegant  crescentic 
tympanic  wing  of  the  cxocci|utals  {t.e.o.),  and  also  runs  io 
front  of  and  between  the  ex-  and  super-occipitals  (e.o.,s.o.) 
Between  the  two  bones  is  the  posterior  opisthotic  region  ; 
in  front  of  the  exoccipital  is  the  epiotic  region.  From  the 
inside  tho  imbrication  of  the  cranial  and  auditory  bones 
is  seen  to  be  very  regular  and  remarkable.  Running  round 
and  across,  behind  and  below  the  posterior  margin  of  the 
frontal,  we  see  the  fenestrate  alisphcnoid  (a.s.)  undcrskirt- 
ing  tho  orbital  plate  of  the  frontal,  then  the  hollowed 
inner  face  of  tho  squamosal,  and  behind  and  above  that 
the  scooping  of  the  parietal.  Below  the  same,  and  also 
behind  it,  we  have — above,  two  bones,  the  prootic  in  front 


/ub 


BIRDS 


lA.N'ATOMY 


a*Ki  llic  super-occipital  behinJ.  but  tne  latter  takes  lu  all 
iho  breadth  behind,  whilst  belo'Wthe  prootic  are  two,  the 
upper  the  smaller ;  the  lesser  bone  is  the  opisthotic,  the 
luryer.  rounding  the  foramen  magnum  at  its  sides,  is  theex- 
occipital  (o/).,  e.').)  These  are  inlero-lateral  elements.  Be- 
low the  whole  are  the  basi-sphenoid  and  the  basi-occipital, 
both  of  them  underfloored  by  the  basi-temporal  {b.o.,b.t.) 
So  much  tilted  backwards  is  the  auditory  mass  that  the 
crown  of  the  anterior  canal  {a.s.c.)  is  imbedded  in  the  super- 
occipital.  In  a  Lizard,  Snake,  or  Turtle  that  part  would 
bo  first  enclosed  m  a  separate  epiotic  bone,  which  would 
be  soon  conQueut  with  the  super-occipital  But  in  these 
high  Sattropsida.  the  eiTiotic  is  a  small,  late  centre, 
formed  behind  the  commencement  of  the  anterior  canal  in 
tho  front  part  of  the  recess  in  which  the  "  flocculus  "  lies. 
Also  the  opisthotic  is  small,  but  is  distinct  for  three  or 
four  months ;  it  13  a  wedge  of  bone,  flat-faced  within, 
forming  a  straight  suture  with  the  hind  edge  of  the 
prootic,  and  externally  runs  as  a  tine  thread  of  bone 
between  the  two  fenestrae  of  the  labyrinth.  Wo  do  not 
see  this  bone  behind  until  afterwards,  and  it  soon  coalesces 
with  the  exoccipital,  first  with  it  and  afterwards  with  tho 
prootic,  as  in  Lizards  and  Snakes  '  After  tho  elements 
of  the  chondrifying  cranium  have  run  into  each  other,  the 
enclosed  ear  organs,  by  their  copious  growth,  and  also  by 
their  having  many  diverticula,  such  as  the  cochlea  and 
canals,  trespass  on  neighbouring  territories,  so  that  whilst 
the  cochle;e  burrow  into  the  parachordal  region,  the  semi- 
circular canals  find  room  in  the  occipital  arch 

In  the  Osseous  Fish  ("  Salmon's  Skull,"  P/nl  Trans, 
ISTJ^  plate  5,  fig  8,  sp  0.)  there  is  a  large  bone  called  the 
"  post-frontal "  by  Cuvier  ;  in  the  Bird  it  often  occurs,  and 
looks  like  a  secondary  wing  on  the  great  sphenoidal  wing 
(alisphenoid).  In  the  Fish  it  covers  the  ampulla  of  the 
anterior  canal  ;  in  the  Bird  it  is  in  front  of  it  and  of  the 
whole  labyrinth.  This  bone,  the  "  sphenotic,"  is  ossified 
at  the  time  of  hatching. 

The  anterior  sphenoidal  region  is  all  soft  as  yet  (figs.  15 
and  IC,  p.s.)\  and  the  great  mescthmoidal  wall  (p.e.)  covers 
iKily  a  third  of  its  own  proper  territory.  It  now  reaches  to 
the  notch;  nearly  to  the  roof  also,  but  not  to  the  para- 
sphenoid.  The  cartilage  it  is  ossifying  is  continued  as  an 
isthmus  connecting  the  parts  behind  and  in  front  of  the 
notch  (cranio-facial  hinge).  Through  this  notch  (fig.  16, 
n^b.)  we  see  the  swollen  upper  turbinal ;  and  the  nasal 
caual  and  bridge  for  the  fore-part  of  the  trabecular  nerve 
is  seen  near  the  hind  margin  of  the  steep  and  well-armed 
septum  nasi  (s.n.),  which  has  projecting  from  it  the  lesson- 
ing'rostrura  {p.n.)  Bridging  over  the  notch,  and  let  into 
the  fore-edge  of  tho  frontal,  are  the  never-coalesced  nasal 
processes  of  the  preinaxillarics.  Outside  these,  on  each 
side  (never  in  tho  middle  in  a  Bird),  are  tho  nasals  (fig. 
15,  n.)  They  are  curious  twisted  bones,  two-bladed  in 
front  to  bind  round  the  alinasal  cartilages  (al.n.  1  and  outer 
nostril  (e.n.);  behind,  they  twist  a  little  downwards  tho 
inner  edge  of  their  flat  end.  Tied  by  fibres  to  the  side  of 
the  narrowed  end  of  the  frontal,  and  to  that  part  of  tho 
nasal  which  is  imbedded  into  it,  is  tho  lachrymal  (fig.  15,  I.) 
Its  main  part  is  tho  super-orbital,  and  this  sends  down- 
wards a  facial  process,  narrow  and  sigmoid.  'Within  tho 
lachrymal  is  the  pars  plana  (p.p.),  a  Bubquadratc  curtain, 
which  is  persistently  cartilaginous  in  the  Fowl,  who.se  nasal 
lalijTJnth,  unlike  that  of  many  birds,  scarcely  cssifies  at 

*  The  nomenclature  of  these  parta  is  wrong  in  Mr  Parker's  paper  on 
tho  "  Fowl's  Skull,"  Phil.  Trana.,  1809;  but  ho  named  their  ele- 
ments correctly  in  his  former  paper  on  tho  *'  Struthious  Skull,"  ibid., 
18CG,  Ilesearchcs  into  the  growth  of  the  Reptilian  skull  have  helped 
to  correct  tho  errnr.  He  has  found  a  true  "ptcrotic"  in  theSparrow- 
U»«k  {Moiilhty  Mtcro).  Jour.,  Fob.  1,  1873) ;  that  was  the  name  given 
b/  hiin  to  the  fowl's  epiotic,  whilst  the  latter  name  was  applied  to  the 
Doilerior  face  of  tbo  opisthotic. 


i'll,  except  the  main  div.aing  vrall,  the  perpendiculai 
ethmoid,  which  always  early  becomes  solid. 

The  free  mandibular  bars  are  now  continuous  at  their 
fore  or  lower  end  ;  the  long  and  strong  dentanes  (figs.  15 
and  16,  rf.)  early  coalesce.  In  front  they  cover  the  attenuat- 
ing Meckel's  cartilage  [mk) ;  this,  however,  grows  on 
behind,  and  'its  inner  process  {i.a.p.)  is  ossifying  as  the 
"  articidare,"  the  only  endo-skeletal  bone  in  the  mandible. 
Behind,  outside,  and  a  little  within,  we  see  an  upper  and 
a  lower  splint,  the  surangular  and  the  angular  («i.,  a.), 
and  on  the  inner  side,  further  forwards,  the  oblong  splenial 
[sp.);  but  in  this  bird  there  has  not  been  found  a  "coronoid,'' 
common  in  certain  groups  of  Birds,  besides  Snakes,  Lizards, 
and  Crocodiles.  In  this  and  in  other  things  the  Fowl  is 
often  found  wanting  as  to  special  elcmer.ts. 

The  changes  in  the  hyoid  arch  can  bo  left  until  we  come 
to  the  adult  stage. 

Cranium  of  Fuui — Sixth  Stage. — This  stage,  which  is 


Fig.  17.— End  flew  of  ekuU  of  a  Chicken  ihrce  weeks  oM.  suth  stsfre.  *  • 
diamelcra.  Here  the  opisthotic  bone  appears  in  tlie  uccipiln!  rf,iion.  an  fL  'Im 
Qduit  Cheloelan,    Letters  as  above;  i.e.,  the  opening  of  the  stiius-cunal. 

that  of  chickens  less  than  a  month  old,  is  introduced  to  show 
the  occipital  region  from  behind  (fig.  17).  This  end  view 
shows  much  that  is  ornithically  characteristic.  The  sub- 
ject was  a  somewhat  starved  chicken,  whose  retardation  of 
growth  caused  a  lingering  of  the  ankylosis,  which  so  soon 
removes  all  landmarks.  Even  now  the  great  fontanelle,  or 
membranous  roof  of  tho  basin-like  chondro-cranium,  i» 
barelycovered  by  tho  still  scant  frontals  and  parietals  (/.,  p. ) ; 
their  flanking  by  the  big  squamosals  {sq.),  and  the  projec- 
tion beyond  these  of  the  sphenotics,  are  well  shown.  A 
wholly  cartilaginous  epiotic  region  is  still  seen  ;  it  runs  also 
inwards  to  the  foramen  magnum  (/.»«.),  and  still  skirts  the 
tympanic  ala  (e.o.)  But  on  the  upper  and  outer  edge  of 
tho  exoccipital  a  small  plot  is  taken  from  the  great  ex- 
occipital.  This  is  the  appearance  through  the  cartilage  of 
the  opisthotic  (op.)  ;  and  this  represents  tho  permanent 
condition  of  the  occipital  arch  in  the  Chelonia,  which  shows 
a  free  posterior  face  of  the  opisthotic  above  and  outside  I  be 
exoccipital.  This  view  also  show^s  how  the  skull  is  double- 
floored  by  the  addition  of  the  basi-temporal  skb  to  the 
ossifying  chondro-cranium  {b.t.,  h.o.) 

Cranirim  of  Fold — Seventh  Stage. — In  chickens  two 
months  old,  a  section  of  the  skull  shows  all  the  sutures 
except  those  lost  by  early  fusion  of  the  three  para-sphe- 
noidal  elements  with  the  compound  basi-sphenoidal  ossify- 
ing cartilage.  The  periotic  elements  are  all  distinct,  not 
only  from  each  other,  but  also  from  their  surroundings 
(Phil.  Trans.  1869,  plate  85,  fig.  I.)  The  bony  orbito-nasal 
wall  (perpendicular  ethmoid)  has  grown  by  metaraorphosi.s 
of  tho  cartilage  up  to,  and  somewhat  over  and  under,  the 
intor-orbital  fenestra;  thus  half  of  this  largo  septum  is 
bony.  There  is  no  osseous  presphcnoid,  but  instead  of  tho 
tnio  orbito-sphenoids  two  oeseous  centres  bavo  appeared  on 


6KULL.] 


B  I  11  D  S 


709 


the  post-orbital  font;incllo,  tlie  li..eniost  beiug  the  smaller 
boae ;  these  help  the  orbital  plate  of  the  I'roiital  to  cover 
the  eyeball  with  bone.  In  front  of  the  doubly  uotchcd 
ethmoidal  wall  the  face  is  connected  with  the  skull  by  a 
narrow  band  of  cartilage,  which  is  never  quite  severed  in 
this  tyije.  Thus  the  fore-face  lifts  on  the  skull  in  bar- 
inuay  with  the  depression  of  the  mandible,  by  means  of 
the  elasticity  of  the  parts,  for,  as  we  have  seen,  the  firm 
splints  above — nasals  and  nasal  processes  of  the  pre- 
niaxiUarics — are  let  into  the  frontal  by  their  fibrous,  lathy 
ends. 

Cranium  of  Fowl — Eigklh  Stage — Chicks  Three  ilonttis 
old. — Many  sutures  still  remain  at  this  stage,  but  those 
between  the  occipital  and  pcriotic  elements  are  fast  filling  up 
(/'/iiV.  7'ranjr.,180'J,plale85,fig3.4-7,p.7y4).  Wemust refer 
the  reader  to  the  work  above  cited  for  the  details  ;  no  stage 
shows  the  exquisite  architecture  of  the  ornithic  skull  moro 
lucidly  than  this.  The  sjnichondroses  arc  reduced  to 
fine  liucs  or  sutures,  and  the  size  of  the  object  is  of  great 
importance,  as  tending  to  make  a  diflicult  study  easy  to 
the  observer. 

Cranium  of  Fowl — Ninth  Stage. — lu  chickens  of  the 
first  winter,  eight  or  nine  months  old,  nearly  full  sized,  but 
yet  succulent  even  in  their  skeleton,  many  things  are  to 
be  observed  (op.  cit.,  plates  86,  87,  figs.  1-3,  p.  795). 

On  the  roof  the  sagittal  suture  ia  only  obliterated  in 
the  parietal  region,  and  the  super-occipital  still  retains  an 
uppernotch.  The  occipital  and  auditory  regionshave  entirely 
coalesced^the  opisthotic  with  the  cxuccipital  fir.st,  and 
then  with  the  prootic ;  but  the  little  cpiotic  seems  to  melt 
into  the  common  mass  of  the  ankylusing  super-occipital 
and  prootic,  without  any  precedence  either  way.  All  tlie 
sutures  across  the  cranio-facial  .hinge  are  still  visible, 
namely,  those  made  by  the  frontals,  lachrymals,  nasals,  and 
nasal  processes  of  the  prema.^larics,  in  their  relations. 
Where  the  frontals  diverge  by  narrowness  in  front, 
behind  the  nasal  processes  of  the  prcmaxillaries,  there  the 
ethmoid  is  seen  becoming  fast  bony  from  the  substance  of 
ihe  perpendicular  plate,  and  not  by  a  separate  upper  bone,' 
as  in  the  Struthionidce.^  As  to  the  facial  bones,  they  yet 
retain  much  distinctness,  and  the  prenasal  and  Meckelian 
rods  still  linger.  The  articular  end  of  the  latter  rod  is  now 
ossifying  fast,  the  two  angular  processes,  so  large  in  this 
type,  are  now  bony.  The  fast  coalescing  roof  and  the 
coalesced  floor  are  now  of  great  thickness,  and  the  diploe 
in  this  type  is  coarse  (op.  cit.,  plate  86,  fig.  14).  In  all 
these  growing  stages,  tracing  bono  by  bone,  as  it  appears, 
we  have  not  yet  met  with  the  presphenoid,  nor  seen  the  be- 
haviour of  the  great  ethmoidal  wall  in  relation  to  the  hinder 
skull.  In  the  most  advanced  winter  chickens  these  things 
are  to  be  seen  (fig.  18,  p.s.,  p.e.,  b.s.) 

./ 

0S3 


eth 


'/  rJ 


/'O  IS,— Skull  of  )fiin(:  /"...r/  iif  fl  wlnttT.  nl«Ih  ilBlfc.  Ilile  view.  X  IJ 
<ttomclcr>.  o.i.  1  aitij  ot.  1.  lli«  iwo  n«ll  orblto-nphfnnldul  ccotrcj  above  tho 
■  mail  prtiphrnuld  pi.,  wtilch  tl  .nly  ptrtlnlly  osititlcd  at  |>if!icnt.  The 
ratwrcs  at  thli  atano  am  ver/  Inntructlvc  Tlie  fotr-face  has  been  removed, 
and  the  anteilnr  eil^o  of  the  perpendicular  ethmoid  (/>f.)  ta  the  yoatcrlor 
botudarj  of  Ibc  erauto.farlal  cIcfL 

VM.  Tn\i\t.,  lies,  ii|j'-c  8,  fij.  10,  t(h.,  p.4. 


The  prcsphenoidal  region  i*  merely  that  band  of  car- 
tibge  which  lies  pjrtiy  above,  but  mainly  behinil,  tho 
fenestra  (t'.o./.).  A  small  ossicle  has  appeared  in  it  closa 
below  the  second  oibito-sphenoid  (p.s.,  o.s.  2),  the  foremost 
orbito-sphenoid  (o.s.  1)  has  coalesced  with  the  perpendicu- 
lar ethmoid. 

From  that  bone  the  rostrum  of  the  parasphenoid  is 
still  distinct  (r.b.s.),  but  the  perpendicular  plate  has  now 
reached  the  basi-sphcnoid  (p.e.,  b.s.),  and  between  them, 
and  below  the  still  soft  lower  part  of  the  presphenoid, 
there  is  a  high  vortical  suture.  This  suture,  and  this 
steep  bony  wall  be7icjih  the  presphenoid,  are  of  the  greatest 
interest  to  the  morphologist.  We  saw  that  the  basi- 
spheiioid  was  compound,  ha\nng  in  it,  besides  the  para- 
sphenoid,il  elements  as  investing  parts,  both  the  para- 
chordal ends  and  tho  trabecular  apices.  So  it  is,  for  the 
Bird's  skull  runs  over,  or  rather  is  built  upon,  the  mar- 
vellously metamorphosed  first  visceral  arch  —  the  arch 
formed  by  tho  primordial  "  trabecalaj  cranii."  Counting 
from  the  spine,  we  havo  three  cranial  sclerotomes  in  the 
osseous  stage.  The  frst  is  formed  on  a  notochordal  nnd 
parachordal  foundation  ;  this  is  the  "  basi-occipital."  The 
nt:j:l  is  formed  on  a  foundation  partly  parachordal  and 
partly  facial — the  basi-splicnoid.  The  third  is  the  "  pre- 
sphenoid," and  it  is  tilted  up  over  the  forth-growing 
trabecula  arch,  the  elements  of  which  early  coalesce  at 
tho  mid-line,  and  the  common  crest  of  which  is  not,  for  a 
long  time,  in  any  way  actually  separate  from  the  approximaf' 
ing  roofs  of  the  nasal  sacs. 


Fifl  19.-Sknll  of  an  old  Fiivl.  tenth  ataRc.  x  U  diameter*,  upper  view.  AHov* 
the  lino  fiom  n.  la  aecn  the  larcc  two-.^liuiied  iinsul.  the  prnccsara  of  >vlii(h- 
upper  and  lower— are  marked  np  ,  tho  cailllaxiDous  ettuclur«a  of  tbe  OMaa 
aio  not  llguicd. 

Cranium  nf  Foul — Tenth  Stage. — In  old  birds  we  find  an 
intense  degree  of  ankylosis,  and  yet  certain  sutures  are 
persistent  to  old  age,  or  at  least  show  sonic  chink  or  mark 
of  their  original  soparatencss.  In  this  the  Fowl  agreps 
Tilh  ""ost  birds,  but,  being  at  no  great  height  above  thu 


710 


n  I  R  D  s 


[an ATOM  IT. 


Strutkionidce,  it  U  .ut  tlie  strongest  esamiile  of  what  a  Bird's  I 
skull  may  be.  In  a  bird's-eye  view  we  see  the  separate- 
ness  oT  the  nasals,  the  nasal  processes  of  the  preraasillaries, 
the  fore-end  of  the  frontaU,  the  top  of  the  ethmoid,  and  the 
lachrymals  (fig.  10.  <t.px.,  n  ,/.,  eth.,  I.).  Below  (fig.  20),  the 
|iremaxillaries  still  have  sutureswith  the  palatinesand  ma.xil- 
lanes,  and  the  latter  has  its  jugal  process,  the  jugal  il.self, 
«rid  the  quadrato-jugal,  all  distinct  (px.,  pa  .  mi.,j  ,  jj  ) 


/\o  ?0  -Tlic  sAme  skull,  basul  vitw.  Here  the  slcnflomosg  of  the  upper  fnclnl 
roji  IS  in  slrnng  cortinst  wiih  Ihc  iTin39lvcnL*39  of  the  sk'.ill  iiBelf.  Tliis  skull 
IS  ttiiiisunlty  tcMio<;n>iiiictjs.  ihc  v.tmLT  (wi  being  very  small,  and  tbe  mftxillo- 
palailDc  processes  (Tij/),)  much  uboi  led. 

Moreover,  the  quadrate  (7.),  pterygoid  (py.),  the  pala- 
tines, and  of  necessity  the  mandible — all  these  retain  their 
joints,  and  traces  of  the  union  of  the  mandibular  splints 
are  long  retained  (fig.  21,  d.,  ar.).  So  also  do  the  elements 
of  the  hyoid  arch,  soon  to  be  described,  remain  separate. 

The  whole  cranial  bo.'c,  and  all  the  inter-orbital  region, 
have  become  one  bone,  whilst  the  various  fontanelles  are 
filled  in.  In  the  specimen  which  his  been  figured  the 
inter-orbital  fenestra  (i.o.f.)  13  partly  open,  but  it  is  often 
obliterated.  Also  we  see  that  free  periosteal  bony  growths 
have  bridged  over  the  temporal  fossa,  the  post-frontal  or 
"sphenotic"  having  met  and  coalesced  with  a  zygomatic 
process  of  the  squamosal  [pf.,  sq.).  In  the  lower  view 
we  still  see  the  notochordal  dimple  on  the  transverse 
occipital  condyle  (ox.),  and  the  hinder  margin  of  the  basi- 
ten-poral  plate  is  still  traceable  in  front  of  the  passn^^es  for 
the  vagus  and  the  internal  carotid  burrows  (i.e.)  This 
thicE  bony  mass  is  totally  ankyloscd  to  the  basi-sphenoidal 
region  above.  The  prootic  and  alisphcnoidal  regions  aro 
land-marked  below  by  the  foramen  ovale  (5),  which  is  some- 
times, as  in  Fishes,  divided  into  two  by  a  bony  bar.  So  free 
is  tho  bony  growth  that'the  basi-tcmporal  has  coalesced  with 
the  temporal  wing  of  the  exoccipital  (h.t.,  f.o.),  and  in 
front  of  this  bridge  we  see  a  number  of  passages,  burrows, 
galleries,  windows,  ic.,  leading  above  to  the  upper  tym- 
panic recess,  in  front  to  the  anterior  tympanic  recess, 
below  that  to  the  eustachian  opening,  and  on  the  middle  of 


the  iimer  face  of  the  drnm  cavity  a  large  hole  which  leads 
to  the  two  feiiesirae.     The  various  boues  of  the  palate  ari* 


Fifl.  21.-  The  <nnie  skull,  side  view,  with  the  mandib.e  a  little  riinlocaiert  iter© 
the  tcmpiiral  fosas  is  budged  over  by  tlic  junction  of  tlic  post-fiontal  ""'1 
Sfiuamosal  processes  (p/..  j?,)  The  processes  of  the  roaodiblc  {i.a/>.,p.»i,;j,)Bio 
characteristic  of  this  type,  and  of  theMnjcnne. 

scarcely  in  the  least  changed  in  form  or  relative  size  since 
the  time  of  hatching  (fig.  20),  and  the  copious  growths  of 
cartilage  belonging  to  the  nasal  labyrinth  are  always  soft  ; 
these  are  not  figured  in  tlie  adult  skull.  There  are,  how- 
ever, a  few  bony  centres,  the  feeble  rcjiresentatives  of  the 
ossifications  found  amongst  higher  birds  in  this  region. 
Thus,  close  in  front  of  the  broad  wall-top  of  the  ethmoid, 
in  the  substance  of  the  septum  nasi,  there  are  two  small 
ossicles,  and  on  each  side  a  similar  bony  point ;  the  rest 
remained  unossified,  all  save  a  small  part  of  the  attached 
margin  of  the  pars  plana. 

The  attenuated  remains  of  the  second  post-oral,  and  tlia 
larger  third  post-oral  arch,  contain  persistent  cartilage 
The  elegant  "  columella  auris  "  (fig.  22)  is  bony  where  it 
fits  into  the  fenestra  ovalis  (st.),  and  the  shaft,  up  to  its- 
rays  (m.st.),  also;  but  the  short,  notched  supra-stapcdial 
(s.st.),  the  tongue-shaped  and  fenestrate  extra-stapedinl 
(e.st.),  and  the  slender,  combined  infra-stapcdial  and  styK>- 
hyal  (i.st.),  all  those  aro  still  cartilaginous.'  The  rest  of 
the  second  post-oral  is  reduced  to  the  arrowhead-shaped 
lingual  bone,  the  coalesced  and  partly  ossified  cerato-hyaU 
(c.h.),  and  an  elegant  ridged  phalangiform  basi-hyal  (b.h.) 
The  free  end  of  the  combined  glossal  piece  is  soft.  There 
is  no  tympanic  in  the  Fowl ;  only  in  the  rcafowl-ba\;c_Efl. 
found  one,  and  it  is  behind  the  meinbrano.  The  next  arch, 
the  thyro-hyal  (first  branchial  in  Ichiht/opsida),  is  composed 
of  two  almost  equal  rods ;  the  upper  is  only  ossified  in  its 

'  SomcliniM,  even  in  the  Fowl,  the  infrri-st.npedi.il  htia  a  sp.itnlni* 
stylo-hvftl  .It  its  free  onfl  (ice  Profe=;sor  Huxley's  figure,  Proc.  Jiuoi 
Soc,  Mny  27   1SC9,  p. '393,  fig.  5  B,  /.  S.) 


SkuiT-] 


BIRDS 


ill 


tit 


iisUl  Uiird,  and  the  lower  i3  mainly  bony ;  their  basal 
piece  13  largely  soft  behind  (6g.  15,  e.br.,  c.ln:,  b.br.). 

The  skull  of  the  Fowl,  and  of  the  AUctoromorpkce 
generally,  differs  in  certain  re- 
spects from  that  of  other 
Schuoynalhcc.  In  ttieGalltnaceLt, 
as  in  the  desmognathous  /iapaces, 
the  vomer  is  single  ,  in  Pigccms 
and  Sand-Grouse  it  is  absent . 
ID  all  the  others  n-itb  open 
palates  it  is  composed  uf  twu 
halves  soldered  more  or  less 
together.  Some  of  the  ^chuo- 
mathts  possess  an  "  os  uncina- 
tum  " — as  the  Albatross  and  the 
Gull — a  bone  to  be  described 
uereafter  ;  and  others  possess  a 
pair  of  bones  attached  to  the 
double  vomer,  namely,  the 
"  septo-maxillarics,"   known     in 


Reptilesaa  the  so-called  "inferior  fio  jj— Auditory  -columella"  of 

—  C^trktn.   ninth    stage.   X  6  dia- 

meters; lateral  and  baSAl  Tlews. 
ir..  stap«ft;  m.ir .  medio-stapedlal 
bar;    */(..  snper-stapedlal;    <tl„ 


eitra-stapodlal;  ijt^  lQrra-9tap&- 
dlat ;  the  end  of  this  latter  pro- 
cess U  the  atylo-hyal.  often  more 
dilated  than  In  this  specimen  .  /„ 
fenestra  In  eitra-stapedtal  plate. 


The 


br 


clr 


,Ut 


tuibinals."      These  bones,  very 

•mall    in    all   Birds,   have   been 

found  by  Mr  Parker  at  the  top 

and  the  bottom,  as  it  were,  of 

the  schizognathous  series;   that 

ia,  in  the  Uumming-bird  (Pata- 

gona  gigcu),  and  in  the  Kagu  { Rhinochttui  jxihaXut). 

latter  is  a  Gruine  bird,  lying  on  the 

margin   of    the    group    towards    the 

N'lght-Herons,  whilst  the  Humming- 

Birds  are  certainly  amongst  the  most 

specialized    types.      All   the   ScAi:-> 

giiathcc.  except  the  Fowl  tribe,  have 

■'  meso-ptery golds."    In  certain  ScJii:i>. 

pnathct  there  is  an  ''inferior  labial" 

on  the  edge  of  the  mandible,  namely, 

in  the  Rallidae  (e.g.,  Fu'ira  ati-a  and 

GaUitiula,   Moropui).       These    were 

found  by  the  writer  many  years  agn 

Upper  labials  have  not  as  yet  turned 
up  in  those  types,  although  they  have 
been  tig"red  carefully  in  the  Rhea 
fPhil  Trans.,  1SG6.  plate  10.  fig.  14, 
on  each  side  of  r.b.s.,  closeunder  the 

inferior  turbinal  i.t.),  and  the  Rhea  is 

e  much  lower   type   than   the  birds 

under  notice.     As  in  the  G'iUina4:tce, 

the  Schuognatlut  generally  have  little 

development  of   the  tympanic    ring, 

but  in    j£';jtahtis   hiatiaula   there   is 

one  large  and  three  or   four   lesser 

bones  on  each   side ,    they  occur  ia 

y>imeniut  ariuaia. 

A   full   and  adequate   idea  of  the 

degree   of    the    metamorphosis   of   a 

Vertebrate  skull  attained  to  in  Birds 

can  only  be  obtained  by  observation 

of  what  is  to  be  seen  in  that  of  thtS-  • 

iieher  arboreal  types.     But  some  of  .„....,.    ,^ 

..'     ^      •      .  "^    I    le    r.         .  •  ^i"    5'-"0t    hycldes     of 

toe    tannatcB   are    hall    btruthious,     aiioit /■oui.  tenth  jtane.  x 

end   they  possess  that   low  -kind  of 

skull    which    is    called    "  Dromaeo- 

gnathou-i,"  beat  seen  in  Droma-ut,  the 

Emcrf.'     This    kind    of    skull    once 

understood,  the  relation  of  that  of  the 

Towl  to  thai  of  typos  far  above  and 

Cor   below    it  will   be  clearly   seen ; 

(or    wo   must    describe    the   Deamo- 


w 


-l^ 


1 1  dlametera.  e.h  .  cerstt*- 
h7als(conflucntl;  6  A,  the 
so-called  bul-hyoU  an- 
swcTlnil  to  the  first  baal- 
branchlal  of  a  Fish;  bbr., 
tul  branchlal,oruro-hyal, 
answering  to  the  rcat  of 
the  bul-oranchlal  i«rlcs 
of  6  Ftih ;  c.6r.,  t.br.  to- 
gether form  the  thrro- 
Ajal.  answering  to  the  flmt 
lerato-  and  epl-br^nchlalt 
of  a  Fiah.  - 


«  PMl    Trans.,  1889,  pl»tM  11-13. 


gnathous,   <£githognatbou8,  and  Saurognatbous  varietica 
also. 

17if  DBOMiEOGNATHous  Ti/pe — Cranium  of  TiDamus 
variegatus. — Professor  Huxley  (Clas.  of  Birds,  p  425) 
says,  "The  Drovuxognatlious  birds  are  represented  by  tii 
single  genus  Tinamus, 
which  (as  Mr  Parker  has 
shown)  2  has  a  completely 
struthious  palate.  In 
fact,  the  vomer  is  very 
broad,  and  in  front  unites 
with  the  maiillo-palatine 
plates,  as  in  Drorruxus, 
while  behind  it  receives 
the  posterior  extremities 
of  the  palatines  and 
anterior  ends  of  the  ptery  . 
goid  bones,  which  thus 
are  prevented,  as  in  the 
Jiatitix,  from  entering 
into  any  extensive  articu- 
lation with  the  basi- 
sphenoidal  rostrum.  The 
basi  -  pterygoid  processes 
spring  from  the  body  of 
the  sphenoid  [they  are 
not  segmented  plates  of 
cartilage  attached  to'  the 
paraspbenoid,  as  in  the 
true  Carinatce  (see 
above)],  not  from  the 
rostrum,  and  they  articu- 
late with  the  pterygoid 
very  near  the  distal  or 
outer  ends  of  the  latter 
bones."  In  the  Fowl,  as 
we  have  just  seen,  the 
fore-end,  or  main  part  of 
the  pterygoid,  glides  on 
the  rostral  plate.  "  The 
head  of  the  quadrate  bone 
13  single,  as  in  the 
Struthious  Birds  (Parker, 
Lc.)"  To  this  we  may 
and  that  the  basi-tempo- 
rals  are  very  feebly  de- 
veloped, as  we  find  from  "> 
pvaininatinn  of  three  adult  ''"'  '"  -^°"  "'  "■""""  ""^'J"'"*  ••^-li 

evaminaiion  Ol  l.ureeuuuu  pji.,,.,!  view,  x  2  diamileia     Tliegieaiet 

species  : — T.   robuslua,   T.  part  of   the  )ae«l  bars  and  the  ouadrala 

*      .  J     TT     t  Ijonos  have  been  removed      i  ,6  s,,  fore-eoi 

varWfjatU9,    ana    J.    orasi-  of  paraaphcnoidal  rostrum;   a.^..  anterior 

lienms  Sive  nwyor.'  pterygoid  proeaas  Cboalpterygold). 

If  Professor  Huxley's  description  be  compared  with  the 
accompanying  figure  (24)  of  theTinamine  skull  this  variety 
will  be  easily  understood ;  the  lettering  is  the  same  as  in  the 
figures  of  the  Fowl's  skull.  For  furtner  details  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Mr  Parser's  Memoirs  above  referred  to, 
especially  that  on  the  Struthious  types  (PkiL  Tram.  1866, 
plates  7-15). 

The  DESMOONATnons  7\rp'  "f  Skull. — This  kind  of 
skull  occurs  in  such  a  vonety  of  families  that,  notwith- 
standing its  importance  to  the  morphologist,  it  is  not  of 
so  great  a  value  to  the  zoologist.  Nor  indeed  is  it  quite 
equal  to  some  of  the   groups   in  value,  being  due    to  a 

'  A  note  is  giron  below  as  follows  : — "On  the  O«teolo(ry  of  Gallin- 
aceous BirJs  and  Tinamous (Transaetions  o/  llu  Zoologicid  Socitty, 
vol.  V.  18G<).  Sundcvall,  however,  had  already  eaid  of^  Tinimtit, 
Rhyndiotui,  and  Cryptyrui,  'Struthionca  parvos  reftmnt.'  "  The  la»t 
two  are  rtierely  lub-gencre  of  Tinamiu. 

'  The  writer  hopes  to  show  the  development  of  this  type  of  «nU  at 
ar.mo  future  time  ;  an  embrro  of  IViynchotui  ru/acau  U  trca.iurcd  up 
for  this  purpose. 


712 


BIRDS 


[anatomy." 


condition  arising  rather  from  an  excess  of  osseous  deposits 
than  from  any  very  striking  metamorphosis  of  primordial 
elements.  The  skull  of  the  Sckizognalkce  easUy  runs,  aa  it 
were,  into  this  type  ;  whilst  it  crops  up  among  such  simple 
palates  as  those  of  the  Fowl  tribe,  namely,  in  Crax  globi- 
Cera;  and  Taleyalla  Lat/iami  in  old  age  is  nearly  desmo- 
gnathous.  So  also  on  the  Ardeino  borders  of  the  Grvidce, 
the  Kagu  {Rkinochetus  julatus),^  is  almost  a  Night-Heron, 
and  nearly  desmognathous.  In  another  region  Nyctibhis 
almost  comes  across  to  the  gigantic  Goatsuckers  (Podargus) 
and  the  Oil-bird  {Steatornis).  (See  Huxley,  Clas.  of  Birds, 
p.  456.)  In  the  paper  just  referred  to  (p.  453)  the  Desvio- 
gnath'ie  are  thus  described  :^"  Those  Cuvierian  Grallce  and 
Natatores  which  are  not  schizognathous,  the  Accipitres  or 
Jiaplores,  the  Scansores  [excluding  the  Picidcr^,  and  among 
the  Passeres,  most  of  the  Fissirostres,  all  the  Syndcutyli,  and 
Upupa,  may  be  termed  desmognathous.  In  these  birds 
the  vomer  is  often  abortive,  or  so  small  that  it  dis- 
appears from  the  skeleton.  When  it  exists  it  is  always 
slender,  and  tapers  to  a  point  anteriorly.  The  maxillo- 
palatines  are  united  across  the  middle  line,  either  directly 
or  by  intermediation  of  ossifications  in  the  nasal  septum. 
The  posterior  ends  of  the  palatines  aid  anterior  ends  of 
the  pterj'goids  articulate  directly  with  the  rostrum,  as  in 
the  preceding  di\i3ion"  [the  SclmognathcE]. 

It  is  possible  to  make  several  important  divisions  in  the 
kind  and  degree  of  desmognathiam,  as  follows,  namely — ■ 

a.  Direct. — la  Falcons  and  Geese,  the  maxillo-pala- 
tines  meet  below  at  the  mid-line,  as  in  the  Mammal. 
Two  sub-varieties  of  this  form  occur,  as  in  the  Falcon, 
where  the  nasal  septum  is  ankylosed  to  this  haid  palate, 
aiid  in  the  Goose,  where  it  remains  free. 

6.  Indirect. — This  is  very  common,  and  is  best  seen  in 
Fagles,  Vultures,  and  Owls.  The  maxdlo-palatines  are 
ankylosed  to  the  nasal  septum,  but  are  separated  from 
each  other  by  a  chink. 

c  Imperfectly  direct. — This  is  where  the  maxillo-palatine 
plates  are  united  by  harmony-suture  and  not  by  coalescence. 
Example — Dicholophu.s  crislatus.  In  young  Falcons  and 
Hawks  the  palate  is  at  first  indirect,  is  then  imperfectly 
direct,  and  at  last  perfectly  direct. 

d.  Imperfectly  iyidirect.-^Here  the  maxillo-palatines  are 
closely  articulated  with,  and  separ-ted  by,  the  "median 
septo-maxillary,"  but  tliere  is  no  ankylosk.  Fxaniple — 
Hegalcema  asiatica. 

e.  Double  Desmognathism. — This  is  seen  in  Podargus, 
where  the  palatines  as  well  as  the  maxillaries  largely 
Coalesce  below ;  to  a  less  extent  this  is  seen  also  in  the  larger 
Hornbills  (Buceros).  (Huxley,  op.  cit.,  \i\\  445,  44.0,  figs. 
27,  28.) 

/.  Lastly,,  a  compound  form,  in  which  the  ocgitho- 
giiathous  skull  becomes  desmognathous,  is  seen  in  certain 
Coraromorpkce.  (Gymnorhina,  <tc.),  as  will  be  shown  below. 

Professor  Huxley's  remark,  that  the  vomer,  "when  it 
exists,  is  always  slender,  and  tapers  to  a  point  anteriorly" 
(p.  435),  is  modified  by  a  note  he  gives  on  the  same  page 
with  regard  to  the  broad  emarginate  vomer  of  Falco.  It 
has  a  similar,  but  not  equal,  enlargement  in  front  in  the 
Sacred  Ibis  (TUresewmis  ai/iiopicw),  and  the  knife-shaped 
vomer  of  the  Duck  tribe  is  often  thick  at  the  infero-anterior 
auglo,  as  may  be  seen  in  (Edemia  nif/ra,  Qucrqjcedula 
caudacula,  and  Mareca  penelope,  but  the  vomer  of  the 
C liawmorplue  is  compound,  and  the  antero-supcrior  bone, 
whose  lower  angle  in  part  is  enlarged,  is  the  median  septo- 
niaiillary :  this  may  be  seen  in  young  Geese,  and  in  the 
adult  Crested  Screamer  (Cliauna  chavaria). 

Here  it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  to  show  the  value  of 
these  typos  of  skull,  to  insert  Professor  Huxley's  masterly 


'  SJco  Traru.  ZooX.  Soc,  vol.  vi.  pLites  9i  ami  09 


handling  of  the  modifications  of  the  dcsmognalhotu  skull, 
and  the  groups  in  which  it  is  present.  It  is  open  to  us, 
however,  to  modify  some  statements  of  his  and  to  superadd 
others,  for  the  observation  of  which  the  present  writer  has 
had  much  greater  leisure,  and  the  advantage  of  hanng 
dwelt  long  on  the  subject. 

At  page  400  (op.  cit.)  we  read:  "Not  fewer  than  seven 
groups  of  families  appear  to  me  to  be  clearly  distinguish" 
able  in  this  subdivision,  viz.,  the  Cheuomorphoe,  the  Ainjild- 
nwrphce,  the  Ptlargomorpltw,  the  Dysporomorphce,  the 
Aetomorphce,  the  Psiltacomorphce,  and  the  Cocrygomnrplui;." 

1.  The  Cheniomnrphae.- — "The  lachrymal  region  is  re- 
markably long  [save  in  the  Screamer  (Chnuna)\  The 
basi-sphenoidal  rostrum  has  oval,  sessile,  ba.si-pterygoid 
facets,  like  those  of  the  Atcctoromorphc^.  The  flat  and 
lamellar  maxillo-palatines  unite  and  form  a  bridge  across 
the  palate."  Yet  each  of  these  plates  has  a  large  obliquely- 
ascending  process  ;  the  vomer  lies  on  the  groove  formed  by 
the.  union  of  the  maxillo-palatines  ;  the  more  or  less  ossified 
septum,  in  old  age,  coalesces,  by  its  outstanding  processes, 
with  those  plates.  The  internal,  but  especially  also  the 
posterior  angle  of  the  mandible  is  largely  developed,  and  so 
also  is  the  transpalatine  angle  of  the  palatine.  The  glosso- 
hyal  is  very  large  and  spatulate,  and  the  thjTo-hyals  are 
flat  and  broad  where  the  two  unite.  A  remarkable  struc- 
ture is  found  in  Ducks  and  Swans,  namely,  an  ossicle  on 
each  side  between  the  palatines,  and  stretching  towards 
the  maxillo-palatine  plate:  these  bones  are  the  "inter- 
palatines;"  they  tend  to  carry  on  the  hard  [lalate. 

2.  The  Amphimorphce. — "The  genus  I'/ianicoplerus  is 
so  completely  intermediate  between  the  Anserine  birds 
on  the  one  side  and  the  Storks  and  Herons  on  the  other, 
that  it  can  be  ranged  with  neither  of  these  groups,  but 
must  stand  as  the  type  of  a  division  by  itself  Thus  the 
skull  lias  the  long  lachrymo-uasal  region,  the  basi  pterygoid 
facets  [not  so;  see  crp.  cit.,  p.  437,  v\hcre  they  are  truly 
said  to  be  rudimentary — they  are  the  merest  prickles], 
the  prolonged  and,  recurved  angles  of  the  mandibles, 
the  Laminated  horny-shealh  of  the  ChenomorjMce ;  but 
the  maxillo-palatines  are  spongy  [scarcely  more  so  than 
in  the  Swan  et  hoc  genus  omne  of  the  Anserines  and 
Anatines],  and  the  general  structure  of  the  rostrum  is 
quite  similar  to  that  found  in  the  Storks  and  Herons." 
The  nasals  are  thoroughly  Anserine,  having  their  crura 
separated  by  a  rounded  notch  ;  their  palatines  arc  quite 
Anserine,  but  are  broader  behind,  being  exactly  like  those 
of  the  Screamer;  and  yet  they  cut  oil"  the  nieso-pterygoid, 
which  coalesces  with  tlie  palatine.  This  the  Storks  and  their 
allies  do ;  the  Chenomorjtha'  do  not.  The  pterygoids  are 
like  those  of  Tkresciwnis  and  Plotalea,  but  the  vomer  is 
intcrmeJiate  between  that  of  the  (!oose  and  the  Spoonbill. 
The  orbital  processes  of  the  palatines,  or  "ethmo  pala- 
tines," run  together  as  arched  lamina;  from  the  body  of  the 
bone  to  the  maxillo-palatine  floor.  They  are  very  shell- 
like  at  first,  and  are  attenuated  in  front.  They  coalesce 
together,  and  send  down  a  bony  keel  of  exquisite  thinness 
in  their  hinder  part.  There  is  a  part  separate  from  the 
rest  in  front,  just  where  they  begin  to  narrow  ;  this  is 
obviously  the  median  septo-maxillary.  Behind,  where  the 
palatines  shoot  below  the  rostrum  of  the  sphenoid,  each 
l)Oiie  .sends  down  a  lamella ;  each  of  these  is  bound  to  its 
fellow  by  fibrous  tissue,  and  between  these  the  vomer  is 
wedged;  the  tliin  plate  belongs  mutually  to  the  palatines 
and  the  azygous  vomer.  In  all  the  ordinary  ChenomorphcB 
the  ethmo-palatine  spurs  are  long  ;  in  P/iaiiicoplcriis 
enormously  so;  in  the  Screamer  they  are  very  short. 
Hence  the  palato-vomerine  structures  of  the  Ampihimorpho! 
are  Anserine,  out  much  modified.  So  also  in  the  hyoid 
apparatus  ;  and  the  huge  glossoliyal  is,  although  cartila- 
ginous, the  true  counterpart  of  that  of  a  Swau. 


6EULI. 

3.  Tne  PflaririnCi.iKr. — "Ttcre  are  do  basi-pterygoid 
processes,  and  ilie  palatines  usually  uniu  for  a  greater  or 
les3  dijtauce  bebiud  the  posterior  nares ;  but  they  send 
down  no  vertical  plate  from  their  junction."  In  the 
ArJeiJce  they  do  not  unite;  in  all  these  forms  the  coalesced 
f>art  is  short  as  compared  with  that  of  the  Cormorants  and 
Pelicans ;  in  both  Scopus  and  Bal<mictps  the  ankylosed 
part  is  cannate  below  (Trans.  Zool.  Soc,  voL  iv.  plate 
65,  fig.  1,  pat.).  "The  maxillo- palatines  are  large  and 
epongy.  The  angle  of  the  mandible  is  truncated,"  except 
in  Plataka  and  Ibis.  The  vomer  is  smallish  and  cultrate 
in  Ciconia  nigra;  larger  by  far.  cultrate,  and  pedate  at 
the  end  in  Threscicnnis  cclhioptms ;  as  large  in  Platalea 
leucorodia,  but  pointed  in  front  and  cannate  below.  Even 
in  the  last  of  these  forms,  in  a  half-grown  individual,  no  sign 
of  a  median  suture  was  seea  The  vomer  of  Scopus  is 
sharply  cultrate  above  and  rounded  below ;  it  reaches 
beyond  the  maxillo-palatine  masa  In  Balccniceps  (op.  cit., 
p.  308,  plate  G5,  fig.  1,  v.)  the  vomer  is  like  that  of  Scopus 
Qnd  Ciconia,  but  it  is  actually  smaller  than  either.  In  most 
of  these  Ciconian  and  Ibidine  tj-pes'  the  vomer  is  evidently 
azygous,  but  in  all  the  skulls  of  Ardeidce  now  before  the 
writer,  viz.,  one  or  two  species  of  each  of  the  following 
genera,  Ardea,  Bo'aurus,  Kyclicorax,  Garzetta,  Tigruoma, 
the  vomer  is  double,  large,  and  charadrian. 

In  Ardea  cinerea  the  vomer  is  coalesced  behind  with  the 
long,  elegant,  bicarinate  palatines,  and  in  front  runs  its 
point  in  between  thefree  retral  lobes  of  the  maxillo-palatines. 
The  moieties  have  each  a  rounded  keel,  and  those  keels 
run  parallel  at  first  and  then  run  into  each  other  in  front ; 
above,  the  two  halves  form  a  deep  fossa,  in  which  the 
sub-carinate  parasphenoid  glides.  The  edges  of  this 
trough  are  roughly  tuberculated  and  turned  over,  like  the 
rira  of  a  cup ,  the  primary  suture  between  the  halves  is 
retained  behind  for  half  the  length  of  the  bone.  In 
several  Ardcidae  an  additional  maxillary  bone — the  "  post- 
maxillary  " — is  formed  behind  the  angle  of  the  maxillary. 
It  is  small  in  Ardea  garzetta  and  Botaurus  stellaris,  and  of 
good  size  in  Botaurus  vindis  and  Nycticorax  ardeola. 
This  bone  was  first  found  by  Mr  Parker  in  the  Emeu. 
In  Tigrisoma  leucolophum  there  is  a  pair  of  "  inter- 
palatines,"  as  in  the  Duck  tribe.  In  the  Pelagomorphx 
the  charadrian  type  reaches  its  culmination .;  yet  the  most 
exquisite  forms,  such  as  the  Egrets  and  smaller  Bitterns,  and 
the  most  gigantic,  as  the  Adjutant,  are  evidently  specializa- 
tions of  a  type  similar  to  the  pluvialine  Schizognath/x. 

i.  The  Dysporomorphoe." — "  The  rostrum  is  long  and 
pointed,  and  more  or  less  curved  ;  and  the  external  nasal 
apertures  are  very  small  There  are  no  basi-pterygoid  pro- 
cesses. The  palate  bones  unite  for  a  considerable  distance 
behind  the  posterior  nares,  and  send  down  a  vertical  crest 
at  their  junction.  The  maxillo-palatines  are  large  and 
spongy.     The  angle  of  the  mandible  is  truncated." 

The  inferior  crest  of  the  combined  palatines  is  largest  in 
Pclecanus ,  above,  in  Phalacrocorax  and  Sula,  this  plate  is 
grooved  for  the  sphenoidal  rostrum,  but  in  the  Pelican 
th  re  anses  a  huge  crest,  and  the  rostrum  of  the  sphenoid 
rises  rapidly  out  of  its  way.  Here  the  secondary  palatine 
arch  has  the  same  habit  as  the  primary  trabecular  arch — a 
modification  constant  in  birds  in  the  latter.  All  the  parts 
in  front  of  the  very  mobile  cranio-facial  hinge  are  molten 
together  into  one  mass,  and  the  nasal  labyrinth  is  in  its 
most  aborted  state. 

Ir  Phalacrocorax  the  perpendicular  ethmoid  is  of  small 
aotcro-posterior  extent.  There  is  ho  presplienoid,  "but 
merely  a  small  V-shaped  orbito-sjjhcnoiJal  band  of  bone 
I 

'  Balmicepi   hu  the  held  of  a  .Stork,  but   (U  body  is  largely 
AMeine. 
•  Dpijorti  «  gcneri"  nimo  opolied  to  the  Gannetj  by  llli«et, 

3-2J» 


BIRDS 


713 


above  the  optic  passage.  The  same  structure  is  seen  in 
Ihrnantopus  and  Eurypyga.  In  the  Cormorant  an  oblong 
ossicle  lies  on  the  comuiencemcut  of  the  zygoma.  It  is 
large  in  P.  carlo,  and  small  in  P.  graculus.  A  still  larger 
ossicle  has  heightened  the  zygoma  in  Sula  alba.  This  is 
the  "  pcst-maiillary."  In  Sida  alba  the  basi-temporals  are 
IS  little  developed  as  in  the  DramaAdce,  less  than  in  any 
other  Cannate  bird.  Behind  each  moiety  there  is  a  large 
oval  opening,  not  far  in  front  of  the  occipital  condyle ; 
this  exposes  the- loose  diploi;  within.  The  small  eustachian 
tubes  open  at  a.little  distance  from  each  other,  in  a  wide 
shallow  fossa,  on  the  part  where  the  three  elements  of  the 
parasphenoid  meet.  In  both  the  Pelican  and  the  Cormo- 
rant there  is  an  elegant,  crescentic,  lipped,  free  margin  to 
the  very  Ardeiiie  basi-temporal  plate.  In  Sula  alba  the 
columella  auris  is  very  long  and  bent.  It  has  a  small  cartil- 
aginous extra-supra-stapedial  process,  and  a  long  attenuated 
cartikginous  infra-stapedial,  terminated  by  a  bony  fusiform 
stylo-hyaL  The  hinge  for  the  mandible  is  very  far  back 
in  Sula,  whose  cranio-facial  hinge  almost  rivals  that  of  the 
Parrot  and  Toucan.  In  the  Cormorant  the  mandibular 
articulation  is  alpiost  carried  as  far  back  as  in  the  Croco- 
dile. In  Sula  alba  the  zygoma  is  very  thick  in  front,  and 
is  suddenly  reduced  to  an  extremely  thin  bar,  where  it 
passes  into  the  upper  beak. 

5.  The  AetcmwrphoE. — "  The  rostmm  is  more  or  less 
arched  and  hooked  at  the  tip.  Basi-pterygoid  processes 
may  be  present  or  absent  The  maxillo-palatine  procc-*ses 
ma'  be  concavo-convex  lamells,  or  may  be  spongy  and 
fill  up  the  base  of  the  rostrum ;  but  they  are  always 
[except  in  Dicholophus,  a  genus  which  the  writer  adds  to 
the  group]  united  with  an  ssification  of  the  septum 
The  breadth  of  the  articular  surface  -at  .the  distal  end  of 
the  quadrate  bone  is  greater  than  its  length,  the  outer 
condyle  extending  about  as  far  downwards  as  the  inner." 
This  is  best  seen  in  the  Cariama  (Dicholophus),  and  in 
the  Owls,  Hawks,  and  Falcons ,  in  the  larger  Old  World 
Vultures  (e.g..  Gyps  fulvus)  it  is  not  so  well  seen.  "  The 
angle  of  the  mandible  is  never  recurved."  At  pp.  441  and 
442  op.  cit.  it  is  stated  that  "the  maxillo-palatines  unite 
with  one  another  and  with  the  extremity  of  an  ossified 
septum,  so  as  to  fill  up  the  maxillo-palatine  valley."  In  the 
carefully  prepared  specimens  before. the  writer,  it  is  found 
that  there  is  a  space  between  the  righfand  left  maxillo- 
palatine,  not  only  in  the  Cathartidoe,  where  it  is  evident, 
but  also  in  Gypogeranus,  where  it  is  least.  Intermediate 
between  these  types  come  the  Old  World  Vultures  and 
the  Eagles.  The  skulls  at  hand  give  the  following  results, 
VIZ.  :-  ^ 

a   Perfvct  indirect  Dcsmognathism 

Sarcorhnmpltus  papa,  Aquila  (sp.  pi,,  including  Eelotarsus 
ecaudaCus),  Oijps  fulvus,  Neop/iron  peraiopt£rus,  Asio  otui, 
Asia  accipitrinus,  Aluco  fiammcus,  Kctupa  ctylcmiea,  Athcn4 
nocltia,  Strix  slriduta.  Elanits  carutcus. 

b.  Imperfect  direct  Desmognathism, 

Dicholophus  cristatus. 

c.  Perfect  direct  Desmogn.ithistn. 

Falco  percgrinus,  Fako  linnuncutus,  ealeo  oaalon,  Aecipitn 
nisus,  BiUeo  vulgaris,  Circus  ojantus,  Haliastur  indus. 

With,  regard  to  the  basi-pterygoid  processes,  they  are 
most  aborted  in  Dicholophus,  Helolarsus,  and  Gyps.  They 
reappear  as  aborted  prickles  or  knobs  in  some  Eagles,  in 
Neophron,  Etanus,  Circus,  and  Accipiter,  and  in  the  young 
of  these  they  are  rather  large.  In  I/aliastur  indus  they  are 
large,  rounded  flaps,  with  no  cartilage  on  their  end.  Then 
come  Gypogeranus,  the  Catharlidcr,  and  the  Owls,  in 
which  they  are  constant  In  all  the  Owls,  as  in  Pigeons 
and  some  of  the  Tumicidce  (see  Trans.  Zoot.  Soc,  vol.  v. 
plate  34,  fig.  2,  vi.o.f.),  the  slow  growth  of  the  occipital 
region  of  the  chondro-cranium  leaves  a  membranous  space 
over  the  foramen  maijnura.     This  ii  not,  or  ia  ver>'  rarelj 


714 


BIRDS 


[anatom?. 


filled  up  by  even  the  Dony  growtus;  it  remains  as  the 
-'-'  median  occipital  fontanelle." 

The  vomer  in  this  group  is  of  great  interest,  being  ex- 
tremely variable,  and  often  having  a  supplementary  bone 
attached.     It  is  azygous.     The  palatines  also,  which  have 
rounded  posterior  angles  and  double  keels,  often  have  a 
medio-palarine"  where   they   unite,  and   also   receive   the 
meso-pterygoid  spur.     In  some  types,  as  Gyps  fulmis,  the 
large    rounded   palatine   flap    is   partly   severed  ofif  as  a 
"  transpalatine."      Where  the   ascending   laminas  of  the 
palatines  meet  below  the  sphenoidal  rostrum,  there  a  bony 
deposit  takes  place ;  this,   if  truly   azygous,  is  a  medio- 
palatine ;  if   oblique,   it   is   one  of   the  meso-pterygoids, 
which,  in  the  Rapaces,  get  between  the  palatines,  coalesce 
with  each  other,  and  form  a  keystone,  as  in  Utula  stridula. 
In  others,  as  the  young  of  Falco  tinnunculus  and  the  adult 
Ihiotarsus  ecaudatus,  there  is  one  small,  obliquely-placed 
ossicle  in  the  front  of  the  palatine  suture.     In  Neophron 
percnop-erus  there  is  one  free  meso-pterygoid  attached  to 
the  right  hinder  fork  of  the  vomer.    In  Dicholophus  cristatus 
there  is  i  large  medio-palatine  wedged  in  in  front,  and  to 
it  the  cultrate,  fenestrate,  and  pedate  vomer  is  attached.^    In 
the  Falcons  the  vomer  is  pedate,  and,  in  the  larger  kinds, 
fenestrate.     In    Ulula  stridula  there  is   a  small   vomer 
attached  to  a  small  medio-palatine,  and  having  over  it  an 
equally  small  median  septo-maxillary.     The  latter  bone  is 
large  in  Asio  otus,  and  small  in  Neophron  percnopterus,- 
Circus    cyanms,   aftd   Ualiastur   indus.      The   vomer   is 
most  aborted  in  the  Eagles  and  Vultures  (often  absent); 
but  it  is  long  in  Neophron.     We  have  found  a  small  bony 
wedge  (oblique  meso-pterygoid)  in  Sarcorhamphus  papa. 
Professor  Huxley's  figure  of  the  skull  of  Gypogeranus  is 
deficient  in  not  showing  a  small  vomer  (fig.  24,  p.  442). 
A  specimen  sent  to  him  by  the  writer  (after  the  paper 
appeared)    has   this   little  bone  distinct.     The   frovming 
brow  is  obtained  in  these  birds  by  a  huge  super-orbital 
process  of  the  lachrymal  in  Dicholophus,  Gyps,  and  Falco. 
In   many  kinds  (Hawks,  &c.)  there  is  a  distinct  super- 
orbital  at  its  extremity.     The  eyeball,  with    its  massive 
bony  rim,  is  quite  equal  in  Dicholophus  to  that  of  the 
diurnal  Rapaces  generally.     Its  hyoid  also  is  thoroughly 
Raptorial.     Its  glossal  (double)  piece  is  spatulate,  and,  like 
that  of  its  congeners,  approaches  the  glosso-hyal  of  the 
Parrots  in   breadth.     Unlike  its  congeners,  the  Cariaraa 
has  its  nasal  septum  but  little  ossified ;  and  it  possesses 
an  "  03  uncinatum,"  propping  up  the  pars  plana,  as  in  the 
Gull,  Albatross,  and  many  other  birds. 

A  description  of  the  palate  of  the  Sparrow-Hawk  (Accipiler 
nisus,  will  illustrate  that  of  Raptorial  birds  generally,  and 
also  the  meaning  of  the  term  desmognathous.^  The  speci- 
men figured  (fig.  25)  was  a  half-developed  nestling.  Its 
round  occipital  condyle,  and  the  various  foramina  (8,  9), 
are  shown  in  the  occipital  region,  and  outside  and  above, 
this  arch  are  seen  the  hinder  face  of  the  opisthotic  (op.), 
and  in  front  of  the  tympanic  ala  of  the  exoccipital  (e.o.) 
there  is  an  uncinate  bone  in  relation  with  the  prootic, 
opisthotic,  squamosal,  and  exoccipital,  where  they  all  meet 
together.  This  is  the  "pterotic"  (jito.),  a  huge  bone  in 
Osseous  Fishes,  and  walling-in  much  of  the  labyrinth.  In 
Serpents  only  a  film  of  ectosteal  bone  represents  it,  and  in 
Lizards  such  a  plate  appears,  overlapping  cartilage  which 
has  begun  to  calcify.  It  develops  and  becomes  part  of 
the  pariitic  process.  The  basi-temporal  plate  (b.i.),  the 
rostrum,  with  its  arrested  basi-pterygoids  (h.pg.),  arc 
shown,  and  on  each  side  the  double  condyle  of  the  quadrate 
{q),  characteristically  placed  transversely.  The  zygoma 
is   composed    of    thin    needles   of    bone    (q.j.,  J.) ;    the 

'  See  Mimthly  .Microscopical  Journal.  Fch.  7,  1873,  p.  45,  filale  5, 
*i];.  2.  A  p^ipcr  by  the  <iame  writor  in  the  Linnean  Tranjadion^, 
]d76,  may  be  eoD&uluU  fgr  copioua  illustrations  of  tbc  DeimognaUut. 


zygomatic  process  of  the  maxillary  is,  behind,  bound  up 
with  the  jugal  and  quadrato-jugal,  and  in  front  passes 
into  the  upper  dentary  region,  half   overLipped  by  the 


FlO.  55.  Slmll  of  nestlins  Spaiiva-B^ak  (Axipittr  nisuaX  palatal  view.  X  > 
dlametera.    The  circular  space  on  each  side  of  the  ba^l-tcinijoral  (/.,(.)  Is  ilia 

.  opening  of  the  anterior  tympanic  recL.9a.  The  meso-pteryfcoids  cm  pg)  ^t"»w 
part  of  their  lower  face  on  the  post-palaiine  region;  the  hasi-plcryEi.id»i6p(;.) 
are  mere  knobs,  and  the  common  eustachian  opening  is  seen  between  ihoin. 
The  maiillo-palatine  plates  imxp)  are  dotted  to  show  their  spongy  character. 

dentary  process  of  the  premaxillary  (px.)  The  dentary 
edge  of  the  maxillary  sends  inwards  the  maxiUo-palatine 
plate  (mx.p.),  which  meets  its  fellow  at  the  mid-line,  and 
also  grows  retrally  and  superiorly  into  an  elegant  shell-Iika 
mass. 

The  right  and  left  plates  lie  edge  to  edge,  as  in  the 
adult  Cariama,  and  are  imperfectly  direct  in  their  desmo- 
gnathism;.  The  palatine  processes  of  the  premaxillaries 
bind  the'  fore-ends  of  the  palatines,  which  in  turn  bind 
under  the  maxiUo-palatine  plates.  The  gap  in  front  is 
filled  with  the  fast  ossifying  septum  nasi ;  it  is  pedate  in 
front,  and  behind  sends  out  a  process  on  each  side ;  these 
spurs  ankylose  afterwards  with  the  maxiUo-palatine  plates, 
and  they  with  each  other.  The  palatine  bones  (pa.),  strap- 
like, widen  backwards,  and  then  gently  narrow  to  the  end, 
leaving  no  sharp  postero-external  angle.  The  wedge  of 
bone  which  has  been  fretted  off  from  the  fore-end  of  each 
of  the  rod-like  pterygoids  (pg.)  binds  on  the  postero- 
superior  edge  of  each  palatine,  and  the  inner  plate  of  these 
bones  covering  the  under  surface  of  the  sphenoidal  rostrum 
imperfectly,  allows  part  of  these  bony  wetlges — the  "  meso- 
pterygoids  "  (m.  pg.) — to  be  seen  from  below.  The  bird  haa 
all  iheperiotic  bony  centres,  viz.,_^i'c;  as  in  Osseous  Fishes  ; 
it  has  distinct  cartilaginous  orbital  al.-e,  which  arc,  like 
the  presphenoid,  separately  ossified,  besides  an  azygous 
ossification  in  membrane  belonging  to  the  same  category. 

6.  The  Psittacomorphce. — The  uniformity  of  this  group 
of  D^mtoynathce  is  as  remarkable  as  the  variability  of  the 
last,  and  yet  it  is  potent  in  genera  and  species.  "  The 
rostrum  (see  op.  cit.,  p.  4G5)  is  arched  and  hooked  at  the 
extremity,  and  is  regularly  articulated  with  the  frontal 
region  of  the  skull."  Therefore  we  find  that  the  cranio- 
facial cleft  is  complete — a  state  of  things  not  often  occur- 
ring. The  development  of  this  type  has  not  l>con  observed, 
yet  we  can  interpret  the  metaniorpbic  results  by  other 


!ULL  ] 


B  I  11  D  8 


715 


types  "  Basipterygoid  processes  [and  vomers]  arc  want- 
ing. The  pak'ides  are  vertically  elongated  posteriorly, 
while  anteriorly  tht^y  are  horizoQtally  flattened,  and 
niovably  uoited  with  the  rostrum.  The  mixillo  palatines 
are  spongy.  The  lachrytinl  and  post  orbital  bend  towards 
one  another,  and  frequently  unite  below  the  orbit."  This 
is  by  the  intervention  of  a  Urge  "  os  •jociiiatum,"  which  is 
best  5eeii  in  small  types,  .«u''h  a3  Pseph/itis  mullieolor.  and 
Ayai>orni)  pii/turia,  where  this  part  does  not  unite  with 
the  post-fiontal  In  Mirrnylossa,  Calt/ptor/njncAus,  Plydo- 
Inphus,  Melnptiilacus,  ic  .  the  temporal  fossa  is  also  bridged 
over  by  junction  of  the  zygomatic  process  of  the  squamosal 
«.th  the  03  uncinatum  "The  orbital  process  ot  the 
luadrate  bone  is  very  small,  and  its  distal  presents  only 
one  facet  (which  is  compressed  from  side  to  side,  and 
convex  from  before  backwirds)  for  the  mandible  The 
rami  of  the  latter  ire  deep,  and  piss  into  one  another  by 
a  rounded  symphysis."  The  glosso-hyal  is  spalulate,  and 
the  basi  hyal  is  alate  behind.  In  the  fore  face  are  some 
things  worth  noting  The  septum  nasi  is  a  thick  wall  of 
bone ;  the  alae  nasi  are  soft  in  Ps'-photU  multicolor,  they  have 
an  annular  ossicle  found  io  them  in  Mdopsittacus  undulatus , 
whilst  in  Palceomis  torquata  this  part  is  largely  ossi6ed 
and  ankytosed  to  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  alinasal  turbinal 
is  partly  calcified.  In  one  small  kind  we  saw  the  trace  of 
a  small  mediopalatiue.  The  'pars  plana  is  narrow  and 
o.ssified,  and  is  ankylosed  to  the  lachrymal ,  the  inferior 
turbinal  is  soft 

7.  The  CoccyjonuiTphi  — This  is  another  polymorphic 
group,  and  is  not  in  any  sense,  either  zoologically  or  trior 
phologically,  the  equivalent  of  the  last.  Yet  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  separate  the  families  by  any  character  of 
importance.  If  the  Podargus  must  be  linked  with  the 
Kingfisher,  the  Goatsucker  and  its  allies  cannot  be  re 
moved,  notwithstanding  their  jr7i!;o^«at^ouj  palate  Here, 
however,  we  are  dealing  with  the  desmognathous  forms 
Professor  Huxley  makes  four  sub  groups,  and  then  remarks 
(p  467)  .  "  It  appears  to  ma  not  improbable  that  it  may 
hereafter  be  desirable  to  divide  this  group  into  four."  The 
characters  of  the  skull  are  thus  given  (p  4CG)  ;  "  The 
rostrum  presents  very  various  forms,  and  may  be  movably 
aiticulated  with  the  skull  Basipterygoid  processes  are 
present  in  only  one' genus  {Trogon}." ' 

The  Oil  bird  (Sleatornis  caripensis)  has  very  large 
bisi  pterygoids,  thus  connecting  the  Goatsuckers  with 
Podargm.  "  The  maxillo  palatines  are  usually  more  or 
teas  spongy  The  palatines  are  not  developed  into  vertical 
jilates,  but  are,  as  usual,  horizontally  flattened.  The  distal 
end  of  the  .-jusdrate  hai  the  ordinary  form  "  The  vomer 
is  small  in  Ilornbills,  Toucans,  and  Scythropt ,  but  they 
have  a  second  bono  in  front  of  the  azygous  vomer,  viz  , 
the  "median  scplo  maxillary,"  a3  in  the  Goose  tribe  and 
others  In  Podargus,  when  the  lower  palatine  floor — like 
that  of  a  Mammal — is  cut  away,  there  are  to  be  seen 
three  small  ossicles,  tba  6rst  of  these  is  the  vomer,  the 
others  are  medio  palatine*  In  Mtgalaema  the  vomer  is 
very  large  and  forked  in  front  In  the  Kingfishers  and 
Hoopoes  there  is  no  vomer  ,  there  is  a  trace  in  Corythaix. 
The  palatines  may  be  roundsd  behind  as  in  Cuculus  and 
llucerot,  have  a  retral  spur  to  the  transpalatiue  part  as  in 
Tthamphoitos  Alcedo,  mid  l/pupti,  or  be  very  broad,  with  a 
large  patierine  transpalatiue  uiigl*,  as  in  Podargai.^ 


'  For  a  flguro  of  this  skull,  see  Profes«'  t  Rcinhar<it's  paper  on  the 
"'Os  uncinatum"  ("  Om  en  huitil  ukjeadt  i<.nogle  1  Hovedshnllen  hos 
Ttirakoerne  MiLSopfia^t/ift,  Suodev,"  Sarr^ri/k  a/  *' Videnshntthge 
hIeddtUUer  fra  dtn  tVaturhutoruhl  Forenin-,- i  tijubtmhaifi,"  1871). 
!n  this  paper  figures  are  giveu  of  the  skult  of  Corj/thaix^  Miuop/uiya, 
Sckwtihu.  and  Trogvn. 

*  S««  rroros.<or  Huiley't  flguret,  those  of  M  Rtinbardt  just  referred 
*o,  »ad  Ur  Marie's  valuable  papers  *'0d  the  Skeleton  of  Tf'Mius," 
Pcoc.   Zool.  Hoc  ,  Miy  21,  187-2,  plate  15,  pp.  6t,)-(i30;  "Oo  l^« 


T/i^JBa\rBOOti\TnousT!/pe—Cranivmo/the  Rook:— Thii 
figure  and  its  description  most  do  duty  for  the  whole  of 
the  ^jithojiiathm,  which,  with  a  little  cutting  and  contriv- 
ing, may  be  made  to  cover  the  CoraccnnorplHt  entirely, 
with  enough  at  its  corners  also  to  be  superimposed  upon  the 
Swifts  and  the  Hemipods,  and  that  remarkable  charadrian 
bird,  Tkinocorus}  It  is  worth  while  te  remember  that 
these  types  are  actually  the  highest,  the  most  metamor 
pbosed,  and  the  most  specialized  ;  not  so  high  in  soma 
respects  as  the  Mammal,  yet  no  Mamma  Comes  near  them 
in  adaptive  modification,  not  even  the  one  which  has  the 
t;tste  to  admire,  and  the  wit  to  describe  them.  We  learn 
from  no  less  an  authority  than  Mr  G.  R.  Gray  that  of 
the  10,000  known  birds  half  belong  to  this  group  ;  the  Old 
World  types  of  which,  more  especially,  are  such  accom- 
plished creatures.  The  Xectarinia  is  the  smallest,  and  the 
Raven  the  largest  of  this  huge,  but  morphologically  very 
uniform,  group. 

The  skuU  of  a  fledgling  Rook  '(fig  26)  illustrates  the 
highest  bird  of 
this  type  ;  the 
occipital  condyle 
(o  c.)  is  hemispho- 
rical,  the  basi- 
temporal  plate 
(6.^)  is  an  almost 
transverse  band  of 
bone,  the  rostrum 
of  the  parxsphe- 
noid  (pas)  is 
without  any  de- 
veloped basiptery- 
goids,  the  cranio- 
facial hinge  is 
nearly  perfect,  but 
the  nasals  and 
nasal  processes  of 
the  premaxLllaries 
are  thin  splints  set 
into  the  frontals  , 
they  do  not  form 
a  perfect  hinge. 

The  palatiues 
are  developed  into 
cartilage    at   their 


m  ! 


Dinacr  angle,  iniS  p,],,,!  ,„„,  ,„iut.l  «iie  Tne  pren.Ml  regloo 
{pn.\  19  tiKolisle:  the  medlaa  rod.  luoklog  tor- 
wards.  Is  the  iciiMins  o(  the  prena)&lor  basMiabecu- 
lar  bar ;  the  lateral  kaves  ofcartllage.  looking  back- 
wards, are  the  rccuiTcnl  vctitral  extremities  of  i^e 
trabecular  cornua.  between  the  alinasal  tU'biriftis 
the  base  of  the  septum  nani  relaina  lis  flatness  II 
Is  forTDCd  by  the  Intel-natal  part  of  the  trabecule 


is  a  large  flap,  and, 

ossifying  late  and 

separately,   has 

lime     to     become 

chondrified  first 

(I  pa  ) ;  the  pterygoids  {pg  )  are  phalangiform,   and  lose 

their  ,meso  pterygoid  spur,  which  soon  coalesces  with  the 

palatines.     The  maxillo  palatine  processes  are  hooked  and 

flattened,  and  often  enlarged  at  their  inner  eitremiiy,  so 

as  to  become  pneumatic 

But  the  distinguishing  character  of  the  type  is  iht  union 

Genus  Coliu)"  The  This,  July  1872,  plaU  10,  pp  261-280  ,  "  On  the 
MotmoLs,"  His,  Oct.  1372,  plates  13-15,  pp.  383-112,  "Oo  the 
UpupidtD,"  /bis.  April  1873,  plates  6-7.  pp    181-211, 

'  For  descriptions  of  the  skulls  of  Passerine  birds,  see  Parker  on 
the  "Skull  of  the  Crow,"  Monthly  .Uicr  Jour  ,  No».  1,  1872  ;  on  lh»t 
of  the  ••Ttf'iPanu),  lAiJ  ,  Jan.  1, 1873,  and  on  that  of  the"  Thrush." 
itul ,  Mar  1,  1873.  See  also,  as  referred  to  by  Professor  HuiJey, 
Nitzscb's  article  "Passonns"  in  Ersch  and  Cnrbcr'e  EncyclopccdU. 
1840,  and  his  pai^rr,  "  L'eber  die  Familie  dcr  Pissennen,"  in  the 
Zeitschrift  fxir  die  Oesammlen  S'atuncusmiehnr.cn,  1662.  As  tha 
figure  given  above  is  of  a  young  bird,  the  reader  is  also  referred  u 
Professor  Huxley's  "  Palatal  View  of  the  Raven's  Skull"  [op  m  ,  p 
451,  fig  321 ,  of  Ihnt  of  the  "  (Jrusheak,"  fig  33  ;  and  of  the  •'  5>v'- 
fiu  34  bee  also  Miirie  "On  Frcgiluous,  Pnc.  ZojI  ioi..  'u- 
1874.  pLVjaC!.  62. 


716 


BIRD? 


[anatomt. 


of  the  vomers  with  the  atinasal  wall  and  turhinal,  and  the 
possession,  by  the  embryo  bird  at  least,  of  a  pair  of  "  upper 
labials,"  corresponding  to  the  inner  upper  pair  in  Snakes, 
Sharks,  and  Skate  ;  the  vomers  are  either  partial  or  entire 
ossification  of  these  cartilaees.  Besides  these,  there  re- 
appear in  most  of  the  Jiijithognathce  the  so-called  "  inferior 
turbinals,"  or  nostril-bones  of  the  Snake  and  Lizard,  and 
these  are  attached  to  the  shoulders  of  the  double,  and 
generally,  ox-face-shaped  vomer.'  The  nasal  labyrinth  is 
very  large  in  the  Rook,  but  does  not  differ  in  essentials 
from  that  of  the  Fowl,  above  described. 

The  septum  nasi  is.n.)  retains  much  of  its  original  flat- 
ness below,  and  is  thus  alate  ;  the  vomer  (f.)  of  the  young 
bird  is  broad  and  grooved  above ;  in  the  old  bird,  ossifi- 
cation running  some  distance  along  the  alinasal  wall  and 
tlinasal  turbinal  {n.tb.),  the  bone  becomes  not  only  emar 
ginate,  but  also  very  massive  in  front.  In  the  Lark  (Alauda 
arvensis)  this  bony  matter  in  the  macerated  skull  leaves 
huge  goat-horn  processes  to  the  fore-angles  of  the  vomer. 
,/Egithognathism  occurs  in  different  degrees ;  thus,  we  may 
have  its  morphological  conditions — 

a.  Incomplete  :  as  in  Turnix. 

b.  Complete  var.  1  :  Pachyrhamphus,  Pipra. 

c.  Complete  var.  2  :  Corvus,  Alauda. 

d.  Compound:  Gi/mnorhina,  Artamus. 

a.  Incomplete.  Here  the  large  "  labials"  are  imper- 
fectly ossified  by  the  two  vomers,  aud  these  bones  are  only 
strongly  attached  to  the  nasal  labyrinth  by  fibrous  tissue. 

b.  Complete  var.  1.  '  In  these  cases  the  labials  are  often 
only  imperfectly  ossified  by  the  vomerine  centres  ;  these 
centres  also  are  distinct  from  those  ossifying  the  aiinasal 
cartilages ;  but  the  union  of  these  parts  is  perfect. 

c.  Complete  var.  2.  In  these  cases  the  labials  are  often 
small  and  completely  ossified  by  the  vomers ;  but  the 
bony  deposit  runs  riot  into  the  alinasal  wall  and' turbinal, 
BO  that  in  the  adult  all  distinction  of  the  parts  may  be  lost. 

d.  Compound.  Here  the  flat  arcuate  end  of  the  maxillo- 
palatine  is  free,  but  the  mass  of  that  plate  meets  its  fellow 
of  the  opposite  side  and  coalesces  with  it,  and  with  a 
highly  ossified  nasal  septum.  In  these  Southern  types  the 
"  transpalatine"  is  a  long  spike,  as  in  the  Alccdidw.  In 
all  these  varieties  the  septo-maxillaries  may,  and  do  mostly, 
occur.     They  cannot  always  be  found.^ 

Concluding  our  remarks  upon  this  morphological  type, 
its  value  is  shown  by  this — that  it  is  exactly  superimpos- 
able  upon  the  Coracomorphx,  if  we  reject  the  bird  that 
ehows  its  initial  or  imperfect  condition,  as  the  Hemipod, 
and  stubbornly  hold  to  the  popular  view  that  Swifts  arc  a 
kind  of  Swallow — for  as  to  their  nobler  part,  their  head, 
they  are  merely  a  variety  of  that  type.  Thus  the  zoologist 
and  the  morphologist  may  here  join  hands. 

The  S.vuROGNATHOus  Type  —  Cranium  of  the  Picus 
Minor. — This  group.  Professor  Huxley's  Cekomorpha:  (op. 
cit.  448  and  4G7).  is  so  remarkable  and  difficult  of  deter- 
mination, that  although  our  author  saw  clearly  many  most 
important  characters  (quite  sufficient  for  the  elimination  of 

'There  is  not  space  here  to  pivo  illustration  of  all  these  details; 
but  papers  by  Mr  Parker  are  now  (1875^  appearing  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  Linnean  and  Zoological  Societies,  in  which  these  structures 
ai    copiously  ilhistratcJ. 

■  Professor  Huxley  {op.  cit.,  p.  472)  was  as  unfortunate  in  his 
Fpccimen  of  Mcnura  as  in  that  of  Trochilu.'.  (sec  p.  463,  where  these 
birds  are  said  to  have  their  vomer  tnincatcd,  whereas  it  i?  spiked)  ; 
for  in  Mr  Carrod's  specimens  of  the  Lyrc-binl's  skulls  the  maxillo 
palatines  are  large  bony  plates,  like  those  of  ordinary  Corncotncrphm 
The  vomer  of  Menura  \%  cx.actly  like  that  of  the  Chough  f/'VcjiVus 
graculus),  and  also  of  many  young  Coracomorphcr,  for  the  two 
moieties  do  not  necessarily  form  a  re-entering  anglo  or  notch  in 
front :  that  ifl  often  lan;"^ly  due  to  tho  osscou.s  growth  crcejiing  into  the 
alinasal  r.^rtilagos.  Mcnura  has  one  character  of  grrat  importan'.-e, 
Tit.,  it  retains  tho  super-orbital  chain  of  ossicles,  like  Pscphia  and  the 
Tinamid'C. 


this  group  from  the  Coccygomorphcn),  yet  the  materials  at 
hand  were  not  sufficient  for  a  perfect  account  of  this  typo 
of  skull.  A  fellow-worker  has  had  fuller  opportunities.' 
Like  the  Parrots,  these  birds  form  a  relatively  small  and 
neat  group;  the  most  outlying  forms  are  Picumnus  and 
Yu7ix,  but  these  form  no  obstruction  to  their  classification. 
Mr  Parker's  proposed  morphological  terra  for  these  birds  is 
SatirognathcE,  and  the  two  terms  caa  be  superimposed, 
Celeomorphoe  being  their  zoological  name.'  Professor  Huxley 
saw  that  these  birds  were  not  dcsmognathous ;  that  their 
vomerine  moieties  remained  distinct ;  that  their  maxillo- 
palatines  are  but  little  developed  ;  and  that  supernumerary 
bones  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  [lalatiues  in  Picus  minor 
corresponded  to  the  curious  bars  that  are  seen  in  the  larger 
kinds.  He  also,  with  quick  insight,  says  that  their  palate 
exhibits  a  "  degradation  and  simplification  of  the  jEgitho- 
gnathous  structure."  This  is  strictly  true  ;  the  elementary 
parts  are  the  same,  but  in  the  Woodpeckers  they  retain  a 
very  Reptilian  distinctness,  and  even  arrest  of  growth. 
Yet-  with  that  arrest  there  is  combined  a  modification  and 
metamorphosis  of  certain  part.s,  such  as  is  undergone  by  no 
other  ty[>e.  They  are  in  some  respects  the  most  simple 
and  embryonic,  and  in  others  the  most  highly  specialized 
birds  in  the  whole  class.  Their  basi-pterygoids  are  arrested ; 
their  basi-temporal  region  large  and  wide.  Two  or  three 
tympanies  on  each  side  help  to  form  their  remarkable 
cowrie-shaped  ear-drum,  which  is  mainly  built  up  by  tho 
basi-tempor-ils  and  exoccipitals.  The  lower  end  of  the 
quadrate  has  the  usual  form  ;  the  bono  itself  is  short ;  the 
pterj'goids  are  long,  slender,  angular,  and  forked ;  the 
lower  and  foremost  fork  is  tho  meso-pterygoid  element, 
which  does  not"  become  segmented  off,  and  thus  their 
pterygoids  answer  to  that  of  a  Snake  or  Lizard,  and  reach 
to  the  vomer.* 

The  palatines  (fig.  27,  pa.)  have  their  postero-external 


FlO.  27.--.>-.Alftliil   view    of  >V\\)\  of  a  ncsilinp  of  Picvs  minrr   X  4   Olflroeicrtt. 
i.pa.,  Inter-palatlno  npur ;  i.mx..  ecpto-niiixillary ;  tn.pa.,  mcdlo-lialullne. 

s  See  Mr  Parker's  paper  "  On  tho  Picidcc,"  in  the  Linnean  Tramao- 
lion.'!,  1875,  scries  2,  vol.  i.  plates  1-5. 

♦  Sco  C.iicther  "  On  J/attena,"  mil.  Tram,  1SC7,  piste  1.  fg  2>. 


SKULL.] 


BIRDS 


717 


angle  cither  rounded  or  obtuse-angled.  The  post-palatine 
rei;ion  is  bcvelN"!  off  remarkably;  but  in  Picumnus 
minutui,  the  lips  of  this  part  are  greatly  developed,  as  in 
the  lower  Passerines  of  South  America;'  but  in  them  this 
marked  region  appears  to  be  always  ossified  directly  from 
the  main  bone,  whilst  in  Picumriiu!  it  is  a  separate  ossifica- 
tion— a  perfectly  unique  thing,  as  far  as  the  writer's  know- 
ledge goes.  The  broad  main  part  of  the  palatine  suddenly 
narrows  at  its  first  third,  the  remaiiiing  two-thirds  being  the 
long  splintery  prepalatine,  opposite  the  beginning  of  which 
the  inner  lip  runs  into  an  "inter-palatine"  spike  (i-pa.) 
The  ethmopalutine  processes  are  extremely  long  in  the 
nestling  of  Yunx,  and  very  short  in  that  of  Picus  minor 
(e.pa.)  They  are  the  free  anterior  ends  of  that  ascending 
plate  which  lies  undflr  the  parasphenoidal  rostrum.  These 
plates  are  united  by  a  cartilaginous  commissure,  dagger- 
ehaped,  which  ossifies  as  the  most  marked  mcdio-palatine 
(m.pa.)  seen  in  the  class.  The  prepalatine  band  passes 
between  the  doiitary  and  palatine  spurs  of  the  premaxiUary 
(yix ),  as  in  the  adult  fowl.  Oddly  enough,  they  run  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  palatal  process  of  the  premaxiUary  in 
iiiost  of  the  jEyithognathtE.  This  is  an  after-modification, 
for  in  the  young  of  Slruthio  camdua  and  G alius  domesdcus 
the  fore-end  of  the  one  and  the  hinder  end  of  the  other 
process  are  broad,  and  the  two  unite  by  suture.  In  the 
higher  birds  the  processes  overlap  on  either  side,  but 
orderly  as  to  natural  groups.  The  free  end  of  the  pre- 
maxiUary palatine  process  looks  backward  to  the  free 
inter-palatine  spur  in  the  young  (fig.  27) ;  but  in  old  birds, 
as  may  well  be  seen  in  Gecinus  viridu,  Picus  analis,  and 
y.  major,  these  parts  are  formed  into  delicate  bridges  of 
bone,  which  also  are  thrown  along  to  the  ethmo-palatines. 
This  is.  done  by  the  vomerine  series.  The  "  septo-maxil- 
laries"  are  not  single  conchoidal  plates  of  bone,  as  in  the 
Snake  and  Lizard  ;  but  are  broken  up  into  grains,  which 
melt  into  each  other  again.  Even  the  vomer  itself  is 
double  on  each  side  in  Gecinus  viridis,  whilst  in  Htmilo- 
phus  fulxnis  there  are  three  septo-maxillaries  on  the  left  side 
and  five  on  the  right.  These  ossicles  lie  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  palatines,  and  are  normally  connected  behind  by 
means  of  the  vomer  to  the  ethmo-palatine ;  where  normal 
ornithic  ankylosis  takes  place  in  adult  birds,  there  these 
curious  length-wise  bridges  are  formed.  Yet  this  is  only 
p.-.rt  of  their  comple.xity,  for  median  septo-maxillaries 
appear,  two  of  them  in  Gecinus,  and  these  are  found  in  the 
substance  of  long,  right  and  left,  labial  cartilages.  These 
do  not  ossify  \x\  Utmilcphus,  but  unite  at  the  mid-line;  in 
Gecinus  they  overlap  largely  to  gain  the  mid-line.  In  the 
same  species,  to  add  to  the  complexity,  a  large  shell  of 
bone,  from  the  inlurned  alinasat  wall,  becomes  more  or 
less  free  of  its  own  origin,  and  unites  to  the  vomerine 
series.  All  this  has  been  seen  and  explained  by  WTiling 
and  by  figures.' 

The  maxillo-palatine  processes  scarcely  grow  inwards  at 
all  in  Picumnus ;  in  Yunx  they  are  rather  larger ;  larger 
still  in  Picus  minor  (fig.  27,  mx.p.)  Where  they  are 
largest,  as  in  Gecinus,  they  just  rest  upon  the  outer  edge  of 
the  palatines,  covering  nearly  half  their  width.  In  all,  the 
jnder  face,  of  the  maxillary  has  an  open  pneumatic  space 
at  this  part.  But,  as  if  to  fill  up  that  which  was  wanting, 
a  sejiarato  palatine  plate  appears  on  the  inner  edge  of  the 
maxillary  further  forward,  only  on  the  left  side,  however 
(fig.  27,  p.mje.)  This  is  a  semi-oval  wedge  of  bone,  and 
has  its  symmetrical  counterparts  in  several  families  of  the 
Coracomtrphce,  viz.,  Emberi:a,  Cardinalis,  ic. 

These  birds  arc  saurognathous  in  other  respects,  e.g., 
their  nasal  labyrinth  is  unusually  simple.     The  "inferior 

'  See  Firkcr  "On  ^jithegmlhiz,"  r»rt  i.,  Zool.  Trant.,  1875, 
plntci  .11-02. 

'  fbtd ,  "  On  the  riiida"  cp.  cit. 


turbinal,"  whicli  has  thret  coils  in  Shea  and  Tinamus, 
and  tuo  in  most  birds,  is  in  Geci7ius  merely  bi-alate;  in 
Yu/ix  it  makes  less  than  a  single  turn,  whilst  the  alin.isal 
turbinal  of  that  bird  h.as  two  turns,  and  that  of  Gecinu^ 
one.  Gecinus  is  in  all  respects  the  most  specialized, 
Piatmnns  the  most  embrj'onic.and  Yunx  the  most  passerine 
of  the  Ccleomorphex.  Also,  in  Gecinus  the  nasal  labyrinth 
is  most  ossified,  and  in  Yunx  least.  In  Gecinus  the 
"  columella  auris  "  has  two  supra-stapedial  .•spurs  and  two 
infra-stapedial  bands,  which  have  united  with  the  tongue- 
shaped  stylo-hy.il :  this  has  in  it  a  bony  centre.  The 
small  cerato-hyals  early  coalesce  into  one  arrowhead- 
shaped  bone,  and  then  comes  a  very  long,  highly  ossified, 
and  elastic  basihyal,  with  no  uro-hyal  behind  it.  Joined 
to  this  are  a  pair  of  lower  thyro-hyals,  half  its  length  ;  but 
the  upper  pieces  are  four  times  the  length  of  the  lower, 
and  they,  passing  first  down  the  sides  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  neck,  again  turn  gently  upwards  and  forwards,  plough- 
ing themselves  a  furrow  on  the  skull  top,  and  deflecting 
gently  to  the  right  nasal  roof,  wnere  they  end. 

All  these  things  being  considered,  it  will  seem  contra- 
dictory now  to  assert  the  great  uniformity  of  the  skulls  of 
Birds,  and  indeed  of  the  Birds  themselves.  Yet  so  it  is ; 
and  the  countless  modifications  that  olTer  themselves  for 
observation  are  gentle  in  the  extreme.  One  form  often  is 
seen  to  pass  into  another  by  almost  insensible  gradations. 
One  thing  is  certain,  namely,  that  an  anatomist  not  familiar 
with  this  class,  and  coming  to  its  study  fresh  from  the 
Kcptiles,  would  find  liiraself  at  fault  at  every  turn  ;  for  he 
would  see  changes  altogether  as  greai  as  if  he  had  passed 
from  the  Helminthoid  tyjies,  and  from  mere  lariw  and 
pupce  of  the  Insects  to  the  (to  him  supposably)  unthought-of 
imagines  that  spring  from  those  low  and  worm  like  stages. 

In  the  rest  of  the  Birds'  organization  abundant  evidence 
of  the  same  specialization  will  be  seen.  The  mind  fails  to 
desire  more  beauty  or  to  contemplate  more  exquisite 
adaptations.  An  almost  infinite  variety  of  Vertebrate  life 
is  to  be  found  in  tliis  class.  Of  its  members  some  dig  and 
burj'  their  germs,  which  rise  again  in  full  plumage,  whilst 
others  watch  and  incessantly  feed  their  tender  brood  in 
the  shady  covert  or  "  on  the  crags  of  the  rock  and  the 
strong  place."  In  locomotion  some  walk,  others  run,  cr 
they  m.ay  wade,  swim,  pluiigc,  or  dive,  whilst  most  u{ 
them  "  lly  in  the  open  firmament  of  heaven." 

TuE  Vebtebbal  Column,  Ribs,  and  Sternum,' 

The  spinal  column  of  birds  contains  numerous  and  well- 
ossified  vertebrae,  a  considerable  number  of  which  (more 
than  six)  are  ankylosed  together  to  form  a  sacrum.  Of 
the  vertebra  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  thiscoui* 
plex  bone,  however,  not  more  than  from  three  to  five  can 
be  regarded  as  the  homologues  of  the  sacral  vertebrae  of  a 
Crocodilian  or  Lacertilinn  Bcptile.  The  rest  are  borrowed, 
in  front,   from  the  lumbar  and  dorsal  regions ;  behind, 

'  See  Parker  "  On  the  Osleolocy  of  GnUinaceoua  Birds  and  Tin»- 
mous,"  Tranj.  ZooJ.. Soc.,  vol.  v.,  1863  ;  "  On  the  Syslenulic  Positioa 
of  the  Crested  Screamer  {Chauna  chavaria),"  Pvoc.  Zocl.  See.,  D*;c. 
8,  1863  ;  "On  the  Osteology  of  Microglasa  alrcio,"  ibid.,  Feb.  23, 
1SC5;  "On  the  Osteology  of  the  Kagu(/(Ain«Af(ui>uio^u),"  Traiit. 
Zool.  See.,  vol.  vi.  Huilcy  "  On  the  Classification  of  Birds,"  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.,  April  11,  1867;  "On  the  Alectoromorphx,"^  itirf.,  May 
14,  1868;  "Tlie  Anatomy  of  Vertebrate  Animals,"  1871,  p.  272. 
M.  Edmond  Alii,  Esiai  tur  CApfarcit  Locomoleur  dcs  Oiscaux,  Faris, 

1S71, a  most  important  work.     The  »Tiler  will  often  uio  the  "very 

words  "  of  Professor  f  luiley,  despkiring,  as  he  docs,  of  coming  near 
that  excellent  writer,  either  in  condaualion  or  order.  The  workii.g 
student  will  find  the  axial  skeleton  of  the  Ostrich  mf>st  profusely  and 
beautifully  illustrated  in  Prrf«sor  Mivart's  ptpcr  ( T'rnn*.  Zoo/. .?'«., 
vol.  viii.  part  7).  S-xtrj  ornithologist  will  \it  grateful  for  that  pistt 
I  of  work. 


718 


B  I  11  D  S 


[*VATOMV. 


from  the  till.  The  cervical  region  of  the  spioe  is  alnays 
long;  anii  its  verlebroe,  which  are  never  fewer  than  eight, 
and  may  be  as  many  as  twenty  three,  are,  for  the  most 
l>art,  large  in  proportion  to  those  of  the  rest  of  the  body. 

The  atlas  is  a  relatively  small,  ring  like  bone  ;  and  the 
tr.-vnsverse  ligament  may  become  ossified  and  divide  its 
n;vartur6  into  two— an  upper  for  the  spinal  cord,  and  a 
lower  for  the  odontoid  process  of  the  asis  vertebra.  The  os 
Oilwiloidfum  is  always  ankylosed  with  the  second  vertebra, 
■nd  constitutes  a  peg  like  odontoid  process. 

The  spines  of  the  succeeding  cervical  vertebrs  are  often 
-bsolete,  and  are  never  very  prominent  in  the  middle 
.egion  of  the  neck  The  anterior  faces  of  their  elongated 
vertebral  centra  are  coni'fx  from  above  dotcnuiards,  and 
Kitcavf  fri.m  siJf  to  sidt  ,  whilst  the  posterior  faces  are 
cylindrical,  slightly  excavated  from  above  downwards,  and 
to'Lvez  frorn.  side  to  $ide  (The  contrary  of  this  is  stated  in 
Professor  Huxley's  Vf^leh  Anim.,  p  276,  where  the  author, 
by  a  lapstis  meinortrr,  puts  it  vife  versa  )  Hence,  in  vertical 
section  the  centra  appear  ofristhoca-lous ,  in  horizontal 
section,  procalous,  and  not  the  contrary,  as  is  stated  by 
our  author  ;  and  the  structure  is  exceedingly  characteristic 
of  birds.  The  under  surfaces  of  the  centra  frequently 
give  off  median  inferior  processes.  In  the  Ratitce  it  is 
obvious  that  the  cervical  vertebrae  have  short  transverse 


I'.ft  ?•  -  *  ccrvi.  al  iferlcb'ft  Onm  l^e  mlil'Ile  of  11. c  neck  of  a  FauJ ;  ralural 
lice,  a  »i'lc  TicLv  .  6.  uv^u  view;  e.  lo*er  Ucw.pia.  pio-«y(fJlK>phys<;9  ; 
fri  I .  posl  ly^apoiihy&cs. 

processes  and  ribs,  di<>posed  very  much  as  in  the  Croroddia 
For,  in  young  birds,  the  anterior  end  of  the  lateral  face  of 
each  vertebra  bears  two  small  processes,  an  upper  and  a 
lower  ,  and  this  e.^panded  head  of  a  styliform  rib  is  articu 
lated  with  these  by  two  facets,  which  represent  the 
capilulum  and  the  tuberculum  (Huxley,  op  cit.,  p.  2TG) 
Id  the  chicken  of  the  Emeu  {Drmnceus  novoB-hollandiae)  the 
wnter,  in  1843,  carefully  worked  out  and  figured  these  parts 
Of  the  twenty  cervical  vertebrae  only  the  atlas  and  axis  were 
devoid  of  distinct  ribs  ,  this  individual  was  six  weeks  old. 
These  riblets  were  bony  wedges,  with  a  sharp  point ;  but 
that  was  free,  and  the  thick  upper  end  was  jammed  in 
between  upper  and  lower  transverse  processes  {dwpophysis 
and  parapophijsu)  The  last  but  one  of  the  ribs  became 
«uddenly  larger,  and  the  last  was  two-thirds  the  size  of  its 
successor —the  firsit  dorsal  Then  followed  si.\  large  ribs 
on  each  side,  the  last  two  Boating.  The  vertebra  bearing 
the  last  of  these,  and  twenty  more,  are  closely  embraced  by 
the  fore-and  aft  growth  of  the  ilium,  and  form  the  so  called 
i^acruin  Of  the  twenty  vertebrae  between  the  first  over 
ipped  bone  with  a  floating  rib  and  the  nine  rdilcss  caudals, 
inere  are  five  with  free  ribs,  small,  and  hatclu-l  shaped, 
quite  like  those  in  the  neck  of  the  Crocodile."  These,  from 
being  attached  lo  a  parapophysial  cup  near  the  fore-end  of 
the  centrum,  get  more  forward,  and  wedge  in  between  theii 
own  vertebra  and  the  one  in  front.  The  next  four  vertebra?, 
which  give  exit  to  the  sacral  plexus  (or  at  le;ust  to  most  ol 
it),  have  no  ribs,  and  are  very  broad  and  short  They 
develop  lamellar  upper  transverse  processes,  but  theii 
spinet  are  aborted  Then  come  eleven  vertebrae,  in  front 
of  the  free  caudal,  that  have  short  ribs  ;  the  fir.st  two  pairs 
are  ankylosed  already,  then  four  pairs  are  distinct,  and 
the  remaining  five  have  their  ribs  ankylosed,  and  then 
becoming  shorter  and  metre  pedate  ezternaUy,  get  further 


backwards  on  the  centrum.  Thus,  in  a  Tird  as  old  at 
six  weelis  after  liatrhing.  there  are  eighteen  pairs  of  ceivi- 
cal,  and  nine  pairs  of  so  called  sacral  ribs  still  distinct. 
Moreover,  the  ribs  are  quite  aborted  on  the  first  and  second 
cervical,  on  the  four  true  sacral.  —  perchance,  the  next  after 
this  is  also  sacral, — and  on  all  the  caudal  vertebrae  which 
have  only  papilliform  transverse  piocesses.  There  are  fifty- 
five  vertebr*  in  all  in  the  Emeu,  thus:— cervical,  twenty; 
dorsal,  five  ,  ilorso  lumbar  (the  first  with  a  large  rib  ami 
really  the  sixth  dorsal),  six;  sacral  (propei),  four,  iiro- 
sacral,  eleven  ,  caudal,  nine.  We  shall  return  to  tliosf 
data  in  desrnbing  the  sacrum  of  the  Fowl 

With  age  the  cervical  ribs  (of  the  ftaiuae)  may  become 
completely  arik)losed  In  Apteri/x  amtralts  one,  below, 
remains  free  ,  in  Strutliw  ramelut,  two  ,  and  in  Dromceus 
novce-hotlandicr,  three  ,'and  then  they  appe,ir  like  transver.^e 
processes,  perforated  at  the  base  by  a  canal,  which,  as  in  the 
Crocodilia,  contains  the  vertebral  artery  and  vein,  and  the 
main  trunk  of  the  sympathetic  nerve  The  cervical  ribs  and 
traiiverse  processes  are  similarly  disposed  in  very  young 
Carinatte;  but  in  these  birds  their  form  frequently  becomes 
much  modified  in  the  adult,  and  they  develop  prolonga- 
tions which  extend  downwards  and  inwards,  and  protect 
the  carotid  artery  or  arteries.  The  neural  arches  have 
well  developed  pre-  and  post  zygapophyses  The  ribs  of 
one  or  two  of  the  posterior  ceivical  vertebrae  bec<mie 
elongated  and  freely  movable  in  the  Carinatce,  as  in  the 
Ratit(E 

The  first  dorsal  vertebra  is  defined  as  suih  by  the  union 
of  the  ribs  with  the  sternum  by  means  of  a  sternal  rib, 
which  not  only,  as  in  the  Crocoddia,  becomes  articulated 
with  the  vertebral  nb,  but  is  converted  into  comjilete  bone, 
and  is  connected  by  a  true  articulation  with  the  margin  of 
the  sternum  The  number  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  (reckon- 
ing under  that  head  all  the  vertebra,  after  the  first  dorsal, 
which  possess  distinct  ribs,  whether  they  be  fixed  or  free) 
varies.  The  centra  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  either  possess 
cylindroidal  articular  faces,  like  those  of  the  neck,  as  is 
usually  the  case  ,  or  more  or  fewer  of  them  may  have  their 
faces  spheroidal,  as  in  the  Penguins  [Plovers  (and  their  kin 
Vanellus  cri-slaiics,  Tolanusfusnis,  ic  ),  Gulls,  Cormorants, 
and  Parrots],  In  this  case  the  convex  face  is  anterior,  th» 
concave,  posterior.  They  may.  or  may  not,  develop  in 
ferior  median  processes  [which  may  be  simple,  as  in  the 
Cormorant,  where  they  exist  on  several  lower  cervical,  on 
all  the  dorsal,  and  in  five  sacro-lumbar  ,  or  they  may 
bifurcate  into  two  broad,  bony  leaves,  as  in  Colymbus]. 
They  usually  possess  well  marked  spinous  processes  [whiih 
begin  in  the  two  or  three  lower  cervicals]  Sometimes  they 
are  slightly  movable  upon  one  another  [bound  strongly, 
in  many  cases,  by  ossified  tendons  of  great  strength  and 
elasticity],  sometimes  they  beconVe  ankylosed  together  into 
a  solid  mass.  [When  this  takes  place  the  last  cen'ical  is 
ankylosed  to  the  three  first  dorsal,  as  in  the  fowl,  the 
fourth  remaining  free,  and  the  fifth  coalescing  with  the 
lumbar,  or,  as  many  as/w  may  ankylose  together,  leaving 
one  free,  and  the  last  ankylosed  to  the  lumbar,  as  in  Fab-o 
iKsalon  Piut  this  number  often  differs  with  age,  as  may 
be  seen  in  different  individuals  of  Ptophia  crepitans,  and 
other,  more  tjrpical.  Cranes  ] 

It  is  chaiacteristic  of  the  dorsal  vertebr«  of  Birds  that 
the  posterior,  no  less  than  the  anterior,  vertebra;  present  a 
facet  or  small  process  on  the  body,  or  lov  'er  part  of  the 
arch,  of  the  vertebra  for  the  capitulum  of  the  rib,  while 
the  upper  part  of  the  neural  arch  gives  off  a  more  elongated 
process  for  the  tuberculuiii.  Thus,  the  transverse  pro- 
cesses of  all  the  dorsal  vertebrae  of  a  Hird  resemble  those 
of  the  two  anterior  dorsals  of  a  Crocodile,  and  no  part  of 
the  vertebral  column  of  a  Bird  presents  transverse  pi-o- 
cesscs  with  a  step  for  the  head  of  the  rib,  Idie  those  of  Oi^ 


Vr.ETEBE.c] 


BIRDS 


70 


great  majority  of  the  verlebne  of  Crocodilia,  Dinosauria, 
Dicynodonlia,  and  Plcrosauria.  [The  triangular  facets  for 
the  tubercular  processes  are  scarcely  scooped ;  those  for 
the  capitular  are  neat,  round,  shallow  cups.]  The  dis- 
crimination of  the  proper  lumbar,sacral,  and  anterior  caudal 
vertebrre,  in  the  ankyloscd  mass  which  constitutes  the  so- 
called  "  sacrum  "  of  the  Bird,  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
difficulty.  The  general  arrange- 
ment is  as  follows  : — The  most 
anterior  lumbar  vertebra  has  a 
broad  transverse  process,  which 
corresponds  in  form  and  position 
with  the  tubercular  transverse  Jl. 
process  of  the  last  dorsal.  In 
the  succeeding  lumbar  vertebrae 
the  process  extends  downwards  ; 
and  in  the  hindermost  [the  third] 
it  is  continued  from  the  centrum, 
as  well  as  from  the  arch  of  the 
vertebra,  and  forfiis  a  broad 
mass  which  abuts  against  the 
ilium.'  This  i)roces3  might  well 
be  taken  for  a  sacral  rib,  and  its 
vertebra  for  a  proper  sacral 
vertebra.  But,  in  the  first  place, 
I  find  no  distinct  ossification  in 
it  [there  are  Jive  of  these  lumbar 
vertebra  ia  the  Emeu,  two  more 
than  in  the  Fowl,  and  they  all 
have  distinct  ribs;  and  the 
ribtess  vertebrae  are  five  in  the 
Fowl  and  four  in  the  Emeu] ;  and, 
secondly,  the  nerves  which  issue 
from  the  intervertebral  foramina 
in  front  of  and  behind  the 
vertebra  enter  into  the  lumbar  ^i"-  "•-■^,'>   "»«'™™"  «'   > 

,  ....  .    .  younp  Foifl;  naturnj  size,  s*cn 

plexus,     which     gives     origin     to      from  below.     d.1..  dorsn-larabar, 

the  crural  and  obturator  nerves,  ,  «.  ""»U,  »ud«i  vertebra 
and  not  into  the  sacral  plexus,  which  is  the  product 
of  the  nerves  which  issue  from  the  intervertebral  foramina 
of  the  proper  sacral  vertebr.-e  in  other  Yertdirata.  Behind 
the  last  lumbar  vertebra  follow,  at  most,  five  vertebras 
which  have  no  ribs ;  but  their  arches  give  off  horizontal, 
lamellar  processes,  which  unite  with  the  ilia.  [In  the 
Emeu  these  four  vertebrse  show  not  the  least  trace  of 
ribs,  and  are  flat  bricks  of  bone,  below,  jammed  together 
like  the  cervical  centra  of  a  Cdaaan.']  The  nerves  which 
issue  from  the  intervertebral  foramina  of  these  vertebrse 
unite  to  form  the  sacral  plexus,  whence  the  great  sciatic 
nerve  is  given  off;  and  I  [Professor  Huxley]  take  them  to 
be  the  homologues  of  the  sacral  vertebra  of  the  ReptUia. 
The  deep  fossae  between  the  centra  of  these  vertebrae, 
their  transverse  processes,  and  the  ilia,  are  occupied  by  the 
middle  lobes  of  the  kidneys.  If  these  bo  the  true  sacral 
verlebriB,  it  follows  that  their  successors  are  anterior 
caudaL  They  have  expanded  upper  transverse  pro<icsses, 
like  the  proper  sacral  vertebrae ;  but,  in  addition,  three  or 
four  of  the  most  anterior  of  these  vertebrae  possess  ribs, 
which,  like  the  proper  sacral  ribs  of  Reptiles,  are  suturally 
united,  or  ankylosed  proximaUy,  with  both  the  neural 
arches  and  the  centra  of  these  vertebra  ;  while,  dislally, 
they  expand  and  abut  against  the  ilium.  The  ankylosed 
caud.-U  vertebra:  may  be  distinguished  as  uro-sacral.    .  ■  - 

We  now  give  a  table  showing  the  number  of  bones  in 
the  so-called  sacrum  of  Birds — so  many  vertebr-u  as  are 
covered  by  the  ilia  and  ankylosed    together.     Hero    the 


'  It  woBld  b«  more  proper  to  s»y  thit  ossification  extends  into  and 
fi'om  Iho  centrum  as  well  as  from  the  Qeitral  arch.  The  process,  like 
other  proc«.sse3,  exists  before  the  ccutrum  ia  diJTcrenliated  from  the 
arch  b/  ossiScatioa  ^HuilejrJ. 


distinction  between  dorscd  and  lumhar  is,  that  the  former 
possess  elongated  ribs ;  and  the  table  will  show  forms  of 
extreme  Imgth  and  of  extreme  shortness,  for  a  Bird ;  and 
also,  as  in  the  Fowl,  of  a  medium  type.  Most  of  the  in- 
stances are  derived  from  the  sacral  bones  of  young  Birds. 

-'*'  •                                          d.  .  a  U.S.           Total. 

Dr^ma:us  novx?iollanclice ...  I  5  4  11  =     21 

Cygnusolor 2  5  4  Id  =     21 

Colymbus  glacialiiaui      \   „  „  ,  7"  _"    ,7' 

C.  septentrionatis j    "  ^  *  '.-.,"• 

Gallus  domesticus. 1  3  5  6  =     IS" 

Alccdoispida .'.':f^. 1  2  4  6  =     13 

Upupa.epops .-.T. 12  3  5  c     11 

Cypsclus  apm. 2  1  3  S  =     11 

In  both  the  Hoopoe  and  the  Swift  the  first  of  thesQsacrals 
has  an  outstanding  rib-process.  In  the  Swift  the  rib  on. 
the  second  of  the  enclosed  dorsals  is  very  long,  and  its 
flanking  rib  nearly  reaches  the  sternum.  The  next  or  third 
vertebra,  the  lumbar,  has  below  it,  neither  reaching  to  it 
above,  nor  by  its  sternal  piece  to  the  sternum  below,  another 
rib ;  it  is  two-thirds  the  size  of  its  predecessor,  and  only 
occurs  on  the  right  side.  This  will  show  how,  by  grada- 
tions the  most  gentle,  the  vertebrs  and  their  ribs  are 
specialized  in  each  particular  type,  and  also  how  very  arbi- 
trary is  our  nomenclature. 

The  Swan  has  eight  free  vertebrae  behind  the  uro-sacral, 
and  as  the  last  of  these  is  in  these  types  composed  of  ten 
vertebrae  originally,  there  are  primarily  twenty-seven  verte- 
brae in  the  Swan's  tail  The  caudal  vertebra  which  suc- 
ceed the  uro-sacral  may  be  numerous  and  all  distinct  from 
one  another,  as  in  Archceopteryx,  or  few  and  distinct,  as 
in  Khea ;  but  more  generally,  only  the  anterior  caudal 
vertebra;  are  distinct  and  movable,  the  rest  being  ankylosed 
into  a  ploughshare-shaped  bono  or  pygostyle,  which  sup- 
ports the  tail  feathers  and  the  uropygial  gland,  and  some- 
times, as  in  the  Woodpecker  and  some  other  Birds  expands 
below  into  a  broad  polygonal  disk. 

The  centra  of  the  movable  presacral  vertebrae  of  Birds 
are  connected  together  by  fibro-cartilaginous  rings,  which 
extend  from  the  circumference  of  one  to  that  of  the  next. 
Each  ring  is  continued  inwards  into  a  disk,  with  free  an- 
terior and  posterior  faces — the  meniscus.  The  meniscus 
thins  towards  its  centre,  which  is  alwajrs  perforated.  The 
synovial  space  between  any  two  centra  is,  therefore, 
divided  by  the  meniscus  into  two  very  narrow,  chambers, 
which  communicate  by  the  aperture  of  the  meniscus.  Some- 
times the  meniscus  is  reduced  to  a  rudiment;  while,  in 
other  cases,  it  may  bo  united,  more  or  less  extensively, 
with  the  faces  of  the  centra  of  the  vertebrae.  In  the  caudal 
region  the  union  is  complete,  and  the  meniscus  altogether 
resembles  an  ordinary  intervertebral  cartilage. 

A  ligament  traverses  the  centre  of  the  aperture  of  the 
meniscus,  and  in  the  Duck  contains  the  intervertebral 
portion  of  the  notochord.  As  Jager^  has  shown,  it  ia  the 
homologue  of  the  odontoid  ligament  in  the  craniospinal 
articulation,  and  of  the  pulpy  central  part  of  the  inter- 
vertebral fibro-cartilages  in  Mammalia,  All  the  verte- 
bral ribs  in  the  dorsal  region,  except,  perhaps,  the  very 
last  free  ribs,  have  widely  separated  capitula  and  tubercul'a. 
More  or  fewer  have  well-ossified  uncinate  processes  attached 
to  their  posterior  margins,  as  in  the  Croco<lilia  [and  Bat- 
teria.  These  are  separate,  both  as  cartilage  and  as  bone,  at 
first;  we  have  only  failed  to  find  them  fn  theCrested  Screamer 
(Chauna  chavaria).  Among  the  Raiiia  they  are  very  small 
and  few  in  number;  in  the  Emeu  and  in  the  Apteryx 
they  are  large ;  they  evidently  correspond  with  the  un- 
scvered  rib-flaps  of  the  little  Ant-eater  (Parker's  Shoutder- 

'  Professor  Huiley's  figure  (80,  p.  278)  onlj  sh6w«  /t»  «TO-<acnl, 
there  are  *ix  in  the  Fowl. 

'  "  Daa  Wirbclkorpergelenk  dcr  Vogel,"  Siteungiterichtt  der  Wialt* 
Akademie,  1SS8. 


720 


BIRDS 


[anatomy. 


ytrdlt  and  Sternum,  plate  22,  figs.  IS,  -v;.J  The  ver- 
tebral ribs  are  completely  ossified  up  to  their  junction  with 
the  pternal  rib3. 

The  Sternum,  Limb  girdles,  and  Limbs.' 

The  sternum  in  Birds  is  a  broad  plate  of  cartilage  which 
is  always  more  or  less  completely  replaced  in  the  adult  by 
membrane  bone.^  It  begins  to  ossify  by,  at  fewest.^two 
centres,  one  on  each  side,^as  in  the  Jxaiiice,  In  the  Cari^ 
nalm  it  usually  begins  to  ossify  by  five  centres,  of  which 
one  is  median  for  the  keel,  and  two  are  in  pairs  for  the 
lateral  parts  of  the  sternum.  Thus  the  sternum  of  a  Chicken 
13  at  one  time  separable  into  five  distinct  bones,  of  which 
the  central  keel-bearing  ossification  (fig.  30)  is  termed  the 


Flo  80.  -Sternum  of  a  Clilck  (Oj/Iw  domnlicw)  tlirce  days  old,  lower  tie™. 
X  three  diamclcis.  Tlic  carlllagc  is  stiadej  and  dolled,  and  Ihe  bony  cenlres 
are  lljlTit  and  atriated.  The  fiont  eiclernal  prnce.ssea  aie  Hie  "coBlals,"  and 
are  osslflert  each  bv  n  p/ruroileon ;  Ihe  median  front  process  is  the  lostmin. 
end  on  each  side  of  it  are  seen  the  curacoid  grooves.  The  fore-fiail  of  the 
middle,  most  of  which  Is  carinute.  Is  ossified  already  by  the  loyhiislmn ;  the 
lorkeiTiiphoids  on  each  side  are  each  largely  oWQpled  by  u  mrlotteon:  on  the 
light  aide  the  aternal  ribs  arc  shown, 

lophosteon,  the  antero-lateral  piece  which  articulates  with 
the  ribs,  pleurosUon,  and  the  postero- lateral  bifurcated  piece, 
met  osteon. 

[In  Turnix'  there  are  two  more  centres,  mcsiad  of  the 
pleurostea,  these  are  the  coracoslea ;  in  Dicholophus  the 
median  part  suddenly  dilates,  behind,  into  a  heartrshaped 
flap  of  cartilage,  which  has  an  endosteal  patch,  the  urosieon.] 

Though  the  sternum,  in  most  Birds,  seems  to  differ  very 
mutJi  in  form  from  that  of  the  Reptilia,  it  is  rhomboidal  in 
the  Camariidce,  where  it  differs  from  the  Reptilian  sternum 
chiefly  in  the  greater  proportional  length  of  its  posterior 
sides,  the  absence  of  median  backward  prolongations,  and 

'  Sc6  \HTi\u%,L'AppaTeU  Epidemal  des  Oiieaux,  Utrecht,  1864 
Parker,  "  On  Bakmicepa  rex,"  Trans.  Zool.  Soc.,  vol.  i».  plates  66, 
67  ;  "  On  Gallinaceoiw  Birds  and  Tinamous,"  T.  Z  H.,  vol.  v.  plates 
3D-41  ;  "On  the  Kagii,"  T.  Z.  8.,  vol.  vi.  plates  91,  92  ;  ShmMer- 
girdle  and  Sterttum.  plates  13-18;  Iluxley,  *' On  the  AUctoro- 
vuyrpluz"  P.  Z.  5.,  May  14,  1568  ;  Anatomy  of  Vert.  Anim.,  p.  280  ; 
Owen,  "On  Alca  impennu,  h."  T.  Z.  S.,  vol.  v.  p.  317,  plates  51,52  ; 
"  On  the  Osteology  of  the  DoiJo,"  T.  Z.  .■?.,  vol.  vi.  plates  15-24,  and 
T  Z.  S.,  vol.  vii.  plates  64.  65  ;  "  On  Pinomis,"  T.  Z.  S.,  vol.  vii. 
plates  7-9  ;  "  On  Aplomis  dc/ossor,"  T.  Z.  S.,  vol.  vjj.  plates  42,  43, 
and  T.  Z.  5,  vol.  viii,  plates  14-16  ;  Murie,  "On  (ItopMtacus  occiden- 
l/tlis"  Ptm.  Zool.  Soc,  Feb.  27,  1868,  p.  163  ;  "On  Scotopelia  peti," 
Jour.  Anat.  and  Phys.,  vol.  vi.  p.  170,  plalo  11  ;  "On  Todus,"  Proc. 
ZmL  Soc,  May  21,  1872,  pp.  6C4-6S0,  pKito  55  ;  "On  Colius,"  The 
Jliis,  .luly  1872,  pp.  203-280,  pl.nto  10;  "On  the  Motmots." /?>is, 
Oct.  1872.  pp.  383-412,  plates  13-15;  "On  the  Upupida?," /iw, 
April  1873.  pp.  181-211,  )ilatos  5-7  ;  "On  Krrgilupus,"  Proe.  Zool. 
.'kk,  June  16,  1874.  pp.  474-488,  plates  61,62;  M.  Eilmond  Alix,, 
Esmi  mr  Cnpparcil  locomotcur  des  Oiemux,  Paris,  1874. 

•  These  stnternents  do  not  apply  to  Archaopteryx ;  its  i»»7UCture  19 
fery  Iniperfcctly  knotvi  (Iluiley). 


the  convexity  of  .c»  .entrai  »u..-ce.     Jut  in  other  Birds. 

and  notably  in  many  Carinatce,  the  anterolateral  edge.-", 

which  are  grooved  to  receive  the  coracoids,  form  a  mucK 

more  open   angle   than    in    the 

Reptilia,  while  the  postero-lateral 

edges  become  parallel  or  diverge  • 

and  a  wide,  straight,  or  convex 

transverse  edge  takes  the  place 

of  the  posterior  angle.     Two,  or 

four,     membranous     fontanelles 

may   remain     in    the    posterior 

moiety    of    the    sternum    when 

ossification  takes  place,  and  give 

rise  to  as  many  holes,  or  deep 

rkotches,  separating  slender  pro- 

cess-es  in  the  dry  skeleton.      All 

these  correspond  mth  so   many 

divisions  of  the  xiphoid  process 

of   the  sternum    in  Mammalia, 

and    hence    are   called    midJte, 

internal,   and    external    xiphoid 
processes.     Sometimes  a  median 

process,  rostrum  or  mannbrium 

(figs.  30,  31),  is  developed  from 

the  anterior  angle  of  the  sternum, 

and  its  antero-lateral  angles  are 

developed    into   costal  processes, 

which    may   bear   the    articular 

surfaces  for  more  or  fewer  of  the 

ribs.     The  two  last-naniod  structures  are  very  distinct  in 

the  Coracomorphce,  or  Passerine  Biids. 

The  extent  to  which  the  keel  of  the  lophosteon  is  de- 
veloped in  the  Carinate  birds  varies  very  much.   In  Strigopi 

it  is  rudimentary  ;  in  birds  of  powerful  flight,  as  well  as  in 

those  which  use  their  wings  fur  swimming,  it  is  exceedingly 

large. 

The  pectoral  arch  presents  a  long,  narrow,  and  recurved 

scapula  (tig.  32),  without  any  supra-scapula,  and  a  coracoid 


7G-31.— A  side  view  of  the  Chicle  i 
sternnm.  showing  the  peifuiu- 
tion  t  hrouph  the  i  ostmm,  and  i  he 
depth  and  apirulajion  of  the 
keel.  The  external  and  inlernul 
(Iioslciior)  "xiphoid  proceAes" 
aie  seeu  to  end  in  pedat^  expan- 
sions In  this,  as  In  the  lower 
view,  ihe  great  size  of  the 
"  notthea"  is  shown. 


Fio  3?.— Shouldor-plrdlc  of  adult  fiwf.  nat.  Hire;  obllqae  tide  view  Inverei 
If.,  seapuln-;  co..  coracoids,  /.  ctavicica;  hp.,  hypocloidluia  Cl  IntONClavlcIc 
9',,  SlenoliiuJ  eavieir 


LIMBsJ 


BIRDS 


721 


(«).),  fi'tod  by  its  proiimal  onJ  in  tlie  groove  in  the  antero- 
lateral edge  of  the  sternum.  The  inner  ends  of  the 
coracoids  often  overlap,  as  in  Lactrlilia ;  otherwise  the 
shoulder-girdle  is  unlike  that  of  any  of  the  ReptUia,  except 
the  Pttrosauna.  The  coracoid  is  usually  completely 
ossified,  and  presents  no  fontanelle.  There  is  no  distinct 
epicoracoid.  The  two  bones  take  nearly  equal  shares  in 
the  formation  of  the  glonoidal  cavity,  and  usuplly  remain 
unankylosed  and  distinct  in  this  region. 

In  the  Ratitee  the  long  axis  of  that  part  of  the  scapula 
which  lies  near  the  glenoidal  cavity  is  parallel  or  coincident 
with  that  of  the  coracoid,  and  the  two  bones  become  com- 
pletely ankylosed.  But  in  all  the  Carinatce  the  long  axis 
of  the  scapula  forms  an  acute,  or  only  slightly  obtuse 
angle  (Ocydromia,  Didus)  with  that  of  the  coracoid.  A 
email  bone,  the  scapula  accessona,  is  developed  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  shoulder-joint  in  most  Coracmnorphae  and 
Cfleomorphce. 

In  the  Carinatce  the  glenoidal  end  of  the  scapula  is 
divided  into  two  portions :  a  glaioi'/ul  process,  which 
expands  to  form  the  upper  part  of  the  glenoidal  cavity, 
and  to  unite  with  the  coracoid;  and  an  acromial  process, 
which  gives  attachment  to  the  outer  end  of  the  clavicle. 
The  gleuoidal  end  of  the  coracoid  is  in  like  manner  divided 
into  two  portions  :  a  glenoidal  process,  which  unites  with 
the  scapula,  and  a  ctavicvlar  process,  which  articulates 
with  the  outer  surface  of  the  clavicle  near  its  outer  end. 
The  clavicular  process  of  the  coracoid  does  not  represent 
the  procoracoid  of  LacertHia ;  rudiments  of  that  bone 
unite  with  the  clavicle.  In  the  Jiatilcr  there  is  no  distinct 
chvicular  process  ;  but  the  anterior  part  of  the  coracoid, 
near  the  glenoid  cavity,  may  he  produced  and  separated 
by  a  notch  or  fontanelle  from  the  rest,  or  developed  down 
to  the  sternum  (in  Struthio)  as  a  lacertilian  procoracoid. 
There  is  no  trace  of  clavicles  in  Aptcryx,  Rhea,  Struthio, 
and  some  Parrots ;  but  in  the  latter  there  is  generally  an 
ossified,  distinct,  short  procoraoid.  In  the  Emeu  and  in 
some  CarinatoE  (Didus,  Rhanipha/stcs  toco,  Corythatx 
Imffoni,  Uucerns  albirostris),  the  clavicles  remain  distinct 
from  one  another,  or  connected  only  by  fibrous  tissue  ,  but 
in  the  majority  of  Birds  they  are  very  early  ankylosed 
together,  and  with  the  representative  of  the  inter-clavicle, 
in  the  middle  line,  into  a  single  bone,  ihe  furcvlum,  the 
t'renpth  ol  which  bears  a  pretty  close  relation  to  the 
exertion  required  of  the  wings  in  flight  or  in  natation. 
In  the  Passerine  Birds  the  scapular  end  of  the  clavicle  is 
enlarged  by  a  procoracoid  rudiment  of  cartilage,  which 
ossifies  separately,  producing  the  expansion  above  and  in 
front  called  epicteidium. 

A  median  process  (.hypoclcidtum)  is  frequently  developed 
from  the  inter-clavicular  part  of  the  furculum,  and  this 
may  be  united  with  the  carina  of  the  sternum  by  strong 
fibrous  tissue,  or  even  by  continuous  ossification.  In 
Opistkocomus^  the  furculum  is  ankylosed  with  the  manu- 
brial  part  of  the  sternum  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  the 
coracoids  on  tho  other.  Ankylosis  of  the  furculum  with 
the  coracoids  has  also  been  observed  in  Didus,''  and  with 
both  keel  and  coracoid  in  Frcgata  aquila  [Shoulder- 
girdle  and  Sternum,  p  1."),  1  ;  see  also  the  actual  specimen 
in  the  museum  of  Col.  Surg.  Eng.) 

The  fore-limb  of  a  Bird,  when  in  a  state  of  rest  (fig.  33), 
exhibits  a  great  change  of  position,  if  it  be  compared  with 
that  of  an  ordinary  Reptile ;  and  tho  change  is  of  a 
chur.icter  similar  to,  but  in  some  respects  greater,  than  that 
which  the  arm  of  a  man  presents  when  compared  with  the 
forrlimb  of  a  quadrupedal  Mammal.  Tho  humerus  lits 
]iarallcl  with   tho  axis  of   tho   body,   its   proper  ventral 

'  Huilcy  "  On  the  Aleetoromnrpha,"  p.  306,  flgs.  8  wi  9. 
'  Owen  "  On  tho  Dodo,"  Trim.  Zovl.  See.,  vol.  vl.  cart  2.  d   03 
fUl«  20,  Bg.  4.  •-•*'• 


surface  looking  outwards.     The  fore-arm  is  in  a  positiou 
midway    between    pronatica    and    supinatioo,    aud_  Uis 


Flo.  3S  -  -Bones  nf  Fowln  right  irlnp,  tdjlr.  nit  tli*.     A  .  hofnenis;  r.  mlllnti 
ti ,  olnar;  f'  ,  1/  .  itilial  anil  ulnar  carraJ  boDea;  witb  tbe  thmdlglu  I.,1I.,1U. 

manus  is  bent  back  upon  the  ulnar  side  of  the  fore-arm 
in  a  position  not  of  flexion  but  of  abduction. 

In  ordinary  Birds  the  proximal  end  of  the  humerus  is 
expanded,  and  its  articular  head  transversely  elongated. 
Its  ventral  face  is  convex,  and  provided  with  a  strong 
preaxial  ridge,  which  gives  attachment  to  the  pectoral 
muscle.  The  proper  dorsal  face  is  concave  from  side  to 
side,  especially  towards  the  postaxial  margin,  where  the 
pneumatic  aperture  occurs  in  those  birds  which  have  the 
humerus  hollow.  The  distal  end  is  expanded,  and  tho 
articular  surface  for  the  radius  is  a  convex  facet,  directed 
obliquely  inwards  on  its  ventral  face.  In  this  respect 
the  Bird's  humerus  exaggerates  a  feature  of  that  of  tho 
Lizard's. 

In  the  Ratitee  these  peculiarities  are  very  feebly,  or  not 
at  all,  marked,  the  hu.merus  being  n  slender,  cylindrical, 
slightly-curved  bone.  In  the  Casuariid<r,  Dinomtlhidiv, 
and  Apteryyidit,  the  fore  limb  is  extraordinarily  reduced, 
and  may  become  rucliroenta'-v.     In  the  Penguins  rnd,  to 


?22 


B  I 


R  D  S 


s  less  degree,  is  the  Great  Auk,  the  humenis  hecomes 
llattened  from  side  to  side,  the  proximal  end  is  singciarly 
modified,  and  at  the  narrow  distal  end  the  articular  sur- 
face for  the  radius  lies  completely  in  front  of,  and  rather 
above,  that  for  the  ulna. 

The  ulna,  which  often  presents  a  series  of  tubercles, 
indicating  the  attachment  of  the  secondary  quill  feathers, 
is  usually  a  stronger  and  a  longer  bone  than  the  radius. 
There  are  only  two  carpal  bones,  one  radial  and  one  ulnar. 
There  is  one  exception  to  this,  namely,  in  the  Screamer 
{Chauna  chavaria),  which  has  three  carpals  on  the  left  side, 
the  lower  arcuate  bone  having  two  representatives    ■    • 

In  the  ApterygidcE  and  in  the  Casnay-iidie  there  is  but 
one  complete  digit  in  the  mauus.  It  appears  to  answer  to 
the  second  of  the  pentadactyle  limb,  and  is  provided  with 
a  claw.  In  the  Struthionidae  and  liheidce,  and  in  all  the 
Carinatoe,  there  are  three  digits  in  the  mauus,  which 
auswer  to  the  poUex  and  the  second  and  third  digits  of 
the  pentadactyle  fore  Umb ;  and  the  metacarpal  bones  of 
these  digits  are  ankylosed  together.  As  a  rule  the  meta- 
carpal of  the  poUex  is  much  shorter  than  the  other  two  ; 
that  of  the  second  digit  is  strong  and  straight ;  that  of  the 
third  is  more  slender  and  bowed,  so  as  to  leave  an  inter- 
space between  itself  and  the  second,  which  is  often  filled 
up  by  bony  matter.  The  poUex  has  two  phalanges,  and 
the  second  of  them  is,  in  many  birds — Rhea,  the  Screamer, 
ic. — pointed,  curved,  and  ensheathed  in  a  horny  claw. 
The  second  digit  has  two  and  sometimes  three  phalanges, 
as  in  the  Swan ;  and  the  terminal  phalanx-is  similarly  pro- 
vided with  a  claw  in  sundry  birds,  e.g.,  the  Swan  and  Rhea. 
In  the  Ostrich  both  the  pollex  and  the  second  digit  are 
unguiculate.  The^third  digit  possesses  one  phalanx,  besides 
its  ankylosed  metacarpal,  and  is  always  devoid  of  a  claw. 

It  b  a  singular  circumstance  that  the  relative  proportions 
of  the  humerus  and  the  manus  should  present  the  most 
marked  contrast  in  two  groups  of  birds  which  are  alike 
remarkable  for  their  powers  of  flight.  :,These  are  the 
Swifts  and  Humming-birds,  in  which  the  humerus  is  short 
and  the  manus  long,  and  the  Albatrosses,  in  which  the 
humerus  is  long  and  the  manus  relaiively  short. 

In  the  Penguins  the  pollex  has  two  free  phalanges,  and 
its  metacarpal  bone  (which  is  distinct  in  the  young  birds) 
ankyloses  with  that  of  the  second  digit.  The  third 
metacarpal  is  slender  and  straight.  The  bones  of  the 
menus  are  singularly  elongated  and  flattened. 


tin.  M.— PelTU  ftnd  caadal  rertebra  of  tdult  Fov).  tide  riew.  natara]  site. 

-ortebriB ;  «*..  caudal  Tertcbrw : 


The  pelvis  of  a  Bird  (fig.  34)  is  remarkable  for  the  great 
elongation,  both  anteriorly  and  posteriorly,  of  the  iliac 
bones  (i7.),  which  unite  with  the  whole  length  of  the 
edges  of  the  sacrum,  and  even  extend  forwards  q^er  the 


[anatomy. 

posterior  ribs  of  the  dorsal  region.  Beiow,  each  iliac  bone 
forms  a  wide  arch  over  the  acetabulum  {am.),  the  centre  of 
which  is  always  closed  by  fibrous  tissue,  so  that  in  the 
dry  skeleton  the  bottom  of  the  acetabulum  is  always  per- 
forated by  a  wide  foramen.  An  articular  surface  on  th"! 
ilium,  on  which  the  great  trochanter  of  the  femur  plays, 
is  called  the  aniitrochanter.  In  all  ordinary  birds  the 
ischium  (is.),  which  broadens  towards  its  hindet  end, 
extends  back  nearly  parallel  ivith  the  hinder  part  of  the 
ilium,  and  is  united  with  it  by  ossification  posteriorly. 
The  ischiosciatic  interval  is  thus  converted  into  a  foramen. 
The  pubis  (pb.)  enters  by  its  dorsal  or  acetabular  end  into 
the  formation  of  the  acetabulum,  and  then  passes  backwards 
and  downwards  as  a  comparatively  slender,  curved  bone, 
nearly  paraUel  with  the  ischium.  It  is  united  with  its 
fellow  only  by  fibrous  tissue.  Very  few  birds  present  any 
iaportant  variation  from  this  structure  of  the  pelvis. 
In  Ttiiamus,^  Casvarius,  Dromaus,  Apteryx,  Dinornis, 
the  ischium  is  not  united  with  the  backward  extension 
of  the  ilium  by  bone.  In  Rhea  the  ischia  unite  with 
one  another  beneath  the  vertebral  column  ;  and  the  verte- 
brae in  this  region,  that  i.'s,  from  the  true  sacral  to  the 
end  of  the  iliac  roof,  become  undistinguishable,  being 
formed  into  a  long  slender  uro-sacral  style.  In  Slr-uthio 
alone,  among  Birds,  do  the  pubes  unite  in  a  median  ventral 
symphysis  (see  Mivart,  T.  Z.  S.,  vol.  i.  part  7,  pp.  434, 
435,  figs.  72,  73).  Another  not  less  remarkable  circum- 
stance in  the  Ostrich  is  that  the  3lEt  to  the  35th  vertebrae 
inclusively  (counting  from  the  atlas)  develop  five  lateral 
tuberosities.  The  three  middle  tuberosities  are  large,  and 
abut  against  the  pubis  and  the  ischium.  In  these  vertebrse, 
as  in  the  dorsal  vertebrae  of  the  Chelonia,  the  neural  arch 
of  each  vertebra  shifts  forward,  so  that  half  its  base  arti- 
culates with  the  centrum  of  the  next  vertebra  in  front,  and 
the  tuberosities  in  question  are  outgrowths,  partly  of  the 
neural  arch,  and  partly  of  the  juxtaposed  vertebral  centra 
between  which  it  is  wedged.  Hence  in  young  Ostriches 
the  face  of  each  tuberosity  exhibits  a  triradiate  suture. 
A  small  bone  is  sometimes  found  on  the  ventral  edge  of 
the  pubis,  at  its  middle  ;  this  has  been  supposed  to  repre- 
sent a  marsupial  bone  (Garrod,  P.  Z.  S.,  Mar.  1872,  p. 
359). 

The  upper  articular  head  of  the  femur  is  rounded,  and 
its  axis  is  almost  at  right  angles  with  the  body  of  the  bone; 
a  structure  which  is  not  found  in  ordinary  Reptilia,  but 

exists  in  the  Igvanodon 
and  other  Omithosre- 
lida.  The  shaft  is  re- 
"latively  short  and  thick, 
and  the  two  teimical 
condyles  are  large  and 
elongated  antero-poete- 
riorly.  A  prominen  t 
ridge,  which  plays  be- 
tween the  proximal  ends 
of  the  tibia  and  fijbula, 
is  apparent  upon  th» 
posterior  and  -inferior 
surface  of  tlie  outer 
condyle.  A  si  milar  ridge 
is  faintly  developed  iu 
some  Laccfi-tilia,  and  is 
well  marked  in  the 
Dinosaurian  Reptiles. 
A  patella  is  usually 
present,  but  it  is  some- 


€^  Ulnm;  <«.,  lachlam;  pb.,  pnbla;  d.L,  dorgo-lombar 
am.,  aMtatmlom. 


times  absent,  and  may  be  double. 
The  fbula  of  Birds  (fig.  36,  F.) 


is  always  imperfect, 


I  Parker,  Tram.  Zwl.  Soc,  voL  v.  plate  8». 


LIUB8.] 


BIRDS 


;23 


ending  in  a  mere  style  below.     Generally,  it  is  (iecidedly 
shorter  than  the  tibia,  but  it  has  the  same  length  as  that  bone 
in  some  Penguins.  •  The  tibia  (l.),  or  rather  "  tibio-tarsus," . 
is   a   highly    characteristic     bone.      Its 
proximal  end  is  expanded,  and  produced 
anteriorly,  into  a  great  cnemial  process 
(which    may   be   variously   subdivided), 
as    in   Dinosauria.      The  distal   end   is 
terminated  by  a  well-marked  pulley-like 
articular  surface,  which  is  inclined  some- 
what  forwards   as   well   as   downwards. 
Not  unfrequently  there  is  an  oblique  bar 
of  bono  on  the  anterior  face,  just  above 
the  pulley,  beneath  which  the  long  ex- 
tensor tendons  pass. 

The  extremity  of  the  cnemial  process  in 
Struthio,  Rhea,  and  Dram<Kus  is  ossified 
18  an  epiphysis  ;  and  in  young  birds  the 
whole  of  the  distal  articular  end  of  the 
bone  is  separated  from  the  rest  by  a 
suture,  and  also  appears  tc  be  an  epiphysis. 
But  it  is,  in  fact,  as  Professor  Gegenbaur ' 
has  proved,  the  proximal  division  of  the 
tarsus  (apparently  representing  only  the 
astragalus  of  the  other  Vertebrata),  which  {  ■-  '-'ij'^ 
exists  in  the  embryo  aa  a  separate  car- 
tilage, and,  as  it  ossifies,  ankyloses  with 
the  tibia.  The  so-called  tibia  of  a  bird  is 
therefore,  properly  speaking,  a  tibio- 
tarsus. 

In  all  Birds,  even  in  Archaopteryx,  the  '<■ 

fifth  digit  of  the  pes  remains-  uude-'''"^"-:'^?'''  'Jjs'' 
veloped;'  and  the  second,  third,  and  front  view,  naiurai 
fourth  metatarsals  are  ankylosed  to-  'dyie.u:;K?c?S-' 
gether,  and  by  their  proximal  ends,  with    "iyi'*.    ''■"'■.  "•"'■'■- 

,  L-'-  j-i-..         _A-i  •        anter    major.      The 

a  bone,  yrhicn  is  a  distmct  cartilage  in  ledgo  (or  the  tibnio 
the  fcetos,  and  represents  the  distal  di-  °S,'er'iSwe?c7no\1? 
vision  of  the  tarsus.  Thus  a  tarso-nuta-  is  not  seen  m  this 
tarsus  is  formed  (fig.  37).  The  distal  "°"' 
ends  of  the  metatarsals  remain  separate,  and  offer  convex 
articular  surfaces  to  the  proximal  phalanges  of  the  digits. 
•  In  the  Penguins,  large  apertures  lie  between  the  several 
metatarsals  of  the  adult  tarso-meiatarsus ;  and  in  other 
birds  more  or  less  considerable  passages  persist  between 
the  middle  and  lateral  metatarsals  pro.ximally,  and  the 
middle  and  outer  distally.  In  most  birds  the  middle  meta- 
tarsal does  not  remain  parallel  with  the  others,  but  its 
proximal  end  inclines  a  little  backward,  and  its  distal 
end  a  little  forward.  Hence  the  two  apertures  on  each 
side  of  its  proximal  end  may  lie  at  the  bottom  of  a  fossa, 
or  run  into  one  in  front,  while  they  remain  distinct  behind. 

Again,  in  most  Birds  the  posterior  face  of  the  proximal 
end  of  the  middle  metatarsal,  and  the  adjacent  surface  of 
the  tarsal  bone,  grow  out  into  a  process  which  is  commonly, 
but  improperly,  termed  "  calcaneal."  The  inferior  surface 
of  this  hyp'j-tarms  is  sometimes  simply  flattened,  some- 
times traversed  by  grooves  or  canals  for  the  flexor  tendons 
of  the  digits. 

When  a  hallux  exists,  its  metatarsal  bone  is  usually  in- 
complete above,  and  is  united  to  the  ligament  by  the  inner 
or  the  posterior  surface  of  the  tarso-metatarsus.  In  the 
Frigate-bird  {Phaethon),a,ndi  in  Sleaiomit,\\i&  hallucal  meta- 
tarsal is  remarkably  long.  The  genua  Phaethon  stands 
alone,  as  far  as  we  know,  in  having  the  hallucal  metatarsal 
ankylosed  with  the  others. 

In  many  of   the  Alcdoromorpha:  a  spur  {calcar),  con- 

'  Set  "  Archiv  ftir  AnsL,"  in  Phyi.  Jahrgang,  1863,  und  Huxley, 
>D  "  DinoMors,"  Q.  Jour.  Oeol.  Soc.,  Nov.  10,  1869. 

'  Id  his  CArlier  papers,  Mr  Parker  mistook  the  bony  core  of  the  cock's 
ifai  for  the  first,  thus  making  the  proper  haUuxtiu  <ccand  to«. 


sisting  of  a  bony  core  enshcathea  m  bom,  ia  developed  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  metatarsus,  and  becomes  ankylosed 
with  the  metatarsal  of  the  second  digit ;  in  some  there  are 


'1 


Flo.  86.— Left  tlMa  and  fibula  of  •        Flo.  37.— Tarso-mcfstarsl   of    a  lare© 

large  younK /■<>«/,  side  view.    (,        _  young /'ow^  front  view,  natural  slja 

tibia:  /",  fibula;  At.   aatraga-  li.,  tarsal  bone;  f.m.*.,  triple    tarto- 

lua;  Cfl.,  cnemial  proccii  mctataisal  roil,  with  the  tlrst  meta.- 

toraiil  seen  briow  on  the  tight  hand. 

but  partly  out  of  view  on  account  of 

Ita  backward  position. 

two  spurs.  In  a  few  birds,  similar  spurs  (Palamedea),  or 
osseous  excrescences  (Pezophaps),  are  developed  in  relation 
with  the  metacarpus. 

The  normal  number  of  the  pedal  phalanges  in  Birds  is 
(as  in  ordinary  LacertUia)  two,  three,  four,  five,  reckoning 
from  the  hallux  to  the  fourth  digit  Among  the  few  Birds 
which  constitute  exceptions  to  the  rule  are  the  Swifts,  in 
which  the  third  and^ fourth  toe  have  only  three  phalanges 
each  (2,  3,  3,  3),  and  the  Goatsuckers,  in  which  the  fourth 
toe  only  has  the  number  reduced  (2,  3, 4,  4) — not  2,  3,  4,  3, 
as  Professor  Huxley  (op.  rtf.)put8  it  for  CaprimtJffiu.  Mr 
Parker  has  figured  the  fourth  toe  of  the  Sand-grouse 
(Syrrhftplt's)  with  only  tJu-ce,  but  ho  speaks  {op.  cit.,  p.  203) 
of  only  one  as  wanting  in  that  toe. 

Many  Birds  have  only  three  toes  by  suppression  of  the 
h.iUux.  In  the  Ostrich,  not  only  the  hallux,  but  the 
phal.inges  of  the  secondi  digit,  are  suppressed,  and  the 
distal  end  of  the  second  metatarsal  is  reduced  to  a  mere 


724 


BIRDS 


[anatomv. 


rudiment.  Hence  the  Ostrich  naa  only  two  toes  (which 
aaswer  to  the  third  and  fourth  of  the  pentadactyle  foot), 
with  four  phalanges  in  the  inner  and  five  in  the  outer, 
though  the  inner  toe  13  far  the  longer  and  the  stronger. 

In  moat  four-toed  Birds  the  hallux  is  turned  more  or  less 
completely  backwards,  and  the  other  three  digits  forwards. 
But  in  many  AeComorphce  (especially  the  Owls)  the  outer 
toe  can  be  turned  outwards,  or  even  backwards,  at  will. 
And  in  the  Parrots,  Toucans,  Cuckoos,  Woodpeckers,  and 
other  so-called  '*  Scansorial "  Birds,  the  outer  toe  b  per- 
manently reversed.  Under  these  circumstances  the  distal 
end  of  the  outer  metatarsal  may  be  divided  into  two  dis- 
tinct articular  surfaces.  In  the  Trogons  there  are  two  toes 
in  front  and  two  behind,  as  in  the  Parrots  ;  but  it  is  the 
second  toe  which  is  turned  backwards.  Lastly,  in  the 
Swifts,  the  Di/sporoTnorpkce,  and  the  Spheniscomorphre,  the 
gf  hallux  is  directed  more  or  less  forwards,  so  that  all  four 
toes  are  turned  to  the  front. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  osseous  tissue  of  Birds  is  remark- 
ably dense  and  hard.  Before  hatching,  the  bones  are  solid 
and  filled  with  vascular  medulla ;  but  after  birth^  more  or 
fewer  of  the  bones  are  always  excavated  by  prolongation 
of  cavities  containing  air,  which  lie  in  their  neighbourhood. 
Such  air  cavities  are  always  found  in  the  skull,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  nasal  and  auditory  passages,  and  they  may 
extend  through  all  parts  of  the  skull,  with  the  exception, 
of  the  jugal  arch,  which,  however,  is  pneumatic  in  the 
Toucan  and  HornbilL  In  many  birds,  Apteryx,  Penguin, 
Divers  (and  Gulls,  according  to  Professor  Huxley ;  but  this 
13  a  mistake,  their  spinal  column  far  into  the  sacrum  is 
pneumatic  ;  Larus  canus  shows  this  well),  and  the  smaller 
Song-birds,  no  other  bones  than  those  of  the  skull  are 
pneumatic ;  but  in  most  birds  the  air-sacs  of  the  lungs 
send  prolongations  into  the  bones  of  the  rest  of  the  trunk- 
skeleton,  seldom  into  the  caudal  vertebra;,  as  in  Bakeniceps, 
the  Adjutant,  Hombill,  &c.  In  the  Hornbills  the  whole 
skeleton  is  pneumatic ;  in  a  large  number  of  birds  the 
humerus  alone  of  the  limb-bones  contains  air  ;  in  the 
diurnal  Raptores,  the  femur  also.  It  is  proper  to  remark 
that  the  amount  of  pneumaticity  of  bones  by  no  means 
follows  the  development  of  the  powers  of  flight.  In  the 
Ostrich,  for  example,  the  bones  are  far  more  extensively 
pneumatic  than  in  the  Gull. 

In  some  cases,  prolongations  of  the  air-sacs  extend 
beneath  the  integument. 

The  Mdscles. 

In  the  space  allotted  to  the  writer,  there  is  merely  room 
for  justice  to  be  done  to  one  category  of  organs  ;  and  as  the 
skeleton,  and  especially  the  skull,  is  of  most  direct  import- 
ance to  the  zoologist  and  paleontologist,  and  as  its  form 
determines,  as  it  were,  all  other  organs,  they  being  correlated 
with  it  and  answering  to  it,  it  seemed  to  be  that  on  which 
election  should  fall  for  the  fuller  treatment.  An  impartial 
description  of  all  the  systems  of  organs  would  have  resulted 
in  the  merest  outline  for  each.  For  the  muscles,  Professor 
Huxley's  abstract  must  serve.' 

The  cutaneous  muscles  of  Birds  are  well  developed,  and 
form  broad  expansions  in  various  parts  of  the  body.    Special 

'  Anat.  Vtrt.  Anim.,  p.  300.  For  ao  almost  exhaustive  biblio- 
graphy of  writings  on  the  muscular  system  of  birds,  see  M.  Edmoud 
Alix's  Bssai  sur  t'Apparcil  locomolcur  des.Oiseaux,  pp.  367-373. 
Thi-,  list  begins  with  Aldrovandus,  1581,  and  ends  with  GovcroJ,  1873, 
1874.  We  miss,  however,  MacgiUivray's  excellent  description,  with 
figure.i,  of  the  muscles  of  flight,  Brit.  Birds,  vol.  i.  plate  3,  pp.  35-46; 
and  another  by  Professor  RollestoD,  "  On  Muscles  connected  with  the 
Shoulder-joint,"  Trans.  Linn.  Soc,  vol.  xxvi.  pp,  610-C29.  See  also 
Owen  "On  Iho  ApUryx,"  Trans.  Zool.  Soc.  vol.  vii.  p.  381,  pi.  46. 
But  tbo  most  important  work  for  reference  is  that  of  M.  Alix  liimjielf 
(<>p.  "t.pp.  373-4'l.plaUi  1-^.  "  Apoarcil  actif  d«  la  Locoum' >c;  "). 


bundles  of  muscular  fibres  pass  to  the  great  quUl  feathers 
of  the  tail  and  wings,  and  others  to  the  patagium,  a  fold  of 
integument  which  stands  between  the  trunk  and  brachium 
behind  and  between  the  brachium  and  antebrachium  iu 
front.  In  correspondence  with  the  slight  mobility  of  the 
dorsal  vertebra,  the  episkeletal  and  hyposkeletal  muscles 
of  the  spine  attain  a  considerable  development  only  in  the 
neck  and  in  the  tail.  Owing  to  the  great  size  of  the 
sternum,  the  abdominal  muscles  are  usually  small,  and  the 
interna!  oblique  may  be  absent.  A  diaphragm,  consisting 
of  bundles  of  muscular  fibre,-  which  pass  from  the  ribs  to 
the  aponeurosis,  covering  the  ventral  face  of  the  lungs,  is 
developed  in  all  Birds,  but  aitams  to  the  greatest  degree  of 
completeness  in  the  RatiU^,  and  especially  in  Apteryx. 
The  muscles  of  the  limbs  are  remarkably  modified  by  the 
excessive  development  of  some  of  those  found  in  other 
Vertebrata,  and  the  suppression  of  others. 

Thus  in  all  birds  possessing  the  power  of  flight,  the  peo 
toralis  major,  the  chief  agent  of  the  downward  stroke  of 
the  wing,  iS  very  large  and  thick,  taking  its  origin  from  the 
whole  length,  and  a  great  part  of  the  depth,  of  the  keel  of 
the  sternum.  The  elevation  of  the  wing  is  chiefly  effected 
by  the  pectoralis  secundus  {levator  humeri;  or  p.  medius, 
Macg.,  plate  3,  figs.  4,  5),  which  arises  beneath  (wi/Am  and 
over,  in  the  standing  bird)  the  foregoing  muscle,  and  passes 
over  the  inner  side  of  the  scapulo-coracoid  articulation  as 
over  a  pulley,  to  reach  the  humerus.  The  muscles  of  the 
fore-arm  and  digits  are  reduced,  in  accordance  with  the 
peculiar  modification  of  the  skeleton  of  these  parts.  In 
the  hind  limb  of  most  birds  there  is  a  singular  extensor 
muscle,  which  arises  from  the  pubis,  and  ends  in  a  tendon 
which  passes  to  the  outside  of  the  knee-joint  and  terminates 
in  the  leg  by  uniting  with  Xht  flexor  diyitorum  per/oratus. 
The  result  of  this  arrangement  is  that  the  toes  are  flexed 
whenever  the  leg  is  bent  upon  the  thigh,  and  consequently 
the  roosting  bird  is  held  fast  upon  his  perch  by  the  weight 
of  his  own  body.^ 

The  Braim. 

In  Birds,  as  in  Reptiles,  the  cerebro-spinal  axis  is  angu- 
lated  at  the  junction  of  the  spinal  cord  with  the  medulla 
oblongata,  the  latter  being  bent  down  towards  the  ventral 
side  of  the  body.  The  region  on  which  the  nerves  of 
the  anteriur  and  posterior  extremities  originate  is  enlarged 
in  Birds.  In  the  lumbar  enlargement  the  posterior 
columns  of  the  cord  diverge  and  give  rise  to  the  sirtui 
rhomboidalis,  which  is  a  sort  of  repetition  of  the  fourth 
ventricle,  the  dilated  central  canal  of  the  spinal  cord  being 
covered  merely  by  a  thin  membrane,  consisting  chiefly  of 
the  ependyma  and  arachnoid.  The  brain  fills  the  cavity 
of  the  skull,  and  presents  a  well-developed  cerebellum ;  a 
mesencephalon,  divided  above  into  two  optic  lobes ;  and 
relatively  large  prosencephalic  hemispheres,  which  attain  a 
considerable  size  but  never  conceal  the  optic  lobes.  The 
transverse  fissures  of  the  cerebellum  are  distinct,  and  the 
lateral  appendages  of  the  cerebellum,  or  floccuti,  become 
well  defined,  and  are  wedged,  as  in  many  of  tljo  lower 
Mammalia,  in  cavities  of  the  side  walls  of  the  skull,  arched 
over  by  the  anterior  vertical  semicircular  canal 

There  is  no  pons  VanJii,  in  the  sense  of  transverse  fibre* 
connecting  the  two  halves  of  the  cerebellum,  visible  upon 
the  ventral  surface  of  the  mesencephalon.  The  optic  lobes 
contain  ventricles ;  these  are  thrown  down  to  the  sides  of 
the  base  of  the  brain,  and  are  connected  over  the  aijnadiictut 
Sy/vii  by  a  broad  cominissufal  band.  Kacli  prosencephalic 
lobe  contains  a  lateral  ventricle  (continuous  through  the 

'  See  M,iogillivrnv,  Brit.  Bin!.':,  vol    ii.  pl.nte  11,  fig.  1.  v  v  i'.  ' 

•  Sec  J.   Alph     lioiTlli,   /)<•  Molu  Animilium,   Konnr.   16S0-I682, 

Lugd.  Bat.  186.''i;  and  Dililiolhe-n  Anatomka,  Ueneva,  1605.  dIiIo  81^ 

tiss.  i-7 


i 


ANATOMV.J 


B  I  11  D  S 


725 


foramen  of  ^^unro  with  tLe  tbird  ventricle),  which  is  little 
more-  than  a  fissure  between  the  very  thin  inner  wall  of  the 
Icb^  ond  it9  thick  outer  part,  which  contains  the  corpus 
striatum.  The  corpora  striata  are  united  by  an  anterior 
commissure,  which  is  not  of  large  size.  The  thinning  of  t!ie 
inner  wall  of  the  lobes,  from  the  margin  of  the  foramen  of 
Munro  backwards,  which  gives  rise  to  the  fissure  of  Bichat 
in  the  Mammalia,  extends  for  a  very  short  distance  in  the 
SauropsiJa,  even  in  Birds.  ^  The  olfactory  lobes  ate  usually 
elongated,  and  contain  ventricles  continuous  with  those  of 
the  prosenccphalic  hemispheres.  In  all  the  Sauropsida  the 
motor  nerves  of  the  tongue  pass  through  a  foramen  in  the 
occipital  bone.  Uenco  twelve  pairs  of  cranial  nerves  are 
present,  except  in  the  Ophu/ia,  which  possess  no  spinal 
occessory  nerves.  The  lateral  cutaneous  branches,  so  gene- 
rally sent  to  the  truuk  by  the  pneumogastric  in  the 
Ichthyopsida,  are  absent,  but  the  pneumogustric  gives  a 
recurrent  branch  to  the  larynx.  The  third,  fourth,  and 
eixtb  nerves  arise  quite  independently  of  the  fifth.  The 
Bympathctic  is  well  developed.' 

Oeg.ins  of  Sense. 

Birds  possess  nasal  glands,  which  attain  a  large  size,  and 
lie  more  usually  u[ion  the  frontal  bone,  or  in  the  orbits, 
than  in  the  na-sal  cavity.  In  the  Snakes  and  Lizards  these 
bones  lie  between  the  septo-maxillaries  above  and  the 
vomers  bcUw.  In  Birds,  wherever  placed,  the  duct  opens 
near  the  same  region  as  in  the  Reptiles.  In  many  kinds, 
especially  Passerines,  the  bones  that  should  cover  them 
are  really  present,  but  are  rudimentarj'  and  attached  to 
the  vomer.     These  are  the  septo-maxillaries. 

The  eye  in  many  Birds,  as  in  the  extinct  Ickthyosauria, 
attains  very  great  absolute  and  relative  dimensions.  Birds 
possess,  like  many  Rei)tile3,  a  nictitating  membrane.' 
Iq  the  Lizards  a  short,  thick  muscle  {hursalis)  is  attached 
to  the  inner  and  posterior  wall  of  the  orbit,  and  ends  in  a 
fibrous  sheath.  A  tendon,  one  end  of  which  is  attached  to 
the  presphenoidal  region  of  the  inner  wall  of  the  orbit, 
passes  backwards  through  the  sheath,  and  then  forwards, 
to  be  attached  to  the  nictitating  membrane.  When  the 
muscle  contracts,  it  necessarily  pulls  the  latter  over  the 
eye.  A  Harderian  gland  is  always  developed,  and  a 
lachrjTnal  gland  very  generally,  but  not  always.  In  the 
Chdonia,  muscular  fibres  {forming  the  so-called  pyramulalis 
muscle)  arise  from  the  inner  side  of  the  eyeball,  and, 
arching  over  it  at  the  optic  nerve,  are  inserted  partly  into 
the  outer  edge  of  the  nictitating  membrane,  partly  into 
the  lower  eyelid.  The  CrocodiUa  have  a  pyramidalU 
muscle  taking  the  same  origin  and  course;  but  it  sends  no 
fibres  to  the  lower  eyelid,  its  tendon  being  inserted  alto- 
gether into  the  nictitating  niembrane.  The  third  arrange- 
ment, which  in  a  manner  brings  together  the  first  and  the 
second,  is  that  seen  in  Birds.  A  pyramidalU  muscle, 
arising  from  the  inner  and  under  surface  of  the  eyeball, 
soon  ends  in  a  tendon  which  sweeps  round  the  upper  and 
outer  surfaces  of  the  sclerotic  to  the  nictitating  membrane, 
as  in  the  Crocodiles.  But  there  is  also  a  lursalis  muscle, 
which  however  arises,  not,  as  in  Lizards,  from  the  wall  of 
the  orbit,  but  from  the  upper  surface  of  the  sclerotic  itself, 

•See  Owen,  Art.  "  Avcs,"  Cyclop.  Anal.  Phys.,  pp.  29S,  2iiD; 
Macgillivray,  BriL  Birds,  vol.  i.  p.  43,  anil  vol.  iii.  plate  18  ;  Owen 
'*  On  Br.".in  of  ApUryr,"  Trans.  Zool.  &>f.,  vol.  vii.  plates  45  and  46, 
p.  381.  For  the  developraeat  uf  the  Fowl's  brain,  see  Foster  and  B.il- 
four's  Ef'rm.  of  Embrycloijy ;  £te  alio  Huxley,  Anat.  Vert,  Anim., 
p.  301,  fifs.  »0.  81. 

'  Sec  M.icgillivray,  Bril.  Birds,  vol.  iii.,  plate  17,  p.  146,  for  excel- 
lent figures  and  descriptions  of  the  Bird's  eye  ;  also  Owen,  article 
"Avcs,"  CycV'p.  Anat.  and  I'liys.,  p.  303.  For  its  developracnt, 
Foster  an-l  Bnif-.ur's  work,  p.  97.  Tlie  Bird's  eye  being  a  more  highly 
•pecializcd  Krittlvm  organ,  its  conditioo  ill  the  lowe"  ^vy  of  the 
Saunj^sida  is  alct  giyen  in  the  text.. 


whence  it  passes  backwards  and  ends  in  a  tibrous  sheath 
which  encloses  the  tendon  of  the  pytamidalis.  The  coii- 
tniction  of  the  muscle  necessarily  tends  to  draw  the  tendon 
of  the  pyramidalis  away  from  the  optic  nerve.  A  tubercle 
is  sometimes  developed  frura  the  sclerotic  above  the  ei:- 
trance  of  the  ofitic  iktvc,  and  prevents  the  tendon  of  the 
pyramidalis  from  shifting  fonv.irds  and  inwards.  The 
eyeball  is  always  turned  by  four  recti  and  two  ohliqxn 
muscles.  The  superior  oblique  does  not  pass  over  a  pulley. 
The  Chdonia  and  most  Lacertilia  have  a  more  or  less  com- 
pletely developed  retractor  or  choanoid  muscle.  A  ring 
formed  of  bony  plates  is  developed  in  the  fore-part  of  the 
sclerotic  in  LaceHilia,  Chelonia,  Ichlhyosauria,  Dicyno- 
dontia,  Ptcrosatiria,  and  Avet ;  but  not  in  Op/iidia,  Flesio- 
$auria,  or  CrocodiUa.  The  iris  and  tensor  choroidei  contain 
striated  muscular  fibres.  A  pecten  is  very  generally  de 
veloped.  It  attains  a  large  size,  and  becomes  mucl 
plaited  in  Avis.  Even  in  Birds,  the  sclerotic  is  cartilaginous 

In  the  organs  of  hearing,  also,  the  Bird  is  best  studied 
as  a  culmination  of  the  Sauropsida. 

Only  CrocodUia  and  Ava  possess  a  rudiment  of  an  e.\ 
ternal  ear.  The  Ophidia  and  the  Amphis^loenoidea  have  m 
tymjiauic  cavity.'  In  some  Chdoma,  in  Sphenodon,  and  \\. 
the  Chameleons,  the  tympanic  membrane  is  covered  bj 
integument,  but  a  tympanic  cavity  exists.  In  Lacertdux 
the  tympanic  cavities  communicate  by  w^de  openings  wilh 
the  pharynx  ;  but  in  Chelonia,  CrocodiUa,  and  Avcs,  the 
communicating  passages,  reduced  in  size,  become  eustachian 
tubes.  In  the  Chdonia  these  curve  backwards,  downwards, 
and  inwards,  round  the  quadrate  bones,  and  open  separ- 
ately on  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  In  the  CrocodiUa  there 
are  three  eustachian  tubes — one  median,  and  two  lateral. 
In  Aves  there  is  but  one  eustachian  aperture,  answering  to 
the  median  of  the  CrocodiUa ;  and,  as  in  the  latter  group 
each  eustachian  tube  usually  traverses  the  osseous  base  of 
the  skuU  to  join  its  ftUow  in  the  common  aperture. 

The  stapes  is  a  columelliforra  bone,  the  outer  end  oi 
which  is  attached  to  the  tympanic  membrane  when  thb 
latter  is  developed,  but  lies  among  the  muscles  when  thero 
is  no  tympanic  cavity  (Snakes  and  Amp/usboence).  All 
Saurupsida  possess  a  fenestra  rotunda,  as  well  as  a  fenestra 
oval  is ;  and  all  have  a  cochlea,  which  is  never  coiled 
spirally,  and  is  more  rudimentary  in  the  Chelonia  than  in 
other  groupj.  Three  semicircular  canals,  an  anterior  and 
a  posterior  vertical  and  an  external  horizontal,  are  con- 
nected with  the  membranous  vestibule.  In  Avcs,  tte 
anterior  vertical  canal  is  very  large  in  proportion  to  tlie 
others,  and  the  adjacent  crura  of  the  two  vertical  cauals 
overlap  before  they  unite  with  one  another.^ 

Alimentary  Okcans. 

Well-developed  sub-lingual,  sub-maxillary,  and  parotid 
glands  appear  in  Birds,  and  the  sub-lingual  glands  attain 
an  immense  size  in  the  Woodpeckers  (Macg.,  Bril.  Bird,', 
vol.  iii.  plate  15).  The  tongue  varies  greatly,  being  sume- 
times  obsolete  (as  in  the  Crocodile).  It  is  small  in  the 
TotipalmatcE  and  in  Balctniceps.  It  is  generally  sagitti 
form  and  papillate  at  the  base ;  but  it  is  thick,  and  cvet» 
emarginate  in  the  Rapaees  (.Macg.,  Brit,  Birds,  vol.  iii. 
plates  19,  20).  In  the  Picidce  {op,  ci!.,  plate  15),  where  the 
hyoid  bones  are  extremely  elongated  and  the  tongue  pre- 
hensible  to  a  marvellous  degree,  the  true  lingual  part  is  a 
small  arrow-head,  covered  with  a  prickly,  homy  eheath  ; 
these  prickles  are  reverted,  like  a  Snake's  teeth. 

The  alimentary  canal  of  Birds  may  have  several  dilata- 

'  Sec  .Margilli\Tay,  /in/.  Birds,  vol.  iii.  plate  18,  tgs.  2  and  3,  p. 
150  ;  Owen,  article"  Avcs,"  in  Cyclop.  Anal,  and  Phys  ,  p.  3CS.  fly 
141.  For  development,  see  Foster  and  Balfonr's  worit,  p.  HI  j 
3uxic>'  on  '  i^m  «o<3  Slopes,"  p  SC'S  ;  and  Parker,  t«v.  Ue. 


72G 


B  I  R  D  S 


[anatomy. 


tions  above  tlie  intestine j  the  latter  is  divisible  into  small 
aad  large,  and  the  last  ahvays  terminates  in  a  cloaca.  It 
is  invested  by  a  peritoneal  coat,  which  follows  the  curva- 
tures of  the  intestine.  In  most  Birds,  as  in  the  Croco- 
diles, the  pyloric  and  cardiac  apertures  are  approximated. 
In  niany  CrocodUia  and  Aves  (e.g.,  Ardeidce)  there  is  a 
Dyloric  dilatation  before  the  commencement  of  the  duo- 
denum. In  the  AlectoromorphcB,  in, Eagles  and  Hawks 
amongst  the  AeloTnorphce,  and  in  Pigeons,  the  cesophagus 
is  enlarged  into  a  "crop."  In  the  latter  it  is  bilobate 
and  symmetrical  (Macg.,  op.  cit.,  vol  i.  plate  7). 

In  the  CrocodUia  and  in  Ares  the  walls  of  the  stoma'.b 
are  very  muscular,  and  the  muscular  fibres  of  each  side 
radiate  from  a  central  tendon  or  aponeurosis.  The  thick- 
ening of  the  muscular  tissue  of  the  stomach  attains  its 
maximum  in  the  Graminivorous  Birds ;  and  it  is  accom- 
panied by  the  development  of  the  epithelium  into  a  dense 
and  hard  coat,  adapted  for  crushing  the  food  of  these  ani- 
mals. Birds  commonly  aid  the  triturating  power  of  this 
gastric  mill  by  swallowing  stones ;  but  the  habit  is  not 
confined  to  them.  Crocodiles  having  been  observed  to  do 
the  saine  thing.'  Birds  are  further  remarkable  for  the 
development  of  a  broad  zone  of  glands  in  the  lower  part 
«f'  the  ■  cesophagus,  which  is  usually  dilated,  and  forms  a 
proventriculus,  connected  by  a  narrow  neck  with  the  gizzard 
(gigerium).  In  Svla  alba  and  Phalacrocorax  carlo,  the 
writer,  long  ago,  saw  this  zone  to  be  imperfect.  In  these 
birds  the  gullet  is  very  capacious  from  the  pharynx  down- 
wards, but  the  proventriculus  is  still  more  so, — it  is  a 
large  "  paunch." 

Some  Ophidia  have  a  caecum  at  the  junction  of  the  small 
intestine  with  the  large ;  and  two  such  cseca,  which  some- 
times attain  a  large  size,  are  generally  developed  in  Aves. 
In  this  class,  also,  the  small  intestine  not  unfrequently 
presents  a  ca;cal  appendage,  the  remains  of  the  vitelline 
duct.  The  writer's  drawings  show  this  in  Gallinula  chlo- 
ropus,  Ardea  cinerea,  and  Colymhus  septentrionalia.  The 
duodenum  of  Birds  constantly  makes  a  loop,  within  which 
the  pancreas  lies,  as  in  the  Mammalia. 
■  The  liver  in  the  Sauropsida  almost  always  possesses  a 
gall  bladder,  which  is  usually  attached  to  the  under  surface 
of  the  right  lobe,  but  in  Ophidia  is  removed  to  some  dis- 
tance from  it. 

A  peculiar  glandular  sac,  the  bursa  Fahricii,  opens  into 
the  anterior  and  dorsal  region  of  the  cloaca  in  Birds.' 

_  The  Heart. 

In  Birds,  the  venous  and  arterial  blood  currents  com- 
municate only  in  the  pulmonary  and  systemic  capillaries. 
The  auricular  and  ventricular  septa  are  complete  (see  Owen, 
".\ve3,"  p  330),  as  in  the  CrocodUia;  but  the  right  ven- 
tricle only  gives  off  the  pulmonary  artery,  the  left  aortic 
arch  has  disappeared,  and  the  right  arch  (the  4th  of  that 
side  in  the  embryo)  becomes  the  most  important  of  aU  the 
arches.  The  septum  of  the  cavum  pulmonale  becomes  a 
great  muscular  fold,  and  takes,  on  the  function  of  an  auri- 
culo-veutricular  valve.  At  the  origin  of  the  pulmonary 
artery,  and  at  that  of  the  aortic  arch,  three  ^milunar 
valves  are  developed 

'  See  Sir  S.  Baker's  Ismailia,  vol.  i.  p.  295  '  "  The  stomach  con- 
tained about  five  pounds"  weight  of  pebbles  (in  a  Crocodile  12  feet  3 
inches  long  in  its  entire  length),  as  though  it  had  fed  upon  flesh  restinc 
up^tn  a  gravel  bank,  and  had  swallowed  the  pebbles  that  adhered. 
This  intrepid  traveller  seems  to  be  unaware  that  the  Crocodile  has  a 
strong  gizzard.  *   ■     -    ■ 

•  Besides  copious  unpublished  materials  on  this  subject  from  his 
own  dissections,  the  writer  is  largely  indebted  to  Macgillivray's  most 
valuable  work,  so  full  of  illustrations  of  the  digestive  organs  of  Birds  ; 
also  to  Prof.  Owen's  article  "Aves"  {op.  cil.)  ;  tr  Prof.  Tluxley  ho 
©W09 /orm  arwl  order.  For  the  development  of  those  parts  the  re.ader 
la  still  directed  to  FosUr  aad  Balfour's  work,  as  also  '^f  the  parts  yet 
\o  b«  d»>rribed. 


In  Aves  there  is  no  renal  portal  system,  and  the  anterior 
abdominal  vein  opens  into  the  inferior  vena  cava,  close  to 
the  heart.  Nevertheless,  a  median  trunk,  which  is  given 
off  from  the  caudal  vein,  carries  a  considerable  proportion 
of  its  blood  directly  into  the  hepatic  portal  system.  The 
pericardium  of  the  Bird  is  thin,  but  of  a  firm  texture,  and 
adheres  by  its  external  surface  to  the  surrounding  air-cells. 
(Owen,  "  Aves,"  p.  330.) 

Respiratory  and  Vocal  Organs.' 

'*  Id  Birds  there  are  distinct  thyroid,  cricoid,  and  arytenoid  ca: 
tilages,  which  may  be  more  or  less  completely  ossified.  Sometimes 
an  epiglottia  is  added."*  The  voice  of  Birds,  however,  is  not  formed 
in  tho  lar)-nx,  b'jt  in  the  syrinx  or  lower  larynx,  which  may  be  de- 
veloped in  three  positions  : — 1.  At  the  bottom  of  the  trachea,  from  • 
the  trachea  alone ;  2.  At  the  Junction  of  the  trachea  and  bronchi,  and 
out  of  both  ;  3.  In  the  bronchi  alon'^.  The  syrinx  may  be  altogether 
absent,  as  ia  the  JtiUitie  and  the  CaOjirlida  or  American  Vultures. 
The  commonest  form  of  syrinx  is  the  second  mentioned  above,  or  the 
hronchi-trachfal  syrinx.  It  is  to  be  met  with  in  all  our  common 
Song  Birds,  but  is  also  completely  developed  in  mar>y  Birds,  such  as 
the  Crows,  which  have  no  son^.  In  its  commonest  condition  this 
fonn  of  syrinx  presents  the  following  characters'^  The  hinderraost 
rings  of  the  trachea  coalesce,  and  form  a  peculiarly  formed  chamber, 
the  tym}>anum.  Immediately  beyond  this  the  bronchi  diverge,  and 
from  their  posterior  wall,  where  one  bronchus  passes  into  the  other, 
a  vertical  fold  of  the  lining  membrane  rises  in  the  middle  line 
towards  the  tympanum,  and  forms  a  vertical  s-:ptitjn  between  tho 
anterior  apertures  of  the  two  bronchi.  The  anterior  edge  of  this 
septum  is  a  free  and  thin  mcmlrana  s<:mUunaris,  but  in  its  interior 
a  cartilaginous  or  osseous  frame  is  developed,  and  becomes  united 
with  the  tympanum.  The  base  of  the  frame  is  broad,  and  sends 
out  two  cornua,  one  along  the  ventral,  and  the  other  along  the 
dorsal  edge  of  the  inner  wall  of  the  bronchus  of  its  side,  which  in 
this  part  of  its  extent  is  membranous  and  elastic,  and  receives  the 
name  of  the  mcmbrana  fympani/ormis  iniernn. 

'*  The  bronchial  '  rings '  opposite  this  are  necessarily  incomplete 
internally,  and  have  the  form  of  arches  embracing  the  outer  moiety 
of  the  bronchus.  The  second  and  third  of  these  bronchial  arcs  are 
freely  movable,  and  elastic  tissue  accumulated  upon  their  inner 
surfaces  gives  rise  to  a  fold  of  the  mucous  membrane,  which  forniS 
the  outer  boundary  of  a  cleft,  bounded  on  the  inner  side  by  tht 
vumbrana  semilunaris. 

.  "The  air  forced  through  these  two  clefts  from  the  Inngs  sets 
these  elastic  margins  vibrating,  and  thus  gives  rise  to  a  musical 
note,  the  character  of  which  is  chiefly  determined  by  the  tension  of 
the  elastic  margins  and  the  length  of  the  tracheal  column  of  air. 
The  muscles,  by  the  contraction  of  which  these  two  factors  of  the 
voice  are  modified,  are  extrinsic  and  intrinsic.  The  former  are 
possessed  by  Birds  in  general,  and  are  usually  two  pairs,  pacing  from 
the  trachea  to  the  furcula  and  to  the  sternum  (Macg.,  vol.  ii.  plate 
12,  fig.  8,  d.d.,  e.e.;  and  vol.  iii.  plate  15,  m.m.,  n.n.)  Some  Birds 
possessing  a  broncho-tracheal  syrinx  such  as  has  been  described,  as 
the  Ahctoroynorphiz  (see  JIacg. ,  vol.  ii.  plate  12,  fig.  8,/.),  Cftcno- 
morpha:,  and  Dysporomorphcc,  have  no  intrinsic  muscles,  ilost 
others  have  one  pair,  attached  on  one  side  to  the  rings  of  the  trachea 
above,  and  to  the  tympanum,  or  the  proximal  bronchial  arcs  below 
(Macg.,  vol.  ii.  pla"te  12,  figs.  1,  2;  and  vol.  iii.  plate  19).  The 
majority  of  the  Coracomorpha^  (Macg.,  vol.  ii.  plates  10,  11)  have 
five  or  six  pairs  of  intrinsic  syringeal  muscles,  which  pass  from  the 
trachea  and  its  tympatium  to  the  movable  bronchial  arcs.*  The 
Parrots  have  no  septum,  and  only  three  pairs  of  intrinsic  muscles. 

"The  tracheal  syrinx  only  occurs  in  some  American  CoracO" 
morphiT.  The  hinder  end  of  tho  trachea  is  flattened,  and  six  or 
seven  of  its  rings  above  tlie  last  are  interrupted  at  the  sides,  aitd 
held  together  by  a  longitudinal  ligamentous  band.  These  rings  art 
excessively  delicate,  so  that  tho  part  of  the  trachea  is  in  great  par 
membranous.  The  bronchial  syrinx  occurs  only  in  SUalomis  ana 
Crotophnga. 

'  We  shall  here  give  Professor  Huxley's  excellent  abstract  of  what 
is  known  upon  this  subject  up  to  this  time  ;  but  the  reader  is  rcfeiTcd 
to  Joh.  Mailer's  work,  "  Re.sc.irches  on  tiie  Comparative  Anatomy  of 
the  \'ocal  Organs  of  Birds,"  Serlin  Acad.,  June  1S45,  and  Ann.  and 
Mag.  N.  II.,  vol.  xvii.  p.  499.  MacgillivTay  has  many  excellent  illus- 
tratlons  and  descriptions  of  these  parts  ;  aud  tho  wTiter  followed  him 
step  by  step  many  years  ago. 

*  For  a  clear  description  of  the  exquisite  structaro  of  the  tracheal 
rings  in  Birds,  see  Macg.,  vol.  ii.  p.  31.  They  are  often  thoroughly 
ossified,  and  are  notched  above  and  below,  both  before  and  behind  ;  and 
alternate  ridges  allow  a  marvellous  amount  of  overlapping,  the  edges 
being  well  bevelled  ;  each  ring  is  an  ellipse. 

'  MacgilliiTay  (op.  cil.,  vol.  ii.  pp.  26, 28)  was  afraid  to  bethought 
oversCaiing  the  number  of  these  intrinsic  mm^cles.  H^  understated 
tbem,  not  thoroughly  making  out  their  divisioDal  Unea. 


ANATOMV.J  BIRDS 

"  In  tht  gcnas  Oinyxis,  among  the  Chclonia,  anJ  in  some 
epccicA  of  Crocodilus  (C.  acutus,  Ag.),  the  trachea  ifl  bent  upon 
iue!f.  Similar  6exures  attain  an  cxtraordioary  tlevclopmcnt  in 
many  BirJs,  and  may  lie  outside  tlie  thorax  under  the  iutcgument 
(Tclrao  VTogallus,  some  species  of  Crax  and  I'oulope) ;  in  the 
cavity  of  the  thorax  (some  Spoonbills);  under  the  body  of  the 
sternum,  in  a  large  chamber  hollowed  out  of  the  keel  (some  Sirans 
and  Cranes) :  even  in  a  sort  of  cup  formed  by  the  median  process  of 
the  lurcula  {A'umida  crislala).  In  the  Emeu  some  of  the  rings  of 
the  trachea  are  incomplete  in  front,  and  bound  tlie  aperture  of  an 
air-sac  which  lies  in  front  of  the  trachea.  Some  ISirds  {ApUnodytes, 
ProceUaria)  have  the  trachea  divided  by  a  longitudinal  septum,  as 
in  Sphargis  among  the  Chelonia.  The  tracheal  tym[ianum  is  greatly 
enlarged  in  Ccpltaioplcrus,  and  in  many  Ducks,  Geese,  and  Divers  ; 
and  in  these  aquatic  birds  the  enlargement  is  more  marked  ia  the 
males,  and  is  usually  symmetrical,  the  left  side  being  generally  the 
larger." 

**  In  ytics  the  lungs  are  firmly  fixed  on  each  side  of  the  vertebral 
column,  tlie  dorsal  surface  of  each  lung  being  moulded  to  the  super- 
jacent yrrtt'braj  and  ribs.  The  muscular  fibres  of  the  diaphragm 
arise  from  the  ribs  outside  the  margins  of  the  lungs,  and  foiTn  the 
Vertebral  column,  and  end  in  an  aponeurosis  upon  the  ventral 
surface  of  the  lungs.  Each  bronclius  enters  its  lung  nearer  the 
centre  than  the  anterior  edge,  and,  immediately  losing  its  car- 
tilaginous or  bony  rings,  dilates,  and  then  traverses  the  hing, 
gradually  narrowing  to  the  posterior  edge  of  that  viscus,  where 
jt  tcnninates  by  oj'cning  into  the  posterior  air-sac,  which  gene- 
rnlly  lies  in  the  abdomen.  From  the  inner  side  of  the  bronchus 
canals  are  given  olf,  ono  near  its  distal  end,  and  others  near  ita 
entrance  into  the  lung,  which  pass  directly  to  the  ventral  surface 
<if  the  lung,  and  there  open  into  other  air-sacs.  Of  these  there 
«'«  four.  Two,  the  anierior  and  the  posterior  thoracic,  lie  io 
lh«  ventral  face  of  the  lung  in  the  thorax.  •  The  other  two 
are  situated  in  front  of  its  anterior  end,  and  are  extra-thoracic. 
The  external  and  superior  is  the  cervical  ;  the  internal  and 
inferior  the  iiUer-ctavicular  (Macg.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  17,  fig.  107). 
This  last  unites  into  one  cavity  with  ita  fellow  of  the  opposite 
lung.  Thus  there  are  altogether  nine  air-sacs;  two  posterior  or 
al-dominal,  four  thoracic,  two  cervical,  and  one  inter-clavicular. 
t)ther  large  canals  given  off  from  the  bronchus  do  not  end  in 
air-sacs,  but  those  which  pass  from  the  inner  side  of  the  bronchus 
run  along  tlie  vtntral  eurfac*,  and  those  on  the  outer  side  along 
the  dorsal  surface  of  the  lung.  Hero  they  give  off  at  right 
angles  a  series  ol  secondary  canals,  and  these  similarly  emit  still 
smaller  tertiary  (anals,  and  thus  the  whole  substance  of  tho  lung 
becomes  inter-penetrated  by  tubuli,  the  walls  of  the  finest  of 
which  are  minutely  saccuhated.  The  different  systems  of  tubuli 
«re  placed  in  communication  by  perforations  in  their  walls.  In 
most  birds  these  air-sacs  (except  the  anterior  and  posterior  thoracic, 
which  never  communicate  with  any  cavity  but  that  of  the  lungs) 
are  in  communication  with  a  more  or  less  extensively  ramified 
«ystcra  of  air  passages,  which  may  extend  through  a  great  many  of 
the  bones,  and  even  give  off  subcutaneous  s,ics.  Thus  the  inter- 
clavicular air-sac  generally  sends  a  prolongation  into  each  a.xilla, 
wnich  opens  into  the  proximal  end  of  tli£  humerus,  and  causes  the 
cavity  of  that  bone  to  be  full  of  air.  When  the  sternum,  the  ribs, 
and  the  bones  of  the  pectoral  girdle  are  pneumatic,  they  also  receive 
their  air  from  the  inter-clavicular  air-sacs.  The  cervical  air-sacs 
Tnay  send  prolongations  along  the  vertebral  canal  of  each  side;' 
which  supply  the  bodies  of  the  cervical  vertebne,  and  communicate 
with  elongated  air-chambers  in  the  spinal  canal  itself.  Wuun  the 
dorsal  vertebra  are  pneumatic  they  communicate  with  the  system  of 
the  cervical  air-sacs.  The  abdominal  air-sacs  send  prolongations 
ahovo  the  kidneys  to  the  sacral  vertebra:  and  to  the  femora,  whence 
those  bones,  when  they  are  pneumatic,  receive  their  air.  The 
pulmonary  air-s.ac3  and  their  prolongations  do  not  communicate 
^Hth  the  air  cavities  of  the  skull,  which  receive  their  air  from  the 
tympana  and  the  nasal  chambers.  In  some  Birds  {Passcrirm)  the 
air  is  conducted  from  the  tjTiip.anum  to  the  articular  piece  of  the 
mandiblo  by  a  3pcci,al  bony  tube,  the  siphonium  [the  largest  of  the 
tympanic  chain,  and  having  the  general  anatomical  relations  of  the 
ichlhyic  '  interopcrcalar. 'j ' 

,  Renal  iiND  Reteoductive  Organs. 

The  Iddnoys  of  Birds  are  composed  of  a  number  of  lobules 
«f  unequal  sizes,  and  these  are  packed  in  the  concavities  of 
the  pelvis,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  lungs  are  packed  in  the 
regular  intercostal  spaces  of  the  upper  part  of  the  thora.t. 
The  ureters,  as  in  tho  Reptiles,  open  directly  into  tho 
cloaca ;  but  there  is  no  urinary  bladder.  Tho  bursa 
Fabridi  opens  into  the  cloaca  above  its  hinder  part. 

The  testes  -lio  'on  each  side  the  foremost  lobes  of  tho 
kidneys.  They  aro  very  small  in  mid-winter,  and  largest 
by  the  midiUc  of  April.    In  the  embryo  Bird  there  are  two 


\. 


oviducts.  "The  duct  of  MUUcr  on  the  right  side  (that  on 
the  left  side  v.'ilh  the  corresponding  ovary  generally  dis- 
appearing) remains  in  the  female  as  the  oviduct.  In  the 
male  it  is  ahnost  entirely  obliterated  on  both  sides  "  (Foster 
and  Balfour,  p.  168). 

Integu-men-t  and  Featders.' 

"The  exoskoleton  of  Birds  consists  almost  entirely  of 
epidermic  structures  in  the  form  of  horny  sheaths,  scales, 
plates,  or  feathers.  No  Bird  possesses  dermal  ossifications, 
unless  tho  spurs,  which  are  developed  upon  tho  legs  aucl 
wings  of  some  upecies,  may  be  regarded  as  such. 

The  feathers  aro  of  various  kinds.  Those  which  exhibit 
the  most  complicated  structure  are  called /Jcnncp,  or  contnur 
feathers,  because  they  lie  on  the  surface  and  determine  the 
contour  of  the  body.  In  every  peima  the  following  parts 
are  to  be  distinguished  : — a  main  stem  (scapus)  form- 
ing tho  a.\is  of  the  feather,  and  divided  into  a  proximal 
hollow  cylinder,  partly  imbedded  in  a  sac  of  the  derm, 
called  the  calamus,  or  quill ;  and  a  distal  lexiUtim,  or  vane, 
consisting  of  a  four-sided  solid  shaft,  the  rachis,  which 
extends  to  the  extremity  of  the  feather,  and  bears  a  num- 
ber of  lateral  processes,  the  barbs.  The  calamus  has  an 
inferior  aperture  (■umbilicus  inferior),  into  which  the 
vascular  pulp  penetrates,  and  a  superior  aperture  (umiiYicaj 
superior),  situated  on  the  under  surface  of  the  feather  at 
the  junction  of  the  calamus  with  the  scapus.  The  barbs 
are  narrow  plates,  tapering  to  points  at  their  free  ends, 
and  attached  by  their  bases  on  each  side  of  the  rachis 
The  edges  of  these  barbs  arc  directed  upwards  and  down- 
wards, when  the  vcxidum  of  the  feather  is  horizontal. 
The  interstices  between  the  barbs  are  filled  up  by  the 
barbulcs, — pointed  processes,  which  stand  in  the  same 
relation  to  the  barbs  as  the  barbs  do  to  the  rachis.  The 
barbules  themselves  may  bo  laterally  serrated  and  termi- 
nated by  little  hooki,  which  interlock  with  the  hooks  of 
the  opposed  barbules.  In  very  many  Biids  each  quill 
bears  two  vexilla ;  the  second,  called  the  after-shaft  (hi/po- 
rachis),  being  attached  on  the  underside  of  the  first  close 
to  the  superior  umbilicus.  The  after-shaft  is  generally 
much  smaller  than  the  chief  vexillum ;  but  in  some  Birds, 
as  the  Casuariidx,  the  two  are  of  equal  size,  or  nearly  so. 
Muscles  pass  from  the  adjacent  integuments  to  tho 
feather  sac,  and  by  their  contraction  erect  the  feather. 
The  other  kinds  of  feathers  differ  from  the  pennse,  in 
having  the  barbs  soft  and  free  from  one  another,  when 
they  constitute  peiinoplumce,  or  plumulce  (down),  accord- 
ing as  the  scapus  is  much  or  little  developed.  When  the 
scapus  is  very  long,  and  the  vexillum  very  small  or  rudi- 
mentary, the  feather  is  termed  a.  filopluma. 

The  contour  feathers  are  distributed  evenly  over  the 
body  only  in  a  few  Birds,  as  the  Ratita:,  the  Penguins,  and 
some  others.  Generally,  the  [leniix  are  arranged  in 
definitely  circumscribed  [latches  or  bands,  between  which 
tho  integument  is  either  bare  or  covered  only  with  down. 
These  series  of  contour  feathers  are  termed  pterylae,  and 
their  interspaces  apteria. 

In  some  Birds,  such  as  tho  Herons,  plumidae  of  a  peculiar 
kind,  the  summits  of  which  break  off  into  a  fine  dust  of 
powder  as  fast  as  they  are  formed,  arc  developed  upon 
certain  portions  of  the  integument,  which  are  termed 
pouder-doUTi  patches^ 

*  This  abstract  is  taken  (by  the  author's  rermis?ion)  from  Professor 
Huxley's  Anatomy  of  Vertcbraltd  Animals,  pp.  27J,  275.  For  a  full 
account  of  those  stnictures,  ree  Nit2sch*s  Plt^rylography,  translated 
from  the  German  by  Dr  P.  L.  Silatcr,  F.R.S.,  Ray  Soc.,  1S67. 

t  See  Bartlett,  "On  the  Baliniceps,"  Proe.  Zool.  Soc.,  March  2ii, 
ISOl,  pp.  1-4  ;  a«d  Murie  "On  the  Dermal  and  Visceral  Structuns 
of  tho  Kagu,  Sun-Bittern, and  Boat-Bill,"  Train.  Zool.  Sec.,  1871.  i-Un 
CC,  pp.  4G5-492  ;  in  this  valitalOe  paper  the  powder-doum  pattJ.u  arc 
also  shown  in  Poitnygits^uil  Cacatua. 


728 


BIRDS 


[fossil  fokme. 


Sgpppos«d 
TnawAic 

Birds. 


The  integument  of  Birds  is,  for  the  most  part,  devoid 
of  glands ;  but  many  Birds  have  a  peculiar  sebaceous 
gland  deTeloped  in  the  integument  which  covers  the 
coccyx  This  vropygkd  gland  secretes  an  oily  fluid,  which 
the  Bird  spreads  over  its  feathers  by  the  operation  of 
"  preening."  The  escretion  passes  out  by  one  or  two 
apertures,  commonly  situated  upon  an  elevation,  which 
may  or  may  not  be  provided  with  a  special  circlet  of 
feathers. 
c  In  various  Birds  {e.g.,  the  Turkey)  the  integument  about 
the  head  and  neck  develops  highly  vascular  and  sometimes 
erectile  processes  {combs,  wattles). 

Within  the  extremely  narrow  space  of  an  article  like  the 
present,  the  merest  abstract  of  most  of  our  present  orni- 
thotomical  knowledge  can  be  given.  A  mere  list  of  the  - 
published  works  on  the  c-ubject  would  fill  most  of  the 
space  allotted  to  the  writer.  We  will  conclude  by  giving 
Professor  Huxley's  masterly  comparison  of  the  Bird  class 
and  that  of  the  Reptiles  below  with  the  Mammalia  above 
them  (see  Proc.  Zool.  Soc,  April  11,  1867).  The  wTiter 
has  modified  some  assertions  from  later  papers  by  the  same 
author : — 

"  That  the  association  of  Birds  with  Reptiles  into  one  primary 
group  of  the  VcrUbrala,  the  Sauropsida,  :s  not  a  mere  fancy,  hat 
that  the  necessity  of  such  a  step  is  as  plain  and  demonstrable  as 
any  position  of  taxonomy  can  be,  appears  to  me  to  be  proved  by  an 
onuraeration  of  the  principal  points  "in  which  Aves  and  liepiilia 
agree  with  one  another  and  difl'er  from  the  Mammalia. 

"  1   They  are  devoid  of  hair. 

"  2.  The  centra  of  their  vertebnehave  no  epiphyses. 

"  3.  Their  skulls  have  single  occipital  condyles. 

"  4.  The  prootic  bone  either  remains  distinct  throughout  life,  or 
anitcs  with  the  epiotic  and  opisthotic  afkr  these  have  become 
ankylosed  with  the  supra-occipital  and  exoccipital. 

"5.  The  malleus  is  not  subservient  to  the  function  of  hearing, 
as  [one  of  the]  osncula  audUus. 

"6.  Tile  mandible  is  connected  with  the  skull  by  the  intermedia- 
tion of  a  quadrate  bone  [waich  "epresenta  the  upper  bulbous  part, 
with  the  *  manubrium  '  of  the  Tiiall^iis  of  Mammalia]. 

"7.  Each  ramus  of  the  mandible  is  composed  of  a  number  of 
separate  ossifications,  which  may  amount  to  as  many  as  six  in  all. 
{Of  these  the  articular^  represents  the  [antero-inferior  part  cf  the] 
malUtu  of  Mammalia). 

"8.  The  apparent  'ankle-joint'  is  situated  not  between  the  (iii'a 
and  the  astragalus,  as  in  the  Mammalia,  but  between  the  projdmal 
and  di.4tal  divisions  of  the  tarsus.' 

"9.  The  brain  is  devoid  of  any  corpus  aillosiim. 

"10.  The  heart  is  usually  provided  with  two  aortic  arches  ;  if 
only  one  remains,  it  is  the  right. 

"  U.  The  red  blood-corpuscles  are  oval  and  rncleated. 

"12.  The  cavities  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen  are  never  separated 
by  a  complete  diaphra^. 

"  13.  'The  allantois,  which  is  highly  vascular,  is  very  large,  and 
envelops  the  embryo ;  but  no  villi  for  placental  connection  with  the 
parent  are  developed  upon  it 

"14.  There  are  no  mammary  glands."  (W.  K.  P.J 

FOSSIL  BIRDS. 

Footprintd,or  casts  of  footprints,  at  the  time  of  their 
discovery  and  long  afterwards  supposed  to  be  those  of 
Birds,  were  found  about  the  year  1 835  in  the  Triassic  forma- 
tion of  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  in  New  England,  and 
were  described  by  Messrs  Deane  and  Marsh.  Subsequently 
Professor  Hitchcock  and  Mr  Warren  contributed  to  the 
elucidation  of  these  tracks,  which  were  ascribed  to  various 
genera  of  the  Glass  that  received  the  names  of  Ainbhnyx, 
Argiizaum,  Brahtozoum,  Grallator,  Ornilhx>pus,  Plalyptcma, 
Tndeniipes,  and  others.  No  portion  of  any  of  the  animals 
to  which  these  traces  are  due  seems  to  have  been  met  with,' 

'  See  Oi'CPiib.iur,  Archiv  fyir  Anatomie  (1363),  and  Untermchungoi 
eur  vtTffUru-t^cndfn  Anatcmxe  (18»''4). 

•The. only  known  bones  from  this  dc7K>sit  were  exhibited  by  Pro- 
fcMor  W  D.  rtogen  at  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  'n 
Batb  {Hep.  Br.  Au.  IS"!,  Trant.  Sect.,  p.  60). 


and  the  best  American  pulsontologists  are  now  inclined  to 
attribute  them  rather  to  Dinosaurian  Reptiles  than  to  Birds. 
Whatever  may  be  throught  of  the  rest,  it  appears  most 
likely  that  the  creatures  designated  as  Platypterna  and 
Tndeniipes  were  certainly  not  ornithic.  Brontozoum  must 
have  bc-en  a  colossal  animal,  its  footprint  measuring  about 
16|  inches  in  length  and  its  stride  some  8  feet. 

An  enormous  space  of    time  separates  these  reputed  Oolitie 
Ornithichnites,  as  they  are  called,  from  the  first  undoubted  Bitdj. 
fossil   Bird.     This  was  discovered  in    1861   by  Andreas 
Wagner  La  the  lithograj 'lic  slate  of  Solenhofen  in  Bavaria, 
belonging  to  the  Oolitic    ejies,  and  is  commonly  known  by 
the  name  of  Arduzopieryz,^  though  that  of  Gryphosauriu 


Fio.  38.— Slab  containing  remains  of  Archa/ypter^jT.  from  the  crlcioal  Id  tto 
BilUstl  Museum.    Retiuced. 

was  given  by  its  original  describer  to  the  at  present  uniQ;:e 
specimen  now  in  the  British  Museum.  Unfc<rtunate!y 
deficient  in  some  verj'  important  parts — such  as  the  head 
and  nearly  aL  the  sternal  apparatus — it  has  others  in  ex- 
cellent preservation.  It  was  about  the  size  of  a  Rook 
{Con-Its  frugilegus),  and  along  with  the  greater  portion  of 
the  skeleton,  impressions  of  many  of  its  featiers,  parti- 
cularly the  quills,  are  plainly  visible.  Its  most  obvious 
peculiarity  is  the  presence  of  a  long  Lizard-likj  tail,  com- 
posed of  twenty  vertebra: ;  but  from  each  of  these  springs 
a  pair  of  well-developed  rectrices.  A  scarcely  less  remark- 
able feature  is  that  aflforded  by  the  extremity  of  the  wings, 
whereitwjuld  appear  that  there  was  a  free  digit  answering  to 
the  pollex.  The  many  Reptilian  characters  of  his  wonder- 
ful creature  cacnot  be  noticed  in  this  treatise,  though 
their  value  must  be  fully  ad  mitted ;  but  since  the  appearance 
of  Professor  Owen's  description  of  the  specimen  {Phil. 
Trans.  1833,'  p.  33),  nobody  has  hesitated  to  receive  it  as  a 
true  Bird,  though  one  which  exhibits  an  extraordinary  dis- 
similarity from  all  other  known  members  of  the  Cliss 
To  make  iny  suggestion  as  to  the  more  iinniediate  affinitiej 
and  habits  of  ArcAccoptcn/x  were  vain.      It  at  present 

•  Herr  llcrmanu  von  Meyer  had  previously  described  a  fossil  feather 
from  the  same  formation,  to  the  owner  of  which  he  gave  this  name. 
Its  specific,  generic,  not  to  .say  ordinal,  identity  with  the  creature  wlios* 
remfl.'is  were  subsequently  found  is  of  course  problematical,  but  th* 
nc«ivcd  lawj  of  uomeuclature  fully  justify  the  common  usaga. 


rOSSIL    FOBUd.] 


BIRDS 


■■>Q 


afanils  alone,  and  all  that  can  be  saiil  in  the  latl;r  respect 
IS,  that  the  form  of  ita  feet  inJIcates  a  bird  given  to  a  more 
or  less  arboreal  life.      It  13  uut  easy  to  imagine  the  use  iu 


f  -  39.— Portion  of  the  eljb  coti'ftiiitiiK  ifiimin^  of  Arcfurjplt'ijT.  3£j\j«'ing  the 
«»tierDit\  o(  lliu  tall,  witti  •  pair  ol  (eattieia  splinting  froni  etctl  vcncbra 
NutuiaJ  sua 

the  bearer's  economy  of  its  singular  tail,  which  one  would 
think  must  have  been  a  clumsy  appendage,  and  this  notion 
is  perhaps  justified  by  the  certainty  that  similar  tails  had 
g'lne  out  of  fashion  when  the  next  birds  known  to  have 
existed  flourished. 
I  These  are  from  the  Cretaceous  formation,  and  as  in  that 
freshwater-deposits  are  few  in  number,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  true  ornithic  remains  are  in  them  exceedingly  rare 
Many  fossils  that  were  formerly  thought  to  have  been  the 
remains  of  Birds  have  since  been  determined  as  belonging 
to  Reptiles  (Pterodactyls), — among  them  the  Cinvhomu 
Jiomfilea,  from  the  Chalk  of  Maidstone,  which  Dr  Bower 
bank  has  not  hesitated  to  refer  to  his  Plerodncfi/lus  cjigan- 
tfits  But  in  1S58  Barrett  discovered,  m  the  Upper  Green- 
«and  of  Cambridge,  remains  described  by  Mr  Seeley  in 
1866  (Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hiil.  ser.  3,  xviii.  p.  100) 
under  the  name  of  Petagornis  barntti, — which,  we  must 
bear  in  mind,  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  genus  Pelagonns 
established  by  M.  Lirtet  {Comptes  Pendus,  1857,  p.  740), 
--and  these  remains,  renamed  Enaltornia  in  1869  by  Mr 
Seeley  (Index  to  Pep.  on  6'ccond.  Pepliies,  Ac),  seem  to 
be  those  of  a  real  Bird,  having  sorne  resemblance  to  a 
Penguin.  Belonging  to  the  same  epoch  also  Bird  fossils 
have  been  found  by  Professor  Marsh  in  the  United  States 
of  America,  and  they  have  been  referred  to  at  least 
six  genera — Apalornis,  Graculavus  (i  spp),  Uesperornis, 
IifUhyornu,  Laomia,  Palceolriiiga  (3  spp.),  and  Te/ntat- 
ornis  (?,  spp.)  The  first  and  fourth  of  these  were  about 
ui  large  as  a  Pigeon,  or  larger,  are  from  the  Cretaceous 
shale  of  Kansas,  and  differ  from  all  knowTi  Birds  in 
liaving  biconcave  vertebra;  and,  possibly,  teeth,  whence 
the  latter  has  been  made  the  type  of  a  distinct  Subclass, 
to  which  the  name  of  Odonlomithns  is  applied.  The 
second  belongs  to  the  S/fganajwdi:};  the  third  seems  to 
have  beeu  related  to  the  Cotymbidtx.     The  affinities  of  the 


fifth  have  not  yet  been  determined  ,  it  was  neatly  a.s  larga 
as  a  Swan,  anil  its  remains  were  discovered  in  the  Middle 
Marl  of  New  Jersey.  The  suth  was  apparently  one  of  tiio 
Limicolce;  and  the  seventh  was  probably  allied  to  the 
Pallidce. 

The  Eocene  period  furnished  a  still  greater  number  ol  Eocbii« 
omitholites.  First,  perhaps,  in  bulk  is  that  known  as  Gust-  ^"^ 
oniis  parisie?isis,  found  by  M  Gaston  Plants,  and  soon 
after  by  M  Hubert,  in  a  conglomerate  beneath  the  Phstic 
Clay  of  Bas-Meudon.  Much  difference  of  opinion  obtains 
as  to  the  affinities  of  this  Bird,  which  was  at  least  as  largo 
us  an  Ostrich  ,  but  M.  Alphouse  Milne- Edwards,'  after  re- 
viewing the  evidence  of  others  and  studying  the  specimens 
obtained,  coosiders  it  (Diet,  i'nii/.  d'fhsi.  Xat.  ed.  2,  May 
ISlil))  most  nearly  aUied  to  the  Anati-dc^,  from  which,  how- 
ever, it  differs  in  so  many  important  characters  that  it 
cannot  be  includeJ  among  them  according  to  any  taxo- 
iiomic  scheme  as  yet  proposed.  One  may  presume,  be 
adds,  that  it  was  incapable  of  flight,  though  able  to  swim. 
Other  birds  of  huge  stature  lived  at  a  time  not  much 
later.  Dr  Bowerbank  has  referred  the  fragment  of  a  tibia 
from  Sheppey,  which  was  a  little  smaller  than  that  of  an 
Emeu,  to  a  genus  Lilhorms.  On  this  Mr  Seeley  has  founded 
his  Afeijalornw.  the  Lttkcntis  to  which  Professor  Owen,  in 
1841,  had  applied  the  former  name,  being  regarUed  as  re- 
sembling a  Vulture.  This  naturalist  has  also  described  the 
fragmentary  cranium  of  a  large  Bird,  eouibiniog  Dinornitbif 
and  Struthious  characters,  from  the  same  locality,  under  the 
name  of  DasomU  [Tr.  Zool.  Soc.  vii,  p.  Mb),  and  he  has 
further  added  from  Sheppey  (Quart.  Jo-um..  Geol.  Soc.  xxjx. 
p.  511)  a  yet  more  remarkable  form  to  those  previousl 
known    from    Britain,    m    the    Odonlopteryx    totiaptcut— 


Fto    40  —  Rem« 


of  head  u(  Oitonlo/fo-yf .  from  ttic  On 
MUMjfll.  tide  view  ;  naruialMie 


□  the  Dr1t'.ib 


a  creature  having  its  jaws  armed  with  osseous  denticulations, 
and  in   this  respect  unlike  Prolessor  Marsh's  hlithyornu, 


F10  41  -  Rvmaltit  of  bead  of  Odonlnpltryx.  acta  from  abo*& 

concluding   that   it  was  a   warm-blooded,  feathered,   and 
winged  biped,  web  footed  and  a  fish-eater.    From  Sheppey, 

I  The  writer  cannot  nftrne  tb1:i  distinguished  natur.ilHt  without 
acknowledging  the  very  many  tokens  of  friendship  received  al  his 
hands  in  connection  with  the  prrient  subject,  wLilo  the  suttttnary  of 
fossil  omilholc'gy  hero  given  is  in  a  preat  nicasuro  due  to  iho  aiticU 
cited  in  the  text  a  few  lines  further  on.  Further  Jelails  are  tJkea 
froro  his  mtignifireot  Reffiircha  Anatamiques  CI  I'aliontologiqufs  pour 
servir  d  f  Aistoirc  da  Oiteat^  Fouilei  lit  la.  Fianct,  Paris,  1867-71. 
The  writer  Ills  al»>  to  express  his  thanks  to  Mr  Sceky  for  ralunbU 
a&sidtance  in  thb  portioD  of  the  artict'* 


T60 


BIRDS 


[fossil  forms. 


Fib.   42  -Remains    of     hPud    of 
Oioniifpto tJ,  sten  fioin  behind. 


too,  were  long  ago  detected  portions  ur  a  Kingfisher 
{Halcyon),  and  a  bird  allied  to  the  Gulls  or  Terns 
(r.aridie),  while  a  continuation  of 
tlie  same  formation  at  Highgate 
has  supplied  a  sternum  which  has 
been  referred  to  the  Herons 
{Ardtnd<f).  The  freshwater  bed.s 
at  Hempstead,  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  have  furnished  remains 
called  by  Mr  Seeley  (Ann.  awl 
Maj  Nat.  I/ist.  ser.  3,  xviii.  p. 
10;))  PliTiornis — a  form  of  doubt- 
ful atEnity  ,  and  that  palseonto- 
logijt  has  described  from  those 
of  Hordwell  a  tibia,  apparently 
Struthious,  under  the  name  of  Macrornis.  In  the  schist 
of  Plattenherg  at  Olarus  a  nearly  coQiplete  skeleton, 
perhaps  belonging  to  the  Passeres,  was  discovered,  and 
called  by  Von  Meyer  Protomis  (since  renamed  by  Pro- 
fessor Gervais  Osteomis),  and  other  undetermined  frag- 
ments of  birds'  bones,  with  impressions  of  their  feathers, 
have  been  found  in  .several  beds  of  about  the  same  age  in 
France. 

The  fossils  of  the  Pans  Basin  and  its  coeval  deposits 
deserve,  however,  fuller  notice.  First  brought  to  light  at 
Montmartre  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century,  many  of 
the  remains  fell  under  the  notice  of  Cuvier,  and  were  by 
hifn  determined  in  a  manner  mure  or  less  exact.  Following 
his  investigations,  the  labours  of  MM.  Gervais,  Blanchard, 
and  Desnoyers  considerably  added  to  our  knowledge  of 
these  ornitholites,  till  finally  M.  Alphonse  Milne-Edwards, 
having  carefully  gone  over  all  the  specimens  discovered, 
refers  them  to  the  genera  Agnopterus,  Cormoranus  (i.e., 
PhaJacrocorax),  Colurnix  (2  spp.),  Falco,  Gypsomis,  Lepto- 
somnn  (a  form  now  only  known  from  Madagascar),  Liviosn, 
Pn!ceocircus,PalcEortyx,  Pelidna,Rallus,  Sitta,  and  Tringa(1). 
.Of  these  are  extinct  the  first,  which  seems  to  have  been  in 
some  measure  allied  to  the  Flamingoes  {Phwiiicopterndw); 
the  fifth,  a  Ralline  form  ;  and  the  eighth  and  ninth,  belong- 
ing to  the  diurnal  Birds  of-prey  and  the  Gatlince  respec- 
tively. The  footprints  of  at  least  seven  more  species  of 
birds  have  also  been  recognised  in  the  same  beds,  so  famed 
for  the  remains  of  AnoplotJierivm,  Pataotherhim,  and  their 
contemporaries,  which  were  resuscitated  by  the  great  Cuvier. 
The  marl-beds  of  Aix  in  Provence,  belonging  to  this  epoch, 
liave  yielded  fossil  eggs  and  feathers,  but  as  yet  no  hones 
of  Birds ;  and  to  the  same  period  must  probably  also  be 
assigned  the  lacustrine  calcareous  deposits  of  Armissan,  in 
Languedoc,  whence  M.  Gervais  has  recovered  the  remains  of 
a  Telrao.  Near  Apt,  also  in  Provence,  some  traces  of  birds 
.  seom  to  have  been  found,  but  their  bad  condition  has  hin- 
dered their  determination.  In  the  marls  of  Ronzon,  in 
A'lvergne,  several  ornitholites  have  been  found  by  M. 
Aymard,  who  refers  them  to  the  genora  Camaseelus,  Doli- 
^hnpierus,  Elornis  (3  spp.),  and  Teracus.  Of  these  the 
first  was  declared  to  be  allied  to  the  Plovers  (C/ia7-a(fni<te), 
the  second  to  the  Gulls,  the  third  to  the  Flamingoes,  and 
the  fourth  to  be  a  Falconine  ;  but  M.  A.  Milne-Edwards 
considers  the  first  and  second  to  be  probably  identical. 
Ffom  the  same  beds  M.  Gervais  has  eggs  and  imprints  of 
feathers,  as  well  as  a  pelvis,  referred  by  him  to  ilergus, 
but  regarded  by  M.  A.  Milne-Edwards  as  a  Sula  ;  while 
Dr  Fraas  has  found  remains  of  a  Harrier  and  a  Cormorant 
on  the  top  of  the  Swabian  Alp.  Finally,  in  North  America 
Professor  Marsh  has  described  the  remains  of  no  less  than 
five  species  of  birds,  varjing  in  size  from  a  Flamingo  to  a 
small  Woodcock,  but  all  referred  by  him  to  a  genus  AleC- 
oniis,  from  the  Eocene  deposits  of  Wyoming  (Am.  Journ. 
Sc-  ser  .1,  IV.  p  256). 
The  Mioceuc  formation  has  yielded  by  far  the  greatest 


number  of  omitholiteg,  especially  in  France,  and  for  want  .Mincens 
of  space  they  can  be  barely  named  here.  From  lacustrine  Birds, 
deposits  in  Bourbonuais  and  Auvergne,  the  remains  of 
nearly  fifty  species  of  birds  have  been  distinguished.  Be- 
sides Palascrtyx,  already  mentioned  (3  spp.),  Paleehdus 
(5  spp.),  Pelargopns,  Ibidopodla,  Elornis,  Hydromis,  and 
Colymboides  are  e.-rtinct  genera  to  which  these  fossils  ari. 
referred.  Palivlodus  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of 
them — a  generalized  form,  unquestionably  allied  to  the  Fla- 
mingoes, but  presenting  some  characters  of  the  Limicolce, 
and  at  least  one  feature  now  only  fuund  in  Podiceps  and 
Coiymbus.  Pelargopsis  and  Ibidopodia  were  Stork-like, 
while  Elornis  seems  to  have  been  Scolopacine  ;  Hydromis 
must  be  placed  near  the  Gulls,  and  Colymboides  among  the 
Divers.  The  rest  can  be  referred  to  the  existing  genera — 
Aquila,  MiUnts,  Bubo,  Psiltacus  (a  very  noteworthy  fact, 
since  no  Parrots  are  now  to  be  found  in  the  Palajarctic 
Region)  Picus,  Motacilla,  Passer,  Columba,  Rallus,  Phceni- 
copterus,  Grus,  Ibis,  Toianus,  Tringa,  Larus,  Phalacro- 
corax,  Sula,  Pelecanus,  and  Arias.  A  very  considerable 
number  of  forms  identical  with  these  have  been  recovered 
from  the  neighbourhood  of  Meiitz,  while  many  ornitholites, 
whether  fossil  bones,  foot- prints,  or  impressions  of  feathers, 
are  supplied  by  freshwater  formations  near  Berne,  and  in 
Provence  and  Languedoc,  belonging  to  this  epoch.  The 
bone-beds  of  Sanson,  in  Gascony,  are  also  very  productive. 
Here  we  have  as  extinct  forms  Homolopus,  alUed  to  the 
Picidce,  Necroriiis,  which  seems  to  belong  to  the  Mvso- 
phagidce — a  family  now  limited  to  Africa-— and  Palceoper- 
dix  (3  spp.),  a  Gallinacean ;  while  among  existing  genera 
we  have  represented  Aquila,  Ualiaetus,  Strix,  Corvus, 
Pkasianus  (2  spp.) — a  genus  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  introduced  into  Europe  in  historic  times — Rallus, 
Numenius,  Ardea,  and  Anas.  Passing  thence  to  Greece, 
the  remains  of  birds  have  been  found  at  Kkermi  in  Attica 
— a  Phasianits,  a  Gallus — somewhat  larger-  than  G.  son- 
nerati  (the  presumed  ancestor  of  our  Barndoor-fowl),  and 
a  large  Grus.  In  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  the  lower  ranges 
of  the  Himalaya,  the  interesting  discovery  of  an  apparently 
true  Struthio  (Ostrich)  has  been  made,  with  an  Argala,  and 
possibly  a  large  species  of  Phaeton.  From  Steinheim,  also, 
but  perhaps  of  a  somewhat  later  period,  the  remains  of 
eight  species  of  birds  (belonging  to  the  genera  PAs,  Ardea, 
Palmlodus,  Ana.':,  and  Pelecanus)  have  been  determined 
by  Dr  Fraas,'  three  of  which  seem  to  be  specifically  iden 
tical  with  those  first  discovered  in  France.  In  the  Idiocene. 
of  North  America,  Professor  Marsh  has  detected  bones  of 
Sfeleagris,  Sula,  Puffinus,  and  Uria,  all  existing  genera,  but 
the  first  is  especially  suggestive,  since  it  is  now  one  of  the 
most  characteristic  forms  of  the  New  World.  From  the 
Lower  Tertiary  of  the  same  continent  he  has  also  described 
a  £ubo  and  an  extinct  genus  Uiniomis,  probably  related 
to  the  PicidcB  (Am.  Journ.  Sc.  ser.  3,  iv.  p.  289). 

The  Pliocene  epoch  is  far  less  rich  than  the  preceding  Pliorew 
in  ornitholites,  and  what  have  been  found  are  less  well  Birds, 
detannined.  In  France,  the  exbtence  of  a  Bird-of-prey 
and  several  Water-birds  has  been  indicated,  but  a  species 
of  Gallus  from  Auvergne  seems  to  be  the  only  form  estab- 
lished. At  fRhningen,  in  Baden,  remains  have  been 
found,  and  referred  to  Scnlopax  and  Anas  (probably  also 
to  Anscr),  while  from  Radoboj,  in  Croatia,  the  almost 
entire  foot  of  a  bird  has  been  assigned  to  Fringilla  by 
Hermann  von  Meyer,  who  has  further  detected  in  Ger- 
many a  fossil  humerus,  on  which  he  founds  a  genus 
Ardeacitfs,  allied  to  the  Herons.  From  the  Pliocene  of 
North  America  Professor  Marsh  has  described  remains  of 
an  Aquila,  a  Grus,  and  a  p/ialacrocorax. 

The  Poslpliocene  of  the  same  continent  has  rewardnd 

'  £>if  Fauna  von  SteiHfieivi,  Stutt^.irC,  1871< 


Birds. 


Birds. 


4 


FOSSIL   rOKMS.  I 

the  same  pilxontologist  with  two  more  species  of  Meleagns, 
another  Grus,  and  an  Uria.  In  Europe,  beds  of  that  epoch 
have  not  furnished  very  many  ornitliolites,  while  such  as 
are  known  have  been  xnsutficiently  studied.  A  Gultus,  how- 
ever, seems  to  have  been  found  at  Paris  by  M.  Gervais, 
and  other  portions  of  the  same  bird  have  been  recognized 
from  the  caves  of  Aquitaine  by  M.  A.  Milne-Edwards. 
Near  Quedlinburg,  remains  referred  to  Crows,  Sparrows, 
Swallows,  a  Bustard,  and  a  Gull,  have  been  recognized,  as 
well  as  an  apparent  Vulturine  from  Magdeburg.  Hermann 
von  Meyer  has  indicated  from  the  valley  of  the  Lahn,  Crows, 
Thrushes,  Partridges,  and  Ducks,  as  well  as  a  Xumtda  from 
Salzbach.  A  small  Owl,  too,  has  been  found  at  Kost- 
ritz.  In  England,  remains  of  a  Swan  and  a  Cormorant 
have  occurred  in  the  diluvial  beds  of  Grays  in  Essex,  and 
an  Owl  of  middle  size  in  the  Norwich  Crag,  which  may, 
however,  be  of  Pliocene  age  ;  while  in  France  the  cele- 
brated gravels  of  St  Acheul  have  supplied  a  bone  believed 
by  M.  A.  Milne-Edwards  to  belong  to  the  Grey  Lag-Goose 
{Ariser  cinereus),  to  which  species,  also,  an  egg  found  in 
brick  earth  at  Fisberton,  near  Salisbury,  has  been  referred 
by  Mr  Blackmoor,  who  in  the  same  bed  found  another 
egg,  supposed  to  have  been  that  of  Anas  boschas  {Ediiib  A'. 
Phii.  Joum.  N.S.  xix.  p.  74). 

A  great  number  of  Birds'  bones  have  been  discovered  in 
caves,  and  among  them  some  bearing  marks  of  human 
workmanship.  In  France  we  have  first  a  large  and  extinct 
species  of  Crane  {Grus  pntn-genio.),  but  more  interesting 
than  that  are  the  very  numerous  relics  of  two  species,  the  con- 
Cfmitants  evtn  now  of  the  Reindeer,  which  were  abundant  in 
that  country  at  the  period  when  this  beast  flourished  there, 
and  have  followed  it  in  its  northward  retreat.  These  are 
the  Snowy  Owl  (iS'yctea  scaiidiaca),  and  the  Willow-Grouse 
(Lagopui  albus).  But  here  it  seems  unnecessarj'  further 
to  particularize  the  genera,  much  less  the  species,  hitherto 
discovered  in  the  caves  of  Europe  generally,  though  doubt- 
less they  deserve  far  greater  attention  than  they  have  yet 
received.  One  exception,  however,  must  be  made  in  the 
case  of  Cygnus  /alconen,  a  gigantic  Swan  from  the  Zebug 
cavern  in  Malta  (Trans.  Zool.  Soc.  vi.  plate  30).  The 
caves  of  South  America  yielded  to  the  laborious  explora- 
tions of  Lund  no  less  than  thirty-four  species  of  Birds,  of 
which  the  greater  part  are  identical  with  those  now  existing 
in  the  same  country  ;  but  some  have  become  extinct,  and 
of  these  the  most  notable  are  a  large  Crax  and  a  large  Rhea. 

SUBFOSSIL  BIRDS. 

The  next  ancient  Birds'  bones  known  to  us  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  are  probably  those  of  the  Danish 
kitchen- middens.  These  reveal  the  existence  (very  likely, 
the  abundance)  of  two  species,  long  since  banished  from  the 
spots  where  their  remains  are  found — the  Capercally 
{Tetrao  urogallus),  and  the  Great  Auk  or  Gare-fowl  {Alca 
impennis).  Just  as  the  Lagopris  albvs  in  the  south  of 
France  indicates  a  subarctic  or  subalpine  country  with  its 
normal  fauna  and  flora,  so  does  the  former  of  these  shew 
the  coexistence  with  it  of  pino-forests  in  Denmark,  though 
on  other-evidence  it  is  plain  that  such  forests  cannot  have 
existed  there  for  many  centuries.  The  latter,  of  which 
more  must  be  said  here.ifter,  does  not  perhaps  prove  more 
than  that  the  surrounding  seas,  though  cold,  were  free 
from  ice  in  summer  time. 

The  Birds'  bones  hitherto  recovered  from  the  ruins  of  the 
lake  dwellings  in  Switzerland  are  all  of  species  which  now 
occur  more  or  less  commonly  in  the  same  neighbourhoods, 
and  are  therefore  of  comparatively  little  interest. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Fens  of  East  Anglia  have  yielded 
proof.i  of  a  form  now  extinct  not  only  in  England,  but  even 
•"  Northern   Europe.     This  is  the  Pelican,  tif  ■»h"-h  two 


I  R  D  S 


731 


humeri,  one  from  Nortolk  and  the  other  most  likely  froir 
the  Isle  of  Ely,  are  preserved  in  the  museums  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge.  Whether  the  species  be  identical 
with  either  of  those  which  now  inhabit  some  parts  of 
Southern  Europe  is  undetermined  ,  but  it  was  undoubtedly 
a  true  Pelecaiius,  and  apparently  only  difl'cred  from  /' 
onocrolalus  in  its  somewhat  larger  size. 

At  an  uncertain  but  (geologically  speaking)  recent  epoel 
in  Madagascar,  there  flourished  huge  birds  of  Struthious 
atfiuities.  The  flr^t  positive  evidence  of  their  former 
existence  was  made  known  in  1851  by  M  Is.  Geoffroy  St.- 
Hilaire,  who  gave  the  name  of  JCpyorms  maximtts  to  the 
species  which  had  laid  an  enormous  egg,  sent  to  Pans  a 
short  time  before ;  and  the  discovery  of  some  bones  of 
corresponding  magnitude  soon  after  prove<I  to  all  but  llie 
prejudiced  the  kinship  of  the  producer  of  this  wonderful 
specimen,  which  not  unnaturally  recalls  the  mythical  Hoc 
that  figures  so  largely  in  .\rabian  tales.  Three,  iJ  not  four, 
well-marked  species  of  this  genus  have  now  been  character, 
ized  from  remains  found  in  the  drifted  sands  of  the  southern 
part  of  that  island. 

Next  we  must  turn  to  our  antipodes.  In  New  Zealand  New- 
birds'  bones  of  gigantic  size  seem  to  have  been  first  heard  Zeu:,;ii(i. 
of  from  native  report  by  .Mr  W  Colenso  in  1838,  and  next 
year  Mr  R.  Taylor  obtained  "part  of  a  fossd  toe"  (Ann. 
Nat.  Hist.  xiv.  p,  62),  In  the  same  year,  however,  and 
before  news  of  this  discovery  was  pubhshed,  Mr  Rule 
placed  in  Professor  Owen's  hands  the  fragment  of  a  birds 
femur,  which  the  latter  exhibited  and  descnbed  at  a  meet- 
ing of  the  Zoological  Society,  12th  November  1839, 
Other  examples  soon  came  to  England,  and  at  a  meeting 
of  the  same  society,  24th  January  1843,  that  learned 
anatomist  applied  the  name  of  Dinc/mis  navai-zealandia  to 
the  newly-found  monster  (Proc.  2<jol.  Soc.  1843,  p.  8),  A 
few  months  later  he  was  able  to  pronounce  that  he  had 
distinguished  the  remains  of  five  species  of  the  genus  (lorn, 
cit.  p.  144);  and  the  memoir  subsequently  published  in 
the  Society's  Transact  ions  proved  to  be  the  first  of  a  sencs 
unrivalled  in  its  kind  and  fortunately  still  in  progress 
Bones  innumerable  have  since  been  obtained,  together  with 
portions  of  the  skin,  showing  the  scales  of  the  tarsus  and 
the  feathers  of  the  body,  to  some  of  which  adhered  the 
tendons  and  bits  of  dried  muscle,  stones  from  the  crop,  and 
eggs,  a  few  of  the  last  containing  remains  of  the  embryo. 
At  least  eleven  good  species  seem  to  have  been  discovere;! ; 
and  these,  according  to  one  of  the  latest  authorit.es, 
Dr  Haast  (Ad<lr.  Phil.  Inst.  CanCerb  5th  March  1874,  p. 
C),  may  be  grouped  in  two  families — Dinomithtdce  proper, 
having  the  back. toe  obsolete,  and  comprising  the  restricted 
genus  Dinorms  (spp.  5)  and  Mionarnts  (spp  2),  and 
Palapta-ygtdx,  possessing  a  hallux,  and  including  the 
genera  Palapteryx  (spp.  2)  and  Euryapteryx  (spp.  2).  It 
used  to  be  taken  as  proved  that  all  these  birds  flourished 
within  quite  recent  times,  and  sanguine  naturalists  fisve 
even  hoped  that  explorations  would  shew  that  all  of  them 
were  not  extinct ;  but,  though  there  i.s  abundant  evidence 
to  prove  that  they  were  the  contemporaries  of  man  in  New 
Zealand,  Dr  Haast  most  strongly  urges  that  the  race  of  ' 
nian  who  hunted  arid  fed  upon  the  "  Moa" — for  such  name 
was  applied  to  its  bones  by  the  natives — lived  long  be/ore 
the  Maon  settlement  of  the  islands.  Here  there  is  no  room 
for  his  arguments  {Trans.  N.  Zeal.  Inst.),  and  prudence  will 
perhaps  suggest  a  suspension  of  judgment  on  this  point.  In 
the  same  formation  as  those  which  hold  the  relics  of  the«e 
wonderful  birds  have  been  found,  but  far  more  seldom, 
remains  of  others  not  less  interesting.  First  there  is 
Uarpagomis,  a  Bird-of-prey,  of  stature  suflicient  to  have 
made  the  largest  Dinomit  its  quarry.  Then  we  have 
Cnemiomis,  a  gigarttic  Goose — posisibly  related  to  the  genue 
Cfreonris,  with  Aptomit  and  Notomit — two  Ralline  furir.i, 


732 


BIRDS 


[extibpated  rOIlM3. 


the' first  allied  to  Ocyctromus,  ana  the  last,  wnich  has  sur- 
vived to  our  own  day,  though  most  likely  extirpated  within 
the  last  fifteen  years,  much  resembling  Porphyria}  la 
company  with  these  fossil  or  sub-fossil  remains  are  often 
associated  bones  of  other  forms,  which  now  seem  doomed 
to  destruction  but  still  exist.  Finally  must  be  mentioned 
Dromceoriiis  australis,  an  extinct  Stnithious  bird,  which 
formerly  inhabited  Australia,  and  was  allied  to  Droviceus, 
the  well-known  Emeu. 

BIRDS  RECENTLY  EXTIRPATED. 

From  tne  consideration  of  Fossil  Birds  we  are  natu- 
rally led  to  treat  of  those  which  have  been  extirpated 
in  modern  times,  and  are  mude  kuown  to  us  by  evidence 
of  various  kinds,  and  more  or  less  old.  The  most  re- 
markable of  these  is  the  Dodo  (Didus  ineptus),  which, 
on  the  discovery  of  Mauritius  by  the  Portuguese  under 
Mascaregnas  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  was 
found  to  inhabit  that  island.  Voyagers  have  vied  with 
each  other  in  describing  or  depicting  its  uucouth  appear- 
ance, and  its  name  has  almost  passed  into  a  byword  ex- 
pressive of  aC  that  is  effete.  Clumsy,  flightless,  and 
defenceless,  it  soon  succumbed,  not  so  much  to  the  human 
invaders  of  its  realm  as  to  the  domestic  beasts  which 
accompanied  them,  and  there  gaining  their  liberty,  un- 
checked by  much  of  the  wholesome  discipline  of  nature, 
ran  riot,  to  the  utter  destruction  (as  will  be  seen)  of  no  in- 
considerable portion  of  the  Mauritian  faima.  The  latest 
known  testimony  of  the  Dodo's  existence  is  furnished  by 
the  copy  of  a  journal  (now  in  the  British  Museum)  kept 
by  one  Benjamin  Harry,  mate  of  the  ship  "  Berkley  Castle," 
which  shews  that  it  survived  until  July  ICSl.  It  had  its 
life  most  likely  sometime  longer,  but  of  this  there  is  no 
evidcApe  forthcoming.  For  a  ceutury  and  a  half  all  that 
nas  known  of  it  was  derived  from  the  quaint  and  some- 
times questionable  accounts  of  early  voyagers;  certain 
pictures,  mostly  by  Dutch  artists — for  the  bird  was  not 
unfrequently  sent  alive  to  Europe,  and  the  traffic  of  the 
East  Indies  was  then  chiefly  m  the  hands  of  the  Nether- 
landers — which  pictures,  however  grotesque,  were  doubtless 
for  the  most  part  faithful  portraits ;  and  a  few  scattered 
relics — a  foot  in  the  British  Museum,  a  head  and  foot  at 
Oxford,  a  perfect  skull  at  Copenhagen,  and  a  fragmentary 
one  at  Prague.  StQl  these  (or  indeed  the  Danish  speci- 
men alone)  were  enough  to  enable  Professor  Reinhardt 
to  determine  the  affinity  of  the  lost  bird  to  the  Pigeons, 
an  alliance  not  before  surmised,  but  one  which  scarcely 
anybody  now  disputes.  In  186G,  however,  Mr  George 
Clark  of  Mauritius  discovered  in  the  peat  of  a  pool 
(the  Mare  aux  Songes)  in  that  island  an  abundance  of 
Djdos"  bones  (Ibis,  18CiG,  p.  141) ;  and  these,  when  trans- 
mitted to  Europe,  informed  naturalists  as  to  nearly  every 
part  of  its  osseous  structure,  which  was  soon  after  de- 
scribed in  detail  by  Professor  Owen  (Trans.  Zool.  Soc. 
VI,  p.  49). 
Sniitaire  oi  But  the  Dodo  is  not  the  only  member  of  its  family 
RtuDioD.  tiijt,  ]jj3  vanished.  The  little  island  which  has  succes- 
sively borne  the  name  of  Mascaregnas,  England's  Forest, 
Bourbon,  and  Rijuniou,  and  lies  to  the  southward  of 
Mauritius,  had  also  an  allied  Bird,  now  dead  and  gone. 
Of  this  not  a  relic  has  been  handled  by  any  naturalist. 
The    latest   description   of   it,    by    Du    Bois  in    1074,  is 

*  A  second  spcciea  now  referred  to  Notornis  is  the  OalUnuta  alba  of 
I.aDiam,  which  lived  on  Lord  Howe's  (and  probably  Norfolk)  Island. 
No  specimen  is  known  to  bavo  been  brought  to  Europe  for  raore  thau 
eighty  years,  and  only  one  is  believed  to  exist — Ddmciy,  in  the  museuni 
at  Vienna  (/4w,  1873,  p.  44,  plate  10).  Recent  enquiries,  made  at 
lUo  present  writer's  request,  have  failed  to  furnish  any  result.  The 
bird  is  dDubtltss  extijict.  (C/.  Kowley,  Omilhohgical  Miscellany, 
l.p.  38-43.) 


meagre  in  the  extreme,  ana  though  two  figures^-one  by 
Bontekoe  {circa  1G46),  and  another  by  Pierre  Wittbooa 
(ob.  1693)  have  been  thought  to  represent  it  {Trans. 
Zool.  Soc.  vi.  p.  373,  pLite  62),  their  identificatioa  is 
but  conjectural  Yet  the  existence  of  such  a  bird  is 
indubitable. 

Far  to  the  eastward  of  these  two  sister  islands  lies  n  Solitaire , 


Fio.  43.-1110  Solitaire  of  Rodvuucr  [Httophiij  b  uiltlai  iui).     Fiom  Le^tut'JI 

third — Rodriguez.      Hero    there    formerly   lived    another 
Didine  bird,  sufficiently  distinct  from  the  Dodo  of  Mauri- 


I 


Fio.  41,— Exlinct  Crc^lcJ  Pnirot  of  M.imlHin  (/.cphopiHtaeiu  maufittenuit, 
Fioin  a  ItailiiK  by  M.  A.  Milne-l'tUvnnls  of  tlio  oiicionl  drawing  In  a  MSL 
Jiiiiinnl  tcc[)t  during  Wolphuit  MaiTnanszoon's  voyage  10  Miiuiltiua  (a.d.  1601* 
IWi).  pcna  II.  Sehlegcl  (^itx.  /oof.  Soe.  mi,  p.  2M).    Keduced. 

lius  to  form  a  genus  of  its  own — r-:wphnps  solitarius,  thf 


I'm 

1'b 

fill- 

llJll 
tllei 


BX  rlRPATtO    nl'.llS  J 


B  I  I^  D  S 


733 


Solitaire  of  L«Euat,  a  Huguenot  exile  wlio,  passing  some 
time  ill  1 09 1-03  on  that  island,  Las  left,  with  a  very  in- 
ferior figure,  a  charmingly  naive  account  of  its  appearance 
and  habits,  the"  general  truth  of  which  has  been,  amply 
substantiated  by  Mr  Edward  Newton's  discovery  in  large 
numbers  of  its  bones  (Phil.  Traits.  1860,  p.  327);  and  a 
nearly  complete  skeleton  of  either  sex  may  be  seen  in  the 
jnuseum  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  by  the  side  of 
the  n\ost  perfect  specimen  existing  of  that  of  its  bulkier 
relative,  the  Mauritian  Dodit 

Nor  does  this  group  of  Diiiine  birds  contain  all  the  lost 
forms  of  the  Mascarene  islands.     From  Mauritius  have 


A.   ll«O(llt<l0  0/  .ifhinaplirys.  ^idc  Tiew. 


a  somewhat  abnormal  Starling  (Fregitupus)  existed  until 

some  forty  years  ago  (^Proc.  Z'ool.  Soc.  1874,  p.  474),  and 

its  skin  and  skeleton  are  among  the  treasures  of  three  or 

four  museums^     Perhaps,  also,  there  were  other  RalLne 

birds,  but  the  evidence  on  this  head  is  inconclusive,     la 

Rodriguez,  the  greater  part  of  its  original  avifauna  Las 

vanished.     There  was  a  small  but' peculiar  Ov/\  {Atltme 

murivora),  a  big  Parrot  (Xecropsillacus  rodericanus),  a  Doi  a 

(Erythroenal  sp.  ign  ),  a  large  brevipennate  Heron  (ArcLa 

megactphala),  and.  a  singular  Rail  {Miserijtkrus  Uguali) — 

in  some  respects  allied  to  the  Mauritian  Aphanajjteri/x — 

besides  other  birds  of  which  we  know  from  old  voyager^,' 

though  their  remains  have  not 

yet  been  determined  (as  those 

of  the  species  above  mentioned 

have  been)  from  th»  numerous 

caverns  of  the  island.    A  second 

Parrot,     or     rather    Parrakeet. 

(Palceornis  exsul),   still   e:5i5l.<!, 

FroTi.  me  ori<ii..i  10  the  Muxam  o/  rooiosj  o»  the  Ooi^raii,  o(  CMbrtdge.  but  in  Tcry  small  numbers,  and 

the    unique    specimen   knowo 
was  obtained  in  the  year  lS71 

With  the  examples  of  these  Causes  of 
Mascarene  Islands  before  us,  it  f'tiT'- 
is  not  without  reason  that  we  ''"'• 
suppose  a  like  fate  to  have  be- 
fallen   many  of   the  feathered 
inhabitants  of  other  places  ex- 
posed  to  similar  ravages.     We 
cannot  read  the  accounts   nui 
merely  of  the  earliest  voyagei 
to   the  Antilles,    but   even  of 
those  performed  within  the  last 
hundred  years,  without   being 
aware  that  the  writers  met  with 
many  Birds  which  are  not  cow 
known  to  inhabit  them.     ITxeae 
lost  species,  there  is  some  ground 
for  believing,  were  mainly,  if 
not    wholly,    peculiar    to    tte 
locality,  and  after  having  made 
good    their    existence,   maybe, 
for  ages,  fell  easy  and  helpless 
victims   to   the    forces    which 
European   civilization   brought 
into  play.     Chief  among  lh?se 
forces  was  fire.      In  all  coun- 
tries and  at   all  times  it  has 
been  the  habit  of  colonists  to 
burn    the    woods    surronndinj 
their    settlements  —  partly    to 
clear    the    ground    for   future 
crops,   and    partly  (in  tropical 
climates  especially)  to  promote 
the  salubrity  of  their  stations. 
When    fire    was     set    to    the 
forest    and    bush   of    a  small 
island,    the    whole    c(    which 
could   be   burnt   at   once,  the 
disastrous  effect  on  iti  fauna  can  easily  be  conceived     Even 
the  animals  which  happened  to  escape  the  conflagration 
itself  would  speedily  starve,  owing  to  the  at   least  tem- 
porary destruction  of  the  native  flora  whence,  either  directly 
or  indirectly,  they  derived  their  wonted  sustenance.    Thus 
in  certain  of  the  Virgin  Islands  the  "  dead  "  shells  of  many 
species  of  terrestrial  Gasteropoda  are  everywhere  found  in 
astounding  numbers,  while  not  a  living  individual  of  several 
of  the  species  has  ever  been  met  with  by  the  conchologisw 


S,  Ii'(t  Titli  of  ^^Mr:<ij)(r.  i^r.  hlnj  .TTiiJ  inside  C  RlRht  Tar»o.roct.%tArsTii  of  v^^iAafWyifrt-^r.  from 

views.     From  the  origintl  At  Cui.rj;idt;e.  ftodlnsldoftcws.  FtL>mtheoiiglr.alfttCiiut>>itl^& 

Fio  4Al— Tti'«c  flgnres  reproduced  from  Ttu  fiU,  1889,  by  ptrmia&lOD  of  the  Editor.    NatoTAl  ttze. 

disappeared  at  least  two  species  of  Parrot,  a  Dove,  a  large 
Coot,  and  a  second  Ralline  bird,  abnormal,  flightier,  and 
loiig-billed — Aphnnapierijx.  A  painting  of  this  last  was 
found  by  Von  Frauenfeld  in  the  emperor's  library  at 
Vienna,  and  some  of  its  bones,  rescued  by  Mr  Edward 
Newton  from  the  peat  of  the  Marc  aux  Songes,  have  been 
fully  described  by  M.  A.  MdneEdwards.  Remains  of  the 
Coot  and  one  of  the  extinct  Parrots  were  found  also  in  the 
•anio  spot,  while  skins  of  the  other  Parrot  and  of  the  Dove 
si  ill  exist  in  a  few  museums.  Reunion,  also,  once  bad 
other  birds  new  lost,  and  so  had  Rodriguez.    Id  the  former, 


'  Pnt.  Zool  Sot   ]S7i,  pp  39-i2. 


•34 


BIRDS 


[extirpated    F0KM3 


ol  our  day.  The  only  assignable  caase  of  the  ei.tinction 
of  these  creatures  lies  in  the  fact  that  these  islands  are 
kaown  to  have  been  laid  waste  by  fire.  The  shells  have 
resisted  destruction  but  how  many  more  animals  nm.st  have 


Fig  45,— Dfatal  portion  of  mandible  cf  i<ipftf);)5i(fafus.  lower  and  noper  view.    From  speci-  i      .     ii;„i,flrt  -       ^j       v^,  *    +     : 
men  to  the  British  Museum.    These  figuies  reproduced  from  ne  'ibis.  1866,  by  permission  "Ul    DlgniieSS    ana    aOOUl    IWlte    aS 
ol  the  editor.    Natiiral  size.  '  *  '  '  -  -  .  . 

perished  without  leaving  a  trace  of  their  existence  1  Even 
at  the  present  time,  few  parts  of  the  world  so  overrun  by 
people  of  European  descent  are  from  a  naturalist's  point 
of  view  80  little  known  as  the  West-India  Islands.     Still 


^o.  17.— Extinct  Starling  o(  Ri^union  (frejn;y;>ui  rartttjt),  hdapted  from  flgnres 
t>;  Daolcnton,  LcvaUJaot,  and  others.    Reduced. 

less  is  known  of  their  state- a  century  ago;  and  it  would 
bo  a  long  and  wearisome  task  to  collect  from  old  voyages 
the  meagre,  scattered,  and  often  inaccurate  information 
they  contain  as  to  the  zoology  of  these  islands.  One  ex- 
ample may,  perhaps,  be  sufficient.  Ledni  accomimnicd  an 
L'st  Birds  expedition  sent  out  in  179G  by  the  French  Covemnient  to 
of  Antitiea.  tim  West  Indies.  In  his  work  he  gives  a  list  of  the  birds 
he  found  in  the  islands  of  St  Thomas  and-St  Croix  (  Voyage 
au.t  Isles  de  Tencriffe,  dc.,  Paris,  1810,  ii.  p.  29).  Ho 
enumerates  fourteen  kinds  of  birds  as  having  occurred  to 
him  Iheru  Of  these  there  is  now  no  trace  of  eigitt  of  the 
number;  and,  if  he  is  to  bo  believed,  it  must  be  supposed 
t>'at  within  fifty  or  sixty  years  of  his  having  been  assured 
of  their  existence,  they  have  become  extinct'     And  yet 


'  On*  of  the  mrvivoti  («  rurakeet,  Conurxu  xarttholccnxu)  was  a 


the  period  just  mentioned  was  long  subsequent  to  that  in 
which  the  primeval  woods  of  the  islands  were  burnt. 
What,  then,  must  not  have  been  the  changes  which  tlio 
forest-fires  produced? 

If  this  be  not  enough  we  may  cite  the  case  of  the 
French  islands  of  Guadeloupe  and  Martinique,  in 
which,  according  to  M.  Guyon  {Compies  Raidui, 
Ixiii.  p.  589),  there  were  once  found  six  species  of 
Psillaci,  all  now  exterminated  ;  and  it  may  possibly 
be  that  the  Maceaws  stated  by  Mr  Gos^e  (5.  Jamaica, 
p.  260)  and  Mr  Marsh  {Proc.  Acad.  M.S.  Philad. 
1863,  p.  283)  to  have  formerly  frequented  certain 
parts  of  Jamaica,  but  not  apparently  noticed  there 
for  some  twenty-five  or  thirty  years,  have  falleo 
victims  to  colonization  and  its  consequences. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  Gare-fowl 
{Alca  impennis),  whose  bones  have  been  found  in 
the  kitchen-middens  of  Denmark,  and  more  lately 
in  similar  deposits  in  Caithness.  This  species, 
nearly  allied  to  our  common  Razor-bill  {A.  tarda), 

big,  seems  to 
have  become  extinct  since  1844,  in  which  year 
the  last  two  examples  known  to  have  lived  were  taken  on 
a  rocky  islet — one  of  a  group  called  Fuglask^r,  or  Fowl- 
skerries,  off  the  south-west  point  of  Iceland.  Ten  years 
before,  one  had  been  caught  alive  at  the  entrance  of  \Vater- 
ford  harbour;  and  in  1821  or  1822  one  was  taken  near 
St  Kdda,  to  which  lonely  island,  as  appears  from  old 
authors,  the  bird  had  been  accustomed  to  resort  in  the 
breeding  season.  In  1812  a  pair  were  killed  at  Papa- 
Westray,  which  was  also  a  breeding  station  of  the  species, 
and  the  stuEed  skin  of  one  of  them  is  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum,  while  that  of  the  Waterford  specimen 
may  be  seen  in -the  museum  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
In  the  Fairoes  the  species,  was  formerly  common,  but  it 
certainly  ceased  from  appearing  there  about  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century.  In  the  Iceland  seas  there  are  three 
localities  called  after  the  bird's  name,  but  on  only  one  of 
them  has  it  been  observed  for  many  years,  having  probably 
been  as  long  extirpated  in  the  rest  as  in  the  Faeroes.  On 
the  locality  where  it  continued  latest,  there  is  ample  evi- 
dence to  show  that  it  once  was  plentiful.  There  was  a 
large  skerry — the  Geirf  uglask^r  proper — on  which,  in  1813, 
the  crew  of  a  Fieroese  vessel  made  a  descent  and  slaugh- 
tered a  large  number  of  Gare-fowls  ;  but  this,  like  the  rest 
of  the  group,  was  a  place  very  difficult  of  access,  and,  in 
1821,  Faber,  the  well-known  faunist  of  Iceland,  failed  to 
land  upon  it,  though  some  of  his  companions  reached  the 
Geirfagladr.ingr,  a  smaller  islet  lying  further  to  seaward. 
In  1830  the  large  skerry,  through  a  submarine  volcanic 
eruption,  disappeared  beneath  the  waves,  and  immediately 
after  a  colony  of  Gare-fowls  was  discovered  on  another  rock 
lying  nearer  the  mainland,  and  known  as  Eldey.''  In  the 
course  of  the  next  fourteen  years,  not  fewer  probably  than 
sixty  birds  were  killed  on  this  newly-chosen  station,  and 
a  nearly  corresponding  number  of  eggs  were  brought  off ; 
but  the  colony  gradually  dwindled  until,  as  above  said,  in 
1844  the  last  two  were  t;iken  {Ibis,  1861,  p.  374). 

In  Qroeuland,  for  the  last  throe  hundred  years,  the  Gare- 
fowl  has  only  been  known  as  an  occasional  straggler,  but 
it  would  appear  Chat  in  1574  a  [larty  of  Icelanders  found 
it  so  plentiful  at  a  spot  on  the  east  coast — since  identified 

few  ycjir^  ago  lealricted  to  a  single  liill-top  in  St  Thomas,  and  so  ro» 
dticcd  in  numbora  (hat  tbo  present  writer  was  ridiculed  by  many  of 
the  inhabitants  for  Ixilieving  th.at  such  &  bird  ever  existed  in  the 
island.  Found,  however,  it  was  at  last,  but  it  must  be  regarded  u 
verging  upon  extinction. 

*  Whether  oil  the  subsidence  of  the  largo  slccrry  another  portion  of 
the  birds  which  frequented  it  colonized  the  outermost  islet  is  not 
known,  for  this  spot  doea  not  joera  to  have  been  visited  b/  an^  bumu> 
beiog  BuiM  Fahdr'a  time,  more  than  fifty  yoara  ago,  ^- 


Ga.-e-faw| 
or  deal 
Auk. 


eXTIEPATlSD    FOr.M».J 

with  Danell's  or  Graah's  Islands- -that  they  loaded  one  of 
then  boats  with  their  captives.  All  recent  cxijloratious  of 
this  inbuspitable  coast  prove  the  utter  vanity  of  the  notion 
that  the  Gare-fowl  is  able  there  to  find  an  asylum. 

But  It  was  in  the  seaa  of  Newfoundland  that  this  species, 
inown  to  the  settlers  and  fishermen  as  the  "  Penguin," — 
t  corruption  of  the  words  "  pin-wing," — was  most  abun- 
dant, as  a  reference  to  Uakluyt's  and  similar  collections  of 
toyages  will  prove  In  1536,  or  forty  years  after  the  dis- 
covery of  the  country,  we  find  an  island  taking  its  name 
(rom  the  bird,  and  others  are  even  now  so  called.  Eiigliih 
and  French  manners  alike  resorted  to  these  spots,  driving 
the  helpless  and  hapless  birds  on  sails  or  planks  into  a 
i!o.it.  "  as  many  as  shall  lade  her,"  and  salting  them  for 
provision.  The  French  crews,  indeed,  trusted  so  much  to 
this  supply  of  victual,  as  to  take,  it  is  said,  but  "small 
store  of  flesh  with  them  "  This  practice,  we  learn  from 
Cartwnght  (Joumat.  kc  ,  lii  p.  55),  was  earned  on  even 
in  I  785.  and  he  then  fcresaxv  the  speedy  extirpation  of  the 
birds,  which  at  that  time  had  only  one  island  left  to  breed 
ipon  In  1819,  Anspach  reported  their  entire  disappear- 
ance, but  It  IS  possible  that  some  few  yet  lingered  On 
hunk  Island,  their  last  resort,  rude  enclosures  of  stones 
are.  or  recently  were,  still  to  be  seen,  in  which  the  "  Pin- 
wings"  were  impounded  before  slaughter,  and  a  large 
quantity  of  their  bones,  and  even  natural  mummies,  pre- 
served partly  by  the  antiseptic  property  of  the  peat  and 
partly  by  the  icy  subsoil,  have  been  discovered.  One  of 
the  last  has  furnished  the  chief  materials  from  which  the 
osteology  of  the  species  lias  been  descnbed  {Trans.  Zool. 
Sm  t  p  317)  Some  "0  specimens  of  the  bird's  skin, 
ahoi-t  as  many  eggs,  and  nearly  half-a-dozen  more  or  less 
perfect  skeletons,  with  detached  bones  of  perhaps  an  hun- 
dred individuals,  are  preserved  in  collections  ,  but  even  if 
there  be  any  truth  in  the  various  reports  of  the  appearance 
of  the  species  since  1844  (some  of  which  seem  to  rest  on 
(airly  good  testimony),  so  that  it  may  still  survive,  it  is 
obvious  that  its  rediscovery  will  most  likely  seal  its  fate. 

Far  less  commonly  known,  but  apparently  quite  as  cer- 
t$Lin,  13  the  doom  of  a  large  Duck  which  even  fifty  years 


BIRDS 


\ 


'35 


i^drr^ 


9m  »  -^PIM  £>ucll  tSomatrria  labriulora'i  male  inrt  frmald.     From  •pecimen* 
10  tbe  brlLiBb  UuMum.    'RedDocd 

•gp  was  commoDly  found  in  summer  about  tbe  mouth  of 
ihe  St  Lawrence  and  the  coast  of  Labrador,  migratin"  id 
winter  to  the  shores  of  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  New 
Engliuid,  tod  perhaps  further  8onU>w%r>l     Foi  oiauy  years 


past,  according  to  the  best-informed  Amcncan  ornitho- 
logists, not  a  smgle  example  Las  been  met  with  in  any  of 
the  markets  of  the  United  States,  where  formerly  it  was 
not  at  all  uncommon  at  the  proper  season,  and  the  last 
known  to  tbe  writer  to  have  lived  was  killed  by  CoL  \Ve<i- 
derbum  in  Halif.ax  harbour  m  the  autumn  of  1852.'  This 
bird,  the  Anas  tabraJora  of  the  older  ornithologists,  wa« 
nearly  allied  to  the  Eiders  {Somalerta),  and  like  them  used 
to  breed  on  rocky  islets,  where  it  was  safe  from  the  depre- 
dations of  foxes  and  other  carnivorous  quadrupeds.  Thu 
safety  was  however  unavailing  when  man  began  yearly  to 
visit  Its  breeding-haunts,  and,  not  content  with  plundering 
its  nests,  mercilessly  to  shoot  the  birds.  Most  of  such 
islets  are,  of  course,  easily  ransacked  and  depopulated. 
Having  no  asylum  to  turn  to,  for  the  shores  of  the  main- 
land were  iiife.?ted  by  the  four-footed  enemies  just  men- 
tioned, and  (unlike  some  of  its  congeners)  it  had  not  a  high 
northern  range,  its  fate  is  easily  understood.  No  estimate 
has  yet  been  made  of  the  number  of  specimens  existing  in 
museums,  but  it  is  believed  to  be  not  very  great. 

Another  bird  which  has  become  extinct  within  the  last  Phillip 
few  years  is  one  of  a  group  of  Parrots  (iVtj(or)  peculiar  to  I'laml 

^«rrol 


/? 


Fij  4} -Pbtlllp-IslEDd  Parrot  (ATcifcr  prorfttrtu)      Prom  aiw:clmca  lo  tM 
biillsb  Museum     Reiluied 

the  New-Zealand  Subregion,  and  though  some  of  its  con- 
geners still  existln  the  less-frequented  and  alpine  parts  of 
that  country,  this  species  (iV  producCus)  seems  to  have 
been  confined  to  Phillip  Island.  The  last  known  to  have 
lived,  according  to  information  supplied  to  the  wnter  by 
Mr  Gould,  was  seen  by  that  gentleman  inacage  in  London 
about  the  year  1S51.  Not  much  more  than  a  dozen  speci- 
mens are  believed  to  exist  in  collections. 

BIRDS  Partially  e.xterjiinated. 

From  Birds  which  have  recently  become  altogether  extinct 
we  naturally  turn  to  those  that  have  of  late  been  extirpatci 
ID  certain  countries  though  still  sumnng  elsewhere.  Several 
such  instances  are  furnished  by  the  British  Islands.  First 
there  is  the  Crane  {Grus  cummunis)  which  in  Turner's  tunc 
(1555)  was  described  as  breeding  in  our  fens.  Then  the 
Spoonbill  (Platalea  teucorodta),  said  by  Sir  Thomas  Brownt 

^  It  is  neetlless  to  obs«rv«  that  do  one  al  ibal  time  boU  any  uoCjm 
of  >u  approacbtuf  utmcuoo. 


736 


BIRDS 


[geogbapbical 


(1688)  to  breed  in  Suffolk,  as  it  formerly  had  done  in 
Norfolk.  The  Capercally  (Tetrao  urogallus)  we  know  to 
have  frequented  the-indigenous  pine-forests  .of  Ireland  and 
Scotland.  In  flxe  former  it  had  most  likely  become  extinct 
soon  after  1760,  and  in  the  latter  not  much  later.  Not  a 
single  specimen  of  the  British  stock  of  this  bird  is  known 
to  exist  in  any  museum,  but  the  species  has  been  success- 
fully introduced  from  Sweden  into  Scotland  during  the 
last  forty  years,  and  is  now  certainly  increasing  in  num- 
bers. The  Bustard  (Otis  tarda),  which  once  tenanted  the 
downs  and  open  country  of  England  from  Dorset  to  the 
East  Riding  of  Y-orkshire,  vanished  from  Norfolk,  its  last 
stronghold  as  a  British  Bird,  in  1838.  '  From  other 
counties  it  had  before  disappeared.  It  is  well  worthy  of 
note  that  all  the  four  species  just  mentioned  were  pro- 
tected to  a  certain  degree  by  Acts  of  Parliament,  but  these 
laws  only  gave  immunity  to  their  eggs  and'  none  to  the 
parent-birds  during  the  breeding  season,  thus  shewing  how 
futile  is  the  former  when  compared  with  the  latter,  since 
there  are  very  many  species  whose  nests  from  tune  out  of 
mind  have  been  and  are  yearly  pillaged  without  any  dis- 
astrous consequences  arising  from  the  practice.' 

It  would  be  impossible  here  to  name  the  many  Birdswhich, 
once  numerous  in  the  British  Islands,  have  now  so  much 
diminished  as  to  be  rightly  considered  scarce,  or  to  recount 
the  various  causes  to  which  their  diminution  is  due.  The 
persecution  of  Birds-of-prey  seems  to  have  begun  with  the 
keepers  of  poultry,  to  whom  the  Kite  (Milmis  ictmus)  and 
the  Hen-Harrier  [Circus  cyaneus)  were  a  sore  trouble,-  but  it 
has  been  actively  followed  up  by  game-preservers,  and  this 
to  their  own  cost,  as  the  ravages  of  the  Grouse-disease 
testify.'  To  the  reclaiming  of  waste  lands,  the  enclosure 
of  open  spaces,  and  the  greater  care  bestowed  on  timber 
trees  (by  removing  those  that  being  decayed  are  much 
infested  with  insects)  must,  however,  be  attributed  the 
extermination  or  rarificatiou  of,  far  more  species  than  the 
direct  action  of  man  has  been  able  to  effect.^  Still  what 
we  lose  in  one  direction  we  gain  in  another,  and  while  Birds- 
of-prey  and  Wild-fowl  are  being  banished,  the  smaller 
denizens  of  the  woodlands,  gardens,  and  arable  fields  are 
unquestionably  more  numerous  than  ever '  The  change  is, 
of  course,  not  satisfactory  to  the  naturalist  or  to  the  lover 
of  wild  scenery,  but  to  some  extent  it  seems  inevitable  ; 
yet  well  directed  Uws  for  the  protection  of  those  birds 
which  buffer  worst  in  the  unequal  contest  may  delay  their 
impending  fate,  and  preserve  to  our  posterity  the  most 
pleasing  features  of  many  a  landscape  and  the  grateful 
opportunities  of  studying  many  a  curious  and  interesting 
species.  Thanks,  perhaps,  to  the  stronger  constitution  of  most 
Palxarctic  Birds,  the  votaries  of  what  is  called  "acclimatiza- 
tion "  have  obtained  little  success  in  these  islands,  for  the 


*  The  siDgular  wisdom  of  the  old  command  (Pcut.  xxii.  6) — the 
most  aocieut  "game-law"  (using  the  term  in  its  widest  sense)  in 
exL^tenco — baa  here  a  curious  exemplification. 

*  The  Bohemian  Schaschek,  who  visited  England  about  1461,  says 
ho  had  nowhere  seen  so  many  Kites  as  around  London  Bridge  (BM  Lit. 
Ver.  Stuttgart,  vii.  p  40).  And  the  statement  is  confirmed  hy  Belon 
[Oba.ad.Jin.  Ctui.  EzoC.  p.  108),  who  says  that  they  were  scarcely 
more  numerous  in  Cairo  than  in  London,  feeding  on  the  garbage  of  the 
(treets  and  even  of  the  Thames.  From  the  same  writer  (1/ist.  Nat. 
Oyseauz,  p.  131)  it  would  saem  that  at  that  time  (1555)  they,  and 
Ravens  also,  were  protected  by  law  in  the  City  I  The  Hen-Harrier's 
name  Is  enough  to  shew  what  was  thought  of  it  in  days  when  it 
ftboundc<L 

*  In  Transbaikalia,  the  Bearded  Vulture  (Oypactu3  barhatus),  which 
waa  formerly  common,  has  of  late  been  completely  exterminated, 
tnrough  porseeutlon  prompted  by  the  desire  to  obtain  its  feathers, 
which  are  higlily  valued.— Von  Middendorff,  Siliir.  licisc,  Iv.  p.  851, 

*  The  extermination  from  Europe  of  the  Francolin  {Francolinua 
tuljaru)  has  been  troated  at  some  length  by  Lord  Lilford  (/l«,  1862. 
p.  852i  without  his  being  able  to  assign  any  cause  for  the  fact. 

*  litjxnl  from  the  Select  CommilUe  on  Wild  Birds'  Protection,  ic- 
fBoBje  of  Commons),  1873.    Appendix,  pp.  188-193. 


exotic  specieswhich  it  has  been  attempting  to  introduce  have, 
almost  without  exception,  failed  to  establish  tlieniselvaa 
The  efforts  made  in  some  British  colonies — particularly  in 
Australasia — are  unfortunately  too  likely  not  to  be  success- 
ful ;  and,  when  their  own  peculiar  fauna  has  been  half 
extirpated,  our  fellow-subjects  at  the  antipodes  wUl  pro- 
bably have  good  reason  to  lament  the  extraordinary  senti- 
ment that  has  led  them  to  introduce  from  other  countiies 
birds  which,  in  the  absence  of  their  natural  checks,  will  be 
nothing  else  than  a  pusitl^?e  nuisance ;  for  so  reckless  is 
the  manner  in  which  they  have  been  imported,  that  species 
possessing  few  or  exceedingly  doubtful  recommendations 
to  begin  wi'h  have  been  carried  over  in  abundance,  and 
some  of  these  cannot  fail  to  become  permanent  settlers 
equally  with  those  for  the  transportation  of  which  the 
would-be  "  acclimati^ers  "  might  find  themselves  excused. 
All,  however,  in  the  battle  of  life  will  contribute  first  to 
the  subdual  and  by  degrees  to  the  disappearance  of  the 
original  inhabitants,  which  had  hitherto  constituted  a 
fauna,  from  a  scienti.fic  point  of  view,  perhaps  the  most 
interesting  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  DIRDS. 

It  is  admitted  by  nearly  all  naturalists  that  the  study  of 
the  extinct  organisms  of  any  country  leads  the  investigator 
of  them  to  a  proper  appreciation  of  its  existing  flora  or 
fauna ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  a  due  consideration  of 
the  plants  or  animals  which  may  predominate  within  it,* 
bounds  cannot  fail  to  throw  more  or  less  light  on  the 
changes  it  has  in  the  course  of  ages  undergone.  That  js 
to  say  that  the  Distribution  of  forms  in  Time  is  a  subject 
so  much  connected  T^ith  the  Distribution  of  forms  in  Space, 
that  the  one  can  hardly  be  beparated_  from  the  other. 
Granting  this  as  a  general  truth,  it  must  yet  be  acknow- Scarcity  ol 
ledged  as  a  special  fact,  which  some  of  the  preceding  Or^i'thic 
paragraphs  will  perhaps  have  foreshadowed,  that  in  fossil 
Ornithology  we  have  as  yet  but  scanty  means  of  arriving  at 
any  precise  results  which  will  justify  bold  generalization 
in  the  matter  of  aviarian  distribution.  Remains  of  estioct 
forms  of  Birds  are,  compared  with  those  of  other  classes 
of  Vertebrates,  exceedingly  scarce,  and  in  accordance,  there- 
fore, with  the  prevalent  practice  of  naturalists  they  have 
been  but  little  investigated.  If  we  except  France  and 
New  Zealand — and  in  the  latter  no  fossil  ornithic  relics 
can  be  assigned  to  any  very  ancient  epochs — little  has  been 
done.  The  discovery  in  the  former  of  somewhat  early 
remains  of  Birds,  allied  to  those  which  we  at  present  only 
know  as  denizens  of  a  tropical  region,  and  the  recognition 
of  far  later  remains  of  species  identical  with  those  that 
now  flourish  in  arctic  lands,  merely  corroborates  what  is 
from  numerous  sources  within  the  knowledge  of  every 
geologist — the  vicissitudes,  namely,  of  which  that  part  uf 
Europe  has  had  experience.  Though  in  tins  quarter  of  the 
globe  \<o  now  have  no  indigenous  Struthiuus  Birds,  the 
former  existence  of  Struthious  Birds  even  in  England  proves 
very  little,  because  we  know  that  some  of  such  birds  (the 
species  of  Soulh-.\merican  Rhea,  for  instance)  can  main- 
tain themselves  in  lands  which  are  subject  to  a  climate  ns 
fitful,  if  noi  as  severe,  as  our  own.  All  that  can  be  ju.itly 
inferred  thence  is  that  Strnthioua  Birds  wpre  not  formerly 
confined 'to  their  present  limits,  and  possibly  that  such 
birds  once  pervaded  the  greater  part  of  the  earth's  surface. 
The  Arc/ia-opteri/j;  and  Odmitopteryx  tvom  their  singularity 
prove  nothing  in  respect  of  Geogr.xphical  Distribution. 
Perhaps  in  the  whole  range  of  zoology  tl-.ero  is  no  class 
from  the  fossil  remains  of  which  we  learn  less  as  rcgaids  the 
physical  history  of  our  planet  than  wo  do  from  the  Birds. 
We,  therefore,  have  to  turn  to  the  other  sid»  of  the  ques- 
tion  of  Distribution,  and    try   to  find   out  whether  l!..» 


1  fn>«da. 


» 


k 


DISTRlbUTIOS.j 


13  I  R  D  S 


737 


tvidence,  wLioh  is  from  one  point  of  view  so  evidently 
deficient,  may  not  be  supplied  by  inquiry  into  existing 
avi/aunoe     and  this,  itt  other  words,  signifies  that  a  know- 
ledge  of   the  Geographical  Distribution   of   living  Birds 
becomes  a  matter  of  prime  necessity  to  every  one  who 
would  intelligently  exercise  the  calling  of  an  ornithologist. 
Zoological        Thus  driven  to  a  kind  of  extremity,  the  student  of  Birds, 
DiBinliu-     however,  cannot  but  regard  with  the  most  lively  satisfac- 
lion  «'"■•  tion  the  circumstance  that  to  one  of  his  brethren  is  due  the 
iliat  of        nierit  of  having  first  truly  pointed  out  the  great  Zoogeo- 
Biixis.  graphical  Regions  of  the  globe — a  fact  not  a  little  surpris- 

ing when  we  reflect  that  the  outlines  of  Distribution  laid 
down  in  1857  by  Mr  Sclater"  had  reference  only  to  the 
most  vagrant  Class  of  animals  in  creation ;  yet  these  out- 
lines liave,  not  merely  in  the  main,  but  to  a  very  great 
extent  in  detail,  met  with  the  approval  of  nearly  all  those 
zoologists  who  have  since  studied  the  subject  in  its  bear- 
ing upon  the  particular  Classes  in  the  knowledge  of  which 
they  themselves  stand  pre-eminent. 
General  Without  infringing  upon   what   must  be   deemed  the 

principles,  genomlities  of  biological  Distribution,  it  is  proper  to 
observe  that  Mr  Sclater's  success  is  to  be  attributed  to  the 
metnod  iu  which  his  investigations  were  carried  on — a 
method  in  which  he  had  but  few  predecessors.  Instead  of 
looking  at  the  earth's  surface  from  the  point  of  view  which 
the  geographer  would  take  of  it  (a  point  of  view  which 
had  hitherto  been  adopted  by  most  writers),  mapping  out 
the  world  according  to  degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude, 
determining  its  respective  portions  of  land  and  water 
entirely  regardless  of  the  products  of  either  element,  or 
adhering  to  its  political  divisions — time-honoured  as  they 
were, — he  endeavoured  to  solve  the  question  simply  as  a 
zoologist  should,  by  taking  up  the  branch  of  the  subject 
with  which  he  was  best  acquainted,  and  by  pointing  out  and 
defining  the  several  Regions  of  the  globe  in  conformity 
with  the  various  aspects  of  ornithic  life  which  they  present. 
But  herein  there  was  at  once  a  grave  difficulty  to  be 
encountered.  Birds  being  of  all  animals  most  particularly 
adapted  for  extended  and  rapid  locomotion,  it  became 
necessary  for  him  to  eliminate  from  his  consideration  tho.se 
groups,  be  they  large  or  small,  which  are  of  more  or  less 
universal  occurrence,'  and  to  ground  his  results  on  what 
was  at  that  time  commonly  known  as  the  order  Inseisorea 
or  Passeras,  comprehending  the  orders  now  generally  dif- 
ferentiated as  Paiseres  (ti«-(r),  Picarice,  and  Psittaci.  v 
The  At  On  this  basis  then  Mr  Sclater  was  enabled  to  set  forth 

great  that  the  surface  of  the  globe  exhibited  sue  great  Regions, 

Regions,  ^^^j^  ^^  ^  marked  manner  differing  from  all  the  rest,  though 
the  difix:rence  was  not  always  equally  important.  These 
Regions  he  termed  respectively  the  Palaearctic,  Ethiopian, 
Indian,  Australian,  Nearctic,  and  Neotropical ;  and  though 
it  is  on  all  accounts  better  to  preserve  the  names  he 
bestowed  on  them,  it  does  not  seem  convenient  to  follow 
the  order  in  which  he  placed  them.  Thus  the  Australian 
Region  appears  not  only  to  differ  more  from  the  others 
than  they  do  among  themselves,  but  its  differences  are  of 
a  kind  which,  when  its  fauna  is  considered  as  a  whole, 
suggest  a  striking  peculiarity,  namely,  that  many  of  the 
forms  of  animal  life  therein  found  are  the  direct  and  not 
very  much  modified  descendants  of  types  which  may  very 
likely  at  an  early  period  of  our  planet's  history  have  pre- 
dominated over  every  land,  but  of  types  which  have  since 

'  Journal  of  the  Prxetdingt  of  the  Linnean  Society,  Zoology, 
IL  pp.  130-H5.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  author  of  this 
most  valuable  essay  has  never  sanctioned  its  republication  in  another 
and  improved  form.  Many  of  ita  details,  and  some  of  its  principles 
even,  are  now  known  to  b«  incorrect,  but  for  the  lime  at  which  it  ap- 
peared it  was  a  marvellous  production. 

'  Not  but  that  even  in  the  most  widely-spread  groups  are  contained 
others — iutvfamilics,  genera,  or  species  slnctly  limited  to  certain 
loCAlitloik    8ome  of  these  will  b«  notifed  further  on. 

r  -2fl 


been  elsewhere  in  great  part  replaced  by  more  high/> 
developed  structures.  The  lower  rank  in  the  scale  of  iw 
most  characteristic  animals  seems  to  be  indisputable,  and, 
therefore,  with  the  Australian  Region  it  appears  most 
proper  to  begin.' 

L  The  Australian  Region  is  most  trenchantly  divided  Aujau 
from  the  Indian,  which,  from  a  geographical  and  possibly '-'*•• 
from  a  geological  point  of  view,  seems  to  be  conterminous  '''■°''" 
with  it,  by  the  narrow  but  deep  channel  which  separates 
the  small  islands  of  Bali  and  Lombok,  and  will  be  found  Bpundarlsi. 
to  determine  the  boundary  between  two  entirely  distinct 
portions  of  the  earth's  surface.  Midway  along  this  channel 
we  may  draw  aline  iu  our  imagination,  and  continue  it  in  a 
north-north-easterly  direction  up  the  Strait  of  Macassar, 
dividing  the  much  larger  islands  of -Celebes  and  Borneo. 
A  considerable  interchange  of  animal  forms  in  the  two 
islands  last  named  is  indeed  to  be  observed,  and  even  s 
slight  intermingling  of  the  productions  of  the  two  former 
seems  now  to  be  going  on  ;  but  the  inosculation  is  so  much 
less  in  degree  than  that  which  obtains  l^etween  any  othei 
two  Regions,  while  the  characteristic,  not  to  say  peculiar, 
zoological  types  which  occupy  either  side  of  this  line  are 
so  divergent,  that  it  may  be  fairly  considered  a  harder  and 
faster  line  than  any  that  can  elsewhere  be  found.  Between  Wallace't 
Bali  and  Lombok,  as  above  stated,  it  has  been  shewn  by  '-'"c. 
Mr  Wallace  to  be  all  but  perfect)  and  in  his  honour  this 
boundary,  as  real  in  the  abstract  as  though  it  existed 
in  the  concrete,  has  been  most  justly  named  after  the 
naturalist  and  traveller  who  first  saw  and  recognized  its 
importance — "  Wallace's  Line."  *  As  above  indicated,  this 
line  becomes  less  definitive  as  it  proceeds  further  northward ; 
and  though  we  know  it  to  pass  between  the  Philippine 
Islands  and  Sanguir,  and  again  between  the  former  and 
the  Palau  group,  its  further  progress  in  that  direction 
cannot  as  yet  be  set  down  with  precision,  though  it  pro- 
bably runs  to  the  westward  of  the  Ladrones.  But  here- 
abouts we  lose  sight  of  it,  until  we  arrive  at  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  to  the  northward  of  which  it  must  pass,  since  for 
reasons  presently  to  be  given  at  greater  length  that  archi- 
pelago must  be  confined  within  the  Australian  Region. 
Southward  from  Lombok  the  boundary  of  the  Region  rounds 
the  western  coast  of  Australia,  and  then  strikes  off  in  a 
south-easterly  direction  to  encompass  New  Zealand  and  its 
dependencies.  Arrived  here  it  must  be  drawn  so  as  to 
include  all  of  what  is  commonly  known  as  Polynesia, 
though  the  characters  of  the  intermittent  chain  of  islets 
lying  parallel  to  and  ja?t  to  the  southward  of  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn,  and  a  few  scattered  reefs  to  the  northward 
of  the  equator  (between  long.  108°  and  115°  W.),  are  at 
present  insufficiently  determined.  After  encircling,  how- 
ever, the  Low  Archipelago  and  the  Marquesas,  the 
boundary  trends  to  the  north-west,  and  includes,  as  before 
stated,  the  Sandwich  Islands ,  but  thence  its  precise  direc- 
tion cannot  now  be  traced,  owing  to  the  obscurity  which 
veils  the  numerous  islets  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  which 

s  The  writer  has  to  acknowledge  with  hearty  thanks  the  very 
singular  mark  of  confidence  conferred  on  hira  by  his  eminent  friend  Mr 
A.  R.  Wallace,  who  has  allowed  him  to  peruse  in  manuscript  the  greater 
part  of  a  work  on  the  Geopia}'hical  Distribution  of  Animals,  the  early 
publication  of  which  can  hardly  fail  to  place  this  most  interesting 
subject  in  the  position  it  undeniably  deserves,  but  a  position  to  wliieh 
it  has  never  yet  attained  through  the  absence  of  any  treatise  of  like 
character.  The  value  of  the  favour  thus  bestowed  upon  bim  the 
writer  cannot  overestimate. 

'  This  name  was  first  given  by  Professor  Iluxlcy  (Proc.  ZooL  Sot. 
1803,  p.  313),  but  as  it  is  hardly  a  gsographical  term,  it  will  accord- 
ingly make  no  appearance  on  any  save  a  so-called  "  physical "  map. 
The  value  of  the  discovery  above  mentioned,  of  which  no  one  had  ever 
dreamt  till  it  was  made  by  Mr  Wallace,  seems  to  justify  proper  notice 
from  chartographcrs,  and  it  might  be  well,  therefore,  to  dignify  tht 
channel  between  B.ili  and  Lombok — named  on  some  mapt  Lomboft 
8t>-.it — by  the  ajpellflticn  of  "Wallace's  Stnit" 


738 


BIRDS 


[olSmiBUTIOM. 


lie  between  that  group  and  the  coast  of  Asia.     All  tliat  can 
be  said  for  certain  is,  that  it  does  not  comiirise  the  Aleutian 
(elands,  the  empire  of  Japan,  or  the  LoocLoos. 
Gctiral  Though  the  characteristic  Mammals  of  the  Australian 

UUttsf '*'''  Region  ^^e  in  every  way  highly  remarkable,  entirely  com- 
prehending as  they  do  one  of  the  three  Subclasses  {Ornitko- 
'lelphia)  and  nearly  all  of  a  second  (Didelphia),  by  far 
the  largest  portion  of  the  area  it  covers'  is  weak  if  not 
absolutely  wanting  in  Mammalian  life,  and  the  zoological 
features  which  mark  the  Region  as  a  whole  are  perhaps 
better  exhibited  by  its  Birds  than  by  any  other  Class  of  its 
fauna.  This  being  the  case,  it  may  be  excusable  in  this 
place  to  dwell  longer  upon  this  Region  than  upon  the  rest. 
True  it  is  that  we  have  no  Subclass  of  birds,  like  the 
Oniilhodelphia  among  Mammals,  which  is  restricted  to. 
the  Region ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  instance  of  the 
Didelphia,  to  which  allusion  has  just  now  been  made,  is 
here  almost  exactly  paralleled  by  that  of  the  Struthious 
Dirds — the  Ralitw,  to  call  them  by  the  name  now  very  gene- 
rally applied  to  them  by  the  zoologists  who  recognize  them 
as  forming  one  of  the  two  primary  divisions  or  Subclasses, 
we  may  term  them,  of  the  Class  Aoes.  All  the  existing 
Prevo  «-nce  Ralitcc  (with  the  e.xception  of  the  species  of  two  forms,  the 
of  /in  uu  Ostriches  of  Africa  and  South  America,  belonging  to  the 
genera  SlriUhio  and  Rhea,  and  comprising  at  most  but  five 
species)  are  found  within  the  Australian  Region  and  nowhere 
c'se.  But  farther,  the  RatitcE  of  the  Region  aro  more 
videly  distributed  throughout  its  area  than  are  the  Di- 
delphia, since  the  former  extend  from  Ceram,  in  lat.  4°  S. 
nnd  long.  130'  E.,  to  New  Zealand  in  ht.  45'  S.  and  long. 
175'  E.,  if  not  a  little  further,  while  the  Didelphia  stop 
short-at  lat.  44°  S.  and  long.  155'  E.^  But  if  we  take  the 
birds  alone,  and  compare  the  two  Subclasses  into  which 
the  existing  or  recent  members  of  the  Class  are  divided,  we 
find  the  Austr.tlian  Region  remarkable  for  its  ornithic 
singularity  The  smaller  of  these  two  Subclasses,  the 
Ratitce,  Contains  six  very  natural  groups — which  might 
well  be  called  Orders — including,  according  to  the  most 
exaggerated  computation  of  their  number,  less  than 
40  species,  while  the  larger  Subclass,  the  Carinalce, 
though  perhaps  not  including  more  truly  natural  groups, 
comprehends  some  10,000  specie!!.  Naw,  out  of  the  six 
groups  of  this  smaller  Subclass,  fourare  absolutely  restricted 
to  the  Australian  Region,  and  these  four  groups  contain  all 
but,  at  the  highest  estimate,  as  above'slateJ,  five  of  the 
species  known  to  belong  to  the  Subclass  ;  thus  we  should 
oe  able  to  regard  the  35  species  of  recent  Ratiloe  of 
the  Region  (a  number  which  is-dearly  far  too  large)  as  the 
proportional  equivalent  of  an  avifauna  of  more  than  8000 
species  (8750). 

Leaving,  however,  such  a  calculation  as  this,  which 
indeed  cannot  as  yet  be  more  than  an  approximation  to  the 
(  truth,  we  must  consider  6rst  the  remaining  ornithic  features 
of  the  Region  as  a  whole,  and  then  those  of  its  parts.  With 
respect  to  each  of  those  subjects,  it  will  be  evidqnt  to  every 
one  that  a  further  division  is  at  onco  incnnibenl  upon  us. 
The  prevalent  zoological  features  of  any  Region  arc  of  two 
kinds — negative  and  positive.  It  is  therefore  ju.st  as  much 
the  business  of  the  zoogeographcr,  who  wishes  to  arrive  at 
»Jie  truth,  to  ascertain  what  groups  of  animals  aro  wanting 
in  any  particular  locality  (altogether  independently  of  its 
extent)  as  to  determine  those  which  are  forthcoming  there. 


*  Of  course,  n^  rcgarth  polymorphism,  no  comparison  can  be  mnite 
betv/ncn  the  Batitti  and  llie  huUlphia,  tlio  latter  presenting  a  very 
great  variety  nnd  the  former  a  very  great  sameness  of  strucliire  and 
h.ihit,  Ihoash  if  it  bo  true,  as  seems  to  be  most  likely  the  case,  that 
i>i'wrnis  an<l  its  tllics  were  absolutely  devoid  of  wings  ™e  should  in 
Ihcm  Jiive  a  divergunce  from  the  normal  ornithic  type  which  is  alto- 
gell  or  unique  rn  llie  whole  CIa.s«,  and  for  itfl  singularity  mi^'ht  well  bo 
»<(  off  AjaluK  th4  niulJfuriousjieu  uhibitod  by  the  lnUclpUvi. 


Of  course,  in  the  former  case  it  would  be  absurd  to  regard 
as  a  physical  feature  of  any  great  value  the  absence  from  a 
district  of  groups  which  do  not  occur  except  in  its  imme- 
diate neighbourhood  ;  but  when  we  find  that  certain  groups, 
though  abounding  in  some  part  of  the  vicinity,  either  sud- 
denly cease  from  appearing  or  appear  only  in  very  reduced 
numbers,  and  occasionally  in  abnormal  forms,  the  fact 
obviously  has  an  important  bearing.  Now,  as  has  been 
above  stated,  mere  geographical  considerations,  taken  from 
the  situation  and  configuration  of  the  islands  of  the  so- 
called  Indian  or  Malay  Archipelago,  would  indicate  that 
they  extended  in  an  unbroken  series  from  the  shores  of  the 
Strait  of  Malacca  to  the  southern  coast  of  Now  Guinea, 
which  confronts  that  of  North  Australia  in  Torres  Strait, 
or  even  further  to  the  eastward.  Indeed,  the  very  name 
Australasia,  often  applied  to  this  part  of  the  world,  would 
induce  the  belief  that  all  the  countless  islands,  be  they 
large  or  small — and  some  of  them  aro  among  the  largest 
on  the  globe — were  but  a  southern  prolongation  of  the 
mainland  of  Asia.  But  it  has  been  already  stated  that  so  A  j-ovy 
far  from  this  being  the  case  a  very  definite  barrier  is  Jefiiiitt 
interposed.  A  strait,  some  15  miles  or  so  in  width,  and  ^°""''="'> 
separating  the  two  fertile  but  otherwise  insignificant  islands 
of  Bali  and  Lombok,  makes  such  a  frontier  as  can  hardly  be 
shewn  to  exist  elsewhere.  The  former  of  these  two  islands 
belongs  to  the  Indian  Region,  the  latter  to  the  Australian, 
and  between  them  there  is  absolutely  no  true  transition — 
that  is,  no  species  are  common  to  both  which  cannot  be 
easily  accounted  for  by  the  various  accidents  and  migrations 
that  in  the  course  of  time  must  have  tended  to  mingle  the 
productions  of  islands  so  close  to  one  another.  The  faunas 
of  the  two  are  as  absolutely  distinct  as  those  of  South 
America  and  Africa,  and  it  is  only  because  Ihey  are  sepa- 
rated by  a  narrow  strait  instead  of  the  broad  Atlantic  that 
they  have  become  so  slightly  connected  by  the  interchange 
of  a  few  species  and  genera. 

Now,  first,  of  the  forms  of  Birds  which  aro  prevalent  Indian 
throughout  the  Indian  Region,  but  are  entirely  wanting  in  fo'^s 
the  Australian,  we  have  at  once  the  Bulbuls  (Ixidie),  very  "^"l'"8 
characteristic  of  most  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia,  with  the 
allied  group  oT  Phylhniitkidcc,  which  is  peculiar  to  the 
Indian  Region;  the  widely -spread  families  of  Barbels 
(ifegahemida:)  and  Vultures  (  VuUurida-) ;  and  the  Phea- 
sants {Phwiianidtc),  which  attain  so  great  a  development  in 
various  parts  of  the  Asiatic  continent  and  islands  that  there 
must  their  home  be  regarded  as  fixed,  though  some  species 
are  found  very  far  removed  from  the /oa;s  of  the  family.' 
Some  naturalists  would  add  the  Finches  (Frinffillidic),  but 
the  real  position  of  the  so-called  "  Finches  "  of  Australia 
must  at  present  be  considered  extremely  doubtful,  and  it 
may  prove  that  they  are  the  direct  descendants  of  the  more 
generalized  group  whence  sprang  both  the  true  Fringillidoi 
and  the  Ploceid<r,  if,  indeed,  these  can  justifiably  be  kept 
apart.  Then,  of  forms  which  are  but  weakly  represented, 
we  have  the  otherwise  abundant  Thrushes  (TurJIdic'),  and, 
above  all,  the  Woodpeckers  {Puida),  of  which  some  4 
species,  or  at  most  5,*  out  of  mure  than  300,  just  cross 

*  Tho  separation  of  this  family  from  the  Tctraonidoi  (Partiidgen 
and  Grouse),  though  hitherto  almost  universally  recognized,  seems  to 
be  a  very  questionable  proceeding,  and,  so  far  as  tho  present  writer  is 
aware,  is  one  that  can  only  be  maintained  by  structural  characters, 
which  though  patent  in  their  extreme  forms,  appear  to  vanish  in  those 
which  are  intermediate  (<■/  Proc.  Xool.  !fuc  ISOS,  pp.  300,301) ;  but 
for  the  puri'oses  of  this  treatise  it  is  of  httle  consequence,  since  the 
Telraonulu:  aro  but  very  feebly  represented  in  the  Australian  Region. 

.  '  It  is  almost  certain  that  no  satisfactory  limits  can  be  laid  down 
between  this  family  and  the  Warblers  iSylviidcr),  but,  as  in  the  cast 
montiouod  in  the  last  note,  the  result  would  hardly  bo  allected  by 
combining  the  two  families,  since  the  iSi/frjit/ahave  comparatively  few 
members  in  the  Region  now  under  notice. 

*  Thoro  are  siiid  to  be  Dendrotypes  aiutth  in  Lombofc.  Muellertpunt 
futrus  .and    Vunf/ijficuJ  temmincki  in  Celebes,  }'.   moiuitcfini  la  tho 


AUSTRAM  VN    fiEi^ICN'.J 


BIRDS 


739 


the   bounda/j'   acd    cccur    in    Lombok,    Celebes,   or   the 
Moluccas,  but  are  absolutely  unknown  elsewhere  in  the 
Region. 
Cbtracirr-      Turning  to  the  families  which  by  their  presence  char- 
Utic  tami-  acterize  the  Australian  Region,  we  find  those  which  are 
'"  peculiar  to  it  to  be  perhaps,  if  not  more  numerous,  yet  more 

remarkable  than  the  peculiar  families  of  any  other  Region. 
Nearly  20  such  might  Lore  be  enumerated.  One, 
the  Honeysuckers  {Mdiphagidce'^),  is  most  characteristic, 
and,  abounding  in  genera  and  species,  extends  to  almost 
every  part  of  the  region,  yet  only  a  single  species  oversteps 
Its  limits,  crossing  tho  sea  from  l,ombok  to  BalL'  Other 
peculiar  families  are  much  more  confined,  and,  since  by 
their  means  (as  will  presently  appear)  the  various  sub- 
divisions of  the  Region  may  be  moie  clearly  marked  out, 
further  notice  of  them  may  be  for  the  present  deferred. 
But  the  positive  characteristics  of  the  Region  as  a  whole 
are  not  its  peculiar  forms  alone ;  there  are  at  least  4 
families  which,  being  feebly  represented  elsewhere,  here 
attain  the  maximum  of  development.  Such  are  the 
Thickheaded  Shrikes  [PachycephalidcE),  tie  Caterpillareaters 
(Campephagid^),  tho  Flowerpeckers  (DiccFidce),  and  the 
Swallow-Flycatchers  (Artamidas).  Besides  these,  3  or  per- 
hips  4  groups,  though  widely  distributed  throughout  tie 
world,  arrive  in  the  Australian  Region  at  their  culmination, 
presenting  an  abundance  of  most  varied  forma.  These  are 
theWeaver-birds  (Plocnd(e),&ni  the'iA.orzT^fji^Podargidii), 
if  they  can  be  properly  separated  from  the  FrinffUlidce  and 
the  Caprimulgidas  respectively,  but  especially  the  King- 
fishers (Alccdinidce)  and  tho  Pigeons  {ColuriAidae),  the 
species  belonging  to  the  two  last  obtaining  in  this  Region  a 
degree  of  prominence  and  beauty  which  ia  elsewhere  un- 
equalled. 

Without  going  into  greater  detail,  the  Australia.!  Region 
may  be 'roughly  said  to  be  composed  of /(>ur  Subregions, 
to  which  tho  names  of  Papua  (or  New  Guinea),  Australia 
proper,  New  Zealand,  and  Polynesia  may  perhaps  be  at- 
tached. The  boundaries  of  some  of  these  Subregions  are, 
as  may  be  expected,  not  well  defined ;  and,  indeed,  it  is 
obvious  that  much  must  be  done  in  the  way  of  geographi- 
cal exploration  before  the  investigation  of  zoologists  wiil 
mark  out  their  limits  with  positive  accuracy.  Especially 
is  this  true  in  respect  of  the  first  of  these  Subregions,  which 
in  certain  parts  shows  a  complication  of  characters  that 
for  want  of  space  could  hardly  here  be  explained,  if,  in- 
deed, according  to  our  present  information,  they  can  be 
explained  at  all. 
Papuan  (1.)  7'A<  Papiion  iSai>r«jrion,  the  chief  province  of  whieh 

Bubregion.  {,  formed  by  New  Guinea  and  its  dependenciee,  comprises, 
besides  tho  largo  and  imperfectly-known  island  whence  its 
name  is  derived,  three  other  provinces,  which  may  bo 
■named  the  Timorese,  the  Celebesian,  and  tho  Moluccan. 
Timorese  The  fauna  of  the  Timor  group  seems  to  be  made  up  of 
proTince.  contributions  from  Java,  belonging  to  the  Indian  region, 
the  Moluccas,  and  Australia.  Of  nearly  100  genera  and 
160  species  of  Land-birds  only,  which  are  here  found,  an 
equal  proportion  appears  to  be  related  to  the  Birds  of  the 
Indian  Region  and  to  those  of  Australia  proper — some  30 
genera  being  distinctly  traceable  to  each.  The  Indian  in- 
fluence is  made  evident  by  the  presence  of  about  27  genera 
which  have  crossed  the  strait  from  Bali  into  Lombok.  Of 
these,  12  are  known  to  stop  short  at  Florea,  but  the  inter- 
Molucca.?,  and  Y.  olariut  Ihcro  or  perhaps  in  tho  Sunda  Islands.  It 
is  quikO  likely,  however,  that  further  lnvostigation  will  add  to  the 
Dunilipr. 

'  This  term  la  hero  advisedly  Tuod  in  a  restricted  tean,  eidnding 
the  gcuui  ZottCTops  and  its  anios,  which  are  often  iLcluded  under  it 
by  systcmatisti. 

•  Tliii  Is  Ptiletis  limitUa,  s  speciM  which  ia  common  from  Timor  to 
Lombolt.    ■ 


vening  island  of  Sumbawa  has  not  yet  been  omithologioally 
explored,  and  13  of  them  reach  Timor.  In  all  there  may 
be,  disregarding  birds  of  wide  distribution,  some  30  species 
of  Indian  origin,  with  nearly  20  thereto  allied,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  more  than  60  which  are  derived  from  Australia, 
thus  indicating  a  greater  affinity  to  the  btter  country. 
There  is  one  genus  of  Kingfishers  {Caridoiiox)  known  only 
from  Lombok  and  Flores,  but  no  doubt  represented  in 
Sumbawa,  and  a  genus  of  Pigeons  (Leucofreron)  is  almost 
limited  to  this  group. 

The  Celebesian  province  is  known  to  be  iahabited  by 
more  than  200  species,  belonging  to  about  150  genera 
Of  the  Land-birds,  9  genera  and  nearly  70  species  are  abso- 
lutely confined  to  the  principal  island,  but  20  more  are 
found  also  in  the  Sula  and  Sanguir  islands,  making  nearly 
90  species  peculiar  to  this  Subregion.  Of  those  which 
are  not  peculiar,  Lord  Walden'  estimates  that  about  5.5 
are  of  Indian  and  22  of  Australian  origin,  the  remainder 
being  common  to  both  Regions,  and  thus  the  Indian  indu- 
cnce  is  very  strong  in  this  quarter,  pointing  to  an  immi- 
gration from  the  north  and  west.  Of  the  less  wide  genera 
of  Celebes,  more  than  20  are  common  to  Borneo  and  Java, 
and  nearly  as  many  to  Timor  or  the  Moluccas — again 
showing  a  preponderance  of  Indian  over  Australian  types ; 
but,  since  the  Bomean  and  Javan  species  consist  of  only 
about  one-quarter  of  those  which  are  characterbtic  of  those 
islands,  while  the  Moluccan  and  Timorese  genera  form 
nearly  one-half,  the  proportion  which  has  been  drawn  from 
the  rest  of  the  Australian  Region  is  clearly  greater  than  that 
which  has  flowed  in  from  the  Indian.  The  most  important 
family  of  ifeliphagidce,  however,  which,  as  before  remarked, 
is  so  highly  characteristic  of  the  Australian  Region,  is  here 
represented  by  a  single  species  only  (Myzomela  Moroptera), 
and  the  fact  requires  due  acknowledgment.  On  the  other 
hand,  some  8  Indian  families  which  are  very  important 
in  Borneo  and  Java  are  altogether  absent,  and  the  non- 
appearance of  a  still  greater  number  of  Moluccan  forms  is 
also  worthy  of  note.  The  conclusion  at  which  Mr  Wallace 
arrives  from  these  and  some  other  circumstances  is  that 
Celebes,  during  the  existing  epoch,  has  never  been  united 
by  extensive  land  with  either  side,  but  has  received  an 
influx  of  immigrants  from  each.  Of  the  gcr.era  found  in 
Celebes  itself  9  are  peculiar,  3  more  occur  in  one  other 
island  only,  and  1  (which  is  likely  to  be  eventually  dis- 
covered in  Celebes)  is  as  yet  known  but  in  the  Sula  group- 
()f  these  13  genera  peculiar  to  the  Subregion,  about  one- 
tliird  are  modifications  of  Australian  forms.  The  Sula 
Islands  show  a  considerable  blending  of  faunas ;  out  of 
nemly  40  species  of  Land-birds,  more  than  one-half  are 
identical  -with  or  allied  to  those  of  Celebes ;  but  3 
Moluccan  genera,  unknown  to  Celebes,  occur  here. 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  Papuan  province.  The  Papoaa 
island  of  New  Guinea,  which  is  the  centre  of  the  whole  provioc*. 
Papuan  Subregion,  has  been  until  lately  almost  entirely  un- 
explored, and  even  at  the  present  day  its  interior  has  been 
but  scarcely  and  cursorily  visited  by  civilized  foreigners. 
Vet  out  of  nearly  .350  species  of  Land-birds,  belonging  to 
125  genera,  which  are  known  to  us  from  this  country, 
300  spccicd  are  exclusively  peculiar  to  it,  and  36  genera 
are  cither  peculiar  or  only  just  extending  to  North  Australia. 
Of  the  remaining  genera,  38  are  peculiar  to  the  province, 
■15  are  characteristically  Australian,  9  more  especially  bo- 
long  to'  the  Malay  Archipelago  generally,  being  as  much 
Australian  as  Indian.  Only  7  are  typically  Indian,  «ut 
with  a  discontinuous  distribution,  while  25  have  a  wide 
range.  The  chief  features  of  Iho  province  to  be  noted  arc 
tho  extraordinary  development  therein  of  the  Cassowaries 


'  TnuuatXumt  ((f  Uu  Zoological  Sotittf,  viii.  pp.  23-11&. 


740 


BIRDS 


[distributio» 


(Casxtariidce),'  the  ricUness  and  specialization  of  the  King- 
fishers (Alccdinidce),  Parrots  {PsiUaci),  and  Pigeons  (Co- 
tumbidae),  its  Birds-of-Paradise  (Paradiseidce),  Honeysuckers 
(Mdiphcigidce),  and  some  remarkable  Flycatchers  (Musci- 
<cap{d<js).  It  has  several  marked  deficiencies  compared  with 
Australia,  among  which  are  the  Warblers  (Sy/iatrfo;),  Babblers 
(Timeliidce),  Finches  or  Weaver-birds  (Frinffillidce  or  Plo- 
ceidcs) — according  as  we  are  disposed  to  treat  those  groups 
— certain  Parrots  (Platycercince),  and  Diurnal  Birds-of-Prey 
(Faiconidce),  and,  above  all,  the  Emeus  (Dromceidae).  About 
9  genera  are  especially  Malayan,  and  nearly  as  many  more 
have  apparently  the  same  origin,  but,  curiously  enough,  are 
Bot  found  in  the  intervening  Moluccan  province.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  avifauna  of  New  Guineais  pre-eminently 
that  of  the  Australian  Region,  and  that  it  has  many  peculiar 
developments  of  Australian  types  ;  but  that  there  has  also 
been  an  infusion  of  Malayan  forms,  of  which  one  group  is 
spread  pretty  uniformly  over  the  whole  Archipelago,  if  not 
beyond  it ;  while  another  group  presents  a  rare  instance  of 
discontinuous  distribution — not  appearing  in  an  interven- 
ing space  of  1000  miles  across,  though  that  space  is  full 
of  islands  to  all  appearance  habitable  by  such  forms. 
The  birds  of  Papua  are,  as  a  whole,  remarkable  for  their 
brilliaiicy  of  plumage,  one- half  of  the  species  occurring 
there  being  so  distinguished,  and  no  less  than  12  genera 
ore  decorated  by  the  metallic  colouring  of  their  feathers. 
The  Birds-of-Paradise,  the  Racquet-tailed  Kingfishers,  the 
largest  and  smallest  of  the  Parrot  tribe,  namely,  Calypto- 
rhjp.chus  and  Nasitema,  and  the  great  Crowned  Pigeons 
(Goura)  are  very  characteristic  among  its  productions.  ' 

The  chief  dependencies  of  New  Guinea  require  some 
little  notice.  These  are  the  Aru  Islands  in  the  west,  and 
New  Britain  and  New  Ireland  in  the  east,  with  the  Solomon 
Islands  as  still  more  distant  outliers  in  the  same  direction, 
and  the  Louisiade  group  in  the  south.  The  first,  sepa- 
rated by  150  miles  of  sea  from  Papua,  has  over  100  species 
of  Land-birds,  of  which,  however,  about  four-fifths  have 
been  found  also  on  the  mainland ;  but  among  those 
which  are  peculiar  are  two  of  the  finest  Paradiseidce — one 
of  them  belonging  to  a  distinct  genus  (Cicinnurusy—&n& 
there  is  the  very  suggestive  fact,  as  asserted,  of  two  species 
of  Casiiarius  occurring  in  the  group.  Of  the  ornitho- 
logical features  of  New  Britain  and  New  Ireland  not  much 
is  known,  save  that  the  former  is  inhabited  by  a  species  of 
Cassowary,  and  that  both  are  intimately  connected  with 
New  Guinea.  The  avifauna  of  the  Solomon  Islands  is  in 
some  degree  better  understood,  and  30  ^  well-authenticated 

'  Th«  importance  which  murt  be  attached  to  the  distribution  of 
Ritite  u  compared  with  Carinate  birds,  to  say  nothing  of  the  interest- 
ing (act  that  the  known  number  of  species  of  Casuarius  has  been  raised 
from  une  to  nine  in  the  course  of  a  very  few  years,  makes  it  advisable 
here  to  givd  a  list  of  the  9  species,  with  the  localities  (so  far  as  they 
have  been  ascertained)  they  inhabit,  as  announced  to  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London,  IGth  February  1875,  hy  Mr  Sclater,  to  whose 
courtesy  the  author  owes  the  sight  of  a  proof  sheet  of  the  communica- 
tion : — 


C.  gaUatus,  Ceram. 

C.  papuanus.  Northern  New 

Guinea. 
C.  vjf-Uermanni,  Jobie  Island. 
C.  uniappmdiculatus,  New 

Guln^. 


C.  piciicoUiSt  Southern  New 

Guinea. 
.  C  ftBccan'i, Wokan,  Am  Islands. 
C.  bicarunculatus,  Aru  Islands. 
C.  austratis.  North  Australia. 
C.  bcnncUi^  New  Britain. 


4i  species  of  Cassowary^has  been  said  to  occur  in  the  Solomon  Islands, 
and  if  BO,  one  would  think  it  likely  to  be  distinct,  but  the  only  example 
alleged  to  bare  come  from  that  group  which  has  been  examiued  proved 
to  be  C.  batnetti. 

It  would  seem  not  at  all  unreasonable  that  in  dividing  tlie  Papuan 
Subregion  into  provincoe  we  should  be  guided  by  the  distribution  of 
this  remaikabic  gcnui.  In  that  case,  not  only  would  Oram  be  an- 
nexed to  the  I'apuan  province,  but  the  Cape- York  district  severed  fratn 
the  Australian  ahd  added  to  the  Papuan  Subregion. 

'  A«  slated  in  the  preceding  note,  a  Casriaritu  is  said  to  be  found  in 
the  Solomon  Islands,  and,  hovevcr  contrary  to  expectation,  would 
•eeia  to  be  of  the  ume  species  as  thut  which  inhabits  New  Britain. 


species  of  Land-birds,  with  1  peculiar-  Callus,  have  beeiT 
found  there.  Of  those  30,  1 6,  or  more  than  half,  are  known 
to  be  peculiar,  while  3  more  probably  are  so :  6  species 
occur  in  New  Ireland  as  well  ;  1  is  common  also  to  New 
Caledonia  and  the  New  Hebrides,  1  to  the  Louisiade  Archi- 
pelago, and  the  remaining  4  have  a  wider  distribution  in 
the  Papuan  Subregion,  to  which  unquestionably  the  group 
belongs. 

The  Moluccan  province,  completing  this  Subregion  and  Moluccan 
consisting  of  many  rather  widely  detached  islands,  which  provinca. 
lie  for  the  most  part  between  those  forming  the  provinces 
already  described,  extends  probably  from  Timor-leat  in  the 
south  to  the  Sanguir  group  in  the  north,  and  includes  the 
considerable  islands  of  Ceram,  Bouru,  Gilolo,  and  MoMy. 
About  200  species  of  Land-birds  are  now  known  from  this 
province,  and  they  may  be  assigned  to  over  80  genera.  Of 
the  species  about  15  are  common  to  the  Indian  region, 
but  more  than  twice  as  many  to  the  Papuan  province,  and 
some  140  are  peculiar,  of  which  the  most  significant  are 
the  Casuaritis  of  Ceram.'  Of  the  genera  of  Land-birds 
2  only — Semioptera,  a  remarkable  Bird-of-Paradise,  and 
Lycacorax,  an  aberrant  Crow — are  peculiar ;  but  there  is 
also  in  Gilolo  a  brevipennate  genus  of  Rails  (Hahroptila)  to 
which  the  same  epithet  will  apply.  One  genus  is  common 
to  Ceram  and  Celebes,  and  another  is  found  in  Australia, 
whence  possibly  it  is  a  migrant,  while  30  genera  are  charac- 
teristic of  the  Papuan  Subregion,  and  nearly  40  more,  of 
more  or  less  wide  range,  are  found  in  and  probably  derived 
from  New  Guinea.  Finally,  there  are  some  1 2  genera  which 
do  not  occur  in  New  Guinea,  and  belong  wholly  or  mainly 
to  the  Indian  Region,  but  there  are  only  3  characteristically 
Indian  types  met  with  in  the  Moluccas,  and  all  of  them 
are  there  represented  by  distinct  and  well-marked  species. 
The  avifauna  of  the  Moluccan  province  is  therefore 
thoroughly  that  of  the  Papuan  Subregion,  and  is  no  less 
clearly  derivative  from  that  of  New  Guinea,  but  not  fewer 
than  11  forms  of  Birds-of-Paradise  (Paradiseidce),  with 
more  than.  12  other  characteristicaUy  Papuan  genera,  are 
wanting,  and  therefore,  in  Mr  Wallace's  opinion,  it  would 
seem  as  though  the  province  is  not  a  fragment  of  any  old 
Papuan  territory,  a  supposition  supported  by  the  fact  that 
most  Moluccan  birds  are  very  distinct  from  their  repre- 
sentatives in  New  Guinea.  Amongst  the  most  character- 
istic forms  are  the  scarlet  Brush-tongued  Parrots  (Lorius 
and  Eos),  found,  it  is  believed,  in  cvoiy  island  of  the 
group,  but  not  in  the  Celebesian  or  Timorese  provinces. 
One  species  of  Eos  from  Siau  and  Sanguir  intimates  that 
those  islands  belong  to  thff  province.  Eclectus,  another 
scarlet  Parrot,  but  belonging  to  a  different  family,  also  is 
equally  characteristic  with  the  Parrots  just  mentioned.  As  a 
rule,  the  birds  of  the  Moluccan  province  are  larger  and  more 
conspicuous  than  the  allied  species  from  neighbouring  parts. 

On  the  whole,  the  avifauna  of  the  Papuan  Subregion  Subregioa 
presents  some  very  remarkable  features,  but  most  of  them 
must  be  here  briefly  treated  by  way  of  summary.  Un- 
questionably its  most  distinctive  characteristic  is  to  be 
found  in  the  presence  of  theBirds-of-Paradi8e{Para<//so(/(r), 
which  are  almost  peculiar  to  it ;  for,  granting  that  the 
Bower-birds  [Chlamydera  and  others)  of  Australia  should 
be  classed  in  this  family,  it  must  bo  admitted  that  they 
are  very  abnormal,  or  perhaps,  to  take  firmer  ground, 
that  they  are  far  less  highly  specialized  than  tho  beautiful 
and  e.'ttraordiimry  forms  which  are  found,  and  found  only 
within  very  restricted  limits,  in  tho  various  islands  of  the 
Subregion.  It  would  be  easy,  if  spoce  allowed,  to  dwell  at 
length  on  the  many  points  of  interest  with  respect  to  those 
wonderful  birds,  though  in  truth  wo  know  but  little  of 
them. 

*  See  preceding  footnotes. 


>USTRAUAN    REGION.] 


BIRDS 


741 


Ag»tr»Ii»n  (2.)  The  Australian  Subregion  is  limited  to  the  great 
Subregiou.  insulated  continent  which  bears  that  name,  with  its  ap- 
pendage Tasmania  or  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  possesses,  on 
the  whole,  a  very  homogeneous  fauna — so  much  so,  indeed, 
that  at  present  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  subdivide 
if'into  provinces.  Influenced  in  the  north  by  its  proximity 
to  the  rich  and  varied  Papuan  Subregion,'  its  amis  rapidly 
becomes  modifled  towards  the  st  uth.  Outof  someGSOspecies 
or  more,  nearly  490  are  Landb  rds,  and  not  more  than  one- 
twentieth  of  them  are  found  eh  ewhere,  so  that  its  peculiar 
species  bear  a  greater  proportion  to  the  rest  than  is  the  case 
in  the  Papuan  Subregion.  Though  the  western,  and  espe- 
cially the  north-western,  parts  of  the  country,  which  have 
been  as  yet  but  imperfectly  investigated,  will  no  doubt 
yield  more  results  on  further  examination,  it  is  already 
evident  that  the  greatest  animal  wealth  of  Australia  lies 
towards  the  east.  The  western  portion  seems  to  have  but 
2  peculiar  genera  (one  of  questionable  value) — a  nocturnal 
Parrakeet  {Geopsiliacus),  and  a-  Weaver-bird  (EmUeina), 
which  is  apparently  not  very  far  removed  from  others  of 
the  same  group.  In  the  north,  as  already  stated,  there  is 
a  considerable  admixture  of  genera  from  the  Papuan  Sub- 
regioUj  which  do  not  proceed  beyond  the  tropic,  and  of  these 
Caruariui  is  a  striking  example.  The  genus  Xerophila,  of 
uncertain  affinity,  is  confined  to  So\lth  Australia ;  and  the 
extreme  limits  of  the  Subregion,  that  is  Tasmania,  possess  in 
addition  only  1  genus,  Eudyptes,  belonging  to  the  mj^rine 
family  of  the  Penguins  {Spheniscidce),  which  inhabit  gener- 
ally the  sub-antarctic  seas ;  but  the  Land-bird£  which  are  few 
in  number,  are  specifically  identical  with  those  of  Australia 
proper.  This  is  even  the  case  with  the  Emeu  (Drommus), 
and  the  import  of  this  fact  is  as  significant-  as  would  be  a 
corresponding  example  drawn  from  the  class  Mammalia, 
since,  in  regard  to  means  of  locomotion,  birds  incapable  of 
flight  are  on  a  par  with  terrestrial  mammals.  As  a  whole, 
Australia  is  rich  in  Parrots  {Psittaci),  having  several  very 
peculiar  forms ;  but  Picarians  {Piearioe)  of  all  sorts — 
certain  Kingfishers  (Alcedinida;),  perhaps,  excepted — are 
few  in  number,  and  the  Pigeons  (Columbidce)  are  also  com- 
paratively scarce.  Australia,  however,  possesses  two  extra- 
ordinary families  of  abnormal  Passeres — the  Lyre-birds 
(Menuridis)  and  the  Scrub-birds  {Atrichiidce) — which,  so 
far  as  is  at  present  known,  stand  by  themselves,  though  it 
is  possible  that  the  latter  have  a  somewhat  distant  ally  in 
the  genus  Orthonijx,  or  even  in  the  South-American  family 
Pleroptochidce.  The  number  of  peculiar  or  characteristic 
genera  of  Passcra  is,  however,  too  great  to  be  here  enume- 
rated ;  and  there  are  many  singular  forms  of  Columbidce. 
Among  the  more  curious  forms  of  Land-birds  other  than 
those  may  be  especially  remarked  Lipoa  among  the 
Gallinm  (Megapodiidce),  and  Tribonyx  among  the  Orallas 
{Rallidce),  while  Pedionomut  is  a  form  referred  by  some 
systematisls  to  the  first  and  by  others  to  the  second  of 
those  Orders.  The  presence  of  a  Bustard  (Eupodotis)  pre- 
sents a  curious  example  of  interrupted  distribution,  since 
none  of  that  family  (Otididae)  are  found  nearer  than  India. 
Polyni'sian  (3.)  Tlie  Polynesian  Subregion,  though  so  vast,  extend- 
Subrcgion.  jng  as  it  does  from  one  tropic  to  tho  other  throughout 
ninety  degrees  of  longitude  (from  long.  140°  E  to  long. 
130°  VV.),  at  that  part  of  the  earth's  surface  where  degrees 
of  longitude  are  broadest,  possesses  generally  a  very  uniform 
avifauna.  It  may  possibly  be  partitioned  into  four  or  five 
provinces ;  but  if  so,  tho   products  of  the  first  of  them, 

*  Tb©  Ponlnsul*  of  Cap©  York  possc.-iscs  a  Casuarwu,  u  already 
Doticod,  and  other  grouDda  are  not  wanting  for  the  8Ui>|K>sitiun  thai 
hoa  bMD  eutcrtaiocd  that  zoologically  it  belongs  to  tlie  Papuan  Sub- 
region. 

*  lu  elgnlficaitce  1«  Increased  bj:  the  fact  that  the  Emeu  of  We.it 
Ai'.itr-ilia  i©  diatinct  from  that  of  the  east  The  Emeu  is  extiort  in 
Taamariia- 


containing  the  Palau'  (commonly  called  Pelew),  the  Caro- 
line, and  most  likely  the  Ladrone  Islands,  are  at  present 
too  imperfectly  known  for  any  useful  results  to  be  drawn 
from  them.  Then  we  have  the  New  Hebrides  and  New 
Caledonia  forming  another  province ;  after  which  comes 
tho  third,  or  Central-Polynesian  province,  comprising  the 
Fijian,  Tongan,  and  Samoan  groups ;  next  the  numerous 
clusters  from  Cook's  Islands  to  the  Marquesas,  including 
the  Society  Islands  and  the  whole  of  tho  Low  Archipelago, 
which  may  perhaps  form  a  fourth  province  ;  and  lastly,  3ie 
Sandwich  or  Hawaiian  Islands.  The  first  of  these  pro- 
vinces (so  to  call  them)  possesses  in  the  Palau  Islands  a 
Reed- Warbler,  which  seems  to  form  a  peuliar  genus  (Psama- 
thia),  while  another  kindred  form  belongs  to  tue  widely- 
spread  genus  (Acrocepluxlus)  that  our  own  English  bird 
does,  and  occurs  there,  and  there  alone,  so  far  as  we  know, 
throughout  the  whole  Subregion.*  The  like  may  be  said 
of  a  Goatsucker  {Caprimulgus).  1  other  typically  Poly- 
nesian genus  is  found ;  1  is  common  to  the  Papuan,  and 
1  to  the  Malayan  (Indian)  Subregion.  The  second  pro- 
vince shows  some  transition  from  the  Papuan  to  the 
Australian  Subregion.  Out  of  30  genera  of  Land-birds, 
18  are  typically  Australian,  13  are  also  Polynesian:  about 
5  go  no  further  to  the  eastward.  3  species  of  Aplonii, 
a  genus  of  uncertain  affinity,  but  generally  classed  with  the 
Starlings  (Stumidce),  seem  to  link  this  province  to  the 
Central-Polynesian,  and  a  very  remarkable  and  apparently 
vei7  generalized  form  of  Grailce — the  Kagu  {likinochetut), 
which  seems  to  hava  Iialf-a-dozen  scattered  alliances — is 
peculiar  to^New  Caledonia.  From  the  third  province  only 
some  50  genera  and  some  150  species  of  Land  birds  are 
known.  A  species  of  Cuckow  (Eudynamis  taitensis)  ranges 
over  the  whole  of  this  as  well  as  the  next  district  so  far  as 
the  Marquesas,  as  also  does  perhaps  an  abnormal  Warbler 
(Talare).  On  the  other  hand,  the  Samoan  group  has  in 
the  Manu-mea  or  Tooth  billed  Pigeon  (Didunculus)  a  form 
which  alone  makes  a  distinct  family  of  Columboc ;^  and 
another  island  of  the  same  group,  Savai,  produces  a  mos 
peculiar  brevipennate  Water-hen  (Pareudiasles),  which  it 
deemed  worthy  of  generic  separation  from  Gatlinulai 
The  fourth  province,  which  (if  it  may  be  recognized  as 
such)  may  be  called  the  Eastcm-Polynosian,  comprehends, 
as  above  staffed,  the  countless  islands  which  surround 
the  Low  Archipelago.  Respecting  those  we  have  little 
precise  information — two  meagre  lists  of  birds  from  Hua- 
heine,  one  of  the  Society  group,  and  a  catalogue  obviously 
not  complete  of  those  of  tho  Marquesas,  appearing  to 
furnish  nearly  all  our  available  material  The  latter 
group  possesses  a  rather  remarkable  Pi^-con,  said  to  be 
peculiar  to  it,  but  perhaps  also  found  in  the  former ; 
and  though  closely  allied  to  Carpophaga,  it  has  been 
elevated  to  generic  rank  under  the  mime  of  Serresius. 
The  last  province  is  that  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  which, 
notwithstanding  that  their  ornithology  has  never  been 
thoroughly  worked  out,  seem  to  present  some  conspicuous 
differences  from  any  other ;  and  it  is  almost  a  matter  of 
opinion  whether,  small  as  is  the  known  avifauna  of  the 
group,  it  should  not  be  regarded  as  constituting  a  sepa- 
rate Subregion  rather  than  as  a  province  of  PolynesLi. 
The  ascertained  Land  birds  are  but  18  in  Jiumber.  Of 
these  3  are  Birds-of-prey,  and  1  of  them,  the  Pandion{'l) 
solitarius  of  Cassin,  is  only  known  in  collections  by  a 
unique   specimen.      The   other    2   are    widely-distributed 

•  Dr  Finsch  it  nnderstood  to  be  especially  engaged  on  the  birds  of 
this  group  of  ijilanda,  to  our  knoitledge  of  wliicb  be  and  Dr  Hartlaub 
bnve  alrcmly  contributed  ruuch. 

'  It  ia,  hoKcTcr,  found  in  Australia,  and  even  Id  the  toutb  of  that 
country. 

*  It  is  pouible,  however,  that  Otidiphaps,  which  ia  auppoaed  to 
come  from  Ne«  Guinea,  may  also  belong  to  iht  DidunculidA 


742 


BIRDS 


[dispridution. 


epsciss  of  Owls  (Scrigidce).  There  are  no  PsiUaci  or  Picuvioe. 
The  Passeres  consist  of  15  well-established  species,  all 
pecu'iar  to  the  group,  and  belong  to  10  generic  forms,  only 

1  of  which,  the  coamopolitan  Corvus,  is  known  to  occur 
elsawhera  Tho  remainder  ^re  restricted  to  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  may  be  referred  to  2  families — one  the 
almost  universally  distributed  Flycatchers  {Muscicapidce), 
and  the  other  the  Honeysuckers  (^Meliplujgidce),  which,  as 
has  been  said  before,  are  preeminently  characteristic  of  the 
whole  Australian  Region ;  but  it  is  to  be  observed  that 
the  most  of  the  species  are  remarkable  for  the  extraordinary 
form  of  their  bill,  so  that  they  may  ultimately  be  found  to 
constitute  a  special  section  of  the  family,  if  they  be  not 
considered  to  form  a  distinct  one  (Drepanidce).  There  are 
also  two  peculiar  species  of  Water-birds — a  Coot  (Fulica 
alai),  and  the  well-known  Sandwich -Island  Qoosc  {Dernida 
landvlcensk),  which  has  been  very  commonly  domesticated 
in  Europe.  The  Hawaiian  Archipelago  has  thua  a  larger 
proportion  of  peculiar  genera  and  species  than  any  other 
group  in  the  Subregion,  from  which  fact  Mr  Wallace 
infers,  and  no  one  can  doubt  the  truth  of  the  observation, 
the  great  antiquity  of  its  isolation. 

New  (4.)  Tlic  New-Zealand  Subregion,   however,  is,  and  to 

Zealand  all  appearance  long  has  been,  more  isolated  still,  probably, 
Subregion.  jnjggj^  longer  isolated  than  any  other  portion  of  the  globe. 
Beside  the  three  larger  islands,  known  in  the  aggregate  as 
New  Zealand,  numerous  satellites  belong  to  the  Subregion, 
as  Lord  Howe's,  Norfolk,  and  Kermadoc  Islands,  with  the 
Chatham,  Auckland,  and  Macquarrie  groups.  At  the 
highest  estimate  the  Subregion  contains  about  150  existing 
species  of  birds,  of  which  more  than  60  are  Land- 
birds,  belonging  to  about  34  genera,  1 6  of  the  latter  being 
peculiar,  and  there  may  be  some  5  gonera  of  Water-birds, 
making  21  in  all.  Of  the  others  4  are  widely  spread, 
but  the  rest  (9  in  number)  are  characteristically  those  of  the 
Region.  Most  of  the  genera  occurring  elsewhere  are  here 
represented  by  peculiar  species,  but  then  5  are  common  to 
Australia.  Some  7  or  8  are  also  allied  to  Australian  species, 
and  there  are  4  Australian  and  1  Polynesian  species. 
Therefore  every  degree  of  similarity  to  Australia  is  to 
be  found.     Of  peculiar  genera  it  will  suffice  to  say  that 

2  (Myiomoira  and  Miro)  belong  to  the  Warblers  (Syl- 
viidce),  1  genus  (yurna^ra)  perhaps  comes  under  the  Babblers 
{Timeliidoe),  and  2  genera  {J'Cenicus  and  Acanthositla) 
may  be  referred  to  the  Creepers  (Certhiidce).  The  Paridce 
have  1  genus  (Cert/uiparus),  and  the  Meliphagidm  3 
genera  {Prosthemadura,  Pogonornis,  and  Antliornis).  Tho 
Starlings  (Sturnidce)  are  represented  by  Callaai,  Creadion, 
and  the  very  abnormal — or  perhaps  it  would  be  better  to 
say  generalized — lleterolocha.  An  entire  and  very  distinct 
family  (SCrigopidre)  of  Parrots  is  certainly  peculiar,  and  it 
may  probably  be  justifiable  to  regard  the  genus  Nestor  as 
constituting  a  second.  There  is  also  an  Owl  which  has 
been  usually  considered  tho  type  of  a  genus  (Sceloglaux)-^ 
and  the  Rallidce  present  two  very  remarkable  forms — the 
Wood-hens  (Ocydromus)  and  the  Takaho  (Notornis),  the  last 
almost,  if  not  quite,  extinct.  The  widely-spread  family  of 
Plovers  (Charadriidce)  have  two  not  less  singular  generic 
developments- -'T'/u'nornis  and  the  extraordinary  Wrybill, 
Anarkynckus.  Among  tho  Ducks  (Anatidce),  llymenolce- 
mui  is  a  very  curious  form  ;  and,  finally,  among  the  Ratitae 
we  have  the  whole  family  of  weird-looking  Kiwis  (Aptery- 
ffidce),  represented  by  three  or  four  species,  which'  are 
totally  unlike  any  other  existing  birds.  In  all,  there  fs  a 
wonderful  amount  of  specialization,  though  perhaps  in  a 
very  straight  line  from  generalized  forms ;  but  the  afTinity 
to  Australian  or  Polynesian  types  is  in  many  cases  clearly 
traceable,  and  it  cannot  bo  supposed  but  that  these  last 
arc  of  cognilc  origin  with  those  of  New  Zealand.  A  very 
lung  psri'Kl  of  Isolation  must  have  been  required  to  produce 


tnc  differences  so  manifestly  to  be  observed,  but  a  few 
forms  seem  at  rare  intervals  tn  have  immigrated,  and  this 
immigration  would  appear  to  be  kept  up  to  our  own  day, 
as  shewn  by  the  instance  of  Zoslerops  lateralis,  which  is 
said  to  have  lately  made  its  first  appearance,  and  to  havo 
established  itself  in  the  conntry,  as  well  as  by  the  fact  of 
two  Cuckows,  the  widely-ranging  Budynamis  taitaisis  and 
Chrysococcyx  lucidus,  which  are  annual  visitors,    o 

The  most  extraordinary  ornithic  feature  of  New  Zealand, 
however,  is  unquestionably  the  former  existence  of  the 
gigantic  birds  of  the  famiUes  Dinornithidce  and  Palapttry- 
gid(£,  with  a  few  other  contemporary  forms.  These,  however, 
having  been  already  mentioned  there  is  no  need  to  dwell 
further  upon  them.  As  a  whole,  the  avifauna  of  New  D-jom  of 
Zealand  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  interesting  end  Now  Ze^' 
instructive  in  the  world,  and  the  inevitable  doom  which  is  '"'"'  ''''■ 
awaiting  its  surviving  members  cannot  but  e.^cit6  a  lively  *" 
regret  in  the  minds  of  all  ornithologists.  This  regret  is  quite 
apart  from  any  question  of  sentiment ;  if  it  were  otherwise, 
it  could  not  he  defended  against  that  sentiment  which 
prompts  our  colonial  fellow-subjects  indiscriminately  to 
stock  their  fields  and  forests,  not  only  with  the  species  of 
their  mother-country,  but  with  all  the  fowls  of  heaven, 
whencesoevor  they  can  be  procured.  The  regret  w^express 
arises  from  the  thought  that  just  as  we  lament  our  ignor- 
ance of  the  species  which  in  various  lands  have  been 
extirpated  by  our  forefathers,  so  our  posterity  will  want  to 
know  much  more  of  the  present  ornis  of  New  Zealand 
than  we  can  possibly  record  ;  for  no  one  nowadays  can 
pretend  to  predict  the  scope  of  investigation  which  will  be 
required,  and  required  in  vain,  by  naturalists  in  that  future 
when  New  Zealand  may  be  one  of  the  great  nations  of  the 
earth. 

II.  Tub  Neotropical  Reoion,  though  presenting  cer-  Neotro- 
tain  affinities  to  the  Australian,  and  the  only  one  which  ■'"^■*'-  '*"• 
can  be  said  to  be  zoologically  allied  to  it,  is  yet  almost  as  °'°''' 
distinct  in  its  character  therefrom  as  it  is  geographically 
distant.     Excepting  towards  its  northern  limits,  where  it 
meets  and  inosculates  with  the  Nearctic  Region,  the  bound-  Bound- 
ary of  the  Neotropical  Region  is  simple  enough  to  trace,  ""■'"• 
comprehending  as  it  does   the   whole  of  South   America 
from  Cape  Horn  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  all  Central 
America,  and  reaching  in  North  America  to  somewhere 
about  the  twenty-second  parallel  of  north  latitude ;  besides 
including  tho  Falkland  Islands  to  the  south-east,'  and  the 
Galapagos  under  the  equator  to  the  west,  as  well  as  the 
whole  of  the  Antilles  or  West-India  Islands   up  to  the 
Florida  Channel,  which  separates  them  from  the  peninsula 
of  that  name.     Though  over  none  but  the  remotest  corners  • 
of  this  sufficiently  large  area  is  the  supreme  Class  of  aniuials  Imporiance 
formed  (as  we  have  found  it  to  be  the  case  throughout  by  orusbirJs. 
far  the  greater  portion  of  the  Australian  Region)  by  tho 
Birds,  yet  they  here  play  a  part  of  very  great  importance, 
owing  to  the  comparatively  scanty  number  of  Mammalian 
types.     Among  these  last,  however,  there  are  two  remark- 
able groups — the  Pedimana,  containing  the  only  members 
of  the  Subclass  Didelphia  which  occur  at  the  present  day 

'  It  may  even  be  quoetionable  whether  Tristan  da  Cunha,  thoiiph 
lyinK  nearer  to  tlie  African  coast,  should  not  bo  referred  to  the  Nco- 
tropicol  rather  than  tn  tho  Ethiopian  Region.  On  this  lone  spot  but 
four  species  of  Land-birds  are  kuo^vn  to  occur,  all  of  which  ore  peculiar 
— two  of  them  even  gcuorically.  One  is  a  Finch  {Crithaijra  insutarh\ 
belonging,  it  is  true,  to  a  geuus  very  well  represcuted  in  Africa  ;  but 
tho  second  (Ncsoapiza  ccunftrt;)  is  the  type  and  solo  member  of  a  genus 
which,  whether  it  be  considered  a  Finch  or  a  Hunting,  is  said  by  Dr 
Cab,anis,  its  dcscriber,  to  have  unquestionable  similarity  to  tome  South 
American  forms  (Joitm.  fUr  Om.  1873,  p.  154K  Tho  third  bird  is  a 
riirush  (Ncsocichla  eremita),  like  tlie  last,  pecub.nr  both  in  species  and 
genus  to  tho  isl.ind,  and  apparently  having  no  relation  to  anytliing 
Hthiopian  ;  while  the  fourth  is  a  peculiar  species  of  brcvipenn.ilo 
Water-hen  (Oadinuia  naiolis),  which  may  have  been  derived  from  either 
cootiuoui. 


KEOTBOPICAL   REG 


ION.] 


BIRDS 


743 


out  of  the  Australian  Region,  unJ  the  Edentata,  ao  Order 
nhicb,  though  found  also  in  Africa  and  India,  attains  in 
South  America  the  summit  of  its  development  in  variety 
and  number  of  forms ;  and  we  cannot  adduce  any  examples 
of  Orders  or  Suborders  from  the  Class  Aves,  the  circum- 
stances of  which  will  eiactly  match  those  of  these  three 
neral  groups  of  Mammcdia.  The  nearest  approach,  perhaps,  is 
character-  made  in  one  way  by  the  South-American  PUitite  birds,  of 
utics  of  its  „ijj^{)  one  entire  group,  consisting  of  at  most  three  species 
{Jik/-{d<T),  is  peculiar  to  the  region,  and  thus  to  some  extent 
parallels  the  case  of  the  Pedimana  ;  but  while  these  last  also 
invade  the  Nearctic  Region,  the  former  are  not  even  spread 
over  the  whole  of  continental  South  America,  being  limited 
to  its  colder  portion.  Moreover,  so  far  as  Orders  have  been 
generally  understood  and  accepted  by  ornithologists  among 
Carinate  Birds,  there  is  no  one  of  wide  range  which  can 
compare  with  the  overwhelming  development  of  the  Eden- 
tates in  thf  Neotropical  Region.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must 
be  observed  that  the  Region  claims  all  the  Tinamous  {Tina- 
mida) — the  Drovuxognathce  of  Professor  Hurley — which, 
if  we  were  to  follow  his  arrangement  established  on  palatal 
characters,  it  would  seem  necessary  to  regard  as  the 
equivalent  of  an  Order ;  and  also  a  single  very  remarkable 
form  (Oputhocomus),  which  he  has  satisfactorily  shown  to 
be  so  unlike  every  other  that  it  can  only  be  conveniently 
classed  by  itself.^  Of  these  forms  the  Tinamidce  certainly, 
and  Opxsthocomus  probably,  are  of  comparatively  low  de- 
velopmental rank,  in  that  respect  resembling  certain  char- 
acteristic Australian  groups  ;  but  the  similarity  between 
the  avifaunas  of  the  two  Regions  seems  to  be  further  borne 
out  by  the  same  fact  being  observable  of  other  South- 
Amencan  families,  forming  what  may  be  called  the  lower 
Suborders^  of  Paeseres,  to  which  the  names  of  Oligomyodce 
and  Tractuophonce  have  been  attached,  and  these,  if  not 
altogether  originating  in  the  Neotropical  Region,  are  with- 
out doubt  therein  most  abundantly  produced.  The  signi- 
6cance  of  this  fact  is  enhanced  when  we  remember  that,  as 
has  been  said  before,  to  consider  rightly  the  problem  of  the 
distribution  of  birds,  we  must  in  the  main  rely  on  the 
Pcuseres,  as  affording  on  the  whole  the  surest  ground  for 
our  investigations.  Now,  taking  the  latest,  nay,  the  only, 
complete  list  of  Neotropical  birds — that  published  by 
Messrs  Sclater  and  Salvin  ^  in  1873,  we  shall  see  that  there 
are  8  Passerine  families  peculiar  to  the  Region,  of  which 
3  belong  to  the  Tracheophonce,  4  to  the  Oligomyodce, 
and  1  only  to  the  Polymyodoe  or  Oscines.  Or,  if  we  look 
to  the  entire  number  of  species  given  in  that  work  as 
inhabiting  the  Region,  we  find  it  to  bo  35G5.  Of  these, 
1997,  or  a  good  deal  more  than  half,  belong  to  the  Order 
Pcuseret — a  large  proportion  tnily,  but  one  that  (from 
other  cansesTiot  germane  to  our  present  investigation,  and 
therefore  to  be  just  now  disregarded)  need  not  especially 
excite  our  wonder.  But  the  characteristic  nature  of  the 
avifauna  of  the  Region  is  more  clearly  brought  out  when 

'  To  rMogam  thoM  Orders,  Crypluri  and  OpislAocomi,  however,  it 
b*<ome$  logically  necesaary  to  rerogniro  many  other  groups  in  like 
manner,  ud  thas  to  raise  the  number  of  Orders  Id  the  nholo  Class  to 
at  lea^t  two  dozen,  or  nearly  four  times  as  many  as  most  omithologisLs 
have  been  asnatly  willing  to  admit,  a  proceeding  which  naturally 
lowera  the  differential  standard,  and  renders  a  comparison  between 
"Orders"  of  Atet  and  ^'Qjilers  *  of  Mammalia  or  Rrptilia  almost 
ImrowiMe. 

•  The  term  "  Suborder'  should  very  possibly  not  be  nmd  here,  at 
least  in  a  technical  sense.  Jhe  Passeres  seem  to  be  properly  divisible 
into  two  great  groups— One  containing  the  genus  Menura,  the  otter 
ail  the  rest,  except  most  likely  A  trichia,  which  thero  is  some  reason  to 
suppose  maybe  found  to  form  a  third  group.  Whenever  these  groups 
ihaU  receive  namr.i.  they  ought  to  be  regarded  as  Suborders,  but  in 
the  meantime,  with  this  explanation,  perhaps  no  harm  will  follow 
from  calling  the  sections  Polymyodce  (the  Oscina  of  some  writers), 
Oligmnyoda,  and  Tracheophona  "  Suborders.'* 

•  yom^nclator  Ai*ium  Nfotroprcalium,  &c.,  Auctoribus  P.  L.  Sclater 
jl  0.  Salvin.  Londini :  1873. 


we  learn  that  of  the  1997  species  just  mentioned,  1070 
only  belong  to  the  higher  Suborder  (Polymyodce),  leaving 
927  to  the  two  lower  Suborders  (Oligomyodce  and  Tracheo- 
phonce) ;  or  to  speak  in  round  numbers,  out  of  2000  species 
of  the  highest  Order  of  birds,  a  little  more  than  one-halj 
belong  to  its  highest  section,  while  nearly  one-half  belong 
to  its  two  lower  sections.  This  is  a  state  of  things  which 
exists  nowhere  else  on  the  globe  ;  for,  except  in  Australia, 
where  a  few  but  uncertain  number  of  purely  indigenous 
and  peculiar  non-polyoiyodous  Pnsserea  are  found,  and  in 
the  Nearctic  Region  whither  one  family  of  Oligomyodce  bos 
evidently  been  led  by  the  geographical  continuity  of  its 
soil  with  that  of  the  Neotropical  Region,  such  forms  do 
not  occur  elsewhere.  Accordingly  their  disproportionati 
prevalence  in  South  America  and  its  neighbouring  land^ 
points  unerringly  to  the  lower  rank  of  the  omis  of  tht 
region  as  a  whole,  and  therefore  to  the  propriety  of  taking 
it  next  in  order  to  that  of  the  Australian  Region,  the 
general  fauna  of  which  is  admittedly  the  lowest  in  the 
world.  It  is  believed  that  much  the  same  result  would 
follow  from  a  similar  examination  of  other  Orders,  especially 
the  PicaricE;  and  Professor  Huxley  has  urged  with  his 
wonted  perspicuity  the  alliance  of  the  two  Regions  just 
named,  basing  his  opinion  in  great  measure  on  the  evidence 
afforded  by  the  two  sections  into  which  the  true  Gallirta 
are  divisible,  the  Peristeropodes  and  the  Alectoropodet,  the 
former  composed  of  the  families  Megapodiidce,  almost 
wholly  Australian,  and  the  Cracidae,  entirely  Neotropical, 
but  citing  also  other  weighty  evidence  in  favour  of  his 
conclusion.* 

Leaving,  however,  this  matter  as  in  some  degree  hj-po- 
thetical,  though  its  probability  can  hardly  bo  denied,  we 
have  as  genera,  families,  or  perhaps  even  larger  groups  a 
great  many  very  remarkable  forms  which  are  characteristic 
of  or  peculiar  to  the  Neotropical  Region  in  part,  if  not 
as  a  whole.  Of  families  we  find  23,  or  maybe  more, 
absolutely  restricted  thereto,  besides  at  least  8  which, 
being  peculiar  to  the  New  World,  extend  their  range  into 
the  NearcticfRegion,  but  are  there  so  feebly  developed  that 
their  origin  may  be  safely  ascribed  to  the  southern  portion 
of  America.  First  in  point  of  importance  comes  the  extra- 
ordinarily beautiful  family  of  Humming-birds  (Trochilidce), 
with  nearly  120  genera  (of  which  only  5  occur  in  the 
Nearctic  Region),  and  more  than  400  species.  Then  the 
Tyrants  (Tyrannidce),  with  more  than  70  genera  (8  of 
which  range  into  the  northern  Region),  and  over  300 
species.  To  these  follow  the  Tanagers  (Tanagrida).  with 
upwards  of  40  genera  (only  1  of  which  crosses  the  border!, 
and  about  300  species ;  the  Piculules  (Dendrocolaptida:), 
with  as  n&ny  genera,  and  over  200  species;  the  Ant^ 
Thrushes  (Formicariidce),  with  more  than  30  genera,  and 
nearly  200  species ;  together  with  other  groups  which,  if 
not  so  large  as  those  just  named,  are  ytt  just  as  well  defined, 
and  possibly  more  significant,  namely,  theTapaculos  (Ptero- 
ptochidce),  thcTo\iainB(/ihamphastida),  the  Jacamars (Go/- 
bulidce),  the  Motmots  (JJifiwiidcc),  the  Todies  (Todidce), 
the  Trumpeters  (Psophiid'x),  find  the  Screamers  (Palo- 
medeidce) ;  besides  such  isolated  forms  as  the  Seriema 
(Cariama)  and  the  Sun-Bittern  (Eurypyga). 

Having  thus  briefly  indicated  some  of  the  chief  charac- 
teristic and  for  the  most  part  generally  distributed  forms 
of  the  Neotropical  avifauna,  we  have  next  to  consider  the 
separation  of  the  Region  into  Subrcgions  and  provinces. 
Herein  wo  find  far  greater  difficulty  than  we  had  to  en- 
counter in  treating  of  the  preceding  (the  Australian)  Region, 
the  geographical  peculiarities  of  which  marvellously  lend 
themselves  to  its  comjaratively  easy  partition,  while  the 
isolation  of  its  several  portions  contributes  in  an  extraor- 

I  ♦  Proctcdituii  ^  Ou  Zoological  Society,  18C8,  pp.  291-319. 


OniiUih) 
develop- 
ment com- 
paratively 
low. 


CliaractCT" 
istic  faml* 
lies. 


Division 
into  Sub. 
regions.  ^ 


744 


BIRDS 


..iJISTEIBUTION. 


dinaiy  degree  to  tte  process.  Hut  compared  with  the 
remaining  Regions  uf  the  globe,  the  Neotropical,  as  it  will 
bo  essayed  to  show  in  the  sequel,  presents,  perhaps,  no 
greater  difficulty  in  this  respect  than  others  do.'  The  Sub- 
regions  (one  excepted),  however,  cannot  be  said  to  be  well 
defined,  for  no  natural  boundaries  are  to  be  found  for 
them,  and  we  must  trust  solely  to  the  presence  or  absence 
of -certain  forms  of  Bird-life  in  marking  out  their  limits. 
This  is,  of  course,  the  most  proper  zoological  method  of 
proceeding,  but  in  some  cases  it  tends  to  make  the  divi- 
.eions  rather  more  than  less  arbitrary,  and  in  all  cases  de- 
pendent upon  the  amount  of  investigation  which  has  been 
bestowed  on  the  several  districts.  The  physical  features 
of  the  continent  of  South  America  are  very  varied,  and 
cannot  be  said  to  assist  us  much  or  at  aO  in  our  task.  The 
proximity  of  its  southern  extremity  to  an  ocean  wherein 
at  one  season  of  the  year  floating  ice  abounds,  gives  that 
portion  a  rigorous  climate,  and  the  presence  of  the  grand 
chain  of  the  Andes,  the  highest  save  one  in  the  world, 
prolongs  beyond  the  equator  those  characteristics  of  a 
mountainous  or  even  an  alpine  tract,  which  override  any 
that  are  commonly  associated  with  degrees  of  latitude. 
This  range,  the  great  Cordillera,  has  also  a  remarkable 
elect  first  oh  the  climatological  properties  of  the  whole 
country,  and  then  on  its  vegetation,  which,  of  course,  acts 
directly  on  its  animal  inhabitants.  Running  as  the  Andes 
do  pretty  nearly  longitudinally,  and  lying  near  the  western 
coast  of  the  continent,  the  warm,  moist  winds  from  the 
Atlantic  sweep  across  its  eastern  and  wider  portion,  unim- 
peded in  their  course  by  any  considerable  high  land,  till 
they  are  attracted  by  the  summits  of  the  giant  range,  and, 
precipitating  their  fertilizing  showers  on  its  lofty  slopes, 
supply  the  brimming  floods  of  some  of  the  largest  rivers 
of  the  world.  Westward  of  the  chain  is  in  great  part  a 
desert,  at  least  down  to  lat.  10°  S.,  though  much  of  this 
was,  prior  to  the  conquest  of  Peru  by  the  Spaniards,  care- 
fully irrigated  and  highly  luxuriant.  A  few  other  arid 
tracts  are  found,  but  compared  with  most  other  continents 
the  proportion  of  desert-land  is  small,  and  the  valleys  of 
the  majestic  rivers  which  roll  their  course  to  the  Atlantic 
are  clothed  with  the  most  extensive  virgin  forests  in  the 
world.  To  these  varied  physical  conditions  seem  due  the 
chief  differences  which  are  observable  in  the  avifauna  of. 
the  component  parts  of  the  South-American  continent, 
which,  rich  as  it  is  beyond  that  of  all  other  countries  in 
genera  and  species,  displays  yet  a  considerable  uniformity 
in  its  larger  groups  of  Birds. 

The  Subregions  into  which  that  portion  of  the  earth 
at  present  under  consideration  can  be  most  conveniently 
separated  seem  to  be  six  in  number — four  of  them  included 
within  the  continent  of  South  America,  and  two  lying  be- 
yond its  limits.'  But  the  confines  of  these  continental 
Subregions,  as  has  been  above  hinted,  are  of  the  vaguest. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  any  amount  of  local  knowledge  will 
ever  justify  the  zoogeographer  in  drawing  an  absolute  line 
of  demarcation  between  any  two  of  them.  At  present  our 
information  certainly  does  not  permit  us  to  do  more  than 
indicate  the  general  direction  of  such  boundaries  ,  nut  that 
we  believe  that  their  existence  may  not  be  legitimately 
assumed.  Beginning  with  the  apex  of  the  continent,  we 
Lave  a  Subregion,  extending  from  Cape  Horn  to  somewhere 
north  of  Bahia  Blanca  on  its  eastern  coast,  whence  its  boun- 
dary runs  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  pa.ssing  to  the  cast- 
W'ard  of  Mendoza,  and  then  northward  along  the  eastern 
and  higher  slopes  of  the  Andes  until  it  crosses  the  equator, 

'  In  orriving  at  this  concIii!tion  t)ie  author  wishes  to  acknowledge 
tli«  kind  uiistance  ho  bu  received  from  liis  old  friond  Mr  Sfllvin, 
F, R.S.,  wbo.se  long-continued  Ntudy  of  Anierican,  ami  especially  Neo- 
Iruptcal,  forms  of  binls  biw  place.l  hira  id  the  front  rauk  of  autborlticf 
00  tbi  oriutbalogy  of  the  N«w  WorlU, 


and,  after  trifurcating  on  either  side  of  the  valleys  ol  tt:e 
Magdalena  and  its  confluent  the  Cauca,  returns  along  th' 
western  slopes  of  the  lofty  Cordillera,  until  it  trends  sea- 
ward and  reaches  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America  some 
where  about  Truxillo,  in  lat  7°  S.  This  Subregion,  for  a 
reason  presently  to  be  given,  may  be  called  the  Patagonian, 
though  its  northern  extremity  lies  so  far  removed  from  its 
eponymic  territory.  Next  we  have  what  may  be  called  the 
Brazilian  Subregion,  marching  with  the  foregoing  until 
somewhere  near  Potosi  in  Bolivia,  whence  it  turns  to  the 
north-east,  and,  avoiding  the  watershed  of  the  Amazons, 
strikes,  perhaps,  the  Paranahyba,  through  or  along  which 
it  makes  its  way  to  the  Atlantic.  Then  comes  the  enor- 
mous basin  of  the  Amazons — the  Mediterranean  of  South 
America,  as  the  dwellers  on  its  banks  fondly  call  it — which, 
though  forming  an  important  part  of  the  Brazilian  Empire, 
seeas  undoubtedly  to  be  a  distinct  Subregion  from  that 
to  which  this  last  name  has  been  applied,  and  may  justly 
be  denominated  the  Amazoniaa  Yet,  be  it  remembered, 
that,  its  peculiarities  not  being  observable  on  the  higher 
tributaries  of  the  mighty  river,  its  upper  waters  must  he 
regarded  as  draining  land  which  belongs  to  the  fourth 
Subregion — of  ■?hich  more  immediately.  Continuous  to 
the  southward  with  the  Brazilian  boundary  the  western 
frontier  of  the  Amazonian  Subregion  seems  to  turn  off 
before  the  eastern  confines  of  the  Patagonian  Subregion 
are  reached,  and,  leaving  a  space  intervening,  it  pursues  a 
generally  northward  course,  at  a  lower  level,  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Huallaga,  and  crossing  the  great  stream  whence 
it  derives  its  name,  in  somewhere  about  long.  77°  W.  and 
lat.  5°  S.,  it  pursues  its  way  towards  the  mouth  of  t,he 
Orinoco.  The  fourth  and  last  Subregion  of  South  America 
includes  all  that  is  left  of  the  continent,  and  perhaps  may 
be  most  fitly  named  the  Subandean.-  This  begins  in  the 
south  with  the  narrow  slip  of  land  before  mentioned  as 
intervening  betweel^  the  comparatively  low-lying  Ama- 
zonian Subregion  and  that  portion  jai  the  Patagonian  which 
runs  along  the  lofty  Peruvian  Andes,  and  is  believed  to 
extend  from  the  frontiers  of  Bolivia  to  the  table-land  cf 
Ecuador,  rounding,  on  the  one  hand,  the  forked  extremity 
of  the  Patagonian  Subregion  to  the  westward  until  it  meets 
the  Pacific  at  Truxillo,  stretching  over  500  miles  of  sea  to 
the  Galapagos  Islands,  under  the  equator,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  following  the  Amazonian  boundary  to  the  Atlantic, 
while  it  comprehends  the  islands  of  Trinidad  and  Tobago, 
as  well  as  those  which  lie  on  the  northern  coast  of  South 
America.  Besides  portions  of  the  states  already  named,  it 
includes  Nueva  Granada  and  Venezuela  till  it  reaches  tht 
Central-American  Subregion  in  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
This  fifth  Subregion  stretches  on  the  west  northward  about 
as  far  as  Guaymas  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Cali 
fornia,  and  on  the  east  to  the  Rio  Grande,  which  forms  the 
boundary  of  Mexico  and  Texas,  but  the  Ncarctic  Region 
di]i3  down  along  the  central  table-land  till  near  Queretaro, 
a  little  to  the  northward  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  thence 
southward  along  the  higher  ridges  to  an  almost  indefinite! 
extent.  The  sixth  Subregion  is  composed  of  the  Antilles, 
vrilh  the  important  exception" of  Trinidad  and  Tobago,  and 
its  limits  being  capable  of  easy  geographical  circumscrip- 
tion, further  consideration  of  them  may  be  for  the  present 
deferred. 

The  difficulty  of  distinguishing  these  several  Subregions 
is  indeed  very  great ;  and  it  is  not  only  possible,  but  highly 
probable  that  even  in  a  few  years  further  exploration  will 
enjoin  a  large  amount  of  rectification  of  their  frontiers.     It 

*  In  some  rcapects  it  corresponds  with  what  has  been  commonlj 
calleil  the  "Columbian"  Subrepon  ;  but  that  name,  having  been  used 
in  a  special  and   more  restricted  seTise,  miglit  give  rise  to  some  mis- 
understanding.    As  will  bo  ;een,  it  compr«bcnds  far  Diore  than  tht_ 
lormei  United  StJitci  of  Colunilia. 


1 


NEOTEOtlCAL  REGION.] 


BIRDS 


745 


Diitnim- 

liOD  of 
ptrcuUar 


must  bo  remembered  too  that  where,  in  the  preceding 
paragraphs,  "  Hues  "  of  demarcation  have  been  spoken  of, 
6Uch  Kuc3  are  m  truth  t^acts  of  country  often  from  one  to 
two  hundred  miles  in  breadth,  and  in  most  cases  there  is 
no  hope  that  the  boundaries  will  ever  attain  any  great 
degree  of  precision.  Some  advance  of  knowledge  in  this 
direction  will  no  dtJUtt  accrue  as  the  elevation  and  contour 
of  hilb  and  table-lands  become  more  accurately  laid  down; 
but  at  first  the  effect  of  this  increase  to  our  information 
will  certainly  bo  to  complicate  matters,  by  shewing  the 
eiistence  within  one  Subregion  of  spurs,  isolated  spots,  or 
enclosed  areas  belonging  to  another,  and  as  yet  unsuspected. 
Still  the  amount  of  light  thrown  on  the  Neotropical  Region 
by  the  persevering  labours  of  the  eminent  ornithologists 
before  named,  seems  to  deserve  being  brought  to  a  focus ; 
and  accordingly  the  following  summary  is  now  ofTered  in 
the  hope  that  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  avifauna 
of  the  Region  may  thereby  be  more  readily  comprehended. 
Of  the  families  of  Birds  peculiar  to  the  Neotropical  Region 
—  :wentjfour  in  number,  according  to  Messrs  Sclat^r  and 
Salvin — the  distribution  may  be  tabulated  as  follows  : — 


Pota;contaD 
9ubregioD. 


Sabrcgioa. 


Patagonian    

Brazilian    

ATna2onian  

Siibandcan   

Ccntral-ADiericon 
Aotillean   


recallfti 
to  1  Sub 
region. 


CommonlComnion 
to  1  Sub-  to  3  Sub 
regions,    regions. 


1' 
0 

1 

I 

0 

1 


Common  Common 
to  4  Sub- 'to  S  Sub- 
regions,  regions. 


Common 
to  al)  Sub- 
regions 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 


This  table  will  serve  to  shew  the  close  alliance  of  the 
four  middle  Subregions  to  one  another  in  their  most 
remarkable  forms,  and,  at  tho  same  time,  the  singularity 
displayed  by  the  Patagonian  and  Antillcan  Subregions  ; 
wliile  it  will  also  make  evident  that  no  family  peculiar  to 
the  Region  is  found  in  all  its  Subregions. 

(1.)   Tlu.  Fatagonian  -Suhregion,    lying   chiefly   at   the 

southern  fixtremity  of  the  continent,  seems  to  present  the 

greatest  affinity  to  that  in  which  the  Austraban  avifauna 

reaches  its  climax.     This  is  shewn  not  only  by  the  pre-' 

valence  in  it,  alone^of  all  the  Neotropical  Subregions,  of  the 

Ratitae,  which  wander  over  its  solitudes,  and  the  Penguins 

(Spheniscidce),  which   haunt  its  shores ;  but  by  the  low, 

generalized,  and  peculiar  forms  like  T%!«ocoru*'and  Attagis 

among  the  widely-varying  Limicolue,  and  the  Pteioptockulce 

^though  some  few  species  of  this  family  occur  elsewhere  in 

South'  America)   among    the    Pctsseres.       Tho   family    of 

Plantcutters  {Phytotomidce)   is  almost  peculiar,  only  just 

intruding  upon  Southern  Brazil     Of  the  more  characteristic 

fi^milies  of  Birds  of  the  Now.  World,  some  3  only  {Dendroco- 

laptidce,  Formkariidae,  and  Trockilidif)  shew  themselves  in 

any  great  abundance,  while  but  2  others,  which  are  feebly 

represented,    occur   within    the    ill-defined    limits   of    its 

southern  province,  Patagonia, — the  rest  of  its  terrestrial, 

and  still  more  of  its  littoral  or  maritime,  avifauna  consi.-it- 

ing  of  families,  or   groups  of  families,  which  are   nearly 

cosmopolitan.     On  the  pampas  of  La  Plata  wc  find  the 

number  of  characteristic  Neotropical  forms  much  increased, 

but  etill  the  poverty  of  the  Argentine  ornis  is  of  the  most 

marked  kind  when  compared  with  the  wealth  of  the  more 

fertile  tracts  which  lie  on  its  northern  and  eastern  frontiers. 

In  La  Plata  wc  have  but  2  other  familcs  (Tt/rannidtt  and 

/'■ilavudeidw)  coming  under  this  category  that  are  at  all 

well  developed.     Afniottltidcc,  Vireonidac,  and  Cwrehidcr  do 

rnt  appear  at  all,  and   Tanagridce  but  in  small  numbers. 

As  has  been  said  already,  the  Subregion  extends  northward 

along  tho  chain  of  the  Andes,  and  with  this  extension  it 


'  Tho  ThxTWCorida  may  bo  questioned  as  having  a  real  existence. 
■•'ho  writer  would  be  inclined  to  include  it  in  tho  connoiioUtan  fair.ily 
i;  Charadriui/z. 
3 — iji.m 


seems  proper  to  take  in  their  arid  and  barren  western  slopes 
as  well  as  a  portion  of  the  tract  lying  between  that  range 
and  the  sea,  so  as  to  include  Chile  and  a  consideralile  slice 
of  Peru.  But  even  by  so  doing  we  gain  but  little.  No 
more  of  the  characteristically  Neotropical  forms  mount 
these  lofty  ascents  in  any  multitude,  nor  are  we  able  to 
add  any  forms  of  very  wide  distribution.  However,  through- 
out the  whole  Subregion  many  genera,  and  species  with- 
out number,  which  are  absolutely  peculiar,  occur,  and  thus 
aid  in  stamping  the  quality  of  the  tract.  Indeed,  the  very 
presence  of  the  Struthious  family  Kkeid<e,  with  its  two  or 
three  species,  would  serve  alone  to  do  this ;  and  as  its  head- 
quarters are  in  Patagonia,  that  country  becomes  of  sufficient 
importance  to  give  its  name  to  the  Subregion  of  which  it 
forms  at  most  but  a  moiety. 

Entering  more  into  details,  we  find  the  Patagonian  Sub-  Peculiar 
region  possessing  about  46  genera  of  birds  not  found  else-  geu«r^. 
where  in  South  America.  Of  these  30  are  strictly  Land- 
birds — 3  belonging  to  the  family  Eynberi^idw,  1  to  Icteridce, 
5  to  Tyrannidce,  8  to  Dcndrocolaptidce,  4  to  Pteroptochidoe, 
3  to  TrochilldoE,  1  to  Pxittacidce,  1  to  Falconidw,  1  to 
Columbidce,  2  to  Tinamidce,  and  1  to  Rheidce.  Of  the  rest 
there  are  3  genera  of  C/u»-adriid<E  (as  restricted),  1  of 
which  (Eudromias)  is  doubtfully  identical  with  a  genus  of 
the  Old  World;  2  genera  of  the  peculiar  family  Thinoco- 
rid(e;  Chionis,  an  antarctic  form  ;  2  genera  of  Scolopacidw, 
one  peculiar,  the  other  (Rhijnchaa)  rather  widely  spread 
over  Australia,  India,  and  Africa;  2  genera  of  Anatidie, 
both  peculiar ;  2  genera  of  Laridoe,  one  peculiar,  the  other 
belonging  to  subpolar  seas  ;  1  genus  of  the  cosmopolitan 
Podicipedidce ;  and  3  genera  of  Sphcniscid<je,  a  family 
limited  to  the  Antarctic  or  Subautarctic  Ocean.  .  But 
further  into  particulars  want  of  space  forbids  our  going, 
save  to  remark  on  a  very  peculiar  and  instructive  case 
offered  by  Eastephamus,  a  genus  of  TrochilidiT.  Of  thi.'^  Humming- 
section  of  Humming-birds  there  are  three,  known  sjiccies —  '.""^'  "' 
one,  E.  galerilus,  found  in  Chile,  eWdently  its  mother  '^jJljg^"'* 
country,  but  also  occurring  from,  400  to  COO  miles  from 
the  mainland  on  both  of  the  chief  islets  of  the  little  Juan 
Fernandez  group — Masatierra  and  Milsafuera ;  but  each  of 
these  limited  spots  has  besides  its  own  peculiar  species  of  the 
genus — the  former  E.  fernandensis  and  the  latter  £.  ley- 
holdi.  This  alone  would  present  nothing  at  all  unparalleled 
elsewhere  ;  but  it  is  curious  that  while  both  sexes  of  the 
more  widely-ranging  E.  galcritus  have  a  green  plumage, 
the  males  of  the  other  two  have  a  brilliant  red  colour, 
and  generally  resemble  each  other,  though  the  females  of 
each  differ  more  decidedly.  Supposing,  as  we  may 
justly  do,  that  all  these  species  have  descended  from  a 
common  ancestor,  Mr  Sclater  has  shewn  ^  (he  probability 
that  E.  galerilus  represents  the  appearance  of  the  parental 
stock  that  in  bygone  times  colonized  the  Juan-Fernandez 
cluster,  of  which  E.  fernandensis,  now  peculiar  to  Masa- 
tierra, and  the  most  aberrant  from  the  original  form,  is  the 
progeny  of  the  earliest  settlers,  and  E.  Icyboldi,  confined 
to  Masafuera,  is  the  descendant  of  a  later  immigration, 
while,  still  more  recenlly,  E.  galerilus  has  found  its  way  to 
both  islets,  and  in  each  yet  possesses  its  normal  characters. 
Passing  over,  as  not  affording  anything  especially  remark- 
able, the  chain  of  islands,  from  Chiloe  to  Cape  Horn,  in 
which  the  range  of  the  Andes  plunges  into  the  Southern 
Ocean,  though  alongside  of  it  lie  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  its 
satellites,  which  form  an  important  adjunct  to  the  South- 
American  continent,  our  attention  is  turned  to  the  Falk-  Binli  ol  " 
lands,  an  interesting  and  considerable  group  of  islands  Faliti-ini  , 
situated  over  200  miles  fo  the  north-east  of  the  historic  '*'^'"'» 
Strait  of  Lemairc.  Here  we  find  18  species  of  Land-birds — 
7  belonging  to  the  order  ylfci/)i<)«  and  11  to  Passcres.     Of 

'Uis,  1871,  rr-  lfiO-183. 


746 


BIRDS 


[distribution*. 


these  some  5  species  are  peculiar — 2  belonging  to  Phrygilus 
(Emberizidce),  1  to  Cinclodes  (Dendrocolaptidce),  1  to  Musci- 
eaxicola  (Tyrannidae),  and  1  to  Mdvago  (Ftticonidae).  Of 
Water-birds  there  is  a  peculiar  species  of  CIdoephaga 
(Anatidoe),  and  there  are,  or  until  recently  were,  about 
half-a-dozen  species  of  Penguins  (Sp/ieniscidce),  some  of 
which,  though  not  resorting  exclusively  to  these  islands,  may 
be  fairly  regarded  as  finding  there  their  chief  breeding- 
quarters.  Of  the  ornithology  of  South  Georgia,  a  group 
of  islands  lying  some  1300  miles  east  of  Staten  Island, 
and  nearly  in  the  same  latitude,  and  doubtless  belonging 
to  the  Patagonian  Subregion,  as  well  as  of  the  South  Shet- 
lands,  no  particulars  are  available. 
Brazilian  (2.)  TVte^raziVianSuirei^iore  has  only  recently  had  removed 
Subregion.  from  it  the  valley  of  the  Amazons  and  its  tributaries.  The 
boundaries;  so  far  as  thoy  can  be  traced,  have  been  already 
given.  This  Subregion  is  not  characterized  by  the  pre- 
sence of  any  family  of  Birds  peculiar  to  it  alone,  but  among 
those  families  which  are  found  in  only  two  Subregions  of 
the  Neotropical  Region  it  possesses  3  in  common  with  the 
Patagonian, — PhytotomidcB,  Cariamidix,  and  Rheidce, — the 
first  and  last  only  in  its  southern  districts,  and  1  in  com- 
mon with  the  Central-American — Oxyrhamphidce.  Of  the 
peculiarly  Neotropical  families  occuiTing  in  three  Sub- 
regions  only,  it  has  but  1,  Pteroptochidce,  the  range  of  which 
is  shared  by  the  Patagonian  and  the  Subandean.  When 
we  come  to  families  of  four  Subregions,  we  find  the  Bra- 
tilian  mvaded  by  the  almost  cosmopolitan  Sylviidce,  which 
also  inhabit  the  Subandean,  Central-American,  and  Antil- 
lean,  and  possessing  in  common  with  the  Amazonian,  Sub- 
andean, and  Central-American  not  fewer  than  8 — Pipridce, 
Momotidce,  Galbulidce,  Bucconid(B,  Rhamphastidce,  Craddce, 
ffeliomithidce,  and  Pai-ridce — the  last  of  which  is,  how- 
ever, widely  distributed  in  other  regioris,  besides,  Pata- 
medeidce,  which  occurs  also  in  the  Patagonian,  Amazoninn, 
and  Subandean  Subregions.  The  chief  justification  for 
considering  the  Brazilian  Subregion  apart  from  the  Ama- 
zonian is  perhaps  to  be  so_ught  in  the  presence  within  the 
limits  of  the  former  of  5  families,  Sylviidce,  Oxyrhamphidce, 
Pkytoiomidce,  Pteroptochidce,  and  Canamidce,  which  are 
cot  found  in  the  latter,  while  on  the  other  hand,  5  families, 
Cnpitonidce,  Opislhocomidct,  Eurypijgidce,  Psophiidce,  and 
CEdionemid.(F,'  inhabit  the  latter  without  occurring  in  the 
former  ;  add  to  which  the  fact,  that  of  the  families  found 
in  only  two  of  the  Neotropical  Subregions  not  one  is  com- 
mon to  the  Brazilian  and  Amazonian. 

In  this  Subregion  we  have  42  peculiar  genera,  1  belong- 
ing to  Sylviidce,  4  to  Tanagridce,  2  to  Emberizidce,  3  to 
Tyrannidec,  2  to  Pipridce,  5  to  Cotingidoe,  6  to  Dendroco- 
laptidce,  3  to  Formicariidce,  2  to  Pteroptochidce,  7  to  Trochi- 
lidce,  2  to  Caprimulgidce,  and  1  to  each  tjf  the  families 
Picidce,  Momotidce,  Galbulidce,  Psittacidce,  and  Tinamidoe. 
The  number  of  peculiar  species  is,  however,  far  too  great 
to  be  here  enumerated.  There  arc  no  islands  of  any  im- 
portance belonging  to  this  part  of  South  America. 
Amazonian  (3.)  T)it  Amazonian  Subregion,  comprehending  the  val- 
Bubregion.  (ey  of  the  Amazons  and  its  affluents  (except  their  elevated 
sources  among  the  Andes)  as  well  as  the  right  bank  of 
the  Orinoco  and,  of  course,  the  intervening  country,  has 
been  but  lately  separated  from  the  preceding,  and  the  rea- 
sons for  here  considering  it  distinct  have  just  been  briefly 
stated.  They  are  not,  indeed,  those  which  first  prompted 
the  division,  which  was  established  mainly,  if  not  entirely, 
on  account  of  the  peculiarity  of  most  of  the  species  of 
Birds  ^  found  within  its  ill-defined  borders  as  before  given  ; 
but  on  whichever  ground  we  proceed  wo  may  be  pretty 
sure  that  its  separation  is  justifiable.     We  have  hero  2 

'  Tho  propriety  of  coinidcrinR  tho  Stono-Cnrlows  to  form  a  family 
dUtinrt  frnin  tho  other  Plovprs  {Charadriidw)  is  very  quostionablo. 
C/.  SclHer  and  Salvin,  frocced.  Zool.  Soc.  1807,  pp.  093-596. 


families  peculiar — Opisthocomidce — already  mentioned  as 
forming  almost  a  distinct  Order,  but  composed  of  a  single 
species,  the  Hoattzin,  and  the  Psopkiidce  or  Trumpeters,  now 
a-days  regarded  as  distant  allies  of  the  Cranes  (Gruidce), 
but  presenting  many  remarkable  and  unique  features.  This 
family  also  contains  but  one  single  genus,  including. some 
half-dozen  species,  the  respective  range  of  each  appearing, 
singularly  enough,  to  be  separated  by  rivers.  Amazonia  pos- 
sesses no  family  in  common  with  but  one  other  Neotropical 
Subregion,  but  it  shares  3  with  the  Central-American  and 
Subandean.  These  are  Capilonidce,  Eurypygidce,  and 
QHdiaiemidcE,  of  which  the  second  only  is  peculiar  to  the 
Region,  the  first  and  last  being  widely  distributed.  The 
families  which  it  shares  with  three  other  Subregions  have 
been  already  enumerated^  as  well  as  those  which  by  then 
presence  or  absence  distinguish  it  from  the  Brazilian  Sub- 
region.  The  peculiar-  genera  remain  to  be  pointed  out. 
These  are  but  27  in  number :  2  belong  to  Icteridce,  3  to 
Pipridce  and  Cotingidce  respectively,  2  to  Dendrocolaptidce, 
7  to  Formicariidce,  2  to  each  of  Trochilidce  and  Galbulidce, 
1  to  Ardeidce  and  Falamedeidce,  2  to  Cracidce  and  the 
genera  Opiiihocomxis  and  Psophia  before  mentioned.  There 
is  another  genus  also  which  is  worthy  of  remark,  Chena- 
lopex,  belonging  to  the  Anatidce,  not  found  elsewhere  io 
the  New  World,  but  common  to  the  Ethiopian  Region. 
Space  will  not  admit  of  our  entering  further  upon  the  con- 
sideration of  the  ornithic  peculiarities  of  Amazonia,  but 
perhaps  it  may  be  said  to  form  the  most  self-contained  Sub- 
region  of  the  whole  continental  area  of  which  we  are  now 
treating,  and  we  may  expect  that  with  the  progress  of  zoo- 
logical exploration  its  boundaries  may  be  laid  down  with 
tolerable  precision.  There  are  no  islands  which  can  be 
attached  to  Amazonia. 

(4.)  The  Subandean  Subregion,  from  what  has  beenSubandfan 
previously  indicated  of  its  extent,  will  be  readily  seen  to  Subi-ogioo. 
offer  the  most  varied  conditions  of  existence  of  any  part  of 
the  Neotropical  Region,  and  we  shall  not  therefore  be  sur- 
prised to  find  its  ornis  at  once  rich  and  remarkable.  It 
might  perhaps  now,  and  some  day  probably  will,  be'broken 
up  into  two  or  more  provinces,  not  to  say  separated  into 
distinct  Subregions,  but  the  means  for  such  partition  are 
at  present  wanting.  Yet  there  is  only  one  family  of  Birds 
peculiar  to  it,  the  Steatornithidce,  composed  of  a  single 
species,  the  Guacharo  or  Oil-bird  (Steatornis  caripensis), 
confined  to  a  very  few  localities  in  its  eastern  portion. 
In  common  with  Central  America,  but  not  elsewhere  met 
with  in  the  Region,  it  has  of  Neotropical  families  Cinclidae 
and  Alaudidce,  -though  the  latter  of  these  two  widely- 
ranging  families  is  but  poorly  represented  by  a  single  spe- 
cies (Otocorys  chrysolcema),  apparently  the  survivor  of  an 
old  population  (all,  or  nearly  all,  of  which  has  perished), 
stranded,  as  it  were,  on  the  high  lands  of  Columbia.  Those 
families  which  it  possesses  that  are  common  to  but  two 
other  Neotropical  Subregions  have  already  been  named,  and 
it  will  be  enough  to  repeat  that  1  of  them  extends  to  the 
Patagonian  and  Brazilian,  and  the  remaining  3  to  the 
Amazonian  and  Central-American,  In  liko.  manner  have 
been  enumerated  tho  families  which  are  also  found  in  but 
three  other  Subregions — 1  it  has  in  common  with  the 
Amazonian,  Brazilian,  and  Pat.igonian  ,  8  with  the  Central- 
American,  Amazonian,  and  Brazihan ;  while  1  of  these 
(Parrida)  is  also  found  in  very  distant  parts  of  the  world, 
and  1,  also  a  family  of  extremely  wide  range,  with  the 
Brazilian,  Central  American,  and  Antillcan  Subregions. 

The  genera  peculiar  to  the  Subandean  Subregion  are 
exceedingly  numerous,  amounting  to  no  fewer  than  72. 
These  may  be  apportioned  as  follows  :  1  to  2'roglodyiid(e, 
4  to  Carcbidce,  10  to  Tanagridcr,  5  to  Embcriiidce,  ]  to 
Icterida;  2  to  TyrannidiT  and  Pipridce  respectively,  3  to 
Codngidcc,  1  to  each  of  Dendrocolaptidce  and  Formicariidth^ 


I 


NEOTROPICAL   BEIjION.] 


BIRDS 


747 


38  (I)  to  Trochiiida;.  I  to  the  peculiar  family  Steatormth. 
fid,  aud  1  to  Picidix,  Strigidoe,  and  Cracidoe  respectively- 
Th«(  enormous  differential  development  of  the  peculiarly 
New-World  family  Trochilid<e  cMi  for  some  remark,  aud  m 
only  approached  (as  will  presently  he  seen)  by  that  which 
Las  occurred  in  Central  America.  The  habitat  of  some  of 
these  forms  of  Humming-birds,  whether  genera  or  species — 
and  the  latter  arc  wonderfully  numerous — is  extremely 
restricted.  That  of  Loddigesia  mirabilis,  long  since  de- 
scribed from  a  still  unique  specimen  in  the  Loddiges  col- 
lection, is  Chachapoyas  in  northern  Peru,  and  though  pos- 
sibly more  pains  has  been  taken  to  discover  it  and  compass 
the  capture  of  other  e.xamples  than  has  been  the  case  with 
any  other  Bird,  it  has  not  been  again  met  with.  Its  haunts 
may,  therefore,  be  safely  presumed  to  be  especially  confined. 
Two  species  of  Oreotrochilus  {0.  chimborazo  and  0.  pichin- 
chce)  have  their  abode  almost  limited  to  the  slopes  of  the 
lofty  mountains  whence  they  take  their  name,  and  nearly 
as  much  may  be  said  of  others.  The  Tanagers  (Tana- 
pridcc) — birds  of  varied  form,  and  generally  of  exquisite 
plumage — also  frequent  this  Subregion  in  great  force,  and 
among  them  there  is  here  found,  perhaps,  the  greatest 
amount  of  differentiation,  both  generic  and  specific. 

Of  the  hutidreds  of  other  curious  ornithological  charac- 
teristics of  the  Subregion  which  might  easily  bo  cited,  no 
more  can  here  be  given,  but  a  brief  notice  of  the  avifauna 
Trinidad      of  its  extreme  points  seems  to  be  required.    It  has  now  been 
""d  for  some  time  fully  admitted  by  all  competent  authorities 

Tubago.  jij^t  jijg  isiantja  of  Trinidad  and  Tobago,  which  the  geo- 
grapher might  be  inclined  to  class  with  the  Antillean  chain, 
must  be  regarded  as  being  truly  portions  of  the  South- 
American  continent,  detached  in  comparatively  recent  times, 
and  even  now  only  separated  from  Venezuela  by  a  compa- 
ratively shallow  sea.  Neither  of  these  islands  has  a  single 
peculiar  species,'  and  except,  perhaps,  some  stragglers  from 
the  north,  not  one  which  is  not  also  found  on  the  nearest 
mainland,  though,  of  course,  many  inhabitants  of  the  neigh- 
bouring continent  do  not  pass  either  the  Dragon's  or  the 
Serpent's  Moiitb,  as  the  two  narrow  channels  which  cut 
off  Trinidad  from  South  America  are  called.  We  may 
presume  that  the  various  islands,  Margarita,  Curasao,  and 
Oruba,  which  lie  off  the  northern  coast  of  Venezuela,  also 
belong  to  this  Subregion,  though  scarcely  anything  is  known 
of  their  animal  products. 

Very  different  from  this  state  of  things  is  that  which 
obtains  at  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  Subregion.  The 
interesting  group  of  volcanic  islands  known  as  the  Gala- 
pagos pre.^ent  not  merely  a  large  number  of  peculiar  species, 
but  4  peculiar  genera  of  Land-birds  ;  1  of  these,  Certhidra, 
belongs  to  the  CierMdce,  and  the  other  3,  Geospiza,  Ca- 
marhynchiis,  and  Cactornis,  seem  to  come  into  the  faniily 
Embfruidae}     It  was  Mr  Darwin  who  first  drew  attention 

'  Trinidad  has  about  3jO  species— one  of  tliem  (Psittacula  cinyu- 
lata)  was  tboaght  to  bo  peculiar,  but  Mr  Salvin  informs  the  writer 
that  it  haa  lately  keen  procured  in  Guiana.  The  nearest  approach, 
perhaps,  to  peculiarity  is  in  a  Thrush,  which  was  originally  described  as 
being  specifically  distinct,  under  the  name  of  Turd\a  xanlhoscelus,  but 
Its  claims  to  that  consideration  are  now  disallowed. 

'  A  very  conaiderable  amount  of  uncertainly,  which  at  present  can- 
not be  removed,  though  it  produces  pome  confusion,  appertains  to  the 
right  position  of  many  of  the  New-World  forms  nf  so-called  Buntings 
{Embtrizida)  and  Finches  (Frinjittidcc).  The  writer  is  fully  inclined 
to  believe  that  tke  distinctness  of  these  two  families,  which  among 
forms  of  the  Old  World  has  long  been  recognized,  and  that  almost 
without  difficulty,  can  be  fairly  esLaWishcd,  since  it  seems  to  rest  on 
good  osteological  characters  ;  but  the  Ajncrican  genera  have  not  yet 
been  sufficiently  examined  to  allow  of  many  of  them  being  allotted 
without  much  doubt.  This  unoeruinty  wOl  most  likely  in  time  be 
removed,  unless — and  such  t  probability  cannot  be  denied— some  of 
the  New- World  forms  turn  out  to  bo  so  much  generalized  as  to  fill  up 
the  gap  which  now  presents  itself  between  the  two  groups  as  observed 
in  the  Old  World.  Meanwhile,  the  conje<]aeat  Inconvenience  !s  un- 
avoidable. 


to  the  remarkable  ornis  of  this  archipelago,  and  here  it  was, 
as  he  has  told  us,  that  there  dawned  upon  him  from  its 
consideration  that  theory  of  "  Natural  Selection "  which 
has  transformed  the  whole  aspect  of  biology,  and,  whether 
wholly  or  partially  accepted,  has  placed  the  science  upon  a 
new  and  higher  pedestal.  Later  researches,  indeed,  have 
shown  the  nonexistence  of  some  of  the  peculiarities  which 
this  eminent  observer  believed,  on  what  was  then  good 
evidence,  he  had  determined  ;  but  these  refer  to  the  re- 
stricted distribution  of  several  of  the  species  among  the 
different  islands,  and  are  not  of  any  such  importance  as  to 
affect  his  general  results,  while  doubtless,  had  his  visit  to 
this  "little  world  within  itself,"  as  he  appropriately  calls 
it,  been  of  longer  duration,  he  would  have  become  aware 
of  these  minor  facts.  The  strictly-speaking  Land-birds  of 
the  Galapagos  seem  to  be  some  30  in  number,  of  which 
about  26  are  Passerts.  Among  these,  1  only,  Dolichonyx 
oryzivorus  (belonging  to  the  family  Icteridoe),  and  obviously 
a  straggler,  is  identical  with  a  species  of  the  mainland,  while 
2,  a  Dendrceca  (.Vniotikid<.v),  and  a  Proyne  (Uirundinida), 
have  been  by  some  considered  to  be  distinct  species,  by 
others  but  local  races, — which  means,  of  course,  that  from 
one  cause  or  another  isolation  has  not  yet  modified  them 
so  as  to  depart  greatly  from  their  congeneric  continental 
forms, — but  the  remaining  23  (?)  ar*"  peculiar,  and,  what 
is  especially  worthy  of  notice,  no  fewer  than  18  (!),  or 
nearly  three-fourths  of  the  whole  number,  belong  to  the 
four  peculiar  genera.  There  is  also  a  peculiar  species  of 
Buzzard,  agreeing  closely  in  every  habit  and  even  in  tone 
of  voice  with  the  carrion-eating  Polybori,  and  originally 
described  as  the  type  of  a  distinct  genus  under  the  name 
of  Cracirex  galapagoensis.  Apparently,  too,  there  is  a 
distinct  and  peculiar  Bam-Owl  (Aluco  punctatissimus),  but 
alongside  of  it  we  have  the  widely-spread  Short-eared  Owl 
(Asio  accipitrinvt),  though  examples  of  this  last  are  said  to 
present  in  these  islands  sufficient  difference  to  justify  the 
bestowal  upon  them  of  a  distinct  specific  name.  Among 
Water-birds,  the  Rallidce  and  Ardddoe  furnish,  the  former 
one  and  the  latter  two,  species  not  known  elsewhere.  A 
remarkable  fact,  also,  is  the  asserted  existence  of  a  peculiar 
species  of  Flamingo  (Pliotnicopterus glyphorhynchus),  seeing 
that  most  of  the  birds  of  this  genus  have  a  very  extended 
distribution.  A  Penguin  also  (Spheniscus  mendiculus)  is 
at  present  only  known  from  the  Galapagos  ;  but  consider- 
ing the  range  of  other  forms  of  this  lam'\\y  \Sph(niscid<z), 
we  should,  perhaps,  be  premature  in  as  yet  pronouncing 
it  a  peculiar  species,  though  the  existence  of  a  Penguin  at 
all  under  the  equator  raises  a  presumption  that  such  may 
be  the  case.  There  is,  however,  one  feature  in  the  avi-  Their  Sah- 
fauna  of  these  islands  which  should  not  be  overlooked,  regional 
Notwithstanding  that  the  Galapagos  are  here  placed  as  J*"??,"?!"* 
forming  an  outlying  portion  of  tho  Subandcan  Subregion, 
the  fact  must  not  be  concealed  that  their  ornis  seems  to 
have  no  very  special  or  intimate  relation  thereto.  All  that 
can  be  averred  of  it  is  that  it  is  American.  In  tho  sub- 
region  just  named,  as  has  been  above  shown,  the  Trochi- 
tidce  attain  their  maximum  of  development,  yet  no  Hum- 
ming-birds are  found  in  this  archipelago.  So  also  with  the 
Tanagridce,  of  which  there  are  abundant  Subandean  repre- 
sentatives, the  DendrocolaplidiT,  I^ortmcariidiF,  aud  other 
characteristic  Neotropical  families.  In  the  Galapagos  none 
of  them  are  found.  It  is  true  that  tho  presence  of  a  species 
of  the  South-American  genus  Pyrocephalus,  and  of  a  genua 
of  tho  Neotropical  family  CoTebidce,  may  be  a  set  off  on 
the  other  side ;  but  on  tho  whole,  it  seems  quite  likely 
that  the  relations  of  this  isolated,  equatorial  province 
(for  so  it  is  entitled  to  be  deemed)  are  as  near  to  the  north 
as  to  the  south,  if  not  nearer,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that, 
having  its  ornithological  characters  only  in  view,  future 
zoogeographcrs  may  think  fit  to  ally  it  to  the  former  rather 


748 


BIRDS 


[distribution'. 


than  the  latter.  But  the  afSnities  of  its  Reptilian  fauna 
point  to  a  connection,  however  remote  in  point  of  time,  with 
South  America,  and  accordingly  the  Galapagos  are  here  left 
in  that  Region  to  which  they  have  been  commonly  assigned. 
Central-  (5.)  The  Central- Amtrican  Suhregion  is  the  next  to  be 

American  considered,  and  in  treating  of  it  we  become  aware  of  a  dis- 
Bubregioa.  {yrbing  force  which  renders  impossible  the  lajing  down 
for  it  of  anything  like  a  definite  frontier.  This  disturbing 
force  is  the  entrance,  as  before  intuuated,  of  a  Nearclic  fauna 
which  runs  along  the  backbone,  so  to  speak,  of  the  Sub- 
region  to  an  unknown  but  variable  extent ;  for  part  of  this 
Nearctic  fauna  ebbs  and  flows  according  to  the  season  of 
the  year,  in  winter  possibly  creeping  down  the  mountain- 
sides, and  being  strongly  reinforced  by  immigrants  from  the 
oorth,  but  in  summer  retiring  northward  and  perhaps  up- 
ward, so  as  to  occupy  only  the  most  lofty  ridges.  Yet 
that  two  Subregions  here  unite  and  inosculate  is  certain  ; 
but  in  considering  the  Central-American  avifauna,  we  have 
to  guard  ourselves  against  this  periodic  stream  of  northern 
immigrants,  and  cannot  deal  with  it  precisely  in  the  same 
way  33  we  have  done  those  Subregions  further  removed 
from  the  influence  which  is  here  so  strongly  manifested. 
In  Central  America,  though  its  ornis  ia  of  the  richest,  we 
find  not  a  single  peculiar  family  of  Birds,  and  those  which 
it,  to  a  more  or  less  limited  extent,  shows  with  the  other 
Subregions  of  the  Neotropical  Region  have  been  already 
named,  except  the  Ampetidce,  a  small  but  widely-ranging 
family  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  which  it  has  in  common 
with  the  Antillean  Subregion.  5  other  families,. however, 
Paridw,  Sittidce,  Certhiidce,  Laniidae,  and  Meleagridae,  be- 
longing also  to  the  Nearctic  Region,  occur  here.  Of  genera 
which  are  not  found  elsewhere  in  the  Region,  it  seems  to 
have  93,  but  47,  or  just  more  than  half,  of  them  are  also 
found  in  the  Nearctic  Region;  and  therefore  to  obtain  any- 
thing like  a  true  notion  of  the  Central-American  ornis,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  keep  the  two  categories  apart.  Taking 
first  those  which  are  absolutely  peculiar,  we  have  2  belong- 
ing to  Turdidce,  1  to  Troglodytidce,  2  to  Mniotiltidas,  1  to 
each  of  Fireonidce,  Ampelidce,  and  Tanagridce,  ZioEmberi- 
zidce,*  1  to  Icteridce,  2  to  Corvidce  and  Tyrannidce  respec- 
tively, 1  to  Cotingidce,  2  to  Formicariidce,  19  to  Trocki- 
lidae,  2  to  Momotidae,  1  to  each  of  Trogonidce,  Cuculidce, 
and  Psittacidae,  2  to  Cracidcs,  and  1  to  Telraonidoe. 
Then,  taking  those  not  found  elsewhere  in  the  Neotropical 
Region,  but  inhabiting  the  Nearctic,  wo  have,  as  occurring 
in  Central  America,  1  belonging  to  Turdidx,  2  to  Syl- 
viidce,  3  to  Paridce,  1  to  each  of  Sittidce  and  Certhiidce, 
2  to  Troglodytidce  and  Mniotiltidce  respectively,  1  to 
Laniidce,  2  to  Ampelidce,  14  to  £mberindw,^  3  to 
Fringillidae,  2  to  Icteridce,  1  to  each  of  Tyrannidce, 
Trochilidce,  Picidce,  and  Cuculidce,  2  to  Sirigidce  and 
Anatidce  respectively,  1  to  each  of  Columbidce  and  Melea- 
gridce,  2  to  Telraonidce,  and  1  to  C haradriidce. 

Nicely  balanced  as  these  numbers  are,  they  shew  a 
result  which  might  well  have  been  expected  from  the 
physical  and  geographical  configiiration  of  the  country, 
while  the  numbers  of  other  families  peculiar  to  the  Neo- 
tropical Region,  though  shared  by  some  of  its  Subregions, 
as  already  given,  prove  incontestably  the  propriety  of 
including  Central  America  with  that  Region ;  and  this 
would  come  out  even  more  plainly  did  our  limits  permit 
of  the  investigation  being  extended  to  species,  though  so 
many  northern  forms  here  find  their  winter-quarters.  It 
remains  to  remark  that  almost  the  only  island  of  any  im- 
portance belonging  to  the  Subregion  is  Socorro,  the  largest 
of  a  email  group  lying  to  the  westward  of  Mexico  in  lat. 
18°  30'  N..  and  long.  111°  W.  Here  out  of  9  species  of 
Land-birds,  4  have  been  described  as  peculiar,  2  others  are 

*  See  procotling  footDote. 


elsewhere  known  as  occurring  only  on  the  Tres  Marias,  a 
little  group  some  250  miles  nearer  the  mainland,  and  1  ia 
regarded  as  a  local  race  of  a  continental  species,  leaving 
but  2  (both  Birds-of-prey)  which  cannot  be  deemed  auto- 
chthonous. The  still  more  remote  Cocos  Island,  lying  in 
lat.  5°  33'  N.,  and  long.  87°  W.,  from  which  one  peculiar 
species  of  Coccyzus  {Cuculidce)  is  known,  may  belong  just 
as  likely  to  the  Subandean  as  to  the  Central- American  Sul* 
region. 

(6.)  The  Antillean  is  the  only  one  of  the  Neotropical  Sub-  AuiilIpaB 
regions  the  precise  boundaries  of  which  can  be  definitely  Subregion 
laid  down  ;  and  it  is  in  many  respects  one  of  the  most  sug- 
gestive and  interesting,  comparatively  small  though  it  be. 
Extending  from  Cape  San  Antonio  de  Cuba  in  the  west  to 
Barbadoes  in  the  east,  its  greatest  length  is  only  about 
1700  miles,  and  from  Abaco,  one  of  the  Bahamas,  in  the 
north  to  Grenada  in  the  south,  it  does  not  cover  15  degrees 
of  latitude,  while  within  these  limits  the  proportion  of  land 
to  water,  being  less  than  08,000  square  mOes,  is  very  in- 
considerable. The  unbroken  chain  of  islands  which  are 
commonly  known  as  the  "  West  Indies  " — though  that  term 
rightly  includes  not  only  all  of  the  "  Spanish  Main,"  but 
an  indefinite  extent  of  coast  lying  both  north  and  south  of 
the  ancient  dominions  of  the  Catholic  King  in  the  New 
World — forms,  geographically,  a  second  line  of  connection 
between  the  two  halves  of  the  American  continent,  sepa- 
rated from  the  great  western  isthmus  by  the  deep  waters 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  at  once 
suggests  a  former  communication  by  land  with  Yucatan  at 
the  one  extremity  and  with  Venezuela  at  the  other,  to  say 
nothing  of  a  possible  junction  with  Florida.  Yet,  as  will 
presently  be  shewn  from  a  consideration  of  the  pecuUar 
forms  of  Bird-life  which  have  grown  up  along  the  chain, 
any  such  communication,  if  it  ever  existed,  must  have  been 
exceedingly  remote  in  point  of  time  ;  for  narrow  as  are  the 
channels  between  Cuba  and  the  opposite  coast  of  Central 
America,  between  the  Bahamas  and  the  soulb-westein 
peninsula  of  North  America,  and  between  Grenada  and 
Tobago  (the  last  belonging  zoologically,  as  has  been  already 
demonstrated,  to  South  America),  the  fauna  of  the 
Antillean  chain,  instead  of  being  a  mixture  of  that  of  the 
almost  contiguous  countries,  difl'ers  much  from  all,  and 
exhibits  in  some  groups  a  degree  of  speciality  which  may 
be  not  unfitly  compared  with  that  of  oceanic  islands. 
Except  such  as  are  of  coral  formation,  the  Antilles  are 
hilly,  not  to  say  mountainous,  their  summits  rising  in 
places  to  an  elevation  of  8000  feet,  and  nearly  all,  prior 
to  their  occupation  by  Europeans,  were  covered  with 
luxuriant  forest,  which,  assisting  in  the  collection  and 
condensation  of  the  clouds  brought  by  the  trade  winds, 
ensured  its  own  vitality  by  precipitating  frequent  and  long- 
continued  rains  upon  the  fertile  soil  Under  such  condi- 
tions wo  might  expect  to  find  an  extremely  plentiful 
animal  population,  one  as  rich  as  that  which  inhabits  the 
same  latitudes  in  Central  America,  not  many  degrees  fur- 
ther to  the  west ;  but  no  instance  perhaps  can  be  cited 
which  shows  more  strikingly  the  diSerence  between  a  con- 
tinental and  an  insular  fauna,  since,  making  every  allowance 
for  the  ravages  of  cultivation  by  civilized  man,  the  contrary 
is  the  case,  and  possibly  no  area  of  land  so  highly  favoured 
by  nature  is  bo  poorly  furnished  with  the  higher  forms  of 
animal  life.  Hero,  as  over  so  largo  a  portion  of  the 
Australian  Region,  we  fiud  Birds  constituting  the  supremo 
class — the  scarcity  of  Mammals  being  accounted  for  in  some 
measure  as  a  normal  efl'ect  of  insularity. 

Glancing  at  the  entire  chain,  we  may  first  set  aside  the 
Bahamas,  a  succession  of  emerged  coral-reefs  founded  on, 
and  to  the  south  and  cast  surrounded  by,  shonls  or  banks, 
broken  only  here  and  there  by  deeper  channels ;  and  then 
by  drawing  a  line  to  the  south  of  the  islands  of  St  Croix 


NBOTROnCAL    EEGION.] 


B  J  R  D  S 


749 


and  St  Bartholomew,  wc  find  that  this  line  divides  the 
chain  into  two  groups  of  distinct  character — that  Ijing  to 
the  southward  and  eastward,  almost  identical  with  the 
■'  Windward  Islands"  of  some  geographers,'  which,  except- 
ing Antigua  and  Barbadoes,  are  almost  entirely  volcanic, 
while  no  direct  trace  of  recent  volcanic  action  is  known  in 
the  gT«up  lying  to  the  northward  and  westward.  These 
three  divisions,  however  natural  in  ajipearancc,  can  hardly 
be  affirmed  to  form  as  many  zoological  provinces,  owing  to 
the  absolute  dearth  of  information  respecting  many  of  them, 
and  the  insufficient  amount  which  has  been  received  of  the 
remainder.  Taking  the  whole  of  the  Antillean  Subregion, 
the  Bahamas,  Cuba,  Jamaica,  St  Croix,  St  Thomaa,  Som- 
brero, St  Bartholomew,  Guadeloupe,  Dominica,  Martinique, 
and  St  Lucia  are  the  only  islands  of  the  ornithology  of 
which  we  have  anything  more  than  what  may  be  called  a 
casual  account ;  and  hence,  though  valuable  observations 
respecting  some  of  the  rest  have  been  placed  on  record  by 
travelling  naturalists,  any  attempt  to  separate  the  Sub- 
Ircgion  into  proper  provinces  would  necessarily  be  of  the 
crudest  kind,  and  here  cannot  be  made,  though  doubtless 
such  provinces  will  eventually  be  defined  with  precision. 

Still  enough  is  known  of  the  Birds  of  this  Subregion  to 
enable  us  to  draw  some  conclusions,  though  certain  of 
them  seem  esjiecially  likely  to  be  overset  by  further  in- 
vestigation. It  is  inhabited  by  some  41  families,  1  of 
which  (Todidce)  is  not  found  elsewhere,  2  more  {Ccerebulce 
and  Cotingidce)  are  confined  to  the  Neotropical  Region,  8 
{Mniotiltidce,  Vireonidae,  Tanagridm,  Icteridce,  Tyrannidce, 
Trochilidce,  Cathartidce,  and  Aramid<v)  are  common  to  that 
and  the  Nearctic  Region,  but  are  peculiar  to  the  New  World, 
and  30  are  of  much  more  general  distribution,  but  2  of 
these  (Trogonuhv  and  Fregatidae)  are  not  found  in  the 
Nearctic  Region,  and,  as  the  above  numbers  show,  there  is 
uo  family  common  to  that  Region  and  the  Antillean  Sub- 
region  without  also  occurring  in  other  parts  of  the  Neo- 
tropical Region.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  the  affinity  of 
the  Subregion  to  the  Neotropical  rather  than  to  the 
Nearctic  Region  is  fully  made  out.  About  140  genera  are 
found  in  the  Antilles,  of  which  30  are  peculiar  to  it,  being 
a  considerably  larger  proportion  than  is  elsewhere  found  in 
the  Neotropical  Region.  Of  these  30  genera,  which  are 
all  Land-birds,  4  belong  to  Turdidce,  1  to  each  of  Mtiiojil- 
tid<^,  VireonidtB,  Ampelidce,  and  Cofrebidce,  2  to  Tana- 
grid(B  and  Emherizidce  respectively,  1  to  each  of  Icteridce 
and  Tyrannidce,  5  to  Trochilidce,  1  to  Caprimulgidce, 
2  to  Picidie,  1  to  Todidce,  2  to  Trogonidce,  Cuculida:, 
and  Slrigidce  respectively,  and  1  to  Columbidae}  Be- 
sides these,  21  more,  which  it  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to 
particularize,  do  not  exceed  the  limits  of  the  Neotropical 
region,  while  5  others,  belonging  respectivel)^  to  the 
families  Cypsdid<t,  Fregatiilce,  Anatidct,  Columhultr,  and 
liallidce,  occur  both  here  and  elsewhere  in  that  Region 
without  reaching  the  Nearctic  except  as  stragglers.  Peris- 
toglotta,  belonging  to  the  family  MniotiUidce,  is  the  only 
genus  common  to  the  Nearctic  Region  and  the  Antillean 
Subregion  without  occurring  elsewhere  in  the  Neotropical 
Region,  all  the  remaining  Antillean  genera  inhabiting  both 
North  and  South  America.     The  distribution  of  some  of 

•  In  the  Inguago  of  others,  the  "Windward  IsLinda"  begin  »-ith 
Martinique  and  bo  continue  to  Trinidad,  while  the  remainder  of  the 
Lesser  Antilles,  lying  eastward  of  Porto  Rico,  are  ciUed  the  "  Leeward 
Islands."  Other  authorities  name  all  the  smaller  Islands  so  far  as  St 
Thomas  "Windward  Islands,"  and  those  further  westward  the 
"Leeward."  Creoles  appear  to  apply  these  terms  relatively  to  their 
own  habitation,  just  as  the  clweller  on  the  bank  of  a  riter  speaks  of 
"  up  stresih  "  and  "down  alrvom  "  with  solo  reference  to  the  position 
he  occupies  on  the  margin  ;  and  It  miglit  be  wished,  though  that  were 
vain,  that  the  use  of  terms  so  little  definite  should  be  abandoned. 

^ITtii  genus  {Starjutnas)  has  been  said,  however,  to  occur  In  the 
Florida  Cays,  but  the  statement  seems  doubtful 


speciea. 


the  peculiar  genera  merits  a  little  attention,  for  19  out  o( 
the  30  are  confined  to  a  single  island,  or  nearly-connected 
group  of  islands.  Thus,  Cuba  has  6  believed  to  be  re- 
stricted to  its  soil ;  Jam;uca,  7  ;  Hispaniola,  2  ;  and  the 
so-called  "  Windward  Islands,"  probably  4  ;  while  none  are 
known  to  be  absolutely  limited  to  the  Bahamas,  to  Porto 
Rico,  or  the  Virgin  Islands.  It  is  possible,  indeed,  that 
Hispaniola  and  Porto  Rico,  if  as  well  explored  as  Cuba  and 
Jamaica  have  been,  might  tell  a  very  different  story. 

Pursuing  the  subject  further,  and  entering,  so  far  as  Resideni 
space  will  allow,  upon  a  consideration  of  details,  we  find  ^"^  '^'' 
that  there  are  of  Land-birds  about  200  resident  species,  and  ^"j',, 
nearly  90  which  are  not  resident,  but  migratory.  These 
last  belong  to  about  55  genera,  of  which  some  40  have  no 
resident  insular  representatives,  while  those  migrants  per- 
taining to  genera  which  possess  permanent  residents  are 
nearly  all  as  much  Neotropical  as  Nearctic  in  character 
Most  of  these,  so  far  as  is  known,  visit  Cuba  only,  where 
over  80  are  recorded  as  occurring,  while  but  30  reach 
Jamaica.  The  number,  however,  in  the  island  kst  named, 
and  in  others,  would  most  likely  be  not  inconsiderably 
increased  did  competent  observers  but  exist,  though  the 
fact  that  a  well-known  species  like  the  Humming-bird  of 
eastern  North  America  (Trochilus  colubris)  does  not  seek  its 
winter-abode  in  any  of  the  islands  except  the  Bahamas 
and  Cuba,  tends  to  lessen  the  force  of  such  a  supposition, 
and  points  to  our  actual  knowledge  being  not  very  far 
wrong.  Among  the  more  interesting  of  peculiar  iorms  is 
one  genus  of  Turdidce  (Mim^euJUa),  which  is  represented 
by  4  distinct  species,  found  in  the  BaliAmas,  Cuba,  Jamaica, 
and  Hispaniola  respectively.  Another  genus  6f  the  same 
family  {Margarops)  has  a  species  ranging  from  Hispaniola 
to  the  Virgin  Islands,  and  a  second  species  inhabiting 
Martinique  and  St  Lucia  only,  these  two  islands  possess- 
ing at  the  same  time  a  third  and  peculiar  genus  (Rham- 
phocinclus),  containing  but  a  single  species,  common  to 
both,  while  they  also  have  another  genus  (Cinclocerthia), 
a  distinct  species  of  which  inhabits  cither  bland,  though  a 
third  species  of  the  same  is  found  in  Guadaloupe  and 
Nevis.  The  genus  Certhiola,  belonging  to  the  Ccerebidoe, 
is  remarkable  in  that  it  occurs  in  nearly  every  island  ex- 
cept Cuba ;  but  what  seems  to  be  still  more  extraordinary 
is  that  the  species  found  in  the  Bahamas  (C  bahamentis), 
and  there  alone  in  the  whole  Subregion,  also  occurs  iu 
Cozumel,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Yucatan,  though  Cuba 
intervenes.  The  distribution  of  Spijuialis,  one  of  the 
TanagridcE,  resembles  that  of  MimocicJda,  above  noticed, 
only  that  here  Porto  Rico  also  has  its  distinct  representa- 
tive species.  Of  the  pecuUar  genera  of  Humming-birds, 
Eulampis  has  2  species — one  ranging  from  St  Lucia  t. 
Nevis,  but  the  second  extending  northward  to  St  Thomas. 
Aithurus,  a  very  remarkable  form,  is  restricted  to  Jamaica, 
while  Mdlisuga  is  common  to  that  island  and  Hispaniola — 
each  of  these  genera  consisting  of  but  one  species  only, 
and  the  last  is  the  smallest  known  bird.  Orlkorhynchut 
seems  to  have  3  species,  one  extending  from  St  Thomas  to 
Dominica,  a  second  (perhaps  barely  separable)  common  to 
Martinique  and  St  Lucia,  and  a  third  to  St  Vincent  and 
Barbadoes;  and,  finally,  Sporadinus  has  one  species  in  Cuba 
and  at  least  one  of  the  Bahamas,  a  second  species  in 
Hispaniola,  and  a  third  in  Porto  Rico.  Of  genera  of 
Humming-birds,  which  arc  not  confined  to  the  Antilles, 
Lampomis,  a  widely-ranging  genus,  has  two  species  peculiai 
to  Jamaica  and  Porto  Rico  respectively  ;  while  a  third 
extends  from  Hispaniola  to  St  Thomas.  Calyptf,  which 
has  two  species  in  Mexico,  has  a  third  peculiar  to  Cuba, 
while  Doricha  is  represented  in  two  of  the  Bahamas  (New 
Providence  and  Inagua)  by  as  many  distinct  species ; 
the  other  three  described  species  of  the  form  inhabiting 
Central  America,  and  none,  so  far  as  kui'uu,  occurring  ii> 


750 


BIRDS 


.  [distbibutios. 


Cuba ;  and  thus  we  have  afforded  us  another  case  of 
iutemipted  generic  distribution  somewhat  like  though  not 
quite  so  extraordinary  as  that  of  Gertkiota  aiTea,dy  noticed. 
In  all,  about  17  species  of  Trochilidce  are  found  in  the 
Antilles,  of  which  only  one,  and  that  of  exceptionally 
developed  migratory  habits,  occurs  elsewhere.  The  pecu- 
liar family  Todidce  has  been  already  mentioned ;  and  it  is 
only  necessary  here  to  remark  that  the  single  genus  Todua 
which  it  contains  seems  to  have  5  species,  one  limited  to 
each  of  the  large  islands,  Cuba,  Jamaica,  Hispaniola,  and 
Porto  Rico,  the  fifth  being  from  an  unknown  locality.' 
Much  the  same  has  to  be  izXd  oi  Saurothera,  a  genus  of 
Cuculidce,  which  is  represented  by  a  distinct  species  in 
each  of  these  four  islands,  while  another  genus  of  the 
same  family,  Hyetomis,  with  one '  species,  is  peculiar  to 
Jamaica.  The  Trogonidce  have  two  genera,  Prionoteles  and 
Temnotrogon,  each  with  a  single  species,  the  former  peculiar 
to  Cuba,  and  the  latter,  which  exhibits  a  remarkable 
affinity  to  the  African  genus  Uapaloderma,  to  Hispaniola. 
Pseudoecops,  a  genus  of  Strigidce,  is  peculiar  to  Jamaica, 
but  Gymnoglaux,  belonging  to  the  same  family,  has  one 
upecies  limited  to  Cuba,  while  a  second  extends  from  Porto 
liico  to  some  of  the  Virgin  Islands.  Cuba  also,  besides 
a  widely-ranging  species  of  Kestrel  (Tinnunculus),  has  a 
second  species  which  is  peculiar  to  the  island.  Jamaica, 
on  the  other  hand,  seems  to  have  no  Kestrel  at  all. 

Any  speculations  aa  to  the  former  history  of  the  Antilles 
derived  from  our  imperfect  knowledge  of  their  existing 
ornis  would  be  vain.  It  is  enough  to  perceive,  as  the 
preceding  facts  will  show,  that  there  must  here  have  been 
no  ordinary  amount  of  upheaval  and  subsidence,  of  turning 
lond  into  water  and  water  into  land,  to  account  for  the 
present  distribution  of  their  avifauna.  More  wonderful 
than  any  evidence  given  by  the  Birds,  is  that  which  is 
afforded  by  other  Classes.  It  is  asserted  that  Soienodon, 
an  Antillean  genus  of  Insectivorous  Mammals,  has  its 
nearest  ally  in  a  Malagasy  form ;  and  a  splendid  Butterfly, 
found  only  in  Jamaica  (Urajiia  sloanii),  belongs  to  a  genus 
of  which  while  two  other  species  are  known  from  Central 
and  South  America  respectively,  the  only  other  genua  re- 
sembling it  is  one  that  inhabits  Madagascar. 
Nkarctio  III.  The  Neaectic  Region  comprises  all  that  is  left  of 
RicQioM.  the  American  continent^  after  the  Neotropical  Region  has 
Soundarics  been  taken  off,  and  certain  oudying  groups  of  islands,  such 
03  the  Aleutian  chain,  with  its  immediate  dependencies, 
and  the  Bermudas — none  of  them,  however,  being  of  any 
great  importance, — as  well  as  the  circumpolar  .lands  lying 
■westward  of  long.  C0°  VV.,  and  Greenland.  The  confines  of 
these  two  Regions,  as  before  stated  (page  748),  are  as  yet 
but  vaguely  traced.  All  that  is  known  for  certain  is  that 
ihe  more  northern  runs  considerably  southward  along  the 
highlands  of  Central  America,  and  that  its  influence,  as 
determined  by  the  presence  of  resident  geuera  of  northern 
extraction,  is  perceptibly  felt  on  the  summits  or  slopes  of 
the  mountains,  at  least  so  far  southward  as  lat.  20°  N. 
Id  tho  lowlands  the  boundary  lies  much  further  towards 
the  north,  and,  perhaps,  in  general  terms,  may  be  placed 
Bomewhero  about  lat.  25°  N.,  while  both  in  lowlands  and 
highlands,  as  above  explained,  tho  northern  influence 
varies  with  the  seasons  of  tho  year,  being  greatest  in 
winter,  when  the  migratory  birds,  which  breed  in  tho 
Nearctic  Region,  have  turned  their  flight  southward,  and 
least  in  summer,  when  they  have  retired  to  their  northern 
0«ner«l  homes.  If  the  avifauna  of  the  Neotropical  Region  conkl, 
(luiractcr-  jq  ^  wide  sense,  bo  truly  termed  homogeneous,  much 
more  is  this  the  state  of  the  case  with  the  Nearctic.  Of 
the  63  families'  of  Birds,  which  is  the  highest  number 

'  A  bird  of  thU  group  wns  one  of  those  aascrtod  by  Ledru  to  have 
(nrmnrly  occuirnd  in  Kt  Thomai  (png,.  734). 
'  Thru  of  these  < Umnatovoduia,  JiauTviroitrida,  uid  I'halanfod- 


tatlca. 


that  it  seems  possible  to  count  for  this  region,  only 
1,  ChaTTiceidae,  is  peculiar,  and  the  validity  of  the  grounds 
on  which  this  has  been  established  as  such  may  be  open 
to  question;  44  of  them  are  also  Pahsarctic;  and  the 
remaining  18  are  common  to  the  Neotropical  Region, 
of  which  last  number  at  least  4  (Trogonidce,  Plotidce, 
Fregaiidai,  and  Phaetontidce)  have  a  much  more  extended 
range.  Thus  there  are  14  peculiarly  American  families 
left.  These  are  MniotitCidce,  Coerebidce,  Tanagridce,  Vire- 
onidcE,  IcteridoE,  Tyratmidae,  Trochilidce,  Momotidce, 
Aridce,  CathartidcE,  Cracidce,  MeUagridce,  Tantalidce,  and 
Aramidce.  But  the  propriety  of  here  admitting  Trogonidce 
(mentioned  above)  and  Momotidce  is  very  doubtful  ;  for, 
though  included  by  Dr  Coues,  they  are  omitted  by  Professor 
Baird  from  his  N^orth  American  Birds,  the  most  recent 
work  on  the  subject.  The  claim  of  Ccerebidce  to  be  con- 
sidered Nearctic  is  also  slender,  resting  on  the"  fact  that  a 
small  colony  of  the  Sugar-bird  which  inhabits  the  Bahamas 
[Certhiola  bahamensis)  has  established  itself  on  one  of  the 
Florida  Cays.  The  Aridce  are  represented  in  the  Region 
by  a  single  species  only — the  long-known  Carolina  Parra- 
keet  (Conurus  carolinensis) ;  and  the  Tanagridce,  a  family 
containing  upwards  of  forty  genera,  have  but  one  genus 
{Pyranga),  exempli.led  by  four  or  five  species,  out  of 
about  a  dozen,  which  occur  within  its  limits. 

•  On  the  other  hand,  the  peculiarly  American  families 
best  represented  in  the  Nearctic  Region  seem  to  be  four  in 
number, — Mniotiltidae,  by  13  genera  and  about  50  species, 
Vireonidce  by  1  genus  and  14  species,  Icteridce  by  8 
genera  and  21  species,  and  Tyrannidce  by  8  genera  and 
26  species.  The  first  of  these,  however,  can  alone  be  re- 
garded as  eminently  characteristic  of  the  Region,  since 
that  affords  a  home  to  aU  but  3  of  the  genera,  but  at 
the  same  time,  only  about  one-half  of  the  described  species 
occur  there.  None  of  the  rest  can  compare  with  it  in  this 
respect,  Vireonidce  having  5  genera  and  50  species,  Icte- 
ricks  24  genera  and  105  species,  and  Tyranuidte  71  genera 
and  324  species  in  the  Neotropical  Region. 

Coming  now  to  the  genera  of  Nearctic  birds,  we  may  put 
the  number  perhaps  at  330,  of  which  24  seern  to  be 
peculiar  to  the  Region  ,  2  of  them  belong  to  Tvrdidce, 
1  to  Chamceidce,  Paridce,  Troglodytidie,  and  MotacillidcB 
respectively,  5  to  F.mberuidae,  2  to  Corvidce,  1  to .  each  of 
Picidce,  Falconidce,  and  Columbidce,  5  to  Tetraonidce,  and 
1  to  Scolopacidce,  Anaiidoe,  and  Laridce  respectively.  But  it 
is  perhaps  worth  remarking  that  the  (amiliee  Smberizidce  and 
Tetraonidce,  here  most  abundantly  represented  by  genera, 
are  still  more  abundantly  represented  in  like  manner  else- 
where. In  the  Neotropical  Region  we  have  some  30  and  BeI,ition» 
in  the  Old  World  some  15  genera  of  the  former,  which  are '"  o'l'^f 
not  found  in  the  Nearctic  Region  ;  and  the  Old  World  has  K'=8">"»> 
some  30  genera  of  the  latter  which  are  not  found  in  the 
New.  On  the  other  hand  it  must  bo  admitted  that  if  we 
subdivide  the  Amencan  Tetraonidce  into  sections  or  sub 
families,  we  find  that  while  one  of  those  sections,  the  Odon 
tophorince,  is  peculiar  to  America,  the  balance  as  regards 
the  other,  Tetraoninie,  is  clearly  in  favour  of  its  greater 
development  in  North  America,  where  we  have  3  genera 
absolutely  peculiar,  as  well  as  3  others  which  are  also 
found  in  the  Palicarctic  Region.  With  this  Region,  indeed, 
tho  Nearctic  has  about  128  genera  in  common,  having  17S 
which  aro  also  Neotropical.  Returning  to  these  last  pre- 
sently, it  may  be  advisable  hero  to  give  some  particulars  of 
those  which  are  common  to  both  sides  of  the  North  Atlantic. 
1  belongs  to  each  of  the  families  Turdidce  and  Cinclidce . 
3  to  Syluiida:,  2  to  Paridic,  1  to  Sitlidce,  Certhiidcr,  Troglo- 
dytidce,  and  Alaudidce   respectively,   2  to  each  of  Jlnla- 


ida:)  are  not  rop-inle*!  as  good  familica  by  the  writer, 
common  lUso  to  tbo  ralxarctic  ReipoD. 


They  art  JJ 


SKABCTIC  RBCION.J 

eilidce  and  Hirundiniike,  1  to  Ampelidce  and  Laniida 
respectively,  7  to  Fringillidct,  2  to  Emberizulce,  3  to  Cor- 
vidce,  1  to  each  of  Cypsdidix  and  Alcedinulce,  3  to  Picidce, 
9  to  Strigidcc,  10  to  Falconidce,  1  to  Columbidce,  3  to  Trtro- 
onidce  and  Charadriidce  respectively,  2  to  each  of  H(Kmar 
topodida,  Recurviroatridce,  and  Phalaropodidoe,  7  to  Scolo- 
paad<g,  1  to  Ibididm  and  Plataleid<x  respectively,  4  to 
Ardeid<x,  1  to  Gruidce,  5  to  Rallidce,  1  to  P/uenuopteridce, 
13  to  Analidce,.  I  to  each  of  Sulidce,  Peltcanidcc,  and 
Phalacrncoracidx,  6  to  Laridce,  3  to  Procellanidce,  1  to 
each  of  Colyvibidcc  and  Podicipedida,  and  10  to  Alcida.^ 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  no  less  than  57,  or  more  than  oti«- 
»tx<A  of  the  whole  330  genera,  are  purely  Land-birds, — a 
very  large  proportion. 

The  genera  which  occur  both  in  the  Ne'arctic  and  Neotro- 
pical Regions,  without  appearing  in  the  Palaearctic,  must  be 
divided  into  two  categories  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  just 
estimate  of  the  relations  of  the  avifaunas  of  the  first  two. 
These'categories  consist  of  those  genera  which,  being  only 
winter  visitants  to  the  southern  Region,  do  not  breed  there, 
and  those  which  may  fairly  be  called  common  to  both.  The 
latter  need  perhaps  no  further  attention,  after  what  has 
been  previously  said  of  the  Central-American  Subregion 
(p.  748),  but  the  former  require  some  notice.  Of  those 
in  this  category  1  genus  belongs  to  each  of  the  families 
Sylviidoe  and  Troglodytidts,  8  to  Mnicliltida!,  6  to  Embe- 
rizidd,  1  to  Ictaidce,  Trochilidce,  Picidce,  and  ColuTnbid'X 
respectively,  6  to  Scolopacidce,  and  1  to  Phalaropodidas — 
27  in  alL  These  must,  of  course,  be  considered  charac- 
teristic of  the  Nearctic  Region,  and  might,  indeed,  be 
not  inappropriately  added  to  the  24  genera  which  are,  as 
already  said,  pecuKar  thereto ;  but  even  if  this  be  done, 
we  find  the  number  of  peculiar  and  characteristic  genera 
(taken  together)  of  the  Nearctic  Region  to  be  only  51 — a 
smaller  number  than  that  of  the  genera  of  Land-birds  aloBd 
(57)  which  are  common  to  the  Palasarctic,  and  considerably 
less  than  half  the  number  of  all  genera  which  are  found  on 
both  sides  of  the  iidantic  (128),  while  the  remaimng 
genera  which  are  strictly  common  to  the  Neotropical  (151) 
is  much  larger  again.  Thus,  regarded  simply  from  an  orni- 
thologist's point  of  view,  what  we  call  the  Nearctic  "Region" 
seems  to  have  no  right  to  be  considered  one  of  the  primary 
Regions  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  to  be  of  less  importance 
than  some  of  the  Subregions  of  the  Neotropical  Region,  as 
may  be  shewn  more  plainly  by  the  following  table : — 


BIRDS 


lb\ 


Whole  Ko. 

of  Centra  of 

Birda. 

PecoUar 
Genera  of 

Blrda 

Paugonian  Subregion 

290 
39a 
373 
469 
464 
140 
330 

46 
43 
27 
72 
46 
SO 
24 

Amazonian             ,,  ": 

Antillcan                «. 

It  is  not,  however,  intended  here  to  question  the  validity 
of  the  Nearctic  Region  in  a  zoogeographical  sense.  If  that 
position  could  be  successfully  disputed,  it  must  be  done  on 
more  than  ornithological  grounds,  and  a  consideration  of 
them  would  be  out  of  place  in  this  article.  It  is  enough 
to  mention  that  though  the  Mammals  would  possibly  lead 
to  much  the  same  conclusion  as  the  Birds  do,  yet  the  lower 
Classes  of  Vertebrates — Reptiles,  Amphibians,  and  Fishes 
— would  most  likely  have  a  contrary  tendency,  while  the 
present  writer  is  quite  unable  to  guess  at  the  result  which 
would  bo  afforded  by  the  Invertebrates.     Now,  as  in  map- 

'  Of  many  American  Bir<l.i,  especlallj  Water-birda,  which  from  time 
to  time  occur  as  stragglers  Id  Europe,  no  account  has  bars  been  takni, 
and,  of  course,  thcf  will  not  be  reckoned  in  out  compaUUoD  of  I'al;»- 
uolic  genera. 


ping  out  the  world  into  zoological  Regions  all  animals  have 
to  be  regarded,  be  has  no  wish  to  disturb  the  scheme  which 
has  been  so  generally  approved,  but  contents  himself  with 
pointing  out  that  the  case  for  its  adoption  is  not  in  this 
particular  instance  strengthened  by  the  evidence  given  by ' 
the  Class  Ava. 

A  great  majority  of  the  Nearctic  families  and  genera  of  Piviaion 
Birds  appear  to  be  generally  distributed  throughout  all  the  '"'"  ««- 
"  Subregions,"  or  perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  call  them  '"""  *"'' 

■  .1    ■  II-  L        T>         ■  i'TOVlUC»ia 

provinces,  into  which  ingenuity  can  separate  ttie  Kegion 
And  on  this  account,  as  well  as  from  what  has  been  urged 
in  the  preceding  paragraph,  it  seems  unnecessary  to  treat 
of  each  "  Subregion"  or  "province"  so  fully  as  has  hitherto 
been  done  in  the  present  article.  Indeed  such  districts 
are  not  easily  defined,  and  their  definition  rests  rather  on 
differences  of  species  than  of  higher  groups,  as  we  have 
found  to  be  the  ca^e  in  discussing  the  several  component 
parts  of  the  other  Regions  we  have  considered.  Professor 
Baird,  in  a  masterly  treatise  on  this  and  another  subject,' 
would  first  divide  that  portion  of  North  America  which 
constitutes  the  Nearctic  Region  into  tico  principal  sections, 
the  Eastern  extending  from  the  Atlantic  sea-board  west- 
ward, across  the  Alleghany  Mountains  and  over  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi  and  its  fertile  prairies  to  about  long. 
100°  W.,  where  the  sterile  plains  begin.'  The  western 
boundary  of  this  division,  however,  is  not  sharply  defined, 
nor  docs  it  coincide  with  any  meridian  line,  but  lies  some- 
what obliquely  and  interdigitates  with  the  eastern  confines 
of  the  next  division  by  extending  westward  along  the  river- 
bgttoms.  Marching  with  this  irregular  frontier  we  have 
the  second,  or  Western,  great  division  reaching  thence  to  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific,  and  though  the  character  of  its  avi- 
fauna is  much  the  same  through  and  beyond  tiie  Rocky 
Mountains  to  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
Cascade  Mountains  of  California  and  Oregon,  it  changes 
somewhat  on  their  western  slope  and  thence  to  the  sea, 
exhibiting  modifications  which  may  warrant  further  sepa- 
ration into  a  truly  Western  and  a  Central  subdivision — thus 
making  in  ^U  three  provinces  for  the  whole  of  the  more 
southern  part  .of  the  Nearctic  Region,  while  each  of  them 
shews,  as  might  be"  expected,  indications  of  additional 
change,  subject  In  great  measure  to  the  degree  of  latitude 
under  which  any  particular  locality  in  them  may  lie. 

Having  thus  pointed  out  the  three  provinces  into  whict 
this  portion  of  the  Region  can  be  separated,  it  may  be  well 
to  ciill  from  Professor  Baird's  investigations  of  the  subject 
some  further  details.     The  boundary  of  the  Eastern  pro-  Allet^ 
vince,  which,  taking  up  an  old  name,  we  may  perhaps  "'*"  PX' 
term  the  "  AUeghanian  " — from   the   principal   mountain  '""* 
range  within  its  limits, — starts  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,"' 
near  the  eastern   border  of  Texas,  perhaps  between  the 
rivers  Brazos  and  Sabine,  and  following  the  course  of  the 
former  to  the  great  American  Desert,  in  about  long.  100° 
W.,  runs  northward,  forced  sometimes  more  or  less  west- 
ward, especially  along  the  Platte,  and  sometimes  eastward. 
It  crosses  the  Platte  between  Forts  Kearney  and  Laramie, 
and  apparently  intersects  the  Missouri  about  Fort  Lookout 
Reaching  the  southern  frontier  of  the  Dominion  of  Canad.o, 
it  rapidly  inclines  to  the   westward,   and  including  the 
valleys  of  the  Saskatchewan  and  the  Athabasca,  it  crosses 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and,  cutting  the  rivfir  Yukon  belo\ 
the  junction  of  the  Pelly  and  the  Porcupine,  loses  itself  ii 
the  wilds  which  border   the   Arctic  Ocean.      Since  the 
Middle  province — on  which  as  yet  no  more  precise  name  Mirl.li» 
has  been  bestowed — lies  for  the  most  part  between  the  proviiMa 
Alleghanian  and  the  Western  or  "  Californian,"  as  it  has 
been  entitled,  the  boundaries  of  this  last  had  best,  so  fsr 


■"The  Distribution  and  Migrationsof  North  American  Birds,  ".^v»m'. 
can  Jounai  0/ Science  and  Arts,  set.  2.  toI.  ili.  po.  78-90,  18^19^ 
337-347  (January,  Manb,  and  May,  1866). 


752 


B  I  li  D  S 


[oiSTniEUTIOtt. 


03  13  possible,  be  given.  Its,  extent  both  southward  anJ 
Caiifornian  northward  is  somewhat  indefinite.  The  avifauna  of  Cape 
urovin'-e.  g^n  Lucas,  at  the  extremity  of  the  peflinsula  of  Old  or 
Lower  California,  is  said  to  be  thoroughly  that  of  the 
"  Middle "  province,  but  whether  the  whole  of  that  pro- 
montory is  to  be  reckoned  as  belonging  thereto,  or  only  its 
eastern  border,  is  not  known.  It  appears,  however,  that 
some  of  the  most  characteristic  forms  of  the  Middle  province 
find  their  way  to  the  Pacific  coast  through  a  break  in  the 
mountains  opposite  to  San  Diego,  and  it  is  to  be  remarked 
that  the  difference  between  the  species  of  birds  found  at 
Cape  San  Lucas  (of  which  about  a  score  are  absolutely 
peculiar)  and  of  Mazatlan,  though  separated  only  by  the 
breadth  of  the  Gulf  of  California,  is  very  great.  Northward 
the  boundary  of  the  Californian  province  probably  runs 
along  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Cascade  Mountains  before 
named,  so  that  its  extent  is  contracted  to  a  mere  strip 
along  the  coast,  while  stSl  further  to  the  north,  in  British 
Columbia,  no  precise  details  of  its  limits  have  as  yet  reached 
this  country.  But  it  would  seem  that  in  Alaska,  as  will 
presently  be  stated  at  greater  length,  an  avifauna  presenting 
many  very  different  characters  from  any  found  elsewhere  in 
America  is  reached,  for  here  we  encounter  a  number  of 
genuiue  Palasarctic  forms. 

But  these  are  not  all  the  zoological  provinces  into  which 
this  part  of  North  America  can  be  separated.  A.  fourth,  of 
especially  Arctic  type,  occupies  the  northern. portion  of  the 
continent,  and  gradually  melts  away  into  the  rest,  extend- 
ing far  to  the  southward  along  the  highest  ranges,  even  to 
Fort  Burgwyn,  in  lat.  37°  N.,  if  not  beyond.  This  province 
may  be  called  the  "  Canadian,"  from  the  ancient  colony  of 
that  name  constituting  so  large  a  portion  of  it,  but  its 
limits  must  be  confessed  to  be  indefinite  in  a  high  degree. 
The  eastern  half,  at  least,  of  the  British  possessions  in  North 
America  are  herein  included,  and  the  province  may  be 
deen»ed  to  extend  across  Davis's  Strait  to  Greenland. 

In  noticing  these  provinces,  the  results  of  Professor 
Baird's  researches  have  been,  with  little  deviation,  mainly 
adopted,  but  his  enquiries  have  been  largely  supplemented 
by  the  more  recent  investigations  of  Mr  J.  A.  Allen,  who 
has  admirably  carried  out  the  further  subdivision  of  the 
Eastern,  or,  as  it  has  been  termed,  the  Alleghauian  province, 
together  with  part  of  what  has  just  been  denominated  the 
'Canadian.  Regarding  the  whole  eastern  half  of  the  con- 
tinent as  one  province,  he  recognises  in  it  the  existence  of 
seven  distinct  ornithological  faunas,  namely,  the  Floridan,  the 
Louisianian,  the  Carolinan,  the  Alleghanian,  the  Canadian, 
the  Hudsonian,  and  the  American-Arctic,  comparing  them 
also  with  the  distribution  therein  of  Mammals  and  Reptiles.' 
To  describe  more  fully  the  boundaries  of  these  faunas 
would  be  to  enter  on  matters  too  special  for  our  present 
purpose,  and  it  must  suffice  "to  direct  attention  to  this 
essay  of  Mr  Allen's,  winch,  like  others  of  liis,^  though  their 
titles  may  seem  to  indicate  for  them  but  a  limited  scope, 
lias,  in  truth,  a  very  general  bearing. 

The  provinces  above  named  (and  naturally  the  districts 
which  they  comprise)  appear  to  be  characterized  rather  by 
lb*  presence  or  absence  of  certain  species  of  widely-spread 
genera  than  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  genera 
ibemselves,  and  much  less  of  families,  but  it  seems  expe- 
dient to  notice  some  of  \\f  chief  exceptions  to  general 
distribution  in  the  latter  of  ilii-.se  groups.  First  we  have 
the  peculiar  family  of  Chamitidct,  restricted  so  far  as  is 
l.nowii  to  the  coast-district  of  California,  where  it  is  rcpie- 
Bcnted  by  a  single  genus  and  a  single  species;  and  then 

'  liutUfin  0/  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zotjiogy  at  Jlarvard 
CoHeye,  vol.  li    pp.  337-107. 

•  Urmmri  o/  the  Boston  Society  o/  Natural  Uutory,  toI.  i.  pp. 
4«8  626.  iinil  /liUletin  oj  tht  Huteum  of  Comparativt  Zoology,  vol. 
■Ji  PP  113-183. 


among  families  of  greaitr  range,  the  Carehidce,  already 
introduced  to  us  as  a  Neotropical  group,  but  in  the  Nearctio 
Region  existing  only  in  the  case  of  the  colony  of  a  species 
of  CerMt'o/a  before  noticed;  the  .4 tiAe,  nowadays  sdmost 
limited  to  Western  Louisiania,  Arkansas,  and  Florida,  but 
formerly  known  along  the  whole  valley  of  the  Mississippi 
to  the  verge  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  even  occasionally 
penetrating  to  Pennsylvania  and  the  State  of  New  York  ; 
the  Catharlidas,  of  which  one,  genus  {Pseudogryphus), 
having  for  its  sole  species  one  of  the  largest  birds  of  liight, 
the  Californian  Vulture  (P.  calif ornianus),  is  confined  to 
the  Pacific  coast  from  a  little  north  of  the  Columbia  River 
to  the  Colorado,  extending  eastward  to  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
while  of  another  genus  {CatkarCes)  one  species  ranges  from 
the  Strait  of  Magellan  to  the  Saskatchewan,  but  a  second 
hardly  strays  further  northward  than  North  Carolina,  and 
does  not  occur  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States ; 
the  Turkeys  (Meleagridce),  found  only  to  the  ea.itward  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  now  extinct  in  most  of  the 
settled  districts  of  Pennsylvania,  New  England,  and  Canada; 
the  Wood-Ibises  (Taiitalidce),  beloi.ging  to  the  southern 
country  from  the  Colorado  eastward,  and  so  far  to  the 
north  as  the  State  of  Ohio  and  the  Carolinas;  the  Spoonbills 
(PlataUidce),  with  apj  arently  much  the  same  range  as  the 
last,  but  more  limited  towards  the  north,  being  of  only 
accidental  occurrence  on  the  Lower  Mississippi  and  in  the 
Carolinas;  the  Courlans  (.,4 ramirfce),  frequenting  19  this 
region  only  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  coast 
of  Florida  ;  the  Flamingoes  (Phamicojileridce),  with  haunts 
nearly  as  much  confined,  though  occasionally  reaching 
South  Carolina ;  the-  Pelicans  {Petecanidiv),  having  one 
species  abundant  in  the  Western  and  only  by  chance 
occurring  in  the  Middle  and  Eastern  states,  while  a  second 
is  of  strictly  marine  habit,  and  is  found  on  the  coast  of 
California,  and  in  the  O'llf  of  Mexico  and  the  shoals  of 
Florida.  The  single  rc;,'i  «ti;tative  of  the  Darters  {Plolidie) 
in  summer  reaches  North  Carolina  and  Illinois,  but  that 
of  the  Frigate-bird^  {Fvfgatidce)  is  confined  to  the  shores  of 
the  great  Gulf,  while  that  of  the  Tropic-birds  (Phaeton! idic) 
not  only  haunts  the  same  waters  but  also  finds  a  nursery 
in  the  Bermudas  ;  the  species  of  Divers  (Colymbidce)  breed 
only  in  the  north — Halifax,  in  lat.  45°  N.,  being  perhaps 
their  most  southern  limit  of  reproduction;  while,  finally, 
the  Auks  (Alcidue),  Sea-birds  of  northern  range,  exhibit 
a  most  remarkable  development  of  genera,  species,  and 
individuals  on  the  rocky  clifi^s  and  islets  which  rise  from 
the  North  Pacific. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  peculiarity  of  Al»-i<« 
the  avifauna  of  Alaska — Russian  America,  as  it  was  for- 
merly called, — and  its  character  needs  brief  notice.  The 
list  of  Birds  observed  in  this  territory,  as  given  by  Messrs 
Dall  and  Bannister,^  seems  after  due  revision  to  number 
210  species.  Of  these  96  are  Land-birds,  belonging  ti^G3 
genera,  whereof  20  at  the  outside  are  peculiarly  American, 
while  of  the  remaining  43,  which  are  common  to  the 
Nearctic  and  Palsearctic  Regions,  3  are  found  nowhere  else 
in  the  New  World  but  in  Alaska,  and  their  occurrence 
there  docs  not  preclude  us  from  setting  them  down  as  being 
emphatically  Palxarctic  forms.  Two  of  them  are  actually 
represented  by  species  common  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  Asia  and  Europe,  as  is  the  case  with  Budytcs  flavaa,  a 
Yellow  Wagtail,  and  Phylloscopus  borealis.a  Willow-Wren, 
while  the  third  is  a  peculiar  species  of  Bullfinch,  Pyrrhula 
casstni.  Of  the  whole  9C  species  of  Land-birds,  23,  or 
nearly  one-fourth,  are  common  to  the  two  Regions.  The 
Water-birds,  amounting  to  115  species,  are  referable  to  63 
genera,  of  which  only  i  (all  belonging  to  Scolopaeidif)  are 


310. 


'  7''';:iiM<(ii>ii<  of  tin  Chicago  Aeadmy  of  Seicncts,  vol.  L  pp.  267- 


NtAtlCTIC    REGION.] 


B  I  11  D  S 


io3 


peculiarly  Noarciic,  ihoiigh  of  the  species  53  are  truly 
Aiiiuricau  aganisl  53  cuiiinion  to  bnth  KcgiODS,  one  of  these 
Inst,  howoviT,  not  Lavmg  been  found  elsewhere  in  the  New 
World,  wbilo  the  home  of  5  seems  doubtful.  Tbeso 
nuinbt-rs  will  show  the  great  iiillucnce  of  Falajarctic  forms 
on  Alaska,  and  it  only  remains  to  be  said  that  some  of  the 
oiJinary  summer-migrants  thither  would  seem  to  arrive 
there  from  Asia,  as  the  Wagtail  and  WiUow-WrCD  just 
iiM-ntioned,  to  which  should  possibly  be  added  the  Wheatear 
{Sixicula  iinaiil/ie),  for  though  that  species  is  known  as  a 
regular  annual  visitant  to  Greenland  and  Labrador  (where 
it  breeds),  and  almost  annually  app'nirs  as  a  straggler  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States,  the  Bocks  which 
throng  the  stony  hill  tops  of  Alaska  in  spring  arc  not  likely 
to  have  performed  a  north-west  passage  from  Europe,  and 
indeed  it  is  stated  that  specimens  from  Norton  Sound  differ 
considerably  in  dimensions  from  those  obtained  in  Green- 
land, All  these  Birds  arc  unseen  in  British  Columbia, 
and  as  all  are  migratory,  the  inference  that  they  make  some 
part  of  Asia  their  winter-quarters  is  almost  irresistible. 

After  all,  perha|>s  there  is  nothing  very  surprising  in  this, 

when  we  consider  the  narrowness  of  the  ohannel'  by  which 

in  these  longitudes  the  New  World  is  divided  from  the  Old, 

and  it  would  seem  that  it  is  almost  within  the  confines  of 

the  Arctic  circle  that,  apart  from  circumpolar  species,  the 

connection  of  the  faunas  of  the  two  continents  is  closest. 

Aleiilian     At  any  rate,  the  Aleutian   Islands,  though  they  look  like 

u.i.l  Pry-     steppingstcvics  from  the  one  to  the  other,  do  not  appeal 

Ubwlt      *"  ^®  "^'^'^  ''^  ■''  """"'^  °f  communication  ;  for  Mr  Dall  calls 

especial  attention  to  the  fact  that  no  intrusit-n  of  Asiatic 

forms  occurs  towards  the  western  end  of  the  chain,  while 

observing  that  its  avifauna  beyond  Oonalaska  is  reinforced 

by  several  Arctic  species  not  possessed  by  more  eastern 

islands.' 

Northward  of  tlio  Aleutians  lies  a  little  volcanic  group 
known  as  the  I'rybilov  Islands,  whose  coasts  are  frequently 
encumbered  by  ice,  and  there  only  40  species  of 
liirds  have  as  yet  been  found,  while  those  which  breed  are 
ttbi>'it  12  ill  number,  and  among  them  a  Sandpiper  {Trivrja 
ptilocncmis),  apparently  peculiar  to  St  Paul's  Island,  the 
largest  of  the  group.  Only  one  of  the  characteristically 
ralu;arctic  forms,  and  this  also  a  Water-bird  (Liynosa 
uropi/ytalis),  which  appear  but  in  Alaska,  seems  there  to 
occur — a  fact  which  points  yet  again  to  the  more  northern 
connection  of  the  two  continents  by  way  of  Cape  Prince-of- 
Wales  and  the  East  Cape  (V'ostochni)  of  Asia. 
C-niu.lav  We  have  next  to  turn  to  another  group  of  islands, 
situated  in  a  different  ocean,  and  in  formation  very  unlike 
that  last  considered.  These  are  the  Bermudas,  a  cluster  of 
low  coral-reefs  rising  from  the  Atlantic,  about  COO  miles 
from  Cape  Ilatteras,  the  nearest  point  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  North  America.  They  possess  but  few  Land-birds,  and 
not  a  single  peculiar  species,  yet  they  play  by  no  means 
an  unimportant  pari  as  a  rcsting-slation  to  the  flocks  of 
niigrants  as  they  retreat  southward  from  their  northern 
lionies  in  Labrador  and  Greeidand,  and,  though  less  often, 
«n  their  northward  journey  in  spring.  Only  about  6  Land- 
birds  are  resident,  and  about  as  many  Water-birds  are 
known  to  breed  there;  but  the  number  of  stragglers  is 
l.irge,  and  includes  two  or  three  of  undoubtedly  European 
extraction. 
CrocnIamI  Greenland  is  the  last  portion  of  the  Nearctic  Region  to 
which  we  shall  especially  invite  attention,  and  there  though 
the  character  of  the  avifauna  is  certainly  that  of  the  New 
Worl4  yet  that  of  the  Old  is  very  influential.  Out  of  the 
45  genera  to  which  the  feathered  inhabitants  of  Greenland 

'  Dcbring'j  Strait  \s  s.nij  .ilso  to  1)0  very  simllow,  which  fact  la  sug- 
C?*tlvo  M  to  a  still  greater  inlcrcbanso  of  animal  lifu  io  past  ages. 

'  PwcetUingt  of  the  Cul\f<ymian  Academy  of  Sciaicu,  14lb  March 
187<, 


bo'ong,  none  arc  peculiar  w  the  Pal.carctic  Region,  while  2t- 
Zoiwtiicliia,  one  of  the  I'^mieimjix,  and  Rhodosullaa,  o:ieof 
the  l.aridae — are  peculiar  to  the  Nearctic.  If  we  take  the 
species,  we  find  that  of  the  63  inhabitants,  those  peculiar 
to  the  New  World  amount  to  1 1,  while  those  not  elsewhere 
dwelling  out  of  the  Old  are  only  5.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Sea-Eagle  (//aliaelus),  the  Ringed  Plover  (.^fyiVi- 
lilif),  and  the  Snipe  (Scolopax)  which  breed  in  Greenland 
are  those  of  Europe  instead  of  their  American  congeners; 
and  the  Wheatear  (Saxicola),  the  Sanderling  {Calidiis),  tho 
Knot  {Tringa  canulus),  and  the  Bernacle  Goose  I^Bernidn 
leucopsis)  would  appear  to  cross  the  Atlantic  from  the 
e.ist,  while  43  out  of  the  03  inhabitant  species  are  every 
bit  as  much  Pahcarctic  as  Nearctic ;  and  2  more,  the  Ptar-' 
migan  {Lar/opus  ritpeslnj)  and  Barrow's  Uuck  (Clangula 
idandka)  breed  abundantly  in  Iceland.  Following  the, 
western  coast-line  (for  of  the  eastern  we  know  little)  to  the 
Arctic  circle,^  we  find  the  proportion  of  forms  which  are 
common  to  the  Pahcarctic  Region  increase,  until  in  lat,_75° 
N.  or  thereabouts,  there  are  (so  far  as  our  means  of  infor. 
mation  will  allow  us  to  judge)  no  species  of  Birds  which 
have  not  been  known  to  occur,  and  only  about  5  which 
have  not  been  known  to  breed,  in  the  Old  World. 

It  has  been  already  staled  that  128  out  of  the  330 
Nearctic  genera,  or  more  than  one-third,  are  common  also 
to  the  Palaearctic  Region.  This  will  serve  to  shew  the  great 
similarity  of  the  two  ;  and  if  we  investigate  the  species, 
the  similarity  is  still  to  a  great  extent  borne  out.  Taking 
the  number  of  Nearctic  species  at  700  (which  is  perhaps 
an  exaggeration),  and  that  of  the  Palaearctic  at  850  (which 
is  certainly  under  the  mark),  we  find  that,  exclusive  of 
stragglers,  there  are  about  100  common  to  the  two  Regions. 
Nearly  20  more  are  Paliearctic  but  occasionally  o'ccur  in 
America,  and  about  50  are  Nearctic  which  from  time  to 
time  stray  to  Europe  or  Asia.*  But  this  is  not  the  only 
ground  of  the  resemblance.  Of  many  genera  the  species 
found  in  the  New  World  are  represented  in  the  Old  by 
species  which  often  no  one  but  an  expert  can  distinguisli. 
Of  such  representative  or  parallel  species,  somewhere  about 
80  might  be  enumerated ;  and  thus  the  relation  of  the  two 
regions  may  be  concisely  stated  : — 

Species  inhabiting  the  )  A    ,700.  Species  innabik'nRthe  j  (,    .gjo, 
Nearctic  Region....  |  ^    ■"  ralxarctic  Uegion..  (  *    ■" 

Species  of  one  Ke-  ] 
gion  represented  by  { 
closely  allied  forms  j 
iu  the  other 

Pula;arctic  species  oc- 
casionally found  in  1 
the  Nearctic  Ilegion  ; 

IV.  TiJE  Palsarctic  Region  begins  with  the  Atlantic  Pal.s- 
Islands  (the  Azores,  Canaries,  and  Madeiras)  and  includes  akctic 
that  portion   of    North-west  Africa  which  was   formerly  ""^"'oi*- 
known  as  the  Barbary  States,  the  whole  of  Europe  and  its  BonnJ 
islands — from    Iceland  and  Spitsbergen    to  those  of  the  arjea 
Mediterranean — Asia  Minor,  Palestine,  Persia,  Afghanistan, 
and  all  the  rest  of  the  Asiatic  continent  lying  to  the  north 
ward   of  tho  Himalaya  Mountains  and   of  a  line  drawn 
as  though  it  was  a  prolongation  of  that  range  to  the  cast- 

'  People  arc  apt  to  forget  that  Capo  Farewell,  llic  most  southerly 
point  of  Grecnljfnd,  lies  iu  the  lalitmlc  which  cut*  the  Shetlaruls  aiid 
passes  far  to  tho  80ulh  of  Icclaml  ;  and  a  largo  portion  of  the 
country  though  undoubtcilly  exposed  in  the  highest  ilegrco  to  tli> 
rigours  of  an  Arctic  climate,  is  situated  outside  the  Arctic  cirela. 

*  Professor  Baird,  Id  the  essay  before  cite*!,  has  reasonably  accounted 
for  this  disproportionate  reciprocity  between  Europe  and  America; 
but  perhaps  something  more  tiian  he  has  allowed  must  be  ect  down  Ic 
tho  comparative  want  of  records  in  the  new  country,  where  observcn 
and  amateur  collectors  have  until  lately  been  scarce.  This  want  ia, 
however,  being  speedily  supplietl  by  the  numerous  studenli  of  out-of- 
doors  ornithology,  who  ape  everywhere  SDrlnfiing  UD  t>"v>..r.>,Qut  th* 
United  State*. 


w)8o.  ^'^i^?R~:.;:'(w,.oo. 


>  (say)  20. 


Ncarciic  species  occa- 
sionallyfoundinthe  >  (say)  50. 
Talaiarctio  Itogion.. 


754 


BIRDS 


[distkibutios. 


ward  somewhere  between  lat.  30"  and  35°  N.  till  it  meeta 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  besides  Japan  and  the  Kurile  Islands. 
The  propriety  of  comprehending  this  enormous  tract  in 
one  Zoological  Region  was  first  shown  by  Mr  Sclater,  in 
the  paper  to  which  reference  has  before  been  made,'  and 
as  regards  the  distribution  of  most  classes  of  animals  there 
have  been  few  to  doubt  that  it  is  an  extremely  natural  one. 
Homo-  ^  Not  indeed  altogether  so  homogeneous  as  the  Nearctic 
jpiieity  at  Region,  it  presents  however  even  at  its  extreme  points  no 
lU  faunx  yg^y  striding  difference  between  the  bulk  of  its  Birds. 
Though  Japan  is  far  removed  from  Western  Europe,  and 
though  a  few  generic  forms  and  still  fewer  families  inhabit 
the  one  without  also  frequenting  the  other,  yet  there  is  a 
most  astonishing  similarity  in  a  large  portion  of  their 
respective  Birds.  In  some  cases  the  closest,  examination 
has  failed  to  detect  any  distinction  that  may  be  called 
specific  between  the  members  of  their  avifauna;  but  in 
most  it  is  possible  to  discover  just  sufficient  difference  to 
warrant  a  separation  of  the  subjects.  Nevertheless  it  is 
clear  that  in  Japan  we  have  as  it  were  a  repetition  of  some 
of  our  most  familiar  species — the  Redbreast  and  the  Hedge- 
Sparrow  for  example — slightly  modified  in  plumage  or 
otherwise  so  as  to  furnish  instances  of  the  most  accurate 
representation. 
In  limiti)  The  limits  of  the  western  portion  of  the  Region  are 
generally  definite  enough,  for  except  in  its  African  province  it  is 
Jefiuite.  gjrt  jjy  [fjg  ggg^  j)y(,  g^.gij  there  we  find  a  boundary  hardly 
inferior  to  a  coast-line  in  the  precision  with  which  it  may 
be  recognized  and  in  the  influence  it  exerts.  This  is  the 
Great  Desert,  commonly  known  as  the  Sahara,  which, 
though  yearly  crossed  by  innumerable  multitudes  of  many 
of  the  more  migratory  species,  just  as  the  sea  itself  is 
traversed  by  them,  acts  as  a  complete  barrier  to  the  less 
migratory  and  to  the  residents,  cuttiug  off  the  denizens  of 
Morocco,  Algeria,  and  Tunis  from  the  rest  of  the  continent 
to  which  they  are  geographically  attached.  Further  to  the 
eastward,  however,  the  limits  of  the  Region  are  if  in  any 
way  marked  at  least  but  little  known,  though  indications 
are  not  wanting  to  show  that  the  avifauna  of  Tripoli  is 
rather  Ethiopian  than  Palaearctic  in  its  character.  When 
we  reach  Egypt  we  have  a  state  of  things  which  may  be 
compared  to  that  debatable  land  in  Central  America 
wherein  the  Neotropical  and  Nearctic  avifaunas  meet  but 
hardly  mingle  During  winter  the  bird-population  of  the 
Ndevalley  is  Jormed  almost  exclusively  of  the  hordes  of 
Euiopetn  migrants  of  nearly  all  Orders  and  families  which 
there  seek  refuge.  When  spring  returns  these  begiu  to 
troop  across  the  Mediterranean,  and  their  place  is  taken 
by  the  indigenous  Birds  of  Egypt  which  had  been  either 
reduced  to  comparative  insignificince  by,  or  actually  thrust 
out  before,  the  northern  invaders.  The  seaboard  of 
Palestine,  and  oven  its  interior,  until  the  western  limits  of 
the  Jordan-basin  are  touched,  are  on  the  contrary  almost 
purely  Palaearctic,  but  the  depressed  valley  of  the  Ghor, 
part  of  which  is  sunk  about  1  30U  feet  below  the  level  of 
the  Medierranean,  seems  to  be  an  outlier  of  the  Ethiopian 
Region,  and  though  the  scanty  avifauna  of  the  Mountains 
of  Moab  may  possess  a  northern  phase,  the  desert,  with  its 
characteristic,  and  in  the  main  Ethiopian,  forms  of  animal- 
life  almost  immediately  succeeds,  and  it  is  not  until  the 
fertile  plains  of  Mesopotamia  arc  approached  or  attained 
that  wo  can  feel  assured  we  have  again  entered  the  Paloe- 
arctic  area,  which  may  be  considered  to  reach  the  head 
of  tte  Persian  Gulf.  Coasting  this  inlet  on  its  eastern  side 
wo  have  a  fauna  the  character  of  which  it  is  as  yet  impos.5ible 
to  declare,  and  this  difficulty  becomes  greater  still  when  we 
emerge  into  the  Indian  Ocean.     It  seems  most  probable 


journal  0/  the   Proceedings   0/  t)u  Liniuan   Socielu,    ZoolofAi. 


th  it  Beloochistan  belongs  to  the  PalKartic  Region,  but  if 
not  then  the  line  of  demarcation  must  run  inland  and  so 
continue  between  that  land  and  Afghanistan  till,  ascend- 
ing the  right  bank  of  the  valley  of  the  Indus,  it  turns  the 
shoulder  of  the  Great  Snowy  Range  and  thence  proceeds 
in  the  direction  already  traced  parallel  to  the  southern 
frontier  of  Thibet,  and  across  the  intervening  portion  of 
the  Chinese  Ejnpire,  once  more  to  the  ocean.  Arrived 
here  the  remaining  limits  of  the  Region  are  as  well  marked 
by  the  coast-line  as  they  were  in  Europe.  They  extend  to 
Kamchatka,  and  rounding  the  furthest  verge  of  Asia, 
within  the  Arctic  Circle,  they  return  by  the  north  coast  of 
Siberia  till  the  confines  of  Europe  are  again  reached.- 

To  separate  this  vast  area  into  subsidiary  districts  SuMi-4  v 
according  to  the  zoological  properties  of  each  is  perhaps  a  6io"s 
less  easy  task  than  is  the  same  operation  with  regard  to 
the  Nearctic  Region,  and,  as  in  that  case,  the  mapping-out 
of  the  whole  into  Subregions  is  almost  impossible  except  it 
be  done  arbitrarily.  Nevertheless  the  attempt  must  be 
made,  and,  though  in  the  Asiatic  half  considerable  assist- 
ance is  to  be  derived  from  a  careful  essay  by  Mr  Elwes,' 
respecting  the  European  moiety  much  doubt  may  ba 
reasonably  entertained. 

The  very  fulness  of  the  information  which  we  possess  as 
to  the  ornis  of  some  countries  of  Europe  makes  the  scarcity 
of  it  in  respect  to  others  all  the  more  conspicuous,  and 
renders  any  really  comprehensive  view  of  the  whole  all  the 
more  difficult  Grounds  are  not  wanting  at  first  sight  in 
favour  of  a  longitudinal  or  approxim.itely  longitudinal 
division  of  this  quarter  of  the  globe,  in  which  case  the  line 
of  demarcation  might  be  taken  to  run  up  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
and  starting  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Trieste,  to  cross 
the  Carnic  Alps,  descend  the  valley  of  the  Inn  till  it 
falls  into  the  Danube,  and  thence  follow  the  angular 
mountain  frontier  of  Bohemia  as  far  as  the  headwaters  ot 
the  Niesse,  along  which  it  would  proceed  to  their  junction 
with  the  Oder,  and  so  to  the  Baltic  a  little  to  the  westward 
of  Stettin.  Thence  it  might  be  continued  northward  be- 
tween ffiland  and  Gotllacd  up  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  to  the 
confines  of  Sweden  and  Finland,  where  cutting  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula  to  the  westward  of  the  Lower 
Tornca  and  its  affluent  the  Muonio  it  would  strike  the 
shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  perhaps  on  the  Lyngen  Fjord. 
Though  undoubtedly  most  species  of  Birds  are  common  to 
both  sides  of  this  imaginary  line,  yet  it  would  bo  found  to 
divide  the  breeding-range  of  a  few  which  are  very  character- 
istic of  the  east  and  west  of  Europe  respectively.  But  on 
further  consideration  it  would  seem  that  though  such  a 
division  as  has  just  been  suggested  may  be  convenient  if 
nut  natural  for  the  countries  lying  north  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean basin,  those,  such  as  the  three  principal  peninsulas 
which  project  into  the  great  inland  sea,  together  with  the 
portion  of  North  Africa  which  was  at  one  time  known  as 
Mauritania,  form  a  group  which  have  much  in  common, 
and  collectively  diller  more  from  the  countries  lying 
further  to  the  north  than  the  two  (Eastern  and  Western) 
divisions  of  Central  and  Norlhtrn  Europe,  just  suggested, 
do  from  one  another  Accordingly  it  seems  best  to  adopt 
primarily  a  latitudinal  division  of  the  Western  part  of  the 
PalKarctic  Region.  This  done  wo  should  have  aa  our  first  Limits  nf 
Subregion  all  Europe  north  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  the  SiiUregi.>iu 
Balkan,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Caucasus,  and  since  it 
would  thus  comprehend  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  this 
quarter  of  the  globe,  wo  may  not  inappropriately  call  it 
the  "  European  "  Subregion,  further  subdividing  it  if  wo 
think  fit  into  a  Western  and  an  Eastern  Province,  accord- 
ing to  the  boundary  above  traced — the  eastern  boundary 
of  the  last  being  indeed  very  uncertain,  though  perhaps  to 


'  Pructeilinjii  qf  tht  Zoological  Society,  1873,  n  <1S. 


r*i,/E*r,cTic  r.EcioN.] 


BIRDS 


755 


Iv  limiled  by  the  Ural  Muuntaina  and  the  River  of  the 
same  name.  Next  «e  should  have  the  Subrugion  to  which 
we  aiay  most  pro|ierly  affix  the  name  of  "  Mediterranean," 
comprchcndini;  the  portion  of  North  Africa  already  indi- 
cated, the  Iberian  aud  Italian  peninsulas,  as  well  as  Turkey 
in  Europe  and  the  Peloponnesus,  but  we  must  extend  it 
far  to  the  eastward  through  Asia  Minor  and  Persia  until  it 
touches  the  Indian  Region.  The  lofty  range  of  the  I'lancasus 
would  divide  it  from  the  European  Subregion  between  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian ;  beyond  the  latter,  however,  we 
cannot  do  more  than  guess  that  the  desert  of  the  Tekko 
Turcomans  and  the  mountains  of  Cabool  would  form  its 
northern  boundary.  Then  stretching  from  the  eastern 
(.hores  of  the  Caspian  in  a  wide  belt,  but  how  wide  is  a 
loalter  of  the  greatest  uncertainty,  comes  the  third  Sub- 
legion,  which  we  may  call  the  "  Mongolian  " — marching 
with  the  Mediterranean  Subregion  till  the  Hindoo  Koosh 
is  reached,  aud  thence  coincident  with  the  southern  borders 
of  the  Region  towards  the  Yellow  Sea— possibly  following 
the  course  of  the  Yangstzekiang.  To  this  Subregion  also 
would  belong  the  greater  part  if  not  the  whole  of  Japan. 
Northward  again  we  have  the  great  "Siberian"  Subregion, 
but  niateriab  for  any  attempt  to  shew  whether  its  southern 
boundary  is  capable  of  being  laid  down  are  absolutely  want- 
ing. Even  on  the  seaboard  it  is  at  present  impossible  to 
«ay  whether  it  is  in  Manchuria  that  one  Subregion  passes 
into  the  other,  or  whether  first  the  Stanuovoi  and  further 
inland  the  Altai  Mountains  mark  their  respective  limits. 
Ofnem  Having  thus  indicated  the  component  parts  of  the  whole 

chiiii.:U>r-    area,  it  is  time  to  say  somewhat  of  its  avifaunal  characters. 
i5lic».  Like  the  Nearctic  the  Pala:arctic  Region  seems  to  producebut 

a  single  peculiar  family  of  Birds — the  I'anuridce,  the  type 
of  which  is  the  beautiful  species  known  to  Englishmen  as 
the  Bearded  Titmouse  (Panurus  biarmicus) — and  this  is  a 
family  which  has  not  been  long  or  very  generally  recog- 
nized. Its  members,  however,  are  found  stationed  at 
intervals  from  the  western  to  the  eastern  extremity,  and 
every  attempt  to  refer  them  to  other  grou])s  of  Birds  has 
proved  unsatisfactory — for  the  different  genera  (about  the 
number  of  which  tliere  is  much  doubt)  have  often  been 
widely  scattered  by  syslcmatisl.t,  one  being  placed  at  times 
with  the  Titmouse-family  (I'aridce),  at  times  with  the 
Buutings  (Embrriiidtie),  another  relegated  to  the  Finches 
(Fringtltidir),  and  a  third  or  even  more  to  the  so-called 
"  Babblers  "  ( TimdiiJae).  The  entire  number  of  Palcearctic 
families,  computiug  thein  as  we  have  already  done  those  of 
other  Regions,  is  about  G7,  not  counting  1  other  (Nectar 
iniiJce)  of  which  a  single  spocics  is  [jcculiar  to  the  valley 
of  the  Ghor,  and  that  of  the  genera  S23,  about  which 
there  can  be  little  doubt,  or  if  any  exist  it  may  be  that  the 
number  is  understated  Of  these  as  we  have  above  men- 
RtViticiDa  tloned  128  are  common  to  the  Nearctic  Region.  Species 
lo  oihi:r  of  51  more  seem  to  occur  as  true  natives  both  in  the 
regions.  Kihiopian  and  Indian  Regions,  of  which  4  genera  belong 
to  Sylviidoe,  I  each  to  Timdiidce,  Izidcc,  and  Oriolidce,  2 
to  ifuscicapidiF,  1  to  Laniidce,  2  to  MolaciUidae,  I  to 
Diweuloe,  2  to  fiingillidcc,  1  to  Emherizida:,  3  to  Alau- 
didir,  I  to  Cuculid<r,  2  to  Coraciidtf,  I  to  Meropidce, 
Upupidce,  C<ii'riniulgid(F,  and  Cypsclida:  respectively,  4  to 
Vvlturulte,  0  to  I'akonidce,  1  to  each  of  Stngidcr,  Coliim- 
bidir,  and  I'loocU-idce,  3  to   Tetraonidcc,  1   to  Tvrniculce, 

2  to  (Hididce  and  CharadriidiT,  and  1  to  each  of  Glare- 
olidce,  CuraoriidiT,  Larida,  and  Anatidce.  Besides  these 
18  appear  to  be  common  to  the  Ethiopian  without  being 
found  in  the  Indian  Region,  and  no  fewer  than  71  to  the 
Indian  without  being  found  in  the  Ethiopian.  Of  the 
former  1  is  referable  to  Turduhr,  3  to  Sylviidw,  I  to  each 
of  TimeliidT,  M\tsnrapidir.  I.nniidir,  and  Muiacillida,  3 
to  FringiltidiT,  1  to  Embemtdie  and  Surnij/fp  respectively, 

3  to  i^'rti/'/iJiT,  and   1    **^  r.iih  of   C/uitf(T.'md  Cn'miiid"* 


Of  the  latter,  2  genera  belong  to  Turdidn,  1 7  to  Sylviida, 
4  to  Timeliidce,  1  to  each  of  Trogtoilytidir  and  Certhiidcc, 
3  to  Liotrichidce,  I  to  Paridce  and  Ixidce  respectively,  4  tt 
Muscicapidw,  1  to  each  of  MUacUlidcc  and  Hirundinidw, 
3  to  Fringiitidae,  4  to  SturiMue,  3  to  Corvidao,  1  to 
PilCidct,  2  to Picidce,  I  ioJ>/ngid(e  and  Cnattidce  respectively, 
2  to  Alc(dinul(e,  1  to,  K»(iuiuf(r,  S  to  Stn'gidw,  2  to  each 
of  ColumbidoE  and  7'etraoiiidcF,  5  to  Phaaianida,  1  lo 
Otidid<T,  3  to  ScolopacidiT,  and  1  to  Anatidce.  To  compare 
the  Palaiarctic  genera  with  those  of  the  Australian  and 
Neotropical  Regions  would  be  simply  a  waste  of  time,  fur 
the  points  of  resemblance  are  extremely  few,  and  such 
as  they  .are  they  lead  to  nothing.  It  will  therefore  be  secu 
from  the  above  that  next  to  the  Nearctic  Region,  the 
Pala;arctic  has  a  much  greater  afVinity  to  the  Indian  than 
to  any  other,  a  fact  which  need  not  surprise  us  when  wo 
consider  the  great  extent  of  their  contact. 

Having  shewn  this  much  wo  have  next  to  deal  with  the 
peculiarities  of  the  Region  under  our  view.  At  the  lowesy 
computation  37  genera  seem  to  be  peculiar  to  it,  though  it 
is  certain  that  species  of  several  are  regularly  wont  to 
wander  beyond  its  limits  in  winter  seeking  a  southern 
climate  there  to  avoid  the  distress  they  would  suffer  in 
that  of  their  birth.  Of  these  genera  3  are  to  be  apportioned 
to  the  Warblers,  Sylaiidae ;  probably  2  to  the  Babblers, 
TiineliUtce  ;  at  least  3  or  perhaps  4  to  the  Panurida: ;  1 
to  each  of  Paridte  and  Ixidce ;  2  to  the  Flycatchers, 
Muscicapidce ;  6  to  the  Finches,  Fringillidce ;  1  to  the 
Buntings,  Emberindce,  Starlings,  Sturnidcc,  Crows,  Cor- 
vidce,  Woodpeckers,  Picidce,  and  the  Sand-Grouse,  Ptcro- 
cleidcc,  respectively ;  2  to  each  of  the  Grouse,  Tetraonidce, 
and  Pheasants,  Phasianidae ;  1  to  the  Ducks,  Anatidce, 
and  Cranes,  Gruidoe,  respectively  ;  2  to  the  Plovers,  Chara- 
driiihe ,  and  5 '  to  the  Snipes,  Scolopacidce. 

The  European  Subregion  does  not  seem  to  possess  a  Euiopoat, 
single  genus  which  can  be  accounted  absolutely  peculiar  to  Subrrgioii^ 
it,  but  it  has  two  genera,  each  containing  but  one  species 
— Mergulus,  one  of  the  Alcidce,  and  Pagophila,  belonging  to 
the  Laridce — which  do  not  appearto  be  elsewhere  found  in 
the  Palxarctic  Region  though  both  inhabit  the  mo.<.t 
northern  parts  of  the  Necrotic.  Muscicapa  as  now  restricted' 
almost  fulfils  the  conditions  of  peculiarity,  but  one  species 
has  been  said  to  breed,  though  in  small  numbers,  in 
Palestine. 

The  Mediterranean  Subregion  apjiears  to  have  peculiar  Mc!iirr- 
to  it  4  genera  of  Sylviidce,  and  I  of  Laridce ,  but  some  ?3  rancan 
more  belong  to  it  and  to  no  other  part  of  the  Region,  though  SuWefi'.tv 
having  a  wider  range  outside  of  the  latter.  Of  thcw;  there 
are  8  common  lo  both  the  Ethiopian  and  Indian  Regions, 
namely,  1  of  Vuituridcc,  3  of  Fulccmidcc,  and  1  of 
Tctracmidir,  Anatidce,  GlareoliJa?,  and  Cursoriidce  respec- 
tively. Confined  to  the  same  Subregion  and  the  Ethiopian 
Region  are  11,  to  wit,  I  of  Turdidce,  1  of  Sylviidce,  1  of 
Timetiidce,  1  of  Laniidce,  2  of  Fringillidce,  I  of  Ernba-izidoe, 
1  of  Slumidce,  1  of  Alaiididce,  1  of  Vulturidce,  and  1  of 
Charadriidce  ;  while  having  the  like  relation  to  the  Indian 
Region  are  2 — 1  belonging  to  Cuculidce  and  I  to  OtidiJie. 
Of  the  family  last  named  another  genus  (Evpodotis),  which 
only  just  makes  its  appearance  in  Morocco,  ranges  over 
Africa,  India,  and  Australia  ;  and  a  genua  of  Anatidte 
(Erismatvra)  is  represented  in  America  and  Australia  as 
well  as  in  Africa 

The  Atlantic  Islands,  which  must  be  regarded  as  outliers 

' — n 

>  One  of  these  lasl  has  for  ft  wondcT  received  no  nAmc  from  system- 
fltisls,  bul  JU  generic  jcparollon  seems  on  several  ground*  eipcilicnt 
It  is  thai  which  would  bavo  for  lUi  typo  the  Trinffd  plalyrhynchi  o( 
Trmminck. 

'  That  is  excluding  Bulalis,  Erylhroattma.  and  nlhef  kindred  (TTO-j'  *, 
as  well  ht  the  purely  Ethiopian  fornix  which  hiTO  been  by  Bou-t 
»Vstrmiti*.t8  aUachftil  In  Afuxricooa  Druitr. 


.756 


BIRDS 


[DI8TEIB0TIO^f. 


Peculij., 
tiei*  nf 
.■^tlando 
i--l'ind3. 


ilongoliaji 
Sii  oregion. 


Siberian 
Suhregion. 


Special 

Zii^cs  of 

'JiH*_ribu- 
tion. 


of  the  Mediterraneaa  Subregion,  offer  some  peculiarities 
too  remarkable  to  be  here  left  nnnoticed.  First  we  have 
the  Azores,  the  subject  of  an  excellent  monograph  by  Mr 
Fredenck  Qodman,'  in  which  is  contained  the  result  of  his 
own  mvestigations  in  that  group,  as  well  as  those  of  his 
predecessors.  There  I3  a  general  tendency  among  Azorean 
Birds  to  vary  more  or  less  from  their  continental  repre- 
sentatives, and  this  is  especially  shown  by  the  former 
having  always  darker  plumage  and  stronger  bills  and  legs. 
Id  one  instance  the  variation  is  so  excessive  that  it  fuUy 
justifies  the  establishment  of  a  specific  distinction.  This  is 
the  cise  of  the  Bullfinch  of  the  more  eastern  of  these  islands 
{Pyrrhula  murina),  the  male  of  which,  instead  of  the  ruddy 
breast  of  its  well-known  congener  {P.  vulgaris),  has  that 
part  of  a  sober  mouse-colour.  A  similar  sombre  hue  dis- 
tinguishes the  peculiar  Chaffinch  of  the  Canary  Islands 
(Fringilla  leydea),  but  to  these  islands  as  well  as  the 
Azores  and  Madeiras  there  belongs  in  common  another 
Chaffinch  (F.  tintUlon),  which,  though  very  nearly  allied  to 
that  of  Mauritania  (F.  tpodiogenia),  is  perfectly  recogniz- 
able, and  not  found  elsewhere.  Madeira  has  also  its 
peculiar  Golden-crested  Wren  {Regulm  maderensis),  and  its 
peculiar  Pigeon  (Colwnba  troccu),  while  two  allied  forms  of 
the  latter  (C.  laurimra  and  C.  bollii)  are  found  only  in  the 
Canaries.  Further  on  this  subject  we  must  not  go ;  we 
can  only  state  that  Mr  Godman  has  shown  good  reason  for 
declaring  that  the  avifauna  of  aU  these  islands  is  the  efifect 
of  colonization  extending  over  a  long  period  of  years,  and 
going  on  now. 

The  Mongolian  has  the  largest  number  of  peculiar  genera 
of  any  Palsarctic  Subregion.  In  SylviicUe  there  is  1,  in 
Timeliidw  2,  in  Panuridcc  and  Ixidce  1  each,  in  Fringil- 
lidoe  3,  in  Stumidw  and  PlerocleidcB '  1  respectively,  in 
Phasianidce  2,  and  in  Anaiidee  1 — or  13  in  all ;  but,  in  com- 
mon with  the  Indian  Region,  and  that  only,  there  are  10  of 
Sylviidce,i  of  Timeliidce,  1  of  Troglodytidce,  3  olLiotrichidoe, 
1,  rather  doubtful  in  position,  but  possibly  belonging  to 
Pamvridae,  1  of  Ixidce,  4  of  Muscitapidce,  1  of  Motacillidce 
and  Fringiltidoe  respectively,  2  of  Stumidce,  1  of  Picidae, 
2  of  SlrigidcE  and  as  many  of  Columbidce,  1  of  Tetraonid<x, 
4  of  Phasianidce,  and  1  generally  referred  to  Scolopcundce* 
— or  39  altogether.  In  common  with  the  Ethiopian 
Region  alone,  the  Mongolian  Subregion  has  only  1  g-nus, 
and  that  belongs  to  Motaciltulce ;  but  in  common  vith 
both  Ethiopian  and  Indian,  though  with  these  only,  there 
are  1  of  Muscicapidce  and  1  of  Laniidce;  while  2  genera — 
1  of  FriHgillidce  and  1  of  Scolopacidce — belong  equally  to 
the  Near'ctic  fauna :  2  genera,  members  respectively  of 
the  Dicceidce  and  Pitlidce,  are  common  as  well  to  the 
Ethiopian,  Indian,  and  Australian  Regions. 

The  Siberian  Subregion  seems  to  have  but  1  genus 
peculiar.  This  is  Eu-ynorhyntkus,  one  of  the  Scolopacid^x ; 
but  as  its  breeding-quarters  have  never  yet  been  discovered 
the  matter  must  remain  in  doubt.  One  genus  of  Laridce 
and  6  of  Alcidae  are  also  common  to  the  Nearctic  Region, 
but  do  not  inhabit  any  other  Palaearctic  Subregion. 

It  would  extend  the  present  article  far  beyond  all 
reasonable  bounds  were  we  to  dwell  upon  more  than  a  few 
of  the  curiosities  of  distribution  which  have  been  revealed 
'oy  the  continuous  observations  of  European  ornithologists. 
There  is  no  need  to  travel  out  of  our  own  island  to  meet 
with  some  of  the  most  remarkable  among  them,  and  we 
may  take  that  of  the  Nightingale  (Dauliat  lutcinia)  as  an 

*  Natural  History  of  the  Axora  or  iVtstem  /standi,  8vo.  London  ; 
1870. 

•  The  genus  of  this  family  here  monnt  Is  Syrrhapies,  the  Tbrce-toed 
Sand-Grouse,  one  aperies  of  which  {S.  paradoxits)  overmn  Europe  in 
astounding  numbers  in  1863,  and  effected  a  temporary  settlement  both 
In  Denmark  and  Holland. 

•  This  fs  IbidmhynchuA,  which,  until  some  details  of  Its  osteology 
tra  known,  can  hardly  be  placed  without  risk  of  error. 


example.  In  England  the  western  limit  of  the  range  of 
this  incomparable  songster  seems  to  be  formed  by  the 
valley  of  the  Exe,  which  is  only  overstepped  on  rare 
occasions — Montagu  having  once  heard  it  near  Kingsbridge, 
while  it  is  said  to  have  been  observed  at  Teignmouth  and 
Barnstaple.  But  even  in  the  east  of  Devonshire  it  is  local 
and  rare,  as  it  also  b  in  the  north  of  Somersetshire,  though 
plentiful  in  other  parts  of  that  county.  Crossing  the 
Bristol  Channel  it  is  said  to  be  not  uncommon  at  times 
near  Cowbridge  in  Glamorganshire ;  but  this  seems  to  be 
an  isolated  spot,  or  at  any  rate  there  is  no  evidence  of  its 
being  found  elsewhere  in  Wales,  or  between  that  place  and 
Tintern  on  the  Wye,  where  it  has  been  reported  to  be 
plentiful.  Thence  there  is  more  or  less  good  testimony  of 
its  occurrence  in  Herefordshire,  Shropshire,  Staffordshire, 
Derbyshire,  and  so  on,  to  about  5  miles  north  of  York,  but 
not  further.  Along  the  line  thus  sketched  out  and  imme- 
diately to  the  east  and  south  of  it,  the  appearance  of  the 
nightingale,  even  if  regular,  which  may  be  doubted,  is  rare, 
and  the  bird  exceedingly  local ;  but  in  many  parts  of  the 
midland,  eastern,  and  southern  counties  it  is  abundant, 
and  the  woods,  coppices,  and  gardens  ring  with  that  thrill- 
ing song  which  has  been  the  theme  of  writers  in  all  ages. 
There  are  many  assertions  of  its  occurrence  in  England 
further  to  the  northward,  but  some  of  them  rest  on  anony- 
mous authority  only,  and  all  must  be  regarded  with  the 
greatest  suspicion.  Still  more  open  to  doubt  a^e  the  state- 
ments which  have  been  made  as  to  its  visits  to  Scotland, 
while  in  Ireland  there  is  no  pretence  even  of  its  appearance. 
No  reasonable  mode  of  accounting  for  the  partial  distribu- 
tion of  the  Nightingale  has  hitherto  been  propounded  ; 
there  is  no  peculiar  kind  of  soil  which  it  especially  affects, 
or  none,  so  far  as  we  know,  that  it  especially  avoids ;  and 
the  same  may  be  said  of  its  relations  to  the  flora  of  this 
country.  It  is  not  so  entirely  adscriptus  glebce  that  it  will 
not  readily  betake  itself  to  new  Jocalities  suite^  to  its 
wants,  when  these  have  been  formed  within  its  natural 
limits,  though  they  may  be  miles  away  from  its  ancient 
haunts.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  often  one  of  the  first  birds 
to  establish  itself  when  a  heath  has  been  broken  up,  and 
plantations  of  trees  thereon  made  have  grown  sufficiently 
to  afford  it  the  sheltering  covert  that  it  loves.  This 
instance,  taken  from  a  bird  whose  habits  have  been  so  closely 
studied  both  in  captivity  and  at  large,  and  one  which  is  so 
familiar,  and  in  many  places  so  numerous,  that  abundant 
opportunities  are  given  for  observing  all  that  can  be 
observed  about  it,  shews  how  futile  would  be  the  expecta- 
tion that  in  most  cases  we  could  at  present,  even  if  ever, 
satisfactorily  account  for  the  existing  causes  which  limit 
the  distribution  of  species.  A  vast  majority  of  them,  we 
know,  have  each  its  bounds,  which  virtually  it  cannot  pass, 
and  the  case  of  the  Nightingale  in  England,  beyond  the 
fact  that  its  distribution  is  extremely  well  marked,  and 
therefore  has  long  attracted  especial  attention,  has  really 
nothing  out  of  the  common  way  in  it.*  In  Europe,  the 
neighbourhood  of  Copenhagen  is  the  most  northern  point 
which  our  Nightingale  is  asserted  to  roach;  but  on  the 
continent  its  range  is  less  extended,  and  though  abundant ' 
in  Mecklenburg,  it  is  not  found  in  that  part  of  Pomerania 

*  When  the  history  of  the  earth  shall  be  really  well  and  mlnotely 
onderslood,  it  seems  quite  possible  that  as  much  light  will  bo  shed  on 
this  and  other  particular  caaee  of  the  same  kind  by  a  knowledge  of  the 
various  changes  and  displacements  which  sea  and  land  have  undergone 
aa  has  already  been  done  by  the  same  means  in  regard  to  many  of  th« 
general  facta  of  distribution.  The  results  of  the  labour  of  the  geologist 
are  doubtless  just  as  necessary  to,  and  closely  connected  with,  the  work 
of  the  biologist,  as  those  of  the  investigation  of  the  historian  aro  to 
and  with  the  ciriciency  of  the  statesman ;  wliilo,  in  return,  the  researches 
of  the  biolopst  are,  or  ought  to  be.  of  the  greatest  eervice  to  th« 
geologist.  The  history  of  the  earth  is  for  a  long  period  of  time  that 
of  its  inhabitants. 


Distribu- 
tion of 
Nightin- 
gale. 


1 


PAL.BAnCTIC   REGION.] 


BIRDS 


T.')? 


which  lies  to  the  north  of  tTio  river  Pccnc,  nor  docs  it 
stretch  eo  far  to  the  ca.slw-drJ  as  Danzig.  It  occurs,  how- 
ever, sparingly  on  the  Polish  frontier,  near  Thorn,  and 
is  observed  in  Austria,  Upper  Hungary,  and  Gallizia.  In 
Russia  its  distribution  cannot  be  luid  down  with  any  degree 
of  accuracy,  but  it  does  not  reach  the  Governments  near 
the  Ural,  tliough  i»  is  said  to  be  plentiful  in  that  of 
Kharkov,  and  it  is  known  to  visit  the  Crimea.  Still 
further  to  the  eastward  it  can  be  traced  through  Circassia, 
und  as  far  as  Kasbin  in  Persia.  Southward  of  this  imper- 
fectly drawn  line  it  may  be  found  as  a  winter-visitant  even 
in  Arabi.i,  Nubia,  and  Abyssinia,  as  well  as  in  Algeria, 
where  it  is  reported  as  breeding,  and  it  would  seem  to 
migrate  thence  so  far  as  the  Gold  Coast.  It  is  abundant 
ifi  Spain  and  Portugal  ;  but  it  is  a  stranger  to  Britanny,  the 
western  peninsula  of  France,  just  as  it  is  to  the  western 
peninsula  of  England.' 
OiMrihu-  One  other  example  we  may  take,  and  this,  though  much 
tion  of  ig33  familiar,  is  equally  instructive,  as  exhibiting  some  of 
pr"er  '^*  "^  y®'  unexplained  peculiarities  of  distribution.  It 
shall  be  from  a  I5ird  belonging  to  a  very  difTerent  Order 
from  the  last,  having  habits  entirely  dissimilar,  and  pre- 
senting in  most  ways  a  groat  contrast.  The  Kentish  Plover 
{/Kjialitia  cantiana),  6rst  determined  from  •specimens 
obtained  on  the  coast  of  that  English  county  whence  it 
takes  its  specific  name,  has  its  breeding-place  in  Britain 
limited  to  the  pebbly  beach  between  Sandwich  and  Hast- 
ings, and  in  other  parts  of  the  British  Islands  only  occurs 
as  a  chance  straggler.  Yet  this  bird  has  as  wide  a  range 
eUewhere  as  almost  any  that  could  be  named — breeding 
not  only  abundantly  along  the  greater  part  of  the  coasts  of 
the  temperate  and  warmer  portions  of  tlie  Old  World  north 
of  the  Equator,  but  also  occasionally  in  the  interior,  as  at 
the  base  of  the  Caucasus  and  in  the  chotts  of  the  North 
African  plains;  while  during  its  migrations  it  wanders  to 
the  Malay  Archipelago  and  South  Africa,  or  even  seems 
most  likely  to  be  specifically  identical  with  a  Plover  which 
is  found  on  the  west  coast  of  America,  from  California 
southward — though  this  last  has  been  described  as  distinct 
under  the  name  of  y£.  nimsa. 
Enropcao  Islands  must  always  be  matter  of  the  greatest  interest 
I  l.briiJi.  to  the  student  of  Geographical  Distribution,  and  we  have 
already  mentioned  some  peculiarities  of  those  groups 
which  belong  to  the  Mediterranean  Subregion  of  Europe. 
There  are  not  many  more  here  to  be  cited.  Spitsbergen 
is  supposed  to  have  its  peculiar  species  of  Ptarmigan  {Lag- 
opus  honileuctiru}),  though  it  is  confessedly  very  nearly 
allied  to  the  RockPtarmig.in  {L.  rupcstris)  which  inhabits 
tho  Arctic  portion  of  the  American  continent  and  islands, 
Greenland,  and  Iceland,  but,  except  in  the  last-named  coun- 
try, docs  not  occur  in  tho  Palxarctic  Regioa  Icelatkl  is 
also  remarkable  for  being  the  headquarters  of  the  noble 
Falcon  (Falco  tslandus)  which  takes  its  name  therefrom, 
though  this  bird  also  inhabits  tte  southern  districts  of 
Greenland,  to  say  nothing  of  other  countries  ;  and  in  Ice- 
land alone  of  the  western  portion  of  the  Region  does  the 
b«autiful  Harlequin-Duck  {/fistrnynicus  torquatw)  breed. 
It  is,  however,  known  to  inhabit  North  America  and  tho 
•  eastern  half  of  Siberia. 

Distribu-  Coming  nearer  home,  we  have  a  remarkable  case  of  re- 
oonff  Rtdstriclcd  distribution  in  tho  Red  Grouse  (Lagopus  scoticus), 
""*"  found  (and  in  certain  districts,  as  every  one  knows,  numer- 
ously), in  each  of  the  three  kingdoms  composing  the  British 
Islands  as  well  aa  in  the  principality  of  Wales.  The  de- 
tails of  its  local  distribution,  nJs  of  that  of  all  other  birds 
which  breed  in  Great  Britain,  have  been  carefully  and  con- 
cisely given  by  Mr  More,'  and  we  do  not  propose  to  con- 


'  Cf.  Y.imll,  Itrid'h  Birds.  tA   i.  vol  i   pp.  31i-31S 
•  IHt,  1865,  j-p.  1-27,  119-H2,  425-4;i 


sider  them  here,  but  what  is  worthy  of  remark  Is  that  this 
particular  species  difTcrs  in  uo  essential  character  save 
coloration  from  the  WOlowGrouse  {L.  albus),  which  ie  an 
abundant  bird  throughout  the  whole  of  the  northern  parta 
of  the  Palcearctic  Region  from  Norway  to  Kamchatka,  and 
again  throughout  the  same  or  even  lower  latitudes  of  the 
Nearctic  Region  from  Alaska  to  Newfoundland.  Its  re- 
mains, as  has  before  been  said  (page  731),  havo  also  been 
found  in  the  south  of  France,  associntcd  with  those  of  the 
Reindeer  and  Snowy  Owl.  It  is  not  for  us  now  to  enter 
into  any  hypothetical  discussion,  but  it  is  hard  to  resist 
drawing  an  inference  that  at  a  tini>e,  geulogically  speaking, 
not  very  recent,  both  these  species  of  Grouse  had  a  coinnion 
ancestor,  and  that  the  severe  winters  to  which  it  has  for  a 
long  period  been  exposed  have  caused  tho  WillowGrouse  to 
don  the  snowy  garb  that  is  characteristic  of  it  and  other 
species  of  the  genus,  the  more  so  since  we  find  it  in  its 
first  plumage  possessed  of  the  coloured  quills,  which  arc 
precisely  similar  to  those  of  the  Red  Grouse  at  tho  same 
age- 
Other  instances  there  are  in  which  British-born  examples  Oilier 
of  species  common  to  the  continent  are  in  a  less  degree  Peculiirl- 
distinguishable  from  those  of  neighbouring  countries.  The  Jj"  "' 
Coal-Titmouse  of  England  is  to  be  recognized  from  that  of  g^ 
continental  Europe  (Parua  aUr),  and  accordingly  by  some 
ornithologists  it  is  regarded  as  a  distinct  species  \P.  britan^ 
7iicus),  but  tho  scanty  remnants  of  the  ancient  pine-forests 
of  Scotland  are  inhabited  by  birds  between  which  and 
European  examples  no  difference  can  be  established.  The 
homebred  Bottle-Titmouse  of  Britain,  too,  has,  from 
its  darker  coloration,  been  accorded  specific  rank,  but  then 
we  occasionally  find  continental  birds  of  this  species  {Acre- 
data  caudala)  varj'ing  in  this  respect,  and  tho  specific  vali- 
dity of  the  British  form  (A.  rosea)  can  hardly  be  with 
consistency  maintained.  Indeed,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  nearly 
all  our  smaller  birds  can  be  distinguished  by  an  expert 
from  their  continental  brethren,  and  this  mainly  thruugb 
their  duller  or  darker  plumage.  Tho  difl"erence  is  not  so 
great  by  any  means  as  obtains  in  tho  case  of  the  birds  of 
the  Atlantic  Islands  above  mentioned,  but  it  most  unques- 
tionably exists  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  ;  and  it  is  curious 
that  an  anaJogous  state  of  things  is  observable  in  regard 
to  many  of  the  birds  of  Japan,  a  country  which  is  subject 
to  many  of  the  same  climatic  conditions  as  the  British 
Islands.  It  will  be  for  future  investigators  to  ascertain 
the  cause  of  this  similarity,  we  here  only  record  the  fact ; 
but  another  remarkable  instance  of  the  forms  of  the  western 
portion  of  tlie  region  being  repeated  in  the  far  east,  is  found 
in  the  range  of  tho  two  kindred  species  of  the  beautiful 
genus  Cyanopica — the  Blue  Magpie  of  Portugal  and  Spain 
[C.  cooki)  being  replaced  in  Amoorland  and  Japan  by  a 
species  ((7.  cyanea)  so  closely  allied  thot  some  authorities 
refuse  to  acknowledge  their  distinctness,  and  yet  through- 
out 130°  of  longitude  no  representative  of  either  is  found. 

V.  TuE  Etqiopian  Region,  comprising  the  whole  of  the  ETHioma 
African  continent,  except  the  Barbary  States,  besides  tho  Hkokim 
Cape-Verd  Islands  and  naturally  thoso  situated  in  the  Gulf  Bonn.l. 
of  Guinea,  as  well  as  Madagascar  and  the  Mascarene  group  *""■ 
from  Reunion  (Bourbon)  to  tho  Seychelles,  and  the  largo 
island  of  Socotra,  and  crossing  the  Red  Sea  to  Arabia,  is 
BuflSciently  well  marked  out  in  a  geographical  point  of  view. 
The  Ohor,  or  valley  of  the  Jordan  and  the  depressed  b.asin 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  has  been  before  mentioned  as  an  outlier 
of  this  Region,  the  northeastern  part  of  which  melts  into 
the  Palxarctic  between   Palestine  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 
There,  and  apparently  Uierc  only,  do  its  boundaries  admit 
of  no  precise  definition.     Some  zoogeographers  seem  in- 
clined to  extend  its  limits  further  to  the  eastward,  through 
Celoochislan  and  even  beyond  tlic  Indus  ;  but  though  the 
''"^'"•-forms  of  a  large  portion  of  that  tract  of  country  are 


7r)8 


BIRDS 


[distribution. 


Ocnflil 

clicracUrri 
Utics. 


undoubtedly  cioseiy  allied  to,  if  Dot  identical  with,  the 
denizens  of  similar  districts  in  Africa,  yet  it  moat,  be  re- 
marked that  such  forms  should  be  regarded  in  much  the 
same  light  as  those  which  frequent  wide  seas,  and  that  the 
determination  of  adeserHract  must  therefore  depend  rather 
on  the  fauna  which  inhabits  its  islands — as  we  may  term 
the  oases  which,  whether  plentifully  or  rarely,  stud  its  sur- 
face— rather  than  on  the  fauna  of  the  desolate  space  which 
surrounds  these  fertile  and  raure  favoured  spots.  Still,  it 
is  hardly  to  be  denied  that  the  influence  of  Ethiopian  types 
is  to  be  discovered  in  Sindb,  Gujerat,  and  even  further  in 
the  Indian  peninsula  ^In  the  Ethiopian  Region  we  again 
find  a  number  of  the  sub-class  Ratitce  in  the  very  special- 
ized form  S'.ruthio — the  Ostrich— and  this  ranges,  or  did 
range,  from  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
II"pe  to  the  confines  of  Algeria  in  the  north. west,  and  to 
the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  in  the  north-east.'  It  is  even 
possible  that  within  historic  times  it  penetrated  much 
further  to  the  eastward  and  reached  Sindh  at  least,  and  if 
this  be  so.  the  fact  would  lend  colour  to  the  proposed  in- 
clusion of  that  country  within  the  Ethiopian  Region.'  But 
without  concerning  ourselves  with  speculations  of  this  kind, 
there  is  enough  and  to  spare  which  marks  the  Region  as 
one  of  the  chief  zoological  portions  of  the  globe,  despite 
the  mystery  which  still  hangs  over  its  interior  and  at  pre- 
sent completely  defies  any  attempt  to  trace  the  boundaries 
of  its  Subregions  or  provinces  beyond  a  comparatively 
little  distance  from  the  coast. 

So  large  a  portion  of  the  Ethiopian  Region  lies  between 
the  tropics  that  no  surprise  need  be  expressed  at  the  rich- 
ness of  its  fauna  relatively  to  that  of  the  last  two  Regions 
we  have  considered.  Between  50  and  60  families  of  land- 
birds  alone  are  found  within  its  limits,  and  of  them  at  least 
8  —Baphagidae,  Eurycerolidce,  Musophagidce,  IrrisoridaE, 
Ltptosomidce,  Coliidce,  Serpentariidce,  and  Struthionidoe — 
are  peculiar ;  but  it  is  singular  that  of  them  only  2  belong 
to  the  Order  Passeres,  a  proportion  which  is  not  rBaintained 
in  any  other  tropical  Region  The  number  of  peculiar 
genera  is  too  great  for  them  to  be  named  herej  some  of 
the  most  remarkable,  however,  especially  of  those  peculiar 
to  one  of  Its  Subregions,  whose  Bird  life  has  been  differ- 
entiated to  a  degree  that  is  very  extraordinary,  will  pre- 
sently be  mentioaed 

The  subdivision  of  the  Ethiopian  Region  ia  perhaps 
Subrpgioni  accomplished  with  less  difficulty  than  in  the  ease  of  the 
more  temperate  tracts  with  which  we  have  lately  had  to 
do.  Bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Mediterranean  Sub- 
region  of  the  Palsarctic  Region,  we  have  a  SubregicJn  ex- 
tending from  the  GapoVerd  Islands  on  the  one  side  of 
the  continent  to  Socotra  on  the  other ;  and  with  this  we 
must  comprehend  all  the  Asiatic  territory,  whatever  be  its 
limits,  which  is,  for  zoogeographical  purposes,  to  be  annexed 
to  the  Ethiopian  Region.  On  the  VVest  Coast  of  Africa  the 
southern  frontier  of  this  Subregion,  which  we  may  call  the 
"  Libyau,"3  seems  to  lie  a  little  to  the  northward  of  lat. 
10°  N  ;  but,  owing  to  the  unexplored  state  of  the  countiy, 
we  fju.ckly  lose  trace  of  its  confines.     We  may  perhaps 

*  XenophoD,  Anabaiis.  I.  ?    2. 

'  For  all  lh»t  can  bo  said  as  to  the  auppo.5ed  former  extent  of  th» 
0.lrith'»  rang"  in  Aila,  and,  indeed,  for  the  bi-st  aocount  of  this  Bird 
lliat  has  ever  been  published,  see  Finsch  and  Hartlaub,  Ver/d  Oi<- 
j^/nkas  (f'p  597  607).  forming  tho  fourth  volume  of  Von  dur  Decken's 
JIfiae  in  OU-A/nka  (Leipzig  und  Roidelbcrg  lS7f>).  Fossil  reinuiuaof 
KiruOiio  have  been  indubitably  recognized  from  the  Sivalik  hilU  in 
India. 

•  In  using  this  name  the  «Titer  toHows  BIyth  (Abjure,  lit  p.  458, 
March  SO,  1871).  Mr  Sharpe,  whose  kind  assistance  In  preparing 
this  portion  of  the  present  treatise  tb«  author  gratefully  arknowlodgps, 
ha«  proposed  to  call  thi»  Subregioj  the  "Abyssinian,"  from  its  le.id- 
Intt  cllanicteristlcs  being  moat  evident  in  that  country,  but  that  name 
would  seem  to  ho  better  applied  to  a  province,  and  accordingly,  here 
*  mor»  general  dwignatlon  aj'jjears  preferable. 


Limits  of 


presume  that  they  more  or  less  follow  that  parallel  to 
somewhere  about  long  15°  E  ,  and  then  trend  m  a  south- 
easterly direction.  On  the  East  Coast  the  frontier  of  the 
Libyan  Subregion  extends  from  near  Cape  Guardafm  in  a 
south  westerly  direction  towards  the  system  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  all  the  waters  flowing  to  which  it  may  be  held  to 
include ,  and  is  then  succeeded  by  the  "  Mosambican  " 
Subregion,  which  continues  perhaps  to  Sofala  Beginning 
on  the  West  Coast,  where  the  Libyan  Subregion  stops,  we 
have  another  Subregion,  the  "  Gmnean,"  comprising  the 
seaboard  from  Sierra  Leone  to  somewhere  about  Angola  • 
but  as  to  hpw  far  inland  this  penetrates  we  are  absolutely 
without  information.  The  rest  of  continental,  Africa  forms 
what  may  be  called  the  "  Catfranan"*  Subregion,  while 
Madagascar,  the  Comoros,  and  the  widely-scattered 
Mascarene  Islands,  constitute  a  fifth  Subregion.  the  most 
distinct  and  remarkable  of  all,  and  for  this  we  may  most 
reasonably  use  the  name  "'  Madagascarian." 

(1.)  The  Libyan  Hubregion,  the  first  we  have  separated,  Libyan 
may  perhaps  be  broken  up  into  four  provinces — the  Sutiegiuu 
Arabian,  Egyptian,  Abyssinian,  and  the  Gambian  ,  but  it 
must  not  be  expected  that  all  their  respective  boundaries 
can  be  distinctly  drawn — those  of  the  first  excepted,  which,  Arabian 
however,  seems  to  be  the  one  that  has  precisely  the  fewest  pt*""" 
positive  characteristics,  and  the  propriety  of  its  recognition, 
except  on  purely  geographical  grounds,  is  most  question- 
able. We  may  doubt  whether  it  has  more  than  half-a- 
dozen  peculiar  species;  but  then  welvnow  next  to  nothing 
of  the  zoology  of  any  part  of  Arabia,  save  the  Peninsula  of 
Sinai  and  the  desert  of  the  Tih.  As  before  mentioned  the 
Ostrich  occurs  here,  but  its  present  northern  or  eastern 
limits  are  indeterminate  ;  we  know,  however,  that  within 
recent  years  it  has  been  killed  in  the  desert  of  Belka,  just 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  species  which 
seem  t<j  be  peculiar  to  the  Jordan  basin  are — Crateroput 
chalt/boeus,  Neciannia  osea,  Passer  moabiticus,  Amydrvs 
tristrami  and  Caprimulgus  tamaricis,  the  last  but  one  of 
which  in  its  name  commemorates  Canon  Tristram,  the 
naturalist  to  whom  we  owe  most  of  our  information  as  to 
the  fauna  of  this  singular  district. 

The  Egyptian  province,  so  far  as  regards  the  valley  of  Egyptiar 
the  Lower  Nile,  is  remarkable  for  being,  as  already  stated,  province 
overrun  by  migrants  from  Europe  during  the  winter,  and 
since  it  is  chiefly  from  the  observations  of  travellers  at 
this  season  that  most  of  our  knowledge  is  derived,  it  \b 
perhaps  not  very  wonderful  that  many  zoogeographers  are 
inclined  to  include  this  district  within  the  Pabearctic  Region. 
The  number  of  species  which  occOr  in  Egypt  and  Nubia, 
OS  given  by  Captain  Shelley,'  is  352,  but  many  of  them  he 
says  are  of  doubtful  occurrence.  Of  these  more  than  230 
are  natives  of  the  Palaaarctic  Region  ;  but  only  between  oO 
and  GO,  or  about  one  quarter  of  them,  remain  to  breed  in 
Egypt,  and  of  this  number  a  considerable  proportion  do 
not  breed  in  Europe,  but  only  in  the  Barbary  States  The 
extra- Palaarctic  character  of  the  Egyptian  ornis  seems  to 
bo  thus  fully  established 

Respecting  the  Abyssinian  province  very  full  particulars  Abyissinur 
are  included  in  the  lately-completed  work  of  Dr  von  province, 
Hcuglin  ,'  but  for  our  purpose  it  is  not  easy  thence  to 
ascertain  the  precise  features  of  its  avifauna,  since  he  has 
not  discriminated  between  it  and  the  Egyptian.  North- 
east Africa,  according  to  him,  has  about  050  species  of 
Birds,  of  which  ho  reckons  about  325  as  migrants  from 
Europe  or  Western  Asia — that  is  to  say,  from  the  Pahtarctic 
Region.  Of  these  113  breed  in  that  Region,  as  well  as  in 
Northeastern  Africa ,  294  have  been  observed  in  the  Bar^ 


*  Asiin  following  Bly.th  (loc.  cU) 

'  llan.lhook  to  the  IHrds  of  Epupt.     London:  1872. 

'  Ornilliohgie  Norddst-A/rilca'a.     Ci^ssel:  1853-74 


i:riiiopiAN  EBcios.] 


BIRDS 


759 


bary  States;  438  are  common  to  the  ft'est  Coast, but  whether 
U>  the  GuiD«au  Subregion,  presently  to  be  treated,  or 
only  to  the  Gambian  province  of  tlie  Libyan,  is  not  stated ; 
3  IS  are  common  to  South  Africa  or  the  Ca£frarian 
Bubregion,  and  253  only  to  the  Mosambican ;  while 
215  are  peculiar  to  the  district  to  which  his  work 
especially  relates ;  the  last  statement  being  the  most  im- 
portant for  our  present  use,  since  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  nearly  all  these  215  species  are  peculiar  to  the 
Abyssinian  province,  which  may  be  taken  as  extending 
from  about  the  southern  frontier  of  Dongola  to  the  Victoria 
Nyanza,  and  from  the  Kosanga  River  (long.  27°  E)  to 
Cape  QuardafuL  One  of  the  most-  wonderful  forms  of 
birds  peculiar  to  this  province  is  the  gigantic  Whale-headed 
Stork,  Balcenkeps  rex.  Of  Socotra  we  know  far  too  little 
to  determine  its  provincial  affinity. 
Cimblin  Of  the  Qambian  province  we  cannot  say  much,  through 
provuica.  want  of  materials  to  convey  any  definite  notion  of  its 
character ;  and  we  are  only  able  to  confirm  the  general 
belief  that  it  has  a  good  deal  in  common  with  the  Abys- 
sinian, next  to  be  mentioned,  for.  without  lists  carefully 
drawn  up  by  those  who  have  a  special  knowledge  of  the 
avifauna  of  a  country,  or  the  power  to  compile  such  for 
oneself,  which  in  this  case  the  present  writer  does  not 
possess,  any  attempt  at  a  critical  examination  of  its  details 
would  be  rather  misleading  than  otherwise.  The  province 
probably  lies  between  lat.  18°  and  lat>  IC  N.,  but  whether 
it  preserves  those  limits  in  the  interior,  whether  it  passes 
directly  into  the  Abj'ssinian,  or  whether  .another  province 
intervenes,  are  questions  that  cannot  be  now  decided.  It 
would  seem  to  have  in  common  with  the  East  Coast  several 
very  characteristic  species,  of  which  Buphaga  africana, 
Vidua  paradisea,  Paru)  leucopteriu,  Corythomis  cyano- 
$ligma,  Coraciaa  ncevia,  and  Tocau  nasiUtis,  with  T. 
trythrorhrpichiu,  may  be  mentioned, 
Cape-Verd  To  the  Gambian  province  belong  the  Cape-Verd  Islands, 
Jilends.  which,  out  of  17  or  18  Land-birds  enumerated  by  Dr  H. 
Dohrn  (Joum.  fiir  Omith.  1871,  pp.  1-10),  seem  to  have 
2  peculiar  species — a  Sparrow  {Fringillidoe)  and  an  aquatic 
Warbler  (Sylviidcc). 
OalDe«ii  ^2.)  Tha  Guiruan  Subregion  is  the  next  to  be  treated, 

Bubregion.  a^a  occupies  what  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  "  West 
Coast"  of  Africa,  extending  from  Sierra  Leone  to  the  south 
of  Congo,  while  its  breadth  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  un- 
certainty. Hitherto  no  catalogue  even  of  its  birds  has 
been  published,  for  the  work  of  Dr  Hartlaub'  comprehends 
also  those  of  the  Gambian  province  of  the  Libyan  Sub- 
region,  while,  admirably  executed  as  it  was  at  the  time  of 
its  appearance,  so  much  has  since  been  done  by  collectors 
in  this  part  of  Africa,  and  by  those  who  in  Europe  have 
examined  their  collections  (especially  Professor  Barbozadu 
BoCige  and  Mr  Sharpe),  that  its  results  must  be  regarded 
u  out  of  date.  Yet  no  good,  and  much  harm,  would 
follow  from  any  attempt  to  generalize  on  the  facts  thus 
recorded,  at  various  times  and  in  various  publications, 
except  it  were  made  by  one  especially  acquainted  with 
African  ornithology ;  and  we  must  therefore,  perforce, 
leave  the  continental  portion  of  this  Subregion  without 
It*  bludi.  trying  to  exhibit  its  particular  characteristics.  Respecting 
the  islands  belonging  to  it,  however,  somewhat  may  be 
advanced  with  more  confidence  The  chief  of  these  are 
four  in  number— Fernando  Po,  Prince's  Island,  that  of  St 
Thomas,  and  Annobon.  The  first,  lying  in  the  Bight  of 
Biafra,  was  once  belioT«d  to  possess  a  very  peculiar  avi- 
fauna ;  but  one  by  one,  all,  or  nearly  all,  of  the  supposed 
peculiar  species  have  been  found  on  the  mainland,  until  it 
seems  likely  to  have  none  whatever.  Prince's  Island, 
iituatcd  outside  the  Bight,  but  still  lying  within  the  Gulf 

'  S]/ilcm  der  OmiAologie  Wat  AJrica't.    Bremen :  1367. 


of  Guinea,  has  been  said  to  possess  1  peculiat  genus, 
Cvphopterm  (of  perhaps  uncertain  affinity,  though  it  has 
been  referred  to  the  TiTneliidtc),  comprising  a  single  species, 
(but  this  has  since  been  sent  from  the  Gaboon)  and  6  other 
species — 1  each  of  Dicceida  and  Uirundinidce,  and  2  of 
I'locfidce  and  Columbidce  respectively.  A  curious  assertion 
has  been  made  with  regard  to  this  island,  namely,  that  it  is 
not  inhabited  by  any  Diurnal  Bird-of-prey,  all  such  being,  it 
is  said,  driven  off  by  the  Grey  Parrots  (Psxttacus  erit/tacus) 
which  there  abound.  The  island  of  St  Thomas,  lying 
nearly  or  just  under  the  equator,  also  has  C  peculiar  species, 
belonging  respectively  to  the  Turdidce,  DiccMce,  Oriolid<s, 
Ploceidae,  Columbidce,  and  Strigidce;  while  another  species 
of  the  family  last  mentioned  is  common  to  this  and 
Prince's  Island,  but  seems  to  be  found  nowhere  else.  Of 
Annobon  we  know  nothing. 

(3.)  The  Caffrarian  Subregion  has  its  inland  boundaries 
as  ill-defined  as  either  of  the  preceding,  yet  its  distinctive 
features  are  much  more  marked — a  fact  which  is  doubtless 
to  some  extent  explained  by  so  great  a  portion  of  it  lying 
without  the  tropic.  Though  this  part  of  Africa  has  per- 
haps received  the  closest  attention  from  ornithologists, 
the  several  labours  in  various  districts  of  the  Subregion  of 
LevaiUant  and  Jules  Verreaux,  Andersson  and  Andrew 
Smith,  Mr  Layard  and  Mr  Ayres,  assisted  at  home  by 
Sundevall  and  Mr  Gurney,  all  require  digesting  before  their 
bearings  upon  the  subject  of  geographical  distribution  can 
be  fully  comprehended ;  and,  as  in  the  cases  previously 
mentioned,  the  careful  collation  and  comparison  of  different 
lists  can  only  be  usefully  accomplished  by  one  who  has  a 
special  knowledge  of  the  objects  treated  of  by  those  writers, 
and  any  attempt  to  attain  this  end  by  an  inexpert  would 
be  dangerous.  Only  one  island  can  be  with  certainty  affili- 
ated to  this  Subregion,  and  that  is  St  Helena,  where  the  St  Hel«n«. 
indigenous  Land-birds,  if  any  there  were,  have»probably 
been  extirpated  with  most  of  lis  original  and  peculiar  flora. 
Yet,  curious  as  it  may  be,  it  seems  to  be  a  fact  that  this 
isolated  spot  possesses  a  peculiar  Water-bird,  albeit  it  is  of 
a  group  which  greatly  affects  dry  places.  This  is  a  small 
Ringed  Plover  (jEgialUis  sanctce-helencc),  and,  though  be- 
longing to  a  genus  the  members  of  which  are  remarkable 
for  very  wide  distribution,  it  is  not  known  to  have  occurred 
off  the  island.  Tristan  da  Cunha,  commonly  assigned  to 
the  Ethiopian  Region,  and  therefore  to  this  Subregion, 
seems,  from  reasons  before  stated,  to  have  at  least  as  much 
affinity  to  the  Neotropical,  and  Ascension  appears  to  have 
no  indigenous  Land-birds  whatever,  so  that  its  appropriation 
must  remain  in  doubt. 

(4.)  The  Mosambican  Subregion  next  follows,  and  its  Mosambl. 
relations  to  the  Abyssinian  the  numbers  already  quoted  ""  ^'^^ 
from  Dr  von  Heuglin  will  have  shewn,  but  these  must  bo  '"K""'- 
taken  with  caution,  since  the  limits  of  the  Subregion  are 
so  indefinite.  Whether  we  should  comprehend  in  it  the 
whole  of  the  country  drained  by  the  Zambesi  and  its  tribu- 
taries seems  to  be  very  uncertain  ;  but,  judging  from  the 
collections  he  has  received,  Mr  Sharpe  is  now  inclined  to 
think  that  this  part  has  more  affinity  to  South  Africa. 
The  general  uniformity  of  distribution  which  obtains  among 
the  Birds  of  all  the  tropical  portion  of  the  Region,  especi- 
ally noticed  by  Dr  Kirk  in  writing  on  thoso_pf  Zambesia 
{Ibis,  1864,  p.  307),  requires  much  fuller  geographical 
details  than  are  at  present  available  to  entitle  us  to  form 
any  very  decided  opinion,  though  the  in  most  respects  ex 
ceUent  monograph  of  Drs  Finsch  and  Hartlaub  (see  note 
at  page  758)  gives  ample  information  as  to  the  literature 
and  descriptions  of  the  448  species  which,  according  to 
tho.sc  learned  authors,  constitute  its  avifauna,  and  no  attempt 
can  possibly  be  made  to  subdivide  the  Subregion  into  pro- 
vinces. Lying  off  its  coast  are  three  considerable  islands, 
f  eiuba,  Zanzibar,  and  Monfio,  but  as  yet  there  \a  no  reason 


7  GO 


BIRD 


[distribution. 


to  expect  thai  mey  uave  any  very  impoiiant  bearing  from 
*  a  zoogeogiapbical   point  of  view.     Zanzibar  is  th«   best 

known,  and  that  seems  to  have  a  few  species  peculiar  to  it  — 
for  instance,  Laniarius  saliince,  L.  oneidalis,  and  Franco- 
liniis  hirki, — but  further  investigation  may  prove  that  some 
of  them  also  occur  on  the  mainland. 
Madogas-  (5.)  The  Madagascarian  Subregion  remains  for  considera- 
canan  Sub-  [Jon,  and  this  from  its  insularity  is  obviously  well  defined, 
regioa.  while  a  good  deal  of  attention  has  been  paid  to  its  remark- 
able peculiarities.  Indeed,  except  New  Zealand,  it  may  be 
Bafely  deemed  the  most  peculiar  Subregion  on  the  earth's 
surface,  while  from  the  richness  and  multifariousness  of 
its  animal  and  especially  of  its  ornithic  population.  New 
Zealand  cannot  for  a  moment  be  compared  with  it.  Its 
principal  subdivision,  Madagascar  itself,  once  possessed  in 
the  extinct  gigantic  bird  jEpyomis  a  form  of  Ratilce,  not 
less  singular  than  the  Ostrich  or  the  Moa,  and  though  some 
writers  would  fain  see  in  the  remains  of  this  marvellous 
creature  a  realization  of  Oriental  fables  respecting  the  Roc, 
not  a  vestige  has  been  recovered  which  can  be  declared  to 
belong  to  any  period  to  which  history  or  even  legend  can 
reach,  and  Arabian  tales  are  not  corroborated  by  the  hypo- 
thesis of  Professor  Bianconi,  while  they  are  virtually  con- 
tradicted by  the  researches  at  home  of  M.  Alphonse  Milne- 
Edwards,  and  Herr  von  Nathusius,  and  of  M.  Graudidier 
abroad.  Three  also  of  the  satellite  islands — Mauritius, 
RfSunioD  (Bourbon),  and  Rodriguez — possessed  brevipen- 
nate  Birds  totally  dissimilar  from  but  hardly  less  singular 
than  the  jEpyomis,  and  here  the  Dodo  and  its  kindred, 
together  with  other  Birds  now  extirpated,  flourished  peace- 
fully till  they  felt  the  power  of  man  and  his  agencies. 
But  bnef  particulars  of  these  extinct  forms  have  already 
been  given  (pp.  732,  733),  and  we  must  now  restrict  our- 
selves to  the  consideration  of  those  which  survive. 

This  Subregion  is  easily  divided  into  two  provinces — 
Madagascar  and  the  Mascareue  Islands ;  but  then  it  be- 
comes a  question  whether  the  Comoros  should  not  be  con- 
sidered to  form  a  third,  and  also  how  the  Seychelles  should 
be  treated.  Not  without  scruples  we  propose  to  refer  the 
latter  to  the  Mascarene  province  as  an  outlying  group,  and 
to  regard  the  former  in  the  same  light  in  reference  to  the 
Malagash  province  or  Madagascar  proper. 

Long  stuuiod  as  the  Birds  of  Madagascar  have  been, 
\ardly  a  year  n^w  px'ises  without  some  new  form  being 
added  to  its  list ;  and  what  is  especially  remarkable  is 
that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  additions  are  not  merely 
new  species  of  genera  previously  known,  but  are  the  types 
of  undeniably  good  and  new  genera,  while  it  .vould  seem 
also  as  if  many  of  these  had  a  very  limited  range  in  the 
island,  for  every  fresh  district  visited  by  a  collector  is 
almost  sure  to  produce  something  which  neither  he  nor 
his  predecessors  have  met  with  in  other  parts,  though  the 
actual  distance  between  the  localities  may  be  inconsider- 
able. The  number  of  genera  of  Land-birds  amounts  to 
nearly  100,  and  of  them  almost  one-half  are  peculiar  to 
the  Subregion  ;  by  far  the  greatest  number  of  them  be- 
longing to  the  Order  Passeres,  though  the  Pkarice  are  also 
well  represented  by  peculiar  genera,  and  the  PsiUaci  and 
Cotumbce  possess  to  a  certain  extent  the  same  characteris- 
tics. Many  of  the  genera  belonging  to  the  two  Orders 
first  named  can  be  but  with  difficulty  referred  to  any  family 
existing  elsewhere,  but  for  fear  of  exaggerating  the  singiilar 
character  of  the  Subregion  wo  prefer  regarding  two  only  of 
Ihcso  families  as  absolutely  peculiar.  These  are  Lqjto- 
tomidce  and  Eurycerolidce,  the  single  genus  and  species  con- 
stituting each  of  which  it  seems  impossible  to  place  with  any 
other  family.  .Almost  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  genera 
Brachypteracias,  Geobiastcs,  and  Alelomis,  which  may  per- 
haps be  linked  in  one  group,  though  to  what  family  it 
thould   be   attached   seems  very  doubtful  ;  and   there  is 


Phihpitta  so  isolated  tUat  by  one  author  it  is  referred  to 
the  Turdidas,  by  another  to  the  ParaJiseidac,  and  by  a 
third  to  the  Pitlidce,  the  probability  being  that  each  assig- 
nation is  wide  of  the  mark.  But  the  avifauna  of  Mad;i- 
gascar  is  not  entirely  composed  of  such  singularities  aa 
these.  We  have  homely  genera,  even  among  the  Paaseres, 
occurring  there,  such  as  Acrocepkaias,  Motacilla,  Pratm- 
cola,  and  Alauda,  while  a  Cislicola,  which,  though  it  hns 
received  a  distinct  trivial  name,  is  undistinguishable  from 
the  well-known  Fantail-Warbler  (C.  schcenicola)  of  southern 
Europe,  Africa,  and  India,  has  long  been  known  as  an  in- 
habitant of  Madagascar.  But  there  are  also  species,  though 
not  Passerine,  which  are  absolutely  identical  with  those  of 
Britain — Aluco  Jiammms,  Coturnii  communis,  Porzana 
pygmaea,  and  Podiceps  minor — all  of  them  common  in  the 
island.  The  number  of  species  of  Birds  hitherto  found  in 
Madagascar  cannot  be  safely  put  at  less  than  200,  of  which 
120  ai'o  Land-birds,  and  of  these  latter  fully  100  are 
peculiar.  The  Comoros,  so  far  as  they  have  been  explored, 
have  yielded  more  than  20  Land-birds,  of  which  12  at 
least  are  peculiar,  the  remainder  being  common  to 
Madagascar;  but,  no  doubt,  throughout  every  part  of  the 
Malagash  province  there  is  room  for  further  discoveries. 

The  principal  islands  of  the  Mascarene  province  have  Mascsreno 
had  their  original  fauna  so  largely  destroyed  by  coloniza-  pio'i""- 
tion,  as  has  just  been  stated,  that  we  are  hardly  m  a 
condition  to  judge  its  peculiarities  accurately.  Mauritius 
and  Reunion,  lying  within  sight  of  each  other,  and  jiossess- 
ing  about  the  sajne  number  of  existing  species,  seem  not  to 
have  more  than  3  in  common.  There  is  1  genus  [Oxynotus) 
belonging  to  the  C ampepliagidae  which  is  peculiar  to  these 
two  islands,  and  represented  in  each  by  a  distinct  species. 
Reunion  also  had  within  the  memory  of  men  yet  living  a 
peculiar  genus  of  Stumidce — Fregilupvs.  Rodriguez  is 
now  known  to  possess  only  4  species  of  Land-birds  natural 
to  it ;  and  of  these  3  are  peculiar,  1  being  the  I'arrakei-t 
before  mentioned  as  on  the  verge  of  extinction,  and  anothui 
an  aberrant  form  of  Drymoeca,  pointing  possibly  to  a 
common  origin  with  certain  Indian  species.'  The  Land- 
birds  of  the  Seychelles  which  have  not  been  introduced  are 
14  in  number,  and  of  these  12,  according  to  Mr  Edward 
Newton  (Ibie,  1867,  p.  359),  are  peculiar;  but  there  is 
no  good  genus  which  can  be  so  termed.  Finally,  we  may 
mention  that  the  small  island  of  Aldabra  has  a  Dove  which 
has  been  described  as  a  distinct  species,  and  that  of  ."^t 
Denis  a  Water-hen  which  probably  merits  the  same  remark. 
Taken  as  a  whole,  we  cannot  but  be  struck  with  the  fune 
of  the  evidence  as  to  the  land-connection  which  must  once 
have  existed — though  not  necessarily  all  at  once — between 
the  various  units  forming  the  whole  Subregion.  Even  ths 
scanty  remnant  that  is  left  enables  one  to  see  how  the 
denizens  of  its  most  distant  quarters  represent  one  another, 
a  clear  token  of  their  long-continued  isolation  and  the 
working  of  a  dilTurentiating  power.  But  this  is  no  place  «o 
pursue  theories. 

VI.  Tde  Indian  Region'  completes  our  survey  of  the 

'  This  same  li:aning  towards  India  ta  also  indicitcJ  by  the  genu* 
Ilypsipeta,  one  of  tlie  TunluUr,  all  t)ie  membtra  of  wliicli,  wive  4, 
belong  to  Itio  IndiaD  region,  ftnJ  these  fo\ir  are  fcculiar  vcspe*  liwiy 
to  Madagascar,  Ucunion,  Maurttins,  and  the  Sfvchelles,  and  it  \*iMiltl 
bo  easy  to  cite  similar  cases  of  isolated  Rirdu  of  either  the  Intlnn  nr 
Ethiopian  Regioa  which  have  their  nearest  relatives  oatives  of  the 
other. 

*  It  must  b<i  mentioned  that  objection  has  fref|uently,  and  not  with- 
out show  of  reason,  been  taken  to  Iho  name  "  Indian  "  ajiplied  to  this 
Region  :  and,  except  for  the  awkwardness  of  tlie  title,  we  must  aiilnil 
that  "  Indo-^ialayan*'  would  have  most  likely  been  found  a  more  ex- 
proasive  and  suitable  epithet,  since  what  we  coniniolily  mean  by 
"India"  forms  but  a  small  and  perhaps  not  the  niost  characlerislic 
portion.  Mr  Wallace  proposes  to  use  the  name  "Oriental,"  against 
which  it  may  be  not  unreasonably  urpi-d  that  It  errs  on  the  side  or 
■■iSiieness,  ;ust  as  "  Indian"  does  on  the  side  of  jarlaulaiily.     On  the 


INDIAN    EEOION  ] 


BIRDS 


7UJ 


)!<ji4N  plo'>e;  and  ''3  boundaries,  so  far  as  Chef  can  be  defined, 
llwio.v.  have  been  already  sketcbrd  out  wheo  treating  of  the  adjoin- 
'ing  areas.  Large  as  is  its  extPnt,  and  greatly  varied  as  arc 
its  physical  features,  it  would  .eein  to  have  but  2  peculiar 
families  of  Birds  (I'hyllornithidoe  and  Eurylcemida)  nut  of 
"upwards  of  70  which  occur  within  its  limits.  There  is 
peculiar  difficulty  in  determining  the  zoological  Subregions 
and  provinces  into  which  this  Region  should  be  separated. 
While  the  fauua  of  some  districts,  or  eveu  larger  portions, 
^a3  been  studied  so  that  we  possess  a  knowledge  of  them 
almost  as  full  as  of  any  country  in  the  world,  Europe  and 
the  tracts  of  other  Regions  settled  by  Europeans  alone 
excepted,  the  greater  part  is  not  much  better  known  zoolo- 
gically than  is  the  centre  of  Africa.  Yet  we  cannot  treat 
the  Indiau  Region  with  the  same  audacity  of  ignorance 
that  we  did  the  Ethiopian,  drawing  our  boundaries  here 
and  there  in  a  manner  which  the  experience  of  a  few  more 
years  will  very  likely  prove  to  be  excecdiugly  wide  of  the 
mark,  for  our  acquaintance  with  the  Region  now  under  con- 
sideration is  such  as  to  convince  us  that  throughout  its 
whole  extent  there  are  districts,  large  or  small,  which  have 
nn  unmistakable  affinity  to  one  another,  and  yet  appear  to 
be  cut  off  from  all  communication  with  their  neighbours. 
True  it  is  that  wo  may  readily  account  for  this  on  the 
ground  that  the  similarity  to  be  observed  is  due  to  cnrre- 
eponding  elevation  above  the  sea-level,  and  that  through- 
out the  whole  Region  the  hill-countries  are,  as  a  rule,  dis- 
connected; but  such  an  explanation  does  not  make  our 
task  the  easier,  and  we  are  filled  with  the  consciousness 
that  we  cannot  map  out  the  Indian  Region  according  to  the 
method  we  have  hitherto  followed.  We  find  the  character- 
istics of  the  Himalayan  avifauna  shewing  themselves  not 
only  on  the  highlands  of  Southern  India  and  Ceylon,  but 
far  away  to  the  eastward  also,  as  in  Formosa,  Hainan,  and 
Cochin  China,  and  again  repeated  in  a  lesser  but  still 
perceptible  degree  to  the  southward  in  the  mountain  ranges 
of  Malacca  and  Sumatra.  This  then  being  the  case,  we 
think  it  better  to  follow  in  the  maia^he  scheme  adopted 
by  Mr  Elwcs,  to  whose  essay  on  the  geographical  distribu- 
tion of  Asiatic  Birds  wo  have  before  referred  (page  704). 
Right  or  wrong  in  his  results,  he  bas  the  merit  of  having 
arrived  at  them,  as  he  tells  us,  contrary  to  a  certain  bias 
which  he  had  entertained  at  the  begiuning  of  his  investiga- 
tions, and  these  are  marked  by  uncommon  care  and  a 
diligent  study  of  all  the  means  of  information  at  that  time 
available  to  him.  Mr  Elwcs  would  establish  three  Sub- 
regions —  the  "Himalayan"  "or  Hinialo-Chincse,"  the 
"  Indian  "  (proper),  and  the  "  Malayan." 
Hiii.nloi  fl.)  The  Himalo-Chinese   Subreyion,  according   to    his 

ChinfM  »iew,  includes  all  the  middle  slopes  of  tho  Himalayan 
SuUtmI/-.  .jjjgg^  f^pjjj  ^Q  elevation  of  about  3000  to  12,000  feet, 
ind,  beginning  with  Cashmere,  extends  through  Nepal, 
3hotan,  the  highlands  of  Assam,  and  thence,  marching 
with  tho  as  yet  undetermined  frontier  of  the  Palxarctic 
Region,  to  the  seacoast  of  China.  To  this  Subrcgion 
jelong  the  islands  of  Formosa  and  Hainan,  and  it  niit  only 
Deludes  a  great  part  of  China  proper,  but  probably  tho 
vholo  of  Cochin  China  and  Siam,  with  the  hill-country  of 
fennasserim  and  Burmah,  merging  into  the  Malayan  Sub- 
region  somewhere  about  lat.  12"  N.  In  its  western  part, 
ho  observes,  it  is  merely  a  narrow  borderland,  in  which 
(ho  members  of  two  very  diflercnt  faunas  meet,  and,  being 
inhabited  during  some  part  of  the  year  by  nearly  all  tho 
orincipal  Palxarctic  genera,  and  those  of  the  proper  Indian 
oubregion,  probably  includes  some  of  tho  richest  portions 
if  the  world.  Besides  this,  as  already  remarked,  its  influ- 
ence is  fell  far  to  tho  southward,  even  in  the  islands  of 
C?ylon  and  Sumatra. 

»liole,  It  »c»ins  u  tliough  "Indian,"  biving  Ixen  tho  distingutsbiDg 
Urm  fint  tfplicJ  to  Uiu  regioD,  bail  better  be  retained. 


From  wliat  hos  been  said  above  as  to  tue  way  in  whid^ 
some  of  the  Subregions  of  the  Indian  Region  are  broket 
cp,  and  this  Subrcgion  especially,  it  is  useless  to  attenipf 
any  partitioning  of  them  into  true-  zoological  provinces 
We  can  only  follow  Mr  Elwes  in  taking  the  various  coun- 
tries in  succession,  and  stating  what  is  known  of  them. 
Cashmere  is  the  first.  Ucro  there  seems  to  be  171  Land- 
birds,  referable  to  119  genera;  of  the  latter,  34  have  a 
wide  range,  32  are  characteristic  of  the  Palwarctic  Region, 
29  of  the  Indian,  and  21  peculiar  to  or  characteristic  of 
the  Himalo-Chinese  Subrcgion.  There  is  only  1  species 
peculiar  to  the  country — a  very  normal  Bullfinch  (PynUula) 
belonging  to  Fringillid(e.  Cepfialopyrus,  an  aberrant  Tit- 
mouse (Paridae),  and  once  thought  to  be  a  peculiar  genus, 
extends  eastward  so  far  as  Simla.  Of  the  species  70 
seem  to  be  peculi.ir  to  the  Himalayan  district,  and  80  are 
common  to  the  Palaearctic  Region. 

Nepal  is  the  next  country  of  which  we  know  enough  t»-  .V  uaJ 
give  any  satisfactory  account;  arnd,  indeed,  thabks  to  Mr 
Hodgson's  labours  in  years  gone  by,  our  knowledge  of  its 
zoolugy  is  very  tolerably  complete,  though  of  bte  years 
little  has  been  added  to  it  Its  rich  avifauna  is  said  to 
consist  of  553  species  of  Land  birds,  belonging  to  294 
genera ;  of  the  latter,  G2  are  of  wide  range,  30  character- 
istic of  the  Palaiarctic,  and  122  of  the  Indian  Region,  while 
80  are  peculiar  to,  or  characteristic  of,  the  Jlimalaya.  Of 
the  species  there  are  330  peculiar  to  tho  Himalayan  district, 
and  60  common  to  the  Palaiarctic  Region 

The  small  state  of  Sikkim  seems  to  be  richer  stilL  Ex-  Sikkin. 
eluding  the  Accipitres  there  are  here  found  423  species  of 
Land-birds,  of  which  270  do  not  occur  out  of  the  Himalaya, 
except  as  migrants  or  stragglers.  Of  these,  83  belong  to 
genem  of  wide  range,  60  more  are  of  Pala>arctic  distribution, 
and  154  are  neatly  peculiar  to  the  Indian  Region,  whila 
146  are  peculiar  to,  or  characteristic  of ,  tho  Himalo-Chinese 
Subrcgion.  Passing  to  A.ssam,  the  hills  to  the  north  and 
east  of  which,  however,  are  very  little  known,  its  ornithic 
character  seems  greatly  to  resemble  that  of  Sikkim  ;  but 
we  have  from  its  southern  boundary  a  few  genera  which 
are  not  actually  found  in  the  Himalaya,  such  as  Anthreptea, 
Turdinus,  and  Rhytoceros,  belonging  respectively  to  Nectar- 
iniidas,  Timeliidoe,  and  Bucerotidce,  while  we  are  acquainted 
with  only  16  species  which  are  not  found  also  in  Sikkim, 
and  of  these  one-half  are  Burmese. 

Burmah  must  be  taken  next,  though  a  district  intervenes  Burmah 
of  which  we  aro  quite  ignorant,  and  this  country,  its  liigh-""'  Ten- 
lands  especially,  requires  much  more  exploration,  but  the  """•t'" 
valley  of  the  Irrawadi,  Aracan,  and  Pegu  are  very  fairly 
known.  Of  373  species  of  Land-birds,  97  are  common  to 
India,  and  the  rest  to  the  Malay  peninsula,  193  more  are 
found  in  India,  and  27  in  the  peninsula  alone,  while  46 
are  peculiar  to  Bnrmah  or  to  Burmah  and  Tennosserim.  In 
Tennasserim,  taking  it  to  extend  from  Maftaban  to  the 
isthmus  of  Krau,  wo  have  313  species  of  Land-birds,  93 
being  common  to  India  and  the  rest  of  the  peninsula,  117 
more  being  found  in  India,  and  56  in  the  peninsula  alone, 
while  47  are  peculiar  to  Tennasserim  or  to  Tennasserim 
and  Burmah.  This  country  is  especially  rich  in  species  of 
the  peculiarly  Indian  family  Eurylctm\d<x,  possessing  » 
majority  of  the  known  forms. 

Lying  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal  are  two  remarkable  groups  Aniiaman- 
of  islands — the  Andanians  and  tho  Nicobars — which  the  a"'' N"*- 
authority  we  are  following  would,  from  the  similarity  of  **"*■ 
their  avifauna  to  that  of  I'cgu,  include  in  this  Subrcgion. 
Lord  Walden,  however,  thinks  (Ibis,   1873,  p.   297)  the 
former  have  a  greater  affinity  to  'the  highlands  of  India 
south  of  the  Himalaya  and    west   of   the  Brahmapootra, 
and  Mr  Humo  {Stray  Feathers,  ii.  p.  136)  considers  both 
groups  to  form  an  outlying  bit  of  the  proper  Indian  Sub- 
r.^qiop  -n  which  many  foreigp  intruders  have  established 


7G2 


BIRDS 


[distribution'. 


themselves.  It  is  certain  that  many  genera,  or  even 
families,  which  are  common  in  Burmah  are  wanting  in  the 
Andamans,  such  as  the  Timeliidce,  Pittidce,  Eurylcemidoe, 
and  Bucerotidce,  though  a  peculiar  form  of  .the  last  occurs 
on  Narcondam,  an  island  between  the  Andataans  and 
Burmah,  and  there  is  an  extreme  paucity  of  several  other 
families.  Still  the  Andamans  possess  an  avifauna  of  some 
155  species,  17  of  which  (all  Land-birds)  are  peculiar.  The 
precise  number  of  species  found  in  the  Nicobars  is  not 
explicitly  stated  by  Mr  Hume,  but  he  gives  10  as  peculiar 
to  that  group,  which  is  inhabited  by  two  very  noteworthy 
forms— Ca/ofKai,  a  very  remarkable  genus  of  Columbidce, 
widely  spread  throughout  the  Malayan  archipelago,  and  a 
species  of  Megapodixis,  belonging  to  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  families  of  the  Australian  Region.  The  pre- 
sence 61  these  two  forms  would  almost  incline  one 
to  remove  the  Nicobars  from  the  Subregion  to  which  they 
have  generally  been  assigned,  and  refer  them  rather  to  the 
Malayan  Subregion. 

It  is  now  necessary  to  retrace  our  steps  riorthward  and 
notice  China  ; '  but  this  is  a  branch  of  the  subject  on  which 
it  is  as  yet  impossible  to  form  an  opinion.  The  chief 
authority  on  Chinese  ornithology  is  unquestionably  Mr 
Swinhoe,  who  has  for  so  long  a  time  laboured  in  various 
parts  of  that  country  equally  as  a  public  servant  and  a 
naturalist ;  but  .the  results  of  his  multitudinous  contribu- 
tions to  our  knowledge  of  its  avifauna  have  never  yet  been . 
tabulated,  and  probably  their  author  is  alone  competent  to 
perform  this  task  without  running  into  errors  that  would 
be  disastrous  in  their  consequences.  In  his  latest  cata- 
logue of  the  Birds  of  China,^  he  enumerates  675  species  as 
found  in  that  country  and  its  islands ;  but  valuable  and 
carefully-drawn  up  as  this  list  is,  it  is  impossible  to  elimin- 
ate therefrom  the  species  not  strictly  belonging  to  that 
part  of  the  Celestial  Empire  which  lies  within  our  present 
bounds  ;  or  even  were  this  possible,  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  its  ornis  would  be  required  to  separate  the  birds- 
of-passage  from  the  residents,  and  still  more  to  classify 
them  according  to  their  several  Orders  and  families.  Add 
to  this,  that  assiduously  as  Mr  Swinhoe  has  himself  worked 
in  the  field,  and  diligently  as  he  has  availed  himself  of 
such  information  as  he  could  obtain  from  other  ■  trust- 
worthy observers,  only  the  outskirts  of  this  great  territory 
have,  with  few  exceptions,  been  examined.  Much  is  it  to 
be  hoped  that  he  will  be  able  in  due  time  to  bring  forth 
the  ripe  fniit  of  his  labours,  but  meanwhile  the  attempt  to 
elucidate  the  peculiarities  of  the  avifauna  of  China  proper, 
that  is,  south  at  least  of  the  Yangstzekiang  and  of  Cochin 
China,  would  be  vain  if  not  misleading. 

The  two  principal  islands  lying  off  the  Chinese  coast, 
however,  are  in  a  different  condition.  One  of  them  has 
been  extremely  and  the  other  tolerably  well  ransacked  by 
fonnost.  Mr  Swinhoe.  In  Formosa  ho  has  found  144  species, 
referable  to  102  genera,  of  which  98  are  found  in  the 
Himalayan  Subregion,  and  70  in  the  Malayan.  The 
species  may  be  thus  assorted  : — 74  belong  to  wide-ranging 
genera,  47  to  genera  common  to  the  Himalayan  and 
Malayan  Subregions,  18  are  peculiar  to,  or  characteristic  of, 
the  former  faubregion,  and  5  to  China  itself;  18  arc  not 
found  in  the  Malayan  Subregion,  and  no  less  than  34  are 
peculiar  to  the  island.  For  Hainan  Mr  Swinhoe  has 
enumerated  130  species  belonging  to  9G  genera,  of  which 
latter  86  are  common  to  the  Malayan  Subregion,  and  93 
to  the  Himalayan.  Of  tho  species  54  belong  to  wide- 
ranging  genera,  59  to  genera  characteristic  of  the  Indian 

'  Of  Clilna  propor  Mr  Elwes  snj-s  little,  but  he  includes  Easlcni 
^Thibet  In  tUii  Subregion.  The  present  writer,  however,  is  disposed 
I  to  refer  that,  or  «t  any  rate  tho  scene  of  Pin  David's  di.scovcrics,  to 
the  ralnnrrlic  Refion.    . 

'  J'roc  JSixit.  Soc.  1871,  pp.  337-313. 


and  16  of  the  Paltcarctic  Region,  while  IC  are  believed  to  be 
peculiar  to  the  island. 

(2.)  T/ie  Indian  Subregion,  still  following  Mr  Elwes,  is  Indian 
the  next  to  be  considered.  This  consists  of  the  Remainder  Subresift. 
of  the  peninsula  of  India  lying  to  the  south  and  west  of 
the  last,  as  well  as  of  the  island  of  Ceylon.  Its  partition 
into  provinces  has  been  several  times  attempted,  and  doubt- 
less the  method  proposed  by  Mr  Blanford,  when  treating 
of  the  geographical  distribution  of  Indian  Reptiles,'  is  one 
of  the  most  reasonable,  but  even  this  may  perhaps  be  pre- 
mature,'' and  here  it  seems  preferable  to  abstain  from  doing 
more  than  consider,  so  far  as  materials  are  available,  the 
avifauna  of  the  various  districts  of  which  it  is  composed — 
the  more  so  since  the  extraordinary  impulse  given  to  tho 
study  of  ornithology  in  India  by  the  publication  of  the 
late  Dr  Jerdon's  work'  will  doubtless  in  a  few  years  place 
the  whole  subject  in  a  very  different  light,  for  the  number 
of  Indian  ornithologists  is  grown  so  considerable  that  that 
country  has  now  a  journal  especially  devoted  to  the  record 
of  their  observations. 

Beginning  in  the  north-west  with  the  Punjab,  we  have  Northwest 
as  yet  no  complete  list  of  the  Birds  of  this  most  important  of  luJn  ■ 
district,  and  we  can  only  infer  that  we  shall  here  find  the 
Malayan  influence  at  its  least,  and  the  Palsearctic  at  its 
greatest;  but  descending  the  Indus  to  Sindh  we  have  a 
discursive  account  of  its  ornithology  by  Mr  Hume,^  from 
which  Mr  Elwes  gives  the  following  results: — of  150 
species  observed,  41  are  peculiarly  desert-forms,  and  as 
such  either  very  nearly  allied  to  or  identical  with  the  like 
forms  of  the  Palccarctic  and  Ethiopian  Regions ;  40  are 
peculiar  to  the  Indian  Subregion,  8  are  common  to  the 
Malayan,  4  to  the  non-desert  portions  of  the  Ethiopian, 
and  12  to  the  similar  parts  of  the  Pala?arctic  Region,  while 
45  do  not  come  under  any  of  these  heads.  Omitting  the 
desert-forms  as  not  leading  to  any  just  conclusion,  it  would 
n[ipear  that  Sindh  has  less  afBDity  to  the  Ethiopian  Region 
than  to  the  Palsearctic,  that  is  to  say,  to  its  Mediterranean 
Subregion.  The  very  remarkable  district  of  Cutch  yielded 
115  Land-birds  to  Stoliczka,' and  these  were  mostly  mi- 
grants or  common  Indian  species  of  wide  range. 

Of  Rajpootana  and  Central  India  we  know  very  little, 
but  near  Goona,  about  200  miles  to  the  south  of  Agra, 
Dr  King  some  years  since  observed  IIG  species  of  Land- 
birds;^  and  more  lately  Mr  Adam  has  noticed  171  species 
of  Land-birds  around  the  Sambhur  Lake  in  its  western 
portion.' 

We  must  next  turn  eastward  to  Oudh,  wherein  Col.  Oudh 
Irby  {Ibis,  1861,  p.  217)  obtained  lOS  species  of  Land-birds, 
but  of  these  23  were  found  only  on  the  hills  of  Kumaon. 
There  seems  to  be  a  remarkable  absence  of  many  of  the 
most  widely-spread  genera  of  the  Region,  and  many  forms 
generally  common,  to  Africa  are  also  wanting;  but  no 
doubt  Mr  Brooks,  who  has  of  late  industriously  investi- 
gated this  portion  of  the  country,  will  be  able  to  sujiply 
some  of  these  unaccountable  dcfidencies. 

We  may  judge  of  what  are  politically  known  as  tho  Ceniriil 
"Central   Provinces "  of  India,  as  well  as  of  Bundelcund,  rro^i""' 
Malwa,  and  Chota  Nagporc,  forming  the  "  Gangetic"  sub-  °'  ''"''•■' 
province  of  Mr  Blanford,  from  observations  made  by  that 
gentleman  and  Colonel  M'Mastcr,'"  wherein  190  species  of 
Land-birds  are  enumerated,  of  which  38  have  a  very  wide 
range,  57  belong  to  widely-ranging  genera  but  arc  almo.i' 

'  Journal  0/ the  Asiatic  Society  0/  Benrrat,  1S70,  pp.  335-370. 

•  Coniprxro  Dr  Giinther'e  rcmnrks,  ^onhnixcal  Jieemd^  vii.  p.  67. 
»  The  liiriis  of  India.     Calcutt.i ;  lSC'j-C4. 

•  Stray  feathers,  t.  pp.  44-49,  91-289,  419-421. 

'  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  0/ licni/al,  1S72,  pp.  211-2.18. 
'  Op.  cil.  1863,  pp.  203-218. 

•  Stray  I'ealhcrs,  i.  pp.  3H1-404. 

•»  /(...<,  1SG7 ,  T'.  4«1  ;  Proc.  As.  Soc.  Bmg.  13G9,  f,  104 ;  Jojn. 
^■>.  Soc  Deng.  1S71,  pp.  207-216. 


INDIAN    KECION.) 


BIRDS 


(63 


:onfined  to  India.  37  to  genera  common  to  tropical  Ainca 
lad  India,  8  to  genera  of  Ethiopian  type,  and  53  to  purely 
Indian  genera. 

Pursuing  our  way  southward  we  come  to  the  Deccan  or 
lable-bnd  of  India,  and  our  information  respecting  its  ornis 
chiefly  rests  on  the  catalogue  given  by  Sykes  many  years 
ago,'  which  only  contains  about  150  species  of  Land-birds, 
of  which  about  lOo  belong  to  genera  common  to  the 
Himalayan  and  Malayan  Subregions,  27  to  Himalayan  but 
not  Malayan  genera,  30  to  genera  hanng  Ethiopian  or 
Paliearctic  affinity,  and  the  rest  to  widely-ranging  genera 
or  to  genera  peculiar  to  the  Indian  Subregion. 
SoMii'ero  The  avifauna  of  Southern  India  seems  to  be  small  rela- 
inJia  lively  to  the  extent  and  variety  of  the  country,  and  most 

of  its  peculiar  species  are  said  to  have  a  considerable  range 
of  latitude,  though  some,  which  are  restricted  to  the  highest 
hills,  are  only  found  to  the  southward  of  lat.  12°  N.,  where 
several  mountain  ranges  reach  the  height  of  8000  feet. 
No  single  comprehensive  List  of  the  Birds  of  this  part  of  India 
seems  lately  to  have  been  put  together,  and  Mr  Elwes  gives 
ua  no  statistics  as  the  result  of  bis  investigations  whereby 
we  may  compare  its  oraitbic  products  with  those  of  other 
districts. 

Ceylon  has  profited  by  the  residence  of  several  com- 
petent naturalists — especially  Mr  Layard  and  Mr  Holds- 
worth,  and  taking  also  its  isolation  into  account,  we  are 
in  a  position  to  speak  of  this  island  with  greater  certainty 
than  of  the  preceding  portions  of  the  Subregion.  The 
latter  of  these  gentlemen  gives  a  Ust*  numbering  323 
species,  of  which  224  are  Land-birds,  and  an  analysis  shews 
that,  though  37  species  are  peculiar,  only  4  belong  to  genera 
not  found  in  Southern  India,  22  belong  to  genera  inhabit- 
ing the  Himalaya  but  not  the  Malayan  Subregion,  and 
only  6  to  Malayan  but  not  Himalayan  genera,  while  14  are 
members  of  genera  only  found  in  India. 

•(3.)  The  Malayan  Subrejion  is  the  last  of  which  we  have 
to  treat,  and  we  have  already  hinted  that  it  possibly  has  a 
connection  with  the  Indian  through  the  Nicobar  Islands, 
but  of  course  the  most  intimate  communication  between 
the  two  exists  on  the  mainland.  The  birds  of  its  con- 
tinental portion,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  have  never,  formed 
the  subject  of  a  separate  memoir,  and  to  compile  a  com- 
plete list  of  them  at  present  is  a  task  wLich  a  more'  com- 
petent author  has  found  impossible.  Stoliczka  has  giten 
us  a  catalogue '  of  95  species  obtained  in  the  Wellesley 
Province,  lying  opposite  to  Penang,  and  numerous  ipecies 
have  been  constantly  described  by  various  authors  as 
coming  from  Malacca  or  Singapore,  which  in  most  cases 
probably  means  that  the  specimens  have  been  purchased  at 
one  of  those  places.  To  enter  into  any  details  with  respect 
to  the  Malay  Peninsula,  therefore,  would  here  be  impos- 
sible, but  the  case  is  different  as  regards  the  islands  which 
form  the  greater  part  of  the  Subregion. 
.(iihp-  The  Philippines,  for  more  than  a  century,  have  supplied 

Iine»  European  ornithologists  with  materials  of  study,  yet  it  is 

little  more  tlian  ten  years  ago  that  any  attempt  to  compile 
a  complete  list  ol  their  Birds  was  made,  and  that  list,  by 
Dr  von  Martens,*  was  manifestly  imperfect  It  is  only 
since  the  present  article  was  begun  that  a  satisfactory 
account  of  their  avifauna  has  appeared  This  is  the  work 
of  Lord  Walden,'  and  we  here  avail  ourselves  of  the  results 
which  he  has  so  ably  set  forth.  He  enumerates  219 
ipecies,  of  which   150  aroXand-birds  ,  but  in  consequence 


Bubregi'>u 


HtUy 

Peiiuieula. 


»  Proc.  Zoot.  Soc.  1832,  pp.  77,  H9 

«  Op  eit..  1872,  pp.  40J-433. 

»  Joum.  A3.  Soc.  Benj.  1870,  pp.  277-334.  Tlilj,  however,  mast 
not  be  read  without  referring  to  Lord  WtlJcn'a  remarks  on  U  {Ibu 
187),  pp.  158-177). 

•  Journal  fir  Omilh»lnjie,  1SC6,  pp.  5-31 

•  Tranaactwnt  of  the  Zoological  Society,  U.  pp   1 25-251 


of  the  caution  he  has  exercised,  it  is  most  probable  that 
this  number  la  really  too  small  Of  these,  lOG  species  arc 
peculiar  to  the  archipelago — 96  of  them  being  Land-birds. 
There  is  no  species,  he  remarks,  which  is  common  to  the 
Philippines  and  the  neighbouring  island  of  Celebes  which 
dues  not  also  possess  a  more  extended  range,  and  there  is 
only  one  genus — Frioniturui.  a  very  singular  form  of  Psil- 
taci — common  to  both  and  yet  found  nowhere  else.  The 
genera  peculiar  to  the  groupare  1 1  m  uumber — Pseudolalane 
belonging  to  Campephagidti,  Zcicephus  to  Afusdaipid<.e, 
Rhabdomis  to  Certliiidoe,  Sarcops  to  Stumidtx,  Pmdopidet 
to  Bucerotidce,  Dasylophua  and  Lrpidogrammus  to  Citfi^ 
lidce,  Pseudoptynx  to  Strigxdce,  Pliabotreron  and  PUlocolj'a 
to  Columbidce,  and  Amauromia  to  Rallidce.  There  is  also 
only  1  species  common  to  one  of  the  Philippines — the  island 
of  Negros — and  to  one  other  island.  This  is  Xantholuema 
rosea,  which  is  also  found  in  Java,  and  seems  to  be  the 
representative  of  the  Nvidely-spread  X  luEmatocephala, 
which  ranges  over  India,  Malacca,  and  Sumatra,  but  is  not 
found  either  in  Java  or  Negros.  It  will  thus  be  seen 
that  the  amount  of  peculiarity  exhibited  by  the  avifauna 
of  the  Philippines  is  very  great,  but  it  must  be  observed 
that  hardly  anything  is  as  yet  known  of  Palawan  or  the 
Sooloo  cluster — islands  which  connect  the  Philippines  with 
Borneo. 

Borneo  is  the  next  island  to  which  our  attention  should  be  Bomec 
directed,  and  this  magnificent  country,  large  enough  as  Mr 
Wallace  has  remarked  for  the  whole  of  the  United  Kingdom 
to  be  set  down  in  its  midst  and  hidden,  has  lately  had  its 
avifauna  carefuUy  investigated  by  Dr  Salvadori,  the  result 
of  whose  labours  was  published  in  1874*  The  following 
may  be  given  as  a  summary  of  them  There  are  392 
species,  of  which  325  are  Land-birds,  27  belonging  to  the 
Order  Accipitres,  4  to  Psiltaci,  99  to  Picarice,  172  to  Pas- 
seres,  14  to  Columbae,  and  9  to  Gallinoe.  Yet  there  are 
only  3  unquestionably  peculiar  genera' — Pityriasis,  a  most 
singular  form,  doubtfully  referred  to  Laniida,  Schmaneria 
belonging  to  Muscicapidce,  and  Helerococcyx  to  Cucutidae 
There  are  58  or  59  pecuhar  species,  all  but  1  Land-birds, 
and  at  least  25,  or  perhaps  as  many  as  32,  which  have  no 
representatives  elsewhere  Of  Land-birds  Borneo  has,  in 
common  with  Malacca  and  Sumatra,  226  species  ;  in  com- 
mon with  Java,  149  ,  with  the  Philippines,  25  ,  with  the 
Indian  Subregion,  53,  with  China,  72  ,  and  with  Celebes, 
28.  A  species  of  Megapodius  (M  cumln^i)  is  found  in 
Borneo  and  also  in  the  Philippines,'  and  its  presence  in 
both,  like  that  of  a  member  of  the  same  genus  in  the 
Nicobars  already  noticed,  is  a  very  remarkable  fact. 

Tne  comparatively  little-known  island  of  Banca,  lying  B»uf» 
between  Borneo  and  Sumatra,  produces  2  peculiar  species 
of  Pittidm,  the  one  representing  a  species  which  inhabits 
the  whole  Subregion  and  extends  to  China  and  Siam.  the 
other  allied  to  two  species,  the  first  ranging  from  Nepal  to 
Malacca,  and  the  second  inhabiting  the  Philippines,  Borneo, 
and  Sumatra.' 

Sumatra  must  be  considered  next,  or  perhaps  it  ought  Sunmr* 
to  have  been  taken  after  Malacca,  from  which  it  is  divided 
by  so  narrow  a  channel  The  greater  part  of  this  island, 
its  northern  half  especially,  is  unknown,  and  not  more  than 
240  species  can  be  assigned  to  it,  of  which  about  20 
appear  to  be  peculiar      Its  avifauna  is  much  allied  to  that 

•  Annidi  del  Sluseo  Civue  di  Storm  A'aturaU  di  Oenova,  t.  pp. 
1-130. 

'  A  reputed  fonrth,  Anaia,  referred  to  Artamidm,  Is  auspeeted  to 
be  fo-joded  on  &  minufactured  <pecim«o  I  Lobiophtuis,  since  established 
by  Mr  Sharpe  (.,<nn.  and  il(U).  A'al.  l/ist.  Sor.  4,  xiv.  p.  373),  and 
bcJoDging  to  Phcuuinidce,  probably  makes  another. 

'Mr  Sharps,  however,  oouiders  the  species  distinct  (Pnc.  Zool  5». 
1875,  p.  111). 

*  But  OD  this  point  compare  Mt  Liutue'a  remark  {Stray  FtaUifft,  tl 
P   475). 


704 


BIRDS 


[MIGRATION. 


both  of  ^^alacca  and  of  Borneo,  but  it  seems  to  have  much 
less  peculiarity  than  the  latter's. 

We  then  have  Java,  the  best-explored,  the  most  thickly- 
peopled,  and,  proportionately  to  its  fauna,  the  most  pecu- 
liar, perhaps,  of  the  Indo-Malay  Islands.  Here  we  find 
about  270  species  of  Land-birds,  of  which  about  45  are 
peculiar — most  of  them  being  from  the  mountains  in  the 
western  part  of  the  island.  The  reappearance  in  Java  of 
several  Burmese  species,  as  Crypsirkina  vanans,  Picus 
analis,  Pavo  muticus,  and  others,  which  do  not  occur 
ID  the  Malay  Penmsula  south  of  Penang,  is  very  remark- 
able. 

Of  Bali,  80  interestmg  as  the  southern  outpost  of  the 
Region,  we  only  know  from  Mr  Wallace  that  he  saw  there 
several  Birds  highly  characteristic  of  Javan  ornithology, 
and  whether  the  island  has  any  peculiar  species  nowhere 
appears.  We  are  then  brought  to  the  brink  of  that  re- 
markable s.rait  through  which  runs  "  Wallace's  Line,"  and 
crossing  it  find  ourselves  at  once  in  the  Australian  Region, 
with  which  we  began  this  protracted  dissertation. 

Uiilfonnity  It  is,  of  course,  much  to  be  regretted  that  at  present  our 
and  com-  information  does  not  allow  of  our  treating  all  the  Sii  Zoo- 
pleteness  of  logical  Regions  of  the  globe  on  a  uniform  plan,  or  of  deal- 
impossible.  '"?  equally  with  their  several  component  jiortions.  That 
this  will  be  possible  in  a  few  years,  as  materials  are  accu- 
mulated, none  can  doubt ;  but  as  yet  we  are  far  from  the 
attainment  of  so  desirable  an  end,  and  must  be  content  to 
make  the  most  of  what  we  have.  Want  of  space,  also,  has 
hindered  the  proper  consideration  here  of  many  points  that 
fully  deserve  notice,  and  especially  the  negative  character- 
istics of  the  different  Regions — often  quite  as  important 
as  those  which  are  positive.  Of  the  imperfections  of  the 
preceding  sketch  no  one  can  be  more  painfully  aware  than 
its  author,  but  its  very  imperfections  may  serve  a  useful 
purpose  in  drawing  attention  to  the  districts  about  which 
least  is  known.  Yet  it  would  be  affectation  for  him  not 
to  believe  that  it  has  some  actual  merit,  but  that  merit  is 
greatly  if  not  chiefly  due  to  the  kindness  of  Mr  Wallace, 
who,  in  the  manner  already  stated,  has  allowed  his  forth- 
coming work  to  be  laid  under  contribution,  though  in  several 
respects  its  conclusions  are  not  here  adopted.  That  work, 
when  published,  will  unquestionably  form  a  foundation  on 
which  a  noble  superstructure  will  ultimately  be  erected, 
but  it  were  vain  to  anticipate  the  ends  which  such  a  build- 
ing will  one  day  serve,  and  it  would  be  beyond  our  scope 
to  enter  into  any  theoretical  disquisition  on  the  deductions 
which  follow  from  the  facts  here  advanced. 

MIGRATION. 

Most  strang»ly  and  unaccountably  confounded  by  many 
writers  with  the  subject  of  Distribution  is  that  of  Migra- 
tion.    True  it  is  that  owing  to  the  vast  powers  of  loco- 
motion possessed  by  nearly  all  Birds,  we  have  individuals 
M  grations  belonging  in  the  main  to  certain  groups,  but  by  i.o  means 
tppnrently  always  confined  to  them,  straying  from  their  proper  quar- 
iiiTyvet      '^"^  ""^^  occurring  in  places  far  removed,  not  only  from  the 
conform  ft)  '*°'^  "^  their  birth,  but  from  the  country  whither  they  are 
liws.  ordinarily  bound  in  their  journeys,  to  reach  which  is  the 

object  wherefore  such  journeys  are  undertaken.  It  may 
bo  that  in  some  measure  this  erraticism  is  governed  by 
filed  laws,  and  indeed  indication  is  not  wanting  that  such 
laws  exist,  though  as  yet  we  know  much  too  little  to  lay 
them  down  with  any  approach  to  cimfidence.  But  it  is 
obvious  on  reflection  that  granting  the  existence  of  most 
rigorous  laws  of  this  kind — determining  the  flight  of  every 
winged  vagabond — they  must  be  very  different  from  those 
which  are  obeyed  by  Birds  commonly  railed  "  Migratory," 
and  migrating  year  after  year  according  to  a  more  or  Ip"- 


fixed  rule  from  one  locality  to  another  with  the  seasons  as 
they  roll.  ■  The  former  laws  would  seem  to  be  created  or 
controlled  by  purely  external  circumstances,  which  if  they 
possess  any  periodicity  at  all  possess  a  periodicity  of  cyqles, 
and  are  most  likely  dependent  in  the  main  on  cycles  of 
the  weather,  ■  but  on  this  point  observ'ation  has  not  yet 
supplied  us  with  the  means  of  avoiding  speculation.  We 
may  indeed  say  almost  without  much  ridk  of  error  that  so 
many  individuals  of  a  foreign  species — whether  North- 
American  or  Asiatic — will  occur  in  Great  Britain  so  many 
times  in  the  course  of  a  term  of  years  ;  but,  though  we  may 
safely  predict  that  if  they  appear  at  all  they  will  do  so  at 
a  certain  season,  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  forecast  as  to 
the  year  in  which  an  example  will  turn  up,  or  whether  in 
one  year  some  half-dozen  may  or  may  not  occur.  The 
matter  thus  becomes  a  matter  of  averages,  and  like  all 
such  is  open  to  the  influence  of  many  perturbants,  not  that 
such  may  not  well  be  subject  to  some  law  of  which  we  are 
ignorant.  Besides  this,  the  average  is  hard  to  strike,  de- 
pending as  it  must  on  the  existence  of  favourably-placed 
and  watchful  observers.  Moreover  if  we  consider  that  the 
number  of  competent  observers,  though  possibly  greater  in 
England  than  anywhere  else  in  the  world,  has  been  at 
all  times  small,  it  is  not  surprising  that  little  has  been 
effected  towards  the  compassing  of  any  definite  notion  on 
this  head.  At  present  we  can  but  attribute  the  appearance 
of  foreign  sstragglers  on  our  shores,  and  no  doubt  the  same 
m.iy  be  said  of  other  countries,  to  the  influence  of  storms 
which  have  driven  the  wanderers  from  their  course,  and 
though  other  more  remote  causes  may  possibly  be  assigned, 
there  seems  to  be  none  but  this  on  which  we  can  safely 
rely.  Consequently  until  the  periodicity  of  storms  is 
brought  within  our  knowledge  we  must  he  content  to  abide 
in  our  ignorance  of  the  laws  which  govern  the  appearai.ce 
of  the  strangers.  Still  confining  our  remarks  to  the  British 
Islands,  the  effect  of  these  laws  is  in  some  degree  constant. 
Singular  as  it  may  appear,  the  greatest  number  of  North-  Appear- 
American  Birds — and  especially  of  the  Limicoloe,  or  Shore-  »»«  "' 
birds,  which  are  recorded  as  having  occurred  in  this  country  American 
have  been  met  with  in  the  eastern  part  of  England  or  gritam. 
Scotland.  There  are  two  ways  of  accounting  for  this  fact, 
the  first  of  which  is  .the  unfortunate  scarcity  of  observing 
naturalists  in  Ireland  and  on  its  western  coast  especially, 
and  this  is  by  no  means  to  be  overlooked  ;  but  it  may  be 
remarked  that  in  no  part  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  the 
profession  of  the  gunner  more  enthusiastically  followed 
than  in  the  sister  island,  and  the  men  who  pursue  that 
vocation  are  all  alive  to  the  mercantile  value  of  any  strange 
bird  which  may  fall  in  their  way.  Of  course  they  have  no 
means  of  knowing  what  it  is,  yet  as  their  spoils  are  sent  for 
sale  to  the  nearest  market,  it  cannot  but  happen  that  if 
many  examples  of  North-American  species  were  procured 
by  them,  some  proportion  of  these  would  find  their  way  to 
the  notice  of-  the  amateur  naturalist  and  by  bim  be  re- 
corded in  the  public  prints.'  Now,  as  compared  with 
Great  Britain,  this  so  rarely  occurs  jn  Ireland  that  it  is  by 
no  means  unfair  to  draw  the  inference  that  Transatlantin 
Birds  are  there  far  less  frequently  met  with.  ,  The  second 
mode  of  accounting  for  the  f.ict  above  stated  is  that  tht 
majority  of  North-American  Birds  which  occasionally  visit 
Europe  are  of  species  which  breed  in  somi'what  high 
northern  latitudes.  On  their  way  thence  to  their  winter- 
quarters,  some  are  driven  out  to  sea  by  violent  westerly 
gales — the  strongest  winds,  bo  it  remembered,  that  prevail 

'  It  seems  also  not  unlikely  that  the  very  scarcity  of  rare  birds  in 
Ireland  is  one  reason  why  there  are  so  few  ornithologists  in  tbnt 
country,  for  here  it  is  not  uncommon- for  a  man  to  h.ive  his  attention 
first  called  to  zoology  by  meeting  with  some  strange  animal  — bo  it  bea-^t, 
bini.  beetle,  or  biittertly,  and  for  such  a  nian  aftcrwardj  to  become 
-o  mean  Celd-Daturalist. 


Migration 
proper. 


Eiploilod 
fancy  of 
hiltcnia' 
tioo. 


Chief  fauU 
of  migra- 
tion. 


UIGBATION.] 

In  the  North  Atlantic,  and  thus  stnte  tDc  coast  oT  Norway.' 
In  that  country  observers  may  be  said  to  be  practically 
absent,  and  fowlers  as  a  rule  unknown.  Such  storm-beaten 
wanderers  there  consort  with  the  allied  species  to  be  found 
at  that  season  in  abundance  on  its  shores  and  in  their  com- 
pany pursue  the  same  southerly  course.  With  them  they 
cross  to  the  east  of  Great  Britain,  and  once  arnvcd  here 
are  speedily  picked  out  and  secured  by  the  practised 
gunner.  But  should  they  even  escape  his  notice,  they 
with  their  comrades  follow  the  shore-line,  where  they 
obtain  the  best  supply  of  food,  until  passing  round  the 
south  coast  they  find  themselves  at  the  western  extremity 
of  England — the  district  of  the  Land's  End,  in  which, 
next  to  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  the  greatest  number  of  these 
Transatlantic  stragglers  have  been  obtained.  This  sugges- 
tion may  serve  to  shew  what  most  likely  gots  on  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  though  the  materials  for  establishing  ita 
general  truth  are  not  forthcoming. 

But  returning  to  the  subject  of  Migration  proper,  dis- 
tinguished as  it  ought  to  be  from  that  of  the  more  or  less 
accidental  occurrence  of  stray  visitors  from  afar,  we  have 
here  more  than  enough  to  excite  our  wonder,  and  indeed 
ore  brought  face  to  face  with  perhaps  the  greatest  mystery 
which  the  whole  animal  kingdom  presents — a  mystery 
which  attracted  the  attention  of  the  earliest  writers,  and 
can  in  its  chief  point  be  no  more  explained  by  the  modern 
man  of  science  than  by  the  simple-minded  savage  or  the  poet 
or  prophet  of  antiquity.  Some  facts  are  almost  universally 
known  and  have  been  the  theme  of  comment  in  all  ages  and 
in  all  lands.  The  Hawk  that  stretches  her  wings  toward 
the  south  is  as  familiar  to  the  latest  Nile-boat  traveller  or 
dweller  on  the  Bosphorus  as  of  old  fo  the  author  of  the  book 
of  Job.  The  autumnal  thronging  of  myriads  of  Water- 
fowl by  the  rivers  of  Asia  is  witnessed  by  the  modern 
sportsman  as  it  was  of  old  by  Homer.  Anacrcon  welcomed 
the  returning  Swallow,  in  numbers  which  his  imitators  of 
the  colder  north,  to  whom  the  associations  connected  with 
it  are  doubly  strong,  have  tried  in  vain  to  excel.  The 
Indian  of  the  Fur-Countries  in  forming  his  rude  calendar 
names  the  recurring  moons  after  the  Birds-of-passage  whose 
arrival  is  coincident  with  their  changes.  But  there  is  no 
need  to  multiply  instances.  The  flow  and  ebb  of  the  mighty 
feathered  wave  has  been  sung  by  poets  and  reasoned  of  by 
philosophers,  has  given  rise  to  proverbs  and  entered  into 
popular  superstitions,  and  yet  we  must  say  of  it  still  that 
our  "  ignorance  is  immense." 

On  one  point  and  one  only  in  connection  with  this 
subject  can  we  boast  ourselves  to  be  clearly  wiser  than  our 
ancestors.  Some  of  them  fully  believed  that  the  seasonal 
disappearance  of  the  Swallow,  the  Nightingale,  the  Cuckow, 
and  the  Corncrake  was  due  to  hibernation,  while  others 
indeed  doubted  whether  or  not  this  was  the  true  explana- 
tion of  the  fact.  It  is  not  so  long  since  this  belief  and 
these  doubts  were  in  vogue,  but  now  assuredly  they  have 
no  hold  upon  the  mind  of  any  one  capable  of  appreciating 
evidence,  and  this  absurd  fancy  being  exploded  need  not 
again  trouble  us. 

In  considering  the  phenomena  of  Migration  it  will  be 
best  first  to  take  the  facts,  and  then  try  to  account  for 
their  cause  or  causes.  That  a  very  large  number  of  Birds 
all  over  the  world  change  their  abode  according  to  the 
season  is  well  known,  and  wo  find  that  in  almost  all 
countries  there  arc  some  species  which  arrive  in  spring, 
remain  to  breed,  and  depart  in  autumn ;  others  which 
arrive  in  autumn,  stop  for  the  winter,  and  depart  in  spring; 
and  others  ag.ain — and  these  are  strictly  speaking  the 
"Birds  of  Passage" — which  shew  themselves  but  twice  a 


*  Trof.  Baird'n  remarVs  on  thU  subject  are  macb  to  the  point  (^m. 
/sum.  &..  Mr.  2.  xlL  cp.  3ii.  SU). 


BIRDS 


TGa 


year,  passing  through  the  country  without  staying  long  iri 
it,  and  their  transient  visits  take  place  about  spring  and 
autumn.  People  who  have  given  but  little  thought  to  the 
subject  are  apt  to  suppose  that  these  migrants,  which  may 
thus  easily  be  classed  in  three  categories,  are  acted  upon 
by  influences  of  different  kinds,  whereas  very  little  reflec- 
tion will  show  that  all  are  really  affected  by  the  sama 
impulse,  whatever  that  may  be,  and  that  the  at  first  sight 
dissimilar  nature  of  their  movements  is  in  truth  almost 
uniform.  The  species  which  resort  to  this  and  to  other  torn- 
pcrate  countries  in  winter  are  simply  those  which  have  their 
breeding  quarters  much  nearer  the  pules,  and  in  returning 
to  them  on  the  approach  of  spring  are  but  doing  exactly  as 
do  those  species  which,  having  their  winter-abode  nearer 
the  equator,  come  to  us  with  the  spring.  The  Birds-of- 
passage  proper,  like  our  winter-visitants  have  their  breed- 
ing-quarters nearer  the  poles,  but,  like  our  summer-visitants, 
they  seek  their  winter-abode  nearer  the  equator,  and  thus 
perform  a  somewhat  longer  migration.  So  far  there  is  no 
diflicuity  and  no  hypothesis — the  bringing  together  of 
these  three  apparently  different  categories  is  the  result  of 
simple  observation. 

This  however  is  not  the  only  fact  which  is  evident  on 
the  most  cursory  examination.  To  take  the  birds  of  the 
British  Islands  as  an  example  (though  exactly  similar  cases 
are  presented  in  other  countries)  we  find  that  while  there  are 
some  species,  such  as  the  Swallow  or  the  Fieldfare,  of 
which  every  individual  disappears  at  one  period  of  the 
year  or  another,  there  are  other  species,  such  as  the  Pied 
Wagtail  or  the  Woodcock,  of  which  only  the  majority  of 
individuals  vanish — a  few  being  always  present- — and 
these  species  form  the  so-called  "  Partial  Migrants."  If  we 
extend  our  view  and  look  to  birds  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  we  find  that  many  species  are  there  notoriously 
migrant  which  are  not  generally  suspected  to  be  so  in  this 
country — such  as  the  Song-Thrush  and  the  Redbreast,  Pong- 
both  of  which  species  closer  observation  has  proved  to  be  Tlirush. 
with  us  subject  to  the  migratory  impulse.  In  respect  of 
the  former  it  is  known  that  towards.the  end  of  summer  or 
in  autumn  our  native  Song-Thrushes  receive  a  considerable 
accession  in  numbers  from  the  birds  which  arrive  from  the 
north,  though  the  immigration  is  by  no  means  so  well 
marked  as  it  is  in  Belgium,  France,  or  Germany,  where 
the  arrival  of  the  strangers  sets  all  the  fowlers  to  work, 
and  the  beginning  of  the  Chasse  aux  Grives  or  Drosscl-ruy 
is  regarded  in  many  places  nearly  as  the  Twelfth  of  August 
or  the  First  of  September  is  with  us.  In  most  localities 
in  Britain  the  new  comers  depart  after  a  short  sojourn, 
and  are  accompanied  by  so  many  of  the  home-bred  birds 
that  in  some  parts  of  the  island  it  may  be  safely  declared 
that  not  a  single  Song-Thrush  can  be  found  from  the  end 
of  November  to  the  end  of  January,  while  in  others 
examples  can  always  be  seen.  Much  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  Redbreast.  Undeniably  resident  as  a  species.  Redbreast, 
attentive  scrutiny  will  reveal  the  fact  that  its  numbers  are 
subject  to  very  considerable  variation  according  to  the 
season  of  the  year.  At  no  time  do  our  Redbreasts  collect  in 
bands,  but  towards  the  end  of  suraracr  they  may  be  seen 
in  the  south  of  England  successively  passing  onward,  the 
travellers  being  mostly  if  not  wholly  young  birds  of  th« 
year;  and  so  the  great  majority  disappear,  departing  it  may 
bo  safely  presumed  for  more  southern  countries,  since  a 
few  weeks  later  the  markets  of  most  towns  first  in  Franco 
and  then  in  Italy  are  well  supplied  with  this  species.  But 
the  migratory  influence  affects,  though  in  a  less  degree, 
many  if  not  most  of  the  Redbreasts  th.it  remain  with  ns, 
Content  during  tho  autumn  to  occupy  their  usual  haunts, 

'  Whether  these  few  be  not  mitrants  from  anoibcr  disuict  It  »  poia] 
th.-tt  would  require  further  cODSidcrfttioo. 


766 


BIRDS 


[mickation- 


Migration 

aini'tst 

tiuiversal. 


Affection 
for  old 
breeding- 
places. 


^'ant  of 
food  tlie 
most  ob- 
vious cause 
ol  migra- 
tioa. 


the  first  sharp  frost  has  a  decided  effect  upon  tleir  distri- 
bution, aad  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  drives  tliem  towards  the 
homesteads  for  the  larger  supply  of  food  tbey  hnd  there, 
while  should  severe  and  long-continued  hard  weather  follow 
even  these  birds  vanish,  leaving  only  the  few  which  have 
become  almost  domesticated. 

These  two  species  have  been  here  chosen  as  illustrative 
cases  because  they  are  at  once  plentiful  and  familiar,  and 
want  of  space  only  forbids  us  from  citing  others,  but  we 
shall  find  on  inquiry  that  there  is  scarcely  a  Bird  of  either 
the  Palxarctic  or  Nearctic  Region,  whose  habits  are  at  all 
well  known,  of  which  much  the  same  may  not  be  said, 
and  hence  we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  every  Bird  of 
the  northern  hemisphere  is  to  a  greater  or  less  degree 
migratory  in  some  part  or  other  of  its  range.  Such  a  con- 
clusion brings  us  to  a  still  more  general  inference — namely 
that  Migration,  instead  of  being  the  exceptional  character- 
istic it  used  formerly  to  be  thought,  may  really  be  almost 
universal,  and  though  the  lack  of  observations  in  other, 
and  especially  tropical,  countries  does  not  allow  us  to 
declare  that  such  is  the  case,  it  seems  very  probable  to  be 
sj.  Before  proceeding  however  to  any  further  conclusions 
it  is  necessary  to  examine  another  class  of  facts  which  may 
possibly  throw  some  light  on  the  matter. 

It  must  be  within  the  experience  of  every  one  who  haa 
ever  been  a  birds'-nestiug  boy  that  the  most  sedentary  of 
Birds  year  after  year  occupy  the  same  quarters  in  the 
breeding  season.'  In  some  instances  this  may  be  ascribed, 
it  is  true,  to  the  old  haunt  affording  the  sole  or  the  most 
convenient  site  for  the  nest  in  the  neighbourhood,  but  in 
60  many  instances  such  is  not  the  case  that  we  are  led  to 
believe  in  the  existence  of  a  real  partiality,  while  there  are 
quite  enough  exceptions  to  show  that  a  choice  is  frequently 
exercised.  The  same  may  equally  be  said  of  the  most 
migrant  of  Birds,  and  perhaps  the  strongest  instance  that 
has  ever  come  to  the  knowledge  of  the  writer  refers  to  one 
of  the  latter.  A  pair  of  Stone-Curlews  ((Edicnemus 
crepitans) — a  very  migratory  species,  affecting  almost 
exclusively  the  most  open  country — were  in  the  habit  of 
breeding  for  many  years  on  the  same  spot  though  its 
character  had  undergone  a  complete  change.  It  had  been 
part  of  an  extensive  and  barren  rabbit-warren,  and  was 
become  the  centre  of  a  large  and  flourishing  plantation. 

With  these  two  sets  of  facts  before  us  we  may  begin  to 
try  and  account  for  the  cause  or  causes  of  Migration.  In 
some  cases  want  of  food  would  seem  to  be  enough,  as  it 
is  undoubtedly  the  most  obvious  cause  that  presents  itself 
to  our  mind.'  The  need  which  all  animals  have  of  finding 
for  themselves  proper  and  sufBcient  sustenance  is  all- 
powerful,  and  the  difficulties  they  have  to  encounter  in 

'  Two  remarkable  instances  'of  this  persistency  may  be  noticed.  The 
nest  of  a  Falcon  {Falco  pcregriniu)  on  Avas,ua — a  hill  in  Finland 
iomcwhat  celebrated  as  one  of  the  most  southern  points  whence  the 
midnight  eun  may  be  seen — is  mentioned  by  the  French  astronomer 
Maupeituls  as  having  been  observed  by  him  in  the  year  1736.  In 
17!)9  it  was  rediscovered  by  Skjoldebrand  and  Acerbi  In  1853 
Wollev  found  it  tenanted,  and  from  enquiries  ho  moile  of  the  neigh- 
bours il  was  evident  that  such  hnd  yearly  been  the  case  60  far  as  any 
one  could  remember,  and  so  it  was  in  1S55  as  the  writer  can  testify. 
In  1779  according  to  one  account.  In  1785  according  to  another,  a  pair 
of  the  Blue  Titmouse  (Pa-nu  crrrulms)  built  their  ut-st  in  a  large 
earthenware  bottle  placed  in  the  branches  of  a  tree  in  a  garden  at 
Oxbridge  ne.ir  Stockton-on-Tees.  With  two  exceptions  only,  this  bottle, 
or  a  second  which  ha«  lately  been  placed  close  to  it.  has  been  tenanted 
by  a  puir  of  birds  of  this  species  from  the  year  to  which  it  w.is  first 
occupied  until  1873.  when  the  writer  saw  It, — See  Yarroll's  EntuK 
fliri/j,  4th  od  I  pp   68.  486 

•  Far  iru>re  so  than  variation  of  the  temperature,  though  In  popular 
belief  tlial  probably  holds  the  first  place.  But  Birds  generally,  as 
compared  with  other  Vertebrates,  are  but  slightly  affected  by  extremes 
of  heal  or  cold,  and  Inileed  («o  far  na  we  can  judge)  by  most  climatic 
Influence  prnvi.lnl  only  their  supply  of  foo")  It  not  afli-cted  thereby 
— "Cy,  Max  Schmidt,  ZooUxj.  Oartcn,  1865,  pp.  330-340,; 


obtaining  it  .ire  so  great  that  none  can  wonder  that  those 
which  possess  the  power  of  removing  themselves  from  a 
place  of  scarcity  should  avail  themselves  of  it,  while  it  is 
unquestionable  that  no  Class  of  animals  has  this  facility  m 
a  greater  degree  than  Birds '  Even  among  many  of  those 
species  which"  we  commonly  speak  of  as 'sedentary,  it  is 
only  the  adults  which  maintain  their  ground  throughout 
the  year.  It  h,\s  long  been  known  that  Birds-of-prey  cus-  Canisb- 
tomarily  drive  away  their  offspring  from  their  own  haunts  "'""'  «' 
so  soon  as  the  young  are  able  to  shift  for  themselves.  The  y"""? 
reason  generally,  and  no  doubt  truly,  given  for  this  be- 
haviour, which  at  first  sight  appears  so  unnatural,  is  the 
impossibility  of  both  parents  and  progeny  getting  a  hveli- 
hood  in  the  same  vicinity.  The  practice,  however,  is  not 
limited  to  the  Birds-of  prey  alone,  but  is  much  more  uni- 
versal.  We  find  it  to  obtain  with  the  Redbreast,  and  if 
we  watch  our  feathered  neighbours  closely  we  shall  per- 
ceive that  must  of  them  indulge  in  it.  The  period  of 
expidsion,  it  is  true,  is  in  some  Birds  deferred  from  the 
end  of  summer  or  the  autumn,  in  which  it  is  usually  per- 
formed, until  the  following  spring,  W'hen  indeed  from  the 
maturity  of  the  young  it  must  be  regarded  as  much  in  the 
light  of  a  voluntary  secession  on  their  part  as  in  that  of 
an  act  of  parental  compulsion,  but  the  effect  is  ultimately 
the  same.  These  cases,  however,  which  make  certainly  Excep- 
the  exception  rather  than  the  rule,  we  can  account  for  in  tioual 
another  manner.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  they  are  con-  ""'^" 
fined  to  species  having  a  peculiar  mode  of  life,  the  indi- 
viduals associating  in  family-parties  to  form  small  bands. 
The  members  of  the  Titmouse  family  (Paridce)  offer  a 
good  instance  of  this  peculiarity,  but  it  requires  no  very 
abstruse  reflection  to  perceive  that  the  adoption  of  tins 
habit  is  one  eminently  conducive  to  the  easy  attainment 
of  their  food,  which  is  collected,  as  it  were,  into  particular 
spots  often  far  apart,  but  where  it  does  occur  occurring 
plentifully.  Thus  a  single  Titmouse  searching  alone  might 
hunt  for  a  whole  day  without  meeting  with  a  sufficiency, 
while  if  a  dozen  are  united  by  the  same  motive  it  is  hardly 
possible  for  the  place  in  which  the  food  is  lodged  to  escape 
their  detection,  and  when  discovered  a  few  call-notes  from 
the_ lucky  finder  are  enough  to  assemble  the  whole  com- 
pany to  share  the  feast  It  is  impossible  to  watch  a  band 
of  any  species  of  Titmouse,  even  for  a  few  minutes,  with- 
out arriving  at  this  conclusion.  One  tree  aft^r  another  is 
visited  by  the  active  little  rovers,  and  its  branches  examined 
if  nothing  be  forthcoming  away  goes  the  e.^plorer  to  the 
next  that  presents  itself,  merely  giving  utterance  to  the 
usual  twitter  that  serves  to  keep  the  body  together.  But 
if  the  object  of  search  be  found,  another  kind  of  chirp  is 
emitted,  and  the  next  moment  the  several  mcmbersof  the 
baud  are  flitting  in  succession  to  the  tree  and  eagerly  en- 
gaged with  the  spoil.* 

The  mode  in  which  the  want  of  sustenance  produces  Outward 
Migration  may  best  be  illustrated  by  confining  ourselves  migration 
to  the  unquestion.ably  migrant  Birds  of  our  own  northern  5^"^",!,,.,  I, 
hemisphere.      As   food   grows  scarce  towards  the  end  of  (^^j 
summer  in   the  most   northern  limits  of  the   range  of  a 
species,  the  individuals  atl'octed  thereby  seek  it  elsewhere. 
Thus  doing,  they  press  upon  the  haunt  of  other  individuals; 
these  in  like  manner  upon  that  of  yet  others,  and  so  on, 

^  The  only  animals  which  approach  Birds  In  the  extent  ami  character 
of  tticir  migrations  are  Fisbes,  of  which  there  Is  do  need  here  to  say 
anything. 

*  The  case  is  altogether  dilTcrent  with  those  species  which  In  winter 
form  themselves  into  large  flocks.  03  most  of  the  Finches  (/^nnj/iV^irfcc) 
and  Buntings  {Etnhcnziiia:)  Tile  discoverer  of  a  favourite  morsel 
perhaps  by  his  actions  betrays  what  he  has  obtained,  and  according^ 
his  fellows  may  repair  to  the  place,  but  it  is  without  invitation  on  hU 
part,  and  the  only  particular  bond  of  union  not  entirely  selfish  which 
keeps  them  together  is  the  cry  of  alarm  with  which  a  stranger  U 
gr.-.;leU. 


mCRATIOW.) 


BIRDS 


767 


tintil  the  movement  nhich  began  in  (he  far  nortli  is  com- 
municaled  to  the  imlividuaU  occupying  the  extreme  soutb- 
crn  ranga  of  the  species  at  tLat  season  ,  though,  but  for 
euch  an  intrusion,  these  last  might  be  content  to  stay  some 
time  longer  m  the  enjoyment  of  their  existing  quarters. 

Thia  seems  satisfactorily  to  explain  the  southward  move- 
ment of  all  migrating  Birds  in  the  northern  hemisphere , 
floraew«rd  but  when  we  consider  the  return  movement  which  takes 
moveiaeuu  place  some  six  months  later,  doubt  may  be  entertained 
whether  scarcity  of  food  can  be  assigned  as  its  sole  or  suf- 
ficient cause,  and  perhaps  it  would  be  safest  not  to  roiae* 
to  any  decision  on  this  point.  On  one  side  it  may  be  urged 
that  the  more  equatorial  regions  which  in  winter  are  crowded 
with  emigrants  from  the  north,  though  well  fitted  for  the 
resort  of  so  great  a  population  at  that  season  are  de^cient 
in  certain  necessaries  for  the  nursery.  Nor  does  it  seem 
too  violent  an  assumption  to  suppose  that  even  if  such 
necessaries  are  not  absolutely  wantin';,  yet  that-the  regions 
in  question  would  not  supply  suflic.nt  food  for  both  parents 
end  offspring — the  latt<;r  being  at  the  lowest  computation, 
twice  as  numerous  as  the  former — unless  the  numbers  of 
both  were  dimimshed  by  tiie  casualties  of  travel.'  But  on 
the  other  hand  wa  must  remember  what  has  above  been 
advanced  in  regard  to  the  pcrlinaci'y  wi;h  which  Birds 
return  to  their  accustomed  breeding  [-laces,  and  the  forci; 
of  this  passionate  fondness  for  the  old  home  cannot  but 
be  taken  into  account,  even  if  we  do  not  allow  that  in  it 
lies  the  whole  stimidus  to  uuderlake  the  perilous  voyage. 
MrW«llace  Mr  Wallace  in  some  remarks  on  the  subject  (Nature, 
on  origin  of  X  p  459)  ingeniously  suggo.sts  the  manner  in  which  the 
habiTj""''    '^^'^'^  °^  .Migration  has  come  to  be  adcpted  -— 

It  apppars  to  me  probable  that  herf,  a3  m  so  nidny  other  cases, 
survival  of  llic  tittost*  niM  be  fouod  to  hive  had  a  potverful  loflu- 
ence.  Let  us  suppose  that  in  any  species  of  nrgra'ory  bird,  breeding 
can  as  a  rulo  be  only  sufely  accomplished  in  a  given  area;  irtd 
further,  that  during  a  great  pan  of  the  res-t  of  the  year  suthci  nt 
food  cannot  be  obtained  in  thnt  area  It  will  fellow  that  thoi? 
birds  \fbich  do  not  leave  the  breeding  area  :l  (be  proper  season 
will  suffer,  and  ultmiately  become  ejtinct.  *b:ch  «ill  also  be  the 
fate  of  ^ose  which  do  not  leave  thefeedin;^  area  at  the  proper  time 
Nnw,  if  we  suppose  That  the  two  areas  were  (for  some  renjoie  ancestor 
of  the  existing  species)  coincideDt,  but  by  geological  and  climatic 
changes  gradually  diverged  from  eich  olher.  »**e  ran  easily  under- 
stand bow  the  habit  of  incipient  and  partial  niigralion  at  the  proper 
seasons  would  at  last  become  bereditary,  and  so  fixed  as  to  be  whai 
we  lemi  an  instinct  It  will  probably  be  found,  that  every  grada- 
tion stiU  exists  in  various  pans  of  thrt  world,  from  a  coiiiplt-io 
coincidence  to  a  complete  separation  of  the  brei-dir:g  and  the  sub 
sislence  areas,  ari-l  when  the  n.^;ural  history  of  a  sufficient  number 
of  species  IS  thoroughly  worked  out,  we  may  find  every  link  between 
apecie.^  which  never  leaee  a  restricted  arei  in  which  they  breed  and 
livo  the  whole  year  round,  to  those  other  cases  in  which  the  two 
Oji.33  are  absolutely  separated  " 

A  few  more  particulars  respecting  Migration  arc  all  that 
can  here  be  given,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  much  can  be 
Earlier  re-  tuilt  upon   them.     It   has  now   been  ascertained  by  re- 
turn of  male  pcated  obser\'alion  that  in  the  spring-movement  of  most 
ongranu     gpejjgj   (,(  jijg   northern   hemisphere   the   cock-birds   are 
always  m  the  van  of  the  advancing  army,  and  that  they 
appear  some  days,  or  perhaps  weeks,  before  the  hens.     It. 
ia  not  difficult  to  imagine  that,  in  tno  course  of  a  journey 

'  If  the  relative  proportion  of  land  to  water  in  the  Southern  Fleml- 
iphcre  were  at  all  such  as  it  U  in  the  Northern,  we  should  no  doubt 
flod  Ibe  bir.U  of  southern  continents  bepnning  to  pnjss  upon  the  tro- 
pical and  equatorial  regions  of  the  globe  at  the  863.100  when  they  were 
thronged  with  the  emigrants  from  the  north,  and  id  such  a  case  it 
would  he  only  reasonable  that  the  latter  should  bo  acted  upon  by  the 
force  of  the  former,  according  to  the  explanation  given  of  the  south- 
ward movement  of  northern  migraota  But.  though  we  know  almost 
nothing  of  the  migration  of  birda  of  the  other  hemisphere,  yet,  when  wo 
regard  Ibe  compartttive  deficiency  of  land  in  southerD  latitudes  all 
round  the  world,  it  u  obvious  that  the  feathered  population  of  such 
a«  now.a-days  exist*  cnn  exert  but  little  m/luence,  and  its  effects  may 
be  practicaUy  disregarded. 

•  In  principle  Captain  Flntton  bad  already  foreshadowed  the  aamo 
theory.  — (TVoTW.  A'cw  Zeal.  Jrut.  1872,  p.  235.) 


prolonged  throughout  some  50°  or  60°  of  latitude,  tha 
stronger  individuals^  should  outstrip  the  weaker  by  a  very 
perceptible  distance,  and  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  in 
most  species  the  males  are  stouter,  as  they  are  bigger  than 
the  females.  Some  observers  asstrl  that  the  same  thing 
takes  place  in  the  retarn-journey  in  autumn,  but  on  this 
point  others  are  not  se  sure,  which  is  not  surprising  when 
we  consider  that  the  majority  of  observation.^  have  been 
made  towards  what  is  the  northern  limit  of  the  range  of 
the  Fasserfs,  to  which  the  remark  is  especially  applicable 
— in  the  British  Islands,  France,  North  Germany,  and  tha 
Russian  Empire-  for  it  is  plain  that  at  the  beginning  of 
the  journey  any  inequality  in  the  speed  of  travelling  will 
not  have  become  so  very  manifest.  There  is  also  another 
matter  to  be  /loticed.  It  has  been  suspected  that  where  Connec- 
thero  13  any  dilTercnce  in  the  size  of  birds  of  the  same ''O"  of  ilu- 
species,  particularly  in  the  dimensions  of  thetr' wings,  the  f*"'"'' *'''' 
individuals  that  perform  the  most  extensHe  journeys  are  ^J^ 
naturally  those  with  the  longest  and  broadest  remijes,  and 
in  support  of  thia  view  it  certainly  appears  that  in  some 
of  the  smaller  migrants — such  as  the  VVheatear  {Saxicola 
ananthe)  and  Willow-Wrcn  (PhyUoscopua  Irothilus) — the 
examples  which  reach  the  extreme  north  of  Europe  and 
thefe  pass  the  summer  possess  greater  mechanical  powers 
of  fligJil  than  those  of  the  same  species  which  stgp  short 
on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  may  perhaps  ba 
also  inferred,  though  preci.so  evidence  is  wanting,  that 
these  sag.e  individuals  push  further  to  the  southward-in 
wuiter  than  do  those  which  'are  loss  favoured  in  this  re- 
spect. It  is  pretty  iie.-trly  rcrt.iin  that  such  is  the  case 
with  some  species,  and  it  may  well  bo  so  with  individuals. 
Canon  Tristram  has  remarked  [IbU,  18C5,  p.  77)  that,  in 
many  genera  of  Birds,  "  those  species  which  have  the  most 
extended  northerly  have  also  the  most  extended  southerly 
range,  and  that  those  which  resort  to  the 'highest  latitudes 
for  nidification  also  pass  further  than  others  to  the  south 
ward  in  winter,"  fortifying  his  opinion  by  examples  adduced 
from  the  genera  Turdus,  Fnngilln,  Cypidus,  and  Turlur 
But  supposing  this  to  he  true  for  many  Birds,  it  may 
fairly  be  doubled  whether  it  is  so  for  all,  and  whether  in 
some  species  certain  indinduals  do  not  always  occupy  tha 
most  northern  portion  of  the  range  and  others  always  keep 
to  the  most  southern,  no  matter  what  the  season  of  the 
year  may  be,  or  over  what  countries  the  range  may  es 
tend  On  this  point  therefore  it  will  be  advisable  to 
await  further  investigation. 

For  many  years  past  a  large  number  of  persons  io  dif-  Presnme't 
fereot  countries  have  occupied  and  amused  themselves  by  effects  oi 
carefully  registering  the  dates  on  which  various  migratory  """'"' °" 
Buds  first  make  theu  appearance,  and  certain  publicatiiKis 
abound  with  the  records  so  compiled.'  Some  of  tha 
observers  have  been  men  of  high  scientific  repute,  others 
of  less  note  but  of  not  inferior  capabilities  for  this  especial 
object.  Still  It  does  not  seem  that  they  have  been  able  to 
deicrmine  what  connection,  if  any,  exists  between  tbo 
amval  of  birds  and  the  slate  of  the  weather.  This  is  not 
very  wonderful,  for  the  movements  of  the  migrants,  if 
governed  at  all  by  meteorological  forces,  must  be  luflueoced 
by  their  action  lu  the  places  whence  the  travellers  have 
come,  and  therefore  to  establish  any  direct  relatioi-  of 
cause  and  effect  corresponding  observations  ought  eqQaJlv 
to  be  made  in  such  places,  which  has  seldom  been  done.* 

*  These  are  far  too  numerous  to  mention  here.  Perliaps  the  mo»i 
remarkable  series  of  them  n  that  earned  on  from  1736  to  1810  and 
again  from  1836  to  1674  by  lour  generations  of  the  Maoham  family  al 
Stratton-Strawlesa  and  Kippoo  ncdi  Norwich,  of  which  an  account  u 
given  by  Mr  Southwell  ( Trans   A'ov*  and  Xorie.  Aat.  Soc.  ii.  p.  ?1 1 

*  To  d  limited  extent  it  must  be  udniitted  thai  the  popular  txillel 
as  to  ccrt.'\in  Binls  being  the  h-^rhingers  of  severe  »f  eathor  is  juiti6ablo. 
Old  comes  from  the  north,  and  when  it  is  accompatued,  as  ia  mo?i  tfeii»- 


migration. 


7Bb 


BIRDS 


[migration. 


As  a  rule  it  would  seem  as  thoush  Birds  were  not  de- 
pendent OQ  the  weather  to  any  great  degree.  Occasionally 
the  return  of  the  Swallow  or  the  Nightingale  may  be 
somewhat  delayed,  \>\it  most  Sea-fowla  may  be  trusted,  it  is 
said,  as  the  almanack  itself.  Were  they  satellites  revolving 
around  this  earth,  their  arrival  could  hardly  be  more  surely 
calculated  by  an  astronomer.  Foul  weather  or  fair,  heat 
or  cold,  the  Puffins  {Fratercula  arctica)  repair  to  some  of 
their  stations  punctually  on  a  given  day  as  if  their  move- 
ments were  regulated  by  clock-work.  Whether  they  have 
come  from  far  or  from  near  we  know  not,  but  other  Birds 
certainly  come  from  a  great  distance,  and  yet  make  their 
appearance  with  scarcely  less  exactness.  Nor  is  the  regu- 
larity with  which  certain  species  disappear  much  inferior  ; 
every  observer  knows  how  abundant  the  Swift  (Cypsdns 
apus)  is  up  to  the  time  of  its  leaving  its  summer-home — 
in  most  parts  of  England,  the  first  days  of  August — and 
how  rarely  it  is  seen  after  that  time  is  past. 

It  must  be  allowed,  however,  that,  with  few  exceptions, 
the  mass  of  statistics  above  spoken  of  has  never  been 
worked  up  and  digested  so  as  to  allow  proper  inferences  to 
be  made  from  them,  and  therefore  it  would  be  premature 
to  say  that  little  would  come  of  it,  but  the  result  of  those 
few  exceptions  is  not  very  encouraging.  Some  twenty 
years  ago  Dr  von  Middendorff  carefully  collated  the 
records  of  the  arrival  of  migratory  Birds  throughout  the 
Russian  Empire,  but  the  insight  into  the  question-afforded 
by  his  published -labours'  is  not  very  great.  ,  His  chief 
©bject  has  been  to  trace  what  he  has  termed  the  isepiptesea 
(icro!  =  cequalis,  tVi'imycri?  =  advolatus)  or  the  lines  of  simul- 
taneous arrival,  and  in  the  case  of  7  species^  these  are  laid 
down  on  the  maps  which  accompany  his  treatise.  The  lines 
are  found  by  taking  the  average  date  of  arrival  of  each 
species  at  each  place  in  the  Russian  dominions  where 
observations  have  been  regularly  made,  and  connecting 
those  places  where  the  dates  ^e  the  same  for  each  species 
by  lines  on  the  map.  The  curves  thus  drawn  indicate  the 
Miequality  of  progress  made  by  the  species  in  different 
Ijngltudes,  and  assuming  that  the  advance  is  directly 
across  the  isepiptesial  lines,  or  rather  the  belts  defined  by 
each  pair  of  them,  the  whole  course  of  the  migration  is 
thus  most  accurately  made  known.  In  the  case  of  his 
seven  sample  species  the  maps  show  their  progressive 
advance  at  intervals  of  a  few  days,  and  the  issue  of  the 
whole  investigation,  according  to  him  (op.  cit.  p.  8)  proves 
that  in  the  middle  of  Siberia  the  general  direction  of  the 
usual  migrants  is  almost  due  north,  in  the  east  of  Siberia 
from  southeast  to  north-west, .  and  in  European  Russia 
from  south-west  to  north-east.  Thus  nearly  all  the  migrants 
of  the  Russian  Empire  tend  to  converge  upon  the  most 
iwrthern  part  of  the  continent,  the  Taimyr  Peninsula,  but 
it  is  almost  needless  to  say  that  few  of  them  reach  any- 
thing like  30  far,  since  the  country  in  those  high  latitudes 
is  utterly  unfit  to  support  the  majority.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  some  details,  which,  though  possessing  a  certain 
special  interest,  need  not  here  bo  mentioned,  this  treatise 
fails  to  shew  more ;  for  the  fact  that  there  are  places  that 
notwithstanding  their  higher  latitude  are  reached  by  Birds 
on  their  spring-migrations  sooner  than  others  in  a  lower 
latitude  was  already  known. 

The  routes  followed  by  migratory  Birds,  so  far  as  our 
information  at  present  extends,  has  been  the  subject  of  a 

reny  llie  case,  by  hoaiy  fall»  of  snow,  mich  BirJs  are  of  course  driven 
Kiuthward  to  seek  their  living.  But  as  often  as  nut  the  Binh  airive 
»'lth  the  kind  of  weather  they  are  commonly  hekl  to  prognosticate, 
*bile  sometimes  this  does  not  follow  their  appearance. 

*  Die  hepiptuen  /{wislands.  Oruruitwjcn  zur  Kr/orsckuttg  der  Zug- 
t-itmund  Zugrtchtungrn  drr  Vegtl  Ruislanda.    St  Potcrsburg :   1855. 

•  Firundo  niftw\,  Mokuilla  alba,  Alauda  anxiuia,  Orioliu  gaUntla, 
Cucului  iaijOTut,  Ciconta  alia,  and  Oms  communit. 


very  exhaustive  memoir  by  Herr  Palm(!ii,=  but  it  would  be 
impossible  within  the  limits  of  the  present  article  to  do 
more  than  mention  his  results  concisely.  He  enters  very 
fully  into  this  part  of  the.  enquiry  and  lays  down  with  much 
apparent  probability  the  chief  roads  taken  by  the  most 
migratory  Birds  of  the  Palsearctic  Region  in  tlieir  return 
autumnal  journey,  further  asserting  that  in  the  spaces  be- 
tween these  lines  of  flight  such  birds  do  not  usually  occur. 
These  main  routes  are,  he  states,  nine  in  number.  The  first 
(A — to  use  his  notation),  leaving  the  Siberian  shores  of  tho 
Polar  Sea,  Nova  Zembla,  and  the  North  of  Russia,  passes 
down  the  west  coast  of  Norway  to  the  North  Sea  and  tho 
British  Islands.  The  second  (B),  proceeding  from  Spits- 
bergen and  thd  adjoining  islands,  follows  much  the  same 
course,  but  is  prolonged  past  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal 
to  the  west  coast-of  Africa.  Tho  third  (C)  starts  from 
Northern  Russia,  and,  threading  the  White  Sea,  and  the 
great  Lakes  of  Onega  and  Ladoga,  skirts  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
land and  the  southern  part  of  the  Baltic  to  Holstein  and 
so  to  Holland,  where  it  divides — one  branch  uniting  with 
the  second  main  route  (B),  while  the  other,  running  up 
the  valley  of  the  Rhine  and*  crossing  to  that  of  the  Rhone, 
splits  up  on  reaching  the  Mediterranean,  where  one  path 
passes  down  the  western  coast  of  Italy  and  Sicily,  a 
second  takes  the  line  by  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  and  a  third 
follows  the  south  coast  of  France  and  eastern  coast  of  Spam 
— all  three  paths  ending  in  North  Africa.  The  fourth  (D), 
fifth  (E),  and  sixth  (F)  main  routes  depart  from  the 
extreme  north  of  Siberia.  The  fourth  (D)  ascending  the  river 
Ob,  branches  out  near  Tobolsk — one  track,  diverging  to  the 
Volga,  descends  that  river  and  so  passes  to  the  Sea  of 
Azov,  the  Black  Sea,  and  thence,  by  the  Bosphorus  and 
.(Egean,  to  Egypt ;  another  track  makes  for  the  Caspian 
by  way  of  the  Ural  River  and  so  leads  to  the  Persian  Guff, 
while  two  more  are  lost  sight  of  on  the  steppes.  The  fifth 
(E)  mounts  the  Jennesei  to  Lake  Baikal  and  so  passes  into 
Mongolia. .  The  sixth  (F)  ascends  the  Lena  and  striking 
the  Upper  Amoor  reaches  the  Sea  of  Japan,  where  it 
coalesces  with  the  seventh  (G)  and  eighth  (0)  which  run 
from  the  eastern  .portion  of  Siberia  and  Kamchatka.  Be- 
sides these  the  ninth  (X)  starting  from  Greenland  and 
Iceland  passes  by  the  Faroes  to  the  British  Islands  and 
so  joining  the  second  (B)  and  third  (C)  runs  down  the 
French  coast.  These  being  the  main  routes  it  must  be 
added  that,  in  Herr  Palm^n's  opinion  and  that  of  many 
others,  nearly  all  river-courses  form  minor  routes.* 

But  lay  down  the  paths  of  migratory  Birds,  observe  their  The  relmi'' 
comings  and  goings,  or  strive  to  account  for  the  impulse  °'  '"'■'*'  "> 
which  urges  them  forward  as  we  will,  there  still  remains  "'eir  for- 
,  .  ,         -  ,  ,,  .1  r     ti      Ti        nier  haunii 

for  consideration  the  most  marvellous  thing  of  all — How  j^^^i^pij. 

do  the  birds  find  their  way  so  unerringly  from  such  im-  inexplic-  • 
mense  distances]     This  seems  to  be  by  fap  the  most  in- •bie 
explicable  part  of  the  matter.     Year  after  year  the  migra- 

•  Om  Foglamea  fiyltmr(risvtlgar  (Helslngfora :  1874).  In  this  and 
the  work  of  Dr  von  Middendorff,  already  cited,  reference  is  made  to 
almost  every  Important  publication  on  the  subject  of  Migration,  which 
renders  a  notice  of  its  very  extensive  literature  needless  here,  and  a 
pretty  full  bibliographical  list  is  given  in  Prof.  Giebel  s  Thr.wuruj 
Omilhologio!  (1.  pp.  146-156).  Yet  mention  raay  be  made  of  Prof 
Schlegel's  Over  het  IreMcen  da  Yogets  (Harlem  :  1828),  Mr  Hodgson  i 
"  On  the  Migration  of  tho  Nataiara  and  OralUUora  as  observed  at  Kath- 
mandu  "  in  Astalic  Resmrcha  (rviii.  pp.  122-128),  and  M.  Marcel  do 
Serrcs's  Dacauses  dc3  Mirirations  dt-a  Aniiruutx  ei  particulxerement  de» 
Oiicauxet'dcs  Poissona  (Harlem:  1842).  This  last  though  one  of  the 
largest  publications  on  the  subject  is  one  of  the  least  satisfarlory. 
Prof.  Baird's  eiccllont  treatise  On  tin  Dislrihulion  and  Hij/raliotu  <)/ 
/forlh  Amrrican  Bird)  has  been  before  adverted  to. 

*  In  giving  this  abstract  the  pre-.ent  writer  wishes  to  state  that  be 
does  not  thereby  express  his  agreement  with  all  that  it  contAins.  Herr 
Palmin's  views  deserve  the  fullest  attention  from  the  truly  scientlfle 
spirit  in  which  they  are  put  forward,  but  some  of  tho  details  os  whkl 
they  are  founded  seem  to  require  correction. 


jiiob*tion;] 


B  r  R 


769 


tory  Wagtail  will  bnild  her  nest  in  the  accustomed  spot, 
and  jear  after  year  the  migratory  Cuckow  will  deposit  her 
eg^s  ia  that  nest,  and  yet  in  each  intcrv.il  of  time  the 
(cirn.er  may  have  passed  some  months  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  the  latter,  absent  for  a  still  longer 
period,  may  have  wandered  into  the  heart  of  Africa.'  The 
writer  cannot  offer  an  approach  to  the  solution  of  this 
mystery.  There  was  a  time  when  he  had  hopes  that  what 
13  called  the  "  homing  "  faculty  in  Pigeons  might  furnish 
a  clue,  but  Mr  Tegetmeier  and  all  the  best  authorities  on 
that  subject  declare  that  a  knowledge  of  landmarks  ob- 
tained by  sight,  and  sight  only,  is  the  sense  which  directs 
these  Birds,  while  sight  alone  can  hardly  bo  regarded  as 
affording  much  aid  to  Birds— and  there  is  reason  to  think 
that  there  are  several  such — which  at  one  stretch  transport 
themselves  across  the  breadth  of  Europe,  or  even  traverse 
more  than  a  thousand  miles  of  open  ocean,  to  say  nothing 
of  those — and  of  them  there  are  certainly  many — which 
perform  their  migrations  by  night.  That  particular  form 
of  Bluethroat  which  yearly  repairs  to  breed  upon  the  mosses 
of  the  Subalpine  and  Northern  parts  of  Scandinavia  {Cyane- 
cula  suecica)  is  hardly  ever  seen  in  Europe  south  of  the 
Baltic'  Throughout  Germany  it  may  be  said  to  be  quite 
unknown,  being  replaced  by  a  conspicuously  different  form 
(C.  Imcocyana),  and  as  it  is  a  Bird  in  which  the  collectors 
of  that  country,  a  numerous  and  well-instructed  body,  have 
long  taken  great  interest,  we  are  m  a  position  to  declare 
that  it  is  not  known  to  stop  in  its  transit  from  its  winter 
haunts,  which  we  know  to  be  Egypt  and  the  valley  of  the 
Upper  Nile,  to  its  breeding-quarters.  Other  instances, 
though  none  so  crucial  as  this,  could  be  cited  from  among 
European  Birds  were  there  room  here  for  them.  In  New 
Zealand  there  are  two  Cuckows  which  are  annual  visitors  : 
one,  a  species  of  Chrysococcyx,  is  supposed  to  come  from 
Australia,  the  other,  Eudynamu  taileiisis  is  widely  spread 
throughout  Polynesia,  yet  both  these  birds  yearly  make 
two  voyages  over  the  enormous  waste  of  waters  that  sur- 
rounds the  country  to  which  they  resort  to  breed.  But 
space  would  utterly  fail  us  were  we  to  attempt  to  recount 
all  the  examples  of  these  wonderful  flights.  Yet  it  seems 
impossible  that  the  sense  of  sight  should  be  the  faculty 
whereby  they  are  so  guided  to  their  destination,  any  more 
than  in  the  case  of  those  which. travel  in  the  dark. 
E«pl«n«  Dr  von  Middendorff  (op.  cit.  jS.  9),  from  the  conclusions 

»aii<  be  has  drawn,  as  before  mentioned,  as  to  the  spring-move- 

M*  ii~  "isft  of  all  birds  in  the  Russian  Empire  being  towards  the 
'  'J'aimyr  Peninsula,  the  seat  of  one  of  the  magnetic  poles, 
has  suggested  that  the  migrating  Bird  Li  always  aware  (he 
does  not  sufficiently  explain  by  what  means)  of  the  Situa- 
tion of  this  point,  and  thus  knows  how  to  steer  its  course. 
Not  only  is  this  hypothesis  unsupported  by  any  considera- 
tions known  to  the  writer,  but  it  is  nut  at  all  borne  out  by 
the  observed  facts  of  Migration  in  North  America,  where 
Birds  as  has  been  shewn  by  Professor  Baird  (op.  c\t.  p.  347) 
do  not  migrate  in  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  polo. 
laMiDcL  Other  authors  there  are   who    rely  on   what  they  call 

■'  instinct  "  as  an  explanation  of  this  wonderful  faculty. 
This  with  Ibem  is  simply  a  way  of  evading  the  difficulty 
before  us,  if  it  does  not  indeed  remove  the  question  alto- 
gether from  the  domain  of  scientific  inquiry.  Rejecting 
such  a  mode  of  treatment,  Hcrr  Palmdn  meets  it  in  a  much 

*  Absolute  proof  of  the  ideDttty  of  the  particular  birds  Is  of  coune 
wanting,  but  if  that  objection  be  raised  ttie  ciri;uin.sLance  becomes  itill 
more  pauling.  for  then  we  have  to  account  for  aomo  mode  of  coin- 
■lUDicatiQg  precise  infomiatloD  by  one  bird  to  another 

*  It  has  occurred  indeed  as  a  stra^^gter  In  al>out  a  dozen  Instances 
In  Bnglond,  and  it  arrives  twice  a  year  in  i(iTAt«r  or  loss  numbers  in 
Heligoland  as  reported  by  the  erer-watchful  ob.^rrvrr  on  that  lalautl. 
Mr  Oktke,  to  whom  omithulogists  are  so  deeply  intlobted  for  his  long- 
eontlDued  and  Intelligent  scrutiny  of  the  ealraorrliiiarj  uuaibeT  of 
n.Midsruig  birds  which  alight  ther*. 

8-27 


fairer  spirit.  He  asserts  (op.  cit.  p.  195)  that  migrants  are 
led  by  the  older  and  stronger  individuals  among  them, 
and,  observing  that  most  of  those  which  stray  from  their 
right  course  are  yearlings  that  have  never  before  taken  the 
journey,  he  ascribes  the  due  performance  of  the  flight  to 
"experience."  But,  granting  the  undisputed  truth  of  his  Experience 
observation,  his  assertion  seems  to  be  only  partially  proved. 
That  the  birds  which  lead  the  flock  are  the  strongest  is  on 
.'ill  accounts  most  likely,  but  what  is  there  to  show  that 
these  are  also  the  oldest  of  the  concourse  1  Besides  this,' 
there  are  many  Birds  which  cannot  be  said  to  migrate  in 
flocks.  While  Swallows,  to  take  a  sufficiently  evident 
example,  conspicuously  congregate  in  vast  flocks  and  go 
leave  our  shores  in  large  companies,  the  majority  of  ou» 
summer-visitors  slip  away  almost  unobserved,  each  appa- 
rently without  concert  with  others.  It  is  also  pretty  nearly 
certain  that  the  same  species  of  Bird  does  not  migrate  m 
the  same  manner  at  all  times.  When  Skylarks  arrive  on 
our  north-eastern  coast  in  autumn  they  come  flitting  over 
in  a  constant,  straggling  stream,  not  in  compact  flocks , 
yet  a  little  later  these  same  birds  collect  in  enormous 
assemblages  which  prosecute  their  voyage  in  company.  It 
is  indeed  possible  that  each  bird  of  the  stream  intentionally 
follows  that  which  goes  before  it,  though  in  a  long  sea- 
passage  it  must  be  hard  to  keep  the  precursor  in  sight,  and 
it  may  perhaps  be  granted  that  the  leader  of  the  whole  is 
a  bird  of  experience.  But  then  we  must  consider  not  these 
cases  only,  but  also  those  of  Birds  which  do  not  migrate  in 
company,  and  we  must  also  have  regard  to  what  is  implied 
in  the  word  "  experience."  Here  it  can  only  signify  the 
result  of  knowledge  acqi:  ed  on  former  occasions,  and 
obtained  by  sight.  Now  it  was  stated  by  Temminck' 
many  years  ago,  and  so  far  as  would  appear  the  statement 
has  not  been  invalidated,  that  among  migrants  the  young 
and  the  old  always  journey  apart  and  most  generally  by 
different  routes.  The  former  can  have  no  "  experience," 
and  yet  the  greater  number  of  them  Safely  arrive  at  the 
haven  where  they  would  be.  The  sense  of  sight,  essential 
to  a  knowledge  of  landmarks,  as  we  have  above  attempted 
to  demonstrate,  is  utterly  insufficient  to  account  for  the 
success  that  attends  Birds  which  travel  by  night,  or  in  a 
single  flight  span  oceans  or  continents.  Yet  without  it  the 
idea  of  "experience"  cannot  be  substantiated.  We  may 
admit  that  inherited  but  unconscious  experience,  which  is 
really  all  that  can  be  meant  by  instinct,  is  a  factor  in  the 
whole  matter — certainly,  as  Mr  Wallace  seems  to  have 
proved,  in  originating  the  migratory  impulse,  but  yet  every 
aspect  of  the  question  is  fraught  with  difficulty,  and  we 
must  leave  to  time  the  discovery  of  this  mystery  of 
mystenes. 

There  yet  remain  a  few  words  to  be  said  on  what  may  E<c»j 
be  termed  Exceptional  Migration,  that  is  when  from  some  ti„nal 
cause  or  other  the  ordinary  practice   is  broken  through.  tl.l|{T^tlo^ 
This  differs  from  the  chance  occurrence  of  the  waifs  and 
strays  with  which  this  section  of  the  article  began  in  that 
the  Birds  subject  to  it  keep  in  a  great  measure  their  cus- 
tomary habit  of  migrating,  and  yet  are  compelled  to  indulge 
It  in  an  irregular,  or  perhaps  an  altogether  novel,  manner, 
though  they  are  not  entirely  the  sport  of  circumstances. 
The  erratic  movements  of  the  various  species  of  Crossbill  CrojsblU 
(Lona)  and   some  alhed   forms  afford   perhaps  the   best- 
know  r>  examples.     In  England  no  one  can  say  in  what 
part  of  the  country  or  at  what  season  of  the  year  he  may 
not  fall  in  with   a  company  of  the  Common  Crossbill  {L. 
cuTviTMtTa),  and  the  like  may  be  said  of  many  other  knds. 
The  food  of  these  Birds  consists  mainly  of  the  seeds  of 
conifers,  and    as   its   supply   in   any   one  locahty  is  inter- 
mittent or  precarious,  wo  may  not  unreasonably  gue.<is  that 

•  Manual  <!  Omithologit,  lii.  Utrod.  p  iliiL  not*  . 


/ 1 


0 


BIRDS 


ISONO. 


they  shift  from  place  to  place  in  its  quest,  and  mav  thus 
find  an  easy  way  of  accounting  for  their  uncertain  appear- 
Otttcracker.  ance.  The  great  band  of  Nutcrackers  (Nucifraga  caryo- 
catiKtes)  which  in  the  autumn  of  1844  pervaded  Western 
and  Central  Europe'  may  also  have  been  actuated  by  the 
same  motive,  but  we  can  hardly  explain  the  roaming  of  all 
Wii«wing.  olher  Birds  so  plausibly.  The  inroads  of  the  Waswing 
(Ampelis  garrulvs)  have  been  the  subject  of  interest  for 
more  than  300  years,  and  by  persons  prone  to  superstitious 
auguries  were  regarded  as  the  forerunners  of  dire  calamity. 
Sometimes  years  have  passed  without  its  being  seen  at  all 
in  Central,  Western,  or  Southern  Europe,  and  then  perhaps 
for  two  or  three  seasons  in  succession  vast  flocks  have  sud- 
denly appeared.  Later  observation,  has  shown  that  this 
species  is  as  inconstant  in  the  choice  of  its  summer-  as  of 
its  winter-quarters,  and  though  the  cause  of  the  irregularity 
may  possibly  be  of  much  the  same  kind  as  that  just  sug- 
gested in  the  case  of  the  Crossbill,  the  truth  awaits  further 
investigation.^  One  of  the  most  extraordinary  events 
known  to  ornithologists  is  the  irruption  into  Europe  in 
Pillas*  ]i^(j3  o(  Vallaa'a  Sa.nd-Grouae  {Syrr/tapUs  paradoxus).  Of 
Gruu'se.  ''^'^  Bird,  hitherto  known  only  as  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Tartar  steppes,  a  single  specimen  .was  obtained  at  Sarepta 
on  the  Volga  in  the  winter  of  1848.  In  May  1859  a  pair 
is  said  to  have  been  killed  in  the  Government  of  Yilna  on 
the  western  borders  of  the  Russian  Empire,  and  a  few 
wi.'eks  later  five  examples  were  procured,  and  a  few  others 
seen,  in  Western  Europe — one  in  Jutland,  one  in  Holland, 
two  in  England,  and  one  in  Wales.  In  1860  another  was 
obtained  at  Sarepta;  but  in  May  and  June  1863  a  horde- 
computed  to  consist  of  at  least  700  individuals  overran 
Europe — reaching  Sweden, Norway,  the  Fseroes,  and  Ireland 
in  the  north-west,  and  in  the  south  extending  to  Sicily  and 
almost  to  the  frontiers  of  Spain.  On  the  sandhills  of  Jutland 
and  Holland  some  of  these  birds  bred,  but  war  was  too 
successfully  waged  against  the  nomades  to  allow  of  their 
establishing  themselves,  and  a  few  sur\"ivors  only  were  left 
to  fall  to  the  gun  in  the  course  of  the  foUowing  winter 
and  spring.'  In  the  summer  of  1872,  another  visitation 
to  Great  Britain  was  reported,  but  if  it  reaUy  took  place  it 
must  have  been  that  of  a  very  small  number  of  birds,  and 
it  was  not  observed  on  the  Continent.  Speculation  has 
amused  itself  by  assigning  causes  to  these  movements  but 
the  real  reason  remains  in  doubt. 
>loctunial  We  cannot  quit  the  subject  of  Migration,  however,  with- 
concoime  out  referring  to  the  wonderful  assemblages  of  Birds  which 
ofmigrauts.  [i^ve  in  various  places  been  time  and  again  noticed  by 
night.  Towards  the  close  of  summer,  in  dark,  cloudy,  and 
still  weather,  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  a  vast  and, 
to  judge  from  their  cries,  heterogeneous  concourse  of  Birds 
may  be  heard  hovering  over  our  large  towns.  The  practical 
ornithologist  will  recognize  the  notes  of  Plover,  Sandpiper, 
Tern,  and  Gull,  now  faint  with  distance  and  then  apparently 
close  overhead,  whUo  occasionally  the  stroke  of  a  wing  may 
catch  his  car,  but  nothing  is  visible  in  the  surrounding 
gloom.  Sometimes  but  a  few  fitful  wails  are  heard,  of 
which  only  an  expert  listener  will  know  the  meaning. 
At  others  the  continuous  Babel  of  sounds  will  ensure  the 
attention  of  the  most  incurious.  It  is  supposed  that  these 
noises  proceed  from  migrating  birds,  which,  having  lost 
their  way,  are  attracted  by  the  glare  of  the  street  lamps, 
but  far  too  little  has  been  observed  to  remove  the  obscurity 
that  in  a  double  sense  surrounds  them  and  to  enable  us  to 
come  to  any  definite  conclusion.  It  must  be  added  also 
that  such  a  concourse  has  been  noticed  whore  the  fascina- 

'  Bnll.  <k  I'Acad.  do  BrvLxoUcB,  xi.  p.  298. 
'  C/.  Yamll,  Prit.  Birds,  cd.  4,  i.  pp.  D24-532. 
'  /bit,  1881,  pp.  18i-222.     A  fen  ariililinnal  partlcnlors  which  have 
.<tnco  bocomo  knowD  to  tUo  writer  are  Insertud  abovu 


tion  of  light  did  not  exist,  for  Lord  Lilford  has  recorded  * 
how  that  once  at  Corfu  he  was  startled  by  an  uproar  as  if 
all  the  feathered  inhabitants  of  the  great  Acherusian  Marsh 
had  met  in  conflict  overhead,  but  he  could  form  no  concep- 
tion of  what  birds  produced  the  greater  part  of  it. 

SONG. 

Leaving  then  the  subject  of  Migration,  the  next  impor- 
tant part  of  the  economy  of  Bfrds  to  be  considered  is 
perhaps  their  Song — a  word,  however,  in  a  treatise  of  this 
kind  to  be  used  in  a  general  sense,  and  not  limited  to  the 
vocal  sounds  uttered  by  not  more  than  a  moiety  of  the 
feathered  races  which  charm  us  by  the  strains  they  pour 
from  their  vibrating  throat, — strains  indeed  denied  by  the 
scientific  musician  to  come  under  cognizance  as  appertain- 
ing to  his  art,  but  strains  which  in  all  countries  and  in  all 
ages  have  conveyed  a  feeling  of  true  pleasure  to  the  human 
hearer,  and  strains  of  which  by  common  consent  the  Night- 
ingale is  the'  consummate  master.  It  is  necessary  in  a 
philosophical  spirit  to  regard  every  sound  made  by  a  Bird 
under  the  aU-powerful  influence  of  love  or  lust  as  a  "  Song." 
It  seems  impossible  to  draw  any  but  an  arbitrary  line  Variety  o» 
between  the  deep  booming  of  the  Emeu,  the  harsh  cry  of  So.ng. 
the  Guillemot  (which,  when  proceeding  from  a  hundred  or 
a  thousand  throats,  strikes  the  distant  ear  in  a  confused 
murmur  like  the  roar  of  a  tumultuous  crowd),  the  plain- 
tive wail  of  the  Plover,  the  melodious  whistle  of  the 
Widgeon,  "  the  Cock's  shrill  clarion,"  the  scream  of  the 
Eagle,  the  hoot  of  the  Owl,  the  solemn  chime  of  the  Bell- 
bird,  the  whip-crackirig  of  the  Manakiii,  the  Chaffinch's 
joyous  burst,  or  the  hoarse  croak  of  the'Raven,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  bleating  of  the  Snipe'  or  the  drumming  of 
the  Rufi"ed  Grouse,  on  the  other.  Innumerable  are  the 
forms  which  such  utterances  lake.  In  many  birds  the 
sounds  are  due  to  a  combination  of  vocal  and  instrumental 
powers,  or,  as  in  the  cases  last  mentioned,  to  the  lalter  only. 
But,  however  produced — and  of  the  machinery  whereby 
they  are  accomplished  there  is  not  room  here  to  speak — 
all  have  the  same  cause  and  the  same  effect.  The  former 
has  been  already  indicated,  and  the  latter  is  its  consum- 
mation. Almost  coinstantaneously  with  the  hatching  of  the 
Nightingale's  brood,  the  song  of  the  sire  is  hushed,  and 
the  notes  to  which  we  have  for  weeks  hearkened  with  rapt 
admiration  are  changed  to  a  guttural  croak,  expressive  of 
alarm  and  anxiety,  inspiring  a  sentiment  of  the  most 
opposite  character.  No  greater  contrast  can  be  imagined, 
and  no  instance  can  be  cited  which  more  completely  points 
out  the  purpose  which  "Song"  fulfils  in  the  economy  of  T'l-v-t  b 
the  bird,  for  if  the  Nightingale's  nest  at  this  early  time  be  Song, 
destroyed  or  its  contents  removed,  tiie  cock  speedily  re- 
covers his  voice,  and  his  favourite  haunts  again  resound  to 
his  bewitching  strains.  For  them  his  mate  is  content 
again  to  undergo  the  wearisome  round  of  nest-building  and 
incubation.  But  should  some  days  elapse  before  disaster 
befalls  their  callow  care,  his  constitution  undergoes  a 
change  and  no  second  attempt  to  rear  a  family  is  made. 
It  would  seem  as  though  a  mild  temperature,  and  the 
abundance  of  food  by  which  it  is  generally  accompanied, 
prompt  the  physiological  alteration  which  inspires  the  males 
of  most  birds  to  indulge  in  the  "  Song"  peculiar  to  them. 
Thus  after  the  annual  moult  is  accomplished,  and  this  ia 
believed  to  be  the  most  critical  epoch  in  the  life  of  any 
bird,  cock  Thrushes,  Skylarks,  and  others  begin  to  sing, 
not  indeed   with  the  jubilant  voice  of  spring  but  in  an 

«  ;W»,  18C5,  p.  178. 

■  The  true  CAUHO  of  this  souod  haa  been  much  discussed,  but  HaiT 
iTlcTe«'«  eiplanntion  {Proc.  Hool.  Soc.  1858,  p.  802),  based  on  cxporii 
nirnt.  sccn's  to  be  correct,  though  it  is  fiir  from  being  geueiallf 
accopted 


UIDIFIWTION.I 

UDcerteio  cadence  wbico  is  quickly  silenced  by  the  super- 
vention of  cold  weather.  Yet  some  birds  we  have  which, 
except  during  the  season  of  moult,  hard  frost,  and  time  of 
snow,  sing  almost  all  the  year  round.  Of  these  the  Red- 
.breaj>!  and  the  Wren  are  familiar  eiamples,  and  theChifT- 
cbatf  repeats  Its  two-noted  cry,  almost  to  weariness,  during 
the  whole  penod  of  its  residence  in  this  country.' 

Akin  to  the  "  Song"  of  Birds,  and  undoubtedly  proceed- 
ing from  the  same  cause,  are  the  peculiar  gestures  which 
the  males  of  many  perform  under  the  induence  of  the 
apiiruaching  season  of  pairing,  but  these  again  are  far  too 
numerous  hero  to  describe  with  particularity  It  must 
BufTice  to  mention  a  few  cases.  The  Ruff  on  his  hillock  in 
a  marsh  holds  a  war-dance.  The  Snipe  and  some  of  his 
allies  mount  aloft  and  wildly  execute  unlooked  for  evolu- 
tions almost  in  the  clouds.  The  Woodcock  and  many  of 
the  Goatsuckers  beat  evening  after  oveiung  the  same  aerial 
path  with  Its  sudden  and  sharp  tummgs.  The  Ring  Dove 
rises  above  the  neighbouring  trees  and  then  with  motion- 
less wings  sbdes  down  to  the  leafy  retreat  they  afford. 
The  Capercally  and  Blackcock,  perched  on  a  commanding 
eminence,  throw  themselves  into  postures  that  defy  the 
skill  of  the  caricaturist — other  species  of  the  Grouse-tribe 
assume  the  strangest  attitudes  and  rur  in  circles  till  the 
turf  IS  worn  bare.  The  Peacock  m  pnde  spreads  his  train 
BO  as  to  shew  how  nearly  akin  are  the  majestic  and  the 
ludicroua  The  Bower-bird,  not  content  with  his  own 
splendour,  builds  an  arcade,  decked  with  bnght  feathers 
and  shining  shells,  through  and  around  which  he  paces 
wiib  his  gay  companions.  The  Larks  and  Pipits  never 
dcLver  their  song  so  well  as  when  seeking  the  upper  air 
Rooks  nse  one  after  the  other  to  a  great  height  and,  turn 
ing  on  their  back,  wantonly  precipitate  themselves  many 
yards  towards  the  ground,  while  the  solemn  Raven  does 
not  scorn  a  similar  feat,  and,  with  the  tenderest  of  croaks. 
gUdes  supinely  alongside  or  in  front  of  his  mate  ' 

NIDinCATION. 

Following  Of  coincident  with  the  actions  lust  named, 
and  countless  more  besides  comes  the  real  work  ol  the 
breeding-season,  to  which  they  are  but  the  prelude  or  the 
accompammenf.'  Nidification  is  with  uiost  birds  the  be- 
ginning of  this  busines."  but  with  many  it  is  a  labour  that 
IS  scamped  li  not  shirked.  Some  of  the  Auk  tnbe  place 
their  single  egg  on  a  bare  ledge  of  rock,  where  its  peculiar 
conical  shape  is  but  a  precanoos  safeguard  when  rocked 
by  the  winH  or  stirred  by  the  thronging  crowd  of  its  parents' 
fillnws.  The  Stone-Curlew  and  the  Goatsucker  deposit 
their  eggs  without  the  slightest  preparation  of  the  soil  on 
which  they  rest ,  yet  this  is  not  done  at  haphazard,  for  no 
birds  can  be  morq  constant  in  selecting,  almost  to  an  inch, 
the  very  same  spot  which  year  after  year  they  choose  for 
their  procreant  cradle  In  marked  contra.st  to  such  artless 
car?  stand  the  wonderful  structures  which  others,  such  as 
the  Tailor-bird,  the  Bottle-Titmouse,  or  the  Fantail-Warbler 
build 'for  the  comfort  or  safety  of  their  young      But  every 

*  A  cnnoiu  qnsstloo.  »hirb  bu  u  yrt  attnu-tad  bui  littl>  itt^iitiOD, 
If  wb8th«r  lb*  nol«*  of  Ihe  wm*  ipecie*  of  Birtl  ape  in  all  coiuitne* 
alike  Prom  hu  ovn  olMcrvattoo  ibe  «-nur  u  iocluiM  lo  thuik  that 
It  a  cot,  and  that  lhei»  maT  enrt  "  diajerta,"  ac  to  apeak,  of  lie 
•ong       (C/  Glogsr,  Jmtr.fiT  Orii.  1859.  p   .198.) 

'  No  comprabsntira  ar-ount  of  ihc  .Sonc  of  BiMi  aMina  e»«r  to  have 
bMD  written  Tba  toUoTiog  maj  he  cilcj  as  the  pnnnpal  treatiau 
on  the  «ubjoct  — BamnRton.  Pha  Traiu  1 77:!.  pp  249-201  ;  Kan- 
i.pdy,  N  AlAafuH  fnxrr  Akmt  tP\a  AkUruU  )  1797.  p  169;  Black- 
w.ll,  Mr<\  IM.  and  /'W.  Soc.  iiaruK  1824.  pp  2R9-S2S  8a»an 
ifnrxcpi)  A-nfia/Ti  «  j  w  .  182n.  pp  •,-ln.  iO-ii  .  Itrehm  and  Hana^ 
.mann,  yaumannm.  18.'..1,  pp  64-D9.  9r.-I01.  KSl-195.  and  Jmm 
/Jr  On.  1856.  pp.  34J1-.-151,  18.16.  pp  250-25.'.  Tbe  not*,  of  manj 
of  oar  common  Birds  are  mgaicaUj  upreaaed  bj  Mr  HarUnK  ittrdi 
^JluUUjex  'London:  1866). 


BIRDS  771 

variety  of  disposition  may  be  found  in  the  Class.  The 
Apteryi  seems  to  entrust  its  abnormally  big  egg  to  an  ex- 
cavation among  the  roots  of  a  tree-fern  ,  while  a  band  uf 
female  Ostriches  scrape  holes  in  the  desert-.sand  and  therein 
promiscuously  dropping  their  eggs  cover  them  with  earth 
and  leave  the  task  of  incubation  to  the  male,  who  discharges 
the  duty  thus  imposed  upon  him  by  night  only,  mul  trusts 
by  day  to  the  sun's  rays  for  keeping  up  the  ncnjfi;!.  fos- 
t«nng  warmth.  The  .Megapodes  raise  a  huge  hotbed  of 
dead  leaves  wherein  they  deposit  their  eggs  and  the  young 
are  hatched  without  further  care  on  the  part  of  either 
parent.  Some  of  the  Grebes  and  Rails  seem  to  avail  them- 
selves in  a  less  degree  of  the  heat  generated  by  vegetable 
decay,  and  dragging  from  the  bottom  or  sides  of  the  waters 
they  frequent  fragments  of  aquatic  plants  form  of  them 
a  rude  half-floating  mass  which  is  piled  on  some  growing 
water-weed — but  these  birds  do  not  spurn  the  duties  of 
maternity.  Many  of  the  Gulls,  Sandpipers,  and  Plovers 
lay  their  eggs  in  a  shallow  pit  which  they  hollow  out  m 
the  soil,  and  then  as  mcubation  proceeds  add  thereto  a  low 
breastwork  of  haulm  The  Ringed  Plover  commonly  places 
Its  eggs  on  shingle,  which  they  so  much  resemble  in  colour, 
but  when  breeding  on  grassy  uplands  it  paves  the  nest -hole 
with  small  stones.  Pigeons  mostly  make  an  artless  plat- 
form of  sticks  so  loosely  laid  together  that  their  pearly 
treasures  may  be  perceived  from  beneath  by  the  inquisi- 
tive observer  The  Magpie,  as  though  eelf-conscious  that 
Its  own  thieving  habits  may  be  imilaied  by  its  neighbours, 
BiuTounds  Its  nest  with  a  hedge  of  thorns.  'Very  many 
birds  of  almost  every  group  bore  holes  in  some  sandy  cliff, 
and  at  the  end  of  their  tunnel  deposit  their  eggs  with  or 
without  bedding.  .Such  bedding,  ton.  is  very  various  in  char- 
acter thus  while  tie  Sheldduck  and  the  Sand-Martin  sup- 
ply the  softest  of  matenals  the  one  of  down  from  her  own 
body,  the  other  of  feathers  collected  by  dint  of  diligent 
search. — the  Kingfisher  forms  a  couch  of  the  undigested 
spiny  fish-bones  which  she  ejects  in  pellets  from  her  own 
stomach.  Other  birds,  as  the  VVoodpeckers.  bew  holes  in 
Lving  trees  even  when  the  tim'oer  is  of  considerable  hsrd- 
nesi!.  and  therein  establish  their  nursery  Some  of  the 
Swifts  secrete  from  their  sahvary  glands  a  fluid  which 
rapidly  hardens  as  it  dries  on  exposure  to  the  au  intc  a 
substance  resembling  isinglass,  and  thus  furnish  the  "  edible 
birds  nests  "  that  are  the  delight  of  Cbmcso  epicures.  In 
the  architecture  of  nei.rly  all  the  Passerine  birds,  too.  gome 
salivary  secretion  seems  lo  play  au  important  part  By  its 
aid  they  are  enabled  to  moisten  and  bend  the  otherwise 
refractory  twigs  and  straws  and  glue  them  to  their  place 
Spiders'  webs  also  are  employed  with  grejit  advantage  for 
the  purpose  last  mentioned,  but  perhaps  chiefly  to  attach 
fragments  of  moss  and  lichen  so  as  to  render  the  whole 
structure  less  obvious  to  the  eye  of  the  spoder  The 
Tailor-bird  deliberately  spins  a  thread  of  cotton  and  there- 
with stitches  together  the  edges  ol  a  pair  of  leaves  to  mahe 
a  receptacle  for  its  nest.  Beautiful  too  is  the  f<>li  fabn- 
cated  of  fur  or  hairs  by  the  various  epccics  of  Titmouse 
whUe  many  birds  ingeniously  weave  into  a  compact  mass 
both  animal  and  vegetable  fibres,  forming  an  admirable 
noD-conducting  medium  which  guards  the  eggs  from  the 
extremes  of  temperature  outside  Such  a  structure  may 
be  open  and  cup-shaped,  supported  from  below  as  that  of 
the  Ch.iffinch  and  Goldfinch,  domed  Uke  that  of  the  Wren 
and  Bottle-Titmouse,  elung  hammock -wise  as  m  the  ciuse 
of  the  Golden-crested  Wren  and  the  Onolcs,  or  suspended 
by  a  single  cord  as  with  cortam  Grosbeaks  and  Humming- 
birds Under  such  circumstances  it  is  evi'n  somelimrt 
needful  to  balance  the  nest  lest  the  weight  ol  the  growir.g 
young  should  destroy  the  equipoise  and,  pre<-ipitnting  them 
on  the  ground,  dash  the  hopes  of  the  parents,  and  oum- 
pensation  lo  such  cases  is  applied  by  loading  the  uppcsut 


772 


BIRDS 


[eGGow 


Occasional 
departure 
ffore 
tubits. 


Bin1< 
breeding 
iD  so^jie* 
ties. 


P«r«siUc 
Binii. 


side  of  the  structure  with  lumps  of  earth:  Certain  Warblers 
{Aedon  and  Thamnobia)  for  some  unascertained  reason  in- 
variably lay  a  piece  of  snake's  slough  in  their  nests — to 
repel,  it  has  been  suggested,  marauding  lizards  who  may 
thereby  fear  the  neighbourhood  of  a  deadly  enemy-  Tlis 
clay-built  edifices  of  the  Swallow  and  Martin  are  known 
to  everybody,  and  the.  Nuthatch  plasters  up  the  gaping 
mouth  of  its  nest-hole  till  only  a  postern  large  enough  for 
entrance  and  exit,  but  easy  of  defence,  is  left.  In  South 
America  we  have  a  family  of  birds  (Fumariidve)  which 
construct  on  the  branching  roots  of  the  mangrove  globular 
ovens,  so  to  speak,  of  mud,  wherein  the  eggs  are  laid  and 
the  young  hatched.  The  Flamingo  erects  in  the  marshes 
it  frequents  a  mound  of  earth  some  two.  feet  in  height, 
with  a  cavity  atop,  on  which  the  hen,  having  oviposited, 
sits  astride  with  daogUng  legs,  and  in  that  remarkable  atti- 
tude is  said  to  perform  the  duty  of  incubation.  The 
females  of  the  Hornbills,  and  perhaps  of  the  Hoopoes, 
submit  to  incarceration  during  this  interesting  period,  the 
males  immuring  them  by  a  barrier  of  mud,  leaving  only  a 
small  window  to  admit  air  and  food,  which  latter  is  assidu- 
ously brought  to  the  prisoners. 

But  though  in  a  general  way  the  dictates  of  hereditary 
instinct  are  rigidly  observed  by  birds,  in  many  species  a 
remarkable  degree  of  elasticity  is  exhibited  or  the  rule  of 
habit  is  rudely  broken.  Thus  the  noble  Falcon,  whose 
ordinary  eyry  is  ©n  the  beetling  cliff,  will  for  the  con- 
venience of  procuring  prey  condescend  to  lay  its  eggs  on 
the  ground  in  a  marsh,  or  appropriate  the  nost  of  some 
other  bird  in  a  tree.  The  Golden  Eagle,  too,  remarkably 
adapts  itself  to  circumstances,  now  rearing  its  young  on  a 
precipitous  ledge,  now  on  the  arm  of  an  ancient  monarch 
of  the  forest  and  again  on  a  treeless  plain,  making  a 
humble  home  amid  grass  and  herbage.  Herons  ako  shew 
the  same  versatility  and  will  breed  according  to  Circum- 
stances in  an  open  fen,  on  sea-banks  or  (as  is  most  usual) 
on  lofty  trees.  Such  changes  are  easy  to  understand. 
The  instinct  of  finding  food  for  the  family  is  predomin- 
ant, and  where  most  food  is  there  will  the  feeders  be 
gathered  together.  This  explains,  in  all  likelihood,  the 
associated  bands  of  Ospreys  or  Fish-Hawks,  which  in 
North  America  breed  (or  used  to  breed)  in  large  companies 
where  sustenance  is  plentiful,  though  in  the  Old  World  the 
game  species  brooks  not  the  society  of  aught  but  its  mate. 
Birds  thero  are  of  eminently  social  predilections.  In 
Europe,  excepting  Sea-fowls — whose  congregations  are 
universal  and  known  to  all — wo  have  perhaps  but  the 
Heron,  the  Fieldfare,  and  the  Rook,  whjch  habitually  flock 
during  the  breeding-season ;  but  in  other  parts  of  the 
world  many  birds  unite  iu  company  at  that  time,  and  in 
•lone  possibly  is  this  habit  so  strongly  developed  as  in  the 
Vnis  of  the  Neotropical  Region,  the  RcpubUcan  Swallow 
of  North  Amenca,  and  the  Sociable  Grosbeak  of  South 
Africa,  which  last  joins  nest  to  nest  until  the  tree  is  sold 
to  break  down  under  the  accumulated  weight  of  the 
common  edifice.' 

In  the  strongest  contrast  to  these  amiable  qualities  is 
the  parasitic  nature  of  the  Cuckows  of  the  Old  World  and 
the  Cow-birds  of  the  New,  but  this  peculiarity  of  theirs  is 
BO  well  known  that  to  dwell  upon  it  would  be  needless. 
Enough  to  say  that  the  egg  of  the  parasite  is  introduced 

'  There  fire  not  many  works  on  nidiHcatton,  for  "  Caliology  "  or  the 
•tudy  of  nests  has  haitlly  been  deemed  a  distinct  branch  of  the  vcienco. 
A  good  deal  of  instructive  matter  (not  altogpllier  free  from  error)  will 
b«  found  In  Renoie's  ArchiUctvrexif  BiT(i.i  ( London  :  1831),  and  there 
Is  Mr  Wallace's  most  Interesting  dinsertation,  "  A  Theory  of  Bird.i' 
Nesta."  originally  publisliM  in  the  Journal  of  Tmvcl  and  Natural 
Uutory  (1868,  p.  7.3),  «ud  reprititvd  in  his  Cmtributitms  to  thr.  Thuyry 
oj  Natural  .•ir.Urlum  (London  :  1870).  Mr  Andrew  Murray's  and  the 
Uiiico  o(  Argyll's  remorka  on  this  esnay  arc  contained  La  the  same 
voluiije  of  the  Journal  named  (pp.  137  and  276). 


into  the  nest  of  the  dupe,  and  after  the  necessary  incuba- 
tion by  the  fond  fool  of  a  foster-mother  the  interloper  suo- 
cessfidly  counterfeits  the  heirs,  who  perish  miserably, 
victims  of  his  superior  strength.  The  whole  process  has 
been  often  watched,  but  the  reflective  naturalist  will  pauso 
to  ask  how  such  a  state  of  things  came  about,  and  there  is 
net  much  to  satisfy  his  enquiry.  Certain  it  is  that  some 
birds  whether  by  mistake  or  stupidity  do  not  unfrequeutly 
li.y  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  others.  It  is  within  the  know- 
ledge of  many  that  Pheasants'  eggs  and  Partridges'  eggs  ara 
often  hud  in  the  same  nest,  and  it  is  within  the  knowledge 
of  the  writer  that  Gulls'  eggs  have  been  found  in  the  nests 
of  Elder-Ducks,  r.nd  vice  versa ;  that  a  Redstart  and  a  Pied 
Flycatcher  will  lay  their  eggs  in  the  same  convenient  hole 
— the  forest  being  rather  deficient  in  such  accommodation; 
that  an  Owl  and  a  Duck  will  resort  to  the  same  nest-box, 
set  up  by  a  scheming  woodsman  for  his  own  advantage  ;  and 
that  the  Starling,  which  constantly  dispossesses  the  Green 
■Woodpecker,  sometimja  discovers  that  the  rightfiU  heii  of 
the  domicile  has  to  be  brought  up  by  the  intruding  tenant. 
In  all  such  cases  it  is  not  possible  to  say  which  species  is 
so  constituted  as  to  obtain  the  mastery,  but  it  is  not  diffi- 
cidt  to  conceive  that  in  the  course  of  ages  that  which  was 
driven  from  its  home  might  thrive  through  the  fostering 
of  its  young  by  the  invader,  and  thus  the  abandonment 
of  domestic  habits  and  duties  might  become  a  direct  gain 
to  the  evicted  householder.  This  much  granted,  all  the 
rest  ■will  follow  easily  enough,  but  it  must  be  confessed 
that  this  is  only  a  presumption,  though  a  presumption 
which  seems  plausible  if  not  likely. 

EGGS. 

The  pains  bestowed  by  such  Birds  (incomparably  the 
most  numerous  of  the  Class),  as  build  elaborate  nests  and 
the  devices  employed  by  those  that,  not  doing  so,  display  no 
little  skill  in  providing  for  the  preservation  of  their  produce, 
invite  some  atu  ntion  to  the  e^gs  which 'they  lay.  This 
attention  will  perhaps  be  more  cheerfully  given  when  we 
think  how  many  naturalists,  not  merely  ornithologists,  have 
been  first  directed  to  the  study  of  the  animal  kingdom  by 
the  spoils  they  have  won  in  their  early  days  of  birds'  nesting.  Bir»1s' 
With  some  such  men  the  fascination  of  this  boyish  pursuit  nesuog. 
has  maintained  its  full  force  even  in  old  age — a  fact  not  so 
much  to  be  wondered  at  when  it  is  considered  that  hardly 
any  branch  of  the  pracfecal  study  of  Natural  History  brings 
the  enquirer  so  closely  in  contact  with  many  of  its  secrets. 
It  is  therefore  eminently  pardonable  for  the  victims  of  this 
devotion  to  dignify  their  passion  by  the  learned  name  of 
"  Ooixxil ,"  and  to  bespeak  for  it  the  claims  of  a  science. 
Yet  the  present  writer — once  an  ardent  follower  of  the 
practice  of  birds'-ncsting,  and  still  on  occasion  warming  to 
its  pleasures — must  confess  to  a  certain  amount  of  di.sap- 
pointnicnt  as  to  tho  benefits  it  was  expected  to  confer  on 
Systematic  Ornithology,  though  he  jields  to  none  in  his  It«  a««r 
high  estimate  of  its  utility  in  acquainting  the  learner  with 
the  most  interesting  details  of  bird-life — without  a  know- 
ledge of  which  nearly  all  systematic-  study  is  but  work 
that  may  as  well  be  done  in  a  library,  a  museum,  or  a  dis- 
secting-room, and  is  incapable  of  conveying  information  to 
the  learner  concermng  the  why  and  the  wherefore  of  such 
or  such  modifications  and  adaptations  of  structure.  To 
some — and  especially  to  those  who  are  only  anatomists — 
this  statement  may  seem  preposterous,  but  it  is  in  truth 
no  such  thing.  What  engineer  can  be  said  to  understand 
his  busine.s3  if  he  knows  not  tho  purpose  to  which  tho 
[mi(iiiiira  he  ni.akes  are  to  be  applied  and  is  unacquainted 
with  their  mode  of  working  1  Wo  may  investig.ate  tho- 
roughly tho  orgjins  of  any  animal,  we  may  trace  them  from 
the  oarUcst  moment  in  which  they  become  de&oed,  Aod 


ECG3.] 


BIRDS 


( (< 


watch  them  ns  tut/  develop  to  maturity,  wc  may  compre- 
Uenii  the  way  in  which  ever)-  part  of  a  comphcated  struc- 
ture IS  successively  built  up,  but  if  we  take  not  the  trouble 
to  know  their  ciroct  on  the  economy  of  the  creatnre  wc  as 
naturalists  have  done  but  half  our  task  aud  abandon  our 
labour  when  ihi*.  fulness  of  reward  is  coming  upon  us. 
The  fielJnaturalis*,  properly  instructed,  crowns  the  work 
of  the  comparative  anatomist  and  th«  physiologist,,  though 
without  the  necessary  education  he  is  little  more  than  an 
empiric,  even  should  he  possess  the  trained  cunning  of  the 
savage  on  whose  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  wild  animals 
depends  his  chance  of  procuring  a  meal. 
Oivovpriej  Perhaps  the  greatesi  scientific  triumph  of  oologists  lies 
of  oolo-  in  their  having  fully  appreciated  the  intimate  alliance  of 
!'""■  the  Limicoltx  (the  great  group  of  Snipes  and  Plovers)  witli 

the  Gaviix  (the  Gulls,  Terns,  and  other  birds  more  distantly 
connected  with  them)  before  it  was  recognized  by  any  pro- 
fessed taionomist, — L'Hermmier,  whose  researches  have 
been  much  overlooked,  excepted;  though  to  such  an  one  was 
given  the  privilege  of  placing  that  aiTinity  beyond  cavil 
(Huxley,  I'roc.  Zool.  Soc.  1867,  pp.  420,  456-458  ;  cf.  lits, 
1868,  p.  02).  In  like  manner  it  is  bilievcd  that  oologists 
first  saw  the  need  of  separating  from  the  true  Passeres 
several  groups  of  birds  that  had  for  many  years  been  un- 
hesitatingly associated  with  that  very  uniform  assemblage. 
Diffidence  as  to  their  own  capacity  for  meddling  with  mat- 
ters of  systematic  arrangement  may  possibly  have  been  the 
oouse  which  deterred  the  men  who  were  content  to  brood 
over  birds'  eggs  from  sooner  asserting  the  validity  of  the 
views  they  held.  Following  the  example  furnished  by  the 
objects  of  their  study,  they  seem  to  have  chiefly  sought  to 
bide  their  offspring  from  the  curious  eye — and  if  such  was 
their  design  it  must  be  allowed  to  have  been  admirably 
successful.  In  enthusiastic  zeal  for  the  prosecution  of  their 
favouri'3  researches,  however,  they  have  never  yielded  to, 
if  they  have  not  surpassed,  any  other  class  of  naturalists. 
If  a  storm-swept  island,  only  to  be  reached  at  the  risk  of 
life,  held  out  the  hope  of  some  oological  novelty  there  was 
the  egg-collector  (Faber,  his,  xx.  pp.  G33-6Sd  ;  Proctor, 
Naturatift,  1838,  pp.  411,  412).  Did  another  treasure 
demand  his  traversing  a  burning  desert  (Tristram,  Ibif, 
1859,  p.  79)  or  sojourning  for  several  winters  within  the 
wildest  wastes  of  the  Arctic  Circle  (Wolley,  /bis,  1859, 
pp.  69-76;  18C1,  pp.  92-106;  Kennicott,  lifp.  SniUhon. 
Inst.  1862,  pp.  39,  40^,  he  endured  the  necessary  hard- 
ships to  accomplish  his  end,  and  the  possession  to  him  of 
an  empty  shell  of  carbonate  of  lime,'  stained  or  not  (as  the 
case  might  be)  by  a  secretion  of  the  villous  membrane  of 
ihe  parent's  uterus,  was  to  him  a  sufTicient  reward.  Taxo- 
noincrs,  however,  have  probably  been  right  in  not  attach- 
ing too  great  an  importance  to  such  systematic  characters 
as  can  be  deduced  from  the  eggs  of  birds,  but  it  would 
have  been  better  had  they  not  insisted  so  strongly  as  they 
have  done  on  the  infallibility  of  one  or  another  set  of  char- 
acters, chosen  by  themselves.  Oology  taken  alone  proves 
to  be  a  guide  as  misleading  as  any  other  arbitrary  method 
of  classification,  but  combined  with  the  evidence  afforded 
by  due  study  of  other  particularities,  whether  superficial  or 
deep-seated,  it  can  scarcely  fail  in  time  to  conduct  tis  to 
an  ornithological  arrangement  as  nearly  true  to  Nature  as 
wc  may  expect  to  achieve. 

The  first  man  of  science  who  seems  to  have  given  any 
special  thought  to  oology,  was  the  celebrated  Sir  Thomas 
Browne,  of  Norwich,  who  already  in  1681,  when  visited  by 
John  Evelyn  (from  whose  diary  we  learn  the  fact),  had 
assigned  a  place  in  his  cabinet  of  rarities  to  a  collection  of 
birds'  eggs.     The  next  we  hear  of  is  that  Count  of  Marsigli 

'  \  ^n.ai;  proportion  of  carbonate  of  migneitia  And  phospbat«  of 
tlin4  ah  •  ctAcDM\a  aUo  eotcn  i0lo  it^  compotUiou, 


who  early  in  the  eighteenth  century  explored,  chiefly  for 
this  kind  of  investigation,  the  valley  of  the  Danube — a 
region  at  that  tunc,  it  is  almost  unnecessary  to  remark, 
utterly  uiikaown  to  naturalists.  But  there  is  no  need  to 
catalogue  the  woi'thies  of  this  study.  As  they  approach 
our  own  day  their  number  becomes  far  too  great  to  tell, 
and  if  very  recently  it  has  seemed  to  dwindle  the  reason  is 
probably  at  hand  in  the  reflection  that  most  of  the  greatest 
prizes  have  been  won,  while  those  that  remain  to  reward 
the  aspiring  appear  to  be  just  now  from  one  cause  or  another 
almost  out  of  reach.  Pci  baps  at  the  present  time  the  Birds- 
of-Paradise  and  their  allies  form  the  only  group  of  any 
recognized  distinctiveness  and  extent  of  whose  eggs  we 
know  absolutely  nothing — though  there  are  important  iso- 
lated forms,  such  as  Atrichia,  Ilfterotocha,  and  others,  con- 
cerning the  eggs  as  well  as  the  breeding  habits  of  which 
our  ignorance  is  absolute,  and  the  species  of  many  families 
that  have  hitherto  defied  the  zeal  of  oologists  are  very 
numerous.  These  last,  however,  though  including  some 
common  and  some  not  very  uncommon  British  birds,  possess 
in  a  general  way  comparativsly  little  interest,  since,  the 
eggs  of  their  nearest  allies  being  well  known,  we  cannot 
expect  much  to  follow  from  the  discovery  of  the  recluses, 
and  it  is  only  to  the  impassioned  collector  that  the  obtain- 
ing of  such  desiderata  will  afford  much  satisfaction. 

The  first  thing  which  strikes  the  eye  of  one  who  be-  Varied 
holds  a  large  collection  of  egg-shells  is  the  varied  hues  of  hues  of 
the  specimens.  Hardly  a  shade  known  to  the  colourist  is  '^'' 
not  exhibited  by  one  or  more,  and  some  of  these  tints  have 
their  beauty  enhanced  by  the  glossy  surface  on  which  they 
are  displ.iyed,  by  theis  harmonious  blending,  or  by  the 
pleasing  contrast  of  the  pigments  which  form  markings  as 
often  of  the  mest  irregular  as  of  regular  shape.  But  it  Forms  of 
would  seem  as  though  such  markings,  which  a  very  small  "'"'''"g*- 
amount  of  observation  will  shew  to  have  been  deposited 
on  the  shell  a  short  time  before  its  exclusion,  arc  primarily 
and  normally  circular,  for  hardly  any  egg  that  bears  mark- 
ings at  all  does  not  exhibit  .soiiie  spots  of  that  form,  but 
that  in  the  progress  of  the  eggs  through  that  part  of  the 
oviduct  in  which  the  colouring  matter  is  laid  on  many  of 
them  become  smeared,  blotched,  or  prot.'acted  in  some  par- 
ticular direction.  The  circular  spots  thus  betoken  the 
deposition  of  the  pigment  while  the  egg  is  at  rest,  the  blurred 
markings  show  its  deposition  while  the  egg  is  in  motion, 
and  this  motion  would  seem  often  to  be  at  once  onward 
and  rotatory,  as  indicated  by  the  spiral  markings  not  un- 
commonly observable  in  the  eggs  of  some  Birds-of-prcy 
and  others — the  larger  end  of  the  egg  (when  the  ends  differ 
in  form)  making  way  for  the  smaller.-  At  the  same  time 
the  eggs  of  a  great  number  of  birds  bear,  beside  these  la.'-t 
and  superimposed  markings,  more  deeply-seated  stains, 
generally  of  a  paler  and  often  of  an  altogether  different 
hue,  and  these  are  evidently  due  to  some  earlier  dyeing 
process.  The  peculiar  tint  of  the  ground-colour,  though  Cmiir'l. 
commonly  superficial,  if  not  actually  congenital  with  the  colour, 
formation  of  the  shell,  would  appear  to  be  suffused  soon 
after.  The  depth  of  colouring  whether  original  or  super- 
vening is  obviously  dependent  in  a  great  measure  on  the 
constitution  or  bodily  condition  of  the  parent  If  a  bird, 
bearing  in  its  o\'iduct  a  fully-formed  egg,  be  captured,  th.u 
egg  will  speedily  be  laid  under  any  circumstances  of  in- 
convenience to  which  its  producer  shall  be  subjected,  but 
such  an  egg  is  usually  deficient  in  color.ilion — fright  and 


*  That  the  larger  end  is  protruded  fir^t  was  found  on  actual  cxprri- 
mcnt  hy  .Mr  Bartlett,  Superintendent  of  tho  Gar.teoa  of  the  Zoological 
Society]  to  be  the  ca)>c  commonly,  hut  ».<  an  accident  the  position  may 
be  sometimes  rcvcMed,  and  this  will  most  likely  account  for  the  occa- 
sional de]>osition  of  markings  on  Ihc  smaller  itistcad  of  the  larger  end 
a»  not  nnfrequently  shown  in  eggs  of  tha  f^parrow.hnwk  {Acc\j>it^ 
ninul.     The  head  of  tlic  ibick  is  alnays  furued  at  tb>  larger  «s<t. 


774 


BIRDS 


[e 


Nnturcof 


captivity  having  arrested  toe  natural  secretions.  In  like 
manner  over  excitement  or  debility  of  the  organs,  the  con- 
sequence of  ill  health,  give  rise  to  much  and  often  very 
curicrus  abnormality.  It  is  commonly  believed  that  the 
older  a  bird  is  the  more  intensely  coloured  will  be  its  eggs, 
and  to  some  extent  this  belief  appears  to  be  true.  Certain 
FakonidcE,  which  ordinarily  lay  very  brilliantly-tinted  eggs, 
and  are  therefore  good  tests,  seem  when  young  unable  to 
lecrete  so  much  colouring-matter  as  they  do  when  older, 
and  season  after  season  the  dyes  become  deeper,  but  there 
is  reason  to  think  that  when  the  bird  has  attained  its  full 
vigour  improvement  stops,  and  a  few  years  later  the  inten- 
sity of  hue  begins  to  decline.  It  would  be  well  if  we  had 
more  evidence,  however,  in  support  of  this  opinion,  which 
is  chiefly  based  on  a  series  of  eggs  of  one  species — the 
Golden  Eagle  {Aquila  chrysaetus),  in  the  writer's  possession, 
omong  which  are  some  believed  on  good  grounds  to  have 
been  the  produce  in  the  course  of  about  twelve  years  of 
one  and  the  same  female.  The  amount  of  colouring-matter 
secreted  and  deposited  seems  notwithstanding  to  be  gene- 
rally a  pretty  constant  quantity — allowance  being  made  for 
individual  coqstitution  ;  but  it  often  happens — especially 
in  birds  that  lay  only  two  eggs — that  nearly  all  the  dye  will 
be  deposited  on  one  of  these,  leaving  the  other  colourless ; 
it  seems,  however,  to  be  a  matter  of  inconstancy  which  of 
the  two  is  first  developed.  Thus  of  two  pairs  of  Golden 
Eagles'  eggs  also  in  the  possession  of  the  writer,  one  speci- 
men of  each  pair  is  nearly  white  while  the  other  is  deeply 
coloured,  and  it  is  known  that  in  one  case  the  white  egg 
was  laid  first  and  in  the  other  the  coloured  one.  When  birds 
1  ly  many  mottled,  and  a  fortiori  plain,  eggs,  there  is  gene- 
rilly  less  difference  in  their  colouring,  and  though  no  two 
CAU  hardly  ever  be  said  to  be  really  alike,  yet  the  family 
resemblance  between  them  all  is  obvious  to  the  practised 
eye.  It  would  seem  however  to  be  a  peculiarity  with  some 
8;)ecie3 — and  the  Tree-Sparrow  (Passer  montanus)  which 
Lys  five  or  six  eggs  may  be  taken  as  a  striking  example — 
that  one  egg  should  always  differ  remarkably  from  the  rest 
of  the  clutch.  In  addition  to  what  has  been  said  above 
as  to  the  deposition  of  colour  in  circular  spots  indicating 
a  pause  in  the  progress  of  the  egg  through  one  part  of  the 
oviduct,  it  may  be  observed  that  the  cessation  of  motion  at 
that  time  is  equally  shewn  by  the  clearly  defined  hair-lines 
or  vermiculations  seen  m  many  eggs,  and  in  none  more 
commonly  met  with  than  in  those  of  the  Buntings  {Ember- 
Yndce).  Such  markings  must  not  only  have  been  deposited 
»hile  the  egg  was  at  rest,  but  it  must  have  remained  mo- 
tionless until  the  pigment  was  completely  set,  or  blurred 
instead  of  sharp  edges  would  have  been  the  result.' 

The  composition  of  this  pigment  has  long  excited  much 
curiosity,  and  it  has  been  commonly  and  rather  crudely 
'ascribed  to  secretions  of  the  blood  or  bile,'  but  very  recently 
unexpected  light  has  been  shed  upon  the  subject  by  the 
researches  of  Mr  Sorby  {Proe.  Zool.  Soc  1875,  p.  351), 
who,  using  the  method  of  spectrum-analysis,  has  now  ascer- 
tained the  existence  of  sevm  well-marked  substances  in  the 
colouring  matter  of  eggs,  to  the  admixture  of  which  in  cer- 
tain proportions  a'l  their  tinto  are  duo.     These  ho  names 


*  The  principal  oological  works  with  coloured  6g:nre9  are  the  follow- 
ing:— Thirnemano,  FortpJlanzungsfjejchichU der gesanvnten  yiigel{iio, 
Leipzig.  1840)  ;  Lefevre,  Atlas  dts  trufs  da  oistaux  d' Europe  (8vo, 
Paris:  1845)  ;  llewitsoD,  CnUntred  fUustrations  of  Uie  E'jris  of  British 
Birrfj  (8vo,  Ed.  3,London:  1856);  Brewer,  K or th  American  Oology  {iio, 
WashiDgtOD :  1869);  Tacianowski,  Onlonia  PtaJciw  /'olskiih' {Syo, 
Warszawa:  1862);  Badekcr,  /;w  Eier der Europtiiichm  Vogd(tol.  Leip- 
rig;  1863);  Wolley,  Ootfuca  ii'olteyaTUJ  (8vo,  London:  1S64) — some  of 
wbtch  hare  never  been  completed  ;  but  a  great  number  of  rare  eggs 
•re  also  figure*!  in  variouj  journals,  as  the  I'roccedin'ja  of  the  Zoologi- 
cal Society,  Nauvuinnia,  the  Jou-rnal  /iir  Omifwlogie,  and  Tfu  Ibii. 

*  C/.  WUke,  Aauinannin,  1 858.  pp.  393-JS7.  and  C.  Lecoate,  Rmu 
»'  ""vonn  d<  Zoologia,  J860,  pp.  llO-iOj. 


Oorhodeine,  Oocyan,  Banded  Oocyan,  Yellow  Ooxanthine, 
Rufous  Ooxanthine,  a  substance,  giving  narrow  absorption- 
bands  in  the  red,  the  true  colour  of  which  he  has  not  yet 
been  able  to  decide,  and  lastly  Lichenoxanthine.  It  would 
be  out  of  place  here  to  particularize  their  chtiaical  proper- 
ties, and  it  is  enough  to  say  that  they  are  closely  connected 
either  with  hsemoglobin  or  bile-pigments,  and  in  many 
respects  resemble  the  latter  more  than  do  any  other  group 
of  colouring-matters,  but  do  not  actually  agree  with  theio. 
The  first  is  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  the  seven, 
because  it  occurs  more  or  less  in  the  shells  of  so  great  a 
number  of  eggs  that  its  entire  absence  is  exceptional,  and 
it  is  of  a  very  permanent  character,  its  general  colour  being 
of  a  peculiar  brown-red.  The  second  and  third  seem  when 
pure  to  be  of  a  very  fine  blue,  but  the  spectrum  of  the 
former  shows  no  detached  bands,  while  that  of  the  latter 
has  a  well-marked  detached  absorbentrband  near  the  red 
end,  though  the  two  are  closely  related  since  they  yield  the 
same  product  when  oxidized.  The  fourth  and  fifth  sub- 
stances supply  a  bright  yellow  or  reddish-yellow  hue,  and 
the  former  is  particularly  characteristic  of  eggs  of  the 
Emeus  {Dromceru),  giving  rise  when  mixed  with  oocyao 
to  the  fine  malachite-green  which  they  possess,  while  the 
latter  has  only  been  met  with  in  those  of  the  Tinamous 
(TinaTftidce),  in  which  it  should  be  mentioned  that  oorho- 
deine has  not  been  found,  or  perhaps  in  those  of  a  Casso- 
wary (Casuariiis),  and  when  mixed  with  oocyan  produces  a 
peculiar  load-colour.  The  «iith  substance,  as  before  stated, 
has  Bot  yet  been  suflBciently  determined,  but  it  would  seem 
in  combination  with  others  to  give  them  an  abnormally 
browner  tint ;  and  the  seventh  appears  to  be  identical  with 
one  which  occurs  in  greater  or  less  amount  in  almost  all 
classes  of  plants,  but  is  more  especially  abundant  in  and 
characteristic  of  lichens  and  fungi.  There  is  a  possibility 
howe%'er  of  this  last  being  in  part  if  not  wholly  due  to  the 
growth  of  minute  fungi,  though  Mr  Sorby  believes  that 
some  such  substance  really  is  a  normal  constituent  of  the 
shell  of  eggs  having  a  peculiar  brick-red  colour.  That 
gentleman  is  further  inclined  to  think  that  oorhodeine  is 
in  some  way  or  other  closely  related  to  cruentine,  being 
probably  derived  from  the  red  colouring-matter  of  the  blood 
by  some  unknown  process  of  secretion,  and  likewise  that 
there  is  some  chemical  relation  between  the  oocyans  and 
the  bile. 

The  grain  of  the  egg-shell  offers  characters  that  deserve 
far  mure  consideration  than  they  have  received  until  lately, 
when  the  attention  of  Herr  von  Nathusius  having  been' 
directed  to  the  subject  by  some  investigations  carried  on 
by  Dr  Landuis'  and  Herr  Rudolf  Blasiua,*  he  has  brought 
out  a  series  of  remarkable  papers^  in  which  he  has  arrived 
at  the  conclusion  that  a  well-defined  type  of  shell-structure 
belongs  to  certiin  families  of  birds,  and  is  easily  recognized 
under  the  microscope.  In  some  cases,  as  in  the  eggs  of 
certain  Swans  and  Geese  {Cygnus  olor  and  C.  musicus, 
Ansa-  cinerms  and  A.  segHum)  even  specific  differences  are 
apparent.  The  bearing  of  these  researches  on  classifica- 
tion generally  is  of  considerable  importance  and  must  be 
taken  into  account  by  all  future  taxonomcrs.  Here  we 
cannot  enter  into  details,  it  must  suflice  to  remark  that 
the  grain  of  the  shell  is  sometimes  so  fine  that  the  surface 
is  glossy,  and  this  is  the  c.ise  with  a  large  number  of  Pi- 
cari(r,  where  it  is  also  quite  colourless  and  the  contents  of 
their  eggs  scon  through  the'  semi-transparent  shell  give  an 

'  ZeiCschr.  /ilr  vnsseiuch.  Zootogie,  XT.  pp.  1-31 

*  Op.  cit.  ivii.  pp.  480-524. 

•  Op.  cit.  iviii.  pp.  19-21,  pp.  225-270,  lii.  pp.  322  343,  ix  pp. 
106-130.  ui.  pp.  330-335.  A  summary  of  those  will  be  found  ia 
Joum.  /ar  Omith.  1871,  pp.  241-260,  and  the  subject  has  been  con- 
tinued  in  the  utue  pciioilical  for  1S72.  pp.  321-332,  and  1874,  pp> 
1-26. 


EOGS.] 


BIRDS 


775 


opalescence  of  great  beauty ;  out  among  the  Tinamous 
(Tinainid,e)  colour  i3  invariably  present  and  their  opaque 
eggs  present  the  appearance  of  more  or  less  globular  balls 
of  highly-burnished  metal  or  glazed  porcelain.  Most  birds 
lay  eggs  with  a  smooth  shell,  such  as  nearly  all  the  Gavice, 
LimicoUt,  and  Passcres,  and  in  some  groups,  as  Viiih.  the 
normal  Onllince,  this  seems  to  be  enamelled  or  much 
*  polished,  but  it  is  still  very  diil'crent  from  the  brilliant 

surface  of  those  just  mentioned,  and  nothing  like  a  definite 
line  can  be  drawn  between  their  structure  and  that  in 
which  the  substance  is  duU  and  uniform,  as  among  the 
AlMac  and  the  AccipUrts.  In  many  of  the  Radtce  the 
surface  is  granulated  and  pitted  in  an  extraordinary  man- 
ner,' and  in  a  less  degree  the  same  fcaturo  is  observable  in 
the  aggs  of  some  other  birds,  as  the  Storks  [Ciconiidce). 
Many  Water-fowls,  and  particularly  the  Ducks  (AnatidcB), 
lay  eggs  with  a  greasy  or  oleagiuous  exterior,  as  the  col- 
lector who  wishes  to  inscribe  his  specimens  with  marks  of 
their  identity^often  finds  to  his  iuconvenience ;  but  there 
are  other  cg?s,  as  those  of  the  Anis  (Crotophaga),  the 
Grebes  (Podic.pedida;),  and  all  of  the  Steganopodes,  except 
Phaeton,  which  are  more  or  less  covered  with  a  cretaceous 
film,  often  of  considerable  thickness  and  varied  by  cal- 
careous protuberances. 
Form  of  In  form  eggs  vary  very  much,  and  this  is  sometimes  ob- 

•i?B^  ecrvable  in  examples  not  ouly  of  the  same  species  but  even 

from  the  same  mother,  yet  a  certain  amount  of  resemblance 
is  usually  to  be  traced  according  to  the  natural  group  to 
which  the  parents  belong.  Those  of  the  Owls  (Slrigida:) 
and  of  some  of  the  Picarux — especially  those  which  lay  the 
glossy  eggs  above  spoken  of — are  often  apparently  spheri- 
cal, though  it  is  probable  that  if  tested  mathematically 
none  would  be  found  truly  so — indeed  it  may  be  asserted 
that  few  eggs  are  strictly  symmetrical,  however  nearly  they 
may  seem  so,  one  side  bulging  out,  though  very  slightly, 
more  than  the  other.  The  really  oval  form,  with  which 
we  are  most  familiar,  needs  no  remark,  but  this  is  capable 
of  infinite  variety  caused  by  the  relative  position  and  pro- 
portion of  the  major  and  minor  axes.  In  nearly  all  the 
Limicoloe  and  some  of  the  Alcid,:e  the  egg  attenuates  very 
rapidly  towards  the  smaller  end,  sometimes  in  a  slightly 
convex  curve,  sometimes  without  perceptible  curvature, 
and  occasionally  in  a  sensibly  concave  curve.  The  eggs 
having  this  pyriform  shape  are  mostly  those  of  birds  which 
invariably  lay  four  in  a  nest,  and  therein  they  lie  with  their 
points  almo.st  meeting  in  the  centre  and  thus  occupying  as 
little  space  as  possible  and  more  easily  covered  by  the 
brooding  parent.  Otljor  eggs  as  those  of  the  Sand-Grouse 
{Pterocleija;)  are  elongated  and  almost  cylindrical  for  a 
considerable  part  of  their  length  terminating  at  each  end 
obtusely,  while  eggs  of  the  Grebes  {Podicipedidiv)  which 
also  have  both  ends  nearly  alike  but  pointed,  are  so  wide 
in  the  middle  as  to  present  a  biconical  appearance.' 
8li«  of  The  size  of  eggs  is  generally  but  not  at  all  constantly  in 

*ti*-  proportion  to  that  of  the  parent.     The  Guillemot  (Atca 

troile)  and  the  Raven  {Contus  corax)  are  themselves  of  about 
equal  size ;  their  eggs  vary  as  ten  to  one.  The  Snipe 
(Scolopax  gallinago)  and  the  Blackbird  (Turdus  merida) 
differ  but  slightly  in  weight,  their  eggs  remarkably.  The 
eggs  of  the  Guillemot  arc  as  big  as  those  of  an  Eagle  ;  and 
those  of  the  Snipe  equal  in  size  the  eggs  of  a  Partridge 
[Perdix  cinerea).    Mr  llcwitson,  from  whom  these  instances 

'  It  is  carious  that  Ottrlchcs'  eggs  from  North  Africa  aro  to  be 
midily  distinguished  from  thoso  from  Ihc  Cnpc  of  Good  Hope  by  their 
iinooth  ivory-like  surface,  without  any  punctures,  whereas  southern 
i)>ecimei;5  are  rough  as  though  pock-marked  {Ibis,  1800,  p.  74),  yet  no 
lilTerence  that  can  be  deemed  specific  hi"  as  yet  been  established  be- 
'.wecn  the  bints  of  the  north  and  of  the  south. 

'  A  great  deal  of  valuable  luformnlion  on  this  and  other  kindred 
ttabjects  Is  given  by  Des  Murs,  Traitl gfntral  d'Oologie  omilhclogimie 
8vo.  I'aris:  ISiiO;. 


are  taken,  remarks : — "  The  reason  of  this  great  disparity  is, 
however,  obvious ;  the  eggs  of  all  those  birds  which  quit 
the  nest  soon  after  they  are  hatched,  and  which  are  conse- 
quently more  fully  developed  at  their  birth,  are  very  large."' 
It  must  be  added,  though,  that  the  number  of  eggs  to  be 
covered  at  one  time  seems  also  to  have  some  relation  to 
their  size,  and  this  offers  a  further  explanation  of  the  fact 
just  mentioned  with  regard  to  the  Snipe  and  the  Partridge 
— the  former  being  one  of  those  birds  which  are  constant 
in  producing  four,  and  the  latter  often  laying  as  many  as 
a  dozen — for  the  chicks  of  each  run  as  soon  as  they  release 
themselves  from  the  shell. 

Incubation  is  performed,  as  is  well  known,  by  the  female  lacaUtloi 
of  nearly  all  Birds,  but  with  most  of  the  Passeres  and  many 
others  the  male  seems  to  share  her  tedious'  duties,  and 
among  the  Ratilce,  apparently  without  exception,  th»  cock 
takes  that  office  wholly  on  himself.  There  are  a  few  groups 
or  perhaps  species  in  which  the  same  practice  is  suspected 
to  obtain — certain  of  the  Limicolce  for  instance,  the  Godwits 
(Limosa),  the  Phalaropes  (Plialarop-us),  and  luo  Dotterel 
(Eudromias  morinellus) — and  in  these  It  is  to  bo  remarked 
that  the  hen  is  larger  and  more  brightly  coloured  than  her 
mate.  Owing  to  the  unfortunate  neglect  of  those  who 
have  the  opportunity  of  making  the  needful  observations 
the  period  of  Incubation  has  been  ascertained  in  compara- 
tively few  birds,  and  it  is  here  possible  to  deal  with  that 
subject  only  in  the  most  vague  and  general  language.  It 
may  be  asserted  that  most  of  the  smaUer /'(Msirrf  j  of  Europe 
hatch  their  young  in  about  thirteen  days,  but  in  a  few 
species  the  term  is  believed  to  be  shortened  to  ten  or  eleven 
days,  while  in  t,he  largest  of  that  Order,  the  Kaven,  it  is 
lengthened  to  some  twenty-one  days.  This  also  is  the 
period  which  the  Barndoor-fowl  ordinarily  takes,  but  the 
Pheasant,  though  so  very  nearly  allied,  takes  about  twenty- 
eight.  Most  Water-birds,  so  far  as  is  known,  and  the 
smaller  Birds-of-prey  seem  to  require  as  long  a  time,  but 
in  the  Swan  incubation  is  protracted  to  six  weeks.  The 
temperature  of  the  air  is  commonly  credited  with  having 
something  to  do  either  in  hastening  or  retarding  exclusion 
from  the  egg,  but  to  what  extent,  or  even  whether  justly 
so  or  not,  seems  in  the  absence  of  ;  reci.se  experiments  to 
be  doubtful.  Certain  birds  occasionally  begin  brooding  as 
soon  as  the  first  egg  is  laid,*  and  this  plan  unquestionably 
has  its  advantages,  since  the  offspring  being  of  difl'erent 
ages  thereby  become  less  of  a  burthen  on  the  parents  which 
have  to  minister  to  their  wants,  while  the  fostering  warmth 
of  the  parlier  chicks  can  hardly  fail  to  aid  the  development 
of  those  which  are  unhatchcd,  during  the  absence  of  father 
and  mother  in  search  of  food  ;  but  most  birds,  and  it  need 
scarcely  be  said,  all  those  the  ycmg  of  which  run  fpom  theii 
birth,  await  the  completion  of  the  clutch  before  sitting  is 
begun.  The  care  bestowed,  by  almost  every  species,  on 
the  infant-brood,  is  proverbial,  and  there  is  hardly  any 
extremity  of  danger  which  one  at  Ic.ist  of  the  anxious 
parents  will  not  inc-r  to  ward  olT  injury  from  their  pro- 
geny 

MOULT. 

The  more  or  less  protracted  business  of  rcjiroduclioa 
being  ended  there  forthwith  follows  in  the  case  of  nearly 
all  Birds  a  process  of  the  most  vital  consequence  to  them. 
This  is  the  Moult  or  shedding  of  their  old  and  often  wea- 
ther-beaten feathers  to  be  replaced  by  an  entirely  new  suit. 
It  is  probably  the  severest  strain  to  which  bird-life  is  ex- 
posed, and,  to  judge  from  its  effects  on  our  domesticated 
pets,  produces  a  greater  mortality  than  an  occasional  want 


'  Hewitson,  op.  cil.  Inlrod.  p.  x. 

*  TI'15  FCfins  to  be  very  often  the  ca^e  with  the  Owls,  but  if  the 
writer's  ulinorvAtion  is  not  niistakeo  the  habit  Is  not  constant  eveij, 
with  the  sauio  individual  bird. 


77G 


BIRDS 


(moult. 


of  proper  or  even  any  food  docs.  Imponaiit  however  03 
are  its  bearings  on  every  individual  of  the  whole  Class,  the 
subject  is  one  which  has  been  sadly  neglected  by  ornitho- 
logical writers  and,  with  one  exception,'  we  are  not  aware 
of  any  connected  series  of  observations  on  Moult  within  the 
whole  range  of  their  literature.  The  structure  and  mode 
of  growth  of  feathers  has  been  very  well  studied  and  de- 
scribed by  several  investigators,  and  must  be  especially 
treated  in  introducing  the  subject  of  Pterylography — or 
the  disposition  of  the  various  plumed  patches  on  the  bird's 
Iiody — which,  having  been  found  to  be  a  most  useful  auxili- 
ary in  Classification,  is  deferred  until  that  comes  to  be 
discussed  under  the  article  "  Ornithology."  For  the  pre- 
sent we  have  briefly  to  consider  the  different  phases  which 
the  process  of  Moulting  offers 

As  a  general  rule  all  Birds  are  subject  to  an  annual 
Moult,  and  this  as  above  stated,  commonly  begins  immedi- 
ately on  the  close  of  the  breeding-season,  but,  as  will  be 
explained  further  on,  there  are  some  which  undergo  in 
addition  a  second  or  even  a  third  partial  change  of  plum- 
age, and  it  is  possible  that  there  may  be  others  still  more 
exceptional,  our  information  respecting  these,  however,  is 
too  meagre  to  make  it  worth  while  saying  anything  here 
about  them.  It  must  be  acknowledged  that  with  regard 
to  the  groat  majority  of  forms  '  e  can  only  judge  by  analogy, 
and  though  it  may  well  be  that  some  interesting  deviations 
from  the  general  rule  exist  of  which  we  are  altogether 
ignorant,  yet  when  we  consider  that  the  RalitcB,  so  far  as 
observed,  moult  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  other  birds,'^ 
the  uniformity  of  the  annual  change  may  be  almost  taken 
for  granted 

It  is  not  intended  here  to  describe  the  way  in  which  .1 
feather  dies  and  a  new  one  succeeds  it,  nor  need  we  compare 
Necessity  the  process  of  moulting  with  the  analogous  shedding  of  the 
of  moult,  hair  in  Mammals  or  of  the  skin  in  Reptiles.  Enough  for  our 
present  purpose  to  see  that  such  renovation  is  required  in 
Birds,  which  nearly  all  have  to  depend  upon  their  quills  for 
the  means  of  locomotion  and  hence  of  livelihood.  It  is 
easy  to  understand  that  durable  as  are  the  flight-feathers, 
they  do  not  last  for  ever  and  are  besides  very  subject  to 
accidental  breakage,  the  consequence  of  which  would  be 
the  crippling  of  the  bird.  It  is  obviously  to  provide  against 
what  in  most  cases  would  be  such  a  disaster  as  this  last 
that  we  find  the  remiges,  or  quill-feathers  of  the  wings,  to 
be  always  shed  in  pairs.  They  drop  oi^t  not  indeed  abso- 
lutely at  the  same  moment,  though  this'  sometimes  seems 
to  happen,  but  within  a  few  days  of  each  other,  and, 
equilibrium  being  thus  preserved,  the  power  of  flight  is 
but  slightly  deteriorated  by  their  temporary  loss.  The 
same  may  be -observed  in  a  less  degree,  since  there  is  less 
need  of  regularity,  with  the  rest  of  the  plumage,  as  a  little 
attention  to  iny  tamo  bird  will  show,  and  the  new  feathers 
grow  at  an  almost  equal  rate.  In  the  young  of  most 
species  the  original  quills  are  not  shod  during  the  first  year, 
nor  in  the  young  of  many  does  there  seem  to  be  an  entire 
moult  during  that  time,  but  in  the  typical  GaUince,  which 
are  able  to  fly  at  a  very  early  age,  often  before  they  are 
one  third  grown,  the  original  quills,  being  proportioned  to 
the  duties  required  of  them,  are  shed  before  the  bird  has 
nttaiued  its  full  size  and  are  succeeded  by  others  that  serve  it 
when  it  has  reached  maturity.  In  the  Duck-tribe  (Anaticliv), 
however,  we  have  a  very  singular  exception  to  what  has 
been  above  stated,  Most  of  these  birds  shed  their  quill- 
feathers  all  at  once,  sr,d  become  absolutely  incapable  of 

'  Tliis  id  n  valuable  paper  by  Ilerr  Mcvea,  of  Stockholm  {(E/xers. 
K  Vet  Akad.  Furhandt.  1854.  p  258),  of  which  >  German  transla- 
tion with  some  aiMitiona  by  the  author  may  bo  fouod  in  Joum.  fur 
QmiOi   1855,  pp  230-238. 

'  For  the  knr.wlo.lgo  of  thia  fact  the  writer  Ii  indebteJ  to  tlie  vwt 
tx|>ei>aiict  of  Ur  lUrllati 


flight  for  a  season,'  during  which  time  they  generally  seek 
the  shelter  of  thick,  aquatic  herbage,  and  it  is  further  to 
be  particularly  remarked  that  the  males  of  most  of  two 
sections  of  the  family  (Anatinae  and  Fuligulince)  at  the 
same  period  lose  the  brilliantly-coloured  plumage  which 
commonly  distinguishes  them  and  "  go  into  eclipse,"  as 
Waterton  hajjpily  eaid,  putting  on  for  several  weeks  a 
dingy  garb  much    resembling  that  of   the  other  sex,  to  • 

resume  their  gay  attire  only  when,  their  new  quills  being 
grown,  it  can  be  safely  flaunted  in  the  open  air.  Here  Additiooal 
we  have  the  first  instances  of  Additional  Moult  to  be  men-  moult 
tinned.  Another  is  not  le^s  interesting,  though  ornitholo- 
gists must  confess  with  shame  that  they  have  not  sufficiently 
investigated  it.  This  is  that  of  the  Ptarmigan  {Lagopua 
mutus),  both  sexes  of  which  not  only  moult  after  the  breed- 
ing-season is  over  into  a  grey  suit,  and  then  again  as 
autumn  passes  away  into  their  snowy  winter-clothing,  but, 
divesting  themselves  of  this  last  in  spring,  then  put  on 
each  a  third  and  most  distinctive  dress — these  changes, 
however,  do  not  extend  to  the  quills  either  of  the  wings  or 
tail.* 

The  number  of  Birds  which  undergo  a  more  or  less  entire  Variation 
Double  Moult  is  very  considerable,  and  the  peculiarity  is  of  ni"uli  i» 
not  always  characteristic  of  families  or  even,  unless  in  a'  ' 
restricted  sense,  of  genera.  Thus  while  the  Garden-Warbler 
{Sylvia  salicaria)  is  said  to  moult  twice  in  the  year  the 
Blackcap  (S.  atricapiUa)  does  so  but  once.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  Emberizidce,  in  which  family  both  practices 
seem  to  obtain,  but  on  the  other  hand  the  distinction  in 
this  respect  between  the  Larks  (Alaudidce)  and  the  Pipits 
(Anthince),  belonging  to  the  family  Molarillidce,  appears,  so 
far  as  our  knowledge  goes,  to  be  invariable,  though  the  habits 
and  general  appearance  of  both  groups  are  so  much  alike — 
the  Alaudidije  moulting  but  once  and  \,}\e  Antkin<v,  conform- 
ing to  the  practice  of  the  normal  Motacitlidce  (Afotacillina'), 
twice  a  year — the  quills,  be  it  understood,  excepted.  But 
it  would  be  impossible  here  to  give  more  than  these  few 
examples,  and  indeed  we  scarcely  know  anything  of  the 
subject  outside  of  groups  belonging  to  the  Northern 
hemisphere.' 

In  a  large  number  of  species  the  Additional  Moult  is  very  Partial 
partial,  being  often  limited  to  certain  portions  of  the  plumage,  ""ou'i 
and  it  is  yet  an  unsolved  problem  how  far  some  of  the 
changes  to  be  observed  are  due  to  actual  Moult  and  how 
far  to  the  alteration  of  colour  in  the  feathers  themselves,  as 
also  the  way  by  which  this  alteration  of  colour  is  produced, 
whether,  as  certainly  happens  in  many  instances,  by  the 
dropping  off  of  the  "  barbieels  " — the  fine  filaments  that 
fringe  the  "  barbieels "  which  are  arranged  on  the  upper 
surface  of  each  "barb"  composing  the  web  of  the  feather 
— or  in  some  other  manner  With  either  of  these  last 
considerations  we  need  not  now  concern  ourselves.  It  is 
unquestionable  that  there  are  innumerable  specif  of  birds, 
the  males  at  least  of  which  put  forth  in  spring  decorative 
plumes  unknown  at  any  other  season,  and  it  would  appear 
that  in  the  majority  of  them  the  feathers  which  before 
clothed  the  parts  whence  the  newly  donned  ornaments 
grow  are  doffed  to  make  room  for  these  paraphernalia  of 
marriage. 

The  subject  of  Additional  Moult  is  thus  intimately  coo- 
nected  with  the  seasonal  adornment  of  Birds,  and  as  thai 

•  One  species,  Microptcrus  cinercus,  seeitt.'i  never  to  reg.lin  the  powei 
of  flight  thus  last.     Cf.  Cunningham,  I'rm   /.not  Soc.  1871,  p   262. 

'  Marijillivr.iy  (Brit.  Birds,  i.  p.  lD(i,  London:  1837,  and  Kai 
Hist,  of  Deeside,  p.  405,  London:  1855)  thought  there  weio /our 
moultt  in  this  Bpocics,  but  that  seem*,  to  be  one  too  many.  Herr  Moves 
(ioc.  ciM  and  the  Abb^  Caire  (/!<■!>.  Zool  1851.  p  49<  )'indei>endCTitly 
made  the  discovery  of  the  Triple  MouJt,  and  almost  simultaneously 
announced  it.     Cf.  G\og<:T,,!nurn.fur  Orn    1S5C.  p   4fil 

*  The  fullest  list  as  yet  published  is  that  of  llerr  Mevn  (ul  lupra), 
but  It  is  Dul  «utirt:Iy  free  frcm  enor. 


1)  I  R  D  S 


777 


jiropcrly  belongs  to  a  branch  of  the  great  question  of 
Natural  Selection,  its  further  cousiJeratioii  nuist  here  bo 
put  otJ'  until  that  is  moro  fully  treated,  together  with  svhat 
are  known  as  the  "  Laws  of  Plumage,"  the  reader  being 
meanwhile  referred  to  those  excellent  chapters  in  which 
Mr  Darwin'  has  treated  the  matter  with  his  usual  perspi- 
cuity, though  even  he  has  far  from  exhausted  its  varied 
points  of  interest. 

It  remains  to  be  remarked  that  though  the  annual  Moult 

*   Thi  Descent  of  Man  a)ui  SiUction  in  liilatwn  to  Sex^  chapa.  xiiL- 
x'i.     LoDtloo:  1871. 


commonly  takes  place  so  soon  as  the  orecdingseason  is 
over,  there  are  plenty  of  cases  where  we  find  the  change 
delayed  to  a  later  period  of  the  year.  This  is  so  with  the 
Swallow  (Ilirundo  rustua),  which  haa  long  been  known  to 
moult  in  midwinter,  and  it  is  generally  the  way  with  all 
the  Diurnal  Birdsof-prey.  But  unquestionably  most  birds 
accomplish  the  change  much  earlier,  and  before  they  leave 
their  breeding-quarters  for  their  winter-haunts,  thereby 
starting  on  one  of  their  great  annual  journeys  with  all  the 
external  machinery  of  flight  renewed  and  m  the  best  con- 
dition for  escaping  its  attendant  perils.  (a.  v.) 


Index  to  toe  Genera  and  Larger  Groups  of  Birds  named. 


.IcinthostttL  742. 
Acclrller.  71:1,  7H;  773. 
Acrl|»lr<'^  7ri;  7«3,  761, 

7fiJ.  774. 
Aci«Jlll«.  7JJ. 
Acroccphtlui,  741,  780. 
Action,  77?. 
iEgUnils,  71h  7U,  7S7, 

769 
^Kithoirnith.T,  6d9,  700, 

Hi.  7K.  717. 
^pyomtj.  731.  7»0. 
Aetomorpha,     700,     713, 

Tu,  ;■«. 

AKT»rM>mla.  715. 
Aijnopterui.  730. 
Alcharui.  749 
Alauita.  7IC;  7C0.  IM 
Alaudldx.  7ie,  760.  tii. 

776. 
Alc».  7J0.   731.  734.  775. 
Alredlnl.ln,  7 16;  739.740, 

741.751.  755. 
AlceJO.  716.  719. 
Alclilit.  751.752.755.738, 

773. 
AlectoromorphlB.  699.71 2. 

717.  720.  723,  726. 
Alcctoiopode^  743. 
AletornK  730. 
Aluco.  713:  747.  760. 
Amaurornli,  763. 
Amblonyx,  729. 
Ampelidx.  74a,  749.  751. 
AmpeUt.  770. 
Ainphtmorpha;  700t  712. 
Amydru).  756. 
Anali.  7(^3 
Anaihvnchn^  742. 
An«3,  730.  ;.1I.  734 
AnalldiC.     742.    745.    746. 

749,   760.  741,  766,  756, 

775.  776 
AnM\nx  776 
Anstr,  730,  731,  771 
Anthln,T.  776. 
Anrhoffiis.  742. 
Anthrvfitc*.  761. 
Apnt..riils.  729. 
Ajtfianaprcryx,  733. 
Aplonii.  74L 
Aptenudvtcs.  727. 
Apliryjidje,  689.721,722; 

742. 
Aptnyx.    718.   7JI,   722, 

724.  725. 
AplorciH,  699.  720;  731. 
Aquiln.  713:   730,  774. 
Ai»i..ldl,  749.  750.  752. 
ArcIi.Topferygid*.  699. 
Arch:Bopicvyx.  719,   720. 

723;  728.  736. 
Ardu.  713.  726;  730.733. 
Ardearllffi.  730 
Ar.lcldir.  713.   726;    730, 

746.  747.  751. 
Arttoioiim.  7.'9. 
Atld«.  750.  762. 
Arltinldx.  739.  768. 
Artamul.  716. 
Aslo.  713.  714;  747 
Atelornl],  760. 
Athene.  713;  738. 
AIM.-l.ln.  747.  773. 
Alrlrfil.dt  741. 
Altacir  745. 
Ilnlinlcrpi.  713.  720.724. 

724.  727;   759 
Hcnicla.  742.  744. 
KntAunip.  713. 
Ilrnchypleracliu.  760; 
Itrnnloioum,  72& 
nubo,  730. 
nucconl.lie,  746. 
lluffrnv  712,  716.  721 
BuronlljB.  761.  762.783. 
Podylci.  752. 
Buvliac",  769. 
Burn»»1d.T.  758, 
BuCalM,  764 


Dut«o,  713 
Cftcolnft,  727. 
Cftctornls.  747. 
CacrebldK.  746.   744,  747, 

749,  750,  762, 
CnlldilS,  753, 
Callcil.  742, 
C«»l{en»*.  762. 
Calyptc,  749. 
Calvptoibynehu^    713; 

740. 
CamarhyQchus.  747. 
Camaieelua,  730 
Campepha^do^  739.  780. 

763. 
Cipitonldx.  746 
CapilmulKidlE,   739.   748, 

749,  763. 
Capnmulgua,  723;    741. 

75(1 
Cardlnalla,  717. 
Carlama.  743. 
Cai  latnlda-.  748. 
Caridonax.  739. 
Carinilw.    699.    700.  711. 

718.  720.  721,  7.'2. 
CarpnphaRB.  741. 
CaMuiild*.  609,  720,  721. 

722.  727 ;   740. 
Casuarlua,  722;  740.  741. 

774. 
Cathartca.  752 
Catfianldot  713,716:  749. 

75a  752. 
CccoraorphK.  699. 
Celeomorplia;,    609.    700. 

716.  721. 
Cephaloptchu,  727. 
Cepholopynj^  761. 
Ccreopsia,  731. 
Certlildfa.  747. 
CenhiMns.  742.   748.   750. 

765.  763. 
CertbUparus.  742s 
Ccrthiola.  749   750.  762. 
Cham*l,Iic,  750   752. 
CharadMidx,     730.     740. 

742.  745   746.  751.  754. 
Chai-adrlomorpli.T.  699. 
Cllaun^  712.  719.  722. 
Chelldon,  702. 
Chcnalopex,  748. 
Chenomoiphs,  700.   712. 

726. 
ChlonH  743. 
Chlamyderi,  740. 
Cbloephaea.  746. 
Chrysococcyx.  742,  769 
Clcianurua,  740, 
Ciconla.  713:  769. 
CiconhdK.  764.  77& 
CimoMornta.  729 
Cincllda?.  746.  750. 
Clnclocerthia.  749. 
ClnclodM.  746. 
ChcQj,  71.1.  714:  736. 
Cistlcola,  760, 
Clan^ula,  763. 
Cncmiomla.  731. 
Coccydomorphe,  629.700, 

714.  716. 
Coccyius.  748. 
ColildR.  748. 
Cnllua.  716.  720 
Colanba.  730.  764, 
ColumbK.  741.  760,  763 
Columbldft.  739.  740,  741. 

745.  749.  749,  76«,   751, 

745,  756.  749  762.  763 
Colyinbldi,  729,  741,  742, 
Culymbuldom  730, 
Cnlymbua,  718,  719,718; 

730, 
Cmuma.  740. 
Coraclai.  749. 
Coraclldap.  765. 
Coracoinnrphas.  899.  700, 

712.  714,  716,  717,  72«, 

721,  726. 
C'-ax,  77J. 


Cormoranu*  730 
Coivida;,    74S,    750.   751, 

754. 
Conuj,   714.   716;    729. 

730. 
Corylhalx,  713,  72t 
Corvlhornla,  759, 
Colingldi,  746.  749.  749. 
Cyturnlx,  730.  760 
CracldK.    743.    748,    747, 

748.  750. 
Craclrti,  747 
Ciateiopua,  758. 
Crax.  699.  712.  727;  73L 
Creadion.  742. 
Cillbaicra,  742. 
Crotopbaga.  726;  774. 
Cr\'psirhlna.  764. 
Ciyplurl.  743. 
Crvptunia,  7Hi 
CucuUdjD.   748.   749.  750. 

755,  763, 
Cnculua.  715;  769, 
Cup^lopT^;ru^  759, 
Cursoitid;e.  755, 
Cyanccula.  769. 
Cyanuptca,  767. 
Cygnus.  719:  731.  774. 
Cypsellde.  699;  751.  755. 
Cypselomorphse.  700. 
Cypsclui.  719;  767.  768. 
Dasomia.  729 
L^asylcphus.  763. 
DauJIoa.  746. 
Uendrocnlapflds,     743, 

745.  748.  747 
Dendraca,  747 
Dendfolypcs.  739. 
Dcsmognalhff.  712.  714. 
Dif.TldK,   739.   754.   738. 

769. 
rMch'-lophQ.-!.    699,     712, 

713.  714.  720. 
DIdldie.  699. 
Didunculldx,  741. 
Didunculua.  741. 
DIduj.  699.  721:  732. 
Dinornls,  720.  722;   731. 

738. 
DinornlthldO!.  699,   721 ; 

731.  742. 
Dollchunyx.  747. 
Dolichopleru*.  730 
Dorlcba.  749. 
Prcpani,l.-B.  742. 
Diomxldfli  713-  740. 
Drom.Tognal  lur.  699 ;  743. 
Diomseornls.  732. 
Dr(»nru.s  711.  718.  719. 

722.  723;   732.741,774. 
Drymepca.  760. 
Dvapornmorphtt,    700; 

713.  724.  726. 
EclectU!!.  740. 
Elanvia,  713. 
Elorniv  730. 
Emberiia.  717. 
Em Iicillldai746.  746.747. 

749.  749,  750,  761,  753, 

755.  766.  774,  776. 
Emblcnia,741. 
Eoa,  740. 
ErylhroMla,  733. 
Etylhioilcrna.  758. 
EodromJa.\  74,V  774. 
EnilrnomlB.  74i.  742.  769. 
Eudrples,  741. 
Eulampla,  749. 
Kopodotla,  741,  755, 
Euryaptcryx.  731. 
Enryccrollda:.  769.  760. 
EurylrmldR,  761.  762. 
Furynoihynchus,  746. 
r.iirypyga.  71.1;  743. 
Euryjiygidx.  746. 
Eu^t«pbanua  745 
Falfo.  712.713.714.  719; 

730.  757.  766. 
Falcnnid.T.  740.  74.5.  746. 

740,  741,  734  774 


Foi-mloartldK.    74J,    74S, 

746.  747.  748. 
FiancoUnus,  736.  760, 
Fratercula.  768. 
Fregala,  721. 
FrtgalldK,  749.  750.  752 
Pregllupu3,72U:   733.734, 

760. 
Fregllaa.  716. 
Fihik'ilta,  730.  756,  767 
Fiingllha,T.  738.  739.  740. 

747.  749,  751.  75^  756. 
759.  761,  766 

Fullca.  711;  742 
Fuli^ullnie.  770. 
Fu^n«^^da^  772, 
Galbulldie.  743,  746 
GaJllnz.    730.    741,    743, 

763,  775.  776 
Gallinace*.  700.706,711. 
Gallmula.  711.   726.  732. 

741.  742. 
Gallua,  717,  719.720;  730. 

731. 
Oarictta,  713. 
Gastornh.  729. 
Ga»l».  77,1,  775. 
Gtciniis.  717 
Geoblaetes.  760. 
Geop.slttacufl.  720;  741. 
Geoapiza.  747 
Gerannmnrphi?.  699.  700 
GlaredlJff,  755. 
Goura.  740. 
OraculftTiis,  729 
Orallit  712:    741, 
Grallator.  72S, 
Grallatoics.  769. 
Gniidie,    712;    749,    751. 

745, 
Ci-ns.  730,  731.  733,  76i 
Gryphosaurus.  728, 
Gymnogiaox,  750. 
Gyinnorhina.  712.  716. 
Gypaetna.  736. 
Gvpogftanua.  713,  714 
Gyps.  713.  714, 
Gypsornla,  730, 
Habroptlla,  740 
Hivmatopodida^  750, 
Halcyon,  730. 
Hallaetiis,  730,  753, 
nallaslur,  713,  714 
HapalodeiTna,  750, 
MarpagornlB.  731, 
Helioroithld:r,  746, 
nclolar9u\  71,1,  714 
Keroklupbiia,  717. 
Mespcromia.  729. 
Hcterococcyx.  "63 
Hoterotocba,  742.  771 
lletcromoi-phff.  699. 
HimnntQpu^  713 
HIrundlnldK,    747.    751, 

755.  759. 
Hlrando.  768,  777 
nistrtonlcus.  757 
nomolopua.  7.10. 
Hydrornis.  730. 
nyctornis,  750 
Hynienoliemn\  742. 
Hvp-iipcloa.  766. 
IbKli.LT.  751, 
Iblillpodla.  730. 
Ibidorhvnchus,  746, 
Ibui.  713;  730, 
IrbibyomK  729 
lclci1d«!.     744,     748,    747, 

749,  749,  7V1,  751. 
rn«M«om.  737. 
IrrlTOrtdiv.  759. 
Ixid-T-.  738,  746,  748, 
Jyngldr,  754. 
Kctupa,  713. 
Ijiirnpua,   731.    743.  757. 

77a 
Lampnmls.  749. 
Lantailux  760. 
La-iiliL-r.    748,    741.   748, 

74<,76S. 


Laomla,  729. 

LarldK.  730,  745,  740,  751. 

753.  755.  756. 
Laru^  724 :  730 
Ltrpldogrammua,  763 
LA-ploiunildiE,  75a  760, 
LL'ptosomua,  730. 
Lcucolreron.  739, 
LinilcolK,   729.   730.    745. 

764  773.  774 
Liinosa,  730.  753.  774 
l.fotrtchldn!,  755,  744, 
l.lpoa.  741 
LilhLinls.  729 
Lobtophans.  763. 
Loddlgcsla.  747 
Lophopsittacua.  732, 734. 
Lnriua,  740. 
Loxia.  769. 
Lycocorax.  740. 
Macrornla.  730. 
Mareca.  712. 
>Iargarop%  749 
Megalicma.  712.  714 
llcgalremldfe.  739 
MegalomK  729 
>legapodiid8e.  741.  743 
klegapodiua,  762.  763. 
MeleagrldK.  749,  750.  742. 
Melcagrla.  730.  731 
McllphasldK,     739,    740. 

742. 
Mcihanga.  749. 
Melopslttacaa.  718. 
Mcnura,  716:  743. 
.^Icnurldff.  74L 
MergulQa.  744 
.Mergu».730. 
Morupidn.  754. 
MlcTogloaai.  715.  717. 
.Mtcroptcnis.  776. 
MlWago.  748. 
MlJrua.  730.  738. 
Mtmoclchla.  749. 
Mionornia,  73L 
MIro,  742. 
MiseiTtbrul.  733. 
Mnlotllrirt.-e.  745.  747.  748, 

749,  750,  751 
Mbmollds,  743,  74A.  748. 

760. 
Molacllla.  730  760.  768 
Motacniidx,740.  751.  755, 

756.  776. 
MotaclDlns.  776. 
Uu,:llcilplcu9.  738. 
Musclcapa,  765. 
Muaclcapld.-!!,     740. 

755.  756.  763 
Musciaaxlcola.  748. 
Muaopliaga.  714 
Mulophagid.T.  730,  768; 
Myloroolia,  742. 
Myxomcla.  739. 
Naaiteina.  740. 
Nautorca.  712.  768. 
Nccropalttarua.  733. 
Nccrornla.  730 
Ncclarlnla.  716;  768 
Neclarlpudse.  75^  761. 
Neophron.  713,  714 
Neaociclila,  742. 
Ncsoipira,  742 
Heilor,  73,5,  742. 
Nolomn  731.  732.  741 
NucWraga,  770 
Numonlu*.  711. 
Nunilda.  727;  731. 
Nyctea.  731 
Nycllbiu).  711 
Nycltcorax.  713. 
Ocydromua,      721; 

741. 

Odontophorlna,  740 
Odontopleryx.  729.  738. 
OJontornlttica.  729. 
(Kdemia.  712. 
<FMI<-nrniiil.T.  748 
O.dli-nemua.  766, 
OltlJo.liyudX,  741 


741 


742. 


744 


7«\ 


731, 


Oplflfhocoml.  743. 

Oplstbuconildie.  748. 

Opiitbocomud,  721; 
746. 

0^eut^ochl1u^  747 

Onolldz.  765.  759. 

Orlolla,  768. 

Ornllhopita.  728. 

Orthonyx.  711 

Onhoihynchua,  713. 

Oiclnex  743 

Orileurnla.  730 

UlldidE.  741    76(. 

Dildlpbapa,  741. 

3;la.  736. 

Dtocorya.  746 

Oxynotus.  760 

Oxyrhamphiiix,  748. 

PacbycepbahoiB,  739 

fachyrhampbua,  716. 

lI'aguphMv  765. 

ralxlodua.  730, 

i'alaocircua.  730 

Palxopeidlx.  7.10 

ralsornla,  715;  733. 

Pa!a^ortyx,  730 

PaL-colnnga.  729 

rulamcduldx,    743. 
746. 

PalapIerygld.T,  731,  J41 

PaJapleryx,  731. 

Pardlon,  741, 

Panmldn.  755,  766, 

Panuma.  755. 

Paradlstldie.  740.  760 

PareudJastcj,  741. 

Faiidi.    742     743, 
755,  761.  7t0. 

Parrld*.  746, 

I'arna,  757,  759,  766, 

Paaier.  730.  758.  774. 

Pusaerca;   712:   730.  737, 
741,  742,  74S.  746.  747. 
753.  760,  763,   762,  773, 
774 
Patagona,  71J, 
PaTO.  7C4 
PcdioDoraua.  741. 
Pelagornia.  729, 
Ptiargomorphie,  700. 71S. 
PcIargopaJa,  730 
PelecanldE.  751,  752. 
Pclccanua.  713,  730,  78L 
POIdna,  730 
Pooetopc,  727 
Pcnclopldea.  701 
Pcrdix.  775 
Periaaogloaaa,  749. 
PcilatcromoiThe.  6?9 
I'oilsttropodia.  743. 
P>-zophap.a.  723;  731. 
Phabolrcron,  763. 
Phaclon.  723;  774. 
Pbaelontida;.  750.  749. 
Plialacrocoraculw,  751. 
Pllalaciocoiax.  713,  7J6| 

730. 
Phalaropodidie.  781. 
Phalaropn\  775. 
Phaaiaiiidc,  738.  ;W,Tt«t 

763. 
Pbasianoa,  730. 
Pblk'pltia,  760. 
Pboenicop;ci1da.7S0.747. 
Pha-nici'plerna,  712;  73(L 

761.  751 
PhiyrUov  746. 
rhyllornilbldop,  738,  7(1. 
Phslloaoopua,    762,    787, 

769, 
rttytotomld*.  74^  T46, 
ricanav     731,     741.    741, 

71,1.  760,  763,  774 
PIcidt  699.  712.  716,  725; 
7.10,  7»«,  746,  747.  7^^ 
749,  750,  761.  765,  766. 
Plcumnna.  716.  717, 
Picur  716,  717;  730,  T«i 
Pifra,  716 
PipnJl,  7»t 


J51. 


778 

Pit.rMat  765.  75$.  TSO.  78J. 

:« 
PItynasis  7G3 
Platatca.  712.  713.    735 
PJatalei.lJE.  751.  752. 
FlatycerciniE,  740 
PJoceid«.73S.7:J9.740,759 
Plotldie.  750.  762 
PlvclolojUms  ?I6 
Po'dargiilffi,  739 
Po.larifus.  712   715.  727 
Podlceps.  730.  7 CO 
Podtcipedtdie.    745. 

775- 
POKunomli  743 
Polybort.  747 
PulyniyodiE-  743 
Porphyno   732 
Poriaoa.  760 
P'aliDColti.  ICiO 
Piionituius.  763 
Pnuiioteles,  750 
Procellana.  727 
Pr.iccltanMlie.  751 
Protjne.  747 
Proitheniadiira.  742 
Proiomia.  730 
Psamathla.  741 
Pscplioils.  716 
Pacudogryphus  743. 
pBCU-lolalage.  763 
Pscu'loptynx.  7153 
P»cuJo9COp3.  750 
Pdlltaci     737.    740. 

742.  760   763 


B  I  K  — B  I  R 


|4I, 


Psittacldffi,  699.  745.  T45. 

Rhea.   717.  T19.  721 

722. 

Sphenlspldffi,     741.     745 

TantftllJ^E.  7.^0.  755 

TrocMlOS.  718;    149 

743 

7-M;  7;il.  l^a 

746.  747 

Tat  are.  74L 

Troirlodvil.liE.     746.     74P 

PsitiaroiBQrph£e,700  714. 

Rl.fi.la;.     tiys.     722. 

743. 

Sptieniscomorphffl.      699. 
^24 

Telniatomis,  729 

750.  751.  755.  756 

PsitlacQia,  747 

U-^.  746 

Ti;ninotroi:"ii.  750 

T'^i.-oD.  715 

Psittacus.  730    759 

Rhiiiochema.     711, 

712. 

Spheiiiscns.  747 

Tcracui  7ao 

Troifnnidae.  748.  749.  760 

Psopbta.  716  7l»,   746 

717.   741 

Spind^lls.  74W 

Tetriio.727.  730.  731,  T.'^e 

Turdid.^.    7aa.    74S.     Hf 

PsophiidK.  743.  74« 

Rhudoitotbia.  753 

Spomdidus.  749 

Tetrnonidffi.  73«.  74a.  75u. 

TSU.  755.  754  7bO 

Ptenornis  730 

Kliynct^a.  745 

Stai-nainii.a,  74:) 

751.  755   756 

TurdJnos.  761 

PtorodeiiJa,     755.     Tftfi, 

RhynchotuA  711 

Steatornis.  712.  716.  723. 

Totnioninre.  750, 

Turdoa.  747.  767.  77.S 

773. 

lUiytoceros.  761. 

726;   74.; 

ThainQob;a.772 

Turnttcm.  742 

PteroclomorpIiEe  699 

Sarcopa.  7«3, 

Stoatoinilhldx.  745.  747, 

Tmnucondffi,  745 

Turnicidte.  699,  713     755. 

PceroptocbidiE.    741    '43 

SarcorUamphus.  713.  714. 

Steganopndes.  72;*  775. 

Thlaoconnie.  700 

Tiirnls.  716,  720 

745.  746 

Sdurogaathae.    699. 

700. 

SErigiJ.e.    742,     747      743, 

TUinoconis,699.  715:  (45. 

Turtar.  767 

Ptilocolpa.  763 

716 

749.  750.   751.  755.  756, 

Thinurnii.  742 

TyrnnBldiE.  743.  745.   74^ 

Ptitatis.  739 

Sa  a  roth  era.  750. 

759.  763.  775 

Tiiieaciornis,  712,  713 

748.  749,  750 

Pufflnus.  730. 

SiiurorsE,  699. 

StriGopid.T,  742 

Titrriaoma.  713. 

inotoj-nla.  730 

Pyianga.  750 

Sjiicola,  75.*.  769 

Stnuops,  61*9.  720. 

Tiraeliid^  74a  742.  755. 

Upupa.    712.     ri4,    7ia. 

Pyroccphalus.  747 

S.:ajisor».  712 

Strix,  713;   730. 

■•.56,  759.  76',  762 

719 

P>TThuIa,  752.  756    761 

SceloRlaaa.  742- 

Srruthio.    717.    718.    721. 

•nnftinid^  716.  74J.  745. 

CpupidJC  720.    T55 

Querquedula.  712 

Scliizognatb.'E,    699. 

711, 

722.  723;   730.  73d.  75.-i 

746.  774.  775 

Una.  T40.  7,*  I 

Kallidae.    699.    7H  ,    721 

712.  713. 

Struthn>rnd.-e.    699.     709, 

Tinamomorphs.  699, 

Vanellus.  718 

741.  742.  747,  740    741 

Schizoihls,  715 

722.   753. 

Tinarous,  711,  717.  722 

Vidua.  759 

Rallua.  730,  740. 

Schwaneria.  7i;3 

Sturni.t.T.    741.    712.    755, 

Tinnunculna,  750 

VireonidiB.  745-  748.  Tti, 

Rapaces,  711.  714.  725 

Scolopttcidse.      745. 

750. 

756.  761).  7^.-i 

Toccua,  759 

750 

Raptorea.  712.  724 

751.  752.  755.  756 

Sula.  71J.  726:   730 

Todids.  743.  749.  75t) 

VuJrurld*.  738.  754 

Ratite.  699.  700.705   706, 

Scolopax.  730.  753.  775 

SuIidEc7.'ii. 

Tod  us.  720 

XaDtttolxinn.  76a 

718.  720.  721.   721.  726. 

Scopu.%  7ia 

Svlvia,  776 

Totaous.  713;   730 

XenicuB,  742 

727;  738.  742.  745.   758, 

Scotopelia,  720 

SyMldai.    730.    7S8.  742. 

TutipaJmatJB.  725 

Xemphiltt.  74i, 

760.  775,  776 

Seythrops.  715 

746.  74.4  750.   751.   755. 

TtBoheophojiK.  743, 

Vungida.  699 

Recun'irostj-idae.  750. 

Seraioptera.  740 

766,  759 

TiH>onyx,  741 

VunClplcuK.  T38 

rtegulus,  756 

Serpentariidi,  755. 

Syndacivh.  712, 

T.mc-i,  7.10,  ;5.'i.  755. 

Yun-v  716.  717 

Rhabdornis.  763 

Serrealua,  741 

S>iThavtes,  723;   756.770. 

Tr.ichttid.-e.  743.  745.  746. 

Ztiocephos.  7Ga 

RhamphttStlOa.  743.  746. 

Sitta.  730. 

Talefi.-illa,  712 

747.  74S.  749.  75<).  751. 

?,onotrlchia,-75:i 

Kharnphastos.  715.  7>i 

Siltidai.  743.  75a 

Tanii^nJ^  743.  745.  740. 

Ti-ocUilomorplue,  7ua 

Z-iMlcropa,  739,  743 

UhamphoctDclus.  749. 

Sinnateiia.  735 

747,  748.  749,  750. 

^ 

BIRDS  OF  PARADISE,  a  grr.up  of  Passerine  Birds 
inhabiting  New  Guinea  and  the  adjacent  islands,  so  named 
by  the  Dutch  voyagers  in  allusion  to  the  brilliancy  of  their 
plumage,  and  to  the  current  belief  that,  possessing  neither 
wings  nor  feet,  they  passed  their  Lves  in  the.air,  sustained 
on  their  ample  plumes,  resting  only  at  long  intervals 
suspended  from  the  branches  of  lofty  trees  by  the  wire- 
Uke  feathers  of  the  tail,  and  drawing  their  food  "  from  the 


Standard  WIhj;  Bird  of  Paradiae  (SemiopCera  vaUaen). 

dews  of  heaven  and  the  nectai  of  flowers,"  Such  stories 
obtained  credence  from  the  fact  that  so  late  as  the  year 
1760,  when  Linnseus  named  the  pnncipal  species  a/xida,  or 
"footless,"  DO  perfect  specimen  had  been  seen  m  Europe, 
the  natives  who  gold  the  skins  to  coast  traders  invariably 
depriving  them  of  feet  and  wings.  The  birds  now  usually 
included  under  this  name  beloog  to  two  distinct  families, 
the  Paraiiixftiiir  and  the  EptmarhidiT,  the  former  or 
true  Birds  of  Paradi.se  being  closely  allied  to  the  Crows,  the 
latter  or  Long-billed  Paradise  Birds  being  usually  classed, 
from  the  form  and  size  of  their  bills,  with  the  Uoopoes, 
Both  families  occupy  the  same  geographical  area,  and  ore 
alike  diatingushed  by  the  enormous  development  of  certain 
parts  of  thi'ir  pluinat;e  Of  the  true  birds  of  paradise,  the 
largest  is  the  Great  Emerald  Bird  (Faradisea  apoda),  about 
>oe  iiu  of  the  common  jay.      Its  head  and  neck  are  covered 


with  short  thick-set  feathers,  resembling  velvet  pile,  oi  A 
bright  straw  colour  above,  ar  d  a  brilliant  emerald  green 
beneath.  From  under  the  shoulders  on  each  side  springs  a 
dense  tuft  of  golden-orange  plumes,  about  2  feet  in  length, 
which  the  bird  can  raise  at  pleasure,  so  as  to  enclose  the 
greater  part  of  its  body.  The  two  centre  tail  feathers  attain 
a  length  of  34  inches,  and,  being  destitute  of  webs,  have  a 
thin  wire-like  appearance  This  epleudid  plumage,  how- 
ever, belongs  only  to  the  adult  males,  the  females  being 
exceedingly  plain  birds  of  a  nearly  uniform  dusky  brown 
colour,  and  possessing  neither  plumes  nor  lengthened  tajl 
feathers.  The  young  males  at  first  resemble  the  females, 
and  It  13  only  after  the  fourth  moulting,  according  to  A  R 
Wallace,  who  recently  studied  those  birds  in  their  nativ« 
haunts,  that  they  assume  the  perfect  plumage  of  their  sex, 
which,  however,  they  retain  permanently  afterwards,  and 
not  during  the  breeding  season  only  as  was  formerly 
supposed.  At  that  season  the  males  assemble,  id  numbers 
varying  from  twelve  to  twenty,  on  certain  trees,  and  there 
disport  themselves  so  as  to  display  their  magnificent  plumes 
m  presence  of  the  females.  Wallace  m  his  ilalui/ 
Ardupelago.  vol,  u.,  thus  describes  the  attitude  of  the  male 
birds  at  one  of  those  "  sacaleli,"  or  dancing  parties,  as  the 
natives  call  them,  "their  wings,"  be  says,  "are  raised 
vertically  over  the  back,  the  hsad  is  bent  down  and 
stretched  out,  and  the  long  plumes  are  raised  up  and 
expanded  till  they  form  two  magnilicent  golden  fansstnpeil 
with  deep  red  at  the  base,  and  fading  off  into  the  pale  brown 
tint  of  the  finely-divided  and  softly-waving  points  ,  the 
whole  bird  is  then  overshadowed  by  them,  the  crouching 
body,  yellow  head,  and  emerald  green  throat,  forming  but 
the  foundation  and  setting  to  the  golden  glory  which 
waves  above."  It  is  at  this  season  that  those  birds  are 
chiefly  captured  The  bird-catcher  having  found  a  tree 
thus  selected  for  a  "dancing  party."  builds  a  hut  among 
the  lower  branches  in  which  to  conceal  himself.  As  soon 
as  the  male  birds  have  begun  their  gracefid  antics,  he  shoots 
them,  one  after  the  other,  with  blunt  arrows,  for  the 
pnrpose  of  stunning  and  bringing  them  to  the  ground 
without  drawing  blood,  which  would  injure  their  plumage, 
and  so  eager  are  those  birds  in  their  courtship  that  almost 
all  the  males  are  thus  brought  down  before  the  danger  la 
perceived.  The  uatives  in  preparing  the  skins  remove  both 
feet  and  wings,  so  as  to  give  more  prominem-e  to  the  ciim- 
mercially  valuable  tuft  of  plumes.      The"  "lao  remove  the 


B  I  R  —  i3  i  11 


770 


skull,  anA  the  skin  is  then  dried  in  ft  smoky  but.  The 
Ore.it  Emerald  Bird,  so  far  as  yet  known,  is  only  found  in  the 
Aru  Islands.  The  Lesser  Birdof  l'iin<i\sc{ParaJisea  minur), 
though  Amaller  in  siTe  and  somewhat  les.<<  brilliant  in 
plumaije,  in  other  respects  closely  resembles  the  preceding 
gperles.  It  is  also  more  common,  and  much  more  widely 
djintributed,  being  found  throughout  New  Guinea  and  the 
neighbouring  islands.  Its  plumes  are  those  most  generally 
used  as  ornaments  for  Lidics'  head-dresses.  It  has  been 
brought  alive  to  Europe,  and  has  been  known  to  live  for 
two  years  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London. 
Both  species  are  omnivorous,  feeding  voraciously  on  fruits 
and  insects.  They  are  strong,  active  birds,  and  are  believed 
to  be  polygamous.  The  King  Bird  of  Paradise  (Cicin^iuruji 
Tfgius)  is  one  of  the  smallest  and  most  brilliant  of  the 
group,  and  is  specially  distinguished  by  it.')  two  middle 
tail  feathers,  the  ends  of  which  alone  are  webbed,  and  coiled 
into  a  beautiful  spiral  disc  of  a  lovely  emerald  green.  In  the 
Red  Bird  of  Paradise  (Paradisea  rubra)  the  same  feathers 
are  greatly  elongated  and  destitute  of  webs,  but  differ  from 
those  in  the  other  species,  in  being  flattened  out  like  ribbons. 
They  are  only  found  ia  the  small  island  of  Waigiou  off  the 
coast  of  New  Guinea.  Of  the  Long-billed  Paradise  Birds 
(Epimachulce)  the  most  remarkable  is  that  known  as  the 
"  Twelve- wired"  {Sdmcid^i  alba),  its  delicate  yellow  plumes, 
twelve  of  which  are  transformed  into  wire  like  brislla'S 
nearly  a  foot  long,  affording  a  stnking  contrast  to  the  dark 
metallic  tints  of  the  rest  of  its  plumage.  Like  the  Para- 
<Ji)eul<E  they  feed  on  insects  and  fruits. 

BIRKBECK,  Oeoroe,  an  English  physician  and 
philanthropist,  bom  at  Settle  in  Yorkshire  in  1776.  He 
early  evinced  a  strong  predilection  for  scientific  pursuits  ; 
and  in  1799,  after  graduating  as  doctor  of  medicine,  he 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  at  the 
Andersonian  Institution  of  Glasgow.  In  the  following 
year  he  delivered,  for  the  benefit  of  the  working-classes,  a 
gratuitous  course  of  scientific  lectures,  which  were  continued 
during  the  two  following  years  and  proved  eminently 
Bocccssful.  He  removed  to  London  in  1804,  and  there  he 
endeavoured  to  prosecute  his  philanthropic  schemes,  at 
first  witheut  much  encouragement,  but  ultimately  with 
marked  success.  In  1827  he  contributed  to  found  the 
Mechanics'  Institute,  his  coadjutors  being  Ber.tham,  Wilkie, 
Cobbett,  and  others.  He  was  appointed  director  of  the 
institute,  which  he  had  origfnally  endowed  with  the  sum  of 
£3700,  and  held  the  office  till  his  death  in  December  1841. 

BIRKENHEAD,  a  seaport,  market-town,  extra  parochial 
district,  township,  and  parliamentary  borough,  in  the  hun- 
dred of  Wirral  and  west  division  of  Cheshire,  England.  It 
is  situated  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Mersey,  directly 
opposite  Liverpool.  It  is  of  considerable  antiquity,  its 
history  dating  from  1150,  when  a  priory  was  founded  in 
honour  of  St  Mary  and  St  James  by  the  third  baron  of 
Dunham  Massey,  and  had  considerable  endowments.  The 
priors  sat  in  the  parliaments  of  the  earls  of  Chester,  and 
enjoyed  all  the  dignities  and  privileges  of  palatinate  barona 
A  fine  crypt  and  some  interesting  ruins  of  the  priory  still 
exist.  From  a  comparatively  olwcure  fishing  village  Birken- 
head has  become  a  large  and  important  town,  with  a  rapidity 
truly  marvellous.  The  inhabitanb  numbered  only  200  in 
1821  ;  in  1831  they  were  2569  ;  th«  following  table  shows 
the  increase  since  1841  : — 


T»r. 

ropalalloo 

PwrlllnR 
Ftuusra. 

RAfctMe  Vala& 

1841 
1H51 

IMU 

is;i 

1875 

6227 

25,0i-io 

87,7'.'0 

4.^^18 

(estim.)  52,000 

1466 
4148 
5239 

".'.11 

8000 

£44,000 
114, ROl 
1. '"1.827 
219.011 
228,909 

Birkenhead  began  to  aevciop  itself  as  a  market-town  in 
the  year  1833,  when  an  Act  was  obtained  for  paving,  light- 
ing, watching,  cleansing,  and  improving  the  town,  and  for 
regulating  the  police  and  establishing  a  market.  By  this 
Act  the  Improvement  Commissioners  were  originally  con- 
stituted, and  at  that  time  included  the  mayor,  bailiffs, 
and  four  aldermen  of  LiverpooJ.  Jminediat  -ly  after  ■t'he 
passing  of  this  Act  the  town  made  rapid  progress.  The 
principal  streets  were  laid  out  on  a  regular  plan,  intersect- 
ing each  other  at  right  angles.  A  line  of  tramway,  the 
first  laid  in  England,  affords  every  facility  of  street  com- 
munication. Hamilton  Square,  which  occupies  the  summit 
of  tilt;  rising  ground  near  the  river,  forms  the  basis  or 
starting  point  for  all  the  parallel  and  rectangular  lines  of 
streets.  The  houses  of  the  square  are  four  stories  in 
height,  with  stone  fronts,  the  centres  and  ends  of  each 
terrace  being  rslieved  or  ornamented  with  columns  and 
porticos  in  the  Tuscan  order  of  architecture. 

Birkenhead  has  (exclusive  of  the  out  townships)  nine 
churches  belonging  to  the  Established  Church,  St  Mary's, 
built  in  1821  by  Mr.  F.  R.  Price,  late  lord  of  the  manor,  is 
in  the  Decorated  Gothic  style  of  architecture,  with  a  well- 
proportioned  tower  and  spire.  The  churchyard  includes 
the  burial  ground  and  ruins  of  the  ancient  priory  and 
chapel  of  St  ilary.  In  addition  to  the  Esla'blished 
churches  there  are  twenty-four  places  of  worship  belonging 
to  various  Nonconforming  denominations,  viz.,  five  Presby- 
terian, three  Independent  or  Congregational,  2  Baptist, 
four  Wesleyan,  one  Primitive  Methodist,  one  Society  of 
Friends,  two  Plymouth  Brethren,  three  Roman  Catholio, 
one  Catholic  and  Apostolic,  two  Unitarian.  Many  of 
these  buildings  are  fair  examples  of  Gothic  and  classic 
architecture.  St  Aidan's  Theological  College,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Established  Church,  occupies  a  fine  and 
elevated  site  adjoining  the  western  boundary  of  Claughton. 
It  is  a  handsome  building  in  the  Tudor  style  of  architec- 
ture. There  are  seven  public  elementary  schools  in  con- 
nection w.'.h  the  Established  churches,  and  seven  in  con- 
nection with  other  religious  bodies.  There  is  also  a  first- 
class  proprietary  school,  conducted  on  the  model  of  the 
great  public  schools,  besides  several  private  academiea 

There  are  several  public  buildings  in  Birkenhead  worthy 
of  notice.  The  market  hall  is  a  large  and  commodious 
building,  43fl  feet  long  and  130  feet  wide,'wilh  substantial 
and  lofty  vaults  extending  under  its  entire  area.  It  was 
opened  in  1845,  and  built  at  a  cost  of  £35,000.  The 
public  slaughter-houses  in  Jackson  Street,  belonging  to  the 
Birkenhead  Commissioners,  form  an  extensive  pile  of  build- 
ings; they  were  erected  in  1846  at  a  cost,  exclusive  of 
the  site,  of  about  £11,000,  and  were  the  first  public 
slaughter-houses  of  any  extent  erected  in  England.  The 
town  water-works  also  belong  to  the  Birkenhead  Commis- 
sioners, and  consist  of  two  pumping  station.s,  the  wells  of 
which  yield  an  aggregate  supply  of  about  2  J  million  gallons 
in  twenty-four  hours.  The  town-hall  i  i  Hamilton  Street 
is  a  one-story  building,  and  formed  when  first  erected  the 
front  of  the  old  market-hall  ;  it  contains  a  police  court, 
fire-engine  station,  and  chief  bridewell;  there  arc,  besides, 
two  branch  bridewells.  Among  other  buildings  are  the 
post-office  in  Conway  Street,  the  borough  hospital,  and  the 
School  of  Art,  also  in  Conway  Street,  both  erected  by  the 
late  Mr  John  Laird,  MP.,  and  a  free  library  in  Hnmilton 
Street.  The  largo  and  commodious  industrial  .schools  in 
Corporation  Road  were  built  at  the  cost  of  Sir  Wm. 
Jackson,  Bart.,  as  a  memorial  to  the  late  Prince  Consort. 
The  Music  Hall  and  the  Queen's  Hall  nre  situated  in 
Claughton  Road.  There  is  al.'io  a  neat  and  commodious 
theatre  and  opera-house  in  Argylc  Street. 

Birkenhead  Park,  opened  in   1847,  occupies  190J  acres 
of  ground,  and  was  laid  out  a'  a  cost  (including  th?  Innd;  o/ 


780 


B  I   R  —  B  T  TT 


£140,000.       Birkfinhead    Cemetery,    on   Flaybrick    Hill, 
occupies  20.1  acres  of  ground,  and  cost  about  £40,000. 

Woodoide'  Ferry  may  be  regarded  as  the  principal 
entrance  to  Birkenhead  and  Wirral  frodi  Liverpool ;  and 
its  exclusive  right  of  ferryage  dates  back  to  1332.  In  1842 
the  Birkenhead  Commissioners  purchased  Jhis  ferry,  under 
an  Axt  of  Parliament,  from  Mr  F.  R.  Price,  the  lord  of  the 
manor.  A.t  the  present  time  the  annual  receipts  for 
passengers  alone  amoiint  to  £36,000,  and  the  number  of 
persons  conveyed  in  the  twelve  months  is  upwards  of  nine 
millions,  the  single  fare  being  one  penny.  A  large  landing- 
stage,  800  feet  in  length  and  80  feet  in  width,  is  moored 
at  this  ferry,  the  passenger  traffic  being  conducted  to  and 
from  the  stage  by  means  of  a  double  gangway  bridge, 
covered  by  two  circular  glass  and  iron  roofs.  The  goods 
traffic  is  conveyed  to  and  from  the  stage  by  a  well-con- 
structed floating  bridge,  670  feet  in  length  and  30  feet  in 
width,  which  enables  the  traffic  to  be  carried  on  at  any 
state  of  the  tide.  Handsome  and  commodious  saloon 
steamers,  built  and  designed  upon  an  improved  principle, 
and  capable  of  carrying  above  1700  passengers  each,  are 
now  used  upon  this  ferry.  The  late  Mr  William  Laird, 
whose  name  is  so  well  known,  in  connection  with  iron 
shipbuilding,  first  conceived  the  idea  of  turning  to 
advantage  the  capabilities  of  Wallasey  Pool  for  the  forma- 
tion of  a  dock.  After  a  lapse  of  many  years,  the  Com- 
missioners of  Birkenhead,  alive  to  the  advantages  which 
this  project  would  confer  upon  the  town,  employed  the 
late  Mr  Rendel  as  their  engineer,  and  applied  to  Parlia- 
ment for  powers  to  construct  the  necessary  works.  The 
foundation-stone  of  the  new  docks  was  laid  in  October 
1 1844,  and  the  first  dock  was  opened  by  the  late  Lord 
Morpeth  on  5th  April  1847.  Subisequently,  the  dock 
powers  of  the  Commissioners  were  entrusted  to  a  corporate 
body  of  trustees  who  afterwards  transferred  the  property  to 
the  corporation  of  Liverpool ;  and  ultimately  it  was  vested 
in  the  Mersey  Docks  and  Harbour  Board,  a  corporation 
'created  by  the  Act  of  1857  for  the  management  of  the  docks 
on  both  sides  of  the  Mersey.  At  that  time  the  area  of  the 
dock  space  open  and  in  use  in  Birkenhead  was  about  7  acres. 

The  docks  bound  the  town  on  the  north  and  north-east 
and  partly  on  the  east,  extending  from  the  landing-stage  at 
"Wondsido  Ferry  to  the  Wallasey  Bridge,  a  distance  of 
over  two  miles.  The  Great  Float  has  been  constructed  on 
the  site  of  theWallasey  Pool,  forming  an  immense  dock  of 
150  acres,  with  a  quay  space  of  about  five  miles.  The 
Great  Float  separates  Birkenhead  from  Poulton-cum-Sea- 
co'mbe,  in  the  parish  of  Wallasey,  and  communicates  on 
the  east  with  a  low  water  basin  of  about,  14  acres  (now 
teing  converted  into  a  dock)  and  the  Alfred  Dock  (about 
8  acres,  and  quay  space  460  lineal  yards),  and  on  the 
Bouthreast  with  the  Egerton,  Morpeth,  and  Morpeth  Branch 
Docks.  The  3forpeth  Dock  (about  1 1  acres,  quay  space 
1299  lineal  yard.s)  is  connected  with  the  Morpeth  Branch 
Dock  (about  3j  acres,  quay  space  600  lineal  yards),  both 
set  apart  for  steamers.  The  total  water  area  of  these  docks 
is  about  170  acres,  and  the  lineal  quay  space  about  10  miles. 

The  entrances  to  the  Birkenhead  Docks  are  capable  of 
docking  the  largest  class  of  steamers  afioat.  The  massive 
iron  bridges  across'  the  dock  entrances  are  opened  and 
closed  by  hydraulic  power,  which  is  likewise  applied 
to  the  cranes,  coal  hoists,  warehouse  lifts,  and  other 
appliances  about  the  docks.  At  the  extreme  western  end 
of  the  West  Float  are  three  large  graving  docks,  two 
about  750  feet  in  length,  and  130  feet  and  80  feet  in  width 
respectively,  and  the  largest,  now  in  course  of  construction, 
measuring  about  900  feet  in  length  and  130  feet  in  width. 

Substantial  and  commodious  sheds  and  warehouses  have 
been  erected  at  various  places  along  the  dock  quays  for  the 
fuU  dovclof meat  of  the  tralBa 


The  block  of  warehouses  known  by  the  name  of  the  corn 
warehouses  are  immense  piles  of  ouildings,  with  a  canal 
between  to  give  access  to  the  separate  blocks  of  buildings, 
and  with  .machinery  for  carrying  the  grain,  <fec.,  from  floor 
to  floor,  and  for  despatching  it  by  railway. 

In  1847  the  Birkenhead  Dock  Warehousing  Company 
opened  their  first  warehouses,  capable  of  storing  80,00(> 
tons  of  goods.  Each  block  is  detached,  and  the  whola 
premises  are  surrounded  by  a  wall  12  feet  high.  A  rail- 
way branch,  called  the  Dock  Extension  Railway,  is  carried 
round  the  property.  The  company  also  built  blocks  of 
houses  for  their  workmen,  known  as  the  Dock  Cottages. 
This  property  is  now  in  the  hands  of  the  Mersey  Docks 
and  Harbour  Board. 

The  commerce  of  Birkenhead  is  in  all  respects  a  branch 
of  that  of  Liverpool,  and  chiefly  devoted  to  coal,  guano,  and 
grain, — the  quantity  of  coal  alone  exported  being  ove(  one 
million  tons  per  annum.  Many  manufactories  have  sprung 
up  within  the  last  few  years  on  the  margin  of  the  Gceat 
Float  and  other  parts  of  the  town,  such  as  iron  foundries, 
boiler-works,  oilcake  and  seed  mills,  (fee,  some  of  the 
engineering  works,  shipbuilding  yards,  and  forges  being 
on  a  large  scale.  The  Birkenhead  Iron-works  of  Messrs 
Laird  Brothers  employfrom  3000  to  4000  men;  these  works, 
in  connection  with  their  shipbuilding  yards,  have  turned 
out  some  of  the  largest  iron-clad  ships ;  the  engine-works, 
also  belonging  to  the  same  firm,  are  on  a  very  extensive 
scale.  The  Canada  Works,  belonging  to  Messrs  Thomas 
Brassey  and  Co.,  carry  on  an  extensive  business  in  marina 
engines,  iron-bridge  building,  pontoon  and  general  railway 
work.  There  are  also  the  Britannia  Works  (Messrs  James 
Taylor  and  Co.)  for  portable  engines,  marine  engine.^, 
traction  engines,  steam  cranes,  <fec.  ;  Messrs  Clay  and 
Inman's  Forge,  for  heavy  shafting,  itc;  the  Wirral  Foundry, 
for  large  engine  castings,  itc.  ;  and  the  Starbuck  Car  and 
Waggon  Co.'s  Works,  for  building  tramway  cars,  ic.  ; 
and  Messrs  Clover  and  Clayton's  shipbuilding  premises 
as  well  as  other  manufactories  of  less  extent. 

The  affairs  of  the  townsliip  of  Birkenhead  and  Claughtoti- 
cum-Grange  are  managed  by  twenty-one  Commissioners, 
chosen  by  the  ratepayers.  The  town  contains  a  head  post- 
office,  county  court,  police  court,  petty  sessional  couit 
for  the  hundred  of  Wirral,  and  two  banks.  Two  news- 
papers are  published  weekly.  The  principal  market-day  is 
Saturday,  but  a  large  hay,  straw,  and  vegetable  market  is 
held  on  Tuesdays  in  the  hay  market,  a  large  open  space  of 
ground,  having  an  area  of  about  li  acres.  The  total  area 
of  the  Commissioners'  district  is  1684  acres,  including  365 
acres  of  water  space,  viz.,  Birkenhead,  1248  acres,  and 
Claughton-cum-Grange,  436.  The  parliamentary  borough 
of  Birkenhead  was  constituted  in  1861,  and  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.  Its  parliamentary  limits  inchulo 
the  extra-parochial  chapclry  of  Birkenhead,  the  several 
"  townships  of  Claughton,  Tranmere,  and  Oxton,  and  so 
much  of  the  townsliip  of  Higher  Bebington  as  lies  to  tho 
eastward  of  the  road  leading  from  Higher  Trannicro 
to  Lower  Bebington.^'  The  population  iof  this  •  district 
in  186'1  was  51,649,  and  iu  1871  it  had  increased  to 
64,671. 

BIRMINGHAM,  the  fourth  town  in  size  and  population 
in  England,  and  the, fifth  in  the  United  Kingdom,  is  situated 
at  the  extreme  north-west  of  the  county  of  Warwick,  in  52° 
59'  N.  hit  and  1°  18'  W.  long.  It  is  102  miles  in  a 
straight  line  N.W.  of  London,  from  which  it,  is  distant 
112  miles  by  tiio  North-Western  Railway.  The  Roinan 
Road,  known  as  the  Ikenield  Street,  runs  through  the 
town.  On  the  north  Birmingham  touches  Staffordshire, 
and  on  tho\south  and  west  Worcestershire,  the  suburbs  of 
the  town  extending  largely  into  both  these  counties — Ilai^- 
borne  and  Uandsworth  being  in  the  former  and  BalsoU. 


BIRMINGHAM 


781 


Moseley,  and  Vardlcy  in  the  latter.  The  boro  ugh  itseli, 
Luwuver — both  jjarliamciilarv  uiid  muui^ipal,  the  bound- 
arii:s  being  identical — is  wholly  in  the  county  of  Warwick. 
Ii  covers  an  area  of  84iO  acres  (of  which  59  00  are  built 
upon),  and  includes  the  whole  of  the  parishes  of  Binning- 
haul  and  Edgbaston,  and  about  onc-third  o(  the  parish  of 
rt-'on.  It  is  nearly  6  miles  long,  has  an  average  breadth 
■j|  3  miles,  is  21  miles  in  circumference,  and  has  ISOnnles 
if  streets  and  roads.  The  population,  at  the  census  of 
1671,  was  343,000;  and  in  June  IS75  it  was  estimated 
Oy  Che  registrar-general  at  360,000.  Birmingham  was 
siilr.inchised  by  the  Reform  Act  of  1832,  when  two  repre 
ieiit.itivcs  were  assigned  to  it — and  Mr  Tliomas  Attwood 
«iid  .Mr  Joshua  Scholeheld  (leaders  of  the  Political  Union) 
►ere  elected ;  by  the  Reform  Act  of  1867  this  number  was 


raised  to  three  A  grant  of  incorpoiation  was  made  to  the 
town  in  1838,  when  the  first  Uiunitipal  councit  was  elected 
lt\  1870  a  School  Board  of  fifteen  members  was  elected, 
under  the  Elementar)'  Education  Act  passed  in  t^at  year. 

The  town  is  built  upon  the  New  Red  Sandstone,  on  a 
boldly  undulated  site,  varying  from  200  to  600  feel  above 
the  sea-level,  steadily  rising  towards  the  north  ana  west, 
so  that  when  looked  at  from  the  heights  on  the  suuih-sast 
side  It  presents  the  appearance  of  a  vast  semicircle,  pic- 
turestjiiely  disposed,  the  masses  of  houses  being  broken  by 
spires  and  lofty  chimneys,  and  the  south  and  west  sides 
being  thickly  wooded  on  the  slopes.  The  plan  of  th» 
town  15  irregular,  and  the  streets  are  mostly  winding,  and 
many  of  them  somewhat  narrow.  In  the  centre,  however, 
is  a  largo  open  space,  kima'n  as  the  Bull  Ring  and  High 


9sket£h-FlaD  of  Bimiiugh.im. 


Street,  at  the  foot  of  which  stands  the  mother  church  of 
St  Martin,  and  in  which  is  situated  the  Market-Hall,  one 
lit  the  largest  buildings  of  its  kind  m  the  kingdom.  From 
'-Jn.1  centre  access  is  obtained  to  the  principal  streets.  New 
Street  and  High  Street;  the  former,  about  a  quarter  of  a 
niile  in  length,  derives  a  most  picturesque  appearance  from 
Hs  slightly  curved  form,  and  from  the  effective  manner  in 
r.luch  the  sky-line  is  broken  by  lofty  buildings  alternaling 
Rith  others  of  lower  altitude.  This  street  contains  the 
Exchange,  thcGranimar School,  the  Theatre  Royal,  the  rooms 
of  (h;  Royal  Society  of  Artists,  which  have  a  fine  Corin- 
Ih'an  purtieo  slrctching  across  the  pavement.  At  the 
epper  end  of  the  street  is  the  Town-Hall,  and  close  to  this 
are  the  corporate  buildings  and  the  Rost-Oflice.  The  last 
quarter  of  a  century  h;is  seen  u  great  uuvanci-meiit  in  the 
style  and  accounnodation  of  the  public  and  romniercial 
edifices ;  streets  have  been  widened  and  new  roads  opened, 


and  the  place  has  altogether  put  on  a  livelier  and  wealthier 
look.  Excepting  in  some  of  the  older  and  poorer  districts, 
the  private  houses  have  undergone  a  corresponding  im- 
provement. The  richer  classes  live  chiefly  in  the  parish 
of  Edgbaston,  which  belongs  almost  entirely  to  Lord 
Callhorpe,  and  in  which  strict  rules  as  to  the  description, 
position,  and  area  of  the  houses  are  enforced.  The  streets 
inhabited  by  the  working  classes  are,  of  course,  more 
crowded,  and  many  of  the  hou.ses  are  built  in  enclo.scd 
courts,  access  to  which  is  gained  from  the  street,  either  by 
openings  between  the  houses,  or  by  narrow  entries,  toe 
commonly  built  over,  and  thus  impeding  the  free  passage 
of  air  Many  of  the  courts,  however,  are  wide  enough  to 
allow  of  small  garden.')  ui  front  of  the  houses,  while  in  the 
suburbs  almo.st  every  house  is  provided  vnih  a  garden  'of 
some  kind;  and  in  a  considerable  uuniber  of  cases  the 
houses,  through  means  of  buildine  societies,  have  become 


782 


B  I  R  M  I  N  G  H  A  U 


the  properly  of  tlio  worl<mcn  themsclvca.  The  habit  exists 
among  all  classes' of  each  family  (with  rare  exco[itions) 
occupying  a  eeparato  house,  a  practice  which  greatly 
affects  the  area  of  the  town.  Thus,  to  a  population  of 
360.000  there  are  about  7G,000  inhabited  houses,  giving 
ao  average  of  five  persons  to  a  house.  Birmingham  is  a 
towa  of  rapid  growth.  lu  1700  the  population  was  about 
l&.OOO.  A  century  later,  at  the  census  of  1801,  it  had 
increased  to  73,000  In  the  next  thirty  years  the  popu- 
lation doubled,  being  147,000  in  1831.  The  same  pro- 
cess was  rcjicated  in  the  following  term  of  thirty  years, 
the  population  in  ISGl  being  2'JG,000.  Between  18C1 
and  1871  the  increase  was  47,000,  and  the  returns  of  the 
registrar-general  show  that  the  same  rate  of  progress  is 
still  going  on.  It  is,  however,  likely  to  be  checked  by  the 
increasing  value  of  land  within  the  borough,  by  the  absorp- 
tion of  available  sites  for  building,  and  by  the  consequent 
overflow  of  population  into  the  suburbs.  If  these,  inhabited 
eolely  by  borough  people,  are  taken  into  account,  the  real  pn[iu- 
lation  at  present  is  probably  not  far  short  of  half  a  milhon. 
Government. — The  government  of  the  town  resided 
originally  in  the  high  and  low  baiUffs,  both  officers  chosen  at 
the  court  of  tho  lord  of  the  manor,  and  acting  as  his 
deputies  The  system  was  a  loose  one,  but  by  degrees  it 
liocami)  somewhat  organized,  and  Crown  writs  were 
addressed  to  tho  bailiQ's.  In  1S32,  when  the  town  was 
enfranchised,  they  were  made  the  returning  othcers. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  century,  however,  a  more 
regular  system  was  instituted,  by  an  Act  creating  a  body 
of  street  Commissioners,  who  acted  for  tho  parish  of 
Birmingham, — the  hamlets  outside  its  boundaries  having 
Bimilar  boards  of  their  own.  The  annoyance  and  difficulty 
caused  by  these  bodies — thirteen  in  number — led  to  a 
demand  for  the  incorpora'tion  of  Birmingham  as  a  borough; 
and  a  charter  was  accordingly  granted  by  the  Crown  in 
1838,  vesting  the  genera]  government  in  a  mayor,  sixteen 
aldermen,  and  forty-seven  councillors.  Tho  powers  of 
this  body  were,  however,  unusually  restricted,  the  other  local 
governing  bodies  remaining  in  existence  It  was  not  until 
IS."!!  that  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  obtained,  abolishii.g 
all  governing  authurilies  excepting  the  Town  CounriJ,  and 
transferring  all  powers  to  this  Iwiily  Under  this  Act,  and 
anotlier  local  Act  obtained  in  180'J,  the  affairs  of  the  town 
are  now  administered,  the  whole  luuiiicii'al  government 
being  in  the  hands  nf  the  Town  Council.  The  irn[)ortancc 
of  tliu  duties  discharged  by  the  Council  m.iy  be  inferred 
from  tho  fait  that  it  has  under  its  control  nearly  20()  miles 
of  street  and  road,  that  it  Las  a  police  force  of  nearly  500 
men,  and  that  its  revenue,  derived  from  tolls  and  rates, 
amounts  to  about  X300,ltOO  a  year.  These  responsibilities 
have  been  increased  by  the  purchnse  in  1875  of  the  gas  and 
water- works  (tho  latter  with  a  daily  supply  of  17,000,(100 
gallons),  the  two  purchases  making  a  cost  of  more  than 
X3, 000,000.  The  growth  of  the  revenue  and  expenditure 
of  tho  town,  its  rate.ible  value,  and  its  ordinary  debt,  ex- 
cluding the  gas  and  water-works,  will  bo  seen  from  the 
following  tabular  statement  :— 


Vtar 


1S.'.4 

1!-I14 
)8'.;i 


Amotint  nf   |_       ,  ,„„„.., 
B.M..         I         ""  '■ 


C 

t'Cii  101 
I,ll5?.7l'« 


d 

S 
4 

8 
2 
H.J' 


c 
12n,'2.i7 
157.121 
187.»i20 
li»5.15.S 
289,6i5 


Expendilufc 


131,723 
136. OS? 
185,637 
199,950 
271,807 


tl«lnnrro( 

lublic  Oil't. 

vC 

snr..(i95 

'.r,7.01.2 

633,3113 

683.449 

C64.969 

N  ^-      Thr  nmnunt  of  property  poasessed  by  Ite  Corporation  on 
list  r>Piem*-r  1374.  Ul;«u  at  its  origiiiol  cost,  was  Xt.liW.OO. 

iQrlu.hog  role  for  Sr>"'nl  Bonnl,  3J.  uj  Ibe  L 


Arms  of  Birnjujcf.om 


Tlic  administration  of  the  poor  law  is  vested  in  a  Board  of 
Cluardians,  of  sii:ly  nicniltcrs,  fur  tde  parish  of  Lii  uiiiigliatu. 
Tbc  parish  of  Ed^bastun  (wholly  uititiu 
the  borough)  is  in  the  poor-law  union, 
of  King's  Norton,  and  that  part  of  the  i 
parish  of  Aston  included  in  theboroMgh 
is  in  the  Aston  Union.  There  an^  three  i 
workhouses — that  for  I>irnunghatn  pa- 
rish, situated  at  liirminghani  Heath,  is 
capabUi  of  rectivmi;  tivcr  20('0  inmates. 
In  tho  week  ending  June  19,  lt>75,  there 
were  chargeabh*  to  the  parish  (incUiding 
lunatics  and  persons  receiving  outdoor  relief)  C049  paupers, 
a  very  small  number  in  propurtion  to  population 

Binninghnm  has  a  grant  of  quarter  sessions,  wiih  a 
recorder,  and  petty  sessions  are  held  daily  at  the  Sessmiis 
Court,  in  Moor  Str*'et,  bcfor*^  a  stipendiary  magistrate,  and 
a  bench  of  boroiigh  justices,  'iho  justices  for  the 
borough  and  Aston  division  of  Warwickshire  nlso  sit  hero 
occasidnally.  The  borough  jnsticea  have  charge  of  the 
administration  of  the  ^aol.  The  town  is  tiio  head  of  a 
county'  court  district,  and  is  tho  seat  of  tho  probate  regis-. 
try  for  Warwickshire. 

Rdigious  DenomivafirtTLs,  I^'iilfh'ntj.f,  Ac. — Until  thfl  year  1S21 
I'.iiniin^liain  was  in  the  diocrscof  I-irhfioM  And  Coventry ,  it  is  now 
in  t}ii'  djtu-L'Sf  uf  Wurce5it<T  ami  archdeaconry  of  Cnventiy,  and  is  a 
pjral  'leainTV.  Thtre  wa-i  forriMirly  a  religious  bouse,  the  priory  of 
St  Thomas  the  Apostl-e,  ami  a  Guild  of  the  Iluly  Cross,  an  associa- 
tion p.irtly  religious  and  partly  charilable,  having  a  chantry  in  the 
parisri  church.  Tho  posifssiuns  of  the  priory  went  to  the  Crown  at 
the  dissolution,  ojid  the  buihling  was  destroyed  before  the  close  of 
tie  16th  century  The  lamls  of  the  Guild  of  the  Holy  Cross  were 
graiitLil  by  Edward  VI.  to  trustees  for  the  support  of  a  free  gram- 
mar  si.hool  ,  they  are  now  of  the  value  of  nearly  £15,000  a  year. 
Until  ITIT'  therp  was  hut  one  parish  chunh,  St  Martin's,  a  rectory, 
having  the  tithei  of  the  entire  pa;  ish  of  liiraungham.  St  Martin's 
was  er.'cted  about  the  middlf  of  the  13th  rentury;  but  in  the 
course  of  ages  was  ^^  disfigurfxl,  internally  and  eitemally,  as  to 
presciil  no  tratesex'^ept  in  the  tower  and  ppireof  its  former  character. 
In  ISr-i  fhi-  tower  wia  found  to  l>e  in  a  dangerous  condition,  and 
togt^tlier  with  tlie  spire  was  rt-lmilt.  In  1S73  the  remaining  part  of 
tlie  old  lIiutcIi  was  removed  wiiliout  disturbing  tho  monumeuis,  and 
a  now  and  lar-'t-r  edifice  was  erected  in  its  place,  at  a  eost  of  nearly 
£30,000.  'I  he  new  church  constitutes  tho  chief  ec^desiastical 
edttice  in  RiiTninghani,  and  indeed  the  handsomest  stpicture  in  the 
towD.  St  Philip's,  a  bt.iliJy  Itulinji  stnieture,  designed  by  Archer, 
a  pupil  of  Wren,  w.is  tlic  nrxt  (hunli  erected.  It  was  conseeniled 
in  Wl.'i  Then  foll-wtd  St  Bartholomew's  in  1749.  St  Mar>-'9  in 
177J.  St  Paul's  in  1771*.  St  James's,  At,)it''d,  in  17lil,  and  othere, 
wliicli  need  not  he  nn-titioiied.  followi'd  in  due  course.  At  present 
the  moilier  parish  Is  divi.lcd  ii.to  livo  rectories,  and  there  are  withio 
the  borough,  including  those  mentioned,  \2  thinehes  ('•ai.b  liaving 
nn  ecclesiastical  district  assi^'ncd  to  it)  of  tlie  Church  of  Englaiid, 
must  of  tiicse  having  svhooU  and  missions  attached  to  them. 

Under  the  Coiiimunwenllh  I'lrmingham  w?3  a  strouiihold  of  Puri- 
tanism. Clan  ndou  speaks  of  it  imd  tlie  neigh  bournooil  a.«  "the 
most  eminently  corrupted  of  any  in  I'ngland."  lUxter,  on  the  other 
hairj.  commcndinj:  the  ^arns<»n  of  Covviiir>',  says  it  contained  "tho 
most  religious  men  of  the  j-dils  rourhi  al»out,  especially  from 
P.innin;;hani."  The  traditional  n-put.iliori  lor  Nonconformity  is  main- 
tained by  tho  town,  all  varieties  of  di*sent«rs  bciitg  numerous  and 
iiilluentiah 

Tbt?  Unitarians.  t!ip  oMrst  l>ody  established  here,  hare  six 
chaficls.  One  of  Ihesr,  the  Uld  Meeluig,  is  hislorically  interesting, 
the  con^^Te^atioii  having  bein  l"otmeil  on  the  Preshyttrinn  model  hj 
a  nuniUr  of  mmislcra  eiiM-icd  undt-r  tho  Act  of  Uniforn-ity. 
Anoliur  ehnpel,  li.e  New  Meetinp.  in  Moor  Street  {now  oeciipiiU  by 
the  Koni;in  Catholics),  is  memorable  as  having  been  the  pl.ice  of  Dr 
Priestley's  ministerial  labours  In  18G2  the  UniUuians  removed 
from  this  jducc  to  a  new  Gothic  cdplice,  callwl  the  Churdi  of  tho 
Messiah,  in  Hroad  Street,  where  thiy  itiU  jtreserve  a  monument  of 
Priestley,  with  a  medallion  i^ortniit  in  prolde,  and  an  inscription 
written  i'V  Priestley's  friend,  l)r  Parr.  The  Society  of  Frunds, 
whose  fnst  meeting  house  dates  from  about  1(J90,  have  now  three 
places  of  uir.  tine.  The  Indej'fvdfvts  have  now  eleven  chapels, 
^evural  (»f  thun  hrqe  atid  lUtunsliini;.  The  Biipitxts  Cist  crcrtcd  a 
chapf!  in  Camion  Sii.ft  in  1738  They  have  now  16;  ono  of  them. 
Wyclilh'  Chapel.  Prisli.l  Road,  is  a  Btngnl  irly  ti.indsomo  ptnictineol 
Hth  ecntiiry  Goiluo  Tho  IV^ftfyon  Mi'ihn.l'^$  v^vvv  establish"! 
in  Hirmin^'li.iin  oy  John  Wesley  hiniM-lf  in  Kiri.whm  he  wa.H  rouf^lrK 
handled  while  prca.cliing  on  Gosta  Green.      For  som*  yMT*  lJj>  ■ 


V,  I   li  xM  I  N  G  H  A  M 


783 


»iip.!i;i'pcii  in  Icmporiry  prciuisos.  Tii<'>  liavo  now  17  |ilaci.'3  of 
wijr^liiji ;  aiul  Itic  ollii-r  divi-iioQ^  of  Uiu  Miiliodist  body  have  24 
ill  tlie  fl^j^t'gnLe.  'I'lii;  PrcslyUrUiits  ]>osscb3  5  placts  of  worsliip, 
auti  Ihe  Jctof  Ili\*c  a  bu.iiJsoine  syiia;;<igue.  'I'bu  /ivnuin  Valhoitcs 
liave  paid  sjn'cial  atlrnliiin  to  Iiiiii>inj.'liatn.  Krooi  Ibc  KevolulioQ 
of  1GS3  until  17a9  tiny  baj  uo  placu  of  worsbip  here.  They  now 
have  a  I'iyhop  (wlio  assumes  a  litlo  from  the  town),  a  catht'diiil, 
and  9  other  chiirehi-s  or  L'lia)iels,  a  cemett'ry,  and  other  estuhhsh- 
nieiits  in  tlio  sulmibs,  inchiding  several  religious  houses,  iucludiug 
tlic  OiJtury,  founded  by  Dr  Newman.  Tlio  princi|>al  ediCice  is  the 
cathedral  of  Si  Cliad,  built  ftoiu  the  designs  of  Mr  Fuj^D,  at  a 
cost  of  more  than  £30,000. 

The  reli^'ioua  institutions  and  societies  in  BirDiingbam  are  very 
liuinerous,  and  with  these  are  associated  many  esC&blishmenta  of  a 
'  benevolent  churaeter,  such  as  alinsliouses,  asylums,  refuges,  societies 
for  the  aid  of  discharged  prisoneis,  ami  for  the  promotion  of  religious 
education  in  Board  schools,  training  institutions  for  nurses  and 
servants,  and  others  of  various  kinds,  in  Iho  uianugeinent  of  which 
persons  of  dilTerent  religious  opinions  are  conitnouly  fuiuid  working 
logellier  in  friendly  association. 

C^iaTitUs. — Those  are  numerous.  Tlic  principal  is  Iho  General 
Hospital,  Sumnier  Lane,  oi>ened  in  1779  ;  it  was  founded  by  Dr 
Ash,  an  eininent  local  physician.  The  yearly  avti.ige  of  in.jtatieiits 
is  about  2yii0,  of  out-patients,  25,000.  The  Ijueen's  tlnspital, 
IJath  Row,  the  ether  lorgo  hos[)ital  of  the  town,  vas  founded  in 
1840  by  Mr  W.  Sands  Cox,  F. R.S. ,  an  eminent  lo^ml  surgeon,  who 
also  founded  the  Queen's  College  as  a  tnedical  school.  This  hospiuJ 
receives  annually  about  1300  in-patients  and  17,000  out-patients. 
The  General  Dispensary,  the  odicois  of  which  visit  patient-s  at  their 
(n' n  huino.s,  relieves  about  bOOO  yearly.  The  Children's  Hospital 
(Iree),  established  in  1864  by  Dr  Heslop,  relieves  aliout  15,000  out 
ami  1000  in-patients.  It  has  two  establishmenta— for  out  [tatieuts 
{a  very  handsome  Gothic  building)  in  Steelhouse  Lane,  ami  au  in- 
p-i'ieiit  dejiartracnt  in  Broad  Street.  There  is  also  a  Women's 
jlospital  (free)  for  the  special  diseases  of  women  ;  a  lying-in  charity; 
spteial  hospitals  for  di.seases  of  the  eye,  the  ear,  boddy  deformi- 
ties, and  the  teeth  ;  and  a  honia-opatnic  hospital.  The  parish  of 
liirrnini:liam  maintains  a  Largo  inhrmary  at  the  workhouse  (Ltirming* 
ham  ile.itb),  and  a  dispensary  for  out-patients  in  Pantdiso  Street. 

Nearly  all  these  medical  chanties  depend  upon  subscriptions, 
donations,  legacies,  and  income  from  inveat^l  property;  and  the 
sura  r.iised  in  this  way  is  probably  nearly  £30,000  a  year.  There 
ere  two  public  organizations  for  aiding  the  charities,  both  of  which 
Were  begun  in  liirmingham.  One  is  a  simultaneous  collection  in 
October  in  churches  anuchaiiels,  called  the  Hospital  Sunday,  estab- 
lished in  1H59,  and  now  yielding  over  £5000  a  year  ;  the  other  is  the 
S.itiirilay  Hospital  collection,  made  by  tho  work-peopio  in  March, 
whieh  teas  established  in  1373,  and  yields  about  £4000. 

There  is  also  a  Sanatorium  at  Blackwell,  near  the  Lickcy  Hill, 
about  10  miles  distant,  comnion  to  all  tho  hospitals.  Amongst  Iho 
nonmedical  chorities  the  principal  are  tho  Blind  Institution  and  tho 
Ilr-af  and  Ihimh  Asylum,  botn  at  Edgbaston  ;  and  Sir  Josiali 
Mas^iii's  Oiphanflgo  at  Krdiugton,  which  receives  300  orphan 
children,  anil  was  boilt  and  endowed  at  the  cost  of  about  £250,000 
aohdy  hy  Sir  Josiuh  M.cson,  a  Birmingham  [lenmaker.  There  aro 
also  in  the  town  nuinerons  alijisliouKcs  for  aged  persons,  the  chief 
of  wliicb  arc  l.eneh's  Trust,  tho  Jaraes  Chanties,  the  Licensed 
Vjrtii.ilhrs'  Asylum.  Besides  tho  general  benefit  societies,  such  as 
tho  Oddfellows',  Foresters',  Ac,  which  aro  stnmgly  supported  in 
Binniitgham.  tho  wsirk-peopie  h.ive  numerous  clubs  of  a  cliaritablo 
kind,  and  there  are  several  important  local  provident  societies  of  a 
general  character,  with  niany  thoiLsand  members. 

Education. — Tho  oldest  ami  principal  institution  is  Ibo 
Oraiuinar  School  of  King  Edward  the  Sixth,  founded  in 
l.').')2,  out  of  the  laridaof  the  (Juild  of  the  Holy  Cro.'^s,  then 
of  llio  annual  value  of  X21,  but  now  yielding  about  i!  15,000 
a  year,  with  a  [irospect  of  large  lucreasa  The  principal  or 
liiyh  school,  in  New  Street,  was  erected  in  1840,  id  the 
rer[Hndicular  period  of  tho  Gothic  style,  from  designs  by 
Sir  Charles  Barry,  at  a  cost,  including  land,  of  X71,000. 
This  school  is  divided  into  two  departincnls,  classical  and 
ICnglish.  and  educalc  about  COO  boys  ;  while  connected 
with  It  there  are  four  elementary  schoote  for  boys  and  girls, 
used  chiefly  by  the  lo%ver  middle  chias,  tho  number  of 
pupil.^  being  1500  The  cla.ssical  school  has  ton  exhibitions 
of  ii:M  each,  tenable  at  Oxford  or  Canibrnige.  The  next 
most  important  f()und.ation  is  that  of  the  .\Iiiiland  Institute, 
which  incliiilcs  a  general  literary  departiiiciit  (lectures, 
museums,  and  reading-rooms),  and  an  indu.strial  departs 
ment,  with'  cla.'ises  in  science,  lanpia;;es,  mathematics, 
arithmetic,  hcslory,  literature,  and  the  laws  of  health. 
T!icre  are  olwut  GOO  scionce  students,  and  alwut  IGOO  in 


the  other  departments.  The  Queen's  College,  originally  a 
school  of  luedicine,  fouuded  iu  1828,  obtained  a  royal 
charter  in  1843  as  a  kind  of  university,  with  departments 
of  literature,  theology,  law,  science,  and  engiuecring.  All 
those  branches  bavo  Dow  fallen  into  (Jituse,  excepting 
medicine  and  theology  ,  in  the  latter  the  college  educates 
candidates  for  the  ministry  of  the  Church  of  Kiigland.  An 
iiuportant  foundation  is  Sir  Josiah  Mason's  Scieutilic 
College,  for  the  eudowmeut  of  which  Sir  Josiuh  has  con- 
veyed to  trustees  projicrty  valued  at  nearly  ill 00,000,  and 
a  capacious  budding,  estimated  to  cost  probably  £40,000, 
is  now  in  ereetiou  lu  Edmund  Street,  near  the  Town-HalL 
Among  the  other  educational  foundations  may  i>e  men- 
tioned Spring  Hill  College,  Mosclcy,  for  the  education  of 
Congregational  nnnisters  ,  four  uidustnal  schools  ,  a  large 
reformatory  for  boys  at  Saltley,  and  one  for  gtrls  at  Smeth- 
wick.  For  general  education  there  are  many  private 
schools,  of  a  good  class,  for  boys  and  girls.  Elementary 
education  is  provided  in  the  Church  of  England  day  scliools, 
Roman  Catholic  schools,  and  Board  schools.  A  total  pro- 
vision, in  all  the  public  elementary  schools,  is  made  for 
41,791  children;  there  are  (July  1875)  51.334  on  tho 
books,  with  an  average  attcndanco  for  the  previous  ijuartcr 
of  37,894.  The  School  Board,  though  it  was  elected  only 
in  1870,  has,  by  tho  provision  of  new  schools,  and  the 
exercise  of  compulsory  powers,  more  than  doubled  the 
school  attendance.  It  has  already  built  and  opened  9 
Schools,  with  accommodation  for  8800  children,  at  a  cost, 
for  laud  and  buddings,  of  about  £86,000  ,  and  8  other 
schools  are  now  lu  progress,  providing  accommodation  for 
7400  children,  at  an  estimated  cost  of  about  £103,000 — 
making  a  total  expenditure  of  nearly  £200,000,  and  pro- 
vision for  a  total  of  about  10,000  children. 

lAbrancs,  <tc. — The  prmclpal  libraries  of  the  town  are  tho 
Birmingham  Library  (belonging  to  a  body  of  proprietors), 
founded  ui  1708  by  Dr  Prastley,  and  containing  about 
40,000  volumes,  and  the  Coqioration  Free  Libraries,  irv 
Hatcliir  Blace,  commenced  in  1801  These  consist  of  a 
central  reference  library  and  lending  hbrary  (the  former 
containing  36,000  volumes  of  carefully  chosen  books),  to 
which  is  attached  a  central  reading-room.  There  arc  also^ 
four  lending  libraries  and  news-rooms  in  other  parts  of  tli& 
town,  and  newsrooms  are  about  to  be  opened  by  th& 
Corporation  in  connectioii  with  the  Board  schools.  The 
total  issue  of  books  from  the  libraries  for  1874  was- 
521,991-  Included  in  tho  reference  library  are  a  special 
Shakespeare  library,  containing  almost  all  known  editions 
of  the  plays  and  of  works  illustrating  them  ;  a  Ubrary  of 
nearly  1000  volumes,  illustrating  the  works  of  Cervantes 
(presented  by  Mr  W.  Bragge  of  Sheffield)  ;  and  a  largo 
And  unique  collection  of  Warwickshire  books  and  anlK 
quitics,  known  as  the  Staunton  collection.  An  Art  Gallery 
and  Industrial  Museum  is  attached  lo  th«  Free  Libraries; 
and  there  is  at  Aston  Hall  another  museum  of  natural 
history,  ic  ,  lielonging  to  the  Corporation.  Art  instruc- 
tion IS  provided  by  the  Royal  Society  of  Artists,  which  bo» 
cl.isiies  and  lectures  for  students,  and  which  holds  two 
general  exhibitions  annually  ;  and  by  the  School  of  Art, 
which  has  900  students,  together  with  aililiatcd  classes  la 
schools,  containing  nearly  I  70i)  students. 

Muecllantous  In.iiiluiioTis,  Parka,  <tc — These  include 
8  banks,  4  princi[ial  clubs — the  Union,  tho  Midland,  tho 
Arls,  and  the  Conservative — to  which  a  Liberal  Club  is 
about  to  he  added.  There  are  3  morning  and  2  evening 
daily  pajiers — 4  of  ihem  Liberal  and  I  Conservative-  and  2 
weekly  papers.  There  are  2  theatres,  2  large  music-halls, 
and  several  smaller  ones.  Musical  festivals  for  the  beneht 
of  the  (Jeneral  Hospital  are  held  triennially,  and  aro 
usually  marked  by  the  production  of  new  and  inip(.rl.int 
works,   and  by   the  engagement  of  most  of  the  leading 


784 


B  I  R  :M  I  N  G  H  A  I\l 


vocalists  and  instrumental  performers.  There  are  5  parks 
end  pleasure  grounds  belonging  to  the  Corporation — 
Astou  Park  and  Hall,  45  acres;  Calthorpe  Park,  about  35 
acres ;  Cannon  Hill  Park,  65  acres ;  and  Adderley  and 
Higbgate  Parks,  each  about  12  acres.  Beside  these  there 
are  numerous  pleasure-grounds — the  Botanical  Gardens, 
Edgbaston,  open  to  subscribers,  and  the  Lower  Grounds,  a 
beautiful  series  of  gardens  at  Aston,  in  which  important 
flower  shows  are  periodically  held.  Sutton  Park,  about  8 
miles  distant,  and  including  about  3000  acres,  is  also  much 
used  by  the  Birmingham  people.  The  Corporation  has 
several  sets  of  baths  and  wash-houses  in  various  parts  of 
the  town.     There  are  several  e.xtensive  cemeteries. 

Public  Buildings. — Of  these  the  Town-Hall,  a  nobly-pro- 
portioned and  impressive  edifice,  is  the  principal.  It  stands  at 
the  top  of  New  Street,  and  on  three  sides  is  isolated  from  all 
other  buildings  by  broad  and  handsome  streets.  The  hall, 
completed  in  1850  at  a  total  cost  of  £52,000,  is  severely 
classic,  modelled  upon  a  Greek  temple.  The  lower  stage 
consists  of  a  vast  plinth  or  basement,23feet  high,  upon  which 
is  reared  a  fa'pade  of  peripteral  character,  with  8  Corinthian 
columns  (36  feet  high)  at  the  two  principal  fronts,  and  13 
columns  on  each  side.  These  columns  (imitated  from  those 
of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator  at  Rome)  support  a  bold 
and  enriched  cornice,  finished  at  each  end  with  a  lofty  pedi- 
ment and  entablature.  The  exterior  of  the  hall  is  built  of 
Anglesea  marble.  The  interior  consists  chiefly  of  a 
regularly-built  room,  designed  specially  for  meetings  and 
concerts,  with  an  orchestra  containing  one  of  the  finest 
organs  m  the  kingdom.  The  seats  are  arranged  for  an 
audience  of  2265  persons,  but  when  cleared  of  benches,  as 
13  the  case  at  great  political  meetings,  5000  persons  may 
find  standmg  room.  On  one  side  of  the  Town-Hall  are 
the  buildings  of  the  Midland  Institute  and  the  Free 
Libraries  (of  Italian  design),  occupying  the  whole  of 
Ratcliff  Place,  with  fronts  to  Paradise  Street  and  Edmund 
Street.  A  new  Art  Gallery  is  in  course  of  erection,  front- 
ing the  latter  street.  At  the  back  of  the  Town-Hall  is  the 
site  of  the  new  building  ol  the  Mason  College  (Gothic), 
and  m  front  of  the  hall,  in  Paradise  Street,  are  Christ 
Church  (classic),  the  Queen's  College  (Gothic),  and  the 
Post-Oaico.  On  the  side  of  the  hall  in  Ann  Street,  opposite 
to  the  Midland  Institute,  are  the  new  Corporate  Buildings 
(Italian),  now  being  erected  at  a  cost  of  nearly  X200,000 
These  will  give  accommodation  for  the  Town  Council, 
law  courts,  public  offices,  and  the  mayor  of  the  borough. 
Lower  down  New  Street  is  the  building  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Artists  (classic),  with  a  noble  portico ;  then 
comes  the  Exchange  (Gothic)  m  Stephenson  Place  ,  and  at 
the  botiom  of  the  latter  street  is  the  Central  Railway 
station,  used  by  the  North-VVestern,  the  Midland,  and 
their  branch  railways,  and  fronted  by  the  Queen's  Hotel. 
The  station  is  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length 
The  roof,  a  magnificent  specimen  of  engineering,  consists 
of  a  vaxl  arch  of  glass  and  iron,  carried  on  pillars  on  each 
side,  and  measuring  1100  feet  m  length,  80  feet  in  height, 
and  212  feet  in  width  in  a  single  span.  The  glass  in  the 
roof  weighs  115  tons,  and  the  ironwork  1400  tons.  Below 
the  station,  m  New  Street,  is  the  Grammar  School ;  and 
in  High  Street,  close  at  hand,  is  the  Market-Hall,  a  magni- 
ficent cl.assic  building,  erected  in  1833  at  a  coat  of  nearly 
£70,000,  with  an  area  of  4380  square  yards,  and  affording 
room  for  GOO  stalls.  Amongst  the  other  public  buildings 
ere  the  Borough  Gaol  at  Winson  Green,  with  ilC7  cells, 
arranged  on  the  separate  system,  nearthi.s  the  Lunatic 
Asylum,  with  accommodation  for  GOO  patients ;  and  close 
at  hand  the  workhouse,  which  receives  about  2000  inmates. 
The  General  and  Queen's  Hospitals  are  also  handsome 
buildings,  the  latter  especially  so,  it  being  remarkable  for 
A  very  aoblo  out-pit,ient  hall.     This  and  the  out-patient 


hall  at  the  Children's  Hospital  in  Steelhouse  Lane  (Gothic) 
are  perhaps  the  finest  rooms  of  their  kind  in  the  kingdom. 

Birmingham  had  till  very  recently  only  one  public  monu- 
ment, the  statue  of  Nelson,  by  Westmacuit,  in  High  Street; 
but  several  others  have  been  erected — namely,  those  of 
Joseph  Sturge,  at  the  Five  Ways,  and  of  Thomas  Attwood, 
the  founder  of  the  Political  Union,  in  Stephenson  Place, 
both  of  them  by  the  late  Mr  Thomas;  James  Watt,  a 
singularly  beautiful  work,  in  Ratcliff  Place,  by  the  late  Mr 
Munro ;  Sir  Robert  Peel,  in  New  Street,  by  Mr  P.  HoUins; 
the  late  Prince-Consort,  in  the  Art  Gallery,  by  Mr  Foley ; 
Sir  Rowland  Hill,  in  the  hall  of  the  Post-Office,  by  Mr 
Noble;  and  Dr  Priestley,  in  New  Street,  by  Mr  F.  J.  Wil- 
liamson. Chantrey's  famous  statue  of  James  Watt  is  in  a 
special  chapel  at  Handsworth  church. 

Manufactures. — From  an  early  period  Birmingham  has 
been  a  seat  of  manufactures  in  metal.  Hutton,  the  his- 
torian of  the  town,  claims  for  it  Saxon  or  even-  British 
antiquity  in  this  respect,  but  without  the  shadow  of  founda- 
tion, 'rhe  first  or  direct  mention  of  Birmingham  trades  is 
to  be  found  in  Leland's  Itinerary  (1538).  He  writes: — 
"  I  came  through  a  pretty  street  as  ever  I  entered  into 
Bermltigham  towne.  This  street,  as  I  remember,  is  called 
Dirtey  (Doritend).  In  it  dwell  smiths  and  cutlers.  There 
be  many  smithes  in  the  towne  that  use  to  make  knives 
and  all  manner  of  cutlery  tooles,  and  many  lorimers  that 
make  bittes,  and  a  great  many  naylors,  eo  that  a  great  part 
of  the  towne  is  maintained  by  smithes,  who  have  their  iron 
and  sea-cole  out  of  Staffordshire."  The  cutlers  no  longer 
exist,  this  trade  having  gone  to  Sheffield ;  but  the  smiths 
remain,  and  the  heavier  cutting  tools  are  still  largely  made 
here.  The  well-ascertained  importance  of  Birmingham  as 
a  centre  of  manufactures  began  towards  the  close  of  the 
17th  century,  one  great  source  of  it  being  the  absolute 
freedom  of  the  town,  there  being  no  guilds,  companies,  or 
restrictions  of  any  kind  ;  besides  which  the  easy  access  to 
cheap  coal  and  iron  indirectly  helped  the  development. 
It  is  remarkable  that  two  important  trades,  now  located 
elsewhere,  were  first  established  here.  Steel  was  made  in 
Birmingham  until  1797,  and  was  then  disused  for  quite 
70  years,  when  an  experiment  in  steel-making  (still  carried 
on)  was  mada  by  a  single  firm.  Cotton-spinning  was 
begun  in  Birmingham  by  John  Wyatt,  and  Lewie  Paul, 
and  Thomas  Warren  as  early  as  1730  ;  but  the  speculation 
was  abandoned  before  the  end  of  the  century.  The  great 
staple  of  Birmingham  is  metal-working  in  all  its  various 
forms.  The  chief  variety  is  the  brass-working  trade, 
which  employs  several  hundred  masters,  and  about  10,000 
work-people,  and  consumes  probably  50,000  tons  of  metal 
annually,  which  is  worked  up  into  an  infinity  of  articles  of 
ornament  and  utility.  Iron-working,  though  largely  car- 
ried on,  is  a  much  less  important  trade,  works  of  this  kind 
being  chiefly  established  in  the  Staffordshire  di.strict. 
Jewellery,  gold,  silver,  and  gilt  come  next  to  brass. 
Then  follow  small  arms  of  all  kinds,  some  of  the  larger 
esfablishments  being  capable  of  turning  out  2000  stand 
per  week.  Buttons,  hooks  and  eyes,  pins,  and  other 
articles  used  for  dress,  constitute  a  large  class  of  manufac- 
tures. Glass,  especially  table  glass,  is  a  renowned  stapU 
of  the  town.  Screws,  nails,  &o  ,  are  made  in  enormous 
quantities ;  indeed,  Birmingham  has  a  monopoly  of  the 
English  screw  trade.  Steel  pens  are  also  a  specialty — as 
mucb  as,  probably,  15  tons  or  more  of  steel  being  the 
weekly  consumption  of  these  articles ;  the  largest  maker, 
Sir  Jiisiah  Mason,  rolls  5  tuns  weekly  for  his  own  cofi- 
sumptiun,  and  has  about  60  tons  of  puns  constantly  in 
manufacture  in  various  stages.  About  20,000,000  pens 
are  made  weekly  in  the  town,  and  are  sold  at  prices  rang- 
ing fromljd  to  12a  per  gross  of  12  dozen.  The  fact 
that  each  gross  requires  144  pieces  of  Btcul  to  no  through 


i;  I    1]   M   I   X  G   H   A   "\I 


r85 


. ,  different  procesaea,  renders  tnis  cneapncss  <if  sale  one  of 
the  greatesl  marvels  of  niamifacturing  skill  and  industry. 
I'.lertro-plating.  Crst  established  about  1848  by  Messrs 
Klkin^tonand  Mason,  is  one  of  the  leadinj;  trades.  Amongst 
oiber  brandies  of  manufacture  are  wire-drawing,  bell 
founding,  metal  rcilliiig,  railway  carnage  building  (a  large 
and  important  industry),  steel  toy  making  (including  cut- 
ting implements  and  tooUf  of  aU  kinds),  die-siiiking,  papier- 
inacb^  making,  and  a  variety  of  others,  for  which  refer- 
ence may  I'e  made  to  a  volume  entitled  Birmivgham  and 
tht  Afid/atui  IJardware  Dulrirl,  prepared  on  the  visit  of 
the  British  Association  in  1805,  and  extending  to  more 
than  701)  pages  It  is  impossible,  indeed,  lo  smaller  com- 
pass to  give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  variety  aii«l  extent  of 
Liirmingham  industry.     To  quote  a  modern  writer- — 

"  We  cannot  move  without  fiDdinf;  traces  of  the  p-eat  hive  of 
metal-makers — the  veritable  descendants  of  Tubal-caiii.  At  home 
or  aliioad.  sleeping  or  waking,  walking  or  riding,  in  a  caixiajie  or 
upon  a  railwny  or  steamhoat,  we  cannot  eacajie  reminiscences  of 
lt*rmingh.im  J^he  haunta  us  from  the  craiUe  to  the  grave.  She 
lui'filics  us  wuh  the  sfioon  that  first  brings  our  infant  lips  into 
avLiuainunce  with  'pap,  and  she  provides  the  di.snial  'furniture 
which  IS  aHixcd  to  our  coffins  Id  her  turn  Bii-minghani  lays  the 
whole  world  under  contnbution  for  her  inatenals  For  her  smiths, 
and  metal  workers,  and  jewellers,  wherever  nature  has  deposited 
•tores  of  uS4:ful  or  precious  metals,  or  has  hidden  glittering  gems, 
Ottre  inilu.itrious  miners  are  liusily  digging.  Divers  collect  for  her 
^iittfiii  makers  millions  of  rare  and  costly  shells  For  her,  advcn- 
turoHS  hunters  rille  the  butralo  of  his  wide-spreading  horns,  and  the 
elephant  of  his  ivory  tusks  There  is  scarcely  a  proitiu-t  of  auy 
fouutry  or  any  climate  that  she  does  not  gladly  leceive,  and  in 
return  sLiinps  with  a  richer  value 

These  labours  Birmingham  performs  with  the  aid  of  many 
thousands  of  willing  bands,  moved  by  busy  and  ingenious 
brr.iiis.  and  aided  by  het  own  great  invention,  the  steam- 
enjiiie  (or  by  the  genius  of  Watt  and  the  intrepid  courage 
o(  Boiillon.  Biriiiiiighaiu  may  claim  the  perfection  of  this 
discovery  as  her  own.  The  memory  of  the  great  Soho 
factory  is  one  ol  the  most  precious  heritages  ol  the  town, 
and  the  name  remains,  for  though  the  old  factory  has  long 
suice  disappeared,  the  firm  of  Boulton  and  Watt  sliU  con- 
tinue to  make  steam-engines  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood ,  .ind  James  Watt's  own  private  workshop  continues 
just  .1.1  he  left  it,  with  no  single  article  disturbed,  carefully 
[ircserved  in  the  garret  of  his  house  at  Ueatbfield. 

The  mention  of  Watt  and  of  Soho  recalls  the  memones 
of  distinguished  inventor?  and  othere  who  have  been  con- 
nected with  Birmingham  Johnson  was  a  frequent  visitor 
here  to  his  friend  Hector,  the  surgeon,  on  whose  house  m 
the  Old  Square  a  tablet  (erected  by  the  Shakespeare  Club) 
bears  witness  to  the  residence  of  the  great  moralist.  Then 
Baskeriille,  the  printer,  carried  on  his  work  here.  The 
famous  Lunar  Society,  fully  described  by  Mr  Smiles  in  his 
Lmn  of  iKe  Enijinerrs,  brought  together  a  brilliant  com- 
pany—  Watt.  Boulton.  Priestley.  Josiah  Wedgwood.  Darwin, 
Parr.  Uitheriog,  Edgeworih,  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  Herschel, 
Br  Solander,  Fothergill,  Roebuck,  Gallon.  Keir,  and  many 
others  Murdoch,  the  inventor  of  gas,  was  a  Soho  man, 
and  first  used  bus  invention  to  light  the  Soho  factory  at 
Uie  priice  ol  Amiens  in  I8I)'2.  Hickman,  the  reviver  and 
hisliirian  ol  Uothic  architecture,  practised  as  an  architect 
in  IJirmini.'ham  Ilutton,  the  antiquary  and  hia'.inan, 
•  arrifd  on  hut  book.ielling  business  here.  Many  of  the  best 
engravers  wcje  Birmingham  men,  notably  Willmore  and 
Pyr.  the  special  translators  of  Turner's  marvellous  creations 
lo  the  ranks  of  landscape  painters  the  name  of  David  Cox 
will  ever  confer  honour  upon  the  town.  Attwood,  Joseph 
Parkes,  and  Bright  speak  for  it  in  the  region  of  politics 
onil  statesmanship.  The  series  of  inventors  is  continued 
to  our  own  day  by  the  a/mes  of  (Jillott,  Elkington,  Chance, 
>lason,  and  others. 

In  many  respects  Birmingham  is  a  peculiar  town,  and 
in  none  more  than  tho  hold  it  has  upon  the  affsctionv  of  iti 


people  A  "  Birmingham  man  "  is  u.iually  a  man  of  strong 
individuality,  inde|iendeiice  of  character,  facility  of  resource, 
and  with  an  enduring  love  for  "  the  old  towu."  These 
traits  of  character  are  the  result  of  a  variety  of  circum- 
stances, binningham  is  peculiar  in  opening  a  career  even 
to  the  humblest  »  ho  are  gifted  with  ingenuity  and  industry. 
The  great  number  of  trades  keeps  work  fairly  constant,  the 
skill  required  in  them  sustains  wages  of  artizans  at  a  high 
level,  and  the  distribution  of  labour,  and  its  dependence 
upon  direct  personal  aptitude,  afford  chances  of  rising  in 
the  social  scale  which  cannot  be  found  in  places  where 
manufactures  are  mainly  of  one  class  and  are  conducted  in 
factories  demanding  large  capital.  It  is  easy  in  Birming- 
ham for  a  man  to  become  a  small  master,  and  gradually 
to  push  his  trade  until  he  is  able  to  establish  a  factory. 
Many  of  the  largest  employers  have  either  been  workmen 
themselves  or  are  the  sons  of  workmen  ,  while  of  the 
smaller  manufacturers  almost  all  take  a  direct  part  in  the 
handicraft  work  carried  on  in  their  places  of  business 

Wealth  IS  more  evenly  distributed  than  in  most  other 
places  There  are  no  colossal  fortunes  in  Birmingham,  and 
comparatively  few  large  ones,  and  of  these  very  few  are 
made  by  speculative  operations.  To  compensate  for  these 
distinctions  there  is  an  unusually  large  comfortable  class — 
people  of  good  though  not  e.xcessive  incomes  derived  from 
solid  trade,  or  from  savings  made  by  hard  personal  and 
associated  work.  This  class,  touching  the  actually  wealthy 
on  one  side,  by  easy  and  almost  imperceptible  stages  touches 
the  actual  wurking-class  on  the  other,  and  this  latter  chiss 
18  constantly  rising  into  the  middle  rank 

The  Birmingham  work-people,  in  their  way,  are  courteous 
and  helpful.  This  is  probably  owing  to  the  free  and 
open  and  common  discussion  of  subjects  of  political  and 
social  intera-^t  engaged  in  without  distinction  of  class. 
The  same  principle  is  adopted  educationally — in  the  Mid- 
land Institute,  for  example — the  Act  of  Parliament  which 
established  the  Institutf  [ifoviding  that  the  governing 
council  shall  always  include  artizan  members.  Another 
noticeable  characteristic  of  the  town  is  the  development  of 
means  of  self-inslruction  and  of  self-help.  Birmingham 
was  amongst  the  earliest  places  to  establish  a  mechanics' 
institution,  the  place  of  which  is  now  more  efficiently  sup- 
plied by  the  Midland  Institute  Birmingham,  again,  w-aa 
the  birthplace  of  the  freehold  land  and  building  societies, 
by  which  workmen  are  enabled,  on  easy  terms,  to  acquire, 
houses  of  their  own  ,  and  in  addition  to  these  institutions, 
which  are  numerous  and  flourishing,  it  has  a  very  large 
number  of  sick  and  friendly  societies,  navings-clubs,  and 
other  organizations  of  a  provident  kind, — more  in  proportion 
to  population  than,  probably,  any  other  of  the  large  towns 
m  England  Amongst  the  social  chnractenstics  it  should 
be  mentioned  that  there  are  few  serious  disputes  between 
masters  and  workmen,  and  that  strikes  are  infrequent,  and 
when  they  do  occur  are  found  capable  of  easy  adiustment 
by  friendly  negotiation  One  point  more  is  worthy  of 
record — the  constancy  of  the  town  to  those  who  serve  it 
Many  of  the  leading  manufacturers  and  other  citizens  are 
members  of  the  local  governing  bodies,  and  these  and  the 
parliamentary  representatives  are  rarely  changed  by  their 
constituents 

Hnttory. — Owing  to  Its  rapid  ezpaosion.  and  the  consequeni 
ne»7ies!i  of  most  of  the  public  and  other  buildings,  Birmingham  is 
olten  supposed  to  lie  a  modern  town  It  is  really  one  of  the  oldest 
in  the  country,  and  was  in  existence  as  a  comciunitv  id  the  Saxon 
pcnod.  Proof  of  this  was  given  in  1309  by  William  de  Bcnninghaio. 
then  lord  of  the  manor,  who  showed  in  a  law-suit  tliat  his  aDM-ston 
had  a  market  in  tlie  place,  and  levied  lolls,  before  the  Conquest. 
Some  authors  have  endeavoun-d  to  identify  the  town  with  the  sup- 
posed Roman  station  called  Mrtineniimi.  but  tins  claim  has  long 
Aince  been  abandoned  as  fal>ulous  The  origin  of  tho  name  is  ud- 
traceable  .  the  spelling  of  it  is  traceable  id  about  UHi  difTereni 
f^nns.       Dugdale,   the   histonaD  of    Warwickshire,   tilopt^  Urom 

m.  -  99 


78G 


B  ]  P  —  n  I  S 


wychain,  anil  regiids  it  as  of  Saxon  derivation.  Hiitton,  the 
liiitoriaa  of  iiirmmgliain,  lias  the  fanuifnl  etymology  of  B'oin 
(broomf,  w'/ch  {a.  descent),  and  ham  {a  home),  making  together, 
the  liorae  od  the  hiU  by  the  heatlt  As  rvg-irds  the  history  of  the 
town,  we  must  agree  with  Hutton  that  '*the  way  is  long,  dark,  and 
slippery"  In  Domcsdan  Book  it  is  rated  at  four  miles  of  land  with 
halt  a'mile  of  woods,  the  whoJe  valued  at  fi'^a.  Two  hundred 
years  hter  iIk-  family  of  Dc  Bermmghara,  ths  owners  of  the  place, 
come  into  3i:^ht, — one  of  them,  VViliiam,  being  killed  at  the  battla 
of  Evesham.  iQ  12fJ5.  fi;,'hting  with  Simon  de  Montfort  and.  the 
barons  against  Henry  the  Third.  The  son  of  tins  William  after- 
wards took  part  in  the  French  war.  and  was  made  prisoner  ;  his 
father's  estates,  forf'.ited  by  treason,  were  restored  to  him.  Tlnmee* 
forward  we  lind  the  family  engaged  ni  various  local  ami  otlier  ofhces, 
but  seemingly  abstanuiig  from  politi'.'S.  They  held  the  place  until 
1527.  when  Edward  de  IJormmghatn  was  deprived  of  his  property 
by  means  of  John  Dudley,  duke  of  NoithumberUnd,  who  trumped  up 
a  pretended  charge  cf  not  and  robbery  against  liitn,  and  procured 
Birmingham  for  himself.  On  the  attainder  of  Dudley  the  manor 
pos.sed  to  the  Crown,  and  was  granted  to  Thomas  Marrow,  of  Berks- 
wiill.  from  whom  by  raaniage  and  descent  it  went  to  Christopher 
Musgrave.  and  tinally.  as  regards  the  only  valuable  part — the 
market  tolls  — by  parcluue  to  tiie  Vt\\\i  itself.  lu  the  Wars  of  the 
Uuses  It  does  not  seem  that  Birmingham  took  any  part .  but  energy 
revived  in  the  civil  \va.r  under  Charles  I  ,  when  the  town  sidud 
actively  with  the  Parliamentarians.  In  1*542.  when  Charles  was 
marching  from  Shrewsbury  to  relieve  fianbury,  the  fiirnungham 
people  seized  part  of  his  baggige,  including  much  plate,  money,  and 
wine,  which  tlley  sent  to  the  Parliamentary  garrison  at  Warwick, 
before  the  battle  of  Edgelull  Charles  rested  for  two  nights  at 
Aston  Hall,  near  the  town,  as  the  guest  of  Sir  Thomas  Holte. 
The  Birmingham  people  resenteil  this  by  helping  the  Parliamen- 
tarians to  cannonade  the  hall  and  to  levy  a  tine  U[»on  Sir  Thoma= 
Holte  They  also  set  to  work,  and  supplied  the  Parliamentary 
army  with  15,000  sword  blades,  refKsing  to  make  a  single  blade  foi 
the  Royalists  These  m mifestitions  of  hostility  were  avenged  in 
Apnl  1613,  by  Pnuce  Rupert,  who,  with  2000  men  and  several 
pieces  of  artillery,  attacked  the  town,  planting  his  cannon  on  ao 
eminence  near  Spaikhrook,  still  known  as  Cainphill.  The  towns- 
pt:opIe  resisted,  but  were  bc.Tten,  rairiy  persons  bc-lng  kUlel  or 
wounded  Amongst  the  former  was  Lord  DenbiL^h,  one  of  the 
Royalist  officers.  Having  c:iptui-cd  the  place.  Prince  Rupert  allowed 
his  troops  to  plunder  it,  to  burn  about  eighty  iioiises,  and  to  set 
their  prisoners  to  ransom  He  also  levied  a  fine  of  £30,000,  equal 
to  at  least  £100,000  of  the  present  value  of  money.  This  bittei 
K«son  kc^jt  Birmingham  quiet  during  the  rest  of  the  civil  war, 
lliough  the  sympathies  of  the  people  with  the  Parliamentarians  were 
unabated.  In  1665  Birmingham  sulfered  heavy  losses  by  the  plague, 
great  nnmbers  of  de&i  being  buncd  in  the  Pest  Fiel>I.  at  Lady- 
wood,  then  a  lonely  place  far  outside  the  tnwn.  but  long  since 
thickly  covered  with  buildini^s  In  lfi8S  the  Krvnlntion  provuked 
a  temporary  outbreak  of  Prute.'^tTiit  leeliug  James  II.  hatl  givon 
timber  from  the  royal  lorcst  of  Needuood.  near  Brirton.  to  build 
a  Catholic  chapel  and  convent  in  a  place  sttU  called  Mass-house 
Lane,  This  edifice  the  mob  promptly  destroyed  when  James  gave 
place  to  William  and  Mary.  Rather  more  than  a  century  of  quiet 
grospenfey  ensued,  and  then  occurred  the  serious  and  most  lament- 
able outbreak  of  popular  fury  known  as  the  Church  and  King  riots 
of  1791.  For  some  years  tliere  had  been  much  political  activity  is 
Birmingham,  the  dissenters,  particularly  the  Unitarians,  being  de- 
sirous of  relief  from  the  political  and  religious  disabilities  under 
whuh  they  laboured  The  leader  in  these  movement-s  was  the 
famous  Dr  Fricstloy.  who  kept  up  an  active  cnntrnvcr^iy  irith  the 
local  clergy  and  others,  and  than  drew  upon  himself  and  his  co- 
religionists the  hatred  o(  the  mure  violent  members  of  the  Church 
and  Tory  party  The  smouldering  lire  broke  out  on  the  occ;i3ion 
of  the  French  RcvuUition  On  the  14th  of  July  a  diuner  of  Bir- 
mingham Liberals  was  hold  ot  the  Royal  Hot.)  to  celebrate  th« 
destruction  of  the  Bulille.  This  was  the  sij^nal  of  a  i>opulnr  out- 
break A  Church  and  King  mob.  encouraged  ainl  orgtnued  by  Icjiders 
of  better  station,  but  who  were  too  cnwnrdly  to  show  themselves. 
bof^an  an  attack  upon  the  Unilfliians  Dr  Priestley  was  not  present 
at  the  dinner,  but  his  houw  at  Fair  Hill,  Sparkbrook.  was  one  of  the 
first  tn  bo  sacked  and  burnt— his  library  and  laltoratory.  with  all 
bt9  m.inuscripts,  lh(»  records  of  life-lung  scientific  and  [duloiophical 
inquinoa,  pcnahing  m  the  flanici  The  house  and  library  of  Hutton, 
llic  historian  and  antiquary,  were  nlsn  de.>»troyed  The  Unitarian 
chapel  waa  burnt,  and  several  ho'i*'s  belonging  (c  raembors  of  the 
wet  were  sacked  and  burnt.  Tin-  not  continued  until  k  strong 
body  of  troups  w^s  marched  intn  th»'  town,  hut  before  their  arrival 
damage  to  the  atnonnt  of  mnro  than  ft'M).000  had  been  done.  Some 
of  tlic  rioters  perished  in  the  barning  buildings,  in  the  cellars  of 
which  they  drank  themselves  mto  atupefjiction.  Others  wero  tried 
and  imprisoned,  and  fmir  of  the  prisoners  wurn  hanged.  Tlie  per- 
•ocuted  Unitarians  recovered  a  small  part  of  ihe.ir  Tosses  fnmi  tlie 
county  ;  but  Or  Prnsiley  himself,  o^ving  to  the  unworthy  preju- 
iice  against  him.  was  la  a  great  luei-iuri   forced   U>  remove  to  the 


Uiiitcii  States  of  America,  where  he  spent  t^e  rest  of  his  life.  A 
late  atonement  was  made  by  the  town  to  his  memory  in  1873,  by 
the  erection  of  a  statue  in  his  honour  in  fh)nt  of  the  Town-Hall,  and 
the  foundation  of  a  Priestley  scholarship  at  the  Midland  Institute. 
As  if  ashamed  of  the  excesses  of  1701,  Birmingham  thenceforth 
became  a  thoroughly  Liberal  and,  with  one  or  two  exceptions, 
a  peaccfuj  town.  In  the  dismal  period  from  1817  to  1S19,  when 
the  manufacturing  districts  were  heavily  disticssed  and  were  dis- 
turbed by  riots,  Buiningham  remained  quiet.  Even  when  some  of 
the  inhabitants  were  tiied  and  punished  for  ilemandmg  pailia- 
-nicntary  i-epresentatiou,  aud  for  electing  Sir  Charles  WoLsciey  as 
their  delegate,  there  was  no  demonstration  of  violenco — the  wise 
counsels  of  the  leaders  inducing  orderly  subnussjon  to  tbo  law.  The 
same  prudent  course  was  observed  when  in  the  lieform  agitation  of 
18;jl-32  the  Political  Union  was  formed,  under  the  leadership  of 
Thom-is  Attwood,  to  promote  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill.  Al- 
inu-^t  the  wh«!e  town,  and  great  part  of  the  smrounding  district, 
joineil  in  this  agitation  ,  viist  meetings  were  held  on  Newhall  Hill; 
thei*e  was  much  talk  of  marching  upon  London  100,000  strong; 
but.  owing  to  the  tirmnc-is  and  statesmanship  of  Mr  Attwood 
and  his  associates,  there  was  no  rioting  or  any  sign  of  violence. 
Ultimately  the  Political  Union  succeeded  in  its  object,  and  Bir- 
mingham helped  to  secure  for  the  nation  the  enfranchisement  of 
the  middle  classes  and  other  political  reforms.  One  exception  to  the 
tranquillity  of  the  town  has  to  be  recorded — the  occurrence  of  riot-t 
m  1339,  during  the  Chartist  agitation.  Chartism  took  a  strong  bold 
til  Birmingham,  and,  under  the  inlluence  of  Mr  Feargus  O'Connor 
and  some  of  his  associates,  nightly  meetings  of  a  threatening  char- 
acter were  held  in  che  Bull  P»iug.  TIiC  magistrates  resolved  to  put 
these  down,  and  having  obtained  the  help  of  a  detachment  of  the 
metropolitin  police — the  town  then  having  no  local  police  force- 
a  meeting  was  dispersed,  and  a  not  ensued,  which  resulted  in  mi-irv 
to  several  persons,  and  r&]uired  railiUiry  force  to  suppress  it.  Thu 
hapjiened  on  the  4th  of  July.  On  the  iDth  of  tlie  same  mouth 
another  meeting  took  place,  and  tlie  mob,  strongly  armed  and  nuiu- 
bering  many  thousands,  Get  fire  to  several  houses  in  the  Bull  Ring, 
some  of  which  were  burned  to  the  ground,  and  others  were  greatly 
damaged.  Tho  military  agara  interfered,  and  order  was  restored, 
severti  of  tiie  ringleaders  being  afterwartls  tried  and  imprisoned  for 
their,  share  in  the  disturbance.  There  was  another  not  in  1SG7, 
caused  by  the  ferocious  attacks  of  a  lecturer  named  Murphy  upon 
the  Roman  Catholics,  which  led  to  the  sacking  of  a  sireet  chiclly 
inlinbited  by  Irishmen  ;  but  tho  incident  was  comparatively  trivial, 
anrl  further  disorders  were  prevented  by  the  prompt  action  of  tho 
authorities. 

BIRON",  Armand  de  Gontault,  a  baron  and  marshal 
of  France,  and  a  celebrated  general,  who  signalized  lum- 
soif  by  his  valour  and  conduct  in  several  sieges  and  baiilea 
in  the  IGth  centuiy.  He  was  made  grand  master  of  the 
artillery  in  1569,  and  commanded  at  the  siege  of  Rochelle, 
and  in  Guienne.  He  was  one  of  the  first  who  declared  for 
Henry  IV. ;  he  brought  a  part  of  Normandy  under  his  sub- 
jection, and  dissuaded  him  from  retiring  to  England  or 
RochcUe.  Biron  was  killed  by  a  cannon-ball  at  the  siege 
of  Epeniay,  July  26,  1592.  He  was  a  man  of  considerable 
literary  attainments,  and  used  to  carry  a  pocket-book,  in 
which  he  noted  everything  that  appeared  remarkable.  This 
gave  rise  to  a  proverb  at  court,  when  a  person  happened  to 
say  anything  uncommon,  "  You  have  found  that  in  Birou.'s 
pocket-book." 

BIRON.  Charles  de  Gontault,  son  of  the  above  and 
born  in  1502,  created  duke  of  Biron  and  admiral  of  Trance 
by  Henry  IV.,  was  a  man  of  great  intrepidity,  bui  fickto 
and  treacherous.  In  1601  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
the  court  of  queen  Elizabeth  to  announce  his  royal  master'* 
marriage  with  Maiy  of  Medici ;  but  being  discovered  ir.  a 
treasonable  correspondence  with  Spain,  he  was  beheaded  m 
the  Bastille  at  Paris.  July  31,  1G02.  The  extent  to  whieU 
he  had  carried  his  treason  was  not  great,  and  Henry  by 
aparim;  his  life  would  not  have  shown  undue  clemency. 

BIUS  NIMRUD.     See  Babylon,  page  183. 

BISACCIA,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  rnncipato  Ultcriore, 
(^0  miles  E.  of  Nai)les.  It  is  a  bishopric  in  corijuncticm 
with  St  Angelo,  and  contains  5312  inhabitants.  Formerly 
it  wiL<»  the  chief  city  in  a  principality  belonging  to  tho 
Pignatelli  family,  and  it  ifl  believed  to  occupy  the  site  of 
the  ani.'ient  Romulca,  a  Samnite  tuwn  tif  considerable  ai/e^ 
which  was  captured  by  tho  H'Vtiir-J  '^iMUt  297  B.C. 


B  I  S  — B  I  S 


78: 


BISCAY,  or  VrzcAYA,  one  of  the  tlircc  Basque  province's 
of  S[>ain,  with  the  title  of  Selgnory.  It  is  buunded  on  the 
N  by  the  bay  to  which  it  gives  its  name,  E.  by  Guipuzcoa, 
S.  by  Alava,  and  W.  by  Santander.  Its  area  is  845  square 
miles,  and  its  pupuktiun  ui  1S07  »as  I63,0y8.  The  coast- 
line, which  extends  from  Oiidarroa  to  a  short  distance  to 
the  east  of  Castro,  is  bold  and  rugged,  and  in  some  places 
13  deeply  indented.  The  only  river  of  any  size  is  the 
Nervion  or  Ibaizabal,  on  which  Bilbao  is  situated;  the  others, 
which  are  numerous,  are -merely  large  mountain  streams. 
The  surface  of  the  country  is  for  the  most  part  very 
mountainous,  but  at  the  same  time  is  diversified  with 
numerous  narrow  valleys  and  small  plains  Some  of  the 
mountains  are  almost  entirely  composed  of  naked  calcareous 
rock,  but  most  of  them  are  covered  to  their  summits  with 
forests  of  oaks,  chestnuts,  or  pine  trees.  Holly  and  arbutus 
are  also  common,  and  furze  and  heath  abound  in  the  poorer 
parts.  The  province  produces  wheat,  maize,  barley,  rye,  flax, 
gr.ipes,  peaches,  apples,  and  other  fruits.  The  farms  are 
genurally  small,  and  are  for  the  most  part  tilled  by  manual 
labour.  The  wild  boar,  lynx,  fox,  and  other  wild  animals, 
are  found  in  the  forests ;  and  deer,  rabbits,  partridges, 
woodcocks,  and  other  kinds  of  game  arc  plentiful.  Sheep 
and  goats  arc  the  principal  domestic  animals.  In  minerals 
Biscay  is  very  rich.  Iron  of  the  finest  quality  is  found  in 
almost  every  part,  and  forms  a  main  article  of  export. 
The  best  mines  are  those  of  Soinorostro,  near  the  coast. 
The  amount  obtained  in  1SG6  was  about  80,000  tons. 
Lead,  zinc,  alum,  and  sulphur,  are  also  present  in  smaller 
quantities  ;  and  marble,  lime,  and  sandstone  are  abundant. 
The  manufacture  of  the  iron  ore  is  the  chief  branch  of 
industry  ;  but  porcelain,  linens,  copper  and  brass  wares, 
ropes,  and  leather,  are  also  produced.  The  fisheries  are 
actively  prosecuted  along  the  coast  by  a  hardy  race  of 
fishers,  who  were  the  first  of  their  craft  in  Europe  to  pursue 
the  whale,  formerly  abumlaut  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Cod, 
bream,  tunny,  and  anchovy  are  the  principal  fish  taken. 
Bilbao  is  the  capiUil  of  the  province,  with  a  population 
of  17,649;  the  other  towns,  Portugalctc,  Miravalles, 
Durango,  and  Orozco.areall  very  small.  The  principal  ports, 
besides  Portugalete,  are  Plencia,  Bern.eo,  and  Hea.  After 
the  fall  of  the  Romans  this  Canlabrian  province  came 
eucccssively  into  the  hands  of  the  Suevi,  Fr.iriks,  and  Goths, 
and  formed  for  some  time  an  independent  lordship.  The 
legislative  authority  was  exercised  by  the  lord  and  a  junta 
of  popular  representatives.  The  latter  regularly  assembled 
every  two  years,  and  on  any  emergency  held  an  extra- 
ordinary meeting  under  an  old  tree  at  Guernica.  Although 
incorporated  with  Si)ain,  the  Biscayans  still  maintain  a' 
republican  form  of  administration,  nominating  their  own 
governors  and  magistrates,  regulating  the  amount  of  the 
taxes,  and  exercising  various  other  privileges  They  are 
a  brave  and  active  people,  and  their  history  is  largely 
composed  of  exploits  in  defence  of  their  liberties  For 
their  linguistic  and  ethnographic  affinities,  see  the  article 
Basque  Provinces.  The  name  Biscay  is  not  uufrequently 
employed  as  geographically  equivalent  to  B.isque.  in  that 
ease  including  the  three  provinces  of  Biscay  proper, 
Guipuzcoa,  and  Alava. 

BISCAY,  Bay  of,  in  French  the  Colfe  de  G.'iscognc,  and 
the  Roman  Sinus  Aquitamms,  an  extensive  gulf  or  bay 
of  the  Atlantic,  enclosed  by  the  northern  coast  of  Spain 
and  the  western  coast  of  France.  It  extends  from  the 
island  of  Ushant,  on  the  coast  of  Finisttre.  to  Cape  Ortegal 
on  the  north  of  Galicia  In  the  Spanish  portion  of  the 
bay  the  water  is  about  200  fathoms  deep,  while  in  the 
French  portion  it  is  only  20  fathoms.  Navigation  is 
Impeded  by  strong  w^.<;terly  winds,  and  by  Rennel's 
Current,  wliich  sets  in  from  the  west  and  sweeps  along  tlie 
iuu>Ilci:i)  and  (astern  shores  spinctimcs  at  a  rate  of  27  u.ilcs 


a  day.  The  Loire,  Charenle,  Cironde,  and  Adour,  besides 
numerous  sm.iller  streams  from  the  Spanish  mountains,  (all 
into  the  bay. 

BISCEGLIA,  perhaps  the  ancient  Naticlum,  a  fort.fi-.il 
seaport  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Terra  di  Ban.  situated 
on  a  rocky  promontory  on  the  Adriatic,  21  miles  W.N  W  if 
Ban.  It  IS  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  has  a  cathedral, 
numerous  churches  and  convents,  and  a  theatre.  Some 
ruins  still  exist  of  a  hospital,  founded  by  Bohemund  for 
pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Land.  Its  harbour  is  only  accessible 
to  small  vessels,  aud  it  has  little  trade.  Being  destitute  of 
springs,  it  has  numerous  reservuirs  for  the  collection  of 
rainwater.      Population,  21,371 

BISCHWEILER,  a  town  of  Alsace.  14  miles  N.  of 
Strasburg,  on  the  railway  from  HaLrenau.  It  has  fianu- 
fai-tures  of  woollen  aud  linen  stuffs,  oil,  soap,  earthen- 
ware, (to.,  and  some  trade  in  hops,  hemp,  Irather,  and 
tobacco.  Population  m  l^71,  9220.  includiug  that  of 
Hauhoffen,  which  numbered  6t9. 

BISCUIT.     See  Baki.vc,  page  252. 

BISHOP,  the  title  of  an  ecclesia.stical  dignitary  set  over 
the  presbyters  and  deacons  at  a  very  early  period  in  the 
Christian  church.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Saxon 
bisceiip,  which  IS  a  corruptii^n  of  the  Greek  word 
episcnpos,  \vh\ch  signifies  an  "overlooker''  or  "overseer,"  and 
the  churches  in  which  the  order  of  bishops  is  recognized  as 
distinct  from  and  superior  to  the  order  of  pre.shyters  are 
.styled  "  Episcopal  churches."  The  early  history  of  the 
Episcopal  order  is  obscure,  but  it  would  appear  that  the 
first  bishops  -were  established  in  the  chief  cities  of 
Christendom,  and  each  bishop  had  a  certain  territorial 
district  placed  under  his  superiiitenden,-e.  whence  the  city 
was  termed  the  see  {fed<s)  of  the  bishop,  and  the  district 
his  parish  (TToponfi'a),  and  subsequently  his  diorese 
(S(oi'itj,<ro;).  In  course  of  time  the  disiricls  assigned  to 
the  first  bishops  became  too  populous,  whereupon  the  cleriiv 
of  each  diotese,  as  the  case  micht  be,  appear  to  have 
assembled  and  to  have  subdmded  the  diocese,  and  to  have 
selected  a  second  bishop,  and  so  bishops  and  dioceses  were 
multijilied,  according  to  the  wants  of  the  churches,  until  it 
was  thought  expedient  to  reserve  the  right  of  erecting  new 
bishoprics  to  provincial  councils,  and  this  reservation  was 
madea  rule  of  the  church  by  a  decree  of  the  Council  of 
Saidica.  Meanwhile  the  bishops  of  the  new  sees  had 
grouped  themselves  round  the  bi.-hops  of  the  more  ancient 
sees,  who  exercised  over  them  a  certain  spiritual  authority 
as  primates,  and  presided  in  their  councils,  and  as  some  of 
the  great  cities  in  which  the  sees  of  the  first  bishops  had 
been  established  were  distinguished  by  the  title  of 
"  metropolis,"  or  mothcr-city,  and  were  in  fact  the  chief 
cities  of  civil  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  bishops 
of  those  sees  came  to  be  distinguished  by  the  title  of 
metropolitan  bishops,  and  exercised  a  superior  authority  in 
the  councils  of  the  church  iii  proportion  to  the  greater  im- 
portance of  their  respective  sees  This  superior  dignity  of 
the  metropolitan  bishops  over  the  others  was  formally 
recoenizcd  at  the  Council  of  Nicia  as  being  in  accordance 
with  custom.  Upon  the  establishment  of  Christianity  a« 
the  religion  of  the  Roman  empire  a  coercive  jurisdictioa 
was  engrafted  on  the  spiritual  superiority  of  the  metropoli- 
tan, and  the  district  over  which  the  metropolitan  exercised 
this  juri.sdiclion  was  termed  hia  province,  the  earliest 
ecclesiastical  provinces  being  for  the  most  part  conterminous 
with  the  civil  provinces  of  the  empire.  From  the  circum- 
stance that  there  was  no  metropolitan  city  in  Western 
Africa,  the  terra  metropolitan  was  never  adopted  in  the 
Carthaginian  Church,  the  senioi  bishop  of  that  church 
being  te'rmed  the  primate,  and  having  precedence  anii 
aiilhonty  as  such  over  the  other  bishops 

In   the   Church   of    Rome   the  Pope  claims  of  right   the 


788 


BISHOP 


appointment  of  all  the  bishops ,  but  the  .exercise  of  this 
fight  13  modified  by  concordats  with  the  sovereigns  of  the 
respective  states.  In  France,  since  the  concordat  between 
Pope  Leo  X.  and  King  Francis  I.,  the  sovereign  has  had 
the  exclusive"  right  of  nominating  the  bishops,  but  the 
nomina_tion  is  subject  to  the  Pope's  confirmation.  In 
Austria  (with  the  exception  of  four  bishoprics),  jn  Bavaria, 
in  Spain,  and  in  Portugal,  the  bishops  are  also  nominated 
by  the  sovereign.  In  some  countries  the  bishops  are 
elected  by  the  chapter  of  the  cathedral  church,  as  in 
Wurtemberg,  or  by  the  bishops  of  the  province,  as  ia 
Ireland.  In  England,  iii  the  United  States  of  America, 
and  in  Belgium,  the  Pope  selects  one  out  of  a  List  of 
candidates  submitted  to  him  by  the  chapter.  In  all  cases 
the  bishop-nominate  or  the  bishop-elect,  as  the  case  may 
be,  has  to  obtain  from  the  Holy  See  certain  letters,  entitled 
provisions,  to  authorize  his  consecration,  and  to  recommend 
him  to  the  protection  of  the  sovereign  and  to  the  good 
offices  of  his  metropolitan 

In  the  Church  of  Russia,  after  its  separation  from  that 
of  Constantinople,  the  right  to  elect  a  bishop  was  for  some 
centuries  vested  in  a  synod  of  bishops,  but  by  a  regulation 
of  the  Emperor  Peter  the  Great,  the  Holy  Synod  was 
restricted  to  recommend  two  persons  to  the  sovereign  for 
him  to  select'one  of  them  to  be  bishop.  This  regulation, 
however,  is  not  always  observed,  and  the  sovereign,  if  he 
thinks  fit,  sets  aside  the  list  submitted  to  him  by  the  Synod, 
and  nominates  of  his  own  choice  a  person  whom  the  Syn  )d 
IS  obliged  to  elect.  In  Russia  a  diocese  sometimes 
contains  two  capital  cities,  and  the  bishop  has  his  title 
from  both. 

In  the  Church  of  the  Levant,  properly  called  the  Greek 
Church,  which  is  governed  by  the  four  patriarchs  of 
Constantinople,  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and  Alexandria,  each 
patriarch  has  the  right  of  confirming  the  election  of  the 
bishops  within  his  patriarchate  ;  but  the  firman  or  barat  of 
the  sultan  is  likewise  necessary  to  give  full  authority  to 
the  bishops  after  their  confirmation. 

The  bishops  of  the  Church  of  England  are  twenty-eight 
in  number,  two  Of  them  being  metropolitans,  namely, 
Canterbury  and  York,  who  enjoy  the  more  dignified  title 
of  archbishop,  and  have  a  special  precedence  assigned  to 
them  by  law  (see  Archbisuqp).  The  twenty-six  digcesan 
bishops,  with  the  exception  of  the  bishop  of  the  Isle  of 
Man,  who  is  designated  the  bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man,  arc 
lords  if  parliament,  and  take  precedence  of  the  barons  in 
the  House  of  Lords  ,  but  the  junior  bishop  for  the  time 
being  13,  by  statute,  disentitled  from  being  summoned  to 
parliament.  From  this  disqualification  tlie  bishops  of 
London,  Durham,  and  Winchester  are  exempt.  These 
three  bishops  have  precedence  over  one  another  in  Uie 
order  in  which  their  names  are  above  mentioned,  and  they 
precede  all  the  other  bishops,  the  latter  taking  precedence 
of  one  another  according  to  the  date  of  their  appointment. 
The  junior  bishop  who  has  a  seat  in  parliament  acts'as 
chaplain  to  the  House  of  Lords. 

In  the  Church  of  England  tho  bishops  exercise  certain 
spiritual  functions  which  are  held  not  to  be  within  the 
competence  of  the  presbyters.  They  alone  can  administer 
the  rito  of  confirmation  to  baptized  persons,  and  they  alono 
can  ordain  candidates  for  tho  silcred  ministry.  These 
functions  the  bishops  exercise  in  virtue  of  thoir  order,  but 
they  are  alio  empowered  by  law  to  exercise  a  certain 
.jurisdiction  over  all  consecrated  places  and  over  all  ordained 
persons.  This  jurisdiction  they  exercise  for  the  most  part 
through  thoir  consistorial  courts,  or  through  commissioners 
appointed  under  3  and  i  Vict.  &  8G,  called  the  Church 
Discipline  Act.  Tho  bishops  also  exercise  a  certain 
jurisdiction  over  marriages,  inasmuch  as  they  have  by  tho 
-canons  of  the  Oburcb  of  England  c  povyer  of  dispensing 


with  the  proclamatiiin  of  banns  before  marriage.  Those 
dispensations  are  termed  marriage  licences,  and  their  legal 
vahdity  is  recognized  by  the  .Marriage  Act,  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  70. 
The  bishops  had  formerly  juri.sdiction  over  all  questions 
touching  the  validity  of  marriages  and  the  status  of 
married  persons,  but  this  jurisdiction  has  been  transferred 
from  the  consistorial  courts  of  the  lusliops  to  a  court  of  the 
Crown  by  20  and  111  Vict.  c.  65.  They  have  in  a  similar 
manner  been  relieved  of  their  jnrisdictiun  m  testamentary 
matters,  and  in  matters  of  defamation  and  of  brawling  in 
churches ;  and  the  only  jurisdiction  which  they  continue 
to  exercise  over  the  geueial  laiiy  is  with  regard  to  their  use 
of  the  churches  and  churchyards.  The  churchwardens,  who 
are  representative  officers  of  the  parishes,  are  also  executive 
officers  of  the  bishops  in  all  matters  touching  the  decency 
and  order  of  the  churches  and  of  the  churchyards,  and  they 
are  responsible  to  the  bishops  lor  the  due  discharge  of  their 
duti>'s  ,  but  the  abolition  of  church-rates  has  relieved  the 
churchwardens  of  the  most  onerous  part  of  their  duties, 
which  was  connected  with  the  stewardship  of  ttie  church 
funds  of  their  parishes. 

The  bi.shops  are  still  authorized  by  law  to  dedicate  and 
set  apart  buildings  for  the  solemnization  of  divine  service, 
and  grounds  for  the  performance  of  burials,  according  to  the 
rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Church  of  England  ,  and  such 
buildings  and  grounds,  after  they  have  been  duly  con- 
secrated according  to  law,  cannot  be  diverted  to  any  secular 
purpose  except  under  the  authority  of  an  Act  of  parlia- 
ment. 

The  bishops  of  England  have  also  jurisdiction  to 
examine  clerks  who  may  be  presented  to  benefices  within 
their  respective  dioceses,  and  they  are  bound  in  each  case 
by  the  95th  canon  of  1604  to  inquire  and  inform  themselves 
of  the  sufficiency  of  each  clerk  within  twenty-eight  days, 
after  which  time,  if  they  have  not  rejected  him  as  insuffi- 
ciently qualified,  they  are  bound  to  institute  hira,  or  to 
bcense  him,  a,<»  the  case  may  he,  to  the  benefice,  and 
thereupon  to  send  their  mandate  to  the  archdeacon  to 
induct  him  into  the  temporalities  of  the  benefice.  Where 
the  bishop  himself  is  patmn  of  a  benefice  within  his  own 
diocese  he  is  empowered  to  collate  a  clerk  to  it, — in  other 
words,  to  confer  it  on  the  clerk  without  the  latter  being 
presented  to  him.  Where  the  clerk  himself  is  patron  of 
the  bving,  the  bi.shop  may  institute  him  on  his  own 
petition.     See  Benefice. 

The  qualifications  of  a  bishop  of  the  Church  of  England 
are,  that  he  should  be  a  learned  presbyter  of  at  least  thirty 
years  of  age,  born  in  lawful  matrimony,  and  of  good  life 
.and  behaviour.  The  mode  of  his  appointment  is  regulated 
by  24  Henry  VIII.  c.  20.  Upon  the  avoidance  of  a 
bishopric  the  Crown  is  authorized  to  issue  To  the  dean  and 
(iliapter  of  tho  cathedral  church  of  the  see  a  licence  for 
them  to  proceed  to  the  election  gf  a  bishop,  accompanied 
by  a  letter  pussive  containing  the  name  of  the  person  whom 
they  are  to  elect.  The  dean  and  chapter  are  thereupon 
required,  within  twelve  d.iys,'  to  elect  tlie  person  so  named 
by  the  Crown  to  be  the  bishop  of  tho  vacant  see,  failing 
which  election  tho  Crown  is  iinpowe'red  to  name,  by  letters 
patent  under  the  Great  Seal  addresjed  to  the  archbishop  and 
metropobtan  of  tho  province,  such  person  to  be  bishop  as 
tlie  Crown  shall  tuink  able  and  convenient.  Upon  the 
election  being  reported  to  the  Crown,  a  mandate  issues  from 
tho  Crown  to  the  archbishop  and  metropolitan,  requesting 
him  and  commanding  him  to  confirm  the  election,  and  td 
invest  and  consecrate  the  bishop-elect.  Thereupon  tho 
archbishop  issues  a  commission  to  his  vicir-gcneral  to 
examine  formally  the  process  of  the  election  of  the  bishop, 
and  to  supply  by  his  authority  all  defects  in  matters  of 
form,  and  to  administer  to  the  bishop-elcct  tho  oaths  of 
I  allegiance,   of  supremacy,   and    of    canonice!   obedience. 


I 


BISHOP 


78f^ 


After  this  formal  conhimation  of  the  bishop's  election  has 
taken  place,  the  archbishop,  with  the  assistance  of  at  least 
two  bishops,  proceeds  to  consecrate  the  bishop-elect.  The 
most  important  part  of  the  religions  ceremony  on  this 
occasion  consists  in  the  imposition  of  hands,  in  other  words, 
in  the  archbishop  and  the  bishops  placing  their  hands 
•imultaneously  upon  the  head  of  the  bishop  elect  kneeling 
before  them,  and  in  the  name  of  the  Holy  Trinity  com- 
mitting to  him  his  i)fEce  of  bishop  ;  after  which  the  arch- 
bisliop  delivers  to  him  the  Holy  Bible  and  addresses  to  him 
a  short  admonition  to  preach  faithfully  the  Word  of  God. 
The  bishop  is  required  afterwards,  by  statute,  to  do  homage 
to  the  Crown,  upon  which  he  is  put  into  possession  of  the 
temporalities  of  his  see.  In  the  case  of  the  avoidance  of 
the  archbishopric  of  either  province,  the  Crown  sends  a 
mandate  to  the  archbishop  of  the  other  province  to  confirm 
and  consecrate  the  archbishop-elect,  and  the  practice  is,  for 
the  most  part,  for  the  archbishop  of  the  other  province  to 
send  a  commission  to  four  or  more  bishops  of  the  province 
of  the  archbishop-elect  to  confirm  his  election  and  to  invest 
and  consecrate  him 

Doubts  having  been  raised  whether  a  bishop  of  the 
Church  of  England,  being  a  lord  of  pailiament,  could 
resign  his  seat  in  the  Upper  House  of  parliament,  although 
several  precedents  to  that  effect  are  on  record,  a  statute  of 
the  realm  (19  and  20  Vict.  c.  115),  which  is  conhued  to 
the  case  of  the  bishops  of  London  and  Durham,  was  passed 
in  185G,  declaring  that  on  the  resignation  of  their  sees 
being  accepted  by  their  respective  metropolitans,  those 
bishops  should  cease  to  sit  as  lords  of  parliament,  and  their 
sees  should  bo  died  up  in  the  manner  provided  by  law  in 
the  case  of  the  avoidance  of  a  bishopric.  By  a  subsequent 
statute  (32  and  33  Vict.  c.  Ill),  provision  has  been  made 
for  the  case  of  an  archbishop  or  bishop  being  permanently 
incapacitated  by  ago  or  mental  infirmity.  If  the  archbishop 
or  bishop  is  capable  of  executing  an  act  of  resignation,  a 
representation  may  be  made  to  the  Crown,  which  is  im- 
'powered  to  declare  the  see  to  be  vacunt,  but  if  th«  arch- 
bishop or  bishop  should  be  incapacitated  from  intimating 
his  desire  to  resign  his  bishopric,  the  Crown  may  grant  a 
licence  to  the  dean  and  chapter  of  the  cathedral  church  of 
the  diocese  to  appoint  a  bishop-coadjutor.  This  Act  was  to 
be  in  force  for  two  years  ;  it  has  been  continued  for  three 
years  more  by  35  and  36  Vict.  c.  40. 

A  peculiar  institution  of  the  Church  of  England, 
established  by  26  Henry  VIII.  c.  14,  having  been  long 
allowed  to  remain  dormant,  has  been  recently  revived, 
under  which  every  archbishop  and  bishop,  being  disposed  to 
h.ive  a  suffragan  to  assist  him,  may  name  two  honest  and 
discreet  8[)iritual  persons  for  the  Crown  to  give  to  one  ot 
them  the  title,  name,  style,  and  dignity  of  a  bishop  of  any 
one  of  t%venty-si3c  sees  enumerated  in  the  statute,  as  the 
Crown  may  think  convenient  The  Crown,  haWng  made 
choice  of  one  of  such  persons,  is  impowercd  to  present  him 
by  letters  patent  under  the  great  seal  to  the  metropolitan, 
requiring  him  to  consecrate  him  to  the  same  name,  title, 
style,  and  dignity  of  a  bishop  ;  and  the  person  so  conse- 
jcrated  is  thereupon  entitled  to  exercise,  under  a  commission 
jfrom  the  bishop  who  has  nominated  him,  such  authority 
and  jurisdiction,  within  the  diocese  of  such  bishop,  as  shall 
be  given  to  him  by  the  commission,  and  no  other. 


Tlie  first  colonial  bisliopric  of  the  Chun-h  of  England  was  that  of 
Nova  Sootin,  founded  in  1787,  tincc  wliich  time  various  colonial 
bishoprics  have  been  established,  some  of  which  were  constituted  by 
letters  pitent  of  the  Crown  oply,  whilst  others  have  b*en  contirmeil 
by  acts  of  the  imperial  or  colonial  legislaturea.  With  ref^ard  to 
those  bishoprics  which  have  b«D  constituted  by  lottera  patent  of 
the  Crown  onlv.  where  the  bishopric  has  beet)  established  in  a  Crown 
^colony,  the  bishop  is  legally  entitled  to  etercise  the  jurisdiction 
conferred  upon  him  by  the  letters  patent ;  but  where  the  bishopric 
^A3  been  established  in  a  colouy  possessing  at  the  time  an  indr.^'eD-  _ 


dent  legisLiture,  the  biship  'snot  entitled  \o  ejercise  fiieh  jurisdic- 
tion unless  It  has  been  eoiifnnicd  to  him  by  an  imperie)  or  colonial 
statute.  The  report  of  the  judicial  coDimitlpe  of  the  Privy  Council 
in  the  ca«e  of  the  bishop  of  Natal  (Moore's  Ihivi/  Couiicil  Jir- 
ports,  N.S  ,  iii.  p.  115)  is  «n  exposition  of  the  lawonthis  subject. 
On  the  other  hand,  «liere  l>isliopric3  have  been  constituted  by 
letters  patent  of  the  Cro\\n,  in  jiuisuance  of  imperial  statutes,  asw^a 
the  case  of  the  Kast  Indian  bishoprics,  or  where  bishoprics  consti- 
tuted by  letters  patent  have  subsequently  been^conlirmed  or  recog- 
ni7<il  by  coluuial  statutes,  the  bishop's  jurisdietiou  is  complete; 
ollierwise  his  a  ithority  is  only  pastoral  or  spiritual.  The  practice 
jidoptcd  by  the  Crowu,  since  the  decision  of  the  judicial  cnmniBltea 
in  the  case  of  the  bishop  of  Natal  has  revealed  the  invaliiiity  of  the 
letters  patent  granted  to  many  colonial  bishops,  has  been  to  grant 
licences  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  to  consecmte  bishops  for 
the  colonies  without  any  definite  diocese,  and  without  any  authority 
to  exercise  coercive  jurisdiction.  The  Crown  has  also  revoked  thts 
letters  patent  erecting  Gibraltar  into  a  bishop's  see,  and  the  last 
appointed  bishop  has  teen  consecrated  under  a  licence  from  th* 
Crown,  and  is  a  titular  bishop,  having  only  consensual  authority  in 
that  colony.  (T.  T.) 

BISHOP,  Sir  Henky  Kowley,  musical  composer,  was 
born  in  London  on  the  ISth  November  1766.  He  received 
his  artistic  traiuing  from  Francisco  Bianchi,  at  whose  instance, 
probably,  he  was  employed  to  write  his  first  work,  the 
ballet  of  Tamerlanetlinjastt,  produced  at  Covent  Garden 
in  1806.  This  proved  successful,  and  was  followed  within 
two  years  by  several  others,  of  which  Caractacvs,  a 
pantomimic  ballet,  written  for  Drury  Lane,  may  be  named, 
lu  lb09  his  first  opera.  The  Circassian's  Bride,  was  pro- 
duced at  Drury  Lane  ;  but  by  a  singular  misfortune  the 
theatre  was  burned  down  after  one  performance,  and  the 
score  of  the  work  perished  in  the  flames.  His  next  work 
of  importance,  the  opera  of  The  Maniac,  written  for  the 
Lyceum  in  1810,  established  his  reputation,  and  probably 
secured  for  him  the  appointment  of  composer  for  Covent 
Garden  theatre.  The  numerous  works — operas,  burlettas, 
cantatas, incidental  music  toShakcspeare'splays,<tc. —  which 
he  composed  while  in  this  position,  are  now  in  great  part 
forgotten.  The  most  successful  were — Tlie  I'irqin  of  lite 
S-un  (1812),  The  MilUr  and  his  X'en  (1813),  Guy  j/un- 
nering  and  The  Slave  (1816),  Maid.  Marian  and  Clan, 
introducing  the  air  of  "Home,  Sweet  Home"  (182^).  His 
English  adaptations,  or  rather  mangled  versions,  of  Mozart's 
Don  Giovanni  and  Figaro,  and  Bossini's  11  Barlirre 
and  Gvillaume  Tell,  were  certainly  no  true  service  to 
art.  It  seems  almost  incredible  that  a  man  of  Bishop's 
undoubted  genius  should  have  been  so  mi.sguidcd  as  to 
suppress  the  incomparable  Figaro  overture  of  Mozart  in 
favour  of  one  of  his  own.  In  1824  Bishop  was  induced 
by  Elliston  to  transfer  his  services  from  Covent  Garden  to 
the  rival  house  in  Drury  Lane,  for  which  he  wrote  with 
unusual  care  the  opera  of  Aladdin,  intended  to  ct  ipcte 
with  Weber's  Oberon,  commissioned  by  the  other  house. 
As  was  to  be  expected  the  result  was  a  failure,  and  with 
Aladdin  Bishop's  career  as  an  operatic  composer  may 
be  said  to  close.  Qn  the  formation  of  the  Philharmonic 
Society  (1813)  Bishop  was  appointed  one  of  the  directors, 
and  he  took  his  turn  as  conductor  of  its  concerts  during 
the  period  when  that  office  was  held  by  different  musicians 
in  rotation.  In  1841  he  was  appointed  to  the  "  Beid  " 
chair  of  music  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  but  ho 
resigned  the  office  in  1843.  He  was  knighted  by  the 
queen  in  1842,  being  the  first  musician  who  ever  received 
that  honour.  In  1848  he  succeeded  Dr  Crotch  in  the 
chair  of  music  at  Oxford.  The  music  for  the  ode  on  the 
'occasion  of  the  installation  of  Lord  Derby  as  chonceMor 
of  the  university  (1853)  proved  to  bo  his  lost  work. 
He  died  on  the  30th  April  1855  in  impoverished  cir- 
cumstances, though  few  composers  ever  made  more  by 
their  labours.  Bishop's  name  will  live  in  connection 
with  his  numerous  glees,  songs,  and  smaller  composi- 
tions, rather  than  with  his  larger  works,  which  are  now 
seldom  or  never  performed  in  Iheif  entirety.     His  £hak»I 


roo 


B  I  S  — B  I  S 


speare  songs  and  glees  are  familiar  favourites  nith  all 
vocalists,  and  genius  is  discernible  in  nut  a  few  of  llioin. 
His  melodies  are  clear,  flowing.  a|i|'ro[iriate,  and  oftnn 
tiiarmii'.g  ,  and  his  harmony  is  always  pure,  simple,  and 
sweet  He  was  a  prominent  exaniile  of  both  the  stren(;lh  and 
llje  weakness  of  the  native  English  school,  in  which  the  nnine 
of  Piircell  alone  stands  unquestionably  higher  than  his 

BISHOP-AUCKLAND,  a  market-town  of  England,  in 
ihe  county  of  Durham.  11  miles  soulhwest  of  the  city  of 
])iirham-  It  is  beautifully  situated  on  an  cniinence  near  tlje 
'coiillueiice  of  the  Wear  and  the  (Jaunlcss  .  Us  streets  are 
well  paved  and  lighted,  and  there  is  a  good  supply  of 
water  The  parish  church  is  1  mile  distant,  at  Auckland 
.M  .Andrews,  hut  there  are  several  churches  and  chapels  ui 
the  town  The  town-house,  which  dates  from  1863,  is  a 
ii;indsonie  building,  with  a  tower  100  feet  in  height  ,  add 
The  palace  of  the  bishop  of  Durham,  which  stands  at  the 
north-east  end  of  the  town,  is  a  spacious  and  splendid 
though  irregular  pile.  The  site  of  the  palace  was  first 
i-fiosen  by  Bishop  Anthony  Beck,  in  the  time  of  Edward  1, 
The  present  building  covers  about  5  acres,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  park  of  800  acres.  The  principal  industrial 
establishments  are  cotton-factories  and  engiiieeiuig  works  , 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  town  are  several  coal- 
mines     Population  of  local  board  district  in  1871.  873G. 

B1SH0P-ST0RTF01;D,  a  market-town  of  England,  on 
the  eastern  border  of  Herts,  I  I  miles  E.N  E.  of  Hertford, 
and  32  miles  by  railway  from  London.  It  is  situated  on 
boch  sides  of  the  fiiver  Stort.  a  tributary  of  the  Lea.  and 
has  thus  direct  water  communication  with  the  metropolis. 
The  parish  church  of  St  Michael's,  a  bne  building  with  a 
spire,  dates  from  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  but  was  partly 
rebuilt  in  1820.  A  town-house,  a  corn  exchange,  a  union 
workhouse,  a  high  school,  a  collegiate  school,  and  a  diocesan 
training  school,  are  among  the  chief  buildings  ,  and  there 
are  also  public  baths,  libraries,  and  banks.  The  industrial 
establishments  comprise  a  brewery,  malt-houses,  coach- 
works,  lime-kilns,  and  a  foundry  ,  and  the  trade  consists 
chiefly  in  grain  and  malt.  Stortford  was  in  existence 
before  the  Norman  conquest  ,  and  its  castle,  known  as 
Waytemofe  Castle,  was  presented  by  William  the  Con- 
queror te  Maurice,  bishop  of  London,  and  his  successors. 
The  building  was,  however,  demolished  by  King  John,  and 
only  a  few  ruins  remain.  Sir  H.  Chauiicey,  the  historian 
of  Hertfordshire,  and  Hoole,  the  translator  of  Tasso,  were 
both  natives  of  Stortford.  Population  of  the  pansh  m 
1871,  6250. 

BISHOP-WEARMOUTH,  a  township  of  Durham  in 
England,  now  incorporated  in  the  parliamentary  borough 
of  Sunderland.     See  Sunderland. 

BISKARA,  or  Biskra,  a  town  of  Algena,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Constantine.  and  the  most  importatit  military  post 
of  the  Sahara.  It  lies  on  the  south  side  of  the  Aures 
Mountaina,  m  a  fertile  district,  watered  by  the  Wadi 
Biskra.  The  streets  of  the  town  are  broad,  and  its  houses 
are  for  the  most  jiart  built  of  brick,  one  story  high,  and 
with  terraced  roofs.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are 
the  fort  of  St  Germain,  the  caravanserai,  the  hospital,  and 
thf  barracks.  A  large  caravan  trade  between  the  Sahara 
und  the  Tell  passes  through  the  town  ,  iron,  limestone, 
and  saltpetre  are  obtained  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  the 
"urrounding  country  yields  abundance  of  valuable  dates. 
The  chief  articles  of  manufacture  are  burnous  and  carpets. 
.^n  acclimatization  garden  has  been  established  at  Bcni- 
Murra  by  the  Erench,  who  first  made  themselves  masters 
of  Biskara  in  1844.  Population  in  1872,  7367. 
ni'torica)  BIS.MUTn.  This  metal  appears  to  have  been  unknown 
«olicc»  Jo  (i|g  older  metallurgical  writers,  it  having  been  first 
noticed  by  Agricola,  who  speaks  of  it  as  a  form  of  lead, 
tnd  describes  the  ijicthod  of  separating  it  from  its  associ- 


ated minerals  by  liquation  Mathesiu?  in  nis'  BerppostiHa. 
written  between  15D3-KiC2.  describes  it  .as  white  like 
pyntes,  and  occasionally  cubical  like  marcasiie.  easdy  over- 
come by  the  fire  when  melted,  and  running  together  with 
the  tin.  which  thereby  is  rendered  brittle  and  unsound, — 
the  last  remark  referring  to  its  occurrence  with  tin  ores  in 
Saaony.  It  was  considered  by  the  uiiners  as  a  hopeful 
indication  of  silver,  and  even  in  certain  cases  is  said  to 
have  been  traiislornied  gradually  into  that -metal,  as  por- 
tions of  the  ore  which  had  lain  for  some  time  exposed 
were  found  afterwards  to  be  partly  or  wholly  changed  into 
silver.  This  remark  is  interesting,  as  the  same  belief 
seems  to  have  come  up  again  in  our  own  time.  The  name 
Wismuih  13  a  miner's  term,  whose  origin  is  completely 
lost  ,  but  Mathesius  assigns  it  a  fanciful  derivation  from 
Wuse  =  Wiese,  a  meadow,  because  in  the  mine  it  is  found 
covered  with  flowers  or  incrustations  of  various  colours, 
resembling  a  meadow  covered  nilli  brilliantly  coloured 
flowers, — an  obvious  confusion  with  the  minerals  known  as 
nickel  and  cobalt  bloom,  derived  from  the  o.xidation  of 
arsenides  of  nickel  and  cobalt,  with  which  native  bismuth 
IS  commonly  associated  in  Saxony.  It  is  to  this  associa- 
tion with  cobalt  and  arsenic  that  must  be  ascribed  the 
statements  that  its  principal  use  was  to  produce  a  blue 
colour,  and  that  it  gave  off  a  very  poisonous  furnace  smoke. 
The  chief  use  of  the  metal  at  that  time  seems  to  have 
been  by  pewterers,  who  added  it  to  their  alloy  in  small 
proportions  for  the  purpose  of  reiidenng  their  wares  hard 
and  sonorous  when  struck. 

The  principal  minerals  containing  bismuth  are; — 1.  Otti. 
Native  bismuth,  essentially  Ihe  pure  metal,  having  all  the 
properties  described  below.  This,  the  most  important  ore, 
occurs  in  connection  with  nickel  and  cobalt  ores  at  Schnee- 
berg,  Saxony,  at  Wheal  Sparnon.in  Cornwall,  similarly 
associated,  and  with  tm  ores  in  the  mines  of  the  St  Just 
district.  It  is  also  found  in  some  quantity  in  Bolivia.  2. 
Telradymite,  or  telluric  bismuth,  a  compound  in  variable 
proportions  with  the  isomorphous  element  tellurium.  This 
contains  from  60  to  80  per  cert,  of  bismuth,  15  to  35  per 
ce&t.  of  tellunuii.,  and  from  3  to  5  per  cent,  of  sulphur. 
It  occurs  usually  in  association  with  gold  ores ;  the  principal 
localities  are  Schemnitz  and  Retzbauya  in  Hungary,  the 
gold  mining  district  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina, 
California,  and  other  western  states  of  America.  It  was 
also  found  at  the  Merionethshire  gold  mines  as  a  rarity. 
3  Bismuth  silver,  found  at  Schapbach  in  Baden,  and  near 
Copiapo  in  Chill.  The  mineral  from  the  former  locality 
contains  27  of  bismuth  to  15  of  silver,  with  some  lead  and 
sulphur,  and  a  little  iron  ;  and  that  from  tUe  latter  dC  of 
silver  to  10  of  bismuth,  the  remainder  being  copper  and 
arsenic.  4.  Bismuthine,  or  bismuth  glance,  a  sulphide  of 
bisniLth,  of  the  composition  Bi.^Sj,  containing  81  G  per 
cent,  bismuth  and  18  4  per  cent,  sulphur,  crystallizing  in 
acicular  rhombic  prisms  isomorphous  with  antiuiony  glance. 
It  occurs  with  tin  ore  at  Botallack  and  other  mines  near 
St  Just  io  Cornwall,  and  in  the  Sa.xon  localities  given 
above.  5.  Bismuth  ochre,  an  earthy  oxido  of  bismuth, 
containing  90  per  cent  bismuth  and  10  per  cent,  oxygen, 
which  13  derived  from  the  oxidation  both  of  the  native 
metal  and  of  the  sulphide.  6.  Bismutite,  a  hydrated  car- 
bonate of  bismuth,  containing  90  per  cent,  bismuth  oxide, 
C'56  per  cent,  carbonic  acid,  and  3'44  per  cent,  water,  an- 
other product  of  atmospheric  action  ujion  native  bismuth. 
It  is  found  principally  in  Saxony  and  South  Carolina. 
Besides  the  above  there  is  also  a  silicate  described,  but 
this  is  an  exceedingly  rare  mineral, Jis  is  also  llypochlorito, 
a  hydrated  silicate  mixed  with  phosphatcof  alumina.  Practi- 
cally the  only  ore  is  the  native  metal,  and  of  late  years, 
from  the  sujiply  not  keeping  pace  with  the  demand,  the 
price  has  risen  very  considerably.  .  The  bismuth  of -com- 


B  I  S  31  U  T  Tl 


791 


iiicrcc  osuauy  conuiins  both  gold  and  silver,  often  in  con- 
sitlcrable  quantity,  which  circumstance  has  probably  given 
rise  to  the  story  current  about  its  transmutatioQ  into 
tlicsc  metals. 

pii)>um1  Uistnuth  may  be  readily  obtained  in  crystals  by  pouring  it  wb^n 

I  r'pvrlics.  mtltctl  iuto  a  heated  iron  ladle,  and  cooling  it  uoti<  a  orust  is  formed 
on  tbe  surface,  which  must  then  bo  pierced  by  a  red-hot  iron  rod,  and 
the  liquid  metal  poured  otT.  The  solidilied  portion  adhering  to  the 
ladle  is  found  to  be  covered  with  hopi>er-shaped  crystals,  which  are 
QMially  bcauti/ully  iriscd,  owing  to  the  formutiou  of  a  thin  film  uf 
pxide  on  the  surface,  showing  tho  colours  of  thin  plates.  This 
ertlxunng  is  only  obtained  when  the  metiil  is  quite  free  from  arsenir. 
It  may  be  puri6ed  by  melting  with  about  10  per  c«'nt.  of  nitre,  and 
kecping'it  constantly  sfirred  at  a  temperature  not  much  above  its 
ruclting  point,  whereby  the  more  oxidizablo  metals  are  removed, 
ind  form  a  slag  at  the  surface.  Another  method  of  purifying  it 
ftoni  arsenic  is  by  fusing  it  with  from  3  to  5  per  cent  of  zmc, 
cuvering  the  surface  with  charcoal  to  prevent  oxidation  of  tbe 
line,  which  takes  off  the  whole  of  the  arsenic,  and  is  subsef^uently 
removed  by  treatment  with  hydrochloric  acid,  the  purified  bismuth 
nrmaining  insoluble.  When  prepared  by  any  of  these  proccisses, 
Itismuth  is  a  hard,  brittle  metal,  and  the  fracture  is  highly  crystal- 
line and  white,  with  a  perceptible  red  tingoby  reflected  light.  The 
L-ryBtalline  form  is  rliombo?  edral,  tho  angle  of  the  primary  rhom- 
UibcdroD  being  S7°  40',  or  very  close  to  a  cube.  The  specific  gravity 
is  9  S3,  but  wlien  subjected  to  great  pressure  the  density  is  reduced 
to  9  6.  Tho  melting  point  is  264"  C.  (507*  Fahr.)  (Rudberg),  or 
263'  3  (515°)  (Rieuisdijk).  Like  water  it  may  be  cooled  6"  or  7'  C. 
below  its  freezing  pouit ;  but  when  solidification  sets  in  tlie  tempera- 
ture rises  to  480  Fahr.,  and  continues  untU  the  mass  is  complotely 
solidified.  Like  ice  it  expands  about  ^  of  it3  Tolume  in  soiidiC- 
Ciition,  a  property  which  is  communicated  to  its  alloys;  rendering 
lliem  valuable  for  taking  casta  of  incised  or  relief  surfaces  for 
reproduction,  as  printing-blocks  by  electrotype  or  other  processes. 
It  may  be  distilled  by  heating  to  a  higher  temperature  in  hydrogen. 
Despretz  volatilized  it  by  subjecting  it  to  tbe  current  from  600 
liunsen  elements.  The  spectrum  of  tho  vapour  in  the  voltaic  arc 
shows  numerous  brilliant  green  lines,  one  strong  and  one  fainter 
line  on  tho  red,  and*  a  faint  line  on  the  orange  field'  (Masson). 
Tho  coefficient  of  expansion  by  heat  is  •601341,  calorific  conducti- 
bilily  61,  silver  being  1000  (Calvert  and  Johuson),  and  specidc 
heat  0-0305  (Kopp).  The  electric  conductivity  is  119  at  14°  C. 
silver  being  100  at  0°  (Matthiesen).  According  to  Matteuci  the 
conductivity  varies  in  the  crystals  according  to  the  direction  of  the 
cleavages.  It  is  the  most  strongly  diamagnctic  of  all  metals. 
Cheniicjl  The  atomic  weight  is  203  (Schneider)  or  210  (Dumas).  Like 
properties,  phosphorus  and  arsenic  it  is  both  triatoraic  and  pcntatomic,  the 
latter  state  being  represented  only  by  a  very  unstable  acid  ;  there 
are  also  several  diatomic  compounds,  including  BiBr,,  GiCl,,  and 
Ril,.  The  triatomic  corapoumls  are  the  most  Jiuraerous  and  stable- 
Unlike  the  elements  chemically  similar, — phosphorus,  tellurium, 
arsenic,  antiniony,  &c, — it  does  not  form  a  gaseous  compound  with 
hydrogen.  Bismuth  does  not  change  in  dry  air,  but  in  moist  air  it 
oxidizes  superficially,  and  by  long  exposure  may  bo  converted  in.o 
carbonate.  When  melted  at  a  red  heat  it  oxidizes,  and  the  oxide 
(whuso  formula  is  BijOj),  by  a  higher  temperature,  melts  to  f^  glassy 
5ubst.ince,  .in  which  property  it  rcsemblqs  lead,  the  oxide,  like 
litharge,  exerting  a  very  corrosive  action  upon  eaithem  crucibles, 
or  substances  containing  silica,  at  a  red  heat.  At  a  red-whit«  heat 
it  slowly  decomposes  water  with  the  production  of  oxide.  The 
higher  oxide  Bi^Oj  corresponds  to  arsenic  acid  ;  it  is  a  very  unstable 
com[»ound,  and  of  no  practical  value.  An  intermediate  oxide  is 
ktiown  which  is  generally  regarded  as  a  compound  of  the  other  two, 
BijOj,  Bi,Oj.  Bismuth  unites  directly  with  chlorine,  bromine, 
and  iodine,  and  when  fused  with  sulphur  forms  a  bulphide  of  tho 
form  BisS,,  corresponding  to  bismuth  glance,  and  isomorphous  with 
the  corresponding  sulphide  of  antimony.  The  same  sulphide  is 
produced  when  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  passed  through  a  solution 
containing  bismuth. 

Bismuth  is  but  slightly  acted  upon  by  hydrochloric  or  sul- 
phuric acids  in  the  cold  ;  but  the  latter  dissolves  it  more  rcadiJy 
when  heated.  Tho  best  solvent  is  nitric  acid,  which  attacks  it 
rcBilily,  producing  a  nitrate  which  crystallizes  from  the  concentrated 
iolution  in  colourless  transparent  cn-'stals  belonging  to  the  triatoraic 
lystem,  whoso  composition  is  Bi .  3N'0j  .  5H3O.  These  crystals  are 
mluble  in  nitric  acid,  but,  like  all  neutral  salts  of  the  metal,  are 
jecomposed  by  water,  with  the  formation  of  an  iosolu'ble  basic 
aitrate  and  an  acid  liquor.  Theso  basic  salts  afe  very  numerous 
lod  complex  in  constitution,  the  most  important  one  being  that 
reprc.wntcd  by  tbe  formula  Bi.NOj.  M-O,  which  is  known  as  pearl- 
white,  blniu:  dcfard.  This,  which  is  largely  usod  as  a  medicine,  is 
prcpircd  by  adding  to  a  concentrated  aolvition  of  bismuth  dissolved 
in  nitric  acid  from  40  to  50  times  its  weight  of  water,  which  precipi- 
tates a  conftiderablo  proportion  in  the  form  of  a  whito  |»owdor;  tnc 
remnindcr,  which  is  retained  by  the  acid  liquor,  may  ht  separated 
by  oeutralizinj;  the  excess  of  acid  with  ammonia,  uhen  a  rather 


more  acid  salt  than  the  first  prccipitait  Is  obtained  Dnder  th€ 
iiame  of  {K-arl-white  the  sub-nitrate  is  used  as  a  cosmetic,  hu' 
it  has  the  disadvantage  of  being  readily  blackened  by  sulphbrcttcu 
hydrogen. 

Bismuth  unites  readily  with  other  metals,  the  alloys  being  rcmarTt.  All--, 
able  for  their  ready  fusibility,  and  by  their  projvrtyt'f  expanding  ou 
solidification.  An  alloy  with  pot.^ssium  is  obtained  by  cakiriiiig'20 
parts  of  bismuth  with  16  [arts  of  cream  of  tartar  in  a  crucible,  and 
heating  the  mixture  to  a  very  strong  red  heaL  On  cooling,  a  button 
of  mrtd  is  found,  of  a  silvery  uhiie  colour  and  lamellar  fracture, 
which  fuses  easily,  and  remains  for  a  long  lime  in  a  pasty  coudttioo 
before  solidification  ;  it  is  brittle,  can  be  easily  ixiwdcicd,  iiiid  19 
readily  decomposed  by  water.  The  alloy  with  soilinm  is  obtained  in 
a  smiilar  manner,  with  a  sodic  tartrate.  With  silver,  goM.  and 
metals  of  the  platinum  group,  bismuth  forms  brittle  alloys  Wnb 
mercury  it  forms  a  liquid  amalgam ;  but  when  equal  weights  of  the 
two  metals  are  heated  together,  there  is  a  sejiaratiou  on  tooliiig  of 
octahedral  crystals,  which  may  be  a  .«oiid  amalgnm  The  copj-er 
alloy  is  brittle,  and  of  a  pale  red  colour.  The  ternary  alloys  o(  lead, 
tin,  and  bismuth,  are  the  most  interesting  of  these  com[)oundsk  from 
their  low  fusibility,  which  is  much  below  that  of  any  of  the  com- 
ponents taken  separately.  This  prop*:ity  was  known  to  Sir  Is;iac 
Newton  ;  the  alloy  named  after  him,  Newton's  fusible  metal,  mel'* 
at  94''-5  C.  (202°  Fahr.) ;  it  contains  8  parts  of  bismuth,  5  of  leao, 
and  3  of  tin.  Darcet's  fusible  metal,  containing  2  of  bismuth,  1  of 
lead,  and  1  of  tin,  melta  at  93'  (199*  4  Fahr  )  Another,  with 
5  of  bismuth,  2  of  tin,  and  3  of  lead,  melts  at  91*6  (197*  Fahr  ) 
Rose's  fusible  metal,  containing  420  parts  of  bismuth,  236  of  lead, 
and  207  of  tin,  a  connK>bition  corresjonding  to  the  formula 
BiaSn^l'b,  fuses  below  100"  (212**),  and  remains  pasty  for  a  con- 
siderable range  of  temperature  below  that  point  'I'he  expansion  of 
this  alloy  by  heat  proceeds  regularly  from  0  to  ;J5°C  ,  but  by  further 
heating  it  contracts  up  to  55  ,  flora  which  iKunt  up  to  bO''  the  rat* 
of  expansion  is  more  rapid  than  at  the  lower  temperatures  Above 
80' the  nonnal  rate  is  resumed.  The  fusibility  of  these  alloys  is 
incrcrised  by  an  addition  of  cadmium.  Thus  Wood's  fusible  metal, 
containing  1  to  2  parts  of  cadmium,  2  of  tin,  2  of  lead,  and  7  to 
8  of  bismuth,  raelta  between  Qd'  and  7rC.  Another,  descnbcJ  by 
Lipowitz,  containing  S  parts  of  lead,  15  of  bismuth,  4  of  tin,  and 
3  of  cadmiunr,  is  silvery  white,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  9  4. 
It  softens  at  about  55',  and  is  completely  Uquid  at  a  little  above  TO*. 

Fusible  alloys  containing  bismuth  are  used  to  some  extent  as 
safety  plugs  for  steam  boilers,  as  an  accessory  to  the  safety-valve, — a 
hole  in  tho  boiler  being  plugged  by  a  disc  of  the  metal,  which  in 
the  event  of  the  temperature  of  the  water  rising  through  excessive 
pressure  is  melted,  and  the  steam  passes  through  the  aperture  lu 
the  same  manner  as  through  an  oin-ncd  safety-valve.  It  is  found, 
however,  that  this  method  is  not  trustworthy,  owing  to  tho  liqua- 
tion of  the  more  fusible  components  of  the  mass,  when  subjected  to 
continned  heating  n^ar  but  below  tho  melting  point,  leaving  a  more 
refractory  alloy  behind.  The  alloy  known  as  Britannia  metal,  eon- 
sisting  chiefly  of  tin,  antimony,  and  copper,  often  contains  a  Uttle 
bismuth. 

In  analysis  bismuth  is  usually  separated  from  solution  as  car-AnalysH 
bonate  by  precipitation  with  carbonate  of  ammonia,  which  is  then  and  ^cj^srv 
converted  into  oxide  by  calcination  at  a  gentle  heat,  in  which  form  lion 
it  is  weighed  and  estimated.     The  oxide  Bi^Oj  contains  89  74  per 
cent  of  bismuth.     Itis  readily  precipitated  as  sulphide  by  passing 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  through  an  acid  solution,  but  tho  nrecipilate 
cannot  bo  weighed,  as  it  usuaily  coutaiiis  an  excess  of  sulphur,  and 
cannot  be  completely  freed  from  water  below  200*.  so  that  it  must 
be  rcdissolved  in  nitric  acid  and  precipitated  as  carbonate  as  above 
describwl.     It  may  be  precipitated  in  the  metallic  sUte  by  zinc, 
cadmium,  copper,  iron,  or  tin.     A  plate  of  copper  introduced  into  a 
boiling  solution  of  a  bismuth  salt,  even  when  very  weak,  is  readily 
covjred  with  a  coating  of  the  aduced  metal  of  a  steel  gray  colour. 

Bismuth  may  be  employed  instead  of  lead  for  the  assay  of  gold 
and  silver  by  cupellation,  as  the  melted  oxide  is  absorbed  by  bone 
ash  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  litharge. 

The  separation  of  bismuth  from  solutions  ip  which  it  is  associated 
with  silver,  copper,  mercury,  cadmium,  and  lead,  may  be  effected 
by  cyanide  of  |>otas9ium  i  by  digesting  the  solution  with  an  excess 
of  this  reagent  tho  cyanides  of  bismuth  and  lead  remain  in  the  in- 
soluble portion,  while  thoso  of  the  other  metals  are  contained  io 
the  filtrate.  On  rcdissolving.  tho  lead  may  be  precipiutcd  as  auU 
phato,  or  by  hydrochloric  acid  and  alcohol.which  renders  the  chloride 
of  lead  insoluble.  The  bismuth  is  finally  precipitated  from  the  filtrate 
by  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  From  copper  it  is  readily  separated  by 
carlwnate  of  amm'onia,  bismuth  being  precipiUited,  and  copper  re- 
maining in  solution.  Another  method  is  by  heating  in  a  cuneni 
of  chlorine,  when  chloride  of  bismuth  is  volatilised. 

The  meUllurgical  processes  for  the  extraction  of  bismuth  are  ver^  Metallurgy. 
simple,  being  mainly  comprised  in  li<^uation  out  of  contact  with 
Uieair,  and  subscqurnt  fusion  of  the  liquated  product  of  the  first 
operation.  At  Schnecl>crg,  in  Saxony,  the  liquation  isefTectcdin 
cast-iron  tuVcs  placed  transvcrst-lv  over  a  firc-grato  which  runs,  the 
whole  length  of  the   furnace.     I'hc  tubes  arc  iutlnjcd,  tho  higher 


792 


B  I  S  -  IM  T 


tud  beinff  open  for  ch,»(i;'ng.  and  the  Lower  stopped,  with  the  exrep- 
tloD  of  d  sntall  hole  for  the  passage  of  the  se(>arated  Dielal.  whk-h 
19  reL-^-iretl  in  a  casi-iron  pot  placed  lu  froat  and  heated  with 
t  harcoal  The  charge,  atxxit  hallacwt  of  ore.  broken  lulo  pieces 
ftl-oiit  half  inch  cube,  oecupie.s  about  half  of  the  leo^th  and 
rather  more  than  half  the  area  of  each  tube.  When  all  the  tuh--a 
art*  cLart^ed  the  upprr  ends  are  stopprd  by  sheet-iron  doors,  and 
heal  19  applied  by  means  of  a  wood  t'lre  upon  the  grate  The  liquid 
nifUl  suiiu  Commences  to  flow,  and  is  received  in  the  pots  m  fioni 
If  the  flow  ceases  through  any  obstruction  the  passage  is  cieare.l  L.y 
an  iTtiD  rod  introduced  through  the  aperture  actlie  lower  end  Wbrn 
the  operation,  winch  usually  lasts  about  an  hour,  has  termmat^ii, 
the  residues  in  the  tubes  are  Removed  and  thrown  into  a  water  trough 
placed  behind  the  I'urDace  on  the  chatting  side,  and  a  fresh  supply 
of  ore  13  introduced.  The  bismuth  collected  in  the  pots  is  ladled 
out  and  cast  into  ingots  of  from  25  to  50  lb  weight.  In  a  furnace 
containing  11  tubes  about  20  cwts.  of  ore  may  be  heated  daily  with 
a  consumption  of  63  cubic  feet  of  wood.  In  Plattuer's  modihcation 
the  furnace  is  of  the  reverberatory  form,  the  tubes  being  placed  \^th 
their  inclined  axes  m  the  direction  of  the  Ilame,  an  arrangement 
which  allows  the  use  of  a  smaller  fire-grate  and  a  proportionate 
eaviiig  of  fuel.  At  Joachimsthal,  ores  containmg  from  10  to  30 
|>er  cent,  of  bismuth  are  heated  in  a  finely-ground  state  with  scrap- 
iron,  carbonate  of  soda,  and  a  little  lime  and  fluor-spar  in  earthen 
crucibles,  which  are  heated  until  the  mi.^ture  is  completely  fused, 
when  the  contents  are  poured  ^nto  iron  moulds  of  a  3ug;ir-loaf  form. 
The  bismuth  collects  in  the  point  of  the  mould,  and  is  covered  with 
a  cake  of  speiss.  containing  all  thi^nickel  and  cobalt  of  the  ore  with 
about  2  per  cent  of  bismuth,  which  is  reserved  for  further  treat- 
ment ;  tne  sl.ig  filling  the  upper  part  of  the  mould  is  thrown  away. 
if  the  bismuth  is  sutficiently  rich  in  silver  it  Ls  cupelled,  and  the 
CTide  forinrd  is  subsequently  reduced  or  revived  by  fusion  with 
carbon  \Vhen  argentiferous  lead  containing  bismuth  is  subject^'d 
to  cupellation  the  former  metal  is  o.xidizeu  more  rapidly  than  the 
latter,  which  accumulates  to  such  an  extent  that  it  may  olt  -a  form 
a  notable  proportion  of  the  litharge  produced  towards  the  'ind  of  the 
process,  although  not  e.xisting  in  sullicient  amount  to  he  appreci- 
able by  the  ordinary  processes  of  analysis  in  the  original  lead  This 
properly  has  rece.itly  been  utilized  to  recover  a  small  quantity  of 
bi.^muth  existing  in  the  silver  ores  smelted  at  Freiberg.  The  last 
portion  of  the  litharge,  and  the  hearth  or  test  bottom  from  the  silver 
refining  furnace,  are  heated  in  quantities  of-80  or  100  lb  in  earthen- 
ware pots  with  hydrochloric  acid  until  complete  solution  of  the 
bismuth  oxiJe  takes  place,  the  proportion  of  acid  and  water  being 
regul.itec  to  prevent  the  formation  of  insoluble  salts.  When  the 
liquid  IS  clear  it  is  siphoned  oil  to  the  precipitating  tubs,  where  it 
is  thrown  down  as  an  insoluble  oxychloride  by  the  addition  of  a 
large  quantity  of  water.  By  redissolving  and  reprecipitating.  a 
purer  material  ia  obtained,  winch  is  then  dried  and  reduced  by 
luaion  in  iron  crucibles  with  carbonate  of  soda  and  charcoal  The 
proiluction  of  bismuth  annually  in  Saxony  is  about  22  tons,  and  in 
Austria  about  17  cwt. 

The  principal  properties  and  reactions  of  bismuth  and  its  com- 
pounds were  described  in  1739  by  Pott,  who  gave  a  sunnnary  of 
the  information  contained  m  the  earlier  writers,  Uur  moro  exact 
knowledge  of  the  subject  is  due  to  Neumann,  Hellot.  Geollrey 
(1753),  John  Davy  (1312),  Lagerhjelm  (1315),  Stroineyer,  and, 
more  recently,  Schneider  and  Nickles.  (H.  B.) 

BISON,  a  genus  of  Riimiiiai)t  Mammals  belonging  to  the 
family  Boi'idir,  and  comprising  two  widely  sefiarated 
species — the  European  and  /.merican  Bisons.  They  are 
distinguished  from  other  bovine  animals  by  the  greater 
breadth  and  convexity  of  their  foreheads,  superior  length 
of  limb,  and  the  longer  spinal  processes  of  the  dorsal 
vertebrje,  which,  with  the  powerful  muscles  attached  for 
the  support  of  the  massive  head,  form  a  protuberance  or 
Lump  on  the  shoulders.  The  bisons  have  also  fourteen 
p.iirs  of  ribs,  while  the  common  ox  has  only  thirteen. 
The  forehead  and  neck  of  both  species  are  covered  with 
long,  shaggy  hair  of  a  dark  brown  colour ;  and  in  winter 
the  whole  of  the  aeck,  shoulders,  and  hump  are  similarly 
clothed.  80  as  to  form  a  "curly  felled  mane."  This  Inane 
in  the  European  species  disappears  in  summer  ;  but  in  the 
American  Bison  it  is  to  a  considerable  extent  persistent. 
The  European  Bison  (Bison  bonassus),  or  Aurochs  of  the 
Germans,  is  the  largest  of  existing  Eurojiean  quadrupeds, 
meusuring  about  iO  feet  long,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  and 
imniliiii;  nearly  0  feet  high,  Eoriiierly  it  was  abunil.mt 
throughout  Europe,  as  is  proved  by  its  fossil  remains 
/ound  on  the  Continent  and  in  England,  a3.-;ociatcd  with 
those  of  the  extinct   tDammoth  and  rhinoceros.      These 


remains,  while  indicating  larger  proportions  in  the  aucicnt 
aurochs  than  in  those  now  living,  do  not,  ill  Professor 
O'veua  opinion,  exhibit  any  satisfactory  specific  distinc- 
tion. Ca;3ar  mentions  the  aurochs  as  abounding,  along 
with  the  now  extinct  Bos  primijentus,  m  the  forests  of 
Germany  and  Belgium,  where  it  appears  to  have  been 
occasionally  captured,  and  afterwards  exhibited  alive  m 
the  Roman  amphitheatres.  At  that  period,  and  long  after. 
It  seems  to  have  been  common  throughout  Central  Europe, 
the  Caucasus,  and  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  It  is  now  only 
found  in  one  of  the  forests  of  Lithuania,  where  it  is  saved 
from  immediate  extinction  by  the  protection  of  the  emperor 
of  Russia,  but  notwithstanding  this  it  is  gradually  dying  out. 
Many  years  ago  the  Lithuanian  bisons  numbered  over  lOdO, 
but  by  the  year  1872  they  had  diminished  to  528,  and  all 
attempts  to  domesticate  them  have  failed.  The  aurochs 
feeds  on  grass  and  the  bark  of  young  trees.  The  American, 
Bison  (Bison  americaniis)  has  it3  home  on  the  eaatera 
slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  being  seldom  found  to  the- 
.west  of  these,  and  rarely  to  the  east  of  the  Appalachian 
range.  Northwards  it  extends  to  lat  63°,  and  southward, 
as  far  as  New  Me.xico.  Those  bisons  or  buffaloes,  as  the 
settlers  call  them,  roam  in  enormous  herds  over  the  western 
prairies  in  quest  of  fresh  pastures,  being  specially  loiid  of 
the  teuder  grass  that  springs  up  after  a  prairie  fire  The- 
two  sexes  live  in  separate  herds  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  year,  although  one  or  two  aged  bulls,  it  is  said,  always 
accompany  the  females.  Duniig  the  rutting  season  when 
the  sexes  come  together,  the  bulls  engage  in  fierce  fights- 
among  themselves,  and  at  such  siJasons  it  is  highly  danger- 
ous to  approach  them.  At  other  times  they  are  shy,  and 
retreat  before  man;  but  when  wounded  they  becoim* 
furious,  and  then  all  the  dexterity  of  the  practised  hunter 
is  needed  to  make  good  his  retreat.  The  Indians  capture 
them  in  various  ways ;  by  hunting  on  horseback,  and 
shooting  them  with  bows  and  arrows,  or  with  firearms  , 
by  snaring  them  within  immense  enclosures  of  snow,  which 
the  bisoQS  are  unable  to  overleap ;  or  by  attracting  the 
herd  towards  a  precipice,  and  then  setting  it  in  motion 
from  behind,  so  that  those  in  front  are  pushed  irresistibly 
forward  and  over.  The  American  Bison,  though  still  found 
in  considerable  numbers,  is  rapidly  diminishing  before  the 
advance  of  the  white  settler ,  and  should  man  m  the  mean- 
time not  succeed  to  domesticatimg  it,  it  will  probably  era 
long  share  the  fate  which  threatens  its  European  congener. 
To  the  Indian  the  bison  has  hitherto  been  indispensable 
as  an  article  of  food,  and  for  the  many  useful  purposes  to 
which  Its  horns,  skin,  and  hair  are  applied.  Its  hide 
forms  an  excellent  fur  wrapper ;  its  great  value  in  this 
respect  was  proved  during  the  Crimean  war. 

BITHYNIA  (liiOuna),  a  province  in  the  N.W.  of  Asia-  See 
Minor,  adjoining  the  Propontis,  the  Thracuin  Bosphonis,  ^^"  '•  • 
and  the  Euxine.  According  to  Strabo  it  was  bounded  on 
the  east  by  the  River  Sangarius  ,  but  the  more  commonly 
received  division  extended  it  as  far  as  the  Parlhenius, 
which  separated  it  from  Paiihlagonia,  thus  comprising 
the  district  on  the  sea-coast  between  these  two  rivers,  which 
was  inhabited  by  the  Mariandyni.  Towards  the  west  and 
south-west  it  was  limited  by  the  River  Rhjnul.icus,  which 
separated  it  from  Mysia;  and  on  the  south  it  adjoined  Ilia 
portion  of  Phrygia  called  Phrygia  Epiclctiis,  and  a  part  of 
Oalatia.  The  territory  thus  defined  is  in  great  part 
occupied  by  mountains  and  forests,  but  has  valleys  and 
districts  near  the  sea  coast  of  great  fertility.  The  most 
important  of  the  mountain  ringes  is  that  known  as  the 
My.sian  Olympus — from  its  Toximity  to  that  province, 
thoui^h  jiroiiefly  included  w'  hiii  the  bmits  of  Bilhyniu — 
which  riae.^  to  a  height  of  '  bout  (ilOO  feet.  It  towers  in 
a  cbiumaiiding  manner  above  the  city  of  Broussa,  while  it 
forms  a  conspicuous  object  us  seen  from  Constantinople,  «l 


I  T  —  13  I  T 


793 


a  di3tnnce  of  70  miles.  Its  summits  are  covered  with 
snow  for  a  great  part  of  the  year.  Eastward  of  this  tbc 
range  now  called  Ala-Dagh  extends  for  above  100  miles 
from  the  River  Sangarius  to  the  coiilinos  of  Paj'hlagonia. 
It  adjoins  throughout  its  course  the  frontiers  of  Fhrygia 
and  Galatia,  and  rises  to  a  height  of  from  6000  to  7000 
feet.  Both  of  these  ranges  belong  to  that  border  of 
mountains  which  bounds  the  great  table-land  of  Asia  Minor 
throug )  a  great  part  of  its  extent  The  country  between 
them  jnd  the  sea-coast  is  for  the  most  part  occupied 
by  sub  u'dinate  mountain  chains,  which  may  be  regarded  as 
underfills  or  offshoots  o/  the  more  lofty  mountain  ranges 
of  the  interior.  These  constitute  a  very  rugged  and  broken 
country,  covered  with  extensive  forests,  and  traversed  by 
very  few  lines  of  route,  so  that  it  is  still  very  imperfectly 
known.'  But  the  broad  tract  which  projects  towards  the 
west  as  far  as  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus  though  hilly 
and  covered  with  forests,  so  as  to  be  termed  by  the  Turks 
Aghatch  Dcnizi,  or  "'The  Ocean  of  Trees,"  u  nut  traversed 
by  anything  like  a  mountain  chain. 

The  western  coast  of  Bithynia,  where  it  adjoins  the 
Propontis  <r  Sea  of  Marmora,  is  indented  by  two  deep 
gulfs  or  inl(  ts — the  northernmost,  now  called  the  Gulf  of 
Isniid,  ancKntly  known  as  the  Gulf  of  Aslacus,  penetrat- 
ing to  a  distance  of  between  40  and  50  miles  into  the 
intenor,  as  far  as  the  town  of  Ismid,  the  ancient  Nico- 
media,  which  is  separated  by  an  isthmus  of  only  about  25 
miles  from  the  Black  Sea.  The  ne.'it,  known  in  ancient 
times  as  the  Gulf  of  Cius,  now  called  the  Gulf  of  Mou 
dania  or  Gemlik,  e.\tends  to  about  25  miles.  At  its  ex- 
tremity is  situated  the  small  town  of  Gemlik,  on  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Cius,  at  the  mouth  of  a  valley,  through 
which  it  communicated  with  the  inland  lake  of  Isnik,  on 
■which  was  situated  the  nourishing  city  of  Nicaia. 

According  to  the  general  testimony  of  ancient  authors 
•(Herodotus,  Xenophon,  Strabo,  Ac  ),  the  Bithyiiiaiis  were 
a  tribe  of  Thracian  origin  who  had  migrated  into  Asia  by 
crossing  the  Bos[)horus.  The  existence  of  a  tribe  called  Thyni 
in  Thrace  is  well  attested,  and  the  two  cognate  tribes  of  the 
Thyni  and  Rithyni  appear  to  have  settled  simultaneously 
in  the  adjoining  parts  of  Asia,  where  they  expelled  or 
subdued  the  previously  existing  races  of  the  Mysians, 
•Caucones,  and  other  petty  tribes,  the  Mariandyni  alone 
raamtaining  themselves  in  the  northeastern  p.irt  of  the 
■country.  Herodotus  mentions  the  two  tribes,  flie  Thyni 
and  Bithyni,  as  existing  side  by  side  ;  but  ultimately  the 
latter  people  must  have  become  the  more  important,  so  as 
to  give  name  to  the  whole  country.  They  were  first 
subdued  by  Crosus,  and  incorporated  with  the  Lydian 
monarchy,  together  with  which  they  soon  after  fell  under 
the  dominion  of  Persia  (546  B.C.)  During  the  Persian 
empire  they  were  included  in  the  satrapy  of  Phrygia, 
which  comprised  a"l  the  countries  up  to  the  Hellespont 
and  Bosphorus.  But  even  before  the  conquest  by  Alex- 
ander some  obscure  native  chiefs  appear  to  have  asserteii 
tlieir  independence  in  the  mountains  of  Bithynia,  and 
successfully  maintained  it  under  two  native  princes  named 
Bas  and  Zipoctcs,  the  last  of  whom  transmitted  his  power 
to  his  son  Nicoinedes  I,,  who  was  the  first  to  assume  the 
title  of  king.  He  became  the  founder  of  the  city  cf  Nico- 
inedfa,  which  soon  rose  to  great  prosperity  and  opulence  ; 
and  during  his  long  reign  (278-250  BC. ),  as  well  as  tho.sc 
•of  his  successors,  Prusias  I..  Prusi^is  II  ,  and  Nicomciles 
II.  (149-91  B.C.),  the  kingdom  of  Bithynia  held  a  con- 
siderable place  among  the  minor  monarchies  of  Asia.  But 
the  last  king,  Nicomcdes  III.,  was  unable  to  maintain 
himself  against  the  increasing  power  of  his  neighbour 
Mithridates,  Ijing  of  Puntus  ;  and  although  restored  to  Ins 
throne  by  the  interposition  of  the  Roman  Senate,  at  his 
ieath.  in  74  B.C..  ►'•ibcuucalhed  his  kiugdom  by  will  to  the 


Romans.  Bithynia  was  now  reduced  into  the  form  of  a 
Roman  province;  but  its  limits  were  frequently  varied, 
and  it  was  commonly  united  for  administrative  purposes 
with  the  neighbouring  province  of  Pontus,  extending  along 
the  southern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea  as  far  as  Trapezus  or 
Trebizond.  This  was  the  state  of  things  in  the  time  of 
Trajan,  when  the  younger  Pliny  was  appointed  governor 
of  the  combined  provinces  (103-105  ad.),  a  circumstance 
to  which  we  are  indebted  for  much  valuable  infoimation 
concerning  the  Roman  provincial  administration.  Under 
the  Byzantine  empire  Bithynia  was  again  divided  into  two 
provinces,  separated  by  the  River  Sangarius,  to  the  western- 
most of  which  the  name  of  Bithynia  was  restricted. 

The  most  important  cities  of  Bithynia  in  ancient  times 
were  Nicomedia  and  Nicsea,  which  disputed  with  one 
another  the  rank  of  its  capital  Both  of  these  were 
founded  after  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  but  at  a 
much  earlier  period  the  Greeks  had  established  on  the 
coast  the  colonies  of  Cius  (al'terwards  named  Prusias),  on 
the  site  of  the  modern  Gemlik  ;  Chalcedou,  at  the  entiaiice 
of  the  Bosphorus,  nearly  opposite  Constantinople  ,  and 
Heraclea,  surnamed  Pontica,  on  the  coast  of  the  Euxiue, 
about  120  mdes  east  of  the  Bosphorus  All  these  rose  to 
be  flourishing  and  important  places  of  trade.  Prusa,  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Olympus,  which  was  founded  by  Prusias, 
was  also  a  considerable  town  under  the  Roman  empire, 
but  did  not  attain  in  ancient  times  to  anything  like  the 
importance  enjoyed  by  the  modern  city  of  Broussa,  which 
became  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  before  the  con- 
quest of  Consl.-intiQO|ile,  and  is  still  (after  Smyrna')  the 
second  city  of  Asia  Minor.  The  only  other  placet-  uf  im- 
portance at  the  present  d.iy  are  Isiiiid  (Nicomedia)  and 
Scutari,  which,  from  its  position  on  the  Bosphorus,  may  be 
considered  as  a  mere^uburb  of  Constantinople 

The  natural  resources  of  Bithynia  are  still  very  imper- 
fectly developed.  Its  niountnius  are  covered  with  vast 
forests,  which  would  furuish  an  almost  inexhaustible 
supply  of  timber,  if  rendered  accessible  by  roads.  Coal 
also  IS  known  to  exist  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Erekli 
(Heraclea),  but  is  not  worked  to  any  extent.  The  valleys 
which  open  towards  the  Black  Sea  abound  in  fruit  trees  of 
all  kinds,  while  the  valley  of  the  Sangarius  and  the  plains 
near  Broussa  and  Isnik  (Nica-a)  are  fertile  and  well  culti- 
vated. Extensive  plantations  of  mulberry  trees  supply  the 
silk  for  which  Broussa  has  long  been  celebrated,  and  which 
is  manufactured  there  on  a  large  scale. 

The  principal  rivers  of  Bithynia  are  the  Sangarius,  etill 
called  the  Sakaria,  which  traverses  the  province  from  S. 
to  N.  ,  the  Rhyndacus,  which  forms  the  boundary  that 
separated  it  from  Mysia ;  the  Bill.-eus  (Filyas),  which 
rises  in  the  chain  of  the  Ala-Dagh,  about  150  miles  from 
the  sea,  and  after  flowing  by  the  town  of  Boli  (the  ancient 
Claudiopolis)  falls  into  the  Euxine,  close  to  the  ruins  of 
the  ancient  Tiuin,  about  40  miles  N.E.  of  Heraclea  It 
has  a  course  of  more  than  loO  miles.  The  Parthenms 
(now  called  the  Bartan),  which  forms  the  boundary  of  the 
province  towards  the  E.,  is  a  much  less  considerable 
stream.  (e.  n   B. ) 

BITONTO,  a  city  and  bishop's  see,  in  the  province  of 
Bari,  in  South  Italy,  oa  the  great  road  from  Fopgia  to 
Bari,  about  12  miles  from  the  latter  town.  Its  cathedral, 
dedicated  to  St  Valentine,  is  a  fine  building  in  the  Italo- 
Gothic  style ,  and  it  possesses  a  theological  seminary,  a 
large  orphan  asylum,  and  a  hospital.  The  inhabitants 
maintain  an  active  trade,  and  have  extensive  manufactures 
of  olive  oil.  Their  principal  export  is  an  excellent  wine 
known  as  Zagarclle.  Bitonto,  or  P.utuntum,  seems  from 
its  coins  to  have  been  a  place  of  some  importance  at  an 
early  period,  but  it  makes  no  appearance  in  ancient  history. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  its  Accademta  (/■•'il'  /n/?amma.i  cblained 

111.    —    lOD 


(94 


B  I  T  — B  L  A 


considerable  fame,  m  1735  it  wa3  the  scene  of  a  severe 
battle,  in  which  the  Austrians  woi'c  defeated  by  the 
S^janiards  under  Mortciiiar,  iu  whoso  honour  Philip  V. 
caused  a  pyramid  to  be  erected  on  the  spot.  Population 
in  1871,  24,978. 

BITSCH  (French,  BltciiE),  formerly  K.\LTEMnAUSEN, 
o  towu  and  fortress  in  German  Lorraine,  on  the  Piiver 
Horn,  at  the  foot  of  the  northern  slope  of  the  Vosges, 
between  Hagenau  and  Saargemund.  It  was  originally  a 
countship  in  the  possession  of  the  counts  of  Alsace  and 
Flanders,  but  was  bestowed  by  Frederick  III.  on  the  dukes 
of  Lorraine,  and  at  length  passed  with,  that  duchy  to 
France  in  1738.  After  that  date  it  rapidly  increased, 
and  its  cicadel,  which  had  been  constructed  by  Vauban  on 
the  site  of  the  ducal  palace,  was  restored  and  strengthened. 
The  attack  upon  it  by  the  Prussians  in  1793  was  repulsed, 
and  although  the  Bavarians  occupied  the  town  in  1815 
and  1818,  they  did  not  get  possession  of  the  fort.  In  the 
war  of  1870  it  was  blockaded  by  the  Germans  in  vain, 
and  only  surrendered  in  1871,  after  the  cami>aign  was 
over.  A  large  part  of  the  fortification  is  excavated  iu  the 
red-sandstone  rock,  and  rendered  bomb-proof;  while  a 
supply  of  water  is  secured  to  the  garrison  by  the  possession 
of  a  deep  well  in  the  interior.  The  irhabitants  of  the 
town,  who  in  1871  numbered  3047,  manufacture  watch- 
glasses  and  matches,  and  carry  on  a  trade  in  grain,  cattle, 
wood,  and  peats.  ' 

BITTERN,  a  genus  of  Wading  Birds,  belonging  to  the 
family  Ardmicr,  comprising  several  species  closely  allied  to 
the  Herons,  from  which  they  differ  chiefly  in  their  shorter 
neck,  the  back  of  which  is  covered  with  down,  and  the 
front  with  long  feathers,  which  can  be  raised  at  pleasure. 
They  are  solitary  birds,  frequenting  countries  possessing 
extensive  swamps  and  marshy  groufids,  remaining  at  rest 
by  day,  concealed  among  the  reeds  and  rushes  of  their 
haunts,  and  seeking  their  food,  which  consists  of  fish, 
reptiles,  insects,  and  small  quadrupeds,  in  the-twilight. 
The  Common  Bittern  (BoUiurvs  stellaris)  is  nearly  as.  large 
as  the  heron,,  and  is  widely  distributed  over- the  eastern 
hemisphere.  Formerly  it  was  common  in  Britain,  but  the 
extensive  drainage  of  late  years  has  greatly  diminished  its 
numbers,  and  it  is  now  a  permanent  resident  only  in  the 
fen  districts  of  England.  The  bittern  lu  the  days  of 
falconry  was  strictly  preserved,  and  ■  afforded-  excellent 
sport.  It  sits  crouching  on  the  ground  during  the  day, 
with  its  bill  pointing  in  the  air,  a  po.sition  from  which  it 
is  not  easily  roused,  and  even  when  it  takes  wing,  its 
flight  is  neither  swift  nor  long  sustained.  When  wounded 
it  requires  to  be  a[i[)niaclied  with  caution,  as  it  will  then 
attack  either  man  or  dog  with  its  long  shaqi  bill  and  its 
acute  claws.  It  builds  a  rude  nest  among  the  reeds  and 
flags,  out  of  the  materials  which  surround  it,  and  the 
female  lays  four  or  Eve  eggs  of  a  uniform  dusky  brown. 
During  the  breeding  season  it  utters  a  booming  noise,  from 
which  it  probably  derives  its  generic  name,  Bolaurus,  and 
which  has  made  it  in  many  places  an  object  of  supersti- 
tious dread.  Its  plumage  for  the  most  part  is  of  a  pale 
buff  colour,  rayed  and  speckled  with  black  and  reddish 
brown.  The  American  Bittern  {llotaurus  Icnlijinrisiis)  is 
Doinewhat  smaller  than  the  European  species,  and  is  found 
throughout  the  central  and  souihcrn  portions  of  North 
America,  where  it  forms  an  article  of  food.  It  also  occurs 
in  Britain  as  an  occasional  straggler. 

BITTERS,  an  aromatized  alcoholic  beverage,  so  named 
originally  in  the  United  States,  where  it  was  first  used  on 
account  of  its  flavour  and  tonic  influence.  The  drink  by 
Itself,  or  as  an  addition  to  unflavourcd  spirits,  is  used  with 
consideralile  frequeii'-y  in  Europe,  and  especially  m 
France  it  has  come  to  be  be  favourably  regarded  as  n  sub 
stitute  for  the  insidious  and  deleterious  absinthe.     In  the 


year  1SC7  the  daily  consumption  ot  bitters  in  Paris  aloirfc 
had  reached  4U00  litres.  The  preparation  of  bitters  in 
Europe  was  at  first  a  specialUc  of  the  Dutch,  and  Dutch 
bitters  are  the  staple  used  iii  Great  Britain.  A  consider- 
able variety  of  rccqies  are  in  use  for  tlie  pre]iaration  of 
Dutch  bitters,  but  generally  gentian  root  is  the  leading 
bitter  ingredient  in  the  beverages.  The  following  is  given 
as  the  composition  of  brandy  bitters  ; — Gentian  root,  4  oz. ; 
orange  peel,  5  oz.  ;  rassia  bark,  2  oz.  ,  caidamoins,  1  oz. ; 
and  proof  spirits.  1  gallon,  coloured  with  \  oz.  of  cochineal. 
Bitters  pre]>ared  in  the  great  French  cities — Bordeaux, 
Rouen,  H.avre,  Pans,  A-c. — contain  extracts  of  gentian  root, 
bitter  orangtj  [leel,  and  orange  flowers,  with  a  proportion 
of  sugar,  and  possess  au  alcoholic  strength  of  about  40° 

BITU.MENT.     See  AspuaLT,  vol.  ii.  p,  715. 

BIZERTA,  or  Be.vzert,  a  seaport  of  North  Africa,  in 
Tunis,  38  miles  fro.-n  the  capital,  on  a  gulf  or  salt  lake  ol 
the  same  name,  which  communicates  with  a  shallow  fresh 
water  lake  in  the  interior,  formerly  called  Sisara,  and  now 
the  lake  of  Gebel  Ishkel.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the 
ancient  TjTian  colony  Hippo  Zaritus,  the  harbour  of  which, 
by  means  of  a  spacious  pier,  protecting  it  from  the  north- 
east wind,  was  rendered  one  of  the  safest  and  finest 
on  this  coast.  This  important  work,  however,  having 
been  neglected  by  the  Turks,  the  port  has  been  to  a  great 
extent  choked  up.  It  is  still  visited  by  small  vessels,  and 
a  certain  amount  of  -trade  is  carried  on.  The  exports  in 
ISGO  were  valued  at  XI  9,759.  The  town  is  about  a 
mile  in  circuit;  it  is  defended  by  several  forts.  The 
principal  employment  of  the  inhabitants  is  fishing.  The 
adjoining  lake  abounds  in  fish,  particularly  mullets,  the 
roes  of  which,  dried  and  formed  into  the  substance  called 
botargo,  form  a  considerable  article  of  Mediterranean  com- 
merce.    N.  lat.  37°17',  E.  long.  9°50'.     Population,  8000. 

BLiiCK,  Dr  JosEru,  a  celebrated  chemist,  was  born,  in 
1728,  at  Bordeaux,  where  his  father — a  native  of  Belfast, 
but  of  Scottish  descent — was  engaged  in  the  wine  trade. 
He  was  educated  from  his  twelfth  to  his  eighteenth  yeai 
at  a  grammar  school  in  Belfast,  whence  he  renioved,  iii 
1746,  to  the  university  of  Glasgow.  There  he  chose 
medicine  as  his  profession,  and  devoted  himself  ^earnestly 
to  physical  science,  being  encouraged  and  guided  by  Dr 
Cullen,  who  then  lectured  on  chemistry  in  Glasgow,  and 
whose  liberal  and  original  views  were  iu  unison  wiih 
Black's  own  aspirations.  From  assisting  in  Oullen's 
chemical  experiments  he  acquired  the  delicate  manipula- 
tive skdl  essential  to  success  in  original  scientific  research 

In  1751  he  went  to  complete  his  medical  studies  at 
Edinburgh,  and  after  taking  his  medical  degree  there  in 
1754  revealed  himself  as  a  great  scientific  discoverer.  At 
tliat  time  the  causticity  of  the  alkalies  was  attr'buted  to 
thi'ir  absorbing  an  imaginary  ftre-essenee  known  as  phjo- 
giston,  an  hypothesis  which  Black  overthrew  by  sbowiug 
that  their  causticity  depended  on  their  combining  with  a 
I'onderable  gas,  carbonic  acid,  which  he  named  fucd  air, 
meaning  tint  it  was  found  not  only  as  a  separate  fluid, 
but  aa  _/!>(-./  in  solid  bodies.  This  discovery,  made  by 
Black  HI  his  twenty-fourth  year,  was  first  sketched  in 
a  treatise,  De  Arido  e  Cd/is  vrto,  <t  ie  Ma<j>tvsui,  and 
afterwards  embodied  in  his  v;ox\i.,- Expcnuu-nls  on  Alaj^irsui, 
Quirkhmf,  and  othfr  Alkaline  Sithstanccs,  which  Lord 
BrouL'ham  has  declared  to  be  "  incontcstibly  the  mosi 
beautiful  osample  of  strict  inductive  investigatioai  smoe 
the  Oj'tics  of  Sir  I.saiic  Newton." 

These  works  revolutioni/.ed  chemistry.  Previous  invea 
tigators  imagined  that  atmospheric  air  was  the  sole  pernia- 
nently  aeriform  element,  a  belief  to  which  even  Hales,  who 
hail  shown  that  solids  contain  elastic  fliiids,*liad  adheied. 
But  when  Black  proved  that  a  gas  not  identical  with 
atmospheric  air  was   found   in  alkalies,  it   was  made  [''ao' 


B  L  A  —  B  L  A 


795 


lliat  varioxis  difsimilnr  gases  migL.  exist,  and  pneumatic 
chemistry  was  founded. 

Although  the  full  value  of  this  discovery  was  not 
iinraediatcly  visible,  it  added  so  rreatly  to  Black's  rcputa- 
tiun  that  in  175G  he  was  chosen  to  succeed  Dr  Cullen  as 
lecturer  on  chemistry  in  Glasgow  University.  He  was 
also  appointed  to  the  chair  of  anatomy,  but,  no:  finding 
its  duties  congenial,  exchanged  it  for  the  professorship  of 
medicine.  For  some  time  he  was  so  assiduous  in  preparing 
his  lectures  as  to  neglect  fresh  investigations,  and  even 
left  the  examination  of  carbonic  acid,  or  fixed  air,  to  be 
afterwards  completed  by  Cavendish.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  as  a  professor  by  his  students  and  colleagues, 
and  became,  through  his  attention  and  urbanity,  a  very 
popular  physiciali  in  Glasgow.  From  1759  to  1763  he 
prosecuted  inquiries  resulting  in  his  theory  of  latent 
icat,  which  may  be  thus  summarized — A  solid  liquefies  or 
a  Quid  vaporizes  through  heat  uniting  with  the  solid  or 
fluid  body,  and  a  fluid  solidifies  or  a  gas  liquefies  through 
the  loss  of  heat ;  but  in  no  case  is  this  increase  or 
diminution  of  heat  detected  by  the  senses  or  the  ther- 
mometer. Black  therefore  named  that  heat  latent  which 
alters  the  condition,  not  the  temperature,  of  a  body.  Ue 
likewise  proved  that  bodies  of  equal  masses  require  different 
increments  of  heat  to  raise  them  to  the  snme  sensible 
temperature — a  doctrine  now  known  as  the  law  of  specific 
heat. 

His  theory  of  latent  heat  he  corroborated  by  numerous 
experiments,  but  he  never  published  a  detailed  account  of  it, 
in  omission  which  enabled  others  to  lay  claim  to  his  great 
discovery.  Thus  M.  Deluc,  in  1788,  declared  himself 
its  author.  In  17GG  Black  was  elected  to  succeed 
Cullen  in  the  chair  of  chemistry  at  Edinburgh  University. 
In  this  office  he  bestowed  great  care  on  his  lectures,  striv- 
ing to  give  a  lucid  exposition  of  ascertained  facts  rather 
than  to  effect  new  discoveries  ;  and  such  an  interest  did  he 
communicate  to  his  subject,  that  chemistry  was  for  a  time, 
it  is  said,  regarded  as  a  fashionable  accomplishment  in  the 
Scottish  capital. 

He  was  intimate  with  the  great  men  who  adorned  Edin- 
burgh society  during  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  counting  among  his  friends  Watt,  Hume,  Eobert- 
£on,  Hutton,  Adam  Smith,  and,  at  a  later  period,  Robison, 
riayfair,  and  Dugald  Stewart  His  constitution  had 
always  been  feeble,  and  he  was  ultimately  reduced  to  the 
condition  of  a  valetudinarian,  which  may  account  for  the 
indifference  he  manifested  during  his  latter  years  to 
original  research.  He  retired  from  his  professorship  in 
17yG,  and  on  the  2Gth  November  1799  passed  away  so 
quietly  that  a  cup  of  water,  which  he  had  held  in  his 
hand,  remained  unspilled  after  he  had  breathed  his  last. 
At  the  instance  of  Lavoisier  he  had  been  elected  a  member 
of  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences. 

Black  was  singularly  modest,  gentle,  and  sincere  ;  his 
philosophic  tranquillity  was  seldom  ruffled ;  and  his 
sagacious  diflSdence  was  equally  conspicuous  in  his  scien- 
tific inquiries  and  in  his  social  relations.  He  has  been 
called  the  founder  of  modern  chemistry.  When  he  began 
his  career  that  branch  of  knowledge  had  only  recently 
been  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  true  science  through  the 
efforts  of  Hermann  Boerhaave,  and  was  in  many  quartere 
even  regarded  with  suspicion  as  being  akin  to  alchemy  on 
the  one  hand,  and  to  humble  trades  on  the  other. 
But  after  Black's  discoveries  its  scope  and  capabilities 
were  immensely  extended,  and  no  one  could  then  question 
its  claim  to  rank  with  the  most  important  sciences.  The 
only  works  of  his  which  appeared  in  print  during  his  life- 
time were  £jrperiments  on  j\fagnesia,  &c..  Observations  on 
ihe  more  ready  Freezing  of  Water  that  has  been  boiled,  and 
Analysis  of  Iht  'Waters  of  some  Boiling  Sj>rinr/s  in  Icelitnd. 


His  lectures  on  chemistry  were  issued  altt.  ais  deaths 
(Cf.  Prof.  Robison 's  Life  of  ISlack.) 

BLACK  FOREST  (German,  Scuwauzwald),  an  exten- 
sive upland  district  on  the  right  bank  of  the  upper  RhinCj 
stretching  from  that  river  to  the  Neckar  and  upijer  Danube. 
See  Baden  and  Wurtkmberg. 

BLACK  SEA,  or  Euxine,  the  Penittis  Euxinus  of  the 
ancients,  is  a  large  inland  sea,  bounded  on  the  W  by  the 
Turkish  provinces  of  Kumilia,  Bulgaria,  and  Moldavia  ,  on. 
the  N.  by  South  Russia,  including  Bessarabia,  Kherson, 
and  Taurida ;  on  the  E.  by  the  Russian  provinces  of 
Circassia  and  Tran.scaucasia ;  and  on  the  S.  by  the 
Turkish  provinces  of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  entered  from  the 
Mediterranean  through  the  channel  of  the  Dardanellea 
or  Hellespontus,  the  Sea  of  Marmora  or  Propontis,  and 
the  channel  of  Constantino^ile  or  Thracian  JBosp/iorus, 
and  it  is  connected  with  the  Sea  of  Azoff,  or  Palus  Mceotis, 
by  the  strait  between  the  Crimea  and  the  isle  of  Taman, 
anciently  the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus,  and  known  by  the 
various  modern  names  of  the  Strait  of  Kertch,  of  Yenikale, 
and  of  Taman. 

The  first  navigators  of  Greece  who  ventured  into  this 
sea  having  been  repulsed  or  massacred  by  some  of  the  fierce 
tribes  inhabiting  its  coasts,  their  countrymen  gave  it  the 
name  of  Pontus  Axenos,  or  "sea  unfriendly  to  strangers." 
But  when  the  repeated  visits  of  the  Greeks  had  rendered 
these  tribes  more  familiar  with  strangers,  and  commercial 
intercourse  had  softened  down  the  original  ferocity  of  their 
character,  Grecian  colonics  were  established  at  different 
points  on  the  shores  of  this  sea,  and  the  epithet  Axenus 
was  changed  into  Euximis,  which  has  the  opposite  import, 
and  means  "  friendly  to  strangers."  The  modern  name 
seems  to  have  been  given  to  it  by  the  Turks,  who,  being 
accu.stomed  to  the  navigation  of  the  .lEgean,  the  islands  of 
which  furnish  numerous  harbours  of  refuge,  were  appalled 
by  the  dangers  of  a  far  wider  expanse  of  water  without 
any  shelter,  subject  to  sudden  and  violent  storms,  and  often 
covered  with  dense  fogs. 

The  basin  of  the  Black  Sea  is  of  an  irregular  ovate  form, 
its  long  diameter  lying  nearly  E.  and  W.  Its  greatest 
length,  from  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Br.rghaz  in  Rumilia 
on  the  west  to  the  boundary  between  Transcaucasia  and 
Asiatic  Turkey  near  Batum  on  the  east,  is  about  720  miles. 
Its  greatest  breadth  is  in  its  western  portion,  between  the 
e.stuary  of  the  Dnieper  on  the  north  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Sakaria  on  the  south,  where  it  is  380  miles ;  its  middle 
portion  is  narrowed,  by  the  projection  of  the  Crimean 
peninsula  on  the  north  and  of  the  coast  line  of  Anatolia 
between  Cape  Kcrempe  and  Sinope  on  the  south,  to  160 
miles ;  but  further  cast  it  widens  out  again  between  the 
Strait  of  Kertch  on  the  north  and  the  mouth  of  the  Kizil 
liinak  (the  ancient //a/y«)  on  the  south,  to  2G0  miles.  Its 
total  area,  including  the  Sea  of  Azoff,  is  about  172,500 
square  miles.  The  western  coast  line  of  the  Black  Sea, 
for  •orae  distance  northwards  from  the  Bosphorus,  is  high 
and  rocky,  having  ranges  of  hills  at  its  back ;  and  the 
water  rapidly  deepens  to  from  30  to  40  fathoms.  Between 
their  northern  extremity  and  the  range  of  the  Balkans  (the 
ancient  Ihrimis),  which  extends  east  and  west,  terminating 
in  Cape  Emineh,  there  is  a  large  bay,  named  after  the 
town  of  Burghaz  at  the  head  of  it,  which  affords  a  safe 
anchorage  for  large  ship.'*,  the  only  one  on  this  coast.  Be- 
tween Cape  Emineh  and  Varna  the  coast  line  is  again  low 
and  the  shore  shallow ;  and  the  same  condition  extends, 
with  but  little  interruption,  along  the  low-lying  region 
called  the  Dobrudscha,  which  extends  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Danube.  This  great  river  discharges  itself  by  seven  mouths, 
among  swampy  islands  and  shifting  banks  ;  and  the  quan- 
tity of  detritus  brought  down  by  it  is  bo  large  as  not  only 
to  form  a  very  extensive  bar,  but  also  to  require  the  con- 


79i. 


B  L  AC  K     SEA 


tiiuial  use  of  artificial  means  for  its  removal  from  the  be  I 
of  tUtt  navigable  channels.  The  same  low  coast-line  con- 
tinues along  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Uussian  steppes, 
to  the  shallow  inlet  which  forms  the  estuary  of  the  Dnies- 
ter, and  of  which  the  mouth  is  nearly  closed  by  a  bar; 
beyond  which,  towards  Odessa,  the  coast-line  is  more  lofty, 
and  the  waters  deepen  more  rapidly,  so  that  it  has  been 
possible  to  construct  a  harbour  in  which  ships  of  consider- 
able tonnage  can  lie  securely.  Between  Odessa  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Dniester  the  shore  again' becomes  low,  and 
the  water  shallow  ;  and  the  outlet  of  that  river,  which  also 
receives  the  River  Bog  or  Bug,  is  a  long  shallow  b.iy  bor- 
dered by  shifting  sand-banks,  which  is  called  the  Gulf  of 
Lenian  or  the  Bay  of  Kherson.  Only  ships  of  light  draught 
of  water  can  navigite  these  rivers,  of  which  the  Bug  is  the 
deeper;  and  vessels  of  war,  which  are  built  and  repaired 
at  the  arsenals  of  Kherson  and  Nicolaieff,  are  artiticially 
floated  up  and  down.  The  Crimean  peninsula  is  separated 
from  the  mainland  on  the  western  side  by  the  Gulf  of 
Perekop,  the  northern  boundary  of  which  is  formed  by  a 
narrow  belt  of  sand  that  runs  nearly  straight  for  a  distance 
of  80  miles,  and  was  celebrated  by  ancient  geographers  as 
the  8pd/iO!  A;(iAAe'u?,  The  inner  portion  of  this  gulf  is  so 
shallow  that  only  vessels  of  very  light  draught  can  make 
their  way  to  Perekop,  which  is  situated  on  the  narrow 
isthmus  that  divides  it  from  the  Sea  of  Azoff.  Along  the 
western  coast  of  tho  Crimea,  however,  the  coast-line  gradu- 
ally rises,  and  the  shore  deepens  more  rapidly ;  and  at 
Eupatoria  there  is  a  good  harbour  for  ships  of  moderate 
size  South  of  Eupatoria,  the  coast  is  formed  by  cliffs, 
sometimes  of  considerable  height ;  and  the  water  is  deep 
almost  to  their  base.  The  harbour  of  Sebastopol  some- 
what resembles  that  of  Valetta  in  being  a  deep  inlet,  sub- 
dividing into  several  branches,  in  any  one  of  which  the 
largest  vessels  may  find  good  anchorage,  and  lie  within  a 
cable's  length  of  the  shore.  Between  Sebastopol  and  Cape 
Chersonese  are  six  other  bays  running  inland  parallel  to 
each  other  ;  and  on  rounding  this  we  arrive  at  the  harbour 
of  Balaclava,  which  is  a  remarkable  inlet,  having  a  very 
narrow  entrance,  and  almost  entirely  surrounded  by  lofty 
heights.  Eastward  from  Balaclava  there  commences  an 
almost  continuous  chain  of  lofty  cliffs,  with  mountains  be- 
hind them,  whose  height  ranges  from  4000  to  5800  feet ; 
the  rommencement  of  this  chain  is  formed  by  Cape  Aia  or 
Tarchanskoi,  probably  the  Parthenium  of  Strabo,  the  most 
remarkable  headland  in  the  Crimea.  Along  the  whole 
south-east  coast  of  the  Crimean  peninsula  tho  water  is  deep  ; 
but  there  is  no  good  harbour  between  Balpclava  and  the 
Bay  of  Kaffa,  which  furnishes  an  excellent  and  sheltered 
anchorage  for  large  vessels,  and  was  formerly  much  fre- 
quented when  Kaffa  or  Tlieodosia  (an  ancient  Greek  colony) 
was  a  port  of  considerable  importance.  The  per.insula  of 
Kurtch  and  the  island  of  Taman,  which  separate  the  Sea 
of  Azotf  from  the  Black  Sea,  are  for  the  most  part  low  and 
sandy,  the  moat  elevated  land  in  each  being  near  the  border 
of  the  Strait  of  Yenikale.  On  the  western  sido  of  this 
strait  the  town  of  Kertch  is  situated,  upon  what  was  formerly 
known  as  tho  Uill  of  Mithridates. 

Tlu  Sea  of  Aviff  in^y  be  coMidercJ  as  tho  wide  shallow  estuary 
of  Ihc  lliver  Don,  which  discharges  its  waters  into  the  north-eiu'^tern 
/','  ioDjj.ition  of  tlie  scii,  aomctimcs  distingnislicd  a5  tiie  Gulf  of 
.^''o:-iroy  ;  its  area  is  estimated  at  about  14,00G  s(iuarc  miles;  and 
Its  ncp;,^  wliich  is  nowhere  more  than  7i  fatlioms,  diminishes  near 
Uie  snores  w  .IJ  fjhoms,  and  is  less  than  2  fathoms  opposite  tlio 
town  of  r.aganrog.  'iijese  depths  show  a  tendency  to  yet  furtlier 
aitmmition  thiough  tlie  deposit  of  river  ftor/da,— vessels  which 
ooniu  (ormerly  pass  up  ll,c  gnlf  as  far  as  Tajj.mrof-  bcin^'  no  Ion;;iT 
"        '"  do  so.  wliilst  during  certain  winds  llic  bottom  l>ecomes  dry 


enough  to  be  erosioj  between  Ta';anr,ig  and   Azolf.     The  westerii 

portion  of  this  basin  i.s  separated  from  tho  rest  bv  a  long  narrow 

smp  01  1,„  sandy  land,  enelosiCK  wl.at  w.as  named  by  the  Greeks 

ulnd  Sex —info  wlijch,  who,"  "'»  ""id  is  easterly,  the  water 


of  the  Sea  of  ArafT  passes  thTou^h  a  narrow  jpeninj  at  the  northern 
e.xti'eniity  of  the  bar,  but  which  at  other  times  consists  of  a  scries 
of  swamps  and  (piugmire.s,  equally  impassable  to  men  and  animals, 
and  giving  forth  noxious  o.xhaUtions  th.it  render  the  adjacent 
country  nearly  u.iinhabitahle-  The  water  of  the  Sea  of  Azolf  is 
always  less  salt  than  that  of  the  Clack  Sea;  and  when  tlie  Don  is 
at  its  fullest,  the  large  quantity  of  fresh  Wdter  which  is  mingled 
with  the  water  of  the  sea  renders  the  latter  nearly  drinkable,  and 
tends  to  empty  the  basin  of  its  salt.  When,  on  tho  other  hand, 
the  liver  brings  down  but  little  water,  and  the  wind  is  from  th* 
scjth,  there  is  a  considerable  rellux  of  the  nioio  saline  water  out- 
side ;  and  thus  the  average  salinity  of  the  water  of  the  Sea  of  Azotf 
is  maintameti, — ^just  as  is  seen  to  be  the  case  on  a  larger  seal© 
with  the  Baltic.     See  Baltic,  p.  297 

The  whole  of  the  portion  of  South  Russia  that  lies  • 
between  the  Dnieper  and  the  Don  is  an  almost  unbroken 
steppe,  but  very  little  elevated  above  the  sea-level ;  and 
there  are  abundant  indications  of  its  having  been  at  no 
remote  period  covered  by  salt  water.  For  not  only  ara 
there  numerous  salt  lakes  and  marshes  at  a  long  distance 
inland  from  the  present  ooast-line,  but  c.^ctensive  beds  of 
sea-shells,  which  have  become  mineralized  into  strata  of 
solid  limestone,  sometimes  30  or  40  feet  in  thickness. 
The  like  features  prevail  over  the  plain  which  lies  between 
the  Don  and  the  Kuban,  and  which  forms  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  Sea  of  Azof}';  this  plain,  inhabited  by 
nomade  Kalmucks  and  Cossacks,  extends  eastward  to  the 
desert  of  Astrakhan  ;  and  as  salt  marshes  and  beds  of 
sea-shells  arc  found  there  also,  it  is  evident  not  only  that 
both  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian  extended  farther 
north  than  they  do  at  present,  but  that  they  were  then  in 
continuity  with  each  other  over  the  plain  of  South  Russia, 
though  separated  towards  the  south  by  the  Caucasian 
Highlands.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Pliny  expressly 
stated  that  the  Tauric  Chersonese  was  not  only  surrounded 
by  the  sea,  but  that  the  sea  covered  all  that  northern  por- 
tion of  it  which  is  now  an  alluvial  level 

The  island  or  peninsula  of  Taman,  which  forms  tlia 
eastern  border  of  the  Strait  of  Yenikale,  is  for  the  most 
part  an  c.^cpiinse  of  salt-marshes  and  lagoons,  into  which 
the  River  Kuban  discharges  itself, — oiio  portion  of  its 
water  passing  into  the  Sea  of  Azotf  and  the  rest  into  tho 
Bhvck  Sea.  At  Anapa,  a  little  to  the.  east,  the  Caucasian 
range  comes  down  to  the  sea ;  and  thenco  around  tho 
shore  of  Circassia,  the  coast-line  is  high  with  a  mountain- 
ous back-ground,  and  the  water  rapidly  deepens.  As  the 
great  mountain  range  trends  inland,  however,  the  coast 
becomes  lower ;  and  the  region  now  termed  Mingrclia,  the 
ancient  Colchis,  is  a  fertile  plain,  through  which  run  tho 
River  Rion  (the  ancient  P/iasis)  having  the  important  port 
of  Poti  at  jts  mouth,  and  the  Khopi,  at  the  mouth  of 
which  is  .Redout  Kale.  Through  these  channels  the  mer- 
chants of  Tiflis  export  the  produce  of  tho  interior,  and 
import  European  goods.  Passing  the  boundary  between 
Russia  and  Turkey,  the  coast -liiie- begins  to  trend  west- 
wards, to  the  outlet  of  the  large  river  Chouruk  (tho 
ancient  Bciiys),  where  the  fortified  town  of  Batoum  is 
situate  at  the  base  of  the  northern  mountain  range  of  Asia 
Minor.  This  range  extends,  with  occasional  interruptions, 
along  the  whole  southern  co.ist  of  tho  Black  Sea,  sending 
down  spurs  that  form  headland's  and  promontories,  some- 
times of  considerable  height.  Owing  to  tho  steepness  of 
tho  .shores,  there  are  few  good  anchorages  here,  except  in 
tho  Bay  of  Samsoun,  which  receives  the  River  'i'eshil,  and 
tho  Bay  of  Sinope,  which  receives  tho  Kizil-Irmak, — at  tbo 
mouths  of  which  rivers  there  arc  plains  formed  by  their 
alluvial  deposit.  From  Capo  Injeh  westward  to  tho  Bos- 
phorus,  the  coasl-line  of  Anatolia  is  continuously  elevated, 
with  high  mountains  in  the  back-ground,  occasionally  pro- 
jecting seawards  as  lofty  promontories,  of  which  Uape 
Kereinpc  is  the  most  noteworthy;  numerous  rivulets  come 
down  from  the  mountains,  and  discharge  thein.sclves  into 


BLACK     S  E  A 


id; 


liltlecovei;  but  excepting  the  Sakarii  (the  aocient  5an- 
i/unus\  thoro  is  uo  consider.vblft  river,  aud  the  water 
decpcus  very  rapidly  to  20  fathoms  or  more. 

Although  it  13  known  that  the  depth  of  the  central  part 
of  the  basin  of  the  Eusine  reaches  1070  fathoms,  the  ex- 
tent of  this  deep  depression  is  not  known.  The  increase 
of  depth  off  the  low-lying  western  and  north-western  shores 
IS  very  gradual  and  regular,  the  lines  of  20,  30,  and  GO 
fathoms  maintaining  a  general  parallelism  to  the  coast, — so 
that  within  this  range  the  distance  of  a  ship  from  land 
can  be  approximately  ascertained  by  sounding.  But  out- 
side the  00  fathom  line  the  bottom  deepens  more  rapidly 
and  less  regularly,  depths  of  from  600  to  700  fathoms 
being  met  with  in  some  parts  within  a  few  miles  of  it. 
The  depth  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  basin  has  not  been 
ascertained,  but  it  is  probably  considerable. 

The  basin  of  the  Eiixine  communicates  with  that  of  the 
Sea  of  Marmora  by  the  Bosphorus,  a  strait  about  20  miles 
long,  from  J  to  2J  miles  wide,  and  a  depth  of  from  30  to 
40  fathoms,  resembling  a  broad  river  with  high  banks, 
which  maintain  a  general  parallelism,  although  the  strait 
haa  seven  distinct  reaches.  The  region  on  either  side 
presents  distinct  evidence  of  recent  volcanic  action. 

Tlic  Sea  of  Marmora  lies  in  the  course  of  the  channel 
that  connects  the  Black  Sea  with  the  /Egcan.  Its  bottom 
is  depressed  to  a  depth  far  greater  than  that  of  the  chan- 
nel of  which  it  is  an  expansion.  Its  length  from  strait 
to  strait  IS  110  geographical  mile-s,  and  its  greatest 
breadth  is  43  miles.  Round  the  shores,  the  depth  gene- 
rally ranges  from  10  to  30  fathoms  ;  but  it  rapidly  increases 
in  most  parts;  and  depths  of  100,  133,  2GC,  and  even 
3;").^  fathoms  have  been  met  with,  chiefly  near  the  line 
connecting  the  two  straits. 

The  channel  which  connects  the  Sea  of  Marmora  with 
the  /Kgcan  is  properly  termed  the  Hellespont, — the  name 
Dardanelles,  by  which  it  is  commonly  known,  being  really 
that  of  the  fortihcations  erected  on  the  two  'sides  of 
the  strait  by  which  its  passage  is  guarded.  The  Sea  of 
.Marmora  narrows  to  a  breadth  of  ten  miles  towards  the 
north-eastern  entrance  of  the  channel ;  at  Gallipoli,  the 
(listanre  between  the  two  shores  suddenly  contracts  to 
about  two  miles  ,  and  between  this  and  the  JE^czn  end  of 
the  strait,  that  distance  is  further  diminished  at  certain 
points  to  even  less  than  a  mile.  The  depth  of  the 
channel  is  considerable,  being  for  the  most  jiart  between 
3U  and  ."lO  falhoins. 

Cttmnte. — The  climate  of  the  Black  Sea  is  very  peculiar, — 
the  range  of  temperature  between  the  summer  and  winter 
e.Ktremes  being  remarkably  great.  The  fummer  isotherm 
of  70°  runs  a  little  way  inland,  nearly  parallel  to  its  north- 
western coastline,  whilst  the  summer  isotherm  of  80° 
passes  alon?  its  southern  coast-line,  which  i^  as  warm 
as  the  southern  coastline  of  the  Mediterranean,  nearly 
10°  nearer  the  equator.  Thus  the  whole  area  of  the  Black 
Sea  lies,  like  that  of  the  Mediterranean,  between  these 
two  summer  isotherms  ;  and  the  evaporation  from  its 
surface  during  the  warmer  part  of  the  year  will  consequently 
be  enormous.  During  the  winter  months,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Black  Sea  is  exposed  to  the  chilling  winds  which 
come  down  to  it  from  the  Arctic  regions,  sweeping  over  the 
snow-covered  plains  of  Russia,  without  any  interruption 
from  high  mountain  ranges  ;  and  nearly  the  whole  of  its 
area  lies  between  the  ifinler  isotherms  of  30°  and  40°,  the 
former  passing  round  its  northern  coast,  while  the  latter 
passes  from  the  Bosphorus  to  Poti  in  Mingrelia.  Thus  it 
happens  that,  notwithstanding  their  high  summer  tempera- 
ture, the  northern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  arc  more  or  less 
blockaded  with  ico  during  the  winter, — this  bciiig  most 
the  case  where  the  water  is  shallowest,  and  has  its  salinity 
lowered  by  the  entrance  of  rivers.     Tims  the  Sea  of  Azoff 


and  the  Strait  of  Yenck.alc  are  always  Irozen  over,  as  arft 
also  the  northern  ports  between  the  Crimea  and  Odessa ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  harbours  of  KaOa  and  Sebas- 
topol  are  never  closed,  and  that  of  Odessa  but  seldom.  It 
is  recorded,  however,  that  in  401  a.d.  the  surface  of  the 
Eu.xine  was  almost  entirely  frozen  over,  and  that  when  the 
ice  broke  up  enormous  masses  were  seen  floating  in  the 
Sea  of  Marmora  for  thirty  days.  In  702  a.d.,  again,  the 
sea  is  said  to  have  been  frozen  from  ihe  terminal  chffs  of 
the  Caucasus  to  tho  mouths  of  the  Dniester,  Dnieper,  and 
Danube;  and  contemporary  writers  a.sscrt  that  tho  quan- 
tity of  snow  which  fell  on  the  ice  rose  to  the  height  of 
from  30  to  40  feet,  completely  hiding  the  contour  of  tho 
shores,  and  that  on  the  breaking  up  of  the  ice  in  the  month 
of  February,  the  masses  of  it  carried  by  the  current  into 
the  Sea  of  Marmora  reunited  in  one  immense  sheet  across 
the  Uellespont  between  Sestos  and  Abydos.  No  similar 
occurrence  has  been  .subsequently  reci-  ded. 

The  winds  of  the  Black  Sea  are  variable,  except  during 
summer,  when-  they  generally  blow  from  the  north-east, 
while  at  other  seasons  southerly  or  south-westerly  winds 
often  prevaQ.  The  area  is  very  subject  to  fogs,  which 
appear  to  proceed  from  the  precipitation  by  a  cold  northerly- 
current  of  the  moisture  which  has  been  raised  by  evapora- 
tion from  its  surface,  or  has  been  brought  thither  by  S.  or 
S.W.  winds.  This  sea  is  remarkable  for  the  rapidity  with 
which  violent  storms  not  unfrequcntly  arise,  often  to  sub- 
side again  with  like  rapidity. 

Drainage  Area. — The  drainage  nrca  of  the  fil.ick  Sea  is  one  of 
tlie  largest  in  the  worlj,  being  csliniaied  at  939,000  square  mrlt-s, 
of  which  S2o,000  lie  in  Europe  an*!  IH.OOO  in  Asia,  'i'lie  lar^'tst 
of  Its  nveii  is  the  Dauubc.  which  has  a  total  length  of  ISfiO  rr.ilcs, 
and  drains  the  iniinc-nse  area  of  30C.000  square  miies  in  tlie  southt-ra 
portion  of  Central  Europe  ;  its  western  tributaries  he  so  near  lb** 
southern  tributaries  of  the  lUiiiie  and  the  Kibe,  that  a  caDal-com- 
municatioii  has  been  established  between  them,  by  which  small 
vossc-ls  can  |>ass  between  the  North  Sea  and  the  Black  Sea.  'J'he 
r^niej>er  has  a  total  1<  nj;tli  of  1050  miles,  and  drains  nn  area  oC 
lyo,&00  square  miles,  chietly  in  Western  Hussiaand  Hus^ian  Poland; 
Its  norlheiu  tributaries  approach  the  southern  tributaries  of  the 
Nicmen  ;  and  a  canal-coniniunioatioQ  h;is  thus  been  establisheil 
betw-eeu  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Baltic  The  Don,  with  a  length  of 
1000  miles,  drains  an  area  of  176,500  square  miles  in  South- Eastern 
Itnssia,  which  is  coutcrminous  with  the  basin  of  the  Volga,  being 
sepanted  from  it  by  the  Sarpa  Hills.  lictwcen  the  Dueqier  and 
Danube,  the  two  smaller  rivers,  the  Hug  and  the  Duie-ter,  traverse 
res[tectivcly  440  and  060  miles  in  their  course,  and  drain  an  area  of 
more  than  ,^0.000  square  miles  (ten  times  greater  than  that  of  the 
Thames).  Passing  eastwards,  w-e  come  to  the  Kuban,  which  drains 
the  northern  slopes  of  the  Caucasus  and  the  plains  inhabited  by  the 
lilack  Sea  Cossacks,  and  debouches  near  the  entrance  to  ihe  Sea  of 
Azotf.  Bill  tlierc  is  no  other  important  river  on  the  eastern  coast, 
most  of  the  water  flow-ing  from  the  mountainous  region  that  sepa- 
rates the  Black  Sea  from  the  Caspian  passing  into  the  latter.  The 
northern  slopes  of  the  Armenian  mountains  furnish  tributaries  of' 
the  KiverChouruk,  a  stream  of  moderate  size,  which  entei-s  the  Bl.ick 
Sea  to  the  east  of  TreUeond.  On  the  southern  coast  the  principal 
nver  is  the  Kizil  liinak  (the  Uabjs  of  the  ancient&l,  which  drains 
the  large  cenii-al  area  of  the  northern  portion  of  Asia  Minor,  while 
tow  anis  the  w-estcm  side  the  River  S.-ikaria  drains  a  large  area  in  the 
piovince  of  Anatolia.  Along  the  whole  western  coast  of  the  Black 
Sea.  from  the  Bosphorus  to  the  Danube,  no  large  stream  eniptics- 
iLself  inio  the  basin.— most  of  the  drainage  of  Kumilia  being  carrnd 
olf  by  the  Bivcr  Mariua  into  (he  i£geau,  whilst  that  of  Bulgaiia 
contributes  to  swell  the  Danube. 

The  greater  part  of  the  drain.age  area  of  the  Black  Sea, 
like  that  of  the  Baltic,  is  covered  with  snow  during  the 
winter  months,  and  comparatively  little  water  is  then 
brought  down  by  the  rivers.  With  the  return  of  spring, 
however,  the  melting  of  the  snow  increases  the  volume  of 
fresh  water  poured  into  the  sea,  its  rivers  being  at  their 
highest  in  early  summer.  By  far  the  larger  part  of  this 
water  is  discharged  at  its  math-western  border,  and  the 
elevation  of  level  thus  produced  establishes  a  current  that 
set!  along  iti  western  shore  towards  tho  outlet  of  the 
Bosphorus.     5ut  as  the  narrowness  o£  this  channel  doc*. 


79f> 


BLACK     SEA 


notallow  It  to  give  immediate  passage  to  the  overflow,  a 
■  poriion  of  the  current  continues  to  pass  onwards  along  the 
southern  shore,  and,  when  more  than  usually  strong,  even 
completes  the  entire  circuit  of  the  sea.  There  are  no  per- 
ceptiMe  tides  in  this  basin. 

As  might  be  expected  from  the  foregoing,  the  salinity 
of  Black  Sea  water  vanes  (like  that  of  the  Baltic)  at  dif- 
ferent periods  of  the  year  ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  much 
greater  total  mass  oi  water  contained  in  the  deeper  part 
of  this  basin,  the  variation  of  its  salinity  is  by  no  means  so 
great  as  that  of  Baltic  waters, — the  usual  range  of  its  sp.  gr. 
being  from  about  1'012  to  lOl-l,  which  corresponds  to  a 
little  less  or  a  httle  more  than  half  the  salinity  of  ordinary 
sea-water. 

The  most  contradictory  notions  have  prevailed  as  to  the 
influence  of  the  Euxine  waters  on  those  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean,— some  writers  having  represented  the  rivers  of  the 
former  as  important  contributors  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
level  of  the  Mediterranean,  which  the  enormous  evaporation 
from  that  area  is  always  tending  to  reduce  ;  whilst  others 
assert  that  the  Bosphorua  and  Dardanelles'  currents  are 
entirely  due  to  the  agency  of  wind.  A  valuable  datum  is 
afforded  by  the  condition  of  the  Caspian,  in  the  closed 
basin  of  which,  contracted  by  a  reduction  of  its  level  to  80 
feet  below  that  of  the  Black  Sea,  an  equality  is  now 
established  between  the  amount  of  water  lost  by  evaporation 
and  that  which  is  restored  by  its  rivers  and  by  the  rainfaU 
on  its  own  surface.  The  areas  of  the  Caspian  and  of  the 
Euxine  are  not  very  different ;  and  though  the  axis  of  the 
former  basin  lies  north  and  south,  while  that  of  the  latter 
lies  east  and  west, — so  that  the  northern  portion  of  the 
Caspian  is  colder,  and  the  southern  portion  warmer,  than 
tho  northern  and  southern  portions  of  the  Black  Sea, — the 
annual  average  temperatures,  and  consequently  the  total 
evaporation,  of  the  two  areas  cannot  diS'er  much.  Now, 
the  drainage  area  of  the  Volga  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
Danube,  the  Dnieper,  and  the  Dniester  taken  together ; 
the  Ural,  with  the  two  Transcaucasian  rivers,  Kur  and 
Araxes,  may  be  considered  as  equalling  the  Don ;  and 
thus  the  Bug  and  the  rivers  of  the-  Caucasus  and  Asia 
Minor  may  be  regarded  as  furnishing  the  excess  of  water 
discharged  into  the  Black  Sea  above  that  which  is  received 
by  the  Caspian.  Hence,  as  the  whole  of  the  river  and  rain 
water  annually  disch^irged  into  the  basin  of  the  Caspian  is 
•only  sufficient  to  replace  that  which  is  lost  by  evaporation 
•during  the  same  period,  it  follows  that  we  may  in  like 
manner  regard  the  principal  rivers  of  the  Black  Sea  as 
only  fulfilling  the  same  function  ;  consequently,  if  the  Bos- 
phorus  were  closed,  the  water  which  they  pour  into  the 
Euxine  basin  would  not  produce  any  elevation  of  its  level, 
being  entirely  dissipated  by  evaporation.  Thus  the  water 
"vv-hich  the  Black  Sea  has  to  spare  for  the  Mediterranean 
only  represents  the  excess  of  its  river  supply  above  the  total 
river  supply  of  the  Caspian  ;  and  that  this  excess  is  small 
in  amount  appears  from  the  fact  that  the  salinity  of  the 
water  of  the  vEgean  is  not  sensibly  reduced  by  it  below  that 
of  the  Mediterranean.  But  that  there  is  some  excess  is 
'evident  from  the  consideration  that  if  the  evaporation  of  the 
Black  Sea  were  merely  neutralized  by  the  return  of  fresh 
water,  its  water  would  have  the  salinity  of  that  of  the 
£reat  basin  with  which  it  is  in  free  communication,  instead 
of  containing  only  about  half  its  proportion.  It  is  further 
evident,  on  the  other  hand,  that  a  continual  efflux  of  the 
half-salt  water  of  the  Black  Sea,  to  be  replaced  only  by 
the  fresh  water  discharged  into  its  basin  by  rain  and  rivers, 
would  in  time  complftcly  drain  that  basin  of  its  salt ;  and 
as  its  proportion,  though  liable  to  seasonal  variation, 
undergoes  no  sensible  diminution  from  year  '.o  year,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  salt  which  p.a.s.'iCb  out  must  bj  replaced  by 
«  re-outry  of  Mnnixii  water.    The  mode  in  vhich  this  re- 


pfacement  is  effected  has  been  recently  elucidated  by  a 
careful  examination  of  the  currents  of  the  Black  Sea  straits, 
of  which  an  account  will  be  presently  given. 

It  is  during  the  winter  months,  when  a  large  proportion 
of  the  drsunage  area  of  the  Black  .Sea  rivers  is  covered  with 
snow,  that  the  supply  of  water  if  at  its  minimum ;  but  it 
is  then  that  the  evaporation  from  .ts  surface  is  also  at  its 
minimum;  so  that  there  is  no  reason  m  suppose  that  the 
level  of  the  Black  Sea  ever  falls  below  thut  of  the  /Egean. 
There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  during  the  spring 
and  early  summer,  when  the  melting  of  the  snows  causes 
the  rivers  to  swell  to  their  highest,  the  quantity  of  fresh 
water  thus  brought  into  the  basin,  being  greater  than  that 
which  is  lost  by  evaporation  (as  is  shown  by  the  general 
reduction  which  then  takes  place  in  the  salinity  of  its  con- 
tents), would  cause  a  considerable  rise  of  level,  if  this  were 
not  kept  down  by  the  outflow  through  the  straits. 

Dardanelles  and  Bosp/tm-us  Currents. — It  has  been 
known  from  very  early  times  that  a  current,  usually  of 
considerable  strength,  sets  outwards  through  the  Black  Sea 
straits  during  a  large  part  of  the  year, — its  rate  being 
subject,  however,  to  considerable  variation  in  accordance 
with  the  breadth  of  the  channel,  and  also  with  the  force 
and  direction  of  the  wind.  Thus,  when  the  N.E.  wind  is 
of  average  strength,  the  rate  of  the  current  at  Gallipoli  is 
about  1  knot  per  hour;  whilst  in  the  "Narrows"  at 
Chanak  Kaleski  it  is  about  3  knots,  increasing  with  a 
strong  wind  to  about  4^  knots.  In  calm  weather  the 
out-current  of  the  Dardanelles  is  usually  slack;  and  if, 
as  sometimes  happens  even  during  the  general  prevalence 
of  N.E.  winds,  the  wind  should  suddenly  blow  strongly 
from  the  S.W.,  the  surface  outflow  may  be  entirely  checked. 
It  requires  a  continuance  of  strong  S.W.  wind,  however,  to 
reverse  its  direction ;  and  its  rate,  when  thus  reversed, 
never  equals  that  of  the  out-current.  The  Bosphorus 
current  has  not  been  as  carefully  studied  as  that  of  the 
Dardanelles ;  but  its  rate  is  greater,  in  accordance  with  the 
limitation  of  its  channel,  which  is  scarcely  wider  at  any 
point  than  the  "Narrows"  of  the  Dardanelles.  It  con- 
tinues to  run,  though  at  a  reduced  rate,  when  there  is  no 
wind,  and  is  not  known  to  be  ever  reversed  except  in  winter 
after  a  S.W.  gale  of  long  duration.  Even  then  it  appears 
that  the  reversal  is  confined  to  the  superficial  stratum, — the 
direction  of  the  sub-surface  water-weeds  proving  that  there 
is  still  an  outflow  from  tho  Black  Sea  into  the  .iEgean. 
Hence  it  cannot  be  reasonably  maintained  that  it  is  by  this 
occasional  and  superficial  reversal  that  the  immense  mass  of 
salt  continually  being  carried  outwards  by  the  Bosphorus  and 
Dardanelles  currents  is  restored  to  the  Black  Sea  basin. 

Tho  existence  of  an  inward  under-current  (although 
controverted  by  an  authority  of  weight)  has  been  clearly 
demonstrated  by  the  recent  experimental  researches  of 
Captain  Wharton,  K.N.,  of  H.M.  surveying  ship  "Shear- 
water." By  tho  use  of  a  "current-drag,"  so  constructed 
and  suspended  as  always  to  present  a  large  vertical  surface, 
it  was  found  that  when  the  outward  surface-current  was 
at  its  strongest  there  was  an  inward  under-current  sufli- 
ciently  strong  and  rapid  to  carry  inwards  the  suspending 
buoy. 

The  difference  in  specific  gravity  of  water  obtained  from 
difl'ereut  depths  was  found,  in  Captain  Wharton's  investi- 
gations (as  in  those  previously  made  by  Dr  Carpenter,  in 
conjunction  with  Captains  Calver  and  Narcs,  in  tho  Strait 
of  Gibraltar),  to  afford,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  a 
voiy  sure  indication  of  tho  direction  of  tho  movement 
of  each  stratum,— tlio  hcav;\'  water  of  the  jlCgcan,  as  a  rule, 
flowing  inwards,  and  tho  lighter  water  of  tho  liliick  Sea 
flowing  outwards.  And  it  was  indicated  alike  by  both 
modes  of  inquiry  that  tho  two  strata  move  in  0])posite 
directions,  one  over  the  other,  with  very  little  int«rmi;£tui'e 


I]  L  A  —  B  L  A 


799 


or  retardation, — iLe  transition  between  tlicm  being  usually 
wry  abrupt.  The  anomalies  occasionally  met  with  seemed 
duo  to  the  prcvaleace  of  opposite  uitids  at  the  two  ends  of 
the  straits. 

Putting  aside  for  the  time  the  influence  of  wind,  the 
double  current  of  the  Blaok  Sea  straits  may  be  accounted 
for  as  follows  : — The  excess  of  fresh  water  discharged  into 
the  basin  of  the  Black  Sea  is  always  tending  to  raise  its 
level ;  and  this  produces  an  outward  surface-current,  which 
us  regularly  tends  to  keep  it  down.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  reduced  salinity  of  the  Eu.xino  column  gives  to  the 
.'Egean  column  an  excess  of  lateral  pressure,  which  causes 
its  lower  stratum  to  flow  back  into  the  Black  Sea  basin ;  and 
as  the  equality  in  the  amount  of  salt  thus  carried  back  by  the 
under-current  to  that  which  escapes  by  the  surface-current 
13  indicated  by  the  maintenance  of  the  standard  salinity  of 
Black  Soa  water,  it  follows  that,  as  the  water  which  escapes 
contains  about  half  as  much  salt  in  equal  measures  as  the 
water  that  enters,  the  volume  of  the  latter  must  be  about 
half  that  of  the  former 

Now,  when  the  rate  of  the  surface-current  is  augmented 
by  a  N.E.  wind,  there  will  be  not  only  a  mure  rapid  lower- 
ing of  the  Black  Sta  level,  but  a  tendency  to  elevation  at 
the  yEgean  end  of  the  strait ;  and  as  this  will  augment  the 
ditference  between  the  downward,  and  therefore  the  lateral, 
pressures  of  the  two  columns,  the  force  and  volume  of  the 
inward  under-current  will  be  augmented.  When,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  S.W.  direction  of  the  wind  reverses  the 
surface-current,  it  tends,  by  piling  up  the  water  at  the  N.E. 
end  of  the  strait,  to  avigment  the  weight  of  the  Black  Sea 
ciiUiiun, — the  excess  of  which  (notwithstanding  its  lower 
salinity)  over  that  of  the  /Egean  column,  will  then  produce 
a  reversal  of  the  under-current  also.  When  the  S.W.  wind 
IS  moderate  enough  to  check  the  surface  outflow  without 
revtfjui^  it,  the  inward  under-current  will  likewise  be 
brought  to  a  stand  ;  for  a  slight  rise  in  the  level  of  the 
Black  Sea  column  will  cause  its  greater  height  to  compen- 
sate for  the  greater  salinity  of  the  /Egean  column,  so  that 
their  lateral  piessures  will  be  equalized. — Wo  liave  here  a 
"  pregnant  instance"  of  the  potency  of  slight  diflerences  in 
level  and  in  salinity  to  produce  even  rapid  movements  of 
considerable  bodies  of  water;  and  a  strong  confirmation  is 
thus  afforded  by  direct  observation  to  the  doctrine  that 
(litTerences  in  density  produced  by  temperature  are  adequate 
to  give  rise  to  still  larger,  though  slower,  movements  of  the 
same  kind  in  the  great  ocean  Kasins. 

Zooiiijy. — The  basin  of  the  Black  Sea  is  frequented  by 
seals,  dolphins,  and  porpoises ;  and  it  is  said  that  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  the  porpoise 
]s  perfectly  white,  so  that  the  Greek  mariners,  when  they 
c-.it';h  sight  of  it,  know  that  they  are  in  the  current  of  that 
rivtr,  although  in  30  fathoms  water,  and  many  leagues 
from  land.  The  fish  of  the  Black  Sea  appear  to  be  for  the 
most  part  the  same  as  those  of  the  Caspian  and  the  Sea  of 
Aral.  Its  northern  rivers  bring  i.^lo  it  the  sturgeon,  sterlet, 
and  other  fresh-water  fii-h,  which  can  live  iu  and  near  their 
estuaries.  On  the  other  hand,  its  waters  are  elsewhere  salt 
-•Mough  for  the  mackerel,  whiting.mullet,  turbot,  and  sole. 
The  pclamijs  spoken  of  by  Slrabo  as  itsuing  from  the  Maotis 
'Sna  of  Azolf)  in  shoals,  and  as  following  the  coast  of  Asia, 
IS  still  abundant ;  though  commonly  spoken  of  as  the 
herring,  it  seems  to  be  a  large  sprat.  The  principal  fish 
tliat  enters  this  basin  from  the  Mediterranean  is  the  tunny, 
which  comes  into  the  Black  Sea  in  largo  numbere  at  the 
f-pawuing  season.  The  other  inhabitants  of  the  Bl.ack  Sea 
have  not  been  especially  studied  ;  but  it  may  be  noted  that 
a  species  of  Tcret/o  is  very  common  and  destructive  both  to 
ships  and  to  wooden  harbour-works,  and  that  it  is  not  con- 
fined to  the  Salter  waters  of  the  basin,  but  frequents  the 
rstuarics  where  the  water  is  almost  fresh.  (w.  a  c.) 


BLACKBIRD  (Turjvs  meruta),  belongs  to  the  Turdidm 
or  Thrushes,  a  family  of  Dentirostral  Bird.i.  The  plum- 
age of  the  male  is  of  a  uniform  black  colour,  that  of  the 
female  various  shades  of  brown,  while  the  bill  of  the 
male,  especially  during  the  breeding  season,  is  of  a  bright 
gamboge  yellow.  The  blackbird  is  of  a  shy  and  restless 
disposition,  courting  concealment,  and  rarely  seen  in 
flocks,  ot;  otherwise  than  singly  or  in  pairs,  and  taking 
flight  when  startled  with  a  sharp  shrill  cry.  It  builds  it.s 
nest  in  March,  or  early  in  Aprd,  in  thick  bushes  or  in-  ivy- 
clad  trees,  and  usually  rears  two  broods  each  season.  The 
nest  is  a  neat  structure  of  coarse  grass  aud  moss,  mixed 
with  earth,  and  plastered  internally  with  mud,  and  here 
the  female  lays  from  four  to  six  eggs  of  a  blue  colour 
speckled  with  black.  The  blackbird  feeds  chiefly  on 
fruits,  worms,  the  larvop  of  insects,  and  snails,  extracting 
the  lat'.er  from  tfaeir  shells  by  dexterously  chipping  them 
on  stones  ;  and  though  it  is  generally  regarded  as  an  enemy 
of  the  garden,  it  is  probable  that  the  amount  of  damage 
done  by  it  to  the  fruit  is  amply  compensated  for  by  i'a 
undoubted  services  as  e  vermin-killer.  The  notes  of  the 
blackbird  are  rich  and  full,  but  monotonous  as  compared 
with  those  of  the  song-thrush.  Like  many  other  singing 
birds  it  is,  in  the  wild  state,  a  mocking-bird,  having  been 
heard  to  imitate  the  song  of  the  nightingale,  the  crowing 
of  a  cock,  and  even  the  cackling  of  a  hen.  In  confine- 
ment it  can  be  taught  to  whistle  a  variety  of  tunes,  and 
even  to  imitate  the  human  voice.  It  is  found  throughout 
Europe,  Palestine,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Africa,  and 
Darwin  states  that  he  observed  it  as  far  west  as  the  Azores. 
Individuals  reared  in  Britain,  it  is  said,  do  not  migrate  ; 
but  annually  great  flocks  arrive  on  the  eastern  shores  of 
England  from  more  northern  countries,  remaining  for  a 
few  days  only,  and  then  proceeding  southward. 

BLACKBL^RN,  a  large  manufacturing  town  and  muni- 
cipal borough  of  England,  situated  on  a  stream  called,  lo 
Domesdity  Book,  the  Blackeburn,  but  now  only  known  a.* 
"  The  Brook,"  in  the  north-eastern  division  of  the  county  of 
Lancaster,  209  miles  from  Loudon  by  railway,  If)  E.  of 
Preston,  and  30  N.N.VV'.  of  Manchester.  Besides  its 
numerous  churches  and  chapels,  the  public  buildings  of 
Blackburn  comprise  a  large  town-hall,  finished  in  185G, 
a  market-house,  an  exchange,  built  in  1SG5,  a  county 
court  (18G3),  public  baths  (18C4),  and,  outside  the  town, 
an  infirmary  (18G2).  A  public  park  of  about  50  acres  was 
opened  in  1857.  Since  about  1SG5  a  variety  of  extensive 
and  important  improvements  have  been  effected  in  the 
general  condition  of  the  town,  which  js  now  well  paved 
and  lighted,  has  an  elaborate  system  of  drainage,  and 
receives  an  abundant  supply  of  water.  Previous  to  that 
date  the  .so-called  streets  were,  over  a  large  area,  almost 
useless  for  purposes  of  trafCc.  The  staple  trade  of  Black- 
burn has  long  been  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  for  the 
development  of  which  a  great  deal  was  done  by  some 
natives  of  the  town,  such  as  Peel  and  Ilargrcnves,  in  the 
last  century.  The  subordinate  branches  include  woollen 
factories,  engineering  works,  iron  foundries,  and  breweries. 
In  1871  there  were  employed  in  the  cotton  factories  14,220 
men  and  17,075  women,  of  twenty  years  of  age  and 
upwards;  the  engineering  works  gave  employment  to  306 
men,  and  the  iron  manufacture  to  791.  Coal,  and  lime, 
and  building  stone  are  abundant  m'  the  neighbouring 
district,  which  is,  however,  very  far  from  fertile.  Tho 
Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal  pas.ses  the  town,  which  has  also 
extensive  railway  communication.  Bl.ackburn  is  a  place  of 
some  antiquity,  and  its  parish  church  of  St  Mary's  (for  the 
most  part  taken  down  in  1813),  dated  from  before  tho 
Norman  Conquest.  It  was  for  a  time  the  chief  town  of  a 
district  known  as  Blackburnshire,  and  as  early  as  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  ranked  as  a  flourishing  market  u>\vn.     About 


800 


B  L  A  — B  L  A 


the  middle  ^of  the  17th  century  it  became  famous  for  its 
"  checks,"  which  were  afterwards  superseded  by  a  similar 
linen-and-cotton  fabric  known  as  "  Blackburn  greys."  A 
charter  of  incorporation  was  obtained  in  1851,  when  W.  H. 
Hornby,  one  of  the  largest  cotton  manufacturers  of  the 
place,  was  elected  first  mayor.  The  population  of  the  town, 
which  was  only  about  5000  in  17bO,  had  increased  by  1801 
to  11,980.  In  1S61  there  were  11,306  inhabited  houses 
in  the  municipal  borough  ;  and  by  the  census  of  1871  the 
number  had  increased  to  H,()90.  In  the  former  year  the 
population  of  the  municipal  borough  was  63,126,  and  iu 
1371  it  amounted  to  76,339  (males  36,099,  females 
40,240),  while  the  parliamentary  burgh  with  its  extended 
boundaries  contained  82,928  inhabitants.  Blackburn  re- 
turns two  members  to  parliament. 

BLACKCOCK  (Tetrao  telrix),  a  Gallinaceous  Bird  be- 
longing to  the  family  Tetraonidm  or  Grouse,  the  female  of 
which  is  known  as  the  Grey  Hen  and  the  young  as  Poults. 
In  size  and  plumage  the  two  sexes  offer  a  striking  contrast, 
the  male  weighing  about  4  lb,  its  plumage  for  the  most  part 
of  a  rich  glossy  black  shot  with  blue  and  purple,  the  lateral 
tail  feathers  curved  outwards  so  as  to  form,  when  raised, 
a  fan-like  criscent,  and  the  eyebrows  destitute  of  feathers 
and  of  a  bright  vermilion  red.     The  female,  on  the  other 
hand,  weighs  only  2  tb,  its  plumage  is  of  a  russet  brown 
colour  irregularly  barred  with  black,  and  its  tail  feathers 
are  of  the  ordinary  form  or  but  slightly  forked.    The  males 
are  polygamous,  and  during  autumn  and  winter  associate 
together,  feeding  in  flocks  apart  from   the  females ;  but 
with  the  approach  of  spring  they  separate,  each  selecting 
a  locality  for  itself,  from  which  it  drives  off  all  intruders, 
and  where  morning  and  evening  it  .seeks  to  attract  the  other 
sex  by  a  display  of  its  beautiful  plumage,  which  at  this 
season  attains  its  greatest  perfection,  and  by  a  peculiar  cry, 
■which  Selby  describes,  as  "  a  crowing  note,  and  another 
similar  to  the  noise  made  by  the  whetting  of  a  scythe." 
Its  nest,  composed  of  a  few  stalks  of  grass,  is  built  on  the 
ground,  usually  beneath  the  shadow  of  a  low  bush  or  a 
tuft  of  taU  grass,  and  here  the  female  lays  from  six  to  ten 
eggs  of  a  dirty-yellow  colour  speckled  with  dark  brown. 
The  blackcock  then  rejoins  his  male  associates,  and  the 
female  is  left  to  perform  the  labours  of  hatching  and  rear- 
ing her  young  brood.     The  plumage  of  both  .^lexea  is  at 
first  like  that  of  the  female,  but  after  moulting  the  young 
males  gradually  assume  the  more  brilliant  plumage  of  their 
sex.     There  are  also  many  cases  on  record,  and  specimens 
may  be  seen  in  the  principal  museums,  of  old  female  birds 
assuming,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  the  plumage  of  the 
male.     The  blackcock  is  very  generally  distributed  over 
the  highland  districts  of  Northern  and  Central  Europe,  and 
in  some  parts  of  Asia.     It  is  found  on  the  principal  heaths 
in  the  south  of  England,  but  is  specially  abundant  in  the 
Highlands  of   Scotland,  where  great  numbers  are  killed 
annually  during  the  statutory  shooting  season,  which  com- 
'  mences  on  August  20  and  extends  to  December  10.     The 
bird  does  not  occur  in  Ireland,  and  all  attempts  that  have 
hitherto  been  made  to  naturalize  it  there  have  failed,  al- 
I   though  it  now  thrives  and  breeds  in  the  south-west  of 
'    Scotland  within  21  miles  of  the  Irish  coast.     During  sum- 
mer,  blackcock  reside  chiefly  on  the  ground,  feeding  on 
seeds,  the  young  shoots  of  heath,  and  insects ;  in  autumn 
they  regularly  frequent  the  stubble  fields ;  but  in  winter 
they  perch  on  trees,  especially  the  birch  and  fir,  the  tender 
■hoots  of  which  then  form  their  principal  food. 

BLACKLOCK,  Thomas,  a  Scottish  poet  and  divine, 
was  bom  of  humble  but  respectable  parents  at  Annan,  in 
Dumfriesshire,  in  1721.  When  not  quite  six  months  old 
ho  lo.1t  his  sight  by  the  smallpox.  Under  this  misfortune, 
bis  father  and  friends  endeavoured  to  anui.se  him  as  he 
grew  up  by  reading  to  him  various  books, — among  others, 


the  works  of  Milton,  Spenser,  Prior,  Pope,  and  Addison. 
Shortly  after  the  death  of  his  father,  which  took  place  in 
1740,  some  of  Blacklock's  poems  began  to  be  handed  about 
among  his  acquaintances  and  friends,  and  a  few  specimens 
were  brought  under  the  notice  of  Dr  Stevenson  of  Edin- 
burgh, who  was  struck  by  their  merits,  and  formed  the 
design  of  giving  the  author  a  classical  education.  Black- 
lock,  in  consequence,  was  enrolled  a  student  of  divinity  in 
the  university  of  Edinburgh  in  1741,  and  continued  his 
studies  under  the  patronage  of  Dr  Stevenson  till  1745, 
when  he  retired  to  Dumfries,  and  resided  there  until  the 
close  of  the  civil  war.  When  peace  had  been  restored,  he 
returned  to  the  university,  and  during  this  residence  in 
Edinburgh  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  several  literary 
men,  in  particular  of  Hume,  who  was  extremely  useful 
to  him  in  the  publication  by  subscription  of  the  4to  edition 
of  his  poems  in  1756.  Two  editions  in  8vo  had  previ- 
ously been  published  at  Edinburgh,  in  1746  and  in  1754. 
After  applying  closely  for  a  considerable  time  to  the  study  of 
theology,  he  was  in  1762  ordained  minister  of  the  church  of 
Kirkcudbright;  but  owing  to  an  opposition  to  the  appoint- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  parishioners,  he  resigned  his  right 
to  the  living,  and  accepted  a  moderate  annuity  in  its 
stead.  In  1767  the  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity  was 
conferred  on  him  by  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen.  He 
died  on  the  7th  of  July  1791.  His  poems  are  pleasing  but 
weak  eS'usions,  and  there  is  nothing  remarkable  about  them 
save  that  they  were  w.itten  by  one  who  laboured  under  the 
misfortune  of  blindneas. 

BLACKMORE,  Sir  Richard,  a  physician,  and  volu- 
minous writer  of  theological  and  poetical  works,  was  born 
in  Wiltshire  about  1650.  He  was  educated  at  Westmin- 
ster and  Oxford,  graduated  in  medicine  at  Padua,  and 
settled  in  practice  as  a  physician  in  London.  Having  early 
declared  in  favour  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  in  1697 
chosen  one  of  King  William's  physicians  in  ordinary,  and 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  On  Queen  Anne's 
accession.  Sir  Richard  was  also  appointed  one  of  her 
physicians,  which  office  he  held  for  some  time.  He  died 
on  the  9th  October  1729.  Blackmore  had  a  passion  for 
writing  epics.  No  fewer  than  seven  long  poems  were 
published  by  him  between  1695  and  1723.  The  first  was 
Prince  Arthur,  in  10  books  ;  then  followed  King  Arthur, 
in  12  books;  Eliza,  in  10;  Creation,  m  7;  Redemption, 
in  6  ;  Nature  of  Man,  in  3  ;  and  Alfred,  in  12.  Of  these 
Creatixm,  a  philosophic  poem  directed  against  the  atomic 
theories  of  Epicurus  and  j/ucretius,  and  intended  to  refute 
the  atheism  of  Vanini,  Hobbeo,  and  Spinosa,  and  to  unfold 
the  intellectual  philosophy  of  Locke,  Las  been  the  most 
favourably  received.  Addison  and  Johnson  praised  it 
highly,  the  latter  anticipating  that  this  poem  would 
transmit  the  author  to  posterity  "  among  the  first 
favourites  of  the  English  muse."  It  would  be  hard  to  find 
grounds  for  this  expectation,  which  has  certainly  not  been 
realized.  The  poem,  like  everything  else  that  Blackmore 
wrote,  is  dull  and  tedious,  and  exhibits  in  every  part  the 
author's  want  of  true  poetic  sensibility  and  taste. 

BLACKPOOL,  aseaside  town  of  England,  in  Lancashire, 
situated  on  the  coast  to  the  north  of  the  estuary  of  the 
Ribble,  about  20  miles  W.  of  Preston  by  rail.  It  is  largely 
frequented  as  a  bathing-place.  A  good  sandy  beach, 
bracing  air,  and  a  fine  view,  arc  its  chief  attractions.  In 
the  end  of  last  century  it  was  a  mere  hamlet,  but  since  then 
it  has  gradually  increased.  It  has  two  churches,  two  market- 
halls,  a  court-house,  and  assembly  rooms.  The  parade 
affords  a  fine  promenade.  A  new  pier  was  built  in  1860. 
Population  in  1871,  6100. 

BLACKSTONE,  Sir  William,  an  eminent  English 
jurist,  was  born  at  London,  July  10,  1723.  He  was  a 
posthumous  child,  and  his  mother  died  before  h*-  was  twdv* 


B  L  A  C  K  S  T  0  N  E 


801 


years  old.  From  his  birth  the  care  of  his  education  was 
undertaken  by  bis  maternal  uncle  Thomas  Bigg,  an  eminent 
surgeon  in  London.  \S'hen  about  seven  years  old  he  was 
sent  to  the  Charterhouse  School,  and  in  1735  he  was  ad- 
mitted upon  the  foundation  there  by  the  nomination  of  Sir 
Ilobert  Walpole.-  His  progress  was  so  rapid  that  at 
the  age  of  fifteen  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  school,  and 
q\ialilied  to  be  removed  to  the  university,  and  he  was 
iccordingly  entered  a  commoner  at  Pembroke  College, 
Oxford,  on  the  30th  of  November  173S.  At  the  time  of 
entering  ho  held  an  exhibition  from  his  school,  and  in 
February  following  be  was  elected  by  his  college  to  one  of 
Lady  Holford's  exhibitions  for  Charterhouse  scholars.  He 
was  a  diligent  student,  devoting  himself  specially  though 
not  exclusively  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  poets.  At  the 
early  age  of  twenty  he  compiled  a  treatise,  entitled  Elenknts 
of'  Arc/iiteclure,  intended  fur  his  own  use  only  and  not  for 
publication,  which  was  highly  spoken  of  by  those  who  were 
permitted  to  read  it. 

Having  made  choice  of  the  profession  of  the  law,  he  was 
entered  in  the  Middle  Temple,  November  20,  1741.  In 
a  copy  of  verses  of  considerable  merit,  afterwards  published 
by  Dodsley  'in  the  fourth  volume  of  his  Miscellanies,  en- 
titled The  Laivi/er's  Farewell  to  his  ^fusf,  he  gave  utterance 
to  the  regret  with  which  he  abandoned  the  pleasing  pur- 
suits of  his  youth  for  severer  studies.  Besides  this,  several 
fu.^itive  pieces  were  at  times  communicated  by  him  to  his 
friends ;  and  he  left,  but  not  with  a  view  to  publication, 
a  small  collection  of  juvenile  pieces,  consisting  of  both 
original  poems  and  translations.  Some  notes  which  just 
before  his  death  he  communicated  to  Stcevcns,  and  which 
were  inserted  by  the  latter  in  his  last  edition  of  Shake- 
speare's works,  show  how  well  he  understood  the  meaning 
md  relished  the  beauties  of  his  favourite  English  poet. 

In  November  1743  he  was  elected  into  the  society  of 
AU  Souls'  College.  In  the  November  following  he  spoke 
the  anniversary  speech  in  commemoration  of  Archbishop 
Cbichcle,  the  founder,  and  the  other  benefactors  to  that 
house  of  learning,  and  was  at  the  same  time  admitted  actual 
fellow.  From  this  period  he  divided  his  time  between 
the  university  and  the  Temple,  where  he  took  chambers  in 
order  to  attend 'the  courts.  In  the  former  he  pursued  his 
'academical  studies,  and  on  the  12th  of  Juno  1745  took  the 
degree  of  bachelor  of  civil  law  ;  in  the  latter  he  applied 
himself  closely  to  his  profession,  both  in  the  hall  and  in 
his  private  studies;  and  on  the  28th  of  November  174G 
bo  was  called  to  the  bar.  Though  but  little  known  or 
distinguished  in  \S'estminster  Hall,  he  was  actively  cm- 
ployed,  during  his  occasional  residences  at  the  university, 
in  taking  part  in  the  internal  management  of  his  college. 
In  May  1749,  as  a  small  reward  for  his  services,  and  to 
give  him  further  opportunities  of  advancing  the  interests 
af  the  college,  Blackstone  was  appointed  steward  of  its 
manors.  In  the  same  year,  on  the  resignation  of  his  uncle, 
Seymour  llichmond,  he  was  elected  recorder  of  the  borough 
of  Wallingford  in  Berkshire.  On  the  2Gth  of  April  1750 
he  commenced  doctor  of  civil  law,  and  thereby  became  a 
member  of  the  convocation,  which  enabled  him  to  extend 
liis  views  beyond  the  narrow  circle  of  his  own  society,  to 
the  benefit  of  the  university  at  large.  In  the  summer  of 
1753  he  took  the  resolution  of  wholly  retiring  to  big  fel- 
lowship and  an  academical  life,  still  continuing  the  practice 
of  his  profession  as  a  provincial  counsel.- 

His  lectures  on  the  laws  of  England  appear  to  have  been 
an  early  and  favourite  idea ;  for  in  tie  Michaelmas  term 
immediately  after  ho  quitted  Westminster  Hall,  he  entered 
on  the  duty  of  reading  them  at  Ovfoid;  and  we  are  told 
by  the  author  of  his  Life,  that  e%i'n  at  their  commence- 
ment, the  high  expectations  formed  from  the  acknowledged 
abilities  of  the  lecturer  attracted  to  these  lectures  a  very 
3--2S 


crowded  class  of  young  men  of  the  first  families,  diarao 
ters,  and  hopes.  Bentham,  however,  declares  that  he  wa! 
a  "  for*ial,  precise,  and  atTected  lecturer — just  what  you 
would  expect  from  the  character  of  his  writings — cold, 
reserved,  and  wary,  exhibiting  a  frigid  pride."  It  was 
not  till  the  year  175S  that  the  lectures  in  the  form  they 
now  bear  were  read  in  the  university.  Mr  Viner  having 
by  his  will  left  not  only  the  copyright  of  his  abridgment, 
but  other  property  to  a  considerable  amount,  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  in  order  to  found  a  professorship,  fellow- 
ships, and  scholarships  of  common  law,  Blackstone  «as  on 
the  20th  of  October  1758  unanimously  elected  Yineriaii 
professor ;  and  on  the  25th  of  the  same  month  he  read  his 
first  introductory  lecture,  which  he  published  at  the  request 
of  the  vice-chancellor  and  heads  of  houses,  and  afterwards 
prefixed  to  the  first  volume  of  his  cck'jtated  Commmturies. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  the  Commenlaries  were  originally 
intended  for  the  press;  but  many  imperfect  and  mcorrect 
copies  having  got  into  circulation,  and  a  pirated  edition  of 
them  being  either  published  or  preparing  for  publication 
in  Ireland,  the  author  thought  proper  to  print  a  correct 
edition  himself,  and  in  November  17C5  publiilied  the  first 
volume,  under  the  title  of  Commentaries  on  Ike  Laivs  oj 
Enr/land.  The  remaining  parts  of  the  work  were  given  tc 
the  world  in  tbe  course  of  the  four  succeeding  years.  It 
ought  to  be  remarked,  that  before  this  period  the  reputa- 
tion which  his  lectures  had  deservedly  acquired  for  hini 
had  induced  him  to  resume  liis  practice  in  Westminster 
Hall  ;  and,  contrary  to  the  general  order  of  the  profession, 
he  who  had  quitted  the  bar  for  an  academic  life  was  sent 
back  from  the  college  to  the  bar  with  a  considerable  in- 
crease of  business.  He  was  likewise  elected  to  parliament, 
first  for  Hindon,  and  afterwards  for  Westbuiy  in  Wilts ; 
but  in  neither  of  these  department-  did  he  equal  the  expec- 
tations which  his  writings  had  raised.  The  part  he  took 
in  the  Middlesex  election  drew  upon  him  tbe  attacks  ol 
some  persons  of  ability  in  the  senate,  and  likewise  a  severe 
animadversion  from  the  caustic  pen  of  Ju.nus.  This  cir- 
cumstance probably  strengthened  the  aversion  he  professed 
to  parliamentary  attendance,  "where,"  he  said,  "amidst 
the  rage  of  contending  parties,  a  man  of  moderation  must 
expect  to  meet  with  no  quarter  from  any  side."  In  1770 
he  declined  the  place  of  solicitor-general ;  but  shortly  after- 
wards, on  the  promotion  of  Sir  Joseph  Yates  to  a  seat  in 
the  court  of  Comn'on  Pleas,  he  accepted  a  seat  on  the 
bench,  and  on  the  death  of  Sir  Joseph  succeeded  him  there 
also.  Blackstone  died  on  the  14lh  February  17S0,  in  the 
fifty-seventh  year  of  his  age. 

The  design  of  the  Commcntarirs  is  exhibited  in  his  first 
Vinerian  lecture  printed  in  the  introduction  to  them.  The 
author  there  dwells  on  the  importance  of  noblemen,  guntle- 
men,  and  educated  persons  generally  being  well  acquainted 
with  the  laws  of  the  country  ;  and  his  treatise,  accordingly, 
is  as  far  as  possible  a  popular  exposition  of  the  laws  of  Eng 
land.  Falling  into  the  common  error  of  identifying  the 
various  meanings  of  tbe  word  law,  he  advances  from  the  law 
of  nature  (being  either  the  revealed  or  the  inferred  will  of 
God)  to  municipal  law,  which  he  defines  to  bo  a  rule  of 
civil  conduct  prescribed  by  the  supreme  power  in  a  state 
commanding  what  is  right  and  prohibiting  what  is  wrong 
On  this  definition  ho  founds  the  division  observed  in  thi 
Commentaries.  Tbe  objects  of  law  are  rights  and  wrongs 
Rights  are  either  rights  of  persons  or  rights  of  things 
Wrongs  are  either  public  or  private.  Tliese  four  headings 
form  respectively  the  subjects  of  the  four  books  of  the 
Commailaries. 

Blackstone  was  by  no  means  what  would  now  ba  called 
a  scientific  jurist.  He  has  only  the  vaguest  possible  grasp 
of  the  elementary  conceptions  of  law.  He  evidently  regards 
the  law  of  gravitation,  the  law  of  nnti-'-e.  end  'ho  law  o( 


802 


B  L  A  —  B  L  A 


England,  as  different  examples  of  the  same  principle— as 
mles  of  action  or  conduct  imposed  by  -a  superior  gower  on 
its  subjects.  He  propounds  in  terms  a  fallacy  which  is 
perhaps  not  yet  quite  expelled  from  courts  of  law,  viz.,  that 
municipal  or  positive  laws  derive  their  validity  from  their 
conformity  to  the  so-called  law  of  nature  or  law  of  God. 
"No  human  laws,"  he  says,  "  are  of  any  validity  if  contrary 
to  this."  His  distinction  between  righ'-S  of  persons  and 
rights  of  things,  implying,  as  it  would  appear,  that  things 
as,  well  as  persons  have  rights,  is  attributable  to  a  mis- 
understanding of  the  technical  terms  of  the  Roman  law. 
In  distinguishing  between  private  and  public  wrongs  (civil 
injuries  and  crimes)  he  fails  to  seize  the  true  principle  of 
the  division.  Austin,  wbo  accused  him  of  following 
slavishly  the  method  of  Hale's  Ana/ysis  of  the  L<iw,  declares 
tbat  he  "  bhndly  adopts  the  mistakes  of  his  rude  and  com- 
pendious model ,  missing  invariably,  with  a  nice  and  sur- 
prising infelicity,  the  pregnant  but  obscure  suggestions 
which  it  proffered  to  his  attention,  and  which  would  have 
guided  a  discerning  and  inventive  writer  to  an  arrangement 
comparatively  just."  By  the  want  of  precise  and  closely- 
deSned  terrtis,  and  his  tendency  to  substitute  loose  literary 
phrases,  he  falls  occasionally  into  irreconcilable  con- 
tradictions. Even  in  discussing-  a  subject  of  such  immense 
importance  as  equity,  he  hardly  takes  pains  to  discriminate 
between  the  legal  and  popular  senses  of  the  word,  and,  from 
the  small  place  which  equity  jurisprudence  occupies  in  his 
arrangement,  he  would  scarcely  seem  to  have  realized  its 
true  position  in  the  law  of  England.  Subject,  however,  to 
these  strictures  the  completeness  of  the  treatise,  its  service- 
able if  not  scientific  order,  and  the  power  of  lucid  exposi- 
tion possessed  by  the  author  demand  emphatic  recognition. 
Blackstono's  defects  as  a  jurist  are  more  conspicuous  in  his 
treatment  of  the  underlying  principles  and  fundamental 
divisions  of  the  law  than  in  his  account  of  its  substantive 
principles. 

Blackstone  by  no  means  confines  himself  to  the  work  of 
a  legal  commentatot      It  is  his  business,  especially  when 
he  touches  on  the  framework  of  society,  to  find  a  basis  in 
history  and  reason  for  all  our  most  characteristicinstitutions. 
There  is  not  much  either  of  pliilosopny  or  fairness  in  this 
part  of  his  work.     Whether  through  the  natural  conserva- 
tism of  a  lawyer,  or  through  his  own  timidity  and    sub- 
serviency as  a  man  and  a  politician,  he  is  always  found  to 
be  a  specious  defender  of   the  existing  order  of  things. 
Bcntham  accuses  him  of  being  the  enemy  of  all  reform,  and 
the  unscrupulous  champion  of  every  form  of  professional 
chicanery.     Au.stin  says  that  he  truckled  to  the  sinister 
interests  and  mischievous  prejudices  of  power,  and  that  he 
flattered  the  overweening  conceit  of  the  English  in  their 
own  institutions.     He  displ.iys  much  ingenuity  in  giving  a 
plausible  form  to  common  prejudices  and  fallacies ,  but  it 
is  by  no  means  clear  that  he  was  not  imposed  upon  himself. 
More  undeniable  than  the  political  fairness  of  the  treatise 
IS  its  merit  as  a  work  of  literature.     It  is  written  in  a  most 
graceful  and  attractive  style,  and  although  no  opportunity 
of.  embellishment  has  been  lost,  the  language  is  always 
simple  and  clear.    Whether  it  is  owing  to  its  literary  graces, 
or  to  its  success  in  flattering  the  prejudices  of  the  public  to 
which   it   was   addressed,  the  influence   of   the  book  in 
England  has  been  extraordinary.     Not  lawyers  oiily,  and 
lawyers  perhaps  even  less  than  others,  accepted  it  as  an 
authoritative   revelation    of   the   law.      It   performed   for 
educated  society  in  England  much  the  same  service  as  was 
rendered  to  the  people  of  Rome  by  the  publication  of  their 
previously  unknown  laws.     It  is  more  correct  to  regard  it 
as   a   handbook    of   the  law  for  laj-racn  than  as  a  legal 
treatise  ;  and  as  the  fi.-si  and  only  book  of  the  kind   in 
England    it    has    been    received    with    somewhat    indis- 
crimioating  rcvcronca     It  is  certain  that  a  vas'  nniDi-nt  nf 


the  constitutional  sentiment  of  the  v.ountry  has  been 
inspiijed  by  its  pages.  To  this  day  Blackstone's  criticism 
of  the  English  constitution  would  probably  express  the 
most  profound  political  convictions- of  the  majority  of  the 
English  people.  Long  after  it  has  ceased  to  be  of  much 
practical  value  as  an  authority  in  the- courts,  it  remains  the 
arbiter  of  all  public  discussions  on  the  law  or  the  constitu- 
tion. On  such  occasions  the  Commentaries  are  apt  to  be 
construed  as  strictly  as  if  they  were  a  code.  It  is  amusing 
to  observe  how  much  importance  is  attached  to  the  ipsi:- 
sima  verba  of  a  writer  who  aimed  more  at  presenting  a  pic- 
ture intelligible  to  laymen  than  at  recording  the  principles 
of  the  law  with  technical  accuracy  of  detail.  (e.  v..) 

BLAINVILLE,  He.nei-Maeie  Ducrotay  de,  a  dis 
tinguished  naturalist,  was  born  at  Arques,  near  Dieppe, 
Sept.  V2,  1777.  About  the  year  1795  he  entered  the 
school  of  design  at  Rouen,  but  after  a  very  short  time  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Vincent  the 
painter.  Attracted  by  the  lectures  of-  Cuvier  and  other 
eminent  professors  in  the  College  of  France,  he  commenced 
the  study  of  anatomy,  and  in  1808  he  took  the  degree  of 
M.D.  He  now  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  natural 
history,  particularly  the  department  of  myology,  and  he 
soon  attracted  the  attention  of  Cuvier,  who  engaged  him 
to  draw  some  figures  for  one  of  his  works,  and  to  cany 
out  some  of  the  practical  work  of  anatomy.  He  was  also 
chosen  by  that  illustrious  professor  to  supply  his  place  on 
occasions  at  the  College  of  France  and  at  the  Athen:euiM, 
and  in  1812  he  obtained  the  vacant  chair  of  anatomy  and 
zoology  in  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  at  Pans.  His  some- 
what irascible  disposition  was  probably  one  cause  of  the 
subsequent  estrangement  between  him  and  Cuvier,  whicli 
ended  in  an  open  and  irreconcilable  enmity.  In  1825 
BUinville  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Academy  ol 
Sciences;  and  in  1830  he  was  appointed  to  succeed 
Lamarck  in  the  chair  of  natural  histury  at  the  museum. 
Tfiis  he  resigned  in  1832,  being  appointed  on  the  death  of 
Cuvier  to  the  chair  of  comparative  anatomy,  wliich  he 
continued  to  occupy  for  the  space  of  eighteen  years,  and 
in  the  conduct  of  which  he  proved  himself  no  unworthy 
successor  to  his  great  teacher.  BlainviUe-was  found  dead 
in  a  railway  carriage  while  travelling  between  Rouen  anci 
Caen,  May'l,  1850. 

Beside.i  a  gre-it  variety  of  separate  memoirs,  he  was  the  autlior  of 
Prodrome  d'lvie  NoiivcUe  DistnhrUion  M^hodiqite.du  liegne  Animal, 
I-S16  ,  Osteographif  ou  Dfscriptton  Imnoi^raphique  Comparet  iht 
S'jueldtc,  ^c  .  faniu- fran^aise^  1821-1830,  Coiirs  dii  i'fiij^toto'iii 
Generate  et  Comjinrce,  1833  ,  Mo.nucl  dc  Mnt(Uologie  et  dc  Conch.j- 
liolngie,  1825-1S27  ,  Hisloirc  des  S'iunccs Naturcilci  au  Uoijcn  Aijc, 
1845. 

BLAIR,  or  Port-Blajr,  the  chief  place  in  the  convict 

settlement  of  the-  Andaman  Islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  is 
situated  on  the  south-cast  shore  of  the  South  Andaman 
Island,  in  11"  42' N  lat.  and  93"  E.  l.mg  In  1789  it  waS 
selected  as  a  convict  settlement,  under  orders  of  the  Indian 
Government,  by'^.ieutenant  Blair,  R.  N.,  whose  name  the 
port  bears.  It  p(i.-!.<esses  one  of  the  best  harbours  in 
Asia,  while  its  central  position  in  the  Bay  of  Bciig.il  gives 
it  immense  advantage  as  a  place  of  naval  rendezvous  for 
military  oiierations  in  this  part  of  the  world.  For  furthci 
particulars  see  Andaman  Islands. 

BLAIR.  Du  Iluon,  was  boru  April,  7,  1718,  at  Edin- 
burgh, where  his  father  was  a  merchant.  He  entered 
Edinburgh  University  in  1730  and  won  the  favourable 
notice  of  Professor  Stevenson  by  an  essay  on  the  Beauti- 
ful, written  for  the  logic  class  in  Ins  sixteenth  year.  On 
taking  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1739,  he  printed  a  thesis 
Dc  Funilamentiset  Obbijattone Lcjis  iVa/iim',  which  contains 
an  outline  of  the  moral  principles  nfterward.s  unfolded  in 
his  sermons.  He  xvas  licensed  to  ]Treacli  in  1741,  and  in 
a  few  months  the  earl  of  Levun,  hciriiig  of  his  eloquence. 


B  L  A  —  B  L  A 


803 


presented  bim  to  the  parish  of  CoUcssic  in  Fife.  In  1 74-3 
Li;  was  elected  to  the  secoud  charge  of  llie  Canongate 
L  iiureh,  Edinburgh,  where  he  performed  the  (lastoral 
duties  with  great  success,  until  removed  to  Lady  Yester's, 
cue  of  the  city  churches,  in  1754.  He  married  his  cousin, 
Kalherine  Bannatyne,  in  1748,  and  by  her  bad  a  son,  who 
died  in  infancy,  and  a  dauchter  who  lived  to  her  twenty- 
iirst  year.  In  1757  the  University  of  St  Andrews  con- 
fc;rrcd  on  him  the  degree  of  D.D.,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  was  promoted  to  the  High  Church,  Edinburgh,  the 
most  important  charge  in  Scotland.  In  1759  he  com- 
menced, under  the  patronage  of  Lord  Kamcs,  to  deliver  a 
course  of  lectures  on  composition,  the  success  of  which  led 
tu  the  foundation  of  a  chair  of  rhetoric  and  belles  lettres 
in  the  Edinburgh  Univer.<;ity.  To  this  chair  he  was 
appointed  in  1702,  with  a  salarj'  of  £10  a  year.  Having 
long  taken  interest  in  the  Celtic  poetry  of  the  Highlands, 
he  published  in  17C3  a  laudatory  Dissertation  on  Mac- 
phersou's  Ossian,  of  which  he  maintained  the  authen- 
ticity. This  critique,  after  being  greatly  overrated  at  the 
time,  has  now  fallen  into  neglect.  In  1777  the  6rst  volume 
of  his  Ser^ions  appeared.  It  was  succeeded  by  other  four 
volumes,  all  of  which  met  with  the  greatest  success.  Dr 
Samuel  Johnson  praised  them  warmly.  "  I  love  Blair's 
i^rmons,"  Johnson  said,." his  doctrine  is  the  best  limited, 
the  best  expressed;  there  is  the  most  warmth  without 
fanaticism,  the  most  rational  transport."  The  Sennmii 
were  translated  into  almost  every  language  of  Europe, 
and  in  1780,  to  signify  the  royal  approbation,  CJeorgt  III. 
conferred  upon  him  a  pension  of  i:200  a  year.  In  '783 
he  retired  from  his  professorship  and  published  his  Lectures 
ori  R/utoric  which  he  l^ad  carefully  revised,  and  w.hicli 
have  been  frequently  rejirinlcd.  He  died,  after  a  brief 
illness,  on  the  l!7th  December  1801.  In  the  church  EUiir 
belonged  to  the  "  moderate  "  or  latitudinarian  party,  and 
his  Her/nons  have  been  objected  to  as  deficient  in  doctrinal 
definiteness.  His  once  brilliant  reputation  is  now  becom- 
ing forgotten.  His  works  display  little  originality,  but  arc 
written  in  a  flowing  and  elaborate  style ;  and  his  lOutoric, 
although  infcrioi  to  Campbell's,  and  wanting' in  research  and 
depth  of  thought,  is  unworthy  of  the  neglect  it  has  met  with. 
BLAIK,  ItoBKKT,  author  of  the  «ell  known  poem  entitled 
TUe  Grave,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  Rev.  Kobert  Blair, 
of  Edinburgji.  He  was  probably  born  at  Edinburgh 
about  the  year  1700,  and  at  the  university  of  that  cily  Lo 
received  the  elements  of  a  classical  education.  He  aller- 
wards  spent  some  time  on  the  Continent.  Upon  his  return 
be  took  prders,  and  in  1731  was  ordained  minister  of  Athel- 
Btancford,  iu  East  Lothian,  where  he  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  He  died  of  fever,  February  4,  174G,  and  was 
B'.icceedcd  in  his  living  by  John  Home,  the  author  of  Dovglas. 
His  fourth  son  became  lord-president  of  the  Court  of  Ses- 
sion. Blair  wrote  several  other  pieces  besides  The  Grave;  but 
that  poem  alone  constitutes  his  title  to  rank  a.s  a  poet.  It 
consists  of  a  succession  of  descriptions  and  reflections,  which 
have  no  other  connection  except  what  they  may  derive  from 
their  relation  to  a  common  subject,  but  these  arc  intcr- 
fperscd  with  striking  allusions,  picturesque  imagery,  touches 
of  a  rude  though  ctieclive  pathos,  and  a  vein  of  sentiment 
at  once  natural  and  just.  The  rhythm  is  often  harsh,  and 
the  versification  frequently  devoid  of  correctness,  harmony, 
and  grace  ;  but  it  has  nevertheless  a  masculine  vigour  and 
freshness  about  it,  which  more  than  atone  for  the  defects  in 
the  finishing ;  while,  in  certain  moods  of  the  mind,  the  air 
of  deep  and  almost  misanthropical  melancholy  diffused  over 
the  whole  proves  highly  touching  and  impressive.  Camp- 
bell, in  the  Pleasures  of  Uope,  has  borrowed,  with  a  slight 
variation,  a  line  from  this  poem — 

"Its  visits. 
Like  those  of  angels,  short  and  far  Ictwccn." 


The  vigorous,  though  occasionally  rather  forced,  poetic 
conceptions  of  the  author  of  The  Grave,  were  finely  illus- 
trated ill  Ciomek's  edition,  published  in  ISOS,  by  the 
grandly  wild  designs  of  William  Blake,  engraved  by  the 
delicate  burin  of  Sehiavonetti.  The  Grave  was  first  printed 
at  London  in  1743. 

BLAKE,  Robert,  the  famous  English  admiral  of  the 
Commonwealth,  was  born  at  Bridgwater  in  Somersetshire, 
in  August  1598.     His  birth  thus  falls  in  the  year  befor"; 
that  of  Cromwell;  their  lives  ran  parallel  in  the  service  of 
their   country ;   their   characters  present   many  points  of 
likeness ;  and  they  died  within  a  few  months  of  each  other. 
Blake  was  the  eldest  son  of  a  well-to-do  merchant,  and 
received  his  early  education  at  the   grammar  school  of 
Bridgwater.     At  the  age  of  si.\tccn  he  was  sent  to  Oxforu, 
entering  at  first  St  Alban's  Hall,  but  removing  afterwards 
to  Wadham  College,  then  recently  founded  by  his  father's 
friend,  Nicholas  Wadham.     He  remained  at  the  university 
till    1 023,  and  though   certainly  not  wanting   in   ability 
or  in  diligence,   he  tnissed,  for   some  reason  not  clearly 
ascertained,  such  college  preferment  as  he  naturally  aimed 
at.     From   Oxford,  after  taking  his  degree  of  JI.A.,  he 
returned  to  his  father's  house,  where,  through  the  memor- 
able and  troubled  years  which  followed,  he  led  a  quiet  and 
retired  life.     His  thorough  honesty,  his  public  spirit  and 
disinterestedness,  his   courageous   utterance   of   what   ho 
thought  of  the  court  and  the  church,  of  shipmoney  and  the 
High  Commission  Court  and  the  licence  of  the  times,  niado 
him  a  man  of  mark  among  his  neighbours.     And  when, 
after  eleven  years  of  kingsh-.p  without  parliaments,  a  parlia- 
ment was  summoned  to  meet  in  April  1G40,  Blake  wa? 
elected  by  the  Presbyterian  party  to  represent  his  native 
borough.     This  parliament,  named  "  the  Short,"  was  dis- 
solved in  three  weeks,  and  the  career  of  Blake  as  a  poli- 
tician was  suspended.     Two  years  later  llie  inevitable  con 
fiict   began.      Blake   declared   for   the  Parliament;    and 
thinking,  says  Johnson,  a  bare  declaration  for  right  not 
all  the  duty  of  a  good  man,  he  raised  a  troop  of  horse 
in  his  county,  and  rendered  such  efliiicnt  seivice,  that  in 
1643  he  was  cntmsted   with  flic  coniniand  of  one  of  the 
forts  of  Bristol.     This  be  stoutly  held  dairing  the  siege  of 
the  town  by  Prince  Rupert,  and  was  near  being  hung  for 
continuing  his  resistance  after  the  governor  Lad  capitulated. 
In  the  following  year  Colonel   Bhike  took   Taunton   by 
surprise,  and  notwithstanding  its  imperfect  defences  and 
inadequate   supplies,   held   (he   tcwn   for   the   Parliament 
against  two  sieges  by  the  Royalists,  until  July  IC45,  when 
it  was  relieved  by  Fairfax.     Blake  did  not  approve  of  the 
trial  and  execution  of  Charles  I. ;  but  he  adhered  to  the 
Parliamentary  party  after  the  king's  death,  and  within  a 
month  (February  1049)  was  appointed,  with  Colonels  Dean 
and  Popham,  to  the  command  of  the  fleet,  under  the  title 
of  General  of  the  Sea.     In  April  he  w.is  sent  in  pursuit  of 
Prince  Rupert,  who  with  the  Royalist  fleet  bad  entered  the 
harbour  of  Kinsale  in  Ireland.     There  he  blockaded  ihe 
Prince  for  six  months ;  and  when  the  latter,  in  want  ol 
pro\-isions,  and  hopeless  of  relief,  succeeded  in  making  his 
c'lcapo  with  the  fleet  and  in  reaching  the  Tagus,  Blake 
followed  him  thither,  and  again  blockaded  him  for  some 
months.    The  king  of  Portugal  refusing  permission  for  Blake 
to  attack  bis  cntmy,  the  latter  made  reprisals  by  falling  or 
the  Portuguese  fleet,  richly  laden,  returning  from  Brazil, 
He  captured  seventeen  ships  and  burnt  three,  bringing  his 
prizes  home  without  molestation.     After  revictualling  bit 
fleet,  he  sailed  again,  captured  a  French  man-of-war,  and 
then  pursued  Prince  Rupert  once  more  to  the  harbour  ol 
Carthagena.      The    Spanish    governor   would    not   allow 
him  to  violate  the  peace  of  a  neutral  port,  and  he  there- 
fore withdrew.     In  January  1C51  he  at  last  attacked  the 
Boyali''*  fleet  in  Malaga  harbour,  and  destroyed  the  whole 


fi04 


BLAKE 


with  the  exception  of  two  sliips.  In  consequence  of  the 
Portuguese  protest  against  his  proceedings,  a  formal  investi- 
gation was  instituted  in  England,  which  resulted  in  the 
approval  of  the  home  authorities.  The  thanks  of  Par- 
liament wore  voted  to  Blake,  and  he  was  appointed  warden 
of  the  Cinque  Ports.  lie  was  continued  in  his. office  of 
a.dmiral  and  general  of  the  sea;  and  in  May  following  he 
'.ook,  in  conjunction  with  Ayscue,  the  Scilly  Islands.  For 
this  service  the  thanks  of  Parliament  were  again  awarded 
him,  and  he  was  soon  after  made  a  member  of  the  Council 
of  State.  In  1652  war  broke  out  with  the  Dutch,  who 
had  made  great  preparations  for  the  conflict.  In  March 
the  command  of  the  fleet  was  given  to  Blake  for  nine 
months;  and  in  the  middle  of  May  the  Dutch  fleet  of 
forty-five  ships,  led  by  their  great  admiral  Van  Tromp, 
appeared  in  the  Downs.  Blake,  who  had  only  twenty  ships, 
sailed  to  meet  them,  and  the  battle  took  place  off  Dover 
on  May  19.  The  Dutch  were  defeated  in  an  engagement 
of  four  or  five  hours,  lost  two  ships,  and  withdrew  under 
cover  of  darkness.  Attempts  at  accommodation  were  made 
by  the  States,  but  they  failed.  Early  in  July  war  was 
formally  declared,  and  in  the  same  month  Blake  captured 
a  large  part  of  the  Dutch  fishery-fleet  and  the  twelve  men- 
of-war  that  formed  their  convoy.  On  September  2S,  Blake 
and  Penn  again  encountered  the  Dutth  fleet,  now  com- 
manded by  Do  Ruyter  and  Do  Witt,  ni  the  Downs, 
defeated  it,  and  chased  it  for  two  days.  The  Dutch  took 
refuge  in  Goree.  A  third  battle  was  fought  near  the  end 
of  November.  By  this  time  the  ships  under  Blake's  com- 
mand had  been  reduced  in  number  to  forty,  and  nearly  the 
half  of  these  were  useless  for  want  of  seamen.  Van  Tromp, 
who  had  been  reinstated  in  command,  appeared  in  the 
Downs,  with  a  fleet  of  eighty  ships  besides  ten  fire-ships. 
Blake,  nevertheless,  risked  a  battle,  but  was  defeated,  and 
withdrew  into  the  Thames.  It  was  in  his  first  elation  at 
this  victory  that  Van  Tromp  carried  the  broom  at  his  ma.st- 
head  in  his  passage  through  the  Channel,  as  a  pledge  of  his 
determination  to  sweep  the  English  off  the  seas.  His  bra- 
vado was  speedily  avenged.  The  English  fleet  having  been 
refitted,  put  to  sea  again  in  February  1C53;  and  on  the 
)Sth,  Blake,  at  the  head  of  eighty  ships,  encountered  Van 
Tromp  in  the  Channel.  The  Dutch  force,  according  to 
Clarendon,  numbered  100  ships  of  war,  but  according  to  the 
official  repvts  of  the  Dutch,  only  seventy.  The  battle 
was  severe,  and  continued  through  three  days,  the  Dutch 
however  retreating,  and  taking  refuge  in  the  shallow  waters 
off  the  French  coast.  In  this  action  Blake  was  severely 
wounded.  In  the  change  of  Government  introduced  by 
the  dismissal  of  the  Long  Parliament  by  Cromwell  (April 
1653)  Blake  did  not  interfere.  "It  is  not,"  he  said,  "the 
business  of  a  seaman  to  mind  state  affairs,  but  to  hinder 
foreigners  from  fooling  us."  The  three  English  admirals 
put  to  sea  again  in  May  ;  and  on  Juno  3d  and  4th  another 
battle  was  fought  near  the  North  Foreland.  On  the  first 
day  Dean  and  Monk  were  repulsed  by  Van  Tromp  ;  but  on 
the  second  day  the  scales  wcro  turned  by  the  arrival  of 
Blake,  and  the  Dutch  retreated  to  the  Texel.  Ill  health  now 
compelled  Blake  to  retire  from  the  service  for  a  time,  and  he 
did  not  appear  again  on  the  seas  for  about  eighteen  months ; 
meanwhile  he  sat  as  a  member  of  the  Little  Parliament 
( Barebones's).  In  November  Idbi  ho  was  selected  by 
•Cromwell  to  conduct  a  fleet  to  the  Mediterranean  to  exact 
compensation  from  the  Duke  of  Tuscany,  the  knights  of 
Malta,  and  the  piratical  states  of  North  Africa,  for  wrongs 
done  to  English  merchants.  This  mission  ho  executed 
with  his  accustomed  spirit  and  with  complcto  success. 
Tunis  alone  dared  to  resist  his  flcnnnds,  and  Tunis  paid  the 
peijally  of  the  destruction  of  its  two  fortresses  by  English 
guns.  In  the  winter  of  1655-56,  war  being  declared 
Qgaiost  Spain,  Blake  was  sent  to  cruise  off  Cadiz  and  the 


neighbouring  coasts,  to  intercept  the  Spanish  shippifij. 
One  of  his  captains  captured  a  part  of  the  Plate  fleet-  in 
September  1656.  Id  April  1657  Blake,  then  in  very  ill 
health,  suffering  from  dropsy  and  scurvy,'  and  an.\ious  to 
have  assistance  in  his  arduous  duties,  heard  that  the  Plate 
fleet  lay  at  anchor  in  the  bay  of  Santa  Cruz,  in  the  island 
of  Teneriffe.  The  position  was  a  very  strong  one,  defended 
by  a  castle  and  several  forts  with  guns.  Under  the 
shelter  of  these  lay  a  fleet  of  sixteen  ships  drawn  up  in 
crescent  order.  Captain  Stajmer  was  ordered  to  enter  the 
bay  and  fall  on  the  fleet.  This  he  did.  Blake  followed 
hiiu.  Broadsides  were  poured  into  the  castle  and  the  forts 
at  the  same  time  ;  and  soon  nothing  was  left  but  ruined 
walls  and  charred  fragments  of  burnt  ship.s.  The  wind 
was  blowing  hard  into  the  bay ;  but  suddenly,  and 
fortunately  for  the  heroic  Blake,  it  shifted,  and  carried  him 
safely  nut  to  sea.  "  The  whole  action,"  says  Clarendon,  "  was 
so  incredible  that  all  men  who  know  the  place  wondered 
that  any  sober  man^-with  what  courage  soever  endowed, 
would  ever  have  undertaken  it ;  and  they  could  hardly 
persuade  themselves  to  believe  wliat  they  had  done ;  while 
the  Spaniards  comforted  themselves  with  the  belief  that 
they  were  devils  and  not  men  who  had  destroyed  them  in 
such  a  manner."  The  English  lost  one  ship  and  20Q  men 
killed  and  wounded.  -The  thanks  of  Parliamant  were 
voted  to  oflicers  and  men ;  and  a  vcrycostly  jewel 
(diamond  ring)  w'as  presented  to  Blake,  "  as  a  testimony," 
says  Cromwell  in  his  letter  of  June  10th,  "of  our  own  and 
the  Parliament's  good  acceptance  of  your  carriage  in  this 
action."  "This  was  the  last  action, of  the  brave  Blake." 
After  again  cruising  for  a  time  off  Cadiz,  his  health  faihng 
more  and  more,  he  was  compelled  to  make  homewards 
before  the  summer  was  over.  He  died  at  sea,  but  within 
sight  of  Plymouth,  August  17,  1657.  His  body  was 
brought  to  London  and  embalmed,  and  after  lying  in  state 
at  Greenwich  House  was  interred  with  great  pomp  and 
solemnity  in  Westminster  Abbey.  In  1661  Charles  II. 
disgraced  himself  by  ordering  the  exhumation  of  Blake's 
body,  with  those  of  the  mother  and  daughter  of  Cromwell 
and  several  others.  They  were  cast  out  of  the  abbey,  and- 
were  reburicd  in  the  churchyard  of  St  Margaret's.  "  But 
that  regard,"  says  Johnson,  "  which  was  denied  his  body 
has  been  paid  to  his  better  remains,  his  name  and  his 
memory.  Nor  has  any  writer  dared  to  cjpny  him  the 
praise  of  intreiiidity,  honesty,  contempt  of  wealth,  and  bve 
of  his  country."  Clarendon  bears  the  following  testimony 
to  his  excellence  as  a  commander: — "He 'was  the  first 
man  that  declined  the  old  track,  and  made  it  apparent  that 
the  science  might  be  attained  in  less  time  than  was  imagined. 
He  was  the  first  man  that  brought  ships  to  contemn  castles 
on  the  shore,  which  had  ever  been  thought  very  formidable, 
hut  wore  discovered  by  him  to  make  a  noise  only,  and  to 
fright  those  who  could  be  rarely  hurt  by  them."  A  life 
of  Blake  is  included  in  the  work  entitled  Lives,  Eiujlish 
and  Fordyn.  Dr  Johnson'wrote  a  short  life  of  him,  and 
in  1852  appeared  Mr  Hepworth  Dixon's  fuller  narrative, 
liohcrt  Blah;  Admiral  and  General  at  Sea.  (w.  L.  R.  C. ) 
•  BLAKE,  William,  poet  and  painter, was  born  in  London, 
on  28th  November  1767.  His  father,  James  Blake,  kept 
a  hosier's  shop  in  Broad  Street,  Golden  Square ;  and  from 
the  scanty  education  which  the  youcg  artist  received,  it 
may  bo  judged  that  the  circumstances  of  the  family  wcro 
not  very  prosperous.  For  the  facts  of  William  Blake's 
early  life  the  world  is  indebted  to  a  little  book,  called  A 
Father's  Memoirs  on  a  C/iild,  written  by  Dr  Malkin,  and 
published  in  1806.  Here  'we  learn  that  young  Blake 
quickly  developed  a  taste  for  design,  which  his  father 
appears  to  have  had  suflicieiit  intelligence  to  recognize  and 
assist  by  every  means  in  his  power.  At  the  nge  of  ten 
Iho  boy  was  sent  to  a  drawing  school  kept  by  Mr  Par.<i 


D  L  A  K  E. 


805 


in  the  Strand,  and  at  Cuo  same  time  he.  was  already 
cultivating  his  own  taste  by  cousian).  attciidancc  uc  thd 
dilTerent  art  sale  rooms,  where  he  was  known  as  the  "  Httle 
connoisseur."  Here  he  began  to  collect  prints  after  Michel 
Angolo,  and  Raphael,  Durer,  and  Hcraskerk,  while  at  the 
school  in  the  Strand  he  had  the  opportunity  of  drawing 
from  the  antique.  After  four  years  of  this  preliminary 
instruction  Blake  entered  upon  another  branch  of  art 
study.  In  1777  he  was  apprenticed  to  Jamea  Basire,  an 
engraver  of  repute,  and  with  him  he  remaineu  seven  years. 
His  apprenticeship  had  an  important  bearing  on  Blake's 
artistic  education,  and  marks  the  department  of  art  in 
which  he  was  made  technically  prolicienl.  In  177S.  at  the 
'jnd  of  his  apprenticeship,  he  proceeded  to  the  school  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  where  he  continued  his  early  study  from 
the  antique,  and  had  for  the  first  time  an  opportunity  of 
drawing  from  the  living  model. 

This  IS  in  brief  all  that  is  known  of  Blake's  artistic  educa- 
tion. That  he  ever,  at  the  academy  or  elsewhere,  systema- 
fically  studied  painting  wo  do  not  know ,  but  that  he  had 
already  begun  the  practice  of  water  colour  for  himself  is 
ascertained  So  far,  however,  the  course  of  his  training 
in  art  schools,  and  under  Basire,  was  calculated  to  render 
him  proficient  only  as  a  draughtsman  and  an  engraver. 
He  had  learned  how  to  draw,  and  he  had  mastered  besides 
the  practical  dilficulties  of  engraving,  and  with  these 
qualifications  he  entered  upon  Ins  career  In  1780  he 
exhibited  a  picture  in  the  Royal  Academy  Exhibition,  con- 
jectured to  have  been  executed  in  water  colours,  and  he 
continued  to  contribute  to  the  annual  exhibitions  up^to 
the  year  I80S.  In  1782  he  married  Catberiue  Boucher,  the 
daughter  of  a  market-gardener  at  Batter.-sea,  with  whom  he 
lived  always  on  affectionate  terms,  and  the  young  couple 
after  their  marriage  established  themselves  in  Green  Street, 
Leicester  Fields.  Blake  had  already  become  acquainted 
with  some  of  the  rising  artists  of  his  time,  amongst  them 
Stothard,  Flaxinan,  and  Fuseli,  and  he  now  began  to  see 
sninelhiiig  of  literary  society.  At  the  house  of  ths  Rev. 
Henry  Mathew,  in  liathbone  Place,  he  used  to  recite  and 
sometimes  to  sing  poems  of  his  own  composition,  and  it 
was  through  the  influence  of  this  gentleman,  combined  with 
that  of  Flaxinan,  that  Blake's  first  volume  of  poetry  was 
printed  and  published  in  1783  From  this  time  forward 
the  artist  came  before  the  world  in  a  double  capacity.  By 
education  as  well  as  native  talent,  he  was  pledged  to  the 
life  of  a  painter,  and  these  Poetical  Skeiches,  though  they 
are  often  no  more  than  the  utterances  of  a  boy,  are  no  less 
decisive  in  marking  Blake  as  a  future  poet 

For  a  while  the  two  gifts  are  exhibited  in  associatnm 
To  the  close  of  his  life  Blako  continued  to  print  and 
publish,  after  a  manner  of  his  own,  the  inventions  of  his 
verse  illustrated  by  'iiginal  designs,  but  there  is  a 
certain  period  in  his  career  when  the  union  of  the  two 
gifts  is  peculiarly  close,  and  when  their  service  to  one 
another  IS  unquestionable.  In  1784  Blake,  moving  from 
Green  Street,  set  up  in  company  with  a  fellow-pupil, 
Parker,  as  print-seller  and  engraver  next  to  his  father's  house 
in  Broad  Street,  Golden  Square,  but  in  1787  this  partnur- 
nhip  was  severed,  and  he  established  an  uidcpeiidcnt 
business  in  Poland  Street.  It  was  from  this  house,  and 
in  1787,  that  the  Songs  of  Innocence  were  published,  a  work 
that  must  t-lways  be  remarkable  for  beauty  both  of 
verse  and  of  design,  as  well  .as  fr^r  the  singular  method  by 
which  the  two  were  combined  and  expressed  by  the  artisL 
Blake  became  in  f.act  his  own  printer  and  publisher.  He 
engraved  upon  copper,  by  a  process  devised  by  himself, 
both  the  text  of  his  poems  and  the  surrounding  decorative 
design,  and  to  the  pages  printed  from  the  copper  plates 
iin  appropriate  colouring  w.is  afterwards  added  by  hand 
The  poetic  cuuus  already  discernible  in  the  first  volume 


of  Poetical  Sketches  is  here  more  decisively  expressed,  aad 
some  of  the  songs  in  this  volume  deserve  to  take  rank 
with  the  best  things  of  their  kind  in  our  literature.  In 
an  age  of  enfeebled  poetic  style,  when  Wordsworth,  with 
more  weighty  apparatus,  had  as  yet  scarcely  begun  liis 
reform  of  English  versification,  Blake,  unaided  by  any 
contemporary  induence,  produced  a  work  of  fresh  and 
living  beauty  ,  and  if  the  Songs  of  Innocence  established 
Blake's  claim  to  the  title  of  poet,  the  setting  in  which 
they  were  given  to  the  world  proved  that  he  was  also 
something  more  For  the  full  developmeut  of  his 
artistic  powers  we  have  to  wait  till  a  later  date,  but  here 
at  legist  he  exhibits  a  just  and  original  understanding  of 
the  sources  01  decorative  beauty  Each  page  of  thefo 
poems  IS  a  study  of  design,  full  of  invention,  and  often 
wrought  with  the  utmost  delicacy  of  workmanship.  The 
artist  retained  to  the  end  this  feeling  for  decorative  effect ; 
but  as  time  went  on,  he  considerably  enl.arged  the  imagfni' 
tive  scope  of  his  work,  and  decoration  then  became  the 
condition  rather  than  the  aim  of  his  labour. 

Notwithstanding  the  distinct  and  precious  qualities  o( 
this  volume,  it  attracted  but  slight  attention,  a  fact  per 
haps  not  very  wonderful,  when  the  system  of  publication 
IS  taken  into  account.  Blake,  however,  proceeded  with 
other  work  of  the  satce  kind.  The  same  year  he  pub- 
lished The  Book  of  Thel,  more  decidedly  mystic  in  its  poetry, 
but  scarcely  less  beautiful  as  a  piece  of  illumination  ,  The 
Marriage  of  Heaven,  and  Hell  followed  in   1790  ,  and  in 

1793  there  are  added  Tlie  Gates  of  Paradise,  The  Vision  of 
llie  Daughters  of  Albion,  smd  some  other  "  Prophetic  Books," 
It  becomes  abundantly  clear  oh  reaching  this  point  in  his 
career,  that  Blake's  utterances  cannot  be  judged  by 
ordinary    rules      The  Songs  of   Experience,  put    forth  in 

1794  as  a  companion  to  the  earlfer  Songs  of  Innocence,  are 
for  the  most  part  intelligible  and  coherent,  but  in  these 
intervening  works  of  prophecy,  as  they  were  called  by  the 
author,  we  get  the  first  public  expression  of  that  phase 
of  his  character  3nd  of  his  genius  upon  which  a  charge 
of  insanity  has  been  founded.  The  question  whether 
Blake  w.is  or  was  not  mad  seems  likely  to  remain  in 
dispute,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  he  was 
at  different  penods  of  his  life  under  the  influence  of  illu- 
sions for  which  there  are  no  outward  facts  to  account,  and 
that  mu'ch  of  what  he  wrote  is  so  far  wanting  in  the 
quality  of  sanity  as  to  be  without  a  logical  coherence. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  equally  clear  that  no  madness 
imputed  to  Blake  could  equal  that  which  would  be  involved 
in  the  rejection  of  his  work  on  this  ground.  The  great- 
ness of  Ijlake's  mind  is  even  better  established  than  its 
frailty,  and  in  considering  the  work  that  he  has  left  we  must 
remember  that  it  is  by  the  sublimity  of  his  genius,  and  not 
by  any  mental  defect,  that  he  is  most  clearly  distinguished 
from  his  fellows.  With  the  publication  of  the  Songs  <f 
Erpeiicnce  Blake's  poetic  career,  so  far  at  least  as  ordinary 
readers  are  concerned,  may  be  said  to  close  A  writer  ''f 
prophecy  he  continued  for  many  years,  but  the  wuik  I  v 
which  he  is  best  known  in  poetry  are  those  earlier  and 
simpler  efTorts,  sup[ilemented  by  a  few  pieces  taken  froi:i 
v,arious  sourCe.s,  some  of  which  were  of  later  production. 
The  body  of  Blake's  intelligible  verse  is  now '  made 
accessible  to  the  public,  in  Mr  \V.  Rossetti's  edition  of  his 
works,  published  in  the  Aldine  scries,  and  to  this  voluma 
those  readers  may  bo  referred  who  desire  to  know  the 
foundation  upon  which  the  poet's  fame  has  been  built. 
But  although  Blake  the  poet  ceases  in  a  general  sense  at 
this  date,  Bliiku  the  artist  is  only  just  entering  upon  his 
career.  In  the  Song*  of  Invocmce  and  Experience,  and 
even  in  some  of  the  earlier  Piooks  of  Prophecy,  the  two 
gifts  worked  together  in  perfect  balance  and  harmony; 
but  at   this  point  the  supremacy  of  the  artistic  faculty 


8oe 


BLAKE 


asserts  itself,  and  for  the  remainder  of  liis  life  Blake  was 
pre-eminently  a   designer  and   engraver.     The   labour  of 
jmetical   composition   continues,  but   the    product   passes 
beyond  the  range  of  general  comprehension  ;  while,  with 
apparent   inconsistency,    the-  work    of    the    artist    gains 
steadily  in  strength  and  coherence,  and  never  to  the  last 
loses  its  hold  upon  the  understanding.     It  may  almost  be 
naid  without  exaggeration  that  his  earliest  poetic   work. 
The   Songs   of  Innocence.,  and  nearly  his  latest  effort  in 
design,  the  illustrations  to  the  The  Book  <^  Job,  take.jank 
among   the  sanest  and  most  admirable   products   of    his 
genius.     Nor  is  the  fact,  astonishing  enough  at  first  sight, 
quite  beyond  a  possible  explanation.     As  Blake  advanced 
in  his  poetic  career,  he  was  gradually  hindered  and  finally 
overpowered  by  a  tendency  that  was  most  serviceable  to 
him  in  design.     His  inclination   to  substitute  a  symbol 
for  a  conception,  to  make  an  image  do  duty  for  an  idea, 
became  an   insuperable  obstacle  to  literary  success.     He 
endeavoured  constantly  to  treat  the  intellectual  material  of 
verse  as  if  it  could  be  moulded  into  sensuous  form,  with 
th?  inevitable  result   that  as  the  ideas  to  be   exj  ressed 
advanced  in  complexity  and  depth  of  meaning,  his  poetic 
gifts   became  gradually  more  inadequate   to  the  task  of 
interpretation.     The  earlier  poems  deali-ig  with   (impler 
themes,  and  put  forward  at  a  time  when  the  bent  of  the 
artist's  mind  was  not  strictly  determined,  do  not  suffer 
from  this  difficulty;  the  syftibolism  then  only  enriches  an 
idea  of  no  intellectual  intricacy  ;  but  when  Blake  began 
to  concern  himself  with  profounder  problems  the  want  of 
a   more   logical    understanding  of    language   made   itself 
stnkingly  apparent.     If  his  ways  of  thought  and  modes 
of  workmanship  had  not  been  developed  with  an  intensity 
almost  morbid,  he  -nould^ probably  have  been  able  to  dis- 
tinguish and  keep  separate  the  double  functions  of  art  and 
literature      As  it  is,  however,  he  remains  as  an  extreme 
illustration    of    the  ascendency   of   the    artistic    faculty. 
For  this  tendency  to  translate  ideas  into  image,  and  to 
find  for  every  thought,  however  simple  or  sublime,  a  precise 
and  sensuous  form,  is  of  the  essence  of  pure  artistic  inven- 
tion.     If  this  be  accepted  as  the  dominant  bent  of  Blake's 
genius,  it  is  not  so  wonderful  that  his  work  in  art  should 
have   strengthened    in   proportion    as    his    poetic  powers 
waned;  but  whether  the  explanation  satisfies  all  the  require- 
ments of  the  c.ise  or  not,  the  fact  remains,  and  cannot  be 
overlooked  by-  any  student  of  Blake's  career. 

In  1796  Blake  was  actively  employed  in  the  work  of 
illustration.  Edwards,  a  bookseller  of  New  Bond  Street, 
projected  a  new  edition  of  Young's  N\ght  Thoughts,  and 
Blako  was  choscr  to  illustrate  the  work.  It  was  to  have 
been  issued  in  parts,  but  for  some  reason  not  very  clear 
the  enterprise  failed,  and  only  a  first  part,  including  forty- 
three  designs,  was  given  to  the  world.  These  designs 
were  enjraved  by  Blake  himself,  and  they  are  interesting 
not  only  for  their  own  merit  but  for  the  peculiar  system 
by  which  the  illustration  has  been  associated  with  the 
text.  Quite  recently  it  has  been  discovered  that  the 
artist  had  executed  original  designs  in  water  colour  for 
the  whole  series,  and  these  drawings,  537  in  number,  form 
cine  of  the  most  interesting  records  of  Blake's  gtnius.  Mr 
Gilchrist,  the  painter's  careful  and  sympathetic  biographer, 
in  commenting  upon  the  engraved  plates,  regrets  the  absence 
of  colour,  '■  the  use  of  which  Blake  so  well  understood,  to 
relieve  his  simple  design  and  give  it  significance,"  and  an 
examination  of  the  original  water  colour  drav  ings  fully 
supports  the  justice  of  his  criticism.  Soon  after  the  publi- 
cation of  this  work  Blake  was  introduced  by  Flaxmaii  to 
the  poet  Hayley,  and  in  the  year  1801  he  accepted  the 
suggestion  of  the  latter,  that  ho  should  take  up  his  re- 
sidence at  Felpham  in  Sussex.  The  mild  and  amiable 
^oct  bad  piiinntd   tj  write  a   life  of  Cowpcr,  and  for  the 


illustration  of  this  and  other  woiks   ht  nought  Blake's 
help   and    companionship.     The    residence    at    Felph.im 
continued   for   three   years,    partly   pleasant    and    partly 
irksome  to  Blake,  but  apparently  not  very  profitable  to 
the   progress  of  his  art.     One  of   the  annoyances  of  his 
stay  was  a  malicious  prosecution  for  treason  set  on  foot 
by  a  common  soldier  whom  Blake  had  summarily  ejected 
from  his  garden ;  but  a  more  serious  drawback  was  the  in- 
creasing irritation  which  the  painter  seems  to   have  ex- 
perienced from  association  with  Hayley.      In   1804  Blake 
returned  to  London,  to  take  up  his  residence  in   Soutli 
Moulton  Street,  and  as  the  fruit  of  his  residence  in  Felp 
ham,    he   published,    in    the   manner   already   described, 
the  prophetic  books  called  the  Jervsalem,  The  Emanation 
of  the  Giant  Albion,  and  Milton.     The  first  of  these  is  a 
very  notable  performan:e  in  regard  to  artistic  invention. 
Many  of  the  designs  stand  out  from  the  text  in  complete  in- 
dependence, and  are  now  and  then  of  the  very  finest  quality. 
In  the  years  1804-1805  Blake   executed   a   series   of 
designs  in  illustration  of  Blair's  Grave,  of  much  beauty  and 
grandeur,  though  showing  stronger  traces  of  imitatim  of 
Italian  art  than    any  earlier  production.     These   designs 
were   purchased  from  the  artist   by  an  adventurous  and 
unscrupulous  publisher,  Cromek,  for  the  paltrj'  sum  of  £21, 
and    afterwards   published  in  a  series   of   engravings  by 
SchiavonettL     Despite  the  ill  treatment  Blake  received  in 
the  matter,  and  the  other  evils,  including  a  quarrel  with 
his  friend  Stothard  as  to  priority  of  invention  of  a  design 
illustrating  the  Canterbury  Pilgrims,  which  ais  association 
with  Cromek  involved,  the  book  gained   for  him  a  larger 
amount  of  popularity  than  he  at  any  other  time  secured. 
Stothard's    picture    of     the     Canterbury     Pilgrims    was 
exhibited  in   1807,  and  in  -1809  Blake,    in  emulation    of 
his  rival's  success,  having  himself  painted  in  water  colour 
a  picture  of  the  same  subject,  opened  an  exhibition,  and 
drew  up  a  Descriptive  Catalogue,  curious  and  interesting, 
and  containing  a  very  valuable  criticism  of  Chaucer. 

The  remainder  of  the  artist's  life  is  not  outwardly 
eventful.  Ifl  1813  he  formed,  through  the  introductun 
of  George  Cumberland  of  Bristol,  a  valuable  frier  dsli;p 
with  Mr  John  Linnell  and  other  rising  water  coloi^r 
painters.  Amongst  the  group  Blake  seems  to  have  foui;d 
special  sympathy  in  the  society  of  Varley,  who,  himself 
addicted  to  astrology,  encouraged  Bl.ike  to  cultivate  L:s 
gift  of  inspired  vision  ;  and  it  is  probably  to  this  iufuence 
that  we  are  indebted  for  several  curious  drawings  made 
from  visions,  especially  the  celebrated  "ghost  of  a  flea" 
and  the  veiy  humorous  portrait  of  the  builder  of  the 
Pyramids.  In  1821  Blake  removed  to  Fountain  Court, 
in  the  Strand,  where  he  died  1827.  The  chief  work  of 
these  last  years  was  the  splendid  .series  of  en  jraved  designs 
in  illustration  of  the  book  of  Job.  Hen  we  find  the 
highe.1t  imaginative  qualities  of  Blake's  art  united  to  the 
technical  means  of  expression  which  he  best  understood 
Both  the  invention  and  the  engraving  are  in  all  ways  re- 
markable, and  the  series  may  fairly  be  cited  in  support  of 
a  very  high  estimate  of  his  genius.  None  of  his  works  art 
without  the  trace  of  that  peculiar  artistic  instinct  and  power 
which  seizes  the  pictorial  element  of  idcas.simplc  or  sublime, 
and  translates  them  into  the  appropriate  language  of  sense, 
but  here  the  double  faculty  finds  the  happiest  exercise- 
The  grandeur  of  the  theme  is  duly  reflected  in  the  simj'le 
and  sublime  images  of  the  artist's  design,  and  in  the  pre- 
sence of  these  plates  we  are  made  to  feel  the  power  of  tbe 
artist  over  the  exprc.«sional  resources  of  huninn  form,  as  well 
as  his  sympathy  with  the  imaginative  significance  of  hie 
subject, 

A  life  of  Blake,  with  selections  from  his  works  by 
Alexander  Gilchrist,  *as  published  in  1803  ;  in  18G8  Mr 
Swinburne   published    a   cr-.tical    essay   en    his   genius   re- 


B  L  A  —  B  L  A 


807 


■  ..^rkiole  for  a  full  eiaminatioa  of  the  Prophetic  Books, 
and  still  more  recently  Mr  William  Rossetti  baa  published 
a  memoir  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  the  poem3.  (j.  c.  c.) 
,  BLAN'C,  Mo.VT,  the  highest,  and  in  other  respects 
DO)  of  the  mjst  remarkable  mountains  in  Europe,  is 
situated  in  that  division  of  the  great  Alpine  system  known 
as  the  Pennine  Alps,  in  45'  49'  53'  N.  lat.  and  6'  51'  54' 
E.  loag.  It  rises  almost  in  the  shape  of  a  pyramid  to  the 
height  of  15,780  feet,  and  is  visible  at  a  distance  of  130 
miles  to  the  west.  The  mass  of  the  mountain  is  composed 
of  granite,  covered  with  strata  of  schists  and  limestoaes. 
To  the  N  R  lies  the  beautiful  vale  of  Chamouoi,  and  on 
the  S.  VV.  the  Alli5e  Blanche.  Of  the  numerous  glaciers 
tint  send  their  icc-streams  down  its  sides  the  most  remark- 
able is  the  Mer  de  Glace,  which  winds  down  its  northero 
slope  towards  Chamouni,  and  gives  birth  to  the  River  Arvo. 
The  ascent  of  Mont  Blanc  was  first  accomplished  in  1735 
by  a  guide  named  Jacques  Bilmit,  who  shortly  afterwards 
led  Dr  Paccard,  a  local  physician,  to  the  summit,  and  thus 
gave  him  the  honour  of  being  the  first  person  of  scientific 
education  to  make  known  the  possibility  of  the  undertak- 
ing. De  Saussure,  the  naturalist,  ascended  in  the  following 
year,  and  when  the  Italian  naturalist  Imperiale  de  Sant- 
An^elo  made  the  ascent  in  1810  he  had  been  preceded 
by  ihirty-thrie  known  travellers.  The  whole  journey  to  the 
top  and  back  can  now  be  accomplished  in  50  or  jO  hours ; 
but  in  general  the  view  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  worth  the 
fatigue,  the  extreme  height  of  the  position,  even  when  the 
outlojk  13  unclouded,  rendering  the  prospect  indistinct. 
For  authintie^  and  maps,  see  Alps,  vol.  L  pp.  635-6. 

BLANfE,  Sir  Gilbert,  a  distinguished  physician,  was 
burn  at  Blanefield  in  Ayrshire,  in  1749,  and  died  in  Lon- 
don in  1834.  He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  University, 
and  shortly  after  his  removal  to  London  became  private 
physician  to  Lord  Rodney,  whom  he  accompanied  to  the 
West  Indies.  Through  his  skill  and  e.'certions  the  health 
(if  the  seamen  on  board  the  fleet  remained  comparatively 
uiatfected  by  the  climate  ;  and  on  his  return  home  he 
embodied  the  results  of  his  experience  in  a  treatise  O/i  iiu 
Diseases  of  Seamen,  1783.  He  rose  rapidly  to  fame,  ac- 
quired an  extensive  practice,  and  in  1812  was  appointed 
physician  in  ordinary  to  the  Prince  of  Walej,  with  the  rank 
of  biron:t.  When  at  the  head  of  the  Navy  Board  of 
Health,  an  ofiBce  he  held  for  some  years,  he  introduced 
many  useful  measures  for  securing  the  health  of  seamen 
during  long  voyages.  Of  his  numerous  works  the  most 
imoortant  is  the  Elements  of  iUdical  Logic,  1819. 

BL.\5rE3.  a  city  of  the  province  of  Gerona  in  Spain,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  River  Tordera,  defended  by  a  castle.  The 
populition,  5900  in  number,  are  principally  employed  in 
ihe  fisheries  and  navigation.  Lace  is  manufactured  by 
the  women      Long.  T  51'  E,  lat.  41°  42'  N. 

BL.\RNEY,  a  small  village  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of 
Cork,  about  5  miles  from  that  city,  chiefly  .celebrated  as 
giving  name  to  a  peculiar  kind  of  eloquence,  alleged  to  be 
characteristio  of  the  natives  of  Ireland.  The  "  Blarney 
Stone,"  the  kii^iug  of  which  is  said  to  confer  this  faculty, 
13  piiinted  o  it  within  the  castle. 

BL.ASPHEM  if  means  literally  defamation  or  evil  speak 
ing,  but  is  mire  peculiarly  restricted  to  an  indignity 
otiered  to  the  Deity  by  words  or  writing.  The  common 
law  of  England  treats  blasphemy  as  an  indictable  offence 
.\11  blasphemies  against  Qjd,  as  denying  his  being,  or  pro- 
vidence, all  contumelious  reproaches  of  Jesus  Christ, 
all  profane  scoffing  at  the  Holy  Scriptures,  or  exposing  any 
part  thereof  to  contempt  or  ridicule,  are  punishable  by  the 
temporal  courts  with  fine,  imprisonment,  and  abo  infamous 
corporal  punishment  The  Act  1  Elw.  VI.  c.  1  (repealed 
1  Mary,  c.  2,  and  revived  1  Elii  c.  I ),  enacts  that  persons  re- 
ling  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper,  by  contemptuous 


wolds  or  otherwise,  shall  suffer  imprisonment  Persona 
denying  the  Trinity  were  deprived  of  the  benefit  of  the 
Act  of  Toleration  by  1  Wdl.  III.  c.  18.  The  9  and  10  Will 
III.  c.  32,  enacts  that  if  any  person,  educated  in  or  having 
made  profession  of  the  Christian  religion,  should  by  writing, 
preaching,  teaching,  or  advised  speaking,  deny  any  one  of 
the  persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity  to  be  God,  or  should  assert 
or  maintain  that  there  are  more  gods  than  one,  or  should 
deny  the  Christian  religion  to  bo  true,  or  the  Holy  Scriptures 
to  be  of  divine  authority,  he  should,  upon  the  first  offence, 
be  rendered  incapable  of  holding  any  office  or  place  of  trust, 
and  for  the  second  incapable  of  bringing  any  action,  of 
being  guardian  or  executor,  or  of  taking  a  legacy  or  deed 
of  gift,  and  should  suffer  three  years'  imprisonment  without 
bail  It  has  been  held  that  a  person  offending  under  the 
statute  is  also  indictable  at  common  law  fRex  u.  Carlisle, 
where  Mr  Justice  Best  remarks,  'In  the  age  of  toleration, 
whan  that  statute  passed,  neither  churchmen  nor  sectanans 
wished  to  protect  in  their  infidelity  those  who  disbelieved 
the  Holy  Scriptures.")  The  53  Geo  IILc.  160,  excepts  from 
these  enactm  nts  "  persons  denying  as  therein  mentioned 
respecting  the  Holy  Trinity,"  but  otherwise  the  common 
and  statute  law  on  the  suoject  remains  as  stated.  In  the 
case  of  Rex  v.  Woolston  (2  Geo.  II.)  the  court  declared 
that  they  would  not  suffer  it  to  bo  debated  whether  to 
write  against  Christianity  in  general  was  nof  an  offence 
punishable  iu  the  temporal  courts  at  common  law,  but 
they  did  not  intend  to  include  disputes  between  learned 
men  on  particular  controverted  points.  The  law  against 
blaspherax  has  not  recently  been  in  active  operation.  In 
1841,  Moxon  was  found  guilty  of  the  publication  of  a 
blasphemous  libel  (Shelley's  Qaeen  Mob),  the  prosecution 
having  been  instituted  by  Hetherington,  who  had  pre- 
viously been  condemned  to  four  mouths'  imprisonment  for 
a  similar  offence,  and  wished  to  test  the  law  under  which 
he  was  punished.  In  the  case  of  Cowan  v.  Milbourn,  in 
1867,  the  defendant  had  broken  his  contract  to  let  a  lecture- 
room  to  the  plaintiff,  on  discovering  that  the  intended 
lectures  wer3  to  maintain  that  "  the  character  of  Christ  is 
defective,  and  his  teaching  misleading,  and  thJt  the  Bible 
is  no  more  inspired  than  any  other  book,"  and  tlie  Court 
of  Exchequer  held  that  the  publication  of  such  doctrine 
was  blasphemy,  and  the  contract  therefore  illegal  Go 
that  occasion  the  court  reaffirmed  the  dictum  ot  C.  J. 
Hale,  that  Christianity  is  part  of  the  laws  of  England  The 
Commissioners  on  Criminal  Law  (sixth  report)  remark,  that 
"although  the  law  forbids  ail  denial  of  the  being  and 
providence  of  God  or  the  Christian  religion,  it  b  only  when 
irreligion  assumes  the  form  of  an  insult  to  God  and  man  that 
the  interference  of  the  criminal  law  has  taken  place." 

Profane  cursing  and  swearing  is  made  punishable  by 
19  Geo.  II.  c  21,  which  directs  the  offender  to  be  brought 
before  a  justice  of  the  peace,  and  fined  5  shillings,  2  shil- 
lings, or  I  shilling,  according  as  he  is  a  gentleman,  below 
the  rank  of  gentleman,  or  a  common  labourer,  soldier,  ic. 

By  the  law  of  Scotland,  as  it  originally  stood,  the 
punishment  of  blasphemy  was  death.  By  an  Act  passed 
in  the  first  parliament  of  Charles  II.,  whoever,  "  not  being 
distracted  in  his  wits,"  should  curse  God  or  any  person 
of  the  blessed  Trinity  wjs  puqishable  with  death;  and  by 
a  statute  of  King  Williams  reign  (1695,  c.  11).  any  person 
reasoning  against  the  being  of  God,  or  any  person  of  the 
Trinity,  or  the  authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  or  the 
providence  of  God  in  the  government  of  the  world,  was  to 
bo  imprisoned  for  the  first  offence  until  he  should  give 
public  satisfaction  in  sackcloth  to  the  congregation,  to  be 
punished  more  severely  for  the  second  offence,  and  for  the 
third  doomed  to  death,  but  by  6  Geo  IV.  c.  47,  amended 
by  7  Will  IV.  and  1  VicL  c  5,  blasphemy  wa;i  made 
puni^'jablc  by  fine  or  imprisonment  or  both.  (u.  k) 


808 


BLASTING 


BLASTING  is  the  process  by  which  portions  ol  rock,  or 
other  hard  sabstances,  aro  disintegrated  by  means  of  an 
explosive  agent,  such  as  gunpowder.  It  is  largely  resorted 
to  in  quarrying,  tunnelling,  and  mining  operations. 

Of  late  years  there  has  been  rapid  advance  in  the  art, 
through  the  discovery  of  new  explosives,  through  improve- 
ments in  appliances  for  firing,  ic.  ;  so  that  the  older 
method  of  blasting  has,  in  many  instances,  given  place  to 
a  more  complex  system,  with  which  much  better  results 
are  obtained.  The  simpler  process  may  be  described  thus. 
When  a  blast  is  to  be  raadei  a  hole  to  receive  powder  is 
first  bored  in  the  rock  ;  such  holes  vary  in  diameter  from 
^  inch  to  2h  inches,  in  depth  from  a  few  inches  to  many 
feet,  and  in  direction  from  the  vertical  to  the  horizontal. 
The  borer,  or  jumper,  with  which  the  hole  is  made'  is  a  steel 
pointed  drill  ;  it  is  struck  by  a  hammer,  and  is  turned  partly 
round  after  each  blow,  to  make  the  hole  cylindrical.  One 
man  may  do  all  this  alone,  but  generally,  in  the  case  of 
larger  holes,  a  man,  in  sitting  posture,  directs  the  jumper, 
supplies  the  hole  with  water,  and  clears  out  the  powdered 
stone  at  intervals  with  a  scraper,  while  another  man,  or 
two,  or  three,  are  engaged  in  striking.  A  small  rope  of 
etraw  or  hemp.is  twisted  round  the  jumper  at  the  orifice 
of  the  hole  to  prevent  squirting  up  of  the  water.  In  the 
case  of  soft  rock  a  loaded  drill  is  sometimes  used,  which 
acts  merely  by  its  own  weight.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
substances  like  pyrites,  or  compact  magnetic  iron  ore, 
which  cannot  be  penetrated  with  steel  drills,  holes  for 
blasting  may  be  made  by  the  gradual  action  of  an  acid 
(commonly  muriatic)  admitted  through  a  ve:  tica!  ^lass  tube. 
When  a  sufficient  depth  is  reached,  the  hol^  is  cleaned  and 
dried,  and  a  charge  of  powder  put  in.  A  small  taper  rod 
of  copper,  the  needle  or  nail,  is  mserted  so  as  to  reach  to 
the  bottom  of  the  charge  ;  then  the  rest  of  the  hole  is 
filled  up  with  some  such  material  as  dry  sand 'or  tough 
clay,  which  forms  the  "  tamping"  or  wadding,  and  which  is 
firmly  rammed  down  in  small  quantities  successively  by 
means  of  the  tamping  bar,  a  copper-faced  punch  of  such 
thickness  that  it  nearly  fills  the  hole,  and  having  a  groove 
in  it  .to  receive  the  nail.  This  operation  requires  great 
care,  because  of  the  danger  of  eliciting  sparks  through 
collision.  The  hole  being  now  fully  ch.arged,  the  nail  is 
withdrawn,  leaving  a  small  vent  hole,  into  which  is  then 
introduced  an  oaten  straw  filled  with  powder  (or  a  series  of 
such).  To  this  is  attached  a  slow  match  of  paper  steeped 
in  saltpetre.  The  match  is  touched  with  fire  ;  the  alarm 
is  given  to  retire  to  a  safe  distance  ;  and  presently  the 
explosion  takes  place,  the  rock  opening  with  a  sharp  report, 
and  fragments  of  stone  being  often  shot  into  the  air  in  all 
directions.  An  improvement  on  this  method  of  firing 
coneists  in  the  employment  of  Biukford's  patent  fuse,  which 
may  be  described  as  a  perforated  rope  or  hose  containing 
an  inflammable  composition.  A  suitable  length  of  fuse  is 
placed  in  contact  with  the  charge  before  tamping,  and 
carried  up  to  the  mouth  of  the  hole.  On  being  lighted  it 
burns  at  the  rate  of  2  to  3  feet  per  minute,  giving  the 
miners  an  opportunity  to  e.scapo  before  explosion.  A 
water-tight  form  of  the  fuse  is  often  u.sed  in  submarine 
blasting, — the  shot  oi  charge  being  then  made  up  in 
cartridge  form. 

Blasting,  however,  is  often  done  on  a  much  larger  scale 
than  that  just  indicated.  As  an  example  of  the  large 
blasts,  or  "  mines,"  where  great  blocks  of  rock  have  to  be 
.removed  at  once,  wo  might  take  some  of  the  operations 
carried  on  at  the  Holyhead  quarries  a  number  of  years  ago 
for  the  harbour  works.  An  entrance  gallery,  5  feet  C 
inches  by  3  feet  C  inches  was  first  driven  from  the  face  of 
the  rock  (hard  quartzoso  schist),  an  extent  of  31  feet, 
where  a  shaft,  3  feet  G  inches  by  3  feet  G  inches,  was  sunk 
to  a  depth   of   14  feet.     From  this    level   ualleries  were 


driven  some  distance  right  and  left,  with  four  short 
headings,  at  intervals,  returning  towards  the  face  of  tho 
rock  and  terminating  in  chambers  for  the  charges.  Tue 
four  charges,  amounting  in  all  to  12,000  lb  of  powder, 
,  were  enclosed  in  canvas  bags  coated  with  tar  They  wera 
calculated  at  the  rate  of  1  lb  of  powder  to  3  tons  of  rork 
For  tamping  a  stiff  red  clay  was  used ;  it  wt/s  well  rammed 
up  close  to  the  bags  of  powder  (leaving  a  small  air  sp.ace 
round  these),  and  continued  to  the  mouth  of  the  galterv. 
The  charges  were  fired  simultaneously  by  means  of  platinum- 
wire  heated  by  a  Grove's  battery.  The  total  quantity  of 
rock  removed  was  about  40,000  tons  ;  it  was  separated 
into  various  sized  blocks.  Similarly,  the  Rounddown  ClilT 
at  Dover  was  overthrown  in  1843  for  railway  purposes  by 
18,500  lb  of  powder,  in  three  separate  chargss,  fired  simul- 
taneously from  a  Voltaic  battery ;  a  saving  of  iTOOO  was 
thus  efl'ected  by  the  South-Eastern  Railway  Compary 

In  reviewing  recent  developments  of  the  art  of  blasting, 
the  application  of  machinery  in  the  boring  of  rocks  naturally 
claims  some  attention.  A  good  rock-boring  machine,  at 
least  where  used  in  connection  with  simultaneous  firin"' 
by  electricity,  ensures  considerable  economy  in  time  and 
labour  over  the  old  method  of  hand-boring.  Of  such 
machines,  in  which  the  jumper  is  repeatedly  driven  against 
the  rock  by  compressed  air  or  steam,  being  also  made  to 
rotate  slightly  at  each  blow,  there  are  several  varieties ; 
the  Burleigh  rock  drill  is  one  of  the  best.  It  was  used 
in  the  Hoosac  tunnel  in  Massachusetts  from  18G9  ;  and  the 
last  5220  yards  were  completed  with  only  eight  of  thesa 
machines.  The  rock  was  gneiss  alternating  with  quartz. 
With  hand-boring,  the  progress  per  minute  was  about 
IG  yards;  with  the  Burleigh  drill  it  was  48  yards,  and 
the  work  was  about  one-third  cheaper.  According  to 
Enfiineering,  the  cost  of  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  was  i!l95 
per  linear  yard  ;  that  of  the  Hoosac  tunnel,  notwithstanding 
much  harder  rock,  only  £180.  In  the  recent  large  ■ 
blastings  at  Hellgate,  New  York,  tho  Burleigh  machines 
also  established  their  superiority,  and  came  to  be  used 
exclusively.  Among  other  boring-machines  may  be  men- 
tioned the  "Diamond"  drill,  and  the  systems  of  Law, 
Ingersoll,  M'Kean,  Bergstrocm,  Sachs,  Doering. 

The  general  properties  of  ordinary  blasting-powder  aro 
wcU  known  ;  it  requires  to  bo  kept  dry.  and  when  dry,  a 
sjiark  of  fire- will  cause  it  to  explode.  Various  efforts  have 
of  late  years' been  made  towards  the  employment  of  moro 
])oucrful  explosive  agents  for  blasting  purposes.  The 
violent  oxidizing  power  of  chlorate  of  potash  marked  it 
out  as  available  for  ex[ilosive  mixtures  ;  and  sundry 
preparations  containing  this  substance  have  been  made- 
(some  of  them  highly  dangerous).  llot-slit/'s  Ulasliny- 
J'uifder,  consisting  of  powdered  nut  galls  and  chlorate,  may 
be  taken  as  a  type  of  these  mixtures,  and  ,as  the  safest  of 
Ibein.  It  is  both  more  violent  and  more  rapid  in  explosion 
than  ordinary'blasting-powder,  and  docs  not  give  off  any 
smoke  or  unplea_sant  smell  when  it  cxiilodos.  It  must  be 
kept  dry,  and  it  is  liable  to  explode  through  friction  ;  tho 
expensiveness  of  its  ingredients  is  also  a  drawback.  Gnn- 
cotton  was  discovered  by  Schiinbein  in  184G,  but  owing  to 
disastrous  accidents  occurring  in  the  three  years  which 
followed,  it  was  abandoned  in  this  country  and  in  France 
for  .sixteen  years.  Through  the  rcsoarclica,  meanwhile,  of 
an  Austrian,  Baron  von  Lenk,  it  again  came  into  notice  in 
18G4,and  a  Government  committee  investigated  the  morils- 
of  the  gun-cotton  twist  or  rope  made  according  to  tho 
Austrian  system.  For  blasting  hard  rock  its  general 
superiority  in  effect  to  powder  was  recognized  ;  and  tho- 
absence  of  smoke,  where  the  resistance  opposed  to  the 
gun  cotton  was  sufficient  to  develop  its  full  explosive 
force,  was  specially  remarked  upon.  The  want  of  rigidity 
of  tho  material   was  objeclionaMc  ;  and  sicvcrhl  accidcnt> 


B  L  A  S  T  I  N  (j 


800 


occurred,  through  violent  friction  of  the  twist,  when  miners 
haJ  attempted  to  drive  home  a  jammed  charge.  A  con- 
siderable gain  was  secured  by  the  invention  of  compressed 
•jun-cotton  by  Professor  Abel  in  18GS.  In  this  form  the 
ex|>losive  occupied  less  than  half  the  space  of  the  rope 
tliarges  ,  and  the  smooth,  hard  exterior  of  the  cylindrical 
charges  rendered  the  operation  of  loading  comparatively 
easy.  The  compressed  charges,  moreover,  did  not  burn  with 
the  explosive  violence  of  spun  gun-cotton  even  when  con- 
fined in  the  ordinary  packing  cases.  Among  further  im- 
[•rovcmcnts  may  be  noted  the  clieapcning  of  the  material  by 
use  of  cotton  waste,  instead  of  the  long  staple  cotton  of  high 
quality  that  was  used  in  the  Austrian  manufacture.  In 
ISCS  Mr  E.  0.  Brown  discovered  that  (like  nitroglycerine)' 
compressed  gun-cotton  was  susceptible  of  violent  explosion 
through  the  agency  of  a  detonation,  as  well  as  in  the 
ordinary  way.  This  was  important,  especially  for  submarine 
operations  and  works  of  demolition  ;  for  the  strong  con- 
linement  which  was  always  necessary  in  the  other  ease  could 
be  dispensed  with  ;  indeed,  with  some  wxste  of  power,  the 
substance  might  be  exploded  completely  unconfined.  Gun- 
cotton  is  not  art'uctcd  in  its  explosiveni'ss  by  cold  ;  and  it 
can  be  kept  any  length  of  time  without  deterioration  in  the 
damp  and  perfectly  unignitable  state.  The  formula  that 
has  been  assigned  for  the  most  explosive  gun  cotton  is 
CoH,N,0„. 

In  18(i-t  .Mr  Nobel's  researches  called  atiention  to  the 
application  of  nitroglycerine  (discovered  by  .So.  "ero  in  18-tG) 
as  an  explosive  agent  He  first  showed  that  the  efTect  of 
gunpowder  was  considerably  increased  through  impregna- 
tion with  it  i  and  later,  that  the  liquid  itself,  which  burns 
slowly  in  the  air  on  application  of  a  flarae  with  a  common 
luse,  could  be  exploded  by  an  initiative  detonation, — con- 
finement by  tamp.ng  being  then  unnecessary.  In  its  pure 
•■itate  it  was  soon  proved  to  be  the  most  powerful  explosive 
yet  known  ;  its  destructive  force  is  about  ten  times  that  of 
gunpowder.  Its  liquid  form,  high  specific  gravity,  and 
insolubility  in  water,  are  valuable  properties  in  some  cases, 
as  in  blasting  under  water  or  in  wet  holes.  It  freezes  at  a 
cuniparatively  high  temperature  (40°  Fahr.)  ;  but  tho 
opinion,  formed  from  several  grave  accidents,  that  it  was 
more  susceptible  of  detonation  in  the  frozen  than  in  the 
liquid  state,  has  been  shown  to  be  contrary  to  f.act.  When 
fri'zen  it  is  more  liable  to  recklessly  rough  u.sage.  The 
liquid  state  of  nitroglycerine,  on  the  other  hand,  constitutes 
a  very  serious  defect,  owing  to  its  tendency  to  leak  from 
vessels  in  which  it  is  carried,  or  from  the  blast-hole,  through 
fissures  in  the  rock, — resulting  in  unexpected  explosions,  it 
iiLiy  be,  through  some  slight  concussion.  Mr  Xobel's 
ingenious  device  for  rendering  nitroglycerine  temporarily 
iiiexplosive,  by  dissolving  it,  viz.,  in  wood  spirit,  is  only 
partially  successful.  Nitroglycerine  has  been  extensively 
u.scd  in  various  mining  districts,  especially  in  California. 
Alter  some  terrible  accidents,  which  occurred  in  18liG-7, 
us  use  in  England  was  placed  under  severe  restrictions. 

Impressed  with  the  serious  disadvantages  of  this 
eiplosivo,  Mr  Nolicl  was  led  to  the  important  observation 
lliat  its  readiness  to  ex[ilode  by  detonation  is  not 
diiiiinished,  but  rather  favoured,  by  mixture  with  solid 
si'.twtances,  in  themselves  quite  inert;  and  the  dilution  did 
n.l  materially  detract  from  the  great  superiority  of  nitro- 
glycerine over  gunpowder.  In  18G7  he  brought  before  the 
public  the  substance  appropriately  called  (ti/naviile,  which 
is  one  of  the  safest,  most  powerful,  and  most  convenient 
explosives  for  industrial  purposes.  It  consisted  of  seventy- 
live  parts  of  nitroglycerine  held  absorbed  by  twenty-five 

*  It  was  fnunil,  in  tlie  conrso  of  these  inqiiinr'.  Ihat  all  cxjilosivo 
compouii.ls.  rvcn  incluilii!^  giinpowi.-r.  arc  .lusrcpiiltle  of  explosion 
thruugli  a  detonation,  thou^li  lliu  nature  niiil  tone  of  the  rietonatlOD 
vary  coo^iilcralily  with  diffcreut  explosive  substances. 

■3— 28* 


parts  of  a  porous,  infusorial,  silicious  earth,  known  iu 
Germany  as  "  Kieselguhr."  Other  absorbents  have  been 
employed  (precipitated  kaolin,  tripoli,  precipitated  alumma, 
sugar,  itc. ),  but  none  of  tjicm  are  equal  to  kieselguhr  in 
power  of  retaining  oil.  Dynamite  is  furnished  to  the  trade 
iu  the  form  of  small  cylindrical  cartridges,  in  which  the 
piaterial,  consolidated  by  pressure,  is  enclosed  in  a  single 
wrapping  of  parchment  pai>er.  It  requires  no  tamping, 
and  can  be  exploded  by  detonation  underwater.  It  is  slow 
to  catch  tire,  but  burns  rather  fiercely  when  fired  ;  aud  if 
the  quantities  are  large,  or  under  confinement,  an  explosion 
may  finally  ensue.  The  trade  in  it  has  developed  rapidly  ; 
thus,  while  only  11  tons  of  it  were  sold  m  18G7,  the 
quantity  rose  to  3120  tons  in  1874. 

In  the  preparation  known  as  lithnfi'acteur,  which  cama 
into  notice  during  the  Franco-German  War,  nitroglycerine 
is  used  in  considerably  smaller  proportions  than  in 
dynamite ;  and  the  kieselguhr  of  the  latter  is  partly 
replaced  by  materials  forming  of  themselves  a  feebly 
explosive  mixture.  Its  properties  are  very  similar  to  those 
of  dynamite,  but  it  is  less  powerful. 

The  less  known  ammonia  powder,  invented  by  Ohison 
and  Norbin,  is  much  stronger  than  lithofratteur,  and  even 
surpasses  dynumite.  Its  only  drawback  is  the  hygroscopic 
nature  of  its  chief  ingredient,  which  is  nitrate  of  ammonium ; 
but  otherwise  it  is  a  very  superior  blasting  agent. 
Numerous  other  explosives  have  been  tried  in  blasting, 
but  those  wo  have  named  arc  amongst  the  most  important. 

In  a  recent  paper  to  the  Society  of  Arts,  Mr  Nobel  has 
discussed^  the  relative  power  of  several  blasting  agents.  lie 
finds  that  when  their  ballistic  power  is  compared  bulk  for 
bulk,  the  substances  experimented  with  rank  as  follows  : — 
Nitroglycerine,  100;  ammonia  powder,  80;  dynamite 
(No.  1),  74;  lithofracteur,  53;  gun-cotton,  45;  Curtis  and 
Harvey's  blasting-powder  (fired  by  detonator),  17'5.  While 
these  figures  show  the  great  superiority  of  nitroglycerine, 
there  are  practical  circumstances  which  bring  it  and  dyna- 
mite nearly  on  an  equality.  Thus,  to  get  the  full  benefit  of  a 
blast  there  should  be  no  air-space  round  the  charge.  Now, 
from  the  danger  (as  we  have  seen)  of  nitroglycerine  leaking 
through  imperceptible  fissures  in  a  rock,  rigid  cartridges 
are  required  for  it,  and  these  always  involve  a  considerable 
air  chamber,  whereas  dynamite,  being  highly  plastic,  can  be 
easily  compressed  so  as  to  exclude  all  empty  space.  The 
cartridges  of  compressed  gun  cotton  are  also  liable,  of 
course,  to  the  objection  just  noticed. 

Where  rapid  destruction  is  to  be  accomplished  there  is 
a  saving  of-  labour,  of  tools,  and  of  time  by  use  of  the  new 
explosive  agents  (such  as  dynamite  or  gun-cotton).  Their 
shattering  and  splitting  elTect  in  hard  rock  is  much  greater  , 
but  in  quarrying,  the  rock  is  generally  not  thrown  out  by 
them  to  the  same  extent.  Where  a  moderate  cleaving  or 
splitting  elfect  is  desired,  with  as  little  local  action  as 
jiossiblc.  gunpowder  is  best,  as  in  raising  large  blocks  of 
slate  ,  also  where  great  displacing  action  is  required.  In 
submarine  blasting  of  soft  rocks  the  violent  explosives 
disiiitegr.ate  the  rock  into  a  plastic  niasis  within  a  limited 
area,  but  do  not  shatter  or  rend  it  to  any  great  distance. 

As  regards  comparative  safety,  there  is  no  doubt  that 

modern  explosives  ofi'er  a  relative  immunity  from  the  danger 

arising  from  fire,  to  which  gunpowder  is  subject,     Neither 

dynamite  nor  gun-cotton  can  be  fired  by  a  spark,  and  if 

'  accidentally  fired  by  a  flame,  they  allow  reasonable  chances 

of   escape.     On   the   other   hand,   accidents   have    often 

happened    in  the   thawing   of  nitroglycerine  preparations 

when  frozen. — a  process  that  requires  great  care,  and  for 

which  suitable   warmingjians  are  provided.     P.ut  miners 

are  slow  to  understand  that  a  cartridge  which  firing  does 

I  iKit   set   off  cannot    be   slowly    heated     with    the    same 

I  impunity  ;   hence  they  will  roast  the  preparations  near  n 

111.    —    102 


8!0 


BLASTING 


fire,  or  on  hot  cinders,  or  in  other  ways  really  dangerous. 
Gun-cotton  and  dynamite  prove  much  safer  than  nitro- 
glycerine as  regards  esploding  through  concussion.  There 
is  not,  however  (Mr  Nobel  Ihinks),  that  amount  of 
difference; between  the  sensitiveness  of  nitroglycerine  and 
dynamite  which  the  latter  substance  generally  receives 
credit  for.  The  main  danger  of  nitroglycerine  arose  from 
the  sensitiveness  to  concussion  which  it  acquire^  through 
contact  with  a  hard,  metallic,  strongly  vibrating  substance, 
such  as  the  tin  canisters  in  which  it  was  contained.  The 
main  safety  of  dynamite  is  derived  from  the  absence  of 
any  hard  vibrating  material  in  imm'ediate  contact  with  the 
nitroglycerine  it  contains. 

Afl  regards  danger  from  concussion  in  manufacture  and 
transit,  gun-cotton  ranks  first  ,  but  in  the  hands  o£  mmers, 
the  case  is  reversed,  through  the  rough  usage  of  gun-cotton 
charges,  where,  e  g.,  they  are  found  too  large  for  a  borehole, 
(or  gun -cotton  is  well  known  to  explode  with  a  blow.  The 
danger  most  dreaded  in  modern  explosives  is  from  their 
supposed  liability  to  chemical  decomposition  productive  of 
heat,  which  sometimes  leads  to  ignition  and  explosion.  This 
decomposition  is  generally  due  to 'the  presence  of  acid 
(chiefly  nitric  and  hyponitfic),  which  every  nitrated  com- 
pound has  a  strong  tendency  to  retain.  "From  the  ease 
with  which  the  acid  can  be  washed  out  from  nitroglycerine, 
both  it  and  dynamite  show  much  greater  chemical  stability 
than  gun-cotton.  'Most  cases  of  spontaneous  combustion  of 
the  latter  have  probably  arisen  either  from  imperfect 
washing,  or  from  drying  at  too  high  a  temperature  (by 
which  byponitric  acid  is  set  free). 

Complaints  have  often  been  made  of  the  poisonous  fumes 
given  off  by  the  new  explosives.  Where  this  occurs,  it  is 
probably  due  to  an  injudicious  use  of  the  substance, 
resulting  m  imperfect  explosion.  If  a  dynamite  cartridge 
partly  burns  instead  of  exploding,  the  temperature  is  much 
lower,  and  ^umes  of  hyponitric  acid  are  given  off,  which 
could  not  escape  decomposition  at  the  higher  temperature 
of  perfect  explosion.  The  general  mistake  consists  in  not 
securing  .carefully  the  detonator  cap  to  the  fuse,  and 
especially  the  fuse  to  the  cartridge. 

Blasting  ly  EUctrxdly.—\\.  is  known  that  electricity  has 
a  thermal  effect  on  wire  through  which  it  passes  ;  and  the 
amount  of  heat  produce*!  in  any  part  of  the  circuit  is  'pro- 
portional to  the  resi.stance  in  that  part.  Thus  a  piece  of 
wire  of  small  section  and  conductivity  may  be  made  incan- 
descent by  a  current  On  this  principle  platinum  is  some- 
times employed  to  fire  blasting  charges.  In  making  a 
fuse  of  this  sort,  two  insulated  copper  wires  are  twisted 
together  for  a  length  of  about  6  inches,  leaving  the  extre- 
mities'free  for  about  half  an  inch,  and  separated  the  same 
distance.  A  fine  platinum  (or  iron)  wire  is  stretched  across 
this  interval,  metallic  contact  being  estarblished  with  the 
copper.  The  other  ends  of  the  (use  are  connected  vtith  a 
battery.  Platinum  fuses  are  not  much  to  be  relied  on  for 
eimultaQSous  blasting  of  several  charges  by  one  battery  ;  for 
some  of  the  fuses  may  take  a  little  more  time  to  reach  the  ex- 
ploding temperature  than  others,  and  thus,  as  soon  as  one 
explodes,  the  connection  between  the  others  and  the  battery 
is  broken.  The  batteries  to  be  used  with  them  are  such  as 
generate  electricity  of  great  quantity.  The  Bunsen  and 
Leclanch^  batteries,  in  some  of  their  varieties,  are  well 
suited  for  this  Twelve  cells  o(  llighton's  battery  will 
melt  a  piece  o(  plalimim  wire  over  an  inch  long. 

There  is,  however,  another  class  of  fuses,  offering  cer- 
tain advantages  over  tho.se  just  referred  to,  in  which  the 
epark  produced  b-  electricity  of  tension  -s  the  means 
usuil  to  etTect  the  explosion.  It  might  naturally  bo 
thought  that  an  electric  spark  mu.st  inevitably  cause  explo- 
(lion  in  a  mass  nf  powder  or  like  substance  throuijh  which 
It  13  maJi'  to  pass  ,    but  tliis  ij  not  the  case.     The  heating' 


power  of  the  spark  is  often  insufficient  for  CAplosion.  .he 
duration  of  an  induction  spark  is  about  the  miUimiih  of  a 
second;  whereas,  to  ignite  powder,  it  is  necess.'icy  that  a 
spark  should  exist  for  at  least  the  three  hundredth  part  of  a 
second.  By  interposing,  however,  a  suitable  priming  com- 
position in  the  interval  which  the  spark  ia  to  cross,  and  in 
contact  with  the  charge,  explosion  may  be  thus  effected. 
In  preparing  such,  a  composition,  the  properties  of  the 
ingredients  as  regards  conductivity,  inflammability,  and 
explosiveness  have  to  be  nicely  adjusted,  according  to  the 
degree  of  tension  of  the  electricity  employed.  The  com- 
position selected  by  Professor  Abel  for  his  fuses  is  an  inti 
mate  mixture  of  subsulphide  of  copper,  subphosphide  of 
copper,  and  chlorate  of  potassium.  It  is  a  mixture  which 
conducts,  but  conducts  with  difliculty,  and  the  fuses  made 
with  it  are  very  effective.  There  are  several  other  varieties. 
e.g.,  Ebnefs  fuse,  where  the  priming  consists  of  a  mixture 
of  sulphuret  of  antimony,  chlorate  of  potash,  and  graphite.' 

For  generating  electricity  of  tersion  with  the  Voltaic 
battery,  Leclanchi's  battery  is,  again,  one  of  the  most 
suitable.  The  elements  of  this  bat  ery  consist  of  a  rod  of 
carbon  pfaced  in  a  porous  cell  and  tightly  packed  round 
with  a  mixture  of  peroxide  of  manganese  and  coke  ;  the 
porous  cell  is  placed  in  a  vessel  containing  a  plate  of  zinc, 
which  forms  the  electro  positive  element,  and  a  solution  of 
sal-ammoniac  is  used  as  the  exciting  liquid.  There  are 
some  forms  of  battery  for  the  sane  purpose  so  arranged 
that  the  contact  of  the  elements  with  the  liquid  takes  place 
only  at  the  time  of  firing;  such  are  those  of  Wollaston, 
Ruhmkorff,  and  Trouv(5. 

Frictional  electricity  is  the  kind  generally  adopted  by 
military  authorities  in  firing  charges, — the  machines  for 
generating  it  being  easily  made,,  simple,  portable,  and 
powerful.  Bornhardt's  frictional  machine  has  found  exton 
sive  use  in  Austria  in  ordinary  blasting  operaiions.  It  is 
contained  in  a  small  metallic  case,  and  consists  of  a  disc  o( 
ebonite,  which  can  be  rotated  betwoen  two  cushions, 
charging  a  small  Leyden  jar  [laced  near  it.  On  pressing 
a  little  button  from  the  outside,  connection  is  made  between 
the  two  coating!  of  the  jar  iu  suqli  a  way  that  the  charge  is 
sent  through  t  ,'0  wires  by  wh  ch  the  box  is  connected  wi:h 
the  fuse,  or  fu  3S,  at  a  distance.  Borne  absorbent  of  ninis- 
ture  is  kept  wi  hin  the  box,  and  it  is  necessary  to  see  tL.it 
the  machine  be  kept  as  warm  and  dry  as  possible. 

Experiments  were  made  by  Messrs  Whcatstone  and  AbrI 
a  number  of  /ears  ago,  with  Armstrong's  hydroelectric 
machine,  as  a  ource  of  electricity  for  exploding  charges  o( 
powder.  They  state  that  in  very  extensive  mining  opera- 
tions, where  a  jreat  many  charges  have  to  be  fired  simul- 
taneously, and  provided  all  the  necessary  appliances  for 
success  are  at  hind,  th.5  niachi  le  coidd  be  used  very  effec 
lively.  It  is  a  .owerful  source  if  electricity  of  high  tension. 
There  are  serio  is  objections,  h  iwevcr,  to  its  general  use. 

Electro-magneUc  mduction  currents  (such  as  are  dove 
loped  in  Rulinikorff's  cod)  were  first  apiilied,  and  success- 
fully, by  Colonel  Verdu,  a  Spanish  ofliccr,  in  IS.'io.  The 
induction  discharge,  unlike  that  of  a  Leyden  battery,  is 
niiuh  enfeebled  by  successive  solutions  of  continuity,  r.i 
that  not  more  than  four  mines  in  a  single  circuit  could 
certainly  bo  ex|ilodcd  on  this  sy.slein.  But  M.  Savare 
made  an  improvement  by  interposing  the  fuses  in  btaiulies 
of  the  principal  circuit.  The  mine  nearest  the  app.irr.Uis 
explodes  first  ,  and,  owing  to  the  abrupt  scpar.nl urn  of  ilii> 
wires,  the  current  can  no  longer  p.ass  through  tins  bran.  Ii  , 
thus  the  clcrtric  action  is  augmented  in  the  other  branclus, 
and  in  a  similar  manner  the  explosions  ncces.-^anly  liKo 


'   In  one  form  nf  fuse  eniplnypil  with  dynnnnlc,  Ihrrt-  '\*  cnnni'.-i-l 
iili  III.'  pniTiin^'  just  rr.oiitini'c.l  lomc  nuiouric  fuliuinule  »diI  Iuom 

uii-f-pt*nn 


B  L  E  -  B  L  E 


81 1 


place  in  them,  and  that  with  a  rapidity  almost  instantaneous. 
This  is  also  a  more  efficient  plan  than  that  ot  employing  a 
rheotomo  for  changing  the  direction  of  the  current,  so  as  to 
bring  wires  connected  with  one  or  more  charges  successively 
into  the  circuit  The  Kuhmkorff  coil  is,  however,  objec- 
tionable for  its  delicacy  and  the  maintenance  of  batterits 
in  connection  with  it.  In  experiments  made  by  Messivi 
Wheatstone  and  Absl,  a  powerful  magneto-electric  machiue 
was  found  very  limited  in  its  power  of  igniting  several 
charges  arranged  in  succession  in  one  circuit  (it  ouly 
ignited  three  at  most,  with  certainty)  ;  but  on  M.  Savarc's 
plan  of  arranging  the  charges  in  divided  circuits,  the  simul- 
taneous ignition  of  twenty-Cve  charges  was  repeatedly 
Jtfected  ;  ou  several  occasions  as  many  as  forty  By 
this  plan  each  charge  was  connected  with  a  separate 
branch  attached  to  the  main  line,  and  their  connection 
with  earth  established  by  means  of  uncovered  copper 
wire  wound  round  an  iron  stake  driven  in  the  ground. 
Another  form  of  instrument,  devised  by  Wheatstone, 
consists  of  six  small  magnets,  to  the  poles  of  which  are 
fixed  soft  iron  bars  surrounded  by  coils  of  insulated  wire ; 
the  coils  of  all  the  magnets  are  united  together,  so  as 
to  form,  with  the  external  conducting  wire  and  the  earth, 
a  single  circuit.  An  axis  carries  six  soft  iron  armatures, 
in  succession,  before  each  of  the  coils.  With  this  apparatus 
tncnty-tive  charges  were  frequently  fired  in  divided  circuit, 
80  rapidly  that  the  effect  on  the  ear  was  as  of  one  explosion, 
only  of  slightly  longer  duration  than  when  the  large  magnet 
was  employed.  The  Markus  apparatus,  largely  used  iu 
Germany,  is  on  the  same  principle. 

Siemens's  dynamo-electric  machine,  in  which  electro- 
magnets are  employed,  is  a  very  useful  machine  for 
simultaneous    firing        It    is    found    that    the    residual 


magnetism  left  in  the  coils  of  electro-magnets,  after  a 
current  from  even  a  single  Voltaic  cell  has  been  once  gent 
through  them,  is  always  sufficient  to  have  the  necessary 
inductive  action  on  the  armature.  This  inductive  action, 
though  very  weak  at  first,  generates  slight  alternating 
currents  in  the  armature,  which  are  by  means  of  a  com- 
mutator caused  to  flow  always  in  one  direction  through  the 
coils  of  the  electro-magnet,  thus  increasing  the  magnetism 
in  the  core,  which,  in  its  turn,  increases  the  inductive 
action,  causing  stronger  and  stronger  currents  to  be 
generated  in  the  armature.  This  action  and  reaction  goes 
on  till  the  limit  of  magnetic  capacity  of  the  core  is  reached, 
and  if  the  coil  of  the  armalure  be  then  suddenly  connected 
with  the  line  leading  to  a  fuse,  a  very  powerful  current  is 
transmitted.  In  Breguet's  exploder  (in  which  a  bar  of  soft 
iron  is  suddenly  separated  from  the  armature  of  a  magnet 
bearing  two  induction  coils)  a  special  arrangement  gives 
rise  to  an  extra-current,  and  considerably  increases  the 
intensity  of  the  current.  M.  Brcguet  has  lately  utilized  in 
this  apparatus  the  new  and  powerful  laminated  magnets 
constructed  by  M.  Jamin.  Gramme's  machines  are  also 
effective  in)exploding  charges,  but  their  volume  and  high 
price  are  against  a  large  use  of  them  industrially. 

For  more  detailed  information  on  the  recent  develop- 
ments of  blasting,  reference  may  be  made  to  Spon's 
Dictionary  of  Engineering,  art  "Boring  and  Blasting ; " 
Professional  Papers  of  the  Corps  of  L  jyal  Engineers,  vols, 
vii.,  X.,  xxii.  ;  Transactions  of  t/te  Soaety  of  Engineers, 
18G9  and  1871  ;  Proceedings  of  South  Wales  Institute  of 
Mining  Engineers,  vol.  viii..  No.  5,  vol  ix.,  Nos.  1  and  2  ; 
Dingler's  Polytechnisches  Journal,  Oct.  1,  X&l i ;  Annalea 
de  Chimie  et  de  Physique,  May  1 875  ;  Journal  of  the  Society 
of  Arts,  May  28,  1875.  I  a.,  a  M.) 


BLEACHING 


BLEACHING  is  the  process  of  whitening  or  depriving 
objects  of  colour,  an  operation  incessantly  iu  activity 
in  nature  by  the  influence  of  light,  air,  and  moisture  The 
ait  of  bleaching,  of  which  we  have  here  to  treat,  consists 
in  inducing  the  rapid  operation  of  whitening  agencies,  and 
ns  an  industry  it  is  mostly  directed  to  cotton,  linen,  silk, 
wool,  and  other  textile  fibres,  but  it  is  also  applied  to  the 
whitening  of  paper-pulp,  bees'-wax,  and  some  oils  and  other 
substance!  The  term  bleaching  is  derived  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  blcccaA  to  bleach,  or  to  fade,  from  which  also  comes 
the  cognate  German  word  bleichen,  to  whiten  or  render  pale. 
Bleachers,  down  to  the  end  of  lust  century,  were  known  in 
Kngland  as  "  whitsters,"  a  name  obviously  derived  from 
the  nature  of  their  calling. 

The  operation  of  bleaching  must  from  its  very  nature  be 
of  the  same  antiquity  as  the  work  of  washing  textures  of 
linen,  cotton,  or  other  vegetable  fibres.  Clothing  repeatedly 
washed,  and  exposed  in  the  open  air  to  dry,  gradually 
assumes  a  whiter  and  whiter  hue,  and  our  ancestors  cannot 
have  failed  to  notice  and  take  .advantage  of  this  fact. 
Scarcely  anything  is  known  with  certainty  of  the  art 
of  bleaching  as  j)ractised  by  the  nations  of  antiquity. 
Egypt  in  early  agos  was  the  great  centre  of  textile 
manufactures,  and  her  white  and  coloured  linens  were  in 
high  repute  among  contemporary  nations.  As  a  uniformly 
well  ble.ached  basis  is  necessary  for  the  production  of  a 
satisfactory  dye  on  cloth,  it  may  b»  assumed  that  the 
Egyptians  were  fairly  proficient  in  bleaching,  and  that 
Etill  more  so  were  the  Phccnicians  with  their  brilliant  and 
famous  purple  dyes.  We  learn,  from  Pliny,  that  ditTerent 
plants,  and  likewise  the  ashes  of  plants,  which  no  doubt 
contained  alkali,  were  cmjiloyed  as  detergents.  He  men- 
tinns  particularly  the  Struthium  as  much  used  for  bleaching 


iu  Greece,  a  plant  which  has  been  identified  by  some  with 
Gypsophila  Struthium.  But  as  it  does  not  appear  from 
Sibthorp's  Flora  Groeca,  published  by  Sir  James  Smith, 
that  this  species  is  a  native  of  Greece,  Dr  Sibthorp's  conjec- 
ture that  Ihi Struthium  of  the  ancients  was  thaSaponaria  offi- 
cinalis, a  plant  common  in  Greece,  is  certainly  more  probable. 

In  modern  times,  down  to  the  middle  of  the  1  Sth  century, 
the  Dutoh  possessed  almost  a  monopoly  of  the  bleaching 
trade,  although  we  find  mention  of  bleach-works  at  South- 
waik  near  London  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century.  It  was  customary  to  send  all  the  brown  linen, 
then  largely  manufactured  in  Scotland,  to  Holland  to  be 
bleached.  It  w.is  sent  away  in  the  month  of  March,  and 
not  returned  till  the  end  of  October,  being  thus  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  merchant  more  than  half  a  year. 

The  Dutch  mode  of  bleaching,  which  was  mostly  con- 
ducted in  the  neighbourhood  of  Haarlem,  was  to  steep  the 
Unen  first  in  a  waste  lye,  and  then  for  about  a  week  in  a 
potash  lye  poured  over  it  boiling  hot.  The  cloth  being 
taken  out  of  this  lye,  and  washed,  was  next  put  into  wooden 
vessels  containing  butter-milk,  in  which  it  lay  under  a 
pressure  for  five  or  six  days.  After  this  it  was  spread  upon 
the  grass,  and  kept  wet  for  several  months,  exposed  to  the 
sunshine  of  summer. 

In  1728  James  Adair  from  Belfast  proposed  to  the 
Scotch  Board  ot  ilanufactures  to  establish  a  bleachfield  in 
Galloway ;  this  proposal  the  board  approved  of,  and  ta 
the  same  year  resolved  to  devote  £2000  as  premiums  for 
the  establishment  of  bleachfields  throughout  the  country. 
In  1732  a  method  of  bleaching  with  kelp,  introduced  by 
R.  Holden,  also  from  Ireland,  was  submitted  to  the  board  ; 
and  with  their  assistance  Huldcn  established  a  bleachlield 
for  prosecuting  his  process  at  Pitkcrro,  near  Dundee. 


812 


B  L  E  A  CH  I  N  G 


[cotton. 


TUo  bleaching  process,  as  at  that  tune  performed,  was 
•very  tedious,  occupying  a  complete  sumnler.  It  consisted 
in  steeping  the  cloth  id  alkahne  lyes  for  several  days, 
washing  it  clean,  and  spreading  it  upon  the  grass  for  some 
weeks.  The  steeping  in  alkaline  lyes,  called  bucking,  and 
the  bleaching  on  the  grass  called  crofting,  were  repeated 
alternately  for  five  or  six  times.  The  cloth  was  then  steeped 
for  some  days  in  sour  mdk,  washed  clean,  and  crofted. 
These  processes  were  repeated,  diminishing  every  time  the 
strength  of  the  alkaline  lye,  Uil  the  linen  had  acquired  the 
requisite  whiteness 

For  the  first  improvement  in  this  tedious  process,  which 
was  faithfully  copied  from  the  Dutch  bleachfields,  manu- 
facturers were  indebted  to  Dr  Francis  Home  of  Edinburgh, 
to  whom  the  Board  of  Trustees  paid  £100  for  his  exyjeri- 
ments  m  bleaching.  He  proposed  to  substitute  water 
acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid  for  the  sour  milk  previously 
employed,  a  suggestion  made  in  consequence  of  the  new 
mode  of  preparing  sulphuric  acid,  contrived  some  time 
before  by  Dr  Roebuck,  which  reduced  the  price  of  that 
acid  to  less  than  one-third  of  what  it  had  formerly  been. 
When  this  change  was  first  adopted  by  the  bleachers,  there 
was  the  same  outcry  against  its  corrosive  effects  as  arose 
when  chlorine  was  substituted  for  crofting.  .\  great 
advantage  Wiis  found  to  result  from  the  use  of  sulphuric 
acid,  which  was  that  a  sounn?  with  sulphuric  acid  required 
at  the  longest  only  ti^enty-four  hours,  and  often  not  more 
than  twelve  .  whereas,  when  sour  milk  was  employed,  six 
weeks,  or  even  two  months,  were  requisite,  according  to 
tho  state  of  the  weather.  In  consequence  of  this  improve- 
ment, the  proces.s  of  bleaching  was  shortened  from  eight 
months  to  four,  which  enabled  the  merchant  to  dispose  of 
his  goods  so  much  the  sooner,  and  consequently  to  trade 
with  less  capital. 

No  further  modification  of  consequence  was  introduced 
in  the  art  till  the  year  1787,  when  a  most  important  change 
wiis  initiated  by  the  use  of  chlorine,  an  element  which  had 
been  discovered  by  Scheele  in  Sweden  about  thirteen  years 
before.  BerthoUet  repeated  the  experiments  of  Scheele 
in  1785,  and  by  the  prosecution  of  further  investigations 
he  added  considerably  to  the  facts  already  known  He 
sliowed  that  this  substance  (called  by  Scheele  dqyhlogisli- 
cated  mnriattc  acid)  is  a  gas  soluble  in  water,  to  which  il 
gives  a  vellowish  green  colour,  an  astringent  taste,  and  the 
p«culiar  smell  by  which  the  body  is  distinguished. 

The  property  which  this  gas  possesses  of  destroying 
vegetable  colours,  led  BerthoUet  to  suspect  that  it  might  be 
introduced  with  advantage  into  the  art  of  bleaching,  and 
that  It  would  enable  practical  bleachers  greatly  to  shorten 
their  processes  In  a  paper  on  dcpblogisticated  muriatic 
acid,  read  before  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Pans  in  Apnl 
1785.  and  published  in  the  Journal  de  Fkysique  tor  May 
of  the  same  year  (vol,  xxvi.  p.  325).  he  mentions  that  he 
had  tried  the  effect  of  the  gas  in  bleaching  cloth,  and  found 
that  It  answered  jierfectly  This  idea  is  stUl  further  de- 
veloped in  a  paper  on  the  same  substance,  pubbshcd  in  the 
Joui-rial  '/'  Plivsu/uf  (or  1786.  In  1786  he  exhibited  the 
expeniiiciit  to  Mr  James  Watt,  who,  immediately  upon  his 
return  tn  Kugland,  commenced  a  jiractical  examination  of 
the  subjTt  and  was  accorduisly  the  person  who  first  intro- 
duced the  new  method  of  bleaching  into  Great  Britain. 
We  find  from  Mr  Watt's  own  testimony  that  chlorine  was 
practically  employed  in  the  bleachfiold  of  his  father-in  law, 
Mr  Macgrfgor,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Glasgow  in  March 
1787  Shortly  therenfter  the  method  was  introduced  at 
Aberdeen  by  Messrs  Gordon,  Barron,  and  Co  ,  on  informa- 
tion received  from  M  do  Sau-ssurc  through  Professor 
Copland  of  Aberdeen.  Mr  Thomas  Henry  of  Manchester 
was  the  first  to  blearb  with  chlorine  in  the  Lancashire  dis- 
•  Tct,  and  to  his  independent  investigations  several  of   the 


early  improvements  in  the  application  of  the  inateruil  were 
due.' 

No  very  great  amount  of  success,  however,  attended  the 
efforts  lo  utilize  chlorine  in  bleaching  operations  tdl  the 
subject  was  taken  up  by  Mr  Tennani  of  Glasgow.  He, 
after  a  great  deal  of  most  laborious  and  acute  investigation, 
hit  upon  a  method  of  making  a  saturated  liquid  of  chlondo 
of  hme,  which  was  found  to  answer  perfectly  all  the  pur- 
poses of  the  bleacher.  This  was  certainly  a  most  important 
improvement,  without  which,  the  prodigious  extent  of 
business  carried  on  by  some  bleachers  could  hot  possibly 
have  been  transacted.  Such  was  the  acceleration  of  pro- 
cesses effected  by  the  new  method  that,  it  is  stated,  a 
bleacher  in  Lancashire  received  1400  pieces  of  gray  muslin 
on  a  Tuesday,  which  on  the  Thursday  immediately  following 
were  returned  bleached  to  the  manufacturers,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  sixteen  miles,  and  were  packed  up  and  sent  off  on 
that  very  day  to  a  foreign  market. 

In  the  year  1798  Mr  Tennant  took  out  a  patent  for  his 
new  invention,  and  offered  the  use  of  it  to  practical 
bleachers,  lor  a  fair  and  reasonable  portion  of  the  savings 
made  by  its  substitution  for  potash,  then  in  general  use. 
Many  of  the  bleachers,  however,  used  it  without  ['aying 
hiin.  and  a  combination  was  formed  to  resist  the  right  of 
the  patentee.  In  December  180'2,  an  action  for  damages 
was  brought  against  Messrs  Slater  and  Varley.  nominally 
the  defendant?,  but  who,  in  fact  were  backed  and  supported 
by  a  combination  of  almost  all  the  bleachers  in  Lancashire. 
In  consequence  of  this  action,  the  patent  right  was  set 
aside  by  the  verdict  of  a  jury  and  the  decision  of  Lord 
Ellenborough.  who  used  very  strong  language  against  the 
patentee.  The  grounds  of  this  decision  were,  that  the 
patent  included  a  mode  of  bucking  with  quicklime  and 
water,  which  was  not  a  new  invention.  It  was  decided 
that,  because  one  part  of  the  patent  was  not  new,  therefore 
the  whole  must  be  set  aside.  Lime  was  indeed  used  pre- 
vious to  the  patent  of  Mr  Tennant  ,  but  it  was  employed 
in  a  quite  different  manner  from  his.  and  he  would  have 
allowed  the  bleachers  to  continue  their  peculiar  method 
without  any  objection,  because  it  would  have  been  pro- 
ductive of  no  injury  to  his  emolument. 

In  consequence  of  this  decision  the  use  of  liquid  chloride 
of  lime  in  bleaching  was  thrown  open'to  all.  and  speedily 
came  to  be  universally  employed  by  the  bleachers  in  Britain. 
Mr  Tennant.  thus  deprived  of  the  fruits  of  several  years  of 
anxious  and  laborious  investigation,  advanced  a  step  farther, 
to  what  may  be  considered  as  the  completion  of  the  new 
method.  This  consisted  in  impregnating  quicklime  in  a 
dry  state  with  chlorine,  an  idea  originally  suggested  by  Mr 
Charles  M'Intosh  of  Cross  Basket,  then  a  partner  with 
Messrs  Tennant  and  Knox.  A  patent  for  this  was  taken 
out  on  the  1.3th  of  April  1799,  and  he  began  his  manu- 
facture of  solid  chloride  of  lime  at  fir.^t  upon  a  small  scale, 
which  h;is  ever  since  been  gradually  extending,  and  the 
manufactory  is  now  the  largest  of  the  Kind  in  Great 
Britain. 

The  various  processes  for  the  preparation  of  the  so- 
called  chloride  of  lime,  or  bleachingpowder,  as  conducteil 
at  the  present  day.  and  its  other  appliraiinns  in  arts,  will 
be  luuud  described  under  the  head  ol  CULoBlNE. 

Bleaching  of  C.itton 

Of  the  two  great  staples,  cotton  and  Imcn.  to  the 
whiteiiiiii;  o(  which  the  art  of  the  bleacher  is  dirccteil, 
cotton  IS  the  more  easily  and  expeditiously  bleached.  The 
biLsis  of  all  vegetable  fibres  is  cellulose  or  ligneous  tissue,  a 
puro  while  substance,  and  it  ls  to  obtain  thi.s  body  in  a 
state  of  purity,  free  from  the  resinous  matter  naturally 
associated  with  it   as  well  as  from  adventitious  iinpuntics 


cotton] 


B  L  E  A  C  H  -I  N  G 


813 


imparted  in  tlic  process  of  spinning  and  weaving,  that  is 
tlic  object  of  bleat-Ling.  The  operations,  although  appa- 
rently complex  and  numerous,  are  essentially  simi'le,  though 
frequently  repeated,  and  the  greatest  variety  of  detail  is 
connected  with  the  finishing  of  cloth,  which  is  in  reality  a 
sci-arate  industry,  fr«juently  conducted  in  distinct  estab- 
litHimeiits  under  the  name  of  calendering  and  finishing 
works.  Bleaching  proper  resolves  itself  into  washing  with 
suitable  detergents,  &nd  Eubjecting  the  washed  material  to 
•the  influence  of  chlorine,  whereby  the  colouring  matter 
cither  belonging  to  the  fibre  or  imparted  to  it  is  oxidized 
and  discharged. 

The  general  ari-angemenls  of  a  blcach-liouse  will  be  made 
plam  from  the  ground-plan  (fig.  1).     The  various  pieces 


[ITlP 


SINKe    HOUSE     I 


'TTST-'^i^.  "~ 

' 

'  -  vriVv"^ 

f^..; 

r-.   »    :      -. 

M 

p 

^A'      .                                      r              .■.■>, 

^^ 

BLEACH       HOU--.  t 
L1_N_Ci             W  '  N  "  H  E  3 

V»  I  NC  M   E    S_ 

'& 

^  c 


^     E= 


n.-iK^tw.-'-i-'-j.  ■<  "'■a-eM—^-^^K-.-^ 


Fio.  1. — Ground-Plan  of  Bleach-Houso 

of  app.ar.itus,  the  positions  of  which  arc  there  indicated,  will 
be  described  in  connection  with  the  sequence  of  opera- 
tions through  which  the  cloth  passes  in  the  process  of 
bleaching.  In  the  best  arranged  works,  it  should  be 
mentioned,  wheie  power  is  required  to  work  any  machine, 
it  is  generally  supplied  by  a  separate  engine  attached  to  the 
iincliine  itself,  instead  of  by  gearing  carried  from  one 
engine  for  all  the  machinery.  For  this  plan,  as  well  as  for 
the  greater  portion  of  the  illustrations  which  follow,  we  are 
indebttd  to  Mr  William  Mather,  of  the  eminent  firm  of 
Mather  and  I'latf,  Salford,  to  whom  we  are  also  under 
obligation  for  mnch  valuable  practical  information.  We 
have  also  to  express  our  indebtedness  to  Mr  Alexander 
Crum  of  Thornliebank,  for  the  fullest  access  to  the  impor- 
tant works  of  his  firm,  and  for  the  cordial  assistance  afforded 
by  the  managers  of  its  various  departments. 

The  sequence  of  operations  in  the  bleaching  and  finishing 
of  calico  has  undergone  no  change  in  its  general  details 
since  the  bleaching-powder  process  was  first  introduced ;  but 
the  mechanical  arrangements  by  which  the  operations  are 
conducted  have  been  the  subject  of  frequent  improvements. 
The  ingenuilj  of  engineers  and  bleachers  has  been  chiefly 
directed  towards  the  decreasing  of  manual  labour,  economy 
of  fuel  and  materials,  and  the  rapid  completion  of  the 
various  processes.  The  application  of  factory  legislation  to 
Meach-works  by  the  Bleaching  and  Dyeing  Works  Act  of 
1860,  by  imposing  a  necessity  for  regular  and  stated  hours 
of  work,  etUI  further  stimulated  the  production  of  apparatus 
and  arrangements  for  prora[>t  and  certain  completion  of  the 
various  operations.  Consequently  a  great  part  of  the  old 
machinery  and  arrangements  of  a  bleach  house  have  now 
disappeared,  and  the  processes  are  carried  on  in  a  continuous 
series  of  operations  by  machinery  and  applia\iccs  to  a  large 
extent  self-acting.  Formerly  each  piece  of  goods  was 
separately  treated  and  carried  by  hand  or  on  barrows  from 
one  stage  to  the  next ;  now  the  pieces  are  sewn  end  to  end, 
as  many  as  1000  pieces,  measuring  perhaps  20  miles,  boing 
operated  on  in  one  stretch. 

As  various  pieces  of  old  machinery  are  yet  in  use  for 
certain  kinds  of  work,  it  has  been  considered  desirable  to 


give  descriptions  and  figures  cf  some  of  them,  and  these,  at 
the  same  time,  will  serve  the  further  puriiose  of  indicating 
the  nature  of  the  mechanical  improvements  which  have  been 
carried  out,  in  recent  years,  in  bleaching  establishments. 
The  important  and  frequently  repeated  operation  of  wash- 
ing was  formerly  conducted  cither  at  the  w.ish-stocks  or 
washing-mill  or  in  the  dash-wheel.  The  wash-stocks,  which 
are  yet  in«uso  in  many  large  works,  especially  where  linen 
is  the  bleacher's  staple,  con.'iists  of  a  trough  or  box  for 
holding  the  goods  to  be  washed,  through  which  a  constant 
stream  of  water  is  passing.  A  pair  or  more  of  heavy 
haniincr-headed  wooden  beams,  hung  by  long  shafts,  end 
playing  into  the  trough,  are  alternately  tilted  against  the 
cloth,  causing  the  water  by  their  momentum  to  work 
through  and  squirt  out  of  the  ma.ss.  This  process  of 
washing  is  rather  tedious,  occupying  on  an  average  about 
half  an  hour,  and  requiring  besides  a  great  amount  of 
manual  labour.  The  dash-wheel  (fig.  2)  is  a  cylindrical  boj 
revolving  on  its 
axis.  It  has  four 
divisions,  as 
shown  by  the  dot- 
ted lines,  and  an 
opening  into  each 
division.  A  num 
ber  of  pieces  are 
put  into  each, 
abundance  of 
water  is  admitted 
behind,  and  the 
knocking  of  the 
pieces      as     they  ^^°-  2.-Suction  of  a  iiash-Wheel. 

alternately  dash  from  one  side  of  the  division  to  the  other 
during  the  revolution  of  the  wheel  effects  th.o  washing. 
The  process  lasts  from  four  to  si.\  minutes.  The  dash- 
wheel  is  used  to  the  present  day  in  the  bleaching  of  curtaia 
materials  and  fine  muslins.  In  nothing  have  greater  im- 
provements been  eff"ected  than  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
kiers  or  vessels  in  which  the  cloth  is  boiled  or  "  bowked." 
kn  old  form  of  kier  is  seen  in  fig.  3.  It  consisted  of  a 
cylindrical  vessel 
AA,  9  feet  wide, 
of  wood  or  iron, 
having  a  false  bot- 
tom BB,  on  which 
the  goods  were 
placed,  about  0 
inches  from  the 
real  one.  A  small  . 
pipe  E,  in  the  cen- 
tre of  a  wider  one 
CC,  conveyed  the 
steam  from  the 
steam  -  boiler. 
When  the  liquid 
boiled  at  the  bottom,  where  the  steam  issued,  the  steam 
forced  its  way  up  the  pipe  CC,  carrying  with  it  a  quan- 
tity of  the  lye,  which  was  thrown  back  by  the  small  cover 
D,  sjireading  it.self  over  the  surface  of  the  goods,  and  filter- 
ing through  them  into  the  6p.ace  below  the  false  bottom, 
where  it  was  again  heated  by  the  steam,  rcascended  the 
pipe  CC,  and  so  on  in  constant  succession,  till  the  boil- 
ing was  completed.  FF  is  a  wooden  cover  which  prevented 
the  cooling  of  the  materials  below  a  boiling  hcat> 

The  bleaching  of  conmion  calico  is  divided  into  two 
branches — Irf,-  print  bleaching,  in  the  case  of  which  the 
goods  ore  bleached  'as  a  preliminary  to  the  process  of  calico 
printing  ;  and  2(1,  white  ble.iching,  which  appUes  to  goods 
to  be  finished  white  or  unprinted.  The  processes  differ  in 
some  '^f  their  details,  as  in  white  bleaching  it  is  only  neres- 


Flo.  3. — Section  of  Kior  (old  form). 


81-^ 


BLEACHING 


[cotton. 


eacy  to  satisfy  the  eye,  whereas  in  print-bleaching  the 
material  must  be  rendered  chemically  pure,  otherwise  the 
colours  in  the  subsequent  printing  process"  would  be  dull 
and  blotchy.  The  print  bleaching  must  therefore  be  more 
thoroughly  done  than  the  other  ;  but  as  the  processes  are 
generally  the  same,  it  will  be  sufEcient  to  indicate  the 
points  of  difference  in  the  various  stages  through  which 
the  material  in  both  cases  passes.  A  process  preliminary 
to  bleaching  is 

Singeing. — Gray  calico  as  received  from  the  looms  is 
generally  in  lengths  of  37  J  and  50  yards.  A  large  number 
of  these,  sometimes  as  many  as  1000,  measuring  more 
than  20  nmlea  in  length,  are  sewn  into  a  continuous  web. 
At  the  extremities  of  each  owner's  lengths,  the  name  of 
the  firm,  or  some  distinguishing  mark,  is  either  stamped  on 
in  tar,  or  marked  by  rheans  of  coloured  threads.  These 
long  lengths  are  then  submitted  to  the  operation  of  singe- 
ing, which  has  for  its  object  the  removal  of  the  downy 
pile  and  short  threads  from  the  surface  of  the  cloth,  which 
would  interfere  with  the  appearance  of  finished  white 
goods,  and  with  the  uniformity  and  sharpness  of  patterns 
in  the  case  of  prints.  Several  methods  of  accomplishing 
this  have  been  employed,  but  that  most  commonly  used  is 
♦he  system  of  plate  singeiag  illustrated  in  fig.  4.     A  pair  of 


Stuve. 


einge-plates,  a  and  b,  made  of  thick  bent  sheets  of  copper, 
are  mounted  over  the  flues  of  a  fire  sufficient  to  raise  a 
white  heat.  The  plate  b  is  most  highly  heated,  a  being 
at  the  end  of  the  flue  furthest  removed  from  the  fire.  The 
cloth  enters  over  a  rail  a,  and  in  passing  over  the  plate  a 
is  thoroughly  dried  and  prepared  for  the  singeing  it  receives 
when  it  comes  to  the  highly-heated  plate  6.  A  block  d, 
carryi  ij  two  rails  in  the  space  between  the  plates,  can  be 
raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure  so  as  to  increase  or  lessen  the 
pressure  of  the  cloth  against  the  plates,  or,  if  necessary,  to 
lift  it  quite  free  of  contact  with  them.  The  system  of  plate 
singeing  is  found  generally  sufljcient  in  practice,  but  the 
caking  of  paste  and  dirt  on  the  plates  from  the  cloth  as  it 
passes  over  thera,  and  variations  in  the  heat  of  the  plates, 
often  lead  to  irregularities  in  singeing.  A  combination 
of  plato  and  gas  s-ingcing  is  frequently  employed  to  over- 
:omB  the  deficiencies  of  phite  singeing  alone.  In  this  case" 
the  cloth  is  passed  first  OTer  an  ordinary  plate,  and  then 
on  to  another,  along  the  ridge  of  which  is  a  long  narrow 
slit,  which  allows  the  issue  of  a  gas  flame  produced  from 
coke  burning  immediately  under  it.  By  this  means  long 
loose  threads  arc  more  ofl"cctually  burned  ofl'  than  in  plate 
singeing,  and  a  more  uniform  heat  is  applied  to  the  gray 
cloth.  Fig.  5  is  a  sectional  view  of  a  very  efficient  singe- 
ing apparatus  introduced  by  Messrs  Mather  and  Piatt. 
The  figure  represents  the  first  half  of  the  machine,  the 
teoond  portion  being  precisely  similar  in  arrangement.  The 
bingeing  in  this  case  is  accomplished  by  the  burning  of  a 
tnixtnre  of  coal-gas  and  atmospheric  air  admitted  by  a  pipp 


a,  and  driven  by  a  fan  Diast  to  the  burners  6,  6,  which  are 
regulated  by  stop-cocks.     The   mixture   burns    with   an 


Fia  6. — Gas  Singeing  Apparatus. 

intense  heat  and  a  blue  smokeless  flame.  The  cloth  is 
carried  by  a  series  of  roUers  to  the  gas  jets,  and  in  passing 
over  the  rollers  c,  c,  c,  c  the  one  side  of  the  cloth  impinges 
laterally  four  times  against  the  flame,  which  is  never 
permitted  to  pass  through  the  fabric,  but  only  shaves  its 
surface.  The  back  is  thus  singed  in  the  first  portion  of 
the  apparatus,  and  being  turned  over  on  roller  rf  it  is 
carried  forward  to  another  pair  of-  jets,  where,  being 
thoroughly  dry,  the  face  side  of  the  cloth  is  completely 
singed  by  going  over  exactly  the  same  course  through 
which  the  back  is  carried  in  the  first  part.  By  an  arrange- 
ment not  shown  in  the  illustration,  the  attendant  of  the 
machine  can  instantaneously  lower  the  gas  burners  by  a 
treadle  movement  in  case  of  any  stoppage  or  accident,  and 
thus  prevent  the  cloth  from  being  burned.  With  a  proper 
pressure  of  gas  this  machine  singes  at  the  rate  of  60  yards 
per  minute. 

At  this  stage  the  cloth  has  now  in  addition  to  the 
brown  coloured  incrusting  substance  and  the  resinous 
material  proper  to  the  fibre,  a  dark-coloured  carbonized 
surface,  caused  by  the  singeing  process,  the  weaver's  paste 
or  dressing,  tallow  or  other  fat  introduced  in  the  pro- 
cess of  weaving,  and  the  accumulation  of  dirt  which  the 
handling  of  weavers  and  others  may  have  produced. 
The  object  of  the  subsequent  processes  is  to  wash  out 
the  mechanical  impurities  and  resinous  substances  from 
the  cloth,  to  render  soluble  by  chemical  agencies  such  as 
are  otherwise  insoluble  in  water,  and  to  oxidize  the  colour- 
ing matter  ol  the  cotton  by  the  chloride  of  limfi  as  already 
explained. 

Liming. — In  some  cases  it  is  the  practice  immediately 
after  singeing  to  steep  the  pieces  in  water  and  pile  them  up 
wet  for  a  night,  in  order  to  loosen  and  partly  ferment  th3 
weaver's  paste,  which  is  then  in  large  part  removed  by 
washing  in  a  machine  to  be  subsequently  described.  The 
"  gray-backs  "  which  have  been  used  in  calico-printing  have 
always  to  be  thus  steeped,  and  at  one  time  it  was  the 
practice  to  leave  the  cloth  so  long  in  this  steep  that  it 
acquired  a  most  offensive  odour.  This  preliminary  steeping 
and  washing  facilitates  the  percolation  of  the  liquor  through 
the  fabric  in  the  process  of  boiling,  but  notwithstanding 
this  advantage  it  is  generally  dispeused  with,  and  the  goods 
pass  direct  from  the  singeing  to  the  liming  process.  The 
pieces  are  formed  into  a  loose  coil  or  rope  by  being  passed 
through  circular  rings  of  ghiss  or  pottery  called  "  pot-eyes," 
and  worked  up  and  down  several  times  in  a  strong  milk 
of  lime,  in  order  that  the  whole  may  bo  uniformly  and 
thoroughly  impregnated.  The  arrangement  for  liming  will 
bo  understood  from  fig.  6,  which  is  a  sectional  view  of 
a  "squeezer,"  an  apparatus  used  repeatedly  in  subsequent 
operations  as  well  as  in  this  of  liming.  The  cloth  passes 
up  and  down  as  indicated  by  the  arrows,  dipping  several 
times  into  the  8olution,and  before  passing  finally  on  to 
the  kiers  for  boiling  it  13  slightly  "nipoed"  between  tha 


COTTON.] 


P  L  E  A  C  H  I  N  Ct 


toio 


'  bowb"  of  Ite  squeezer  to  eitract  supcrfliinus  moisture. 
These  bowls  are  thick  cylinders  of  wood,  usu.-illy  iii  this 
cise  made  of  beech  From  the  lime  squeezer  the  cloth  is 
carried  over  winches,  and  guided  through  po^cyes  into  the 
Kicrs. 


Flo   6  — Seclion  of  Linie  Squeeiet. 

ISnwhnq. — A  bowkinc  kier  is  an  a[iparatus  in  which 
the  clolh  is  boiled  To  one  old  form  of  k:cr  allusion  h.n.s 
aireaily  been  made.  Bowkm^  is  now  mostly  accomplished 
in  Closed  kiers  worked  up  to  a  considerable  pressure  o1 
sieam.  Jii  the  boiling  (or  white  bleaching  about  80  lb  of 
lime  arc  required  for  u'Tl'O  lb  ol  cloth,  and  the  boiling  is 
cuniiuued  for  ten  hours  at  a  pressure  of  about  30  lb  A 
form  of  kier  very  senerally  employed  consisLs  of  a  stront; 
vessel  mane  of  boiler  plale,  with  a  manhole  in  the  upper 
part,  which  can  be  screwed  lightly  down.  The  vessel  is 
aliout  10  tcet  in  depth,  and  f>  or  C  feet  in  diameter,  and  has 
a  lai'-c  bottom  luade  oi  a  gird  of  wood  or  iron,  on  which  the 
lowest  layer  of  cloth  rests  Up  the  centre  of  the  kicr 
pa.sscs  a  pipe  or  tiilie  which  readies  higher  than  the  cloth 
can  be  piled,  and  is  surmounted  by  an  uinbrcllashaped 
plale      Meain  is  admitted  at  the  lower  part  of  the  kier. 


plate,  and  tlirown  ovc?  the  upper  surface  of  the  cloth.  It 
gradually  percolates  down  through  the  clolh  to  the  bottom, 
where  it  is  again  caught  and  forced  up  through  th«  central 
pipe,  and  ihua  a  constant  circulation  is  maintained.  A 
very  efficient  circulating  kic^,  the  invention  of  Mr  Taylot 
of  Berchvale/  has  recently  bieu  introduced,  of  which  a 
sectional  representation  is  given  in  fig.  7.  Tins  kier  in 
outline  13  like  the  previous,  but  it  has  no  central  dislribut- 
ing  pipe.  Instead,  the  liquor  is  earned  by  an  external 
pipe  to  the  top  of  the  kier,  where  it  enters  and  is  forcibly 
thrown  against  the  surface  of  the  cloth.  The  kier  A  has  a 
false  bottom  B  as  in  the  previous  case,  and  when  filled  with 
cloth  and  liquor,  the  liquor  percolates  by  a  pipe  C  into  the 
receiver  D,  where  it  finds  its  own  level  in  the  ascending 
pi'ie  E,  Steam  is  admitted  at  the  lower  pert  of  the  receiver 
by  the  steani-pipe  F,  and  forces  the  liquor  upwards  through 
ilie  pipe  K  to  the  top  of  the  kier.  The  vacuum  created  in 
the  receiver  is  supplied  from  the  loner  part  of  the  kier, 
•ind  the  flow  is  lacilitated  by  the  pressure  of  sleam  from 
above,  and  thus  a  constant  steady  circulation  is  ijiainlaiced. 
This  kier  is  very  useful  in  cases  where  a  comparatively 
low  pressure  is  desirable,  as  in  white  bleaching,  where 
the  coloured  headings  of  the  cloth  (Turkey  red  or  other 
coloured  threads  unreduced  at  the  end  of  a  web)  havrto  be 
preserved. 

The  bowking  apparatus  generally  used  by  printers  la 
Barlow's  highpressiire  kiers,  an  arrangement  in  which  the 
kiers  are  worked   in  pairs.     A  pair  is  shown  in  fig.  8,  OM 


Fio 


-Tivlor 


and  n-"  tlie  pressure  accumulates  il  gradually  forces  the 
liquor  upwards  through  the  central  pipe  till,  byand-by,  it 
Lb  dashed  with  great  violenc!  acrainst  the  umbrella-shaped 


Fic  S  —  Barlo«  8  HigbPre»surf  Kt.rt. 

being  seen  in  section  ,  the  dimeiisKiis  of  the  vessels  ar« 
inserted  in  the  figure. 

The  novelty  these  kiers  ititrmliii-nl  v>hen  first  brounbt  out.  «-.n 
ihal  ID  usinq  steam  of  40  P.  instead  of  5  Iti,  «  Rcemrr  e.onon.y 
of  time  and  .imcs  would  l>e  eflected.  Their  world-wide  «i,plii.al..in 
has  proved  that  ihe  inventor  s  itieory  has  found  omfle  i  oiihiniation. 
The  clolh  IS  .arried  or  rmher  dr.wu  by  win.iies.  .nd  du.|.^«d  iino 
the  wrought  iron  toilers  or  kiers  A  A',  through  the  inanholee  id  the 
lop,  two  pieces  in  all  cases  ruiiiiilig  side  hy  side.  As  the  pieces  are 
delivered  conlinunusiv  in  the  kirrs,  a  lad  in  each  spreads  a  pile  of 
the  rloth  all  round  lire  tier,  as  eiiually  a.s  possible,  so  that,  when 
full  the  kicr  shall  be  packed  unilornilv  to  the  uip.  Ibiscloth  rcsta 
on  what  is  urni.d  a  false  u.iioni,  simply  .i  grid  or  i.laie  with  holes 
in  It  «s  ■.h..wn  at  11  I'pon  ihe  grid  are  g.nerally  placed  a  few 
sn.ooih  stones,  through  the  spaces  helween  which  the  liquor  drains 

(loin  Ihe  (Inlh.  I     L    1 

Down  the  centre  of  ll  e  kier  is  a  pipe  C,  perforated  mth  holes. 
for  the  purpose  uf  di-triiuling  ihc  liijuor  freely  inlo  the  mass  of 
(loth  The  kiers  are  coiiiiecle.l  hy  a  pipe  I),  leading  from  Ihe  bot- 
tom of  one  10  the  lop  ol  Ihe  oilier,  and  vice  ierj<i.  The  steam  is 
inlroducci.  Ihrough  the  valves  KK'.  After  the  kicrs  are  lillcd  »ilh 
clolh  each  holding  ahout  COO  lb.  ihe  man-hole  lids  arc  screwed 
ilow^i'uDil  all  made  steam  light  A  little  stenro  is  then  turned  on 
lo  discharge  the  air  from  Ihc  clolh.  which  escapes  Uirough  the  pij«s 
¥Y  This  Blcjim,  moreover,  grndually  warms  tht  goods.  The  alka. 
line  liQuor  or  lime  water,  having  beeu  mued  lo  the  pr.ipcr  ilrcogll.. 


81G 


BLEACHING 


[cotton. 


l3  then  !et  into  the  kier  A,  through  the  tap  G,  until  the  necessary 
quantity  has  been  sup|ilied,  about  20  gallons  of  caustic  soda  at  70' 
Tw.,  and  400  !b  lime  for  the  full  charge  being  used.  The  steam 
is  then  turned  on  slowly?  and  by  its  pressure  the  liquor  in  kier  A  is 
made  to  pass  with  great  force  through  the  cloth,  and  then  up  the 
j'lpe  D,  through  the  3-way  valvo,  into  the  kier  A'.  When  all  the 
liquor  hag  passed  over,  thci steam  valve  E'  is  reversed,  steam  is  shut 
off  from  A,  coramunication'is  opened  to  pipe  D',  and  valve  E' turned 
so  as  to  admit  steam  to  A',  when  the  action  of  forcing  the  liquor 
through  the  cloth  up  tlie  pipe  E'  into  kier  A  is  performed.  This 
filternate  passing  of  the  liquor  backwards  and  forwards,  see-saw 
fashion,  through  the  cloth,^con3titute3  the  operation  of  boiling.  The 
steam  also  has  great  etfect  if  left  in  contact  with  the  cloth  for  a  few 
minutes  in  one  kier,  after  the  liquor  has  gone  over  to  the  other  kier. 
This  process  is  continued  for  eight  hours  (nearly  one-third  the  time 
formerly  required  in  what  are  termed  low-pressure  kiers),  with  steam 
of  from  30  to  50  tb,  during  which  tiine  the  liquor  passes  about  16 
times  from  one  kier  to  the  other  ;  tiien  the  valves  HH'  are  opened, 
and  all  the  liquor  expelled  by  the  steam  from  the  cloth  into  a  drain. 
Ttie  steam  is  then  shut  oil",  the  man-hole  lids  removed,  and  the  ends 
of  the  two  chains  of  cloth  taken  out  and  passed  through  pot  eyes, 
which  guide  the  pieces  to  the  washiug-machine.^ 

Was/iinff. — The  cloth  as  it  issues  from  the  kiers  is  found 
■  to  have  assumed  a  very  dirty  brown  aspect.  '  Formerly,  the 
opparatus  used  for  washing  was  either  the  wash-stocks  or 
the  dash-wheel,  to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made. 
The  machine  now  generally  employed  is  represented  in 
sectioQ  ia  fig.  9.     It  consists  of  a  pair  of  wooden  bowls 


Pro.  9.  -Scctiou  of  Wa.tliing-Machine. 

OT  cylinders  o  and  6,  about  9  feet  long,  mounted  in  a 
strong  framework,  and  arranged  to  press  against  each 
other  in  their  revoliitinn.  I'lime  tree  is  the  wood  most 
suitable  for  making  tlie.se  bowls.  Running  underneath  the 
whole  length  of  the  bowls  is  a  box  or  trougli  c  filled 
with  water,  near  the  bottom  of  which  a  rectangular  roller  </ 
is  fixed.  The  water  in  the  box  is  constantly  renewed  during 
washing  operations  by  a  current  (lowing  in  at  the  middle  and 
escaping  at  each  end.  Two  chains  of  cloth  are  washed  in 
this  machine  at  the  same  lime,  one  being  introduced  at 
each  extremity  of  the  roller.  The  cloth  passes  down  into 
the  water  under  the  roller  d  and  up  to  the  wooden  bowls, 
between  which  it  is  caught  and  nipped,  and  down  again 


'  Fit  thin  (lescrijtlon  of  the  Barlow  kiers  wc  are  indebted  to  Mr 
William  MiUitr 


into  the  water,  working  its  way  in  a  si)iral  manner  from 
the  end  to  the  centre  of  the  machine,  passing  nine  times 
through  the  water  and  between  the  bowls  in  its  progress. 
Its  course  inwards  is  guided  by  a  strong  wooden  rail,  from 
which  pegs  project,  arranged  according  to  the  number  of 
turns  to  be  given  to  the  cloth.  In  the  centre  part  of  the 
upper  bowl  there  is  a  lapping  of  cotton  rope,  which  projects 
a  little  above  the  surface  of  the  wood,  and  serves  to  give 
the  cloth,  as  it  finally  issues  from  the  machine,  a  much 
stronger  squeeze  than  it  would  obtain  between  the  long 
even  bowls,  and  thereby  expels  a  large  proportion  of  mois- 
ture. As  the  cloth  travels  inwards  towards  the  centre  of 
the  trough,  while  the  flow  of  water  is  outward  to  escape  at 
each  end,  the  cloth  on  each  revolution  is  meeting  water 
more  nearly  pure,  till  just  at  the  point  where  it  issues  frym 
the  trough  for  the  last  time,  the  clean  water  entering  the 
trough  is  powerfully  spurted  upon  it,  thus  giving  it  a 
thorough  rinse  before  it  is  finally  squeezed.  It  is  usual  tr 
pass  the  cloth  from  the  lime  boil  either  through  a  pair  of 
such  washing-machines,  or  twice  through  the  same,  in  ordei 
to  expel  the  last  trace  of  calcareous  soap  and  uncombined 
lime  from  the  texture. 

In  addition  to  this  machine  various  other  devices  have 
from  time  to  time  been  proposed  and  introduced  to  perform 
the  important  operations  of  washing.  Among  these  the 
continuous  washer  of  Mr  Henry  Bridson  of  Bolton-le- 
Moors,  Lancashire,  patented  in  1852,  is  deserving  of 
notice  as  a  simple  and  efficient  washing  machine.  Mr 
Bridson's  washer  consists  of  an  oblong  tank  or  trough  of 
cast-iron  which,  in  use,  is  kept  about  half  filled  with  water. 
Within  this  tank,  just  dipping  into  the  water,  two  crc'ss 
shafts  are  fixed,  which  are  geared  to  revolve  in  the  same 
direction  by  spur-gearing  mounted  outside  the  trough. 
Each  shaft  carries  a  pair  of  discs  of  large  diameter,  and 
between  the  discs  of  the  two  shafts  a  pair  of  bars  placed 
diametrically  opposite  each  other  are  mounted.  Those 
bars  form  flat  winces  or  revolving  frames,  by  the  revohi- 
tion  of  which  the  fabric  is  not  only  carried  forward,  but  is 
in  its  progress  caused  to  strike  with  great  violence  against 
the  surface  of  the  water.  The  intermittent  flapping  and 
shaking  motion  thus  communicated  to  the  material  has  a 
powerful  effect  in  detaching  adhering  impurities  from 
the  cloth.  Another  form  of  washing-machine  in  use 
in  Lancashire  consists  of  a  row  of  eight  vats  or  troughs 
arranged  in  an  ascending  series,  so  that  the  overflow 
of  water  from  the  highest  or  last  runs  into  the  second 
highest,  jind  so  downwards  till  it  escapes  from  the  lowest 
or  first.  The  cloth  enters  at  the  lowest  trough,  and 
is  carrieJ^tJyiguide-rollers  up  and  down  through  the  entire 
series,  issuing  at  tho  top  between  o  pair  of  squeezing 
rollers.-' 

Gray  /S'o«r."-^Frorri  the  washing-machine  the  chain  of 
cloth  is  passed  through  a  pair  of  squeezers,  by  which  a  I.ir;;e 
proportion  of  moisture  is  expelled.  Tho  operation  of 
souring,  which  cornea  next,  is  performed  in  an  apparatus 
of  the  same  construction  as  the  washing-machine,  the  trough 
under  which  contains  the  souring  liquor.  For  while 
bleaching  a  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  of  a  strength  of 
2°  Twaddle  (sp.  gr.  1010)  is  used,  and  for  print  bleaching 
the  solution  is  made  up  to  4"  Tw.  Through  this  tho 
cloth  is  passed  up  and  down  twice  by  the  revolution  of  the 
bowls,  and  piled  U|)  in  the  sour  in  stillagcs  for  some  hours. 
The  object  of  the  souring  is  to  dissolve  any  traces  of  free 
lime  which  may  have  been  left  in  tho  washing,  and  to 
decompose  tho  calcareous  soap. 

/Second  Bail. — After  havingdain  in  tho  sour  for  a  sufficient 

length   of  time  the  cloth  is  passed  through  squeezers  to 

expel  as  much  as  possible  of  tho  acid,  and  again  washed  in 

the  machine.     It  is  next  passed  into  a  kier  or  set  of  kiers, 

1  precisely  as  after  liming,  for  the  second  boil.,  which  in  tho 


COTTON  ] 


B  L  E  A  C  II  I  .\  (J 


81 


case  of  print  bleaching  ia  done  with  a  solution  of  soda-ash 
ood  rosin.  For  a  pair  of  Barlow  kiers  boiling  12,000  lb  of 
cloth,  the  quantities  used  are  350  lb  of  soda-ash  and  200  lb 
of  rosin  disstlved  with  30  gallons  of  caustic  soda  at  70"  Tw. 
The  boiling  is  carried  ou  fur  ten  hours,  in  a  like  manner 
and  at  the  same  pressure  as  in  the  case  of  the  lime  boiling. 
The  soda-ash  and  rosin  form  a  soap,  which  dissolves  out 
the  free  fatty  acid  in  the  cloth,  and  acts  on  the  calcareous 
soap  remaining  by  forming  carbonate  of  lime  and  a  soluble 
soda  soap.  In  the  white  bleaching  of  2700  lb  of  cloth,  the 
boiling  solution  is  S  gallons  of  caustic  soda  at  70°  Tw.,  but 
by  some  bleachers  soda-ash  is  employed  in  the  proportion 
of  80  lb  to  2700  lb  of  cloth.  From  this  boil  the  cloth  is 
passed  on  to  the  washing-machine,  and  then  squeezed, 
whpn  it  is  ready  for  "  cheniicking"  with  the  bleaching- 
powder  solution. 

Cfiemickinj. — When  the  previous  processes  have  been 
cfTiciently  carried  out,  the  cloth  will,  at  this  point,  have 
attained  a  considerable  appearanr-e  of  whiteness  and  purity. 
The  "  chemicking"  or  liquoring  with  bleaching-powder 
which  It  now  undergoes  is  conducted  in  a  similar  manner 
to  the  souring  already  described.  The  chemick  is  used  as 
iveak  as  possible,  the  solution  varying  from  J°  to  \°  Tw. 
(sp.  gr.  I  000025  to  1  001 25)  according  to  the  weight  and 
condition  of  the  cloth  under  treatment.  It  is  run  through 
this  liquor,gently  squeezed,  and  piled  up  for  four  or  six  hours. 
It  b  then  squeezed  and  washed  ;  and  at  this  stage  the 
bleacher  has  to  judge  whether  the  clo*'.i  requires  to  be 
chemicked  a  second  time,  which,  in  the  ca'-e  of  heavy  goocls, 
H  frequently  necessary.  If  a  re[)etitiun  of  the  process  is 
required,  the  cloth  is  again  passed  into  the  kiers,  boiled 
with  a  solution  of  soda-.ash,  and  the  other  processes  repeated 
as  before. 

While  Sour.  —  Aher  lying  in  the  chemick  the  goods  are 
again  washed  and  squeezed,  and  afterwards  soured  in 
macliine  with  sulphuric  acid,  used  at  a  strength  of  about 
4'  Tw.  (sp.  gr.  1020),  and  piled  up  for  a  period  of  at  least 
three  hours.  Thereafter,  in  order  thoroughly  to  expel  all 
icid  the  goods  are  twice  washed,  and  finally  squeezed,  which 
;onclude3  the  operation  of  bleaching  proper.  The  calico 
should  now  present  a  snow-white  aspect,  and  should  be  fit 
to  take  the  most  delicate  shades  of  colour  when  it  is  to  be 
used  for  printing  purposes. 

Opening. — In  passing  through  the  numerous  processes 
detailed  in  the  foregoing  statement,  the  cloth  has  been 
always  in  the  form  of  a  coil  cr  loose  rope.  In  the  drawing 
from  one  machine  to  another  it  has  been  also  pulled  some- 
what to  the  length  at  the  e.vpcnse  of  breadth,  and  in  places 
it  is  likely  to  have  become  a  little  twisted.  The  pieces 
have  therefore  now  to  be  opened  out  to  their  full  width, 
and,  if  necessary,  evened.  The  opening  out  is  effected  by 
pissing  the  pieces  to  a  winch  placed  at  a  considerable  height 
when  the  weight  of  the  cloth  itself  in  passing  upwards 
unfolds  it,  and  the  selvedges  are  caught  and  extended  by  a 
boy  just  before  it  passes  on  to  the  winch.  When  necessary 
it  is  caught  beyond  the  winch  by  an  opening-machine,  such 
as  that  patented  in  1871  by  Mr  Wm.  Birch  of  Salford.  It 
is  a  complex  apparatus,  working  by  endless  bands,  on 
which  are  toothed  projections,  and  these,  travelling  from 
the  centre  to  the  sides  in  opposite  directions,  open  and 
spread  out  the  cloth  before  it  passes  over  the  roller  which 
is  mounted  on  the  machine.  From  the  opener  the  cloth 
passes  at  once  to  the  drying-inachine  (hereafter  described), 
after  passing  over  which  cloth  intended  for  printing  is 
folded  or  batched  on  rollers,  and  its  further  treatment 
cclongs  to  the  art  of  calico-printing. 

Finishing. — So  far  as  regards  bleaching  prorirr  the  pro- 
cess is  now  at  an  end,  and  the  further  operations  which 
white  calicoes  undergo  have  only  for  their  object  the 
■  mnrovcinent  of  their  appearance  for  the  market.  But 
3—29 


although  the  finishing  adds  in  no  way  to  the  quality  of 
the  material,  it  is  regarded  as  of  great  value  by  the 
Dicrchaiits,  and  the  finish  of  a  bleacher  is  of  more  import- 
ance than  his  bleaching.  A  great  variety  of  finishing 
operations  have  to  be  employed,  according  to  the  dilTerent 
qualities  of  textiles,  and  the  purposes  to  which  thev  are 
devoted.  Finishes  are  "beetled,"  "calendered"  (either  "stiff," 
"medium,"  or  "soft,"or  "glazed,")  and,  for  dress  muslins,  ic, 
"elastic."  As  the  processes  and  appliances  for  these  finishing 
operations  are  very  numerous  and  varied,  they  cannot  here 
be  described  ui  detail.  In  most  cases  they  are  the  same  a» 
used  in  the  finishing  of  calico  prints,  and  more  information 
will  be  found  under  that  he.ad.  Wc  shall  hce  confine  our 
remarks  chiefly  to  the  finishing  of  ordinary  white  beetlevl 
calicoes. 

Water  Mangle. — The  cloth,  when  brought  into  the  finish- 
ing-room, is  passed  over  a  stretching  raU  into  a  trough  of 
boiling  water  and  between  a  series  of  calender  rollers,  in 
which  it  is  powerfully  pressed.  A  common  arrangement 
of  the  cylinders  of  the  water  mangle  is  to  have  a  series  of 
four,  two  of  small  diameter  being  made  of  copper,  and 
two  larger  of  condensed  cotton  ;  but  wooden  bowls  are 
also  sometimes  employed  with  only  a  single  intermediato 
copper  cylinder.  By  this  mangling  process  the  water  is 
eqialized  throughout  the  whole  piece,  the  threads  are 
flattened,  and  the  cloth  stretched,  smoothed,  and  wound 
upon  a  roller,  and  thus  rendered  fit  for  receiving  the 
starch. 

Slarchvtg. — It  is  in  this  stage  that  so  much  is  done  by 
some  bleachers  to  give  cloth  a  factitious  appearance  of 
weight  and  bulk  by  filling  up  the  interstices  between  the- 
fibres  with  compounds  which  have  no  other  object  than 
to  please  or  deceive  the  eye,  and  some  of  which  have  » 
decidedly  deleterious  influence  on  the  tissue  they  are 
intended  to  improve  in  appearance.  A  great  variety  of 
mixtures,  both  cheap  and  nasty,  are  used  by  some  finishers- 
in  place  of  starch  with  a  view  to  produce  weight  and 
appearance,  but,  naturally,  as  little  information  as  pos- 
sible on  this  point  is  permitted  to  leak  out  to  the  public. 
What  ouglit  to  be,  and  by  reputable  bleachers  really  is,. 
used  is  pure  starch,  either  of  Indian  corn  or  wheat,  or  both, 
made  up  into  a  stiff  mucilage  and  blued  with  ultramarine 
or  indigo.  The  cloth  |)asses  over  a  stretching  rail  into  u. 
trough  of  this  starch,  in  which  a  roller  is  mounted.  As  it 
comes  out  of  the  starch  it  is  caught  between  a  pair  of  bowls, 
by  which  the  superfluous  starch  is  squeezed  out  and  thrown 
back  into  the  trough,  the  cloth  passing  ou  to  the  drying- 
machine.  The  starching  mangle  and  drying-machine  .ire' 
seen  together  in  fig.  10 

Dryhiy. — The  drying-machine  (fig.    10),   consists  of  a 


FlO.  10.— Starcliing  .Mangle  and  Drjing  Cans. 

number  of  cylinders  made  of  tinned  iron  or  copper,  and 
filled  with  steam  of  low  pressure.  The  cloth  passes  alter- 
nately back  and  face  over  one  and  the  other,  and  emerges 
to  be  placed  down  at  the  end  perfectly  dry.  This  system 
of  drying  was  introduced  among  the  first  mechanical  appli- 
ances used  in  calico-printing,  and  has  not  as  yet  been 
superseded  by  any  other  plan.  Various  improvements  in 
detail,  we  learn  from  Mr  William  Mather,  as  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  cylinders  and  the  mode  of  appl)nng  steam 
to  them  have  been  recently  introduced,  but  the  machine 
remains  the  same.     One  important  defect  has  been  'ecenlly 


818 


BLEACHING 


[cotton- 


temoved  by  an  alteration  in  the  construction  of  the 
eylindenj,  to  prevent  collapse,  in  case  a  vacuum  were 
formed  by  the  rapid  condensation  of  the  steam.  A  spiral 
rib  or  stay  is  made  to  run  from  end  to  end  of  the  body  of 
the  cylinder,  giving  support  uniformly  the  whole  length, 
and  serving  at  the  same  time  as  a  screw  to  drive  the 
condensed  water,  as  the  cylinder  revolves,  to  one  end, 
where  it  is  ejected  through  a  nozzle.  The  steam  enters 
«t  a  nozzle,  from  the  framing  which  is  east  hollow,  and 
serves  as  a  pipe  to  distribute  the  steam  to  alL  the  cylin- 
ders in  the  machine,  while  the  framing  on  the  other 
aide  serves  in  lil<e  manner  to  receive  and  discharge  the 
water. 

Damping. — From  the  drying  cans  the  cloth  is  passed  on 
to  the  damping-machine,  where  it  is  uniformly  moistened 
by  an  exceedingly  fine  spray  of  water  thrown  upon  it.  The 
Bpray  is  thrown  up  by  a  circular  brush,  the  tipa  of  which 
are  allowed  to  dip  into  water  in  a  trough  over  which  it 
revolves.  Mather  and  Piatt  have  introduced  a  manifest 
improvement  on  this  plan  by  throwing  the  water  in  fine 
jets  on  the  brush  from  a  pipe  which  runs  parallel  with 
it.  By  this  tneans  the  quantity  of  water  and  degree  of 
Bxoisture  can  be  regulated  with  the  utmost  nicety.  Fig. 
1 1  shows  the  damping-machine  in  section  as  modified  by 


Ficj.  11. — Danipiug- Machine. 

Mather  and  Piatt,  a  represents  the  circular  brush  revolv- 
ing in  a  trough,  and  6  is  the  pipe  from  which  the  water 
is  squirted  on  the  brush.  The  spray  from  the  brush  is 
tonfined  by  two  sloping  boards  c,  c,  which  work  on 
^Qadr»nts,  and  the  lever  d  raises  or  depresses  the  brush  at 


Kjij.  12.— Elevation  of  Belt-StretchlDg  Machine. 

{ileuuro.     The  course  of   the  cloth  over  the   machine  is 
indicated  by  anows,  and  after  damping  it  is  batched  on 


an  iron  or  wooden  beam  e,  when  it  is  ready  for  the  process 
of  beetling.  When  goods  are  to  be  finished  of  any  parti- 
cular width,  they  are  at  this  stage  breadthened  by  such  an 
apparatus  as  the  belt-stretching  machine  of  Mather  and 
Piatt  shown  in  plevatinn  in  fig.  12  and  in  plan  in  fig    13.    In 


Fio.  IS.— Plan  of  Belt-Stretching  Machine. 


this  machine  the  full  width  of  the  cloth  is  obtained  by  the 
selvedges  being  held  firmly  by  a  belt  and  pnUey  on  each 
side,  the  pulleys  revolving  at  such  an  angle  that  the  stretch 
on  the  cloth  has  to  compensate  for  the  ditference  in  distance 
between  these  fwilleys  at  A  and  B. 

Beetling. — The  beetles  ordinarily  employed  are  a  scries 
of  long  heavy  wooden  piles  arranged  in  a  frame.  These 
piles  are  alternately  raised  and  allowed  to  fall  with  their 
full  weight  against  the  beamed  cloth  by  the  revolution  of 

roller  having  a  spiral  series  of  notches,  which  catch  a 
corresponding  range  of  projections  on  the  piles.  The  beam 
with  the  cloth  is  made  to  revolve  gently  by  a  ratchet 
motion  as  it  is  submitted  to  this  hammering,  which  goes  on 
for  two  or  three  hours.  Recently  Mr  John  Patterson  of 
Belfast  has  patented  and  introduced  a  form  of  beetUng- 
machine  (fig.  14),  which  from  its  highly  efTective  action 


Fio.  14. — Patterson's  Patent  Beetle. 

is  likely  to  come  into  very  extensive  use.  The  advantages 
claimed  for  his  machine  over  the  common  beetle  Mr 
Patterson  tlius  states  :  "  Heretofore,  the  beetling  of  textile 
fabrics  has  been  douo  by  means  of  beetles,  or  stampers, 
falling  upon  the  fabric  by  the  action  of  -gravitation,  each 
ptaiiiper  or  beetle  falling  55  or  CO  times  per  minute  tlirougli 
a  space  of  13  to  15  inches.  This  rate  of  -speed  cannot  bo 
accelerated  by  gravitation,  and  the  consequence  has  been 
that  in  order  to  increase  the  quantity  of  work  done  by  the 
ordinary  beetles,  very  bulky  and  massive  machinery  has 
been  employed,  requiring  largo  and  expensive  buildings 
and  driving  gear.  The  new  beetling-machine  requires  not 
one-tenth  of    the   sjiai"'    v.  rv  much  liglitcr  gcaiiiig,  an'l 


COTTON  ] 


B  L  K  A  C  H  I  N  0 


819 


mste^  of  making  60  blows  per  miorte,  each  beetle  makes 
/rum  420  to  500  blows  per  minute  The  blows  are  not  by 
tho  action  of  gravitatioo,  but  are  actuated  by  a  series  of 
f  rauks  cut  opoD  a  solid  sloel  shaft.  There  are  conoecting 
roils  from  the  steel  cranks  to  semicircular'  springs.  The 
beetles  are  attached  to,  or  suspended  between,  the  points 
of  the  semicircular  springs  by  means  of  leather  straps. 
WTien  the  crank  shaft  is  set  in  motion  the  beetles  are 
snatched  up  in  regular  sequence  by  the  upward  motion  of 
the  cranks,  and  the  springs  are  compressed  by  the  weight 
of  the  beetles,  as  in  fig  15,  and  by  the  combined  upward 
motion  of  the  cranks  and  the  springs  the  beetle  is  thrown 
upwards  with  great  impetus.  The  upward  motion  is 
tti<pped  as  the  cranks  pass  the  top  centres,  and  the  beetles 
are  thus  met  by  the  springs  and  thrown  violently  into 
them,  causing  them  to  be  again  compressed,  as  in  fig.  16. 


Fja  15  Fia  16. 

Bammen  of  FatUrson's  Beetle. 

\Vlien  by  the  downward  mution  of  the  cranks  the  springs 
are  allowed  to  throw  the  beetles  on  the  cloth  beam,  e  rapid 
f'jrciblo  whipping  blow  is  imparted  to  the  cloth,  which  does 
not  cut  or  injure  it  in  the  manner  often  done  by  the  slow 
dropping  blows  of  the  ordinary  beetles.  The  weight  of 
the  blows  can  be  instantly  varied  by  varying  the  speed  of 
the  crank  shjft,  from  the  slighte.st  touch  to  the  heaviest 
penetrating  blow.  It  is  found  that  twice  or  thrice  the 
number  of  folds  of  cloth  can  be  beetled  effectively  on  the 
cloth  beams  more  than  can  be  done  on  ordinary  beetles, 
that  is,  instead  of  200  folds  on  the  beam,  400  or  000  folds 
can  be  equally  well  beetled  on  the  new  .machine." 

Calendmring — When  it  is  desitsd  to  finish  cloth  with  a 
still  or  with  a  glazed  finish,  instead  of  being  submitted  to 
the  operation  of  beetling,  it  is  finished  in  the  calender. 
The  calender,  as  its  name  xi'AiiSptw  implies,  is  a  series  of 
cylinders  mounted  above  each  other  in  a  strong  frame- 
work. The  number  of  cylinders  and  the  material  of  which 
they  are  constructed  vary.  In  some  only  three  cylinders 
cr  bowls  are  employed,  and  in  others  they  are  four  or  five. 
One  or  two  of  the  bowls  are  made  of  metal,  and  two  or 
three  are  cither  of  wood,  of  condensed  cotton,  or  of  paper, 
and  they  must  always  be  turned  with  great  accuracy  and 
be  free  from  all  warping.  Cylinders  of  paper  or  con- 
densed cotton  have  a  very  smooth  surface  and  a.  consider- 
able amount  of  elasticity.  Between  these  cylinders  the 
cloth  as  it  comes  from  the  damping-machine  is  passed,  and 
twice,  thrice,  or  four  times,  according  to  the  construction 
of  the  calender,  it  is  powerfully  pressed.  The  pressure  gives 
(he  cloth  a  very  even  surface,  condensing  the  fibres,  and 
pruducesa  shining  lustre.  When  the  cloth  is  submitted  to 
friction,  as  well  as  to  pressure  in  a  heated  calender,  a  glazed 
iiiiish  is  produced.  The  frictional  effect  is  produced  by 
the  cylind<>r3  being  geared  to  move  at  different  rates  of 
rapidity,  so  that  in  their  revolution  they  rub  over  the  sur- 
faces of  each  other  in  addition  to  communicating  pressure 
Fig  17  shows  a  finishing  or  friction  calender  in  section. 
The  metal  cylinder  a  is  made  hollow  so  that  it  may  be 
heated  by  the  introduction  of  steam  or  gas,  6  and  d  are  of 
compressed  cotton  or  paper  of  the  same  diameter  as  a,  and 
<  vs  a  smaller  metal  cylinder.  The  pressure  of  the  cylinders 
is  regulated  by  meins  of  the  screw  e,  and  the  compound 
lever/,  which  is  adjusted  by  the  double  screw  on  the  con- 


necting rod  at  g.  The  cloth  enters  over  stretching  raib 
and  rollers,  passes  through  the  calender  in  the  maniier 
indicated  by  the  arrows,  and  is  batched  on  roller  h. 


Fio    17  — SectiuD  of  CultuJer. 

Elastic  finish — This  particular  kind  of  finish  is  applied 
to  muslins  and  similar  thin  fabrics,  and  has  to  be  done  ia 
highly-heated  apartments  called  stenteriug  stoves.  Formerly 
the  work  was  entirely  done  by  manual  labour,  and  con- 
sisted in  holding  the  fabric  by  the  selvedges,  and  pulling  it 
forward  aiyi  backward  while  it  was  drying  in  the  heated  air. 
In  this  way  the  threads  were  made  to  rub  against  each 
other,  and  the  cloth  was  thus  deprived  of  the  hard,  stiff 
board  like  appearance  it  would  have  possessed  if  le.'t 
motionless  when  drying.  Mr  Ridgway  Bridson  was  the  first 
who  introduced  a  machine  which  successfully  supplanted 
hand  labour  in  producing  the  elastic  finish  in  muslins. 
His  stentering  frame  is  thus  described  : — Two  horizontal 
rails  or  foamcs  extend  side  by  side  the  whole  length  of  the 
machine,  carrying  at  each  end  a  large  wheel  or  pulley,  with 
small  pins  fixed  at  equal  distances  in  its  periphery.  These 
pins  pass  through  corresponding  holes  in  an  endless  band 
which  passes  round  the  pulley.-i  On  the  surface  of  the 
endless  bands  are  fastened  very  fine  needle  or  tenter  points 
to  hold  the  selvedges  of  the  fabric  as  it  passes  through  the 
machine.  The  horizontal  rails  can  be  moved  away  from 
each  other  laterally,  so  as  to  stretch  the  fabric  bi'eadthwise 
The  rails  are  of  equal  length  with  the  fabric  to  bo  treated, 
which  is  fastened  Ly  the  selvedges  at  one  end  to  the  centie 
pins,  and  the  pulleys  being  set  in  motion,  the  entire  piece 
13  carried  on  and  stretched  out  over  the  machine,  and  the 
rails  are  then  moved  outwards  to  brcadtben  the  fabric. 
The  clastic  finish  is  given  by  communicating  alternate 
vibrating  motions  to  the  two  rails,  by  which  a  diagonal 
stretching  is  given  to  the  muslio  while  in  the  procsss  of 
drj'ing. 

At  the  conclusion  of  any  of  these  various  finishing 
processes,  the  goods  are  folded  either  in  a  plaiting-machine 
or  by  girls  hooking  plaits  of  definite  length  by  the  selvedges 
on  steel  spikes.  The  end  of  each  separate  piece  ia  then 
stamped  with  some  device  or  motto  intended  to  serve  as  a 
tr.ide-mark.  After  the  goods  have  been  regularly  folded, 
they  are   placed   piece  by  piece,  separated  by  sheets  of 


820 


15  L,  E  A  U  Jrl   1   i\   U 


pasteborird,  in  a  Bramili  press,  and  after  a  certain 
interval  an  iron  plate  is  substituted  for  the  pasteboard,  to 
prevent  any  ine|uality  in  the  pile.  Finally,  the  folded 
pieces  are  prepared  for  the  market  by  fastening  a  band  of 
gilt  and  ornamented  paper  around  each  end,  which  with 
the  imprinted  device  is  in  some  way  regarded  as  a  guarantee 
of  good  quality. 

The  whole  operations  of  bleaching  and  finishing  occupy 
on  an  average  eight  days,  although  goods  can  be  hurried 
through  much  quicker  if  occasion  arises.  The  cost,  which 
of  course  will  vary  with  the  price  of  fuel  and  other  circum- 
stances, is  very  small  as  compared  with  the  value  of  the 
material,  and  does  not  on  an  average,  for  shirting  calicoes 
aad  the  like,  exceed  Ud.  per  lb  weight  of  cloth. 

BLEAcniNG  OF  Thread. 

Wo  have  been  favoured  by  Messrs  J.  and  P.  Coats  of 
Paisley  with  the  following  outline  of  the  processes  in  the 
bleaching  of  thread  : — 

1.  The  various  No9.  of  thrcaJ  are  prepared  before  boiling. 

2-  The  first  boil.  T.^e  kier  used  is  a  common  vomiter,  into 
which  are  put  water  and  a  solution  of  caustic  lye, — the  proportions 
being  regulated  by  the  number  of  pounds  of  thread  to  be  treated. 

3  The  first  bleach.  The  thread  is  placed  in  a  box,  and  a  sieve 
let  down  upon  it.  IToderneath  the  box  is  a  well  which  is  filled 
with  water  and  chlorine.  Tho  liquor  is  drawn  up  by  a  pump,  and 
tliTown  upon  the  sieve,  through  which  it  passes,  aad  filters  through 
th»  thread  into  the  well. 

4.  The  thread  is  neitt  moved  into  a  souring-box,  also  covered 
with  a  sieve,  where  it  is  washed  to  take  out  the  chlorine  of  the  pre- 
vious process. 

5.  A  souriag-well  under  tho  sonring-box  is  now  filled  with  water 
and  sulphuric  acid,  and  tills  mixture,  called  the  sour,  is  pumpcjl 
np  on  tho  sieve  over  tho  souring-twx.  through  which  it  runs  back 
iuto  the  souring-well,  in  the  same  manner  as  described  in  process 
No  3 

^  Before  removing  the  thread  from  the  souring-box  it  is  washed 
with  water  through  the  sieve. 

7.  It  is  next  washed  in  a  washing-machine. 

8.  The  scald,  or  second  boil  in  kier.  Various  mixtures  arc  used 
for  it.  Some  prefer  black  soap  and  crystals  of  soda ;  others  use 
ca-istic  lye. 

9-13.   Renetition  of  Nos.  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7. 

14.  The  thread  is  now  extracted,  i.e.,  dried  in  hydro-extractors. 

15.  Stocking.  The  stocks  are  boxes  about  3  ft.  long,  by  2  ft. 
wide,  and  2  ft.  deep,  with  a  large  wooden  mallet  hung  in  each, 
eimilar  to  those  U3«d  in  bleaching  linen.  The  thread  hanks  having 
been  properly  prepared,  so  that  they  will  not  get  loose,  are  put  into 
the  stocks  with  a  mixture  of  hot  soap  and  water,  and  beat  there  till 
of  the  propet  colour.     It  ia  then  taken  out,  and 

16.  Washed  in  washing-machine,  and 

17.  Extracted. 

18  The  blueing  process  is  done  in  a  box  filled  with  a  solution  of 
water  and  extract  of  indigo.  As  much  thread  is  put  in  as  the  box 
will  contain.  It  is  let  staud  for  a  tiiuo,  after  which  it  is  taken  out 
ao'l  thro^vn  on  a  barrow. 

19  It  is  next  taken  to  extractor  and  dried,  and 

20  Placed  in  the  stovo.     After  being  a  sufficient  time  there  it  is 
^1.   Removed  to  cooling  shod,  where  it  is  hung  up  to  cool 

22.  It  is  now  taken  to  stretching-machiiu'.  wliero  it  is  passed 
over  hot  rollers  to  take  out  the  curl  and  moisture  received  in  cool- 
ing shed 

23.  Taken  to  warehouse,  where  Nos.  are  classed  and  made  up  in 
bundles. 

Bleacding  of  Linen. 

Tho  bleaching  of  linon  is  .i  much  more  todious  and 
diiricult  operation  than  tho  bleaching  of  cotton.  The 
process  of  water-rotting,  or  rotting,  by  which  the  fibre  is 
separated  from  tho  woody  portion  of  tho  stalk,  lodges  a 
lar^e  proportion  of  colouriog  matter  in  tho  fibre,  with 
which  it  enters  into  very  intimate  combination.  Tho 
amount  of  colouring  matter  which  h.as  thus  to  be  dealt 
with  in  the  bleaching  of  linen  is  very  great,  being  as  much 
as  one-third  of  tho  entire  weight  of  the  fibre.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  century  a  great  amount  of  public  attention  was 
given  to  a  plan  proposod  by  Mr  Jamos  Loo  for  preparing 
flax  fibre  without  tho  process  of  steeping  or  retting,  bv 


which  it  was  afiinned  that,  among  otlicr  advantages,  it 
would  ouly  be  necessary  simply  to  wash, in  soap,  linen  fabric* 
made  from  fibre  so  prepared,  to  render  them  pure  and  white. 
Mr  Lee  obtained  a  special  Act  of  parliament  allowing  tlie 
specification  of  his  patent  to  remain  sealed  for  seven  years, 
and  his  plans  were  entered  into  m  a  most  full  and  laborious 
manner  by  the  Irish  Linen  Board.  After  the  expenditure 
of  many  thousands  of  pounds  on  his  machines  and  experi- 
ments, the  plan  had  to  be  entirely  abandane*l  as  a  failure. 
More  recently.  Chevalier  Claussen  renewed  the  attempt  to 
prepare  Hax  without  steeping,  by  breaking  it  by  means  of 
machinery,  separating  the  refuse  part  of  tho  stalk  from  it, 
and  then  by  a  eliemical  process  splitting  the  hollow  fibres, 
so  as  to  reduce  them  to  a  soft  cottony  state  fit  for  spinning 
by  means  of  tho  cotton-spinning  machinery.  The  fibre 
was  proposed  to  be  split  by  steeping  the  prepared  flax  in  a 
solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  then  plunging  it  into 
dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The  sudden  evolution  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  within  the  hollow  tube  of  the  flax  was  said  to 
have  the  effect  of  splitting  up  the  fibre  and  reducing  it  to 
fine  flat  threads  possessing  the  felting  properties  of  cotton. 
Sir  Robert  Kane,  in  his  Report  to  the  House  of  Con.- 
mous,  May  20,  1852,  states  that  the  whole  process  failed. 
The  machinery  for  the  beating  and  cleansing  of  the  flax 
failed  to  separate  it  sufficiently  from  the  refuse  part  of  the 
stalk  ;  and  the  chemical  process  for  the  splitting  of  tin 
hollow  tube  only  broke  up  small  portions  of  the  exposed 
ends,  leaving  the  greater  portion  untouched.  Various 
otlier  plans  of  preparing  flax  fibres  without  water  or  dew- 
retting  have  from  time  to  time  been  proposed  and  patented, 
but  hitherto  none  of  them  has  stood  the  test  of  extended 
practical  operation.  Till  towards  the  end  of  last  century 
the  bleaching  of  linen  both  in  the  north  of  Ireland  and 
Scotland  was  accomplished  by  bowking  in  cow's  dung  and 
souring  with  sour  milk.  In  the  year  1761  Dr  James 
Ferguson  of  Belfast  received  a  premium  of  X300  from  tin 
Irish  Linen  Board  for  the  application  of  lime  in  the 
bleaching  of  linen.  Notwithstanding  this  reward  tho  use 
of  lime  in  the  bleaching  of  linen  was  for  a  long  time  after- 
wards forbidden  in  Ireland  under  statutory  penalties, 
and  so  late  as  1815  "  .Mr  James  Barklie,  a  respectable 
linen  bleacher  of  Linen  Vale,  near  Keady,  was  prosecutcil 
for  using  lime  in  the  whitening  of  linens  in  his  bleach- 
yard  "  The  bleaching  of  linen  to  the  present  day  ia 
Conducted  much  more  in  the  primitive  fashion  of  last  cen- 
tury than  is  the  practice  with  cotton-bleaching.  Owing 
to  the  stiffness  and  inelasticity  of  flax  fibres,  a  great  part 
of  the  machinery  used  for  cotton  is  not  available  fur 
linen,  and  solutions  of  acid  and  bicaching-powder  require 
to  be  used  in  a  ver}'  dilute  condition  for  linen  fabrics, 
involving  frequent  repetitions  of  the  various  processes 
before  a  satisfactory  white  is  produced.  "  Crofting,"  ot 
exposure  to  the  air  on  gr.ass,  is  also  very  Largely  resorted  to 
in  the  bleaching  of  linens,  especially  for  plain  shirting  and 
sheeting,  which  necessitates  the  possession  of  very  extensive 
grass  parks  in  connection  with  works,  and  renders  the  pra- 
cess  both  tedious  and  subject  to  the  influences  of  tho 
weather.  .\  large  proportion  of  linen  cloth  is  half-bleached 
or  improved  in  the  yarn  before  being  woven,  and  it  con- 
sequently requires  less  bleaching  than  that  which  comes  in 
Its  original  "  green  "condition.  The  following  is  an  outline 
of  the  two  chief  methods,  wilh  and  wilhout  crofting,  as 
pursued  in  the  principal  Scotch  linen  bleachfields  at  tho 
present  day  ; — 

I.     WlTMOUT  CrOFTIXC. 

1.  I.imcd.  4 

2.  Boiled  inopen  kior  fcr  about 

C  honra 

3.  W.a.<;hpd   at  washiug-miU  ot 

»''»<- ka. 


Soured     wilh     hydrochlorio 
acid,  and  |'iM  in  eour  for 
some  hours. 
5.  Washed  at  stocks. 


BLEACHING 


821 


0    Bulled  in  soJaasb  Tor  8  or 

10  hours. 
7    Ag:iin  boilwi. 
A.  l.iquoreii  in  oliloriuc Solution 

ui<J  I'ilol  up. 
9.  WislieJ 


10.  n.iileJ   in  alkali  for  6  or  7 

hours. 

1 1.  I.iiiuoreJ  in  chlorir  e  solution. 

12.  Washed. 

13.  Soured  with  sulpl  uric  acid. 
\i.  Washed. 


When  necessary  the  processes  from  10  to  14  nre  repeated.     The 
uLole  pruC4;:»ses  occupy,  on  an  nverjge,  four  weeks. 


II.  Wnu  Crofti.nc. 


1  Roileii  in  lirae. 

2  Wnshed.  

3  .''oured. 

4.  Washed. 

5.  Boiled  in  alkali  and  washed. 
*>.  Kxposed   on   grass  3  or  4 

d;iys. 

7.  Bo)leJ  in  alkali. 

8.  Washed. 

9.  EJipoieJ  on  grass. 


]  10.  Liquoreil, 

11.  Washed. 

12.  Soured  with  sulphuric  acid. 

13.  Wathed. 

14.  fioiled  in  alkali. 

15.  Liquored. 

16.  Washed. 

17.  St)ureJ  with  sulphuric  acid. 
13.  Washed,  and  processes  14  to 

13  repeated  if  required. 


With  exposure  on  thp  grass  the  bleaching  of  plain  linens  usually 
-occupies  from  4  to  0  weeks.  The  finishing  processes  are  essentially 
the  s;ime  as  In  the  case  of  calicoes.  The  following  are  the  stages  in 
finishing  linen  damasks: — 


1.  Nipped  in  squeezers. 
2    lilued  in  ultramarine  In  blue 
ing-waler  mangle. 

3.  Starched  in  starcliing-niangle. 

4.  Dried  on  steam  cans. 

5.  DanipeJ  with  hue  spray. 
6    Beelled. 


7.  Calendered. 

8.  I'rieU  on  steam  cans. 

9.  A^ain  calendered. 

10.  Viewed  to  detect  rust  spots 
and  holes. 

11.  Lapped. 

12.  Pressed  Id  hydraulic.press. 

Charles  Tcnnant  of  St  Rollox  made  some  eineriments  In  1831 
to  determine  by  which  parts  of  the  process  tne  chief  loss  wus 
Biislained  during  bleaching.  The  result  was  that  in  1000  parts  by 
weight,  linen  yarn  lost — 

In  the  now  abandoncil  fermenting  alkaline  steep  57  parts. 

In  4  boils  with  cauitic  soda 70     ,, 

In  4  steeps  with  chloride  of  lime 170     „ 

In  4  etcens  in  the  sour 18     „ 

Total 315part3  in  lOOO. 

Bleaching  of  Paper-M.vkixg  Materials. 

In  addition  to  cotton  and  linen  rag.s,  esparto  or  Spanish 
grass  {Macrochloa  tcnacissima)  is  new  very  largely  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  the  better  classes  of  paper.  Wood, 
e.-ipecially  the  wood  of  the  aspen  (I'opulvs  iremula),  is  also 
now  applied  as  a  paper-making  material.  Jute  has  been 
used  for  printing  paper,  and  stra*  is  very  largely  employed, 
but  chiefly  for  brown  and  packing  papers.  These  and  the 
numerous  other  substances  used  for  paper-making  are  all 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  "half-stuff"  before  they  come 
to  undergo  the  operation  of  bleaching,  and  the  treatment 
they  receive  in  this  stage  varies  only  in  the  amount  of 
whitening  required,  and  consequently  in  the  proportions  of 
bleaching  solution,  used.  It  is  therefore  unnecessary  to 
notice  more  than  the  process  followed  in  the  bleaching  of 
the  "  half-stufif,"  which  in  Great  Britain  is  very  frequently 
prepared  from  a  mixture  of  esparto  fibre  and  rags.  The 
bleaching  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  is  either  prepared  in 
specially  constructed  cisterns,  fitted  with  revolving  agitators 
and  stored  in  a  reservoir  for  use,  or  prepared  for  immediate 
use  in  a  wooden  vessel.  When  the  solution  is  made  up  to 
the  requisite  strength,  and  all  insoluble  sediment  has  sunk 
to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  it  is  ready  for  pouring  into  the 
engine.  From  4  to  10  lb  of  ordinary  bleaching  powder  are 
usrd  for  every  100  lb  of  rag  half-stuff,  but  a  much  larger 
proporlion  is  required  for  esparto.  Sulphuric  acid  in  not 
niire  than  a  proportion  of  1  lb  to  4  lb  of  bleaching-powder 
is  thereafter  added  in  a  highly  dilute  condition,  and  the 
wliole,  after  mixing  in  the  engine,  is  turned  into  the  drainer, 
which  is  a  large  tank  provided  with  a  false  bottom  of  per- 
forated wood  covered  with  wire  netting  or  bagging.  In 
some  cases  the  bleaching-liquids  are  not  added  to  the  pulp 
material  till  it  is  deposited  in  the  drainer;  and  the  ocid 


solution  may  bo  poured  in  first,  or  both  solutions  may  be 
alternately  used  in  small  quantities.  The  bleachiug  proces* 
is  sometimes  carried  on  in  separate  engines  constructed  of 
materials  not  affected  by  the  corrosive  action  of  acid  sub- 
stances. Drained  half-stuff  may  also  be  bleached  in  a 
suitable  apparatus  by  the  direct  application  of  chlorine  gas. 
It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  free  the  pulpy  material 
from  the  last  traces  of  chlorine  before  it  is  made  into  i>aper, 
as  it  would  react  upon  the  manufactured  product  and  render 
it  brittle.  To  eliminate  the  free  chlorine  and  acid,  &c., 
the  pulp  is  washed  in  the  beater  with  jmre  water  till  it 
ceases  to  redden  litmus  paper,  or  give  other  clwracteristic 
indications  of  the  presence  of  such  compounds.  The  pie- 
judicial  effects  of  chlorine  and  its  combinations  are  also 
overcome  by  the  addition  of  "antichlor,"  the  hyposulphite 
of  soda  or  of  lime,  which  forms  with  them  compounds  thnt 
do  not  affect  the  colour  of  the  paper,  although  it  is  desir- 
able, as  far  as  possible,  to  remove  such  compounds  also  by 
washing  with  water. 

Bleaching  of  Straw. 

The  fine  wheat-straw  used  in  Tuscany  and  elsewhere 
for  straw-plaiting,  after  being  cut,  dried,  and  tied  up  in 
bundles,  is  stacked  for  a  month.  It  is  then  spread  out  in 
a  mcado\/,  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun  and  air, 
being  frequently  turned  during  that  period.  The  lower 
joint  of  the  straw  is  then  separated,  leaving  only  the  upper 
joint  with  the  ear  attached, — this  being  the  only  part  of 
the  straw  used.  It  is  then  steamed,  and  after  that  exposed 
to  the  action  of  sulphurous  acid  gas  prejiared  by  burning 
sulphur,  which  complete  the  bleaching.  It  is  then  tied  up 
in  bundles,  in  which  state  it  is  ready  fo'  the  market.  In 
the  strawplait-making  centres  of  Grca'  Britain — Luton, 
Dunstable,  &.C.,  in  Bedfordshire — straw  's  bleached,  chie.ly 
after  plaiting,  by  the  influence  of  sulph'  rous  acid  gas. 

Whitening  and  Cleaning  Prints,  Maps,  Books,  and 
OTHER  Articles  of  Paper. 

Chlorine  was  first  applied  to  this  purpose  by  Chaptal, 
and  his  method  was  emjiloyed  with  the'  greatest  success  by 
Vialard  and  Heudier,  who  by  Chaptal's  process  restored 
several  of  the  most  valuable  books  of  the  French  National 
Library.  Chaptal's  modus  opa-ajidi  is  thus  described  in 
his  own  words  :  — 

"They  begin  by  unsewing  the  book  and  separating  it  into  leaves, 
which  they  ])lace  in  cases  formed  in  a  leaden  tub,  with  very  thin 
slips  of  wood  or  glass,  so  that  the  leaves,  when  laid  flat,  are  separ- 
ated from  each  other  by  intervals  scarcely  sensible.  The  acid  is 
then  poured  in,  making  it  fall  on  the  sides  of  the  tub,  in  order  that 
the  leaves  may  not  be  deranged  by  its  motion.  When  the  work, 
man  judges,  by  the  whiteness  of  the  paper,  that  it  has  been  suf- 
ficiently acted  upon  by  the  field,  it  is  drawn  olf  by  a  cock  at  the 
bottom  of  the  tub,  and  its  place  is  supplied  by  clear  fresh  water, 
which  weakens  and  canies  oU"  the  remains  of  the  acid,  as  well  as  its 
strong  smell.  The  loaves  arc  then  to  be  dried,  and,  after  being 
pressed,  may  be  again  bound  up. 

"The  leaves  may  be  placed  also  vertically  in  the  tub;  and  this 
position  seens  to  possess  some  advantage,  as  they  will  then  be  less 
liable  to  be  torn.  With  this  view  1  con.*'tnictcd  a  wooden  frame, 
which  I  adjusted  to  the  pro;>cr  height,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
leaves  which  I  wished  to  whiten.  This  frame  supported  very  thin 
slips  of  w»od,  leaving  only  the  space  of  half  a  line  between  them. 
I  placed  two  leaves  In  each  of  these  inter^'als,  and  kept  them  flxcd 
in  their  place  by  two  small  wooden  wedges,  which  I  pushed  In  be- 
tween the  slips.  AVhen  the  pa|>cr  was  whitened,  ]  lifted  up  the 
frame  with  the  leaves,  and  plunged  them  into  cold  water,  to  remove 
the  remains  of  the  acid,  as  well  as  the  smell.  This  process  1  pre- 
fer to  the  other.  i 

"By  this  operation  books  are  not  only  cleaned,  but  the  paper 
acquires  a  degree  of  whiteness  .«npcnor  to  what  it  possessed  when 
first  made.  The  use  of  this  acid  la  attended  ol.  j  with  the  valuable 
advantage  of  destroying  ink  spots.  This  liquor  has  no  action  upon 
spots  of  oil,  or  animal  pTva«;o  ;  but  it  has  been  long  known  Ihat 
a  weak  sohition  of  potasb  will  tfTectually  reriovc  stalui  of  that 
kind. 


822 


BLEACHING 


"■WKeti  I  had  to  repair  prints  so  torn  tliat  tliey  eiliibited  only 
scraps  pasted  upon  otlier  paper,  I  was  afraid  of  losing  tliesc  frag- 
ments in  tlie  liciuid,  because  the  paste  became  dissolved.  In  sucli 
caies  1  enclosed  the  prints  in  a  cylindrical  glass  vessel,  which  I  in- 
verted on  the  water  in  which  I  had^ut  the  mixture  proper  for  ex- 
tricating the  oxj'genated  muriatic  acid  gas.  This  vapour,  by  filling 
the  whole  inside  of  the  jar,  acted  upon  the  print,  extracted  the 
grease  as  well  as  ink  spots,  and  the  fragments  remained  pasted  to 
the  paper." 

A  solution  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen  (H„0..)  has  been  used 
frith  great  success  in  the  restoration  of  valuable  prints,  as 
vrell  as  for  cleaning  and  reviving  oil  painting  darkened  by 
the  action  of  sulphurous  vapours. 

Ble.^ching  of  Wool. 

The  bleaching  of  wool  and  animal  fibres  generally  is  a 
filuch  simpler  and  less  important  operation  than  is  the 
whitening  of  vegetable  fibres.  Wool  is  covered  with  a 
peculiar  varnish  or  greasy  matter  which  impairs  its  gualities, 
and  which  it  is  the  object  of  the  bleacher  to  remove.  To 
this  varnish  the  name  of  "  yolk  "  or  "  suint "  is  given.  It 
is  a  fatty  unctuous  matter,  chiefly  derived  from  the 
cutaneous  perspiration,  but,  no  doubt,  also  secreted'  by  the 
pores  of  the  wool  itself  ;  and  it  imparts  that  peculiar  heavy 
bdour  to  sheep  with  which  all  must  be  familiar  From 
the  researches  of  Vauquclin  it  would  appear  that  this 
unctuous  varnish  consists  chiefly  of  a  kind  of  soap,  together 
with  a  small  quantity  of  waxy  matter,  a  peculiar  odorous 
animal  substance,  a  mixture  of  potash  salts,  and  a  little 
lime.  This  varnish,  in  consequence  of  its  soapy  nature, 
is  soluble  in  water,  so  that  washing  in  pure  water  would 
remove  the  greater  portion  of  it ,  but  it  is  found  more 
advantageous  to  remove  it  by  the  process  termed  "scour- 
ing." 

Scouring  is  performed  by  means  of  an  ammoniacal  lye, 
prepared  of  river  or  other  soft  water  mixed  with 
stale  purified  urine,  which  is  found  to  contain  a  large 
quantity  of  ammonia,  upon  which  its  action  probably 
depends.  The  mixture  is  heated  by  steam  to  a  temperature 
at  which  the  hand  of  the  workman  can  be  easily  held  in  it 
for  a  considerable  time.  In  this  bath  the  wool  is  left  for 
from  half  an  hour  to  two  hours,  according  to  the  quantity 
of  greasy  matter  it  contains.  It  is  then  to  be  taken  out 
and  drained  into  a  basket,  so  that  the  drainings  may  drop 
into  the  vessel  in  which  it  was  steeped,  that  nothing  may 
be  lost.  It  must  now  be  completely  rinsed  by  exposing  it 
in  baskets  to  a  continuous  stream  of  clear  water,  while  a 
workman  is  perpetually  employed  in  stirring  it  with  a  pole, 
till  the  water  passes  off  perfectly  clear  As  a  substitute 
for  urine  pig's  dung  is  sometimes  used,  and  various  other 
substances  have  been  proposed  and  introduced,  such  as 
ammoniacal  salts,  soda-a.sh,  phosphate  of  soda,  and  soluble 
glass.  Recently  a  machine,  Petrie's  wool-washer,  has  been 
introduced  for  scouring  wools.  It  consists  of  a  range  of 
three  or  four  long  tanks,  clean  water  entering  at  one  end 
of  the  series  and  flowing  through  tho  whole.  The  wool  is 
introduced  at  the  end  of  the  range  where  the  water  escapes, 
and  where  it  is  consequently  most  highly  charged  with  tlv» 
impurities  of  the  washing  process,  and  it  is  carried  forward 
from  one  tank  to  another  till  it  is  lifted  out  at  the  point 
where  the  pure  water  enters. 

It  is  known  that  the  wool  is  properly  scoured  by  its 
filaments  being  smooth,  long,  slender,  white,  and  perfectly 
free  from  foreign  substances,  and  not  having  lost  thoir 
natural  tenacity.  If  this  scouring  be  properly  done  there 
is  no  need  of  further  washings  in  soaps,  or  otherwise,  till  tho 
wool  is  suljecfed  to  the  process  called  "  sulphuring  ;"  and  in 
pcin*  of  fact  it  is  very  rartly  passed  through  any  other  pro- 
cess. Some,  however,  recommend  for  the  finer  wools,  where 
a  very  delicate  white  is  wished,  that  they  should  be  passed 
through  one,  two,  or  more  baths  of  soft  soap.     No  caustic 


alkaline  lyes  can  be  employed,  as  they  destroy"  the  wool 
altogether,  dissolving  it,  and  forming  with  it  a  kind  of  soap. 

The  process  of  sulphuring  is  applied  to  yarns  and  woven 
goods  only  when  they  a.'-e  intended  to  be  finished  white  or 
light  bright  colours.  Formerly,  the  method  of  sulphuring 
woollen  goods  was  to  expose  them  in  a  close  apartment  to 
the  vapour  of  burning  sulphur.  The  goods  were  hung  on 
poles,  and  when  the  chamber  was  filled,  a  quantity  of 
sulphur  placed  in  very  fiat  and  broad  dishes  w^as  allowed  to 
burn  away  gradually  in  the  chamber,  while  every  aperture 
by  which  the  vapour  could  escape  was  carefully  closed. 
After  exposure  to  the  sulphurous  acid  vapours  from  six  to 
twenty -four  hours  the  bleaching  process  was  complete,  and 
the  goods  withdrawn  from  the  chamber.  The  same  procci.s 
IS  now  much  more  expeditiously  performed  by  Thorn's 
sulphuring  process.  The  goods  are  passed  on  a  long  chain 
up  and  down  over  a  series  of  rollers  in  a  small  chamber 
filled  with  sulphurous  acid  vapours,  and  a  few  minutes 
suflTico  for  the  operation.  Sulphite  of  soda  acidified  with 
hydrochloric  acid  is  also  used  in  France  for  the  bleaching 
of  woollen  fabrics. 

Cloth  which  is  to  be  finished  white  after  the  sulphuring 
process  is  run  through  a  bath  containing  some  indigo 
carmine,  which  increases  the  brilliancy  of  the  white. 
When  It  is  to  be  dyed  it  is  treated  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  thoroughly  washed,  and  dried. 

BLE.A.CinNG  OF  SiLK. 

Raw  silk  is  covered  with  a  kind  of  varnish,  the  nature 
of  which  was  first  thoroughly  investigated  by  M.  Roard 
He  showed  that  this  varnish,  instead  of  being  a  gum,  as  was 
usually  believed,  resembled  a  mixture  of  bees'  wax  and  oil, 
with  a  resinous  colouring  matter,  and  in  raw  silk  constituted 
23  or  24  per  cent,  of  the  weight.  The  varnish  is  soluble 
in  water,  and  affords  a  solution  which  forms  a  lather  like 
soap.  The  yellow  varnish  is  of  a  resinous  nature,  and  is 
insoluble  in  water,  but  is  soluble  in  alcohol.  The  waxy 
substance  exists  in  all  silks,  but  the  whiter  the  silk  the  le^s 
wax  does  it  contain. 

The  comparative  composition  of  yellow  and  white  raw 
silk  is  shown  by  M.  Mulder's  analysis  : — 

YpHow  White. 

Fibroine 53-37  5404 

Gelatine 20-66  19-03 

Albumen 24-43  26-47 

Wax 1-SD  1-U 

Colouring  matter  005 

Fatty  and  rewnous  matter 010  0'30 

This  varnish,  or  "gum,"  as  It  is  technically  called,  gi^'  ' 
tho  silk  a  stifi'ness  and  elasticity  which,  for  many  of  tlie 
I)urposes  to  which  silk  is  applied,  it  is  desirable  to  remo-ve. 
This  is  called  "  ungumniing"  by  tho  bleachers  of  silk. 
Though  many  diflerent  processes  have  been  suggested  fur 
this  purpose,  none  seems  to  answer  so  well  as  the  old  pro- 
cess of  scouring  in  a  weak  solution  of  soap.  If,  however, 
tho  silk  be  kept  in  the  soap  too  long  after  the  varnish  is 
removed,  it  begins  to  lose  bcdy,  and  hu.?  its  qualities 
impaired,  becoming  dull,  stifl',  and  discoloured,  in  conse- 
quence of  being  partly  dissolved.  White  or  yellow  silks 
may  be  completely  scoured  in  one  hour  in  the  soap  hatli, 
using  about  15  tb  of  water  for  each  pound  of  silk,  and  a 
suitable  quantity  of  the  finest  soap.  Tlie  soap  and  silk 
should  be  put  into  tho  water  half  an  hour  leforo  it  is 
brought  to  tho  boiling  point,  and  then  be  boiled  one  hour. 
They  are  then  removed,  wrung  out,  washed  in  pure  water, 
and  cither  exposed  to  tho  vapour  of  sulphur  or  jiassiJ 
-through  a  solution  of  sulphurous  acid  gas  in  water. 

The  following  is  the  process  usually  fullowed  by  tho 
scourer  of  siiks.  A  qua.'itity  or  w.iter  is  put  into  a  boiliT 
over  a  fire,  and  for  every  K""'  Db  of  ii'.'o  'c  l<t  scoii'-"«'  •"  i6 


n  r.  E  —  r.  l  e 


825 


of  7cry  fiae  soap  arc  dissolved.  The  solution  is  generally 
liuiled ;  but  before  the  .-^ilk  is  put  into  it,  the  heat  must  be 
lowered  to  about  90°  Fabr.,  and  at  this  tciupcraturc  it  must 
be  kept  during  the  process.  The  silks  are  to  bo  hung  id 
the  lii]uor  on  rods  or  fninies,  and  left  till  the  gum  is  sufE- 
cicuily  destroyed, — c;irc  being  taken  'o  alter  their  position 
uow  and  then,  so  that  every  part  may  be  e.x'posed  to  the 
actiiin  of  the  bath.  When  perfectly  ungummcd,  they  are 
llcxible  and  of  a  dull  whiteness  ;  in  this  slate  they  are  to 
be  wrung  out  to  clear  them  of  the  soapy  water,  then  well 
shaken,  and  put  into  coarse  liucn  bags,  in  parcels  of  from 
20  to  30  lb  each. 

These  bags  are  now  to  be  steeped  in  a  fresh  bath,  or,  as 
the  wo;-kmen  say,  are  to  be  baked.  The  bath  is  prepared 
111  a  manner  and  proportion  much  as  before,  except  that 
the  quantity  of  soap  may  be  somewhat  diminished  as  the 
heat  is  to  bo  increased ;  for  the  silk  is  now  to  be  boiled  for 
an  hour  and  a  half,  taking  care  to  keep  the  bags  from 
sticking  to  the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  by  frequently  stirring 
them  with  a  stick.  For  silk  that  is  intended  to  be  dyed, 
the  former  stooping  in.the  lukewarm  soapbatn  is  unneces- 
sary, and  the  boiling  only  is  employed,  using  a  greater 
quantity  of  soap  in  proportion  to  the  fineness  of  the  colour. 
After  boiling  the  silk  is  wrung  as  before,  and  then  washed, 
and  if  it  is  found  to  be  not  sulGcieutly  or  not  uniformly 
scoured,  it  must  be  submitted  to  a  fresli  bath. 

The  white  silk  usually  sold  has  a  bluish  shade  given  it  by 
a  bath  impregnated  with  litmus  or  indigo.  This  is  prepared 
by  dissolving  a  poulid  and  a  half  of  hnp  soap  in  about  90 
gallons  of  water,  in  which  a  smaU  quantity  of  litmus  or 
indigo  has  been  diffused.  This  process  g.'ves  to  the  silk 
the  tints  known  by  the  names  of  "  silver  white,"  "  azure 
white,"  and  "thread  white,"  according  to  the  depth  of 
shade  which  has  been  imparted.  The  "  China  white  "  tint 
is  given  by  adding  aruotto  to  the  bath  instead  of  indigo. 

From  these  processes  the  silk  acquires  a  tolerably  clear 
white,  but  the  highest  degree  is  given  to  it  by  the  action 
of  sulphurous  acid,  the  silk  being  either,  as  is  usually  the 
case,  subjected  to  the  acid  in  the  state  of  vapour,  or  im- 
nici^ed  in  a  solution.  At  Lyons  no  soap  is  used  in  the 
tinting  process  ;  but,  after  being  boiled,  the  silk  is  washed, 
wrung  dry,  sulphured,  and  then  passed  through  water  pro- 
perly blued. 

Bleacdixg  of  Bees'- Wa.\,  ic. 

Bees'-wax  in  its  raw  condition,  as  it  is  first  melted  up 
from  the  comb,  is  a  yellowish  coloured  substance  somewhat 
greasy  to  the  touch,  and  having  a  faint  honey-like  odour. 
It  often  contains  mechanical  impurities,  besides  traces  of 
honey,  and  to  remove  these  and  discharge  the  colour  the 
following  process  is  adopted  : — The  wax  is  broken  up  into 
small  pieces  and  melted  in  a  copper  boiler,  with  water 
sufficient  to  keep  it  from  burning.  When  melted  it  is  run 
into  a  tub  containing  hot  water,  and  while  in  the  hot  Huid 
condition  the  mechanical  impurities  it  may  have  contained 
subside  to  the  bottom.     From  this  tub  the  melted  wax  flows 


into  a  vc.<;sel,  the  bottom  of  which  iff  perforated  with  small 
holes.  Through  these  tlnn  streams  of  wax  arc  rcceivoj 
on  a  cylinder  kept  revolving  m  w.iter  bclnw  ,  ami  thus  fiio 
threads  of  solid  wax  are  produced  Those  are  exposed  'in 
moistened  sheets  to  the  air  and  light  for  some  days,  during 
which  they  are  occasionally  turned  and  'watered  ]ij  thu 
exposure  the  wax  loses  much  of  its  colour  It  u  fhcu 
melted  up  into  solid  blocks  and  left  for  some  time,  after 
which  the  operations  of  melting,  forming  into  threads. 
and  bleaching  in  the  light  are  repeated  till  it  has  attained 
a  pure  whiter  translucent  lustre,  is  of  very  firm  consistency. 
and  is  free  from  all  odour.  Yellow  wax  is  also  decolorized 
by  treatment  with  nitric  acid  ,  but  chlorine,  although  it 
bleaches  most  cx[>cditiously,  is  not  available,  as  it  leave* 
traces  incorporated  with  the  wax,  which  on  burning  evolves 
irritating  fumes  of  hydrochloric  acid  Palm  oil,  used  m  the 
manufacture  of  soap  and  candles,  is  bleached  by  the  actioa 
of  bichromate  of  potash  and  acid. 

For  bleaching  generally,"  but  especially  for  the  bleaching 
of  animal  fibres  and  suhsiances,  the  use  of  a  considerabio 
variety  of  processes,  and  of  chemicals  other  than  chloniw 
and  sulphur  compounds,  have  from  time  to  lime  beea 
proposed  and  to  some  extent  put  into  operation  To  some 
of  these  proposals  incidental  allusion  has  already  beea 
made,  and  generally  their  success  has  not  been  such  3a  t» 
warrant  special  notice.  Among  other  substances  v  hicJt 
have  been  recommended  for  scouring  wools  and  silk  ara 
feeble  solutions  of  sulphides  of  soduuii  and  of  porassium, 
or  aluminales  of  these  alkalies,  the  cyanide  of  potassium, 
and  a  mixture  of  common  salt  and  oxalic  acid.  The 
alkaline  permanganates  have  also  been  frequenlly  regarded 
as  hopeful  bleaching  chemicals  ;  and  a  few  years  ago  tlis 
permanganate  of  potash  was  introduced  and  used  by  MM. 
Tessiiidu  Motayaud  Manichal,  who,  in  connection  with  tbs 
permanganate,  used  a  solution  of  the  peroxide  of  bydrogea. 
To  this  latter  ■substance  a  peculiar  bleaching  applicauo* 
has  recently  been  given.  Under  the  name  of  goUlen  hair 
water,  or  auncome,  a  liquid  is  sold  by  hair-dressera 
which  is  found  to  hold  in  solution  a  large  percentage  ot 
peroxide  of  hydrogen.  The  use  of  this  solution  givci 
to  the  hair  the  brilliant  golden  yellow  tinge  which  baa 
come  to  be  regarded  as  a  highly  fashionable  colour. 
Other  applications  of  this  powerful  oxidizing  and  re- 
ducing agent  have  been  suggested  by  its  toilet  use,  and 
it  has  boon  employed  for  the  bleaching  of  ornamenlal 
fiathers,  hair,  (Src.  Doubtless,  if  it  could  be  prepared  in 
stable  solution  at  moderate  price  it  would  be  found 
extensively  useful  in  bleaching  and  other  industnaJ 
apjilications.  It  has  also  long  been  hoped  that  a  means  of 
ai>])lying  ozone  as  a  dirocl  bleaching  agent  might  be 
devised,  but  hitherto  bttle  success  has  been  attained  in  this 
direction.  In  Germany  ivory  is  bleached  by  steeping  i!  • 
week  in  Huht  naphtha  or  other  volatile  oil,  and  exposing 
it  thereafter  to  the  air  and  sunlight,  by  which  the  atmo- 
spheric oxygen  becomes  ozonized  lu  contact  ""th  the  ivuiy 
and  thus  whitens  iU 


ELEEK,  Friedrich,  one  of  the  greatest  Biblical  scholars 
that  Germany  has  produced  in  modern  times,  wag  born  on 
the  4th  July  1793,  at  Ahrensbiik,  in  Ilolstein,  a  village  near 
Liibcck.  While  attending  the  elementary  school  there,  he 
gave  evidence  of  such  ability  that  his  father  sent  him,  after 
Le  had  acquired  some  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek,  in  his 
sixteenth  year,  to  the  gjmnasmm  at  Liibeck,  where  he 
spent  throe  years,  and  there  imbibed  so  greata  love  for  the 
l.-inguages  of  antiquity,  that  he  abandoned  the  idea  of  a 
legal  career,  which  he  had  once  entertaiiied,  and  resolved 


to  devote  himself  to  the  study  of  thcologj-.  After  spending 
some  time  at  the  University  of  Kiel,  he  repaired  to  Berlin, 
and  there,  from  1814  to  1817,  enjoyed  the  instruction.^  of 
DL<^Welte,  Xeander,  and  Schleiermacher.  The  teaching 
of  these  distinguished  men,  especially  of  the  last  nani'-d, 
exercised  a  decisive  influence  upon  the  whole  of  his  after 
life.  So  highly  were  his  merits  appreciated  by  his  pro- 
fessors— Schleiermacher  was  accustomed  to  say  of  I!!,  ok 
that  he  possessed  a  special  tlian^ma  for  the  scicnci  of 
"  Intrcduclion  "— that  in   181S,  after  he  had  passed  ilie 


■824 


B  L  E  E  K 


necessary  examinations  for  entering  the  church,  he  was 
recalled  to  Berlin  to  occupy  the  position  of  Repetent  or  tutor 
in  theology,  a  temporary  post  which  the  theological  faculty 
liad  obtained  for  him,  with  a  view  of  retaining  his  services 
in  coanectioQ  with  that  department  of  the  university.  lu 
this  position,  besides  discharging  his  duties  in  the  theo- 
logical seminary,  he  pubiished,  in  Schleiermacher's  and 
Lucke's  Journal  (1819,  1820,  1822),  two  dissertations, 
one  on  the  "  Origin  and  Composition  of  the  Sibylline 
Oracles,"  and  another  on  the  "  Authorship  and  Design  of 
the  Book  of  DjnieL"  These  articles  attracted  much 
atteatiOn,  and  were  distinguished  by  those  qualities  of  solid 
learning  thorough  investigation,  and  candour  of  judgment, 
which  characterized  all  the  productions  of  his  pen.  Bleek's 
merits  as  a  rising  scholar  were  recognized  by  the  minister 
of  public  instruction,  who  continued^his  stipend  as  Repetent 
for  a  third  year,  and  promised  further  advancement  in  due 
tune.  But  the  attitude  of  the  political  authority  underwent 
a  change.  The  e.-ccitement  caused  in  academic  circles  by 
the  dismissal  of  De  Wette  from  his  professorship  in  18W, 
in  couseque.ice  of  certain  injudicious  expressions  in  the 
letter  of  sympathy  which  he  had  written  to  the  mother  of 
Sands,  the  murderer  of  Kotzebue,  had  not  died  out,  and 
the  odium  and  punishment  which  fell  upon  De  Wette  wer^; 
shared  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  by  his  friends.  _  Bleek, 
who  had  been  a  favourite  pupil  of  the  banished,  professor, 
incurred  the  suspicion  of  the  Government  as  one  who  was 
believed  to  hold  extreme  democratic  opinions.  Not  only 
was  his  stipend  as  Repdcnt  discontinued,  but  his  nomina- 
tion to  the  office  of  extraordinary  professor,  which  had 
already  been  signed  by  the  minister  Altenstein,  was  with- 
held for  two  years.  The  mystery  at  last  was  cleared  up. 
Bleek  had  been  confounded  with  another  individual  of 
a  similar  name,  one  Baueleven  Blech.  Tardy  justice  was 
at  length  done,  and  in  1823  Bleek  received  the  appoint- 
ment to  which  hU  merits  so  well  entitled  him. 

During  the  six  years  that  Bleek  remained  at  Berlin  he 
twice  declined  a  call  to  the  office  of  ordinary  professor  of 
theology,  once  to  Greifswald  and  once  to  Konigsberg.  In 
1829,  however,  he  was  induced,  on  the  death  of  Liicke,  to 
a-^cept  his  chair  in  the  recently  founded  university  of  Bonn, 
and  entered  upon  his  duties  there  in  the  summer  of  the 
Bime  year.  For  the  space  of  thirty  years  he  laboured  with 
ever  increasing  success,  attracting  students  to  his  lectures, 
not  by  any  attractions  of  manner  nor  by  the  enunciation 
of  novel  or  bizarre  opinions  on  theological  subjects,  but  by 
the  soundness  and  thoroughness  of  his  investigations,  the 
remarkable  impartiality  of  his  critical  judgments,  and  the 
exceeding  clearness  of  his  method  of  presentation.  In 
1843  he  was  raised  to  the  office  of  consistorial  councillor, 
and  was  selected  by  the  university  to  hold  the  office  of 
rector,  a  distinction  which  has  not  since  been  conferred 
•upon  any  theologian  of  the  Reformed  Church.  After  a 
long  and  honoured  academic  life  ho  died  suddenly  of 
apoplexy  on  the  27th  February  18.")9,  having  bsen  able  to 
lecture  to  his  students  as  usual  on  the  previous  day. 

Bleek's  works  belong  entiriily  to  the  departments  of 
Biblical  criticism  and  exegesis.  Ui.-!  groat  merits  as  a  critic 
and  exegete.  eon.fi.st.  as  has  been  already  observed,  in  the 
thoroughness  of  his  investigations,  and  especially  in  the 
candour  of  his  judgment  The  latter  quality,  indeed,  he 
possessed  in  so  remarkable  a  degree,  that,  as  a  recent  wntur 
hai  remarked,  it  hiis  become  "  proverbial."  His  views, 
indeed,  on  questions  of  Old  Testament  criticism  would  bo 
regarded  in  this  country  ivs  those  of  the  "  advanced " 
school ;  for  on  nil  the  disputed  points  concerning  the  unity 
and  author.-ihip  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Covenant  he  w;u 
led  to  form  conclusions  opposed  to  received  opinions.  But 
with  respiTl  to  the  Sew  Testament,  his  positmn  was 
Jiighly  cuuservativa      His  defence  of  the  gouuinenoss  and 


authenticity  of  the  gospel  of  St  John  is  still  regarded  as 
the  ablest  that  has  yet  appeared ;  and  although,  on  some 
minor  points,  his  views  did  not  altogether  coincide  with 
those  of  the  traditional  school,  his  critical  I.ibours  on  the 
New  Testament  must  nevertheless  be  regarded  as  among 
the  most  important  contributions  to  the  maintenance  of 
orthodox  opinions  that  the  present  century  has  produced. 
Bleek's  works  were  published  partly  during  his  lifetime, 
and  partly  after  his  death.  Hl^  greatest  work,  his  com- 
mentary on  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  {Brief  an  die  Uebrae-r 
erldutert  durch  Einleitung,  Uebei'sdzung,  vnd  fortlanfendcn 
Commentar)  appeared  m  three  parts,  in  1828,  1836,  and 
1840  respectively.  Of  it  De  Wette  said  that  "  It  was  so 
distinguished  for  comprehensive  learning  and  thorough 
untiring  industry,  for  so  pure  and  transparent  a  love  of 
truth  and  so  profound  a  theological  feeling,  that  it  was 
entitled  to  one  of  the  foremost,  if  not  the  very  foremost, 
place  among  the  exegetical  works  of  our  time ; "  and 
Delitzsch  adds  that  "  every  one  acquainted  with  the 
subject  will  endorse  the  judgment."  This  work  was 
abi  idged  by  Bleek  for  his  college  lectures,  and  was  published 
in  that  condensed  form  after  his  death  by  Pfarrer  Windraih 
in  18G8.  In  1840  he  published  his  contributions  to  the 
criticism  of  the  gospels  (Beitraije  zur  Evanyelten  Kritik, 
pt.  i.),  which  contained  his  defence  of  St  John's  gospel, 
and  which  arose  out  of  a  review  of  Ebrard's  Wissenschaftl iche 
Krilik  der  Evdngelisdien  Geschichte. 

Aft.er  his  death  wgre  published — (I),  his  IntToduetion  to  the.  Old 
Testajnent.  {Einleitun/j  ia  dax  A/te  I'tstaimnt)^  3d  edition,  by  his 
pupil  Prof.  KampLausen,  1869,  English  translation,  by  Venalles 
(from  2d  edition),  1869  ;  (2),  his  Intrndndim  to  the  New  Tcsft- 
ment,  3d  edition.  Mangold,  1875,  English  translation,  by  Urwiok, 
1869,  1870  ;  (3),  his  Exposilion  of  the  first  three  Ovupels,  by  H.iiu- 
mann,  1862  ;  (4),  his  Ltcttires  <ni  the  Apocalypse,  English  transla- 
tion. 1875.  B>:side3  these  there  has  also  appeared  a  sniall  vohuue 
containing  Lectures  on  Colossians,  Philemcm,  and  Eph*:fnan.t,  Berlin, 
1S6.5.  Bleek  also  »intnbuted  many  articles  to  the  Studien  und 
Knliketi.  For  further  information  as  to  Bleek's  life  and  writinfd^ 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Kamphausen's  article  in  the  DarmstiiM 
AtlgemeiTU  Kirchen-zeititng,  1859.  No.  20  ;  to  the  same  writer's 
article  in  Herzog's  Jteal-Encyklopcsdie,  vol.  xix. ;  and  to  Lichten- 
stein's  Uistoire  des  Idecs  Rcligieu^cs  en  Allevuignc,  vol.  iii. ;  and  to 
Diestel's  Geschichle  des  AlUn  Teslamenlcs.  1369.  (F.  C.) 

BLEEK,  WiLHELM  Heinrich  Imm.vnuel,  eon  of  the 
preceding,  distinguished  by  his  researches  in  African 
philology,  was  born  in  1827  at  Berlin.  Ho  studied  first 
at  Bonn  and  afterwards  at  Berlin,  where  his  attention  was 
directed  towards  the  philological  peculiarities  of  the  South 
African  languages.  In  his  doctor's  dissertation  (Bonn, 
1851),  De  neiminum  generihus  limjunrum  Africa:  Avstralis, 
he  endeavoured  to  show  that  the  Hottentot  language  was 
of  North  African  descent.  In  18,t4  his  .health  prevented 
him  accompanying  Baikio  in  (he  expedition  to  the  Niger; 
but  in  the  following  year  he  accompanied  Bishop  Colenso 
tn  Natal,  and  was  enabled  to  prosecute  his  rese:uches  into 
the  language  and  customs  of  the  Kalfres.  Towards  the 
close  of  I8.5G  he  settled  at  Cape  Town,  and  in  18,57  w.is 
appointed  interpreter  by  Sir  Oecrge  Grey.  In  1859  ho 
was  compelled  by  ill-health  to  visit  Europe,  and  on  his 
return  in  the  following  year  he  was  made  librarian  of  the 
valuable  collection  of  books  presented  to  the  colony  by  Sir 
George  Grey.  In  18(39  ho  visited  England,  where  the  value 
of  his  services  was  recognized  by  a  pension  from  the  Civil 
List.  He  died  at  Caps  Town  on  the  17th  August  1875. 
His  works,  which  are  of  the  first  importance  for  African 
and  Australian  philology,  consist  of  the  Vocahulanj  of  the 
Mnzamlnque  Language,  Loud.,  18."iG  ;  Handbook  of  African, 
Australian,  and  Polynesi^in  I'hilology,  Cape  Town  and 
Lond.,  3  vols.,  1858-G3;  Comparative  Gramvuir  of  th» 
South  African  Languages,  vo\.  i.,  Lond,  1809  ;  Rei/na'-d 
the  For  in  South  Africa,  or  Hottentot  Fahles  and  Talet, 
Lond.,  18CJ  ;    Origin  of  Language,  Lond.,  18G9. 


C  L  E  -  n  L  I 


y2.> 


BLENHEIM  fCermaD,  Blinddcim),  a  small  village  of 
Ocrmany,  in  tlie  kingduiii  of  Bjvaria,  and  circle  of  S>vabia. 
Mluated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  a  few  inilcs  below 
Q.jctistadt.  It  IS  only  remarkable  as  the  scene  of  the 
defeat  of  the  French  and  Cavarians,  un  the  13th  of  August 
1704,  by  the  English  and  the  Austnans  under  the  duke  of 
Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene.     Population,  751. 

_3LE.VHEIM  HOUSE,  a  princely  mansion  erected  by 
Parliament  lor  the  duke  of  Marlborojgn  at  Woodstock, 
near  Oxford,  and,  with  the  manor  of  Woodstock,  sealed  on 
the  duke  and  his  heirs,  in  consideratiou  of  his  military 
services,  and  especially  his  decisive  victory  at  Blenheim 
The  large  sura  of  X.iOO.OOO  was  voted  for  the  ^lurchase 
of  'he  manor  and  the  erection  of  the  builJing,  which, 
rtotwithstanding  the  strictures  of  Swift  and  the  crm- 
cisms  of  Evans  and  Walpoje.  is  a  magnificent  pile,  built 
by  Sir  ,!'.Un  Vanbrugb,  in  a  massne  lialoCorinilnan 
style  The  front  from  wing  to  wiug  o.tteiids  to  348  (cet  , 
and  'he  great  hall  is  a  lofty  and  noble  apartment  in  good 
proportions.  There  are  a  considerable  number  of  fine 
pKtnrcs  in  the  Blenheim  collection,  the  most  noted  being 
"  The  Young  St  Augustine  and  Pope  Gregory."  by 
Titian  .  •■  Europa.''  "  Esther,"  and  "  The  Massacre  of  the 
Iniiocenls. '  by  P  Veronese  ,  "  St  Jerome,''  by  Tintoretto  ; 
"  Magdalen."  by  C.  Dolce  ,  many  historical  subjects,  by 
HuLicns  ,  portraits  by  him  and  Vaiidyck  ,  and  "The  Woman 
taken  in  Adultery,"  and  "  Isaac  blessing  Jacob, "  by  Rem- 
brandt 

BLESSINGTON,  Margaret  Power.  Coi;ntes8  op, 
novelist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  near  Clonm^l, 
Tipperary,  Ireland,  September  I,  1790  Her  childhood 
was  made  unhappy  by  the  bad  temper,  improvidence,  and  I 
loose  living  of  her  father,  and  by  the  reduced  circumstances 
of  the  family  Her  early  womanhood  was  made  unhippier 
still  by  her  compulsory  marriage  at  hfteen  to  one  (^aplain 
Farmer,  whose  drunkenness  involved  hini  in  debt,  and 
whose  debts  brought  him  to  the  Kings  Bench  prison  where 
be  was  killed  by  a  fall  in  one  of  his  drunken  6t.i.  in  October 
.817  His  wife  had  some  time  before  left  his  house,  and 
in  February  IS18  she  was  married  a  second  time  to  the 
earl  of  Blesaington  Celebrated  loi  her  wit.  her  literary 
atvomplisliment?  her  cenerosity.  and  her  social  attractions 
she  was  no  less  distinguished  by  her  passion  for  pleasure  and 
her  crnving  for  show  and  a  bit;h  style  of  living  In  the 
gratificalion  of  these  tastes  debts  were  accumulated,  and  the 
estates  of  the  earl  soon  became  burdened  with  "  incum- 
brances ■  In  the  autumn  of  1822  ihey  set  out  on  a  Con- 
Uiiental  tour,  and  remained  abroad  till  the  death  of  the 
eurl  winch  took  place  at  Pans  in  May  1829  Some  years 
■earlier  they  had  become  acquainted  with  Count  Alfred 
d  Orsay.  a  man  of  fashion  and  seeker  of  pleasure,  who  was 
then  serving  in  'he  army  but  quitted  it  for  the  sake  of 
joining  thein  In  r827  he  had  connected  himself  with  the 
family  by  his  marnage  with  the  only  daughter  of  (he  earl 
by  a  lormer  wi[t  After  Lord  Blessingtons  death  Count 
d  Orsay,  who  had  separated  from  his  wile,  came  to  England 
with  the  countess,  aod  they  nved  together  in  London  till 
ber  dcatb  The  home  of  the  beautiful  and  brilliant  coun- 
tess (6rst  Seamore  Place,  and  afterwards  Core  House. 
Kensington)  became  a  centre  of  attraction  for  whatever  w.a3 
distinguished  in  Uterature  learning,  art,  science,  and 
fashion.  Ambitious  of  the  distinction  of  authorship.  Lady 
DlcssmgtoD  had  published  in  l&'.'L'  ber  first  work  entitled 
Sheichrs,  in  two  volumes  Ten  years  later  she  made  herself 
favourably  known  by  a  Journal  of  Conversations  with  Lord 
Byron,  which  d(>peared  6rst  in  successive  numbers  of  the 
Sew  M'mthly  ilaamtne,  and  soon  afterwards  as  a  separate 
work.  This  was  followed  by  a  long  series  of  works,  most 
of  them  novels  of  high  life,  several  of  which  obtnined  con- 
•iderable    popularity        Her    Idler  m    Itnli/  and   Idlrr  tn 


France  were  rendered  temporarily  altracnvc  by  person.! 
gossip  and  anecdote,  descriptions  of  nature,  and  seuii- 
iiieiit  Lady  Blessington  was  for  sriiie  years  editor  of 
Heath's  Hook  of  llrauly  .->ml  the  Kt'i'sikt.  (he  pipul.ir 
annuals  of  the  day,  and  also  conlubutcd  largely  to 
magazines  and  newspapers  Early  m  1849.  in  consequence 
of  falling  resources,  the  spleiiduurs  of  Gore  House  »cie 
extinguished  ;  it.*  furniture  and  decorations  were  sold  to 
pay  debts,  and  its  presiding  genius  withdrew  to  Pans, 
whither  her  frieinl  Count  d'Oisay  had  previously  gone. 
She  died  there,  June  4,  1849  Her  Literary  Lift  ""■/ 
C'irrexitoiidriici,  3  vols  ,  edited  by  K.  R.  Madden,  appeared 
in  1855 

BLICHER.  Stee.v  Steensfn.  Danish  lyrical  poet  and 
novelist,  was  born  at  Vniin  in  Viburg.  Jutland,  on  the  11th 
October  1782  He  was  extremely  delicate  in  constitution, 
and  after  having  passed  a  year  or  two  at  the  university, 
which  he  joined  in  1799,  was  compelled  to  give  up  liia 
studies  on  account  of  a  consumptive  conijilaint.  He 
accepted  a  situation  as  tutor  in  a  lainily  at  Falster,  and  by 
vigorous  physical  exorcise  and  tiute-pluyuig  sueteeded  iii 
restoring  hlinsell  to  health.  He  afterwards  returned  to  the 
university,  and  completed  his  course  in  1809.  Several 
years  were  then  spent  at  his- father's  parsonage,  preparing 
for  the  ministry  and  managing  the  farm  In  1819  lie  was 
culled  to  the  church  of  Thoruing.  and  in  1825  to  a  m'.ro 
reiniin^rative  charge  at  Spentrup  Here  he  died  in  l^i'- 
Bliclier  was  hrst  known  by  his  translations  of  Ossian,  but 
his  early  poems  did  not  attract  much  attention  He  then 
contributed  to  a  literary  journal,  the  Nnrdlyfet,  in  whicli 
appeared  the  hrst  of  his  Jutland  tales  {JyJske  liomnmer). 
The  popularity  of  the.se  romances  was  surpassed  by  that  of 
the  Satioiial  Knveller  which  give  an  adiniiable  picture  of 
country  life  in  Jutland  His  collected  poems,  some  c-f 
which  had  appeared  as  early  as  1814.  were  published  in 
2  vols  .  1 835-31  the  novels  appeared  in  5  vols  ,  1833-30 
A  short  sketch  of  his  own  life  and  character  was  prefixed 
by  hiiii  to  the  complete  collection, — Old  and  New  Novels 
iOamle  og  nyr  Smeller)  7  vols.,  184C-47.  Blicher  aUo 
translated  Goldsmith's  I'lcar  &/  Wnkffiild. 

BLIDAH.  the  chief  town  of  an  arrondissement  in  the 
province  of  Algiers  in  Algeria,  about  30  miles  inland  from 
the  capital,  on  the  railway  from  that  city  to  Oran  It  lie» 
at  the  oase  of  the  Algerian  Atlas,  in  the  uiidst  of  the  fertile 
plain  of  Melija.  and  is  beautifully  surrounded  with  orchard* 
and  gardens,  which  afford  a  pleasant  contrast  to  its  ramparts 
and  towers  It  has  well-built  modern  street's  with  frequent 
arcades,  and  punibers  among  its  buildings  .several  mosques 
and  churches,  a  Franco-Arabic  and  a  Protestant  school, 
extensive  barracks,  and  a  military  hos[iiial.  Water  is 
abundantly  sup[>lied  by  an  aqueduct  fed  by  the  Oued-cl- 
Kebir.  As  the  centre  of  a  fluurl^hllJg  district  and  a  pi  st 
on  one  of  the  main  routes  in  the. country  it  enjoys  r.ii 
extensive  traUic,  and  the  inhabitants  maintain  a  thrivog 
tr.iile  in  oranges,  raisins,  grain,  cotton,  and  tobacco.  1 1.e 
products  of  the  neighbouriiig  copper-mines  and  of  the  coik- 
tre«  and  cedar-groves  are  also  of  importance  In  the 
vicinity  are  the  two  villages  of  Jouiville  and  Montpensur. 
whict)  owe  their  origin  to  the  military  camps  establish,  d 
by  Marshal  Valee  in  1838,  and  on  the  road  to  Medcili 
are  the  tombs  of  the  Marabut  Mohamraed-el-Kebir  and  l.is 
two  sons  Blidab  was  a  town  of  some  miporlance  uniur 
the  Turks,  but  id  1825  it  was  nearly  destroyed  by  lh 
earthquake.  It  was  not  till  1838  that  it  was  hnally  b-  Ifl 
by  the  French,  though  they  bad  been  in  poa8e.^MoD  foi  & 
short  time  eight  years  before  In  1 867  it  suQered  fr>  m 
another  earthquake  which  also  nearly  ruined  the  villige  of 
ChilTa.      Population  in  1872.  8113 

BLIGH.  WiLLlAJd.  admiral,  wits  born  of  a  good  family 
in  the  south  of  England  in  1751     IK  atccnipanied  CaptuiB 

HI     —    104 


826 


B  L  I  —  B  L  I 


Couk  in  his  second  expedition  as  sailing-master  of  the 
"  liesolution,"  and  in  1787  was  despatched  to  the  Pacific  in 
command  of  H.MS.  "  Bounty,"  for  the  purpose  of  introduc- 
ing into  the  West  Indies  the  bread-fruit  tree  from  the  South 
•Sw  Islands.  Bligh  sailed,  in  1787,  from  Otaheite,  where 
he  had  remained  about  six  months ;  but,  when  near,  the 
Friendly  Islands,  a  mutiny  broke  out  on  board  the  "Bounty," 
headed  by  Fletclier  Christian,  the  master's  mate,  and  Bligh, 
with  eighteen  others,  was  set  adrift  in  the  launch.  This 
mutiny,  which  forms  the  subject  of  Byron's  Island,  did  not 
arise  so  much  from  tyranny  on  the  part  of  Bligh  as  from 
attachments  contracted  between  the  seamen  and  the  women 
of  Otaheite.  After  suffering  severely  from  hunger,  thirst, 
and  storms,  Bligh  and  his  companions  landed  at  Timor  in 
Ihe  East  Indies,  having  performed  a  voyage  of  about  4000 
miles  in  an  open  boat.  Bligh  returned  to  England  in  1790, 
and  he  was  soon  afterwards  appointed  to  the  "  Providence," 
in  which  he  effected  the  purpose  of  his  former  appaintment 
by  introducing  the  bread-fruit  tree  into  the  West  India 
Islands.  He  showed  great  courage  at  the  mutiny  of  the 
Nore  in  1797,  and  in  the  same  year  took  part  in  the 
battlo  of  O'amperdown,  where  Admiral  Duncan  defeated 
the  Dutch  under  De  Winter.  In  1801  ho  commanded  the 
"  Qlalton"  at  the  battle  of  Copenhagen,  and  received  the  per- 
sonal commendations  of  Nelson.  He  was  subsequently 
Uiade  governor  of  New  South  Wales,  and  vice-admiral  of 
the  blue.  He  died  at  London  in  1817.  He  was  an  active, 
jieracvering,  and  courageous  officer,  although,  perhaps, 
loinewhat  exacting  in  his  manner. 

BLIND.  The  blind,  as  a  class,  are  limited  to  such 
sjarrow  spheres  of  action  that  those  unacquainted  with  the 
subject  fail  to  realize  how  large  a  number  of  the  human 
fjce  arc  deprived  of  sight.  In  the  temperate  regions  of 
the  globe  about  1  ia  every  1000  of  the  population  is  blind, 
hat.  in  less  favourable  climates  the  percentage  is  much 
Eireatjor.  When  we  consider  what  medical  .skill  has  already 
iicc  iplished  in  Europe  and  America,  not  only  for  the 
yelicl  but  the  positive  prevention  of  blindness,  we  may 
.•■^ily  conclude  that  iu  warmer  and  less  civilized  countries 
ihe  class  is  more  numerous  and  their  condition  more  de- 
jilorable. 

We  rejoice  that  much  can  still  be  done  by  proper  care 
and  treatment  to  prevent  blindness  ;  for  instance,  ophthal- 
mia of  infants  is  a  very  conuiion  cause,  and  ought  not  to 
terminate  in  loss  of  siglit,  which  in  most  cases  results  from 
BOL^lect  and  dirt.  Glaucoma  is  also  a  fruitful  source  of 
Uindness,  invariably  causing  loss  of  sight  if  left  to  itself ; 
but,  thanks  to.  Professor  Grafe's  brilliant  discovery,  these 
eases  are  generally  curable  if  operated  on  early.  Another 
»ery  common  cau.se  of  blindness  is  serious  injury  to  one 
«ye,  which  is  thus  lost,  and  if  the  injured  organ  be  not  at 
once  removed,  sympathetic  inflammation  and  destruction 
o<  the  other  is  very  apt  to  follow,  resulting  in  total  blind- 
ness ,  whereas,  if  the  injured  eye  be  at  once  removed  the 
Mlier  is  generally  preserved. 

Loss  of  sight  from  small  pox  is  now  comparatively  rare, 
owing  to  the  general  practice  of  vaccination,  but  much 
undoubtedly  may  still  be  done  towards  diminishing  the 
iicquency  of  blindness  by  further  advances  in  the  art  of 
treating  eye-disease,  and  especially  by  spreading  among  all 
classes  a  knowledge  of  what  has  already  been  done  in  this 
Jireclion. 

II  often  occurs  that  cliildren  become  blind  through  the 
most  trivial  causes  by  parents  consulting  unskilful  prac- 
titioners. The  improvement  and  increase  in  the  number 
»f  well-regulated  hospitals  now  makes  it  po.sslble  for  every 
parent,  however  poor,  to  have  the  best  medical  advice  and 
attendance. 

III  all  a;;c3  of  the  worlil  the  blind  have  been  the  objects 
at  pily  and  oommiseialioii,  yit  it  h.is  cmly  been  within  the 


past  century  that  Christian  civi.  .ation  n.  .ts  grand  onward 
march  has  taken  them  in  its  embrace,  and  shed  the  influ- 
ence of  its  light  upon  their  midnight  daikness.  During 
recent  years  leading  philanthropists  have  given  much 
earnest  thought  to  the  best  methods  of  ameliorating  and 
improving  the  condition  of  the  blind.  Nearly  all  the 
European  Governments  and  the  States  of  the  American 
Union  have  made  liberal  provision  for  their  education  and 
special  training.  In  Great  Britain  the  work  has  been  IcTt 
thus  far  to  charitable  enterprise.  Much,  however,  has 
been  done, — almost  every  large  town  having  its  asylunj, 
workshop,  or  home  teaching  society. 

The*  following  summary,  from  k  Guide  to  Institutions 
and  Charities  for  the.  Blind,  prepared  by  M.  Turner  and 
W.  Harris  in  1871,  will  show  the  state  of  these  institutions 
at  a  recent  date  : — 

"  In  tlie  year  1800  there  weie  only  fgur  inetitutions  for  the  blind 
in  the  United  Kingdom  ;  during  tfie  ne.\t  tliiity  years  six  otheii 
were  added  to  tlie  list ;  in  the  succei^ing  thirty  years  seventeen 
more  were  oiiened  ;  while  within  the  last  ten  years  twenty  new 
ones  have  been  established,  making  a  total  now  of  fifty-three,  witli- 
oiit  iucludiag  societies  for  visiting  the  blind  at  thgir  homes,  and 
otiier  charities. 

Scotland  with  five  institutions  sold,  in  the  last  year  of  wliich 
we  Lave  any  report,  goods  of  the  value  of  £21,930,  while  England 
with  forty  institutions  only  sold  in  tlie  same  period  goods  of  Iho 
value  of  £33,598  ;  and  Ireland,  only  £454. 

Scotland  prinides  for,  on  an  average,  76  blind  in  each  institu- 
tion ;  while  fc^ngland  only  provides  for  43,  and  Ireland  for  CO. 

The  donations  and  subacri[ttion9  in  Scotland  for  the  same  year 
amount  to  more  than  £20  per  head  of  the  number  benehted  ;  whi'.e 
in  England  they  amount  to  about  £21,  and  in  Ireland  to  about  £]tJ, 

So  far  as  returns  have  reached  us,  it  appears  that  Mr  filoon's 
.system  of  reading  for  the  blind  is  adopted  by  38  institutions  and 
home-teaching  societies,  while  only  22  use  the  books  of  oilier  sys- 
tems— Lucas's,  7  ;  Koman,  4  ;  Alston's,  4  ;  Frere's,  3  ;  Braille,  4 
[Since  1871  the  use  of  HraiUe  lias  been  iutioduced  into  many  other 
institutions.] 

Of  the  30,000  blind  in  the  United  Kingdom,  there  are  only  about 
2250  i)eing  instructed  or  assisted  to  woi^.  The  total  amount  re- 
ceived per  annum  for  the  benefit  of  tlie  blind,  according  to  the 
answers  received,  is  about  £66,000  ;  besides,  there  are  twelve 
societies  from  which  no  return  has  been  made.  Of  institutioiia 
for  tlic  blind  generally,  we  may  remark  that  in  each  institution 
nearly  the  same  difficulties  appear  to  e.xist,  the  principal  one 
being  the  difficulty  of  selling  the  goods  manufactured  at  siich 
prices  as  will  secure  a  ready  sale  and  cover  the  cost  of  production, 
and  consequently  in  most  instances  there  is  a  large  surplus  stock. 
Ill  cases  where  the  stock  is  wholly  dispose*!  of,  our  observalioiia 
Ii'iul  \is  to  think  that  sales  have  been  secured  by  selling  at  a  loss. 

Tfie  principal  trades  practised  by  the  blind  in  the  United  Kingdom 
are  the  making  of  baskets,  brushes,  brooms,  mattresses,  rugs,  mats, 
caning  of  chaii's,  with  knitting  and  sewing  for  women." 

Within  a  few  years  a  great  impetus  has  been  given  in 
England  to  the  higher  education  of  the  blind,  by  the  for- 
mation of  the  British  and  Foreign  Blind  Association,  the 
establishment  of  the  College  for  the  Blind  Sons  of  Gentle- 
men at  Worcester,  and  the  Boyal  Normal  College  and 
Academy  of  Music  for  the  Blind,  Upper  Norwood. 

The  first  mentioned  association   "has  been  formed  for  Dniisl.  ..U 
the  purpose  of  promoting  the  education  and  employment  Foieiv 
of  the  blind,  by  ascertaining  what  has  been  done  in  these  lj""'| 
respects  in  this  and  other  countries,  by  endeavouring  to 
supply  deficiencies  where  these  are  found  to  exist,  and  by 
attempfing  to  bring  about  greater  harmony  of  action  be- 
tween the  different  existing  schools  and  institutions. 

"  The  founders  of  the  association  took  as  an  axiom  that 
in  all  questions  which  relate  to  obtaining  imiircssions  by 
touch  the  blind  are  tlie  best  judges ;  the  council  of  tho 
association  therefore  consists  entirely  of  gentlemen  who 
arc  either  bhnd,  or  so  nearly  so  that  they  have  to  use  the 
finger  instead  of  the  eye  fur  the  purpose  of  reading. 

"  One  main  difficulty  in  the  way  of  educating  tho  young 
blind  is  tho  groat  cost  of  most  of  the  appliances  ;  this  tho 
council  liavo  endcavmired  to  meet  by  liic  niaiuifacturo  of 
cheaper  and   better  apuaratus  than   any  hilhcrfo  in  ubo. 


lilind  AtW 


B  L  I  N  n 


827 


No  one  who  has  not  made  the  attempt  c-in  have  auy  idea 
of  the  extreme  difficulty  of  combining  ^eat  accuracy  and 
durability  with  cheapness.  This  has  heeD  in  a  ^eat  inea 
6nte  accomplished  os"  regards  the  BraiUe  wnung  frames, 
which  aro  now  \rithui  the  reach  of  every  blind  person  who 
wishes  to  avail  himself  of  the  advantages  of  writing  The 
fact  that  a  large  number  of  these  frames  has  been  already 
sold  speaks  for  itself,  and,  as  the  great  majority  of  the 
purchasers  are  poor,  the  quick  sale  is  evidence  nut  only  of 
the  cheapness  of  ,the  frames,  but  also  of  the  widespread 
desire  for  self-education  existing  among  t]ie  blind 

"  Another  obstacle  to  the  diffusion  of  the  knowledge  of 
the  Braille  system  has  been  the  absence  of  printed  books 
10  English.  With  the  view  of  mee'.ing  this  want  one  of 
the  council  has  perfected  the  process  of  stereotyping  used 
10  France,  by  which  the  cost  of  production  of  stereotype 
plates  IS  greatly  reduced  ,  and  as  the  blind  can  themselves 
produce  these  plates,  a  new  and  remunerative  means  of 
employment  has  t>een  discovered.  Some  school  books  have 
already  been  issued  by  the  association,  and  will  shortly  be 
followed  by  others  The  work  on  the  Education  and  Ew 
pljyment  of  th^  Blind,  by  the  hoiomry  secretary,  has  been 
publi:^h^d  under  the  sanction  and  at  the  expense  of  the 
association  " 

T^e  following  extract  Irora  an  address  delivered  by  the 
honorary  secretary  before  the  Society  of  Arts  on  the  vari 
0U9  types  for  the  blind,  shows  how  thoroughly  they  are 
investigating  the  subject  — 

"The  happy  idea  of  priuling  on  reaper  letters  recognizable  bv 
the  touch  xa  Que  to  M  Haiij  of  Poria,  who  priutod  his  first  book 
in  1784,  aod  foundtd  the  iDstitut  dee  JeiiBea  Aveugles,  I'arid 
The  type  he  adopted  was  the  acripl,  or  Italic  form  of  the  Roman 
letter.  Thia  was  introduced  into  England  by  the  present  Sir  C 
Lowther,  who  printed  the  eospol  of  Si  Matthew  iu  1832  with  type 
ohtaiijed  from  Paris,  arid  lollowed  it  with  other  portions  of  tne 
Bibla  Id  1834,  GaJl.  of  Edinburgh,  pnnted  the  gospel  of  Si  John 
to  Roman  capitals.  Id  which,  however,  all  curves  were  replaced  by 
an^lar  lines,  and  the  Uno3  themselves  were  serrated,  which  changes, 
he  l>e!ieved,  gave  ;^eater  distinctuess  to  the  letter 

Alston,  of  Glx<>gow.  adopted  Fry's  plan  of  u.'jing  ordinary  Roman 
capitals.  Dr  Howe,  of  Boston,  US  ,  makes  a^^e  of  the  small  Roman 
letters,  giving  them  angularity  arcordin^  to  Gall's  idea. 

The  rbilauelphia  type  does  not  difTer  much  from  Alston's 
The  combination  of  capitals  with  smaU  letter*  has  also  been  tne<i, 
•iod  ft  society  has  recently  been  formed  at  Worcester  with  the  in- 
tcntiOD  of  printing  on  a  Urge  scale  in  this  type  In  Germany  vari- 
ous modifications  of  the  Roman  letter  exist,  tne  principal  of  wbirh, 
the  so-called  Stachelschrift  of  Stuttgart,  consists  of  Roman  capitals 
f  jrmed  by  finely  dotted  linea  All  these  modifications  are  sugges- 
tive of  the  strong  tendency  among  those  who  have  attempted  to 
beneHl  the  blind  to  retain  for  them  the  form  of  letter  to  which  the 
%eeing  are  accustomed,  while  the  cousiant  change  of  form  indicates 
0  fact  with  which  most  bUnd  persons  are  familiar  from  personal 
etperieace,  viz.,  that  tione  of  these  miKlifications  are  satisfactory  as 
to  the  primary  condition  of  being  easily  felt.  A  better  form  than 
any  which  has  obtained  currency  was  suggested  twenty  years  ago 
bv  Mr  Welch,  a  blind  man,  who  hiis  been  the  pioneer  of  education 
amongst  the  blind  of  London,  and  this  is  almost  identical  with  one 
in  Ippt-ndently  forked  out  by  Mr  Littkdale  of  Cheltenham 

The  second  great  clasa  xn  made  up  of  alphabets  deviiitiog  more  or 
less  widely  from  the  Roman  letter,  and  consista  of  a  stenographic 
rhortbana  invented  by  Mr  Lucas,  a  phonetic  shorthnnd  due  to  Mr 
Frcre,  and  a  full  written  system  introduced  by  Mr  Moon,  in  which 
the  Roman  letter  ia  retained  in  a  more  or  less  modified  form  when- 
ever  he  conaidcnid  this  could  be  done  compatibly  with  easy  rerog 
nition,  the  simple  Une-sign»  employed  by  Mr  Krere  being  u.sed  to 
replace  the  more  complicated  of  the  Romnn  letters  It  will  be 
nrccasary  to  eximine  these  systema  In  deUil.  and  Jt  will  facilitate 
f  lis  examination  if  we  compare  them  with  each  other  in  the  follow 
rig  partkuKirs  :— (a.)  As  respects  the  share  of  the  letter,  {h.)  Ab 
1.  spceta  the  advantage  of  conformity  with  the  Romanletter  ,.  (c.)  As 
r  ^irde  the  reading  from  right  to  left  and  from  left  to  right  alter- 
••  itcly  ,  {d.)  Advantage  of  a  ehorthand  as  contrwled  watb  «  full 
written  system 

(a.)  As  respertf  thf  %hap9  of  ihf  Utter. ^Wr  Lucas  and  Mr  Frcre 
^.-o^ffeht  out  their  systems  aliout  the  year  1838.  Lacaa  preceding 
Krero  by  a  fcwmonth%  They  employed  at  first  almost  iiicntically 
lie  same  characfera;  but  unfortunately  conld  not  agree  to  rcpresr^it 
the  same  so4ind  by  the  same  nymbt-L     Mr  Frens  bad  the  aHvnntagc  | 


o<  having  his  plan  cai.Icd  out  l^y  a  very  ingcnioua  ind  sensible 
blind  man.  who  soon  discovered  that  the  letters  formed  by  lines 
and  curves  upon  which  dots  were  placed  were  too  similar  to  those 
formed  by  the  corresiwndiug  lines  and  curves  without  dot5  ,  he, 
therefore,  changed  dJ  his  dotted  characters,  replacing  the  dotted 
curves  by  angles  of  46',  and  the  dotted  lines  by  lilies  io  which  a 
short  line  is  substitnted  for  the  dot 

The  result  of  this  change  is,  that  Frere's  character  i.^  now  far 
sufwnor  to  Lucas's  in  the  quality  of  easy  reco^i  ion  Mr  Mi-^^n's 
chajacter,  in  the  largu*  size  which  is  used  by  him,  is  onite  as  e.i«ily 
distinguishable  as  Frere's.  but  in  the  form  in  wM  h  he  now  pKaU 
his  characters,  his  nght-an-jlcs  are  not  true  right-angles,  bat  are 
rounded  In  the  size  which  he  uses,  th^  defec  is  of  very  Utile 
importance,  but  it  etre4:tuuJly  prevents  any  considcTible  diminutjOL 
be<:juse.  if  this  is  attempted,  the  rounded  nght  ugles  cann'it  U 
dHtinguished  from  the  hooked  lu)es 

The  iin|>ortance  of  asmg  a  character  as  small  as  is  comDatlbl^ 
with  ca^y  recognition  may  be  readily  understood  f "om  the  foUowijij 
dtat*^ment  .—The  largest  type  u^ed  by  Mr  Frere  a  that  employeJ 
in  the  gospel  of  St  John  The  character  is  4 (-sixteenths  of  An 
inch  long,  and  is  about  the  same  size  as  Moon's  character  The 
pages  occupied  by  the  gospel  of  St  John  in  Frere  are  96.  In  Iua 
medium  type,  in  which  tlie  length  of  the  letter  is  4-siztecntbs  of 
on  inch,  tne  same  matter  would  co  into  67  pages;  and  in  hie 
smallest  type,  in  which  the  length  of  the  letter  is  3 4 -sixteenths,  ii 
would  occupy  46  and  a  third  pages  It  has  been  found,  by  an 
expenence  extending  ov^r  27  years,  aod  embracing  many  hunareda 
of  individuals  of  all  ages  and  conditions,  that  aU  those  who  CtUi 
read  tlie  largest  type  can  read  the  medium,  and  almost  all  can  reaO 
the  smallest 

The  medium  tvpc  is  very  generally  prefem  d,  as  being  mon- 
plea&ant  to  the  finger,  and  many  with  aelical  touch  preier  tlit 
smallest  for  the  same  reason  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that,  by  seler: 
ing  a  ftefldevised  character,  not  only  can  a  veiy  onsideratle  sannj; 
be  made  in  the  size,  and  therefore  in  the  coat  of  books,  but  by  & 
diminution  of  size,  within  certain  lunits,  the  chaiacter  is  rendered 
absolutely  more  legible.  The  gospel  of  St  John,  in  Moon's  type. 
occaipies  WO  pages. 

(i  )  As  respects  the  adiantage  oj  cwi/ormity  uHth  the  Rcnnan 
/</iCT— Much  has  been  said  and  ttTittcn  on  this  subject  A 
f;ivourite  argument  with  the  advocate  of  the  Roman  letter  is.  thai 
by  its  u<^  a  blind  man  can  bo  agisted  in  his  reading  by  thobt 
around  him  who  are  possessed  of  sight  This,  no  doubt,  would  t< 
valid  if  no  simpler  character  for  the  blind  had  been  invented,  bu! 
when  we  have  to  choose  bttween  a  character  .n  the  reading  of 
which  the  blind  can  be  assisted  by  the  seeing,  and  one  which  is  so 
simple  that  no  assistance  is  required,  there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt 
as  to  which  ought  to  be  used 

Another  plea  for  the  use  of  the  Roman  letter  is,  that  by  its 
means  the  bUnd  can  write  in  a  character  understood  by  everybody 
This  writing  is,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  a  very  imperfect  process  . 
but  this  argument  is  undoubtedly  of  ftome  weight.  These  remarks 
apply  simply  to  the  existing  systems  in  which  the  Roman  letter  is 
employed.  It  is  probable  uiat  a  much  more  legible  alphabet  might 
be  constructed,  but,  after  our  96  years  of  experienco  and  experi- 
ments with  the  Roman  letter,  another  failure  may  well  be  feaitd 
The  small  angularized  Roman  letter  of  Dr  Howe  of  Boston,  which 
is  used  in  most  of  the  schools  of  the  United  States,  is  probably  as 
eood  a  form  as  any,  and  if  pnnted  in  a  larger  size  would  not  be 
difficult  to  feel  ,  in  its  present  size,  however,  it  is  far  too  small. 
and  has  signally  faded  in  Amenca.  The  American  schools  are  all 
State  in.>!titutions,  and  have  to  furnish  accounts  to  their  respective 
State  Legislatures  of  the  work  done  by  them 

Out  of  604  pupils  in  seven  schcnds.  where  the  Roman  character 
of  Dr  Howe  is  used,  one-third  learn  to  read  fluently,  one-tbird  by 
spelling,  while  none  fail  .  and  it  must  bi>  borne  in  mind  that  those 
who  learn  to  read  by  this  system  also  acquire  an  admirable  method 
of  writing  Moon's  system  retains  those  Roman  letters  which  c:in 
be  easily  distinguished,  and  thus  makes  a  transition  between  the 
«y stems  in  which  the  Romfin  character  is  used  and  those  which 
employ  purely  arbitrary  signs.  For  this  reason,  and  from  its  great 
simplicity  of  construction,  it  is  more  easilj  learned  than  any  other, 
and  therefore  is  well  suited  to  the  great  ma^s  of  the  poor,  wbo  froiD 
waot  of  intclUgence  or  of  application  cani  ot  learn  one  of  the  shorts 
ho*d  systems.  Its  great  bulk,  howeve  .  involving  costliness  of 
profluction  and  comparative  aJowncss  of  reading,  is  a  serious 
obstacle  to  its  general  use 

(c.)  Rtading/rtmt  left  to  nght,  and  from  righ£  toU/L,  alteniaUty. 
—  Ifi  Frere's  (tystcm  the  lines  are  read  froji  left  to  right,  and  fnm 
right  to  left,  altcmatily,  an  arc  of  a  circle  taking  the  finger  from 
the  end  of  the  oppcr  to  the  be^ning  of  the  lower  line.  The  plan 
may  be  illnstrated  by  imagining  the  letters  to  be  fixed  on  the 
nppcr  edge  of  a  long  string  Let  it  t>e  supposed  that  this  string  is 
doubled  backwar\is  and  forwards  upon  itself  in  such  a  way  that  tho 
letters  always  (x'c:.py  its  cpper  edge  This  will  give  a  good  idea  of 
Frere's  method  of  reversing  the  line  ,  not  only  is  the  Una  rc7cr8...i, 
but  every  letter  id  it  is  ^hi■o  reversed,  so  ihat  the  ^g^r,  when. 


828 


BLIND 


moving  forwnrJs,  whether  towards  the  right  or  towards  the  left, 
meets  the  characters  in  the  same  position,  and  is,  in  fact,  never 
raoring  backwards^,  in  the  same  manner  that  a  person  may  walk  to 
the  end  of  a  room,  turn  and  walk  back,  yet  is  moving  forwards  in 
both  directions.  Moon,  on  the  other  hand,  while  borrowing  the 
reversal  of  the  line  from  Frere  retains  the  letters  in  the  returning 
line' in  the  same  position  as  the  advancing,  so  that  the  finger  in 
tUe  return  line  meets  the'  characters  in  the  opposite  direction 
from  that  in  the  advancing  line  ;  and  to  those  accustomed  to 
Frere's  simpler  method  of  reversal  an  unpleasant  feeling  ia  produced, 
exactly  comparable  to  walking  backwards. 

Tho  following  example  of   both    modes  of  reversal,   in  which 

^man  Capitals  are  used,  will  make  tins  clear  : — 

Fnr£S  Method 

■    WILL    MAKE     DARKNESS 

M3HT   330^38   THOU 

Moon's  Mithwi 

1    WI  LL    MAKE    DARKNESS 

.MEHT    EROFEB    THGIL 

ivo  doubt  habit  will  accustom  a  readur  tu  either  plan,  and  probably 

there  is  not  much  difference  in  the  difficulty  of  either,  but,  as  we  . 

ahall  see  by-aod-by,   it  is   absolutely  necessary  for  writing   that 

the   pupil   should    thorouglily   understand    that,    whichever    way 

he  goes,  he  is  moving  forwao-U ;  it  is,  therefore,  wise  to  accustom 

him  in  reading  to  a  process  which  he  will  have  to  follow  in  writing. 

Opinions  differ  widely  among  the  blind  whether  it  ia  best  to  read 

foiTvards  in  one  direction  and  backwards  in  the  other,  or  forward  in 

both  ;  it  seems,  however,  among  those  who  have  had  experience  of 

the  return  line,  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  great  value,  as 

by  its  use  no  time  is  lost  by  the  reading  finger  having  to  return 

frum  the  end  of  the  upper  to  the  beginning  of  the  lower  line,  ajid 

the  setting  free  of  the  left  hand  enables  it  to  follow  the  right  in 

reading,  to  take  its  place,  or  to  rest. 

[d.)  Shorlhajid.  —  By  a  shorthand  system,  reading  is  more 
rapid,  and  a  nearer  approach  is  made  to  the  way  in  which  the  eye 
takes  in  B  whole  word  at  a  glance,  than  in  a  full-written  system. 
The  books  are  also  more  manageable  and  less  costly,  but  the  stereo- 
graphic  method  is  distinctive  of  correct  spelling,  and  in  the  pho- 
netic method  this  is  not  even  attc:mpted  ;  yet  it  is  advisable,  for 
many  reasons,  that  the  blind  should  be  able  to  spell.  The  short- 
hand systems  seem  therefore  to  be  of  the  same  use  to  the  blind  as 
to  the  seeing— not  being  of  universal  application,  but  extremely 
useful  to  those  who  have  to  read  much. 

In  ail  tho  systems  wliich  we  have  hitherto  considered,  the  letters, 
whether  Roman  or  arbitrary,  are  formed  by  raised  lines.  The 
method  employed  for  writing  them  is  as  follows  : — Small  cubes  of 
wood  are  used  with  projecting  pin  points,  so  placed  as  to  assume 
the  form  of  each  letter.  The  paper  to  be  \vritten  on  being  laid  on 
a  soft  surface,  the  pin-point  letters  are  pressed  Into  it ;  each  point 
carries  some  of  the  paper  before  it,  forming  a  little  prominence  on 
the  reverse  side,  and  as  the  pin  points  are  very  close  together,  the 
series  of.  littJe  prominences  formed  by  them  feel  to  the  hngers  like 
serrated  lines.  This  plan  ought  rather  to  be  called  printing  than 
tiTiting.  It  requirts  ^reat  practice,  and  is  at  the  best  very  slow  and 
rraperfect ;  yet  it  has  its  uses,  as  by  employing  Roman  capitals  the 
bUnd  can  con-espond  vrith  the  seeing.  The  letters,  however,  are 
not  sulTiciently  distinct,  and  comiuunituitions  from  blind  coiTespond- 
cnts  written  in  this  manner,  or  with  oi^ncil,  are  less  satisfactory, 
both  to  writer  and  reader,  than  if  the  fetter  liad  been  written  from 
dictation.  Printing  from  the  Koman  letier  (not  embossed)  can  be 
effected  by  the  blind,  with  considerable  rapidit)*,  by  means  of 
Hughes's  tj-pograph  or  Foucault's  writing-machine;  but  the  blind 
writer  cannot  read  what  he  has  written,  and  the  apjxiratus  is  so  costly 
that  it  is  not  procurable  by  the  poor. 

[A  new  machine  called  'the  type-writer,'  has  lately  been  in- 
vented in  America  It  is  largtdy  Kianufactured,  and  is  coming 
into  general  use  for  the  seeing.  It  is  equally  well  ad.inted  to  the  use 
of  the  blind,  is  very  simple,  and  can  be  manipulated  very  mpiidly. 
A  skilfol  operator  can  write  at  least  twice  a?  fast  as  an  expert  pen- 
man. It  is  not  only  a  valuable  invention,  but  one  superior  to  all 
others  of  the  kind] 

Various'  plans  exist  to  enable  tho  blind  to  keep  their  lines  when 
writing  with  a  pencil  or  with  a  stile  on  carbonized  pajwr,  but  such 
writing  can  only  be  used  for  correspondence  with  the  seeing,  and 
cannot,  of  course,  bo  read  by  touch. 

We  como  now  to  the  third  class  of  systems,  viz.,  those  in  which 
the  letters  are  formed  by  a  combination  of  dots.     These  arc  : — 

1.  Tbe  Braille  system,  universal  in  France,  both  for  writing  and 
printing,  and  very  much  u.sed  fur  both  purposes  in  Switzerland,  and 
employed  as  the  xcritUn  cliararter  in  almost  all  countries,  with  the 
exception  of  tho  United  Kmgtlom. 

H,  The  Carton  type,  which  was  introduced  into  Rclgium  by  the 
Abb6  Cartou. 

3.  Mii^^hr.q's  syfllcm  consists  of  largo  and  small  dots,  and  lines 
jdaced  iu  dilTorent  positions.     It  never  obtained  much  currency,  and 


seems  never  to  have  attracted  the  attention  which  its  ingenuity 
merited. 

4.  A  modification  of  the  Frcncli  method  has  been  lately  proposeil 
in  New  York,  and  seems  to  have  much  to  recommend  it. 

To  begin  with  the  French  method.  This  was  invented  in  1831 
"by  M.  Braille,  a  blind  pupil  of  the  Instilut  des  jeuncs  Avcugles.  It 
spread  with  great  rapidity,  and  has,  as  we  have  before  seen,  become 
almost  the  univei-sal  written  language  of  the  blind.  Its  signs  are 
purely  arbitrary  and  consist  of  varying  combinations  of  six  dots 
placed  in  an  oblong,  of  which  the  vertical  side  contains  three  acd 
the  horizontal  two  dots.  For  writing,  a  frame  is  used  consisting  of 
a  grooved  metal  bed,  containing  ten  grooves  to  the  inch  ;  over  this 
is  fitted  a  guide  whose  vertical  diameter  is  ^^  inch,  while  the  hori- 
zontal diameter  is  ,V-  This  perforated  guide  is  fi-xed  into  a  light 
wooden  frame,  like  the  frame  of  a  slate,  which  is  attached  to  tie 
grooved  metal  bed  by  hinges.  The  paper  is  introduced  between  l)  e 
fi-ame  and  the  grooved  bed-  The  instrument  for  writing  is  a  bluiit 
awl,  which  carries  a  little  cap  of  paper  before  it  into  the  grooves  .jf 
the  bed,  thereby  produiVng  a  series  of  little  pits  on  the  side  nest 
the  writer.  When  taken  out  and  turned  over,  (ittle  prominences 
are  felt,  corresponding  to  the  pits  on  the  other  side.  The  rending 
is  performed  from  left  to  right,  consequently  the  writing  is  fiom 
right  to  ktl ;  but  this  reversal  presents  no  practical  difficulty  as 
soon  as  the  pupil  has  caught  the  idea  that  in  reading  and  writing 
alike  he  has  to  go  forwards.  The  brass  guide  has  a  double  row  of 
openings,  which  enables  the  writer  to  write  two  lines  ;  when  these 
are  wiitten,  he  shifts  his  guide  downwards  until  two  little  pins, 
which  project  from  the  under  surface  at  its  ends,  drop  li^o  '■orre- 
s])onding  holes  of  the  frame,  when  the  writer  writes  two  more  lines 
and  this  operation  is  repeated  until  he  arrives  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page. 

The  first  ten  letters,-  from  *a'  to  'j,'  are  formed  in  the  upper 
and  middJe  grooves;  the  nexrt  ten,  from  'k'  to  't,'  are  formed 
by  adding  one  lower  dot  behind  to  each  letter  of  the  first  seiie-*; 
the  third  row,  from  '  u  '  to  '  ii '  is  formed  fiom  the  first  by  addiuj^ 
two  lower  dots  to  each  letter;  the  fourth  row,  from  'i'  \o  '  w.' 
similarly,  by  adding  one  lower  front  dot 

The  first  ten  letters,  when  preceded  by  the  prefix  for  numbers, 
stand  for  the  nine  numbers  and  the  cypher.  TJ  «  same  signs, 
writt.en  Ln  the  lower  and  middle  giooves,  inbtead  of  the  upper  and 
middle,  serve  for  punctuation.  The  seven  last  letters  of  each  series 
stiind  for  the  seven  musical  notes — the  first  series  renresentitii^ 
quavers,  the  second  minima,  the  third  semibreves,  the  fourth 
crotchets.  Rests,  accidentals,  and  every  other  sign  used  in  music, 
can  be  readily  and  clearly  expressed,  without  having  recourse  to 
the  staff  of  five  lines  which  forms  the  basis  of  ordinary  music-.l 
notation,  and  which,  though  it  has  been  reproduced  for  the  blin-l* 
can  only  be  considered  as  serving  to  give  them  an  idea  of  the  raethtM* 
employed  by  the  seeing,  and  cannot,  of  course,  be  written.  By 
means  of  this  dotted  system  a  blind  man  is  able  to  keep  mem'i- 
randa  or  accounts,  write  his  own  music,  emboss  bis  own  booka  from 
dictation,  and  carry  on  correspHjndcnce. 

But  tiiis  French  systt-m,  though  extremely  useful,  is  not  perfect 
The  letter  is  too  small  for  ready  recognition  by  the  unskilful  or 
hard-haiided.  and  if  this  is  sought  to  be  remedied  by  increasing  the 
size,  the  reading  finger  does  not  cover  ihe  whole  of  the  letter,  and 
has  to  proceed  up  and  <iown,  feehng  out  each  letter,  instead  uf 
following  the  even  pUding  motion  essential  to  good  reading  The 
modificiitioii  proposed  in  New  York  remedies  this  defect,  though 
this  docs  not  appear  to  have  been  the  intention  of  its  prumotei^ 
It  proceed.^  on  tho  principle  that  tho  letters  occurring  nu)--t 
frequently  in  the  English  langiiage  should  be  represented  by  tlu 
fewest  number  of  dots,  and  that  the  letters  should  be  so  spaced  i\u>t 
a  K-ltcr  composed  of  one  dot  sliould  not.  as  is  the  case  in  the  FirntJi 
system,  occupy  the  same  loora  as  one  with  six  dots.  Foi  this  pur 
pose  the  oblmig,  consisting  of  sLx  dot?,  com[>osirig  the  root-form  "f 
tho  letter,  is  pl/iced  horizont-dly  instead  of  vi-rticully.  thogTcftie>^t 
verticij  depth  of  .any  letter  in  t^To  dots  inste.-nl  of  thrrv.  From 
these  two  changes  results  a  saving  of  about  one-thu"d  in  space  ,  this 
involves  a  saving  of  nboui  -ne  third  in  the  price  of  pnnted  book-- 
wiiting  is  rendered  moi-e  rapid  ;  and  as  the  size  can  now  he  .n- 
creased,  owing  to  the  tliminution  of  the  vertical  It-ngth  of  tlie  lettt  r. 
it  can  be  made  siitficieut  for  tho  dullest  touch,  Ten  word  iUMl 
part-word  signs  have  been  intioduccd,  which  effect  n  fuither  saving 
of  nearly  one-thiiil.  while  they  do  not  interfere  in  the  least  degr<o 
witli  correct  spelling.  These  advantages  make  it  wfll  worth  while 
to  consider  whether  tho  modification  of  the  Braille  sysiem  ought 
not  to  be  adopted  as  the  wntten  system  of  all  KngiiMh-speakini: 
blind  ;  but  betore  such  n  step  is  recommended,  the  qucstitm  should 
bo  c^aR'fulIy  cou'iidcred  in  all  its  bearings  on  musical  notation  us  well 
as  on  ordinary  writing." 

Regarding  the  Worcester  Collego  tor  Blind  isons  of  W-^-- 
Gentlemen,  founded  in  1800  by  the  Rev.  R  11  iJhiir.  tho  Coll., 
Report  infoniis  us  that — 

"  It  w.is  npenod  with  the  new  of  giving  to  families  of  the  b';l''*r 
dais  an  opportunity  of  educating  their  children  in  a  systc-mtitie 


BLIND 


829 


wanner,  with  a  due  rcg.itd  to  home  comforts,  «nd  with  surioundinga 
Ivtitting  llifir  position. 

Tlie  coui«;  ol  education  projected  b7Mr  Blair  was  such  as  would 
convert  the  pupils  into  intelLgcnt  home  companions,  if  no  other 
object  were  desired.  But  a  eonriction.  based  on  personal  know, 
ledge,  that  the  blind  were  capable  of  the  highest  competition  with 
the  seeing,  lay  at  the  root  of  this  gentlcraan's  endeavours.  Self- 
helpfulness  and  usefulness  in  the  ordinary'  atTairs  of  life  is  therefore 
but  one  of  the  first  results  which  reward  "the  teaching  of  the  blind  ; 
and  it  appears  that  blind  men  can  be  made  niproduclivo  also,  not 
ouly  in  the  particular  instance,  but  in  the  bulk,  and  that  the 
arts  of  teaching  and  lecturing,  acting  as  deputations,  translating, 
picsiding  over  ulind  or  other  institutions,  the  law,  and  in  the  most 
favciiircd  cases  the  church,  are  fully  within  the  capacity  of  the 
well. educated  blind.  A  prejudice  has  hitherto  existed  against  the 
employment  of  blind  men,  owing  to  their  supposed  incapacity,  and 
cer:aiu  other  drawbacks  resulting  from  neglect.  Let  this  impres- 
sion be  removed,  and  there  will  be  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
positions  open  to  them. 

For  an  entrance  into  these  walks  of  life,  the  training  must  be 
siieh  as  to  enable  ita  recipients  to  compete  for  university  distinc- 
tions. The  objections  to  this  course,  if  they  arc  entertained,  will 
l>c  removed  by  a  little  reflection  on  the  nature  and  uses  of  a  univer- 
eity:  and  the  difficulties  which  in  the  idea  of  inexperienced  persons 
a  lilind  man  has  to  overcome,  are  greatly  diminished  by  being  met 
and  grappled  with  in  early  years,  and  arc  .actually  being  materially 
lessened  oy  the  earnest  efforts  now  made  by -blind  instructors  and 
investigators. 

It  is  impossible  to  rule  definitely  at  what  .ige  the  school  educa- 
tion of  a  child  bom  blind  should  begin..  Children  vary  ns  much 
in  natural  quickness  as  parents  in  the  power  of  educating.  A  quick 
and  resolute  child  will,  through  the  clumsiness  of  nurses  or  the 
carelessness  of  a  parent,  early  acquire  tricks  wiiich  it  takes  years  to 
eradicate,  and  acquire  habits  and  ways  of  thought  and  action  which 
may  have  a  profound  efl'ect  on  his  after  life.  The  sooner,  therefore, 
a  child  can  consistently  with  his  health  and  other  considerations  be 
admitted  to  cheerful  and  active  society,  where  his  character  can 
have  free  play  and  find  sympathy,  yet  be  quietly  trained,  the  more 
easy  will  his  education  be  afterwards.  For  those  who  have  become 
blind  from  accident  or  disease,  in  childhood  or  towards  the  age  of 
adolescence,  one  word  of  advice  may  be  given.  As  soon  as  it  is 
ascertained  that  the  blindness  is  past  remedy,  the  child  should  be 
eent  to  school,  so  that  the  habit  of  study  m.ay  be  remitted  as  little 
as  possible.  It  is  in  the  highest  degree  impolitic  to  allow  the 
ficiilties  to  degenerate  through  several  years  disuse,  as  is  often 
done  ;  and  it  is  in  reality  kinder  to  a  child  or  youth  to  send  him 
fiway  to  pick  up  strength  and  consolation  by  the  example  of  his 
tlioerful  and  patient  fellows,  and  to  distract  his  grief  by  learning 
t!ie  instruments  wliich  he  will  ultimately  need  in  his  education, 
than  to  keep  hira  in  the  indulgences  of  home,  brooding  over  his 
misfortune,  or  buoyed  up  by  a  hope  which  will  not  be  realized. 

No  claim  to  exclusivcness  is  asserted  in  the  use  of  English  tj'pes. 
There  are  useful  works  to  be  found  in  all;  and  when  a  pupil  arnves 
who  has  been  educated  in  one  or  other  form  of  tj-pe,  he  is  never 
discouraged  from  its  continued  use.  But  as  uniformity  of  cla-ss- 
books  is  desirable,  and  one  system  must  be  employed  as  a  basis,  the 
Koiiian  fonn,  in  which  are  printed  books  suitable  for  higher  educa- 
tion, is  adopted  for  class  pur^wses.  Dr  Moon's  type  is  read  by  some 
for  recreation  or  private  study,  and  the  American  Bible,  which  is 
the  most  portable  yet  printed,  and  is  beautifully  executed,  is  read 
by  those  whose  dexterity,  acquired  by  long  p.  .tice,  enables  them 
to  master  this  somewhat  difficult,  because  small,  type.  After  some 
years  of  practice  the  desire  for  smaller  type  seems  to  become  a 
l»assion  for  those  possessed  of  a  qiiick  and  nimble  touch. 

Dr  Moon's  type  is  large  and  easy,  and  comprises  the  Bible, 
Prayer  Book,  ami  a  large  number  of  reIigio\i3  and  devotional  work,', 
togetluT  with  numerous  stories,  biographies,  and  otlier  works  suit- 
able for  the  young  and  aged.  Dr  Moon  has  also  several  educational 
woiks  of  a  very  useful  charatter;  but  his  plan  of  action  h.as  not  yet 
led  him  to  enter  largely  into  tlie  production  of  higher  literature." 

The  Royal  Normal  College  and  Academy  of  Music  for  tbe 
niiud  lias  for  it.<>  object  the  affording  of  a  thorough  general 
and  musical  education  to  the  youthful  blind  of  both  sexes 
v/ho  possess  the  requisite  talent,  so  as  to  qu.ijify  them  for 
tclf-niaintenance.    The  Report  of  the  institution  st.ites  that 

"  As  without  previous  tri.il  it  would  in  many  cases  1)C  diflicult  to 
dctcrmtue  whether  an  applicant  for  admi.ssinn  has  sufficient  capacity 
for  the  kind  of  cilucation  given  at  the  college,  candidates  will  first 
be  received  i»  proballoners  for  a  term  of  three  months,  or  lesa.  If, 
at  tli8  end  of  that  period,  they  are  found  to  possess  adequate  ability, 
tncy  m.ay  become  pennancnt  pupils. 

With  a  view  to  adapting  the  methods  of  instruction  to  pupils 
of  dilfircnt  ages  and  capacities,  the  following  classification  has  li'in 
adopted,  n;. : — A.  Tlie  clcracntaiy  section,  thcinstniction  in  which 


is  designed  especially  for  children  from  seven  to  nine  years  of  age  ; 

B.  The  intermediate,  for  jtupils  fiom  nine  to  twelve  years  of  age  ; 

C.  The  junior,  for  pupils  froni  twelve  to  fifteen  yrais  of  age;  U-' 
The  senior,  for  pupils  from  fifteen  to  l\venty-one  .years  of  age. 
Exceptional  cases  over  twenty-one  yeais  of  age«irau  only  be  ad- 
mitted by  special  vote  of  the  committee. 

The  college  embraces  three  distinct  departments^.  General  edu- 
cation ;  2.  The  science  and  practice  of  music  ;   3.  Cianoiortc  tuning. 

The  department  of  geneial  education  embraces  all  the  ordinary 
branches  of  a  sound  English  education.  Special  care  is  bestowed 
on  the  intellectual  training  of  the  pupils  ;  for  experience  has  shown 
that  in  order  to  qualify  the  blind  lor  self-support,  it  is  essential  ;e 
afford  them  a  thorough  general  as  well  as  musical  education. 

In  the  musical  department  both  vocal  and  instrumental  in- 
sti-uction  is  given,  according  to  the  improved  methods  which  have 
been  employed  during  late  years  with  marked  success  in  the  leading 
institutions  of  France  and  America.  This  department  embmces.tho 
culture  of  the  voice,  the  study  of  the  piano,  organ,  and  other  solo 
instruments,  harmony,  counterpoint,  composition,  the  history  of 
music,  and  the  art  of  teaching. 

In  the  department  for  ti.aining  the  pupils  in  the  art  of  regulating 
and  tunin"  pianos,  pupils  are  instructed  who  have  passed  the  age 
at  which  they  might  have  become  qualified  for-remunerative  em- 
ployment in  other  departments.  Though  a  superficial  knowledge 
of  the  ait  of  tuning  may  be  readily  acquired  by  those  deprived  of 
sight,  a  prolonged  course  of  careful  training  is  necessary  iu  order  to 
enable  them  to  become  thoroughly  siicces,sl'ul- 

Expcrience  has  shown  that  the  blind  can  seldom  fully  support 
themselves  merely  by  manual  labour,  and  the  great  majority  of 
those  who  have  been  trained  to  industrial  trades  continue  to  require 
charitable  assistance  during  their  whole  life. 

It  is  well  knowTi  that  many  of  the  blind  possess  musical  talent, 
yet  only  a  small  number  in  the  United  Kingdom  have  ever  lieen 
qualified  to  earn  their  li\ing  by  the  profession  of  mUsic. 

Such  was  formerly  the  case  in  other  countries,  hut  during  recent 
years  great  improvements  in  the  general  and  musical  education  of 
the  blind  have  been  efiected  abroad,  parriculnrly  in  France  and 
America,  and  large  numbers  of  this  cl;i&s  educated  in  the  institu- 
tions of  those  countries  have  been  enabled  to  maintain  themselver 
fully  by  various  pursuits,  especially  as  skilled  organists,  teachers, 
pianists,  and  pianoforte  tuners. 

In  view  of  the  practical  results  of  the  improved  education  of  th« 
blind  in  other  countries,  the  Normal  College  and  Academy  of  Music 
was  founded  in  order  to  afford  similar  advantages  to  the  youthful 
blind  of  the  United  Kingdom.        t 

The  college  was  opened  in  March  1872,  under  the  direction  of « 
committee,  including  members  of  the  governing  bodies  of  various 
metropolitan  societies  and  institutions  for  tiie  blind,  with  an 
expeiicnced  principal,  and  a  staff  of  highly-trained  teachers. 

Upwards  of  seventy  pupils  from  London  and  other" large  towns 
have  been  undet  instruction  ;  a  number  have  already  left  tli«. 
college,  and  are  now  regularly  employed  as  thoioughly  coiiipetear 
pianoforte  tuners.'* 

As  it  will  beimpos.sible  in  this  article  to  give  any  length- 
ened account  of  the  institutions  on  the  Continent  and  in 
America,  we  will  briefly  sketch  the  plan  of  working  in  a 
few  of  the  most  progressive. 

The  following  e.vtracts  from  addresses  delivered  at  the 
first  European  Congress  of  Tciichers  of  the  Wind  at 
Vienna  iu  1S73,  will  best  give  an  insight  into  the  schools 
of  Saxony  : — 

Ilerr  Reiiuer,  superintendent  of  the  Prejxna'or])  School  for  Hit 
Blind  at  Hubertusbeig,  pointed  oul  that,  "even  among  thfl 
families  which  are  not  \eiy  |ioor,  blind  childieii  often  glow  up 
without  Icainiiig  to  wash  or  feed  themselves,  xvith  hands  hanging 
soft  and  helpless  at  their  sides,  and  thus  become  more  incapable 
than  the  pooirst,  who  nie  forced  to  exert  themsvlvas  by  the  neces- 
sity of  the  case. 

if  they  arc  not  taught  to  help  thenisehcs  at  home,  it  is  vpty 
difficult  to  teach  them  at  school,  and  .as  the  existing  blind  hislitu-' 
tions  rannot  admit  young  children  without  Injuring  the  education  of. 
the  older  ones,  they  ought  to  be  taught  in  preparatory  schools  or 
Kindergarten  separately,  which  should  be  established  by  the  Stale. 

In  the  prepajattry  school  at  Hubertusbeig  in  Saxony,  the  (iist 
thing  aimcd«at.is  the  strenglhening  of  the  limbs,  then  to  make  tli« 
children  use  them  propcily,  to  mai^e  them  help  themselves  instead 
of  relying  on  others,  to  correct  their  bad  habits  and  to  impiovc 
their  mental  condition,  arousing  in  their  minds  the -love  •f  God 
and  of  truth  as  well  as  conscience.  All  this  must  be  done  methodi- 
cally, and  each  lesson -must  bo  given  separately  and  repeatedly  as 
well  as  most  patiently.  . 

The  change  wTought  thus  is  wonderful,  If  the  teachers  arc  ex- 


perienced.    They  must  be  encoui.aced  to  move  about  as  direcle 
and  the  '  Frobel  play  and  cxcici»i»a    will  be  found  useful.     I'laitir 


linj 


830 


BLIND 


etrips  of  leather,  and  other  nccupations  which  combine  play  with 
work,  are  carried  on  with  ad-vantage.  A  good  manager  of  Kinder- 
garten can  do  them  great  good,  and  gymnastics  give  them  the 
power  of  controlling  their  limbs ;  but  every  exercise  must  be  first 
taught  singly 

Object  lessons  must  be  given  by  means  of  models,  stuffed  animals, 
birds,  fish,  Jtc,  to  bring  out  the  powers  of  memory  and  reason. 
Simple  hymns  and  ballads  are  practised. 

Very  little  technical  work  can  be  taught,  except  making  rush 
baskets,  &c.,  as  the  children  are  all  under  ten.  This  school  has 
been  carried  on  for  eleven  years,  and  the  benefits  of  teaching  blind 
children  so  early  are  plainly  seen  by  all  who  watch  the  progress 
wl\ieh  they  make  when  removed  to  the  Blind  Institution  ;  they  are 
fit  for  independent  work  at  an  age  three  years  less  than  the  average 
of  those  who  do  not  go  through  it. 

As  the  children  pasg  through  the  institution  more  rapidly,  there 
I3  also  more  room  for  those  who  become  blind  as  adults." 

Of  the  J^'aliorial  Blind  Institution  at  Dresden,  Dr  Reinhard,  tho 
director,  said — "  It  is  organized  so  that  the  working  school  forms 
an  essential  part  of  it,  and  when  children  enter  it,  consideration  is 
at  once  given,  not  only  to  their  physical,  religious,  and  intellectual 
education,  but  also  to  their  instruction  in  work.  Whilst  between 
the  ages  of  six  and  eleven  tbey  remain  in  the  preparatory  school, 
and  find  inexhaustible  occupation  in  Frdbel's  system  of  play  and 
exercise 

*  Playwork  *  is  given  them  as  they  become  fit  for  it ;  for  the 
feeling  that  they  can  make  something  useful  rejoices  the  little 
workers  and  excites  their  activity  ;  it  is  important  that  they  should 
learn  early  to  aim  at  real  work.  They  learn  to  plait  reed  mats, 
which  is  an  excellent  means  of  strengthening  the  muscles  of  the 
ann  and  hand,  and  they  also  make  little  rush  baskets. 

Tho  range  of  their  work  is  extended  when  they  are  transferred  to 
the  higher  class,  which  is  usually  during  their  eleventh  year  ;  and 
from  that  time  tUl  their  coniirmation,  which  is  generally  at  the  end 
of  their  fourteenth  year,  they  have  at  least  three  hours*  work  every 
day  in  the  shops. 

The  work  of  the  girls  is,  unfortunately,  much  restricted,  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  their  learning  to  make  baskets  and  rope  is  without 
Injury  to  tlieir  constitution.  Besides,  we  must  not  lose  siglit  of  the 
evils  arising  from  their  working  with  male  overseers  and  workmen. 

Hence,  girls  learn  in  general  only  knitting,  plaiting  counterpanes, 
chair-caning,  hair-working,  and  sewing — as  much  as  is  required  for 
mending  their  linen* 

Hair-work  has  already  been  adopted  in  another  institution,  and 
is  the  most  profitable  work  for  blind  girls,  as  a  clever  one  can  earn 
7  or  8  groschen  {about  9d.)  a  day  by  it,  whilst  the  quickest  knitter 
can  scarcely  make  2  groschen  a  day. 

The  boys  learn  either  basket-making  or  rope-makinc  ;  they  learn 
In  the  rope  factory  various  kinds  of  light  work,  and,  when  they 
liave  been  confirmed,  choose  for  themselves  between  thesG  two 
trades,  their  muscles  being  strengthened  by  alternately  being  em- 
ployed at  both. 

It  is  important  to  consider  the  grounds  of  fitness  for  these  trades. 
Rope-making  requires  strength  and  health  of  body,  for  much  of  the 
work  must  be  carried  on  in  places  exposed  to  the  weather;  and 
i-esides  this  it  requires  a  great  deal  of  dexterity  which  is  not  indis- 
pensable in  basket-making.  It  is  also  of  great  importance  that 
each  should  learn  the  trade  in  which  he  is  most  likely  to  succeed 
after  leaving  the  institution  ;  for  tlie  groat  olijcct  is  that  pupils 
should  be  fitted  for  indoiK-ndent  work  eventually. 

All  those  who  understand  the  subject  are  now  convinced  that  the 
blind  cannot  be  really  helped  by  building  asylums.  If  theie  were 
three  times  as  many  asylums  as  there  are  schools,  there  would  not 
be  room  for  all,  and  tho  inmates  would  never  bo  satisfied  with  their 
i  idition.  Even  women  prefer  an  independent  life  full  of  care  to 
the  sameness  of  an  asylum,  wlicre  ono  quarrelsome  person  often 
Kmbitters  the  whole  life  of  the  institution. 
j  If  there  is  any  possibility  of  establishing  pupils  of  either  sex 
■  without  exposing  tliem  to  the  risk  of  losing  their  health,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  placing  tlu-m  in  asylums. 

"The  Dresden  Blind  Institution  is  managed  on  the  principle  that 
the  pupils,  on  commencing  independent  work,  require  much 
assistance  before  they  can  support  tuemsolves  by  it,  and  that  the 
institution  must  give  the  necessary  help.  The  director  of  the 
institution  makes  known  to  the  manufacturers  that  a  blind  worker 
is  coming  to  settle  near  them,  and  induces  some  of  the  fumilies 
around  to  take  an  interest  in  liim,  and  recommend  him  for  employ- 
ncnt.  He  also  inserts  in  tlie  newspapers  short  notices  describing 
his  capacity  for  work,  and  his  difficulty  in  finding  customers,  itc, 
I. id  rc(jucstiog  people  to  employ  him. 

The  outfit  required  for  pupils  on  leaving  the  institution  consists 
cf  tools  and  clothing,  and  materials  must  also  be  jirovided  at  first. 
'The  cost  of  these  is  partly  defrayed  by  the  fund  established  for  tlie 

Eurpose,  partly  by  the  savings  of  the  pupils,  and  partly,  if  necessary, 
y  a  prant  from  the  parish. 
It  is  indispensable  that  the  blind  worker   should    have  some 
{Mjrsoo  near  in  whom  ho  can  fuUy  confide,  and  from  nhom  lie  can 


get  advice  and  help  in  any  time  of  temporary  difficulty,  whilst  th« 
manager  of  the  institution  can  rely  on  his  taking  an  interest  in  the 
worker,  and  seeing  that  he  obeys  the  rules. 

The  purchase  of  raw  material  causes  the  greatest  difficulty;  the 
blind  man  has  not  the  means  of  buying  much  at  a  time,  and  must, 
consequently,  pay  highly  for  it;  therefore  the  institution  helps  liim 
by  buying  it  at  wholesale  prices  and  letting  him  have  it  at  the  same 
price  in  small  quantities.  The  number  of  his  applications  for 
materials  shows  the  managers  whether  the  man  is  industiious. 

More  than  200  blind  support  themselves  in  Saxony  by  mcans-of 
the  aid  afforded  by  the  fund  and  their  own  exertions.  The  fund 
amounted,  in  1873,  to  85,000  dollars,  subscribed  in  ail  parts  of  the 
country." 

"Previous  to  the  Franco-German  War,  Mr  Liebreich,  a 
celebrated  oculist  and  practical  friend  of  the  blind,  by  order 
of  the  empress  of  the  French,  prepared  a  report  in  regard 
to  the  Institution  ImpenaU  des  Jeiines  AveugUs  of  Paris, 
in  which  he  says  that  the  institution — 

*'  Is  an  establishment  of  the  State,  in  wliich  children  of  both  scxrs 
deprived  of  si^ht  receive  an  intellectual,  musical,  and  industrial 
training.  Children  are  received  at  the  age  of  23  years.  They 
remain  in  the  institution  8  years,  and  are  made  professors,  musicians, 
tuners  of  pianos,  workmen  and  workwomen. 

During  the  last  ten  years  110  male  pupils  have  left  the  institution, 
concerning  whom  we  have  received  satisfactory  information.  The 
workwomen,  on  the  contrary,  earn  but  very  little  ;  among  166 
blind,  108  have  received  a  very  good  education,  which  ensures  to 
them  an  easy  and  independent  living  ;  56  have  received  an  elemen- 
tary training,  and  have  not  been  put  entirely  beyond  the  charge  of 
-public  charity.   ■ 

The  annu^  expense  for  200  pupils  is  very  nearly  240,000  francs 
(cf  .7hich-146,000  francs  are  given  by  the  State),  making  an  average 
of  1200  fr.  (£48)  per  pupil, — the-  workman  costing  a  little  less,  the 
artist  a  little  more.  This  sum  is  not  excessive  for  the  education  of 
a  tuner,  a  professor,  or  an  organist,  but  it  certainly  is  for  the  educa- 
tion of  a  workman,  who  only  receives  an  elementary  training,  and 
is  not  even  qualified  to  earn  his  own  living. 

M.  Gaudet,  chief  instructor  of  the  institution,  expresses  dis- 
approval of  the  simultaneous  education  of  artists  and  workmen. 
He  says,  *  Realizing  from  the  first  the  great  dlfferemce  which  exists 
between  the  future  of  an  organist  or  a  piano  tuner  on  one  side,  and 
of  a  blind  workman  on  the  other,  the  apprentices  regard  themselves 
as  sacrificed  ;  therefore  they  do  all  they  can  to  become  tuners,  and 
thus  often  lose  much  time  in  fruitless  efforts  before  they  resign 
themselves  to  become  workmen,  and  even  then^toil  reluctantly.  On 
quitting  the  establishment  to  follow  their  occupations,  they  are  not 
habituated  to  assiduous  toil ;  retumii">g  to  their  indigent  families 
they  regret  the  comfortable  life  of  the  institution,  and  finally 
become  discouraged.' 

Tuners  begin  ordinarily  to  work  with  piano  manufacturers,  and 
earn  easily  1500  francs  per  year.  If  a  little  later  they  succeed  in 
obtaining  a  town  connection, they  have  no  difiiculty  in  earning  double 
that  or  more.  Some  have  even  succeeded  in  uniting  manufacture 
with  timing.  The  organists,  by  obtaining  pltioes  in  churches  and 
by  giving  music  lessont,,  very  soon  earn  a  goi-d  livelihood. 

In  short,  the  tuners,  organists,  and  teachers  have,  in  sjiito  of 
their  infirmity,  become  independent  men,  exercising  honourable 
and  lucrative  professions  ;  some  have  married  and  reared  families, 
others  have  come  to  the  aid  of  their  indigent  ^latives. 

Very  dilferent  is  the  lot  of  the  blind  workmen,  who  by  toiling 
without  relaxation  many  more  hours  than  sighted  workmen,  barely 
succeed  in  gaining  a  part  of  what  they  need  to  support  themselves. 
By  perfecting  as  far  as  Possible  the  industrial  training  of  the  in- 
stitution, a  greater  number  of  the  male  pupils  might  bo  enabled  to 
eani  300  or  400  francs,  but  none  far  exceed  this  sum.  Tho  work- 
women seldom  cam  more  than  100  or  150  francs  per  year." 

The  institutions  of  America  are  not  asylums,  but  in  tlioAm.-nr 
truest  sense  of  the  word  educational  establishtnents,  in 
which  the  blind,  without  regard  to  their  future,  receive  a 
thorough  education.  The  blind  in  tho  United  States  are 
socially  far  above  those  of  any  other  country  ;  large  num- 
bers of  thctn  become  eminent  scholars  and  musicians,  and 
even  their  blind  workmen  enjoy  a  degree  of  coudort 
unknown  in  England  or  on  the  Continent. 

The  result3||pchievcd  by  the  Perkins  Institution  at 
Boston,  U.S.,'  arc  particularly  instructive.  High-class 
musical  liaining  appears  to  have  been  commenced  there 
about  13  years  ago,  previous  to  which  time  the  results  in 
this  respect  were  far  from  being  satisfactory.  The  report 
of  18G7  states  tlmt  music  is  now  taught  to  all  of  both  sexes 
whole  natural  abilities  make  it  probable  that  under  proper 


BLIND 


831 


instruction,  tbey  n-ill  succeed  as  organists,  teachers  of 
luusic,  or  piano  tuners,  and  goes  on  to  say — "  The  teaching 
of  music  aud  playing  is  now  the  largest  single  field  open 
to  the  blind  as  a  means  of  support,  and  it  seems  to  bo 
growing  larger.  People  are  becoming  more  disposed  to 
employ  thcra  ;  and  as  they  go  forth  from  the  school  they 
have  more  and  More  ground  of  hope  that  they  will  find 
opportunities  to  earn  their  living  in  this  way."  The  wholo 
tone  of  mind  among  the  musical  pupils  has  been  changed, 
for  instead  of  looking  forward  to  the  future  with  fear  and 
anxiety,  they  now  feel  a  well-grounded  confidence  in  them- 
selves. It  seems  that  in  Boston,  and  in  America  generally, 
the  blind  are  able  to  earn  more  as  teachers  of  music  than 
as  tuners,  which  is  exactly  the  reverse  of  the  state  of  things 
existing  in  Paris,  end  may  arise  cither  from  dilTerences  in 
the  condition  of  the  two  countries,  or  from  tho  training  for 
teachers  being  more  thorough  at  Boston  than  at  Paris  ;  but 
their  experience  is  identical  in  one  respect,  which  is,  that  the 
blind  who  have  the  requisite  amount  of  talent  are  almost  cer- 
tain to  make  a  good  income  out  of  music  ;  but  to  attain  this 
end  they  must  aim  high.  It  will  not  do  to  be  equal  to  the 
average  seeing  teacher  or  tuner;  they  must  be  superior;  and 
tliis  involves  a  good  musical  notation  with  first-rate  masters, 
instruments,  and  appliances,  and  above  all,  a  determination 
on  the  part  of  managers  and  teachers  toovercome  all  obstacles. 
A  few  paragraplis  from  American  reports  will  sufficiently 
illustrate 'the  enlightened  views  held  in  that  country  in  re- 
g.ird  to  the  education  of  the  blind. 

"  A  school  for  tho  higher  education  of  the  blind  should  be  spe- 
cially adapted  to  the  condition  and  wants  of  the  persons  to  ho 
trained.  In  it  the  course  of  study  should  be  the  same  €3  in  our 
best  colleges.  All  instruction  should  be  oral,  and  the  apparatus 
and  modes  of  illustration  be  addressed  to  the  touch.  It  should  be 
supplied  with  text-books,  maps,  diagrams,  and  the  hke,  in  raised 
characters.  It  should  have  largo  collections  of  models  of  various 
kinds,  such  as  weights,  measures,  tools,  machinery,  and  the  like  ; 
mannikins  and  models  showing  the  anatomy  of  plants  and  animals, 
as  well  as  their  outward  form.  It  should  have  collections  of  shells, 
crystals,  minerals,  and  the  like ;  models  and  sections  showing 
geological  strata ;  philosophical  apparatus  adapted  to  the  touch  ; 
in  sliort,  everything  that  can  be  represented  by  tangible  forms. 

It  would  amaze  those  who  have  not  reflected  upon  it  to  know 
bow  much  can  be  done  in  this  way.     Saunderson,  tlie  blind  pro- 


fessor of  mathematics  in  Cambridge,  nov  -"ily  knew  ordinary  monry 
well,  but  he  was  an  expert  numismatist,  and  could  detect  counter- 
feits in  a  collection  of  antique  coins  better  thtin  ortlinary  perMD* 
could  do  by  the  sight. 

Such  an  institute  should  have  able  professors  and  te-iolien, 
with  special  aptness  for  adapting  their  lessons  to  the  condittiin  of 
their  scholars.  It  should  furnish  special  facilities  for  the  study  «f 
languages^  ancient  and  modem,  of  mathematics,  of  pedagogy,  and 
especially  of  music.  It  should  also  be  well  provided  with  every- 
thing necessary  in  a  good  conservatory  of  muhic,  and  have  funds 
for  the  payment  of  competent  teacl'.ers. 

It  is  evident  that  there  are  a  large  number  of  persons  to  whon 
such  an  institute  would  be  a  source  of  great  happiness,  and  amcaiv 
of  preparation  lor  great  usefulness. 

A  Uttle  reflection  will  show  what  a  great  advantage  gencron« 
culture  wouhl  be  to  a  blind  man,  even  if  he  were  to  be  only  a 
musician.  Let  him  be  ever  so  accomph^ed  in  his  immedi.ite  ar^ 
he  is  under  great  disadvantages  as  compared  with  his  competitor 
who  can  sec.  But  if  he  has  generous  culture  in  other  branches  of 
knowledge,  he  will  have  advantages  which  few  of  them  possess, 
and  of  course  he  will  be  more  nearly  on  a  level  with  them,  and 
more  capable  of  earning  &  liWng  and  enjoying  it.  Human  effort 
will  in  such  a  case  be  successful  in  counteracting  the  principal  evil 
which  flows  fi-om  the  infirmity  of  blindness."  , 

"The  careful  observer  wiU  see  a  marked  difference  between  • 
hundred  youths  in  a  blind  iiistiiution  and  the. tame  number  of  boy* 
in  an  ordinary  school.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  male  ser. 
He  will  find  among  the  blind  a  larger  proportion  of  6erofuloo.\ 
n-irrow-chciited,  angular,  pallid,  and  feeble  boys,  who  move  slo^;- 
gishly  and  soon  tire;  and  a  smaller  proportion  of  those  full-che3te"V 
chubby,  rosy,  elastic  creatures,  whom  nothing  can  keep  stilL,  tai 
uothing  tire  out. 

Now,  if  the  blind,  as  a  class,  have  a  much  smaller  quamum  •« 
life  than  ordinary  persons,  it  must  be  cither  on  account  of  some 
flaw  in  the  stock  whence  they  sprung,  or  of  some  peculiarity  ia 
tlieir  mode  of  Ufe,  induced  by  their  infirmity,  such  as  bolilj 
inactivity;  but  it  probably  results  from  both  causes.  At  any  rat*, 
it  is  a  matter  worth  considering. 

The  following  tables  have  been  calculated  from  data  furnished  by  \iu)ii/ 
scvtn  American  State  Institutions  for  the  Blind — namely,  those  rfof  tbo 
New  York,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  lUinois,  Missouri,  Tennessee,  aci  BIjA 
Massachusetts,  and  are  the  results  of  careful  discussion  of  data,  by 
far  the  most  citonsive  and  trust\vorthy,  it  is  believed,  yet  puli- 
lished  in  any  country. 

In  each  of  these  tables  the  number  of  the  blind  actually  sur- 
viving in  1859  are  compared  with  the  numbers  that  should  then  ht 
surviving,  according  to  two  different  Life  Tables — first,  tho  Masax- 
chusetts  Life  Table,  prepared  by  Mr  Elliott,  from  the  State  C«n3J<t 
and  licgistration  Returns  for  tho  year  1855  ;  and  secondly,  th« 
English  Life  Table,  prepared  by  Dr  Farr  of  London,  from  Uio  re- 
turns for  the  year  1841 : — 


Table  \.— Comparing  the  relative  vitality  (or  ability  to  resist  destructive  influences)  of  the  Blind,  at  divers  ages  of  life,  according  ta  lU 
combined  experience  of  seven  American  Slate  Institutions  for  Uie  Blind,  u-ith  that  of  the  populations  of  ilassachuscOs  and  of  EnglaHi 
respectively.     Calculated  by  Mr  E.  B.  Elliott,  Consulting  Actuary,  Boston. 


A  sea  on 

\dlUlMlOD. 

XuTnber 
of  Prisons 
Adtnllted 

(known 

witctlitr 

Surviving 

or  L>c- 

cewc'J). 

Average 

Ak'O  on 

AiimiB- 

•iun. 

Average 

Ycais 
elapsed, 
to  mid'lte 
ol  1S69. 

Number 

Dcceaseii 

(before 

the  end  of 

196SJ. 

Kumbpr 
Su.vlving 

(Id  mwj. 

According  to  Elltott's  Maua* 
cbusettB  U/c  Table. 

According  to  Farr-s  Englistl 
Ufe  Table. 

Kumber 

that 
should  be 
Sunivfng 
(in  18^9). 

Dtjtcifncy  of  Actual 
Survivors,  rclalive 
to  the  Xunibcr  that 
should  be  Surviving. 

Number.  |  Per  cent 

Number 

that 
should  be 
Surviving 
(In  1819). 

Dfficiency  of  Actual 
Sun-lvora,  rclallvo 
to  the  Number  that 
should  t>e  Surviving 

Number.      Per  ccaU 

0-6 
C-10 

10-14 

14-18 

18-22 

22-26 

26-30 
SO  and  over 
Age  not 
siiecified 

All  ages... 

14 

210 
287 
209 
177 
101 
47 
38 

19 

4  4 

7-7 
11-5 
15-5 
193 
23-3 
27-4 
37-2 

19-1 
14-3 
13-2 
133 
14-8 
14-6 
12-8 
12-7 

12-4 

1 
39 
52 
38 
50 
19 
10 
11 

4 

13 

171 

235 

171 

127 

82 

87 

27 

16 

12-0 

189-2 

257-2 

182  0 

149-6 

84-8 

40-3 

31-9 

10-7' 

-1-oa 

lS-2 

22-2 

110 

22-6 

2-8 

3-3 

4-9 

17 

9-6 
8  6 
6  1 

151 
3-4 
81 

15  4 

10  4 

120 

189-8 

259-5 

186-6 

154-0 

86 -9 

40-8 

31-8 

17  1' 

-1-0' 

-.8-8 

24-5 

15-6 

27-0 

4-9 

3-8 

4  8 

21 

9-4   ' 
8-4 
17-5 
6-6 
9-4 

:5-2 
:2-4 

1102 

15-4 

13-8 

224 

878 

963-7 

85-7 

8-9 

978-5        100-6 

10-3 

A'ote.— This  table  may  be  read  thus  :— Uetwfcn  the  ages  of  6  and  10  the  number  of  persons  admitted  to  the  above-nicntione* 
Institutions,  of  whom  it  is  known  whether  they  were  li\ing  in  1859  or  had  previously  deceased,  was  210  ;  their  average  age  on  admissioo 
was  7-7  years  ;  the  average  period  elapsed  since  admission,  and  previous  to  the  middle  of  the  year  1859,  was  143  years  ;  the  number  of 
those  who  died  before  the  end  of  the  year  1859  was  39,— the  number  surviving  in  1859  being  171.  The  number  that  should  be  surviving, 
according  to  the  Massiuhusctts  Life  Table,  is  1802.  IIen<x  the  number  of  actual  survivors  was  182  less  than  the  number  demanded  by 
tho  MassKhusetts  Table,  which  deficiency  is  9  C  per  cent!  of  (1S9-2)  the  number  so  demanded.  The  number  that  should  be  sunivinii 
according  to  the  English  Life  Table,  is  1898.  Hence  the  number  of  actual  survivors  was  188  less  thaa  tho  number  demanded  by  Ibe 
English  Table,  which  deficiency  ia  99  per  cent,  of  (199-8)  the  number  so  demanded.  4 

'  Calculated  on  tho  a.ssumption  that  tlic  average  ago  on  admission  of  tho  persons  whoso  ages  were  not  apecilicd  was  the  same  as  tho  avent^ 
•(c  of  thjso  whose  ages  ncro  s^peciSed,  to  wit,  154  yean.  '  Exccsa. 


632 


BLIND 


Table  II. — Comparing  the  relative  vitcUUy  {or  ahilit^j  to  resist  dt'stmctive  inJiiuHCfs)  of  tJiS  Blind!,  at  dijTeraU^'pcriod.'i  after  admission^ 
according  to  tiic  combined  expcrierice  of  seven  American  Stale  Institulions  for  the  Blind,  with  thit  of  ihe  pojiulatioil  of  Ma^ackuscltg 
arid  England  respectively.     Calculated  by  Mr  £.  B.  Elliott^  Consulting  Actuary,  Boston. 


AccoidiDg  to  tlltotfs  Massachusetts 

Aceordjng  to  Fan's  Eogllai                 1 

Number 

Ntunber 

Average 

LUe  Table. 

Ute  Table. 

Deticicncy  of  Actual  Survivors, 

Deficiency  of  Ai-tual  Suivivors. 

Tears. 

Admitted 
(known 
uj  Sur- 
viving or , 
Deceased). 

Deceased 
(previous 

to  the 
middle  of 

185!)). 

Number 

Smviving 

in  18j». 

Averape 

Akc  on 

Admibsiun. 

Number 
01  Yt^&i-? 
Elap.sed 
(to  middle 
ol  1S59). 

Kumber 

that 
should  be 
Stiiviving 
lin  1803.) 

relative  to  the  Number 
:hat  should  Sui'vive. 

Number 

that 
should  be 
SulTiving 
(in  18i9). 

relative  to  the  Number 
that  shuuJd  Survive. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Number. 

Per  cent.            [ 

3  Year 

7  Year 

3  Year 

7  Year 

Gioup. 

Group. 

Group. 

Group. 

1832 

13 

4 

9 

12-7 

27 

9-7 

0-7 

U-i 

1 

.10-1 

1-1 

1833 

49 

17 

32 

16-4 

■S6 

36-3 

4-3 

376 

5-6 

10-4 

1834 

29 

7 

22 

15-9 

25 

21-8 

0-2' 

\ 

22-6 

0-6 

1835 

26 

8 

18 

17-1 

U 

19-7 

1-7 

■12-5 

20-4 

2'4 

156 

1836 

33 

12 

21 

15-5 

23 

25-5 

4-5 

|l7-8 

26-5 

6-5 

20-7 

1837 

43 

18 

27 

16-3 

22 

35-1 

81 

) 

36-3 

9-3 

1838 

41 

12 

29 

14-9 

21 

32 -6 

3-6 

|l2  3 

33-8 

4-8 

1833 

30 

12 

18 

14-3 

20 

24-2 

6-2 

1 

25  0 

7-0 

15-4 

1 

1840 

87 

8 

29 

16  6 

19 

29-9 

0-9 

\ 

SIO 

2-0 

1841 

47 

7 

40 

14-2 

18 

39-0 

lU' 

) 

40-2 

0-2 

1S42 

56 

16 

40 

16-5 

17 

46-5 

6  5 

6  0 

>■    8-7 

47-9 

7-9 

S-4 

,111 

1843 

70 

13 

57 

12-7 

16 

60-2 

3-2 

61-6 

4-5 

1844 

68 

14- 

64 

13-9 

15 

58-6 

4-6 

59-9 

5  9 

1S45 

43 

U 

32 

14-6 

14 

37-3 

6-3 

8-9 

) 

38-3 

63 

(no 

lS4t> 

51 

9 

42 

15-3 

13 

44-6 

2« 

,45-6 

36 

1       1 

1847 

35 

8 

27 

H-2- 

12 

31-2 

4-2 

31-7 

4-7 

1843 

43 

;2 

31 

16-3 

11 

38-3 

7-3 

n-1 

39-1 

8-1 

12-6 

1849 

«0 

8 

62 

16-8 

10 

54-2 

2  2 

7-6 

651 

3-1 

■    S'l 

1850 

54 

9 

45 

18-5 

9 

49-0 

4-0 

49-9 

4-9 

1S51 

38 

4 

34 

15-3 

8 

35-2 

1-2 

4-4 

35-6 

re 

5-5 

IS:.  2 

28 

1 

27 

11-5 

7 

26-7 

0-3' 

; 

26-7 

0-3' 

) 

18r,3 

40 

0 

40 

12-6 

6 

38 '4 

1-6' 

■) 

38-3 

1-71 

1854 

30 

5 

25 

14-5 

5 

28-8 

3-8 

50 

28-9 

3-9 

(    5-2 

1655 

34 

4 

30 

15-7 

4 

32-8 

2-8 

330 

30 

185G 

23 

5 

18 

16-8 

3 

22-4 

4-4 

)    4-4 

22-5' 

4-5 

■   46 

1857 

16 

0 

16 

17-6 

2 

15-7 

0-3' 

6-4 

15-8 

0-21 

67 

1858 

23 

0 

23 

ISO 

1 

22-8 

0-21 

22  8 

0  21 

1859 

40 

0 

40 

16-2 

0 

40-0 

0-0 

-' 

40-0 

0  0 

, 

Note. — This  table  may  '  :  read  thus; — Of  the  68  persons  admitted  to  the  belbie-mentioned  institutions  during  the  year  1844,  14  died 
previous  to  the  middle  of  th  year  lSo9,  and  54  were  survi\'ing  in  that  year.  The  average  age  on  admission  of  the  6S  persons  was  I3'9 
years,  and  the  average  number  of  years  elapsed  between  the  time  of  admission  and  the  middle  of  the  year  1859  waa  about  15  years. 
According  to  the  Massachusetts  Lite  Table,  the  number  that  should  be  surnWng  in  1S59  was  5S'6,  showing  the  number  of  actual 
•urvivors  to  have  been  4"6  leaa  than  the  number  demanded  by  such  table.  The  deficiency  (4'6  + 5"3  +  2'6  =  12-5)  of  actual  survivors 
■tlative  to  the  number  that  should  survive  of  those  admitted  during  the  three  years  1844,  1845,  and  1S46,  was,  according  to  the 
Massachusetts  Table,  8'9  per  cent,  of  (58  6  + 37 '3  + 44  6  =  140 '5)  the  number  demanded;  and  the  deficiency  of  actual  survivors  relative 
to  the  number  that  should  survive  of  those  admitted  during  the  seven  years  1S39  to  1845  inclusive,  w:is,  according  to  the  same  life  table, 
**7  per  cent,  of  the  number  demanded.     \i\  like  manner  may  be  read  the  results  derived  from  comparison  with  the  English  Life  Table. 

Tablk  III. — Summary  of  the  results  presented  in  t}\c  two  preceding  Tables,  co^nparing  the  relative  vitality  {or  ability  to  resist  destructivt 
injiuences)  of  the  Blind,  at  divers  ages  of  life,  and  also  at  divers  periods  after  adniisxitm,  according  to  tJtc  combined  experience  of  seven 
Ameri^:an  State  InstitiUvyns  for  the  Bliiul,  with  that  of  Uie  population  of  Massachusetts  and  England  respectively.  Calculated  by  Mr 
E.  B.  Elliott,  Consulting  Actuary,  Boston. 

Deficiency  in  the  number  of  the  Blind  that  survived  in  1859,  relative  to  the  number  that  should  then  be  surviving. 


According  to  the 

Accordi 

igto  tlie 

Accoidiiig  to  the     | 

Ages  on 
AdiuissioQ. 

Massa- 
chusetts 
Li(o  Table. 

English 

Life  Table. 

faiT. 

Talc  of 
Adiiiission 
lin  Periods 

Average 

Yeais 
Elapsed 

Mnssa- 
chusefts 
Ufe  Table, 

English 

Life  Table, 

FaiT. 

Date  of 
Adini.<iMull 
(in  l't.siod3 

Average 

Yeais 
Elapsed 

M.issa- 
chu^etts 
LileTalJe. 

English 

UfeTiihle. 

Kiiir. 

of  77ir« 

(to  middle 

Elliott. 

of  Sfven 

(to  middle 

Years). 

of  1869). 

Ycais). 

of  ISiS). 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

0-6 

1832-34 

258 

7  1 

10-4 

1832-38 

23-6 

12-5 

15-6 

6-10 

9-6 

9-9 

1835-37 

22 '8 

17-8 

20-7 

1839-45 

16-6 

8-7 

111 

10-14 

8-6 

9-4 

1838-40 

200 

12-3 

15'4 

1846-.V2 

10-2 

7-6 

9-1 

14-18 

61 

8-4 

1841-43 

16-9 

6C 

8-4 

1853-59 

3-2 

4-4 

4-6 

18-22 

151 

17-5 

1844-46 

14-1 

8-9 

110 

22-26 

3-4 

6-6 

1847-49 

10-8 

111 

12-6 

26-30 

8-1 

<J-4 

]S.'-.0-52 

8-2 

4-4 

6 -5 

30  Bud  over 

15-4 

152 

1853-55 

01 

60 

6-2 

Age  not  1 
s^jccified  t 

All  oges... 

10-4 

12-4 

1856-58 

20 

6-4 

6-7 

8-9 

10-3 

Ncte. — This  tnlile  may  be  read  tnns:— Of  the  number  of  persons  admitted  to  the  above-mentioned  institutions,  between  the  «gcs  of 
10  and  14,  the  number  that  was  sunrivinK  in  1859  was  86  per  cent.  Irss  according  to  the  M.nssachusctt3  Life  TaHe,  and  94  per  cent. 
leu  according  to  the  Knglish  Life  Table,  than  the  number  that  should  then  lie  surWving.  Of  the  number  of  per.ir,ns  admittetl  during 
the  three  years  1838-40,  from  which  tlie  average  time  elapsing  to  the  middle  of  1859  wiis  20-0  years,  the  number  that  si;r\'ived  in  185§ 
was  123  per  cent,  less  according  to  the  Massachusetts  Table,  and  15'4  ])it  ci'nt.  less  according  to  the  Ijlnglish  Table,  than  the  number 
that  should  then  hare  been  surviving.  Of  the  number  of  persons  adniitteil  during  the  seven  years  1839-46,  from  wbieh  the  average  time 
elapsing  to  the  middle  of  1859  was  16'6  years,  the  number  that  survived  in  1859  was  87  lier  cent,  less  according  to  the  Uassacliusetta 
Table,  ajid  11*1  per  cunt.  Uss  according  to  the  English  Table,  than  the  number  that  sliould  then  have  been  surviving.  i 

>  Ficess. 


Jl 


B  L  0  -  B  L  0 


833 


According  to  the  cnft  Wkile,  ft  iipp«»n  Ui&t,  oi  the  ontinc  1102 
persons  a»liiittti'd  wli«t>r  artVr-llistoijr  is  known,  878  uow  stirvive, 
whcn;as  the  LiTe  Table  of  Mus:>achusetta  chIIs  for  aboat  979  jur- 
vivor^  thcrtiby  iiiilicaUcg  Uiat  the  power  of  the  blind,  r^jpresenttd 
by  the  returns  of  theee institations,  to  resist  destnictivB  influences 
la  al>out  9  per  cent.  (]0'S)  less  than  that  of  the  population  of  all 
England,  and  tliat  the  aomber  of  deaths  is  from  60  to  80  per  cent. 
grtater,  a£CordLjig  to  tirt  tables  employed  for  the  compaj-ison.  than 
the  number  required  by  such  tables. 

If  we  could  draw  ooc  statistics  from  the  blind  as  a  whole,  and  not 
from  the  favoured  few  who  have  been  tnught  in  schools,  the  a^'e^a^ 
duration  of  life  would  be  much  less.  We  should  probably  bnit  tiie 
average  amount  of  vital  force,  or  power  to  resist  deatructive  agen- 
cies, to  be  nearly  ooe-lifth  less  thau  that  of  ordinary  persons. 

It  is  well  knou'n  thitt  the  bliud  aa  a  class  arc  happy,  contented, 
and  cheerful.  There  are  exceptions,  of  course,  and  it  is  unfortunate 
that  Milton  should  have  been  one  of  them,  because  hia  eminence  -is 
a  poet  .ind  achoLir  makes  his  example  conspicuous,  and  his  words 
to  be  taken  as  the  natural  language  of  a  class  of  unfortunates. 
There  have  been  others  more  aduiinible  in  this  respect,  for  tlicy  set 
forth  in  tlieir  Uvea  and  conversation  the  sublime  moral  height  to 
which  men  may  attmn  by  grasping  courageously  the  nettle  misfor- 
tune, and  "plucking  thence  the  flower'  happiness."        (F  J.  C.) 

BLOCII,  M.vRK  Eliezer,  a  Germ.in  naturalist,  born  at 
Aiisbach,  of  very  poor  Jewish  piirents,  about  the  year 
1730.  Having  entered  tbe  eiriployment  of  a  surgeon- at 
Hamburg,  he  was  enabled  by  his  o\vn  exertions  to-  supply 
the  want  of  early  education,  and  made  groat  progress  in 
the  study  of  anatomy,  as  well  as  in  the  other  departraoiits 
of  medical  science.  After  taking  his  degree  as  doctor  at 
Frankfort-on-tho-OJer  he  established  himself  as  a  physician 
at  Lcrlin,  and  found  means  to  collect  there  a  valuable 
lauseuin  of  objects  from  all  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature, 
as  well  as  an  extensive  library.  His  first  work  of  im|>ort- 
ance  was  an  essay  on  the  different  species  of  worms  found 
in  the  bodies  of  other  animals,  which  gained  the  prize 
otfered  by  the  Academy  of  Copenhagen.  Many  of  his 
papers  on  different  subjects  of  natund  history,  comparative 
anatomy,  and  physiology,  were  published  in  th?  collections 
of  the  various  academies  of  Germany,  Holland,  and  Russia, 
particularly  in  that  of  the  Friendly  Society  of  Natviralists 
at  Berlin.  But  his  greatest  work  was  his  Allgemevit: 
NalurgeschidUe  der  Fische  (12  vols,  17)32-95),  which 
occupied  the  labour  of  a  considerable  portion  of  his  life, 
and  is  considered  to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
science  of  ichthyology.  The  publication  was  encouraged 
by  a  large  subscription,  and  it  pa.ssed  rapidly  through  five 
editions  in  German  and  in  French.  Bloch  made  little  or 
no  alteration  in  the  systematic  arrangement  of  Artedi  and 
Linmcus,  although  be  was  disposed  to  introduce  into  the 
classification  some  modifications  depending  on  the  struc- 
ture of  the  gills,  especially  on  the  presence  or  absence 
of  a  fifth  gill,  without  a  bony  arch.  To  the  number  of 
genera  before  established  he  found  it  necessary  to  add 
nuiLtecn  new  ones;  and  he  described  176  new  species, 
many  of  them  inhabitants  of  the  remotest  parts  of  the 
ocean,  and  by  the  brilliancy  of  their  colours,  or  the 
singularity  of  their  formfs  as  much  objects  of  popular 
admiration  as  of  scientific  curiosity.  In  1757  he  paid  a 
visit  to  Paris,  in  order  to  examine  the  large  collections  of 
such  subjects  of  natural  history  as  bad  been  inaccessible  to 
him  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  ;  and  he  returned  to  Berlin 
by  way  of  Holland.  His  health,  which  had  hithcitc  been 
unimpaired,  began  now  to  decline.  He  went  to  Carlsbad 
for  its  recovery,-  but  his  constitution  was  exhausted,  and 
he  died  there  on  the  Gth  of  August  1799. 

BLOCK  MACfnNERY.  A  block  L-.  a  case  with  its  con- 
tained pulley  or  pulleys,  by  means  of  which  weighty  objects 
are  hoisted  or  lowered  with  facility.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
appearance  of  a  block  which,  to  an  unpractised  eye,  would 
seem  to  require  any  stretch  of  mental  ingenuity  or  of 
manual  dexterity  to  manufacture.  It  is  a  machine  appar- 
ently so  rude  in  its  structure,  and  so  simple  in  its  con- 
trivance, that  the  name  was  probably  given  to  it  from  ita 

:^— 29 


general  resemblance  to  a  log  oi  wood,  as  is  obviousi^  the 
case  with  a  butcher's  block,  a  barber's  block,  the  block  of 
the  executioner,  <Sic.  Of  the  two  constituent  parts  of  a 
ship's  block,  the  external  shell  and  the  internal  sheavr, 
every  carpenter  might  make  the  one,  and  every  turner  the 
<ither;  but  still  block-making  is  a  separate  branch  of  trade, 
and  it  is  nece.-'.'iary  that  it  bhould  be,  for  the  whole  eflici 
cncy  of  the  block  depends  upon  the  propw  proportions 
being  observed  between  the  various  parts  and  the  accuiacy 
with  which  tlicy  are  adjusted.  ■•■"'-■« 

Mr  Walter  Taylor  of  Southampton  took  out  a  patent  in, 
the  year  1781,  to  secure  the  benefit  of  some  improvement     I 
he  had  made  in  the  construction  of  the  sheaves.     He  als» 
shaped   the   shells,  cut.  the   timber,    A-c,    by   machinery 
driven  by  water,  and  carried  on  so  extensive  a  mandfacttirt 
of  blocks  as  to  be  alile  to  contract  for  nearly  the  whole 
supply  of  blocks  and  blockmakers'  wares  required  for  the 
use  of  the  Koyal  Navy      Mt  Dunsterville  of  Plymouth  had 
a  similar  set  of  machines  wrought  by  horse-power.     Both 
his  blocks  and  Taylor's  were  said  to  be  superior  to  those 
constructed  by  the  hand,  though  still  deficient  in  nianyj 
respects.  _, 

It  would  appear  that  it  was  the  enormous  quantity  of 
blocks  consumed  in  the  course  of  a  long  protracted  war 
that  first  called  the  attention  of  the  Admiralty  or  Navy 
Board  to  the  possibility  of  some  reduction  being  made  in 
the  expense  of  so  important  an  article,  and  to  the  impru- 
dence of  depending  entirely  on  a  single  contractor.  On 
these  considerations,  it  seems  to  have  been  the  intention 
of  Government  to  introduce,  among  other  improvements  in 
Portsmouth  Dockyard  about  1801,  a  set  of  machines  for 
making  Mocks  there.  About  this  time,  too,  Mr  Brunei  had 
completed  a  working  model  of  certain  machines  for  con- 
structing, by  an  improved  method,  the  shells  and  sheaves 
of  blocks.  This  model  was  submitted  to  the  inspection  of 
the  lords  commi-'^sioners  of  the  Admiralty,  and  it  was 
decided  to  adopt  Mr  Brunei's  more  ingenious  machinery. 

The  advantages  to  be  gained  were  those  common  to  all 
cases  in  which  machine  work  supersedes  hand  labour,  and 
consisted  in  the  fact  that,  after  the  proper  sizes  of  each 
p.irt  had  been  determined  by  careful  calculation  and  ex- 
perience, the  machine  could  be  made  to  observe  these  sizes 
with  unerring  accuracy,  and  so  avoid  all  variations  due  to 
the  carelessness  or  ignorance  of  the  workman  ;  these  con- 
siderations are  in  blocks,  perh.ips  more  than  in  most  things, 
of  the  utmost  importance.  Another  advantage  was,  that 
the  blocks  could  be  made  by  Brunei's  machinery  about  30 
per  cent,  cheaper  than  handmade  blocks  had  been  previ- 
ously obtained  by  contract,  and  the  importance  of  this  to 
the  Admiralty  in  those  days,  when  all  ships  were  so  heavily  • 
rigged,  having  no  steam  to  supplement  their  saO  power, 
will  be  suUiciuiitly  seen  when  it  is  stated  that  the  remunera- 
tion which  Brunei  was  to  receive  for  his  invention  was 
agreed  to  be  the  savings  of  one  year,  and  that  these  savings 
were  estimated  at  £16,021 ;  in  addition  to  tliis  he  received 
an  allowance  of  a  guinea  a  d.iy  for  about  six  years  while 
engaged  on  the  work,  and  was  paid  XlOdO  for  his  working 
model — the  total  amount  paid  to  Brunei  for  the  inventioa 
amounting  to  about  £20,000. 

The  process  may  be  described  as  follows : — Pieces  of 
wood  are  cut  roughly  to  the  size  of  the  block,  and  the  first 
operation  is  then  performed  by  the  bimpg-mackvif,  which 
bores  a  hole  for  the  pin,  and  one,  two,  or  three  holes,  as 
the.  case  may  be,  for  single,  double,  or  treble  blocks,  to 
receive  the  first  stroke  of  the  mortising  chisel ;  the  block 
is  next  taken  to  the  martisingmacJiine,  whrro  the  mortise 
or  mortises  for  the  sheaves  arc  cut ;  after  tiiis,  to  a  crrailar 
sail;  conveniently  arranged  for  cutting  ofT  the  eornera  and 
so  preparing  the  block  for  the  thapingmnchine,  which  con- 
sists principally  of  two  equal  and  parallel  circular  whtci^ 


834 


B  L  0 -B  L  0 


niuving  on  the  same  axis,  to  which  one  of  them  i.s  firmly 
fixed,  but  on  wUicii  the  other  is  made  to  slide  ,  so  that 
these  two  wheels  may  be  placed  at  any  given  distance  from 
each  other,  and  blocks  of  any  size  admitted  between  their 
two  rims  or  peripheries.  For  this  purpose,  both  n.ns  are 
divided  into  ten  equal  parts,  for  the  reception  of  ten 
blocks,  which  are  6rmly  fixed  between  the  two  wheels. 
When  the  double  wheel  with  its  ten  attached  blocks  is  put 
in  motion,  the  outer  surface  of  the  blocks,  or  those  which 
are  farthest  from  the  centre,  strike  against  the  edge  of  a 
chisel  or  gouge  fixed  in  a  movable  frame,  which,  being 
made  to  slide  in  a  curved  direction  in  the  line  of  the  axis, 
cut?  those  outward  faces  of  the  blocks  to  their  proper 
curvature.  A  contrivance  is  attached  to. the  cutting  tool 
which  allows  of  the  curvature  being  altered  in  any  re- 
quired way.  One  side  being  shaped,  the  ten  blocks  are 
then,  by  a  single  operation,  each  turned  one  fourth  part 
round,  and  another  side  is  exposed  to  the  cutting  instru- 
ment moving  in  the  same  direction  as  before.  A  third 
side  is  then  turned  outwards,  and  after  that  the  fourth 
side,  when  the  whole  ten  blocks  are  completely  shaped. 

The  velocity  with  which  the  wheels  revolve,  and  the 
great  weight  with  which  their  peripheries  are  loaded, 
would  make  it  dangerous  to  the  workmen  or  bystanders, 
if,  by  ths  violence  of  the  centrifugal  force,  any  of  the 
blocks  should  happen  to  be  thrown  off  from  the  rim  of  the 
wheels ;  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  such  an  accident,  an 
iron  cage  or  guard  ia- placed  between  the  workman  and  the 
machine. 

The  last  operation  is  performed  by  the  scoring-machine, 
which  cuts  a  groove  to  receive  the  binding  or  strapping  of 
the  bloclc.  The  binding  may  be  of  iron  or  rope,  and  is 
very  frequently  of  wire  rope. 

Tkt  Sheaves. — The  ra.-.chinery  employed  for  making  this 
part  of  the  block  consists  of  a  cirmlar  saio,  by  which  the 
log  is  cut  into  plates  of  the  thickness  required  for  the 
sheaves,  according  to  their  several  diameters.  These  plates 
are  next  carried  to  a  crown  law,  which  bores  the  central 
hole,  and  at -the  same  time  reduces  them  to  a  perfect  circle 
of  the  assigned  diaiueter.  The  sheave,  thus  shaped,  is  next 
brought  to  the  coaking-machine,  a  piece  of  mechanism  not 
inferior  in  ingenuity  to  the  shaping  machine  for  the  shells. 
A  small  cutter,  in  traversing  round  the  central  hole  of  the 
sheave,  forms  a  groove  for  the  insertion  of  the  coak  or 
bush,  the  shape  of  which  is  that  of  three  semicircles,  not 
concentric  with  each  other,  nor  with  the  sheave,  but  each 
having  a  centre  equally  dist.int  from  that  of  the  sheave. 
The  manner  in  which  the  cutter  traverses  from  the  first  to 
the  second,  and  from  this  to  the  third  semicircle,  after 
finishing  each  of  them,  is  exceedingly  ingenious.  So  very 
exact  and  accurate  is  this  groove  cut  for  the  reception  of 
the  metal  coak,  and  so  uniform  in  their  shape  and  size  are 
the  latter  cast,  the  casting  being  made  not  in  sand  but  in 
iron  moulds,  that  they  are  invariably  found  to  fit  each 
other  so  nicely  that  the  tap  of  a  hammer  is  sufficient  to 
fix  the  coak  in  its  place  The  coaks  are  cast  with  small 
grooves  or  channels  in  the  inside  of  their  tubes,  which 
servo  to  retain  the  oil  or  grease  for  the  pins. 

The  sheave,  with  its  coak  thus  fitted  in,  is  now  taken  to 
the  drilling  machine,  which  is  kept  in  constant  motion. 
In  casting  the  coaks  a  mark  is  left  in  the.qentre  of  each  of 
the  three  semicircles  Tins  mark  is  applied  by  a  boy  to 
the  point  of  the  moving  drill,  which  r,i)cuiiily  goes  through 
the  two  coaks  and  the  interniediato  wood  of  the  sheave. 
Rivets  are  put  in  these  holes  and  clenched  by  hand.  The 
next  operation  is  performed  by  the  facing  viachine,  which 
has  two  cutters,  so  arranged  as  to  finish  the  side  and 
groove  the  edge  simultaneously  ;  then  the  hole  for  the  [lin 
13  enlarged  to  its  exuct  size  by  the  broaching  nuichine.  The 
y^ai,  which  form  a  very  imjiortaut  part  of  the  block,  ore 


now  made  at  Portsmouth,  not  of  iron  but  of  steel,  carefulIy^ 
tempered  by  special  appliances.  They  are  turned  by  a 
stij-acting  lathe,  and  are  then  reduced  to  the  exact  required 
diameter,  and  polished  in  the  pin-polishing  machine.  They 
are  also,  in  this  machine,. subjected  to  a  proof  strain  pro- 
portional to  their  sectional  area,  and  thus  the  strength  of 
the  pin  is  guaranteed. 

The  blocks  are  invariably  made  of  English  elm,  the 
grain  of  the  wood  running  lengthways  of  the  block  ;  but 
in  Germany  recently,  blocks  have  been  made  with  the 
grain  of  the  wood  running  across  the  block,  the  reason 
being  that  they  are  less  likely  to  be  split  by  the  pressure 
on  the  pin  of  the  sheave.  The  sheaves  are  made  of 
lignum  vitte. 

Three  machines  of  each  description  for  each  operation, 
up  to  and  including  the  facing-machine,  are  required.  The 
smallest  sized  machines  will  make  blocks  of  from  4  inchej 
to  7  inches  in  length,  the  second  size  from  8  inches  to  1 1 
inches,  and  the  largest  from  12  inches  to  17  inches.  Two 
sizes  of  the  broaching-machine,  and  one  pin-polishing 
machine,  are  sufficient.  Blocks  larger  than  17  inches  are 
maile  by  hand,  20  inches  being  the  largest  used  in  the 
Royal  Navy. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  account,  all  machine- 
made  blocks  are  cut  out  of  a  solid  piece  of  wood ;  whereas 
hand-made  blocks,  larger  than  about  8  inches,  are  usually 
made  in  pieces,  filled  in  at  the  ends  and  riveted  together. 
It  is  questionable  whether  a  block  so  made  is  not  stronger 
than  one  cut  out  of  the  solid,  as  in  the  latter  case  the 
short-grained  wood  at  the  ends  of  the  mortises  is  very 
liable  to  give  way.  In  hand-made  blocks  the  brass  coak 
or  tail  of  the  sheave  is  not  made  of  the  peculiar  shape 
described  for  machine-made  blocks,  but  is  usually  of  a 
circular  shape. 

The  machinery  for  Portsmouth  Dockyard,  on  Brunei's 
plans,  was  made  by  Maudslay,  whose  firm — now  the  very 
eminent  firm  of  Maudslay  Sons  and  Field — has  since 
supplied  block-making  machinery  to  the  Spanish,  Turkish, 
and  Russian  Governments,  and  also  to  Chatham  Dockyard  • 
the  last  mentioned,  however,  has  never  been  used,  as  the 
machinery  at  Portsmouth  is  capable  of  supplying  all  tha 
dockyards,  the  demand  for  blocks  being  much  less  for  the 
steamships  and  ironclads  than  it  was  formerly  for  the*  old 
sailing  ships.  The  first  cost  of  this  machinery  is  so  greiit 
that  no  private  firm  has  yet  ventured  to  set  it  up,  and  by 
whole  of  the  blocks  used  in  merchant  ships  are  made  r 
hand-labour,  assisted  by  a  lathe  and  two  or  three  other 
simple  mechanical  contrivances.  (T.  M.) 

BLOCKADE.  It  appears  to  have  been  the  ancient 
practice  of  belligerents  at  the  outset  of  a  war  to  forbid  fcy 
proclamation  all  trade  on  the  part  of  neutrals  with  tki 
enemy,  and  to  treat  as  enemies  all  those  who  contravened 
the  proclamation  ;  and  neutrals  acquiesced  tacitly  in  thii 
practice  until  the  commencement  of  the  17tli  century.  In 
the  course  of  that  century  the  ancient  practice  came  into 
question,  as  imposing  on  the  commerce  of  neutrals  an  in- 
convenience not  justified  by  any  adequate  necessity  on  the 
part  of  belligerents,  audit  has  since  LUen  into  desuetude. 
Belligerents,  however,  have  .still  maintained,  without  any 
question  on  the  part  of  neutrals,  the  practice  of  intercepting 
supplies  going  over  sea  to  an  enemy  under  certain  condi- 
tions, namely,  when  a  belligerent  has  invested  an  enemy's 
port,  with  the  intention  of  reducing  the  enemy  to  surrender 
from  the  failure  of  supplies,  and  for  that  object  a  stoppage 
of  all  supplies  to  such  port  has  become  a  necessary  operas 
tion  of  the  war.  Any  attempt,  under  such  circumstances, 
on  the  part  of  a  noutral  merchant  to  introduce  supplies 
into  the  invested  port  is  a  direct  interference  with  th« 
operations  of  the  war,  and  is  inconsistent  with  neutrality, 
and  it  accordingly  subjects  the  offending  party  to  be  trc&te(^ 


B  L  0--B  L  0 


835 


U-an  enemy  by  the  belligerent  The  qnestion,  What  con- 
stitutes such  a  belligerent  investment  of  an  enemy's  port  as 
to  create  an  obligation  on  the  part  of  nentrals  to  abstain 
from  attempting  to  enter  it,  has  been  much  controverted 
since  the  "armed  neutrality  "of  1780  ;  but  all  uncertainty 
as  to  the  principle  upon  which  the  decision  in  each  case 
must  proceed,  haa  been  put  an  end  to  by  the  declaration  of 
the  powers  assembled  in  congress  at  Paris  in  1856,  that 
"  Blockades,  in  order  to  be  binding,  must  be  effective,  that 
is  to  say,  must  be  maintained  by  a  force  sufficient  really  to 
prevent  access  to  the  enemy's  coast."  The  question  of  fact 
will  still  be  a  subject  for  judicial  inquiry  in  each  case  of 
capture,  whether  the  conditions  under  which  a  blockade 
has  been  maintained  satisfy  the  above  declaration.  If  an 
asserted  blockade  is  maintained  in  a  manner  which  satisfies 
the  above  declaration,  there  is  no  limit  to  the  extent  of  an 
enemy's  coast  which  may  be  placed  under  blockade.  There 
is  abo  a  general  consent  amongst  nations  that  a  neutral 
merchant  must  have  knowledge  of  a  blockade  in  order  to 
be  liable  to  be  treated  as  an  enemy  for  attempting  to  break 
it ;  but  there  is  not  any  uniform  practice  amongst  nations 
on  this  subject  further  than  that  when  a  blockade  has 
become  notorious,  the  knowledge  of  it  will  be  presumed 
against  every  neutral  vessel  which  attempts  to  enter  the 
blockaded  port.  On  the  other  hand,  where  a  blockade  is 
not  notorious,  it  is  in  accordance  with  the  practice  of 
nations  to  give  some  notice  of  it  to  neutrals ;  and  this 
notice  may  be  communicated  to  them  either  by  actual 
warning  given  to  each  neutral  vessel  which  seeks  to  cross 
the  line  of  blockade,  or  by  a  constructive  warning  to  all 
neutrals  resulting  from  an  official  notification  of  the 
blockade  on  the  part  of  the  blockading  power  to  all  powers 
in  amity  with  it  It  is  a  growing  practice,  if  not  altogether 
an  established  practice,  amongst  nations  Which  accredit  to 
one  another  resident  envoys,  for  belligerentE  to  notify 
diplomatically  to  the  neutral  powers  the  fact  that  they 
have  placed  an  enemy's  port  under  blockade ;  and  it  is  the 
rule  of  the  prize  courts  of  Great  Britain  and  of  the  United 
States  of  America  to  bold  that,  where  bucfa  an  official 
notification  has  been  made,  all  the  subjects  of  the  neutral 
powers  may  be  presumed  to  have  knowledge  of  the  blockade. 
Other  powers,  amongst  which  France  may  be  mentioned, 
have  been  accustomed  to  direct  their  blockading  cruisers 
to  give  warning  of  the  blockade  to  each  vessel  that  attempts 
to  cross  the  line  of  blockade,  and  not  to  capture  any  vessel 
unless  she  attempts  to  break  the  blockade  after  snch 
warning ;  but  the  practice  of  France  agrees  with  the 
practice  of  other  powers  in  not  giving  such  warning  after  a 
blockade  has  become  notorious.  There  is,  farther,  a  general 
practice  amongst  nations  to  treat  the  act  of  sailing  with  an 
intention  to  enter  a  blockaded  port  as  an  unneutral  act, 
which  will  warrant  the  capture  of  a  neutral  merchant  vessel 
by  a  belligerent  cruiser  on  any  part  of  the  high  seas,  unless 
clear  evidence  is  forthcoming  from  the  captured  vessel  that 
the  intention  has  been  abandoned,  or  that  its  execution  was 
contingent  on  the  blockade  being  raised.  After  a  port  has 
been  placed  under  blockade,  egress  is  prohibited  to  all 
neutral  vessels,  except  to  such  as  have  entered  the  port 
before  the  blockade  wa.s  established,  if  they  come  out  either 
in  ballast  or  with  cargoes  taken  on  board  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  blockade.  No  warning  is  required  to 
affect  such  vessel  with  a  knowledge  of  the  blockade,  and  if 
any  such  vessel  should  succeed  in  passing  through  the 
blockading  souadron  it  becomes  liable  to  capture  as  good 
prize  by  a  belligerent  cruiser  on  any  part  of  the  high  seas, 
until  it  has  reached  its  port  of  destination,  when  the  offence 
is  considered  to  be  purged.  Under  the  ancient  practice 
"both  ship  and  cargo  were  confiscable  for  the  breach  of  a 
■blockade,  and  even  the  captain  and  crew  were  liable  to  be 
treated  as  eoeaiies.    A  milder  practice  is  now  generally 


oDserved  as  regards  the  captain  and  crew,  and  a  certmn 
equity  is  administered  in  the  British  and  American  prize 
courts  towards  the  owners  of  cargo,  where  the  ship  and 
the  cargo  do  not  belong  to  the  same  parties,  and  the  owners 
of  the  cargo  have  not  any  knowledge  of  the  blockade,  or 
have  been  unable  to  countermand  the  shipment  of  the  cargo 
since  the  blockade  has  become  known  to  them.  In  such 
cases  the  cargo  is  released,  although  the  ship  may  be 
rightfully  condemned  to  the  captors.  (t.  t.) 

BLOiS,  the  chief  town  of  the  department  of  Loir-et-Cher 
in  France,  is  situated  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre  on 
the  steep  slope  of  a  hill  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  35 
miles  S.W.  of  Orleans,  in  47°  35'  N.  lat  and  1°  29'  E.  long. 
It  is  united  by  a  bridge  of  the  17th  century  with  the 
suburb  of  Vieuue  on  the  other  side  of  the  river.  The 
houses  of  the  older  part  of  the  town  are  frequently  of 
antiquarian  interest,  and  the  streets,  which  are  in  many 
cases  rather  stairways  than  streets,  have  often  a  picturesque 
appearance.  The  castle  is  an  immense  structure  built  at 
different  periods,  part  as  early  as  the  13th  century.  It  was 
the  birth-place  of  Louis  XII.,  and  is  noted  as  the  scene  o( 
the  assassination  of  the  duke  of  Guise  and  bis  brother  the 
cardinal  by  command  of  Henry  IIL  Among  the  other 
remarkable  buildings  in  the  town  are  the  Hotel  de  Ville, 
the  episcopal  palace,  now  occupied  by  the  prefecture,  the 
cathedral  of  St  Louis  (a  modem  structure),  and  the  churchef 
of  St  Vincent  and  St  Nicholas.  An  ancient  aqueduct,  cut 
in  the  solid  rock  by  the  Romans,  conveys  the  water  o) 
several  springs  to  a  reservoir,  whence  it  is  distributed  tc 
different  parts  of  the  town.  Blois  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric 
founded  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  has  a  communal  college,  a 
normal  school,  and  two  diocesan  seminaries ;  an  exchange, 
a  hospital,  a  theatre,  a  botanical  garden,  a  public  library 
and  an  agricultural  society.  It  manufactures  gloves, hosiery, 
hardware,  and  pottery,  and  has  a  considerable  trade  ir 
wine,  brandy,  and  timber.  Population  in  1872,  17,475 
Though  possibly  existing  under  the  Roman  empire,  Blois  it 
first  distinctly  mentioned  by  Gregory  of  Tours  in  the  6tL 
century,  and  does  not  become  of  much  importance  till  the 
9th  qr  10th,  when  it  forms  the  chief  town  of  a  countship 
From  that  date  it  appears  very  frequently  in  Frenct 
history.  In  1577  and  1588  the  States-General  were  held 
in  the  city. 

BLOMFIELD,  Chaeles  James,  bishop  of  London, 
was  bom  on  the  29th  May  1786,  at  BurySt-Edmund's 
He  received  his  first  education  at  his  father's  school  in  that 
town,  and  was  then  transferred  to  the  grammar  school, 
where,  under  the  able  instraction  of  the  Rev.  M.  T.  Becher. 
he  laid  the  foundations  of  an  unusually  sound  and  thc-ough 
classical  scholarship.  His  career  at  .Trinity  College,  Cam 
bridge,  which  ho  entered  in  1804,  was  brilliant  He 
gained  the  Browne  medals  for  Latin  and  Greek  odes,  and 
carried  off  the  Craven  scholarship.  In  1808  he  graduated 
as  third  wrangler  and  first  medallist,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  elected  to  a  fellowship  at  Trinity  College.  The 
firs^fmits  of  his  scholarship  was  an  edition  of  the  Prome 
theiu  of  jEschylus,  in  1810  ;  this  was  followed  by  editions 
ef  the  Septem  contra  Thebat,  Persa,  Chotphorce,  and 
Agamemnon,  of  Callimachus,  and  of  the  fragments  of 
Sap])ho,  Sophron,  and  Alcaeus.  Blomfield,  however,  soon 
ceased  to  devote  himself  to  mere  scholarship.  He  had 
been  ordained  in  1810,  and  held  for  a  short  time  the  curacy 
of  Chcsterford.  He  was  then  pr«eented  to  the  rectory  of 
Quarrington,  and  shortly  afterwards  to  that  of  Dunton,  in 
Buckinghamshire,  where  he  remained  for  about  five  years 
In  1817  he  was  moved  to  the  benefices  of  Great  and  Little 
Chesterford  and  Tuddcnham,  and  he  was  in  the  same 
year  appointed  private  chaplain  to  Howley,  bishop  of 
London.  In  1819  he  was  nominated  by.Lord  Liverpool  to 
the  rich  Unng  of  St  Botolph's,  Bishopsgnte,  and  id  1822 


83G 


B  L  O  —  B  L  0 


he  became  arcTideacon  of  Colcliester,  Two  years  later  he 
'*as  raised  to  the  bbhopric  of  Chester,  and  in  that  position 
began  his  career  of  incessant  labour  for  tiie  advancement 
of  the  church.  Many  reforms  were  needed  in  the  diocese, 
an4  the  new  bishop's  energy  and  ardour  succeeded  in 
effecting  much,  though  not  without  stirring  up  enemies. 
lu  1828  he  was  transferred  to  a  wider  sphere  of  activity, 
being  raised  to  the  bishopric  of  London.  This  important 
office  ha  held  for  eight-and-twenty  years,  labouring  itices- 
santly  in  a  field  where  unremitting  e-tertion  was  absolutely 
necessary.  He  gave  his  whole  heart  to  the  endeavour  tcf 
e.xtond  the  influence  and  efficiency  of  the  church,  and  his 
strenuous  activity  was  not  without  result.  In  all  political 
or  social  movements  v/hich  concerned  tbe  church  the  bishop 
took  a  prominent  part.  He  was  noted  as  being  one  of  the 
best  debaters  on  the  episcopal  bench  in  the  ttouse  of 
Lords  ;  he  took  a  leading  position  in  the  action  for  church 
reform.,  wliich  culminated  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Commission; 
and  ho  did  much  for  the  extension  of  the  colonial  episcopate. 
His  health  gave  way  under  his  unceasing  labours,  and  in 
1856  he  was  permitted  to  resign  his  bishopric,  retaining 
Fulhara  palace  as  his  residence,  along  with  a  pension  of 
XCOOO  per  annum.  He  died  at  Fulham  on  the  5th  August 
1857.  In  private  lifa  Elomfield  was  warm-hearted,  genial, 
and  kindly;  he  was  fond  of  travelling  and  of  intellectual 
society,  in  which  h'e  was  weU  qualified  to  shine.  His 
published  works,  exclusive  of  those  above  mentioned,  con- 
sist of  charges,  sermons,  lectures,  and  pamphlets,  and  of  a 
Manual «/  Private  and  Family  Prayers.  He  was  a  frequent 
contributor  to  the  quarterly  reviews,  chiefly  on  classical 
subjects.  An  admirable  memoir  has  been  published  by  the 
bishop's  son.  Memoirs  of  Charles  James  Blomfietd,  D.D , 
Bishop  of  London,  xvith  Selections  from  his  Correspondence, 
edited  by  his  son,  Alfred  Blomtield,  M..^^.,  kc,  18G3. 
See  also  Biber,  Bishop  Blomjield  and  his  Times,  1857. 

BLONDEL,  D.wiD,  a  Protestant  clergyma:.,  distin- 
guished by  his  proficiency  in  ecclesiastical  and  civil 
history,  was  bora  at  Chalonssur-Marne  in  1591,  and 
died  in  1665.  In  1650  he  succeeded  G.  J.  Vossius  in 
the  professorship  of  history  at  Amsterdam.  His  works 
were  very  numerous,  and  were  remarkable  even  at  that 
period  for  obscurity  of  style.  The  most  celebrated  of 
them  was  the  dissertation  on  Pope  Joan,  in  which  he 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  whole  story  was  a  mere 
myth.  Considerable  Protestant  indignation  was  e.xcited 
against  him  on  account  of  this  book. 

BLOOD.  See  Anatomy  and  Piiysiologv 
BLOOD,  Thomas,  generally  known  by  the  appellation  of 
Colonel  Blood,  was  a  disbanded  officer  of  the  Parliamentaiy 
army.  Bearing  a  grudge  against  the  duke  of  Ormond, 
who  had  defeated  a  conspiracy  he  engaged  in  to  surprise 
the  castle  of  Dublin,  Blood  seized  the  duke  one  night  in 
his  coach  in  St  James's  Street,  and  carried  him  off  a 
considerable  distance,  resolving  to  hang  llim  at  Tyburn  ; 
but  Ormond  struggled  for  his  liberty  and  was  rescued  by 
his  servants.  Soon  after,  in  1671,  Blood  formed  the 
design  of  carrying  off  the  crown  and  regalia  from  the 
Tower, — an  attempt  which  very  nearly  proved  successful. 
Ho  had  bound  and  wounded  Edwards,  the  keeper  of  the 
jewel-office,  and  had  escaped  out  of  the  Tower  with  his 
prey ;  but  he  was  overtaken  and  seized,  together  with 
some  of  hLs  associates.  One  of  these  was  known  to  have 
bceu  concerned  in  the  attempt  upon  Ormond,  and  Blood 
was  immediately  concluded  to  be  the  ringleader.  When 
questioned,  he  frankly  avowed  the  enterprise,  but  refused 
to  discover  his  accomplices.  AJl  these  extraordinary 
circumstances  induced  Charles  IL  to  seek  an  interview 
with  him,  which-  not  only  led  to  his  pardon,  but  to 
the  king's  granting  him  an  estate  of  £500  a  year  in 
Irel^d,  eDcoaragiog   bis  attendance   about  his   ^ersan, 


and  showing  him   great   favour.     He   died   August  2^ 
16S0. 

BLOOMFIELU,  Robert,  was  born  of  very  humble 
parents  at  the  village  Of  Honington  in  Suffolk,  in  1766. 
Losing  his  father  at  the  age  of  eleven,  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  farmer,  and  could  only  cultivate  his  literary  tastes  by 
perusing  such  books  as  he  could  borrow.  Thomson  seems 
to  'have  been  his  favourite  author,  and  The  Seasons  inspireil 
him  with  the  ambition  of  being  a  poet.  He  came  to 
London,  and  composed  2'lie  Parmer's  Boy  in  a  garret 
in  Bell  Alley.  The  riianuscript  fell'  into  the  hands  cf 
Capel  Lofft,  who  encouraged  him  to  print  it,  and  it  suc- 
ceeded so  well,  that  above  26,000  copies  of  it  were  sold. 
His  reputation  was  increased  by  the  appearance  of  his 
Rural  Tales,  Songs  and  Ballads,  News  from  the  Parm, 
Wild  Flowers,  and  The  Banks  of  the  JVye.  These  are  of 
unequal  merit ;  but  all  breath?  .»  spirit  of  purity  and 
enthusiasm  for  the  beauties  of  nature,  that  place  the  name 
of  Bloomfield  among  the  most  natural  and  amiable  of  our 
pastoral  poets.  The  extensive  sale  of  T/i£  Farmer's  Boy 
and  Wild  Flowers  seems  to  have  done  little  for  the  benefit 
of  the  poet,  who  died  in  poverty  at  Shefford  in  Bedford- 
shire in  1823.  His  Remains  in  Poetry  and  Verse,  2  vols., 
appeared  in  1824,  and  another  edition  of  his  poems  in 
1866.  A  selection  from  his  correspondence,  edited  by 
Hart,  appeared  in  1871. 

BLOUNT,  CuARLES,  younger  son  of  Sir  Henry  Blount, 
was  born  at  Upper  HoUoway,  April  27,  165-i,  and  died 
1603.  He  gained  considerable  reputation  as  a  politician 
and  man  of  letters,  but  his  abilities  were  not  great,  and  his 
strength  lay  in  scoffing  infidelity.  His  Anima  MutuU,  or 
an  Historical  Narration  of  Ike  Opinions  of  the  Ancients  con- 
cerning Man's  SoTU  after  this  Life,  according  to  Unen- 
lightened Nature,  gave  great  offence ,  and  his  translation 
of  Philostratus's  Life  of  Apollonius  Tyanceiis  was  sup- 
pressed for  the  flippancy  and  impertinence  of  its  attacks 
on  revealed  religion.  A  similar  work  of  his,  called  Great 
is  Diana  of  the  Epkesians,  under  colour  of  exposing  super- 
stition, struck  at  revelation.  In  1634  he  printed  a  kind 
of  introduction  to  polite  literature,  under  the  title  of  Janua 
Scientiarum.  His  Jiist  Vindication  of  Learning  and  of  the 
Liberty  of  the  Press  ( 1 693 )  is  a  shameless  plagiarism  from  the 
Areopagilica.  The  pamphlet  which  ho  sent  anonymously  to 
Bohun,  the  censor,  entitled  King  William  and  Queen  Mary 
Conquerors,  set  all  London  in  a  Uame,  and  completely 
attained  its  object,  the  ruin  of  Bohun.  indirectly  it  had 
a  good  result  in  directing  attention  to  the  folly  of  the  cen- 
sorship. After  the  death  of  his  wife,  he  proposed  to  marry 
her  sister,  and  wrote  a  letter  on  that  subject  with  great 
learning  and  address,  but  t'„e  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
and  other  divines  decided  against  him,  and  the  lady  having 
therefore  refused  him,  he  is  said  to  have  shot  himself,  or, 
according  to  Pope's  account,  to  have  given  himself  a  moital 
wound  in  the  arm.  A  collected  edition  of  his  works  waa 
published  in  1695  by  Gildon,  with  a  life  by  the  editor. 
See  Macaulay,  History,  iv.  352,  sjq. ;  Lechler,  Gts.  d. 
Englisch.  Deismus,  114-127. 

BLOW,  John,  an  English  musical  'composer,  was  born 
in  1648  at  North  Collingham  in  Nottinghamshire.  He 
was  educated  at  the  chapel  royal,  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  proficiency  in  music,  having  composed  sevLial 
anthems  at  an  unusually  early  age.  In  1673  he  was  made 
a  gentleman  of  the  chapel  royal,  and  in  1685  was  named 
one  of  the  private  musicians  of  James  TI.  In  1687  lie 
became  master  of  the  choir  of  St  P.aul's  Church ;  in  1695  lie 
was  elected  organist  of  St  Margaret's,  Westminster,  and  in 
1699  composer  to  the  chapel  royal.  In  1700  he  published 
his  Amphion  Anglicus,  a  collection  of  pieces  of  music  for 
one,  two,  three,  and  four  voiccSj  with  a  figured-bass  accom- 
paniment.     Doctor   Burncy  says  that   in   the   Amphion 


r>  L  0  —  B  L  0 


837 


Anfjlicvs  "  the  union  of  Scottish  melody  wilh  tho  English 
13  first  conspicuous."  Blow  died  m  170S,  and  was  buried 
in  tho  north  aisle  of  Westminster  Abbey.  None  of  his 
compositions,  most  of  which  are  anthems,  attain  the  highest 
order  of  merit. 

BLOWPIPE,  a  tube  for  directing  a  jet  of  air  into  a  fire 
or  into  the  flame  of  a  lamp  or  gas  jet,  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  a  high  tem^icrature  by  complete  and  rapid  com- 
bustion. The  blowpipe  has  been  in  common  use  from  tho 
earliest  times  for  solderiug  metals  and  working  glass,  and 
since  1733,  when  Anton  Swab  first  applied  it  to  analysis 
of  mineral  substances,  it  lias  become  a  valuable  auxiliary 
to  the  mineralogist  and  chemist,  in  tho  chemical  examina- 
tion and  analysis  of  minerals.  Its  application  has  been 
variously  improved  at  the  hands  of  Cronstedt,  Bergmann, 
Gahn,  Beizelius,  Plattuer,  and  others,  but  more  especially 
by  the  two  last-named  chomist.s. 

The  simplest  and  oldest  form  of  blowpipe  (still  used  by 
gaslitters,  jewellers,  &c.),  is  a  conical  brass  tube,  about  7 
inches  in  length,  curved  at  the  small  end  into  a  right  angle, 
and  terminating  in  a  small  round  orifice,  which  is  applied 
to  the  flame,  while  the  larger  end  is  applied  to  the  mouth. 
A\'Tiere  the  blist  has  to  be  kept  up  for  only  a  few  seconds, 
this  instrument  is  quite  serviceable  ;  but  in  longer  chemical 
operations  inconvenience  arises  from  the  condensation  of 
moisture  exhaled  by  the  lungs  in  the  tube.  Hence  many 
blowpipes  are  made  with  a  cavity  for  retaining  tho 
moisture.  Cronstedt  placed  a  bulb  in  the  centre  of  his 
blowpipe.  Dr  Black's  convenient  instrument  consists  of  a 
conical  tube  of  tin  plate,  with  a  small  brass  tube,  support- 
ing tho  nozzle,  inserted  near  the  wider  end,  and  a  mouth- 
piece at  the  narrow  end.  One  of  the  most  suitable  forms 
Df  blou'inpe  is  that  shown  in  fig.  1.      It  is  G.ihn's  instru- 


Fio.  1. — Extremities  of  Gahn*s  Blowpipe, — ordinary  size, 
ment  as  improved  by  Plattner.  The  tube  A  is  ground  to 
(it  accurately  into  a  socket  at  tho  top  of  the  water-trap  B, 
as  IS  also  the  jet-pipe  C.  The  nozzle  D,  of  platinum,  is 
fitted  in  the  same  manner,  so  that  it  can  be  easily  removed 
and  replaced  while  hot ;  e.^.  when  it  is  desired  to  remove 
the  crust  of  soot  which  deposits  upon  the  point  when  an 
oil  lamp  or  candle  is  used.  The  sizes  of  orifice  recom- 
mended by  Pl.attner  are  0  1  and  0  5  millim.  The  trumpet 
mouthpiece,  from  the  support  it  gives  to  the  checks  when 
inflated,  conduces  to  a  more  steady  and  long-continued  blast 
being  kept  up  without  fatigue  than  when  the  mouthpiece 
is  inserted  between  the  lips.  Mr  David  Forbes  has  sug- 
gested the  use  of  a  double  jet-pipe  in  connection  with  this 
instrument,  so  that  a  large  or  small  orifice  may  be  obtained 
without  stopping  the  point ;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
advantage  gained  is  counterbalanced  by  the  extra  cost  and 
complication.  For  the  majority  of  blowpipe  workers,  there 
is  probably  no  better  instrument  than  Ur  Black's,  if  pro- 
vided with  a  properly-shaped  nozzle,  if  possible  of 
/ilatinum;  but  where  it  is  much  used,  tho  largo  sized 
trumpet-mouthed  instrument  of  Pl.ittner  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. The  instrument  should  be  held  with  the  first  and 
fourth  fingers  passed  round  it,  and  tho  thumb  laid  along 
the  side  of  the  tube,  the  hold  being  steadied  by  resting 


the  elbow  on  the  table.  The  mode  of  blowing  ts  peculi.ir, 
and  requires  some  practice  ,  ar\  uninterrupted  blast  is  kept 
up  by  the  muscular  action  of  the  checks,  while  the  urdmary 
respiration  goes  on  through  the  no.^lrlls. 

If  tho  flame  ot  a  candle  or  lamp  be  closely  examined,  it 
will  be  seen  to  consist  of  four  part.? — (n)  a  deep  blue  ring 
at  the  base,  (6)  a  dark  cone  in  the  centre,  (c)  a  luminous 
portion  round  this,  and  (d)  an  exterior  pale  blue  envelope. 
The  blue  ring  is  formed  chiefly  by  combustion  of  carbonic 
oxide  In  the  central  cone  tho  combustible  vapours  frooi 
the  wick,  though  heated,  are  not  burned,  atmosplieiic 
oxygen  not  reaching  it  In  the  luminous  portion  the 
sup[ily  of  oxygen  is  not  suflicient  for  complete  combustion, 
the  hydrogen  takes  up  all  or  most  of  it,  and  carbon  is  pre- 
cipitated in  solid  particles  and  ignited.  In  the  exterior 
envelope,  lastly,  the  temperature  is  highest,  and  comLasti-ji 
most  complete, — sufliciciit  oxygen  being  supplied  tu  coi.- 
veit  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  into  water  and  carbonic  acid 

In  blowpipe  work  only  two  of  these  four  parts  are 
made  use  of,  viz.,  tho  pale  envelope,  for  oxidation,  and 
the  luminous  portion,  for  reduction.  To  obtain  a  good 
oxidt:iny  jliime,  the  blowpipe  is  held  wilh  its  nozzle  luserleU 
in  the  edge  of  the  flame  close  over  the  level  of  the  wick, 
and  blown  into  gently  and  evenly.  A  conical  jet  is  tUua 
produced,  consisting  of  an  inner  cone,  with  an  outer  oue  com- 
mencing near  its  apes : — the  former,  corresponding  to  (a)  in 
the  free  flame,  blue  and  well  defined  ;  tho  latter,  corre- 
sponding to  (d),  pale  blue  and  vague.  The  heat  is  greatest 
just  beyond  the  point  of  the  inner  cone,  combustion  bciig 
there  most  complete.  Oxidation  is  better  effected  (if  a  very 
high  temperature  be  not  required)  the  farther  the  substance 
is  from  the  apex  of  the  inner  cone,  so  far  as  the  heat  proves 
sufiicient,  for  the  air  has  thus  freer  access. 

To  obtain  a  good  reducing  flame  (in  which  the  com- 
bustil)!e  matter,  very  hot,  but  not  yet  burned,  is  disposed 
to  take  oxygen  from  any  compound  containing  it),  tho 
nozzle,  with  smaller  orifice,  should  just  touch  tho  flame  at 
a  point  higher  above  the  wick,  and  a  somewhat  weaker 
current  of  air  should  be  blown.  Tho  flame  then  appears 
as  a  long,  narrow,  luminous  cone, — the  end  being  enveloped 
by  a  dimly  visible  portion  of  flame  corresponding  to  that 
which  surrounds  the  free  flame,  while  there  is  also  a  dark 
nucleus  about  the  wick.  The  substance  to  be  reduced  is 
brought  into  the  luminous  portion,  where  the  reducing 
])uwcr  is  strongest. 

Tlie  flame  of  an  oil-lamp  is  the  best  for  blowpipe  opera- 
tions where  gas  is  wanting ,  candlo  flame  may  bo  used 
when  great  heat  is  not  required.  The  blowpipe  lamp  of 
Berzclius,  supplied  with  colza  oil,  is  probably  the  most 
suitable.  The  wick,  when  in  use,  should  bo  carefully 
trimmed  and  clean,  so  as  to  avoid  a  smoking  flame. 
The  general  introduction  of  gas  has  quite  driven  out  t:.o 
use  of  oil-lamps  for  blowpipe  purposes  in  laboratories 

Various  materials  are  used  as  supports  for  substances  m 
the  blowpipe  flame  ;  the  principal  are  charcoal,  platinuiu, 
and  glass.  Cliarcoal  is  valuable  (or  Us  infusibility  and 
low  conductivity  for  heat  (allowing  substances  to  Ijs 
strongly  heated  upon  it),  and  for  its  powerful  reducing 
agency  by  the  production  of  carbonic  oxide  when  ignited  , 
so  that  it  is  chiefly  employed  in  trying  tho  fusibility  of 
minerals,  and  in  reductioa  Tho  best  kind  of  charcoal  is 
that  of  close-grained  pine  or  alder,  it  is  cut  m  short 
jirisms,  having  a  flat  smooth  surface  at  right  angles  to  lho| 
rings  of  growth.  In  this  a  shallow  hole  is  m.ade  with  a 
knife  or  borer,  for  receiving  the  substance  to  be  held  in  the 
flame,  riatinum  is  employed  in  oxidizing  processes,  an'l 
in  fusion  of  substances  with  fluxes  with  a  view  to  try  their 
solubility  in  them,  and  note  the  phenomena  of  the  bead  ; 
also  ill  observing  the  colouring  en"ect  of  substances  on  tho 
blowpipe  flame  (which  effect  is  apt  to  be  somewhat  m.a.sktcl 


838 


BLOWPIPE 


by  charcoal/,  fliust  commonly  it  is  used  in  the  fonn  of 
wire,  with  a  small  beud  or  loop  at  the  end.  lu  flux 
experiments  this  loop  i.,  dipped  when  ignited  in  the 
powdered  flu.K  (e.ff.,  borax),  then  held  in 'a  lamp  flame  till 
the  powder  is  fused ;  and  the  process  is  repeated,  if  neces- 
sary, till  the  loop  is  quite  filled  with  a  bead  of  the  flux  ;  to 
this  is  now  added  a  little  of  the  substance  to  be  examined. 
Platinum  is  also  used  in  the  form  of  foil  and  of  spoons, 
and  for  the  points  of  forceps.  Metals  and  easily  reducible 
oxides,  sulphides,  or  chlorides  should  not  be  treated  upon 
platinum,  as  these  substances  may  combine  with  and 
damage  it.  Tubes  of  hard  German  glass,  5  to  6  inches  long, 
about  |th  inch  diameter,  and  open  at  both  ends,  are  usefulin 
the  examination  of  substances  containing  sulphur,  selenium, 
arsenic,  antimony,  and  tellurium  ;  these,  when  heated  with 
access  of  air,  evolve  characteristic  fumes.  They  are  put 
in  the  tube  near  one  end  (which  is  held  slightly  depressed), 
and  subjected  to  the  blowpipe'  flame.  The  sublimates  often 
condense  on  the  cooler  parts  of  the  tube.  Small  tubes, 
closed  at  one  end,  are  used,  where  it  is  required  to  detect 
the  presence  of  water,  mercury,  or  other  bodies  which  are 
volatilized  by  heat  without  access  of  air. 

The  most  important  fluxes  used  in  blowpipe  analysis  are 
carbonate  of  sodium,  borax,  and  miorocosmic  salt.  The  first 
(which  must  be  anhydrous  and  quite  free  from  sulphates) 
serves  chiefly  in  reducing  metallic  oxides  and  sulphides  on 
charcoal,  decomposing  silicates,  determining  the  presence  of 
sulphur,  and  discriminating  between  lime  and  other  earthy 
bases  in  mineralj.  Pure  borax,  or  acid  borate  of  sodium 
deprived  of  its  water  of  crystallization  by  heating,  is  used 
for  the  purpose  of  dissolving  up  metallic  oxides,  when  in 
&  state  of  fusion  at  a  red  heat,  such  fused  masses  usually 
having  characteristic  colours  when  cold.  In  some  cases  the 
colour  and  transparency  change  on  cooling.  '  Microcosmic 
mils,  or  ammonio-phosphate  of  sodium,  is  used  on  platinum 
wire  in  the  same  way  as  borax ;'  on  heating,  water  and 
ammonia  are  given  off.  The  following  are  some  other 
re;'.genl3  for  certain  cases — nitrate  of  potash,  bisulphate  of 
potash,  nitrate  of  cobalt,  silica,  fluoride  of  calcium,  oxide  or 
oxalate  of  nickel,  protoxide  of  copper,  tinfoil,  fine  silver,  dry 
chloride  of  silver,  bone  ash,andlitmus  and  Brazil-wood  paper. 

It  may  be  useful  here  to  pass  briefly  under  review  a  few 
of  the  effects  obtained  in  qualitative  examinations  with  the 
blowpipe.  Beginning  with  the  closed  tube,  organic  sub- 
stances may  be  revealed  by  the  empyreumatic  odour  given 
off,  and  by  charring.  Mercury  condenses  on  the  tube  in 
luniute  globules.  Selenium  gives  a  reddish-brown,  tellurium 
II  grey,  arsenic  a  black  sublimate.  Oxygen  is  sometimes 
given  off,  and  will  inflame  an  incandescent  splinter  of  wood 
when  introduced;  while  ammonia  may  be  detected  by  red 
litmus  paper,  as  also  the  acid  or  alkaline  reaction  of  any 
liquid  product.  In  the  open  tube,  sulphur  and  sulphides 
give  off  pungent-smelling  sulphurous  acid  gas.  Selenium 
gives  a  steel-grey  deposit,  and  an  cdour  resembling  that  of 
horse  radish.  Arsenic,  antimony,  tellurium,  yield  their 
respective  acids,  forming  white  sublimates.  The  deposit 
from  arsenic  is  crystalline,  that  from  the  others  amorphous. 
In  examination  on  charcoal,  it  is  useful,  in  practice,  to 
commence  with  pure  materials  and  familiarize  one's  self  with 
their  phenomena.  Most  of  the  metala  fuse  xa  the  heat  of> 
the  blowpipe  flame  ;  and  in  the  outer  flame  they  oxidize. 
The  nobio  metals  do  not  oxidize,  biit  they  fuse.  The 
metals  platinum,  iridium,  rhodium,  and  palladium  do  not 
fuse.  The  incrustations  (when  Eu«h  occur)  are  in  each 
case  characteristic,  both  in  aspect  and  in  the  effects  they 
give  before  the  blowpipe  flarao.  Among  the  most  com- 
mon  oxides  capable  of  reduction  on  charcoal  alone,  in  the 

'  In  a  paper  to  tho  Royal  Society,  Captain  Rosfi  points  out  that  it  is 
better  to  use  boric  acid  and  phosphoric  acid,  iiuteatl  of  borax  and 
microcosmic  sails,  for  various  aualyees. 


inner  flame,  are  those  of  zii,«,  silver,  lead,  copper,  bismnth, 
and  antimony.  The  principal  minerals  that  cannot  be  so 
reduced  are  those  containing  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths, 
and  the  oxides  of  iron,  manganese,  and  chromium.  Many 
substances  give  a  characteristic  colour,  when '  held  by 
platinum  forceps  in  the  oxidizing  flame.  For  example, 
arsenic,  antimony,  lead,  colour  the  flame  blue;  copper, 
baryta,  zinc,  green ;  lime,  lithia,  strontia,  red;  potash, 
violet.  Heated  with  borax,  some  bodies  give  a  clear  bead, 
both  while  hot  and  cold,  except  when  heated  by  the  inter- 
mittent o.xidizing  flame,  or  the  flame  of  reduction,  when 
the  bead  becomes  opalescent,  opaque,  or  milky  white.  The 
alkaline  earths,  tantalic  and  titanic  acids,  yttria  and  zir- 
conia  are  examples  of  this.  The  oxides  of  most  of  the 
heavy  metals  give  coloured  glasses  with  borax,  similar  to 
those  obtained  by  their  use  in  glass  or  enamel  painting. 
Thus  oxide  of  cobalt  gives  a  showy  blue,  and  oxide  of  nickel 
a  reddish-brownish  colour,  both  being  very  characteristic 
and  delicate  tests  of  the  presence  of  these  metals.  Ferric 
oxide  gives  a  feeble  yellow  colour,  which  is  darker  while 
hot;  but  when  the  bead  so  coloured  is  treated  in  the  reduc- 
ing flame  the  iron  passes  into  the  state  of  ferrous  oxide,giving 
an  intensely  green  or  nearly  black  colour.  This  reaction 
may  be  moje  certainly  brought  about  by  touching  the 
bead  while  melted  with  a  fragment  of  tin,  when  the  ferric 
oxide  is  probably  reduced  at  the  expense  of  the  metal. 
With  manganese  the  reverse  effect  is  produced.  A  bead 
containing  a  considerable  quantity  of  manganous  oxide, 
such  as  is  produced  by  a  clean  reducing  flame,  is  colourless, 
but  when  treated  in  the  oxidizing  flame  the  showy  violet 
colour  of  the  higher  oxide  is  brought  out.  This  reaction 
is  a  very  delicate  one,  and  is  to  be  recommended  to  begin- 
ners as  a  test  exercise  in  blowing  a  clean  flame,  the  bead 
being  rendered  alternately  coloured  and  colourless  accord- 
ing as  the  oxidizing  or  reducing  flame  is  used.  Molybdic 
acid,  which  gives  a  black  bead  in  the  reducing,  and  a  clear 
bead  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  but  requires  more  careful 
management,  was  usually  recommended  by  Plattner  to  his 
students  for  this  kin-d  of  exercise.  Copper  salts  give  a 
green  bead  in  the  oxidizing  and  a  deep  sealing-wax  red  in 
the  reducing  flame.  This  latter  indication  is  of  value  in 
detecting  a  trace  of  copper  in  the  presence  of  iron,  which 
is  done  by  reducing  with  tin  as  already  described  for  iron. 
The  effects  obtained  with  beads  of  microcosmic  salt,  or  as 
it  is  more  generally  called  salt  of  phosphorus,  are  generally 
similar  to  those  described  for  borax,  but  in  certain  cases  it 
is  to  be  preferred,  especially  in  the  detection  of  silica,  which 
remains  undissolved,  and  titanic  acid,  which  can  be  made  to 
assume  the  form  of  crystals  similar  to  the  natural  mineral 
anataseby  particular  treatment  and  microscopic  cxaminat  ion. 
Several  new  phenomena,  due  to  the  crystallization  of  titanic 
acid  and  simikir  bodies,  have  been  described  by  Gustav  Hose. 
With  carbonate  of  sodium  as  flux  (a  paste  of  which  and 
the  substance  to  be  examined  is  made  with  water,  and  held 
on  charcoal  tc  tho  flame),  three  reactions  may  occur.  The 
substance  may  fuse  with  effervescence,  or  it  may  be  re- 
duced, or  the  soda  may  sink  into  the  charcoal,  leaving  the 
substance  intact  on  tho  surface.  The  first  takes  place  with 
silica,  and  with  titanic  and  tungstic  acids.  The  oxides  of 
tungsten,  antimony,  arsenic,  copper,  mercury,  bismuth,  tin, 
lead,  zinc,  iron,  nicke],  and  cobalt  are  reduced.  Lead,  zinc, 
antimony,  bismuth,  cadmium,  and  tellurium  are  volatilized 
partially,  and  form  sublimates  on  the  charcoal  Mercury 
and  arsenic  are  dissipated  as  soon  as  reduced.  Silica  and 
titanic  acid  aro  the  only  two  substances  that  produce  a 
clear  bead.  The  bead  in  which  silica  is  fused  is  sometimes 
rendered  yellow  by  the  presence  of  sulphur.  Carbonnte 
of  soda,  witli  addition  of  a  little  nitrate  of  pota.ssa,  is  very 
useful  for  delecting  minute  quantities  of  manganese.  The 
fused  mass,  whcn^clear,  has,  from  the  production  of  msD-' 


BLOWPIPE 


839 


gflnate  ol  sodium,  a  fine  green  colour.  (For  particulars  of 
the  behaviour  of  different  minerals  before  the  blowpipe,  see 
thn  detailed  description  in  the  article  Mineralogy.)  Of 
late  jears  the  spectroscope  has  been  successfully  used  in 
connection  with  blowpipe  operations,  in  tho  detection 
of  certain  of  the  rarer  metallic  elements. 

The  blowpipe  was  first  applied  in  the  quantitative  deter- 
mination of  metals  by  Harkort  in  1827,  and  was  brought 
to  a  his;h  degree  of  perfection  by  Plattuer.  The  methods 
are  substantially  those  adopted  in  the  assay  of  ores  on  the 
large  scale  in  the  wind  furnace  or  muffle,  thin  cap- 
sules of  clay  or  cavities  in  charcoal  blocks  being  substituted 
for  crucibles,  and  steel  basins  faced  with  bono  ash,  for 
cuppls,  in  silver  and  gold  assaying.  From  the  small  size 
of  the  beads  obtained,  espjcially  when  the  ores  of  the  pre- 
cious metals  are  operated  upon,  tho  results  are  often  such 
as  cannot  be  weighed,  and  they  are  then  measured  by  a 
tangent  scale,  and  the  weight  computed  from  the  observed 
diameter.  This  method,  derised  by  Harkort,  gives  very 
accurate  lesults  when  carefully  used,  bat  owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  sampling  the  minute  quantities  operated  upon 
80  as  to  represent  the  bulk  of  the  mineral  faidy,  the 
quantitative  blowpipe  assay  has  not  made  much  progress. 
Perhaps  the  most  tiseful  quantitative  application  is  in  the 
determination  of  nickel  and  cobalt.  This  depends  upon 
the  fact  that  when  the  compounds  of  these  metals,  as  well 
as  those  of  coppai  and  iron,  with  arsenic,  are  mtlted  in 
contact  with  an  oxidizing  flux,  such  as  borax  or  salt  of 
phosphorus,  iron  is  first  taken  up,  then  cobalt,  and  next 
nickel,  and  finally  copper ;  and  as  the  oxides  of  these 
metals  give  very  different  colours  to  the  flux,  we  are 
enabled  by  examining  the  slag  to  detect  the  exact  moment 
at  which  each  is  removed.  For  the  details  of  the  process 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Planner's  work. 

Among  the  various  arrangements  which  have  been  con- 
trived for  supplying  air  to  the  blowpipe  otherwise  than 
with  the  mouth,  we  may  select  that  represented  in  the 
annexed  figure  (2)  as  one  which  is  generally  sufticient  for 


Tin.  2.— Blowfipe  witu  Btllcws 

practical  purposes  It  will  be  seen  that  the  jet  i  is  sup- 
ported on  a  slide  which  can  be  fixed  by  screwing  in  any 
direction  and  at  any  height  on  tho  rod  s,  which  is  jointed 
on  the  board  b.  The  blast  can  thus  be  adjusted  variously, 
according  to  the  position  given  to  the  blowpipw  lamp  a, 
which  is  of  tho  form  devised  by  Berzelius,  The  bellows 
B,  the  tube  k,  and  the  reservoir  R,  are  of  vulcanized 
india-rubber,  v  and  v  are  valvus.  The  bellows  being 
alternately  compressed  (with  hand  or  foot)  and  allowed  to 
expand,  air  is  (iriven  into  lie  reservoir,  and  a  fresh  supply 
admitted  into  the  bellows  through  v.  After  a  few  trials 
a  constant  blast  may  thus  be  maintained  through  the 
nozzle 


-Suction  of  Blowpipe  for 
Glassblowqig. 


For  glass  blowing  ordinary  coal  gas  is  tho  best  cota 
bustible,  as  the  flame  can  be  well  controlled  by  a  sto|>.' 
cock,  and  requires  no  trimming.  The  natflra  of  the 
apparatus  will  be  understood  from  fig.  3,  which  shows  tha 
burner  in  horizontal  section. 
The  tube  ab  is  screwed  into 
another  tube  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  gas  pipe  er'. 
mn  and  op  are  two  annular  ', 
disks  which  support  the  pipe 
ab;  they  have  a  series  of  open- 
ings round  their  edges,  to 
admit  a  uniform  flow  of  gas 
to  the  narrow  annular  mouth 
between  the  two  tubes  where 
it  joins  the  blast.  The  stop- 
cock /  regulates  the  supply 
of  gas.  The  wind,  supplied 
by  double  bellows  fixed  under 
the  table,  is  sent  through  a 
lead  pipe  on  .which  brass 
nozzles  of  -various  width  can 
be  screwed,  opening  into  ab; 
the  finer  nozzles  being  pushed 
up  nearly  to  the  end  of  this. 
Elastic  tubing  may  sometimes 
be  used  with  advantage  for 
the  connections.  A  modified 
form  of  the  apparatus  is  suit-  ^'""  ^'' 
able  for  ordinary  blowpipe 
researches  of  the  mineralogist  or  chemist  (see  Plalthers 
work,  4th  edition),  and  the  appara- 
tus used  in  hand-soldering  of  metals 
and  other  operations  of  the  workshop 
is  on  the  same  principle.  With  suit- ' 
able  trunnions  the  blowpipe  may  bu 
made  to  point  in  any  direction  as  re- 
qmred. 

The  soldering  lamp  of  tinners  is 
an  example  of  the  seolipile,  an  instru- 
ment which  deserves,  some  notice  here. 
The  spirit  lamp  a  (fig.  4)  is  inserted 
at  the  bottom  of  a  sheet-iron  cylinder  < 
M  N,  which  is  open  on  one  side,  as 
shown.  The  upper  part  of  the  cylinder 
supports  a  strong  cup  of  hammered  metal,  with  an  opening 
foTspirit^s  at  the  top  (closed  by  a  screw  or  cock),  and  a 
beut  tube  coming  down  from  its 
upper  part,  through  a  slit  in  the 
cylinder  to  the  back  of  the  flame. 
The  weak  spirits  which  are  put  in 
the  cup  are  caused  to  boil  by  the 
heat  of  the  lamp,  and  the  vapour, 
escaping  through  the  bent  tube,  pro- 
duces a  jet  of  very  hot  flame.  (The  f'".  5.— Co,-,  of  lig.  4. 
cup  is  shown  separately  in  fig.  5).  Similar  advantage  is 
gained  by  causing  air  to  pass  through  a  quantity  of  soma 
soluble  hydrocarbon  before  it  goes  to  the  nozzle  of  a  blow- 
pipe. 

There  are  several  forms  of  apparatus  in  which  water- 
pressure  is  utilized  for  supplying  a  steady  blast  to  thar 
blowpipe.  One  of  these  consists  of  a  tin  case,  with  an 
oblique  partition  reaching  nearly  to  the  bottom.  The  case 
is  filled  nearly  three-fourths  with  water.  Air  is  blown 
into  tho  compartment  nbich  narrows  upwards  (and  with 
which  the  nozzle  is  connected  above)  by  a  pipe  reachin" 
nciirly  to  the  bottom.  This  air  rises  through  the  water 
and  accumulates  above  it,  forcing  the  water  up  into  iho 
other  compartment,  which  communicates  freely  with  the 
cuter  air.     The  dilference  of  water-level  in  the  two  cLam- 


Fio.  4.  — SolJeriug 
L.amp. 


840 


B  L  U  — B  L  U 


Fio.  6. — Hoi-UliUii  Ulowpipe. 
the  mouth  or  with  india-rubber 


bers  thus  sustains  a  continuous  blast  through  the  nozzle. 
Blowpipes  have  also  been  made  on  the  principle  of  the 
blowin''-machiiie  known  as  tlie  trompe.  Again,  tlie  blast 
is  sometimes  supplied  from  a  chamber  in  which  air  is  con- 
densed by  means  of  a  syringe. 

The  absorption  of  heat  when  an  ordinary  blast  of  cold  air 
(with  Its  large  proportion  of  nitrogen)  is  sent  into  a  flame 
is  considerable ;  and  this  has  suggested  the  employment  of  a 
hot  blast  for  blowpipe  work.  Mr  T.  Flettlier  has  constructed 
an  apparatus  on  this 
pnnciple,  which  yields 
a  very  intense  flame, 
Bufficicnt  to  fuse  plati- 
num wire.  The  arrange- 
ment IS  represented  in 
fig  G  It  will  be  cb- 
served  that  the  pipe  con- 
veying the  blast  is  coiled 
several  times  round  the 
gas  pipe  (for  ordinary 
coal-gas),  and  that  both 
coll  and  core  are  heated 
by  a  row  of  burners 
placed  below.  The  blast 
is  furnished  either  with 
bellows. 

The  power  of  the  blowpipe  flame  may  be  gre.itly  in- 
creased by  supplying  oxygen  in  the  place  of  atmospheric 
air  ,  and  a  still  greater  heat  is  obtained  by  the  combina- 
tion of  pure  oxygen  and  hydrogen.  In  the  latter  arrange- 
ment, which  constitutes  the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe,  it  is 
important  that  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  be  kept  in  sepa- 
rate reservoirs,  and  be  only  allowed  to  mix  at  the  jet, 
otherwise  explosion  may  occur  through  the  flame  running 
back  through  the  jet  to  the  reservoir  of  mixed  gases. 
There  are  various  methods  of  effecting  this,  which  we  do 
no',  stop  to  describe.  The  blue  flame  produced  gives  the 
most  intense  heat  that  is  obtainable  by  artificial  means, 
except  by  the  electric  current.  Thick  platinum  wires  are 
melted  before  it  like  wax  in  a  candle  ilame ;  and  earths, 
such  as  lime,  magnesia,  or  zirconia,  are  raised  to  intense 
incandescence.  Fur  the  application  of  the  oxyhydrogen 
blowpipe  to  the  fusion  of  the  more  refractory  metals,  see 
Platinum. 

The  literature  of  the  blowpipe  is  very  extensive.  The 
e.arlier  notices  of  the  subject  will  be  found  in  Berzehus's 
original  work,  of  which  there  are  English  translations  by 
Children,  published  in  1822,  and  by  J.  D.Whitney  (of  a  later 
edition),  published  in  Boston  in  1845.  The  most  complete 
work,  however,  is  Plattner's  Probirhinst  mil  dem  Liithrohre, 
of  which  there  are  several  editions;  the  fourth  or  latest, 
published  since  the  author's  death,  has  been  edited  by  his 
pupil  and  successor.  Professor  Richter  of  Freiberg.  Au 
English  translation,  by  Professor  H.  B.  Cornwall,  has  been 
published  in  New  York.  For  the  use  of  the  blowpipe  in 
determining  minerals,  the  best  works  are  Scheerer's  Loth- 
rohrluck,  translated  by  Professor  H.  B.  Blanford,  and  a 
itanual  of  Determinative  Mineralogy,  with  an  Introduction 
to  Blowpipe  Anah/sii,  by  Professor  0.  J.  Brush  of  yale 
College.  In  addition  to  these  works,  notices,  more  or  less 
extensive,  will  bo  found  in  most  mineralogical  handbooks 
end  works  on  chemical  analysis.  (a.  b.  m.) 

.BLUCHER,  Gebhakd  Lebereciit  von,  Culd-marshal 
of  the  Prussian  armies,  prince  of  Wahlstadt  in  Silesia,  was 
burn  at  Ko.stock  in  1742.  In  his  fourteenth  year  he 
entered  into  the  service  of  Sweden;  and  in  the  war  between 
that  power  and  Prussia  he  was  talccn  prisoner.  He  after- 
wards entered  into  the  service  of  Prussia,  in  which  he 
became  distinguished  by  his  activity;  but  conceiving  him- 
Btlf  neglected  be  the  great  Frederick,  he  became  a  fanner 


in  Silesia,  and  by  his  enterprise  and  perseverance  in  fifteen 
years  he  acquired  an  honourable  independence.  On  tha 
accession  of  Frederick-NVilham  II.  he  was  recalled  to  mili- 
tary service,  and  replaced  as  major  in  his  old  regiment, 
the  Black  Hussars,  where  he  distinguished  himself  in  six 
general  actions  against  the  French,  rose  to  the  rank  of 
colonel  and  major-general  in  1703-4,  and  gained  a  high 
reputation  by  his  energy,  promptitude,  and  foresight.  Ha 
was  in  a  subordinate  command  in  the  disastrous  battle  of 
Jena  in  1802;  bat  he  made  a  masterly  retreat  with  his 
column  to  Lubeck,  and  extorted  the  praises  of  his 
adversaries,  who  testified  on  his  capitulation  that  it  was 
caused  by  "  want  of  provisions  and  ammuniticm."  He  was 
soon  exchanged  for  General  Victor,  and  was  actively 
employed  in  Pomerania,  at  Berlin,  and  at  Kbnigsberg,  until 
the  conclusion  of  the  war.  When  Prussia  shook  off  the 
French  yoke  in  1813,  he  first  obtained  a  separate  command. 
At  the  head  of  GO, 000  troops,  chiefly  composed  of  raw 
militia,  he  defeated  four  French  marshals  at  K.atsbach,  and 
rapidly  crossing  the  Elbe,  materially  contributed  to  the 
signal  victory  of  Leipsir,  In  several  severe  actions  he 
fought  his  way  to  Paris,  which  he  entered  on  31st  March 
1814;  and  there,  it  has  been  stated,  but  for  the  interven- 
tion of  the  other  allied  commanders,  he  was  disposed  to 
make  a  severe  retaliation  for  the  calamities  that  Prussia 
had  suffered  from  the  armies  of  France.  Blowing  up  the 
bridge  of  Jena  across  the  Seine  was  said  to  be  one  of  his 
contemplated  acts.  When  war  again  broke  out  in  1815, 
the,  veteran  was  at  the  head  of  the  Prussian  armies  in 
Belgium,  and  exhibited  his  wonted  enterprise  and  activity. 
But  partly  owing  to  his  own  confidence  and  temerity, 
partly  to  the  skilful  strategy  of  his  celebrated  opponent,  he 
was  defeated  in  the  severe  battle  of  Ligny  on  16th  of  June; 
yet,  with  his  characteristic  spirit  and  energy,  Bliicher  rallied 
his  defeated  forces,  and  appeared  on  the  field  of  Waterloo  on 
the  18th,  just  as  Wellington  had  repulsed  the  last  attack  of 
Napoleon  on  the  British  position.  At  that  critical  moment 
Bliicher  was  seen  emerging  from  the  wood  of  Frichemont 
on  the  French  right;  and  the  simultaneous  irresistible 
charge  of  the  British  forces  converted  the  retreat  of  the 
French  into  a  tumultuous  flight.  The  allied  commanders 
met  on  the  Genappes  road,  near  the  farm  called  Maison  du 
Koi,  where  the  British  forces  were  halted.  The  pursuit 
was  continued  through  the  night  by  sixteen  fresh  Prussian 
regiments  with  terrible  carnage.  The  allies  soon  again 
entered  Paris,  where  Bliicher  remained  for  several  months; 
but  the  health  of  the  aged  commander  having  declined,  he 
retired  to  his  Silesian  residence  at  Kirblowitz,  where  he 
died  on  the  12th  September  1819,  aged  seventy -seven. 
The  life  of  Bliicher  has  been  written  by  Vamhagen  von 
Ense  (1827),  Rauschnick  (1836),  Bieske  (1862),  and 
Schcrr  (18G2). 

BLU  MEN  BACH,  Johann  Fbiedhich,  a  distinguished 
physiologist,  was  bom  at  Gotha  on  the  1 1  th  of  May  1752. 
He  studied  medicine  at  Jena,  and  afterwards  at  Got- 
tingcn,  whore  ho  took  the  degree  of  doctor  in  1775.  His 
thesis  on  that  occasion  De  Generis  Ilumani  Varietate 
Nativa,  published  in  quarto,  was  tlic  germ  of  those  cranio- 
logical  researches  to  which  so  many  of  his  subsequent 
inquiries  were  directed ;  and  such  was  the  opinion  enter- 
tained of  his  acquirements,  that  he  was  appointed  an 
adjunct  or  extraordinary  professor  of  medicine  in  the 
following  year,  and  ordinary  professor  in  1778;  soon  after 
which  period  he  began  to  enrich  the  p.agc^  of  the  Midictn- 
ischc  JJibliothek,  of  wliich  he  was  editor  from  1780  to  1794, 
with  various  contributions  on  medicine,  physiology,  and 
anatomy.  In  physiology  lie  was  of  the  school  of  llaller, 
and  was  in  the  habit  of  illustrating  his  theory  by  a  careful 
comparison  of  the  animal  functions  of  man  with  tlir.sc  of 
the  i.iwer  animals,     His  reputation  was  much  extended  by 


B  0  A  -  R  0 


841 


the  publication  of  his  excellent  Irutiiutiena  Physiologicae, 
a  coudeased,  well-arranged  view  of  the  animal  (unctions, 
ex|>0Uiided  without  discussion  of  minute  anatuiiiical  details. 
This  work  appeared  in  1787,  and  between  its  first  publi- 
cation and  1821  went  through  many  editions  in  Germany, 
where  it  was  the  general  text-book  of  the  science.  It  was 
translated  into  English  in  America  by  Caldwell  in  1798, 
and  in  London  by  EUiotson  in  1807. 

BluMenbach  was  perhaps  still  more  extensively  known 
by  his  admirable  Uandbuch  of  comparative  anatomy,  of 
which  the  German  editions  were  numerous,  from  ita 
appearance  in  1805  to  1824.  It  was  translated  into 
Knglish  lu  1809  by  the  eminent  surgeon  Lawrence,  and 
again,  with  the  latest  improvements  and  editions,  by  Coul- 
son  in  1827.  This  manual  of  Blumenbach's,  though  slighter 
than  the  subsequent  works  of  Cuvier,  Carus,  and  others, 
and  not  to  be  compared  with  such  recent  expositions  as 
that  of  Gegenbaur,  will  always  be  esteemed  for  the  accuracy 
of  the  author's  on-n  obser\'ations,  and  his  just  appreciation 
of  the  labours  of  his  predecessors. 

One  of  the  most  extensive  of  Blumenbach's  works  was 
the  Dkos  CMectionis  suae  Craniorum  Diversarum  Gentium 
illustrala.  in  which  accurate  though  slight  delineations  of 
the  skulls  in  his  noble  collection  are  given,  with  brief 
descriptions  of  each.  It  appeared  in  fasciculi,  until  sixty 
crania  were  represented, — exhibiting  in  a  striking  manner 
the  peculiarities  in  form  of  the  skuUs  of  different  nations, 
and  justifying  the  division  of  the  human  race  into  several 
great  varieties  or  families,  of  which  he  enumerated  five — 
the  Caucasian  or  white  race,  the  Mongolian  or  Tatar,  the 
Malayan  or  brown  race,  the  Negro  or  black  race,  and  the 
American  or  red  race.  The  classification  he  thus  proposed 
has  been  very  generally  received,  and  most  later  schemes 
have  been  modifications  of  it  For  these  see  the  article 
Akthropolooy,  vol  li.  p.  113. 

Although  the  greatest  part  of  Blumenbach's  long  life 
was  passed  at  Goltingen,  in  1789  he  found  leisure  to  visit 
Switzerland,  and  gave  a  curious  medical  topography  of 
that  country  in  his  BiblioOiek.  He  was  in  England  in 
1788  and  1792.  The  Prince  Regent  conferred  on  him  the 
office  of  physician  to  the  royal  family  in  Hanover  ic 
1816,  and  made  him  knight  companion  of  the  Guelphic 
order  in  1821.  The  Royal  Academy  of  Paris  elected  him 
a  member  in  1831.  He  died  at  Gbttingen  on  the  22d  of 
January  1840. 

BOA,  a  name  formerly  applied  to  all  large  Serpents, 
which,  devoid  of  poison  fangs,  killed  th-eir  prey  by  con- 
striction; but  now  confined  to  that  section  of  them  occur- 
ring in  America,  the  Old  World  forms  being  known  as 
Pythons.  The  true  boas  are  widely  distributed  throughout 
tropical  America,  occurring  most  abundantly  in  Guiana 
and  Brazil,  where  they  are  found  in  dry  sandy  localities, 
amid  forests,  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes,  and  in  the 
water  itself,  according  to  the  habits  of  the  various  species. 
They  feed  chiefly  on  the  smaller  quadrupeds,  in  search  of 
which  they  often  ascend  trees,  suspending  themselves  from 
the  branches  by  the  tail,  and  thus  awaiting  motionless 
the  approach  of  their  victim.  While  so  hanging  they  are 
partly  supported  by  two  spine-Lke  hooks,  situated  one  on 
each  side  of  the  vent,  which  are  connected  with  several 
small  bones  concealed  beneath  the  skin  and  attached  to 
the  main  skeleton.  These  bones,  terminating  thus  in  an 
eiternal  claw,  are  characteristic  of  the  family  Boida,  and 
are  recognized  by  anatomists  as  the  rudiments  of  those 
which  form  the  hind  limbs  in  all  quadrupeds.  The  size  of 
the  boa's  prey  often  seems  enormously  beyond  ita  apparent 
capacity  for  swallowing,  a  dilEculty  which  disappears  on 
ocquaintance  with  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  creature's 
jaws.  The  bones  composing  these  arc  not  knit  together  as 
in  Mammals,  but  are  merely  connected  by  ligaments,  which 


can  M  distended  at  pleasure.  Fhe  mouth  of  the  boa  can 
thus  be  made  to  open  transversely  as  well  as  vertically  ; 
and  in  addition  to  this  the  two  jaws  are  not  connected 
directly  as  in  other  animals,  but  by  the  intervention  of  a 
distinct  bone,  which  adds  greatly  tonhe  extent  of  its  gape. 
It  has  also  the  power  of  moving  one  half  of  the  jaw  in- 
dependently of  the  other,  and  can  thus  keep  a  firm  hold  of 
its  victim-  while  gradually  swallowing  it.  The  boa  pos- 
sesses a  double  row  of  solid  sharp  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw, 
and  a  single  row  beneath,  all  pointing  inwards,  so  that, 
its  prey  once  caught,  it  would  be  well-iiigh  iinjiossible 
even  for  the  boa  itself  to  release  it.  After  feeding,  boas, 
like  all  other  reptiles,  become  inactive,  and  remain  so  whili 
the  process  of  digestion  is  going  on,  which,  in  the  case  of 
a  full  meal,  may  extend  over  a  few  weeks,  and  during  this 
period  they  are  readily  killed.  Ail  the  species  are  ovo- 
viviparous.  The  Jiboya or  Boa  conslri<lor — the  latter  name 
having  been  loosely  given  to  all  the  species — is  an  in- 
habitant of  the  dry  and  sandy  districts  of  tropical  America, 
and  rarely  exceeds  20  feet  in  length.  Its  food  consists 
chiefly  of  the  agoutis,  capybaras,  and  ant-bears,  which 
abound  in  those  districts.  It  seeks  to  avoid  man,  and  is 
not  feared  by  the  inhabitants,  who  kill  it  readily  with  a 
sharp  blow  from  a  stick.  The  Water-Boa  or  Anaconda 
(Eunectena  murinus)  is  a  much  more  formidable  creature, 
attaining,  it  is  said,  a  length  of  40  feet,  and  being  thus 
probably  the  largest  of  living  serpents.  It  inhabits  the 
lakes,  rivers,  and  marshes  of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  and 
passes  a  considerable  portion  of  its  existence  in  the  water, 
it  is  exceedingly  voracious,  feeding  on  fishes  and  on  such 
animals  as  may  come  to  the  banks  of  the  stream  to  drink, 
for  which  it  lies  in  wait  with  only  a  small  part  of  its  head 
above  the  surface  of  the  water.  It  also  occasionally  visits 
the  farmyards,  carrying  off  poultry  and  young  cattle,  and 
It  has  been  known  to  attack  man. 

BOADICEA,  a  British  queen  in  the  time  of  the  Em- 
peror Nero.  She  was  wife  of  Prasutagus,  king  of  the 
Iceni,  a  people  inhabiting  the  eastern  coast  of  Britain.  On 
his  deathbed,  60  A.D.,  Prasutagus  named  the  emperor  heir 
to  his  accumulated  treasures  conjointly  with  his  own  two 
daughters,  in  expectation  of  securing  thereby  Nero's  pro- 
tection for  his  family  and  people  ;  but  he  was  no  sooner 
dead  than  the  emperor's  oflicers  seized  all.  Boadicea's 
opposition  to  these  unjust  proceedings  was  resented  with 
such  cruelty,  that  orders  were  given  that  she  should  be 
publicly  whipped,  and  her  daughters  exposed  to  the 
brutality  of  the  soldiers.  The  Britons  took  up  arms,  with 
Boadicea  ot  their  head,  to  shake  oB'  the  Roman  yoke  ;  the 
colony  of  Camalodunum  or  Colchester  was  taken,  and  the 
Romans  were  massacred  wherever  they  could  be  found. 
The  whole  province  of  Britain  would  have  been  lost  to 
Rome,  it  Suetonius  Paulinus  had  not  hastened  from  the 
Isle  of  Mona,  and  at  the  head  of  10^000  men  engaged  the 
Britons,  who  are  said  to  have  amounted  to  230,000.  A 
great  battle  was  fought,  which  resulted  in  the  complete 
defeat  of  the  Britons  (62  a.d.)  Boadicea,  who  had  dis- 
played extraordinary  valour,  soon  after  despatched  herself 
by  poison.     (Tac.  Ann.  xiv.  Ai/nc,  15-16;  Dion  Cass.  Ix-ii.) 

BO.^R,  Wild  (Sus  scrofa),  an  important  species  of 
Suijii,  a  family  of  Pachydermatous  Mammals,  and  gene- 
rally regarded  as-the  original  stock  of  our  domestic  breeds 
of  swine.  In  size  it  is  equal  to  the  largest  of  the 
domestic  kinds,  while  exceeding  them  all  in  strength  of 
body  and  in  ferocity  of  disposition.  It  is  of  a  greyish- 
black  colour,  covered  with  short  woolly  hair,  thickly  inter- 
spersed with  coarse  stiff  bristles,  which  assume  the  form  of 
a  mane  along  the  spine.  The  canine  teeth  arc  krgely 
developed,  forming  two  pairs  of  prism-shaped  tusks,  which 
thus  become  formidable  weapons.  In  old  age  those  tusks 
in  the  lower  jaw  gradually  curve  inwards  and  upwards  over 
■   ■  IIL  —   io6 


842 


B  0  B  — B  0  C 


the  snout  until  they  are  rendered  useless  for  purposes  of 
attack,  when,  according  to  Darwin,  they  become  serviceable 
for  defence  iQ  the  frequent  fights  which  take  place  during 
the  rutting  season  At  the  same  time,  the  canines  of  the 
upper  jaw  begin  to  develop  outwards  and  upwards,  and 
these  take  the  place  of  the  lower  ones  as  ofifensive  weapons. 
The  wild  boar  is  a  native  of  the  temperate  regions  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  where  it  inhabits  the  deepest  recesses  of 
forests  and  marshy  grounds.  Vambery,  in  his  recent 
journey  through  Central  Asia,  found  them  in  enormous 
numbers  in  the  extensive  swamps  of  Turkestan.  They 
appear  to  have  been  denizens  of  British  forests  at  least  till 
the  reign  of  Henry  H.,  after  which  they  are  not  heard 
of  tiU  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  when  an  attempt  to  restock 
the  New  Forest  with  them  failed.  In  the  reign  of  William 
the  Conqueror  any  one  killing  a  wild  boar  was  liable  to 
have  his  eyes  put  out.  After  reaching  maturity  tho  boar 
becomes  a  solitary  animal,  unless  during  the  breeding 
season,  when  it  seeks  the  female,  and  at  this  time  they 
engage  in  fierce  contests  with  each  other,  although  these, 
it  is  said,  seldom  lead  to  fatal  results,  as  they  contrive  to 
receive  the  blows  on  their  tusks,  or  on  the  specially  tough 
skiQ  which  covers  their  shoulders.  The  Indian  Wild 
lioar  (Sus  indicus)  is  undoubtedly  polygamous,  and  there 
are  several  facts  which  point  to  a  similar  habit  in  the 
European  boar.  Both  species  are  nocturnal,  issuing  from 
their  coverts  at  twilight  in  quest  of  food.  This  is  chiefly 
of  a  vegetable  nature,  consisting  of  roots  which  it  ploughs 
up  by  means  of  its  broad  muscular  snout  and  of  grain  ; 
although  they  are  also  known  to  devour  the  smaller  mam- 
mals, birds,  and  eggs.  The  female  is  ordLiarily  a  timid 
creature,  but  shows  great  courage  and  fierceness  in  defence 
of  its  young.  It  associates  with  other  females  for  mutual 
protection  against  wolves.  The  wild  boar  was  for  many 
centuries  a  favourite  beast  of  chase  with  the  nobility  of 
Europe.  It  was  hunted  on  foot  with  the  spear, — its  great 
strength,  and  its  ferocity  when  at  bay,  rendering  the  sport 
alike  exciting  and  dangerous.  The  gun  has  now  super- 
seded the  spear  in  European  boar-hunting,  but  owing  to 
the  comparative  scarcity  of  the  boars  it  is  now  little 
practised.  In  India,  however,  where  these  animals  abound 
in  the  jungles,  it  is  still  a  favourite  sport,  the  boar  being 
pursued  on  horseback  and  speared.  The  bristles  of  the 
boar  are  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brushes. 

BOATBUILDING.     See  Suip-buildino. 

BOBRUISK,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of 
Minsk,  110  miles  S.E.  of  that  city,  in  53°  15'  N.  lat  and 
28°  52'  E.  long.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Berezina,  near 
the  confluence  of  the  Bobruiska,  on  the  high  road  from 
Mogileff  to  Brest-Litovsk.  Bobruisk  was  an  unimportant 
place  irx-L508,  whun  the  Moscovite  army,  sent  by  the  Em- 
peror Basil  against  the  Polish  king  Sigismund,  advanced 
towards  it.  In  the  17th  century  there  existed  a  castle, 
which  wa»  burned  down  in  1G49.  When  the  Minsk 
government  was  incorporated  with  Russia,  Bobruisk  was  a 
small  borough  ;  but  in  1795  it  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
chief  town  of  a  department  in  the  Minsk  government  In 
the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  I.  there  was 
erected  at  Bobruisk,  by  the  advice  of  General  Osterman,  a 
fort,  which  obtained  great  importance  in  1812,  and  was 
made  equal  to  the  best  in  Europe  by  the  Emperor  Paul  I. 
The  fort  proper  is  built  on  a  height  exactly  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Bobruiska  with  tho  Berezina,  nearly  a  mile 
from  the  town.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  former  river  is 
another  small  fort,  called  Fort  Frederick  William,  well  sujv 
portcd  by  a  lino  of  defences.  In  ItJGO  the  population  of 
Bobruisk  w:i3  23, 7G1,  of  whom  11,394  were  Jews.  It  has  2 
Urook  churches,  1 7  synagogues,  a  military  hospitaJ,  and  a  de- 
partmental college.  The  only  industrial  establisliments  arc 
two  potteries.     On  the  river  near  tho  town  there  is  a  har- 


bour, by  which  grain   and  salt   are   imported  from  the 
southern  governments. 

BOCCACCIO,  Giov  ANN-1.  Comparatively  little  is  known 
of  Boccaccio's  life,  particularly  of  the  earlier  portion  of  it. 
He  was  born  in  1313,  as  we  know  from  a  letter  of  Petrarch, 
in  which  that  poet,  who  was  born  in  1304,  calls  himself 
the  senior  of  his  friend  by  nine  years.  The  place  of  his 
birth  is  somewhat  doubtful, "—Florence,  Pans,  and  Certaldo 
being  all  mentioned  by  various  writers  as  his  native  city. 
Boccaccio  undoubtedly  calls  himself  a  Florentine,  but  this 
may  refer  merely  to  the  Florentine  citizenship  acquired  by 
his  grandfather.  The  claim  of  Paris  has  been  supported 
by  Bildelli  and  Tiraboschi,  mainly  on  the  ground  that  his 
mother  was  a  lady  of  good  family  in  that  city,  where  she 
met  Boccaccio's  father.  The  balance  of  evidence  is  de- 
cidedly in  favour  of  Certaldo,  a  small  town  or  castle  in  the 
valley  of  the  Elsa,  20  miles  from  Florence,  where  the  family 
had  some  property,  and  where  the  poet  spent  much  of  tho 
latter  part  of  his  life.  He  always  signed  his  name  Boc- 
caccio da  Certaldo,  and  named  that  town  as  his  birthplace 
in  his  own  epitaph.  Petrarch  calls  his  friend  Certaldese  ; 
and  Filippo  Yillani,  a  contemporary,  distinctly  says  that 
Boccaccio  was  born  in  Certaldo. 

Boccaccio,  an  illegitimate  son,  as  is  put  beyond  dispute 
by  the  fact  that  a  special  licence  had  to  be  obtained  when 
he  desired  to  become  a  priest,  was  brought  up  with  tender 
care  by  his  father,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  merchant  of 
respectable  rank.  His  elementary  education  he  received 
from  Giovanni  da  Strada,  an  esteemed  teacher  of  grammar 
in  Florence.  But  at  an  early  age  he  was  apprenticed  to 
an  eminent  merchant,  with  whom  he  remained  for  six 
years,  a  time  entirely  lost  to  him,  if  we  may  believe  his 
own  statement.  For  from  his  tenderest  years  his  soul  was 
attached  to  that  "  alma  pocsis,"  which,  on  his  tombstone, 
he  names  as  the  task  and  study  of  his  life.  In  one  of  his 
works  he  relates  that,  in  his  seventh  year,  before  he  had 
ever  seen  a  book  of  poetry  or  learned  the  rules  of  metrical 
composition,  he  began  to  write  verse  in  his  childish  fashion, 
and  earned  for  himself  amongst  his  friends  the  name  of 
"  the  poet."  It  is  uncertain  where  Boccaccio  passed  these 
six  years  of  bondage ;  most  likely  ho  followed  his  master 
to  various  centres  of  commerce  in  Italy  and  France.  We 
know  at  least  that  he  was  in  Naples  and  Paris  for  some 
time,  and  the  youthful  impressions  received  in  the  latter 
city,  as  well  as  tho  knowledge  of  the  French  language 
acquired  there,  were  of  considerable  influence  on  his  later 
career.  Yielding  at  last  to  his  son's  immutable  aversion 
to  commerce,  the  elder  Boccaccio  permitted  him  to  adopt 
a  course  of  study  somewhat  more  congenial  to  the  literary 
tastes  of  the  young  man.  He  was  sent  to  a  celebrated 
professor  of  canon  law,  at  that  time  an  important  field  of 
action  both  to  the  student  and  the  practical  jurist  Accord- 
ing to  some  accounts — far  from  authentic,  it  is  true — this 
professor  wxs  Cino  da  Pistoia,  the  friend  of  Dante,  and 
himself  a  celebrated  poet  and  scholar.  But,  whoever  he 
may  have  been,  Boccaccio's  master  was  unable  to  inspire 
his  pupil  with  scientific  ardour.  "  Again,"  Boccaccio  says, 
"  I  lost  nearly  six  years.  And  so  nauseous  was  this  study 
to  my  mind,  that  neither  the  teaching  of  my  master,  nor 
the  authority  and  command  of  my  father,  nor  yet  the 
exertions  and  reproof  of  my  friends,  could  make  nie  take 
to  it,  for  my  love  of  poetry  was  invincible" 

About  1333  Boccaccio  settled  for  some  years  at  Naples, 
apparently  sent  there  by  hjs  father  to  resume  his  mcrcin- 
tile  pursuits,  the  canon  law  being  finally  abandoned.  The 
place,  it  must  bo  confessed,  was  little  adapted  to  lead  to 
a  practical  view  of  life  one  in  whose  heart  tho  love  of 
poetry  was  firmly  rooted.  The  court  of  King  Robert  of 
Anjou  at  Naples  was  frequented  by  many  Italian  and 
Fr<uich  r"">  of  letters,  the  great  Petrarch  amongst  the 


BOCCACCIO- 


843 


cumber.  At  the  Litter's  public  examinatioa  m  the  noble 
eiii-nco  of  poetry  by  the  king,  previous  to  his  receiving  the 
hurel  cromi  at  Rome,  Boccaccio  was  present, — without, 
however,  makiiiy  bis  personal  acquaintance  at  this  period. 
In  the  atmuspbere  of  thus  guy  court,  enlivened  and  adorned 
by  the  wit  of  men  and  the  beauty  of  women,  Boccaccio 
lived  for  several  years  We  can  imagine  how  the  lodious 
duties  of  the  market  and  the  counting-house  beciime 
more  and  more  distasteful  to  his  aspiring  nature  We 
are  told  that  finding  himself  by  chance  on  the  supposed 
grave  of  Virgil,  near  Naples,  Boccaccio  on  that  sacred 
spot  took  the  tirra  resolution  of  devoting  himself  for  ever 
to  poetry.  Uut  perhaps  another  event,  which  happened 
some  time  after,  led  quite  as  much  as  the  first  mentioned 
occurrence  to  this  decisive  turning  point  iu  his  life.  On 
Easter-eve,  1341,  in  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo,  Boccaccio 
saw  for  the  first  time  the  natural  daughter  of  King  Robert, 
Maria,  whom  he  immortalized  as  Fiammetta  in  the  noblest 
creations  of  his  muse.  Boccaccio's  pa.';sion  on  seeing  her 
was  instantaneous,  and  (if  we  may  accept  as  genuine  the  con- 
fession.s  contained  in  one  of  her  lover's  works)  was  returned 
with  equal  ardour  on  the  part  of  the  lady.  But  not  till 
after  much  delay  did  she  yield  to  the  amorous  demands  of 
the  poet,  in  spite  of  her  honour  and  her  duty  as  the  wife 
of  another.  All  the  information  we  have  with  regard  to 
Maria  or  Fiammetta  is  derived  from  the  works  of  Boc- 
caccio himself,  and  owing  to  several  apparently  contradic- 
tory statements  occurring  in  these  works,  the  verj  existence 
of  the  lady  has  been  doubted  by  commentators,  who  seem 
to  forget  that,  surrounded  by  the  chattering  tongues  of  a 
court,  and  watched  perhaps  by  a  jealous  husband,  Boc- 
caccio had  all  possible  reason  to  give  the  appearance  of 
fictitious  incongruity  to  the  cfl"usions  of  his  real  passion. 
But  there  seems  no  more  reason  to  call  into  question  the 
main  features  of  the  story,  or  even  the  identity  of  the  person, 
than  there  would  be  in  the  case  of  Petrarch's  Laura  or  of 
Dante's  Beatrice.  It  has  been  ingeniously  pointed  out  by 
Baldelli,  that  the  fact  of  her  descent  from  King  Robert 
being  known  cyily  to  Maria  herself,  and  through  h(r  to 
Boccaccio,  the  latter  was  the  more  at  liberty  to  refer  to 
this  circumstance, — the  bold  expression  of  the  truth  serving 
in  this  case  to  iiicreasethe  mystery  withwluch  thepoetsof  the 
Middle  Ages  loved,  or  were  obliged,  to  surround  the  objects 
of  their  praise.  From  Boccaccio's  Ameto  we  learn  that 
Maria's  mother  was,  like  his  own,  a  French  lady,  whose 
husband,  according  to  Baldelli's  ingenious  conjecture,  was 
of  the  noble  house  of  Aquino,  and  therefore  of  the  same 
family  with  the  celebrated  Thomas  Aquinas.  Maria  died, 
according  to  his  account,  long  before  her  lover,  who 
cherished  her  memory  to  the  end  of  his  life,  as  we  see 
from  a  sonnet  written  shortly  before  his  death. 

The  first  work  of  Boccaccio,  composed  by  him  at  Fiam- 
metta's  command,  was  the  jirose  talc,  Filocopo,  describing 
the  romantic  love  and  adventures  of  Florio  and  Bianca- 
fiore,  a  favourite  subject  with  the  knightly  minstrels  of 
France,  Italy,  and  Germany.  The  tre.itment  of  the  story 
by  Boccaccio  is  not  remarkable  for  originality  or  iieauty, 
and  the  narrative  is  encumbered  by  classical  allusions  and 
allegorical  conceits.  The  style  also  cannot  be  held  worthy 
of  the  future  great  master  of  Italian  prose.  Considering, 
however,  that  this  prose  was  in  its  infancy,  and  that  this 
was  Boccaccio's  first  attempt  at  remoulding  the  unwieldy 
material  at  his  disposal,  it  would  be  unjust  to  deny  that 
Fil'Kopo  is  a  highly  interesting  work,  full  of  promise  and 
all  but  articulate  power. 

Another  work,  written  about  the  same  time  by  Fiam- 
itictta's  desire  and  dedicated  to  her,  is  the  Teseidf,  an  epic 
poem,  and  indeed  the  first  heroic  epic  in  the  Italian  lan- 
guage. The  name  is  chosen  somewhat  inajipropriately,  as 
King  Theseus  plays  a  secondary  part,  and  the  interest  of 


the  story  centres  in  the  two  noble  knights,  PaletnoDe  and 
Arcito,  and  their  wooing  of  the  beautiful  Emelia.  The 
Tesride  is  of  particular  interest  to  the  student  of  poetry, 
because  it  exhibits  the  first  example  of  the  oUava  rima,  a 
metre  which  has  been  adopted  by  Tasso  and  Ariosto,  and 
in  our  own  language  by  Byron  in  his  D<m  Juan.  Another 
link  between  Boccaccio's  epic  and  our  literature  is  formed 
by  the  fact  of  Chaucer  having  in  the  Jimglu'i  Tale 
adopted  its  main  features. 

Boccaccio's  poetry  has  been  severely  criticized  by  his 
countrymen,  and  most  severely  by  the  author  himself.  On 
reading  Petrarch's  sonnets,  Boccaccio  resolved  in  a  fit  of 
despair  to  burn  his  own  attempts,  and  only  the  kindly 
encouragement  of  his  great  friend  prevented  the  holocaust. 
Posterity  has  justly  differed  from  the  author's  sweeping 
self-criticism.  It  is  true,  that  compared  with  Dante's 
grandeur  and  passion,  and  with  Petrarch's  absolute  master- 
ship of  metre  and  language,  Boccaccio's  poetry  seems  to  bo 
somewhat  thrown  into  shade.  His  verse  is  occasionally 
slipshod,  and  particularly  his  epic  poetry  lacks  what  in 
modern  parlance  is  called  poetic  diction, — the  quality, 
that  is,  which  distinguishes  the  elevated  pathos  of  the 
recorder  of  heroic  deeds  from  the  easy  grace  of  the  mere 
conteuT.  This  latter  feature,  so  charmingly  displayed  in 
Boccaccio's  prose,  has  to  some  extent  proved  fatal  to  his 
verse.  At  the  same  time,  his  narrative  is  always  fluent 
and  interesting,  and  his  IjTical  pieces,  particularly  the 
poetic  interludes  in  the  Decameron,  abound  with  charming 
gallantry,  and  frequently  rise  to  lyrical  pathos. 

About  the  year  1341  Boccaccio  returned  to  Florence  by 
command  of  his  father,  who  in  his  old  age  desired  the 
assistance  and  company  of  his  soa  Florence,  at  that  time 
disturbed  by  civil  feuds,  and  the  silent  gloom  of  his  father's 
house  could  not  but  appear  in  an  unfavourable  light  to 
one  accustomed  to  the  gay  life  of  the  Neapolitan  court. 
But  more  than  all  this,  Boccaccio  regretted  the  separation 
from  his  beloved  Fiammetta.  The  thought  of  her  at  once 
embittered  and  consoled  his  loneline.<;s.  Three  of  his 
works  owe  their  existence  to  this  period.  With  all  of  them 
Fiammetta  is  connected  ;  of  one  of  them  she  alone  is  the 
subject. 

The  first  work,  called  Ameto,  describes  tbt  civilizing 
influence  of  love,  which  subdues  the  ferocious  manners  of 
the  savage  with  its  gentle  power.  Fiammetta,  although 
not  the  heroine  of  the  story,  is  among.st  the  nymphs  who 
with  their  tales  of  true  love  soften  the  mind  of  the  hunts- 
man. 

Amclo  is  written  in  prose  alternating  with  verse,  speci- 
mens of  which  form  occur  in  old  and  middle-Latin 
writings.  It  is  more  probable,  however,  that  Boccaccio 
adopted  it  from  that  sweetest  and  purest  blossom  of 
mediaeval  French  literature,  Avcassin  tl  ^'tcoletlt,  which 
dates  from  the  13th  century,  and  was  undoubtedly  known 
to  him.  So  pleased  was  Boccaccio  with  the  idea  em- 
bodied in  the  character  of  Avieto  that  1^3  repeated  its 
essential  features  iu  the  Cimoue  of  his  Decameron  (Day 
5th,  talc  i.) 

The  second  work  referred  to  is  a  poem  in  fifty  chapters, 
called  L'amarosa  Vifione.  It  describes  a  dream  in  which 
the  poet,  guided  by  a  lady,  sees  the  heroes  and  lovers  of 
ancient  and  mediaeval  times.  Boccaccio  evidently  has 
tried  to  imitate  the  celebrated  Trionji  of  Petrarch,  but 
without  much  success.  There  is  little  organic  development 
in  the  poem,  which  reads  like  the  catalogue  raisonni  of  a 
picture  gallery  ;  but  it  is  remarkable  from  another  point 
of  view.  It  is  perhaps  the  most  astounding  instance  in 
literature  of  ingenuity  wasted  on  trifles  ;  even  Edgar  Poc, 
had  he  known  Boccaccio's  puzzle,  must  have  confessed  him- 
self surpassed.  For  the  whole  of  the  Aviorosa  Visione  is 
nothing  but  an  acrostic  on  a  gigantic  scale     The  poem 


544 


BOCCACCIO 


13  written,  like  the  Divina  Commedia,  in  tersa  rima,  and 
the  initial  letters  of  all  the  triplets  throughout  the  work 
compose  three  poems  of  considerable  length,  in  the  firsl  of 
which  the  whole  is  dedicated  to  Boccaccio's  lady-love,  this 
time  under  her  real  name  of  Maria.  In  addition  to  this, 
the  initial  letters  of  the  first,  third,  fifth,  seventh,  and 
ninth  lines  of  the  dedicatory  poem  form  the  name  of  Maria  ; 
60  that  here  we  have  the  acrostic  in  the  second  decree  No 
wonder  that  thus  entrammelled  the  poet's  thought  begins 
to  tJag  and  his  language  to  halt. 

The  third  important  work  written  by  Boccaccio  during 
his  stay  at  Florence,  or  soon  after  his  return  to  Naples,  is 
called  L  am/rrosa  Fiammella  ,  and  although  written  in  prose. 
It  contains  more  real  poetry  than  the  elaborate  production 
just  referred  to  It  purports  to  be  Fiammetta's  com- 
plaint after  her  lover,  following  the  call  of  filial  duty,  had 
deserted  her  Bitterly  she  deplores  her  fate,  and  upbraids 
her  lover  with  coldness  and  want  of  devotion.  Jealous 
fears  add  to  her  torture,  not  altogether  unfounded,  if  we 
believe  the  commentators'  assertion  that  the  heroine  of 
Ameto  u  in  reality  the  beautiful  Lucia,  a  Florentine  lady 
loved  by  Boccaccio  Sadly  Fiammetta  recalls  the  moments 
of  former  bliss  the  first  meeting,  the  stolen  embrace  Her 
narrative  is  indeed  our  chief  source  of  information  for  the 
incidents  of  this  strange  love-story.  It  has  been  thought 
unlikely,  and  indeed  impossible,  that  Boccaccio  should 
thus  have  become  the  mouthpiece  of  a  real  lady's  real 
passion  for  himself  but  there  seems  nothing  incongruous 
in  the  supposition  that  after  a  happy  reunion  the  poet 
should  have  heard  with  satisfaction,  and  surrounded  with 
the  halo  of  ideal  art.  the  story  of  his  lady's  sulferings. 
Moreover,  the  language  i.":  too  full  of  individual  intensity 
to  make  the  conjecture  of  an  entirely  fictitious  love  affair 
intrinsically  probable  Lamorosa  Fiammetta  la  a  monody 
of  passion  sustained  even  to  the  verge  of  dulnoss.  but 
stnkiDglv  real    and  therefore  artistically  valuable 

By  the  mtercession  of  an  intluential  friend,  Boccaccio  at 
last  obtained  (in  13441  his  fathers  permission  to  return  to 
Naples,  where  in  the  meantime  Giovanna,  grand-daughter  of 
King  Robert  had  succeeded  to  the  crown  Being  young 
and  beautiful  lonci  of  poetry  and  of  the  praise  of  poets, 
she  received  Boccaccio  witb  all  the  distinction  due  to  his 
literary  fame  For  many  years  she  rein.iined  his  faithful 
Ineod  and  tbe  poei  returned  her  favour  with  grateful 
devotion  Even  wben  the  charge  of  having  instigated,  or 
at  least  connived  at  the  murder  of  her  husband  was  but 
too  clearly  proved  again.st  her.  Boccaccio  wis  amongst  the 
tew  who  stood  by  her  and  undert<iok  the  hopeless  task  of 
deanng  her  name  from  the  dreadful  stain  It  was  by  her 
desire  oo  lei!<!  than  by  thii  of  Fiammetta  that  he  composed 
(between  1344  and  l.iiOi  most  of  the  stories  of  his 
Pfcam.ernn  which  afterwirds  were  collected  and  placed  iii 
the  mouth«  of  thp  Floreniine  ladies  and  gentlemen  During 
'111?  time  he  abo  composed  the  Fdostrato,  a  narrative  poem, 
the  chief  interest  of  whirn  lor  the  English  reader,  lies  in 
Its  connection  with  Chaucer  With  a  boldness  pardonable 
oulv  in  men  of  genius  the  great  English  poet  has  adopted 
'.he  main  features  of  the  plot,  and  has  literally  translated 
part.a  of  Borr.accios  work,  without  so  much  as  mentioning 
the  name  of  his  Italian  source  ' 

In  1350  Boccaccio  returned  to  Florence,  owing  to  the 
death  of  Ills  father,  who  bad  made  him  guardian  to  his 
younger  brother  Jacopo      He  was  received  with  great  dis- 


'  Aroonj  Iho  piilihc.itions  of  [he  Chaucer  Society  for  1873  the  reader 
will  fin.l  »  cirtfiii  annlv.iis  of  Filo.Uraln.  together  with  on  English  tnns- 
Inlion  of  llio  lines  partly  oi  cnlirely  cmhothoil  in  Chauror's  poem,  hy 
Mr  W  M  RoswUi  The  p.irillol  lietwoen  the  treatment  of  tlie  same 
•lory  by  t.vo  pnet.,.  hnth  i^c«l  m  their  in.livi.lual  spheres,  ond  both 
in  •  manner  reproscntilive  of  their  oational  typos  of  hloraturo,  is  of 
WffTouing  lotcrcil 


tinction,  and  entered  the  service  of  thfl  Republic,  being  nt 
various  times  sent  on  important  missions  to  the  margrave 
of  Brandenburg,  and  to"  the  courts  of  several  popes,  both 
in  Avignon  and  Rome.  Boccaccio  boasts  of  the  friendly 
terms  on  which  he  had  been  with  the  great  potentates  of 
Europe,  the  emperor  and  pope  amongst  the  number.  But 
he  was  never  a  politician  in  the  sense  that  Dante  and 
Petrarch  were.  As  a  man  of  the  world  he  enjoyed  the 
society  of  the  great,  but  his  interest  in  the  internal  com- 
motions of  the  Florentine  state  seems  to  have  been  very 
slight.  Besides,  he  never  liked  Florence,  and  the  expressions 
used  by  him  regarding  his  fellow-citizens  betray  anything 
but  patriotic  prejudice.  In  a  Latin  eclogue  he  applies  to 
them  the  term  "  Batrachos  "  (frog),  by  which,  he  adds  paren- 
thetically— Ego  intelUyo  Flurentmorum  morcm  ;  loqxuicis- 
stmt  enim  suirvts,  verum  tn  rebus  bellicu  nihil  vaUmu3. 
The  only  important  result  of  Boccaccio's  diplomatic  career 
was  his  intimacy  with  Petrarch.  Tha  first  acquaintance 
of  these  two  great  men  dates  from  the  year  1350,  wben 
Boccaccio,  then  just  returned  to  Florence,  did  all  id 
his  power  to  make  the  great  poet's  short  stay  in  that  city 
agreeable.  When  in  the  following  year  the  Florentines  were 
an.tious  to  draw  men  of  great  reputation  to  their  newly- 
founded  university,  it  was  again  Boccaccio  who  insisted 
on  the  claims  of  Petrarch  to  the  most  distinguished  posi- 
tion. He  himself  accepted  the  mission  of  inviting  his 
friend  to  Florence,  and  of  announcing  to  Petrarch  at  the 
same  time  that  the  forfeited  estates  of  his  family  had 
been  restored  to  him.  In  this  manner  an  intimate  friend 
ship  grew  up  between  them  to  be  parted  only  by  death. 
Common  interests  and  common  literary  pursuits  were  the 
natural  basis  ot  their  friendship,  and  both  occupy  prominent 
positions  in  the  early  history  of  that  great  intellectuaJ 
revival  commonly  called  Renaissance. 

During  the  14th  century  the  study  of  ancient  literature 
was  at  a  low  ebb  in  Italy.  The  interest  of  the  lay  world 
was  engrossed  by  political  struggles,  and  the  treasures  of 
classical  history  and  poetry  were  at  the  mercy  of  monks, 
too  la^y  or  too  ignorant  to  use,  or  even  to  preserve  them. 
Boccaccio  himself  told  that,  ou  asking  to  see  the  Ubrary  of 
the  celebrated  monastery  of  Monte  Casino,  he  was  shown 
into  a  dusty  room  without  a  door  to  it.  Many  of  the  valuable 
manuscripts  were  mutilated  .  and  his  guide  told  him  that 
the  monks  were  in  the  habit  of  tearing  leaves  from  the 
codices  to  turn  them  into  psalters  for  children,  or  amulets 
for  women  at  the  price  of  four  or  five  soldi  a  piece.  Boccaccio 
did  all  in  his  power  to  remove  by  word  and  example  this 
bartjaious  iiidifl'erence  He  bought  or  copied  with  his  own 
hand  numerous  valuable  manuscripts,  and  an  old  writer 
remarks  that  if  Boccaccio  had  been  a  professional  cojiyist, 
the  amount  of  his  work  might  astonish  us.  His  zealous 
endeavours  for  the  revival  of  the  all  but  forgotten  Greek 
language  in  western  Europa  are  well  known.  The  most 
celebrated  Italian  scholars  about  the  beginning  of  the  ISth 
century  were  unable  to  read  the  Greek  characters.  Boc- 
caccio deplored  the  ignorance  of  his  age.  He  took  lessons 
from  Leone  Pilato,  a  learned  adventurer  of  the  period,  who 
had  lived  a  long  time  in  Thessaly  and.  although  born  m 
Calabria,  (iretended  to  be  a  Greek.  By  Boccaccio's  advice 
Leone  Pil.ito  was  appointed  professor  of  Greek  language 
and  literature  in  the  university  of  Florence,  a  position 
which  he  held  for  several  years,  not  without  great  and  last- 
ing benefit  for  the  revival  of  chi.ssical  learning.  Boccaccio 
was  justly  proud  of  having  been  intimately  connected 
with  the  foundation  of  the  first  chair  of  Greek  iii 
Italy  But  he  did  not  forget,  in  liis  adiiiiralion  of  cla.ssic 
literature,  the  great  poets  of  his  own  country.  He  never 
tirc.^  Ill  his  praise  of  the  sublime  Dante,  whose  work.s  ho 
copied  with  his  ftwn  hand  '  He  conjiirea  his  friend  Petrarch 
to  study  the  great  Florentine,  and  to  defend  himself  against 


BOCCACCIO 


845 


the  charge*  of  wilful  ignorance  and  envy  brought  against 
him.  A  life  of  Daute,  and  the  commentaries  on  tlie  first 
1 6  cantos  of  the  Inferno,  bear  witness  to  Boccaccio's  learn- 
ing and  enthusiasm. 

In  the  chronological  enumeration  of  our  author's  writ- 
ings we  now  come  to  his  most  important  work,  the  De- 
cameron, a  collection  of  lene  hundred  stories,  published  in 
their  combined  form  in  l.'?53,  although  mostly  written  at 
an  earlier  date.  This  work  marks  in  a  certain  sense  the 
rise  of  Italian  prose.  It  is  true  that  Dante's 'J''i<a  Nuova 
was  written  before,  but  its  involved  sentences,  founded 
essentially  on  Latin  constructions,  cannot  be  oompared 
vith  the  infinite  suppleness  and  precision  of  Boccaccio's 
prose.  The  Cento  NotitlU  Anticke,  on  the  other  hand, 
which  also  precedes  the  Decameron  in  date,  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  written  in  artistic  language  according  to  definite 
rules  of  grammar  and  style.  Boccaccio  for  the  first  time 
speaks  a  new  idiom,  flexible  and  tender,  like  the  character 
01  the  nation,  and  capable  of  rendering  all  the  shades  of 
feeling,  from  the  coarse  laugh  of  cynicism  to  the  sigh  of 
'lopeless  love.  It  is  by  the  name  of  "  Father  of  Italian 
Pr-jse"  that  Boccaccio  ought  to  be  chiefly  remembered. 

Like  most  progressive  movements  in  art  and  literature, 
B.ccaccio's  remoulding  of  Italian  prose  may  be  described 
111  a  "  return  to  nature."  It  is  indeed  the  nature  of  the 
Italian  people  itself  which  has  become  articulate  in  the 
Decameron  ;  here  we  find  southern  grace  and  elegance, 
together  with  that  unveiled  naivete  of  impulse  which  is  so 
striking  and  so  amiable  a  quality  of  the  Italian  character. 
The  undesirable  complement  of  the  lastrmentioned  feature, 
a  coarseness  and  indecency  of  conception  and  expression 
hardly  comprehensible  to  the  northern  mind,  also  appears 
in  the  Decameron,  particularly  where  the  life  and  conver- 
sation of  the  Uwer  classes  are  the  subject  of  the  story.  At 
the  same  time,  these  descriptions  of  low  life  are  so  admir- 
able, and  the  char.icter  of  popular  parlance  rendered  with 
such  humour,  as  often  to  make  the  frown  of  moral  disgust 
give  way  to  a  smile. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  a  style  so  concise  and  yet  so 
pliable,  so  typical  and  yet  so  individual,  as  that  of  Boc- 
caccio was  01  enormous  influence  on  the  further  progress 
of  a  prose  in  a  manner  created  by  it.  This  influence  has 
indeed  prevailed  down  to  the  present  time,  to  an  extent 
beneficial  upon  the  whole,  although  frequently  fatal  to  the 
development  of  individual  writers.  Novelists  like  Giovanni 
Fioreatino  or  Franco  Sacchetti  are  completely  under  the 
sway  of  their  great  model  ;  and  Boccaccio's  influence  may  be 
discerned  equally  in  the  plastic  fulness  of  Machiavelli  and 
in  the  pointed  satire  of  Aretino.  Without  touching  upon 
the  individual  merits  of  Lasca,  Bandello,  and  other  novelists 
of  the  einquecento,  it  may  bo  asserted  that  none  of  them 
created  a  stylo  independent  of  their  great  predecessor. 
One  cannot  ludecd  but  acquiesce  in  the  authoritative 
utterance  of  the  Accademia  della'  Cnisca,  which  hohb 
up  the  Decameron  as  the  standard  and  model  of  Italian 
prose.  E^ven  the  Della  Cruscan  \\Titer3  themselves  have 
been  unable  to  deprive  the  language  wholly  of  the  fresh 
spontaneity  of  Boccaccio's  manner,  which  in  modern  litera- 
ture we  again  ^mire  in  Manzom's  Promesn  tpost. 

A  detailed  analysis  of  a  work  so  well  known  as  the  Deca- 
meron would  be  unnecessary.  The  description  of"  the 
pl,i;7ue  of  Florence  preceding  the  stories  is  universally 
acknowledged  to*  be  a  masterpiece  of  epic  grandeur  and 
vividness.  It  ranks  with  the  paintings  of  similar  calami- 
ties by  Thucydides,  Defoe,  and  ManzonL  Like  Defoe, 
Boccaccio  had  to  draw  largely  on  hearsay  and  his  own 
imagination,  it  being  almost  certain  that  in  134U  he  was 
at  Naples,  and  theroforo  no  eye-witness  of  the  scenes  he 
describes.  The  stones  themselves,  a  hundred  in  number, 
.range  from  the  highest  pathos  to  the  coarsest  licentiousness. 


X  creation  like  the  patient  Griselda,  which  intemationaJ 
literature  owes  to  Boccaccio,  ought,to  atone  for  much  that 
is  morally  and  artistically  objectionable  in  the  Decameron. 
It  may  be  said  on  this  head,  that  his  age  -and  his  country 
were  not  only  deeply  immoral,  but  in  addition  exceedingly 
outspoken.  Moreover,  his  sources  were  anything  but  pure. 
Most  of  his  improper  stones  are  cither  anecdotes  from  real 
life,  or  they  are  taken  from  the  fabliaux  of  medieval 
French  poets.  On  comparing  the  latter  class  of  storifis 
(about  one-fifth  of  the  whole  Decameron)  with  their  French 
originals,  one  finds  that  Boccaccio  has  never  added  to,  but 
has  sometimes  toned  down  the  revolting  ingredients.  Not- 
withstanding this.  It  cannot  bo  denied  that  the  Artistic 
value  of  the  Decameron  is  greatly  impaired  by  descriptions 
and  expressions,  the  intentional  licentiousness  of  which  is 
bu.  imperfectly  veiled  by  an  attempt  at  humour. 

"Boccaccio  has  been  accused  of  plagiarism,  particularly 
by  French  critics,  who  correctly  state  that  the  subjects  of 
many  stories  in  the  Decameron  are  borrowed  from  their 
literature.  A  similar  objection  might  be  raised  against 
Chaucer,  Shakespeare,  Goethe  (in  Faust),  and  indeed  most 
of  the  master  minds  of  all  nations.  Power  of  invention  is 
not  the  only  nor  even  the  chief  criterion  of  a  great  poet. 
He  takes  his  subjects  indiscriminately  from  his  own  fancy, 
or  from  the  consciousness  of  his  and  other  nations.  Stories 
float  about  in  the  air,  known  to  all  yet  realized  by  few ; 
the  poet  gathers  their  disjecta  membra  into  an  organic 
whole,  and  this  he  inspires  and  calls  into  life  with  the 
breath  of  his  genius.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  Boccaccio  is 
the  creator  of  those  innumerable  beautiful  types  and 
stories,  which  have  since  become  household  words  amongst 
civilized  nations.  No  author  can'cqual  him  in  these  con- 
tributions, to  the  store  of  international  literature.  There 
are  indeed  few  great  poets  who  have  not  in  some  way 
become  indebted  to  the  inexhaustible  treasure  of  B«ccaccio'£ 
creativeness.  One  of  the  greatest  masterpieces  of  Ger- 
man literature,  Lessing's  Nathan  the  Wise,  contains  a  story 
from  Boccaccio  (Decameron,  Day  1st,  tale  iii),  and  the 
list  of  English  poets  who  have  drawn  from  the  same  source 
composes  amongst  many  others  the  names  of  Chaucer, 
Lydgate,  Dryjgn,  Keats,  and  Tennyson. 

For  ten  years  Boccaccio  continued  to  reside  in  Florence, 
leaving  the  city  only  occasionally  on  diplomatic  missions 
or  on  visits  to  his  friends.  His  fame  in  the  meantime 
began  to  spread  far  and  wide,  and  his  Decameron,  in  par 
ticular,  was  devoured  by  the  fashionable  ladies  and  gentle- 
men of  the  age.  ,  About  1 360  he  see&s  to  have  retired 
from  the  turbulent  scenes  of  Florence  to  his  native  Certaldo, 
the  secluded  charms  of  which  he  describes  with  rapture. 
In  the  following  year  took  place  that  strange  turning- 
point  in  Boccaccio's  career,  which' is' generally  described  as 
his  conversion.  It  seems  that  a  Carthusian  monk  came 
to  liim  while  at  Certaldo  charged  with  a  posthumous 
message  from  another  monk  of  the  same  order,  to  the  effect 
that  if  Boccaccio  did  not  at  once  abandon  his  godless  ways 
in  life  and  literature  his  death  would  ensue  after  a  short 
time.  It  IS  also  mentioned  that  the  revelation  to  the  friar 
on  his  deathbed  of  a  secret  known  only  to  Boccaccio  gave 
additional  import  to  this  alarming  informatioB.  Boccaccio's 
impressionable  nature  was  deeply  moved.  His  life  had 
been  far  from  virtuous  >in  his  writings  he  had  frequently 
sinned  against  the  rules  of  morality,  and  worse  still,  he 
had  attacked  with  bitter  satire  the  institutions  and  servants 
of  holy  mother  church.  Terrified  by  the  approach  of 
immediate,  death,  he  resolved  to  sell  his  library,  aban- 
don literature,  and  devote  the  remainder  of  his  life  to 
penance  and  religious  exercise.  To  this  effect  he  wrote  to 
Petrarch.  We  possess  the  poet's  answer ;  it  is  a  masterpiece 
of  writing,  and  what  is  more,  a  proof  of  tenderest  friendship. 
The  message  of  the  monk  Petrarch  is  evideotly  iocliaeit 


84G 


B  0  C  — B  0  C 


to  treat  simply  as  pious  fraud,  without  however  actually 
committing  himself  to  that  opinion.  "  No  monk  is  required 
10  tell  thee  of  the  shortness  and  precariousness  of  human 
life.  Of  the  advice  received  accept  what  is  good  ;  aban- 
don worldly  cares,  conquer  thy  passions,  and  reform  thy 
soul  and  life  of  degraded  habits.  But  do  not  give  up  tie 
studies  which  are  the  true  food  of  a  heallliy  aiind." 
]5occaccio  seems  to  have  acted  on  this  valuable  cdvice. 
Ilis  later  works,  although  written  in  Latin  aiid  scientific  in 
character,  are  by  no  means  of  a  religious  kind.  It  seems, 
however,  that  his  entering  the  church  in  1362  is  cuiuicctcd 
with  the  events  just  related. 

In  1363  Boccaccio  went  on  a  visit  to  Naples  to -the 
seneschal  Acciajuoli  (the  same  Florentine  who  Lad  in  1344 
persuaded  the  elder  Boccaccio  to  permit  his  son's  return 
to  Naples),  who  commissioned  him  to  write  the  story  of 
his  deeds  of  valour.  On  his  arrival,  however,  the  poet  was 
treated  with  shameful  neglect,  and  revenged  himself  by 
denying  the  possibility  of  relating  any  valorous  deeds  for 
want  of  their  existence.  This  declaration,  it  must  be  con- 
fessed, came  somcwh.it  late,  bnt  it  was  provoked  by  a  silly 
attack  on  the  poet  himself  by  one  of  the  seneschal's  indis- 
creet friends. 

During  the  next  ten  years  Boccaccio  led  an  unsettled 
life,  residing  chiefly  at  Florence  or  Certaldo,  but  frequently 
leaving  his  home  on  visits  to  Putrarch  and  other  friends, 
and  on  various  diplomatic  errands  in  the  service  of  the 
Eepublic.  He  seems  to  hav.j  been  poor,  having  spent 
large  sums  in  the  purchase  of  books,  but  his  independent 
spirit  rejected  the  numerous  splendid  offers  of  hospitality 
made  to  him  by  friends  and  admirers.  During  this  jieriod 
he  wrote  four  important  Latin  works — De  Genealoffia 
/)cor«m/j6nXr.,  a  compendium  of  mythological  knowledge 
full  of  deep  learning ;  De  Montium,  Silvarum,  Lacwum,  ct 
JIarium  vominUius  liber,  a  UeAliso  on  ancient  geography; 
and  two  historical  books — De  C'astbus  Virorum  el  Femin- 
arum  lUustrium  libri  IX.,  interesting  to  the  English  reader 
as  the  original  of  John  Lydgate's  Fall  of  Princes  ;  and 
De  Claris  Muliiribus.  To  the  list  of  his  works  ought  to 
be  added  //  Ninjale  Fiesolano,  a  beautiful  love-story  in 
verse,  and  II  Corbaccio  ossia  II  Labcrinto  d'A  more,  a  coarse 
satire  on  a  Florentine  widow  who  had  jilted  the  poet, 
xvritten  about  1355,  not  to  mention  many  eclogues  in  Latin 
and  miscellaneous  Ilime  in  Italian  (the  latter  collected  by 
his  biographer  Count  Buldelli  iu  1S02). 

In  1373  we  find  Boccaccio  again  settled  at  Certaldo. 
Here  he  was  attacked  by  a  terrible  disease  which  brought 
Lim  to  the  verge  of  death,  and  from  the  consequences  of 
which  he  never  quite  recovered.  But  sickness  could  not 
subdue  his  intellectual  vigour.  When  the  Florentines 
established  a  chair  for  the  explanation  of  the  Divina 
Commedia  in  their  university,  and  offered  it  to  Boccaccio, 
the  senescent  poet  at  once  undertook  the  arduous  duty. 
lie  delivered  his  first  lecture  on  the  23d  of  October  1373. 
The  commentary  on  part  of  the  Inferno,  already  alluded 
to,  bears  witness  of  his  unabated  power  of  intellect.  In 
1374  the  news  of  the  loss  of  his  dearest  friend  Petrarch 
reached  Boccaccio,  and  from  this  blow  he  may  be  said 
to  have  never  recovered.  Almost  his  dying  cH'orts  were 
devoted  to  the  memory  of  bis  friend  ;  urgently  he  entreated 
Petrarch's  son-in-law  to  arrange  the  publication  of  the 
deceased  poet's  Latin  epic  Africa,  a  work  of  which  the 
author  h.vl  been  far  more  proud  than  of  his  immortal 
bonnets  to  La<ira. 

"In  his  last  will  Boccaccio  left  his  library  to  his  father 
confessor,  and  after  his  decease  to  the  convent  of  Santo 
Spirito  in  Florence.  His  small  properly  he  bequeathed  to 
liis  brother  Jacopo.  His  own  natural  children  had  died 
Ibeforo  him.  Ho  himself  died  on  the  21st  of  December 
;I375  at  Certaldo,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  SS. 


Jacopo  e  Filippo  of  that  town.  On  his  tombstone  was 
engraved  the  epitaph  composed  by  hinjself  shortly  before 
his  death.  It  is  calm  and  dignified,  worthy  indeed  of  a 
great  life  with  a  great  purpose.     These  are  the  lines  ; — 

*'  Hac  sub  mole  jacent  cineiTs  ac  ossa  Joannis  ; 
Jlcns  sedet  ante  Deuin,  nit^rilis  ornata  laburum 
Mortalis  vitie.     Gcnitor  iJuL-cactius  llli ; 
Patria  Certaldum  ;  studium  fuit  aluia  po»'vo  " 

A  complete  edition  of  Boccaccio's  Italian  ^Titings,  in  17  vols  , 
Ii.i3  bfcn  [lublislied  by  Meatier  (Florence,  1834).  The  life  uf 
IJuccacLio  ha5  been  written  by  TirabosLhi,  Blazzurhelli,  Count  FJal- 
dtlli  {I'ita  di  Boccaccio,  Florence,  ISOG),  and  others.  The  ^ll^t 
printed  edition  of  the  hcca-mcron  is  uithout  date,  j'lace,  orpiinteTs 
name  ;  but  it  is  believed  to  belong  to  the  year  1469  or  1470,  and 
to  have  been  printed  at  Florence.  Besides  this,  Baldelli  mentions 
eleven  editions  during  the  15th  century.  The  entire  number  of 
editions  by  far  exceeds  a  hundred.  A  curious  expurgated  edition, 
authorized  by  the  Pope,  appeared  at  Florence,  1573.  Here,  how 
ever,  the  grossest  indecencies  remain,  the  chief  alteration  being 
the  change  of  the  improper  personages  liom  priests  and  monks 
into  laymen.  The  best  old  edition  is  that  of  Florenee,  1527.  Of 
modern  reprints,  that  by  Forfuni  (Florence,  lS57)dcscrves  miiition. 
Manni  has  written  a  Storia  del  Dccnmcrone  (1742),  and  a  Germar 
scholar,  M.  Landau,  has  published  (Vienna,  lStJ9)a  valuable  investi- 
gation of  the  sources  of  the  Decavtcron.  An  interesting  English 
translation  of  the  work  appeared  in  1624,  under  the  title  Tin 
Model  of  Mink,  l^ii,  EiiiQUf.iicf.,  and  Conversation.  (F.  H.) 

EOCCALINI,  Trajano,  an  Italian  satirist,  was  borr 
at  Loretto  in  1556.  The  son  of  an  architect,  he  himsell 
adopted  that  profession,  and  it  appears  Jiat  he  commenced 
late  in  life  to  apply  to  literary  pursuits.  Pursuing  his 
studies  at  Rome,  he  had  the  honour  of  teaching  Bcntivoglio, 
and  acquired  the  friendship  of  the  cardinals  Gactano  and 
Borghcsi,  as  well  as  of  other  distinguished  personages. 
By  their  influence  he  obtained  various  posts,  and  was 
even  a[)pointed  by  Gregory  XIII.  governor  of  Benevento  in 
the  states  of  the  church.  Here,  however,  ho  seems  tu 
have  acted  imprudently,  and  he  was  soon  recalled  to  Rome, 
where  he  shortly  afterwards  composed  his  most  important 
work,  the  Ragguagli  di  Parnaso,  in  which  Apollo  is  repre- 
sented as  receiving  the  complaints  of  all  who  present 
themselves,  and  distributing  justice  according  to  the  merits 
of  each  particular  case.  The  book  is  full  of  light  and 
fantastic  satire  on  the  actions  and  writings  of  his  eminent 
contemporaries,  and  some  of  its  happier  hits  are  among  the 
hackneyed  felicities  of  literature.  To  escape,  it  is  said, 
from  the  hostility  of  tlio.se  whom  his  shafts  had  wounded, 
he  returned  to  Venice,  and  there,  according  to  the  register 
in  the  parochial  church  of  Sta  Maria  Formosa,  died  of 
colic,  accompanied  with  fever,  on  the  IGth  of  November 
1613.  It  was  asserted,  indeed,  by  contemporary  writers 
that  he  had  been  beaten  to  death  with  sand-bags  by  a 
band  of  Spanish  bravadoes,  but  the  story  seems  without 
foundation.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  evident  from  the 
I'iitra  dil  Pnnijonc,  which  appeared  after  his  death  in 
1615,  that  whatever  the  feelings  of  the  Sjianiards  towards 
him,  he  cherished  against  them  feelings  of  the  bitterest 
hostility.  The  only  Government,  indeed,  which  is  exempt 
from  his  attacks  is  that  of  Venice,  a  city  for  which  he 
seems  to  have  had  a  special  aHection.  The  liagijuayli, 
which  was  first  printed  in  1612,  has  frequently  been  re- 
publislied  ;  but  its  popularity  seems  exceeded  by  that  of 
the  Pittro,  which  has  been  tr.inslated  into  French,  Gerniah. 
English,  and  Latin.  The  ICnglish  translator  was  Ilcniv 
carl  of  Monmouth,  and  the  title  of  his  version,  litt 
Polilickr  j'uvc/islwte,  London,  1674.  Another  posthu- 
mous publication  of  Boccalmi  wa.s  his  Commmtarii  so/>ra 
Cornclio  Tacito,  Geneva,  166'.i,  which  ought  rather  to  b« 
called  observations  than  commeutaries,  and  has  not  d"n< 
much  for  his  fame.  Many  of  his  manuscripts  ore  pro- 
served  still  unprintcd  in  various  Italian  libraries.  (See 
Mazzuchclli's  Sirilturi  d'llalia.) 


B  0  C      BOD. 


847 


BOCHAPxT,  Samuel,  a  learned  writer  of  the  17tli 
century,  si'eoiully  distinguished  as  an  Oriental  scholar,  was 
born  at  Koucn  in  Normandy,  May  30,  1599.  Ha  was 
many  years  pastor  of  a  Protestant  church  at  Caen,  and 
became  tutor  to  Wentworth  Dillon,  eail  of  Roscommon, 
author  of  th?  £ssay  oh  Translated'  \'erse.  While  at  Uaen 
he  particularly  distinguished  himself  by  his  public  disputa- 
tions with  Father  Veron,  a  Jesuit,  and  celebrated  as  a 
polemic.  The  dispute  was  held  in  the  castlo  of  Caen,  in 
the  presence  of  a  great  number  of  Catholics  and  Protestants, 
the  duke  of  LongueviUe  being  among  the  former.  In 
104G  Bochart  published  his  Phaley  aind  Chanaan,  which 
are  the  titles  of  the  two  parts  of  his  Geojrapkia  Sacra. 
His  Ilieroioicon,  which  treats  of  the  sacred  animals  of 
Scripture,  was  printed  at  London  in  1G75.  In  1652, 
Christina,  queen  of  Sweden,  invited  him  to  Stockholm, 
whither  lie  repaired,  accompanied  by  Iluet.  On  his  return 
to  Caen  he  resumed  his  duties  as  a  minister  of  the  gospel, 
married,  and  was  received  into  the  academy  of  that  city. 
Bnchart  was  a  man  of  profound  erudition  ;  he  possessed  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  principal  Oriental  languages, 
including  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Chaldaic,  and  Arabic ;  and 
B'lch  was  his  zeal  for  extending  his  acquirements,  that  at 
an  advanced  ago  he  wished  to  learn  Ethiopic.  He  was 
remarkable  for  modesty  and  candour;  but  so  absorbed  was 
ho  in  his  favourite  study,  that  he  saw  Phoenician,  and 
nothing  but  Phcenician,  in  everything,  even  in  the  words 
of  the  Celtic,  and  hence  the  prodigious  number  of  chim- 
erical etymologies  which  swarm  in  his  works.  He  died;  at 
Caen,  May  10,  1GG7.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works 
was  published  at  Leyden,  under  the  title  of  Sam.  Bodi-irt 
Ojiera  Omnia :  hoc  est ;  Phulcg,  Chanaan,  seu  Geotfra/jhia 
Sacra,  et  IIiero:oicon,  seu  da  Aninialibus  tacris  Sacrce 
S-:riptur(F,  et  Disseitatmies  Varia,  1675,  2  vols,  folio; 
1G'J2,  1712,  3  vols,  folio.  . 

EOCHNIA,  the  chief  town  of  a  district  in  Austrian 
Galicia,  on  the  River  Raba  or  Uswica,  a  tributary  of  the 
Vistula.  It  is  built  principally  of  wood,  and  has  a  gj'ra- 
nasium,  a  hospital,  and  various  public  oflicei  Its  im- 
portance is  mainly  due  to  its  extensivt;  salt  mines,  entrance 
to  which  is  obtained  by  a  shaft  in  the  very  heart  of  the 
town.  The  excavations,  carried  on  at  different  levels,  have 
oonipletcly  undermined  the  whole  area  of  the  place,  which 
was  greatly  damaged  by  a  subsidence  of  the  ground  in 
1S43,  occasioned  by  heavy  floods.  About  290,000  cwts. 
of  salt  are  obtained  annually.  Population  in  18G9, 
V-l^O. 

BOCIIUM,  the  chief  town  of  a  circle  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Westphalia  and  government  of  Arnsberg,  on 
the  railway  between  Duisburg  and  DorlmuncL  It  is  a 
busy  industrial  town,  with  manufactures  of  cassimeres, 
WooUea  cloth,  carpets,  and  hardware  of  various  descrip- 
tions. About  27,000  hand  coffee-mills  are  turned  out 
onnually.  There  is  an  extensive  steel  factory  in  the 
hands  of  a  company ;  coal-mines  are  worked,  and  coke  is 
manufactured  ;  and  a  considerable  trade  is  curried  on  in 
grain.     Population  in  1871,  21,192. 

CODE,  JoiiAN.v  Elert,  a  celebrated  German  astronomer, 
born  January  19,  1747,  at  Hamburg,  where  his  father 
kept  a  commercial  academy.  From  his  earliest  years  he 
was  devoted  to  the  mathematical  sciences,  especially  astro- 
nomy. In  the  garret  of  his  father's  house,  with  the  aid  of  a 
telescope  constructed  by  himself,  he  eagerly  made  observa- 
'ions  of  the  heavens ;  and  at  eighteen  years  of  age  he  had 
ucquired  so  great  a  knowledge  of  astronomy,  that  when  Dr 
■Ileimarus  visited  his  father,  young  Bode  was  found  occu- 
Vied  in  calculating  an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  This  incident 
.vas  the  means  of  introducing  him  to  the  noticeof  Professor 
Bu?ch,  who  at  once  afforded  him  every  facility  for  prosecut- 
iinr  Lis  labours  with  success.     Shortly  afterwards  Bode 


gave  tlie  first  public  proof  of  his  knowledge  by  a  stort 
work  on  the  solar  eclipse  of  August  5,  17GG;  and  this 
was  followed  by  his  Aideitumj  tur  A'enntnisa  ilea  gtatimiat 
Ilimmels,  an  elementary  treatise  on  astronomy,  which  was 
eminently  successful,  and  has  since  gone  ihrongh  nutneroua 
editions.  In  1772,  being  called  to  Berlin  by  Frederic  II., 
he  was  made  astronomer  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
afterwards  a  member  of  that  institution.  The  well-known 
periodical  work  entitled  Aslrunomuche  Jahrbiicher,  which 
is  continued  to  the  present  day,  was  commenced  by  Boda 
in  1774;  but  that  ou  which  his  fame  chielly  rests  is  tha 
Urauographta,  published  in  ISUl.in  which  the  industxioiij 
author  has  given  observations  of  17,240  stars,  or  12,00(1 
more  than  are  to  be  found  in  any  older  charts.  This 
veteran  observer,  who  may  justly  be  said  to  have  been  the 
first  to  diffuse  a  general  taste  for  astronomy  in  Germany, 
died  at  Berlin,  Nov.  23,  182G.  For  the  curious  empirical 
law  which  bears .Bode's  name,  soo  Astronomy,  vol  ii.  p. 
80G. 

BODIN,  Jean,  one  of  the  ablest  political  thiokera  in 
France  during  the  IGth  century,  was  born  at  Angers  in 
1530.  He  studied  law  at  Toulouse,  and,  after  taking  hi» 
degree,  lectured  there  for  some  time  on  jurisprudence. 
Thence  ho  proceeded  to  Paris,  and  began  to  practise  at  th» 
bar.  His  want  of  success  is  said  to  have  been  the  reason 
of  his  applying  himself  to  literature ;  but  this  we  may 
reasonably  doubt,  as  he  was  only  twenty-five  years  of  age 
when^ho  published  his  first  work,  a  translation  of  Oppian's 
C'jiegcliojn  into  Latin  verse,  with  a  commentary.  Almost 
immediately  on  its  publication  the  celebrated  scholar, 
Turuebus,  complained  that  some  of  his  emendations  had 
been  appropriated  without  ackno%vIedgment.  A  discourse 
on  public  instruction,  Oratio  Je  Institucnda  in  Republka 
Juventute,  which  Bodin  had  delivered  at  Toulouse,  was 
printed  in  1559,  and  his  Metkodus  ad  Facilem  llisioriarmn 
Coijmtionem  appeared  in  15GG.  The  latter  is  a  work  cf 
considerable  interest  and  value.  It  has,  indeed,  no  title  to 
the  high  honour  which  M.  Baudrillart  assigns  to  it  of 
having  laid  the  foundation  of  the  phdosophy  of  history  ; 
but  it  contains  several  thoughts  of  essential  importance  tu 
that  philosophy,  as,  f«r  example,  those  relative  to  th& 
nature  of  history,  to  progress  and  law  in  history,  and  to 
historical  causation.  Two  years  later  Budiu  published  a 
work  in  refutation  of  the  views  of  M.  do  Malestroict,  who 
maintained  that  there  had  been  no  rise  of  prices  in  Franca 
during  tho  three  preceding  centuries.  The  Hesponaio  ad 
Paradoxa  Malestretti  not  only  completely  established  tho 
contrary,  but  tor  the  first  time  explained  in  a  nearly  satis- 
factory manner  tho  revolution  of  prices  which  took  place  in 
the  loth  century,  pointing  out  not  only  its  primary  but 
most  of  its  secondary  causes  with  remarkable  perspicacity. 
This  tract,  the  Discoura  tur  Irs  caitses  di  I'extrbme  ch^te 
qui  est  aiijourdhuy  en  /"ranee  (1574),  and  tho  disquisition 
ou  public  revenues  in  tho  sixth  book  of  the  Republic, 
undoubtedly  entitle  Bodin  to  a  distinguished  position 
among  the  earlier  cultivators  of  poUtical  economy.  His 
learning,  genial  disposition,  and  conversational  powers 
recommended  him  to  the  favour  of  Henry  III.  and  of  bis 
brother,  tho  duke  of  Alenijon.  Tho  former  appointed  him 
to  the  office  of  king's  attorney  at  Laon  in  157G.  This  waj* 
tho  most  eventful  .year  of  his  life,  being  that  in  which  ha 
married,  performed  his  most  brilliant  service  to  his  country, 
and  completed  his  greatest  literary  work.  Elected  by  tho 
Tiers  Etat  of  Verniandois  to  represent  it  in  tho  states- 
general  of  Blois,  ho  contended  with  great  skdl  and  boldness 
in  extremely  difficult  circumstances  for  freedom  of  con- 
science, justice,  and  peace.  Tho  nobility  and  clergy 
favoured  tho  League,  and  urged  the  king  to  force  hij 
subjects  to  abjure  Protestantism  and  profess  the  Catholic 
religion.     When  Bodin  found  he  could  not  prevent  this. 


848 


B  O  D  —  B  0  D 


resolutiun  being  carried,  he  contrived  to  get  inserted  in  the 
petition  drawn  up  by  the  states  the  cbuse  "  without  war," 
■which  practically  rendered  all  its  other  clauses  nugatory. 
While  he  thus  resisted  the  cler^Ty  and  nobility  and  their 
dependents,  he  opposed  the  demand  of  the  king  to  be 
allowed  to  alienate  the  public  lands  and  royal  demesnes, 
and  had  influence  sufficient  to  get  it  refused,  although  the 
chief  deputies  had  been  won  over  to  assent  to  it.  This 
lost  him  the  favour  of  the  king,  who  wanted  money  on  any 
terms.  His  magnum  opus — Les  six  livres  de  la  Repuhlique 
(I'aris,  l.'57G) — passed  through  various  editions  in  its 
author's  lifetime,  that  of  1583  having  as  an  appendix 
L'apologie  de  Rene  Herpin  (Bod in  himself).  In  1586 
he  issued  a  Latin  version,  for  the  use  chieBy  of  English 
students  of  law  and  politics.  It  is  the  first  elaborate 
attempt  in  modern  times  to  construct  a  system  of  political 
science.  "  From  the  time,"  says  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
"  when  Aristotle  wrote  his  eight  books  of  Polilics,  until 
the  time  when  Montesquieu  wrote  his  thirty-oae  books  on 
The  Spirit  of  Laws,  the  six  books  of  the  Republic  of  Bodinus 
is  the  ablest  and  most  remarkable  treatise  extant  on  the 
philosophy  of  government  and  legislation  ;  aud  even  until 
the  present  day  these  three  authors  stand  out  as  the  great 
political  triumvirate."  Bodin  was,  of  course,  greatly 
indebted  to  Aristotle  for  his  knowledge  of  the  working  of 
political  causes,  but  he  made  use  of  what  his  illustrious 
predecessor  taught  him  in  no  servile  way,  and  added  much 
from  his  own  reflections,  his  large  acquaintance  with 
history,  and  his  vivid  personal  experience.  The  Republic 
is  a  work  of  which  it  is  quite  impossible  to  give  a  brief 
account,  and  as  there  have  been  many  lengthened  sum- 
maries of  it,  it  may  suffice  to  say  that  those  to  be  found  in 
Uallam's  Lit.  of  Europe  (vol.  ii.  1st  ed.).  Heron's  History 
of  Jurisprudaice,  Lerminier's  Introdxiction  d  I'Uisloire  du 
Droit,  and  Bluntschli's  Gcschichte  des  SlaatsreclUs,  give  a 
good  general  view  of  its  character,  while  that  in  Professor 
BaudriUart's  J.  Bodin  et  son  Temps  is  so  exceedingly  care- 
ful and  excellent  that  scarcely  a  thought  of  any  value  in 
the  original  has  escaped  being  indicated.  With  all  his 
breadth  and  liberality  of  mind  Bodin  was  an  exceedingly 
credulous  believer  in  witchcraft,  the  virtues  of  numbers,  aud 
the  power  of  the  stars,  and  in  1580  he  published  the 
Derr.onomanie  des  Sorciers,  a  work  which  is  a  most  humbling 
evidence  that  even  the  greatest  men  may  not  be  /exempt 
from  the  most  irrational  prejudices  of  their  age.  Although 
he  Was  himself  regarded  by  most  of  his  contemporaries  as 
a  sceptic,  and  by  some  as  an  atheist,  he  denounced  all  who 
dared  to  doubt  of  sorcery,  and  zealously  urged  the  burning 
of  witches  and  wizards.  It  might,  perhaps  have  gone 
hard  with  himself  if  his  counsel  had  been  strictly  followed, 
as  he  confessed  to  have  had  from  his  thirty-seventh  year  a 
friendly  demon  who,  if  properly  invoked,  touched  his  right 
ear  when  he  purposed  doing  what  was  wrong,  and  his  left 
■when  he  meditated  doing  good.  To  the  duke  of  Alen^on 
Bodin  owed  several  important  preferments.  In  1581  ho 
accompanied  his  patron  as  secretary  when  that  prince  came 
over  to  England  to  seek  the  hand  »f  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Here  he  had  the  pleasure  of  finding  that  the  Republic  was 
studied  at  London  and  Cambridge,  although  in  a  barbarous 
Latin  translation.  This  was  what  determined  him  to 
translate  his  work  into  Latin  himself.  The  latter  part  of 
Bodin's  life  was  spent  at  Laon,  the  inhabitants  of  which  ho 
is  said  to  have  persuaded  to  declare  for  the  League  in  158'J, 
and  for  Henry  IV.  five  years  afterwards.  Ho  died  of  tlic 
plague  in  that  city  in  1596,  and  was  buried  in  the  church 
of  the  Carmelites.  In  the  year  during  which  ho  died  there 
appeared  his  Universale  Nat^ine  T/ieatrum,  which  was 
translated  into  French  by  FongcroUes  in  the  following  year. 
He  left  behind  him  a  very  famous  MS.,  the  Colloquium, 
ileptaplomeres  de  abJitis  reruin  sublimium  arcanis,  which 


was  published  for  the  first  time  in  a  complete  form  by 
Noack  in  1857,  although  it  had  been  previou,<ily  studied  by 
others,  e.g.,  Grotius,  Huet,  Manage,  Diecmann,  &c.  It  is 
composed  in  the  form  of  a  conversation  between  seven 
learned  men — a  Jew,  a  Mahometan,  a  Lutheran,  a  Z»'inglian, 
a  Roman  Catholic,  an  Epicurean,  and  a  Theist.  The  con- 
clusion to  which  they  are  represented  as  coming  is  that 
they  will  live  together  in  charity  and  toleration,  and  cease 
from  further  disputation  as  to  religion. 

Authorities. — The  works  of  Bpdin  above  mentioned  ;  H.  Baud- 
riUart,  /.  Bodin  et  son  Temps  (Paris,  1S53)  ;  N.  P.lanchenauit, 
Etudes  sur  Jean  Bodin  (Angers,  1858)  ;  and  Thierry,  History  of  the 
Tiers  £tat  (Engl.  Transl.)  Ae  to  the  political  philosophy  of  Bodin, 
si;e  the  works  of  Hallam,  Heron,  Lerniinier,  and  Bluntschli,  already 
indicated  ;  as  to  his  political  economy,  Kautz,  Gcschichte  dtr 
National-Ockonomik,  ii.  269-271;  as  to  his  ethical  teaching,  A. 
Desjardins,  Les  Moralistcs  Frani^ais  du  Seizitme  Hi^cle,  ch.  v. ;  and  as 
to  his  historical  views,  Flint's  Philosophy  of  History  in  Europe, 
i.  69-76.  (R.  F.\ 

BODLEY,  SiE  Thomas,  founder  of  the  Bodleian  library 
at  Oxford,  was  born  at  Exeter  in  1544.  When  he  was 
about  twelve  years  of  age,  his  father,  John  Bodley,  being 
obliged  to  leave  the  kingdom  on  account  of  his  Protestant 
principles,  settled  with  his  family  at  Geneva,  and  continued 
there  till  the  death  of  Queen  Mary.  In  that  university, 
then  in  its  infancy,  young  Bodley  studied  under  several 
eminent  professors.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
he  returned  with  his  father  to  England,  and  was  soon  after 
entered  of  Magdalen  CoUege,  Oxford.  In  1563  he  took 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  and  the  year  following  was 
admitted  a  fellow  of  Merton  College.  In  1565  he  read  a 
Greek  lecture  in  the  hall  of  that  college,  took  the  degree  of 
master  of  arts  the  year  after,  and  read  natural  philosophy 
in  the  public  schools.  In  1569  he  was  one  of  the  proctors 
of  the  university,  and  for  some  time  after  officiated  as 
public  orator.-  Quitting  Oxford  in  1576,  he  made  the  tour 
of  Europe;  and  on  returning  to  his  college  after  four  yeais 
absence  he  applied  himself  to  historical  and  political 
studies.  He  became  gentleman-usher  to  Queen  Elizabeth  ; 
and  in  1585  he  married  Anne  Ball,  a  widow  lady  of  con- 
siderable fortune,  whose  father,  named  Carew,was  of  Bristol. 
He  was  soon  after  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  king  o( 
Denmark,  and  to  several  German  princes.  He  was  next 
despatched  on  a  secret  mission  to  France  ;  and  in  1588  he 
went  as  ambassador  to  the  United  Provinces.  On  his 
return  to  England  in  1597,  finding  his  preferment  obstructed 
by  the  jarring  interests  of  Burleigh  and  Essex,  he  retired 
from  courl;,  and  could  never  afterwards  be  prevailed  on  to 
accept  of  any  public  employment.  He  now  began  the 
foundation  of  the  Bodleian  library ;  and  soon  after  the 
accession  of  King  James  I.  he  received  the  honour  of 
knighthood.  He  died  at  his  house  in  London,  January  28, 
1611!,  and  was  buried  in  the  choir  of  Merton  Collcga 
chapel,  where  a  monument  of  black  and  white  marble  was 
erected  to  him,  on  which  stands  his  effigy  in  a  scholar's 
gown,  surrounded  with  books.  Sir  Thomas  wrote  his  own 
life  to  the  year  1 609,  which,  with  the  first  draught  of  the 
Statutes  and  his  Letters,  has  been  published  from  the 
originals  in  the  Bodleian  library,  by  Hcarn,  under  the  title 
of  ReliquiuE  Bodleian<v,  or  Authentic  Remains  of  i^ir 
Thomas  Jiodleij,  London,  1793,  8vo.  For  a  particular 
account  of  the  Bodleian  library,  see  Libraries. 

BODMIN,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough  and 
market-town  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Cornwall,  23r; 
miles  from  London,  and  30  from  Plymouth  by  rail.  It 
is  situated  between  two  hills,  and  consists  of  one  narrow 
but  well-paved  street,  about  a  mile  in  length.  The  chmch 
of  St  Petrock,  which  formerly  belonged  to  the  monastery 
of  that  name,  is  a  spacious  building  dating  from  1472  ;  and 
the  town  hall  consists  partly  of  remains  of  the  convent  of, 
the  Grey  Friars.     A  lunatic  asylum,  ct'cclcd  in  1866,  thej 


B  O  D  — B  0  E 


849 


Anns  of  Budaiin, 


Bodmin  or,  aa  the  name 


eouuty  jail,  rebuilt  in  183y,  and  a  market-house  of  recent 
dat«,  are  among  the  c-hu>f  buiUliiiuia  The  priiicipa:  manu- 
facture is  shoes.  J\iur  annual 
fairs  for  cattls  and  horsea  are 
held  in  the  town,  and  at  St 
Lawrence,  one  mile  to  the 
S.W.,  there  is  a  fair  m 
October  for  cattle  and  sheep. 
Bodmin  returned  two  mcin-  ,-\,', 
bers  to  Parliament  from  the  5s*r 
time  of  Ekiward  I.  till  1868, 
when  Us  representation  was 
reduced  to  one  member.  The 
assizesand  quarter-sessions  are 
licld  in  the  town,  and  it  is 
one  of  the  polling-places  for 
the  east  division  of  the  county, 
appears  in  charters,  £osma7ia  or  BoJ-vwnan,  grew  np  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  a  monastic  building,  which  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  as  early  as  926.  At  the  time  of  the 
Conquest  it  was  a  flourishing  town,  but  fell  into  decay  at 
the  Reformation,  and  only  recovered  ila  prosperity  in  the 
course  of  hist  century.  In  149S  the  Cornish  insurrection 
was  originated  by  the  people  of  Bodmin,  who  again,  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  expressed  their  discontent  at  the 
change  of  religion  by  resorting  to  anna.  Population  of 
municipal  borough  in  1871,  4672,  and  of  parliamentary 
borough,  C758. 

BODONI,  GiAiiBATTisTA,  supcrii.^ondont  of  the  royal 
press  at  Parma,  chief  printer  to  I's  Catholic  Majesty, 
member  of  various  academies  in  Italy,  and  kniijht  of  several 
orders,  was  bom  in  1740,  at  Saluzio  in  Piedmont,  where 
his  father  owned  a  printing  establislimeiit.  While  yet  a 
boy  he  began  to  engrave  on  wood.  He  at  length  went  to 
Home,  and  there  became  a  compositor  for  the  press  of  the 
I'ropiigandx  He  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  Oriental 
ljn>;iiage8,  and  thus  was  enabled  to  render  e.-i3eiitial  service 
to  the  Propaganda  press,  by  restoring  and  accurately  dis- 
tributing the  types  of  several  Oriental  alphabets  which  bad 
fallen  into  disorder.  The  Infante  Don  Ferdinand  having 
established  at  Parma,  about  17C0,  a  printing-house  on  the 
model  of  those  in  Paris,  Madrid,  and  Turin,  Bodnni  was 
jjliced  at  the  head  of  tliLs  establishment,  which  he  soon 
rendered  the  first  of  the  kind  in  Europe.  The  beauty  of 
his  typoirraphy,  itc,  leaves  nothing  further  to  be  desired  ; 
but  the  intrinsic  value  of  his  editions  is  seldom  equal  to 
their  outward  sjilendour.  His  Homer,  however,  is  a  truly 
magnificent  work  ;  and,  indeed,  his  Greek  letters  are  fault- 
less mutations  of  the  best  Greek  manuscript.  His  editions 
of  the  Greek,  Latin,  Italian,  and  French  classics  are  all 
liighly  prized  for  their  typographical  elegance,  and  some  of 
them  are  not  less  remarkable  for  their  accuracy.  Bodoni 
died  at  Padua  in  1813,  aged  73.  In  1818  a  magnificent 
work  appeared  in  two  volumes  quarto,  entitled  Manuafe 
Tipografico,  containing  specimens  of  the  vast  collection  of 
types  which  had  belonged  to  this  celebrated  typographer, 
ti'ee  De  Lama,  Vita  dtl  Cavaliere  Giamhattista  Bodoni, 
181C,  2  vols. 

BOECE.  or  Boyce,  nEcroR,  a  distinguished  Scottish 
historian,  was  born  at  Dundee,  about  the  year  1465,  being 
descended  of  a  family  which  for  several  generations  had 
possessed  the  barony  of  Pan  bride  or  Bal  bride.  The 
orthography  of  his  surname  is  extremely  fluctuating  ;  it  is 
to  be  found  under  the  various  modifications  of  Bocce,  Booth, 
Boeis,  Boys,  Boyse,  Boyes,  Boyis,  Boiss,  and  Boyce.  He 
received  his  early  education  at  Dundee,  and  completed  hi.s 
course  of  study  in  the  university  of  Paris,  where  he  took 
the  degree  of  B.D.  He  was  appointed  a  professor  of 
philosophy  in  the  college  of  >Iontaigu  ,  and  in  this 
jiKimioary  he  became  intimately  acquainted   with  Erasmus. 

3—30 


who  in  two  epislles  ha.'  testified  his  esteem  for  Boece's 
character  (Erasmi  Opern,  lorn,  i  torn.  lii.  col.  1784,  edit 
Clenci).  In  his  ucudcniical  station  he  bad  already  distiD- 
guishud  himself  when  King's  College*  was  founded  at 
x\berdeca  by  the  munificence  of  Willuin  ElphiiistoQC, 
bishop  of  the  diocese  The  Papal  bull,  for  the  erection  of 
a  university'  had  been  obtained  in  the  year  1494,  but  the 
buildings  were  not  sufficiently  advanced,  nor  did  the 
lectures  commence,  till  ^bout  the  year  ISOO.  It  was  not 
without  some  degree  of  hesitation  that  he  consented  to  quit 
the  lettered  society  of  Pans,  and  to  become  pnncipal  of 
this  new  college  ;  but  having  at  length  accepted  the  con- 
ditions, he  proceeded  to  Aberdeen,  and  cjtperienced  a  kind 
reception  from  the  canons  of  the  cathedral,  sevenil  of  whom 
he  has  commemorated  as  men  of  learning  It  was  a  part 
of  his  duty  as  principal  to  read  lectures  on  divinity.  The 
common  branches  of  science  and  literature  were  taught  with 
zeal  and  success ;  and  the  prosperity  of  the  institution  was 
grc-atly  promoted  by  the  influence  of  Boece. 

The  emoluments  of  his  ofiice  were  not  such  as  appear 
very  dazzling  to  modern  eyes  "  Boethius,  as  president  of 
the  university,"  says  Dr  Johnsou,  "  enjoyed  a  revenue  of 
forty  Scotti-sh  marks,  about  two  pounds  four  shillings  and 
sixpence  of  sterling  money  In  the  present  age  of  trade 
and  taxes,  it  is  difficult  even  for  the  imagination  so  to  raise 
the  value  of  money,  or  so  to  diminish  the  demands  of  life, 
as  to  suppose  four  and  forty  shillings  a  year  an  honourable 
stipend  ;  yet  it  was  probably  equal  not  only  to  the  needs 
but  to  the  rank  of  Boethius.  The  wealth  of  England  was 
undoubtedly  to  that  of  Scotland  more  than  five  to  one.  and 
it  IS  known  that  Henry  the  Eighth,  among  whose  faults 
avarice  was  never  reckoned,  granted  to  Roger  Ascbam,  us 
a  reward  of  his  learning,  a  pension  of  ten  pounds  a  yeai  ' 
But  it  18  necessary  to  recollect  that  this  was  not  the  only 
preferment  which  Boece  enjoyed  he  was  not  only  principal 
of  King's  College,  but  was  likewise  a  canon  of  Aberdeen, 
and  rector  of  Tyrie  in  the  same  county  Under  the  dat« 
of  July  14,  1527,  we  find  a  "  grant  to  Maister  Hector  '  of 
an  annual  pension  of  £.iO,  to  bo  paid  by  the  sheriff  of 
Aberdeen  out  of  the  king's  casualties  ,  and  on  the  26th  of 
July  1529  was  issued  a  "  precept  for  a  lettre  to  Mr  Hector 
Boys,  professor  of  theology,  of  a  pension  ol  £50  Scots 
yearly,  untd  the  king  promote  him  to  a  benefice  of  100 
marks  Scots  of  yearly  value  ;  the  eaid  pension  to  be  paid 
him  by  the  customers  of  Aberdeen  "  In  1533  and  1534, 
one-half  of  his  pension  was,  however,  paid  by  the  king's 
treasurer,  and  the  other  half  by  the  comptroller  ,  and  as 
no  payment  subsequent  to  that  of  Whitsuntide  1534  ha» 
been  traced  in  the  treasurer's  accounts,  he  is  supposed  to 
have  obtained  his  benefice  soon  after  that  penod 

His  earliest  publication,  the  live.8  of  the  bishops  of 
Aberdeen,  appeared  under  the  following  title — Epucoj/orvm 
AfurllUacensium.  tt  Aberjonenatum  per  Ilectorem  Borttum 
Vilce.  Imprtssa  runt  here  frrelo  Ascensiano  ad  Idut  ifatat 
anno  Salulis,  M.D.XXIL,  4to  This  little  volume,  which 
is  of  great  rarity,  was  reprinted  for  the  members  of  the 
Bannatyne  Club — Ileciorit  Bociii  ■  MurMacnmum  tt 
Aberdonenstum  EpiscojMrum  Vitce  Uerum  in  lucfm  edita; 
Edin.,  1825,  4to  Of  this  diocese  the  seat  was  originally 
at  Murthlack,  or  Mortlach,  id  the  county  of  Banff,  but  it 
was  afterwards  transferred  to  Aberdeen.  His  notices  of 
the  early  prelates  are  necessarily  brief  and  unsatisfactory, 
and  the  most  interesting  portion  of  the  book  is  that  which 
relates  to  hb  liberal  patron  Bishop  Elphinstone,  of  whoso 
p.-ivato  history  and  public  services  he  has  given  a  circum- 
stantial detail,  which  occupies  nearly  one-third  of  the 
volume.  Here  we  likewise  find  an  account  of  the  founda- 
tion and  constitution  of  tho  college,  together  with  some 
notices  of  its  earliest  members.  His  more  famous  work, 
the  I/uitory  o/  Scotlaiul,  was  published,  after  an  interval  u( 


850 


B  O  E^B  0  E 


Kve  years  : — Scotorum  Ilistorice  a  prima  gentis  wigiiie  cum. 
iliarum  et  rerum  el  gentium  iltiutratione  non  vulgari: 
prcemis3a  epistota  nuncupatoria,  Cabdlisque  amplissimis,  et 
'ton  pcen.iten.da  Isagoge,  quce  ab  hujus  tergo  explicabitiir 
diffasius.  Q'lce  omnia  impressa  quidem  sunt  lodoci  Badii 
Ascensii  typis  et  opera  ;  impensis  autem  nobilis  et  prcedocli 
inri  Hectoi-is  Boelhii  Deidonani,  a  quo  sunt  et  condita  et 
ediia,  fol  The  title  and  colophon  have  no  date,  but  the 
commendatory  epistle  by  Alaxandar  Lyon,  precentor  of  the 
cathedral  of  Elgin,  bears  the  15th  of  March  1527.  This 
edition  contains  seventeen  books.  Another  edition,  con- 
taining the  eighteenth  book  and  a  fragment  of  the 
nineteenth,  was  published  by  Ferrerius,  who  has  added  an 
appendix  of  thirty-five  pages  ;  Paris,  1574,  fol.  Though 
published  at  Paris,  the  latter  edition  appears  from  the 
colophon  to  hive  been  printed  at  Lausanne. 

The  composition  of  Boece's  history  displays  much  ability  ; 
and  if  the-  style  does  not  always  reach  the  standard  of 
ancient  purity,  it  displays  a  certain  vein  of  elegance  which 
generally  renders  it  attractive.  The  author's  love  of  his 
native  country,  and -his  anxiety  to  emblazon  the  heroic 
deeds  of  his  countrymen,  are  conspicuous  in  every  part  of 
the  work  ;  nor  must  we  leave  unnoticed  those  aspirations 
after  political  freedom,  by  which  he  was  honourably  distin- 
guished at  a  period  when  the  human  mind  was  so  generally 
chained  to  the  earth  by  the  most  slavish  masims  of  sub- 
mission. It  may  be  recorded  as  commendation  instead  of 
reproach,  that  his  principles  of  polity  have  been  represented 
as  no  better  than  those  of  Buchanan.  Boece's  imagination 
was,  however,  stronger  than  his  judgment:  of  the  e-ttent 
of  the  historian's  credulity,  his  narrative  eihibits  many 
unequivocal  proofs;  and  if  this  circumstanie  admits  of  a 
sufficient  excuse' from  the  common  propen.ity  of  the  age 
in  which  ho  lived,  his  work  presents  strong  indications  of 
another  fault,  for  which  it  is  not  so  easy  to  find  an  apology. 
According  to  Bishop  Lloyd,  he  put  Fordun's  tales  "  into 
the  form  of  an  history,  and  pieced  them  out  with  a  very 
good  invention,  that  part  in  which  he  chiefly  excelled." 
(Lloyd's  Historical  Account  of  Churck  Government  in  Orcal 
Britiin  and  Ireland,  pref.)  He  professes  to  have  obtained 
from  the  monastery  of  IcolmkiU,  through  the  good  ofiices 
of  the  earl  of  Argyll,  and  his  brother  the  treasurer,  certain 
original  histori.ins  of  Scotland,  and  among  the  rest 
Veremundus  and  Campbell,  of  whose  writings  not  a  single 
vestige  is  now  to  be  found.  In  his  dodicalion  to  the  king, 
he  is  pleased  to  state  that  Veremundus,  a  Spaniard  by 
birth,  was  archdeacon  of  St  Andrews,  and  that  he  wrote 
in  Latin  a  history  of  Scotland  from  the  origin  of  the  nation 
to  the  roign  of  Malcolm  III.,  to  whom  he  inscribed  his 
work.  According  to  Bishop  Stilliogfleet,  whose  opinion 
has  been  adopted  by  many  other  writers,  these  historians 
never  existed  except  in  Boece's  fertile  imagination.  His 
propensity  to  the  marvelUius  was  at  an  early  period  exposed 
iu  the  following  tetrastich  of  Lcland  :  — 

"  He'^toris  hiatorici  tot  quot  nipndacia  scripsit. 

Si  vis  ut  nunicrem,  lector  ainice,  tibi. 

Me  jubpji.s  etium  flnctujj  numorare  marines, 

Et  liqiiidi  stoUaj  conoiunenire  poll." 

Lhuyd,  who  attacked  him  io  difTerent  works,  spoke  of 
his  fabrications  with  unsparing  severity,  nor  did  he  ex- 
perience much  better  treatment  from  .Sianihurst,  an  Irish 
writer  of  considerable  reputation  Of  his  merits  as  an 
historian  a  very  unfavourable  estimate  wa*  forucd  by  I^ord 
Hoiles  and  Mr  Pinkerton.  But  in  the  opinion  of  Wallace, 
n  learned  lawyer,  his  •"  elegant  stylo  and  correct  com- 
position, not  to  add  beautiful  genius  and  fine  fancy,  are 
conclusive  proofs  that  his  understanding  coiiid  not  lio  in- 
occurate"  And,  as  Mailland,  the  editor  of  BuUenden's  trans- 
lation of  Bncce's  history,  has  remarked,  "  in  forming  a  final 
estiinalc  of  the  literary  character  of  Bocce,  we  must  bear 


in  mind  that,  when  scholar-craft  in  this  country  at  least 
was  rare,  he  was  a  scholar,  and  contributed,  by  reviving 
ancient  learning,  to  dispel  the  gloom  of  the  Middle  Ages ; 
and  that,  while  the  history  of  his  country  existed  only  in 
the  rude  page  of  the  chroniclers  who  preceded  him,  or  in 
the  fading  records  of  oral  tradition,  he  embodied  it  in 
narrative  so  interesting  and  language  so  beautiful,  as  to  be 
worthy  of  a  more  refined  age  " 

Boece's  Uistory  of  Scotland  was  translated  into  the 
Scottish  language  by  John  Bellendeo,  archdeacon  of  Moray 
and  canon  of  Ross.  XVhile  the  learned  archdeacon  was 
engaged  in  translating  the  work  into  {.rose,  another  indi- 
vidual was  engaged  in  the  more  formidable  task  of  trans- 
lating it  into  verse.  A  copy  of  this  metrical  version, 
containitig  about  70,000  lines,  is  preserved  in  the  library 
of  the  University  of  Cambridge;  a  leaf  seems  to  be  wanting 
at  the  beginning,  and  the  manuscript  has  suffered  some 
other  mutilations.  The  name  of  the  versifier  docs  not 
appear,  nor  has  it  been  ascertained  from  any  other  docu- 
ment ;  but  we  learn  from  the  prologue  that  his  labours, 
like  those  of  Bellenden,  were  intended  for  the  benefit  of  the 
young  monarch.  From  the  concluding  lines,  it  is  ascer- 
tained that  he  began^bis  task  in  April  1531,  and  concluded 
it  in  September  1535.  His  verses  are  not  distinguished  by 
any  considerable  degree  of  energy  or  elegance,  and  the 
writer  is  chiefly  to  bo  commended  for  his  perseverance. 

In  1528,  soon  after  the  publication  of  his  history, 
Bovjce  took  the  degree  of  D.D.  at  Aberdeen  ;  and  on  this 
occasion  the  magistrates  voted  him  a  present  of  a  tun  of 
wine  when  the  new  wines  should  arrive,  or,  according  to 
his  option,  the  sum  of  X20  to  purchase  a  new  bonnet.  He 
appears  to  have  survived  till  the  year  153G  ;  for  on  the 
22d  of  November  in  that  year,  the  king  presented  John 
Garden  to  the  rectory  of  Tyrie,  vacant  by  the  death  of 
"  Mr  Hector  Boiss."  He  died  at  Aberdeen,  and,  according 
to  the  most  probable  conjecture,  lie  had  then  attained,  ur 
at  least  approached,  the  age  of  seventy. 

BOECKH,  August,  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  that 
Germany  has  produced  in  modern  times,  was  born  iii 
Karlsruhe,  November  2t,  ITS.").  He  was  sent  to  tlie 
gymnasium  of  his  native  city,  and  remained  there  until  ho 
left  for  the  University  of  Halle.  '  There  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  theology,  as  his  intention  was  to  enter  the 
church.  He  had  the  privilege  of  listening  to  the  lectures  of 
Schleiermacher  and  other  eminent  theologians  ;  but  at  tin* 
time  in  Hallo  F.  Wolf  was  exercising  a  spell  over  tho 
young  men  and  creating  an  enthusiasm  for  classical  studies. 
August  Boeokh  felt  the  spell,  passed  from  thoolugy  to 
philology,' and  became  the  greatest  of  all  Wolf's  .scholars. 
At  Easter  of  ISOrt  he  went  to  Berlin  tu  study  in  the 
seminary  for  secondary  teachers,  conducted  by  Gcdiko  ; 
but  the  disturbances  which  then  agitated  the  country  .sent 
him  home.  In  tho  summer  of  1807  he  came  out  as  privat- 
docent  in  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  and  in  the  autumn 
of  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  a  professor  exlranrdin- 
arius.  Two  years  after  (1809)  he  was  noniinaicd  ordinary 
professor.  In  1811  he  removed  to  Berlin,  having  been 
appointed  professor  of  eloquence  and  ancient  literature  m 
the  university  newly  cjitablished  there.  Ki^ro  he  remained 
till  his  de.itli.  which  took  place  August  3,  18G7.  He  was 
elected  a  merulH  r  of  tho  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin  in 
1814,  and  for  a  hing  time  acted  as  lis  secretary.  Many  of 
the  .s]H'eohe.s  contained  in  his  Kteiiu-  Schriften  were  delivered 
in  this  latter  capacity. 

Bocckh  worked  out  the  ideas  of  Woll  in  regard  to 
philology,  and  illustrated  them  by  his  practice.  Di,;e'ir('iiig 
the  old  notion  that  philulogy  lay  in  a  minute  iicquaintaiico 
with  words  and  the  exercise  of  the  cnlii.il  art,  ho  believed 
it  to  bo  tho  entire  knowledge  of  antiquity,  historical  and 
philosophical  {esse  eaia  unioerscc  anti'juitalis    cognidonaii 


B  0  E  C  K  FT 


80 1 


histnricam  et  philosopham).  He  divides  philology  into  five 
parts  :  lirot,  an  iaquiry  into  public  acts,  with  a  knowledge 
of  times  and  places,  into  civil  institutions,  and  also  into 
law  ;  second,  aa  inquiry  into  private  alTaiis  ;  third,  an 
exhibition  of  the  religions  and  arts  of  the  ancient  nations ; 
fourth,  a  history  of  all  their  moral  and  physical  speculations 
and  beliefs,  and  of  theii  literatures  ;  and  fifth,  a  complete 
explanation  of  the  language.  These  ideas  in  regard  to 
philology  Boeckh  gave  out  in  a  Latin  oration  delivered  in 
1822  (GfSiimmelU  Kleine  Schri/ten,  vol.  i.  p.  104).  He 
repeals  them  in  somewhat  difTcrent  language  in  the 
speech  which  he  delivered  at  the  opening  of  the  congress  of 
(ierman  philologists  in  1850.  He  there  defines  philology 
to  be  the  historical  construction  of  the  entire  life, — there- 
fore, of  all  forms  of  culture  and  all  the  productions  of  a 
jieople  in  its  [iractical  and  spiritual  tendencies.  He  allows 
that  such  a  work  is  too  great  for  any  one  man ;  but  the 
very  infinity  of  subjects  is  the  s'.imulus  to  the  pursuit  of 
truth,  and  men  btrive  because  they  have  not  attained  (vol. 
ii.  p.  189).  Even  before  Boeckh  had  published  anything 
on  this  subject,  Lis  oml  expositions  had  become  widely 
spread,  and  were  much  discussed.  (Liibker,  "  De  Partitione 
I'hilologisc,"  Gesammelle  Siliriftcn  iur  Pliitologie  nnd  Pado- 
gogik,  vol.  i.  p.  8.)  Freund  gives  the  following  account 
of  Doeckh's  division  of  philology  : — 

"  Boeckh  distinguishes  two  chief  parts  of  philological 
discipline — a  formal  and  a  material  part.  To  the  formal 
part  belong  only  interpretation  and  criticism  ;  to  the 
material  all  the  other  disciplines,  even  grammar.  More  par- 
ticularly the  material  part  embraces — I.  llio  practical  life  ; 
II.  the  theoretical  life  of  the  ancients.  I.  The  practical, 
again,  falls  into  the  two  divisions  of — 1.  Public  life, 
including  (1)  political  history,  (2)  political  antiquities,  (3) 
chronology,  and  (4)  geography;  2.  Private  life,  which  is 
considered  as  (1)  external  life,  in  agriculture,  commerce, 
trad?s,  domestic  economy,  and  metrology  ;  (2)  internal  life, 
inclodiiig  marriage,  education,  slaves,  Ac.  II.  Theoretical 
life  is  divided  into  two  parts — 1.  The  life  in  which 
the  thought  of  man  is  presented  externally  through  a 
(•jnibol — worship,  plastic  art,  music,  Orc/iestik  ;  2.  Life  in 
Mhr.h  the  thought  remains  pure  within  the  mind — science. 
In  the  case  of  the  last  (1)  the  contents,  and  (2)  the  form  of 
acquisition  are  distinguished.  The  contents  lie  originally 
111  mythology,  out  of  which  philosophy  developed  itself, 
All  J  out  of  philosophy  camo  the  other  sciences,  which  are 
parily  physical,  including  mathematics,  and  partly  ethical 
The  form  of  knowledge  is  language,  and  it  must  bo  eon- 
Bidered  first  in  itself,  in  its  inner  structure  through 
graniPiai,  and  then  in  its  formation  and  application  to  the 
varmus  artistic  forms  which  the  history  of  literature  has  to 
exbibit"  (U'ie  sludirl  man  Philolo'jie,  p.  20). 

From  ISOG  till  the  time  of  his  death,  Bocckh's  literary 
mtivity  was  unceasing.  Ills  principal  woiks  wore — (1.) 
An  edition  of  Pindar,  the  first  volume  of  which  (1811) 
ci.niains  the  text  of  the  E|)inician  oJcs ;  a  treatise  iJe 
MeirU  Ptnd>iri,  in  three  books;  and  .V(/(<r  Criticae :  the 
fecond  (1819)  contains  the  Scholia;  and  part  ii.  of  volume 
ii.  (1821)  contains  a  Latin  translation,  a  commentary,  the 
Ira^moots,  and  indices.  It  is  the  most  complete  edition  of 
Pindar  that  we  have.  But  it  was  especially  the  treatise 
De  .^ftltis  Pindari  in  the  first  volume  which  placed 
Boeckh  in  the  first  rank  01  scholar.!.  This  treatise  forms 
an  epoch  in  tho  treatment  of  Greek  metres.  In  it  the 
auihor  threw  aside  all  attempts  to  detcrinine  the  Greek 
metres  by  mcro  subjective  standards,  pointing  out  at  the 
eanie  time  the  close  connection  between  the  music  and  the 
poetry  of  the  Greeks.  He  investigated  minutely  the  nature 
of  Greek  music  as  far  a.s  it  can  be  ascertained,  as  well  as  aU 
the  details  regarding  Greek  musical  instruments;  and  he 
ezplaiiiod  the  statements  of  the  ancient  Creek  writers  en 


rhythm.  In  this  manner  he  laid  the  foundation  for  a  new 
treatment  of  Greek  metres.  (2.)  Die  StaaUaushaltung  der 
Athenrr,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1817  (2d  improved  edition,  Berlin, 
lijol),  trtinslated  into  English  by  Sir  George  Cornewall 
Lewi.s,  2  vols.,  Lond.,  .8l.'8.  Boeckh  shows  in  this  work 
an  imperfect  acquaintance  with  the  principles  of  the  modern 
science  of  political  economy.  The  book  might  have  been 
written  by  an  ancient  Greek.  But  this  imperfection  does 
not  much  impair  its  great  value  and  extraordinarj'  merits. 
Boeckh  has  in  it  investigated  a  subject  of  peculiar  ditficulty 
with  profound  learning.  He  has  amassed  information  from 
the  whole  range  of  Greek  literature,  he  has  care-fully  apprized 
the  value  of  the  information  given,  and  he  shows  through- 
out every  portion  of  it  rare  critical  ability  and  insight. 
Similar  and  suppleraeiiiaiy  to  his  work  on  the  political 
economy  of  Athens,  was  his  UrkunJen  uber  das  Serwesm 
t/'s  Altisclun  Slaats,  Berlin,  1840.  .allied  to  it  also  was 
his  work  Metrologtsche  Unlirsiic/iiiiiytn  iiber  Gfuichte, 
Mumjussf,  u-nd  Maasse  dts  Alteithums,  Berlin,  1838.  (3.) 
His  tHrd  great  work  arose  out  of  his  second.  In  regard 
to  the  taxes  and  revenue  of  the  Athenian  state  he  derived 
a  great  deal  of  his  most  trustworthy  information  from 
inscriptions,  and  many  of  these  inscriptions  are  given  in 
his  book.  It  was  natural,  therefore,  that  when  the  Berlin 
Academy  of  Sciences  projected  the  plan  of  a  Corpun 
hucriplionnm  Grcecarvm,  Boeckh  should  be  chosen  as 
the  principal  editor.  This  great  work  (1825-1859)  is  in 
four  volumes,  the  last  being  incomplete.  Boeckb's  resourcea 
as  a  scholar  have  full  scope  iu  the  treatment  of  these 
inscriptions,  aud  though  a  new  edition  is  now  nccessa.v 
and  has  been  begun,  Boeckb's  explanations  of  them  wili 
form  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  commentaries.  -^ 

These  were  Bueckh's  great  works  ;  but  his  activity  was 
contini  ally  digressing  into  widely  dilTercnt  fields.  He  has 
gained  'or  himself  a  foremost  position  amongst  investigators 
into  ancient  chronoleigy,  and  his  name  niil  occupy  a  parallel 
pl.acc  with  those  of  Idelcr  and  Mi.muisen.  His  principal 
work  on  this  subject  was  called  Zur  Geschickte  der 
Jlfondct/rU-n  der  I/eltenen,  Lcipsic,  1855  ;  but  another, 
Epigraphisch-chronoloijische  Slitdien,  1856,  and  several 
papers  which  he  published  in  the  Transitions  of  the  Pnlin 
Academy,  throw  light  on  the  subject.  Boeckh  also  occupied 
himself  with  philosophy.  One  of  his  earliest  papers  was  on 
the  Platonic  doctrine  of  the  world  {De  Plalonica  corjxirii 
mundani  fairica,  1809),  and  De  Plat.  System.  caUitium 
globorum  et  de  versa  indole  astronomtn  Philotaice,  1810.  In 
opposition  to  Gruppe  he  denied  that  Plato  affirmed  the 
diurnal  rotation  of  the  earth,  Unlersuchungen  iiber  das 
iosmische  System  des  Platon,  Berlin,  1852,  and  when  in 
opposilion  to  him  Grote  published  his  opinions  on  the  sub- 
jects (Plato  and  the  Rotation  of  the  Earth)  Boeckh  was 
ready  with  his  rejily.  Another  of  bis  earlier  papers,  aiitl 
one  frequently  referred  to,  was  Commentatio  Acad'mira  I'l 
simvllate  quw  Platoui  aim  Xenophonte  mterceisisse  ferlur 
(1811) 

Boeckh  did  not  do  much  in  the  way  of  editing  the 
classics.  Wo  have  already  noticed  his  edition  of  Pindar. 
He  also  published  an  edition  of  the  Antigone  of  Sophocles, 
with  a  poetical  translation.  (Antigone,  GriecMsch  und 
Dcutsrh:  Aibst  Ab/\<iiidlungni  ubtr  dicse  Tragiidie  in  Gan:cn 
und  iiber  Einzelne  Stellen  derselben,  Berlin,  1843).  He  a!fo 
collectejd  and  arranged  the  fragments  .iscribcd  to  Philolaus 
(Berlin,  1S19),  and  endeavoured  to  show  that  they  were 
genuine.  The  force  of  bis  arguments  in  this  direction  has, 
however,  been  recently  weakened  by  Scha.irs«hmidt,  and 
the  genuineness  of  the  fragments  is  open  to  grave  doubt. 

The  smaller  writings  of  Boeckh  began  to  be  collcclni  in 
his  lifetime.  Three  of  the  volumes  were  published  before 
his  death,  and  four  after  (Grsiimmillc  klfine  Schrijnn,  7 
vols.,    1859-1873).      The   first   two   consist   of   oratione 


852 


B  0  E  -  B  0  E 


delivered  in  the  university  or  academy  of  Berlin,  or  od 
public  occasions.  The  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  contain 
his  contributions  to  the  Transactions  of  Ike  Bt-rltn  Ac^uiemy. 
tnd  the  seventh  cuntains  his  critiques.  The  first  two  are 
valuable  among  other  e.Tcellences  from  an  educational  point 
nf  view,  and  contain  an  exposition  of  many  sound  educa- 
tional principles.  In  them  Boeckh  shows  himself  a  man 
of  wide  heart,  interested  in  the  most  diverse  forms  of 
investigation,  an  ardent  patriot,  and  a  lover  of  justice  and 
truth  (j.  D.) 

BUEHME,  Jakob  (1575-1624),  a  mystical  writer, 
whose  surname  (of  which  Fechner  gives  eight  German 
varieties)  appears  in  English  literature  as  Beam,  Behmont, 
ifec,  and  notably  in  the  form  Behmes,  was  born  at  Alt- 
Seidenberg,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  a  straggling  hamlet  among 
the  hills,  some  ten  miles  S.E.  of  Gorlitz.  He  came  of  a 
well-to-do  family,  but  his  first  employment  was  that  of 
herd  boy  on  the  Landskrone,  a  hill  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Gurktz,  and  the  only  education  he  received  was 
lit  the  town-school  of  Seidenberg,  a  mile  from  his  home. 
Seidenberg.  to  this  day,  is  611ed  with  shoemakers,  and 
t'j  a  shoeni.aker  Jakob  v/as  apprenticed  in  his  fourteenth 
year  (1589).  being  judged  not  robust  enough  for  hus- 
bindry  Ten  years  later  (1599)  we  find  him  sottled  at 
Ojriitz  as  master-shoemaker,  and  married  to  Katharina, 
dj'ighter  of  Hans  Kuntzschminn,  a  tnriving  butcher  in  the 
town.  After  industriously  pursuing  his  vocation  for  ten 
years,  he  bought  (1610)  the  substantial  house,  which  still 
preserves  his  name,  close  by  the  bridge,  in  the  Neiss- 
V'orstadt.  Two  or  three  years  later  he  gave  up  business, 
and  did  not  resume  it  as  a  shoemaker ;  but  for  oome  years 
before  his  death  he  made  and  sold  woollen  gloves,  regularly 
visiting  Prague  fair  for  this  purpose. 

Boehme's  authorship  began  in  his  37th  year  (1612)  with 
a  treatise,  Morgen  Rotke  im  Auffijang,  which  though  un- 
finished was  surreptitiously  copied,  and  eagerly  circulated 
in  MS.  by  Karl  von  Ender.  This  raised  him  at  once  out 
of  his  homely  sphere,  and  made  him  the  centre  of  a  local 
circle  of  liberal  thinkers,  considerably  above  hira  in  station 
and  culture  The  ckarge  of  heresy  was,  however,  soon 
directed  against  him  by  Gregonus  Richter,  then  pa'^or 
pnmanua  of  Gorlitz  Feeling  ran  so  hiijh  after  Richter's 
pulpit  denunciations,  tliat.  in  July  1013,  the  municijial 
cr>uncd.  fearing  a  disturbance  of  the  peace,  mads  a  show  of 
examining  Biehme,  took  possession  of  his  fragmentary 
quarto,  and  dismissed  the  writer  with  an  admonition  to 
meddle  no  more  with  such  matters  For  five  years  he 
obeyed  this  injunction.  But  in  1018  began  a  second  period 
of  authorship  ;  hn  poured  forth,  but  did  not  publish,  treatise 
after  treatise,  expository  and  polemical,  in  the  next  and  the 
two  following  years.  In  1622  ho  composed  nothing  but  a 
few  short  pieces  on  true  repentance,  resignation,  <feo.,  nh'ch, 
however,  devotionally  speaking,  are  the  most  precious  of 
all  hi.i  writings  They  were  the  only  pieces  offered  to  the 
public  in  his  lifetime  and  with  his  pi;riiiission.  a  fact  which 
13  evidence  of  the  essentially  religious  and  practical  char- 
acter of  his  mind  Their  publication  at  Giirlit?..  on  New 
Year's  Day  1621.  under  the  title  of  Der  Wcy  !•/  OKri.ilo. 
was  the  signal  for  renewed  clerical  hostility.  Boelime  had 
bv  this  time  entered  on  the  third  and  mo.it  prolific  though 
the  shortest  period  (1023-4)  of  his  speculation.  His 
l.ibour.'  at  the  desk  were  interrupted  in  May  1024  by  a 
summons  to  Dresden,  where  his  famous  "colloquy"  with 
thi>  I'pper  Consistorial  Court  w.^a  made  the  occ.usion  of  a 
flattering  but  transient  ovation  on  the  part  of  a  new  circle 
•of  admirers  Richter  died  in  Augu-st  1624,  and  Bochme 
•did  not  long  survive  his  pertinacious  foe.  Seized  with  a 
"(ever  when  away  from  home,  ho  w.ai  with  dilTiculty  con- 
veyed to  Gorlitz,  Ills  wife  was  at  Droaden  on  business  ; 
•and  during  the  drat  week  of  his  malady  ho  w.as  nursed  by 


3  literary  friend.  He  died,  after  receiving  the  ritej  of  tlie 
church,  grudgingly  administered  by  the  authorities,  on  Sun 
day,  17th  November.  Clerical  ill-wiU  followed  him  to  tho 
grave,  and  the  malice  of  the  vulgar  defaced  his  monument, 

Boehme  always  professed  that  a  direct  inward  opening 
or  illumination  was  the  only  source  of  his  speculative 
power.  He  pretended  to  no  other  revelation.  Ecstatic 
raptures  we  should  not  expect,  for  he  was  essentially  a 
Protestant  mystic.  No  "  thus  saith  the  Lord  "  was  claimed 
as  his  warrant,  after  the  manner  of  Antoinette  Bourignon. 
or  Ludowick  Muggletnn  ;  no  spirits  or  angels  held  con- 
verse with  him  as  with  Swedenborg.  It  is  needless  to 
dwell,  in  the  w.ay  either  of  acceptance  or  rejection,  on  the 
very  few  occasions  in  which  his  outward  life  seemed  to  him 
to  come  into  contact  with  the  invisible  world.  The  appari- 
tion of  the  pail  of  gold  to  the  herd  boy  on  the  Landskrone, 
the  visit  of  the  mysterious  stranger  to  the  young  apprentice, 
the  fascination  of  the  lumino^is  sheen,  reflected  from  a 
common  pewter  dish,  which  first,  in  1600,  gave  an  intuitive 
turn  to  his  meditations,  the  heavenly  music  whirh  filled 
his  cars  as  he  lay  dying — none  of  these  matters  are  con- 
nected organically  with  the  secret  of  his  special  power. 
The  mysteries  of  which  he  dbcoursed  were  not  reported  to 
hi.Ti :  he  "beheld"  them.  He  saw  the  root  of  all  mysteries, 
the  Ungrund  or  Urgrand,  whence  issue  all  contrasts  and 
discordant  principles,  hardness  and  softness,  severity  and 
mildness,  sweet  and  bitter,  love  and  sorrow,  heaven  and 
hell.  These  he  "saw"  in  their  origin  ;  these  he  attempted 
to  describe  in  their  issue,  and  to  reconcde  m  their  eternal 
result.  He  saw  into  the  being  of  God  ;  whence  the  birth 
or  going  forth  of  the  divine  manifestation.  Nature  lay 
unveiled  to  hira,  he  was  at  home  in  the  heart  of  things. 
'•  His  own  book,  which  he  himself  was,"  the  microcosm  of 
man,  with  his  threefold  life,  was  patent  to  his  vision.  Such 
was  his  own  account  of  his  qualification.  If  he  failed  i! 
w"  in  expression  ;  he  confessed  himself  a  poor  mouthpiece, 
though  he  saw  with  a  sure  spiritual  eye. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  form  in  which 
Boehme's  pneumatic  renlism  worked  itself  out  in  detail  was 
shaped  entirely  from  within.  In  his  writings  we  trace  the 
influence  of  Theophr.  Bombast  von  Hohenhoim,  known  as 
Paracelsus  (14'j;3-1541),  of  K;ispar  Schweukfeld  (1490- 
1561),  the  first  Protestant  mystic,  and  of  Valentin  Weigel 
(1  .")33-15SS).  From  the  school  of  Paracelsus  came  much 
of  his  puzzling  phraseology, — his  Turba  and  Tiiictur  and 
so  forth, —  a  phraseology  embarr.assing  to  himself  as  well  as 
to  his  readers.  His  friends  plied  him  with  foreign  terms, 
which  he  was  delighted  to  receive,  interpreting  them  by  an 
instinct,  and  using  them  often  in  a  corrupted  form  and 
always  in  a  sense  of  his  own.  Thus  the  word  Idea  called 
up  before  him  the  image  of  "  a  very  fair,  heavenly,  and 
chaste  virgin."  The  title  Aurora,  by  which  his  earliest 
treatise  is  best  known,  was  furnished  by  Dr  Ballliasar 
Walth'ir  These,  however,  were  false  helps,  which  only 
serve  to  obscure  a  dilTicult  stiuly,  like  tho  f'larrrat  and 
Lubd,  with  which  his  English  transhitor  veiled  Boehme's 
own  honest  Sthreck  and  L'ust.  There  is  danger  lest  his 
crude  science  and  his  crude  philosophical  vocabulary  con^ 
ceal  the  fertility  of  Boehme's  ideas  and  the  transcendent 
greatness  of  his  religious  insight.  Few  will  take  the  paiiu 
to  follow  him  through  tho  interminable  account  of  his 
seven  QueUgfister,  which  remind  us  of  Gnosticism  ;  or  even 
of  his  three  first  properties  of  eternal  nature,  in  which  his 
disciples  find  Newton's  formulrc  anticipated,  and  which 
certainly  bear  a  marvellous  resemblance  to  tho  three  i(i\a! 
of  Schelling's  Theogonische  iVa/ur.  Boehme  is  always 
greatest  when  lie  breaks  away  from  his  fancies  and  his 
trammels,  and  allows  sjiecch  to  tho  voice  of  his  heart. 
Then  he  is  artless,  cle:ir,  and  strong ;  and  no  man  can 
help  listening  to  him,  whether  he  dive  deep  down  with  the 


B  0  E  H  ^r  E 


853 


cniiWction  "obna  Gift  und  Orimra  kcin  Lebcn,"  or  rise 
with  the  belief  that  "  the  being  of  all  beings  is  a  wrestling 
power,"  or  soar  with  the  [)ersuaaiou  that  Love  "  in  its 
heijihl  13  as  hi(;h  as  Ood."  The  mystical  poet  of  Silesia, 
Job.  Aiigelus,  discerned  whor»  lioohmo's  truest  power  lay 
when  he  sang — 

"  Im  Wa33or  lebt  dcr  Fisch,  die  Pflanzo'in  dcr  Erdea, 
Del  Vogel  in  dcr  Luft,  di3  Soon'  am  Firmauieut, 
Der  Salamaiuler  intisa  ira  Feu'r  erhaltca  werilcn, 
Und  GotUis  Herz  ist  Jakob  Bohmt'a  Kleinent  " 

The  three  periods  of  Boehine's  authorship  constitute  three 
distinct  stages  in  the  development  of  his  philosophy.  He 
himself  marks  a  threefold  division  of  his  subject  matter  — 1. 
PaiLosopniA,  I.e.,  the  pursuit  of  the  divine  Sophia,  a  study 
of  Ood  in  himself  ,  this  was  attempted  in  the  Aurora.  2. 
AsTKOLOGlA,  I.e.,  in  the  largest  sense,  cosmology,  the 
manifestation  of  the  divine  in  the  structure  of  the  world 
and  of  man  ,  hereto  belong,  with  others.  Dte  drci  Prm- 
ci/mn  gdtttuken  iVi'Si^)  I'owj  drei/aclien  Leben.  der 
il'.mchen  ,  Von  der  Mfiis-hwerduwi  C/iiisCi  .  t'on  der 
Gcbiiri  und  Dezc.ichnung  alter  Wts-a  (known  as  Signatura 
Rerum).  3  Tueologia.  t.e  .  m  ScougiU's  phrase,  "  the 
life  of  Ood  m  the  soul  of  man."  Of  thu  speculative 
writings  under  this  head  the  most  important  are  Von  der 
Gnjuienwahl ,  M ystenum  ilagnuiii  (a  spiritual  commentary 
on   Genesis) ,    Von  Chnsti   Testairu-nlen  (the  Sacnimeuts). 

Although  Boehme's  philosophy  is  essentially  theological, 
and  his  theology  essentially  philosophical,  one  would  hardly 
describe  him  as  a  philosophical  theologian  ,  and,  indeed,  hU 
position  13  not  one  in  which  either  the  phdosopher  or  the 
theologian  finds  it  easy  to  make  himself  completely  at 
home.  The  philosopher  bnds  no  trace  in  Boehme  of  a 
conception  of  Ood  which  rests  its  own  validity  on  an  accord 
with  the  highest  canons  of  reason  or  of  morals  ,  it  is  in 
the  actual  not  in  the  ideal  that  Boehme  seeks  God,  whom 
he  discovers  as  the  spnng  of  natural  powers  and  forces, 
rather  than  as  the  goal  of  advancing  thought.  The  theo- 
logian is  staggered  by  a  language  which  breaks  the  6xed 
association  of  theological  phrases,  and  strangely  reversing 
the  usual  point  of  view,  charactenslically  pictures  Ood  as 
underneath  rather  than  above.  Nature  rises  out  of  Him  , 
we  sink  into  Him.  The  Ungrund  of  the  unmanifcsted 
Godhead  is  boldly  represented  in  the  English  translations 
of  Boehme  by  the  word  Abyss,  in  a  sense  altogether  un- 
explained by  Its  Biblical  use.  In  the  Tlteologia  Germnmca 
this  tendency  to  regard  God  as  ih^  substantia,  the  underly- 
ing ground  of  all  things,  is  accepted  as  a  foundation  for 
piety  ;  the  same  view,  when  offered  in  the  colder  logic  of 
Spinoza,  IS  sometimes  set  aside  a-s  atheistical  The  priKcs- 
sion  of  spiritual  forces  and  natural  phenomena  out  of  the 
Ungrund  is  described  by  Boehme  in  terms  of  a  threefold 
manifestation,  commended  no  doubt  by  the  constitution  of 
the  CBristian  Trinity,  but  exhibited  in  a  form  derived 
from  the  school  of  Paracelsus  From  Weigel  he  learned  a 
purely  idealistic  explanation  of  the  universe,  according  to 
which  It  IS  not  the  resultant  of  matenal  forces,  but  the 
expression  of  spiritual  principles  These  two  explanations 
were  fused  m  his  mind  tdl  they  issued  forth  as  equivalent 
forms  of  one  and  the  same  thought.  Further,  Schwenkfeld 
lupplicd  him  with  the  germs  of  a  transcendental  exegesis, 
whereby  the  Christian  Scriptures  and  the  dogmata  of 
Lutheran  orthodoxy  were  opened  up  in  harmony  with  his 
new-found  views.  Thus  equipped,  Boehme's  own  genius 
did  the  resL  A  primary  effort  of  Boehme's  phdosophy 
M  to  show  how  material  powers  are  substantially  one  with 
moral  forces.  This  is  the  object  with  which  he  draws 
out  the  dogmatic  scheme  which  dictates  the  arrangement  of 
bis  seven  Quellgeister.  Translating  Boehme's  thought  out 
of  the  uncouth  dialect  of  material  symbols  (as  to  which 
000  doubts  sometimes  whether  he  means  them  as  concrete 


instances,  or  as  pictorial  illustrations,  or  as  a  more  memona 
Icchraca)  wo  find  that  Boehme  conceives  of  the  correlatioD 
of  two  triads  of  forces.  Each  triad  consists  of  a  thesis, 
an  antilhoois,  and  a  synthesis  ;  and  the  two  are  connected 
by  an  important  link  In  the  hidden  life  of  the  Godhead, 
which  13  at  once  Nichts  and  AtUs,  exists  the  original  triad, 
VIZ.,  Attraction,  Ditlusion,  and  their  resultant,  the  .ligony 
of  the  unmanifcsted  Godhead.  The  transition  is  made  ,  by 
an  act  of  will  the  divine  Spirit  comes  to  Light  and  imme- 
diately the  manifested  life  appears  in  the  iriaU  of  Love, 
Expression,  and  their  resultant.  Visible  Variety.  As  the 
action  ol  contraries  and  (heir  resultant  are  explained  the 
relations  of  9i>ul.  body,  and  spirit  of  good,  evil,  and  free 
will  ;  of  the  spheres  of  the  angels,  of  Lucifer,  and  of  this 
world.  It  13  a  more  ditlicult  problem  to  account  on  this 
phdosophy  for  the  introduction  ol  evil  Boebme  does  not 
resort  to  dualism,  nor  has  tie  the  smallest  sympathy  wctb 
a  pantheistic  repudiation  ol  the  lad  ot  sin  That  ibe 
diHiculty  presses  him  is  clear  Irom  the  progressive  changes 
in  his  attempted  solutiou  ot  the  problem  In  the  durvra 
nothing  save  good  proceeds  from  the  Viigruud,  though 
there  is  good  that  abides  and  good  that  falls — Christ  and 
Lucifer.  In  the  second  stage  of  his  writing  the  antithesis 
is  directly  generated  as  such  good  and  its  contrary  are 
coincidciuly  given  from  the  one  creative  source,  as  (actors 
of  life  and  movement ,  while  in  the  third  period  evil  is  a 
direct  outcome  of  the  primary  principle  of  divine  maniles 
tation — It  IS  the  wrath  side  of  God.  Corresponding  to  this 
change  we  trace  a  significant  variation  in  the  moral  enJ 
contemplated  by  Boehme  as  the  object  of  this  worlds  tile 
and  history.'  In  the  tii'st  stage  the  world  is  created  iii 
remedy  of  a  decline  ,  in  the  second,  lor  the  adjustment  of 
a  balance  of  forces,  id  the  third,  to  exhibit  the  eternal 
victory  of  good  over  evi],  of  love  over  wrath. 

Bwhme'a  mlliicnc»    hoa  lain  chielly   with  the  IpAmed      T^-ais- 
i.iliona  of  .sundry  treAtise*  have  been   mude  into   Latin  (by.  J    \ 
Werdeiihaffen,  16.32),  Dutch  (complete,  by  W    v    B.ayertaiid.  I6S4- 
41),  and   iTench  (by   Jean    Made,  arc.  1640,  and    L.  C.  de  Sautt 
Martin,  1800-9)      For  the  nearcsl  approach  to  [►opulanty  whirh  hia 
wntiDgs  have  enjoyed  we  must  seiirch  the  unn.iJ.s  of  the  English 
Comrnonweallh       Between  1B44  and  1662.  all  Boehme's  works  weie 
translated  by  John  EUi.itone  (d    1652j  and  John  Sparrow,  u.^isted 
by   Dumnd   Hotham  and   Humphrey    Btunden,   who  paid  for  the 
undertaking      At  that  time  re^jutar  societies  of  Behmenisr..    ^m 
liracing  not  only  the  oultivateil  but  tlie  vulgar,  existed  in  Er.clnnd 
and  in  Holland.    They  merged  into  the  Quaker  movement,  holdiDg 
already  in  common  with  Fiieiids  tli.nt  salvation  is  nothiiig  ehort  of 
the  very  presence  and  life  of  Christ  in   the  l>e]iever,  and  only  kef-t 
opart  by  an  ohjeciiv«  doetnne  of  the  saeranients  which  expo.sfd 
ln»-m  u,  the  poh-mic  of  Quakers  [e  (j..  J     Anderdon).      Miiggletoa 
led  nii  anihropomorphie  reaotion   against  them,  and   between  the 
twu  eurrciiLs  tliey  were  swept  away      The  Ctiiludelphian  Society  at 
the  beginning  of  th-*   I8ih  ecntury  eonsi.sred  of  cultured  mystics. 
Jane   L<*ad.    f'urdage.    Francis   Lee,    Bromley,    &c  ,    who  fed  upon 
Bochuie.      Williani  Law  I16S6-1761)  somewhat  later  recurred  to  the 
sami'-  spnng,  with  the  result,  however,  in  those  dry  times  of  bring- 
ing hLs  own  good  sense  into  question  rather  than  of  rcviviijg  th« 
crvdit  of  his  author.     After  Law's  death  the  old  EngU.sh  tnicslation 
waa  in  great  part  rc-etlited  (4  vols.  1762-84)  as  a  tnbule  to  hii 
memory,  liy  Gcorgo  Waul  and  Thomas  Langcake,  with  plates  from 
the  designs  of  D    A.    Frehcr  (Biit.    Mus    ^dd.  ilSS  5767-it4). 
This  forms  what  is  commonly  called   I^aw's  translation  .  to  con,- 
plete  it  a  5th   vol.  {Tiino,  Dublin,  1820)  is  needed.     Gennony  has 
also  in  this  century  turned  to  Boehme  with  eyes  directly  phdosojihi- 
cat. .   "He  IS  known,"  says  Hegel,  "  as  the  P/tit&sophus  Tcuioiticu.i , 
and  in  reality  through   him   for   the  tir^t  tune  did   philosophy  in 
Germany  come  forward  with  a  charactfirislic  stamp      The  kernel  of 
his  philosophizing  is  pun-Iy  Oerman  "  (Ocsch     /'A  ,  lii     1836.    p. 
300).     Fmnz  Baadcr  is  the  most  remarkable  of  lus  rtccnt  philo- 
sophical exponents.     See  also  ilainlicrger.  Du  Ixhre  dcs  dmtsJien 
Philo$"}ihcn  J  BiKhmrj,   1.S44  ;  Alb  I'eip,  J.    Borhmc  dcr  dculsche 
P/uinsopk,  I.S60  .  von  Harles-s  J  Bixhmt  und  die  AldiyvwUcn,  1870 
For  ijoidime's  life,  consult-tLe  it/ttnrrirs. 'by  Abra.  von  Frankenbeig 
and  others,   trans,   by  Fraa.  Okcly,  1870  ;  La  Motto  Fouquo's  J, 
Boehvt,  cin  InoffraphvKJuT  Dnikstcitu,   1831  ;  and,  above  all,  II,  A 
Fechncr's  J.  lil^kmr,  arin  Lcbcn  und  seine  S(Jiri/lcn,  1857.     A  com- 
prelicnsivc  study  of  Boehme  in    English  is  a  desiiieratum.      See. 
Uemorial  of  W    Law  (by  Chr.  Walton,  1856);  Hat.  Kcv.,  xxzri.. 


8:.4 


B  (E  0  -B  O  E 


(1873)  p  52.  fMifar  Riji.  (Amer),  ii  (1874)  pp  243.  4  47,  art. 
by  Prof  R.  E  Thomson  Boehme's  MSS.  went  to  Holland.  His 
works,  havuig  been  separately  printed  at  Amsterdam,  1631-82,  by 
Hen  Beets  and  othere,  were  first  uniformly  edited  by  J.  G.  Gichtel. 
Amst.  1682-3.  in  24  pts.  8vo,  bound  in  6,  7,  or  9  vols  ;  repnnted 
Amst.  1715,  2  vols  4to  ;  again,  Amst.  1730-1.  m  21  pts.  Svo, 
bound  \n  6  vole.  They  were  re-edited  by  K.  W.  Schkbler,  Leips. 
1831-47,  in  7  vols.  8vo;   reprinted  1861,  jf. 

BCEOTIA  (B-jKuTio.)  ,1  country  of  Central  Greece,  bounded 
on  the  S.  by  tbc  Culf  of  Corinth,  Megans,  and  Attica  ,  on 
the  E  by  Attica  and  the  Euripus,  which  separates  it  from 
Euboea ;  on  the  N.  by  the  territory  of  tUe  Locri  Opuntii  , 
and  on  the  W.  by  PhocU.  Its  surface  is  estimated  at  1119 
English  square  miles.  Surrounded  nearly  on  all  sides  by 
mountains,  it  divides  itself  naturally  into  three  parts,  the 
low  country  about  Lake  Copais,  or,  as  it  is  now  called,  the 
Lake  of  TopoUas,  the  valley  of  the  Kiver  Asopus  (now 
Oropo),  and  the  coast  district  between  Mount  Helicon  and 
the  Corinthian  Gulf.  The  country  about  the  lake  is  a 
large  valley,  so  completely  surroundiid  by  hills  that  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  Eubcean  Sea  by  subterranean  passages  only. 
The  natural  passages,  or  katavotkra,  not  being  sufficient 
to  carry  off  the  great  masses  of  water  accumulating  in  the 
valley,  which  is  traversed  by  the  Cephisus,  the  pnncipal 
river  in  the  country,  the  early  inhabitants  often  suffered 
severely  from  inundations  ,  and  at  a  very  remote  period 
large  artificial  drains  were  constructed,  probably  by  the 
Minyaos  of  Orchomecos,  to  supplement  the  natural  outlets. 
Remains  of  these  works,  as  stupendous  as  any  that  were 
executed  in  antiquity,  still  excite  the  admiration  of  the 
traveller.  They  formerly  rendered  that  part  of  Boeotia  one 
(if  the  most  fertile  districts  of  Greece,  but  being  neglected 
for  centuries,  the  shores  of  the  lake  became  an  exten- 
sive marsh.  A  large  stretch  of  country  is  still  often  under 
water  during  the  winter,  but  it  begins  to  dry  up  in  spnng, 
and  in  summer  forms  fine  wheat-fields  and  meadows. 
Between  this  valley  of  the  Copais  and  the  basin  of  the 
Asopus  is  situated  the  Theban  plain,  which  is  still  distin- 
guished for  Its  fertility,  especially  in  grain.  The  lowlands 
and  valleys  of  Boeotia  were  notorious  in  antiquity  for  their 
moist  and  thick  atmosphere,  which  was  believed  to  render 
the  inhabitants  duU  and  stupid.  For  these  characteristics 
the  Boeotians  are  frequently  satirized  by  the  Attic  writers  ; 
und  it  13  certain  that  comparatively  few  names  were  added 
to  the  long  roll  of  Greek  literature  from  this  portion  of 
the  Greek  soil.  One  water  alone,  perhaps,  the  poet  Pindar, 
stands  out  m  striking  contrast  to  the  national  character; 
the  two  others  ivho  ilone  of  bis  fellow-countrymen  can 
claim  to  be  also  his  intellectual  kinsmen,  Hesiod  and 
Plutarch,  bear  no  small  trace  of  a  Boeotian  origin.  The 
dnlcct  spoken  by  the  Bceotians  was  a  broad  iiiolic  In 
the  earliest  times  oi  history  Boeotia  was  inhabited  by 
various  tribes,  such  as  ibe  Aonians,  Temmiciaift,  Thracians. 
Lclegcs,  Phlcgyans.  and  the  Minyans  of  Orchomenos,  Of 
thtse  we  know  almost  nothing,  but  the  last-mentioned 
appear  to  have  formed  a  great  centre  of  civilization  at  a 
very  remote  period.  AU  these  tribes  were  gradually 
expelled  or  absorbed  by  the  Boeotian  /Eolians.  who  immi- 
grated from  Thessaly  about  sixty  years  after  the  destruction 
of  Troy,  according  to  the  ordinary  chronology.  Tbe 
country,  which  had  previously  posscs.scd  no  common  name, 
henceforth  is  always  spoken  of  as  Ba'utia.  and  the  several 
cities  and  towns,  with  Thfbos  at  Iheir  head,  formed  a  sort 
of  confederation,  in  which,  however,  the  Thebans  and  the 
other  Bccotiana  frequently  came  into  hostile  collision, 
Thebes  claiming  the  supremacy  of  the  whole  country,  and 
the  other  cities  insisting  on  their  independence.  The 
confrcleralion  was  administered  by  a  number  of  officers 
called  Bceotarchs,  of  whom  two  were  chosen  by  Thebes 
and  OU1  by  each  of  the  remaining  ronfederato  communi- 
ticfi.     The    federal    temple    was    that    of    Athene    Itonica 


at  Coronea,  and  there  a  religious  festival  was  heM. 
The  political  history  of  the  country  is  inseparable  from 
that  of  Orchomenos,  Thebes,  VhKT:s.s.,  and  Thespi.e,  to 
which  the  reader  must  be  referred  for  details.  The  con- 
federacy continued  its  nominal  existence  even  under  the 
Roman  emperors,  although  the  country  was  so  reduced  that, 
about  the  time  of  Augustus,  Tanagra  and  Thespiae  alone 
could  be  considered  towns,  the  other  cities  having  either 
been  entirely  destroyed,  or  existing  only  as  villages.  The 
more  important  of  the  towns  which  had  formerly  existed,  be- 
sides those  already  mentioned,  were  Tegyra,  Arne,  Ualiartus, 
Alalcomense,  and  Lebadea  in  the  Copaic  valley  ;  Anthedon, 
Mycalessus,  and  Oropus  along  the  Euripus  ,  Thisbe  and 
Creusis  on  the  Corinthian  Gulf  ;  Ascra  and  Leuctra  further 
inland  ;  and  Sid«,  Tanagra,  and  Pherae  in  the  valley  of  the 
Asopus.  During  the  Middle  Ages  and  under  the  Turkish 
domination,  Livadia,  the  ancient  Lebadea,  was  the  capital 
of  the  country,  which  indeed  was  frequently  called  after 
that  city.  The  district  is  now  united  in  one  ft'nmos  with 
Attica  (Attikoviotia),  and  is  divided  into  two  eparchi£S  that 
take  their  names  from  Thebes  and  Livadia.  The  population 
in  the  eastern  part  is  largely  Albanian,  and  is  engaged  in 
the  growing  of  grain  and  culture  of  the  vine.  See  the 
Travels  of  Clarke,  Wheler,  DodweU,  Sir'W.  Cell,  Hobhouse, 
Holland,  Leake,  and  Mure  ;  Thiersch,  Etat  actuel  de  la 
Gri-ce,  1833;  Forchhammer,  Udtenika,  1837;  Kruse, 
UMas.  1825-28;  Klutz,  De  fcedere  Bceotico,  1821  ,  Ten 
Breujel,  De  fcedere  Bo^otico,  1834  ;  Francke,  Der  Buotische 
Bund,  1843;  and  Bursian's  Geograxihie  von  Griechenland, 
1863. 

BOERHAAVE,  Hermann,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
physicians  of  modern  times,  was  born  at  Voorhout  near 
Leyden,  December  31,  1668,  Destined  for  the  clerical 
profession,  to  which  his  father  belonged,  he  received  a 
liberal  education,  and  early  displayed  unusual  abilities. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  entered  the  University  of  Leyden, 
where  he  studied  under  Gronovius,  Ryckius,  Trigland,  and 
other  distinguished  men,  and  obtained  the  highest  academical 
honours.  In  1C90  he  took  his  degree  in  philosophy;  on 
which  occasion  he  delivered  an  inaugural  dissertation  De 
distinctione  mentis  a  corpore,  wherein  he  attacked  the 
doctrines  of  Epicurus,  Hobbes,  and  Spinoza.  Being  left, 
on.  the  death  of  his  father,  without  any  provision,  he  was 
compelled  to  support  himself  by  teaching  mathematics. 
By  the  advice  of  Vandenberg,  the  burgomaster  of  Leyden, 
Boerhaave  now  applied  himself  with  ardour  to  the  study 
of  medicine,  to  which  indeed  he  had  early  manifested  a 
decided  inclination.  The  works  of  Hippocrates  among  the 
ancients,  and  those  of  Sydenham  nnong  the  moderns,  were 
the  especial  objects  of  his  sludy  ;  but  his  reading  was  by 
no  means  confined  to  these  authors.  In  1693  ho  took  his 
degree  of  M.D.  at  Harderwyck  in  Guelderland,  and  iinme- 
diately  entered  on  the  studies  of  his  profession:  His 
merits  were  soon  recognized,  and  in  1701  he  was  appoint- 
ed by  the  University  of  Leyden  to  supply  the  place  of 
Drclincourt  as  lecturer  on  the  institutes  of  medicine.  His 
inaugural  discourse  on  this  occasion  was  entitled  De  com- 
mendando  Ilippocratii  studio,  in  which  he  recommended  to 
his  pupils  that  great  physician  as  their  model.  In  1709, 
the  university  appointed  him  successor  to  llotton  in  the 
chair  of  botany  and  medicine,  in  which  capacity  he  did 
good  service,  not  only  to  his  own  university,  but  also  to 
botanical  science,  by  his  iniproveinonis  and  additions  to  the 
botanic  garden  of  Leyden,  and  by  the  publication  of 
numerous  works  descriptive  of  new  species  of  plants.  Ho 
was  appointed  in  1714  rector  of  the  university.  In  the 
same  year  he  succeeded  Bidloo  in  the  chair  of  practical 
medicine,  ami  in.  this  capacity  he  h.id  the  merit  of 
introducing  into  modern  practice  the  system  of  clinirnl 
instruction.      Four  years  later   he  was   appointed    to  the 


P,  0  E-r.  O  E 


859 


etiair  of  chemistry,  and  delivered  an  inaugural  discourse, 
which  contains  the  perms  of  his  celobiated  EUmnnts  of 
C/iemUlnj.  In  1 72S  he  was  elected  into  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  Paris,  and  two  years  later  into  the  lloyal 
Society  of  London  ;  to  buth  of  which  he  communicated  his 
chemical  researches  In  1729  declining  health  obliged  him 
to  resign  the  chairs  of  chemistry  and  botany  ;  and  in  1731 
lie  resigned  the  rectorship  of  the  university,  to  which  oliice 
li_e  had  been  reelected  On  this  occasion  I e  delivered  a 
discourse  De  Ilonore  Medici  Scruitult.  This  great  and  good 
man  died,  after  a  lingering  and  painful  illness,  oo  the 
morning  of  tlie  23d  September  1738. 

From  the  time  of  Hippocrates,  no  phys  cian  had  more 
justly  merited  the  esteem  of  his  contemporaries  and  the 
admiration  of  posterity  than  Buerhaave.  To  uncommon 
iuielleclual  abilities  he  united  those  amiab !e  qualities  of  the 
heart  which  give  them  so  great  a  value  to  society.  His 
personal  appearance  was  simple  and  venerable.  He  taught 
very  methodic. dly,  and  with  great  precision  ;  his  style  was 
eloipient,  and  his  delivery  dignified  and  graceful.  He 
sometimes  also  gave  his  lectures  a  livel  .■  turn  ;  but  his 
raillery  was  never  coarse  or  satirical.  He  possessed 
remarliablo  powers  of  memory,  and  was  an  accomplished 
linguist  A  decl.irjd  foe  to  all  exccsi,  he  considered 
decent  mirth  as  tlio  salt  of  lite.  Ho  was  fond  of  music, 
witd  which  he  had  a  scientific  ac(iuaintan;c  ;  and  during 
winter  he  had  a  weekly  concert  in  his  house.  It  was  his 
daily  practice  throughout  life,  as  soon  as  he  rose  iu  the 
morniug,  wiiich  was  generally  very  early,  to  retire  for  an 
hour  to  private  prayer  and  meditation  on  some  part  of  the 
Scriptures.  Ho  often  told  his  friends,  when  they  asked 
hiin  how  it  was  possible  for  him  to  go  through  so  much 
fatigue,  that  it  was  this  practice  which  gave  him  spirit  and 
vigour  iu  the  business  of  the  day. 

Of  his  s.igacity,  and  the  wonderful  penetration  with 
which  he  often  discovered  and  de.scnbed,  at  first  sight,  such 
distempers  as  betray  themselves  by  no  symptoms  to  common 
eyes,  very  surprising  accounts  have  been  transmitted  to  us. 
Yet  so  far  was  he  from  having  presumptuous  confidence  in 
his  own  abilities,  or  from  being  pulTeJ  up  by  prosperity, 
that  ho  was  condescending  to  all,  and  remarkably  diligent 
in  his  profession.  His  great  skill  and  celebrity  as  a 
physician  brought  him  a  large  fortune.  He  left  his  only 
Burviviiig  daughter  two  millions  of  florins. 

The  genius  of  Boerhaave  raised  the  fame  of  the  University 
of  Lcyden,  especially  as  a  school  of  medicine,  so  as  to  make 
it  a  resort  of  strangers  from  every  part  of  Europe.  All  the 
princes  of  Europe  sent  him  disciples,  who  found  in  this 
^kilful  professor  not  only  an  indefatigable  teacher,  but  an 
nffeclionate  guardian.  When  Peter  the  Great  went  to 
Holland  in  171  j,  to  instruct  himself  in  maritime  afTairs,  he 
also  took  lessons  fiom  Boerhaave.  The  reputation  of  this 
eminent  man  w.is  not  confined  to  Europe  ;  a  Chinese 
mandarin  wrote  hiin  a  letter  directed  "  To  the  illustrious 
Boerhaave,  physician  in  Europe,"  and  it  reached  him  in 
due  course.  T4ie  city  of  Loyden  raised  a  spiendid  monu- 
ment to  his  memory  in  the  church  of  bi,  Peter,  inscribed 
"  To  the  health-giving  genius  of  Boerhaave,"    Salutifero 

BoERnAAVlI  CENIO  SaCRUM. 

The  principal  works  o£  Boerhaave  arc — (1.)  Institutiotifs 
Mediae,  Leydcn,  1708;  (2.)  Aphorismi  de  cognoscendi$  el 
curandu  Moibis,  Leyden,  1709, — on  this  work,  which  was 
the  text-book  of  Bocrhaave's  lectures,  Van  Swieten  pub- 
lished a  commentary  in  5  vols.  4to;  (3.)  Libelhis  de 
Materia  Medica  et  kemediorum  Formulis,  Leyden,  1719; 
(4.)  I iistitnlionea  et  Erperimenta  Chania:,  Paris,  1724. 

BOETIUS,  Anicius  Mani.ius  Sf.verinus,  is  described 
by  Gibbon  "  as  the  last  of  the  Romans  whom  Cato  or  Tully 
could  have  ocknowlcdged  for  their  country-roan."  The 
4,veata   of    his   life   are   involved    in   uncertainty.     The 


historians  of  the  day  give  us  but  imperfect  records  or  make 
unsatisfactory  allusions.  Later  cbroniclcra  indulged  in  thu 
fictitious  and  the  marvellous,  and  it  is  almost  exclusively 
from  his  own  books  that  trustworthy  information  can  ba 
obtained. 

There  is  considerable  diversity  among  authorities  as  to 
the  name  of  Boetius.  One  editor  of  his  De  Consc'atione, 
Bertius,  thinks  that  he  bore  the  pra;nomen  of  Flavius,  but 
there  is  no  authority  f  )r  this  supposition.  His  father  bore 
the  name  of  Flavins,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  Flaviuf 
Boetius  who  was  praetorian  prsefect,  and  who  was  put  tn 
death  in  455  a.d.,  by  order  of  Valentinian  III.,  was  the 
grandfather  of  the  subject  of  our  notice  ;  but  these  circum- 
stances form  no  good  reason  for  supposing  that  he  also  had 
the  pra;nomen  of  Flavins.  Many  of  the  earlier  editions 
inserted  the  name  of  Torquatus,  but  it  is  not  found  in  any 
of  the  best  manuscript.s.  The  last  name  is  generally  written 
Boethius,  from  the  idea  that  it  is  connected  wij.h  ihe  Greek 
poTfVo'i ;  but  here,  again,  the  best  manuscripts  agree  in 
reailing  Boetius,  and  the  latest  editors  have  adopted  thia 
form. 

The  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown  ;  but  it  is  conjectured 
on  good  grounds  that  he  was  born  at  Rome  somewhere 
about  the  year  475  a.d.  He  was,  therefore,  too  young 
to  see  the  last  of  the  Roman  emperors  (47C),  and  his 
boyhood  was  spent  in  Rome  while  Odoacer,  king  of  the 
Heruli,  was  monarch  of  that  city.  We  know  nothing  of 
his  early  years.  A  passage  in  a  treatise  falsely  ascribed  to 
him  {De  Disciplina  Scholarium)  and  a  misinterpretation 
of  a  passage  in  Cassiodorus,  led  early  scholars  to  suppose 
that  he  spent  a  long  time  in  Athens  pursuing  his  studies 
there ;  but  later  biographers  have  seen  that  there  is  no 
foundation  for  this  opinion.  His  father.  Flavins  .Manlius 
Boetius  was  consul  in  the  year  487.  It  is  probable  that 
he  died  soon  after ;  for  Boetius  states  that,  when  he  was 
bereaved  of  his  parent,  men  of  the  highest  rank  took 
him  under  their  charge  (De.  Con.,  lib.  ii.  c.  3).  He  soon 
became  well  known  for  his  energy  and  ability,  and  his  high 
rank  gave  him  access  to  the  noblest  families.  He  married 
Rustieiana,  the  daughter  of  the  senator  Symmachus.  By 
her  he  had  two  sons,  Anicius  Manlius  Severinus  Boetius  and 
Q.  Aiirelius  Memmius  Symmachus.  When  Theodoric,  the 
king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  displaced  Odoacer  no  change  of  for- 
tune for  the  worse  seems  to  have  befallen  Boetius.  On  the 
contrary  he  became  a  favourite  with  that  monarch,  and  was 
one  of  his  intimate  friends.  Boetius  attained  to  the  consul* 
ship  in  010,  and  his  sons,  while  still  young,  held  the  sanie 
honour  together  (022).  Boetius  regarded  it  as  the  height 
of  his  good  fortune  when  he  witnessed  his  two  sons,  consuU 
at  the  same  time,  convoyed  from  their  home  to  the  senate* 
house  by  a  crowd  of  senators  amidst  the  enthusiasm  of  Iho 
masses.  On  that  day,  he  tells  us,  while  his  sons  occupied 
the  curtilo  chairs  in  the  senate-house,  he  himself  bad  tha 
honour  of  pronouncing  a  panegyric  on  the  monarch,  and 
placed  between  his  two  sons  he  distributed  largesses  among 
the  people  in  the  circus.  But  his  good  fortune  did  not  Last, 
and  he  attributes  the  calamities  that  came  upon  him  to  the 
ill-will  which  his  bold  maintenance  of  justice  bad  caused,  and 
to  his  opposition  to  every  oppressive  measure.  "  How  often," 
he  says,  "  have  I  opposed  the  attacks  of  Conignstus  on  the 
property  of  the  weak  ?  how  often  have  I  kept  Trigguilla,  the 
chamberlain  of  the  palace,  from  perpetrating  acts  of  injustice? 
how  often  have  I  protected,  by  influence  exercised  at  my 
own  peril,  the  miserable  whom  the  licensed  avarice  of  the 
barbarians  always  harassed  with  endless  insults?"  And 
then  he  mentions  several  particular  cases.  A  famine  had 
begun  to  rage.  The  prefect  of  the  praetorium  was  deter* 
mioed  to  satisfy  tho'  soldiers,  regardless  altogether  of  the 
feelings  of  the  provincials.  He  accordingly  issued  an  edict 
for  a  coemjHio,  that  is,  on  order  compelling  tbopr^viDcisls 


85G 


B  0  E  T  I  U  S 


to  sell  their  corn  to  the  Government,  whether  'they  would 
or  not.  This  edict  would  have  utterly  ruioed  Campania, 
Boetios  interfered.  The  case  was  brought  before  the  kijig, 
and  Boetius  succeeded  in  averting  the  coemplio  from  the 
Campaniaos,  He  also  rescued  Paulinus,  a  man  of  consular 
rank,  from  the  jaws  of  those  whom  he  calls  pcUalince  canes 
(dogs  of  the  palace),  and  who,  he  says,  had  almost  devoured 
his  riches.  And  he  gives  as  a  third  and  crowning  instance 
in  that  he  exposed  himself  to  the  hatred  of  the  informer 
Cypriarms  by  preventing  the  punishment  of  Albinus,  a  man 
of  consular  rank.  He  mentions  in  another  pbce  that  when 
at  Verona  the  king  was  anxious  to  transfer  the  accusation 
of  treason  brought  against  Albinus  to  the  whole  senate, 
he  defended  the  senate  at  great  risk.  In  consequence  of 
the  ill-will  that  Boetius  had  thus  roused,  he  was  ac- 
cused of  treason  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Theo- 
dorio.  Three  accusers  appeared  against  him.  The  first, 
Basilius,  had  been  expelled  from  the  monarch's  .service,  and 
in  consequence  of  debt  he  had  become  an  informer  and  now 
appeared  against  Boetius.  The  other  two  were  Opilio  and 
G.iudentiiis,  on  whom  sentence  of  banishment  had  been 
pronounced  on  account  of  innumerable  frauds.  They  first 
took  refuge  in  a  church,  but  when  this  fact  became  known, 
a  decree  was  issued  that  if  they  did  not  leave  Havenna 
before  a  prescribed  day,  they  were  to  be  driven  out  with  a 
brand  upon  their  forehead.  On  the  very  last  day  allowed 
them  they  gave  information  against  Boftiua,  and  their 
information  was  received.  The  accusation  which  these 
vUlains  brought  against  him  was  that  he  had  conspired 
against  the  king,  that  he  was  anxious  to  maintain  the 
integrity  of  the  senate,  and  to  restore  Rome  to  liberty,  and 
that  for  this  purpose  he  had  written  to  the  Emperor  Justin. 
Justin  had,  no  doubt,  special  reasons  for  wishing  to  see  an 
cod  to  the  reign  of  Theodoric.  Justin  was  orthodox. 
Theodoric  was  an  Arian.  The  orthodox  subjects  of 
Tlieodoric  were  suspicious  of  their  ruler  ;  and  many  would 
gladly  have  joined  in  a  plot  to  displace  him.  The  know- 
ledge of  this  fact  may  have  rendered  Theodoric  suspicious. 
But  Boetius  denied  the  accusation  in  unequivocal  terms. 
He  did  indeed  wish  the  integrity  of  the  senate.  He  would 
fain  have  desired  liberty,  but  all  hope  of  it  was  gone 
The  letters  addressed  by  him  to  Justin  were  forgeries,  and 
he  had  not  been  guilty  of  any  conspiracy.  Notwithstand- 
ing his  innocence  he  wa-s  condemned  and  sent  to  Ticinum 
(Pavia)  where  he  was  thrown  into  prison.  It  was  during 
his  confinement  in  this  prison  that  he  wrote  his  famous 
work  De  Consola/ione  Pkilosopkice.  His  goods  were  con- 
fiscated, and  aftw  an  imprisonment  of  considerable  dura 
lion  he  was  put  "to  death  in  525.  Procopius  relates  that 
Theodoric  soon  repented  of  his  cruel  deed,  and  that  his 
death,  which  took  place  soon  after,  was  hastened  by  re- 
morse for  the  crime  he  had  committed  against  his  great 
counsellor. 

Two  oi  three  centuries  after  the  death  of  Boetius  writers 
begao  to  view  his  death  as  a  martyrdom.  Several  Christian 
books  were  in  circulation  which  wore  ascribed  to  him,  and 
there  wjis  one  especially  on  the  Trinity  which  they  regarded 
hs  proof  lli.'it  he  had  taken  an  active  part  against  the  heresy 
of  Theodoric,  It  was  therefore  fur  his  orthodoxy  that 
Boetius  was  put  to  death.  And  Ihcie  writers  delight  to 
paint  with  minuteness  the  horrible  tortures  to  which  he 
w.Ts  exposed  and  the  marvellous  actions  which  the  saiul 
performed  at  his  death.  He  was  canonized  as  Saint 
Severinus  The  brick  tower  in  Pavia  in  which  he  was 
oonfincd  was  a  hallowed  building.  And  finally,  in  the 
year  9!lG,  Olho  II  f  ordered  the  bones  of  Boetius  to  lie 
taken  out  of  the  phco  in  which  they  had  lain  hid,  and  to 
be  placed  in  the  church  of  St  Augustine  within  a  splendid 
Oiarble  tomb,  for  which  Herbert,  who  afterwards  became 
/"ape  under  the  name  of  Silvester  II  ,  wrote  an  inscription 


It  should  be  mentioned  also  that  some  have  given  him  9 
decidedly  Christian  wife,  of  the  name  of  Elpis,  who  wrote 
hymns,  two  of  which  are  still  extant  (Daniel,  The$.  Hymn., 
L  p.  156).  This  is  a  pure  supposition  inconsistent  with 
chronology,  unauthenticated  by  authority,  and  based  only 
on  a  misinterpretation  of  a  passage  in  the  De  Cunsolalione. 

The  contemporaries  of  Boetius  regarded  him  as  a  man  if 
profound  learning.  Prbcian  the  grammarian  speaks  of 
him  as  having  attained  the  summit  of  honesty  and  of  all 
sciences.  Cassiodnrus,  the  chancellor  of  Theodoric  and  the 
intimate  acquaintance  of  the  philosopher,  employs  language 
equally  strong.  And  Ennodius,  the  bishop  of  Pavia,  knows 
no  bounds  for  his  admiration.  "  You  surpass,"  he  says  to 
Boetius,  "  the  eloquence  of  the  anVients  in  imitating  it." 
The  king  Theodoric  had  a  profound  idea  of  his  great 
scientific  abilities.  He  eaiplnyed  him  in  setting  right  the 
coinage.  When  he  visited  Koine  with  Gunibald  king  of 
the  Burgundians,  he  took  him  to  Boetius,  who  showed 
them,  amongst  other  mechanical  contrivances,  Q  sun-dial 
and  a  water-clock.  The  foreign  monarch  was  astonished, 
and,  at  the  request  of  Theodoric,  Boetius  iiad  to  prepare 
others  of  a  similar  nature,  which  were  sent  as  presents  to 
Gunibald.  It  was  Boetius  also  whom  Theodoric  consulted 
when  Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  wished  a  musician  who 
could  sing  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  lyre,  and  Boetius 
was  charged  with  the  duty  of  selecting  him. 

The  fame  of  Boetius  increased  after  his  death,  and  his 
influence  during  the  Middle  Ages  was  exceedingly  powerful 
His  circumstances  peculiarly  favourcd»this  inliuence.  He 
appeared  at  a  time  when  contempt  for  intellectual  pursuits 
had  begun  to  pervade  society.  In  his  early  years  he  was 
seized  with  a  passionate  enthusiasm  for  Greek  literature, 
and  this  continued  through  life.  Even  amidst  the  cares 
of  the  consulship  he  found  time  for- commenting  on  the 
CaUrjorUs  of  Aristotle.  The  idea  laid  hold  of  him  of 
reviving  the  spirit  of  his  countrymen  by  imbuing  them 
with  the  thoughts  of  the  great  Greek  writers.  He  formed 
the  resolution  to  translate  all  the  works  of  Aristotle  and 
all  the  dialogues  of  Plato,  and  to  reconcile  the  philosophy 
of  Plato  with  that  of  the  Stagirite.  He  did  not  succeed 
in  all  that  he  designed  ;  but  he  did  a  great  part  af  his 
work.  "Through  your  translations,"  says  Cassiodorus  to 
him,  "the  music  of  Pythagoras  and  the  astronomy  of 
Ptoleoiajus  are  read  by  the  Italians ;  the  arithmetic  of 
Nicomachus  and  the  geometry  of  Euclid  are  heard  by  the 
Westerns ;  the  theology  of  Plato  and  the  logic  of  Aristotle 
dispute  in  the  language  of  Quirinus  ;  the  mechanical 
Archimedes  also  you  have  restored  in  a  Latin  dress  to  the 
Sicilians  ;  and  whatever  discipline  or  arts  fertile  Greece  has 
produced  through  the  efforts  of  individual  men,  Rome  has 
received  in  her  own  language  through  your  single  instrj. 
mentality."  Boetius  translated  into  Latin  Aristotle's  Ana- 
liitica  Priwa  et  Posleriora,  the  Toyica,  and  A'/fic/.t 
Soij/tistici ;  and  he  wrote  commentaries  on  Aristotle's 
Calerforiesi  on  his  book  Trtpi.  ipixT]iiia%,  also  a  commentary 
on  the  Isagaije  of  Porphyrins.  These  works  formed  lu  a 
large  extent  the  source  from  which  the  Middle  Ages  derived 
their  knowledge  of  Aristotle.  (See  Stahr,  ArutuUlts  bei  deii 
Ilim^rn,  pp,   100-231  ) 

But  Boetius  dill  not  confine  himself  to  Aristotle.  He 
wrote  a  commentary  on  tlie  'J\>pica  of  Cicero ;  and  he 
was  also  the  author  of  independent  works  on  login  : — 
IiUruiluctio  ad  Cadgoricos  iSyllogismos^  \u  one  hook  ; 
De  Si/llor/is7no  Catnjutico,  in  two  books;  De  Syll<>qi>mis 
Jfypot/ulicis,  in  two  books;  De  Di>'isi<me,  in  one  bonk; 
De  Dfjinilione,  in  one  book;  De  Dtjferaitiii  Tofncis,  in 
four  books. 

We  have  also  seen  from  the  statement  of  Cnssiodonie 
that  he  fiirni.-<hcd  manuals  for  the  quaJrivium  of  the  .schoo's 
of  the  Middle  Ages  (tlie  "  quattuor  vialfuseos  JUciplincr," 


B  0  E  T  1  U  S 


857 


Ai  Boetius  calls  them)  on  arithmetic,  music,  geometiy,  and 
astronomy.  The  statement  of  Cassiodorus  that  he  trans- 
lated Nicomachus  ia  rhetoncaL  Boetius  himself  tells  us  in 
his  preface  addressed  to  bis  father-in-law  Symmacbus  that 
he  had  taken  liberties  with  ibe  text  of  Nicomacbus,  that 
he  had  abridged  the  work  when  necessary,  and  that  he 
had  introduced  formulae  and  diagrams  of  his  own  where  he 
thought  them  useful  for  bringing  out  the  meaning.  Hi3 
work  on  music  also  is  not  a  translation  from  Pythagoras, 
who  left  no  wnting  behind  him.  But  Boetius  belonged  to 
the  school  of  musical  writers  who  based  their  science  on 
the  method  of  Pythagoras.  They  thought  that  it  was  not 
6atficient  to  trust  to  the  ear  alone,  to  determine  the  prin- 
ciples of  music,  as  did  practical  musicians  like  Aristoxenus, 
but  that  along  with  th4  ear,  physical  experiments  shovild 
be  employed.  The  work  of  Boetius  is  in  live  books,  and  ir 
a  very  complete  exposition  of  the  subject  It  remained 
a  text-book  of  music  m  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  till  within  comparatively  recent  times.  It  is 
still  very  valuable  as  a  help  in  ascertaining  the  principles 
of  ancient  music,  and  gives  us  the  opinions  of  some  of  the 
best  ancient  writers  on  the  art.  The  manuscripts  of  the 
geometry  of  Boetius  differ  widely  from  each  other.  The 
latest  editor,  Godofredus  Fnedlein,  thinks  that  there  are 
only  two  manuscripts  which  can  at  all  lay  claim  to  con- 
tain the  work  of  Boetius.  He  has  published  the  Ars 
Geomftriis^  in  two  books,  as  given  in  these  manuscripts  ; 
but  critics  are  generally  inclined  to  doubt  t4ie  genuineness 
even  of  these. 

By  far  the  most  important  and  most  famous  of  the  works 
of  Boetius  IS  his  book  De  Consolotione  Philosophic^.  Gib- 
bon justly  describes  it  as  "  a  golden  volume,  not  unworthy 
of  the  leisure  of  Plato  or  TuUy,  but  wliich  claims  incom 
parable  merit  from  the  barbarism  of  the  times  and  the 
situation  of  the  author.  "  It  was  a  favourite  book  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  deserves  to  be  a  favourite  still.  The 
high  reputation  it  had  m  medieval  times  is  attested  by  the 
numerous  translations,  commentaries,  and  imitations  of  it 
which  then  appeared.  Among  others  Asser,  the  instructor 
of  Alfred  the  Great,  and  Robert  Grosseteste,  bishop  of 
Lincoln,  commented  on  it.  Alfred  translated  it  into  Anglo- 
Saxon.  Versions  of  it  appeared  in  German,  French, 
Italian,  Spanish,  and  Greek  before  the  end  of  the  15th 
century.  Chaucer  translated  it  into  English  prose  before 
the  year  13S2;  and  this  translation  was  published  by 
Caxton  at  Westminster,  HtO.  Lydgate  followed  in  the 
wake  of  Chaucer.  It  is  said  that,  after  the  invention  of 
printing,  amongst  others  Queen  Elizabeth  translated  U,  and 
that  the  work  was  well  known  to  Shakespeare. 

Thi3  famous  work  consists  of  6ve  books.  Its  form  ia  peculiar, 
and  is  an  imitation  of  a  similar  work  by  Marcianus  Capella*  De 
Xuptiis  Philolo^ux  ei  Mercurw  It  is  alternately  in  prose  and  Verse. 
The  vers©  flhowa  great  facility  of  methca]  com[>osit:on,  but  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  ilia  transferred  from  the  tm>;.*iiii;9  of  Seneca. 
The  first  book  opens  with  a  few  verses,  in  which  lioetms  dencnbes 
how  bis  sorrows  nad  turned  bis  hair  grey,  and  had  brought  him  to  a 
prCTnature  old  age.  As  he  is  thus  lamenting,  a  woman  appears  to 
nim  of  dignified  mien,  whom  for  a  time  be  cannot  distinguish  in  con- 
sequence of  bis  tears,  but  at  last  be  recognizes  her  as  his  guardian, 
Philosophy.  She,  resolvnifj  to  apply  the  remedy  for  his  gnef,  puts 
uorto  questions  to  him  for  that  pui-pose.  She  fiiids  that  he  believes 
that  Cod  rules  the  world,  but  does  not  know  what  he  himself  is  ; 
and  this  absence  of  aclf-knowledgc  is  the  cause  of  his  weakness.  I  n 
the  second  book  Philosophy  prost^nts  to  U<>etia3  Fortune,  who  is 
made  to  etato  to  him  the  blessings  be  has  enjoyed,  and  after  that 
proceeds  to  discuss  »Tth  him  the  kind  of  bictmings  that  fortune  can 
bestow,  which  arc  shown  to  be  unsatisfactory  and  uncertaiiL  In  the 
third  book  Philosophy  promises  to  lejid  him  to  true  happiness,  which 
1^  to  be  found  in  God  alone,  for  since  God  \s  the  highest  good,  and  the 
highest  good  is  true  happiness,  God  is  true  happiness.  Korean  real 
eviJ  exist,  for  since  Cod  is  all-powerful,  and  since  he  does  not  wnsh 
cnl.  enl  must  be  nnn-cxistent.  In  the  fourth  book  Boetius  raises 
the  question.  Why,  if  the  governor  of  the  universe  is  good,  do  evils 
AXist,  and  why  is  virtue  ciicn  punjpbed  and  vice  rewarded  I     Philo- 


sophy piorccds  tosliow  that  this  takes  pl&ct:  oniy  io  appearance  ;  that 
vice  is  never  unpunished  nor  virtue  unrewardeo,  from  this  Pbiio* 
sopby  pafises  into  a  discussion  in  regard  to  the  uatnre  of  providence 
and  fate,  and  shows  that  every  fortune  is  good.  The  fifth  and  last 
book  takes  up  the  question  of  man's  free  will  and  God's  foreknow- 
ledge, and,  by  an  exposition  of  the  nature  of  God,  attempts  to  show 
that  these  doctrines  are  not  subversive  of  each  other  ;  and  the  con- 
clusion is  drawn  that  God  remains  a  foreknowing  spectator  of  all 
events,  and  the  ever-present  eternity  of  his  vision  agrees  with  the 
future  quality  of  our  actions,  dispensing  rewards  to  the  good  and 
punishments  to  the  wicked. 

Several  theological  works  have  been  ascribed  to  Boetius,  as  has 
been  already  mentioned.  The  Consolatio  affords  conclusive  ppwf 
that  the  author  was  not  a  practical  believer  in  Christianity.  The 
book  contains  several  expressions,  su^h  as  datTnoius,  angelica  virtus, 
and  purgatona  clfmenttOj  which  have  been  thought  to  be  derived 
from  the  Christian  faith  ;  but  they  are  used  in  a  heathen  Sfuse,  and 
are  explained  sufficiently  by  the  circumstance  that  Boetius  was  on 
intimate  tcnns  with  Christians,  and  could  not  help  being  influenced 
to  some  extent  by  their  language.  The  writer  nowhere  finds  con- 
solation  in  any  Christian  belief,  and  Christ  is  never  named  in  the 
work.  It  is  not  impossible,  however,  that  Boetius  may  have  been 
brought  up  a  Chnstian,  and  that  in  his  early  years  he  may  have 
wntten  some  Chnstian  books.  This  is  the  conjecture  to  which  the 
latest  editor  of  his  Christian  treatises  has  bad  recourse.  Peiper 
thinks  that  the  first  three  ti-eatises  are  the  productions  of  the  early 
years  of  Boetius.  The  first,  De  Sancta  TrintlaU,  is  addres-sod  tn 
Symmachus  (Domino  Patri  Symmacho),  and  the  result  c.{  the  short 
discussion,  whrch  is  of  an  abstract  nature,  and  deals  partly  with  the 
ten  categories,  is  that  unity  is  predicated  absolutely,  «r,  in  rtganl  to 
ttie  substance  of  the  Deity,  trinity  is  predicated  relatively.  The 
second  treatise  is  addressed  to  John  the  deacon  (**Ad  Joannem 
Diaconum  "),  and  its  subject  is  "  Utiiim  Pater  et  k'ilius  ct  Spiritus 
Sanctus  de  divinitate  substantialiter  pradicentur."  The  treatise  is 
shorter  than  the  former,  occupying  only  two  or  three  pages,  and 
the  conclusion  of  the  argument  is  the  same.  The  tliiixi  treatise 
beiirs  the  title,  Quoinodo  subsUiniim  in  eo  quod  sirU  tonce  si>U 
cum  non  sint  suhstantialia  bona  [t  contains  nothing  distinctly 
Christian,  and  it  contains  nothing  of  great  value  ;  therefore  its 
authorship  is  a  matter  of  little  consequence.  Peiper  thinks  that, 
as  the  best  MSS.  uniformly  assign  those  treatises  to  Boetius,  they 
an*  to  be  regarded  as  his  ;  that  it  is  probable  that  Symmaclius 
and  John  (who  aftenvards  became  Pope)  were  the  mi-n  of  highest 
distinction  who  took  cliarge  of  him  when  he  lost  his  father ,  and 
that  these  treatises  arc  the  first-fruits  of  bis  studies,  which  he 
dedicates  to  his  guaidiJins  and  benefactors.  He  thinks  that  the 
variations  in  the  inscnptions  of  the  fifth  treatise,  which  is  not  found 
in  the  best  manuscript,  are  so  great  that  tlie  name  of  Boetius  could 
not  have  originally  been  in  the  title.  The  fourth  book  is  also  not 
found  in  the  best  manuscript,  and  two  manuscripts  have  no 
inscnption.  He  infers,  from  tlicse  facts,  that  there  is  no  sure 
evidence  for  the  authorship  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  treatises.  Tlio 
fifth  treatise  is  Contra  Eutychcn  et  A'fstonum.  Both  Eutyches 
and  Nestonus  arc  spoken  of  as  living.  A  council  is  mentioned, 
m  which  a  letter  was  read,  expounding  the  opinion  of  thrf 
Eutychians  for  the  first  time.  The  novelty  of  the  opinion  is 
also  alluded  to.  All  these  circumstances  point  to  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon  (451).  The  treatise  was  therL-fore  written  before 
the  birth  of  Boetius,  if  it  be  not  a  forgery  ;  but  tliore  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  treatise  was  not  a  ponuine  production 
of  the  time  to  which  it  professes  to  belong.  The  fourth  treatise. 
De  Fide  Caikolica,  does  not  contain  any  distinct  chronological 
data,  but  the  tone  and  opinions  of  the  treatise  pioduce  the  impres. 
sion  that  it  probably  belonged  to  the  same  penod  as  tho  tivatiso 
against  Eutyches  and  Nestorius.  Several  inscnptions  ascribe  both 
these  tr>'ati9es  to  Boetius.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  statement  that 
Peiper  basts  his  conclusions  on  grounds  far  too  n-iirow;  and  on  the 
whole  It  IS  far  more  probable  tJiat  Boetius  wrote  none  of  the  four 
Chnstian  treatL-uis,  particularly  as  they  are  not  wcnbcd  to  him  by 
any  of  hia  contemporaries.  Three  of  tliem  express  in  the  strongest 
language  the  orthodox  faith  of  the  church  in  opposition  to  the 
Anan  hertsy,  and  these  three  put  in  nnmi'stakable  language  the 
procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit  from  both  Father  and  Son.  The 
fourth  argues  for  the  orthodox  belief  of  tho  two  natures  and  one 
person  of  Chnst.  When  the  drsire  arose  that  it  should  Ik;  believed 
tliat  Bottius  iK-ri.-ihed  from  his  oppmilion  to  the  heresy  of  'Iheodoric, 
it  was  natural  to  ascribe  to  Inm  works  which  were  in  harmony  with 
this  supposed  fact.  The  work.<i  may  really  have  been  written  by 
one  Botihus,  a  biahop  of  .\frica.  B-i-lonrdain  supposes,  or  by  some 
Saint  Severinus,  as  Nitzach  conje.iiirfs.  and  the  similarity  of  Dame 
may  have  aided  the  tranHferenue  of  Llivro  to  the  heath*-n  or  neutral 
Bootius. 

The  bc-tt  editions  of  the  entire  works  of  Boetius  are  the  Basel 
edition  of  U>70,  and  Migne's  in  his  Patrolo<pix  Cursn4  Computus, 
Sfnes  Lafina,  vols.  Ixiu.,  Ixiv.  There  ere  many  editions  of  the/)* 
CoTLsolatione.  The  mo.st  recent  are— (1, )  In  Valpy's  Dtlphin  Classici, 
Nos.  64  and  66.     This  contains  the  lives  of  IWiius  by  Bertiua.cnd 

■  m.  —  io8 


858    , 


B  0  G -B  0  G 


by  Uota,  and  a  list  of  the  vanons  editions  of  Boetius.  It  tias  also 
numerous  notes.  (2.)  An  edition  by  Theodoms  Obbarius,  Jena;,  1843. 
This  contains  prolegomena  on  the  life  and  writings  of  Boetius,  on 
his  reli^on  and  philosophy,  and  on  the  manuscnpu  and  editions,  a 
chtical  apparatus,  and  notes.  (3.)  An  edition  by  Kudolfus  Peiper, 
LipsiK,  1S71.  This  edition  has  the  fullest  collation  of  manu. 
scripts,  though  a  considerable  number  of  manuscripts  still  remain 
to  be  collated.  In  addition  to  an  account  of  the  MSS.  used,  it 
gives  the  Book  of  Lupus  "  De  Rletris  Boetii,"  the  "Vita  Boetii"  con- 
tained in  some  USS.,  "  Elogia  Boetii,"  and  a  short  list  of  the  com- 
mentators, translators,  and  imitatora  of  the  Consolation.  It  con- 
tains also  an  account  of  the  metres  used  by  Boetius  in  the  Cun- 
toiatio,  and  .a  list  of  the  passages  which  he  has  borrowed  from  the 
ttagedies  of  Seneca.  The  work  also  includes  the  five  treatises,  four 
of  them  Christian,  of  which  mention  has  been  made  above,  in 
1867  appeared  a  very  satisfactory  edition  of  Boetlus's  works,  De 
JnstitiUiOTU  Arithmetica  Libri  Duo,  De  ! nstitiUione  Musica  Libri 
Quinqiu^  AcccdU  Geometria  qiue/ertur  Boetii :  e  libris  manu  scriptis 
edidit  Godofredus  Friedlein,  Lipsia.  (J.  D.) 

BOGHAZ-KEUY,  or  Boohas-Koei  {U,  the  Vilkge  of 
the  Gorge),  a  small  hamlet  in  Asia  Miaor,  remarkable  for 
its  ruins,  which  are  identified  with  the  ancient  Pteriura  or 
Pteria.  It  stands  3515  feet  above  the  sea-level,  about 
half-way  between  Angora  and  .\m;v5sia,  almost  in  the  -lOth 
jiarallel  of  N.  lat.,  on  the  banks  of  a  small  tributary  of  the 
Kizil  Irmak.  The  present  village  contains  about  150 
houses,  but  the  remains  give  evidence  of  its  former  import- 
ance. Almost  all  the  heights  they  occupy  bear  traces  of 
fortification ;  extensive  chambers  have  been  ercavated  in 
t)ie  rocks ;  many  portions  of  escarpment  are  elaborately 
sculptured  ;  and  the  massive  foundations  of  a  vast  temple 
or  palace  can  still  be  traced.  The  date  and  origin  of  these 
ruins  have  given  ri.=ie  to  much  discussion.  Dr  Barth  thinks 
the  city  was  probably  founded  by  Cyaxares,  the  Mede,  and 
explains  the  groups  of  sculptui-e  as  commemorating  the 
peace  between  Cyaxares  and  Alyattes,  which  is  described  by 
Herodotus  in  the  74th  chapter  of  his  1st  book.  M.  Texier's 
hypothesis,  on  the  other  hand,  is  that  the  carvings  represent 
the  introduction  of  the  worship  of  Astarte  into  Phrygia  ; 
and  this  interpretation  has  been  provisionally  accepted  by 
Van  Lennep,  in  whose  Travds  in  Asia  Minor,  1870, 
carefully-drawn  copies  of  the  sculptures  will  be  found.  (.See 
also  Barth,  Reisevon  Trapezunt  nach  Scutari,  18G0,  and  in 
Monatsbericht  der  BerL  Akad.  der  Wissensck.,  Febr,  1859.) 

BOQODUKHOFF,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Kharkoflf,  about  43  miles  N.W.  of  that  city,  in  50'  10' 
N.  lat.  and  36°  32'  E  long.,  on  the  sandstone  heights 
along  the  River  Merl.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  settle- 
ment on  this  site  as  early  as  1571,  and  in  1681  it  is  spoken 
of  ail  a  town.  In  1700,  at  the  time  of  the  Swedish  war, 
Bogodukhoff  was  talten  by  MenschikoCf  and  the  Emperor 
Alexia  Petrovitch.  There  are  still  remains  of  the  ramparts 
and  ditches  with  which  it  was  formerly  surrounded.  The 
town  contains  four  churches  and  a  cathedral  (of  the 
Assumption,  built  in  1793),  a  hospital,  and  an  almshouse. 
The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in  agriculture  and 
gardening,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  boots,  caps,  and 
furred  gowns.  Tanning  also  is  carried  on  to  .some  extent. 
The  trade  is  principally  in  grain,  cattle,  and  fish.  There 
are  two  weekly  markets  and  six  annual  fairs.  Population 
in  1860,  10,522 

BOQOMILI,  a  heretical  sect  of  the  Greek  Church,  who 
came  into  notice  during  the  12th  century.  In  origin  they 
are  probably  Bulgarian,  and  their  n;imo  appears  to  bo  a 
compound  of  the  Slavonic  words  Bog,  God,  and  milui, 
have  mercy  In  doctrine  they  are  closely  a-ssimilatod  to 
the  Euchitcs  of  the  preceding  century,  and  they  m.ay  bo 
looked  on  as  an  offshoot  of  that  older  sect.  The  peculiarity 
of  their  system  of  belief  is  the  place  assigned  to  Satan,  who, 
under  his  original  name  Satanaol,  is  held  by  them  to  be  the 
firstrborn  son  of  God.  But  Satanael,  though  seated  at  the 
right  hand  of  his  father  and  uiuluWcU  with  universal  sway, 
WW  discontented  and  desired  to  become  indepoudcnt.     lie 


lea  away  a  section  of  the  angels  from  their  allegiance,  aiiv. 
with  their  aid  formed  out  of  chaos  a  new  world — the  earth, 
and  a  new  race — man.  But  he  was  unable  to  give  to  man 
a  portion  of  his  own  living  spirit,  and  therefore  besought 
God  to  bestow  life  on  this  new  creation,  promising  that  tlie 
vacant  places  of  the  seceded  angels  should  be  filled  up  by 
the  spirits  of  men.  Repenting  of  this  promise,  however, 
he  resolved  to  bring  forth  an  evil  race  which  should  over- 
whelm the  good  among  mankind.  He  accordingly  seduced 
Eve,  who  gave  birth  to  Cain,  the  first  of  the  descendants 
of  the  evil  principle.  His  power  also  enabled  him  to 
deceive  the  greater  part  of  mankind,  particularly  the  Jews, 
to  whom  he  represented  himself  as  Jehovah.  At  last  God 
sent  out  from  himself  the  Loyos,  or  angel  Michael,  who 
came  upon  earth  in  an  ethereal  form  which  was  in  appear- 
ance only  an  earthly  body.  Christ  overcame  Satanael,  and 
deprived  him  of  his  creative  power,  Jil,  from  which  tune 
he  is  called  Satan.  Christ  then  ascended  and  took  liis 
•place  beside  the  Father,  who  again  sent  forth  an  eraanatioii, 
the  Holy  Ghost,  for  the  comfort  and  edification  of  believers. 
In  church  observances  the  Bogomili  were  equally  heterodox. 
They  rejected  baptism  by  water  only,  and  made  the  cere 
mony  consist  of  prayer,  and  of  laying  on  the  head  of  the 
convert  the  gospel  (probably  apocryphal)  of  St  John,  and 
the  hands  of  the  congregation.  As  they  rejected  the 
symbol  of  water  in  baptism  so  they  refused  to  admit  such 
Symbolic  rites  as  the  Lord's  supper,  which  they  looked 
upon  as  an  offering  to  evil  spirits.  They  were  averse  to 
all  images,  even  to  the  cross.  The  Bogomili  suffered 
persecution  from  Alexius  Comnenus,  who  put  to  death 
their  leader  BasiHus,  and  they  were  condemned  by  a  synod 
of  Constantinople  in  1140.  They  lingered  on,  however, 
in  and  about  Philippopolis,  and  opinions  nearly  identical 
with  theirs  are  to  be  met  with  among  the  later  Catharists. 
(See  the  Church  Histories  of  Neander  and  Gieseler.) 

BOGOTA,  or  S.\NTA  Fii  de  Bogota,  the  capital  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  in  South  America,  is  situated 
in  the  state  of  Cundinamarca,  in  4"  C'  N.  lat.  and  78°  30' 
W.  long.  It  occupies  a  fine  position  at  the  base  of  the 
mountains  La  Guadalupe  and  Montserrato,  on  a  table-land 
that  forms  part  of  the  eastern  ridge  of  the  Andes,  between 
the  extensive  valley  of  the  Magdalena  and  the  plains  that 
are  watered  by  part  of  the  Orinoco  system.  The  surround- 
ing country  is  exceedingly  fertile,  and  produces  abundant 
crops  of  wheat  and  barley  and  the  leguminous  plants 
cultivated  in  Europe.  The  city  of  Bogota  is  the  finest  in 
the  republic  ;  its  streets  are  well  built,  and  run  at  right 
angles  to  each  other  ;  and  within  recent  years  most  o( 
them  have  been  supplied  with  side  pavements.  The 
private  houses  are  built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  and  white- 
w.oshed  ;  and  owing  to  the  prevalence  of  earthquakes  they 
are  mostly  of  one  story  in  height.  Of  the  streets  the 
largest  and  finest  is  the  Calle-Real  or  Calle  de  la  Republi&i, 
which  ends  in  a  large  square  or  pl.aza  containing  some  of 
the  chief  buililings  in  the  city.  The  cathedral,  rebuilt  in 
1814,  possesses  very  little  external  beauty  ;  but  its  interior 
is  fitted  up  with  considerable  elegance,  its  ornaments  are 
rich  and  valuable,  and  the  image  of  the  Virgin,  the  patron 
saint,  is  covered  with  a  profusion  of  precious  stones. 
There  are  about  thirty  other  churches  in  the  city,  but  many 
of  them  arc  in  a  state  of  decay,  while  several  of  the 
monastic  buildings  are  appropriated  to  secular  uses, — the 
religious  corninunities  having  been  dissolved  by  Mosqncra, 
and  their  revenues  devoted  in  great  measure  to  educational 
purposes.  The  convent  of  San  Francisco  is  of  great  extent, 
and  contains  some  of  the  productions  of  Vusquez,  a  native 
artist  of  merit.  A  large  and  elegant  building — a  capitol, 
for  the  reception  of  Congress  and  for  the  various  oflices  of 
sUte — is  now  (1875)  in  course  of  erection.  Besides  the 
univer.sity  there  are  three  endowed  colleges,  a  school  of 


B  0  G  —  B  0  H 


859 


chemistry  and  mineralogy,  a  national  academy,  a  public 
library,  a  botanic  garden,  and  a  military  school,  which 
is  supported  out  of  the  public  funds,  and  has  produced 
some  good  engineers.  The  mint,  one  of  the  three  in  the 
republic,  is  a  large  and  haqdsome  building,  and  is  well 
BU|iplied  with  the  necessary  machinery.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  soap,  cloth,  leather,  and  the  precious  metals  ; 
im  active  trade  is  carried  on  ;  and  the  neighbourhood  is 
rich  io  minerals  of  various  kinds.  The  population  in  1800 
amounted  to  21,464,  exclusive  of  strangers  and  temporary 
residents  ;  in  1821  it  was  estimated  at  30,000,  and  in  1S70 
at  about  52,000.  Santa  F6  de  Bogota  was  founded  in 
1538  by  Gonzalez  Ximenes  de  Quesado,  and  received  its 
name  from  his  birthplace  Santa  F«S,  with  the  addition  of 
Bogota,  in  honour,  it  is  said,  of  a  native  prince  of  that  time. 
It  soon  increased  in  size  and  importance,  and  became  the 
capital  of  the  Spanish  vice-royalty  of  New  Granada.  In 
181 1  the  citizens  threw  oflf  the  Spanish  yoke  and  a  republic 
was  proclaimed  ;  the  city,  however,  in  1816,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Murillo  ,the  Spanish  general  Delivered  by 
Bolivar  in  1819  it  wis  made  capital  of  the  republic  of 
Colombia;  on  the^fieparation  of  the  three  states  it  remained 
the  chief  city  of  Tfew  Granada,  and  it  is.  now  the  capital 
of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  forming  itself  an  inde- 
pendent federal  territory.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  supreme 
court  and  the  other  oflBces  of  the  Federal  Government,  and 
the  residence  of  the  foreign  diplomatic  representatives. 

BOGRA,  correctly  BagurA,  a  district  in  the  Rijshihf 
division,  within  the  Lieutenant-Governorship  of  Bengal, 
situated  between  25°  20'  and  24°  20'  28"  N.  lat.,  and  88° 
55'  30"  and  89°  49'  25"  E.  long.'  It  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  the  districts  of  DinAjpur  and  Eangpur,  on  -the 
E.  by  the  districts  of  Rangpur  and  Maimansinh,  on  the 
S.  by  the  district  of  Pabn4,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  districts  of 
Rdjshilhl  and  Dinijpur.  The  revenue  area  of  the  district  in 
1870  was  2000  square  miles,  of  which  1750  were  returned 
as  under  cultivation,  125  as  cultivable  but  not  actually 
cultivated,  and  125  as  uncultivable  waste  The  census 
of  1872  returned  the  police  area  of  the  district  at  1500 
square  miles,  and  disclosed  a  population  of  689,467  souls, 
of  whom  556,620,  or  80  per  cent,  were  Mahometans, 
130,644,  or  19  per  cent,  Hindus;  22  Christians,  and 
2181  were  classified  as  "others."  Density  of  population 
in  the  census  area,  59  per  square  mile.  The  district 
stretches  out  in  a  level  plain,  intersected  by  numerous 
streams  and  dotted  with  patches  of  jungle.  The  KarattiyA 
River  flows  from  north  to  south,  dividing  the  district  into 
two  portions,  possessing  very  distinct  characteristics.  The 
eastern  tract  consists  of  rich  alluvial  soil,  well  watered,  and 
subject  to  fertilizing  inundations,  yielding  heavy  crops  of 
coarse  rico,  oilseeds,  and  jute  The  western  portion  of  the 
district  is  high-lying  and  produces  the  finer  qualitie."  of 
rice.  The  principal  rivers  are  formed  by  the  different 
channels  of  the  Brahmaputra,  which  river  here  bears  the 
local  names  of  the  KonAi,  the  DAokobA,  and  the  .lamunA, 
the  last  forming  a  portion  of  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
district  Its  bed  is  studded  with  alluvial  islauds.  The 
Brahmaputra  and  its  channels,  together  with  three  minor 
streams,  the  BingAli,  Karatoyi,  and  Alai.  afford  admirable 
facilities  for  commerce,  and  render  every  part  of  the 
district  accessible  to  native  cargo  boats  of  large  burden. 
The  rivers  swarm  with  fish, — the  value  of  the  fisheries 
being  estimated  at  £45,000  a  year.  The  jjnncipal  pro- 
ducts of  the  district  are  rice,  pease,  pulses,  oilseeds,  jute, 
sugarcane,  mulberry,  red  pepper,  and  hemp  for  smoking 
{CanHabitiiuiioa^  These  products,  together  with  clarified 
butter  and  a  little  silk,  form  the  chief  articles  of  exjiort. 
The  imports  consist"  of  salt,  cloth,  tobacco,  areca-nuts,  copper 
and  brass  utensils,  spices,  iron  and  piece  goods.  "The 
chief  trading  markets  are  BogrA,  Lakhmlganj,  Burfeonj, 


DhupchAchiA,  &c  A  silk  factory  has  been  eslablislicd  at 
NaodApArA,  and  is  conducted  with  European  capital,  with  aa 
annual  outlay  of  about  £4500.  The  revenue  and  eipendi- 
ture  of  the  district  have  steadily  increased  of  late  years. 
In  1853  the  total  revenue  of  the  district -amounted  to 
£48,431,  and  the  civil  expenditure  to  £7282;  in  1800, 
revenue  £57,744,  and  civil  expenditure  £1 1,013  ;  in  1870- 
71  the  revenue  had  risen  to  £59,979.  In  1870-71  the 
district  contained  1064  separate  estates  held  by  2497  pro- 
prietors, paying  a  total  Government  land  revenue  of  £44,347. 
The  machine  rj'  for  protecting  person  and  property  consists 
of  SIX  magisterial  and  six  civil  courts,  with  (1)  a  regular 
police  force,  numbering  54  officers  and  252  men,  and  cost- 
ing Government  £5975 ;  (2;,  a  rural  constabulary  or 
village  watch,  numbering  2552  men,  and  costing  £6635, 
paid  by  the  landholders  and  villagers  ,  and  (3),  municipal 
police,  numbering  36  men,  and  costing  £251.  In  1871-72 
there  were  41  Government  and  aided  schools  m  the  district, 
attended  by  1492  pupils,  and  maintained  at  a  total  cost  of 
£1398,  of  which  £692  was  contributed  by  the  state.  The 
total  number  of  aided  and  unaided  schools  in  the  diitnct  is 
returned  in  the  census  of  1872  at  169,  attended  by  1685 
pupils.  The  only  town  containing  upwards  of  5000 
inhabitants  in  the  district  is  BogrA,  the  administrative 
headquarters,  situated  on  the  KaratoyA  River ;  population 
in  1872,  5872  ;  municipal  income,  £282  ;  expenditure, 
£208;  rate  of  taxation  per  head,  Hid  There  is  one 
other  municipality,  Sherpur,  formerly  a  place  of  importance 
when  the  East  India  Company  had  silk  filatures  in  Us 
neighbourhood.  A  great  part  of  this  town  is  now  over- 
grown with  jungle,  the  municipal  income  in  1869  was 
£24G,  the  expenditure  £174.  The  climate  of  Bogra  is 
mild  during  the  winter,  but  sultry  and  oppressive  at  other 
seasons.  The  average  annual  rainfall  for  the  five  years 
ending  1869  was  82  inches,  and  the  average  annual  tem- 
perature 77°  Fahr. 

BOUADDIN,  or,  more  properly,  Eoha-Eddvn,  an  emi- 
nent Arabian  writer  and  statesman,  better  known  in  the 
East  under  the  appellation  of  Ibn-Sjeddad.  He  was  born 
at  Mosul  1145  a.d.  (539  a.h.),  and  early  became  eminent 
in  the  study  of  the  Koran,  as  well  as  in  jurisprudenceL 
At  the  age  of  twenty -seven  he  obtained  the  place  of  lecturer 
at  Baghdad,  and,  soon  after,  a  professor's  chair  at  Mosul 
In  1187  he  made  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  then 
proceeded  »o  visit  Jerusalem  and  Hebron  In  passing 
through  Damascus  he  was  sent  for  by  Salndin,  who  was 
then  employed  in  the  siege  of  Kancab.  Bohaddin  observeo 
as  he  himself  mentions  (  Vila  Saladim,  c.  v.),  that  the  whole 
soul  of  the  monarch  was  engrossed  by  the  war  which  he 
was  then  waging  against  the  enemies  of  the  faith,  and  saw 
that  the  only  mode  of  acquiring  his  favour  was  by  urging 
him  to  its  vigorous  prosecution  With  this  view  he  com- 
posed a  treatise  on  the  Laws  and  Disciplint  of  Sacred  War  ; 
and  this  work,  on  his  return,  he  presented  to  Saladin,  who 
received  it  with  peculiar  favour.  Bohaddin,  from  this  time, 
remained  constantly  attached  to  the  person  of  the  sultan, 
and  was  employed  in  various  important  embassies  and 
departments  of  civil  government  He  was  also  appointed 
judge  of  the  army,  and  judge  of  Jerusalem.  After  Saladin's 
death  Bohaddin  was  active  in  securing  the  throne  to  his 
son,  Melik-al-Dhaker,  and  was  by  that  prince  created  cadi 
of  Aleppo.  He  then  founded  a  college  in  that  city  of  which 
he  himself  was  the  principal  professor.  When  Mclik-al 
Dhakcr  died,  his  son  Melikal-Aziz  was  a  minor,  and 
Bohaddin  obtained  the  principal  sway  in  the  regency. 
This  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  introducing  learned  men 
at  court,  and  loading  them  with  honours.  As  the  prince, 
however,  approached  to  manhood,  Bohaddin,  though  he  still 
retAined  his  oflRces,  found  it  ex[icdicnt  to  retire  from  court 
Even  after  he  was  unable  to  go  to  college,  he  continued  t« 


860 


B  0  H  —  R  0  H 


give  lectures  in  his  own  house  ,  aiiJ  he  persevered  in  these 
learned  kLours  till  the  age  of  ninety,  when  he  died  1:235 
AD.  (633  ah)  Bohaddin  wrote  on  jurisprudence  and 
Muslim  divinity  ,  but  his  principal  work  is  his  Life  of 
Saladin,  which,  with  several  other  pieces  connected  with 
the  same  subject,  was  published  by  Schultens,  at  Leyden, 
in  1732,  accompanied  by  a  Latin  translation,  with  notes 
and  a  geographical  inde.x.  This  work  affords  a  favourable 
specimen  of  the  historical  compositions  of  the  Arabs.  It  is 
written  with  some  spirit,  and  yet  is  free  from  that  inflation 
which  so  frequently  disfigures  Oiiental  composition.  What- 
ever relates  to  Saladin  breathes  the  highest  tone  of 
panegyric ;  yet  the  enthusiasm  with  which  everything 
Concerning  him  is  narrated,  and  the  anecdotes  which  the 
aolhnr,  from  his  personal  knowledge,  is  able  to  coniinunicate 
respecting  that  extraordinary  character,  give  bis  work  a 
great  degree  of  interest, 

BOHEMIA  (German  Boh.me.n  or  Bohei.m),  a  king- 
dom of  the  Austrian  empire,  situated  between  48"  33' 
and  51°  4'  N  lat,,  and  12°  5'  and  1G°  25'  W.  long,  and 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Saxony  and  Prussian  Silesia,  E. 
by  Jioravia,  S.  by  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  and  W.  by 
Bavaria.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  l'J,'JS3  square  miles.  It 
belongs  almost  entirely  to  the  basin  of  the  Elbe,  which  rises 
within  the  territory,  and  is  joined  by  the  Adler,  the  Iser, 
the  Muidau,  and  the  Eger  before  it  passes  the  frontier.  The 
boundaries  aro  pretty  clearly  marked  by  mountain  ranges 
on  all  sides, — the  Bohmerwald  dividing  the  country  from 
Bavaria,  the  Erzgebirge  and  Riesengebirge  from  Saxony  and 
Silesia,!and  the  Moravian  Hills  from  the  basin  of  the  Danube. 
The  climate  is  healthy,  but  varies  considerably  in  difl'erent 
districts;  the  soil  in  many  parts  is  highly  fertile,  and  grain 
of  various  kinds,  potatoes,  hops,  flax,  hemp,  vines,  and  fruits 
are  extensively  cultivated  In  1870  there  were  G, 205, 101 
acres  of  ploughed  land,  2G5G  in  vineyards,  1,560,321  in 
gardens  and  meadows,  995,340  in  pa'sture,  and  3,749,411 
in  woodland  At  the  same  date  the  number  of  horses  in  the 
country  was  189,337.  cattle  1,602,015,  sheep  1,106,290, 
goats  194,273,  swine  22S,1S0,  and  bee-hives  140,892. 
The  mineral  productions  comprise  gold,  silver,  lead,  tin, 
copper,  iron,  cobalt,  bismuth,  arsenic,  sulphur,  coal,  alum, 
vitriol,  and  difl'erent  sorts  of  stone.  In  1870  there  were 
obtained  156  cwt,  of  gold-ore,  1245  of  silver  ore,  225,536 
tons  of  iron,  999  tons  of  lead,  2274  of  tin,  CI  tons  of  anti- 
mony, and  1 1 1  of  arsenic-ore.  The  quantity  of  coal  and 
lignite  amounted  to  4,099,909  tons.  The  mineral  springs 
of  Bohemia — Carlsbad,  Teplitz,  Marienbad,  and  Fraiizens- 
brunii,  etc. — aro  justly  famous.  "The  industry  of  the 
kingdom  is  highly  developed  in  various  directions.  Most 
important  of  all  is  the  manufacture  of  woollen  goods,  prin-' 
cipally  carried  on  at  Reichenberg  and  in  the  neighbour- 
hood The  cotton  manufacture  is  also  extensively  pro- 
secuted in  the  same  district ;  and  at  Rumburg  and  other 
places  linen  stuffs  are  largely  produced.  Bohemian-  glass 
has  been  celebrated  for  centuries,  and  is  still  exported  to 
all  parts  of  Europe  Porcelain  and  earthenware  of  difl'erent 
sorts,  iron  and  steel  wares,  copper,  tin,  and  pewter  articles, 
wooden  wares,  chemical  stuffs,  and  paper  are  all  the  objects 
of  a  considerable  industry.  Beetroot  sugjr  is  pretty  largely 
manufactured,  the  refineries  numbering  126  in  1S70.'  At 
the  same  date  there  were  968  breweries  in  the  country,  and 
324  brandy  distilleries  The  chief  commercial  city  is  the 
capital,  Prague  ;  but  Reichenberg,  Pilson,  Haida,  Rumburg, 
Leitinerilz,  and  Budwcis  arc  all  important  centres.  Bohemia 
is  divided  into  twelve  circles — Prague,  Budweis,  Pisek, 
Pilsen.  Eger,  Saaz,  Leitineritz,  Bunzl.iii,  Jiczin,  Koniggriitz. 
Chrndiin,  Czaslau,  and  Tabor,  and  these  are  subdivided  into 
91  departments.  In  1SG9  there  were  372  towns,  226 
Bmaller  market-towns,  and  12,531  villages.  The  number 
of    iiihaliltoJ  houses   in    the  whole  country  amounted    to 


632,404  ;  and  the  total  population  was  5,106,069,  of  whom 
2,433,629  were  males,  and  2,672,440  females.  The  census 
of  1869  took  no  count  of  nationality,  but  according  to 
Ficker  in  his  Die  Vultersiamme  der  Oeslcrrdchisch- 
Uiiijaruchen  Monatrhie,  there  are  20  of  German  race  for 
32  of  Slavonic.  By  far  the  greater  parf  of  the  popula- 
tion (4,940,898)  belongs  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  ; 
while  only  3438  are  members  of  the  Greek  Church, 
106,115  Protestants,  and  89,933  Jews.  The  country  con- 
stitutes an  archbishopric,  and  is  divided  into  three 
bishoprics.  In  1870  there  were  140  ecclesiastical  founda- 
tions, with  endowments  amounting  to  £65,726.  At  the 
head  of  the  educational  establishments  is  the  University  of 
Prague,  with  four  faculties,  and  attended  in  1871  by  151 6 
students.  There  are  upwards  of  4000  ordinary  schools  in 
rather  more  than  the  half  of  which  Czech  is  spoken,  26 
gymnasiums,  4  theological  seminaries, -and  several  institu- 
tions for  special  departments  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  < 

Bohemia  derives  its  name  from  the  Buii,  a  Celtic  race 
expelled  from  the  country  by  the  Marcomanni,  who,  after 
establishing  a  .considarable  kingdom  under  Marbod  and 
being  converted  to  Christianity,  were  in  their  turnsujiplanted 
by  the  Slavonic  race,  which  is  still  predominant.  The  new 
comers  were  in  danger  of  expulsion  or  conquest  by  the 
Avars,  but  were  defended  and  established,  according  to 
their  own  possibly  mythical  account,  by  the  heroic  Samo  ; 
and  somewhat  later,  as  the  story  goes,  his  place  was  filled 
by  the  good  knight  Krok,  whose  daughter  Libussa,  marry- 
ing Premysl,  became  the  founder  of  a  regular  dynasty. 
Bohemia  was  for  a  tima  assorbcd  in  the  great  Carlovingian 
monarchy,  but  soon  reasserted  its  independence.  In  the 
course  ot  the  9th  century  Christianity  was  introduced. 
Under  Boleslas  I.  the  bounds  of  Bohemia  were  extended 
and  its  unity  secured  ;  but  after  a  vigorous  defence  he  had 
to  recognize  the  overlordship  of  Otto  I.  of  Germany.  Under 
his  grandchildren  his  kingdom  fell  to  pieces ;  a  Polish 
conquest  followed,  and  the  restoraFion  of  the  native 
dynasty  was  only  effected  by  the  help  of  Henry  II.  of 
Germany.  In  1086  Wratirlas  II.  received  the  title  of  king 
from  the  emperor  for  himself ;  and  Premysl  Ottocar  I. 
(1 197-1230)  became  the  founder  of  a  hereditary  scries  of 
kings.  He  was  a  bold  defender  of  his  independence,  and 
at  the  same  time  gave  great  encouragement  to  Cernian 
immigration.  By  the  in*''uduction  of  the  right  of  primogeni-' 
ture  in  the  succession  I  he  throne,  he  put  an  end  to  the 
disputes  and  contests  which  so  often  followed  the  death  of 
a  king.  In  1241  his  son  and  successor  was  the  successful 
defender  of  Europe  against  a  Mongolian  invasion  ;  but  ho 
was  eclipsed  by  Ottocar  II.  (1253-1278),  who  added  greatly 
by  conquest  to  the  extent  of  his  dominions,  and  made 
himself  a  formidable  rival  to  the  emperor  himself.  The- 
Premysl  dynasty  was  at  la-st  extinguished  in  1306;  and- 
after  a  few-  years  of  uncertainty  and  dissatisfaction  the  Bo- 
hemian crown  was  bestowed  on  John  of  Luxembourg  (son 
of  the  Emperor  Henry  VII, ),  who  thus  became  the  founder 
of  a  dynasty  which  lasted  till  1437.  This  warlike  and 
prosperous  monarch  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Charles  I., 
who  obtained  the  imperial  dignity  as  Charles  IV.,  and  left 
Bohemia  in  a  flourishing  and  influential  position  at  his 
death  in  1378.  Under  his  successors,  who  fell  far  below 
the  character  of  their  ancestor,  the  country  was  throw  n  into 
confusion  by  the  Hussite  reformation,  which  resulted  in  a 
protracted  war  (1419-1434).  The  success  of  the  refonuing 
party  led  to  an  elective  monarchy,  and  after  various 
vicissitudes,  George  of  Podiebrad  mounted  the  throne  in 
1458;  and  in  spite  of  Papal  bull  and  IJun^arian  arms 
maintained  his  jiosition  till  his  death  in  1471.  His 
successor,  the  Polish  prince  Ladislas,  ultimately  obtained 
also  the  crown  of  Hungary  ;  but  under  him  and  his  son 
Louis  (1517-1526)  the  nobility  made  themselves  more  aud 


B  0  H  —  B  0  H 


8G1 


more  independent  of  the  king,  and  the  common  people  were 
crushed  deeper  into  serfdom.  On  tlie  death  of  Louis,  in  a 
battle  against  the  Turks  at  Mohacz,  Bohemia  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  who  treated  the  kingdom 
in  the  most  despotic  manner,  and  iu  1547  declared  it  a 
hereditary  possession.  He  wa3  followed  in  succession  by 
his  son  Maximilian  II  and  his  grandson  Rudolph  II.,  who 
left  the  country  as  distracted  as  they  found  it.  The  son 
of  Matthias,  the  next  kin;;,  was  rejected  by  the  Protestant 
party,  which  chose  in  his  stead  Frederick  V.  of  the 
PaLiliiiate ;  but  the  victory  at  the  White  Mountain  in 
IC'JO  left  Bohemia  at  the  mercy  of  the  emperor,  who 
indicted  a  terrible  vengeance  on  his  enemies,  and  in  1627 
declared  the  country  a  purely  Catholic  and  hereditary 
kingdom  of  the  empire.  Owing  to  this  no  fewer  than 
30,000  families  are  said  to  have  gone  into  exile  and  the 
population  of  the  country  was  reduced  to  800,000.  On  the 
death  of  Charles  VI.  Charles  Albert  of  Bavaria  laid  claim 
to  the  crown,  which  .;ontinued  to  be  an  object  of  dispute 
though  the  Silcsian  campaigns  and  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
but  nai  successfully  defended  by  Maria  Theresa  and  her 
son  Juseph  II  The  country  was  greatly  benefited  in 
i-.iany  ways  by  the  government  of  that  monarch  ;  but  he' 
destroyed  the  independence  of  the  royal  towns,  and  treated 
the  whole  land  us  a  mere  province  of  the  empire.  Its 
religious  condition  was  considerably  improved,  however, 
by  an  edict  of  toleration  published  in  1781.  Under  the 
succeeding  reigns  the  circumstances  of  Buhemio  underwent 
but  little  alteration,  and  it  was  hardly  atTected  by  the  first 
French  Revolution.  In  1848,  however,  a  determined 
"  national  "  moveiaent  agitated  the  country.  The  demands 
of  the  Liberal  party  gradually  increased,  and  nothing  short 
of  a  full  share  in  the  constitutional  government  of  their 
ruiiotry  would  suffice.  The  movement  was  not  confined  to 
Liohciiiia,  but  spread  through  the  whole  Austrian  empire, 
to  the  article  on  which  (p.  137  of  the  present  volume)  the 
riider  is  referred.  (See  Freher,  Rcrum  Bohemkarum 
Anliijui  Scriptorea,  1C02;  Dobner,  Monumcnta  Uisluriea, 
1704-08;  Vche],  Gejchulile  der  BO/imcn,  1817;  Palacky, 
Ceschic/Ue  von.  Bijhmcn,  1839;  SoxiiHa, -Geschichle  dea 
luhin.   Volks  und  Landes,  1845-47.) 

The  Bohemians  or  Czechs  speak  a.  Sl.avonic  language, 
which  has  been  subjected  to  literary  culture  from  about 
(if  not  before)  the  9th  century.  A  few  fragments  of  a 
pre-Christian  literature  have  been  preserved  in  a  manu- 
script discovered  by  Hanka  in  1817  in  the  church-steeplo 
of  Kijnigiiihof ;  but  the  first  productions  of  any  extent  are 
due  to  the  activity  of  tho  early  German  Christians,  and 
ttre  composed  for  the  most  part  in  the  Latin  language. 
Against  this  powerful  exotic  speech  the  vernacular  had  a 
long  and  dubious  struggle,  especially  in  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal diimain,  and  it  was  still  striving  against  its  encroach- 
ments when  the  political  circumstances  of  the  nation 
exposed  it  to  the  more  dangerous,  because  more  popular 
and  lo^a  artificial,  rivalry  of  German.  From  the  court  and 
•  ho  capital  outward  over  the  nobility  and  the  country  there 
spread  a  Germanizing  energy  that  at  first  seemed  likely  to 
destroy  everything  that  was  distinctively  Bohemian  ; 
but  here  and  there  the  national  language  and  customs 
were  fostered  and  preserved  by  a  few  patriotic  spirits, 
.iihong  whom  the  monks  of  tho  Slavonic  monastery  of 
S.izawa  were  csjHicially  con.^picuous.  At  length  the  native 
langu.ige obtained  the  imperial patron.ige(underCharlosIV.) 
Daliinil  WTote  his  Ukyming  Chronicle  of  B<'}u-mia  (1314); 
and  transUitioiis  began  to  be  made  from  Latin  arid  other 
languages.  Among  those  were  Mandeville's  Travels  ;  and 
about  the  end  of  the  14lh  century  a  complete  version  of 
the  Scriptnre.-i,  (lie  manuscript  of  which  is  preserved  at 
Kikolsburg  in  Moravia.  Thomas  Stittiy  the  domestic 
moralist,  Duba  the  jurist,  and  Flaska  the  didactic  poet, 


deserve  to  bo  mentioned  as  original  writers.  The  next 
generation  saw  the  attempts  at  once  at  religious  and  at 
linguistic  reform  that  came  to  so  sad  an  end  in  the  burn- 
ing of  John  Huss  and  the  persecutions  that  followed. 
The  Bohemian  language  was,  indeed,  brought  iulo  general 
use  and  served  the  disputants  of  both  sides  ;  but  little 
was  consigned  to  its  keeping  except  the  ephemeral  pro- 
ductions of  ecclesiastical  and  political  strife.  A  large 
collection  of  these  works,  saved  from  destruction  by  the 
invading  Swedes,  is  still  preserved  in  the  library  of 
Stockholm.  Of  more  permanent  interest  may  be  mentioned' 
Paul  Zidek's  Ilislory  of  the  WoilJ,  written  for  George  of 
Podiebrad  ;  the  interesting  travels  of  Leo  of  Rosmital  and 
his  companions  through  various  countries  of  Europe;  and 
those  of  Kabatoik  in  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor,  and  of  John 
of  Lobkowitz  in  Palestine.  The  ICth  century  saw  a 
remarkable  development  of  Bohemian  prose  in  various 
departments  of  literature.  W'eleslawin,  Paprocky,  and 
Hayek  of  Liboczun  wrote  popular  histories ;  WratisL.o  of 
Mitrovic  and  Prefat  of  Wlkanow  gave  accounts  of  their 
travels;  and  Nicolas  Konec,  Dobrensky,  and  Lomnicky 
produced  didactic  works  of  different  kinds.  A  valuable 
translation  of  the  Bible  was  published  at  Kralitz  iu 
Moravia  by  eight  learned  Bohemian  Brethren  at  the 
instigation  of  John  of  Zerotin  ;  and  various  versions  of 
the  classics  appeared  from  time  to  time.  A  long  period 
of  literary  decadence  folluwed  the  battle  of  tho  White 
Mountain  in  1020.  The  best  blood  of  tho  nation  went 
into  exile,  and  what  Bohemian  literature  was  produced 
appeared  for  the  most  part  in  foreign  cities.  In  1774  a 
severe  blow  was  struck  at  the  native  language  by  Maria 
Theresa's  imperial  decree  which  enforced  the  use  of  German 
in  the  higher  and  middle  sc'hools  of  the  country.  Before 
long,  however,  the  defence  of  the  mother  tongue  was  taken 
up  by  Count  Kinsky,  Hanka  of  Hankenstein,  the  historian 
Pelzcl,  and  the  Jesuit  Balbin.-^'by  the  last  mentioned  in  a 
DisstTtatio  apologelica  pro  lingua  Bu/iemica.  The  languago 
became  the  object  of  the  scientific  investig.itions  of  Do- 
browsky,  and  the  remains  of  the  early  periods  were  edited 
by  Dobner,  Prochazka,  and  other  philologists.  A  chair  of 
the  Bohemian  language  w.is  founded  in  tlie  University  of 
Prague,  and  in  1818  a  Bohemian  museum  was  established 
in  connection  with  a  society  th.it  devoted  itself  to  the  study 
of  national  antiquities,  and  published"  a  valuable  journal. 
Puchmayer  (1795-1820)  gave  an  impulse  to  national 
poetry,  and  h.as  been  succeeded  by  Langer,  Roko,  Wocel, 
Schneider,  Czelakowsky,  and  Kollar,  and  a  great  number  of 
other  writers.  In  the  department  of  science  Presl,  Sadck. 
Amerling,  Smetaua,  Petcina,  Sloboda,  and  Ojiiz  have 
attained  distinction.  Grammars  of  the  Czech  language 
have  been  produced  by  Eurian,  Hanka,  Maly,  Semb'Cra, 
and  Tomicek ;  Sumawsky  published  a  great  German- 
Bohemian  dictionary ;  Spatny,  a  Bohemian-German  and 
German-Bohemian  technological  dictionary;  and  Jungniann 
a  large  Bohemian- German  lexicon.  The  names  of  even 
the  prominent  writers  in  philosophy,  theology,  and  politics 
are  too  numerous  to  be  mentioned.  (See  Schafaiik'.4 
Slavlsch  Allerthiimer,  1842,  and  Geschichte  der  6'luv. 
Sprache,  182G;  Jungmann's  Geschichte  der  Bohm.  SjjracUe 
und  Literatur,  1825.) 

BOHEMOND,  Marc,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Crusades, 
born  about  1050,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Robert  Cui.<card,  a 
Norman,  who  had  obl.iincd  by  conquest  tho  dukc<loin  of 
Apulia  and  Colabria.  From  lOSI  to  1085  he  served  under 
his  father  in  a  war  against  the  Byzantine  emperor  Alex- 
aiulcr  Comnenus,  whom  he  twice  defeated,  though  he  had 
t'l  return  to  It.aly  without  reaping  any  sul>stantial  fruit.s  of 
his  Kiicccbe.  Ill  1085  his  father  died,  leaving  Apulia  and 
Calabria  to  a  younger  son,  while  Bohemond  obtained  only 
the  small  principality  of  Tarcntum.     A  war  between  the 


8G2 


B  0  I  — B  0  I 


brothers  followed,  from  which,  however,  Bohemond  was 
speedily  diverted  by  the  Crusades,  which  opened  up  a 
wider  field  for  his  ambition.  Accompanied  by  his  cousin 
Tancred,  he  led  an  army  of  iO.OOO  cavalry  and  20,000 
infantry,  with  which  he  would  have  besieged  Constantinople 
had  he  been  able  to  persuade  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  to  join 
hira.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  battle  of  Dorylasum 
(1097),  and  the  other  engagements  of  the  campaign  in 
Asia  Mi;ior.  A  year  later  he  besieged  and  captured 
Antioch,  of  which  he  assumed  the  principality.  In  1101 
he  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Turks.  Released, 
after  a  captivity  of  two  years,  on  the  payment  of  a  very 
heavy  rap-som,  he  returned  to  Europe  to  collect  troops.  In 
1106  he  visited  France,  and  married  Constance,  a  daughter 
of  PhiJip  I.  With  an  army  levied  in  France,  in  right  of 
his  marriage,  he  renewed  war  with  Alexius,  but  being 
unsuccessful  in  the  siege  of  Durazzo  he  was  obliged  to  con- 
clude a  peace  in  1 108.  He  died  at  Canossa  in  Apulia  in 
1111  (See  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall,  c  Ivui.,  Ix.,  and 
Michaud's  HUioirede  Croisadcs) 

BOIARDO,  Count  Matteo  Maria,  of  a  noble  and 
illustrious  house  established  at  Ferrara,  but  originally  from 
Beggio,  was  born  at  Scandiano,  one  of  the  seignoral  estates 
of  his  family,  near  Reggio  di  Modena,  about  the  year  1431, 
according  to  Tiraboschi,  or  1420  according  to  Mazzuchelh. 
At  an  early  age  he  entered  the  University  of  Ferrara,  where 
be  acquired  a  good  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Latin,  and 
even  of  the  Oriental  languages, and  was  in  due  time  admitted 
doctor  in  philosophy  and  in  law.  At  the  court  of  Ferrara, 
where  he  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Duke  Borso  d'Este  and  his 
successor  Hercules, he  was  entrusted  v/ith  several  honourable 
employments,  and  in  particular  "was  named  governor  of  Reg- 
gie, an  appointment  which  he  held  in  the  year  1 478.  Three 
years  afterwards  he  was  elected  captain  of  Modena,  and 
reappointed  governor  of  the  town  and  citadel  of  Beggio, 
where  he  died  in  the  year  1494,  though  in  what  month  is 
uncertain.  Almost  all  his  works,  and  especially  his  great 
poem  of  the  Orlando  Inamorato,  were  composed  for  the 
amusement  of  Duke  Hercules  and  his  court,  though  not 
writtpn  within  its  precincts.  His  practice,  it  is  said,  was 
to  retire  to  Scandiano  or  some  other  of  his  estates,  and 
thereto  devote  htmself  to  composition  ;  and  CasteWetro, 
Vallisiiieri,  Mazzuobelli,  and  Tiraboschi,  all  unite  in  stating 
that  he  took  care  to  insert  in  the  descriptions  of  his  poem 
those  of  the  agreeable  environs  of  his  chateau,  and  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  names  of  his  heroes,  as  Mandricardo, 
Oradasse,  Sacripant,  Agramant,  and  others,  were  merely  the 
names  of  some  of  his  peasants,  which,  from  their  uncouth- 
ness,  appeared  to  him  proper  to  be  given  to  Saracen 
warriors.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Orlando  Inamorato 
deserves  to  bo  considered  as  one  of  the  most  important 
poems  in  Italian  literature,  since  it  forms  the  first  example 
of  the  romantic  epic  worthy  to  servo  as  a  model,  and,  as 
such,  undoubtedly  produced  the  Orlando  Furioso.  Gravina 
and  Mazzuchelli  have  said,  and  succeeding  writers  have 
repeated  on  their  authority,  that  Boiardo  proposed  to 
himself  as  his  model  the  Iliad  of  Hoiher ;  that  Paris  is 
besieged  like  the  city  of  Troy;  that  Angelica  holds  the  [ilaco 
of  Helen  ,  and  tJiat,  in  short,  the  one  poem  is  a  sort  of 
reflex  image  of  the  other.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  the 
8uhjcct-ra liter  of  the  poem  is  dcrivc<l  fioir  the  Fahnluvs 
Chronicle  of  the  pseudoTurpin  ;  though,  wi  h  the  exception 
of  the  names  of  Chailema^cne,  Roland,  Oliver,  and  some 
other  principal  warriors,  who  necessarily  figure  .as  important 
characters  in  the  various  scenes,  there  is  little  ri-semblanco 
between  the  detailed  plot  of  the  one  and  that  of  the  other. 
The  poem,  which  Boiardo  did  not  live  to  finish,  was  printed 
at  Scandiano  the  year  after  his  death,  under  the  Rupcrintend- 
enco  of  bis  son  Count  Camillo  The  title  of  the  book  is 
without  date  :  but  a  Latin  letter  Irom  Antonia  CaralTa  di 


Reggio,  prefixed  to  the  poem,  is  dated  the  kalends  of  June 
1495.  A  second  edition,  also  without  date,  but  which 
must  have  been  printed  before  the  year  1500,  appeared  at 
Venice ;  and  the  poem  was  twice  reprinted  there  during 
the  first  twenty  years  of  the  16th  century.  These  editions 
are  the  more  curious  and  valuable,  that  they  contain 
nothing  but  the  text  of  the  author,  which  is  comprised  in 
three  books,  divided  into  cantos,  the  third  book  being 
incomplete.  But  Niccolo  degli  Agostini,  an  indifferent  poet, 
had  the  courage  to  continue  the  work  commenced  by 
Boiardo,  adding  to  it  three  '-books,  which  were  printed  at 
Venice  in  1526-1531,  in  4to  ;  and  since  that  time  no 
edition  of  the  Orlando  has  been  printed  without  the  con- 
tinuation of  Agostini,  wretched  as  it  unquestionably  is, 
Boiardo's  poem  ^suffers  from  the  incurable  defect  of  "» 
laboured  and  heavy  style.  His  story  is  skilfully  con- 
structed, the  characters  are  well  drawn  and  sustained 
throughout ;  many  of  the  incidents  show  a  power  and 
fertility  of  imagination  not  inferior  to  that  of  Ariosto,  but 
the  perfect  workmanship  indispensable  for  a  great  work  of 
art  is  wanting.  .The  poem  in  its  original  shape  was  not 
popular,  and  has  been  completely  superseded  by  the 
lii/acimenio  of  Francesco  Berni.     See  Berni. 

The  other  works  of  Boiardo  are — 1  II  Timone,  a  comedy, 
Scandiano,  1500,  4to  ;  2.  Sonnetti  e  Camoni,  Reggio,  1499, 
4to  ;  3.  Carmen  Bucohcon,  Reggio,  1500,  4to;  4.  Cinque 
Capitoli  in  terza  rima,  Venice,  1523  or  1533  ;  5.  Apulejo 
dell'  Anno  d'Orq,  Venice,  1516,  1518;  6.  Asino  d'Oro  de 
Luciano  tradoito  in  volgare,  Venice,  1523,  8vo ;  7.  Frodoto 
Alicamasseo  istonco,  tradottodi  Greco  m  Lingua  Italiana, 
Venice,  1533  and  1538,  8to  ;  8.  Rerum  ItalKarum 
Scriptores.     (See  Panizzi's  Boiardo,  1830-31.) 

BOIELDIEU,  Feani^ois-Adrien,  is  the  chief  representa- 
tive of  the  national  school  of  comic  opera  in  France,  a  branch 
of  art  in  which  everything  that  is  most  lovable  and  at  the 
same  time  most  national  in  the  French  character  has  found 
its  full  expression.  He  was  born  at  Rouen  in  1775,  and 
received  his  first  musical  education  from  M.  Broche,  the 
organist  of  the  cathedral  of  that  city.  It  is  said  that,  when 
quite  a  youth,  in  order  to  escape  the  punishment  of  a 
severe  master  for  a  slight  offence,  he  went  off  to  Paris  on 
foot,  but  \.as  discovered  and  brought  back  by  his  parents. 
Ho  began  composing  songs  and  chamber  music  at  a  very 
early  age, — his  first  opera.  La  Famille  Sumf, being  produced 
on  the  stage  of  Rouen  in  1795,  where  it  met  with  an  enthu- 
siastic reception.  Not  satisfied  with  his  local  success  he 
turned  his  eyes  to  that  loadstar  of  youthful  ambition, 
Paris.  He  went  to  the  capital  in  1195,  full  of  hope  and 
expectation.  The  score  of  his  opera  was  submitted  to  the 
leading  musicians  of  the  day,  such  as  Cherubini,  M(ihul, 
and  others,  but  met  with  little  approbation.  Altogether 
the  time  was  not  favourable  for  the  comic  muse.  The 
heroic  passions  roused  by  the  revolutionary  events  of  the 
preceding  years  required  commensurate  efforts  of  musical 
art ;  the  grand  opera  was  the  order  of  the  day.  Boieldieu 
had  to  fall  back  on  his  talent  as  a  pianoforte-player  for  a 
livelihood,  and  to  wait  for  a  chauce  of  higher  success  in  the 
meantime.  This  success  came  at  last  from  a  source  whence 
it  was  little  expected,  and,  perhaps,  less  desired.  Garat,  a 
fashionable  singer  of  the  period,  admired  Boieldieu's  touch 
on  the  piano,  and  made  him  his  accompanyist.  He  also 
sung  in  the  drawing-rooms  of  the  Directoire  the  charming 
songs  and  ballads  with  which  the  young  composer  supplied 
liiin  but  too  willingly.  In  this  manner  Boieldieu's  reputa- 
tion grailually  extended  to  wider  circles.  In  1797  his  abovo- 
mcntioned  opera  appeared  for  the  first  time  on  a  Paris 
stage,  and  w.is  well  received.  Several  others  followed  in 
rapid  sucre-s.sioii,  of  which  only  the  last,  Le  Calife  de  BaijduU 
(1709),  lias  escaped  oblivion.  It  tends  to  show  Boieldieu's 
tni"  artistic  vocation,  that,  after  the  enormous  success  of 


B  0  I  -B  O  I 


863 


tills  work,  he  felt  the  want  of  a  thorough  musical  tram- 
iug,  and  voluotaril/  descended  from  the  position  of  a 
successful  maestro  to  that  of  a  humble  puptL  He  took 
lessons  from  Cherubiuj,  and  the  influeuce  of  that  great 
master  is  distinctly  discernible  in  the  higher  artistic  finish 
of  Boieldieu's  later  compositions.  In  1802  Boieldieu,  for 
the  second  time  in  his  life,  took  to  sudden  flight,  oo  this 
occasion  in  order  to  escape  the  domestic  troubles  caused  by 
his  marriage  with  a  celebrated  ballet-dancer  of  the  Paris 
Opera.  The  frightened  husband  went  to  Russia,  where  he 
was  received  with  open  arms  by  the  Emperor  Alexander. 
During  his  prolonged  stay  at  St  Petersburg  he  composed  a 
number  of  operas  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  name.  He 
also  set  to  music  the  choruses  of  Itacine's  Athalie,  one  of 
his  few  attempts  at  the  tragic  style  of  dramatic  writing.  In 
1811  he  returned  to  his  own  country,  where  the  following 
year  witnessed  the  production  of  one  of  his  finest  works, 
Jean  de  Paris.  The  charming  coquetry  of  the  queen 
■of  Navarre,  the  chivalrous  verve  of  the  king,  the  officious 
pedantry  of  the  senesch.il,  and  the  amorous  tenderness  of 
the  page — all  this  rendered  in  the  finest  touches  that 
music,  and  only  French  music,  is  capable  of,  will  not  soon 
be  forgotten.  We  pass  over  a  number  of  other  operas  of 
lesser  value,  partly  written  in  collaboration  with  other  com- 
posers, and  turn  at  once  to  the  second  and  greatest  master- 
piece of  Boieldieu's  genius,  his  Dame  J^laticJie  (1825).  The 
libretto,  written  by  Scribe,  was  partly  suggested  by  Walter 
Scott's  Monasterii,  and  several  original  Scotch  tunes  cleverly 
introduced  by  the  composer  add  not  a  little  to  the  melodious 
<harra  and  local  colour  of  the  work.  La  Dame  Blanche 
marks  the  highest  development  of  the  French  school  of 
comic  opera.  Gr^try  stood  at  the  head  of  this  school ; 
Cherubini  with  his  Deux  Joumiea  followed  in  his  wake; 
Boieldieu,  greater  than  both  (in  this  particular  branch 
of  art),  reached  a  perfection  which  was  to  some  extent 
sustained  by  the  works  of  Auber.  Boieldieu's  pupil,  Adam, 
has  in  his  Demiers  Souvenirs  d'un  Musicien  left  a  charming 
sketch  of  the  genesis  of  Boieldieu's  masterpiece.  The 
chief  characteristics  of  his  style  are  an  easy  flow  of  graceful 
melodies,  a  refined  though  occasionally  somewhat  meagre 
instrumentation,  admirable  phrasing,  and  a  most  distinct 
■enunciation  of  the  words.  "The  outer  events  of  Boieldieu's 
■career  may  be  summed  up  in  few  words.  For  a  long  time 
he  occupied  the  position  of  professor  of  composition  and 
pianoforte  at  the  Conservatoire;  in  1817  he  was  made 
a  member  of  the  Institute.  The  Dame  Blanche  was 
his  last  opera  but  one.  Soon  after  its  production  he  was 
seized  with  a  violent  attack  of  pulmonary  disease.  "To 
■stop  the  rapid  progress  of  the  illness  he  tnvelled  in  Italy 
and  the  South  of  France,  but  fell  a  vic'i'u  to  it  on  October 
8,  1834. 

Bull,  a  -Celtic  people,  who  at  an  early  date  crossed 
the  Alps  and  established  themselves  between  the  Po  and 
the  Apenniues  to  the  south  of  the  Insubres  and  CenomanL 
On  the  defeat  of  their  neighbours  the  Senones  by  the 
Romans  they  joined  the  Etruscans  against  the  conquerorfl, 
and  were  involved  in  the  disastrous  results  of  the  battle  at 
the  Vadimonian  Lake  in  283  B  c.  Equally  unsuccessful 
in  the  following  year,  they  formed  a  treaty  of  peace 'with 
the  Romans,  which  they  kept  for  a  considerable  time,  till 
the  jicroachmcnts  of  their  conquerors  led  them  to  engage 
in  the  Great  Gallic  war  of  225  B.C.  From  that  period 
they  continued  to  indulge  their  hOBtility  on  all  occasions, 
and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Punic  wars  gave  valuable  aid 
to  the  Carthaginians  from  time  to  time.  At  length  their 
strength  was  broken  by  Scipio  Nasica  in  191  B.C.  ;  a  large 
proportion  of  their  territory  was  appropriated  and  secured 
"by  the  colonies  of  Bononia,  Farma,  and  Mutina ;  and 
befora  long  the  whole  race  seems  to  have  been  constrained 
to  recross   the   Alps.     They   betook  themselves   to   th.it 


district  of  country  tv hich  Is  still  called  'in  consequence 
Bohemia ;  but  before  many  centuries  they  were  expelled 
by  other  hostile  tribes  and  their  separate  existence  as  a 
people  WBs  lost. 

BOILEAU-DESPREAUX,  Nicolas,  was  born  at  Paris 
on   the  1st  November  1G36.     Crone,  not  far   from   the 
capital,  has  been   frequently  stated  to  be  his  birthplace, 
but  the  matter  seems  to  be  pretty  nearly  settled  by  the 
researches  of  M.  Labat  {Rechtrches  historiques  sur  CHOtel 
de  la  Prefecture  de  Police),  who  has  discovered  the  very 
house  in  the  Rue  de  jL-rusalem  where  the  poet  was  born. 
He  was  educated  at  the  College  of  Beauvais,  aud  was  at 
first  destined  for  the  legal  profession.     From  this,  however, 
after  a  short  trial,   he  recoiled   in    disgust,   complaining 
bitterly  of  the  amount  of  chicanery  which  passed  under 
the  name  of  law  and  justice.     To  escape  such  a  course  of  life 
he  began  to  study  for  the  church,  and  actually  received  ix 
priory  of  a  small  annual  value,  but  his  wishes  soon  turned 
in  another  direction.     He  gave  up  his  clerical  profession, 
and,  his  father  having  left   him  a  small  provision  suffi. 
cient    for   his    wants,   thenceforward   devoted  himself  to 
letters.      Such   of    his   early    poems  as   have   been    pre- 
served hardly  contain  the  promise  of  what  he  ultimately 
became.     The   first   piece    in    which    his  peculiar  powers 
were  displayed  was  a  satirical    poem.  Adieus  of  a  Poet 
to   the   City   of   Paris,    ,nibli3hed    in    16G0.      This    was 
quickly  followed    by   eight  others,  and   the  number  was 
at  a   Later   period    increased  to  twelve.       A    twofold   in- 
terest  attaches    to    the   satires.     In    the    first   place    the 
author  skilfully  parodies  and  attacks  writers  who  at  the 
time  were  placed  in  the  very  first  rank,  such  as  Chapelain, 
Cotin,  Quinault,  and  ScudiSn  ;  he  openly  raised  the  stand- 
ard of  revolt  against  the  older  poets.     But  in  the  second 
place  he  showed,  both  by  precept  and  practice,  what  were 
the  poetical  capabilities  of  the  French  language.     Prose, 
ill  the  hands  of  such  writers  as  Descartes  and  Pascal,  had 
proved  itself  a  flexible  and  powerful  instrument  of  expres- 
sion, with  a  distinct  mechanism  and  form.      But  except 
with    Malherbe,   there  had   been   no   attempt   to   fashion 
French   versification  according   to    rule  or   method.       In 
BoUeau  for  the  first  time  appeared  terseness  and  vigour  of 
expression,  with  perfect  regularity  of  verse  structure.     His 
fame  was  quickly  established  ;   he  received  a  pension,  and 
was   made  historiographer  along  with   his  friend  Racine. 
In  1 G64  he  composed  his  prose  Dialogue  dts  heros  de  roman, 
which    is   a  refined  satire  on   the  elaborate  romances  of 
the  time.     It  may  be  said  to  have  once  for  all  abolished 
them.     From  1669  onwards  appeared  the  Epistles,  graver 
in  tone  than  the  satires,  maturer  in  thought,  more  exquisite 
end  polished  in  style.     In    1674    his   two  master-pieces, 
L'Art  J'oetique  and  Le  Lutrin,  were  published.     The  first, 
in  imitation  of  the  .drs  Poetica  o{   Horace,  lays  down  the 
code  for  all  future  French  verse,  and  may  hi  said  to  fill  in 
French  literature  a  parallel  place  to  that  held  by  its  proto- 
type in  Latin.      On   our   own    literature  the  maxims   of 
Boileau,  through  the  translation  revised  by  Dryden,  and 
through  the  m-agnificent  imitation  of  them  in  Po\.a'a  Art  of 
Criticism,  have  exercised  no  slight  influence.     Boileau  docs 
not  merely  lay  down  rules  for  the  language  of  poetry,  but 
analyses  carefully  the  various  kinds  of  verse  composition, 
anj  enunciates  the  principles  peculiar  to  each.     Of  the 
four  books  of  the  Art  Poeiique,  the  first  and  last  consist  of 
general  precepts,  inculcating  mainly  the  great  rule  of  bcin 
neru;  the  second  treats  of  the  pastoral,  tlio  elegy,  the  ode, 
the  epigram,  and  satire ;  and  the  third  of  tragic  and  epic 
poetry.     Though  the  rules  laid  down  are  of  value,  their 
tendency  is  rather  to  hamper  and  render  too  mechanical  the 
efforts  of  poetry.     Bodeau  himself,  though  a  great  critic 
in  verse,  cannot  be  considered  a  great  [wot.     The  Lutrin, 
a  mock  heroic  poem,  of  which  four  cantos  appeared  in  1G74 


864 


B  0  I-B  0  I 


is  by  French  critics  considered  the  best  of  Boileau's  works. 
It  has  furnished  the  model  for  tlie  l{<ipe  of  the  Lock,  but  the 
English  poem  is  superior  in  richness  of  imagination  and 
Bubtilty  of  invention.  The  fifth  and  sixth  cantos,  after- 
wards added  by  Boileau,  rather  detract  from  the  beauty  of 
the  poem  ;  the  last  canto  in  particular  is  quite  unworthy 
of  his  genius.  In  the  same  year  which  saw  the  Art  Pne/i'jue 
and  the  Lutrin  was  published  his  translation  of  Longiuus 
On  the  Sublime,  to  which  were  afterwards  added  certain 
critical  reflections.  His  later  publications  were  chiefly 
occasional  poems,  in  which  his  better  powers  did  not  shine. 
He  died  13th  March  1711.  Boileau  was  extremely  delicate 
In  youth,  and  his  constitution  seems  never  to  have  been 
very  strong.  He  was  a  man  of  warm  and  kindly  feelings, 
honest,  outspoken,  and  benevolent.  Many  anecdotes  are 
told  of  his  frankness  of  speech  at  court,  and  of  his  generous 
actions.  He  holds  a  well  defined  place  in  French  literature, 
as  the  first  who  reduced  its  versification  to  rule  and  who 
taught  the  value  of  workmanship  for  its  own  sake.  His 
influence  on.  English  literature,  through  Pope  and  his 
contemporaries,  was  not  less  strong,  though  less  durable. 
Editions  of  Boileaus  works  are  very  numerous.  Perhaps 
the  best  is  that  published  by  Garnier  in  1860,  CEuvres 
completes,  with  copious  notes,  an  essay  by  Sainte-Beuve, 
and  Solcenna. 

BOILEtl.     See  Steam  Engine. 

BOIS-LE  DUG,  '.s  Hertocenbosch,  or  's  Bosch,  a  city 
of  Holland,  capital  of  the  province  of  North  Brabant,  28 
miles  S.S.E.  of  Utrecht.  It  stands  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Dommel  and  the  Aa,  and  is  strongly  fortified,  being 
defended  by  a  citadel  and  two  forts.  The  city  is  handsome 
and  well  built,  and  is  intersected  by  several  canals.  It 
contains  seven  churches,  among  which  is  that  of  St  John, 
founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  Hth  century,  and  one  of 
the  finest  ecclesiastical  edifices  in  Holland.  It  has  also  a 
handsome  town-hall,  surmounted  by  a  tower  containing  a 
fine  set  of  chimes,  a  cour^hou3e,  Government  buildings 
(formerly  a  Jesuit  monastery),  an  episcopal  palace,  an  orphan 
asylum,  a  grammar  school  (once  attended  by  Erasmus),  a 
prison,  two  hospitals,  an  arsenal,  and  barracks.  The  trade 
of  Bois-le  Due  is  very  considerable ;  it  has  several  dis- 
tUleries,  breweries,  and  glassworks,  and  manufactures 
linen,  needles,  Cutlery,  ic.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  vicar  general, 
and  ha-T  tribunals  of  primary  instance  and  commerce. 
Orginally  a  hunting-lodge  of  the  Brabant  dukes,  's  Her- 
togenbosch,  or  "  Duke's  Wood,"  gradually  increased,  and  in 
1 184  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  town  and  surrounded  with 
walls.  In  1453  it  was  greatly  enlarged.  Successive 
attempts  made  by  the  Netherlands  in  1585,  1591,  IGOl, 
and  1C03  to  get  possession  of  the  town  were  futile;  but 
at  length,  in  1629,  it  was  captured  after  a  five  months' 
eiege.  In  1794  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  and  in  1814 
by  the  Prussians.     Population  in  1863,  24,395. 


BOISSARD,  Jean  Jacques,  a  classical  antiquary  and 
Latin  poet,  was  born  at  Besan<;on  in  1528.  He  studied  at 
Louvain  ;  but,  disgusted  by  the  severity  of  his  master,  he 
secretly  left  that  seminary,  and  after  traversing  a  great  part 
of  Germany  reached  Italy,  where  he  remained  several  years, 
and  was  often  reduced  to  great  straits.  His  residence  in 
Italy  developed  in  his  mind  a  taste  for  antiquities,  and  tie 
soon  formed  a  collection  of  the  most  curious  monuments  of 
Rome  and  its  vicinity.  He  then  visited  the  isknds  of  the 
Archipelago,  with  the  intention  of  travelling  through  Greece, 
but  a  severe  illness  obliged  him  to  return  to  Piome.  Here 
he  resumed  his  favourite  pursuits  with  great  ardour,  and 
having  completed  his  collection,  returned  to  his  native 
country ;  but  not  being  permitted  to  profess  publicly  the 
Protestant  religion,  which  he  had  embraced  some  time 
before,  he  withdrew  to  Metz,  where  he  died,  October  30, 
1602.     His  works  are — 

1.  PoimcUa,  Epigrammatum  libri  Ira,  Elegia  lihri  ires,  Epistala- 
rum  libn  tres,  Rasel,  1574  ;  2.  Emblemala,  Metz,  1584  ;  3.  Iccmea 
Virorum  Illustrium,  1597,  sqq.;  4.  Vita  tt  Icotus  Suttanorum  Tur- 
ckortim,  &c.,  Fraukfort,  1596  ;  5.  Theatrum  Vitm  Rumance,  Metz, 
1596  ;  6.  Ramarux  Urbis  Topographice  ct  Aniuptitalum,  quibus  sue- 
cincie  et  brevitcr  describuTiiur  omjiia  qua  turn  publics  quuvi  privatim 
videntur  animadversione  digna,  paries  VI.,  Frankfort,  1597-1602, 
folio,  sis  volumes  in  three,  with  plates,  and  now  very  rare  ;  7. 
horns  U  Vittr  Firoru-m  llhistrium,  Frankfort,  1592  to  1599  ;  8. 
Paniassrus  Biceps,  Frankfort,  1601  ;  9.  De  DiviiuUieme  ei  Matricii 
PrcEstigiis,  Oppenheim  and  Hanau,  rare  and  curious ;  10.  Habitus 
yariamm  Gentium,  Met2,  1531,  ornamented  with  seventy  illum- 
inated 6gurcs. 

BOISSONADE,  Jean  FRAU^oia,  French  classical 
scholar,  was  born  at  Paris,  12th  August  1774.  In  1792 
he  entered  the  public  service  during  the  administration  of 
General  Dumouriez.  Driven  from  it  in  1795,  he  was 
restored  by  Lucien  Bonaparte,  during  whose  time  of  office 
he  served  as  secretary  to  the  prefecture  of  the  Upper  Marne. 
Hethen  definitively  resigned  public  employment  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  Greek,  for  which  he  had  always  a 
strong  inclination.  In  1 809  he  was  named  professor  of  Greek 
at  the  faculty  of  letters  at  Paris,  though  he  did  not  assume 
the  title  till  the  death  of  Larcher,  who  held  the  chair,  in 
1812.  In  1828  he  succeeded  Gail  in  the  chair  of  Greek  at 
the  Coll(5ge  de  France.  He  also  held  the  offices  of  librarian 
of  the  BibliothJque  du  Roi,  and  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions.  He  died  12th  September  1857. 
Boissonade's  works  consist  mainly  of  editions  of  several  less 
known  classical  writers,  such  as  Philostratus,  Marinus, 
Eunapius,  Arista;netus.  Perhaps  his  most  widely  known 
editions  are  those  of  Babrius  (1844),  and  of  Tzetzes  (1851). 
The  Anecdota  Grceca,  5  vols.  (1829-33),  and  Anecdota 
Nova  (1844)  contain  many  interesting  and  comparatively 
unknown  writings.  Boissonfde  was  a  contributor  to  the 
Journal  dts  Dtihats  and  other  critical  journals,  and  s 
selection  of  his  pa|)ers  has  been  published  by  M.  Colincamji, 
Criti<]ue  litleraire  sous  le  premier  Empire,  2  vols.,  1863 


LND  OF  VOLOUE  TBITJU. 


APPENDIX 


AMERICAN  IIEVISIOXS  AXD  ADDITIONS 


TO  THE 


ENCYCLOPiEDIA   BRITANNICA 

(XIXTH  EDITION.) 


A  DirnONARY  OF 

ARTS,  SCIENCES  AND  (GENERAL  LITERATURE 


BY 

W.  H.  DE  PUY,  DD.,  LL.D., 

ASSISTED   BY   A    COKPS   OP   Tr.AI.Vim   WRITERS. 


CHICAGO 
R  S.  PEALE  COMPACT 

1S92 


COPYRIGHT,    189I, 

By    K    b.   Pealr  &  Co 


A  T  II  E  N  S  —  A  T  L  A  N  T  A 


IQl 


years,  residing  at  Athens.  Its  first  session  l>egan 
in  ISSl',  witli  seven  students.  Tlie  first  executive 
committee  was  crtmpiisedus  fullows  :  John  Williams 
White,  Harvard  :  Henry  l>risler,  t'uluniliia;  Basil 
L.(iildersleeve.. Johns  H«")|)kins;  E.  W.  Giirney,  Har- 
vard; Albert  Ilarkness,  Brown;  Thomas  AV.  Lud- 
low. Xew  York;  Lewis  H.  Packard.  Yale;  Francis 
W.  Palfrey,  Boston  ;  Fred  J.  HePeyster,  New  York  ; 
Wm.  M.  Slo^ne,  College  of  New  Jersey;  Charles 
Eliot  Norton.  President  of  the  Archjeoiogical  Insti- 
tute; Wm.  W.  (ioodwin.  Director  of  the  School  at 
Athens.  The  co-operating  colleges  for  1890  were: 
Amherst,  IJrown,  College  of  tlie  City  of  New  York, 
College  of  New  Jersey.  Colorado.  Cornell.  Dart- 
mouth. Harvard.  Johns  Hopkins.  Trinity  I'niversity 
of  the  City  of  New  York,  I'niversity  of  Michigan, 
University  of  Missouri,  I'niversity  of  Pennsylvania, 
Wellesley  I'niversity,  Wellesley  College,  Williams 
College,  and  Yale.  Interesting  work  ha.s  been  done 
determining  localities  and  in  exploration  at  Athens 
and  in  the  neighborhood. 

.VTHENS,  a  thriving  town  of  Tennessee,  about 
fifty  miles  southwj.-t  of  Knoxville.  It  is  the  seat 
of  (irant  Memorial  University,  formerly  known  as 
the  East  Tennessee  Wesleyan  University. 

ATHEKFIELD  CLAY,  the  lowest  sub-division  of 
the  Lower  Greensand,  varying  in  thickness  from  20 
to  tiO  feet.  It  rests  directly  on  the  Wealden.  It 
takes  its  name  from  .\therfield.  on  the  southwest 
coast  of  the  Isle  of  Wight.  It  is  of  marine  ori- 
gin. 

ATHERINE,  a  genus  of  small  fishes,  allied  to  the 
mullet  family  {.Vugilhlx),  now  separated  into  a  dis- 
tinct family,  Alherinidw.  They  are  of  a  rather  slen- 
der form,  but  few  of  them  exceed  six  inches  in 
length;  some  are  quite  toothless;  all  the  known 
species  which  are  numerous,  and  found  in  the  seas 
of  different  parts  of  the  world,  have  a  broad  silvery 
band  along  each  flank.  Some  are  much  esteemed 
for  their  delicacy.  They  all  congregate  in  great 
shoals. 

ATHEROMA,  or  fatty  deposit,  generally  found  in 
the  tissue  of  aged  persons,  or  those  who  have  lived 
dissipated  and  ill-nourished  lives.  It  is  dangerous, 
inasmuch  as  it  interferes  with  the  elasticity  of  the 
arterial  tube,  rendering  it  more  liable  to  injury, 
and  less  able  to  repair  itself  should  any  occur.  Ather- 
oma generally  precedes  aneurism.  Cysts  filled 
with  matter  resembling  bread-sauce,  which  fre- 
f|uently  occur  in  the  scalp,  are  termed  atheroma- 
tous tumors. 

ANTHEKOSPERMACE.E, incomplete,  aromatic, 
exogenous  shrubs  with  cup-shaped  involucre  and 
the  anthers  of  L'lnracea:;  native  of  South  America 
and  New  Holland. 

.VTHKHSTi  »NK,  an  old  market-town  of  Warwick- 
.•iiiire.  England.  14  miles  north  of  Coventry  by  rail. 
It  has  maiuifaclures  of  hats,  stockings.and  riblions. 
The  birthplace  of  Dayton  is  near  Atherstone.  Popu- 
lation. 4,t;4.'). 

ATHEHTON.  Cit.\RLES  Gordon,  U.  S.  Senator, 
born  in  Amherst,  N.  IL,  July  4,  1S04,  died  in  Man- 
chester. N.  11..  Nov.  1-5,  1S.53.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1S22.  and  became  a  member  of  the  bar  three 
years  later.  He  sat  in  the  State  legislature  from 
l.'<?2  to  1S.S7.  and  was  a  inembpr  of  Congress  from 
1S37-43.  From  l.><43  to  l.S4!i.  and  again  in  1852,  he 
was  a  Senator  from  New   Hampshire. 

ATHOLE  (Pi,E.vs.\XT  L.\.NUi.  a  district  of  450 
square  miles,  north  of  Pertlishire  in  Scotland.  It 
is  chiefly  composed  of  gneiss  and  quartz  rock,  with 
beds  of  primary  limestoiif.  \.  was  once  one  of  the 
best  hunting  disi  ricts  of  ."Scotland.  In  the  pass  of 
Killiecrankie,  in  this  district.  Claverhouse  fell  in 
liWl.  though  victorious  over  the  troops  of  Ki.ig 
William  III. 


.\TKINSON,  Ei)\v.\Kn,  an  American  economist 
born  in  Brookline.  Mass.,  Feb.  10.  1S27.  His  educa- 
tion was  obtained  at  private  schools,  and  his  reiiu- 
tation  has  been  made  by  his  numerous  contritiu- 
tions  to  current  literature  on  economic  topics. 
Among  his  pamphlets  and  books  are:  Cluop  Cotton 
hij  Five  Labor  (l.stjl);  The  VoUection  of  Revenue 
(IStJO);  Argument  for  the  Conditional  Reform  of  the 
Legal-Tender  Act  (IS'4) ;  Our  Xalional Domain  (1879) ; 
Labor  and  Capital — Allies,  not  Enemies  (1880);  Tlie 
Fire  Engineer,  the  Architect,  and  the  Undenrriler 
(18S0);  The  Railroads  of  the  United  States  (1880); 
Cotton  ifanufaclurers  of  the  I'nited  States  (1880); 
Addresses  at  Atlanta,  (la.,  on  the  International  Ejjio- 
«(7ion  (1881);  What  Is  a  Ba nk  (IHSl ) ;  Right  Melhudi 
of  Preventing  Fires  in  Mills  (1881);  The  liaihvay  au'l 
the  Farmer  (1881);  The  Influence  of  Boston  Capital 
ttpon  ilaniifaeturea  (1882);  and  the  Distribution  of 
Products  (\SS5). 

ATKINSON,  George  W.,  U.  S.  Congressman, 
born  at  Charleston,  Kanawha  county.  W.  Va..  June 
29,  184().  He  graduated  at  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity, in  1870,  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  187.5.  He  was  for  four  years  U.  S.  mar- 
shal for  the  district  of  West  Virginia,  for  six  years 
postmaster  of  Charleston,  W.  Va..  and  for  six  years  a 
revenue  agent  of  the  treasury  department.  He 
was  elected  as  a  Republican  from  West  Virginia  to 
the  Kift v-tirst  Congress. 

ATKINSON.  Joiix.  M.  A..  D.  D..  M.  E.  clergyman, 
born  in  Deerlield.  N.  J..  Sept.  tl.  l.s.So.  He  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  ministry  in  the  New  .Tersey  confer- 
ence in  1863.  He  is  the  author  of  the  hymn  We 
Shall  Meet  Beyond  the  River,  and  has  for  more  than 
thirty  years  contributed  to  various  periodicals. 
He  has  published  The  Living  Wny  (1S5G);  Memo- 
rials of  Methodism  in  Sew  Jersey  (1860);  The  Garden 
of  So'rroHS  (1868);  The  Class  'Leader  (1874);  and 
Centennial  History  of  American  Methodism  (1884). 

ATKINSON,  Loris  E.,  U.  S.  Cengressman.  born 
in  Delaware  township,  Juniata  county.  Pa.,  Ajiril 
16,  1841.  He  graduated  at  the  medical  department 
of  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York  in  iMil, 
and  entered  the  U.  S.  army  the  same  year,  serving 
until  1865,  when  he  was  mustered  out.  He  then 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1S70. 
He  was  elected  as  a  Republican  from  Pennsylvania 
to  the  Forty-eighth,  F'orty-ninth,  Fiftieth  and 
Fifty-tirst  Congresses. 

ATKINSON.  Tuo.M.vs,  Episcopal  bishop,  born  in 
Mansfield,  Va.,  Aug.  6,  1807.  died  in  Wilmington, 
N.  C,  Jan.  4,1881.  He  graduated  in  1825.  studied 
law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  practiced  for 
nine  years.  He  studied  for  the  ministry  and  was 
ordained  deacon  in  Norfolk,  Nov.  18.  18.S6.  He  be- 
came priest  the  following  year,  and  was  conse- 
crated bishop  in  St.  John's  Chapel  in  New  York. 
Oct.  17.  I.S53. 

ATL.VNTA,  capital  and  largest  city  of  the  State 
of  Georgia.  It  is  a  great  railroad  center,  and  hence 
is  often  called  the  "  Gate  City  "  of  the  south.  It  is 
the  county-seat  of  Fulton  county,  and  a  port  of 
delivery,  is  salubriously  situated  1.087  feet  above 
sea-level,  on  a  ridge  which  forms  the  water-shed 
bel\vei>n  the  gulf  rivers  and  those  of  the  South 
Atlantic  slope.  It  was  early  known  as  the  i>rosper- 
ous  village  of  Marthasville.  planted  in  an  unbroken 
wilderness,  a  few  years  before.  It  received  in  1847 
its  municipal  charter  as  "the  City  of  Atlanta."  It 
was  totally  destroyed  on  the  eve  of  General  Sher- 
man's famous  "  inarch  to  the  sea."  but.  having 
risen  speedily  from  its  ashes  and  become  the  center 
of  a  vast  system  of  inland  trade  and  transporta- 
tion, it  was  made  in  1.86S  the  capital  of  the  State. 
The  corner-stone  of  the  new  State-house  (to  cost 
one   million   dollars)  >vas   laid  in   1885.    The  city 


166 


ATLANTES  —  ATROPIA 


limits  comprise  a  geometrical  circle  three  miles  in 
diameter;  in  the  center  of  which,  with  the  princi- 
pal streets  as  radii,  is  the  Union  passenger  depot. 
Other  chief  public  buildings  are  the  custom-house, 
the  Kimball  House  and  the  opera-house.  Atlanta  is 
the  seat  of  numerous  important  educational  insti- 
tutions, among  which  are  Atlanta  University, 
Clark  University,  Atlanta  Medical  College,  Atlanta 
Female  Institute,  Southern  Medical  Institute, 
Means'  Boys'  High  School,  Seney  and  Washington 
Female  Seminary,  Steen's  School,  Orphan  Free 
School,  English  and  German  Select  School,  and  the 
Grammar  and  High  Schools  of  the  city.  The  Inter- 
national Cotton  Exposition  of  18S1,  and  the  Pied- 
mont Exposition  of  1887,  were  held  in  Atlanta. 
The  tobacco  trade  of  Atlanta  is  the  largest  south  of 
Virginia,  and  her  dealings  in  cotton,  draught  ani- 
mals, dry-goods  and  agricultural  and  other  imple- 
ments are  immense  and  rapidly  increasing.  Popu- 
lation in  1850,2,572;  in  1860,  9,554;  in  1870,  21,879; 
in  1880,  37,409 ;  in  1890,  65,514.  See  Britannica,  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  15. 

ATLAXTES:  in  architecture,  so  called  by  the 
Greeks  in  reference  to  the  mythical  Atlas.  They 
are  male  figures  used  instead  of  columns.  The 
Romans  called  them  Telamones.  Female  figures 
employed  in  this  way  are  called  Caryatids  or 
Caryatides. 

ATL.\XTIC,  an  important  agricultural  center  of 
Iowa,  county-seat  of  Cass  county,  situated  on  the 
east  bank  of  East  Nishnabatona  River.  It  is  the 
headquarters  of  an  extensive  canning  industry, 
and  deals  largely  in  corn,  wheat,  oats  and  hay. 

ATLANTIC  CITY,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  situated 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  sixty  miles  southeast  of 
Philadelphia.  It  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the 
many  fashionable  sea-bathing  resorts  on  the  New 
Jersey  shore.  The  beach  is  noted  for  its  safety. 
Population  in  1S90,  13,0.38. 

ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH.  See  Telegr.m-ii,  in 
these  Revisions  and  Additions. 

ATLANTOSAURUS,  a  name  given  by  Professor 
Marsh  to  what  appears  to  be  the  largest  deiuosau- 
rian  reptile  of  which  any  remains  have  lieen  pre- 
served. The  femur  of  this  colossal  monster  is  more 
than  eight  feet  in  length.  The  size  of  the  bone  in- 
dicates a  length  for  the  animal  of  nearly  100  feet, 
and  a  height  of  30  feet  or  thereabout.  The  re- 
mains were  obtained  in  the  Jurassic  strata  of  Colo- 
rado. 

ATLAS,  a  kind  of  silk-satin  manufactured  in  the 
East.  The  word  is  Arabic,  and  means  "smooth," 
"bare,"  hence  it  has  been  applied  tj  smooth-silk 
cloth. 

ATL.VS,  that  piece  of  the  human  vertebral  col- 
umn which  is  nearest  the  skull.  In  other  words,  it 
is  the  first  cervical  vertebra.  It  may  he  known 
from  the  other  six  by  its  being  without  a  body  or 
spinous  process,  and  by  its  being  a  mere  irregular 
bony  ring,  partly  divided  into  two  iineijual  parts  by 
a  constriction.  This  division  in  the  recent  subject 
is  completed  by  a  ligament,  the  part  in  front  being 
occui)ied  by  the  tooth-like  process  of  the  second  cer- 
vical vertebra,  and  that  behind  by  the  sjiinal  mar- 
row. On  each  side  the  ring  is  very  thick,  and  it  is 
smooth  and  cupped  above  to  receive  the  condyles 
of  the  occipital  hone.  The  corresponding  parts  be- 
low are  tiat,  and  rest  on  the  second  cervical  ver- 
tebra. 

ATLEE,  W.\.siiiNOTON  Lemuei,,  an  American  sur- 
geon and  author,  born  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  Feb.  22, 
1808,  died  in  the  same  place,  Sept.  (>,  1878.  .\t  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  began  the  study  of  medicine  with 
his  brother,  l)r  John  Lif;ht  .\tli'e.  and  later  he 
studied  with  Dr.  (ieorge  .McClellan.  after  which  he 
entered  Jefferson  Medical  Collei;e,  receiving  his  di- 


ploma in  1829.  Until  18.34  he  practiced  in  the  village 
of  Jlount  Joy,  when  he  removed  .to  Lancaster  and 
practiced  for  the  next  ten  years.  In  1845  he  became 
a  professor  in  the  medical  department  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  but  resigned  in  1853  and 
resumed  his  private  practice.  He  was  at  the  head 
of  several  medical  societies,  and  is  the  author  of 
valuable  papers  on  medicine,  chemistry  and  botany. 
Among  them  a.Te  Otarian  Tumurs  (1873);  Slrtii/yUs 
and  Triumphs  of  Ovariolomy  (1875);  and  Fibroid  Tu- 
mors of  the  Uterus  (1876);  besides  a  prize  essay  on 
the  same  subject. 

ATMOLYSIS,  a  method  of  separating  a  mixture 
of  gases  by  taking  advantage  of  their  different 
rates  of  passage  through  a  porus  septum.  This 
method  was  first  made  known  in  1863  by  its  dis- 
coverer. Professor  T.  Graham,  master  of  the  English 
mint. 

ATMOMETER,  an  instrument  which  can  be  used 
to  determine  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere.  It 
consists  of  a  hollow  ball  of  unglazed  clay  with  a 
glass  stem.  The  whole  is  filled  with  water  and  in- 
verted in  a  dish  of  mercury.  As  the  water,  having 
passed  into  the  pores,  evaporates  from  the  surface 
of  the  ball,  the  mercury  rises  in  the  stem.  If  nnich 
water  vapor  is  present  in  the  atmosphere,  condensa- 
tion takes  place  in  the  pores,  and  the  mercury  falls 
in  the  tube.  The  atmometer  was  invented  by  Sir 
John  Leslie. 

ATOLLS.  See  Cok.\ls,  Britannica,  Vol.  VI,  p. 
378. 

ATOMIC  AVEIGHTS,  the  proportions  by  weight 
in  which  the  various  elementary  substances  unite. 
In  all  systems  of  atomic  weights  in  modern  use,  the 
atomic  weight  of  hydrogen  is  taken  as  unity,  and 
the  atomic  weights  of  the  other  elements  are  then 
fixed  so  as  to  give  on  the  whole  the  simplest  and 
most  consistent  formula-  of  their  compounds.  There 
are  two  systems  of  atomic  weights  at  present  in  use. 
First,  the  "old"  system,  which,  after  a  good  deal  of 
discussion,  was  generally  adopted  about  1845;  and, 
second,  the  new  system,  which  is  in  many  respects, 
a  revival  of  the  system  of  Uerzelius,  and  which 
niay  be  said  to  have  come  into  general  use  by  sci- 
entific chemists  about  1860. 

ATOMIZATION,  a  process  of  converting  liquid 
into  diffused  spray  for  purposes  of  inhalation,  first 
introduced  into  France  by  Salas-CJirons.  It  is  ef- 
fected by  forcing  a  fine  jet  of  li<iuid  against  either 
a  solid  body  or  a  very  strong  current  of  air. 

.\'rONE;\IENT,  as  simply  an  English  word,  is  sup- 
posed to  be  derived  from  "at-one-ment" — that  is, 
harmonious  co-operation.  The  Hebrew  term,c();i/i,r, 
or  biplirr.  which  is  used  throughout  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  which  we  translate  "atonement,"  signi- 
fies to  hide  or  cover,  and  hence  the  use  of  the  word 
in  Scripture  and  among  Christians  with  regard  to 
the  ex])iation  of  offenses  or  thecovering  up  or  blot- 
ting out  of  sin.  Although  "atonement" and  "recon- 
ciliation" ar(>  occasionally  accepted  assynonymous, 
the  words  differ  widely  in  meaning. 

.VTONY,  in  pathology,  a  want  of  tone,  weakn('^- 
of  any  organ, or  debilitv  of  the  whole  body. 

ATR.Vl'Ll,  a  town  ol"  Hritish  India,  in  the  North- 
west I'rovinces,  16  miles  northeast  of  Aligarh. 
Founded  about  the  ll'th  century,  it  is  well  liuilt. 
with  wide  streets,  a  good  bazaar,  and  an  abundanl 
sup|)ly  of  water.     Population.  lli.UUO. 

.\TivII'.  .\n  anchor  is  said  to  be  atrij)  when  it  is 
just  drawn  out  of  the  ground  in  a  perpendicular 
direction.  A  top-sail  is  atrip  when  it  is  just  started 
from  the  cap. 

.\TU()PI.V.  or  .VtuoI'Ink.  an  alkaloid  existing 
;.i  all  parts  of  the  deadly  nightshade  { .1.  hrUt>di>niin) 
and  in  the  seeds  of  the  thorn-apple  (Ihtltira  sirtniio- 
niuiD):  il   has  also  been   called   daturia  or  dalurine. 


i 


A  T  R  ^'  P  A  —  A  a  B  U  R  N 


167 


It  is  so  liia;lily  poisonous  that  no  one   lias  ventured 
to  use  it  internally  in   nieiiicine. 

ATUYPA,  fossil  hrachiopod  shells  of  the  Silurian 
nnd  Devonian,  l)Ut  all  Paleozoic. 

ATTAC'IIK,  one  attached  to  or  connected  with 
another,  as  a  part  of  his  suit  or  attendants.  The 
term  is  specifically  applied  to  young  diplomatists 
on  the  staff  of  an  ambassador. 

ATTACIIMKNT,  in  law,  the  act  of  taking  a 
person,  or  his  goods  or  estate,  by  virtue  of  an  order 
or  writ  issued  by  a  court.  The  word  may  signify 
either  the  act  or  the  writ.  An  attachment  may  be 
served  upon  a  person  to  compel  his  attendance  at 
court,  or  to  punish  for  contempt,  or  to  comi)el  him 
to  pay  a  debt.  In  .\merica  it  is  sometimes  the 
custom  to  serve  an  attachment  on  a  person's  prop- 
erty before  trial  of  the  merits  of  the  case.  This 
the  sheriff  does  in  order  to  have  security  for  the 
payment  of  judgment  should  it  be  recovered.  A 
"foreign"  attachment  is  one  where  a  creditor  at- 
taches property  which  has  been  put  in  the  hands 
of  an  agent  liy  the  owner.  Foreign  attachment  is 
known  in  the  Kastern  States  as  "trustee  process." 
It  has  been  a  common  proceeding  in  England  from 
time  immemorial.  Writs  of  attachment  are  grant- 
ed where  there  is  suspicion  of  fraud,  or  of  the  illegal 
disposal  or  covering  up  of  property.  See  Britannica, 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  51. 

ATT.\CK,  in  military  warfare,  an  advance  upon 
the  enemy  with  a  view  of  driving  him  from  his  posi- 
tion. It  may  either  be  an  attack  in  the  open  field, 
or  an  attack  upon  a  fortress.  Another  mode  com- 
bines an  attack  on  one  Hank  as  well  as  in  front  by 
two  separate  corps,  so  as  either  to  get  in  the  enemy's 
rear   or  to  perplex  him  as  to  Ills  retreat. 

ATTAINKKR  is  the  legal  consecjuence  of  judg- 
ment of  death  or  outlawry,  in  respect  of  treason  or 
felony.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  52. 

ATT.VLEA,  a  genus  of  palms  comprising  a  num- 
ber of  species,  natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  South 
America.  The  fruit  is  a  dry,  fil)rous  husk,  inclos- 
ing a  nut  with  three  cells  and  three  seeds.  The 
leaves  of  some  species  are  much  used  for  thatching, 
some  are  woven  into  hats,  mats,  etc.  The  nuts  of 
some  are  burned,  to  dry  India-rubber,  which  ac- 
quires its  black  color  from  their  smoke.  The  fruit 
is  as  large  as  ostrich  eggs,  and  supplies  a  kind  of 
vegetable  ivory,  used  for  niaking  umbrella  handles, 
etc.    The  trees  are  stately  and  beautiful. 

ATT.VLUS,  Fi.Avirs  Piuscis,  Arian  emperor  of 
Rome,  proclaimed  such  by  .Marie,  .v.  d.  40il;  de- 
posed by  him  in  110.  and  banished  by  Ilonorius,  41(>. 

.\TT.\I.,US,  two  kings  of  I'erganios,  both  allies  of 
thr  komans,  b.  L'li!*.  d.  1117  n.c. ;  b.  I'L'O,  d.  LSs  it.e. 

.\Tr.\MAX,  or  Hf.tm.vx,  an  order  of  Cossack 
chiefs  of  which  the  heir-apparent  to  the  crown  is 
principal. 

ATTE.MI'T  tocommita  felonyor  criminal  offense 
is  in  many  instances  eijually  cognizable  by  the 
criminal  I  ribumils  with  the  completed  crime  itself. 

ATTEST.VTK  )N.  inconveyancing,  the  verification 
of  the  exi'cutiMii  of  deeds  and  wills  by  witnesses. 

ATTLKr.OliDl'till,  a  ni.irkt't  town  of  great  an- 
tiquity  in  .Norfolk,  England,  Ki  miles  southwest  of 
Norwich  by  rail.  It  has  a  college  of  the  Holy  Cross 
(13.S7);  and  its  cruciform  parish  church  contains 
some  interesting  monuments.     Population,  2,244 

ATTLEHROrOlI,  a  town  of  liristol  county, 
Massachusetts,  .'il  miles  southwest  of  Boston  by 
rail.  It  has  manufactories  of  jewelry,  buttons, 
braid,  etc. 

ATTOKN'EV,    in   its   general    meaning,   one  ap- 
pointed by  another  to  act  for  him.     In  the  I'nited 
States  an  attorney-at-law  is  one  who  stands  in  the   I 
place  of  another  in  matters  of  law.    See  Britannica.   , 
Vol.111,  p.  t>2.  1 


ATTOKXEV-GEXERAL,  the  title  by  which,  in 
the  United  States,  England  and  Ireland,  the  first 
ministerial  law  otHcer  of  the  government  is  known. 
Nearly  all  of  the  States  of  the  Union  have  attor- 
neys-general, whose  duties  under  the  Stale  govern- 
ment correspond  essentially  with  those  of  the  U.  S. 
attorney-general  under  the  general  government. 
See  Britannica.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  (i.!. 

ATTRIBUTE,  in  the  fine  arts,  a  species  of  sym- 
bol, consisting  of  a  secondary  figure  or  object  ac- 
companying the  principal  figure,  as  the  trident 
of  Xeptune,  the  owl  of  .Minerva,  and  the  cap  of 
Liberty. 

ATTRIBUTE,  in  logic,  a  term  used  to  denote 
the  opposite  of  substance.  The  latter  is  considered 
to  be  self-existent,  wliile  the  former  can  only  be 
conceived  as  possessing  a  dependent  existence. 
Attributes  are  commonly  said  to  belong  to  sub- 
stances. Thus  wisdom,  holiness,  goodness,  and 
truth  are  termed  attributes  of  God,  who  is  Himself 
regarded  as  the  substance  in  which  they  inhere. 
In  the  same  way  whiteness  is  called  an  attribute  of 
snow. 

ATTUCKS,  Crisits,  a  half-breed  Indian,  or  mu- 
latto, killed  in  the  Boston  massacre,  March  5,  1770. 
He  was  the  leader  of  the  mob  which  attacked  the 
British  troops  on  that  occasion.  He  was  a  resident 
of  Framingham.and  is  supposed  to  have  been  about 
fifty  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  the  massacre.  A 
monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  on  Boston 
Common,  in  the  year  18SS;  but,  at  the  present 
writing  (1891),  a  serious  doubt,  founded  upon  a 
recent  discovery  of  old  documents  in  Boston,  is 
expressed  as  to  his  existence. 

ATW'.VTER,  LvM.\N-  Hotiiikiss.  an  American 
scholar,  born  in  Xew  Haven,  Conn.,  Feb.  20,  1.S1.3, 
died  in  Princeton,  X.  J.,  Feb.  17,  1SH3.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  in  1.S.S1,  at  the  theological  seminary 
in  1834,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congrega- 
tional church  at  Fairfield,  (,'onn.,  in  1.S35,  remain- 
ing there  for  nineteen  years.  In  18.54  he  became 
jirofessor  of  mental  and  moral  philosojihy  in  Prince- 
ton, and  in  LStiit  was  made  jirofessor  of  logic  and  of 
moral  and  political  science.  He  edited  tlie  "Prince- 
ton Review,"  and  published  a  J/<()i«n/  of  Elementary 
Lo'ilc  (lS7t)). 

AUBERUEX,  Kari.  Atgist,  a  prominent  Got' 
man  orthodox  theologian,  born  at  Fellbach  in  Wiirt- 
eniburg  in  1.S24.  died  in  1S04.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  works,  among  them  The  P.-niihrt  Dituid  and 
the  lie  relation  of  John  Considered  in  Their  Reciprocal 
Relations. 

AUBERVILTJERS,  a  place  in  the  Peine  depart- 
ment, about  five  miles  north  of  Paris,  with  a  idrt 
which  is  included  within  the  system  of  I'orlilica- 
tions  of  the  capital.  Its  industries  are  iron-found- 
ing, manufactures  of  caoutchouc,  paper,  varnished 
leather,  glass  and  chemicals.     Population,  111,437. 

AUBRY  DE  MOXTDIDIER.  a  French  knight 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  (Uiarles  V,  and  who.  tra- 
dition says,  was  assassinated  in  the  forest  of  Bondy 
by  Richard  de  Macaire  in  1371. 

AUP.URX,  a  village  of  Lee  county,  Alabama,  the 
seat  of  the  Alabama  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College. 

AUBURN,  a  village  of  California,  the  center  of  a 
rich  iiuartz-mining  and  fruit-growing  district. 

AUBURX.  an  important  cily  of  .Maine,  on  the 
.\ndroscoggin  ami  Little  Androscoggin  rivers,  which 
furnish  an  immense  water-power.  It  is  the  seat  of 
an  extensivi'  cotton  and  shoe  manufacturing  indus- 
try.    Population  in  ISIIO.  11. 22S. 

.\UUU  li.N,  a  city  of  Xew  York,  county-seat  of 
Cayuga  county.  It  is  handsomely  built  on  both 
sides  of  the  outlet  of  Owasco  Lake,  which  is  the 
source  of  supply  fnr  thi>  .Vuburn  water-works,  and 


168 


AUBUSSON  —  AUDLEY 


w  lich  furnishes  a  valuable  water-power  for  the 
extensive  manufactories  of  the  city.  These  in- 
clude thrashing-machines,  reapers,  mowers,  binders, 
woolen  and  cotton  fabrics,  iron,  and  the  goods  made 
by  the  inmates  of  the  State  prison  which  is  here 
located,  and  which  is  celebrated  for  its  excellent 
system  of  discipline.  A  good  quality  of  limestone 
is  found  in  this  vicinity.  Auburn  is  the  seat  of  Au- 
burn theological  seminary.  Many  of  the  gardens 
and  residences  of  the  city  are  remarkable  for  their 
beauty. 

AUBUSSOX,  Pierre  d'.  Grand  Master  of  the 
Order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  born  in  1423,  died  at 
Rhodes  in  1503.  His  early  history  is  imperfectly 
known  ;  but  he  is  said  to  have  borne  arms,  when  very 
young,  against  the  Turks  in  the  wars  in  Hungary, 
and  to  have  distinguished  himself  by  the  Zealand 
valor  he  displayed.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p. 
174. 

AUCHEXIA,  a  genus  of  ruminating  quadrupeds, 
0*  which  the  llama  and  alpaca  are  the  best  known. 

The  genus  is  exclusive- 
ly South  American.  In- 
deed, the  species  occur 
only  on  the  lofty  ranges 
of  the  Andes.  They  are 
nearly  allied  to  the 
camels,  and  may  be  re- 
garded as  their  repre- 
sentatives in  the  zo- 
ology of  America.  Its 
hide  makes  good 
Irather,  and  its  hair, 
■|il  woolly  nature,  is  in 
great  request  for  weav- 
—     "  ing  light    wiry   stuffs. 

BROWN  LLAMA  (Auchenia  Uama).  r^^^^  color  of  the  ani- 
mal varies  in  different  individuals,  but  brown  is  the 
general  tint ;  the  hair  being  always  longer,  thicker, 
and  more  frizzly  on  the  body  than  on  the  head, 
neck,  and  legs.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  I,  p.  597 ;  Vol. 
XIV,  p.  738. 

AUCHIXLECK,  a  village  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland, 
15  miles  east  of  Ayr.  The  parish  contains  Auchin- 
leck  House  {locally  called  "Place  AfHeck"),  the 
seat  of  the  Boswell  family.  Xear  the  mansion.  Sir 
Alexander  Boswell,  son  of  Johnson's  biographer, 
established  in  IStbthe  Auchinleck  Press,  ior  printing 
rare  works,  such  as  the  Romance  of  Sir  Tristram,  the 
Disputation  Betirern  John  Knox  and  the  Ahhot  of 
Crfissraf/ur! ,  etc.    Population,  1,528. 

AUCTION.  The  character  of  this  convenient 
mode  of  offering  property  for  sale  is  correctly  indi- 
cated by  the  name.  Tlie  Latin  word  atictio  means 
"an  increasing  or  enhancement,"  and  an  auction  is 
an  arrangement  for  increasing  the  price  by  excit- 
ing eoini)etition  aincmg  purchasers.  The  auction  is 
of  Roman  origin,  and  is  said  to  have  been  first  in- 
troduced for  the  purpose  of  disposing  of  spoils 
taken  in  war.    See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  68. 

.\T'(!TIOX'EEK,  a  person  who  conducts  an  auc- 
tion. The  auctioneer  is  in  a  certain  sense  tlu> 
agent,  both  of  scUer  and  jiurchaser,  and  by  the  fall 
ofhis  hamnier,  or  by  writing  the  purchaser's  name 

in  his  t k,  he  liinds  him  to  accept  the  article  sold 

at  the  price  indicated. 

AUCUBA,  a  genus  <if  plants,  of  the  natural  order 
Cornacr.r.  The  only  known  species  of  this  genus  is 
.1.  Jiipimira,  an  evergreen  slirnb.  resembling  a 
laurel ;  it  is  a  native  of  China  and  .lapan. 

ACDE  (.Atax),  a  river  in  tlie  south  of  France. 
It  rises  in  the  east  Pyrenees,  not  far  from  Mont 
Louis;  flows  fur  some  time  parallel  to  the  canal  i>f 
Languedoc,  and  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  six 
miles  northeast  of  Xarboiuie,  after  a  course  of 
more  than  120  miles. 


AUDIFFEET,  Ch.\rles  Lons  Gaston,  Marquis 
d',  born  in  Paris,  Oct.  10,  1787,  died  there  April  28, 
1878.  On  the  completion  of  his  studies,  in  1805,  he 
entered  the  administration  of  the  finances  and  in 
1812  became  chief  of  the  bureau  and  auditor  to  the 
council  of  state.  On  the  return  of  the  Bourbons  in 
1814,  he  was  made  chief  of  division  and  chevalier  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor.  Appointed  director  of  peti- 
tions in  1817,  he  became  councilor  of  state  in  1828, 
and  was  made  president  of  the  court  of  accounts  in 
1829.  This  last  position  he  held  during  thirty 
years,  resigning  it  in  1859  to  become  president  of 
the  administrative  council  of  the  Society  of  Com- 
mercial and  Industrial  Credit.  ^leantime,  under 
Louis  Philippe,  he  held  a  seat  at  the  Luxembourg, 
as  a  peer,  from  1837  to  1848,  and  was  made  a  senator 
under  the  Empire.  In  1847  he  had  been  made 
grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  he  re- 
ceived the  grand  cross  in  December,  1869,  He  pub- 
lished several  works  on  finance. 

AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER,  Edme  Armaxd  Gas- 
Tox,  Due  d',  a  prominent  French  statesman,  was 
born  at  Paris,  Oct.  20,  1823.  He  was  the  son  of 
Count  d'Audiffret,  but  being  adopted  by  his  grand- 
uncle.  Baron  Pasquier,  became  heir  to  the  title  of 
duke  conferred  upon  the  baron  in  1844.  He  be- 
came auditor  of  the  council  of  state  in  1845.  His 
liberal  opinions  prevented  his  holding  any  impor- 
tant office  under  the  Empire,  l)Ut  in  1871,  after  the 
fall  of  the  Empire,  he  became  prominent  as  leader 
of  the  moderate  conservatives  in  the  assembly. 
He  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  Thiers  govern- 
ment, and  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Right 
Center.  After  the  fall  of  that  government,  in  1874, 
he  was  elected  vice-president  of  the  Xational  As- 
sembly, and  president  in  1875.  The  republican 
constitution  of  France  was  adopted  by  the  assem- 
bly during  his  presidency.  In  December,  1875.  he 
was  elected  permanent  senator,  and  in  March,  1876, 
was  chosen  president  of  the  senate  by  a  nearly 
unanimous  vote.     This  position  he  held  until  1879. 

AUDIOMETER,  an  instrument  for  measuring 
the  power  of  hearing  and  recording  it  upon  an 
arliitrary  scale.  It  is  a  special  application  of  the 
telephone. 

AUDIPHOXE,  an  instrument  invented  in  1879 
by  Mr.  Rhodes,  of  Cliicago,  to  assist  the  hearing  of 
deaf  persons  in  whom  the  auditory  nerve  is  not  en- 
tirely destroyed.  It  consists  of  a  diaphragm,  or 
plate,  which  the  person  using  it  presses  against  the 
up]ier  front  teeth  with  the  convex  side  outwards ; 
when  so  placed  it  communicates  the  vibrations 
caused  by  sound  to  the  teeth  and  the  l>oiies  of  the 
skull,  ;iiul  thence  to  the  organs  of  hearing. 

Al'DlT.V  tjUERELA,  a  form  of  action  which  lies 
for  a  defendant  to  recall  or  prevent  an  execution, 
wlio  has  grounds  to  show  that  such  execution  ought 
not  to  issue  against  him,  or  on  account  of  some 
matter  occurring  after  judgment  amounting  to  a 
discharge,  which  could  not  have  lieen  and  cannot 
be  taken  advantage  of  otherwise.  It  is  a  renunlial 
])rocess,  e(iuitalile  in  its  nature,  based  upon  facts, 
and  not  upon  the  errone<ius  judgment  or  acts  of  the 
court,  in  which  damages  may  he  recovered  if  execu- 
tion was  improperly  issued.  In  some  States  it  has 
been  entirely  superseded  l>y  relief  granted  upon 
motion,  while  in  others  it  is  recognized  by  statute 
and  of  frecjuent  use.  The  writ  of  audita  tjtirrrla 
does  not  lie  jigainst,  the  government. 

.■VUnri't  IK.  the  name  given  to  certain  othcers  ap- 
pointed to  examine  accounts  on  lu'luilf  either  of 
the  government,  of  courts  of  law,  of  corporations, 
or  of  jirivate  i)ersons.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  III. 
p.  69. 

.\UDLEY,  Sir  ,Iamks,  one  of  the  original  kniglits 
of  the  Order  of  the  Garter.     He  was  frequently  in 


A  U  D  L  E  Y  —  A  U  G  U  S  T  A 


169 


iiersonal  attemlanee  on  Edward  the  Black  Prince, 
whom  lie  accompanied  to  France  in  lo4t),  and  sub- 
seiiueiitly  to  Spain.     He  died  in  13(i!l. 

.vriU/EY,  Thomas  (  14,ss-1o44),  Lord  Chancellnr 
of  England  in  the  time  of  Henry  VHI.  He  pre- 
sided when  Sir  Tlioinas  More  was  tried. 

.vrENBlvUGGEK,  or  .VvK.siiRLociiJft,  Leopold. 
See  I'riiannica,  Vol.   III.  p.  145. 

Al'EK,  Alois  (ISli'-lStilt),  native  of  Upper  Aus- 
tria, and  trained  in  a  printing  estalilishnient.  Dur- 
ing his  leisure  moments  he  employed  himself  in 
acijuiring  a  knowledge  of  Frencli,  Italian,  English 
and  other  languages.  In  1W)4  he  published  his 
discovery  in  photography  of  "spontaneous  im- 
pression." 

ACEKBACH,  Berthold,  a  popular  German  au- 
tlior,  born  at  Nordstetten,  in  1S12,  died  in  1882. 
Having  abandoned  the  study  of  .lewish  theology, 
he  devoted  his  attention  to  literature.  Many  of  his 
works  have  been  translated  into  English,  Swedish 
and  Dutch.  Ihts  L(tH(lh<iux  am  Rliciii  is  known  by 
the  English  title.  The  Caalle  on  the  Rhine. 

.\1'ERB.\(;H,  Heixricii,  a  friend  of  Luther  and 
a  medical  professor  in  Germany.     Ho  died  in  1541'. 

AUEKSPERG,  ('.Mti.os,  prince,  president  of  the 
Reichstadt,  and  of  the  Bohemian  Diet.     Born  1814. 

AUERSTADT,  a  village  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Saxony,  ten  miles  west  of  Xaumburg.  It  is 
famous  for  the  great  battle  which  took  place  there 
Oct.  14,  18()(),  between  the  French  under  Davoust 
and  the  Prussian  army  under  Duke  Charles,  of 
Brunswick,  which  resulted  in  a  great  victory  for 
the  former.  The  Prussians,  who  numbered  fully 
48,000,  left  nearly  half  their  men,  dead  or  wounded, 
on  the  groinid,  wliile  the  French  (.SO.OtX))  escaped 
with  a  loss  of  only  7,001).  Napoleon,  who  had  on 
the  same  day  defeated  the  main  army  of  Fred- 
erick-William III  at  Jena,  made  Davoust  duke  of 
Auerstiidt. 

AUFKECHTjTheodor,  philologist,  born  at  Lesch- 
nitz.  in  Upppr  Silesia,  Jan.  7,  1822.  .\fter  studying 
at  Berlin  under  Bopp,  BiJckh  and  I.achmann.  he 
settled  tnere  in  18.50.  and  devoted  himself  to  San- 
skrit and  the  old  (ierman  tongues.  To  this  time  of 
his  life  also  belongs  his  collaboration  with  Kirchoff 
m  the  publication  of  Vmhrinche  iSjtrdrhdenkmiiler 
(two  vols.  Berlin,  184i>-51) — an  epoch-nniking  work 
in  the  comparative  study  of  the  languages  of 
ancient  Italy — as  well  as  the  founding  of  the  well- 
known  Xeitxehrifl  fur  Vinihirhe/i'le  Sjirdi'hfiirxrJunKJ 
(18.52),  in  the  editing  of  wliich  he  assisted  A.  Kuhn 
for  some  time.  In  1852  he  went  to  ( ).\f(ird,  where 
he  helped  Max  Miiller  in  his  edition  of  the  Jiiiiri'ild, 
and  was  appointed  to  a  place  in  the  Bodleian 
Library,  the  fruit  of  which  was  his  excellent  Cata- 
hiijiiK  rodicnm  ,Sfnixerititriim  liilili(ilher;r  liiidleiame. 
Oj-i/Hii'H.ii'.Y  (18ti4).  In  1802  he  became  pmfessor  of 
Sanskrit  and  (Comparative  Philolugy  at  Edinburgh, 
anil  in  1875  resigned  this  chair  for  one  at  Boini. 
Aufrecht  has  iniblislied  scli'ilarly  edilionsnf  several 
classical  Sanskrit  works,  most  important  being  his 
Riq'.iihi,  in  the  Roman  character  (2d  edition,  2  vols. 
Bonn.  1877). 

AUGER,  an  instrument  used  by  carpenters  for 
boring  holes,  chiefly  in  wood. 

AUGlKlv,  GriLLAfMK  VicToK  E:mile,  a  French 
dramatist  of  considerable  reputation,  born  at  Val- 
ence in  1820.  His  comedy,  </'/'<c/.7'<'.  gained  at  the 
French  .\cademy  the  .Montyoi\  prize  in  1840.  and  in 
1857  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Academy. 

AUGITE,  or  Pvroxk.ne,  a  mineral  very  nearly 
allied  to  hornblende.  It  is  little  affected  by 
acnls  or  not  at  all ;  it  is  usiuiUy  of  a  greenish  color, 
very  often  black.  It  crystallizes  in  six  oreight-sided 
prisms,  variously  moditied.  It  is  an  essential  com- 
ponent of  many   igneous  rocks,   particularly  of  ba- 


salt and  augite-porphyry,  from  which  chiefly  it  de- 
rives its  imi)ortance  as  a  mineral  species. 

AUGMENT.VTIOX,  in  music,  the  reproduction  of 
a  melody,  or  principal  subject  of  a  composition,  in 
the  course  of  the  progress  of  the  piece,  in  notes  of 
greater  h'ngth  than  those  in  which  the  melody  is 
hrst  introduced. 

AUGMENTATION,  Process  op:  in  Scotch  law, 
is  an  action  in  the  Court  of  Teinds  by  the  minister 
of  a  parish  against  the  titular,  or  beneficiary,  and 
heritors,  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  an  increase  to 
his  stipend.  The  moderator  and  clerk  of  the  presby- 
tery to  which  the  minister  belongs  must  also  be 
called  as  jiarlies.  In  the  time  of  George  III  it  was 
enacted  that  no  augmentation  should  be  granted 
till  the  expiration  of  15  years  from  any  augmenta- 
tion |)revious  to  the  act.  nor  till  the  expiration  of 
20  years  from  any  augmentation  suhseijuent  to  the 
act.  A  jieriod  of  20  years  must  thus  elapse  between 
each  augmentation. 

AUGUR,  Ciiristoimier  Colon,  American  soldier, 
born  in  New  York  in  1821.  He  graduated  at  West 
I'oint  in  1848,  and  served  during  the  Mexican  war 
as  aid-de-camp  to  (ien,  llii]>|iing,  and  later  to  tien. 
Calel)  Gushing.  He  served  as  captain  against  the 
Indians  in  Oregon  in  18.5(>.andin  1801  was  appointed 
major  in  the  Kith  infantry.  The  same  year  he  be- 
came a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  was 
severely  wounded  in  July,  18(12.  during  the  battle  of 
Cedar  5lountain.  Subsequently  he  fought  with  dis- 
tinction in  various  important  battles,  and  was  re- 
tired in  1885  as  major-general. 

ARARAT  (see  Pritannica.  Vol.  11,  p.  300),  a 
mountain  in  Armenia  (about  17,112  feet  above  the 
sea-level),  on  which  Noali's  ark  is  supposed  to  have 
rested,  n.  c.  2340,  now  termed  by  the  Persians,  Koh- 
i-Nuh  (Noah's  mountain) ;  by  the  Armenians,  Masis; 
by  the  Turks,  Agri-Dagh.  The  mountain  was  as- 
cended by  Dr.  Parrot,  Sept.  27,  1829;  by  Major  Stu- 
art, 1850,  and  by  others  since.  Mr.  James  Price, 
who  ascended  Sept.  II,  12,  1876,  described  the  siuii- 
niit  as  a  little  plain  of  snow,  silent  and  desolate, 
with  a  bright,  green  sky  above; — the  view  stern, 
green  and  monotonous.  In  .Uigust,  1888,  it  was  as- 
cended by  Professor  Mackoff  and  M.  Popoll,  both 
native  Russians. 

AUGl'STA,  a  trading  town  of  Arkansas,  county- 
seat  of  Woodruff  county,  situated  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  While  River.  It  deals  chiefly  in  cotton, 
which  is  here  shipped  by  steamboat,  and  is  the  seat 
of  a  good  high  school. 

Al"tirST.\,  an  important  commercial  and  manu- 
facturing city  of  Georgia,  county-seat  of  Richmond 
county.  It  is  beautifully  situated  upon  the  west 
bank  of  the  Savannah  River,  at  the  head  of  steam- 
boat navigation.  It  is  the  second  oldest  city  in  the 
State.  It  was  settled  by  colonists  luider  (ieneral 
Oglethor|)e;  laid  out  under  royal  charter  in  1735: 
rechartered  in  1708,  and  incorjiorated  as  a  city  in 
1817.  During  the  Revobil  ionary  war  Augusta  was 
captured  and  held  for  twci  years  l)y  the  P>ritish.  un- 
til .lune5,  1781,  after  a  siege  of  thirteen  days,  it 
was  surrendered  to  the  .Vmericans  luuler  (ieneral 
Henry  Lee.  The  war  of  1812  and  the  Indian  wars 
left  the  recuiieraled  aiul  prosperous  city  unmo- 
lested; but  during  the  civil  warit  was  twice  threat- 
ened by  (ieneral  Sherman,  and  was  garrisoned  by 
the  (Jonfederales.  .\ugusla  is  well  built  :  its  streets 
are  straight  and  widi",  and  cross  each  other  at  right 
angles.  The  Medical  College  of  (ieorgia,  founded 
in  18.30,  is  located  here.  The  Richmond  Academy  is 
an  incorporated  institution,  and  there  are  numer- 
ous flourishing  graded  schools.  .Vmong  the  notable 
public  buildings,  nioiuiments  and  institutions  are 
also  a  handsome  and  costly  t'ity-hall,  tbe  Odd  Fel- 
lows'  and    -Masonic  halls,   the   opera  *•  >use,    Inde 


170 


A  U  G  U  S  T  A  —  A  U  R I  C  U  L  A 


pendence  monument.  Confederate  mouument,  Au- 
gusta Orphan  Asylum,  and  numerous  other  char- 
itable institutions.  The  Augusta  Canal,  9  miles 
long  and  150  feet  wide,  and  fed  by  means  of  an  im- 
mense stone  dam  which  here  crosses  the  river,  fur- 
nishes an  abundance  of  the  purest  water  for  domes- 
tic u.se  and  for  the  numerous  manufactories  of  the 
city.  These  represent  a  capital  of  some  nine  mil- 
lion dollars,  of  which  about  five  million  is  invested 
in  the  cotton  trade.  Population,  in  1860,12,493;  in 
1870,  15.389;  in  ISSO,  21,891;  in  1890,  33,150.  See 
Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  73. 

AUGUSTA,  a  city  of  Maine,  capital  of  the  State 
and  county-seat  of  Kennebec  county,  is  pleasantly 
situated  at  the  head  of  tidal  navigation  on  both 
sides  of  the  Kennebec  River,  which  is  spanned  by  an 
elegant  bridge  uniting  the  two  parts  of  the  city. 
Since  the  destructive  fire  of  1865,  the  business 
quarter  of  the  city  has  been  conveniently  and  hand- 
somely rebuilt.  There  is  an  abundant  supply  of 
water,  which  is  utilized  by  a  fine  system  of  water-  " 
works,  and  in  the  extensive  manufacture  of  lumber 
and  cotton  goods.  The  State-house,  situated  on  an 
eminence  at  the  southern  limit  of  the  city,  is  a 
handsome  structure  of  whitish  granite.  The  United 
States  Arsenal  and  Military  Asylum,  and  the  State 
and  City  libraries,  are  of  special  interest.  Augusta 
is  the  seat  of  St.  Catherine's  school  for  young  ladies. 
Population,  in  1890,  10,521.  See  Britannica,  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  73. 

AUGUSTAXA  COLLEGE  AND  THEOLOGICAL 
SEMINARY,  incorporated  at  Paxton,  111.,  in  1865. 
Its  object  is  to  educate  candidates  for  the  ministry 
of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church,  and  also  young 
men  for  teachers.  The  Faculty  consists  of  a  presi- 
der.  t,  three  professors  and  tutor. 

AUGUSTULUS,  Romulus,  the  last  emperor  of 
the  western  portion  of  the  Roman  empire.  His 
name  was  Augustus,  but  the  diminutive  title  under 
which  he  is  universally  known  was  given  him  by 
tho  Romans  on  account  of  his  littleness  of  character. 
Ho  was  the  son  of  Orestes,  a  Pannonian  of  birth  and 
wealth,  who  rose  to  high  rank  under  the  Emperor 
Julius  Nepos.  On  the  flight  of  tlie  emperor  Orestes 
conferred  the  vacant  throne  on  his  son  Augvistulus, 
A.  I).,  476,  retaining  all  substantial  power  in  his 
own  hands.  Orestes,  failing  to  conciliate  the  bar- 
barians, who  had  helped  him  against  Nepos,  they 
l)esieged  him  in  Pavia,  and,  capturing  him,  put  him 
to  death.  Augustuhis  was  dismissed  to  a  villa  near 
Na[)les,  with  an  annual  pension  of  6,000  pieces  of 
gohl.     Ilis  after  fate  is  unknown. 

AUK  (Aim  I.  a  genus  of  web-footed  birds,  the 
type  of  tlie  family  Alridx,  wliich  was  in  great  i)art 
included  in  t-ie  Linn.ean  genus -l/ca,  and  to  many 
of  the  species  of  which,  now  ranked  in  other  genera, 
the  name  auk  is  still  popularly  extendecl.  The 
Alridie  are  among  those  web-footed  birds  collect- 
ively  called    Hi-iic/ii/j/tfrcs    (i.  e.,  short-winged),  or 

Divers,  by  Cuvier.  They 
are  remarkable  fin-  the 
shortness  of  their  wings, 
which  they  eni|)loy  as 
fins  or  paddles  for  swim- 
ming under  water,  some 
>?  being  even  incaiiable  of 
Hying;  and  for  the  posi- 
tion (if  t  li  e  i  r  leg  s, 
further  backward  than 
in  other  birds,  which 
makes  walking  diHicult, 
and  when  they  are  on 
Ian  I  comj.t'ls  them  to  maintain  an  upright  position. 
They  are  fllistinguished  liy  the  very  compressed  bill 
wliii'h  in  tlie  true  nuk  is  vertically  elevated,  and  so 
sharp  along  tlie  ridge  as  to  resemble  the  blade  of  a 


knife,  and  by  their  entirely  palmated  feet,  destitute 
of  hind  toes.  The  auks  are  confined  to  the  seas  of 
the  northern  hemisphere,  and  are  most  abundant 
in  the  colder  regions.  They  all  have  a  dense  plum- 
age, which  exhibits  on  its  surface  a  beautifully 
polished  silvery  luster.  See  Britannica, Vol.  III.  pp. 
85,  734,  735;  Vol.  X,  p.  78;  Vol.  XX,  p.  302. 

AULA  REGIA,  an  English  court  established  by 
Williaiu  the  Conqueror,  and  regulated  afterward  l)y 
the  Magna  Charta. 

AULAPOLAI,  or  Alleppi,  a  seaport,  with  alight- 
house,  in  Travancore  state,  ISladras.  33  miles  south 
of  Cochin.  Communication  is  maintained  with 
Quilon  and  Trivandrum  on  the  south,  and  with 
Cochin  on  the  north,  by  canals  parallel  with  the 
seacoast,  and  connecting  a  series  of  lakes  or  back- 
iraters.  Between  these  and  the  sea  is  a  wide  creek, 
through  which  is  floated  the  timber  for  exportation, 
which  is  brought  from  the  forests  of  the  Maharajah 
of  Travancore  on  the  western  Ghauts.  There  is 
considerable  trade  in  cotTee,  coir,  pepper,  and  car- 
damoms.    Population,  30,000.  k 

AUMALE,  Cn.vRLEs  de  Lokr.mxe,  Due  d'  (1554- 
1631 ),  an  ardent  partisan  of  the  League  in  the  poli- 
tico-religious wars  which  devastated  France  in  the 
16th  century. 

AU:\IALE,  Cl.wde  II,  Due  n',  born  in  1523,  killed 
by  a  cannon  ball  before  La  Rochelle  in  1573.  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  instigators  of  the  St.  Bartholo- 
mew massacre  in  1572. 

AUMALE,  Hexri  Eigexe  Philippe  Loris  d' 
Orle.\xs,  Die  d',  born  at  Paris  in  1822,  the  fourth 
son  of  King  Louis  Philippe.  In  1847  he  succeeded 
jNlarshal  Bugeaud  as  governor-general  of  -Alge- 
ria. He  resigned  in  1848,  and,  joining  his  father, 
resided  in  England  till  the  law  was  rejiealed  ban- 
ishing the  Orleans  princes  from  France,  and  became 
known  by  his  literary  work.  In  1871  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  National  Assembly  and  returned 
to  France.  He  was  president  of  the  court-martial 
which  tried  Marshal  Bazaine.  In  1885  the  expul- 
sion bill  was  passed,  and  again  he  was  an  exile  till 
it  was  revoked  in  1889. 

AUNE,  the  French  cloth-measure  corresponding 
to  the  English  ,'U.  The  English  ell^Pa  yard=45 
inches;  the  French  aiiue  usm-Uc  (or  noutflh):^ 
1;  meter::=47?-2  inches  English. 

AUNOY,  Marie  Catherine  Jumelle  de  Berxe- 
viLi.E  CoMTEssE  d'  ( 1650-1 705 ),  3  celebrated  French 
authoress  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  She  composed 
fairy  tales,  romances,  and  historical  memoirs. 

AURANTIACE.E,  a  natural  order  of  oxogenous 
plants,  consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  often  of  great 
iieauty.  The  species  of  the  genus  ('///■»,<  are  best 
known,  among  which  are  the  orange,  lemon,  citron, 
etc. 

AURELIANUS  {Anrrlian).  Linus  Domitius,  one 
of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Roman  Emperors.  On 
the  death  of  Claudius  II  (a.  d.  270),  Aurelianus 
was  elected  emperor  by  the  army.  He  coninienced 
his  reign  by  vigorous  opjiosit ion  to  the  barbarian, 
Alemanni,  or  .Mnrcoinaniii,  whom  he  expelled.  His 
j  most  famous  enterprise  was  an  expedili<m  against 
Zenoliia,  whom  he  (lefeated  and  captured.  He  fell 
a  victim  to  conspiracy,  and  was  assassinated  by  his 
secretary,  a.  n.  276. 

AURKUS,  or  Denarius  Aureus,  a  Roman  gold 
coin,  first  coined  207  H.  c.  See  Britannica, \'i>l.  XVI  I, 
p.  653. 

.  .VrUKUILA  {Pfininla  aiirirnln).  a  plant  of  the 
same  g(>iuis  with  the  primrose,  much  cultivated  in 
flower  gardens,  has  smooth,  dark  i;reen  leaves,  leaf- 
less stems,  and  calices  covered  with  a  mealy  |)ow- 
der.  .\  similar  powder  ajipears  also  on  the  flowers, 
which  adds  much  to  their  beauty.  This  plant  is  a 
native   of  the   .\!ps  and  of  other  mountains  in  the 


A  U  R  I  C  U  L  A  —  A  U  S  T  R  A  L  A  S  I  A 


siiutli  and  middle  of  Europp.  and  of  suli-Alpine  sit- 
uations in  lilt'  same  countries.  The  name  Auricula 
is  derived  from  tlie  Latin  word  uiirin,  an  ear,  on  ac- 
count of  the  resemlilance  of  tlie  leaves  to  the  ears 
of  an  animal.  See  Ijritannica.Vol.  XII,  p.  253;  Vol. 
XIX.  p.  7:i7. 

Al'UKJUL.V,  a  genus,  and  Aiiriculiil;i,a.  family, of 
gastropod  mollusca.  They  belong  to  the  same  or- 
der as  the  common  snails,  having  organs  for  breath- 
ing in  air,  altliough  sonic  of  them  can  exist  for  p 
considerable  length  of  lime  underwater.  Some  oi 
them  live  in  fresh-water  marshes,  while  others 
[irefer  the  vicinity  of  salt  water.  Some  of  them  at- 
tain a  large  size.  .{nririiUi  Ml(hr  is  fi;un(l  in  the 
Kast  Indies,  and  is  known  to  shell  collectors  by  the 
name  of  Midas  Ear.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXII,' 
p.  1S7. 

AURICULATE,  in  botany,  a  term  applied  to 
leaves,  stijiules,  etc.,  and  signifying  that  they  have 
at  the  base  two  small,  car-like  lobes. 

AUKKi.V,  a  constellation  containing  Capella,  a 
star  of  the  lirst  magnitude. 

Al'KluL,   a   town   near    .Marseilles,   in    France. 
Population,  0,1S2. 
AL'KUUHS   is   properly    the    German   name    of 
the   extinct    species  of 
wild  ox,  called  by  Cresar 
I'rus,  a    few    herds   of 
which  are  still  found  in 
Lithuania.     1!  ece  n  t  I  y 
the   name  has  been   er- 
roneously used  for  the 
.Vmerican    bison.      See 
IJritannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p. 
''.'2. 
AUKOKA,  one  of  the 
AiRoci!?.  largest  cities  of  Illinois, 

beautifully  situated  on  the  Fox  Kiver,  in  the  fertile 
southeastern  part  of  Kane  county.  It  has  an  ex- 
tensive trade  in  the  staple  products  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  a  variety  of  manufactures, 
including  machinery,  flour,  woolen  goods,  silver- 
ware, carriages,  sash  and  blinds.  It  is  an  important 
railroad  center,  and  contains  the  shops  of  the  C'hi- 
cago,  Hurlington  I'c  i^uiney  K.  K.,  which  emjiloy 
nearly  two  thousand  men.  Among  the  notable 
buildings  are  that  of  the  Young  Men's  (Ihristian 
.Association,  and  a  line  city-hall,  which  cost  .'fTo.OOO. 
.\urora  is  the  seat  of  Jennings'  Seminary,  and  its 
public  schools  are  excellent.  Population  in  1890, 
i!i.(i:u. 

ArK()K.\,  a  city  of  Oearborn  county,  Indiana,  on 
the  <)!iio  River,  a.id  on  the  Ohio  c*c  .Mississippi  U.K. 
Ponulaliun  in  IS'.K),  3,92'.). 

.U'KOKA,  a  village  in  New  York,  seat  of  Wells' 
Ladies' College  and  Cayuga  Lake  .Vcademy. 

AUS.\BLE,a  villageof  New  York, on  the  Ausable 
River. 

AI'SSEK,  a  market-town  in  the  Salzkamtuergut 
of  Styria.  situated  at  the  conlluenceof  three  mount- 
ain streams,  which  form  the  Traun.  22  miles  south- 
east of  Ischl.  It  has  mineral  springs  and  baths, 
and  is  visited  by  some  ti,0(li)  strangers  annually. 
Population,  l.liliO. 

.\rsTKN.  \Vii.i.i.\M,  an  Ensrlishman  of  the  loth 
century, celebrated  asa  metal-worker  and  designer. 
He  constructed  the  famous  tomb  of  Pichard  de 
P.eauchamp,  Earl  of  Warwick,  in  St.  Mary's 
C'hurch,  Warwickshire.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI, 
p.  .V)!). 

Al.'STIN,  Alfred,  journalist  and  poet,  born  at 
lleadingly,  ni'ar  Leeds.  May  .'!0,  Is;',,").  He  was  edu- 
cated al  Slonyhurst  and  St.  Mary's  College,  Oscott. 
He  graduated  al  the  I'niversily  of  London  in  1S.").S, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1.H57.  He  l)ecame  in- 
terested in  literature,  and  soon  devoted  himself  <mi- 


ttrely  to  that  pursuit.  His  first  important  book 
was  Thf  A'o.<«/i;  n  .Salire  (IS(il),  which  was  severely 
criticised.  The  Human  TriKji'ilij  (18ii2)  was  soon  re- 
called, and  was  not  issued  in  altered  form  until 
ls7ii.  .\mong  later  volumesof  verse  are  SmDiKirula, 
a  tragedy  (1  SSI) ;  Si)lilo'iiii,'.i  in  Sony  {1><S2);  and  Al 
tlie  (jatfif  <if  the  Convent  (1885).  As  a  journalist 
Austin  has  long  been  connected  with  the  "Standard" 
and  "C>uarterly  Review,  "  and  has  acted  since  1883 
as  editor  of  the  "National  Review." 

AUSTIN.  Moses,  a  Texan  pioneer,  born  in  Dur- 
ham, Conn,  lie  went  to  the  West  in  17i)8,  and  en- 
gaged in  lead  mining.  In  1S20  he  removed  to 
Texas,  and  jietiticjuinl  the  Mexican  comuiand;int  at 
.Monterey  for  permission  to  colonize  oOO  families  in 
that  section.  While  in  search  of  emigrants  he  was 
robbed  and  the  hardships  he  encountered  caused 
his  death,  in  Louisiana,  June  10,  1821. 

AL'STIN,  Stki'uen  F.  (c.  1790-18,30),  a  Texan 
j)ioneer,  born  about  17110.  He  founded  the  present 
Austin,  Texas,  after  obtaining  a  conlirniation  of 
the  grant  to  colonize  .SOU  families,  obtained  by 
his  father  from  the  Mexican  authorities  in  1S20. 
In  lS:iS  (he  .Vmerican  settlers  had  become  powerful 
and  were  restless  under  Mexican  rule,  Austin  going 
so  far  that  he  was  imprisoned  for  several  months. 
On  his  liberation  in  1S85  he  took  part  with  the  rev- 
olutionists. He  became  commander-in-chief,  and  in 
November  was  sent  on  a  commission  to  the  Tnited 
States  to  secure  recognition  from  the  government 
at  Washington.  In  this  capacity  he  acted  with 
prudence,  and  would  have  olitained  recogniticm  of 
Texan  indeiiendence  had  he  been  properly  |)rovided 
with  credentials.  He  returned  to  prosecute  his 
work,  but  died  Dec.  27,  ]83<). 

AUSTIN,  a  city  of  Minnesota,  county-seat  of 
Mower  county,  pleasantly  situated  on  Red  Cedar 
River.  It  has  a  thriving  trade  in  general  merchan- 
dise, and  is  actively  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
farming  tools,  barrels,  pressed  brick.  Hour,  ploughs 
and  machinery,  and  contains  a  number  of  found- 
ries, machine  shops,  marble  works,  a  creamery,  a 
canning  and  preserving  factory,  and  railroad  shops. 
Other  points  of  interest  are  a  fine  opera  house,  the 
court-house  and  the  board  of  trade. 

AUSTIN,  a  city  of  Nevada,  county-seat  of  Lander 
county.  It  is  situated  in  a  rich  mining  region,  sur- 
rounded by  mountains  and  deep  canons,  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Toiyabe  range.  The  chief  in- 
dustry is  the  mining  of  silver,  and  there  are  also 
several  ijuartz  mills  and  a  reduction  works,  a  ma- 
chine shop  and  a  foundry. 

AUSTIN,  a  city  of  Texas,  capital  of  the  State, and 
county-seat  of  Travis  county,  finely  situated  in  the 
midst  of  beautiful  scenery,  at  the  head  of  high- 
water  navigatioi\  on  the  left  liank  of  the  Colorado 
River,  which  here  breaks  I  hrough  a  range  of  hills 
U|)on  which  the  city  is  built,  and  which  is  sjianned 
by  two  fine  bridges.  The  most  prominent  feature 
of  this  lovely  city  is  the  new  capitol,  built  of  Texas 
marble,  for  the  cost  of  which  three  million  acres  of 
State  land  was  apiiropriated,  and  which  occupies  a 
central  position  on  Capitol  Hill.  From  this  the 
jirincipal  aveniu>s,  12(1  feet  wide,  radiate  north, 
south,  east  and  west,  crossed  by  shaded  streets, 
most  of  which  are  Ml  feet  in  wielth.  .\nslin  is  an 
important  railroad  city,  and  the  trade  center  of  a 
fertile  agricultural  and  grazing  district,  the  staple 
products  of  which  are  col  Ion,  corn,  sweet  potatoes, 
pork  and  cattle.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  State  Univer- 
sity, Texas  Military  Inslilule,  a  Ponuin  Catholic 
Academv,  and  asvlums  for  the  blind,  the  insane  and 
the  deaf'.     Population  in  Is'.Ul.  15,:!24. 

.\U.'^TK.VL.\SI.\,  a  term  usiuilly  including  the 
.\usl  ralian  colonies,  together  with  Tasmani.i.  New 
Zealand,  Figi,  Tasmania,  New  tiuinea.  New  iiritaiu, 


172 


A  U  S  T  R  A  L I  A  —  A  U  S  T  R I  A  -  H  U  N  G  A  R  Y 


New  Ireland,  Solomon's  Islands,  Xevv  Caledonia,  and 
New  Hebrides,  which  see  severally  in  these  volumes. 
AUSTRALIA.  Area,  3,031.169  sq.  miles.  Popula- 
tion, 2,S19,367.  British  Colonial  possessions,  con- 
sisting ol  five  provinces,  viz :  Queensland,  capital 
Eresbrane ;  New  South  "Wales,  capital  Sydney ; 
^'ictoria,  capital  ^lelbourne;  South  Australia  (in- 
eluding  Northern  Territory;,  capital  Adelaide,  and 
Western  Australia,  capital  Perth.  For  general 
history  and  descriptive  features,  see  Britannica, 
Vol.  li,  pp.  103-15.  Australia  is  the  largest  island 
in  the  world:  extreme  length,  from  east  to  west, 
2.400  miles;  from  north  to  south,  1,971  miles.  For 
latest  events  and  statistics,  see  the  several  prov- 
inces in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 

ACSTKALaSIAN  confederation,  a  subject 
receiving  large  attention  in  the  Australian  colonies 
for  several  years.  In  1885  a  Federal  Council  Act 
was  formulated  for  the  purpose  of  dealing  with 
matters  of  common  interest,  but  the  federal  union 
wasonly  partially  effected.  A  council  was  institut- 
ed, and  sessions  were  held  in  1886,1888  and  1889,  but 
the  colonies  of  New  South  Wales  and  New  Zealand 
had  not  thus  far  sent  a  representative.  The  coun- 
cil did  not  meet  in  1.890,  but,  instead,  a  conference 
of  representatives  of  the  Australasian  Colonies  met 
in  Melbourne,  Feb.  6,  1890,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
sidering a  scheme  of  Australasian  Federation  and 
Federal  Defense.  The  colonies  represented  were 
Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  South  Australia, 
Queensland,  New  Zealand,  Tasmania,  and  AVestern 
Australia.  A  resolution  was  adopted  declaring 
that  the  time  had  come  for  the  union  of  the  Austra- 
lasian Colonies  under  one  government.  Provision 
was  made  for  the  admission  into  the  Union  of  the 
more  remote  Australasian  Colonies,  at  such  times 
and  under  such  conditions  as  might  thereafter  be 
agreed  upon.  The  Conference  sat  till  Feb.  14th,  and 
before  adjourning  adopted  an  address  to  Her  Maj- 
esty, the  Queen  of  England,  emljodying  the  resolu- 
tions passed,  one  of  which  provided  for  holding  a 
National  Australasian  Convention  early  in  1891  to  be 
composed  of  delegates  appointed  by  the  legislatures 
of  the  various  Australasian  colonies.  A  cablejram 
from  Melbourne,  Nov.  21,  1S90,  announced  that  the 
Convention  would  be  held  in  Sydney  in  March, 
1891. 

AUSTEASIA,  or  the  East  Kingdom,  including 
Lorraine,  Belgium,  and  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
having  their  central  point  at  Metz.  It  is  the  name 
given  under  the  Merovingians  to  tlie  eastern  pos- 
sessions of  the  Franks.  Under  Charlemagne's  suc- 
cessors .Vustrasia  became  a  part  of  Germany. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  Area,  261.649  sq.  miles. 
Population  (1888),  41,665.277.  To  this  should  be 
added  military  population,  162,423,  making  a  total 
of  41,.S27,700.  Capital  of  the  Empire,  Vienna. 
Keignitig  Emperor,  Francis  .Joseph,  Emperor  of 
Austria  and  King  of  Bohemia,  etc.,  and  Apostolic 
King  of  Hungary. 

Austria  proper.  115.014  si|.  miles;  population, 
23,485,000.  Hungary,  124.448  sq.  miles;  poi)ulation, 
(1888),  16.670,115.  P.osiiiaand  Herzegovina, 2(1,177  S(|. 
miles;  population,  l,.'i36,091.  .\mongthis  population 
there  were  in  1880  about  18,920,000  Slavs,  >(,977,000 
Germans.  6,4.S9.0(I0  Magyars,  and  2,(il4,00O  I\ou- 
manians.  -Vccording  to  religion,  there  are  nearly 
2!M11,(KI()  Roman  Catholics,  M.dll.dOO  Protestants, 
3,512,(100  Grei'ks  and  .Vrnicnians.  I.i;52,(«l0  .Tews,  aiul 
403,(«H)  Mohammedans.  The  Empire — the  cillicial 
denomination  of  which  is  now  ( )eslerreicliisch-Un- 
garische  Monarchie  (the  Aiistro-IIungarian  Mon- 
archy)— is  divided  into  the  Austrian  state  and  the 
Ihingnrian  stale,  each  having  its  own  pnrliiinient, 
ministry  and  administration.  Capital  of  Hungary, 
Buda-I'esth. 


The  lands  of  the  Austrian  crown  are  Lower  Aus- 
tria. Upper  Austria,  Salzburg,  Styria,  Carinthia, 
Carniola,  Coast-Districts  (Gorz,  Gradisca — Trieste, 
and  Istria),  the  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  Bohemia, 
Moravia,  Silesia,  Ciallicia,  Bukowina,  and  Dalmatia. 
The  lands  of  the  Hungarian  crown  embrace  Hun- 
gary, Transylvania,  Fiume,  Croatia,  and  Slavonia. 
The  soil  produces  grain  of  all  kinds,  potatoes,  beet- 
root and  wine.  Austria  ranks  next  to  France, 
Italy,  and  Spain  as  a  wine-growing  country  (Aus- 
tria, 1888:  91,404,720  gallons,  and  109,144,134  in  Hun- 
gary, 1887) ;  but,  from  its  inland  position  and  other 
causes,  the  wines  are  not  so  well  known  in  this 
country  as  they  deserve  to  be:  1,050,000  tons  of 
beet-sugar  were  manufactured  in  1887-88.  Indus- 
try is  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  western  half  of 
the  monarchy,  and  more  especially  to  Vienna,  Bo- 
hemia, iloravia,  and  Silesia.  Styria  is  the  great 
center  of  the  iron  trade ;  Briinn  is  famed  for  its 
woolens,  Eeichenberg  for  woolens  and  cottons, 
Trautenau  for  linen,  Bohemia  for  glass,  and  Vienna 
and  Pilsen  for  lager  beer.  The  mineral  riches  are 
very  great,  comprising  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron, 
quicksilver,  lead,  tin,  zinc,  coal  (Austria,  1888): 
42,209.4,32  ;  Hungary,  1887:  5,019,695  tons;  petroleum 
is  also  found  in  Gallicia. 

The  Empire  possesses  a  powerful  army,  amount- 
ing, on  the  peace  footing,  to  273,779  men  with  19,733 
officers ;  and  the  war  establishment,  including  a 
Landwehr  of  349,284  men,  etc.,  consists  of  1,177,644 
oflBcers  and  men,  with  2,008  field  guns.  Military 
service  is  compulsory  on  all.  The  navy  consists  of 
157  vessels,  of  which  12  are  iron-clads,  6  torpedo 
vessels,  and  57  torpedo  boats.  Pola  is  the  great 
naval  arsenal.  The  imports  amounted  (1888)  to 
£44.420,000;  the  exports  (18.88),  £60.450,000;  they  in- 
cluded vegetable  fibers  and  manufactures ;  silk  and 
silk  goods ;  vegetables,  fruits,  etc. ;  fats  and  oils ; 
grain  and  pulse  ;  colonial  wares  ;  clothing,  haber- 
dashery ;  animals  ;  machinery  and  carriages  ;  wool 
and  woolen  goods;  furs  and  skins,  wooden  ware, 
etc.  The  raw  materials  were  roughly  valued  at 
£25,425,000,  and  the  manufactured  goods  at  £21,208,- 
333  (1886).  About  one-half  of  the  exports  consisted 
of  agricultural  produce.  Some  of  the  principal  ar- 
ticles were  grain,  pulse,  and  flour,  £5,868,823;  fuel, 
£3,756.647;  sugar,  £1,978,772. 

Although  the  term  Austria-Hungary  is  occa- 
sionally used,  Hungary  itself  as  a  state  is  seldom 
thought  of.  Austria  alone  is  mentioned  as  cover- 
ing the  wliole  monarchy.  Actually  Hungary  is  not 
only  a  distinct  kingdom,  but  it  has  in  almost  every 
sense  a  distinct  and  separate  existence.  The  Em- 
peror of  Austria  is  also  separately  crowned  as  King 
of  Hungary.  The  following  particulars  will  there- 
fore be  of  interest  to  many  persons  to  whom  the  sub- 
ject of  the  distinct  and  separate  Kingdom  of  Hun- 
gary will  be  novel. 

Huuijary,  with  its  dependent  states,  has  an  area 
of  322,.302  sq.  kilometres,  about  124,148  sq.  miles— 
that  is,  rather  larger  than  the  United  Kingdom,  with 
a  jiopulation  of  1(1,979,813  in  December,  1,*>87.  To  this 
Fiume  contributes  22,3(i4,  aiul  Croatia  and  Slavonia 
2,09.'^. 161.  The  country  is  divided  into  72  counties, 
with  473distriets  forthoseof  llunyary.  Hungarian 
is  the  oMieial  language,  excejit  in  (.'roatia  aiul  Sla- 
vonia, where  C'roatian  is  spoken.  Croatian  and  Sla- 
vonia are  annexes  of  the  crown  of  Hungary,  but  both 
countries  have  an  autonomy  for  Imme  affairs,  law 
and  public  instruction.  .\t  ilie  head  of  the  Croatian 
government  is  the  Hatins  Khuen  Hederv:iry,  who  is 
responsible  to  both  the  I>iet  of  Croatia  and  to  the 
Hungarian  prime  minister.  .\11  other  matters  are 
in  common,  the  Croatian  I>i(>t  sending  40  members 
to  the  Hungarian  parliament,  whili'  the  Hunga- 
rian ministry  contains  a  Croatian  nieml."- 


AUTEUIL  — AV  ALOX 


ITS 


The  Hungarian  parliament  consists  of  45S  mem- 
bers, elected  fur  live  years.  Of  these  Croatia  sends 
40,  but  tliey  are  not  enlitled  to  vole  on  matters 
connected  witli  Hungarian  laws,  education,  and 
home  affairs.  There  is  also  an  Tpper  House  eon- 
^islingol  wealthy  magnates,  gentlemen  whocontril)- 
ute  more  than  3,000  Horiiis  to  the  land  tax,  tlie  pre- 
lates,the  Kriniis, -dnd  three  members  oIL'roatia  sent 
by  the  Diet,  and  lifty  memliers  nominated  by  tlie 
crown.  Of  the  inhabitants  there  were  ti,499,I07 
native  Magyars  at  the  census  of  ISSO,  but  a  large 
portion  of  tlie  oi  her  nationalities  speak  the  national 
tongue.  Tlios(>  who  do  not  are  generally  the  un- 
educated, chielly  Roumanians  in  Transylvania,  who 
are  there  nearly  as  numerous  as  the  Hungarians, 
the  >>/.i'kelys,  "the  most  excellent  Hungarian  race," 
and  the  Saxons  of  Transylvania.  In  addition  to 
Buda-i'esf  there  are  thirty-three  other  cities,  each 
containing  more  than  :.'0,000  inhabitants. 

Hungary  excels  in  its  agriculture.  All  the  great 
plains  produce  vast  quantities  of  grain.  In  many 
parts  wheat  grows  upon  land  that  is  seldom  or 
never  manured.  The  returns  for  1SS9  (ex<'luding 
Croatia  and  ."^lavonia;  give  32,!I5S,777  hectolitres  of 
wheat,  1L',!M).">,.">.SI  of  rye,  llMii3,")0i' of  barley,  lo,37K,- 
523  of  oals,  and  3i>,0Sl',!).S2  of  Indian  corn.  The  cat- 
tle number  4,s7ll,038,  sheep  10..504.,S31,  horses  1,74S,- 
S59,  and  swine  4,,'<03,K39.  Hungary  is  not  a  manu- 
facturing country. 

Al'TECIL,  a  village  at  the  entrance  of  the  Bois 
de  Boulo.t^ne  containing  ti,000  inliabitants.  It  was 
the  home  of  Moliere  (whom  Andrieux  introduced 
in  his  Mulii're  nrec  ses  Ainin,  nu  U'  Saiifii'r  il  Aiitcuil), 
Boileau.  and  the  gifted  widow  of  Helvetius.  whose 
parties  P.onaiiarte  often  attended  in  179s  and  1799. 

ACTIIKXTIC,  a  term  applied  to  writings  or 
documents  whose  contents  may  be  depended  upon 
for  truth  and  accuracy.  It  is  sometimes  used  as 
synonymous  with  nt-miine,  though  a  distinction  has 
been  drawn  between  the  two  words,  especially  by 
biblical  critics. 

AUTHORITY,  that  to  which  appeal  may  legally 
be  made  in  science,  law  or  theology ;  the  right  to 
demand  oliedience. 

ALTOBIOCtRAI'HY,  the  history  written  by  one's 
self  of  one's  own  life,  or  a  sketch  of  contemporane- 
ous events. 

AUTOCR.ACY,  a  form  of  government  in  which 
the  sovereign  controls  the  legislative  and  execu- 
tive powers  of  the  state  and  rules  alone.  He  is 
called  an  autocrat.  Most  eastern  governments  are 
of  this  form.  The  Emperor  of  Russia  is  the  only 
Europi'an  ruler  who  bears  the  title  of  autocrat. 

AIT*  XtRAXTRE,  a  peculiar  process  of  photo- 
engraving, patented  by  ,1.  R.  .Sawyer,  London,  Nov. 
12,  18S4.  If  an  ordinary  autotype  carbon  print  be 
placed  on  silvered  copper  instead  of  on  paper,  the 
slight  relief  which  the  picture  possesses  is  enough 
to  admit  of  an  electrotype  being  taken  from  it.  The 
raised  part  of  the  jirint  liecomes  thedepressed  part 
in  the  electrotype,  and  impressions  can  therefore 
be  taken  from  the  latter  in  the  same  way  as  from 
an  engraved  copper  plate. 

.\l"roNl)MY  Mir.,  iiclj-le<iiflittiiiti).  the  manage- 
ment of  the  government  by  the  citizens  of  a  state; 
aiii>lied  especially  to  the  political  conditions  of 
ancient  (ireeee. 

AtTOl'LASTY 
whicli   consists   in 

means  of  healthy  tissue  from  other  [larts  of  the 
same  body.  The  most  familiar  instance  is  the 
rhinoplastic  or  taliacoiian  operation  for  supplying 
a  new  nose  from  the  skin  of  the  forehead. 

.\rT()l'SY,  eye-witnessing,  a  direct  observation; 
but  generally  used  of  a  post-mortem  examination, 
or  dissection  of  the  dead  body. 


a  mode  of  surgical  treatment 
replacing  a  diseased  |iart  tiy 
ther  [larts  of 


ArTdTYl'E.  A  sheet  of  paper  coated  with  a 
(ilm  of  bichromatized  gelatine,  in  which  lanipblack 
or  other  permanent  pigment  has  been  held  in  solu- 
tion or  suspension  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  light 
in  a  printing  frame,  beneath  an  ordinary  photo- 
graph negative.  In  proportion  as  tlie  light  is  ad- 
mitted to  the  gelatine  tilm  or  "tissue"  through 
the  negative,  it  becomes  hardened  and  insolulile  in 
water.  The  print  is  afterwards  treated  by  washing 
av,ay  the  unaltered  portions  of  the  film,  and  the 
result  is  a  permanent  print  of  the  object  photo- 
graphed. Tlie  autotype  process  is  admirably  adajil- 
ed  tor  the  reproduction  of  oil-paintings,  and  lias_ 
been  successfully  employed  for  the  reproduction  of 
drawings;  but  where  the  work  to  be  copied  has  a 
perfectly  dead  surface  the  slight  gloss  possessed  by 
the  autotype  jirint  is  a  disadvantage.  This  objec- 
tion is  still  greater  in  the  reproduction  of  engrav- 
ings and  etchings ;  and  for  these  the  heliogravure 
process  of  Jlr.  .\mand  Durand.  of  Paris,  is  prefer- 
able. 

AUTUJIX.  the  third  season  of  the  year,  between 
summer  and  winter.  Astronomically,  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere,  it  begins  at  the  autumnal  equinox, 
when  the  sun  enters  Libra,  Sept.  i;2d,  and  ends  at 
the  winter  solstice,  when  the  sun  enters  Caliricorn, 
Dec.  21st;  but  popularly  in  North  America,  the 
months  of  September,  t)ctober  and  November.  In 
Great  Britain  it  comprises  August,  September  and 
October;  while,  according  to  Littrc,  it  extends  in 
France  from  the  end  of  August  to  the  first  fort- 
night of  Xovember.  In  the  southern  hemisphere  it 
corresponds  in  time  to  the  northern  spring. 

AV.\,  Arv.\,  Y.vva,  or  Kava  (Miicriipiper  m<'llii;x- 
llrinii),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  I'iprracr.r,  hav- 
ing narcotic  properties.  L"ntil  recently  it  w.as 
ranked  in  the  genus  I'ijur  (pepper).  It  is  found  in 
many  of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  where  the  people 
intoxicate  themselves  with  a  liquor  produced  from 
its  root.  A  tincture  of  it  is  used  benelicially  in 
chronic  rheumatism.  The  intoxicating  liquor  is 
prepared  by  macerating  it  in  water. 

AV.VDUt.VS.  Hindu'  Bramins.  who  prove  their 
superior  sanctity  by  distorting  their  muscles  and 
limbs  and  subsist  on  alms. 

AVAL.\NCIIES,  masses  of  snow  or  ice  that  roll 
down  the  sides  of  high  mountains.  They  have  dif- 
ferent names  according  to  their  nature.  Drift  or 
powder  avalanches  ISdmh  I.(irhii)))  consist  of  loose, 
dry  snow,  which,  once  set  in  motion  by  llie  wind, 
accumulates  in  its  de.scent  and  linally  conies  into 
the  valleys  in  overwhelming  dust-clouds,  .\nother 
kind  of  avalanche  resembles  a  land-slide.  In  the 
spring,  when  the  snow  begins  to  melt,  the  sod 
underneath  becomes  detached  and  the  snow  and 
sod  go  down  the  mountain  carrying  all  before 
them.  The  greatest  danger  is  from  avalanches 
liassing  over  jirecipices  or  precipitous  walls  of  rock. 
The  very  wind  they  create  often  jirostrates  forests 
and  houses.  Ice  avalanches  consist  of  masses  of 
ice  that  detach  themselves  from  the  glaciers  in  the 
upper  regions  and  are  heard  in  summer  thunder- 
ing down  the  mountains.  They  are  most  common 
in  .luly,  .Vugust  and  September. 

-VVALON,  the  earthly  paradise  of  Celtic  mythol- 
ogy, a  "green  island"  far  to  the  westward,  where 
the  sun-god  seems  to  sink  to  his  rest.  It  was  the 
land  of  the  mystic  fountain,  the  apples  (iiiUiit)\\\\\\ 
their  strange,  maijical  pro|)erties,  and  the  mighty 
smith  who  forged  "  Dure  Entaille  "  for.\rthur.  The 
name  was  ajiplied  in  the  chivalrous  poetry  of  the 
middle  ages  to  the  region  where  the  fairy  >iorgana 
holds  her  court,  and  afterwards  by  rationalizing 
historians  to  the  Isle  of  Saints.  Glastonbury,  on 
the  river  I'.rue.  in  Somersetshire — famous  in 
romantic  British  history  as  an  abfide  of  Druids  and 


Hi 


A  V  A  L  0  N  —  A  V  I  S  0  N 


the  place  to  which  Arthur  was  carried  to  be  healed 
of  his  wounds. 

AVALON,  a  peninsula  forming  the  eastern  part 
of  Newfoundland,  on  which  St.  John's,  the  capital, 
is  situated.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  382. 

AVARI,  an  eastern  tribe  who  made  their  appear- 
ance 100  years  later  than  the  Bulgarians,  in  the 
countries  about  the  Caspian  Sea  and  rivers  Don 
and  Volga.  About  .\.  d.  555,  one  part  of  them 
passed  on  to  the  Danube  and  settled  in  Dacia,  the 
others  remaining  at  Caucasus.  Those  at  Dacia 
served  in  Justinian's  army  and  assisted  the  Lom- 
bards in  overthrowing  the  kingdom  of  the  Gepidse ; 
and,  about  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  under  the 
mighty  Khan  Bajan,  they  conquered  Pannonia,  and 
are  now  confounded  with  the  IJulgarians. 

AVAST,  a  term  used  on  shipboard.  It  is  a  com- 
mand to  stop  or  cease  any  operation  going  forward. 

AVATAR  primarily  signiiies,  in  Sanscrit,  a 
descent,  but  is  particularly  applied  to  a  Hindu 
deity  who  descends  upon  the  earth  in  a  manifest 
shape,  either  for  good  or  for  retributive  ends.  It  is 
thus  almost  synonymous  in  its  signification  with 
the  Christian  term  iiu-anxition.  The  word  is  some- 
times rhetorically  employed  in  English  literature. 
The  avatars  of  Vishnu  are  the  most  famous  in 
Hindu  mythology. 

AVELL.\NEDA,  Gertridis  Gomes  de,  a  Spanish 
poetess,  novelist  and  author  of  successful  plays, 
born  in  Cuba  in  1816,  died  in  Seville  in  1864. 

AVE  MARI.\,  also  Angelic.\  Sah.t.\tio,  or  the 
flngelic  salutation,  are  names  given  to  a  common 
form  of  address  to  the  Virgin  Mary  by  the  Roman 
Catholics.  Are  .Varin  are  the  first  two  words  of  the 
prayer,  in  Latin,  wliich  is  taken  from  the  angel 
Gabriel's  salutation  (Luke  i,  2S).  An  edict  of  Pope 
John  XXII  (i:ai5)  ordains  that  every  Catholic, 
morning,  noon  and  night,  at  the  warning  of  the 
bells,  shall  repeat  three  aves. 

AVENS,  the  popular  name  of  Gcnm,  a  genus  of 
Rnsacfa;  of  which  two  species,  Geum  iirhnmnn,  the 
common  avens,  and  Geum  rivale,  or  water  avens, 
found  throughout  the  temperate  regions,  were 
formerly  used  in  pharmacy,  called  clove-root  and 
herb  bennet  ([Jerbci  bencdieln)  in  old  herbals. 

A  VENTURIXE,  a  vitreous  variety  of  quartz,  gen- 
erally translucent,  and  of  a  gray,  green,  yellow, 
red  or  brown  color.  It  contains  numerous  min,;te 
spangles,  generally  of  mica,  but  sometimes,  accord- 
ing to  some  autlioritios,  tiiey  are  scales  of  metallic 
Copper.  It  is  found  in  Silesia,  Bohemia.  France, 
Spain  and  India,  but  chiefly  in  the  Ural  Mountains, 
near  Kkalcrinliurg.  It  is  used  in  jewelry,  but  is 
not  so  nuicli  valued  as  the  liner  kinds  of  an\ethyst 
or  cairngorm  stone. 

AVEXTURINE  GLASS,  or  Goi.n  Stone,  is  pro- 
duced by  fusing  glass  and  copper  tilings  together. 
It  presents  a  rich,  l>rown  ground  tilled  witli  gold 
specks.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  4S. 

AVERELL,  Wii.iivM  Woods,  American  soldier, 
born  in  (Cameron,  Steuben  county,  X.  V.,  Xov.  5, 
1882.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855,  and 
was  assigned  to  the  mounted  rifieinen.  He  served 
against  the  Kiowa  and  Navajo  Indians  aiul  was 
severely  wounded  during  a  night  attack  in  185!), 
and  was  on  sick  leave  until  tlie  o\itl>reak  of  the 
civil  war.  He  then  became  lieutenai\t  of  the 
mounted  riflemen  and  was  on  stall  duty  near 
Wasliiiigloti,  taking  pari  in  several  eii^agemenls, 
among  Ihem  the  battle  of  liull  Run,  until  Aug.  2o, 
1861,  when  he  was  (iromoted  to  colonel  of  the  Third 
Pennsylvania  cavalry.  He  was  on  duly  almost 
continuously  until  he  resigned  on  May  is,  lK(i5,  after 
he  had  been  brevetted  the  dilTerent  grades  of  his 
regular  army  rank  until  he  was  lirevet  nuijor- 
general.     In  1.S69  he  became  president  of  a  large 


manufacturing  company,  after  serving  three  years 
as  consul-general  of  the  United  States  in  thfe 
British  provinces  of  North  America.  He  has  since 
made  numerous  important  inventions. 

AVERY,  Waitstill,  first  attorney-general  of 
Connecticut  (1777),  and  an  influential  patriot  of 
Revolutionary  times,  born  at  Groton  in  1745,  died 
in  1821. 

AVER  YSBOROUGH,  a  village  of  North  Carolina, 
situated  on  Cape  Fear  River.  It  is  noted  as  the 
scene  of  a  battle,  fought  March  16,  1865,  in  which 
the  Confederates,  under  General  Hardee,  were 
defeated  by  the  Union  troops  under  General  Slier- 
man. 

AVERAGE,  in  maritime  law,  a  rule  was  estab- 
lished by  the  Rhodian  law,  and  has  prevailed  in 
every  maritime  nation,  that  where  a  loss  has  been 
sustained,  or  expense  incurred  for  the  general 
safety  of  the  ship  and  cargo,  a  contribution  should 
be  made  in  proportion  to  their  respective  interests, 
by  the  owners  of  the  ship,  freight  and  goods  on 
board;  or,  in  modern  times,  by  the  insurers  of 
these.  To  this  contribution  the  name  of  tieiieral 
average  is  given.  To  the  loss  of  an  anehoi,  the 
starting  of  a  plank,  or  any  accident  not  involving 
the  common  safety,  parlicidar  average  applies. 
See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  145. 

AVEZZANA,  Giuseppe,  a  commander  of  the 
Roman  army  in  1849.  He  escaped  to  New  York, 
where  he  had  at  one  time  been  engaged  in  business. 
He  was  born  in  1797. 

AVIANUS,  Flavivs,  a  Latin  author  who  lived 
probably  in  the  third  or  fourth  century  of  our  era, 
and  of  whose  writings  forty-two  ^ICsopic  fables  in 
poor  elegiac  verse  are  extant.  The  editions  are 
those  by  Lachmann  (1845)  and  Robinson  Ellis 
(18S7). 

AVIARY,  a  place  for  keeping  birds.  The  arrange- 
ments of  an  aviary  depend  upon  the  habits  of  its 
inmates,  the  climates  suited  to  them,  and  other  cir- 
cumstances. 

AVICENNIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  .1  riceiinesv  or  Mijaporacea-,  an  order  very  nearly 
allied  to  ^'erh(  imcetr,  and  found  almost  exclusively 
in  the  southern  hemisphere.  This  genus  consists 
of  trees  or  large  shrubs.  They  resemble  man- 
groves in  appearance,  and  like  them  grow  in  salt- 
swamps.  Their  creeping  roots  often  curve  aliove 
tlie  mud  for  the  space  of  six  feet  before  penetrating 
it,  and  the  naked  asparagus-like  shoots  which  they 
tlirow  up  have  a  very  singular  appearance.  Arireii- 
Ilia  tdiiietiliisd,  ihe  white  nuingrove  of  ISrazil,  has 
cordate  ovate  leaves.  Its  bark  is  used  in  tanning. 
The  Ariceiiiila  resuii/era  has  a  green  resinous  sul)- 
stance  exuding  from  it  which  is  eaten  by  the  New 
Zealanders.  the  genus  is  named  in  honor  of  the 
Arabian  ))hysician  Avicenna. 

.WIDIUS,  t'Assiis,  governor  of  Syria.  He 
revoltcnl  in  175,  and  assumed  the  title  o{  Emperor. 
He  was  a  general  nndei-  Marcus  Aurelius,  a;id  was 
killed  by  his  own  ollicers,  a.  n.  175. 

A\'I-FAUN.\,  a  collective  term  for  the  birds 
found  in  any  country:  the  fauna  or  zoology  relat- 
ing to  birds. 

AVILES,  a  seaport  of  Spain,  situated  near  the 
bay  of  I'.lscay,  19  nn'les  norlli  of  Oviedo.  'I'hcre  are 
coal  and  copper  nu'nes  in  the  viclnily.  It  has  inan- 
ufaclories  of  earthenware,  glass,  linen,  etc,  I'lqiula- 
tion,8.97u. 

AVIOX.V,  a  fortilied  .Mbaniaii  town  on  ,"in  inlet 
of  the  .\driatie  Sea.     Population,  about  (i.OOO. 

.WISO,  a  dispatch  boat,  a  small  swift  vessel 
beloni;ing  to  llieiuivy;  also  used  of  a  kind  of  tor- 
pedo boat. 

.AN'ISOX,  ('uAHiKs,  a  musical  composer,  born  at 
Newcastle,  England,  about  1710,  and  after  studying 


A  V  I  T  U  S  —  A  X  I  M 


175 


Cl'STABD   APPl.f;. 


in  Italy  became  organist  in  liis  native  town,  where 
he  died  in  1770.  He  wrote  an  ICusa;/  on  Mimical 
Expression  (1752),  and  lie  composed  sets  of  con- 
certos and  sonatas  which  were  very  popular  for  a 
time. 

AVITUS,  St.  Alcimi's  Ecnicis,  an  adversary  of 
Arianism.  He  was  bishop  of  Vienna,  .^.  D.  490.  He 
was  a  writer  of  poetry. 

AVIZ,  or  Avis,  a  Portuguese  order  of  knight- 
hood, of  which  the  king  is  grand  master.  It  was 
instituted  in  1143  by  Alphonso  I,  to  aid  in  the 
defeat  of  the  Moors. 

AVOC.\,  or  Ovnr.\,  a  small  river  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  Wicklow  county  in  Ireland.  It 
runs  through  a  ])ictures(|uc  valley  only  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  wide,  with  wooded  bank  "from  300  to  500 
feet  high.  After  a  course  of  nine  miles  it  flows  into 
the  sea  at  .\rklow. 

AVOCADO  PKAK,  Alligator  Pe.\r.  or  Agua 
Cata,  a  fruit-V)earing  tree  of  the  natural  order 
jAiiiran':c,  a  native  of  the 
warm  climates  of  America. 
It  is  a  slender  tree  with  a 
dome-like  top  and  grows 
from  :-!0  to  70  feet  in 
iieighr.  The  leaves  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  lau- 
■^J  rel.  The  llowers.  which  are 
small  and  arid,  are  pro- 
duced toward  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  branches.  The 
fruit,  which  is  like  a  pear  in  size  and  shape,  is 
usually  of  a  brown  color,  and  has  a  soft  yellow  or 
greenish  pulp.  It  is  not  very  sweet  but  of  a  delicate 
riavor,  which  is  believed  to  proceed  from  a  fixed  oil. 
It  is  highly  esteemed  in  the  West  Indies.  See  Cus- 
tard Apple,  Britannica,  Vol.  VI,  p.  729, 

-•VVOCET,  or  Avoset  (AVr'//V/ro'i(ra),  a  genus  of 
birds  which,  although  having  webbed  feet,  is  gen- 
erally ranked  among  the  (iinlhc,  or  Gmllalores, 
on  account  of  the  length  of  their  legs,  the  half- 
naked  thighs,  the  long,  slender,  elastic  bill,  and  the 
general  agreement  in  habits  with  the  snipe.  They 
are  distinguished  from  other  birds,  except  a  few 
species  of  humming-bird,  by  the  upward  curvature 
of  the  bill,  which  resembles  a  thin  elastic  piece  of 
whalebone,  and  is  most  likely  a  delicate  organ  of 
touch,  adapted  to  seeking  food  in  the  mud,  as  are 
their  webbed  feet  for  walking  on  it,  and  their  long 
legs  for  wading  in  the  marshes  which  they  frequent. 
They  are  birds  of  powerful  wing. 

AVOGADRO,  .\.MAi)Eo,  professor  of  physics,  born 
in  177(),  died  at  Turin  in  ISIjii.  He  formulated  his 
law  as  to  the  Atomic  Theory  in  LSI  1.  Avagadro's 
law  is  of  the  first  importance,  although  its  bearing 
was  not  recognized  until  many  years  after  its  pro- 
mulgation, which  precedes  histoncally  that  of  the 
law  of  Duling  and  Petit.  The  laws  of  Duling,  Petit 
and  Avogadro  constitute  the  main  grounds  for  fix- 
ing the  atomatic  weights  as  at  present  used  by 
chemists. 

AVOIU.XNCE,  in  English  ecclesiastical  law,  the 
term  by  which  the  vacancy  of  a  benefice,  or 
the  fact  of  its  being  void  of  an  incumbent,  is 
signified.  Avoidance  is  opposed  to  plinarli/,  or  full- 
ness. 

AVON,  a  village  of  New  York,  beautifully  situ- 
ated on  a  terrace,  at  an  elevation  of  one  hundred 
feet  above  the  (ienesee  River.  It  is  noted  for  its 
sulphur  spring;;. 

.\V0XI).\1,K.  Onto,  an  incorporated  village  of 
Hamilton  county,  and  a  suburb  of  ("inciniiati,  from 
whose  center  it  is  three  miles  distant.  Avondale 
railroad  station  is  two  miles  from  the  village.  Many 
handsome  houses  are  in  this  place;  also  the  Cincin- 
nati Zoological  Ciardeu. 


AWE  LOCH,  a  lake  in  the  center  of  .\rgyleshire, 
Scotland.  It  is  about  24  miles  long,  and  extends 
in  a  northeast  and  southwest  direction,  with  an 
average  width  of  from  U  to  2'2  miles. 

AWEATHER,  a  term  used  todenote  the  position 
of  the  helm  when  pressed  close  to  the  weather-side 
of  a  ship. 

A  WEIGH,  a  term  applied  to  an  anchor  when  it  is 
just  loosened  from  the  ground.  It  is  nearly  equiv- 
alent to  iilrij). 

AWN  ARI.ST.\,  in  the  flowers  of  grasses,  a  solitary 
pointed  bristle,  growing  either  from  a  glume  or  a 
palea.  The  flowers  of  some  grasses  are  entirely 
awnless.  In  many  the  glumes  alone  are  awned,  or 
only  one  of  them  ;  in  others  the  glumes  are  awnless, 
and  the  pale;e,  or  one  palea,  awned.  The  awn  is 
often  terminal,  and  appears  as  a  prolongation  of 
the  midril  of  the  glume  or  palea;  from  which,  how- 
ever, it  sometimes  separates  lielow  the  point,  and  is 
then  said  to  be  on  the  back  of  it.  or  dormi.  .Some- 
times it  is  jointed  at  the  base,  and  finally  separates 
at  the  joint,  sometimes  it  is  knee-bent  or  geniculate, 
sometimes  it  is  twisted,  and  liable  to  twist  and  un- 
twist hygrometrically  ;  son)etimes  it  is  rough,  or 
even  serrate,  at  the  edges,  as  in  barley ;  sometimes 
it  is  feathery,  as  in  feather-grass  (.S7;>«),  which  also 
is  remarkable  for  the  great  length  of  its  awn. 

AW  YAW,  capital  of  Yoruba  in  Central  Africa. 
Population.  70,000. 

.\X.  the  most  ancient  cutting  instrument.  Made 
in  ancient  times  of  stone,  copper,  lironze,  etc.  Axes 
are  now  made  of  iron  edged  with  steel. 

.AX,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of  Ariege. 
It  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  at  the  junction  of 
three  picturesque  valleys,  74  miles  southeast  of 
Toulouse.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  baths,  and  pos- 
sesses the  hottest  sulphur  s])riiigs  in  the  Pyrenees. 

.\XE,  the  name  of  two  small  fivers  in  the  south- 
west of  England.  One  rises  in  the  Mendip  hills, 
north  of  Somerset ;  runs  first  southwest,  and  then 
northeast,  through  a  carboniferous  limestone,  trias. 
and  diluvial  basin,  past  Wells  and  Axbridge,  into 
the  Bristol  channel.  The  other  rises  in  west  Dor- 
set, and  flows  21  miles  through  east  Devonshire  in 
an  o(ilitic  and  trias  basin,  past  -Ixminster  into  the 
English  channel. 

A.XEL.  or  Absalox  (1128-1201),  Archbishop  of 
Lund,  in  Denmark.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  Co- 
penhagen, and  was  minister  and  general  of  King 
AValdemar  I.  He  promoted  art  and  learning,  and 
encouraged  Saxo  Gramniatieus  to  write  a  history  of 
Denmark. 

AX  ESTOXE,  a  mineral,  generally  regarded  as  a 
variety  ofiiephrite.  It  isof  greenish  color,  is  more  or 
loss  translucent,  hard,  tougli,  and  not  easily  broken. 
It  occurs  in  primitive  rocks,  always  massive,  and  is 
found  in  Saxony,  in  Greenland,  and  in  Xew  Zea- 
land and  other  islands  of  the  Southern  Pacific.  It 
derives  its  name  from  the  use  to  which  it  is  put  by 
the  natives  of  these  islands  for  making  their 
hatchets. 

.\XI.\,  a  monumental  town  of  ancient  Etruria, 
discovered  in  180S. 

.V.XIL  («.ri7/«).  a  term  applied  in  botany  to  the 
angle  between  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf  and  the 
branch  from  which  it  grows.  Buds  generally  grow 
in  the  axils  of  leaves,  but  they  do  not  always  de- 
velop. .-V  bud  nuiy  be  made  "to  appear  in  such  a 
situation,  and  to  form  a  new  shoot,  by  artificial 
tneans,  such  as  cutting  over  the  main  stem,  wound- 
ing it  above  the  place  where  the  new  branch  is  de- 
sired. 

AXIM.  an  important  station  and  port  on  the  Gold 
Coast,  a  little  to  the  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  An- 
cober  River.  Inland  from  .\xini.  in  the  basin  of 
that  river,  and  in  the  district  between  it  and  the 


176 


A  X  I  N  I  T  2  —  A  Y  M"  A  R  A  S 


Prah.  there  is  considerable  gold-mining  carried  on. 
See  Britannica,  Vol.  I,  p.  421 ;  Vol.  X,  p.  755. 

AXINITE,  silicate  of  alumina  with  boracic  acid, 
lime  etc.,  usually  occurring  in  oblique  rhomboidal 
prisms  having  ax-like  edges.  See  Britannica,  Vol. 
XVI,  p.  411. 

AXIXOMAXCY,  an  art  practiced  by  the  ancient 
Greeks,  especially  with  the  object  of  detecting  the 
perpetrators  of  great  crimes.  An  ax  poised  upon 
a  stake  was  supposed  to  move  so  as  to  indicate 
the  guilty  individual ;  or,  the  names  of  those  sus- 
pected being  pronounced,  the  motion  of  the  ax 
at  a  particular  name,  was  accepted  as  a  sign  of 
guilt. 

AXIS,  in  botany,  a  term  applied  to  the  central 
part,  both  above  and  below^  ground,  around  which 
the  plant  is  arranged.  The  root  is  called  the  de- 
scending axis  and  the  branch  the  ascending  axis. 
The  opposite  tendencies  appear  as  soon  as  a  seed 
begins  to  germinate,  the  radicle,  or  root-axis  de- 
scending, and  the  plumule  or  stem-axis  ascend- 
ing toward  the  light  and  air.  That  part  of  the 
stem  around  which  the  flowers  are  arranged  is 
called  the  floral  axis,  and  in  describing  some 
kinds  of  inflorescence  the  terms  primary  floral 
axis,  secondary  floral  axis,  etc.,  are  sometimes 
employed. 

AXIS,  in  geometry.  The  axis  of  a  curved  line  is 
formed  by  a  right  line  dividing  the  curve  into  two 
equal  parts,  so  that  the  part  on  one  side  exactly 
corresponds  with  that  on  the  other — as  in  the  ellipse, 
the  parabola,  and  the  hyperbola.  The  axis  of  any 
geometrical  solid  is  the  right  line  which  passes 
through  the  center  of  all  the  corresponding  sections 
of  it;  in  this  sense  we  speak  of  the  axis  of  a  cylin- 
der, a  globe,  or  a  spheroid.  The  axis  of  rotation  is 
the  right  line  around  which  a  body  revolves.  In 
physical  science  the  axis  of  a  lens  is  the  right  line 
passing  through  it  so  that  it  is  perpendicular  to  both 
sides  of  it,  and  the  axis  of  a  telescope  is  a  right 
line  which  passes  through  the  center  of  all  the 
glasses  in  the  tube. 

AXIS,  a  genus  of  deer,  abundant  on  the  banks  of 
the  Ganges,  but  found  throughout  India  and  in 
many  islands  of  the  Eastern  archipelago.  It  was 
known  to  the  ancients  by  the  name  axis.  One  of 
its  Indian  names  is  chittra,  and  by  British  sports- 
men in  India  it  is  often  called  the  spotted  hog-deer, 
though  that  name  is  also  given  to  a  rarer  species. 
The  axis  has  a  great  resemblance  in  size  and  color- 
ing to  the  European  fallow-deer. 

.WLK,  a  shaft  of  wood  or  bar  of  iron  which  is 
inserted  between  the  wheels  of  a  wagon;  also  the 
center  of  revolving  machinery. 

AXOLOTL.  See  Sikedon,  IJritannica,  Vol.  XXII, 
pp.  !M1.  ilT. 

AVACUCHO,  a  town  in  the  department  of  Aya- 
cucho.in  southern  I'eru.  On  thelUh  of  December,! S24, 
the  last  Spanisli  army  seen  on  the  new  continent 
was  tot  ally  defeated  at  Ayacucho  by  Ihi^  CDMibined 
forces  of  I'eru  and  Colombia — the  latter  then  com- 
prising Ecuador,  New  Granada,  and  Venezuela. 
Population,  -Jo.OOO. 

A  VAii.\,  I'lcnRo  Lopez  de,  called  El  Viejo  to  dis- 
tiiiguirtli  him  from  his  son  of  the  same  name.  He 
was  born  at  Jlurcia  in  1:^;>"J,  and  died  at  (Jalaliorra 
in  141)7.  lie  was  held  in  liigli  esteem  by  several  of 
the  kings  of  Castile.  In  l.'ilw.at  the  batt'leof  N'ajera, 
the  ICnglisli.  then  in  league  with  I'eter  the  (Jruel, 
look  him  [irisoiuT  and  ennlined  hlni  for  sometime 
in  an  Knglisli  dungeon,  lie  was  again,  in  1385, 
taken  prisoi'.er  by  the  Portuguese,  at  the  battle  of 
Aljubariita.  He  was  noted  as  a  statesman  and 
wrilcr,  csiiei'ially  as  a  liistorian  and  poet. 

AVE-.WE  iCliiiriiiiiiis  Miiiliiij{i«riirli'iiKlii),  a  (Uiad- 
ruped   found   In  Jladagascar.     It  is  about  the  size 


>x 


of  tiie  hare,  and  was  at  first  placed  by  natural- 
ists among  squirrels,  and  was  ranked  by  Cuvier 
with  them  in  the  order  of 
rodents,  although  Sonnerat, 
who  discovered  it,  showed  its 
affinity  also  to  the  makis  or 
lemurs,  to  which  family  it  is 
now  pretty  generally  referred. 
See  Britannica,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  ii 
443;  Vol.  XV,  p.  170. 

AYEK,  Peter,  one   of    the  ■'I 
founders  of  the  Shakers,  horns 
at  Canterbury,  X.  II.,  in   17liO, 
died  in  1857.  ave-.ite. 

AYESHAH,  .'VYESH.i.  or  Aish.v,  Mohammed's 
favorite  wife,  born  at  IMedina,  A.  D.  610  or  Gil,  died 
there  about  678.  She  was  only  nine  years  of  age 
when  she  was  married  to  the  Prophet.  Ayeshah 
was  so  tenderly  beloved  by  Mohammed  that  he  was 
wont  to  say  that  she  would  be  the  first  of  his  wives 
to  whom  the  gates  of  Paradise  would  be  opened. 
3Iohammedan  historians  state  that  to  her  charms 
of  beauty  were  added  a  knowledge  of  mathematics, 
rhetoric  and  music.  She  was  accused  of  adultery, 
but  ilohammed  produced  a  revelation  from  heaven 
to  the  effect  that  she  was  innocent,  so  he  punished 
her  accusers,  and  made  it  an  article  of  faith  that 
whoever  should  not  believe  in  her  purity  should  suf- 
fer the  pains  of  hell  forever.  By  request  Mohammed 
in  his  last  illness  was  taken  to  the  house  of  Ayesha, 
and  there  expired  in  her  arms.  After  Moham- 
med's death,  Ayesha  was  active  in  the  plot  which 
deprived  Caliph  Othman  of  his  power  and  life,  and 
was  leader  of  a  force  to  resist  the  accession  of  All. 

AYLOFFE,  Sir  Joseph,  a  celebrated  English 
antiquary,  born  in  the  parish  of  Framfield,  Sussex, 
about  1708,  died  in  1781.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  in  1731,  and  in  the  following 
year  a  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  council  of  this  society  after 
receiving  its  charter  of  incorporation  in  1751,  and 
was  made  vice-president  some  years  after. 

AYMAR,  J.\CQi'Es,  a  professor  of  the  art  of  divi- 
nation, born  in  France  in  1662.  In  1()92  a  murder 
and  robbery  were  committed  in  Lyons,  and  Aymar 
was  called  upon  to  detect  the  perpetrators.  In 
some  manner  he  succeeded  in  discovering  one  of  the 
criminals.  He  was  then  called  upon  to  go  to  Paris 
to  exhibit  his  powers  before  the  Prince  de  Conde, 
hut,  utterly  failing  in  his  attempts,  he  was  forced 
to  confess  himself  an  impostor,  and  was  sent  back 
in  disgrace. 

AYMAK.^S,  a  race  of  partially  civilized  South 
American  Indians,  closely  related  to  the  Quichuas 
or  Inca  jieople,  whom  they  rescMnble  in  appearance 
and  somewhat  in  language.  The  two  races  formed 
the  chief  populat inn  of  the  ancient  Peruvian  empire, 
the  .\ymaras  inhaliiliug  the  I'l'iiile  valleys  of  the 
.Vndes.  Tliey  were  skillful  in  architecture,  many  of 
their  monuments  st  ill  reniainini;.  Thi\v  werealso  ex- 
pert workers  in  gold  and  silver.  .\.s  Sun-worshipers 
they  claimed  Lake  Titicaca  as  the  ancient  center  of 
their  religion,  believing  that  the  orb  periodically 
disappeared,  and  that,  after  an  interval  of  dark- 
ness, it  again  emerged  from  the  Sacred  Isle  of  that 
lake.  .\t  the  present  lime  the  .Vymaras  nunilier 
about  200,0(10,  loi'aled  in  lh(>  iimviiioes  of  La  Paz 
and  Oriiro  in  I'.nlivia  and  in  the  Peruvian  province 
of  Puno.  They  are  small  of  stature,  have  brown 
complexion,  regular  and  si  rougly-nuirked  features, 
and  straight  black  hair.  Tliey  are  now  zealous 
IJoman  Catholics,  though  still  retaining  certain 
li(>athen  observances.  They  cherish  tlii»  nu>niory 
of  their  ancient  empire  and  ho|ie  for  future  inde- 
jiendence.  In  1780,  together  with  the  other  Peru- 
vian Indians,  they  revolted  and  massacred  thousands 


A  Y  M  E  S  T  R  Y  T.  I  M  E  S  T  O  X  E  —  A  Z  I  M  U  T  II 


177 


i: 


of  the  Spaniards,  and  during  the  war  of  the 
provinces  for  independence  they  opposed  both 
parties  and  gave  much  trouble.  See  Uritannioa, 
Vol.  IV,  p.  15;  Vol.  XVIII,  p.  tj76;  Vol.  XX,  p.  3ii4. 

AYMESVKY  LIMESTOXE,  a  well-marked  hori- 
zon in  the  Ludlow  group  of  the  Silurian  system.  It 
is  a  somewhat  dark-gray  concretionary  rock,  con- 
sisting of  thin  beds  which  attain  a  united  thickness 
in  places  of  150  feet.  It  is  well  developed  at  Aynies- 
try,  in  Herefordshire,  near  Leominster,  Init  thins 
off  entirely  at  no  great  distance  from  that  place. 
One  of  its  most  characteristic  fossils  is  Ptutanierus 
Knightii,  a  brachiopod.  See  Brilannica,  Vol.  X,  p. 
336. 

AYMOX,  the  surname  of  four  brothers,  called  re- 
spectively Alard,  Kichard,  Guiscard,  and  Kenaud. 
They  were  sons  of  Aymon.  or  Ilaimon,  Count  of 
Dordogne,  and  were  conspicuous  among  the  most 
illustrious  heroes  of  the  chivalric  poetry  of  the 
Middle  Ages. 

AYORA,  a  town  of  the  province  of  Valencia,  in 
Spain.     Population,  5.412. 

AYRES,  D.txiEi.,  M.  I).,  LL.  D.,  an  American  sur- 
geon and  ))hiIanthropist.  Entered  Wesleyan  Col- 
lege in  IS.SS,  and  after  three  years  of  study  went  to 
Princeton  to  spend  a  year  in  scientific  work  under 
Prof.  John  Henry.  Three  years  later  he  began  the 
practice  of  medicine  in  Brooklyn,  and  quickly  be- 
came successful.  His  worthy  professional  services 
brought  him  membership  in  several  foreign  medical 
societies.  Wesleyan  University  conferred  the  de- 
ree  of  Doctor  of  Laws  upon  him  in  lS.5t>.  In  1S57 
e  became  Professor  of  Sursery  in  the  Long  Island 
Medical  College,  filling  this  chair  until  1875, 
when  he  was  made  Professor  Emeritus.  He  has 
taken  great  interest  in  scientific  study,  and  in  the 
summer  of  1889  gave  ^-5,000  in  money  and  land  of 
equal  value  for  the  endowment  of  the  chair  of  bi- 
ology at  Wesleyan.  At  the  semi-annual  meeting 
of  trie  trustees  of  Wesleyan  University,  held  Dec. 
13,  18S!I,  Dr.  Ayres  presented  to  the  board  cash 
and  approved  securities  to  the  amount  of  a  <|uarter 
of  a  million  dollars,  accompanying  the  gift  with  no 
restrictions,  save  that  the  money  be  devoted  to  the 
promotion  of  scientific  study  in  the  University. 
This  magnificent  and  unsolicited  donation  will 
promote  in  every  line  the  scientific  work  of  a 
college  which  was  among  the  first  American  institu- 
tions to  recognize  the  importance  of  natural  science 
in  the  scheme  of  liberal  education. 

AYRES,  Ko.MEvx  B.  (1825-1888),  American  sol- 
dier, born  in  Montgomery  countv,Xew  York,  Dec. 
20,  182.5.  Attended  the  U.  S.  Military  Acidemy  at 
West  Point,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1S47,  and 
as  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  the  Fourth  .Vrtillery 
served  during  the  linal  operations  of  the  war  with 
Mexico.  From  the  close  of  the  Mexican  war  until 
the  opening  of  the  civil  war  he  was  engaged  in 
garrison  duty,  first  as  second  lieutenant  and  later 
as  first  lieutenant  of  the  Tiiird  .Vrtillery.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  hostilities  in  istil  he  was  promoted 
to  a  captaincy  in  the  Fifth  .\rtinery,  and  was  en- 
gaged at  P'ackbiirn's  Ford,  July  18,  and  three  days 
afterward  at  Bull  Run.  He  became  chief  of  artil- 
lery and  i>articipated  in  the  Peninsular  and  Mary- 
land cami)aigns.  At  Chancellorsville  he  com- 
manded a  brigade  in  the  Fifth  Corps,  and  at 
Gettysburg  and  afterward  throughout  the  war  a 
division  of  the  same  corps.  He  was  brevetted 
major  for  his  gallantry  at  Gettysburg,  lieutenant- 
colonel  for  the  Wilderness  c.impaign,  colonel  for 
the  battle  on  the  Weldon  Railroad,  brigadier-sjen- 
eral  for  Five  Forks,  and  major-general  fcir  gallant 
and  meritorious  services  in  tl:e  field  during  the  war. 
After  the  war  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel 
of  the  T-'onty-eighth  Infantry,  but  was  transfeiTe,'. 


to  the  Third  .\rtillery  in  1.S70,  and  became  colonel 
of  the  Second  in  187^.  He  died  at  Fort  Hamilton, 
Dec.  4,  188S,  and  was  buried  with  military  honors 
in  Arlington  Cemeterj'. 

AYUNT.\MIENT(!),  the  name  given  in  .'Spain  to 
the  councils  or  governing  bodies  of  towns.  The 
ayuntaniiento,  with  the  alcalde  as  president,  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  free  choice  of  the  people,  and  is 
entitled  to  exercise  the  highest  functions  within 
the  circle  of  its  jurisdiction.  The  government  can 
provisii>nally  annul  its  acts,  but  must  afterwards 
procure  the  ratification  of  the  cortes,  by  which  alone 
an  ayuntaniiento  can  be  dissolved.  The  ayunta- 
mientos  are  empowered  to  make  up  the  lists  of 
electors  and  jurors,  to  organize  the  national  guards, 
to  command  the  police  within  their  own  bounds,  to 
direct  the  apportionment  and  raising  of  taxes,  and 
to  manage  the  funds  of  the  coimiume. 

AZADIRIXE,  occurring  in  the  .l/»'/)Vi  Aredararh  of 
the  East  Indies — a  tree  popularly  known  as  the 
"  Pride  of  China  " — is  a  bitter  principle,  sometimes 
used  as  a  sulistitute  for  quinine. 

AZALEA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  nat- 
ural order  Kricacew,  and  distinguished  from  Jxlimlo- 
dinidnjti  by  the  flowers  liaving  five  stamens  instead 
of  ten,  and  some  of  them  having  thin  deciduous 
leaves.  Some  botanists  unite  the  genus  Aznh'u  to 
Rhododendron.  The  most  noticeable  of  the  species 
\s  Azalea  jmntica.  a  shrub  native  to  the  countries 
around  the  Black  Sea.  It  grows  from  three  to  five 
fe^'t  high,  has  large  ol)ovate  or  oblong  oblanceolate 
shining  leaves,  and  very  fragrant  umbellate  yellow 
flowers,  which  are  covered  externally  with  glutinous 
hairy  glands. 

AZAMtJARH,  or  Azim's  Fort,  a  town  in  the 
northwest  of  India,  situated  on  the  river  Tons,8l 
miles  north  o^Benares.  It  was  founded  in  lOiiS  by 
Azani  Khan,  a  large  landholder  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. Poi)ulation  of  town,  10,000,  of  whom  about 
10,000  are  Hindus,  the  rest  Mohammedans.  The  dis- 
trict of  Azamgarh  in  the  Benares  division  is  low  and 
remarkably  level.  The  soil  is  fertile,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  tracts,  amounting  to  about  one-fourth  of 
the  whole,  which  are  irreclaimably  barren,  from 
being  impregnated  with  a  saline  substances.  Mag- 
nificent crops  of  sugar-cane,  rice  and  indigo  are 
produced.  Area  of  district,  2,147  square  miles ;  pop- 
ulation, 1,(504,054. 

AZ.\XI,a  city  in  Asia  Minor,  where  are  still  seen 
the  ruins  of  a  theater  and  an  Ionic  temple  of 
Jupiter. 

AZ.VRI.VH,  a  name  often  occurring  in  the  Script- 
ures; the  King  of  Judah,  809  b.  c. ;  one  of  Daniel's 
three  friends,  005  b.  r. 

AZAZEL,  a  name  occurring  in  Leviticus  xvl,  in 
the  account  of  the  rites  of  I  he  Day  of  Atonement, 
explained  liy  some  as  the  "scapegoat"  which  was 
let  out  into  the  Wilderness  laden  with  the  sins  of 
the  people;  by  others,  as  a  designation  of  the  being 
to  whom  the' goat  was  sent — Satan,  according  to 
Hengstenberg,  or  a  demon  of  the  pre-Mosaic  relig- 
ion, according  to  Ewald. 

AZELAIC  .\CID  is  formed  by  oxidizing  oleac 
by  nitric  acid. 

AZI.MUTII.  The  azimuth  of  a  heavenly  body  is 
the  angle  measured  along  the  horizon  between  the 
nortli  and  south  point  and  a  |)oint  where  a  circle, 
passing  through  the  zenith  and  the  bcidy,  cuts  the 
Imrizun.  The  azimuth  compass,  similar  to  the 
mariner's  compass,  but  more  accurate,  is  used  to 
take  the  magnetic  azimuth  of  celestial  bodies  in 
ord(>r  to  find  the  variation  of  the  needle  by  a  com- 
parison with  the  true  azimuth.  It  differs  from  the 
common  sea  compass  in  that  the  circmnference  of 
the  card,  or  box,  is  divided  into  degrees;  also  tc 
the  box  is  fitted  an  index  with  two  sights,  which 


178 


AZINCOURT— AZURITE 


are  upright  pieces  of  brass  placed  diametrically  op- 
posite to  each  other,  having  a  slit  down  the  middle 
of  them,  through 
which  the  sun  or  a 
star  is  to  be  viewed 
at  the  time  of  obser- 
vation. 

AZINCOURT,  o  r 
Agin'court  (ah-zhan- 
koor;,  a  village  of 
France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Pas-de- 
Calais.  In  1415  a 
great  battle  was 
fought  at  Agincourt 
between  the  French 
and  the  English. 

AZOBENZOLE,  a 
crystalline  substance  .„„         .     .  v» 

li     ■         ■,      .  ,1J-,U      AZIMUTH  COMPASS.— a.   0.    Sights. 

obtained    in   reddish 

yellow  scales  by  the  action  of  reducing  agents  upon 

nitrobenzole. 

AZOBENZOYL,  a  white  crystalline  substance 
produced  in  the  form  of  a  powder,  by  the  action  of 
ammonia  on  crude  oil  of  bitter  almonds. 

AZOIC,  a  term  applied  in  geology  to  rocks  which 
contain  no  fossils.  By  those  who  deny  the  organic 
origin  of  Eozoiin,  the  archsean  crystalline  schists 
(which  underlie  the  oldest  fossiliferous  strata)  form 
the  azoic  system. 

.aZOTE  (Gr.,  a,  depriver  of,  and  zne,  life),  the 
name  given  to  nitrogen  by  French  chemists. 

AZOTIZED  BODIES,  those  substances  which 
contain  azote,  or  nitrogen,  as  one  of  their  constitu- 
ents, and  which  form  part  of  the  living  structure  of 
a  plant  or  animal,  or  are  produced  during  the 
natural  decay.  The  principal  members  of  the  group 
are  alhvmni,  present  in  white  of  eggs,  and  the 
juices  of  plants  and  animals;  glohidine,  or crystaUine, 
a  variety  of  albumen  found  in  the  lens  of  the  eye; 
vitelline,  another  variety  of  albumen  composing  the 
greater  bulk  of  the  yolk  of  the  egg;  pamlhumen,  a 
third  variety  of  albumen  found  in  the  animal  sys- 
tem during  certain  diseases;  fibrine,  whicli  occurs 
largely  in  the  seeds  of  cereals  and  in  animal  mus- 
cle ;  caseine  (or  cheese  matter),  present  in  all  milk ; 
legumine,  a  variety  of  caseine  found  in  peas,  beans, 
and  leguminous  seeds  in  general;  gelatine,  which  is 
present  in  the  skin,  bones,  and  other  parts  of  ani- 
mals; cfiomlrine,  a  variety  of  gelatine  obtainable 
from  the  cornea  of  the  eye  and  the  permanent  car- 
tilages; isinglass,  a.uot\\eT  variety  of  gelatine  manu- 
factured from  the  inner  membrane  of  the  floating 
bladder  of  sturgeons  and  other  fishes;  glue a.nd  size, 
which  are  secondary  forms  of  gelatine ;  vrea,  uric 
acid  and  hippnrie  acid,  which  are  present  in  the 
urine  of  the  higher  animals ;  A:/v'a/j»e  and  kreatinine, 
occurring  in  the  juice  of  flesh  ;  several  forms  of 
ui-inari/  caleiili,  wliicli  are  found  as  stone  in  the 
bladder  and  a  very  large  and  important  class  of 
alkaloids,  including  strychni.ie,  morphine,  quinine, 
etc. 

AZOXYBENZOLR,  needles  of  a  beautiful  yellow 
color,  produced  from  an  alcoholic  solution  of  nitro- 
benzole by  the  action  of  potassic  hydrate. 

AZRAEf.,  in  Moslem  mythology,  with  Gabriel, 
Michael  and  Israfel,  the  group  of  the  four  higliest 
angelic  beings  who  surrounded  the  throne  of  (iod. 
Caili'd  tlie  "  Angel  of  Death,"  it  is  he  who  separates 
the  soul  from  the  body.  He  is  sent  by  Allah,  and 
executes  his  cfminiissions.  No  idea  of  degradation 
is  attached  to  him  in  the  Moslem  mind.  He  seems 
rather  to  have  been  identified  with  Fate  without 
any  special  malignity  inlierent  in  his  nature. 

AZTEC  CHILUItfiN,  a  boy  and  girl  of  diminu- 
tive size,  aged  resjiectively  17  an;    11  years,  repre- 


sented by  showmen  as  decendants  of  the  ancient 
Aztecs,  but  now  considered  as  mere  dwarfs.  The 
height  of  each  was  less  than  three  feet. 

AZTECS,  the  name  of  the  people  who  inhabited 
the  Mexican  table-land  at  the  time  of  the  conquest 
of  Mexico  by  Cortes,  and  with  whom  his  name  is 
indissolubly  associated.  By  their  own  annals  they 
came  originally  from  Aztlan  to  Mexico,  driving  out 
the  Toltecs,  and  founding  the  City  of  Mexico  about 
121(5-1325,  the  ascribed  dates  varying.  The  Aztecs 
soon  became  the  most  aggressive  and  important 
nation  of  Mexico.  Though  they  were  essentially  a 
fighting  race,  subduing  all  the  surrounding  nations, 
they  seem  to  have  made  no  little  progress  in  the 
peaceful  arts,  many  of  which  they  learned  from  the 
Toltecs.  Prescott  says  that  at  the  opening  of  the  16th 
century  the  Aztec  dominion  stretched  across  the 
continent  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic.  The  form 
of  government  was  that  of  an  "  elective  monarchy," 
the  king  being  chosen  by  a  species  of  suffrage,  and 
each  successive  ruler  was  either  a  brother  or  a 
nephew  of  his  predecessor,  so  that  royalty  was  con- 
lined  to  a  single  line  of  descent  and  was  always  in 
the  same  family.  The  religion  of  the  Aztecs  was  a 
gross  polytheism,  and  frequent  human  sacritices 
were  made,  as  many  as  20,000  annually  being  slain. 
They  were  ignorant  of  the  art  of  writing,  so  their 
laws  and  public  announcements,  other  than  oral 
communications,  were  promulgated  by  means  of 
picture-writing.  They  possessed  a  wonderful  knowl- 
edge of  astronomy,  understood  the  theory  of  the 
seasons,  predicted  eclipses,  set  their  time  by  the 
movements  of  the  planetary  bodies,  measured  the 
hours  of  the  day  precisely,  and  calculated  the  exact 
length  of  the  tropical  year.  Agriculture  was  the 
chief  industry,  the  staple  crops  being  maize  and 
the  agave,  or  INIexican  aloe,  which  supplied  them 
with  food,  drink  and  raiment.  Though  unac- 
quainted with  the  uses  of  iron,  they  discovered  an 
admirable  substitute  in  a  metal  or  alloy  resembling 
bronze,  but  of  exquisite  hardness  and  temper,  of 
which  they  formed  their  tools  and  implements  of 
warfare  and  the  chase.  They  were  also  clever 
workers  in  gold  and  silver.  The  vandal  Spanish 
priests  destroyed  nearly  all  the  manuscripts  of 
picture-writing  whicli  they  found,  on  the  plea  that 
they  were  idolatrous,  and  no  key  to  their  hiero- 
glyphics has  ever  been  found.  The  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  Prescott's  Spanish  Conijiiest  of  America  for 
a  fuller  account  of  this  most  interesting  people. 
See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  172;  also  Mexico,  Vol. 
XVI. 

AZUA,  a  town  of  San  Domingo.  Population, 
6,000. 

AZUAGA,  a  town  of  Estremadura,  Spain.  Popu- 
lation, (5,400. 

AZULINE,  a  blue  dye  made  from  coal  tar. 

AZULINIC  ACID,  a  brown-colored  acid,  pro- 
duced by  the  spontaneous  decomposition  of  Prussio 
acid. 

AZUKE,  a  French  word  teclmically  used  in  her- 
aldry to  signify  blue.  It  is  always  represented  by 
horizontal  lines  in  engraving  coats  of  arms. 

AZL'KINK  {Lenciscus  arnilens),  a  t'resh-wat;-T 
fish  of  the  same  genus  with  the  chub,  roach,  etc., 
and  similar  to  the  riidd  or  red-eye  {L.  erplhniph- 
tliiiliniis),  from  which,  however,  it  is  easily  dis- 
tinguished l)y  its  slate-blue  colored  back  a:id  white 
abdoTiii'ii  and  tins. 

AZllilTI';,  a  name  given  to  the  mineral  com- 
monly called  lazulite,  and  to  wliicli  belong  lapis- 
lazuli,  or  a:nre-stone,  mineral  turquoise,  etc.  It  is 
sometimes  called  by  the  generic  name  azure  spar. 
Mineralogists  give  ifhe  name  azurite  to  an  ore  of 
copper,  generally  known  as  blue  copper,  close!; 
allied  to  malachite. 


179 


B 


BABA-HAIUNGTON 


r.ABA,  a  Turkish  word  signifying  fnlhtr,  origi- 
njiling.  like  our  word  /iniui,  in  the  lirst  efforts  of  cliil- 
dreii  to  speak.  In  I'ersia  and  Turkey,  it  is  prefixed 
as  a  title  of  honor  to  the  names  of  ecclesiastics  of 
disi  iiiotion. 

UABA,  a  legendary  being  known  among  the 
ancient  81avs  as  the  thunder-witcli,  and  supposed 
to  be  the  devil's  grandmother.  She  was  repre- 
sented as  a  vicious  little  old  woman,  having 
knotted  hair,  a  very  large  nose  and  sharp,  protrud- 
ing teeth,  and  being  borne  swiftly  through  tlie 
clouds  in  an  iron  mortar.  The  modern  Czechs  call 
her  the  Iron  or  the  tiolilen  Baba. 

BABA  CABE,  a  bold,  rocky  headland  near  tlie 
western  extremity  of  Anatolia,  the  (I.,ectum  of  the 
Greeks,)  in  hit.  89°  29'  N.,  long.  24°  tj'  E.,  about  12 
miles  from  the  northern  extremity  of  Mitylene,  tho 
ancient  Lesbos. 

BABAIIOYO  (sometimes  called  Bodegas),  a 
small  town  in  Ecuador,  South  America,  situated  on 
the  Guayas  River.  In  warehouses  here  are  stored 
goods  whicli  have  been  sent  from  Guayaquil,  and  are 
to  be  carried  into  the  interior.  The  place  is  fa- 
mous as  a  depot  for  this  carrying  trade. 

BABBITT,  Edwi.v  B.,  soldier,  born  in  Connecticut, 
about  1802,  died  at  Fortress  Monroe  in  1881.  He  grad- 
uated from  West  Point  in  1826,  and  served  in  the 
Florida  and  Mexican  wars.  Brevetted  major  May  MO, 
1848.  and  brigadier-general  in  18(io.  He  served  in  the 
departments  of  Oregon  and  the  Pacific  until  his  re- 
tirement in  186(j,  as  chief  quartermaster,  and  as 
chief  quartermaster  of  the  department  of  fhe  Co- 
lumbia, 1866-67,  notwithstanding  his  retirement. 
He  had  charge  of  the  clothing  depot  of  the  divisicai 
of  the  Pacific,  1866-69. 

BABBITT,  Is.\.\c,  inventor,  born  in  Taunton, 
Mass.,  in  1799.  died  in  1802.  Being  a  goldsmith,  his 
attention  was  turned  to  alloys, and  he  produced  the 
first  Britannia-ware  made  in  America.  His  name 
is  best  known,  however,  from  his  invention,  "Bab- 
bitt metal,"  a  soft  alloy  prepared  from  copper,  tin 
and  zinc,  and  used  in  bearings  to  diminish  fric- 
tion. The  invention  was  patented  in  England 
and  in  Russia,  and  Congress  awarded  the  inventor 

f2o,ntiO. 

BABCOCK,  Ch-vri.es  A.,  naval  officer,  born  In 
New  York  in  18.'i.'J,dieil  in  New  Grle;uis  in  1876.  He 
was  appointed  midshipman  in  18.j(l,  passed-midshi])- 
man  in  1856,  lieutenant  in  1859,  lieutenant  com- 
mander in  1S()2  on  the  .!/<»■.«•, .of  the  North  At- 
lantic blockading  squadron.  In  i8(>4  he  was  fleet- 
captain  of  the  Mississiiipi  S(iuadron,  and  later 
commanded  the  yyack,  of  the  South  Pacific 
squadron. 

BABCOCK,  Henry  (1736-lSOO).  a  son  of  Chief 
.Justice  Babcock,  of  Bhode  Island.  He  graduated 
at  Yale,  entered  tho  army,  and  at  eigliteen  year*  of 
age  had  become  jjcaptain,  and  served  under  Colonel 
Williams  at  Lake  George.  In  175S  he  was  colonel 
of  a  Khode  Island  regiment,  and  in  the  attempt  to 
capture  Ticonderoga  he  was  wounded  in  the  knee. 
In  1776  he  was  made  commander  of  the  troops  at 
Newport,  K.  I.,  but,  becoming  insane,  he  was  re- 
moved. "^ 

B.\BCOCK,  J.vMKS  F.,  journalist  and- politician, 
born  in  Connecticut  in  1.809,  died  in  New  Haven  in 
1874.  For  thirty-one  years  he  edited  the  "Palladium." 
He  was  collector  of  the  Dort  of  New  Haven  under 


Presidents  Lincoln  and  Johnson,  and  was  elected 
by  the  Democrats  in  1873  to  the  State  legislature, 
and  hy  that  body  was  made  judge  of  the  police 
court  in  1874. 

B.\BC0(;K,  Jamk.s  FK.t.sxrs,  bo.rn  in  Boston, 
Mass.fin  1844.  He  was  professor  of  chemistry  in 
Boston  University  for  five  years,  and  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts College  of  Pharmacy.  For  ten  years  he 
was  State  assayer  of  liquors.  He  invented  a  fire- 
extinguisher  that  has  come  into  general  use. 

B.VBCOCK,  Ouvii.LE  E.,  born  in  Vermont  in  1835, 
and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1S6I.  He  was  at  the 
surrender  of  Vicksburg,  at  the  battle  of  Blue  Lick 
Springs,  and  at  the  siege  of  Knoxville.  Promoted 
from  captain  of  engineers  to  lieuten;uit-c6lonel,  he 
was  placed  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Grant,  and  subse- 
quently served  with  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  At 
the  close  of  the  war  he  was  brevetted  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers,  and  then  colonel  in  the  regu- 
lar army,  still  .serving  on  the  staff  of  the  General 
of  the  Army.  \\'hen  Gen.  Grant  became  pnjsident 
(,'i)l.  Babcock  was  assigned  to  duty  with  him  and 
was  his  secretary.  As  superintending  engineer  of 
public  buildings  and  grounds  he  supervised  the 
construction  of  Anacosta  bridge,  the  Washington 
aijueduct,  the  chain  bridge  across  the  Potomac, 
and  other  prominent  works.  Being  accused  of 
complicity  in  revenue  frauds  and  indii^ted  bv  the 
grand  jury  of  St.  Louis  in  1876,  he  was  tiietl  and 
acquitted  by  a  civil  court.     He  died  in  1884. 

B-\BCOCk,  KiFUB,  prominent  Baplist  clergy- 
man and  author,  born  in  Connecticut  in  17U8, diedin 
Maasachusetts  in  1875.  He  was  tutor  In  Columbia. 
College,  presidenl  of  Waterville  College,  three  times 
elected  corresponding  secret  ary  of  t  he  American  and 
Foreign  Bilile  Society,  corresponding  searelarv  of 
the  .Sunday-School  Union  of  Pliiladelpllia,  andof  the 
American  Cohiniziition  Society,  and  district  si'ore- 
tary  of  tlio  Baptist  Publication  Society,  Philadel- 
phia.    He  (lid  much  pastoral  and  literary  work. 

BAIUNET,  .I.»(()i'KS,  ;i  (lisl  inguished  French  nat- 
ural philosoplier,  born  al  Lusignan  in  1"'H,  died  in 
1872.  After  fhe  downfall  of  Napoleon  l:e  was  suc- 
cessively professor  of  nial hematics  at  Fonlenay; 
professor  of  physics  at  Poitiers,  and  afterwards  at 
Paris.  He  invented  and  perfected  a  great  number 
of  scientific  instruiOLiits,  and  was  the  author  of 
many  memoirs  on  various  branches  of  [ihysical 
science.  His  labors  for  the  proniotioti  of  science 
were  largely  in  the  direction  of  metearology,  to 
whicli  science  he  is  said  to  Imve  given  its  name. 

BABINGTON,  A.stony  (1.561-I586),  born  in  Der- 
byshire  in  1561,  of  a  Konian  Catholic  family,  ex- 
poused  the  cause  of  tht>  imprisoned  Queen  Mary 
of  Scotland,  and  put  liiinself  at  the  head  of  a  con- 
spiracy for  her  release  and  fhe  murder  of  (^ueen 
Elizabeth.  The  plot  was  discovered  and  the  four- 
teen conspirators  were  executed.  Baliington's 
execution  took  place  on  Sept.  20,  1586.  There  is 
some  ground  for  believing  the  plot  to  have  been 
fostered  by  Walslngham,  Queen  Elizabeth's  secre- 
tary of  state,  to  incriminate  Mary,  who  was  exe- 
cuted four  months  later.  To  fhe  last  she  denied 
all  knowledge  of  the  letters  supposed  to  have  been 
written  by  her,  oinsHnling  to  the  scheme. 

B.\  lilNGTON,  CiiiKiiiiLi.,  an  English  author 
and  divine,  born  in  1821.  He  was  educated  at- 
Canibridge.  and  in  1865  became  Iiisney  professor  at 


ISO 


r.  A  B  1  R  0  U  S  S  A  —  D  A  C  H  E 


arch;eology ;  and  in  the  following  year  he  published 
the  first  of  a  long  series  of  valuable  works  in  that 
science.  He  has  also  written  a  number  of  excellent 
works  on  philology  and  kindred  subjects. 

BABIROUSSA  {Sii.i  habirusfa),  a.  species  of  hog, 
a  native  of  the  Celebes  and  of  the  smaller  islands 
of  Malaysia.    It  is  regarded  by  zo- 
'"'      ologists    as   a   distinct   geuus.     The 
canine  teeth  of  the  male  are  power- 
fully developed,  growing  irom  per- 
(rj-'^f^^Af  sistent  pulps;  the  upper  ones, which 
liti^-i'"?  '"'''  o''  '''■  monstrous  size,  curving  up- 
wards, bearing  strong  resemblance 
to  liorns,  for  which  reason  thf  ani- 

B.\Eip.orssA.  Dial  has  been  styled  the  horned  or 
deer-hog.  It  is  a  good  swimmer,  and  is  generally 
more  agile  than  the  common  hog.  It  often  ravages 
maize  fields,  but  it  prefers  the  dense,  marshy  re- 
treats of  the  forest.  There  are  several  species  of 
this  hog,  among  them  the  wart-hog  and  the  wild  boar. 

BABISTS,  a  religious  and  political  sect  founded 
by  Seyd  Mohammed  .Vli  in  Persia,  about  the  year 
1843.  The  originator  pretended  to  be  a  descend- 
ant of  Mohammed,  and  took  the  name  of  Bab 
(i.e.  "the  point,"  or  the  originator  of  truth),  his 
object  being  a  reformation  of  the  Mohammedan 
religion.  He  taught  liigh  morality,  forbade  polyg- 
amy and  concubinage,  encouraged  benevolence, 
and  recognized  the  equality  of  the  sexes.  The  Bab 
and  many  of  his  followers  suffered  martyrdom,  but 
the  sect  now  numbers  several  million  adherents. 

BABLAH,  or  Ned-xeb,  a  name  given  to  the  pods 
which  grow  on  several  species  of  Acacia,  in  Senegal 
and  the  east,  and  are  used  for  calico-printing  and 
dyeing  drat).     See  Britaniiica,  ^'ol.  I,  p.  OS. 

BABUYANES  181. A^TiJS,  a  group  of  small  vol- 
canic islands  in  the  Pacific,  which  belong  to  Spain; 
they  are  situated  betwe('n  Formosa  and  Luzon 
Islands ;  they  are  very  fertile  and  largely  pro- 
ductive of  sulphur;  the  chief  islands  of  the  group 
are  Calayan  and  Babuyan. 

BABY,  Fk.\.n(,oi.s,  Canadian  engineer,  member  of 
the  executive  and  legislative  council  and  adjutant 
for  the  province  of  Quebec.  By  building  wharves, 
altering  the  light-house  system,  and  introducing 
steam  tugs  on  the  lower  St.  Lawrence  he  did  much 
toward  improving  its  navigation.     He  died  in  ]8(j4. 

J-;.M!Y,  Louis  Fit.vNrois  (ikorge,  Canadian  states- 
man, liorn  in  Montreal  in  1884.  He  represented 
.loliette  in  the  Canadian  parliament  in  1872,  1874 
and  also  iti  1878,  in  which  year  lie  became  a  mem1)er 
of  the  l)rivy  council  as  minister  of  inland  revenue. 

BABYL.VS,  S.UNT,  the  martyred  bishop  of  An- 
tioeh,  who  suffered  deal  h  .\.  n.  2ijO. 

]!.\f}YLON,  name  of  a  village  and  township  of 
Suffolk  county,  New  \'nrk.  The  village,  which  i ; 
situatc'd  on  the  south  shore  of  fjong  Island- is  the 
southeastern  terminus  of  the  Central  Kallroad  of 
Long  Island,  and  is  '.'onnected  i)y  ferry  with  Fire 
Island.  It  has  a  Iicalthfid  climate  and  is  a  pleasant 
summer  resort. 

BA1JYL(JNIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  See  Britannica, 
Vol.  1 1 1,  PI).  bS3-()l.  S(^e  also  under  I.ssckii'tio.ns,  Vol. 
XIM,  114;  Xi'MisMATics,  Vol.  XVII.  ()50;  Pottehy. 
Vol.  XIX,Cu4.  The  exploration  of  historic  sites,  of 
which  Layardw.as  the  phmeer,  Is  still  being  prose- 
cuted with  undiminished  ardor  In  the  same  j)art  of 
[he  world.  The  recent  progress  of  Assyrlology  tabu- 
lates the  results  of  discoveries  and  excavallons, 
and  records  purchases  of  aniiiiuillcs  In  such  num- 
bers as  to  have  formed  the  staple  of  many  auction 
sales.  One  of  these  sales  wiis  of  a  collection  of  clay 
tablets  found  In  the  ruins  of  Slp|);ira,  most  of  whicli 
dated  from  the  early  period  of  tlie  lii-^l  I'.abylonlau 
empire.  Cotisisting  largely  of  business  contracts, 
t'l'-y  attest  the  liiislness  activity  of  the  rising  em- 


pire. A  marriage  contract  was  of  special  signifi- 
cance, as  being  unique  among  the  documents  ot 
this  epoch.  Amoiig  the  tablets,  one  was  the  sum- 
ming up  and  judgment  in  a  lawsuit  oi  the  thir- 
teenth year  of  Nabonidus.  3Iany  of  these  tablets 
were  astronomical.  Among  other  results  of  tlie 
most  recent  activity  in  this  direction  is  the  Issue, 
by  the  Koyal  Museum  of  Berlin,  of  a  classliled  cata- 
logue of  oriental  antiquities  contained  in  the  Baby- 
lonian and  Assyrian  sections.  The  same  Institu- 
tion lias  also  in  progress  (1891)  a  series  o:  com- 
munications on  the  oriental  collection  of  the 
museum,  in  one  of  which  Dr.  Hugo.  Winckler  de- 
scrihes  a  treasure  of  cuneiform  inscriptions  re- 
cently found  in  Egypt;  and  In  another  of  which 
he  attempts  the  solution  of  the  en.ibarrassing  prob- 
lem concerning  the  rise  and  development  of  the 
ancient  Mesopotamian  kingdoms. 

BACCAR.VT,  a  French  game  of  cards,  in  which 
each  player  or  better  deposits  a  stake  which  in  each 
case  is  duplicated  by  the  "  Itanker."  Then  the 
banker  deals  two  cards  to  each  player,  including 
himself.  Each  individual  bet  is  decided  by  com- 
parison of  the  total  count  held  by  each  better  with 
that  held  by  the  banker.  Generally,  in  Europe,  the 
court  cards  connt  10  each  and  the  others  count  ac- 
cording to  the  spots.  The  counts  range  in  value  by 
series  of  9,  19,  etc.,  and  S,  18,  etc.,  tlie  9  range  being 
the  highest  or  best  count.  ^lore  cards  may  be  called 
for  by  any  player,  but  at  the  risk  of  making  his 
count  exceed  29,  in  which  case  the  excess  I'.n-felts 
his  bet  If  the  player's  cards  count  9  he  declares 
it,  when  all  who  hold  hands  superior  to  that  of  the 
banker  may  claim  the  amount  of  their  bets,  and 
the  banker  claims  the  other  stakes.  As  played  in 
American  games  court  cards  and  tens  do  not  cuiiit. 

B.\CCHANAL1A,  the  feasts  observed  among  I  lie 
Romans  and  Greeks  in  honor  of  Bacchus.  With 
these  feasts  theatrical  representations  originated. 

BACCHANTES,  the  Latin  name  for  those  who  as- 
sisted in  the  bacchanalian  revels. 
The  term  is  usually  applied  to  the 
priestesses  of  Bacchus,  who  are 
represented  as  carrying  a  thy- 
osus  :  a  spear  twined  with  ivy  and 
vine  branches,  or  with  its  head 
thrust  into  a  pine  cone. 

B  A  C  C  I O  C  II I ,  M.\Ri.\  BoNA- 
r.MiTE,  born  at  Ajaccio,  Corsica, 
in  1777,  died  at  tier  home,  near 
Trieste,  Aug.  7,  1820.  In  1805' 
Na|)(deon  llonaparte,  of  whom  she 
was  the  eldest  sister,  made  her 
Princess  of  .Massa,  Lucca,  Carrara 
and  Piomliino,  and  in  1809  she  received  the  title  of 
Grand-iluchess  of  Tuscany.  She  was  exiled  with 
her  brother.  Her  husliand  survived  her  twenty- 
one  years  and  her  son  thirteen  years.  Thet^ountess 
Canierata.  her  only  daugliter.  died  In  18(!9. 

!!.\('I1A1'.VC1I,  "a  small  town  of  Uhenlsh  Prussia, 
on  the  left  hank  of  the  Rhine,  situated  in  a  vine- 
growing  country.  The  name  is  said  to  be  derived 
from  a  rock  in  the  Rhine,  called 7>'f('-<7(/'  am  (altarof 
Bacchus),  whose  exposure  in  very  dry  weather  Is  re- 
garded as  iirophetic  of  a  good  vintage.  It  was  here 
that  P.Iucher  (.Ian.  1,  1814)  crossed  the  Pvliine  In 
pur:-ull  of  \a|)oleoii's  army.  • 

I'..\CM1F,  iiux.iAMiN  lMt.\"Nk-i.iN  (17(;9-1798),  son  n[ 
Richard  Hache  and  gr.andson  of  I'.enjamin  Franklin, 
While  a  boy  he  went  to  Paris  with  his  grandfather 
and  leariKHl  printing  and  type-founding  in  the  es- 
talilishment  of  the  brothers  Oldol.  Returning  to 
America  he  ]nibllslied  the  "General  Advertiser," 
which  was  one  of  the  most  inlluentlal  journals  of 
Ihetlme,  and  was  opjiosed  to  the  admlnlstrHlions 
of    Presidents  AVashiiiijlon  and  Adams. 


IUCCIIANTES. 


BACH  E  —  B  A  C  S 


181 


P.ACnE,  Fraxki.ix,  son  of  T5pnj;iniin  Franklin 
Baolie,  born  in  Pliiladelpliia  in  1792,  died  there  in 
ISiH.  He  received  his  medical  diiiloma  from  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1S14,  and  was  ap- 
pitinted  surgeon  in  the  army.  In  l.Slt;  he  began  the 
practice  of  his  profession  in  his  native  city,  where 
he  iiociipied  many  important  positions.  He  was 
president  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  in 
1854  and  1855,  and  nf  the  deaf  and  dnmb  asylnm 
corporation  at  the  time  of  his  deatli.  He  was  the 
anthr.r.  compiler,  and  editor  of  a  nnmber  of  stand- 
ard works  on  chemistry  and  co£;nate  subjects,  and 
a  lar^e  contrllmrnr  to  seientitic  junrnals. 

1;A(_'HE,  Hautmax,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  17!'7, 
died  there  in  1S7l'.  son  of  Benjamin  Franklin  P)ache, 
engineer,  gradnate  of  West  Point  LSIS,  was  em- 
ployed under  the  direction  of  the  war  department 
for  forty-seven  years.  In  1807  he  was  placed  on  the 
retired  list.  In  1805  he  was  brevetted  brigadier- 
general  for  meritorious  service — the  higliest  grade 
in  the  engineer  corps.  The  construction  of  the 
Delaware  breakwater  and  the  successful  applica- 
tion of  iron-screw  piles  for  the  foundation  of  jiglil- 
houseson  reefs  and  shoals  were  among  his  conspicu- 
ous Works.  He  was  a  member  of  the  light-house 
board  from  1862  to  1870. 

B.^CHE,  Kkh.\ri>,  followed  his  brother  Theo- 
phylact  to  the  colonies,  and  in  1770  became  his 
agent  in  Philadelphia  and  accumulated  a  fortune. 
In  17ti7  he  married  the  only  daughter  of  Benjamin 
Franklin,  whom  he  succeeded  as  postmaster-gen- 
eral in  177(>.  He  was  born  in  Settle,  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land in  1787,  and  died  in  1811  in  Pennsylvania. 

B.VCHE,  Sakaii,  only  daughter  of  Benjamin 
Franklin,  and  wife  of  Rieliard  Bache,  born  in  1744, 
died  in  1808.  During  the  war  for  Independence  she 
was  untiring  in  her  efforts  to  mitigate  the  hardships 
of  the  soldiers,  for  whom  she  collected  large  sums 
of  money  and  hospital  stores.  She  had  eight  chil- 
dren. 

BACHE.  TnEopHvi.ACT  (17.^4-1807),  merchant, 
oame  from  Yorkshire,  England,  in  1751  to  New 
York,  where  he  engaged  in  business,  and  becom- 
ing the  owner  of  vessels  engaged  in  privateering. 
He  was  prominently  connected  with  the  events 
leading  to  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  but  on  account 
of  his  neutrality  incurred  the  suspicions  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  .'^afetv  when  hostilities  began.  Remain- 
ing in  New  York  during  the  British  occupation,  he 
was  able  to  render  assistance  to  loyal  officers  held 
as  prisoners  of  war. 

BACHELOR'S  BUTTONS, a  name  given  to  sev- 
eral species  of  liannnculux,  and  also  to  some  other 
Howers  which  are  shaped  like  buttons,  as  the  corn 
flower  (Ci'ntnnren  c'lantis). 

BACHM.VN,  Joiiv,  a  distinguished  American 
naturalist,  born  in  Dutchess  county.  New  York,  in 
17!Ki.  died  in  1874.  He  was  pastor"  of  a  Lutheran 
congregation  in  Charleston  from  1815  to  the  end  of 
his  life.  He  is  best  known  for  his  valuable  contri- 
bution to  natural  history,  and  as  the  associate  of 
Audubon  in  the  preparation  of  the  great  work  of 
the  latter  on  ornithology. 

BACH  MITT,  or  Baku  moot,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the 
province  of  Ekaterinoslav ;  is  a  market  for  trade  in 
tallow,  meal,  grjiin.  horses  ami  cattle;  there  are 
coal  mines  in  the  vicinity;  here  are  the  remains  of 
an  ancient  Tartar  walL 

B.VCILI.t'S  is  the  name  commonly  applied  to 
Bacteria,  although  it  properly  belongs  to  a  separate 
genus  of  SrhU'iiiniiftrs. 

aXCK.  in  maritime  language,  has  many  techni- 
cal applications.  To  hnrk  mi  utirhnr  is  to  support 
the  large  anchor  by  a  smaller  one  in  order  ti>  pre- 
vent it  from  loosening  and  coming  honu>  in  bad 
ground.     To  hnrk  unil  till  is  a  mode  of  tacking  when 


the  tide  is  with  a  vessel,  but  the  wind  against  her. 
To  hark  the  Kails  is  so  to  arrange  them  as  to  make 
the  ship  move  astern  or  backwards.  To  back  the 
mninttiji-snil,  and  analogous  operations  to  other 
sails,  is  so  to  arrange  a  sail  that  the  speed  of  the 
ship's  progress  may  be  checked. 

BACK,  Sir  GEoiUiE,  F.  R.  S.,  D.  C.  L..  a  British 
navigator  who  attained  the  rank  of  admiral,  iDorn 
in  Stockport,  Nov.  6,  I7i)(),  died  June  23,  1878.  In 
181!)  he  accompanied  Sir  .Tohn  Franklin  when  he 
made  his  arctic  voyage,  and  he  was  sent  out  in  1833 
to  search  for  Captain  Ross.  He  published  an  ac- 
count of  his  arctic  voyages.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  X, 
p.  1(«;  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  319,  320. 

BACKER,  Va.v,  Adria.v,  a  Dutch  portrait  and 
historical  painter, Who  lived  between  l(i4:>  and  IG8(5. 
BACKUS,  Isaac,  an  American  clergyman  and 
writer  of  religious  history,  born  in  Nirwich,  Conn., 
in  1724,  died  in  ISOti.  His  literary  reputation  rests 
principally  upon  his  Illntonj  of  New  England,  vith 
Sjirriiil  Rrfrrenrc  to  the  Baptists. 

B.VCON,  from  a  root  of  the  Teutonic  languages, 
which  seems  to  be  allied  to  the  Latin  >-<irrn,  a  cow, 
and  to  have  s'gnilied  an  animal  in  general,  is  the 
cured  sides  of  a  pig. 

B.\CON,  Delia,  the  daughter  of  David  Bacon, 
missionary  to  the  Indians,  and  the  sister  of  Dr. 
Leonard  Bacon,  the  eminent  Congregational  divine, 
born  at  Tallmadge,  Ohio,  Feb.  2. 1811,  died  at  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  Sept.  2,  1859.  For  some  time  she  was  a 
teacher  and  lived  near  Boston,  where  she  delivered 
a  course  of  lectures.  She  wrote  Tales  of  the  fiiritans; 
The  Bride  of  Fori  Edward  (a  drama);  and  Bhilnso- 
j)hi/  (f  the  Plains  of  Shakespeare  Unfolded.  The  latter 
raised  much  criticism,  as  in  this  work  she  sought 
to  prove  that  the  Shakesperean  plays  were 
the  joint  work  of  Shakespeare,  Bacon,  and  other 
writers. 

B.VCON,  Leoxard.e  distinguished  American  cler- 
gyman, born  in  Detroit  in  1802,  died  in  New  Haven 
in  1881,  having  been  pastor  of  a  congregation  in 
that  city  57  years.  He  was  successively  professor 
of  didactic  theology  and  lecturer  on  church  polity 
and  history  in  Yale  College.  He  was  an  able 
lecturer  and  a  voluminous  writer.  He  assisted  in 
founding  the  "Independent"  and  the  "New  Eng- 
lander,"  and  wrote  numerous  works  on  Christian- 
ity and  kindred  tojiics.  He  was  a  strono;  supporter 
of  the  anti-slavery  cause  and  a  staunch  Unionist 
throughout  the  war. 

BACON,  Leonard  Wooi.sey,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1830.  He  has  been  pastor  of  churches  in 
many  of  the  largest  cities  of  the  United  States,  and 
is  a  prolific  writer  for  the  periodical  press  and  of 
books  and  nnisical   compositions. 

B.VCON,  Nathaniel,  born  in  London  about 
10.30,  died  in  1077.  He  left  England  and  settled  in 
Virginia,  becoming  in  1672  a  member  of  the  council. 
The  people  chose  him  to  lead  a  force  against  the 
Indians.  Governor  Berkeley  was  indignant  at  this 
evidence  of  his  jxipularity,  andon  his  return  from 
a  successful  warfare  against  the  Indians  declared 
Bacon  a  traitor.  He  was  captured,  tried  and  ac- 
quitted. Governor  Berkeley  was  obliged  to  promise 
him  a  commission,  but  delayed  to  give  it,  and  Bacon 
at  the  head  of  a  force  compelled  him  to  lullill  his 
promise.  He  marched  against  the  Indians,  and 
during  his  absence  was  proclaimed  a  rebel,  liacon 
returned  and  drove  the  governor  from  Williams- 
burg. .Vfter  this  he  burned  .lamestown,  and  Gov- 
ernor Berkeley  was  obliged  to  flee  to  a  ship.  The 
I'acon  rebellion  ended  with  the  death  of  Bacon  and 
the  execution  of  his  principal  ndherentg. 

B.Vf'S,  OR  H  \TS(Ti,  a  village  and  county  of  Hun- 
gary, situated  on  tin-  Danube.  The  chief  city  of 
the  county  of  Hacs  is  Zombor. 


18:: 


B  A  C  T  E  R  I  U  -M 


BACTEKIL'M,  a  niierosoopic  organism  belong- 
ing to  the  class  .i/;/.t',  usually  in  the  form  of  a  jointed 
rod-like  filament,  and  found  in  putrefying  infusions 
or  tissues.  The  plural,  bacteria,  is  an  other  word 
for  liaeilli.  Early  in  the  use  of  the  microscope  the 
general  name  applied  to  all  minute  or  microbic 
organisms  was  animalcule;  later  they  were  called 
infusoria,  and  still  later  microbes,  or  microbic 
organisms.  For  an  elaborate  account  of  the  dis- 
covery of  bacteria  and  their  classification  and 
numerous  illustrations  of  the  various  species 
revealed  by  the  microscope,  see  the  article  ScuY- 
zoMYCETES,  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  398-407;  also 
under  Surgerv,  Vol.  XXII,  pp.  679-80;  also  un- 
der ilfRR.vix,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  59  (  nacillds  aiilhoicis) ; 
also  under  Ijiot.ogv,  A'ol.  Ill,  pp.  6yO-6SS;  also 
under  Pathology,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  401-407;  also  un- 
der FiNGts  (Order  VI),  Vol.  IX,  p.  836;  also 
under  Fermext.itio.v  (Class  B),  Vol.  IX,  p.  97;  also 
under  Diphtheria,  Vol.  VII,  p.  249. 

It  is  only  needful,  in  these  Revisions  and  Addi- 
tions, that  the  cliief  facts  concerning  bacteria  be 
restated  and  resummarized  in  the  light  of  the  more 
recent  experiments.  Professor  Ray  Lankester,  of 
London,  in  the  "  Pall  JIall  Budget."'" of  Jan.  1.  1891, 
in  an  incisive  discussion  of  the  different  forms  of 
bacteria  in  general  and  of  the  BacclHiin  tuber- 
culosis in  particular,  states  that  the  baccillus  ta 
little  rod),  like  the  similar  name  bacterium,  is  com- 
monly applied  to  the  rod-shaped  forms  of  a  group 
of  minute  plants  which  botanists  know  by  the  title, 
"Schizomycetes,"  translated  by  German  natu- 
ralists as  Spaltpilze  (splitting  molds).  The  word 
scliizomijcetes  refers  to  the  mode  of  multiplication 
of  these  little  rods.  They  attain  a  certain  length 
and  then  divide  across  into  two.  Each  half  grows 
to  the  size  of  the  parent  and  then  similarly  divides, 
and  so  on  as  long  as  food  and  other  conditions  of 
their  life  are  present.  One  species  (that  common 
in  old  hay)  has  been  observed  to  divide  in  this  way 
every  half-hour — a  rate  which  gives  in  twenty-four 
hours  more  than  three  hundred  billions  (300,000.000,- 
000)  of  individual  rods  as  the  offspring  of  one  parent 
rod.  Tliey  are  extremely  minute,  varying  from  the 
l-20,000th  of  an  inch  to  the  1-l.OOOth'of  an  inch  in 
length.  Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  tliis  small- 
ness  by  (>xamining  llie  drawings  of  different  sliapes 
assumed  by  these  little  planis  given  in  Fig.  l,aiid 
reflecting  that  if  a  drawing  of  a  well-grown 
man  were  made  to  the  same  scale  of  magnification 
the  drawing  would  have  to  be  a  mile  and  a  half 
long.  Rods  are  by  no  means  the  only  shapes  un- 
der whic^h  the.  Scliizouii/ri'tis.  av,  a.s  it  is  convenient 
to  term  them,  the  "  bacteria,"  present  themselves. 
They  often  split  ii|)  so  far  as  to  liecome  t  iny  splieres, 
when  they  are  called  "micrococcus"  (a).  The  com- 
monest form  is  liisciiit-shaped  (c),  and  very  often 
the  rods,  instead  of  breaking  as  they  grow,  elon- 
gate so  as  to  become  long  filaments  called  "the 
leptothrix  form,"  consisting  of  several  segments 
adhering  to  one  anollier  (f).  The  filament  as  it 
grows  may  take  a  spiral  twist,  when  it  is  called 
"spirillum"  (h);  and  should  it  then  l>reak  into  seg- 
ments, as  it  often  doi>s,  each  segment  is  called  a 
"comma"  or  "comma  bacillus"  (i).  A  less  twisted 
form  than  the  spirillum  is  tlie  "  vibrio  "  (g).  French 
writers  have  ai)plied  the  word  "vil)rion"  to  the 
whole  group  of  Schiznmiicetrs,  just  as  we  use  the 
word  bacteria  in  a  wide  sense;  and  I'astour  also 
uses  the  word  "  microbe"  (microbiont — "minute  liv- 
ing thing")  for  bacteria  and  ot  her  kinds  cife.xt  namely 
minute  organisms.  All  the  I'dinis  which  are  drawn 
in  Kig.  1  may  be  assumed  according  to  the  condi- 
tions of  growth  by  one  and  t  lie  same  race  or  species 
of  liacteria,  but  some  seem  to  be  more  limited  than 
others  as  to  changing  their  form  of  growth.  A  good 


many  are  known  only  as  micrococci ;  some  art 
known  which  grow  for  a  time  as  bacilli,  or  rods 
(e,  k),  and  then  many  break  up  and  continue  tt 
grow  as  micrococci. 


FORMS  CF  BACTERIA. 


(a)  Coccus  or  micrococcus;  (1.)  diplocoecus;  (c)  bi.^cuil, 
keyliolc,  or  clitliridiuui  (with  vihratile  tilinucnts  of  proto- 
plasm); ((i)  microltiicillii!^.  liciup  a  single  segment  of  (e) 
Dacilliis;    (f)    lejitothrix  or  filamentous  form.'dividecl  ime 

«,»o-iiM>,i  tc  .    ltr\  ,-ili,-w,  in-itVi   ,-1  Kniti  l.>  H  to  iimii  ti;  ■    M,  \  i^i.ii'iJ  1 1,,,, 


form  sha\<e  of  the  prutt)plasm  as  seen  ^vhen  stained  with  iini- 
linedve;  (o)  a  bit  of  the  leptothrix  form  of  the  anthra\  l»ac- 


tonn);  (ii)  t^vo  micrococci  inineitueii  m  jelly;  (\v)  a  siurii- 
him  with  jellv  envelo]ie  ( leuconostoc) ;  (x)  jelly  with  imttod- 
ded  hiscuit-sliaped  liacteria;  (x)  and  (s)  are  less  magnitied 
than  the  otiiev  liKures,  whicli  are  I.'iOO  times  longer  than  the 

1 1 11  Hi  I'll  I    r\)iii<i>  f,j 


natural  objects 

Bacteria:  "Swarming"  and  at  Rest.  The  bac- 
•teria,  liki>  all  living  things,  consist  essentially  ol 
"protoplasm."  which  is  covered  w'itli  a  delicate 
but  firm  Willi,  which  protects  it.  Sometimes  the 
case  or  wall  swells  ti|)  and  forms  a  jelly  (  Kig.  u.  w), 
in  which  protoplasm  is  imbedded  like  a  dot.  and 
often  millions  of  bacteria  are  found  adhering  to 
a  mass  by  means  of  this  jelly  (x).  Often,  but  \>\ 
no  means  always,  a  ilelicate  thread  of  iirotojilasn: 
hangs  from  either  end  of  the  bacterium  (o,  g,  h,  k- 


BACTERIUM 


183 


»iid  keeps  up  a  rapid  vil)ratiiig  movement,  so  tliat 
0!ie  sees  under  the  mieroscope  thousands  of  these 
oiinute  liodies  dashing  along  to  and  fro,  driven  liy 
their  vibrating  threads  or  tiagella.  Some  will  l)e 
thus  "swarming"  while  others  are  at  rest.  This 
mot  ill-  phase  seems  to  be  assumed  under  certain 
conditions  by  most  kinds  of  bacteria. 

Ilow  Bactkhia  Dii-i'EK  Fiiojt  Plants.  The  nearest 
allies  of  the  bacteria  among  larger  plants  are  the 
blue-green  growths  which  one  may  see  on  the  mud 
of  some  ponds  and  streams.  Such  blue-green 
growths  are  readily  seen  with  a  hand-glass  to  be 
made  up  of  countless  tilaments  felted  together. 
They  .'ire  known  under  the  name  of  oscillatoria. 
They  differ  from  the  bacteria  only  in  being  larger 
and  in  being  green.  It  is  owing  to  the  fact  thai  the 
bacteria  are  not  green  like  ordinary  plants  tliat 
they  have  such  immense  interest  and  importance. 
The  green  color  of  plants  in  general  is  due  to  a 
peculiar  chemical  bodj'  (chlorophyll),  in  virtue  of 
which,  in  the  presence  of  sunlight,  the  green  plants 
are  able  to  take  the  carbon  necessary  for  their  food 
Irom  carbonic  acid  gas.  Animals  and  colorless 
plants  like  the  bacteria  cannot  do  this.  The  gas  in 
a  glass  of  soda-water  will  not  satisfy  a  hungry 
man,  but  a  green  i)lanl  will  get  along  very  well 
with  this  and  some  smelling-salts;  it  will  flourish, 
grow,  and  reproduce  itself  ifrom  generation  to  gen- 
eration. The  bacteria,  on  the  contrary,  are  like 
animals  in  their  re<piirements  as  to  food.  They 
must  have  food  consisting  of  the  products  or  actual 
substance  of  other  jilanls  or  of  animals,  bike  ani- 
mals, they  have  to  act  chemically  upon  this  food 
by  digestive  juices.  Being  so  small,  they  do  not, 
like  animals,  take  their  food  into  their  inside  and 


\^^fd  W  i 


invention     of    arithmetical 
lions! 

"Bactkhia  Ijuotii."    As 
a     eonseijuence    of    their 


nomenclature — uonil- 
b 


VARIOra    BACTERIAL   KOBMS. 

I.  >[icrococciis  sei>lldif>;  d.  scnttered ;  fc.  In  chains— toi-iila. 
l  Same  in  zoiiKln-n  form.  :;.  Jim-tiTium  lermo.  4.  Snini. — 
«D'i)tl.iNi.  .'■>.  lim-t.  lini'olii.  II.  Jlacilliis  .-Jul. tills.  7.  Biicllhis 
antliriicis  anil  IjIooiI  corpnscles.  .s.  Hnclllns  (from  month) 
Willi  cilliini.  9.  HiiollhisU-i.nf.  10.  Bacilli  with  sijorc*  n 
BaciiliiH  malaria',  la.  Vlhrlo  serpens.  i:(.  Spirochiete  Oher- 
ineieri.  U.  spirlllnni  voliitans.  l.j.  .Sarcina.  X  SOU.  (Copied 
Irom  ^elKler's  Path.  .■Vnntomie,  Jeua,  1882.) 

act  upon  it  in  a  stomach,  but  they  adopt  an  equally 
ptticacious  method  and  get  into'their  food,  acting 
upon  it  and  dii;estinu'  it  air.l  .-ibsorbing the  products 
of  digestion  as  they  lie  in  their  billions  wallowing, 
as  it  were,  in  a  sea  of  nutrimenl.  .lust  as  the  liviiu; 
protoplasm  of  the  cells  of  the  stomach  of  a  man 
secretes  ferments  and  acids  which  chemically  break 
up  and  change  the  lumps  of  food  he  has  swallowed 
and  extract  from  them  some  nourishing  matter, 
producing  at  the  same  lime  a  good  deal  of  waste!  ! 
foul-smelling  and  various,  in  chemical  composition! 
so  do  the  lilll(>  bacteria  act  upon  the  dead  bodies 
and  fragments  of  plants  and  animals  throughout 
Nature,  creeping  into  them,  swarming  round  them, 
multiplying  in  numbers  which  cannot  lie  cNpressed 
even,  by  the  word  millions,  but  reipiire  the  highest 


enormous      fecundity      it     //' 
will  be  readily  understood  //// 


BACILLI  AND  MICROCOcn  IN 
TCBEUCULAB    DEPOSIT. 


that  they  are  ubii|uiliiNs. // ^ 
Every  surface  teems  with 
them  ;  all  natural  waters 
are  infested  by  them; 
even  the  skin  of  the  most; 
washeil  of  mankind,  even 
the  moisture  of  the  sweet- 
est moul  h.  harbors  them 
by  the  million  1  One  thing, 
however,  they  cannot 
stand,  and  that  is  bi.iiling 
Boil  them,  or  the  stuff  in  which  they  are  flourish- 
ing, and  they  cease  to  live;  in  the  jihraseology  of 
the  "Bacteriologist,"  the  liquid  or  solid  substance 
so  treated  is '"  sterilized." 

r>y  means  of  sterilized  nutriment  we  can  test  any 
object  for  the  presence  of  bacteria.  We  prepare  a 
broth  suitable  for  their  nourishment  and  sterilize 
it.  If  kejit  hermetically  sealed  (as  are  preserved 
vegetables  and  tinned  meals)  no  bacteria  will 
appear  in  the  broth.  Touch  the  broth  with  my 
lady's  finger,  with  any  stick  or  stone,  or  add  to  it  a 
drop  of  jiuresj  spring  water,  and  it  will  after  a  few 
hours  swarm  with  bacteria  and  putrefy. 

A  N'lsiox  OK  A  M'oiii.i)  wiTiioiT  Bactehia.  This 
was  the  discovery  of  Theodore  Schwann,  also  cele- 
brated for  his  cell  theory.  He  showed  fifty  years 
ago  that  what  we  call  "putrefaction"  is  not  the 
result  of  death  but  of  life.  The  unjileasant  smell 
and  the  disintegration  of  dead  bodies,  whether  of 
Jilanls  or  animals,  is  entirely  due  to  the  bacteria — 
it  is  the  accoin)>animent  of  their  digestion.  If  you 
destroy  all  tlie  bacteria  present  by  means  of  boil- 
ing heat,  and  then  jirevent  the  access  of  new  bac- 
teria (whicli  are  blown  about  in  the  dust  of  the  air), 
dead  bodies  never  putrefy.  Supjiosing  that  by  the 
tial  of  an  Onini])olenl  Being  all  bacteria  could  be 
annihilated,  the  earth's  surface  would  soon  be 
covered  with  dead  bodies  remaining  unchanged 
year  after  year,  century  after  century.  The  seas 
and  lakes  would  be  choked  with  them,  and  we 
should  have  to  use  them  for  paving  our  roadways 
and  building  our  houses.  But,  worse  than  that,  all 
the  carbon  and  nitrogen  which  we  living  beings  use 
in  turn  in  our  successive  occii|>ancy  of  the  earth's 
surface  fiom  generation  to  generation  would  soon 
be  lied  up.  There  would  be  no  food  lor  the  green 
[ilanls  ;  herbiferous  creatures  would  cease  to  exist. 
The  ciintemiilation  of  these  imaginable  horrors 
gives  us  some  notion  of  the  pari  played  by  bac- 
teria in  the  order  of  Nature. 

Vai(ii:tii;s  or  tiik  Invi.siiu  k  AVoni.n  of  Bacteria. 
All  bacteria  are  not  alike-  in  their  requirements 
as  to  food  and  in  the  substances — variously  smell- 
ing, variously  colored,  poisonous  or  harmless,  liquid 
or  gaseous — to  which  they  give  rise;  just  as  some 
animals  are  herbivorous,  some  carnivorous — as 
some  lu-oduce  musk,  some  ambergris, others  venom, 
others  wax  and  so  on — so  do  we  find  variety  in  this 
invisible  world,  rendered  visible  only  by  the  modern 
microscope.  Then-  are  kinds — specii-s.  as  the  nat- 
uralist says — of  bacteria  as  dislinci  from  one  an- 
other as  the  cow  and  Ihe  skunk.  The  commonest 
species  are  those  which  live  on  ordinary  vegetable 
and  animal  refu.se.  They  make  a  good  "deal  of  dis- 
agreeable smell,  but  there  is  not  much  harm  in 
them,  and,  like  the  manufacturing  chemists,  who, 
next  lo  bacteria,  are  of  all  beings  Ihe  most  offensive 
to  the  olfactory  sense,  they  |ierform  valuable  ser- 
vice by  man  u  fact  uring  soluble  ammonia  and  nitrates 


184 


BACTERIUM 


(the  food  of  green  plants)  from  the  viscid  and  solid 
carcasses  which  once  were  living. 

Koch's  Discovery  of  Tubercilar  Bacilli;  Tr- 
BERcrLosis  AND  ITS  Eemedy.  With  regard  to  this 
discovery,  Dr.  Koch  gave  the  following  account  in 
an  interview  with  a  medical  correspondent  of  the 
^ew  York  Sun,  in  December,  1S90: 

I  discovered  the  tubercular  bacillus  eight  years 
ago.  It  was  at  first  warmly  disputed,  but  it  is  now 
generally  admitted.  I  have  ever  since  then  been 
engaged  in  the  study  of  the  deadly  parasite,  and 
have  been  endeavoring  to  obtain  an  inoculati-ng 
fluid  which  would  kill  the  bacilli  and  bring  about  a 
sufficiently  strong  and  healthy  local  reaction  to  ex- 
pel them  from  the  body  without  at  the  same  time 
destroying  healthy  organisms.  Of  course,  this  lat- 
ter has  been  the  difficulty.  There  is  very  little  use 
of  my  saying  just  now  what  the  inoculating  fluid  is, 
or  how  I  obtained  it.  It  has  cost  me  years  of  my 
life,  and  I  propose  to  retain  the  secret  for  a  few 
weeks  longer  from  publicity,  though  it  is  already 
known  to  my  assistants  and  to  many  of  my  profes- 
sional friends.  Xow  we  will  sura  up  the  results  of 
the  treatment  so  far  in  the  cases  in  which  the  phys- 
ical condition  of  the  patient  was  good.  Lupus  has 
yielded  easily  to  the  inoculating  treatment,  even 
when  the  cases  had  been  of  many  years'  standing. 
The  bacilli  have  been  destroyed  completely  after  a 
number  of  injections,  of  course,  varyiug  with  each 
case,  and  the  web  of  lupus  has  in  some  cases  been 
sloughed  off,  but  in  the  majority  it  has  been  easily 
removed  surgically.  The  narbe  or  star  which  marks 
the  spot  where  it  existed  is  not  so  large  or  the  dis- 
figurement anything  like  so  great  as  is  the  case 
with  the  sharp  spoon  treatment  in  which  the  tissue 
is  scooped  out.  Consequently  the  danger  of  lessen- 
ing the  usefulness  of  the  affected  limb  is  much  less, 
and  I  think  the  danger  of  a  recurrence  is  also  les- 
sened. Now,  as  to  the  effect  upon  living  tuberculo- 
sis. Though  the  disclosure  is  premature,  I  will  tell 
just  how  we  stand.  I  have  twenty  patients  with 
whom  I  personally  follow  the  treatment  minutely, 
and  they  represent  (and  I  have,  of  course,  chosen 
them  on  this  account)  the  graduated  stages  of  the 
disease.  In  fifteen  of  these  patients  the  bacilli 
have  completely  disappeared  from  the  sputa.  They 
have  gained  much  in  weight,  in  general  appearance, 
and  in  spirits,  which  last  is  a  not  to  be  neglected 
symptom.  In  the  remaining  five  cases  I  regret  to 
say  there  is  not  the  sliglitest  indication  that  the 
ordinary  course  of  tlie  disease  has  been  stopped. 
These  are  cases  in  wliich  I  foundalready  large  cavi- 
ties in  the  lungs.  In  tliese,  the  cough,  the  rattle  in 
the  tliroat,  and  the  almost  undiminished  number  of 
bacilli  in  the  sputa  continues.  All  of  these  symp- 
toms, I  repeat,  have  disappeared  in  the  other  cases. 
Of  course,  nothing  can  be  considered  final  yet,  the 
first  injection  to  a  human  being  having  only  been 
made  seventy  days  ago.  I  hope  for  good  results  in 
all  cases  in  which  the  vital  organs  are  intact.* 

Professor  Koch,  in  an  article  in  the  "  Deutsche 
Medinische  Wochenschrift."  describes  the  lymph  as 
consisting  of  a  brownish  transparent  licjuid  It  is  so 
prepared  as  to  be  proof  against  deterioration.  When, 


•The  Sun's  correspondent  tlius  describes  Dr.  Koch'8  mnn- 
ner  in  the  Interview;  "It  Is  imiiossiV)le  fur  one  to  repro- 
duce here  Prof.  Koch's  modest,  shi-inktin;  nmnner.  and  the 
skillful  wiiy  In  which  he  iivolds  nil  pertfonnl  nientinii  (>f  him- 
self In  relatine  the  story  of  his  nniiineniedicjil  discovery.  The 
patlenls  In  theChnritt'e  an^l  the  private  clinics  \v(H-slii'n  liini 
like  a  irod.  When  he  appears  in  their  warils  he  is  hailed  as  a 
deliverer.  I  myself  saw  a  patient  st(mp  down  swlftlv  and 
kiss  his  hand,  which  honiMKC.  however,  made  the  I'ro^cHsor 
very  an^rv.  To-day  Koch  Hi)Oke  in  tlie  hljrhest  terms  of  his 
great  cimfrtre,  M.  I»astenr  of  I*arls,  "We  both,"  he  said,  "be- 
gan to  stndy  (aiclerioloKy  at  at^ont  tlie  same  time,  bnt  we 
came  to  It  by  dIfriTeiit  ways.  He  tietfnn  with  chemistry,  I 
witll  botany  and  the  stndy  of  the  jilaiit  parasites." 


however,  it  is  diluted  with  water  to  the  necessary 
degree  for  use,  the  matter  is  liable  to  decay  It  is 
necessary,  therefore,  that  the  attenuations  should 
be  perfectly  sterilized  by  heat  and  preserved  in 
wadding  covering,  or  prepared  with  a  solution  ol 
phenol  50  percent,  strong.  AVhen  taken  into  the 
stomach  the  curative  matter  proves  to  have  no  ef- 
fect. It  must  be  applied  subcutaneously  by  means 
of  a  valveless  syringe.  The  kind  of  a  syringe  rec- 
ommended by  Professor  Koch  is  one  furnished  with 
a  small  hollow  rubber  ball.  In  thousands  of  cases, 
he  says,  where  it  has  been  used  for  subcutaneous 
injections,  not  a  single  abscess  resulted.  When  the 
curative  matter  is  applied  to  a  patient  the  usual 
course  is  to  inject  under  the  skin  of  the  back,  be- 
tween the  shotdder  blade  and  in  the  proximity  of 
the  loins.  His  experiments  show  that  human 
beings  are  much  more  susceptible  to  the  effect  of 
the  new  substance  than  are  guinea  pigs,  which  have 
been  largely  used  in  the  course  of  the  investiga- 
tions. Two  cubic  centimeters  of  the  fluid  applied 
to  a  guinea  pig  produced  little,  if  any,  apparent  ef- 
fect. Twenty-five  hundredths  of  a  cubic  centime- 
ter, however,  intensely  affected  a  healthy,  full-grown 
man.  who  was  sulijected  to  experiment.  Professor 
Koch  experimented  with  the  fluid  upon  his  own 
body,  and  describes  the  effect.  He  injected  tw,:'nty- 
five  hundredths  of  a  cubic  centimeter  of  the  fluid 
under  the  skin  of  his  upper  arm.  Three  or  four 
hours  after  the  injection  was  made  he  experienced  a 
contraction  of  the  ■limbs  and  a  marked  feeling  of 
lassitude.  At  the  same  time  he  felt  a  desire  to 
cough,  together  with  difficulty  of  breathing.  These 
symptoms  increased  rapidly,  and  in  the  fifth  hour 
he  experienced  an  unusually  violent  rigor.  The 
shivering  lasted  for  nearly  an  hour,  and  was  ac- 
companied with  nausea  and  vomiting.  The  tenv 
perature  of  his  body  rose  to  39.(>  centigrade.  Aftei 
a  period  of  twelve  hours  the  symptoms  began  to 
abate,  the  temperature  of  the  body  declined,  and 
on  the  following  day  resumed  its  normal  decree. 
The  heaviness  of  the  limbs  and  the  feeling  of  lassi- 
tude, however,  continued  for  some  days,  di:ring 
which  time  the  point  on  his  arm  at  which  the  in- 
jection was  made  continued  to  be  painful  and  re- 
mained red.  The  experiments  so  far  conducted 
show  that  the  lowest  limit  of  effective  strength  of 
the  fluid  in  a  healthy  lunnan  body  is  one  hundredth 
of  a  cubic  centimeter.  When  this  amount  is  ajv 
plied  to  a  healthy  himian  subject,  it  produces  littlv> 
or  no  reaction.  The  same  result  follows  when 
fluid  of  this  strength  is  applied  to  diseased 
persons  who  are  suffering  from  other  than 
tuberculous  affections ;  but  in  persons  affected 
with  tuberculosis  the  same  quantity  produces 
a  strong,  general  and  local  reaction.  The  gen- 
eral reaction  consists  of  an  attack  of  fever,  which 
usually  begins  with  shivering,  the  temperature  of 
tlie  body  rises  to  over  39,  and  in  some  instances 
even  to  41  centigrades.  At  the  same  time  pains  in 
the  limbs  are  noticeable.  The  patient  coughs,  ex- 
periences much  irritation  and  great  exhaustion. 
8ome  patients  also  suffer  nausea  and  vomiting.  In 
some  cases  there  is  not  iced  a  slight  ict-.-ric  (jaundice- 
like)  coloring,  or  exanthenui,  rcsi'mbling  measles, 
on  the  chest  or  neck.  The  symptimis  just  described 
begin  to  manifest,  lh(>mselvi>s  lour  or  five  hours 
after  the  injection  of  the  curative  substance.  They 
last  from  12  to  15  hours.  The  patient  is  not  much 
affected  by  the  attack  inducted  by  tlie  fluid,  and 
after  it  is  over  feels  comparatively  well;  even  bet- 
ter, in  fact,  than  b(>fore  the  injection.  The  reac- 
tion |)roduied  in  the  internal  organs,  especially  the 
lungs,  when  the  curative  substance  is  injected,  is 
not.  of  course,  open  to  obs<'rvation.  apart  from  the 
increased     expectoration     and    cough.      Professor 


B  ACTR  IS— i;  A  !)  i-:  x 


It 


Koch  expresses  the  belief  that  his  remedy  will  cer- 
taiiily  prove  a  cure  for  iiuMpient  plithisis.  "Whether, 
however,  the  cure  will  lie  liual  and  ileti:iiie  has  not, 
he  says,  been  clearly  proved.  Further  experiments 
and  eontiime<i  use  of  the  remedy  will  be  necessary  to 
determine  thisiiuestion. 

Thecurative  properties  of  the  new  remedy.  Profes- 
sor Koch  declares,  are  of  still  greater  importance  for 
liiagnosis.  AVhal  the  fluid  kills  is  not  the  tuliercnlar 
bacillus,  but   the  tubercular  tissue.    This  fact  indi- 
cates the  well-defined  limits  which  the  etflcacy  of 
the  remedy  will  be  able  to  reach.  In  other  words,  if 
can  only  inlluenee  livinii  tuberculous  tissue.    It  has 
no  elTect  whatever  on  dead  tissue,  such  as  decayed 
caseous  matter,  necrotic  bones  and  the  like.    Jlore 
than   this,  it  produces  no  elTect  upon    the  tissues 
which  have  been  already  killed  by  the  application 
of  the  remedy.     It  is  quite  possible  that  such  dead 
tissue  may  still  conlain   living   tubercular  bacilli. 
These  may  then  be  either  expelled  with  the  necrotic 
tissue,  or  it  may  be  I  hat  under  special  circumstances 
they  may  again  invade  adjacent  living  tissues.     It 
follows,   therefore,    that  tviberculous  tissue  that  is 
still  Jiving  must  first  Ije  made  to  decay.     When  this 
has  been  accomplished  every  effort  must  be  made 
to  remove  the  dead   matter  by   surgery.    In  cases 
where   this  is  impossible   and  secretion    can   only 
shnvly  proceed  by  the  self-help   of   the   organism 
threatened,    the   living    tissue    must  at   the   same 
time   be  proti-cled  by  continual  applications  of  the 
remedy  so  as  to  guard  against  the   re-immigration 
iif  the  parasites.     I'u'.ients  with  pronounced  tuber- 
culosis of  the  lung's  liave  i)roved  far  more  suscep- 
tible to  the  remedy  llian  those  suffering  with  surgi- 
cal tubercular   alteeti'ins.     As  a  general  rule  the 
coughing  and  expectorations  are  increased  some- 
what after  the  first  injections.    Then  they  become 
gradually  lf>ss,  and.  in   the   most    favorafile  cases, 
will  ultimately  wholly  disai)pear.     In  the  oases  ex- 
perimi'jitc'd    upon  undiT   the   direction  of    Profes- 
sor  Koch,  the   expectorations  gradually   lost  their 
purulent    property  airl  ■assumed  a  mucous    char- 
acter.    The    numl)!'r   of    bacilli    expelled    usually 
decreases  only  when  the  expectorations    l>egi!i  to 
assume  a  mucous   appearance.    The    bacilli    then 
disappear   entirely    for  a  time,  but    on   occasions 
again    appear   until   expectoration    totally  ceases. 
.\t    the    same   time    the    nighr    sweats    cease,  the 
patients  begin   to   look    better  and  to  increase  in 
weight.     Patients  who   have  been  treated    in   the 
early  stages  of  phthisis  have  all  been  freed  from 
morbid    symptoms  within    from  four  to  six  weeks, 
when    they    may    be    n-ganled    as     healed.     Con- 
sumptives with  large   cavities  in    their  lungs  will 
prol.ably   only    experience  benefit    from    the    new 
ri'iuedy   in   exceptional  cases,   though    most    cases 
show  temporary  improv(Mnent.  Professor  Koch  dep- 
recates the   mechanical  anil  indiscriminate    appli- 
cation of  the    remedy,     lie  holds  that    it  would  be 
preferal'le  that  the  treatment  should  be  applied  in 
suitable    institutions,    where    careful    observation 
would  be  possible.     In   all  cases  he  emphasizes  the 
necessity    of   early    treatment.     Only  in  incipient 
stages  of  disenso,  he  declares,  can  the  remedy  fully 
develop  its  ellicacy. 

Tiir.  I.VMni  Kkmimiv.  On  .lan.  ]."..  l.'sni.  Dr.  Kopli,  In  a 
U-iiKthy  writti'ii  sluli-meiit.  iX|.liilin(l  to  the  |.ii!.ilt-  ihu 
inetlioils  liy  whlcli  hi-  ilisoovcTL'd  ihc  lvin|.h  used  tiv  him  ii.-i  n 
liMiii  (ly  for  tuhiTiMiliisla.  AttcT  (K'SiTiliiiiv  hi.s  minurou!'  rx- 
[■iTiiiii-nt<  exti'iiilin-;  Ihroiii-li  viMirsof  iiiVL'stii.'iitioii  rc-iiillim,' 
In  Ihidlntr  thi'  ounitlvr  oihstanw  lufdud.  he  iiddod  :  ■•Tin' 
ri'Mivdy  Hldch  is  usnl  In  the  new  treatment  consists  of  a 
•►■lyrenne  extra.t,  drrlvi-d  from  tho  |inre  cultivation  of 
tnhercle  tiaillli.  Into  the  timide  extract  there  natnrallv 
jMissis  from  the  inhercnlar  l>ai'll!l  lieslde,s  the  effective  snti- 
(Stance  all  theoiher  matter  solidile  In  .Ml  per  cent,  glycerine, 
t'.jnse'inenlly.  It  eoutalns  a  certain  i|nant(ivof  mineral  saltsi 
c  jlurlnir  sni.stanees.  and  o'.luT  iinkno«u  eittrttctlve    matter.   , 


j   .Some  of  these  substances  can  he  removed  from  it  easily. 

I  The  effective  snhslance  is  iusolnhle  in  absolute  alcohol.  It 
can  lie  iireclpltaled  l.y  It.  thoiisih  not.  Indeed,  in  a  pure  con- 
dition, Imt  still  comliined  Willi  the  oilier  extractive  matter. 
It  Is  likewise  Insohilde  In  alcohol."  Dr.  Koch  closes  his 
statement  w  itli  some  learned  lecbuioal  observations  on  the 
specific  action  of  the  lymiili  when  injected  into  the  human 
system  aftected  by  tiiberenio.sis.  For  these  the  (.rofessional 
reader  must  be  referred  to  medical  Joiiruul^,  in  wliich  thcr 
may  be  found  in  full. 

BACTRIS  (from  a  (ireek  word  nieaniog  a 
"cane  "),  a  genus  of  slender  palms,  numbering  about 
forty  siiecies,  found  along  marshy  regions  in  the 
trollies,  where  it  somelimes  lorins  impenetrable 
forests.  The  .Maraja  palm  of  this  sjiecies  bears  a 
graiie-like  fruit,  which  is  eatable.  Toboga  canes 
are  made  from  the  stems  of  Jiactris  minor. 

BACULITES.  a  genus  of  the  fossil  family  oi  Am- 
moiiilUhf,  dilTering  from  the  true  ammonite  in  the 
perfectly  straight  form  of  the  shell,  which  tapers  to 
a  point,  and  is  either  round  or  compressed. 

Pi.\l).\(iKY,  a  port  of  L'[i|)er  (iuiuea,  from  which 
the  expedition  of  ISlTi,  under  bander  and  (.'lapper- 
ton,  started  on  an  exploring  lour  through  Central 
Africa.  It  is  under  British  rule,  and  formerly 
traded  extensively  in  slaves. 

BA DA  LOX.V,  a  Spanish  seaport  in  the  province 
of  Barcelona,  near  the  town  of  that  name.  It  car- 
ries on  ship-building,  and  glass  manufacture.  The 
surrounding  country  is  fertile  and  orange  groves 
abound. 

BAH  AXE,  a  small  village  of  Jlichigan  and  the 
counly-seat  of  Huron  county;  it  has  several 
churches,  banks,  two  newspapers  and  a  lumber- 
mill. 

BAl)DEKLOCKS,or  1 1 kxw are  (^tana  escuhnta), 
an  edible  sen-weed  of  the  sub-order  Fncnce.r,  grow- 
ing on  rocks  in  deep  water,  on  the  shores  of  Britain, 
Iceland  and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe.  It  has 
a  stem  lour  to  cighl  inches  long,  pinnated  with  a 
few  short  Ii.'aflels.  which  contain  the  seeds,  and  a 
niemliranous  olive-green  frond  two  to  twelve  inches 
long,  with  a  stout  mid-rib. 

B.VDE.M',  .Vdam.  born  in  New  York  city,  Dec.  2S), 
18ai.  He  entered  the  I'nited  States  arniy  in  1S02, 
aiul  was  aide  to  Brig.-Gen.  Thomas  W.  Shermtin. 
Wliili'  serving  in  this  capacity  he  was  wounded  in 
l»uisiana.  In  1M54  he  became  military  secretary 
(otieneral  <irai;t,  in  which  capacity  lie  remainecl 
till  istiii.  Ho  ■^^■,ls  sent  by  the  government  to 
London  and  Madrid,  and  accompanieti  (ieneral 
(iraiit  not  only  on  his  campaigns,  but  on  his  tour 
round  tht-  world.  He  has  written  a  romance,  a  col- 
lection of  essays,  and  two  volumes  on  the  life  of 
Ceneral  (iranl. 

BADEN,  til! AND  Di'ciiY  OF,  a  state  of  the  German 
Empire.  Area.o.SOl  square  miles.  Population  (ISSo;, 
l,(iitI,2o5,  Capital.  Karlsruhi\  with  a  populalion  in 
ISS.'i  of  (11.074.  For  the  early  history  of  Buden,  see 
Briiannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  L'L'4. 

The  present  royal  family  was  gazetted  Jan.  1, 
IWll.as  follows: 

Eriedrich  I  (reigning  Grand  Duke),  born  Sept*.  9, 
]HL>(i,  second  son  of  Grand-duke  Leopold  1,  and  of  • 
Princess  Sophie,  of  Sweden,  .\scended  the  throne 
of  l!;iden  at  the  death  of  his  father,  .\pril  24.  bS52. 
Married  Sept.  20.  l.srdi.  to  Grand-duchess  Luis,-, 
born  Dec.  3,  ISHS.  the  daughter  of  King  Wilhelm  I, 
of  Prussia.  Ojl'siiriiii/: — 1.  Frirdrirh  \\'ilht\m,\n\r\\ 
.luly  it,  .1S.57;  married  .Sept.  20,  1SS."),  to  Miidn, 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Nassau.  II.  VicUirio, 
bom  .\ug.  7,  lS(i2;  married  Seiit.  20,  1881,  to  crown 
prince  (riislaf,  of  Sweden. 

lirntliirit  (inil  SiMi-rx  nf  flieClranil-Oukr:  I.  Princess 
AU:e<itnlriiif,  lairn  Dec.  (i,  1820;  married  Maj"  8. 1842, 
to  Duke  Ernst,  of  Saxe-Coburg-(iotha.  II.  Prince 
ICiV/k/hi,  born  Dec.  is,  l,S2l);  married   Feb.  1 1    .-i.;{ 


1S6 


B  A  D  E  X  —  B  A  E  R 


to  Princess  Marie  Romanovska,  born  Oct.  16,  1841, 
daugliter  of  the  late  Duke  Maximilian,  of  Leuchten- 
l)eri,'.  Offspring  of  the  union  are  two  children  : — 1. 
Princes  Marie,  born  Jul}'  26,  1865 ;  married  July  2, 
1889,  to  Friedrich,  hereditary  prince  of  Anhalt. 
2  .  Prince  Maximilian,  born  July  10,  1SG7.  III. 
Prince  A'oc?,  born  March  9,  1832;  married  May  17, 
1871,  to  Rosalie  von  Buest,  elevated  Countess  von 
Rliena,  born  June  10,  1845.  IV.  Princess  Marie, 
born  Nov.  20, 18.34;  married  Sept.  11,  1858,  to  Prince 
Ernst,  of  Leiningen.  V.  Princess  Cecilia,  born 
Sept.  20,  1839 ;  married  Aug.  28,  1857,  to  Grand- 
duke  Michael,  of  Russia. 

The  constitution  of  Baden  vests  the  legislative 
authority  in  a  house  of  parliament  composed  of 
two  chambers.  The  upper  chamber  comprises  the 
princes  of  the  reigning  line  who  are  of  age;  the 
beads  of  the  mediatized  families ;  eight  members 
elected  by  the  nobility  ;  the  Roman  Catholic  arch- 
bishop of  Freiburg;  the  superintendent  of  tlie 
Protestant  Church;  two  deputies  of  Universities; 
and  eight  members  nominated  by  the  Grand-duke, 
■nithout  regard  to  rank  or  birth.  Tlie  second 
chamber  is  composed  of  63  representatives  of  the 
people,  22  of  wliom  are  elected  by  towns,  and  41  by 
rural  districts.  Every  citizen  not  convicted  of 
crime,  nor  receiving  parish  relief,  has  a  vote  in  the 
elections.  The  elections  ars  indirect,  the  citizens 
nominating  the  Wahlniiinner,  or  deputy-electors, 
iind  the  latter  the  represantatives.  The  members 
of  tlie  second  cliamber  are  elected  for  four  years, 
one-half  of  the  number  retiring  at  the  end  of  every 
twi)  years.  The  chambers  must  be  called  together 
at  lea;;t  once  every  two  years. 

The  Grand-duke  has  a  civil  list  (including  allow- 
ances to  the  princes  and  princesses  of  the  royal 
household)  of  1,944,840  marks— $486,210. 

The  population  of  the  nine  chief  cities  in  1885 
was  reported  as  follows : 


M;iniilK'im CI. -J";! 

K'lrlsi-iihe...  i;i.iir.i; 
Fieiljurg lUMU 


Pforzheim  ...27,201 
Heidelberg..  '2i;,<i2M 
Koiistauz 14,001 


Baden 12,779 

Kastatt 11,7-13 

Bruchsal 11,662 


For  the  religious  preferences  of  the  people,  see 
Rei.ioioxs  op  the  World,  in  these  Revisions  and 
Additions. 

The  statistical  reports  of  1800  showed  that  one- 
Inlfiif  the  iieople  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  the 
oilier  half  iiio.slly  in  manufactures.  The  meadows 
comi)rise  8(10  sq.  miles,  the  forests  cover  2,200  sq. 
miles,  and  |)art  of  the  timlier  is  exported.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  cigars,  cott.in  and  silk 
sliifTs,  straw  hats,  brushes  and  trinkets,  clocks, 
chemicals,  paper  and  machinery.  There  are  1,616 
(■lementary  schools,  58  colleges  and  other  middle 
schools  and  technical  academies,  also  two  univer- 
sities.  There  are  860  miles  of  railway,  almost  en- 
tirely belonging  to  the  state,  construcltid  at  a  cost 
of  !f  106,7511,000.  The  government  budget  for  1890 
was  estimated  at  $10,050,000;  the  public  debt  in 
l;;86  (chielly  for  railways)  was  $80,920,000. 

The  public  schools  (not  including  i)rivate)  of 
r>aden  in  18,S9  embraced  two  great  universities 
and  1,7.'54  others,  with  4,905  teachers  and  297,071 
si  iidents. 

I'..\1IEN,  Jacob,  a  Danish  philologist,  born  in 
Vordenliorg,  in  17.35,  died  in  1804. 

I!.M)K.\()CH,  a.  district  of  Inverness  in  the  north 
of  Scol  laud. 

B.MXiE,  a  distinctive  mark  or  sign,  an  lionorary 
decoral  ion,  or  special  cognizance  ;  as,  for  example, 
Iheliadgeof  a  society,  the  badge  of  ii  jiolice,  etc. 
Badges  arfM'ither  conferred  |jy  t  he  Slate  or  .-issunied 
bv  the  individual  for  purposes  of  distiiiclion,  the 
lormer  class  having  very  frc(|uenlly  had  their  ori- 
gin in  the  latter.     Of  badges  confi-rred    b.y  j>ublic 


authority,  for  the  purpose  of  inciting  to  exertion 
and  gratifying  honorable  ambition,  numerous  in- 
stances are  to  be  met  with  in  every  part  of  the 
world.  The  garter  of  the  English  knight,  the  golden 
fleece  of  the  Spanish  grandee,  the  liutton  of  the 
Chinese  mandarin  will  occur  as  familiar  examples. 
Of  badges  assumed  for  the  purpose  of  distinction 
none  are  more  famous  than  the  white  or  red  roses 
of  York  and  Lancaster.  Different  countries  have 
also  distinctive  badges,  generally  connected  with 
the  history  either  of  the  actual  ruling  or  of  some 
former  dynasty.  The  rose  of  England,  the  thistle 
of  Scotland,  the  golden  harp  and  trefoil  of  Ireland, 
and  the  emblems  of  the  several  States  of  the  Ameri- 
can Union  are  familiar.  In  the  Ashmolean  iluseum, 
Oxford,  is  an  old  and  interesting  badge,  called  King 
Alfred's  Jewel.  It  is  of  gold,  and  was  found  in 
Athelney.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XI,  p.  709. 

BADGER.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  227.  The 
American  liadger,  TaxiJia  ainericana,  very  corsmon 
in  the  West,  differs  from  the  European  species 
chiefly  in  the  dental  formula.  From  this  animal 
Wisconsin  has  been  nick-named  tlie  Badger  State. 

BADGER,  Geokge  Percy,  born  in  Chelmsford, 
England,  in  1815.  In  1840  he  was  ordained  a  clergy- 
man of  the  Cluirch  of  England.  He  is  best  known, 
however,  for  his  attainments  and  public  services  as 
an  Orientalist,  and  by  numerous  literary  works  on 
Eastern  subjects. 

BADGHIS,  a  country  lying  between  the  Harirud 
and  the  ^Slurghab  rivers,  north  of  Herat  and  south 
of  the  l)oundary  between  the  Russian  teiu-itories  and 
Afghanistan. 

BADIN,  Stephen  Theodore,  born  in  Orleans, 
France,  in  1768,  died  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,'  in  1853. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  after  having  received 
a  classical  education  in  a  Roman  Catholic  college, 
and  was  the  first  priest  ordained  in  this  country. 
After  a  time  spent  in  Georgia  College,  where  he 
perfected  himself  in  the  English  language,  he  was 
appointed  to  missionary  work  in  Kentucky.  For 
years  he  labored  alone  in  this  field,  sutTering  great 
hardships.  Later  he  was  sent  to  the  Indians  of 
Michigan,  among  whom  he  worked  successfully. 

BAD  LANDS,  known  also  by  their  French  n«me. 
Matiraises  Terres,  are  various  desolate  tracts  of  land 
found  in  the  western  parts  of  the  United  States. 
The  term  is  applied  es|iecially  to  an  extensive 
barren  region  lying  between  the  South  Fork  of  the 
Cheyenne  and  the  North  Fork  of  the  Platte,  com- 
monly known  as  the  Dakota  Bad  Lands.  This 
region  is  arid,  broken,  and  utterly  waste.  It  is  of 
tertiary  formation.  Fossil  bones  of  large  animals 
are  found  in  abundance.  The  broken  surface  of 
the  Bad  Lands  has  been  described  as  reseniblini; 
massive  artilicial  struct  ores  decked  out  with  all  Hie 
accessories  of  buttress  and  turret,  arched  doorway, 
and  clustered  shaft,  pinnacle  and  tapering  spire.  .V 
little  grass  is  found  here  and  there  iu  I  he  rainy 
season;  otherwise  this  desolate  region  alToids 
neither  vegetable  nor  animal  life,  nor  mineral 
prodnclions. 

BAEDKKKK.  K.vm,,  born  at  Essi>n  in  ISOl.  di.'d 
at  ('(iblcniz  in  1850.  lie  was  a  publisher  of  guide- 
books, afler  t  he  style  of  Murray's  Ihniil-hiit,!;.  which 
are  now  to  be  fouiul  in  almost  every  Kuro|H'an 
country.  His  descripl  iiui  of  the  Rhine  was  liis  lirsl 
guidi'-book. 

B.\F,K,  VoN,K.\iu,EuNST.  a  Russian-Gernian  nalii- 
ralist.born  in  Esthonia.  1792,  died  Nov.  29,  I.S70.  He 
made  discoveries  in  zoi'ilogy  and  physiology,  \\  as 
the  author  of  several  works  on  animals,  was  pro- 
fessor of  zoiilogy  at  K(">nigsbi>rg  and  later  was  elected 
librarian  of  Hie  .\cadeiiiy  of  Sciences  in  SI.  I'elers- 
liurg.  See  I'.rilaunica,  Vi'il.  XXIX'.p.  807;  \'ol.  VI 11, 
pp.  165.749,  763;  Vol.  XVI,  p.S39;  Vol.  XX, p.  421. 


1 


r>  A  FFA— C  A  II  i;  A  I  C  II 


IS" 


BAFFA,  the  Pa/jhos  of  ancient  times,  a  sea-port 
town  on  tlie  soul  Invest  coast  of  the  island  of  Cyprus. 
It  has  now  fallen  nnicli  into  decay,  and  has  hut  few 
inhabitants  and  a  small  trade  in  cotton,  silk,  and 
grain.  I'nder  Venetian  rule  it  was  a  jilace  of  con- 
siderable importance. 

BAtiAMOYO,  an  African  village  which  forms  the 
starting-point  for  caravans  going  into  the  interior. 
It  is  situated  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  oppo- 
site Zanzibar. 

BAGASSE,  C.AXE  Str.vw,  or  Ca.ve  Tr.\!?h,  the  ref- 
use matter  obtained  during  the  expression  of  the 
saccharine  juice  from  llie  sugar-cane. 

B.\tiElll)T.  W.vi.TiiK,  a  distinguished  English 
essayist  and  journalist,  born  at  Langport  in  1826, 
died  in  1877.  His  principal  productions  are  :  Tin' 
KiKjthh  ('ii)istitiitioit;  P/i //«((■.<  mid  l'<ililirx:  Lmiihanl 
iilreil;  and  live  volumes  of  essays  on  literature, 
biography,  economics,  and  tlie  depreciation  of  sil- 
ver. At  "the  time  of  his  death  he  had  been  for 
seventeen  years  editor  of  tlie  London  "Economist." 
See  Britannica,  Vol.  XIX,  p.  3!il>, «(  »<(/.;  also  Vol. 
VIII.  p.  259. 

BACiGAGE,  a  term  applied  in  a  general  sense,  in 
the  United  States,  to  the  trunks,  satchels,  and 
similar  receptacles,  with  their  contents,  which  a 
traveler  carries  with  him  on  a  journey.  In  this 
sense  in  England,  the  word  /»(/</«;;c  is  used.  In 
law,  such  articles  of  apparel  or  ornament,  and  other 
small  personal  effects,  as  are  of  daily  use  for  the 
convenience,  comfort. or  recreation  of  a  traveler,  in- 
cluding also  small  amounts  of  money  used  in  de- 
fraying incidental  expenses,  but  excluding  mer- 
chandise, are  protected  as  baggage.  In  military 
language,  the  clothes,  provisions,  utensils,  and  tents 
of  an  army  are  called  its  baggage. 

BAGHAL,  a  Punjab  hill-state  in  the  northwest  of 
India.  Area,  124  square  miles. 

BAGIIEKIA,  or  B.vgakh,  a  town  of  Sicily,  beau- 
tifully situated  at  the  base  of  the  isthmus  which 
si'parates  the  Bay  of  Termini  from  that  of  Palermo. 
It  is  surrounded  by  groups  of  tine  villas  of  the  Sicil- 
ian iKibility. 

BA(;lirL('UND,  or  Rewah,  the  name  given  to 
five  states  of  India  lying  south  of  the  districts  of 
Allahabad  and  Mirzapur,  liewah,  Xagode,  Maihar, 
,Siiliaii<il,  and  Kuilii. 

B.\GniOND"S  KOLI>,  so  named  from  Bajimond. 
an  Italian  canon.  It  designates  (he  valuation  ac- 
cording to  which  the  ecclesiastical  benefices  of 
Scotland  were  taxed  from  the  end  of  tlie  thirteenth 
century  to  the  Reformation.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  I, 
p.  4!il. 

B.V(;XAK.\.  a  town  of  Italy,  situated  on  the 
Gulf  of  Gioja,  about  fifteen  miles  northeast  of 
l;eggio ;  it  is  noted  for  its  excellent  wine. 

H.UiNES,  the  convict  prisons  of  France.  In  an- 
cient times,  the  severest  ])unishment,  next  to  death, 
was  that  of  the  galleys.  In  17-l.S  these  were  abol- 
ished, and  the  convicts  were  employed  at  hard 
labor  in  arsenals  and  other  public  works,  and  the 
jirisons  in  whicli  they  were  lodgc<d  were  called 
/ii((/((('/(,  from  the  Italian '/"7//'i;  literally  a  bath,  a 
name  supposed  to  have  originated  in  the  fact  that 
the  slave  prisons  at  Constantinople  contained  baths, 
or  because  they  stood  near  the  iiaths  of  the  seraglio. 
In  these  establishments  the  labor  of  the  convicts  is 
turned  to  profitable  account,  and  the  various  handi- 
crafts are  taught  in  the  |uisim  under  the  direc- 
tiiin  ol  overseers.  The  industrious  and  clever 
are  enabled  to  earn  small  wagi's.  and  good  be- 
havior is  rewarded  with  a  gradual  relaxation  of 
restraint. 

B.\GNI  DI  LUCCA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  valley 
of  the  Lima.  It  contains  several  medicinal  thermal 
springs,  and  is  a  fasliionable  bathii>g  place. 

?— 31* 


.BAGNO  A  KIPOLI,  a  charming  suburb  of  Flor- 
ence. Italy.  It  contains  many  fine  palaces  and  villas,, 
and  is  much  frei|uented  for  its  baths. 

BAGNO  IX  KOMAGXO,  a  town  of  Italy,  near 
the  source  of  the  Savio.  It  is  famed  for  its  hot  min- 
eral springs  containing  natran. 

BAGOAS,  a  Persian  soldier  who  poisoned  his  kin:;. 
Artaxerxes  Ochus,  and  then  made  Darius  Codd- 
manus  king.  The  latter  ungratefully  killed  Ba- 
goas  about  the  year  8oti  n.  c. 

BAtiOT,  SiK  CiiAiu.Hs  (I7S1-1S4,'?),  an  English 
diplomatist  who  was  minister  to  France  (18f4),  am- 
bassador to  St.  Petersburg  (IS29),  and  to  Holland 
(1S24),  and  lastly,  governor-general  of  Canada. 

BAGOT.  Lew-is  (1740-1802).  an  English  bishop, 
who  in  1777  was  nnule  dean  of  Christ  Church.  <')x- 
ford.  after  which  he  was  successfully  bishop  of  Bris- 
tol, Xorwicli.  and  St.  Asaph's. 

BAGKADITES,  the  royal  family  of  Georgia  and 
Armenia.  Bagrad  had  the  privilege  of  crowning 
the  Armenian  kings;  in  the  eighth  century  one  of 
his  descendants  became  king  of  Cieorgia,  and  thus 
the  Cieorgian  Bagradites  originated. 

BAGSiiOT  BEDS,  or  Baoshot  Saxd,  beds  of 
sand  with  occasional  layers  of  clay,  brick-earth,  or 
pebbles.  These  beds  belong  to  the  Eocene  Tertiary 
age.  are  found  on  London  clay,  and  have  a  maxi- 
mum thickness  of  1.200  feet. 

BAII.\MAS.  See  under  West  Indies,  Britannica, 
Vol.  X X I V,  pp.  500-51 2. 

B.VIIAK,  one  of  the  old  Jlohammedan  provinces 
of  India,  occupying  part  of  the  valley  of  the  Gan- 
ges, and  traversed  by  that  river,  lat.  24°  12'  to  25° 
21'  X.,  long.  38°  25'  to  8(1^  0'  E.,  included  in  the 
British  presidency  of  P>engal.  The  area  of  the 
province  is  42,417  square  miles.  The  name  of  Baliar 
was  also  given  to  one  of  the  administrative  dis- 
tricts, now  otticially  called  Gayah.  Area  of  the  dis- 
trict, 4.718  miles.  Among  the  minerals  the  most  im- 
portant are  coal  and  mica.  Tlie  latter,  nearly  as 
pellucid  as  glass,  is  sometimes  found  in  blocks, 
yielding  |ilates  3ti  by  18  inches.  Potatoes,  cabbages, 
cauliflower,  lettuce,  turnips,  etc.,  have  been  intro- 
duced from  Europe  and  succeed  well.  Of  indige- 
nous productions  the  most  considerable  are  rice, 
pulse,  sugar,  cotton,  indigo,  and  tobacco.  .The  dis- 
trict is  largely  engaged  in  manufacturing  muslins, 
silks,  carpets,  blankets,  tents,  tapes,  threads,  ropes, 
paper,  glass,  cutlery,  jewelry,  leather,  ink,  soap, 
and  pottery.  Population,  10.73ti,101  :  being  an  aver- 
age of  5.53  persons  to  the  square  mile. 

BAIIIA  IIOXDA,  a  harbor  on  the  north  coast  of 
Cuba.  (10  miles  west-southwest  of  Havana.  |irotectod 
by  a  fort,  and  formerly  much  resorted  to  by  jiri- 
vateers  and  slavers. 

BAHK,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  a  large  body 
of  water;  it  is  applied  both  to  lakes  and  rivers. 

B.MIK,  .loiiAXX  CituisTiAX  Feli.v,  an  eminent 
German  philologer  and  critic,  born  at  narmstadi  in 
170V!,  died  in  1872.  He  was  educated  at  llildelberg, 
where  he  gained  the  favor  and  friendship  of  Crcu- 
zer,  whose  symbolic  system  of  interpretation  in 
mylliolo-'ical  niatf''rs  he  himself  pursued  at  a  later 
period,  lie  was  elected  a  professor  in  182(i.  Pre- 
viously he  had  occupied  himself  chiefl.v  with  the 
elucidation  and  criticism  of  Plutarch,  theivsult  of 
which  was  annotated  editions:  Alrihimhs,  l'hil<>p<jc- 
1IIIII.  ridiiiliiiii.i,  and  I'l/nhiin.  One  of  his  most  im- 
portant works  is  his  version  of  Herodotus.  In  \K^b 
he  published  his  Ik  Unircrsitnte  Ci»i.sl'iiiUtioi)oli 
(Jiiiiilo  S:iriilii    f'limliln. 

BAHK.VICH,  a  town  of  India,  in  a  district  of 
the  same  name.  It  is  visited  aniuuilly  in  May 
by  thousands  of  pilgrims  to  the  shrine  of  Masaiid, 
a  Mirliaminedan  saint.*  -See  Britannica,  Vol. 
Will.  p.  72. 


i88 


B  A  H  Pv  -  E  L  -  A  B  I  A  D  —  B  .V  I  X 


BAHR-EL-ABIAD  ("white  river  "),  Arabic  name 
for  the  main  branch  of  the  Nile.  Its  sources,  so 
far  as  known,  are  Lalves  Victoria  Xyanza  and 
Albert  Nyanza,  under  the  equator.  It  flows  in  a 
northerly  direction,  and  unites  with  the  Blue  Xile 
at  Khartum.    It  is  navigable  for  about  1,300  miles. 

BAHE-EL-AYRCK  ("blue  river"),the  second  great 
branch  of  the  Nile.  It  runs  in  a  northwestward 
direction,  uniting  with  the  White  Nile  at  Khar- 
tum;  is  a  large,  rapid  stream  and  by  its  overflows 
contributes  greatly  to  the  fertility  of  Lower  Egypt. 
In  length  it  is  about  900  miles,  and  durisig  high 
water  the  river  is  navigable  for  500  miles. 

BAIL.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  L'41.  Histori- 
cally, the  vford  bail,  from  the  old  French  bailier, 
bears  the  general  sense  of  a  delivery ;  and  in  law 
is  used,  primarily,  of  one  who,  by  becoming 
surety  for  the  future  appearance  of  a  prisoner  at 
court,  delivers  him  from  present  custody ;  and,  sec- 
ondarily, of  the  security  given  for  the  procurement 
of  such  delivery. 

BAILEY,  Philip  James,  a  distinguished  poet, 
born  at  Basford,  in  the  county  of  Nottingham,  in 
1816.  His  early  education  was  conducted  in  his 
native  town,  and  afterwards  he  became  a  student 
at  the  University  of  Glasgow.  He  was  called  to 
the  English  bar  in  1S40,  but  never  practiced.  The 
first  edition  ol  FcstrKx,  the  poem  by  which  he  is 
best  known,  was  published  in  1839.  and  in  subse- 
quent editions  received  a  large  amount  of  new 
matter.  It  attracted  consideralile  attention  in 
England,  and  even  more  in  America.  It  is  a 
wonderful  work,  when  the  age  of  the  anther  at 
the  period  of  its  production  is  taken  into  account. 
It  was  commenced  before  the  author  had  reached 
his  20th  year,  and  completed  in  three  years.  In 
1867  appeared  his  Uiilri'rscil  Hi/mn. 

BAILEY,  a  wall,  space  or  prison.  See  Britannica, 
Vol.  II,  p-  460. 

BAILEY,  .T.\MKs  Montgomery,  born  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  Sept.  2.5,  1841.  He  received  only  a  common 
school  education  and  learned  the  carpenter's  trade. 
He  served  in  the  civil  war  till  its  close.  On  his  return 
hepureliased  the  "  Danbury  Times"  of  Danbury, 
Conn.,  changing  its  name  to  "Danliury  News."  He 
acquired  consideral)le  renown  for  the  short,  humor- 
ous sketches  which  he  published  in  this  paper. 
Among  his  books  are:  Life  in  Danhnrii,  Eiii/IiiikI. 
from  II  llarl:  Wiiulvn-,  Thi'ij  All  Do  It,  and  Tlic  Dan- 
huvy  Bnow. 

BAILEY  .TosEPTi,  a  farmer  of  Salem.  Ohio,  born 
April  28.  1827,  killed  by  desperadoes  March  21, 1867. 
He  entered  the  United  States  military  service,  and 
distinguished  himself  for  the  engineering  skill  dis- 
played in  building  two  dams  across  the  Red  Liver 
to  deepen  the  water  in  the  middle  of  the  channel 
and  thus  enable  the  ships  belonging  to  the  ^Ilssisslppi 
flotilla  to  pass  over  the  rapids.  The  scheni(>  was  suc- 
cessfully carried  out,  and  (Jolonel  Bailey  was  made 
brigadiei-general,  and  received  the  thanks  of  Con- 
gress. 

]{.VILEY,TiTKoi)oRus,  born  in  Chauteangav,  N.  Y., 
April  12,  1805,  died  in  Washington,  \\V,.,  Feb.  10, 
1877.  He  was  a  naval  otlicerand  twice  circumnavi- 
gated tlie.  gloi)e.  When  the  .Mexican  war  broke 
out,  he  conveyed  an  artilh'ry  comi)any  to  California 
by  way  of  Cape  Horn.  He  iook  (xirt  in  several  ex- 
peditions, suppressed  a  riot  in  I'anania,  helped  in 
restoring  friendly  feelings  between  the  United 
States  and  the  l''iji  Island(>rs,  and  when  the  civil 
war  broke  nut  ho  commanded  the  frigate  ( 'iiloriiilo. 
He  led  in  I'arragut's  attack  on  New  Orleans,  and 
was  sent  to  deman<l  the  surrendiM'  of  the  city — a 
commission  requiring  ^'reat  bravery.  The  navy 
yard  at  I'drtsmouth,  N.  if.,  was  [ila'ced  under  his 
command  from  l;,6o  to  18G7. 


BAILIE,  a  Scotch  term  with  s&veral  legal  appli- 
cations. It  chiefly,  however,  and  popularly,  ^ignil^e3 
a  superior  officer  or  magistrate  of  a  municipal  cor- 
poration in  Scotland  with  judicial  authority  within 
a  city  or  burgh. 

BAILIFF,  in  English  law,  a  legal  officer  who  may 
be  described  as  the  keeper,  protector,  or  superin- 
tendent of  some  duty  or  charge  legally  imposed 
upon  him.  The  sheriff  himself  is  the  (Jiiffn'^  huiUfr', 
and,  as  such,  it  is  his  business  to  preserve  the  rights 
of  the  crown  within  his  bailiwick. 

BAILIWICK,  legally  the  county  or  district 
within  which  the  sheriff's  bailiffs  may  execute  their 
office.  Blackstone  says  that  this  word  was  intr'i- 
duced  by  the  princes  of  the  Norman  line  in  imita- 
tion of  the  French,  whose  territory  was  divided  into 
bailiwicks,  as  that  of  England  into  counties. 

BAILLIE,  L.\DY  Grizel  (1665-1746),  a  Scottish 
poetess,  who  wrote  the  song,  An'  veri'im  mi^  Iwart 
liclit  I  vad  (he,  and  is  gratefully  remembered  for 
her  tender  and  heroic  devotion  to  her  lather.  Sir 
Patrick  Hume,  during  his  concealment  in  the  vault 
of  Polwarth  Church. 

BAILLIE,  Robert,  kno'mi  as  Baillie  of  .Tarvis- 
wood,  and  often  called  "The  Sidney  of  Scot- 
land," born  in  Lanarkshire  about  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century.  He  distinguished  himself  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II  by  his  bold 
opposition  to  the  tyrannical  misgovernment  of  the 
Duke  of  Lauderdale.  He  was  accused  of  cons])iring 
against  the  king's  life,  and  of  being  hostile  to 
monarchical  government,  was  tried  at  Edinburgh, 
and  condemned  to  death  upon  evidence  at  once  in- 
significant and  illegal.  The  sentence  was  carried 
into  execution  in  1684. 

BAILMENT,  in  law,  the  contract  by  which  goods 
are  delivered  to  another  person  without  the  sur- 
rendering of  ownership,  which  goods  are  to  be  re- 
turned or  accounted  for  at  a  specitied  time.  The 
word  also  refers  to  the  act  of  bailing  or  being  surety 
for  a  person  under  arrest.  The  person  making  the 
delivery  of  property  is  called  the  bailor ;  the  one  to 
whom  the  property  is  delivered  is  tiie  bailee. 

BAILY'S  BEADS,  named  from  Francis  Baily, 
who  first  fully  described  tliem.  They  are  appear- 
ances seen  at  the  limb  of  the  moon  at  t!ie  moment 
of  internal  contact  in  a  total  solar  eclipse.  They 
resemble  a  mw  of  brilliant  beads,  and  are  tlie  result 
of  ditl'raction  and  irradiation,  being  very  much 
exaggerated  when  the  telescope  is  out  of  focus  or 
imperfect. 

BAILYSTOK,  a  fortified  town  of  Western  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Grodno,  situated  on  the 
Baily.  It  is  well  built,  the  streets  are  l)ordered 
with  lime  trees,  giving  it  a  very  pleasant  aspect. 
Jl  liasaiialace  and  park,  a  commodious  market  and 
several  churches.  It  has  manufactories  of  wool- 
ens, hats,  leather,  soap,  tallow,  etc.  Population, 
16,985. 

B.\I\,  Ai,EX.\xnER,  a  Scotch  metaphysical  writer 
born  at  Aberdeen  in  1818.  He  graduated  at  tli>; 
I'niversity  in  that  city  in  1840.  He  occupied  the 
chair  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Andersonian 
University  (if  Glasgow  ill  1845.  He  was  appointed 
assistant  secretary  to  the  Metropolitan  Sanitary 
CJommission  in  1847,  and  to  the  General  Board  of 
Health  in  1850.  The  jjublication  of  '/Vic  .S'o'.'.r.v  nm/ 
till'  Iiilcllfct,\n  1855,  and  Tlii'  ICniolions  and  llif  ]\'!l!, 
established  his  re]nitat  ion  as  one  of  the  profoundest 
invest  ig.'itors  of  ]isycliological  |u-oblems.  His  other 
important  works  include  Mmiliii  ntul  Moral  iSciVhcc; 
l,o(jii\  Ihiliirlin'  mill  Jinhirllrr;  Mind  nini  Jiodij— 
Thi'iirlrs  iif  Thi'ir  Jliliiliiiii^  Ediirnlioii  im  a  Srlrnrr; 
/■'iii/HkIi  firiniimnr,  and  Kni/lixli  I'oinpoxition  and  J'ln'- 
orir.  lie  was  appointed  Uegins  Professor  of  Log'" 
ill  the   University   of  Aberdeen  in   1860,  and  Lo' i 


BAIN  15  u  1 1)  ( ;  ]•:  —  i;  a  k  e  r 


189 


Rector  of  that  T'niversity  in  1  SSI,  and  reelected  in 
1884.  He  was  appointed  Examiner  in  Logic  in  1857, 
an'l  Moral  Philosii|)liy  in  tlio  Tniversily  of  London, 
tiiul  in  l!S5S  was  Kxaininer  in  Moral  (>cience  at  the 
India  Civil  Servii-e  Exaniinalions.  See  Britan- 
nica.  Vols.  L  p.  L'23;  IIL  p.  534;  VII,  p.  t>48;  XX, 
p.  4o.      He  difil  Ml  I ^77. 

I?.\  IN  BRIDGE,  the  countT-seat  of  Decatur  county, 
-.eorgia,  ison  the  Flint  Kiver  at  the  head  of  navi- 
-'ation.  Much  cotton  is  shipped  from  here.  It  is  a 
riilroad  junction.  The  village  is  small,  hut  contains 
six  "'[lurches,  three  academies,  one  bank  and  has  a 
newspaper. 

n.XIM'.KIDGE.  asmall  town  of  Xew  York,  situ- 
ated in  Chenango  county,  on  the  Susquehanna 
Kiver  and  the  .-Vlhany  and  8usi|uehanna  Kailroad. 
ft  has  several  churches,  a  foundry,  printing  office, 
and  a  handsome  park. 

B.VINI'.KIDG;;.  Willum,  a  distinguished  Ameri- 
can naval  commander,  born  in  Princeton,  X.  J.,  in 
1774.  died  .July  L's.  l.'viS.  He  became  a  captain  in 
ISOi.  In  the  war  against  Tripoli,  his  vessel,  the 
frigate  I'ltitmli  lithin,  having  run  aground,  he  re- 
mained a  prisoner  from  October,  l.Sfti.  to  June  180-5. 
In  \!<V2  he  was  [nit  inconimr.i.d  ol  the  Ccnxlilution, 
the  /.V-.o'.i-  and  the  Hurnet.  In  Decembev  of  that 
year  he  captured  the  British  frigate  Java,  mount- 
ing 4i'  guns. 

B.\I.\"ES,Sii!  Edward.  See  bis  father's  biography, 
Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  245.  Sir  Edward  was  born 
in  Leeds  in  l.MKi.  and  died  in  ls:»0.  He  was  for  many 
years  editor  and  princip.'.l  proprietor  of  the  "Leeds 
Mercury,"  and  at  the  tinieofhisdeath  was  believed 
to  be  the  oldest  journalist  in  Europe,  having  been 
:onnected  with  tlie  press  for  seventy  years.  He 
represented  Lee'.s  in  parliament  from  1.S59  to  1874. 
He  was  a  staunch  Liberal,  and  was  long  known  as 
an  able  temperance  advo.-!ate  and  a  strong  non-con- 
formist.    He  was  knirjhted  by  the  Queen  in  1880. 

I'..\IXS  a.  f.  baths),  the  name  of  various  watering 
places  fif  France.  Bains-les-r<aiiis  is  or.e  of  these; 
it  is  ...ituated  14  miles  southwest  of  Epinal. 

B.VINS,  the  Latinized  name  of  Micliael  de  Bay,  a 
lheolof;ian  born  in  Hainault  in  1-">I3.  died  Dec.  10, 
1589.  He  was  jir.ifessor  of  Divinity  and  later  chan- 
eellor  of  Ix)uvain  University.  Having  adopted  the 
doctrini'S  of  St.  .\ugHstine,  hewroteon  free-willand 
grace;  hut  the  pope,  Pius  V,  condemned  his  work 
and  the  author  retracted.  Afterwards  the  .lansen- 
ists  a<h)pted  and  maintained  his  views. 

B.\II{.\KT.\H.  grand  vizier  under  Mahmud  II, 
lioni  in  17.")5.  diel  .Nov.  1.0,  1808.  See  Britannica,  Vol. 
XXUI.  p.  048,  1 1  /(q. 

B.MUD.  Henhy  Ckkky.  born  at  BriJesburg,  Pa., 
in  lsi'-">.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  l)ecame  a  part- 
ner in  the  publishing  house  with  wliich  his  name 
has  b<'i  11  idenlilied.  He  attained  distinction  as  a 
writer  and  pu!>llsher  of  industrial  and  economic 
works.  • 

B.\IUD,  J.VMES,  a  Scotch  philanthropist,  born  at 
Kirkwoiid  in  1802,  died  in  lS7i>.  He  amassed  Im- 
mense wealth  as  an  iron-master.  His  blast  furnaces 
employed  at  one  lime  more  than  ten  thousand  men 
and  iKiys.  He  endowed  various  schools,  founded 
lectures,  and  spent  vast  sums  of  money  in  the  miti- 
gation of  destitution  among  the  people  of  his  n.i- 
tivc  !ard. 

B.VIKD,  SpENc  KK  Ffi.i.ERToN.  an  eminent  .\nieri- 
can  naturalist  and  lllli'rniriir,  born  in  182.'?,  at  Kead- 
Ing.  Pa.,  died  in  1S.S7.  His  lirst  literary  work  of  Im- 
portance was  a  translation  and  revision  of  the  /<•«»- 
minijihic  Encijrl'jjnedin.  His  writings  on  natural 
history  were  numerous  and  valuable.  He  was  for 
many  years  secretary  of  the  Sniii  lisoni.iii  Institu- 
tion. He  was  very  prominently  active  in  the  work 
\  the  lluitod  Stales  Commission  of  Fish  and  Fish- 


eries. He  was  the  recipient  of  many  honors  and 
medals  from  foreign  societies  and  governments. 

B.VIZE.  from  the  old  French  f<ft/< -,  atliick  woolen 
fabric,  with  a  long  nap  on  one  side,  and  usually  of 
a  i)hiiu  red  or  green  color.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  IX, 
p.  2!i2. 

l'..\.rMOK,  a  large  Hungarian  village  in  the  Bacs 
province,  10  miles  southwest  of  Theresienstadt. 

B.VKAL.VH.VHI,  a  Bechuana  tribe  of  Africa  in- 
habiting that  portion  of  the  Kalahari  desert  lying 
lietween  the  Oran";e  Kiver  and  Lake  N'gami.  they 
arejiartly  civilized,  and  their  occupations  are  agri- 
culture and  goat  raising. 

BAKAX,  a  town  on  tlie  Bistrisza  River  in  Ron- 
mania. 

1!.\KCHISEK.\I  a  town  in  a  deep  limestone  val- 
ley in  the  Taurida,  inhabited  principally  by  descend- 
ants of  the  ancient  Tarters.  This  place  is  noted  as 
being  the  home  of  the  early  Crimean  princes,  whose 
ruined  palace  lias  been  restored  by  the  Russian 
government  to  its  former  splendor.  The  word  conies 
from  the  Turkisli.  and  means  "Garden   Palace." 

B.\KE,  J.\x,  born  at  Leyden  in  17R7,  died  in  !8(i4. 
He  wat^  professor  of  (ireek  and  Roman  literature  In 
the  L'niversity  of  Leyden  from  1817  to  18.")7,  and  also 
a  critical  writer.  He  edited  works  by  Cicero, 
Longinus  and  others. 

B.\KSH1SH.  The  ordinary  meaning  of  this  word 
in  Persian  is  a  pv^t>,'ut;  but  in  the  East,  in  modern 
times,  it  has  acquired  the  special  signification  of 
gratuity,  which,  however,  the  orientals  do  not 
(luietly  wait  to  receive,  but  demand  loudly, even  in- 
solently. F^very  traveler,  whether  in  Turkey  or  in 
F"gyi>t,  in  Asia  Minor  or  in  Syria,  if  he  receives  the 
smallest  service  from  anyone,  is  immediately  re- 
minded by  the  cry  oi,  "Bakshish,  Bakshish,"  to  pay 
for  the  courtesy  by  a  gift  of  money. 

BAJOCCO.  or  15aio( CO,  was  the  name  given  to  a 
piece  of  money,  valued  at  about  one  cent.  It  was  of 
copper  and  circulated  tliroughout  the  Papal  States. 

ii.-VKEK,  MotxT,  an  eruptive  volcano  among  the 
Cascades,  situated  in  the  northwest  of  Washington 
Territory.  20  miles  from  the  boundary  of  Canada. 
It  rises  to  a  height  of  11,100  feet. 

B.\KER,  .loHX  (ui.nniiT,  I'^nglish  botanist,  born  at 
Guisl>orough,  Yorkshire,  Jan.  13,1834.  See  Britan- 
nica, Vol.  XIX,  p.  595. 

H.\KER,  Laiwvktte  C.  born  at  Stafford,  Genesee 
county,  X.  V.,  Oct.  13,  lS2(i.  and  died  In  Philadelphia 
July  2.  1.>-"I>S.  He  was  chief  of  the  riiiled  States 
secret  service,  and  in  this  capacity  performed  many 
brave  acts.  Coh)nel  Baker  organized  the  pursuit  for 
the  assassin  of  President  Lincoln,  and  was  present 
at  P.ootli's  capture  and  death.  He  was  made  brig- 
adier-general. The  Jlistorii  of  the  I'nilid  Slotes 
.Sirii!  Si-nirf  was  a  book  written  by  him,  which 
throws  light  on  the  secret  of  the  late  war. 

B.VKER.  SiK  SAMfi:i.  WittTK.an  eminent  explorer 
and  author,  born  in  London,  Kngland.  in  1821.  He 
lirst  became  known  to  the  public  liy  the  establish- 
ment of  a  mountain  colony  in  Ceylon,  at  Xewera 
'  Ellia,  in  1847.  of  which  an  interesting  account  is 
1  given  in  his /''ly/if  )'.  >ir.<'  W'onilfrittgs  in  Cejilon.  In 
I  1801  he  organized  at  his  own  cost  and  conducted  an 
I  expedition  for  the  (fiscovery  of  the  sources  of  the 
Nile.  In  this  expedition  he  was  accompanied  by 
his  wife.  Having  reached  tlie  junction  of  the  At- 
bara  with  the  Nile,  he  explored  the  basin  of  the 
Blue  Nile,  and  made  his  way  to  Khartum,  wliere 
hf'  organized  a  p.arty  to  explore  the  course  of  the 
White  Nile.  He  arrived  at  tiondokoro  in  the  spring 
of  1S03.  where  he  met  Captains  Sjieke  and  Grant, 
who  had  started  from  Zanzibar  on  a  similar  qu.>st, 
aiid  reported  having  reacheil  Vieforia  Xyan;:a. 
which  tliey  believed  to  be  the  source  of  the  great 
river.      Baker  having   assisted  them    to  go  on   to 


190 


B  A  K  E  R  —  B  A  L  B  U  E  X  A 


Khartum,  resolved  to  follow  up  their  discoveries, 
and  without  either  interpreter  or  guide,  and  in  face 
of  many  difficulties  and  dangers,  set  out  from  Gon- 
dokoro,  and  a  year  afterwards  sighted  the  waters  of 
a  great  lake,  which  he  called  the  Albert  Xyanza.  The 
Royal  Geographical  Society  awarded  him  the  Vic- 
toria gold  "medal,  and  the  Queen  conferred  upon 
him  the  honor  of  knighthood.  He  undertook  a  suc- 
cessful expedition  into  Central  Africa  on  behalf  of 
the  Khedive  in  1869,  and  in  1S79  was  sent  by  the 
British  Government  to  investigate  the  resources  of 
Cyprus.  His  Wild  Beasts  ami  Thrir  IlVii/.f  was  pub- 
lished in  1890.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  I,  p.  248;  also 
Vol.  XVII,  p.  506. 

BAKER,  Wii-LUM^IuMFORD,  an  American  clergy- 
man and  writer  of  fiction,  horn  in  Washington,  D.C., 
in  1825,  died  in  1883.  His  principal  work.  Inside:  a 
Chronicle  of  Secession,  was  published  under  the  as- 
sumed name  of  "G.  F.  Harrington." 

BAKEWELL.  Robert,  an  English  agricultur- 
ist, born  about  1725,  died  in  1795.  He  is  noted  for 
his  work  in  improving  the  breeds  of  cattle  and 
sheep. 

BAKHTEGAX,  Lake,  a  body  of  water  in  Persia, 
60  miles  long  by  8  wide.  It  has  no  outlet.  A  salt 
marsh  surrounds  it,  and  large  quantities  of  salt  are 
obtained  from  the  lake. 

BAKOXY  WALD  (Forest  of  Bakony),  a  densely 
wooded  mountain  range  of  Hungary,  south  of  the 
Danube,  dividing  the  great  and  little  Hungarian 
plains.  Immense  herds  of  swine  are  annually 
driven  hitherto  to  feed  upon  the  mast   of  the  forest. 

B.\KING  POWDER,  a  substance  composed  of 
tartaric  acid  and  bicarbonate  of  soda.  All  moisture 
having  been  carefully  removed  from  these  materials 
they  are  sifted  together,  and  tlour  is  added  to  dilute 
the  strength.  In  baking  bread,  etc.,  baking  powder  is 
added  to  the  flour  to  produce  the  escape  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  through  the  action  of  the  water  used  in  the 
mixture  which  raises  the  dough  to  its  required  light- 
ness during  the  process  of  baking.  As  the  projierties 
contained  in  sour  milk  answer  the  purpose  of  tar- 
taric acid,  such  milk  is  often  used  with  bicarbonate 
of  soda  alone. 

B.\KUX1X,  Micn.^EL,  born  in  Torschok,  Russia, 
in  1814,  died  in  tieneva  in  1870.  He  was  son  of  a 
rich  family  and  enjoyed  educational  advantages  at 
the  military  school  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  later 
studied  science  in  Berlin.  He  spent  some  time  in 
Dresden,  Paris,  and  Switzerland,  at  which  last- 
named  place  he  became  acquainted  with  commun- 
istic and  socialistic  agitators.  In  1847  he  made  a 
speech  in  Paris  in  favor  of  revolutionizing  Russia. 
That  government  demanded  his  expulsion  from  the 
city,  and  after  this  hellirew  himself  vigorously  into 
all  nihilistic  movements  in  Kurope.  He  is  called  the 
first  nihilist.  He  was  imprisoned,  sentenced  to  death, 
exiled  to  Siberia,  but  escaped  to  .lajian  ;  then  to  tlu! 
United  States,  and  returned  to  r,ondon  to  resume 
his  revolutionary  work.  lie  advocated  the  destruc- 
tion of  all  things;  belief  in  God  we  must  get  rid  of; 
marriage  and  inheritance  are  to  be  abolished  ;  con- 
science is  to  be  regarded  only  as  a  matter  of  educa- 
tion. These  doctrines  are  called  "  the  very  platform 
of  the  Russians  conspiracy  knnwn  as  nihilism." 

i'..\LA  llKllS.a  Ideal  ilcqiisit,  occurring  in  the 
neighborhood  of  llala,  in  Nuiih  Wales,  and  forming 
a  gro\ip  in  the  Lower  i^ilurian  of  .Murchison.  They 
consist  of  a  few  beds,  rarely  more  than  20  feet  in 
thickness,  chiefly  composed  of  hard  crystalline 
limestone,  alternating  with  softer  argillaceous 
bands,  which  decompose  more  frci'ly,  and  leave  the 
limestone  like  a  cornice  nmldlng,  atlording  a  char- 
acteristic by  which,  at  a  considcrabh' distance,  the 
bala  beds  cun  be  distinguished  from  the  rocks  of 
bard  gritty  slate  above  and  below. 


BALSNICEPS. 


BAL.EXICEPS  ("whale-headed").     A   grallato- 
rial  bird    of  monstrous  size,  inhabiting  the  regioB 
of  the  Upper  Xile.     See 
Britannica,    Vol.    XXII, 
p.  577. 

BALAGHAT.  the  name 
of  a  British  district  in  the 
Central     I'rovinces    of 
India  ;  also  applied  to  an 
extensive  tract  of  coun- 
try   extending    between 
the   rivers    Krishna   and  -JM 
Tumbuddra  and  the  far-  "-J 
thest   extremity   of    My-  ^ 
sore  in  the  south.  /^J 

BALACHOXG,  a  Chi- 
nese  article  of  food,  pre- 
pared  from  putrid 
shrimps  or  small  fish 
pulverized  with  spices  and  salt,  after  which  they 
are  dried  and  eaten  with  rice. 

BALAHISSAR,  a  village  in  Asia  Minor,  in  the 
southwest  of  the  Angora  province.  It  was  here 
that  the  ancient  Pessinus  was  situated,  and  the 
modern  village  contains  the  ruins  of  beautiful 
buildings,  many  of  which  have  crumbled  away, 
leaving  only  their  finely  carved  marble  colunnis, 
etc.  Among  the  ruins  are  a  castle,  a  circus,  a  fairly 
well  preserved  theater,  and  the  magnificent  Temple 
of  Cybele,  this  deity  being  the  patron  goddess  of 
the  ancient  city. 

BALAKLAVA,or  B,\l.\clava,  a  small  port  on  the 
Black  Sea,  in  the  Crimea,  Russia.  The  inhabitants 
are  chiefly  Greeks.  The  town  was  anciently  fpiile 
magnificent,  as  is  shown  by  the  ruins  of  mosc|ues, 
etc.  Homer  has  correctly  described  the  bay,  and 
this  is  supposed  to  be  the  port  of  the  Lsestrigonians. 
where  Ulysses  landed.  The  place  is  now  famed  for 
having  been  the  battle-ground  in  an  action  between 
the  Russians  and  English,  Oct.  25,  1854.  Through 
the  inefficiency  of  ottieials,  British  soldiers  died  o( 
hunger  and  cold,  while  ships  lying  in  the  harbor 
were  freighted  with  the  necessarv  supplies. 

BALAXCE  OF  TRADE,  the  difference  between 
the  value  of  exports  and  imports  in  any  country. 
AVhen  the  value  of  the  exports  exceeds  that 
of  the  imports,  the  balance  of  trade  is  said  to  be  in 
favor  of  the  country.  A  nation  may  be  prosper- 
ous even  when  the  value  of  its  imports  exceeds  that 
of  its  exports. 

BALAXOtU.OSSUS,  a  genus  of  worm-like  anima)l 
supposed  to  rejiresent  a  distinct  class  of  Entorop- 
neusta  (gut-breathers).  They  have  the  peculiari- 
ties of  vertebrates  and  of  invertebrates  and  are  of 
four  species.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIV,  jip.  179, 187. 

P..\LAXrS.  See  AcouN  SuELi.s,  in  these  Revis- 
iiins  and  .Additions. 

l'.AI..\SI.\'OR,  a  tributary  Indian  state  in  the 
Guzerat  provintte  of  Bombay,  in  area  about  lot) 
.s<|uare  miles.  Balasinor  is  the  chief  town,  and  i? 
liftv-one  miles  to  the  north  of  liaroda. 

liALATOX,  L.VKE,  the  largest  lake  in  Hungary. 
Length  51  miles,  width  seven  miles,  area  about  o8Z 
S(|uare  miles.  The  water  is  sliglitly  salt;  Ihirtv 
streams  flow  into  this  b'^dy  of  water,  whose  outlet- 
il re  the  Sin  and  .'■^arviz,  which  eni|ity  into  t  he  Ihiiuibr. 

B.\  M! I,  ( lAsi'AUo.  a  N'eneliau  merchant  nf  the  Hit' 
century.  He  was  the  first  traveler  who  has  left  at' 
account  of  India  beyond  the  Ganges.  Business 
often  called  him  to  Aleppo;  and  from  thence,  oi\ 
one  occasion,  he  made  a  visit  to  India,  which  lasted 
several  y(>ars.  After  his  return  he  published,  in 
1590,  the  result  of  his  travels  in  a  volume  entitled 
Vimi'lio  air  Indie  Orieiilali. 


tl 


U.\  l,l!ri:N.\.  Di-:  r.KUXAiuio,  a  Spanisli  poet,  only 
if  whose  piiems  remain.     He  was  born  at  Vaf- 


B  A  L  B  T'  S  —  15  A  I.  F  0  U  II 


101 


de-Peuas  in  1568,  and  died  at  Porto  Rico  in  lii27.  He 
wa3  liishop  of  the  last-mentioned  place.  La  graii- 
iitii  M'jiriiiHi,  El  High  </f  Ofo,  and  El  liernardo 
are  his  works. 

HALliUf?,  L.  Cornelius,  surnamed  Major,  born  at 
Cadiz  (Gades).  He  was  a  Roman  officer  who  served 
under  C:t'sar  in  Spain  in  61  B.C.  He  was  chosen 
consul  in  40  b.  c. 

HALCUNY  (It.  /«(/coi!#),  a  projecting  gallery  in 
front  of  a  window  or  of  several  win- 
dows, with  a  lialustrade  or  parii)iit 
before  it  and  supported  by  consoltv- 
or  lirackets  fixed  in  the  wall,  or  by 
pillars  resting  on  the  ground  below. 
The  balcony  was  unknown  in  (irei'k 
and  Uriniaii  architeeturi'.and  is  prcli 
ably  an  Italian  contrivance,  as  thi- 
eixriiest  examples  of  it  occur  in  Italy, 
to  the  climate  of  which  country  it  i- 
peculiarly  adapted. 

15.\LD,   or  AVhite-Headed  E.\gi.e, 
so  called  from  the  snow-white  color       balcony. 
of  irs   neck   and   head.    This  bird   is 
very  large,  being  from  seven  to  eight  feet  from  tip 
to  tip  of  its  wings.     Its  food  is  tish.  small  animals, 
or   any   poultry   it   can   get.    This   bird   has  been 
adopted  as  the  national  emblem  of  America. 

I'.ALUACHIX  (It.  baldacchhio),a  tent-like  or  um- 
brella-shaped canopy,  overshadowing  the  altars, 
chairs  and  portals  of  the  early  cathedrals,  and 
sometimes  placed  above  thrones,  generally  sus- 
tained by  pillars.  One  of  the  most  celeljrated  is  in 
St.  Peter's  at  Rome.  The  Romans  in  the  time  of 
Constantine  suspended  the  sacramental  vessel  by 
a  cord  fastened  to  the  center  of  the  interior  of  this 
canopy,  which  from  its  cup-like  appearance  they 
called  rihoria.  The  baldachin  originated  in  East- 
ern countries,  where  there  was  still  another  form, 
a  S'luare-shaped  structure,  which  was  borne  above 
the  head  of  a  priest,  who  carried  the  host,  or  above 
the  lieads  of  monarchs  as  signiticant  of  greatness. 
The  employment  of  these  structures  in  .\nglican 
churches  was  in  1873  declared  illegal,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  suggestion  that  one  be  used  in  the 
buil  ling  of  St.  Barnabas'  Church.  The  baldachin 
was  introduced  into  Italy  through  the  medium  of  the 
crusades.  See  CiBoiur.M,  Britannica.  Vol.  II,  p.  462, 
and  Umureli..*,  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  723. 

B.\LDERIC,  or  Baidrv.  a  Krencii  bishop  and 
chronicler  of  the  latter  part  of  the  llth  century. 
He  endeavored  to  restore  rigid  monastic  rule. 

BALDMOXEY,  an  umbelliferous  plant  used  as  a 
carminative  medicine;  it  is  also  commonly  applied 
to  several  kinds  of  gentian. 

B.\M)NKSS,  an  entire  absence  of  hair  from  the 
head,  sometimes  hereditary,  but  more  generally 
occurring  from  old  age,  or  in  consequence  of  dis- 
ease, as  t'l'vers  and  skin  diseases.  See  Britannica, 
Vol.  XXII,  p.  121. 

B.VMH'.VTE  (American  widgeon,  the  Mareca 
Amerifatia},  a    duck  ^^ 

loujid  in  Jlexico,  \\'','//^'^ 
United  States,  Can- 
ada. South  America, 
and  sometimes  in 
Europe.  It  has  a 
white  crown  and  its 
pluma:;e  is  marked 
with  red, brown, cliest- 
nut  and  white.  This 
duck  is  much  es- 
teemed for  the  deli- 
cacy of  its  llesh. 

B  A  1, 1)  R  I C  K,     or 
BAfi'HicK,    a    band     or    sash    worn    partlv    as    a 
military,   and     partly    as   a    heraldic   symbol.     It 


passes  round  the  waist  as  a  girdle,  or  over  the  left 
shoulder,  and  is  brought  down  obliquely  under  the 
right  arm,  or  is  suspended  from  the  right  shoulder 
in  such  a  way  as  to  sustain  a  sword. 

BALUUXG,  Ha.ss  ((irini).  See  GrOn  Hans 
Balding.  Britannica,  Vol.  XI,  p.  224. 

BALDWTX,  AisHAMAM.  horn  in  tiuilford.  Conn., 
Nov.  6,  1754,  died  in  Washington,  I).  C,  Ularch  4, 
1807.  He  graduated  at  Vale,  was  made  chaplain  in 
the  army,  studied  law  and  was  elected  to  the 
Georgia  legislature  ;  chosen  delegate  to  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  for  three  years,  a  member  ot  t!ie 
constitutional  convention  for  four  months. and  a 
representative  in  Congress  for  eighteen  years.  He 
originated  the  idea  of  the  Georgia  University,  and 
carried  the  scheme  to  a  successful  issue  in  the  State 
legislature,  and  assisted  a  number  of  young  men  in 
obtaining  an  education. 

B.\LU\VIX.  Mattuias  William,  an  American 
inventor  and  manufacturer,  born  at  Elizabethtown. 
N.  .1.,  in  1795,  died  at  Philadelphia  in  ISKfi.  He 
made  numerous  and  valuable  improvements  in  lo- 
comotives, and  perhaps  constructed  the  first  rail- 
way engine  built  in  America. 

BALI>\VIX,  RodEK  S^HERMAX.  bom  in  Xew 
Haven,  Conn.,  .Ian.  4,  17!i3.  died  Feb.  19,  1863.  He 
was  an  eminent  jurist,  and  was  associated  with 
John  Quincy  Adams  in  conducting  the  famous 
Amistad  captives  case.  He  was  successively  assem- 
blyman, senator  and  governor  of  his  native  State. 
In  1847  he  went  to  the  United  States  Senate.  He 
was  one  of  two  electors  "  at  large  "  for  the  choice  of 
Abraham  Lincoln,  and  his  last  public  labors  were 
l)erformed  at  the  "peace  congress"  of  1801,  to 
which  he  was  sent  as  a  member. 

BAl.DWIXSVILLE,  a  village  12  miles  north  of 
Syracuse,  situated  in  Onondaga  county,  X.Y..  and  on 
Seneca  River.  The  Oswego  and  Syracuse  Railroad 
passes  through  the  place. 

BALEARIC  CRAXE,  a  bird  found  in  the  north- 
ern and  western  parts  of  .\frica.  It  is  noted  for  its 
beautiful  crown  of  golden  feathers  and  its  red 
cheeks.  The  plumage  of  its  body  is  slate  colored. 
It  is  about  four  feet  high,  has  a  short  Inll,  is  gentle 
and  harmless  and  is  quite  easily  tamed. 

B.\LECHOU,  .Ieax  Josei-h  Xicolas,  a  noted 
French  engraver,  Ixirn  at  .Vrlesin  1715,died  Aug.  18, 
1705.  In  style  he  was  brilliant,  but  his  drawings 
lack  exactness  and  nice  finish.  His  liest  works  are 
Sliinii  Ciitiit,  ]\'ij)iiiti  JiiflliiiK/,  Siiilil  (leiuriirf.  and 
a  full-lenath  jwrtrait  of  .\ugustus.  King  of  Poland. 

BALEX,  Hexdkhk  Van  (15ti0-1032),  a  Flem- 
ish painter,  and  Van  Dyck's  first  teacher.  He 
ranks  high  among  the  artists  of  his  time,  although 
his  paintings  are  somewhat  lacking  in  spirit.  His 
works  show  taste  and  harmonious  colorin-;. 

B.M.ESTR.A.  .\nto.\io,  an  Italian  painter  of  the 
Venetian  school. born  at  Wronain  lOtiO, died  .\pril  2, 
1740,  He  was  a  good  colorist  and  skillful  designer. 
His  best  paintings  are  .Sniiit  Tli<ri»u,  &  \'irgiii.  and 
his  own  portrait. 

B.ALFOUR.  Artiii-r,  philosophical  scholar  and 
author  of  Drfeiini'  of  I  liiluiiiiphic  Doubt.  He  was 
born  in  1.'<4S.  "See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI.  p.  3S0. 

I'.M.FOUR,  Fkan(  IS  Maiti.axd,  lirother  of  Ar- 
thur I'...  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1851.  and  on  .Inly 
10,  1S.S2,  he  perished  in  an  attempt  to  ascend  one  of 
the  spurs  of  Mont  I'.lanc.  He  was  a  noted  embry- 
ologist.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  \'III,  p.  ItiO;  Vol.  X5c. 
p.  418. 

BALFOUR,  John  Hi'Tton,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Sept.  15,  1S08;  died  Feb.  12.  1884.  He 
was  professor  of  botany  at  Glasgow  and  afterwards 
in  Edinliurgh.  and  published  a  Mniiual  of  Bulnnij 
and  a  '  7(i,<.-'  Ilmik  of  liolumi  and  the  article  on 
Botany  in  Britannica,  Vol.  IV,  jip.  79-163. 


192 


B  A  L  F  0  U  R  —  B  A  L  L  -  F  L  0  W  E  R 


BALFOUk,  Rev.  AValtek.  born  in  Scotland. 1777. 
and  died  Jan.  3,  1852.  He  was  brought  up  a  Pres- 
byterian, but  became  a  Baptist  and  later  a  Univer- 
salist.  He  wrote  several  books,  among  which  were 
Inqiuriia  Concerning  the  Devil,  Scriptural  Import  of 
the  Words  Translated  Hell,  and  The  State  of  tlie 
Dead. 

BALIOL,  OR  Ballioi.,  Edward,  a  son  of  King 
John  Baliol  and  heir  to  the  Scottish  throne.  He 
was  crowned  at  Scone  in  1332,  after  an  invasion  of 
the  country,  but  retained  the  throne  only  three 
months.  He  died  in  1363.  See  Britannica.  \'ol. 
XXI,  p.  4S9. 

BALISTA,  OR  Ballista,  a  weapon  among  the 
larger  Ivinds  of  military  engines   in   use  before  the 

invention  of  g  u  n  - 
powder.  The  balista, 
which  was  in  the 
form  of  a  cross-bow, 
propelled  large  and 
heavy  missiles,  chief- 
ly through  the  reac- 
tion  of  a  tightly 
twisted  rope  of  hemp, 
flax,  cat-gut,  sinew  or 
hair,  or  else  by  a 
violent  movement  of 
BALISTA.  levers.      It  required 

a  good  deal  of  mechanism  to  bring  about  the 
propulsive  force.  The  makers  of  the  machine  were 
very  particular  in  the  choice  of  women's  hair, 
the  sinews  of  a  bull's  neck,  and  the  tendons  of  the 
deer,  for  fastening  the  elastic  cord.  The  early 
chroniclers  tell  of  a  balista  which  threw  a  stone 
weighing  360  pounds. 

BALISTES,  a  genus  of  fishes.  See  File-Fish, 
Britannica,  Vol.  IX,  p.  161. 

BALIZE,  OR  Belize,  a  British  colony  on  the  Bay 
of  Honduras,  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  extending  in  N. 
]at.  from  16°  4.5'  to  18°  30',  and  W.  long,  from  88°  10' 
to  89°,  forming  the  southeast  part  of  "the  peninsula 
of  Yucatan.  Its  area  is  about  9,000  square  miles. 
Population.about  30,000. 

BALKASII  ("large  lake"),  a  lake  of  Asiatic 
Russia, having  no  visible  outlet.  Its  length  is  390 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  50  miles. 

BALL,  Sir  Kobeiit  Stawell,  LL.D.,  F.  R.  S.,born 
in  Duldin,  .July  1,  1S40.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
CoUege,  Dublin,  and  in  l.'fliS  Lord  Rosse  engaged 
him  as  his  astronomer  at  Parsonstown.  He  became 
Professor  of  .\pplied  Mathematics  and  ^Mechanics 
at  the  Royal  Irish  College  of  Science  in  1873;  the 
following  year  he  was  nuide  astronomer  royal  for 
Ireland  and  Andrews  professor  of  astronomy  at 
IJulilin  University.  He  was  knighted  in  1886.  He 
is  well  known  as  a  lecturer  and  writer. 

BALL,  Thomas,  an  eminent  .\merican  sculptor, 
born  at  Charleslown,  Mass.,  in  1819.  His  most 
esteemed  works  of  art  are  statues  of  Wasliington, 
Welisler  and  Everett,  and  busts  of  CJhoale  and 
Webster. 

BALLABGAHR,  an  Indian  town  situated  in  the 
Punjab  in  the  native  state  of  Ballaljahr,  of  which 
it  was  once  the  cajiltal.  It  carries  on  a  food-grain 
trade  and  has  several  temph's  and  a  palace. 

B.VLLACIIIILISU,  a  village  of  Scotland,  m^ 
miles  south  of  Fort  William,  in  Argyllshire,  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  salt-water  lake  of  Leven, 
noted  for  its  extensive  quarries  of  blue  clay-slate, 
which  have  l)een  worked  since  1760,  anil  give 
employment  to  nearly  600  men.  The  product  of 
these  (|uarries  now  averages  aniiuiilly  almut  17,0(X),- 
000  rooling-slatcs,  weighing  scjme  30,000  tons.  Pop- 
olation,  alioul  1,000. 

BALr>.\UK,  a  French  style  of  ])oem  composed  of 
one  or  more  terms,  or  triplets,  of  stanzas,  vach  of 


which  contained  seven  or  eight  lines.  It  usually 
ended  with  an  envoy,  and  each  stanza  with  the 
same  line  as  refrain.  'Ihe  term  is  now  often  applied 
to  poetry,  divided  into  stanzas  of  the  same  length. 
See  Britannica,  Vol.  IX,  p.  644. 

BALLANTINE,  James,  poet  and  artist,  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  180S,  died  in  1877.  He  learned  the 
trade  of  a  house  painter,  but  studied  drawing  under 
Sir  William  Allen  and  turned  his  attention  to  stain- 
ing glass,  taking  a  prominent  part  in  the  revival  of 
that  art,  and  was  employed  to  furnish  the  Hou.se  of 
Lords  with  windows.  His  work  on  Glass  Stainimj, 
published  in  184.5,  was  translated  into  German. 
Among  his  works  are  Otie  Hu/idred  Sovr/s,  nith 
Music  (1865),  Life  of  Dariil  Boberts,  A'.  .1.  (1866K 
LiliasLee  (1871),  and  numerous  poems  written  from 
1856  to  1865 ;  he  also  wrote  two  volumes  in  prose, 
The  Gaberlunzie's  Wallet  (1843),  and  Miller  of  Dean- 
haugh,  in  which  are  contained  some  of  his  best- 
known  songs  and  ballads. 

BALLANTINE,  AVilliam  (1812-1886).  He  was 
an  able  sergeant-at-law,  and  for  some  years  filled 
the  office  of  magistrate  at  the  Thames  police  court. 
He  was  mainly  employed  in  criminal  cases,  the 
most  important  being  the  Tichborne  case,  the  de- 
fense of  the  Guicowar  of  Baroda,  and  the  ^Nluller 
murder  trial.  He  wrote  E.rperiences  of  a  Barrister'i 
Life  (1882),  and  an  account  of  his  voyage  to 
America,  called  The  Old  World  and  the  Xeu-  (1884). 

BALLANTRyE,  a  Scotch  fishing-village  in  the 
southern  part  of  Ayrshire,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Stinchar.  It  has  considerable  occupation  in  lish- 
curiug,  and  carries  on  the  chief  trade  of  the  south- 
west fishery  district. 

BALLANTYNE,  James  (1772-1883),  and.Joiix,  his 
brother  (1774-1S21),  Scotch  printers  employed  by 
Scott  in  the  publishing  of  his  works.  Scott  after- 
wards secretly  joined  them  in  their  busine«s,  and 
chiefly  through  his  mismanagement  they  were 
at  length  bankrupt.  .  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI, 
p.  .548. 

BALLANTYNE,  Robert  M.,  a  Scotch  author, 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  182-5.  His  stories,  which  were 
generally  founded  on  facts  taken  from  his  own  ex- 
perience and  adapted  for  boys,  were  sound,  sensi- 
ble and  popular.  He  liegan  his  literary  career  in 
1856,  writing  tales  concerning  incidents  that  look 
place  during  his  residence  among  the  Red  Indiana 
and  fur  traders  in  the  forests  of  Rupert's  Land. 
He  had  published  his  first  work,  liowever,  in  1848, 
an  account  of  his  six  years'  experience  in  the  terri- 
tories of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  (1841-1847).  In 
1887  he  had  issued  74  volumes,  of  which  62  were 
separate  tales. 

BATjLAST,  a  heavy  substance  employed  to  give  a 
ship  sutticient  hold  of  the  water  to  insure  her  safe 
sailing  with  si)read  canvas  when  her  cargo  and 
equipment  are  too  light.  The  term  Ijallast  is  also 
employed  liy  civil  engineers  to  signify  the  sand  or 
gravelly  material  which  is  held  as  a  packing  l)e- 
tween  railway  sleei)ers  in  order  to  give  them 
solidity. 

B  ALL  E  NY  IS-  .^ii-^^^S:- 
LANDS,  a  group  of 
five  small  volcanic  is- 
lands in  thi>  .Antarc- 
tic Ocean.  Lat.66°44' 
S.    Long.  i(;:i°  ir  E. 

BALL-KL()\VER,an 
ornament  peculiar  to 
the  decorated  style  of 
Gothic  archili'cture 
whicli  prevailed  in 
the  lit  h  century.  The 
ball-Hower,   s.i    named  balixxis-fisii. 

from  itsreseml)linga  ball  placed  iu  a  circular  flower, 


r.  A  L  L  I  X  R  0  B  E  —  B  A  T.  L  O  T    ^>  V  S  T  V.  M 


193 


is  supposed  by  some  to  he  an  imitation  of  a  iiunie- 
graiiate,  hv  others  of  a  liawk's  bill. 

I'.ALMNKor.I-:,  a  small  town  on  the  Robe  Kiver, 
ill  tlie  County  of  Mayo.  Ireland.  It  is  situated  17 
tniles    from  Oastlebar.      See  Britannica,  Vol.  XV, 

P..\LLASTIC  PENDULUM,  an  instrument  in- 
vented by  Benjamin  Robins  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  last  century,  to  ascertain  the  velocity  of  pro- 
jectiles, and  to  prove  the  quality  of  gunpowder.   See 


,^,S<f.m^j 


(tin.\i:hv.       Britannica, 
Vol.  XI,  p.  lW. 

BALLoOX-riSII,  the 
families  of  Tili-tnlintliiUi; 
DioddiiUdic  and  Ti-imltm- 
lidiv.  Several  species 
are  found  in  .Vmerica ; 
they  are  so  called  from 
their    power    to    inflate  diodo.n. 

themselves  with  air.    The  sea-bedgebog. 


BALLOT  SYSTEM.  ArsTRALH.v.  For  ballot  and 
ntlier  methods  of  volliifj  in  various  countries,  see 
Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  L'!SS-lii.'.  The  "  Australian 
liallot  system,"  now  exciting  large  attention  in  the 
United  States,  where  it  was  adopted  by  many  of 
the  States  in  18S9  and  1  Si  til,  seems  to  have  been 
first  suggested  by  thi"  Hon.  Francis  S.  iJutton,  mem- 
ber of  the  legislature  of  .South  Australia  from 
1851  to  1805,  and  twice  during  that  period  at  the 
head  of  the  government.  He  first  proposed  it  in 
the  legislature  of  1851.  No  law  under  the  pro- 
posed system  was  adopted  by  the  legislature  until 
the  session  of  1857-58,  when  a  modified  plan  was 
enacted  under  the  name  of  the  "elections  bilL" 
Its  results  gave  immediate  .satisfaction,  and  every- 
where the  new  machini>ry  was  declared  to  "work 
with  the  greatest  smoothness,  ease  and  economy." 
The  whole  as])ect  of  the  election  was  said  to  have 
completely  clianged.  "Rioting  and  disorder  dis- 
appeared com|)letely,  and  the  day  of  election 
became  a  day  of  quietness — so  much  so  that  a 
stranger  would  not  recognize  the  presence  of  any 
unusual  intrri'st."  By  the  liallot  Act  of  lSfi2,  it's 
essential  (irinciples  were  applied  to  all  elections 
other  than  to  the  legislative  council  and  the  as- 
sembly. In  187t)  the  system  was  made  to  cover 
the  election  to  district  councils,  and  in  1887  was 
applied  to  rural  government  also;  so  that  the  sys- 
tem extended  to  all  elections  in  the  colony  of  South 
Australia. 

In  the  colony  of  Victoria  the  system  was  adopted 
for  parliamentary  elections  soon  after  its  intro- 
duclion  into  South  .Vuslralia;  in  IStU  it  was  ap- 
plied to  county  and  municipal  elections.  The  sys- 
tem was  adopted  for  parliamiMitary  elections  in 
Tasmania  in  1858,  and  later  for  all  other  elections. 
New  South  Wales  adopted  it  the  same  year. 

The  Australian  ballot  system  was  introduced 
into  the  Dominion  of  Canada  as  follows:  It  was 
adopted  by  British  Columbia,  Feliruary,  1873  (Bal- 
lot .Vet  .3(i  Vict.);  by  the  Ontario  legislature  in 
1874  (Ballot  Act  o7  ^■ict.);  by  the  Dominion  parlia- 
ment, 1874  (Dominion  Elections  Act  'M  Vict.);  by 
the  legislature  of  tiuebec,  1875;  by  the  general 
assembly  of  Nova  Scotia,  1S75  (StAtute-s  1875.  chap. 
2());  by  the  Northwest  Territories,  1885  (by  the 
Lieut.  Gov.  in  Council);  and  bv  the  Manitoba 
assembly,  18.80  (Klections  Act  18.86,  chap.  :25).  At 
later  dates  application  of  tlie  system  was  made  to 
cover  the  municipal  as  well  as  the  legislative  elec- 
tions in  the  several  provinces  of  the  Dominion. 

On  the  European  continent  Bi-lsium  was  the  first 
tnintrodu('e  the  system.  This,  after  numerous  un- 
successful attempts,  was  efTeclively  done  on  .Inly  !), 
1.S77.  The  English  electoral  acts  were  adopted 
with  various  important  modifications.  In  1870  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Luxembourg  ado|it(>d  the  Belgian 
method  almost  in  its  entirety.  In  Italy  the  various 
reforms  relating  to  the  secret  ballot,  as  adopted  liy 
the  other  European  nations,  which  had  followed 
the  Australian  lead,  were  consolidated  in  the  acts 
2— 13 


of  .Jan.  22  and  May  7,  1882,  and  were  formally  an- 
nounced by  royal  decree  of  Sept.  14,  1882.  In 
order  to  render  the  law  more  certain  of  enforce- 
ment, a  reading  and  writing  (lualification  on  the 
part  of  tlu>  voter  was  imposed  by  the  consolidated 
act  of  1882. 

In  the  United  States  the  earliest  practical  efforts 
in  the  direction  of  legislative  action  were  put  forth 
in  -Michigan  in  USSf),  when  a  bill  embodying  the 
Australian  system  was  introduced  by  Mr.  Geo.  W. 
Walt  hew,  of  1-ansing.  The  bill  failed  of  a  majority; 
but  in  1887  the  bill  in  a  revised  form  was  again  pre- 
sented and  j)assed  the  House,  but  failed  in  the 
Semite.  In  Kentucky  a  bill  emliodying  the  system 
in  part,  but  applying  only  to  the  "municipal  elec- 
tions of  the  city  of  Louisville,  was  drafted  by 
.\rthur  .M.  Wallace,  of  that  city,  and  was  enacted 
by  the  legislature  Feb.  25,  1.888',  with  only  one  dis- 
senting vote.  In  New  York  the  system'  was  em- 
bodied in  a  bill  known  as  the  .Saxton  bill,  and  passed 
both  houses  of  the  legislature  in  1.88$,  and  after 
some  modilication  was  again  passed  in  18.89,  but  in 
both  cases  it  was  vetoed  by  the  Governor.  Early 
in  1S!H)  the  bill  was  further  changed,  to  meet  the 
Governor's  objections,  and  then  again  passed  and 
became  a  law,  and  under  its  provisions  the  Novemlier 
elections  throughout  the  State  were  held.  In  Massa- 
chusetts the  first  legislation  in  favor  of  the  system 
dates  from  May  30,  1888,  when  the  Governor  ap- 
proved a  bill  embodying  the  leading  features  of  the 
reform  method.  In  18.89  the  example  of  Massa- 
chusetts was  followed  by  th(>  legislatures  of  other 
States  in  the  following  order:  Indiana,  Rhode 
Island.  A\'isconsin,  Tennessee.  Minnesota,  ^lissouri, 
Michigan,  and  Connecticut.  In  l.S9()  the  adoption 
of  the  general  system  took  place  in  other  States,  as 
follows :  AVashington,  New  York,  Maryland,  and 
Vermont. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  preceding  epitomized  chro- 
nological outline  that  South  Australia  was  the 
pioneer  in  the  introduction  of  the  notable  Ballot 
Reform  system,  now  engaging  imblic  at  tention  in 
so  many  countries,  and  in  many  of  the  Stales  of 
our  own  national  federation.  Upon  the  electoral 
law  of  that  province,  perfected  substantially  in 
1879,  the  ballot  laws  of  many  other  countries  are 
based,  with  the  introduction  of  such  modifications 
in  various  details  as  have  been  regarded  as  desir- 
able to  adapt  it  to  the  dilTering  conditions  of  those 
countries  and  states.  That  Electoral  Law  (42,43 
Vict.,  No.  141)  embraced  10l>  sections.  We  quote 
below  only  those  portions  of  the  full  text  wliicli  are 
needed  to  give  the  reader  a  clear  exhibit  of  (he 
voting  system.  The  first  45  sections,  relating 
mainly  to  th6  appointment  of  officers  and  registra- 
tion, we  omit : 

4r..  47.  (Form  of  plL-ollon-wrll:  Hie  i.olline-tlnv  to  be  not 
If.^s  timii  two  and  not  mori'  timn  tlitrtv  fiiiVH  from  tbc  dny  of 
iionilniitton.) 

l.s.  Ill  orflor  tlmt  nn.v  iior.^on  niiiy  licromL-  or  hv  n  cnndldato 
Ht  Hiiy  L'li'ctloii,  lie  sliiill  lie  nomliiHicd  liy  not  less  tliim  two 
Iier^oiiii  entitled  to  vote  Rt  snrti  eloctlon,°ln  manner  follow- 


194 


BALLOT  SYSTEM 


Ing,  that  i?  to  say ;  After  the  issue  of  the  writ  and  before  the 
time  fixed  for  the  nomination,  there  shall  be  delivered  to  the 
returning  otficer  a  nomination  paper,  in  the  form,  or  to  the 
■effect  of  the  form  in  the  Tenth  Schedule  hereto,  naming  such 
person  as  a  candidate  at  such  election,  and  signed  by  the 
persons  nominating  as  aforesaid,  and  having  at  the  foot 
thereof  a  statement,  under  the  hand  of  the  person  so  nomi- 
nated, that  he  consents  to  act  if  elected. 

49.  (Publication  by  returning  officer  of  dates  of  nomina- 
tion and  election  and  of  polling-places.) 

50.  The  returning  officer  shall  at  noon,  on  the  day  of  nom- 
ination, attend  at  the  chief  polling  place,  and  there  jmblicly 
iproduce  the  several  nomination  papers  he  shall  have  then 
received,  and  gire  notice  of  the  names  of  the  persons  nomi- 
nated. 

51.  In  case  there  shall  be  no  greater  number  of  candidates 
duly  nominated  than  are  required  to  be  elected,  the  return- 
'jg  "officer  shall  declare  such  candidate  or  candidates  to  be 
elected,  and  make  his  return  accordingly. 

a2.  In  case  more  such  candidates  shall  be  duly  nomi- 
nated, the  returning  officer  shall  give  notice  thereof  of  the 
names  of  the  candidates,  and  of  the  day  and  time  of  taking 
the  poll. 

53.  (Polling-booths  to  be  provided,  and  poll-clerks  and 
door-keepers  to  be  appointed.) 

54.  Each  polling-booth  shall  have  separate  compartments, 
and  shall  be  provided  with  a  ballot-box  having  an  inner 
cover,  with  a  cleft  therein,  for  receiving  the  voting  papers, 
■and  a  lock  and  key,  and  an  outer  cover  with  a  lock  and  key; 
■and  the  said  compartments  shall  be  constructed  so  as  to 
screen  any  voter  therein  from  observation,  and  shall  be  fur- 
nished with  pencils  for  the. use  of  voters. 

5;3.  The  returning  officer  shall  cause  voting  papers  to  be 
printed  which  shall  contain  the  Christian  and  surnames  of 
the  several  candidates  arranged  in  alphabetical  order  accord- 
ing to  such  surnames;  and  if  there  are  two  candidates  of  the 
same  surname,  then  according  to  the  Christian  name  of  such 
candidates;  and  if  there  are  two  candidates  of  the  same 
Christian  name  and  surname,  then  according  to  the  resi- 
dences of  such  candidates,  arranged  in  the  like  order,  and  a 
■square  printed  opposite  the  name  of  each  candidate  and  he 
ehall  obtain  a  sufficient  number  of  voting  papers. 

55.  Before  the  hour  of  polling  the  returning  officer  shall 
'deliver  to  the  substitutes  at  each  polling-booth  a  list  of  the 
electors  on  the  said  roll  who  have  been  registered  for  six 
months,  and  who  claim  to  vote  at  such  polling-booth,  herein 
called  *'  list  of  voters,"  together  with  a  copy  or  copies  of  the 
roll  iu  force  for  the  division  or  district,  as  the  ease  may  be, 
for  use  at  the  said  polling,  and  shall  sign  each  page  of  such 
list;  and  shall  also  deliver  to  each  substitute,  and  himself 
retain  such  numbers  respectively  of  the  voting  papers  as  shall 
be  sufficient  for  the  use  of  the  electors  at  such  booth. 

.57.  Before  delivering  the  voting  papers  to  the  electors,  each 
-returning  officer,  or  his  substitute,  shall  initial  such  papers 
on  the  face  thereof,  and  fold  them,  and  keep  an  exact  account 
of  all  initialed  voting  papers. 

58.  On  the  day  of  election  the  poll  shall  be  taken  at  the 
several  polling-places  according  to  the  following  regula- 
tions :— 

i 

•(1.)    VHotirs  of  opening;  care  of  the  ballot-box.) 

(•i.)    (Hours  of  closing.) 

(.3.)  Everv  person  proposing  to  vote  shall  state  to  the 
presiding  omcer,  or  to  some  of  his  clerks,  his  Christian  name 
and  surname,  and  if  so  required  any  other  of  the  particulars, 
necessary  to  be  expressed  in  the  roll,  which  the  said  officer 
may  require  for  the  sole  i)urposc  of  enabling  him  to  to  ascer- 
tain the  name  upon  the  roll  intended  by  such  person. 

(4.)  The  presiding  officer  or  voting  clerk  shrll  ascertain  if 
the  uarae  intended  by  the  voter  is  upon  the  list  of  voters;  and 
if  so  found  he  shall,  subject  as  hereafter  provided,  deliver  to 
such  voter  a  voting  j)aj>er  l)earing  the  initials  of  the  return- 
ing officer,  or  his  substitute,  and  shall  place  a  mark  against 
the  voter's  name  on  the  list  of  voters. 

(5.)  If  a  person  rei»resentin^  himself  to  be  a  j'articular 
elector  named  on  the  rolls  aiii»lies  for  a  voting  paner  after  an- 
other person  has  voted  as  such  elector,  the  ai)plicant  shall, 
upon  duly  answering  the  questions  in  the  Eleventh  Schedule, 
be  entitled  to  receive  a  voting  paper  In  the  same  nuumer  as 
any  other  voter. 

(0.)  Th-  voter  shall  forthwith  retire  alone  to  some  unoccu- 
pied compartment  of  the  said  booth,  and  shall  there  in  pri- 
vate and  without  delay  indicate  the  name  of  each  cauditlate 
for  whom  he  intends  to  vote  by  making  a  cross,  the  center  of 
which  cross  shall  be  contained*  wit  bin  the  sqtuireoi'i)osite  the 
name  of  .  nch  candidate,  and  slnill  then  fold  the  voting  paper, 
and  Immediately  deliver  il  so  folded  to  the jtresiding  officer, 
who  shall  openly  forthwith,  and  without  unfolding  the  same, 
deiiosit  -l  iu  the  ballot-box;  and  the  voter  shall  then  quit  the 
polllng-l)Oolh. 

(7.)  .\iiv  voter  may  signify  to  the  presiding  officer  that  by 
rea^ion  of  i.Ilndness  he  Is  unable  to  comply  with  the  last  pre- 
ceding' regulation;  and  thereupon  the  presiding  officer.  If 
^«Mtit*lied  that  Huch  voter  Is  allllcled  with  blindness,  shall  per- 
inii  any  oyent  named  by  such  voter  to  accompany  him  into 
Ihe  conipjirtment  Het  apart  for  the  puri»ose,  to  mark  the 
voting  piii'iron  ench  voter's  liehaU,  and  hand  the  same  to 
the   returning  officer,   wlio    shall   dei>oslt  the  same  in   the 

btillot-tM.x. 

(s.)    .\ny  ykcrson  who.  by  mistake  or  accident,  shall  spoil 

any  \(ilin«  paper,  may,  before  the  same  shall   have  been  do- 


posited  in  the  ballot-box,  upon  signifying  the  ^ame  to  the 
returning  officer  and  delivering  up  the'spoiled  voting  paper, 
obtain  a  fresh  voting  paper;   and   the  spoiled   votin?   paper 
shall  be  then  and  there  destroyed  by  burning  the  same. 
(9.)     (Provision  for  closing  a"nd  sealing  the  ballot-box.) 

59.  The  returning  officer  (or  his  substittne),  the  poll 
clerks,  and  door-keepers  and  scrutineers  (not  exceeding  two 
for  each  candidate,  to  be  appointed  in  writing),  and  tleciors 
about  to  vote,  shall  alone  be  permitted  at  any'one  time,  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  returning  officer  or  his  substitute,  to 
euter  or  remain  in  the  polling-booth  during  the  taking  of  the 
poll. 

tiu.    (Questions  to  voters  as  to  qualifications,  etc.) 

61.  If  the  person  so  proposing  to  vote  shall  refuse  to  answer 
any  question  or  shall  answer  the  same  in  such  manner  as  to 
show  that  he  is  not  qualilied  to  vote,  he  shall  not  be  per- 
mitted to  vote,  and  he  shall  forthwith  return  to  the  presid- 
ing officer  the  voting  jiai'er,  if  any,  delivered  to  him.  and 
which  paper  shall  thereupon  be  immediately  destroyed  by 
the  said  presiding  officer. 

03.  (Ballot-boxes  to  be  delivered  to  the  respective  return- 
ing officers.) 

63.  All  voting  papers  issued  to  any  substitute,  and  not 
used  by  him.  and  all  lists  of  voters,  shall  be  returned  by  him 
to  the  returning  officer,  with  the  ballot-box. 

64.  (Proceedings  relative  to  the  counting  of  the  voting 
papers.) 

.  .  .  The  returning  officer  shall  reject  all  voting  papers 
not  initialed,  or  which  shall  coutain  crosses  against  the 
names  of  a  larger  number  of  candidates  than  are  required  to 
be  elected,  or  shall  contain  anythinsr  marked  or  w'ritten  other 
than  the  initials  of  the  returuingoHlcer  or  his  substitute. and 
the  cross  indicating  the  name  of  such  candidate  for  whom  the 
elector  intends  to  vote.    .    .    . 

67.  The  returning  officer  of  the  district  shall  send  to  the 
retu:""  \ng  officer  of"  the  province,  a  return,  in  a  tabular  form, 
of  the  number  :f  electors  on  the  roll,  the  number  of  votinsr 
papers  found  in  the  ballot-boxes,  the  number  of  voting  j'iipers 
allowed, the  numberof  voting  papers  rejected, distinguisbin? 
the  number,  1st.  not  initialed  by  the  returning  officer  ur 
his  substitute;  2d,  voting  for  more  candidates  than  entitled 
to  be  elected;  3d,  containing  writing  or  marks  by  which  the 
voter  can  be  identified;  4th,  unmarked  or  informally  marked 
voting  papers.    ,    .    . 

71.  No  election  shall  be  held  to  be  void  in  consequence 
solely  of  .  ...  any  error  on  the  i>art  of  any  returning 
officer  or  deputy,  which  shall  not  affect  the  result  of  the 
election,  or  of  any  error  or  impediment  of  a  mere  formal 
nature.    .    .    . 

7*2.    Every  person  who — 

(1.)  Forges  or  fraudulently  defaces  or  fraudulently  de- 
stroys any  nomination  jiape'r,  or  delivers  to  the  returning 
officer  any  nomination  paper,  knowing  the  same  to  bo 
forged;  or' 

(2.)  Forges  or  counterfeits  or  fraudulently  defaces,  or 
fraudulently  destroys  any  voting  paper  or  the  initials  on  any 
voting  paper;  or 

(3.)  Without  due  authority  supplies  any  voting  paper  to  any 
person;  or 

(4.)  Fraudulently  puts  into  any  ballot-box  any  paper  other 
than  the  voting  paper  which  he  is  authorized  by  law  to  put 
in;  or 

(5.)  Fraudulently  takes  out  of  the  Polling-booth  any  voting 
paper;  or 

(6.)  Without  due  authority  destroys,  takes,  opens,  or  other 
wise  Interferes  with  any  l)ariot-I)ox  or  voting  papers  then  iu 
use  for  the  purposes  of  the  election  :  or 

(7.)  Refuses  to  deliver  to  the  returning  oflicer  or  his  sub- 
stitute auv  voting  pajier  iu  his  possession,  whether  \\q  shall 
have  obtained  such  voting  paper  for  the  purpose  of  recording 
his  vote  or  not. — 

Shall  l»e  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  be  liable,  if  he  is  a 
returning  officer,  or  an  officer  or  clerk  in  attendance  at  a  poll- 
Ing-liDOth.  to  Imprisonment  for  any  term  not  exceeding  two 
years,  with  or.  without  hard  lal.>or:  and.  if  he  Is  any  other 
i)ersou,  to  imprlsonnient  for  any  term  not  exceeding  six 
mouths,  with  or  withoiit  hard  labor;  and  any  attempt 
to  commit  any  offense  specified  ^n  this  section  shall  bo 
juinishable  in  the  manner  In  which  the  offense  itself  is  pun- 
ishable. 

7:i.  In  any  indictment  or  otherprosecution  for  an  offense  iu 
relation  to  the  nomination  papers,  ballot-boxes,  aud  vot- 
ing papers  at  an  ek'ction,  the  property  In  such  papers  aud 
boxes  may  be  stated  to  be  In  the  returning  officer  at  such 
election.    .    .    . 

85.  If  any  returning  officer  for  the  said  province,  or  any 
district  returning  officer,  after  having  accepted  ofllce  as 
such, shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  perform  any  of  the  duties 
which  by  the  provisions  hereof  ne  is  required  to  perform, 
everv  such  rcturulng  otllcer  or  district  returning  ollicer 
shall,  for  every  such  offense,  forfeit  any  sum  not  less  than 
ten  nor  exceed'ing  two  hundred  pounds;  and  in  like  manner 
If  any  snl)stitute,  clerk,  or  other  officer  or  person  appointed 
or  required  to  perform  any  duty,  under  or  by  virtue  of  this 
net,  slmll  neglect  or  refuse'to  perform  any  nf  tiie  duties  which 
bv  the  provisions  hereof  he  Is  required  to  perform,  everv  such 
clerk  or  otlier  officer  or  person  shall,  for  every  such  ofifeuse. 
forfeit  an<l  pay  any  sum  not  less  than  five  and  not  exceeding 
fifty  pounds.    .    . '  . 


BALLOT    SYSTEM 


195 


(Sections  87-100:  Related  to  the  Court  for  the  trial  of  -liis- 
puted  Kitiirns." 

101.  Wbtu  nuy  matter  or  tliiii(t  Is  hereliv  directed  to  be' per- 
formed on  iL  eerlnin  day.  and  that  day  sha'll  happen  to  he  Sun- 
day. (.Jood  Friday,  Christma.s  Day,  or  other  public  holiday, 
the  ^aid  matter  or  Ihiiiij  may  be  performed  on  the  next  suc- 
CeeiliiiK  day.  not  beiiit'  any  of  the  days  aforesaid. 

(Sections  lO-i-lUti  relate  togcueral  Involving  local  questions.) 


Model  of  Poi,i,ixg  Room  Provided  foe  bv  the  MAssAcnr- 
8ETTS  Act.  and  copieil  from  a  sample  Massachusetts  ballot  of 
Noveinher,  IsiHi.pivinp  full  Instructions  tothe  voter  as  to  the 
method  of  tilling  up  and  depositing  hl3  ballot. 

In  most  cases  in  the  United  States  the  adoption 
of  the  new  ballot  system  was  largely  due  to  the 
precedent  energetic  work  performed  by  the  Civil 
Service  or  Ballot  Reform  .\ssoeiations  organized  in 
the  various  States.  The  Rhode  Island  Ballot  Re- 
form Association,  in  a  well-written  i)aper  advocat- 
ing the  adoption  of  the  Australian  system, closed  its 
urgent  arguments  by  tersely  summarizing  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  system,  as  follows : 

1.  A  secret  ballot,  cast  as  )>roposed  in  this  plan.  Interposes 
the  most  effectual  preventative  of  the  bribery  of  the  voter 
ever  devised. 

•2.  A  secret  ballot  secures  the  voter  against  the  coercion  or 
undue  solicitation  of  others,  and  enables  the  mostdependent 
elector  to  vote  as  his  conscience  dictates,  In  perfect  free- 
dom. 

3.  Excuse  for  assessments  of  candidates  Is  taken  awav.    A 

Soor  man  is  placed  on  an  eqnality  with  a  rich  man  as  a'can- 
idate.    Money  will  be  less  of  a  factor  in  politics. 

4.  The  voter  will  be  "alone  with  his  country,  his  consci- 
ence, and  his  Cod."  and  elections  will  be  more'tlian  ever  the 
Intelligent   and   conscientious   registering   of    the   popular 

5.  This  method  of  ballot  reform  has  been  much  discussed 
In  the  I'nited  .Slates  lor  several  years,  and  has  received  gen- 
eral favor,  being  recognized,  after  careful  scrutiny,  as  a  prac- 
tical and  salutary  measure. 

Australian-  Ballot  System,  as  adopted  by  the 
legislature  of  Massachusetts  in  ISS.K  and  1889.  The 
law  was  entitled  "an  Act  to  provide  for  printing 
and  distributing  ballots  at  the  public  expense,  and 
to  regulate  voting  at  State  and  city  elections": 

Sectio.n  1.  All  ballots  cast  In  elections  for  national.  State, 
district,  and  county  olhcers  in  cities  and  towns  alter  the  first 
day  of  November  in  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty- 
nine,  and  jill  ballots  cast  in  municipal  elections  in  cities  after 
that  date,  shall  be  printed  and  distributed  at  public  expense, 
as  hereinafter  provided.  The  printing  of  the  ballots  and 
cards  of  instructions  to  voters  shall  In  municipal  elections  in 
cities  be  paid  for  by  the  several  cities  respectively,  and  in  all 
other  elections  the  i)rintingof  ballots  and  cards  of  iustrnc- 
tlon.  and  the  delivery  of  them  to  the  several  cities  and  towns, 
shall  be  jiald  for  by  the  Commonwealth.  The  distribution  of 
the  ballots  to  the  voters  shall  be  paid  for  bv  the  cities  and 
towns  respectively.  The  term  "State  election,'' as  used  in  this 
act.  s  will  appiv  to  any  election  held  for  the  choice  of  a  na- 
tioiml,  .State,  district,  or  countv  olllcer.  whether  for  a  full 
term  or  for  the  filling  of  a  vacancy,  and  the  term  "State 
olliccr  shall  apply  to  any  person  to  be  chosen  Jiv  the  iiuallflcd 
voters  at  such  an  election.  The  term  "city  election  "  shall 
aj.ply  to  any  municipal  election  so  held  fn  a  citv,  and  the 
term  cltv  olluer"  shall  apply  to  any  person  to  1)e  chosen 
by  the  qualified  voters  at  sucli  an  olectfon. 

NOMIXATIOXS  OF  CANDIDATES, 

;•  -^"j;  convention  of  delegates,  and  anv  caucus  or  meeting 
of  i|uallfled  voters,  as  hereinafter  dellned,  and  Individual 


specified,  may  nominate  candidates  for  public  office,  whose 
names  shall  be  iilaced  upon  the  ballots  to  be  furnished  us 
herein  provided. 

s.  Any  convention  of  delegates  representing  a  political 
party  which,  at  the  election  next  preceding,  [lolled  at  least 
three  per  cent  of  the  entire  vote  cast  in  the.Stute.  or  In  the 
electoral  district  or  division  thereof  for  which  the  uonil- 
nation  is  made,  or  any  convention  of  delegates  who  have 
been  selected  in  caucuses  called  and  held  in  accordance  with 
a  special  statute  providing  therefor,  and  any  caucus  so  called 
and  held  in  any  such  electoral  district  or  division,  may  for 
the  State  or  for  the  district  or  division  for  which  the  conven- 
tion or  caucus  is  held,  as  the  case  mov  be.  by  causing  a 
certilicate  of  noinination  to  be  dulv  filed,  make  one  such 
nomination  for  each  olhce  therein  to  be  tilled  at  the  election, 
livery  such  certilicate  of  nomination  shall  state  such  facts 
as  may  be  reiinired  as  above  for  its  acceptance,  and  as  are 
required  in  section  live  of  this  act;  shall  be  signed  bv  the 
presiding  olhcer  and  by  the  secretary  of  the  convention  or 
caucus,  who  shall  add  thereto  their  places  of  residence :  and 
shall  be  sw  orn  by  them  to  be  true  to  the  best  of  their  knowl- . 
edge  and  belief,  and  a  certilicate  of  the  oath  shall  be  annexed 
to  the  certificate  of  nomination. 

i.  Nominations  of  candidates  for  any  oflices  to  be  filled 
by  the  voters  of  the  State  at  large  mav  be  made  by  nomina- 
tion i.apers  signed  in  the  aggregate  for  each  candidate  bv  not 
less  than  one  thousand  i|ualilied  voters  of  the  State.  Soin- 
Inatious  of  candidates  lor  electoral  districts  or  divisions  of 
the  State  may  be  made  by  nomination  iiapers  signed  in  the 
aggregate  for  each  candidate  by  qualifled  voters  of  such 
district  or  division,  not  less  in  number  than  one  for  every 
one  Inindred  persons  who  voted  at  the  next  preceding  annual 
election  In  such  district  or  division,  but  in  no  case  less  than 
lifty.  In  the  case  of  a  lirst  election  to  be  held  In  a  town  oi 
ward  newly  established,  the  number  of  fifty  shall  be  sufficient 
for  the  nomination  of  a  candidate  who  is  to  be  voted  for  only 
in  such  town  or  ward ;  and  in  the  case  of  a  lirst  election  In  8 
district  or  division  newlv  established,  other  than  a  town  or 
ward,  the  number  of  lifty  shall  be  so  sufficient.  Kach  votet 
signing  a  nomination  paper  shall  add  to  his  signature  his 
place  of  residence,  with  the  street  and  number  thereof.  It 
any,  and  each  voter  may  subscribe  to  one  nomination  for 
eiicli  ollii-e  to  be  filled,  and  no  more.  Women  qualified  to 
vote  for  meiiibers  of  tlie  school  committee  may  sign  nomina- 
tion papers  for  candidates  for  the  school  committee.  The 
noinination  paj»ers  shall  before  lieing  filed  be  resjiectively 
submitted  to  the  registrars  of  voters  of  the  cities  or  towns  in 
which  the  signers  purport  to  be  qualified  voters,  and  each 
registrar  to  whom  the  same  is  submitted  shall  forthwith 
certify  theieou  what  number  of  the  signatures  are  names  of 
qualihed  voters,  both  in  the  city  or  town  for  which  he  is  a 
registrar,  and  ill  the  district  or  division  for  which  the 
iiominntion  is  iinulc:  one  of  the  signers  to  each  sucli  separate 
I'.iper  shall  swear  that  the  statements  therein  are  true,  to  the 
best  of  his  knowledge  and  belief,  and  the  certificate  of  such 
oatii  shall  be  annexed,  and  he  shall  also  aiiil  his  post-ollice 
address. 

r).  AH  certificates  of  nomination  and  nomination  papers 
shall,  besides  containing  the  names  of  candidates,  speriiv  as 
to  each.  <  1 )  the  olhce  for  which  he  is  nominated :  (ii  the  parly 
or  political  principle  which  he  represents,  expressed  in  not 
more  than  three  words;  {■',)  his  place  of  residence,  and,  In 
case  of  a  nomination  for  a  city  otlice,  with  street  and  niimiier 
thereon,  if  any.  In  the  case  of  electors  of  president  and 
yice-i>resident  of  the  I'liited  States,  the  names  of  the  candi- 
dates for  president  and  vice-president  may  tie  added  to  the 
party  or  political  a}>pellatloii. 

0.  "Certificates  ot  nomination  and  nomination  pajiers  for 
the  noinination  of  candidates  for  State  olllees  shall  be  filed 
with  tile  secretary  of  the  Commonwealth  at  least  fourteen 
days  jirevious  to  tiie  day  of  the  election  for  which  the  candi- 
dates are  noniinfttetl.  Sneli  certificates  and  papers  for  the 
nomination  of  candidates  for  the  oflices  of  mayor  and  ot  ai- 
dermen  In  cities  shall  be  filed  with  the  city  cl«rka  of  the  r»- 
Buective  cities  at  least  ten  days  previous  to  the  day  ot  such 
election,  and  for  the  nomination  ot  candidates  for  all  other 
city  offices  at  least  six  days  iirovlous  to  the  day  of  such  eleo 
tlon. 

7.  The  certificates  of  nomination  and  nomination  papers 
being  so  filed,  and  being  In  api'iirent  conformUv  with  th« 
))rovislon3  of  this  act.  shall  be  deemed  to  be  valid,  unless 
objection  thereto  Is  duly  made  111  writing.  Such  objections 
or  other  questions  arising  In  relation  thereto  in  the  case  of 
nominations  of  State  oflicers  shall  be  considered  by  the 
secretary  of  the  Cominonwealth  and  tlic  auditor  and 
attorney-general,  and  the  decision  of  the  majority  of  these 
oflicers  shall  bo  final.  Such  objections  or  qnestloiis  arising 
in  the  case  of  nominations  of  cltv  officers  shall  be  considered 
by  the  board  of  registrars  of  volers,  together  with  the  city 
Clerk,  if  not  a  member  of  such  board,  and  the  city  solicitor; 
and  the  decision  of  a  majority  of  these  ofticers  shall  be  final. 
In  case  such  objection  Is  made  notice  shall  forthwith  be 
mailed  to  the  candidates  affected  thereliv,  addressed  ;o  their 
residences  as  given  In  the  certificates'  of  nomination  or 
nomination  papers,  and  to  any  party  committee  known  to 
the  secretary  or  clerk,  as  the  case' may  be.  as  specially 
Intercled  in  the  noinluatlon.  It  shall  be  proper  for  th« 
officers  aliove  named,  In  the  decision  of  anv  (|Uesllon  as  to 
the  proper  political  or  party  designation  o'f  candidates,  to 
distlngiiisli  between  candidates  nominated  bv  certificates  of 


voters    to  the    nnnilier    .it.,!    (,,    li,      ,.,,.,,,.■/    V.        I    """',"»="  ~"  "^"'^'u  f^ana'oates  nonunatea  uy  certilicate 
\oters    10  tne    nunibir    and    In    the    manner    hereinafter    1    nomination,  and  those  uonilnatcd  by  nomluatlou  paper*. 


196 


BALLOT     SYSTEM 


S.  Auv  person  whose  name  has  been  presented  as  n  candi- 
dpte  mav  cause  his  name  to  be  withdrawn  from  nomiuation, 
by  request  in  writinjar  sisrned  by  him  and  acknowledged 
before  an  officer  qualified  to  take  acknowledgments  of  deeds, 
and  filed  with  the  secretary  of  the  Commonwealth  teu 
days,  or  with  the  proner  city  clerk  live  days,  as  the  case  may 
be,' previous  to  the  (lay  of  election;  and  no  name  so  with- 
drawn shall  be  printed  upon  the  ballots.  No  nomiuation 
XHiblished  and  posted  as  herein  provided  shall  be  subse- 
»;ueiulv  omitted  as  invalid. 

"  9.  All  certificates  of  uomination  and  nomination  papers 
when  filed  shall  be  open  under  proper  reeulatious  to  public 
inspection,  and  the  secretary  of  the  Commouwealth  and  the 
several  city  clerks  shall  preserve  the  same  in  their  respective 
offices  not  less  than  five  years. 

FORM  OF  BALLOTS. 

10.  All  ballots  for  use  in  State  elections  shall  be  prepared 
by  the  secretary  of  the  Commonwealth,  and  all  ballots  for 
use  in  city  elections  shall  be  prepared  by  the  clerks  of  the 
several  cities  respectively.  Every  general  ballot,  or  ballot 
intended  for  the  use  of  all'male  voters/which  shall  be  printed 
iu  accordance  with  the  pvovisious  of  this  act,  shall  contain 
the  names  of  all  candidates  whose  nominations  for  any 
otlices  specified  in  the  ballot  have  been  duly  made  and  not 
withdrawn  in  accordance  herewith,  and  shall  contain  no 
other  names.  Except  that  in  the  case  of  electors  of  presideut 
and  vice-president  of  the  United  States  the  names  of  the 
candidates  for  president  nnd  vice-president  may  be  added  to 
the  party  or  political  designation;  the  name  of  the  city  or 
town  in'whicli  the  candidate  resides  shall  be  added  to  the 
name  of  each  candidate  on  ballots  for  State  offices;  and  the 
street,  with  street  number,  if  any,  on  which  a  candidate 
resides,  shall  be  added  to  the  naiiie  of  each  candidate  on 
ballots  for  city  offices;  and  there  shall  also  be  added  to  all 
the  names  of  candidates  their  party  or  political  designation. 
The  names  of  candidates  for  each  office  shall  be  arranged 
under  the  designation  of  the  oflice  in  alphabetical  order, 
according  to  surnames,  except  that  the  names  of  candi- 
dates for  the  offices  of  electors  of  president  and  vice- 
president  shall  be  arranged  in  groups,  as  presented  in  the 
several  certificates  of  nomination  or  nomination  papers 
There  shall  be  left  at  the  end  of  the  list  of  candidates  for 
each  different  office  as  many  blank  spaces  as  there  arc 
persons  to  be  elected  to  such  office,  in  which  the  voter  may 
insert  the  name  of  any  person,  uot  printed  on  the  ballot,  for 
whom  he  desires  to  vote  as  candidate  for  such  office.  When- 
ever the  approval  of  a  constitutional  amendment  or  other 
question  is  sublnitted  to  the  vote  of  tlie  people,  such  ques- 
tions shall  be  printed  u]>ou  the  l)anot  after  the  list  of  candi- 
dates. Special  ballots  iu  cities,  contuiniug  only  the  names 
of  candidates  for  the  school  committep,  shall  also  be  prepared 
in  like  manner  and  printed  for  the  use  of  women  qualified 
according  to  law  to  vote  for  members  of  the  school  com- 
mittee. The  ballots  shall  l»e  so  printed  as  to  give  to  each 
voter  a  clear  opi>ortunity  to  designate  by  a  cross-mark  [X]  iu 
a  sufficient  margin  jit  tho  right  of  the  name  of  each  candi- 
date, his  choice  of  candidates  and  his  answer  to  the  questions 
submitted,  aud  on  the  ballot  may  be  printed  such  words  as 
will  aid  the  voter  to  do  this,  as  "vote  for  one,"  "vote  for 
three."  **yes."  "no,"  aud  the  like.  The  ballot  shall  be  sub- 
stantially of  the  length  uow  refjuired  by  law  and  two  or 
more  times  such  width.  Before  distrihut ion  the  ballots 
shall  be  so  folded  in  marked  creases  tluit  their  width  and 
length  when  folded  shall  be  those  of  the  ballot  now  required 
by  law.  On  the  back  and  outside  when  folded,  shall  be 
printed  "  Otticial  BuUot  for,"  followed  hy  the  designatiou  of 
the  polliug-i»lar'e  for  which  the  ballot  is  iireparerl,  the  date  of 
the  election,  aud  a  fac-simile  of  tlie  signatureol'  the  secretary 
of  the  Commonwealth  or  city  clerk  who  bus  caused  the 
ballot  to  be  printed.  The  special  ballots  printed  iu  cities  for 
the  use  of  women  qualified  to  vote  for  school  committee 
shall  contain  the  adciltionul  indorsement  thai  lliev  are  for 
such  use  only,  nnd  shall  be  on  tinted  paper,  but  of  a  different 
tint  from  that  oi"  specimen  ballots.  Except  a»  otherwise 
herein  provirled,  btillots  shall  be  iiriuled  in  accordance  with 
the  existing  nrovisions  of  law. 

11.  All  l)allots  when  prinleil  shall  be  folded  iis  herein- 
before provided  aud  fastened  togetlier  in  convenient  num- 
bers in  packag4!S,  Iiooks  or  blocks,  in  such  nuinner  that  each 
ballot  may  be  detnclied  ami  removed  separately.  A  record 
of  the  number  nf  hallots  jirinted  and  furnished  to  each 
polllng-idace  slnill  be  kept  and  jjreserved  by  Ihe  secretary  of 
the  Commouwealth  and  tlie  several  city  clerks. 

12.  There  shnll  he  provided  for  each  voting  place,  at  whioh 
an  election  Is  to  l)e  held,  two  sets  of  such  general  ballots, 
each  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  for  every  fifty  and  fraction 
of  fifty  registered  male  voters  therein,  and  likewise  two  sets 
of  such  special  ballots,  each  of  uot  less  than  oiu^  hundred, 
for  every  fifty  and  fraction  of  (iftv  w;onu'n  qualified  to  vote 
for  school  committee  therein :  aiKl  It  shall  be  thi-  «lnty  of  the 
registrars  of  voters  In  each  cltv  or  town  In  whleli  an  election 
for  State  officers  is  to  be  hebi,  to  certify  to  the  secretary  of 
the  ('ommonweailh.atsuch  time  as  he  shall  rciiuire  previous 
to  any  such  election,  the  innuber  of  male  registered  voters  In 
each  voting  precinct  or  In  each  town  which  Is  not  divided 
Into  voting  precincts. 

INFORMATION  TO  VOTERS. 

18.  Tho  secretary  of  the  (Joninionwealth,  Iu  case  of  a  State 
election,  aud  the  several  city  clerks,  In  ciiso  of  city  elections, 


shall  prepare  full  instructions  for  the  guidance  of  voters  at 
such  elections,  as  to  obtaining  ballots,  as  to  the  manner  of 
marking  them,  and  the  method  of  gaining  assistance,  and  as 
to  obtaining  new  ballots  iu  place  of  those  accidentally 
spoiled,  aud  they  shall  respectively  cause  the  same,  together 
with  copies  of  sections  twenty-seven,  twenty-eight,  twenty- 
nine,  and  thirty  of  this  act  to  be  priuted  in  large,  clear  type, 
on  separate  cards,  to  be  called  cards  of  instructions:  and 
they  snail  respectively  furnish  the  same  and  the  ballots  for 
use'  in  each  such  election.  They  shall  also  cause  to  be 
printed  on  tinted  paper,  and  without  the  fac-simile  indorse- 
ments, ten  or  more  copies  of  the  form  of  the  ballot  provided 
for  each  voting  place  at  each  election  therein,  which  shall  be- 
culled  specimen  ballots,  and  shall  be  furnished  with  the 
other  ballots  provided  for  each  such  voting  place. 

14.  The  secretiU'y  of  the  Commonwealth"  shall,  five  davs  at 
least  previous  to  the  day  of  auy  election  of  State  otficers, 
trausmitto  the  registrars  of  voters  in  each  city  and  town  iu 
which' such  election  is  to  be  held,  printed  lists  containing 
the  names,  residonces,  aud  party  or  political  apiiellatious  of 
all  candidates  uoniiuiited  as  herein  provided  for  such  elec- 
tion, and  to  be  voted  for  at  each  polling  place  in  each  such 
city  and  town  respectively,  substantially  in  the  form  of  the 
general  ballot  to  be  so  used  therein;  and  the  registrars  of 
voters  shall  immediately  cause  the  lists  for  each  town  or  vot- 
ing precinct,  ns  the  case  may  be,  to  be  conspicuously  posted 
in  one  or  more  public  places  in  such  town  or  voting  precinct. 
Tlie  secretary  of  the  Commonwealth  shall  likewise  cause  to 
be  published  prior  to  the  day  of  any  such  election,  iu  at  least 
two  newspapers,  if  there  be  so  many,  published  iu  each 
couutv,  reju-esenting,  as  far  as  practicable,  the  political  par- 
ties which,  at  the  preceding  election,  cast  the  largest  and 
next  largest  number  of  votes,  a  list  of  all  the  nominations 
made  as  herein  provided,  and  to  be  voted  for  in  such  county, 
so  far  as  may  be,  in  the  fonn  in  which  they  shall  appear  upon 
thegeneral  ballots. 

15.  The  city  clerk  of  each  city  shall  four  days  at  least  prior 
to  the  day  oi  auy  city  election  therein,  cause  "to  be  conspicu- 
ously posted-in  one  or  more  public  places  in  each  voting  pre- 
cinct of  such  city  ai  printed  list  containing  the  names,  resi- 
dences, and  party  or  political  appellations  of  all  candidates 
nominated,  as  herein  provided,  and  to  be  voted  for  in  such 
preciuct,  substantially  in  the  form  of  the  general  ballot  to  be 
soused  therein;  and  he  shall  likewise  cause  to  be  published 
prior  to  the  day  of  such  election  in  at  least  two  newspapers,  if 
there  be  so  many,  published  in  such  city,  representing  the  po- 
litical parties  which  cast  at  thepreccdingelection  the  largest 
and  uextlargest  nuniberof  votes,  a  listof  all  the  nominations 
made,  as  herein  ju'ovided,  and  to  be  voted  for  in  such  city, 
so  far  as  may  he.  m  the  form  in  A\hich  they  shall  appear  upon 
the  general  hallots. 

DELIVERY  OF  BALLOTS  TO  CITIES  AND  TOWNS. 

16.  The  secretary  of  the  Commonwealth  shall  send,  sepa- 
rately and  at  different  times  or  by  dillerent  methods,  the  two 
sets  of  general  and  sjiecial  ballots,  together  with  the  speci- 
men ballots  and  cards  of  instruction  printed  by  him.  as  here- 
in provided,  to  the  several  city  and  town  clerks,  so  as  to  be 
received  by  them  twelve  liours  at  least  previous  to  the  day  of 
election.  The  same  shall  We  sent  iu  sealed  packages,  with 
3uarks  on  the  outside  clouiy  designating  the  polling-place 
for  which  they  are  intended  and  the  nuniberof  ballots  oi  each 
kind  inclosed;  aud  the  respective  city  and  town  clerks  shall 
on  delivery  to  them  of  suelin'flckages  return  receipts  there- 
for to  the  secretary.  The  secretary  shall  keep  a  record  of  the 
time  when,  aiul  the  manner  in  which  the  several  packages 
are  sent,  aud  shall  i»reserve  for  the  period  of  one  year  the  re- 
ceipts of  the  city  and  town  clerks. 

17.  The  two  sets  of  ballots,  together  with  the  specimen  bal- 
lots an<l  cunis  of  instruction  printed  liy  the  city  clerks,  as 
herein  provided,  shall  he  packed  liy  lliein  in  separate  sealed 
pneknges.  witli  marks  on  the  outside  clearly  designating  the 
j>olling  precincts  for  which  they  are  intended,  and  the  num- 
ber of  hallots  of  each  kind  inclosed. 

18.  The  several  city  aud  town  clerks  shall  send  \o  the  elec- 
tion officers  of  each  voting-place  before  ihe  opening  of  the 
polls  on  the  day  of  election  one  set  of  hallots  so  prepared, 
sealed,  and  nuirked  for  such  voting-place,  and  a  receipt  of 
such  delivery  shall  be  returned  to  them  from  the  presiding  or 
swnior  election  officer  present,  which  receipt,  with  a  record 
of  the  numlier  oi  ballots  sent,  sliidl  be  kept  in  the  clerk's 
otllce.  At  the  opening  of  the  polls  iu  each  polling-place  the 
seals  of  the  packages  shall  be  publicly  broken,  and  the  pack- 
ages shall  Ite  opened  by  the  inesidlug  election ofiicer.  and  the 
books  orliloeks  of  ballots  shall  be  delivered  to  the  ballot 
ofiicers  hereinafter  iirovJdcd  for.  The  cards  of  instruction 
shall  lie  immediately  ]K>sted  at  or  iu  each  voting  shelf  or  com- 
iiartment  jirovlded  iu  accordance  with  this  act  for  the  mark- 
ing of  the  hallots,  and  uot  less  than  three  such  cants  and 
not  less  than  five  specimen  ballots  shall  be  immediately 
posted  In  (u- about  the  polling-room,  outside  the  guard-rails. 
The  sectuid  set  of  ballots  shall  he  retained  by  the  respective 
clerks  until  they  are  called  for  or  needed  for  the  ]>urposes  oi 
voting,  aud.  uiKJii  the  requisition  In  writing  of  the  presiding 
election  officer  of  auy  voting-place,  the  second  set  of  ballots 
sluill  be  furnished  to  such  voting-place  in  the  manner  above 
provided  as  to  the  first  set. 

li>.  In  case  the  hallots  to  be  furnished  to  any  city  or  town 
or  votlngidace  therein,  In  accordance  with  the  provisions  of 
this  act,  snail  fail  for  auy  reason  to  he  dnly  delivered,  or  In 
case  after  delivery  they  shall  be  deslroyed'or  stolen.  It  shall 


15  A  L  LOT    S  Y  S  T  E  .M— 1!  A  1.  L  (>  I 


197 


fi' 


e; 


be  the  dnty  of  the  clerk  of  such  city  or  town  to  cniise  other 
ballots  to  bo  prepared  substantially  in  the  form  of  the  ballots 
so  wiiutiHp  and  to  be  furnlshe<l;  and  upon  receipt  of  such 
other  liallotri  from  him.  acoonipauied  by  a  staieuieut  under 
Otttli  that  the  same  have  been  so  prepared  and  furnished  by 
him,  and  that  the  orii;inal  liallots  nave  so  failed  to  be  received 
or  have  been  so  destroveii  or  stolen,  the  election  olhcers  shall 
cause  the  ballots  so  su'bstiluted  to  be  used  in  lieu  of  the  bal- 
lots wautiug,  iLs  above. 

ADDITIONAL  ELECTION  OFFICERS. 

20.  Two  inspectors,  witli  two  deputy  ins(>ectors,  additional 
to  those  now  provided  for.  shall  be  appointed  in  each  vot- 
ing precinct  in  eitiis  and  in  towns  divided  into  voting  pre- 
cincts, and  tlie  provisions  of  law  relative  to  Inspectors  and 
depute  insitectors  shall  be  applicable  to  such  additional  offi- 
cers. Two  of  the  inspectors  acting  iu  each  voting  precinct 
shall  be  detailed  to  act  as  ballot  clerks.  In  towns  not  di- 
vided Into  voting  precincts,  two  inspectors,  with  deputy  in- 
spectors, shall  be  apiiointed,  in  aceordance  with  the  proW- 
sionti  of  law  applicable  to  such  otiieers  in  towns  so  divided, 
and  the  two  inspectors  iluis  serving  shall  act  iis  ballot  clerks. 
The  two  ballot  clerks  iletailed  and  appointed  as  above  in  each 
voting  precinct  and  town  shall  have  the  charge  of  the  ballots 
therein,  and  shall  furnish  them  to  the  voters  in  the  manner 
hereinafter  set  forth.  A  duplicate  list  of  the  iiualilied  voters 
in  each  jirecinct  and  each  town  not  divided  into  precincts 
shall  be  prepared  for  the  Use  of  the  ballot  clerks,  and  all  the 
provisions  of  law  relative  to  the  preparation,  furnishing,  and 
-reservation  of  cheek-lists   shall    apply   to  such    duplicato 

Ists. 

VOTING  SHELVES  OR  COMPARTMENTS. 

21.  The  officers  In  each  city  or  town  whose  duty  it  is  to  des- 
olate and  appoint  polling-places  therein  shall  cause  the 
same  to  be  suitable  provided  with  a  sufficient  number  of 
voting  shelves  or  compartments,  at  or  in  which  voters  may 
convenlentlv  mark  their  ballots,  so  that  in  the  marking 
thereof  thev'ma-y  be  screened  from  tlie  observation  of  others, 
and  a  guard-rail'shall  be  so  constructed  and  placed  that  only 
such  persons  as  are  inside  said  rail  can  approaeli  within  sir 
feet  ol  the  ballot  boxes  and  of  such  voting  shelves  or  cora- 

artments.  The  arniugemcnt  shall  be  such  that  neither  the 
_a!  lot-boxes  nor  the  voting  shelves  or  compartments  shall  be 
hidden  from  view  of  those  just  outside  the  said  guar<l-rail. 
The  number  of  such  votinj  shelves  or  compartments  shall  not 
be  less  than  one  forevery  seventy-five  voters  qualilicd  to  vote 
at  such  polling  place,  aiid  not  less  than  three  in  any  town  or 
precinct  thereof,  and  not  less  than  five  in  any  voting  pre- 
cinct of  a  citv.  No  persons  other  than  the  election  officers  and 
voters  admitted  as  liereinaiter  provided  shall  be  permitted 
within  said  rail.  exce[»t  bv  authority  of  the  election  officers 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  order'and  enforcing  the  law. 
Each  voting  shelf  or  compartment  shall  be  kept  provided 
with  proper  supplies  and  conveniences  for  marking  the 
ballots. 

PREPAR.^TION  OF  BALI-OTS. 

22.  .Anv  person  desiringto  voteshallgive  his  name,  and.  If 
requested  so  to  do,  his  residence,  to  one  of  the  ballot  clerks, 
who  shall  thereupon  announce  the  same  iu  a  loud  and  dis- 
tlni*t  tone  of  voice,  clear  and  audible,  and  if  such  name  is 
found  upon  the  check-list  by  the  ballot  officer  having  charge 
thereof,  he  shall  likewise  repeat  the  said  name,  and  the  voter 
shall  be  allowed  to  enter  the  space  inclosed  by  the  guard- 
rail as  above  provided.  The  ballot  clerk  shall  give  hiin  one, 
and  onlv  one.  bollot,  and  his  name  shall  be  immediately 
checked'  on  said  list.  If  the  voter  Is  a  woman,  she  shall 
receive  a  spci'ial  ballot  containing  the  names  of  condidates 
for  school  committee  onlv.  Besides  the  election  officers,  not 
more  than  four  voters  In  excess  of  the  number  of  voting 
shelves  or  compartments  provided  shall  l)e  allowed  In  said 
inclosed  space  at  one  time. 

Zi.  On  receipt  of  his  Ijallot  the  voter  shall  forthwith,  and 
without  lejiving  tlie  inclosed  space,  retire  alone  to  one  of  the 
voting  shelves  or  compariuients  so  provided  and  shall  pre- 
pare his  ballot  liy  marking  in  the  appropriate  margin  or 
place,  across  [X]  iipposite  the  name  of  tlie  candidate  of  his 
choice  for  each  office  to  be  lllled.  or  by  tilling  in  the  name  of 
the  candidate  of  bis  choice  in  the  Idauk  space  provided 
therefor,  ami  marking  a  cross  (X]  opposite  thereto;  and,  iu 
case  of  a  question  submitte*!  to  tin.'  vote  of  the  people,  by 
marking  in  the  appropriate  margin  or  place,  a  cross  [X] 
against  the  answer  which  lie  desires  to  give.  Before  leaving 
the  voting  shelf  or  compartment  the  voter  shall  fold  his 
ballot,  without  displaving  the  marks  thereon.  In  the  same 
wav  It  wa.s  folded  wlnn  received  by  him.  and  he  shall  keep 
the  same  so  folded  until  he  has  voted,  lie  shall  vote  In  the 
manner  now  provided  by  law  before  leaving  the  inclosed 
space,  and  shall  deposit  his  ballot  In  the  box  with  the 
official  Indorsement  iiiipermost.  He  shall  mark  and  deposit 
his  ballot  without  undue  delay  and  shall  quit  said  inclosed 
spac'-  ji"  soon  as  he  has  voIe<l.     No  sileli  voter  shall  be  allowed 

to  ^1 ii'V  a  voting  siielf  or  compartment  already  oc<'in»led 

by  another,  nor  to  remain  within  sal»l  Inclosed  space  more 
tfiau  tell  minutes,  nor  to  occupy  a  voting  shelf  or  compart- 
ment for  more  than  live  minutes  In  case  all  of  such  shelves 


or  compartments  are  In  use,  and  other  voters  are  waiting  to 
occupv  the  same.  No  voter  not  an  election  officer  whoso 
name  lias  been  checked  on  the  list  of  the  ballot  ollicers,  shall 
be  allowed  to  re-enter  said  inclosed  space  during  said  elec- 
tion. It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  presiding  election  officer 
for  the  time  being  to  secure  the  observance  of  the  providlcms 
of  this  section  and  of  other  sections  relative  to  the  duties  of 
election  officers. 

■Jt.  No  person  shall  take  or  remove  any  ballot  from  the 
polling-place  liefore  the  close  of  the  polls.  If  any  voter  spoils 
a  ballot  he  may  successively  obtain  others,  one  at  a  lime,  not 
exceeding  three  in  all.  upon  returning  each  s].oiled  one. 
The  ballots  thus  returned  shall  be  Immediately  canceled, 
and  together  with  those  not  distributed  to  the  voters,  shall 
be  preserved  and  with  the  check-list  used  by  the  ballot 
clerks,  which  shall  be  certiflcd  by  them  to  be  such,  shall  b« 
secured  in  an  envelope,  sealed,  aiid  sent  to  the  several  city 
and  toH  11  clerks,  as  re<)uired  by  law  in  the  case  of  the  ballots 
cast,  and  the  other  check-list  used. 

ii.  .\ny  voter  who  declares  to  the  presiding  election 
officer  that  he  was  a  voter  prior  to  the  first  day  of  May  in  the 
vear  eighteen  hundred  and  fifty-seven,  and  cannot  read,  or 
that  by  blindness  or  other  physical  disability  he  is  unable 
to  mark  his  ballot,  shall,  upon  request,  receive  the  assistance 
of  one  or  two  of  the  election  officers  in  the  marking  thereof, 
and  such  officer  or  otiieers  shall  certify  on  the  outside 
thereof  that  it  was  so  marked  with  his  or  their  assistance, 
and  shall  thereafter  give  no  information  regarding  the  same. 
The  presiding  officer  may,  in  his  discretion,  require  such 
declaration  of  disabilitv  to  be  made  by  the  voter  under  oath 
before  him,  and  he  is"  hereby  qualilied  to  administer  the 
same. 

ill.  If  the  voter  marks  more  names  than  there  are  persons 
to  be  elected  to  an  office,  or  if  for  any  reason  it  is  imiiossible 
to  determine  the  voter's  choice  lor  any  office  to  be  fllKd.  his 
ballot  shall  not  be  counted  for  such  office.  No  ballot  with- 
out the  official  indorsement  shall,  except  as  herein  otherwise 
provided,  be  allowed  to  be  deposited  in  the  liallot-box,  and 
none  but  ballots  provided  in  accordance  with  the  provisions 
of  this  act  shall  be  counted.  Ballots  not  counted  shall  be 
marked  •'  defective  "  on  the  buck  thereof,  and  shall  be  pre- 
served, OS  required  by  section  twenty-four. 

PENALTIES. 

27.  A  voter  who  shall,  except  as  herein  otherwise  provided, 
allow  his  ballot  to  be  seen  by  any  person  with  an  api>arent 
intention  of  letting  it  be  known  how  he  is  about  to  vole,  or 
place  anv  distinguishing  mark  \n>on  his  ballot,  or  who  shall 
make  a  false  statement  as  to  his  inability  to  mark  his  ballot. 
or  anv  person  who  shall  interfere,  or  attempt  to  interfere 
with  anv  voter  w  hen  Inside  said  inclosed  space,  or  when 
marking  his  ballot,  or  who  shall  endeavor  to  induce  any 
voter  before  voting  to  show  how  he  marks  or  has  marked  his 
ballot,  or  otherwise  violate  any  provision  of  this  act. shall  be 
punished  bv  fine  of  not  less  than  five  dollars  nor  more  than 
one  hundred  dollars:  and  election  officers  shall  report  any 
person  so  doing  to  the  police  officer  in  charge  of  the  polls. 
whose  duly  it  shall  be  to  see  that  the  offender  is  duly 
brought  before  the  proper  court. 

28.  -Xnv  per.sou  who  shall,  prior  to  an  election,  willfully 
deface  or  destrov  anv  list  of  candidates  posted  in  accordance 
with  llie  provisions'of  this  act,  or  who,  during  an  election, 
shall  williiillv  deface,  tear  down,  remove  or  destroy  any  card 
of  instruction  or  sipecimen  bollot  printed  or  posted  lor  the 
instruction  of  voters, or  who  shall,  during  an  election,  wiil- 
fullv  remove  or  destroy  any  of  the  supplies  or  conviniciices 
furnished  to  enable  a  voter  to  prepare  his  ballot,  or  shall  wiU- 
fullv  hinder  the  voting  of  others,  shall  be  punished  by  line  of 
not  less  than  five  dollars  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars, 

2!".  Anv  jierson  who  shall  falsely  makeor  willfully  dciace 
or  deslrov  anv  certificate  of  nomination  or  nominaiion- 
paper.  or  iinv  part  thereof,  or  any  letter  of  wiilidrawal ;  or 
sign  anv  such  certificate  or  inii.er  qontrarv-  to  the  provisions 
of  this 'act;  or  file  anv  certificate  of  nomination  or  nomi- 
nation-paper or  letter  of  withdra\)al,  knowing  the  same  or 
anv  part  thereof  to  be  falsely  made;  or  suppress  any  certifi- 
cate of  nomination  or  noinination-paiier,  or  any  part  thereof 
which  has  been  dulv  filed;  or  forge  or  falsely  make  the 
official  indorsement' on  anv  ballot ;  or  willfully  destroy  or 
deface  anv  ballot,  or  shall  take  or  remove  any  ballot  outside 
of  the  inclosiire  j.rovided  for  voting  la-fore  the  close  of  the 
polls,  or  willfullv  delov  the  delivery  of  any  ballots,  shall  be 
iiunislud  bv  fine'not  exceeding  one  thousand  dollars,  or  by 
imprisonment  in  the  Jail  not  more  than  one  year,  or  by  both 
such  fined  an  Imprisonment. 


B.\LLOU,  HosEA,  ail  .\niorican  clergyman  itnd 
author,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  liiiversalist 
ilenomination  in  .\iiiericH,  born  at  Uiclinuind,  N.  H., 
in  1771,  died  in  ]>y>'2.  He  was  liU'rully  a  self- 
educated  man,  having  learned  to  form  the  letters 
of  Uie  alpliiilii'l  with  a  piece  of  cliareoal  on  a  strip 
of  birch-bark.  Me  began  to  preach  early  in  life, 
and  was  successively  minister  of  ciingregations  in 
Portsmouth,  X.  U.,  Salem,  Mass.,  and  Boston,     de 


198 


r,  A  L  L  0  U  —  B  A  L  T  I  ^1  0  R  E 


was  editorially  connected  with  tlie  "  Universalist   | 
Magazine"  and  the  "Expositor,"  and  wrote  numer-  1 
tins  religious  books,  the  jirincipal  being  Xotes  un  tlie 
I'ltrahles  and  Examinulion  uj  thi-  Doctrine  of  a  Future 
Retribution. 

BALLOU,  HosEA  (1796-lSiil),  grand-nephew  of 
the  above,  also  an  eminent  Universalist  minister, 
author,  editor  and  the  first  president  of  Tufts 
Colle*-'e. 

BALL'S  BLUFF,  Loudoun  county,  Va..  a  steep 
bank  150  feet  liigh.  on  the  right  side  of  the  Potomac 
Kiver.  The  place  is  famous  for  liaving  been  the 
scene  of  a  battle  between  t!ie  I'nion  forces  and 
Confederates,  Oct.  21,  1861.  in  wliich  the  former 
were  l^adly  defeated,  and  their  leader,  Col.  E.  D. 
Baker,  killed. 

BALLSTON  (B.vi.i.sto.v  Sp.\),  the  county-seat  of 
Saratoga  county,  N.  Y.  It  is  on  the  Rensselaer 
and  .Saratoga  Railroad,  and  distant  from  Saratoga 
about  six  miles.  The  mineral  springs  here  are 
acidulous  chalybeates,  and  are  considered  among 
the  best  in  the  I'nited  States. 

BALLY,  a  Celtic  word  meaning  "town."  It  is 
used  as  a  prefix  in  tlie  names  of  many  Scottish 
<5r  Irish  places. 

BALLYETT.  Em.\xiel  (1700-1773),  a  French  anti- 
quarian and  bisliop.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Barefooted  Carmelites'  order. 

BALLYMUXEY.  an  Irish  market  town  in  An- 
trim, about  lifty-three  miles  from  Belfast.  It  car- 
ries on  linen  manufacture. 

BALM,  Coi.  DE,  the  name  of  a  mountain  pass 
which  forms  that  portion  of  the  route  from  :Mar- 
tigny  to  Chamounix,  which  lies  between  Mont 
Klaiic  and  the  Dent  du  Midi.  The  summit  rises  to 
a  height   of  7,200  feet. 

BALMERIXO,  a  small  Scottish  village  in  the 
county  of  Fife,  on  the  Tay  Firth.  Near  this  vil- 
lage are  the  ruins  of  a  Cistercian  abbey,  dating 
from  1227,  whose  lands  became  the  property  of  Sir 
James  Elphinstone,  made  Lord  Balmerino  in  1604. 
The  sixth  and  last  lord  was  executed  on  Tower  Hill 
in  1746  fur  his  share  in  the  rebellion  of  174-5. 

B.\LOTRA,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  Rajpoot  state 
of  Goodpoor.  situated  on  tlie  Loonee.  It  is  a  resort 
of  pilgrims,  who.  on  their  way  to  Dwarka,  often 
crowd  the  bazaars  of  the  town,  thus  providing  for 
its  inhabitants  their  principal  means  of  subsist- 
ence. 

B.\LS.\^I,  C.\x.\n.\,  an  article  of  commerce  ob- 
tained by  puncturing  the  l)li5ters  which  are  found 
on  l)alsam  trees  {Abies  bnlxdmea  and  Ahies  grandis), 
an.l  gathering  the  sap.  It  is  used  in  the  composi- 
tion of  medicines,  varnish,  etc. 

B.\l/S.\M,a  mime  given  the  garden  flower,  often 
called  "  huly's  slipper."  It  is  found  native  in  the 
East  Indicsjand  some  varieties  are  native  in  Euri>])e 
and  the  L'niled  Status.  The  flower  is  irregular, 
calyx  and  corolla  hardly  to  be  distinguislied. 
There  are  about  I.3.")  varieties.  The  snaji-weed,  or 
touch-me-not,  is  so  named  l)ecause  the  ripe  pods 
burst  open  on  being  touchcnl,  and  scatter  the 
seeds.  Tiie  plant  may  be  trained,  by  pincliing  and 
pruning,  into  various  shapes,  making  it  l)li)iini  more 
profusely  and  adding  to  its  ai)pearance.  The  stems 
of  one  of  the  species— Fulvous  ur  Tawney  Impa- 
tiens-^are  sometimes  used  as  a  poultice  for  tumors 
to  reduce  inflammation,  and  a  salmon-red  dye  can 
be  made  from  its  deep  orangi'  flowers. 

BALSAMINACE.E,  or  H.u.samink.e,  a  natural 
order  of  succuk'iit,  herb-like  plants,  lliought  by 
some  botanists  to  be  a  sub-order  of  llie  (nroiiiu- 
ce:r. 

BALSAMODENDUOX,  tlie  name  given  to  a 
Konus  of  small  bushy  trees  of  tlie  natural  order 
Terebiiillifireir.    They  "arc  characterized  liy  a  scanty 


foliage,  and  oy  the  resinous  substance  called  bal- 
sam, wliioh  tlie  fruit  and  wood  yield.  They  usually 
strongly  resemble  a  shrub,  and  in  some  cases  are 
covered  with  spines.  There  are  several  species, 
Balsam  (or  Balm)  of  Gilead,  Elemi,  Myrrh  and 
Bdellium,  and  they  are  all  generally  found  in 
Arabia,  Eastern  Africa,  and  the  East  Indies.  See 
Britannica,  Yol.  Ill,  p.  293  ;  Yol.  XYII,  p.  121. 

BALTIA,  the  Basilia  of  Pytheas,  according  to  a 
tradition,  a  large  island  distant  three  days'  sail 
from  Seythia.  It  is  impossible  to  identify  the  is- 
land at  tlie  present  time,  but  some  think  the  word 
Baltic  derived  from  Baltia. 

BALTIC  PRUYIXCES  (in  Russia),  a  term  which 
in  a  wider  sense  comprehends  the  five  Russian 
governments  bordering  on  the  Baltic,  namely : 
Courland,  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Petersburg,  and  Fin- 
land. In  a  restricted  sense,  it  often  designates  the 
first  three.  The  Baltic  Provinces  once  belonged  to 
Sweden,  except  Courland,  which  was  a  dependency 
of  Poland.  They  came  into  the  possession  of  Rus- 
sia, partly  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century, 
through  the  conquest  of  Peter  the  Great,  partly 
under  Alexander  in  1800.  They  have  an  area  of 
about  200,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
5,000,000,  including  St.  Petersburg. 

BALTIC  QUESTION,  the  controversy  between 
Russia  and  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Livonia,  Estho- 
nia, and  Courland.  Peter  the  Great  promised 
them  freedom  of  conscience  and  the  maintenance 
of  their  German  administration.  The  conduct  of 
Alexander  II  was  such  that  the  people  insisted  on 
his  confirming  the  rights  and  privileges  allowed  them 
by  Peter  the  Great.  Articles  were  signed  in  Febru- 
ary, 1S,')6. 

"BALTIMORE.  To  what  is  g:iven  in  the  Britannica. 
Yol.  Ill,  p.  298,  relative  to  this  important  American 
city,  we  add  the  following :  Baltimore  has  an  excel- 
lent harlior,  and  freight  is  readily  transferred  from 
tlie  railways  to  the  shipping.  Among  the  public 
buildings  are  the  Rialto,  where  the  stock  boards 
meet,  the  Academy  of  Music,  the  City  Court-house, 
United  States  Court-house,  Post  Office,  Exchange, 
Athenfoum  and  Maryland  Institute.  There  is  also 
in  Baltimore  a  shot-tower  246  feet  high. 

Tlie  ]uincipal  institutions  of  learning  are  the 
.Tohns  Ho])kiiis  I'niversity  and  hospital,  situated  at 
Clifton,  within  the  city  limits,  having  a  large  en- 
dowment ;  tlie  Peabody  Institute,  which  includes 
an  academy  of  art  and  conservatory  of  music; 
Loyola  College  ;  St.  Mary's  College  and  Seminary, 
anil  the  University  of  JIaryland.  which  includes 
law  and  medical  schools.  The  public  schools  in- 
clude Baltimore  City  College,  a  Stale  normal  school, 
and  120  graded  scliools.  Instruction  is  given  sepa- 
rately to  lioys  and  girls,  and  separate  scliools  are 
kept  tor  colored  children.  Charitable  institutions 
liere  are  numerous — such  as  the  infirmary,  three 
asylums  for  the  insane;  the  State  institution  for 
the  blind,  one  for  deaf-mutes,  one  forthe  blind  (col- 
ored), and  many  orphanages,  asylums,  hospitals, 
homes  for  aged  women,  for  old  men,  and  for  the 
friendless,  besides  a  State  penitentiary,  jail  and 
house  of  refuge.  Patterson  Park  on  the  east  side, 
containing  54  acres,  and  Riverside  Park  on  the 
south  side  of  the  city,  are  very  handsome.  Of  the 
suburban  cemeteries,  Greenmount  is  the  most  ex- 
tensive. 

The  export  trade  of  Baltimore,  both  foreign  and 
domestic,  is  immense,  includingnaval stores,  cotton 
and  provisions.  Tlu>  imjiorts  include  goods  manu- 
factured in  Europe  and  products  of  West  Indies  and 
South  America.  The  average  annual  value  of  im- 
ports from  1880  to  1888  was  .$13,880,117;  average  an- 
nual exports  for  the  same  years.  .'f51,()33,090,  Tho 
Patapsco    River   furnishes  a   great   and  unfailing 


B  A  L  T  [  M  0  R  E  —  B  A  L  U  C  JI  1  S  1  A  A' 


199 


water  power.     The  debt  of  Baltimore,  Jan.  1,  ISiiI, 
may  be  thus  stated : 

Total  funded  debt,  par  value 180,110.752.50 

Total  suaronteed  debt  par  value 1102,000.00 


Total  debt 

Value  of  sinklug  fund 

Productive  nud  Interest-bearing  assets. 
Leaving  balance  of  debt 


Sl,10S,752.5O 
-,3U0,U00.U0 


■23.«OS,7r)2.:)() 
10,703,220.91 


13,015,531.59 


Among  the  historic  events  of  this  city  were  the 
bombardment  of  Fort  McHenry  by  the  British,  and 
the  battle  of  North  I'oint,  where  the  British  were 
expelled  in  the  war  of  1812-15. 

The  population  in  1770  was  13,503;  1780,  26,514; 
in  1810,  35,-538;  in  1820,  t>2,738;  in  1830,  80,625;  in 
1&40,  102,313;  in  18.50,  169,054;  in  1S60,  212,418;  in 
1870,  207,354;  in  1880,332,313;  population  by  city 
census  of  1888,  including  "  the  Bt'lt  "  (a  portion  of 
the  county  anne.Kcd  to  the  city  that  year),  41(i, 805. 
Of  these  64,509  are  colored,  rupulalion  in  1890, 
433,547. 

BALTIMORE,  a  small  village  of  Ireland,  on  the 
bay  of  the  same  name,  in  the  county  of  Cork.  It 
is  seven  miles  south-west  of  Pkibbereen,  and  has  an 
extensive  occupation  in  fishing.  There  is  here  a 
technical  school  foiuuled  in  I8,s7  by  the  Baroness 
Burdett-Coutts,  in  wliich  are  taught  all  the 
branches  pertaining  tci  tishing-net-niaking,  sail- 
making,  and  other  industries  of   a  sea-faring  life. 

B.\LTIM(JKE.  LoKi)  (Sir  Georoe  C.vlvert), 
born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  about  1582,  died  in 
London,  .\pril  15,  1632.  He  was  the  first  Lord  Bal- 
timore. He  graduated  at  Oxford  and  then  went 
abroad  for  travel.  .lames  I  made  him  secretary  of 
state,  but  he  changed  to  the  Koinan  Catholic  re- 
ligion in  1624  and  resigned  his  ollice.  He  was  in- 
terested in  cohmizal  ion  and  spent  much  money  on 
a  settlement  in  .\ewfound_land,  which  place  he  vis- 
ited, but  finding  it  too  col'd  he  sailed  southward  to 
Virginia.  Charles  I  granted  him  the  land  now 
comprised  in  I>elaware  and  Maryland,  but  Lord 
Baltimore  died  before  the  papers  were  satisfactorily 
completed.  He  was  a  popular  man  in  his  time;  a 
strong  believer  in  tho  divine  right  of  kings;  yet  he 
advocated  pojiular  institution.s  and  fn-i'dom  of  con- 
science. See  lirilaniiica.  Vol.  IV.  ]>.  713;  Vol.  XV, 
p.  605;  Vol.  XVll,  ]).  .385;  Vol.  XVllI.  ji.  49.5. 

BALTIMORE  HIKD,  or  B.u.ti.more  Oriole,  a 
very  beautiful  .Vmerican  bird,  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  United  States,  and  as   far  north  as  55°  N.  lat., 


THE  BALTIMORE  ORIOLE. 

bnt  migrating  to  tropical  or  sub-tropical  regions 
in  winter.  The  geiuis  to  wliicli  it  bnlongs  is 
usually  referred  to  the  natural  family  of  Ictiridic. 


The  Baltimore  oriole  is  about  seven  inches  in 
length.  Its  1)111  is  conical,  very  acute  and  a  little 
curved;the  plumago  brilliant,  parlicularly  in  the 
adult  males,  glossy  black,  finely  contrasting  with 
bright  orange  and  vermilion  ;  the  cause,  it  is  said,  of 
its  name — the  Baltimore  livery  being  yellow  and 
black.  The  tail  is  longish,  rounded  and  slightly 
forked.  The  bird  is  remarkably  active  and  lively, 
i:s  song  extremely  agreeable.  Its  nest  is  a  curious 
and  interesting  structure,  a  pendulous  cylindrical 
pouch  of  six  or  seven  inches  long,  usually  sus- 
pended from  two  twigs  at  the  extremity  of  a  lofty 
drooping  branch,  the  materials,  which  vary  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  being  woven  together  with 
great  nicety.  It  is  sometimes  sewed  tnrough  and 
through  with  long  horse-hairs.  They  are  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  true  orioles. 

B.\.LTISTAX,thenameof  the  Alpine  region  which 
lies  below  the  Karakorum  and  Himalaya  Mount- 
ains, having  an  average  height,  of  11,000  feet. 
Here  rises  a  lofty  peak  which  ascends  to  an  eleva- 
tion of  28,278  fei'l  above  the  sea  level  and  is  sur- 
passed in  height  only  by  Mt.  Everest.  The  natives 
belong  to  the  .Mongolians,  and  they  are  under  the 
government  of  Kashmir.  This  region  is  also  called 
Little  Thibet,  and  it  is  watered  by  the  Upper  Indus. 

BALT.IIK  is  a  Bulgarian  town,  constituting  one 
of  the  ports  of  the  lUack  Sea.  It  is  situated  20 
miles  north-east  of  Varna,  and  not  far  from  it  lies 
the  ruined  town  of  Tomi,  the  horhe  of  Ovid  during 
his  exile. 

BALUCHISTAN,  a  British  protectorate  south  of 
Aiglianistan.  Population,  about  500,000.  For  early 
history,  see  Britannica,  Vol.  II.  pp.  299-303. 

The  reiigning  sovereign  is  .Mir  Khudadad  Khan, 
Khan  of  Khelat,  who  succeeded  his  brother  in  .lune, 
1857;  born  1841;  eldest  son,  Mir  Muhammad  Khan. 

Kuans  of  Khelat  Since  1700. 
Abdulla  Khan.  Mihrab  Khun.  1S19-1SI0. 

Muhabbot  Khan.  Shah    Nawii/ Khan,  nljdicuted. 

Xaslr  Khan  I,  175.>-179.5.        Xasir  Khan  II,  I.SIIH.S.)?. 
Mabnuid  Khan.  Khudadad  Khan,  reigning. 

The  power  of  the  Brahui  khans  of  Khelat  was 
founded  towards  the  end  of  the  17th  century  by  a 
hill  chief  named  Kambar.  Called  in  to  protect  the 
Hindu  Raja  of  Khelat  against  marauders  f r(  m 
the  east,  Kumbar  first  expelled  these  invaders  and 
then  overthrew  the  Hindu  d.nasly.  His  success.. rs 
gradually  made  themselves  supreme  from  Khelat 
to  the  Arabian  Sea,  and  aliout  1740  Abdulla  Khan, 
the  fourth  Brahui  khan  of  Khelat,  was  acknowl- 
e^ed  as  chief  of  Baluchistan  by  Nadir  Shah.  The 
districts  oftjuettaand  Mustuiig  were  granted  to 
Abdulla's  son,  Nasir  Khan  I,  by  .Mimed  Sliali.  llie 
Durani  king  of  .Vfghanistan.  Nasir  Khan's  grand- 
son, Mehrab  Khan,  was  killed  in  the  storming  of 
Khelat  liy  a  liritish  force  in  1840.  His  son,  Nasir 
Khan  II,  was  acknowledged  by  the  Britisli  (iov- 
ernment  in  1841,  and  in  1,854  a  treaty  was  executed 
with  him,  under  the  terms  of  which  he  receiveil  a 
yearly  subsidy  of  .50,000  rupees.  Nasir  Khan  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Khudadad  Khan,  now 
reigning,  with  whom  a  fresh  treaty  was  concluded 
in  lii'cemlier  1876,  by  which  the  subsidy  was  raised 
to  1(111,(1(10  rupees  a  year.  The  Khan  also  made  over 
the  district  of  C^uettato  be  administered  by  I'.rilish 
officers,  at  first  receiving  the  surjilus  revenue,  but 
since  1882  an  annual  i|uir-rent  of  25,000  rupees. 

The  Khan  of  Khelat  is  at  the  head  of  a  confed- 
eracy of  chiefs,  but  his  powers  caiuiot  be  precis«'ly 
defined.  In  all  important  matters  he  is  amenable 
to  the  advice  of  the  agent  to  the  (iovernor-General 
of  India,  who  also  artiit  rates  in  disputes  between 
the  Khan  and  minor  chiefs. 

The  area  of  I'.aluchistan  includes  British  Balu- 
chistan, a?.-.igiied  to  England  by   th  '  Ameer   of  Af 


200 


B  A  .M  B  E  R  G  E  R  —  B  A  X  C  R  0  F  T 


ghanistan  in  1S78,  eoiistituted  a  cliief  conimission- 
ership  in  November,  1887,  and  comprising  Pisliin, 
Shorarud,  Kach,  Kawas,  Harnai,  Sibi  and  TlniU- 
Clioriali.  witli  an  area  of  al)out  11,100  square  miles. 
Tlie  nomad  Baluchis  are  the  most  widelj-  spread 
race,  the  Brahuis  of  the  eastern  plateau  being  the 
dominant  race. 

The  principal  towns  are  Khelat,  Mustung,  Koz- 
dar,  Bela,  Kej,  Bagh,  Dadar,  Gandavi  Xushki,  Sara- 
wan,  Pasni,  Sonmiani,  and  Quetta. 

The  religion  is  Moliammedan. 

There  is  no  standing  army  ;  but  the  Khan  could 
perhaps  assemble,  at  an  emergency,  10,000  irregu- 
lar tribal  levies,  indiiTerently  armed.  Tiie  fortitica- 
tions  recently  erected  by  the  Indian  government 
lie  within  tlie'  territory  under  Britisli  administra- 
tion. The  numerous  "forts  scattered  about  Inde- 
pendent Baluchistan  could  offer  no  resistance 
against  artillery. 

The  Khan  of  Khelat's  revenue  consists  of  his 
subsidy  from  the  Indian  government  of  100,000 
rupees  a  year,  his  quit-rent  of  25,000  rupees  for  the 
Quetta  district,  and  a  share  in  the  agricultural  prod- 
uce tal<en  from  the  inferior  cultivators  in  Inde- 
pendent Baluchistan,  Brah\iis  being  exempt. 

The  agricultural  produce  of  Baluchistan  is  lim- 
ited, owing  to  the  scanty  and  uncertain  rainfall, 
but  most  of  the  crops  grown  in  India  may  be  found 
1"  the  country.  Petroleum  is  found'  at  Khatum. 
Baluchistan  is  an  immense  camel-grazing  country. 
Local  manufactures  are  unimportant,  Ijeing  con- 
fined to  a  few  matchlocks  and  other  weap.ons.  Tlie 
ciiief  exports  are  wool,  hides,  madder,  dried  fruit, 
bdellium,  tobacco  and  dates.  In  1888-89  the  ex- 
ports to  British  India  were  valued  at  500,000  rupees, 
and  the  imports  from  British  India  at  396,000 
rupees. 

Tlie  country  througli  which  the  Bolan  and  Scind- 
Pishin  liaihvays  run  is  under  British  administra- 
tion. Elsewhere  camels  serve  as  a  chief  means 
of  transport. 

There  is  a  line  of  telegraph  to  Quetta,  and  the 
sul)]nariiie  cable  from  Karachi  to  the  Persian  Gulf 
totiehes  at  Gwadar. 

B.^.MBKRiiER,  LuDwiG,  a  distinguished  author 
and  statesman,  born  in  Mentz,  Germany,  in  1823. 
He  supported  the  revolution  of  1848,  and  on  its 
ladiire  l)i  came  an  ex.ie.  In  Paris  he  became 
Uno-.vn  as  a  writer  on  finance  and  political  economy. 
He  returned  to  his  native  town  after  the  war  of 
18t)i;.  and  was  a  meml)erof  the  custonis-parliament. 
During  the  Franco-Prussian  war  he  wp.s  an  adviser 
of  Bismarck  at  the  hend(juarters  of  the  latter,  and 
afterwards  assisted  in  the  adjustment  of  the  affairs 
of  Alsace.  He  was  elected  to 
the  imperial  parliament  in 
1871.  when'  h(^  strongly  op- 
posed t  he  adoption  of  the  pro- 
tective tariff.  The  writings 
of  P.amberger  are  numerous 
and  infhi(uitial,  dealing  in  a 
masterly  way  with  the  finan- 
cial, lalior  and  other  social 
quest  Ions  fjf  the  hour. 

BA.MI'.I.NO,  a  term  in  art 
ri"scriptive  of  the  swaddled 
figure  o(  the  infant  Saviour, 
which,  surrounded  by  a  halo 
and  watched  over  by  angles, 
occasionally   forms   the    sub- 


the  % 


iect   of    altar    pieces   in 
Koman  (Jathnllc  churches. 

HAMI'.OCCIADI';     Ui'Unhor 
(■III,     Italian    word,    nieanii'.g  niMiiiN.). 

siiiiphtoii;,  a  word  derived    from  Bamboccio,   the 
surname  of  a  painter  called  Peter  van  Laer,  who 


lived  between  1013  and  1(574.  He  painted  gro- 
tesque scenes  of  common  life,  such  as  rural  festi- 
vals. The  word  is,  therefore,  applied  to  pictures 
which  represent  boorish  frolics. 

BA:\I0,  B'liAiio,  or  B'ii.v-\-:Mo,  the  most  impor- 
tant city  of  Burniah,  Farther  India  ;  is  situated  on 
the  Irrawaddy,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Tamping. 
Vast  quantities  of  goods,  brought  here  by  camel 
caravans,  are  annually  exported.  Cotton  is  a  chief 
production. 

BAN  and  Arhiere  B.\x.  In  feudal  times  in  France 
the  term  meant  the  entire  military  force  of  the 
country.  The  han  was  the  barons  summoned  to 
war ;  the  second  levy,  which  included  their  vassals, 
was  known  as  the  arriiTe  ban. 

BAN,  or  B.vxrs,  the  term  used  in  Eastern  Hun- 
gary for  military  governors  of  certain  districts  or 
hanais.  They  were  appointed  by  the  king,  and  had 
extensive  political,  military  and  judicial  rights. 
Dalmatia,  Slavonia,  Bosnia,  Croatia  and  JIakovia 
were  the  chief  banats,  but  they  were  tinally  imited 
under  the  banats  of  Croatia  and  Dalmatia. 

BANAXA-BIRD,  a  native  of  the  West  Indies  arA 
Marm  parts  of  America.  It  is 
larger  than  the  Baltimore  bird 
though  of  the  same  species.  Its 
colors  are  tawny  and  black, 
with  white  bars  on  the  wings. 
It  also  suspends  its  nest  at  the 
end  of  twigs  to  be  out  of  the 
reach  of  snakes  and  monkeys. 

BAXAS,  or  Bux.vs,  the  name 
by  which  three  rivers  of  India 
are  known.  The  first,  in  Raj-  ' 
putana,  taking  its  rise  in  the 
mountainous  region  of  the  Ar-  b.\>c.\s.i-bird. 
valli,  flows  through  Mewar  for  120  miles  in  a  north- 
easterly direction,  then  southeasterly  for  about  ISO 
miles,  and  pours  its  waters  into  the  Chambal.  The 
second  river  rises  in  the  same  land.  Hows  south- 
west for  180  miles  and  dissolves  itself  in  the  Runn 
of  Cutch.  The  third,  a  river  of  Bengal,  in  Chutia 
Nagpur,  runs  70  miles  toward  the  northwest,  and 
falls  into  the  Son.  near  Rampur.  See  J'.ritannica. 
Vol.  XX,  p.  200.  and  Vol.  XXII,  p.  98. 

BANC,  legally  a  seal  or  bench  of  justice,  and  in 
this  sense  has  given  rise  to  the  expression  of  the 
courts  of  law,  "  sitting  ill  banc,  "or  .■'/:  /xuico;  that  is, 
sitting  together  on  the  bench  of  their  respective 
courts,  in  term-tiine,  and  otherwise,  as  provided  by 
statute. 

BAXCO,  a  commercial  term  meaning  the  stand- 
ard money  in  which  a  bank  keeps  its  accounts,  as 
distinguished  from  the  current  moiK^y  of  the  place. 
The  term  is  nov.  chielly  applied  to  the  money  in 
which  the  Hamburg  bank  keeps  its  accounts,  which 
is  not  represented  by  any  coinage.  Genoa  hail  at 
one  time  a  bank  standard,  and  the  jiresent  current 
money  being  different  from  that  is  still  called 
"  fuori  Imtico"  outside  the  bank. 

BAX(M!GFT,  (iEORtiK,  son  of  Rev.  Aaron  Ban- 
croft, liorn  at  Worcester.  Mass.,  Oct.  3,  b'^OO.  died  at 
\\'ashingtoii,  I).  C,  .Tan.  17,  1891.  He  grailiiated  at 
llarvanl  in  1817  and  went  to  (iermany,  where  lie 
spi'iit  two  years  studying  (ierman,  I'rench  and 
Italian  llteVatiire,  Greek  iihilosophy,  natural  his- 
tory, .\rabic,  Hebrew  and  Scriptural  iiiterpri-ta- 
lloi'i.  The  I'liiversity  of  (Tiittingen  conferred  upon 
him  the  degree  of  I'll.  1>.  It  was  at  this  time  that 
heseli'cleil  history  for  his  special  branch  of  work. 
He  iciniAi'd  to  I'.erliii  and  made  the  acipiaintance 
of  Ilunibohlt,  Savigiiy,  iloelhe  and  olliir  famous 
men.  He  furl  her  pursued  his  studies  with  Sclilos- 
ser,  th'  historian.  He  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  1822,  and.  after  serving  as  a  Gre(>k  tutor  in 
Harvard  for  a  year,  started,  in  partnershi])  with  Dr. 


I]  A  N  ( '  U  ()  K T  —  U  A  X  D  I  C  0  0  T 


201 


Joseph  G. Cogswell, Xhe  Uound  Hill  school  at  Ndrth- 
aniplon,  Mass.  About  this  tiiiu'  lie  declined  the 
noiniuation  to  tlie  Massacliusetls  assoniblj-,  and 
later  iht' nomination  t(i  the  Stale  senate,  lie  was 
eugayed  in  niakini;  translations  from  Schiller, 
Goethe  and  the  poetical  works  of  lleeren.  Mr.  lian- 
croft  was  a  Democrat,  and  Van  I'ureii  made  him 
collector  of  llie  port  of  Boston  in  1S3S.  In  IS4i'  he 
was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  governor,  hut,  on 
the  election  of  Poik  to  the  presidency,  was  made 
Secretary  of  the  Navy.  It  was  throu;;;!!  liis  inllu- 
ence  in  his  official  capacity  thai  the  Annapolis 
Naval  Academy  was  estahlished.  He  issued  liie 
famous  orders  to  lake  possession  of  California  in 
the  event  of  war  with  Mexico,  and  (wiiile  acting 
as  Secretary  of  War  pm  lent.)  he  ortlered  the 
American  I  r.iops  to  march  into  Texas.  'Mr.  Ban- 
crcif  w.as  honored  with  several  foreujn  missions. 
lu  1S4<)  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  the  Court  of  St. 
James;  in  1807.  to  Prussia;  in  ISiiS,  to  the  North 
German  Confederation  ;  in  1S71,  to  the  new  Cierman 
Empire,  whence  he  was  recalled  three  years  later, 
at  his  own  request.  He  had  an  active  part  in  set- 
tling with  England  the  i|uesIion  of  the  North- 
western boundary.  The  second  important  treaty 
in  which  he  was  en;iaged  was  that  concerning  ex- 
pat rialiou  riglits.  This  was  discussed  by  Germany 
and  the  United  States.  The  conclusion  arrived  at 
was  that  a  person  has  freedom  to  choose  to  wliat 
country  he  will  render  allcijiance.  Great  Britain 
afterwards  subscribed  to  tliis  treaty,  ilr.  Ban- 
croft's greatest  work  was  tliat  of  tlie  historian.  Jn 
1834  he  began  the  publication  of  his  IliMonj  of 
the  I'liitiil  Stales.  It  opens  with  the  discovery  of 
America  by  Columbus  and  chronicles  events  down 
to  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  and  the  for- 
mation of  the  Constitution.  This  is  a  very  exluiust- 
ive  history,  and  has  received  the  liighest  commen- 
dation from  such  scholars  as  Prescott,  Edward 
Everett.  Von  Rauiner.  Baron  Bunsen  and  George 
Ripley.  In  1885  he  completed  the  revision  of  his 
history,  and  it  was  then  published  in  five  volumes. 
Jlr.  Bancroft  delivered  many  addresses,  whicli  he 
had  published.  He  also  was  at  work  on  a  biograjjliy 
•f  James  K.  Polk.  Mr.  Bancroft  had  made  iiis  winter 
home  inWasliington  for  several  years.  He  was  a 
man  of  careful  iiabits,  fond  of  walking  and  horse- 
back riding.  His  man  lie  rs  \veree\tr(nii"!y  courleous. 
His  height  was  somewhat  below  I  he  average,  and 
in  his  youth  he  was  spoken  of  as  "'  Little  ISancroft." 
In  a  letter  to  a  friend,  written  in  1S81',  he  says  ;  "I 
was  trained  to  look  upon  life  here  as  a  season 
for  labor.  Being  more  than  four  score  years  old 
I  know  the  time  for  my  release  will  soon  come. 
Conscious  of  being  near  the  shore  of  eternity,  I 
wait  without  impatience  and  without  dread  the 
beckoning  of  the  Hand  which  will  summon  me  to 
rest." 

BANCROFT,  IlrnKUT  Howi;,  born  in  Granville, 
Ohio.  May  5,  1832.  He  went  in  I.M8  to  Buffalo  and 
entered  the  bookstore  of  his  brollier-in-lnw.  Four 
years  later  he  was  sent  to  California  to  establish  a 
branch  business.  Mere  he  became  interested  in  col- 
lecting books  relal  ive  to  the  history  of  the  Pacific 
coast.  He  was  so  fortunate  as  to  secure  the  library 
of  the  ^lexicaii  emperor  Maximilian.  He  collected 
a  library  of  4.3,tnK)  volumes.  With  this  material  at 
hand  Mr.  Bancroft  has  begun  a  history  of  Ilial 
region.  .\l  great  pains  he  lias  oblairied  from  pio- 
neers and  settlers  many  vabi:ible  narratives  which 
have  since  been  written  down  and  indexed.  He  has 
piiblished  Til-  Xnlir,-  liners  iif  the  I'nrifie  Sliileg 
(live  vols.).  In  this  work  be  hats  lieen  aided  by  an 
■experienced  corps  of  writers.  He  has  planned  to 
publish  39  volumes  of  the  Ilis/nri/  <•(  the  I'neijir 
.Sill I' 'I  iif  Xnrlli   Aiiierieii.     .Mr.  P.aiK'rofl     i«   an  en- 


ergetic business  man  as  well  as  a  learned  aiid 
accomplished  writer.  His  .executive  ability  has 
enabled  him  to  collect  this  fine  library  and  to  com- 
mence upon  so  great  a  work  as  this  history  promises 
to  be.  In  lS8(i  he  met  with  a  great  loss  in  ihe 
burning  of  his  brother's  store,  where  the  sheets  of 
seven  volumes  of  his  history  were  kept. 

BAND,  or  B.\xds,  formerly  a  portion  of  clerical 
dress  and  the  only  relic  of  the  ancient  amice,  a 
linen  vestment  which  was  used  in.  the  ancient 
church  to  cover  the  sliuulders  and  neck  of  the 
priest.  It  also  formed  part  of  the  dress  of  function- 
aries in  schools  of  old  foundation,  and  of  members 
of  the  bar,  and  consists  of  two  pieces  of  linen  pend- 
ant from  the  neck. 

BAND AJ AN,  a  Himalaya  mountain  pass  of  Kash- 
mir. The  niouiitains  surrounding  this  pa.ss  are 
composed  of  gneiss,  and  the  summit  rises  to  an  ele- 
vation of  14,854  feet  above  sea  level.  Here  snow 
continually  rests.  It  is  situated  in  lat.  30°  22'  N.. 
loag.  78°  4'  E. 

BAND.\NA,  a  kind  of  printed  handkerchief  of 
Indian  origin.  The  cloth  is  first  dyed  Turkey-red, 
and  then  the  pattern  is  made  by  dischats,'ing  the 
color  with  bleaching  liquor  in  a  powerful  Bramah 
press.  The  pattern  to  be  discharged  is  cutout  on 
two  plates  of  such  metal  (lead)  as  may  not  be  acted 
on  by  the  liquor,  and  of  the  full  size  ol  the  handker- 
chief. A  dozen  or  more  are  ])ut  in  at  once  between 
the  plates,  and  so  many  of  these  courses  are  en- 
tered together  as  fill  the  jiress.  when  Ihe  pressure  is 
applied,  and  the  liquor  is  run  in  on  the  uppermost 
plate,  which  is  grooved  on  the  upper  side  to  receive 
it,  and  holed  to  pass  it  from  plate  to  plate  through 
all  the  cloth-folds  in  the  press.  The  pressure  on  the 
cloth,  to  make  clean  work  by  i>reventing  the 
spreading  of  the  liquor,  is  enormous.  The  patterns 
in  the  real  bandana  style  of  printing  are  spots  and 
'diamond  prints  the  best  suited  for  discharging, 
and  even  for  these  a  pressure  of  500  tons  is  required 
to  work  them  clean. 

BANDA  ORIENTAL,  the  former  nameof  Urv- 
GiAV.     See  Britannica,\ol.  XXIV,  i>p.  14-10. 

BAXDEL,  Ernst  Vox,  an  eminent  modern  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Anspach  in  1800,  died  near  Donan- 
wiirth  in  1870.  He  studied  at  .Munich,  where  in  1820 
he  sent  to  the  ejchiliition  a  life-sized  plaster  figure 
of  Mars  reposing,  which  attracted  nuicli  attention, 
and  at  Nuremberg  and  Rome.  His  princ,i|ial  work 
\\as  the  statue  of  Arminiiis,  !to  feet  liigli,  near 
Detmold,  which  the  Emperor  William  unveiled  on 
Aug.  10,  1875. 

BAN-DE-LA-EOCHE,  otherwise  known  by  its 
Cierman  name  as  the  Steinthal,  a  valley  of  Lower 
Alsace,  in  the  Vosges  mountains.  It  is  noted  as 
the  scene  of  the  labors  of  Oberlin,"the  Pastor  of 
the  High  Alps,"  whose  tomb  is  at  Fonday,  a  village 
at  the  entrance  to  the  valley. 

BAND-FISH, or  S.\AKE-Fisn,  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  Ril)bon-fish  family.  The  body  is  much  elon- 
gated and  compressed.  The  l)ones  a  little  more 
solid  than  a  mere  fibrous  network, and  everything 
else  exhibits  a  corresiionding  delicacy,  so  that  speci- 
mens are  seldom  obtained  in  an  uninjured  state. 
All  the  species  inhabit  <piiet  depths,  and  are  inca- 
pabl(>  of  contending  with  waves  and  currents. 
They  are  native  of  .la|>anese  waters,  though  one 
8])ecies  is  not  rare  in  the  Mediterranean. 

BANDICOOT  RAT,  M.viAn.\K  U.\t,  or  Pig 
R.VT,  the  largest  species  of  rat,  which  sometimes 
y-eighs  three  pounds,  and  measures  from  24  to  30 
inches  in  length  from  tin  to  tail.  Its  flesh  is 
eaten  by  the  coolies  of  India  .Tiid  esteemed  very 
delicate,  being  thought  to  rese:nble  young  jiork. 
This  rat  is  found  in  Ceylon  and  certain  parts  of 
India;    dry    and    hilly    districts    are   its    favorite 


202 


B  A  N  D  I  E  R  A  —  B  A  N  J  0 


haunts.    It  is  a  very  destructive   animal    in    gar- 
dens, roots  and  grains  being  its  chief  food. 

BANDIERA,  Attilio  and  Emilio,  two  brothers 
descended  from  a  distinguished  aristocratic  family 
of  Venice  and  -nell  known  for  their  tragic  fate. 
They  were  lieutenants  in  the  Austrian  navy,  their 
father  being  rear-admiral,  but  instead  of  sharing 
his  pro-Austrian  sentiments  they  cherished  enthusi- 
astic dreams  of  the  free  and  united  Republic  of 
Italy.  In  1842  they  entered  into  correspondence 
with  Mazzini.  In  1843  they  believed  that  the  time 
had  come  for  a  revolution,  iDut  their  premature  ap- 
peal finding  no  practical  response  they  fled  to  Corfu 
in  1844.  where  they  endured  many  bitter  disap- 
pointments and  much  misery.  At  length,  misled  by 
false  rumors  of  a  rising  in  Naples,  with  which  it  is 
supposed  the  Neapolitan  police  had  something  to 
do,  they  ventured  to  land  with  20  companions  at 
the  mouth  of  the  small  river  Nieto,  in  Calabria,  be- 
lieving that  their  appearance  would  be  the  signal  for 
a  general  insurrection.  The  Neapolitan  government 
expected  them,  as  one  of  their  companions,  Boc- 
checiampe,  had  betrayed  them.  They  were  attacked 
by  an  overwhelming  force  and  were  nearly  all 
taken  prisoners  at  once.  Nothing  was  ever  allowed 
to  transpire  respecting  the  trial  of  these  men.  At- 
tilio  and  Emilio  were  shot  with  seven  of  their  com- 
rades, in  the  public  square  of  Cosenza,  July  25, 1844. 
They  died  joyfully,  exclaiming  "  Viva  I'ltalia !"  A 
year  later  their  remaining  companions  were  par- 
doned. 

BANDIT,  a  word  originally  signifying  a  "  ban- 
ished" or  outlawed  person.  Then  one  who,  because 
outlawed,  wages  war  against  civilized  society,  and 
finally  a  highway  robber.  The  bandits,  or  banditti, 
formed  in  Italy  in  earlier  times,  as  it  were,  a  sepa- 
rate community  or  guild,  wlio  submitted  to  their 
own  stringent  laws,  carried  on  both  open  and  secret 
war  with  civilized  society,  and  kept  up  a  certain  ro- 
mantic idea  of  honor.  By  means  of  the  severe 
measures  which  were  adopted  in  1820  by  the  Papal 
government  against  the  banditti  and  their  abettors 
their  haunts  were  broken  up.  Those  who  still  oc- 
casionally disquiet  the  frontiers  of  Naples  are  in 
general  peo[ilo  settled  on  the  spot  who  regard  rob- 
bery and  murder  as  a  trade. 

BAXDONG,  a  commercial  town  of  .Java  near  the 
volcano  Gunong,  an  eruption  of  whicli  destroyed, 
in  1822,  eighty  villages.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XIII, 
p.  600. 

BANEBERHY,  a  perennial  herb  found  in  the 
nortli  of  Europe,  iiiclnding  two  American  species 
wliich  have  long  been  used  by  tlie  Indians  for  the 
euro  of  snake-hite.  It  is  also  known  as  "  Herb  Ciiris- 
toplier." 

BANEH-BANNIKR.or  BANNER, .Toii.vx,  a  famous 
Swedish  Jseneral,  burn  near  Stockholm,  .Tune  2o,  1595, 
died  .M!»-  10,  bill,  lie  h'<l  I  lie  right  wing  of  the  army 
at  the  '  -ttle  of  Leipsic,  and  after  the  death  of  King 
Gustaviis  Adolphus,  lie  was  ooinmander-in-ehief. 

B.VNCfOll,  a  city  of  Maine,  and  county-scat  of 
Penobscot  county,  beaut ifuUy  situated  at  the  head 
of  navigation  on  tlie  wi^st  hank  of  thi>  Penobscot 
River,  at;  its  junction  wil  h  and  on  both  lianksof  the 
Kenduskeag.  It  is  an  important  railroad  center,  a 
port  of  entry,  and  one  of  the  greatest  lumber  (h>pots 
in  .'Vmerica.  An  abuiulant  water-jiower  is  supplied 
by  the  Kenduskeag,  and,  l)y  means  of  a  dam  built 
across  the  Penobscot  in  connection  with  the  Holly 
system  of  water-works.  Thi;  season  of  mivigation 
lasts  about  eight  mont  lis,  during  which  more  than 
two  thousand  cargoes  of  lumber  are  shipiied,  aver- 
aging some  200,000,0(10  feet  annually.  The  vessels 
entering  this  port  in  I  he  coasting  and  foreign  trade 
are  mostly  .\merican,  and  number  nearly  four  Imn- 
•^re'l,  about  half  of  whicli,  aggregating  a  tonnage  of 


nearly  35,000,  are  enrolled,  registered  and  licensed 
here.  An  important  commercial  interest  is  the 
manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes;  and  there  are  nu- 
merous other  manufactures,  including  iron,  lum- 
ber, machinery,  furniture,  trunks,  carriages  and 
sleighs,  and  an  extensive  establishment  for  burnet- 
tizing.  Bangor  is  the  seat  of  Bangor  Theological 
Seminary,  and  contains  a  number  of  very  vahiable 
libraries.  It  was  first  named  Norombega,  after  the 
supposed  Indian  city  mentioned  in  the  AtnUoDti/  of 
Melancholy,  and  in  Fanichise  Lost.  The  name  was 
changed  to  Kenduskeag  in  1769,  and  afterwards  to 
Bangor,  in  honor  of  the  psalm-tune  of  that  name. 
Bangor  became  a  city  in  1834.  The  population  in 
1840  was  8,627  ;  in  1850, 14,432  ;  in  1860, 16,407  ;  in  1870, 
18,289 ;  in  1880, 16,856 ;  in  1890, 19,090.  See  Britannica, 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  314. 

BANGOR-ISCOEB  (Bangor  Below  the  Wood), 
an  inland  village,  beautifully  situated  in  a  fertile 
and  richly  wooded  country,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Dee,  on  the  borders  of  Flint  and  Denbigh  shires, 
North  Wales,  five  miles  southeast  of  Wrexham. 
Population,  554. 

Bangs,  N.^th.^n,  an  eminent  American  clergy- 
man, born  near  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  May  2, 1778,  died 
Jlay  3,  1862.  In  1802  he  was  admitted  to  the  New 
York  conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
and  the  next  six  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  ardu- 
ous labors  in  the  then  almost  pathless  forests  of 
Canada  as  an  itinerant  preacher.  In  1810  he  was 
transferred  to  New  York  city,  which  was  ever  after 
the  headquarters  of  his  labors  for  his  denomination. 
In  1820  he  assumed  charge  of  the  Methodist  Book 
Concern,  and  under  his  management  its  business 
was  vastly  extended.  From  1820-28  he  was  editor 
of  the  "Methodist  Magazine,"  and  from  1826-28  of 
the  "Christian  Advocate."  In  1832  he  assumed  edi- 
torial charge  of  the  "  Methodist  Quarterly  Review." 
In  1841  he  became  president  of  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity, Middletown,  Conn. 

BANIAN  (from  the  Sanscrit  lo»?7,  a  merchant), 
a  word  used  in  India  to  designate  a  merchant  or 
trader  generally.  It  is  more  particularly  applied 
to  the  great  merchants  in  the  west  of  India.  I'spe- 
cially  in  the  seaport  towns,  who,  by  means  of  cara- 
vans, carry  on  a  very  extensive  trade  with  the  iiite- 
riorof  Asia,  even  to  the  borders  of  Russia  and  China. 

BANIAN  DAYS,  a  sailor's  phrase,  nearly  equiva- 
lent to  the  J«'(/'.s  n)ft/(/)V'.s  of  the  French.  The  term 
denotes  the  days  when  no  meat  is  served  out  to  a 
ship's  crew.  The  term  is  derived  from 
the  practice  of  Banian  traders. 

BANISHAIENT,  excepting  in  the  penal 
sense  of  transportation,  with  whicli  it  is 
popularly  synonymous,  can  only  now  be 
said  to  have  a  legal  meaning  historically. 
Formerly,  in  England,  parties  who  were 
■  required  to  abjure  the  realm,  that  is,  re- 
nounce and  <lepart  from  the  country, 
were,  so  to  speak,  banished.  But  t  he  word 
appears  lo  have  a  more  technical  and 
precist'  signilicance  in  the  Scotch  law 
than  in  the  English,  as  a  punishment  of 
exile  from  Scotland  is  intlicted  on  iier- 
sons  convicted  of  certain  olTenses  for 
which  that  punishnient  is  provided. 

l!.VNn\'AS,  a  tribe  of   Indians   living 
along  the  .\mazon  and  Rio  Negro  rivers. 

BAN'.Kt,  a  musical  instrument,  some- 
what like  the  guitar,  but  having  a  head  b.vnjo. 
similar  to  that  ol'  a  drum  or  taiiibonrine. 
It  was  invented  by  .loel  Walker  Sweeney, an  Ameri- 
can musician,  who,  wliile  traveling  through  the 
Soutli  with  a  wagon  circus,  liiul  li>arued  to  play  on 
the  rude  instrument  of  the  plantation  slave.  This 
was  a  large,  long-necked  gourd,  with  a  stick  for  a 


i;  A  x  K  -  n  A  A  —  !;  \  .\  k  i  x  r.  s  y  s  t  e  m  i  n   u.  s. 


203 


etaff,  over  which  was  stretched  four  liorsehair 
strings.  Sweeney's  first  improvement  on  this  rudi- 
mentary lianjo  was  in  the  substitution  of  the  tam- 
bourine head  for  the  gourd.  This  he  made  out  of 
a  nieal-sifler,  wliicli  he  covered  witli  old  sheepskin. 
Several  modifications  followefl;  but  it  was  not  till 
he  had  added  tlie  fifth  string,  which  he  called  the 
"lliumt)  siring,"  that  the  real  banjo  of  American 
negro  minstrelsy  was  produced.  Ihe  instrument 
has  grown  in  popularitj',  and  many  varieties  of  it 
liave  been  introduced,  some  havinj»  as  many  as 
nine  strings.  Sweeney  often  periormed  before 
tiueen  Victoria  with  great  applause.  He  was  born 
ir.  ISIS,  and  died  in  ISdO.  His  grave  is  at  Apijomat- 
',<)<c.  Va.  his  native  town. 


BAXK-BAX,  ban,  or  chieftain,  during  the  first 
part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  of  Hungary,  lives 
in  Hungarian  literature  and  has  a  romantic  fame. 
His  wite  was  seduced  by  Eckart,  Queen  Gert- 
rude's brother,  the  Queen  aiding  in  the  evil 
deed.  Discovering  the  Queen's  participation, 
he  aroused  the  people  to  help  him  break  into 
the  palace  and  kill  her.  King  Andreas  II,  re- 
turning from  the  war  in  Poland,  put  the  murderer 
to  death. 

BANKES,  Hexrv  (1757-1S34),  was  educated  at 
■Westminster  and  at  Trinity  College.  He  was  in 
Parliament  from  17S0  to  1824.  He  is  the  author  of 
('(■(■(7  <iiid  Constllulional  Hislori/  of  Ruuk,  J'rom  the 
Foundation  to  tlie  Age  oj  Aiiyuntiis. 


BANKING  SYSTEM  IX  UNITED  STATES.  For 
the  history  of  banking  in  various  countries  and  for 
the  discussion  of  numerous  economic  questions  grow- 
ing out  of  the  general  subject  of  banking,  see  Brit- 
annica.  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  315-:W1. 

Thepresent  system,  known  as  the  National  Bank- 
note System  of  the  United  States,  was  devised  and 
recommended  to  Congress  during  the  civil  war  by 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  Its 
chief  purpose  was  two-fold — first,  to  secure  in  the 
most  ellcctive  way  a  sure  market  tor  the  United 
States  bonds,  whose  issue  was  rendered  imperative 
bv  the  continuance  of  the  civil  war;  and,  second, 
to  provide  a  uniform,  safe  and  most  convenient 
monetary  system  for  the  i)romotion  of  business 
transactions  and  the  development  of  trade  and  in- 
dustri''S  among  the  people.  Its  whole  history 
shows  that  its  date  was  most  opportune  and  its 
niethods  most  wisely  directed. 

The  first  act  of  the  National  Congress  under 
which  the  system  was  organized,  was  approved  by 
President  Lincoln,  Eeb.  25,  KSia.  The  law  was  ex- 
tiMisively  revised  and  reijnacted  .lune  3,  IStU. 
I'rcvious  to  these  dates  the  system  of  State  banks 
universally  prevailed,  of  which  there  were,  in  the 
34  States  then  existing,  1.CM,  with  an  aggregate 
capital  of  !f4-'!',f«i<>,00<i.  More  than  Kl.oiiO  dilTerent 
kinds  of  bank-notes  were  in  use  in  a  total  circula- 
tion of  about  !f2il2,0(lO.(K)(l, 

The  act  of  ]S(14  provided  for  the  establishment, 
in  the  Government  Treasury  I)ei>artment  at  Wash- 
ing;on.  of  a  national  bank  bureau,  with  a  chief 
ollicer,  to  be  known  as  com])troller  of  the  cur- 
rency. Under  the  provisions  of  the  new  law  any 
nuMiber  of  persons,  not  less  than  five,  might  be 
organized  iiilo  a  national  banking  association,  the 
capital  in  no  case  to  be  less  than  $1)«).0(«),  except 
that  in  any  cities  containing  a  |iopulation  of  not 
more  than  (i.fHX)  the  capital  should  not  be  less  than 
f50,lX)0;  and  in  cities  having  a  population  of  not 
less  than  50,t)()0,  the  capital  must  not  be  less  than 
♦20<I,(XI0.  Not  less  than  one-third  of  the  capital  was 
reipiired  to  be  invested  in  United  States  bonds, 
upon  which  circulating  notes  could  be  issued  e^iual 
to  '.H)  per  cent,  of  the  current  market  value,  but 
not  excelling  !K)  per  cent,  of  the  par  value  of  the 
bonds  depositi'd.  The.se  were  to  be  received  at  par 
in  the  United  States  in  all  payments  to  and  from 
the  Government,  except  for  duties  on  imports,  in- 
terest on  Ihe  public  debt,  and  in  redemption  of 
national  currency.  .\s  early  as  March  3.  IfiiVi,  an 
ini]>ortant  additional  act  was  passed  requiring  that 
every  banking  association  should  ])ay  a  tax  of  ID 
per  cent,  on  the  notes  of  any  person  or  State  bank 
used  for  circulation  or  paid  out  by  them.    This  act 


virtually  resulted  in  taxing  State  bank  circulation 
out  of  existence. 

A  total  issue  of  .t300.000.000  of  circulation  was 
authorized  by  the  act  of  ]S(i4;  but  an  act  of  May 
]2,  1870,  authorized  an  increase  of  circulation 
to  .1354,000.000.  Another  act,  that  of  June  20, 
1874,  provided  that  any  bank  by  depositing  with 
the  United  States  Treasury  in  sums  not  less 
than  $9,000  at  a  time,  might  withdraw  a  pro- 
portionate amount  of  the  bonds  on  deposit  as 
security  for  its  circulating  notes.  .Vn  act  passed 
Jan.  14,  1875,  removed  all  limitations  as  to  tlie 
amount  of  the  circulating  notes  of  the  banks, excejit 
the  restrictions  in  the  provisions  in  the  law  then 
existing,  but  required  the  Treasurer  to  retire  legal 
tender  notes  to  the  amount  of  80  per  cent,  of  the  ad- 
ditional bank-notes  issued,  and  to  continue  such  re- 
tirement until  there  should  be  a  reduction  of  the 
legal  tender  notes  to  the  amount  of  .$3OO,0W,0OO. 
The  provision  of  the  law  requiring  a  reduction  of 
legal  tender  notes  was  repealed  May  31,  1878. 

The  National  Bank  act  also  re("|uired  that  the 
national  banks  in  the  city  of  New  York  should  hold 
in  their  vaults  in  lawful  money  25  per  cent,  of  their 
deposits  and  circulation  as  a  reserve  fund.  The 
banks  in  other  redeeming  cities  were  required  to 
hold  the  same  percentage  of  reserve,  but  were  to  be 
permitted  to  keep  one-half  of  this  reserve  in  cash 
deposits  in  the  city  of  New  York.  Banks  in  other 
cities  were  required  to  hold  a  reserve  of  15  per 
cent.,  three-fifths  of  which  might  consistof  balances 
due  from  approved  associations  in  the  redeeming 
cities. 

With  regard  to  interest  on  loans,  the  national 
banks  were  allowed  to  charge  at  Ihe  rate  allowed 
by  the  States  in  which  I  hey  were  located,  and  in  case 
the  State  had  fixed  no  rate,  the  banks  were  allowed 
to  charge  7  per  cent. 

Under  the  national  l>aiiking  law,  shareholders 
are  held  individually,  equally  and  ratably  liable  lor 
all  the  debts  of  the  association  to  the  extent  of 
their  amount  of  stock  in  addition  to  the  amount  in- 
vested therein.  Also  the  law  recpiired  that  before 
declairing  a  dividend,  the  bank  should  carry  one- 
tenth  of  their  net  profits  of  Ihe  ])receding  half  year 
to  a  surplus  fund  until  the  same  should  amouiit  to 
20  per  cent,  of  the  capital,  and  should  also  deduct 
all  losses  and  bad  debts  from  Ihe  net  profits. 

All  these  provisions  of  the  nalional  banking  law 
indicate  the  great  care  with  which  the  monetary 
interests  of  the  country  were  guarded,  and  Ihe 
resultant  history  of  the  svstem  shows  the  wisdom 
manifest  in  its  general  plan,  and  the  great  excel- 
lence of  its  chief  provisions.  During  the  year  lsii5, 
nearly  all  banks  iu  United  States,  operating  under 


204 


BANKING    SYSTEM    IN    UNITED    STATES 


the  State  laws,  adopted  the  national  system.  The 
number  has  constantly  increased  and  the  niimlier 
of  additions  to  the  system  during  the  year  closing 
Oct.  31,  1890,  -n-as  larger  than  that  of  any  previous 
year  since  the  first.  The  .307  new  banks  organized 
during  the  last  year  had  an  aggregate  capital  of 
:fo6.250,000,  and  are  distributed  among  41  States 
and  Territories.  In  nearly  all  cases  the  banks  whose 
corporate  existence  would  have  expired  during  the 
year  applied  for  and  received  from  tlie  Government 
extensions  under  the  act  of  .July  12,  1S82.  These 
facts  show  the  increasing  popularity  of  the  sys- 
tem. 

CoMP.\K.\TivE  Growth  for  Ten  Ye.\rs.  The 
nnmber  of  National  Banks  in  the  United  States  in 
1S72  was  1,852,  with  a  capital  of  .$465,676,023,  report- 
ing that  year  a  surplus  of  .$105,181,942,  total  divi- 
dend that  year  of  .$46,687,115,  and  net  earnings 
amounting  "to  .$58,075,430.  The  official  reports  of 
the  same  items  from  1880  to  1890  furnish  the  figures 
of  the  following  table : 


Year 
ending 
Sept.  1. 

No.   of 

natioujil 

banks. 

Cav.ital. 

Surpllts. 

1S.S0 

2.072 
2,1U0 
2.197 
2.:i50 

2,r,s2 
2,i;c.5 

2,7.*! 
3,(W9 
■     3.093 
3,170 
3,353  ' 

$J.>i.213,0(a 
4o6.'JM,i>io 
473,SM7,71.'i 
494,M0,14O 
518,605,725 
5*4.599.602 
.532,4.59,921 
578.462,76.5 
583,539.145 
596.302,518 
625.089,645 

§;120,145.&49.00 

1881 

1882 

127,238,394.00 
133,.570,931.00 

18.-« 

1S84 

141.232,1.S7.00 
117. 721.47-5.110 

18-S5 

38MO 

1-I6.',«l3.4'.i.5.li0 
155.0.J0,.S.sl.(HJ 

1887 

173.913,440.97 

l.s.Sf. 

l,s-^9 

KS9U 

184,416.990.92 
194,818,192.19 
208,707,786.00 

Vcar 
ending 
Sept.  1. 

Total 
dividends. 

Total  net 
earnings. 

2 

"3 .2 -J 

.2S.I 

l,v<n 

lj*l 

18*2 

?*,4n,473.00 
3S,:i77,485.00 
40,791,928.00 

*i.5.isr,.n,u.on 
.5:-;.t'.:.'2..">N;:.(Mi 
.5,;.:;-ji.2  ;i.(M) 

.54,11(17, M>.(K) 
.52,:;iU.7S.;.00 
4:i.62.5.1;i;,iio 

,5.5.](i5.:is5.0(J 

64..506.8i;9,i;r, 

65,.S60.4,SI1.73 
69.i;iS.2lw.U7 
72,0i5..563.,i2 

8.02 
S.SS 

1.883 

iNvl 

40,678.678.00 
41,254.473.00 
40,(156.121.00 
42,412,803.00 
4-1,152,407.92 
46.531,657.89 
46.618,0(i().27 
51,1.58,883.33 

8.:50 

3>H5 

7  80 

Ij;^ 

7  *I6 

18S7 

1SS8 

7.y8 
8  02 

l.s»9 

7  82 

1>90 

ij  19 

After  tlie  above  table  was  completed  tlie  animal 
report  of  the  Hon.  Edward  S.  T,acey,  the  comiil  roller 
of  the  currency,  was  issued,  furnishing  some  later 
additional  figures.  His  report  stall's  that  on  Oct. 
31,1890,  the  luiiiiber  of  nal  ional  banks  was  3,.567, 
witli  a  total  capital  stock  of  $(i.')ll,7H2.,8(i5 ;  bunds  de- 
])Osited  tosecurecirculation.  $140,190,900;  and  bank- 
notes outstanding,  $179, 75ri,ii43,  iiK-biding  $54,796,907 
represented  by  lawful  money  dejmsiled  to  redeem 
tlie  circulation  slill  oulstanding.  The  net  increase 
of  national  banks  during  the  year  was  248;  the  net 
increase  the  previous  year  was  168;  tlie  average 
yearly  net  increase  for  the  previous  ten  years  had 
lieen  127.  On  t)ct.  2,  1890.  the  individual  d'eposits  In 
the  national  l>aidcs  in  the  United  States  aggregated 
$1.564.845,27.5. 

N.\rn>N.M,  I',.\NK  Issi'KS  .\xt)  Ki'^nEMi'Tioxs.  The 
following  table  gives  the  amount  c  f  mil  ional  bank- 
notes of  each  (h-nomination  issued  and  redeemed 
since  the  organization  nf  the  sysleni,  and  the 
amount  of  each  outstanding  Oct.  31,  1890: 


Denominations. 

Issued. 

Redeemed. 

Outstanding; 

Ones 

$23,169,677 

15,495,038 

544,788.840 

461,240,000 

2«8.323,.5lW 

97,468,100 

147,273,300 

11.947,000 

7,379,000 

!f22,800,061.00 

15,311,146.00 

494,306,190.00 

403,621,260.00 

2+4.251,900.00 

87,709,800.00 

130,537,200,00 

ll,7t>4,000.00 

7,;«3,000.00 

$369,016.00 
1,8:5,892.00 

Tens 

57,6ls.740  00 

Twenties    .... 

44  071  t'lOO  00 

One  hundreds 

Five  hundreds 

One  thousands  — 

16,736,100.00 
183,000.00 
46,000.00 

Total     .       ... 

li;l,597,084,515 

$l,417,6a4,557.00 

$179,4-19,958.00 

To  the  amount  outstanding  should  be  added  the 
"  unrepresented  fractional  notes,"  aggregating  $25,- 
748.25. 

Redemption  of  Notes  op  B.\nks  Reducixg  ok 
Closixg  Circul-\tion.  The  Congressional  act  of 
June  20, 1S74,  provides  as  stated  above  for  a  reduc- 
tion of  the  outstanding  circulation  of  banking  asso- 
ciations upon  the  deposit  of  lawful  money  with  the 
United  States  Treasurer,  in  sums  of  not  less  than 
$9,000  severally,  and  the  act  of  July  12,  1882,  re- 
quires a  deposit  of  lawful  money  for  the  retirement 
of  the  old  circulation  whose  corporate  existence 
has  been  extended.  Under  these  acts,  and  on  ac- 
count of  liquidating  and  insolvent  banks,  the  sum 
of  $451,299,591  had  been  deposited  with  the  treas- 
urer prior  to  Oct.  31,1890,  including  $2,663,720  de- 
posited for  the  redemption  of  notes  of  national  gold 
banks,  and  $97,6.85,833  for  the  redemption  of  national 
bank-notes  for  the  retirement  of  the  old  circulation 
of  banks  whose  corporate  existence  had  been  ex- 
/  tended. 

There  are  now  no  national  gold  banks  in  exist- 
ence; but  there  were  yet  in  outstanding  circulation 
Oct.  31,  1890.  notes  of  extinct  gold  lianks  to  the 
amount  of  $134,727,  and  lawful  money  to  cover  their 
redemption  was  in  the  treasury  at  that  date. 

PrBi.ic.\Tiox  OF  FREiifEN'T  Kei'oiits.  For  the 
greater  protection  of  shareholders  and  depositors, 
the  law  provides  that  the  comptroller  of  the  cur- 
rency shall  call  upon  each  national  ba?ik  five  times- 
in  each  year  for  a  detailed  report  of  its  condition  on 
some  past  day  specified  by  the  comptroller.  These 
reports  are  made  under  oath,  and  jiublished  in  some 
local  newspaper.  They  exhibit  the  resources  and 
liabilities  of  the  baidc  in  such  detail  as  to  enable  its 
shareholdtu-s  and  depositors  and  other  creditors  to 
judge  as  to  the  wisdom  of  its  management  and  t!;e 
character  of  its  financial  eotidition.  (Joce  in  each 
year  these  reports  are  printed  in  a  bound  volume 
accompanying  the  annual  re^iort  of  the  comji- 
troller. 

KKi'Kivi-nisnii's.  The  cinupl  roller  is  elolhed  by 
law  with  the  resjionsibility  of  appoint  ins  reeeivers 
and  of  directing  and  supervising  the  alVairs  of  re- 
ceiverships and  the  conduct  of  receivers  ap|)ointed 
by  liim.  The  Supreme  (!ourt  of  the  United  States- 
has  denominated  a  receiver  as  "an  agent  of  tlie 
comptroller."  and  from  the  manner  of  his  appoint- 
ment he  is  regarded  by  all  the  courts  as  an  ollicer 
of  the  Uniled  States,  especially  when  jurisdictional 
questions  are  raised. 

It  has  been  held  that  "a  receiver  may  sue  hi  his  own  name 
or  in  the  name  of  the  l)ank,dcrivinK  Iho  rlshlfrom  the  United 
Stnte.f  statu le-;.  and  that  his  persoiiMl  citi/enship  does  not 
affect  his  posKInn  In  the  rourts  of  the  I'niled  .stiite.s. 

"By  virtue  of  his  eommlsslon  and  nuder  thedireetlonof  the 
compti'oller  lie  takes  jiossesslon  of  the  l>ooks,  reconls,  ana 
assets  of  everv  description  of  a  natlniial  I'ankinff  association 
and  Is  authorized  to  collect  all  del.ls.  dues,  and  claims  o' 
every  deserli'lion  hclouKniti  to  it.  and  u|ton  the  order  o^  a 
court  of  conipc'lenl  jurisdiction  sells  and  compromises  n' 
bad  or  doubtful  debts,  and  iu  Uku  manner  disjioses  of  all  iv. 


B  X  -\  i^:  I  X  (i    S  V  S  T  E  M    I  X    U.    S.  —  B  A  N  X  0  C  K 


20o 


estate  imd  I'crsonnl  i^roi'crty  ol  the  assoclntioii,  under  an 
order  of  tiie  court.  ,  ,      „  ,        , 

"All  inoiieva  so  collected  lire  reiiuiled  to  the  ireiisurer  ol 
the  United  States,  with  the  exception  of  such  iis  urc  neces- 
Bur\-  for  the  i.iivment  of  current  expenses,  and  from  time  to 
time  dividends  lo  creditors  are  paid  l>y  the  eomi'trolUr  3 
checks,  on  an  assistant  treasurer  of  the  I'ulted  States,  for- 
«arded  to  and  delivered  by  the  receivers. 

••The  funds  of  an  insolvent  bunk  collected  by  a  receiver  are 
held  in  trust  bv  the  treasurer  of  the  I'nited  States^  and  are 
not  Invested  fnintercst-bearinK  securities,  but  are  distributed 
anions  creditors  as  often  as  the  amount  Justitles  the  prepara- 
tion of  dividend  schedules  and  checks  by  a  receiver  and  the 
clerical  force  under  his  inuuediate  control. 

••.\  varving  icoportion  of  the  liabilities  of  a  trust  are  always 
represented  bv  claims  unproved  and  in  dispute  until  its 
clo-e.  and  whenever  dividends  upon  proved  claims  are  paid 
sullicieiit  funds  are  reserved  to  place  all  other  claims  upon 
an  equal  tooiiUK  whenever  their  proper  status  has  been  de- 
termined. The  rights  01  all  6o;i'i  nrfc  creditors  are  observed, 
and  lapse  of  time  will  not  defeat  ft  just  claim  before  t lie 
affairs  of  the  trust  are  closed  on  the  simple  uround  o!  laches. 
The  statutes  do  not  make  the  decision  ol  the  comptroller  or 
the  receiver  in  rejeelinK  a  claim  aftaiust  a  trust  liiial.  and 
therefore  whenever  a  claim  is  rejected  the  resuonsibilitv  of 
a  determination  as  to  law  and  facts  rests  with  the  courts. 

SorRCEf5  OF  PnoFiT  IN-  B.vxKixG.  Originally  the 
national  banks  realized  a  considerable  pn^tit  from 
their  circulating  notes,  but  the  high  rate  of  premium 
commanded  in  the  market  in  later  years  by  the  in- 
terest-bearing bonds  of  the  United  States,  which  the 
law  requires  the  banks  to  deposit  as  security  for 
their  circulation,  has  rendered  the  issue  of  circulat- 
ing notes  in  most  localities  unprofitable.  Hence  the 
later  reports  of  the  comptroller  show  that  tlie  na- 
tional banks  now  organizing  issue  only  the  lowest 
amount  of  circulating  notes  obligatory  under  the 
law. 

The  banks  rely  chiefly  on  their  deposits  as  their 
principal  source  of  prolit;  these  deposits  are  re- 
turned to  tlie  business  public  in  the  shape  of  loans 
properly  secured,  and  thus  the  money  is  continually 
kept  in  circiilntion  among  the  people.  We  quote 
from  the  annual  report  of  the  comptroller  bearing 
date  Dec.  1,  IS'JO: 

"Thev  [the  national  banks]  arc  fully  cosrntzant  of  the  fact 
that  no'  profit  will  be  realized  on  accouiitof  the  ri'„'ht  to  Issue 
notes,  and  proceed  in  their  organization  mainly  because  of 
the  gain  to  result  by  reason  of  deposits. 

••The  deposits  of  ii  bank  usually  be:ir  a  close  relation  to  the 
degree  of  confidence  rejjosed  in  it  t)y  those  wlio  live  withia 
the  sphere  of  its  business  activities.  'The  uniirccetlented  sue* 
Cess  whicli  lia^.  as  a  whole,  attended  the  operations  of  banks 
In  the  nati'iual  sysiem  duriiie  its  twenty-ei'.rht  years*  trial, 
has  insi»ired  a  degree  of  conlidencc  not  attained  I'ly  any  of  its 
predecessors.  In  the  earlv  years  of  the  system  deposltora 
were  in  some  degree  doubtiul  as  to  its  success,  and  deposits 
were  correspondingly  meager.  As  a  consc'iuence,  oanks 
were  then  organized  cliiellv  to  secure  the  profit  on  circula- 
tion. 

"It  Is  curious  to  note  how  steadily  the  relative  proportion 
of  deposits  to  capital  has  increased*  from  year  to  year,  and 
how  close  a  relation  the  increased  gain  bv  reason  of  augment- 
ed deposits  t)ears  to  the  diminished  profits  by  reason  of  note 
Issues.  This  is  illustrated  liV  noting  tlie  relative  increase  of 
capital  and  deposits  during  the  period  extending  iroin  Jan. 
1,  !«<■.<>,  to  Oct.  •J,  1^911.  .\t  the  former  date  the  nggrogntc  cap- 
ital of  all  utitional  banks  amounted  to  .<l«H.:i.-)7.:>l»',,  and  their 
Individual  ileposits  were  i:.')».'JrJ,171.  .Vt  Ilie  latter  date  the 
aggregate  capital  liad  Increased  to  ^''-.'si.-HV.^it-'i.  ami  tlie 
Individual  deposits  to  jtI,r)i'.-l..HI.';,^>7.'>.  During  this  period  of 
about  twenty-(i\e  years  the  capital  stock  account  shows 
an  Incre.vse  of  fil7.n«»,.'ivj,  c.iual  to  fil  iicr  cent.,  while  the  Indi- 
vidual deposits  exhibit  an  Increase  of  fl.i>W,iv'«,101,  or  over 
2U0  per  cent. 

••This  comparison  indicates  that  the  rate  of  Increase  of  dc- 
(loslts  has  been  relatively  three  and  one-half  times  that  of 
capital.  While  this  growth  Is.  In  a  certain  degree,  attribut- 
able to  thegem-ral  increase  of  the  cai'ital  and  business  of  the 
country.  It  is  to  a  greater  i  xtent  owing  to  the  age  tif  the  sys- 
tem and  the  unexampled  success  which  has  attended  its 
operations  and  the  liKreased  conlidencc  thereby  Inspired. 
Whatever  mav  be  the  opinion  entertainefl  with  regard  to  the 
expediency  ol  granting  to  banks  Ibe  riglil  to  issue  notes  for 
circulation.  It  will  be  universally  ciiniede<l  that  the  public 
welfare  Is  promoted  by  the  augmentation  of  bank  deposits. 
In  this  res|iect  we  find  the  Interests  of  the  l>anks  and  of  the 
whole  people  idiiiiical.  It  Is  of  great  Im|.ortance  that  the 
circulating  medium  of  the  count  rv  be  kept  w  itliln  the  channels 
of  trade.  Whenever  the  surplus  earidngs  of  the  wage- 
workers,  the  professional  men.  the  farmers,  the  icaiinfact- 
nrers,  ond  ibo  tradesmen  are  permitted  to   reinjtin  Idle  In 


the  enstodv  of  Individuals,  legitimate  borrowers  are  caused 
to  I'ay  increased  rates  of  interest,  and  business  and  commerce 
languish  for  want  of  adciuaie  banking  facilities. 

••It  is  true,  beyond  controversy,  that  tlie  national  system  Is 
admirably  •idapted  to  the  most  thorough  and  ciunplete  utili- 
zation of  'the  present  supply  of  money,  and  all  good  citizens, 
and  especially  those  wlio  are  honestly  of  the  opinion  that 
this  siipplv  is  inadequate  to  the  demands  of  business  should 
oppose  any  and  all  efforts  to  embarrass  or  destroy  an  admi- 
rable syst'em  in  successful  operation  when  none  of  its 
opponei'its  is  able  to  suggest  any  agency  adapted  to  an  equally 
elTicienl  service.' 

B.\XK1U;PTCY.  At  the  present  writing,  l^<ill, 
tlie  bankrujilcy  laws  of  Great  Britain  remain  sub- 
stantially as  described  in  Britannica,  Vol.  III.  pp. 
341-45.  See  also  the  same  article  for  the  earlier 
history  of  the  bankruptcy  laws  of  the  United  States. 
The  act  of  ISti7  (U.  S.  Congressional  Laws),  after 
repeated  amendments  and  modifications,  was  re- 
enacted  in  1874,  and  finally  repealed  in  1878;  and 
the  whole  suliject  was  again  left  to  the  regulation 
of  the  laws  of  the  individual  States. 

BAKKS,  in  navigation,  are  elevations  in  a  sea  or 
river,  generally  comjiosed  of  sandy  soil ;  they  are 
sometimes  called  shoals  and  are  covered,  or  par- 
tially covered,  with  water. 

BANKS,  John  (1700-1751),  an  English  writer,  and 
the  author  of  Critical  Rcviev:  of  the  Life  of  Uliri'r 
CromucH. 

BAXKS,  John,  an  English  dramatist  of  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries,  the  author  of  The  Vnhaitiiii 
Faiorite;  or,  KorJ  of  Ennex,  and  other  tragedies.  The 
dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown. 

I'.AXKS,  Nath.vxiki.  Prentiss,  born  at  Walthara, 
Mass.,  Jan.  30,  18U).  After  receiving  a  coinmon 
school  education  he  became  a  macliinist,  a  lecturer, 
an  editor,  a  lav.yer,  and  (inally  a  member  of  the 
State  legislature.  In  1852  he  was  sent  to  C  mgress, 
but  lel't  his  party  on  account  of  their  advocacy  of 
the  extension  of"  slavery.  He  joined  the  Republi- 
cans, who  sent  him  for  another  term  to  Congress.  He 
was  successively  Speaker  of  the  House,  Governor 
of  .Massachusetts,  and  in  ISiil  was  made  major-gen- 
eral of  volunteers,  and  soon  commander  of  the  5th 
corps  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  In  M^iS'i.  h;i\  ing 
gained  some  advantage  at  AVinchester,  his  force 
followed  the  Confederates  to  Harrisonburg.  Stone- 
wall Jackson  unexpectedly  fell  upon  him,  obliging 
a  retreat.  His  command  fought  at  Cedar  Mount- 
ain, Port  Hudson  (where  ti,000  prisoners  were 
taken),  imd  along  the  Red  River.  Relieved  of  com- 
mand in  ISW,  he  resigned  his  commission.  From 
this  time  till  1877  {except  one  term)  he  was  sent  to 
Congress  from  Massachusetts;  his  active  su))port 
of  Horace  (.ireeley  for  the  ]iresideiicy  costing  iiim 
his  re-election  in  1872.  He  was  for  a  long  time 
chairman  of  the  comniittew  on  foreign  relations. 
He  has  been  United  States  marshal  for  his  >-tate. 
In  1888  he  was  again  elected  Rejireseiitalive  to 
Congress. 

B.?NKS  LAND,  an  island  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  70 
miles  soutlnvest  of  Melville  Island.  It  is  inter- 
sected by  the  parallel  of  74°  north,  and  by  the 
meridian  of  1 10'^  west. 

BANKSIA,  a  genus  of  shrubs  of  the  natural 
order  J'rotfavar.  The  species  have  hard,  dry  leaves, 
generally  white  or  very  pale-green  beneath,  and 
present  "a  remarkable  appearance  from  the  um- 
bellate arrangement  of  tlieir  branches,  which  bear 
toward  their  extremities  oblong  heads  of  numerous 
flowers.  Tile  ilowers  secrete  much  honey.  They 
are  natives  of  .V list  ralia,  forming  a  characteristic 
feature  of  its  vegetation. 

BANXACKS,  '  OR  BoKACKS,  See  Britannica, 
IxniANs,  Ami:i;i(an,  in  these  Revisions  and  .\ddi- 
tioiis. 

B.VXXOCK.a  cake  of  home-made  bread,  conimon 
in  Scotland.     Ic  is  usually  composed  of   iiease-meal 


^06 


BANNS  OF  MARRIAGE— BARAGA 


or  of  pease  and  barley  meal  mixed,  prepared  with- 
out any  leaven  ;  it  is  baked  on  a  circular  plate  of 
iron,  called  a  griddle.  The  bannock  is  doubtless  of 
great  antiquity — being,  in  fact,  the  primitive  cake, 
only  varied  in  material,  of  every  country. 
BANNS  OF  MARRIAGE.     See  Britannica,  Mar- 

BI.\GE. 

BANQUETTE,  in  fortification,  a  foot-bank 
(bench)  or  raised  way,  just  inside  a  breast-work, 
on  which  soldiers  may  stand  to  fire  guns  without 
being  too  much  exposed  to  the  enemy. 

BANSHEE,  the  name  of  a  female  character  in 
tlie  mythology  of  Ireland  and  the  Scottish  Western 
Highlands.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  Y,  p.  300. 

B.INTAMS,  dwarf  fowls  kept  for  ornament  or  as 
pets.  During  the  last  century  many  new  varieties 
have  been  originated,  and  there  are  now  bantams 
of  all  the  principal  breeds.  The  most  curious  are 
the  dwarfed  Asiatic  fowls,  cuckoo  and  Japanese  ban- 
tams. The  Golden  Sebright  differs  from  the  Silver 
in  lieing  marked  witli  yellow  instead  of  white 
lacings.  The  Game  bantams  are  very  fine,  tliough 
not  larger  tlian  a  pigeon,  the  cock  and  lien  weigh- 
ing 24  and  20  ounces  each.  See  Britannica,  Vol. 
XIX   p.  (346. 

BANTU,  the  name  applied  to  the  languages  and 
j'fople  of  several  African  tribes  inhabiting  the 
ijgion  situated  between  20"^  S.  lat.  and  (iO°  N.  lat. 
'.  ''-"y  are  divided  into  three  branches,  the  Kaffirs 
a.-d  Zulus  inhabiting  the  Galla  ai  d  Somali  country 
In  the  e.-i.st  the  Bechuans  dwelling  in  the  central 
part  .",nd  the  western  diviirion  being  peopled  liy  the 
tribes  dwelling  in  the  region  between  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea  and  the  west  coast  of  the  Hottentot  coun- 
try. See  Britannica,  Vol.  XII,  p.  302;  Vol.  XVII, 
p." 319;  Vol.  XXII,  p.  729;  languages.  Vol.  XIII, 
p.  820;  Vol.  XVII,  p.  318;  Vol.  XVIII,  p.  7S0;  Vol. 
XXII,  p.  729;   Vol.  XXIV,  p.  S27. 

BANVAUD,  John-,  born  in  New  York  about  1820, 
and  educated  in  the  schools  of  that  city.  He 
executed  a  panorama  of  Venice,  and  afterwards 
one  of  the  Jlississippi  River.  In  order  to  accom- 
plisli  the  latter  work  he  traveled  in  a  skiiT  for 
thousands  of  miles.  He  has  traveled  in  Europe, 
painted  many,  pictures,  published  over  200  poems, 
several  dramas,  and,  auKjng  others,  the  following 
works:  IJescrijilion  of  Ihe  Mississippi  River,  Pilgrim- 
age to  the  Holy  Land,  and  The  Private  Life  of  a 
King. 

BANVILLE,  Theodore  de,  author  of  poetical 
and  prose  works,  Iiorn  in  Moulins,  France,  in  1820. 
His  first  volume,  Li's  Cfiri/tilides,  was  published  in 
1841;  other  of  his  writings  are:  Rimes  Dorees,  Les 
Exiles,  fjes  Occi denudes,  Trent-six  Jiallndes  Joi/euscs, 
Les  Stalfietiles,  Esfjuisst's  Parisieiinrs,  Conies  pour  les 
Femmes,  Comedies,  Odes  Ftniamlinlesiiiies,  Petit  Traite 
Pohie  de  Franqaise,  Contes  Flteriaues,  and  Mes  Souve- 
nirs.    See  Britannica.  Vol.  XI \,  p.  206. 

BANYULS-SUK-:\IEK,  a  town  of  France,  in 
the  Pyrenees  Orientak's.  with  a  tisliing  port  on  the 
Mediterranean.  The  celebrated  wines  of  Grenache 
and  Rancio  are  produced  in  its  vicinity.  Near  the 
town  are  four  old  towers,  one  of  which  marks  the 
division  lielween  France  and  Spain.  Tills  ]ilace  was 
tlic  iinniediate  scene  of  many  eiic<iunters  lielween 
Frencli  rejinlilicans  and  Spaniards  during  tlie  lirst 
French  Itcvnhitlon. 

Ji.VNVUMAS,  a  town  in  .lava,  at  the  opening  of  a 
large  valley  on  the  left  bank  of  tlie  Serajo.  See 
Briiannica,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  OHO. 

IlA.N.\l![N(i  (Tup.\i.\),  a  s(|ulrrel-llke,  insectivo- 
rous mammal,  native  of  Sumatra,  Borneo,  India  and 
Java. 

HAOUR-LORMIAN,  Pierre  M.\rie  Francois 
Loi'iH,  a  poet  and  translator,  born  at  Toulouse, 
Frcnco,  on    March   4,   1770,  and   died   in  1807.     He 


translated    Tasso    and  Ossiau,  and  wrote  several 
tragedies. 

BAPAUME,  a  fortified  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Pas-de-Calais.  A  portion  of  the  allied 
troops  advanced  to  this  place  after  compelling  the 
French  to  abandon  their  fortified  position,  and  to 
retreat  behind  the  Scarpe  in  1793. 

BAPTISTS,  Canadian,  German,  Seventh-Day. 
See  Religious  Denominations,  in  these  Revisions 
and  Additions. 

BAQUOY,  Jean  Charles,  an  engraver  of  Paris, 
France,  born  in  1721,  died  in  1777. 

BAQUOY,  Pierre  Charles,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1759,  died  in  1829.  He  was  a  Frencn 
engraver,  whose  best  work  is  Martyrdom  of  St. 
Gereais  and  St.  Protois. 

BAR,  any  elongated  piece  of  wood,  metal,  or 
other  solid  substance.  In  the  iron  manufacture, 
bar  is  a  rod  either  round  or  square  shaped.  The 
round  ones  are  made  by  passing  the  iron  red-hot 
through  a  bore  or  hole  in  a  plate,  and  the  square 
ones  by  passing  it  likewise  red-hot  tlirough  a  roller- 
mill  between  two  rollers  counter-grooved,  with 
their  triangular-grooved  faces  forming  the  square 
opening  of  the  passage  of  the  iron. 

BAR,  a  bank  opposite  the  mouth  of  a  river 
formed  when  the  larger  body  of  water  arrests  the 
current  of  the  tributary  and  compels  it  to  deposit 
the  mud  and  sand  which  it  has  lu-ought,  near  its 
own  mouth.  A  bar  soon  forms  a  delta,  as  in  the 
cases  of  the  Mississippi  and  Nile  rivers. 

BAR,  in  music,  the  space  between  two  perpen- 
dicular lines  drawn  across  the  staff  dividing  it  into 
equal  measures  of  time. 

BAR,  or  Barr,  in  heraldry,  one  of  those  more 
important  figures  known  as  ordinaries.  The  "  hon- 
orable ordinaries"  are  commonly  reckoned  as  ten 
in  number,  the  sub-ordinaries,  or  minor  charges, 
being  much  more  numerous.  The  bar,  like  the 
fess,  is  formed  by  two  horizontal  lines  passing  over 
the  shield;  but  it  differs  from  it  in  size,  the  fess 
occupying  a  third,  the  bar  only  a  fifth  part  of  the 
shield. 

BAR,  a  Ri^ssian  town  where  the  nobility  of 
Poland  formed  a  confederation  to  counteract  tlie 
Russian  influence  over  their  king,  Stanislas  Augus- 
tus. The  same  year.  1768,  the  Russian  army  cai>- 
tured  Bar  and  exiled  the  confederates.  They  de- 
clared the  king  dethroned  and  took  him  to  War- 
saw. After  four  years  of  fighting  Russia  sup- 
pressed this  revolution. 

BAR,  de  Aime  Flkihv,  a  Frencli  general,  born  at 
Thiers  in  T7S3,  died  in  18(il.  He  served  in  the  wars 
of  Najioleon  I,  again  in  Algiers,  and  was  made 
lieutenant-general  and  later  a  senator. 

BARABOO,  city  of  Wisconsin,  county-seat  of 
Sauk  county,  situated  on  a  railroad  and  the  Bara- 
boo  River;  iron  mining,  grain,  fruit  and  hop-rais- 
ing are  carried  on. 

BARACO.V,  a  seajiort  town  on  the  northeast 
coast  of  Cuba,  belonging  to  the  Spaniards.  In  its 
vicinity  is  a  remarkable  mountain  called  the  Anvil 
of  Baracoa. 

liAH.ADA,  a  Syrian  river,  whicli  flows  through 
the  city  of  Damascus.  Hefore  reaching  the  city  it 
divides  into  two  branches ;  these  are  thought  to  be 
the  Abaiia  and  Pharjiar  of  the  Bible, 

BAK.VGA,  FuEDKiiicK,  a  devoted  lionian  Catholic 
liishop,  born  in  TrelVen.  .'vust  ria-1  lungary,  June  2<) 
1797,  died  at  Man|Urtte,  Mich.,  .Ian.  19,1868.  He 
came  to  till'  rnited  Stales  and  devoted  his  life  to 
work  among  the  Indians,  laboring  among  the  Otta- 
was  of  Michigan,  and  t  lie  Chipjiewas  at  l.a  Poliite 
His  work  was  attended  witli  great  hardship,  but  he 
did  not  spari>  himself,  and  he  died  in  the  midst  of 
his  labors.     He   wrote  works  of  devotion   in    the 


B  A  II  A  G  U  A  Y  —  B  A  R  B  0  N 


207 


Sclavonic  dialect ;  a  prayer  and  liyinn-hook  in  llie 
Ottawa  language,  also  one  in  the  Ojibway  dialect ; 
the  llisturij,  Cliardrlir,  Maniiirs  uiul  Cufloius  of  the 
North  Aiiitrirnii  Indiun  (in  German);  and  a  gram- 
mar and  dictionary  of  the  Chippewa  language. 

BAKAGUAY  D'HILLIKKS,  Loiis,  a  distin- 
guished general  of  the  French  Empire,  born  in 
I'aris  in  17t)4.  He  received  ah  apiioinlnient  in  the 
army  of  Italy  from  .Napoleon,  and  was  a  sharer  in 
all  the  campaigns  of  ITlHi-K".  He  was  made  a  gen- 
eral of  division,  and  in  virtue  of  Napoleon's  treaty 
with  the  Venetian  Kepublic,  May  l(i,  17'J7,  com- 
mandant of  Venice.  He  accompanied  the  expedi- 
tion to  Egypt,  and  afterwards  successively  held 
ap|)ointmeiits  in  the  armies  of  the  Khine,  the  Tyrol, 
and  in  Catalonia.  He  headed  a  division  in  the 
Kussian  campaign  of  1M2,  but  on  the  retreat  he  in- 
curred tlie  displeasure  of  Napoleon.  He  was  sent 
as  governor  to  Berlin,  where  lie  died  from  grief  and 
exhaustion. 

I5AKATARIA  BAY,  an  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  in  Louisiana,  connecting  the  Alississippi 
Kiver  and  the  Bayou  la  Fourche.  Fort  Livingston 
was  erected  in  1S40-.50  on  the  west  end  of  Grande 
Terre  Island,  at  the  liay's  entrance. 

BARB  (probal)ly  derived  from  Barbary),  a  breed 
of  horses  originated  among  tlie  Moors  and  intro- 
duced into  Spain.  The  thorouglibred  horse  of  the 
present  doubtless  descended  from  the  Barb.  "Go- 
dolphin  .\rabian"  was  an  animal  of  this  breed.  In 
New  Jersey  the  name  barb  is  applied  to  the  king- 
fisher. 

BAKBAPOE.<  CHERRY,  the  name  given  in  the 
West  Indies  to  the  fruit  of  two  small  trees,  Mdl- 
piijhia  iiniin  and  Mohiifjhia  glabra,  which  are  culti- 
vated for  its  sake.  Clusters  of  fruit  are  produced 
from  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 

BARBADOES  GOOSEBERRY  (Pwsim  acuk- 
ata),  a  pleasant  West  Indian  fruit,  produced  by  a 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Cacleu;  with  a  round 
stem,  thick  tiat  allirnate  leaves,  and  large  strong 
spines.     The  fruit  has  expectorant  properties. 

BARBAIHIKS  TAR,  a  dark,  imllammable  liquid 
which,  l)y  distillation,  yields  naphtha,  with  asphalt 
as  a  residuum. 

BARBARA,  S.vist,  who  suffered  martyrdom  at 
Nicomedia,  in  Bitliynia,  .about  l?3l),  or,  according  to 
other  accounts,  at  lleliopolis  in  Egypt,  about  306, 
was  of  good  birth,  and  well  educated  by  her  father, 
Dioscorus.  To  avoid  disturbance  in  her  studies  he 
had  a  tower  Imilt  for  her,  where  she  spent  her  youth 
In  the  deepest  solitude.  While  in  this  retirement 
she  was  led,  through  ( trigen,  il  is  said,  to  embrace 
Christianity.  Her  father,  a  fanatic  heathen,  learn- 
ing of  his  daughter's  conversion,  and  failing  to  in- 
duce her  to  renounce  Christ,  delivered  her  up  to 
the  governor,  Martianus,  to  be  dealt  with  by  the 
law.  Martianus,  struck  with  the  intelligence  and 
beauty  of  the  maiden,  attempted  lirst  by  argu- 
ments to  make  her  relinipiish  Clirislianity,  but 
when  that  failed  he  had  recourse  to  the  most  ex- 
quisite tortures.  .Vt  last  the  fat  her  ofTered  himself 
to  strike  off  his  daughter's  head.  Scarcely  was  the 
deed  done  when  he  was  st  ruck  by  lightning.  Hence 
Snint  Barbara  is  to  this  day  prayed  lo  in  storms. 
For  the  same  reason  she  is  the  iiatron  saint  of 
artillery,  and  her  image  was  at  one  lime  frequently 
placed  on  arsenals,  powder-magazines,  i-lc.  The 
powder-room  in  a  French  ship  of  war  is  to  this  day 
called  Sainte-I'.arbe. 

BAR15ARor.\,  Cii.\Ri.ES,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tingiiishiMl  and  energetic  of  the  Girondists,  born 
at  .Alarsi'illi's  in  17ti7.  The  new  ideas  of  equal- 
ity and  fralfrnity  found  in  him  a  warm  advocate, 
and  he  did  much  to  promote  their  spread.  He  was 
elected  special  delegate  of  .Marseilles  to  attend  the 


constituent  assembly  at  Paris.  He  returned  to  his 
native  town,  where  he  was  received  with  enthu- 
siasm, and  was  soon  after  chosen  delegate  to  the 
convention.  While  there  he  adhered  to  the  (Giron- 
dists, and  boldly  opposed  the  party  of  ^Marat  and 
Robespierre.  In  -May,  1793,  he  was  proscribed  as  a 
royalist  and  an  enemy  to  the  Republic.  He  wan- 
dered about  the  country,  hiding  himself  a.s  lie  best 
could,  but  he  was  linaily  taken  and  perished  at 
Bordeaux  by  the  guillotine,  .June  U'5,  17U1.  He  un- 
derstood the  revolutionary  crisis  much  better  than 
most  of  his  party,  and  had  they  all  generally 
possessed  anything  like  his  energy  and  sagacity, 
much  bloodshed  and  horror  would  have  been 
spared  to  France. 

BARBED  AND  CRESTED,  heraldic  terms  by 
which  the  comb  and  gills  of  a  cock  are  designated 
when  it  is  necessary  to  particularize  them  as  being 
of  a  different  tincture  from  the  body.  The  com- 
mon English  term  is  Wallli'd  and  Combed. 

B.\RBEL,  the  common  English  name  of  several 
species  of  cyprinoid  fishes,  particularly  the  linrbiis 
rulgaris  of  the  rivers  of  the  temperate  parts  of 
Europe.  It  is  abundant  in  tlie  Thames.  Weser, 
Elbe  and  Rhine.  T)ie  barliel  of  the  Nile  some- 
times weiglis  seventy  pounds.  It  is  not  found  in 
American  waters. 

B.VRBER'S  ITCH,  the  name  given  to  two  diseases. 
(1.;  When  there  is  a  pustular  eruption  caused  by 
too  close  or  frequent  sliaving.  (2.)  When  there  is 
ringworm  in  the  hair  of  the  beard  caused  by  using 
unclean  or  contaminated  razors,  etc.  The  disease 
can  be  cured  by  perfect  cleanliness  and  the  use  of 
soothing  ointments  if  the  difficulty  is  not  of  a  very 
serious  nature. 

B.\RBERRY,  a  shrub  of  a  genus  (Berberin)  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Bcrbrride.r.  All  the 
species,  which  are  numerous,  and  found  in  tem- 
perate climates  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  exeejit  in 
.Australia,  are  shrubs  with  yellow  flowers  having 
a  calyx  of  six  leaves,  a  corolla  of  six  petals,  and  six 
stamens,  which,  when  touched  at  the  base,  display 
a  consideralile  degree  of  irritability,  starting  up 
from  their  ordinary  position  of  reclining  upon  the 
petals,  and  closing  uixm  the  pistil,  apparently  a 
provision  to  secure  fecundation.  The  fruit  is  a 
berry  with  two  or  three  seeds.  Many  of  the  species 
are  evergreen.  The  common  barberry  {Berbcris 
nf/mci's),  a  native  of  most  of  the  temperate  parts 
of  Europe,  Asia  and  North  .Vmerica,  produces  its 
flowers  and  fruit  in  pendulous  racenu^s.  Some  of 
the  evergreen  species  are  employed  for  hedge 
plants,  as  Bri-heris  dulcis,  the  Sweet  15arbcrry,  a  na- 
tive of  the  southwest  coast  of  .Vmerica. 

BARBERTON,  a  town  of  the  Transvaal,  about 
300  miles  north  of  Durban.  It  is  named  after  a 
prospector  of  the  De  Kaap  gold-lields,  and  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  new  mining  industry  of  that 
region.     .See  Britannica,  Vol.  NXlll,  p.  518. 

B.VRBES,  .\rm.\xd,  a  French  revolutionist,  born 
in  Guadeloupe,  Sept.  IS,  ISliSi.  died  at  The  Hague, 
June  2ii.  1S70.  On  charges  which  were  not  sul)- 
stantiated  he  was  imprisoned  from  R<34  to  1S35, 
again  from  1830  to  1848,  and  for  a  term  of  several 
years  following  1S4S. 

B.\RBESIEUX,  OE  Loris  Frakcois  Le  TEi.i.rEK, 
marquis,  born  at  Raris  in  Ititi.S,  died  in  1701.  He 
was  minister  of  state  during  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV. 

I'..\K BET,  a  variety  of  poodle-dog  which  is  very 
intelligent,  faithful  to  its  master,  cross  with 
strangers,  and  quite  liable  to  disease. 

U.VRBON.  a  French  family  of  famous  printers 
who  lived  in  the  KMIi  century.  John  liarbon,  of 
Lyons,  was  the  head  of  the  family,  and  from  his 
press    came    the    handsome    edition    of    Clement 


208 


B  A  R  B  0  U  R  S  Y  I  L  L  E  —  B  A  RILL  A 


Marot's  works.  Hugh  Barbon  Ijruught  out  the 
celebrated  edition  of  Cicero's  Letters  to  Atticux. 
Josei)h  Gerald  Barbon  published  a  continuation  of 
the  series  of  Latin  classics  in  duodecimo.  In  the 
British  Museum  there  is  a  complete  set  of  the  Bar- 
bon classics. 

B.\RBOURSVILLE  (Ci'.bell  Court-house),  West 
Virginia,  the  county-seat  of  Cabell  county,  situated 
on  the  Guyandotte  Itiver  and  the  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio  Railroad.  A  normal  school  is  in  the  town.  On 
July  13,  1801,  the  Federal  troops  fought  a  battle 
here  with  the  Soutliern  army,  in  which  the  former 
were  victorious. 

BARBY,  a  walled  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  15  miles  southeast  of 
Magdeburg.  It  is  well  built  and  has  an  old  castle. 
Population,  5,600,  chiefly  engaged  iu  the  manufact- 
ure of  woolens  and  linens. 

BARCAROLLE,  a  species  of  song  peculiar  to  the 
gondoliers  of  Venice.  The  name  is  also  applied  to 
musical  compositions  for  voice  or  piano-forte  of  a 
similar  character. 

BARD,  a  fortress  and  village  of  Piedmont,  situ- 
ated on  tlie  left  bank  of  the  Doire,  about  I'o  miles 
south-southeast  of  Aosta.  When  the  French  crossed 
the  St.  Bernard  in  1800,  the  fortress  of  Bard  offered  a 
resistance  to  their  farther  advance  into  Italy,  which 
might  have  proved  effectual  had  the  Austrian  gar- 
rison been  sufficiently  on  the  alert.  The  French 
failed  to  take  the  fortress  by  storm,  but  they  suc- 
ceeded in  dragging  their  artillery  under  and  past 
the  guns  of  the  fort  during  the  night,  and  were  far 
on  tlie  road  to  Ivrea  before  the  Austrian  com- 
mander was  aware  that  they  had  passed.  Bard  was 
taken  a  short  time  after  by  the  French,  and  de- 
stroyed, hut  lias  since  been  restored.  Population, 
about  600.  ,      , 

BARDINGS,  or  B.\Rr),  the  name  of  the  horse 
armor  used  during 
the  Middle  Ages.  It 
was  in  four  pieces: 
one  to  protect  the  face 
and  head  ;  one  for  the 
neck ;  one  for  the 
shoulders  and  chest; 
one  from  the  cantle  of 
th.e  saddle  to  the  tail. 
A  horse  thus  pro- 
tected witli  armor 
was  railed  "  barded.  " 
BA  R  US  TOW  N, 
county-seat  of  Nelson 
county,    Ky.,  and  the  "'"""'"■ 

sontheastorn  term  imis  of  a  branch  of  the  Louisville 
and  Nashville  Railroad.  It  contains  churches,  an 
orphan  asylum,  an  academy,  St.  .Joseph's  Seminary 
and  College  (Catholic),  and  a  female  college;  it 
also  has  fluuring  mills  and  distilleries. 

BAHEBONE'S  PARLIAMENT,  so  called  from 
one  of  its  members,  Praise-God  I5arbon,  or  Bare- 
bone,  was  a  gathering  of  Hi!)  persons  who  met  at 
the  summons  of  Oliver  Oomwell,  .luly  l,  11153,  and 
is  knov.n  as  the  "  Little  Parliament."  They  were  to 
be  "faithful,  fearing  (iod  and  halingcovetousness;" 
but  their  work  did  not  prove  to  be  conducive  to  the 
welfare  of  the  country,  and  they  were  allowed  to 
resign  in  December  oi"  the  same  year.  See  Britan- 
nica.  Vol.  VI,  p.  Ii02. 

l'.AKEl''OOTEf)  KUTAKS  andNnxs:  The  name 
of  an  order  of  Roman  t'atliolic  monks  and  nuns, 
who  wear  sandals  or  go  barefooted. 

BARI^:GES,  mixed  tissues  adapted  for  women's 
dresses,  called  in  Franc'e  Crfpe-de-ISnrfijen.  Bari''- 
ges  were  first  manufactured  at  Bagni^res  ile  Bigorre. 
They  are  usually  a  mixture  of  silk  and  w'lrsted,  an 
inferior  kind  being  composed  of  cotton  and  worsted. 


Tliey  vary  in  color  and  are  sometimes  light  In  tint, 
with  printed  patterns.  All  are  of  a  slight  fabric 
for  summer  wear. 

BAREGINE.  Many  alga-  are  found  growing  in 
mineral  springs,  especially  those  of  a  sulphuric 
nature.  The  product  of  their  growth  is  a  mucus- 
like substance,  somewhat  resembling  the  white  or 
glair  of  an  egg.  This  deposit  is  particularly  abund- 
ant in  the  hot  springs  at  Bareges,  from  which  bare- 
gine  derives  its  name.  It  imparts  a  flesh  broth 
Havor  and  odor  to  the  water,  which  is  prized,  and 
is  sometimes  imitated  by  adding  animal  gelatine 
to  the  sulphur-baths  where  baregine  is  deficient. 

BARENTS,  William,  a  celebrated  Dutch  naviga- 
tor of  the  16th  century.  He  made  a  number  ol 
voyages  toward  the  North  Pole.  He  discovered  the 
islands  of  Spitzbergen  while  endeavoring  to  find  a 
northeast  passage  to  India.  Barents  Sea  is  named 
after  this  intrepid  explorer.  He  died  in  1507,  while 
on  a  voyage  of  exploration.  Parts  of  his  journal 
have  recently  been  found  by  members  of  different 
expeditions  to  the  Polar  regions.  See  Britannica, 
Vol.  X,  p.  184;  also  XIX,  317. 

BARFOD,  Paul-Fkederic,  a  distinguished  Dan- 
ish poet  and  publicist,  born  in  1811.  His  princi- 
pal work  is  Narratives  from  the  History  of  the  Father- 
land. His  style  is  charming,  and  all  his  writings, 
which  are  numerous,  are  very  popular  in  Den- 
mark. 

BAEGA  PASS,  a  mountain  pass  among  the  Hima- 
layas, situated  in  the  Punjab,  in  the  northern  por- 
tion of  Bashahr  state.  Its  highest  point  is  15,000 
feet  above  the  sea-level.  Not  a  mile  from  it  there 
are  two  other  and  more  elevated  passes. 

BARGAIN  AND  SALE,  to.be  effective,  under  the 
State  laws,  severally,  of  the  United  States,  must 
be  attended  either  by  the  immediate  payment  of  a 
part  or  the  whole  of  the  price,  or  by  the  transfer  of 
the  personal  possession  of  the  property  involved. 
See  Sale,  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  pp.  205-10;  also 
under  Real  Estate,  Vol.  XX,  p.  30S. 

BARGE.  Two  uses  of  this  name  are  peculiar  to 
the  United  States.  It  commonly  denotes  a  double- 
deck  passenger  or  freight  boat,  having  no  motive 
power  of  its  own,  liut  intended  to  be  attached  by  a 
hawser  to  a  tow-boat.  Such  a  boat  is  used  either 
for  the  transportation  of  b'dky  produce,  such  as  hay 
and  straw,  or  for  the  carrying  of  passengers  for 
short  distances  in  smooth  water  on  pleasur(>  excur- 
sions. A  lapstreak  somewhat  like  a  shell,  but  bet- 
ter adapted  to  rough  water,  and  used  by  racing 
crews  while  in  training,  is  also  known  in  America 
as  a  barge.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  ,30. 

BARGE,  an  old  town  of  Piedmont,  Italy.  It  has 
a  college,  manufactories  of  fire  arms,  and  there  are 
slate  <|uarries  in  the  neighborhood.  In  1808  the 
town  siiffer<>d  severely  from  an  earthquake. 

BARGKISOARD.or  Vi:ii(;i-r!OAHi),  the  board  used 
to  cover  the  jilace  wliere  the  roof  extends  out  over 
a  wall.  It  is  generally  eni))loyed  to  conceal  a  rafter 
and  is  often  made  quite  ornamental. 

B.VR  ll.MM'.OR,  a  famous  snmmerresort  in  Han- 
cock county.  Elaine,  on  the  eastern  side  of  Mount 
Desert  Island,  on  Frenchman's  Bay. 

BARI.VTINSKI,  Alexanhhu  Ivaxovicii,  Puince, 
field-marshal,  born  in  Russia,  1S14,  died  in  (ieneva, 
I\Iarch  0,  l,S70.  lie  was  educated  in  company  with 
the  future  t'/ar,  Alexander  11,  entered  the  army 
and  became  lieutenaiit-geii(>ral  in  1852.  In  1856, 
Alexander  II,  having  ascended  the  throne,  Baria- 
tinski  was  plac(Hl  in  charge  of  the  forces  in  the 
Caucasus,  and  after  three  successful  campaigns  he 
stormed  Ghunib,  and  captured  Scliamyl. 

t'.VRILL.V,  or  Son  A  .\sii,  an  impure  carbonate  of 
soda  j)rocured  from  iilanis  which  grow  in  salt 
marshes,  or  other  places  near   the  sea;  it  forms  o 


B  A  R  I  N  A  S  —  B  A  R  M  E  C  I  DE  'S    FEAST 


209 


considerable  article  of  commerce,  bping  used  in  the 
manulaclure  of  soap  and  of  glass,  and    for  other 

gurposes  in  the  arts.  The  greatest  fjuantilies  of 
ariUa  are  produced  in  Spain  and  (he  Balearic  Is- 
lands. The  Canary  Islands,  Italy  and  France  also 
conlrilnile  a  part.  Tlie  Spanish  barilla  is  most  es- 
teemed, especially  that  produced  near  Alicante, 
which  is  chiefly  uhlained  from  the  HaUolasatiia,  a 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Ch'iiojxidiacia:. 

B.VKINAS,  name  of  a  provinceand  acityofVene- 
zuela.  The  province  has  a  fertile  soil  and  many 
streams.  Its  chief  productions  are  cacao,  coH'ee, 
hides  and  tobacco.  Uarinas  (or  Varinas)  is  the 
capital  of  the  province. 

BAKINtiO,  a  lake  of  Africa  northeast  of  Victoria 
Nyauza.  It  lies  almost  under  the  equator;  is  20 
miles  long,  3,0(X)  feet  above  the  sea,  and  though 
it  has  several  inlets  and  no  outlet  its  water  is 
fresh. 

BAKING-GOULD,  S.\BiNE,a  noted  English  Utler- 
•il-  iir  and  divine,  born  at  Exeter  in  l^i34.  His  early 
studies  embraced  a  wide  range,  and  he  accumulated 
B  vast  store  of  out-of-the-way  knowledge, especially 
.>f  matters  pertaining  to  the  Middle  Ages.  His  prin- 
cipal works  in  this  line  are:  The  Jiookof  Werctinhis; 
Pogl-inidi;cval  Pieachem;  Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle 
Agi's;  Curiosities  (if  Old  Times.  His  numerous  writ^ 
iiigs  include  many  religious  and  historical  works. 
Of  a  number  of  novels  his  earliest,  Mchalah,  and  his 
A'lV/i'rc'/ <;'(('</(•, are  stories  of  uncommon  power. 

BARITONE, or B.\uvtom:, a  male  voice  whose  com- 
pass partakes  of  both  bass  and  tenor.  It  is  not  so 
deep  as  the  lowest  bass  nor  so  high  as  tenor.  Its 
range  is  from  lower  O  of  the  bass  cleflf  to  lower  i-'  of 
the  treble. 

B.\KKER,  Edmitsi)  Hexky,  a  well-known  English 
pliilologist,  born  in  1788,  at  Ilollyni  in  York>hire, 
died  in  London,  March  21,  183i1.  He  studfed  at  Cam- 
bridge. Besides  editions  of  several  I..at  in  classics  and 
numerous  contributions  to  periodicals,  he  was  led, 
<luriiig  his  residence  with  the  famous  philologist 
Parr.to  undertake  a  revision  of  Stephens's  TJiesnnrun 
LliKju.r  Grxcx.  This  work  was  violently  assailed  by 
Bloomfield,  against  whom  lie  wrote  his  ylri'«/flrr/in« 
Anti-Bloumfieh'anv  .  He  assisted  Professor  I »unbar 
in  the  compilation  of  the  Creek  and  English  Lexi- 
con, published  in  181.3. 

li.VKKER,  CiEoitoE  Fkederic,  physicist,  born  in 
Charlestovvn,  Mass.,  July  14,1835.  He  was  assistant 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Yale  and  Harvard,  of 
natural  philosophy  at  Wheaton  (III.)  Colleges,  and 
of  chemistry  at  the  Albany  Medical  College.  In 
187.3  he  had  the  chair  of  physics  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Inter- 
national Congress  of  Electricians  held  in  Paris  in 
1881.  and  a  commissioner  of  the  United  States  at 
the  International  electrical  exhibition  held  at  the 
same  time,  and  received  from  the  French  govern- 
ment the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  with 
th'-  rank  of  commander. 

BARKER,  .r.\(()n,  financier,  born  in  Maine  in  1779, 
died  in  Philadelphia  in  1871.  During  his  business 
career  he  made  and  lost  several  fortunes,  having 
early  entered  a  commission  house  in  New  York  and 
engaged  in  the  shijipin!.'  liusiness  and  in  specula- 
tions in  oil.  His  last  f.irtune,  accumulated  in  New 
O.-li'ans,  where  he  had  established  himself  in  18;!4, 
was  .-.wept  away  by  the  civil  war.  He  was  one  of 
the  originators  of  the  Tammany  society,  and  was 
elected  a  State  senal or.  In  an  insurance  case  he 
delivered  a  legal  opinion,  when  silling  in  the  court 
of  errors, opposed  to  that  of  Chancellor  Kent,  which 
was  sustained  on  appeal,  lie  was  accused  of  fraud 
in  conne<-iion  with  tiie  failur(>  of  an  insurance  com- 
pany, and  conductivl  his  own  defense  with  much 
-i!)ility.    The    indictmeut   was  quashed  on   a  new 

:5 


(rial,  though  Mr.  Barker  had  been  at  first  foiind 
guilty. 

BARKER,  .Tosi.vH,  born  in  Marshlield,  Mass., Nov. 
K),  17ti3;  died  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Sept.  23,  1843. 
Ue  was  a  ship-buildiT.  and  in  1810  the  government 
made  him  naval  constructor  He  built  the  ships 
Virginio,  Warren,  Cumberland,  and  other  war- 
vessels. 

BARLAAM,  a  l>ishop  who  lived  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  He  pursued  his  st  udiesat  Thessalonica  and 
then  went  to  Constantinople,where  he  changed  from 
the  Roman  Catholic  to  the  Greek  religion.  He  was 
made  abbot  of  St.  Salvador,  but  on  his  return  to 
Italy  he  adopted  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  and  was 
given  the  bishopric'  of  Gieraci  in  the  kiitgdoni  of 
Naples. 

BAR-T.E-DUC,  a  town  in  France  125  miles  east  of 
Paris  by  railroad.  It  has  a  public  library,  a  com- 
munal c/.>l!ege,  a  normal  school,  manufactories  of 
cuiton-goods  and  hosiery,  and  an  extensive  trade  in 
timber,  wines,  iron  and  wood. 

BAKLEYBRE.VK,  or  1'..\ui.evi!I'..\ki:,  a  popular 
game,  very  common  in  the  reign  of  James  I,  and 
with  certain  niodilications  in  name  and  iiractice 
still  played  by  young  persons  in  England  and  ."^cot- 
land.  The  game  consisted  in  one  person  chasing  I  he 
rest  around  the  stacks  in  a  farm-yard,  and  when  one 
was  caught  he  or  she  had  to  assist  in  capturing  the 
rest.  The  origin  of  the  name  is, doubtful.  Dr. 
Jamieson  suggests  that,  in  Scotland,  the  locality  of 
the  game  may  have  given  it  its  name. 

B.lRLEYCORN,  Jonx,  a  personilicationof  barley 
as  the  source  of  malt-liquor  or  whiskey,  used  jocu- 
larly, and  also  in  liumorous  poetical  effusions. 
There  exists  a  whimsical  English  tract  of  old  date, 
imder  the  title  of  Tin-  Arraigning  and  Indicting  o/.SVr 
John  Jiftrlei/ciirn,  Knt.;  Printrd  for  Timothy  Tosspot, 
in  which  .'■ir  John  is  described  as  of  "noble  blood," 
well  beloved  in  England,  and  a  maintainer  of  both 
the  rich  and  the  poor. 

BARLOW.  Fk.vncis  Ch.vxxixg,  born  at  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  1'.',  1S34.  He  w'.s  a  soldier  in  the  civil 
war,  who  left  his  law  practice  and  editorial  work  on 
the  '"New  York  Tribune"  to  enter  the  army.  He 
fought  at  Fair  Oaks,  Antietam,  Chancellorsville, 
Gettysburg.  Spottsylvania  and  Petersburg,  dis- 
tinguishing himself  for  bravery  and  receiving  the 
title  of  brigadier-general,  .\rter  the  war  he  was 
Secretary  of  Slate  of  New  York  ( 1 8()5-l 808 ) ;  was 
appointed  by  President  Grant  U.  S.  marshal  of  the 
southern  district  of  the  State,  and  1872-73  was  attor- 
ney-general of  the  State. 

BARLOW,  Joel,  an  author  and  diplomatist,  born 
at  Redding,  (.'onn.,  ilarch  24,  17-54,  died  in  Poland, 
near  Cracow,  Dec.  24,  1812.  .\fter  graduating  from 
Yale  he  spent  some  time  in  the  army  as  chaplain. 
Hethen  took  U])  lawand  started  the  paper  "Ameri- 
can Mercury."  He  edited  the  Book  of  Psalnoidii, 
wrote  the  famous  \'ision  of  I'oluinbus,  resided  in 
London  for  two  years,  where  he  wrote  Adricr  to  the 
Pririlegrd  Orders.  He  lived  for  some  time  in  France, 
and  was  sent  by  the  United  States  on  important 
missions  to  Algiers,  and  to  France,  on  the  last  of 
which  he  di*'d  while  attempting  to  reach  Napoleon, 
then  retrt'aling   from  Rusria. 

B.MiMECIDE'S  FEAST,  an  "Arabian  Night.s'" 
tale,  wliich  is  as  follows:  Shacabac,  a  beggar,  for 
two  days  had  had  nothing  to  eat,  so  determined  to 
visit  i;arineci<Ie,  a  noble  of  Persia,  and  ask  for  food. 
He  did  so,  and  bmnd  the  hospitable  Barmecide  al- 
ready at  his  dining  table,  which  was  covered  with 
empty  dishes.  In  a  humorous  mood  the  Barme- 
cidi'  offered  his  guest  sinnral  dishes,  one  afli-r  an- 
other, asking  how  he  liked  the  nee  soup,  the  bread 
and  the  meat?  Shacaliac  entered  into  the  s])irit 
of  the  joke  and  pretended  to  eat,  praising  mean- 


210 


B  A  II  31  0  U  T  H  —  B  .\  n  N  E  G  A  T    15  A  Y 


time  the  different  viands.  The  host  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  imaginary  feast  offered  wine,  but  after 
refusing  to  drink,  saying  in  excuse  that  he  had 
already  eaten  too  much,  Shacabac  took  an  empty 
glass  and  drank  an  imaginary  bumper.  In  high 
good-humor  the  host  urged  him  to  drink  again,  Init 
the  guest  averred  he  was  quarrelsome  when  in 
liquor.  The  host  insisted,  so  the  poor  man  drank, 
and  to  confirm  his  words  struck  his  host  a  smart 
blow  across  the  face,  for  which  he  apologized  pro- 
fusely. The  Barmecide  was  satisfied  with  the  joke, 
and  then  had  his  guest  served  with  a  substantial 
repast. 

BARMOUTH,  a  picturesque  watering-place  of 
Wales  at  the  mouth  of  the  Jlaw  river.  On  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river  is  the  mountain  Cader 
Idris. 

BARNACLE.  See  Distribution,  Britannica,  Vol. 
VII,  p.  279.  Mr.  Huxley  (Aiuit.  Invert.)  mentions 
the  barnacle  as  a  "crustacean  fixed  by  its  head,  and 
kicking  the  food  into  its  mouth  with  its  legs." 
Properly,  the  term  denotes  the  Lepas  anatifcra,  a 
stalked  cirriped  of  the  family  Lepadidie;  but  in  the 
United  States  the  name  is  used  also — sometimes 
exclusively — of  a  sessile  cirriped,  as  the  Balauus, 
commonly  called  sea-acorn,  or  acorn  shell.  Barna- 
cles are  often  found  attached  in  great  numbers 
to  the  bottoms  of  sea-going  vessels;  the  sessile 
Balanidie  adhering  closely  in  colonies,  the  peduncu- 
lated Li'padidx  hanging  in  large  clusters. 

BARNACLE,  or  B.\kx.\cle  Goose,  a  species  of 
wild  goose,  of  the  genus  Bernida,  found  in  northern 
Europe,  and  sometimes  in  America.  It  is  related 
to  the  brent-goose  and  to  the  common  wild  goose, 
but  is  somewhat  smaller.  It  was  represented  in  the 
fables  of  former  times  as  having  derived  its  origin 
from  the  cirriped  called  tlie  barnacle,  which  was 
popularly  supposed  to  be  the  fruit  of  a  tree  growing 
by  the  sea-shore. 

BARNARD,  L.vdy  Anxe,  eldest  daughter  of  James 
Lindsay,  fifth  earl  of  Balcarres,  born  in  Scotland 
1750,  died  in  London  May  (>,  182.5.  She  married  An- 
drew Barnard,  colonial  secretary  to  Lord  Macart- 
ney at  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  who  died  in  1S07.  She 
was  the  author  of  Auld  Rahiii  Grui/  in  1772,  but 
did  not  acknowledge  its  autliorship  till  1823. 

BARN.VRD,  Cu.\nLKS,  author,  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Feb.  13,  1838.  He  was  successively  a  clerk, 
a  theological  student,  a  fiorist  and  a  journalist.  He 
has  been  editor  of  "Vox  Humana,"  and  assistant 
editor  of  the  Boston  ".Journal  of  Clommerce,"  "Bos- 
ton Post,"  and  editor  of  "World's  Work  Depart- 
ment" in  the  "Century."  He  has  written  many 
short  stories,  and  among  his  published  books  are 
.Vv  Tcii-Itiitl  Fiinii;  Till'  Si>iiniiiii;  and  /\iii<ililx  iif  Tn- 
dr'iji.  He  writes  "Talks  About  the  Weather," "Talks 
About  Our  Useful  I'lanls,"  and  similar  articles  for 
the  "Chaulau(|ua  Circle."  He  is  also  a  writer  of 
operas  aiid  dramas. 

BARNAIll),  FuEDEKicK  .A.rGUSTrs  Porter,  a  fa- 
mous educator,  liorn  in  Sliedield,  IMass.,  May  5,  1800, 
died  in  Xew  York  city,  April  27,  I88!i.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Yale  and  taiiglit  there,  afterwards  going 
as  instructor  to  the  llartfiprd  Asylum  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb.  He  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  church, 
and  aliout  the  same  time,  18.'>4,  occupied  the  chairs 
oi  mathematics,  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry 
in  tlie  University  of  Alabama.  From  1855  to  ]8(U 
lie  was  president  of  this  University.  Upon  theout- 
lireak  of  the  civil  war  he  resigned  his  position  and 
came  North.  In  1804  he  was  called  to  the  presi- 
di'iicy  of  (!ohiinbia  College,  and  this  position  he 
held  for  the  reniainder  of  his  life.  He  was  sent  as 
United  Slates  commissioner  to  the  universal  ex])o- 
sition  in  Paris,  18ti7.  In  1878  he  went  on  a  similar 
mission  to  the  exposition  held  in  the  same  city.  He 


was  a  inenilier  of  the  Laorador  expedition  sent  out 
in  18150  to  observe  the  sun's  eclipse.  Several  col- 
leges conferred  degrees  upon  him.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  afiid  of  the  American  Institute. 
He  wrote  many  reports,  essays,  and  books.  His 
principal  works  are:  Trfalit:e  on  Arilbmetir;  Ana- 
hjtic  Grainniiir  uilh  !<!iinhijUr  Tlhistration  (for  use  in 
schools  for  the  deaf  and  dumb) ;  Letters  on  Coll'giatr 
Government;  Hislvr;/  of  the  C.  S.  Coast  Survei/,  and 
Tlie  Metric  Sjit^teni.  He  was  one  of  the  original  cor- 
porators of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences.  His 
best  work  was  done  at  Columbia  College,  whose 
usefulness  and  strength  he  greatly  increased.  He 
was  interested  in  the  higher  education  of  women, 
and  provided  in  his  will  for  an  annex  to  Columbia 
— the  Barnard  College  for  Women. 

BARNARD,  Heni!y.  born  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  Jan. 
4,  1811.  He  graduated  at  Yale  and  became  a  law- 
yer ;  in  1837  he  was  elected  to  the  legislature,  where 
he  was  active  in  instituting  jirison  and  asylum 
reforms.  He  started  high  schools,  teachers'  insti- 
tutes, a  normal  academy  and  reorganized  the 
public  school  system.  He  was  secretary  of  the 
board  of  school  commissioners  in  Connecticut, 
school  commissioner  of  Rhode  Island,  president  of 
the  University  of  Wisconsin,  and  later  of  St.  John's 
College  at  Aiuiapolis.  He  has  been  a  voluminous 
writer  on  educational  subjects,  and  in  1886  made  a 
collection  of  his  publications,  which  comprised  52 
volumes.  From  1807  to  1870  he  held  the  important 
office  of  V.  S.  commissioner  of  education. 

BARNARD,  John  Goss,  brother  of  Frederick  A. 
P.  Barnard,  born  in  Sheffield,  jNIass.,  Jlay  19,  b'^K"), 
died  at  Detroit,  !May  14,  1882.  He  was  a  soldier, 
and  graduated  at  West  Point.  He  was  engaged  in 
engineering  on  the  Gulf  coast,  at  thePensacola  and 
the  New  Orleans  fortifications.  After  the  Mexican 
war,  in  which  he  saw  service,  he  was  sent  to  survey 
the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  in  the  interest  of  the 
proposed  railroad  from  ocean  to  ocean.  In  18.55  he 
was  superintendent  of  the  West  Point  military 
academy.  During  the  war  he  had  important  engi- 
neering commissions  to  fulfill.  General  Barnard 
was  not  only  a  brave  soldier,  but  was  also  an  author 
and  mathematician.  He  wrote  Survei/  of  the  Inllinni.-i 
of  Tehuantepec,  llangerx  and  Defensrf!  of  AVic  Yorl:. 
Enlogii  of  General  Tvlten,  and  other  works. 

BARNARDO,  Tiiom.\s  J.,  F.  R.  C.  S.  E.,  a  pliilan- 
thropist  of  England,  who  lived  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  He  was  the  founder  of  homes  for  destitute 
children.  Dr.  Bariuirdo  in  1887  reclaimed  Ui.OdO 
children  of  the  street  and|>laced  them  in  charitable 
institutions.  Under  his  charge  are  33  institutions, 
which  include  an  immigrant  depot  in  Ontario,  a 
home  for  babies,  and  an  industrial  farm  in  Man- 
itoba. 

r..\RNBT'RNEKS,  a  nickname  for  one  of  the  two 
factions  into  which  the  Democratic  party  of  New 
York  was  divided  about  the  year  1848.  .Some  of 
the  leaders  of  this  faction  were  ('ol.  Samuel  Young. 
Michael  IlolTman,  ai\d  Honorable  Silas  Wright.  The 
]5arnburners  were  ojiposed  to  the  extension  of  the 
caiuil  system,  extension  of  slavery  in  the  Terri- 
tories, and  to  public  debts, corporate  privileges, etc. 
The  Barnburners,  after  a  few  years,  were  incor- 
porated with  the  Free-soil  party.  The  faction 
opposed  to  them  was  called  "  Hunkers."  The  story 
ot  the  farmer  who  burned  his  barn  in  order  to  kill 
his  rats  is  the  source  of  the  nickname  narnburner.>\ 

liAliNKGAT  B.\Y,  New  .Ieusey,  a  body  of  water 
23  miles  long,  in  Ocean  county,  connected  with  the 
Atlantic  by  an  inlet  one  mile  wide,  and  sejiarated 
from  the  ocean  by  the  low  islands,  called  Siiuan 
Beach  and  Island  15each.  A  tall  light-house  stands 
on  the  south  side  of  the  inlet. 


B  A  R  N  E  S  —  B  A  11  0  M  E  T  Z 


211 


BARNES,  Daniel  Hexry,  born  at  Canaan,  X.  Y., 
April  25, 17.S5,  died  near  Troy,  X.  Y.,  Oct.  27,  1S2S. 
He  was  a  graduate  of  Union  College,  and  his  lirst 
position  after  leavingjiis  studies  was  in  tliePough- 
keepsie  Academy.  He  became  a  Baptist  and  was 
licensed  to  preach.  In  .Schenectady  he  had  cliarge 
of  a  classical  school,  which  was  connected  with  his 
Alum  Mdli'i:  President  Francis  Way  land,  Bishop 
Alonzo  Potter  and  Dr.  Erskine  JIason  were  among 
his  pupils.  He  was  professor  of  languages  in  the 
New  York  Baptist  Theological  Seminary.  A  little 
later  he  started  what  proved  to  be  a  very  success- 
ful English  and  classical  school  in  the  same  city. 
H''  was  eliosen  president  of  AVaterville  College  in 
Maine,  but  declined  the  honor.  He  was  a  philolo- 
gist, conehologist,  and  eminent  classical  scholar; 
he  wrote  much  on  geology,  and  assisted  Dr.Webster 
in  compiling  liis  dictionary. 

HAKXES,'Tini.M.\s,  born  in  ITSfi,  died  in  1841.  He 
was  educated  at  Christ's  Hospital,  London,  and 
Pembroke  College,  Cambridge.  For  twenty  years 
he  was  editor  of  the  "London  Times." 

BARNES,  William,  an  eminent  divine,  philolo- 
gist, and  perhaps  the  first  of  English  jiurely  pas- 
toral poets;  born  in  Dorsetshire  in  ISOO,  died  in 
188(3.  His  poetical  world  was  the  secluded  vale  of 
Blackmore,  and  its  liumble  inhabitants,  with  all 
their  quaintness  and  humor,arephotoj'raphed  with 
charming  artistic  truth.  His  collected  poems  were 
published,  in  1879,  as  I'uems  of  Kural  Life  in  the  Dorset 
Dialect.  Among  his  philological  works,  many  of 
which  were  very  valuable,  was  an  attempt  to  teach 
English  in  purely  English  words,  which  has  been 
characterized,  from  his  use  of  such  terms  as  "  time- 
takings  "  for  tenses,  "  mark-words  of  suchness"  for 
adjectives,  as  making  large  demands  upon  the 
reader's  patience.  His  life,  written  by  his  daugh- 
ter, appeared  in  1887.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  VII, 
p.  372.  •      ' 

BARNESVILLE.  a  village  of  Georgia,  about  sixty 
miles  south  of  Atlanta,  is  the  seat  of  the  Gordon 
Institute,  and  contains  also  an  excellent  high 
school. 

B.\KNESVIIvLE,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Ohio, 
about  thirty  miles  west  of  Wiieeling.  It  is  finely 
situated  as  the  center  of  an  extensive  agricultural 
district,  noted  especially  for  its  strawberries.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Olney  College. 

BARNETT,  Joii.s,  English  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  in  1802,  died  in  ISOO.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  operas.  The  Mountain  Sijlph,  Fair  Rosamond, 
and  Farinrlli.  His  nephew,  .Tohn  Francis  Barnett, 
born  in  1838,  has  composed  The  Ancient  Mariner,  a 
cantata,  Parailine  nn'l  the  Peri,  The  Ilaisinf/  of  Lazarus, 
The  I.aii  of  the  Last  .Hinstrel,  and  The  (load  Shepherd. 

B.VRN'fiY,  .JosHi'A  a  naval  officer,  born  in  Balti- 
more, Md.,tTuly  (>,  175(),died  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  Dec.  1, 
1818.  He  was  made  lieutenant  for  l)ravery  on  the 
schooner  ll'd*;).  He  was  three  times  taken  prisoner  by 
the  English, but  exchanged.  .Vfler  having  captured 
the  ChanniiKj  Molllr,  he  was  twice  taken  a  prisoner, 
but  escaped  from  jail.  He  was  given  a  ship,  and 
sent  to  dear  the  Delaware  of  British  privateers. 
He  captured  the  (leneral  Monk,  an  IS-gun  ship, 
and  for  this  was  voted  a.  sword  by  the  Peniisylvania 
legislature.  During  the  war  of  1812  he  was  assigned 
to  the  defense  of  Washington. and  here  he  was  made 
prisoner  by  the  English  for  the  seventh  time.  In 
181.-I  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Enriipe,  but  ill- 
health  compelled  iiis  return.  His  declining  years 
were  spi-nt  on  a  farm. 

B.VRNI'l ELD.  RnitAiii),  born  at  Norbury,  Eng- 
land, in  l"i74,  died  at  Stone.  Staffordshire,  in  1(127. 
He  was  educati'd  at  Brasenose  College, C)xford.  and 
wrote  three  volumes  of  poetry.  His  verse  is  quaint 
but  over-luxuriant.  The  ode.  As  it  J-Vll  upon  a 
3—3:! 


Day,  and  the  sonnet,  If  Musigue  and  Sweet  Poetrie 
Agree,  were  for  a  long  time  attributed  to  Shake- 
speare. 

BARN  OWL,  or  CufRcii  Owl,  is  the  common 
white  owl,  of  which  the  American  variety  is  the 
Alucn  priitincola.  Other  varieties  are  found  in 
nearly  all  the  temperate  regions  of  the  earth,  con- 
stituting together  the  family  Alucoiiidie.  They  are 
carnivorous,  and  are  valuable  as  destroyers  of 
mice.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  88-91. 

BARNUM,  Pni.NKAS  TAVi.ou,tlie  well-known  pub- 
lic showman,  born  at  Bethel,  Conn.,  .luly  o,  1810. 
In  his  youth  he  was  clerk  in  a  country  store,  and 
then  agent  for  a  lottery  company.  In  1829  he 
started  the  unsuccessful  newspaper  "  Herald  of 
Freedom."  He  came  across  Joyce  Heth,  a  colored 
woman,  the  reputed  nurse  of  Gen.  Washington, 
and  said  to  be  160  years  old.  He  bought  her,  and 
by  his  shrewdness  as  a  showman  earned  consider- 
able money.  Within  a  year  the  woman  died,  and 
Jlr.  Barnum  traveled  soe.tb  with  small  shows, 
wrote  for  newspapers,  sold  Bibles,  exhibited  negro 
dancers,  and  finally  purchased  Scudder's  American 
Museum  in  New  York.  Here  he  exhibiteda  woolly 
horse,  a  white  negress,  a  Japanese  mermaid  and 
Charles  S.  Stratton  (the  famous  General  Tom 
Thumb).  His  greatest  venture  was  made  in  re- 
gard to  Jenny  Lind;  he  offered  her  .$1,000  a  night 
tor  150  nights.  For  these  concerts  he  netted  if350.- 
000.  So  great  was  the  enthusiasm  caused  by 
Mr.  Barnum's  advertising  that  ^(ioO  is  said  to  have 
been  paid  for  a  single  ticket.  He  l)uilt  his  resi- 
dence at  Bridgeport,  Connecticut,  in  imitation  of 
the  Brighton  Pavilion,  and  encouraged  business  en- 
terprises in  the  town,  laid  out  streets  and  planted 
trees.  A  clock  manufacturing  company  which 
came  to  Bridgeport  through  his  influence  involved 
him  financially,  but  he  paid  his  creditors  and  built 
up  anollier  fortune  by  exhibiting  (ien.  Tom  Tliumb 
in  England  and  by  delivering  lectures.  Mr. 
Barnum  has  twice  suffered  loss  by  having  his 
museum  burned.  He  established  a  traveling  me- 
nagerie and  museum,  which  he  called  "The  Greatest 
Show  on  Earth."  The  elephant  "  Jumbo"  was  one 
of  his  greatest  "  cards."  Mr.  Barnum  has  four 
times  been  a  member  of  the  Connecticut  State 
legislature,  has  been  mayor  of  Bridgeport,  has  de- 
livered numerous  lectures  on  temperance  and  prac- 
tical affairs,  has  written  his  autobiography  (an  in- 
teresting and  amusing  account  of  his  struggles  and 
artifices),  and  has  given  liberally  to  benevolent  ob- 
jects, one  of  his  gifts  being  a  museum  building 
for  Tufts  College,  near  Boston.    Died  .Vpril  7,  1891. 

BAUOACH,  name  of  a  district  and  its  capital  in 
British  India.  A  large  trade  is  carried  on  in  grain, 
cotton  and  seeds.  In  the  city  there  is  a  Brahmini- 
cal  hospital  for  all  kinds  of  sick  animals,  even  in- 
sects lieing  received. 

BAROJIETRIC  LIGHT,  the  name  given  the 
luminous  appearance  which  is  s"en  when  the 
mercury  of  a  barometer  is  shaken  or  moved  through 
a  space  of  a  few  inches;  the  Torricellian  vacuum 
becomes  light  because  of  the  frictioiial  electricity 
generateci  bv  the  mercury  against  the  glass.  The 
experiment  fs  most  successful  when  performed  in 
the  dark  and  in  frosty  weather. 

BAROMETZ,  or  Tartarian  or  Scvtuian  L,\mb, 
the  prostrate  stem  (rhizome)  of  a  fern  (Clhotium 
/)<ir«»i('(r)  which  grows  in  the  salt  jtlains  near  the 
Caspian  S(>a.  It  is  shaggy  with  a  silky  down,  and 
has  a  sort  of  general  resemblance  to  an  animaL 
In  the  days  of  ignorant  credulity,  when  the  story 
of  the  plmnix  was  received  as  a  truth  of  natural 
history,  and  barnacles  were  believed  to  grow  into 
geese,  and  horse's  hairs  into  eels,  marvelous  tales 
were  told  of  the  baromelz,  which  was  supposed  to 


212 


B  A  R  0  N  —  B  A  R  R  E  T  T 


partake  of  the  nature  of  a  plant  and  of  an  animal ; 
to  grow  on  a  stalk  and  eat  grass  like  a  lamb. 

BAKOX,  BTerxard,  born  in  Paris,  1700,  died  in 
London,  1762.  He  was  a  distinguished  engraver 
and  a  pupil  of  Nicolas  Henri  Tardieu. 

BAEOX,  iliCH.VEL,  born  at  Paris,  Oct.  8.  1653, 
died  Dec.  .3,  1729.  He  was  the  son  of  a  leather 
merchant  and  a  handsome  actress.  !>Ioliere  early 
became  his  friend  and  instructor.  Baron  was  very 
handsome,  and  became  famous  as  a  writer  of  plays 
and  an  actor. 

BARON,  Pierre,  known  as  Peter  Baro,  born  at 
Etampes,  France,  and  died  in  London,  1596.  On 
account  of  his  Protestantism  he  had  to  leave 
France  for  England.  Here  he  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  divinity  in  Cambridge.  Opposed  to 
Calvinism,  and  very  outspoken  as  to  his  views,  he 
met  with  great  op  losition  and  was  accused  of 
heresy  and  a  desire  to  lead  the  church  back  to 
Eome.  He  was  at  last  obliged  to  resign  his  office 
and  spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  retirement. 

BARON  OF  BEEF,  a  large  piece  of  beef,  consist- 
ing of  both  sides  of  the  back,  or  double  sirloin,  and 
weighing,  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  from 
50  to  100  pounds.  The  term  probably  originated  in 
a  fanciful  allusion  to  the  word  ,si/'-loin,  inasmuch  as 
barun  is  the  superior  title. 

BAROTSE,  a  central  branch  of  the  Bantu  family 
of  African  negroes,  living  in  a  valley  of  the  Upper 
Yambesi,  which  river  floods  the  Barotse  valley, 
rendering  it  very  fertile. 

BAROZZIO  DA,  Gi.\co>to,  a  famous  Italian  arch- 
itect, sometimes  called  Yignnla,  born  at  Vignola, 
in  !Modena,  in  1507,  died  in  Rome  in  1573.  He 
studied  painting  at  Bologna,  liut  subsequently 
turned  his  attention  to  architecture  at  Rome.  He 
designed  t  lie  palace  of  Cardinal  Farncse(Caprarola), 
and  at  the  death  of  Michel  Angeloliecame  architect 
of  St.  Peters.  The  Escorial  Palace  in  Madrid  was  de- 
signed by  him.  He  left  several  works  on  architect- 
ure; lirf/'ole  de'Cin<]rie  Ordinl  d'Archilethera  is  still  a 
Standard  authority. 

BARQUE,  or  B.\rk, 
a  name  frequently 
given  to  ships,  but 
with  no  very  definite 
meaning.  Sometimes 
it  denotes  simply  a 
ship  of  small  size,  but 
more  leclinically  it 
a  p  p  1  i  e  s  to  three- 
masled  vessels,  whose 
mizziMi-sails  are  fore 
and  aft  instead  of  be- 
ing sipiare. 

BARK,  Amelia  Eiutii,  born  at  Ulverton,  Lan- 
casliire,  Enghind,  March  29,  b'^31.  Her  father  was 
Rev.  William  Hnddleston.  She  was  educated  at 
Glasgow,  and  in  1S50  married  l\obert,  son  of  Rev. 
.lohii  Barr,  a  pastor  of  the  Scottish  Free  Kirk.  In 
1K.54  tlie  family  came  to  the  United  States  and  re- 
sided in  Austin,  Te.xas,  and  later  in  Galveston.  In 
1S69,  after  the  death  of  her  husband  and  three 
sons  she  brought  her  three  daughters  to  New 
York,  where  she  became  a  governess,  but  after  t  wo 
years  she  began  to  write  for  newspapers  sketches 
which  were  well  apjireciated.  Iler  first  book,  A'o- 
iiiiiiifi'  mill  licalilii,  was  followed  liy  Sfitlthli  Ski'lchi'x, 
.Inn  Vmlilii-'it  ^yifl■.  A  DiiiKjhiir  iif  Fifi',  A  liiiii'  oj 
Oriiiiijf  liilihon,  and  other  novels. 

I'>.\RR,  or  Bahua,  a  small  kingdom  of  Mandingo, 
in  western  Africa.  Its  area  is  about  750  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  somewhat  marshy,  but  fer- 
tile and  well  cultivated. 

I'..\I:KA  MANSA,a  Brazilian  town  on  the  Para- 
hiha  River,  70  miles  nort^iwest  of  Rio  Janeiro. 


BARRACUDA,  a  large  fish  of  the  perch  family, 
found  in  the  Alantic  Ocean.  It  is  very  voracious, 
and  its  length  is  from  6  to  10  feet.  Its  flesh  is 
poisonous  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  The 
scientific  name  of  this  fish  is  Spht/neno picuda. 

BARRAFEANCA,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  district 
of  Piazza,  about  10  miles  southeast  of  Calfanisetta. 
Population  of  about  6,100. 

BARRANQUILLA,  the  chief  port  of  the  United 
Stat«s  of  Colombia,  situated  on  the  Magdalena 
River,  15  miles  from  the  place  where  it  enters  the 
Caribbean  Sea.  A  bar  at  the  river's  mouth  has 
hindered  ocean  steamers  from  entering  the  port  of 
Barranquilla,  but  this  has  been  partially  removed. 
The  inland  trade  is  very  extensive  and  largely  con- 
trolled by  Germans. 

BARRANTES,  Vixcente,  a  Spanish  author,  born 
at  Badajoz,  ]\Iarch   29,  1829.    He  wrote  dramatic 
pieces,  political   satires,  ballads  and  stories.    He' 
was  the  author  of  a  historical  work  on  the  Philip- 
pine Islands. 

BARRATRY,  the  offense  of  inciting  and  stirring 
up  quarrels.  One  act  of  this  kind  is  not  sufficient 
to  maintain  an  indictment  for  the  offense,  but  il; 
must  be  shown  that  the  party  accused  frequently, 
or  at  least  on  more  than  one  occasion,  conducted 
himself  in  the  way  imputed.  Therefore  the  princi- 
ple of  the  law  appears  to  strike  at  the  habit  or  dis- 
position of  evil-minded  persons  who  would  incite  to 
quarreling,  or  busy-bodies,  as  they  are  in  fact 
called  in  the  old  law  reports.  In  the  law  of  Scot> 
land  barratry  is  defined  as  the  crime  conmiitted  by 
a  judge  who  barters  justice  for  money.  There  is 
also  barratry  of  nuiriners,  which  signifies  the  fraud 
of  the  master  or  mariners  of  a  ship  tending  to  their 
own  advantage,  but  to  the  prejudice  of  the  owners, 

BAREE,  a  manufacturing  village  of  Worcester 
county,  I\Iass.,  in  Barre  township.  It  has  an  insti- 
tution for  feeble-minded  children.  The  township  is 
intersected  by  "Ware  River,  and  has  a  station  on  the 
"Ware  River  Railroad. 

BARRE,  a  village  of  Washington  county,  Yer- 
niont.  It  has  a  school  called  Goddard  Seminary. 
The  township  of  the  same  name  has  a  granite 
quarry,  and  manufactories  of  agricultural  tools, 
woolen  goods,  ice-tools,  etc. 

BAKRE,  DE  LA  ANTOiNE  LE  Fevre,  a  French 
naval  officer,  died  May  4,  1688;  was  governor  of 
Guiana  in  1663,  and  of  Canada,  1(582-85. 

B.VRKEL,  a  large  cylindrical  vessel  primarily 
used  for  holding  li(H(ids.  It  is  now  a  measure  l"or 
various  quantities.  In  the  United  States  ami  ia 
England  the  liarrel-measure  differs.  In  the  former 
place  a  barrel  may  denote  a  certain  weight.  Thus 
a  liarrel  of  flour  is  understood  to  be  196  pounds; 
beef,  pork,  fish  or  salt,  200  pounds.  A  barrel  is 
su|>posed  to  contain  31'._.  gallons  (wet  measure),  or 
.31;i  bushels  (dry  measure),  altiiough  the  bushel- 
measure  varies  in  different  States. 

BARREL  ORGAN,  a  cylinder  or  barrel,  turned 
by  a  crank,  fitted  on  the' inside  with  pegs  which, 
as  the  handle  is  turned,  opens  valves  admitting 
currents  of  air  to  pipes,  and  thus  harmonious 
sounds  are  produced.  Instead  of  pipes  wires  are 
sometimes  used.  Barrel  organs  are  used  by  street- 
musicians,  and  cost  from  $100  to  $300,  according  to 
the  size. 

I'.ARREN  ISLAND,  a  small  volcanic  island  S.f)0O 
yards  in  diameter,  lying  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  east 
of  the  .\iulaman  Islands. 

B.\RRETT,  r.KN.iAMiN  FisK,  born  at  Dresden, 
Maine,  .Tune  24,  1808.  In  18,32  he  graduated  at 
Howdoin  and  six  years  lateral  the  Camlnidge  Uni- 
tarian Seminary,  where  he  became  a  convert  to 
tlie  doctrines  of  Swcnlenborg.  lie  lU'eached  in  New 
York  and  Cincinnati  till  18f)0,  when,  his  health  fait 


B  A  K  K  E  T  T  —  B  A  R  ROSA 


213 


ing,  he  gave  up  pulpit  work  and  engaged  in  mer- 
cantile'business  in  CliicMso,  and  four  j'ears  later 
was  made  pastor  of  tlie  New  Church  Society  in 
Philadelpliia.  lie  wrote  many  books  on  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Xew  Church. 

BAKKKTT.  Lawkkxie.  born  at  Paterson.  X.  J., 
April  4,  l.s;iS.  died  in  New  York  city,  Mareli  L'O,  1891. 
He  tirst  appeared  as  an  actor  at  Detroit  in  1853, 
and  subsequently  at  Pittsburg,  St.  Louis  and 
Chicago,  and  at  New  York  city  in  ISoCi.  lie  sup- 
ported sucli  actors  as  Edwin  Booth  and  Charlotte 
Cusliman.  He  i)layed  in  Boston  after  this,  but  at 
the  opening  of  the  civil  war  he  volunteered,  serv- 
ing as  a  captain  in  the  2sth  Massachusetts.  He 
played  at  Philadelphia.  Washington,  and  then  at 
New  York.  Here  he  began  acting  lago  to  Booth's 
Othello.  For  tire  next  few  years  he  was  engaged 
in  aeting.  studying  the  literature  of  the  stage,  and 
managing  different  theaters.  Since  about  18(54  he 
has  been  a  star  actor.  He  lias  played  much  with 
Booth  in  opposite  characters.  Mr.  Barrett  has 
written  a  life  of  Edwin  Forrest. 

B.\RRIAS,  Felix  Joseph,  an  eminent  French 
historical  painter,  born  in  Paris  in  1S22.  His  pict- 
ure of  Electrri,  exhibited  at  Philadelphia  in  1876, 
attracted  considerable  attention.  His  principal 
work  is  a  series  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Genevieve  in 
Paris,  illustrating  incidents  in  the  life  of  that  saint, 

BARRIC.VDES,  hastily  constructed  fortifica- 
tions made  to  obstruct  the  progress  of  an  enemy, 
or  to  serve  as  a  defense.  They  may  be  bnilt  of 
earth,  trees,  wagons,  paving-stones, or  any  material 
at  hand. 

BARRIER  ACT,  that  which  was  passed  by  the 
general  assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  Jan.  S, 
1697,  according  to  the  provisions  of  which  no  change 
could  be  made  in  the  laws  of  the  church  without 
(irst  referring  such  proposed  change  to  all  the 
presbyteries  and  getting  a  majority  vote  in  its 
favor.  This  act  is  held  of  much  importance  both 
by  the  free  and  the  established  church  of  Scotland. 

B.VRKIKRE.  Je.v.v  Fij.vsrois,  a  writer  of  France, 
born  in  178ti,  died  186S.  With  Berville  he  edited  a 
valuable  book  for  historical  reference,  Mdnoircs 
lielaiifn  d  la  Rhobition  Fion^aise.  He  wrote  ^f£- 
moiri\-<  Iieieillf.-<  nii  XVIII''""'  S'i'cle. 

B.\RRIERE,  TiiEODOKE,  a  French  dramatist, 
born  at  Paris  in  1S2S,  died  Oct.  ](>,  1877.  He  wrote 
Li.'  I'iiiij-  fiiinlidminiK,  Ci mlrillon  and  Lr  Dimonde  Jeu. 

BAKRIP;R  reef,  a  coral  reef,  about  300  miles 
in  length,  extending  along  the  northeast  coast  of 
Australia,  and  being  from  10  to  IS  miles  distant 
from  the  shore. 

BARRIER  TREATIES,  the  name  of  several 
treaties  concluded  between  England  and  foreign 
powers.  The  first  treaty,  whicli  was  made  in  1709, 
was  between  the  Dutch  and  English,  the  former 
agri'eing  to  maintain  the  English  (|ueen's  title  and 
the  Protestant  siiccession  ;  the  English  at  the  same 
time  to  help  tlie  Dutch  preserve  their  border  towns. 
In  1713,  at  Utrecht,  a  similiar  treaty  was  concluded  | 
between  the  English  and  Dutch.  In  1715  a  third 
treaty  was  signed  at  Antwerp  l>etween  England, 
till-  Netherlands  and  tlie  Emperor  Charles  VII. 

B.VRRINH;  (>1;T,  a  custom  that  formerly  pre- 
vailed in  English  schools  and  consisted  in  the 
scholars  taking  possession  of  the  school  room  and 
fastening  the  doors  against  the  master,  at  whose 
helplessness  they  scoffed  from  the  windows.  The 
usual  time  for  barring  out  was  immediately  nrior 
to  the  periodical  vacation.  It  seems  to  have  iieen 
a  rule,  understood  in  barring  onl.  that  if  the 
scholars  could  sustain  a  siege  against  the  master 
for  three  (lays,  thev  were  entitled  to  dictate  terms 
to  him  regarding  tlie  number  of  liulidays,  hours  of 
recreation,  etc.,  lor  the  ensuing  year. 


BARRINGTON,  Hon.  D.m.ves.  an  English  jurist 
and  naturalist,  who  attained  considerable  distinc- 
tion. He  died  in  1800.  Two  of  his  best  known 
works  are  Ilh^irtalion  mi  tlie  Liniiuan  ^';/.'<^ m,  and 
Obsiriiilioni!  upon  the  StalitteK,  Chiejly  the  More  An- 
cient, from  Matjiiu  Charta  to  the  21  Jac.  I,  c.  27. 

BARRINGTOX,  George,  a  thief  and  an  author, 
the  son  of  a  silversmith  named  Henry  AValdon. 
He  was  born  at  Maynooth,  Ireland,  in  1755.  While 
a  youth  he  ran  away  from  school  and  went  to  Lon- 
don. Here  he  became  a  pickpocket,  one  of  his 
crimes  being  the  robbing  of  Prince  Orloff  of  a  snuff- 
box set  with  diamonds,  valued  at  :fl50,00O.  In  I7i;Rl 
he  was  sentenced  to  transportation  to  Botany  Bay, 
but  on  the  voyage  he  revealed  a  conspiracy  among 
the  convicts,  and  was  rewarded  in  1792  by  having 
his  sentence  commuted.  At  Paramatta,  New  South 
Wales,  he  became  superintendent  of  the  convicts, 
and  high  constable.  He  wrote  .1  Voyage  to  Botany 
Ban,  The  History  of  Xeii:  South  Wales,  and  The  Hig- 
tory  of  Xeir  Holland. 

BARRIXGTOXIACE.E,  a  natural  order  of  ex- 
ogenous trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of  tropical  coun- 
tries, and  generally  very  beautiful  both  in  foliage 
and  flowers.  This  order  is  sometimes  included  in 
}ri/rtaee,T.  The  stamens  are  very  numerous,  and 
form  a  conspicuous  part  of  the  I'lower.  The  fruit 
is  fleshy  with  bony  seeds  lodged  in  pulps.  The 
Moordilla  {Barringtonia  .ipeciosa)  is  described  as  a 
tree  which  much  attracts  the  attention  of  travel- 
ers in  Ceylon.  It  has  dark  glossy  leaves,  and 
crimson-tipped  white  flowers.  Fruits  of  (inxlavia 
speciosa  give  a  yellowhue  to  children  wlioeat  them. 

BARRIOS,  JrsTo  Rikixo,  a  statesman  of  Central 
America,  born  at  Guatemala,  July  17,  18.35,  died 
at  Ciuilchuapa,  April  2.1885.  He  studied  law,  but 
in  1867  took  part  in  the  revolutionary  struggles 
then  going  on  in  his  country.  It  was  largely 
through  his  efforts  on  the  battlefield  that  the 
rigimc  established  by  Carrera  (the  "  thirty  years  ") 
was  put  to  an  end,  and  General  Garcia  Granados 
made  president.  As  chief  of  the  army.  Barrios  was 
called  to  put  down  two  insurrection's,  and  in  1873' 
he  was  elected  president  of  Guatemala.  His  ad- 
ministration was  marked  by  revolution  and  by  an 
attempt  to  assassinate  him.  In  18.«0  the  Republic, 
having  framed  a  liberal  constitution,  reelected 
General  Barrios  to  the  six  years'  presidency.  After 
considerable  trouble  the  question  of  boundary 
between  Mexico  and  Guatemala  was,  settled  and 
General  Barrios  made  a  tour  through  Europe  and 
the  United  States.  On  his  return  he  endeavored  to 
consummate  a  union  of  all  the  Central  .Vmerican 
States  (1885);  but  wliile  the  proiiosition  n-.et  with 
favor  in  tiuatemala,  Salvador  took  exceptions  and 
war  ensued.  General  Barrios'  troops  met  with 
their  accustomed  success  till  they  enteivd  Chalchu- 
apa.  where  the  bullet  of  a  sharpshooter  killed  Gen- 
eral Barrios.  His  army  was  panic  stricken  at  the 
calamity  and  fled.  General  IJarrios  has  been  ac- 
cused of  harsh  measures  and  cruelty,  but  no  doubt 
his  enemies  overestimated  his  defects.  He  was  a 
good  organizer,  equipped  his  soldiers  better  than 
any  others  in  Central  America,  and  kept  them  in 
good  di:ill.  He  made  Guatemala  a  clean,  pleasant 
city,  established  a  police  force,  introduced  the 
telegraph  and  railroad,  built  bridges,  founded 
schools,  and  did  much  for  the  upbuilding  of  his 
native  land. 

BAliRIliTE,  an  ancient  French  measure  of  Bor- 
deaux, equal  to  228  liters. 

B.\RROS.\.a  village  of  Spain, sixteen  miles  south- 
soul  beast  ol  Cadiz,  celebrated  in  history  as  the 
iilaee  where  General  Graham,  in  1811,  with  a  hand- 
ful of  English  troops,  succeeded  in  gaining  over 
the  French,  after  his  Spanish  allies  hiul  retreated. 


214 


BARROT  —  BARTLETT 


one  of  the  most  glorious  victories  of  the  peninsular 
campaign.  More  than  2,000  Frencli  were  killed, 
300  prisoners  taken,  six  pieces  of  cannon,  and  an 
eagle — the  first  captured  in  the  war. 

BARROT,  Camille  Hyacixthe  Odillon,  a  French 
jurist  and  statesman,  born  at  Villefort,  Lozere,  in 
1791,  died  in  1873.  In  1814  he  became  an  advocate 
in  the  Court  of  Cassation,  Paris,  and  soon  acquired 
a  high  reputation  as  an  eloquent  pleader.  At  the 
Revolution  of  1830  he  was  oue  of  the  three  commis- 
sioners appointed  by  the  provisional  government 
to  accompany  Charles  X  from  Rambouillet  to 
Cherbourg.  Under  the  new  government  he  was 
appointed  prefect  of  the  department  of  the  Seine, 
but  resigned  this  ofiice  in  a  few  months,  and  de- 
clined the  post  of  ambassador  at  Constantinople, 
offered  by  Louis  Philippe.  He  took  a  conspicui>us 
part  in  the  reform  movement  of  1847,  and  attended 
several  of  the  provincial  reformed  banquets  which 
led  to  the  revolution  of  1848.  He  retired  from 
political  life  in  1851. 

BARROW,  a  river  of  Ireland,  next  in  importance 
to  the  Shannon.  Its  head  is  in  Queen's  county, and 
its  course  is  south  and  west  as  it  flows  toward  the 
Atlantic.  Near  New  Ross  the  Nore  and  Suir  rivers 
join  it,  and  they  are  called  "  The  Three  Sisters." 
The  mouth  of  the  Barrow,  called  Waterford  harbor, 
is  nine  miles  long.  The  river  is  100  miles  long  and 
navigable  for  about  sixty-five  miles. 

BARROAVE,  Hexev.  an  English  lawyer,  who  was 
attracted  by  the  teachings  of  John  Greenwood,  who 
preached  against  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Puri- 
tans. Barrowe,  who  had  led  a  wild  life,  joined  in 
the  religious  crusade  for  independency.  Being 
arrested  in  1586  on  the  charge  of  publishing  sedi- 
tious books,  he  was  for  the  remainder  of  iiis  life 
confined  in  the  Fleet  prison,  and  only  taken  thence 
to  be  hanged  with  John  Greenwood,  April  6, 1503. 

BARRUNDIA,  Jose  Fr.\xcisco,  born  at  Guate- 
mala, Central  America,  about  17S0,  died  at  New 
York,  Aug.  4,  1854.  He  headed  the  revolutionary 
party  in  its  struggle  for  independence,  and  in  1829 
.was  made  president  of  the  Republic.  He  wrote  a 
narrative  of  the  Central  American  history,  and  in 
1852  was  called  again  to  the  presidency,  but  de- 
clined, as  three  out  of  the  five  republics  had  seceded. 
With  the  view  of  again  gaining  popularity  in  Guat- 
emala he  went  to  the  United  States  as  minister 
from  Honduras,  but  died  on  the  mission. 

BARRY,  the  name  in  heraldry  given  to  a  shield, 
which  is  divided  into  bars.  The  divisions  are  four, 
Bix  or  some  even  number.  Barrii-htiuhj  is  where 
the  shield  is  divided  by  lines  drawn  barwise  and 
bendwise.  Hiinii-pih/  is  where  the  shield  is  divided 
bar-wise  and  diagonally. 

BARKY  a  small  island  in  the  Bristol  Channel, 
twelve  miles  southwest  of  (Cardiff.  It  has  the 
ruins  of  an  ancient  castle  and  two  chapels. 

BARRY,  Mai!tin-,  an  eminent  English  physician, 
born  at  Fratton,  1802,  died  at  Beccles,  in'  April, 
18.55.  He  was  educated  in  the  London  medical 
schools  and  Edinburgh  University.  He  was  a 
voluminous  writer,  especially  on  .animal  develop- 
ment and  embryology,  in  which  departments  he 
made  important  discoveries. 

RARRY,  nu  Makie  Jeanne  Gomaho  i>e  Vai-- 
r.EH.NMEu,  Countess,  born  Aug.  9,  1740.  She  was 
mistress  of  Louis  XY  of  France,  and  exerted  great 
political  influence.  She  suffered  death  by  the 
guillotine  during  the  reign  of  Terror,  Deo.  3, 
]7!«. 

BARRYTON,  a  musical  instrument  now  obsolete, 
called  in  Ilall;in  rinln  ill  httrilone.  It  has  six  orseven 
gut-strings,  while  under  the  neck  are  strings  of 
Drass,  1()  in  tuimlicr,  which  are  played  with  the 
thumb.     A  bow  is  used  on  (he  gut-strings. 


BART,  or  EARTH,  Jean,  a  French  naval  officer. 
famous  for  his  bold  exploits.  He  fought  against  the 
Dutch  in  a  privateer,  and  for  his  daring  exploits 
was  made  comn,aiider  of  a  squadron  as  well  as  cap- 
tain in  the  royal  navj.     He  died  April  27,  1702. 

BARTER,  the  exctiange  of  one  commodity  for 
another,  instead-  of  the  sale  of  a  commodity  for 
money.  In  new  or  barbarous  countries  trade  is 
generally  carried  on  by  barter. 

BARTH,  a  seaport  town  of  Prussia,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Earth  River. 

BARTHELE.MY  Saixt-Hilaire, JiLKS,a  learned 
Frenchman,  born  180">.  A  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute, formerly  a  representative  of  the  people. 
During  1828-1830  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
"Globe,"  a  Paris  paper.  In  1833  he  desisted  from 
political  strife,  and  betook  himself  to  more  quiet 
pursuits,  and  in  1838  was  professor  of  Greek  and 
Latin  philosophy  in  CoUeiji'  de  France.  His  principal 
writings  are  his  translations  of  Aristotle's  works. 

BARTHOLDI,  Frederic  Auguste,  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  April  2, 18-34.  He 
studied  painting  in  Paris  under  Ary  Scheffer,  but 
gave  this  up  to  devote  himself  to  sculpture.  He  ex- 
ecuted the  La  Fayette  statue  in  New  York  city, 
the  Lion  of  Belfovt,  Giref,  and  the  famous  light-house 
statue.  Liberty  Enlightening  tlie  World,  which  was 
presented,  at  his  suggestion,  to  the  L'nited  States 
government  by  the  French  people.  This  bronze 
statue  is  itself  152  feet  2  inches  high,  and  is  placed 
on  a  pedestal  177  feet  9  inches  high,  on  Bedloe's 
Island  in  New  York  harbor,  where  it  was  unveiled 
Oct.  28,  1886.  It  is  a  triumph  of  technical  skiU. 
Bartholdi  has  been  made  commander  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor. 

BARTHOLIN,  Casper,  born  at  Malmo,  Sweden, 
in  1585,  died  July  13,  1629.  He  was  a  precocious 
youth,  and  pursued  his  studies  at  the  University  of 
Copenhagen,  and  at  Rostock  and  Wittenberg.  He 
wrote  medical  works,  and  was  professor  of  medicine 
and  of  divinity. 

BARTHOLIN,  Thomas,  an  eminent  physician, 
born  in  Copenliagen,  Oct.  20,  1616,  died  at  Hagsted, 
Dec.  4, 1680.  He  was  professor  of  anatomy  in  his 
native  city,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  liver,  the 
lymphatic  vessels  (which  he  claimed  to  have  discov- 
ered), and  a  book  called  Aniitomia. 

BARTHOLO:MEW,  Edward  Sheffield,  a  sculp- 
tor  of  Connecticut,  born  1822  died  at  Naples,  Jlay  2, 
1858.  He  first  practiced  dentistry,  but  soon  turned 
his  attention  to  the  study  of  painting  and  sculpture, 
in  which  latter  branch  he  won  distinction.  Some 
of  his  works  are  Blind  llnmer  led  by  His  Daughter, 
Eve.  Vniith  and  Old  Age,  Ere  Rejienlant,  and  Gant/mede. 

BARTHOLOINIEW  FAIR,  an  annual  festival  held 
at  West  Srnithfield,  London.  The  charter  for  the 
fair  was  granted  by  Henry  I,  to  his  jester,  a  monk 
named  Kafer,  who  founded  th!>  St.  Bartholomew 
churcli  and  priory.  The  charter  was  granted  in 
1133,  and  the  fair,  which  was  a  great  merry-making, 
opened  each  year  on  .\ug.  24  (old  style).  The  visit- 
ors engaged  in  all  sorts  of  sports,  contests  and 
trading.  The  fair  was  held  several  days,  but  it  at 
length  became  a  nuisance,  and  in  1860  was  abol- 
ished. 

B.VRTIZAN,  a  small  overhanging  closet  or  turret 
built  over  doorways  or  on  the 
corners  of  buildings.  Barti- 
zans were  made  for  defense, 
and  liail  small  loopholes  or 
windows, but  in  modern  archi- 
tecture they  are  only  added 
for  ornament. 

BARTLETT,  Joiix  Rrssni.L, 
born  at  Providence,  K.  I.,  Oct. 
28,  1886.    In  early  life  he 


23 

in 


BARTIZAN. 

1805,   died   May 
the  banking  busi« 


B  A  R  T  L  E  T  T—  B  A  R  T  R  A  M 


215 


ness,  but  abandoned  it  to  enter  the  book-importing 
trade.  Ho  was  corresponding  secretary  of  tlie 
American  Ilislorical  Society,  a  member  of  the 
American  Etlinological  Society,  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners appointed  to  fix  the  boundary  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States, and  was  Secretary  of 
State  for  Rhode  Island  for  17  years.  Among  his 
books  are  Tlie  Prognsx of  J-Jthuvloij!/.  A  Diclionarij  of 
Aiiiericanisms,  Litiralure  of  the  liebeUion,  and  Prime- 
val Man. 

BAKTLETT,  Joseph,  an  adventurer,  born  at  Ply- 
moutli,  Mass..  .June  10,  17(iL'.  died  at  Boston, Oct.  20, 
1S27.  lie  graduated  at  Harvard,  and  after  studying 
law  went  to  Enghuid,  wliere  he  fell  in  witli  a  gam- 
bling set  of  young  men.  Having  lost  liis  money  and 
been  sent  to  jail,  he  earned  his  release  by  play- 
writing.  He  was  l)y  turns  an  actor,  importer,  sol- 
dier (in  Shays' rebellion),  lawyer,  and  a  member 
of  the  -Maine  legislature.  He  delivered  an  orig- 
inal poem,  "Physiognomy,"  at  a  meeting  of  the 
Harvard  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society,  and  at  a 
Fourth  of  .July    celebration  at    Boston  recited   a 

Eoem  entitled  "The  New  Vicar  of  Bray,"  which 
ecame  famous.  In  ISOo  he  edited  the  "Freeman  s 
Friend." 

BAKTLETT,  Josi.\n,  M.  D.,  an  American  patriot 
and  statesman  and  first  Governor  of  Xew  Hamp- 
shire, born  at  Amesbury,  Mass.,  Nov.  21,  1729,  died 
May  19,  1795.  He  studied  and  practiced  medicine, 
becoming  eminent  in  the  i)rofossion  by  his  discovery 
and  appliance  of  new  remedies.  In  1765  he  was 
delegate  to  the  legislature.  From  this  time  on- 
ward he  was  in  public  office.  He  was  a  zealous  Whig 
notwithstanding  the  elTorts  of  the  British  govern- 
ment to  secure  his  fealty.  As  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  ho  was  the  first  to  vote  for 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  the  second  to 
sign  it.  Dr.  Bartlelt  was  appointed  general  naval 
agent  (177(5),  was  elected  to  Congress  (1778), 
was  successively  chief  justice  of  the  court  of  com- 
mon pleas,  muster  master  of  troops,  justice  of  the 
superior  court,  cliief  justice,  three  times  chosen 
president  of  Xew  Hampshire,  and  the  governorship 
was  his  last  office. 

BAKTl.ETT,  Tiu-max,  a  noted  sculptor,  born  in 
Vermont  in  1835.  The  Anijil  of  Life,  ]\'is(l(,iii,  and  The 
Wuiinded  Drummer  Boy  are  among  his  principal 
works. 

B.^RTLETT,  William  Henry,  an  artist  and  popu- 
lar writer,  born  in  London  in  1 809,  died  in  18.54.  He 
was  a  pupilofBritton,  tlie  architect,  who  afterwards 
employed  him  to  make  drawings  for  his  Cathedral 
Atilifiiillieg  and  Pictumqne  Antirjuities  of  I'Jnglish 
VilirK.  He  vfsited  .\merica  several  times  and  trav- 
eled in  Eurojie  and  in  the  lUily  Land,  enriching 
his  portfolio  with  innumerable  interesting  scenes. 
There  were  devoted  to  these  countries  noless  than^lO 

?uarto  volumes, containing  about  1,000  engravings 
rom  his  sketches,  and  letter-press  from  his  own  pen 
and  those  of  his  fellow-travelers.  Dr.  W.  Beattie,  N. 
P.  Willis  and  .Aliss  Pardee.  He  died  on  a  voyage 
from  Malta  ro  Marseilles. 

BARTOL,  (!vurs  .^roi'sri's,  a  clergyman,  born  at 
Freeport,  JVIaine,  ,\pri!  .'W,  1S13.  He  gradujited  at 
Bowdoin  and  at  ('iimbridge  divinity  school.  In  Is37 
he  was  made  assistant  pastor  of  the  West  Church 
(Unitarian)  of  Boston.  He  has  written  several  re- 
ligious \M)rks. 

B.VRTOLI,  Daniello,  a  scholarly  Jesuit,  born  at 
Ferrara  in  IliOS,  died  at  Rome  in  I»585.  He  was 
rector  ol  the  .lesuit  t;ollege  at  Rome. 

H.VltTOLl,  Piirrun  Santo,  a  painter  and  a  skillful 
etcher,  born  Ifili.'),  died  1700. 

B.\RT(ir,l,  Taookii,  an  Italian  painter,  who  lived 
between  13(12  and  1422.  He  belonged  to  the  Sien- 
nese  school. 


BARTOLOMEO,  San,  a  town  of  Naples,  in  the 
province  of  Capitanata.    Population,  ■'i.loO. 

B.VRToX,  Andkew,  a  Scotch  naval  commander 
under  James  IV.  He  lost  his  life  in  an  engagement 
on  the  Downs,  Aug.  2,  1511. 

BAUTOX,  Bekxard,  an  English  poet,  born  in 
London,  Jan.  31,  1784,  died  in  1849.  His  parents 
were  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  to  whose 
tenets  Barton  adhered  through  life.  In  1810  he  be- 
came clerk  in  a  banking  house  at  Woodbridge,  in 
which  situation  he  continued  until  witliiii  tw<( 
years  of  his  death.  His  first  poetical  efforts  were 
published  in  lS12,under  tlie  1 1 tie  o(  Metrical  Effusiione, 
which  brought  him  in  correspondence  with  the  poet 
Sonthey.  Poems  by  An  Amale^ir,  and  Poems  (1820), 
increased  his  reputation  and  gained  him  the  friend- 
ship of  Lamb  and  Byron.  After  his  death,  which 
took  place  suddenly,  his  daughter  published  iSelec- 
tionsfroni  the  Poems  and  Litters  of  Bernard  Barton. 

BARTON,  Benjamin  Smith,  born  at  Lancaster, 
Pa.,  Feb.  10,  176(i,  died  at  Philadelphia,  Dec. 
19,  181.5.  He  studied  at  York,  Pa.,  in  Philadel- 
phia, Edinburgh  and  London.  He  became  a  physi- 
cian, and  settled  in  Philadelphia.  He  held  a  pro- 
fessorship in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
was  a  member  of  different  American  and  European 
societies.  He  wrote  articles  for  journals  and  pub- 
lished books  on  botany  and  other  subjects. 

li.VRTON,  Claua,  born  in  Oxford,  .Mass.,  about 
IS.SO.  In  1854  she  entered  the  Patent  Oflice  as  a  clerk, 
having  previously  been  a  successful  teacher  in 
Bordentown,  N.  .1.  When  the  war  broke  out  she  re- 
signed her  clerkship  and  devoted  herself  to  the  care 
of  the  wounded  soldiers,  and  in  1804  was  at  the 
front  as  superintendent  of  the  hospitals  in  the 
Army  of  the  James.  On  the  conclusion  of  the  war 
she  conducted  a  search  for  missing  soldiers  of  the 
Union  armies,  and  at  Andersonville  identified  and 
marked  many  graves  of  Union  prisoners.  She  has 
since  done  good  service  abroad  in  her  chosen  line 
of  work,  aiding  eflieiently  the  Red  Cross  society 
during  the  Franco-German  war,  and  when  the 
American  Red  Cross  society  was  organized,  in  1881, 
liecanie  its  first  president.  See  Red  Cross  Socib- 
TiEs,  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 

BARTON,  Thomas  pKNN-AST.born  at  Philadelphia 
in  1808,  died  April  5.  1809.  He  was  the  son  of  Dr. 
Benj.  S.  Barton.  He  was  a  man  of  literary  taste 
and  had  a  fine  library,  which  included  2,000  rare 
editions  of  Shakespeare,  and  which  he  bequeathed 
to  the  Bost.jn  Public  Library. 

BARTON  BEDS,  a  strata  of  sand  and  clay  in- 
cluded in  the  Bagshot  beds. 

BART()X-ON-lIUM15FR,  an  ancient  town  in 
North  Lincolnshire,  England,  formerly  one  of  the 
important  ports  of  the  llumber  River.  The  most 
important  articles  of  production  are  ropes,  sacking, 
pottery,  tiles,  brick  and  whiting.  Quarries  in  tha 
vicinity  yield  chalk  and  oolite.  One  of  the  objects 
of  interest  is  St.  Peter's  Church,  liuilt  about  the 
time  of  the  Conquest. 

BARTON'S  BUTTONS  (also  called  Iris  Orna- 
ments). Mr.  .John  Barton  succeeded,  by  means  of 
a  dividing  engine,  in  engraving  on  steel  and  simi- 
lar surfaces  lines  which  were  distant  from  one 
another  only  two  ten-thousandths  of  an  inch.  Steel 
dies  thus  marked  with  hair  lines  are  used  to  stamp 
buttons  and  articles  of  ornament.  These,  when 
stamped,  reflect  the  colors  of  the  rainbow. 

BARTRAM,  Ji.HN,  born  near  Darbv.  Pa..  March 
23,  KiOO.  died  at  Kingsessing.  Pa..  Sept.  22,  1777. 
He  acquired  an  extensive  knowledge  of  medicine, 
surgery  and  botany.  Linnjeus  called  him  the 
"greatest  natural  botanist  in  the  world."  On  the 
Schuylkill  River,  at  the  place  called  Kingsessing. 
he  laid  out   a  botanical   garden,   which    was   the 


216 


BART  RAM  — BASE  BALL 


first  of  the  kind  in  America.  He  traveled  to 
make  botanical  collections,  wrote  accounts  of  his 
excursions,  and  received  the  honorable  appointment 
of  Amercan  botanist  to  George  III. 

BARTKAM,  Willi.\m,  son  of  the  preceding,  born 
at  Kingsessing,  Pa.,  Feb.  9, 1739,  died  at  the  same 
place  July  22,  1823.  He  was  a  botanist  and  traveled 
in  the  eastern  States,  making  scientific  collections. 
For  several  years  he  raised  indigo  on  the  St.  John's 
River  in  Florida.  He  published  books  descriptive 
o*  his  travels,  was  connected  with  scientific  so- 
cieties, made  a  very  complete  list  of  native  birds, 
and  illustrated  Barton's  Elements  of  Botany. 

BARTSCH,  JoH.\NN  Ad.\m  Bernh-^ed,  a  German 
engraver,  born  in  Vienna,  Aug.  17, 1757,  died  there 
Aug.  21,  1821.     He  wrote  T)ie  Painter-Engraver. 

BAKU,  a  tine,  woolly  substance,  found  at  the  base 
of  the  leaves  of  the  Sagnerus  sacckarifer,  one  of 
the  most  valuable  sago-palms  of  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago. It  is  used  for  calking  ships,  for  stufling 
cushions,  and  for  other  similar  purposes. 

BARYE,  AxToixE  Louis,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  24, 
1795,  died  June  25, 1875.  He  served  in  the  army  in 
1812-14,  and  afterward  took  up  drawing  and  model- 
ing. His  teachers  were  Bosio  and  Baron.  He  be- 
came especially  famous  for  his  statuettes  of  animals, 
some  of  which  are  to  be  seen  in  the  art  galleries  of 
New  York  and  Baltimore.  He  received  the  cross  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor. 

BAS,  or  B.\Tz,  a  small  island  in  the  English  Chan- 
nel, belonging  to  France,  situated  off  the  north 
coast  of  the  department  of  Finisterre.  It  is  about 
three  miles  in  length  and  two  in  breadth,  on  an 
elevation  223  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  defended 
by  two  forts  and  batti^ries.  It  has  a  light-house, 
and  a  population  of  about  1,200,  whose  chief  occu- 
pation is  fishing. 

BASALT,  a  volcanic  rock  of  feldspar  and  horn- 
blende, or  augite.  It  is  a  variety  of  trap-rock,  of 
conchoidal  fracture,  compact  in  texture,  and  either 
black  or  dark  green  or  gray  in  color.  Its  char- 
acteristic columnar  structure,  as  seen  at  the  Giant's 
Causeway  and  at  Fingal'sCave,  is  remarkable.  See 
Britannica.  Vol.  X,  p.  2.')o. 

B.-VSCOM,  Henry  Bii)r,E>rAX,  an  eloquent  bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  born  at 
Hancock,  N.  Y.,  May  27,  179i),  died  in  Louisville,  Ky., 
Sept.  8, 1850.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  when  in 
his  nineteenth  year.  His  first  work  was  done  in 
Ohio,  on  the  frontier,  where  he  suffered  many  hard- 
ships. Subsequently  he  preaclied  in  Tennessee  and 
Kentucky.  He  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Con- 
gress, and  later  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  Madi- 
son C'oUege,  Uniontown,  Pa.  He  was  called  to 
the  presidency  of  four  different  colleges — three 
calls  coming  at  the  same  time.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  several  important  Metliodist  conventions,  and 
became  editor  of  the  "  Southern  Methodist  Quar- 
terly Review."  The  works  of  Bishop  Bascom  have 
been  edited  l)y  Rev.  T.  N.  Ralston. 

BASCO.M,  Joux,  born  at  Genoa,  N.  Y.,  May  1, 
1827.  He  graduated  at  AVilliaiiis  College  and  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  ;  was  tutor  and  also 
professor  at  \Villiams.  Wliile 
teaching  here  he  was  pastor  of 
a  church  in  Vermont.  In  1874 
he  was  called  to  be  president  of 
the  Wisconsin   University. 

BASE:  in  heraldry,  the  lower 
part  of  tlie  shield.  Dexter,  mid- 
dle and  sinister  base  mean,  re- 
spectively, the  left  corner,  mid- 
dle and  right  lower  corners. 

BARE  :  in  architecture,  the  lowest  part  of  a  wall, 
ortha!  part  on  which  a  pillar  on  shaft  rests.  The 
Doric  column  is  the  only  one  having  no  base.    As 


a  usual  thing  the  base  is  half  the  lower  diameter 
of  the  shaft.  The  base  has  two  parts,  the  plinth 
and  the  molding.  The  former  is  a  fiat,  square 
block  on  which  the  molding  (generally  circular 
in  shape)  rests.  See  Colvmx,  in  these  Revisions 
and  Additions. 

BASE,  or  Bass,  in  music  is  the  deepest  or  lowest 
part,  by  whatever  instrument  it  may  be  performed. 
The  base  next  to  the  upper  part  is  most  striking, 
the  freest  in  its  movements,  and  richest  in  effect. 
In  respect  to  harmony  the  base  is  the  most  impor- 
tant part  in  music,  containing  more  frequently  the 
fundamental  notes  of  the  chords,  while  on  it  is 
formed  the  most  important  and  effective  figure  in 
music,  called  "  organ  point."  Base  is  also  the  name 
of  the  lowest  and  deepest  quality  of  the  human  voice. 
It  only  begins  to  show  itself  at  the  years  of  manhood, 
and  is  generally  a  change  from  the  alto  voice  of  a  boy. 
Base  is  also  an  old  stringed  instrument,  with  from 
five  to  six  strings,  played  with  a  bow.  Double  base 
(contra-bass)  is  the  deepest  toned  of  stringed  in- 
struments. 

BASE  BALL,  a  game  which  has  become  so  pop- 
ular in  the  United  States  that  it  has  won  the  title 
of  "  The  National  Game."  It  was  probably  named 
from  the  bases  used  in  making  the  runs,  which 
constitute  one  of  its  prominent  features.  The 
origin  of  the  game  is  a  matter  of  dispute.  Some  eon- 
tend  that  it  was  evolved  from  the  old  game  of 
"  rounders,"  known  to  the  boys  of  England,  and 
adduce  in  support  of  their  theory  the  coupling  of 
base  ball  with  cricket  liy  Jane  Austen  in  Northanger 
Abbey.  Others  maintain  that  it  is  a  development 
of  the  school-boy  game  of '■  one  old  cat,"  in  which 
there  were  a  pitclier,  a  catcher  and  a  batter.  For 
the  early  history  of  base  ball,  with  diagram,  descrip- 
tion and  early  rules  of  the  game,  see  Britannica, 
Vol.  III.  pp.  4d(i-7. 

The  National  Association  of  Base  Ball  Players 
was  organized  March  10, 1S58,  The  first  contest  for 
the  championship  took  place  the  same  year  at  the 
Eiysiaii  I'ields,  Hoboken,  N.  J.  As  early  as  18ti() 
base  ball  had  become  so  popular  that  on  Oct.  1  of 
that  year  30,000  people  gathered  to  witness  the 
championship  game  to  be  played  in  Philadelphia; 
and  so  dense  was  the  crowd  that  the  players  were 
unable  to  proceed,  and  the  contest  was  pusiponed. 
In  1871  tlie  National  gave  place  to  the  Pmfos.-^ional 
Association,  which  was  organized  March  17  ;  and  the 
employment  of  iiaid  jdayers  became  a  recognized 
feature  of  theconduct  of  thechampionshi))  matches. 
This  association  was  superseded  by  the  National 
League'. organized  Feb.  2,1870.  From  tlie  ilateofits 
formation  lo  the  present  writing,  1891,1  weiity-three 
cities  liave.had  representative  clubs  in  the  National 
League.  The  International  Association,  represent- 
ing professional  clubs  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  was  formed  Feb.  20,  1877.  A  similar 
association,  bearing  the  same  name  and  con^imsed 
of  seceders  from  the  International  League,  was 
formed  in  1887.  The  International  League  >vas 
formed  in  ISSO.  by  the  union  of  th(>  clubs  of  the 
New  York  State  League  and  those  of  Toronto  and 
Hamilton  ;  it  was  known  temporarily  during  1888- 
1889  as  the  International  Association.  The  Na- 
tional Association,  made  up  of  eastern  ))rofessiona!s, 
was  in  existence  from  1879  lo  1881.  The  National 
League  .Mliance  was  formed  in  1877.  The  Eablern 
Championship  Association  was  organized  in  ISSI. 
The  American  .\ssociatioii  was  formed  Nov.  2,  1881. 
The  Northwestern  League  was  organizetl  .Ian. 
2,1879.  The  Western  League  in  188(i.  The  West- 
ern Association,  Oct.  28,  1887.  The  Inter-State 
Association,  Nov.  9,  1882.  The  Union  Association 
existed  from  1.S83  to  1885.  The  Eastern  League 
was   in  existence   for  about   four  y^ars  following 


BASE  OF  OPERATIONS  — BASILEAX   MANUSCRIPT     21 


Sept.  25, 1RS3.  The  Soutliern  League  began  in  18S5, 
and  lasted  three  years.  Ttie  XewEnghind  League, 
lollowing  the  short-lived  Kas(ern  and  J^outhern  N. 
E.  leagues,  was  organized  in  iss.j  and  continued  in 
existence  three  seasons.  The  Central  1-eague  was 
formed  in  lsS7.  The  Atlantic  Association  succeeded 
the  New  England  and  t'entral  leagues  in  IS.sil.  The 
brief  existence,  during  l.SiH),  of  the  Players'  heague 
is  memorable  in  base-  ball  circles  on  account  of  the 
spirited  contests  between  that  organization  and  the 
National  League,  from  which  it  had  been  formed, 
and  with  which,  after  much  controversy,  it  was  re- 
united. Among  tlie  minor  professional  leagues  are 
the  <.)ntario.  Central  Iiiter-State,  Tri-.>tate,  Middle 
States  or  Inler-State,  North  l*acilic,and  the  vari- 
ous distinctive  associations  named  from  their 
res])ective  States.  The  principal  amateur  associa- 
tions are  those  composed  of  students  of  the 
various  colleges  from  which  they  are  severally 
Darned. 

The  trip  of  the  American  base  ball  players  to 
England  in  1874  is  noted  in  Britannica,  Vol.  IH,  p. 
40«).  Fourteen  games  of  base  ball  were  played  be- 
tween the  lioston  and  Philadel()hia  clubs.  Seven 
games  of  cricket,  the  national  game  of  GreatBrit- 
ain,  were  also  played  with  the  best  elevens  in  the 
principal  cities  of  England  and  Ireland,  in  all  of 
which  the  Americans  met  with  easy  and  uninter- 
rupted success.  Other  trips  abroad  l)y  American 
players  have  been  two  to  Havana,  in  1879  and  188(), 
and  a  tour  around  the  world  in  1888-89.  The  Chi- 
cago club  and  a  picked  team  known,  as  the  All 
America,  accompanied  l)y  newspajier  correspond- 
ents and  others,  left  Chicago  Oct.  :iO,  for  San  Kran- 
cisco,  Honolulu,  Auckland,  Sydney,  ^Melbourne, 
and  other  principal  cities  of  Australia,  Colombo 
in  Ceylon,  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt, Brindisi,  Naples, 
Kome,  Florence,  Paris,  London,  Bristol,  Manchester, 
Liverpool,  Birmingham,  Glasgow,  Belfast,  Dublin, 
Queenstown,  New  York,  Philadel|)hia,  and  Chi- 
cago, arriving  April  20.  liaving  made  the  trip  in 
just   si.\  months  and  played  fifty-three  games. 

Of  "  best-on-reeord "  performances,  the  largest 
number  of  innings  played  is  24,  by  Harvard  r.*.  Man- 
chester, at  Boston,  May  11,  1877.  The  quickest 
game  was  played  in  47  minutes  by  Dayton  is.  Iron- 
ton,  at  Dayton,  Sept.  Ill,  1884.  The  largest  number 
of  games  plaved  by  a  club  during  anv  season  is 
LSS,  by  the  Detroit  club,  .^larch  11  to  Oct.  2(5,  1887. 
The  largest  numl)erof  games  played  by  an  individ- 
ual player  is  184,  by  S.  L.  Thompson,  of  the  sarile 
clul,' during  the  same  season.  For  the  honor  of 
having  thrown  a  ball  the  greatest  distance  there 
are  several  claimants.  The  recorded  distance  is 
400  feet  7!.>  inches,  by  ,Iohn  Ilallield,at  Brooklyn, 
Oct.  15,  1872.  It  is  claimed,  however,  that  a  ball 
was  thrown  40t>  feet  ,'.j  inch  by  Kd.  Crane,  at  Cincin- 
nati. Oct.  12,  1884;  and  another  402  feet  2'.< 
inches  by  H.Vaughn,  at  BulTalo,  .Line  2.3,  1800.  The 
oHicial  count  of  the  aggregate  number  of  specta- 
tors at  the  games  of  the  nalional  and  [)layers' 
leagues  during  the  season  of  18".I0  is  l,704,r)()5. 

BASE  OF  OPEKATIONS,  in  military  tactices,the 
spot  on  which  the  commander-in-chief  relies  for  his 
magazine  or  stronghold.  It  is  not  only  the  source 
of  supiilies,  but  also  the  place  where  the  sick  and 
woimued  are  sent,  and  where  the  army  falls  back 
when  pressed  by  the  enemy. 

B.\SECori\f  (li.^ssK  CoVu),  the  outer  court  of  a 
feudal  mansion,  which  contained  the  stable-yard 
and  accommcjdal ion  for  servants.  It  was  distinct 
from  the  principal  (|uadrangle,and  was  sometimes 
const riicled  of  limber. 

B.VJ^KDOW,  .loHANN  Bkiinuahii,  a  German  edu- 
cational reformer,  born  in  Hamburg,  Sept.  11,  1723, 
died    in    ilagdelmrg,  ,Iuly  25,  170I.I.     He   sought    to 


realize  the  ideas  of  IJousseau.  He  founded  at 
Dessau,  in  1774,  a  model  school,  which  he  called  P/it- 
luulhiojjin.  He  endeavored  to  awaken  a  sentiment 
of  cosmopolitanism  and  to  popularize  learning.  His 
numerous  works  drew  attention  to,  and  aroused  in- 
terest in,  the  subject  of  education  and  set  in 
circulation  nianv  good  ideas. 

BASEDOW'S  DISE.ISE,  or  Gk.wes'  Dise.\se,  or 
J-'.rujiliiluihiiic  (•'<)iti'i\a.  disease  more  frequent  among 
women  than  among  men.  Its  characteristic 
symptoms  are  enlarged  thyroid  gland,  ])rominent 
eye-balls  and  palpitation.  Patients  usually  recover 
from  this  dithculty,as  its  remedies  are  gentle 
exercise,  nourishing  food  and  chalybeates. 

BASELLA,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Chi  iiojUKlidrnc.  The  species  are  all 
tropical.  They  have  twining  stems,  in  common  use 
as  pot  herbs  in  the  East  Indies,  and  are  cultivated 
in  China.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Paris  they  are 
raised  in  hot  beds,  transplanted  into  warm  borders, 
and  furnish  a  substitute  for  spinach  in  the  summer. 
VaniUo  rnhra  yields  a  very  rich  purple  dye.  The 
great  fleshy  root  of  Basella  iuberosa,  a  South  Ameri- 
can species,  is  edible. 

BASHAHR,  one  of  the  Punjab  hill  states  on  the 
lower  slopes  of  the  Himalayas.  The  province  has  an 
area  of  3,320  square  miles.  The  river  Sutlej  flows 
through  it  from  east  to  west.  The  people  are  of 
the  Hindoo  race. 

BASHAW  (Turkish,  hasch;  Arabic,  Imsha:  Persian, 
pa>:lia,  the  way  in  w  hicli  the  word  is  now  generally 
written),  signifies  head,  or  master,  a  Turkish  title  of 
honor  given  to  the  viceroys,  provincial  governors, 
generals,  and  other  distinguished  public  men.  The 
term  bashaw  is  also  used  to  characterize  a  man  of 
an  arrogant  and  domineering  disposition. 

BASHEE,  or  B.vsm  Isi^ands,  a  small  cluster  in 
the  line  between  Luzon,  the  chief  of  the  Phil- 
ippine chain,  and  Formosa,  in  lat.  21°  X.  and 
long.  122°  east.  They  are  a  dependency  of  the 
Philippines,  having  been  colonized  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1783.  and  they  form  a  link  in  the  vast  archipelago 
which,  from  Formosa  to  Sumatra,  inclusive,  connects 
the  southeast  of  China  with  the  west  of  Malacca, 
They  were  discovered  in  lii87  by  Danipier,  who 
called  them  Bashi  Islands  on  account  of  the  popu- 
larity among  the  islanders  of  an  intoxicating  liquor 
of  that  name. 

B.\SHI-BAZOL'KS,  irregular  troopers  in  the  pay 
of  the  Sultan.  They  are  mostly  .Vsiatics,  from 
some  of  the  pashalics  in  Asiatic  Turkey.  They  are 
wild,  turbulent  men,  ready  to  enter  the  Sultan's 
service  under  some  leader  whom  they  can  un- 
derstand,and  still  more  ready  to  plunder  whenever 
an  o]))iortunity  ofTers. 

B.VSIDOH,  or  B.vssadore,  a  village  at  the  west 
end  of  the  Island  of  Kishni.  It  has  a  hospital  and 
a  bazaar. 

B.VSIENTO,  or  B.vsENTo,  a  river  of  Italy,  which, 
rising  in  the  Apennines,  west  of  Potenza.llows  in  an 
east-south-east  direction  through  the  province  of 
Basilicata  to  the  Gulf  of  Taranto.  Near  its  mouth 
are  the  remains  of  the  once-famous  city  of  Meta- 
pontum,  where  Pythagoras  ended  his  days. 

B.VSIL,  a  name  given  to  several  herbs  of  the 
nalurnl  order  Labial.r.  The  species  are  all  natives 
of  (he  tropics,  or  of  the  warmer  temperale  parts  of 
the  world,  and  are  generally  characterized  by  a 
pleasant  aromatic  smell  and  laste.  Cultivated  for 
culiuarv  purposes,  being  used  as  seasoning. 

BASILEAN  MANUSCRIPT,  the  name  given  to 
two  Greek  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament. 
One  is  a  nearly  complete  copy  of  the  Gospels  writ- 
ten at  Constantinople,  about  the  eighth  century; 
theotheracopy  of  Hie  whole  New  Testament,  which 
must    have    been   written    in  the    tenth    century. 


218 


B  A  SI  LI  AN  MANUSCRIPT  — BASSO  MPIERRE 


Theso    valuable    manuscripts    are    in    the   library 
at  Bale. 

BASILIAN  MAXCSCRIPT,  a  manuscript  of  the 
Apocalypse,  now  in  the  Vatican,  which  manu- 
script derives  its  name  from  theBasilian  monastery 
in  Rome,  where  it  formerly  belonged.  It  is  written 
in  uncial  characters  and  is  of  the  eighth  centurv- 

BASILIAX  MOXK.S.  or  Monks  of  St.  B.\sil,  a 
religious  order  originated  in  the  year  363  by  Saint 
Basil  the  Great.  His  system  was  approved  by  the 
Pope.  Monasteries  of  this  order  are  found  in  Italy, 
Spain.  Asia  Minor  and  other  countries. 

BASILICOX,  a  name  given  to  an  ointment  com- 
posed of  yellow  wax,  black  pitch,  resin  and  olive  oil. 
These  materials  are  melted  together  over  a  slow 
fire,  and  the  mixture  while  hot  is  strained  through 
linen.  Basilicon  ointment  is  used  as  a  gently  stim- 
ulant application  to  blistered  surfaces,  indolent 
ulcers,  burns,  scalds  and  chilblains. 

BASILICON  DOROX,  a  celebrated  prose  work  of 
King  James  VI,  of  Scotland,  written  for  the  in- 
struction of  his  son.  Prince  Henry.  It  consists  of 
three  books.  The  first*  treats  "  Of  a  King's  Chris- 
tian Duty  Toward  God ;"  the  second,  "  Of  a  King's 
Duty  in  His  Office ;"  and  the  third.  "  Of  a  King's 
Behavior  in  Indifferent  Things."  It  was  first  pub- 
lished in  1599.  It  has  been  translated  into  Latin 
and  French,  and  is  now  considered  a  literary  cu- 
riosity. See  Britannica.Vol.  XIII.  p.  558 ;  XXI.  p.  509. 

BASILISC'US.  an  emperor  of  the  East,  who  died 
about  477.  He  was  a  brother  of  Verina,  the  wife  of 
Leo  I.  The  latter  sent  him  with  an  armed  force 
against  the  Vandal  Genserie,  who  conquered  him. 
In  the  year  474  he  endeavored  to  usurp  the  throne, 
but  Zeno  defeated  him. 

BASIM.  or  Bassi.m,  a  town  of  India,  situated  in  a 
very  populous  and  fertile  district  of  the  province  of 
Berar.     It  is  413  miles  northeast  of  Bombay. 

BASIN,  a  geographical  term,  meaning  the'tract  of 
land  drained  by  a  river.  The  hills  or  mountains 
dividing  one  river  basin  from  another  are  called 
■water-sheds. 

BASIN,  in  geology,  the  term  applied  to  a  de- 
pression in  the  strata  in  which  beds  of  a  later  age 
have  been  deposited. 

BASKING  SHARK,  the  popular  name  given  to  a 
species  of  shark  (Selache  majima)  on  account  of  its 
fondness  for  reposing  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
the  sun.  Bone-shark,  sail-fish,  sun-fish,  or  hoe- 
mother  are  other  vernacular  names  for  this  fish. 
Several  barrels  of  oil  are  sometimes  obtained  from 
the  liver  of  a  single  sliark  of  this  species.  See 
Britannica,  Vol.  XII,  p.  646 ;  Vol.  XXI,  p.  777. 

BASRA,  B.\ssnK.\ii,  B.\T,soR,\,  or  Bussokaii,  a 
town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Euphrates,  70  miles  from  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
river  at  Basra  divides  into  several  channels,  and 
ships  can  sail  from  the  gulf  to  the  city,  making  it  a 
place  of  considerable  commercial  importance.  The 
climate  is  unheallhy,  and  the  houses  are  mostly 
low  huts.  It  was  a  place  of  great  importance  a  few 
centuries  ago.  and  tlie  Turks  and  Persians  liad 
many  conflicts  to  decide  as  to  its  ownership. 

BASS,  or  Basswooo  (corruption  of  the  Danish 
and  German  word  li(i.'<l,  meaning  ii\ner  bark),  the  lin- 
den or  lime  tree,  common  in  the  I'liited  States.  Its 
leaves  are  serrate  and  nearly  heart-shapi'd ;  it 
bears  a  woody,  one-celled  luit.  and  its  blossoms 
furnish  abundant  honey  for  bees.  The  wood  is  soft 
and  light,  of  lillle  use  for  fuel,  but  valued  for  car- 
riage making.  The  bark  of  the  ornamental  bass- 
wood,  Tiliii  hcln-(ii>hyUa,  is  common  in  the  southern 
and  western  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  fre- 
quently grows  to  a  great  size  and  height.  See 
LiMK,  or  Li.NDBN,  Britannica,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  648;  Vol. 
XIII,  p.  808. 


BASS,  the  name  of  a  food  fish,-  originally  called! 
perch.  There  are  many  species,  for  which  some  of 
the  popular  names  are  black  bass, calico  bass  (spot- 
ted variety  found  in  the  St.  Lawrence),  channel 
bass,  grass  bass  (Cfiitrarchus  hexacaiithiiii},  Oswego 
bass,  red  bass  (Labrax  rufiis),  rock  bass  (Ceiit- 
rarchus  ot'»('!(,v).  sea  bass,  striped  bass,  and  white 
bass  (Lulira.r  alhidiis).  This  fish  is  found  in  fresli 
or  salt  water,  and  in  or  near  the  countries  of  Eu- 
rope and  North  America.  The  name  of  the  typical 
fish  is  Lahru.v  liijJux. 

BASS,  Michael  Thomas  (1799-1884).  a  famous 
English  brewer.  He  was  very  wealthy,  and  used 
his  monev  for  many  benevolent  purposes. 

BASSA'DORE,  the  principal  station  on  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  for  British  ships.  It  is  at  the  western 
end  of  the  island  of  Kishm. 

BASSE-CH  ANTANTE  :  in  music,  the  higher  of  the 
two  basses  in  a  score,  partaking  of  more  melody, 
and  performed  by  the  violoncello. 

BASSE-CONTRAINTE,  a  French  term  in  music, 
meaning  a  bass  melody  of  a  few  bars  repeated 
throughout  the  piece,  while  other  parts  vary. 

BASSEIN,  a  city  of  India,  situated  in  a  district  of 
the  same  name  and  on  the  left  bank  of  a  branch  of 
the  Irrawaddy.  It  commands  the  navigation  of  the 
river,  and  is  in  the  possession  of  the  English.  Also  a 
ruined  town  in  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  situated 
on  an  island  of  the  same  name. 

BASSES,  two  ledges  of  rocks  to  the  southeast  of 
Ceylon,  distinguished  as  Great  and  LiTTi.E^the 
former  group  being  more  to  the  southwest,  the 
latter  more  to  the  northeast.  Their  importance 
arises  merely  from  their  position,  which  is  in  a 
great  thoroughfare  of  traffic. 

BASSET  HORN  (Conio  di  basetto),  the  richest 
and  softest  of  all  wind  instruments,  invented  in. 
Passau,  in  1770.  It  is  similar  to  the  clarionet  in 
tone  and  fingering. 

BASSIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Sapolacex.  The  species  are  trees,  tropical  or  sub- 
tropical, the  flowers  being  remarkable  for  their 
fleshy  corolla,  and  for  the  abundance  of  oil  or 
butyraceous  fat  which  the  seeds  contain,  and  which 
is  used  for  many  purposes  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
countries  to  which  they  are  indigenous.  The  fruit 
has  a  pulpy  rind,  and  three  or  four  one-seeded  cells; 
the  ovary  has  eight  cells,  but  some  of  them  are 
always  abortive.  Vitdlaria  Lticuma  is  highly  valued, 
and  forms  an  important  article  of  internal  com- 
merce in  the  interior  of  Africa.  The  seeds  of  the 
fruit  are  dried  in  the  sun,  or  in  an  oven,  and  the 
kernels  are  boiled  in  water,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
butter  from  them,  which  not  only  keeps  a  whole- 
year  without  salt,  but  is  whiter,  more  solid  and  more 
"pleasant  to  the  taste  than  the  butter  of  cow's  milk. 
It  is  used  both  as  an  article  of  food  and  medicine. 

BASSIA  LON(HFOLIA,  a  native  of  Coroniandel,. 
yields  a  large  quantity  of  oil.  which  is  used  for 
lamps. soap-making, and  sometimes  in  cookery;  the 
fleshy  (lowers  are  eaten  and  mucli  esteemed.  The 
timber  is  so  hard  and  durable  as  to  be  compared 
in  qualitv  to  teak. 

B.VSSciMPIIORKK.  Fhancois,  Bakon  nv.,  borit 
at  Ilarnel.  Lorraine,  in  1579,  died  in  l(>4(i.  Belong- 
ing to  one  of  the  oldest  French  fainili(\s.  he  came  at; 
the  age  of  "JO  1(1  the  I'reni'li  court,  where  li(>  g:iined 
the  favor  of  Henry  1\'.  .\fter  the  nuirder  of  the 
king  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  .'^wiss  Guards. 
In  I(j2'J  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  marshal  of 
France,  and  look  the  pass  of  Suza  by  storm  in  1(>29. 
He  became  an  ol)ject  of  suspicion  and  dislike  to 
Richelieu,  who  caused  him  to  lie  cast  into  the  V'lMS- 
tile  in  1631.  where  he  remained  twelve  years.  His 
memoirs,  written  in  the  Hast  lie,  are  rendered 
interesting  by  their  spirited  style. 


B  A  S  T  —  B  A  T  A  T  A  S 


219 


BAST  (or  PiiLCEUM),  the  inner  bark  of  the  stems 
of  exogenous  i)lants  or  trees.  In  the  latter  case  it 
is  readily  distinguished  from  the  wood  and  the  true 
bark,  as  it  lies  between  the  two.     Flax.  hem|)  and 

i'ute  are  made  from  the  Ijast  of  certain  [)hinls. 
{opes,  mats  and  even  shoes  are  made  from  the 
inner  bark  of  trees.  The  linden-tree  furnishes  the 
bast  for  the  manufacture  of  the  last  three  articles 
mentioned. 

K.VSTAKDY,  another  name  for  illegitimacy.  The 
laws  of  the  several  States  with  regard  to  bastardy 
are  all  founded  upon  and  in  most  cases  similar  to 
those  of  the  Krigiish  law,  fully  set  forth  in  Brit- 
annica.  \o\.  Ill,"  pp.  -IL'ti-iiS. 

KASTAIvDY,  l>i;tL.\K.AT0R  op,  a  suit  which  may 
be  instituted  in  the  Scotch  court  of  sessions  for  the 
purpose  of  having  it  declared  that  the  lands  or 
other  property  belonging  to  a  deceased  bastard, 
belong  to  a  donatory,  in  virtue  of  the  gift  from  the 
crown. 

r.ASTIAX,  Adoi.f,  German  traveler  and  anthro- 
pologist.born  at  Bremen. .June  "Jli.lS^ti.  He  pursued 
his  studies  at  Berlin.  Heidelberg.  I'rai,'ue.  .leiia  and 
A\'iirzburg.  In  1851  lie  sailed  to  Australia  as  ship's 
doctor,  after  which  he  visited  Xorlh  and  South 
America,  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa,  collecting,  in 
the  mean  time,  a  wonderful  store  of  informa- 
tion concerning  the  history  of  man.  He  published 
thirty  works,  among  which  are  :  IMr  Mi'nscit  in  der 
Gexchichle,  Die  VUlkn-  dcs  dntliclien  Asien,  Religions- 
plilloaophifche  Probteme,  and  Der  Fflische  an  der 
Ki'tKle  (Guineas. 

BASTIAN,  Hexry  Ch.\ri.tox,  English  physiolo- 
gist, born  at  Truro,  Cornwall,  in  l.S,37.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Falmouth  and  the  University  College  in 
London,  where  he  became  successively  professor  of 
pathological  anatomy,  hospital  surgeon  and  profes- 
sor of  clinical  medicine.  He  is  a  champion  of  the 
spontaneous  generation  theory.  Among  his  works 
ar.e  :  Modes  of  Origin  of  J.onent  Organisms,  Beginnings 
of  Life,  Evolution,  and  The  Brain  as  an  Organ  of 
Min.l. 

BASTIDK,  .Tti.Es,  a  French  journalist  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  Paris  in  1800.  He  was  minister  of 
foreign  afTairs  in  184S,  and  member  of  the  constit- 
uent assembly.  In  l.Hiil  he  became  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  French  Carbonari  ;  in  1832  was 
condemned  to  death.  Imt  escaped  to  London,  was 
pardoned  in  1.S34,  and  returned  to  Paris.  In  1,S47 
he  founded  the  Renie  Xnliondle.  During  the  revolu- 
tion of  1.S4S  he  was  minister  of  foreign  afTairs. 

BASTIEX-LEPAGE,  .Files,  a  French  painter 
born  at  Uamvillers  in  1850,  died  in  18S4.  Cabanel 
was  his  instructor.  He  painted  In  Spring,  Tlie  First 
Cmiiiniiiiiiin,  The  Beggar,  and  Joiiii  of  Are  Listening  to 
the  ]'(iiees.     He  was  a  line  iiortrait  painter. 

B.VSTIXAIX.),  a  name  given  to  the  punishment 
in  use  over  the  whole  East,  which  consists  in  blows 
with  a  stick,  genenilly  upon  the  soles  of  the  feet, 
but  sometimes  upon  the  back. 

BASTIOX  (formerly  called  bulwark) :  in  fortifica- 
tion, itn  earthwork  or  projecting  lower,  built  usually 
at  the  corner  of  a  wall  surrounding  a  city.  A  bas- 
tion is  generally  five-sided  ;  the  Iv.o  side's  farthest 
from  the  city-wall  are  called  the  •'Hanks:"  the  two 
which  unite  them  with  the  city-wall  ^irecallpd"faces," 
and  the  tilth. wall  is  thf  "fior^jc  ;"  this  con,,ects  the 
two  face-walls  and  joins  the  curtain-walls.  Some 
bastions  are  hollow,  but  military  engineers  consider 
solid  ones  best  for  defelise.  The  top  of  the  bastion 
is  built  sntliciently  strong  to  support  lieavy  guns. 
Detached  bastions  are  sometimes  built  opposite  the 
chief  angh's  of  a  place,  and  smaller  bastions  are 
behind  them  within  tin-  walls. 

.B.VSUToL.VMi,  a  British  crown  protectorate  in 
South  -Vfiica.  adjninini:  (';ipi-  Cnlony  ou  the  north- 


east.  Area,  10,29.3  square  miles.   Population  in  1888 
(estimated),  l.SO.OOd.    (  apital,  Maseru,  with  a popu 
lation  of  1)1)0.    The  Basutos  raise  immense  herds  of 
cattle.     White  or  European  settlements  are  pro- 
hibited. 

The  product  ions  are  wool,  wheat,  mealies,  and  Kaf- 
fir corn.  There  are  indications  of  iron  and  coppei 
and  coal  has  been  found  and  is  used  in  some  parts, 
two  mines  being  actively  worked  for  local  supply. 

Basutoland  was  annexed  to  the  Cape  in  August, 
1871,  but  it  was  placed  directly  under  the  authority 
of  the  Crown  from  .March  13.  1884. 

The  territory  is  now  governed  by  a  resident 
commissioner  under  the  direction  of  the  high 
commissioner  for  South  Africa,  the  latter  possess- 
ing the  legislative  authority,  which  isexercised  by 
proclamation. 

In  1890  there  were  100  schools,  chiefly  missionary, 
with  5,042  scholars,  the  schools  receiving  a  govern- 
ment grant  of  $23,170.  There  are  no  navigable 
water-ways,  but  the  roads  are  good,  the  postaj 
approaches  being  through  Cape  Colonv  and  the 
Orange  Free  State.  The  revenue  in  l^ssrwas  $18*5.- 
050;  expenditures, .'fl74,oi;0;  exports,  about  if500,000. 

BASUTUS,  a  South  African  race  of  the  great 
Bantu  stock  and  allied  to  the  Bechuanas.  These 
people  belong  to  the  same  stock  as  the  Kaffirs,  but 
are  superior  to  them  in  intelligence  and  inferior 
in  bodily  development  and  warlike  energy.  The 
political  nation  of  Basutos  originated  about  1800. 
Their  second  king  was  Moshesli,  who  did  considera- 
ble for  his  people.  He  fought  the  English  and 
Boers  for  forty  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
(1800)  the  English  were  victorious.  I'ntil  1884  the 
English  had  trouble  with  the  newly-acquired  terri- 
tory, but  all  difficulties  were  then  settled  by  its 
becoming  an  appendage  of  the  British  Crown. 

BASYLE,  a  name  forn)erly  given  to  a  simple  and 
compound  substance,  which'can  unite  with  oxygen 
to  produce  a  base.  Thus  all  the  metals  are  exam- 
ples of  basyles,  and  aniinonium,  ethylemethyle. 
etc.,  represent  compound  basylijs.  The  term  now 
in  use  is  radical,  or  compound  i^adical. 

BAT,  in  military  matters,  originally  the  name  of 
a  kind  of  pack-saddle,  and  so  a  bat-horse  was  a 
baggage-horse  bearing  a  bat  or  pack. 

BATAXGAS,  a  seaport  town  of  the  Philippines 
island  of  Luzon  and  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name.  Lat.  13°  45'  X..  long.  121°  5'  E.,  50  miles 
south  from  JIanilla,  founded  in  1581.  It  is  well 
built,  b.as  an  elegant  appearance,  is  finely  situated 
on  an  extensive  hay,  which  opens  into  the  Strait  of 
Jlindoro.  Considerable  advantage  is  taken  of  its 
facilities  for  commerce.  Population  of  town  and 
district,  17.000. 

BATAKDEAX'',  a  strong  wall  of  masonry  built 
across  the  outer  ditch  of  a  fortress  to  sustain  the 
pressure  of  water  when  one  jiart  of  the  ditch  is  drv 
and  the  rest  is  wet.  It  is  built  up  to  an  angle  at 
the  top.  and  is  armed  with  spikes  to  prevent  the 
enemy  from  crossing,  and  sometimes  a  stone  tower 
is  provided  to  strengtheti  the  defense.  There  is  a 
sluice-gate  to  regulate  the  admission  of  water. 

BATAT.VS.  or  Swei;t  Pot.vto,  a  perennial  jilant 
with  long  creeping  stems,  heart-shaped  leaves  on 
long  stalks,  and  variously  lobed  large  jiurple  flow- 
ers nuich  resembling  those  of  the  best  known 
species  of  ('onrolniliiH,  and  very  long  oblonit  acu- 
minated tubers.  It  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies, 
but  is  now  cultivated  in  all  tropical  and  sub-tropi- 
cal  countries  for  its  tubers,  which  ari>  highly  es- 
teemed as  an  article  of  food,  eaten  either  roasted  or 
boiled.  They  are  sweet,  wholesome  and  initritious, 
Imt  somewhat  laxative.  It  is  extensively  culti- 
vated in  the  States  borderingon  the  Atlantic  as  far 
north  as  middle  Xew  Jersey,  where  it  is  of  superior 


220 


B  A  T  A  V  I  —  B  A  T  N  -  E  L  -  II  A  G  A  R 


quality.  The  plant  grows  on  sandy  soils  in  Georgia 
and  Carolina. 

Ij.\TAVI  (sometimes  written  Vaiavi),  German 
people  who  anciently  lived  in  a  part  of  Holland,  on 
or  near  the  island  Batavia,  which  lies  between  a 
branch  of  the  Rhine,  the  Waal  River,  and  .Meuse 
River.  They  were  subjects  of  Rome,  having  been 
conquered  by  Germanieus,  but  were  allowed  many 
privileges.  They  were  exempt  from  taxation,  but 
were  obliged  tu  furnish  soldiers  for  the  Roman  wars. 

BATAN'IA,  the  island  inhabited  by  the  Eatavi. 
Batavian  Repulilic  was  tlie  name  given  the  Nether- 
lands May  16, 17!I5,  and  by  this  they  were  called  till 
June  5,  1S06,  wlien  they  were  made  into  the  king- 
dom of  Holland,  under  Louis  Bonaparte. 

BATAYIA,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Illinois, 
pleasantly  situated  on  Fox  River,  about  seven 
miles  north  of  Aurora.  It  contains  a  private  asy- 
lum for  the  insane,  known  as  Bellevue  Place,  and 
extensive  manufactories  of  machinery,  wiudmills 
and  paper. 

BATAYIA,  a  town  of  western  New  York,  on  the 
Tonawanda  Creek.  It  has  a  State  institution  for  the 
blind,  and  manufactories  of  plows,  sashes  and 
blinds,  and  agricultural  implements. 

BATCHIAX,  or  Batj.^x,  an  island  of  the  Dutch 
East  Indies  in  the  ]Molucca  or  Spice  Islands  group. 
Its  area  is  about  900  square  miles;  the  country  is 
mountainous  and  fertile.  Among  the  productions 
are  gold,  copper,  rice  and  cloves. 

BATENBURG,  one  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the 
province  of  Gelderland,  situated  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Maese,  nine  miles  west  of  Nymegen.  It  is 
worthy  of  notice  only  on  account  of  its  association 
with  the  Romans,  whose  Oppidinn  Bataroi-init.it  was. 

BATES,  Edward,  born  in  Belmont,  Ya.,  Sept.  4, 
1793,  died  in  St.  Louis,  IMo.,  :March  25,  ]8()9.  After 
receiving  his  education  he  intended  to  go  to  sea, 
but  was  jirevented.  He  served  in  the  Yirginia 
militia  in  181.?  and  then  went  to  Missouri,  where  he 
practiced  law.  He  was  made  prosecuting  attor- 
ney for  the  St.  Louis  circuit,  and  then  attorney- 
general  of  Missouri.  In  1822  he  was  sent  to  the 
legislature.  In  1850,  after  having  devoted  about 
-twenty-live  years  to  the  profession  of  law,  he 
was  offered  the  position  of  secretary  of  war  by 
President  Fillmore,  but  declined.  At  the  National 
Republican  convention  where  Lincoln  was  nomi- 
nated for  the  presidency,  Mr.  Bates'  name  re- 
ceived many  votes.  After  ^Mr.  Lincoln's  election 
he  chose  Mr.  Bates  for  attorney-general. 

BATES,  .losHiA,  born  at  Weymouth,  Mass.,  in 
178S,  died  at  London,  Sept.  24,  1804.  He  early 
showed  great  business  aptitude,  and  at  fifteen  en- 
tered the  count  ing-h(iusi>  of  William  Gray  &  Son, 
of  Boston.  In  IS12,  having  been  unsuccessful  in  a 
Vnisiness  venture  with  .Mr.  Beckford,  he  returned  to 
his  old  firm  and  was  sent  by  tlieui  toF^urojie,  where 
he  formed  ac(|uaintances  in  the  foremost  business 
houses.  In  1828  .John  liaring  and  himself  were 
taken  into  the  firm  of  Baring  Brothers  &  Co. 
When  ditlicullies  arose  Iietween  the  United  Stales 
and  Kngland  with  reference  to  the  war  of  1812, 
]\Ir.  Piales  was  chosen  umpire  (1854),  and  his  deci- 
sif>ns  gave  entire  satisfaction.  .Vll  hough  mucli  of 
his  life  was  spent  in  England,  yet  he  kept  a  kindly 
feeling  for  his  own  country,  atui  in  1854  he  gave 
$50,000  to  the  city  of  Boston  to  provide  for  a  pulilic 
lilirary.  .Afterwards  he  presented  the  li!>rary  with 
80,0110  vohunes. 

r..\TKS,  Samiei,  Pb.n.nmman,  born  at  Mcndon, 
Mass.,  .Ian.  29,  1827.  He  graduated  at  Brown  I'ni- 
versily.and  tlien  spent  several  years  in  teaching  in 
Massacluisetts.  His  lecture-i  to  teachers  occa- 
sioned the  founding  of  llir  lirst  normal  schools  in 
that  section  of  the  State.     In  1857  he  was  called  to 


Pennsylvania  as  superintendent  of  schools  in 
Crawford  county.  In  1860  he  became  deputy  state 
superintendent  of  schools.  His  writings  are 
mostly  on  educational  subjects.  He  has  published 
the  Battle  of  (jftty^hiirg,  Battle  of  ChanceUo7-svilh'  and 
other  historical  works. 

BATESYILLE,  a  prosperous  educational  tcnvn  of 
Arkansas,  county-seat  of  Independence  county, 
pleasantly  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  White 
River,  about  ninety  miles  north  of  Little  Rock.  It 
contains  several  liouring  mills  and  woolen  mills, 
and  is  the  seat  of  Arkansas  College,  Batesville 
Academy,  and  Soulesbury  Institute. 

BATH,  the  county-seat  of  Steubeii  county, 
N.  Y.,  situated  at  a  railroad  junction.  It  has  a 
court-house,  several  churches,  an  orphan  asylum, 
two  newspapers  and  the  New  York  State  Soldiers" 
Home.   Population  in  1890:  village, 3,261;  town.  7,881. 

BATH,  a  flourishing  city  of  Maine,  and  county-seat 
of  Sagadahoc  county  ;  an  important  railway  center, 
situated  on  the  Jvennebec  river  12  miles  from  its 
mouth.  One  of  its  chief  industries  is  ship-building. 
See  Brit.,  Yol.  Ill,  p.  434.  Population  in  1890,  8,723. 

BATHOS,  a  term  employed  by  critics  to  desig- 
nate a  ludicrous  descent  from  a  lofty  thought  to  n 
mean  one,  or  sinking  below  the  ordinary  level  o( 
thought  in  a  ridiculous  effort  to  aspire.  It  is  of  the 
essence  of  bathos  thai  he  who  is  guilty  of  it  should 
be  unconscious  of  his  fall,  and  while  groveling  ori 
the  earth  should  imagine  he  is  still  cleaving  the 
heavens, 

BATH  STONE,  a  building  stone  extensively  used 
in  England  on  account  of  its  beauty.  It  isobtaineii 
from  the  quarries  in  the  Lower  Oolite  in  Wiltshire, 
and  Somersetshire.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
neighborliood  of  several  of  the  quarries  to  Bath. 

BATHYBirS,  a  name  given  by  Huxley  to  the 
tenacious,  slimy  masses  of  so-called  animal  matter 
found  at  certain  jilaces  along  the  sea-l)Ottom, 
usually  at  a  great  depth.  The  lutme  is  from  two 
Greek  words  meaning  "  deep  "  and  "  life,"  yet  it  is  a 
matter  of  much  scientific  doubt  whether  Bathy- 
bius  is  a  living  organism. 

BATHY:METRY,  the  art  of  measuring  depths  at 
sea.  The  greatest  depth  yet  found  in  the  ocean  is 
4,575  fatlionis. 

BATKiNOLLES,  a  thriving  town  northeast  of 
Paris,  France,  of  wliich  city  it  forms  a  suburb. 
Population,  43,320. 

BATISTE,  a  tine  texture  of  cotton  thought  to 
have  derived  its  name  either  from  its  original 
maker,  Haptiste,  or  from  its  use  in  drying  the  fore- 
heads of  children  after  baptism. 

B.VTLK'i',  a  maiuifacturing  town  of  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire.  It  has  50  mills  and  facti>ries, 
where  are  maniifactureil  different  kinds  of  heavy 
woolen  cloth,  such  as  army  cloth,  druggets,  etc. 
The  city  has  a  town-hall,  over  30  churches,  a  chamber 
of  commerce,  a  mechanics'  institute  and  a  market 
place. 

BAT  :\rALTILEA,  a  fish  of  the  Atlantic,  remark- 
able for  its  grotesipie  shape.  Its  scientific  name  ia 
Matlli:r<i  rtujx'rtllio. 

li.VTM.VX,  the  soldier  groom  of  a  mounted  officer. 
In  the  British  army  ollicers  are  allowed  a  body 
servant  as  well  as  a  groom  for  their  horse.  During 
active  service  the  batman  takes  his  jilace  in  the 
ranks.     See  Bat. 

HATN-F,i:-IIAGAR,  a  stony  district,  along  the 
Nile,  in  latit  ude  21"^— 22^  north,aiul  loni,'ilude  .■10'^— 
40°.  .Sl°  1(1' cast.  The  -Nile  in  the  upper  jHirtion  of 
the  district  is  often  forced  by  the  approaching 
rocks  into  a  very  narrow  chaiuiel,  and  ils  naviga- 
tion is  frei|Uently  interrupted  by  small  islands, 
rocks  and  cataracts.  The  district  is  jieopled  by 
Arabs. 


B  A  T  0  N  —  li  A  T  T  L  E 


221 


BATON,  tlie  name  of  a  short  staff,  presented  by 
the  sovereign  to  each  (ield-inarshal  as  a  symbol  of 
his  newly-bestowed  authority.  It  is  also  the  name 
of  a  long  staff  carried  by  the  drum-major  of  an  in- 
fantry regiment. 

BATON  KOL'GE,  a  city  of  Louisiana,  capital  of 
the  8tate,  and  of  East  Baton  Rouge  parish  (county), 
is  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi  Kiver,  130 
miles  aliove  New  Orleans.  From  lS47to  IWU  it  was 
the  i?late  cai)iial,  when  it  gave  place  to  New  Or- 
leans, and  again  has  been  the  Slate  capital  since 
ISH'J.  The  situation  is  on  a  bluff  about  2b  feet 
above  the  highest  water-mark,  and  affords  a  fine 
view  of  the  river  and  surrounding  country.  The 
district  is  exceedingly  fertile,  yielding  abundant 
crops  of  cotton,  sugar,  Indian  corn,  sweet  potatoes, 
etc.  Several  weekly  newspapers  and  one  tri- 
weekly are  published  liere.  It  has  a  court-house, 
State  penilenliary,  national  arsenal  and  barracks, 
military  liDspilal,  asylums  for  the  deaf  and  dumb 
and  blind,  and  a  State  University.  On  the  otli  of 
August.  ISiiL',  Gen.  Breckinridge  attacked  the  Union 
army  here  and  was  repulsed.  The  Union  Gen. 
AVilliams  defending  the  city  was  killed  in  the  ac- 
tion. Population  in  1870,  «,408;  in  1880,  7,197;  in 
181KI.  10,:W7.     See  Kritanuica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  442. 

BATON-SINISTER,  an  heraldic  indication  of 
illegitimacy;  a  bar  laid  diagonally  over  the  family 
arms,  o'l  a  shield  from  sinister  to  dexter.  The 
terms  ■' bar-sinister"  or  "  bastard-bar'' are  errone- 
ouslv  I'.sed  fur  "  baton-sinister." 

BATRACIIO.AIYO.MAOIIIA,  The  Batik  of  the 
Fi-oiiii  (iiiil  .!//<•.,  a  Greek  mock-heroic  poem  errone- 
ously ascribed  to  Homer,  with  whose  work  it  has 
been  generally  printed.  Pigres  of  Caria.  who  lived 
in  the  times  of  the  Persian  wars,  was  named  among 
the  ancients  as  its  author.  It  is  a  parody  on  the 
Ilioil,  in  which  the  military  preparations  and  con- 
tests of  beasts,  with  single  combats,  intervention  of 
the  gods,  and  other  Homeric  circumstances,  are 
described  with  much  humor. 

BATSHIAX,  one  of  the  Moluccas,  lying  south- 
west of  Gilolo.  It  belongs  to  the  Dutch,  who  in 
llUO  took  it  from  Spain,  or  rather  from  Portugal, 
then  a  portion  of  the  Spanish  monarchy.  Its  area 
is  '.KX)  sciuare  miles.  It  is  almost  intersected  by  the 
equator,  being  only  35'  south,  with  a  longitude  of 
127^  35'  east.  It  produces  large  sago  and  cocoa 
palms,  rice  and  the  best  cloves  in  the  Moluccas. 
Chief  town  Hatshlan,  near  the  center  of  the  island. 
Population,  1,110. 

B.VTT.V,  an  allowance  to  the  British  army  in 
India  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  pay  of  officers. 
The  pay  is  fixed,  but  the  batta  varies  according  to 
the  part  of  the  country  in  which  the  troops  are 
placed,  and  also  depends  upon  the  circumstances 
of  their  being  in  the  field  or  in  cantonments.  If  in 
the  tield,  or  more  than  200  miles  from  the  presiden- 
tial government, the  oflicers  receive  full  batta;  if  in 
garrisiiu  within  that  distance,  half  batta. 

B.VTT.\SZEK.  a  market  town  of  Hungary, county 
Tolna.oii  the  west  of  the  Danube.     Poi>ulation.C.t)42. 

B.VTTEN.  l.AV  or  L.\tiii;,  the  swing  utensil  of  a 
loom  by  which  the  welt  or  woof  is  struck  home,  and 
in  which  the  shuttle  runs. 

B.VTTKNS,  sawn  timber  of-smaller  dimensions 
than  the  kind  called  planks.  They  are  usually 
from  12  to  14  feet  long,  seven  inches  broad,  and  2'.> 
inches  thick.  Cut  into  two  boards  (l'-4  inch  thick)', 
they  are  used  for  (looring;  cut  into  three  boards, 
thny  are  put  on  roufs  below  slates;  in  narrower 
pieces  they  are  put  upright  on  walls  for  fixing  the 
laths  for  plastering. 

B.VTTER.  a  terra  u.se<l  in  architecture  with 
reference  to  a  wall  which  incliin's  away  from  the 
perpendicular  as  it  rises  from  the  ground. 


B.VTTERSEA,  a  southwest  suburb  ot  London, 
situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Thames.  It  is 
partly  laid  out  in  market-gardens,  and  has  many 
manufactories.  The  fiats  called  Battersea  Fields, 
once  famed  as  a  rich  botanical  station,  are  now 
formed  into  a  public  park.  Adjacent  to  the  park 
the  Thames  is  crossed  by  Battersea  bridge,  Albert 
bridge.  Chelsea  bridge  and  a  railroad  bridge. 

BATTHYANYI.  Loiis.  Coixt, a  Hungarian  pa- 
triot, born  in  1800  at  Presburg.  Appointed  to  the 
presidency  of  the  ministry  in  1848.  he  favored  a 
liberal  policy,  and  at  the  end  of  six  months  had  to 
resign.  When  his  friends  were  defeated  in  bailie 
by  the  Anstrians  he  was  court-martialed  and  un- 
justly condemned  to  death.  He  was  shot  Oct.  6, 
1849. 

BATTLE-AXE.  a  weapon  much  employed  by  the 
early  northern  nations,  Celtic  and  Scandinavian, 
and  rei|uiring  great  strength  in  its  use.  It  could 
be  held  with  one  hand  or  with  buth  hands.  When 
held  with  one  hand  it  could  be  wielded  ef|ually  by 
horse  and  foot;  but  if  held  by  both  hands  it  could 
be  wielded  by  foot  soldiers  only.  The  battle-axe 
had  a  longer  handle  and  a  broader,  stronger,  and 
sharper  blade  than  the  common  axe.  See  Brit- 
annica,  A'ol.  II,  p.  555. 

BATTLE  CREEK,  a  flourishing  city  in  Calhoun 
county.  Michigan,  on  the  Kalamazoo  River,  at  the 
mouth  of  Battle  Creek,  and  on  the  Michigan  Cen- 
tral and  llie  Chicago  &  Lake  Huron  Railroad  at  the 
point  of  their  crossing.  It  is  45  miles  southwest  of 
Lansing,  the  State  capital,  121  miles  west  of  Detroit, 
and  103  miles  east-northeast  of  Chicago.  Battle 
Creek  affords  great  water-power,  which  has  helped 
to  build  up  the  maiuifactnriiig  interests.  Here 
are  manufactories  of  thrashing  inachines,  hoes,  car- 
riages, and  furniture,  knitting  mills,  and  several 
flour  mills  and  iron  foundries.  The  city  is  well  sup- 
plied with  churches,  has  one  high  school  and  an 
Advent  college.  The  Potter  House  (hotel  (is  a  fine 
building,  arid  the  public  school  building  cost  $80,- 
000.     Population  in  1880,  7.063;  in  1890.  13.0SH). 

BATTLE  J  lOOR,  or  B.vttt.edore  (probably  from 
the  Spanish,  Imlkh'r,  a  beater),  the  name  of  an  in- 
strument shaped  like  a  snuiU  racket,  and  used  in 
E laying  bat tledoor  and  shuttlecock.  This  game  has 
een  a  favorite  one  in  Europe  since  the  fourteenth 
century. 

BATTLEFOED.  a  Canadian  town  in  Saskatche- 
wan on  the  river  of  the  latter  name,  at  its  junction 
with  Battle  River.  This  place  was  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  Northwest  Territory. 

BATTLEMENT,  a  notched  or  indented  parapet 
used  in  fortification.  The  rising  parts  are  called 
cops  or  merlons,  the  spaces  by  which  they  are  sepa- 
rated, crenels,  eml)rasures,  and  sometimes  loops 
The  object  of  the  device  is  to  enable  the  soldier  to 
shelter  himself  behind  the  merlon  while  he  shoots 
through  the  emlirasure.  The  bas-reliefs  of  Nineveh 
and  the  Egy])tian  paintings  testify  to  its  anti(|nity 

BATTLE-PIECES,  paintings  which  represent 
military  conflicts.  The  Balth  of  the  AmfUoim,  by 
Rubens,  and  BattleK  of  Alexander  (he  Great  are  fine 
specimens. 

B.VTTL?;.  W.vcEi!  OF.  in  ancient  English  law,  a 
kind  of  trial  for  the  decision  of  controversy,  in  which 
the  .accused  threw  down  his  glove  and  demanded 
to  prove  his  guilt  or  innocence  by  a  fight  with  his 
accuser,  the  weaiwns  chosen  being  staves  or  wands. 
If  the  prosecutor  accepted  the  challenge  he  jiicked 
up  the  glove  and  the  fight  took  place  before  the 
court  of  law,  continuing  till  the  stars  came  out  at 
night, or  till  one  of  the  combatants  was  killed.  The 
three  kinds  of  cases  tried  in  this  manner  were:  in 
issues  joined  upon  a  writ  of  right;  in  appeals  of 
felony;    and   court-martial    or    court    of  chivalry 


222 


B  A  T  T  U  E  —  B  A  U  .M  S  T  A  R  K 


trials.  Women  and  infirm  people  could  choose 
champions  and  were  not  themselves  obliged  to  fight. 
William  the  Conqueror  introduced  this  "wager  of 
battle,"  and  it  was  only  in  1818  that  the  barbarous 
law  was  repealed. 

BATTUE  (battre,  the  French  word,  to  beat),  a 
method  of  killing  game  where  a  large  number  of 
hunters  get  together  and  shoot  hares,  rabbits  or 
pheasants  as  they  are  driven  out  of  the  woods  by 
men  who  beat  the  bushes.  In  the  Highlands  deer 
are  sometimes  hunted  in  this  way. 

BATTJRIN,  a  town  of  Russia.  It  was  founded  by 
Stephen  Bathory,  king  of  Poland,  and  was  at  one 
time  a  favorite  residence  of  the  hetmans  of  the 
Cossacks,  of  whom  Mazeppa,  who  in  1708  sold  him- 
self to  the  Swedes,  is  the  most'  notorious.  This 
place,  with  its  once  beautiful  grounds,  is  going  rap- 
idly to  decay. 

BAUDELOCQUE,  Je.\n  Lohls',  an  expert  French 
surgeon,  born  at  Picardy  in  1746,  died  in  1810.  He  was 
appointed  by  Napoleon  as  first  accoucheur  to  attend 
Marie  Louise,  and  he  wrote  Art  des  AccouchmenU. 

BAUDISSIN,  Woi.F  Heixrich  Fkiedrich  K.\rl, 
Count,  a  German  author  and  translator,  born  Jan. 
3,  1789,  died  April  4,  1S78.  He  translated  the  works 
of  various  English  authors,  and  some  of  Moliere's 
comedies.  In  company  with  Tieck  he  translated 
a  number  of  Shakespeare's  works. 

BAUDRILLART,  Henri  Joseph  Leon,  a  French 
political  economist  and  publicist,  born  in  Paris  in 
1821.  He  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  political 
economy  in  the  College  of  France  in  1866,  and  be- 
came general  inspector  of  libraries  in  1870. 

BAUDRY,  Paul,  a  French  painter,  born  at  La 
Roche-sur-Yon  in  1828,  died  in  1886.  He  studied 
at  Paris  and  Rome,  was  for  ten  years  employed  in 
the  decorations  of  the /oyer  of  the  Grand  Opera  in 
Paris,  and  was  elected  member  of  the  Acad(Smie  des 
Beaux-Arts.  Two  of  his  best  works  are  Assassina- 
tion of  Marat  unA.  Punisliinent  of  a  Vestal   Virgin. 

BAUER,  Bru.vo,  a  German  "philosopher  and  bib- 
lical critic,  born  at  Kisenberg,  Sept.  6,  ISOf),  died 
April  18,  1882.  Ho  was  son  of  a  porcebiin-painter, 
and  received  his  education  at  the  University  of 
Berlin,  where  ho  was  made  doctor  of  theology. 
From  this  time  (18:54)  onward  he  devoted  himself  to 
80-called  "scientific  criticism  of  the  Bible."  He  was 
a  rationalist  of  the  extreme  type.  He  hold  the  pro- 
fessorship of  theology  at  Bonn,  but  his  views  were 
80  pronounced  that  he  was  forbidden  to  lecture, 
and  he  therefore  removed  to  Berlin.  He  eventually 
believed  that  tlie  Scriptures  had  no  authority  and 
were  mere  fabrications.  In  his  last  published  work, 
Critique  of  the  Ejimlli:'!  of  St.  Paul,  he  endeavors  to 
prove  the  four  K-ading  ei)istles  to  be  apocryphal. 
Bauer's  frequent  change  of  theological  opinion 
alienated  the  regard  of  his  friends,  besides  bringing 
about  a  com|)lete  ru])ture  between  himself  and  the 
church.  Me  was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  to  the 
earlier  part  of  his  life  belong  the  works:  Criticism 
cf  Strons.'i  s  Life  of  Jesns;  .Journal  iif  Speculatiiv  The- 
ctonji  and  Cntiral  ]-'j-jii}sition  of  the  Religioti  of  the 
Ota  Texiament.  In  1840  he  wrote  Criligue  of  the  Evnn- 
getical  Ifistori/  of  .falin,  and  three  years  later  The 
Question  of  Lihrrtfi  and  My  Chun  Prirate  Affairs,  and 
Chrislianilji  ('nvtiled.  For  a  time  he  devoted  him- 
self to  historical  writing,  publishing  IJistonj  of  Ger- 
many Daring  the  Vreneh  llevoliition  and  the  Reirjn  of 
Artj)o/i  OH,  and  Iftstory  of  the  French  lierohition  Un- 
til the  h'stahlish merit  of  the  Uejiuhlie.  It  is  gener- 
ally adniitled  that  Bauer  is  reckless  in  his  biblical 
criticisms — more  agile  in  detecting  error  than 
truth,  lie  is  spoken  of  as  the  "\'ollaire  of  modern 
Germany." 

BAT  KU,  Caroi.ink,    n   German   actress   liorii  at 
Ilcid.'lbeig,  in  1807,  died  at  Zurich,  Oct.  18,  1S78.  .\t 


the  age  of  fifteen  she  made  her  d^but  on  the  stage  and 
was  a  brilliant  success  in  both  comedy  and  tragedy. 
At  twenty-two  she  married  Prince  Leopold,  after- 
ward king  of  the  Belgians,  but  their  union  was  short 
and  unhappy.  She  returned  to  the  stage  and  in  1844 
married  a  Polish  count.  She  published  two  volumes 
of  theatrical  reminiscences,  and  six  years  after  her 
death  her  PostJiumoixs    Memoirs  were  printed. 

BAUER,  George  Lorenz,  a  German  linguist 
and  theologian,  born  Aug.  11.  1755,  died  Jan.  12, 
1806.  He  occupied  the  chair  of  Oriental  languages 
at  Altdorf  in  1789,  and  in  Heidelberg  in  1805.  Two 
of  his  works  are  Hermeneutica  Sacra  Vcteras  Testa- 
menti  and  Biblische  Tlieologie  des  Neiien  Testaments. 
His  theological  views  were  those  of  a  rationalist. 

BAUER,  Wiliielm,  a  German  soldier  and  in- 
ventor, born  at  Dillingen,  Dec.  23,  1822,  died  June 
18,  1875.  He  made  a  diving  boat,  improved  tor- 
pedoes used  for  the  destruction  of  ships,  and  im- 
proved the  method  of  firing  guns  under  water.  In 
the  Schleswig-Holstein  war  he  served  gallantly  and 
afterwards  fought  in  the  Russian  army. 

BAUERLE,  AnoLPH,  a  German  author  of  com- 
edies and  novels,  born  April  9,  1786,  died  Sept.  19, 
1869.  His  works  are  amusing  delineations  of  life  in 
Vienna.  He  was  the  author  of  Die  moderne  Wirth- 
schaft.  Die  fnl^rli,  Priniadonna,  Hud  Der  Tausendasa. 

BAIIERKFELD,  Edward,  vox,  a  noted  German 
dramatist,  born  at  Vienna,  Jan.  3,  1802.  Among 
his  popular  comedies  are  Die  Belcentnisse,  Burgerlich 
und  Pomantisch  and  Grossjdhrig. 

BAUGE,  a  town  in  the  department  o|  Maine-et- 
Loire,  France,  23  miles  east-northeast  of  Angers. 
The  English,  under  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  were 
defeated  here  in  1402.  The  town  has  manufactories 
of  linens  and  woolens.    Population,  3,000. 

BAUHINIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Legnminosa'.  The  upper  petal  is  somewhat 
remote  from  the  rest ;  the  leaves  are  generally 
divided  into  two  lobes.  The  species  are  natives  of 
the  warmer  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  and  some 
of  them  are  remarkable  for  the  size  and  beauty  of 
their  flowers.  iSIost  of  them  are  twining  plants, 
stretching  from  tree  to  tree  in  the  tropical  forests, 
but  some  are  small  trees,  as  the  mountain  ebony 
of  Jamaica,  so  called  from  the  color  of  its  wood. 
The  inner  bark  of  the  Mallow  climber,  an  East  Indian 
species,  is  employed  in  making  ropes.  The  leaves 
of  vario\is  species  are  used  for  medicinal  purposes. 

B.VUMti.VRTEN.  Michael,  a  German  theologian, 
born  March  25,  1812.  lie  was  made  professor  of 
theology  at  Rostock  in  1850.  He  sulfered  tine  and 
imprisonment  for  publishing  works  denouncing  the 
State  Church  of  Mechlenburg.  He  was  in  favor  of 
disestablishnu'iit,  and  a  member  of  the  Protestant- 
enverein.  He  wrote  Schlcirmacher  as  Theologiati, 
and  an  .Ipostolir  History. 

BAUMG.VRTNEH.  Andreas  vox,  BAUox.an  .\us- 
trian  statesman.  l)orn  Nov.  23.  1793,  died  July  29, 
1865.  He  liad  the  chair  of  i)hysics  at  Vieiuui  in 
1823,  and  in  1851  was  made  .\iistrian  minister  of 
trade  and  public  works,  also  (iresident  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Vienna.  He  wrote  a  book 
called  ^otnrlelire. 

BAUMG.\RT.\ER,  Callus  Jacoii,  a  Swiss  poli- 
tician born,  Oct.  18,M797,  died  July,  1869.  He  be- 
longed to  the  liberal  |iarty.  and  was  one  of  the  re- 
visers of  the  constitution"  of  St.  Gall.  In  1848  he 
founded  "  N'eue  Schweizer  Z(>itung."  One  of  his 
published  works  was  Die  Schieei:  in  iltren  Kiimpfen 
itnil  I'tiHi-  stall nmien  ron  1830  his  1850. 

B.XU.MSTARK,  Anton,  Edwaiu)  and  IvKiNnoi.n, 
a  fan:ily  of  eminent  German  writers,  .\nton,  born 
at  Siiizlieiiii  in  l.'^OO,  occupied,  for  nearly  half  a  cen- 
tury the  chair  of  classical  philology  at  l'"reiliurg, 
where  he  died  in   1876.     His  son   Ucinhold,  born  at 


BAVARIA  —  BAXTERIA-NS 


223 


Freiburg  in  1831,  attracted  much  attention  by  his 
Tlioii'jliln  of  (I  I'roleslant  on  tin-  J'ujic'h  Invilnlinii,  a 
work  which  was  soon  followed  by  liis  joiniiin  the 
lionian  Catholic  Chnreli.  His  numerous  writings 
embrace  many  vahuiljle  liii)s;r:ipliies,  including 
those  of  his  father  and  himself.  Kdward,  brother 
of  Anton,  born  at  Sinzheiin  in  1SU7,  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  political  economy,  and  for  some 
years  taught  that  science  in  the  University  of 
Greifswald  and  in  the  Academy  of  Political  Science 
and  Agriculture  at  Eldena.  He  was  elected  to  the 
national  assembly  after  the  revolution  of  1S48.  He 
advocated  the  union  of  German  interests,  and  was 
a  prominent  supporter  of  Bismarck's  pulicy.  His 
writings  are  nearly  all  u[)on  econcimic  sulijects. 

BAVAKIA,  KiNGOoM  of,  a  crt)wn  slate  of  Ger- 
many. Area,  29,G,'iL'  S(i.  miles.  I'opulatiun  (in  1885), 
5,420,iyy.  Capital,  Munich,  with  a  population  of 
261,981. 

Koyal  families  of  Bavaria,  as  gazetted  .Tan.  1, 
1891  :  King  Otto  William  Luitpold,  born  .\pril  27, 
1848;  succeeded  his  late  brother,  l.,ouis  II,  .March 
13,  1886.  Regent,  Prince  Luitpold,  born  March  12, 
1821,  uncle  of  the  late  and  i)resent  king;  aj)- 
pointed  regent  June  14, 1886;  married  April  15, 1844, 
to  Archduchess  Augusta  of  Austria,  who  died 
April  26, 1864.    Offspring  of  the  union : 

I.  Prince  Ludwig,  born  Jan.  7,  laio:  married"  Feb.  20,  18G8, 
to  Areliduchess  Maria  Tberesa  of  Austria-Este,  of  the  branch 
of  Modena,  born  July  2,  1849,  of  which  marriage  there  are 
Isstie  teu  children;—!.  Prince  Kuiii)recht,  born  May  18,  18(i9. 
2.  Princess  Adelgunda,  born  Oct.  17, 1870.  3.  Princess  Marie, 
born  July  6,  1872.  4.  Prince  Karl,  born  April  1,  1874.  5. 
Prince  Franz,  born  Oct.  10,  iS75.  G.  Princes  Matilda,  born 
Aug. 17,1877.  7.  Prince  Wolfgang,  born  July  2, 1S7'J.  8.  Princess 
Hildegard,  born  March  5,  1881.  9.  Princess  \\'iitrud,  born 
Nov.  10, 18S1.    10.    Princess  Heliutrude,  liorn  March  22,  1880. 

II.  Prince  Leopold,  born  Fob.  9,  l>ili;.  (_'oniniander-in-Chief 
of  tlie  1st  Bavarian  Corps;  nnirriod  .\pril  20,  187;i,  to  Arch- 
duchess Gisclu  of  Austria-Hungary,  eldest  daupliter  of  the 
Emperor-King  Franz  Joseph  I,    Offspring  of  the  union  are:— 

I.  Princess  Elizatieth,  born  Jan.  8,  1874.  2.  Princess  Augusta, 
born  April  28,  ls7o.  3.  Prince  George,  born  April  2, 18S0.  4. 
Prince  Konrad,  born  Nov.  il.  ItKi. 

III.  Theresa,  born  Nov.  12,  1850. 

IV.  Arnulph,  born  July  0,  isSii.  Lient.-General  1st  Division 
In  the  infantry  of  the  Kavarlan  army:  married  April  12, 1882, 
to  Princess  Theresa  of  Liechtenstein.  OfTsprl^ng,  Prince 
Hclnrich,  born  June  21,  1884. 

The  late  Prince  Adalbert,  brother  of  Prince  Luitpold,  mar- 
ried to  Princess  Amelia,  Infanta  of  J^pain,  left  the  following 
issue: — 1.  Prince  Ludwig  Ferdinand,  born  Oct.  22,  1859;  mar- 
ried April  2,  18-a,  to  Maria  della  P:U5,  Infanta  of  dpain;  off- 
spring. Prince  Ferdinand,  born  .May  10,  1881;  Prince  Adal- 
bert, born  JuueS,  188S.  2.  Prime  Alphons.  born  Jan.  21,  1802. 
S.  Princess  Isabella,  born  Aug.  31,  ISIW:  married  April  14, 
1883,  to  Prince  Tommaso  of  Savoy,  Duke  of  t^enoa.  4.  I'riu- 
cess  Klvira,  born  Xov.  22, 1808.    5,    Princess  Clara,  born  Oct. 

II,  1874. 

United  with  the  royal  family  of  liavarla  is  the  branch  lino 
of  the  dukes  in  Bavaria,  formerly  Palatine  I'rinces  of  Zwei- 
briicken-Birkcnfeld.  Tlie  head  of  this  house  is  I'rincc  Karl 
Theodor.  born  .Vug.  9,  l.s.i9,  son  of  the  late  .Maximilian,  I'ukc 
in  Bavaria,  and  nnirried  (1)  Feb.  11, 18<a,  to  Sophia,  Princess 
of  .Sa.iony;  (2)  April  29,1874,  to  Maria  Josepha,  Princess  of 
Braganza. 

The  civil  list,  with  allowances  to  the  members  of 
the  royal  family,  is  at  present  (.Ian.  1891),  5,647,912 
marks,  equivalent  to  !fl,411,978.  ' 

Under  the  constitution  the  crown  is  hereditary 
in  the  male  line,  and  to  the  king  belongs  the  sole 
executive  authority.  The  legislative  functions  are 
e.Kercised  jointly  by  the  king  and  parliament,  con- 
sisting of  an  upper  and  h>\vcr  house,  for  which  see 
Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  450-4.54. 

The  population  of  the  chief  cities  Dec.  1,  1885, 
were  as  follows : 


Munich  (Miinchen). 
Nuremberg  (XQruberg) 

Augsburg. 

Wiirzburg 

Katlsbon  (Regensburgl 
jTQrth 


261,981 

Bamberg 

KaiserslauKjrn 

31..V21 

114,S'.I| 

:!1,I49 

(M.'.Ht', 

Havreuth 

2:).r>.'i9 

.Vl.OlO 

Ilof 

22,2ri7 

3i\.()9:i 

Luilwlgshafen  ou 

S5,4.M 

Khlne 

41,012 

The  total  value  of  the  mining  products  in  1888 
was  reported  at  7,464,148  marks.  The  quantity  of 
beer  manufactured  was  278,000,01)0  gallons,  of 
which  27,000,000  of  gallons  were  exported.  On 
.Tan.  1,  1890,  Bavaria  had  3,348  railways,  of  which 
2,920  belonged  to  the  state.  There  are  three  great 
universities — at  Munich,  Wiirzburg  and  Krlangen. 

The  budget  of  1890-91  amounted  to  $70,072,910. 
The  public  debt  in  1890  (including  railway  debt) 
was  $335,100,695,  about  three-fourths  of  which  was 
for  railways. 

For  religion  of  Bavaria,  see  Relioions  of  the 
Would  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 

BAVARIA,  a  colossal  statue  at  Munich,  bearing 
the  name  of  the  country  of  which  it  is  a  jjersonifica- 
tion.  It  was  erected  by  King  Louis,  the  model 
having  been  executed  by  Schwanthaler.  The  fig- 
ure bears  a  German  aspect.  The  Bavarian  lion, 
the  guardian  of  her  kingdom,  n^poses  at  the  side  of 
the  female  in  a  sitting  attitude.  The  statue  is  65 
feet  higli,  the  pedestal  being  30,  so  that  the  whole 
monument  has  a  height  of  95  feet.  It  was  cast 
from  the  bronze  of  Turkish  and  Norwegian  cannon. 
Internally  it  is  very  remarkable.  Through  the 
back  part  of  the  pedestal  a  door  leads  to  a  stone 
staircase  consisting  of  60  steps.  The  figure  itself  is 
hollow,  and  resembles  a  mine,  with  a  side-passage, 
which  leads  into  the  lion.  A  staircase  of  cast-iron 
of  58  steps  leads  through  the  neck  up  into  the  head, 
where  there  are  two  sofas  and  several  openings  for 
the  enjoyment  of  the  view.  The  head  contains 
standing  room  for  31  persons.  The  figure  consists 
of  seven  pieces,  the  lion  of  five.  The  monument 
was  uncovered  on  Aug.  7,  1850. 

BAVINS,  in  the  pyrotechny  of  warfare,  are  small 
bundles  of  easily  ignited  brush-wood,  from  two  to 
three  feet  in  length;  tliey  are  made  by  ar- 
ranging the  bush  ends  of  the  twigs  all  in  one  di- 
rection, tying  the  other  ends  with  small  cord,  dip- 
ping the  brush  ends  into  a  ketlle  containing  an  in- 
flammable composition,  and  drying  them.  They  are 
employed  among  the  combustible  materials  in  fire- 
ships. 

BAWBF^E,  or  Bahee,  the  popular  designation  of 
a  halfpenny  in  Scotland,  now  dropping  out  of  use. 
The  origin  of  t!:e  term  is  obscure,  but  it  is  most 
])robably  a  corruption  of  ftn.s  biUinii  (French),  ap- 
plicable to  debased  copper  money.'  In  the  jjlural 
form,  tiie  word  is  often  popularly  used  in  Scotland 
to  signify  money  generally.  In  Scottish  song  baw- 
bee IS  synonymous  with  a  girl's  fortune  or  marriage 
portion,  as  Joiiiii's  hawhee. 

BAWR,  DE,  'Ale.vandhine  Sophie  Gooey  dk 
CiiA.MfOK.\Ni),  Baroxess,  a  French  novelist  born  at 
Stuttgart,  in  1777,  died  Jan.  1,  ]8()1.  She  was  the 
wife  of  Saint-Simon,  the  noted  Socialist. 

B.\XTKR.  Robebt  Dudley,  a  sl;itistical  writer, 
born  at  Doncaster,  England,  in  1827,  died  in  1875. 
He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  statistical  and 
other  scientific  societies,  and  a   voluminous  writer. 

BAXTER,  William  EnwAitn,  a  Scotch  'itteraleiir 
and  statesman,  born  at  Dundee  in  1826,  died  in  18!X). 
His  writings  are  chiefly  descriptive  of  his  travels 
in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa  and  America.  He  was  re- 
turned to  parliament  for  the  Montrose  burghs  in 
1855,1868,  and  1874.  He  resigned  his  seat  in  1885. 
He  was  successively  Secretary  to  the  .\dniiralty 
and  Secretary  to  the  Treasury.  He  was  well  known 
for  his  opposition  to  church  establ^hments. 

B.VXTKRIAXS.  a  term  applied  to  those  who  ad- 
hered to  Baxter's  theological  system.  The  tendency 
of  Baxter's  views  was  toward  a  more  liberal  theol- 
ogy, but  they  are  deficient  in  logical  consistency. 
Nevertheless  they  have  been,  ami  still  are,  em- 
braced by  many  pious  people,  especially  among  the 
dissenters,  who  shrink   from  accepting  what    they 


224 


B  A  Y  —  B  A  Y  E  11 


consider  the  hard  conclusions  of  Calvinism  or  the 
latitudinarian  views  of  Arniinianism. 

BAY,  a  name  given  to  a  number  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  resembling  the  Laurel,  Laiinis  nobilis,  which 
is  also  called  sweet  bay.  The  red  bay  of  the  south- 
em  states  of  America  is  Lmirus  Cfiroliniensls.  The 
white  bay  \%  Magnolio  glanca,  and  the  loblolly  bay  is 
Oordonia  Lasianthua,  both  of  North  America.  Bay 
leaves  are  sometimes  used  in  cookery  for  the  flavor. 
Since  early  times  they  have  been  associated  with 
popular  superstitious  usages. 
BAYA,  a  small  East  Indian  bird  of  the  great 

family  of  the  Frijigil- 
lidic,  and  of  a  genus 
to     some    of    which, 
from     their    remark- 
^         able  manner  of  con- 
^?\^   structing  their  nests, 
^         the  name  weaver  liird 
is  often  given.     It  is 
•  yellow,   spotted  with 
brown,     the      tliroat 
black,  the  beak  coni- 
cal and  large.  Its  nest 
is  very   curious,  sus- 
pended from  a  slen- 
der  twig  of    a    lofty 
liranch,  so  that  mon- 
keys,   squirrels     and 
serpents     may     not 
reach  it,  and  rendered 
still   more  secure  by 
its  form,  which  is  very 
much    like  a   bottle; 
'*^^'*-  the     entrance,    how- 

ever, is  from  beneath,  and  not  from  above,  with 
lateral  openings  to  separate  cluimbers,  in  one  of 
whicli  the  female  sits  upon  the  eggs,  while  an- 
other is  occupied  by  the  male,  who  there  pours 
forth  his  song.  The  nest  is  composed  of  fine  fibers 
of  leaves  and  grass.  The  bird  is  easily  tamed,  and 
can  be  trained  to  fetch  and  carry  at  command. 

BAYAMO,  or  S.an  Salv.\dou,  a  town  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  Cuba,  in  a  healthful  and  fertile  region 
on  the  northern  slope  of  t"lie  Sierra  Macstra. 

BAYA\.\,  or  Br.w.v,  a  town  of  India,  formerly  of 
considerable  imjiortance,  liaving  had  in  time  past  a 
fine  fort  and  many  temples  in  the  city  and  near  it. 
Tiiese  are  now  in  ruins.  Bayana  is  50  miles  south- 
west of  Agra  in  the  Rajput  state  of  Bhurtpur. 

B.VYAKl),  .Tames  Asheton,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
July  US,  I7()7,  died  in  Wilmington,  iJol.,  Aug.  (1,  1.S1.5. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  and  tlien  practiced  law 
at  Wilmington.  In  171I7  he  conducted  the  famous 
impeachment  case  of  William  Blount  of  North  Caro- 
lina. When  P.urrand  .Jefferson  were  rival  candi- 
dates in  the  presidential  election  of  1800,  Bayard 
and  Alexander  Hamilton  were  influential  in  the 
election  of  .letl'eraon.  He  sat  in  Congress  from  1793 
tolSI3,  with  liut  one  year's  exception.  He  went  to 
St.  Petersburg  and  aClcrvvard  to  Holland  to  assist 
as  one  of  the  peace  CDniniissinners  in  concluding  the 
war  of  1812,  and  was  therefore  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  treaty  of  Ghent. 

B.VYAHI),  .James  A.siietok,  son  of  the  preceding, 
bori\  at  Wilmington,  Del.,  Nov.  15,  179',),  died  at  the 
same  place,  .June  ]:i,  1880.  He  was  brother  of  Richard 
Henry  I?ayard,  The  two  brothers,  the  father,  .Taa. 
.Vshelon  Bayard,  Sr.,  Thomas  K.  (son  of  .lames  Ashe- 
ton Bayard,  .Ir. ),  and  (invernor  Bassi-tt,  grand- 
father of  the  first  two  mentioned,  occupied  scats  in 
the  United  States  Senate.  The  subj(>ct  of  this 
sketch  studied  and  practiced  law  at  \\ilminglon, 
and  was  United  States  attorney  for  his  Stale  during 
Van  Buren's  presidency.  He  entered  the  Senate  in 
1851,  and  was  successively    re-elected   in  1857  and 


1862.  Mr.  Bayard  was  a  Democrat,  a  believer  in 
State  rights,  an  eminent  lawyer,  and  a  man  pos- 
sessed of  a  high  sense  of  honor. 

BAYARD,  Jean  Fhaxt  ois  Ai.fked,  born  at  Cha- 
roUes,  March  17,  1796,  died  Feb.  19, 1853.  He  wrote  a 
great  number  of  popular  comedies,  two  of  which 
were' ies  Gamins  de  Paris,  and  La  hrine  de  Seize 
Ans. 

BAYARD,  Richard  Henky,  born  at  AVilmington, 
Del.,  179() ;  died  at  Philadelphia,  March,  4,  ISiis.  He 
graduated  at  Princeton,  studied  and  practiced  law 
in  his  native  city,  and  in  1836  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate.  Before  his  term  expired  he 
was  elected  chief  justice  of  Delaware.  He  was  again 
sent  to  Congress,  and  from  1850  to  18.53  he  repre- 
sented his  country  at  Brussels. 

BAYARD,  Thomas  Francis,  the  son  of  James  A., 
and  brother  of  Richard  II.  Bayard,  born  at  "Wil- 
mington, Del.,  Oct.  29,  1S28.  He  received  most  of  his 
education  from  the  Flushing  school,  and  after- 
wards entered  a  mercantile  house  in  New  York.  In 
1848  he  gave  this  up  and  returned  to  his  native  city, 
where  he  studied  and  practiced  law.  He  served  one 
year  as  United  States  district  attorney  for  Dela- 
ware. From  1809  to  1875  and  from  1S81  to  1885  he 
represented  his  State  in  the  United  States  Senate. 
During  the  early  part  of  his  service  his  father  also 
sat  in  the  Senate.  President  Cleveland  selected  ilr. 
Bayard  for  his  Secretary  of  State  in  1885.  i\lr.  Bay- 
ard was  a  member  in  1876-77  of  the  famous  electoral 
commission;  he  was  a  candidate  for  thel'emocratic 
nomination  for  the  presidency  in  1880  and  1884. 

BAYBEIIRY,  the  fruit  of  Lauriis  nohilis,  the  com- 
mon bay  tree ;  also  the  'n'ax-myrtle,  Mi/rica.  cerifera, 
and  its  fruit.  The  latter  produces  a  coating  of  wax 
known  as  bayberry-tallow,  or  myrtle-wax,  some- 
times employed  for  making  candles,  and  much  used 
in  pharmacy.  This  tree  has  active  medicinal  prop- 
erties. It  is  found  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
United  States. 

BAY  CITY,  is  the  capital  of  Bay  county  in  ^Mich- 
igan,  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Saginaw 
Eiver,  five  miles  from  Saginaw  Bay,  78  miles  north- 
northeast  of  Lansing,  the  capital  of  the  State,  and 
108  miles  north-northwest  of  Detroit.  It  is  on  the 
Jackson,  Lansing  &  Saginaw  Railroad,  and  is  the 
terminus  of  the  Detroit  &  Bay  City  and  the  East 
Saginaw  Railroad.  The  city  is  handsomely  laid  out, 
having  wide  and  straight  streets,  crossing  at  right 
angles.  Several  of  the  avenues  are  80  to  100  feet 
wide.  This  city  has  extensive  mills  for  sawing  tim- 
ber, and  luis  a  great  lumber  trade.  Here  also  are 
manufactured  and  exported  great  quantities  of  salt. 
The  city  is  well  and  substantially  built,  tlie  busi- 
ness portion  cliiefly  of  brick.  It  is  connected  with 
West  Bay  t'ity  (formerly  Wenona)  and  Salsburg 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river  by  three  bridges.  One 
of  these  was  built  by  the  ]\Iichigan  (.'entral  Rail- 
road Com|)any  for  its  own  use.  The  Holly  system 
of  water  works  is  used  to  supply  the  city  with  jinre 
water  from  the  Saginaw  Bay.  There  are  about  20 
churches,  good  schools,  a  high  school  and  public 
library.  Here  are  two  national  banks  ami  two 
oth(M-  l)anks.  Bav  City  was  incorporated  in  1865. 
Population  in  18()0,  l",583 ;  in  1870,7,064;  in  ISSO, 
20,693;  in  1890,27,826. 

B.VYl'^.R,  JoiiANN,  born  at  .\ugsl)urg,  (iermany. 
aliout  the  year  1572,  died  in  1660.  He  was  an  earnest 
I'rotestant  pastor,  but  he  Is  now  remembered  for 
the  n(>w  system  which  he  inlrodnced  for  (he  naming 
of  the  stars.  He  pul  ill  shed  rnriininflrid,  whlcli  con- 
tained 51  astronomical  charts.  Tliesi>  were  not  alto- 
gether accurate,  but  he  employed  the  method  of 
naming  tlie  stars  in  a  constellation  after  the  letters 
oflhetireek  alphabet,  those  of  greatest  brilliance 
being  named  in  order  from   the  lirsl   letters.    This 


B  A  V  E  I  X    T  A  PEST  II  Y  —  B  A  Z  A  I  X  K 


225 


method    lias   been    followed   from   his  time  to  the 
present. 

BAYEUX  TAPESTKY  (see  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill, 
p.  -loS  A'ol.  VJII,  p.  1(52),  a  piece  of  pictorial  needle- 
work. 214  feet  long,  20  iiiciies  wide,  containing  the 
figures  of  (>2.5  men,  20(l  horses,  40  .-hips.  lie>iiii's  dogs, 
birds,  etc  It  was  discovered  in  the  catliedral  of  15ay- 
eux  in  17.30,  it  Is  now  preserved  under  glass  in  the 
putilic  library  in  the  Hote-lde  Villeof  the  same  town. 
BAY  ISI-.\.\DS,  a  small  group  in  the  Bay  of 
Honduras,  about  l-W  miles  to  the  southeast  of  Ba- 
lize,  enibracmg  only  25'  of  latitude  and  1'-  15'  of 
longitude.  The  chief  island  is  Euatan,  and  the 
others  of  any  consequence  are  Bonacca,  Utila,  Bur- 
buret.  Helena  and  Morat. 

BAYLEX.  atown  in  the  province  of  .\ndahisia, 
Spain,  situated  22  miles  north-northeast  of  .Jean.  It 
is  celebrated  as  the  place  where  the  ."Spaniards  won 
their  first  and  only  victory  over  the  French  in  .July, 
ISOS.  It  has  ni.iiuifaetories  of  linen,  glass,  bricks, 
tiles,  soap,  etc  Population.  4,y7f> 

BAYLKS.  .J.\MK.s  C,  born  in  Xew  Y'ork  city,  .Tuly 
3,  l-'4o.  He  served  for  a  time  in  t!ie  civil  war,  but 
lU-healtli  obliged  him  to  resign  his  lieutonantV 
commission.  He  turned  his  attention  to  journalism, 
and  was  editor  of  the  Xew  York  "Citizen,"  and  af- 
terwards of  the  Xew  York  "Commercial  Bulletin," 
the  "Iron  Age,"  and  the  "ilelal  Worker."  He  has 
made  a  study  of  metallurgy,  sanitary  topics  and 
the  labor  question  ;  on  these  subjects  he  has  written 
and  lectured. 

BAYl.EY.  .I.vMF.s  RoosEvicr.T,  born  in  Xew  Y'ork 
city,  Aug.  23,  1814,  died  at  Xewark,  X.  .1..  Oct.  3, 
1S77.  He  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Hartford, 
in  18,35.  After  a  year's  study  of  medicine  he  turned 
his  attention  to  theology,  and  was  in  1840  estab- 
lished as  rector  in  Harlem.  Becoming  dissatisfied 
with  certain  Episcopal  doctrines,  he  resigned  his 
charge  and  went  to  Europe.  He  became  i  Roman 
Catholic  and  studied  for  the  priesthood  in  Paris. 
He  was  made  vice-president  and  tlien  president  of 
St.  .John's  College,  Fordham  ;  was  pastor  of  a  church 
on  Staten  Island;  private  secretary  to  Bishop 
Hughes,  and  in  1.853  was  created  first  bishop  of  Xew- 
ark. He  was  an  industrious  laborer  for  the  cause 
of  his  church,  collecting  valuable  information  in 
respect  to  its  early  history ;  traveling  extensively 
ana  visiting  Europe  and  the  Holy  Land;  encourag- 
ing Ilonian  Catholiceducation  and  helping  to  found 
colleges  and  religious  orders.  In  l'*72  he  was  made 
archbishop  of  Baltimore — the  highest  honor  ever 
given  bv  the  Pope  to  an  American  priest.  Arch- 
bishop Bayley  was  a  philanthropic"  man,  an  untir- 
ing worker  and  the  author  of  historical  works  re- 
lating to  the  It'iman  (.'atholic  church. 

B.\YLY',  Liiwis.  bishop  of  Bangor.  Wales,  born  at 
Caermarthen,  died  in  lii32.  His  famous  book,  T/te 
Prijiiir,:  <,i  I'iil'i.  passed  through  liffy-one  editions, 
besides  being  translated  into  several  foreign  lan- 
guages. His  son,  Thomas,  became  a  CathoRc,  and 
wrote  Thi-  En'l  of  Conlrorers'i. 

BAY'LY',  Thom.\s  H.vy.xks,  an  English  song-writet 
and  author,  born  at  Bath,  Oct.  13,  17!t7,  died  April 
22,  1S39.  He  studied  law  and  theology,  but  discov- 
ering his  talents  as  a  ballad  writer,  he  gtiw  up 
these  pursuits  and  went  to  London,  where  he  com- 
posed Th-:  Siil'Hcr'x  Tv<ir.  I'd  Br  n  Ihitt.rjhi,  Oh  Sn, 
Wf  Nff'rr  Mrntion  /fcr,  and  others.  Besides  popu- 
lar songs  he  wrote  tales,  a  novel,  volumes  of  verse, 
and  sr-veral  dramatic  pieces. 

B.WXE,  Pkter,  a  writer  and  editor,  born  at 
Fodd'Tty,  Ross-shire,  Oct.  l!l.  Is30.  He  studied  in 
Aberdeen  and  later  edited  newspapers  in  (jlasgow, 
Edinburgh  and  London.  He  wrote  ('liiintinn  Life 
a'  till  r'n:<,nl  Time.  Lfffnns  from  Mi)  ilasUrs,  Two 
'iT,'at  Englishwomen,  and  I.'v  uf  Lulhi  r. 
5 


BAY'XES,  TitoM.\s  Si'ENXER,  a  versatile  author, 
born  at  Wellington,  ^^ornerset.  March.  24.  1S23.  died 
May  30,  1SS7.  He  pursued  his  studii .-  at  Bristol 
College  and  Edinburgh  University.  Up  assisted 
8ir  William  Hamiltonin  a  translation  of  I'^ni  Unyal 
Lof/ir  and  an  Ks.<iii/  i,,,  thr  Xtir  Anfih/lir  <,f  I.nriical 
Forms.  From  1857  to  l.st)4  he  was  assistant  editor 
of  the  "  Daily  Xews,"  at  the  end  of  which  time  he 
took  the  chair  of  logic,  rhetoic  and  metaidiysics  in 
St.  Andrews  University.  He  was  a  magazine  con- 
friliutor,  and  editor  of  the  ninth  edition  of  the  En- 
cyclop;edia  Britannica. 

BAY  OV  ISLAXDS,  a  large  bay  on  the  western 
coast  of  Xewfoundland,  north  of  St.  George's  Bay, 
inclosing  a  number  of  islands.  The  naii:e  is  also 
given  to  a  settlement  on  the  bay,  on  wlia;  is  called 
the  French  shore.  Herring  fishing  is  the  chief  in- 
dustry, about  30.000  barrels  being  annually  taken. 
Limestone,  marble,  and  quantities  of  gypsum  are 
found  here.  A  large,  deep  and  safe  harbor  near 
the  northern  extremity  of  Xew  Zealand  is  also 
called  Bay  of  Islands.  On  its  southern  side  is  the 
port  and  town  of  Russell,  with  a  United  States 
consul. 

BAYOXXE  (ba-yon)  is  a  rapidly  growing  city  in 
Hudson  county,  X.  J.  The  population  has  doubled 
in  the  last  decade.  It  is  about  ti  miles  southwest 
of  Xew  Y'ork  city,  situated  on  the  Xew  York  and 
Xewark  bays.  'The  former  villages  of  Bergen- 
Point,  Centerville,  Bayonne  and  Saltesville  now 
compose  this  city,  through  which  runs  the  Central 
Railroad  of  Xew  .Jersey.  Bayonne  is  separated 
from  .Jersey  City  by  Jlorris  Canal,  and  from  Staten 
Island  by  the  Kill-von-Kull.  On  the  Kill-von-KuU 
the  Port  Johnson  coal  docks  are  situated,  near 
Bergen  Point.  At  these  docks  several  hundred 
men  are  employed  in  receiving  and  shipping  coal. 
About  .30  to  40  trains  run  daily  to  and  from  Xew 
York.  Here  are  a  dozen  churclies.  five  public 
schools,  also  color-works,  paint-works,  chemical- 
works  and  petroleum  refineries.  Population  in  1880, 
9,372:  in  1800.  IS.OPti. 

BAY"  RUM,  a  fragrant  licpiid  obtained  by  dis- 
tilling the  leaves  of  the  bay-berry  (^fl|rgin  arris), 
a  tree  which  grows  in  the  West  Indies  and  belongs 
to  the  order  ifurtacex. 

BAY'  SALT,  a  name  applied  to  common  salt  pro- 
cured from  sea-water  by  solar  evaporation.  It  is 
priiiciiially  obtained  from  salt-marshes,  which  exist 
along  the  coast  of  France  and  on  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean. 

BAY'  VIEW,  a  thriving  town  of  Wisconsin,  sit- 
uated on  Lake  Michigan,  two  miles  south  of  Mil- 
waukee. It  contains  extensive  iron-works,  and  in 
the  vicinity  are  establishments  for  the  manufact- 
ure of  glass.  A  Roman  Catholic  college  and 
convent  are  located  in  the  adjacent  village  of  St. 
Francis. 

B.XY-AVIXPOW,  a  window  which  projects  out. 
ward,  forming  a  bay  or  recess  in 
a  room.  It  is  sometimes  incor- 
rectly called  a  "bow-window."  A 
bay-window  may  have  three  or 
more  sides,  but  is  always  straight- 
sided. 

BAZAAR,  or  B.vz.vR.  a  Persian 
word  originally  meaning  an  Ori- 
ental market-place,  where  all 
sorts  of  goods  and  also  slaves  are 
exposed  for  sale.  Ispahan,  Tabriz,  Constantinople 
and  C.iiro  have  famous  bazaars.  In  the  United 
States  the  wurd  has  come  to  signify  a  store  or  a  booth 
where  miscellaneous  or  fancy  articles  are  sold, 
usually  for  charitable  purposes. 

B.\Z.\INF,.  FitAsrois  .Xcim.i.K.  a  marshal  of 
France,  born  at  Versailles  in  ISll,  died  in  1888.    He 


BAV-WISDOW. 


226 


BAZALGETTB  — BEALE 


became  a  soldier  in  1831,  and  served  in  Spain, 
Algiers,  the  Crimea  and  Italy.  He  was  with  the 
expedition  to  Mexico  in  1862,  and  was  put  in  com- 
mand of  the  army  in  1863.  He  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Imperial  Guard  in  1869.  He 
commanded  a  corps  near  Metz  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and  on  the  eve  of  the 
retreat  of  August,  1870,  he  took  command  of  the 
main  armies  of  France.  After  the  defeat  at 
Gravelotte  he  retired  again  to  Metz,  where  he 
capitulated,  surrendering  his  entire  force  of  173,- 
000  men.  For  this  he  was  court-martialed  in  1873, 
and  sentenced  to  death,  which  was  commuted  to 
imprisonment  for  twenty  years.  In  1874  he  escaped 
from  the  Isle  Ste.  Marguerite,  and  succeeded  in 
reaching  Madrid.  In  1883  he  published  a  book  in 
justification  of  himself. 

BAZALGETTE,  Sik  Joseph  William,  an  English 
civil  engineer  of  French  descent,  born  in  1819.  He 
won  fame  by  constructing  sewers,  altering  streets, 
and  making  river  embankments.  He  was  engineer- 
in-chief  of  the  metropolitan  board  of  works  in 
London.  He  introduced  a  method  of  working 
underground  in  the  laying  of  water  and  gas  pipes, 
thus  avoiding  the  tearing  up  of  pavements. 

BAZANCOURT,  Cesar  de,  baron,  a  French 
writer,  born  in  1810,  died  Jan.  25,  1865.  Louis 
Philippe  made  him  director  of  the  library  of  Com- 
piegne,  and  under  Napoleon  III  he  held  the  office 
of  historiographer.  He  wrote  histories  of  the 
Crimean,  Italian,  Chinese  and  Cochin-Chinese  wars 
of  Napoleon  III,  besides  a  History  of  Sicily  Under 
the  Norman  Rule. 

BAZAEDJIK,  a  Bulgarian  town  which  holds  an 
Important  fair  in  April.  Tatar  Bazardjik,  a  town 
of  Eastern  Eoumelia,  23  miles  west  of  Philippopolis. 
It  has  warm  baths. 

BAZEILLES,  a  village  of  France  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Meuse  River,  4  miles  southeast  of 
Sedan.  September  1, 1870,  the  day  of  the  battle  of 
Sedan,  it  was  burned  by  the  Bavarians,  but  it  has 
since  been  rebuilt. 

BAZIN,  Anais  de  Rancout,  French  lawyer  and 
historian,  born  at  Paris  in  1797,  died  in  1850.  He 
Trrote  History  of  France  Under  Louis  XIII. 

BAZIN,  Antoine  Pierre  Ernest,  a  French  phy- 
sician, the  descendant  of  a  long  line  of  medical 
practitioners,  was  bom  at  St.  Brice,  Feb.  20,  1807. 
He  has  written  much  on  skin  diseases,  and  in  1847 
became  physician  and  professor  of  dermatology  in 
the  St.  Louis  hospital  of  Paris. 

BAZIN,  Antoine  Pierre  Louis,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  bom  March  26,  1709,  died  in  January, 
1863.  He  was  a  translator  of  many  Chinese  works, 
a  professor  of  the  Chinese  language,  and  author  of 
a  grammar  of  the  Mandarin  dialect. 

BAZLEY,  Sir  Thomas,  Bart.,  an  English  manu- 
facturer and  politician,  born  at  Gilnow,  Lancashire, 
England,  in  1797.  In  1826  he  employed  over  1,000 
persons  at  Manchester  in  the  making  of  fine  cotton 
and  lace  thread.  He  established  free  schools  and 
lectures  for  his  emyloy^s.  He  entered  Parliament 
in  1858,  where  he  was  known  as  a  free-trader  and 
anti-corn-law  man. 

BAZOCHE,  or  Basociie.  When  the  French  par- 
liament began  to  administer  justice,  and  ceased  to 
be  the  grand  council  of  the  king  (about  tlio  four- 
teenth century),  tliose  noblemen  who  formed  tlie 
royal  train  were  called  courtiers,  and  those  wlio  at- 
tended on  the  sittings  of  the  French  parliament 
took  the  name  of  basochians,  or  parliament  clerks. 
The  latter,  in  the  spirit  of  fun,  chose  a  king,  chan- 
cellor, and  other  oflicers  from  their  o^vn  nuw.ber: 
but  Henry  III  would  not  allow  of  a  mock  king,  and 
suppressed  tliat  otiice,  but  exalted  that  of  chancel- 
lor.   This  mock  court  held  meetings  for  the  admin- 


istration of  justice,  circulated  a  kind  of  currencj 
and  had  many  ridiculous  rites  and  ceremonies. 
They  began  the  performance  of  farces,  which  even 
the  king  sometimes  attended.  These  farces  were 
the  beginning  of  French  comedy. 

BEACH,  MosES  Yale,  an  eminent  American  in- 
ventor and  publisher,  born  at  AVallingford,  Conn., 
in  1800,  died  in  1808.  He  was  long  connected  finan- 
cially with  the  New  Y'orlj  "  Sun,"  and  is  regarded 
as  the  originator  of  the  American  one-cent  news- 
paper. He  invented  the  rag-cutting  machine  now 
generally  used  in  the  making  of  paper,  and  was 
much  interested  in  experiments  on  machines  for 
propelling  balloons. 

BEACH  PhV2\l  {Prunus  maritima),a.  straggling 
bush  found  growing  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
United  States.  It  bears  a  red  or  purple  fruit,  which 
is  somewhat  like  the  cultivated  plum,  and  which  is 
eaten  either  fresh  or  preserved. 

BEACON,  any  signal  set  upon  a  height,  but  espe- 
cially the  alarm-fires  at  one  time  used  to  spread 
the  intelligence  of  foreign  invasion  or  other  great 
events.  Fire  signals  were  in  use  in  the  earliest 
times,  and  notices  of  them  are  found  in  the  litera- 
ture of  ancient  Persia.  Palestine  and  Greece.  They 
were  made  by  kindling  a  pile  of  wood  on  the  tops 
of  lofty  mountains,  and  keeping  the  flame  bright  by 
night,  or  having  the  fire  so  covered  as  to  emit  a 
dense  smoke  by  day. 

BEACON,  in  maritime  affairs  a  signal  of  warning 
against  dangers,  or  for  indicating  the  proper  en- 
trance into  a  channel,  harbor  or  river.  In  recent 
times  the  construction  of  floating  beacons  has 
occupied  a  good  deal  of  attention,  as  it  is  thought 
that  in  many  cases  *hey  might  supply  the  place  of 
costly  light-houses. 

BEACONSFIED,  Benjamin  Disraeli,  Earl  op. 
See  Disraeli,  Benjamix,  in  these  Revisions  and 
Additions. 

BEAD,  in  architecture,  a  small  round  molding, 
sometimes  termed  an- astragal.  It  occurs  mainly 
among  the  classical  styles,  and  is  used  in  picture 
frames  and  other  articles  carved  in  wood. 

BEADLE,  an  interior  parish  oflicer  in  England, 
chosen  and  appointed  by  the  vestry.  His  duty  is 
to  attend  the  vestry,  to  give  notice  of  its  meetings 
to  the  parishioners,  to  execute  its  orders,  to  assist 
the  parish  constable,  and  generally  to  do  the  busi- 
ness of  the  vestry  and  of  the  parish  as  their  mes- 
senger or  servant. 

BEADS,  St.  Cuthbert's,  a  title  popularly  given 
to  the  single  joints  of  the  articulated  stems  of  encri- 
nites.  The  central  perforation  permitted  them  to  be 
strung  as  beads,  and  from  the  fancied  resemblance, 
in  some  species,  of  this  perforation  to  a  cross,  they 
were  formerly  used  as  rosaries  and  associated  with 
the  name  of  St.  Cuthbert.  They  are  also  known  as 
entrochites  and  wheelstones. 

BEAGLE,  a  small  variety  of  hound,  sometimes 
used  for  hare-hunting.  It  has  now  been  almost 
wholly  su|)erseded  by  I  lie  harrier,  to  wliich  its  name 
is  sometimes  given.  The  true  lieagle  is  smaller  than 
the  harrier,  not  above  10  or  11  inches  in  height  at 
the  shoulder,  of  stout  and  compact  make,  with 
long.pendiilous  ears.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  ex- 
quisite scent  and  perseverance.  The  beagle  gives 
utterance  to  a  cry  which  has  been  regarded  as  par- 
ticularly  musical.    The    smallest    are    sometimes 

called  I.AI'-DOli  BEAOLES. 

BE.VKFilx,  formerly  the  name  of  a  drinkinjj  cup 
or  bowl,  but  now  applied  to  a  vessel  made  of  very 
thin  glass,  having  a  flat  I>ottoin,  perpendicular 
Eides,  andalip  for  pouring,  and  used  in  laboratories 
for  mailing  chemical  solutions. 

BEALE,  Lionel  Smith,  an  English  physician  and 
physiologist,  born  at  London  in  1828.    His  medical 


B  E  A  M  —  BEAR'S   GREASE 


227 


writings,  includiiifi;  works  on  microscopy,  kidney 
diseases,  urinary  deposits,  the  distril)ution  of  nerves 
to  voluntary  muscle,  and  the  structure  and  growth 
of  the  tissues,  are  important;  and  his  I'lulDjilaiiiii, 
Life  Theories,  Life  and  \'ltal  .Iclion,  and  Principhs 
and  Practice  of  Medicine  in  Slight  Ailments,  are 
standard  works. 

BEA.M,  of  a  ship,  one  of  the  main  timbers  which 
assist  to  support  the  decks.  They  reach  across  from 
side  to  side,  not  only  strengtheninij  the  decks,  but 
also  helping  to  uphold  the  sides  of  the  hull,  being 
themselves  supported  at  the  ends  by  massive 
pieces,  called  knees,  standards  and  clamps. 

BE.\.M  TREK,  White,  a  tree  from  L'O  to  40  feet  in 
height;  it  has  a  straight  erect  trunk,  and  a  round 
or  oval  head.  The  loaves  are  ovate  cut  and  ser- 
rated, white  and  downy  beneath;  the  Howers  in 
large  terminal  corymbs;  the  fruit  scarlet,  and  the 
size  of  a  s?na!l  pea  ;  is  acid  and  astringent,  but  be- 
comes agreeable  by  incipient  decay.  It  is  some- 
times called  service-berry,  and  resembles  it  in 
quality,  although  much  smaller.  Beer  is  made  of 
it  by  fermentation.  The  wood,  very  hard  and  fine- 
grained, is  used  for  cog-wheels.  The  whiteness  of 
the  foliage  makes  the  tree  ornamental  in  planta- 
tions.   It  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

BEAN-CAPER  {Zytjophiilluin  fabago),  a  small 
tree  found  in  the  Levant,  where  its  flower-buds  are 
used  as  a  substitute  for  capers. 

BEAN-FEAST,  the  name  of  an  annual  dinner 
given  by  employers  to  their  employes ;  prob- 
ably so  called  because  of  the  prominence  of  beans 
or  of  a  bean-goose  at  the  repast.  The  name  bean- 
feast was  often  given  also  to  the  bean-king's  festival. 
BEAN  KING'.S  FESTIVAL,  a  social  rite  princi- 
pally observed  in  Franco,  from  which  country  it 
seems  to  have  been  transplanted  to  Germany.  On 
the  evening  of  tlie  Twelfth  Day,  or,  as  the  Germans 
call  it  (in  allusion  to  the  legend  that  the  wise  men 
of  the  East  who  came  to  worship  Christ  were 
three  kings),  Three  Kings'  Day  (Dreikonistag), 
companies  assemble  to  spend  a  few  hours  in  mirth- 
ful relaxation.  A  large  cake  is  baked  with  a  bean 
hidden  somewhere  in  it.  The  cake  is  tlien  divided, 
each  person  present  receiving  a  piece,  and  whoever 
obtains  the  one  with  the  bean  is  king  for  the  year. 
In  this  capiu'ily  he  holds  a  mock-court,  and  receives 
the  homage  of  the  company,  who  also  amuse  them- 
selves with  other  diversions.  The  bean  king,  how- 
ever.is  compelled  to  pay  for  his  dignity  ;  for  he  has 
to  give  an  entertainment  on  the  next  Twelfth 
Night,  that  an  opportunity  may  be  afforded  to 
choose  another  king. 

BEAR-BAITING,  a  barbarous  sport  existing  for- 
merly in  several  countries,  in  which  bears  were 
baited  by  dogs.  It  was  one  of  the  estal)lished 
English  amusements  among  the  lower  classes  and 
the  aristocracy  alike;  Queen  Elizabeth,  according 
to  narration,  herself  witnessed  these  rude  exhibi- 
tions, liear-gnrden  was  the  term  aiiplied  to  any 
place  where  bears  were  kept  and  publicly  baited. 
Until  lately,  a  certain  spot  situated  near  West- 
minster was  known  by  this  name. 

BEARBERKY,  a  name  somewhat  loosely  applied 
to  several  shrubs.  The  red  bearberry  {Arrlduld- 
Tihylos  tnn-urni),  also  called  bear's  grape,  bear's  bil- 
oerry,  and  foxberry,  is  the  "kinriikinic"  of  the 
American  Indian,  and  is  much  used  in  medicine  as  an 
astringent  tonic,  under  the  name  of  ura-ursi.  The 
black  bearberry  {Arctoslnphiilos  iihilno)  is  a  dwarf 
arctic-alpine  trailing  shrub,  witli  black  berries 
which  are  sometimes  eaten.  A  species  of  lihdvinux 
known  as  bearberry,  bearwood,  and  by  the  specific 
designation  jnirKhinnnx,  from  tlie  fondness  of  bears 
for  its  berries,  yields  the  Satcnra  tagrada  bark,  used 
as  a  tonic  aperient. 


BEARD,  Gkoroe  Miller,  a  phvsician,  born  at 
Montville,  Conn.,  May  S.  1,S39,  died  in  New  York, 
Jan.  23,  1!>><3.  He  studied  at  I'hillips'  Andover 
Academy  and  Yale  College.  In  lK(i.5,  after  over  a 
year  of  experience  as  assistant  surgeon  on  the  gun- 
boat Xeir  Luiidoii,  he  settled  in  New  York  and  de- 
voted his  attention  to  nervous  diseases.  Among 
his  works  are:  O^erul  Ehctrizalion,  Stlnndanln  and 
yarcolici<,  Eating  and  Drinking,  Clinical  Researches 
in  Electro-Siirger;/,  Legal  liesp'onsibility  in  Old  Age, 
Hay  Fever,  Phmiology  of  Mind  Heading,  Problems  of 
Insanitii,  and  Inebriety  and  Allied  Nervous  Diseases 
of  Ani-rlra. 

BEARD,  AViLLi.\M  IIoi.nRooK,  an  artist,  born  at 
Painesville,  Ohio,  April  13,  1S25.  He  devoted  him- 
self at  first  to  portrait  painting.  He  visited  Europe, 
where  he  pursued  his  art  studies  for  one  summer. 
Returning,  he  settled  in  New  York  city  and  painted 
pictures  of  animals  which  he  depicts  in  allegorical 
style.  Some  of  his  paintings  are  Kittens  andGuinea 
Pig,  Pears  on  a  Bender,  liuinlng  Calx  and  Dogs,  Voices 
of  the  Xight,  and  ^yho's  Afraid f  A  collection  of  his 
sketches  entitled, //iuHor;';!  ,lH(»m/.s  was  published 
in  1885.  He  had  four  sons,  all  of  whom  are  clever 
artists.  The  best  known  is  Frank,  the  third  son, 
who  was  in  the  employ  of  Harper  it  Brothers  during 
the  war.  He  lectures,  and  at  the  same  time  illus- 
trates his  sul)ject  with  free-hand  sketches.  He  has 
published  a  )iook  entitled.  The  Blackboard  and  the 
Snnddii  School. 

BEARDSTOWN,  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of  Illi- 
nois, situated  on  the  IllinoisRiver,  about  fifty  miles 
west  of  Springfield.  It  has  manufactories  of  ma- 
chinery, iron,  (lour,  woolens,  and  lumber,  and 
the  springs  which  vield  the  noted  "Lithia  Water." 

BEARER  COMPANY,  an  organization  for  tlie 
removal  of  wi)unded  soldiers  from  a  battle-field. 
The  service,  wliich  was  first  introduced  into  the 
army  of  Great  Britain  in  1873,  is  well  equijiped,  and 
forms  a  most  elficient  link  between  the  battalion 
stretcher  bearers  and  tlie  field  hospitals. 

BEAR-LEADER.  In  former  times  bears  were 
led  about  the  streets  muzzled  and  made  to  dance 
or  stand  on  their  hind  legs  for  popular  entertain- 
ment, small  dancing  dogs  being  usually  added  for 
the  sake  of  attractiveness.  Hence  the  phrase  came 
to  be  used  of  a  discreet  person  who  took  charge  of 
a  yoiii'.g  man  of  wealth  on  his  travels. 

BE.V1\-P1T.  a  pit  prepared  for  keeping  bears, 
usually  seen  in  zoological  gardens.  It  is  circular, 
measuring  about  25  feet  in  diameter,  and  20  feet 
deep.  The  sides,  generally  built  with  brick,  the 
bottom  level  and  paved  with  stone,  and  around  are 
vaults  for  the  residence  of  the  bears;  from  the 
center  of  the  pit  rises  a  stout,  tall  pole,  on  which 
are  cross-bars  at  proper  distances,  to  enable  the 
liears  to  climb  to  the  lop.  The  [loles  are  suffi- 
ciently distant  from  the  sides  to  prevent  the  bears 
from  leaping  out.  The  vaulted  receptacles  require 
to  be  cool  and  drv. 

BEAR  RIVER,  a  river  of  the  United  States, 
which  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  empties 
into  Great  Salt  Lake.  Its  total  length  is  about  400 
miles. 

BE.\R  RIVER,  a  port  of  entry  in  Digby  county 
and  township.  Nova  Scotia,  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion ;  it  carries  on  shipping  and  a  considerable 
manufacture  in  lumber  and  leather. 

BEARS  AND  BULLS.    See   Britannica,   Bulls 

ANO  Bk.\RS. 

BEAR'S  GREASE.  Under  this  name  there  were 
sold  prejiarations  for  the  toilet,  represented  to  be 
of  great  efliiiency  in  nourishing  and  promoting  the 
growth  of  hair;  these  so-called  preparations  of 
bear's  grease  being  for  the  most  part  composed  of 
purified  beef-marrow,  hog's  lard,  or  fat  o(  veiil  and 


228 


B  E  A  R  I  N  G  —  B  E  A  U  F  0  R  T 


spermaceti,  along  with  almond  oil,  and  some  scent- 
ing ingredients. 

BEARIXG  of  a  ship  at  sea  is  the  direction  in 
which  she  sails,  in  reference  to  the  points  of  tlie 
compass.  On  shipboard,  seamen  often  conveniently 
refer  to  the  bearing  of  another  ship,  or  of  an  object  on 
shore,  not  to  the  points  of  the  compass,  but  rela- 
tively to  the  line  foUo^ved  at  tffe  moment  by  the 
ship's  keel.  Thus  the  bearing  of  a  distant  object 
may  be  nliead,  astern,  on  the  starboard  bow,  on  the 
larboard  quarter,  etc.,  the  bow  being  between  the 
head  and  the  midship,  and  the  quarter  between  the 
midship  and  the  stern. 

BEAEIXG  THE  BELL,  a  phrase  which  signifies 
to  take  the  lead  or  first  place  in  anything,  or  to 
carry  away  the  prize.  This  old  colloiiuial  phrase  is 
said  to  have  originated  in  a  practice,  at  tlie  early 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  of  giving  a  small 
golden  or  silver  bell  as  a  prize  to  the  winner  at 
horse-races. 

BE.\.S,  a  river  of  India,  one  of  the  "  Five  Elvers  " 
of  the  Punjab,  rises  in  the  Snowy  Mountains.  13,320 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  flows  through  the  K;ingra 
Valley  to  the  plains  of  the  Punjab,  where  it  empties 
into  the  Sutlej.     Its  length  is  nearly  300  miles. 

BEAT,  in  music,  a  signal'  given  by  the  Iiand  to 
insure  simultaneous  performances,  the  hand  being 
raised  on  the  unaccented,  and  lowered  on  the 
accente.  .  part  of  the  bar. 

BEAT  OF  DRU^iI  in  military  matters,  is  a  signal 
or  instruction  conveyed  by  a  parlicuhir  mode  of 
drum-beating.  It  is  an  audible  semaphore,  a  tele- 
graph which  speaks  to  tlie  ear  instead  of  the  eye. 
There  are  many  varieties,  known  by  the  names  of 
the  general,  the  assembly,  tlie  foot  march,  the  call 
to  arms,  the  drummer's  call,  the  sergeant's  call, etc. 
Some  of  the  same  instructions  or  commands  are 
also  given  by  the  bugle,  and  some  by  the  trum- 
pet. 

BEATIFICATIOX  is  a  solemn  act  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  by  which  the  Pope,  after  scrutin- 
izing the  life  and  services  of  a  deceased  person,  pro- 
nounces him  blessed;  after  this  he  may  be  wor- 
shiped in  a  specified  portion  of  the  church,  and  the 
act  holds  out  the  prospect  of  future  canonization, 
which  entitles  him  to  general  worship  in  the  church 
universal.  It  was  introduced  in  the  I'Jth  century, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  an  inferior  degree  of  can- 
onization,    .'iee  Britanniea,  \'ol.  V,  p.  23. 

BEATIFIC  Vl.-^IOX,  the  direct  vision  of  God, 
constituting  the  essential  bliss  of  angels  and  of 
glorified  saints,  is,  in  respect  of  the  latter,  put  by 
the  Greek  Church,  and  by  most  Protestants,  after 
the  day  of  judgment.  The  Council  of  Florence  and 
the  Council  of  Trent,  however,  declared  that  "  the 
souls  of  thosewho  liave  reniaiiied  pure  and  spotless 
after  baptism,  and  of  those  whoso  sins  after  bap- 
tism have  been  pardoned,  either  in  this  life  or  in 
!hp  next,  are  immediatelv  received  into  heaven." 

BEATING  AND  WOUNDING,  or  simply  wound- 
ing, is  the  name  sometimes  occurring  in  law  books 
'or  the  ofTense  of  seriously  wounding  or  hurting 
niiolher;  it  has  also  been  described  as  an  aggra- 
vated sppcii'S  (if  battery. 

BEATIN<;  THE  lidCXDS,  the  popuhir  English 
-xpression  for  those  jieriodical  surveys  or  perambu- 
lations by  which  are  preserved  the  early  parish 
boundaries,  the  procedure,  according  to  the  general 
custom,  being  as  follows:  On  Holy  Thursday  or  As- 
(Jension  Day  the  clergyman  of  the  parish,  in  company 
with  the  parochial  ollicers  and  other  parishoners, 
(oIlowi><I  by  the  master  of  the  parish  school  together 
with  the  boys,  visit;!  the  diflerent  ])arish  bounda- 
ries, the  l)oys  striking  each  of  those  with  ))eeled 
willow  wands,  from  '.vhich  action  lias  come  the  ex- 
pression l>eating  the  bounds.    Sometimes  the  boys 


themselves  were  beaten,  to  make  the  locality  mem- 
orable.    See  Britanniea.  Vol.  XVIII,  p.  295. 

BEATON.  James,  uncle  of  Cardinal  Beaton,  was 
Archbishop  of  Glasgow,  and  afterwards  of  St.  An- 
drews. He  was  a  zealous  opponent  of  the  Refor- 
mation. He  died  at  St.  Andrews  in  1539.  See  Brit- 
anniea, Vol.  Ill,  pp.  405-66. 

BEATOX,  J.^MEs,  nephew  of  Cardinal  Beaton, 
born  in  1517,  died  in  1003.  In  1552  he  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Glasgow.  On  the  death  of  Mary  of  Lorraine 
he  withdrew  to  Paris.  See  Britanniea,"  Vol.  Ill,  pp. 
405-tiO. 

BEATRICE,  a  city  of  Nebraska,  and  capital  of 
Gage  county,  on  the  banks  of  the  Blue  River.  It  is 
r.eariy  in  the  center  of  the  county,  which  is  very 
fertile,  producing  almost  all  kinds  of  grain  and 
grapes  grown  in  this  country.  It  was  settled  in 
1857,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1SS3.  During  the 
last  decade  it  has  made  rapid  strides  in  population 
and  business.  Four  great  railroads  center  here: 
viz,  Burlington  &  Missouri,  L'liion  Pacific,  Rock  Is- 
land, and  Kansas  City  &  Beatrice.  It  is  the  second 
city  in  the  State  in  its  railroad  accommodations, 
Omaha,  one  hundred  miles  distant,  standing  first. 
The  city  is  regularly  laid  out;  streets  are  broad, 
crossing  at  right  angles  and  well  lighted  with  gas 
and  electricity.  Tl'.ere  are  six  miles  of  paved 
streets,  six  miles  of  street  car  tracks,  and  abundance 
of  good  water  from  artesian  wells.  The  Holly  sys- 
tem of  waterworks  is  employed,  using  twelve  miles 
of  mains.  Telegraph  and  telephones  afford  all 
needed  means  of  communication. 

Tlie  public  buildings  are  substantial,  and 
built  with  much  architectural,  taste.  The  new 
court-house  is  a  fine  stone  structure  of  four  stories, 
with  a  tower  120  feet  high.  The  main  front  is  140 
feet,  and  the  east  and  west  fronts  each  82  feet.  The 
style  is  Romanesque  The  city-hall  is  a  solid  and 
commodious  two  story  building.  Other  fine  build- 
ings are  the  Nebraska  National  Bank.  Beatrice  X'a- 
tional  Bank,  Masonic  Temple,  Nebraska  Institution 
for  Feeble-minded  Youth,  and  High  School.  There 
are  six  banks,  including  two  national  banks,  and 
five  public  schools.  The  High  School  prepares  pu- 
pils for  admission  to  the  State  University.  There 
is  also  an  excellent  Business  College  and  a  large 
free  circulating  library.  The  postottieo  is  self-sup- 
porting, and  in  addition  pays  if7,000ar.nually  to  the 
government.  The  fire  department  is  ample  and 
etticient.  Beatrice  is  noted  for  quarries  of  magne- 
sian  limestone,  used  as  a  building  material.  The 
river  furnishes  a  fine  water-power.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  cement,  flour  and  lumber.  Bea- 
trice is  the  headquarters  for  the  work  of  the  United 
States  land-office  for  the  Nemaha  district.  Popu- 
lation in  188i>,  2,447;  in  1S90,  13,921. 

BE.VUCE,  a  district  of  France. celebrated  for  the 
beauty  and  fertility  of  its  grain-fields.  The  capital 
is  Chart  res. 

BEAUCLERC,  Toi>ir.\M,  an  intimate  friend  of 
Samuel  .lohnson,  and  grandson  of  the  first  Duke 
of  St.  Albans,  horn  in  1739,  died  in  1780.  In 
1708  he  married  Diana,  daughter  of  the  Duke  ot 
Marlliorough,  and  divorced  wife  of  Lord  Boling- 
broke. 

BE.-VUFORT,  IIkxry,  C.\rdix.\l,  natural  son  of 
John  of  (iaunt,  and  half-brother  of  Henry  IV,  born 
in  1377,  died  in  1447.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  in 
1420.  He  was  known  as  the  wealthiest  man  in 
Englaiul.  He  wajidevofedly  nf  taclied  to  King  Henry 
V,  to  whom  he  lent  sums  of  money  almost  fabulous 
for  those  days. 

.  BEAtM'OUT,  a  town  of  North  Carolina,  capital 
of  (^arteret  county,  and  a  port  of  entry,  is  ,-iituated 
at  the  mouth  of  Newport  River,  Its  harbor,  de- 
fended by  Fort  Macon,  is  the  best  in  the  State.    The 


B'E  A  U  F  0  R  T  —  I)  ]•:  A  ^'  E  R 


229 


Cape  I>ookout  Light-house,  150  feet  high,  is  eleven 
mills  soutlieast. 

IIKAUFUKT,  a  town  of  South  Carolina,  capital  of 
Beaufort  county,  and  a  jiort  of  entry,  is  situated  on 
Port  Koyal  or  Beaufort  Island,  and  on  an  arm  of 
the  sea  called  Port  Koyal  Hiver.  There  is  an  excel- 
lent harbor  for  vessels  drawing  15  to  Ui  feet  of 
water.  The  cliief  exports  are  lumber,  rice,  cotton, 
and  phospliate  of  lime. 

BEAUFORT,  an  inland  district  of  the  west  divi- 
sion of  Cape  Colony,  South  Africa,  chielly  used  for 
pasturage;  its  oxen  being,  in  seasons  of  abundant 
rain,  decidedly  the  fattest  in  the  colony.  Its  area  is 
about  13,050 "  si I uare  miles.  West  Beaufort,  its 
capital,  is  on  the  Oamka,  368  miles  east  of  Cape 
Town. 

BEAUGEXCY,  an  ancient  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Loiret,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Loire,  15  miles  southwest  of  Orleans.  It  was  at 
one  time  surrounded  by  walls.  Hanked  with  towers 
and  bastions,  and  defended  by  a  strong  castle,  now 
ruined.  In  the  histories  of  the  wars  of  France  it 
occupies  a  conspicuous  place.  It  was  successively 
in  the  hands  of  tlie  Huns, Saxons,  Xornians  and 
English,  but  it  sustained  most  damaije  during  the 
religious  wars  of  the  Itith  century.  It  has  manufac- 
tories of  woolens,  leather,  etc.,  and  has  a  trade  in 
nine,  wool, and  corn.    Population,  3,SS2. 

BEAUHARXAIS,  Ai,exaxdre,  Vicomte  de, 
grandfather  of  Napoleon  III,  was  born  at  ^larti- 
nique  in  17(50.  lie  served  under  Kochambeau  in  the 
American  Kovolution,  and  in  17S',(  he  participated 
in  the  French  Revolution.  He  was  secretary  of  the 
National  Assembly,  and  a  member  of  the  military 
committee.  He  declined  the  oHice  of  minister  of 
war  in  1793,  and  resigned  the  command  of  the 
.\rmy  of  the  Rhine.  In  1794  the  revolutionary  tri- 
bunal sentenced  him  to  death  upon  a  charge  of 
having  acceded  to  the  surrender  of  Mainz,  and  he 
died  on  the  scaffold,  .July  23  of  that  year. 

BEAU.IOL.\I.'<,  a  district  of  France, a  subdivision 
of  the  old  province  of  Lyonnaise.  is  noted  for  its 
tine  vineyards,  which  yield  the  excellent  Beaujolais 
wine. 

BEAULIEU,  a  village  of  Hampshire,  England, 
the  site  of  an  ancient  Cistercian  abbey  founded  by 
King  .John;  the  village  is  situated  on  the  verge  of 
the  New  Forest,  near  Lymington. 

P>E.\L" JKjNT,  a  town  of  Texas,  county-seat  of 
JetTersoii  county,  situated  on  the  Neches  River,  at 
the  head  of  tide-water  navigation, about  80  miles 
east  of  Houston.  It  is  in  the  heart  of  the  lumber 
belt  of  eastern  Texas,  and  has  a  large  trade  in  yel- 
low pine  and  cypress  lumber  and  shingles,  which 
arc  here  manufactured  and  shipped  by  water  via 
Sabine  Pass. 

BEAUMONT,  Jean  Baptiste  Ei.ie  nic,  chief  en- 
gineer and  professor  of  geology  in  the  School  of 
Alines  at  Paris  and  in  the  Collfr/i'  /!/•  Fnim-i',  burn  at 
Canon  in  1708,  died  in  1874.  He  was  a  practical 
geological  investigator,  as  well  as  a  clear  and 
acute  speculatf>r. 

BEAC.MUNT  DE  LA  BONNlfCRE,  Gi'stave  de, 
a  French  advocate  and  publicist,  grandson  of  La 
Kayette.  born  in  Sarthe  m  1  sir.',  died  in  IHIVJ.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in 
1840,  and  of  the  National  Assembly  in  1S4S.  In 
1851  he  was  imprisoned  for  his  opiwsition  to  the 
rotipd'ftnl  of  December.  The  worlcs  by  which  he 
is  best  known  in  America  are  Slit)ri-ii  in  the  I'liiltil 
SidteD  and  77i<'  I'enilnilinrif  Si/slnn'  nf  tin-  Vuiliil 
State.i,  founded  upon  personal  (ibservation  during  a 
visit  to  this  Country. 

BEAUMONT,  .Toiix  C,  a  rear-admiral  of  the 
L'nited  States  navy,  oorn  in  Pennsylvania  in  1S21, 
lied  in  1882.     He  was  distinguished  for  his  efTicient 


service  during  the  shelling  of  Drury's  Bluff  and  in 
the  two  attacks  on  Furt  Fisher.  He  Imcanie  a 
ca|)1ain  in  1872  and  rear-admiral  in  1881. 

BKAL'MONT,  AVii.ma.m,  biu-n  at  Lebancjii,  Conn., 
17'.)(i.  died  at  St.  Louis,  Missouri.  Aiiril  25,  IS53. 
While  United  States  surgeon  at  M.ickinac  in  Mich- 
igan, he  was  called  to  attend  Alexis  St.  Martin, 
who  had  been  shot  in  the  side.  The  wound  healed, 
but  an  opening  in  th(>  stomach  remained,  through 
which  Dr.  Beaumont  was  able  to  watch  the  process 
of  digestion.  The  results  of  his  investigations  were 
published,  and  proved  a  valuable  addition  to  physi- 
ological knowledge. 

BEAUNE,  Fi.oKiMoxi),  an  eminent  French  mathe- 
matician, born  at  Blois  in  1(501,  di'd  in  his  native 
town  in  1(552.  He  was  a  friend  of  Descartes,  whose 
work  he  much  improved.  He  is  regarded  by  many 
as  the  proper  founder  of  the  integral  calculus. 

BEAUPORT,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Canada, 
about  four  miles  northeast  of  Quebec.  It  contains 
the  famous  Beauport  Lunatic  Asylum  and  impor- 
tant iiianufactories  of  lumber,  nails  and  Hour. 

BE.-VURECtARD,  Pikiuu;  Gistave  Toita.nt,  born 
near  New  Orleans,  La.,  lilay  28, 1818.  He  graduated 
at  \\'est  Point  in  IS."8,  standing  second  in  a  class  in 
which  were  men  who  afterwards  became  famous 
generals.  In  1847  i.e  was  made  captain  of  engi- 
neers, having  served  at  various  stations,  and  during 
the  war  with  Mexico  in  engineering  work.  Wlien 
the  Southern  States  seceded  he  offered  his  services, 
and  those  were  his  troops  which  opened  tire  on 
■Fort  Sumter.  From  this  time  onward  he  was 
virtually  the  cominanderof  the  Confederate  troops. 
He  was  in  command  at  Charleston  for  a  year  and  a 
half ;  he  rei-nforced  Lee  in  18(54;  defeated  Butler, 
and  held  Petersburg.  He  attempted  to  check 
Sherman's  march  to  the  sea  but  was  unsuccessful, 
and  Mith  General  J.  E.  Johnston  surrendered  to 
Sherman  in  April,  18115.  Since  the  war  General 
Beauregard  has  been  jiresident  of  a  railn^ad.  adju- 
tant-general of  the  State  and  manager  of  the 
Louisiana  State  lottery. 

BEAVER, a  remarkaljle  rodent  (f'tin/orjjhrr), once 
common  to  all  northern  regions,  but  now  confined 
chiefly  to  North  An.erica.  It  is  characterized  by  a 
blunt  nose,  very  short  ears,  webbed  hind  feet,  a'nd 
a  tail  fiat,  ovate,  and  covered  on  its  upper  surface 
■with  scales.  The  beaver  is  an  object  of  much  in- 
terest on  account  of  the  ingenious  houses,  with  sulv 
aqneous  entrances,  which  it  builds  on  the  banks 
of  rivers  and  lakes,  and  for  its  remarkable  skill  in 
the  construction  of  dams  across  streams.  It  is 
prized  for  its  fur.  and  for  a  secretion  called  castor,  or 
castoreum,  much  used  in  perfumery  and  formerly 
in  medicine.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  475-(5; 
Vol.  XV,  I).  418,  and  Vol.  IX,  p.  838. 

BEAVER,  J.vjtns  AnDA>rs, a  descendant  of  a  fa- 
mous Huguenot  family,  born  at  .Millerstovsn,  Perry 
county,  Pa..  Oct.  21,  1837.  He  graduated  at  Jef- 
ferson College,  and  afterwards  practiced  law  at 
Bellefonte.  In  18(51  ho  responded  to  the  call  of 
President  Lincoln  for  volunteers,  and  was  soon 
made  lieutenant-colonel  of  a  regiment.  He  was 
wounded  at  Chancellorsville,  was  i)resent  at  Get- 
tysburg, but  not  allowed  to  take  coi'iimand  on  ac- 
count of  physical  weakness.  lie  was  in  the  Wilder- 
ness campaign,  and  was  again  wotinded  at  Cold 
Harbor.  .\t  Petersburg  he  was  injunil.  but  re- 
turned to  the  batlle-tield  of  Ream's  Station  in  an 
ambulance,  and  just  as  he  had  n-sumed  commaii'l 
his  right  leg  was  shattered  by  a  ritlo-ball.  It  w:is 
amputated,  and  he  was  incapacitated  for  further 
military  service.  He  was  elected  a  trustee  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Stiite  Collejje;  has  been  a  popular 
campaign  sjieaker.and  was  Kepulilican  governor  of 
Pennsylvania  from  1887  to  1891. 


230 


BEAVER  —  BECQUEREL 


BEAVER,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  county-seat 
of  Beaver  county,  situated  on  the  Ohio  Eiver,  about 
twenty-five  mile's  from  Pittsburgh.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Beaver  Collegiate  and  Musical  Institute,  an  acad- 
emy, a  seminary,  and  other  excellent  schools. 

BEAVEB,  a  city  of  Utah,  county  seat  of  Beaver 
county,  situated  "on  Beaver  River,  about  200  miles 
south  of  Salt  Lake  City.  Lead  and  copjier  are 
found  in  the  neighborhood,  and  there  are  manu- 
factories of  leather  and  woolens.  Beaver  is  the 
seat  of  a  fine  academy. 

BEAVER  DAM,  a  city  of  Wisconsin,  situated  on 
Beaver  Dam  Creek,  about  60  miles  northwest  of 
Milwaukee.  It  has  an  excellent  water-power,  and 
manufactories  of  woolens,  flour,  carriages  and 
agricultural  implements.  It  is  the  seat  of  Wayland 
University. 

BEAVER  FALLS,  a  mf.-<ufacturing  town  of 
Pennsylvania,  located  on  Beaver  River,  about  30 
miles  northwest  of  Pittsburgh.  An  excellent  water- 
power  and  an  abundant  supply  of  natural  gas  are 
utilized  in  the  manufactories  of  the  town,  which  in- 
clude those  of  iron,  machinery,  flour,  cars,  cutlery, 
wire  fence,  stoves  and  farming  utensils.  Beaver 
Falls  is  the  seat  of  Geneva  CoUege. 

BEBEERINE,  an  alkaloid  obtained  from  the 
Greenheart  bark,  or  Behecru  of  Demerara,  and  used 
in  medicine  in  place  of  quinine,  which  it  resembles 
in  properties,  though  it  is  not  so  powerful  in  its  ac- 
tion as  a  tonic  and  febrifuge.  The  condition  in 
which  it  is  generally  sent  into  market  is  as  the 
sulphate  of  bebeerine,  occurring  in  sliining  scales 
of  a  pretty  brown  color,  and  soluble  in  water. 

BEBEERU,  or  Bibiru,  the  native  name  of  the 
Greenheart  of  commerce,  a  tree  of  British  Guiana,  of 
the  natural  order  Laitracex.  The  wood  is  very  hard 
and  durable,  and  is  largely  used  in  ship-building 
and  for  submarine  structures,  being  remarkably 
free  from  the  ravages  of  the  ship-worm.  The  active 
principle  of  the  bark  is  the  bebeerine  or  bibirine  of 
medicine,  used  in  tlie  form  of  a  crude  sulphate  as  a 
bitter  tonic  and  febrifuge.  See  Britannica,  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  633. 

BECANCOUR,  a  town  of  Canada,  about  90  miles 
southwest  of  Quebec.  It  is  the  lieadquarters  of  an 
extensive  trade  in  lumber  and  flour. 

BECCAFICO,  a  little  bird  of  the  family  Sijhnadx, 
or  Warblers,  a  native  of  the  southern  parts  of 
Europe,  and  in  great  demand  for  the  table  in  Italy, 
its  flesh  being  regarded  as  of  peculiar  delicacy.  It 
is  a  mere  summer  bird  of  passage,  and  lias  a  very 
pleasant  song.  Beccalico  is  an  Italian  name,  and 
is  sometimes  extended  to  other  birds  of  the  same 
family  used  for  the  table. 

BECCAMOSCIIINO,  a  little  bird  of  the  family  of 
AVarblers,  found  in  Italy,  and  remarkable  for  its 
nest,  which  resembles  tliat  of  the  tailor  birds, 
usu.ally  placed  in  a  bush  of  lengthened  herbage,  the 
leaves  arid  stalks  draw?i  over  it,  and  a  flooring 
formed  for  it  by  leaves  curved  across  below,  and 
sewed  together  generally  wjth  some  kind  of  vegeta- 
ble fibers. 

JiECnUANALAND,  a  British-African  crown  col- 
ony adjacent  to  the  South  African  Republic  on  the 
east.  Total  area,  162,000  square  miles,  of  which  45,- 
000  form  the  crown  colony  proper.  Population  (of 
British  colony  in  1885),  44,i:i"i.  The  colony  was  "an- 
nexed" in  1884  to  Cape  (.'olony,  and  is  under  the 
general  control  of  the  British  Governor  of  that 
olony.  The  revenue  in  1880,  including  military 
grant,  was  $445,085,  and  the  expenditure  $308,315. 

A  tax  of  10<.  per  annum  is  levied  on  evory  native 
hut,  and  10«.  on  each  wife  of  a  native.  The  seat  of 
administration  is  at  Vrylmrg  in  Slellaland,  a  set- 
tletnciit  originally  formed  liy  the  Boers  on  the 
lorder  of  the  Transvaal.    There  are  good  roads. 


There  is  a  weekly  post  to  Cape  Colony  and  Mata- 
beleland.  The  chief  of  the  protectorate  is  Khama, 
with  whom  is  an  assistant  commissioner. 

BECK,  Ch.vrles,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,born  in  Germany 
in  1798,  died  in  1866,  was  a  philologist,  professor 
of  Latin  and  Literature,  1S82,  at  Cambridge,  Mass. 
He  published  several  works,  among  which  was  The 
Manuscripts  of  the  Satifricon  of  Petronius  Arbiter 
Described  and  Collated. 

BECK,  David,  born  1621,  died  1656,  was  a  Dutch 
portrait  painter,  who  studied  under  Vandyke.  He 
worked  with  great  speed  and  was  remarkably  suc- 
cessful. He  was  employed  by  Charles  I  of  Eng- 
land, and  by  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden. 

BECK,  Jon.vNx  Tobias,  a  distinguished  German 
theologian,  born  at  Balingen  in  1804,  died  in  1S78. 
The  scene  of  his  labors  was  Tubingen,  where  he 
studied  theology,  and  where,  as  professor  of  theol- 
ogy for  many  years,  he  combated  the  negative 
criticism  of  the  "Tubingen  school"  of  Bauer;  not 
so  much,  however,  by  direct  controversy  as  by 
the  development  of  a  system  of  biblical  divinity 
founded  upon  faith  in  the  text. 

BECKER,  GoTTFKiED  WiLiiELir,  a  German  au- 
thor born  at  Leipsio  in  1778,  died  there  in  1854. 
He  studied  medicine,  and  in  ISOl  settled  in  Leipsic 
as  a  practicing  physician  and  a  writer  of  medical 
works,  several  of  which  reached  many  editions.  In 
1833  he  entirely  relinquished  the  practice  of  medi- 
cine, and  devoting  himself  to  literature  became  a 
fertile  and  admired  contributor  to  many  of  its  more 
popular  branches. 

BECKER,  Kakl,  a  German  artist,  born  at  Berlin 
in  1820.  His  subjects  are  mostly  historical,  but  are 
chosen  with  a  view  to  the  display  of  gaudy  coloring 
or  intricate  architectural  combinations. 

BECKER,  Kakl  Feedixaxd,  born  at  Leipsic  in 
1S04,  may  be  named  with  Kiesewetter  and  AVinter- 
feld  as  one  of  the  best  German  writers  on  the  his- 
tory of  music,  and  also  as  an  excellent  composer  for 
the  organ,  as  is  proved  by  his  trios  and  other  compo- 
sitions well  adapted  to  the  genius  of  the  instrument. 
Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  a  Chora!  Book, 
or  collection  of  psalm  and  hymn  tunes;  a  catalogue 
of  his  musical  library  one  of  the  most  extensive 
in  Germany;  The  Composers  of  the  19lh  Century, 
etc. 

BECKERATH,  Hermaxx  vox,  born  in  Krefeld, 
Prussia,  in  1801,  died  tliere  in  1870.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  political  affairs  of  Germany. 
When  Frederick  William  IV  ascended  the 
throne,  Bcckerath,  aroused  to  a  sense  of  the  politi- 
cal state  of  the  country,  devoted  himself  to  effect- 
ing its  constitutional  freedom.  In  1843  he  was 
elected  representative  of  his  native  town  in  the 
provincial  diet,  and  until  1852  was  an  active  partici- 
pant in  tlie  politics  of  Prussia. 

BECKETS,  on  shipboard,  a  general  name  for  any 
large  hooks,  short  pieces  of  rope,  or  wooden  brack- 
ets, used  for  confining  ropes,  tackles,  oars  or  spars 
in  a  convenient  place. 

BECQUKREL,  Axtoixe  C.i'.sai!,  a  well-known 
physicist,  born  in  France  in  1788,  died  in  1878. 
Through  certain  experiments  made  by  him  on  the 
liberation  of  electricity  by  pressure,  in  a  course  of 
study  concerning  the  properties  of  yellow  amber, 
Becquerel  made  discoverh-s  which  overthrew 
Volta's  theory  of  contact,  and  he  himself  con- 
structed the  first  constant  pile.  He  afterward  dis- 
covered a  method  of  ascertaining  the  internal 
temperature  of  tlie  animal  body,  and  by  physical 
applications  demonstrated  that  upon  the  contrac- 
tion of  a  muscle  there  is  a  development  of  heat. 
He  is  one  of  the  inventors  of  electro-chemistry, 
and  originated  a  method  of  elect  roty  ping.  In  con- 
nection with  his  son  (Alexander  Eilmond,  born  at 


BECSE  —  BEDLINGTON  TERRIER 


231 


Paris  in  1820)  he  made  interesting  researches  con- 
cerning tlie  solar  speccnini  and  electric  liglit. 

BECSE,  the  name  of  two  towns  of  Hungary, 
known  as  Old  Becse  and  New  Becse.  Tliey  are 
eitualed  about  eight  miles  apart,  on  the  Theiss 
KiviT,  00  miles  soutli  of  Szegedin. 

BECSKEKEK  NAGY.  or  Gheat  Becskerek,  a 
town  of  Hungary  in  rlio  county  of  Torontal,  situ- 
ated On  the  left  bank  of  Bega,  about  45  miles  south- 
west of  Temesvar.  with  which  place  it  is  connected 
by  a  canal.  It  is  an  important  market  town.  Popu- 
lation, 19,700. 

BEli,  an  article  of  household  furniture  on  which 
to  sleep.  Beds  are  and  have  always  been  of  various 
styles,  nearly  all  countries  liaving  their  own 
peculiar  form.  As  far  as  has  been  ascertained,  the 
peojjle  of  ancient  Palestine  Iiad  a  simple  sort  of 
couch  suitable  for  resting  on  during  the  day,  or 
Bleeping  on  at  night,  being  easily  moved.  In  the 
£uropean  countries  the  bed  is  of  an  open  couch 
form,  alVording  accommodation  for  but  ene  person. 
It  is  composed  of  a  frame  or  bedstead  (See  IJritan- 
nica,  Vol.  IX,  p.  8til),  upon  which  are  placed  one  or 
two  mattresses  of  hair  or  wool,  and  curtains,  which 
hang  from  the  ceiling,  often  accompany  it.  The 
Germans  frequently  lay  a  large  flat  hag  of  down 
above  the  other  covering  for  the  sake  of  warmth. 
The  American  style  isgenerallv  tliat  of  the  French, 
the  open  couch  form.  The  folding  tressel-bed,  fre- 
quently seen  in  America,  is,  next  to  the  oriental 
rug  spread  out  on  the  floor,  the  simplest  bed  yet 
invented.  It  is  constructed  on  the  plan  of  a  camp- 
Btool,  with  a  movable  head-board  to  retain  the  pil- 
low. 

BED,  or  Stratum,  is  a  layer  of  sedimentary  rock 
of  similar  composition,  and  of  some  tliickness.  co- 
hering so  that  it  may  be  quarried  and  lifted  in 
single  blocks.  Beds  frequently  consist  of  many 
fine  laniinie  or  plates.  The  lamime  are  the  results 
of  intermissions  in  the  sup|)ly  of  materials  pro- 
duced by  river-Hoods,  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide, 
and  similar  causes,  or  by  the  more  or  less  turbid 
condition  of  the  water  under  which  they  were  de- 
posited. 

BEDGHAJIBER,  Lords  op  the,  are  twelve  offi- 
cers in  the  royal  household  of  Great  Britain,  who 
wait  in  turn  upon  the  king's  person.  They  are 
under  the  Groom  of  the  Stole,  who  accompanies  the 
sovereign  only  on  state  occasions.  There  are  also 
thirteen  grooms  of  the  bedcliamber,  who  attend  in 
turn.  In  the  reign  of  a  queen,  ladies  All  these 
ottices,  which  are  objects  of  high  ambition.  See 
Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  37. 

BEDKAU,  Marie  Ai.piioxso,  a  Frencli  general, 
born  at  Vertou,  1SU4,  died  in  1803.  In  1817  he  en- 
tered tlio  military  school,  and  in  )S1'5  received  a 
commission  in  the  army.  He  was  aid-de-camp  to 
General  Gi  rard  in  the  ISelgian  campaign  of  1831- 
1832.  He  was  sent  to  Algeria  in  command  of  a 
battalion  in  ISSti,  and  was  for  a  time  governor  of 
Algeria  in  l.'<17.  He  was  appointed  minister  of  war 
by  the  provisional  government  in  1848,  an  oflice 
which  he  changed  for  the  command  of  the  city  of 
Paris,  and  as  a  republican  member  of  the  national 
assembly  he  opposed  Louis  Napoleon.  Bedeau  was 
arrested,  with  Oavaignac  and  others  in  1851,  and 
went  into  exile. 

BEDKGUAK,  or  Bedegar,  a  remarkalile  gall, 
frequently  occurring  on  the  branches  of  several 
species  of  roses,  mainly  of  the  sweet-brier,  on  which 
account  it  is  sometimes  termed  sweet-brier  sponge. 
It  is  produced  by  different  species  of  gall  insect, 
eometimes  by  Cmii>s  nunc.  It  is  generally  roundish 
In  form,  often  having  a  dl;imeter  of  an  inch  or 
nv>re;  it  hn^  a  si>ongy  anil  fibrous  nucleus,  con- 
tainlug  numerous  cells,  in  each  of  which  is  a  small 


larva ;  it  has  a  sbagg;  exterior  covered  with  nioss< 
like,  branching  fibers,  which  change  from  a  green 
to  purjjle  or  red.  It  was  at  one  lime  esteemed  as 
a  medicine.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  X,  p.  44:  VoL 
XIII,  p.  143. 

BEUELL,  Gregory  Tiicrstox,  born  at  Hudson, 
New  York,  Aug.  13,  1817.  His  father  was  a  clergy- 
man, and  the  son,  after  graduating  from  Bristol 
College,  Pa.,  and  the  Virginia  Theological  Seminary, 
became  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  West  Chester, 
Pa.  (1841),  and  then  rector  of  the  Churcli  of  the 
Ascension,  New  York  city  (1843).  He  has  been  as- 
sistant bishop  of  Ohio,  and  bishop  of  the  dio- 
cese.   Several  of  his  addresses  have  been  published. 

BEDELL,  Gregory  Townseno,  l)orn  on  Staten 
Island,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  28,  17'J3,  died  at  Baltimore,  JId 
Aug.  30,  1834.  He  was  educated  at  the  Ejiii-copal 
Academy  in  Cheshire,  Conn.,  and  at  Columbia  Col- 
lege. He  became  rector  of  the  Episcopal  Church  at 
Hudson,  and  subsequently  at  Fayetteville,  N.  C., 
and  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.  'At  the  latter  place  St. 
Andrew's  Church  was  establislied  through  his 
labors.  He  was  the  author  of  religious  works  and 
musical  compositions. 

BEDFORD,  a  town  of  Indiana,  county-seat  ol 
Lawrence  county.  The  chief  manufactures  are  ol 
wool  and  lumber,  and  among  tlie  principal  build- 
ings are  a  fine  court-house  and  town  hall.  Bedford 
is  the  seat  of  an  academy,  and  of  the  Bedford  JMale 
and  Female  College. 

BEDFORD,  a  prairie  town  of  Iowa, county-seat  of 
Taylor  county,  situated  on  the  One-Hundred-and- 
Two  River,  about  lUO  miles  southwest  of  Des 
Jloinos.  It  is  the  center  of  a  fertile  agricultural 
district. 

BEDFORD,  a  town  in  Pennsylvania,  located  on  a 
branch  of  the  Juniata, about  lUO  miles  west  of  Ilar- 
risburg.  The  manufactures  are  principally  of  iron, 
which  is  mined  in  tlie  vicinity.  Aliout  a  mile  dis- 
tant is  Bedford  Spi'ings,  a  fashionable  summer 
resort. 

BEDFORD  SPRINGS,  a  summer  resort  in  Penn- 
sylvania, near  the  town  of  Bedford,  noted  for  the 
valuable  medicinal  waters  of  its  mineral  springs, 
and  for  its  cool  summer  climate  and  charming 
mountain  scenery. 

BEDLAM  (corruption  of  Bethleliem),the  nameot 
a  hospital  for  lunatics  in  London.  It  was  originally 
founded  by'Sinion  Fitz-Mary,  in  1240,  "as  a  privy  of 
canons  for  brtthern  and  sisters."  \\'hen  the  relig- 
ious houses  were  suppressed  by  Henry  VIII,  it  fell 
into  the  possession  of  the  corporation  of  London  in 
1537,  who  converted  it  into  an  insane  asylum.  In 
lrt75  the  building  was  pulled  down  and  a  new  one 
erected  in  Moornelds;  the  present  one  was  built  in 
1814  in  St.  George's  Fields.  The  building  with  its 
grounds  covers  an  area  of  14  acres,  and  is  lacking 
m  nothing  likely  to  insure  the  comfort  and  pro- 
mote the  recovery  of  patients.  In  former  times 
the  management  was  deplorable.  The  patients 
were  exhibited  to  the  public  like  wild  beasts  in 
cages,  at  so  mucli  per  head,  and  were  made  sport  of 
by  visitors.  The  funds  not  being  suflicient  to  meet 
the  expenditure,  partially  convah'scent  patients, 
with  badges  affixed  to  their  arms,  and  known  as 
"  Bedlam  Beggars,"  were  turned  out  to  wander  aifd 
beg  in  the  streets.  This  practice  appears  to  have 
been  stopped  in  l(i75.  Now  the  management  of  the 
patients  is  so  excellent  that  annually  many  are 
returned  as  cured.    See  Britannica,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  110. 

BFDLINGTON  TERRIER,  a  dog  so  named  from 
a  village  and  parish  of  Northumberland,  one  of  the 
districts  in  which  the  race  has  been  extensively 
bred.  This  dog  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  sagacity 
and  speed,  and  for  its  wonderful  courage,  it  is  a 
good  water  dog,  and  has   a  marked  dislike  for  all 


232 


BEDLOE'S    ISLAND  — BEES 


kinds  of  vermin;  it  will  unfliuchingly  attack  even 
the  fox,  the  otter  or  the  badger. 

BEDLOE'S  ISLAXD,  the  site  of  Bartholdi's 
statue  of  Lihertij  Eitlightrnitui  tin'  World,  is  situated 
in  New  York  harbor,  within  the  limits  of  the  city 
of  New  York.  It  was  named  from  a  former  owner. 
It  became,  in  18U0,  the  property  of  the  United 
States.  In  1S41  the  government  erected  here  a 
fort,  known  as  Fort  Wood,  which  mounted  seventy- 
seven  guns.  The  fort  is  now  disused,  and  the 
statue  occupies  nearly  the  whole  of  its  interior. 

BEDMAR,  DE,  Alfoxso  de  Cuev.v,  M.\equis, 
born  in  1572,  died  in  1655.  lie  was  appointed  am- 
bassador to  Venice  from-the  Spanish  court  in  1607, 
whereupon  he  entered  into  a  bold  and  unscrupu- 
lous plot  to  destroy  that  city,  through  which  act 
he  has  become  lastingly  notorious.  (See  Britan- 
nica.  Vol.  24,  p.  147.)  Otway's  popular  and  pathe- 
tic play,  "  Venice  Preserved "  is  founded  on  this 
circumstance.  Bedmar  afterward  became  presi- 
dent of  the  council  at  Flanders,  and  in  1622  was 
created  cardinal  by  the  Pope.  He  subsequently 
went  to  Home,  after  which  he  returned  to  Spain 
as  Bishop  of  Oviedo. 

BED  OF  JUSTICE,  literally,  the  seat  or  throne 
occupied  by  the  French  monarch  when  he  was 
present  at  the  deliberations  of  parliament. 
Historically  a  bed  of  justice  signified  a  solemn  ses- 
sion in  which  the  king  was, present  to  overrule 
the  decisions  of  parliament,  and  to  enforce  thd 
acceptance  of  edicts  or  ordinances  which  it  had 
previously  rejected.  The  last  bed  of  justice  was 
held  by  Louis  XVI  at  Versailles  in  1787. 

BEDOS  DE  CELLOS,  Don  Jean  Fr.\n9ois,  a 
Benedictine  monk,  of  the  congregation  of  St.  Maur, 
and  the  most  learned  and  practiced  master  of  the 
art  of  organ-building   in   the  eighteenth  century, 


whose  work  on  the  art  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance to  the  present  day.  He  was  born  about  1714, 
at  Chaux  and  died  in  1797.  He  entered  his  order 
about  1726  at  Toulouse,  where  he  built  several 
large  and  superior  church-organs — was  elected 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1758,  and 
completed  for  the --Vcademy  his  great  work.  L'AH 
du  Facteur  d'Orgues  in  four  volumes,  large  folio, 
with  137  copperplates,  beautifully  executed.  - 

BED-SOKES,  a  very  troublesome  complication 
of  disease,  to  which,  in  many  cases,  a  patient  is 
liable  through  long  confinement  to  bed,  when  unable 
or  not  allowed  to  change  his  position.  AVhen  long 
confinenient  to  bed  is  expected,  attempts  should 
be  made  to  thicken  the  cuticle,  and  enable  it  to 
bear  pressure  better,  by  rubbing  the  skin  with 
some  stimulant,  as  spirits  or  enu-df-cuhxjne. 

EEDSTRAAV,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  liuhiacex,  and  distinguished  by 
a  small  wheel-shaped  calyx  and  a  dry  two-lobed 
fruit,  each  lobe  containing  a  single  seed.  Tlie 
leaves  as  in  the  rest  of  the  order,  are  whorled  and 
the  flowers  minute,  but  in  many  of  the  species  the 
panicles  are  large  and  many-flowered. 

BEDWIN,  GREAT,  a  town  of  Wiltshire  on  the 
Kennet  and  Avon  canal,  sixty-nine  miles  west-by- 
south  of  London.  A  fierce  but  indecisive  battle 
occurred  here  in  674,  between  the  kings  of  Mercia 
and  Wessex.  St.  Mary's  Church  was  built  in  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  and  is  con- 
structed of  flint,  except  the  piers,  arches,  and 
dressings,  which  are  of  freestone.  Jane  Seymour, 
one  of  the  queens  of  Henry  VIII,  was  born  here. 
In  the  end  of  the  last  century  the  remains  of  a 
Roman  villa  were  discovered,  included  tessene, 
bricks,  a  tessellated  jjavement,  a  huge  leaden  cis- 
tern, and  the  foundation  of  baths.   Population,  2,008. 


BEE  ANATOMY  AND  BEE  INDUSTRY.  For 
the  general  subject  of  bees  and  bee  culture  in 
various  countries,  see  Britanniea,  Vol.  Ill,  pp. 484- 
50.3.  The  illustrations  hcrewitli  will  properly  sup- 
plement that  portion  of  the  article  in  Vol.  Ill 
relating  to  tlie  anatomy  of  bees.  For  con-venience 
of  reference,  the  illustrations  are  giten  in  two 
plates.    (See  next  page.) 

Bre  Industry  i.n  the  United  St.\tes:  The  latest 
official  government  report  (tliat  of  1889),  issued  be- 
fore these  pages  were  sent  to  press,  shows  that 
among  the  minor  brandies  of  rural  industry,  bee- 
keeping is  the  most  injiiortaiil.  Every  Slate  and 
Territory  reports  bees  and  more  or  less  honey,  usu- 
ally a  hive  or  a  few  colonies  for  eacli  farmer,  rather 
than  extensive  apiaries  and  large  production.  In 
some  localities,  as  in  portions  of  New  York,  Ohio, 
Tennessee,  Colorado,  and  California,  where  existing 
conditions  an'  iiarticularly  favorable,  npiculluro  is 
more  prominent,  dominating  other  industries  in 
c(!rtain  nelghliorhoods,  tliougli  very  rarely  the  lead- 
ing branch  over  any  considerable  area.  Honey  and 
bees-wax  are  pro(iuc(^d  in  every  section  of  the 
cauntry,  and  the  aggregate  value  is  very  large, 
nearly  equaling  the  value  of  the  rice  or  the  hop  cron, 
and  not  much  below  that  of  buckwheat,  and  exceeu- 
inglliatof  cane  molasses,  or  of  both  nuiple  syrup 
and  sugar.  It  largely  exceeds  the  aggregate  value 
of  all  other  vegi'|;ililc  libers,  excepting  cnl  liui. 

The  latest  ollicial  record  of  production  by  States 
isjlie  return  of  th(^  national  census  for  the  year 
187!).  It  made  the  honey  production  25,743,208 
pounds,  and  wax  l,10.'),6s<)  ixmiids.  After  careful 
study  of  all  available  data  ol  local  values  and  mar- 


ket prices,  the  average  farm  value  of  the  honey  was 
estimated  at  22cents  per  pound,  and  the  wax  at  33 
cents,  making  the  aggregate  value  of  apiarian  prod- 
ucts, at  the  place  of  production,  $0.(12^.383.  The 
product  of  the  principal  States  in  that  year  was  as 
follows : 


States. 


Tennessee *.'. 

Nt^w  Yorts 

Oliio 

Nortli  Carolina. 

Kentucljy 

I'ennsylvaiiia  . . 

Illinois 

Iowa  

Vii'ginla 

All  other 


Total. 


r<iiiiiih 
2,130,G89 
•-•.088,845 
l.(a(i,847 
1.6!U,.'')90 
1,.500,5(;5 
1.41.''i.09S 
l,.Sk).806 
1,S10,1S8 
1.0'.I0,451 
11.0:S,184 


.    i5,743,20S 


Wax. 


Voiituh. 
80.421 
70.7.i6 
SCi,:a8 
120.208 
4C..!I13 
4li.0I0 
4fl,0lO 
S<l..'i05 
.W,2(I0 
.V24.1W4 


1,HI."),089 


Under  the  head  of  "all  other,"  in  the  above  state- 
ment, there  is  grouped  the  jiroduction  of  36  States 
and  Territories,  ranging  from  l,0.'i(),034  pounds  of 
honey  in  Georgia  to  .")()  pounds  in  Idaho. 

Our  foreign  trade  in  honey  has  mn-er  been  large, 
and  the  balance  has  Ibu'tuated.  During  live  years 
past  our  average  annual  exportation  has  been 
valued  at  only  ;f82,48il  and  importation  at  lf52..S!ll, 
making  the  value  of  the  net  exporlation  only  .f2tl,- 
50S.  This  litlle  exporlation  goes  principallv  to  the 
United  Kingdom.  France  and   Ciormany,  wiiile  our 


BEE    ANATOMY 


233 


foreign  purchases  come  mainly  from  tlie  West  In- 
dips  and  Mexico.  The  balance  of  trade  is  loo  small  to 
affect  tlie  supply,  and  our  domestic  consumption  is 
satisfied  with  our  home  production. 


Plate  I.  Fig.  1,  the  Queen  Bee:  2,  the  Working  Bee;  S.  the 
Droue:  la,  3i,  3i,  the  antenna;;  lo,  ic,  and  ;i<-,  the  heads  of 
queen,  workinK  bee,  and  droue;  the  head  of  the  working 
bee  is  much  flattened,  as  shown  alA-*.  A,  the  margins  of 
two  wiUKs;  B.  the  IS  or  20  hooks  placed  on  the  anterior  por- 
tion of  the  hinder  wing,  while  the  posterior  margin  of  the 
fore-wing  is  beautifully  folded  over  to  receive  them,  so  that 
when  emploved  in  fanning  for  ventilation  the  two  wings  on 
each  side  act  as  one,  nni  present  an  unbroken  surface  to  the 
air.  The  wings  of  workers  are  larger  than  those  of  the  queen, 
but  those  of  the  drones  are  much  larger  still,  b'ig.  2/:,  shows 
the  inner  side  of  the  hind-leg  and  ;.ollen  brush  ;  -J'  the  outer 
side  and  pollen  basket.  On  entering  a  flower  a  bee  often  cov- 
ers itself  with  pollen,  and  hence  the  need  of  ttte  brush  appa- 
ratus to  reach  home.  The  pollen  basket  is  peculiar  to  the 
worker;  neither  the  queen  nor  drone  has  anything  of  the 
kind.  2<-,  back  view  of  the  head,  shewing  the  opening  into 
the  oesophagus 


2d 


id 


PLATE  I. 

Platk  II.  b.  b,  b.  the  muscles  that  move  the  wltigs;  e,e,tbc 
bases  of  the  wings,  the  appendages  consisting  of  two  pairs 
arranged  to  hook  together.  Fig.  :J<.  the  lobial  palpi;  .t/i  the 
ma-illlip  provided  with  hairs  and  with  two  feelers  mldwav, 
known  as  ma.xillary  palpi,  4.  The  sting  of  the  working-bee. 
with  its  muscles  and  attachments:  r,  shows  the  muscles  that 
move  the  stlni;,  and  '/,  the  curved  base  of  the  outer  sheath  by 
which  It  Is  Inclosed;  the  outer  sheatli  consists  of  two  lleshv 
cliispers  ti  in  the  flgnre).  inside  of  which  Is  the  linear  sheath 
which  lormd  lui  essential  portion  of  the  sting,  and  consists 
of  two  horny  scales  closely  adheriiie  to  the  darts:  these  last 
are  composed  of  stifT  tilanienis.  liarl»ed  at  the  outer  end  with 
Irom  five  to  ten  teeth  on  ohq  side,  an<l  they  slide  within  the 
Inner  sheath  and  that  wiihiu  the  onler  sheath  on  the  princl- 

}ile  of  the  tulies  of  a  telescope.  The  darts  are  (Irst  protruded 
n  the  act  of  stiiigiiiK,  and,  by  aid  of  the  powerful  muscles  on 
each  side  at  .*,  are  buried  lii  the  Ilesh  to  the  depth  of  one- 
twelfth  of  an  Inch :  the  inner  sheath  then  follows,  and,  at  the 


same  time,  by  a  muscular  coutractlon,  the  poison  is  forced 
along  the  groove  in  which  the  dart  works,  causing  the  well- 
known  painful  ellecis  which  arise  from  the  sting  of  a  bee. 
These  darts  are  of  slightly  niiei|ual  lengths,  so  that  the  teeth 
ou  each  side  are  not  opposite  to  each  other.  From  this 
arrangement  it  is  easier  lor  them  to  penetrate  the  flesh  until 
the  poison  has  been  ejected.  If  the  sufferer  could  only  com- 
mand himself  so  as  to  remain  passive,  the  bee  might  be  able 
to  draw  in  those  darts  which  protrude  beyond  the  sheath  and 
would  then  be  able  to  withdraw  the  sting,  and  consequently 
inflict  less  pain,  and  also  escape  paving  the  penaltv  of  her 
own  life  by  leaving  the  whole  stinging  ai.paratus  behind.  The 
sting  is  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  long.  The  ducts  which 
secrete  the  poison  are  at  in,  and  ihe  poison  bag  or  reservoir 
at  4(.    The  drone  and  queen  have  no  Stings.* 


6a ,  two  wax  pockets  or  receptacles  for  wax,  which  consti- 
tute the  animal  fat  of  the  bee.  The  wax  is  not  connected 
with  tlie  stomach,  but  exudes  through  the  pores  of  the  abdo- 
men. The  secreting  vessels  are  jtrobably  contained  in  the 
membranes  which  line  these  jiockets.  1  and  2/i,  blllarv  ves- 
sels which  receive  the  chyle  from  the  digested  food  in  the 
bee's  stomach. 

Figs.  1  and  2rf.  the  honey  bag,  an  extension  of  the  gullet  or 
cesophagiis,  in  which  (though  often  called  the  2d  stomach) 
no  tiigestlou  takes  place:  when  full,  it  is  about  the  size  of  a 
small  pea.  The  bac  i?  lined  with  muscles, l»y  wliicb  the  bee 
can  tlisgorge  the  honey  into  the  store  cells  or  send  it  forward 
into  the  fesophagus  oi-  true  stomach  for  Its  own  subsistence, 
(I  and  2/).  Fig.  7,  a  bee's  egg;  S,  a  young  bee  in  a  chrysalis 
condition.  Fig.  5.  three  of  the  .S,5(XI  lenses  in  the  eye  of  the 
bee.  all  of  them  converging  toward  a  common  center. 


Bee-IIives  and  REE-TJofsES,  Numerous  styles  of 
these  mav  be  found  in  the  various  periodicals  and 
hand-books  devoted  to  the  bee  and  honey  industry 
of  the  country.  Keadei's  who  propose  to  enter  the 
business    should    furnish    themselves    with   hand- 


234 


BEE    INDUSTRY 


book 


s,  of  which  there  are  several  of  great  practi- 
cal value  to  the  American  pub- 
lic, and  these  hand-books  should 
be  supplemented  by  secur- 
ing some  live,  current  periodi- 
cal which  makes  a  specialty 
of  the  subject.  The  following 
cuts  show  a  style  much  in  use 
in  countries  of  severe  climates, 
especially  in  England  and 
Scotland.  They  are  covered 
with  straw  wrought  in  such 
manner  as  to  combine  beauty  of 
finish  with  protection  from  cold. 
They  can  be  made  with  or 
without  supers,  and  so  arranged 
as  to  be  conveniently  opened, 
carried  or  weighed.  A  sample 
of  bee-house  is  also  given,  spe- 
cially adapted  to  straw  style  of 
hive,  but,  suggestive  of  other 
styles  adapted  to  various  kinds 
of'  liives.  The  front  and  rear 
views  are  both  given  by  which 
their  method  and  conveni- 
ence in  use  will  be  readily  in- 

BEE-H0U9E.  dicated. 


BEE-HOU.SE  FOR  12   HIVES— FRONT  VIEW. 


BEEHOII.'IE  FOR   12  HIVES— BACK  VIEW. 


The  annexed  illustration  shows  the  ornamental 
zinc  cover,  and  renders 
but  little  description 
necessary.  Three 
clumps  of  wood  must  be 
driven  into  the  ground, 
and  the  three  iron  rods 
supporting  the  cover- 
ing made  fast  to  them 
with  screws;  there  are 
screw-holes  in  the  feet 
of  the  iron  rods  for  the  ' 
purpose.  AVhen  thus 
secured,  but  little  fear 
need  be  entertained  of 
its  being  blown  over  by 
high  winds. 

In  the  roof  two  pul- 
leys are  fixed,  so  that, 
by  attaching  a  cord, 
the  upper  hive  cover- 
i  n  g  the  bell-glass 
supers  may  be  raised 
with  facility  for  the 
purpose  of  observing 
the  progress  made  by 
the  bees. 

The  ornamental  zinc 
cover  will  form  a  pleas- 
ing object  in  the  tiower- 
garden  when  placed  in  a  suitable  position  and 
neatly  painted.  Should  the  box  style  of  hive  be 
used,  as  is  generally  the  case  in  most  sections  of 
the  United  States,  a  change  in  style  of  bee-house 
or  cover  will  be  at  once  suggested. 

Next  we  insert  an  illustration  suggestive  of  a 
convenient  method 
of  weighing  hives,  or 
sections  of  hives,  of 
any  form  of  c  o  n- 
struction. 

Best  Method  of 
Marketing  Ho?cey. 
The  following  paper 
was  read  by  Jlr.  Hen- 
ry Segelken,  of  New 
York  city,  before  the 
State  Bee-Keepers' 
Association,  at  its 
meeting  in  Albany, 
.fan.  22-24,  1891,  and 
is  inserted  by  special 
])erinission.  It  sup- 
jilics  important  in- 
foniiatioii  of  great 
practical  value  to  all 
interested  in,  this 
rapidly  growing  in- 
dustry : 

For  a  ]-lb.  section 
w  e  recommend  a 
single-tier  crate, 
holding  24  or  25  sec- 
tions. While  we  are 
nut  ii))pused  to  the 
d(iublt>-t  ier  crate,  we 
brlieve  I  he  former  is  most  desirable — at  any  rate 
for  unglassed  honey.  If  some  of  the  combs  in  the 
iip|)er  tier  start  to  leak,  they  will  drop  over  the 
combs  in  the  bottom  rows  and  soil  ihe  whole  crate. 

Vi'ry  ofti'ii  tlio  shipper  will  flKUVe  the  wclRlit  down  to 
oiini'i'S,  and  mark  the  crate ;  for  Instance,  pross,  U^s  lbs.  ti  oa. ; 
tare,  1  llis.  I  o/.;  net.  24  lbs.,  2  oz.  The  2  oz.  we  have  to  throw 
olT  e\efy  time— In  fact,  in  some  cases  we  are  eonineileti  to 
tlirow  oil"  iniarters  in  order  to  etTect  n  sale.  .Vli  tills  cfoj  be, 
and  siiould  lie,  avoldetl  by  simply  changing  some  of  tlie  comba 


BEES    AND 


K  E  E  P  I  N  O  —  B  E  E  C  H  E  R 


235 


until  the  crate  will  weigh  m;  I'veu  pound,  or  half  pound,  and 
by  sc  doing  he  will  receive   ['uy   for  every  ounce  of  hoiiev. 
We  would  recommend  to  put  only  the  lirMveigbts  in  plufu 
Hgures  oil  the  end  of  the  crates. 
Vorglflssed  or  unglassed  honey  we  advise  the  use  of  heavy 

f taper  lu  the  bottom  of  the  crate,  turned  up  about  half  an 
nch  on  the  sides.  If  some  of  the  combs  should  be  broken 
dowu  this  will  prevent  the  honey  from  leukliiK  throuKh  the 
crutch  In  addition,  it  is  atlvisiiMe  to  lay  strips  of  wood  of 
about  '4  inch  in  thickness  upon  the  paper,  from  side  to  side, 
for  the  combs  to  rest  on.  Tbis  will  prevent  the  houey  drip- 
ping from  the  broken  combs  from  soiling  the  good  combs. 
Of  course.  It  Is  not  uecessary  to  go  to  this  trouble  when  the 
honey  is  shipped  in  paper  bu.\es. 

For  a  paper  box,  we  recommend  tliose  now  used  by  nearly 
all  the  largest  producers  who  use  a  paper  box.  It  Is  made  of 
heavy  paste-board,  and  is  strong  enough  to  prevent  breakage, 
unless  the  honey  is  haudled  unusually  rough.  Where  honey 
is  i)ut  up  in  paper  boxes,  we  would  advise  the  use  of  a  crate 
holding  25  sections  5  by  5  (single-tier  crate).  Tiie  middle 
section  on  each  side  of  "the  crate  should  be  glassed,  to  show 
the  '(iiality  of  tlie  honey.  Honey  put  up  in  this  style — clean, 
white  crates,  aud  boxes  neatly  labeled— will  always  sell  at 
highest  prices.  ' 


SINGLE-TIER    CRATE. 

"  What  part  of  the  honey  should  be  sent  to  market  in  paper 
boxes,  glassed  or  unglassed  ?"  I'p  to  last  vear  we  have  said, 
about  oue- third  of  each  kind,  as  the  tleiuaucl  was  about  equally 
divided.  We  now  use  .50  per  cent,  glassed,  au  per  cent,  paper 
boxes,  and  20  per  cent,  unglassed.  as  near  as  we  are  able  to 
estimate.  During  the  season  of  uvsil  we  had  more  demand  for 
glassed  honey  than  for  unglassed  or  paper  boxes.  We 
thought,  perhaps,  that  year  was  an  excei>tion.  but  we  have 
had  more  call  for  "glassed  honey  this  last  season 
than  the  year  before,  aud  the  demand  for  same  is  fast 
increasing.  We  could  cot  nearly  fill  our  prders  for  glass^ 
honey  this  year,  and  could  have  sold  thousands  of  crates 
more.  We  tried  to  substitute  paper  boxes  and  unglassed 
honey, but  the  trade  would  not  have  it  in  place  of  the  glassed 
honey.  We  are  of  the  opinion  that  this  demand  for  glassed 
honey  will  be  permanent,  and  we  would  therefore  advise 
producers  to  glass  more  of  their  honey.  It  is  certainly  more 
pri^Uable  to  glass  the  honey  than  to  ship  It  In  unglassed  or 
111  paper  boxes.  The  producer  receives  the  price  of  honey 
for  every  ounce  of  glass;  besides,  glassed  houev  will  bring 
better  prices  than  ungla.ssed.  and  as  good  a  price  as  paper 
boxes.  The  reasons  why  glassed  honey  has  the  preference 
seem  to  be  these :  The  retailer  can  take  every  comb  from  the 
crate  and  make  a  handsome  display  of  it  (this,  of  course,  can 
be  done  with  the  paiier  boxes,  but  the  glass  will  show  the 
quality  of  every  conibi:  the  dust  cannot  settle  on  the  honey, 
and  the  glass  will  |.revent  in(|iilsltive  and  curious  customers 
from  sticking  their  fingers  in  the  comb. 

Next  comes  the  kind  of  section.  For  unglassed  or  paper 
boxes  it  does  not  matter  which  one  is  used — nailed,  dove- 
tailed or  the  one-piece  section.  For  glassed  honey  we  should 
say  the  nailed  or  dovetailed  section  is  the  most  desirable,  as 
the  one-piece  section  does  not  seem  to  be  strong  enough  to 
be  glassed.  Some  jirodncers  will  fasten  the  glass  to  the 
conili  with  small  tin  tags,  others  with  small  wire  nails,  and 
agaiu  others  will  glue  them.  Kithermethod  will  answer  the 
purpose  if  properly  done.  If  glassed,  a  glue  should  be  used 
which  will  'ti'-k  and  Iml^i  the  glass  to  the  section.  We  some- 
times receive  shipments  of  glassed  honey  glued,  and  as  soon 
as  touched  the  glass  will  fall  from  the  sections  and  verv  often 
hurt  the  sale  of  the  honey. 

Another  Item  of  great  importance  Is  to  have  the  sections 
weigh  not  over  one  pound  each,  and  less  if  possible.  Our  mar- 
ket demands  light  weights  at  all  times,  be  the  honev  gla-ised, 
unglassed.  or  in  paper  boxes.  The  latter  two  will  "generally 
weigh  a  little  less  than  a  pound,  while  glassed  sections 
will  In  many  coses  weigh  over  one  iioiind,  especlallv  if  the 
standard  section  is  used — I'.,  by  I' ,  bv  l^^.  We  would  advise 
producers  to  cut  the  section'downin  width  and  adopt  a 
smaller  one,  say  one  i}i  bv  4'.;  by  1'.;  or  even  1'4,80  that  when 

flassed    the  section    will    not  'wefgh    over  II  to  10  ounces. 
Iea\-y  sections  are  generally  rejected,  aud  we  flndjt  slow- 
work  In  moving  them  off. 

For  extracted  honey— basswood,  white  clover  or  buck- 
wheat—we prefer  a  keg  of  about  l.W  lbs.,  half  barrel  of 
aliout  300  lhs..or  even  barrels  of  .tOU  lbs.,  whichever  can  be 
olilaiued  cheapest.  We  would  not  advise  the  use  of  M-lb. 
square  tins  as  used  excluslvelv  In  California.  Our  trade  Is 
accustomed  to  the  wooden  packages  for  all  kinds  of  north- 
ern, eastern,  southern  and  western  honey,  aud  we  see  no  ne- 
cessity lor  a  change.  The  cans  are  more  expensive  than 
kegs  or  half  barrels:  the  honey  In  eases  wll  nut  sell  for  any 
higher  price  consequently  nothing  can  be  gained. 


The  shipping  of  comb-honey  should  be  bv  freight  alto- 
gether. We  would  advise  shippers  to  load  the  honev  in  the 
curs  themselves,  properly  protected.  If  this  is  done  they 
may  feel  sure  that  the  noney  will  arrive  at  its  destina- 
tion in  good  order  under  ordmarv  cireunistaiices.  Another 
point  is  that  honey  should  be  shipped  onlv  In  orieina!  crates. 

We  would  call  your  special  attention  to  the  ';ni.///i./  of  the 
honey,  which  is  as  imiiorlant  a  question  as  anv  of  ihe' former, 
aud  in  which  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken.  Very  often  we 
receive  honey  which  is  not  jiroperlv  graded,  and  where  oil- 
grades  are  mixed  in  with  the  lirst-grade  and  marked  No.  1 
white  honey.  The  outside  combs  will  appearall  right. but  in- 
side of  the  crate  will  be  the  poorer  grade.  We  cannot  lake 
the  trouble  to  open  aud  examine  every  c/'ate  and  comb,  but 
have  to  rely  on  theshipijcr  and  goby  the  mark  and  the  appear- 
ance of  the  crate.  We  sell  and  ship  the  honev,  and  the  llrst 
thing  we  know,  the  party  who  bought  it  will  ■complain  about 
the  quality  and  hold  the  honey  subject  to  our  order,  and  we 
mnit  either  have  the  honey  shipped  back  to  us  or  make  an 
allowance  satisfactory  to  the  buyer.  The  shipper  is  also  dis- 
satislied.  as  generally  he  expects  highest  market  prices,  and 
often  will  not  admit  that  the  honev  was  not  properlv  graded, 
while  no  one  but  himself  is  to  blame.  All  this  can  b"e  avoided 
if  the  honey  is  properly  graded. 

Twogradesol  white  "honey  are  sufficient  for  onr  markets. 
For  "fancy  white."  select  only  what  ix  fancv  white.  For  a 
second  grade  or"  fair  while,"  take  combs  that  are  stained  or 
n  trifle  off  in  color.and  combs  stautilv  lllle<i  around  the  edges. 
Any  combs  mixed  with  dark  or  buckwheat  honev  should  not  be 
put  in  w  ith  the  second  grade,  ^uch  honev  ciinnot  be  sold 
for  white  honey,  and  w  ill  not  sell  for  more'than  buckwheat. 
In  fact,  a  straight  buckwheat  finds  better  sale  than  mixed 
honey.  This  should  be  crated  by  itself  and  marked  "  mixed" 
or  "  dark  "  honey. 

Our  market  demands  a  limited  quantity  of  2-lb.  sections 
About  10  per  cent,  of  the  honey  we  receive  is  In  2-lb.  se<  tlons, 
which  is  sulhcieut  to  supply  the  demand.  Thev  should  be 
glassed  altogether  and  put  in  crates  holding  12  or  l.i  se-Iions. 

Last,  but  not  least."  What  is  the  right  time  ;o  ship  comb- 
honey  to  market?"  We  have  always  advised  earlv  shipping, 
say  during  September  and  first  part  of  October.  Our  experi- 
ence teaches  us  that  the  early  shippers  obtain  best  iirlces 
and  get  quickest  returns,  be  the  crop  large  or  short.  In  all 
our  experience  we  have  imrr  known  the  market  to  advance 
during  November  and  December,  but  It  usnallv  declines  as 
the  season  passes  along. 

BEES  AND  BEE-KEEPING.  For  an  elaborate, 
practical,  highly  interesting  article  on  tliis  subject, 
see  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  484-o03.  It  is  estimated 
that  there  are  in  the  L'nited  States  over  70,000  bee- 
keepers. The  latest  statistics  giving  a  comparison 
of  production  for  different  countries  are  those  of 
1886,  furnishing  the  following  summaries: 


Countries. 

No.  of  hives. 

•neigh t  of 
honey  in  lbs. 

950,000 
1,4&4.000 

110,000 
1,550,000 
200,000 
240,000 
90,000 
30,000 
2.Sflo.noo 

2.3,000.000 

40.000,000 
2.000,000 

40.000,000 
,5,000.000 
6,000,000 
2,000,000 
3,000.000 

62.000,000 

Germanv 

Holland 

Denmark 

United  States 

Total 

7.4J4.000 

1N(,000,000 

Mr.  Harbison,  of  California,  was  then  reported 
as  being  tlie  largest  bee-owner  in  the  world,  having 
6,000  hives,  producing  L'00.000  pounds  of  honey 
yearly,  valued  at  about  $-10,tKH1. 

BEECHEU,  Catiiakink  Esthkr.  eldest  child  of 
Lyman,  liorn  at  East  Hampton,  Long  Island,  Sept. 
6,  1800,  died  at  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  May'  V2.  1878.  She 
was  educated  at  Litchfield  Seminary.  Her  be- 
trothed lover.  Prof.  Kisher  of  Yale,  was  drowned 
while  on  a  voyage  to  Europe,  and  her  sorrow  was 
so_  great  that,  according  to  her  brollier,  Henry 
Ward,  her  religious  faith  was  almost  shipwrecked, 
and  she  only  found  relief  by  plunging  into  a  lih>  of 
great  activity.  The  cause  of  female  education  was 
very  dear  to  her  heart,  and  in  18-.'2  she  started  a 
school  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  for  young  ladies.  For 
ten  years  the  school  was  carried  on,  and  Harriet 
Beecher  assisted  in  the  teaching.    The  institution 


236 


BEECHER 


prospered,  and  160  pupils  were  in  attendance.  She 
was  the  author  of  some  school-books,  several  works 
tin  the  woman  question,  and  a  number  of  books  on 
religion.  She  believed  and  taught  that  pliysical 
and  moral  training  should  receive  the  same  atten- 
tion as  intellectual  development.  For  two  years  she 
conducted  a  school  in  Cincinnati,  0.  She  assisted 
ex-Governor  Slade,  of  Vermont,  in  a  plan  for  sup- 
plying women  teachers  in  the  great  West.  Miss 
Beecher  was  an  intensely  practical  woman,  earnest, 
patient,  energetic,  and  of  great  good-humor.  She 
did  not  approve  of  classical  and  modern  music, 
neither  was  she  an  admirer  of  art.  For  many  years 
she  worked  under  the  disadvantage  of  great  phy.s- 
ical  weakness.  In  her  youth  she  was  a  Presbyte- 
rian, but  in  after  years  she  became  a  member  of  the 
Episcopal  church. 

tjiiKvJHKK  Cii.iELKS,  son  of  Lyman,  born  at 
Litchfield,  Conn..  Oct.  ",  1S1.5.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Boston  Latin  Scliool,  the  Lawrence  Academy  at 
ii  roton,  Mass.,  Bowdoin  College,  and  Lane  Seminary, 
lie  became  a  minister  and  was  installed  pastor  of  the 
Second  Presbyterian  church  at  Fort  Wayne,  Ind., 
in  1844.  The  First  Congregational  Church.ot  New- 
ark, New  Jersey,  was  his  next  charge;  and  from 
here  he  went  to  tlie  First  Congregational  Church 
in  Georgetown,  Mass.  He  spent  seven  years  in 
Florida,  and  on  his  return  was  made  i^astor  of  a 
church  at  AVysox.  Pa.  Mr.  Beecher  is  a  fine 
musician,  and  assisted  in  compiling  the  Pli/monlh 
Co'lcction  01  Hymns  ond  Tunes.  He  has  published 
Darid  and  JJis  Throne,  Pen  Pictures  of  the  Bible, 
Aiitohiogrnijhy  and  Correspondence  oj  Lyman  Beecher, 
and  a  few  other  works. 

BEECHER,  Eow.Min.  son  of  Lyman,  born  at  East 
Hampton,  L.  I.,  Aug.  27,  1S03.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  in  !!-,-'2,  and  studied  theology  at  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary  and  at  iNew  Haven.  He  was  called 
to  the  Park  Street  Church,  of  Boston,  where  he 
remained  lor  four  years,  and  then  was  tendered 
the  p.-esidency  of  Illinois  College  at  Jacksonville, 
Subsei|ueiilly  l;e  was  pastor  of  the  Salem  Street 
Church  in  Boston,  and  tlie  Congregational  Church 
at  Gaiesburg,  Illinois,  Chicago  Theological  Sem- 
inary called  liim  to  the  chair  of  exegesis.  In  1872 
he  left  the  ministry  and  removed  to  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
He  has  been  a  constant  writer  for  journals,  and 
was  editor  of  tlie  "Congregationalist  "  for  six  years. 
He  wrote  two  books,  Coiiflirt  of  j,jes,  and  Concord  of 
Ages,  which  created  considerable  discussion  from 
the  fact  that  lie  advanced  the  theory  that  "man's 
present  life  is  an  outgrowth  of  a  former  life  as  well 
as  a  prelude  to  a  future  one."  He  has  jniblished 
Bermons,  addresses  and  several  religious  books. 

BEECHER,  Eunice  Wiinic  Bull.\rd,  wife  of 
Henry  Ward  Beecher,  born  at  West  Sutton,  Wor- 
cester county,  Mass.,  Aug.  2ii,  1812.  She  received 
her  education  at  Iladley,  .Mass.,  and  after  a  seven 
years'  engagement  she  married  .Mr.  Beecher  aiid 
went  to  live  in  Lawreiiceliurg,  Ind.  In  her  early 
married  life  she  wrote  tlic  story,  Pn,i,i  /hi,rn  to  Day 
lirjht.  She  has  since  published  .Vutherh/  Talks  with 
}  oung  Housekeepers,  Letters  J'roui  Florida.  All  Around 
the  nou.se,  and  Ilome,  and  since  her  husband's  death 
she  has  been  engaged  on  a  series  of  articles  for  the 
"Ladies  Home  Journal,"  entitled,  Mr.  Beecher  as  I 
Knew  Him. 

BEP"CHEI!,Gi:()i!r,K,  son  of  Lyman,  born  at  East 
Hampton.L.  I.,May  (i,  18iMi,diedatChillii'olhe,  Ohio, 
Inly  I,  1843.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Yale,  studied 
theology,  and  served  successively  as  pastor  of  Pres- 
byterian churches  at  Rocliester,  N.  Y.,  and  Cliilli- 
cothe.  His  death  was  caused  by  the  accidental 
discharge  of  a  gun. 

BEECHKR,  Hahuirt.  See  Stowk,  Harriet 
Heecher.  <n  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 


BEECHER,  Hexky  W.\ed,  the  most  famous  son 
of  Lyman  Beecher,  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  June 
24,  1813,  died  at  Brooklyn, X.  Y,,March  8,  1887.  Kis 
studies  were  pursued  at  the  Boston  Latin  School, 
Mount  Pleasant  Institute,  Amherst  College,  and 
Lane  Seminary.  He  was  first  installed  as  pastor 
of  thePresbyterian  Church  at  Lawrenceburt.-.  Ind., 
in  183/.  About  this  time  he  married  Eunice  White, 
the  daughter  of  Dr.  Artenias  Bullard.  From  1839 
to  1847  he  preached  at  Indianapolis,  and  then  was 
called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  new  Congregational 
Church  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  Mr,  Beecher  soon 
acquired  the  reputation  of  being  a  great  pulpit 
orator.  He  had  a  flexible  voice,  was  foi.d  of  using 
illustrations,  his  good-humor  was  inexhaustiL'e, 
and  ho  was  fearless  in  denounci^ig  social  ;;nd  polit- 
ical evils.  All  these  qualities  contributed  to  make 
the  pastor  of  Plymouth  Church  exceedingly  p  >pu- 
lar.  In  1882  Mr.  Beecher  disavowed  his  beliei  in 
eternal  punishment:  As  a  platform  lecturer  Mr. 
Beecher's  services  were  in  great  demand,  and  his 
sermons  were  for  years  published  under  the  title  of 
Plinnmith  Pulpit.  He  was  an  active  supporter  of 
the  liepnbliean  party  until  1884,  when  he  voted  for 
the  Liemocratic  nominee  for  the  presidency.  At  the 
centennial  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  Roijert  Burns 
(Jan.  1859),  Mr.  Beecher  was  requested  to  deliver 
the  oration,  and  this  has  been  considered  one  of  his 
most  eloquent  speeches.  He  delivered  the  oration 
at  Fort  Sumter  in  1865,  on  the  anniversary  of  its 
surrender.  In  1878  he  was  elected  chaplain  of  the 
13th  Regiment,  National  Giuards,  State  of  Kew 
York.  AVhen  Henry  W.  Sag<'  founded  the  '"Lyman 
Beecher  Lectureship"  in  Yale,  ]Mr.  Beecher  gave 
the  first  three  courses.  In  1874  arose  the  "Tilton 
and  Beecher  scandal,"  which,  when  brought  into 
church  trial,  resulted  in  ]\Ir.  Beecher's  favor,  Mr, 
Tilton  carried  the  matter  into  the  civil  courts,  but 
the  inry  disagreed,  standing  nine  to  three  in  Mr. 
beecher's  favor.  Mr.  Beecher  at  one  time  edited 
the  "Cincinnati  Journal,"  and  afterwards  the  "Farm- 
er and  Gardener,"  the  '  Xew  York  Independent"  ( for 
about  20  years)  and  the  "Christian  Union."  His 
list  of  published  books  is  a  long  one.  Some  of  the 
liest  known  are  Star  Papers,  Lectures  to  Young  Men, 
Aids  to  Prayer,  Xorwood  (a  novel),  Yale  Lectures  on 
Preaching,  and  a  Life  of  Christ.  He  printed  the 
Plymouth  CoIlcctio7i  oi'  ILymns  and  Tunes,  and  from 
his  jiulpit  discourses  were  compiled  the  books.  IJfe 
Thoughts,  Notes  from  Plymouth  Pulpit,  Comforting 
Tliiiughls,  and  others. 

liKECHEU,  J.VMEs  Chaplin,  son  of  Lyman,  born 
at  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  8,  1828,  died  at  Elniira,  N.  Y., 


Auii 


1S,S6.      He   graduated   at    Dartmouth    in 


1848, and  afterwards  pursued  his  theological  studies 
at  Andover,  being  ordained  a  Congregational  min- 
ister in  1856.  He  was  chaplain  of  the  Seamen's 
Bethel  in  (-'anton  and  Hong-Kong,  China,  until 
ISlil,  and  in  l,8(ii-(iL'  cliaplain  of  tl'.e  first  New 
York  Infantrv.  lie  was  lieutenant-colonel  of  the 
141st  {18(i2-(),3),  colonel  of  the  thirty-fifth  I'.  S. 
colored  troops  {three  years),  and  in  1866  was 
mustered  out  of  service  as  brevet  brigadier-gen- 
eral. After  the  war  ho  held  pastorates  at  Owego, 
Poughkeeiisie  and  Brooklyn,  X.  Y.  He  l>ecaine 
insane,  and  after  three  years  of  sufl'ering  com- 
milli'd  siiiride  at  I'.lniira. 

BFKCll  l'',l\,  1.VM\N,  born  in  New  Haven.  Conn., 
Oct.  2,  177.\  died  in  P.rooklyn.  .N.Y„Jaii.  16,  18(i,3. 
He  was  the  descendant  of  a  New  England  family, 
whose  original  ancestors  settled  in  New  Haven  in 
16.^.  His  father  was  a  blacksmith,  and,  in  conse- 
quence oi  his  mother's  death,  he  was  adopted  by  his 
uncle,  Lot  Benton.  Rev.  Thomns  Bray  lilted  him 
for  college,  and  he  graduated  from  Yale  in  1797. 
Having  i<i'rsued  the  study  of  theology  during  bis 


BKEC  II  E  11  — BEE  F    TEA 


237 


college  term,  he  was  lioensed  to  preach  a  year 
later,  and  began  his  clerical  lalior  in  llie  Presby- 
terian (Miurch  at  East  Haniptun,  L.  I.,  where  he 
remained  for  eleven  years.  He  had  married  Kox- 
ana  Foote,  and,  as  his  salary  was  only  $400  a  year, 
his  wife  taught  a  private  school  to  assist  in  the 
support  of  the  family.  He  was  obliged  to  resign 
his  charge  and  move  to  Litchlield,  Conn.,  where  he 
could  get  a  better  salary.  Here  he  remained  for 
sixteen  years,  winning  fame  by  his  eloijuent  ser- 
mons and  hi.s  fearless  denunciations  of  intemper- 
ance. The  Hanover  Church  of  Boston  called  liim 
to  its  pastorate.  This  was  a  time  of  religious  con- 
troversy, for  Dr.  Channinghad  broken  with  Congre- 
gationalism, and  many  people  wore  following  his 
lead.  In  this  controversy  iJr.  Lyman  iJeeclier  took 
an  active  part,  warmly  upholding  l^uritan  doctrine. 
After  remaining  here  six  years  ho  was  called  to 
the  presidency  of  the  new  Lane  Theological  Semi- 
nary, near  Ciiicinnati  and  the  pastorale  of  the 
fSeeond  Presbyterian  Church  of  that  city.  The 
question  of  slavery  began  to  be  discussed  in  the 
seminary,  and,  asmanyj:>f  the  students  were  from 
the  South,  the  debate  became  violent.  The  t  ru^tees 
forbade  further  discussion,  and  all  the  students  left 
the  seminary.  Some  were  induced  to  return,  but 
this  secession  destroyed  the  prosjierity  of  the 
seminary,  and  Dr.  Beecher  was  unable  to  build 
it  up  again.  In  1S35  he  was  tried  on  the  charges 
of  heresy  and  hypocrisy  by  some  of  the  more  rigid 
Calvinists,  but'  was  acquitted.  Leaving  Lane 
Seminary  in  1842,  he  returned  to  Boston  and  gave 
up  his  time  to  the  revision  of  his  Inioks.  The  last 
years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  Brooklyn,  at  the 
tiome  of  Henry  Ward  Beecher.  lie  was  famous  for 
the  boldness  with  which  he  denounced  intemper- 
ance and  other  evils  of  the  times.  Among  his  pub- 
lications are:  Remedy  for  Dueling,  Sij:  Serniomt  on 
Temperiince,  Skejitici'sin,  Pnlitical  Atheism.  He  was 
three  times  married,  and  was  the  father  of  thirteen 
children,  most  of  whom  achieved  distinction. 

BEECHKK,  Thomas  Ki.nnic-it.  son  of  Lyman, 
born  at  Litchfield.  Conn.,  Feb.  10,  1824.  His  educa- 
tion was  completed  at  Hlinois  College,  of  which  his 
elder  brother,  Charles,  was  then  president.  After 
graduating,  he  was  successively  tho  iirincipal  of  the 
Northeast  Grammar  School  at  Philadelphia.  nS4()- 
48),  and  the  Hartford  High  School  in  Connecticut. 
In  18.52  he  was  installed  pastor  of  a  Congregational 
Church  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  Two  years  later  he 
removed  to  Elmira,  X.  Y.,  where  he  was  given  the 
care  of  the  Congregational  Church.  Mr.  Beecher 
has  traveled  in  Europe,  South  .\merica  and  Cali- 
fornia;  has  published  a  book  entitled.  Our  fyeren 
Clnirehru,  anc^served  four  moni  lis  in  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  as  chaplain  of  the  141st  New  York  volun- 
teers, in  IsiiM.  He  has  been  afre(iuent  contributor  to 
the  "Elmira  .Vdvertiser,"  and  is  (|uite  a  popular  lec- 
turer. He  is  a  well-known  philanthropist,  unsec- 
tariaii  and  fraternal  with  regard  to  other  Christian 
denominations. 

BEEDEli,  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same 
name  in  the  Nizam's  territories,  about  seventy-five 
miles  to  the  northwest  of  Hyderabad,  being  in  lati- 
tude 17°  53'  north,  and  longitude  77°  30'  east.  It 
stands  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Manjera,  a  con- 
siderable tributary  of  the  Godavery,  and  occupies 
a  table  land  alioiit  2.400  feet  above  the  sea,  and  100 
feet  above  the  adjacent  country.  Though  it  was 
formerly  a  place  of  grandeur  and  importance,  yet 
it  is  at  present  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  manuf.ict- 
ures  in  a  compound  metal  made  up  of  twenty-four 
parts  of  tin  to  one  of  copper. 

r.EE-E.\TEI{  ( MeroiiK),  a  genus  of  birds  found 
in  .\sia,  .\fricn.  and  Southern  Europe.  They  are 
nearly  allied  to  the  kinglishers,  have  rather  long. 


slightly  arched  beaks,  long,  pointed  wings,  and  are 
mostly  of  a  green  color.  Jn  flight  they  resemlile 
the  swallow,  and,  like  that  bird,  they  feed  on  in- 
sects, but  chiefly  on  bees  and  wasi)s. 

BEEF-EATEHS,  a  term  apjilied  to  certain  Eng- 
lish functionaries,  the  yeomen  of  the  Koyal  Guard, 
who'have  formed  part  of  the  train  of  the  sovereign 
since  the  time  of  Henry  ^'II,  on  state  occasions. 
The  wardens  of  the  Tower  of  London  are  well 
known  as  "  the  Queen's  Beef-eaters."  Their  cos- 
tume or  livery  has  been  the  same  for  four  centuries, 
with  the  exception  of  some  slight  changes  made  in 
185S. 

BEEF-EATERS,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  order 
lusessores,  tribe  VoDlroKlre:!.  to  which  the  name 
ox-pecker  is  more  correctly  given.  They  have  short 
bills,  square  at  the  base,  and  rather  swollen  at  the 
point.  They  are  accustomed  to  sit  on  the  backs  of 
buffaloes,  camels,  and  other  large  animals,  and 
feed  upon  the  larva  of  gadflies,  which  they  find  in 
their  hides.  They  are  exclusively  African.  Living- 
stone mentions  that,  the  sight  of  the  bird  being 
much  more  acute  than  that  of  the  buffalo,  it  is 
much  more  easily  alarmed  by  the  approach  of  dan- 
ger, and  the  buffaloes  always  begin  to  look  about 
when  the  birds  rise  from  their  backs. 

BEEF,  Sii'i'i.v  OF,  IX  THK  U.MTKD  St.\tes.  See 
Britannica,  Vol.  I,  pp.  3S7-SI1.  The  United  States 
otiicial  statistics  show  a  gradual  increase  both  in 
iHimberof  cattle  and  beef  products.  In  1889  the 
total  number  of  cattle  was  4i),417,101,  and  a  large 
increase  for  every  year  of  the  decade.  The  number 
of  milch  cows  was  "!."),;!(II),!I34,  and  of  other  cattle  34,- 
110,107.  The  number  and  value  of  lieef  cattle  and 
value  of  beef  products  exported  to  other  countries 
during  the  same  year  had  reached  the  following 
totals:  Number  of  live  cattle  exported,  140,208; 
number  of  pounds  of  canned  beef,  51, 02.5 J?54  ;  fresh 
beef,  137,895,301;  salted  or  cured  beef,  55j?00.435; 
tallow,  77, 844..5-55;  these  products  having  a  total 
value  of  $22,.S(i0.240. 

IMulhall's  Dictionary  of  Statistics,  issued  in  1886, 
rojiortod  the  figures  of  the  following  comparative 
tabloof  production  and  consumption  of  beef  per 
annum  in  various  countries  of  the  world: 


Couutries. 

Produc- 
tion in 
tons. 

Consump- 
tion in 
tons. 

C'onsumplion, 
pounds  per 
inhabitant. 

riiited  States 

I'nited  Kingdom 

France  

(ierniaiiy 

1 .750,000 
Will.OOO 
.5.->0,000 
7.S:-.,000 

1.050,000 
tWi.OOO 

]ia,ooo 

170,000 
82,000 
115,000 
80,000 

150,000 
12,000 

160,000 

135,000 

:^,of.o,oflo 

1. wo  ,000 

1.210. 000 

1, -105,000 

1,920,000 

l,09fl,(MKt 

295,000 

■ICO.OOO 

190,1100 

9.S.IHHI 

7l">,IMK) 

i'.ii;.nKi 

SI  ,000 
800,000 
198,000 

'      02 
52 
40 
-10 

KnsBla 

24 
R7 

Jtnlv          

12 

Spniii  and  Portugal 

10 
4-1 

Holland 

42 

Denmark 

Sweden  und  Norway... 

:;i 

IS 

62 

Total  In  Europe,  Can- 
ada, and  I!.  S 

n/)05,ooo 

12,109,000 

The  same  authority  estimates  the  production  of 
beef  in  .-Australia  and  in  the  .-Vrgentine  Kepublic  in 
the  same  year  at  0.50,000  tons.  See  also  Food  and 
Mk.vt,  in  "these  Kevisions  and  .Vdditions. 

BEEF  TEA,  a  light  and  pleasant  article  of  diet, 
principally  for  the  sick,  is  made  from  lean  beef  cut 
into  small  pieces  and  allowed  to  stand  some  time 
in  cold  water,  and  then  set  over  a  slow  fire,  where 


238 


BEEHIVE- HO  USE  —  BEET  SUGAR 


it  will  simmer  without  boiling.     A  little  salt  should 
then  lie  added. 

BEEHIVE-HOUSE,  or  II it,  the  name  popularly 
applied  to  dome-shaped  buildings  in  Ireland,  consid- 
ered the  most  ancient  architectural  remains  in  that 
country.  They  are  round,  of  medium  size  and 
height,  constructed  of  long,  thin  stones  arranged. 


BEEHIVE-HOrSES. 

without  cement,  in  horizontal  layers  slightly  over- 
lapping, and  so  gradually  converging  until  they 
meet  at  the  top.  The  square-headed  doorway,  as  in 
the  Egyptian  style,  narrows  toward  the  top.  See 
Britanfcica,  Vol.  II,  p.  384;  Vol.  Ill,  p.  397. 

BEER,  Adolf,  an  Austrian  historical  writer,  born 
in  Moravia  in  1831.  He  was  professor  of  history 
successively  in  several  institutions  of  learning,  no- 
tably the  technical  high  school  in  Vienna,  where 
most  of  his  historical  works,  and  the  results  of  his 
extensive  travels,  have  been  written. 

BEER-MONEY,  a  peculiar  payment  to  private 
soldiers  in  the  English  army.  It  was  established  in 
1800,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Duke  of  York,  and 
consisted  of  one  penny  per  day  for  troops  when  on 
home-service,  as  a  substitute  for  an  issue  of  beer 
and  spirits.  It  still  continues  as  an  addition  to 
the  daily  pay,  and  something  in  the  mode  of  keep- 
ing military  accounts  induces  the  authorities  to 
allow  it  to  figure  as  a  separate  item,  instead  of  be- 
ing consolidated  with  the  other  elements  of  a  sol- 
dier's pay. 

BEERSHEBA  SPRINGS,  a  fashionable  watering 
place  of  Tennessee,  situated  on  a  spur  of  the  Cum- 
berland Mountain,  near  McMinnville.  It  is  noted 
for  its  saline  and  chalybeate  springs  and  its  beauti- 
ful scenery. 

BEESHA,  a  genus  of  grasses  with  the  habit  and 
most  of  the  characters  of  bamboos,  but  remarkable 
for  the  fleshy  pericarp  which  incloses  the  seed, 
forming  a  sort  of  berry.  The  species  are  few  and 
are  natives  of  the  East  Indies. 

BEESTINGS,  sometimes  written  Biestinos,  the 
first  milk  yielded  by  a  cow  after  calving;  also  for- 
merly applied  to  the  disease  caused  by  drinking 
such  milk. 

BEESWAX,  tlie  wax  which  is  secreted  by  bees, 
And  of  whicli  their  cells  are  constructed.  See  Bri- 
tannica.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  4Sf.;  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  459. 

BEESWING,  a  film  which  resembles  the  wing  of 
a  bee,  and  which  appears  upon  certain  old  wines, 
especially  port.  The  wine  itself  is  often  called 
beeswing,  or  is  said  to  be  beoswinged,  referring  to 
its  age. 

BEET-FLY,  an  insect  which  infests  crops  of 
mangold-wurzel,  and  otlier  kinds  of  beet,  deposit- 
ing its  eggs  on  the  leaves,  the  soft  parts  of  which 
the  larvic  devour,  causing  them  to  assume  a 
blistered  a|ipearance,  and,  when  numerous,  inj;iring 
tlie  health  of  the  [ilants.  It  is  a  Ivvo-wiriged  insect 
of  the  family  Mimcides,  but  not  so  large  as  the 
common  house-fly. 

BEI^rrLE-STONRS,  the  name  given  by  the  lapi- 
daries of  Edinburgh,  to  hard  nodules  of  clay  iron- 


stone, found  abvindantly  in  a  low  clifT,  composed  oi 
shale,  at  Newhaven.  near  Leith, or  strewed  upon  the 
beach  in  that  neighborhood.  They  take  a  beautiful 
polish,  and  have  been  employed  to  make  letter- 
weights,  and  otlier  ornamental  articles.  Some  of 
the  nodules  contain  fossil  fish,  and  some  a  fossil  of 
vegetable  origin.  See  Coprolites,  Britannica,  Vol. 
VI,  p.  353. 

BEETLING,  a  finishing  mechanical  process,  ap- 
plied originally  to  linen  shirting,  and  afterwards  to 
cotton  shirting,  in  imitation  of  linen,  to  give  the 
cloth  a  liard  and  wiry  look,  by  flattening  the  yarn 
irregularly  in  an  angled  manner.  Beetling  is  like- 
wise a  process  in  flax-dressing,  to  separate  the 
woody  from  the  flexible  fibers  of  the  plant. 

BEET-ROOT  SUGAR,  the  sugar  which  is  ob- 
tained from  the  beet,  but  which,  although  similar 
to  cane  sugar,  is  inferior  in  sweetening  power. 
Beet  root  contains  an  average  of  about  ten  per 
cent,  of  saccharine  matter,  and  sugar-cane  eight 
per  cent,  more ;  the  white  Slesvig  beet  yields  the 
best  sugar.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  I,  p.  381 ;  VoL 
XXII,  pp.  626,627. 

BEET  SUGAR.  In  1889-90  the  total  yield  of  beet 
sugar  for  the  year  was  over  3,600,000  tons.  The  Ger- 
man product  was  1,250,000  tons,  the  French  750,000 
tons,  Russia  480,000  tons,  Austria-Hungary  730,000 
tons.  The  total  product  was  nearly  50  per  cent, 
more  than  that  of  1SS7-88.  Only  a  small  amount  of 
the  total  product  was  reported  by  the  United  States. 
Indeed,  the  sugar-beet  culture  in  this  country  is 
only  just  beginning  as  a  great  industry.  The  im- 
mediate future,  however,  is  full  of  promise.  Inves- 
tigations by  the  Agricultural  Department  in  "Wash- 
ington in  respect  to  the  production  of  sugar  from 
the  sugar-beet  have  been  of  the  most  extensive 
nature.  During  the  early  spring  of  1890, 5,000  pack- 
ages of  sugar-Vieet  seed  of  the  most  apjiroved  va- 
rieties were  obtained  from  European  growers  and 
sent  to  all  persons  in  the  country  who  had  applied 
for  them.  Arrangements  were  also  made  by  which 
the  beets,  after  maturity,  could  be  sent  to  the  De- 
partment for  analysis.  As  a  result  of  this  arrange- 
ment beets  were  received  from  about  one  tliousand 
different  localities  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and 
these  were  analyzed  in  the  laboratory.  The  results 
of  the  analysis  are,  for  the  most  part,  extremely  fa- 
vorable, especially  with  those  varieties  wliich  came 
from  the  northern  and  central  nortions  of  the 
country.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  beets  con- 
taining 15  per  cent,  of  sugar,  while  in  exceptional 
cases  the  percentage  of  sugar  lias  riso;;  as  high  as 
20.  Many  beets  were  found  of  a  strictly  typical 
character,  combining  a  perfect  shape  with- the 
proper  weight  and  a  high  content  of  sugar.  A  typ- 
ical sugar-beet  is  conical  in  siiape,  smooth  in  its  ex- 
ternal contour,  with  a  white,  solid  interior,  weigh- 
ing about  one  iiound.and  having  a  content  of  sugar 
of  about  14  per  cent.  I\Iany  samples  of  such  beets 
were  received  by  tiie  Department,  showing  that  it 
is  possible  to  produce  in  the  United  States  sugar- 
beets  of  the  liighest  type. 

A  large  beet  sugar  factory  has  been  erected  at 
Grand  Island,  Nebraska,  equipped  with  the  most 
approved  modern  machinery,  and  this  factory  is 
now  working  sugar-beets  at  tlie  rate  of  300  tons  per 
day.  Tliere  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  en- 
couragement whieli  lias  been  extended  to  the  sugar- 
beet  iiidiist  ry,  by  the  investigations  of  tlie  Depart- 
ment and  by  act  of  Congress,  will  result  ere  long  in 
the  establishment  of  many  additional  sugar  fac- 
tories in  those  iiortionsof  the  country  wliicli  the 
data  olitaiiied  by  the  Deiiartment  show  to  be  best 
suited  fiirth(>  ]nir|)ose.  When  it  is  considered  that 
250  beet  sugar  factories  of  tlie  size  and  capacity  of 
those  now  in  operation  in  California  and  Nebraska 


BEET  S— B  E  G-  S  11  E  H  R 


239 


will  be  sufficient  to  make  oif-ha!/  of  Ihe  total  sugar 
consumfd  in  the  L'liileJ  StatfK,  it  is  not  idle  to  expect 
that  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  a  large  proportion 
of  the  sugar  consumed  in  this  country  will  be  made 
from  the  sugar-beet. 

An  intelligent  observ-.-r  of  the  rapidly  growing 
interest  now  developing  in  several  States  on  this 
subject,  expressas  the  opinion  that  in  live  years  the 
people  of  the  United  States  will  produce  all  the 
sugar  needed  for  the  home  supply. 

BEET.S,  XicoL.iEs,  a  Dutch  poet,  was  horn  at 
Haarlem  in  1814.  He  became  pastor  of  a  church  at 
Heemstede,  in  18;5S:  in  1854  he  removed  to  L'trecht, 
where,  in  1875,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
theology  in  the  university.  Besides  his  poems  he 
is  the  author  of  numerous  literary  and  religious 
works.     See  Britannica.  Vol.  XH,  p.  98. 

BEFFA_NA,  a  corruption  of  7i/)/)//i(»n/(i  CEpiphany), 
and  the  name  applied  to  a  peculiar  ltali;in  custom 
prevailing  on  Tliree  Kings'  Day,  or  Twelfth  Night. 
Tradition  says  that,  the  Beffana  was  an  old  woman 
who,  being  busily  engaged  in  house-cleaning  when 
the  three  wise  men  of  the  East  passed  by  on  their 
way  to  offer  their  treasures  to  the  infant  Saviour, 
excused  herself  for  not  going  out  to  see  them,  on  the 
ground  that  she  would  have  an  opportunity  of  doing 
so  when  they  returned.  She,  not  knowing  that 
they  went  home  by  another  road,  has  been  ever 
since  watching  for  them.  She  is  supposed  to  take 
a  great  interest  in  children,  who,  on  Twelfth  Night, 
are  put  to  bed  early,  a  stocking  of  each  being  hung 
before  the  fire.  Soon  the  cry  Erco  In  Btffann  is 
raised,  when  the  children  jump  up  and  seize  their 
6tockings,  each  of  which  contains  a  present  bearing 
some  proportion  in  value  to  the  conduct  of  the 
child  during  the  year.  One  whose  behavior  has 
been  particularly  l)ad  finds  his  strx!king  filled  with 
ashes,  in  token  of  the  Beffana's  displeasure.  There 
was  a  custom  in  Italy  of  carrying  an  effigy  called 
theBelTana,on  Twelfth  Night,  in  procession  through 
the  streets,  with  much  demonstration  ;  it  was  prob- 
ably the  relic  of  one  of  the  "  mysteries  "  of  the  Mid- 
dle .\ges. 

BEFFROI,  the  name  of  a  tower  used  in  the  mili- 
tary sieges  of  ancient  or  medireval  times.  When  a 
town  was  to  be  besieged,  this  beffroi,  which  was 
movable,  and  as  high  as  the  walls,  was  brought  near 
it.  These  towers  were  to  cover  the  approach  of 
troops,  the  highest  being  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
stories,  or  stages,  placed  ut>on  six  or  eight  wheels. 
They  were  often  covered  with  rawhides  to  protect 
them  from  the  boiling  grease  and  oil  directed 
against  them  by  the  besieged.  .Vt  the  top  there  was 
a  ninged  drawbridge,  to  let  down  upon  tlie  parapet 
of  the  wall  to  aid  in  landing.  Caesar  used  tnis 
tower  in  his  campaigns  in  Gaul. 

BEG,  or  Bev,  a  Turkish  title,  rather  vague  in  its 
import,  and  commonly  given  to  superior  military 
officers,  sliip-captains  and  distinsuished  foreign- 
ers. More  strictly  it  applies  to  the  governor  of  a 
small  district,  who  bears  a  horse-tail  as  a  sign  of 
his  rank.  "  Beglerbep,"  or,  more  correctly,  Beiler- 
begi  (lord  of  lords),  is  the  title  given  to  the  gover- 
nor of  a  province  who  l)ears  three  horse-tails  as  his 
badge  of  honor,  and  has  authority  over  several 
begs,  agas,  etc. 

BEGijAK,  one  who  solicits  charity  from  the  pub- 
lic. The  word  is  supposeU  to  have  some  connection 
witli  the  fraternity  known  as  Brghards.  Beggifig, 
however,  became  so  conspicuous  a  feature  among 
these  mendicant  orders  that  the  term  originally 
applied  to  their  sacred  duties  si-enis  early  to  have 
acquired  its  modern  vulgar  acceptation.  In  a  civ- 
ilizeil,  industrious  country,  the  beggar,  to  have  any 
chance  of  relief,  must  succi-ed  in  making  the  iiii- 
pression,  whether  true  or  false,  that  he  is  in  actual 


need  of  alms  to  keep  him  from  starving.  Among 
Oriental  nations,  on  the  other  hand,  this  class  is 
rather  considered  as  endowed  with  the  privilege  of 
taxing  their  fellow-men  than  as  objects  of  com- 
passion. It  has  sometimes  been  supposed  that  a 
residue  of  this  feeling  of  superiority  characterizes 
the  mental  physiology  of  the  mendicant  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  that,  abject  as  he  seems,  he  considers 
himself  to  some  extent  a  privileged  person  entitled 
to  support  without  toiling  asdo  the  working  classes. 
In  Europe,  during  the  Middle  Agts,  those  doctrines 
of  Christianity  which  teach  the  abjuration  of  selfish- 
ness and  worldy-mindethiess  were  exaggerated  into 
l)rofession  of  total  abstraction  from  worldly  cares 
and  pursuits.  Hence  arose  the  large  bodv  of  relig- 
ionists, who,  as  hermits,  or  members  of  tfie  mendi- 
cant orders,  lived  on  the  contributions  of  others. 
Later  on  these  orders  became  the  proudest  and 
richest  of  the  clergy ;  but  while  the  chiefs  lived  in 
affluence  the  practices  of  the  lower  adherents 
fostered  througliout  Europe  an  injurious  system  of 
mendicancy. 

BEi;t;AK-MY-NEIGHBOR,  a  game  of  cards 
usually  played  by  two  persons,  between  whom  the 
cards  are  divided. 

BEGHARill,  or  B.\oiR.Mr,  a  country  of  Central 
Africa,  about  240  miles  in  length,  and  150  tniles  in 
breadth.  Begharmi  proper  is  ilat,  slightly  inclining 
toward  the  north,  its  general  elevation  being  about 
1,000  feet  above  sea  level.  From  the  numerous  de- 
serted villages  in  the  country  it  appears  that  the 
population  was  once  much  greater  than  at  present. 
The  people  are  grossly  superstitious ;  many  are 
pagans,  although  ^loliammedanism  has  been  intro- 
duced among  them. 

BEGKOS,  or  Beikos,  a  large  village  of  Anatolia, 
on  the  Bosporus,  eight  miles  from  Scutari,  said  to 
be  the  place  of  the  contest  between  Pollux  and 
Amycus,  in  which  the  latter  was  killed.  .\t  the 
commencement  of  the  Crimean  war  the  allied  fleets 
anchored  in  Begkos  Bay,  prior  to  their  entering  tlie 
Black  Sea  in  1854. 

BEGONIA,  a  genus  of  exogenous  plants,  typify- 
ing the  natural  order  Befjnrdaccit.  and  found  in 
nearly  all  warm  regions.  The  various  si>ecies  are 
extensively  cultivated  on  account  of  the  brilliancy 
of  their  flowers.  The  stalks  of  certain  species  are 
use<l  in  cookery.  Some  species,  also,  are  used  as 
purgative  medicines.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XII, 
p.  2l>5. 

BEGONI.\CE.E,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  named  in  honor  of  Micliael  Bcgon,  a  French 
patron  of  science.  They  are  herbaceous,  with 
alternate  leaves,  which  are  oblique  at  the  base  and 
have  large  dry 
stipules;  the 
flowers  are  in 
cymes,  unisex- 
ual, the  i)eri- 
anth  colored, 
witli  four  un- 
equal divisions 
in  the  male 
flowers,  and 
five  or  eight  in 
the  female ;  the 
stamens  are 
numerous;  the  fruit  is  membranou*,  winged,  three- 
celled,  bursting  by  slits  at  the  base,  the  seeds 
minute.  The  order  contains  160  known  species,  all 
of  which  have  pink  flowers. 

BEGONIELl..\.  a  genus  of  exogenous  plants  of 
the  natural  order  li'-rfduinreoe,  indigenous  to  tha 
United  Sf:iles  of  ("olombia. 

BF,<;-SIIK1II:.  a  fresh-water  lake  of  Asia  Minor 
Karaniania.  44  miles  southwest  of  Koniyeh,   pre- 


BEGO.MACF.E. 


240 


BEGTASHI  —  BELE]\INITES 


sumed  to  be  the  ancient  Caralitis.  It  is  about  20 
miles  long  and  from  5  to  10  miles  broad.  It  con- 
tains many  islands  and  discharges  itself  by  a  river 
of  the  same  name  into  Lake  Soglah.  On  its 
east  and  north  shores  are  the  toT\ns  of  Begshehr 
and  Kereli,  the  old  Caralio,  which  issued  imperial 
coins,  and  -which  is  also  supiiosed  to  have  occupied 
the  site  of  Pamphylia. 

BEGTASHI,  a  religious  order  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  -n-hich  had  its  origin  in  the  14th  century. 
The  name  is  believed  to  be  derived  from  that  of  a 
celebrated  dervish,  Hadji  Begtash,  to  whom  also  the 
order  appears  to  owe  its  institution.  The  members 
use  secret  signs  and  pass-words  resembling  those 
of  Freemasonry.  Although  numbering  many  thou- 
sands of  influential  persons  in  its  ranks,  the  society 
does  not  appear  to  exercise  any  material  influence 
in  the  religion  or  politics  of  Turkey. 

BEGUM,  a  princess  or  lady  of  high  rank  in  the 
East  Indies.  The  term  was  brought  into  promi- 
nence among  English-speaking  people  by  the  trial 
of  Warren  Hastings;  one  of  the  charges  against 
whom  was  that  of  cruelty  to  two  begums,  who,  be- 
ing offered  by  him  the  alternative  of  lifting  their 
veils  before  a  stranger  or  losing  their  wealth, 
religiously  chose  to  give  up  their  treasures. 

BEHAIM,  M.\RTix,  a  well-known  navigator.  See 
Behem,  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  509. 

BEHAJI,  Barthei.  (1502-1540),  a  German  artist 
whose  earlier  works  are  quite  in  the  manner  of  Al- 
brecht  Diirer.  His  portraits  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
V  and  his  brother,  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I,  are 
well  known  for  their  fine  conception  and  masterly 
treatment. 

BEHAM,  Hans  Sebald  (1500-1550),  a  German 
artist,  brother  of  Barthel,  from  whom  he  first 
received  instructions  in  painting  and  engraving, 
and  then  of  Albrecht  Diirer.  He  possessed  singular 
powers  of  invention,  generally  exercised  on  secu- 
lar, and  often  on  coarsely  humorous  subjects,  occa- 
sionally also  on  those  of  a  vulgar  and  indecorous 
class. 

BEHM,  Dr.  Ekxst,  a  German  geographer,  born 
at  Gotha,  Jan.  4,  1830,  died  there  March  15, 1884. 
In  1856  he  became  Dr.  Petermann's  chief  assistant 
in  editing  the  famous  geographical  periodical, 
Mitteilungen,  to  the  editorship  of  which  he  succeeded 
on  his  chief's  death  in  1878.  In  1872  he  commenced, 
in  conjunction  with  H.  Wagner,  the  useful  Bevolke- 
Tunq  der  Erde,  intended  as  a  statistical  supplement 
to  tTie  Mittriliivgen;  and  from  1870  he  had  charge  of 
the  statistical  department  of  the  Almanack  de  Golhn. 

BEHRING.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  509-10 ; 
and  Vol  XIX,  p.  318.  See  also  Bering,  Ivan  Ivan- 
ovicii,  in  these  Revisions  and  Additions. 

BEILAN,  a  pass  and  town  in  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  Syria,  on  the  east  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Iscanderoon.  It  is  ona  of  the  two  passes,  supposed 
to  be  the  lower  one,  mentioned  by  Cicero  as  capable 
of  easy  ascent  on  account  of  tlioir  narrowness. 
There  seema  to  be  no  doubt  that  in  I  he  war  between 
Darius  and  Alexander  the  Beilan  I'ass  was  an  im- 
portant consideration  to  both  commanders.  It  has 
a  population  of  5,000,  many  of  whom  are  wealthy, 
and  is  much  esteemed  for  its  salubrity  and  fine 
water,  which  is  supplied  by  numerous  aqueducts. 
It  was  a  scene  of  battle  between  tlie  Egyptians  and 
Turks  in  1S32,  ^hen  the  latter  were  defeated. 

BEIUAJI,  or  Baira.m,  a  ilohammedan  festival, 
somewhat  analogous  to  Easter.  See  Britannica, 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  24«. 

BEIT,  an  Arabic  word,  signifying  house,  abode  or 
place,  the  equivalent  of  which'  in  Ilelirew  is  ll.lh. 
Thus  we  have  in  the  former  language  Ufit-id-Ildri'iin, 
•'the  house  of  the  sanctuary,"  or  "the  sacred  house," 
and  in  the  latter  Jirth-d,  "'house  of  God." 


BEITH,  a  thriving  inland  town  in  tho  county  of 
Ayr,  Scotland,  nine  miles  southwest  of  Paisley. 
Here  cotton  and  muslin  are  manufactured,  and  i'n 
the  neighborhood  the  famous  Dunlop  cheese  is 
made. 

BEITULLAH  (Arab.,  Hoise  of  God),  the  spa- 
cious building  or  temple  at  Mecca,  which  contains 
the  Kaaba. 

BEJAX,  the  name  of  the  first  or  "freshman" 
class  in  some  of  the  Scotch  universities,  and,  of  old, 
in  many  on  the  continent.  The  word  is  believed  to 
be  derived  from  the  French  bec-jaune,  or  yellow 
neb,  a  term  used  to  designate  a  nestling  or  un- 
fledged bird.  In  the  University  of  Vienna  the  bejan 
was  called  beanus,  a  word  of  the  same  meaning  and 
no  doubt  the  same  origin. 

BEJAPUE.  See  BuAPrR,  or  Bijairpcr,  Britan- 
nica, Vol.  Ill,  p.  669. 

BEKAA,  the  Ccele-Syria  of  the  ancients,  the  "Plain 
of  Lebanon  "  of  the  old  Testament,  and  El  Bekaa  of 
the  natives  of  Syria.  It  is  inclosed  between  the 
parallel  ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  and 
is  the  richest  and  most  beautiful  plain  of  Syria,  but 
although  the  soil  is  good  and  water  abundant  from 
the  numerous  mountain  springs,  a  very  small  por- 
tion of  it  is  cultivated. 

BEK,  Anthony,  Bishop  of  Durham  from  1283. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Scottish  wars  of 
Edward  I,  and  held  a  command  at  the  battle  of  Fal- 
kirk. In  1300  he  became  involved  in  ecclesiastical 
disputes,  which  lasted  till  his  death,  March  3, 1311. 
He  was  a  prelate  of  great  magnificence  and  un- 
bounded ambition. 

BETASHI,  a  mendicantorderof  dervishes,  which 
had  its  origin  in  the  14th  century. 

BELAYING, one  of  the  many  modes  of  fastening 
ropes  on  shipboard.  It  is  effected  by  winding  a  rope, 
generally  a  part  of  the  running  rigging,  round  a 
piece  of  wood  called  a  cleat  or  a  kevel,  or  else  round 
a  belaying  pin,  which  is  an  ashen  staff  from  12  to 
16  inches  in  length. 

BELCHEE,  Sir  Edward  (1799-1877),  a  noted 
English  naval  othcer.  He  was  appointed  in  1825  as- 
sistant surveyor  to  the  expedition  about  to  explore 
Bering  Straight  under  Captain  Beechey.  He  was 
made  commander  in  1S29,  and  seven  years  later  he 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Sidphur,  bound  for  the 
western  coasts  of  America  and  the  Indies,  on  a  toui 
of  exploration.  He  returned  within  six  years,  dur- 
ing wliicli  time  he  had  circumnavigated  the  globe, 
and  rendered  valuable  aid  in  the  Canton  Eiver  to 
Lord  Gough,  whose  successes  over  the  Chinese  were 
greatly  due  to  Belclier's  soundings  and  reconnais- 
sances pushed  into  the  interior. 

BELCHTE,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Saragossa,  about  22  miles  from  the  city  of  that 
name,  celebrated  as  the  place,  where,  in  1809,  the 
French  under  Suchet  completely  routed  the  Span- 
ish under  General  r.hiko,  cajituring  all  their  guns, 
with  a  loss  of  only  forty  men. 

BELED-EL-,IKKEED,  an  extensive  arid  and 
sterile  region  lying  east  of  Morocco,  and  stretching 
from  Algeria  on  the  north  to  the  Sahara  Desert  on 
the  south.  It  receives  its  name,  meaning  the 
"country  of  dates,"  from  its  one  scanty  production, 

BELEJl,  acity  of  Brazil,  on  tlie  riglitliank  of  the 
Para,  the  most  southerly  arm  of  the  estuary  of  the 
Amaz(in. 

BELFMXITESfGr.,  bcleintwn,  a  dart  or  arrow), 
an  interesting  genus  of  fossil  cephalopodous  Mol- 
hiscfi,  the  type  of  a  family  called  Ililenuiitidx,  to  the 
whole  of  whicli  the  name  belemnites  is  very  gener- 
ally extended,  and  which  are  closely  allied  tothe 
,SV/i/(i(/.(  (ircuttle family.  See  Britannica,  Vol. XVJ., 
I).  676.  No  recent  species  of  this  mollusk  is  known  ; 
fossil  species,  found   in  all  the  oolitic   aud  cretaca* 


B  E  L  ]•:  M  N  I  T  1  D  .E  —  B  E  L  G  I  U  M 


241 


oils  strata,  from  the  lowpst  lias  to  tho  iippor  chalk, 
are  very  iinmeroiis.  Tlirso  remains  are  g(>nerally 
tluise  oi"  the  shell  alone,  an  internal  shell,  entirely 
inchuled  within  tlie  hody  of  the  animal,  like  that 
of  the  cuttle.  The  most  perfect  speciin«-iis  have 
a  double  shell,  consisting  of  a  conical  chambered 
portion  (the  pliragiiwcom')  inserted  into  a  longer 
solid,  somewhat  conical  or  tapering  and  pointed 
sheath. 

BELEMXITID.E,  a  family  of  extinct  cephalo- 
podous  nioUusks,  typified  by  the  genus  lleli-miiHef. 
It  includes  also  the  genera  Bekmiioteulhis,  Bclein- 
niti'llii  and  Xijihotmilhin. 

BELFA.'^T,  a  city  of  Ufaine,  county-seat  of  "Waldo 
county,  and  a  port  of  entry.  It  is  beautifully  situ- 
ated on  a  hillside  overlooking  Belfast  Bay,  about  30 
miles  south  of  Bangor.  The  harbor  is  deep,  wide, 
and  safe.  The  principal  industries  are  ship-buikling, 
fishing,  and  the  manufacture  of  paper,  shoes,  and 
iron. 

BET.FTvY  M>.,  hrffroi),  a  word  of  doubtful  origin; 
a  bell-tower,  or  turret,  usu- 
ally  forming  part  of  a 
church,  but  sometimes  de- 
tached from  it,  as  at  Eves- 
ham and  Berkeley,  in  Eng- 
land, and  still  more  fre- 
(luently  in  Italy.  A  belfry 
belonging  to  a  church  situ- 
ated in  a  deep  glen  was 
built  upon  a  neighboring 
height,  as  at  Ardclach,  Scot- 
land, and  at  St.  Feve  and 
other  plac<s  in  Cornwall.  .\t  the  close  of  the  17th 
century,  it  was  a  common  thing  in  Scotland  for  the 
bell  to'be  hung  upon  a  tree,  as  at  .\ldbar,  for  in- 
stance. A  belfry  consisting  of  a  mere  turret,  is 
called  a  hdJ-r/alilr,  or  hcl-role,  and  always  stands  on 
the  west  end  of  the  church.  A  smaller  one  is  some- 
times placed  at  the  east  end  over  the  altar  for  the 
sanctus  bell.  After  the  12th  century,  when  the 
burghs  began  to  gain  influence,  they  asserted  their 
right  to  have  bells  locall  the  burghers  together  for 
council  or  for  action.  Thus  in  the  hearts  of  towns 
there  arose  municii)al  belfries. 

BEI^G-E,  a  name  given  by  Cicsar  to  the  warlike 
tribes  which  in  his  time  occupied  one  of  the  three 
divisions  of  (faul.  Their  country  was  chiefly  level, 
lying  between  the  Rhine  and  tlie  Seine,  and  com- 
prised modern  Belgium,  part  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  northeastern  France.  They  were  in  all  proba- 
bilitv,chienv  of  Celtic  origin.  See  Britannica,  Vol. 
IX.  p.  027;  Vol.  X,  p.  111. 

HEUtARL),  a  I'russian  town,  almost  entirely-sur- 
rounded by  water,  in  the  province  of  I'omerania,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Neitnitz  and  the  Persante,  about 
sixteen  miles  southwest  fif  (lo-slin.  It  has  an  old 
castle  and  the  inhabitants  manufacture  cloth. 

BEI,(;i().IOSO,  a  town  of  Lombardy,  North  Italy, 
pleasantly  situated  in  a  fruitful  plain  between  the 
I'o  and  the  Olona,  nine  miles  east  of  I'avia.  It  has 
a  noble  castle,  in  which  I'rancis  I  spent  the  night 
]irevious  to  the  disastrous  battle  of  I'avia,  in 
wliich  he  was  made  prisoner.  I'opulation,  about 
4. tint). 

HEbGIO,I0S0,  CiiHiKTix.i,  BuiNCEss  OP  nsOS- 
1S71),  an  Italian  i)atriot  who  was  twice  exiled  for 
taking  an  active  jiart  in  revolutionary  measures. 
In  I.S4S  she  eipiipped  a  cavalry  force  of' 200  men  at 
her  own  expense  toassist  in  freeing  Milan  from  the 
Austrian  yoke.  .She  was  also  a  patroness  of  litera- 
ture and  art. 

BE LtJOKOIK Russian, /?r;V/(rnn/</. "While Town."), 
a  town  in  the  government  of  Koursk.  Russia,  situ- 
ated on  the  llonetz.  Three  important  fairs  arc  held 
here  yearly.    Population,  15,200. 


BELCRAVIA,  the  most  aristocratic  part  of  the 
AVest  End  of  London,  the  English  metropolis,  ex- 
tending from  Hyde  Park  (Jorner  to  Pimlico. 

BICLGll'.M  .  Area,  1 1,. ".7.; square  miles.  Population 
(1>S8.S;,  tj,()30,04o;  avera:,'e  population  per  s<|uaro 
mile  (1888),  530.  Under  its  present  constitution, 
adopted  in  1830-31,  Belgium  is  very  properly  classed 
as  a  limited  monarchy.  Capital,  Brussels.  For  an 
elaborate  article  on  the  history,  productions,  and 
the  changes  in  its  constitution  and  for  local  map, 
see  Britannica,  Vol.  11,  pp.  514-31. 

In  IS.-IO,  a  national  congress  proclaimed  Belgium 
independent.  I'rince  Leojiold.of  Saxe-Coburg.  was 
chosen  hereditary  king,  ,June  4,  1831.  lie  died  Dec. 
10, 1805,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Leopold  II, 
who  was  born  April  9,  1835.  Under  the  reign  of  the 
latter  remarkable  prosperity  has  characterized  the 
country.  He  will  be  especially  remembered  as  the 
founder  and  patron  of  the  Congo  Free  State,  for 
his  vigorous,  most  ellicient  support  of  Stanley's 
work  in  Central  Africa, and  for  his  influential  efTorts 
on  behalf  of  the  supi)ression  of  the  African  slave- 
trade.  The  king  has  been  granted  an  annual  civil 
list  of  $060,000. 

The  king  is  the  head  of  the  executive  power,  but 
every  official  act  must  be  countersigned  by  a  re- 
sponsible departtnent  minister,  and  the  chambers 
are  the  sole  interpreters  of  the  eonstituticm.  The 
king's  person  is  sacred  ;  he  transmits  his  jwwer  to 
his  next  male  heir,  and,  in  default  of  a  male  heir,  he 
may  nominate  a  successor,  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  chamliers.  He  may  not  suspend  laws  or  dis- 
pense with  their  execution.  He  commands  the  land 
and  sea  forces,  declares  war,  negotiates  treaties  of 
peace,  alliance  and  commerce:,  which,  however, 
must  have  the  sanction  of  the  chambers.  The 
house  of  representatives  is  comjjosed  of  one  member 
for  every  40,000  of  the  population,  and  the  voters- 
are  those  male  citizens  of  not  less  tlum  25  years  of 
age  who.se  annual  taxation  is  not  less  than  42  francs. 
The  deputies  not  residing  in  P.russels  are  entitled 
to  the  pay  of  about  if. 84  per  month  while  the  cham- 
ber is  in  session.  The  senators,  elected  for  eight 
years,  number  about  half  as  many  as  the  lower 
house,  elected  for  four  years ;  must  )ie  40  years  old 
and  i>ay  an  annual  tax  of  at  least  1,000  llorins.  They 
are  not  entitled  to  any  compensation  for  theirserv- 
ices.  In  1800  the  senate  numbered  00  members, 
and  the  representatives  13(5.  For  fuller  notice,  see 
Britannica,  Vol.  II. 

Thearmy,  on  a  paid  footing,  in  1888  numV)ered 
50,000  men  with  officers,  under  tlie  colors,  while  the 
total  force  upon  paper,  available  in  emergency, 
was  reported  at  1.5-4,0:1.8.  Exem])tion  can  no  longer 
be  obtained  by  jiurchase.  Antwerp  has  the  princi- 
pal fortress.  In  bSKS  the  chambers  voted  $1.020,0(X)- 
for  new  forts  on  the  Jleuse,  the  new  forts  to 
be  armed  with  guns  ])laced  in  iron  cupolas.  Bel- 
gium has  no  navy  i)ro])er,  nor  has  it  any  colonies; 
but  the  king  of  the  Belgians  is,  at  the  same  time, 
"sovereign  of  the  Free  Stateof  the  Congo."  In  1888 
Brussels  reported  a  jiopulation  of  448,0,S8 ;  Antwerp, 
the  chief  jKirt,  210,0(10,  exclusive  of  suburl)s;  Ghent, 
147.2.S1,  and  Liege,  144.000. 

The  record  of  the  Belgian  royal  family,  as  officially 
gazetted  January  1,  1801,  was  as  follow's: 

Relgnlnp  Kin!i.—ljCOj>o\(i  II,  born  April  9, 1SS6,  the  eon  of 
Klnii  Leopold  I,  former  I'rlncc  of  .«nxo-rot)nrK-Gollm.  and 
of  ITinccss  I.oulst',  diiiitrliti-r  of  the  liilt-  Klnn  Louis  fhilippe 
of  the  Freiicli;  n.sceiided  the  throne  ii(  the  death  of  his  father, 
flee.  10.  lS<Vi;  married.  Auk.  W,  lKW,toQiieeii  Miirle  Henrlcttc; 
Iporn  Auk.  2:),  iK»;  the  dnnghtcr  of  the  late  Arehdukc  Joseph 
of  Austria. 

Cliititrrn  nf  thr  Kinn.—J.  Princess  Louise,  horn  Feb.  IS.  ].<>.'iS; 
married,  Feb.  4.  I-vT-j.  to  Prinee  Philip  of  .'<axe-CoburK-Ootha; 
born  March  2K.1.MI;  eldest  son  of  Priuee  AuKUst.rouslu  of  the 
relKUlUK  duke,  and  I'rineess  Clementine  of  Orleans,  dauKhter 
of  the  late  King  Louis  Philippe  of  the  French.    H.    Princess 


242 


BELGRADO  —  BELL 


Stephanie,  born  Mav  21, 1864;  married  to  the  late  Archduke 
Dii^de  Kudolf,  oulv'son  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria  and  King 
of  Hunsary,  May  10, 1S81;  widow  ISS'J.  III.  Princess  Cliimen- 
tine,  bo'ru  July  30. 1S72  ^     ,  „, 

Brnthir  and  liisUr  ui  the  Kiiiii.—l.  Plulippe,  Count  of  Flan- 
ders born  March  21.'l-S'.7;  lieutenant-general  inthe  service  of 
Belgium;  married  April  20, 1S1J7,  to  Princess  Marie  of  Hohen- 
zollera-Sigmaringcn,  born  Nov.  17,  1S45.  Offspring  of  the 
union  are  four  children :  1.  Prince  Baudouin,  born  June  8, 
1S69  2  Princess  Heuriette,  born  Nov.  ■SO.  1870.  .3.  Princess 
Josephine,  born  Oct.  IS,  1872.  4.  Prince  Albert,  born  April  8, 
1875.  II.  Princess  Charlotte,  born  June  7, 1840;  married  July 
27, 18-57.  to -Vrchduke  Maximilian  of  Austria,  elected  Emperor 
of  Mexico  July  10,  1803;  widow  June  19, 1867. 

Since  the  above  was  gazetted,  Prince  Baudouin, 
nephew  of  the  king  and  heir-apparent  to  the 
throne,  died  .Jan.  23,  1891,  very  suddenly,  aged  21 
years.  By  his  death  his  brother,  Prince  Albert,  be- 
comes heir-apparent  to  the  Belgian  throne. 

Elementary  education  is  compulsory,  and  is  aided 
by  a  state  grant  of  nearly  .$5  per  head,  on  the  liasis 
of  attendance.  The  education  grant  in  1887  was 
$2,060,100  for  elementary  education,  and  $1,090,425 
for  secondary  and  higher  education.  There  are 
four  great  universities — Ghent  and  Liege,  controlled 
by  the  state,  Brussels  and  Louvain,  independent. 
Louvain  has  the  ''  logical  faculties." 

French  is  the  principal  official  language,  but  the 
Flemish  has  also  been  made  an  official  language. 
The  census  of  1880  showed  that  about  4.5  per  cent,  of 
the  people  spoke  French,  40  per  cent.  Flemish,  and 
eight  per  cent,  both  French  and  J^lemish.  The  pre- 
vailing religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  but  all 
religions  are  free  under  the  constitution. 

In  1889  the  soil  was  divided  among  1,169,406  pro- 
prietors ;  of  the  total  area  58  per  cent,  was  under 
cultivation.  The  exports  to  Great  Britain  alone  in 
1889  were  valued  at  $S8,.S74,.S85.  The  public  revenue 
in  1890  was  $83,149,100;  public  expenditure  in  1890, 
$80,17.3,120.  The  total  public  debt  in  1890  was  $497,- 
997,175. 

The  following  table  shows  the  respective  com- 
mercial relations  of  the  various  nations  witli 
Belgium.  The  figures  are  compiled  in  francs,  and 
are  from  the  official   Belgian  returns  of  1888 : 


Imports  from— 


France 

Netherlands.  . . . 
Great  Britain... 

Germany 

United  States. . . 

Russia 

Roumauia 

British  India.  .. 
Argentine  Rep.. 
Sweden-Norway 

Peru 

Brazil 

Italy 

Uruguay 

Spain 

Chile 


289,010, 

216,415, 

182  ,.5.57, 

168,94:j, 

119,816, 

149,78:!, 

90,867, 

.55,915, 

51,798, 

48,191 

:<2,20l 

2-l,.5:;;i 

18  „h; 

15,2IS, 

]0,97i: 

8,445 


,i:» 
,703 
,28(3 
,i»2 
,792 
,457 
,109 
,890 

,i;;',9 

,H2I1 
,977 
,811 
,785 
,.S.59 
,.5:i8 
,.851 


Exports  to 


France 

England 

Germany 

Netherlands 

United  States. .. 

Italy 

Switzerland     ... 
Argentine  Rep.. 

Spain 

Brazil 

Portugal 

Turkey 

Sweden-Norway 

(Huna 

Russia 

Roumauia  

British  India 


Francs. 


342,680,888 

256,101,563 

200,127,708 

172.020,189 

52,208,491 

24,296,197 

22,686,4;?2 

21,718,999 

19,831,6;!3 

l:i,795,940 

12,011,904 

9, 299  ,.896 

9,293,011 

7, 750  ,.8,88 

6,!K)6/):i8 

5,627,860 

4,667,116 


The  latest  official  reports  (those  of  1.8,86)  an- 
nounced 2,755  of  r.iilway,  1,98-1  lieingthe  property  of 
the  state,  with  a  gross'revenue  of  $19,200,000;  'the 
telegrapiis  had  a  length  of  8,893  mih>s ;  navigalile 
rivers  a  length  of  (iS4,  and  the  canals. 560  miles. 

BEl,<tK.\  1)0,  .J.\Mi!8,  an  Italian  .lesiiit  and  a  dis- 
tinguished antiquary  and  maMiemat  ician,  born  at 
Udine  in  1704,  died  in  1789.  He  wrote  numerous 
works  in  Latiti  aiul  Italian,  mostly  on  scientilie 
subjects. 

BELLVL,  a  Hebrew  word,  signifying  idle,  wicked, 
or  UMproiilable.  The  Script  ure  phrase,  tlicrefore, 
"•Sons  of  lielial,"  \v!is  originally,  in  all  pi-obaliility, 
S  mere   Hebrew    figurative    expression,  denoting 


worthless  or  dissolute  persons,  .^t  a  later  period 
the  idea  of  evil  which  the  word  embodies  seems  to 
have  been  elaborated  into  a  personality,  and  Belial 
is  supposed  by  some  to  corresiiond  to  the  Pluto  of 
the  Greeks. 

BELKXAP,  George  Eugexe,  naval  officer, 
born  in  Newport,  X.  H.,  Jan.  22,  1832.  He  was  ap- 
pointed midshipman  from  the  State  in  1847,  and 
had  passed  the  various  grades  up  to  commander 
in  1866.  In  1862-64  he  commanded  the  iron-clad 
New  Ironsides,  and  his  handling  of  this  new 
kind  of  vessel  was  much  praised  by  Admirals 
Dupont,  Dahlgren  and  Porter.  He  was  engaged  in 
important  service  during  the  civil  war,  and  com- 
manded successively  the  Seneca  and  Canonicus, 
and  after  the  war  the  Hartford  and  Tiisca- 
rora.  On  the  last-mentioned  steamer  he  engaged 
in  deep-sea  sounding,  for  the  purpose  of  finding  a 
route  for  a  submarine  cable  between  Japan  and 
the  United  States.  He  was  made  commander  in 
1885. 

BELKXAP,  William  Goldsmith,  soldier,  born 
in  Newburgh,  X.  Y.,  Sept.  7,  1794,  died  near  Fort 
Wichita,  Texas,  Xov.  10,  1851.  In  the  war  of  1812 
he  was  lieutenant,  and  advanced  in  rank  till  1842, 
when,  for  services  rendered  in  the  Florida  war,  he 
was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel.  He  established 
Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  fought  in  the  Rio  Grande 
campaign,  and  for  gallantry  at  Buena  Vista  was 
made  brigadier-general.  From  1848  to  1851  he 
commanded  at  Fort  Gibson. 

BELKNAP,  William  North,  born  at  Newburgh, 
N.  Y.,  Sept.  22,  1829,  died  Oct.  13, 1890.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton,  and  practiced  law  at  Keokuk, 
Iowa.  He  was  a  Democratic  representative  in  the 
State  legislature ;  went  to  the  war  and  rose  to  the 
rank  of  major-general.  From  1865  to  1869  he  was 
internal  revenue  collector  for  his  State,  and  in  the 
last-mentioned  year  was  chosen  by  President 
Grant  as  secretary  of  war.  He  held  this  office  till 
1876,  when,  being  suspected  of  official  corruption, 
he  resigned.  He  was  tried  before  the  Senate,  but 
acquitted  on  a  legal  technicality. 

BELL,  Alexander  Graham,  born  at  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  March  3,  1847.  He  was  educated  in  the 
high  school  of  his  native  city,  then  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  London,  but  was  obliged  to  go  to  Canada 
for  his  health.  In  1872  he  came  to  reside  in  the 
United  States,  where  he  introduced  his  father's 
mode  of  instructing  deaf  mutes,  and  5vas  made 
professor  of  vocal  physiology  in  Boston  University. 
Mr.  Bell  had  for  many  years  believed  that  sound 
could  bo  communicated  by  electricity,  and  after  a 
series  of  exporinients,  he  invented  and  exhibited 
the  first  teleplione  in  1876.  His  invention  has 
Ijrouglit  liiin  gre;it  wealth  and  fame.  He  has  also 
invented  a  photo])lione — a  contrivance  in  which  a 
beam  of  light  is  sulistitiited  for  a  wire  in  conveying 
sound.  Mr.  Bell  is  much  interested  in  the  edu- 
cation of  deaf  mutes,  and  at  present  is  at  work  on 
an  instrument  for  recording,  which  shall  record 
speech  by  photograiihing  the  vibrations  of  a  tiny 
stream  oi'  water.  This  inventor  has  his  home  in 
AVashingt<m,  1).  C. 

BELL,  jVle.xander  Melville,  born  in  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  :\Iarch  1,  1819.  His  father.  Alexander 
Bell,  the  inventor  of  a  nielhod  for  removing  im- 
pediments of  siieech,  was  his  teacher.  He  was  an 
educator,  and  lectured  at  Edinburgh  University, 
New  College  and  Cniversity  of  London.  On  re- 
moving to  Canada  he  was  made  Instrnclor  at 
(.Queen's  College,  Kingston.  ]'isilih-  Sjirerji,  a 
method  of  teaching  de;if  mutes,  is  his  invention. 
He  has  written  books  on  phonetics  and  elocution. 

lUCl.L,  ( 'rRKER.  See  Bhontk  Charlotte,  Britan« 
nica,  \'ol.  IV,  p.  364. 


BELL  —  BELLEFONTE 


243 


BELL,   Sir   Isaac   Lowthiax,  F.  R.  S.,  D.  C.  L., 

ollicer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  born  in  1816.  He 
was  educated  at  Edinburgh  and  Paris.  After  being 
engaged  in  extensive  clieniioal  works,  lie  and  liis 
brothers  founded  the  great  Clarence  iron  smelting 
works  on  the  Tees.  He  was  the  member  of  Parlia- 
ment for  Hartlepool  from  1875  till  188l»,  and  was 
made  a  baronet  in  1885.  He  has  written  many 
jiapers  on  meiallurgical  and  chemical  subjects. 

PELL,  Joiix,  a  statesman,  born  near  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  Feb.  15,  1797,  died  at  Cumberland  Iron 
Works,  Tenn.,  Sept.  10,  ISWJ.  He  was  a  graduate  of 
the  institution  formerly  known  as  Cumberland 
College.  He  studied  law  and  became  State  senator 
in  1814.  In  181'7  he  was  sent  to  Congress,  where  lie  ' 
remained  for  seven  terms.  He  was  a  free  trader, 
but  became  a  protectionist  and  a  founder  of  the 
whig  party.  He  was  chosen  speaker  of  the  House 
in  1834.  and  took  part  in  several  important  de- 
bates from  1.830  to  1838.  President  Harrison,  in 
1841,  made  him  secretary  of  war,  liut  he  resigned 
when  President  Tyler  left  the  whig  party.  Mr. 
Pell  was  sent  to  the  United  .States  Senate  after 
having  spent  several  years  in  retirement.  He 
opposed  the  policy  of  annexation,  opposed  the 
Lecompton  constitution  for  Kansas,  and  was  the 
nominee  on  the  "constitutional  union  "  ticket  for 
President  in  1860.  Secession  was  a  movement  con- 
demned by  .Senator  Bell,  but  he  was  not  in  favor 
of  "coercion." 

PELL,  .Toiix,  a  sculptor,  born  in  Norfolk,  Eng- 
land, in  1811.  The  work  by  which  he  is  best  known 
in  this  country  is  his  allegorical  representation 
of  the  United  Slati'S  Directing  the  Pror/ress  of  the 
XeiL-  World,  a  copy  of  which,  in  terra-cotta,  was  sent 
to  the  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia,  and 
afterwards  to  Washington.  His  Andrdmrda  Bound 
to  the  Rock  is  the  property  of  Queen  Victoria.  He 
has  published  a  number  of  literary  works,  chiefly 
on  sculpture  and  the  allied  arts. 

BELL,  Thomas,  liorn  in  England  in  1792,  died 
1880;  an  eminent  naturalist.  He  studied  medicine 
at  London,  from  1814  to  1815,  and  in  18.36  he  was 
made  professorof  zoology  at  King's  College  in  that 
city.  In  \S44  he  became  first  president  or  the  Ray 
Society. 

PELL  OF  A  CAPITAL,  also  called  Basket,  the 
capital  of  a  pillar  denuded  of  the  foliage,  in  which 
case  it  resembles  the  form  of  a  bell  reversed. 

BELLA,  a  thriving  town  of  Naples,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Basilicata.     Population.  G.OOO. 

P.ELLAIi()NX.\  LILY,  a  very  beautiful  species 
of  amaryllis.  with  rose-colored  drooping  flowers 
clustered  at  the  summit  of  the  leafless  flowerizig 
stem.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
of  the  West  Indies;  it  has  become  naturali^ied  in 
Madeira.  The  flowering  stem  is  about  18  inches 
high. 

HELLAGGIO,  an  Italian  village  situated  on  the 
promontory  that  separates  the  two  arms  of  Lake 
Como.  Its  hotels  are  limong  the  finest  in  Italy, 
and  some  of  its  lovely  villas  contain  valuable  art 
collections.     Population,  1M)6. 

BELL.\11{E.  a  commercial  and  manufacturing 
city  of  Ohio,  situated  on  the  Ohio  River,  about  five 
miles  below  Wheeling.  It  contains  important 
manufactures  of  glass,  tinware,  and  flour,  besides 
machine-shops,  foundries  and  nail-works;  and 
abundance  of  iron,  coal,  limestone  and  fire-clay  are 
found  in  the  vicinity. 

BELL.VMY,  Edward,  author,  born  in  1850  at 
Chicopee  Falls,  Mass.  He  was  educated  at  I'nion 
C'olli'ge.  studied  in  (Jeriiiany  for  ji  year,  and,  on  his 
return  to  .\mericn,  hr  studied  law  and  then  turned 
his  attention  to  journalism.  Uiiring  l.s71-7li  he  was 
successively  on  the  staff  of  the  New  York  "Evening 

3— .34 


BEI.L-BIRD. 


Post"  and  of  the  "Springfield  Union."  He  has 
written  A  Xantnrket  Idi/l,  .l/i.<8  Ludington's  ISijiter, 
Tlie  Hlind  ilau's  Wm-hl  and  J.ooking  Backward.  The 
last  mentioned  is  a  very  popular  book. 

BELLAMY,  .losEi'ii,  a  clergyman  and  educator, 
born  at  Cheshire,  Conn.,  in  1719,  died  at  Bethlehem, 
Conn.,  March  6,  1790.  He  graduated  at  Yale,  and 
at  the  age  of  eighteen  was  licensed  to  preach.  He 
spent  his  life  preaching  at  Bethlehem,  where,  about 
1742,  he  established  a  divinity  school,  which  was 
most  successful  and  was  attended  by  many 
eminent  men.  Some  of  Dr.  Bellamy's  works  are 
True  Religion  Delineated,  The  Nature  and  Glory  of 
the  O'onjicl,  and  The  Law  Our  Schoolmaifter. 

BELIy-BIRl),  a  bird  of  a  genus  nearly  allied  to 
the  cotingas,  but  characterised  by  a  very  broad 
bill,  soft  and  flexible  at  the  base  and  hard  toward 
the  extremity.  It  is  about  the 
size  of  a  jay;  the  male  is  of 
snow-white  plumage.  It  is  found 
in  South  -Vnierica,  and  is  re- 
markable for  the  metallic  reso- 
nance of  Its  cry,  which  reisembles  ' 
the  tolling  of  a  bell.  It  gener- 
ally  takes  its  place  at  the  top  of 
a  lofty  tree,  and  the  tolling  can 
be  heard  at  the  distance  of  three 
miles.  It  resounds  through  the 
forest  not  only  in  the  morning 
and  evening  but  also  at  mid- 
day, when  the  heat  of  the  blazing  sun  lias  hnposed 
silence  on  almost  every  other  creature.  See  Brit- 
annica.  Vol.  XII,  p.  1.39,  and  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  139. 

BELL,  BOOK  AND  CANDLE.  The  excommuni- 
cation by  Bell,  Book  and  Candle  is  a  solemnity  be- 
longing to  the  (Jhurch  of  Rome.  Two  or  three  sen- 
tences from  the  conclusion  of  the  form  of  excommu- 
nication in  the  Scottish  Church  previous  to  the 
Reformation  explain  its  symbolism :  "Cursed  be 
they  from  the  crown  of  the  head  to  the  sole  of  the 
foot.  Out  be  they  taken  from  the  book  of  life. 
(Shuts  the  hook.)  And  as  this  candle  is  cast  from 
the  sight  of  men,  so  be  their  souls  cast  from  the 
sight  of  God  into  the  deepest  pit  of  hell.  (Casts 
the  candle  on  the  ground.)  Amen."  The  rubric 
adds:  "And  then,  the  candle  being  dashed  on  the 
ground  and  quenched,  let  the  bell  be  rung"— the 
bell  lieing  tolled  as  for  the  dead. 

BELLE-ALLIANCE,  the  name  of  a  farm  in  the 
province  of  Brabant,  Belgium,  13  miles  south  of 
Brussels.  It  has  become  famouis  as  the  position 
occupied  by  the  center  of  the  French  army  in  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  1815. 

BELLE-DE-NUIT,  a  name  given  to  a  certain 
tropical  species  of  Conrolrnlaccr,  with  extremely 
beautiful  and  fragrant  flowers,  which  open  only 
during  the  night.  The  species  to  which  perhaps 
the  name  more  particularly  belongs,  is  Jjiomaa 
Bona  Xox,  the  Moon  Flower,  or  Evening  Primrose, 
a  native  of  the  forests  of  the  West  Indies  and  of 
tropical  .America. 

BELLEFONTAINE.  a  lieautiful  manufacturing 
town  of  Ohio,  county-seat  of  Logan  county,  noted 
for  its  healthfulness.  and  as  having  the  highest  ele- 
vation of  any  town  in  the  State.  The  manufact- 
ures are  chiefly  woolens,  carriages  and  railroad 
cars. 

BELLEFONTE.  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  county- 
seat  of  Centre  county,  beautifully  situated  (in 
Spring  Creek,  at  the  foot  of  Bald  Eagle  Mountain. 
It  contains  important  manufactories  of  railroad 
cars,  glass,  axes,  printing  presses  and  other  machin- 
ery, and  a  number  of  foundries,  furnaces  and  rolling 
mills.  It  stands  in  the  midst  of  charming  scenery, 
and  contains  a  large  spring  of  the  purest  water, 
from  which  it  derives  its  name. 


244 


BELLE  GARDE  —  BELLOT    STRAIT 


BELLEGARDE.  a  hill  fortress  of  France.  Situ- 
ated on  the  Spanish  confines,  on  the  road  from 
Perpignan  to  Figueras,  and  in  the  pass  between 
Col-de-Portus  on  the  east  and  Col-de-Panizas  on 
the  west ;  it  has  belonged  alternately  to  each  nation. 
Here  the  French  under  Philip  III  were  defeated 
by  Peter  III  of  Arragon  in  1285.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  it  consisted  only  of  a  fortified  tower,  cap- 
tured by  the  Spaniards  in  1674,  and  again  by  the 
French  in  1675.  In  1793  it  was  blockaded  and  taken 
by  the  Spaniards,  but  was  retaken  by  the  French 
in  the  following  year. 

BELLE  ISLE,  an  island  in  the  Atlantic,  about 
midway  between  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  is 
chiefly  known  as  giving  name  to  the  adjacent 
strait  on  the  southwest,  which  forms  the  most 
northerly  of  the  three  channels  between  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  open  ocean. 

BELLISLE,  Charles  Louis  ArcrsTE  Fouquet, 
Due  DE,  marshal  of  France,  born  at  Villefranche,  in 
Aveyron,  Sept.  22,  1684,  died  Jan.  26,  1761.  He 
early  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars  in  Italy 
and  the  Low  Countries  against  Spain,  and  after- 
wards in  Poland.  In  the  war  of  the  Austrian  suc- 
cession he  stormed  Prague  in  1741  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  conducted  the  marvelously  skillful 
retreat  to  Eger.  In  1757  he  was  made  war  minis- 
ter, and  as  such  introduced  important  improve- 
ments in  the  French  service.  See  Britannica.  Vol. 
IX,  p.  586. 

BELTLiEVUE,  a  mining  town  of  Idaho,  situated 
in  the  northern  part  of  Alturas  county,  between  the 
Wood  and  Little  "Wood  Rivers.  It  is  the  business 
center  of  an  important  mining  region,  and  of  the 
farming  and  stock-raising  industries  of  the  vieinitv. 

BELLE  PLAINE,  a  village  of  Iowa,  about  thirty- 
five  miles  west  of  Cedar  Rapids,  and  two  miles 
north  of  the  Iowa  River.  It  contains  railroad 
machine-shops,  manufactories  of  flour  and  gloves, 
and  is  an  important  center  of  transportation  for 
grain. 

BELLEROPHON,  a  genus  of  extinct  gasteropo- 
dous  mollusks,  represented  by  a  great  number  of 
species  occurring  in  the  Silurian,  Devonian  and 
Carboniferous  rocks  in  many  parts  of  tlie  world. 

BELLES-LETTRES,  a  term  adopted  from  the 
French,  and  generally  used  in  a  vague  way  to 
designate  the  more  refined  department  of  litera- 
ture, but  has  in  fact  no  precise  limits.  In  English 
usage  it  is  synonymous  with  another  vague  expres- 
sion, po/Z/c  lUeralurr,  including  history,  poetry,  and 
the  drama,  fiction,  essay  and  criticism. 

BELLEVILLE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine,  forming  a  suburb  of  Paris,  and 
inclosed  by  the  new  fortifications.  It  has  manu- 
factories of  cashmeres,  varnished  leather,  articles 
of  polished  steel,  chemical  stuffs,  etc.  There  are 
springs  at  Belleville  wliicli  have  supplied  Paris 
with  water  from  a  very  early  date,  and  it  has  tea- 
gardens  and  other  places  of  amusement  much 
resorted  to  liy  the  Parisians.  It  lias  been  a  center 
of  communistic  agitation.     Population,  75.000. 

BELIjEVILIjE,  a  prosperous  city  of  Illinois,  and 
capital  of  St.  (J  lair  county,  built  on  elevated  ground; 
is  on  the  St.  Louis  and  Southeastern,  the  St.  Louis, 
the  I'elleville  and  Southern  and  the  Illinois  and 
St.  Louis  Railroads.  The  dislance  from  St.  Louis 
is  fifteen  miles,  from  Sjjringfield,  the  State  capital, 
110  miles.  A  branch  road  also  runs  to  O'Kallon  in 
the  same  county.  Here  are  eight  or  ten  churches, 
a  convent,  good  schools,  one  natiomil  bank  and  one 
savings  !)ank,  two  daily  German  papers  and  two 
weekly  Englisli  pajiers.  Here  are  several  hrewer- 
fes,  and  large  manufactories  of  various  kinds,  such 
as  of  iron,  nails.  Hour,  thrashing  machines,  steam 
enguu's,  pumps,  drills,  etc.     Here  also  are  valuable 


and  easily-worked  mines  of  bituminous  coal.  Popu- 
lation in  1880  was  10,683;  in  1S90,  15,360. 

BELLEVILLE,  a  city  of  Kansas,  county-seat  of 
Republic  county,  is  the  center  of  a  rich  agricult- 
ural and  mining  district,  and  the  seat  of  a  college. 

BELLEVILLE,  a  thriving  town  in  the  province 
of  Ontario,  Canada,  situated  on  the  Bay  of  Quinte, 
Lake  Ontario,  forty-eight  miles  west  of  Kinsston 
by  rail.  It  is  the  seat  of  Albert  University,  founded 
in  1857.     Population,  9,516. 

BELLEVUE,  a  beautiful  town  of  Iowa,  located 
on  a  high  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  about  twenty-five 
miles  below  Dubuque.  It  is  a  fashionable  summer 
resort,  and  an  important  center  of  transportation, 
by  rail  and  water,  for  grain,  stock  and  produce. 

BELLEVL'E,  a  manufacturing  town  of  ^lichigan, 
about  twelve  miles  northeast  of  Battle  Creek.  It 
contains  important  manufactories  of  lumber,  flour 
and  iron,  and  produces  excellent  lime. 

BELLEVUE,  a  village  of  Nebraska,  county-seat 
of  Sarpy  county,  on  the  Jlissouri,  fifteen  miles  be- 
low Omaha.  It  contains  an  excellent  high  school 
and  a  manufactory  of  bee-hives. 

BELLEVUE,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Ohio, 
forty-five  miles  southeast  of  Toledo.  If  contains 
a  number  of  foundries  and  machine-shops,  and 
manufactories  of  carriages,  plows  and  barrels,  and 
is  an  important  grain  market. 

BELLINGHAM  BAY,  a  village  of  Washington, 
on  the  bay  of  the  Pacific  of  the  same  name.  It 
produces  large  quantities  of  lignitic  bituminous 
coal,  considered  the  best  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

BELLINGHAM,  Rich.\rd,  born  in  England,  1592, 
died,  Dec.  7,  1672.  He  came  to  Boston  in  1034,  was 
one  of  the  original  patentees  of  the  colony,  and 
after  being  deputy-governor,  in  1641  was  elected 
governor,  again  in  1654,  and  from  1665  up  to  his 
death  he  held  that  office ;  being  deputy-governor 
thirteen  years  and  governor  ten  years.  In  1664  he 
was  chosen  major-general.  Bellingham  was  an  obsti- 
nate man,  but  one  who  commanded  respect.  He 
was  intolerant  with  regard  to  religious  sects  which 
differed  from  his  own. 

BELL  METAL,  a  sonorous  alloy  used  in  making 
bells.  The  principal  ingredient  is  copper ;  the  alloy, 
being  generally  twenty  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  of 
tin,  zinc  or  other  metal,  is  sometimes  used,  how- 
ever, with  the  copper. 

BELLOMONT,  or  BELLAMONT,  Richard  Coote, 
earl  of,  the  eldest  son  of  Baron  Coote  of  the  Irish 
peerage,  born  in  163(i,  died  at  New  York,  i\larch  5, 
1701,  and  was  buried  at  the  Battery.  He  now  lies 
in  St.  Paul's  churchyard  on  Broadway.  In  England 
the  subject  of  this  sketcli  held  several  prominent 
offices.  He  was  member  of  Parliament  in  l(i88,  and 
treasurer  and  receiver  general,  several  years  later, 
to  Queen  Jlary.  Being  appointed  governor  of 
New  York  and  Massachusetts  in  1795,  he  started 
for  the  former  place,  and  during  his  stay  became 
extremely  unpopular,  lie  went  to  Massacluisetis 
in  1699,  where  he  was  deceived  cordially.  The 
king  had  sent  him  out  with  the  primary  ob- 
ject of  suppressing  piracy,  and  the  governor,  with 
the  king's  consent,  equipped  a  ship  of  his  own  and 
sent  Captain  William  Kidd  to  clear  the  surround- 
ing waters  of  pirates.  Kidd  turned  pirate,  and  the 
governor  was  even  susjiected  of  coiMjilicity.  Bello- 
monl  (>vinced  his  honesty  liy  going  to  New  York 
and  waging  a  ruthU-ss  war  on  illegal  traders.  This 
made  him  unjiopular,  and  petitions  were  sent  to 
England  for  his  recall.  These  troubles  hastened 
his  death. 

BELLOT  '.'JTK.MT  is  the  passage  connecting 
Prince  Regent  Inlet  with  Peel  Strait  or  Sound,  anil 
separating  North  Somerset  from  I'.oothia  Felix. 
Kennedy,  in  his  search  for  Franklin,  discovered  its 


BELLO\VS  FALLS  —  BELLS 


21b 


(>a.;tern  entruiice,  and  named  the  strait  after  his 
lamented  companion,  Bellot.  See  Britannica,  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  549.  After  four  fruitless  attempts  to  explore 
it,  the  achievement  was  accomplished  by  ^^IcClin- 
toclc;  it  is  about  L'O  miles  long,  and  at  its  nar- 
rowest part  about  one  mile  wide,  running  between 
granite  shores  rising  from  1,500  to  1,000  feet.  The 
winds  and  the  waters  have  full  sway  hero,  the  water 
llowing  from  the  west  in  permanent  currents  and 
lloiid  tides. 

BKLLOWS  FALLS,  a  manufacturing  village  in 
Windham  county,  Vermont.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Connecticut  river,  which  here  has  a  fall  of  forty- 
four  feet  in  half  a  mile  and  furnishes  water  power 
for  the  manufacture  of  paper,  farming-implements, 
and  woolen  goods. 

BELLOWS  FISH, 
a  local  name  for  sev- 
eral  species  of 
fishes;  particularly 
in  Khode  Island,  or 
the  angler-fish  ;  and, 
in  Europe,  for  the 
trumpet-fish  of  the 
Mediterranean  and 
Atlantic  coasts. 

BELLOWS,  Hen-  teimpetfish. 

Bv  WniT.NEV.an eminent  Unitarian  clergyman,  born 
at    Boston,  Mass.,  June  11,  1814,  died  in  New  Yorlj 


city,  Jan.  30, 1882.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  and 
afterwards  at  the  Cambridge  divinity  scliool.  He 
was  ordained  pastor  at  the  Congregational  Church 
in  New  York,  and  here  he  remained  for  forty-thrr e 
years.  He  was  editorially  connected  with  the  "Chris- 
tian Inquirer,"  "Christian  Pj.xaminer"  and  the  "Lib- 
eral Christian."  Several  notable  addresses  were 
made  by  him  on  public  occasions.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  U.  S.  Sanitary  Commission,  liolding 
office  from  1801  to  187ji— during  wliieli  time 
?1 5,000,000  in  supplies  and  .$5,000,000  in  money  were 
distributed  according  to  his  directions. 

BELLOY,  PiEBRE  L.vtREXT  BnuETTE,  born  in 
Saint-Flour,  Auvergne,  in  1727,  died  in  1775.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  French  dramatists  who  ventured  to 
introduce  on  the  stage  native  instead  of  Greek  or 
Koman  heroes. 

BELL  ROCK,  or  IxcncvPE,  an  old  red  sandstone 
reef  in  the  German  Ocean,  twelve  miles  southeast 
of  Arbroath,  and  almost  opposite  the  mouth  of  the 
Tay.  It  is  2,000  feet  long,  and  ai  spring-tides  part 
of  it  is  uncovered  to  the  height  of  four  feet,  the 
sea  being  only  three  fathoms  deep  for  one  hundred 
yards  around.  It  caused  at  one  time  a  great  deal 
of  shipwreck,  and  tradition  states  that  the  abbot 
of  .-Vberbrothwick  (Arbroatli)  ])laced  a  bell  on 
it,  "  fixed  upon  a  tree  or  timber,  which  raas 
continually,  giving  notice  to  the  saylers  of  the 
danger." 


BELLS.  For  general  article  on  Bki,i.s,  see  Britan- 
nica, Vol.  Ill,  pp.  536-39.  American  bells  are  now 
found  in  all  rjuarteiS  of  the  globe.  The  special  aim 
of  beU-fou  'iers  ir  'he  United  States  is  to  produce 
the  greatest  vol  :)i_»  and  prolongation  of  tone,  com- 
bined with  thebt'i.  quality  of  sound  and  the  highest 
traveling  cha.acter  from  the  least  wi-itrht  of  metal, 
and  these  results  have  attained  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  secure  to  the  trade  a  greatly  extended  and 
rapidly  increasing  patronage.  .Vmerican  manufact- 
urers may  be  congratulated  ujwn  tlie  generally  ac- 
knowledged fact  that  their  bells  are  uniformly  de- 
sig;;ed  and  cast  with  superior  excellence  in  all  these 
respects.  As  the  musical  qualities,  purity  and 
beauty  of  t  ne  and  power,  that  dislinguish  the  best 
bells  from  tins"  of  an  inferior  class  depend  largely 
on  the  purity  of  the  material  used,  the  greatest 
care  is  t'lken  as  to  the  selections  made.  The  fol- 
lowing is  quote''  from  the  circular  sent  out  in  1891 
by  one  of  tha  oldest  and  leading  American  firms  :* 

"1.  We  ^inrantco  timt  nil  the  coninT  melted  and  used  In 
the  miiniitncture  of  the  liell  or  IjelH  will  he  the  i>ure3t  new 
ItiLOt  copper  thiit  can  be  obtulned.  Hiild  copper  being  guar- 
aiitt-ed  U)  us  to  bo  the  jturest  nmmifuetured. 

**-.  \\'e  (funrauteo  that,  with  each  navcnty-neven  pountltt  of 
■aid  fopper,  we  will  melt  and  nil.\  not  less  than  tiirnly-thrce 
poinnh  of  best  new  Imported  block  tin. 

"3.  We  Rtiarantee  that  an  analysis  of  the  hell  or  bolls  will 
0how  that  the  bell  metal  Is  eoTtij)Osed  of  the  best  of  copper 
and  tin  only,  and  that  It  Is  not  In  anv  nntnner  debased  bv  the 
addition  of  any  cheap  metal  or  metals. 

"4.  We  further  trnarantec  thut  no  cheap.  Impure  or  brittle 
uiROt  copper,  and  that  no  old  coipper,  with  Its  accumulatlona 
ot  solder  and  dirt,  will  be  used  In  the  monufucture  of  the 
bell  or  bolls." 

"Setsof  hells,  of  all  kinds,  in  foreign  countries  are 
usually  called /./•«(/.<,•  in  America  Ihe  term  is  applied 
ti>  Ihose  which  are  attuned  lo  harmonic  inlervals, 
while  those  which  are  attuned  lo  diatonic  intervals 
are  called  rliimis.     Thus,  a  set  of  bells  upon   the 


<  7  w' j°J  ^'ooc"^,'?;  *  *'o  •  W'-"^'  '■■''">■•  •'^■-  ■*■■•  'o  whom  we  are 
Indebted  <or  special  favors  In  the  preparation  of  this  article. 


eight   notes  of  the  music  scale  is  a  chime,  a  set 
upon  the  first,  third,  fifth  and  eighth  is  a  peal : 


zsn 


-&-=- 


i 


"  The  smallest  number  of  liells  that  may  be  said  to 
compose  a  chime  is  five,  while  what  might  be  called 
the  natural  number — corresponding  to  the  notes  ot 
the  natural  scale — is  eight;  but  as  the  addition  ol 
an  extra  bell  giving  the  note  of  the  flat  seventh 
creates  a  new  series  of  diatonic  tones  in  the  key  of 
the  fourth,  thus  allowing  music  of  two  different 
keys  to  be  played,  this  bell  is  usually  added  to  the 
octave,  so  that  a  full  chime  is  now  understood  to 
consist  of  at  least  nine  bells,  which  number  may,  ol 
course,  be  increased  by  adding  bells  which  [iroduce 
other  tones,  either  within  or  beyond  the  octave. 

"Thebest  manner  of  mounting  chimes  is  to  provide 
the  largest  bell  of  the  set  with  the  usual  fixtures, 
so  that  it  may  be  rung  as  an  ordinary  church-bell, 
and  to  suspend  the  others  stationarily  from  trusses 
in  such  positions  as  the  capacity  of  the  tower  may 
require;  the  general  plan  of  mounting,  as  also  the 
arrangement  of  the  chiming  apparatus,  being  shown 
in  the  illustration.  Should  the  bell  room  be  limited 
in  width,  but  have  a  fair  height,  the  bells  are  placed 
in  sections  above  each  other,  the  position  being  a 
matter  of  indiflference,  ])rovided  the  windows  are  of 
sufficient  height  to  give  egress  to  the  sound. 

"Chime-ringing  levers  enable  the  ringer  to  per- 
form any  music  within  the  range  of  the  bells  the 
same  as  upon  a  musical  instrmnent,  the  elasticity 
of  touch  and  effect  of  the  blow  being  greatly  en- 
hanced by  our  recently  improved  mode  of  connect- 
ing the  levers  with  the  clapper,  by  means  of  which 
the  same  facility  of  execution  is  secured  as  upon 
the  pedals  of  an  organ.  It  should  be  stated,  both 
for  the  information  of  purchasers  and  in  commend- 
ation of  this  mode  of  chime-ringing,  that  it  dee- 


246 


BELLS 


not  require  the  services  of  a  professional  musician, 
but  may  be  performed  acceptably,  and  with  com- 

Earatively   little   practice,   by   almost   any   person 
aving  an  ear  for  music." 


As  it  is  impracticable  to  play  tunes  upon  peals 
(as  distinguished  from  chimes),  they  are  usually  so 
mounted  that  each  bell  may  be  swung,  thus  allow- 
ing different  bells  to  be  rung  for  different  churcli 
services,  if  desired,  while  their  being  rung  together, 
either  successively  or  simullaneously,  produces  :i 
pleasing  effect.  -A  [leul  being  usually  considered 
as  the  nucleus  of  the  future  chime,  the  careful 
manufacturer  bears  this  iu  mind  in  determining 
the  weights  and  tones  of  the  bells  selected  for  peals, 
and  retains  a  record  of  the  key  of  th(>  tenor  bell  as 
a  needed  help  in  selecting  additional  bells  to  com- 
plete the  possible  future  cTiiine. 

As  to  the  inquiry  often  made,  how  far  a  bell  of 
given  weight  may  be  hc>ard,  it  is  impossible  to  give 
any  satisfactory  infuriiiation.  .\t  least  nii<'-half  de- 
pends upon  the  formation  of  the  land  surrounding 
the  structurp  in  which  the  l)ell  is  luing.  Length- 
wise of  a  valley  the  sound  will  often  go  more  than 
twice  as  far  as  it  does  over  an  adjoining  hill.  So 
also  it  may  bo  heard  much  farther  over  water  than 
over  a  plain.  So  also  the  more  open  the  space  in 
which  the  bell  is  hung  the  freer  will  the  snuiul  be 
to  reach  long  distances.  In  all  cases  the  usual 
acousticlaws  govern  the  "reaches"  of  the  "ringing- 
bell."     A  small  bell  outside,  or  in  a  i)artially  con- 


fined room  in  a  tower,  may  be  heard  twice  or  even 
several  times  as  far  as  one  shut  in  by  obstructions 
of  walls  or  partially  open  window-blinds.  Refer- 
ring to  this  question,  a  well-informed  and  well- 
known  critic  on  towers  says : 

"Nine  out  of  ten  modern  towers  are  built  as  if  the  architect 
supposed  it  was  the  bell  founder's  business  not  only  to  cast 
the  bells  but  hang  them,  make  the  towers  large  enough  to 
hold  them,  and  to  invent  some  way  or  other  of  making  the 
sound  tind  its  way  out  of  the  windows  wherever  they  are 
and  however  small  they  may  be.  Oddly  enough,  too,  almost 
as  I  am  writing  this.  I  have  received  a  letter  from  a  London 
bell-ringer  of  twenty-six  years'  standing,  complaining  that, 
of  all  the  churches  built  there  within  the  last  thirty  years, 
there  are  only  two  which  are  properly  adapted  to  tile'  bells 
which  they  contain;  the  main  faults  being  that  the  bell 
chambers  are  too  low.  and  the  windows  so  small  that  not 
half  the  sound  of  the  bells  can  get  out.  In  a  tower  which  is 
nothing  more  than  a  base  for  a  spire  the  bells  have  to  bang 
so  low  that  they  are  hardly  above  the  roofs  of  the  surround- 
ing houses,  and  so  are  disagreeably  noisy  at  a  little  distance 
and  yet  hardly  to  be  heard  a  great  way  off,  whereas,  good 
bells  properly  placed  always  sound  the  best  at  a  distance: 
and  wnen  they  are  clear  of  all  these  defects  in  the  tower 
the  architect  or  builder  generallj-  contrives  to  bottle  up  the 
sound  as  much  as  possible  by  filling  the  bell  chamber  win- 
dows with  close  louvers  deeply  overlapping  each  other,  so 
that  even  the  sound  that  does  get  out  is,  as  it  were,  shot  down 
onto  the  roof  of  the  church  instead  of  being  allowed  to 
spread  freely.  Mr.  Ruskin  also  abuses  close  louvers  on 
architectural  grounds,  and  notices  the  grand  effect  of  the 
large,  wide  ones  in  many  foreign  churches." 

The  largest  bell  made  in  the  United  States; 
weighed  22,000  lbs.,  and  before  it  was  fractured 
hung  in  the  City  Hall,  New  York.  On  some  oc- 
casions it  was  heard  thirteen' miles  up  the  Hudson 
Eiver;  but  that  date  was  before  the  upper  part  of 
Manhattan  Island  was  covered  with  structures 
varying  from  four  to  twenty  stories  in  height. 
The  largest  bell  in  Canada  is  that  of  Notre  Dame- 
Cathedral,  IMontreal,  weighing  29,400  lbs.  The 
reference  catalogues  of  American  dealers  would 
present  extended  lists  showing  a  great  number  of 
large  bells  throughout  the  country  ranging  in 
weight  from  H.OOO  lbs.  to  17,000  lbs.  As  a  list  of 
the  largest  bells  of  the  Old  World  is  given  in  detail 
in  Vol.  III.it  is  omitted  in  these  Additions  and  Re- 
visions ;  but  the  reader  will  be  gratified  to  find  here 


IHK   <iURAT    HKI.l,   (IF   .MOSCOW, 

a  correct  illustration  of  the  bell  of  .Moscow,  the 
greatest  ever  constructed,  whose  weight  was  such, 
tliat  it  was  never  hung. 


BELLS  —  BELVEDERE 


247 


The  bell  bears  an  inscription  stating  that  the  first 
great  bell  was  cast  in  1553.  and  weighed  :it>,000 
pounds;  during  the  reign  of  the  Ttiar  Alexis  it  was 
ruined  by  tire,  and  in  li)54,witli  additional  metal, 
was  recast  into  the  second  great  bell,  the  weight  of 
■which  was  288,000  poundi;  that  this  second  bell 
was  in  170(3  also  destroyed  by  tire,  and  in  1733, 
with  still  more  metal,  was  recast  by  order  of  the 
Empress  Anne,  into  the  present  great  bell,  which 
measures  22  feet,  S  inches  across  the  mouth,  19  feet, 
3  inches  in  height,  and  weighs  (estimatedvabout 
440.000  pounds.*  It  seems  to  have  been  cracked  in 
cooling ;  a  nearly  triangular-shaped  piece  of  about 
6  feet  in  height  and  7  feet  at  the  base,  and  weigh- 
ing about  11  tons,  was  broken  out  at  the  rim  and 
now  stands  on  the  ground  just  below  the  opening 
thus  formed.  When  the  great  bell  was  placed  in 
its  present  position  it  was  intended  for  seryice  as 
a  cliapel,  and  for  that  purpose  an  opening  was  left 
through  the  pedestal  wall  which,  with  the  opening 
in  the  bell  above  it,  forms  an  imposing  entrance. 

To  the  list  in  Britannica.Vol.  Ill,  page  539,  should 
be  added  the  new  bell  of  St.  Paul's  in  London,com- 
monly  kno^vn  as  the  "  Great  Paul."  It  was  raised  to 
its  place  May  31, 1882,  and  dedicated  with  imposing 
ceremonies  three  days  later.  It  is  8  feet  10  inches 
in  height,  and  9  feet  6?4  inches  in  diameter,  and 
■weighs  17 '.J  tons.  Its  note  is  E  flat ;  materials,  cop- 
per and  tin ;  and  its  cost  about  |15,000. 

BELLS,  on  shipboard,  is  a  term  having  a  pecul- 
iar meaning  nearly  equivalent  to  that  of  "time" 
or  "o'clock"  in  ordinary  land  life.  The  time  is 
divided  into  watches  of  four  hours  each,  ending  at 
4,  at  8  and  at  12,  and  the  stroke  of  a  bell  marks 
each  half-hour.  These  strokes  have  no  reference 
to  the  hour,  but  simply  designate  the  number  of 
half-hours  that  have  passed  in  that  particular 
watch.  Thus,  "three  bells"  is  a  phrase  denoting 
that  three  half-hours  have  elapsed,  but  it  does  not 
in  itself  show  to  what  watch  it  refers. 

BELLUNO,  a  city  of  Venetia,  Northern  Italy,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Piave,  and  51  miles  north  of 
the  city  of  Venice.  It  is  walled,  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  has  a  handsome  cathedral,  hospital,  public 
library,  fine  aqueduct,  etc.  It  has  a  trade  in  tim- 
ber, and  manufactories  of  silks,  hats,  leather  and 
earthenware.     Population,  10,000. 

BELMONT,  a  village  of  Missouri,  on  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  opposite  Columbus,  Ky.,  noted  as  the 
site  of  a  severe  battle  fought  Nov.  7,  IStil,  in  which 
the  Confederate  works  were  stormed  and  taken  by 
the  Federal  troops  under  General  Grant,  and 
■  retaken  by  the  Confederate  forces  under  Slajor- 
General  Polk. 

BELMONT,  a  village  of  New  York,  situated  on 
the  Genesee  River,  about  midway  between  Dun- 
kirk and  Elmira.  It  is  extensively  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  barrels. 

BELMONT,  AuGfST,  financier,  born  at  Alzey, 
Germany,  in  1816,  died  in  New  York  city,  Nov.  24, 
1890.  He  was  educated  in  Frankfort,  entered  the 
employ  of  the  Rothschilds  in  1.S30,  and  came  to 
New  York  in  ;.V>7,  where  he  settled  as  their  agent. 
He  soon  began  lo  prosper  and  at  the  age  of  forty  was 
a  millionaire.  His  otlice  was  on  Wallstreet,  but  he 
was  a  banker,  never  a  gambler  in  stocks.  In  1844 
Mr.  Ilelmont  was  appointed  consul-general  by  the 
Austrian  government,  and  this  ollice  he  held  six 
years.     He  was  a  Pemcx'rat,  was  sent  by  President 

•This  wcluht  la  JiiBt  double  that  of  the  largest  btll  now  In 
nsf  In  the  world:  vli!,  that  niispunded  above  the  chaiiel  of 
St.  Xlchoins.  In  the  krtmlln  In  Moscow,  HelsrhlnK  'ijo.iMO 
pounds.  This  was  cast  In  1HI7.  It  Is  said  that  the  sound, 
when  the  bell  Is  rune,  which  is  oulv  once  a  vear.  Is  "a  deep, 
hollow  inurninr.  vibrating  all  over  Sloscow  like  the  rolling  of 
distant  thunder.  '  • 


Pierce  as  minister  to  the  Hague,  and  from  ISW)  to 
1872  was  chairman  of  the  national  Democratic  con- 
vention. He  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  Southern 
States  should  be  allowed  to  secede,  thinking  they 
would  soon  be  glad  to  come  back  into  the  Union. 
The  event  of  war  proved  Mr.  Belmont  in  error,  and 
caused  him  to  change  his  views  and  advocate  the 
prosecution  of  the  war.  He  had  such  an  influence 
abroad  that  he  prevented  the  confederacy  from 
obtaining  credit  in  the  foreign  money  market. 
While  visiting  Europe  he  was  able  to  help  the 
Union  cause  and  furnished  valuable  information  to 
Secretary  Seward.  Mr.  Belmont  was  a  lover  of  art, 
and  made  quite  a  collection  of  paintings.  For 
years  he  was  noted  as  a  breeder  of  fine  horses. 

BELOIT,  Kansas,  a  city  and  important  business 
center,  the  county-seat  of  Mitchell  county.  The 
Solomon  River  furnishes  excellent  water  power. 
White  magnesian  limestone,  a  good  building  stone, 
is  here  quarried. 

BELOIT,  a  city  of  Wisconsin,  situated  on  both 
sides  of  Rock  River,  immediately  north  of  the 
boundary  line  of  Illinois.  It  is  the  seat  of  Beloit 
College,  the  center  of  an  extensive  farming  and 
dairying  district,  and  the  headquarters  of  impor- 
tant manufactures,  including  paper,  reaping  and 
mowing  machines,  water-wheels,  plows  and  ma- 
chinery. 

BELOMANCY,  a  mode  of  divination  by  arrows, 
practiced  among  the  Arabs  and  other  nations  of 
the  East.  A  number  of  arrows  being  shot  ofif  with 
sentences  written  on  labels  attached  to  them,  an 
indication  of  futurity  is  sought  from  the  inscription 
on  the  first  arrow  found.  "This  is  only  one  of  many 
ways  of  divining  by  arrows. 

BELON.  Pierre  (1517-64),  a  celebrated  French 
naturalist,  born  in  1517,  at  Soulleticre.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Paris,  and  traveled  through  Germany. 
Afterwards  he  visited  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt  and 
Arabia.  He  returned  in  1549  and  published  the 
results  of  his  travels  in  a  work  entitled,  Ohservationt 
on  Several  Singular  and  Memorable  Tilings  Discovered 
in  Greece, Asia ,  Judea,Egypt,  A  rabia  and  Other  Foreign 
Countries.  Charles  IX  gave  him  apartments  in  the 
ChAteau  of  Madrid,  a  sumptuous  edifice  in  the  Bois 
de  Boulogne,  constructed  by  Francis  I.  Here  he 
resided  till  his  tragic  death  in  1564;  he  was  killed 
by  robbers  while  gathering  herbs  in  the  Bois  do 
Boulogne.  In  1551  he  published,  among  other  things, 
an  exact  description  of  the  dolphin,  and  the  earliest 
picture  of  a  hippopotamus.  He  published  the  most 
important  treatise  on  ornithology  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. 

BELPER,  an  English  market  town,  in  Derby 
county,  on  the  Derwent.  It  contains  the  remains 
of  the  mansion  which  was  at  one  time  the  dwell- 
ing place  of  ,Iohn  of  Gaunt. 

BELTON,  the  county-seat  of  Bell  county,  Texas, 
on  Leon  River.  It  has  a  Masonic  institute,  the 
Chamberlain  Institute,  and  Baylor  Female  College, 
the  oldest  in  the  State.  Its  educational  institutions 
are  excellent  and  numerous. 

BELrGK.\,  or  White  Wn.M,E  (Delphinapterus 
h'uen.i),  a  cetacean  mammal  allied  to  the  dolphins. 
Its  form,  which  is  remarkably  characterized  bv  the 
softness  of  all  its  curves,  adapts  it  for  rapid  and 
graceful  movements.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XV,  p. 
398;  Vot.  XXIV.  p.  52.5. 

BELUR,  a  village  of  Mysore,  situated  130  miles 
■west  of  Bangalore.  It  is  known  in  the  Puranas  as 
Velnji\trii,  and  locally  regarded  us  I  he  Southern 
Benares.  It  is  the  site  of  acelebrated  temple.  Pop- 
ulation. 3.0O0. 

BELVEDERE,  originally  an  erection  on  the  top 
of  a  house  for  the  purpose  of  looking  out  on  the  sur- 
rounding country  and  enjoying  the  air,  in  which 


■J.i6 


B  E  L  V  E  D  E  R  E  —  B  P:  N  D  A 


sense  it  is  still  understood  in  Italy.  A  part  of  the 
Vatican  in  Rome  is  known  as  the  Belvedere,  and 
gives  name  to  the  famous  statue  of  Apollo.  In  France 
the  word  has  come  to  signify  any  kind  of  summer- 
house  or  place  of  refreshment. 

BELVEDERE,  an  annual  plant  of  the  natural 
order  Chetiopodiacex,  a  native  of  the  Middle  and 
South  of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  familiar  in  gardens  as 
an  ornamental  annual,  not  on  account  of  its  flowers, 
which  have  no  beauty,  but  of  its  close,  pyramidal, 
rigid  form,  and  numerous  narrow  leaves,  which 
make  it  appear  like  a  miniature  cypress  tree.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Summer  Cypress. 

BELVIDERE,  an  educational  and  manufactur- 
ing town  of  Illinois,  on  the  Kishwaukee  River  and 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railroad ;  it  is  the 
county-seat  of  Boone  county. 

BELVIDERE,  the  capital  of  Warren  county,  N.  J., 
a  flourishing  town  on  the  Delaware  River  and 
Bequest  Creek.  There  is  a  bridge  here  across  the 
Delaware.  Abundant  water  power  is  furnished  for 
cotton  and  flour  mills  and  a  carriage  factory.  The 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  passes  through  the  town. 
The  surrounding  region  furnishes  iron  ore,  lime- 
stone, slate  and  magnesia. 

BELVISIA  (also"  called  XapoJcma),  a  genus  of 
exogenous  plants,  the  type  of  the  order  Belrisiacea:, 
of  which  order  only  a  few  species,  natives  of  tropical 
Africa,  have  yet  been  discovered.  They  are  large 
shrubs,  with  smooth,  simple,  leathery  leaves,  the 
beautiful  and  very  curious  flowers,  growing  in  threes, 
being  sessile  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The  calyx  is 
a  thick  leathery  cup,  divided  into  five  ovate  seg- 
ments. The  corolla  is  composed  of  three  distinct 
rings,  the  outer  one  five-lobed,  and  furnished  with 
ribs,  by  means  of  which  it  is  strongly  plaited,  turn- 
ing back  andhidingthe  calyx  when  full  blown  ;  the 
second,  a  narrow  memVjrane,  divided  into  numerous 
regular  segments  like  a  fringe ;  the  third,  an  erect 
cup-shaped  membrane.  The  erect  stamens  resem- 
ble another  cup.  The  ovary  is  five-celled,  each  cell 
containing  two  ovules;  the  short,  thick  style  is  five- 
angled,  with  a  broad,  flat  stigma  of  as  many  angles. 
The  fruit  is  a  soft  berry,  crowned  with  the  calyx, 
with  large  kidney-shaped  seeds. 

BEM,  .losEPH  (1 79.3-1  S50),  commander  of  the  army 
in  Transylvania  during  the  Hungarian  revolution, 
born  at  Tariiov,  in  Galicia,  in  1795.  After  a  course 
of  military  adventure  in  Poland  he  went  to  France, 
where  he  resided  for  a  considerable  time.  In  1848 
he  joined  the  Hungarians  and  was  intrusted  with 
the  command  of  the  army  of  Transylvania.  He  de- 
feated the  Austrian  army  and  succeeded  in  driving 
their  allies,  the  Russians,  back  to  Wallacliia.  Hav- 
ing tlius  made  himself  master  of  Transylvania,  at 
Kossuth's  request  he  hastened  into  Hungary, 
where  he  took  part  in  the  unfortunate  battle  near 
Temesvar.  He  made  his  escape  into  Turkey,  where 
he  embraced,  from  political  motives,  the  profes- 
sion of  Islam;  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  .1 
pasha  and  olitained  a  command  in  the  Turkish  army. 
In  ls.")0  he  was  sent  to  Aleppo,  whereafter  suppress- 
ing the  sanguinary  insurrection  of  (lie  Arabs  against 
the  Christian  poi'.ulation,  lie  died  of  fever,  l)ec.  10, 
1850.  He  was  in  private  life  characteized  by  his  be- 
nevolent disposition,  and  as  a  military  leader  dis- 
tinguished by  courage,  presence  of  mind  in  ex- 
breme  danger,  and  remarkable  rapidity  of  move- 
ment. • 

1!KMB.\T()OKA,Bayop, a  safe  and  commodious 
V)ay  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Madagascar.  Prime 
bullocks  are  sold  here,  and  boiighl  extensively  by 
agents  of  the  French  government,  who  have  tliem 
driven  to  Fort  D.aiipliin  on  Antongil  Hay,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  island,  where  they  are  killed 
aii'l  cured  U>r  the  use  of  the  French  navy,  and  for 


colonial  consumption.  Rice  is  also  sold  very  cheap 
at  Bembatooka.  .Majunga,on  the  north  side  of  the 
bay,  is  an  important  town,  Bembatooka  being  only 
a  village. 

BEMBECID^E,  a  family  of  hymenopterous  in- 
sects of  the  division  in  which  the  females  are  fur- 
nished with  stings.  Along  with  Sphegidie,  and  other 
nearly  allied  families,  they  receive  the  popular 
name  of  sand-wasp.  They  very  much  resemble  bees 
or  wasps  in  general  appearance;  they  are  natives  of 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  world.  Some  of  them  are 
remarkable  for  the  odor  of  roses  which  they  emit. 
The  females  make  burrows  in  sandy  banks,  in  each 
of  which  they  deposit  an  egg,  and  along  with  it 
bodies  of  flies  as  food  for  tha  larva. 

BEMBRIDGE  beds,  a  iivision  of  the  Upper 
Eocene  strata,  resting  on  the  St.  Helen  s,  and  cap- 
ped by  the  Hempstead  series,  thg  maximum  thick- 
ness being  115  feet.  Here  have  been  found  remains 
of  the  Anojilnthcriion. 

BEMIS  heights,  or  Bemvs  Heights,  a  small 
village  of  New  York,  in  Saratoga  county,  famous 
for  having  been  the  place  where  occurred  the  first 
battle  of  Stillwater,  Sept.  19,  1777.  Generals  Gates 
and  Burgoyne  were  the  opposing  commanders. 

BEN,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  "son,"  and  form- 
ing the  first  syllable  of  many  lames,  ancient  and 
modern,  as  Benhadad,  Beniamin,  ^tc.  The  corre- 
sponding Arabic  word  Ihn,  r  Ebn,  in  like  manner 
enters  into  composition  of  a  grea;  number  of 
names,  as  Ibn  Sina,  Ibn-al-Faradhi,  etc.  Ibn  in 
some  of  its  constructive  forms,  drops  the  initial 
vowel,  thus  nearly  corresponding  to  the  Hebrew,  as 
Jusiif-hcn-Yakub  (Joseph,  the  son  of  lacob). 

BEX,  a  term  of  Gaelic  origin,  prefixed  to  the 
names  of  the  principal  mountain  ^  of  Scotland,  as 
Ben  Ledi,  Ben  Lomond,  etc.  It  is  sssentially  tlia 
same  as  the  AVelsh  Pi'»,  the  primary  ;ignific;ition 
of  which  is  "head,"  and  hence  it  may  be  con- 
sidered as  equivalent  to  "mountain  head.'  The 
term  Pennine,  applied  to  a  division  oi  the  Alps,  is 
doubtless  derived  from  the  Celti3  Pen  or  Ben.  and 
even  the  name  Apennines  is  in  all  probability 
from  the  same  root. 

BEN,  On,  0I-,  a  fluid  fixed  oil,  obtained  from 
the  seeds  of  a  tree  found  in  ^ndia  and  Arabia, 
and  known  as  the  horse-radish  tree.  Tha  seeds 
ar,e  called  Ben-nuts,  and  are  roundish,  with  tlirea 
membranous  wings.  The  oil  is  used  by  watch- 
makers, because  it  does  not  readily  freeze;  also  by 
perfumers,  as  the  basis  of  various  scents,  and 
other  oils  are  often  adulterate  '  with  it. 

BENA'VEK,  a  snrall  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Iser,  a  few  niil?s  distant  from- 
Prague.  It  is  wort  liy  of  note  as  being  for  a  time  the 
residence  of  the  celel)  rated  astronomer  TychoBrah^. 

BEXBEtn'LA.  one  of  the  Heorid;3  or  Western 
Isles  of  Scotland,  lietween  North  and  South  Xith, 
20  miles  west  of  Skye.  and  belongin<^  to  i.iver- 
nesshire.  It  is  eiglit  miles  long,  and  eiglit  miles 
broad,  low  and  flat,  and  consists  Chietly  of  bog, 
sand  and  lake,  resting  on  a  substratum  of  gneiss 
rock,  with  a  very  broken  coast-line.  Population, 
1,700.  consisting  of  fishermen  and  farmers,  who  fer- 
tilize the  soil  with  the  seaweed  which  is  cast  ashore 
on  the  island, 

I'.KXCH-WAKli.VNT.  a  process  issued  bya  judge 
or  court  against  a  person  guilty  of  some  contempt, 
or  indicted  for  some  crime. 

HlOXn,  the  name  for  one  among  the  many  kinds 
of  knot  by  whicli  ropes  are  fastened  on  shiplioard. 
Seanii>iv  imply  tliis  nieaning  when  they  speak  tif 
"bending  the  cable,''  tlu'  "tishermens  bend,  tlie 
"  slieet  bend."  etc. 

HKND.V,  Gkohok.  tlie  most  distinguished  of  a 
ni'talile  musical    family,  born  at    .Tungbunzlau,   in 


li  E  X  D  E  M  A  X  A— B  E  .\  E  E  1  T 


249 


Boliemiii,  in  1721,  died  at  Kostritz  in  1795.  He  ex- 
celled as  a  pianis-t  >-i(.!!nist,  and  composer,  and  was 
bandmaster  to  the  Diiice  of  Gotha  (174S-S7),  and 
in  tliis  peri'^d  produced  several  operas  and  canta- 
tas, such  as  Ariailii-'  auf  Xaxos  and  Medm. 

BEXDEMAXX,  Eiiw.vrd,  a  celebrated  painter  of 
the  Diisseldorf  school,  born  at  Berlin  in  1811.  lie  re- 
ceived a  careful  scientific  education,  but  devoted 
himself  to  art,  became  a  pupil  of  Schadow's  and 
soiin  proved  that  he  was  not  mistaken  in  liis  vo- 
cation. When  he  was  but  20  years  of  age.  his 
picture  of  the  I'ttptive  Jews  was  exliibited  at  Ber- 
lin, and  at  once  acivnowledged  to  be  a  master- 
piece. His  next  important  work  in  18.3.3  represented 
Two  Girls  (it  a  Fountain,  followed  in  1837  liy  •/</•(- 
mifih  at  the  Biiitis  of  Jerusalem,  a  picture  for  which  lie 
obtained  a  prize-medal  at  Paris.  His  pictures  are 
distinguished  by  a  grace  and  charm  arising  from 
symmetry  in  drawing  and  composition,  nairele  in 
conception,  and  a  tender,  harmonious,  yet  always 
truthful  Coloring.  He  was  director  of  Diisseldorf 
Academy  from  1859  to  18tj7. 

BEXDIGO,  one  of  the  most  productive  gold- 
fields  in  the  colony  of  Victoria.  It  is  aViout  25 
miles  to  the  north  of  Mount  Alexander,  wliich 
again  is  about  75  miles  inland  from  Melbourne. 

BENE,  a  town  in  tlie  province  of  Mondovi,  Pied- 
mont, 18  miles  from  Ooni.  It  occupies  tlie  site  of  | 
the  ancient  Amjiista  Bagiennorum  destroyed  by 
Alaric.  ^lany  interesting  vestiges  are  found  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  the  ruins  of  an  aqueduct,  baths, 
and  amphitheater  are    still    visible.     Population, 

l).tH)0. 

BEXEDEK,  LuDwiG  Vox,  an  Austrian  general, 
born  at  Oitenburg,  Hungary,  in  1804,  died  at  Gratz 
in  1881.  He  received  a  military  education,  entered 
the  army  as  ensign  in  1822,  and  became  distin- 
guished for  gallantry  and  skill.  He  was  governor 
of  Hungary  in  18ti0,  and  in  18(1(1  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Austrian  army.  After  the 
defeat  at  Sadowa  he  was  brouglit  before  a  court- 
martial,  and  although  the  proceedings  were 
quashed  by  the  emperor,  Benedek  never  recovered 
from  th<>  savage  criticisms  of  his  mortified  and  de- 
feated countrymen.     See  Britannica.  \'ol.  I II.  p.  HO. 

liEXEDETTl,  \'iN(ENT,a  French  diiilomatist  who 
held  various  important  position.^.  When  ambassa- 
dor to  Prussia,  he  urged  offensively  upon  the  king, 
in  the  public  walks  at  Ems,  in  1870,  a  measure  dis- 
tasteful to  his  majesty,  throtigh  which  he  was  de- 
nied all  further  interviews.  Each  government 
then  claimed  that  it  had  been  grievously  insulted 
by  the  other,  and  when  Benedelti  returned  to 
Paris,  France  declared  war  upon  Prussia  with  a 
disastrous  result  to  herself.  See  Britannica,  Vol. 
IX,  p.  ti2t). 

BEXEDICITE,  a  hymn  or  song  of  the  three 
children  in  the  tiery  furnace,  sung  in  the  C!hristian 
Church  as  early  as  the  time  of  St.  Chrysostom,  and 
used  in  the  .\nglican  Church  in  the  morning  serv- 
ice when  the  Te  Deum  is  not  sung. 

BEXEIJICT,  Sir  Jti.iis,  born  in  Germany  1804, 
died  in  1885.  He  was  a  musician  and  coiiiposer. 
In  is.3(i  he  took  up  his  residence  in  England.  He 
was  musical  director  of  the  Kiirnther  Thor 
Theater,  \'ienna,  in  1824;  and,  later  on,  occupied 
the  same  position  at  Naples.  In  Paris,  and  after- 
ward in  London,  in  18.35,  he  appeared  with  great 
success  as  a  pianist.  In  18,")(i  he  conducted  at 
.lenny  Lind's  concerts  in  America. 

IIEXEDICT,  Bisiioi',  an  ecclesiastic,  born  in 
England  in  (120.  His  inlluence  upon  Anglo-Saxon 
civili/.aliiin  and  learning  was  most  important. 
Until  about  the  vear  ().")4  he  served  at  the  court  of 
Oswin,  king  of  Xorthumberland,  after  which  he 
spent  about  ten  years  at  Home  in  study.     In  (ill;"  he 


returned  to  Rome  on  a  mission  for  Alchfrid,  king 
of  Xorthumliria,  and  was  made  abbot  of  the 
monastery  of  St.  Peter,  at  Canterbury,  after  his  re- 
turn to  England  {(i()8).  He  purchased  a  valuable 
collection  of  books  about  (ive  years  later,  and  went 
to  Xorthumbria,  where  he  founded  the  famous 
monastery  of  Wearmouth  on  a  piece  of  land  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Wear,  presented  to  him  by  King 
Ecgfrid.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  481. 

BEXEDICTIXES.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p. 
558,  and  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  704,  et  my/.  An  account  of  the 
Benedictines,  as  affecting  the  history  of  England,  is 
given  in  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  ;:i72,  <7  ,s<'(y.  Their  historical 
monasteries  are  described  in  the  article  AmiKv,  and 
their  libraries  in  Vol.  Xn",p.  513.  The  Benedictines 
in  the  United  States  are  known  as  the  American  Ca- 
sinensian  Congregation.  The  parent  organization 
is  the  house  at  Latrobe,  Pa.,  founded  in  184(1  as  the 
Monastery  of  St.  Vincent,  and  raised  in  1855  to  the 
dignity  of  Abbey  of  Saint  Vincent.  It  is  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  a  mitred  abbot,  appointed  liy  the 
Pope,  and  under  the  same  general  supervision  is  a 
large  and  increasing  number  of  monasteries.  The 
alibey  at  Saint  Meinard,  Ind.,  which  was  founded 
in  1853,  is  a  filiation  of  the  celelirated  Benedictine 
Abbey  of  Einsiedeln,  in  Switzerland.  The  first  con- 
vent of  Benedictine  nuns  in  tlie  United  States  was 
established  at  Saint  Mary's,  Pa.,  in  1853. 

BEXEDICTIOX  (Lat.,  benedleere,  to  speak  well), 
a  solemn  invocation  of  the  Divine  blessing  upon 
men  or  things.  The  simplest  form  of  this  ceremony 
may  Ije  considered  as  almost  coeval  with  the 
earliest  expression  of  religious  feeling.  The  Jewish 
patriarchs  before  they  died  invoked  the  blessing  of 
God  upon  their  children,  and  later  on  the  priests 
wereconmianded  to  solicit  Divine  blessing  ujion  the 
people.  The  custom,  being  sanctioned  by  Christ, 
was  carried  forward  into  the  Primitive  Church, 
where  it  gradually  developed  in  difTerent  forms. 
In  the  Eastern  as  well  as  the  Western  Church  it  is 
regarded  as  an  essential  preliminary  to  almost  all 
important  acts. 

BEXEDICTUS,  the  so-called  "canticle  of  Zach- 
ary  "  (Luke  i,  08-70).  which  forms  part  of  the  office 
of  the  lands  in  the  Ktmian  breviary.  It  has  been 
set  to  music  by  all  the  most  eminent  composers. 

BEXEDIX,  .Iii.iiK  KoDKUitK,  German  actor, 
manager,  and  i)lay-writer.  born  at  Leipsig  in  1811, 
died  there  Sept.  2(i,  1873.  Of  his  numerous  jiieces 
the  best  are  his  comedies,  most  of  which  are  popu- 
lar in  Germany.  His  dramatic  works  fill  27 
volumes. 

BEXEFICIAKY,  a' term  in  law  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  the  holder  of  a  benefice.  It  may  also  de- 
note a  person  who  is  in  the  enj<iyment  of  any  inter- 
est or  estate  held  in  trust  l)y  others. 

BEXEFIT  OF  CLERGY.  See  Britannica,  Vol. 
V,  pp.  827-28,  and  Vol.  VIII,  p.  372.  The  Prieiteiiium 
Clericale  was  abolished  in  England  by  the  act  of 
June  21,  1827,  and  in  Ireland  by  that  of  July  15, 
1828.  All  doubt  as  to  the  liability  of  peers  to  pun- 
ishment for  felony  was  removed  by  Parliament  in 
1841.  In  the  United  States  this  anomalous  privi- 
lege has  been  made  the  subject  of  aversive  legis- 
lation by  many  of  the  individual  States,  some  de- 
nying that  the  right  ever  legally  existed  in  this 
country,  others  reci>gnizing  it  as  a  jiart  of  the  com- 
mon law,  follow  in  effect  the  federal  act  of  April  3t1. 
1700,  which  denies  benefit  of  clergy  to  any  one  con- 
victed of  a  capital  offense. 

BEXEFIT  OF  IXVEXTORY,  in  Scottish  law.  a 
legal  privilege,  whereby  an  heir  secured  himself 
against  unlimited  liability  for  his  ancestor  by  giv- 
ing up,  within  the  aH»ii/«  deliheronili,  an  inventory 
of  his  heritage  or  real  estate,  to  the  extent  of  which, 
and  no  fartlu'r,  was  I  he  heir  liable 


250 


B  E  N  E  V  0  L  E  N  C  E  —  B  E  N  J  A  .M  I  N 


BENEVOLENCE,  a  name  applied  to  a  forced  loan 
or  contribution,  levied  by  kings  of  England  without 
legal  authority.  It  was  first  so  called  in  1473, 
when  asked  from  his  subjects  by  Edward  IV,  as  a 
mark  of  good-will  towards  his  rule ;  but  similar  com- 
pulsory "  free-will  offerings  "  had  not  been  uncom- 
mon in  former  reigns.  Under  Richard  III,  in  1484, 
an  act  of  Parliament  abolished  benevolences  as 
'•  new  and  unlavrful  inventions;"  but,  spite  of  this, 
they  continued  to  be  exacted  by  Richard  himself 
and  by  Henry  VII.  In  1614  James  I  tried,  but  with 
little  success,  to  raise  money  by  this  expedient, 
and  it  was  never  again  attempted  by  the  crown, 
Charles  I  expressly  declining  to  have  recourse  to 
it.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  IX,  p.  177. 

BENEZET,  AxTHCN-y,  born  at  St.  Quentin, 
France,  Jan.  31, 1713,  died  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  May 
3,  1784.  He  was  a  philanthropist,  and  devoted  his 
attention  to  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  to  the 
education  of  the  colored  race  and  the  alleviation  of 
the  condition  of  prisoners.  He  published  a  few 
works  which  are  of  a  religious  or  historical  nature. 

BENFEY,  Theodor,  the  greatest  orientalist  and 
comparative  philologist  of  modern  times,  born  of 
Jewish  parents,  near  Gottingen,  January,  1809,  died 
in  1881.  He  studied  in  Gottingen,  Munich,  Frank- 
fort, and  Heidelberg,  and  in  1830  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  study  of  Sanskrit.  For  an  extended 
account  of  his  career,  see  Britannica,  Vol. XVIII,  p. 
781. 

BENGAL,  Bav  of,  a  portion  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
into  which  flow  the  Ganges  and  the  Bramahputra 
on  the  north,  the  Irrawaddy  on  the  east,  and  the 
Mahanuddy,  the  Godavery,  the  Kistna  or  Krishna, 
and  the  Cavery  on  the  west.  The  northern  shore, 
measuring  250  miles,  reaches  from  Balasore  to 
Chittagong,  and  at  the  south  the  bay  extends  for 
1,200  miles  between  Coromandel  and  Malacca. 

BENGAL  LIGHT,  or  Blue  Light,  a  brilliant 
light  used  at  sea  for  signaling,  and  in  ordinary 
pyrotechny.  It  is  prepared  from  nitre,  sulphur 
and  the  tersulphuret  of  antimony,  mixed  in  the 
following  proportions  by  weight:  Nitre  6,  sulphur 
2,  tersulphuret  of  antimony  1.  When  ignited  it 
bursts  into  rapid  and  vivid  combustion,  evolving 
a  brilliant,  penetrating,  but  mellow  light.  As  the 
fumes  evolved  are  poisonous,  the  light  cannot  be 
used  in  safety  in  inclosed  spaces. 

BENI,  the  name  of  a  large  river  and  also  of  a  de- 
partment of  Bolivia.  Chief  towns  of  the  province 
are  Trinidad  and  Loreto. 

BENICIA,  a  commercial  and  manufacturing  city 
of  California,  and  its  former  capital,  is  situated  on 
the  nortli  side  of  Carquinez  Strait,  at  the  head 
of  navigation  tor  large  sea-going  vessels,  about  mid- 
way in  a  direct  line  between  San  Francisco  and 
Sacramento.  One  of  tlie  principal  objects  of  inter- 
est is  the  old  capitol,  a  tine  brick  edifice  overlook- 
ing the  water-front  from  a  cummanding  eminence. 
Benicia  barracks  and  the  United  States  arsenal  for 
the  Pacific  coast  are  located  liere.  Among  the  jirin- 
cipal  maiuifactories  are  flour,  leather,  and  hydraulic 
cenifnl  ; — large  quantities  of  su])erior  limcstime 
being  quarried  in  the  vicinity.  Benicia  is  tlie  seat 
of  St.  Augustine  College,  and  of  a  law  school,  a  num- 
ber of  young  ladies'  seminaries,  and  a  Dominican 
monastery. 

liKNI-l'lASSAN,  a  village  of  UppKer  Egypt,  on 
the  I'lisl  liank  of  the  Nile.  The  place  is  renuirkable 
for  I  he  luunerous  grottoes  in  its  vicinity,  which  are 
among  (he  most  interesting  \i\  Egypt.  Tliese  cata- 
combs, which  are  excavated  in  the  calcareous  bank, 
are  about  thirty  in  nunilier.  and  are  supposed  to 
have  been  used  as  sepulchres  by  the  principal  in- 
habitants of  Hi'rmopiilis.a  city  that  stood  on  llie  op- 
posite side  of  tlie  river.     The  paintings,  though  not 


so  artistic  as  those  in  the  Theban  catacombs,  are  ol 
earlier  date,  and  throw  much  curious  light  on  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

BENI-ISGUEN,  a  large  town  in  the  interior  of 
Algeria,  surrounded  by  a  rampart  flanked  with 
towers,  and  said  to  be  nearly  as  populous  as  Algiers. 
It  has  some  trade  in  grains. 

BENI-ISRAEL  (Sons  of  Israel),  a  remarkable 
race  in  the  west  of  India,  who  preserve  a  tradition 
of  Jewish  descent,  and  have  from  time  immemorial 
acknowledged  the  law  of  Moses,  although  in  many 
respects  conforming  to  the  idolatry  of  the  Hindus, 
by  whom  they  are  surrounded.  Their  features 
exhibit  a  resemblance  to  those  of  the  Arabian  Jews. 
Until  recently  they  were  ignorant  of  many  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  it  was  not  with- 
out hesitation  that  they  consented  to  receive  those 
of  the  later  prophets.  They  are  supposed  to  be  a 
remnant  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  to  have  settled  in 
India  long  before  the  Jews  of  Cochin.  They  ob- 
ject to  the  name  of  Jew,  and  deem  its  application  to 
them  a  reproach. 

BBNI-SOUEFF,  a  town  of  Egypt,  capital  of  the 
moudirieh  or  province  of  the  same  name,  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  about  sixty-five  miles 
above  Cairo,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railroad. 
It  is  a  pretty  and  well-built  town  ;  contains  a  num- 
ber of  cotton-mills  and  alabaster  quarries,  and  is 
the  entrepot  for  the  produce  of  the  rich  valley  of 
Fayoom. 

BENITIER,  or  Bexatira,  the  name  of  the  vase 
or  vessel  in  which  '"holy  water"  is  held  in  Roman 
Catholic  churches.  Benitiers  were  either  movable 
or  fixed.  Portable  ones,  commonly  of  silver,  were 
used  in  processions.  The  benitiers  belonging  to  the 
church  of  St.  Sulpice  in  Paris  are  remarkable  for 
their  great  beauty.  They  are  formed  of  magnifi- 
cent shells  and  bordered  with  gilt  copper. 

BENJAMIN,  JiDAH  Philip,  born  at  St.  Croix, 
West  Indies,  Aug.  11,  1811,  died  at  Paris.  May  S, 
1SS4.  His  parents  were  English  Jews,  and  his  boy- 
hood was  spent  in  Wilmington,  North  Carolina. 
He  studied  at  Yale,  but  did  not  complete  the 
course.  After  reading  law  in  New  Orleans  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  ls34.  He  rose  to  prominence 
in  the  profession,  was  U.  S.  commissioner  in  1847 
appointed  to  investigate  Spanish  land-titles,  was 
admitted  to  practice  in  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court, 
was  presidential  elector  at  large  in  1848  from 
Louisiana,  and  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate 
in  1S52.  He  belonged  to  the  Democratic  party,  and 
when  the  Southern  confederacy  was  formed  he  held 
successively  tlie  ollices  of  attorney-general,  secre- 
tary of  the  war  department,  and  then  secretary  of 
state  till  tlieoverlhrnw  of  the  confederacy.  JelTer- 
son  Davis  placed  great  confidence  in  Mr,  Benjamin's 
ability,  and  the  latter  was  called  "the  brains  of  the 
confederacy."  On  the  downfall  of  the  confederacy 
Mr.  Benjamin  made  his  escajie  from  Richmond  and 
sailed  for  Liverpool.  Althcnigli  fifty-four  years  old 
he  began  the  study  of  English  law,  and  in  a  few 
years  liis  practice  was  both  extensive  and  lucra- 
tive. 

BENJAMIN,  Park,  born  at  Demarara,  British 
Guiana.  Aug.  IS,  1800,  died  at  New  York  city,  Sept. 
12,  lSf)4.  liis  father  was  a  native  of  C'onnecticut, 
but  carried  on  business  in  Demarara.  The  son 
was  very  lame,  and  at  an  early  age  was  sent  to 
New  England  for  educat  ion  and  medical  treatment. 
He  studied  at  Ilarviird  and  Trinity,  and  then  read 
law,  but  his  iiielinat  inns  wi've  In  favor  of  literature. 
He  went  to  New  York  ami  was  associate  editor  of 
t he  ".\ nil Tican  Mont  lily  Maga/.iiie"a ml  afterwards  of 
the  "New  Yorker."  lie  was  on  the  staff  of  several 
other  )iiil)lications.  most  of  which  were  unsuccess- 
ful,    lie  was  a  contributor  to  various   periodicals 


B  E  N  -  L  A  W  E  R  S  —  B  E  N  T  H  A  M 


261 


and  the  author  of  tlie  poems:  The  Medilutlm  uj 
Xatiirc;  Piiitni:  n  Satire;  Infatuation;  The  Nautilus; 
To  One  lielov'id;  The  Ikji'irleil,  and   The  Old  Sexton. 

BEN-LA WEKS,  a  niounlain  in  Perthshire,  Scot- 
land, aliout  .32  miles  fnmi  I'ertli,  on  the  west  side 
of  Lofli  Tay.  This  mountain  is  easy  of  ascent  and 
rich  in  specimens  of  alpine  jilants.  A  mafiniti- 
cent  view  is  commanded  from  its  summil,  whicli 
has  an  elevation  of  :!.!i45  feet.  Ore  of  titanium  is 
found  in  tlie  mountain. 

liEN-LKKI,  a  mountain  of  Perthshire,  4  miles 
from  Callander,  with  an  elevation  of  2,863  feet.  It 
received  its  name  from  the  Druids,  who  are  sup- 
posed to  have  had  a  place  of  worship  on  its  sum- 
mit. This  mountain  is  celebrated  in  t^cott's  Ladu  of 
the  r.ai.e. 

BEX-LOMOXD,  a  lofty  mountain  the  northwest 
of  .•Stirlingshire,  Scotland,  on  tlie  east  side  of  Loch 
Lomond.  This  mountain,  forming  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  (irampians  or  Central  Swittish  High- 
lands, is  .■?,l!t2  feet  high,  and  consists  of  mica  and 
slate,  with  veins  of  quartz,  greenstone,  and  feldspar 
porphyry.  The  summit  is  steep  on  the  north,  with 
a  gentle  declivity  on  the  southeast.  It  is  covered 
with  vegetation  to  the  top.  Though  considerably 
surpassed  in  height  by  several  otlier  Pcottisli 
mountains,  none  are  more  imjiosing.  Seen  from 
Loch  Lomond,  it  appears  a  truncated  cone,  and  be- 
tween Stirling  and  .Vherfoyle  a  regular  pyramid. 
It  has  been  ascended  by  a  greater  number  of  tour- 
ists than  any  other  of  the  Highland  mountains. 
The  magnificent  view  frcni  the  lop  in  clear  weather 
includes  the  whole  length  of  Loch  Lomond,  which 
is  '■'•0  miles.  The  north  senncircle  of  the  horizon  is 
bounded  by  P>ens  Lawers,  Voirlich,  Ledi,  Ouachan 
and  Nevis,  while  some  of  the  beautiful  Perthshire 
lochs  are  seen. 

BEN-MACDIIUI,  a  mountain  of  Aberdeenshire, 
belonging  to  the  Grampian  range.  It  has  an  eleva- 
tion of  about  4,29()  feet. 

BENNET,  .I.\MEs  Gordon-,  .Tk.,  born  in  New  York 
city.  May  10.  1S41.  He  isliie  only  son  of  the  founder 
of  the  "Ilerald."  He  Ijecanie  proprietor  of  this  paper 
on^  the  death  of  his  father.  He  is  very  fond  of 
yachting,  and  has  taken  part  in  two  famous  races 
with  English  yachts.  His  Henrietta  won  in  18G(), 
but  his  Dauntless  was  beaten  in  1.S70  by  the 
English  t'a)ubrin.  He  has  acquired  fame  and  ad- 
vanced the  interests  of  his  paper  by  publishing  in 
England  storm-warnings  from  the  United  States 
signal  service,  by  fitting  out  the  Jenimette  for  a 
polar  expedition,  and  by  sending  Henry  M.  Stanley 
to  search  for  Livingstone.  Mr.  Bennett  resides 
most  of  the  time  in  Paris,  where  he  attends  to  the 
foreign  news  department  of  his  paper.  In  1HS3  he 
and  .b)hn  \V.  Mackay  formed  the  Commercial  Cable 
Company, and  laid  a  new  line  between  America  and 
Europe. 

BEN-NEVIS,  a  lofty  mountain  in  the  county 
of  Inverness,  Scotland.  It  has  a  height  of  4,4()() 
feet,  is  e.xceedingly  diflicult  of  ascent,  with  a  pre(u- 
pice  of  1,.500  feet  in  depth  on  the  northeast  side, 
where  snow  remains  throughout  the  year.  Granite 
and  gneiss  form  the  base^if  the  mountain,  which, 
in  its  upper  part,  is  composed  of  [lorphyry. 

BENNINGSEN,  LiiviN  .\foisTTMF.()i>HiM-H, count 
(174.V-1826),  a  distinguished  Russian  general,  born 
at  Brunswick  in  1745.  lie  joined  the  Kussian  army 
in  1773,  and  in  the  Turkish  war  soon  attracted 
the  notice  of  the  Empress  Catharine,  who 
employed  him  to  carry  out  her  designs  against 
Poland.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  con- 
spiracy against  the  Emperor  Paul.  He  fought  with 
Kuecess  in  the  battle  of  Pultusk  in  ISDfi,  and  held 
xlie  chief  command  in  the  obstinate  and  murderous 
Struggle  at  Eyiau  in  IS07.     When  Najioleon  invaded 

3—34* 


Russia  iu  1S12,  Bennigsen  commanded  the  Russian 
center  on  the  bloody  field  of  Borodino,  and  gave 
orders  for  fighting  a  second  battle  before  the  walls 
of  Moscow.  Before  the  French  began  their  retreat 
he  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  Murat  at  Wor- 
onowa.  In  1S13  he  fought  victoriously  in  the  battle 
of  Leipsic,  and  was  created  count  by  the  Emperor 
Alexander  on  the  field.  He  retired  to  his  estate  in 
Hanover,  where  he  died  in  1S26. 

BENNINGTON,  the  largest  manufacturing  town 
of  Vermont,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  State,  36 
miles  from  Troy,  N.  Y.  It  is  the  county-seat  of  the 
county  of  the  same  name.  Noted  for  the  battle  of 
Bennington,  Aug.  Hi,  1777,  where  General  Stark, 
at  t  he  head  of  the  "Green  Mountain  Boys,"  defeated 
a  detachment  of  Burgoyne's  army.  Bennington, 
North  Bennington  and  Bennington  Center  are  the 
three  villages  of  the  town  "of  Bennington.  A 
soldiers'  home  and  excellent  schools  are  at  Benning- 
ton. Some  of  the  articles  manufactured  here 
are  iron,  woolen  goods,  pottery,  chairs  and  lumber. 

BENUK,  an  important  river  of  Central  .\frica. 
It  enters  the  tjuorra  or  Niger  from  the  east,  about 
2,30  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  river  in  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea. 

BEN-RHYDDING,  a  health  resort  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire  on  the  River  Wharfe,  16  miles 
from  I.eiMls. 

BENSllIE,  or  B.\xsiiEE,  an  imaginary  being  in 
the  superstitions  of  the  Irish — a  female  wlio  is  called 
the  wife  of  the  fairies,  and  who  makes  herself  known 
by  wailings  and  shrieks,  premonitory  to  a  death  in 
the  family  ov<>r  which  she  is  presumed  to  exercise 
a  kind  of  guardianship.  A  similar  superstition  pre- 
vailed, and  is,  perhaps,  not  yet  extinct,  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland. 

BENSON,  Kdw.mu)  White,  an  English  divine, 
born  at  Birmingham  in  l.'<29.  He  became  chancel- 
lor of  Lincoln  Cathedral  in  IS72;  bishop  of  Truro  in 
LS77;  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  18,83, 

BENSON,  EoitEKT,  jurist,  born  in  New  York  city 
June  21,  174(i,  died  in  .Jamaica,  L.  I.,  Aug.  24,  1833. 
He  graduated  at  King'sCollege  ;  was  first  attorney- 
general  of  the  Stat(> ;  was  in  the  State  legislature, 
and  from  1784  to  1788  sat  in  ('ongr(>ss.  He  was 
judge  of  the  Supreme  Court,  17!I4-1.802;  was  in  Con- 
gress again  from  1813-lSI.");  was  first  president  of 
the  New  York  Historical  Society,  and  enjoyed 
many  other  honors  and  ottices. 

P.ENSON,  Et'GENE,  painter,  born  in  Hyde  Park, 
N.  Y.,  in  1837.  He  studied  art  in  New  York,  Paris, 
Venice  and  Rome,  and  traveled  much  in  Europe 
and  the  East.  In  the  list  of  his  paintings  are 
Cloud  Tollers,  Ilay  Boats,  Jkizaar  at  Cairo,  Ilashish 
Snwkers,  Fire-worshipers,  Slate  Secret  in  Venice,  Art 
and  Love,  and  Ariadne. 

BENSON,  Joseph,  an  English  divine  and  author, 
best  known  for  his  highly  esteemed  Commeiitaeii 
on  the  IloUi  Seriplures,  and  his  Apology  for  the  Metho- 
dists.    He'died  in  1821. 

BENT  GRASS  {.Igro.iti.'t),  a  genus  containing 
about  si.vty  species  of  grasses,  widely  distributed 
through  temperate  and  cold  climates.  All  are  of 
slender  and  delicate  appearance.  Some  are  very 
useful  as  pasture-grasses  and  for  hay,  on  account  of 
their  adaptation  to  certain  kinds  of  soil.  The  com- 
mon bent  grass,  Aijrostis  euhjaris,  abounds  in  dry, 
elevated  pastures.  .4.  eanina  is  also  very  common. 
.4.  dis/Kir,  the  American  herds-grass,  iscultivated  in 
France.  Most  of  the  European  species  are  North 
.Vmerican  also. 

BENTH.VM,  Geouoe,  an  English  botanist,  born 
in  1800  at  Stoke,  a  village  since  absorbed  in  Ports- 
mouth, died  Sept.  10,  1.884.  The  son  of  an  ofiicer 
who  had  risen  to  high  rank  in  the  Russian  and 
the  English  service,  young  Bcntham's  earlier  years 


252 


BEN  T  HA  ailA  —  BENZENE 


were  spent  largely  abroad,  but  from  1826  to  1832  he  | 
lived  in  London  with  his  uncle,  the  jurist,  and 
studied  law.  In  1827  he  published  Outlines  of  a  j 
Xeu-  Sijstem  of  Logic,  in  which  is  set  forth  for  the 
first  time  the  doctrine  of  the  quantification  of  the 
predicate.  He  was  called  to  the  bar,  but  soon 
abandoned  the  law  for  botany.  He  catalogued  the 
plants  of  the  Pyrenees  (1824-26),  and  was  elected  in 
1828  a  Fellow  of  the  Linn;ean  Society,  and  in  1829 
secretary  of  the  Horticultural  Society.  From  this 
time  he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  his  new  study, 
and  soon  published  his  important  Labriatanim 
Genera  et  Species  (1832-36;.  In  18.>4  he  presented  his 
collections  to  the  Royal  Gardens  at  Kew,  where  he 
prosecuted  his  studies  during  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  Genera  Plantarium  (3  volumes,  1862-83),  in  the 
completion  of  which  he  was  assisted  by  Sir  Joseph 
Hooker,  is  exhaustive  and  valuable,  and  may  be 
said  to  summarize  our  present  knowledge  of  botany. 
He  was  president  of  the  Linnfean  Society  from  1863 
to  1874,  and  was  a  member  of  many  other  British 
and  foreign  learned  bodies. 

BENTHAMIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Cornaceir,  consisting  of  Asiatic  trees  or 
shrubs,  of  which  the  fruit  is  formed  of  many  small 
drupes  grown  together.  B.  frugifera,  a  native  of 
Nopaul,is  a  small  tree,  with  lanceolate  leaves,  and 
a  reddish  fruit,  very  much  like  a  mulberry,  only 
somewhat  larger ;  it  is  quite  pleasant  to  the  taste. 
The  flowers  are  fragrant. 

BEXTOX.  James  Gilchrist,  soldier  and  inventor, 
born  at  Lebanon,  X.  H.,  Sept.  19,  1820,  died  at 
Springfield,  ilass.,  Aug.  23, 1881.  He  was  a  graduate 
of  the  military  academy  in  1842.  He  assisted  in 
the  preparation  of  the  "  System  of  Artillery  for  the 
Land  Service,"  and  the  "Ordnance  Manual"  in  1847. 
He  served  the  following  year  at  Harper's  Ferry 
armory,  and  afterwards  in  the  San  Antonio  ord- 
nance depot.  From  1849  to  1861  he  was  assistant 
inspector  of  arsenals,  engaged  in  making  experi- 
ments which  led  to  the  adoption  of  Springfield 
rities.  and  an  instructor  of  ordnance  and  gunnery 
at  the  military  academy.  For  most  of  the  time 
during  the  civil  war  he  was  commander  of  the 
Washington  arsenal.  Twice  he  performed  acts  of 
great  bravery   in  extinguishing  fire  which  had  be- 

fun  to  burn  in  the  arsenal  and  in  a  magazine ;  for 
is  liardihood  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  and 
colonel.  He  invented  several  military  appliances, 
but  never  took  out  a  patent,  as  he  believed  the 
Government  which  had  educated  him  was  entitled 
to  his  services.  . 

BENTON,  Thomas  Hart,  born  near  Hillsborough, 
Orange  county,  N.  C,  March  14,  1782,  died  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  April  10,  1858.  On  account  of  his 
father's  death  when  he  was  but  eight  years  old, 
Thomas  had  few  educational  advantages.  He  was 
able  to  attend  a  grammar  schixjl  and  to  spend  some 
little  time  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina.  He 
studied  law  and  was  elected  to  the  legislature.  .Vt 
about  this  time  he  quarreled  with  Jackson,  who 
had  heretofore  been  his  warm  friend.  The  trouble 
was  made  up;  but  -Mr.  15pnton,  having  started  the 
"  Missouri  Inquirer,"  was  a  participant  in  several 
duels,  in  one  of  which  he  killed  his  antagonist.  In 
after-life  he  deeply  regretted  the  act.  Mr.  Benton 
was  a  leader  in  his  party,  and  in  1820  was  chosen 
United  States  Sei\at()r  i'roiu  the  new  State  of  Mis- 
souri. He  was  influential  in  passing  laws  in  regard 
to  unoccupied  western  land,  which  were  uf  such  a 
nature  as  to  encourage  settlers  to  take  up  claims. 
Another  benevolent  measure  in  which  he  was 
actively  engaged  was  the  throwing  open  to  settlers 
the  salt  and  mineral  lands  of  Missouri,  which  be- 
longed ti>  the  national  government.  Many  bene- 
ficial  public   measures  were   fostered   by  him;    he 


advocated  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific,  encouraged  ex- 
ploration of  the  West,  advocated  a  friendly  policy 
with  the  Indians,  and  planned  for  the  establish- 
ment of  post-roads.  When  President  Jackson,  in 
his  first  annual  address,  advocated  the  withdrawal 
of  public  moneys  from  the  national  bank  and  placing 
it  in  State  banks,  a  business  panic  was  threatened. 
Col.  Benton  at  this  crisis  made  an  exhaustive  study 
of  the  financial  question,  and  then  advocated  the 
adoption  of  gold  and  silver  as  a  currency  basis. 
His  speeches  on  the  money  question  were  the  most 
eloquent  ever  delivered  by  him.  The  sub-treasury 
system  now  in  use  is  a  development  of  Col.  Benton's 
views  put  in  practice.  During  the  ilexican  war  his 
advice  was  largely  followed  by  President  Polk,  who 
wished  to  put  him  in  full  command  of  the  army. 
AVhen  the  slavery  question  came  up  with  regard  to 
the  newly-acquired  Mexican  States,  there  com- 
menced a  bitter  hostility  between  Benton  and  Cal- 
houn, which  was  intensified  by  the  "  nullification" 
measures.  Through  the  influence  of  his  enemies, 
Col.  Benton  lost  party  favor,  and  in  a  contest  for 
senatorship,  and  subsequently  for  the  office  of  Gov- 
ernor, he  was  defeated  (18.56).  The  last  years  of 
his  life  were  devoted  to  literary  work.  Tltirty 
Years'  Mev  is  descriptive  of  the  time  in  which  he 
represented  his  State  in  the  U.  S.  Senate.  He  wrote 
An  Abridgment  of  the  Debates  of  Congress,  and  An 
Examination  of  the  Dred  Scott  Case.  Col.  Benton's 
wife  had  a  paralytic  stroke  in  1844,  and  from  that 
time  he  never  went  to  a  place  of  anuisement.  Al- 
though surrounded  by  many  temptations,  he  never 
indulged  in  liquor,  gaming  or  tobacco,  saying  simply 
that  his  mother  had  desired  him  not  to  form  these 
habits.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII.  p.  788. 

BEX'TON,  the  county-seat  of  Franklin  county, 
111.,  situated  on  a  railroad,  77  miles  northeast  of 
Cairo  and  90  miles  southeast  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.  It 
has  churches,  a  high  school,  a  bank,  a  jail  and  sev- 
eral manufactories. 

BEXTOX  HARBOR,  an  important  trading  and 
manufacturing  town  of  Michigan,  situated  on  St. 
Joseph's  River,  near  its  entrance  into  Lake  Michi- 
gan. It  is  the  commercial  center  of  an  extensive 
fruit-growing  industry,  and  contains  important 
manufactories  of  fruit-baskets,  canned  fruit,  furni- 
ture, lumber  and  flour. 

BEXTOXYILLE,  a  town  of  Arkansas,  county- 
seat  of  Benton  county.  It  contains  a  number  of 
manufactories,  and  is  extensively  engage  '.  in  the 
tobacco  trade. 

BEXTOXSVILLE,  a  small  village  of  Johnston 
county,  X'.  C,  famous  for  a  battle  between  the  armies 
of  General  Sherman  and  General  Johnston,  March 
21,  lS(i5. 

BEXYOWSKY,  de.  Mai  rice  .\rr.rsTrs,  count, 
born  in  Hungary  in  1741,  died  in  l)attle  in  1786.  He 
was  a  man  of  remarkable  character  and  extraordi- 
nary fortunes.  He  took  part  in  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  and  in  1767  joined  the  Polish  confederation, 
taking  a  prominent  part  in  the  campaign  against 
the  Russians  until  -May,  17i>9,  when  he  was  cap- 
tured; about  seven  months  later,  after  being  con- 
fined in  several  Russiafi  prisons,  he  was  banished, 
first  to  Siberia,  and  then  to  Kamtchatka.  He 
escaped  from  the  latter  place  to  France  in  Jlay, 
1771,  and  shortly  after,  by  proposal  of  the  French 
government,  he  eslalilislied  a  colony  at  Mada- 
gascar, himself  arriving  on  the  island  in  I'ebrnary, 
1774.  He  was  jiroclainu'd  king  by  the  chiefs  in 
conclave  in  1776,  and  adopted  the  costume  of  the 
natives,  but  he  fell  into  contention  with  the  French 
government  of  the  Isle  of  France,  and  was  at  last 
slain. 

BENZENE.  See  Britannica.  Vol.  V.  pp.  560,  et 
seq.    Benzene  is  extensively  employed  in  the  arts 


r,  E  X  Z  K  R  T  A  —  Tl  K  K  E  S  F  0  R  D 


253 


as  a  solvent  for  fats,  sjiiins  ami  rosins,  and  as  the 
basis  for  tlie  nianufaotiirf  of  aniline  and  I  lu>  aniline 
colors.  It  is  also  tlie  scinrceof  many  medicinal  com- 
pounds, espppially  of  salicylic  and  lienznic  acids. 

BENZEKTA,  or  HizKKT.v,  L.\ki;s  oi-,  tlie  ancient 
.  /■'Iiijioiiitis  I'lihis  and  .S;Vo/'.t  I'alux,  two  lakes  within 
tlie  dominions  of  Tunis,  and  about  3(1  miles  from 
the  coast.  They  are  each  about  ten  miles  long,  and 
the  larger  one,  whicli  is  clear  and  salt,  is  six  miles 
broad;  the  smaller,  which  is  turbid  and  fresh,  is 
three  miles  liroad.  They  are  two  miles  apart,  but 
united  by  a  channel.  Tunis  is  supplied  with  fish 
mainly  from  these  lakes. 

BEXZILE,  or  Bexzoyi.e,  the  radicle  or  root  of 
the  group  of  substances  which  comprehends  as 
members  the  hydride  of  beuzoyle,  benzoic  acid, 
benzoin  and  benzole.  It  is  prepared  by  passing  a 
stream  of  chlorine  gas  through  fused  benzoin,  or  by 
heating  one  part  of  benzoin  with  two  parts  of  con- 
centrated nitric  acid.  Benzile  floats  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  li<iuid  mixture  as  a  liquid  oil,  which 
solidfies  on  cooling.  It  is  a  tasteless  solid,  insolu- 
ble in  water,  but  readily  dissolved  by  ether  and 
alcohol. 

BEOWULF,  an  Anglo-Saxon  epic  poem,  one  of 
the  greatest  literary  curiosities  and  most  remark- 
able historical  monuments  in  existence.  The  events 
narrated  probably  occurred  in  the  middle  of  the 
6th  tentury  ;  and,  as  the  legends  relate  to  the  Teu- 
tonic peoples  who  afterwards  inhabited  England,  it 
is  supposed  that  the  poem  was  brought  by  them 
from  the  continent.  The  only  known  copy  is  in  the 
British  Museum.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  VIII,  pp. 
403.  404. 

BEQUEATH,  to  leave  personal  property  by  will 
or  testament  to  another.  In  the  case  of  real  estate 
the  correct  term  is  devise.  Neither  of  these  words 
is  essential  to  the  validity  of  a  will,  although  it  is 
usual  and  safe  so  to  use  them ;  other  words,  show- 
ing clearly  the  intention  of  the  testator,  will 
suffice. 

BERAT,  a  town  of  Albania,  European  Turkey,  in 
the  pashalic  of  Avlona,  situated  on  the  banks  of 
the  Tuberathi,  about  30  miles  northeast  of  the  sea- 
port of  the  same  name.  The  valley  in  which  lierat 
stands  is  very  fertile,  producing  large  quantities  of 
grain, oil  and  wine.  Tlie  population  is  about  10,000, 
two-thirds  of  whom  are  Greek,  the  remainder 
Turks.  It  has  a  citadel,  and  traces  of  ancient 
Oreek  buildings. 

BEI>BElvIDE.E,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  of  whicli  the  different  species  of  Barberry 
are  the  best  known  examples.  JIany  of  the  plants 
are  spiny  shrubs.  This  order,  nearly  allied  to 
l'it(i('e:i\  contains  more  than  100  species. 

BERCHTA,  the  name  given,  in  tlie  south  of  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland,  to  a  myt  liological  being  who 
was  apparently  tin-  same  as  Ilulda  in  Northern 
Germany.  The  being  represented  originally  one 
of  the  kindly  and  benign  aspects  of  the  Ciiseen 
powers,  but  in  the  course  of  time  she  became  rather 
an  oViject  of  terror;  the  difference  probably  arising 
from  the  circumstance  that  the  influence  of  (Iliris- 
tianity  was  felt,  and  the  jiagan  deities  were  con- 
verted into  demons.  Lady  lierchta  was  supposed 
to  have  the  oversight  of  spinners.  The  last  day  of 
the  year  was  sacred  to  her,  and  any  'lax  left  on  the 
distaff  that  day  she  spoiled.  Her  festival  was  kept 
with  a  kind  of  meager  fare — oatmeal  gruel  and  lish. 
In  some  places  she  was  represented  as  having  a 
long  iron  noso  and  an  immensely  large  foot.  That 
she  was  once  an  object  of  worslii|)  is  shown  liy  the 
numerous  springs,  etc.,  that  bear  her  name  in  .'^alz- 
burg  and  elsewhere.  .Many  of  the  Sagas  of  Berchla 
were  transferred  to  the  famous  Berthas  of  history 
and  fable.    The  numerous  stories  of  the  "  White 


':  Lady "  have  doubtless  tlieir  root  in  the  ancient 
i    Berchta. 

BEHCK-SUK-MER.a  harbor  and  bathing  resort 
in  the  French  department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  '_'2 
miles  south  of  Boulogne,  with  some  ship-building 
and  sail-making.     I'opulation,  ."),bs7. 

BE1H;Y,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
the  .Seine,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  of 
the  same  name.  It  forms  a  suburb  of  Paris,  and 
has  a  large  business  in  wines  and  other  liquors. 
Population,  about  15,000. 

BEREA,  a  village  of  Kentucky,  about  100  miles 
south  of  Cincinnati,  tlie  seat  of  Berea  College, 
founded  in  1S5S,  in  the  interests  of  abolition  by 
Rev.  John  G.  Fee,  a  zealous  advocate  of  the  anti- 
slavery  cause. 

BEREA,  a  town  of  Ohio,  13  miles  southwest  ot. 
Cleveland.  Baldwin  University  and  German  Wal- 
lace College  (both  under  the  care  of  the  Methodist 
church)  are  situated  here.  Large  quantities  of 
sandstone  arc  quarried  in  the  vicinity. 

BEREANS,  a  sect  of  Christians  who  originated 
in  Scotland  in  the  ISth  century,  but  are  now  almost 
extinct.  Their  name  is  derived  from  the  circum- 
stance that  the  inhabitants  of  Berea  "  received  the 
Word  with  all  readiness  of  mind,  and  searched  the 
Scriptures  daily "  (Acts  xvii,  2).  They  believe 
that  the  knowledge  of  God's  existence  and  char- 
acter is  derived  from  the  Bible  alone,  and  not 
from  reason  or  Nature  ;  that  the  Psalms  of  David  do 
not  relate  to  David  at  all,  but  exclusively  to  (Ihrist. 
That  assurance  is  of  the  essence  of  faith,  and  tha: 
unlielief  is  the  unpardonable  sin.  Ordinarily,  in 
their  points  of  doctrine,  they  are  Calvinistic.  The 
founder  of  the  Bereans  was  the  Rev.  John  liarclay, 
a  native  of  Pertlishire.  From  him  they  also 
received  the  name  of  Barclayans.  See  Britan- 
nica. Vol.  Ill,  p.  300. 

BEREGll.  a  town  and  a  county  of  Hungary. 
The  county  is  1440  square  miles  in  extent,  is  quite 
mountainous,  and  the  chief  production  is  wine. 

BEKFXtONIUM  is  a  misprint  in  the  Ulm  edition 
of  Ptolemy's  Geography  (14SG)  for  lierigoxium,  a 
town  of  Novanta^,  now  idontilied  with  the  fort  of 
Innernie.ssan,on  the  east  shore  of  the  Loch  Ryan. 

BERENG.\R  I,  king  of  Italy,  the  son  of  Eber- 
liard,  Duke  of  Friuli  and  of  Gisela,  daugliler  of  the 
F^mperor  Louis  the  Pious.  He  was  assassinated 
in  924. 

BERENGAR  II,  son  of  .Vdalbert,  Count  of  Ivrea, 
succeeded  to  his  father's  ])ossessions  in  fl25,  and 
married  Willa,  niece  of  Hugo,  King  of  Italy,  in  034. 
Incited  by  his  ambitious  and  unscrupulous  wife,  he 
conspired  against  Hugo,  and  in  conse(|uence  was 
compelled  to  tiee  to  Germany,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived in  a  friendly  manner  by  the  F'mperor  ( >tlo  I. 
In  045  he  recrossed  the  .\lps  at  the  head  of  an 
army,  but,  instead  of  assuming  the  crown  himself, 
lie  lianded  it  over  to  Lothaire,  the  son  of  Hugo. 
On  the  death  of  Lothaire,  who  was  probably 
poisoned  by  Willa,  lie  allowed  himself  to  be 
crowned,  along  with  his  son,  .Vdalbert.  in  O.'iO.  Two 
years  later  he  engaged  in  war  with  the  Emperor 
Otto,  who  sent  his  son  Lndolf  against  him.  Ludolf 
was  successful,  but  died  of  poison  administered,  as 
was  believed,  by  Willa  in  057.  Berengar  again 
niomited  the  throne,  but  behaved  with  such  in- 
tolerable tyranny  that  his  subjects  called  in  the 
aid  of  the  emjieror,  who  took  iiosse.ssion  of  the 
country  in  0(il.  Berengar  was  sent  as  a  prisoner  to 
liamberg.  in  Bavaria,  where  he  died  in  000.  His 
wife,  Willa,  retired  into  a  convent,  and  his  three 
sons  died  in  exile. 

r.EHKSFORl),  Wii,i.i.\M  C.vRH,  viscount  (17(iS- 
1S54J,  an  eminent  English  military  commander. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1785,  and  twenty-five  years 


251 


B  E  R  E  S  L  A  Y  —  B  E  R  G  jM  A  N  N 


later  was  made  a  knight  of  the  bath  in  acknowl- 
edgment of  his  aid  at  the  battle  of  Busaco.  The 
year  following  (ISll)  he  was  placed  in  command 
during  the  battle  of  Albuera,  which  he  won,  receiv- 
ing for  this  the  thanks  of  Parliament.  He  became 
baron  in  May,  1814,  and  in  1823  he  was  created  vis- 
count. 

BERESLAV,  a  thriving  town  in  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment of  Kherson,  on  the  Dneiper.  Population, 
ll.iWO. 

BERETTYO-UJFALU,  a  market  town  of  Hun- 
gary, in  the  county  of  Bihar,  with  a  population  of 
6,000. 

BEREZNA,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Tchernigov,  on  the  Desna.    Population,  10,000. 

BEREZOV,  or  Beeesoff  ("The  Town  of  Birch 
Trees"),  an  important  town-on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Sosva,  in  the  government  of  Tobolsk,  Siberia. 
Although  it  is  a  small  place  it  is  the  only  fur  and 
skin  trading  station  throughout  a  large  tract  of 
country.  Prince  Menschikoff,  the  favorite  of  Peter 
the  Great,  having  been  banished  to  Siberia,  died 
and  was  buried  here.  His  grave  being  opened 
ninety  years  after,  it  was  discovered  that  his  body, 
clothed  in  the  uniform  of  the  time,  was  undecayed. 
A  fair,  which  is  largely  attended,  is  held  here  an- 
nually.    See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  587. 

BEREZOVSK,  a  village  in  the  Russian  province 
of  Perm,  near  Ei^aterinburg,  which  gives  name  to  a 
famous  gold-field,  worked  since  1744.  The  mines 
are  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  middle  Ural  chain, 
and  the  field  is  above  five  miles  long.  The  wash- 
ings on  the  Berezovka  River  are  also  very  pro- 
ductive. 

BERG,  Burg,  or  Burgh,  roots  entering  into  com- 
position of  many  names  of  places.  Berg  (in  Ger- 
man) means  "hill,"  and  "mountain,"  and  btirg  or 
burgh  means"  fort,"  "castle,"  " citadel,"  probably 
from  being  situated  on  a  hill  or  eminence. 

BERGA,  a  town  of  Catalonia,  Spain,  52  miles 
northwest  of  Barcelona.     Population,  5,000. 

BERGAMOT,  a  name  of  various  kinds  of  pear,  to 
which,  however,  no  common  distinctive  character 
ean  be  assigned.  The  proper  Bergamot  pear  is 
flattish,  rough-skinned,  with  a  long  stalk,  a  very 
juicy  pulp,  as  soft  as  butter,  of  an  extremely  pleas- 
ant flavor,  and  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  dessert 
pears. 

BERGEDORF  ("Hill  Village"),  a  manor  and 
borough  of  Germany,  belonging  to  Hamburg,  since 
18G7.  The  people  are  well-conditioned  and  indus- 
trious, and  engaged  in  agriculture,  cultivating 
fruit  and  vegetal)les  for  the  London  as  well  as  the 
Hamburg  market.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XI,  p. 
404. 

BERGERAC,  Savinien  Cyrano,  born  in  France, 
about  1G20,  died  in  1655,  from  a  wound  received  in 
a  duel.  He  was  a  poet,  novelist,  and  dramatist, 
and  also  a  notorious  duelist.  He  was  admired 
as  a  writer  of  romance,  and  his  works  of  this 
character  were  much  read  in  the  17tli  century.  As 
a  poet  and  dramatist,  he  ranks  second  only  to  his 
contemporaries,  Moliere  and  Racine. 

BERCiH,  IIknky,  born  in  New  York  city  in  1823, 
died  March  12,1888.  lie  was  ofGcrniiui  descent, 
and  liis  father  was  a  woaltliy  ship-lniildor  for  the 
government.  Henry  Borgh  and  liis  brotlier  suc- 
ceeded to  the  ship-building  business  at  the  fatlier's 
death,  but  it  was  not  to  the  taste  of  Henry  Mergh, 
so  he  abandoned  the  business  and  entered  Colum- 
bia College.  P>efore  c(inii)h'ting  the  course  lie  went 
to  Europi',  where  ho  spent  five  y(>ars.  In  18(i2  he 
was  appointed  seercliiry  of  legiilion  at  St.  Peters- 
burg. Ili-liealth  compelled  hini  Id  resign  1  wo  years 
later  and  he  went  to  London,  where,  among  other 


famous  people,  he  met  the  Earl  of  Harrowby,  Pres- 
ident of  the  Royal  Society  for  the  prevention  of 
cruelty  to  animals.  Mr.  Bergh  was  much  interet^ted 
in  the  welfare  of  dumb  animals  ;  possiblj'  the  siglits 
witnessed  in  St.  Petersburg  first  led  him  to  a  con- 
sideration of  this  subject.  Returning  to  New  York 
in  18(54  he  set  about  organizing  a  society  for  the 
prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals.  The  following 
year  the  society  was  formed  with  Mr.  Bergh  as 
president.  The  work  done  by  this  society  has  been 
a  noble  one.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bergh  gave  largely  of 
their  abund^  nt  means  for  the  work,  and  in  1871 
Louis  Bunard,  ..  Frenchman  residing  in  New  York, 
died  leaving  a  legacy  of  $150,000  to  the  society. 
Through  ^Ir.  Bergh's  influence  similar  .»;ocieties 
have  been  formed  in  several  cities,  while  39  Stales 
have  adopted  laws  for  the  protection  of  animals. 
In  1874  his  attention  was  called  to  the  inlnimanity 
sometimes  practiced  upon  children,  and  he  founded 
the  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Chil- 
dren. Mr.  Bergh  wrote  plays,  some  poetry  and  a 
few  sketches;  but  the  work  for  which  he  will  always 
be  remembered  is  that  in  regard  to  kind  treat- 
ment of  children  and  animals. 

BERGHAUS,  Heineich,  born  in  Rhenish  Prussia 
in  1797,  died  in  1884.  He  was  one  of  the  most  active 
promoters  of  geographical  knowledge.  His Phi/sical 
Atlas  (90  plates,  Gotha,  1838-48)  is  the  most  promi- 
nent of  his  cartographical  works.  He  also  edited 
several  geographical  periodicals. 

BERGHAUS,  Hermann,  a  German  cartographer, 
of  rare  ability, connected  for  more  than  forty  years 
with  the  great  map-making  and  publishing  house 
which  bears  his  name  in  Gotha,  Germany.  For 
many  years  and  reaching  to  the  date  of  his  death, 
Dec.  3,  1890,  he  was  regarded  as  the  highest  au- 
thority in  every  department  of  geography.  He 
was  not  a  traveler,  but  a  recluse,  devoting  a  pow- 
erful genius  and  an  indefatigable  application  to 
the  researches  of  traveling  and  other  geograpliers, 
ancient  and  modern.  He  never  wearied  in  enUirg- 
ing  his  fund  of  knowledge  concerning  all  localities, 
however  humble,  of  all  countries,  and  brought  his 
information  down  to  the  latest  dates.  In  his  com- 
fortable work-room  in  Gotha  he  could  furnish, 
without  delay  and  without  mistake,  exact  in- 
formation in  response  to  all  inquiries  in  his  pro- 
fessional line.  One  of  his  earliest  tasks  was  the 
collection  of  statistics  with  regard  to  the  measure- 
ment of  heights,  and  one  of  the  best-known  monu- 
ments of  his  genius  is  his  hypsometric  and  oro- 
graphic mapof  Central  Europe, which  he  piiNished 
in  1857,  which  marked  an  epoch  in  map-making. 
One  of  his  greatest  works  was  his  eight-sheet  map 
of  the  world  on  Mercator's  projection,  wliich,  ap- 
pearing in  LSO;',  has  been  sold  by  thousands  all  over 
the  world,  eleven  editions  having  been  issued  under 
his  direction.  Undoubtedly  his -greatest  work  was 
that  which  he  had  not  quite  completed  at  the  time 
of  his  jleath.  It  was  the  new  edition  of  the 
"  Berghaus  Physical  Atlas,"  lirst  produced  by  his 
great  uncle  Heinrich,  Berghaus.  in  1852. 

BEK(;LEI\,  ,IosEi-n.  an  historical  painter  of  con- 
siderabli>  note,  horn  at  Salzburg  in  1753,  died  in 
1829.  He  was  aiipointed  director  of  the  AcadiMuy 
of  Prague  in  ISOO,  The  iiiipetiis  which  he  gave  to 
the  line  arts  in  ISohemia  w;is  very  marked,  and  his 
school  furnished  a  goodly  number  of  eminent 
artists. 

BERGMAXX,  Frkdekick  William,  an  eminent 
German  linguist,  born  in  Strasbiirg  in  1812.  In 
connection  with  theology  he  stii<li(Ml  philology, 
in  his  native  city.  He  continiied  his  ling\ii--tlo 
studies  in  (iottiiigen,  Berlin  and  Paris,  and  in  1S38 
he  became  professor  of  foreign  literature  i'.i  the 
University  of  Strasburg.     lie  has  written  iktiner- 


B  E  R  <I  .M  E  HI.—  15  E  U  K  E  L  E  Y 


255 


ous  important  works  on  llie  Semitic  and  other 
Iaiii?iiaa;es. 

■  HEKG.MEHL,  or  Moustaix  Flour,  a  deposit  of 
white  or  cream-colored  powder  of  extreme  fineness, 
composed  ahnost  entirely  of  the  indestructible 
siliceous  frustules,  or  cell-walls  of  Diotoniiirew. 
From  its  resemblance  to  flour  it  has  been  mixed 
with  ordinary  food  and  used  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Norway  and  Sweden,  who  suppose  it  to  be  nutri- 
tious. In  Maryland  and  Eastern  Virginia  an  ex- 
tensive bed  of  this  organic  matter  occurs  nearly 
KHJ  miles  long,  and  30  feet  thick. 

BERGKOE,  Wii.iiEi.M,  a  distinguished  Danish 
writer,  born  in  Copenhagen  in  lSr!.5.  In  early  life 
he  became  noted  as  a  zoologist ;  Init  the  use  of  the 
microscope  induced  temporary  blindness,  and  he 
turned  his  attention  to  poetry,  and  afterwards  to 
writing  of  novels.  His  productions  were  very  pop- 
ular. 

BERGUES,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  the  Xord,  five  miles  from  Dunkirk.  The  canal  of 
Bergues,  which  admits  vessels  of  300  tons  burden, 
unites  it  with  Dunkirk  and  the  sea,  and  its  favora- 
ble situation  makes  it  the  entrepot  of  the  produce 
of  the  adjoining  country.  It  has  manufactories  of 
soap,  tobacco,  earthenware,  and  also  sugar  and  salt 
refineries.    Population,  5,500. 

BERGYLT,  a  fish  of  the  Mailed  Cheek  family,  or 
Sclerngenidx,  the  family  to  which  gurnards  and 
Sticklebacks  belong,  but  so  much  resembling  the 
perch  that  it  was  formerly  called  Sea-perch.  It  is 
an  inhabitant  of  all  the  Northern  seas,  is  of  a  red 
color;  its  gill-covers  are  armed  with  short  spines. 
It  attains  a  length  of  two  feet  and  upwards.  It  is 
good  for  food,  and  the  Greenlanders  use  it  not  only 
in  a  fresh  but  also  in  a  dried  state. 

BERHAilPUR,  the  name  of  two  towns  in  Brit- 
ish India. — (1)  Berhampur  in  Madras  is  a  military 
station  in  the  district  of  lianjam,  18  miles  south- 
west of  the  town  of  Ganjam,  and  but  nine  from  tlie 
coast.  The  climate  is  very  healthful,  and  there  is 
some  trade  in  sugar  and  in  silk  fabrics.  Population, 
about  24,000. — (2)  Berhampur  in  Bengal,  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bliagirathi,  live  miles  be- 
low Murshidabad.  It  was  long  one  of  the  princi- 
pal military  stations  in  British  India,  and  the 
barracks,  now  largely  devoted  to  other  uses,  still 
form  the  most  important  feature  of  the  town  In 
IS57  Berhampur  was  the  scene  of  the  first  open  act 
of  mutiny.     Population,  about  24.(XX). 

BEKI,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  British  district  of 
Rohtak,  Punjab,  3(3  miles  northwest  of  Delhi.  It  is 
a  considerable  trade  center  with  two  large  fairs, 
in  February  and  October.  Population,  about  10,000. 
—The  state  of  Beri,  in  Bundelkhand,  has  an  area 
of  about  thirty  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
5,000. 

BERING,  Iv.\x  IvAXovicii.  Pee  Britannica,  Vol. 
XIX,  p.  318;  also  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  oOO-lO.  "The  term 
IScrinq  Sea  has  been  variously  written  Behriiig 
.Sea,  6hering  Sea,  Beering  Sea,  Bering  Sea,  as  well 
as  Behring's  Sea,  Beering's  Sea,  etc.  This  name 
was  given  to  the  sea  in  honor  of  its  first  explorer. 
Similarily  the  strait  which  connects  it  with  the  Arc- 
tic Ocean,  an  island  in  the  sea,  and  a  l)ay  on  the 
northwest  coast  of  America,  have  received  the 
name  Bering. 

"  When  the  Czar  Peter  the^Great  determined  to 
send  out  an  exploring  expedition  to  ascertain 
whether  Asia  and  .\nierica  were  united  by  land  he 
selected  to  lead  this  expedition  Captain  Com- 
mander I\"an  Ivanovich  Bering.  Bering  was  the 
son  of  .lonas  Svendsen  by  his  second  wife,  Anne 
Pedersdatter  Bering,  and  was  born  at  Horsens,  in 
Jutland,  in  the  summer  of  lii^l.  On  his  mother's 
side  he  was  descended  from  the  distinguished  Be- 


ring family,  which  during  the  I7th  and  I8th  centu- 
ries flourished  in  various  parts  of  Denmark,  and 
included  a  numb'^r  of  ministers  and  judicial  offi- 
cers. Baptized  on  the  12th  of  .\ugust,  It^Sl,  he  re- 
ceived the  baptismal  name  Vitus  Jonassen  Bering. 
On  entering  the  Kiis-ian  navy,  however,  he  took,  as 
was  the  custom  of  the  Danish  and  Norwegian  offi- 
I  cers  serving  in  Russia,  a  new  or  Russianized  form 
of  name.  This  form  is  Ivan  Ivanovich  Bering.  The 
name  Ivanovich  is  an  exact  translation  of  Jonas- 
sen — in  English,  Jolinson  or  John's  son.  All  the 
Russian  and  Danish  records  agree  as  to  the  spell- 
ing of  the  family  name;  both  in  Danish  and  in 
Russian  it  is  Bering.  His  autograph  is  always 
written  Bering. 

■'The  insertion  of  an  h  in  the  name,  giving  the  form 
Behring,  appears  to  have  been  made  in  Germany. 

"In  1748  was  published  Harris's  Collection  c,j 
Voi/agcs,  in  two  folio  volumes.  In  the  second  vol- 
ume, pages  lOllv-11,  is  contained  "A  distinct  ac- 
count of  part  of  the  northeast  frontier  of  the  Rus- 
sian Empire,  commonly  called  the  country  of 
Kamschatka  or  Kamscliatska,  including  the  voy- 
ages of  Captain  Behring  for  discovering  toward  the 
east,  etc.,  collected  from  the  best  authorities,  both 
printed  and  manuscript."  This  account  was  pre- 
pared by  Dr.  Campbell,  who  made  use  of  the  form 
Behring.  From  this  it  may  be  inferred,  as  jiointed 
out  by  Mr.  Wm.  11.  Dall,  that  Dr.  Campbell  did  not 
have  access  to  original  documents,  but  got  his  ma- 
terial from  German  sources  or  from  German  trans- 
lations of  the  original.  As  Harris's  \'ouati(x  is  an 
elaborate  work,  long  accepted  as  a  standard,  the 
use  of  the  form  Behring  gained  wide  adoption 
among  English-speaking  people.  That  the  form 
Bering  should  be  adopted,  however,  appears — (1), 
because  it  is  the  form  always  used  by  Bering  him- 
self, by  his  ancestors  for  five  generations  at  least, 
and  by  his  descendants;  (2),  because  it  is  the  form 
almost,  though  not  quite,  universally  adopted  in  all 
non-English  works;  and  (3),  because  even  in  Erne 
lish  works  it  is  gradually  superseding  the  form 
Behring." — [Bulletin  U.  S.  Board  on  Geographic 
Xame.t,  Dec.  31,  1890.] 

BERJA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  An- 
dalusia, at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  de  Gador,  22  miles 
west  of  Almeira.  It  has  manufactories  of  linen 
fabrics,  hats,  hardware  and  leather,  and  a  trade  in 
wine  and  oil.  Population,  about  8,000,  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  mining  lead,  which  is  plentiful  in  the 
Sierra  de  Gador. 

BERKELEY,  an  important  educational  town  of 
California,  beautifully  situated  near  the  Bay  of 
San  Francisco,  about  "five  miles  north  of  Oakland. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  California,  the 
State  -Vgricultural  College,  and  the  Institution  for 
the  Deaf,  Dumb  and  Blind. 

BERKELEY,  a  town  five  miles  north  of  Oakland, 
in  .\lameda  county,  (California.  The  Cniversity  of 
California,  the  California  Institution  for  the  Deaf, 
Dumb  and  Blind,  and  the  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege are  here  located. 

BERKELEY,  Miles  Joseph  (1803-1S89),  a  distin- 
guished English  botanist.  He  was  educated  for 
the  cliurch,  and  obtained  a  number  of  ecclesiastical 
l)referments  ;  but  his  fame  rests  upon  his  botanical 
resear<'hes  and  writings. 

P.KI;KF,1.EV,  Siu  \ViLLi.\M,  colonial  governor  of 
Virginia,  born  near  London,  England,  about  UilO; 
died  at  Twickenham,  July  13,  lfi77.  He  was  highly 
connected,  a  graduate  of  Oxford,  a  traveler  and  ac- 
complished courtier.  The  king  honored  him  with 
a  commission  to  Canada  in  lt)32,  and  in  Itm  ap- 
pointed him  governor  of  Virginia.  During  his  iirst 
term  of  ollico  he  won  the  regard  of  the  people  and 
managed  business  with  great  shrewdness.    Wlvi 


256 


P.  E  R  K  E  L  E  Y    S  0  U  N  D  —  B  E  R  N  A  R  D 


Cromwell  became  Protector  Berkeley  influenced 
the  people  not  to  acknowledge  bis  authority,  and  a 
fleet  was  sent  from  England  to  bring  the  colony 
and  its  governor  to  terms.  Berkeley's  diplomacy 
soon  made  matters  smooth  with  the  home  govern- 
ment, but  he  had  to  resign  his  office.  At  the  resto- 
ration Charles  II  reinstated  Berkeley,  but  his 
second  term  of  office  was  unsatisfactory.  The  so- 
called  "  Bacon  rebellion  "  arose,  provoked  no  doubt 
by  Berkeley's  infidelity  to  the  Indians  and  his  du- 
plicity with  regard  to  the  patriot  Bacon.  The 
governor  saw  how  unpopular  he  was  making  him- 
self by  his  erratic  conduct  and  he  became  bitter 
and  inhuman.  After  Bacon's  death  he  persecuted 
his  followers  and  executed  them  with  such  inde- 
cent haste  that  the  king  said  he  had  "  taken  more 
lives  in  that  naked  country  than  I  have  for 
the  murder  of  my  father."  Berkeley  was  opposed 
to  free  schools,  printing,  and  religious  liberty. 
Charles  II  recalled  him,  intending  to  examine  into 
the  reports  of  his  harsh  measures,  but  Berkeley 
died  soon  after  his  return  to  Europe. 

BERKELEY  SOUND,  the  most  frequented  inlet 
of  East  Falkland  Island,  near  its  northeast  ex- 
tremity. It  is  in  latitude  51°  30'  south,  and  longi- 
tude 57°  56'  west.  Though  it  is  difficult  to  enter, 
yet  it'  contains  several  excellent  harbors.  Its 
shores  yield  ample  supplies  of  water,  cattle,  and 
vegetables. 

BERKOVITZA,  the  chief  town  of  a  district  in 
western  Bulgaria,  40  miles  northwest  of  Sofia,  situ- 
ated on  a  small  tributary  of  the  Danulie.  Popula- 
tion. 5,.500. 

BERLAD,  a  town  of  Lower  Moldavia,  on  the 
Burlad  River,  40  miles  above  its  junction  with  the 
Sereth.  It  is  an  important  place,  connected  with 
Braila  by  rail,  and  has  a  brisk  trade.  Population, 
27,000. 

BERLENGAS,  a  group  of  rooky  islands  in  the 
Atlantic  off  the  west  coast  of  the  Portuguese  province 
of  Estremadura,  10  miles  northwest  of  Peniche. 
The  principal  one,  Berlenga,  is  fortified,  and  has 
been  used  as  a  state  prison. 

BERLICHINGEN,  Vo.\,  Gortz  or  Gottfried 
"of  the  Iron  Hand,"  born  in  Wurtemburg  in  1480, 
died  in  1.562.  His  career  was  varied,  and  with  the 
exception  of  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  he  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  last  worthy  representative  of  the 
chivalry  of  the  Middle  -^ges,  then  expiring. 

BERLIN,  a  town  of  Ontario,  Canada, county-seat 
of  Waterloo  county,  is  situated  on  Grand  River, 
about  60  miles  west  of  Toronto.  It  contains  a 
number  of  manufactories,  the  principal  being  but- 
tons and  malt  li(|uors. 

I'KKLlN.a  city  of  Wisconsin,  situated  on  Fox 
River,  al)Out  a  hundred  miles  northwest  uf  IMil- 
waukee.  Here  are  extensive  foundries  and  manu- 
factories of  turbine-wheels,  woolen  goods,  flour, 
whips,  boots  and  shoes  and  leather.  Cranberries 
and  dairy  products  are  among  the  principal  articles 
of  I  r;i(le. 

BIOULTN  SPIRIT,  a  coarse  whisky  made  chiefly 
from  vef,'etable8.  Because  of  its  cheapness  it  lias 
been  largely  used  in  the  making  of  brandy,  and  in 
mixing  low  wines. 

I'.EIi-.M,  in  fortification,  a  pathway  from  three  to 
eiglit  feet  in  width,  at  the  l)otloni  of  the  outside  of 
a  rampart,  where  it  joins  the  scarp  or  inner  side  of 
tlie  ditch.  It  is  almost  on  a  level  with  tlie  natural 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  serves  in  part  as  a  pas- 
sago  way  for  I  lie  trnn|is  of  the  garrison,  and  in  part 
as  a  means  of  preventing  tlie  ditch  from  being  filled 
with  earth  and  rubbish. 

BEHMOXDSFY,  a  southeast  suburb  of  London, 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Thames.  It  has  extensive 
tan-yards  and  wharfs.     Population,  about  80,000. 


BERMUDA  HUNDRED,  a  viUage  of  Virginia, 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  James  River, 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Appomattox.  It  became 
known  as  the  headquarters  of  General  Butler  dur- 
ing the  siege  of  Petersburg. 

BERJIUDAS,  a  British  colonial  possession  con- 
sisting of  365  small  islands  in  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
568  miles  east  of  North  Carolina,  and  677  miles  from 
New  York.  Total  area,  20  square  miles  (12,000 
acres — 1,000  under  cultivation).  Population  in 
1889, 15,534,  including  6,155  whites.  Capital,  Ham- 
ilton, with  a  population  of  about  8,000.  For  early 
history  and  description,  see  Britannica  Vol.  Ill, 
pp.  599, 600. 

The  executive  administration  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
governor,  assisted  by  a  council  of  six  members  also 
appointed  by  the  Crown.  There  is  also  a  legisla- 
tive council  of  nine  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  a 
representative  house  of  assembly  of  36  members. 

There  were,  in  1890,  47  schools  with  about  1.400 
students,  23  of  these  schools  receiving  government 
grants  to  the  amount  of  $8,250  annually.  Average 
strength  of  imperial  troops  1,500.  In  1890  the  rev- 
enues were  estimated  at  $145,025,  and  the  expendi- 
ture at  $150,380.  Public  debt  in  1889,  $43,070.  The 
value  of  onions  exported  in  1888  was  $296.000 ;  lily 
bulbs,  $21,645;  and  potatoes,  $135,000.  The  Total  ex- 
ports in  1888  amounted  to  $498,250. 

In  1888  the  total  tonnage  of  vessels  entered  and 
cleared  was  228,385,  of  which  199,199  were  British. 
There  are  32  miles  of  telegraph  wire,  and  15  of 
cable ;  in  1888  the  number  of  messages  sent  was  22,- 
467.  There  is  also  a  private  telejihone  company, 
which  has  over  120  subscribers  and  upwards  of  300 
miles  of  wire  in  line. 

The  Bermudas  occupy  areas  of  about  15  miles  by 
6,  and  are  separated  by  very  narrow  channels. 
Only  18  or  20  are  inhabited,  and  only  five  are  con- 
siderable size.  They  are  inclosed  on  three  sides  by 
coral  reefs,  nearly  all  under  water,  some  of  them 
extending  18  miles  away. 

Ham  ii  ton,  Bermuda,  has  long  been  a  place  of 
pleasure  and  health  resort  by  many  persons  from 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  climate  is  ex- 
ceedingly attractive,  especially  in  winter.  Visitors 
find  there  ample  hotel  accommodations,  and  the 
voyage  by  steamer  from  New  York  generally  free 
from  peril  by  storm  and  helpful  to  health. 
Steamers  ply  regularly  between  Hamilton  and  New 
York,  the  vovage  requiring  about  three  days. 

BERMUDEZ,  a  state  in  the  northeast  part  of 
Venezuela,  between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Caribbean 
Sea  formed  in  1881  from  the  former  states  and 
present  sections  of  Barcelona,  Cumana,  and  Ma- 
turin.  Area,  32,128  square  miles;  population. 
55,677. 

BERNALD.\,  a  town  in  South  Italy,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Potenza.     Population,  6,076. 

BERNALILLO,  a  wealthy  agricultural  and  com 
mercial  town  of  New  Mexico,  situated  on  the  Rio 
Grande,  about  tifteen  miles  above  Albu(|uerque.  I; 
is  an  old  town,  and  the  seat  of  a  convent  and  a  col- 
lege. It  is  an  imiiortant  outfitting  station  for  the 
adjacent  mining  regions. and  is  the  commercial  and 
manufacfiiriiig  center  of  an  extensive  wine-pro 
ducing  and  fruit-growing  district. 

BERNARD,  Aiinox  oi--  Ci.i'ny,  born  in  Morla.\ 
Brittany,  about  1100.  He  was  the  author  of  ./<  <-ii- 
sdlnn  Ihr  (lold.ni,  and  other  hymns,  which  Dr.  Nenb' 
translated  from  the  Jfr  Coiiti'iiiplii  }[u»(f!. 

BKRNAli  n,  ('i..uinK,  born  at  Saint-.Tulien.  in  M,-; 
department  of  the  Rhone,  died  in  1878.  He  was  an 
eminent  physiologist,  and  held  several  high  posi- 
tions in  the  colleges  of  France,  devoting  himself  tc 
experipnental  researches  in  physiology.  Ho  dis-- 
covered  the  glycogenic  functions  of  the  liver. 


B  E  I{  N  A  R  D  D  0  C.  —  1;  E  It  0  E 


257 


BERNARD  DOG,  Great  St.  See  Britaniiica, 
Vol.  VII,  p.  .SL'7. 

BERNAKD,  Gre.vt  St.,  a  noted  pass  of  the  Pen- 
nine Alps,  over  8,000  feet  above  sea  level.  Napoleon 
crossed  the  Alps  at  this  point  in  1800,  at  the  head 
of  an  army  of  30,000  men.  At  the  summit  is  the 
celebrated  St.  Bernard  hospice. 

BKRXARD,  Sill  Fr.vxcis,  born  in  Xettleham, 
Linociln,  England,  in  1714,  died  at  Aylesbury.  Eng- 
land. .June  10, 1770.  He  graduated  at  Oxford,  and 
served  in  different  offices  of  importance  until  1708, 
when  he  was  appointed  governor  of  New  Jersey. 
He  was  appointed  to  the  same  oflice  in  Massachu- 
setts Bay  Colony.  He  administered  the  oliice  sat- 
isfactorily in  the  former  colony,  and  for  the  first 
nine  years  in  the  latter  place.  The  library  of 
Harvard  College  was burnedin  17154;  and  the  gover- 
nor, who  took  quite  an  interest  in  the  college  (his 
third  son  graduated  from  the  institution  in  1767), 
assisted  in  procuring  funds  fir  its  restoration. 
About  that  time  two  political  parties  arose — a 
rn-alist  faction  and  a  popular  party.  In  trying  to 
strengthen  the  former,  Governor  Bernard  executed 
harsh  measures  and  put  down  popular  leaders, 
thereby  rousing  great  indignation  and  precipitating 
the  final  struggle  between  the  mother  country  and 
her  colonies.  It  is  affirmed  that  he  did  more  to 
hasten  the  Revolution  than  any  other  man.  He 
had  a  quick,  ungovernable  temper — the  unhappy 
faculty  of  doing  just  those  things  which  would 
harass  a  people  already  on  the  brink  of  mutiny. 
Conciliatory  measures  he  never  tried.  The  king 
recalled  him,  yet  he  remained  nominal  governor  for 
two  years  after  his  return  to  England. 

BKHN.VUER,  Aoxes,  the  daughter  of  a  citizen  of 
Augsburg,  and  the  heroine  of  a  sad  romance  of  the 
15th  century.  Duke  Albrecht  of  Bavaria,  only  son 
of  the  reigning  Duke  Ernst,  seeing  her  at  a  tourna- 
ment, fell  in  love  with  her  beauty,  and  they  were 
secretly  married.  When  it  was  proposed  that  he 
should  marry  .\nna,  daughter  of  Erich,  duke  of 
Brunswick.  Albrecht  declared  his  marriage  with 
Agnes  B(^rnauer,  and  brought  her  to  the  t!astle  of 
Straubing  as  duchess  of  Bavaria.  Duke  William, 
Al*-' 'cht'?  uncle,  befriended  the  young  people;  but 
after  his  death,  and  during  the  absence  of  Alljrecht, 
Agnes  was  arrested  by  order  of  her  father-in-law, 
charged  with  sorcery,  and  drowned  in  the 
Danube.  On  his  return  her  husband,  maddened  by 
the  outrage,  gathered  the  enemies  of  his  father,  and 
taking  arms  against  Duke  Ernst  they  devastated 
the  country.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXII,  p.  oOl. 

BERNE-BKM,ECOUR,  Etiknni:.  a  French  artist, 
born  at  Boulogne-sur-mer  in  1838.  His  earlier 
works  were  portraits  and  landscapes,  but  his  fame 
rests  upon  his  later  genre  and  niililary  paintings. 

BERNHARD,  Di-KE  OF  "\Vei.m.\r  (1604-li>W),  a 
celebrated  German  general,  the  youngest  of  eight 
sonsof.Iohn,  third  duke  of  Saxe-\\'eimar.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  lie  took  the  side 
of  Protestantism,  and  distinguished  himself  in  1022 
at  the  battle  of  Wimpfen.  He  became  colonel  in 
the  army  of  Christian  IV,  king  of  Denmark.  He 
took  part  in  the  bold  expedition  of  -Maiisfeld 
through  Silesia  to  Hungary,  and  after  the  death 
of  the  latter  he  reunited  hinisi'lf  with  the  Danes 
under  the  markgraf  of  Badon-Diirlacli.  At  the  so- 
licitation of  his  lirothers  he  wit  lidrew  from  the  Dan- 
ish service,  and  returned  to  Weimar  in  li)28.  Three 
years  laterGustavus  -Vdolphus  made  his  appearance 
fn  tiermany,  and  I'.ernliard  was  one  nf  the  tirst  who 
flew  to  his  slaiulard.  .After  a  brilliant  career  he 
became  suddenly  ill,  and  died  at  Neuburg  on  the 
Rhine  in  Itio'i.  He  was  probably  poisoned  by  his 
physician,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  in  the  pay 
of  France. 

7  — '7 


BERNHARDT,  Rosine,  called  .«arah,  a  French 
actress,  born  of  .Tewish  parents  in  Paris,  Oct.  22, 
1844.  She  was  baptized  into  the  Christian  faith,  and 
brought  up  in  a  convent  at  Versailles.  Entering 
the  Paris  conservatoire  in  1858,  she  gained  second 
prizes  for  both  tragedy  and  comedy,  and  in  1862 
made  her  d^but  as  "Iphigenie"  at  the  theater 
Fran(;ais,  but  attracted  so  little  notice  that  she 
soon  left  the  theater,  only  to  meet  with  still  less 
success  in  burlescjue  at  the  Gymnase  and  Porte  St. 
Martin.  In  1807  she  played  minor  parts  at  the 
Odeon,  and  became  famous  by  her  impersonation 
of  the  "  Queen  of  Spain  "  in  liinj  Bias,  and  of  "Zan- 
etto"  in  Copp6e's  i-'o88r(H(.  She  was  called  to  the 
Theater  Fran^ais  in  1872,  and  after  1879  made  an- 
nual appearances,  with  marked  success  in  London. 
Her  tours  in  North  and  South  America,  in  Italy, 
Russia,  etc.,  were  also  pecuniarily  successful ;  but 
her  essay  at  the  management  of  a  Paris  theater 
involved  her  in  heavy  debt.  In  1SS2  she  was  mar- 
ried to  M.  Jacques  Daria,  ord'Amala,a  Greek  actor, 
from  whom  she  was  divorced  shortly  afterwards. 
Her  later  successes  as  an  actress  have  been  in  La 
Trixca,  Joan  of  Arc  and  Clciipatra.  She  is  now  (1891) 
filling  her  second  season  of  engagements  in  the 
United  States.  Madame  Bernhardt  is  probably  the 
greatest  Irariedieriiip  since  Rachel,  and  in  comedy 
also  slie  ranks  as  a  finished  actress.  Her  talent  as 
an  artist  is  considerable,  and  both  paintings  and 
statues  from  her  studio  have  appeared  in  the  Salon. 

BERNHARDY,  Gotti'ried,  a  German  scholar, 
born  of  Jewish  parents  near  Frankfort  in  1800,  died 
at  Halle,  May  14,  1875.  He  was  educated  at  Berlin, 
and  in  1829  became  director  of  the  philological 
seminary  at  Halle.  Of  his  numerous  philological 
works  may  be  mentioned  his  Synlazder  Griechischen 
.S'/Jraf7i<>(1829) ;  Partitipomena  Sijntaxix  Grxc.r  (1854); 
and  the  critical  edition  ot  Suidx  Lexicon  (4  volumes, 
1834-53).  His  works  on  Roman  and  Greek  litera- 
ture, especially  the  history  of  the  latter,  are  also  c' 
high  value 

BERNICIA,  a  form  of  the  word  Bryneicli,  used  to 
indicate  the  northern  [lartof  what  became  the  king, 
dom  of  Xorthumbria,  the  part  north  of  the  Tees. 
The  Anglian  kingdom  of  Bernicia  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Ida,  who  made  his  capital  at  Bam- 
borough  about  A.  n.  550.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  VIII 
p.  270 ;  \'ol.  XVII,  p.  508. 

BERNIER,  Francois,  a  French  physician  and 
traveler,  born  at  Angers  in  France, died  at  Paris  in 
1088.  Having  taken  his  degree  of  doctor,  he  de- 
parted for  the  East  in  10.")4.  and  visited  Syria,  Egypt, 
Arabia  and  India;  in  the  last  he  resided  for  12 
years  in  the  capacity  of  physician  to  Aurungzebe. 
He  published  an  account  of"  his  travels  in  1070.  The 
work  is  delightful  in  style  as  well  as  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  places,  and  clear  in  exposition  of  the  causes 
of  those  political  events  that  carried  Aurungzebe 
to  the  throne. 

BERNINA,  a  mountain  of  the  Rhjrtian  Alps,  up- 
wards of  13,000  feet  high,  in  the  Swiss  canton  v.i 
Grisons,  with  a  remarkable  and  extensive  glacier. 
Morteratsch.  The  Bernina  Pass,  which  is  7,028  feet 
high,  unites  the  valleys  of  the  Engadiue  and  Bre- 
gaglia  (m  the  north,  with  Valteline  on  the  south, 
but  is  dangerous  on  account  of  avalanches.  See 
Britannica,  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  45. 

BERNSTEIN,  Georoe  IlEiXRicn,  a  distinguished 
orientalist,  born  at  Kospeda, near  Jena,  inl787,died 
in  isiill.  Bernstein  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
theology,  pliilosophy,  and  Eastern  languages,  and 
his  greatest  achievements  were  in  .Syriac  literature. 
He  contemplated  publishing  a  great  Syriac  lexicon, 
but  did  not  live  to  complete  the  work. 

BEUoE.one  of  the  commonest  representatives  of 
the  most  intensely  active  sub-class  of  ('  ■''iiUralis — 


258 


BBHRE  —  BESSIERES 


the  Ctenophora.  It  is  the  type  of  the  small  family 
Beroids.  These  are  free-swimming  pelagic  animals, 
of  great  delicacy  and  beauty,  generally  of  more  or 
less  cylindrical  form  and  without  any  trace  of  skele- 
ton. They  are  transparent  and  often  beautifully 
colored,  and  one  of  the  most  brilliant  examples  of 
phosphorescent  marine  animals.  During  the  day 
they  descend  to  deeper  water,  but  come  to  the  sur- 
face at  night.  The  distribution  of  the  genus,  which 
includes  three  certain  species,  is  very  wide.  See 
Britannica,  Vol.1,  p.  132. 

BERRE,  Et.\no  de,  an  extensive  lagoon  of 
ii'rance,  department  Bouches-du-Rhone,  with  large 
salt-works  and  eel-fisheries.  It  discharges  its  sur- 
plus waters  into  the  sea  by  the  Port-du-Bouc. 

BERRI,  or  Berky,  formerly  a  province  of  Central 
France,  now  forming  the  departments  of  Indre  and 
Cher.  Having  come,  in  1100,  into  the  possession  of 
the  French  crown,  it  was  raised  to  a  duchy  in  1360, 
and  gave  title  at  various  times  to  French  princes, 
the  younger  son  of  Charles  X  being  the  last  who 
Held  it. 

BEER  YVILLE,  a  small  village  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley,  the  county-seat  of  Clarke  county,  Va.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Battletown  on  account  of  having 
been  the  scene  of  many  Revolutionary  contests  of 
General  Morgan. 

BERSAGLIERI,  the  Italian  name  for  riflemen 
and  sharpshooters  of  the  Sardinian  army.  During 
the  Italian  war  of  1859  the  bersaglieri  were  engaged 
in  many  operations  requiring  dash  and  brilliancy. 

BERSERKER,  or  Berserk,  derived  from  the  Ice- 
landic bi-'rserkr,  meaning  either  "bare-sark,"  without 
a  shirt,  or,  more  probably,  "bear-sark,"  having  a 
bear's  shirt  or  hide.  Berserker,  grandson  of  the 
eight-handed  Starkader  and  the  beautiful  Alfhilde 
of  Norse  mythology,  is  represented  as  a  hero  who, 
despising  mail  and  helmet,  went  always  into  battle 
unharnessed,  his  fury  serving  instead  of  defensive 
armor.  The  bereerkers  of  later  times  were  a  class 
of  warriors  who  are  said  to  have  performed  extraor- 
dinary feats  in  battle  under  the  influence  of  fits  of 
iury  called  bergerksgang,  "Berserker's  rage,"  which 
made  them  houl  like  wild  beasts,  foam  at  the  mouth, 
and  gnaw  the  rims  of  their  shields,  and  was  supposed 
to  endue  them  with  superhuman  strength  and  to 
render  them  proof  against  fire  and  steel. 

BERT,  Patl,  a  French  statesman  and  physiolo- 
gist, born  at  Auxerre  in  1833,  died  in  188(5.  He 
studied  law  and  medicine,  and  occupied  succes- 
sively the  chairs  of  Physiology  at  Bordeaux  and 
Paris.  Entering  political  life  in  1870,  on  the  proc- 
lamation of  the  Republic,  he  was  four  times  re- 
elected to  the  Chamber,  and  during  the  premiership 
of  Gambetta  held  the  post  of  minister  of  public  in- 
struction and  worship.  While  engaged  in  public 
life,  M.  Bert  still  pursued  with  ardor  his  scientific 
investigations,  attracting  world-wide  attention  by 
his  experiments  in  vivisection.  He  was  a[)pointed 
by  the  French  ministry  to  the  governorship  of 
Tonquin  and  Anam  in  1880,  but  held  the  position 
for  a  sliort  time  only,  his  death  occurring  in  Novem- 
ber of  the  same  year. 

BERTH,  in  nautical  language,  a  term  nearly 
equivalent  to  room  or  mpare;  a  ship's  IxTlh  is  the 
space  which  she  occupies  when  at  anclior, including 
a  small  breadth  of  sea  all  around  her.  The  same 
name  is  also  given  to  a  messing  or  sleeping-room  on 
board  sliip,  in  a  sense  not  very  different  from  that 
of  the  word  fabin. 

BERTHA,  the  name  of  several  famous  women  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  half-historical  and  Imlf-fabulous. 
St.  Bertha,  wiose  day  is  kept  on  the  4th  of  July, 
was  the  beautiful  and  pious  daugliter  of  King 
Oharibert,  of  the  Franks,  who,  having  married  (a.  d. 
MO)  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  became  the  means  of 


his  conversion  and  ol  the  spread  of  Christianitj 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

BERTHIER,  ALE.tAXDRE,  Prince  of  Neuchatel 
and  Wagram,  and  marshal  of  the  French  Empire, 
born  at  VersaOles  in  1753,  died  in  1815.  He  joined 
the  army  in  1770,  and  with  LaFayette  took  part  in 
the  American  Revolution.  He  accompanied  Na- 
poleon to  Egypt  as  chief  of  staff.  At  the  revolution 
of  18th  Brumaire  (1790),  he  became  war  minister. 
He  was  Napoleon's  proxy  in  the  marriage  of  Maria 
Louisa,  at  Vienna,  in  1810.  He  held  the  rank  of 
chief  of  the  staff,  and  also  that  of  quartermaster- 
general  during  the  campaigns  of  1812,  1813,  and 
1814,  and  w'as  continually  at  the  Emperor's  side. 
When  Napoleon  returned  from  Elba,  Berthier  left 
the  service  of  Louis  XVIII,  preferring  neutrality, 
and  retired  to  Bamberg,  Bavaria. 

BERTIN,  Louis  Francois,  an  eminent  French 
journalist,  born  in  Paris  in  1766,  died  in  1841.  He 
began  writing  for  the  press  in  1793,  and  in  1799 
set  on  foot  the  "Journal  des  Debats."  His  royalist 
principles  offended  the  government  of  Napoleon, 
and  cost  him  imprisonment  and  banishment  to 
Elba,  but  he  escaped  to  Rome,  where  he  formed  a 
friendship  with  Chateaubriand.  In  1804  he  returned 
to  Paris,  and  resumed  the  editorship  of  the  "De- 
bats." 

BERTRAND,  Henri  Gratien,  Count,  born  in 
Chateauroux  in  1773,  died  in  1844.  He  was  one  of 
Napoleon's  generals,  distinguished  for  his  faithful- 
ness to  the  Emperor  through  all  his  fortunes.  He 
early  entered  the  armies  of  the  Revolution  as  en- 
gineer. When  the  body  of  Napoleon  was  carried 
back  to  France  in  1840,  he  had  a  part  in  the  expe- 
dition. 

BERVIC,  Charles  Clement  Balvav,  born  at 
Paris  in  1756,  died  in  1822.  He  was  a  distinguished 
engraver,  and  executed  a  full-length  engraving  of 
Louis  XVI  in  1790,  through  which  he  became  fa- 
mous. Other  of  his  worlis,  the  engravings  of  tlie 
Laocoon,  Regnault's  Education  of  Achilles,  and 
Guido's  Rape  of  Dcianira,  display  equal  beauty  of 
manipulation  and  higher  power. 

BERWICK,  a  manufacturing  town  in  Columbia 
county,  Pa.,  on  the  north  branch  of  the  Susque- 
hanna River  and  the  Lackwanna  and  Bloomsburg 
Railroad.  It  has  a  graded  school,  several  churches, 
two  potteries,  foundries,  a  machine  shop  and  a  roll- 
ing mill. 

BERWICK,  North,  a  seaport  town  of  Hadding- 
tonshire, at  the  entrance  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  19 
miles  east-northeast  of  Edinburgh.  Corn  is  ex- 
ported from  it,  and  it  is  frequented  as  a  bathing 
Elace.  It  includes  the  Bass  Rock,  North  Berwick 
aw,  and  the  ruins  of  Tantallon  Castle,  which  i& 
graphically  described  in  Scott's  }[armion.  North 
Berwick  Law  is  a  conical  hill  of  an  elevation  of 
940  feet  on  the  south,  close  to  the  town.  Population, 
4,000. 

BP'SSEMER,  Alabama,  a  flourishing  and  rapidly 
growing  railway  center  in  tlie  iron  region  of  the 
State;  at  tliis  writing,  IS'.d,  it  may  be  reached  liy 
eiglit  railways.  Population  in  1S90,  4,544;  Precinct 
33,  inchiding  Bessemer,  Sloss,  and  Woodward  towns, 
5,782. 

B KSSE JIER  CITY,  Michigan,  a  new,  thriving,  and 
rapidly  developing  mining  town  in  Gogebic  county. 
Population  of  liessemer  in  1890,2,566;  township, 
68tl. 

BESSEMI'vIv,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  civil  engi- 
neer and  inventor,  born  at  tlhatham,  in  Ilcrtfdrd- 
shire,  in  1813.  His  name  is  well  known  in  cojiiiec- 
tion  with  his  [irincipal  invention,  the  Bessemer  pro- 
cess of  refining  steel. 

HKSSli'",|{I';s,  .Iean  Baptists,  Duke  of  Istria,  and 
marslial  of  the  French  Empire,  Imrn  at  Preissac  in 


BESTIARES  —  BET  TOLA 


259 


1768,  died  in  1813.  He  was  promott'd  in  succession 
to  the  ranl<s  of  general  of  brigade,  general  of 
division,  and  marshal  of  France,  and  in  ISOi)  was 
created  Duke  of  Istria  for  his  services  in  Spain.  He 
was  mortally  wounded  on  tlie  morning  of  the  battle 
of  Liitzen,  while  leading  on  foot  the  lirallleHrs  to 
reconnoiter  the  field  from  tlie  defile  of  Kippach,  and 
in  him  Bonaparte  lost  one  of  liis  best  officers  and 
his  most  faithful  friend.  The  news  of  his  death  was 
concealed  from  the  army  throughout  the  day. 

BESTIAKE.S,  the  name  given  to  a  class  of  written 
books  of  great  popularity  in  the  Middle  Ages,  de- 
scribing all  the  animals  of  creation,  real  or  fabled, 
and  generally  illustrated  by  drawings.  They  were 
most  in  fashion  during  tlie  Utli,  1-tli  and  l:!tli  cen- 
turies. They  served  as  encyclopaedias  of  the  zoology 
of  those  ages,  but  they  liad  also  another  use.  The 
symbolism  whicti  was  then  so  mucli  in  vogue  fast- 
ened spiritual  meanings  upon  tlie  several  animals 
until  every  quality  of  good  or  evil  in  the  soul  of 
man  had  its  type  in  the  brute  world.  To  the  Best- 
iares  we  must  look  for  explanation  of  the  strange 
creatures  found  seulptured  on  churches  and  build- 
ings of  the  Middle  .Vges. 

TjET.\XZOS,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Corunna,  10  miles  southeast  of  tlie  city  of  the  same 
name.  Ancient  granite  gateways  still  defend  its 
narrow  streets;  it  has  manufactories  of  linen, 
leather,  and  earthenware.     Population,  5,000. 

BETHANY,  a  small  village  of  W.  Va.  in  Brook 

county,  on  Buffalo  Creek.  Bet liany  College  is  located 

here;  it   was  established   in  1841  by  Rev.  Ale.xan- 

'    der  Campbell,  LL.D.,  founder  of  the  "  Discinles  of 

Clirist."  otherwise  known  as  the  "Christians. 

BETHANY  COLLEGE,  at  Bethany,  W.  Va.,  was 
established  in  1841,  by  the  K(>v.  Alexander  Camp- 
bell, LL.D.,  the  founder  of  the  denomination  called 
"Christians,"  but  belter  known  as  Disciples  of 
Christ.  This  institution  had  in  1890  nine  profes- 
sors. two»tutors  and  l'i4  collegiate  students.  It 
maintains  also  a  tiieological  department.  Tlie 
alumni  number  nearly  800.  representing  32  States 
and  several  foreign  countries.  The  three  college 
buildings  and  apparatus  are  valued  at  if.iOi\(X)0. 
The  i)roductive  funds  are  nearly  $I00.O(K),  and  ef- 
forts are  in  progress  for  increasing  tlie  latter  to  at 
least  half  a  million  dollars. 

BETHLEHE.M,  an  educational  and  manufactur- 
ing town  of  Pennsylvania,  the  principal  settle- 
ment in  tlie  L'nited  States  of  the  Moravians,  or 
"  United  Brethren."  is  pleasantly  situated  about 
60  miles  north  of  Philadelphia,  on  the  left  bank  of 
tlie  Lehigh  Kiver,  across  which  a  bridge  connects 
it  with  South  Bethlehem,  the  seat  of  Lehigh  Univer- 
sity, "ethleheni  was  founded  in  1741.  The  first 
house,  in  which,  in  that  year.tJount  Zinzendorf  and 
his  little  band  of  Moravian  brethren  celebrated  the 
festival  of  the  Nativity  was  not  taken  down  until 
18J3;  and  one  of  the  first  houses  of  the  settlement 
is  still  standing.  Besides  containing  a  number  of 
benevolent  institutions  conducted  by  the  Mora- 
vians, Bethlehem  is  the  seat  of  their  theological  sem- 
inary, boys'  school,  and  young  ladies'  seminary.  It 
was  in  the  latter — used  during  the  Revolution  as  a 
military  hospital — that  Lafayette  was  nursed  after 
having  been  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Brandywine. 
The  principal  manufactures  of  Bethlehem  are  tl<iur, 
brass  implements,  boilers,  shovels,  and  cigars. 

BETHLEHEM ITES,  the  name  of  an  order  of 
monks  at  Cambridge,  England,  in  the  13th  century ; 
also  of  an  order  founded  in  Guatemala  in  li)73.  Tlie 
followers  of  Jerome  Huss  were  styled  Bethlehem- 
ites,  from  Bethlehem  church,  in  Prague,  where  their 
leader  preached. 

BETHLENGABOR  (1580-1629),  a  descendant  of 
«n  ancient  and  eminent  Protestant  family  of  Upper 


Hungary.  He  became  distinguished  during  the 
troubles  which  distracted  the  principality  in  the 
reigns  of  the  two  Bathories, Sigismund  andGabrieL 
When  the  latter  died,  Bethlen  Gabor  became  sover- 
eign prince  of  Transylvania. 

BETHNAL  GREEN,  an  eastern  suburb  of  Lon- 
don, since  1885  a  parliamentary  borough.  It  is 
largely  peopled  by  silk-weavers,  an  offshoot  of  the 
Huguenot  settlement  in  Spitalfields.  Its  museum, 
opened  by  the  tiueen  in  1872,  is  a  branch  of  the  one 
at  South  Kensington.     Population,  127,000. 

BETHSAIDA.on  the  lake  of  Galilee,  mentioned 
in  Scripture  as  the  city  of  Peter  and  Andrew 
and  Philip,  now  a  heap  of  ruins  almost  overgrown 
with  grass. 

BETH-SHEMESH,  an  ancient  city  of  the  Holy 
Land,  about  15  miles  southwest  of  Jerusalem.  Ruins 
at  the  present  village  of  Ain-Shenis  lead  scholars  to 
believe  this  was  the  site  of  Beth-Shemesh.  Samson's 
exploits  were  performed  In  this  vicinity. 

BETHUNE,  Gkorge  W.\siiixgtos,  born  in  New 
York  city,  March,  1805.  died  in  Florence,  Italy, 
April  27,  1802.  His  parents  were  noted  for  their 
Christian  charity.  He  graduated  from  Dickinson 
College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  and  from  the  department  of 
theology  at  Princeton,  after  which  he  became  a 
Presbyterian  minister.  In  1820  he  was  chaplain  to 
the  seamen  of  Savannah  ;  from  182(5  to  1830  pastor 
of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  at  Rhinebeck.N.Y.; 
from  1830  to  1834  pastor  in  Utica,  N.  Y.;  from  1834 
to  1848  pastor  at  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  from  1848  to 
1859  pastor  in  Brooklyn.  Failing  health  compelled 
him  to  visit  Europe,  where  he  sometimes  preached 
in  the  only  Protestant  church  of  Rome.  A  short 
pastorate  in  New  York  was  followed  by  a  visit  to 
Florence,  Italy,  where  he  died.  Dr.  Bethune  w'asa 
well-read  student  of  English  literature,  a  writer  of 
merit,  and  an  orator  and  man  of  influence  in  his 
times. 

BETON,  or  Beton  Agolomere,  a  kind  of  concrete 
used  in  the  construction  of  submarine  works  and 
other  buildings.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  VI,  p.  243; 
see  also  under  Buildixg,  Britannica,  Vol.  IV,  pp. 
450-57 ;  and  under  Bridges,  Vol.  IV,  p.  324,  el  scq. 

BETONY  (St.vciivs  detonica),  a  common  Euro- 
pean labiate  plant,  growing  in  woods.  It  was  of 
great  repute  in  ancient  and  niediiival  medicine; 
and  is  sometimes  used  to  dye  wool,  producing  a 
dark-J-ellow  color. 

BETTIA,  a  municipal  town  in  the  northwest  of 
Behar,  India,  on  the  line  of  the  Tirliut  state  rail- 
way.  Pojnilation  21,203,  of  whom  13,943  are  Hindus. 

BETTING.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  OUS-19. 
In  the  United  States,  the  legislative  enactments  of 
the  various  individual  States,  proceeding  upon  the 
basis  of  the  common  law,  declare  betting  to  be  an 
indictable  offense.  Gambling  houses  are  held,  on 
various  grounds,  to  be  illegal;  and  the  collection 
of  a  bet  cannot  be  enforced  by  law.  A  note  payable 
uiKin  receipt  of  election  returns  is  void  in  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Iowa,  Connecticut,  Delaware  and  Afary- 
land.  A  bet  on  a  horse  race  is  void  in  Pennsylvania 
and  New  York.  All  bets  arc  declared  void  by  the 
laws  of  Texas  and  California.  In  many  of  I  he  States 
a  stakeholder  may  be  compelled  to  refund  money 
to  the  loser  which  he  has  already  paid  to  the  winner 
of  a  bet.   Indorsements  upon  paper  which  has  been 

ffiven  as  pavment  of  a  bet,  though  the  paper  may 
lave  passed  into  the  hands  of  an  innocent  party, 
are  void  in  Illinois.  Where  no  such  laws  exist,  the 
decisions  of  the  courts  are,  as  a  rule,  averse  to  all 
forms  of  betting. 

BETTULA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  duchy  of 
Parma,  about  20  miles  southeast  of  Piacenza.  It 
is  situated  on  the  Nure,  in  a  fertile  but  only  par- 
tially cultivated  district.    Population,  6,000. 


260 


BETTS  —  BEYPUR 


BETTS,  Samcel  Rossiter,  born  at  Richmond, 
Mass.,  Junes,  1787,  died  Xov.  2, 18(i8.  He  graduated 
at  Williams  College  in  1806,  and  practiced  law  in  Sul- 
livan county,  Neiv  York.  He  was  called  one  of  the 
ablest  American  jurists.  He  served  in  the  war  of 
1812,  jjecanie  judge  advocate,  sat  in  Congress  (1815- 
17),  was  judge  of  the  circuit  court  of  the  State  for 
three  years,  and  from  182G  to  1867  was  U.  S.  district 
judge.  He  was  among  the  first  to  formulate  mari- 
time laws  for  the  United  States,  and  his  decisions 
in  tliis  department  and  in  that  of  patents,  of  na- 
tional and  international  rights,  have  been  uni- 
formly upheld.  He  published  a  work  on  admiralty 
practice. 

BETTYS- Y-COED,  a  village  in  Carnarvonshire, 
North  Wales,  situated  at  the  point  where  the  Con- 
way receives  the  Llugwy,  15  miles  south  of  Llandu- 
dno Junction,  by  rail.  It  is  remarkable  for  the 
beauty  of  its  location. 

BEUGXOT,  Arthur  August,  Count  de,  a  French 
statesman  and  author,  born  at  Bar-sur-Aube  in 
1797,  died  in  1865.  In  1841  he  was  made  a  peer 
of  France,  and  was  a  member  of  the  legislative 
assembly  in  1849.  His  most  important  writings 
related  to  Judaism,  to  the  overthrow  of  western 
paganism,  and  to  the  institutions  of  Saint  Louis. 

BEURMAXX,  Friederich,  Couxt  vox  (1835- 
63),  a  German  explorer.  In  1861  he  explored  the 
country  of  the  Bogos,  and  then  set  out  in  search  of 
Vogel,  who  was  supposed  to  have  lieen  murdered  in 
Wadai.  After  many  unsuccessful  attempts  he 
reached  Wadai,  where  he  was  murdered  by  the 
natives. 

BEUST,  V'ON',  Frederick  Ferdinand  Freiherr, 
(1809-86),  a  German  statesman,  and  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  modern  politicians.  He  repre- 
sented his  government  at  Munich  in  1838,  and  eight 
years  later  he  went  to  London  in  the  same  charac- 
ter, whence  he  was  removed  to  Berlin  in  1848;  the 
year  following  lie  was  called  to  Dresden,  where  he 
received  the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs,  and  a 
few  years  later  lie  became  minister  of  the  interior. 
See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  o.56.  Wlien  Frederick 
VII  of  Denmark  died  (1863),  Beust  came  forward 
prominently  as  the  exponent  of  the  German  na- 
tional feeling  on  the  Schleswig-Holstein  question. 
He  was  always  the  triend  of  Austria,  and  in  the 
crisis  of  18(i6  he  supported  her,  joining  in  the  dec- 
laration of  war  against  Prussia,  contrary  tp  the 
wishes  of  at  least  the  liberal  party  in  Saxony. 
When  the  "six  weeks'  war"  ended  he  resigned  his 
office  by  demand  of  Prussia,  and  entering  the  serv- 
ice of  Austria  he  rose  to  the  head  of  affairs.  See 
Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  141.  The  chief  result  of  his 
policy  in  the  reorganization  of  the  empire  was  the 
reconciliation  of  Hungary  on  the  footing  of  its  re- 
maining a  separate  kingciom. 

BEVEL,  an  instrument  used  by  artisans  for 
drawing  angles  and  adjusting  the  inclination  of 
abutting  surfaces.  It  consists  of  a  handle  and 
blade  jointed  together  and  capable  of  being  ad- 
justed so  as  to  include  any  desired  angle. 

lilOVELAND,  XoiiTii  and  South,  two  islands  in 
the  estuary  of  the  Scheldt,  Holland,  separated  by 
a  channel  on  the  west  from  the  island  of  M'al- 
cheren.  The  estimated  area  is  about  120  sriuare 
miles,  with  a  population  of  about  23,000.  Both 
islands  havesuffi^red  dreadfully  from  inundations, 
but  within  recent  years  much  good  has  been  ef- 
fected by  drainage. 

I'lCVEItEX,  a  town  of  Belgium, in  East  Flanders. 
The  priiu'ipal  industry  is  the  making  of  point-lace. 
Population,  8,000. 

BEVEIMDGE,  William,  bishop  of  St.  Asaph, 
born  in  llarmw  in  1638,  died  in  170S.  He  was  or- 
dained deacon  and  priest  in  1660,  after  having  ob- 


tained the  degree  of  M.A.  He  refused  to  accept 
the  bishopric  of  Bath  and  Wells  when  Dr.  Thomas 
Ken  was  deprived  of  it  for  his  refusal  to  take  the 
oaths  to  the  government  of  William  III,  and  was 
in  1704  appointed  to  that  of  St.  Asaph.  The  greater 
portion  of  his  property  was  bequeathed  to  the  soci- 
eties for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge 
and  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign 
Parts. 

BEVEKLAND,  Adri.\n,  born  in  Zeeland  about 
the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  died  in  England 
about  1712.  Pie  was  a  Dutch  scholar,  whose  unor- 
thodox writings  on  original  sin  and  the  fall  of  man 
caused  much  excitement  in  his  day,  but  are  now 
regarded  as  mere  literary  curiosities. 

BEVERLOO,  a  village  of  Belgium  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Limbourg,  12  miles  northwest  of  Hesselt. 
On  the  extensive  heaths  surrounding  it  the  Belgian 
army  encamps  yearly  for  exercise. 

BEVERLY,  a  manufacturing  town  and  summer 
resort  of  Xew  Jersey,  pleasantly  situated  on  the 
Delaware  River,  fifteen  miles  above  Philadelphia, 
The  principal  manufactures  are  woolens,  oil-cloth 
and  rope. 

BEVERLY,  a  city  of  Essex  county,  Mass.,  in 
Beverly  township,  on  a  bay  or  inlet  of  the  Atlantic 
and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  (Eastern)  Railroad,  IS 
miles  northeast  of  Boston,  two  miles  north-nortlieast 
of  Salem,  at  the  junction  of  the  Gloucester  Branch, 
(Cape  Ann).  It  is  separated  from  Salem  by  an  in- 
let of  the  sea  which  is  crossed  by  a  bridge.  It  has  a 
good  harbor,  fine  streets  and  avenues  lighted  by  gas 
and  electricity,  extensive  shoe  and  leather  manu- 
factories, steam  grain  elevators,  machine  and  wood-  ^ 
working  shops,  oil-cloth  and  enamel  works,  steam 
printing  establishments,  a  national  and  a  savings 
bank,  the  Beverly  cooperative  bank,  excellent 
hotels,  an  efficient  police,  a  well-organized  fire 
departmet,  the  New  England  Institute  for  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb,  graded  schools,  a  high  school,  a 
public  library  o^  10,000  volumes,  and  a  board  of 
trade  composed  of  100  business  men.  Many  of  the 
inhabitants  are  employed  in  navigation  and  the 
fisheries.  Valuation  of  real  and  personal  estate, 
.$15,000,000.  Beverly  was  incorporated  in  1668,  and 
has  recentlv  become  a  city.  Population  in  1890, 
10,795.     See  "Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  621. 

BEVEKWYK,  a  town  of  Netherlands,  North 
Holland,  seven  miles  north  of  Haarlem.  It  is  sit- 
uated !n  the  midst  of  what  might  be  described  as  a 
beautiful  meadow  and  is  quite  a  model  of  Dutch 
neatness  and  cleanliness.     Population,  2,356. 

BEVIS  OF  HAMPTON,  the  hero  of  a  popular 
English  mediif  val  romance  edited  by  Dr.  E.  Kolb- 
ing  for  the  Early  English  Text  Society,  in  1885. 
See  Romance,  Britannica,  Vol.  XX,  p.  6.53. 

BEX,  a  village  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Vaud,  situ- 
ated on  the  high  road  to  the  Simplon,  about  26 
miles  southeast  of  Lausanne.  It  is  remarkable  for 
its  extensive  salt  mines,  salt  works,  and  sulphur 
baths.  The  quantity  of  salt  annually  ))roduced  at 
Bex  is  between  2,000  and  3,000  tons.  Population. 
3,000. 

BEYERL.VND,  an  island  of  South  Holland, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Old  Maas  with  Hol- 
land Diep  on  the  one  side,  the  river  Spui  uniting 
the  Old  Maas  with  the  Haringvliet  cm  the  other. 
It  ifc  a  thriving  [ilace,  of  nearly  4.(i0(l  inhabitants. 

BEY,  a  Turkish  title.  SeeBna,  in  these  Revi'-ioiis 
and  .\dditinns. 

BEYPKR,  a  seaport  of  Western  India,  in  Mala- 
bar district,  Madras,  situated  near  the  moutli  of 
the  Beypur  River,  six  miles  south  of  Calicut.  Iron 
ore  and  coal  are  found  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
iron  works  have  been  established  here.  Since  bs.58 
Beypur  has  acquired  importance  as  the  terminus  of 


D  E  Z  A  X  T  —  r.  !  I!  L  I  C  A  L    A  11  C  If  .E  0  L  0  G  Y 


261 


a  railway  across  the  peninsula  of  Inilia  from 
Madras  by  way  of  Coinibatoor.     Population,  7,000. 

liKZANT,  ur  Bysaxt,  properly  the  .s-o/i./nx,  a  coin 
of  the  Byzantine  empire  which  had  a  wide  circula- 
tion in  Europe  during  the  period  from  about  a.  n. 
800  to  the  middle  of  the  IHth  century.  The  gold 
bezant  varied  in  value  at  different  periods  from  a 
sovereign  to  half  a  sovereign  ;  the  silver  one  from  a 
(lorin  to  a  sliilling.  In  architecture,  small  round 
disks  ornamenliMg  a  molding,  and  in  heraldry 
••  roundels "  on  a  shield,  showing  descent  from  a 
crusader. 

BKZDAU,  a  market  town  in  the  Hungarian  prov- 
ince of  Bacs,  situated  on  the  canal  which  joins  the 
Theiss  and  the  Danube.    Population,  8,000. 

BEZOAR,  a  concretion  found  in  the  stomachs  of 
goats  and  antelopes,  and  fdrmerly  much  valued 
on  account  of  imaginary  medicinal  virtues,  particu- 
larly as  an  antidote  to  poisons. 

BiIAGA^■AD-(TITA  (that  is.  Revelations  from 
the  Deity),  the  title  of  a  religious  metaphysical 
poem,  interwoven  as  an  episode  in  the  great  Indian 
epic  poem  of  the  .Mahabharala. 

BIIAGIRATHI.  the  name  of  two  rivers  of  India, 
one  of  which  is  a  princijjal  head-stream  of  theCian- 

fes,  and    the    other    an   alllucnt    of    the    (ijinges, 
nown  in  its  lower  course  as  the  Iloogly. 

BHANPOORA,  a  walled  town  of  Ind'ore.  Central- 
India.  It  is  situated  on  the  Rewah,  and  contains 
a  fort  and  a  palace  of  the  Mahratta  ruler,  known 
as  the  Ilolkar. 

BHAKTRIHARI.  the  name  of  a  celebrated  In- 
dian writer  of  apothegms.  Very  little  is  known  of 
his  life.  .\  legend  makes  him  the  brother  of  King 
Vikramaditya,  who  lived  in  the  first  century  before 
Christ,  and  relates  that  after  a  wild,  licentious 
youth  he  betook  himself  in  later  years  to  an  ascetic 
life.  Cheerful  descriptions  of  Nature  and  charming 
pictures  of  love  alternate  in_ these  apothegms,  with 
wise  remarks  upon  the  relations  of  life,  and  pro- 
found thoughts  ui)on  the  Ueity  and  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul.  Bharlrihari  is  the  first  Indian 
author  known  in  P^urojje:  two  hundred  of  his  ai)o- 
thegms  were  translated  in  USi  by  .\brahain  Roger, 
published  under  the  quaint  title,  Oprn  (latm  In 
Hiildi'H  Ili'ntlti'tiiion.  Bohlen  published  an  excellent 
and  successful  metrical  translation  in  German 
(Hamburg)  in  1S;S5. 

BHAV.\XI-KUI)AR,  a  town  in  the  presidency  of 
>Iadras  in  the  district  of  Coinibatoor,  58  miles  from 
the  city  of  that  name,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Bha- 
vani  and  the  Cavery  rivers. 

BIIOO.I,  the  capital  of  Cutch,  in  India,  situated 
at  the  foot  of  a  fortified  hill  of  the  same  name, 
where  a  temple  has  been  erected  to  the  Cobra  da 
Capella.  Its  mos(|ues  and  pagodas, interspersed  with 
plantations  of  dates,  give  to  the  town  an  imposing 
appearance  from  a  distance.  In  1819  it  suffered 
severely  from  an  eartlnpiake.  It  is  celebrated  for 
its  manufactures  in  gold  and  silver.  Population, 
20,0fK). 

BHf)\V.\N",  BnowAN.i,  I'ui:wannee,  or  Biiiwani, 
a  town  in  the  district  of  llissar,  Punjab,  British 
India. 

BllU.II.or  Bi.n,  a  small  hill  state  extending  along 
the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej,  in  India,  for  about 
twenty  miles.  Its  greatest  breadth  is  about  seven 
miles. 

BHUTAN,  an  independent  state  in  the  Eastern 
Himalayas,  on  the  northeast  of  Thibet.  .\rea,  Ki.SOO 
9<)uare  miles.  Population.  .S.i.OOO.  Capital.  Pumihka. 
For  early  history,  see  Hritannica,  Vol,  III,  p.  Ii.3l. 

Since  l.sii.")  the  Indian  government  bestows  on  the 
Bhutan  rulers  an  annual  subsidy  of  .">0,000  Ks.,  and 
in  return  is  permitted  to  hold  two  strong  fortresses 
(Buxa  and  IJewangiri)  as  a  protection  from  warlike 


incursions.  The  state  is  160  miles  in  extreme  length 
east  and  west  and  90  miles  in  extreme  breadth. 

The  government  of  Bhutan  resembles  that  of  Thi- 
bet, the  chief  authority  being  nominally  divided  be- 
tween the  deb  raja,  or  secular  head,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  dlmnna  rrija  or  spiritual  head  of  the 
state  on  the  other.  Practically,  the  ihh  raja  is  a 
mere  instrument  in  the  hands  of  powerful  barons. 
The  dharma  raja  is  sup])osed  to  lie  the  incarnation 
of  his  predecessor,  and  is  chosen  in  infancy.  The 
chief  towns  of  Bhutan  are  :  Puiuikha,  the  capital,  a 
place  of  great  natural  strength,  Tashichhu  ,Iong, 
Paro,  Angduphorang,  Tongsa,  Tarka,  and  Biaka. 

The  people  are  nominally  Buddhists,  but  their 
religious  exercises  consist  chiefly  in  the  propitiation 
of  evil  spirits  and  the  recitation  of  sentences  from 
the  Thibetan  Scriptures.  Tashichhu  .long,  the  chief 
monastery  in  Bhutan,  contains  liOO  priests. 

The  chi(>f  productions  of  Bhutan  are  rice,  Indian 
corn,  millet,  two  kinds  of  cloth,  musk,  ponies,  chow- 
ries,  and  silk.  Muzzle-loading  guns  and  swords  of 
highly-tempered  steel  are  manufactured. 

The  trade  between  British  India  and  Bhutan 
amounted  in  1888-89  to  153,000  Rs.  imports  from  and 
252,000  Rs.  exports  to  India.  The  chief  imports  are 
tol\acco,  European  cotton  goods,  betel-nuts  and 
rice;  the  chief  exports,  wool,  musk,  ponies,  and 
caoutchouc. 

BIALYSTOK,  a  fortified  town  in  the  government 
of  Grodno,  Russia.  It  carries  on  various  manu- 
factories, among  them  woolens,  hats,  leather,  soap, 
and  tallow. 

BIANCAVILLA,  a  town  of  Sicily,  14  miles  nortli- 
west  of  Catania,  and  10  miles  from  Mount  .Etna, 
with  a  trade  in  grain, cotton, and  silk.  Population, 
9.0  0. 

BIANCONI,  Charles  (17S(i-1875),  inventor  of  the 
Irish  car  system,  born  in  Lombardy  in  1780,  and 
came  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  to  Ireland  as 
an  itinerant  vendor  of  cheap  prints.  He  accumu- 
j  lated  a  small  capital,  and,  recognizing  the  need  of 
public  conveyance  in  Ireland,  he  started  the  first 
!  car  between  Clonmel  and  Caliir  in  1815,  at  a  time 
when  peace  and  the  carriage-tax  had  tilled  tUe 
market  with  cheap  horses  antl  jaunting-cars.  The 
enterprise  proving  a  success,  the  system  was  ex- 
tended, until,  40  years  later.  Bianconi's  cars  were 
working  over  4,000  miles  of  road  daily.  Having 
realized  a  large  fortune,  he  retired  in  18(i5,  and 
died  in  September,  1875,  at  his  estate  near  Cashel. 

RIARD,  Al'GUSTK  Kraxcois,  a  French  painter, 
born  at  Lyons  in  l.SOO,  died  in  1882.  He  was  at  first 
destined  for  the  church,  but  was  educated  at  the 
school  of  art  in  his  native  city.  He  is  <listinguished 
for  his  animated  and  often  comical  representation 
of  ordinary  life  and  manners,  but  is  known  in  al- 
most every  department  of  his  art. 

BIBERICH,  a  village  in  the  duchy  of  Nassau,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  about  four  miles  south 
from  Wiesbaden.  It  is  noted  for  its  splendid  iial- 
ace.  The  views  of  the  river  scenery  from  Biberich 
are  unrivaled.  Population,  including  Mosbach, 
6,700. 

BIBLICAL  ARCH.EOLOGV.  Early  in  1890  Dr. 
.Tohn  Eraser,  of  New  South  Wales,  read  before, 
the  Victoria  Institute  a  highly  interesting  paper 
entitled  The  Ahnritjinex  of  AaMrntia;  Thrir  ElUnk 
I'lixilian  and  Rrlalio'iis.  He  presented  a  strong  argu- 
ment in  refutation  of  the  position  taken  up  by 
liCnormant  and  others,  who  would  cut  olT  the 
Australians  from  the  record  in  the  tenth  chapterof 
(ienesis,  and,  by  consequence,  from  all  connections 
with  the  sons  of  Noah.  Dr.  Eraser  identifies  the 
dark  race  spoken  of  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions, 
as  existing  in  the  plains  of  Babylonia,  with  the 
Kushiles;    whose  empire  and   whose   people  once 


262 


BIBLE    CHRISTIANS  — BIBLE    CIRCULATION 


extended  "  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Ganges, 
and  from  the  Indian  Ocean  northwards  to  the 
plateau  of  Ararat.  Other  races,  however,  came 
down  upon  them  from  Central  Asia,  and,  like  a 
wedge,  split  them  in  two.  Hence  the  position 
ot  this  race  is,  in  Genesis  x,  indicated  eth- 
nically by  the  names  of  Gush  and  Mizriam,  and 
Phut  and  Canaan,  which  are  the  countries  geo- 
graphically called  Ethiopia  and  Egypt  and  Nubia 
and  Palestine.  Their  dominion  had  thus  been 
thrown  much  to  the  west  of  their  original  seats,  and 
had  lodged  itself  in  Africa,  near  the  stronghold  of 
the  western  Kushites,"  whose  eastern  brethren, 
after  migrations  and  adventures  which  had  led 
them  "  through  the  mountain  passes  into  the  table- 
land of  the  Punjab,  and  thence  into  the  Gangetio 
plains,"  were  "  pushed,"  by  Aryan  invaders  from 
tlie  northwest,  "  down  the  Ganges  into  Farther 
India  and  the  Malayan  Peninsula ;  thence  to  pass 
at  a  later  time  into  Borneo  and  the  Sunda  Islands 
and  Papua;  and  afterwards  across  the  Sea  of  Timor 
into  Australia,  or  eastwards  into  Melanesia,  driven 
onwards  now  by  the  Turanian  tribes  who  had  come 
down  from  Central  Asia  into  China  and  the  penin- 
sula and  the  islands  of  the  East  Indies."  Dr. 
Eraser  fortifies  his  position  with  arguments  and 
illustrations  of  various  kinds  —  linguistic,  ethno- 
logical, and  religious. 

Two  other  papers  worthy  of  special  note  in  this 
article  were  read  before  the  same  institution  during 
the  year  1890:  One  (Jan.  20,  1890)  by  James  Neil, 
M.A.,  bearing  the  descriptive  title  of  Land  Tennre 
in  Ancient  Times,  as  Preser><e<!  hy  the  Present  Village 
Communities  in  Palestine;  and  the  other,  read  by 
Mr.  Hormuzd  Rassam,  June  23,  discussed  The 
Garden  of  Eden  and  Biblical  Sages.  Mr.  Rassam  ex- 
amined, to  reject,  the  views  of  scholars  who  would 
localize  the  cradle  of  mankind  in  various  places 
"  from  Scandinavia  to  the  South  Sea  Islands,  from 
China  to  fhe  Canary  Isles,  and  from  the  Mountains 
of  the  Moon  to  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic."  He  claimed 
that  the  arguments  put  forth  in  the  brochure,  II  o  lag 
da^  Parodies  f  by  Frof.  Friedrich  Delitzsch,  the  latest 


supporter  of  the  Babylonian  theory,  were  "quite 
untenable  when  compared  with  the  plain  words  of 
Holy  Writ."  Mr.  Rassam's  contention  was  "Hhat 
the  only  part  of  the  world  that  could  be  assigned 
for  the  ancient  site  of  the  Garden  of  Eden  would  be 
the  country  that  surrounds  Lake  Wan  (or  Van)  in 
Armenia."  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  Mr. 
Rassam  probably  had  not  read  the  books  of  Presi- 
dent W.  F.  Warren,  LL.D.,  of  Boston  University, 
entitled  Paradise  Found;  The  Cradle  of  the  Human 
Race  at  the  North  Pole,  as  he  makes  no  allusion  to 
the  ingeniously  elaborated  argument  presented 
in  that  volume. 

Dr.  Edward  Taylor,  F.R.S.,  in  discussing,  at  one 
of  the  society's  meetings  in  1890,  The  Winged  Figures 
of  the  Assyrian  atid  Other  Ancient  Momnnentx,  is  re- 
ported to  have  adopted  and  enforced  with  great 
emphasis  the  striking  point  of  comparison,  noticed 
many  years  ago  by  Sir  H.  Layard,  of  the  Assyrian 
sculptures  with  the  mystic  vision  of  the  prophet 
Ezekiel.  The  Chevalier  Ernest  de  Bunsen,  whose 
reputation  is  intimately  connected  with  the  sub- 
ject of  Biblical  chronology,  contributed  a  paper 
on  The  Pharaohs  of  Moses  According  to  Hebrew  and 
Egyptian  Chronology  to  the  February  meeting  of  the 
society  ;  to  the  June  meeting  of  which  a  paper  was 
submitted  and  read  in  abstract — appearing  after- 
wards at  length,  and  in  the  original  French  in  the 
Proceedings  of  the  society — Sur  les  Dynasties  Divines 
de  I'Ancicnne  Egypte,  by  Professor  G.  Maspero.  It  is 
conversant  about  the  origin.the  constitution,and  the 
distribution  of  the  divine  dynasties,  which,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  had  preceded  the  human  dynasties 
in  Egypt,  and  whose  record  had  furnished  the  basis 
of  diverse  hypotheses  on  the  past  on  the  part  of 
students  of  Egyptian  history  and  chronology.  M. 
Maspero  accepts  the  solution  of  the  question  pro- 
posed thirty  years  ago  by  Lepsius,  in  his  MSmoire 
snr  le  Premier  Cycle  des  Dieu.v  Egyptiens,  as  being  in 
the  main  true. 

BIBLE  CHRISTIANS.  See  Religious  Den(. mi- 
nations  in  the  United  States,  in  these  Revisions 
and  Additions. 


BIBLE  CIRCULATION.  For  the  general  dis- 
cussion of  questions  relating  to  the  Bible  and  its 
circulation  by  various  organizations  to  the  year 
1875,  see  Britaiiiiica,  Vol.  Ill,  634-650.  The  annual 
report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  for 
the  year  endingMarch  31, 1S90, showed  a  total  issue 
for  that  year,  !)y  tliat  society,  of  3,792,263  copies  ot 
Holy  Scri])lures.  Tliis  was  an  increase  over  the 
issues  of  the  preceding  year  of  115,059.  The  great 
increase  of  the  work  of  the  Britisli  and  Foreign  Bil)le 
Society  during  the  last  lew  years  may  be  seen  by 
the  following  tabular  statement  of  its  total  issues 
by  decades : 

Total  issues  to  March  31, 1820 2,M.3,291 

For  ten  years  to  March  :jl ,  1.S30 3,710,.')07 

"                "               "        18-10 5,7f>8.il7:i 

••                  ••                  "         IXiO 10,787 /j79 

IHOO 14,417,778 

"                 "                "        1870 21,8li8,W3 

'■                  "                 "         1880 28,771.718 

"                 "         18SI0 ;«,7(i0,(;27 

Grand  total  from  date  of  organization  . . ! 12:i,92'J,0'lii 

The  receipts  for  the  year  ending  March  31,  1891, 
aggri'gated  .1! 1 ,060,3.H7  ;  total  cxprnditiires  for  the 
year,  :^I, 137,830.  Total  expenditures  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  society  (86  years),  .'f54,9ti9,107. 

The  American  Bible  Society  issued  ihiring  the 
year  ending  March  31,  1890,  an  aggregate  numlier 
of  1,-196,057   cojjie.i;    increase   over   the   preceding 


year  of  55,602.  Its  total  issues  from  1816,thedateof  its 
organization,  to  March  31, 1890, aggregated  52,7.36.075. 
The  cash  receipts  for  the  year  aggregated  $597,693. 

The  number  of  issues  of  the  two  societies  (British 
and  Foreign  and  American  Bible  Societies)  during 
1890  aggregated  5,288,317  copies,  an  arerage  of  about 
17,000  copies  of  the  Scrijilures  for  every  working-day  of 
the  year.  For  a  full  list  of  the  parent  T.ible  socie- 
ties, with  the  latest  total  number  of  issues  reported 
by  each,  see  Bnti.u  Socihtik.s,  in  these  Revisions 
and  Additions.  The  grand  total  of  issues  to  date 
circulated  by  all  the  societies  was  217.828,118. 

In  not  a  few  cases  no  written  language  or  dialect 
was  found,  and  the  missionary  teacher  was  re- 
quired to  give  the  people  first  a  language  and  then 
the  translation  of  the  Bilile  into  it. 

The  following  are  specimens  of  the  languages  and 
dialects  into  which  the  Bible,  or  portions  of  it,  had 
been  translated  and  jiriiited  up  to  the  year  1H90. 
The  number  of  languages  into  which  the  Bible,  or 
portions  of  it,  were  translated,  printed,  and  circu- 
lated, directly  or  indirectly,  by  the  British  and 
Foreign  Mible  Society  and  the  American  Bible  So- 
ciety to  that  date,  was  291.  .\fter  making  ilue  al- 
lowance for  repetitions,  the  s]ieciniens  here  given 
represent  213  languages  and  dialects.  'I'hey  are 
arranged  very  nearly  according  to  the  countries  in 
which  they  originated.  The  reader  begins  with  the 
languages  of  the  British  Isles,  1  to  6,  and  pmceeda 
to  the  rnntinent  of  Europe,  7  to  68.     The  languages 


BIBLE    CIRCULATION 


26S 


of  Asia  come  next,  69  to  162 ;  then  the  islands,  163 
to  185;  tlien  those  of  Africa,  186  to  217;  and.finally, 
those  whicli  are  peculiar  to  the  American  continent, 
218  to  242. 

In  some  cases,  as  will  be  noticed,  the  specimen  is 
repeated  to  sliow  the  different  alphabets  or  char- 
acters wliich  the  people  use.  The  Turkish  version, 
for  example,  is  prepared  for  Moslems  in  the  Arabic 
letter;  but  for  Armenians  an  entirely  different  form 
is  needed,  and  for  Greeks  yet  another.  Except 
where  otherwise  indicated,  the  Scripture  verse 
here  given  is  that  of  John  iii :  16. 


1.  ENGLISH. 
For  God  so  loved  the  world,  Ibat  ho 
gave  bis  only  begotteu  Son,  that  wboso- 
ever  believetli  in  him  sbould  not  perisb, 
but  have  everlasting  life. 

{Highlandu  of 
2.  GAELIC.  Scoilaud.) 

Oir    is    ann    mar  sin   a    gbridhaich   Dia  an 

Baoghal,   gu'n   d'thug    e   'aon-ghin    Mhic  fCin, 

chum  as  ge  b'e   neach  a  chroideas  ann,   nach 

Bgriosar  e,   ach  gu'm   bi   a'bheatha  shiorruidh 

aige. 

3.  IRISH. 

Ofri  ir  ")*^  ro  ^°  sr^'^SviS  C)|«.  <m)  o6ti)<xT), 

50  6CU3  re  «•  6lt)5eii)  2Dl)cic  [peir)],  loi^ur 
5l6  be  crieibCAf  <^')  O^c  ii<xc<i6  re  <x  njus*^. 
*ct)  30  H)beic  <xj)  beca  rfomv.bo  <ii5e. 

4.  IRISH  (Roman). 
Oir  is  mar  so  do  ghrSdhuigh  Dia  an  domhau, 
go  dtug  86  a  fiinghein  Meic  fein;  ionuus  gidh  b6 
cbireideas  ann,  nach  racliadh  sC  a  raugha,  achd 
go  mbeith  an  bheatha  sliiorruidhe  aige. 

5.   MANX.  {Meofitan.i 

Son  Iheid  y  ghiaih  shen  hug  Jeo  da'n  theihll, 
dy  dug  eh  e  ynrycau  Vac  v'er  ny  gheddyn, 
nagh  jinnagh  quoi-erbeo  chrcdjagh  ayusyu 
cherraghtyn,  agh  yn  vea  ta  dj'  bragh  farraghtyn 
y  chosney. 

6.  WELSH. 
Oanys    felly    y    carotid    Duw    y    byd,    fel    y 
rhoddodd  efe  ci  uuig-ancdig  Fab,  fel  na  choUer 
pwy  bynnag  a   gredo  yuddo  ef,  ond  cafTael  o 
bono  fywyd  tragywyddol. 

7.  BRETON.  (BriKani/J 
Rag  ovel-se   eo  eu   dcus    Done   caret  ar  bed, 

ma  en  -deus  roed  o  Vab  uiiik-ganet,  evit  na 
vezo  kct  collet  pioubenag  a  grcd  eunau,  mes 
na  en  devezo  ar  vucz  ctcrnel. 

8.  FRENCH. 

Car  Dieu  a  tcllcmcut  aimC-  lo  monde,  qu'il 
a  donnC  son  Fils  unique,  afin  quo  quicoiiquo 
oroit  eu  lui  no  pCrissc  point,  mais  (lu'il  ait  la 
vie  CtcrucUc. 


9.  FRENCH    BASQUE.  (Pvrrh«nc«.) 

Jaincoac  ecen  bain  maite  i9an  du  mundua, 

nou  eman  baitu-  bere  Seme  bakharra,  amorea 

gatic  norcere  sinhostcn  baitu  hura  balthan  gal 

ez  dadin,  bainan  yan  dcfan  bctbiereco  bicia. 

10.  SPANISH. 

Porque  do  tal  manera  am6  Dies  al  mundo, 
que  haya  dado  &  su  Hijo  unigfiuito;  para  que 
todo  aquel  que  en  61  creyere,  no  se  pierda, 
inas  tenga  vida  eterua. 

11.  CATALAN.       (Eastern  Sixain.) 
Puix  Deu  ha  amat  de  tal.modo  al  mon,  ciue 

ha  donat  son  unigenit  Fill,  a  fi  de  que  tot 
bom  que  creu  en  ell  no  peresca,  ans  be  tinga 
\a  vida  eterna. 

12.  SPANISH    BASQUE. 

Alchatuco  naiz,  eta  juaugo  naiz  uere  aitagana, 
eta  csango  diot:  Aita,  pecatu  eguin  nuen  cerua- 
ren  contra,  eta  zurc  aurrean.— (XuAe  xv.  18.) 

13.  SPANISH  BASQUE  (Guipuscoan  Dialect*. 
Joaten  ceratela  bada  eman  zayozcutzute  era- 
cutsiac  jende  guciai :  batayatzen  dituzutela  Ai- 
taren,  eta  Semearen,  eta  Espiritu  santuaren 
icenean. — {Matt,  xxviii.  19.) 

14.  G  I  T  A  N  O.       (Spani»tt  Gipsiet.1 
Mangue  ardificlur(5,  y  clialarC-  al  batusch,  y  le 
penarfi:  Batu,  he  querdi  crejete  contra  o  Tarpe 
y  anglal  de  tucue. — {Luke  xv.  18.) 

15.  PORTUGUESE. 
Porque  de  tal  m.ineira  amou  Deos  ao  mundo, 
que  deo  a  seu  Filho  unigenito;  para  que  todo 
aquelle  que   nelle  cr6,   nao  perefa,  mas  tenha 
a  vida  eterna. 

16.   ICELANDIC. 
Pvi   svo   elskafii   Gao    hciminn,   ao  Lann   gai 
siun  einuctinn  Son,  til  fcss  ao  liver,  sem  &,  hann 
trtiir,  ekki  glatist,  hcldur  hafi  cilift  lif. 

17,   NORWEGIAN. 
Sl)i  fill!  Iiiiwr  ©lib  rlffct  85citcii,  at  bnn  biiwr  ^'wet 
\\n  £011  ben  rriibitiirnf,  \>act  M  nt  ftwr  bfii,  fom  Irorr 
liaa  i)cim,  iffc  fdil  fcrt^ibco,  men  fciiDc  ct  ccigt  8II). 

18.  SWEDISH. 

t\)  fa  alfdibf  ©lib  iiicrlbciui,  olt  tictn  utgof  jlii  cnbo 
Son,  |)o  bet  oil  broar  od)  en,  fom  tror  |)1  (jonom,  (fiiH 
life  forjjafl,  ulan  fj  cmiiincrligit  lif. 

19.  NORWAY-LAPPONESE   (or  Quanlan). 

Dastgo  nuft  rakl;asen  aiii  Ibmel  niailnie,  atto 
barncs  sun  addl,  dam  aiuo,  amas  juokkas,  gutte 
8u  ala  assko,  lapput,  mutto  vai  agalas  sellem 
san  azuSi. 


264 


BIBLE    CIRCULATION 


20,  LAPPONESE. 

3uttE  nau  ftfl  Submcl  mduiltcb,  <ittc  fobn  tilfofwobbi 
niiiaragatum  ^virciifbfl,  mai  fiiit  fu'tc,  julto  \(ittd  fo 
luil,  i  falfd  lappoi  ainnt  dbtjot  ffclrcn  ficincb. 

21.  RUSS    LAPP. 

TaH  ry^wK  uito  IlMMe.ib  hut  uiadaniiB 
Tail  ajbiie,  uito  luwec  Ajbre,  axTy- 
m3HTMa  aiuiil,  t3H  Bapac  iuto  lOKbaai, 
Kie  CoHiie  ciep,  iit  wafiKbaxi,  a  Jtexx 
coHHe  areeajiayui. 

22.  FINNISH. 
SiKa  niin  on  Siiiiiala  maiiiiuin  rnfaflanut,  etta  l)aa 
flHboi  (jdiirn  ainoaii  ^oirmifa,  etta  jotaincn  fiiin  uffoo 
fliincii  (jiiallciifd,  ci  pibd  Ijiitfuman,  mutta  ijanfaittifen 
elaiudn  faamaii. 

23.  DUTCH. 

Want  alzoo  lief  heeft  God  de  wereld  gehad, 
dat  hij  zijneu  eeniggeborea'  ^oon  gegeven 
heeft,  opdat  een  iegelijk,  die  in  hem  gelooft, 
niet  vei'derve,  maar  het  eeuwige  leven  hebbe. 

24.  FLEMISH. 

Want  alzoo  lief  heeft  God  de  wereld  gehad, 
dat  hij  zijnen  eeniggeboren  Zoon  gaf;  opdat 
alien,  die  in  hem  gelooven,  niet  verloren  wor- 
den,  maar  het  eeuwige  leven  hebben. 

25.  GERMAN. 

Sliro  l)(it  ©Ctt  bie  SScIt  iirlifbct,  bag  er  feincn  cinge- 
bornrii  ©o()ii  gab,  ntif  bag  Side,  bie  aa  iljn  gUiubeii, 
nid)f  rrrlorcn  mcrbcii,  fonbcni  ba8  crrigf  Scbcn  ftabcii. 

26.  GERMAN    (ITebrewl. 

DP7  /V)j;3y^bj  '0)v))  t"i  uupj  ofco  f';!)f'  ]di 

D^7  f)b    ,3PJ  ]0i'5  ]y5iP3yj5"f'  ;i5rn  ^y 

\v-iphivo  U3>)    ,]vy6i  loif'  ]p  ^"'^  ^ybif? 

.jpjf'o  ]V3v})  vvvj  \bi  ]^D7)f't  ,iy7-)yn 

27.   LITHUANIAN. 

Jalpo  Dirroa  iinjlfjo  fiuiola,  fab  faroo  tDifngimmufl 
fiiiiii  bjwf,  )eib  iviTfl  i  |i  tifti  ne  pvapultii,  bet  niiijiiior 
gijirntii  turrctu. 

28.  POLISH. 
Albowicm  tak  BOg  iimilowal  iSwiat,  ze  Syna 
swego  iednorodzonqgo  dal,  aby  kazdy,  kto  weu 
wierzy,  nio  zginal,  ale  mial  zywot  wieczny. 

29.   POLISH    {Hebrew). 

iV^^'^l  rT^""»?  tj"?  bxT  an-'N  •]s  uai-'bj  csii 


30.  WEN  DISH   (Upper).        ILusatia.) 
SPWetOj  tat  le  Sol)  toi:   Ssmiot    liibomal,   fo  loon 

fTlt>oii'()o  ifuicjfd;o  iiarobjciu'ljo  SC'l;iui  bal  jc,  fo  bl)v^u 
f(i)it3i;,  fij  bo  n\d)o  mjcria,  fijubeni  iiebl;li,  nle  Wlcrjnc 
jimciile  mieli. 

31.  WEN  DISH   (Lower).         iLusatia.) 
S5f(t)f't>    t'lf    )o   SoI)(]    tfii    ffroft    lubottial,   nj    mon 

Ificojogo  jabnoporojotifgo  ffi)iiiia  bal  lo,  flbii  f(i)i;fnt 
bo  Viogo  tfcrcjf,  fgiiboiie  iifbiili,  ale  to  iiimcrne  jinufht 
incll. 

32.  BOHEMIAN. 

Slebo  tar  Sni)  niilomal  fmrt,  k  ei;na  froc^o  gebno- 
rojenr^o  bal,  ab\)  ta'm.  fbo3  h)c'r)  rc  nrfjo,  ncjabljnul, 
nle  met  jiroot  iriecin;. 

33.  HUNGARIAN. 
Mert  flgy  szerete  Isten  e'  vilagot,  hogy  az  6 
egyetlenegy  sziilbtt  Fijat  adna,  hogy  minden, 
valaki  hiszeu  6  benne,  el  ne  vesszen,   hanem 
or  k  61etet  vegyen. 

(TT'emfs  in 
34.   HUNGARIAN-WENDISH.    Hungary.) 

Ar  je  tak  liibo  Bog  ete  szvet,  da  je  Szina  szvo- 

jega  jedinorodjenoga  dao,  da  vszaki,  ki  vu  nyem 

verje,  sze  nt  szkvari,  nego  ma  'zitek  vekivecsni. 

35.  SLOVENIAN. 
Kajti    tako   je    Bog    ijubil    svet,   da   je    sina 
svojega  edinorojenega  dal,  da  kdorkoli  veruje 
va-nj,  ne  pogine,  nego  da  ima  vecno  '^ivljenje. 

36.  LATIN. 
Sic  enim  Deus  dilexit  mundum,  ut   Filium 
suum  unigenitum   daret,    ut    omuis  qui   credit 
in  eum  non  pereat,  sed  liabeat  vitam  eternam. 

37.  ITALIAN. 

Perciocche  Iddio  ha  tanto  am;ito  il  mondo, 
ch'egli  ha  dato  il  suo  unigenito  Figliuolo, 
acciocche  chiunque  crede  in  lui  uon  perisca, 
ma  abbia  vita  eterua. 

38.  ROMANESE   (Oberland).    (Sii-Uzerland.) 

Parchei  Deus  ha  teuiu  il  mund  asclii  car,  ca  el 

hadausiu  parsulnascliiu  figl,parcascadiu,cacrei 

en  cl,  vomi  buc  a  perder,  nio  hagi  la  vita  perpetna. 

39.  ROMANESE  (Enghadine).    (SwiUcrlatid.) 

Perchc  cliia  Duis  ha  taunt  ami  '1  muond,  ch'el 

ha  dat  seis  uuigenit  Filg,  acio  chia  scodiin  chi 

craja  in  el  nun  giaja  :1  perder,  mo  haja  vita  cterna. 

40.  PIEDMONTESE. 
Perchc   Iddiou  a   1   ha  voulsii    tuntou   bea  al 
mound,  ch'a  1  ha  dait  so  Fieul  unic,  per  che 
chiounqcc  a   i   presta   fcdo   a  pcrissa   ncn,  ma 
ch'a  1  abbia  la  vita  cterna. 


BIBLE    CIRCULATION 


265 


(Waidenfce, 

41.  VAUDOIS.  N.  Italy.) 

Perqu6  Diou  ha  tant  vourgu  bdn  ar  mount,  qu'a 
1  ha  douni  so  Fill  unic,  per/jue  quiounquS  cr6  en 
L-1  perissG  pa,  mi  qu'a  1  abbia  la  vita  eternella. 

42.  MALTESE. 

Ghaliex  Alia  hecca  hab  id  dinia  ilLi  ta  I'Iben 
tighu  unigeuitu,  sabiex  collmia  jemmen  bih 
xna  jiatilifx,  izda  icoUu  il  haja  ta  dejem. 

43.  GREEK   (Ancient). 

OiTTQ)  yap  rrydvijaev  6   ©eo?  rov  Kocrnov, 

cuare  tov  v'lov  avroO  rov  iMtvoyevi)  eScoKev,  iva 
■7ra<:  6  Tria-TevQjv  et?  avTov  fif]  airoXrjTai,  aXX 

44.  CREEK   (Moderni. 

AtoTi   Toaov  TjyaTrrjaev  6  ©eo?  Toi/  Koafiov, 
Ci(rre  eScu/ce  rov  Tlov  avrou  tov  fiovoyevrj,  Bia 
va  /i7  aTToXeadfj   -n-d^  o  TriaTevcov  et?  avrov 
aWa  va  eyrj  ^oirjv  alcoviov, 

45.  CREEK   (Modern)   (Roman). 
Sicothis  thelo  ipaghi  pros  ton  patera  mu,  ke 
thelo  jpi  pros  afton,  Pater,  imarton  is  ton  ura- 
non'ke  enopioa  aa.—{Luke  xv.  18.) 

46.  ALBANIAN   (Cheg). 

SepsS  Percndia  kaUi  o  dciti  botcnc,  ea  8a 
Blrin'  e  vet,  vetem-reinine,  per  mos  me  uvdieie 
pee-ku9  t'i  besoye,  por  te  kcte  yete  tc  pa- 
€Oscme. 

47.  ALBANIAN   (Tog!;*. 

Xe  ifre  IlepvTia  kukc  e  Bsai,  TroVei/e,  act 
ie  S/x  re  "jripp  erly  re  fieTefj.ive,  ke  T^iXi 
00  ke  Te  -ireacye  vre  at  rl  p.o';  •)(ovpLird<Te, 
TTo  Te  kiTf  yeTCv'  i  ira  croirovpe. 


^ 


48.  TURKISH   Urabic). 


lS'^j^    j 


ji 


y- 


4U^ 


^^    V.) 


49.  TURKISH   iCycck). 
Zlpa  'AWa)(^  Tiiv^/iaytr}  ttov  Karap  ae^ri 
Ki,  Kevirl  TTtpiT^iK  'OyXovvoi/  ^epil,  juki  ■yep 
ova,  ivavav,  ^al  bXaayia,  IWa    iireTi  yalaTO, 
Ha\\K  6\d. 


50.  TURKISH   (^rmenfan). 

OIU4     ■ 

{Spanish  Jcvat 

51.  SPANISH    Ulebreu).        in  Turkey.) 

ivi  owf^  njip  b^p  0?  VI  b'p  ipf'  ^DJf'  ^piiD 

iDanuIiian 

52.  RODMAN    (fioninio.  Piov.) 

Caci  asa  a  iubit  Uumiiedeu  lumea,  incat  a  dat 
pre  Fiiul  seu  eel  unul-uascut,  ca  tot  eel  ce  crede 
in  el  si  nu  se  pierde,  ci  si  aiba  vieta  eteraa. 

03.   R  O  U  M  A  N    (CiirU  character). 
Kill  Bioa  B  isBiT  Di;mnczob  j(7;tDca,  V%  a  dar  ne  9iisj 
eil^  lej  vn7s.ini>ckvT,  ka  tot  ^ca  ^o  kpado  .fa   ejt  c-k  ns 
neap^,  si  ct  y.tn,  BiiaQi.  BeHoikv 

54.  RUTHENIAN.       (Little  RueaUt.) 

SCTABUIH    \K\i\S  AO    ^TMA    A\(?IErO,    I 

?KA/KS  iEA\f5:  Otme,  3rpiiuiiB  iea\  npcxiK 

IIEEA  (   nEpE,\  TCROE.-iLuke  xv.  18.) 
55.  SERVIAN. 

Jep  Bory  lano  omii.t.c  cBiijer  4a  je  h 
cuna  CBOJera  je4iiiiopo4iiora  4ao,  4a  mi 
je4an  KOJH  ra  cjepyjo  no  norime,  Hero 

4a  HMa  HCHBOT  BJemiH. 

• 

56.  CROATIAN. 

Jer  Bogu  take  omiljo  svijet  da  je  i  sina 
svojega  jediuorodnoga  dao,  da  ni  jedan  koji 
ga  vjeruje  ne  poglne,  nego  da  ima  zivot  vjecni. 

57.  BULGARIAN. 

3amoTO  Kori  T0.iK03b  bt>:i.iio6ii  CBtn- 
TB,  moTO  4340  Cbiiia  cBOcro  e4nnopo4na- 
ro,  aa  4a  iie  noruiie  BcaKofl  kojIto  Btpy- 
Ba  Bi  uero,  no  4a  luia  H.-nBOT'&  Bticn's. 

58.  SLAVONIC. 

Takw  ko  B03AioKn  Erx  A\ipx,  rkw 
il  Cha  CKOErc  g,\iiMop6AHAro  \L\z  gcxh, 

,\A  BCAK^  B'l^pSAM   BZ  Cllh,  IIE    norHK- 
USTZ,  HO  PAnTh  ntllB<}TZ  B'kMIIWM. 


266 


BIBLE    CIRCULATION 


59.  RUSSIAN. 
H60    TaKl   B03JI06HJ1    Bovh   Mipl,    MTO 

OTAaxb  Cuna  cBoero  eAUHopo^Haro,  4a6bi 
BcaKiti,  Btpyiomifi  b^  Hero,  iie  noriiSi,  no 
lijitji  /Kiisiib  Btmiyio. 


60.  ESTHONIAN   (Reva!).       (Russia.) 

Scfl    nenbn    en    Siimnwl    mn-ilmn    arninflflniib,   ct 

temmci   omnia  nino   fuiitinnB  %^o\d  on  annuD,  ct  ufffi, 

rt6  teuinin  flffe  upb,  ci  \>ca  I)utfa  fania,  rcaib,  ct  igga- 

wmne  ello  tcmmnl  pcab  cllema. 


61.  ESTHONIAN   (Dorpat). 
©cfl   nibn    Din    SnnimnI    fcbba   ilma    nrmoflanu,   ct 
tcmma  ommn   nino   fiinbinn  sfoiga    om  nnbnu,  ct  fit, 
:ta  tcmnui  psfe  nffron,  fjutta  ci  fa,  cnge  iggiitocll  cllo 
\cLna.  ' 

62.  LETTISH.  a.ivonia.) 
Un   tif   loljti   Ucfwa   to    pafaull  niir)Icii8,   fn   iDinfd) 

firen  ijnfdju  hJcnnpfL-bmimui'cbn  Scljlu  irr  brftie,  fa 
iBifTccm  teem,  taS  tiji  ccfW)  njinna  ne  bul)6  pafoftccS, 
bet  to  mu()fd)igu  bril;reofel)anu  babbul)t. 

63.  KARELIAN.  (Finland.; 

HiilH-B  ana  Bajryoci  uiiiiHi  Bajrie 
HnerMH3ieni  ieuiiua,  ro  aHa  naxiuaHcb 
mmiT,  riOBaiiii  asieiui. :  ii  KitiuitimuaHcb 
uiThh'l  Tyuiiiuiyo,  KyjiCane  ohi  urafiBara- 

UlUia.— (3/a«.  V.  16.J 

(Finns  dbont 
64.  Z IRIAN,  or  Siryenian.        Vologda.) 

Cbl(\3H  MEj\X  WrZAAACX  TIAHX  WPhl- 

AX  MOpTZACX  R0A3""Z,    ME^X   AAS-'^CHbl 

llAHAhlCU     KSPX    KEpOMXACZ,    H  OUJKA- 

CHhl     UaTECX     TIAHAblCh,    KO^W     HEKE- 

CAACX  BWAhlH'A.-{j1/a«.  v.  16.) 


65.  SAMOGITIAN.  IWUna.) 

9ltfrt  fnipo  DicioaO  nninilfio  froielo.  |og  Sunu  faiBO 
mlcn{|lmun  botoc:  ibant  ticfipicnaS,  rur»  Ing  |i  tit,  nc 
brajuin,  bet  turctii  ain.(ina  Qiroata. 


66.  MORDVIN. 
CeKCi  licuiH  BeHi;ii3e  [last  MacuiopoHb 
9pHuaui'&,  mbkCb  Mai;cbi3e  UH)paH30  coHse 
CKaMOHi  uia'imyMaHb,  iuiUoObi  apboa  KeMima 
janro3oii30  aBojb  ioMa,  ho  yjesejb  nim- 
rcHb  spaMoco. 

fFfnns  oirtfte 
67.  TCHEREMISSIAN.  Volga.) 

TeHbr^  apaiii3HT)  K)jia  caH^ajiiKajii, 
luiu^  liKi  uiK^  spraacaMi  nyiui,  caKafl 
HHaHbiiia  uibMa.iaHi  litrace-HMi,  a  rijeace 
Bapa  MyMaui43Ma  Kypyjii  siyiKa. 


68.  TCHUWASH. 

.A         r 


(Folaa.) 

Cflnja  i6pa4pe  Topa  94eMa,  uito  fiapsi 
xy  ;^Bbune  nepb  cibpa/iiibiHe,  iutoSu  nopt 
HHanarrflHb  OHd  aiii  nib4Tapx,  a  ocp^japi 
i^iopbrH  fi^'pnaaa. 

69.  WOT  J  A  K.  (W.  Siberia.) 

OsH  NeAT>  nnuiToai  roruTi-Tbi  xiuSt^i. 
a4aMnidcia3fiHi,     cooci     Me4i     a43i63U 

436ltb  y5K43Cl  THJfl4'b,  Cfi-HO  111641  ci6T03U 
AhJUj  Ky4bI3I  mil,  BbUUH'b.—iMaU.  v.  16.) 

70.  WOGUL.      (l/ral  Jlfoun(<iin«.) 

Tii-cayBT  TopiiM  epeniiicTa  Mepjia  cio 
eje-Miicia  aKyrejiiM  nyBia,  iicio  cokiih- 
Kap,  KOH  arna  xaBC,  ai  nw  kojhh,  a  iinpa 

.IHJMa  KOHTIIXa. 

71.  ORENBURG,  or  Kirghise  Tartar. 

■  Vj.  J.V  i^iji  Jii  Wj.  cf^  UiUii  tT|J^  J 

72.  OSSETINIAN.  (Cnucasu*.) 

I|iBMODj,<iDpi/T!op  Xfn^y  a»TCD  Gayapcia  Aynei,  iemsb 
Jib  jyn(crrj?p,(  <I)vpT^v;(a)p  pa,(ia  5'MiDn,  niDU!cj  Vj  jiej 
ypna,  yj  ua  ♦ccawa,  ♦cb^id  ia  Ja  mnj-con  nap,t. 

73.  HEBREW. 

•  lax''  xb  13  y"js;-jn-bD  -jy  ub  •  '^^-,^^  idi 
.  nb  Tn-'  Dbi?  ''■'n-D><  "3 


BIBLE    CIRCULATION 


267 


74.  ARMENIAN    (Anci'enf. 
S^      ujJUufl^u      ujipliiuij      Yju^ 

iJ-PU  Pi~P  tfniuh'Klt  Lin  .  nfi  luJb^ 
UuiiU  nn  <fUii-UJiniui -^ h  ^ui^  tifi' 
^"rgh)  tuji^  fhiliiuigji  tiJibufUuU 
jiuLhinlihiuLujUu  . 


75.  ARMENIAN  (Modern'. 
]-».l>*#7i.  nn  \^^uinnLiu6-  ufliuflsL 
u^ipbij  ui^luiup'^n  JJ^iIi^Il.  nn  hn 
J^iuhrjiU  Wpift^  uinnuL.  .  np 
ujJl^U  rill  np  uhinp  ^lULurtnuii^ 
^linpunLh  ^  ^uju^uj  itUL/tinL'Lui^ 
Ltutt     Lb  lull p     nLlilsUuij  ; 


76.  ARMENIAN   (Ararat'. 

JftlitU.      mm       ftputit       J^uihtitt       Wplf*^       vtMLMt.  •       np       uii/i.'U       i%tf_ 


77.  CEORCIAN. 


79.  AZERBIJAN. 


m^d'iocim  '^Ix^ncn 


0'iQn(AOT](5m5  md'^moo- 


36b  um-o5'imo    nua,    ■lOontJmd'iro   0']r{>^ 
cnrut^    ODcD-^mnn-pi  om-onmin    on>|br|»5 


n>. 


M^*/i 


78.  KOORDISH. 


^nLiuiuUin  mpUl;^  ^lufDui  no 
H;^ipu  *|x/»f  rt_i^  ^Mo  f/iu/,  ^(^/»  '>^/» 
^p  ^o  (f  lifLiu  LiTiuU  uiltliiu  ilnL^ 
Utnui  'hui  luiiiy  il^  J p  l^uil^mh 
^uJjtupriLiu  iTuiilin  uiputiii . 


^jo\  L^\  'dj^  ^J^  ^;^jj^  ^U^} 

.a\_j\  jiil.  ajU* 

80.  TURKISH  TAR  FAR,  or  Karass.  tAi,t>akhan. 
^■j,  iTt  ^jj^j  ^^y  el*^  jiJ  iCj^  A^  i^Uj  4)1  l^j 

•  V  lA"-*  (f^>  **'  ''Jy  «'**  "j^Wi  iTi 

8'.  ARABIC. 


cu«  ^^'^^^ 


(JcM's  <n  Si/Ho, 
82.  ARABIC  (llebrewi.        Yemen,  dc.) 

■sna    Tin  obs^bs  -nbbs  an""    st'^sn  n:sB 

nn    pi-'   •jt:  bs    -ibni  sb-isb  -mibs    n:at{ 

nasbs  ntfn  nb  pai  ba 

83.  ARABIC   (Carshun).  (.V<8opo(ani(a,ttcJ 

-K^  ^Ali*:^  eO^  .=L^1  ]^„ 

84.  SYR  I  AC  (Ancient). 

85.  SYRIAC   (Modern'. 


268 


BIBLE    CIRCULATION 

86.  PERSIAN. 


h!^  ^;^  '-'■^-  '^jr' 


'j^.-;^  / 


;;,^    0U\  ;   J^. 


87.   PERSIAN    (Hcbreio).    (Jcu-s  in  Persia,} 

nicxi   noil  SI  ]s™    mp  -js  snb  ra  s-\-''i 
isbn  nms  ■jsia-'S    nx  -a    ns  od   in  xn 

88.  PUSHTOO,  or  Afghan. 
^f    sjkjk,     C^j^-^     ^'V;j^    CJ"\J^  A?  jAp- 
«^  tijj    tijJi    \J^    ay,   J^i-  «i4>  &».  2i 

89.  SANSKRIT. 
90,  URDU,  or  Hindustani    (Arabic). 


91.    URDU    (I'ernan). 


(/^!  u^^-y-^^  -^  ij»r 


'h 


92.  URDU    (Roman). 
Kytiijki  Khudft  ue  jahSn  ko  aisa  piySr  kiyS 
hai,  ki  us  iie  apnft  iklauta.  Beta  bakhsha,  taki 
jo  kof  us  par  Imin  lawe,  haWk  na  howe  balki 
hamesha  kf  zindagi  piwe. 

93.  BENGALI. 

RTort  ^sT  ^"Jirra  afs  la'STs  ijst^'  ?f3r=^,  n  '^ttW 

94.   BENGALI    ifioman). 
Kenana   Isliwar    jagater    prati     eruan    dayfi 
karilcn,  je   ai):uiar   ndwitJya    I'utrake    pradan 
karileii ;    tuliatc    tanhar,  bishwaskari    pratyek 
jan  uaslita  \\&.  haiya  auanta  paramayu  paibe. 

95.  MUSSULMAN-BENGALI. 

5m  ff  .ifl  jfJnmt  ^5^:11:  -^tfl-fi  c^^  ^fe^ra,  01  fsft 

^1»tlU  fl^fpftvil  iTOtt^  T*f^  ?f^;R,  Hflfl  iTl  CTtt 

1^  »t5lii  fe'ira  ^^  ^3rte  ::t  ^tKl^  ;rl  ^^11)  ?5i7^ 

96.  S  A  NT  ALL  (BcnoaM 

Nonka  bare  Ape  hen  horko  samdngre  marsdl 

gnel  oclioitdpc  jemon  uiiko  hon  apca^  bugi  kAmi 

gnelkdte  dporen  scrinAren  ja:n4rui:  ko  sarhaue. — 

{Malt.  V.  16.) 

97.  M  O  N  D  A  R  I.  iNViapo; c.) 

f^^ftj  iRTOtT   5l^  ^<liT  WTTR  ^  ^5]^  «^  ^Tin 
wtir  U-v\  'SuT  wx»n  ^m  S^jit  11  (.Marl  iU.  35.) 

98.  LEPCHA. 

^3  rO)    (^  AO   f^  /Qj  if)  (=^  .^J  ^$1 

u  (fo^  (0 1  ^3 .%  J''  10  ^3  /D  ^  a 

99.  ORISSA. 
100.  HINDI,  or  Hindui. 

^qff^  t^^  nicT^T  ^m  ^T  f^-qr 
|m  tRT^  -^-^-^  -sX^-^  tn%  I 

101.  h.NDI   (Kaithi'. 
psgiKT  Tn  ^1^1  '^  sit  ii^  T»  in  "rtTnia  gi^  ?» 

IPS  jt  ilij  'i-iW  <a51cT  wV.<i-w^  I 


BIBLE    ('  1  K  (■  r  L  ATI  ON 


269 


102.  SINDHI    (Arabic).   (Wes'.ern India.) 

^j  ^^L.  _5>\,  i^oW  ^^-^  '■>  J^^ 


>      »      I    c- 


-  ^         M'  '\         -  d--    ^=  ^=  ... 

103.  SINDHI    (Our«mu;(*(). 
104.  MOULTAN,  or  Wuch,  or  Ooch. 

•iV2Tf   C'^i^.r*    -h^oztf^    WS   ^<>MW>:^3^(T    •rf&>.'% 

105.  PUNJABI,  or  Sikh. 

fva^r^T  Yi  fr3T;  Tt  -rarac  -^  -^^ 

106.  GONDI.  (Central  India.) 

wrr^  n^  Tsrn  wr^^rtrr  «r%  ^t^  »Tr^  xrf  ^5" 
f»  'firif  »rhn  w^i  TtTH'!  ?^j^  «rl*c  wAnibI  <Krai 

(il/a«.  V.  16.) 


107.  NEPALESE,  or  Parbutti. 
WITT  t'TT^  sfHii^T?  ^wi  h^\h  rrm  f*  th^  «i'^ 


108.  TELUCU. 


(S.  E.  Ir\dia.) 


109.  CANARESE.  (Mysore.) 

'&t^S  vsaiif  o^etf3i5.j^  oiu^  15)^3  ;?jtiQ 


no.  SINGHALESE.  (Ceu'c-.. 

GCC39  0<r)5o  eTjrjDS  uc,i3os  oSXr^o  cOtT) 
3<r>c3  0(j8c5<&>uri<y?sd  <nS>aSHs5#fedscsJ  do 
cJ3«>gq)ciD  Q^Se^  0C393  c505)<D  «sxJ'o^d  oe 


111.  PALI. 


ODOpoODCDSOD 


o-  -"~3"-'co 


?0 


o8s: 


ODGO     robsOGDDOO:) 


33^^(^^0^003005   Gacol    ODGOOODQOOD 


VS   ^^^    CCODODCOQ^ODGOGOoS  n 


"-W 


112.  TAMIL. 

e^fiUOT.  giL/jp3!ni_uj  e^Gu<^u^rysar  (3)\nnu3aat 

iiuiq.s@,    ajGucron^    ^[3^(350^,    ©djcusir 
113.  DA  KHAN  I,  or  Madras  Hindustani. 

tOen.  i.  14.)      •  ^_^_^.^  c^tj  S  ur-jf  jV  ^y^  ^j' 

114.  MALAYALAM.       (Tramncore.) 

rosea)    0^(2)6100,    cs^cunolrci)    CiJ\<Ji^oc\S\:60.crr, 

runrt)      6i(!a(iJ»WfYt)o       C003l^61(lJDdBi5e>f51,       rol^ 
■115.  TULU.       (W.ofiheMumre.) 

6tr3-°e'^Xoooo2?5  ai?^:6o-^. 

116.   M  A  R  A  T  H  I.      (TTcstcni  ;ii(l(a.) 

^frn:  ^^^  WrmX  TT^   W^ffT^'V 

^TOT^V    ^*   ^   ^t^t   ^RT:  f^'^H 
^f^cfr  ^"^  ^''T  fT^  ^^.  cTC^^T^ 


J70  BIBLE    CIRCULATION 

117.  MA  RAT  HI   Wodi). 


125.  BURMAN. 


"i^Gi?  H^, 


'i\J  iMW  UivJWcb^'  'VlW  •=tN. 


118.  GUJERATI. 

iHi  "U  e/oi^  m:*.  ^nfl  M.1Pt   TsHl,  ,s 

119.  PARSl-GUJERATI. 

"i    n<ai    Hlninl    ^^tbiiVnln   'nil    =n 

s^nSU  i-lA  rl  \i4ili  <  2ll=n.  -Hqi'isvl 5.114 

^^^     ... (CoZnniA*!  in 

120.  INDO-PORTUGUESE..  V  Cci/to..) 

Parqui  assi  Deos  ja  ania  o  mundo,  qui  elle 

ja  da-8ua  e6  gerado  Filho,  qui  quemseja  lo  erC 

ne  ellemadft  ser  perdido  senao  qui  lo  acha  vida 

eterno. 

121.  ASSAMESE. 

al3  £tir?  Pfi^  <i\s  a^  ^rt  wt^r?  ^fpt^  ^fcr  i 

122.   KH'ASSI.  (EasUru  Indta.) 

Naba  kumta  U  Blel  u  la  tcit  i,i  ka  pyrtlie!, 
katba  u  la  aitf-noh  ia  la  U  KhCin  ia  u  ba-la- 
khfi-ma'"wei,  b%_uei-uei-ruh  u  bangeit  ha  u,  u'n 
'nu'm  jot  sbuh,  hinrei  u'n  ioh  ka  jingim 
b'ymjiukut. 

123.  SIAMESE. 

ilirmu  t fij mim w w.m,  m m mr\'\nm tiHu vm 
uu, v. ijln numu,  iin i: fj 'lin: c!J 'h ]liuf\{. 


124.  PEGUESE. 


(Dunnahj 


DGC|  CO60CO  S  9$3  °  '^^'  ^^^  OCXX)  5  OOdS 
PC  CTjOOD  I  OOGODC  poo  ODCX3C  GC)30D  60I 

o,cSi 


V^^OD, 


(BurmoJi,^ 


126.  KAREN. 

01C01230      5bDT^5ooi^i       oonicofco-T 

OQcSicSScSl. 


157.  BGHAI-KAREN. 

^''  -.NC^v.  0\r\r 


^^f: 


cos  OJ 


corj^,  cos  cos  OD§ODJio55coScoo; 

128.  SGAU-KAREN. 

GDDD^o  5s8sooDG^o55oos§sa^s5T.c^.  §so 

63^5aa"fl0S5"o0g§Sof.  §S2sS^1cQ?5^SOS^! 
^"  (1  J'oA/i  1.  3.) 


129.  PWO-KAREN. 


roScOOC,  8bQOOJ5aJKiCt)5j2Sw'lffSjO-)COO«g 


(Oai.  V.  1.) 


Sji 


o 


ffSKj)D'\5J3De, 


(Jl/b».  V.  16.) 


BIBLE    CIRCULATION 


271 


130.  TIBETAN. 

\3\.  MALAY. 

viJ»jJU   a\%    ^\*i   ^J\   'i^  ^"i   J^  ^J  h- 

132.  MALAY  Oioman). 
E&rna  dtlmkiahlah  halnya  Allah  tiilah  mupg* 
eihi  orang  isi  dunia  ini,  sahingga  dikurniakannyB 
Analnya  yang  tunggal  itu,  supaya  barang  siapa 
yang  purchaya  akan  dia  tiada  iya  akaa  binasa, 
mfilainkan  mQndapat  hidop  yang  kukaL 

133.  LOW  MALAY,  or  Soerabayanr  CBotarfci.) 
Kama  sabagitoe  sangat  Allah  soedah  menga- 
Behi  isi  docnia,  sahingga  ija  soedah  membri 
Anakuja  lalii-lnki  jang  toenggal,  soepaja  sasa- 
orang  jang  pertjtija  ulcan  dia,  djangan  binasa, 
banja  beroleh  kabidoepan  kakal. 

134.   DAJAK.  (Borneo.) 

Krana  kalotii  kapnlnmi  llatalla  djari  sinta 
kaluncn,  carapei  iii  djari  raenenga  Anake  idja 
tonggal,  nakara  gene-gencp  olo,  idj'ii  pertjaja 
huang  ia,  ala  biuasa,  baja  mina  pambslom 
awang  katatalii. 

135.  JAVANESE. 

wcji^ru)»]onn3i]Jnimi}^ifitiiT,iKiuiaS!inia» 

«i»fli>  «iarfiJw»Jinaijffl«](iiTi3»]iiqijnEaTia»Ji 
(KijnjqniunjinniCTiKiv  (kjiunAJM-rjui^miiJijiKfi 
(y  uji  axj  Einn  oiin.]  (nq  tiuJijiiajnjTiiuiiinJMHaruj 


136.  B  A  L  I  N  E  S  E.  {Dutch  E.  Indies.) 
Mapan  keto  pitrestiuu  lliJa  sanghyaug  Widl 
tkeu  dJagaU-  makedjang,  tka  Hida  nedoenang 
hokan6  nC  sanoenggal  kaboetoes  mahi,  kna 
Cilang  banake  ne  ngandelang  hi  hoka  boe- 
hoeng  naraka,  nangiug  kua  bya  uepoekin 
kahidoepan   tan   pegat. 


137.  SUNDANESE. 
Ajeuna  niah  dek  indit  ngadeuheuaan  ka  bapa, 
sarta  rek  oendjoekan  kijeu  :  Noen  aina,  simkoe- 
ring  geus  tarima  migawe  dosa  ka  sawarga  sarfing 
di  pajoeneum  ama.— (iuAe  xv.  18.) 

138.   N  I  A  S<    (Island  near  Sumatra.t 

Ando   wa  law4'o   ira    tna'afefu:    Ya'ugo    hulo 

da   sogi  O'no   LOwalaui?     Ba  raaiiua'd  la  hora 

ando:    lami   ande  manua'o,  mS  la'odo  ande  so 

la  ando. — (^Luke  xxii.  70.) 


139.  BATTA  (Toba). 


(Sumatra.} 


•      "^^    ■^•<   *'^"B77\"^   -»    ttr-K''<^'W  -^  o  <r*  79 -» .»  \ 

140.  BATTA  (Mandaheling). 

"tt      -»-»-<.^      '-r^b\'^x      <=ae^v*^       '^      "^  ^^ 


141-144.  CHINESE. 


141.  Classical. 

f  It, 

4Ji 


142.  Mandarin, 

in   ^ 


143.   Foochow 
(Colloquial). 


S     ^ 

^o         ^ 


272 


BIBLE    CIRCULATION 


144.  NINGPO  (Colloquial)  (Romanj. 
Ing-we  Jing-ming  se-sih  shii-keen-zong  tao 
ka-go  din-di,  we  s-16h  Gyi-zi-go  doh-yiang 
ng-ts,  8-teh  vcen-pah  siang-sing  Qyi  cii-kwu 
feh-we  mih-diao,  tu  hao  teh-djoh  uong-yun 
weh-ming. 


145,  Swatow 
;Colloquial) 


^ 
^ 

m. 


145-148.  CHINESE 

146.  Shanghai 

(Colloquial). 

A.  S  E^ 
U  ^  ^^ 

B  M  m 
pi  m  a 
m  ^"  m 


o  i 


y'^  B.  ± 

It  lg. 

5a  m 

^  m 


147.  Soochow 
(Colloquial). 


2  ^ 


149-152.  CHINESE. 
149.  NANKING   (Colloqi.     il50.  CA  N  TO  N  (Colloq). 


^  # 

^  |p  ± 

ii:  ^ 

m  ^  ^ 

A  ^ 

m  ^.  n 

i&H  n^ 

M  n  m 

itCo  /|^ 

^  m  ^ 

^. 

^»  •©  6^j 

± 

pt  /la  ^ 

'?fj- 

^  ^^  "f. 

^* 

n  A  m 

m   tiS    !2) 
± 


-a.  "^  n 


X  M  m 

n  fi  ± 

^  i$  Z 

^^  m 


•tr 


c? 


it 


148.   AMOY  (Colloquial)   (Roman). 
Siong-te  chiong  t6k-si°  6  Kia°  siu°  su  se-kan, 
ho  siu  i  6   lang  Ti)   sai  tim-lfin  oS  tit-tioh  eng- 
o.ah ;   I  thia°  se-kaa  S  l^ng  kau  ^n-ni. 

151.  SHANQHAI   (Colloquial)   CRoman). 
Iung-wa3'  Ziiug  juk  jb'  s'-ka  long'  kuk  niung 
lau,  soong'  pa;li  ye  kuk  dok  'ya"S  Nie-'ts,  e' 
fell   kiu   sa'   niung,   siang-sing'   ye   mseh,   fseli 
mih-t'seh  lau,  tuk-dzak  'ioong-'yb"  wseh  la'. 

152.  SWATOW   (Colloquial)   (Roman). 
Ua  ai"   klii-siii   lui-khii   ua-pu--li6,  kiiiig  i  ta", 
Pe  a,  u4  tit-tsue-tieh  thi°  kua  to  li'i  raln-ts6!°. — 
{Luke  XV.  18.)  ' 

153-154.  CHINESE. 
153.  HAKKA    (Colloquial)    (Roman). 
Thai  -fam-'  yu_  sin-khu',  khai_   tshun -tain^  kaS" 
iiyin^  hau'  loi^  tshyu^  nai-j,  nai^  pin_  ni^  pliin^-on  . 
—{Malt.  xi.  28.) 

154.  CANTON   (Colloquial)   (Rmion). 
JVo'  isnuh^fan^  hu'  to'  ho'  lo'  tau-  ko"  su\  tui 
khu'-  loa-  :  a'  pa,  ho'   iak^  Isui-    thin,  kun-  a 
pa,  ni'. — {Luke  xv.  18.) 

155,  CALMUC,  or  Western  Mongolian. 

i 


BIBLE    CIRCULATION 


273 


I 


5?' 


^ 


iU 


^ 


107.  MONGOLIAN  Literary 


158.  MONGOLIAN 
'  (Colloquial). 


(See  160,  161,  ((1()1  on  lolloping  page.) 


159.  MONGOLIAN  iBuria'. 
Colloquial). 

^  'i 


162.  J/.PANESE  (Roman). 
Sore,  Kami  no  wsken  wo  itsukushimi-tamaii 
koto  wa,  subcte  karc  wo  shindznrii  mono  wa 
borobidzu  shilc,  kagiri  naki  inochi  wo  ukoii 
tame  ni,  §ono  Litori  uraareshi  ko  wo  tamaycni 
dodo  nari. 


163.  MALAGASY,       madagaacar.) 

Fa    Izany    no    iiitiavan'  Anclriamanitra   izao 

tontolo  izao,  fa  nomeny  ny  Zanani^ahi-tokana, 

niba   tsy  Iio   very    izay    rehetra   luino   Azy,    fa 

hahazu  flalnana  mandrakizay. 

164.  NARRINYERI,        UuMralia.i 

Lun  ellin  Jehovah  ;ui  ixirnuii  an  Narriiiyeri  : 

penipir  ilo  ityan  Uinauwc  Brauwaratc,  ungunuk 

\;orn  wurruwar.-in   ityan,  nowaiy  cl  ityc  moru 

iiuJlanjjk,  tumbcwarriu  itye  kaldowahm. 


I  165.  MAORI.  {Xew Zealand.) 

Na,  koia  ano  to  arolia  o  to  Atua  ki  to  ao, 
homai  ana  o  ia  tana  Taniaiti  ko  tahi,  kia  kahore 
ai  e  mate  tc  tangata  e  whakapono  ana  ki  a  ia, 
cngari  kia  wliiwlii  ai  ki  te  oranga  touutanga. 

166.  NENGONE,  or  Mare.  iLoyally  lata.) 
Wen'  o  ro  naoni  Makaze  hna  ratou'  o  re  ten'o 
re  aw,  ca  ilo  nuboncngo  mo  nunuone  te  o  re  Tei 
uubonengo  sa  so,  tim  doko  di  ma  tango  ko  ro 
ngorao  me  sa  ci  uno  du  uubou,  roi  di  nuboue  co 
numu  o  ro  warama  tha  thu  aae  ko. 

167.  LIFU. 
Hna  tuno  la  huimi  Cahazo  kowe  la  fene 
hnengbdrai,  mato  nyidati  a  liamane  la  Nekb  i 
nyidati  ka  cast,  mate  tha  tro  lid  a  moci  la  kete  i 
angcto  lapaune  koi  nyida,  ngo  tro  ha  hetenyl  la 
mole  ka  tha  asc  pallia  ko. 


274 

BIBLE 

CIR 

* 

161.  CHI  NO- 

"161, 

160.  JAPANESE. 

CHINO- 

JAPANESE. 

COREAN 

t  m 

>?. 

^ 

e>  ^ 

3. 

5 

.©, 

^. 

Al> 

A.     S 

ffi* 

n 

2: 

If 

^v 

;i>'    Ml 

O 

lii*^^ 

*, 

)?w' 

A? 

>"> 

=a: 

ii:. 

^ 

S-     til 

§r 

5 

m' 

'S'*' 

^a*^ 

i?    s 

^l 

0 

M, 

.^: 

^ 

L 

L 

^'^ 

m 

.J^. 

^, 

£ 

*0? 

:^t 

.». 

■^ 

m 

->. 

s 

p 

s 

^ 
z 

iH^ 

dfeS 

a: 

JtfoU.v.3. 

US? 

^ 

,<*: 

168.  lAIAN. 

Helang  ibetengia  anjnn  Klioiig  ka  ang  mele- 
ilran,  e  ame  ham  Nokon  a  kliaca  thibi,  me  tne 
c'a  he  ka  mok  ke  at  ame  labageju  kau,  kame  he 
ka  hu  moat  ame  ca  ba  balua. 


169.  AN  E  IT  YUM.      (JVew  Hebrides.) 

Is  um  ucce  naiheuc  vai  iji  pece  asega  o  Atua 

is  abrai  Inhal  o  un  is  eti  ache  aien,  va  eri  eti 

cmesmaa  a  ilpu  atimi  asgeig  iran  asega,  jam  leh 

nitai  umoh  iran  ineig  inyi  ti  leo  ti. 

170.  EROMANGA. 

Muvo  ktmi,  mo  mumpi  ovun  nUriC  enyx,  6vun 
numpun  16  %%  wumbaptiso  iranda  ra  nin  eni 
Itemcn,  \m  ra  nin  eni  Netni,  Ina  ra  nin  oni  Naviat 
Tumpora.— jl/a«.  28:  19. 


171.  FATE. 

Loatu  ki  nrum  emeromina  nin,  tewan  kin  ki 
tubulua  Nain  iskeimau  i  mai,  nag  scroatamol 
nag  fu  seralesok  os  ruk  fo  tu  mat  mou,  mo 
ruk  fo  biatlaka  nagmolien  nag  i  tok  kai  tok 
mou  tok. 


172.  FIJI. 

Ni  sa  lomani  ira  vaka  ko  na  Kalou  na  kal 
vuravura,  ime  solia  kina  na  Luvena  e  dua 
bauga  sa  vakasikavi,  me  kakua  ni  rusa  ko  ira 
yadua  sa  vakabauti  koya,  me  ra  rawata  ga  na 
bula  tawa  mudu. 

173.  ROTUMAN. 
Ne  e  fuamamau  ne  hanis  on  Oiitu  se  rantei, 
ia  ua  ou  Lee  eseama,  la  se  raksa  teu  ne  lelea  ne 
maa  se  ia,  la  iris  po  ina  ke  mauri  seesgataaga, 

174.  TONGAN.    (Friend!!/ Island*.) 

He  nae  ofa  behe  ae  Otua  ki  mama  ni,  naa 

ne    foakl    bono    Alo    be    taiia    nae    fakatubu, 

koeuhi   ko   ia  kotoabe   e   tui    kiate  ia   ke   oua 

naa  auha.  kae  ma'u  ae  moui  taegata. 

175.  NIEUE,  or  Savage  Island. 
Nukua  piliia  mai  e  fakaalofa  he  Atua  mai  ke 
he  laloiagi,  kusf  ta  mai  ai  hana  Tama  fuataha, 
kia  nakai  mate  taha  ne  tua  kia  ia,  ka  kia  moua 
e  ia  e  moui  tukuhigi. 

176.  8  A  M  O  A  N.   (lYavi^afor's  Island.) 

Aua  ua  faapea  lava  ona  alofa  mai  o  le  Atua 

i  le  laloiagi,   ua    ia  au    mai    ai  lona  Atalii    e 

toataai,  ina  ia  le  fano  se  tasi  e  faatuatua  ia   te 

ia,  a  ia  maua  e  ia  le  ola  e  faavavau. 

177.  RAROTONGAN.    (CooJt's  Island.) 

I  aroa  mai   te  Atua  i   to   te   ao  nei,  kua  tae 

rava  ki    te   orcmga  anga   mai   i   tana   Tamaiti 

auau   tai,   kia   kore   e   mate  te   akarongo   iaia, 

kia  rauka  ra  te  ora  mutu  kore. 

178.  TAHITIAN.     isoc^^d/ Islands.) 

I  aroha  mai  te  Atua  i  to  te  ao,  e  ua  tae  roa 

i  te   horoa   m.ai  i   ta'na  Tamaiti  fanau   talii,  ia 

ore  ia  poho   te   faaroo  ia  'na  ra,  ia  roaa  ra  te 

ora  mure  ore. 

179.  MARQUESAN. 
Ua  kaoha  riui  mai  te  Atua  1  to  te  aomaania 
nei,  nooia,  ua  tuu  mai  oia  i  taia  Tama  fanautahi, 
ia  mate  koo  te  enata  i  haatia  ia  ia,  atia,  ia  koaa 
ia  ia  te  pohoe  mau  ana'tu. 

180.   EBON.       (Marshall  Wands.) 

Bwe  an  AniJ  yokwe  lol,  cinwot  bwe  E  ar  letok 

juon  wot  Nojia  E  ar  kcutak,  bwo  jabrewot  co 

ej  tomak  kiu  E  o  jamin  joko,  a  e  naj  mour  in 

drio. 

181.   KUSAIEN.      (,&U-imQ-s  U\anA.\ 
Tu  God  el  lunsel  fwalu  ou  ini,  tu  el  kitamu 
Mwcn  slewuuu  iswsla  natal,  tu  met  e  nu  komwu 
su   lalalfunl    k'cl    elos    tiu    miso,   a    niol    laloE- 
mapatpat. 


BIBLE    CIRCULATION 


276 


182.  GILBERT    ISLANDS. 
Ba  c   bati  taniran  to  aomata  iroun  tc  Atua, 
ma  naia  are  e  ana  Natina  ae  te  rikitemaaa,  ba 
e  aona  n  aki  mate  ane  onlmakina,  ma  c  na 
maiti  n  aki  toki. 

183.  PON  APE.    lAeceiuion  IHana.) 
Pue  Kot  me  kupura  jappa  ie  me  a  ki  to  ki  Ka 
leroj  eu,  pue  mo  pc^on  la  i,  ea  ter  me  la,  a  en  me 
maur  jo  tuk. 

184.  MORTLOCK. 
Pue  an  Kot  a  tone  faniifan  mi  rapur,  io  mi  a 
nanai  na  an  Alaman,  pue  monisoa  mi  luku  i  ra 
te  pait  mual  la,  puo  ra  pue  uerai  manau  samur. 

185.  HAWAIIAN.     (SandiCTch  Wands.) 

No  ka  mea,  ua  aloha  nui  mai  ke'  Akua  1  ko 

ke  ao  nei,  nolaila,  ua  haawi  mai  oia  1  .kana 

Keiki  hiwahiwa,  i  ole  e  make  ka  mea  maDaoiiO 

ia  ia,  aka,  e  loaa  ia  ia  ke  ola  man  loa. 

186.  ETHIOPIC. 

■htiip:  Hicpn:    Aq.4>c:    h-JH.K-nih.C : 
A^A^:  LfiH:  (DAje:  TtLjn  ®un:  an: 

fi\  :  .Ei?:'iin :  \;iiJ!(di- :  fia<3a^ :: 

187.  AMHARIC.  Ubvssinia.) 

Ai  Ji-:  A".fj :  ?.fi'aA(D.i* :  ^~z,ti : :  nciv : 
fa=>f:   {hA'.    JiUfjem^^ :    phaa'p  : 


183..TIGRE. 


(Aby^inia.) 


A*p; 


?i'Vn :  -HUP :  -n/iif :  -j-H-fWA:?: 
'nx'fliQ.A  :    'iiNAflj- :    K^^-i  : 
-nhh- :    'ft^'T.f  A  :    h'pnc  :    rhj?®^  : 

HA^A*: 

189.  COPTIC.  (Eoi/pt.i 

n/jpHi-cip  i.(^^jiicnpe  lUKOcjuioc 
gojCTe  necjfyiipj  ujuLir^Tq  hTeqTiiiq 
gin^.  oronniSen  eon^g'l'epoq  nTeq- 
tyxeiiTiKo   jJKh^  h-jeqt^  hovoini) 


190.  CALL  A.    i^uth  of  Abyssinia.) 
Waka    akana    tshalale     tsbira    alami,    Unwsa 

tokitsha  alca  kefie,  kan  isati  amine  aka  henbane, 
tshenan  fela  a!^  tauffe  ^arra  duri. 

191.  KINIKA. 

Nao  *ssi  agomba,  hikara  uwe  ni  mniia  wa 
Mulungu?  aka  gomba,  niuimui  munaaniba,  nl 
minii  endimi. — Luke  22"  70. 

192.  SWAHILI.    lE.  Coast  of  Africa.) 
Kwani   nilivyo   Muungu  alivyoupeuda  ulira- 

wengu,  akatoa  na  Mwana  wake  wa  pekee,  illl 
wote  wamwaminio  waupate  uzima  wa  milele 
wala  wasipotee. 

193.  SECHUANA.     {South Afrtta.) 
Gone  Jioiimo  o  lo  oa  rata  lehatsi  yalo,  ka  o 

lo  oa  uaea  Moroa  ona  eo  o  tsecoeii  a  le  esi,  gore 
monue  le  mofiue  eo  o  rumelan  mo  go  ena,  a  si 
ka  a  hela,  mi  a  no  lo  botselo  yo  bo  sa  khutlefi. 

194.  SESUTO. 
Gobane  Molimo  o  ratile  lefats(3  hakalo,  o  le 
ueilo  Mora  oa  oona  a  tsuetseng  a  'notsi ;  gore 
0  mong  le  e  raong  a  lumelang  go  6ena,  a^s6 
ke  a  'fela,  a  mpe  a  be  le  bophfilo  bo  sa  feleng. 

195.  ZULU.  {South Afrita.) 

Ngokuba  uTixo  wa  11  tanda  kangaka  izwe, 

wa  li  nlka    inDodana   yake  ezelweyo  yodwa, 

ukuba  bonke   aba  kolwa    kuyo  ba  nga   bubi, 

kodwa    ba  be  nobomi  obungapeliyo. 

196.  OTIYEHERERO.    (South  A/rica.) 
Me  serekarere  omuhingo:   Yehova  ua  tyere 
ku  ami;:   "  Ove  omuatye  uandye,  m'eyuva  ndi 
mbe  ku  koatere.  "—Psa/»n  2:  7. 

197.  KAFIR.  (South  Africa.) 

Ngokuba  Utixo  walitanda    ilizwe    kangaka, 

wada  wanika   unyana  wake    okupcla  kwozel- 

w-^yo,  lukuze  osukuba  ekolwa  kuye  angabubi. 

koko'abe  nobomi  obungunapakade. 

198.  DAMARA.        i^outh  Afi-Ua.) 

Oniukuru  /Oty'a  suvorerc   ouye,    kutya  e    ua 

opcre    mukoateua    ue    erikc,    auhe    ngu     mn 

UannHiravmu  yc,  ope  ha  panyara,  nokutya  ga 

karenomuinyo  bu  ha  yanda.' 

199f.N  AM  ACQUA.     (South  AfriaiJ) 

MNatigoscb  gum  Eloba  lliub-ciba  gye  li>am(\ 

oU  gye   liuib"  di   ^guise  Inai   hi   IgOaba  gyc  roa, 

llelb   jna  ra   Jgomii  hoau   ga-ll6  tite   se,  ^^awea 

ui   larao  Qiha  "u-ln  sc 


27G 


BIBLE    CIRCULATION 


200.  DUALLA.  (WcM Africa.) 

Loba  lo  bo  wasi  ndulo,  na  a  boli  mpom  mau 

mo  Muna,  na  motu  na  motu  p yi  dube  tenge  na 

mo,  a  si  manyami,  'udi  a  ma   bene  longe  la 

bwindia. 

201.  ISO.  (We^ Africa.) 

2fa  oludJian  Tsuku  Jignru  eh^.wcma  na  dnya,  aa 
ya  nyere  otu  oli  Ojpdraya,  na  om/e  QjDtina  kwereya, 
ogai/i  e/a,  ma  ga  ewete  ndu  ebigeli. 

202.   HAUSSA.  (West Africa.) 

Don  Alia  ya  so  dunia  hckkanan  si  ya  bada 
Dansa  nafari,  en  Iowa  ya  yirda  dan,  ha  "si  ghala 
ba,  amma  si  yi  rai  hal  abbada. 

203.   NUPE.  (West  Africa.) 

Luffo  rbayetinye  un  nan  nl'ni  eye  ezabo,  a-a-le  \ 
etun  wnn^i  'yeye,  a-fe  dzin  ycbo  ndaye  nan  dan  j 
uUdiana  nan. — [Malt.  v.  16.)  | 

j 

204.   YORUBA,  (II'lsI  Africa.) 

Nitori    ti    piorun    fe  ar.iiyc   tobo    go,  ti    o    fi 

Oino  bibi  re  nikansoso  fun  iii    pe,  oiiik<;iii  ti  o 

La  gbii  a  gb6  ki  yio  scgbe,  sugbon   yio  iii  lye 

ti  ko  iiipekun. 

205.  cACCRA,  or  Ga.    (Wc^l  Africa.) 
Si  nckc  Nyongmo    sumo  dsc  le,  akc  o  ngo  e 
bi  koiiic,  iii  a  fo  Ic,  c  lia,  koiii  niofemo,  iii  lieo 
e  )i6  yco  Ic,  liic  a  ka  kpata,  si  c  na  naiio  wola. 

206.  TSCHI,  or  Twi.    (West  Africa.) 
Na  senca   Onyaukopon   do   wiase   ni,  se   ode 
RC  ba  a  owoo  no  koro   mac,  na  obiara   a  ogye 
no  tli  no  anycra,  na  wanya  da  nkwa. 

207.  MAN  DIN  GO.       (Wexl  Africa.) 

Katuko  Alia  ye  dunya  kauiiu  nyiuuyama,  an 

ading  wulukilering  di,  mensating  mo-omo  men 

lata  ala,  ate  tinyala,  barri  asi  balu  abadaiing 

BOttO. 

208.  MENDE.  (West  Africa.) 
GlamaU^  Kg^wo  »>f  l^i  lo  iM  a  ndiloi,  la  lo  i  ngi^ 

Ifii  yakpH  vfni,   iyi  jgni;   la  lo  numul  gbi  lo  ngi 
hfiua  lo  a  tinya,  e  IfM,  h  Mnafo  livu  lo  a  i'q. 

209.  TEMNE.  (West  Africa.) 
Ttays  K'iru  0  pof.  Hl^r  ara-rS,  Id  q  tosd  Om'dn- 

Vgh  0  lom  glo  tOn,  kdma  w'uni  6  w'uni,  swi  IJnsh, 
S  tic  diitnt;  kite  kdma  e  tslo  a-iiUqm  aiabdna. 


210.  BENGA.  (W'At  Africa.) 
Kakana  ndi  AiivairrbS  a  tandiki  he,  ka  M&-a 

ve  Mwan'  'aju  umbaka,  na,  u6h6pi  a  ka  kamid6 
M^,  a  nyange,  ndi  a  na  cmSna  ya  egombc 
yeh6pi. 

211.  G  R  E  B  O.  (TTcst  Africa.) 
Karo  krc  Nyesoa  nuna  kona  ah  nowanena,  a 

Imyiiia  a  seye  all  koka-yu  doiib,  be  nya  be  a 
po  na  hanlitc,  &  neh  te  wanh,  iiema  h  mu  kon&- 
se-honlinoMli  k;i. 

212.  M  PONG  WE.       (TTcsI  ^/rico.> 

Kande  Anyambie  arindi  ntye  yinla  nli  nta- 

ndinli  mS  avenliC-  Orrwanli  yS  wikika,  lnl6  om' 

edu  o  bekelie  avere,  udo  e  be  doanla  nremfinlft 

zak&nlaka. 

213.  DIKELE.  (West Africa.) 

Nadiambilindl  Anyambi^  a  midinh  p6nzhe 
nyi  na  tliadiuh  tliati  i\\6  tha  ye  mive  Miana 
ngwC'i  ugwadikika,  na  ttiutyi  jCshe  ngwa  y6 
bundliS  a  tyi  luagwa,  nji  a  be'  na  thaki'  th' 
adukwa  jeshes. 

214.  GAL  LA.    (SoxUh  of  Ahyssinia.) 
'P3'P-T   :    ?v^r-t:  :    ay    :    A<J,    :     [>&. 
gAtd.    ::     JVAOI  -.PA.:  -tVi^,  :*(hc^ 
tLhX    ::v1m   :   "K^X    t    ^""1-    :    U-'JK, 

hvmi,  ..  A.Bov  :  nd. :  n^.t; :  PV^-tft 

«»°A.  :: 

215.   B  U  L  L  O  M.   (.Venr  Sierra  Leone.) 

Ntunky  kandirr  no  tre  k'c   auiah  eboll,  leh 

nglia  ngba  kch  mpant  no  nkeleng,  nu  kulluh 

jiap.nh  no,  wonuo  cbch  ko  kc  {oy.—-(Matl.  v.  16.) 

216.  EWE.  (Onld  Coast.) 

Ke  si  ke  nenem  Mawu  cloa  xcxo  Li  luc,  bcna 

ctso  yc  nuto  vidsidsi  doka  he  na,  ne  ame  sya  arae, 

si  cxo  cdsi  ese  ko  la,  mcle  tiotsro  ge  wo,  nekpc 

woakpo  agbe  mavo  la. 

217.  BERBER.  r^^orth  Africa. 

^i&i\  ^yii\i.*\  i^cA&A  J\xJ\  \ix^\  ^,y\ 


(.Luke  xl.  13.) 


218.  GREENLAND. 

Slllarstlb  innuo  Gudib  tuima  assakigei, 
Ernctuo  tuunlullugo  taukkouunga,  tamarmlk 
taursomunga  opcrtut  tammarKonuagit,  naksauD- 
gitsomigle  imiursOtokaikoIlugit. 


B I  r.  ].  i:   C  1  R  C  U  L  .\  T  T  ( »  X 


277 


219.  ESQUIMAUX. 
Taimak     Gudib    sillaksoarmiut     nrogligiveit, 
Ernetuaiio    tuunilugo,   illunatik  okpertut    tap- 
somuDga,    assiokonnagit    nungusuitomigle    in- 
Dogutekarkovlugit. 

220.  CREE   (Roman).   (BrUUh America.) 

Wcya  Miineto  a  ispcoche  saketapun  nskc,  ku 

rnakew  oo  pauko-Koosisan.-*,  piko  una  tapwato- 

wayitcho  nnmowcya  oo  ga  nissewunatisse'ty,  inaka 

oo  ga  ayaty  kakeka  pimatissewin. 

221.   CREE. 

V"aT    'kP"C.'     P^LCTD      <'P(^o      b     P">"P 

HP'    >VVd\Q.,    <A;V  qCV-'nr^^LS-    Vb    Pf 

o'('<-in(",  Lb  pr  <V'  bP=i  A.Ln,'A-\ 

222.    MICMAC.         lyovaSculla. 

Mudu     Nicscqm     IfliksaUus     msitcumai     wcdjj 

igunutn-iaedo-gub-unn     ncoiktm-bistadjul     uicwisul, 

cml^mc^a   m'sit   wen   t^a  kedlamsitc   aiti^nincu,    m^ 

jmninadtjinprnCjC^dta  nisce-fs  aDjcn^wc  mjmadjiuocun. 

223.    TINNE.  (Hudson  .  ^ay.i 

ojo  t>n'v  i>  i/u-z><  v^c  u'h't'  jbtrn',  c 
n'jD  p>i^  vn  i^rr>  tru'  vu'  K>vr  av  t>ju\, 

Vr'>Pr   AJdr*    i^>C    >S\T\. 

224.  CHIPPEWAYAN. 
Apccch  zliahwaindung  e«h  Kcsbamunedoo 
ewli  alikeh,  oage-oonje  niegewanun  enewh  atah 
tatabenahwa  Kahoogwesejin,  wagwain  thish  ka- 
tapwayainemaligwainchebahuahde/.esig,  cheah- 
yong  dush  goo  ewh  kahkenig  pemahtezewiu. 

225.    TUKUDH.  [Laucheuzlnaiant.) 

Kwugguh  yoo  Vittukoochanchyo  niinh  kug 

kwikyit    kettinizhin,   tih   Tinji    chibthlug   rzl 

kwuntlnntslii  oliootyin  tte  j'ih  kyinjizbit  rsyet- 

tefgitUelya  kkwa,  ko  sheggu  kwundui  tettiya? 

226.  M  ALISEET.  <.V<«'Bi-U"»"rt«'f-) 
Eebadiul  Nukskani  edooclic-inoos.njltptin  oos- 
klOcQmlkw  wfjcraclooctpun  wiliwcbil  OokwSosQl, 
■wflaman  'mscu  wfin  tan  wClarosOlOk  oohuk&k, 
skatup  Qksckahawe,  k&nookflloo  ootclup  askii- 
raowsooiigun. 

227.  MOHAWK.  Cf.  Am.  Indian.) 
Ikcn  ne  Yehovah  cgh  ne  s'bakoDoroiighkwa 
n'ongwe,  uene  rodewendeghton  nene  raonhaon 
rodcwedon  robhiwak,  nene  onghka  klok  teya- 
kawcghdaghkon  raonhage  yaghten  a-ongh- 
tondp,  ok  denshnon  aonfehodiycndune  ne  eterna 
adonbct&. 


228.  CHOCTAW.    <y.  Am.  Iniiian.) 

Chihowa  yvt  yakni  a  i   hullo  fchna  kvt,  kuna 

hosh  yirmma  i  ylmmikmvt  ik  illo  hosh,  amba  ai 

okchayut  bilia   yo  pisa   hi    o,  Ushi    achwfa  ilia 

holitopa  ya  auet  ima  tok. 

229.  SENECA.      iHT.  Am.  Indian.y 
Neh   sSh'sh   ne'    sohjih'   ha  iio'oh  gwah   Na'- 

wSnniyoh'  he'yo  itn  ja  dch,  Neh  No'a  wak  neh" 
sho'  kuh  sgat  ho  wi'yii  yjh  tot  gah  wftli'  ha  g'- 
gweh  da  wiih  hch  yo  Jn'ja  deh' ;  neh  neh,  Son'- 
dih  gwa'nah  ot  3  o  wa'i  wa  gw6n  ni  yos,  tfth  5h' 
ta  ye'i  wah  dgh',  neh  gwaa',  nj  yo'i  wa  da  dveh' 
6  ya'go  y<5n  daht'    ne'   yoh  heh'g  weh. 

230.  DAKOTA.      (If.  Am.  Indian.) 
Wakantanka  oyato  kin  cantewlcakiya,  heon 

Cinhintku  iSnana  icage  cin  wicaqu,  qa  tuwe 
awaein  kinhan  owihanke  kte  Sni,  tuka  owi- 
hanke  wanin  -n-iconi  yuhe  kta. 

231.  OJIBWA.        ?f.  Am.  Jndian.i 

Gaapij  shauendw  su  Kishemanito  iu  aki,  ogion- 

jimigiucnun  iniu  baiezliigonijin  Oguisvn,  aucgiien 

di;sh  gctebucicnimaguon  jibunatizisig,  jiaiat  dusb 

iu  kagige  bimatiziuin. 

232.  MUSKOKEE.   (iV.  ^m.  Indian.) 
Hesaketvmese  ekvnv  vnokece  mahet  oniekv, 

Eppuce  hvmkuse  heckuecvte  emvtes,  mvu 
estitnvt  oh  vkvsamat  estemerkekot,  raoniia 
hrsaketv  yuksvsekon  ocvren. 

233.  CHEROKEE.    (N.  Am.  Indian.} 

Qxy^z  iisiy  CPyiwo-jJ  CHcrny  rsa,  »o>e 
ny   o>7£s  Cfssh    o«iy    wc^ttjicr   o>»j\<iJt,    yc 

234.  DELAWARE.   Of .  Am.  Indian.^ 
Woak->tocc«ioa    guliechtagunenanall     kmat 

tauchsowoaganneuanall,  taku  kilunn  nechoha 
schuk  ulaha  wemi  clgigunk  haki  omattauchso 
woagaiiowa  olicchtoiirnanni.  — 1  Jofin  2:  2. 

235.  NEZ  PERCE  S.  i^.  Am.  Indian. y 
Kuuki  wiwibnalh,  awitaaislikulikith,  nyi- 
kashllpb,  wiwatashph,  Awiba])taliiaiikith  im- 
niuiia  Pisbitpim  wanikitpb,  wab  Miabspim 
AVanikitph,  Wah  Holy  Ghostuim  wanikitph. — 
^falt.  28:  I'J. 

236.  MAYAN.  <y«e<»l«n.) 

Tumen  b.iy   tu  yacuntuh   Dioz   le  yokplcab, 

ca  tu  caali  u  pel  inchenan  Mehcn,  uUal  tulacal 

le  max  cu  yoczictAiyol  ti  leti,  ma  u  kazta),  uanip 

ca  vanacU  ciixtal  miuanuxul. 


278 


BIBLE    HOUSE  — BIBLE    SOCIETIES 


237.  MEXICAN,  or  Aztec. 

Ni  raehuaz  yliuan  ni  az  campa  ca_  in  no  tatzin 
ybuan  nic  ilhuiz :  No  tatzin  c,  oni  tlatlaco  iliui- 
copa  in  ilbuicatl  yliuan  mixpan  tuhuatl. — {Luke 
XV.  18.) 

238.  NtCRO-ENGLISH.    {Surinam.) 
Bikasi  na  so  fnsi  Gado  ben  lobbi  kondre,  va 

a  gi  da  wan  Pikien  va  hem,  va  dem  allamal, 
dissi  briebi  na  hem,  do  sa  go  lasi,  ma  va  dem 
habi  da  Liebi  vo  tehgo. 

239.  CREOLES  E.       {.West  Indies.) 

Want  soo  Oodt  ka  hab  die  Weereld  lief,  dat 

hem    ka    giev    sie    eenig    gebooren    Soon,    dat 

seJlie  almael  die    gloov  na  hem,   no  sal   kom 

verlooren,  maec  sal  hab  die  eewig  3Jeven. 


240.  AYMARA.  (Pmi.) 

Hucama  Diosaja  mundo  munana,  sapa 
Yokapa  quitani,  taque  haquenaca  iau-siri 
iSayan  hacafia-pataqui. 

241.  ARRAWACK.  (Gutano.) 
Lui  lt6  uduina  abba  Wadili  uria  karaijakubS 

je  namaqua  Wunabu  ubanuamflmutti,  nassi- 
koattoanti  tuhu  Wunabu  ubanamiin.  Lui  k6- 
wal  assikissia  namiin  ikissihii,  pattahu  na 
kakimti,  hallidi  na  kassikoanibia  ba  ukun- 
namiin. — Acs  17 :  26. 

242.  QUICHUAN.  {Argentine.) 
Pachacamackca   chicatami   runacunata    mu- 

narca,  cliay  Zapallay-Chiirinta  kokcurca,  tucuy 
paypi  yfiiic,  m^na  huaQuuanpac,  uiuay  cauzay- 
tari  apinanpac. 


BIBLE  HOUSE,  New  York  City.  The  noble 
edifice,  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration, 
stands  by  itself  on  an  open  square,  bounded  by 
Astor  Place,  Fourth  Avenue,  Ninth  Street,  and 
Third  Avenue,  New  York  city ;  it  covers  an  area 
of  about  three-quarters  of  an  acre,  and  has  a  cir- 
cumference of  over  seven  hundred  feet.  In  the  view 
here  given,  the  shaded,  or  right  front,  is  on  Astor 
Place ;  the  left,  or  light  front,  is  on  Fourth  Avenue. 
The  building  is  of  brick,  with  freestone  copings, 
and.  without    being   in   any   way    extravagant    in 


lUnl.H    11()U.SF..   NEW    VOKK. 

architectural  omboilishment,  il  commands  atten- 
tion by  its  magnitude,  its  admirable  proportions, 
and  its  chaste  and  attractive  tinisli.  No  part  of 
the  money  needed  to  meet  the  large  cost  of  the  site 
and  of  tlie  edifice  was  drawn  from  tlie  contribu- 
tions made  for  tlie  support  of  tlie  general  work 
of  the  society.  Generous  suhscriptions  were  made 
to  the  building  I'uiiil  by  friends  of  thn  cause,  and 
the  balance  of  indebtedness  was  early  met  by 
the  receipts  from  the  rent  of  sucfi  portions 
of  the  Innliling  as  were  not  needed  lor  the 
use  ot  the  business  of  the  society.  The  entire 
edifice  is  a  niDiuuncnt  to  the  liberality  of  all  who 
cent ribnt I'll  toward  its  f're(rtion. 

BIBLIA    I'Alil'KKUM,  or   r.iiii.K   or  tiii;    Poor, 
was  a  sort  of  picture  book  of  llie  Middle  Agev,  giv* 


ing  the  leading  events  of  human  salvation  through 
Christ,  each  picture  being  accompanied  by  an  illus- 
trative text  in  Latin.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  III.  p. 
653.  A  similar  work  on  a  more  extended  scale, 
with  the  text  in  rhyme,  was  called  Speculum 
Jluinamf  Sahationis,  or  Mirror  of  Human  Salva- 
tion. Before  the  Reformation  these  two  books 
were  the  chief  text-books  used,  especially  by 
monks,  in  preaching.  Many  manuscripts  are  pre- 
served in  diflfereiit  languages,  several  as  old  as  the 
13th  century.  The  pictures  were  copied  in  sculpt- 
ures, altar-pieces,  etc.  The  chief  proof  for  the  in- 
vention of  printing  by  Koster  in  Haarlem  rests  on 
the  first  impressions  of  the  Speculum  Humanx  SaU 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES  OF  THE  WORLD.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  eonipi'iidium  of  diflferent  Bible  Societies 
of  the  world,  compiled  from  the  lists  reported  to 
the  American  and  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Societies  to  Jan.  1,  1.S91.  It  shows  the  dates  of 
organization  and  the  total  number  of  copies  of  the 
Scriptures  issued  severally  by  the  various  societies 
so  far  as  reported  up  to  March  31,  IS'.IO.  The  circu- 
lation reported  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  includes  the  issues  by  the  various  Bible 
Societies  of  India,  amounting  to  a  total  from  those 
societies  of  8,534,uo3  copies: 

Totfil  Issues* 

Amerlcftn  Bible  Socletj-.  me 52,7:ai,07S 

American  and  ForciRH  liitile  Society,  1837 2  293.666 

American  Hilile  rnioii.  is'iii  60S.1M 

Bible  .\ssocintion  of  Friends  in  America,  1830 1M.431 

British  and  KoreiRii  i;il>le  Socielv.lUM US.S-W.WS 

Natloinil  Bllile  Societv  of  Scotland,  1861 11,;««.>>41 

Hibernian  Bitile  Society 4.SXi8.4.'iO 

Trinitarian  Bible  Societv.  in  If84-85 2,S1,426 

Basle  Bilile  Socti-tv.  I.SO-I" 81,3.587 

I'russian  liil>le  Societv,  at  llerlin,  18W .S,269.281 

Swedish  Bllile  Societv,  IWRi  l.OM  .W? 

Finnish  Bihle  Societv,  at  Abo,  1812 239,273 

Russian  Bible  Societ'v,S!.  Petersburg,  1812 861,105 

Wlirtemheri;  Bible  Socielv,  181-.' l,737,!)2(l 

Zurich  Bible  Societv,  IMi...    82.972 

BcfB  Bible  Societv,  "at  Kl I.erfeld,  1813 »17,W» 

Colre  Bible  Societv,  1M:1 12  267 

St.  t;all   Bil.te  Societv,  1813 77,660 

SchalThanseii  Bible  [society,  1813 i!0,077 

Danish  Hil)lc  Society,  1811 4(M,7«8 

(ieueva   Bllile  Sopletv,  1814  147.2:13 

llftmburK-.Mtona  Bible  society,  18M 217,000 

Hanover  Bible  Society,  1814 21X1.000 

Lansanne  Hlble  Society,  1814 227.667 

Lnbcek  lUble  Societv,  1814 40,000 

Sa.\on  Mil. le  Societv,' 1814,  at  Dresden 746,066 

Atirgovlau  Bible  Society,  1816 WiStt 


!,  I  O  M  AN  C  Y  — BIC  K  T  RE 


279 


Tuliil  Issues. 

Bremen  HlLlf  Society,  1815. .                                       ..  UO.UUO 

Bruuswli'k  lilble  Society,  1.S15  C,»12 

Icelumlic  iUble  .Soeietv,  1810 10,-H5 

Netherluiids  iiililf  ;S(ji-i<-tv,  1S15 1,078,1)83 

Sclileswick-IIoijtoln  liil.le  Society,  1.->1.'>  Illj,4o0 

StnisblirK  Hil.le  .Sociutv,  1810 117,880 

Fruukfort  liilile  Socieiv,  ISIG 75,U00 

LaueuburK-Kalzebiirg  Bible  Society,  l.-ilO 3^,507 

Lippc-DetmoM  Bible  .Society,  1810 .S7,10a 

Neufclmtel  Bible  .Society,  1810 »7,043 

Norwegian  Itible  Society,  1816 480,073 

Rostock  Bible  Society,  1810 19,408 

Wnidensian  Hibic  Society,  ut  La  Tour,  1810 4,2:iS 

Berne  Bi ble  Soc iety 257,050 

Entin  Bilile  Society,  for  tiie  Priucipality  of  Lubeck, 

1817 ■. 15,000 

Hessc-Durmstadt  Bible  Society,  1817 31,4&1 

Waldeck  and  Pyrmom  Hil)le  Society,  1817 2,8U0 

Eisenach  Bible  Society.  1818 15,000 

Gottiugen  Bilile  Society,  1818 41,U«0 

Mulbanseii  Bilile  Society,  1818 01,071 

Hanau  Bible  Society,  1SI8 :),310 

Hesse-Cussei  Bible  Society,  1818 :»,000 

Protestant  Bible  So-ietv,  at  Paris,  1818 888,190 

Leipsig  Bible  Society,  1818 :«,000 

Glarus  Bible  Society.  1819 5,000 

Ionian  Bible  Society,  at  Corfu,  1819 7,377 

Marburg  Bible  Society,  1819 22,450 

Coimar  Bible  Society,  1820.; 97.741 

Duchy  of  Badeu  Bible  Society,  1820 90,820 

Anhalt-liernliiirg  Bible  Society,  1821 4,780 

Weimar  Bible  Society,  1821 7,236 

Bavarian  Protestant  Bible  Institution,  at  Nurem- 

burg,  18ii 391,412 

Stavanger  Bible  Society,  1828 7,017 

French  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  at  Paris,  1833. . .  750,000 

Antwerp  Bible  Society,  l^'M 439 

Belgian  and  Foreign  Bible  Society , '        7,023 

Ghent  Bible  Society,  1834 8,980 

Anhalt- Dessau  Bible  Society,  1836 31,003 

Belgian  Hible  .Associations,  18;» 14,909 

Altcnberg  Bible  Society,  18>1 24,100 

Bible  Society  of  France,  1804 558,149 

Kussiau  Eyangelical  Bible  Society,  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1831  1,025,467 

Imperial  Kussian  Bible  Society,  at  St.  Petersburg, 

1808 1,223,014 

The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  repoi'ted 
March  .31,  IS'JO,  a  list  of  3,27;»  aii.xiliary  and  branch 
Bible  societies;  the  American  Bible  Society  at  tlie 
same  reported  a  list  of  2,034,  aggregating  a  total  of 
5,318  auxiliary  and  branch  societies  \yhich  are  con- 
nected wKli  those  two  [jarent  societies,  and  wlioso 
names  are  not  given  in  the  foregoing  list.  Tlie  luiin- 
berof  brancli  and  auxiliary  societies  connected  with 
other  parent  orga:iizat  ions  cannot  be  given,  as 
some  of  thorn  have  published  no  recent  statistical 
reports.  The  Russian  Bible  Society,  previous  to 
its  suspension  by  imperial  ukase  in  lS2ii,  had  289 
auxiliaries.  As  most  of  the  auxiliaries  embraced 
in  the  figures  given  above  report  subordinate 
societies  representing  smaller  territorial  (list  rids, 
it  is  estimated  that  tlie  number  of  distinctive  Bible 
organi:ritiiiii.i,  including  auxiliaries,  in  the  world 
probably  exceeds  lll.ilOU. 

BIBMO.M.VNOY,  a  mode  of  divination  much 
practiced  diirini^  many  ages  by  opening  the  Bible 
and  observing  I  he  first  passage  that  occurred,  or  by 
taking  notice  of  the  first  words  of  the  Bible  heard 
after  entering  a  place  of  worsliip.  The  ap])lication 
was  off  en  very  faiicil'ul.  Prayer  and  fasting  were 
Bomelimes  used  as  a  preparation  for  a  mode  of  con- 
Bulting  the  Divine  oracles,  than  which  nothing 
could  be  more  contrary  to  their  i)urpose  and  sjiirit, 
and  which  was  in  harmony  oiily  with  the  nolions 
and  practices  of  heathenism.  It  was  prohibited 
under  pain  of  excommunication  by  the  Council  of 
Vannes,  .v.  n.  4(i5,  and  by  the  Councils  of  Agde  and 
Orleans  in  tlie  next  century.  It  cojitinued,  how- 
ever, to  prevail  many  centuries  after,  and  was 
introduced  into  England  at  the  Norman  <'on(|uest. 
It  was  es.sentially  the  same  as  the  Surlrx  VinjiHana:, 
the  imly  difference  being  the  liook  employed. 

BIBLIOMANIA  (from  (Jr.  hU,li,m,"a.  book,"  and 
mania,  "  nnidness")  may  be  defined  as  a  piission  for 
collecting  and  hoarding  rare  or  curious  books.     The 


last  century  and  a  half  has  witnessed  a  marked 
manifestation  of  this  taste  both  in  Europe  and  in 
.the  Inited  States.  The  Ijibliomaiiiac  values  books, 
not  alone  for  their  intrinsic  worth,  but  for  their 
scarcity,  their  age,  their  binding,  and  even  for 
some  grave  bleniisli.  Even  a  very  common  book 
takes  on  a  liciitious  value  in  the  collector's  eyes  if 
it  be  the  only  known  copy  in  existence,  or  be 
printed  in  black  letter,  or  have  the  stamp  athxed 
of  some  long  dead  but  famous  binder.  The  forma- 
tion of  complete  sets  of  such  books,  or  of  the  works 
of  a  single  author,  provided  they  be  rare,  is  a 
favorite  pursuit  with  many.  The  editions  of  the 
classic  writers  most  allected  by  collectors  are 
the  beautiful  Elzevirs  and  the  Foidisis.  Some 
of  these  have,  at  various  times,  brought  fabu- 
lous prices.  As  much  as  ,£3,!H)0  has  been  paid  for 
a  ^lazarin  Bible,  and  the  first  dated  copy  of  Boci 
caccio's  Di'cnineri/iii',  1471,  was  sold  for  £2,260.  A 
psalter,  printed  by  Fiist  and  Sclnifrer  in  1459, 
fetched  £4,950  at  a  sale  in  London  in  l.S8u.  A  copy 
of  the  Guttenberg  Bible  in  two  volumes,  printed  in 
1455,  the  first  book  printed  from  movable  type,  was 
purchased  at  the  Braylon  Ives  sale  in  New  York, 
March  14,  1891,  by  J.  \V.  Kllsworth,  of  Chicago,  for 
$14,800.  Such  iiooks  as  these  are  valued  solely  on 
account  of  their  antiquity;  works  of  a  later  date 
are  prized  on  account  of  their  beauty  or  fine  work- 
manship.    See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  ()54,  655. 

BICARBONATESdiflor  from  carbonates  in  con- 
taining twice  as  much  carbonic  acid.  Bicarburets, 
bisulphurets  and  bitartrates  are  words  formed  on 
the  same  plan  ;  Ijut  in  recent  chemical  nomencla- 
ture tlie  prefix  lii-  has  been  superseded  by  ili-. 

BICE,  the  name  of  two  pigments,  of  a  blue  and 
green  color  respectively,  known  to  artists  from  the 
earliest  times.  Both  are  native  carbonates  of  cop- 
per, but  are  also  prepared  artificially.  In  its 
native  state,  how'ever,  bice  is  more  durable,  and  in 
the  case  of  green  is  especiiiUy  much 'more  brilliant. 
Artificial  blue  bice  is  known  as  Ilambro  blue, 
mineral  blue,  etc. ;  artificial  green  bice,  as  moun- 
tain g'-een,  I'aiil  Veronese  gi'een  and  emerald  green. 

BICEPS,  the  muscle  which  gives  a  full  appear- 
ance to  the  front  of  the  arm.  Above  it  consists  of 
two  ])ortions  or  heads — whence  its  name — one  be- 
ing attached  to  the  coracoid  process  of  the  scapula, 
the  other  to  the  margin  of  the  depression  on  that 
bone  which  lodges  the  head  of  the  humerus.  The 
former  is  the  short,  the  latter  the  loni;,  head  of  the 
biceps.  They  unite  to  form  a  fleshy  belly,  which 
terminates  in  a  rounded  tendon.  The  biceps  ten- 
don is  inserted  into  the  tubercle  of  the  radius. 
Before  passing  to  this  insertion  it  gives  oil  an  ex- 
pansion, which  separates  the  medium  basilic  vein 
from  the  brachial  artery  in  the  situation  generally 
selected  for  venesection.  The  action  of  the  biceps 
is  rapidly  to  bend  the  forearm  and  also  to  supinate 
the  hand. 

P,ICESTER,  a  market  town  of  Oxfordshire,  Eng- 
land, 12  miles  northeast  of  Oxford.  There  are 
manufactories  of  rope,  clothing,  sacking  and  pale 
ale,  and  several  important  fairs  are  annually  lield 
here.  The  ruins  of  Alio  Castra,  or  Alcester,  lie  13^ 
miles  to  the  southwest,  on  the  ancient  Roman  Ake- 
inan  Street.     I'opulation,  3,300. 

BICETRE,  originally  the  name  of  a  very  old 
castle,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris,  commanding 
one  of  the  finest  views  of  the  city,  the  Seine, ami 
the  environs.  II  was  destroyed  in  1032,  because  it 
had  become  the  hiding  place  of  thieves.  It  was  re- 
built by  Louis  XIII,  and  inatle  a  hospital  for  old 
soldiers.  Afterwards  it  served  as  a  prison  for  2,<J00 
culprits,  mostly  condemned  to  the  galleys,  as  well 
as  a  hospital  for  incurable  lunaticsr  Wool-spinning 
and  glass-polishing  are  carried  im  in  the  building. 


-280 


B  I  C  K  E  R  S  T  A  F  F  —  B  I  D  D  L  E 


BICKERSTAFF,  Isaac,  an  author  of  numerous 
comedies  and  light  musical  pieces,  which  had  at  one 
time  a  great  popularity.  He  was  born  in  Ireland 
in  1735.  He  became  page  to  Lord  Chesterfield  and 
was  afterwards  an  officer  of  marines,  but  was  dis- 
missed. Nothing  is  certainly  known  regarding  his 
after  life.  His  best  known  pieces  are  The  Maid  of 
the  Mill;  The  Padlock;  He  ]\ould  if  He  Could;  Love 
in  a  Villnge;  Tlie  Hypocrite,  and  The  Captive. 

BICYCLE.  Besides  the  ordinary  bicycle  de- 
scribed in  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  66.5,  consisting  of  a 
large  wheel  followed  by  a  small  one,  several  varie- 
ties have  been  introduced,  the  general  purpose  of 
which  is  the  rider's  safety.  In  one  of  these  the 
wheels  are  reversed,  the  motive  power  being  trans- 
mitted to  the  large  wheel  by  levers  and  the  small 
front  wheel  being  used  for  steering.  Others  have 
smaller  driving-wheels  than  usual,  and  are  there- 
fore lower,  and  the  motive  power  is  transmitted 
from  pedal-levers  to  the  axle  by  endless  chains  or 
secondary  cranks. 

The  introduction  of  the  pneumatic  tire  in  1890 
resulted  in  a  marvelous  imi^rovement  in  speed  at 
both  short  and  long  distances,  whether  on  path, 
road  or  grass.  This  is  a  large,  hollow,  India-rubber 
tire  filled  with  compressed  air.  A  modification  of 
this,  known  as  the  cushion,  also  adopted  in  1890,  is 
a  strong,  hollow.  India-rubber  tire  several  times 
larger  in  diameter  than  the  usual  solid  tire. 

The  present  record,  1891,  for  one  hour,  is  22 
miles,  620  yards;  for  two  hours,  41  miles,  1,180 
yards;  for  three  hours,  (iO  miles,  1,2.35  yards.  The 
following  are  the  present  best  records  for  given 
distances: 

Miles     14 Hr.  0  Min.    0  Sec.  31| 

Miles     '..  Hr.  0  Min.     1  Sec.    Ki 

Miles       1  Hr.  0  :Min.    2  Sec.  20i 

Miles      2  Hr.  0  Min.    4  Sec.  59J 

Miles  3          .                     Hr.  0  Min.    7  Sec.  38i 

Miles  4                               Hr   0  Min.  10  Sec.  18f 

Miles  5                               Hr.  0  Min.  12  Sec.  54| 

Miles  10                               Hr.  0  Min.  26  Sec.  41§ 

Miles  20    .                           Hr.  0  Min.  -53  Sec.  45i 

Miles     50 Hr.  2  Min.  25  Sec.  26| 

Miles  100 Hr.  5  Min.  50  Sec.    5| 

BIT).\.  Alexandre,  an  eminent  French  artist, 
born  at  Toulouse  in  1823.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Dela- 
croix. He  became  a  member  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  in  18.5.5,  and  an  officer  of  the  Legion  in  1870. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  a  series  of  designs, 
in  two  volumes,  illustrating  the  Evangelists,  and  a 
■water-color  painting,  Tlie  Massarre  of  the  Mame- 
lukes, the  property  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art,  New  York. 

BIDAU,  a  town  in  the  Nizam's  dominions,  situ- 
ated near  the  right  bank  of  the  Manjera,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  tiodavery,  75  miles  northwest  of 
Hyderabad.  Formerly  a  place  of  imjiortance,  it  is 
now  remarkable  chiefly  for  its  manufactures  in  a 
compound  metal  made  of  tin,  cojiper,  lead  and  zinc, 
and  called  bidderywnre.  This  industry  lias  been 
of  late  declining.  The  district  of  Bidar  has  an  area 
of  4..S84  si]uaro  miles,  and  a  jiopulation  of  80,000 

BIDA.SON,  a  river  which,  rising  in  Spain,  forms 
the  boundary  between  Spain  and  France  and  falls 
into  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  at  I'uentiTabia.  The  treaty 
of  the  Pyrenees  was  concluded  on  an  island  in  its 
mouth  in  1659. 

lUliDKFOUD,  a  city  of  Maine,  in  the  county  of 
York,  situated  at  Saco  Falls,  on  tlie  Saeo  Kiver.  six 
miles  from  the  ocean.  The  city  has  an  !ibun(bint 
supply  of  i)uro  water.  Is  well  lighted  with  gas  and 
electricity,  has  an  electric  fire  alarm  and  street 
railways,  and  excellent  schools.  The  high  school 
building,  erected  in  1HH8  at  a  cost  of  $50,600,  is  one 


of  the  best  in  the  State.  Superior  granite  is  found 
in  the  vicinity  in  inexhaustible  quantities.  The 
Lincoln  Monument,  at  Springfield,  111.,  is  built  of 
this  granite.  Biddeford  was  first  settled  in  1616, 
incorporated  as  a  town  in  1718,  and  as  a  city  in 
1855.     Population  in  1890,  14,418. 

BIDDING-PBAYER,  a  form  of  exhortation,  al- 
ways concluding  with  the  Lord's  Prayer,  enjoined 
by  the  55th  canon  of  the  Anglican  church  in  1603, 
to  be  used  before  all  sermons  and  homilies.  Except 
in  cathedrals  and  the  university  churches,  it  is  now 
seldom  used.  The  term  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
biddan,  "to  pray,"  so  that  bidding-prayer  is  really 
pleonastic ;  but  after  the  16th  century  the  word 
bidding  came  to  be  popularly  regarded  as  an  ad- 
jective, or  biddiiig-praiier  as  a  compound  ;  a  prayer 
which  directs  what  is  to  be  prayed  for.  The  form  is  of 
extreme  antiquity,  and  was  anciently  used  for  the 
communicants  or  believers  after  the  dismissal  of 
the  catechumens,  and  was  pronounced  by  the  dea- 
con, each  petition  beginning  with  the  words,  "  Let 
us  pray  for,"  etc. 

BIDDLE,  Clement,  "  Quaker  soldier,"  born  in 
Philadelphia,  May  10,  1740,  died  there  July  14,1814. 
His  parents  were  Quakers,  and  he  was  brought  up 
with  much  strictness.  Mr.  Biddle,  at  the  head  of  a 
company  of  Quakers  and  others,  repelled  a  force  of 
desperadoes  in  1764,  and  from  that  time  was  active 
in  all  military  actions  of  the  day.  He  was  a  soldier 
of  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  present  at  the  bat- 
tles of  Princeton,  Germantown,  Brandywine  and 
Monmouth.  After  the  war  he  held  important  public 
oflices.  He  was  a  personal  friend  of  General  Wash- 
ington. 

BIDDLE,  James,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1783, 
died  there  Oct.  1,  1848.  He  entered  the  navy  and 
saw  service  on  board  the  Philadelphia  and  Wasp, 
and  was  commander  of  the  captured  Frolic.  He  was 
made  prisoner  near  Tripoli,  while  on  board  the 
wrecked  Philadelphia,  and  just  after  receiving  com- 
mand of  the  Frolic,  the  ship  and  crew  fell  into  Brit- 
ish hands.  On  being  exchanged  Captain  Biddle's 
rank  was  raised  and  he  was  given  command  of  the 
Hornet.  He  captured  the  Peitijtiin,  and  then  sailed 
for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  He  had  a  narrow  es- 
cape from  a  British  ship  of  war,  which  followed  so 
closely  that  lie  had  to  throw  his  guns  overboard. 
On  returning  to  New  York  many  honors  were  be- 
stowed on  liim  for  his  fine  seamanship  and  gal- 
lant conduct.  Subsequently  he  saw  much  active 
service,  commanding  the  Jlediterranean  squadron 
in  1831,  and  in  1845  the  East  India  squadron,  which 
sailed  to  China  tomake  a  treaty  with  that  country. 

BIDDLE,  Nicholas, born  at  Pliiladelphia,  Sept.  10, 
17.50,  killi'd  in  action,  March  7,  1778.  At  the  age  of 
thirteen  he  made  a  voyage  to  the  West  Indies.  In 
1770  he  entered  the  British  navy,  but  deserted  his 
ship  three  years  later  to  go  with  C'aptain  Phipps  on 
an  Arctic  expedition.  On  his  return  he  had  gained 
sufficient  experience  to  fit  him  for  the  command  of 
a  vessel  and  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Andrea 
Doria.  From  this  time  to  his  deatli  Captain  Biddle 
was  extremely  fortunate  in  his  engagements  with 
British  sliips.  He  captured  two  cruisers  oil"  Montauk 
I'oint,  two  transports  and  several  merchantmen 
near  Newfoundland,  and  four  ships  near  Charleston, 
South  Carolina.  On  Jlarcli  7,  1778,  while  cruising 
in  this  vicinity  with  a  fleet  of  live  vessels  (his  own 
being  the  Rnndolph),  he  fell  in  with  the  l'(irmoi((A,a 
heavily  armed  Uritish  vessel.  In  the  action  which 
ensued  the  Yirniionih  sustained  severe  injuries  and 
the  Ratid'iljih  was  blown  up  and  most  of  the  crew 
perished,  (iiptain  Biddle's  death  was  a  great  loss 
to  the  navy  of  the  young  Republic. 

r.lDDLF.,  Nil  iioLAs,  financier,  and  descendant  of 
a  famous  family  several   of  whose   members  look 


UIEBRIOH  — BKJ     BONE    LICK 


281 


parf  in  tlii>  Kev<iliili<m;iry  War.  He  was  tmrn  at 
Philadelphia,  Jan.  ,S,  ITSii.  died  there,  I- el).  27,  1844. 
He  wasa  precocious  yoiiih.aiid  could  have  gradu- 
ated at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  at  the  age 
of  thirteen.  He  graduated  from  Princeton  in  1801, 
standing  at  the  head  of  his  class.  He  went  abroad 
as  secretary  to  .John  .\rnistrong,  minister  to  France ; 
w-iis  directed  to  audit  and  pay  claims  against  the 
ration,  using  the  purchase-money  of  Louisiana  ;  was 
secretary  for  Mr.  .Monroe  when  ho  went  as  minister 
to  Great  Britain.  In  ISO"  he  returned  home  and 
practiced  law,  giving  his  leisure  to  literary  iiursiiits. 
He  was  assistant  editor  of  the  "Portfolio,"  and  pre- 
pared the  report  of  Lewis  and  Clark's  expedition  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River  from  their  notes. 
In  the  legislature  to  which  he  was  elected  in  ISIO 
he  originated  an  educational  bill  which  was  so  far 
in  advance  of  the  times  that  it  could  not  be  passed 
till  1S30,  when  a  bill  similar  to  it  was  carried 
through  the  legislature.  Mr.  Biddle  was  largely 
intluential  in  rechaTtering  the  I'nited  States  bank. 
He  was  appointed  a  government  director,  and  later 
president  of  the  l)anlv.  In  1S21)  President  Jackson's 
war  on  this  institution  undermined  its  credit,  and  a 
financial  panic  ensued,which  all  the  efforts  of  Mr. 
Biddle  were  unavailing  to  ward  off.  He  resigned 
the  presidency  in  1839,  and  th(>  following  year  the 
tiaiik  failed.  Mr.  Biddle  was  a  man  of  great  and 
varied  talents,  and  one  who  commanded  the  confi- 
dence of  all  who  knew  him. 

BIEBUICH,a  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine.  2'.,  miles  south  of  Wiesliaden.  It  has  the 
castle  of  the  dukes  of  Nassau,  and  several  factories. 
Population,  10,000. 

1UEL.\.  Wii.KKi.M,  B.vnox  vox,  a  G?rman  astrono- 
mer, born  at  Kosia,  Prussia,  in  1782,  died  in  1850. 
He  di.scovered  the  comet  known  as  Biela's  comet. 
See  Britannica,  Vol.  VI,  p.  192;  Vol.  XVI,  p.  111. 

BIELO-OZKkO  ("white-Lake"),  a  lake  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Novgorod,  Russia.  It  doubtless  receives 
its  name  from  the  milkv  appearance  given  to  its 
water  in  stormy  weather  by  the  white  clay  of  which 
its  bed  is  composed. 

lilELSHOIILK,  a  singular  cavern  in  one  of  the 
Harz  Mountains,  called  Bielstein,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Bode,  in  tiie  duchy  of  Brunswick,  Germany. 
It  was  discovered  in  17(iS.  The  entrance  to  it  is 
more  than  100  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  stream. 
The  cavern  is  divided  into  eleven  main  compart- 
ments, and  contains  a  great  deal  of  that  curiously 
freakish  work  which  Nature  delights  to  execute, 
Blalailites. 

BIELSK,  a  town  of  Russian  Poland,  25  miles  south 
of  liialystok.  It  is  situated  in  a  very  fertile  district 
watered  by  the  Narev  and  Nurzek.  It  is  well  built, 
and  has  a  line  custom-house.     Population,  10,000. 

P.IENNE,  L.\Ki:,  a  body  of  water  10  miles  long 
by  from  1  to  8  wide,  situated  in  Berne  near  the 
foot  of  the  Jura  Mountains.  It  is  famous  for  in- 
closing the  island  St.  Pierre,  where  J.  J.  Rousseau 
lived  in  170").  In  the  southeastern  part  of  the  lake, 
the  subm<'rged,  pre-historic  remains  of  a  village  of 
lake-dwellers  Imve  been  foinid. 

IJIELZY,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Russia,  about 
150  miles  northwest  of  Odessa.  II  is  iiijted  for  an 
annual  fair,  which  is  held  here. 

BIENM.VLS,  plants  which  do  not  blossom  the 
first  season  of  their  growth,  but  flower  and  bear 
fruit  in  the  second  season,  and  then  die.  Plants 
which  in  ordinary  circumstances  are  biennials, 
often  becon;e  annuals  when  early  sowing,  warm 
weather,  («■  other  causes  promote  the  earlier  devel- 
opment of  a  llowering  stem.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  llowering  of  the  plant  is  prevented,  or  in  many 
cases,  if  it  is  merely  pri'vented  from  rij)eiiing  its 
seed   it  will  continue  to  live  for  a  much  longer  pe- 


riod;  as,  for  instance,  a  bed  of  parsley,  if  regularly 
cut,  will   remain  productive  for  a  number  olyears. 

I51EN  VILLE,  Jk.\.\-  B.\ptisti-;  dk,  born  in  Aiont- 
real  in  lOsO,  died  in  17G8,  With  his  brother,  Le- 
moine  d'Iberville,  he  undertook  an  expedition  in 
1090,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  He  was  the 
foimder  of  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  and  was  three 
times  appointed  governor  of  Louisiana. 

BIERSTADT,  Ai.bickt,  born  in  Diisseldorf,  Ger- 
many, Jan.  7,  1830.  His  taste  for  art  was  early 
shown,  as  he  made  excellent  crayon  sketches  in  his 
youth,  and  at  the  age  of  20  had  begun  work  in  oils. 
Three  years  later  he  went  from  New  Bedford,  .Mass., 
where  lie  had  been  brought  up,  to  his  birthplace, 
spending  four  years  in  the  study  of  art.  and  then 
going  to  Koine  to  further  prosecute  his  studies.  In 
1857  he  returned  to  America,  making  an  extensive 
tour  through  the  A\'est,  where  he  obtained  material 
for  many  subsequent  paintings.  He  has  three  times 
visited  Europe,  and  has  had  many  honors  conferred 
upon  him  botli  at  home  and  abroad.  Bierstadt  is 
famous  for  his  pictures  of  mountain  scenery.  Lnra- 
iiiie  I'cak,  Lodkiiir/  DiniSn  Oic  YoKi'tnite,  VuUeij  of  the 
Yosem-ilf,  In  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  California 
Onka,  are  among  his  best-known  works. 

BIERVLIET,  a  village  of  the  Netherlands,  prov- 
ince of  Zeeland,  73  miles  east-northeast  of  Sluis.  It 
was  the  birthjilace  of  William  J'>eukels,  who,  in  1,386, 
invented  the  method  of  curing  herrings.  In  1377 
Biervliet  was  detached  from  the  mainland  by  an  in- 
undation and  still  remains  insular. 

P.IES-B08CH,  a  marshy  sheet  of  water  of  the 
Netherlands,  b(>l  ween  the  provinces  North  Brabant 
and  South  Ilollaiul,  formed  in  November,  1421.  by 
an  inundation  which  destroyed  72  villages  and  100,- 
0(10  people,  and  forming  that  part  of  the  estuary  of 
the  Maas  called  Holland's  Diep. 

P'lGA,  a  Roman  term  applied  in  ancient  times  to 
vehicles  drawn  by  two  horses  abreast.  In  shape  it 
resembled  the  Greek  war-chariot — a  short  body  on 
two  w'heels,  low  and  open  behind,  w'here  Hie  chario- 
teer entered,  but  higher  and  closed  in  front. 

BIGAMY.  .See  Britannica,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  W)8-()9.  In 
the  United  States,  theprincijial  points  of  difTerence 
between  the  laws  of  the  \arious  individual  States 
are,  as  to  whether  the  offense  is  indictable  in  the 
Stale  in  which  the  ceremony  of  marriage  takes 
place  or  in  that  in  which  the  bigamous  parties 
actually  cohabit,  and,  further,  as  to  whether  a  cere- 
monial marriage  must  be  established  at  all.  Other- 
wise, the  general  princii)les  of  the  common  law 
holds  good  either  by  usage  or  by  statutory  enact- 
ment, in  all  the  States  alike. 

I'.K;  bethel,  a  locality  in  Virginia,  about  10 
miles  northwest  of  Fortress  Monroe.  It  was  the 
scene  of  an  engagement,  June  10,  18(il,  in  which  a 
body  of  Union  troops,  being  sent  by  General  Butler 
to  dislodge  a  detachment  of  Confederates  com- 
manded by  General  Magruder,  were  repulsed  with 
considerable  loss. 

BIG  BLACK  RIVER,  an  affluent  of  the  Miseis- 
sijipi,  which  it  enters  at  Grand  Gulf.  It  is  about 
200  miles  in  length,  and  is  navigable  for  about  50 
miles.  Its  banks  were  the  scene  of  important  mili- 
tary operations  in  connection  with  the  taking  of 
Vicksburg  in  1803.  At  a  bridge  crossing  the  river 
about  15  miles  east  of  that  city,  the  Union  forces 
under  General  Grant  carriinl  the  works  of  the  Con- 
federates under  General  Pemborton,  May  17.  cap- 
turing all  on  the  east  side  and  driving  those  on  the 
west  bank  to  their  final  retreat  within  the  defenses 
of  Vicksburg. 

BIG  HONE  LICK,  a  saline  spring  of  Kentucky, 
about  12  miles  so.ilh  of  Ibirlingion.  It  is  noted  for 
l.'ie  numerous  b^mes  I'ound  h<<re  of  tli;  maslnJon 
and  other  extinct  animals,  whiuh  are   believed  to 


282 


BIGELOW  —  BILBERRY 


have  come  to  "  lick  "  the  salt  and  to  have  perished  in 
the  then  marshy  soil. 

BIGELOW,  Erastus  Brigham,  born  at  West 
BoylstoM,  Mass.,  April  2, 1814,  died  at  Boston,  Dec. 
6,  1879.  His  lather,  a  cotton  weaver,  intended  he 
should  study  medicine,  but  Erastus  turned  his  at- 
tention to  invention.  In  this  field,  toward  which  he 
had  a  peculiar  bent,  he  was  successful.  Some  of  his 
inventions  were  a  hand-loom  for  suspender-webbing, 
an  automatic  loom  for  weaving  fine  counterpanes, 
a  loom  for  weaving  coach-lace,  and  power  looms  for 
the  weaving  of  two-ply  ingrain  carpets,  tapesti^' 
and  tapestry  velvet  carpets.  He  did  much  to  fur- 
ther the  prosperity  of  Clinton,  Mass.,  was  a  writer 
on  the  protective  tariff,  author  of  a  work  on  stenog- 
raphy,anda  member  of  the  Boston  Historical  Society. 

BIGELOW,  Jacob,  born  at  Sudbury,  Mass.,  Feb. 
27, 1787,  died  at  Boston,  Jan.  10,  1879.  He  was  a  Har- 
vard graduate  and  a  physician  of  Boston.  Being  a 
famous  botanist,  he  was  chosen  as  one  of  a  commit- 
tee of  five  to  form  the  American  Pharmacopceia. 
He  had  an  extensive  correspondence  with  scientific 
men  of  Europe,  several  of  whom  named  plants  for 
him.  For  20  years  he  was  physician  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts General  Hospital,  for  40  years  professoi  of 
materia  medica  in  Harvard,  and  from  1816  to  1827 
held  the  Rumford  professorship  in  the  college.  For 
many  years  he  was  president  of  the  Massachusetts 
Medical  Society  and  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences.  Dr.  Bigelow  was  interested  in 
educational  work,  and  labored  for  the  establishment 
of  technical  schools.  He  contributed  articles  for 
magazines,  and  wrote  several  books,  some  of  which 
were:  Fltiniht  Bostoniensis,  Elements  of  Technology, 
History  of  Mount  Auburn  (he  was  the  founder  of  this 
cemetery),  and  Nature  in  Disease. 

BIGELOW,  John,  journalist,  born  at  Maiden,  N. 
Y.,  Nov.  25,  1817.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Union  Col- 
lege and  practiced  law  in  New  York.  He  left  the 
law  and  entered  journalism.  He  edited  "The  Plebe- 
ian" and  the  "  Democratic  Review ;"  was  inspector 
of  Sing  Sing  prison ;  partner  with  Willian  Cullen 
Bryant  in  the  "Evening  Post;"  minister  to  France 
(18(35-67);  secretary  of  the  State  of  New  York  (1867- 
68) ;  made  an  lionorary  member  of  the  New  York 
Chamber  of  Commerce  (1886) ;  and  trustee  of  Sam- 
uel J.  Tilden's  estate. 

BIGG,  or  Big  Barley,  a  local  name  for  a  kind  of 
winter  barley  grown  in  Northern  Europe,  especially 
in  Scotland.  It  is  tlie  common  here,  or  four-rowed 
barley,  Jlordeum  riiUjare. 

BIGGAR,  a  town  of  Lanarkshire,  situated  28 
miles  southwest  of  Edinburgh,  with  which  it  has 
connection  by  rail.  Tlie  ('oih'giato  Churcli  of  St. 
Mary  was  founded  in  1545;  of  liogliall  Castle,  the 
seat  of  the  great  Fleming  family,  liardly  a  vestige 
remains.  Dr.  John  Brown,  autlior  of  Itali  and  His 
Friends,  was  born  in  the  United  Presbyterian 
manse;  and  Jolin  Gladstones  (1698-1756),  great- 
grandsire  of  W.  E.  Gladstone,  is  buried  in  the 
churchyard.     Population,  1,5.56. 

BIGGLFSWADF,  a  market-town  at  Bedford- 
shire, 41  miles  norlhwest  of  London  by  rail.  It 
is  a  groat  corn  market.     Popuhition,  4,947. 

BIG  HOK?'.',  a  navigable  river  of  tlie  United 
States,  and  tfie  largest  adliient  of  the  YeHowstone, 
rises  near  KrcMiionl's  Peak  in  I  he  Hocky  Mountains, 
in  the  northwest  of  Wyoming,  and  lias  a  course  of 
about  M.'iO  miles. 

liKillT,  in  nautical  language,  the  bent  or  doubled 

f)art  of  a  rope.  Thus  one  anclior  may  "  hook  the 
)iglil"of  the  cabh-  f)f  another,  and  tlicreby  cause  en- 
tanglement. In  g(v)graj)hy  hight  has  much  the 
game  sense  as  "  bay." 

lilGNONlA,  a  genus  of  American  tropical  and 
Bub-tnipical   plants,    typifying    the   natural    order 


Biynoiiiareir.  It  includes  many  very  handsome 
climbers  which  bear  a  beautiful  bell-shaped  flower 
— notably  the  gorgeous  trumpet  flower,  Teroma  radi- 
cans,  or  Bignonia  radirans  of  the  United  States. 

BIGNONIACE^E,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  generally  with  compound  leaves.  The  flow- 
ers are  showy,  and  are  among  the  most  striking 
ornaments  of  tropical  forests.  The  corolla  is  of  one 
petal  more  or  less  trumpet-shaped  and  irregular, 
the  stamens  are  five  in  number  and  unequal,  the 
ovary  is  free,  seated  on  a  disk,  one  to  two-celled,  the 
fruit  sometimes  capsular  sometimes  drupaceous. 
There  are  about  500  known  species  ;  in  many  oases 
noble  trees,  and  some  of  them  afford  valuable  tim- 
ber. The  fleshy  sweet  root  of  CraniolQria  annua 
is  preserved  in  sugar  as  a  delicacy  by  the  Creoles. 

BIGORRE,  a  mountainous  district  in  the  south- 
western part  of  France,  formerly  belonging  to  Gas- 
cony,  but  now  for  the  most  part  embraced  in  the 
department  of  Hautes-Pyrenees.  Tarbes  has  been 
the  chief  town  since  the  days  of  the  Romans. 

BIG  RAPIDS,  a  city  of  Mich.,  county-seat  of 
Mecosta  county.  It  is  situated  on  the  ^luskegon 
River,  about  fifty-five  miles  north  of  Grand  Rapids. 
It  is  a  very  important  lumber  market,  and  has  an 
extensive  water-power  and  numerous  manufactories 
of  shingles,  lumber,  and  furniture,  besides  a  number 
of  mills,  foundries,  and  machine-shops. 

BIG  SANDY  RIVER,  also  called  Ch.a.tter.\wah, 
a  navigable  affluent  of  the  Ohio,  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  two  branches  which  rise  in  Virginia.  The 
west  fork  traverses  several  counties  of  Kentucky, 
and  the  east  fork  is,  during  the  latter  part  of  its 
course,  the  boundary  between  the  two  States. 

BIHACH,  one  of  the  strongest  fortress  towns  of 
Croatia,  European  Turkey,  situated  on  an  island  in 
the  Una,  near  the  frontier  of  Dalmatia.  It  has  been 
the  scene  of  frequent  contests  during  the  Turkish 
wars.     Population,  3,000. 

BIHAR,  a  county  of  Hungary,  with  an  area  of 
4,279  square  miles.  It  is  mountainous  in  the  east, 
and  has  barren  heaths  and  marshes  in  the  west. 
The  western  part  has  many  small  rivers.  Wheat, 
wine  and  tobacco  are  largely  produced. 

BIIIE,  a  fruitful  district  of  South  Africa,  east  of 
Benguela,  and  under  Portuguese  influence.  The 
eastern  part  rises  to  a  lofty  plateau,  where  the  cli- 
mate is  delightful.  Bihe  is  an  important  caravan 
center,  as  the  only  route  across  the  continent  south 
of  the  Congo  passes  through  it.  The  trade  is  chiefly 
in  slaves  and  ivory.  Area,  2,500  square  miles.  Pop- 
ulation, 95,000. 

1! I.I .\  WAR,  a  petty  native  state  in  the  Bun- 
dclkliand  Agency,  with  an  area  of  971  si|uare  miles. 
Diamoiids  and  ironstone  are  found.  The  country  is 
poor  and  hilly.     Population,  113,285. 

lUJ  K.VII.Mv,  next  to  the  capital  the  largest  town 
of  Cashmere,  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Jailuni, 
about  25  miles  tothe  southeast  of  the  metropolis,  in 
latitude  oS"^  47'  north  and  longitude  75'^  i:-!'  east.  A 
feature  worthy  of  notice  is  a  wooden  bridge  across 
tl'.e  .I;iilum  which,  notwithstanding  Its  simplicity 
and  fragility,  has  endured  for  centuries. 

I'.I.I  I'. 1 1.\  Kl',  or  Pii.iiiAnAii,  a  town  in  Kashmir 
state,  India,  on  the  Jhelum,  25  miles  southeast  of 
Serinagur.     It  is   the  second  city  in  the  state. 

P.IK  1 1,  the  name  given  by  the  natives  of  India  to 
a  poison  derived  from  the  roots  of  Art}uitum  ferox,a 
sp(>cies  of  aconite. 

BILANDEIv,  a  small  two-masted  merchant  ves- 
sel, distinguished  from  others  chiefly  by  a  peculiar 
shape  and  arrangement  of  the  inain-sai1.  Of  these 
vessels,  which  were  probalily  of  l^'rench  origin,  there 
are  few   remaining. 

lilLI'.KHRV,  a  shrub  and  its  fruit,  VarciniuiJ* 
myrllthis,  ti.e  ICunqx^an  wliort  leberry.     In  Scotland 


B  I  L  I!  I  LIS—  i;  I  I.  L    ()  F    A  T  T  A  1  .\  U  K  R 


283 


the  bilberry  is  called  blaebirrii,  from  its  W<ii  or  dark- 
blue  color. 

BIUSILIS,  ail  old  Iberian  city  of  Spain,  two 
miles  east  from  CaliUayiid.  in  tlie  province  of  Sara- 
gossa.  celebrated  as  the  birthplace  of  the  poet  Mar- 
tial ;  also  famed  for  its  highly-tempered  steel  blades. 
Under  the  Komans  it  "was  a  municiiial  town  with 
the  surname  Augusta. 

BILBOES,  long  bars  or  bolts  of  iron  with  shackles 
sliding  on  them  and  a  lock  at  one  end.  When  an 
offender  on  ship  board  is  "put  in  irons,"  it  implies 
that  bilboes  are  fastened  to  him  more  or  less  pon- 
derous according  to  the  degree  of  his  oiTense.  The 
bilboes  clasp  the  ankles  as  the  handcufl's  clasp  the 
wrists. 

BILGE,  the  part  of  the  bottom  of  a  ship  nearest 
the  keel,  and  always  more  nearly  horizontal  than 
vertical.  .\  ship  usually  rests  on  the  keel  and  one 
bilge  when  aground.  The  name  bii.oe-w.vter  is 
given  to  rain  or  sea-water  which- trickles  down  to 
the  bilgi'.  and  which,  being  ditlicult  of  access,  be- 
comes dirty  and  offensive. 

BILIIAKZLV  (Di.<tomiim).a  parasitic  flat  worm  in 
the  fluke  or  Trematode  order,  and  belonging  either 
to  the  same  genus  as  the  common  liver-tiuke,  Jiis- 
tojnum  liijialiciun,  or  to  one  very  clo.sely  related.  In 
all  other  Trematodes  the  sexes  are  united,  the  ani- 
mals are  hermaphrodite,  but  here,  the  male  being 
the  larger,  retains  the  female  in  a  grooved  canal, 
formed  by  an  involution  of  the  edges  of  the  concave 
side  of  the  body.  Pairs  thus  united  are  found  in  the 
blood-vessels  of  man,  especiall>  in  the  urinary 
organs,  the  ova  escaping  through  an  ulceration 
caused  by  the  presence  of  the  parent.  They  occur 
from  Egypt  southwards  to  the  tlape.  It  is  said  tliat 
about  half  of  the  Fellah  and  Copt  population  of 
Egypt  sufTer  from  this  parasite.  It  was  named 
afterTheodore  Bilharz.  an  old  helminthologist.  See 
Britannica,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  ,>tO. 

BILIN.  a  town  of  Bohemia,  beautifully  situated 
in  the  valley  of  the  Bila,  and  famous  for  its  mineral 
springs,  the  waters  of  which  it  e.\i)orts  to  the  ex- 
tent of  500,000  jars  annually.  It  has  two  castles, 
and  in  its  vicinity  there  is  a  remarkable  isolated 
clinkstone  rock,  called  Biliner  Stein,  and  the  Tri- 
poli earth  found  at  Eilin  has  lieen  shown  to  be  the 
remains  of  infusoria.  It  has  manufactories  of  cotton- 
yarn.     Population,  3.000. 

BILL,  or  liis.^RME,  a  weapon  of  warfare  used  in 
England  and  on  the  Continent  before  the  introduc- 
tion of  firearms.  It  was  a  kind  of  battle-axe  hav- 
ing a  blade  shaped  somewhat  like  a  sickle,  to  which 
a  drawing  movement  was  given  in  striking. 
_  BILL,  or  Be.\k.  See  Brifannica,  Vol.  HI,  pp.  GOO- 
TIT. 

HiLL.\UDIKRA,  or  Applebury.a  genus  of  shrubs 
of  the  natural  order  Pitlosporacr-r.  They  have  simple 
alternate  evergreen  leaves,  and  axillary  pendulous 
flowers.  The  flowers  have  a  calyx  of  five  sepals, 
and  a  bell-shaped  corolla  of  five  "petals.  The  fruit 
is  a  soft  spongy  pericarp  with  inflated  cells.  If  is 
edible,  although  not  destitute  of  a  resinous  char- 
acter, which  prevails  in  the  order.  It  is  a  native  of 
Australia. 

BILLIN(;S,an  important  city  of  Mont  ana,  county- 
seat  of  Yellowstone  county,  situated  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Yellowstone  Kiver,  about  sixty  inil.'s 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Big  Horn.  It  is  an  important 
wool-market,  and  the  shipping-point  for  the  stock- 
ranges  of  the  surrounding  country.  Artificial  irri- 
gation is  rapidly  extending  the  area  of  cultivated 
land  iti  tlip  vicinity. 

BILl^r.HOKEHS,  persons  who,  being  skilled  in 
matters  pertaining  to  the  money. market,  engage, 
either  on  their  own  account  orthat  of  their  em- 
ployers,   in    the    purchase    and    sale    of     foreign 


and   inland    bills    of    exchange,    and     promiss  tj 
notes. 

BILL-CHAMBER,  a  department  of  the  court  of 
sessions  in  Scotland  which  deals  with  all  matters  of 
a  summary  nature,  and  generally  all  cases  requir- 
ing the  immediate  interposition  of  judicial  au- 
thority for  arrestment  of  funds  or  inhabitation  of 
heritable  property,  for  stay  or  suspension  of  dili- 
gence or  execution.  Since  1.S13  the  bill-chamber  is 
presided  over  by  a  single  judge,  called  the  lord 
ordinary  on  the  bills,  and  during  the  sittings  of  i  he 
court  of  sessions  the  position  is  occupied  by  the 
last-a])pointed  judge  of  the  court ;  but  in  vacation 
the  bill-chamber  exercises  many  of  the  powers  of 
the  court  of  sessions,  and  is  presided  over  by  a  ro- 
tation of  judges. 

BILLET,  in  arcliitecture,  an  ornament  belonging 
to  the  Xorman  style,  much  used  in  early  media-val 
work,  resembling  a  billet  of  wood,  or  a  small  section 
of  round  molding,  of  which  a  series  were  placed  at 
regular  intervals  in  or  upon  a  molding.  When  used 
in  several  rows  the  billets  were  placed  alter- 
nately. 

BILLET,  in  heraldry,  a  bearing  in  the  form  of  a 
small  rectangle,  represented  flat  without  shadow 
or  relief.  A  field  or  charge  strewed  with  an  in- 
definite number  of  billets  is  called  billety  or  bil- 
lettee. 

BILL  IN  EQUITY,  a  statement  of  a  plaintiff's 
casein  a  suit  in  equity.  It  is  said  to  be  an  original 
bill  if  it  initiates  llie  suit,  and  a  bill  not  original  if 
used  for  the  purpose  of  controverting,  suspend- 
ing, or  revising  a  proceeding,  or  for  cross-litiga- 
tion. 

BILLIXGS,  a  small  railroad  town  of  Christian 
county.  Mo.,  distant  261  miles  from  St.  Louis.  The 
Southwestern  Christian  College  and  the  Christian 
Colony  are  located  here.  It  has  manufactories  of 
flour,  plows,  and  wagons. 

BILLIXGS,  .losn.     See  Sii.vw.  Hi-:xrv  W. 

BILLINGSGATE,  a  wharf  and  fish  market  a  little 
below  London  Bridge.  It  was  opened  in  lobS  as  a 
landing  place  for  jirovisions,  and  in  1099  was  made 
a  free  and  open  market  for  all  sorts  of  fish.  It  is 
the  only  wholesale  fish  market  in  London.  The 
fishermen  consign  their  cargoes  to  the  dealers,  who 
occupy  stalls  in  the  market,  and  these  sujiply  the 
retail  dealers.  An  officer  has  the  general  superirf- 
tendence  of  the  market,  and  the  quality  of  all  fish 
offered  for  sale  is  tested  by  inspectors.  See  Brit- 
annica, Vol.  XIV,  p.  829. 

BILLINGTON,  Ei.iz.^betu,  a  celebrated  English 
singer,  born  in  London  in  1T(;9,  died  in  181.S.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  a  German  musician  named 
Weiehsel.  She  early  came  forward  as  a  performer 
on  the  piano  and  as  acomposer,  and  having  married 
her  music  teacher. Thomas  Billingt(>n,she  appeared 
with  brilliant  success  on  the  opera  stage  in  Dublin 
in  iT8i\  Siie  perfected  her  musical  education  under 
Sacchini  in  Paris,  who  wrote  for  her  his  opera,  Inez 
de  <^aslro,  while  she  was  singing  in  Naples  in  1T94. 
She  appeared  subsequently  in  Venice  and  Rome, 
retiring  from  the  stage  in  1S09. 

BILLOF  AUVENTCUK, a  writing  by  a  merchant 
ship-owner  or  master  to  show  that  gnnds  shipped 
by  him  on  board  a  certain  vessel  are  the  i)roperty 
of  another,  whose '(I'l'd^ov  or  chance  the  transac- 
tion is,  he  himself  being  responsitile  only  for  their 
delivery.  Generallv,  in  com/nercial  law,  an  ad- 
venture may  be  snici  to  be  a  speculation  in  goods 
shipped  under  the  care  of  a  .'<uperca)(io,  to  be  dis- 
posed of  by  him  to  (he  best  advantage,  forthe  bene- 
fit of  his  em|iloyers. 

BIIJ,  OK  ATTAINDER.  See  Britannica.  Vol. 
Ill,  p.  52;  Vol.  VIII,  p.  .TiO.  In  the  Inited  States 
the  passage  of  any  bill  of  attainder,  by  Congress  or 


284 


BILL    OF    CREDIT— Bi:\I  ETA  L  LIS  M 


b}'  an  individual  State,  is  prohibited  by  the  Consti- 
tution. 

BILL  OF  CREDIT,  a  letter  authorizing  a  third 
party  to  give  credit  to  a  second  on  account  of  the 
first.'  It  is  known  as  a  special  bill  of  credit  if  the 
third  party  is  specifically  addressed,  and  as  a  gen- 
eral bill  if  addressed  indefinitely  to  any  who  may 
see  lit  to  give  the  l)earer  the  credit  proposed.  The 
term,  as  used  by  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
Stares,  which  prohibits  the  emitting  of  bills  of 
credit  by  any  State,  is  construed  to  mean  paper 
issued  by  a  State  on  its  mere  faith  and  credit  to  be 
circulated  as  legal  tender. 

BILL  OF  EXCEPTIONS,  a  statement  of  objec- 
tions, by  way  of  appeal,  against  the  decision  of  a 
judge  who  is  trying  a  case  with  a  jury  in  the  court  of 
sessions.  The  objection  may  be  that  tlie  judge  has 
misdirected  tlie  jury  in  point  of  law,  or  has  improp- 
erly rejected  or  admitted  evidence.  Tlie  phrase  was, 
prior  to  the  judicature  act,  also  used  in  England  in 
vlie  same  sense,  but  is  now  merged  in  the  "motion 
for  a  new  trial." 

BILL  OF  HEALTH,  a  certificate,  signed  by  a 
consul  or  other  authority,  delivered  to  the  master 
of  a  ship  at  the  time  of  clearing  from  a  port  or 
place  suspected  of  being  subject  to  infection:, 
disorders,  certifying  tlie  state  of  health  at  the 
time  that  such  ship  sailed.  A  clean  bilHmports  that 
at  the  time  the  sliip  sailed  no  infectious  disorder 
was  known  to  exist.  A  suspected  bill,  commonly 
called  a  touched  patent  or  bill,  imports  that  there 
were  rumors  of  an  infectious  disorder,  but  it  had 
not  yet  appeared.  A.  foul  bill,  or  the  absence  of  a 
clean  bill,  imports  that  the  place  was  infected  when 
the  vessel  sailed. 

BILL  OF  MORTALITY,  a  return  of  the  deaths 
within  a  certain  district,  specifying  the  diseases, 
and  giving  a  progressive  view  of  tlie  age  at  death. 

BILL  OF  PAI.XS  AND  PENALTIES.  See  Brit- 
annica.Vol.  VIII,  p.  3(35.  The  provision  of  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  that  no  bill  of  attain- 
der, nor  any  ex  post  fueto  law,  shall  be  passed  by 
Congress  or  by  a  State  is  held  to  include  bills  of 
pains  and  penalties. 

BILL  OF  RI(  aiTS.  The  history  of  the  English 
bill  of  rights,  and  its  effect  upon  the  constitutional 
history  of  this  country,  are  narrated  in  Britannica, 
Vol.  XX,  p.  iVi-a.  ^lany  of  its  provisions  have  been 
inserted  literally  in  the  amendments  to  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States,  and  arc  found  in  our 
State  constitutions. 

HILL  OF  SIOHT,  an  entry  of  imported  goods  of 
which  the  merchant  does  not  know  the  quantity  or 
<Hiality.  This  is  jiermitted  to  save  time  by  the  cus- 
t(uns  authorities  on  sworn  information.  The  bill 
must  be  made  perfect  in  three  days  by  indorsing 
the  iiarticulars  re<iuired  for  warehousing,  payment 
of  duty,  or  delivery  free  of  duty.  If  the  entry  is 
not  completed  within  a  month  the  goods  are  sold. 

BILL  OF  STORES,  a  list  of  necessary  stores  and 
provisions  carried  by  merchant  ships.  It  is  made 
out  by  the  master  and  countersigned  by  the  col- 
lector of  customs,  the  object  being  to  prevent 
frauds  on  the  revenue. 

illLLOM,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
ruy-de-Pome,  situated  on  a  hill  14  miles  east  south- 
east of  Clermont.  It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
towns  of  Auvergne,  and  was  formerly  surrounded 
by  walls,  which  have  now  disappeared.  In  Hwa 
university  was  founded  at  Billoni,  which  passed  into 
the  liaiids  of  the  .lesuils  a  century  later,  and  was 
governed  by  them  until  the  suppression  of  their 
order.  It  has  manufactories  of  fine  pottery.  Pop- 
ulal  ion,J,2lKi. 

IlILLON.an  alloy  of  copper  and  silver,  in  which 
the  copper  predominates,  and  which  is  used  in  some 


countries  for  the  smaller  denominations  of  money. 
See  Britannica,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  630. 

BILNEY,  THOM.4S  (c.  1495-1531),  an  English  mar- 
tyr, born  about  1495,  probably  at  Norwich.  He 
studied  at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  was  or- 
dained in  1519.  He  was  opposed  to  the  formality  of 
the  schoolmen,  and  denounced  saint  and  relic  wor- 
ship, converting  a  number  of  young  Cambridge  men 
to  his  views.  In  1527  he  was  arraigned  before  Wool- 
sey,and,  recanting,  was  absolved,  but  was  neverthe- 
less confined  in  the  Tower  of  London  for  more  than 
a  year.  Some  timeafter  his  release,  being  overcome 
with  remorse  for  his  faithlessness,  he  began  to 
preach  in  the  fields  of  Norfolk,  but  was  soon  appre- 
hended and  condemned ;  and,  although  allowed  to 
receive  the  sacraments  of  the  church,  from  which 
he  really  differed  but  little,  he  was  burnedas  a  here- 
tic at  Norwich,  Aug.  19,  1531. 

BILOXI,  a  town  of  Mississippi,  on  the  bay  of  the 
same  name,  situated  in  Harrison  county.  It  has  a 
railroad,  a  convent,  an  iron  light-house,  and  is  con- 
sidered a  pleasant  summer  resort. 

BIMA,  or  Bon.io,  a  seaport  in  Sumbawa,  one  of  the 
Sunda  Isles,  in  latitude  8°  30'  south,  and  longitude 
119°  east.  It  is  on  a  bay  of  the  north  coast,  being 
100  miles  to  the  east  of  Sumbawa,  a  town  feudally 
dependent  on  its  sultan.  Its,  chief  exports  are 
horses  and  timber. 

BLMANA  (Latin,  "two-handed"),  a  term  first 
employed -by  the  Gottingeii  anatomist  Blumenbach 
(1752-1840)  to  describe  the  human  species  alone. 
The  separate  order  thus  designated  was  recognized 
by  Cuvier  and  by  most  of  his  contemporaries  and 
immediate  successors.  It  has  since  been  shown, 
however,  that  man  differs  less  from  the  anthropoid 
apes  than  these  apes  do  from  most  monkeys,  and 
the  term  Bhinina  is  now  rarely  used,  man  lieing  in- 
cluded with  apes,  monkeys,  and  lemurs  in  the  old 
Linnaan  order.  Primates.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  XV, 
p.  444. 

BIMETALLISM,  a  term  used  to  denote  a  double 
monetary  standard  of  value  as  fixed  by  legislative 
enactment;  specifically  it  is  that  system  of  coinage 
which  recognizes  either  silver  or  gold  coin  as  legal 
tender  to  any  amount  as  a  circulating  niediuin  and 
at  a  fixed  relative  value.  It  includes  two  essential 
features:  (1)  an  open  mint, ready  tocoin  any  cpian- 
tity  of  either  gold  or  silver  which  may  be  brought 
to  it,  and  (2)  the  right  on  the  part  of  the  debtor  to 
discharge  his  liabilities,  at  his  option,  in  either  of 
the  two  metals  at  the  estalilislied  legal  ratio.  It 
depends  on  the  possibility  of  keeping  the  legal 
ratio  between  gold  and  silver  in  the  bullion  market 
the  same.  In  the  ancient  world,  the  ratio  of  gold 
to  silver  in  the  bimetallic^  coinage  established  by 
(_'r(esus,and  existing  down  to  the  time  of  .Vlexander, 
was  as  1  to  13.5.  In  modern  times  the  market  ratios 
have  greatly  changed  in  different  countries  and  in 
different  terms  of  years.  In  the  year  1500  the  rela- 
tive market  value  of  gold  and  silver  was  as  1  to 
10.75;  from  1021  to  ](!40  it  changed  to  1  to  14; 
then,  until  lSOO,llucluated  between  this  latter  value 
and  1  ti^  15.27;  in  )87ii  it  reached  1  to  17.77;  in  1880 
it  was  1  to  IS.Oti;  in  1SS5  the  ratio  was  1  to  20. 

An  international  monetary  conference  was  held 
in  Paris  in  1S78  for  the  purjiose  of  establishing  an 
iMternational  standard  of  value.  A  royal  commis- 
sion was  appointed  in  1880  in  England  to  inquire 
into  the  "changes  in  the  relative  ■.  aluesof  the  pre- 
cious metals,"  and  this  commission  made  its  report 
in  1888.  The  report  was  repr'aled  by  tlie  United 
States  (iovernment  in  1S89.  Anollu>r  interni'tional 
monetary  congress  was  held  in  Paris  in  ]SS9,atid  in 
IsOOlhe  I'nited  States  Congress  passed  an  act  em- 
powering the  I'nited  StatesTreasury  to  buy  .in  ag- 
gregate amount  of  4,500,000  oz. of  silver  a  month,  the 


BIM  BI  A  — liloG  RAIMI  V 


285 


higlie*t  price  paid  to  ho  not  more  than  one  dollar  for 
371.25  gniiii!-  of  pure  silver,  this  Iieing  the  American 
l>inietallic  par  value  at  five  time.  In  a  few  months 
the  price  rose  25  per  cent.  The  United  States  had 
been  hitherto  steady  exporters  of  the  metal,  but 
exportation  received  a  check.  It  is  possible,  should 
the  market  value  of  silver  reach  the  figure  estab- 
lished by  the  above  legislative  action,  that  the 
United  Slates  may  boldly  adopt  bimetallism  in  con- 
junction with  the  European  nations  that  are  mem- 
bers of  the  Latin  Monetary  Union. 

BIMBIA,  a  district  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Cameroon  Mountains  in  Africa,  and  on  the  northern 
fiank  of  the  river  Bimbia.  Since  1S84  it  has  been 
part  of  the  German  protectorate. 

BINAB,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of 
Azerbijan,  beautifully  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Soti  Chai.  in  the  midst  of  orchards  and  vineyards, 
55  miles  south-southwest  of  Tabriz.  The  streets 
are  very  clean,  many  of  them  having  a  stream  of 
pi  re  water  flowing  down  the  center. 

B.XASCO,  a  town  of  f^ombardy,  11  miles  north- 
west of  Pavia.  It  is  defended  by  a  castle,  where, 
in  1418,  Beatrice  di  Tenda,  w"ife  of  the  Duke 
Filippo  Maria,  was  beheaded  by  order  of  her  hus- 
band. 

BIX-BIR-KILISA,  the  name  of  extensive  ruins 
in  the  pashalic  of  Karamania,  Asia  Minor,  20  miles 
north-northwest  of  Karama.  The  ruins  consist 
cliiefly  of  the  remains  of  Byzantine  churches,  evi- 
dently of  great  antiquity,  and  some  of  considerable 
size.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  ancient  Lystra,  where 
the  cripple  was  healed  by  St.  Paul. 

BINCHE.  a  town  of  Bel^Mum,  on  the  Haine,  10 
miles  from  Mons.  It  is  well  built  and  walled,  with 
a  line  square,  ornamented  with  a  fountain.  It  has 
manufactories  of  leather,  cutlery,  glass,  etc.,  and 
trade  in  lace,  paper,  marble  and  coal.  Population, 
5.'iiK». 

BIXDRABAN",  a  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Jumna,  in  the  district  of  Muttra,  823  miles  to  the 
northwest  of  Calcutta,  and  92  miles  to  the  south  of 
Delhi.  Superstition  seems  to  be  the  principal  busi- 
ness of  the  place,  crowds  of  pilgrims  come  from  all 
parts  of  India,  more  particularly  in  honor  of 
Krishna,  and  through  the  munificence  of  wealthy 
devotees  sacred  edifices  are  constantly  becoming 
more  numerous  and  costly.  Here,  as  "at  Benares, 
the  immediate  margin  of  the  river  is  occupied  by 
flights  of  steps;  these  extend  for  about  a  mile 
along  the  liunk,  and  are  constructed  of  red  stone 
brought  from  .Teypore,  nearly  \oO  miles  distant. 
Population.  21.550. 

BIXGIl.VMTOX,  a  prosperous  city  of  Xew  York, 
county-seat  of  Broome  county,  situated  on  the 
north  branch  of  the  Susquehanna  Kiver,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Chenango  Kiver,  on  the  Chenango 
canal,  215  miles  northwest  of  Xew  York.  The  city 
is  sup|)lied  with  water  from  the  Susquehanna 
River  l>y  the  Holley  system.  Tlie  court-house  is  a 
haTidsomo  edifice,  modeled  after  St.  Paul's  in  Lon- 
don, and  contains  a  county  law  library.  The  Xew 
York  State  .\sylum  for  Inebri:ift'.~,  having  failed  in 
the  experiment  of  reforming  inebriates,  is  now  used 
as  a  State  asylum  for  the  chronic  insane.  The  Bing- 
hamton  .\cadeniy,  a  Roman  Catholic  academy, 
parochial  school,  the  Susquehanna  Vallev  Home,"a 
refuge  for  orphan  children,  and  St.  Marv's  Home 
f'«r  Indig-nt  Children,  are  among  the  educational 
and  charitable  insf  itufions.  The  city  was  founded 
by  William  Bingham  in  1~S7,  incorporated  a.^  a  vil- 
lage in  I'^IS.  and  liecame  a  city  in  1867.  Population 
in  1S.S0.  17.317:  in  I .SSK),  ."Jo.CHJS. 

BIXXACLE,  a  wooden  liox  or  case,  containing  a 
ship's  compass  together  with  other  apparatus  es- 
sential to  its   use.     In  large  ships  there  are  gen- 


erally two  binnacles,  one  for   tin-  ^ll•l'rsman  and 
one  for  the  oHicer  who  superintends  the  steering. 

BIXXEY.  HoR.^cK,  an  eminent  lawyer,  born  at 
Philadelphia,  Pa..  .Ian.  4,  1780,  died  there  Aug.  12, 
1875.  He  was  of  English  and  Scotch  descent,  and 
his  father  had  been  an  army  surgeon.  He  was  a 
Harvard  graduate,  who  won  high  honors;  studied 
law  with  Jared  Ingersoll;  was  called  to  the  bar  at 
the  age  of  twenty.  In  fifteen  years  he  won  all  the 
fame  and  practice  lie  could  wish  for.  He  had  by 
this  time  prei)ared  tlie  volumes  which  contain  the 
supreme  court  decisions  of  Pennsylvania.  These 
volumes  are  highly  esteemed.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Twenty-third  Congress,  and  there  defended  the 
United  States  bank.  He  declined  reelection,  and  re- 
tired from  active  public  life.  He  occasionally  gave 
legal writtenopinions.and  his  last  notable  public  ser- 
vices were  in  regard  to  the  case  between  Bida!  and 
Girard's  executors.  Mr.  Binney  was  a  famous  stu- 
dent, remarkably  fond  of  reading,  while,  as  an  orator, 
he  was  gifted  with  a  melodious  voice  and  dignified 
manners.  He  was  a  faultless  logician,  and  a  power- 
ful advocate. 

BIXOCULAR,  a  field  glass,  opera  glass,  or  micro- 
scope fitted  for  tlie  simultaneous  use  of  both  eyes. 
See  Britanniea,  Yol.  XYI,  p.  272. 

BIXTL'ROXG,  a  genus  of  quadrupeds,  neary  al- 
lied to  raccoons,  from  which  the  cliief  distinction 
is  in  the  smaller  and  less  tuberculated  back  molar 
teeth.  Only  two  species  are  known,  natives  of 
^Malacca.  Sumatra,  Java,  etc.  See  Britanniea,  YoL 
XY,  p.  436. 

BIUBIO,  the  largest,  river  of  Chile,  l!  has  a 
west-northwest  course  from  the  .A.ndes  to  Concep- 
cion  on  the  Pacific,  being  two  miles  wide  at  its 
mouth,  and  navigable  for  boats  from  the  sea  to  the 
mountains.  Its  lower  stream  separates  the  prov- 
ince of  Concepcion  on  the  north  from  Independent 
Araucaniaon  the  south. 

BIOGENESIS,  the  name  used  by  Huxley  for 
generation  in  an  ordinary  sense ;  the  theory  that 
living  matter  always  arises  by  the  agency  of  pre- 
existing living  matter.  Biogenesis  is  the  converse 
of  abic(je)U'si.-<.  spontaneous  generation. 

BIOGRAPHY,  the  representation  in  continuous 
narrative  of  the  life  and  chaiacter  of  a  particular 
individual.  It  may  merely  detail  the  historical 
sequence  of  the  incidents  of  a  man's  life,  or  it  may 
be  an  elaborate  attempt  at  an  analysis  of  his  char- 
acter, and  at  a  complete  reconstruction  of  t  he  whole 
motives  of  his  actions.  To  the  former  class  mainly 
belong  the  ancient  examples  of  biography,  as  the 
J.l/e  vf  Aijricola,  by  his  son-in-law,  Tacitus,  and  the 
/.I'civi  ascribed  to  Cornelius  Xepos;  while  modern 
Viiographers  have  mostly  aimed  at  llie  latter 
n-ethofi.  But  as  the  inward  life  is  revealed  in  the 
outward,  so  the  most  dignified  and  reticent  biog- 
raphy must  give  some  real  insiglit  into  the  charac- 
ter of  the  man.  Xo  little  of  the  interest  in  ancient 
and  modern  histories  alike  depends  on  the  pictures 
of  men  and  women  with  which  their  pages  are 
lighted  up,  and  when  the  hasty  sketches  are  by  an- 
alysts like  Livy  and  Tacitus,  we  get  from  them  a 
truer  impression  than  from  the  most  finished  biog- 
raphy by  a  writer  of  less  insight.  A  biographer 
may  not  have  the  ability  to  see  under  the  surface 
the  hidden  springs  of  character,  and  thus  under- 
stand the  relative  significance  of  things,  and  in  pro- 
portion as  he  is  wanting  in  this  insight  is  he  liable 
to  give  an  untrue  picture  of  his  siibji'Cl.  Especially 
is  this  danger  close  lo  him  who  Ii:is  lo  deal  with  a 
lime  or  a  society  in  which  he  himself  has  not  lived  ; 
while,  in  writing  modern  biographies,  he  is  apt  to 
err  by  not  selecting  merely  the  significant.  Of 
strictly  biographical  works,  the  most  valuable  that 
has  come  tu  us  from  the  ancient   Greeks  is  the 


286 


B  I  0  P  L  A  S  M  —  B  I  R  D    ISLAND 


Lives  of  Plutarch,  and  from  Roman  literature  the 
Agricola  of  Tacitus.  Besides  these  we  have  the 
Lives  of  Cornelius  Xepos,  the  writings  of  Suetonius, 
the  Life  of  Alexander  the  Great,  by  Curtius  ;  Lives:  of 
the  Sophists,  by  Philostratus,  and  a  Life  of  Plato,  by 
Olyuipiodorus.  Later  we  have,  in  ecclesiastical 
literature,  the  Lives  of  the  Fathers',  by  Saint  Jerome, 
and  numerous  biographies  of  saints,  martyrs,  etc. 
In  the  French  and  German  languages  there  are 
many  excellent  example.s  of  biography.  Here  it 
may  be  enough  to  mention  the  names  of  the 
authors  of  those  wliich  are  among  the  most  val- 
ur.ble:  In  France,  Flechier,  Fontenelle,  Voltaire, 
Boissy  I'Anglas,  Villemain,  Cousin  ;  and,  in  Ger- 
many, Schroclvh,  Herder,  Klein,  Meissner,  Heeren, 
Liiden,  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  Barthold,  Dijring, 
i^ertz,  Haym,  Arneth,  Otto  Jahn,  Chrysander, 
Kapp,  and  Drovsen.  Some  excellent  biographies 
th.'.t  have  bee;'  translated  into  English  are  Kost- 
lia's  Luther,  Zellor's  Strauss,  Lomenie's  Bvaurnar- 
chais,  Duntzer's  I'dethe.  Schiller  and  Lessing.  Among 
English  biograph'.r  may  bo  specially  mentioned 
Brswell's  Lif'  ^/  Jji'nso:-;  Lockhart's  Scott;  Moore's 
ISyroi  :  Mori  /s  Dluer  il  md  Rousseau;  Trevelyan's 
jdacaulay  and  For;  i.'  Theodore  Martin's  Life  of 
the  J  rince  Jonsor';  Ca.'lyle's  Frederick  the  Great,  his 
Schiller,  and  hi  Letters  and  Speeches  of  Oliver  Crom- 
wd  ;  Lewe  's  Goethe;  Talfourd's  Lamb;  Washington 
Irving's  Columbus;  Sparlts's  Washington;  Helps's 
Corlez,  and  his  P'lzarro,  and  Froude's  (i'a.-sar.  Tliere 
aro  also  many  excellent  universal  biographies,  such 
as  f.'halmers's  Biographical  Dictionary,  Men  of  the 
Uimr;  Celebrities  of  the  Centui^y,  etc.  Other  bio- 
gip/phical  worlds  treat  of  the  lives  of  certain  classes 
of  me..,  ,s  Vasari's  Lives  oi  Painters,  Sculptors  and 
Architects,  and  Agnes  Strickland's  Lives  of  the 
Queem  of  England.  Others  again  are  for  certain 
countri.s  only,  as  Biography  Britannica,  Sparks's 
Amer'can  Biography,  and  Appleton's  Encyclopedia 
of  American  Biography. 

BIOPLASM,  a  term  introduced  by  Professor 
Bea.o,  about  1872,  for  the  germinal  matter  of  living 
bei..gs  as  distinguished  from  formed  matter;  the 
stat3  or  condition  of  protoplasm  in  which  it  is 
living  and  -germinating. 

BIPED  (Latin,  "two-footed"),  a  descriptive 
term,  sometimes  applied  to  man,  but  more  fre- 
quently to  birds.  It  may  be  used  in  reference  to 
habit  only,  as  when  animals  use  only  their  two 
hind-linibs  for  moving  along  tiie  ground — e.  g.,  man, 
kangaroo,  bird;  or  it  may  be  used  in  reference  to 
anatomy,  when  tlie  typical  number  of  four  limbs  is 
reduced  to  two.  Thus  among  mammal.-;  the  order 
of  whales  {Cetacea)  is  marked  by  the  absence  of 
hind-limbs;  among  reptiles,  some  serpents  retain 
traces  of  hind-legs,  and  a  few  lizards  have  either 
only  hind-feet,  or  only  fore-feet,  among  amphib- 
ians, a  few  have  only  fore-feet ;  and  the  same  is  true 
of  numerous  fishes  and  especially  of  those  which 
live  to  a  large  extent  in  mud. 

lilPENNIS,  a  double-headed  axe,  the  weapon 
which,  according  to  ancient  historians  and  artists, 
particularly  distinguished  those  fabulous  female 
warriors,  the  Amazons. 

BIPINNAUIA,  the  technical  name  of  a  starfish 
larva.  It  is  a  curiously-shaped  free-swimming  form, 
with  two  ciliated  bands,  and  with  a  tendency  to 
develop  long,  stilt-like  arms  or  processes.  It  does 
not  diri'ctly  turn  into  the  adult,  but  is  only  its 
"nurse."  The  adult  is  formed  within  the  bipin- 
narla. 

P.IHCH,  Samuei,,  LL.B.,  Egyptologist,  born  in 
London,  Nov.  3,  181.'?,  died  there  Dec.  27,  ISH.'i.  He 
was  educated  at  Merchant  Tailors'  in  I8H4,  and 
entered  the  public  service  under  th(!  commissioners 
of  public  records,  and  in  1  S3(i  became  assistant  in  the 


archieological  department  of  the  British  Museum, 
In  this  capacity  he  applied  himself  with  untiring 
zeal  to  the  study  of  Greek,  and  Roman  antiquities, 
including  numismatics,  and  to  Egyptian  hieroglyph- 
ics. He  assisted  Baron  Bunsen  in  the  philological 
portion  of  Egypt's  Place  in  Unrversal  History,  the 
last  volume  of  which,  after  Bunsen's  death,  was 
admirably  edited  by  him.  In  1861  he  was  ajipointed 
keeper  of  the  Egyptian  and  Oriental  antiquities, 
and  in  1S7-I  was  president  of  the  London  Congress 
of  Orientalists.  Besides  three  works  connected  with 
his  Chinese  studies,  he  was  author  of  Ancient  His- 
tory from  the  Monuments  of  Egypt  (1S75),  Egyptian 
Te.vts  (1877).  and  was  a  contributor  to  various 
learned  journals. 

BIRD,  Frederick  Mayer,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  June  28, 1838.  He  was  a  graduate  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  and  Union  Theological 
Seminary.  He  was  ordained  as  Lutheran  minister, 
served  as  an  army  chaplain,  became  a  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  and  was  successively  pastor 
at  Spotswood,  New  Jersey,  and  South  Bethlehem, 
Pa.  He  became  professor  of  psychology,  Christian 
evidence,  and  rhetoric  in  Lehigh  University.  He  is 
a  writer  on  hymnology,  main  editor  of  the  "  Lu- 
theran Hymn  Book,"  and  possesses  the  finest 
library  of  hymnology  in  America. 

BIRD,  Isabella  (Mrs.  Bishop),  an  adventurous 
lady  traveler,  long  resident  in  Edinburgh,  visited 
Canada  and  the  United  States  in  1854,  subsequently 
visiting  the  Sandwich  Islands  and  .lapan.  While 
on  her  travels,  she  from  time  to  time  sent  home 
letters  describing  what  she  saw  and  did,  and  from 
such  materials  most  of  her  books  have  been  com- 
piled. Her  lively  and  picturesque  narratives  of 
journeys  made  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  to  the 
aVjorigines  of  Yezo,  and  the  shrines  of  Nihko  and 
Ise  in  Japan,  and  the  Straits  Settlements,  have  been 
very  popular.  Her  books  are  The  Englishwoman  in 
America  {1S5S),  Si.v  Monllis  Among  the  Palm  Groves  of 
the  Sandvjicli  Islands  (1875),  A  Lady's  Life  in  the 
Porki/  Mountains  (1879),  Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Japan 
(1880),  and  Thr  Golden  Chersonese  (1883). 

BIKI)-B(!)LT,a  short  thick  arrow  without  a  point, 
spreading  at  the  extremity  so  much  as  to  leave  a 
broad  tint  surface.  Such  are  to  this  day  used 
for  killing  rooks,  and  are  shot  from  a  cross- 
bow. 

BIRD-CATCHING  SPIDER,  a  name  originally 
given  to  a  large  spider,  Mygale  avicularia,  a  native 
of  Cayenne  and  Surinam,  but  now  more  extensively 
applied,  being  equally  apiiropriate,  to  a  number  of 
large  species  of  Mygah:  and  Epvira,  perhaps  also  of 
other  genera. 

The  Mygale  avicidavia  is  nearly  two  inches  long, 
very  hairy,  and  almost  entirely  black;  its  feet 
when  stretclied  out,  occupy  a  surface  of  nearly  a 
foot  in  diameter.  The  hooks  of  its  mandibles  are 
strong,  conical,  and  very  black.  This  great  spider 
forms  a  lube-shaped  cell  of  a  line  white  semi-trans- 
parent tissiue,  like  muslin,  in  clefts  of  trees  or 
•hollows  among  rocks ;  from  this  il  issues  only  at 
night  to  prey  upon  insects  and  humming-birds.  It 
is  a  native  of  the  warm  parts  of  America,  the  East 
Indies,  and  Africa. 

BIRD-CIIKRRY  (Porfi(,f),  a  subdivision  of  the 
genus  Cwdsii.t,  a  tree  of  80  to  100  feet  in  height 
round  from  Teiuiessee  to  Upper  Canada.  The  wood 
is  compact,  line-grained,  takes  a  line  polish,  and  is 
much  used  by  cabinet-makers.  The  bark  is  u.sed  as 
a  fetiril'iige.  the  fruit  is  not  agreralilc,  luit  a  cordial 
is  made  from  it  by  infusion  in  spirits  with  sugar, 
and  when  dried  and  bruised  it  forms  an  esteemed 
addition  to  pemniican. 

BIKIl  ISL.XNI).  the  northwest  island  of  the  Sand- 
wich archiiielago,  in  lat  22'^  20'  north,  and  long.  ]G0° 


B  I  R  D  -  1.  I  C  K  —  lU  K  M  1  N  ('•  11  A  .M 


2S-i 


west.  It  is.  as  its  name  implies,  ii  mere  haunt  of 
sea-fowl,  the  links  of  the  chain  increasinij  pretty 
regularly  in  size  and  elevations  from  Bird  Is- 
land on  the  northwest  to  Hawaii  on  the  south- 
east. 

HIRI)-LICE,  a  popular  name  for  lice  which  in- 
fest the  plumage  of  birds.  These  parasites  are 
louse-like  in  form,  with  from  three  to  five  jointed 
antennas  biting  moutii  organs,  and  more  or  less  of 
a  sucking  month.  The  genera  and  species  are  nu- 
merous, constituting  the  greater  part  of  the  order 
Mnlhiiiliiifia. 

B1KL>-1.IME,  an  adhesive  substance  placed  on 
twigs  of  trees  or  wire  netting  for  the  purpose  of 
catching  small  birds.  A  common  practice  is  to 
place  a  decoy  or  tame  bird  in  a  cage  near  where  the 
bird-lime  is  spread ;  the  wild  birds,  attracted  to  the 
spot  by  the  song  of  the  tame  bird,  get  entangled 
with  the  bird-lime. 

lUKD'i^EYE  LIMESTONE,  a  division  of  the 
Trenton  group  of  the  Lower  Silurians  of  North 
America,  apparently  ecjuivalent  to  the  I.landeilo 
flags,  and  conlainiirg,  besides  the  remains  of  brach- 
iopods.  many  enormous  orthoeeratites. 

BIKD'S-EYE  VIEW,  a  term  applied  geiierally 
to  modes  of  perspective,  in  which  the  eye  is  sup- 
posed to  look  down  upon  the  objects  from  a  consid- 
erable height.  In  sketching  or  drawing  a  locality, 
the  great  diliiculty  is  to  represent  at  the  same  time 
the  relative  heights  of  mountains  and  steepness  of 
acclivities.  In  the  liith  century  the  only  kind  of 
views  known  were  of  the  nature  of  ground-plans, 
and  the  artists  of  the  17th  century  tried  tocombine 
this  method  with  Side  views. 

BIRD'S  FOOT,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  /.•■gnminomv,  deriving,  both  its  po|)ular  and 
botanical  name  from  the  resemblance  of  the  curved 
pods  to  birds'  claws;  the  leaves  are  pinnate,  with  ri 
terminal  leaflet. 

BIRD'S  FOOT  TREFOIL  ( LoIiik),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  LeoinnliiD.i.r.  sub-order 
/Viy/i7i<)»«(v.r.  The  pods  are  cylindrical,  .somewhat 
3pongy  within,  and  imperfectly  divided  into  many 
T.ells.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  resemblance 
nf  the  cluster  of  pods  to  a  bird's  foot.  The  species 
«re  very  numerous,  and  are  natives  of  temperate 
•ind  cold  regions.  The  common  bird's  foot  trefoil 
(/,i-(iM  <-.«/-)iiVii/<i/i(<)  has  a  stem  from  six  to  twelve 
inches  in  length,  bearing  umbellate  heads  of  eight 
to  ten  yellow  tlowers,  which  have  a  rich  honey-like 
smell.  Tlie  leaves  have  three  ovale  leaflets  like 
those  of  the  clover,  but  at  the  base  of  each  leaf- 
stock  there  are  two  large  leaf-like  ovate  stipules. 
The  plant  is  by  some  regarded  as  the  shamrcxik  of 
Ireland.  It  is  eaten  with  great  avidity  by  cattle, 
and  its  deeply  penetrating  roots  adapt  it  well  for 
very  dry  situations.  .\  species  called  "  winged  pea." 
remarkable  for  four  membranous  wings,  which  run 
along  its  pods,  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  is 
cultivated  for  its  seeds,  which  are  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  cofTee. 

BIRD'S  NE.ST,  a  name  applied  to  two  or  more 
distinct  plants,  of  similarly  brownish  color  and 
leafless  habit,  which  are  root-parasites,  and  srrow 
more  or  less  concealed  under  other  vegetation. 
J\'''(i(f'ii  nidiis-nii.i,  .1  British  orchid,  grows  in  dark 
"Noods,  especially  beech;  M^iiiniriiiiii  hii)iiijiiliiii,  a 
rare  ericaceous  plant,  grows  on  the  roots  of  tre(>s 
in  beech  or  nr  woods,  the  leafle.ss  stalks  resembling 
a  nest  of  sticks.  There  is  also  a  bird's-nest  fern, 
A*i'l'')ti>im  nitlnn,  so  called  from  the  manner  in 
which  the  fronds  grow,  leaving  a  nest-like  hollow  in 
the  centrr;  and  a  gr^mp  of  gasteromycete.  fungi, 
the  Siihilni-i,  i.  from  their  cup-shape  and  egg-like 
wpore-beariii'i  masses,  liave  also  acquired  the  same 
poiiular  name 


BIRDS  OF    NORTH 
cle     BiUDs     Britannica, 


A.M  ERICA. 
Vol.  Ill,  pp. 


See  the  arti- 

ti!ii'-778.    See 


(17-90. 

if  the  order 


'/^ 


-SECRETABY  B1I'.1>. 

See  Britannica, 


also  under  Distkibitio.v,  Vol.  VII,  pp 
BIRDS  OF  I'REV.  a  common  title 
of  birds  called  Acrijii- 
tres.  Some  birds,  how- 
ever, which  do  not  be- 
long to  this  order  fre- 
quently pursue  and 
prey  upon  other  birds. 
Birds   of   prey   are  di- 

j   vided  into  two  sections, 

I   Jliitriiitl  and  Siirliini'il, 

I   the  latter  consisting  ex- 

'  elusively   of   owls,  and 
the     former    including 
vultures,    falcons    ana 
secretary  birds  or  serpent-eaters. 
Vol.XVlII,  p.  47. 

!  BIRETTA,  a  s(iuarecap  worn  by  theclergy  of  the 
Roman  ('alliolic  Ohurch.  and  by  some  ritualists  in 
the  .Vnglican  Church.  That  of  priests  is  bl.<ick,  of 
bishops  i)urple,  of  cardinals  red.  Originally  round, 
its  present  form,  with  straiglit  erect  edges,  and  a 
tuft  or  button  on  the  crown,  dates  only  from  the 
seventeenth  century;  but  the  low  head-covering 
of  English  bishops  was  known  as  the  hirettum  as 
early  as  the  thirteenth  century. 

BfRIOFTCIlE,  a  town  in"  the  government  of 
Voronej,  Russia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sosua.  It 
is  surrouiidid  with  earthen  ramparts  and  a  ditch, 
and  has  four  annual  fairs.  I'opulation,  about  4.000. 
A  stream  of  the  same  name  in  its  immediate  vicin- 
ity is  noted  for  its  pearl-oysters,  and  the  teeth  of 
elephants  are  often  found  exposed  on  its  banks. 

BIRKIC.N'FELD,  a  German  principality  belong- 
ing to  Oldenburg,  with  which  it  has  been  connected 
since  1S17.  It  has  an  area  of  nearly  200  square 
miles, -with  a  population  of  .'is,t>85.  The  capital, 
Birkenfekl.  has  a  p(.pulation  of  25,000. 

BIRKET-EL-llAD.II  ("Lake  of  the  Pilgrims"), 
a  small  lake  ten  miles  northeast  of  Cairo,  where 
the  Mecca  pilgrims  assemble  and  disband. 

BIRLP;V-JIAN,  a  person  who  acted  as  petty  offi- 
cer on  an  estate,  or  in  a  village  in  Scotland.  The 
duty  of  this  person  was  to  keep  order,  and  attend 
to  the  interests  of  the  proprietor.  The  oflice  is 
now  nearly  extinct. 

lURMl.N'till.V.M,  a  city  of  Alaliama.  and  county- 
seat  of  .lefferson  county,  situated  nearly  in  the 
center  of  the  State,  in  a"  beautiful  valley  tiOO  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  streets  are  broad, 
well  paved,  lined  with  shade  trees,  and  well  lighted. 
The  court-liouse  is  a  magniticent  structure,  and 
all  the  |iiiblic  buildings  are  erected  in  a  sul>stantial 
manner,  as  also  are  the  churches,  school-houses 
and  hotels.  Howard  College  (Baptist)  is  located 
at  I'.ast  Lake,  near  by.  The  Uin'ted  Charities  have 
an  inlirmary  costing  ^UKl.tlOO.  Birmingham  is  lo- 
cated in  the  center  of  tl;e  richest  coal  and  iron 
region  in  the  State,  and  blast  furnaces  and  rolling 
mills  are  numerous,  some  of  them  being  large 
structures,  and  afl'ording  facilities  for  an  immense 
and  rapidly  growing  manufacturing busim'ss.  The 
Henderson' Steel  .Mjiiuifacturing  Company  is  mak- 
ing good  steel  from  the  red  ores  found  in  the  vicin- 
ity, and  have  recently  completed  a  large  blast 
furnace  with  a  capacity  of  seventy  toiis  daily. 
There  were  in  ISiM)  three "througli  lines  of  railway — 
three  otlier  railways  having  I  heir  termini  in  the 
city;  wliile  still  three  other  roads  were  in])rocessof 
construction,  thus  providing  ample  communication 
in  all  directions.  In  addition  to  the  iron  industry 
there  are  iiumerous  mannfaflories.  em;iloyiiig  a 
large  mechanical  force.  The  recent  growth  of  the 
city  in  population  has  been  remarkable,  the  censiu 


288 


B  I  R  M  I  N  G  H  A  .M  —  B  I  S  L  E  Y 


of  1880  showing  an  enumeration  of  but  3,SS6,  while 
in  1890  there  were  l'li,241. 

BIKMIXGHAM,  a  borough  of  New  Haven 
county.  Conn.,  situated  on  the  HousatonicEiver,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Naugatuck,  about  ten  miles  west 
of  New  Haven.  The  tir,st  pin  manufactory  estaV)- 
lished  in  America  is  located  here,  and  there  are 
extensive  manufactories  of  chains,  augers,  axles, 
springs,  corsets, skirts,  stockings,  paper,  silver-plate, 
and  a  number  of  rolling-mills  and  foundries. 

BIRNAlNr,  a  hill  1,580  feet  high,  in  the  east  of 
Perthshire,  Scotland,  twelve  miles  northwest  of 
Dunsinnan  hill.  It  commands  a  tine  view  of  the 
valley  of  the  Tay.  It  was  once  covered  by  part  of 
an  ancient  royal  forest.  Shakespeare  has  immor- 
talized Birnam  wood  in  his  tragedy  of  .Uarbetli. 

BIRNEE,  Old  and  New,  the  name  of  two  towns 
of  Bornu.  Central  Africa.  Old  Birnee,  which  was 
formerly  the  chief  city  of  the  empire,  walled  and 
of  vast  extent,  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Yeu, 
seventy  miles  northwest  of  the  modern  capital, 
Kuka,  and  seventy-five  miles  west  of  Lake  Tsad. 
It  is  now  greatly  deserted  and  decayed,  but  has 
still  a  population  of  about  10,000.  New  Birnee, 
about  twenty  miles  south  of  Kuka,  is  walled  and 
has  a  large  mud  palace.     Population,  10,000. 

BIRNEY,  D.vviD  Bell,  son  of  James  G.,  born  at 
Huntsville,  Ala.,  May  20,  1825.  died  at  Philadelphia, 
Pa..  Oct.  18,  1804.  He  studied  law  in  Cincinnati, 
and  practiced  in  Pliiladelphia;  entered  the  Union 
army  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major-general. 

BIRXEY,  James  Gillespie,  born  at  Danville, 
Ky.,  Feb.  1,  1702,  died  at  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  Nov. 
24,  1857.  He  graduated  from  Princeton  in  1810. 
He  served  in  the  Kentucky  and  afterwards  in  the 
Alabama  legislature ;  w-as  repeatedly  elected  mayor 
of  Huntsville,  Ala. ;  was  interested  in  all  educational 
projects  in  liis  State;  was  long  the  adviser  of  the 
Cherokee  Nation.  Being  opposed  to  slavery  and  a 
warm  advocate  of  his  views  thereon,  he  emanci- 
pated his  slaves,  I'.aving  previously  removed  to 
Kentucky.  Mob  violence  necessitated  his  leaving 
here  and  going  to  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  He  published 
the  "  Philanthropist,"  but  in  1836  his  otRce  was  en- 
tered by  a  mob  and  his  presses  tlirown  into  the  river. 
He  went  to  live  in  New  York  city  after  this,  and 
served  tlie  American  Anti-Slavery  Society  as  sec- 
retary. He  was  the  presidential  nominee  of  the 
Liberty  Party  in  1840,  and  again  four  years  later. 
Mr.  Birney  was  the  author  of  many  books  on  the 
subject  of  slavery. 

BIRNEY,  J.\MEs  Gillespie,  a  grandson  of  James 
G.,  senior;  was  an  ollicor  in  tlie  civil  war,  and 
served  under  Sherman  and  Custer,  llo  died  soon 
after  the  war. 

BIRSE,  a  small  but  famous  afiluent  of  the  Rhine. 
It  rises  in  Kerne,  Switzerland,  flows  through  Miin- 
sterthal,  and  enters  tlie  Rhine  near  i'.asel.  At  St. 
Jacob,  the  "Swiss  Tliermopyhe,"  al)out  two  miles 
from  that  city,  l,50o  Swiss  died  fighting  the  French 
in  14-14,  and  In  .Inly,  1440,  near  the  village  of  Dorn- 
bach  aljout  a  mile  and  a  lialf  south  of  P.asel,  0,000 
Swiss  gained  a  victory  over  15,000  Austrlans. 

BIRN,  I'.Eitoo,  or  I'.EKiioo,  a  kingdom  of  Soudan, 
Western  .Africa,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Sa- 
hara, on  the  east  by  the  Niger,  and  having  Bam- 
barra  on  the  soulli. 

BIS,  in  music,  denotes  that  the  passage  over 
which  It  is  placed  is  to  be  [ilayed  twice.  Such  pas- 
sages generally  liave  a  slur  over  them  and  I  lie 
"  Ills"  writ  ten  below  it. 

I'.IS.\(;i2(;iX(),  or  Bt'sArniiNo,  n  town  of  Sicily, 
about  twenty-seven  miles  south  of  Palermo.  Popu- 
lation. O.IKIO.". 

BIS.\l,N',\(i.\R,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  (Juico- 
war  of  Haroda's  territories,  220  miles  northwest  of 


Mhow.     It  has  a  large  transit-traae.  anu  m.anufact 
ures  cotton  cloths.     Population,  20.000. 

BISALPUR,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  North-west 
Provinces,  twenty-four  miles  east  of  Bareli.  Popu- 
lation, 0,000. 

BISCACHA.  See  Yiscacha.  in  these  Revisions 
and  Additions. 

BISCAYNE,  a  village  of  Florida,  on  Biseayne 
Bay,  in  Dade  county,  overlooking  the  Atlantic.  It 
is  noted  for  its  delightful  climate  and  the  health- 
fulness  of  its  situation. 

BISCHOFF,  Theodoi;  Ludwig  Wiliielm,  anato- 
mist and  physiologist,  born  at  Hanover,  Oct.  28, 
1807,  died  Dec.  5,  1882.  He  studied  at  Bonn  and 
Heidelberg,  becoming  in  1830  extraordinary  pro- 
fessor, and  in  1843  ordinary  professor  of  anat- 
omy and  physiology  at  Heidelberg.  From  1844  to 
1855  he  filled  the  same  chair  at  Giessen,  where  he 
founded  a  physiological  institute  and  anatomical 
theater,  and  from  1855  to  1878  at  Munich.  Bis- 
chofF's  studies  were  mainly  in  embryology  and 
biology,  and  he  left  numerous  treatises  and  papers 
of  great  value. 

BISCUIT,  in  pottery,  the  term  applied  to  porce- 
lain and  other  earthenware  after  the  itirst  tiring, 
and  before  it  has  received  the  glaze  and  embellish- 
ments. In  this  condition,  the  ware  is  very  jiorous, 
adheres  to  the  tongue  when  placed  upon  it,  and 
allows  water  very  slowly  to  percolate  through  its 
pores.  The  unglazed  bottles  employed  in  cooling 
water  and  the  common  flower-pot  are  examjiles  of 
biscuit-ware.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  NIX,  p.  001. 

BISHOP,  a  beverage  composed  of  red  wine, 
poured  warm  or  cold,  over  ripe  bitter  oranges, 
sugared  and  spiced  to  taste,  the  finality  depending 
upon  the  excellence  qf  the  wine  employed.  If 
white  wine  is  used  the  beverage  is  called  cdidiiiid, 
and  with  Tokav  it  becomes ^^o/)?. 

BISHOP-AUCKLAND,  a  small  town  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  county  of  Durham,  England.  It  contains 
the  abbey-like  palace  of  the  Bishop  oi  Durham. 

BISHOP,  Madam  Anna,  a  famous  concert  singer, 
born  in  London,  England,  in  1814,  died  In  New  York 
in  1884.  She  possessed  a  soprano  voice  of  unusual 
power,  and  sang  in  nearly  all  the  countries  on  the 
globe,  retaining  her  voice  until  ISOS.  when  she  re- 
tired from  the  stage.  Her  first  husliand  was  Sir 
Henry  Rowley  Bishop,  to  whom  she  was  married 
in  1831.  Leaving  hini  in  1835  she  contracted  an 
alliance  with  her  Italian  music  teacher,  luimed 
Boscha,  and  after  his  death  In  1855,  became  the 
wife  of  an  American  merchant,  Martin  Schultz. 
Her  father's  name  was  Riviere. 

BISHOP'S  CASTLE,  a  town  in  the  southwest  of 
Shropshire,  nineteen  milt*  southwest  of  Shrews- 
bury. It  Is  irregularly  built  on  a  hill  slope.  The 
bishops  of  Hereford  had  formerly  a  castle  here, 
now  destroyed.  During  the  civil  wars  of  the  seveii- 
teentli  century,  the  inhabitants  took  shelter  in  the 
church,  which  was  demolished  over  their  heads. 
Population,  2,200. 

BISIIOI'-WEED  {.JCyopodiHti)  pixhitjraria).  an 
uml)ellif(>rous  weed,  exceedingly  dlllicult  of  extir- 
pation on  account  of  Its  creeping  rhizomes.  It  is 
eaten  by  cattle,  and  the  leaf-stall;s  wen  formerly 
boiled  and  eaten  as  greiMis.  In  the  United  States 
tlie  name  Is  applU'd  to  a  somewhat  similar  umbellif- 
erous plant,  Diiraiilinrti  riipiltdcrii. 

BISDiN.WO,  a  town  of  Italy  in  the  province  of 
Cosenza.  It  has  a  cathedral,  a  castle  and  a  trade 
in  silk,  and  gives  the  title  of  prince  to  the  existing 
branch  of  the  Saiiseverino  family.  Population, 
4,007. 

BISLI''V,  »  town  of  (iloiicesterslilre.  eleven  miles 
southeast  of  (iloucester.  The  church  contains  some 
Interesting    monuments,  a  cross-legged    kiughl    In 


|:  1  P  M  .v  i;  C  K  —  15  1  8  SAC  OS 


289 


armor,  and  an  ancient  stone  font.  Tlio  canal 
imitinj;  I  lie  Severn  and  the  Thames  passes  llinm^h 
the  town.  The  eliief  manufacture  is  coarse  oloth- 
insj.     I'opiilation,  L'.itW). 

HIS.M.\UCK,acil.v  of  North  Dakota,  capital  of  the 
Stale  and  countv-seat  of  Burleigh  county,  silii.-Ued 
on  the  ^Ii^souri  River,  about  sixty  miles  north  of  the 
southern  boundary  of  Iho  Stale.  The  situation  of 
the  city  is  'V  delightful  one,  coniinandini;  charming 
views  of  the  Missouri  valley  and  the  surrounding 
region.  The  principal  buildings  are  the.capilol, 
built  upon  an  eminence  in  the  northern  part:  of 
tlie  city,  the  penitentiary,  the  court-house,  and  a 
tine  public  school-house,  .\  bridge  which  cost  a 
ndllion  and  a  half  of  dollars  here  crosses  the  river, 
which  is  navigable  for  more  than  a  thousand  miles 
above  Bismarck.  The  chief  industries,  besides  the 
shipping  of  immense  ((uantiliivs  of  freight,  are 
manufactures  of  dour  and  of  malt-products.  Bis- 
marck is  the  center  of  trade  of  a  region  rich  in 
wheat,  oats  and  pi  tatoes. 

BISMAKCK-SOIIOXIIAUSKN,  Om.  Enw.\nD 
Leoi'oi.i).  Pri.nce  vo.v, ex-chancellor  of  theCierman 
empire,  and  foremost  of  statesmen,  was  born  .Vpril 
1,  1815,  at  Schonhausen  in  I'randenburg,  of  an  old 
family,  of  which  various  members  gained  reputa- 
tion both  as  soldiers  and  as  statesmen.  He  re- 
ceived his  University  education  at  Gottuigen,  Ber- 
lin and  TTriefswald,  wh(>re  he  studied  law  and 
agriculture,  but  became  more  distinguished  as  a 
Bwordsman  than  as  a  reading  man.  After  finish- 
ing his  studies  he  lived  for  a  time  on  his  estates. 
Before  1847  he  was  little  heard  of,  but  about  that 
time  he  l)egan  to  attract  attention  in  the  new  Prus- 
sian parliament  as  an  ullra-royalisl . 

Bismarck's  diplomatic  career  commenced  in  18.51, 
ivhen  he  was  appointed  Prussian  member  of  the 
resuscitated  German  diet  of  Frankfort.  Here  he 
began  to  manifest  that  zeal  for  the  interests  and 
aggrandizement  of  Prussia  which  afterwards  un- 
deviatingly  guided  him,  and  openly  expressed  dis- 
content with  the  predominance  of  Austria,  lie 
remained  at  Frankfort  till  ISOit,  when  he  was 
recalled  from  the  diet  and  sent  as  minister  to  St. 
Petersburg.  In  the  spring  of  l.Sili'  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Paris.  During  his  short  oflicial  stay 
there  he  visited  I^ondon,  and  met  the  leading  poli- 
ticians of  the  time.  In  the  autumn,  when  the 
king's  government  could  not  obtain  the  consent  of 
the  lower  house  to  the  new  and  expensive  military 
organization,  Bisn.arck  was  recalled  to  take  the 
portfolio  of  t!ie  minislry  for  foreign  affairs,  and  the 
presidency  ot  the  cabinet.  Keing  unable  to  pass 
the  reorganization  bill  and  the  budget,  he  closed 
the  chambers,  announcing  that  the  government 
would  do  without  the  sanction  of  the  deputies. 
See  Britannica,  Vol.  XX,  iip.  IL',  13.  The  army 
reorganizal  ion  went  on  ;  and  the  next  four  sessions 
of  parliament,  refusing  their  sanction,  were  dis- 
solved in  t!\e  same  way. 

At  the  death  of  the  king  of  Denmark  Bismarck 
wasadri.il  enough  to  aggrandiz.  i'russia  by  the 
acquisition  of  the  Elbe  duchies,  and  reconciled  his 
opponents  to  his  high-handed  policy  by  pointing  to 
this  success  ot  the  newly-modeled  army.  Through- 
out tne  e\'eiits  which  ended  in  the  humiliation  of 
Austria  at  the  battle  of  Ki'>niggr;itz  (IHtili),  and  I  he 
reorgariization  if  (iermauy  under  the  leadership 
of  I'russia,  Bismarck  was  the  guidinj;  spirit,  and 
through  this  success,  from  being  universally  dis- 
liked, he  became  the  most  popular  man  in 'Ger- 
many. 

The  action  of  France  in  recard  lo  the  candida- 
ture of  Prince  Leopold  of  Ilohenzollern  for  the 
throne  of  Spain  gave  Bismarck  the  opjiortunity  of 
carrying  into  action  the  intensilied  feeling  of  uiiity 


among  Germans.  During  the  I'ranco-tierman 
war  of  1S7D-71  he  was  the  spokesman  of  Germany; 
he  it  was  who,  in  February,  1S71,  dictated  the  terras 
of  peace  to  France. 

Having  been  made  a  count  in  IsiKl,  Hismarck 
was  now  created  prince  and  chancellor  of  the  <^ier-  ' 
man  empire.  After  the  peace  of  Frankfort  (>!ay 
10,  1871),  the  aim  of  his  policy,  domesllc  and  for- 
eign, was  to  consolidate  the  young  empire  of  his 
own  creating  by  rendering  its  institutions  more 
beneficent,  authoritative,  homogenous  and  stable 
and  to  secure  it,  through  alliance  and  political 
combinations  against  attack  from  without.  Thu^, 
conceiving  the  authority  of  the  government  to  be 
endangered  by  the  Church  of  Home  and  its  doc- 
trines, he  embarked  on  a  long  and  bilter  struggle 
with  the  Vatican.  But  he  had  underrated  the  re- 
sisting power  of  the  Komish  Church,  anil  motives 
of  political  expediency  finally  led  him  to  modify 
his  policy. 

Among  the  more  imiiortant  measures  by  which 
Bismarck's  domestic  policy  was  marked  are  a  re- 
formed coinage,  a  codiru'alion  of  law,  a  nationaliza- 
tion of  the  l^russian  railways,  fiscal  reform  in  the 
direction  of  making  the  empire  self-supporting 
(independent  of  "  matricular  contributions"  from 
its  component  states),  repeated  increase  of  the 
army  and  the  regular  voting  of  its  e.-timates  for 
seven  years  at  a  time,  and  the  introduction  of  a 
protective  tariff  (1879).  He  attempted  to  combat 
social  democracy  by  means  of  economic  experi- 
ments, which  caused  him  to  be  called  the  greatest 
state  socialist  of  the  age. 

In  1884  Bisnuuck  inaugurated  the  career  of  tier- 
many  as  a  colonizing  power,  which  brouglil  him 
into  temporary  conflict  with  the  England  of  Mr. 
Gladstone.  For  the  rest,  his  foreign  policy  was 
mainly  aimed  at  isolating  France  and  rendering 
her  incapable  of  forming  anti-Gernum  alliances, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  he  gradually  combined 
the  central  powers  of  Europe  into  a  peace-league; 
aiming  at  counteracting  the  aggressiM-ness  of  Rus- 
sia and  France,  separately  or  combined,  on  the  Dan- 
ube or  the  Khine.  In  1885  Bismarck's  70th  birth- 
day was  celebrated  as  a  great  national  event. 

The  resignation  by  Prince  Bisnutrck  of  hisollice  as 
Prussian  Prime  ^Minister  as  well  as  chancellor  was 
announced  in  February,  ISilO,  bul  did  nol  actually 
occur  till  March  17.  when  divi'rgences  of  opinion 
between  him  and  the  Emperor,  \\'illiani  11  led 
to  his  retirement.  His  departure  from  Berlin  on 
the  2Slth  was  made  the  occasion  of  a  great  popular 
demonstration  in  his  favor.  The  ex-cliancelkir  has 
since  resided  chielly  at  his  country  residence.  It 
has  recently  been  reported  that  he  had  been 
oU'ered,  and  would  probably  acc.ej)t,  a  seat  in  th? 
Reichstag,  but  at  the  present  writing  (Marcii, 
1801)  reports  have  not  been  confirmed. 

BISOX.  (See  Britannica,  Vol.  III.  p.  702.)  The 
name  bulTalo,  which  is  ijicorrectly  applied  in  the 
I'liiled  .*^tates  to  the  American  bison,  belongs 
))roperly  to  two  species  of  ruminants  of  the  family 
lioi  iilir,  one  ol  which  is  used  as  a  beast  of  burden 
in  India  anil  Italy,  the  othrr  being  a  dangerous, 
untamable  native  of  South  .\frica.  The  liinun 
.■liii(r(cnHi(.i  isa  species  of  the  ox  family,  and  is  in- 
digenous to  America.  It  dilTers  from  the  buffalo 
in  having  a  hump  upon  its  back,  in  having  no  dew- 
lap, in  having  its  horns  turned  inward,  and  in  hav- 
ing cavities  in  the  horns  communicaling  with  the 
nasal  passages. 

BISSACOS.  or  Bi.u'oa  Islands,  a  group  of  snnill 
volcanic  islands  off  the  west  ci>ast  of  Africa,  opjio- 
sitelhe  mouth  of  the  Kio  Grande.  Many  of  the 
islands  appear  to  be  thicklv  settled  by  a  savage, 
thievish,  negro  race,  who  cultivate   maize,  bananas, 


8 


290 


B  I  S  S  E  N  —  B  J  0  R  X  S  0  N 


and  palms,  and  feed  cattle  and  goats,  which  consti- 
tute their  chief  wealth.  Bassao,  one  of  the  group, 
on  which  there  is  a  Portuguese  settlement,  has  a 
population  of  8,000.  It  carries  on  a  large  trade 
in  slaves,  also  in  rice,  wax,  hides,  etc.  See  Britan- 
nica.  Vol.  XXI,  p.  661. 

BISSEN,  WiLHELM,  a  Danish  sculptor,  born  near 
Schleswig  in  1798,  died  in  1868.  He  studied  for  10 
years  in  Rome,  1823  to  1833,  under  Thorwaldsen, 
and  in  1841  returned  to  that  city  to  execute  a 
government,  commission,  and  produced  a  Venus 
and  Cupid  Sharpeninf/  His  Arroirs,  that  are  among 
his  masterpieces.  By  his  will  Thorwaldsen  ap- 
pointed Bissen  to  complete  his  unfinished  works 
and  have  charge  of  his  museum.  In  1850  he  be- 
came director  of  the  Academy  of  Art  in  Copenha- 
gen.    See  Britannica,  Vol.  XXI,  p.  570. 

BISTORT,  a  perennial  herbaceous  plant  of  the 
genus  Polygoiiii-im,  of  the  natural  order  Pohigonacea:. 
It  is  from  one  to  two  feet  high,  with  a  simple  stem, 
ovate  subcordate  leaves,  and  one  dense  terminal 
cylindrical  spiked  raceme  of  flesh-colored  flowers. 
The  root  is  one  of  the  strongest  vegetable  astrin- 
gents. 

BISTRE,  a  pigment  of  a  warm  brown  color  pre- 
pared from  the  soot  of  wood,  especially  beech.  It 
is  used  in  water-colors  after  the  manner  of  India 
ink. 

BISTRITZ,  a  fortified  town  of  Northeast  Transyl- 
vania, beautifully  situated  on  the  Bistritz  River, 
in  a  fine  valley.  In  its  vicinity  are  the  remains  of 
an  ancient  castle,  once  the  residence  of  the  illus- 
trious Hunyads.  It  has  several  large  cattle  fairs, 
but  the  extensive  general  trade  it  once  carried  on 
is  now  entirely  gone.  Forming,  as  it  does,  the  last 
strong  position  in  the  laortheast  of  Transylvania,  it 
was  repeatedly  the  scene  of  hot  strife  between  the 
Hungarian  and  .\ustrian  generals,  in  1848 and  1849. 
I'opulation,  7,312. 

BIT,  or  BiTT,  in  ship-building,  a  frame  composed 
chiefly  of  two  short,  strong,  vertical  timbers,  fixed 
into  or  upon  the  deck  in  the  forepart  of  the  vessel. 
Its  main  purpose  is  for  fastening  the  cable  when  the 
ship  rides  at  anchor,  and  for  "leading"  the  princi- 
pal ropes  for  the  rigging.  To  •■  bit  the  cable  "  is  to 
fasten  it  round  the  bit.  There  are  various  kinds  of 
bits — "riding-bits"  "jeer-bits,"  etc.  Having  to  re- 
sist great  strains,  the  bits  are  strongly  bolted  to  the 
beams  that  support  the  deck. 

BITII()OR,a  town  in  India,  in  the  district  of  Cawn- 
pore,  and  sub-presidency  of  Xorth-west  Provinces, 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges.  It  is  par- 
ticularly devoted  to  tlie  worship  of  Brahma;  has 
numerous  pagodas,  and  is,  of  course,  a  favorite  re- 
sort for  pilgrims,  who  here,  as  at  Benares  and  Bin- 
draban,  have  by  means  of  elaborately  constructed 
ghauts  access  to  the  sacred  stream  for  purjxises  of 
aldulion.  During  the  mutiny  of  1S57  llitlioor  ac- 
quired an  unenviable  notoriety  as  the  stronghokl 
of  Nana  Sahib.     Population,  9,()00. 

BITTKK  KINCi,  a  small  tree  or  shrub  of  the 
natural  order  Simiiriih<iceir,  which  has  received  its 
nanir  from  its  intense  bitterness.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  Indian  archipelago,  and  is  used  as  a  febrifuge 
and  Ionic. 

lUTTKRN,  or  S.M.T  On.,  an  oily  li(|uid  obtained 
during  the  |)repar,"il  ion  of  coninion  salt  —  the  resi- 
due when  saltwater  has  been  boiled  and  the  salt 
[irecipitated — and  from  it  Epsom  salts  and  other 
(■iiin|i()un(ls  of  magnesia  are  procured. 

riTTKU  ROOT  RIVER,  a  stream  110  miles  long 
in  Mdiilana.  It  is  a  branch  of  (!larke's  River, 
liohl  Is  found  near  the  ISitter  Root. 

lil'l'IKR  SP.Mv,  ananie  given  to  dolomite  from 
the  magnesia  contained  in  it,  which  the  Uermans 
call  biller  salt. 


BITTER-SWEET,  or  Woody  Nightshade.  See 
NiGHTsn.^DE.  Britannica,  Vol.  XVII,  n.  499. 

BITTER^\■OOD,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Sim- 
ari'liacca;  a  native  of  Jamaica.  The  wood  is  used 
in  medicine  for  the  same  purpose  as  quassia.  The 
name  is  also  given  to  species  of  the  genus  Xi/Iopia, 
remarkable  for  the  bitterness  of  their  wood. 

BITUMINOUS  GOAL,  a  term  applied  to  the 
varieties  of  coal  which  contain  a  large  quantity  of 
gas, and  burn  with  a  smoky  flame. 

BITU3IIN0US  LIMESTONES,  limestones  im- 
pregnated and  sometimes  deeply  colored  with 
bituminous  matter,  obtained  from  decaying  vege- 
table matter,  or  from  the  decomposed  remains  of 
those  animals  whose  hard  parts  form  so  large  an 
amount  of  the  rock, 

BITUMINOUS  SHALES,  indurated  beds  of  clay 
occurring  in  the  coal  measures  and  containing 
such  an  amount  of  carbon  and  volatile  matter  that 
they  are  able  to  keep  up  combustion  when  mixed 
with  but  a  little  coal.  They  are,  indeed,  impure  coal, 
with  a  large  percentage  of  ash  or  earthy  matter, 
which  after  burning  retains  the  original  form. 

BIVOUAC,  the  encampment  of  soldiers  in  the 
open  air,  without  tents  where  every  one  remains 
dressed,  and  with  his  weapons  by  him.  Even  dur- 
ing the  Seven  Years'  War  it  was  no  uncommon 
thing  for  the  whole  army,  when  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  enemy,  to  pass  the  night  in  their  ranks,  each 
lying  down  in  his  place,  in  order  to  be  ready  to 
stand  to  their  arms  at  a  moment's  notice ;  but  the 
French  revolutionary  army  introduced  the  practice 
of  dispensrug  with  tents  altogether,  and  regularly 
passing  tl  o  night  en  bivouac.  From  this  source  or- 
iginated the  rapidity  in  their  motion,  which  made 
them  successful  for  a  long  time,  and  the  practice 
was  afterwards  initiated  by  other  arn-.ies  of  Eu- 
rope. Soldiers  in  bivouac  light  fires,  and  impro- 
vise, where  it  is  possible,  huts  of  straw,  branches, 
etc.  But  this  mode  of  encampment,  though  favor- 
able to  celerity  of  movement,  is  i)urchased  at  the 
expense  of  the  soldiers'  liealth,  besides  being  de- 
structive of  discipline  by  leading  to  plundering 
houses,  fruit  trees,  etc.,  in  the  vicinity,  and  is  now 
almost  wholly  dispensed  M'ith  ;  for  permanent  en- 
campment regularly  constructed  wooden  huts  have 
been  introduced. 

B.IEL.V,  a  town  in  the  Russian-Polish  govern- 
ment of  Siedlce,  on  the  Krzna  River.  It  has  con- 
siderable trade  in  corn.     Population,  1!),500. 

BJORNSON,  Bjounst.ierxe,  a  Norwegian  writer, 
born  Dec.  8,  18;52,  at  Kvikne,  in  Osterdalen,  where 
his  fatlier  was  pastor.  After  studying  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  t'hristiania  from  1852,  and  then  for  a 
year  at  (U)iienliagen,  he  returned  to  Nm-way  in 
1857,  and  published  his  Simiiiiri-  Snlltukkin,  wliicli  at 
once  attracted  great  attention.  Innnediately  af- 
terwards he  was  aiipoinled  nianag(>r  of  the  liergen 
Theater  by  its  |)roprietor,  Ole  Bull,  and  in  185S  he 
published  the  tale  .true  and  the  drama  Jlullc- 
Jluhhi.  In  1S5!)  he  left  Bergen  to  become  editor  of 
the  Afleiihhidrt  at  Christiania,  but  becoming  in- 
volved in  violent  controversies  he  withdrew  the 
next  year  to  ("opc-nhagen.  v>here  he  published 
a  luimber  of  sliorter  tales  and  the  drama,  .U.7/»m 
Sl(i(/i'ur.  From  INJO  to  1S62  he  resided  in  Rome, 
continuing  his  literary  work,  and  on  his  return  to 
Norway  he  was  awarded  a  yearly  |)ension  by  the 
Storthing.  In  the  next  two  years  he  produced 
two  plays,  at  the  same  time  editing  tiie  i\(jrsk 
Fdlkclilud.  He  again  lived  abroail  from  1872  to 
1876,  when  he  returned  to  Norway  and  remained 
for  some  years.  Holding  thi^  liigliest  place  in  poi> 
ular  favor  as  ;i  polilicaJ  oralor,  r.jornsou  took  an 
active  part  in  the  movi'ment  which  led  to  the  victory 
of  parliamentary  government  in  Norway.    Though 


i!  .1  ()  i;  .\  S  T  .1  K  1{  X  A  —  B  L  A  ('  K     15  ()  U  K 


291 


he  settled  in  Paris  iti  1S.S.S,  lie  still  niade  his  in- 
Huenoi'  felt  in  Ni)r\V('i»ian  politics.  A  number  o 
his  tales  have  been  translated  into  English  and 
German,  and  several  oT  his  |ila.\s  have  secured  a 
footiii';  on  the  (.ierman  slai;!'.  IJolh  as  poet  and  nov- 
elist lljornson  stands  in  tlie  tirsi  rank  anions  livine 
Scandinavian  writers.  He  has  written  numerous 
pamphlets  on  political  and  reliitious  questions  of 
the  day.     See  IJritannica,  Vol.  XVII,  pp.  5^11,592. 

BJ0kN.-<T,IEKNA( Magnus  Friodrich  Ferdinand), 
Cou.NT  (177!i-l.S47),  a  Swedish  statesman  and  author, 
born  at  Dresden  in  1779.  He  was  educated  in 
Germany,  and  entered  Sweden  for  tlielirst  time  in 
1793,  to  join  the  army,  and  in  ISI3  lie  was  appointed 
lieutenant.  In  1S2()  he  received  llie  title  of  count, 
and  in  ISi'S  was  appointed  aml)assador  to  the  court 
of  Great  P.rilain,  which  ofhce  he  held  till  lS4fi,, 
when  he  returned  to  Stockholm,  where  he  died  in 
lK-17.  As  a  politician  his  opijiions  were  liberal.  In 
addition  to  some  political  writings  he  published  in 
184;}  a  work  on  the  Thingnnij,  I'hilosiiphij  and  Cos- 
mo.oiui  nf  the  Himlux. 

HL.\C;K,  Adam,  publisher,  born  in  Edinburgh, 
Feb.  l!0,  1784,  died  .Ian. 24,  1S74.  He  was  trained  asa 
booksnller  in  his  native  city  and  in  Lt>ndon.  Form- 
ing a  iKirlnership  with  a  nepliew,  he  established  the 
Edinburgli  business  of  Adam  and  Charles  Black. 
The  firm  gained  position  and  fortune chietly  through 
the  purchase  of  the  copyright  of  the  Knciiclojj.rtlia 
Jlrilinitiita  in  1827,  after  CJonstalde's  failure;  and 
that  of  Scott's  novels  from  Cadell's  representatives 
in  1851.  A  seventh  and  eiglitli  edition  of  the  Brilnn- 
nicd  was  issucil  during  I'dacks's  l)usiness  conned  ion 
with  the  firm,  while  .^coil's  novels  liad  a  large  and 
steady  sale.  Ulack  was  a  prominent  and  uselul  cit- 
izen i)f  Edinburgh;  was  twice  lord-provost,  and 
was  Liljeral  .M.  P.  for  Edinburgh  ( 185t>-tJ5).  A  staute 
was  erected  at  Edinburgh  in  1877,  in  recognition  of 
his  services. 

r.L.\(;i\,  .1  vMEs,  born  at  Lewisburg,  Pa.,  Sept.  23, 
ISL'3.  He  is  a  lawyer  and  an  earnest  laborer  for  tem- 
perance, and  was  the  first  presidential  nominee  of 
the  prohibition  party  (1872). 

BL.\('K,  .Ikkkmi  \n  Sri.Mv.w,  born  in  the  Glades, 
Somersi'l,  county.  Pa.,  .Jan.  10,  1810,  died  at  York, 
Pa.,  Aug.  19,  ]S,S3.  He  was  not  a  college  graduate, 
but  alter  studying  in  tlie  common  schools  he  took 
up  the  profession  of  law,  and  after  eh-ven  years  was 
made  judge.  He  was  a.lelTersonian  Democrat,  was 
president-judge  of  his  district  for  nine  years,  and 
wa<  elected  one  of  the  supreme  court  judges  of 
Pennsylvania  in  I.s.tI  and  again  in  1S.54.  .lames 
HMcliantm,  when  he  became  pri'sideut,  chose  .liulge 
Black  as  attorney-general.  He  performed  impor- 
tant duties  wliile  holding  this  ollice  ;  he  protected 
the  government  from  unjust  claimants  of  land 
Rraiiis  ill  California,  and  held  the  opinion  (ISdO-til) 
that  the  government  had  the  right  to  i)Ut  down  in- 
surrection. As  Buchanan  believed  the  government 
had  no  coercive  power,  tlie  attorney-general  was 
placed  in  a  trying  situation,  as  he  endeavored  to 
savp  the  government  from  the  secessionists.  Dur- 
ing the  latter  jiart  of  Buchanan's  administration, 
.(udge  lilack  was  Secretary  of  State  (filling  the 
vacancy  of  (icn.  Cass,  resigned),  and  Edwin  M. 
Stanton  held  Black's  former  office.  In  ISfil  he 
retired  from  public  life.  He  was  engaged' in  several 
prominent  lawsuits,  such  as  thi"  \anderbilt  will 
contest  and  I  hi'  .Mctiarrahan  claim. 

BLACK,  .loii.s,  an  eminent  newspaper  editor,  and 
cla.saical  scholar  of  sf>nie  reputation,  born  in  Ber- 
wickshire in  !  783,  died  in  IStVJ.  I.ci't  an  orphan  at 
the  age  of  twelve,  he  comnienoed  life  in  the  ollice  of 
a  writer,  but  soon  left  that  pla<-e  for  Edinburgh, 
where  he  became  a  writer's  clerk.  While  in  this 
capacity  he  was  assiduous  in   the  work  of  self-edu- 

:{— 31. 


cation  ;  he  acquired  German  from  a  German  musi- 
cian, and  Italian  from  a  refugee.  In  1810  he  went  to 
London,  and  was  engaged  as  a  parliamentary  re- 
porter for  the  "Morning  Chronicle,"  of  which  paper 
he  afterwards  liecarae  editor.  He  retired  from  the 
editorsliip  in  184:!. 

BLACK,  Wii.i.i.vM,  a  Scotch  novelist,  born  in  Glas- 
gow in  1841.  He  began  his  career  as  a  journalist. 
He  was  special  correspondent  of  the  "London  Star" 
during  the  war  between  Prussia  and  Austria  in  18t!l), 
and  was  subsequently  assistant  editor  of  the  "  Lon- 
don News."  The  work  l>y  which  he  became  known 
as  an  author  of  established  reputation  was  A 
Daughter  of  Hrth,  published  in  1871.  .4  I'rineesx  uf 
Thule  (1873)  is  perhaps  the  bp.-.t  of  his  numerous 
wc^rks.  In  1874  he  abandoned  journalism,  and  in 
18((j  he  visited  America.  During  1888  he  wrote  for 
"  Harper's  Magazine."  At  the  present  writing,  !S9I, 
his  most  recent  work  is  The  Sew  Prince  Fortnnul iix. 

BLACK  ACTS,  the  acts  of  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment of  the  first  five .Fameses,  those  of  Queen  Mary's 
reign,  and  of  James  VI  down  to  1587.  They  were 
called  the  black  acts  because  they  were  ail  printed 
in  the  black  or  Saxon  characters. 

BLACK  ASSIZE,  the  common  name  of  an  extra- 
ordinary and  fatal  pestilence  whicli  broke  out  at 
Oxford  at  tlie  close  of  the  assizes  1577,  imniediately 
after  the  passing  of  sentence  on  Bichard  .lencks, 
condemned  to  lose  his  ears.  It  was  suppiised  to  be 
a  Divine  judgment  on  the  cruelty  of  the  sentence; 
but  it  is  satisfactorily  explained  i>y  the  pestilential 
atmosphere  of  the  adjoining  jail,  then,  as  it  was 
long  after,  a  place  of  misery,  tilth,  and  disease. 
l-"rom  .July  ti  to  Aug.  12,  510  persons  died  in  Oxford 
and  the  neighliorhood  of  this  dreadful  malady, 
among  whom  wore  the  chief  olHcials  who  sat  on  the 
assize,  most  of  the  jury,  and  many  members  of  the 
University.  AVomen, children,  physicians,  poor  peo- 
ple, and  visitors  are  said  to  have  escaped  the  infec- 
tion. 

BLACK-BAND  IRONSTONE,  an  ore  of  iron 
found  very  extensively  in  Scotland  and  elsewhere. 
It  occurs  in  the  Carboniferous  system  in  regular 
bands,  layers,  or  strata,  and  generally  associated 
with  coal  and  limestone.  •  It  is  mainly  a  carbonate 
of  iron,  accompanied  by  much  coally  matter,  and 
can  be  easily  reduced.  See  Brilannica,  Vol.  XIII. 
p.  285. 

BLACK  BEETLE,  a  popular  name  for  the  com- 
I'.ion  cockroach  of  Great  Britain.  The  term  is  also 
.i.pplied  to  a  great  family  of  beetles  known  as. Vt7<i)i- 
cai-mata  in  the  heteromerous  suborder  of  Coloej)- 
tera. 

BLACKBERRY,  a  name  common  to  several  rosa 
ceous  plants  of  the  genus  fitiliux,  and  to  I  heir  fruit 
which  consistsof  many  small  juicy  drupelets,  which 
unlike  those  of  the  raspberry,  fall  off  with  their  re- 
ceptacle. Several  varieties  of  blackberry  are  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  the  United  States  "^he  roots  of 
the  high-blackberry,  Hiihvs  rillnKux,  and  of  the  low- 
blackberry  or  dewberry, Rtibiix (•(in<.rf<)).<i.'!,are  much 
used  in  medicine  as  a  tonic  astringent. 

BLACK  BOOK,  a  collection  of  English  admiralty 
law  in  the  14th  century,  first  edited  liy  Sir  Travers 
Twiss  (four  volumes,  1871-7U,.  L  indicates  the  pre- 
tensions of  the  civil  law  as  regards  trial  without 
jury,  torture,  etc.,  which  afterwards  led  to  legisla- 
tion in  vindication  of  th?  position  of  the  common- 
law  courts,  fihich  Book  is  also  a  usual  term  fur  the 
reports  presented  to  parliament  in  l5.St).  on  w  hich 
the  legislation  for  the  dissolution  of  the  monaster- 
ies and  the  secularizing  of  their  revenues  proceed- 
ed. These  reports  probably  never  existed  asa  book. 
A  list  of  habitual  criminals,  first  published  in  1877, 
has  been  also  so  called.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  I,  jx 
167;  Vol.  XXI,  p.  584. 


292 


B  L  A  C  K - B  U  L  L  Y  —  B  L  A  C  K    HOLE 


BLACK-BrLLY,  or  Sapodii.la.  Aciikas  Sapota, 
a  large  South  American  tree,  belonging  to  the 
Sapolacex.  It  is  cultivated  for  its  fruit,  the  sapo- 
dilla  or  sapodilla-plum.  Its  wood,  which  is  of  a 
reddish-brown  color,  and  verj'  durable,  is  used  for 
ship-building. 

BLACKBURNE,  Francis,  Lord  Chancellor  of 
Ireland,  born  at  Great  Footstown,  County  Meath, 
Nov.  11,  1782,  died  Sept.  17, 1867.  In  1798  he  entered 
Trinity  College,  Dublin.  Called  to  the  English  bar 
in  1805,  and  to  that  of  Ireland  in  1822,  he  was  ap- 
pointed attorney-general  for  Ireland  in  1830,  and 
again  in  1841,  master  of  the  rolls  in  1842,  chief  jus- 
tice of  the  Queen's  Bench  in  1846,  and  lord  chancel- 
lor of  Ireland  in  1852  and  1866.  He  thus  served 
under  both  Whig  and  Tory  governments,  and  was 
brought  into  close  connection  with  the  leading  pol- 
iticiaiis  on  either  side  ;  vvliiie  at  dilTerent  times  he 
had  the  duties  imposed  on  him  of  prosecuting 
O'Connell,  and  judging  Smith  O'Brien.  In  1867  he 
declined  an  offer  of  a  baronetcy. 

BL.A.CK  CAP,  the  cap  worn  by  English  judges 
as  a  part  of  full  dress,  and  so  put  on  by  them  when  a 
prisoner  is  condemned  to  death. 

BLACKCAP,  Blackcap  Warbler,  or  Blackcap 
Fauvette  (S^ilfia  atrlcapilla),  a  bird  of  the  great 
family  of  the  S;ilriaiJ:r.  or  Warbln-s.  It  is  regarded 
as  the  sweetest  song-bird  in  Britain,  or  indeed  in 
Europe,  except  the  nightingale  ;  it  is  a  rather  smaller 
bird  than  the  nightingale ;  the  general  color 
is  gray,  with  an  olive  tinge  above  and  becoming 
wliite  below;  the  upper  part  of  tlie  head  is  black, 
and  the  feathers  somewhat  erected,  giving  the  bird 
a  hooded  appearance.  In  Britain  the  blackcap  is 
only  a  bird  of  passage,  though  it  extends  its  migra- 
tions as  far  north  as  Lapland.  In  the  South  of 
Europe  it  is  found  both  in  summer  and  winter.  See 
Brifannica,  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  553. 

BLACK  CHALK,  various  kinds  of  clay-slate,  con- 
taining a  considerable  proportion  of  carbon.  It  is 
used  for  drawing,  and  is  also  ground  down  to  form 
a  black  paint.  It  is  found  as  a  rock  of  slaty  texture 
and  bluisli-black  color  in  the  island  of  Islay  and 
in  Caernarvonshire;  also  in  Spain. 

BL.^GK  DEATH.  See  Plaque,  Britannica,  Vol. 
XIX,  p.  164. 

BL.\CK  DRAUGHT,  a  popular  purgative  medi- 
cine, consisting  of  an  infusion  of  senna  with  sul- 
phate of  magnesia. 

BLACJK  EAKTII  (Tchernozem  of  Russian  geolo- 
gists), the  name  given  to  a  deposit  which  covers 
vast  areas  in  southern  Russia.  It  closely  resem- 
bles the  loss  of  Central  Europe  In  texture  and 
structure,  and  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  gla- 
ciftl  accumulations  of  Russia  that  the  loss  of  the 
Rhine,  the  I)anu))e,  etc,  does  to  those  of  Central 
Europe.  It  is  pnobably  the  fine-grained  silt  derived 
from  the  torrents  that  escaped  from  the  melting 
snows  and  glaciers  of  the  Glacial  period.  It  varies 
in  color  from  dark  brown  to  black,  and  in  thickness 
from  a  foot  fir  two  up  to  six  or  seven  yards,  occa- 
sionally reaching,  it  is  said,  even  to  60  feet. 

BLACKFEET  INDIANS,  a  tribe  of  North  Amer- 
ican Indians,  the  most  western  division  of  the 
Algonquin  stock.  See  Indians,  American,  in  these 
Revisions  and  Additions. 

I!LA(!1<:FISH,  a  fish  of  the  family  of  the  Scom- 
HKiun.E,  very  nearly  alliiMl  to  the  beaiiliful  Cory- 
phenes,  so  frequent  ly  called  dolphins  It  is  found 
in  tlie  Mediterranean  Sea  and  on  the  western 
coasts  of  Europe.  It  is  30  inches  in  length,  weighs 
about  14  pounds  and  has  a  single  elongated  dorsal 
fill  with  short  rays  rising  from  a  thin  elevated 
ridge;  the  skin  is  tough  ami  can  be  stripped  otTlIke 
that  of  an  eel.  The  blacklisli,  or  the  Tiiiihiiiinivllin, 
found  along  the  American  coast,  is  highly  esteemed 


for  the   table.     A  species  of  whale  is   also   called 
blackfish.     See  Britannica  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  686. 

BLACK  FLUX  is  prepared  by  heating  in  a  cov- 
ered crucible  ordinary  or  crtule  cream  of  tartar,  or 
the  bitartrate  of  potasli,  when  the  tartaric  acid  is 
decomposed  and  charred,  forming  carbonic  acid, 
which  remains  in  combination  with  the  potash  as 
carbonate  of  potash,  accompanied  by  much  free 
carbon.  This  very  intimate  mixture  of  carbonate 
of  potash  and  carbon  is  a  tine  black  powder  of  great 
service  in  the  fluxing  of  metallic  ores,  as  of  lead, 
and  the  separation  of  the  metal  therefrom.  The 
black  flux  is  likewise  employed  as  the  raw  mate- 
rial from  which,  on  the  ajtplication  of  heat  in 
iron  vessels,  the  metal  potassium  can  be  obtained. 

BLACK  FRIARS,  friars  of  the  Dominican  order. 
The  old  Dominican  monastery  in   London,  dating 
from  1276,  stood  near  the  north  end  of  Blackfriars' 
Bridge. 

BLACK  FRIDAY,  any  Friday  marked  by  a  great 
calamity.  In  England  it  has  especial  reference  to 
Dec.  6,  1745,  as  being  the  day  on  which  news  was 
received  in  London  that  the  young  pretender, 
Charles  Edward,  had  reached  Derby ;  or  to  ilay  11, 
1866,  from  a  commercial  panic  then  at  its  height, 
caused  by  the  stoppage  of  Overend,  Gurney  &  Co., 
London.  In  the  United  States  it  has  reference  to  the 
financial  panic  caused  by  speculation  in  gold  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  Sept.  24,  18(i9 ;  or  to  a  similar 
panic,  which  began  Sept.  18,1873. 

BLACKGUARD,  a  term  used  in  the  16th  century 
for  the  lowest  menials  of  a  noble  house — the  scul- 
lions who  cleaned  pots  and  pans.  It  was  also  used 
of  the  hangers-on  of  an  army,  camp-followers,  then 
a  rabble,  and  now  used  of  vagabonds  in  general. 

BLACK  HAWK,  a  noted  chief  of  the  Sac  and 
Fox  Indian  tribes,  born  in  1767  at  Kaskaskia,  111., 
died  at  his  camp  on  the  Des  Moines  River,  Oct.  3, 
1838.  Black  Hawk  and  500  warriors  joined  the 
British  in  the  war  of  1812.  When  the  main  body  of 
the  two  tribes  removed  to  the  western  bank  of  the 
jNIississippi,  Black  Hawk  and  his  followers  refused 
to  go,  although  their  lands  had  lieen  given  to  the 
whites  by  treaty.  After  considerable  trouble 'the 
Indians  began  to  massacre  the  settlers,  and  a 
United  Stales  force  \vas  sent  out  to  conquer  them. 
On  Aug.  2,  1832,  Black  Hawk  was  obliged  to  surren- 
der. 

BLACK  HILLS,  a  group  of  mountains  in  Sc.uth 
Dakota  and  Wyoming  Territory.  Laramie  Peak, 
the  highest  in  tlie  range,  rises  8,000  feet  above  sea 
level.  This  region  being  fertile,  well  wooded  and 
watered,  is  adapted  to  dairying,  but  the  mountains 
are  most  noted  for  their  gold,  limestone, lead  and  (in. 

BLACKIIE.VTII,  an  open  common  in  the  county 
of  Kent,  five  miles  southeast  of  London.  It  com- 
mands a  fine  view  of  great  extent,  and  being  a 
healthy  tract  many  villas  have  been  liuilt  on  its 
margin.  It  is  a  favorite  holiday  n'S(u-t  for  Lon- 
doners. It  is  one  of  the  few  iilaeos  where  the 
ancient  Scottish  game  of  golf  is  iiracticod.  Here 
the  Danes  encamped  in  1011,  and  the  Londoners 
welcomed  Henry  V  fnjm  Aginciuirt. 

BLACK  HOLE,  a  name  given  to  a  dungeon  or 
dark  cell  in  a  prison,  but  especially  associated 
with  an  apartment  known  as  the  "  lilack  Hole  of 
Calcutta,"  where,  in  1756,  a  party  of  English  were 
(confined  in  the  most  cruel  manner.  The  garrison 
of  the  fort  connected  with  tlu'  luiglish  factory  at 
Calcutta  having  been  captur(>d  by  Ih"  Nabob 
Suraja  Dowlah,  this  barbarian  caused  the  pris- 
oners, 1  16  in  number,  to  be  continiHl  in  a  cell  20  feet 
sipiare,  which  had  only  two  small  windows,  and 
these  were  obstructed  by  a  veranda.  The  crush  of 
the- sulTerers  was  dreadful,  and  after  a  night  of 
agony  from  pressure,  heat,  thirst,  and   waul  of  air. 


n  LACK  I  K 


B  1.  A  ('  K     K  0  D 


293 


there  were  in  the  miiniin^  only  J:>  survivors.    See 
Britannica,  Vol.  IV.  p.  tioC;  Vol.  XII,  p.  801. 

BL.VCKIE,  Joii.N  STr.\RT,  a  ticoltish  writer,  bom 
infiliisgow  in  ISOit.  lie  was  educated  at  Aberdeen 
and  Edinburgh,  and  in  1829  went  to  the  Continent, 
where  he  continued  his  studies  at  (iottiiigen  and 
Berlin,  and  afterwards  at  Kome.  In  is:-i4  he  pub- 
lished a  good  metrical  translation  of  Goethe's  i'Vn;.s/, 
and  in  the  same  year  passed  as  advocate  at  the  Ed- 
inburgh bar.  But  he  was  more  interested  in  literary 
pursuits  than  in  the  practice  of  his  profession,  and 
soon  became  known  by  his  articles  on  German  sub- 
jects cimtributed  to  the  magazines  of  tlie  time.  In 
1841  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Humanity  in 
Marischal  (College,  .Vberdeen,  wliich  he  held  until 
1852.  when  he  was  elected  to  the  Greek  chair  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh.  After  he  became  profes- 
sor he  took  an  active  part  in  promoting  educational 
reform,  and  in  the  movement  that  led  in  1859  to 
the  remodeling  of  the  Scottish  Universities.  He 
always  figured  as  a  patriotic  champion  of  Scottish 
nationality  and  its  characteristic  features.  During 
the  years  of  lN74-7tJ  he  advocated  throughout  the 
country  with  great  enthusiasm  the  foundation  of  a 
Celtic  chair  in  Edinburgh  University,  and  was  suc- 
cessful in  raising  a  large  sum  for  its  endowment. 
He  resigned  his  chair  in  1882.  He  published  a  line 
verse  translation  of  vEschylus  in  185().  another  of 
the  IHiud  in  ballad  meter  in  lS(iti.  as  well  as  several 
volumes  of  verse.  His  prose  works  embrace  moral 
and  religious  philosophy,  the  method  of  history, 
the  land  laws  and  a  short  life  of  Burns  (18SS). 
His  principal  philological  papers  were  collected  in 
Horn-  llilhnidc  (1874).  In  tlie  same  year  he  pub- 
lished S,lf-('ulture. 

BLACKING,  the  material  employed  for  produ- 
cing a  black,  glazed,  shining  surface  on  leather. 
The  main  ingredient  in  various  kinds  of  blacking  is 
bone-black,  which  is  mixed  with  oil,  raw  sugar  or 
molasses,  and  a  little  sulphuric  acid. 

BL.Vt'K  I.SLE  is  a  common  name  for  the  pe- 
ninsula, in  Easter  Koss,  lying  Ix'tween  the  Beauly 
and  Moray  F"irths  and  Cromarty  Firth.  See  Ross, 
Britannica,  Vol.  XX,  p.  8.>1. 

BL.VCK  J.\CK.  a  name  given  by  miners  to 
blende.  It  was  also  in  former  times  the  name  ap- 
plied to  a  kind  of  drinking  flagon. 

BLACK  LEAD,  the  popular  name  of  graphite,  or 
plumbago,  a  mineral  consisting  chieliy  of  carbon.    ' 
See  C.\RBOx.  Britannica.  \'o!.  V,  |)p.  .Sii,  87.  ' 

BLACK   LETTER,  a  name  now  commonly   ap-   I 
plied  to  the  (jothic  or  Old  English  letter,  which  was   i 
introduced  into  England  about  the  middle  of  the   i 
14th  century.    See  Tvi'ookai'iiv,Gotuic,  Britannica, 
Vol.  XX III",  p.  (i94. 

BL.\(;K  LLST,  a  name  applied  to  printed  lists 
connected  with  insolvency,  bankruptcy,  and  other 
matters  affecting  the  credit  of  linns  and  Individ-  ' 
uals,  and  wliicli  are  circulated  for  the  private 
guidance  of  the  mercantile  community,  with  a 
view  of  affording  protection  against  "Ijad  debts, 
frauds,  etc.  The  term  is  also  frequently  used  of 
any  list  of  persons  who  are  deemed  objectionable 
by  the  makers  or  users  of  the  list. 

BL.VCKM.ML,  a  rent  or  tribute  formerly  ex- 
acted by  freebooting,  chiefs  from  the  people  in  the 
Border  counties  of  England  and  Scotland,  and 
along  the  Highland  border.  It  was  a  kind  of  com- 
promise with  robljors.  and  bought  immunity  from 
the  attacks  not  only  of  those  to  whom  it  was  paid, 
but  also  of  others.  It  continued  to  be  e.xacted 
along  the  Highland  border  until  about  the  middle 
of  the  I8th  century.  The  term  is  now  applied  to 
extortion  of  any  kind  l)y  intimidation.  It  iisuiilly  I 
implies  involuntary  payment  of  money  through  | 
lear  of  threatened  injury  to  reputation.  ^  I 


BLACK  MONDAY.  Easter  Monday,  April  14, 
l.StiO,  socalled  from  the  extraordinary  darkness  and 
the  fatally  bitter  cold.  Stow,  in  his  .l;i;i(i/x  says: 
"The  14  day  of  April  and  the  morrow  after  Easter 
day.  King  Edward  fill)  with  his  host  lay  before 
thecitty  of  Paris,  which  day  was  full  darke  of  mist 
and  haile  and  so  bitter  cold  that  many  men  dyed 
on  their  horses  with  cold;  wherefore  unto  this  day 
it  hath  beene  called  the  Hlncke  Muiidaij." 

BL.\CKMORE,  Rich.vkd  DoDDRiniiK,  an  English 
novelist,  born  at  Longworth,  Berkshire,  in  1825. 
Educated  at  Blundell's  School  (Tiverton  I,  and 
Exeter  College,  Oxford,  he  subsequently  studied' 
law,  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1852,  and  practiced 
for  a  time  as  a  conveyancer.  His  first  publications 
were  I'oems  by  Mehintcr  (1S.54),  EpiiUin  (185o>,  TVit? 
Bugle  (if  the  Black  Sea  (1855),  followed  by  The  Fate  of 
'Frantllii  (1860),  and  a  translation  of  the  first  and 
second  books  of  Virgil's  (Injigies  (1862).  Other 
volumes  of  verse  have  followed  these,  as  well  as  a 
complete  translation  of  the  d'eorgica  in  1871.  His 
first  novels  were:  Clara  Vaughn  (1864)  and  Cra- 
dock  Nou-ell  (lS66),but  his  first  distinct  success  was 
Loma  Dofitie,  a  RoJnaitee  of  K.rmoor  (l.SOiO,  which 
reached  a  22d  edition  in  1884,  and  has  remained  the 
favorite  of  his  works.  His  other  novels  are:  The 
Maid  of  Sker  (1872)  perhaps  his  second  best  story ; 
Alice  Lorraine  (1875),  Cripps  th-e  Carrier  ( 1876),  Erenia 
(1877),  Mary  Anerley  (liXO),  Christowell,  a  Dartmoor 
Tale  (1882),  Tommy  L'pmore  (1884),  and  Sj/ringhaven 
(1887). 

BLACK  MOUNTAINS,  a  group  in  Yancey 
county,  -X.  C,  a  short  dislance  west  of  the  Blue 
Ridge,  so  called  from  the  Italsaniic  firs  which  grow 
on  the  crests  of  the  mountains.  Black  Dome,  or 
Mitchell's  High  Peak,  is  6,707  feet,  the  highest  peak 
east  of  the  Rockies,  and  is  named  for  Dr.  Mitch- 
ell, of  North  Carolina,  who  died  while  exploring 
the  region,  and  who  is  here  buried. 

BLACK  OAK,  a  handsome  large  tree  of  the 
United  States,  constituting  the  genus  Qiierrus 
tinctoria,  or,  according  to  some  botanists,  a  variety 
of  Quercus  coccinea.  It  yields  a  thick  bark  much 
used  for  tanning  and  from  which  the  yellow  dye 
known  as  quercitron  is  obtained. 

BLACK  PRINCE,  the  poi]ular  title  conferred 
upon  Edward  (1330-76),  eldest  son  of  Edward  III. 
It  is  said,  but  not  proven,  that  the  name  was  given 
from  the  color  of  the  armor  worn  liy  him.  See  Bri- 
tannica, Vol.  VII,  p.  ti.Mi;  Vol.  VIII.  p.  31'). 

BLACK  (.JUAKTER,  an  infectious  disease  of  cat- 
tle.    See  MiKR.MN,  Britannica,  Vol.  XVII,  p.  58. 

BLACK  RIVER,  or  BigBi-vck  RiVer,  a  stream 
35U  miles  long  which  rises  in  Iron  county,  Mo..  llows 
southwostward  into  the  White  River  at  .lackson- 
port  in  Arkansas,  and  is  navigable,  when  the  water 
is  high,  for  about  100  miles,  by  small  river  steam- 
boats. 

BLACK  RIVER,  of  New  York,  about  125  miles 
long,  rises  in  Herkimer  county,  flows  in  a  northwest- 
erly direction  and  empties  into  Lake  Ontario  near 
AVatertown.  The  Black  River  Canal,  between 
Lyon's  Falls  and  Rome,  allows  boats  to  pass  from 
the  river  into  Erie  canal. 

BLACK  RIVER  FALLS,  a  town  of  Wisconsin, 
county-seat  of  .lackson  county,  situated  on  Black 
River,  about  fifty  miles  north  of  La  Crosse.  The 
river  furnishes  a  valuable  waler-power  ;  and  there 
are  many  flour  mills,  lumber  mills,  and  other  manu- 
factories. 

BLACK  ROD,  Gr.nti.km.sn  Usmkr  of  tmk.  In 
England,  an  officer  of  the  House  of  Lords,appointed 
by  letters-i)atent.  He  is  chief  gentleman-usher  to 
the  sovereign,  and  usher  of  the  (Jarter.at  the  chap- 
ter-meetings, of  which  he  keeps  the  door.  He  has 
charge  of   all   arrangements   for   keeping  order  in 


294 


B  L  A  C  K  S  B  U  R  G  —  B  L  A  D  D  E  R  -NUT 


the  House;  takes  into  custody  any  peer  guilty  of 
breach  of  privilege  ;  and  (himself,  or  by  his  deputy 
the  yeoman-uslier)  summons  the  House  of  Com- 
mons to  the  peers  when  the  royal  assent  Is  given  to 
bills,  or  when  royal  speeches  are  read.  The  ap- 
pointment of  messengers,  door-keepers,  etc.,  rests 
with  Black  Rod.  His  title  is  derived  from  the 
black  rod  which  he  carries.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  similar  functionaries  in  tne  legislatures  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  other  Britisli  colonies. 

BLACKSBUKG,  a  village  of  Virginia,  aliout  sev- 
enty-five miles  west  of  Lynchburg.    It  is  the  seat  of 
*the   Virginia    Agricultural    and    Mechanical   Col- 
lege. 

BLACK  SXAKE,  a  species  of  snake  common  in 
the  United  States  from  Louisiana  to  Connecticut; 
is  of  an  almost  uniform  leaden  color,  is  one  of  the 
largest  serpents  in  Nortli  America,  and  is  remark-' 
able  for  its  agility.  It  moves  along  the  ground 
with  a  swiftness  equal  to  that  of  a  horse,  glides 
over  bushes,  and  climbs  trees.  It  feeds  on  small 
quadrupeds,  birds,  frogs,  etc.;  frequently  plun- 
ders poultry  yards  of  eggs,  and  enters  dairies  to 
drink  milk  and  cream,  of  which  it  is  very  fond, 
but  compensates  for  these  depredations  by  killing 
rats  and  mice.  It  has  no  poison  fangs,  but  is  not 
slow  to  bite. 

BLACKSTONE  RIVER,  of  Massachusetts,  rises 
in  Worcester  county  and  dtnpties  into  Providence 
River  after  having  followed  a  southeasterly  course. 
It  measures  about  "•")  miles,  and  furnislies  water- 
power  to  several  manufacturing  villages. 

BLACKWALL,  a  town  of  Middlose.x,  England,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Lee  with  the  Thames,  four  miles 
southeast  of  London  ;  has  foundries,  ship  building- 
yards,  and  the  East  and  West  India  Docks.  A 
railroad  connects  Blaekwall  with  London,  and,  to 
avoid  the  dangers  and  delay  of  the  "pool,"  many 
passengers  proceed  by  this  railway  to  embark  in 
steamers  at  Blaekwall  instead  of  going  on  board  at 
London  Bridge. 

BLACK  WALNUT,  the  JungJniu  nigra  of  the 
United  Stales.  It  is  a  handsome  tree,  v.hich  I'ro- 
duces  an  edible  nut,  and  is  much  prized  for  its 
valuable  timber. 

BL.\CK  WATCH,  the  name  given  to  the  first  of 
the  Scottish  Highland  regiments  which  had  its  ori- 
gin in  a  commission  granted  to  .lohn,  second  E;irl 
of  .Vthole,  in  KiliS,  to  raise  and  keep  a  suflicient 
guard  tor  securing  peace  in  the  Highlands.  Tlie 
term  hlnrk  arose  from  the  dark  color  of  their  tartan 
uniforni,  which  distinguished  them  from  the  regu- 
lar troops,  called  (he  Srngli(hini  Dearg,  or  "  red  sol- 
diers." Originally  tliree  companies,  in  1729  the 
number  was  increased  to  six,  and  these  formed  ir.to 
the  42d  Regiment  under  t  iHM'ommand  of  the  Earl 
of  Crawford,  in  17.'!;).  In  171:!  the  regimont  joined 
the  troops  in  Flanders  and  first  went  into  action  at 
Fontenoy,  since  wliicii  it  has  been  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  corps  in  the  British  army.  In  1872 
the  olhcers  of  the  corps  erected  a  monument  in 
Dunkeld  (Jathedral  in  memory  of  those  who  had 
fallen  in  battle  from  the  creation  of  the  regiment 
till  the  close  of  the  Indian  mutiny  in  1H.")0:  and  a 
memorial  cairn,  raised  by  publi('  subscription,  was 
unveiled  Nov.  13, 1SS7,  in  the  held  near  .Xberfeldy, 
where  the  regiment  first  assembled  in  17.'!!', 

r.L.\CKWATEH,  a  name  of  liv(>  Irish  rivers,  one 
of  winch  deserves  notice — the  lUackwater  of  ('ork, 
whi<li  runs  across  Cork  county  in  a  carboniferous 
limestone  basin.  High  mountains  boun<l  it  on  tlie 
sout  li,  and  its  chief  feeders  conie  from  the  north. 
It  is  KHI  miles  In  length,  the  seventh  in  size  of  the 
Irish  rivers.  The  scenery  along  its  banks  is  ex- 
Irenielv  beautiful  and  pici  ures(|iM',  with  ruins, 
mansions,  and  woods.     It  abotUKls  in  salmon. 


BLACKWELL,  Antoinette  Louis.i  Brown,  born 
at  Henrietta,  New  York,  May  20, 182.5,  graduated  at 
Olierlin  in  1S47,  completed  a  theological  course  in 
iNjd,  and  afterwards  preached  and  delivered  lect- 
ures on  literature,  temperance,  slavery  and  woman 
suffrage.  She  has  been  a  Congregational  minister 
but  is  now  connected  with  the  Unitarian  denomina- 
tion and  preaches  occasionally.  She  is  the  mother 
of  six  children  and  lives  in  Elizabeth,  N.  J.  She  is 
the  autlior  of  several  books. 

BLACIKWELL,  ELiz.\BETn,  born  in  Bristol,  Eng- 
land, in  1.S21.  Her  family  emigrated  to  America, 
and,  after  settling  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  the  father 
died,  leaving  his  wife  and.  nine  children  in  great 
poverty.  Elizabeth  contributed  toward  the  family 
sujjport  by  teaching  school.  She  resolved  to  become 
a  pliysician  and  prosecuted  her  studies  under 
many  diiiiculties.  The  medical  colleges  of  New 
York,  Philadelphia  and  Boston  refused  to  receive 
her,  but  she  was  at  last  admitted  to  the  Geneva 
sciiool  in  New  York,  from  which  she  graduated 
with  honor  in  1849,  being  the  first  woman  in  .Amer- 
ica to  obtain  the  degree  of  M.  D.  She  went  to 
Paris,  where  she  studied  midwifery.  .After  this  she 
was  admitted  to  the  hospital  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
in  London,  where  she  studied  and  practiced  medi- 
cine. In  1851,  on  her  return  to  America,  she  settled 
in  New  York,  and  began  the  practice  of  medicine. 
She  met  with  some  opposition  from  the  members  of 
the  profession,  but  was  able  to  overcome  it.  In  1854, 
with  the  aid  of  her  sister.  Dr.  Emily  Blackwell,  she 
started  an  infirmary  for  women  and  children.  A 
few  years  later  the  sisters  established  a  woman's 
medical  college  in  connection  with  the  infirmary. 
Dr.  Elizabetli,  in  18()9,  went  to  London,  where  she 
practiced  medicine  for  several  years,  lectured,  and 
assisted  in  forming  a  woman's  medical  college.  She 
has  written  health  tracts  and  books  on  hygiene. 

BLACKWELL,  Licv  Stoxe.     See  Stoxe,  Liev. 

BLACKWELL'S  ISLAND,  a  part  of  New  York 
city  ;  it  lies  in  the  East  River,  and  has  an  area  of 
120  acres.  On  this  island  are  charity  and  fever  hos- 
pitals, a  penitentiary,  alms  and  workhouses,  and  a 
liglit-house. 

BLACKWOOD,  AVii.li.vm  (177(i-1834),  a  distin- 
guished publisher,  born  at  Edinburgh  in  177(i,  at 
which  place  he  settled  as  a  bookseller  in  1804.  In 
1817  he  became  a  i)ublisher  on  his  own  account  and 
issued  the  first  number  of  "Blackwood's  Magazine." 
The  literary  aliility  displayed  in  this  periodical  was 
so  much  in  advance  of  the  monthly  magazines  then 
existing  that  from  the  first  it  was  a  great  success, 
and  it  secured  for  itself  a  wonderful  reputation. 
He  was  himself  chief  manager  of  the  magazine, 
and  conducted  the  whole  of  the  correspondence 
connected  with  it  until  his  death,  in  18;-)4.  Under 
his  sons,  the  Messrs.  Blackwood,  who  succeeded 
him  in  the  business,  "  Maga  "  has  not  only  sustained 
but  increased  its  reputation. 

BL.\CKWOt)D  RIVER,  in  West  Australia, enters 
the  Hardy  Inlet  six  miles  northeast  of  .Vugusta.  It 
(lows  through  the  counties  of  Durham  and  Nelson 
first  to  the  west  then  to  the  south,  traversing  a  dis- 
triclof  wiioil  and  iiasturage.  It  is  navigable  for 
boats  to  a  distance  of  20  miles. 

15L.\lil>F,l!  (iKEEN,  ,\Nn  S.u'  Cuken  are  colors 
derived  fmm  the  buckthorn,  a  genus  of  lihdiiiiKiceir, 
and  in  use  bv  dvers  and  painters. 

BL.XDPKR-NUT,  a  genus  of  plants,  Sttiiihiilen, 
the  type  nf  a  small  natural  order,  .SVu/i/i i/Zcoccr.  They 
■ire  mostly  trees  or  shrubs  of  elegant  appearance, 
and  t  he  two  s|ie('ios.  .S.  trifuliii  and  N.  ;)»)i/((((((,  are 
much  used  fur  (irnaniental  plantinir.  Inllated 
nu'mhranous  capsules  inclose  the  seeds  and  give 
the  popular  name  to  the  trees.  See  Brita'niica, 
Vol.  n,  p.  :t20. 


R  L  A  I )  I » !•:  i{  -  s  !■:  I-:  d  —  u  l  a  i  n  e 


•iOo 


BLADDER-SEED (/'/(;/.•"«//' im«/»  (■../■„»/</<  i-.s-j, an 
niiilx'lliferous  weed  noted  for  its  inflated  fruit. 

BI.ADDKK-SKNNA  (Cdhilin  ai-h:iri:iciiis),a  logu- 
niincms  tree  of  8outliern  Europe,  frei|ueiitly  cultiva- 
ted. It  owes  ils  name  partly  to  the  dry  inflated  pod, 
partly  to  its  pnpular  use  as  a  purgative. 

BI/A1)1)K1;-\\(J1;.M.  the  ase.\ual  stage  of  a  tape 
worm  or  cestode.  The  stage  owes  its  name  to  the 
bladder-lilve  f<jrm  resulting  from  the  eneysted  em- 
bryo. !>ee  Tai'Ewoums,  Britannica,  Vol.  .\X11I,  pp. 
52,  53. 

BLADDERWOUT,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat- 
ural order  I.riililuihu-cn-,  containing  luimerous  spe- 
cies. Their  bright  blossoms,  with  those  of  the  water 
lilies,  etc.,  adorn  the  surface  of  lakes,  ditches,  and 
marshes  in  almost  all  parts  of  tlie  world;  they  are 
particularly  abundant  within  the  tropics.  The 
roots,  steins,  and  even  leaves  are  furnished  with 
numerous  little  bladders,  which  are  filled  with 
water,  till  it  is  necessary  that  the  plant  should  rise 
for  the  expansion  of  the  flowers,  when  they  become 
tilled  with  air;  and  this  again  gives  place  to  water 
after  flowering  is  over,  so  that  the  seeds  are  ripened 
at  the  bottom.  The  bladders  of  some  species  have 
an  orifice  closed  by  a  very  thin  elastic  valve  open- 
ing inwards;  aquatic  insects  sometime.s  enter  them 
and  are  imprisoned. 

BJj.XDK.NSIiUKc;,  a  village  of  Prince  George's 
county.  .Maryland,  sitinited  on  theeastern  branch  of 
the  I'otomac,  about  six  miles  northeast  of  Wash- 
ington. Itwas  the  scene  of  a  battle  fought  Aug. 
24,  bsu,  which  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  Ameri- 
cans, and  the  capti.re  and  destruction  of  the  city  of 
\\'asliiugton  by  the  British. 

I'.L.VDEN  SL'KINGS,  a  village  of  Choctaw  county, 
.Vlabama,  situated  near  the  Toir.bigbee  River, 
about  eighty-five  miles  north  of  Mobile.  It  is  noted 
for  its  copious  medicinal  springs.  These  are  six  in 
number,  saline-chalybeate,  and  arc  highly  valued 
for  tlieir  curative  ell'ects  in  cases  of  dyspepsia, 
chronic  rheumatism,  and  kidney  and  bowel  com- 
plaints. 

BL.VES,  a  Scottish  collier's  name  for  the  shale  of 
the  coal-measure,  originating  apparently  from  the 
"  blae  "  or  bluish  colcr  sometimes  noticed  in  the 
shale.  The  term,  is  occasionally  used  by  geolo- 
gists. 

BL.VEU,  Wii.i.i.\M.J.\NssoN,Dutcli  mathematician, 
mai)-drawer  and  publisher,  born  at  .\lkmaar,  Hol- 
land ,  in  I.'jTI,  died  in  KioS.  His  Ii'rrestrial  and 
celestial  globes  excelled  in  beauty  and  accuracy 
everything  that  had  preceded  them.  For  descrip- 
tion of  his  work,  see  (ii.oitK,  Britannica,  Vol.  X,  p. 
883.  His  son,  .Ian,  commenced  business  on  his  own 
account  at  .Vnisterdam  in  Ki.'!?,  but  afterwards 
entered  into  company  with  his  brother  Cornelius 
(died  lli.")0).  He  edited  the  well-known  Athis-Major 
in  eleven  volumes.  This  is  a  remarkable  work, 
with  many  curi(uis  plates ;  and  the  nuips  are  ex- 
tremely valuable  from  tlie  light  they  throw  on 
local  history,  lie  further  pulilished  a  series  of 
topographical  plates  and  views  of  towns.  Jan  left 
three  sons,  two  of  whom  carried  on  the  business 
with  success  until  about  1700.  Some  of  their  clas- 
sical )>ublications,  especially  Cicero's  Oralionex 
(l(i!»0),  are  liighlv  i)rized. 

BI-A(if)VlKSHT.><CIIENSK,a  town  of  the  Amur 
province  of  Russian  .\sia.  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Anuir  and  Seja  rivers.  Till  1HK2  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  province.     Population,  7,075. 

Bli.MN'K,  ,I.\MKs  tiii.i.i;si'ii;,  an  .Vmerican  states- 
man, born  of  Scotch-Irish  parentage  at  West 
Brownsville,  Pa.,  .Ian.  :il,  18:i0.  As  a  boy  at  school 
he  excelled  in  literature  and  mat  herriat  ics.  anil  at 
the  early  age  of  thirteen  entered  \\ashington  Col- 
lege in  his  native  coimty,  graduating  in  1847.  Sub- 


sequently he  became  a  teacher  in  the  military  in- 
stitute at  Blue  Lick  Springs,  Ky.,  where  he  married 
Miss  Harriet  Stanhope,  a  teacher  in  a  neighboring 
seminary.  Soon  after  liis  marriage  he  removed  to 
Pennsylvania,  and  after  studying  iaw  for  a  short 
time  became  a  teacher  in  the  Institution  for  the 
Blind  at  Philadelphia.  In  1.S.5I  he  removed  to  .Vu- 
gusta,  Me.,  entering  the  jouriuilistic  ranks,  first  as 
editor  of  the  "  Kennebec  .lournal,"  and  later  as 
editor  of  the  "Portland  Advertiser."  In  l.S.'iM  he  was 
elected  to  the  State  legislature,  and  served  tv/o 
terms,  officiating  as  speaker  during  the  last  two 
years.  During  the  same  year  (1S5K),  he  wtis  made 
chairman  of  the  Kepulilican  StafeCommiltee.  which 
ollice  lie  held  for  a  score  of  years.  In  IH(i2  the  Re- 
publicans elected  him  to  the  Hcnise  of  Representa- 
tives, and  for  20  years  lie  served  in  one  or  the  other 
of  the  two  Houses  of  Congrt'ss.  During  the  war  he 
favored  all  judicious  and  practical  resolutions  for 
its  vigorous  prosecution,  and  at  its  close  he  bore  an 
active  part  in  the  reconsi  ruction  measures  of  the 
country.  The  14th  Constitutional  Aniendm;'nt  was 
called  the  "Blaine  Amendment ,'' as  it  was  formu- 
lated and  earnestly  advocated  bj  him.  He  was 
largely  instrumental  in  the  negotiation  of  a  treaty 
witli  England,  in  which  the  doctrine  of  ])erpetual 
allegiance  was  abandoned,  and  <ireat  Britain  ac- 
cepted the  AiTierican  prini-iple  of  equal  rights  and 
protection  for  adopted  as  well  as  for  native  citizens. 
From  1 809  to  1S75  .Mr.  P.laine  was  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  and  his  record  in  this 
capacity  is  generally  conceded  to  have  been  a  bril- 
liant one.  As  presiding  otlii^er  he  was  distinguished 
for  his  knowledge  of  iiarliamentary  law,  his  impar- 
tiality in  administration,  and  his  physical  endur- 
ance. His  course  in  connection  with  the  general 
amnesty  bill,  which  provoked  stormy  discussion  in 
1!!7(),  strengthened  his  influence  In  the  Republican 
party. 

In  1S76  Mr.  Blaine  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate,  and  at  once  became  a  most  promi- 
nent and  eljicient  member  of  that  body.  In  the  Re-  . 
publican  national  convention  of  that  year  he. was  a 
prominent  candidate  for  nomination  to  the  presi- 
dency of  the  United  States,  and  lacked  only  28  votes 
out  of  a  total  of  754  of  receiving  the  nomination. 
At  the  Republican  national  convention  in  1880  his 
friends  again  presented  his  name  for  nomination, 
and  on  the  first  ballot  the  vole  stood:  (irant  Hot, 
Blaine  2SI,  Sherman  0.3,  Edmunds  .34,  Washburn  ;iO, 
Windom  10,  Garfield  1.  On  the  election  of  Mr.  (i-ir- 
fleld,  ilr.  Blaine  accepted  the  appointment  of  Secre- 
tary of  State,  filling  (lie  office  with  rare  ability  and 
success,  until  t'.io  death  of  Ihe.  president,  when  he 
retired  from  active  i)ublic  work,  and  began  towrite 
his  famous  historical  work,  entitled  TuinUj  Yiarit  uj 
Conijrcss.  In  1884 Mr.  Blaine  received  the  Repull^i- 
can  nominatiLn  for  President,  but  after  a  vigorous 
contest,  failing  to  secure  tho  electoral  vote  of  the 
State  of  New  York  by  t!i(MiarroW'  margin  of  1.047 
votes  out  of  a  total  of  over  1,200,000,  ho  was  defeated 
in  tho  goner.ilcloc'iion.  Ho  spent.  Ihe  ensui«g  .(.ur 
years  at  work  on  his  book  and  in  foreign  travel. 

At  the  time  of  the  noitiinating  convention  in  l.s.s8. 
Mr.  P.laine  was  in  Europe,  and  by  formal  li'ller  de- 
clined to  permit  his  friends  to  present  his  mime  ay 
a  caiulidrite  for  the  presidency.  He  relurniMl,  how- 
ever, in  time  to  aid  eliicieiit  ly  in  the  canvass  for  .Mr. 
Harrison,  and  on  the  election  of  the  latter  again 
accepted  the  appointment  as  Secr<>tary  of  State 
Among  the  important  services  since  rcndere<l  in 
this  office  he  took  a  leading  part  in  settling  the 
Samoan  ililliculties  in  Ihe  treaty  between  (ii"rmaiiy, 
England. and  IheCnited  Stales,  and  successfully 
invited  and  most  elliciently  presided  over  the  Pan- 
American  Conj.;ress    held  in   Washington.     At  this 


296 


B  L  A  I  R  —  B  L  A  K  E 


writing  (1891),  he  is  actively  conducting  on  the  part 
of  the  United  States  the  discussion  with  England 
on  the  Bering  Sea  Seal-fishery  question. 

BLAIR.  Francis  PRESTOx/born  in  Abingdon.  Va., 
April  12,  1791,  died  at  Silver  Spring,  Md.,  Oct.  18. 
187b.  He  early  entered  political  life,  and  in  1829 
was  requested  by  the  President  to  establish  a  Demo- 
cratic newspaper  in  Washington  which  should  lie 
the  organ  of  the  party.  In  response  Mr.  Blair 
started  the  "Globe,"  and  conducted  it  till  1845.  In 
18.>l  he  assisted  in  organizing  the  Republican 
party  :  in  1860  wasamemberof  the  Chicago  conven- 
tion which  nominated  Jlr.  Lincoln,  and  after  his 
election  had  considerable  influence  in  the  adminis- 
tration. He  went  South  in  1864,  and  through  per- 
sonal influence  tried  to  effect  a  peace  with  Jeffer- 
son Davis  and  other  Southern  leaders.  The  "peace 
conference,"  of  Feb.  3,  1865,  was  a  result  of  his  la- 
bors. After  Lincoln's  death  he  opposed  reconstruc- 
tion measures  and  gave  his  support  to  the  Demo- 
cratic party. 

BLAIR,  Francis  Presto.v,  son  of  Francis  P.Blair, 
born  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  Feb.  19,  1821,  died  at  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  July  8, 1875.  He  was  a  Princeton  gradu- 
ate and  began  the  practice  of  law  in  St.  Louis  in  1843. 
He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  was  editor  of  the 
"Missouri  Democrat"  and  from  1852  to  1856  was  in  the 
Missouri  Legislature.  He  joined  the  new  Republi- 
can party  in  1856  and  was  sent  to  Congress.  In 
1862  he  was  reelected.  In  1861  he  commanded  an 
unauthorized  force  which  guarded  the  St.  Louis 
arsenal  and  took  the  State  forces  under  General 
Frost,  thus  saving  Missouri  and  Kentucky  from  the 
Confederates.  He  fought  in  the  civil  war,  and  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He  was  at 
Lookout  Mountain,  Missionary  Ridge  and  mf  rched 
with  Sherman  to  the  sea.  After  the  war  he  left  the 
Republican  party,  being  dissatisfied  with  its  policy, 
was  elected  to  his  State  legislature  and  in  the  same 
month  was  elected  by  the  Democrats  to  the  United 
States  .Senate. 

BLAIR,  Henry  William,  born  at  Campton,N.H., 
Dec.  a,  18i?4.  His  parents  died  before  he  reached 
the  age  of  13,  and  his  early  educational  advantages 
were  very  limited  on  this  account, and  also  because 
of  his  own  ill-health.  He  studied  law  and  in  1860 
was  elected  prosecuting  attorney  of  ( iraf  ton  county. 
He  enlisted  in  the  civil  war,  but  at  tlie  siege  of 
Port  Hudson  was  so  severely  wounded  that  he  was 
unaVile  to  engage  in  any  furtlier  military  service. 
He  was  from  1866  to  1869  in  the  New  Hampshire 
legislature,  and  since  1875  has  served  in  Congress. 
He  is  a  reformer  and  introduced  the  important 
."Blair  (Jommon-School  Hill."  He  K'ves  his  support 
to  all  such  social  questions  as  temperance  and 
woman  suffrage. 

BLAIR.  James,  educator,  born  in  Scotland  in  1656, 
died  in  Williamsburg,  Va.,  Aug.  1,  1743.  He  was  a 
clergyman  of  the  fjpiscopal  church  and  S])ent  most 
of  his  life  in  the  colony  of  Virginia.  He  established 
the  William  and  Mary  College,  having  gathered 
funds  for  it  and  secured  the  charter  from  the  king. 
He  was  appointed  its  first  president. 

BT^AIR,.ronN  Insi.ev,  capilalisi,  born  in  Warren 
county,  N.  J.,  Aug.  22.  1802.  He  has  been  an  active 
business  man,  assisting  in  develo|)ing  coal  mines 
in  Pennsylvania,  building  the  railroad  between 
Owi'go  and  Ithaca.  N.  V.,  building  the  Delaware. 
Lackawanna  and  Western  Railroad,  and  alsoassisl- 
ini;  in  laying  roads  in  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Kansas,  Ne- 
braska, Missouri  and  Texas.  He  wns  une  of  the 
original  directors  of  the  Cnion  Pacific  Hailroad,  He 
is  a  liopublican,  a  meinlier  of  the  Presbyterian 
church,  and  a  liberal  benefactor  of  edueational  and 
religious  olijects,  liaving  given  over  $500.0(K)  for  be- 
Mev<dent  purposes. 


BLAIR,  Montgomery,  born  in  Franklin  couniy 
Ky..  May  10,  1813,  died  at  Silver  Spring,  Md.,  Julj 
27,1883.  He  served  in  the  Seminole  wa"r,  held  sev- 
eral judicial  positions  in  INIissouri  and  Maryland, 
and  being  appointed  by  Lincoln  to  the  Cabinet  as 
Postmaster-General,  he  instituted  various  im- 
provements in  his  department — notably  money 
orders  and  postal  railroad  cars.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  only  one  of  the  Cabinet  who  opposed  the 
surrender  of  Ft.  Sumter.  After  1867  he  lent  his  in- 
fluence to  the  Democratic  party. 

BLAIR-ATHOL,  a  village  in  the  county  of  Perth, 
Scotland,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tilt  and 
Garry.  Blair  Castle,  the  seat  of  the  duke  of  Athol, 
is  situated  here.  The  larch-trees  surrounding  it 
are  remarkable  alike  for  their  enormous  size  and 
for  the  fact  of  their  being  among  the  first  planted 
in  Scotland.     See  Britannica,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  311. 

BLAIR,  a  city  of  Nebraska,  county-seat  of  \^'ash- 
ington  county,  and  an  important  railroad  center. 
It  is  situated  about  three  miles  west  of  the  Mis- 
souri River  and  thirty  miles  above  Omaha.  It  has 
a  large  local  trade  and  various  important  indus- 
tries. It  contains  a  number  of  elevators,  mills,  and 
wagon-factories. 

BLAIR-G(JAVRIE,  a  village  of  Perthshire,  very 
beautifully  situated  on  the  east  side  of  a  range  of 
hills,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ericht,  16  miles  north- 
east of  Perth.  It  consists  chiefly  of  one  winding 
street.  It  has  flax-spinning  and  weaving  factories, 
driven  by  the  Ericht,  employing  700  to  800  hands. 
Pure  white  marble  is  found  in  the  vicinity.  Popu- 
lation. 4.833.    - 

BLAIRSVILLE,  a  village  of  Georgia,  county-seat 
of  Union  county.  It  is  noted  for  the  marble  and 
gold  found  in  its  vicinity. 

BliAIliSVILLE,  an  important  shipping  center 
of  Pennsylvania,  situated  on  the  I'onnemaugh 
River,  about  .55  miles  east  of  Pittsburgh.  Coal,  lum- 
ber, grain,  and  pork  are  here  shipped  in  large  quan- 
tities. 

BLAKE,  EnwARD,  son  of  AVilliam  Hume  Blake, 
born  in  Adelaide,  Middlesex  county,  Ontario,  Can., 
Oct.  13.  1833.  He  graduated  with  honors  from  the 
University  College  of  Toronto  in  1857,  and  two 
years  later  was  called  to  the  bar.  He  was  simul- 
taneously a  candidate  for  election  to  the  House 
of  Commons  of  the  Dominion  and  the  Legislative 
Assembly  of  Ontario.  To  the  latter  body  he  was 
elected,  and  soon  became  (1867)  leader  of  the  oppo- 
sition. In  1871  he  became  premier  of  the  Ontario 
legislature,  holding  office  for  one  session  and  then 
resigning.  Under  the  Mackenzie  administration 
Mr.  lilake  held  successively  two  important  cabinet 
positions. 

BLAKE,  LiLLiK  Devereux,  born  at  Raleigh, 
N.  C,  Aug.  12,  1835.  She  received  her  educa- 
tion at  Miss  Apthorp's  school  in  New  Haven, 
t!onn..  and  afterwards  took  the  Yale  course  with 
tutors  at  home.  She  is  a  prominent  advocate  of 
woman  suffrage,  and  has  frequently  lectured  on 
this  subject.  She  takes  an  active  part  in  political 
campaigns,  and  is  a  writer  of  several  sketches  and 
stories.  The  law  giving  school  suffrage  to  the 
women  of  New  York  was  largely  due  to  her  efforts. 
She  was  tlie  first  to  ask  that  women  be  admitted  to 
Columbia  College. 

BLAKE  Wii.i.i.vM  PiiiiM's,  born  in  New  York 
city,  .June  1,  1826.  He  was  a  scientific  student  at 
Yale,  and  in  18.53  went  on  a  1'.  S.  Pacific  railroad 
expe<lil  ion  as  geiilogist  and  miiu^ralogist.  Hi?  has 
edited  the  "  .Mining  Magazine"  (1S5!M10).  and  has 
been  coniu^cted  witli  explorations  in  .\laska, China, 
and  .lapan.  In  1864  he  wascalled  to  the  chair  of 
mineralogy  and  geology  ill  the  California  t)ol- 
lei'e. 


r.  L  A  X  ('  —  15  I.  A  N  I)  i{  ATA 


297 


BLANC,  A.nthdny.  hum  in  Suiry,  Franct',  Oct. 
11,  \'9->.  died  at  New  Orleans.  June  iO,  ISiiO.  He 
was  a  Uonuiii  Catholic  arclibishop.  lie  left  his 
native  country  in  1S17,  a  year  after  his  ordination  to 
the  prie.srlioixl.  and  came  to  the  I'niti'il  Stali-s;  was 
created  bisliop  of  New  Orleans  in  ISoj.  and  arch- 
bishop in  I.SoO.  He  founded  a  theological  seminary, 
iniroiluced  several  rolin'ons  orders  into  his  diocese, 
1.  isitJ'IIiome,  founded  collej^es, academies  for  young 
ladies,  free  schools,  convents  and  orphan  asylums. 

I!L.\NC,  .ViiiirsTE,  a  French  art  critic,  brother  of 
.lean  .loseph  l^ouis,  born  at  Castres  in  1.SI8,  died  in 
l.SSU.  His  contributions  ti)  various  French  |)eriodi- 
•cals,  on  matters  connected  with  art.  were  numer- 
niis.  He  was  the  editor  and  principal  writer  of  the 
very  complete  and  extensive  Hixlunj  of  (he  I'nint- 
i-.i  of  nil  the  Schonh.  His  Wnrkr:  of  Hentbrundt  has 
jjassfd  throush  many  editions.  He  was  director  of 
Fine  Arts  in  IS48  and  in  1.S71. 

HLANC,  Jk.\n-  .losEeii  Louis  (1811-82),  French 
.Socialist  and  historian,  born  Oct.  L'il,  1811,  at  Mad- 
rid, where  his  father  was  insjiector-general  of 
tinance  under  King  .foseph.  .\fter  linishing  his 
school  education  he  went  to  study  in  Paris.  For 
two  years  he  was  a  private  tutor  at  Arras,  and  in 
18;J4  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  contributed  to 
various  political  papers,  and  where  in  183!)  he 
founded  the  Juvue  <lii  I'l-oyrex,  in  which  he  iirst 
brought  out  his  chief  work  on  Socialism,  the 
')if)(iiihiiiioii  ihi  'J'niiiiil,  which  in  1840  apjieared  in 
a  separate  form.  The  book  asserts  that  in  the 
existintr  order  of  society  the  s|)read  of  education 
among  the  masses.would  be  dangerous — would,  in 
fact,  be  impossible.  It  denounces  the  principle  of 
competitive  industry,  and  proposes  the  establish- 
ment of  social  worksho])s,  composed  of  workmen  of 
good  character,  and  suljsidized  liy  t  he  state.  The 
liook  obtained  for  its  author  a  wide,  enthusiastic 
popularity  among  French  workmen.  Next,  in  1841- 
44,  Hlanc  published  an  historical  work. entitled  IIU- 
'oire  de  Die  Auh  (1830-40).  which  produced  a  deadly 
eflfect  on  the  Orleans  dynasty.  It  owed  its  success 
partly  to  the  exposure  it  made  of  the  immorality 
.")f  the  crown  and  its  advisers,  partly  to  that  pas- 
sionate ardor  which  changed  the  tranriuillity  of 
history  into  the  vehenience  of  a  pamphlet.  This 
was  followed  by  the  first  volume  of  a  IFi,itoi,-e  de  la 
liirohition  Fnniriii.te.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
revolution  of  I'ebruary,  1848,  his  popularity  with 
the  working  classes  led  to  his  api)ointment  as  a 
member  of  the  Provisional  (jfovernment,  and  he 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  great  commission 
for  discussing  the  problem  of  labor,  which  had  its 
sittings  in  tlu^  palace  of  the  Luxembourg.  He  was 
Jiccused  of  a  share  in  the  disturbances  of  the  sum- 
mer of  1S4S,  and  made  his  escape  to  London,  where 
he  spent  many  years.  Ituring  his  exile  he  devoted 
himself  to  political  and  historical  literature.  He 
completed  his  Jlistoire  de  la  Reeohtlion  Franfahe, 
an<l  carried  on  a  large  correspondcmce  for  the 
French  journals.  On  the  fall  f)f  the  Empire  lilanc 
returned  to  France,  and  was  elected  to  the  National 
.\s.sembly  in  1871.  .After  187()  he  was  member  of 
the  chamber  of  deputies.     He  died  at  Cannes,  Dec. 

ti.  1SK2. 

KL.VNC,  Lb,  a  thriving  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Indre,  situated  on  the  Oeuse. 
.\bove  Le  Blanc  the  river  expands  so  as  to  form  a 
lake,  but  at  the  town  it  contracts,  and  breaks  into 
cascades  with  sullicient  fall  to  turn  the  machinery 
of  several  manufactories.  It  has  linen-yarn  and 
cloth-mills,  |)otteries,  tanneries,  vinegar-works, 
forges,  etc.  It  is  very  ancient,  having  been  fre- 
ipiented  by  the  Ivomans.     Population,  0,000. 

BL.VNt^H,  or  l',i.i;.\(ii-Iloi,iiixo,  one  of  the  an- 
»;ieut   feudal    tenures  in  the  law  ..f   .ScDtland  relat- 


ing to  land,  the  duty  payable  tf)  tne  superior  or 
lord  being  in  general  a  trilling  sum,  as  a  penny 
Scots,  or  merely  illusory,  as  a  pepper-corn, '  if  asked 
only.'  .\nciently  many  estates  in  Scotland  were 
hi'Id.  l)otli  by  the  crown  and  other  superiors  by  this 
tenure.  It  is  now  S(  Idom  adopted  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  an  original  right  of  property. 

HLANCIIAKD,  Tiio.m.\s,  born  at  Sutton,  Mass.. 
,Juno  24,  1788,  died  at  Boston,  April  Hi,  1K(>4.  He 
was  an  inventor,  and  some  of  his  inventions  were 
a  new  method  of  making  tacks  by  n)achinery,  a 
machine  for  turning  and  linishing  gun-barrels,  and 
an  improved  form  of  steamboat  to  lie  used  for 
ascending  rivers  which  have  a  rapid  current.  He 
also  invented  a  steam  wagon  (before  any  railroad 
had  been  built),  a  m(>thod  for  bending  heavy  tim- 
ber, and  a  machine  for  cutting  and  folding  envel- 
opes. 

BLANCHING,  a  process  resorted  to  by  garden- 
ers to  avoid  certain  secretions  which  in  ordinary 
circumstances  take  place  in  the  leaves  of  plants, 
and  to  render  them  more  wholesome  for  food. 
Blanching  is  accomplished  in  various  ways,  as  by 
drav.ing  up  earth  to  the  plants  when  the  lower 
jiart  of  the  leaf  or  leaf-stalks  alone  is  to  be 
blanched;  tying  the  leaves  together,  by  which  the 
inner  ones  are  Ijlanched,  as  is  commonly  done  in 
lettuce,  etc.  Blanching,  although  so  simple  and 
easy,  is  of  great  importance  in  the  art  of  gardening, 
and  the  usefulness  of  many  plants  very  much  de- 
poTids  upon  it.  In  cabbage  and  some  other  plants, 
the  leaves  form  themselves  into  coin|)act  heads, 
and  there  is  a  natural  blanching  or  etiolation. 

BLANC-.MANGE  (Old  French,  blii„r  nimu/er, 
"white  food"),  a  dish  formerly  made  of  fowl,  meat, 
eggs,  etc.;  now  a  name  of  difVereut  preparations 
composed  of  dissolved  isinglass,  arrow-root,  corn- 
starch, etc.,  with  milk  and  flavoring  extracts. 

BLANCO,  t;APE,  a  remarkable  headland  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  the  extremity  of  a  rocky  ridge, 
(called  Jebel-el-Bietl),  which  projects  frotn  tne 
Sahara  in  a  westerly  direction,  and  then  bending 
southward  forms  a  commodious  harbor,  called  the 
Great  Bay.  Southward  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kio 
(trande  the  shores  are  of  a  sandy  character, 
with  a  current  tending  southwest,  and  prevalent 
northeast  trade-winds.  On  account  of  the  defici- 
ency of  good  h.'irbors,  the  prevalence  of  west  winds, 
and  other  causes,  the  casualties  to  shipping  are 
very  numerous.  The  natives  of  the  Canary  Islands 
carry  on  a  pretty  lucrative  fishery  in  the  bay  in 
boats  of  from  1(10  to  150  tons  liurden.  (^ape  lilaneo, 
which  iscomixised  of  mixed  calcareousand  siliceous 
sandstone,  was  Iirst  discovered  by  the  Portuguese 
in  1441. 

BL.VNl),  a  beverage  which  is  a  common  drink 
among  the  inhaliilants  of  the  Shetland  Islands  dur- 
ing the  summer  montlis.  It  has  been  described  as 
being  perfectly  good  and  transparent  when  a  year 
old,  its  flavor  then  bearing  a  strong  resemblance 
to  that  of  lemon  juice. 

BLANDFOKD-FOHT'M,  a  town  in  Dorsetshire 
England,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Stour,  sixteen 
miles  northeast  of  Dorchester.  It  lies  on  a  tine 
tract  of  i)astnre-land.  famed  for  its  multitude  at 
cows.  It  is  built  of  brick,  and  is  neat  and  regular 
It  has  manufactories  of  shirt  buttons,  and  was 
formerly  famed  for  its  manufactures  of  band-strings, 
and  point-lace.     Population,  4.1 10. 

BLANDU.VT.V.  ('rioui;io,  founder  of  Unitarian- 
ism  in  Poland  and  Transylvania,  born  in  Saluzzo, 
Italy.  He  established  himself  as  a  physician  at 
Pavia,  but,  on  account  of  his  heretical  opinions, 
he  was  comixdled  to  lly  to  (ieneva  in  bVili.  He 
went  to  Poland  in  bVj.S,  hoping  to  find  a  greater 
freedom     for    thought     and    speech.      In     15()3   he 


298 


B  L  A  X  K  E  N  B  E  R  G  H  E  —  B  L  A  Z  0  N 


became  the  favorite  physician  of  John  Sigismund, 
prince  of  Transylvania.  Here  he  spread  his  doe- 
trine,  and  formed  a  considerable  party.  He  was 
murdered  in  1590  by  his  nephew,  whom  he  had 
threatened  to  disinherit  for  his  attachment  to  the 
Eoman  Catholic  Church. 

BLAXIvENBERGHE,  a  village  on  the  coast  of 
West  Flanders,  nine  miles  north  of  Bruges  by  rail. 
It  has  a  harbor  and  a  light-house,  and  the  place  is  a 
popular  summer  resort.     Population,  3,32S. 

BLANKENBURG.  a  town  in  the  duchy  of  Bruns- 
wick, situated  on  the  Harz  mountains.  It  is  walled, 
has  a  gymnasium  and  several  charitable  and 
educational  institutions.  Mining  is  the  chief  indus- 
try, iron,  marble  and  dye-earths  being  abundant  in 
the  surrounding  districts.  Population.  .'',600.  On 
the  lofty  summit  of  Regenstein,  half  a  mile  dis- 
tant, are  the  remains  of  a  large  castle,  liewn  out  of 
the  rock  by  Henry  the  Fowler  in  919.  Louis  XVIII 
resided  at  Blakenburg,  as  Comte  de  Lille,  from 
1796  to  179S. 

BLANKETEERS,  the  name  applied  to  a  body  of 
Manchester  operatives,  who  on  Slarch  10,  1817,  met 
in  St.  Peter's  Field,  intending  to  marcli  thence  to 
London  with  a  petition  for  parliamentary  reform. 
Each  man  of  the  company  had  a  rug  or  blanket 
strapped  on  his  shoulders,  so  that  he  might  bivouac 
on  the  road  tf  necessary. 

BLANK  VERSE,  a  verse  without  ryhme  and 
depending  on  meter  alone.  The  classical  produc- 
tions of  the  Greek  and  Roman  poets  are  composed 
on  this  principle.  When  the  passion  for  imitating 
classical  models  set  in,  ryhme  came  to  be  looked 
upon  as  an  invention  of  Gothic  barbarism,  and 
attempts  were  made  in  most  countries  to  shake  it 
oft'.  The  Italian  and  Spanish  writers  used  blank 
verse  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  first  blank  verse  in  English  is  a 
translation  of  the  second  and  fourth  books  of  Vir- 
gil's ^Eiit'iiij  by  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  who  was  executed 
in  1547.  Its  adaptation  to  the  drama  was  at  once 
felt,  and  it  soon  became  and  has  continued  domi- 
nant in  that  de])artme:it ;  but  in  other  kinds  of  po- 
etry it  was  not  till  the  appearance  of  Paradisi'  Lost 
(1607)  that  it  could  be  said  to  have  taken  root,  and 
even  then  the  want  of  rhymes  was  felt,  as  the  poet 
expected  it  would  be.  Many  poets  have  since  fol- 
lowed Milton's  example.  Some  would  restrict  the 
name  to  lines  of  ten  syllables,  not  considering  it 
applicable  to  such  metres-  as  Soul  hey 's  Tliahilafia 
and  Longfellow's  H'Ktvalhn  In  Italian  and  Span- 
ish it  never  became  popular,  still  less  in  French. 
The  German  language  seems  to  admit  every  vari- 
ety of  blank  metre. 

BLANQUI,  Jekome  Adoi.pue.  one  of  tlie  first 
French  economists,  liorn  at  Nice  in  179S,  died  at 
Paris  in  1854.  He  was  educated  at  the  Lyceum  o'f 
Nice,  which  city  his  family  i|uitte(l  in  1814,  and  lie 
went  to  Paris  tocom])lete  his  studies.  In  18L'5  he 
was  appointi'd  Professor  of  History  and  of  Indus- 
trial Economy  in  the  Commercial  School  at  I'aris. 
In  18.38  he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Moral  and  Political  Science.  The  Academy  sent 
him  to  Corsica  to  study  the  condition  of  that  coun- 
try, and  afterwards  to  .Vlgiers  and  Turkey.  He 
was  rei|uested  to  furnisli  a  complete  account  of 
London  in  its  financial  and  other  aspects.  This 
task  he  executed  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  xainiiK 
who  employed  him.  The  Academy  highly  valued 
his  abilities.  In  method  he  was  ingenious,  in  style 
transparent,  and  even  dry.  Discussions  became 
interesting  from  his  lively  mode  of  treating  them. 
As  a  national  economist  he  was  somewhat  inclined 
to  Socialism;  he  was  also  in  favor  of  free-trade. 
He  wrote  some  excellent  works  on  Political 
Economy. 


BLAXQUI,  Louis  Augvste,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Nice  in  1805.  died  in  1880.  He 
made  himself  conspicuous  chiefly  by  liis  rabid  ad- 
vocacy of  most  extreme  political  opinions,  which 
eventually  led  to  his  being  condemned  to  ten  years" 
imprisonment  in  Belleisle. 

BLAPS,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order  Colcoptero. 
the  ty]ie  of  a  tribe  called  Blapsides.  The  species 
are  numerous,  of  a  dark  color,  destitute  of  wings, 
and  have  the  elytra  or  wing  case  united.  They 
inhabit  dark  and  damp  places,  and  feed  chiefly  on 
dead  vegetable  matter.  They  have  the  power  of 
secreting  and  emitting  a  brownish  acrid,  irritating 
fluid  of  a  peculiar  and  penetrating  odor,  with  which 
they  appear  to  be  furnished  for  the  purpose  of  self- 
defense. 

BLASER,  GusTAV,  a  German  sculptor,  born  at 
Dusseldorf  in  1813.  He  is  best  known  in  this  coun- 
try by  his  bust  of  Humboldt  in  Central  Park,  New 
York.  Other  principal  works  are  his  colossal  statue 
of  Prussia,  in  Berlin,  and  his  equestrian  statues  of 
Frederick  William  III  and  Frederick  William 
IV. 

BLASPHEMY.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  807. 
In  the  I'nited  States,  blasphemy  has  been  made 
the  subject  of  statutory  enactments  by  several  of 
the  individual  Slates.  These  enactments,  however. 
are  little  more  than  confirmations  of  the  common 
law  and  the  older  statutory  laws  of  England. 
^Profanity  is  generally  classed  by  these  State  laws 
with  blasphemy  as  an  indictable  olTense. 

BLASTING.  See  Britannica,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  si18-]  1 . 
See  also  Explosives,  in  these  Revisions  and  Addi- 
tions. 

BLASTODERM,  an  embrvological  term  applied 
to  the  layer  or  Jayers  of  cells  arising  from  the  ger- 
minal disc,  or  the  portion  of  a  partially  segment- 
ing egg  which  undergoes  division.  In  ova  where 
there  is  a  large  quantity  of  nutritive  material  or 
yolk,  as  in  fish  or  bird,  the  whole  ovum  cannot 
divide,  and  only  a  small  (germinal)  disc  of  "  forma- 
tive protoplasm "  does  so.  The  cells  resulting 
from  the  division  of  this  area  become  afterwards 
disposed  in  I  lie  ordinary  germinal  layers,  and  are 
in  tlieir  earlier  stages,  as  they  grow  round  the 
yolk  and  become  in  tlicir  area  of  origin  the  seat  of 
embryonic  development,  called  the  blastoderm. 

BLAV.\TSKY.  IIelene  Petkovn.v,  theosophist, 
born  in  Russia  about  1831.  Col.  Peter  Halm  is  her 
father,  and  Gen.  Nicephore  V.  Biavatsky.  deceased, 
a  former  governor  of  Armenia,  was  her  husband. 
She  has  studied  the  mysteries  of  Buddhism  in  a 
Himalayan  retreat,  has  published  laiit  rmiilid.  ami 
has  founded  the  Theosophical  Society,  of  which 
Col.  F.  P.  Olcutt  is  president,  and  Madame  Biavat- 
sky the  secretary.    She  died  in  1891. 

iSLAYE,  a  fortified  seaport  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Gironde,  twenty  miles  from 
Bordeaux.  It  is  defended  by  t"'o  forts.  The  port 
of  Blaye  is  a  very  busy  one.  all  inward  luiund  ve>- 
sels  being  required  to  anchor  and  deliver  the  mani- 
fests of  their  cargoes,  and  many  outward  bound  lay 
in  their  provisions  here.  It  has  manufactories  of 
linen  and  woolen,  glass  and  earthenware,  a  consid- 
erable export  trade  in  corn,  wine,  brandy,  oil, 
fruits,  soaj),  etc.,  and  tribunals  of  jurisdiction  and 
of  commerce.  It  has  a  strong  modern  citadel,  thea- 
ter, hospital,  agricultural  socielv.etc.  Population. 
4,7ti5. 

BLAZON,  BLAZONRY,  heraldic  terms  originated 
in  the  custom  of  blowing  a  trumjiet  to  nniiounce 
the  arrival  of  a  knight,  or  his  entrance  into  the 
lists  at  a  tournament.  The  blast  was  answered  by 
the  heralds,  who  descrilM'd  aloud  and  explained 
the  arms  borne  by  the  knight.  It  thus  came  to 
signify    the    art    o'f    de.icribing   the   objects,   their 


i;  Li:  AC  II  [NG  — BLIN  D 


299 


positions,  gestures,  tinctures,  etc.,  aiul  Ilie  manner 
of  arranging  tliem  on  the  shield. 

IJI. CACHING.   Seel5rilaiinlca,Vol.III,p|).SU-2.S. 

15I-KAK,  a  small  fresh-wator  lish  of  the  family  of 
Cyprinldn,  oi  tiie  same  genus  willi  the  Dace.  .Min- 
now, etc.  It  is  si.\  or  seven  incUes  lung,  Ihe  nose  is 
pointed,  and  the  under  jaw  is  longer  than  the 
up|)er;  the  scales  are  beautifully  striated,  the  hack 
an  olivaeeous  green,  and  the  sides,  cheeks,  and  gill- 
covers  silvery  "white.  The  tail  is  forked  for  halt  its 
length.  On  the  inner  surface  of  (lie  scales  a  sil- 
very substance  is  found  in  such  alnmdance  as  to 
be  inuch  used  for  making  artificial  pearls,  the 
while  lieads  so  common  in  iiiaiiy  ornaments.  It  is 
not  Hilly  a  pretty  tish,  but  is  also  much  prized  for 
the  table. 

HLEDSOE,  Ai.UEKT  Tayi.ok,  born  in  Frankfort, 
Ky.,  Nov.  9,  1800,  died  in  Alexandria.  Va.,  Dec.  8, 
Mill.  He  graduated  at  West  I'oint,  served  on 
military  duty  in  the  Indian  Territin-y,  followed  the 
teaching  proi'ession  at  Keiiyon  and  suljseciuenlly 
at  Miami,  studied  theology  and  preached  for  vari- 
ous churches  (18:)5-,38)," 'studied  and  practiced 
l.uv  (IS;58-48),  taught  mathematics  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Virginia  (l.S54-(ll ),  entered  the  Confeder- 
ate army,  and  was  made  chief  of  the  war  bureau. 
In  IStifi  lie  began  the  publication  of  the  "  Southern 
Keview,"  the  organ  of  tlie  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  South.  He  wrote  for  various  publi- 
cations and  published  several  books. 

IiLEIl')A('ll,  a  town  of  .Vnstria.  in  the  province 
of  Carinthia.  pleasantly  situated  in  the  valley  of 
the  Drave,  near  the  celebrated  Dloilierg  (Lead 
Mountain).  The  inhabitants  are  chi(-lly  engaged  in 
...ining.  and  in  washing  and  smelting  the  ore,  of 
w!;ich  from  l,-")00  to  1,800  tons  are  annually  ob- 
tained.    Population,  5.()00. 

BLENDE,  a  name  applied  to  a  number  of  miner- 
als composed  chieHv  of  suli)liur  and  certain  metals, 
almost  all  of  splen(\id  lustre,  but  more  exclusively 
to  garnet  or  zinc  Idende.  It  is  abundant  in  |)rimi- 
tiv(!  and  secondary  rocks  in  m;iny  |)arts  of  the 
world,  and  is  olten  associated  with  galena  or  lead- 
glance.  It  contains  about  sixty-six  [)arts  of  zinc 
and  thirty-three  of  sulphur,  .''ee  Britannica,  Vol. 
XVI,  p.  892;  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  785. 

r.LENE.VU,  a  village  in  the  French  department 
of  Yonne,  situated  twenty-nine  miles  southwest  of 
Auxi'rre.  Mere  Turenue  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Prince  de  Conde  in  H)52. 

BLENHEIM,  capital  of  Marlborough  district, 
New  Zealand  situated  on  the  Wairau  River,  near 
the  coast,  twenty  miles  south  of  Pictou  by  rail. 
I'opulation,;!,094. 

|;LI';NIIEIM  dog,  or  Marlborough  Dog,  a 
small  spaniel,  much  resembling  the  King  Charles 
breed  in  form  and  general  appearance,  but  dllTer- 
ing  in  the  color,  wliicli  is  white,  with  orange  or 
flanicd-colored  markings.     In  weight  it  should  not 


exceed  live  pounds.  The  Blenheim  spaniel  is  the 
Piiraiiu-  of  Buft'on.  It  derives  its  English  name 
from  Blenheim  Park,  in  Oxfordshire,  where  the 
brei'd  was  a  favorite  one  from  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

BLEXNV,  a  genus  of  acanthopterygious  fishes, 
the  type  of  a  family,  lili  iniiUl:c,  of  which  the  sea- 
wo!f  is  tiie  largest  example.  8ee  Brit annica.  Vol. 
XXI.  p.  014.  Tlie  blenny  is  remarkable  for  the 
abinidance  of  sliinmy  matter  wliich  covers  the  skin. 
Many  are  destitute  of  scales.  They  have  only  one 
dorsal  fin.  Living  in  shoals  which  do  not  consist  of 
great  numbers,  and  frequenting  rocky  coasts,  they 
are  often  found  in  pools  left  dry  liy  the  tide,  or 
even  among  sea-weeds.  They  possess  thi'  power  of 
using  their  ventral  fins  to  aid  them  in  moving 
about.  ?dany  of  them  retain  their  eggs  within  the 
oviduct  until  they  are  hatched,  so  tliat  the  young 
may  be  capable  of  seeking  food  for  themselves.  See 
Britannica.  Vol.  XII,  p.  liilO. 

BLEXNOKKlIiE.V.  in  patliology,  a  term  appli- 
calUe  to  a  eo]nons  iliscliarge  from  any  mucous  sur- 
face, but  usually  restricted  to  discharges  from  the 
genito-urinary  mucous  membrane. 

BLEllF,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Indre-et-Loire,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  theCl.er, 
which  is  cros.sed  by  a  bridge,  said  to  owe  its  origin 
to  Henry  II,  of  England.  In  its  vicinity  is  the 
castle  of  Chenonceaux,  tlie  residence  pure:  ased  l>y 
Henry  II,  of  France,  for  the  celebrated  Diana  of 
Poitiers.  Tlie  castle  escaped  the  fury  of  the  Revo- 
lution, and  is  still  in  a  good  state  of  preservation. 
.\niong  the  curiosities  shown  to  the  visitor  is  the 
mirror  used  by  .Mary  Stuart  (tjueen  of  Scots)  on 
her  marriage  with  the  DiUphin.     Population,  ,'i561. 

BLETClilNGLEY,  a  town  of  Surrey,  20  miles 
south  of  London.  From  2,000  to  3,000  tons  of  Ful- 
ler's earth  are  raised  annually  near  Bletchingley. 
In  cutting  the  railway  tunnel  the  fossil  bones  of 
the  iguanodon.  an  extinct  r(>ptile,  were  found  here; 
also  many  Koman  coins  h;ivo  been  found  in  the 
vicinity.  Population  about  2,000,  chielly  agricul- 
turists. 

BLETS,  decayed  spots  in  apples,  pears  and  other 
fruits.  This  decaying  is  often  called  hlclting.  It 
takes  place  chielly  by  the  decomposition  of  the 
protein  compounds  wliich  the  fruits  contain,  and 
the  fermentation  of  the  sugar;  carbonic  acid  is 
formed,  and  by  the  microscope  there  may  be  dis- 
covered the  libers  of  a  fungus  pervading  the  bletted 
part. 

BLIGH  ISLANDS,  that  portion  of  the  Feejee 
archipelago  originally  discovered  by  Tasman  in 
1043,  and  seen  by  Captain  Bligh,of  the  Bon)ihf,Au.T- 
ing  his  wonderful  voyage  in  an  open  boat.  The 
group  lies  in  nearly  180°  of  longitude,  and  IS*^  c.0' 
south  latitiule. 

BLIGHT.  See  FuNcrs,  Britannica,  Vol.  TX,  pp. 
827-36.     See  also  Mildew,  Vol.  XVI,  pp.  29,3-94. 


BLIND,  Bootes  for  tiik.  For  general  article  on 
the  Bi.iNK,  see  Britannica.  ^'ol.  III,  pp.  820-33.  The 
first  printed  book  for  the  blind  was  brought  out  in 
1781  iiy  M.  Valentine  Haiiy,  of  Paris,  the  founder  of 
the  liinlil'tt  ili-K  Jfviii.'<  Aiirn/ltK,  the  institution  for 
blind  children.  The  book  was  printed  in  raised 
type,  the  italic  letter  or  written  form  of  Koman 
letter  being  used.  Haiiy  cast  fonts  of  types,  which 
were  apiiroved  by  the  French  .Academy  of  .Sciences, 
and  exhibited  them  to  the  royal  family  at  Ver- 
.>(ailles,  the  new  art  |)ro(bicing  a  great  sensation. 

Mr.  .lames  Gall,  of  Edinburgh,  saw  specimens  of 
Parisian  type  in  1820,  and  resolved  to  print  a  Bible 
for  the   blind.     Being  a  printi'r  and   publisher,  he 


endeavored  to  improve  the  type.  His  first  "book" 
was  brought  nut  in  1827  in  a  triangular  modifica- 
tion of  the  common  alphabet,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing is  a  specinieii  : 

t^kOK  +kf   l</A>  Of    90< 

Later,  Gall  brought  out  other  volumes  in  serratixl 
letters,  of  which  the  following  is  a  specimen  ; 

B^kold  fk«  L<I/i\t>  Of  Go<J 

The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the  type  used  in 
1834  by  Dr.  Samuel  (J.  Howe,  of  Boston,  and  this 
was  tlie  style  of  letter  used  later  by   the  Ainerican 


300 


BLIND 


I  BOOKS    FOB 


Bible  Society  in  printing  its  copies  of  the  Scriptures 
for  the  blind : 

behold   the  hmbofcool 

In  1837  Mr.  John  Alston,  of  Glasgow,  began  the 
printing  of  the  Bible  in  the  following  letter: 

BEHOLD     THE  LAW8  OF  COD 

Nearly  simultaneously  with  the  above,  IMr.  Lucas, 
of  Bristol,  England,  brought  out  a  book  for  the 
blind,  using  an  ingenious  system  of  stenographic 
letter,  of  which  the  following  (the  words  are,  "Be- 
ho.J  the  Lamb  of  God"  )  is  a  specimen  : 


•  510/-C  \  r-^") 


o\ 


Soon  after  theabove,  which  was  received  by  many 
of  the  blind  with  great  favor,  Mr.  Frere,  of  Jjondon, 
an  instructor  of  the  blind,  devised  another  character 
system,  which  he  described  as  "  a  scientific  repre- 
sentation of  speech,  the  alphabet  containing  only 
one  character  for  each  of  the  simple  sounds  in  the 
English  language."  It  was  also  received  with  much 
favor,  and  in  ISoiJ  theBiblewas  printed  in  that  new 
letter.    The  following  is  a  specimen : 

L-oU\.K-wD     V     r 

Mr.  Frere's  phonetic  system  included  the  plan  of 
return  alternate  lines;  that  is, reading  every  second 
line  from  right  to  left  and  using  reversed  characters 
for  the  alternate  lines.  Dr.  Moon,  of  the  blind 
asylum  at  Brighton,  England,  modified  the  Frere 
syst"ni,  introducing  radical  changes.  Some  of  his 
characters  resemble  the  letters  for  which  they  are 
designed  to  represent.  Tlie  return  alternate  lines 
are  retained,  but  the  characters  are  not  reversed. 
The  cliaracters  are  also  considerably  larger  than 
those  (if  Frere — a  great  convenience  to  the  learner. 
The  following  is  a  sample : 


Lrooi,3    -  or   LA 

1  ro  11 


Another  system,  invented  in  1,834  by  M.  Braille, 
formerly  a  pupil,  now  a  teacher  in  the  Institute  of 
Paris,  is  now  largely  in  use  in  France,  Switzerland, 
Belgium  and  Holland.     It  consists  of  the  si.Kty-two 


combinations  of  form  which  six  dots,  Jj  ,  can  be 
made  to  assume.  The  following  is  a' specimen 
representing  the  phrase  (selected  for  each  of  the 
dlustralions  given  above),  "Behold  the  Lamb  ot 
God." 


•        •     ••     ,♦     J       •  ;.    -      -  ;     „ 

e      «•     •  •       ••  ea     •       •• 

•  «•  •••• 

•  •  » 

This  method  had  two  special  advantages  to  com- 
mend it :  1st,  it  can  easily  be  written  by  the  blind 
themselves,  by  the  use  of  a  simple  apparatus  since 
invented;  and,  -id,  it  presents  a  good  method  of 
writing  and  printing  music  for  the  blind.  The  com- 
plete alphabet  of  this  system  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing illustration,  in  which  the  lai-ge  dots  only 
represent  the  raised  characters  used,  the  small 
points  being  inserted  merely  to  show  the  correct 
position  of  the  others  in  the  line: 


A 

B 

C 

n 

R 

F 

0 

H 

I 

J 

O  • 

•  • 

«• 

s  a 

e  • 

O* 

•  « 

«  • 

•  a 

•  • 

•  • 

«  • 

»  ' 

•  » 

•  « 

•  • 

«  • 

o  s 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  * 

E. 

L 

M 

N 

0 

P 

Q 

a 

s 

T 

«  > 

»• 

S* 

OS 

e  • 

•  • 

e  • 

• . 

•  • 

•  • 

»  • 

•  • 

•  s 

•  • 

e  • 

•  • 

•  o 

O   • 

«• 

•  • 

•  • 

e  • 

«  • 

a  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

«   * 

•  • 

U 

\ 

X 

Y 

■/. 

and 

lor 

ot 

Ihe 

with 

9  • 

•  • 

e  • 

e» 

e  • 

•  « 

•  « 

«  • 

.  0 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

aa 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

ch 

Kh 

^h 

th 

wh 

fU 

ar 

oil 

AW 

w 
will 

a  • 

•  • 

0« 

•  e 

•  . 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

*  • 

.  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•    • 

•  • 

•  • 

o  ■ 

•  • 

«• 

•    . 

•  • 

• « 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•    • 

•  • 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  varying  possible  combi- 
nations of  the  six  dots,  or  points,  are  not  only  suffi- 
cient to  cover  tlie  alphaljet  proper,  but  also  "to  pro- 
vide for  diphthongal  and  other  sound  representa- 
tives. 

Another  system,  possibly  suggested  b.v  that  of 
Mr.  Braille,  but  differing  from  it  in  several  im- 
portant particulars,  was  some  years  ago  devised  bv 
IMr.  AV.  B.  Wait,  superint>^ndent  of  the  New  York 
Institution  for  the  Blind.  Keliof  or  raised  dots  are 
used,  but  they  are  in  two  lines  instead  of  three,  and 
the  combination  letters  are  grouped  in  a  niucli 
simpler  form  than  in  the  Braille  system.  The  full 
alphabet  (  "lower  case"  )  is  shown'in  the  subjoined 
table  of  arbitrary  sign  alphabets,  where  it  appears 
under  the  name  of  i,,^  New  York  system,  a  name 
modestly  given  to  it  by  INIr.  Wait: 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

0 

B 

1 

) 

( 

L 

a 

K 

0 

P 

« 

B 

8 

T 

0 

V 

w 

z 

V 

z 

LUCAB 

• 

0 

c 

C 

c 

\ 

t^ 

1 

1 

; 

^ 

/» 

r\ 

\^ 

o 

3 

8— 

/ 

— 

1 

3 

% 

r 

•^ 

\ 

^ 

FRERE 

\ 

I 

\ 

\ 

1 

r 

9 

^ 

J 

c 

u 

3 

.„ 

y 

r\ 

/ 

o 

8 

^ 

-1 

\l 

MOON 

^ 

I 

c 

0 

r 

r 

1 

S 

I 

J 

< 

L 

1 

N 

o 

«& 

\ 

/ 

<U 

V 

/^ 

> 

-! 

Z 

NEW 
YORK 

•  • 

• 

0« 

• 

• 

•  «o 

• 

•• 
•  •• 

• 
• 

• 

fl) 

• 

» • 
• 

•     • 

m 
• 

• 
•• 

• 
>•• 

•  • 

• 
• 

41 

••• 

•  • 
• 

« 

•o 

•  • 

•  •• 

• 

*•• 

•• 

In  the  first  three  alphabets  shown  above  no  dis- 
tinction is  made  between  small  (lower  case)  and 
capital  letters;  but  the  New  York,  or  Wait  system 
provides  not  only  for  the  small  letters  (shown 
Jibove),  but  has  also  a  distinct  and  complete  alpha- 
bet of  capitals  for  those  who  desire  to  use  tliein. 
The   cai>ltal    letters   are    derived    from    the   small 


letters  by  sufiixlng  to  each  of  them  as  mani/  point$ 
as  will  firm  a  new  character  finir  poivlx  in  length, 
in  tlie  following  manner  :  1.  VVhen  t  he  small  letter 
ends  with  a  point,  (or  dot.)  in  the  upper  of  the  two 
rows,  as  In  the  letter  "a,"  add  the  smIHx  in  the  lover 
row;  and  L',  When  the  small  letter  ends  with  a  point 
in  the  lower  row,  as  in  "c,"  or  in    both   upper   and 


rilE    BLIND 


B  L  1  N  D 


301 


lower  rows,  as  in  "d,"  add  the  suffix  in  the  upper 
row.  The  followins  is  the  complete  alphaV)et  of 
capitals,  as  given  by  "^Ir  Wait  in  his  "  New  York" 
system : 


•  •    • 
• 

I> 

•  ••• 

• 

E 

• 

•  •• 

I 

J 

K 

• 

•  •• 

•  •■• 

• 

I' 

•       • 

Q 

•         • 

T 

•  •• 


Mr.  Wait's  system  furnishes  a  list  of  word  and 
tiart-wonl  signs",  and  also  signs  for  numerals  and 
jiiinctHalioii  marks,  as  follows: 


iiDd 


»OBD  AND  PART-WORD  SIGNS. 

of  that  iug 


ch 


NUMERALS. 


I'refix,  iDdicating  that  the  characters  which  follow  are 
numerals.  JJJ      The  Decimal  point  is  ^ 


P0N0T0ATIO.\    MABK.-. 

Period,  •  ,ora  Ijlauk  space  equal  to  five  (lOluls  in 

length. 

Comma,  *  ,  preceded  and  followed  by  a  blank  space  equal 
to  two  poiDte. 

Semi-colon,  .  ,  preceded  '.ind  followed  by  a  blank  space 
equal  to  two  points. 

Colon Im  Eiclamutio:.                ,'. 

Apostrophe l"l  Asterisk                        ••! 

Ilyphen "C*    ■  Quotation l.m 

Interrogation 't  Dash •• 

Parenthcsij I' 

Writing  for  the  blind  is  done  by  means  of  a  style 
which,  being  pressed  vertically  on  prepared  i>aper 
laid  over  "dot  grooves"  in  a  tablet,  thus  forming  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  paper  the  desired  raised 
signs.  In  order  to  secure  neatness,  exactness,  and 
despatch  in  writing  a  piece  of  apparatus  was  in- 
vented by  Mr.  Wait  called  a  "guide,"  and  partially 
shown  in  the  accompanying  cut.  It  consists  of  two 
metallic  tablets  fastened  togi-tlier  with  hinges  at 
one  end.  The  upper  one,  fully  illustrated  in  the 
cut,  is  substantially  a  frame  with  three  rows  of 
rectangular  openings,  each  suflicienlly  wide  to  in- 
clude two  rows  of  dot  signs,  or  one  full  line  of  sign 
letters.  The  under  tablet,  not  shown  in  the  cut, 
contains  six  parallel  rows  of  'lot  grooief  so  arranged 
that  all  the  grooves,  when  the  upper  frame  is  shut 
down,  will  be  directly  under  the  cornersof  the  rect- 
angular open  spaces.  The  pai)er  being  placed  be- 
tween the  tablets  and  the'latter  closed,  the  writer, 
with  the  style  in  hand,  presses  the  prepared  i)aper 
into  the  grooves  so  as  to  make  the  raised  letters  be- 
neath. 


Boitu       titsn  I 


The  writing  is  executed  from  right  to  left;  so  that 
the  "raised"  Tetters,  which  at  first  are  oii  the  under 
side,  may  read  correctly  from  l,jt  to  right.  ,  Thus  in 
the  cut  the  wurd  ■•Institution"  appears  a^  written 
backward;  but  when  completed,  and  tlie  paper 
turned  for  the  reader,  it  appears  thus:      / 


This  New  York  system  of  writing  and  reading  for 
the  blind  is  rapidly  winning  its  way  in  many  sec- 
lions  of  the  riiiii-d  .stales,  and  has  also  l)eeii  suc- 
cessfully introduced  into  several  other  countries. 
Its  principal  pul>lisliing  house  is  in  I^(iuisville.  Ky., 
from  which  numerous  publications  for  the  blind 
have  issued — books  for  schools  ( primary  and  graded, 
includiiic  those  for  academic  chisscs);  books  for 
home  miscellaneous  reading,  and  luM.ks  for  students 
in  music.  The  writer  of  tln'se  parntraphs  has  now 
on  his  table  a  volume  entitled  .1  l'i-:ii-iiriil,}f  StjKtrm 
of  Tangible  Musical  .V.. /..(/.,„  a,,,!   l'-,ii,i  Wriling  and 


Reafiing  for  the  Use  of  the  Blind,  by  William  15. 
Wait,  and  also  a  copy  of  the  current  series  of  Iii- 
Ifriiiitinnnl  Sundnii-SrhO'jl  Linxoiis  fur  the  HHihI,  sent 
out  monthly  by  the  publishing  house  in  Louis- 
ville, for  the  supply  of  the  blind  pupils  in  Sunday 
Schools. 

Ex|)erienced  teachers  rejiort  that  nearly  all 
pupils,  older  or  younger,  learn  to  read-  the  point 
system  with  remarkable  facility.  A  single  illustra- 
tion is  here  given  :  A  gentleman  in  middle  life,  blind 
from  early  childhood,  while  making  a  recent  call  at 
the  New  York  Institution  for  the  illiiul,  expressed 
with  a  sigh  his  regret  that  lie  had  not  been  able  to 
learn  to  read  with  any  satisfactory  facility.  On 
learning  that  he  had  not  tried  the  i)oint  system, 
the  sup-rinlendent  asked  leave  to  give  him  a  brief 
lesson.  This  was  done,  and  in  fifteen  minutes  the 
blind  gentleman  (40  years  of  age)  had  not  onlv 
learned  the  alphabet  but  how  to  use  it,  and  with 
joyous  gratitude  received  a  book  for  his  own  in- 
structive reading  on  the  journey  which  he  was  mak- 
ing to  a  distant  town. 


302 


B  L  I  X  D  —  B  L  0  0  D 


BLIND,  Karl,  an  eminent  German  politician, 
born  at  Mannheim  in  182(D.  He  was  prominent  as 
an  agitator  in  connection  with  the  revolationary 
movements  of  1848  and  1849,  and  in  1852  he  fled  to 
England.  He  was  pardoned  by  tlie  government, 
and  in  1867  he  returned  to  Germany.  He  is  known 
in  this  country  as  a  contributor  to  magazines  and 
riviews,  and  as  a  zealous  opposer,  for  many  years, 
of  the  policy  of  Bismarck. 

BLINDAGE,  in  military  language,  a  screen  made 
of  trees  or  earth  and  timber  used  to  protect  from 
the  enemy's  fire  men  at  work  in  a  trench. 

BLIND-STORY,  in  mediaival  cliurch  architect- 
ure the  triforium,  a  term  properly  restricted  to  ex- 
amples having  no  exterior  windows,  as  opposed  to 
the  clerestory  of  a  church,  which  supplied  the  light 
for  the  interior. 

BLIND-WORM,  or  Slow-Wor.m  (AyiguUJmgUis), 
a  limbless  lizard  in  the  skink  family.  See  Liz.\kd, 
Britannica,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  735. 

BLISS,  PiiiLii'  P.\i:i.,  singing  evangelist,  born  in 
Clearfield  county.  Pa.,  July  9,  1838;  killed  in  the 
railroad  disaster  at  Ashtabula,  Ohio,  Dec.  29,  1S7G. 
He  had  but  little  education,  but  his  fondness  for 
music  led  him  to  gain  what  knowledge  he  could  of 
this  art  by  attending  conventions  and  the  Academy 
of  Music  at  Geneseo,  N.  Y.  After  the  war,  to  which 
he  was  drafted  in  1864,  he  held  musical  conventions 
and  composed  numerous  songs.  He  became  ac- 
quainted with  D.  L.  Jloody  and  was  persuaded  to 
devote  his  life  to  evangelical  work.'  His  labors 
were  in  constant  demand  througliout  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  He  was  a  man  of  considerable 
personal  magnetism,  was  a  ready  speaker  and 
possessed  a  sweet  sympathetic  voice  in  singing. 
His  singing  was  not  scientific,  but  exerted  a  pow- 
erful influence  on  a  miscellaneous  audience.  He 
published  several  collections  of  songs,  .\mong  his 
most  famous  songs  are  Hold  the  Fort,  Pull  for  the 
Shore,  and  Down  Life's  Dark  Vale  We  Wander. 

BLIZZ.YRD,  a  fierce  storm  of  bitter  frosty  wind, 
with  fine  blinding  snow,  in  which,  especially  in  tlie 
Western  States  of  the  American  Union,  man  and 
beast  often  perish.  In  one  which  visited  Dakota 
and  the  States  of  Montana,  Minnesota,  Nebraska, 
Kansa.s  and  Texas  in  January,  1888,  the  mercury 
fell  within  twenty-four  hours  from  74°  aliove  zero 
to  28°  below  it  in  some  places,  and  in  Dakota  went 
down  to  40°  below  zero.  In  fine  clear  weather, 
with  little  or  no  warning,  the  sky  darkened  and  the 
air  was  filled  with  snow,  or  ice-dust,  as  fine  as  flour, 
driven  before  a  wind  so  furious  and  roaring  that 
men's  voices  were  inaudibh'  at  a  distance  of  six 
feet.  i\Ien  in  the  fields  and  children  on  tlieir  way 
from  school  died  ere  they  could  reach  shelter; 
some  of  them  having  been  not  frozen,  but  suflo- 
cated  from  tlie  impossibility  of  breathing  the  liliz- 
zard.  Some  235  persons  lost  their  lives.  This  was 
the  worst  storm  since  1864;  the  Colorado  River  in 
Texas  was  frozen  with  ice  a  foot  thick,  for  the  first 
time  In  the  memory  of  man.  Really  disastrous 
blizzards  are  rare,  those  of  1836,  of  December,  18li3, 
January,  IH66,  January,  1873,  being,  till  that  of 
1888,  the  severest  on  record.  The  word  is  a  popu- 
lar formation,  originating  in  the  United  States, 
and  seemingly  akin  to  hlaxl,  bluster.  The  term  was 
in  colloquial  use  in  the  West  early  in  the  century, 
but  first  became  usual  throughout  the  United  States 
during  the  sf'vere  winter  of  1880-81, 

BLOCK,  M.\iiiu(i:,  statistician,  born  at  Berlin,  of 
Jewish  family,  Feb.  18,  1816,  and  studied  at  lionn 
and  (Jieaaen.  lie  settled  at  Paris,  where  for  a  time 
(1852-(>2)  he  held  a  post  in  the  statistical  bureau. 
He  has  published  many  works  on  the  statistics  of 
France  and  Kiirope,  including  the  .liiiiuaire  de 
VEconomie  I'lilitii/ite  el  de  UtatliiliijHe. 


BLOCK-HOUSE,  an  edifice  constructed  of  hewn 
timber  sufficiently  thick  to  be  bullet-proof,  and 
provided  with  loopholes  tor  musketry.  A  block- 
house may  be  of  one  or  more  stories  and  of  any 
size  aid  shape.  When  of  more  than  one  story,  the 
upper  is  made  to  project  over  the  lower  to  enable 
the  occupants  to  fire  through  loop-holes  in  the 
floor.  In  localities  where  timber  is  plentiful,  and  an 
artillery  attack  not  to  be  feared,  it  forms  a  useful 
defensive  work,  and  under  these  conditions  it  is 
often  used  in  a  rough  country.  When  a  block-house 
stands  alone  it  constitutes  an  independent  fort,  and 
forms  a  barrack  for  its  garrison. 

BLOCK  ISLAND,  formerly  called  Manisees,  situ- 
ated in  the  Atlantic  about  nine  miles  south  of 
Rhode  Island,  to  which  it  belongs.  It  is  about 
eight  miles  in  length,  has  a  light-house  at  its  north 
end,  and  contains  New  Shoreham,  a  summer  resort. 
BLOCKSBERG,  the  name  given  to  various  moun- 
tains and  hills  in  Germany,  but  preeminently  to 
the  Brocken,  the  highest  of  the  Harz  mountains. 
According  to  the  popular  belief,  it  is  the  favorite 
haunt  of  the  witches,  where  they  celebrate  Wal- 
purglsnacht  on  the  1st  of  May.  Almost  all  moun- 
tains thus  haunted  are  known  to  have  been  famous- 
places  of  sacrifice  in  the  ages  of  paganism. 

BLOCK-SHIP,  a  ship  of  war  too  old  or  too  slow 
in  sailing  to  render  efficient  service  in  action  out 
at  sea,  but  useful  as  a  defense  in  great  ports  and 
naval  arsenals.  Now  as  war  steamers  have  come 
more  into  use,  some  of  the  old  sailing  men-of-war 
are  nearly  valueless  except  as  block-ships.  There 
are  at  present  a  great  number  of  English  block- 
ships. 

BI/OCK  TIN  is  an  inferior  variety  of  tin.  When 
the  metal  is  reduced  from  its  ores  it  is  first  poured 
into  moulds,  and  the  ingots  thus  procured  are 
heated  to  incipient  fusion  in  a  reverberatory  fur- 
nace. The  pure  tin  first  fuses,  and  is  withdrawn; 
and  the  less  pure  tin,  which  is  left  behind,  being 
molted  at  a  higher  temperature,  is  poured  into 
moulds  and  is  known  as  block  tin 

15L0EA1F0NTEIN,  the  capital  of  Orange  Free 
State,  South  Africa,  situated  on  the  Modder.  200 
iniU'S  nort'.iwest  of  Durban.  It  is  connected  by 
tele,«rapli  with  the  (^ape  and  Natal. 

BI,-OMMAERT,  Piiilip,  a  prominent  Flemish 
autluir,  born  in  Ghent  about  1809,  died  there  Aug. 
14,  1871.  In  1834  he  published  a  volume  of  verse,, 
cliara^jterized  by  much  simiilicity  and  earnestness, 
but  so,  inartistic  in  form  that  it  met  with  little  suc- 
cess. He  rendered  better  service  to  literature  and 
to  the  jiatriotic  cause  by  th(>  i)ublicalion  (  1 836-4 1) 
of  several  old  Flemish  poems  of  the  12tli,  Kith  and 
14th  centuries.  His  most  important  work  is  a 
Ilistorii  lif  the  Belgiaii.i  (1849),  in  which  he  attempts 
to  show  \|hat  the  political  destiny  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries hasjever  been  identical  willi  that  of  Germany, 
and  thatlit  is  with  the  latter  country  .'iiid  not  with 
I'Vance  tHat  P.elgiuii)  should  seek  to  ally  herself. 

BLomAEL,  a  celebrated  French  minstrel  of  the 
12th  centu'ry,  and  the  favorite  of  Kichard  the  Lion- 
lieart,  king'  of  England.  A  few  of  I'.londers  poems 
are  preserved  in  the  library  of  the  .\rseniil  of 
Paris.  ^ 

BLONDIN,  Emii.i;  (inAvi;i,i:T,  born  in  I'l-ance 
about  IS.'IO.  'He  is  a  famous  tight-rope  walker.  He 
crossed  the  Niagara  Rivi'r  below  the  falls  on  a  ro|ie 
],.".00  feet  lontj-,  which  was  stretched  IT)!!  f(-e(  abcvi' 
the  water,  aiiQl  has  performed  other  similar  feats, 

BLOOD,  AvuNciEU  OF.  In  the  early  ages  of 
society  it  was  almost  universally  looked  upon  as 
the  duty  of  the  next  of  kin  to  avenge  the  death  of 
a  murdered  relative;  but  among  some  primitive 
peoples,  for  example,  the  mod(>rn  Bedouins,  as 
among  the  ancient   Anglo-Saxons,  the  right  is  an- 


ULUO  D-  Ui  IID  — B  ^ 


u  ( )  U  M  S  B  r  K  0 


303 


luilli-il  !)}•  CDiinit'iisation.  The  Mosaic  law  did  not 
set  aside  this  universal  institution  of  primitive 
society,  but  placetl  it  under  regulations,  prohibit- 
ing the  cominulation  of- the  penally  of  death  for 
money,  and  appointing  cities  of  refuj,'e  for  tlie  in- 
voluntary nianslayer.  The  nef\,rest  relative,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  hunt  down  the  murderer,  was  called 
(liiil,  the  ■'  redeemer"  or  "  averiijer." 

BLOOI>-BIUD,  or  Scit.niER-ljiKo  (Myzomcla  san- 
7l^■/lo/fH^M,a  beautiful 
little  species  of  honey- 
sucker.  The  head, 
brest  and  back  of  the 
male  are  of  a  beauti- 
ful scarlet  color.  It 
inhabits  the  thickest 
of  New  South  Wales 
and  also  of  lien^tal. 
Jjee  liritannica.  Vol. 
XII,  p.  l*t. 

BLOOD,  Eatinc  ok. 
The  eating  of  blood 
was  prohibited  under 
the  Old  Testament 
dispensation,  obvious- 
ly lor  ri'asons  con-  honev-eatkr. 
nected  with  the  use  of  animals  for  sacrifice. 

BLO()l)-l'LO\VEK(//.<//ir(»('/;/.v), a  genus  of  bulb- 
ous-rooted ])lanls  of  the  natural  order  Ainnri/Uidi  :c, 
mostly  nativ's  of  South  .Vmerica.  The  beautiful 
red  flowers  form  a  line  cluster.  The  fruit  is  a 
berry,  usually  with  three  seeds;  the  leaves  are 
almost  linear  in  some  and  round  or  erect  in  others. 
The  species  of  blood-tlower  generally  possess 
poisonous  properties.  The  inspissated  juice  is  used 
by  the  natives  of  South  America  for  poisoning  their 
arrows. 

BLOOD-MO.VEY,  a  reward  fur  bringing  about 
the  death  of  another,  as  by  giving  evidence  leading 
to  a  conviction  in  a  capital  charge.  The  name  is 
also  applied  to  the  compensation  formerly,  and 
still  in  some  countries,  paid  to  the  ne.xt  of  kin  for 
the  slaughter  of  a  relative. 

BLOOU  OK  OUU  S.WIOl'U,  an  order  of  knight- 
hood in  Mantua,  instituted  by  Duke  Vincent  Gon- 
Caga  in  liM).S.  It  consisted  of  I'O  knights.  The  col- 
lar had  threads  of  gold  laid  on  fire,  and  interwoven 
with  the  words  l)(i)iiiw  pnihiisti.  To  the  collar  were 
pendent  two  angels,  supporting  three  drops  of 
blood,  and  circumscribed  with  the  motto,  Xihil  lulu 
Iri-ili  rccifilii.  The  name  originated  in  the  belief 
that  in  St.  .Vndrew's  Church,  in  .Mantua,  certain 
dri)])s  of  our  Saviour's  blood  are  kept  as  a  relic. 

BbOOD-WOK.M,  a  ii.iine  given  to  the  abundant 
aijiiatic  larva  of  a  gnat-like  dipterous  insect  known 
as  C'hiruiioiiiiin  pliniiDKitx.  It  has  a  worm-like  aji- 
pearance,  a  blood-red  color,  and  is  found  in  stag- 
nant water. 

BLOO.M,  an  appearance  on  paintings  resembling 
in  some  measure  the  bloom  on  fruit,  siu'h  as 
peaches,  plumbs,  etc.,  |>roduced,  in  all  probability, 
by  the  presence  of  moisture  in  the  varnish,  or  on 
the  surface  of  the  painting  when  the  varnish  is  laid 
on.  The  bloom  often  destroys  the  transparency, 
and  is  conseiiuently  injurious  "to  the  general  effect 
of  the  i)ictiire, 

BLOOMER,  Amelia  .Ienks,  born  in  Homer,  N.  Y., 
^lay  27,  ISIS.  She  was  the  wife  of  Dexter  C. 
Bloomer,  a  lawyer  of  Seneca  Tails,  N.  V.  She  has 
been  a  writer  on  enfranchisement  of  women,  and 
lectured  on  this  subject  and  on  tempeiance.  She 
published  a  paper,  "The  Lily."  in  lS4ii,  wliich  advo- 
cated her  views,  and  in  ISoli,  she  continued  its 
publication  in  Mt.  Vernon.  Ohio,  whither  she  and 
her  husl.and  had  removed.  They  went  to  live  at 
Oooncil  BlulTs.  Iowa,  and  she  sold  the  paper  to 
Mary  B,  Birdsall.    She  adopted  and  advocated  the 


the  knee,  and  a  i)air  of  loose  trousers  buttoned 
ind  the  ankle.     Though  a  few  ladies  followed  the 


jjioomer  costume  (consisting  of  a  skirt  reaching  to 
pie  knees,  and  Turkish  drawers),  which  was  origi- 
;.ated  by  tierrit  Smitli's  daughter,  Mrs.  Elizabeth 
ijmith  Miller.  She  formerly  took  an  active  part  in 
,;he  woman  suffrage  movement  in  Iowa  and  Ne- 
braska, but  has  entirely  withdrawn  from  public 
I  ^fe  of  late  years. 

j  1  BLOO.M  EK  CO.STUME,  a  dress  or  costume  for 
I  \omen  which  arose  out  of  an  agitation  for  the 
■^'■rm  of  female  attire.  In  IS-li)  Mrs.  Bloomer 
„^<  .^d  the  costume  to  which  she  has  given  her 
jtJnie,  and  lectured  in  New  York  and  elsewhere  on 
jjjl  advantages.  The  Bloomer  dress  consisted  of  a 
|,j.fket  with  close  sleeves,  a  skirt  falling  a  little  he- 
ro ij 
ex.", 

p(jAmple  of  Mrs.  Bloomer,  the  dress  was  never 
^f,,  lular.  Dress  reform  societies  aud  private  per- 
r,  p  have  from  lime  to' time  advocated  changes  in 
]1 '  Scostunie  of  women  less  radical  than  Mrs. 
gu'pjmer's,  and   the  "divided  skirt"  has   still   its 

Ujorters. 
DavHooMFIELD,  a  city  of  Iowa,  county-seat  of 
prai  ,1  •^'"jnty- l'''''^'t''""y  situated  on  an  elevated 
the  t '/3  about  85  miles  west  of  Burlington.  It  is 
enjoi,pde  center  of  a  fertile  agricultural  district, 
tains  excellent  educational  lacililies,  and  con- 
and  ^^  niportant  manufactures  of  furniture,  plows 

BL'.ikons. 
.Terse  V^'^^^'^^'  "*  manufacturing   town  of  New 
mile?-^  J  situated   on  the  .Morris   Camil.  about  five 
organ    '^'■f'l^'p^'f  "f  Newark.    It  contains  a  cabinet- 
of  papj''^"'"'"}''  ""  it^ou  foundry  and  inaiuifactures 

l}L(^\r  and  woolen  goods. 
McLeaV^IINGTON.  a  city  of  Illinois,  capital  of 
ical  ce  ?  county,  situated  nearly  in  the  geograph- 
therj(.%erof  the  State  and  surrounded  by  one  of 
"reat  I'jf*^  agricultural  regions  in  the  world.  Four 
every.  cV"'' ''"®*  of  railway  furnish  an  outlet  in 
landin.'i'''''""-  The  city  is  located  on  the  highest 
and  wa  rlP  State,  and  its  systems  of  seSverage,  gas 
are  wid^i  "-mains  are  very  extensive.  The  streets 
gas  and^'i'^d  "if''  trees,  and  well  lighted  with 
from  a  cen'^ctricity.  Electric  street  cars  radiate 
water  supi'"''!'  point  to  all  parts  of  the  city.  The 
furnish  d.'ly  '^  from  subterranean  sources,  which 
strongly  iri'''y  *<J(t'.000  gallons.  The  wafer  is 
are  matle  f<'l>'""^of"lted   with   iron,  and  high   claims 

Bloomingf  '**  heallhfulness. 
and  its  maiO"  carries  on  a  large  wholesale  trade. 
The  Chica^dufacturing  industries  are  numerous, 
here,  and  "ei  "-^  Alton  Railroad  sho|)s  are  located 
hand'somel ,  I'lp'oy  over  2,000  men.  The  city  is 
The  means  o'''^  ""t-  '*"'!  '''*''  '^^^  well-kept  parks, 
numerous  puf  education  are  ample,  there  being 
public  library.'"*'  ■'"<!  private  schools,  and  a  large 
was  founded"!]  'I'"*'  Illinois  Wesleyan  University 
lege  and  the  T'  in  1S57.  The  Major  Female  Col- 
located in  tl  a'"  '"""'  ('i'l'"ilic  .\cadeniy  are  also 
distant,  is  tlie  !.  -''y-  while  at  Normal,  two  miles 
in  lS."j7'witli  »n  "-^t**  Nornnil  I'niversity,  organized 
Soldiers'  Moi.i  edifice  costing  $200,000.  The  State 
population  o  >1  '*  *'*°  located  at  Normal.  The 
1890  22,'242.  oomington  was,  in   1880,  17,180;  in 

BLCHTMI.v'GTt  ,  ,    ,. 

of  Monrof  <,ount'^- a  city  of  Indiana,  county-seat 
west  of  Irdianap^' ^"""fP'l  "''o"'  •'■"'  '"'h's  south- 
State  Un^versity.*''^-  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Indiana 
tories  of  woolen  gi"*'  contains  extensive  inanufae- 
are  also  importipfl^'''*'''^''*^  ""•'  leather.  There 
and  in  the  vicinit*'t  manufactories  of  hard  wood, 
j,(,„,p  ■'  are  extensive  quarries  of   lime- 

BLOOMSBFRG,       „  ,  .  .,       , 

Pennsylvania.  n(i  n.  *  flourishing  railroad  town  of 

uated  on  Fishing  ('"**»  .soulhwi'sl    of  Scrjinton,  sit- 

three  banks,  iron  fi'"'"f'k      H   contains   10  churches, 

rnaces  and  foundries;  it  is  the 


304 


B  L  0  U  S  1^' 


at 


/ 


seat  of  a  State  normal  school,  and  the  county-se*. 
of  Columbia  county.  ',r 

BLOUSE,  a  name  borrowed  from  the  French  fdg 
a  loose,  sack-like  over-garment.  In  England  it  ii) 
worn  by  wagoners  and  farm-laborers,  and  is  callet 
smock-frock.  In  the  south  of  Scotland  it  is  some-i 
times  worn  by  butchers, and  is  then  blue,  as  in  Ge.Ii 
many  and  France.  In  Germany  it  is  frequentl'jl 
tightened  to  the  body  by  a  belt,  and  sometim^^'L 
made  of  coarse  woolen.  France  is  preeminent  jj.  • 
the  country  of  blouses.  There  they  are  worn  ujgo 
versally,  not  only  by  the  country  people,  but  aCc 
by  the  laboring  classes  in  towns,  not  exceptj^p 
Paris;  and  so  characteristic  is  this  garment  thatd^" 
Frencli  populace  are  often  called  the  "blous'tug- 
The  white  blouse  is  Sunday  dress  with  the  worW  of 
class  in  France.  In  America  it  is  a  coat  mad^,i.[j] 
any  material,  as  for  instance  the  undress  uni^ 
of  the  United  States  army.  '  Mer 

BLOW-FLY,  a  two-wiiiged  insect,  of  the  'i,ody 
Dipfi'i-d,  and  of  the  large  family  Muscides.  Its4',j-ak 
is  hairy,  the  face  silky  and  yellow,  the  tn-^^-ji 
gray  with  three  black  stripes,  the  abdomen  ^fidely 
with  glittering  yellow  spots.  The  eyes  are  ^Vched 
separate  in  both  sexes.  The  eggs  are  often  hif,  are 
within  the  body  of  the  parent,  and  its  lar%  jiyg 
found  feeding  upon  meat,  sometimes  upci 
worms,  and  too  often  upon  sheep.  feapon 

BLOW-PIPE  .vxD.ARROW,  a  kind  of  ji,  both 
much  used  by  the  Indians  of  South  Americia'  Ion" 
in  war  and  for  killing  game.  It  consists  ofiijow  is 
straight  tube,  in  which  a  small  poisoned  ki  The 
placed,  and  forcibly  expelled  by  the  breaf  fade  of 
tube  or  blow-pipe  is  eight  to  12  feet  long,  ^and  of 
reed,  or  the  stem  of  a  small  palm.  In  the'Ctgcjally 
a  practiced  Indian  it  is  a  deadly  weapon,  e'Bif  hio-h 
when  directed  against  birds  in  the  topWlljunter 
trees.  As  the  weapon  makes  no  noise,  t'yiers  his 
often  empties  his  quiver  before  he  gjf  ; 
game.  T   ,ro  of  a 

BLUEBEAED,  the  name  given  to  th'"^  jch  ori- 
well-known  tale  of  fiction,  which  is  of  ©  ^.levalier 
gin.  According  to  tliis  romance  the'e  trpts  his 
icaoul  has  a  blue  beard,  from  which  h  Chevalier 
designation.  The  historic  original  of,,(j  gf  Hai.;, 
Kaoul  appears  to  be  Giles  de  Laval,  Lo  fought  val- 
who  was  marslial  of  France  in  1420,  andj„\-aded  by 
iantly  it  defense  of  his  country  when  .jness  seem 
the  English;  but  his  cruelty  and  wicki,e  is  reniem- 
to  have  eclipse!  even  his  l)ravery,  as  1  radition  has 
bered  chietiy  for  his  crimes,  which  tarful  colors, 
painted  in  tiie  blackest  and  most  ft,ar  Nantes  in 
l^aval  was  burned  alive  in  a  field  m 
I'l'"-  Ai.is),  a  favor- 

BLUE  BIRD  (Si.\L!.i,  orSvi.vi.v  si,s„fidence  and 
ito  American  bird,  displaying  great  c;ati,,ii  of  men, 
familiarity  in  api)roaching  the  habitfi,,.  ,.,)bin.  The 
and  in  its  general  manner  resembling^  ixviutiful  sky- 
upper  parts  of  the  blue-bird  are  of  -..^  reildish  chest- 
blue  color,  the  throat  and  breast  area  ^off  agreeable 
nutand  the  b'lly  white.  Itssong  is  *\^.  eggs,  and  has 
warble."  It  lays  five  or  si.x  pale  bl 
two  or  three  broods  in  the  season.  ,f  several  diflfer- 

BLUEBELL.  the  popular  name  I  ig  given  to  the 
ent  plants.  In  England  the  name,,.,  The  Scottish 
common  .wild  hyacinth,  Srilln  iinlOii„i„  rntundifoVui, 
bluebells  are  flowers  of  ('<iiii/ii,j.,^  The  term  is 
commonly  (tailed  liarebcll  elsewh,,r  plants  havin" 
also  occasionally  applied  to  otl 
blue  Ijcll-shaped"  (lowers.  |)ularlv  applied  to 

l'.Lri<;-l50()KS,  the  name  po.i„|,.d  "^y  order  of 
the  reports  and  other  papers  p,  (i|,,y  a,.,,  usually 
the  liritish  Parliament,  becausi  practice  of  print- 
•ititclied  up  in  blue  covers.  Th(„j,^  (|,f.  proceedings 
ingiind  to  some  extent  publish-,,  j',,  (|„.  y,,ar  ItiSl, 
jf  the  House  of  Commons,  begu 


B  L  U  E  -  J  A  Y 

I  when  disputes  ran  high  on  the  question  of  exclud- 
ing the  Duke  of  York  from  the  succession  to  the 
throne.  It  was  stated  that  false  accounts  of  the 
transactions  were  circulated,  and  it  was  decided  as 
a  remedy  that  the  proceedings  of  the  House  be 
printed.  The  documents  printed  by  the  House  . 
of  Commons  accumulated  gradually  in  bulk  and 
variety  until  now  the  blue-books  of  a  session., 
when  collected  and  bound  up,  till  many  thick  folio 
volumes.  The  corresponding  official  books  are  yel- 
■  low  in  France,  white  in  Germany  and;  Portugal, 
green  in  Italy,  and  red  in  Spain,  In  the  United 
States  the  term  is  applied  to  a  book  containing  the 
names  and  salaries  of  all  the  persons  in  the  employ 
of  the  Government. 

BLUE-BOTTLE  FLY  (Mimca  vomitoria),  an  in- 
sect of  the  same  genus  with  the  common  house-fly. 
The  head  is  black,  with  rust-colored  cheeks,  the 
thorax  grayish,  the  abdomen  blue,  with  a  whitish 
shimmer,  and  with  three  black  bands.  The  ex- 
jianse  of  wings  is  nearly  one  inch,  and  it  flies  with 
a  loud  buzz.  It  is  abundant  throughout  Britian 
and  Europe,  if.  erythrocephala  is  also  called  blue- 
bottle. 

BLUE-COAT  SCHOOL,  the  name  usually  given 
to  Christ's  Hospital — a  school  in  London  founded 
by  Edward  VI — where  the  boys  wear  the  ancient 
costume,  of  which  a  blue  coat  or  gown  forms  a 
part. 

BLUE-EYE  (Entomyza  c;/ano<is),abeautiful  little 
bird  of  New  South  Wales.  A  species  of  honey-sucker, 
it  seeks  its  food  among  the  blossoms-  and  small 
leafy  branches  of  the  eucalypti.  Numbeis  are  often 
seen  hanging  in  clusters  at  the  extreme  ends  of  the 
branches,  bending  them  down  with  their  weight. 

BLUEFISH  (Poiiiatomiis  saltatrix),  a  fish  of  the 
family  Pomatomid;v,  also  called  lilnc-i'iiiiiiper  and 
Skipjarl:.  It  is  of  compressed  subfusiform  shape, 
having  two  dorsal  tins,  the  tirst  of  which  is  small, 
and  two  deeply-hidden  spines  in  front  of  the  anal 
fin.  The  upper  parts  are  of  a  bluish  color,  the  lower 
parts  whitish.  It  sometimes  attains  a  length  of 
three  feet,  though  it  is  usually  much  smaller.  It  is 
very  swift,  strong  and  voracious,  preying  on  other 
fishes,  of  which  itdestroys  many  more  than  it  reallj' 
needs  for  food.  Though  found  in  many  seas,  it  is  best 
known  along  the  Atlantic  cojist  of  the  United 
States.  Its  flesh  is  much  esteemed  for  the  table. 
See  Britannica,  Vol.  IX,  p.  2G7. 

BLUE-GOWNS,  a  name  commonly  given  to  a 
privileged  class  of  mendicants  in  Scotland,  whose 
proper  designation  was  the  king's  beadsmen — the 
persons  emfdoyed  to  pray  for  the  king  having  grad- 
ually degenerated  into  a  class  of  nuth(n'i/.ed  pau- 
pers. Each  beadsman  on  the  king's  birthday  re- 
ceived a  gown  of  blue  cloth,  with  a  loaf  of  bread,  a 
bottle  of  ale,  and  a  leathern  purse  containing  a 
penny  for  every  year  of  the  king's  life.  The  most 
important  part  of  the  privilege  was  a  pewter  badge, 
attachrd  to  the  breast  of  the  gown,  with  (he  bearers 
name  and  an  inscription,  Pos.s  <iii<l  y^'i/ic-.-i.--.  This  in- 
ferred the  privilege  of  begging,  and  bespoke  the 
kindly  consideration  of  all  to  whom  the  beadsman 
appealed  for  alms  or  a  night's  lodging.  The  prac- 
tice of  apiiointing  beadsmen  was  discontinued  in 
18,38;  at  that  time  there  were  60  on  the  roll. 

BLUE  GRASS,  the  name  of  several  species  olPvo, 
a  pernnuient  grass  found  in  Europe  and  North 
America.  The  blue  grass  of  Kentucky,  /'.  pnilinsif, 
is  highlv  valued  for  pasturage  and  hay.  It  is  also 
called  ,'lune  grass.  The  blue  grass  of  England  is 
/'.  ciiiiiiiri  xxit. 

BL U E-.l  A  V  ( ( 'iKi iiiiciita  rrintata).  a  common  North 
American  bird  oif  the  crow  family.  It  is  about  12 
inches  long,  with  a  fine  crest;  the  color  is  purplish- 
blue  abov,',  black  on  the  neck  and  i)urpli8h-gray 


B  1.  I    E    L  A  W  S  —  P,  0  A  l\  ])  M  A  X 


305 


bc'liiw,  the  tail  and  wings  blue  spotted  with  Mack 
and  white.  It  is  a  mischievous  bird,  liur  devours 
large  numbers  of  injurious  eater))iilars.  The  com- 
mon blue-jay  has  a  wide  distribution,  and  there  are 
several  other  North  American  species.  The  long- 
tailed  blue-jays  belong  to  a  rarergenus(.Y((;(?/ii(rai, 
found  in  Central  and  in  South  America.  See  Brit- 
anniea,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  till. 

HLUF;  laws,  once  commonly  believed  to  have 
been  made  by  the  colonial  legislature  of  New  Haven, 
were  supposed  to  have  prescribed  unwarr.-intable 
rul^sforthi"  dress,  the  jirivate  life,  and  the  relig- 
ious conduct  of  the  colonists.  It  is  certain,  how- 
ever, that  no  legal  code  of  this  description  ever 
existed.  The  term  itself,  which  is  of  uncertain  ori- 
gin, probably  represented,  in  the  minds  of  the  peo- 
ple of  various  parts  of  colonial  New  England,  the 
undue  interference  of  the  judges  in  the  private 
affairs  of  citizens.  It  is  said  that  Samuel  Peters. 
D.D.,  in  his  fiein'i-dl  Uialori/  o/ ('OfOir'-^/c//,  published 
in  England  in  17S1,  originated  the  story  of  the  so- 
called  blue  laws  of  the  New  Haven  colony. 

BLUE  LICK  SPRINGS,  a  village  and  watering 
place  of  Kentucky,  situated  on  Licking  River,  about 
50  miles  northeast  of  Le.xington.  It  is  noted  for  the 
medicinal  virtues  of  its  saline  mineral  springs. 

BLUE  MOUNTAINS,  the  name  of  a  branch  of 
the  dividing  range.  New  South  Wales,  which  runs 
very  nearly  parallel  with  the  coast,  about  SO  miles 
inland.  It  was  not  till  1813  that  a  jiracticable  pas- 
sage was  found  over  them  into  the  Bathurst  plains. 
The  highest  point  of  the  Blue  mountains,  Mount 
Beemarang,  is  4,100  feet  higii,and  some  parts  of  the 
road  which  crosses  them  are  3,403  feet  above  the 
sea. 

BLUE  PILL,  the  most  simple  form  in  which  mer- 
cury can  be  administered  internally.  It  consists 
merely  of  two  parts  of  mercury  rubbed  u])  witli 
three  parts  of  con.serve  of  roses,  till  globules  of 
mercury  can  no  longer  be  detected.  To  this  is  added 
powdered  licorice-root,  so  that  a  pill  of  live  grains 
contains  one  grain  of  mercury.  When  taking 
blue  pills  all  sodden  changes  of  temperature  should 
be  avoided ;  and  neither  tliey  nor  any  other  form  of 
mercury  should  be  given  without  good  cause,  and 
without  the  greatest  caution. 

BLUE  R.\TIDS,  a  city  of  Kansas,  situated  on  the 
Big  Blue  River,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Little  Blue, 
about  a  hundred  miles  west  of  Atchison.  A  devel- 
oped water-power  of  nearly  two  thousand  horse- 
power drives  extensive  manufactories  of  flour, 
woolen  goods,  oil,  and  paper;  and  in  the  vicinity 
are  valuable  beds  of  water-lime  and  gypsum. 

BLUE  RJBBON,  a  term  applied  to  any  great 
prize — as  the  "Derby"  stakes — from  the  blue  rib- 
bon worn  by  knights  of  tlie  garter,  liliif  RiMion 
Armij  was  the  name  adopted, from  the  badge,  by  the 
as.sociation  of  total  abstainers  known  as  the  Gospel 
Temperance  Union. 

BLUE  RIDGE,  the  most  easterly  range  of  the 
Allcglienies,  U.  S.  It  forms  the  continuation  of  the 
chain  called  South  Mountain  in  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland.  It  is  known  as  the  Blue  ftidge  till  it 
crosses  the  James  River;  thence  to  North  Carolina 
as  .\lleglieny  .Mountain;  arjd  in  North  Carolina 
again  as  Blue  Kid»'. 

BLUE  STOCKING,  a  name  given  to  learned  and 
literary  ladies.  The  name  is  derived  from  a  literary 
society  formed  in  London  about  I7S(),which  included 
both  men  and  women.  .V  gentleman  named  Still- 
inglleet,\vho  was  in  the  habit  of  wearing  blue  stock- 
ings, was  a  distinguished  member  of  the  society. 
The  name  has  also  been  adopted  in  (iernumy  and 
France. 

BLUE  SULPHUR  SPRINGS,  village  and  health 
resort   of   West   Virginia,  situated  in  Greenbrier 


county.  It  is  celebrated  for  the  curative  properties 
of  its  saline  clialybeate  waters. 

KLl'E-THKOAT,  or  Svi.vn  Simica,  a  handsome 
bird,  somewhat  larger  than  the  rolibin.  The  upper 
part  of  its  neck  is  of  a  brilliant  Idue,  with  a  i)ure 
white  spot  in  the  center;  below  the  blue  is  a  lilack 
bar,  then  a  line  of  white,  and  then  a  broad  band  ot 
bright  chestnvit.  In  Lorraine  and  Alsace  great  num- 
bers are  caught  for  the  table,  and  esteemed  a  deli- 
cacy. It  has  a  very  sweet  song,  and  because  it  imi- 
tates to  an  unusual  degree  the  notes  of  other  birds 
the  Laplanders  gave  it  a  luiine  signifying  the  bird 
of  a  hundred  tongues. 

BLUE-^\'1NG,  the  blue-winged  teal  of  North 
America,  QuerqHedula  dixrors,  a  small  duck  with 
blue  wing-coverts.  No  member  of  the  duck  tribe 
is  in  higher  esteem  for  the  table. 

BLUFFTO.V,  a  village  of  Indiana,  county-seat  ot 
Wells  county,  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Wabash,  about  L'5  miles  south  of  Fort  Wayne.  It 
contains  important  mamil'actories  of  flour,"  woolen 
goods,  barrels,  barrel  staves  and  heads,  lumber, 
corn-planters  and  other  machines,  and  .a  num- 
ber of  planing-niills  and  foundries.  Hluffton  en- 
joys e.xcellent  educational  facilities,  and  is  ex- 
tensively engaged  in  trade  in  lumber,  stock  and 
grain. 

BLUJI,  RoiucitT,  a  German  journalist  and  imliti- 
cal  agitator,  l)orn  at  Cologne  in  1830,  shot  at  Vienna, 
Nov.  0,  1849,  for  assisting  in  the  uprising  of  the  peo- 
ple in  October.  He  was  a  man  of  strong  character 
and  his  execution  caused  much  indignation  among 
the  democrats  in  Germany. 

BLUNDERBUSS,  a  kind  of  short  musket  with  a 
very  wide  bore,  sufficient  to  take  in  several  shot  or 
bullets  at  once.  It  has  a  limited  range,  but  is 
very  destructive  at  close  quarters.  .\s  a  military 
weajmn  it  is  chiefly  of  service  in  defending  passages 
door-ways,  etc.  Some  of  the  English  and  German 
troopers  of  the  17th  century  were  armed  with  the 
blunderbuss. 

BLUNTSCHLT,  Joii.\xn  K.^spak  { 1808-81),  Swiss 
jurist,  born  .March  7,  1808,  at  Zurich,  where  in  1S33 
he  became  prol'essor  in  the  newly-founded  I'niver- 
sity.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  political  strug- 
gles of  his  country,  and  in  188!)  joined  the  Con- 
servatives, of  \Vli(ini  he  was  for  a  time  an  active 
leader.  He  was  a  councilor  of  state  and  became  a. 
member  of  the  government  and  of  the  federal  di- 
rectory, and  afterwards  worked  for  the  formation 
of  a  moderate  T/iberal-Conservativo  |)arty  in  Switz- 
erland. In  1848  he  went  to  Munich  as  professor  of 
civil  and  international  law.  There  he  published  his 
Allfiji'meintv  Slanlsnchl  (5th  ed..  187(>),  on  which  his 
reputation  as  a  jurisconsult  chiefly  rests;  /)<  ii/sc/ic-i 
I'l-inilrcrlil  ('Ml  ed..  18G4);  and,  in  conjunction  with 
Arndts  and  I'ii/.l.  Krilifrhf  Ccbrrschuii  il<i-  Drulsc/ien 
Of.ii'lzfiebnng  iiml  Rfclil.iwi.t.ifiischaft  (ti  vols.,  18.5.S-5S). 
In  18lil  he  removed  to  Heidelberg  University,  and 
became  a  privy  councilor  of  Baden,  actively  for- 
warding all  liberal  measures  in  the  state.  Linerty 
in  ecclesiastical  matters  he  had  e(|ually  at  heart; 
he  acted  several  times  as  president  of  the  /Vo- 
leslaiilfiiri  irhi,  and  it  was  after  delivering  a  do.  ing 
speech  at  the  general  synod  of  Baden  that  he  died 
suddenly  at  Karlsruhe,  Oct.  21,  l,s,sl.  He  was  the 
author  of  valuable  histories  of  Zurich  and  of  the 
Swiss  Confederation,  and  of  a  number  of  works  on 
law,  being  especially  an  authority  on  international 
law. 

BO.\RDM.AN,  Gkouok  Dan.*,  born  in  Livermore, 
Me.,  Feb.  s.  bsoi.  died  in  Bnrmah.  Feb.  11.  1831.  He 
was  a  clergyman's  son,  was  a  graduate  of  Waterville 
College.  Me.,  and  Andnver  Seminary,  became  a 
Baptist  missionary  and  labored  from  1825  to  18.S1  in 
Burinah.    He  overtaxed  his  strength  and  died  from 


306 


0  A  R  D  M  A  N  —  B  0  G  L  I  P  0  0  R 


consumption.  His  widow,  Sarah  Hall,  married  Dr. 
Adoniram  .Jud.<oii. 

BOAKLOIAX,  (lEoKGE  Dana,  son  of  the  foregoing, 
born  in  Burniah.  Aug.  8,  1828,  graduated  at  Brown 
and  then  at  the  Kewton  Theological  Institution. 
He  became  pastor  of  a  Baptist  church  at  Barnwell, 
S.  C.  His  views  on  slaverj'  led  him  to  come  North, 
where  he  became  pastor  of  the  Second  Baptist 
church  in  Rochester,  X.  Y.,  and  afterwards  pastor 
of  the  First  Church  in  Philadelphia.  He  has  pub- 
lished books,  sermons  and  addresses. 

BOARDMAN,  Henry  Augistis,  born  at  Troy, 
K.  Y.,  Jan.  9,  ISOS,  died  in  Philadelphia.  Pa.,  June 
15,1880.  He  graduated  at  Yale  with  highest  honors, 
and  in  1830  completed  the  course  at  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary.  He  became  pastor  of  the 
Tenth  Presbyterian  church  in  Philadelphia,  and  held 
the  office  from  1833  to  1876,  when  he  was  made 
pastor  emeritus.  He  was  the  author  of  a  large 
number  of  books. 

BOBCAY'GEON,  an  important  lumbering  town 
of  Ontario,  situated  on  an  island  which  divides 
Sturgeon  Lake  from  Pigeon  Lake,  about  eighteen 
miles  north  of  Lindsay.  A  canal  passing  through 
the  village  connects  the  lakes,  and  steamers  ply 
regularly  between  Bobcaygeon  and  Lindsay. 

BUB(yLINK.  See  Britannica,  ^■ol.  XVIII, 
p.  53. 

BOB-AVHITE.  See  under  Quail,  Britannica,  Vol. 
XX,  pp.  14(i,  147. 

BOCCARDO,  GiKOLAMo,  born  at  Genoa,  Italy,  in 
1829.  He  is  one  of  the  most  voluminous  and  versa- 
tile writers  of  his  age  and  nation.  His  writings  in- 
clude important  works  on  political  economy,  geog- 
raphy, statistics,  and  history.  See  Political  Econ- 
omy. Britannica,  Vol  XIX.  p.  387. 

BoDIE.  a  village  of  California,  situated  at  an 
altitude  of  8.320  feet,  on  a  spur  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains,  aliout  a  hundred  miles  south  of  Carson 
City.  It  was  named  from  William  Bodey.  who  dis- 
covered gold  here  in  1859.  It  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant gold-mining  towns  of  the  West. 

BODLE,  an  ancient  Scotch  copper  coin  first 
issued  under  Charles  II,  and  worth  at  that  time  two 
pennies  Scotch,  or  one-sixth  of  an  Englisli  penny; 
said  to  have  been  so  called  from  the  name  of  a  mint- 
master  of  the  name  of  I'.olhwell. 

BOOMER,  Karl,  an  artist,  born  in  Zurich,  Switz- 
erland, in  1805.  He  resides  in  Paris  and  Germany, 
where  he  paints  landscapes  and  animal  life,  lie 
spent  two  years  in  America,  1833-35,  in  the  com- 
pany of  Prince  Maximilian  of  Wied,  and  made 
sketches  of  Indians  and  forest  scenes,  wh.ich  he  has 
since  utilized,  and  which  have  become  exceedingly 
valuable;  no  artist  of  equal  skill  having  up  to 
that  period  visited  the  country  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. 

B(,)I)Y-CAVITY,  in  zoology,  tlie  general  or  com- 
mon cavity  of  the  body  ;  the  space  inclosed  by  the 
body-walls  of  an  animal.  Sjiecial  cavities,  or  those 
of  particular  organs,  acquire  special  names. 

BODY-COI^OR,  a  term  applied  to  such  i)igments 
as  have  body  enough  to  be  opaque,  as  distinguished 
from  those  which  are  transparent.  .\s  a  general 
rule,  pigments  have  more  body  the  nearer  tlu^y  ap- 
proacli  to  white;  consequently,  the  light  parts  of 
pictures  in  oil  are  in  body  color  to  give  them  bright- 
ness and  strength,  while  the  dark  parts  are  trans- 
parent to  give  them  de|)th.  In  water-color  jiaint- 
ing,  works  are  saiil  to  be  executed  in  body-colors 
when,  instead  of  proceeding  by  transparent  lints 
and  washes,  the  pigments  are  mixed  with  white  and 
thus  rendered  opaque. 

BODY'S  ISI,ANIi,  a  long,  narrow  strip  of  sand, 
off  North  (Uirolliia.  with  a  light-house  (150  feet), 
the  l.lu'hi'sl  ill  the  United  States. 


BOECKH, AiofsT, a  German  antiquarian,  born 
at  Karlsruhe  in  1785,  died  in  1867.  He  became 
professor  of  oratory  and  ancient  literature  at  Berlin 
in  1810.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  modern 
school  of  Greek  historians,  and  his  works  are  a  vast 
storehouse  of  information  concerning  the  industrial, 
social  and  domestic  life  of  the  ancient  Greeks. 

BOEHLER,  Peter,  a  Moravian  bishop,  born  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1712,  died  in  London  in 
1775.  He  was  the  founder  of  Nazareth,  a  IMoravian 
village  of  Pennsylvania.  He  is  also  well  known  in 
Methodist  history  for  the  decisive  impulse  given  by 
him  to  the  career  of  John  AVesley. 

BCEHM,  Theobald  (1802-81),  a  Bavarian  musi- 
cian, known  as  the  inventor  of  important  improve- 
ments in  musical  instruments,  especially  the  flute. 
The  Boehm  dute  is  recognized  as  the  best  model 
for  orchestral  use,  being  more  easily  fingered  and 
more  even  and  accurate  in  tone  than  the  common 
flute. 

BCEHMERIA,  a  genus  of  the  natural  order  Vrli- 
cacea;,  of  which  the  most  important  species.  ]>. 
nirea,  a  shrubby  plant  of  China  and  the  East  Indies, 
affords  the  valuable  rhea-fiber  or  grass-cloth  tibir. 
It  has  been  successfully  cultivated  in  the  L'nited 
States.  The  puyha  fiber  of  the  Himalayas  is  de- 
rived from  B.  puiHi,  now  referred  to  the  genus 
Maoutin. 

BOERNE,  a  village  and  health  resort  of  Texas, 
county-seat  of  Kendall  county.  It  is  pleasantly 
situated  on  the  Rio  Cibolo.  about  30  miles  north- 
west of  San  Antonio.  The  climate  is  genial,  and  the 
surrounding  country  is  fertile  and  very  pictur- 
esque. 

BOGARDL'^S,  .Ta.mes.  an  American  inventor,  born 
in  Catskill,  N.  Y..  March  14,1800.  died  in  New  York 
city,  April  13,  1874.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  watch- 
maker, and  early  showed  the  bent  of  his  mind  by 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  eighth-day 
clocks,  and  by  the  invention  of  a  delicate  engraving 
machine.  The  dry  gas-meter  is  his  invention,  as 
is  also  the  transfer  machine  to  produce  bank-note 
plates  from  separate  dies;  and  in  18,39  his  plan  for 
manufacturing  postage  stamps  was  accepted  bj' 
the  British  government.  He  subsequently  intro- 
duced improvements  in  the  manuf:;clure  of  India- 
rubber  goods,  tools,  and  machinery,  and  invented 
a  pyrometer,  a  deep-sea  sounding  machine,  and  a 
dynamometer.  In  1847  he  erected  a  factory  in  New 
York  entirely  of  cast-iron,  five  stories  high,  which 
was  the  first  of  the  kind  ever  built,  and  his  success 
led  him  to  engage  in  the  erection  of  similar  struct- 
ures in  other  places. 

B()GER.M.\NN,  JiiiiANN  (1576-1633),  the  president 
of  the  famous  Synod  of  Dort,  born  in  'loi6  at  the 
Frisian  village  "of  Opiewert.  After  studying  at 
Heidelberg  and  Geneva,  he  became  pastor  at  Leeu- 
warden,  and  soon  distinguished  himself  by  the  active 
part  he  took  in  the  religious  controversies  of  his 
time,  especially  that  against  Arniinius.  In  1618  he 
was  electeil  president  of  tlie  Synod  of  Dort,  but  his 
name  is  now  remembered  for  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  the  vernacular,  mainly  by  him,  which 
soon  became  the  standard  Dutch  version.  He  died 
in  1633.  at  Franeker,  where  he  was  primarius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity. 

BOtiGS,  Charles  Sti'art,  a  rear-admiral  of  the 
United  States  navy,  born  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  .1., 
in  1811.  (lied  in  1888.  lie  is  distinguished  as  the 
comnianiler  of  the  Wirinm  during  the  passage  of 
Forts  .lackson  and  St.  Philip  and  the  taking  of  New 
Orleans  in  1862. 

BOGLU'OOR,  or  Biiagulpore,  a  populous  trad- 
ing city  in  Bengal,  India,  situated  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Ganges  and  distant  by  rail  265  miles  from 
Calcutta.     The  city  has   an   English  seminary,  silk 


B  0  G  E  X  H  A  U  S  E  X  —  B  0  L  E  R  0 


307 


noanufactories,    several    mosques   and  two   unique 
circular  towers  of  unknown  origin. 

BOGEXHAUSEN,  the  site  of  the  lioyal  Observa- 
tory of  Munich.  It  is  a  village  situated  on  the  Iser, 
about  two  miles  from  that   city. 

EOGOS,  a  tribe  of  negroes  who  inhabit  the  higli- 
lands  north  of  Abyssinia.  They  are  estimated  to 
number  about  10,0()0.  They  are  nominal  Christians 
and  are  tributary  to  Abyssinia. 

BOHTLIXGK,  Otto,  Sanskrit  scholar,  born  of 
German  ancestry  at  St.  Petersburg.  From  1835  to 
1842  he  studied  oriental  languages,  e.specially  San- 
skrit, at  Berlin  and  Bonn,  and,  after  2ti years  in  liis 
native  city,  settled  in  ISiiSat  Jena.  Amonghis  valu- 
able works  are  the  tirst  Euro])ean  edition  of  the 
Indian  grammarian  I'anini  (1S3!I),  a  Sanskrit  chros- 
tomathy(lS45;  2d  ed.  1S77),  and  a  great  Sanskrit 
dictionary  (7  vols.,  l,S55-75). 

BOIS  DE  BOULOGNE,  a  celebrated  park.situated 
on  the  riglit  bank  of  the  Seine,  about  three  miles 
west  of  Paris.  It  is  the  favorite  rendezvous  of  the 
(lite  of  that  city  and  of  its  devotees  of  fashion  and 
splendor.  It  suffered  serious  mutilation  by  fire 
and  the.axe  during  the  siege  of  Paris  in  ]S7(l, 

BOISE  CITY,  the  i)riticipal  commercial  city  of 
Idaho,  capital  of  the  State,  and  county-seat  of  Ada 
cou)ity,  beautifully  situated  on  the  Bois6  Kiver,  at 
the  head  of  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Snake  River, 
about  50  miles  above  the  confluence  of  those  streams. 
It  is  the  trade  center  of  an  important  mining  region, 
and  of  a  rich  agricultural  and  grazing  country.  It 
contains  a  United  States  assay  office,  and  gold  is 
the  chief  art  icle  of  export.  There  is  also  a  peniten- 
tiary, and  several  manufactories,  principally  for 
flour  and  lumber.  The  altitude  of  Bois6  City  is 
nearly  3,(K)0  feet,  and  its  climate  is  mild.  The  town 
was  settled  in  1S(>3.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  18H5.  In  the  latter  year  it  became  the  capital  of 
Idaho,  which  was  admitted  as  a  State  in  1890. 

BOISE-DUV.VL,  .Ie.^.v,  an  eminent  French  physi- 
cian and  naturalist,  born  at  Tichevilh'  in  1801.  He' 
has  published  many  valuable  works  on  botany  and 
entomology,  and  was  noted  for  his  vahialile  profes- 
sional services  during  the  cholera  epidemic  of 
1835. 

BOISSY  D'AXGLAS,  Fr.\ncois  Antoixe,  Count, 
French  statesman,  born  at  St.  .lean  Chambre,  in 
Ardcche,  in  175<i,  died  in  Paris.  Oct.  20,  182(i.  He 
was  for  some  time  major-domo  to  the  Count  of 
Provence  (Louis  XVII 1),  and  a  member  of  the 
States-general.  Huring  the  Keign  of  Terror,  fear  of 
the  "Mountain"  kept  liim  ([uiet;  but,  yielding  to 
the  solicitations  of  Tallien  and  Barfire.  he  joined 
the  conspiracy  against  Robespierre.  Two  months 
after  the  execution  of  the  tyrant  he  was  eh'oted 
secretary  of  the  Convention,  and  shortly  afterward 
a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety,  in 
which  capacity  he  displayed  remarkable  talent  and 
discretion.  He  was  subsennenlly  president  of  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred;  was  called  into  the  Sen- 
ate by  Xapoleon,  and  was  made  a  peer  by  Louis 
XVIII. 

BOIVIX,  M.\RiE  (1773-1841),  French  midwife.  She 
became  a  nun,  but  after  the  destruction  of  thenun- 
nery  at  the  Revolution,  she  devoted  herself  to  mid- 
wifery. So  dist  inguished  was  she  as  superintendent 
of  the  Maternity  at  Paris,  tliat  the  king  of  Prussia 
conferred  an  order  on  her,  and  Marburg  University 
the  degree  of  M.  D. 

BOJADOR,  Cape,  a  headland  on  the  west  coast 
of  Africa,  in  2ti°  7' north  latitude,  14°  20' west  lon- 
gitude. The  Portuguese  doubled  this  cane  in 
1432. 

B0J.\XO,  an  ancient  Italian  town  with  a  cathe- 
dral, situated  on  the  Biferno,  13  miles  southwest  of 
Campobasso.    Population,  3,50t5. 


BOKER,  (JicDKiiE  Henhv,  author  and  diplomatist, 
born  in  Philadelphia  Oct.  (i,  1823,  died  there  .Ian. 
2,  18!I0.  After  graduating  at  Princeton,  he  studied 
law  and  traveled  in  Europe;  on  his  return  wrote- 
poems  and  plays,  several  of  the  latter  oeing 
iirought  out  successfully.  Under  tfrant  he  served 
as  minister  to  Turkey  and  also  to  Russia,  and, 
returning  in  1878,  was  elected  president  of  the 
Union  League,  which,  in  ]8(i2,  he  had  helped  to 
form.     Tliis  position  he  occupied  until  his  death. 

BOKHARA,  a  Russian  vassal  state  adjoining 
Turkestan  and  Afghanistan.  Area,  about  ;i2.000 
s(|uare  miles;  population,  about  2,ii00,(Kt0;  cai)ital, 
P.okhara,  with  a  ])opulaticin  of  70,000. 

Tlie  reigning  sovereign  is  the  Ameer  Sayid  Abdul 
Ahad,  fourth  son  of  the  late  Ameer,  by  a  slave 
girl;  born  about  1800;  educated  in  Russia;  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1SS5. 

The  modern  state  of  Bokhara  was  founded  by 
the  Usliegs  in  tlu'  fifteenth  century,  after  the  power 
of  the  Golden  Horde  had  been  crushed  by  Tanuir- 
lane.  The  dynasty  of  Manguts,  to  which  the 
present  ruler  beh)ngs,  dates  from  the  end  of  tlie 
last  century.  In  1873  a  treaty  was  signed,  in 
virtue  of  which  no  foreigner  was  to  be  admitted 
to  Bokhara  without  a  Russian  passport,  and  the 
state  became  practically  a  Russian  dependency. 

AtiieiTS  of  Bokli'ird. — Sayid  Ameer  Ilyder,  179S>- 
1820;  Mir 'Hussein,  182(i;"  Mir  Omar,  1820-27;  Mir 
Xasrulla,  lS27-<i0;  Muzaffar-ed-Din,  1800-85. 

Karshi  has  a  population  of  25,0(K),  and  Hissar 
10,000.    The  religion  is  ^Ioliainnw?dan. 

Tlie  Ameer  has  25,000  troops,  of  which  4,000  are 
(piartered  in  the  city.  A  proportion  of  the  troops 
are  armed  with  Russian  rifles  and  have  been  taught 
the  Russian  drill. 

Bokhara  i)n)duces  corn,  fruit,  silk,  tobacco,  and 
hemji;  and  breeds  goats,  sheep  horses,  and  camels 
The  yearly  jiroduce  of  cotton  is  said  to  be  about 
32,000  tons;  of  silk  007  tons.  Gold,  salt,  alum,  and 
sulpluirare  the  chief  minerals  found  in  tlie  country. 
The  exports  of  raw  silk  to  India  in  one  year  are 
estimated  at  34  tons.  The  exports  of  cotton  in  1888 
■were  122,IKH)  bales.  By  the  treaty  of  1873  all 
merchandise  belonging  to  Russian  traders,  whether 
imported  or  exported,  pays  a  duty  of  •J}.>  per 
cent,  ad  vnhirem.  No  other  tax  or  import"  duty 
can  be  levied  on  Russian  goods,  which  are  also 
exempt  from  all  transit  duty.  The  Ameer  has  for- 
bidden the  imjiort  of  spirituous  liijuors,  except  for 
the  use  of  the  Russian  embassy. 

Tlve  Russian  Trans-Casjiian  Railway  now  rung 
through  Bokhara  from  Charjui,  on  the  Oxus,  to  a 
station  within  a  few  miles  of  the  capital,  and 
thence  to  Samarkand;  the  distance  from  Charjui 
to  the  Russian  frontier  station  of  Katti  Kurghan 
being  about  I8(i  miles. 

There  is  a  lelegrajih  line  from  Samarkand  to 
Bokhara,  the  cajiital. 

Russian  paper  roubles  are  current  everywhere. 
BOLAS  (Spanish,  "  balls"),  missiles  used  by  the 
natives  and  {/aiichoK  of  southern  South  America. 
and  consisting  of  two  heavy  balls,  generally  oi 
stone  covered  with  leather,  connected  by  a  plaited 
thong  0  to  8  feet  long.  One  bola  is  held  in  the  right 
hand,  while  the  other  is  swung  rapicfly  round  the 
head,  at  the  full  extent  of  the  thong,  and  both 
are  discharged  at  the  animal  to  be  captured,  so 
as  to  wind  round  its  feet  and  bring  it  to  the 
ground.  In  another  form  of  bolas  thefe  are  three 
balls,  differing  in  size,  connected  at  the  common 
center  by  tliree  short  thongs  or  ropes. 

BOLERO,  a  Spanisli  national  dance,  invented  ;ii 
1780  by  the  dancer  Sebastian  Zerezo.  It  is  danced 
in  moderately  ijuick  three-(iuarter  time  by  two  per- 
sons to  the  ac/iompaniment  of  the  castanets  and 


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