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THE
ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FI RST edition, published in three volumes, 17 68 -1771.
SECOND " " ten " 1777- 1 7 8 4.
THIRD eighteen " 17 88 - 1 797.
FOURTH twenty 1801- 1810.
FIFTH twenty 1815-1817.
SIXTH tl'lenty 1823-1824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 1830-1842.
EIGHTH " twenty-two 1853-1860.
NINTH " twenty-five " 1875-1889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1<)02-I<)03.
ELEVENTH published in twenty-nine volumes, 19 1O - 1 91I.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights ru
nm/
THE
ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXVI
SUBMARINE MINES to TOM-TOM
. .
. . .
< -
I. ,_
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 \Vest 32nd Street
19 11
Copyright, in the Cnited States of America, [911,
by
The Encyc10pædia Britannica Company-
, "
1,1, ,
r ,-.J
. E-
'H
A.A.R.
A. Bo..
A.B. Go.
A.Ca.
A.Ch.
A.C.C.
A.C.G.
A. C. McG.
A.D.G.
A.F.P.
A. G.
A. Ha.
A. He.
A. H.-S.
A. H.S.
A.J. G.
A.L.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,l WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. ADAMS REILLY. {
Joint-author of Life and Letters of J. D. Forbes. Tisserand, François.
AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L. {
Professor of Canon Law at the Catholic University of Paris. Honorary Canon of Syllabus.
Paris. Editor of the Canoniste contemporain.
ALFRED BRADLEY GOUGH, M.A., PH.D. {
Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. English Lector in the Swabian League.
University of Kie1, 1896-1905.
ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. { Surface (in part).
See the biographical article: CAYLEY, ARTHUR.
ALFRED CHAPMAN, M.INST.C.E. { Sugar: Sugar Manufaciure (ill
Designer and Constructor of Sugar-Machinery. parI).
ALBERT CURTIS CLARK, M.A, {
Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and University Reader in Latin. Theocritus.
Editor of Cicero's Speeches (Clarendon Press).
ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. {
Keeper of the Zoological Department, British l\Iuseum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist,
Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia, Swordfish.
and Fishes in the British Museum; &c.
REV. ARTHUR CUSHMAN McGIFFERT, M.A., PH.D., D.D. {
Pr
fessor of C
u
ch .His
ory, Union t:heological Semi
ary, New Yo
k. .Author <;If Theodoret ( in P rt)
History of ChTlstlanlty In the Apostolic Age; &c. Editor of the HlstoTla Ecclesla a .
of Eusebius.
ALFRED DENIS GODLEY, M.A. {
Fellow and Tutor of Magdal
n Coll
ge. Oxford,
nd Publ
c.Orator in t
e l'niversity. Tacitus (in part).
Author of Socrates and A theman Society; &c. Editor of editions of Tacitus.
ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.S. {
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls Taylor Rowland'
College, Oxford. Assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- T t I , ,
11)01. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of e ze .
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c.
MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). {
H.M. Inspector of Prisons. 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate: Ticket-of-Leave.
Secrets of the Prison House; &c. r
{ Tertullian (in part);
ADOLF HARNACK, D.PH.
See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. Theodore of Mopsuestia;
Theodoret (in part).
ARTHUR HERVEY. {
Formerly Musical Critic to the Mormng Post and to Vanity Fair. Author of Masters Thomas, Charles.
of French Music; French Music in the Nineteenth Century.
SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. { Tabriz;
General in the Persian Army. Autnor of Eastern PerSIan Irak. Teheran.
REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D., LL.D., LITT.D. ( Susa.
See the biographical article: SAYCE, ARCHIBALD H. "-
REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. {
Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent Swedenborg, Emanuel;
College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and I\lember of Tithes (Religion).
Mysore Educational Service.
ANDREW LANG, LL.D. { Tale
See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. .
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
V
l
) '-þf-
Yl
A.MQ.
A. M.F..
A.N.
A.P.H.
A.R.S.K.
A. SI.
A. Sp.
A. S. C.
A. S. P.-P.
A. Wa.
A.W.H..
A.W.R.
C. B..
C. C.
C. El.
C.F.A.
C.F.8.
C.H.Ha.
C. H. K.
C. H. W.
c. J. 8.
C. L. K.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
AUGUST MÜLLER, PH.D. (1848-1892). {
Formerly Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Halle. Author of Sunnites (in part).
Der Islam im Morgen- und Abendland. Editor of Orientalische Bibliographie.
ARTHUR MOSTYN FIELD, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.MET.S. {
Vict;-Admiral R. N. Ad
iralty Representative on Port of London Authority. Surveying: Nautical.
Actmg Conservator of River Mersey. Hydrographer of the Royal Navy, 19 0 4-
19<>9. Author of HydrograPhical Surveying; &c.
J Sugar-bird; Sun-bird;
Sun-bittern; Swallow;
ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. Swan; Swift; Tanager;
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. Tapaculo; Teal; Tern;
l Thrush; Tinamou;
Titmouse; Tody.
ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. {
Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War,
1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical practice i
uth
frica tiII Swaziland (in part).
1 8 9 6 . Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Pohtlcal Pl'lsoner at
Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for the Hitchin division of Herts, 19 10 .
REV. ARCHIBALD R. S. KENNEDY, M.A., D.D. {
Professor of Hebrew and Semitic Languages in the University of Edinburgh. Tabernacle.
!"rofessor of Heb
cw in the University of Aberdeen, 1887-1894. Editor of " Exodus" Temple (i: part).
m the Temple Btble.
ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D. {
Member of the Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water Temperance.
Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance and Legislation.
ARCHIBALD SHARP. { Tire
Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent. .
ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B. { Ta p est .
Formerly Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, South Kensington. Author of _ ry,. .
Ornament in European Silks; Catalogue of Tapestry, Embroidery, Lace and Egyptian Textlle-Prmtmg: Art and
Textiles in the Victoria and Albert Museum; &c. Archaealogy.
ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. {
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. Theosophy (in part).
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The PhilosoPhical Radical!; &c.
ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A. J
Managing Director of Chapman & Hall, Ltd., Publishers. Formerly literary adviser S d John Addl . ngton.
to Kegan Paul & Co. Author of Alfred Lord Tennyson; Legends of the Wheel; ymon s,
Robert Browning in " Westminster Biographies." Editor of Johnson's Lives of the I
Poets. l
ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. { Thegn.
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 19 00 .
ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. {
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws Thurlow, Lord.
of England.
CHARLES BÉMONT, D.LITT. { Thierry;
See the biographical article: BÉMONT, C. Thou, Jacques.
CHARLES CREIGHTON, M.A., M.D. {
King's College, Cambridge. Author of A History of Epidemics in Britain; Jenner Surgery. Histor)'.
and Vaccination; Plague in India; &c. .
SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L. {
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity Collc
e.
Oxford. H.M:s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa Tatars (in part).
Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German
East Africa, 1900-1904.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. { Supply and Transport
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain. 1st City of London (Royal (Military);
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. Thirty Years' War.
CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D. {
Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of
Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International Token Money.
Trade; &c.
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. {
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Mcmber of Sully.
the American Historical Association.
CLARENCE HILL KELSEY, A.M., LL.B. {
Vice- President and General Manager of the Bond and MortRage Guarantee Company, Title Guarantee Companies.
New York City. Director of the Corn Exchange Bank; &c.
CHARLES THEODORE HAGBERG WRIGHT, LL.D. { Tol:;toy Leo
Librarian and Secretary of the London Library. , .
CHARLES JASPER BLUNT. { . .
Major, Royal ArtiIlery. Ordnance Officer. Served through Chitral Campaign. Tmh Campaign.
CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HIST.S., F.S.A. { II Ik W ' II . d I P I
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor Su 0, I lam e a 0 e
of Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London. Duke of.
C.R.B.
C. S. S.
C. Wi.
D. Br.
D. C. To.
D. F. T.
D.Gi.
D.G.H.
D.H.
D.H.S.
D. LJ. T.
D. H.-M.
D. S.*
D. Sch.
E. Ar.*
E. A. F.
E. Br.
E.C.B.
E.G.
E. Ga.
E. Gr.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
vn
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY,
I.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S. {
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of
Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Tasman;
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell'Lecturer. Boston, 1908. Author of Henry Thorflnn Karlsefni.
the Navigator; The Dawn of ,Modern GeograPhy; &.
CHARLES SCOTT SHERRINGTON, D.Sc., M.D., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D. {
Professor of Physiology, University of Liverpool. Foreign Member of Academies Sym pa thetic S ys tem
of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Göttingen. &. Author of The Integrative Action of the .
Nervous System.
C. WILHELM. { Theatre: Spectacle.
Author of Essays on Ballet and Specta<.le.
SIR DIETRICH BRANDIS, K.C.I.E., F.R.S. (1824-1907). { Teak (in part).
Inspector-General of Forestry to the Indian Government, 1864-1883.
REV. DUNCAN CROOKES TOVEY, M.A. { Thomson, James (17 o a- 1 7 8)
Rector of Worplesdon, Surrey. Editor of The Letters of Thomas Gray; &. 4 .
DONAW FRANCIS TOVEY. { Suite: Music;
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The Symphonic Poem;
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. Symphony.
SIR DAVID GILL, K.c.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., D.Sc. {
H.M. Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope, 1879-1907. Served on Geodetic
Survey of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension Island to determine the Solar .
Parallax by observations of Mars. Directed the Geodetic Survey of Natal, Cape Telescope (om part).
Colony and Rhodesia. Author of Geodetic Survey of South Africa; Catalogue of
Stars for the Equinoxes, 1850, 1860, L88S, 1890, 1900; &.
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. { .
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow SYria;
of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Tobruk;
Ephesu5\ 190-1-:-1905; Assiut, Igo6-19?7. Director, British School at Athens, Tokat.
1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
DAVID HANNAY. { Sufi Ad I I.
Formerly Britisb Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal S re d n' Ba m ra ,
Navy; Life of Emilio Caste/ar; &c. wol, ttle of.
DUKINFIEW HENRY SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. {
Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, London, 1885-1892. Formerly Th
President of the Royal1\lIcroscopical Society and of the Linnean Society. Author uret, Gustave.
of Structural Botany; Studies in Fossil Botany; &.
DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS. {
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and Swansea.
Rhondda.
DAVID RANDALL-MACIVER, M.A., D.Sc. {
Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester Sudan: Arc/laeology (in parI)
Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rlwdesia; &c. .
DAVID SHARP, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S. {
Editor of the Zoological Record. Formerly Curator of the Museum of Zoology, Termite
University of Cambridge, and President of the Entomological Society of London. .
Author of .. Insecta" in the Cambridge Natural History; &c.
DAVID FREDERICK SCHLOSS,
I.A. { .
Formerly Senior Inyestigator and Statistician in the Labour Department of the Sweatmg System.
Board of Trade. Author of .Methods of Industrial Remuneration; &.
REV. ELKANAH ARMITAGE, 1.1.A. {
Trinity CoIlege, Cambridge. Prokssor in Yorkshire United Independent College, Superintendent.
Bradford.
EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D., D.C.L. { S
See the biographical article: FREEMAN, E. A. yracuse.
ERNEST BARKER, M.A. {
Fcllow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's CoIlege. O"ford. Formerly Fellow Tancred;
and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. Teutonic Order.
RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., LITT.D. { T tI . .
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of .. The Lausiac History of Palladius .. er aries,
in Cambridge Texts a7Jd Studies. Thomas of Celano.
! Sully-Prudhomme;
Sweden: Literuturc and
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. Philosophy;
See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. Swinburne, Algernon C.;
Tegnér, Esaias;
Tennyson, Alfred;
Terza Rima.
{ Telegraph: Commercial
Author of Manual of Aspects;
Telephone: Commercial
Aspects.
{ Sunium; Tegea: Archaeology;
Thebes (Greece);
Tiryns (in part).
EMILE GARCIo:E, M.INST.E.E.
Managing Director of the British Electric Traction Co. Ltd.
Electrical Undertakings; &c.
ERNEST ARTl{UR GARDNER, 1\1.A.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
VIII
E. H.*
E. He.
E.H.M.
E.K.
Ed. M.
E.M.W.
E.O.*
E.O.S.
E. Who
F.C. B.
F.G. M.B.
F.G.P.
F. G. P.*
F.H.H.
F.J.G.
F.J. H.
F. LI. G.
F. P.
F. Po.
F. Pu.
F.R.C.
F. V. B.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
ERNEST HARRISON, M.A. {
Fel10w and Lecturer in Classics, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Studies in Terence (in part).
Theognis.
EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. {
Gonvi\1e and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical Tanganyika, Lake.
Society, London.
ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. { Tauri; . _
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian TheodosIa: A nczent;
of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. Thyssagetae.
EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., F.I.C. {
Professor of Tech
o!ogical Chemistry, Manchester University. He!ld o
Chem.ical Textile-printing: Manu-
Department, Mumclpal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner In Dyeing, .
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor factunng.
of the Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.
EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT., LL.D. { Tigranes;
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des Tiridates;
Alterthums; Geschichte des alten Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstämme. Tissaphernes.
REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. { Theopompus
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. .
EDMUND OWEN, F.RC.S., LL.D., D.Sc. {
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, Surgery: Moderl! practice;
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Tetanus.
A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
EDWIN OTHO SACHS, F.R.S. (Edin.), A.M.INST.M.E. {
Chairmap of
he Brit
sh Fire.Prevention COJ?mittec:. Vice-rresident,.National Fire Theatre: J.foderl! stage
Brigades Umon. Vice-President, InternatIOnal Fire Service CouncIl. Author of mechanism.
Fires and Public Entertainments; &c.
EMMANUEL WHEELER, M.A. { Theophrastus.
FRANCIS CRAWFORD BURKITT, M.A., D.D. {
Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of the
British Academy. Part-editor of The Four Gospels in Syriac transcribed from the Thomas, St (in part).
Sinaitic Palimpsest. Author of The Gospel History and its Transmission; Early
Eastern Christianity; &c.
FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. { Suebi; Sussex, Kingdom of;
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. Sweden: Early History;
Teutoni.
FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.RC.S., F.Z.S., F.RANTHROP. INST. f
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on T eth
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital, London, and the London School of Medicine for l e .
Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
FRANK GEORGE POPE. { Terpenes.
Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London).
FRANKLIN HENRY HOOPER. { Tammany HaD.
Assistant Editor of the Century Dictionary.
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERICK J OHS GOLDSMID. { Timür
See the biographical article: GOLDSMID: Family. .
FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. {
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
Brasenose College. Fellow of the Bntish Academy. Formerly Censor, Student, Thule.
Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 19 06 - 1 907.
Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain, &c.
FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. {
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey Thebes (Egypt).
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial Thoth '
German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of .
Memphis; &c.
FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (1856-1910). { .
Sometime Scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Modern Spiritualism; Table-turmng.
Mesmerism and Christian Science; &c.
SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., LL.D., D.C.L. { Sword.
See the biographical article: POLLOCK: Family.
FREDERICK PURSER, M.A. (1840-1910). {
Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Professor of Natural Philosophy in Surface (in part).
the Univetsity of Dublin. Member of the Royal Irish Academy.
{ Sudan: Geography and
Statistics,Archaeology (in
FRANK R CANA. part) and History;
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. Swaziland (in part);
Timbuktu; Tlemçen.
Messrs Vincent Brooks, Day & Son, Ltd., Lithographic { Sun Copying.
F. VINCENT BROOKS.
Managing Director of
Printers, London.
F. W. Ca.
F. W. H..
F.W.T.
C.A.B.
C. C. P..
G.H.Bo.
G.H.C.
G.H.D.
G. J. A.
C. L.
G. Sa.
G. Sn.
G. U.
C.W.P.
G.W.T.
H.B. Wa.
H.Ch.
H.De.
H.D.T.
H.F.T.
H.H.
H.H.L.
H. Ja.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
ix
FREDERICK WILLIAM GAMBLE, D.Sc., F.R.S. {
Professor of Zoology in the University of Birmingham Formerly Assistant Director
of the Zoological Laboratories and Lecturer in Zoology in the l.;niversity of Tapeworms.
Manchester. Author of Animal Life. Editor of Marshall and Hurst's Practical
Zoology; &c.
FREDERICK WILLIAM RtJDLER, LS.O., F.G.S. { Tal
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology. London, 1879-1902. c.
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
FRANK \VILLIAM TAUSSIG. { TarifJ.
See the biographical article : TAUSSIG, FRAfoiK \\'ILLIAM.
GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.Sc., F.R.S. { Tadpole;
Keeper of the; Collcc!ions of Rept}les an
Fishc!" Department of Zoology, British Teleostomes.
Museum. Vice-President of thc Zoological SOCiety of London.
GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L. { Tithes. English
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. . .
REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. {
Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Lecturer in the Faculty of Theology, Teraphîm (in part).
University of Oxford, 1908-19<>9. Author of Translation of the Book of Isaiah; &c.
GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER. {
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: Thysanoptera.
their Structure and Life.
SIR GEORGE HOWARD DARWIN, K.C.B., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D., D.Sc. {
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Tide
Experimental Philosophy in the University. President of the British Association, .
19<>5. Author of The Tides and Kindred Phenomena in the Solar System; &c.
GEORGE JOHNSTON ALLMAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., D.Sc. (1824-1905). { .
Professor of Mathcmatics in Queen's College, Galway, and in Queen's University of Thales of Mlletus.
Ireland, 1853-1893. Author of Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid; Soc.
GEORG LUNGE, PH.D., D.ING. { S I h . A ' d
See the biographical article: LUNGE, G. u P UriC CI.
GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. { Thiers.
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN.
GRANT SHOWERMAN, A.1.1., PH.D. {
Professor of Latin at the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological Syncretism;
Institute of America. Member of the American Philological Association. Author Taurobolium.
of With the Professor; The Great Mother of the Gods; &c.
GO]I UKITA. {
Formerly Chancellor of the Japanese Legation, London. Author of Wealth of Tokyo.
Canada (in Japanese).
GEORGE WALTER PROTHERO, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D. {
Editor of the Quarterly Review. Honorary Fellow, formerly Fellow of King's .. .
College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Professor of History in the Temple, SI1" William.
University of Edinburgh, 1894-1899. Author of Life and Times of Simon de Mont-
jort; &c. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Modern History.
REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. { Suyuti; 'fab
ri;. _
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old Tarafa; Tha Ãlibl;
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Tirmidhi.
HENRY BEAUCHAlIIP WALTERS, M.A., F.S.A. {
Assistant to the Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum. Author Terracotta (in part).
of The Art of the Gr
eks; History of Ancient Pottery; &c.
{ Sullivan, Sir Arthur;
HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. Tennent Sir E.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the I Ith edition of Th t : Mod .' ( . part) . ,
the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Co-editor of the loth edition. ea reo ern m
Thompson, Francis.
REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S. J. { symeon Metaphrastes.
Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Acta Sanctorum and the Anateela Bollandiana. Synaxarium; Thecla, St.
H. DENNIS TAYLOR, { Telescope ( p t)
Inventor of the Cooke Photographic Lens. Author of A System of Applied Optics. in ar .
REV. HENRY FANSHAWE TOZER, M.A., F.R.G.S. {
H
n. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the Thessaly;
British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece. Thrace
Author of History of Ancient Geography; Lectures on the Geography of Greece; &c. .
HENRI SIMON HYMANS, PH.D. {
eeper of the Bibliothèque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. Author of Rubens: sa Teniers (in part).
vu et son æuvre.
HENRY HARVEY LITTLE]OHS, M.A., F.R.C.S. (Edin.)., F.R.S. (Edin.). {
Professor of Forensic Medicine and Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in the University Suicide.
of Edinburgh.
HENRY JACKSON, LITT.D., LL.D., a.M. {
RcglUS Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Trinity Thales of MUetus. PhilosoPhy.
College. Ft;lIowof the British Academy. Author of Texts to Illustrate the History .
of Greek Philosophy from Thales to Aristotle.
x
H.L.C.
H.M.C.
H.R.K.
B.S. J.
H. Ti.
H.W.B.
H. W.C.D.
H.W.H.
I. A.
I. J. C.
J. A. F.
J.A.H.
J. A. S.
J. Br.
J. Bra.
J. Bt.
J. C. E.
J. D. Pr.
J.E.F.
J. F.-K.
J. F. St.
J. Ga.
J. G. F.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D. { Thermodynamics;
Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of Thermoelectricity'
Physics in McGill College. Montreal. and in University College, London. Thermometry.'
HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. { Teutonic Languages;
Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in Teutonic Peoples;
Scandinavian. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions. Thor.
HARRY ROBERT KEMPE, M.INST.C.E. { Telegraph'
Elect
ician to the General Post Office. London. Author of The Engineer's Year Telephone:
Book, &c.
HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. {
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British Th t Anc ; ent ( ; n part).
School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. ea re: . .
Author of The Roman Empire; &c.
HENRY TIEDEMANN. {
London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotlerdamsche Courant. Thorbecke.
SIR HILARO WILLIAM WELLESLEY BARLOW, Bart. { Sword: Modern Military (in
Lieut.-Co!. Royal Artillery. Superintendent of the Royal Laboratory, Woolwich. part).
HENRY WILLIAM CAR LESS DAVIS, M.A. {
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, Theobald.
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne.
HOPE W. HOGG, M.A.. { Thapsacus
Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of
lanchester. .
ISRAEL ABRAHAMS. M.A. { Synagogue United'
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. ".
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Tam, Jacob ben Melf;
Short History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. Tanna.
ISAAC JOSLIN Cox, PH.D. {
Assistant Professor of Hiswry in the University of Cincinnati. President of the T I Za ha
Ohio Valley Historical Association. Author of The Journeys of La Salle and his ayor, c ry.
Companions; &c.
JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., {
Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow .
of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College. Cambridge, Telegraph: JVlreless
and University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets and Electric Telegraphy.
Currents.
JOHN ALLEN HOWE. {
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology. London. Author of Tertiary.
The Geology of Building Stones.
JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. {
See the biographical article: SYMONDS. J. ADDINGTON. Tasso.
RIGHT HON. JAMES BRYCE, D.C.L., D.LITT. {
See the biographical article: BRYCE, JAMES. Theodora.
JOSEPH BRAUN, S.J. { Surplice;
Author of Die liturgische Gewandung; &c. Tiara.
JAMES BARTLETT. {
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture. Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at Kin
's T . b
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of JUnior 1m er.
Engineers.
JAMES COSSAR EWART, M.D., F.R.S. {
Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Edinburgh. Swiney Lecturer on T I g n
Geology at the British Museum, 1907. Author of The Multiple Orlgin of Horses e e 0 y.
and Ponies; &c.
JOHN DYNELEY PRINCE, PH.D. {
Professor of Semitic Languages in Columbia University, New York. Took part Sumer and Sumerian.
in the Expedition to Southern Babylonia. 1888- 188 9.
REV. JAMES EVERETT FRAME, A.M. {
Edward Robinson Professor of Biblical Theology in Union Theological Seminary, Thessalonians, Epistles to the.
New York. Author of Purpose of New Testament Theology.
JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S. {
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Tamayo y Baus;
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. Tirso de Molina.
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of SPanish Literature; &c.
JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A. {
Dean, Fellow and Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew. Wadham College. Oxford. Targum.
University Lecturer in Aramaic.
JAMES GAIRD
ER, C..B., LL;D. { Talbot (Family) (in part).
See the bIOgraphical article: GAIRDNER. JAMES.
SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D. { Thring, Edward.
See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR J. G.
J. G. Fr.
J.G.M.
J. G. Sc.
J. H.M.
J. H. R.
J.m.R.
J. Ja.
J. K I.
J. K. L.
J.L.E.D.
J.M.
J. Mt.
J. McE.
J.M.G.
J.M.M.
J. Pu.
J. P.E.
J. P. P.
J. P. Pee
J.S. F.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Xl
JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., LITT.D. { .
Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, Thesmophoria (zn þart).
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough; &.
JOHN GRAY McKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). {
Emeritus Professor of Physiology i
he U
iversi!y of Glasgow. ProCessor of Taste.
Physiology, 1876--1906. Author of Life in Motfon; Life of Helmholtz; &c.
SIR ]\MES GEORGE SCOTT, KC.I.E. { Theinni'
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma; T h' b '
The Upper Burma Gazetteer. 1 aWe
JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). { " )
Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886--1895. Director Theatre: Annent (zn part;
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South Modem (in part);
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Tiryns (in part).
Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times.
JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. {
-I3alliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family Talbot (Family) (in part).
History; Peerage and Pedigree.
JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. {
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge
University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic TaUeyrand.
Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; &.
JOSEPH JACOBS, LITT.D. {
Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York.
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding Tabernacles Feast of.
Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin '
England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c.
JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D. {
See the biographical article: INGRAM, JOHN KELLS. Sumptuary Laws.
SIR JOHN KNOX LAUGHTON, M.A., LITT.D. {
Professor of Modern History, King's College, London. Secretary of the Navy
Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in China, 1856--1859. Mathe-
matical and Naval Instructor, Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, 1866--1873; .
Greenwich, 1873-1885. President, Royal Meteorological Society, 1882- 188 4_ TegetthofJ, AdmIral.
Honorary Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of King's
College, London. Author of Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing
Winds and Cu"ents; Studies in Naval History; Sea Fights and Adventures; &c.
JOHN LOUIS EMIL DREYER. {
Director of Armagh Observatory. Author of Planetary Systems from Thales to Time, Measurement of.
Kepler; &c.
SIR JOHN MACDONELL, M.A., C.B., LL.D. {
Master of the Supreme Court. Formerly Counsel to the Board of Trade and
the London Chamber of Commerce; Quain Professor of Comparative Law, Uni- Suzerainty
versity College, London. Editor of State Trials;' Civil Judfcial Statistics; &. .
Author of Survey of Political Economy; The Land Question; &c.
REV. JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D. { Timothy, First Epistle to;
Minister of the United Free Church of Scotland. Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. Timothy, Second Epistle to;
Author of Historical New Testament; &c. Titus, Epistle to.
JOHN McEwAN, F.R.G.S., F.R.MET.SOC. { Tea.
JOHN MILLER GRAY (1850-1894). {
Art Critic. Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 1884-1894. Author Tassle, James.
of David Scott, R.S.A.; James and William Tassie.
JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. { Terramara;
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London Themistocles;
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. Thucydldes (in parI).
JOHN PURSER, M.A., LL.D. {
Formerl
Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Belfast.
lembcr of the Surface (Ì1z part).
Royal Insh Academy.
JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE ÉMMANUEL ADHÉMAR ES1fFIN. {
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Le
ion of Honour. .
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours élémentaire d histoire du droit Tallie.
fram;ais; &c.
JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. {
Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, Textual Criticism;
Ca!Obri.dge. . Fellow of the Brit.!sh Acade'!1Y' Editor of the Classical Quarterly. TibuUus, Albius.
Edltor-m-Chlef of the Corpus poetarum Latmorum; &.
JOHN PUN NETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. {
Canon Residentiary of the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral of St John the Divine,
New York City. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. Tigris.
In charge of the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of
Nippur, or ExPlorations and Adventures on the EuPhrates.
JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. { Syenite'
Petrogra
ber to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer Tachy';tes'
cn Petro ogy in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Th lite '
Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London. era .
..
xu
J. S. Ga.
J. S. R.
J. T. Be.
J. T. C.
J.W.
J. Wal.
J. W.G.
J. W.He.
J. W.L.G.
K.A.M.*
K.L.
K. S.
L.A.W.
L. J. S.
M.B.
M.Ba.
M.B.S.
M. J. de G.
M.M.Bh.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
JAMES SYKES GAMBLE, M.A., C.J.E., F.R.S., F.L.S. {
Indian Forest Service (retired). Formerly Director of the Imperial Forest School Teak {in
at Dehra Dun. Author of A Manual of Indian Timbers; &c.
JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. {
Professor of Ancient Histor and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Honorary Felfow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College. Tiberius.
Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's Academia: De
A micitia; &c.
part).
Syr-Darya (River) (in part);
Syr-Darya (Province) (in part);
Takla Makan;
Tambov (in part);
Tarim; Tian-Shan;
Tiflis (Town) (in part);
Tobolsk (Government) (in part);
Tomsk (Government) (in þart).
JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. {
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow
of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the Teredo.
University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association.
JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. { Theatre: Law relatillg to
All Souls Reader in Ro
an Law in tht; University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln Theatres;
College. Author of Wdls and Succesnon; &c. Tithes (Law).
JAMES WALKER, D.Sc., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. {
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. Professor of Chemistry, The moch mist
University College, Dundee, 1894-1908. Author of Introduction to Physical r e ry.
Chemistry.
JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. {
Professor of Geology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart Tasmania: Geology.
of A uSlralia; &c.
JAMES WYCLIFFE READLAM, M.A. {
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education, London. TaafJe Count.
Fonnerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient ' , .
History at Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the Thun-Hohenstem.
German Empire; &c.
JAMES WmTBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. {
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Cambridge Table Mathematical
Philosophical Society and the Royal Astronomical Society. Editor of Messenger' .
of Mathematics and the Quarterly Journal of Pure and ApPlied Mathematics.
KATE A. MEAKIN (MRS BUDGETT MEAKIN). { Tetuan; Sus.
REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A. {
Lincoln College. Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- .
ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- TatIan.
ment; The Historical Evidence Jor the Resu"ection of Jesus Christ; &c.
KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. . { Symphonia' Tambourine'
Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra. Editor of The Portfolio of Musical T' b I ' ,
Archaeology. 1m re.
LAURENCE AUSTINE WADDELL, C.B., C.I.E., LL.D. { Tibet (in part)
Lieut.-Colonel I.M.S. (retired). Author of Lhasa and its Mysteries; &c. .
LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. { Sylvanite; Sylvite;
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar . .
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Tetradym
te, .
Mineralogical Magazine. Tetrahednte; ThorIte.
MONTAGU BROWNE. {
Author of Practical Taxidermy; Couecltng Butterflies and Moths. Taxidermy.
THE RON. MAURICE BARING. J
Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. War Correspondent for the
Morning, Post in Manchuria, 190 Â ; and Special Correspondent in Russia, 19 0 5- 1 9 08 , Taine.
and in Constantinople, 19<>9. uthor of Landmarks in Russian Literature; With l
the Russians in Manchuria; A Year in Russia; &c.
MARION R. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. {
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of the Fine Art Committee of the
International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco- Thornycroft William Hamo
British Exhibition, London. Author of History of .. Punch"; British Portruit- ' .
Painting to the OPening oJ the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R. A.;
British Sculpture and Scufptors of To-day; Henriette Ronner; &c.
MICHAEL JAN. DE G?E]E. . { Thousand and one Nights.
See the biOgraphical article: GOE]E, MICHAEL JAN DE.
SIR MANCHER]EE MERWAN]EE BHOWNAGGREE, K.C.I.E. {
Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green, 1895-19<>6. Author Takhtsingji.
of History of the Constitution of the East India Company; &c.
JOHN THOMAS BEALBY.
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and nbet; &c.
M.O.B.C.
N.M.
N. M.*
N.W.T.
O.R.D.
O.J. R.H.
P. A. K.
P.GI.
P.G.K.
P. La.
P.M.*
P.McC.
P. Vi.
R.A.N.
R. A. Sa.
R.A.S.M.
R.C. J.
R. G.
R. Gn.
R. H.C.
R. I. P.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XIll
MAXIMILIAN OTTO BIS],IARCK CASPARI, M.A. { Tegea; Theodosius I.-III.;
Re
der
n Ancient History in London University. Lecturer in Greek in Birmingham Theramenes;
Umverslty, 19<>5- 1 9 08 . Thrasybulus.
NORMAN M'LEAN, M.A. { Syriac Language.
Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's Syriac Literature'.
College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. Th f M '
T omas 0 arga.
NEILL MALCOLM, D.S.O., F.R.G.S. {
Major, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. Served N.W. Frontier, India, 1 8 97-
1 8 9 8 ; South Africa, 1&)9-1900; Somaliland, 1903-19<>4; British Mission to Fez, Tactics.
1905. Editor of The Sneme of War.
NORTHCOTE \VmTRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. {
Government Anthropologist to Sonthern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the Taboo;
Sociét.é d'
nthropol?gie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and Telepathy.
Marrwge In Austraha; &c.
OSKAR HENRI}.. DUMRATH, PH.D. { .' .
Formerly Editor of foreign news in the Nya Dagligt Allehanda. Sweden. H 1story (m þart).
OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. { Sweden: Geography and
Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, Oxford, 1901. Assistant Secretary Statistics.
of the British Association. Tibet (in part).
{ Syr-Darya: River (in part);
Syr-Darya: Province (in part);
I Tambov (in part);
Tatars (in part);
I Tiflis: Town (in part);
ToboJsk: Government (in part);
Tomsk: Govemment (in part).
PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. {
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and Fniversity
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- T.
logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology.
PAUL GEORGE KONODY. {
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. T. ( . P t )
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. . emers In ar.
PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. {
Lecturer in Regional Geography in the University of Cambridó{e. Formerly of the
Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites. Sweden: Geology.
Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology.
SIR PHILIP MAGNUS. {
M.P. for the University of London. Superintendent and Secretary of the City and
Guilds of London Institute. President of Council of College of Preceptors; Chair- Technical Education.
man of Secondary Schools Association. Member of the Royal Commission on
Technical Instruction, 1881-1884. Author of Industrial Education; &c.
PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, F.G.S. {
Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer. ThrashIng.
PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L.. LL.D. {
See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL. Succession.
REYNOLD ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, M.A., LITT.D. {
Lecturer in Persian in the University of Cambridge. Sometime Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge, and Professor of Persian at University College, London. Süfiism' Sllnnltes (in þart).
Author of Selected Poems from the Divani Shamsi Tabriz; A LJterary History of the '
Arabs; &c.J
RALPH ALLEN SAMPSON, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. {
Astronomer Royal for Scotland. Formerly Professor of Mathematics and
Astronomy in the University of Durham, and FellowofSt John's College, Cambridge. Sun.
Author of Tables of the Four Great Satellites of Jupiter; &c. .
ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER,
f.A., F.S.A. {
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex- Tiberias.
ploration Fund.
SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L. {
See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE. Thucydides (ÍI
part).
RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. {
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. Swift, Jonathan (in part).
SIR ROBERT GIFFEN, F.R.S. {
See the biographical article: GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT. Taxation.
REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., LITT.D. (Oxon). { Testaments of the Three
Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford, and Fellow of Merton .
College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity PatrIarchs;
College, Dublin. Author and Editor of Book of Enoch; Book of Jubilees; Apoca- Testaments of the Twelve
lypse of Baruch; Assumption of Moses; Ascension of Isaiah; &c. Patriarchs.
REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. { Tarantula;
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. Tardigrada; Ticks.
PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRiNCE P.A.
XIV
R.J. M.
R. L..
R. Ma.
R.N.B.
R. P. S.
R. R.
S. A. C.
S. BI.
St G. L. F.-P.
St G. S.
S. K.
S. N.
T. As.
T.A.A.
T.A.C.
T.de L.
T.H.
T.H. H..
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
RONALD JOHN McNEILL, M.A. { Sussex, 3rd Earl of;
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's Tandy, James Napper;
Gazette (London). Temple, Earl.
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. { Swine' T P ir ( . P t ) .
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 18 74- 18 82. Author of .' a. t,! ar ,
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer Tarsier; Tiger (m part);
of all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. TiUodontia; Titanotheriidae.
REV. ROBERT MACKINTOSH, M.A., D.D. { .
Tutor in Lancashire Independent College, Manchester. Theism; Theology.
Svane, Hans;
Sweden: History (in part);
Sweyn I.;
Széchenyi, Istvan, Count;
Szigligeti, Ede;
Tarnowski, Jan;
Tausen, Hans; Tessin, Count;
Theodore I.-III. of Russia;
Thököly, Imre; Tisza, Kãlmán;
Toll, Johan, Count;
Tolstoy. Petr, Count.
R. PHENÉ SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.LB.A. {
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, T m p le ( . P t )
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's e in ar.
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.
REINHOLD ROST, C.LE., LL.D. (1822- 18 9 6 ). {
Secretary of the Royal Asiatic Socit'ty, 1863-1869. Librarian at the India Office, . .
London, 1869-1893. Editor of H. H. Wilson's Essays on the Religions of the Hindus; Tamils. Thugs.
Hodgson's Essays on Indian Subjects; &C.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. f
Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrewand Talmud
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In- l .
scriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
SIGFUS BLÖNDAL. { Thomsen, Grimur;
Librarian of the University of Copenhagen. Thóroddsen. Jón.
ST GEORGE LANE FOX-PITT, M.R.A.S. {
Associate of King's College, London. Treasurer and Vice-President of the Moral Theosophy: Oriental.
Education League and the International Moral Education Congress.
ST GEORGE STOCK, M.A. { Therapeutae'
Pembroke College, Oxford. Lecturer in Greek in the University of Birmingham. Tobit, The Book of.
wK
fun {
Professor of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Officier de I' Académie Tibeto-Burman Languages.
F rançaise. Author of Stamavidhana Brahmana; &c.
SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D. { d
See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON. Time. Stan ard.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-19<>9. Author of Scandina!lia: the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The Ffrst Romanovs,
1613 to 1725; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from
1469 to 1796; &c.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., LITT.D.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of
Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman,19,o6. Member
of the imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo-
graPhy of the Roman Campagna.
Suessula; Sulci; Surrentum;
Sutri; Sybaris;
Syracuse (in part); Taormina;
Taranto; Taremum; Tarquinii;
Teggiano; Tergeste;
Termini Imerese; Terracina;
Tharros; Thurii: Tibur;
Tiburtina. Via; Ticinum.
THOMAS ANDREW ARCHER, M.A. {
Author of The Crusade of Richard I.; &c. Templars (in part).
TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, LS.O. {
Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales, . . . .
1886- 1 9 0 5. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. Author of Wealth Tasmama: Geography, StatiSltcs
and Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account of Australia and New Zea- and HiStory.
land; &c.
A. TERRIEN DE LACOUPERIE, LITT.D. {
Formerly Professor of Indo-Chinese at University College, London. Tibet (in part).
THOMAS HODGKIN, D.C.L., LITT.D. { Th d .
See the biographical article: HODGKIN, THOMAS. eo OrIC.
SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDlCH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc. {
Superintendent of Frontier Surveys,. India, 1892-1898. Gold
edallist, R.ç.s;, Surveying (in part);
London, 18
7.
uthor of The lndtan Borderland; The Countries of the Kmg s Tibet (in part).
Award; Indfa; Ttbet. ,
T.R.W.
T.L.B.
T.L. H.
T.M.L.
T. R.R.S.
T.Se.
V.W.Ch.
W.Ay.
W. A. B. C.
W.A.P.
W.B..
W.B.B.
W.B.S..
W.E.Co.
W.F.C.
W.G.F.
W.Hy.
W.H.F.
W.H.P.
W.J.B.
W.L..
W.McD.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Xy
T. HUDSON WILLIAMS.
Professor of Greek in the University College of North Wales, Bangor.
{ Theognis of Megara.
SIR THOMAS LAUDER BRUNTON, Bart., M.D., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. {
Consulting Physician to St Bartholomew's Hospital. London. Author of Modern Therapeutics.
Therapeutics; Therapeutics of the Circulation; &C.
SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., Sc.D. {
Assistant Secretary to the Treasury, London. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Theodos' f Tr' r
Cambridge. Author of Apollonius of Perga; Treahse on Conic Sections; The IUS 0 lpo IS.
Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements; &c.
REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, M.A., D.D. r
Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church College, Glasgow.
Thomas à Kempis.
Author of Life of Luther; &C. l
REV. THOMAS ROSCOE REDE STEBBING, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. {
Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor, of Thyrostraca
\Vorcester College, Oxford. Zoological Secretary of the Linnaean Society, 19 0 3- .
19 0 7. Author of A History of Crustacea; The Naturalist of Cumbrae: &c.
THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. {
Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, Swift, Jonathan (in part);
University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of the Tichborne Claimant
Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. .
{ Sugar: Sugar Manufacture
VALENTINE \VALBRAN CHAPMAN. part).
WILFRID AIRY, l\I.INST.C.E. r Tacheometry
Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. Technical adviser to the Standards
l .
Department of the Board of Trade. Author of Levelling a7Jd Geodesy; &c.
{in
Switzerland: Geography,
Government, &c., History
and Literature;
Tell, William; Thun (Town);
Thun, Lake of; Thurgau;
Ticino (Canton);
Tirol; Toggenburg, The.
\VALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. { Surplice: C
UTcil of England;
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Templars (zn part);
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. Titles of Honour.
WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S. { T rracotta (' p t).
Chairman of the Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain.
l zn ar ,
Author of English Stoneware and Earthenware; &C. TI e.
W. BAKER BROWN. {
Lieut.-Colonel, Commanding Royal Engineers at Malta. Submarine Mines.
WILLIAM BARCLAY SQUIRE, !\I.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. {
Assistant in charge of Printed Music, British Museum. Hon. Secretary of the
Purcell Society. Formerly Musical Critic of the Westminster Gazette, the Saturday Thomas, Arthur Goring.
Review and the Globe.
RT. REV. WILLIAM EDWARD COLLINS, D.D. {
Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King's College, Taft, Archbishop.
London. Lecturer at Selwyn and St John's Colleges, Cambridge. Author of The Testamentum D
mini
Study of Ecclesiastical History; Beginnings of English Christianity; &c. .
WILLIAM. FEILOEN CRAIES, M.A. . . o' , { Summary Jurisdiction'
Barnster-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Cnmmal Law, Kmg s College, '
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23 r d edition). Summons; Sunday (Law).
\VILLIAM GEORGE FREEMAN. {
Joint-author of Nature Teaching; The World's Commercial Produds; &c. Joint- Tobacco.
editor of Science Progress in the Twentieth Century.
\\'ILLIAM HENRY. {
Founder and Chief Secretary to the Royal Life Saving Society. Associate of the Swimmin g
Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint-author of Swimming (Badminton Library); .
&c.
SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. { Tapir (in part);
See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. Tiger (in part).
WALTER HERRIES POLLOCK, M.A. {
Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of the Saturday Ret'iew, 1883-1894. Author Thackeray
of Lectures on French Poets; Impressions of Henry Irving: &C. .
REV. WILLIAM JACKSON BRODRIBB, M.A. {
F
rmerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Rector of Wootton-Rivers, Tacitus (in part)
Wilts.
WALTER LEHMANN, M.D. {
Directorial Assistant of the Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich. Conducted Toltecs
Exploring Expedition in Mexico and Central America, 1907-19<>9. Author of .
publications on Mexican and Central American Archaeology.
WILLIAM MCDOUGALL, M.A. r
Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Formerly Fellow
Suggestion.
of St John's College, Cambridge. L
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880--1881. Author of Guide du Haut DauPhiné; The Range of
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in
Ilistory; &C. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880--1881; &c.
XVI
W.M.R.
W. M. Ra.
W.N.S.
W.P.A.
W. Ri.
W. R.S.
W.Sh.
W.S.R.
W.W.R..
W. Y. S.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. { Tintoretto;
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. Titian.
SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, LITT.D., D.C.L. {
See the biographical article: RAMSAY, SIR W.
IITCHELL. Tarsus.
WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S. {
Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of
London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee. Member Sunshine
of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cam- .
bridge. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1877-1906; Senior Tutor, 1890-1899.
Joint Author of Text-Book of Practical Physics; &c.
LIEUT.-COLONEL WILLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.INST.C.E., F.R.C.S. {
Chief-Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the .
Geographical Board of Canada. Past President of the Canadian Society of Civil SuperIor: Lake.
Engineers.
WILHAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Se., LITT.D. {
Disney Professor of Archaeology, and Brereton Rcader in Classics, in the University
of Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville anò Caius College. Fellow of the British Thrace: Ancient Peoples.
Academy. President of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of
The Early Age of Greece; &c.
\VILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. { Teraphim (in ptlrt).
See the biographical article: SMITH, W. ROBERTSON.
WILLIAM SHARP. { Th H D . d
Se . h . I . I S , ,. oreau, enry aVI.
e the blograp lea artlc e: HARP, ,\ ILLIAM.
\VILLIAM SMYTH ROCKSTRO. {
Author of A. Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the Tallis Thomas.
Present Penod; &c. '
""ILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC. THEOL. { Toledo Councils of.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. '
WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. { Terence (in part).
See the biographical article: SELLAR, \VILLIAM YOUNG.
Succession Duty.
Succinic Acid.
Suez Canal.
SufJolk, Earls and Dukes of.
SufJolk.
Sulphonic Acids.
Sulphur.
Sumatra.
Sunderland.
Sundew.
Sunfish.
Sunstroke.
Surat.
Su.gical Instruments and
Appliances.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Surrey.
Sussex, Earls of.
Sussex.
Sutherland, Earls and
Dukes of.
Swabia.
Sweating-Sickness.
Swithun, St.
Sydney (N.S.W.).
Syllogism.
Syracuse (N.Y.).
Sze-ch'uen.
Synagogue.
Table.
Tahiti.
Tampa.
Tantalum.
Tarragona.
Tattooing.
Taunton.
Tellurium.
Tenby.
TenerifJe.
Tennessee.
Tennis.
Tent.
Test Acts.
Tewkesbury.
Texas.
Thallium.
Thames.
Theodolite.
Theseus.
Thorium.
Thuringia.
Tibbu.
Tierra del Fuego.
Tiglath-Pileser.
Timor.
Tin.
Tipperary.
Titanium.
Togoland.
Toledo.
ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLU11E XXVI
.
SUBMARINE MINES. A submarine mine is a weapon of war
used in the attack and defence of harbours and anchorages.
It may be defined as " A charge of explosives, moored at or
beneath the surface of the water, intended by its explosion to
put out of action without delay a hostile vessel of the class it is
intended to act against." It differs from the torpedo (q.:I.) in
being incapable of movement (except in the special form of
drifting mines, which are not moored, but move with the tide or
current). But this subdivision into two distinct classes was
not made till 1870. Prior to that date the telm "torpedo"
was used for all explosive charges fired in the water.
Submarine mines may be divided into two main classes, con-
trollable and uncontrollable, or, as they are often classified,
.. electrical" or "mechanical." In the first class the method of
firing is by electricity, the source of the electric power whether
by battery or dynamo being contained in a firing station on
shore and connected to the mines by insulated cables. By
simply switching off the electricity in the firing station, such
mines are rendered inert and entirely harmless. In the
second class, the means of firing are contained in the mine
itself, the source of power being a small electric battery,
or being cbtained from a pistol, spring or suspended weight.
In all mines of this class the impulse which actuates the firing
gear is given by a ship or other floating object bumping against
the mine. When mechanical mines have once been set for firing
they are thus dangerous to friend and foe alike. Safety anange-
ments are employed to prevent the firing apparatus working
while the mine is being laid, and clockwork is sometimes added
to render the mine inactive after a certain definite time or in
case the mine breaks away from its mooring. Their principal
advantages, as compared with the electrically controlled mines,
are cheapness and rapidity of laying. "Controllable" mines are
absolutely under the control of the operator on shore, their
condition is always accurately known, and if any break adrift
not only is the fact at once known but the mines themselves are
harmle:o.s. Another advantage is that when fired by " ohserva-
tion" as described below, they are placed at depths which will
be well below the bottom of any vessels passing through the
mine field. They can thus be used in channels which have to
be kept open for traffic during hostilities.
Electrkal mines take rather longer to prepare and layout
than the other class, as the electrical cables have to be laid and
jointed, and they require rather more skill and training in
the operators employed to lay and fire the mines. Such mines
represent the highest development of this form of warfare, and
the details given below refer mainly to this class of mine.
Electrical mines are arranged on two systems according to the
method of ascertaining the proper moment to apply the firing
XXVI. I
current to the mine cables. These methods are by "observa-
tion" or by " circuit closer."
The " observation" system depends on two careful observa-
tions made by an operator on shore, one of the exact position
in which the mines are laid, the other of the track of hostile
ships passing over the mine field. The position of the mines
when laid is marked on a special chart, on which the track of
ships crossing the mine field can also be plotted. When the track
is seen to be crossing the position of a mine, a switch is closed on
shore and the mine is fired. To allow for errors in observation
such mines are fitted with large charges of explosive and ale
usually arranged in lines of two, three or four mines placed across
the channel, all the mines in a line being fired together. Observa-
tion mines are placed either resting on the bottom or moored
at depths which are well below the bottom of any friendly
vessels and (except that anchoring in the mine field must be
forbidden for fear of injury to cables) such mines offer no obstruc-
tion to friendly traffic.
In the" circuit closer" or " C.C." system, each mine contains
a small piece of apparatus which is set in action by the blow of a
vessel or other object against the mine. When set in action,
this apparatus completes an electrical circuit in the mine,
through which the mine can be fired, if the main s\\itch on
shore is closed. If it is not wished to fire, the C.C. is restored
to its ordinary condition either automatically by a spring in
the mine, or by an electrical device operated from the shore.
Such mines are necessarily placed near the surface, and are
to this extent an interference with friendly txaffic. A vessel
passing by mistake through a mine field of this class would
run no risk of an explosion while the mines are inactive, but
might do some damage to the mines.
This class of mine is used in side channels which it is intended
to close entirely, or to reduce the \\idth of navigable channels
where too wide to be defended by observation mines. Their
principal advantage is that if the firing switch is closed they are
effective in fog or mist, when observation mines could not be
worked, and when the guns of the defence would be equally out
of action. As they are fired only when close against the side
of a ship, the charge can be comparatively small and the mines
themselves are handy and easy to lay.
Compared with observation mines they use much less cable,
as the action of the C.C. i;i such that only the mine which is struck
can be fired. Several mines of this class can therefore share
one cable from the shore, though in practice details of mooring
and arrangement limit the number connected to one cable to
four. A set of mines on one cable is referred to as a " group."
The arrangements for firing the mines are contained in a firing
station on shore, in which is the battery or other source of
5
2
SUBSIDY -SUCCESSION
electrical power for firing, and the necessary apparatus for
testing the system of mines, which is usually done daily. To
let the operator in the firing station know when the c.c. of a
mine has been struck and the mine is ready to fire, a small
electrical apparatus is provided in the firing station for each
group of mines. This arrangement strikes a bell when the C.C.
is worked and also closes a break in the firing circuit. The
operator can then close the main switch and fire the mine,
or if acting on the order to "fire all mines that signal" he has
already closed his main switch, the signalling apparatus, in the
act of striking the bell, completes the firing circuit. A similar
piece of apparatus is connected to each observing instrument,
the completion of the circuit of any line at the observing station
then gives a signal in the firing station and the firing circuit is
completed.
The firing station can be on a vessel moored near tbe mine
field, but is more usually on shore, where it can be made abso-
lutely secure against any form of attack. But the observing
stations must be on shore to give stability to the observing
instruments, they cannot be entirely protected as they must
have a small opening facing the mine fieid, but can be made
very inconspicuous.
Any explosive can be used in submarine mines, provided
adequate means are taken to explode the charge, but the explo-
sive which is easiest to handle and is in most general use is wet
gun-cotton with a small dry primer and detonator to start
ignition. The detonators for electrical mines are on the " low
tension" system, that is, firing is effected by the heating of a
small length of wire called a " bridge," round which is placed a
priming which ignites and detonates a small charge of fulminate
of mercury.
The charge is contained in a steel mine-case, which has an
" apparatus" inside to contain the electrical arrangements
and the c.c. when used. Cases for observation mines are
usually cylindrical in shape for mines to rest on the bottom
and spherical for buoyant mines. The weight of charge is
about 500 Ib and the size of a buoyant case for this charge
would be four feet in diameter. Cases for contact mines are
spherical, about 39 in. in diameter, and can hold 100 Ib of gun-
cotton. They are always buoyant. Buoyancy is provided for
by an air-space inside the case. Buoyant cases are moored to a
heavy weight or " sinker," the connexion being by a steel wire
rope, or in electrical mines, the cable itself. The cable is care-
fully insulated and protected with a layer of steel wires. An
earth return is used for the electrical circuit.
The employment of mines in any defence must depend entirely
on the general character of the defence adopted, which will
itself depend on the size and importance of the harbour to be
defended and other details (see COAST DEFENCE). The rôle
of mines in a defence is to act as an obstacle to detain ships
under fire and compel them to engage the artillery of the defence.
Thus mines find their greatest usefulness in the defence of har-
bours with long channels of approach. Mine fields can be de-
stroyed by " creeping" for and cutting the electric cables, by
" sweeping " for the mines themselves with long loops of chain
or rope or by destroying the mines with "countermines." To
guard against any of these, the mine field should be protected
by gun fire and lit at night by electric lights. As vessels sunk
by mines may obstruct the channel, mines should not be used
in very narrow channels.
Although the scientific development of submarine mining
is the work of the last fifty years, attempts to use drifting charges
against ships and bridges are recorded as early as the 16th
century. Mines were used by the Americans in 1777, and in
1780 Robert Fulton produced an explosive machine which he
called a .. torpedo," and which was experimented with, not very
successfully, up to 1815. In 1854 the Russians used mechanical
mines in the Baltic, but without any marked success.
The first application of electricity to the explosion of sub-
merged charges was made by Sir Charles Pasley in the destruc-
tion of wrecks in the Thames and of the wreck of the " Royal
George" at Sp
thead in 1839 and subsequent years. The first
military use of electrically-fired mines was made in the American
Civil \Var of 1861-65 when several vessels were sunk or damaged
by mines or torpedoes. From this date onwards most European
nations experimented with mines, and they were actually used
during the Franco-German War of 1870, the Russo-Turkish War
of 1878 and the Spanish-American War of 1898. But the most
interesting example of mine warfare was in the attack and
defence of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War (q.v.) of
1904-05 Both sides used mechanical mines only, and both
suffered heavy losses from the mine warfare. Mines and tor-
pedoes were first mtroduced into the English service about 1863,
defence mines being placed in the charge of the Royal Engineers,
while torpedoes were developed by the Royal Navy. Up to
1904 there were mine defences at most of the British ports,
but in that year the responsibility of mines was placed on
the navy, and since then the mine defences have been much
reduced. (W. B. B.)
SUBSIDY (through Fr. from Lat. subsidium, reserve troops,
aid, assistance, from subsidere, literally" to sit or remain behind
or in reserve "), an aid, subvention, assistance granted especially
in money. The word has a particular use in economic history
and practice. In English history it is the general term ior a tax
granted to the king by parliament, and so distinguished from those
dues, such as the customs dues, which were raIsed by the royal
prerogative; of these subsidies there were many varieties; such
was the subsidy in excess of the customs on wool, leather, wine
or cloth exported or imported by aliens, later extended to other
articles and to native exporters and importers (see TONNAGE
AND POUNDAGE); there was also the subsidy which in the 14th
century took the place of the old feudal levies. Apart from
this application the term, in modern times, is particularly applied
to the pecuniary assistance by means of bounties, &c., given by
the state to industrial undertakings (see BOUNTY). Subsidies
granted by the state to literary, dramatic or other artistic
institutions, societies, &c., are generally styled "subventions"
(Lat. subvenire, to come to the aid of).
SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)
the act of succeeding or following, as of events, objects, places
in a series, &c., but particularly, in law, the transmission or
passing of rights from one to another.
In every system of law provision has to be made for a readjust-
ment of .things or goods on the death of the human beings
who owned and enjoyed them. Succession to rights may be
considered from two points of view: in some ways they depend
on the personality of those who are concerned with them: if
you hire a servant, you acquire a claim against a certain person
and your claim will disappear on his death. But personal
relations are commonly implicated in the arrangement of pro-
perty: if a person borrows money, the creditor expects to be
paid even should the debtor die, and the actual payment will
depend to a great extent on the rules as to inheritance. Succes-
sion, in the sense of the partition or redistribution of the pro-
perty of a former owner is, in modern systems of law, the subject
of many rules. Such rules may be based on the will of a de-
ceased person. They will be found in such articles as ADMINIS-
TRATION; ASSETS; EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS; INHERI-
TANCE; INTESTACY; LEGACY; WILL; &c. There are cases,
however, in which a will cannot be expressed; this eventuality
is discussed in the present article, and there can be no doubt
that it is the most characteristic one from the point of view of
social conditions. It represents the view of society at large
as to what ought to be the normal course of succession in the
readjustment of property after the death of a citizen. We shall
dwell chiefly on the customs of succession among the nations of
Aryan stock. Other customs are noticed in the articles on
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES; MAHOMMEnAN LAW; &c.
We have to start from a distinction between personal goods and
the property forming the economic basis of existence for the
family which is strongly expressed in early law. War booty, pro-
ceeds of hunting, clothes and ornaments, implements fashioned by
personal skill, are taken to belong to a man in a more personal
way than the land on which he dwells or the cattle of a herd.
SUCCESSION
It is characteristic that even in the strict law of paternal power
formulated by the Romans an unemancipated son was protected
in his rights in regard to things acquired in the camp (peculium
castrense) and later on this protection spread to other chattels
(peculium quasi-castrense). The personal character of this kind
of property has a decisive influence on the modes of succession
to it. This part of the inheritance is widely considered in
early law as still in the power of the dead even after demise.
We find that many savage tribes simply destroy the personal
belongings of the dead: this is done by several Australian and
Negro tribes (Post, Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudellz,
pp. 174-S). Sometimes this rule is modified in the sense that the
goods remaining after deceased persons have to be taken away
by strangers, which leads to curious customs of looting the house
of the deceased. Such customs were prevalent, for example,
among the North American Indians of the Delaware and Iro-
quois tribes. Evidently the nearer relations dare not take
over such things on account of a tabu rule, while strangers may
appropriate them, as it were, by right of conquest.
The continuance of the relation of the deceased to his own
things gives rise in most cases to provisions made for the dead
out of his personal succession. The habit of putting arms,
victuals, clothes and ornaments in the grave seems almost
universal, and there can be no doubt that the idea underlying
such usages consists in the wish to provide the deceased with all
matters necessary to his existence after death. A very char-
acteristic illustration of this conception may be given from the
customs of the ancient Russians, as described about 921 by the
Arabian traveller Ibn Fadhlan. The whole of the personal
property was divided into three parts: one-third went to the
family, the second third was used for making clothes and other
ornaments for the dead, while the third was spent in carousing
on the day when the corpse was cremated. The ceremony itself
consisted in the following: the corpse was put into a boat
and was dressed up in the most gorgeous attire. Intoxicating
drinks, fruit, bread and meat were put by its side; a dog was cut
into two parts, which were thrown into the boat. Then, all the
weapons of the dead man were brought in, as well as the flesh of
two horses, a cock and a chicken. The concubine of the de-
ceased was also sacrificed, and ultimately all these objects were
burned in a huge pile, and a mound thrown up over the ashes.
This description is the more interesting because it starts from
a division of the goods of the deceased, one part of them being
affected, as it were, to his personal usage. This rule continues
to be observed in Germanic law in later times and became
the starting point of the doctrine of succession to personal
property in English law. According to Glanville (vü. S, 4)
the chattels of the deceased have to be divided into three
equal parts, of which one goes to his heir, one to his wife
and one is reserved to the deceased himself. The same reser-
vation of the third to the deceased himself is observed in
Magna Charta (c. 26) and in Bracton's statement of Common
Law (fo!. 60), but in Christian surroundings the reservation
of " the dead man's part" was taken to apply to the property
which had to be spent for his soul and of which, accordingly,
the Church had to take care. This lies at the root of the com-
mon law doctrine observed until the passing of the Court of
Probate Act 18S7. On the strength of this doctrine the
bishop was the natural administrator of this part of the
personalty of the deceased.
The succession to real property, if we may use the English
legal expression, is not governed by such considerations or the
needs of the dead. Roughly speaking, three different views
may be taken as to the proper readjustment in such cases.
Taking the principal types in a logical sequence, which differs
from the historical one, we may say that the aggregate of things
and claims relinquished by a deceased person may: (I) pass
to relatives or other persons who stood near him in a way deter-
mined by law. Should several persons of the kind stand
equally near in the eye of the law the consequence would be a
division of the inheritance. The personal aspect of succession
rules in such systems of inheritance. (2) The deceased may be
3
considered as a subordinate member of a higher organism-
a kindred, a village, a state, &c. In such a case there can be no
succession proper as there has been no individual property to
begin with. The cases of succession will be a relapse of certain
goods used by the member of a community to that community
and a consequent rearrangement of rights of usage. The law
of succession will again be constructed on a personal basis,
but this basis will be supplied not by the single individual whose
death has had to be recorded but by some community or union
to which this individual belonged. (3) The aggregate of goods
and claims constituting what is commonly called an inheritance
may be considered as a unit having an existence and an object
of its own. The circumstance of the death of an individual
owner will, as in case 2, be treated as an accidental fact. The
unity of the inheritance and the social part played by it will con-
stitute the ruling considerations in the arrangement of succession.
The personal factor will be subordinated to the real one.
In practice pure forms corresponding to these main concep-
tions occur seldom, and the actual systems of succession mostly
appear as combinations of these various views. We shall try
to give briefly an account of the following arrangements: (I)
the joint family in so far as it bears on succession; (2)
voluntary associations among co-heirs; (3) dimsion of inheri-
tance; (4) united succession in the shape of primogeniture and
of junior right.
The large mass of Hindu juridical texts representing customs
and doctrines ranging over nearly SOOO years contains many
indications as to the existence of a joint family which was
considered as the corporate owner of property and therefore
did not admit in principle of the opening of succession through
the death of any of its members. The father or head of such
a joint family was in truth only the manager of its property
during lifetime, and though on his demise this power and right
of management had to be regulated anew, the property itself
could not be said to pass by succession: it remained as formerly
in the joint family itself. In stating this abstract doctrine
we have to add that our evidence shows us in practice only
characteristic consequences and fragments of it, but that we
have not the means of observing it directly in a consistent
and complete shape during the comparatively recent epochs
which are reflected in the evidence. It is even a question
whether such a doctrine was ever absolutely enforced in regard
to chattels: even in the earliest period of Hindu law articles
of personal apparel and objects acquired by personal will and
strength fell to a great extent under the conception of separate
property. Gains of science, art and craft are mentioned in early
instances as subject to special ownership and corresponding
rules of personal succession are framed in regard to them
(Jolly, Tagore lectures on Partition, Inheritance and Adoption,
94). But on the other hand there are certain categories of
movable goods which even in later law are considered as belong-
ing to the family community and incapable of partition, e.g.
water, prepared food, roads, vehicles, female slaves, property
destined for pious uses and sacrifices, books. When law became
rationalized these things had to be sold in order that the pro-
ceeds of the sale should be divided, but originally they seem
to have been regarded as owned by the joint family though
used by its single members. And as to immovables-land and
houses-they were demonstrably excluded in ancient customary
law from partition among co-heirs.
In Greek law the most drastic expression of the joint family
system is to be found in the arrangements of Spartan households,
where brothers clustered round the eldest or "keeper of the
hearth"l (
C1TLa7ráp.I.()II), and not only the management of
family property but even marriages were dependent on the unity
of the shares and on the necessity of keeping down the offspring
of the younger brothers. With the Romans there are hardly
any traces of a primitive family community excluding succession,
but the Celtic tribal system was to a great extent based on this
fundamental conception (Seebohm, Tribal System in Wales).
I The term illustrates the intimate connexion between inheritance
and household religion in ancient Aryan custom.
4-
SUCCESSION
During three generations the offspring of father, grandfather
and great-grandfather held together in regard to land. The
consequence was that, although separate plots and houses were
commonly reserved for the uses of the smaller families included
within the larger unit, the death of the principal brought about
an equalization of shares first per stirpes and ultimately per
capita until the final break-up of the community when it reached
the stage of the great-grandsons of the original founder. But
the most elaborate system of family ownership is to be observed
in the history of the latest comers among the Aryan races-the
Slavs. In the backward mountain regions which they occupied
in the Balkan Peninsula and in the wilderness of the forests and
moors of Eastern Europe they developed many characteristic
tribal institutions and, among these, the joint family, the
Zadruga, inokoshtina. The huge family communities of the
southern Slavs have been described at length by recent observers,
and there can be no doubt that their roots go back to a distant
past (see VILLAGE COMMUNITIES). There is no room in them
for succession proper: what has to be provided for is the con-
tinuity of business management by elders and the repartition of
rights of usage and maintenance, a repartition largely depen-
dent on varying customs and on the policy of the above-men-
tioned elders. In Russia the so-called large family appears as a
much less extensive application of the same idea. It extends
rarely over more than three generations, but even as a cluster
of members gathering around a grandfather or a great-uncle
it presents an arrangement which hampers greatly private enter-
prise and staves off succession until the moment when the great
household breaks up between the descendants of a great-grand-
father.
In Germanic law we catch a glimpse of a state of things in
which side relations were not admitted to succession at all.
The Frankish Edict of Chilperic (A.D. 571) tells us that if some-
body died without leaving sons or daughters, his brother was to
succeed him and not his neighbours (non vicini). This has to
be construed as a modification of the older rule according to
which the neighbours succeeded and not the brother. Under
.. neighbours" we cannot understand merely people connected
with a person by proximity of settlement, but rather his kinsmen
in their usual capacity of neighbours. The fact that kinsmen
forming a settlement have precedence of such near relations as
the brothers is characteristic enough, especially. as even the
succession of sons and daughters is mentioned in a way which
shows that there was still some doubt whether neighbouring
kinsIhen should not take inheritance instead of the latter.
These are systems of a very archaic arrangement based on a
close tribal community between the members of a kindred.
Such a community is not apparent in later legal custom, but there
are many signs of a close union between members of the same
family. The law of Scania, a province of southern Sweden,
shows us a group settled around a grandfather. His sons even
when ma:rried hold part of the property under him and it
is with some difficulty that they and their wives succeed in
separating some of the goods acquired by personal work or
brought in by marriage from the rest of the household property
(Scanian Law, Danish Text i. 5). The same arrangement
appears in Lombard law as regards brothers who remain settled
in a common house (Edict of Rothari c. 167). Of course, in all
such cases, there could be no real inheritance and succession,
but merely the stepping in of the next generation into the rights
and duties of the representative of an older generation on the
latter's demise. In legal terminology it is a case of accretion
and not of succession.
The next stage in the development of succession is presented
by an arrangement which was common in Germany, viz. by the
management of property under the rule of so-called Ganerb-
schaft. Ganerben is the same as the Latin coheredes, com-
participes, consortes. A capitulary of 818 mentions such com-
munities of heirs holding in common (d. Boretius Capitularia,
i. 282). While the community lasted none of the shareholders
could dispose of any part of the property by his single will.
Legally and economically all transactions had to proceed from
common consent and common resolve. This did not preclude the
possibility of anyone among the shareholders claiming his own
portion, in which case part of the property had to be meted
out to him according to fair computation (swascara). There
was no legal constraint over the shareholders to remain in
common: division could be brought about either by common
consent or by claims of individuals, and yet the constant occur-
rence of these settlements of co-heirs shows that as a matter of
fact it was more profitable to keep together and not to break
up the unit of property by division. The customary union of
co-heirs appears in this way as a corrective of the strict legal
principle of equal rights between heirs of the same degree. In
English practice the joint management of co-heirs is not so fully
described, but there can be no doubt that under the older Saxon
rule admitting heirs of the same degree to equal rights in suc-
cession the interests of economic efficiency were commonly pre-
served by the carrying on of common husbandry without any
realization of the concurrent claims which would have broken
up the object of succession. This accounts for the fact that
notwithstanding the prevalence among the early English of
the rule admitting all the sons or heirs in the same position to
equal shares in the inheritance, the organic units of hides,
yardlands, &c. are kept up in the course of centuries. In
the management of so-called gavelkind succession in Kent
partition was legally possible and came sometimes to be effected,
but there was the customary reaction against it in the shape of
keeping up the" yokes" and" sulungs." A trace of the same
kind of union between co-heirs appears in the so-called parage
communities so often mentioned in Domesday Book.
In all these cases the principle of union and joint manage-
ment is kept up by purely economic means and considerations.
The legal possibility of partition is admitted by the side of it.
It is interesting to watch two divergent lines of further develop-
ment springing from this common source; on the one side we
see the full realization of individual right resulting in frequent
divisions; on the other side we watch the rise of legal restraints
on subdivision resulting in the establishment, in respect of
certain categories of property, of rules excluding the plurality
of heirs for the sake of preserving the unity of the household.
The first system is, of course, most easily carried out in countries
where individualistic types of husbandry prevail. In Europe
it is especially prevalent in the south with its intense cultivation
of the arable and its habits of wine and olive growing. We
shall not wonder, therefore, that the unrestricted subdivision
among heirs is represented most completely by Roman law.
Not to speak of the fact that already in the XII. Tables the
principal mode of inheritance was considered to be inheritance
by will while intestate succession came in as a subsidiary ex-
pedient, we have to notice that there is no check on the dis-
persion of property among heirs of the same degree. The only
survival of a régime of family community may be found in the
distinction between heredes sui (heirs of their own) and heredes
extranei (outside heirs of the deceased). The first entered by
their own right and took possession of property which had
belonged to them potentially even during their ancestor's life.
The latter drew their claims from their relationship to the
deceased and this did not give them a direct hold on the property.
in question. Apart from that the civil law of ancient Rome
favoured complete division and the same principle is represented
in all European legislation derived from Roman law or strongly
influenced by it. Sometimes, as in the French Code Civil, even
the wish of the owner cannot alter the course of such succession
as no person can make a will depriving any of his children of their
legal share.
In full contrast with this mode of succession prevailing in
romanized countries we find the nations proceeding from
Germanic stock and strongly influenced by feudalism developing
two different kinds of restraints on subdivision. In Scandi-.
navian law this point of view is expressed by the Norwegian
customs as to Odal. The principal estates of the country, which,
according to the law of the Gulathing have descended through
five generations in the same family, cannot be dispersed and
SUCCESSION DUTY
alienated at þleasure. They are considered as rightly belong-
ing to the kindred with which a historical connexion has been
established. In order to keep these estates within the kindred
they are to descend chiefly to men: women are admitted to
property in them only in exceptional cases. Originally it is
only the daughter of a man who has left no sons and the sister
of one who has left no children and no brothers that are admitted
to take Odal as if they were men. Nieces and first-cousins are
admitted in the sense that they have to pass the property to
their nearest male heir. They may, in certain eventualities,
be bought out by the nearest male relative. A second peculiarity
of Odal consists in the right of relations descending from one of
the common ancestors to prevent strangers from acquiring Odal
estate. Any holder of such an estate who wants to sell it in its
entirety or in portion has first to apply t8 his relatives and they
may acquire the estate at the price proposed by a stranger less
one-fifth. Even if no relative has taken advantage of this
privilege an Odal estate sold to a stranger may be bought back
into the family by compulsory redemption if the relatives
subsequently find the means and have the wish to resort to
such redemption. Odal right does not curtail the claims of the
younger sons or of any heirs in a similar position. As a matter
of fact, however, customary succession in Norwegian peasant
families sets great price on holding the property of the household
well together. It is keenly felt that a gaard (farm) ought not
to be parcelled up into smaller holdings, and in the common
case of several heirs succeeding to the farm, they generally make
up among themselves who is to remain in charge of the ancestral
household: the rest are compensated in money or helped to
start on some other estate or perhaps in a cottage by the side
of the principal house. In medieval England, France and Ger-
many the same considerations of economic efficiency are felt
as regards the keeping up of united holdings, and it may be said
that the lower we get in the scale of property the stronger these
considerations become. If it is possible, though not perhaps
profitable, to divide the property of a large farm, it becomes
almost impossible to break-up the smaller units-so-called
yardlands and oxgangs. Through being parcelled up into
small plots, land loses in value, and, as to cattle, it is impossible
to divide one ox or one horse in specie without selling them.
No wonder that we find practices and customs of united suc-
cession arising in direct contradiction with the ancient rule that
all heirs of the same degree should be admitted to equal shares.
Glanville mentions expressly that the socagers of his time held
partly by undivided succession and partly by divided inherit-
ance. The relations of feudalism and serfdom contributed
strongly towards creating such individual tenancies. It was
certainly in the interest of the lord that his men, whether holding
a military fief or an agricultural farm, should not weaken the
value of their tenancies by dispersing the one or the other
among heirs. But apart from these interests of over-lords
there was the evident self-interest of the tenants themselves
and therefore the point of view of unification of holdings is by
no means confined to servile tenements or to military fiefs.
The question whether the successor should be the eldest
son or the youngest son is a secondary one. The latter
practice was very prevalent all through Europe and pro-
duced in England what is termed the Borough English
rule. The quaint name has been derived from the contrast
in point of succession between the two parts of the borough
of Nottingham. The French burgesses transmitted their
tenements by primogeniture, while in the case of the English
tenants the youngest sons succeeded. A usual explanation
of this passage of the holdings to the youngest is found in the
fact that the youngest son remains longest in his father's house,
while the elder brothers have opportunities of going out into
the world at a time when the father is still alive and able to take
care of his land. This is well in keeping with the view that
customs of united succession arise in connexion ",ith compensa-
tion provided for co-heirs waiving their claims in regard to
settlement in the original household. The succession of the
youngest appears also very characteristic in so far as it illustrates
5
the break up into small tenancies, as the youngest in the family
is certainly not a fit representative of hierarchy and authority
and could not have been meant to rule anything but his own
restricted household.
One more feature of the ancient law of succession has to be
noticed in conclusion, viz. the exclusion of women from
inheritance in land. There can be no doubt that as regards
movable goods women held property and transmitted it on a par
with males right from the earliest time. According to Germanic
conception personal ornaments and articles of household furni-
ture are specially effected to their use and follow a distinct line
of succession from woman to woman (Gerade). Norse law puts
women and men on the same footing as to all forms of property
equated to " movable money" (Lösöre); but as to land there is
a prevalent idea that men should be privileged. Women are
admitted to a certain extent, but always placed behind men of
equal degree. Frankish and Lombard law originally excluded
women from inheritance in land, and this exclusion seems as
ancient as the patriarchial system itself, whatever we may think
about the position of affairs in prehistoric times when rules
of matriarchy were prevalent. A common-sense explanation
of one side of this doctrine is tendered by the law of the Thurin-
gians (Lex Anglorum et Werinorum,c. 6). It is stated there that
inheritance in land goes with the duty of taking revenge for the
homicide of relatives and with the power of bearing arms. One
of the most potent adversaries of this system of exclusion proved
to be the Church. It favoured all through the view that land
should be transmitted in the same way as money or chattels.
A Frankish formula (Marculf) shows us a father who takes care
to endow his daughter with a piece of land according to natural
affection in spite of the strict law of his tribe. Such instruments
were strongly backed by the Church, and the view that women
should be admitted to hold land on certain occasions had made
its way in England as early as Anglo-Saxon times.
AUTHORITIEs.-Mayne, Hindu Law and Usage (1878); Julius
Jolly, Outlines of a History of the Hindu Law of Partition, Inheritance
and Adoption (Tagore law lectures) (CaIcutta, 1883); B. W. Leist,
Altarisches jus Civile (1892); F. Seebohm, Tribal System in Wales
(2nd ed., 1904); the same, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law
(1902); Arbois de Jubainville, La Famille celtique (H)06); A. Heusler,
Institutionen des deutschen Privatrechts, i. (188.5); H. Brunner,
Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (vol. i., 2nd. ed., 1907); Jul. Ficker, Unter-
suchungen zur Erbeflfolge (Innsbruck, 1891 ff.); Kraus, Sitte und
Brauch der Süd-Slaven; Pollock and Maitland, History of English
Law, ii. (1895); Kenny, Law of Primogeniture (1878); P. Vinogradoff,
The Growth of the Manor (H)05); Brandt, Forelaesninger om norsk
Retshistorie Kristiania (1880); Boden, .. Das Odalsrecht" in the
Zeitschrift der Savignystiftung für Rechtsgeschichte (Ger. Abth.
xxiii.); H. Brunner, .. Ocr Totentheil" in the same Zeitschrift
(Ger. Abth. xix.); L. l\Iitteis, Römisches Privatrecht (1908),
vol. i.; Fustel de Coulanges, La Cité antique (4th ed., 1872).
(P. VI.)
SUCCESSION DUTY, in the English fiscal system, "a tax
placed on the gratuitous acquisition of property which passes
on the death of any person, by means of a transfer from one
person (called the predecessor) to another person (called the
successor)." In order properly to understand the present
state of the English law it is necessary to describe shortly the
state of affairs prior to the Finance Act 1894-an act which
effected a considerable change in the duties payable and in the
mode of assessment of those duties.
The principal act which first imposed a succession duty in
England was the Succession Duty Act 1853. By that act a
duty varying from 1 to 10 % according to the degree of con-
sanguinity between the predecessor and successor was imposed
upon every succession which was defined as "every past or
future disposition of property by reason whereof any person
has or shall become beneficially entitled to any property, or
the income thereof, upon the death of any person dying after
the time appointed for the commencement of this act, either
immediately or after any interval, either certainly or contin-
gently, and either originally or by way of substitutive limitation
and every devolution by law of any beneficial interest in pro-
perty, or the income thereof, upon the death of any person dying
after the time appointed for the commencemf'nt of this act to
6
SUCCINIC ACID
any other person in possession or expectancy." The property
which is liable to pay the duty is in realty or leasehold estate
in the United Kingdom and personalty-not subject to legacy
duty-which the beneficiary claims by virtue of English,
Scottish or Irish law. Personalty in England bequeathed by a
person domiciled abroad is not subject to succession duty.
Successions of a husband or a wife, successions where the princi-
pal value is under {,100, and individual successions under {,20,
are exempt from duty. Leasehold property and personalty
directed to be converted into real estate are liable to succession,
not to legacy duty. Special provision is made for the collection
of duty in the cases of joint tenants and where the successor
is also the predecessor. The duty is a first charge on property,
but if the property be parted with before the duty is paid the
liability of the successor is transferred to the alienee. It is,
therefore, usual in requisitions on title before conveyance, to
demand for the protection of the purchaser the production of
receipts for succession duty, as such receipts are an effectual
protection notwithstanding any suppression or misstatement
in the account on the footing of which the duty was assessed
or any insufficiency of such assessment. The duty is by this
act directed to be assessed as follows: on personal property, if
the successor takes a limited estate, the duty is assessed on the
principal value of the annuity or yearly income estimated
according to the period during which he is entitled to receive
the annuity or yearly income, and the duty is payable in four
yearly instalments free from interest. If the successor takes
absolutely he pays in a lump sum duty on the principal value.
On real property the duty is payable in eight half-yearly instal-
ments without interest on the capital value of an annuity equal to
the annual value of the property. Various minor changes were
made. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1881, personal
estates under {,300 were exempted. By the Customs and Inland
Revenue Act 1888 an additional !% was charged on successions
already paying 1% and an additional 1!% on successions
paying more than I %. By the Customs and Inland Revenue
Act 1889 an additional duty of I % called estate duty was
payable on successions over {,10,000.
The Finance Acts 1894 and 1909 effected large changes in
the duties payable on death (for which see ESTATE DUTY;
LEGACY). As regards the succession duties they enacted that
payment of the estate duties thereby created should include
payment of the additional duties mentioned above. Estates
under flooo ({,2000 in the case of widow or child of deceased)
are exempted from payment of any succession duties. The
succession duty payable under the Succession Duty Act 1 8 53
was in all cases to be calculated according to the principal
value of the property, i.e. its selling value, and though still
payable by instalments interest at 3 % is chargeable. The
additional succession duties are still payable in cases where
the estate duty is not charged, but such cases are of small
importance and in practice are not as a rule charged.
United States.-The United States imposed a succession duty by
the War kevenue Act of 11>98 on all legacies or distributive shares
of personal property exceeding $10,000. It is a tax on the privilege
of succession. Devises or distributions of land are not affected by
it. The rate of duty runs from 75 cents on the $100 to $5 on the
$100, if the legacy or share in question does not exceed $25,000.
On those of over that value the rate is multiplied I! times on
estates up to $100,000, twofold on those from $100,000 to $5 00 ,000,
21 times on those from $500,000 to a million, and threefold for
those exceeding a million. This statute has been supported as
constitutional by the Supreme Court. Many of the states also
impose succession duties, or transfer taxes; generally, however, on
collateral and remote successions; sometimes progressive, according
to the amount of the succession. The state duties generally touch
real estate successions as well as those to personal property. If a
citizen of state A owns registered bonds of a corporation chartered
by state B, which he has put for safe keeping In a deposit vault
in state C, his estate may thus have to pay four succession taxes,
one to state A, to which he belongs and which, by legal fiction, is
the seat of all his personal property; one to state B, for permitting
the transfer of the bonds to the legatees on the books of the
corporation; one to state C, for allowing them to be removed
from the deposit vault for that purpose; and one to the United
States.
SUCCINIC ACID, C.H.(CO.Hh Two acids 'torresponding
to this empirical formula are known-namely ethylene suc-
cinic acid, H0 2 C.CH..CH..CO.H and ethylidene succinic acid
CH 3 .CH(CO.Hh.
Ethylene succinic acid occurs in amber, in various resins and
lignites, in fossilized wood, in many members of the natural
orders of Papaveraceae and Compositae, in unripe grapes,
urine and blood. It is also found in the thymus gland of calves
and in the spleen of cattle. It may be prepared by the oxidation
of fats and of fatty acids by nitric acid, and is also a product of
. the fermentation of malic and tartaric acids. It is usually
obtained by the distillation of amber, or by the fermentation of
calcium malate or ammonium tartrate. Synthetically it may
be obtained by reducing malic or tartaric acids with hydriodic
acid (R. Schmitt, Ann., 1860, 114, p. 106; V. Dessaignes, ibid.,
1860, 115, p. 120; by reducing fumaric and maleic acids with
sodium amalgam; by heating bromacetic acid with silver to
1300 c.; in small quantity by the oxidation of acetic acid with
potassium persulphate (C. Moritz and R. W olffenstein, Be,., 18 99,
32, p. 2534); by the hydrolysis of succinonitrile (from ethylene
dibromide) C2HrC.H.Br
C211.(CN)
C.H.(CO.llh; by the
hydrolysis of ß-cyanpropionic ester; and by the condensation
of sodiomalonic ester with monochloracetic ester and hydrolysis
of the resulting ethane tricarboxylic ester (R0 2 ChCII. C1I 2 . C02 R ;
this method is applicable to the preparation of substituted
succinic acids. It is also produced by the electrolysis of a
concentrated solution of potassium ethyl malonate.
It crystallizes in prisms or plates which melt at 1850 C. and boil
at 235 0 C. with partial conversion into the anhydride. It is
readily soluble in water. Aqueous solutions of the acid are
decomposed in sunlight by uranium salts, with evolution of
carbon dioxide and the formation of propionic acid. Potassium
permanganate, in acid solution, o
idizes it to carbon dioxide
and water. The sodium salt on distillation with phosphorus
trisulphide gives thiophene. The esters of the acid condense
readily with aromatic aldehydes and ketones to form 'Y- di -
substituted itaconic acids and 'Y-alkylen pyrotartaric acids
(II. Stobbe, Ann., 1899, 308, p. 71). 'Y-Oxyacids are formed
when aldehydes are heated with sodium succinate and sodium
acetate. Numerous salts of the acid are known, the basic
ferric salt being occasionally used in quantitative analysis for
the separation of iron from aluminium.
Succinyl chloride, obtained by the action of phosphorus penta-
chloride on succinic acid, is a colourless liquid which boils at H)O 0 C.
In many respects it behaves as though it were dichlorbutyro-lactone,
< CCl. > . . .
C.H CO 0; e.g. on reduction It Yields butyro-lactone, and when
condensed with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride it
yields chiefly î'-diphenylbutyro-lactone. Succinic anhydride,
C.H.(CO).O, IS obtained by heating the acid or its sodium salt with
acetic anhydride; by the action of acetyl chloride on the barium salt;
by distilling a mixture of succinic acid and succinyl chloride, or by
heating succinyl chloride with anhydrous oxalic acid. It crystallizes
in plates which melt at 120 0 c., and distils without decomposition.
It IS slowly dissolved by water with the formation of the acid. It
combines readily with the meta-aminophenols to form rhodamines,
which are valuable dyestuffs. Heated in a current of ammonia
it gives succinimide, which is also obtained on heating acid ammon-
ium succinate. It crystallizes in colourless octahedra which melt
at 125-1260 c., and is easily soluble in water. When warmed with
baryta water it yields succinamic acid, H0 2 C.CH..CH..CONH.;
and with alcoholic ammonia at 100 0 C. it gives succinamide. The
imino hydrogen atom is easily replaced by metals. Distillation
with zinc dust gives pyrrol (q.v.). By the action of bromine in
alkaline solution it is converted into ß-aminopropionic acid.
Succinamide, C 2 H.(COiliH.)., best obtained by the action of ammonia
on diethyl succinate, crystallizes in needles which melt at 24 2 -
243 0 c., and is soluble in hot water. Succinonit,ile, C.H.(CN).,
is obtained by the action of potassium cyanide on ethylene
dibromide or by the electrolysis of a solution of potassium cyan-
acetate. It is an amorphous solid which melts at 54-55 0 C. On
reduction with sodium in alcoholic solution it yields tetraethylene
diamine (putrescein) and pyrollidine.
Methyl succinic acid (pyrotartaric acid), HO.C.CH..CH (CH.).C0 2 H,
is formed by the dry distillation of tartaric acid; by heating pyruvic
acid ",ith concentrated hydrochloric acid to 180 0 c.; by the reduction
of citraconic and mesaconic acids with sodium amalgam; and by
SUCHER-SUCKLING
the hydrolysis of ß-cyanbutyric acid. It crystallizes in small prisms
which melt at 112 0 C. and are soluble in water. It forms an
anhydride when heated. The sodium salt on heating with
phosphorus trisulphide yields methylthiophen.
Ethylidene succinic acid or isosuccinic acid, CH 3 .CH(C0 2 Hh,
is produced by th
ydrolysis 
